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PRESENTED

TO THE LIBRARY OF

The • Toronto • University

BY THE REV.

VINCENT CLEMENTI, B.JL,

1890.

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THE LIFE

THE GREEKS AND ROMANS,

DESCRIBED FROM ANTIQUE MONUMENTS.

By E. GUHL and W. KONER,

TRANSLATED FROM THE THIRD GERMAN EDITION

By F. IIUEFFEK.

WITH FIVE II USD RED AND FORTY-THREE WOODCUTS.

NEW YORK:
D. APPLETON AND COMPANY,

549 & 551 BROADWAY.

1876.

Jj-tfh

TRANSLATOR'S NOTE.

In order to make the present volume more acceptable to the
English reader, the letter-press has been considerably shortened,
partly by means of condensation, such as the more concise char-
acter of our language, in comparison with the German, permits
of, partly by the occasional omission of details which seemed to
lie somewhat beyond the scope of the work. Nothing of impor-
tance, however, has been left out, and it is hoped that this English
version will fulfill, no less perfectly than the original, the task
of rendering a comprehensive account of the life and manners
of the two great antique nations, founded on the latest results of
modern research, and illustrated by the careful reproduction of
Greek and Rpman monuments. It ought to be added that after
the decease of one of the authors — Professor E. Guhl, in 1862 —
Professor W. Koner, of the University Library, Berlin, has
brought out two revised and considerably augmented editions of
their common work.

CONTENTS.

THE GREEKS.

WCTION PAO«

1. Significance of the Temple 1

2. Preparatory Stages of Temple-Building 3

3. Temple on Mount Ocha 5

4. Doric, Ionic, and Korinthian Columns • . . 7

5. Templum in Antis — Pronaos — Doric Beams 11

6. Double Templum in Antis — Opisthodomos 13

7. Prostylos — Small Temple at Selinus . 15

8. Amphiprostylos — Temple of Nike Apteros at Athens — Ionic Beams — Tem-

ple on the Ilissos 17

9. Peripteros — Development of the Colonnade — Meaning of Pteron — Perip-

teral Temple — First Form — Temple at Selinus — Second Form — Theseion

at Athens — Third and Fourth Forms — The Parthenon at Athens . . 20

10. Pseudodipteros — Temple at Akragas 29

11. Hypaethros — Temple of Apollo near Phigalia — Temple of Poseidon at

Paestum — Temple of Zeus at Olympia 31

12. Dipteros — Temple of Apollo at Miletos 37

13. Pseudodipteros — Temple at Selinus — Temple at Aphrodisias ... 40

14. Other Forms of the Temple — The Round Temple — The Double Temple—

Erechtheion at Athens — The Votive Temple — Temple at Eleusis . . 43

15. Fittings of the Temple — Altars — Altar of Zeus Hypatos at Athens — The

Oblation Table 49

16. Temple-Inclosure — Portals — Portal at Palatia — Propylaea at Sunion —

Temple-Inclosure and Propylaea of Eleusis — Small Propylaea in the same
Place — The Akropolis and Propylaea at Athens 52

17. Walls of Tyrins, Mykenae, Psophis, Panopeus, and Messene — Castle of

Tyrins 59

18. Gates of Tyrins, Phigalia, and Messene — The Lions' Gate at Mykenae —

Gates of Orchomenos, Messene, and ffiniadae 62

19. Towers — Several Forms of the Tower — Towers of Phigalia, Orchomenos,

Aktor, Messene, Mantinea, Keos, Andros, and Tenos .... 65

20. Buildings of Utility — Aqueducts — Harbors of Pylos, Methone, and Rhodes —

Roads — Bridges in Messenia — Bridges across the Pamisos and Eurotas . 69

21. Dwelling-Houses — The House of the Homeric Anax — Treasuries — Thesau-

ros at Mykenae — Fountain-House in the Isle of Kos .... 73

22. The Historic Dwelling-House — The Court — Gynaikonitis, Pastas — Door,

Passage, and Court-yard — The Hearth — The dvpa fitTavXos — Dwelling-
House with Two Courts — The 6vpa ixeaavKos — Dwelling-House in the Isle
ofDelos 78

vi CONTENTS.

SECTION

23. Graves — Tumuli at Marathon, Pantikapaion, and in the Isle of Syme —

Graves in Rocks in the Islands of iEgina, Melos, and Delos — Graves
of Chalke and Chilidromia — Stone Coffins — Graves at Xanthos — Fa9ades
of Tombs at Myra and Telmessos — Graves in Rocks of Kos, Rhodes, and
Cyprus — Necropolis of Kyrene — Fittings of Graves : Altars, Stones, Stelai,
Columns, Pillars, Sarcophagi, Statues 85

24. Graves — Graves cut from the Rock in Lykia and in the Isle of Rhodes —

Grave-Monuments of Kyrene, Mykenae, Delphi, Carpuseli, and the Isle of
Amorgos — The Mausoleum of Halikarnassos — The Choragic Monument of
Lysikrates at Athens 97

25. Palaestra and Gymnasion — Parts of the Gymnasion — Gymnasia at Hierapo-

lis and Ephesos 106

26. The Agora : its Significance — Agorae of Delos and Aphrodisias — The Tower

of the Winds at Athens Ill

27. Stoae at Athens, Elis, Psestum, Thorikos, and of the Hellanodikai at Elis 113

28. The Hippodrome — The Hippodrome of Olympia 116

29. The Stadia of Laodikeia, Messene, and Aphrodisias 119

30. The Theatre: its Division— The Spectators' Place — Theatres of Delos,

Stratonikeia, Megalopolis, and Segesta — Diazomata — Theatres of Knidos
and Dramyssos — Stairs and Entrances — Theatre at Sikyon — Sitting-Steps
— Theatre f Dionysos at Athens — The Orchestra; the Thymele — The
Scenic Ore. tra — The Stage-Building — Proskenion and Hyposkenion —
Theatre of '* messos 122

31. Seats : Diphroo, Klismos, Thronos — Footstool 134

32. Couches: Kline — Beds 136

33. Tables 739

34. Drawers and Boxes 139

35. Vases — Earthen Vessels : Places where they are found chiefly . . . 141

36. Manufactory of Earthen Vessels 142

37. Development of Painting on Earthen Vessels 143

38. Forms and Varieties of Earthen Vessels : Storing, Mixing, Drawing, and

Drinking Vessels — Crockery — Baths . . 148

39. Vessels made of Stone, Metal, and Basket-work 156

40. Torches and Lamps — Lighting-Apparatus 159

41. Dress — Endymata : Chiton, Exomis, Doube Chiton, Diploi's, Ampechonion 160

42. Dress — Epiblemata: Himation, Tribon, Chlamys — Materials of Dresses:

their Color and Ornamentation 166

43. Dress — Male Head-Coverings 171

44. Men's Way of wearing the Hair 173

45. Dress— Women's Head-Coverings and their Way of dressing the Hair . 174

46. Dress — Shoes, Boots, etc 177

47. Dress. — Ornaments : Wreaths, Chains, Rings, Gems — Sun-shade — Mirror —

Stick and Sceptre 179

48. Female Life — The Position of Women — Spinning, Embroidering, and Weav-

ing— Hand-mills — Women's Bath — The Swing 186

49. Female Life — Marriage, Nuptial Bath, Wedding Feast — The Hetairai . 191

50. The Education of the Boy — Birth and Infancy — Toys — First Education —

Wri ting-Materials 196

51. Music — Stringed Instruments : Lyra, Barbiton, Kithara, Phorminx, Trigo-

non — Wind-Instruments : Syrinx, Aulos, Double Aulos, Askaules — War-
like Instruments — Hydraulos — Musical Instruments used at the Religious
Rites of Bacchus and Cybele : Krotaloi, Cymbals, Tympanon, Sistrum . 200

52. Gymnastic and Agonistic Exercises — Foot-race — The Leap (Halteres) —

Wrestling (rubbing of the Limbs with Oil) — Diskobolia — Throwing the
Spear — Pentathlon — Boxing — Pankration 213

53. Chariot-races — Horse-races — Game at Ball — The Bath .... 226

54. Armor: The Helmet — Cuirass — Greaves — Shield — Spear; the fiecrdyKv\ov

— Sword (Harpe) — Club — Battle-axe — Bow — Sling — Battle-chariot — Har-
ness— Armor of Horsemen and Horses. — Tropaion 232

CONTENTS. vii

MCTIOM P40«

55. The Ship — The Homeric Ship — Origin of Larger Vessels — Outer Con-
struction of the Hull — Mast, Sails, Rigging, Anchor, Lead, Ship's Ladder
— Interior Arrangement of the Ship : Rowing- Apparatus ; Oars, Ranks
of Rowers — Docks — The Roman Ship 254

5G. The Meal — Symposion — Jugglers — Games at Draughts and Dice — Cock-
fights— Game at Morra 265

57. The Dance — Warlike Dances — Dance of Peace 273

58. Theatrical Representations — The Spectators' Place — Scenery — Costumes

—Masks 276

69. The Sacrifice — Purification — Prayer — Sacrifice Proper — Panathenai'c Pro-
cession (Frieze of the Parthenon) 282

60. Death and Burial 288

THE ROMANS.

y/ 61. Principle of Roman Sacred Architecture — Essence of Roman Religion —

The Templum — Division of the Roman Temple — The Etruscan Temple 295

62. Temple of the Capitoline Deities in Rome 298

63. Influence of Greek on Roman Life — Greek Culture in Italy aip4 Rome —

— Religious Relations between Greece and Rome — The Intro jifcion into
Rome of the Forms of the Greek Temple — The Temple of tj i Olympian
Jupiter at Athens *. 301

64. Alterations of Greek Architectural Forms in Rome — Greek Orders of Col-

umns in Roman Buildings — Korinthian Order 304

65. Amalgamation of Greek and Italian Forms — Roman Temple — Temple of

the Sibyl of Tivoli — Temple at Nismes — Temple of Jupiter at Pompeii

— Temple of Concordia in Rome 307

G6. Roman Temple with a Vaulted Cella — Temple at Heliopolis — Double Tem-
ple with Vaulted Cellae — Temple of Venus and Roma in Rome . . 311

07. Roman Round Temple — Monopteros — Peripteros — Temple of Vesta at

Tivoli — Pantheon in Rome 315

68. Surroundings of the Roman Temple — Temple of Venus at Pompeii — Tem-

ple of Jupiter and Juno in Rome — Temples of the Sun at Palmyra and
Hierapolis — Temple of Fortuna at Prameste 322

69. Roman Fortifications — Walls — Walls on the Palatine Hill — Materials and

Composition — Town-Walls of Pompeii and Rome — Towers at Pompeii

— The Saalburg near Homburg and the Roman Camp at Gamzigrad . 328

70. Roman Gates — The Arch — Porta Aurea at Salona — Porta Maggiore in

Rome — Gates with Three Openings — Gates of Aosta and Pompeii . 335

71. Roman Roads — Grotto of the Posilippo, near Naples — Via Appia . . 33(»

72. Roman Bridges — Ponte di Nona, near Rome — Bridge across the Fiora —

Pons Fabricius and Ponte S. Angelo, Rome 342

73. Roman Harbors — Harbors of Centumcellas and Ostia — Emporium in Rome 345

74. Canals — Cloaca Maxima — Drainage — Emissarium of the Fucine Lake —

Aqueducts — Aqueducts of Rome and near Nismes and Segovia — Castella

— Reservoirs at Fermo and Baiae 349

75. — Roman Private Architecture — Atrium — Houses at Pompeii — Tablinum
— Peristylium — House of Pansa at Pompeii — Casa di Championnet at
Pompeii 355

76. Roman Private Architecture— Facades — Door and Windows — Plastering

of the Walls — Court in the House of Actaeon, Pompeii — Interior of the
House of Pansa — The Palace — Golden House of Nero — Palace of Dio-
cletian at Salona — Villas of Hadrian at Tibur and of Diomedes at Pompeii. 363

77. Graves at Caere and Norchia — Cucumella — Sarcophagus of Scipio— Colum-

barium of the Freedmen of Livia 373

78. Tombs of Virgil, of the Horatii and Curiatii, and of Caecilia Metella— Pyramid

of Cestius — Tomb of Bibulus — Graves at Palmyra — Monuments of Augus-

viii CONTENTS.

SECTION PAOB

tus and Hadrian — Street of Graves at Pompeii — Ustrinae — Tombs in the

Via Appia 377

79. Monuments of Honor — Monument oflgel — Columns of Trajan and Anto-

nine — Triumphal Arches — Arches of Titus and Constantine . . . 885

80. Thermae at Veleia and Pompeii — Thermae of Titus and Caracalla in Rome. 393
-■ 81. Curiae — Basilicae of Otricoli and Pompeii — Basilica Julia — Basilica Ulpia 404

82. Comitia — Forum Romanum — Fora of Veleia and Pompeii — Imperial Fora

in Rome 411

83. Circus of Bovillae — Circus Maximus in Rome 419

84. Theatres at Tauromenium, of Pompey and Marcellus in Rome, of Herod at

Athens, at Orange, and Aspendos 422

85. Amphitheatre — Theatre of Curio — Amphitheatres at Capua and Rome

(Coliseum) 430

86. General Remarks about Roman Utensils 435

87. Seats : Sella, Cathedra, Solium, Sella Curulis, Bisellium .... 437

88. Couches : Lectus, Lectus Triclinarius, Sigma, Hemicyclia .... 440

89. Tables— Tripods 443

90. Vessels — Crockery — Dishes 445

91. Vessels of Precious Metals — Treasure found at Hildesheim — Glass Vessels

— Murrhine Vases — Drawing-vessel — Wine-vessels — Vintage — Growth

of the Vine — Wine-skins 448

92. Lamps — Candelabrum — Lampadarium 468

93. Doors — Locks and Bolts — Family Pictures — Wall-Paintings . . . 463

94. Mosaic — Gardens 471

95. Dress — Toga — Paenula — Lacerna — Sagum — Paludamentum — Synthesis —

Tunica — Stola — Palla — Ricinium — Materials and Colors of Dresses — Full-
ing 474

96. Head-Coverings and Ways of wearing the Hair (Male and Female) — Shoes,

Boots, and Sandals 486

97. Ornaments : Hair-pins, Necklaces, Pendants, Rings, Fibulae, Mirrors, Etrus-

can Mirrors — Toilet-Mysteries 493

98. Roman Cookery — Meals — Drinking — Game at Dice 499

99. The Bath — Gymnastics — Game at Ball 505

100. Slaves: their Classes and Social Position — Sedan-Chairs — Carriages and

Carts — Jugglers 509

101. Slaves as Artificers — Mill — Bakery — Scales — Cook-shops — Potters —

Founders — Architects — Shoemakers, etc 517

102. Slaves as Physicians and Copyists — Book-trade — Books — Writing-Materi-

als — Libraries — Agriculture — The Vine and Olive .... 524

103. Priestly Colleges ; Pontifices, Flamines, Vestals, vii Viri Epulones, xv Viri

Sacris Faciundis, Augurs, Haruspices, Salii, Fetiales — The Sacrifice . 531

104. Ludi Circenses 544

105. Amphitheatrical Games — Gladiators — Fights with Animals — Naumachiae 551

106. Theatrical Representations . . • 562

107. Armor : Helmet, Cuirass, Shield, Spear (Pilum, Framea), Sword, Bow and

Arrows, Sling — Elephants — Baggage — Stores— Praetorians — Standards —
Military Music — Military Engines — Battering-Ram, Testudo, Walking-
Tower — Bridge of Boats — Allocutio (Lictores and Fasces) . . 565

108. Military Decorations 582

109. Triumph 584

110. Death and Burial — Consecration 589

List of Illustrations 595

Index of Terms 609

THE GREEKS

1. In undertaking to describe the life of the Greeks in its
distinct external appearance, we have first of all to direct our
attention to the products of architecture. For of all the creations
designed by man's ingenuity and executed by his hand, these
produce the grandest and most powerful impression and give the
most distinguishable character to the life of a nation.

Originated by the free creative fantasy of man, they have
to serve at the same time certain purposes and demands of life.
They therefore open a view into the genius of their creators, giv-
ing at the same time a picture of the real existence in which these
creators moved. If this is true of nations in general, it is par-
ticularly the case with the Greeks, because they were enabled and
gifted more than any other nation to render the innermost nature
of their genius in external works of art. It being the task of all
investigations of antique Greece to make us understand the spirit
and mode of thinking and living of this people, we shall scarcely
be able to attain this aim without considering, together with the
creations of their poetry and philosophy, with the legal institutions
of the state and the doctrines of their religion, also the numerous
and variegated productions of their architecture. In these, no less
than in the others, Greek genius and Greek culture find their
expression, with all the greater distinctness as these introduce us
into the varied phases of real existence, and tend to show a dis-
tinct character common to all their different peculiarities.

For whatever part of Greek life we may consider — be it public
acts of religion or social intercourse, public feasts and games, or
the more quiet scenes of home and family — we find that for all
these their ingenious mind has created works of architecture,
which, through being regulated by these various demands, give
us a much more vivid idea of this life than the mostly isolated
1

2 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE TEMPLE.

written testimonials in our possession are able to. Indeed, the
materials which these latter offer to our investigation can only
be completed and invested with full life by an accurate knowledge
of the monuments.

To do this in a manner as complete and comprehensive of all
the phases of life as possible is the task of "the architectural
remnants of the Greeks," with which we begin our description of
antique life. It is not our intention to give an gesthetical reason
for the forms, or a history of their development, which belong
to a different science. We only wish to show how the Greeks
supplied the various demands of religion, and of public and
private life, in their edifices. For this reason also our division
of the abundant material cannot but be a purely practical one ;
beginning, quite in accordance with Greek notions, with a de-
scription of the temples, and adding afterward the various kinds
of profane buildings. For it was the custom of the Greeks to
begin with divine things even in the works of daily life, and of
all their creations none are so apt to bring home to us this
connection between the celestial and terrestrial as those belonging
to the domain of the fine arts.

Poetry begins simultaneously with the narration of human
feats of valor and the praise of the immortal gods. The fine arts
are developed from the ornamentation of the various appliances of
daily life, combined with the desire of giving distinct form to the
image of the deity. In this manner architecture serves a material
want in affording shelter to human beings, but no less it meets
the ideal want of the religious mind in erecting the temple as the
protecting dwelling of the divine image. A firm house was
prepared for the god to testify Iris protecting presence, and a
centre was created, round which the exercises of various arts
grouped themselves. In building and adorning temples archi-
tecture has become a fine art, and the images of the gods dwelling
therein, combined with the symbolical representation of their
deeds and history, have raised sculpture to its highest perfection.
Moreover, in the' same manner, as within the holy precinct the
peace-offering was celebrated, the temple became likewise the
centre of festival and dignified events which were so frequent
in the life of the Greeks, and endowed it throughout with an
artistically beautiful and harmonious impression. In front of

PREPARATORY STAGES OF TEMPLE-BUILDING.

the temples were heard the songs of the god-inspired poet; it
was there that the processions of Greek virgins moved in measured
grace, that the powerful beauty of youths strengthened by athletic
sports showed itself. In the shadow of the temples walked the
sages and leaders of the people, and round them gathered the
wide circle of free and honest citizens, rejoicing in the enjoyment
of a life ennobled by art and culture, and justly proud in the
consciousness of being Greeks. In this way the temple became
the rallying-point of every thing good, noble, and beautiful, which
we still consider as the glory of Greek culture and refinement.
To the temple, therefore, we must first of all devote our attention
in order to revive our consciousness of the spirit and essence of
classical antiquity.

2. But not at all times were there among the Greeks such
temples connected with the veneration of certain gods. Not to
speak of the earliest periods of Greek history, during which the
gods were adored as nameless and impersonal powers, as, for
instance, by the Pelasgi, it also happened at much later times
that the divine principle was considered as present in certain
phenomena of Nature. Fountains and trees,
caves and mountains, were considered as
seats of the gods, and revered accordingly,
even without being changed into divine habi-
tations by the art of man. So it happened
that offerings and gifts were devoted to cer-
tain trees believed to be the symbols and seats
of certain gods ; nay, sometimes such trees
were adorned with garlands, and altars were
erected in front of them. Representations
from later periods testify this in various
ways. Fig. 1, for instance, shows a sacred
pine, to which are attached peculiarly-tied
wreaths and sounding brasses (/cporaXov), as
they were used in the service of Dionysos,
the altar in front being destined for the
reception of offerings.

Among mountains, particularly Parnassos
and Olympos were considered as favorite seats of the gods. We
also find not unfrequently that certain religious rites were con-

FlG. 1.

PREPARATORY STAGES OF TEMPLE-BUILDING.

Fig. 2.

nected with natural caves ; these being naturally considered as the
seats of superhuman powers because of the strong impression

made by their mysterious
darkness on the human
mind. Pausanias, for in-
stance, tells us that a cave
in a cliff near Bura in
Achaia was dedicated to
the Herakles Buraikos, and
that in it there was an
oracle which disclosed the
future by means of dice.
Recent travelers believe
that they have rediscovered
this oracular cave of Hera-
kles in the cliff represented by Fig. 2. They allege that the
natural rock has been shaped purposely into a certain form, and
that, at the top of the rock, the rudely-worked likeness of a head
is recognizable.

These and other similar usages point back to a time when the
gods were considered in the light of indefinite powers ; the want
of temples, properly speaking, seems to have become more urgent
only when the gods began to be imagined and represented under
distinct human forms. Only then it became of importance to find
for the representative image of the god a certain protected dwell-
ing-place. But here again it was originally the custom to make
use of natural objects which were considered as connected with
the nature of the god, and the same places
which formerly were considered as the habita-
tions of divine beings now were in reality used
or prepared for the reception of the idol. We
know, for instance, that the oldest image of
Artemis, at Ephesos, was placed in the hollow
stem of an elm-tree : even Pausanias saw in his
own time the image of Artemis Kedreatis in a
large cedar at Orchomenos. Later sculptors
often show divine images of smaller size placed
on the stem or branches of protecting trees, as is the case in a
relief (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3.

TEMPLE ON MOUNT OCHA. 5

3. The above-mentioned appliances for the protection of divine
images may be considered as preparatory stages of the temple
properly so called. In the same degree as architecture in its at-
tempts at constructing and securing human dwellings became more
and more developed (see § 21), the desire became apparent of pro-
curing to the god a dwelling at once firm and lasting in accord-
ance with his eternal nature. With the progress of architecture,
which made this possible, the development of sculpture went hand
in hand ; and as, in the poems of the Greeks, the gods became
more and more humanized, we notice in the same degree a change
in the fine arts from the bare and simple outline to a more and
more perfect human representation of the gods. And the nearer
god approached man, the closer also the primitive protection of
the image began to resemble the house. A lucky accident has
preserved in Eubcea several specimens of the oldest temple-build-
ings in the shape of simple stone houses. In this island, not far
from the town of Karystos, rises the steep mountain of Ocha
(called at present Hagios Elias). At a considerable height there
is a narrow plateau, to which there is only one access, and over
which the rock rises still a little higher. On this plateau modern
travelers (first Hawkins) have discovered a stone house, from which
there is a splendid
view over the sea ^^^^^^g
and the island (see p^3 «
Fig. 4). According Mji
to the measurement wS^Si

of HI rich, it forms p§|
an oblong from west
to east of forty feet B^l 5~
in outer length,
by twenty -four in ^^■""^^"
width. The walls,
four feet deep, and formed of irregular pieces of slate, rise to
seven feet in the interior. In the southern wall there is a gate
covered with a slab thirteen feet long by one and a half feet
thick, and two small windows which remind one of the gates in
old Kyklopic or Pelasgic walls (see § 18). The roof of this house
consists of hewn-stone slabs, which, resting on the thickness of
the wall, are pushed one over the other toward the inside — a

Fig. 4.

TEMPLE OF MOUNT OOHA.

mode of covering which has also been used in the buildings of
the earliest period of Greek architecture, as, for instance, in the
treasure-houses of the old royal palaces. It ought also to be no-
ticed, that in the middle of the roof there has been left an open-
ing nineteen feet long by one and a half wide, the first beginning
of the hypcethral formation (see plan, Fig. 5, and interior, Fig.
6). In the interior there protrudes from the western wall a stone,
which most likely was destined for the reception of the idol or

of other holy objects. In
the temples of later periods
the holy statues also stood
generally nearest to the
western wall, looking to
the east, where the entrance
usually was. That this is
not the case here is ex-
plained by the situation of
the holy edifice, for close
to the eastern wall the rock
falls steep into the sea. For
this reason the gate could
be placed only on the south-
ern side, up to which winds
the rocky path which forms
the only approach. To the
west of the temple there are
remnants of a wall which
either served as an inclos-
ure (peribolos), or may
also have belonged to a
treasure-house. Notwithstanding the objections of some archae-
ologists, we are entitled to consider this building as a temple,
perhaps dedicated to Hera, who was particularly worshiped in
the island of Eubcea. This opinion is further confirmed by the
myth, that, on this very Mount Ocha, the goddess celebrated her
wedding with Zeus ; we may indeed assume, almost with cer-
tainty, that the described temple was erected in commemoration
of that mythical event, on the very spot where it was said to have
taken place. Of similar construction are three other stone build-

Fig. 6.

THE COLUMNS. 7

ings in Euboea lying close to each other northeast of the village
of Stura, two of which are oblong, while the third and middle
one is a square in form, covered with a hypaethral roof like a
cupola, formed by protruding slabs.

4. From the simple form of the quadrangular house sur-
rounded by smooth walls, as we have seen it in the just-mentioned
primitive temple, there took place a gradual progress toward
more beautiful and varied formations. These embellishments
consisted chiefly in the addition of columns. Columns are isolated
props used to carry the ceiling and the roof, and applied in a
particular artistic form and order. Such props are mentioned in
the Homeric poems ; they were used chiefly in the interiors of
the royal palaces described therein, where, for instance, the courts
are surrounded by colonnades, and where the ceilings of the
lordly halls are supported by columns. All the later forms of Greek
temples arose from the connection of these props with the holy
edifice, and from their different uses in the exteriors and interiors.

Before we describe the temples we have to consider the
different kinds of columns. Not to speak of the gradual trans-
formation which the column underwent in the course of time,
the consideration of which belongs to the history of art, we have
to distinguish two chief kinds, the knowledge of which is required
in order to form a notion of the different species of the temples
themselves.

These two species of columns, which are generally denomi-
nated the orders of columns, are the Doric and Ionic. A third,
the Korinthian order, belongs to a later period of Greek art. The
Doric column has its name from the Greek tribe of the Dorians,
by whom it was invented and most frequently used, and with
whose serious and dignified character its whole formation corre-
sponds. It is divided into two parts, the shaft and the capital.
The shaft consists of a stem of circular form, which up to a third
of its height slightly increases in circumference (evraaisi), and
decreases again more or less toward the top. The bottom part
rests immediately on the stereobaton or base of the temple.
Only in rare cases the column was monolithic, usually it consisted
of several pieces or " drums " (airovBuXoi), composed without mor-
tar, which were fastened to each other by dowels of cedar-wood,
such as have been discovered on the columns of the Parthenon

THE BORIC COLUMN.

Fig. 8.

and the temple of Theseus at Athens. Lengthways the shaft was
broken by parallel indentures (pafiSaxrw), now called flutings, the
edges of which formed sharp angles, and which, as we can see
from several unfinished temples, were chiseled into the columns
after they had been put into their places. On the shaft rests the
second part of the column, the head or capital, which the Greeks,
in analogy to the human head, called icefyakaiov, the Romans ca-
pitulum. The capital of the Doric order consists of three parts.

The first is called viro-
Tpcvyrfkcov, neck, and
forms the continua-
tion of the shaft, from
which it is separated
by one or more inden-
tures. In its upper
part it widens, and is generally adorned by several

H horizontal stripes called by the Romans rings, an-

nuli. After this follows the chief portion of the
capital, a ledge also, of circular formation, and

I strongly projecting all round. It was called by the

Greeks e'^ti/o?, and comprised the supporting power
of the column, under the weight of the beams and
the roof resting on it. The third part consists of a
square piece with square edges, which is called the
bearer (afiai;, whence the Latin abacus), and is des-
tined for the reception of the chief beam or archi-
trave {eiruTTvkiov) resting on the column {see page
12).

Fig. t. The artistic (gesthetic and static) import of all

these parts must not occupy us here, any more than
the changes which they underwent in the gradual development
of Greek art. We must confine ourselves to the general remark
that the older the building, the heavier and more compressed is
the formation of the whole column, as is particularly shown by
the few still-existing columns of a temple at Korinth, which per-
haps belongs to the sixth century b. c. As an example of the
most beautiful form, we add (Fig. 7) the reproduction of a col-
umn of the Parthenon belonging to the acme of Greek architect-
ure ; its capital is shown on a larger scale in Fig. 8.

THE IONIC COLUMN.

The Doric order expresses artistically the spirit and the se-
rious tendency of the Doric tribe ; the lighter and more versatile
mind of the Ionic tribe finds its expression in the more ornament-
al order of columns called after it. About the time of its origin
we will say nothing here. May it suffice to state that, as early as

Fig. 9.

the thirtieth Olympiad (656 b. c.) the Ionic order
of columns was in use, together with the Doric.
At that time Myron, tyrant of Sikyon, is said
to have devoted to the gods a treasure-house at
Olympia which contained two rooms, one of
them showing the Doric, the other the Ionic,
order of columns.

The Ionic column differed from the Doric
first of all by its greater slenderness. Its height
in the average was equal to eight diameters at
the bottom of the column, while the Doric col-
umn amounted usually only to four or five. The
column is divided into three parts, a foot or base
being added to the shaft and capital. The base
consists of several prominences {torus) like bol-
sters, separated from each other by indentures
(Tpoxihos) which rest on a square slab (ifkivOos),
and in a manner raise the column from the earth.
The shaft shows the same cylindric form as that of the Doric
column, but the decrease in size toward the upper part is less con-
siderable, and the fluting also differs from the Doric in so far as
the deep parts are more excavated, and between them there are

'IlliiiiB

Fig. 10.

TEE KORINTHIAN COLUMN.

small flat parts called ridges (scamillus). The capital shows, in-
stead of a simple and severe formation, a greater variety and
elegance of form. The neck is embellished by sculptural orna-
ments, the echinus is less prominent, and shows a sculptural
ornament called ovolo. The richest and most striking charac-
teristic of the Ionic capital is the part which, somewhat like the
abacus of the Doric capital, droops, as it were, under the weight
of the architrave, and leans in an elastic curvature over the
echinus ; both in front and at the back it shows a double spiral
ornamentation usually called the volute ; at the sides it forms a
bolster called by the Romans pulvina?\ Above this lies a small
slab, also adorned with sculptures, and destined to receive the
beam. Fig. 10 shows a simple Ionic column which belonged to
the no longer existing temple on the Ilissos at Athens; Fig. 9, a
rich capital from the Erechtheion at Athens.

The third or Korinthian order of columns (the independent
development of which does not seem to date back before the end
of the fourth century b. c.) resembles, in the formation of the
basis and the shaft, the Ionic order. The capital, on the other
hand, has the form of an open chalice formed of acanthus-leaves,

over which rises from the
same basis a second higher
row of leaves. In the in-
terstices of this mass of
leaves we see stems, with
smaller chalices at their
tops, rising upward, and
from the tops of these there
are again developed stalks
divided into two, the tops
of which are bent like vo-
lutes under the weight of
the abacus, which in a man-
ner rests on them. The
beams are generally bor-
rowed from the Ionic or-
der. Vitruvius (iv., 1, 9)
tells a pretty story . according to which the celebrated architect
and engraver (Topevrrjs;) Kallimachos, of Athens, was the inventor

Fig. 11.

THE UTEMPLUM IN ANTIS."—TIIE PRONAOS.

of this capital ; perhaps he was the first to use it artistically. In
any case, the perfection of the Korinthian capital (as we know it
from its simplest beginnings in the temple of Apollo at Phigalia,
up to its noblest development in the capitals of the temple of the
Didymaic Apollo near Miletos, and in those of the mausoleum of
Halikarnassos, and on the choragic monument of Lysikrates at
Athens, Fig. 11 {see Fig. 152), belongs to the time after Perikles.
Perhaps the first attempts at an ornamentation which was taken
from plants, and might easily be reproduced in clay, were made
at Korinth, the seat of clay potteries, and in that case the Ko-
rinthian capital would have received its name from its first home.

5. The simplest and most natural way of connecting the
columns with the temple itself, was to leave out the smallest of
the four walls in which the entrance was placed, and to erect in-
stead of it two columns, which thus formed a stately and beautiful
ingress, and also carried the beams and the roof of the temple.
The Greeks called a temple of this kind iv 7rapdo-raaiv, the Ro-
mans a tenvplum in antis, because in it the columns were placed
between the front pillars of the side-walls, which latter were
called by the Greeks irapdara^, and by the Romans antes. ,But
this change of design could not be made without consequences
for the arrangement of the temple itself. By opening in this way
the temple on the one — generally the eastern — side, there was
certainly gained an appropriate ornamentation of the chief
facade ; but, on the other hand, the regard for the holiness of the
image required a further seclusion of the room in which it was
placed : for the house of the god
was sacred, separated from the
profane world, and accessible only
after a previous purification. In
consequence, the space of the
temple-cella was divided by a
wall into two parts, of which the
one, the mo? proper, contained FlG. &,

the image of the god, the other

being used as an outer court or outer temple, and therefore called
by the Greeks irpovaos or 7rp68ofio<;.

An example of this most primitive and simple design is pre-
served in a small temple at Rhamnos, in Attika, which is gener-

DORIC BEAMS.

ally designated as the temple of Themis. Its plan (see Fig. 12)
shows an oblong form similar to that of the temple on Mount
Ocha, but that on the east side the wall has been omitted, and be-
tween the two ends of the side-walls or antce (a a) two columns
(h ~b) have been erected. Passing through these columns we enter
the pronaos (B\ against the back-wall of which, built of polygo-
nal stones, stand two marble chairs (c c), dedicated the one to
Nemesis, the other to Themis, as the inscriptions on them indicate

(see Fig. 13). Perhaps they
contained originally the statues
of these goddesses; the statue
of one goddess at least, in an
antiquated style, has been dis-
covered in the pronaos. The
temple is small, and stands in a
very irregular position by the
side of a larger one, which is
usually considered as that of
Nemesis. For this was the
goddess particularly venerated
by the inhabitants of Phamnos,
and her affinity to Themis, the
goddess of justice, the violations of which Nemesis had to re-
venge, would account for the close vicinity of the two temples ;
their irregular position with regard to each other finds its expla-
nation in the circumstance of the different dates of their erection.
For the temple of Nemesis belongs to the time of Kimon, while
that of Themis was erected at an ante-Persian period, most likely
contemporaneously with the building of the ante-Persian Par-
thenon and the ante-Persian Propylsea, as is shown by the po-
lygonal structure of the walls of the cella and the use of the
porous stone for the columns and antse.

The facade which shows us the further peculiarities of the
Doric order we see, Fig. 13. "We observe, first of all, that the
temple rests on some steps, as was the universal custom among
the Greeks. The columns of the Doric order, as described in the
last paragraph, carry, together with the two antse, the upper part
of the whole building, generally called the beams. The beams
of the Doric order are divided into three parts — archhitrave,

Fig. 13.

TEE DOUBLE " TEMPI UM IN ANTIS." 13

frieze, and cornice. The architrave consists of four-edged,
smoothly-hewn stone beams, which are placed from column to
column (hence the Greek name ijri<TTv\Lov, i. e., on the columns),
and are equally continued beyond the wall of the temple. Over
this follows a second layer of a similar kind, but that here certain
prominent parts, adorned with vertical stripes and called tri-
glyphs (rplyXvcposi), occur alternately with square pieces called by
the Greeks fieT(07rov, and usually adorned with images, i. e., reliefs.
After these representations (£&«) the Greeks called this part of
the beams £&x/>opo9. The completion of the beams was formed
by the cornice called by the Greeks yei<rov, and consisting of a
prominent rafter cut obliquely downward. Over these beams
rises on the two smaller sides of the temple a pediment, i. e., a
triangular structure, as necessitated by the sloping position of the
roof ; it was formed by a stone-wall and surrounded by a cornice
similar to the geison of the beams. The Greeks called this gable
aeros or aerco/jLa, perhaps owing to its similarity to an eagle with
extended wings. The gable front surrounded by
the cornice was called by the Greeks Tvpnravov ;
it was generally adorned with sculptures, such
as we shall see on several of the larger Greek
temples. The ridge of the roof as well as the
corners of the gable were provided in most of
the temples with ornaments (a/cpwTrjpiov), which
generally, similar to those on the sarcophagi and
crrijXcu, were formed like anthemia (Fig. 14). fig. u.

Instead of these we also find not unfrequently
on the comers of the retos pedestals, destined to carry statues or
holy implements like tripods and vases.

6. There is still another kind of the templum in antis de-
scribed in our last chapter, which seems not to have been called
by the Greeks by a separate name, neither is it mentioned sepa-
rately by Vitruvius, to whom we owe the classification of the
different forms of the temple. Nevertheless it deserves our par-
ticular attention, as showing the strictly logical process, followed
by the Greeks in this matter.

For, after the one smaller side of the temple had received
columns instead of a wall, it was natural to do the same on the
opposite side. This was indeed only in accordance with the feel-

THE DOUBLE " TEMPLUM IN ANTIS:

ing of symmetry shown by the Greeks, to which we shall have to
refer in considering another form of the temple.

A beautiful example of this form of the templum in antis we
find in a temple discovered at Eleusis, of which Fig. 15 shows the
plan. It was dedicated to Artemis Propylsea, and the position
of the ruins close by the propylsea of the sacred precinct of the

temple at Eleusis shows
beyond doubt that it is
really the temple seen,
and called by that name,
by Pausanias; it is in-

Fig. 15.

deed one of the rare cases
where the name of a
Greek temple can be
proved with certainty.
The temple, of which
little more than the
foundations remain, but
which can be easily reconstructed with the help of these founda-
tions and of some fragments of Pentelic marble,1 is divided into
three parts, of which the cella (A) and the pronaos (C) are formed
exactly as we have seen in the temple of Themis.

Beyond the back wall of the cella the side- walls of the temple
have been continued, and between their antae two columns have
been erected ; in this way a space (B) has been formed, which,
although perhaps not equal in dimension, corresponds exactly with
the pronaos or prodomos, and is therefore called by the Greeks
oTriadobofios. In the same way as the pronaos was the front-hall,
the opisthodomos was the back-hall, of the temple, and therefore
by the Eomans appropriately called a posticum.

This arrangement assists us in understanding the use of the
spaces thus gained in front and back of the cella ; for they must
be considered not only as casual extensions of the temple, but
they have a distinct significance for the religious service and its
usages, as it was always the habit of the Greeks to combine

1 This was the case at least at the time of the first investigation. At present the
ruins found at that time have (with the exception of a few almost unrecognizable
remnants) disappeared, that is, they have been used for the houses of the insignifi-
cant modern Eleusis.

THE OPISTHODOMOS.- T&F PROSTYLOS. 15

artistic and religious considerations. The openness of both spaces
indicates sufficiently that they were not properly holy or conse-
crated places. They were, on the contrary, as Bdtticher justly
remarks of the pronaos, "show-rooms." The pronaos, which
formed the entrance and as it were preparation hall of the holy
room, was furnished accordingly. Sculptures and other ornaments
alluded to the god and his myths ; in the temple of Themis we
recognized the two chairs as being most likely the seats of divine
images. There were also implements placed here to prepare for
the entrance into the sacred room proper. The basin with con-
secrated water had its place here, with which everybody sprinkled
himself or was sprinkled by the priest, before entering into the
immediate presence of the god, whose image always stood front-
ing the entrance-door. These rooms were frequently secured and
closed by railings, traces of which are preserved in several temples,
and in this way, although open to the eye, they could be used for
the reception of the treasures with which pious custom richly
endowed the temples, as is distinctly told us of the festive temples
at Athens, Delphi, Olympia, and elsewhere.

A similar ornamentation, by means of statues referring to the
god of the temple, or anathemata devoted to him, must have
been in the opisthodomos. It must, however, be added that in
some temples the opisthodomos occurs as a separate chamber
behind the cella. In that case it was used for the keeping of
that property of the god which was not shown in public, such as
old sacred implements or perhaps old images ; in some cases also
money and public or private documents were kept in it because of
the greater security of the place. This, for instance, was done at
the Parthenon, where even a list of objects kept in the opisthod-
omos has been discovered. In this case the back-hall of the
temple (posticum) remained the show-room, adorned with sculpt-
ures, anathemes, and pictures in a similar manner as the pronaos
on the opposite side of the temple.

7. In his sketch of the different forms of the temple Yitruvius
mentions after the antge-temple the prostylos. This name already
indicates a temple in which the columns (<ttv\ol) protrude on one
side, and which naturally forms in this way a further step in the
development of the temple. In the antse-temple the columns as
it were replaced the one smaller wall of the temple-house, which

THE AMPHIPROSTYLOS.

Fig. 16.

had been omitted in order to give the outer part of the temple a
certain public character. But after this significance of the col-
umn as a separate and " room-opening" (Botticher) prop had once
been recognized, it became impossible to abide by this form, and
it is quite in accordance with the steady and gradual progress

always observable in Greek
art that the columns were also
advanced quite independently
on the open side of the temple
which required ornamentation.
The general design was not
modified hereby, and could re-
main exactly the same as in
the antse-temple.

An example of this design
is offered by the small Ionic
temple near the large temple at Selinus (see Fig. 16). Selinus, on
the southwestern coast of Sicily, was a colony of the Doric town
of Megara, by whose inhabitants a great many towns were founded.
Their attention was particularly directed toward Sicily, where,
after founding several other colonies, they built, about the thirty-
seventh Olympiad, the town of Selinus, perhaps on the site of an
old Phoenician colony. The fertility of the soil and the favorable
situation of the town made it soon a considerable emporium, and
with its growing wealth was combined an artistic culture to
which we owe several still-existing ruins in the Doric style.
Besides these ruins of the Doric order {see Figs. 21, 23, 33), there
has been discovered a small sanctuary which shows a peculiar
combination of the Doric and Ionic styles, and has lately been re-
produced and described at great length as the temple of Empedo-
kles, with the restoration of its original colors. On a base of
steps about 2J feet in height rises the little temple about 15 feet
high and resembling in its design exactly the temple of Themis.
We have the cell a (A) and the pronaos (B), with the only
difference that the columns adorning the latter stand, not between
the antse, but protrude beyond them. The columns grow con-
siderably slighter upward, in analogy to the Doric order, but
they have a base and an Ionic capital; their flutings resemble
more the Doric than the Ionic order. The beams also are in the

TEE AMPHIPROSTYLOS. 17

Doric order ; on the architrave three layers are indicated by-
colors ; the frieze has triglyphs and metopa, which were also
painted ; the pediment shows the form we have met with in the
temple of Themis.

The connection of the portico with the cella is brought about
by a continuation of the architrave from the pillar of the antse to
the column, by means of which the beams and the roof in front
form a strong projection carried by the columns. This is an
evident gain for the design of the temple ; for in this way both
the portico and the pronaos are increased in size, and the column
now fulfills much better its task as an independent and " room-
opening " prop.

8. Although the prostylos marks a progress in the develop-
ment of the column-edifice, it cannot be denied that it shows a
certain want of symmetry and proportion in its design. The
back part does not correspond with the facade, indeed the strong
projection carried by the columns seems to require a similar
arrangement on the opposite side of the temple. There is some-
thing imperfect in the look of such a temple, particularly if one
imagines its position open on all sides. This want could not but
become apparent to the Greeks, who in almost all their artistic
doings have shown a particular predilection for symmetrical pro-
portions. Greek orators weighed carefully the measure of their
periods, and symmetry was the principle of strophe and anti-
strophe in their lyrical poetry. The same care has been noticed
in the plastic or pictorial ornamentation of rooms and of certain
objects, in which the Greek artists always tried to carry out a
perfect symmetry and parallelism of the grouping. This feeling
it could not satisfy to see the front part of the temple developed
in such a striking manner, and it was only natural that the
Greeks should have added before long a portico to the opposite
side of the temple. From this as we have seen quite natural and
essentially Greek proceeding arose a new form, called by the
Greeks very appropriately mo? anfynrpoarvkos, i. e., a temple
with projecting porticoes on both sides. The amphiprostylos is,
indeed, the necessary supplement or rather completion of the
prostylos, a completion which was the more natural as through
the double antae-temple (see % 6) (which might appropriately be
designated as amphiparastatic) one was accustomed to an opis-
2

TEMPLE OF NIKE APTEROS AT ATHENS.

thodomos or posticum, corresponding with the pronaos. The pos-
ticum, which was wanting in the prostylos, is gained in the amphi-
prostylos by means of the back-hall, and became available in the
same manner as we have seen in the developed form of the antse-
temple (see § 6). Altogether the amphiprostylos stands in the
same relation to the prostylos as the double to the single antse-
temple, and we notice here again the steady and equal progress
which has given to all Greek creations their harmony and organic
necessity, or, which is essentially the same, their beauty. As an
example of this not very frequent form of the temple, of which
Yitruvius does not name an instance, we mention the temple of
Nike Apteros, the wingless goddess of victory, in the Akropolis
at Athens 1 (see Fig. 17). This elegant Ionic structure crowns,
like a votive offering, the front part of the wall which Kim on had
erected as at once a protection and ornament of the Akropolis.

It was taken off by the Turks and
used for the building of a bastion, but
was restored to its original form from
the remnants found in the destroyed
bastion, during the first decennium of
the revived kingdom of Greece (see
the sketch of the side-view, Fig. 18).
From the right-hand side of the stair-
case, which leads up to the propylsea, a
small flight of steps ascends to the tem-
ple of Nike Apteros. It stands pretty
close to the right wing of the propylsea,
and is for this reason shorter than in
other cases, for instance in the temple on the Ilissos, which other-
wise corresponds with it exactly. It is said that its dedication to
the wingless goddess of victory signified the retaining of victory
for Athens ; according to earlier statements, it was erected by
Kimon after the completion of the above-mentioned wall in order
to commemorate his double victory over the Persians on the
Eurymedon (01. 77, 3 = 470 b. c.) ; Bursian, on the other hand,

1 Of temples of this class without colonnades we also mention one, the ruins of
which have been discovered by Stuart on the Ilissos, not far from Athens. The am-
phiprostylos is more frequently applied where the cella is surrounded by a colonnade.
{See § 9, d.)

Fig. 17.

TEMPLE OF NIKE APTEROS AT ATHENS.

places its completion, or at least that of its upper parts, in the
time of Perikles. The dimensions of the temple are but small
(18 J feet in width, 27 feet in length), but its style is beautiful
and elegant. It consists of a simple cella A (Fig. 17), with an
outer hall B on the eastern side toward the propylaea, and a
posticum C, on the western side toward the staircase. The open-
ing of the cella toward the east is not, as in most cases, effected

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■MUM- "■

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I V

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Fig. 18.

by a door in the wall, but by two slender pillars (b h) between
the antae (a a), which afford an open view of the interior and of the
statue placed therein. Against the outer hall the cella was as
usual closed by means of railings, the fastenings of which are still
observable on the pillars and antae.

The columns have bases and beautiful capitals in the form of
volutes ; their slightly heavy proportions remind one of the Doric
order ; the beams, on the other hand, are strictly Ionic. Accord-
ingly, the architrave (which in the Doric order (see § 5) consists
of a simple smooth stone) is divided into three horizontal stripes
(fasciae), over the uppermost of which there is a thin ledge. The
frieze no more exhibits the division into metopa and triglyphs,
but consists of an uninterrupted plane, equal in height to the
architrave, and adorned with bass-reliefs which represent battles
between Greeks and Persians. After this follows the cornice
(yeicrov), which, unlike the simplicity and heaviness of the Doric
cornice, consists of several pieces composed in an easy and grace-
ful manner.

FORMATION 01 COLONNADE.

Fig. 19.

The pediments both at the back and in front are similar to
those of the Doric temple, but that they rise a little higher, and
the cornices round them correspond with the geison of the beams.

Fig. 19 shows the plan of
the above-mentioned tem-
ple, which Stuart has dis-
covered on the southern
bank of the Ilissos, not
far from the well Ennea-
krunos ; this temple was
used in Stuart's time as a
Christian church, but has
now entirely disappeared.
It was an amphiprostylos of the Ionic order, the division of which
into cella A, pronaos B, and posticum C, agrees exactly with the
above-stated principles. It was 40£ feet in length, by 19J in
width.

9. The most extensive use of the columns takes place, when
they are placed not only before and behind the temple, as in the
amphiprostylos, but when they are ranged round the four sides
of a building.

This is the last and most perfect form to which the combina-
tion of the columns with the temple-house could lead, and it must
be considered as the necessary development of the different pre-
paratory stages mentioned in the above.1 Here we have, at last,
a temple-house surrounded by columns on all sides, beautifully
variegated, and yet not wanting in organic unity. In conse-
quence, this form was used by the Greeks more frequently than
any other, and most of the remaining temples, particularly those
of the Doric style, belong to it.

Concerning the mode of its erection, we must imagine that
the columns were placed at equal distances round the cella, so
that one might walk round it, barring such cases where statues
or partition-walls prevented it. For the distance of the columns

1 An historic proof of this gradual growth cannot be given, seeing that already the
oldest monuments known to us show the complete surrounding by columns. With
the sole exception of that on Mount Ocha, the above-mentioned temples must not be
considered as actually older than those to be described in the following pages. They
are only specimens of a prehistoric period of architecture, the single forms and stages
of which were continued even after the completion of the peripteral temple.

MEANING OF PTERON.—PERIPTEROS.

from the wall of the cella there is no certain rule ; on the longer
sides it was generally equal to the distance of the columns from
each other, in front and at the back (i. e., on the two smaller
sides) it was considerably larger than this. The beams rested on
the columns {see Figs. 13 and 18) as in the prostylos and amphi-
prostylos ; they surrounded the cella in an uninterrupted line, the
walls of the former being built up to an equal height, and after-
ward connected with the beams by means of cross-beams made of
stone. Stone slabs adorned with so-called caskets, that is, square
indentures (laeunaria), were placed on these cross-beams and
formed the so-called lacunaria-ceiling. In this way a protecting
roof was gained for the colonnade, and at the same time the organic
unity of the temple was obtained by means of the connection of
the columns with the cella. Fig. 20, showing the section of a
temple of this kind, will serve to illustrate this arrangement.
A signifies the interior of the cella, B the colonnades on both

sides, a I the columns, b c the beams, connected with the wall of
the cella by means of the lacunaria-ceiling. (About the interior,
see Fig. 30.) The ceiling of the colonnade protruding in this
way from the cella to right and left was called by the Greeks (in
analogy with the name of the gable aeros, as mentioned above)

PERIPTERAL TEMPLE: FIRST FORM.

irrepov, wing, and from this expression the name vabs irepiTTTepos
was derived, viz., a temple surrounded on all sides by a protrud-
ing wing of this kind. In the same way as this name refers to
the ceiling of the colonnade, another is taken from the columns
themselves, and according to the latter a temple of this kind is
called a vao? or ol/cos Trepio-rvXos, that is, a temple surrounded by
columns, the colonnade itself being called to irepiarvKov. The
name peripteros was always, and has remained, the most common
one.

After having described the structure of the peripteros so as
to give a distinct notion of the pteron, and of the construction of

Fig. 21.

this kind of temple in general, we must now turn to the consid-
eration of the plan in order to learn the division and arrange-
ment of the different rooms. This division is more complicated
in the peripteros than in any other class of temples ; we find,
indeed, the different kinds of divisions as numerous as the classes
of temples we have hitherto met with. It will be remembered
that in these latter there was only one arrangement of the
interior peculiar to each ; but as it is the chief purpose of the
peripteros to surround the temple-house with a colonnade, this
house itself may have any of the described forms ; it may be, in
other words, an antse-temple, a prostylos, or an amphiprostylos.
These possible variations in the plan of the peripteros have
hitherto, perhaps, not been sufficiently noticed. Yitruvius does
not mention them, and the rules laid down by him comprise only
the smallest portion of the preserved monuments.

PERIPTERAL TEMPLE: SECOND FORM.

a. The temple-house surrounded by the colonnade may first
be an antge-temple, as described by us in § 4. An example of
this design is offered by one of the older temples at Selinus (see
Fig. 21). It is situated, with two other similar ones, on a hill, in
the western part of the town ; the colonnade D is formed by six
columns on the small, and thirteen on the long, sides ; the cella
is an antae-temple with two columns between the walls, which
latter do not end in common antse, but take the form of columns.
Through these columns one ascends the pronoas (B) on two steps ;
after it follows, raised again by one step, the cella proper (A),
from which a staircase of five steps leads into the opisthodomos

x (C) ; this is walled in on all sides, and forms a completely-closed
room, inaccessible except from the cella.

b. The antae-temple might also have columns between the
antse of the two small sides, as, for instance, in the temple of
Artemis Propylaea at Eleusis (Fig. 15). This kind of temple-
house may also become the centre of a peripteros by being sur-
rounded by columns. This is the case in the Theseion, one of
the finest and best-preserved temples of Athens (Fig 22.)

i !

-iri

-u;

Fig. 22.

This temple lies on a small hill northwest of the Akropolis,
and is, in all probability, identical with that devoted by the
Athenians to the memory of their national hero Theseus, to
whose appearance in the battle of Marathon they owed the
victory. In memory of this event they afterward resolved to
transfer the remains of Theseus from the island of Skyros (con-
quered by Kimon) to Athens, and to bur^y them in a manner
worthy of the hero. This was done by Kimon, the son of Mil-
tiades, Olympiad 76, 1 (476 b. a), and on the same occasion our

24: PERIPTERAL TEMPLE: THIRD AND FOURTH FORMS.

temple was erected, and called, after the hero, Theseion.1 The
building is of Pentelic marble ; thirty-four columns, in the most
beautiful Doric style, in its freer and more elegant Attic modifica-
tion, surround the temple-house, so that six columns stand on each
of the small, and thirteen on each of the large, sides. The temple-
house itself has the form of a double antse-temple ; in the middle
lies the cella proper A,2 joined on the eastern side by the pronaos
B, on the western by the opisthodomos C, the latter forming,
like the pronaos, an open hall. Beams and ceiling of the peri-
stylos show traces of rich polychromatic painting. The temple,
formerly richly decorated with statues on the gable and the
metopa, has for a long time been used as a church of St. George,
to which circumstance its good preservation is most likely due.
At present the antique remnants found at Athens are kept in it.

c. In another form of the peripteros, the temple-house consists
of a prostylos surrounded by columns. It is, however, rarely met
with, the just-mentioned arrangement (b) being the most usual.
As an example of this third style, we mention one of the older
temples on the western hill of the town of Selinunt, in Sicily
(see Fig. 23). Inside of the colonnade lies the oblong temple-
house, which shows a portico of four columns. It contains,
besides the cella proper (A), a peculiarly-shaped pronaos (B), and
an opisthodomos (C), the latter being walled in on all sides.

Fig. 23.

d. The highest development of the peripteros is reached when
the cella is formed by an amphiprostylos (the complement of the

1 More recently it has also been declared to be a temple of Ares.

2 The width of the interior of the cella is 20 feet 4 inches (English measure).

PERIPTEROS.—TIIE PARTHEON AT ATHENS. 25

prostyle*, see § 8), being at the same time surrounded by a
colonnade.

As an example we quote the temple of Athene Parthenos in
the Akropolis of Athens, which altogether must be considered as
one of the most perfect, if not the most perfect, monument of
Greek architecture.1 Being dedicated to the highest protecting
goddess of Athens and of the Attic country, it occupied the most
important site of the Akropolis, and evinced, both by the grandeur
of its dimensions and its artistic splendor, the culture of the na-
tion itself, which, under Perikles, had reached the acme of its
power. On the same spot, where had stood the older Athene-
temple, destroyed by the Persians, Perikles erected this new one.
The two architects, Iktinos and Kallikrates, completed the gigan-
tic work in about ten years, in 438 b. c. The sculptural decora-
tion of the gables and metopa was supervised and no doubt part-
ly executed by Phidias, an intimate friend of Perikles, and equal-
ly supreme in art as the other in politics. On a strong base of
Piraeic stone-work, surrounded by three high steps of Pentelic
marble (the upper one being 101J ft. wide by 228 ft. long), rose
the peripteros, formed by forty-six Doric columns, of which eight
stood on each of the smaller, and seventeen on each of the longer,
sides {see plan, Fig. 24, and view, Fig. 25). The architrave was
adorned with golden shields and inscriptions, while the metopa of
the frieze showed the more lasting ornamentations of reliefs,
representing the myths of Athene and the heroes renowned in
her service. On the gables were enthroned the sublime forms,
by means of which Phidias and his disciples had celebrated two
important events from the cycle of myths relating to Athene.
The one showed the first appearance of the goddess among the
Olympians after her birth from the head of Zeus ; the other rep-
resented the contest in which the victorious goddess had gained
the supremacy of the Attic land from Poseidon. Everywhere
the splendor of the Pentelic marble (of which the columns, the
beams, the walls of the eel la, and even the tiles of the roof, were
made) was discreetly modified by the application of colors.

During the middle ages it was transformed into a Christian
church, of which Spon and Wheler have seen as late as 1676, and
afterward described, the altar-niche on the east side and the whole

1 See the plan of the Akropolis, Fig. 52, B.

THE PARTHENON.

interior arrangement ; 1 and, owing to this circumstance, the Par-
thenon, like the temple of Theseus, had been well preserved,
until the siege of Athens by the Venetians under Morosini, in
1687, caused the deplorable destruction of this unique building.
The besieged had placed a powder-magazine in the cella, and
when this was hit by a shell of the besieging artillery, a dreadful
explosion took place, which destroyed almost the whole building,
with the exception of the two pediments.

It must be considered as a fortunate circumstance in this dis-
aster that the ruins, although poor and scanty, if compared with
the former splendor of the building, still are sufficient to allow
of a tolerably accurate reconstruction of its general features.
Moreover, the very ruins show a dignity and beauty of form
which baffle description : a proof of the excellence of Greek ar-
chitecture, which even without the passing splendor of outer
ornaments, and deprived of the imposing effect of the whole
building, still preserves its overpowering impression.

The design of the temple, with regard to its principal rooms,
does not now seem doubtful ; the previous investigations of
architects and archseologists concerning the cella and the opis-
thodomos seem completed by the excavations in the Akropolis of
C. Botticher, during the early summer of 1862.

LljHQ

Fig. 24.

Fig. 24 shows the plan of the Parthenon after the design of
Using, which is founded on a thorough investigation of the dif-

1 The bottom part of this niche exists still at the present time.

THE PARTHENON.

ferent opinions ; we are not prepared to vouch for all its details,
neither can we enter upon our own notions with regard to single
parts, gained by personal study of the remnants. Passing through
the columns of the colonnade (A), one encounters a second row
of six columns, forming the portico of the pronaos (B). The pro-
naos is raised by two steps over the- level of the peristylos, and
was used for the keeping of the precious offerings, which were
brought from far and near to celebrate the holiness of the temple
and of its protecting goddess. They were kept safely behind
iron railings, and carefully locked up by the Tamiai,1 but might
be seen from the outside. In an inscription, a list of the objects
kept here has been preserved to us. The entrance to the pro-
naos, which formerly had been blocked up by the 6-ft.-thick wall
of the apsis of the church built into the Parthenon, was reopened
by Botticher. •

Fig. 25.

These parts of the building were also decorated with sculpt-
ures. Beginning from the portico, the frieze round the whole
cella was covered with the marvelous representation of the fes-
tive procession of the Panathenaea, or, according to Botticher's
opinion, the preparations for this procession. These reliefs, 3 ft.
4 in. in height, extended originally over 528 ft. ; 456 ft. have
since been recovered from the ruins, and transferred to England,
with a great many other sculptures from the Akropolis, by Lord

1 The holes for fastening these railings were discovered by Botticher, from bottom
to capital, in all the columns of the pronoas and posticum.

28 THE PARTHENON'.

Elgin. At present they are in the British Museum, but other
parts of the frieze, found later, have been kept at Athens. Over
the entrance to the pronaos, and therefore to the cella proper,
there is an ingenious representation of an assembly of the gods
looking at the approaching processions of youths and maidens.
They are seated in arm-chairs, simply and beautifully grouped,
and among them the forms of the god Poseidon, of the hero
Erechtheus, and of the goddess Aphrodite with Peitho and Eros,
are recognizable. A large door in the back-wall of the pronaos
forms the entrance to the cella proper (C), which is a hundred
feet long, and therefore called hekatompedon. Two rows of
columns, each nine in number, divided this room into three naves,
and above these there was a second row of Doric columns form-
ing an upper story, up to which led staircases from the side-naves.
At the end of the middle stoa, which we must imagine as hypse-
thral, stood, closed in by a bar and protected by a canopy, the
chryselephantine Agalma of Pallas (b) ; in front of it was the
dais of the proedria (a), the site of which is still recognizable by
a piece of Pirseic stone pavement in the middle of the marble
floor. Concerning the masterly statue of Athene by Phidias, we
can only say a few words illustrating its artistic arrangement.
The base on which the figure stood was ornamented by a repre-
sentation of the birth of Pandora, and by the forms of twenty
gods. On this pedestal stood the statue of the goddess herself,
in a simple but majestic posture, 26 yards ' in height ; face, neck,
arms, hands, and feet, were made of ivory ; the drapery (which
Phidias had fortunately made removable) was of pure gold, which
noble metal also prevailed in the other parts of the figure. Com-
bined with the splendor of the material and the imposing im-
pression of the whole figure, the careful ornamental treatment of
the details added to the total effect. There were, for instance,
the helmet with a sphinx and other ornaments, and the shield
standing at the feet of the goddess with a battle of the Amazons
on the outer side ; nay, even the edges of the high sandals showed
a Kentauromachia with numerous figures, among which, it is
said, there were portraits of Perikles and Phidias, the last-men-
tioned being afterward made the grounds of accusations of im-
piety against the great statesman and his artistic friend.

1 German Ellen. The measurements are throughout on the German scale, un-
less stated otherwise.

PSEUDO-PERIPTEROS.— TEMPLE OF AKRAGAS. 29

Behind the cella with the statue in it, was the opisthodomos,
a closed room connected with the cella by means of two little
doors at the northern and southern ends of the intervening wall.
Eemnants of these doors, destined only for the business purposes
of the treasure officials, were also found among the ruins in
1862. The ceiling of the opisthodomos was carried by four
columns ; many articles of value, documents, and anathemata, not
meant for public exhibition, were here kept by certain officials,
who had to render strict account of them. From the opisthod-
omos another door, secured by a double railing, led into the
back-hall, similar in form to the pronaos, and used, like it, for
placing works of art and pious offerings (E).

10. After the description of the vabs TrepLTTTepos, which we
have now considered in all its varieties, we pass over to the
pseudo-peripteros treated by Vitruvius, together with the perip-
teros. As the name indicated (yjrevSos, deception, appearance),
this temple is not in reality surrounded by a pteron, but only
appears to be. A pteron, as we have seen, consists of the wing-
like protrusion of beams and ceiling, supported by separate col-
umns. If the idea of the pteron is done away with, the beams
and ceiling may remain, but they no more form an independent
protrusion round the cella ; that is, they are no more supported
by independent columns, but by a firm wall, which on its part
may supply the columns by semi-columns or pilasters. This
form is very rare in Greek architecture, which was founded on
truth, but the llomans have applied it more frequently (see § 63).
It is true that one Greek specimen of the pseudo-peripteros is
known to us, but in it the purpose of producing the illusion of
columns has evidently been absent, the arrangement having be-
come necessary by the large dimensions of the building and the
nature of its material. This temple was at Akragas. Akragas,
" the splendor-loving noble city, of all the most beautiful," as
Pindar calls it, was founded at the beginning of the sixth century
by Gela, a Doric colony on the south coast of Sicily, and, by its
favorable position and fertile soil, had acquired considerable
wealth. The numerous remnants of its former artistic splendor
are, together with those of Selinus, among the finest specimens
of the older Doric style. Not far from the well-preserved
so-called temples of Juno and Concordia the foundations have

30 TEMPLE AT AKRAGAS.

been discovered of an enormous temple dedicated to Zeus, and
finished, all but the roof, after the victory of the Carthaginians
over the Agrigentines (01. 93, 3 = 406 b. a). Diodor, who
gives a detailed description of the temple with measurements,
admired, after so many centuries, the grandeur of its remnants.
According to later measurements the length of the temple, steps
included, is 359 ft., its width 175£ ft. ; its height must have been
120 to the top of the gable, as may be calculated from the
remaining fragments of the beams and columns : its site was
therefore almost three times as large as that of the Parthenon.
The columns, being almost 62 ft. in height, stood so widely apart,
that, to cover the intervening spaces by means of free architraves,
slabs of stone almost 26 ft. long, and over 10 ft. thick, would
have been required. But the use of such the nature of the
material would not permit, the buildings of Agrigent being not
of marble, but of a soft, crumbling kind of chalk (Muschelkalk),
which grows firmer in the course of time, but is wholly unavail-
able for the covering of open spaces of considerable extension.
In consequence, the Agrigentines were obliged to erect solid walls
between the columns as high as the beams, and to place on them
an architrave and frieze of single smaller blocks of stone. Instead
of a free colonnade, the temple-house was therefore surrounded
by a solid wall, with columns protruding by one-half of their
circumference on the outer side, the corresponding places on the
inner side being marked by pilasters. Whether the lighting of
the building was hypsethral, or (as some archaeologists have rather
rashly conjectured) was effected by means of windows in the
upper part of the wall between the half-columns, must be left-
undecided. The cella is long and narrow, as is frequent in
Sicilian monuments (see Figs. 21 and 23), and its walls were also
adorned by pilasters. The place of the door is difficult to define,
because of the quite unusual uneven number of seven columns at
the facade. Kockerell thinks there must have been two doors,
one on each side of the facade ; a native archaeologist, Politi, on
the other hand, accepts one large door in the middle, but this
divided into two entrances by the colossal statue of a giant instead
of a pillar.1

i This statue is still in existence ; it consists of several enormous blocks of stone,
which have been found among the ruins, and arranged on the ground, forming a

EYP^ETHROS. 31

11. In our description of the Parthenon (see page 28) we
noticed that the middle part of the cella was entirely open to the
sky. This leads to a new form of the temple often used in larger
designs, and called by Vitruvius the hypaethros. His description
(leaving alone the prescriptions for the numbers of columns and
other arrangements, which in this, as in most cases, by no means
tally with the Greek monuments) is couched in the following
terms : " In the inside (of the cella) there are colonnades, with
double rows of columns, separate from the walls, so that one may
walk round them just as in the outer colonnades. Only the
middle nave is open to the sky, and there are doors at both ends
leading to the back-house and front-house. Specimens of this
kind there are none in Rome, but at Athens there are the eight-
columned temple of Minerva, and the ten-columned one of the
Olympian Jupiter." The former of these is none other than the
Parthenon; the latter we shall refer to in our description of
Roman temples.

We cannot enter upon the literary feud about the existence
or non-existence of the hypsethral temple, considering (with
Botticher) the question settled in the affirmative. For, not even
to mention the opinion that the services of certain gods required
uncovered rooms, it seems natural that large buildings without
windows, or even large doors, for lighting purposes, had an open
space in the middle, which, moreover, was quite in accordance
with the open court of the dwelling-house. Analogies between
these two were frequent. In this way architectural necessity
tallies perfectly with the statement of Vitruvius^ which, moreover,
is confirmed by a thorough investigation of genuine Greek monu-
ments. There are distinguishable even several species of the
hypsethros, which show that it had become necessary by the con-
ditions of peculiar rites at an early period, and that its form and
size might be modified in various ways. The simplest form of
the hypasthros we have seen in the small temple on Mount Ocha
(Fig. 6), where the small opening in the roof wTas most likely
required by the nature of Zeus and Hera, as divinities of the

complete figure. It is generally supposed that a whole row of such statues used to
carry the ceiling of the cella. But in that case most likely other fragments would
have been found, which, at least during my own prolonged stay at Girgenti, has not
been the case.

32 TEMPLE OF APOLLO NEAR PHIGALIA.

ether and sky. Among the peripteros-temples the examples of
hypsethral cellse are not nnfrequent.1 We mention first the tem-
ple of Apollo Epikurios, near the town of Phigalia in Arkadia.
On the side of one of the mountain-ranges which surround Phiga-
lia in a wide circle, lies the village of Bassse. Here, near the
summit of Mount Kotilios, we find the ruins of a temple, which,
barring a slight difference in the distances and the nature of the
material, seems to agree perfectly with the description in Pausa-
nias of a sanctuary of Apollo Epikurios. According to him the
temple was built by Iktinos, the architect of the Parthenon, and
was surpassed in beauty among the temples of the Peloponnesos
only by that of Athene Alea, near Tegea ; a remark which is the
more important as Pausanias only in rare cases mentions the artis-
tic value of a building. The remnants of the temple, which have
been examined carefully for the first time in 1818, fully confirm
this opinion, although a great part of the building had been pur-
posely destroyed, most likely in order to obtain the bronze rivets
joining the stones to each other. The original plan is, however,
easily recognizable. The design (Fig. 26) shows a colonnade of
thirty-eight columns (A A) ; six on each of the narrow, and fif-
teen on each of the long, sides (inclusive of the comer columns of
the facades) ; all of these are preserved standing erect. The pro-
naos (B) is formed by the walls of the cella and two columns in
antis. The cella is divided into a covered space (D) and an un-
covered one (C), the latter inclosed by strongly-projecting pilasters.
The fronts of the pilasters resemble Ionic half -columns, and show
above the capitals a frieze representing battles of the Amazons in
excellent bass-reliefs. The middle part of the space was open, and
formed as it were a court surrounded by niches, adapted for the
keeping of votive offerings by the frieze which protected their
contents. The back part of the cella (D) was covered by a ceil-
ing carried by two of the above-mentioned pilasters, which pro-
truded obliquely from the wall of the cella, and besides by a
single column, the latter serving at the same time as a specimen
of the Korinthian order in its most simple form. Behind this

1 For the same reason we mention the hypaethros here, differing in this from the
arrangement of Vitruvius, who goes by the position of the outer columns. But the
nature of a great number of peristylos-temples cannot be clearly understood without
a previous knowledge of the hpysethros.

TEMPLE OF POSEIDON AT PjESTUM.

was placed, according to Blouet's opinion, the statue of a god (b).
There seems to have been a door in
the back-wall of the cella ; possibly
there may have been a door in the
place marked c leading to the colon-
nade at the side. Behind the cella
follows the opisthodomos (E), in-
closed by the wall of the former and
two columns in antis. As a pecu-
liarity of this temple, caused most
likely by its locality, it is mentioned
that the chief facade looked almost
due north, instead of east, as was
usually the case.

One of the remaining temples
at Psestum corresponds still more
exactly with Yitruvius's description.
Among the. remnants there, which
represent the severity and noble
simplicity of the early Doric style,
one temple is prominent, which,
because of its size, is considered as
the chief temple of the town ; and,
for the same reason, is generally
supposed to have been dedicated to
the protecting deity, Poseidon. It
consists of a peripteros of six col-
umns on each of the narrow, and
fourteen on each of the long, sides ;
the cella, surrounded by colonnades, has both in front and at the
back two columns in antis. Through the pronaos one enters the
cella, both sides of which show double rows of columns, as de-
scribed by Yitruvius. On the back-wall of the cella there are
staircases, which can be distinctly recognized, nay, even used, at
the present clay. They lead to the hyperoon or upper gallery,
and between them is the entrance-door to the opisthodomos. Fig.
27 shows the interior of the temple in its present condition. It
is 193 feet long by 81£ wide.

To conclude, we mention the temple of Zeus at Olympia.
3

Fig. 26.

34:

TEMPLE OF ZEUS AT OLYMPIA.

Among the ruins of this sacred place (situated in the plain of
the Alpheios and forming a brilliant centre of Greek national
life), for some time remnants had been noticed which showed a
better material than the bricks commonly used. After the libera-

Fig. 27.

tion of Greece from the Turks a French exploring expedition
closely investigated the place, and came to the conclusion that
among these ruins the remnants of the celebrated temple of
Zeus Olympios were preserved ; nay, it was even found possible
to form from these a sufficiently clear notion of the sacred edifice
which once inclosed the most sublime image of the father of the
gods, the pride and joy of Greece. We shall have to consider
further on the splendid festivities celebrated by the nation, as it
were in the presence of the god ; here we must limit ourselves to
the temple itself, which, next to the Parthenon, may be considered
as the climax of artistic perfection, in the same way as in the
statue of the god, by Phidias, it possessed the only work of sculpt-
ure which rivaled and in some respects surpassed the excellence

TEMPLE OF ZEUS AT OLYMPIA.

of Athene Parthenos. " The style of the temple," Pausanias says,
in his simple description (v., 10), " is Doric ; with regard to the
exterior, it is a peristylos. The material is porous stone found on
the spot. Its height, up to the top of the gable, is 68 feet, its
width 95 feet, its length 230 feet. The architect was a local man
named Libon. The tiles of the roof are not of burnt clay, but of
Pentelic marble, resembling bricks in their shape. At the two
corners of the gable there are gilt receptacles, and on the top of
each of them there is a gilt figure of Nike." The occasion of
building the temple was a victory of the Olympians over the
inhabitants of the neighboring city of Pisa (01. 52) ; but the
completion of the sculptures on the metopa and gables, by Phid-
ias and his pupils, did not take place till Olympiad 86. Of the

Fig. 23.

surrounding colonnade a (see Fig. 28) only nine columns have
been found in different places, besides parts of the wall of the
cella with the antse, between the latter of which there were two
columns both in front and at the back. In the pronaos h there
has been found, underneath a Koman pavement which consists
of marble and Oriental alabaster, a roughly-composed mosaic of
pebbles, such as are found in the Alpheios, which represents sea-
gods and goddesses, and which undoubtedly was the original
floor. Close by this was the base of a statue, also mentioned by
Pausanias, such as are frequently met with in the entrance-halls
of temples. The cella was divided into different parts, the middle
one (e) being uncovered and surrounded by two colonnades in two
stories ; in connection with it there was a smaller covered com-
partment (d), which contained the statue of the god. Zeus was
represented as sitting on a throne, which is described as an elab-

TEMPLE OF ZEUS AT OLYMPIA.

orate structure of cedar-wood, laid in with ebony and richly
adorned with valuable stones and sculptures. The base was also
richly decorated in accordance with the figure itself. The face,
the chest, the naked upper part of the body, and the feet, were of
ivory ; the eyes consisted of brilliant stones. The waving hair
and beard were of solid gold, as was also the figure of Nike which
the god held in his extended right hand ; the sceptre in his other
hand was composed of different precious metals. The drapery
covering the lower part of the body was also of gold, with flowers
in a kind of enamel. But all this splendor of valuable materials
was as nothing compared with the grandeur of the divine form.
In this Phidias had embodied the description of those wonderful
lines of the Iliad (i., 528) which lived in the memory of every
Greek —

TH, ical Kvavaycnv eir 6(f)pvcn vev&e Kpovicov
afjLJ3p6<ncu S' apa yahai iireppcocravTO civa/cros
Kparbs am dOavdroio' fieyav 8>e\e\ii;ev,'0\vfjL7rov.

So he sat, sublime and inapproachable, and yet mildly inclining
toward the spectator, perhaps the most perfect realization of the
Greek ideal of godhead, and therefore the goal of every one's
longing ; not to have seen the Olympian Zeus was considered as

Fig. 29.

a misfortune. The height of the statue was 40 feet, almost too
colossal, in proportion to the surrounding architecture, so that the
Greeks themselves used to say that if the god rose from his seat
he would knock in the roof overhead. On both sides of the room
containing the statue there were steps leading to the upper gal-
lery, and most likely open to the spectators for a closer view of

DIPTEROS.

the statue and the single ornaments. In front of the statue a
piece of black-marble pavement has been discovered, which quite
tallies with a statement of Pausanias ; for, according to him, a

Fig. 30.

piece of the floor immediately before the statue was paved with
black marble, instead of white stone ; this piece was surrounded
with an inclosure of white Parian marble, and into it oil was
poured so as to preserve the statue from the dampness of the soil,
in the same way as the evaporation of water was considered
beneficial to the statue of Athene in the dry atmosphere of the
Akropolis. Behind the back-wall of the cella was the opisthod-
omos, which again, through the columns between the anta?,
opened into the peri stylos. Fig. 29 shows the length, Fig. 30, on
a little larger scale, the width, of the temple.

12. The peripteros, i. e., the temple-house wholly surrounded
by columns, marks the ultimate completion of Greek architecture.
There were certainly a great many varieties of the form so gained,
as, for instance, the formation of the cella as antse-temple, pro-
stylos, and amphiprostylos, and many modifications of the interior
arrangement; still, the idea of a temple-house surrounded by
colonnades is common to all of them. But this idea itself might
be enlarged by adding to the first row of columns a second one,
so as to form a double colonnade or pteron. This temple was

DIP TUB OS.

called by the Greeks, very appropriately, a mo? $L7rT€po$,1 i. e., a
temple with a double pteron. " The dipteros," Yitruvius says,
" has eight columns both in front and at the back, but round the

cella it has a double colonnade.

tip

m <§><§> m m

Of this order are the Doric tem-
ple of Quirinus, and the Ionic
one of Diana built by Ktesi-
phon." This rule of Yitruvius
does, as is often the case, not
tally with the remaining mon-
uments, the number of the col-
umns in the facades being oc-
casionally ten, instead of eight
as prescribed by him. Of the
two mentioned specimens, the
temple of Quirinus was at
Rome, erected by Augustus;
the other one is one of the
most brilliant examples of this
order, which seems to have
been used chiefly by the luxuri-
ous Greeks of the colonies in
Asia Minor. The temple of
Artemis at Ephesos {see % 2)
was built at a very early period,
and always considered as the
earliest and at the same time
one of the grandest and most
perfect specimens of the Ionic
style {see § 4). It was after-
ward considerably enlarged, but
the original plan was not essentially modified. For a long time
it was mentioned as the absolute perfection of the rich Ionic style,

1 To be quite complete we ought to add that denominations of this kind were also
derived from the number of the columns of the facades. A temple the facade of which
had four columns was called a tetrastylos (see Figs. 16-19); one with six was called
a hexastylos (see Figs. 21-23) ; the Parthenon with its eight columns was an okta-
stylos (see Figs. 24, 25); the ten-columned temple of Apollo Miletos (Fig. 31), a
dekastylos ; and the votive temple at Eleusis, a dodekastylos, because of the twelve
columns of its portico (see Fig. 39).

Fig. 31.

TEMPLE OF APOLLO AT MILETOS. 39

and counted by the ancients themselves among the seven won-
ders of the world. Remnants of the building have quite lately
been discovered by English excavations, but accounts have not
yet been published ; we, therefore, cannot enter into a detailed
description, although the plan of the temple may be guessed with
tolerable certainty from the accounts of the ancients themselves.
We add, instead, the design of a temple (Fig. 31), which, with
regard to both size and splendor, might vie with that of Artemis,
and which must be considered as an equally important specimen
of the dipteros. It is the temple of Apollo Didymseos at Miletos.
Miletos was one of the richest and most important colonies of the
Ionians on the coast of Asia Minor. According to tradition, it
had been originally inhabited by the Karians, from whom it was
taken by the Kretans ; afterward the Ionians chose it as a colony;
they increased it and raised it to one of the most important com-
mercial cities, whose ships sailed to all parts of the Mediterranean
and beyond the Columns of Herkules, and, on the other side, car-
ried their wares into the Pontus Euxinus. The names of the phi-
losophers Thales and Anaximander, and of the historians Kadmos
and Ilekatseos, prove the existence of scientific culture combined
with commercial industry. The same may be said of the fine
arts, and particularly of architecture, the high development of
which is shown in the remnants of the once-celebrated temple of
Apollo.

Connected with an oracle revered in this place ever since the
time of the Kretan colony there had been built, at an early date,
a temple of Apollo, the service in which had been, also for a long
time, in the family of the Branchides! This older temple disap-
peared in the general destruction of Miletos by the Persians
(Olympiad 71, 3), but after the independence of the city was
restored, in more splendid style, by the Milesian architects Paeo-
nios and Daphnis ; it seems, however, never to have been quite
finished. The plan was on the grandest scale ; the facade, con-
sisting of ten columns, was longer almost by two-thirds than that
of the Parthenon of Athens ; the columns were 6J feet in diam-
eter by 63 feet in height, and were slenderer than those of the
Artemisin at Ephesos and of other Ionic temples. Accordingly,
the beams were lighter and weaker, as is shown in the design of
the facade (Fig. 32). Through the double colonnade (Fig. 31, A)

PSEUD O-DIPTEROS.

one enters, first, the pronaos B, which was bounded toward the
peristylos by four columns in antis, and the walls of which were
adorned by pilasters with very rich Korinthian capitals. Through

Fig.

a small room (C), destined either for the keeping of treasures or
for staircases, one entered the cella (D), most likely open in the
middle, and inclosed at the sides by colonnades. There seems
to have been no opisthodomos surrounded by walls.

13. The dipteros, as we have seen, was only an enlargement
of the peripteros ; the pseudo-dipteros, on the other hand (the last
temple with a square cella in the list of Vitruvius), is a kind of
medium between peripteros and dipteros, and is, therefore, men-
tioned by Yitruvius between the two. The explanation of the
name is similar to that of the pseudo-peripteros ; it means a tem-
ple which has the appearance of a dipteros without being one in
reality, i. e., the pseudo-dipteros seems to have two colonnades
without having them ; or, to say the same in different words, its
external plan is exactly like that of a dipteros, but that the
second row of columns between the exterior one and the wall of
the cella has been omitted. " Pseudo-dipteros," Yitruvius says,
" is called a temple which has eight columns in front and at the
back, there being fifteen columns on each of the longer sides
inclusive of the corner columns. But the walls of the cella, both
in front and at the back, are exactly opposite the four middle
columns. The interval between the exterior columns and the
walls is, therefore, all round, equal to two interstices and one

TEMPLE AT SELINUS.

diameter of the bottom part of a column." Evidently this order,
which is approved of by Vitruvius on account of its picturesque-
ness and of the saving of the interior colonnade, is a thing be-
tween a dipteros and a peripteros. With the latter it has in
common the one colonnade round the whole cella; with the
former the circumstance of this colonnade being wide enough to
give room for an imaginary interior row of columns. It is said to
have been invented by Hermogenes about the time of Alexander
the Great, but one does not see why it should not have occurred
before. At Selinus, at least, the largest of the temples on the
eastern hill of the city is built in this style. It is, like the other
buildings of that city, in the Doric style, but approaching the
Attic by the gracefulness of its proportions. Fig. 33 shows the
plan of this temple. The colonnade A surrounding the temple
has exactly the width of two interstices and one bottom diameter
of the columns. The pronaos B is formed by the projecting

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o o o o

u u

o o u

o o

O O O O O O if
O O O O O O re-

Uj- '-■'"• — -

o o o o o i i » • • o o o

o
o

Q
Q

o
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MxSc

Fig. 83.

antge-walls and six detached columns. The cella (C) seems to
have been open and surrounded by colonnades; behind it follows
the opisthodomos D.

There were several Ionic temples of this order ; Hermogenes,
named by Vitruvius as its inventor, is indeed the architect who
for the first time treated the Ionic style according to a scientific
system, in opposition to the Doric style, to which he objects on
the ground of several irregularities. The temple of Artemis
Leukophryne at Magnesia on the Maeaiidros, cited by Vitruvius,
was, to judge from the discovered remnants, of the Ionic order,
as was also, most probably, the temple of Apollo at Alabanda,
the native city of Hermogenes, also mentioned by Vitruvius.

TEMPLE AT APHRODISIAS.

We quote, as an example of the Ionic pseudo-dipteros, the temple
at Aphrodisias in Karia, which was built in the early times of the

empire, and the ruins of which are

exceptionally well preserved. The
protecting goddess of Aphrodisias
was Aphrodite, as indicated by
this name being substituted for
the original Ninoe, and her service
was celebrated with a splendor
evidently influenced by the wor-
ship of similar Asiatic deities. This
was often the case in Asia Minor.
For these reasons it is not unlikely
that the mentioned temple was
dedicated to Aphrodite. It is of
large dimensions and easy, grace-
ful proportions, quite in accordance
with the nature of the goddess and
her service.

Fig. 34 shows the plan ' of the
temple divided into the colonnade
(A), the pronaos (B), and the cella
(C, D) ; Fig. 35 represents a sketch of the facade, elegant and

Fig. 34.

Fig. 35.

graceful in its proportions. Peculiar to it are the little tablets on

1 The width of the inside of the cella is about 22 feet 6 inches English measure.

VARIATIONS OF THE TEMPLE.— ROUND TEMPLE. 43

the shafts of the columns with Greek votive inscriptions, which
interrupt the fiutings.

14. Hitherto we have discovered, as the fundamental idea of
the most widely-different temples, the oblong square cella, the
house of the god, surrounded by columns in various ways, and di-
vided for the purposes of the service into pronaos, cella, and opis-
thodomos. This was, indeed, the prevalent form of all Greek
sacred edifices, even of the chapels ( vata/coi).

There are, however, some exceptions to this rule. First, with
regard to shape, there are the round temples. But, besides this,
there may be different arrangements of the interior, or even of
the whole plan of the building, caused by the peculiar require-
ments of the service. A specimen of the former variation was
the double temple ; one of the latter, the votive temple.

a. The round temple we can mention but briefly. Yitruvius,
it is true, mentions it in his list of different temples, but without
reference to Greek specimens, as has been the case with regard
to those hitherto considered. The only specimen of the round
temple in existence is, as far as my knowledge goes, the tholos
of Polykleitos, in the hieron of Asklepios near Epidauros ; the
foundation walls, together with some remnants of the geison, are
preserved. There are, however, some analogous buildings men-
tioned in the records of the ancients. In the agora of Sparta,
not far from the Skias, stood a circular building containing the
statues of Zeus and Aphrodite, surnamed the " Olympian " (Paus.
iii., 12, 11). The expression tholos (60X09), applied by Pausa-
nias to the building near the Buleuterion at Athens, where the
pry tan es used to sacrifice, also seems to indicate a circular form.
Small figures of silver, and the statues of the heroes presiding
over the single tribes (<j)i>\cu), were placed in them. Some tem-
ples at Platsege and Delphi seem also to have been of a round form ;
we know, however, nothing else about their plans. A round
house, oLKrjfjua Trepifepis, stood in the Altis grove at Olympia. It
was erected by Philip, king of the Makedonians, after the battle
of Chseronea (01. 110, 3), and was called, after him, the Philip-
peum. It was made of burnt bricks ; there were columns round
it (peripteros), and on the top there was a brass decoration in the
form of a poppy-head, which served, at the same time, to fasten
the beams of the roof. In the interior were placed the statues

DOUBLE TEMPLE.

Fig. 36.

of Philip, his father Amyntas, his son Alexander the Great, and
those of Olympia and Eurydike, wrought in gold and ivory by

Leochares. Whether or not the Philip-
peum had the significance of a temple,
it may, in any case, be considered as
analogous to the round temple, for
which reason we have added (Fig. 36)
the original plan of the building as de-
signed by Hirt.

That form of the round temple
which Vitruvius designates as monop-
teros, consisting of an open circle of
columns with beams and a roof placed
on them, is specified by the analogous Choragic monument of
Lysikrates at Athens. To this we shall have to return in speak-
ing of profane architecture (§ 24, Fig. 152).

h. The double temple. Several temples are mentioned by the
ancients in which two deities were adored, each in a separate
room. In this case the cella had to be divided, whence the ex-
pression vabs Bnfkovs ; and this seems to have been done in various
ways. The one least in use seems to have been that of putting
the rooms of the different gods one on the top of the other. Of
this, Pausanias knows only one example, viz., an old temple at
Sparta dedicated to the " armed Aphrodite," whose image was
placed in it. This temple had an upper story dedicated to Mor-
pho. Morpho, however, was, according to Pausanias, only a sur-
name of Aphrodite. Her image in the upper temple was, unlike
the other, without arms. The goddess was represented with her
feet in fetters and veiled, most likely in allusion to her signifi-
cance as the goddess of death.

More frequent was the division of the cella into two level
rooms, one by the side or at the back of the other. The separa-
tion of the cella by a wall built parallel to the length of the tem-
ple (such as it might be found in an Egyptian temple at Ombos)
seems not to have been used by the Greeks. The double temple
of Asklepios and Leto at Mantinea, cited by Hirt as a specimen
of this division, may (according to the statement of Pausanias,
viii., 9, 1) just as well have been divided by a cross-wall right in
the middle of the cella.

DOUBLE TEMPLE.— ERECHTHEION. 45

The last-mentioned division of the cella is proved by several
other temples. At Sikyon, for instance, Hypnos, the god of
sleep, and Apollo, surnamed Karneios, were adored in a double
temple. The image of Hypnos was in the front compartment,
while the interior was dedicated to Apollo ; the latter, only priests
were allowed to enter (Pausanias, ii., 10, 2).

Another double temple at Mantinea was dedicated to Aphro-
dite and Ares. Pausanias remarks that the entrance to the room
of Aphrodite was on the eastern, that to the apartment of Ares
on the western, side.

Of a partition of the temple by a cross-wall we have an in-
stinctive example in the sanctuary of the old Attic deities Athene
Polias, Poseidon and Erechtheus, and the daughter of Kekrops,
Pandrosos, situated in the Akropolis of Athens, and called pro-
miscuously temple of Athene Polias, Erechtheion, or Pandroseion.
At a very early period there was, opposite the long northern side
of the Parthenon, a temple which, according to Herodot, was
dedicated jointly to Athene Polias and the Attic hero, Erech-
theus. (01. 68, 1.) King Kleomenes, of Sparta, who had ex-
pelled Klisthenes from Athens, was refused the entrance into
this temple because in it were placed the national deities of the
Athenians (01. ?5, 1) ; this temple was destroyed by fire while
the Persians held the city. Not unlikely the rebuilding of the
Erechtheion was begun by Perikles together with that of the
other destroyed temples of the Akropolis ; but, as it was not fin-
ished by him, it is generally not mentioned among his works.
From the fourth year of Olympiad 92 we have a special account
of the state of the building. From a public document, in which
the architects give an account of their work, we gather that at
that time the walls and columns of the temple were finished, only
the roof and the working out of details remaining undone. This
temple was renowned among the ancients as one of the most
beautiful and perfect in existence, and seems to have remained
almost intact down to the time of the Turks. The siege of Athens
by the Venetians in 1687 seems to have been fatal to the Erech-
theion, as it was to the Parthenon. Stuart found the walls and
columns still erect, but part of the architrave, half of the frieze,
and almost the whole cornice, were destroyed ; stones, rubbish,
and the ruins of the roof, covered the floor ; in the northern

ERECHTHEION AT ATHENS.

entrance-hall was a powder-magazine. At present the temple
has been restored as far as possible. .

The plan of this building, which represents the Attic-Ionic
style in its highest development, is, for various reasons, con-
nected with the divine service, one of the most complicated we
know of during the Greek period (Fig. 37 *). The chief part of
it we must consider as a cella stretching from west to east ; the

Fig. 37.

masonry is 73 feet in length by 37 in width ; on the eastern side
a pronaos is formed by a portico of six Ionic columns. A door
led from this pronaos into the cella (B) dedicated to Athene
Polias, which could be entered only from this eastern side ; it
was separated from the cella (C) of Poseidon Erechtheus by an
uninterrupted cross-wall. Another wall, interrupted by three
entrances (I II G), separated the Erechtheion proper from the
cella of Pandrosos — a small apartment, not unlike a corridor (D),
which finished the building toward the west. The western outer
wall was adorned with columns, between the intercolumnia of
which there were windows, but it had no entrance corresponding
to that on the eastern side. The entrance into the Pandroseion —
and through it into the middle room of the Erechtheion — con-

1 Compare the plan of the Akropolis, Fig. 52, B.

EEECHTHEION AT ATHENS.

sisted of a pronaos (E) carried by six slender and richly-decorated
Ionic columns (compare Fig. 10), and situated at the western end
of the northern long side ; from it a beautiful and still-preserved
door led into the sanctuary. Corresponding to this pronaos we
discover, at the western end of the southern long side, a small
graceful hall (F), the ceiling of which is carried, instead of col-
umns, by six caryatides, representing Athenian maidens (compare
Fig. 214) ; a small postern led from this hall down into the Pan-
droseion. Thus much about the plan and arrangement of the
interior of the temple, as gathered from Botticher's clever re-
searches. A conjectural reconstruction of this beautiful edifice
is shown, Fig. 38 ; it is the more authentic as the remaining por-
tions, although partly displaced and damaged, still give a distinct
notion of the former state, even with regard to ornamental details.

Fig. 38.

c. We will conclude our survey of the exceptional forms of
Greek temples with a description of the great votive temple at
Eleusis. The sanctuaries hitherto considered were habitations of
the deity represented by its image. Greek temples, as a rule,
were not destined for the reception of crowds with a view to
common religious ceremonies. Individuals might enter to pray
and offer, or to gaze at the divine images ; but the great religious
festivities took place outside the temple. There were, however,
a few holy edifices for the purpose of common prayer ; which.

VOTIVE TEMPLE AT ELEU8IS.

therefore, were not only houses of the gods but also places for
religious meetings. • These were the so-called votive temples
{reXearripta, fieyapa), destined for the celebration of mysteries ;
and, therefore, constructed on an entirely different plan from
other temples. The great importance of the mysteries for antique
life is well known ; they date from early Pelasgic times, but their
symbolic celebration, relating to the divinities of the earth and its
culture, was in the acme of Greek development combined with
artistic energy of every kind. The original import of their mys-
tical doctrine was rendered in mimico-dramatic representations,
and formed at the same time the subject of choral hymns. For
this purpose large rooms were required, and the only building of
this kind known to us, viz., the Megaron at Eleusis, is indeed
unique in its arrangements. It has at present disappeared almost
tracelessly, but former excavations throw a sufficiently distinct
light on various important points of its interior arrangements
(Fig. 39). The temple was quadrangular in form, from 212 to
216 feet long by 178 wide ; in front was a portico of twelve col-
umns which formed the pronaos (A). The second compartment,

which one entered by a door from the
pronaos, formed an almost perfect
square ; it was divided into five par-
allel naves by four rows of columns.
The columns, some of which have
been found, carried galleries, as in the
hypsethral temple, but that in this case
they were broader, and rested on two
rows of columns respectively (C and
E). The space in the middle (B)
extended through both stories, and
formed a kind of central nave of in-
creased height. Plutarch mentions
the history of the building in his life
of Perikles, its originator. According to him, Koroibos, most
likely under the supervision of Iktinos, began the Telesterium ;
he also erected the columns of the first story, and covered them
with their architraves. After his death, Metagenes added the
frieze and erected the upper columns (i. e., the columns of the
upper story) ; the opening over the anaktoron (viz., the centre

Fig.

VOTIVE TEMPLE AT ELEUSIS. 49

nave B) was covered by Xenokles. Underneath the floor was a
kind of crypt, supported by short cylindrical props (Cylinder-
sjritzen), and used, perhaps, for preparing the above-mentioned
mimical representations. On the side
opposite the entrance a raised terrace
was added to the temple, to which led,
through a narrow square court-yard, an
entrance decorated with columns. Most
likely there was a door also on this side,
destined for the conductors of the mys-
teries (mystagogoi), while the large door
in the facade gave entrance to the ini-
tiated, into the holy chambers. Fig. 40 shows a rich Korinthian
capital of a pilaster found among the ruins, and belonging, most
likely, to the decorations of the pronaos.

15. In looking back on the interior arrangements and the sur-
roundings of the temples, we are struck again by their rich and
solemn appearance. Wherever the situation made it possible, the
temple was secluded from the current of profane life ; it stood in
a peribolos, which, at the same time, served to receive the votive
offerings less appropriate for the interior. Here were symbols of
the gods, trees, rocks, and fountains, frequently with holy tradi-
tions attaching to them ; here were statues sometimes wholly ex-
posed to the air, or else protected by elegant small roofs ; heroa,
or small chapels (yato-tcoi), and altars used for the reception of
offerings, and often dedicated to several deities ; nay, even groves
and gardens were comprised in these inclosures.

The most important were the altars (Z&w/xo?, Oirrrjpiov) on which
burnt-offerings were devoted to the deity of the temple. Burnt-
offerings of the flesh of living creatures did not take place in the
interior of the temple {see § 59). They were performed on the
thymele before the pronaos, the doors being open at the time, so
that the image of the god celebrated could look on the altar. It
need not be mentioned that in large temples these altars were
decorated with great splendor. Originally they were only natu-
ral hillocks which gradually increased in size by the ashes and
horns of the burnt animals, and soon became capable of archi-
tectural and sculptural development. Pausanias describes (v., 13)
the altar of the Olympian Zeus as an artificial structure, the base
4

ALTARS.

(fcprjirk or irpoOvcn^) of which was 125 feet in circumference. On
this stood the altar proper, 22 feet in height ; stone steps led to
the prothysis, and thence to the uppermost platform of the altar,
to which women had no access. The altar, Pausanias adds, con-
sisted of the ashes of the thighs of the killed animals, as was also
the case with an altar of Hera of Samos ; the altars of the Olym-
pian Hera, of the Olympian G-aia, and of Apollo Spodios at
Thebes, also consisted of ashes; while an altar near the large
temple of Apollo Didymgeos, at Miletos, was composed of the
blood of the slaughtered animals. We also hear of altars of
wood ; at Olympia there was one of unbumt tiles which once
every Olympiad was rubbed with chalk. For the greater part,
however, the larger and more elaborate altars were made of stone,
the inside being possibly filled up with earth. An altar at Per-
gamon is distinctly stated to have consisted of marble ; the shape
was usually quadrangular. Pausanias (v., 14, 5) calls the altar of

Artemis of Olympia square,
and gradually rising upward;
square was, also, the colossal
altar at Parion, said to have
been one stadium (600 feet) in
length and width. A speci-
men of an altar in the form of
a terrace we have in that de-
voted to Zeus Hypatos, or Hy-
pistos, at Athens (Fig. 41). It
was cut from the living rock
and formed, partly by nature,
partly by the hand of man, into a terrace, visible from afar, up
to which led steps and well-constructed paths. Prof. E. Curtius
has proved this structure to be an altar, and not the Pnyx, or
place of public assembly, as was formerly supposed. It was one
of those places of oldest Athenian worship, connected with the
" highest Jove ; " which, with the increase of the city, was raised
and enlarged proportionally. {See the perspective view, Fig. 42.)
Facing the altar for burnt-offerings rises the facade of the
temple, consisting of beautiful marble; or, if made of lesser
material, clad with delicate stucco, discreetly colored, a modifica-
tion of the glaring whiteness, also occasionally applied to the pro-

Fig. 41.

FITTINGS UP OF THE TEMPLE.

trading details of a marble erection. Now and then votive offer-
ings are fastened to the facade, in addition to the sculptures of
the frieze and pediment. Tripods and statues crown the top of
the gable, golden tripods or other statuary ornaments are placed
on its edges, and golden shields were often hung up on the archi-
trave, as, for instance, in the Parthenon. Statues of priests and
priestesses stand at the sides of the entrance ; the number and
value of the offerings and statues increase on entering the pro-
naos ; frequently valuable plate was kept here, partly for the pur-
poses of the service, as, for instance, basins for washing, partly with
a view to alluding to sacred events, as in the case of the couch of

Fig. 42.

Hera in the pronaos of the Hergeon, near Mykense ; in its vicini-
ty was also placed, as an anathema, the shield which Menelaos
had snatched from Euphorbos before Troy. The cella was fitted
up in a similar but still more splendid style. The divine image
is enthroned in a carefully-secluded space, frequently in a sepa-
rate niche, but always under a shelter from above. The images
of friendly deities (a peBpot) were frequently placed in its vicinity,
surrounded at a greater distance by statues and offerings of vari-
ous kinds. Very important was the oblation-table (lepa or dvcopbs
Tpdire^a) placed before the image, and corresponding to the
burnt-offering altar outside, but destined only for bloodless offer-
ings.

Even in their homes the Greeks had such sacred tables, near

OBLA TION- TABLE.— AL TARS.

Fig. 43.

or on which were placed statues of the gods, and dishes with the
first portions of the food. "Where one and the same cella was
devoted to several divinities, each of them, had a
separate Tpdire^a inside, and an altar of burnt-
offerings outside, of the temple. The thymele
in front of the pronaos and the trapeza before
the image are the chief criteria of what Botti-
cher calls the cultus-temple, i. e., of a temple
which served for the performance of sacra and
other devotional acts of the people represented
by the priests. Both were wanting in another
class of temples, viz., the agonal or festive temples. In these the
trapeza was supplanted by the bema, from the top of which the

prizes gained in the agon were dis-
tributed. Although occasionally
portable, the altars were generally
made of stone. Some of them are
known from pictures, others have
been rediscovered. On an earthen
vessel found at Athens an altar is
depicted with a fire burning on it
in honor of Zeus, whom we dis-
cover standing by the side of it, to-
gether with Nike. On a low pedes-
tal is raised a small erection with
ornaments like volutes (Fig. 43).
Stuart has found, at Athens, an oc-
tagonal altar adorned with garlands,
skulls of bulls, and knives (Fig. 44). A round altar of white
marble, with similar ornaments, and a small erection, have been
found in the island of Delos (Fig. 45). Valuable implements of
the service, like candlesticks, basins, or small votive offerings,
were placed on tables, as is shown, for instance, in a terra-cotta
reproduction {see Fig. 46).

16. The highest splendor of Greek architecture was shown
where several temples were placed together in one particular
space devoted to the gods. Of such centres of Greek life and
religious worship several are known to us ; as, for instance, the
grove Altis, at Olympia, where an abundance of architectural

Fig. 44.

TEMPLE-IN CL OSURES.

monuments were crowded together, and where the agility and
beauty displayed by the youth in the games, celebrated in honor
of Zeus, offered plentiful suggestions to the sculptor. At other
places competitions in music and poetry were added to the display
of gymnastic skill, which formed the prominent feature of Olym-
pian festivals. But even where no such games took place, sev-
eral sanctuaries were frequently built together. At Girgenti,
even at the present day, a row of temples is discoverable on a

Fig. 46.

height overlooking the sea ; at Selinunt there are two groups of
buildings on two hills, and the remaining three ruins of temples at
Paestum seem also to have belonged to a group.

The entrances to such holy inclosures were always decorated
with a splendor corresponding to their sanctity and beauty ; the
largeness and beauty of the entrance-gate, or portal, indeed,
seemed to indicate in advance the corresponding importance of
the place. The simplest kind consisted of a gate rising in com-
manding dimensions over the wall of the peribolos. Perhaps an
entrance-portal of this kind must be recognized in a separate gate
of beautiful stone which has been discovered standing erect in
the small island of Palatia, near Naxos (Fig. 47) ; its inner width
is 3.45 metres. Palatia was connected with the larger Naxos by
means of a bridge, and had a temple, near which the mentioned

PROPYL^EA of suniok

Fig. 47.

portal has been found; it consists of a threshold, which origi-
nally seems to have been level with
the ground, over which it is raised
at the present time; it is also pos-
sible that there were steps leading
up to it ; the posts and the lintel
are divided into three parallel stripes
like an Ionic architrave, and sur-
rounded with a simple cornice.

Where the entrance-structure was
developed more richly it was natural
to conform its appearance to the chief
model of Greek architecture, the
temple itself. The simplest kind of
this conformity is displayed in the
beautiful portal leading to the peribolos of the temple of Athene,
at S anion, on the southern point of Attika. To this building
(see the plan, Fig. 48) the name propylsea may be applied, which
was the general denomination of portal-erections. The propylsea
of Sunion resemble in their design a temple with two columns
in antis on the two small sides, and with the
cross-wall of the cella left out. When the
plan of this building was first made public,
it was thought that in the space covered by
the roof no cross-wall had been intended,
but Blouet has since discovered that the
actual gates, formed by two pillars (a b),
were in this cross-wall. These pillars, or
shall we call it a broken wall, divided the
whole space into two halves, of which the
outer one (A) forms a kind of portico, while
the second division (B) is turned toward the inside of the peribolos
and the temple itself. In the latter stood marble benches (e d)
against both the side- walls.

Eicher forms and developments are shown by the propyl sea
of the two temple-inclosures best known to us, viz., at Eleusis
and in the Akropolis of Athens. The former was destined to
inclose the large votive temple described above (§ 14, Fig. 39).
In the plan (Fig. 49) the walls of both au outer (A) and inner

Fig. 48.

THE SMALL PROPYL JEA AT ELEUSIS.

(a a) peribolos are recognizable. The entrance is formed by the
large propylsea (B), near which the above-mentioned temple of
Artemis Propylsea is situated (see Fig. 15). These propylaea form

Fig. 49.

a square space, inclosed by a wall on each side, and by a portico
of six Doric columns, both in front and at the back. Inside,

Fig. 50.

there is a cross-wall (Fig. 50), interrupted by five doors corre-
sponding to the intercolumnia of the portico ; it divides the whole
space into two compartments, in the larger of which there are

PROPYLS A OF ELEUSIS.

two rows of three Ionic columns each. The same arrangement
we shall have to mention again in the propylsea of Athens, after
which those of Eleusis were fashioned. On entering the outer
peribolos, through this beautiful . building, one encounters a sec-
ond smaller erection of propylsea (C), which leads into the inner
peribolos. The latter lies higher than the other parts, and is also
surrounded by a wall (a a). It surrounds the votive temple (D) at
a moderate distance. The plan of the smaller propylsea is shown,
Fig. 51. They also are inclosed by walls on the two long sides ;

Fig. 51.

a cross-wall divides the whole space into two halves. The side
where the entrance lay was open in front, and had columns which
supported the roof. By the walls, to right and left, are raised
steps (a b) ; the part in front of the columns (A) had an even
pavement, while in part B the pavement rises gradually to the
amount of about sixteen inches. Into the well-preserved floor
grooves have been cut, seemingly destined for the wheels of
vehicles, or for rollers. The small inner space (C) was separated
from the last-mentioned one by a door, the leaves of which opened
inside, as is still recognizable by marks on the floor. On the
right and left sides, the passage (C) is joined toward the interior
by two smaller rooms, like niches, in which, most likely, statues
were placed ; in front of these are some holes (c d\ carefully

PROPYL jEA OF THE AKROPOLIS OF ATHENS. 57

worked out, and evidently connected with the exhibitions which
here took place. Altogether, the mentioned details seem to indi-
cate that this entrance was used to prepare the visitors for the
ceremonies in the votive temple, by arrangements or exhibitions
of some kind.

The greatest splendor of antique art, however, was displayed
in the propylsea which formed the entrance to the Athenian
Akropolis. The Akropolis is situated on a table-land, 1,150 feet
in length, and 500 broad in the widest places ; being 160 feet
high, and of steep ascent except where it slopes toward the town.
The Akropolis, in a manner, marks the beginning of Athens,
both as a state and a city, having been, at a very early period,
surrounded by walls, and containing the oldest national sacred
monuments. The old temples were destroyed by fire during the
Persian occupation, but when liberty and prosperity were restored
they once more rose from their ashes with renewed splendor (see
plan of the Akropolis, Fig. 52) ; the temple of the Wingless Nike
(Figs. IT, 18, and 52, D) was erected here, so as to attach the
goddess of victory to Athens ; here rose in majestic severity the
Parthenon (A), and the graceful structure devoted to Athene
Polias and Erechtheus (B), while between both stood the impos-
ing form of Athene Promachos (E) as in defense of the castle.
Numerous holy* statues, altars, architectural groups, and other
ornaments, stood around these splendid monuments ; and it was
but natural that the entrance to this beautiful and hallowed spot
should be adorned with splendor. For this purpose the propylsea
(C) were erected by Mnesikles on the side looking toward the
city ; the building of it took from 437 till 432 (b. a), and the ex-
pense amounted to 2,012 talents. The chief part of the building
consisted of a large square, inclosed by walls on the right and
left, but opening toward both the city and the Akropolis by
means of porticoes. Nearest to the inner portico, which was
slightly raised, a wall went right across the space, being inter-
rupted by five doors corresponding to the intercolumnia of the
former {see Fig. 50) ; these doors formed the entrance proper.
Between this wall and the outer portico lay a space of not in-
considerable dimensions, which was divided into three naves by
means of two rows of Ionic columns, each row consisting of three
columns.

AKROPOLIS OF ATHENS: PROPYL jEA.

The unevenness of the soil was equalized by means of steps,
but between the mentioned centre-columns a gently-ascending
road was hewn into the rock, so as to effect a commodious entrance
for the carts laden with the splendid peplos of Athene, which
formed a feature of the procession of the Panathensea. The whole
space was covered with slender marble cross-pieces, which spanned
the naves and carried a rich and graceful casket-work (Cassetten-
werlc). Two lower side-wings with porticoes joined the chief

A. Parthenon.

B. Erechtheion.

C. Propylsea.

Fig. 52.

D. Temple of Nike Apteros.

E. Pedestal of Athene Promachos.

F. Steps in the Kock.

G. Terrace of Polygons.
H. Theatre of Herodes.
I. Theatre of Dionysos.

facade, so as to add to its impression. The northern one, which is
still well preserved, contained in its interior the celebrated paint-
ings by Polygnotos from the Iliad and Odyssey ; and even at the
present day its walls are covered with the smooth marble slabs
which once served as the frames of these pictures. The other
wing was of similar construction, but of lesser width ; during the
middle ages the materials of this building have been used for a
watch-tower of the castle, which was inhabited by the Franconian
dukes of Athens. Between these two buildings, which were in
beautiful proportion with the great facade of the propylsea, ended

WALL-STRUCTURES.— WALLS OF TIRYNS. 59

the splendid marble steps placed in the slanting rock of the
Akropolis ; their length was equal to the width of the propylsea ;
some of the steps are still in existence. Between these steps lay
a wide carriage-road, paved with large slabs of marble, into which
grooves had been chiseled for the wheels of the above-mentioned
vehicle. Recent excavations have discovered the lower part of
the steps, and the entrance-gate between two towers ; the gate,
however, is of Roman origin.

17. After having discussed the Greek buildings supplying the
ideal demands of the adoration of the gods, we now must turn to
those which served the material purposes of life.

Among these the walls ought to be mentioned first. We
have noticed the habit of the Greeks of inclosing the precincts of
their temples with walls, and the same feature we find repeated
in the oldest specimens of their settlements. This is proved by
the numerous remnants of old cities, both in Hellas and the
Peloponnesos, which tend to show that wall-inclosures were
among the very earliest productions of Greek architecture. The
Greeks themselves ascribed these colossal structures to the Cyclops,
a mythical race of giants, who are said to have come from Lykia,
and to have taken a prominent part in building the walls of
Tiryns. Nowadays these structures are generally called Pelasgic,
owing to the opinion of their being built by the tribe of that
name. This opinion seems to be confirmed by the fact that these
monuments are generally found in places originally possessed by
the Pelasgi. At Athens, the oldest parts of the fortifications of
the Akropolis were called Pelasgic walls, and their erection was
ascribed to the Pelasgi, who once had a settlement there (Paus,
i., 28, 3). A third name applied to these walls refers to the
mode of their construction. In the more ancient walls of this
kind it consists in the piling on each other of rough, many-edged
stones, and is therefore called polygonal building. Among the
remaining monuments, the walls of Tiryns are most remarkable,
which consist of large blocks of stone heaped on each other, the
intervals being filled up by smaller stones. " Of the town,"
Pausanias says (ii., 25, 8), "no remnants exist but the walls,
which are the work of the Cyclops. They consist of rough stones,
each one of which is so large that the smallest of them could not
have been carried by a yoke of mules. At an early period smaller

WALLS OF MYKENJE.

Fig. 53.

stones have been placed between, so as to join the large ones to-
gether." In another place (ix., 36, 5) he calls them quite as ad-
mirable as the pyramids of Egypt, both by the grandeur of their

dimensions and the diffi-
culty of the work re-
quired in erecting them.
The walls of Tiryns
seem to be, at the pres-
ent time, in the same
state as when Pausanias
saw them. They have
been examined by Gel],
after whose drawing a
fragment is reproduced in Fig. 53 (scale = 10 feet English meas-
ure). A second kind of these very old monuments show the
stones still in their irregular polygonal form, but with some traces
of workmanship upon them.

The stones have been worked into the polygonal form nearest
to their natural shape, and afterward carefully joined together, so
that the wall presents a firm, uninterrupted surface. The finest
specimens are found in the walls of the very ancient town of
Mykense, in Argolis (Fig. 54). They are of considerable thick-
ness ; the two outer sur-
faces consist of hewn
and carefully composed
stones, while the space
between is filled up with
small stones and mortar.
This kind of construc-
tion was called by the
Greeks efiirXe/crov ; it
was further strengthened by the addition of solid inner cross-walls.
The use of polygonal stones, as applied in the walls of Argos,
Platseae, Ithaka, Koronea, Same, and other places, may result in
great firmness, by means of the stones being put together as in a
vaulted structure. In consequence it was retained occasionally
by the Greeks, even after the freestone construction has been
introduced (see Fig. 13) ; in our own time it has been applied,
for instance, in the terraces which form the base of the Walhalla,

Fig. 54.

WALLS OF PS0PEI8 AND PANOPEUS. 61

at Regensburg, and in the protective walls on the shores of the
German Ocean, which Forchhammer has appropriately compared
to Cyclopic-Pelasgic walls.

Notwithstanding the advantages of polygonal structures, the
desire for regularity led, at an early period, to the use of hori-
zontal and regular layers of stones, as is shown by several old
walls. The walls of Argos consist partly of horizontal arrange-
ments of totally irregular stones. In some places, as, for instance,
in the remnants found in ^Etolia, the layers, although horizontal,
are totally irregular with regard to the cross-joints ; while in other
places the transition to the regular freestone style is shown more
distinctly by the application of vertical cross-joints. An instance
of this are the walls of Psophis, in Arkadia (Fig. 55). A similar
arrangement appears in a tower on the wall of Panopeus (Fig. 50),

Fig. 55. Fig. 56.

and still more distinctly the regular freestone style is shown in
the wall of Chaeronea, in Boeotia, which, moreover, has the pecu-
liarity of not being perpendicular, but of showing a decided talus.
(Compare the walls of (Eniadse, Figs. 64 and 69.)

The use of regular freestone afterward became general
among the Greeks. Not only the walls of temples, but also
those of later cities, were erected in this way, as is shown, for in-
stance, by the well-preserved walls of Messene (built 371 b. a), of
which we shall give illustrations. As the most solid and, at the
same time, most artistic walls, those are mentioned by means of
which the Athenians had joined the Piraeus harbor to their city.
Unfortunately, only few remnants, consisting of single large blocks
of stone, are preserved.

Fig. 57 (scale = 100 yards) shows the plan of the castle of

GATES AND POSTERNS.

Tiryns, which may serve as a specimen of these ancient fortifica-
tions. A signifies a gate, C a tower, and B a road ascending from
the lower plain ; D is the present entrance. Near E and H are
the galleries, to which we shall have to return ; near F is another

Fig. 57.

gate, up to which leads the road G. Near I a cistern has been
found, and near K is another smaller gate.

18. Concerning gates we have to add that, where the top of a
mountain was transformed into a castle by means of walls, there
was generally but one gate. There are, however, examples of
such castles having several gates ; as, for instance, the above-
mentioned Akropolis of Mykense. A town, on the other hand, as
the centre of commerce, required numerous entrances ; and it was
considered a particular honor to a city, to have many gates, the
fortified safeness of which symbolized, in a manner, its impor-
tance. The importance and size of the gates naturally depended
on the importance of the roads which led to the city. In conse-
quence, we have to distinguish between gates and posterns (irvXai
and irvkihes, Pforten)^ the most important among the former
being called the large gate (fieyakao irvXat). Such was the
dipylon at Athens, where met the roads from Eleusis and Megara,
the large harbor road, and the roads from the Academy and the
Kolonos ; while, inside, these were joined by the High and Market
Street of the city ; in this way an enormous amount of traffic was
concentrated in this one point.

Originally the gates were of the simplest construction. Where
the stones of the walls were left in a rough state, the gates were
constructed in a similar manner. The single blocks were pushed
gradually toward each other till, at last, they touched, and in this
way formed a simple arch. This primitive mode of construction
is shown in a postern at Tiryns (Fig. 58), where, as we have seen,
the walls were of an equally simple kind. In the same manner

GATES AND POSTERNS.

the arched openings of a gallery have been constructed, which is
built into the wall of the same castle. The gallery itself likewise
consists of layers of stone pushed toward each other, as is shown
by the view of the interior (Fig. 59, compare Fig. 57, H). The

Fig. 58.

Fig. 59.

same construction also appears in the pas-
sages within the wall, of which Fig. 60 rep-
resents a section.

The construction of the
gates improves in propor-
tion to that of the walls. They may be con-
structed by overlaying the stones, or by the
placing of a long straight block across the two
side-posts. A simple specimen of the former
method we see in some small posterns at Phigalia (Fig. 61) and
Messene (Fig. 62) ; the latter is specified by a small door in the

Fig. 60.

Fig. 61.

Fig. 63.

Fig. 64.

GATES AT MYKENM AND MESSENE.

Akropolis of Mykenae (Fig. 63), and a gate at (Eniadse, in Akar-
nania (Fig. 64). One of the oldest and most curious exam-
ples of such gates is the so-called lions' gate at Mykense (Fig. 65.)
It stands between a natural prominence of the rock and an arti-
ficial projection of the wall, and is formed by two strong and
well-smoothed blocks of stone which serve as side-posts, and in-
cline toward each other, so as to diminish the space to' be cov-
ered. On them rests, horizontally, an enormous block of stone,
fifteen feet long, which forms the lintel, and in this way finishes
the gate. The wall itself is much higher than the gate ; in order
to weaken the pressure of the upper stones on the lintel, and to
prevent it from breaking, a triangular opening has been left above
it, in which, afterward, a thinner slab of stone, about 11 feet wide
by 10 high, has been placed. On this slab we see two lions in
alto-rilievO) standing with their fore-paws on a broad base, which

Fig. 65.

Fig. 66.

supports a column growing thinner at the lower end. Gottling
recognizes in these lions, with the Phallic symbol between them,
the protecting image of the castle of Mykense. In any case the
group is interesting as the oldest specimen of Greek sculpture in
existence.

Both the larger gates and the smaller sally-ports were, as much
as possible, protected by projecting parts of the wall. We have
already mentioned this fact in speaking of the gate of Mykense ;
we add a gate at Orchomenos (Fig. 66), in which the projection
of the wall on the right-hand side of the entrance may still be
distinctly recognized.

A gate at Messene, showing both firmness of structure and

GATES IN AKARNANIA.

artistic proportions, is still in existence. This city, founded and
raised to the capital of Messenia by Epaminondas, was, next to
Korinth, considered as the safest stronghold of the whole Pelo-
ponnesos, owing to the solidity of its walls ; the above-mentioned
gate quite tallies with this statement, found repeatedly in ancient
authors. The design (Fig. 67) and the section (Fig. 68, scale =
100 feet English measure) show that it was a double gate with an
outer (a) and inner (b) door. It is situated in a kind of tower,
destined to increase the strength of the wall, inside of which
there is a circular space
like a court-yard. The
two gates lie opposite
each other in this court-
yard, the one marked a
on the outward side, that
marked b being turned
toward the town.

As remarkable we
have still to mention the
occurrence of vaulted
gates in Akarnania, quite
lately discovered by Heu-

zey. Generally speaking, the use of arches does not occur in
Greece before the time of the Makedonians ; but in Akarnania

Fig. 67.

Fig. 6a

there are found, in old polygonal fortifications, gates, the outer
walls of which show a vault, while the inside part is still covered
by horizontal pieces of stone (see Fig. 69).

19. The description of the gates leads us to that of the tow-
ers, which were almost universally used to increase the firmness
and defensive conveniences of the walls. The gates naturally
5

TO WER-STRUGTURES.

required a great deal of protection, and by this means, as Curtius
has pointed out, the art of fortification itself was considerably

developed. It seems, indeed, that the tower itself was only a
development of the projection of the wall which is usually found
to the right of the gate, as a favorable point of attack on the
storming forces.

The simplest form seems to have consisted of a mere jutting

out of the wall, repeated at certain intervals,

ST$1 5x\ fJ-J by means of which the besieged could direct

ll^J!' their defense to

^■p^ different points

Ig^^. easier than would
have been possi-
ble from a straight
wall. Such tower-
like projections
"W^ we find in the old

Pelasgic walls of
Phigalia, in Arkadia (Fig. 70); they are partly quadrangular,
partly semicircular.

We also find towers on single rocks, or prominences, the natu-
ral strength of which had to be increased by fortifications ; they
were used to reconnoitre the surrounding country, which, for in-
stance, was the purpose of a tower in the Akropolis of Orchome-
nos in Bceotia (Fig. 71).

Fig. 71.

TOWERS AT AKTOR AND MESSENE.

At Aktor a tower of two stories has been preserved. It
stands on a point where the walls of the town meet at an obtuse
angle. It has been preserved so well that the two stories are
distinctly recognizable; but no traces of a staircase have been
found. Most likely it consisted of wood, like the ceiling of the
first story, so as to be easily removable, if necessary, in case of an
attack. The entrances to the tower were two small gates, ap-
proachable from the top of the wall ; on the three sides turned
outward there were windows, which, like the embrasures of me-
diaeval castles, are very small toward the outer side, but increase
considerably in size toward the inside.

Of similar construction are the towers found on the walls of
Messene, both as a protection and an ornament. A round tower,
among others, stands where the walls
meet at an obtuse angle (see the plan,
Fig 72, scale = 10 metres, and the
view, Fig. 73) ; another tower, in
good preservation, illustrates the kind
of entrance from the top of the wall ;
Fig. 74 (scale = 9 metres) gives a
side-view of it. The stones are placed
on each other in layers, but the cross-joints are mostly oblique and
irregular; the former are hewn so that the front-side projects

Fig 72.

Fig. 73.

Fio. 74.

slightly from the surface of the wall (a style called by the Italians,
Rustico) ; the tower as well as the walls are crowned by battle-
ments, which are still distinctly recognizable ; the small windows
converge in an acute angle toward the outside, the inside part

TOWERS IN KEOS, ANDROS, AND TEN OS.

widening in the form of a pointed arch. The door, approachable
from the top of the wall (see Fig. 74), closes in a straight line.

Two round towers, standing al-
most separate, protect the gate of
Man tinea (s^plan, Fig. 75, scale —
30 metres).

Single towers were often built
on the sea-shore, particularly on isl-
ands, both as watch-towers against
pirates and as places of refuge for the inhabitants. (Similar strong-
holds built by the Venetians, against the landing of the infidels,
are found on many points of the Greek coast.) The most impor-
tant structure of this kind has been preserved in the isle of Keos.
It rises, in four stories, straight from the ground, and is crowned
with battlements, and surrounded on its four sides by projecting

Fig. 75.

Fig. 76.

Fig. 78.

blocks of stone, which carried an open gallery, perhaps " the only
well-preserved example of the peridromos, so important in an-
tique fortification." (Ross, " Inselreise," i., p. 132.)

Of similar construction, but round in shape, is a tower in
Andros (Fig. 76), built most likely for the protection of the
neighboring iron-mines. It is remarkable by winding stairs in

BUILDINGS OF UTILITY.— AQUEDUCTS. 69

the interior, and by a circular chamber in the lower story, which^
like the treasure-houses {see § 21), grows smaller toward the top
by the overlaying of the stones ; the ceiling is formed by radiat-
ing slabs of stone (Fig. 77).

To detached towers, courts surrounded by masonry were
sometimes added, as places of refuge for the inhabitants of the
neighboring country and their goods. Fig. 78 shows the plan
of such a combination, situated in the island of Tenos, where the
court, connected with the tower and inclosed by a strong wall, is
nearly 84 feet long.

20. After the buildings of protection follow those of utility.
Among these we must consider particularly aqueducts, harbors,
roads, and bridges; of all of which considerable remains have
been preserved. Curtius (" On the Water-works in Greek Cities "
in Archaologisehe Zeitung, 1847, p. 19, ss.) has laid down, as the
leading principle of Greek aqueducts, their accommodation to the
natural conditions of the soil, widely different in this respect from
the water-works of the Romans, " who, in their imperial manner,
made the fountains follow one straight line from their origin to
the capital ; and in this way accomplished marvelous edifices
entirely independent of the conditions of the soil." The oldest
epoch of town water- works is undoubtedly marked by the cistern,
which became necessary where the dryness of the soil required
the collection of rain-water, or where the wells became insuffi-
cient for the increasing population. They are mostly perpendicu-
lar, gradually widening shafts, hewn into the living rock, and
covered with slabs ; one descended into them on steps. Such
cisterns are frequently found in Delos, at Iulis in Keos, at Old
Thuria in Messenia, and at Athens in the southern parts of the
city, and on the stony backs of the hills which slope toward the
sea ; while in the eastern and northern parts of the city we find
numerous remains of wells, often connected by subterraneous
channels. To a later epoch, mostly to the time of the Tyrannis,
belong the water-works, by means of which the fountains rising
on the neighboring mountains are led (in communications hewn
in the rock, or inclosed by walls) into reservoirs, and distributed
thence over the town by a system of canals. By a system of this
kind the springs of the Hymettos, Pentelikon, and Pames, were
conducted into Athens ; and, in a similar manner, several villages

HARBORS AT PYL08 AND METHONE.

in the dry plains of Attika were supplied with water by subterra-
neous aqueducts, partly still in use. Of other water-works we
mention an aqueduct seven stadia long, dug through a mountain
by Eupalinos ; a system of works supplying the castle of Thebes
with water; and the underground aqueducts of Syrakusse, the
latter of which are still in use. The remains of these, as well as
of other aqueducts near Argos, Mykense, Demetrias, and Pharsa-
los, prove sufficiently the care taken by the Greeks in this im-
portant branch of architecture.

Although natural harbors were frequent on the Greek coast,
many of them required additional arrangements for the safety of
the ships at anchor. We possess, for instance, the remains of a
stone jetty, built for the protection of the excellent harbor of
Pylos, on the west coast of Messenia. It is built, like the walls
of the town, in the Pelasgic manner, horizontal layers being the

rule, and extends considerably
into the sea, so as to protect
the harbor against storms and
currents. Fig. 79 illustrates
a bird's-eye view of the rem-
nants of the breakwater.

More extensive were the
works in the harbor of Me-
thone, or Mothone (the mod-
ern Modon), to the south of Pylos. To the line of cliffs, which
naturally protects the harbor, a wall has
been added, extending into the sea in
the shape of a repeatedly-broken bow,
and surrounds the harbor proper on three
sides in connection with the equally se-
cured shore ; Fig. 80 shows the plan of
the harbor, which is still in frequent use.
A and B mark the points where remnants
of the old masonry are still in exist-
ence. Other harbors were on a still
larger scale, and supplied with arsenals,
light-houses, temples, and works of art ;
of these, the Korinthian harbor at Ken-
chrese and the Piraeus are the most remarkable. The harbor proper

Fig. 79.

Fig. 80.

ROADS AND BRIDGES. 71

consisted in the latter also in natural bays, turned to account and
further protected by walls built into the sea on both sides of the
entrance, so as to defend the inner space against
both waves and enemies. No less complicated
was the harbor of Ehodes ; according to Koss, it
retains, at the present day, the original construc-
tions ; which, by turning to account the natural
bays, made it one of the most important stations
for commercial and war purposes. Fig. 81 shows
the design ; a, b, c, signify respectively the har-
bors for boats, commercial and war vessels ; d is
the exterior harbor, e the site of the town.

Concerning the roads of the Greeks we certainly have writ-
ten evidence of carefully-paved roads and streets, particularly
in connection with the festive processions to the great national
places of worship ; but little is said about the method of the
Greeks in these structures, and only few remnants remain to en-
lighten us as to the way in which they were made even, or paved.
In low, boggy places the want of level and secure roads was natu-
rally felt first ; their earliest form seems to have been that of dams
(xcofAara, ytyvpcu). According to Curtius, a dam led from Ko-
pai, in Bceotia, to the opposite shore of the Kopaic bog. It is 22
feet wide, propped by stone-walls, and supplied with a bridge, so
as to give an outlet to the water of the Kephissos. Like the
choma, which led through the marshes of the Alphaeos, and
formed the border-line between the dominions of the Tegeatai
and Pallantioi, it served at the same time both as a protection of
the arable land against the waves and as a means of communica-
tion. Sometimes canals were connected with such dams, an ex-
ample of which is offered by Phenea.

Eoads led up to the old lordly castles " as they are found at
Orchomenos and other places" (Curtius's " History of the Building
of Eoads among the Greeks," 1855, p. 9). In later historic times,
however, the chief purposes of road-building were commercial
traffic and festive processions. " It is the worship of the gods
which here again has given rise to art, and the holy ways were
the first artistically-constructed roads among the Greeks " (p. 11),
connecting tribes and countries for the purpose of common cele-
bration. Still, at the present time Greece is crossed by roads on

BRIDGES IN MESSEMA.

which the grooves for wheels are hewn into the rocky ground.
On these the holy vehicles, with the statues of the gods and the
implements of worship, could be moved conveniently. Between
these tracks the road was leveled by means of sand or pebbles.
Where there were no two pair of grooves, arrangements were
made to avoid collisions.

We know a little more about the construction of bridges
among the Greeks. In most cases bridges across rivers and
ravines were made of wTood ; as an example of a very firm, long
bridge made of wood we mention that across the Euripus, be-
tween Aulis and Chalkis, in the island of Euboea, built during the
Peloponnesian War, and perhaps afterward superseded by a dam-
structure, remnants of which are still in existence. ■ There are,
however, found in Greece bridges wholly made of stone; but
their dimensions can have been but small before the arch-vaulting
principle came into use. Gell mentions a bridge of this kind
near Mykenae, and another similar one near Phlius the coverings
of which consisted of blocks of stone.

Wider rivers were crossed by a mode of structure wThich we
have mentioned in connection with the openings of gates and
walls. The layers of stones were pushed gradually toward each
other from both sides, and when the space between wras thus
sufficiently diminished it was covered by slabs of stone, or rafters,
laid across. This system is used in a bridge between Pylos and

Methone, near the vil-
lage of Metaxidi, in Mes-
senia (Fig. 82). Only the
lower layers are antique ;
the arch is of later date.
A complicated and
well-calculated structure
is the bridge across the
river Pamisos in Messe-
nia. It is placed where
a smaller river falls into
the river Pamisos, and
consists of three parts, one 01 which lies toward Messene, the
second toward Megalopolis, and the third toward Franco Eclis-
sia (Andania). {See plan, Fig. 83, and view, Fig. 84.) The front

Fig. 82.

BRIDGE ACROSS THE EUROTAS.

parts of the pillars of the two branches crossing the two rivers are
pointed, so as to break the force of the waves. The piece a in
Fig. 83 is illustrated by Fig. 85 ; it shows one smaller opening

Fig. 83.

Fig. 84

which is covered with straight pieces of stone, while the larger
opening shows the gradual approach of the layers. This is shown
by the remaining old layers, to which, later, an arch has been
added.

The same form of covering is found in a bridge across the
Eurotas, near Sparta {see design, Fig. 86). In looking at Fig. 87

nXOHESB

Fig. 86.

Fig. Si

it ought to be remembered that the pointed arch of the vault is
a later addition. (About a peculiar kind of water-works, viz., the
fountain-houses, see % 21, Figs. 90 and 91.)

21. After the buildings destined to protect man against man,
we have to consider those which shelter him against the influences

74 THE HOMERIC HOUSE OF THE AN AX.

of Nature, viz., the human habitation. The first human habita-
tions, not to mention caves, were among the Greeks, as among
other primitive nations, huts, constructed differently according to
the nature of the country. They were said to have been invented
by Pelasgos, the progenitor of the Pelasgic tribe in Arkadia. Of
such huts and similar more or less primitive dwellings we possess
neither descriptions nor actual specimens. The stages of develop-
ment from the hut to the regular dwelling-house, as described in
the Homeric poems, are likewise conjectural ; the arrangements,
however, of the dwellings of the old Greek royal families, which
evidently are described as actually seen by that poet, can be
understood, at least, in their chief features. This applies particu-
larly to the description of the palace of Odysseus, which, together
with partial descriptions of those of Alkinoos, Priamos, and of
the house-like tent of Achilles, conveys a sufficiently clear notion
of the royal mansion of the time.

According to these descriptions the royal palace was divided
into three parts, the distinction of which is recognizable in Homer.
The same division, with such modifications as were necessitated by
the more limited space, applied, undoubtedly, also to the more im-
portant private houses. The first division was intended for every-
day life and intercourse ; it consisted of the court-yard (called avXrj
by Homer), into which one entered from the street, through a door
of two leaves (ra nrpoOvpa, Ovpai BUktSe;). In the middle of this
court-yard stood the statue Zeus, the protector of dwellings (Zev?
iprceios). It was surrounded by outhouses destined for the keep-
ing of stores, for handmills, bedrooms of the male servants, and
stables for horses and cattle, unless the latter were kept in sep-
arate farms. Opposite the gate of the yard was the frontage of
the dwelling-house (h&jjua or Souos) of the family of the Anax ;
in front of the entrance-gate was a covered portico (aWovaa Scofjua-
tos), corresponding to a similar one on both sides of the yard
(alQovaa ah\r\i). This portico in front of the house must have
been of considerable size, as, according to Homer, it was occa-
sionally used by the princes as the place of their assemblies.
Through it one entered the fore-house, or 717)680/1,0?, which is to be
considered either as a kind of entrance-hall to the house prop-
er, running along its frontage, or as the innermost part of the
aWovaa ScofjuaTo?, in which case it was, perhaps, closed by a wall.

THE HOMERIC HOUSE OF THE AN AX. 75

In this place the couches of the guests were prepared for the
night.

The dwelling-house (Bcofia) of the Anax and his family, which
follows after the 7173680/409, comprises the hall of the men, the
women's rooms, the connubial chamber, the armory, and the
treasury. The hall of the men (to fieyapov) was the chief room
of the palace ; according to Homer, it was a large room resting on
columns. Perhaps, in contrast to the light and airy prodomos, it
is described as shady (cr/aoecs), the light entering only through
windows at the sides, or through an opening in the smoky ceiling,
which served also to let out the smoke. Near the back-wall of
the megaron, and opposite the door which led to the women's
chambers, stood the hearth (eo~xdpr]\ on which the meal of the
revelers in the hall was prepared. The floor was of stone,
perhaps varied in color, and the walls were covered with large
pieces of polished metal. It is true that the megaron of Odysseus,
the ruler of a poor, rocky island, was bare of these ornaments ;
but the palaces of richer kings, like, for instance, that of Menelaos,
undoubtedly showed this favorite old wall-decoration, not to
speak of the perhaps fictitious description of the splendid hall of
Alkinoos. The question about the nature of the /jl€ct6&/j,cu men-
tioned by Homer, we do not wish to decide definitively ; some
modern archaeologists, like Rumpf and Winckler,1 the one following
the other's investigations, consider them to be two galleries, placed
at the end of the megaron, on both sides of the entrance to the
women's chambers : older commentators believe the mesodmai to
be niches between the pilasters, or these pilasters themselves. We
ourselves incline to the latter opinion, because such a gallery
would be quite adapted to the hall of a hostelry, used as a women's
room in the daytime and a sleeping-room for the men at night,
but in the megaron of a palace it seems strangely out of place.

The third division was devoted to the smaller family circle ;
its collective name was originally Oakafioi, afterward changed into
yvvcutcwvLTis. A small corridor (irpoOvpov) led to these rooms, the
largest of which was a hall on the ground-floor, belonging to the
female members of the family and their handmaidens. Smaller
chambers, being the bedrooms of the maid-servants, fifty in num-
ber, in the house of Odysseus, might be found by the side of

1 A. Winckler, "The Dwelling-houses of the Greeks," Berlin, 1868, pp. 31-55.

THE 8 A UR OS AT MYKENJE.

this hall, while the upper story (v7repooov) contained separate
sleeping and sitting rooms for the members of the king's family.
The connubial chamber, or thalamos proper, of the king and
queen was, perhaps, in the lower story, at the end of the large hall
of the women ; it seems, at least, that Odysseus placed his bed-
room there from the fact of his cutting the top off an olive-tree in
his yard, and using the stem as a post of his connubial couch.
Near it, most likely, was the armory, although certain archae-
ologists have placed it, like the connubial chamber, in the upper
story.

Thus much about the house of the Anax in Homer's time.
Many conjectures as to the situation of the staircases to the upper
story, the place and destination of the tholos, of the corridors of
the spear-stand, etc., we have purposely omitted. In Homer's
time such palaces, varying according to the locality and the
owner's wealth, were scattered all over Greece. Many theories as

Fig. 88.

Fig. 89.

to details, mostly founded on vague conjectures, have, for the
greater part, been exploded by Hercher (in his meritorious paper
" Homer and Ithaka, as it was in Reality," in " Hermes," vol., i.,
p. 263, ss.).

As an important part of the fortified palace we have still to
mention the treasury (Orjo-avpos), the firm construction of which
guaranteed the safety of its valuable contents, as is proved by
several vaults still in existence. Among these we mention par-
ticularly the treasure-house of Atreus, remains of which are

FOUNTAIN-HOUSE IN TEE ISLE OF KOS. 77

found among the above-mentioned Cyclopic remnants at My-
kenae. This thesauros, which is expressly mentioned by Pau-
sanias, has been rediscovered and repeatedly described by mod-
ern scholars. It consists of a round chamber lying on the slope
of a hill. (See plan, Fig. 88, and section, Fig. 89.) The en-
trance is through a space inclosed by walls (A) ; the gate (B) is
formed by horizontal layers of stone, and covered with an enor-
mous slab of stone, over which, as in the lions' gate {see Fig. 65),
a triangular opening has been left so as to protect it from the
weight of the upper stones. Through this door, on which the
traces of nails are still observable (destined evidently to fix a
metal coating), one enters the chief apartment (C), which is joined
at the side by another chamber (D). The latter is cut into the
rock, while the wTalls of the chief apartment consist of horizontal
layers of stones arranged in a circular form. These layers ap-
proach each other toward the top, which produces the appearance
of a cupola, closed at the top by a larger stone (Fig. 89).

Pausanias mentions several thesauroi, the convenient arrange-
ment of which is exemplified by the one described above. At
Mykenae he mentions, besides the treasure-house of Atreus, those
of his sons, of which also remnants are still in existence. At
Orchomenos, in Bceotia, he mentions the thesauros of Minyas as
a wonderful work, unsurpassed by any monument in Greece or
elsewhere (Pausanias, ix., 38, 1). His description tallies perfectly
with the construction of the treasure-house at Mykenae, but for
the size, the latter being only 48 feet in diameter, against 70 of
the Orchomenos thesauros.

The same principle of forming the vaults by overlaying has
been applied to other buildings, as tombs of heroes, fountain-
houses, and religious treasure-houses, at an early period. Koss
has discovered a fountain-house in the island of Kos, in which
the tholos principle has been applied in a similar manner.
About one and a half hour's walk from the city of Kos, on
the slope of Mount Oromedon, lies the well Burinna, which
supplies the town with water. In order to keep it quite cold
and pure a circular chamber (2.85 metres in diameter, and 7 me-
tres in heigiit, up to the round opening in the vault) has been
erected, into which the water runs, and from which it issues
through a subterraneous canal 35 metres in length, and of an

THE HISTORIC DWELLING-HOUSE.

average height of 2 metres. Fig. 90 shows the mouth of the ca-
nal (A), the chamber (B), and the cleft in the rock (C) whence
the water issues ; between this and the chamber there is a door.

The chamber (see Fig. 91, D)
is built like the treasure-house
at Mykense, and opens at the top
by means of a shaft (B) 3 metres
high, which leads through the
mountain in order to connect the
water with the open air. Above
the roof of the canal (A) (which
consists partly of large horizon-
tal blocks of stone, partly of long,
narrow pieces of freestone) a
small chamber (E) has been dis-
covered, the entrance to which
lies on the slope of the mountain,
between the mouth of the canal
and the opening of the shaft. It
is connected by a small, window
(A) with the principal chamber,
and may have been the sanctuary
of the nymphs of the fountain, or the watchman's dwelling, besides
letting in fresh air to the fountain in addition to the shaft (B).

22. About the historic dwelling-house of the Greeks our
information is almost as scanty as about the Homeric palace.
Remaining specimens are totally wanting, perhaps with one ex- '
ception ; and a systematic description of the Greek house by
Yitruvius seems to relate more to the splendid mansions of post-
Alexandrine times than to the houses of the common citizens.
His account, moreover, is not easily understood ; so that about
this most important feature of Greek domestic life little is to be
ascertained.

In comparing the historic Greek house with that of the Ho-
meric poems, we find, as an important deviation, that in the latter
the women's chamber was always in the upper story ; while in
the former men's and women's apartments, although separated,
iay generally on the same flat. This rule, however, is not with-
out exceptions with regard to both cases.

Fig. 91.

THE HISTORIC DWELLING-HOUSE— THE YARD. 79

Both the Homeric and the historic houses have, in common,
the important feature of a court-yard. In both it is surrounded
by columns, and forms, as it were, the centre round which the
other parts of the house are grouped equally, and into which the
single rooms open. The historic house, however, was much infe-
rior in size and splendor to that described by Homer, as was nat-
ural, seeing that it was inhabited by simple citizens instead of
kings and rulers of the people. Homer never even mentions pri-
vate dwellings. Moreover, it was a peculiarity of the Greeks, in
their best times, to concentrate all their splendor and luxury in
the adornment of temples and other public edifices, while their
private dwellings were small and modest, not to say mean. The
homes of the Greeks were their public places, their Stoas and
Agoras ; on these they looked with pride and joy ; only in the
Makedonian period, when Greek freedom and greatness had van-
ished, luxurious private houses became the fashion ; while at the
same time begin the complaints of both religious and civic build-
ings being more and more neglected. But even then buildings of
large size and great splendor were more common in the country-
seats of the rich than in the towns, where the limits of space and
the regular lines of the streets precluded a too great extension.

Hence one yard only was the. rule for town-houses. The de-
scriptions by Yitruvius of numerous splendid rooms, etc., evidently
refer to the palace-like buildings of the time after Alexander ;
still these descriptions are of great importance to us. For in
that part of the house first described by him, which he calls gynai-
konitis, the original nucleus of an old Greek dwelling seems pre-
served ; while the second part, called andronitis, contains the
additions of increased and more refined luxury. We must try
first to recognize the old simple house in his description.

" On entering ! the door," Yitruvius says, " one comes into a
rather narrow passage, called by the Greeks Ovpcopelov." It cor-
responds to our modern passage. To right and left of it are
rooms for domestic purposes. Yitruvius mentions on the one
side stables, and on the other, the porters' rooms. Through the
passage, which is also called dvpcov or irvKxov, one enters the
7rept(TTv\cov. The peristylion is an open yard surrounded by

1 We omit the references to the Roman house contained in his description, as to
this we shall have to return hereafter.

THE HISTORIC DWELLING-HOUSE.

colonnades, also described as avXrj or totto? Trepacicov. " This peri-
stylion," Yitruvius continues, "has colonnades on three sides.
But on the southern side are two antse (i. e., front and wall pil-
lars), which stand at a considerable distance from each other, and
carry a beam. They form the entrance to a room, the depth of
which is equal to two-thirds of the interval between the antse.
This place is called by some irpoard^, by others irapaa-rd^ ; " it
is, therefore, a room which, on its broad side, opens into the yard ;
an open hall, in fact, to which, most likely, the not uncommon
expression iraard^ may also be applied.

"Further toward the interior," Yitruvius concludes, "are
large rooms, where the lady of the house sits with the maids at
their wheels. To the right and left of the prostas are bedrooms

(cubicula), one of which is called
thalamos, the other amphithala-
mos. All round the yard, un-
der the colonnades, are rooms
for domestic purposes, such as
eating -rooms, bedrooms, and
small rooms for the servants.1
This part of the house is called
gynaikonitis." In this gynai-
konitis, as we said before, we
recognize the old Greek house.
The husband, whose life passed
in public, possessed only the
smaller outer part of it ; while
in the interior the housewife,
with her maids, was in com-
mand. Fig. 92 is meant to il-
lustrate the plan of an old Greek
dwelling on this basis.

The above-mentioned chief

parts are easily recognizable.

A is the small passage, B the

open court-yard surrounded by

colonnades, C the open hall (irpoard^, TrapaaTas, iraardi), to

which are joined the bedroom of the master of the house (D)

(the thalamos) ; and on the other side the amphithalamos, per-

Fig. 92.

THE HEARTH. 81

haps the bedroom of the daughters. At the back of these are
good-sized rooms for the maids (G), working under the supervision
of their mistress. Round the yard,, and opening into the colon-
nades, lie other rooms for domestic purposes, such as store-rooms,
bedrooms (H), etc., some of which, on both sides of the street-door
and looking toward the street, were frequently used as shops or
workshops (I). Behind the house, and more or less shut in by
the neighboring houses, might be a garden (K), frequently men-
tioned by ancient writers.

The street-door leading into the passage was mostly in a line
with the facade.1 The expressions irpbQvpov and Trpoirvkcuov, how-
ever, seem to indicate that in some houses there must have been
a small space in front of the door, which might be adorned with
antae, or, as is proved by the still-existing remains of a private
house, with columns {see Fig. 92). By the propylaion stood fre-
quently, if not generally, the image of Apollo Aggieus (2) ;
perhaps at some distance from the house was placed the symbol
of Hermes as the protecting god of roads and traffic. It con-
sisted merely of a column or pillar.

In the yard usually stood an altar, separate and visible from
every side, and dedicated to Zeus Herkeios, as the supreme pro-
tector of the family. This circumstance is already mentioned in
Homer. According to Petersen's opinion, the sanctuaries of the
6eol KTrjdiOL (the gods giving possession) and of the Oeol Trarpaot
(the gods of families or generations) were placed in the alee
(4 and 5), a less accessible part of the house, but connected with
the colonnade. From the court-yard one entered the open hall
which, as it were, formed the boundary between the public and
the private life of the family, and therefore was most adapted for
the gatherings of the family at religious offerings and common
meals. It is therefore here that the hearth, the holy place of the
house, devoted to Hestia, the all-preserving goddess, must most
likely be placed. Originally it wTas no doubt used for cooking,
but even later, when a separate kitchen had become necessary,
the hearth remained the centre of the house, and on this altar all
the events of domestic life were celebrated by religious acts.8 " A

1 A street-door is illustrated in Gerhard's " Goblets of the Royal Museum of
Berlin," Table XXVII.

8 See Petersen, " The Domestic Worship of the Greeks, in Zeitschrift fur Alter-

82 THE HOUSE WITH TWO YARDS.

particular occasion," says Petersen, "for worshiping Hestia was
offered by all important changes in the family, such as a depart-
ure, a return from a journey, or a reception into the family, even
of slaves, who always took part in the domestic worship of Hestia.
Birth, giving of a name, wedding, or death, were celebrated in like
manner. This altar was also holy as an asylum ; to it flew the
slave. to escape punishment; on it the stranger, nay, even the
enemy of the house, found protection ; for the worship of Hes-
tia united all the inhabitants of the house, free-born or slaves,
nay, even strangers." For this important function of the altar,
the place assigned to it by us seems the most appropriate.

To the right and left of the prostas were the thalamos and
amphithalamos, in the former of which were placed the sanc-
tuaries of the connubial deities ; in the back-wall of the prostas
was a door, which is frequently mentioned by ancient authors
as particularly important for the arrangement of the Greek
house. It is called fieravXos, to distinguish it from the door
leading into the yard from the outside, the 6vpa aiJXeto?, " be-
cause it lies opposite the avXecos, beyond or behind the avkr)" 1
In case it was closed, the maid-servants, who seem to have been
employed in the work-rooms, and slept on the floor above (7rvpyoi),
were secluded from the other parts of the house — a circumstance
repeatedly mentioned by Greek authors. Where there was a gar-
den, it was connected with the house by a door (8), called dvpa
Krjiraia (garden-door).

So much about the older Greek house with one court. The
numerous descriptions of the enlarged house differ in so many
points that a new attempt at an analysis may seem desirable ; it
will be based entirely on the practical considerations which must
have led to the addition of a second yard. In the towns, at least,
this change must at first have been applied to buildings already
in existence. The increase of luxury made a more commodious
enlargement of the houses of the wealthy desirable. This ex-
tension had to be directed toward the back, the frontage being
fixed by the line of the street ; while, on the other hand, the fre-
quently-occurring gardens might be conveniently used for the in-

ihumswissenschaft, 1851, p. 199. Petersen places the altar in the large hall of the
men, which, according to him, separates the two yards.
1 See Becker, " Charikles," second edition, ii., p. 88.

THE HOUSE WITH TWO YARDS.

traduction of a second yard. In consequence, the whole first part
of the house has remained unchanged {see Fig. 93) ; the only in-
novation being that from the metaulos (Fig. 92, 7) one gets im-
mediately into the second yard
(K), instead of into one of the
large work-rooms. These work-
rooms (G), together with other
apartments (L), were arranged
in a manner which, with regard
to size and position, must have
varied greatly, according to cir-
cumstances.

The additional space so
gained was appropriated by the
narrower family circle, while
the first part became the scene
of the more public intercourse.
The metaulos remains the boun-
dary between the two parts,
from which circumstance alone
its hitherto unexplained second
name fiio-avXos can be derived.
The metaulos (door behind the
first yard) becomes in this way
a mesaulos (door between two
yards). The prostas, in the
back -wall of which this door
lies, retains its importance, de-
rived from the sacred hearth.
This arrangement becomes still
more likely from its analogy with the tablinum in the Roman
house, which, as we shall show, was most likely an imitation
of the prostas.1 It need not be added that the above descrip-
tion is intended only to convey a general notion of the Greek
dwelling-house. The rule was naturally modified by the na-
ture of the locality, the requirements of individual families,

1 We call the reader's attention to Winckler's comprehensive researches (u The
Dwelling-houses of the Greeks," Berlin, 1868, p. 138, ss.), from whom, however, we
differ in several points.

THE HOUSE WITH TWO YARDS.

etc., in the same way as this may be observed in the houses of
Pompeii, which illustrate the construction of the Roman house
in manifold varieties, or in modern dwelling-houses. The only
preserved specimen, indeed, of a Greek private house shows many
deviations even from the important features of our plan. We
are speaking of a building which has been discovered in the isle

Fig. 95.

of Delos (Fig. 94). It shows a very
beautiful vestibule (irpoTrvXatov), which
lies on the narrow side toward the
street, and consists of two Ionic col-
umns between two graceful antse (Fig.
95). To right and left small doors
(Fig. 94, 1 and 2) lead into side-rooms, while the large door (3)
leads into a narrow passage (B). The aula (C) to which this
passage leads is very short and narrow, and seems to have been
without columns. Unfortunately, the rooms adjoining the pas-
sage and the yard have not been described by the archaeologists
who investigated the building ; they only tell us of the existence
of a cistern (F). The room D, open on both sides, may perhaps
be considered as a very small prostas, in which case the room to
the right of it (E) would be the thalamos ; G would then be the
second yard, but here also no columns seem to have been found.
The editors believe the building to have been a public bath —
which, however, seems unlikely from its moderate dimensions.

GRAVES.— TUMULI. 85

The cistern, which seems to have given rise to this idea, may just
as well have belonged to a private house. The Greeks were just
as anxious to have a water-reservoir in their houses as we are at
the present day. Parts of the important building in Delos have,
as Ross complains, been destroyed to gain stones and mortar for
new buildings. But for this barbarous custom, whole quarters of
the town might still be in existence. Under many, perhaps most,
of the houses cisterns were dug, partly (according to their width)
spanned by small arches, partly covered with long pieces of
granite.

23*. From the dwelling of living individuals we now turn to
the abode of the dead, from the house to the grave. The piety
of the Hellenic people made the latter of great importance ; hence
the astonishing variety of their forms. We will divide them into
groups according to the different modes of their construction.
Graves, therefore, may be heaps of earth, they may be hewn
into the rock, or they may be detached buildings, according to
the conditions of the locality, or the mode of burying. Within
these divisions there are, again, many varieties of size, form, and
construction.

In places where stone was scarce, mounds were made of earth ;
where stones were found in the ground, these were heaped on
each other ; where the soil was rocky, natural caves were used or
artificial ones dug. Such are the oldest forms of graves ; only
later, when civilization was more advanced, separate monuments
were more commonly erected.

a. Tombs consisting of earth-mounds, as the oldest and sim-
plest form of graves, were common to the Caucasian race, as is
shown by numerous remains from East to West. Greece also is
rich in such primitive structures, which in a small chamber con-
tain the remains of the dead, and, by their imposing forms, serve
at the same time as monuments. Owing to the primitive mode
of their structure, their appearance resembles more the works of
Nature than that of human hands ; they were called by the Greeks
koXcdvol (hills), another expression, ^co/MiTa (heaps), being derived
from their kind of construction. Of this kind are the enormous
mounds of earth which are still to be seen on the shores- of the
Hellespont, and which, according to old Greek traditions, contain
the remains of Homeric heroes, like Achilles, Patroklos, Aias,

TUMULI OF MARATEOK AND SYMB.

and Protesilaos. Tombs of the same kind were erected by the
Athenians in the Marathonian plain to those fallen in the great

Fig. 96.

Fig. 97.

battle ; the largest of these was originally 30 feet high (see Fig.
96). Smaller tumuli are numerous in the Attic plain ; of a simi-
lar kind are also the large burial hills of the Bosporanian kings
which are found at Pantikapaion, on the Kimmeric Bosporus
(see Fig. 97).

In order to add to the firmness of these mounds, and to avoid
the sliding down of the earth, they were frequently surrounded

Fig. 98.

Fig. 99.

by a stone inclosure, as for instance was the case with the tombs
of iEpytos at Pheneos, in Arkadia, and of (Enomaos at Olympia.
There still exists in the island of Syme a tumulus which exactly

answers to the de-
scription of Pausa-
nias. Its diameter
is 19 metres ; it is
quite surrounded by
a stone-wall (tcpr)7rk
or Opiy/cos) 1.25 —
2.19 metres in
height, which con-
sists of polygonal

GRAVE-CAVERNS.

stones (XWot aypoi, \oyd8es) (see Figs. 98 and 99). The conical
mound has been destroyed almost entirely.

Mounds of this kind were also made of stone, as for instance
the tomb of Laios, near Daulis, mentioned by Pausanias, to which
kind we shall have to return.

b. Another kind of primitive tombs were caves in rocks, either
natural or artificial,. and decorated by art. Of these also we have
to distinguish various
kinds. A natural cavern
may have been extended
and used as a tomb ; or
the rocky soil may have
been hollowed into a sub-
terraneous chamber ; or,
lastly, a more or less sepa-
rate piece of rock may
have been excavated and
decorated externally. The
caves and galleries' of
quarries must have led
to the idea of subterra-
neous graves in rocks at
a very early period. Structures of this kind (the name of which,
Kyklopeia, denotes their great age) are found near Nauplia. Simi-
lar caverns of irregular formation may be seen near Gortyna, in

fig. 101.

Fig. 102.

Fig. 103.

the isle of Crete ; more regularity is shown in the Nekropolis of
Syrakuse, which also seems to have been occasioned by quarries.

GRAVES-CAVERNS IN MQINA AND MEL OS.

Simple shafts of great depth, ending in a burial-chamber, are
found among the above-mentioned royal tombs of Pantikapaion
{see Figs. 97 and 100), where a tunnel, erected of blocks of stone
has also been discovered {see Fig. 101).

The burial-caverns of both old and more modern dates found
in the islands are still more numerous and important than those

Fig. 104.

of the Greek peninsula. Some of them are cut into the rock in
such a manner that the ceiling requires no additional props, as is
the case, for instance, in a tomb in the island of ^Egina, of which
Figs. 102 and 103 show the plan and section. A narrow stair-
case (a) leads to ths entrance, which has the form of an arch {b),
and through it into the burial-chamber. The latter contains three

Fig. 105.

sarcophagi, which are constructed of simple slabs of stone, with
a cover of the same material. They occupy three sides of the
chamber.

A grave in the isle of Melos contains three sarcophagi on each
side, which stand in semicircular niches, as is shown by the plan
(Fig. 104) and the section (Fig. 105, scale — 10 metres).

In other tombs the ceiling has been propped by pillars and

GRAVE-CAVERNS IN BEL OS AND CHALKE.

cross-walls, by means of which the interior is at the same time
divided into several separate chambers. A burial-chamber in
Delos shows two pillars (a) on each of the two side-walls, between
which lie small niches (b) (see plan, Fig. 106). In each of these
niches are two sarcophagi, placed one on the top of the other.
The height of the grave is 2.30 metres. The ceiling consists of
stone slabs joined closely together (see Fig. 107).

A subterraneous grave in the isle of Chalke shows a different
arrangement (Fig. 108). A narrow staircase (b) leads to the en-
trance-door (a). Inside the chamber (14| feet long) is a pillar (c),

Fig. 106.

Fig. 107.

Fig. 108.

from which two strong stone beams (d d) extend toward the two
smaller walls of the chamber. They carry the ceiling, consisting
of slabs of stone, and lying only a few feet under the surface.
All round the room by the wall are the couches of the dead, re-
sembling stone benches. Ross, on discovering them, found them
empty. In the walls are square niches, for the reception of jugs
and other objects, which it was the custom to leave with the
dead. This custom (see § 35) is exemplified by the numerous
graves in the small island of Chilidromia. These are not cut into
the rock, but built of chalk-stone in a simple manner, not very
much below the surface. Fig. 109 shows one of them, opened
by Fiedler, in which the skeletons and the offerings to the dead
were found in their original position. The grave itself consists
of a square hollow sufficiently large to receive the body, and sur-
rounded by stones, the two longer walls being built of carefully-

GRA VES.— COFFINS.

fitted chalk-stones without mortar, while the two shorter sides are
formed by large slabs. The body was placed with its head toward
the south. Two small drinking-vessels and
two copper coins were found in the same
chamber, which was covered with three
large stone slabs. At the foot-end of the
body was another smaller room, inclosed and
covered in a similar manner, and, like a store-
room, containing a number of objects, all
destined for the dead. Among these were
one large and several smaller cans, an oil-
pitcher, several vases for offerings, and vari-
ous drinking-cups, all made of burnt clay ;
there was also a bronze mirror. An earthen
lamp showed distinct traces of having been
used.

The same custom was observed when the
dead were buried in coffins (o-opol). Several
coffins of burnt clay have been
found at Athens. Fig. 110 shows
a coffin covered with three slabs ;
Fig. Ill is an open dead-box,
filled with vessels of various
kinds. Another kind of graves
in rocks consisted in chambers
cut into the slope of a rock, the
surface near the entrance being arranged architecturally. Grave-
facades of this kind are very frequent in Phrygia and Lykia ;
they indicate a civilization originally foreign to the Greeks, but

imitated by them even dur-
ing their historic times, from
which many of these monu-
ments date.

The Lykian graves display
a most curious imitation of
wood-architecture, carried into
the minutest details. Usually the facade is divided into several
parts by means of beams protruding from the surface (see Fig.
112). Our illustration shows a grave in a steep slope of a rock

Fig. 109.

Fig. 110.

GRAVES AT XANTHOS AND MYRA.

at Xanthos ; the imitation of wood is carried even to the copying
of nails and pegs to join the different beams ; it resembles the

Fig. 111.

frontage of a house solidly built of timber, with a ceiling of
hewn trunks of trees,
such as the huts of Ly-
kian peasants have at
the present day. A
perpendicular beam in
the middle divides the
facade into two deep-
ened partitions. Some-
times the cross-beams
quite protrude from
the surface, in which
case a kind of porch is
formed in front of the
facade. This arrange-
ment is found, for in-

un-

stance, in
Myra {see

a grave at
Fig. 113),

which, moreover, is
decorated with excel-

Fio. in

GRAVES OF TELMESSOS AND EOS

Fig. 114.

lent paintings both by the side of the facade and inside the en-
trance-hall. A grave at Telmessos (Fig. 114) shows a complete
facade in the Ionic style. Two Ionic columns between two antae

carry a pediment adorned with ac-
roteria, and forming in this way
the portico ; in the back- wall is the
entrance to the burial-chamber.

Graves with facades of this kind
are also frequently found on the
Greek continent — more frequent-
ly, indeed, it seems than in the isl-
ands ; sometimes artificial construc-
tions have been added to increase
the natural firmness of the rock.
In a grave in the island of Thera,
discovered by Ross, the chamber
is formed by a natural cleft in the
rock; but the walls have been
propped by masonry, and the ceiling consists of slabs of stone.
Another grave in the slope of a hill, discovered by the same
scholar in the island of Kos, consists of a small fore-court, which

leads to the entrance-door, decorated
in the best Ionic style, remnants of
which have been preserved in a chapel
close by. The grave itself (see plan,
Fig. 115, and section, Fig. 116) con-
sists of a vaulted chamber, 6 metres
in length (a), on both sides of which
are the couches of the dead (b b), 2.50
metres long by 66 centimetres wide.
Fragments in the best Ionic style
found near it most likely belonged
to the separate porch of this grave-
chamber, which, according to an in-
scription, was the heroon of Char-
mylos and his family.

A grave at Lindos, in the isle of
Rhodes, is entirely worked into the rock. It is one of the most
perfect specimens of this style, imitated most likely from the

Fig. 115.

Fig. 116.

GRA VES OF CYPRUS AND KYRENE.

monuments of the opposite Lykian coast. Instead of the above-
mentioned Lykian wood-imitations, we here, however, find the
forms of Greek architecture in the decoration of the facade. Fig.
117 gives an illustration of the grave, which unfortunately is in
a very decayed condition. The facade resembles a Greek portico,
with Doric columns, an
architrave, frieze, and cor-
nice. Of these columns,
originally twelve in num-
ber, four are said to have Hii
been detached, while the
others protruded from the
surface of the wall by
halves or a little more.
Larger structures of the
kind have been discovered in Cyprus. The one discovered by
Ross shows the form of a court surrounded by columns (see view,
Fig. 118, and the plan, Fig. 119.)

Finally, we mention the beautiful graves at Kyrene, on the

Fig. 117.

Fig. 118.

Fig. 119.

north coast of Africa. The rocky ground near the city has been
worked into terraces, in which the graves are situated. The
graves themselves mostly consist of small chambers cut into the

Fig. 120.

TEE GRA VES OF KYRENE.

rock, and are for the greater part adorned with porticoes, which
give them a most picturesque appearance. Fig. 120 shows the

Fig. 121.

plan, Fig. 121 the perspective view, of a terrace adorned with a
long row of grave-facades ; Fig. 122 shows the dwellings of the
living in the close vicinity of the city of the dead at Kyrene.

Fig. 122.

c. In and on graves of this kind are found many objects, either
for the purpose of adorning them or for that of indicating the
identity of the body. Of vessels and other utensils intended for
the use of the dead, we have spoken before. When the buried
person began to be considered as a hero, the grave required an
altar. (Graves were commonly called heroa, even if not in the
form of temples.) Such altars, in the shape of dice, with the
name of the dead inscribed on them, are numerous in Boeotia,
round the Helicon. Others, round in shape, and either smooth,
with only an inscription (like one at Delos, Fig. 123), or adorned

ALTARS IN GRAVES.— STELAL

with sculptures, mostly of garlands and skulls of bulls, belong
principally to the Greek islands (see Figs. 44 and 45) ; on others

Fig. 123.

Fig. 124.

figures are represented. An altar found in a grave at Delos
(Fig. 124) shows the representation of an offering in bass-relief,
besides the inscription —

IIArSANIAS MEUONOZ XAIPE.

The gravestones discovered by Ross in the isle of Kasos are of
very extraordinary appearance. They consist of semi-globes of
blue marble, about 8 to 10 inches in diameter, in the smooth
front side of which the name of the deceased has been chiseled
in several lines of letters, belonging to the third or fourth ^-
century b. c.

The most common kind of above-ground monuments
for the dead all over Greece till far into Asia, are the old
Attic stelai (crTr)\rj). They are narrow, slender slabs of
stone, gently tapering toward the top ; they stand erect,
fastened in the ground, or on a bema, and have the name
of the deceased inscribed on them. They are crowned
with anthemia, i. e., ornaments of flowers and leaves,
either in relief or painted, sometimes also with pediments
adorned with rosettes ; sometimes the stele shows repre-
sentations, relating to the life of the deceased, in bass-re-
lief. In the times of the Makedonians and Romans the

stele becomes shorter and broader, with a pediment at the FiG.125.

STELAL— STATUES ON GRAVES.

top. Fig. 125 shows a stele, found at Athens, with a palmetto-
ornament.

Peculiar to Attica are the grave-columns of blue Hymettic
marble, with inscriptions on them, round which were wound rib-
bons and wreaths in memory of the dead. Figs. 126 and 127,
both taken from Athenian earthen vessels, illustrate these columns,
one of them being flat at the top, the other adorned with a capi-
tal of acanthus-leaves. Other stelai show the form of small chap-

Fig. 126.

Fig. 127.

Fig. 128.

el-like buildings (heroa), between the surrounding columns of
which the forms of the dead are represented in relief. Fig. 128
shows a monument of this kind, found in a grave in the isle of
Delos ; Fig. 129, a similar one dug out at Athens, the bass-relief
of which shows the taking leave of the deceased, called "Phrasy-
kleia," from the surrounding friends, a favorite subject during the
best period of Greek art. Portrait-statues, in full or half figure,
were, during the Makedonian and Eoman times,
frequently placed on the graves, or, if space per-
mitted it, inside the heroa ; this was the custom
particularly in the islands. Fragments of such
statues from the graves of the Telesikratides, the
ruling noble family of Anaphe, have been found
in that island ; Ross conjectures that the roof -like
covers of sarcophagi found in the isle of Rhensea
also used to carry statues of this kind.

Frequently detached coffins, or sarcophagi,

Fig. 129.

SARCOPHAGL

wrought of stone, are found in the grave-chambers, in which the
bodies were deposited. These are numerous in Lykia, but in
Greece they have been found only in a few cases at Platseae, and
in the islands of Thera, Karpathos, and Anaphe.

24. In the constructions of Greek tombs above the earth, two
technical divisions must be made.

a. The first consists of graves cut from the rock, but
transformed into real buildings by means of outside and inside

Fig. 130.

Fig. 181.

arrangements and decorations.
Of this kind the most numerous
and varied examples are naturally
found in the rocky Lykia, dating
not only from the old Lykian, but
also from the Greek times. The
simplest form consists of a square
stout pillar resting on steps, and crowned with a simple cornice. A
specimen of this form, found at Tlos, is seen in Fig. 130. A sec-
ond form is that of the imitation of a complete wooden house,
of which the above-mentioned graves only gave the facade (Fig.
131). Trunks of trees joined together seem to form the roof,
which protrudes considerably on all sides, and is both finished and
crowned by a horizontal cornice, formed by the crossing each
other of beams. In a third kind of grave the roof, instead of
being flat, shows a pointed arch, somewhat like our pointed roofs
( Walmdacher) (Fig. 132) ; sometimes skulls of bulls, also wrought
in stone, adorn their fronts. Fig. 133 shows a roof of this kind,
cut from the rock in the manner of a relief ; it is found at Pi-
nara. In Greece, also, graves of this kind were in use, as is
7

TOMBS IN TEE ISLE OF RHODES.

shown by several specimens in the isle of Rhodes ; the monu-
ments of the coast of Lykia, lying opposite, may have been the
models. Ross found near the village of Liana a rock rolled

from the height, the interior of
which contained a complete grave-
chamber, with three couches for the
dead ; the exterior showed two niches,
one on each side of the entrance (Fig.
134).

Grander than, and very different
from, the Lykian graves, is another
monument found by Ross in the isle
of Rhodes. It consists of a large
block of sandstone, the lower part of
which has been hewn into a square
form with vertical walls. Each of
the long sides measures 27.81 me-
tres, and contains twenty-one semi-
columns about five metres in height,
which, standing on three steps, were
evidently destined to carry a cornice ; this, however, has been de-
stroyed by the upper parts falling on it. Whether the top con-
sisted of a stone pyramid, or of a hill planted with shrubs and
trees, cannot now be distinguished. On the northern side, which
is the best preserved (see Fig. 135), between the fifth and sixth

Fig. 132.

Fig. 133.

Fig. 134.

columns of the western corner (see plan, Fig. 136 ; scale = 15
metres), lies a door (a), through which one enters the grave-cham-
bers. The first compartment is an entrance-hall (b), 9.20 metres

DETACHED TOMBS.

Fig. 135.

wide by 3 metres deep, in the small sides of which there are
niches. A second door (p) leads into a larger chamber (d), 6.70 by
4.40 metres, in the walls of
which are unequal niches,
with five couches for the
dead ; these, however, were
found empty when the tomb
was opened. On the walls
of all these chambers (which
extend only over a fourth
part of the whole basis, and
probably were joined by oth-
ers) a fine coating of stucco
has been preserved, with
some traces of painting on
it. Tombs of this kind, cut
into the rock, were not usual
in Greece. Detached grave-
buildings were evidently the
rule, and of the numerous
varieties of these we propose
to give some specimens.

h. The oldest and sim-
plest buildings of this kind
are the developed forms of

the above-mentioned earth -mounds. From sur-
rounding these with stone-walls one proceeded to
building the whole tomb of stone, and in changing
the round form for the square a quadrangular-
pointed stone pyramid was arrived at. Pausanias
saw a monument of this kind near Argos, on the
road to Epidauros ; it was explained to him as the
common memorial of those slain in the fight between Proitos
and Akrisios. A number of similar monuments have more re-
cently been discovered in Argolis, the most important of which,
near Kenchreai, is a pyramid built of square stones {see Figs. 137-
139). The basis is 48 feet long by 39 feet wide. According to
Ross, the southern corner is rectangular, and here a door, covered
by protruding stones in the manner of the Tirynthian galleries,

{ ' '"

c===

Wvw^p

\ ■ *

100

TOMBS AT KYRENE, MYKENJE, ETC.

Fig. 138.

leads into a narrow passage, at the end of which one enters, by a
second door on the right-hand side, the inner chamber, measuring

10 feet square. It re-
mains doubtful wheth-
er this building was a
tomb or a watch-tower.
Where the round shape
of the earth -mounds
was retained (see, for
example, the grave in
the isle of Syme, Fig.
98), with an additional
architectural arrange-
ment of the surround-
ing stones, the result
was a handsome round building resting on a quadrangular base,
and frequently used for tombs. Fig. 140 shows a beautiful speci-
men of this style found in the nekropolis of Kyrene.

Some of the graves at Mykense are old and simple. Like the
megalithic tombs of Western Europe, they consist of roughly-hewn
stones, and contain small, low
chambers, covered with large
slabs of stone. Fig. 141 shows
the largest among them.

We now come to graves
of a more monumental char-
acter. JSTear Delphi one has
been discovered which has
exactly the form of a house.

It lies among graves of various kinds, and is surrounded by rem-
nants of sarcophagi and other ruins which indicate the site of the
old nekropolis of Delphi. Thiersch describes it as an " edifice of
freestone, which shows the antiquity of its style by the fact that
the sides, the door, and a window above it, grow narrower toward
the top ; " he adds that its destination as a grave cannot be doubted
(see Fig. 142).

Some tombs found at Carpuseli, in Asia Minor, are more ele-
gant in design. They are square and stand on some steps ; the
walls consist of equal blocks of freestone, showing a base at the

Fig. 140.

DETACHED TOMBS IN THE ISLE OF AMORGOS. 101

bottom and a cornice at the top. One of the largest among them
(see Figs. 143 and 144) contains in the interior of the chamber,

Fig. 141.

Fig. 142.

the entrance to which is not visible, a strong pillar, which carries
the ceiling, consisting of large beams and slabs of stone ; on it
stood, perhaps, the statue of the deceased.

In the Greek islands tombs are frequently found which, like
the subterraneous chambers, contain several couches for the dead.
They consist of strong masonry, and their ceilings are vaulted,
whence the name tholaria now commonly applied to them. The
only specimen we quote (Fig. 145) has been found in the island
of Amorgos. It comprises three graves, separated from each
other by slabs of stone. Over each of these is a niche in the

Fig. 143.

Fig. 145.

wall, containing glass vessels, lamps, etc. The door is very low ;
its threshold consists of a rounded slab of stone. The tomb itself
is at present covered by alluvial earth, but stood originally above-
ground like others of the same kind in the islands of Ikaros,
Kalymnos, Leros, and others ; some of these tombs contain from
five to six burial compartments.

Graves of this kind were considered chiefly as safe receptacles
of the remnants of the dead ; others were destined at the same
time to preserve the memory of the deceased by means of artistic
beauty. In this manner the grave developed into the monument.

102

TOMB IN THE FORM OF A TEMPLE.

Fig. 146.

The dead, according to Greek notions, were considered as he-
roes, their graves were frequently called heroa, and naturally took
the form of holy edifices. The facades of the above-mentioned
graves in rocks remind us of those of temples, and, on the same
principle, detached tombs (for instance, those in Thera and other
islands) were built like temples. A tomb discovered by Fellows

at Sidyma in Lykia seems to re-
semble a temple, with separate
standing columns in the facade (see
Fig. 146). The same similarity to
a temple is shown by a tomb at
Kyrene, the facade of which, con-
trary to rule, contains two doors
adjoining each other (see Fig. 147).
The most perfect specimen of
this style has been made known by
the researches of Fellows near
Xanthos in Lykia. It is in a state
of almost com-
plete destruction,
but from the well-
preserved base and
from a number of
ruins and redis-
covered sculptures
the plan of the
whole may be con-
jectured with tol-
erable certainty.
A model, as well as the remains of it, is in the British Museum,
in which to each of the single fragments its supposed original po-
sition has been assigned. Another reconstruction, differing from
the above, has been attempted by Falkener, from which we have
borrowed the plan (Fig. 148) and the perspective view (Fig. 149).
According to Falkener's conjectures, the monument consisted of
a base 10.25 metres in length, 6.90 metres in width, and of al-
most the same height, adorned with two surrounding stripes of
battle-scenes in relief, besides an elegant cornice. On this base
rose an Ionic peripteros, the peristylos of which had four columns

Pig 14T.

MAUSOLEUM AT HALIKARNASSOS.

103

on each of the smaller, and six columns on each of the longer
sides ; the cella shows on each side two columns in antis. A
richly-decorated door leads from the pronaos (a) (to which corre-
sponds the posticum (b) on the other side) into the roomy cella (<?).
The frieze and the pediment were adorned with reliefs ; on the
points of the gables stood statues, as also in the interstices be-
tween the rich Ionic columns.
The widely-spread use of such
monuments is shown by a beau-
tiful structure found at Cirta,
on the north coast of Africa (the
Constantine of the present day),
and said to be the grave of
King Micipsa, who founded a
Greek colony in this place. A
square structure rises on a base
of steps (as in the grave of
Theron, at Agrigentum); there
is a door on each side, worked in
relief. On the top of this struct-
ure stands a small Doric temple,
also square in shape, and showing
gables on all sides. The roof
thus formed is carried by eight
columns, again forming a square,
which stand perfectly free, and do not inclose a cella (see Fig.
150).

To conclude, we mention one of the most splendid monumen-
tal graves that ever existed, viz., the tomb of Maussollos, King of
Karia, at Halikarnassos. Unfortunately only ruins remain, which,
by order of the British Government, have been freed from the
surrounding rubbish by Mr. C. T. Newton (1856-'59), and care-
fully measured by the architect of the expedition, Mr. R. P. Pul-
lan. Pliny (" Hist. Nat.," xxxvi., 5, § 4, ed. Sillig), in his de-
scription of this monument (considered by the ancients as one of
the seven wonders of the world), says that Artemisia erected it
for her husband Maussollos (ob. Olympiad 167, 352 b. c). It is
an oblong, measuring from north to south 63 feet, the front and
back being a little shorter. The circumference of the monu-

Fig. 148.

104

MAUSOLEUM AT HALIKARNASSOS.

ment (i. e., of the peribolos) amounts to 411 feet ; it rises to a

height of 25 cubits
(37£ feet), and is sur-
rounded by thirty-
six columns. The
colonnade round the
tomb was called the
pteron. The sculpt-
ures on the east
side were by Skopas,
those on the north
side by Bryaxis,
those on the south
side by Timotheos,
and those on the
west side by Leo-
chares. Above the
pteron rises a pyr-
amid corresponding
in size to the bottom
part, which on 24
steps narrows itself
into a pointed column. On the
top is a quadriga of marble,
the work of Pythis, including
which the height of the whole
monument is 140 feet. From
marble steps, pieces of col-
umns, capitals, and some frag-
ments of sculptures, together
with Pliny's remarks, the
mentioned English scholars
have cleverly conjectured the
original form of the building.
The chief view of the west-
ern front is shown in Fig.
151 according to their designs.
We prefer Pullan's attempt
at a reconstruction to that of

Fig. 149.

MA USOLEUM.—KENOTAPHIA.

105

Falkener, inserted in our former editions. From fragments of
the horses and chariot of the quadriga, its own dimensions, as
well as the circumference of the pyramid on which it stood, can
be calculated, the height of the latter being definable by the dis-
covered steps, and that of the pteron by the columns, etc. In
many places the traces of painting in red and blue have been dis-
covered. Of the above-mentioned reliefs fourteen tablets were

' I ' i ' i ' i T"1-

' i

i i ' i

1 i

1 ' 1 !

, I

1 ' 1 l

— i — — i — — r

-1 — |—

i i

,','','

1 1 '

1 i ■ i

' 1 ', 1 ', L

' 1

rr; i ; i

— jf

t§t

-1

4 \*

Fig. 151.

found let into the walls of the Turkish citadel of Budrun, built
from the ruins of Halikarnassos. In 1846 they were purchased
by the English Government for the British Museum. By the
Romans the word mausoleum was used as a general term for
tombs, reminding us by their splendor or design of our monument.
c. In some of the artistic grave-monuments the keeping of
the body was quite dispensed with. We are speaking of the so-
called kenotaphia, erected to deceased persons whose remains were
not in the possession of their friends, or their paternal city, which
wished to honor their memory. This leads us to monuments

106

CHORAaiC MONUMENT.— PALjESTRAL

erected in honor of living persons, for instance, of victors in
pnblic games, or wrestling-competitions. The most beautiful
among them, and, at the same time, one of the loveliest remnants
of Greek antiquity, is the one erected at Athens to commemorate
the victory gained by the choragos Lysikrates (334 b. a). It is
called either the choragic monument of
Lysikrates, or the lantern of Diogenes
(Fig. 152). It is altogether 34 feet high.
The base is slender and square in shape ;
on it rises an elegent little round temple ;
six Korinthian semi-columns protrude
from the circular wall (see Fig. 11) carry-
ing beams, the frieze of which represents
an episode from the history of Dionysos,
the god of festive games. Above the
beams is the roof, wrought in the shape
of a flat cupola from a large block of
marble ; from the middle of it a stone-
flower of acanthus-leaves seems to grow.
It served to support a tripod, for the
legs of which artistically-decorated rest-
ing-points have been preserved on the
cupola.

25. Among public buildings we men-
tioned first the gymnasia, which, origi-
nating in the requirements of single per-
sons, soon became centre-points of Greek
life. Corporeal exercise was of great
;^ -• — Hj importance among the Greeks, and the

fci;" """„'■ ■ ~~ 111 games and competitions in the various

fig. 152. kinds of bodily skill (to which we shall

return) formed a chief feature of their
religious feasts. This circumstance reacted on both sculpture and
architecture, in supplying the former with models of ideal beauty,
and in setting the task to the latter of providing suitable places
for these games to be celebrated. For purposes of this kind (as
far as public exhibition was not concerned) the palaestrai and
gymnasia served. In earlier times these two must be distin-
guished. In the palsestra (iroXaiarpa from iraXr}, wrestling)

Pjh '■

1?^: ""

SINGLE PARTS OF TEE GYMNASIOK 107

young men practised wrestling and boxing. As these arts were
gradually developed, larger establishments with separate com-
partments became necessary. Originally such places were, like
the schools of the grammarians, kept by private persons ; some-
times they consisted only of open spaces, if possible near a brook
and surrounded by trees. Soon, however, regular buildings —
gymnasia — became necessary. At first they consisted of an un-
covered court surrounded by colonnades, adjoining which lay
covered spaces, the former being used for running and jumping,
the latter for wrestling. In the same degree as these exercises
became more developed, and as grown-up men began to take an
interest in these youthful sports, and spent a great part of their
day at the gymnasia, these grew in size and splendor. They soon
became a necessary of life, and no town could be without them,
larger cities often containing several. Minute descriptions of
these establishments by Greek authors we do not possess, but the
important parts are known to us from occasional remarks, particu-
larly in the Platonic dialogues. There we find mentioned the
icfyrjftelov, where the youths used to practise ; further, the bath
(/3a\aveiov), to which belonged a dry sweating-bath {irvpiarripLov),
for the use of both wrestlers and visitors. The airoBvTrjpLov was
the room for undressing. In another room, the eXaiodrjcrtov, the
oil was kept for rubbing the wrestlers, and there possibly this
rubbing itself took place ; in the KovLar-qpLov the wrestlers were
sprinkled with sand, so as to give them a firm hold on each other.
The o-(f)atpL(TTr}piov was destined for games at balls, while other
passages, open or covered (collectively called Spofios), were used
for practice in running or simply for walking. A particular kind
of covered passage were the %vaToi, which had raised platforms
on both sides for the walkers, the lower space between being used
by the wrestlers — an arrangement similar to that of the stadia,
whence the name of porticus stadiatm applied to them by the
Romans.

About the connection of these different parts we receive infor-
mation by Yitruvius, who, in his fifth book about architecture
(chapter xi.), gives a full description of a Greek gymnasion. He
begins his architectural rules (derived from the gymnasia of late
Greek times) with the court, which, as in the dwelling-house, is
called TrepMJTvXiov, and may be either a perfect square or an ob-

108 SINGLE PARTS OF THE GYMNASION.

long ; its whole circumference ought to be 2 stadia = 1,200 feet.
It is surrounded by colonnades on all four sides, that toward the
south being double, in order to shelter the rooms lying on that
side against the weather. Adjoining the single colonnades lay
spacious halls (exedrce), with seats for philosophers, rhetoricians,
and others ; behind the double colonnade lay various rooms, the
centre one (ephebeum) being a large hall with seats, for the young
men to practise in. Like the prostas of the older dwelling-house
it seems to have been the centre of the whole building. To the
right of it were the coryceum (for games at balls, fccopv/cos), the
conisterium (see p. 109), and next to it, where the colonnade
made an angle, the frigida lavatio (cold bath), called by the
Greeks Xovrpov. On the other side, in the same order, lay the
elceothesium, the frigidarium, or rather, which is more likely, the
tepidarimn (tepid bath), and the entrance to the prqpnigeum
(heating-room), with a sweating-bath near it, to which, on the
other side, were joined a laconicum and the calda lavatio.

In most cases this was the whole of the gymnasion. At a
later, more splendor-loving period, these establishments were
considerably enlarged, and in some cases a stadion was added to
the gymnasion. Yitruvius mentions this extension in his addi-
tions to the above description. He says that, beyond this peri-
stylos, three porticoes may be added (with remarkable analogy to
the addition of a second court to the older dwelling-house) : one
on the side forming the peristylos (his name for the whole of the
buildings just described), and two others to right and left of it.
The first-mentioned one, toward the north, ought to be very
broad, with a double colonnade ; the others, simple, with raised
platforms (margines), at least 10 feet wide, going round at the
side nearest to the wall and columns ; the deeper-lying centre,
with steps leading to it, being destined for the wrestlers to prac-
tise in during the winter, so as not to disturb those walking on
the platforms. These, he says, were the %v<ttoI of the Greeks.
Between these two %v<TToi are to be plantations, gardens, and
public walks, called by the Greeks TrepiSpofil&es, by the Romans
xysti / on the third side of these grounds lies the stadion, a large
space for the accommodation of both spectators and wrestlers.

These precepts, of course, were not carried out in every Greek
gymnasion ; they only may serve to give a general notion of such

GYMFASION AT II IE RAP 0 LIS.

109

establishments. Instead of adding a new one to the many con-
jectural designs attempted by archaeologists, we will give a de-
scription of a really existing Greek gymnasion, which, although
very simple in design, tallies in the most essential points with the
description of Yitruvius. Leake has discovered its remains at
Hierapolis in Asia Minor {see plan, Fig. 153, scale = 90 metres).
A A are covered passages, B the open colonnade, behind which
the chief building is situated. In the latter the ephebeum (D) forms
the centre, joined on one side by the coryceum (E), the coniste-

Fra. 158.

rium (F) and the cold bath (G), to the latter of which belonged
perhaps the room I. In the two rooms opening toward the
portico we must recognize the apodyteria, which Vitruvius does
not mention at all. Room H would, according to Yitruvius, be
the elaeothesium, L the tepidarium, and N" the entrance to the
heating-room and to the warm baths (M O), of which Yitruvius
mentions the various divisions. Turning to the back part of the
establishment, we notice several rooms (C C), either exedrce or
rooms for the keepers, between which lies the double portico (P),

110

GYMNAST ON AT EPHESOS.

turned toward the north, and forming the entrance from the first
into the second division. Q Q are the covered passages with sin-
gle porticoes, the plantation (R R) lies between them, the third
side of the quadrangle being occupied by the course (S), with
steps (T) for the spectators.

Quite different is the arrangement of the Gymnasion of Eph-
esos, which was built brobably by the Emperor Hadrianus, and is
among the best-preserved ones in existence (see plan, Fig. 154,
scale = 100 feet, English measure). The frequent use of the
vault proves its Roman origin, while in the arrangement of the
chief parts the essential features of Greek construction remain

Fig. 154.

the same. We find no peristylos, the chief building being, in-
stead of it, surrounded by a portico (crijpto-jporticus, A) joined
by numerous exedrae, which, however, are not, as Yitruvius
prescribes, sjtatiosce, but resemble small niches of both round and
quadrangular shapes. From the portico one enters an open space,
thought to be the palaestra (B), and evidently intended to supply
the peristylos. After it follows the ephebeum (C), which here
also is the real centre of the building. The rooms D D seem to
have had no communication with the ephebeum ; they open into
the palaestra B, and may be considered as elaeothesium and conis-
terium, unless we take them for the apodyteria. Behind the

THE AGORA. HI

ephebeum lies a passage (E) leading to the baths, F and G being
most likely the situations of the cold, L and M those of the
warmer baths. H H are explained by the editors of the " Ionian
Antiquities " as the hot or sudatory bath. Near I a staircase leads
into a vaulted chamber, still blackened by smoke, which the
editors take to be a laconicum. Perhaps it may have been a
propnigeum, the room above being in that case the laconicum
proper. K, which corresponds to the palaestra B, was most likely
the sphseristerium or coryceum.

26. The centre of political and commercial intercourse was the
agora. Like the gymnasion, and even earlier than this, it grew
into architectural splendor with the increasing culture of the
Greeks. In maritime cities it generally lay near the sea ; in
inland places at the foot of the hill which carried the old feudal
castle. Being the oldest part of the city, it naturally became the
focus not only of commercial, but also of religious and political
life. Here even in Homer's time the citizens assembled in con-
sultation, for which purpose it was supplied with seats ; here were
the oldest sanctuaries ; here were celebrated the first festive
games ; here centred the roads on which the intercommunication,
both religious and commercial, with neighboring cities and states
was carried on ; from here started the processions which contin-
ually passed between holy places of kindred origin, though local-
ly separated. Although originally all public transactions were
carried on in these market-places, special local arrangements for
contracting public business soon became necessary in large cities.
At Athens, for instance, the gently-rising ground of the Philopap-
pos hill, called Pnyx, touching the Agora, was used for political
consultations, while most likely, about the time of the Pisistra-
tides, the market of Kerameikos, the oldest seat of Attic industry
(lying between the foot of the Akropolis, the Areopagos, and the
hill of Theseus), became the agora proper, i. e., the centre of
Athenian commerce. The described circumstances naturally led
to an ornamentation of the market-place. Nevertheless, in old
towns the agora was not an artistic whole with a distinct archi-
tectural design. Its confines were originally irregular, and the
site of temples, and the direction of the streets leading into it,
made an alteration of its boundary-line difficult. This was differ-
ent in cities founded at a later period ; the regular construction of

112

A GOB A OF DEL OS.

the agora seems indeed to have been initiated by the colonies of
Asia Minor. Pausanias says of the market-place of Elis, that
it was not built according to the Ionian custom, but in a more
ancient style.

Concerning these Ionic market-buildings, we again meet with
the form of a quadrangular court surrounded by colonnades. This
form, eminently suited to the climate, was frequently used by the
Greeks, both in private and public buildings. The description
by Yitruvius (" Arch.," v., 1) of an agora evidently refers to the
splendid structures of post-Alexandrine times. According to him
it was quadrangular in size, and surrounded by wide double colon-
nades. The numerous col-
umns carried architraves
of common stone or of
marble, and on the roofs
of the porticoes were gal-
leries for walking pur-
poses. This, of course,
does not apply to all mar-
ket-places, even of later
date ; but, upon the whole,
the remaining specimens
agree with the description
of Yitruvius. Figs. 155
and 156 illustrate the beau-
tiful market-place of De-
los. It lies on a terrace
near the small harbor of
the town, and consists of
a quadrangular court surrounded by a Doric colonnade. The
length of the whole is 170 feet (English measure). The western
colonnade (A) is the largest, being 40 feet wide ; it has a num-
ber of doors through which the entrance from the terrace and
the sea into the agora was effected. E and F mark the sites
where, most likely, stood altars ; in the centre of the open area
was a fountain.

Richer and larger was the agora of Aphrodisias in Karia. It
occupied an area of 525 by 213 feet, and the inside of it was
adorned with an elegant Ionic colonnade containing marble

Fig. 155.

"TOWER OF THE WINDS" AT ATHENS.

113

Fig 156.

benches. Outside of the inclosing wall was also a colonnade.
Altogether 460 columns stood in this place.

To complete the picture of a Greek agora we mention a mon-
ument which once adorned the market-place of Athens. It is the
so-called " Tower of the
Winds," erected about 50
b. c. by Andronikus of
Kyrrhos, and supplying
two important require-
ments of commercial
gatherings. The interior
contained a water-clock,
and on the floor (see Fig.
157) the grooves are still
recognizable, the gradu-
al filling of which with
water from a reservoir
marked the passing time.
On the top of the roof is
a capital, and on it stands
a movable bronze figure
of a Triton (no more in
existence), which, moved
round by the wind, point-
ed with its staff to the
different directions of
the winds, the figures
of which, in bass-relief,
adorned the eight sides
of the building. Under-
neath this frieze the lines
of a sun-dial are chiseled
into the wall. Two small
porticoes contain each
two fluted columns with-
out bases, the capitals of which remind us of the Korinthian style.
A semicircular building is affixed to the chief edifice, the whole
impression of which is extremely graceful (Fig. 158).

27. "We have repeatedly mentioned the stoa or colonnade in
8

114 • THE 8T0A.

connection with other buildings ; we now have to consider it as a
separate artistic erection. Something of the kind we have already
seen in the xysti, where wide colonnades were terminated on one
side by a wall, on the other by a row of columns. In the same
manner the stoa, as an independent building, occurs both as an
ornament of streets and squares, and as a convenient locality for

Fig. 158.

walks and public meetings. Its simplest form is that of a colon-
nade bounded by a wall. This back-wall offers a splendid surface
for decorations, and is frequently adorned with pictures. A stoa
in the market-place of Athens contained illustrations of the bat-
tle of (Enoe, of the fight of the Athenians against the Amazons,
of the destruction of Troy, and of the battle of Marathon ; hence
the name <ttocl iroiKikt).

DOUBLE 8T0A8 AT P^ESTUM AND TE0RIK08. 115

The progress from this simple form to a further extension is
on a principle somewhat analogous to what we have observed in
the temple ; that is, a row of columns was added on the other
side of the wall. The result was a double colonnade, gtocl 8i7r\rj}
as a specimen of which, Pausanias mentions the Korkyraic stoa
near the market-place of Elis. As im-
portant we notice Pausanias's remark
that this stoa " contained in the mid-
dle not columns, but a wall ; " which
shows that most of the double colon-
nades contained columns in the cen-
tre as props of the roof. Indeed, such
remains as are preserved indicate this
arrangement more or less distinctly.
This is the case particularly with the
so-called basilica of Paestum. This
building, lying to the south of the
small temple, looks itself at first sight
like a temple, from which, however,
it differs considerably on closer inves-
tigation. First of all, it has on its
smaller sides an uneven number of
columns (viz., 9), while in the temple
the situation of the entrance in the
middle necessitated an even number
of columns. Inside the colonnade
we here find, instead of the walls of
the cella, rows of columns, and in the middle between these an-
other row of slightly larger columns, which divide the building
into two equal parts, and, like the wall in the Korkyraic monu-
ment at Elis, carry the roof.

The design of the colonnade at Thorikos in Attica seems to
have been of a similar character (see Fig. 159). It has seven
columns in each of the two smaller facades (a little over 4S
English feet wide) and fourteen on each of the long sides; a row
of columns in the middle (no more in existence) seems to have
carried the roof.

In stoas destined for public consultations a further division
of the centre space became desirable, and, indeed, we are told that

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Fig. 159.

116

STOA AT ELIS.—THE HIPPODROME.

in some of them the interior was divided by rows of columns into
three naves. Touching the agora of Elis, toward the south lay a
stoa in which the Hellanodikai assembled for common consulta-
tions. It was of the Doric order, and divided into three parts by
two rows of columns. If we assume that it was surrounded by a
wall, instead of a simple row of columns, Fig. 160 will show us
the design (scale = 50 feet). A is the centre nave, B B the two
side naves, C a semicircular termination to the centre nave analo-
gous to the exedrce in the gymnasia ; D is the portico by means of
which the building opens toward the agora. In this way we gain
the form of a building somewhat similar both to the cella of a
temple and to the Roman basilica. Perhaps the aroa /3a<r/Xeto?

in the agora of Athens, where the
the Archon Basileus sat in judg-
ment, was arranged in a similar
manner.

28. The arts practised in the
gymnasia were publicly displayed
at the festivals. The buildings in
which these displays took place
were modified according to their
varieties. The races both on horse-
back and in chariots took place in
the hippodrome (l7nr6EpofjLos:), for the gymnastic games of the
pentathlon served the stadion (o-TdScov), while for the acme of
the festivals, the musical and dramatic performances, theatres
were erected.

Hippodromes were originally of very simple design. The he-
roes before Troy raced in a plain near the sea, the boundaries of
which were marked in the most primitive manner ; a dry tree one
fathom (Klafter) in height, with two white shining stones lean-
ing against it, served as the goal (p--r}/ui). The spectators took
their seats where they could find them on the hills, near which a
course was generally chosen with this view.

This regard to the locality, so characteristic of Greek architect-
ure, was even observed when the recurrence of festive games had
made more complicated arrangements necessary. This was par-
ticularly the case with the hippodrome of Olympia, of which we
possess minute descriptions, and which therefore may serve as an

Fig. 160.

HIPPODROME OF OLYMPIA.

117

example of Greek race-courses in general. Pausanias says in his
description of this building (if so it may be called), that one side of
it was formed by a low range
of hills, where the seats of
the spectators were situ-
ated. Perhaps this one side
was sufficient for that pur-
pose during the first time
after the introduction of
races (Olympiad 25). But
when the multitudes at the
Olympian festivals began
to increase more and more,
a wall of earth (%w/xa) was
erected opposite the hill-
side with more seats. These
two platforms bounded the
course proper on its two
long sides, the wall being
a little longer than the
hill, owing perhaps to the
oblique direction of the
line of starting. It lay to
the left of the hill, and,
being extended as far as the
wall, finished the course
on this side ; the architect-
ural boundary of the whole
was formed on the same
side by a portico built by
Agnaptos. On the oppo-
site side the wall joined the
hill in a semicircle, with an
outlet in the centre, which
on this side finished the
course. Here also was
placed the goal round

which the charioteer had to turn, the most difficult operation of
the whole race. " Here was," says Pausanias, after mentioning

Fig. 101.

118 HIPPODROME OF OLYMPIA.

the outlet, " the horror of horses, the taraxippos (rapafyTnros).
It has the form of a round altar, and, when the horses pass it,
they are struck, without a visible cause, with great fear, which
produces restiveness and confusion ; the reason why often the
chariots break, and the charioteers are wounded." A second
goal was at the other end of the course ; on it stood the statue
of Hippodameia, and it marked the spot which the chariots, after
rounding the taraxippos, had to -reach in order to gain the vic-
tory. The plan of the course is shown by Fig. 161 (scale = 300
feet), according to Hirt's investigations. A is the slope of the
hill, R the rows of seats on the wall, C C the semicircle joining
the hill, D the above-mentioned passage. Opposite this stands
the taraxippos E, F being the second goal with the statue of
Hippodameia. Whether between these two goals the ground was
raised, in analogy to the spina of the Roman circus, or whether
the line of separation between the up and down courses was
marked by columns, Pausanias does not say. Some arrangement
of this kind must certainly have been desirable, and has therefore
been conjectured by several archaeologists (G). The side of the
Hippodrome lying opposite the curve is closed by the portico of
Agnaptos (H). In front of it was a contrivance which, although
Pausanias describes it with evident gusto, can hardly be recognized
with certainty. It is the afyecn^ the start (J J) or barrier, from
which, on a given sign (a bronze eagle thrown into the air by
some mechanical appliance), the horses dragging the chariots set
out on their run. The afyeaus protruded into the space of the
course like the prow of a vessel, each of its two sides being about
400 feet long. Inside it were the places for horses and chariots
(olKrjfjbara). They were placed with a view to showing perfect
impartiality to all competitors, and were assigned to them by lot.
Each compartment was closed by a rope ; on a sign being given
the rope was first withdrawn from the compartment nearest the
portico (a a); when the horses thus released had reached the
compartment (b h), the rope was withdrawn there and two other
chariots (or racing-horses) entered the course, and so forth up to
the farthest point of the afaaLs.1 Between the lists and the

1 On this ImraQeoic the inventor of it, Kleoetas, the Athenian sculptor, prided
himself much. The whole arrangement, however, has been doubted, as too com-
plicated for the practically-minded Greeks. Still the words of Pausanias distinctly

THE STADION.

119

portico of Agnaptos lay an open court (K), in which the prepara-
tions for the race were made, and where stood the statues of
Poseidon Hippios and Here Hippia. Altars and statues were,
moreover, placed in various points of the building. Two of the
former were respectively dedicated to Aries Hippios and Athene
Hippia, as the protecting deities of warlike and chivalrous ex-
ercises ; others were devoted to the ayadr) tv^t), to Pan, Aphro-
dite, and the Nymphs, not to mention several other divinities.
Demeter Chamyne had a temple on the top of the hill, most
likely above the spectators' seats.

29. Analogous to the design of the hippodrome was that of
the stadion (gto&lov). This being originally designed for the
running of foot-races, its lengthwise shape was also determined.

Fig. 162.

The runners here, however, being men, both the length and width
of the course were of smaller dimensions. The usual length of
the stadion was 600 feet, a measure which, first decided upon by
Herakles for the stadion of Olympia, afterward became the unit
of the Greek road-measure. Some of the stadia are, however,
much longer ; the one at Laodikeia being, for instance, 1,000 feet
long by only 90 wide {see Fig. 162). Here a natural declivity of
the soil had been made available. The games took place in the
valley, the spectators being seated on the slope of the hill, which
for that purpose had been formed into terraces. Such favorable
situations, however, being scarce, generally the sides of the stadion

indicate the gradual releasing of the horses, and also the two sides of the starting-
line.

120

STADION OF MESSENE.

had to be artificially raised, which was done by surrounding it
with a wall of earth.1 This arrangement seems to have been the
common one among the Greeks, and Pausanias mentions several
stadia (for instance, at Corinth, Thebes, Athens, Olympia, and
Epidauros) consisting of a %«/*« ; moreover, he mentions ex-
pressly that this was the usual way of their construction. In
later times artistic decorations were added, and the seats built of

solid stone. The stadion
of Messene is a beauti-
ful example of natural
fitness and additional ar-
tistic arrangement. Ly-
ing in the lower parts
of the town its form was
determined by the na-
ture of the soil (see Fig.
163, scale = 100 me-
tres). The area, the
scene of the competitions
(a a), lies in a natural
hollow through which
flows a brook. The hills
on both sides were used
for seats (b b) without
any attempts being made
at making the two long
sides of the stadion par-
allel. Colonnades were
erected on the top of
the rising ground, and
the semicircular termi-
nation of the course was fitted with stone seats all round. The
colonnade (C) extended on one side to the end of the course,
which is there finished by the town wall (7c) ; on the other it ends

1 Sometimes this was done only on one side of the stadia, as was, for instance, the
case in that lying, according tb Pausanias, behind the theatre of iEgina. Ross says
of the stadion of Delos, that its western side is bounded by a hill, the eastern one
being left entirely without seats, with the exception of a kind of tribune about forty-
five paces in length lying right in the centre, and having contained, as it seems, three
or four rows of seats.

Fig. 16a

LISTS.— STARTING-POINT.— GOAL. 121

in an obtuse angle (d), owing to the slight decline of the ground at
that point. The colonnades also extend toward the end of the
course, where they inclose a square court, and are joined together
by a double portico (e e). This double portico seems to have been
the chief entrance, the wall inclosing this whole part being
besides interrupted by two minor entrances {f and g). In the
centre of this raised peristyle lies the semicircular termination of
the stadion (h A), called by the Greeks afyevhovT), or occasionally
Oearpov, owing to its similitude to the place for the spectators of
a theatre. It was reserved for wrestling-matches, the pankration,
and the like. Here, at Olympia, the umpires were seated; at
Messene also this space was evidently reserved for a better class
of people ; hence the sixteen rows of benches surrounding the
area all made of stone. Two protrusions of the surrounding
colonnade (ii) give this space a beautiful architectural conclusion
{see the section of the stadion, Fig. 164, scale = 70 metres).

Fia. 164

Eight opposite, in a curve of the town wall, lies a building evi-
dently used for religious purposes. The stadion of Ephesos was
entirely a product of art ; it seems to date from the later time of
the city's splendor under the successors of Alexander the Great,
or even under the Roman emperors.

The barrier from which the runners started was on the same
side as in the hippodrome, the goal, which was not wanting in
the stadion, being placed in or near the curve of the sphendone.
Both starting-point and goal were marked by columns ; a third
column, according to one account, stood between them in the centre
of the stadion. These three formed the line (perhaps otherwise
marked) dividing the stadion into two halves, an arrangement
necessary for the " double run " and the run against time. For in
these the runner had to turn round at the goal {yvaaa, repfia, etc.)
and run back. This seems indicated by the inscription written on
the last column, according to tile account of the Scholiast (So-
phokles, El. 691), of Kapdfov (turn !), the words on the two other

122

STADIOJST OF APHRODISIAS.

columns being aplareve (be brave !) and airevBe (make haste !) The

stadia with semicircles at both ends
required a different arrangement.
These seem to belong to a later
epoch, and may in many cases have
been imitated from Eoman amphi-
theatres. A beautiful specimen- of
F |ij this later style is the stadion of

jj««»*^J ^ ,„\.i ; Aphrodisias in Karia, which is

t ' ' I ; about 895 English feet in length

Ell jj a '. (see Fig. LG5). Here also a natural
. declivity of the soil has been turned

p'| ( "'"' ^: to account, and, in order to have

t j^^J IS room for rows of seats, the hollow

fc ■ > has been artificially increased. The

,{• t^^^i ^Jiip" whole space is surrounded bv a wall •

t i I ' with ornamental arcades (see cross-

^~^=, .--^4^; section, Fig. 16G), through which

t j..::;!;,.^! 1 ; fifteen public entrances led into the

F f|- interior ; several subterraneous pas-

C- -I -^«4n4: sages opened into the area without

£ (I ; touching the seats of the spectators

rTT "j\ (see longitudinal section, Fig. 167).

ril 111 111. & -i ,-.

t! J J- ouch passages seem to have been

FTTTI I : common. Pausanias (vi., 20, 8)

^.LulLi ^4ili: mentions one in the stadion of

F ■* Olympia through which the com-

r 111 • • •

petitors and the Hellanodikai used

to enter ; the Olympian stadion at
Athens still shows on its left long-
side the traces of a subterraneous
entrance, cut through the rock.

30. The theatres formed the
climax of festive architecture in
Greece, in accordance with the im-
portant position of the drama in
Greek poetry. Their beginnings
were, however, simple, the more
so as they were in use before the drama had attained its artistic

THE TEE ATE E.

123

development. Originally they were destined for the performance
of the choric dances and songs appertaining to the worship of
Dionysos, but soon they obtained public importance, and became
both a means of artistic culture for youths and maidens and a
source of public enjoyment. Theatres were even used for quite
different purposes. Pageants of all kinds could take place in
them, and at the same time they offered a convenient point for the
communications made to the people on the part of the government.
Kegular public meetings were held in theatres, as was, for
instance, commonly the case at Athens in the great theatre of
Dionysos, even after the dramatic performances had reached a high
perfection.

MfMnnnnnnnnr|^^^0

Fig. 166.

Fig. 167.

The form and construction of the buildings were here again
adapted to local circumstances, natural risings of the ground being
generally chosen for the purpose. Differently from the hippo-
drome or stadion, the action here had to be fixed to a certain point,
round which the spectators' seats had to be arranged, so as to
enable them to direct their eyes to this centre of action. Hence
the form of a greater or smaller segment of the circle was chosen
as most convenient.

The oldest theatres consisted of two chief divisions ; the stage
for the dancers (xopo?* opxva"rPa) an(^ tne P^ace f°r tne spectators.
The former was leveled in the simplest manner ; in the centre

124: THE ORCHESTRA.

stood the altar of the god to be celebrated, most frequently
Dionysos, whose worship was connected with dancing. Round the
orchestra rose on the one side the seats of the spectators, in the
form of a semicircle or of a large segment mostly on the slope of
a hill. Originally the people sat on the hill itself, afterward seats
(first of wood, later of stone) were put up, where the soil was soft ;
where it was rocky, concentric rows of seats were cut into it. This
custom was not relinquished by the Greeks even after the demands
of artistic beauty and perfection were pitched very high, which
explains the fact that in Greece proper only one theatre (at
Mantinea) has been discovered where the natural height has been
supplied by an artificial one, which simply consists of an earth-
wall propped by surrounding walls of polygonal stones and covered
with row's of seats.

Only in very few cases, however, was the locality naturally
quite adapted to the purpose. Generally alterations and enlarge-
ments were required, which ultimately, in the splendor-loving
cities of Asia Minor, at a post-Alexandrine period, led to the
theatre being wholly built of stone.

Other alterations of the original theatres date from a much
earlier period. From the original Bacchic. chorus the drama had
developed into tragedy and comedy ; and, although these are said
to have been performed at first by Thespis on a movable scaffold,
they soon were transferred into the standing theatres, the more
easily as the drama itself was considered as part of the Dionysos-
worship. This circumstance made the erection of a stage neces-
sary. Even in the older theatres a wall had been erected at the
back of the orchestra, partly for architectural, partly for acoustic
reasons, and this wall now was gradually extended into a separate
stage-building. The first theatre erected of stone with a regular
stage was that of Athens, which became the model of all others,
both in Greece and the colonies. It was dedicated to Dionysos.
After the wooden scaffolds, originally used, had broken down
during a theatrical performance in which ^Eschylos and Pratinas
appeared as competitors, this theatre was built on the southern
slope of the Akropolis (see Fig. 51, J). The hill itself was partly
turned to account architecturally. The theatre was begun in
Olympiad 70, and finished between 340-330 b. a, under Lykurgos.
It had almost entirely disappeared under the rubbish of centuries

THE STAGE.— THE PLACE FOR THE SPECTATORS. 125

Fig. 166.

when it was restored to light in its whole extent by the celebrated
German architect Strack in 1862 (see Fig. 181).

In the theatre of Athens a common type had been gained,
which, with many local modifications, was reproduced ever after.
The theatre was divided into three
parts — the orchestra, forming al-
most a complete circle, the place for
the spectators, and the stage-build-
ing. The place for the spectators
(to /cotXov, the hollow pit) consisted
of several steps rising round the or-
chestra in a semicircle or larger seg-
ment, and serving the audience as
seats (iBcokiov). Toward the stage
the seats were closed by a wall,
which served both
as a prop and a
boundary, and, fol-
lowing the rising
line of the seats,
did not obstruct
the view on to the
stage. The posi-
tion of these walls,
standing either in
an obtuse angle
toward each other,

or in a straight line, was the cause of two different arrangements,
according to which we may divide all the Greek theatres known
to us into two classes. As
an example of the first
class, we may mention the
theatre of Delos (see Fig.
168, scale = 50 metres).
It consists of a natural
rising of the ground, being
artificially brought into a
more regular shape, and completed by a solid wall 19 feet thick
by 30 long.

Fig. 169.

Fig. 170.

126

THEATRE AT STRATONIKEIA.

Another example is the theatre of Stratonikeia {see Fig. 169,
scale = 60 feet, English measure), built most likely at the time
of the Seleukides, and enlarged under the Koman emperors.

Of theatres with a rectangular termination of their seats we
mention that of Magalopolis in Arkadia, originally one of the
largest and most beautiful in Greece (see Fig. 170). It consists
of a hill considerably enlarged, in consequence of which Pausa-
nias calls it the largest theatre. The accounts of its diameter
differ from 480 to 600 feet. In its present ruined condition
neither the stage nor the seats are distinctly recognizable.

The same form is shown by the theatre of Segesta, in Sicily,

the koilon of which
dates from early Greek
times ; other rows of
seats on artificial bases,
in addition to the origi-
nal twenty, have later
been added. A pas-
sage divides the earlier
and later parts of the
seats. The remnants
of the stage belong to later Eoman times. Fig. 171 shows the
perspective view, Fig. 172 the plan (scale = 140 Sicilian palms).

Fig. 171.

Fig. 172.

The interruption of the rows of seats by wider intervals is

DIAZ OM ATA.

127

frequently found in theatres, particularly in the larger ones. In
order to facilitate the ascent to the rows and single seats, these
passages {Bia^cofiara) used to divide the seats into several con-
centric stripes. One diazoma only occurs both in the theatres of
Segesta and Stratonikeia (Fig. 169). Others have two, as, for
instance, the small theatre of Knidos, which has also been con-
sidered as an odeum {see Fig. 1 73 ; width of the orchestra =
about 65 English feet). Its koilon is inclosed by rectangular
walls, most likely owing to the direction of the streets between
which the theatre lies.

The theatre at Dramyssos in Epeiros has three diazomata, two
dividing the seats, and one inclosing the whole koilon ; it may at
the same time serve as an example of the above-mentioned rec-

Fig. 173.

tangularly closed theatre. The koilon {see Fig. 174 ; scale =
100 English feet) is well preserved ; in the place of the upper
third diazoma Donaldson conjectures a colonnade, of which, how-
ever, no remnants are now in existence. The diameter of the
orchestra is very small compared with that of the spectators'
place ; d and e mark steps leading up to the second diazoma.
The style of the building is very simple, and it therefore is con-
sidered by many as very early and of Greek origin ; according

128

ENTRANCES AND STEPS.

to others it belongs to Roman times. Of the stage-building no
recognizable parts remain.

On the outside the koilon was generally inclosed by a wall,
as is shown by the theatre of Dramyssos and others ; Vitruvius
in his description of the Greek theatre speaks of a colonnade, but
of this no authentic traces remain in ruins of the Greek period.

The entrances to the seats were generally between the prop-
ping walls and the stage-building ; the spectators ascended from
the orchestra. In larger theatres other entrances became desira-
ble. In the theatre of Dramyssos stairs on the outside of the
propping wall led to the first diazoma. In other theatres, where
the locality permitted, entrances to the upper parts of the koilon
had been arranged, as, for instance, in the theatre of Segesta,
and also in that of Sikyon {see Fig. 175 ; scale = 60 metres). In
the latter, two passages (a and h) led through the mountain itself
into the centre of the koilon {see a view of passage a, Fig. 176).
Moreover, the single rows of seats intercommunicated in all thea-
tres by means of narrow stairs, which, verging like radii toward
the centre of the orchestra, divided the koilon into several wedge-

Fig. 174.

like partitions {/cep/clbes). In Greek theatres these are generally
found in even numbers, varying, according to size and other local
conditions, from two to ten. Where several diazomata are found,
the mutual position of the stairs has been changed (as at Knidos,
Segesta, Stratonikeia), or their number has been doubled (as at
Dramyssos). Two of the stair-steps are equal in size to one of
the sitting-steps, the latter being so arranged that the spectators

SEATS.

129

had room to sit at ease without being inconvenienced by the feet
of those occupying the upper rows. Their height was, according
to Yitruvius, no less than one foot, and not more than one foot
six inches, which small measure is accounted for by the custom
of raising the seats by means of bolsters and cushions ; the width

Fig. 175.

Fig. 176.

of the seats was equal to about twice their height. The steps are
generally simple in design, with a view, however, to convenience
and comfort. Frequently they are slightly raised in front, the
lower part at the back being destined for the feet of those sitting

Fig. 177.

Fig. 178.

in the row behind. This is illustrated in the simplest manner by
the sitting-steps of the theatres of Catana (Fig. 177) and of Akrai
(Fig. 178), in Sicily, a being the sitting-steps, I those of the stairs.

Fig. 179.

Fig. 180

In other theatres the front side of the steps has been slightly
pushed back or hollowed out, so as to gain room for the feet.
Such is the case in the theatres at Megalopolis (Fig. 179), at
9

130

TEE THEATRE.— SITTING-STEPS.

Tauromenium, and at Side in Asia Minor. Particularly comfort-
able are the steps of the theatre at Sparta, with their seats slightly
hollowed out (Fig. 180) ; those at Iasos, in Asia Minor, are formed
in the manner of arm-chairs the seats in front of the diazoma
being real arm-chairs with backs to them, as was also the
case in the theatre of Epidauros, celebrated among the ancients.
Particularly interesting with regard to these arm-chairs is the
above-mentioned theatre of Dionysos at Athens, rediscovered in

Fig. 181.

IS 62. The place for the spectators consists of about one hundred
rows of seats, divided into thirteen kerkides by means of fourteen
stairs, the last two of which lie near the entrances, close by the
side-wall. The height of each step is 0.345 metre, the horizontal
depth 0.782 metre ; the latter is divided into two parts, the front
one (0.332 metre deep) being used as the seat ; the back one
(0.45 metre deep), slightly hollowed, being destined for the feet
of those sitting higher. The width of the stair-steps is 0.70 metre,

THE ORCHESTRA. 13}

their height corresponding with that of the sitting steps in this
manner, that the stair-step at first is 0.22 metre high, but gradu-
ally rises toward the back. In this sloping part grooves have
been cut into the step, so as to prevent people from slipping.
The lowest row of steps immediately surrounding the orchestra
(Fig. 181) is occupied by sixty-seven arm-chairs, by ones, twos, or
threes, hewn from blocks of Pentelic marble. These, as is proved
by their inscriptions, were destined for the priests, archontes, and
thesmothetai, the centre one, richly decorated with bass-reliefs,
being reserved for the priest of Dionysos Eleuthereus. The wall
of the proskenion, also decorated with bass-reliefs, was erected by
the Archon Phaidros, perhaps in the third century after Christ,
while the older wall and the oldest proskenion were placed, the
former by six, the latter by eight metres farther back, owing to
the orchestra required for the chorus of the old tragedy and
comedy being much larger than that wanted for the mimic per-
formances of late Roman times.

The orchestra, as we said before, was the scene of the choric
dances in which the drama had its origin. Even in later theatres
a large space was reserved for this purpose between the place for
the spectators and the stage. This space was larger in the Greek
than in the Roman theatres, in which latter no dances of this
kind took place. Yitruvius describes the Greek orchestra as a
circle into which a square had been designed, so that the four
corners touched the periphery. The side of the square turned
toward the stage terminates the orchestra, the space between this
line and the tangent parallel to it being occupied by the stage.
On the other side the orchestra is inclosed by the seats of the
spectators. In the centre of it stands the thymele, the altar of
Dionysos, which at the same time forms the central point of the
choric dances. The soil was simply leveled ; at meetings it was
perhaps strewed with sand (hence Koviarpa) ; only in case dances
were performed the thymele was surrounded with a floor of boards,
resting most likely on several steps. In case of dramatic per-
formances different arrangements became necessary. For the
chorus had not only to sing and dance, but also to speak to the
actors on the stage, and its place of action had to be raised accord-
ingly. This was done by erecting a scaffolding over one-half of the
konistra as far as the thymele, and placing boards thereon. This

132 THE S1AGE-BUILDING.

raised part was called the orchestra proper, or the scenic orchestra,
to distinguish it from the choreutic one. The latter, by some
feet lower than the stage, was entered by the choreutai by the
same passages (7rap68o<s), between the walls and the koilon,
through which the spectators reached the konistra, and thence
their seats. Steps led up to the orchestra, which again was con-
nected with the stage by means of low movable stairs (fcklfia/ces)
of three or four steps each (fckifjuafCTfipes), as the course of the
drama required frequently the ascending by the chorus of the
stage, and its returning thence to the orchestra. Of these tempo-
rary arrangements naturally nothing remains, hence the various
theories regarding them started by archseologists. Upon these,
however, we cannot enter.

Of the stage-building we have fewer and less well-preserved
remnants than of the place for the spectators. The stage was
called rj (7K7]V7) (tent), an expression dating most likely from
the time when at the back of the orchestra a scaffolding was
erected from which the actors entered as from a kind of tent.
Afterward the same expression was transferred to the stone
theatre, its meaning being now either the whole stage-building,
or, in a narrower sense, the back-wall of the stage. Hence the
expression found in Yitruvius of scena tragica, camica and sa-
tyrica, from the different changes of scenery applied to it. Some-
times the small space in front of the back-wall on which the
actors performed was called a/c^vr), instead of the more common
TrpocncrjVLov. Sometimes also the name Xoyelov was used for this
place, or more particularly for the- centre of it, from which the
actors mostly delivered their speeches. This proskenion was con-
siderably higher than the floor of the konistra, in order to raise,
as it were, the actors into a strange sphere. Probably the whole
space below the wooden floor of the proskenion was called
vttoo-ktJviov ; its outer wall facing the orchestra was, according to
Pollux, decorated with columns and sculptures. From it the
"Charonic steps" {yapoaveioi KklfiaKei) led up to the proskenion,
on which the ghosts of dead persons and river-gods ascended the
stage. The entrance was closed by a sliding slab of wood.
IlapacrKrjvLa were the two juttings of the stage-building inclosing
the proskenion to right and left, liri<jicr]via the different stories of
the stage-wall.

STAGE-BUILDING AT TELMESSOS.

133

Several stage-buildings have been preserved, particularly in
Asiatic cities, but in most of them Roman influences must be
suspected, and they hardly can serve as specimens of purely Greek

LJLJ-L— 1L_

Fig. 182.

arrangements. The theatre of Telmessos in Lykia is perhaps
most adapted to this purpose, owing to its great simplicity (see
Fig. 182). The koilon is formed by a hill, the seats being closed

Fig. 183.

in obtuse angles; one diazoma divides them into two halves,
another serves as an upper passage round them ; eight stairs
divide the place for the spectators into nine /cep/clSes ; the orches-

134 INTERIOR FITTINGS OF HOUSES.

tra is very large, and agrees exactly with the statement of Yitru-
vius ; the proskenion rested on a wooden scaffolding. The wall
of the skene shows five doors, each of them originally inclosed
by two columns. Beneath these one still recognizes the hollows
into which the beams of the floor of the proskenion were placed
{see Fig. 183) ; the doors underneath led into the hyposkenion,
the position of which we have described above. Other specimens
of preserved stage-buildings we shall mention in speaking of the
Roman theatre (§ 84) ; we conclude our description with a per-
spective view of a Greek theatre, designed by Strack according to
the statements of ancient writers and the preserved remnants
(Fig. 184).

Fig. 184.

31. In our description of the private dwellings of the Greeks,
we mentioned that more even than the public buildings they have
suffered from the influence of time. The same applies to their
interior fittings ; only the utensils deposited in graves have es-
caped the common destruction ; in other cases pictures on vases
and sculptural representations must aid us in our description.

The different kinds of seats are specified by the following
expressions — 8icf>po<;, k\mt/jl6<;, KXcvrrjp, /ckco-lr) and Opovos. Di-
phros is a small, backless, easily movable stool, with four legs,
either crossed or perpendicular. The first-mentioned form of the
diphros, called also ofcXaSias Slcfrpos, otcXahlas, or Opovos tttvktos,
hippos rcnreivos, could easily be folded, as the seat consisted only
of interwoven straps. It was, therefore, the custom among the
Athenians to have these folding-stools carried after them by slaves.

CHAIRS.

135

No less frequent were the diphroi with four perpendicular legs,
which could naturally not be folded. Both forms of the diphros
are found on ancient monuments in many varieties. Fig. 185,
a, a diphros okladias, is taken from the marble relief of a grave at
Krissa. The two folding-stools, Fig. 185, b and c, are from pict-
ures on vases ; the legs appear gracefully bent and neatly carved.
The second form of the diphros is shown by Fig. 185, d, and Fig.
186, c. The first is taken from the frieze of the Parthenon,
where similar stools are carried on their heads by the wives and
daughters of the metoikoi who, at the Panathenea, had to submit
to the custom of stool-carrying (Bicfrpofopeiv) : the second illustra-
tion is derived from a marble relief at Athens ; it is remarkable
by its neatly-bent legs and by the turned knobs above the sitting-
board, perhaps destined to fasten the cushion placed thereon. If

Fig. 185.

to this solid diphros we add a back, we come to the second species
of chairs, called /cXio-fios, rcTuvrrip, and /cXialr) (see Fig. 185, e,f).
They are like our ordinary drawing-room chairs, but for the upper
part of the back, which is bent semicircularly, and therefore much
more comfortable than our straight-backed chairs. The legs bent
outward gracefully are in perfect harmony.

Under Opovos we comprise all larger chairs with a straight
back and low arms ; the former reaches either to the middle of
the back, or up to the head, of the sitting person. The thronoi
in the temples were the seats of the gods ; in private houses they
were reserved as seats of honor for the master and his guests.
The thronoi in private houses were mostly made of heavy wood ;
those in the temples, the ekklesiai, dikasteria, bouleuteria, the
stadion, and hippodrome, reserved for the judges and leaders of
the people, were generally wrought in marble. The thronoi were
in different parts richly decorated with carved garlands or figures ;

136

COUCHES AND FOOTSTOOLS.

in sculptures they occur in various forms. The low-backed thro-
nos is shown in Figs. 185, g, and 186, a, the former from the
Harpy-monument at Xanthos, the latter from the frieze of the
Parthenon. The old wooden throne with a high back appears in
a marble relief of the best period (Fig. 186, I), while several
richly-ornamented marble seats in the theatre of Dionysos (Fig.
181), in the Akropolis of Athens (Stuart and Revett, "An-
tiquities," iii., p. 19), illustrate the seats of honor of the athlo-
thetai in the market-places. The existence of thronoi without
backs is proved by the picture on a vase of a thronos (Fig. 185, h)
on which Aigisthos is being killed by Orestes. On the seats of
all these chairs woolly hides, blankets, or bolsters, used to be put,

Fig. 186.

as is mentioned by Homer (see Fig. 185, b, c, e,f, g). To the
throne belonged the footstool (Oprjvvs), either attached to its front
legs, and therefore immovable, or as a separate piece of furniture.
It was considered as* indispensable both to rest the feet and to
mount the high throne. It was used, however, also with low
seats, resembling very much our modern footstool (Fig. 185, d,
and Fig. 186, c). Something similar may have been the massive
wooden footstool (cr</>eXa?) which, in the house of Odysseus, Eu-
rymachos applies as a missile. The width of the footstool corre-
sponds to that of the chair, those used for couches being natural-
ly longer (see Fig. 188).

32. The oldest specimen of a bedstead (k\lvtj) is that men-
tioned by Homer as joined together by Odysseus in his own
house. He had cut off the stem of an olive-tree a few feet from
the ground, and joined to it the boards of the bed, so that the

THE BED.

137

trunk supported tlie bed at the head. It therefore was immov-
able. The antique bed must be considered as the prolongation
of the diphros. The cross-legged diphros prolonged became the
folding bed ; that with perpendicular legs, the couch. The* for-
mer could easily be moved and replaced ; they are perhaps iden-
tical with the Befivca frequently mentioned in the "Odyssey,"
which were put into the outer hall for guests. One of them is
shown as the notorious bed of Prokrustes in a picture on a vase
(Fig. 187, a). The second diphros corresponds to the couch rest-
ing on four legs (Fig. 187, 5), at first without head and foot-
board, which were afterward added at both ends {avaickivTpov or
iiriickivTpov). By the further addition of a back on one of the
long sides, it became what we now call a chaise longue or sofa
(Fig. 187, cy Figs. 188-190). This sleeping kline was no doubt
essentially the same as that used at meals. The materials were,
besides the ordinary woods, maple or box, either massive or
veneered. The legs and backs, and other parts not covered by

the bedclothes, were carefully worked. Sometimes the legs are
neatly carved or turned, sometimes the frames are inlaid with
gold, silver, and ivory, as is testified in the "Odyssey" and
elsewhere.

The bedding mentioned in Homer did not consist of sump-
tuous bolsters and cushions as in later times. It consisted, even
among the richer classes, first of all of the pyyea, i. e., blankets
of a long-haired, woolen material, or perhaps a kind of mattress.
Hides (/ccbea), as spread by the poor on the hard floor, were some-
times put under the ptfyea and other additional blankets {TdirrjTes;),
so as to soften the couch. The whole was covered with linen
sheets. The y^uaXvai served to cover the sleeper, who sometimes
used his own dress for this purpose ; sometimes they consisted of
woolen blankets woven for the purpose. After Homer's time,
when Asiatic luxury had been introduced into Greece, a mattress

138

THE KLINE.

(fcvicpakov, rvXelov or Tvkrj) was placed immediately on the bed-
straps (Ketpia). It was stuffed with plucked-wool or feathers, and
covered with some linen or woolen material. On this mattress
blankets were placed, called by Pollux irepiarpoy^ara, vTroarpa)-
fjLara, i7n0Xrj/jLara, ifeaTpiSes, yXalvai^ ap,§ieGTpihe<;, lirifiokaia,
BdinSes, -\Jrt\o8a7rtSe?, ^vari&es xpvaoTraaTot,, to which must be
added the Ta7n7Te? and afjufyirairriTes with the rough wool on
either or both sides. Pillows, like the mattresses stuffed with
wool or feathers, were added to complete the bedding, at least in
more luxurious times. Of a similar kind were the klinai placed

Fig. 188.

Fig. 1S9.

in the sitting-rooms, lying on which, in a half-reclining position,
people used to read, write, and take their meals. They were
covered with soft blankets of gorgeous colors, while one or more
cushions served to support the body in its half -sitting position or
to prop the left arm (Fig. 187, e). Fig. 187, a, shows the folding-
bed, Fig. 187, b, the simple kline covered with the prjyea. Fig.

187, c, shows the kline with one upright
end on which two persons are reclining,
one of them resting the left arm on a
cushion covered with a many-colored ma-
terial, the other leaning with her back
against two cushions. Much richer is
the couch in Fig. 188, which has a head
and foot board and is covered with mat-
tresses and pillows ; a long ornamented footstool has been added.
Fig. 190, after a marble relief, exactly resembles our sofa. Fig.
189 shows a peculiar kind of kline, on which a sick person is
lying, to whom Asklepios is giving advice. Sometimes the
drapery is evidently intended to hide the roughly-carved wood-
work, as is shown by the picture of a symposion (Fig. 304), to
which we shall have to return.

Fig. 190.

TABLES.

139

33. Tables were used by the ancients chiefly at meals, not for
reading and writing. The antique tables, either square with four
legs, or circular or oval with three connected legs, afterward with
one leg (rpaire^at rerpaTrohes, TpiTroSes, fiovoTroSe?), resemble our
modern ones but for their being lower. Mostly their slabs did
not reach higher than the kline ; higher tables would have been
inconvenient for the reclining person (see Fig. 187, c). In
Homeric and even in later times, a small table stood before each
thronos. The use of separate dishes for each guest is compara-
tively new. Originally the meat was brought in on large plat-
ters, divided by the steward, and each portion put on the bare
table. In want of knives and forks the fingers were used. The
pastry was put in baskets by the tables. Whether the Homeric
tables were as low as the later ones, when lying instead of sitting
had become the custom, we must leave undecided in want of
sculptural evidence. The legs of the tables were carefully finished,
particularly those of the tripods, which frequently imitated the

Fig. 191.

legs of animals, or at least had claws at their ends (Fig. 191, a, b,
c). The four-legged tables were more simple in design. The
material was wood, particularly maple ; later on, bronze, precious
metals, and ivory, were introduced.

34. For the keeping of articles of dress, valuable utensils,
ornaments, bottles of ointment, and documents, larger or smaller
drawers and boxes were used. Chests of drawers and upright
cupboards with doors seem to have been unknown in earlier times ;
only in few monuments of later date (for instance, in the wall-
painting of a shoemaker's workshop at Herculaneum) we see
something resembling our wardrobe. The wardrobes mentioned
by Homer (</>&)/?ta^o?, %^\6?) doubtlessly resemble our old-fashioned
trunks (T/'i/he). The surfaces showed ornaments of various kinds,
either cut from the wood in relief or inlaid with precious metals

140

CHESTS AND BOXES.

and ivory. Some smaller boxes with inlaid figures or painted
arabesques are shown .in Fig. 192, b, c,f\ g, h, all taken from pict-
ures on vases. The ornamentation with polished nails seems to
have been very much in favor (Fig. 192, e,f, h) — a fashion rein-
troduced in modern times. The most celebrated example of such
ornamentation was the box of Kypselos, in the opisthodomos of
the temple of Hera at Olympia. It dates probably from the time
when the counting by Olympiads was introduced, and served,
according to Botticher, for the keeping of votive tapestry and the
like. According to Pausanias, it was made of cedar- wood, and
elliptic in shape. It was adorned with mythological representa-
tions, partly carved in wood, partly inlaid with gold and ivory,
encircling the whole box in five stripes, one over the other. Box-
es for articles of dress are seldom found in old pictures on vases
(Fig. 192, a) ; l very frequent are, on the other hand, portable

Fig. 192.

cases for ornaments, spices, etc. (Fig. 192, b, d, e, f, g, h). Fig.
192, c, contains evidently bottles of ointment. Another box
standing before a reading ephebos, and showing the inscription
"XEIPONEIZ KAAE," evidently contained documents (see
Micali, "L'ltalia avanti il dominio dei Bomani," Tav. ciii.) The
cover was fastened to the box by a ribbon tied in a knot. The
custom of securing the ends of this ribbon by the impression
of a signet-ring on wet sealing-earth or wax is of later date.
Locks, keys, and bolts, known at an early period for the closing
of doors, were later applied to boxes, as is sufficiently proved by

1 The inner surface of a drinking-goblet at the Royal Museum of Berlin (Gerhard,
" Trinkschalen und Gefasse," I. Taf. ix.) shows the large box in which Hypsipyle, the
Princess of Leranos, has hidden her father Thoas. See also our Fig. 231.

EARTHEN VESSELS. 141

the still existing small keys fastened to finger-rings {see § 93),
which, although all of Roman make, were most likely not unknown
to the Greeks. For doors these would have been too small.

35. The furniture of Greek houses was simple, but full of ar-
tistic beauty. This was particularly displayed in vessels for the
keeping of both dry and fluid stores, as were found in temples,
dwellings, and even graves. Only the last mentioned have been
preserved to us. Earthen vessels are the most numerous. The
invention of the potter's wheel is of great antiquity, and was
ascribed by the Greeks in different places to different mythical
persons. The Korinthians named Hyperbion as its inventor. In
the Kerameikos, the potters' quarter of Athens, Keramos, the son
of Dionysos and Ariadne, was worshiped as such. The name of
the locality itself was derived from this " heros eponymos." Next
to Korinth and Athens (which latter became celebrated for earth-
en manufactures owing to the excellent clay of the promontory
of Kolias), ^Egina, Lakedaemon, Aulis, Tenedos, Samos, and Kni-
dos, were famous for their earthenware. In these places the man-
ufacture of painted earthenware was concentrated; thence they
were exported to the ports of the Mediterranean and the Black
Sea for the markets of the adjoining countries. Owing to the beau-
tiful custom of the ancients of leaving in the graves of the dead
the utensils of their daily life, a great many beautiful vessels have
been preserved which otherwise would have shared the destruction
of the dwellings with other much less fragile implements. From
the pictures on these vases we derive, moreover, valuable infor-
mation as to the public and private habits of the Greeks. The
greatest number of graves in their original condition, and filled with
vessels, are found in Italy. The chief places where pottery has
been and is still being found are— in Sicily, Gela and Girgenti (the
old Akragas) ; in Southern Italy, the necropoles of the Apulian
cities of Gnatia (Fasano), Lupatia (Altamura), Caelia (Ciglia),
Barium (Bari), Rubi (Ruvo), Canusium (Canosa) ; in Lucania, the
cities of Castelluccio, Anxia (Anzi), Paestum, and Eboli ; in the old
Campania, the cities of Nola, Phlistia (Santa Agata de' Goti), Cu-
mae, and Capua ; in Central Italy, the necropoles of the old Etrus-
can cities of Yeii (Isola Farnese), Caere, Tarquinii, Yulci, Clusium
(Cliiusi), Volteme (Volterra), and Adria. In Greece and Asia
Minor things are different. The political conditions of these coun-

142

MANUFACTORIES OF EARTHENWARE.

tries have prevented their scientific investigation; some of the
smaller vessels have been found only at Athens and ^Egina, some of
the larger in Thera, Melos, and Ehodes. Besides these we mention
the discoveries in the grave-mounds of the old Pantikapaion, the
capital of the Bosporic empire. They consist of utensils worked
in precious metals or bronze, and numerous painted vessels belong-
ing to the later period of pottery, which must have been brought
by merchants from Attika to this distant outpost of antique cul-
ture. Of Athenian origin were also the celebrated Panathenaic
prize-vases dating from the fourth century b. c. which have been
found among the ruins of the Kyrenaic Pentapolis. They are
amphorae with two handles, and the picture of Athene painted on
them in an archaic style. In Greece, principally in Attika, were

undoubtedly the manu-
factures which supplied
the enormous demands
of both colonies and bar-
baric countries. In the
style of their paintings
the shrewd Attic men of
business tried to hit the
taste of their barbaric customers, not unlike our present manu-
facturers. The whole trade was thus monopolized by Greece, a
competition existing only in those places where local manufac-
turers worked after Greek patterns.

36. The technique of antique pottery may be learned from two
gems. The first (Fig. 193) represents an ephebos clad in the
chiton, sitting in front of a handsome oven, from the top of
which he takes, by means of two sticks, a newly glazed two-han-
dled vessel. The second illustration also shows the interior of a
potter's workshop (Fig. 194). A nude potter gives the last polish
to a finished vessel (most likely with a piece of hard leather) ;
on a kind of baking-oven, closed by a door, stand a pitcher and
a drinking-bowl for the purpose of drying. Two pictures on
vases, published by Jahn (" Berichte der kgl. sachsischen Gesell-
schaft der Wissensch.," vi., 1854, hist. phil. CI., p. 27, et seq.\
show, one of them, a potter similarly occupied as ours (Fig. 194) ;
the other, a little less finished in style, the whole interior of a
potter's workshop with wheel and oven. Good (7*7 Kepafiir^\

Fig. 193.

Fig. 194.

DEVELOPMENT OF VASE-PAINTING. 143

particularly red, clay, was in demand for superior goods, and of
this the promontory or Kolias, near Athens, furnished an unlim-
ited supply. The potter's wheel (icepafieLos rpoxo?) was in use at a
very early period. On it were formed both large and small ves-
sels ; with the difference, however, that of the former the foot,
neck, and handles, were formed separately, and afterward attached,
as was also the case in small vessels with widely-curved handles.
In order to intensify the red color, the vessel was frequently
glazed and afterward dried and burnt on the oven. The outlines
of the figures to be painted on the vase were either cut into the
red clay and filled up with a brilliant black varnish, or the sur-
face itself was covered with the black varnish up to the contours,
in which case these stood out in the natural red color of the clay.
The first-mentioned process was the older of the two, and greater
antiquity is therefore to be assigned to vessels with black figures
on a reH ground. In both kinds of paintings draperies or the
muscles of nude figures were further indicated by the incision of
additional lines of the color of the surface into the figures.
Other colors, like dark red, violet, or white, which on close in-
vestigation have been recognized as dissolvable, were put on after
the second burning of the vessel.

37. About the historic development of pottery we know
nothing beyond what may be guessed from the differences of
style. As we said before, figures of a black or dark-brown color
painted on the natural pale-red or yellowish color of the clay in-
dicate greater antiquity. The black figures were occasionally
painted over in white or violet. These vessels are mostly small
and somewhat compressed in form ; they are surrounded with
parallel stripes of pictures of animals, plants, fabulous beings, or
arabesques (Fig. 195). The drawings show an antiquated stiff
type similar to those on the vessels recently discovered at Nine-
veh and Babylon, whence the influence of Oriental on Greek art
may be inferred. This archaic style, like the strictly hieratic
style in sculpture, was retained together with a freer treatment at
a more advanced period. As a first step of development we no-
tice the combination of animals and arabesques, at first with half-
human half -animal figures, soon followed by compositions belong-
ing mostly to a certain limited circle of myths. The treatment
of figures shows rigidity in the calm, and violence in the active,

144 SECOND PERIOD OF VASE-PAINTING.

positions. The Doric forms of letters and words on many vases
of this style, whether found in Greece or Italy, no less than the
uniformity of their technique, indicate one place of manufacture,
most likely the Doric Korinth, celebrated for her potteries ; on
the other hand, the inscriptions in Ionian characters and written
in the Ionian dialect on vessels prove their origin in the manu-
factures of the Ionian Euboea and her colonies1. The pictures on
these vases, also painted in stripes, extend the mythological sub-
ject-matter beyond the Trojan cycle to the oldest epical myths,
each story being represented in its consecutive phases.

The latter vases form the transition to the second period.
The shapes now become more varied, graceful, and slender. The
figures are painted in black, and covered with a brilliant varnish ;
the technique of the painting, however, does not differ from that

Fig. 195.

of the first period. The outlines have been neatly incised and
covered up with black paint ; the details also of draperies and
single parts of the body are done by incision, and sometimes
painted over in white or dark red. The principle seems to be
that of polychrome-painting, also applied in sculpture. Single
parts of the armor, embroideries, and patterns of dresses, hair,
and beards of men, the manes of animals, etc., are indicated by
means of dark-red lines. This variety of color was required par-
ticularly for the draperies, which are stiff and clumsily attached
to the body. ■ The same stiffness is shown in the treatment of
faces and other nude parts of the body, as also in the rendering

1 See the excellent preface of Jahn's description of vases in the Royal Pinakothek
at Munich (p. cxlviii., et seq.), where the different periods of pottery have been charac.
terized. See also Jahn's essay, " Die griechischen bemalten Vasen," in his " Popu-
lare Aufsatze aus der Alterthumswissenschaft," Bonn, 1868 (p. 307, et seq.).

THIRD GLASS OF VASE-PAINTINGS. 145

of movements. The faces are always in profile, the nose and
chin pointed and protruding, and the lips of the compressed
mouth indicated only by a line. Shoulders, hips, thighs, and
calves, bulge out, the body being singularly pinched (Fig. 196).
The grouping is equally imperfect. The single figures of com-
positions are loosely connected by the general idea of the story.
They have, as it were, a narrative character ; an attempt at truth
to nature is, however, undeniable. The subjects are taken partly
from the twelve-gods cycle (like the frequently-occurring birth of
Athene, Dionysian processions, etc.) or from Trojan and Theban
myths ; partly also from daily life, such as chases, wrestlings,
sacrifices, symposia, and the like. To this class belong most of
those large Panathenaic prize-vases, which are
of such importance for our knowledge of gym-
nastic competitions.

In our third class the figures appear in the
natural color of the surface, wThich itself has
been painted black. The character of the fig-
ures in consequence appears gay and lively.
Both styles seem at one time to have existed
together, for we find them used severally on
two sides of one and the same vessel, till at fIG. 196.

last the painting of black figures was disused
entirely. The drawings now become more individual, and are
freed from the fetters of conventional tradition — a proof of the
free development of both political and artistic feelings, even
among the lower classes of artificers. The specimens of the
third class show the different stages of this process of liberation.
At first the figures are still somewhat hard, and the drapery,
although following' the lines of the body more freely than previ-
ously, showTs still traces of archaic severity of treatment ; the
details, indicated by black lines, are still carefully worked out.
For smaller folds and muscles, a darker shade of the red color is
used ; wreaths and flowers appear dark ; red white is used only
in few cases — for instance, for the hair of an old man. The
composition shows greater concentration and symmetry in the
grouping, according to the conditions of the space at disposal.
The figures show a solemn dignity, with signs, however, of an
attempted freer treatment. Kramer justly calls this period that
10

146

DEVELOPMENT OF VASE-PAINTING.

of the " severe style," and compares it with the well-known
" JSginetie " style in sculpture. The further development of the
" severe style " is what Kramer calls the " beautiful style," in which
grace and beauty of motion and drapery, verging on the soft,
have taken the place of severe dignity. In high art this transi-
tion might be compared to that from Perugino's school to that of
Eaphael, or, if we may believe the ancient writers, from the
school of Polygnotos to that of Zeuxis and Parrhasios.

Fig. 19T.

The form of the vessels themselves next calls for our attention.
The vases, two-handled amphorai and krateres, found most fre-
quently during this period, are slender and graceful. Together
with them we meet with beautifully-modeled drinking-horns
(Fig. 201), and heads (Fig. 197, cl), or whole figures, used to put
vessels upon. The variety of forms, and the largeness of some
vessels, overloaded as they were with figures, soon led to want of
care in the composition. The moderation characteristic of the
" beautiful style " was soon relinquished for exaggerated orna-
mentation, combined with a preference for representing sumptuous

DEVELOPMENT OF VASE-PAINTING. 147

dresses and the immoderate use of white, yellow, and other
colors. This led gradually to the decadence of pottery. Lucania
and Apulia are the places where sumptuous vessels of the degen-
erating style are most frequently found (see Fig. 197, #, 5, c).
The handles of the splendid amphora (Fig. 197, a) are attached to
the brim, adorned with an ovolo, the handles being in the form
of volutes the centres of which contain heads of the Gorgon, their
lower parts end in heads of swans. The neck of the vessel is
adorned with three stripes of garlands, in the centre of which are
female heads — a common feature of this style (see the vase, Fig.
197, c). The body of the vessel is occupied by pictures from the
myth of Triptolemos, who himself is discovered in the centre on
a chariot drawn by dragons. The pictures are in two rows, one
above the other, a peculiarity frequently found in larger vases of
this style. Above them we see a double ovolo ; beneath them a
" meandering " ornamentation. The arrangement of the figures in
Fig. 197, 0, is similar. In the centre of the picture is an open
building (frequently met with on vases of this style), round which
the figures are grouped in two rows, one over the other. The
vessel itself is an amphora resembling a candelabrum, the exces-
sively slender body of which, resting on a weak foot, shows its
merely ornamental purpose (compare the picture on a vase in § 60,
representing the burial of Archemoros). Fig. 197, b, shows Kad-
mos fighting with the dragon : the busts of gods being painted
above the chief action, as if looking down upon it from heights,
are also peculiar to this style.

The subject-matter of these pictures has undergone similar
changes as the old mythical stories themselves, when looked at
through the medium of poetry, both lyrical and dramatic. Attic
myths were treated in preference. The infinitely varied treatment
proves the popularity of those lyrical and dramatic versions. In
the decaying style, not only battles of Amazons and Ken tars,
and scenes from the Hades, but also the subjects of tragedies, are
depicted, the situations of the latter being evidently imitated from
the stage, including even the variegated colors of the costumes.
The whole impression becomes theatrical in consequence. Some-
times mythological scenes and characters have been caricatured as
on the comic stage (see pictures of this kind in § 58). The vases
of Lucania and Apulia, moreover, show frequently representations

148

DEVELOPMENT OF VASE-PAINTING.

of Greek burial-rites as modified by the South Italian populations.
Jahn from this fact concludes the existence of local manufactures
(I. <?., p. ccxxxi.), which is confirmed by the inscription on the ves-
sels. They belong to a post-Alexandrine period, those of the
"beautiful style "dating from the time between Perikles and
Alexander.

0 «

^X^f^r

Fig. 198.

In some Etruscan cities earthenware was manufactured by
local artists working after Greek patterns. The figures are dis-
tinguished from genuine Greek work by the contours being in-
cised very deeply and filled up with red color. The clay also is
coarser. The compositions show an admixture of local myths and
usages, not to mention Etruscan inscriptions.

38. Hitherto we have considered the various artistic styles of
vessels. Now we must try to distinguish their names and forms

NAMES OF VESSELS.— STOBWG- VESSELS. 149

by the varieties of their uses. Ancient writers have transmitted
to us a variety of names for them, which in some cases may he
verified hy inscriptions on individual vessels. The naming, how-
ever, of many of them is very difficult, and the attempts of Panof-
ka in this direction have met with much contradiction among
archaeologists. Their nomenclature among the ancients seems to
have been much more diversified than is the case at the present
day. We have collected forty-one of the most striking forms (Fig.
198), by means of which the innumerable varieties in our museums
may be to some extent classified.

Vessels may be divided, according to their uses, into those
for storing, mixing, and drawing liquids. Among the vessels
for keeping wine, oil, honey, water, etc., the pithos {ttLQos)
is the largest. It is made of strong clay, without a foot, either
pointed or flattened at the bottom. If pointed, the pithos, in
that case generally a small one, was dug into the earth to keep it
upright ; if flat-bottomed, it was larger, and had a wide mouth.
The cubic measure of the large pithos was equal, at least, to our
large wine- vats, as is shown by the fact of those kept in the rocky
cellars of Gallias at Agrigentum holding one hundred amphorai
of wine each. During the Peloponnesian War, the poorer people
seeking shelter in Athens lived in pithoi, also called inQaKvai. Of
mythological celebrity is the pithos of the Danaides in which Eu-
rystheus hid himself ; the tub of Diogenes is generally known.
Similar to the pithos, but smaller and more easily movable, must
have been the o-rdfjuvos (Fig. 198, 18, called stamnos by both Pa-
nofka and Gerhard, and Fig. 198, 40, described by Panofka as a
lekane, by Gerhard as an Apulian stamnos) and the ffifeos. Wine,
oil, figs, and salt meat, were preserved in them. About the forms
of the wine-vessels called vpxv and irvTlvr) we are quite uncertain.
Equally uncertain is the form of the /edSos, a larger vessel, also
for wine, unless we consider it as belonging to the class of ampho-
rai. The form of the amphora (afMpopevs), a two-handled vessel
(o e/caTepcoOev Kara ra wra Svvafievos (fyipeadac) mentioned by
Homer, is sufficiently known from many representations on vases,
bass-reliefs, coins, and gems. They are more or less bulky vessels,
with necks shorter or longer in proportion, but with mouths al-
ways of moderate size compared to the bulk (Fig. 198, 20-23) ;
frequently resting on feet, but sometimes (Fig. 198, 22) ending in

150 STORING-VESSELS.

a flattened point, in which ease the amphora was either put
against a wall or fitted into a frame. The variety consists in the
form of the handles, essentially modified by the size of the vessel,
and in the larger or smaller opening of the month. Among the
amphorai we count the Panathenaic prize-vases, in which the victor
received the oil from the sacred olive-tree, and which even during
the period of the " beautiful style " preserved the archaic manner
of black figures on a red background. Hydria (vSpla) and kalpis
(/cd\7ri<;) (Fig. 198, 16 and 17) seem to be different names of one
and the same kind of bulky, short-necked vessel, the use of which
is shown by its being carried on their heads, in the pictures on
vases, by maidens fetching water. Its characteristic is a third
handle in the centre of the vessel, which prevented its sinking
in the water, and, at the same time, made the lifting of the filled
pitcher on the head easier. The diminutive v8pi<T/cr} signifies a
smaller vessel for the keeping of ointment, formed, most likely,
in imitation of the hydria. The krossos (/cpao-ao?, Kpcoaos,
Kpcocrcriov) was used for keeping water and oil, but also ashes.
It most likely resembled the hydria, but cannot with certainty
be recognized in any of the existing vessels. A smaller wine-
vessel, most likely bulky and long-necked, was the \wyvvos.
Gerhard compares it to the modern Orvieto-bottle. The lagynos,
surrounded with wicker-work, called (f>\aafciov by Suidas, may
have been the model of our bottles or flasks. Travelers and
soldiers in the field used the kcoOcdv, a bulky flask with a narrow
neck and a handle, which had the advantage of clearing the
water from muddy substances, most likely by means of a partic-
ular clay of which it was made. A similar drinking-flask was
the bombylios (/3o/j,/3v\l6<;, fiofifivkrj), the narrow neck of
which emitted the fluid by single drops only, and in this way
produced a kind of gurgling sound, like the /3t)<tiov or ftrjcraa
used by the Alexandrines. Whether the little flask with
handles (Fig. 198, 37), called bombylios by Gerhard and
Panofka, answers to the Greek term, we will not venture to
decide. The Xtf/cvOoi, mentioned by Homer, served for the
keeping of ointment; their form is sufficiently defined both
by pictures on vases and numerous still-existing specimens
(Fig. 198, 33). In these the oil was preserved for the rubbing
of the limbs of wrestlers, or of bathers after their baths ; out of

MIXING- VESSELS. 1 5 1

them also was poured the sacred oil over the graves of the dead.
All these vessels show very much the same type. The neck
was narrow in order to let the oil pass only in single drops,
by means of which the above-mentioned gurgling sound (\a/ceiv,
Xafcdfciv) was produced. The numerous vessels of this kind
were chiefly manufactured in Attika ; they were necessary both
to men and women. About the form of the olpe ipkirr], okira,
o\7rfc?), also used for oil, and peculiar to the Doric tribe, we know
nothing. According to Athenseus, olpe seems to have been an
old name of the oinochoe ; hence the notion of the vessels,
Fig. 198, 26 and 27, being of the oinochoe kind. The former
is called by Panofka, olpe, by Gerhard, oinochoe ; the latter
Gerhard calls an olpe approaching the Egyptian style. About
the form of the alabastron (akaftacrTpov, aXd^aarov) we are
better informed. It is a small cylindrical vessel, narrowing a
little in the neck so as to produce the gradual dripping of the
perfumed ointment preserved in it. All the specimens preserved
to us, although varying in size and form, agree in the essential
points, but for the style of the pictures and the material of which
the vessels are made. The use of the alabastron is shown in the
wall-picture of the so-called Aldobrandini wedding {see Fig. 232).
The generic term for mixing-vessels used at meals and liba-
tions is krater {Kparrjp, Kprjry'jp, from /cepdvvv/u). Its form, greatly
modified by different ages and tastes, is sufficiently known from
pictures and existing specimens (Fig. 198, 25 ; compare Fig.
197, b). It had to hold larger quantities of wine and water
(unless these were mixed afterward in the drinking-glasses), and
was accordingly bulky and broad-necked. A handle on each side
made the krater easily portable when empty. It rested on a foot
divided into several parts, and on a broad base. Of the several
divisions of the krater, as the Argolian, Lesbian, Korinthian,
Lakonian, we have, no doubt, specimens in our collections, with-
out, however, being able to distinguish them. Hypokreteria, i. e.,
large flat dishes, were placed under the krateres, to receive the
overflowing liquid. Similar to the krater was the tyvterrjp, a
cooling-vessel for wine before it was mixed. Its dimensions
varied greatly ; in some cases topers emptied a whole tyvicrrip of
moderate dimensions. According to Pollux, this vessel was also
called S«/o?, and rested on a base consisting of dice or knobs, in-

152

DBA WING-VESSELS.

stead of a foot. Its shape was somewhat like a pail, and resem-
bled the kalathos, the working-basket of Greek women ; this name
was, indeed, also applied to it. We have in our collections sev-
eral vases resembling this shape, to which, therefore, the names
of yJrv/cTrjp and Blvos may be applied.

Among vessels for drawing liquids we first mention those
called dpuTcuva, dpvcrTiyps, and apv/3a\\o<;, all derived from dpvco,
to scoop. Of the aryballos Athenseus says, that it expanded
toward the bottom, and that its neck narrowed like a purse with
its string tightened, which latter was called by the same name.
Specimens of it are numerous in our museums (Fig. 198, 34 and
36). It was also used for the keeping of ointment, and as such
belonged, like the arytaina or arysane, to the bathing-utensils.
The olvoxprj, %oi)9 7r/?o%ou?, and iTri'xyo-is served, as their names
indicate, for the drawing and pouring out of liquids, especially
of wine. They had one handle, and resembled a jug. Their size
varied considerably (Fig. 198, 26-31). Their use is sufficiently
illustrated by pictures. Fig. 199 shows a picture on a vase in
which the ephebos kneeling to the right is taking wine from the
krater with the oinochoe, in order to fill the drinking-vessel of the
other ephebos. The prochous seems to have been used chiefly as
a water-jug. Accurate accounts of its different forms we do not
Moreover, according to Atheneeus, the terms had been
changed. What originally was
called pelike, afterward re-
ceived the name of choe. The
pelike resembled the Panathe-
naic vases ; and is said to have
taken afterward the form of
the oinochoe, as used at those
festivities. At the time of Athenaeus the pelike was only a piece
of ornament used at festive processions, the vessel in common
use being called chous, and resembling the arytaina. The kotyle
(kotvXtj, kotvXos) was used as a measure of both liquid and dry
substances, but also for drinking purposes. The captive Atheni-
ans in the Syrakusian quarries, for instance, received one kotyle
of water and two kotylai of food a day (see Fig. 198, 4 and 7 ;
the former, called by Panofka, kotyle, by Gerhard, skyphos ; the
latter, by Panofka, kotylos, by Gerhard, kotyle). Its form was

Fig. 199.

DRWKIKG-VESSELS. 153

that of a deep, pot-like, two-handled dish, with a short foot.
Several small kotylai with covers to them were sometimes com-
bined and carried by one handle, similar to what we find among
peasants in Central Germany at the present day. Athenaeus calls
this combination a icepvos (Fig. 200). Its elegant form makes its
use at table as a kind of cruet-stand appear probable. The /cvados
was used both for drinking and drawing liquids. It resembles
our drinking-cups but for the handle, which is considerably higher
than the brim of the vessel (Fig. 198, 10, 13, 14), in order to pre-
vent the dipping of the finger into the liquid on
drawing it. It was used as a measure at the sym-
posia, before inebriation became the rule, when
larger vessels were used.

Among drinking-vessels we mention the phi-
ale, the kymbion, and the kylix. The <f)id\rj was
a flat saucer without a foot (Fig. 198, 1 and 2),
the centre of which was raised like the boss of a
buckler, and called like it dficpaXos. Smaller phialai were used
for drinking ; larger ones served at libations and lustrations and
as anathemata in the temples, particularly those wrought in pre-
cious metals. The kymbion {kv^Plov, tcvixftrj) is said to have been
a deep, long dish like a boat, without a handle, used for drinking
or libations ; a specimen we do not possess, as far as we know.
The kv\i% is a drinking-cup with two handles, resting on an ele-
gantly-formed foot (Fig. 198, 8). We meet with it frequently in
pictures and in museums. The kylix of Argos differed from that
of Attika by having its brim bent inward a little. Whether the
so-called Therikleic ky likes had their name from the animals
painted on them, or from the potter Therikles, who was cele-
brated at Korinth at the time of Aristophanes, we must leave un-
decided. Athenseus describes these as deep goblets with two
small handles, and adorned at the upper brim with ivy-branches.
Fig. 199 shows an ephebos holding in his right hand the skyphos
(<Tfcv(f)o<;), while a kylix stands on his extended left. The former
resembles a cup, sometimes with a flat bottom, at others resting
on a small Doric base (Fig. 198, 6), at others, again, ending in a
point (Fig. 198, 41). It generally had two small horizontal handles
just underneath the brim. Originally used by peasants (Eumaios,
for instance, offers one to Odysseus), it afterward became part of

154

DRINKING-HORN'S.

the dinner-service. According to different forms, peculiar to
different localities, we distinguish Boeotian, Rhodian, Syrakusian,
and Attic skyphoi. The skyphos was generally designated as the
drinking-eup of Herakles. The icavOapos was a goblet resting on
a high foot, and having widely-curved thin handles : it was pecul-
iar to Dionysos and to the actors in the Dionysian thiasos (Fig.
198, 12, compare Fig. 199), and appears frequently in their hands
in pictures on vases and other representations. The old kantharos
was larger than that later in use, as appears from a passage in
Athenseus which says, that the modern kantharoi are so small, as
if they were meant to be swallowed themselves, instead of having
the wine drunk out of them. As the oldest drinking-vessel the
Kapxnvwv is mentioned. According to Athenseus, it was lengthy
in form, with the centre of the body slightly bent inward, and

two handles reaching to
the bottom. Whether it
had a foot or a flat base
(Fig. 198, 11), cannot be
decided. Homer mentions
a heiras afx^LKvireXkov, i. e.
double goblet, which, as
appears from Aristotle
(" Hist. Anim.," ix., 40),
was also known at a later
period. A specimen of
it has not been preserved,
as far as is known to us. Being mostly wrought in precious
metals, they were probably, at a later period, frequently remod-
eled into more fashionable shapes.

To conclude, we mention the beautifully-modeled drinking-
horns, wrought partly in clay, partly in metal, and used at feasts
(/cepas and pvrov) {see Fig. 201). The horn has been used as a
drinking-utensil since the oldest times, particularly among bar-
barous nations. Both iEschylos and Xenophon quote examples
of this custom. In pictures on vases the Kentauroi and Dionysos
frequently appear with drinking-horns. The rhyton is an artistic
development of this primitive form. Its end has been modeled
into the head of an animal, according to the nature of which the
rhyton has received the surnames of ypvyjr (Fig. 201, b), \vkos

Fig. 201.

CROCKERY. 155

(Fig. 201, c), ow, rifjLtovo? (Fig. 201, e), /cairpcx; (Fig. 201, g),
e\€(/>a?, tWo?, ravpos, etc. (compare the picture on a vase in § 50,
in which one of the topers pours the wine from a panther-rhyton
(iraphcCkis) into a goblet). The rhyton had to be emptied at one
draught, and was afterward placed (probably to be filled again)
on a stand (v7r66r)/jLa, viroirvOp.rjv, TreptafceXk). As appears from
the cited picture, the rhyton had an opening (which most likely
could be stopped) inside the mouth of the animal, from which
the wine was poured out, and had to be caught by the drinker in
his glass.

As another means of keeping wine and oil we now mention
the aaicos, the wine-skin, still in use in the East and in Southern
Europe, consisting of the hide of an animal sewed and tied
together. In pictures we often see it on the backs of fauns and
Sileni, and its form has even been imitated in clay in small ves-
sels for wine and oil. Our museums contain several vases of this
kind (see Levezow, " Gallerie der Vasen," etc., Table ix., No.
189). Even that common form of handled vessels called by Ger-
hard askos (Fig. 198, 32) may originally have been suggested by
the wine-skin.

Of Greek crockery nothing remains, with the exception of a
few dishes. It was destroyed with the dwelling-houses, and had
not the advantage of being deposited in the grave-chambers. On
the other hand, the kitchen-utensils of the Romans are fully illus-
trated by the excavations at Pompeii ; to these we refer the
reader. The yyTpa no doubt resembled our saucepans with one
or two handles. Porridge, meat, and vegetables, were cooked in
it, and out of it the first portion was offered to the domestic gods
and to Zeus Herkaios at every meal, and at the consecration of
temples and altars. Sometimes the chytra had three feet (see
Fig. 198, 38), but usually, and particularly if it was oval in shape
and without feet, it was placed on a kind of tripod ('xyrpoirovs,
\da-avov). Homer already mentions large vessels (rplirohes), stand-
ing on tripods or having three feet, used particularly for heating
the bathing-water. Identical with the chytra was the Xeftr)?,
mostly made of bronze. Both names occur frequently among
the enumerations of temple treasures. They were made of
bronze, silver, or gold. On a cameo (Panofka, " Bilder antiken
Lebens," Table xii., No. 5) we see a huge lebes, but without

156 VESSELS OF STONE OR METAL.

the tripod, in which two boys are cooking a pig, while a third one
is poking the fire under the vessel. Besides these, we possess
some dishes in our museums the painting of which with fish of
various kinds indicates their being used for the preparing of these ;
whence the name of Ixdvcu applied to them,

As a domestic utensil we also mention the bath. In Homer
baths are mentioned, most likely made of polished stone {aoaynv-
0oi), and large enough to hold one person.
These asaminthoi, however, were soon re-
placed by large scale-like baths (Xovrrjpesy
XovTTjpia, Fig. 202) resting on one or several
feet, and filled by pipes in the walls, Fig.
202. They appear in the pictures of bath-
ing-scenes in all kinds of varieties. Larger
baths for several persons, which were placed
in the public or private bathing-chambers
(ftaXavela), were called KoXvjjLfirjOpa, TrveXos,
and fid/cTpa. They were either dug into the earth and surrounded
with masonry, or cut into the living rock. They may have also
been built of stone.

39. We now have to add a few remarks about vessels made
of metal, of stones more or less precious, and of glass. All these
were numerous, both as ornaments and for practical use. The
names mentioned for earthenware apply in general also to them.
Instead of paintings, however, we here find plastic ornamentations.
Among stones the fine white alabaster was most frequently used,
for those delicate little ointment bottles called by the name of
alabastron (see p. 151), partly because of the softness of the color
of the stone, partly because of its great coldness, which tended
to keep the ointment fresh. Its use for drinking-cups was less
frequent. Its sides were with great skill, by means of turning,
reduced to the thinness of note-paper, as can be seen in an alabas-
tron at the Museum of Berlin. For the same purposes as the
alabaster were also used the onyx and the agate. Mithridates VI.
Eupator had among his treasures two onyx vases, which Lucullus
brought to Eome as spoil. Only few of these precious vessels
are preserved at the present day. Among these we mention the
so-called " Mantuan goblet " in the possession of the late Duke
Charles of Brunswick, formerly owned by the Gonzaga family,

ORNAMENTAL VESSELS. 157

an ointment- vase of onyx-agate in the Munz- und Antiken- Cabi-
net at Vienna, an onyx vase in the Antiquarium of the Royal
Museum at Berlin (all these decorated with sculptures), and two
onyx vases at the Museums of Vienna and Naples respectively.
As the finest specimen of Oriental agate in existence we mention
a vase in the just-mentioned collection at Vienna 28J inches in
diameter, including the handle. It was brought to Western
Europe after the conquest of Constantinople by the Crusaders,
and came afterward into the possession of Charles the Bold, Duke
of Burgundy, whence it was transferred to Vienna as part of the
dowry of Maria of Burgundy, wife of the Emperor Maximilian
I. For larger vessels, like the krater or the um, white or colored
marble, porphyry, and also various metals, were used, and we still
possess numerous vases of this kind adorned with beautiful re-
liefs. Particularly the krater is, according to its destination, fre-
quently adorned with the Dionysian attributes, such as Silenus-
masks, goblets, musical instruments, etc., beautifully grouped
together with flower and fruit ornamentations ; the handles and
the finely developed foot are in perfect harmony. Bronze vessels
of this kind are frequently mentioned by the ancients. Achilles
offers a silver krater wrought by Sidonian artists as a prize for
runners at a race. Croesus made a votive offering to the Delphic
oracle of one golden and one silver krater, the latter holding 600
arnphorai, being a work of Theodoros, the Samian bronze-found-
er; a bronze krater, resting on three colossal kneeling figures,
was dedicated by the Samians to Hera. Among the votive offer-
ings at the Parthenon were numerous goblets of this kind, made
both of gold and silver. The most celebrated Greek toreutai, like
Kalamis, Akragas, Mys, Stratonikos, Antipater, Pytheas (who,
however, according to Pliny, worked only in silver and bronze),
cultivated this branch of their art, and the vessels from their ate-
liers were sought after, up to the latest period, by the Romans.
With the exception of the smaller oil and drinking vessels, these
vases served only as ornaments in the houses of the rich, as votive
offerings in temples and graves, as decorations of the gables of
buildings, and as prizes at the games. The art of making vessels
of glass seems to have been a later importation from the East,
particularly from Egypt. At first vessels made of glass (\l0os

158

BASKET-WORK.

XVTrj) were appreciated as much as those of precious metals ; after-
ward glass bottles and drinking-glasses become more common.
Still the Greek manufacture of this article never was equal to
those of Rome and Egypt (compare § 91).

Among domestic utensils we also count articles made of basket-
work, which frequently occur in antique pictures (see Fig. 203).
The kalathos (/cdXaOos, /caXadk, /caXaOicrfcos), the basket for keep-
ing wool (used for weaving and embroidering), and also flowers
and fruit, is frequently met with in vase-paintings illustrating the
life of Greek women (Fig. 203, a) ; perhaps Fig. 203, b, also went
by the name of kalathos. As early as Homer's time baskets
(/cdveov), probably round or oval, were used, at meals, to keep
bread and pastry in. They had a low rim and handles (Fig.
203, c). The kaneon was also used at offerings, as is proved by
Fig. 203, c, where it is filled with pomegranates, holy boughs,

and ribbons. At the Panathenaia
noble Athenian maidens carried
such baskets, filled with holy
cakes, incense, and knives, on
their heads, whence the name
Kavrj(f)6poc applied to them. These
graceful figures were a favorite
subject of antique sculpture.
Both Polyklete and Skopas had
done a celebrated kanephore —
the former in bronze, the latter in
marble. The (nrvpk, chiefly used
for carrying fish, was also a flat
basket, similar to that used at the
present day by fishermen in the
South. Other baskets used by
peasants appear frequently in an-
tique pictures, such as Fig. 203, d,
in the original carried by a peasant on a stick over his shoulder,
together with another basket of the same pear-like shape ; Fig.
203, f and e are taken from a bass-relief representing a vintage, in
which the former appears filled with grapes, while the latter is
being filled with must by a boy. This proves, at the same time,

Fig 203.

TORCHES. 159

the knowledge among the Greeks of the art of making the basket-
work dense enough to hold fluids. The same fact is shown by a
passage in Homer, in which Polyphemos lets the milk coagulate
to cheese in baskets (Tokapo? 7r\e/eTo<?), which cheese was after-
ward placed on a hurdle (Tapcros), through which the whey trickled
slowly. Of plaited rushes, or twigs, consisted also a peculiar kind
of net (icvpTos), a specimen of wThich is seen on the reverse of a
medal coined under the Emperor Macrinus, as the emblem of the
maritime city of Byzantium (see Dumersan, " Descript. d. Me-
dailles ant. du Cabinet du feu M. Allier de Ilauteroche," PI. iii.,
No. 8). Baskets, roughly plaited, appear also in the vase-painting
of the " Weighing out of the Silphion " (Panofka, " Bilder anti-
ken Lebens," Taf. xvi., No. 3), where the silphion is being carried
in them. According to Athenseus, basket-work was imitated in
precious metals.

40. To light and heat the rooms, at Homer's time, fire-baskets,
or fire-basins (Xayu,7TT?)/)e?), were used, standing on high poles, and
fed with dry logs of wood or splinters (SaSe?). The cinders were,
at intervals, removed by serving-maids, and the flames replenished.
Such fire-baskets, on poles, are still used by
night - travelers in Southern Russia, and at
nightly ceremonies in India. The use of pine-
torches (SatScov virb XafjLTTo/jLevdcov) is of equal
antiquity. They consisted of long, thin sticks
of pine-wood, tied together with bark, rushes,
or papyrus (Fig. 204, e). The bark of the vine
was also used for torches, called \o<j>k. The
golden statues on pedestals, in the hall of Alki-
noos, undoubtedly held such torches in their hands. In vase-
paintings we also see a different form of the torch, carried chiefly
by Demeter and Persephone, which consists of two pieces of wood
fastened crosswise to a staff (Fig. 204, b). An imitation of this
wooden torch was undoubtedly the torch-case, made of clay or
metal, in the shape of a salpinx. Their surface was either smooth
or formed in imitation of the bundles of sticks and the bark of
the wooden torch, the inside being filled with resinous substances.
A different kind of torch was the phanos (<faw?, <f>avrj), which
consisted of sticks tied together, and perforated with pitch, resin,

160

LAMPS AND LANTERNS.

Fig. 205.

or wax. They were put into a case of metal, which again was
let into a kind of dish, turned either upward or down-
ward (Fig. 204, a). This dish (xyrpa) served to receive
the cinders or the dripping resin. The phanoi were
either carried, or, when their case was prolonged to a
long stem (kclvXos), and had a foot (Pdais) added to it,
might be put down (Fig. 205), and received, in that
case, the names of Xa^irrrip or Xv^vovxo^. The further
development of this form was the candelabrum, carry-
ing either fire-basins or oil-lamps (see the Roman light-
ing-apparatus, § 92). The date of oil-lamps in Greece
cannot be stated with accuracy ; they were known at
the time of Aristophanes. They were made of terra-
cotta or metal, and their construction resembles those
used by the Romans. They are mostly closed semi-
globes with two openings, one, in the centre, to pour the oil in,
the other, in the nose-shaped prolongation (jjLVKTrjp), destined to
receive the wick (OpvdKkk, eKkirxycov, <j>\ofjb6<;). Among the small

numbers of Greek lamps preserved to us,
we have chosen two of the most graceful
specimens, one of them showing the ordi-
nary form of the lamp (Fig. 206), the
other that of a kline, on which a boy is
lying (Fig. 207). Both are made of clay,
the latter being painted in various colors. The
Athenians also used lanterns (Xu^^oO^o?) made
of transparent horn, and lit up with oil-lamps.
They were carried at night in the streets like the
torches. Sparks, carefully preserved under the
ashes, served both Greeks and Romans to light
the fire. The ancients had, however, a lighting-apparatus (irvpela),
consisting of two pieces of wood, of which the one was driven
into the other (crTopevs or ia^dpa), like a gimlet, the friction
effecting a flame. According to Theophrast, the wood of nut or
chestnut trees was generally used for the purpose.

41. We now come to the dress of the Greeks. We shall have
to consider those articles of dress used as a protection against the
weather, and those prescribed by decency or fashion, also the
coverings of the head and the feet, the arrangement of the hair,

Fig. 206.

Fig. 207.

DRESS. 161

and the ornaments. Unfortunately, the terminology is, in many
cases, uncertain. Many points, therefore, must remain undecided.
Before entering upon details, we must remark that the dress of
the Greek, compared with modern fashion, was extremely simple
and natural. Owing to the warmth of the climate and the taste
of the inhabitants, both superfluous and tight articles of dress
were dispensed with. Moreover, the body was allowed to de-
velop its natural beauty in vigorous exercise ; and in this
harmony and beauty of the limbs the Greeks prided them-
selves, which, of course, reacted favorably on the character of the
dress.

The two chief divisions of garments are the ivSufjuara, which
are put on like a shirt, and the €7n/3\rj/j,aTa, or 7repifi\T]ficiTa, re-
sembling a cloak, loosely thrown over the naked body, or the
endymata. Weiss (" Kostiimkunde," i., p. 703, et seq^) remarks
rightly that the original character of Greek dress, consisting of
the two parts just mentioned, remained essentially the same.
The later changes apply only to the mode of using these, and to
their material and ornamental qualities.

The xltcdv, in its various forms, was used both by men and
women as their endyma— i. e., the under-garment touching the
naked body. A second under-garment like a shirt, worn under
the chiton, seems not to have been in use. The expressions
/jlovoxltcdv and cl^Itcov only indicate that in the first case the chiton
was worn without the himation ; in the second, vice versa. The
chiton was an oblong piece of cloth arranged round the body
so that the arm was put through a hole in the closed side, the
two ends of the open side being fastened over the opposite
shoulder by means of a button or clasp. On this latter side,
therefore, the chiton was completely open, at least as far as the
thigh, underneath of which the two ends might be either pinned
or stitched together. Round the hips the chiton was fastened
with a ribbon or girdle, and the lower part could be shortened
as much as 'required by pulling it through this girdle. A chiton
of this kind is worn by a soldier in Fig. 208, taken from a beau-
tiful relief on an Attic urn representing the leave-taking of an
Athenian warrior from his wife and child. This sleeveless chiton,
made of wool, was worn chiefly by the Dorians. The Athenians
adopted it about the time of Perikles, after having worn pre-
11

162

THE CHITON.

viously the longer chiton peculiar to the Ionians of Asia Minor.
Frequently sleeves, either shorter and covering
only the upper arm, or continue to the wrist,
were added to the chiton, which resembled, in
consequence (at least, in the former case), ex-
actly the chemises worn by women at the pres-
ent day. The chiton, with sleeves coming
down to the wrist (xi™v %eipt8ft)T09), undoubt-
edly an invention of the luxurious Asiatic
Greeks, is worn, for instance, by Skiron (north-
west wind) and Boreas (north wind), among
the portraitures of the eight chief winds on the
octagonal tower of the winds at Athens (see
Fig. 158). The so-called pedagogue among the
group of the Niobides also wears this chiton ;
but the arms of this statue have been restored.
The short-sleeved chiton is frequently worn by women and chil-
dren on monuments. Of the sleeveless chiton, worn by men over
both shoulders, as in Fig. 208 (afAfafido-xakoi), it is stated that it

Fig. 208.

was the sign of a free citizen.

Slaves and artisans are said to
have worn a chiton with one hole
for the left arm, the right arm
and half of the chest remaining
quite uncovered. The i£a>fik was
another form of the chiton, worn
on monuments, chiefly by He-
phaistos, Daidalos, and workmen,
tear egoxnv, as also by fishermen
and sailors, whose occupations re-
quired the right arm to be quite
unencumbered. A bass - relief
(Fig. 209) shows two ship-carpenters dressed in the exomis, repre-
senting, perhaps, master Argos and an assistant, working at the
ship Argo, under the supervision of Athene. Two charming
statuettes of fisher-boys at the British Museum and the Museo
Borbonico of Naples (Clarac, " Musee," Nos. 881, 882), respectively,
also illustrate this picturesque costume.

Identical with this in form is the chiton worn by Doric women.
It was simple, short-skirted, and with a slit in the upper part at

Fig. 209.

THE DOUBLE-CHITON.

163

both sides. It was fastened with clasps over both shoulders, and
shortened as far as the knees by means of pulling it through the
girdle. In this form it is worn by two maidens in the Louvre,
destined for the service of the Lakonian Artemis at Karyge. They
carry kinds of baskets (crcCkia) on their heads, and are performing
the festive dance in honor of the goddess (Fig. 210). The exomis,
as described above, is worn by the female statue in the Vatican

Fig. 210.

Fig. 212.

known as the "Springing Amazon" (Mullens " Denkmaler," i.,
No. 138, a), and also by statues of Artemis, and representations of
that goddess on gems and coins. The long chiton for women
reaching down to the feet, and only a little pulled up at the girdle,
we shall see in a vase-painting (§ 57, Fig. 310) representing
dancing youths and maidens, the former wearing the short, the
latter the long, chiton. A development of the long chiton is the
double-chiton. It was a very large, oblong piece of woven cloth,
left open on one side, like the Doric chiton for men. It was
equal to about one and a half lengths of the body. The over-
hanging part of the cloth was folded round the chest and back,
from the neck downward, the upper edge being arranged round the
neck, and the two open corners clasped together on one shoulder.
On this open side, therefore, the naked body was visible (Fig.

164

THE DOUBLE-CHITON.

211). Over the other shoulder the upper edge of the chiton
was also fastened with a clasp, the arm being put through the
opening left between this clasp and the corresponding corner of
the cloth.

In the same way was arranged the half -open chiton, the open
side of which, from the girdle to the lower hem, was sewed up.
A bronze statuette (Fig. 212) illustrates this way of putting it on.
A young girl is about to join together on her left shoulder the
chiton, which is fastened over the right shoulder by means of an
agraffe. It appears clearly that the whole chiton consists of one
piece. Together with the open and half -open kinds of the chiton,

we also find the closed double-
chiton (%n-<wz/ irohi\p7]i) flowing
down to the feet. It was a piece
of cloth considerably longer than
the human body, and inclosed on
both sides, inside of which the
person putting it on stood as in a
cylinder. As in the chiton of the
second form, the overhanging part
of the cloth was turned outward,
and the folded rim pulled up as
far as the shoulders, across which
(first on the right, and after it on
the left side) the front and back
parts were fastened together by
means of clasps, the arms being
put through the two openings
effected in this manner. Eound
the hips the chiton was fastened
by means of a girdle (£cbviov,
<7Tp6(f)iov), through which the bot-
tom part of the dress trailing along the ground was pulled up
just far enough to let the toes be visible. Above the girdle the
chiton was arranged in shorter or longer picturesque folds (/co\7ro?).
Most likely the overhanging part of the chiton, which we shall
meet with again as an independent garment, was called by the
Greeks Bi7r\o'k or hafKoihiov. We have illustrated the chiton by

Fig. 213.

THE DIP LOIS.

165

two representations from the best period of Greek art. Fig. 213
shows a running female figure, the arms and feet of which have
unfortunately been destroyed. The original is ten inches high.
She seems to implore the help of the gods
against a ferocious animal, the claws of
which have already caught her floating
garment.1 Chiton and diplois are arranged
most gracefully, and the violent motion
of the body has been softened by a certain
quiet treatment of the drapery. Fig. 214,
on the other hand, shows one of the sub-
lime female forms carrying the roof of
the southern portico of the Erechtheion
(compare Fig. 38). The attitude of the
kanephore is quiet and dignified. Kolpos
and diplois are gracefully arranged in sym-
metrical folds. In spite of the calm atti-
tude required by the architectural char-
acter of the figure, the artist has managed
to convey the idea of motion by means of
the left leg being slightly bent, and the
straight folds of the chiton modified in con-
sequence. The chief alterations of varying
fashion applied to the arrangement of the
diploidion, which reached either to the
part under the bosom or was prolonged as
far as the hips ; its front and back parts
might either be clasped together across
the shoulders, or the two rims might be
pulled across the upper arm as far as the
elbow, and fastened in several places by

means of buttons or agraffes, so that the naked arm became vis-
ible in the intervals, by means of which the sleeveless chiton
received the appearance of one with sleeves (Fig. 219). Where

1 On the back part of the garment the paw of a large animal is distinctly visible ;
for which reason we have adopted the above explanation in preference to that of her
being a Bacchante, against which opinion, moreover, the modest dress and the absence
of orgiastic emblems seem to speak.

166

THE HIMATION.

Fig. 215.

the diploidion was detached from the chiton, it formed a kind of
handsome cape ; which, however, in its shape, strictly resembled
the diploidion proper. This cape was most
likely called by the Greeks aixmeyoviov. Its
shape was considerably modified by fashion,
taking sometimes the form of a close-fitting
jacket, at others (when the sides remained
open) that of a kind of shawl, the ends of
which sometimes equaled in length the
chiton itself (Fig. 215). In the latter case,
the ampechonion was naturally at least three
times as long as it was wide. In antique
pictures women sometimes wear a second
shorter chiton over the yyrihv irohrjpes. A
great many varieties of dress, more distin-
guishable in the vase-paintings representing
realistic scenes than in the ideal costumes of sculptural types,
we must omit, particularly as, in most cases, they may be reduced
to the described general principles.

42. From the ivBvfjuaTa we now pass to the eV^/SA^aTa or
irepi^KrjiJbaTa, i. e., articles of dress of the nature of cloaks. They
also show throughout an oblong
form, differing in this essentially
from the Eoman toga. The
Ifidriov, belonging to this class,
was arranged so that the one
corner was thrown over the left
shoulder in front, so as to be
attached to the body by means of
the left arm. On the back the
dress was pulled toward the right
side so as to cover it completely
up to the right shoulder, or, at
least, to the armpit, in which latter case the right shoulder re-
mained uncovered. Finally, the himation was again thrown over
the left shoulder, so that the ends fell over the back. Figs. 216
and 217, taken from vase-paintings, show two male figures com-
pletely enveloped in the himation according to the fashion of the
time (imbs ttjv xei?a ^XeLV)- Both men and women wore the

Fig 216.

Fig 217.

TIIE HIM ATI ON.

16T

himation in a similar manner (see Fig. 218, taken from a terra-
cotta at Athens). The complete covering,

even of the face, in this last figure indicates

a chastely-veiled Athenian lady walking in

the street, or, or according to Stackelberg, a

bride.

A second way of arranging the himation,

which left the right arm free, was more

picturesque, and is therefore usually found

in pictures (see, for instance, Fig. 219). The

first-mentioned himation, however, was com-
monly given by the artist to figures meant

to express noble dignity. The truth of

these statements will be recognized in look-
ing, for instance, at the statue of the

bearded Dionysos in the Vatican enveloped

in the himation according to strictest usage.

In the beautiful statues of Asklepios at

Florence and in the Louvre, the left side

and the lower part of the body are covered

by the himation, which is also the case in

the figure of the enthroned Zeus in the

Museo Pio Clementino, where one corner

of the garment rests on the left shoulder, and fails in beautiful
folds over the lap of the figure. The arrange-
ment of the himation worn by women was
equally graceful, as appears from the pictures,
without, however, being subjected to a strict
rule, as in the case of men. Perhaps the cos-
tume of the maidens carrying hydriai on the
frieze of the Parthenon may be considered as
the common type. The picturesque arrange-
ment of the himation could undoubtedly be
acquired only by long practice. In order to
preserve the folds and prevent the dress from
slipping from the shoulders, the Greeks used

Fig. 218.

Fig. 219.

to sew small weights into the comers.

Different from the himation was the much
smaller and oblong rplficov, or rpiftwviov, worn among the Doric

168

MATERIALS OF DRESS.

Fig. 220.

tribes by epheboi and grown-up men, while boys up to the twelfth
year were restricted to the use of the chiton. At Athens, also, the
inclination toward the severe Doric customs
made this garment common. Up to the time
of the Peloponnesian War the dress of the
Athenian boy consisted of the chiton only.
On attaining the age of the ephebos he was
dressed in the %\a/w, introduced into Attika
from Thessaly or Makedonia. The chlamys
also was an oblong piece of cloth thrown over
the left shoulder, the open ends being fastened
across the right shoulder by means of a clasp ;
the corners hanging down were, as in the hi-
mation, kept straight by means of weights
sewed into them. The chlamys was princi-
pally used by travelers and soldiers. Fig. 220,
representing the statue of Phokion in the
Museo Pio Clementino, illustrates this hand-
some garment. Hermes, Kastor, Polydeukes,
the wandering Odysseus, soldiers, and horse-
men (for instance, the epheboi on horseback on the frieze of the
Parthenon), generally wear the chlamys.

Concerning the materials of the described garments, we have
mentioned before that linen was used principally by the Ionians,
wool by the Dorians ; the latter material in the course of time
became the rule for male garments all over Greece. The change
of seasons naturally required a corresponding modification in the
thickness of these woolen garments ; accordingly we notice the
difference between summer and winter dresses. For women's
dresses, besides sheep's wool and linen, byssos, most likely a kind
of cotton, was commonly used. Something like the byssos, but
much fiuer, was the material of which the celebrated transparent
dresses were woven in the isle of Amorgos. They were called
afjbopyiva, and consisted of the fibre of a fine sort of flax, un-
doubtedly resembling our muslins and cambrics. The introduc-
tion of silk into Greece is of later date, while in Asia it was
known at a very early period. From the interior of Asia the silk
was imported into Greece, partly in its raw state, partly worked
into dresses. Eeady-made dresses of this kind were called aripifcd

COLOR OF DRESS. 169

to distinguish them from the fiofifivtava, i. e., dresses made in
Greece of the imported raw silk (jiira^a, fidra^a). The isle of
Kos was the first seat of silk manufacture, where silk dresses
were produced rivaling in transparency the above-mentioned
dfiopywa. These diaphanous dresses, clinging close to the body,
and allowing the color of the skin and the veins to be seen (eifiara
8ta(f)av7]), have been frequently imitated with astonishing skill by
Greek sculptors and painters. We only remind the reader of the
beautifully-modeled folds of the chiton covering the upper part
of the body of Niobe's youngest daughter, in a kneeling position,
who seeks shelter in the lap of her mother ; in painting, several
wall-pictures of Pompeii may be cited.

The antiquated notion of white having been the universal
color of Greek garments, a colored dress being considered im-
modest, has been refuted by Becker (" Charikles," iii., p. 194).
It is, however, likely that, with the cloak-like epiblemata, white
was the unusual color, as is still the case among Oriental nations
much exposed to the sun. Brown cloaks are, however, by no
means unusual ; neither were they among Greek men. Party-col-
ored Oriental garments were also nsed, at least by the wealthy
Greek classes, both for male and female dresses, while white still
remained the favorite color with modest Greek women. This is
proved, not to mention written evidence, by a number of small
painted statuettes of burnt clay, as also by several pictures on
lekythoi from Attic graves. The original colors of the dresses,
although (particularly the reds) slightly altered by the burning
process, may still be distinctly recognized. In Fig. 320, from a
vase-painting, the female form on the left wears a chiton of saf-
fron-yellow hue (/epo/ccoTa), perhaps in imitation of the color of
the byssos, and a violet peplos, the chiton of the woman on the
right being golden brown. Men also appear in these pictures
with the cherry-colored chlamys and the red himation; while
Charon wears the dark exomis usual among fishermen (see Sta-
ckelberg, " Graber der Hellenen," Taf . 43-45). These dresses,
both with regard to shape and color, are undoubtedly taken from
models of daily life.

The dresses were frequently adorned with inwoven patterns, or
attached borders and embroideries. From Babylon and Phrygia,
the ancient seats of the weaving and embroidering arte, these

170

ORNAMENTATION OF DRESSES.

crafts spread over the Occidental world, the name " Phrygiones,"
used in Eome at a later period for artists of this kind, reminding
of this origin. As we learn from the monuments, the simplest
border, either woven or sewed to the dresses, consisted of one or
more dark stripes, either parallel with the seams of the chiton,
himation, and ampechonion (see Figs. 215-217, 219, 221), or run-
ning down to the hem of the chiton from the girdle at the sides
or from the throat in front. The vertical ornaments called pdft&ot

or irapv(f>al correspond to the Ro-
man clavus. Besides these orna-
ments in stripes, we also meet
with others broader and more com-
plicated; whether woven into or
sewed on the dress, seems doubt-
ful. They cover the chiton from
the hem upward to the knee, and
above the girdle up to the neck, as
is seen in the chiton worn by the
spring goddess Opora, in a vase-
painting (" Collection des Vases
gr. de M. Lambers," PL 65). The
whole chiton is sometimes covered
with star or dice patterns, partic-
ularly on vases of the archaic
style. The vase-painters of the
decaying period chiefly represent
Phrygian dresses with gold fringes
and sumptuous embroideries of
palmetto and " meandering" pat-
terns, such as were worn by the
luxurious South-Italian Greeks.
Such a sumptuous dress is worn by Medea (Fig. 221) in a pict-
ure of the death of Talos on an Apulian amphora in the Jatta
collection at Ruvo. In the same picture the chitones of Kastor
and Polydeukes, and those of the Argonautai, are covered with
palmetto embroideries, the edges at the bottom showing mytho-
logical scenes on a dark ground. We also call to mind the rich
peploi offered at high festivals to adorn the holy images, and also
of the himation, fifteen yards long and richly ornamented, which

Fig. 221.

MALE HEAD-COVERINGS. 171

was offered by the Sybarite Alkimenes to the Lakinian Hera in
her temple near Kroton, and afterward sold to the Carthaginians
for 120 talents by the elder Dionysios. Plastic art in its noble
simplicity has disdained to imitate these ornaments, which it
introduces only in rare cases to adorn certain parts of the dress.
The upper garment of a statue of Artemis in the Museo Borbo-
nico, at Naples, shows a border imitating embroidery ; and the
archaic statue of Pallas in the Museum of Dresden wears a pep-
los, imitated from the celebrated Panathenaic peplos, covered
with scenes from the gigantomachy (see Muller, " Denkmaler der
alten Kunst," i. Taf. x., Nos. 36, 38).

43. In the cities Greeks walked mostly bareheaded, owing
most likely to the more plentiful hair of southern nations, which,
moreover, was cultivated by the Greeks with particular care.
Travelers, hunters, and such artificers as were particularly ex-
posed to the sun, used light coverings for their heads. The
different forms of these may be classified as kvvtj and 7rZXo?. The
kvvtj was a cap made of the skins of dogs, weasels, or cows ; its
further development was the helmet, to which we shall have to
return. In Homer already we read of a peasant with a cap of
goat's skin (kwetj alyeirj), most likely of the shape of a semi-
globe, and fastened under the chin with straps. In a vase-
painting in the Berlin Museum, representing the interior of a
foundery, the workman poking the fire wears this cap as a pro-
tection against the heat (Fig. 222, a). The shape of the 7rt\o?
was conical, either without a shade, like the kvvvj (see Fig. 208),
or with a small brim. It was made of felt. Sailors, merchants,
and several gods and demigods, may be recognized by it, par-
ticularly Charon, Odysseus and his companions, and Hephaistos
the artificer ; also Kadmos, the Dioskuroi (for instance, on
Spartan coins), and the Amaz<ms, in several vase-paintings.
Tydeus also wears the pilos in a vase-painting (Fig. 222, b), and
the cap worn by a shepherd blowing the double-pipe (Fig. 222, c)
may lay claim to the same appellation (compare Fig. 208). It
resembles in form the cap worn by South-Italian shepherds at
the present day. Nearly related to the pilos is the well-known
Phrygian cap, but for the top, which is turned over in front.
The latter, now worn by Greek and Italian fishermen, was, in
old times, used by the barbarous nations of Asia, which may be

172

MALE HEAD-COVERINGS.

recognized by it. Paris, Ganymede (Fig. 222, d), Anchises,
Olympos, Atys, Mithras, and the Amazons, are frequently repre-
sented with it, also barbarous warriors on Roman monuments of
the imperial period. An interesting combination of head-cover-
ings, with a flattened pilos among them, appears in a large vase-
painting (Millin, " Galerie Mythologique," PI. cxxxv.) repre-
senting a battle between Greeks and Amazons with their Scythian
allies, perhaps an imitation of the battle of the Amazons repre-
sented by Phidias on the shield of Athene Parthenos. Similar
to the Phrygian is another cap worn by Amazons and noble
Asiatics. It consists of wool or leather, and resembles a helmet.
The top is only a little turned down in front, the back part being
prolonged by means of a flap (Fig. 222, e, compare Fig. 212).

Fig. 222.

It appears in paintings on the heads of Asiatic men and women,
sometimes in the quaintest shapes (see Fig. 221). It is generally
called fxlrpa, although this word seems to imply the covering
of the head with a scarf. Such a turban-like covering of the
forehead, cheeks, and neck, with only the point of the Asiatic cap
protruding from it, is worn, for instance, by the Persians in the
Pompeian mosaic called the Battle of Alexander. The Oriental
turban is undoubtedly a remnant of this costume. The third
form of the hat is the Treraaos, originally worn in Makedonia and
Thessaly, and introduced into Greece together with the chlamys
worn by epheboi. It resembled our wideawakes, but for the very
small headpiece, and was fastened to the head by means of straps,
which, at the same time, prevented it from slipping when thrown

STYLE OF HAIR FOR MEN. 173

over the back (Fig. 222,/"), in the same way that the mediaeval
biretta was worn occasionally. This petasos is worn by the
epheboi on horseback on the frieze of the Parthenon (Fig. 222, h),
4ind also by Kastor (Fig. 222, g) and Hermes in vase-paintings.
The latter god may be recognized by a winged petasos peculiar
to him (Fig. 222, i). What name must be assigned to a hat
resembling a plate, which appears on coins of the Thessalian city
of Krannon (Mus. Hunter., Tab. 21, No. xvii.), and of the
Thrakian city of Ainos (Mus. de Hauteroche, PI. iii., No. 3),
remains doubtful ; it may be the /eavaia worn by the Makedo-
nians.

44. The hair is considered in Homer as one of the greatest
signs of male beauty among the long-haired (/capr)/cofi6covTe<;)
Achaioi ; no less were the well-arranged locks of maidens and
women praised by the tragic poets. Among the Spartans it be-
came a sacred custom, derived from the laws of Lykurgos, to let
the hair of the boy grow as soon as he reached the age of the
ephebos, while up to that time it was cut short. This custom
prevailed among the Spartans up to their being overpowered by
the Achaic federation. Altogether the Dorian character did not
admit of much attention being paid to the arrangement of the
hair. Only on solemn occasions, for instance on the eve of the
battle of Thermopylae, the Spartans arranged their hair with
particular care. At Athens, about the time of the Persian wars,
men used to wear their hair long, tied on the top of the head in a
knot (/epoo/foXo?), which was fastened by a hair-pin in the form of
a cicada. Of this custom, however, the monuments offer no
example. Only in the pictures of two Pankratiastai, on a monu-
ment dating most likely from Roman times (" Mus. Pio Clement."
vol. iv., p. 36), we discover an analogy to this old Attic custom.
After the Persian War, when the dress and manners of the
Ionians had undergone a change, it became the custom to cut off
the long hair of the boys on their attaining the age of epheboi,
and devote it as an offering to a god, for instance, to the Delphic
Apollo or some local river-god. Attic citizens, however, by
no means wore their hair cropped short, like their slaves, but
used to let it grow according to their own taste or the common
fashion. Only dandies, as, for instance, Alkibiades, let their hair
fall down to their shoulders in long locks. Philosophers also

174 FEMALE EEAD-DRESS.

occasionally attempted to revive old customs by wearing their hair
long.

The beard was carefully attended to by the Greeks. The
barber's shop (fcovpelov\ with its talkative inmate, was not onlv
frequented by those requiring the services of the barber (jcovpev?)
in cutting the hair, shaving, cutting the nails and corns, and tear-
ing out small hairs, but it was also, as Plutarch says, a symposion
without wine, where political and local news were discussed.
Alkiphron depicts a Greek barber in the following words (iii.,

66) : " You see how the d d barber in yon street has treated

me ; the talker, who puts up the Brundisian looking-glass, and
makes his knives to clash harmoniously. I went to him to be
shaved ; he received me politely, put me in a high chair, envel-
oped me in a clean towel, and stroked the razor gently down my
cheek, so as to remove the thick hair. But this was a malicious
trick of his. He did it partly, not all over the chin ; some places
he left rough, others he made smooth without my noticing it."
After the time of Alexander the Great, a barber's business be-
came lucrative owing to the custom of wearing a full beard
(jrcoycov fia6v$ or haavs) being abandoned, notwithstanding the re-
monstrances of several states.1 In works of art, particularly in
portrait statues, the beard is always treated as an individual char-
acteristic. It is mostly arranged in graceful locks, and covers the
chin, lips, and cheeks, without a separation being made between
whiskers and mustache. Only in archaic renderings the wedge-
like beard is combed in long, wavy lines, and the whiskers are
strictly parted from the mustache. As an example, we quote
the nobly-formed head of Zeus crowned with the stephane in the
Talleyrand collection. The usual color of the hair being dark,
fair hair was considered a great beauty. Homer gives yellow locks
to Menelaos, Achilles, and Meleagros, and Euripides describes
Menelaos and Dionysos as fair -haired (gavOolo-i, (SocrTpvxoL<n>v
evfcoo-fAos /COfMTJv).

45. The head-dress of women was in simple taste. Hats were
not worn, as a rule, because, at least in Athens, the appearance of
women in the public street was considered improper, and there-

1 According to tradition, many Makedonians were killed by the Persians taking
hold of their long beards, and pulling them to the ground. Alexander, in conse-
quence, had his tooops shaved during the battle.

FEMALE HEAD-DRESS.

175

fore happened only on exceptional occasions. On journeys women
wore a light, broad-brimmed petasos {see p. 171) as a protection
from the sun. With a Thessalian hat {Qecraakk kw/j) of this
kind Ismene appears in " CEdipus in Kolonos." The head-dress
of Athenian ladies at home and in the street consisted, beyond

the customary veil, chiefly of different contrivances for holding
together their plentiful hair. We mentioned before, that the
himation was sometimes pulled over the back of the head like a
veil. But at a very early period Greek women wore real shorter

176 FEMALE HEAD-DRESS.

or longer veils, called fcprj&e/jLvov, KaXvirTpa, or tcakvfifia, which
covered the face up to the eyes, and fell over the neck and back
in large folds, so as to cover, if necessary, the whole upper part
of the body. The care bestowed on the hair was naturally still
greater among women than among men. Fig. 223 shows a num-
ber of terra-cotta heads of Athenian women published by Stackel-
berg. These, and the numerous heads represented in sculptures
and gems, give an idea of the exquisite taste of these dead-dresses.
At the same time, it must be confessed that most modern fashions,
even the ugly ones, have their models, if not in Greek, at least in
Roman antiquity. The combing of the hair over the back in
wavy lines was undoubtedly much in favor. A simple ribbon
tied round the head, in that case, connected the front with the
back hair. This arrangement we meet with in the maidens of
the Parthenon frieze and in a bust of Mobe (Muller, " Denk-
maler," i., Taf. xxxiv., c). On older monuments, for instance,
in the group of the Graces on the triangular altar in the Louvre,
the front hair is arranged in small ringlets, while the back hair
partly falls smoothly over the neck, and partly is made into long
curls hanging down to the shoulders. It was also not unusual to
comb back the front hair over the temples and ears, and tie it,
together with the back hair, into a graceful knot (fcopvfjLftoi, Fig.
223, e, c). Here, also, the above-mentioned ribbon was used. It
consisted of a stripe of cloth or leather, frequently adorned, where
it rested on the forehead, with a plaque of metal formed like a
frontal, and called arecfxivTj (Fig. 223, a). This stephane appears
on monuments mostly in the hair of goddesses ; the ribbon be-
longing to it, in that case, takes the form of a broad metal circle
destined no more to hold together, but to decorate the hair. This
is the case in a bust of Here in the Yilla Ludovisi, in the statue
of the same goddess in the Vatican, and in a statue of Aphrodite
found at Capua (Muller, " Denkmaler," ii., Taf. iv., Nos. 54, 56,
268). Besides this, another ornamented tie of cloth or leather
was used by the Greeks, broad in the centre and growing nar-
rower toward both ends. It was called afev&ovr), owing to its
similarity to the sling. It was either put with its broader side
on the front of the head, the ends, with ribbons tied to them,
being covered by the thick back hair, or vice versa ; in which
latter case the ends were tied on the forehead in an elaborate

SHOES. 177

knot. The latter form was called oino-Ooa^evhovr]. The crrXeyyt?
resembles the sphendone. The net, and after it the kerchief,
were developed from the simple ribbon, in the same manner as
straps on the feet gradually became boots. The different kinds
of nets may collectively be called tce/cpixpaXoL. The kekryphalos
proper consists of a net-like combination of ribbon and gold-
thread, thrown over the back hair to prevent it from dropping.
The large tetradrachmai of Syrakuse, bearing the signature of
the engraver Kimon, show a beautiful head of Arethusa adorned
with the kekryphalos. More frequent is the coif-like kekryphalos
covering the whole hair, or only the back hair, and tied into a
knot at the top (crate/cos) (see Fig. 223, 5, «, Fig. 229, and the
group of women to the right in Fig. 232). The modifications of
the sakkos, and the way of its being tied, are chiefly illustrated
by vase-paintings. Kelated to the sakkos is the /ifapa, at first
only a ribbon, but gradually developed into the broad frontlet
and the kerchief. The front of the head might, besides these
coifs, be adorned with a stephane, as is shown by Fig. 223, i, and
by the statue of Elpis in the Museo Pio Clementino (iv., Taf. 8),
which shows the sphendone and stephane on the front and back
parts of the head respectively. At the present day the Greek
women of Thessaly and the isle of Chios wear a head-dress ex-
actly resembling the antique sakkos (see v. Stackelberg, " Trachten
und Gebrauche der Neugriechen," Part I., Taf. xiii., xix.). The
acquaintance of the Greeks with the curling-iron and cosmetic
mysteries, such as oil and pomatum, can be proved both by
written evidence and pictures (see Fig. 223, 5, d). It quite tallied
with the sesthetical notions of the Greeks to shorten the forehead
by dropping the hair over it, many examples of which, in pictures
of both men and women, are preserved to us.

46. Gloves (%etp/Se?), worn by the enervated Persians, were
not usual among the Greeks. At home, nay even in the streets,
Greeks often walked with naked feet, and, like modern Orientals,
took off their shoes on entering their own or a stranger's house.
Homer states how a man on leaving the house ties the splendid
soles (ireStXa) to his feet, which custom was continued for a long
time. In a bass-relief representing the visit of Dionysos to Ika-
rios (Miiller, " Denkmaler," ii., Taf. 1., No. 624), a Panisk bares
the feet of the god previous to his lying down to dinner. We
12

178

SHOES AND SANDALS.

know a great many varieties of shoes from the monuments, and
we are, on the other hand, told of a number of terms by ancient
writers. But to apply the ones to the others will be in most
cases impossible. Three chief forms may, however, be recog-
nized; which, according to our modern nomenclature, may be
denominated the sole, the shoe, and the boot. Our word sole,
whether fastened to the foot with one simple or with several
straps intertwined, may be rendered by im6$r]fjLa. The simple
sole might be fastened by a strap (£170?) right across the instep,
or by two straps issuing from its two sides, and tied or buckled
together on the instep (see Fig. 224, 1, representing the foot of
the statue of Elpis, in the Yatican). Whether this arrangement
is identical with a kind of sandal called fiXavrr} must remain

Fig. 224.

undecided. By the addition to the sole of several intertwined
straps the advBaXov is formed, worn originally by women, but
also by men, as is sufficiently proved by the monuments. In the
sandal a strap was sewed on the sole one to two inches from the
tip, and pulled through the big and first toes (sometimes com-
bined with a second strap between the third and little toes) ; to
it were added two or four other laces, fastened by twos to the
edges of the sole, and held together by a fibula in the form of a
heart on the centre-point of the foot, where the straps crossed
each other. The whole intertwined system of straps terminated
above the ankles. Fig. 224, 2, shows a female foot with the sim-
ple, Fig. 224, 3, the foot of Apollo of Belvidere, with the com-
pound, sandal. Above the latter the fibula> in the form of a

BOOTS.— JEWELRY. 179

heart, is shown separately. Instructive is also the sandal worn
by Dirke in the group called the " Farnesian Bull." The net-like
entanglement of the straps, together with the leather laces of the
compound sandal, gives it the appearance of a broken high shoe,
as it appears, for instance, on the coins of the Thessalian city of
Larissa, commemorating the one-shoed (jj,ovo<rdv&a\o<;) Jason. The
sole itself, being mostly made of several layers of cow's hide, ap-
pears very thick in sculptures, making the otherwise graceful san-
dal look rather heavy.

By the addition of a closed heel, and of larger or smaller
side-pieces sewed to the sole of the shoe, our second class was
formed, perhaps identical with the ancients' KoVka virohrjfiaTa.
The sides of the shoe were tied with straps to the foot and ankle,
leaving the toes and the upper part of the foot uncovered. The
different forms of the shoe are illustrated by Fig. 224, 4, 5, 7 —
No. 5 being taken from the statue in the Vatican of a youth
tying his shoe, formerly called Jason, at present Hermes. In
No. 7, taken from the statue of Demosthenes in the Yatican, the
juncture of the heel and side pieces is covered by a dropping piece
of the lace. The closed shoe, tied across the foot, we find in
many statues of both men and women (Fig. 224, 6).

We now have to mention the boots (eV8po/-w'8e<?) — our third
class. They were made of leather or felt, closely attaching to the
foot, and reaching up to the calf. They were open in front and
tied together with laces. To Diana a light hunting-boot is pecu-
liar, resembling the moccasins of the Indians (Fig. 224, 8). The
same kind of boots are worn by the so-called pedagogue among
the group of the Niobides. A fringe of cloth generally sur-
rounded the upper rim of the boot. We have purposely limited
ourselves in our remarks almost entirely to monumental evidence,
the explanation of many expressions in ancient writers, as, for
instance, of e/-t/3a? and /cprjirk, being throughout conjectural.

47. We conclude our remarks about dress with the description
of some ornaments the specimens of which in Greek graves and
in sculptural imitations are numerous. In Homer the wooers try
to gain the favor of Penelope with golden breast-pins, agraffes,
ear-rings, and chains. Hephaistos is, in the same work, men-
tioned as the artificer of beautiful rings and hair-pins. The same
ornaments we meet with again at a later period as important arti-

180 WREATHS,

cles.of female dress. Many preserved specimens show the great
skill of Greek goldsmiths. Hair-pins, in our sense, and combs
for parting and holding up the hair, were unknown to the Greeks.
The double or simple comb of Greek ladies (/tTeiV), made of box-
wood, ivory, or metal, was used only for combing the hair. The
back hair was prevented from dropping by means of long hair-
pins, the heads of which frequently consisted of a graceful piece
of sculpture (see Fig. 226, a, a gold pin found in a grave at Pan-
tikapaion adorned with a hart's head). Well known are the hair-
pins adorned with a golden cicada which, in Solon's time, were
used by both Athenian men and women for the fastening of the
krobylos.

It was the custom of the Greeks to adorn their heads on fes-
tive occasions with wreaths and garlands. Thus adorned the
bridegroom led home the bride. Flowers full of symbolic mean-
ing were offered on the altars of the gods, and the topers at
carousals were crowned with wreaths of myrtle, roses, and
violets, the latter being the favorite flower with the Athenians.
The flower-market (at fivpplvaC) of Athens was always supplied
with garlands to twine round the head and the upper part of the
body ; for the latter also was adorned with garlands (vTroOvfiiSes,
{moOu/MaSes). Crowns consisting of other flowers, and leaves of
the ivy and silver-poplar, are frequently mentioned. Wreaths
also found a place in the serious business of life. They were
awarded to the victors in the games ; the archon wore a myrtle-
wreath as the sign of his dignity, as did also the orator while
speaking to the people from the tribune. The crowning with
flowers was a high honor to Athenian citizens— awarded, for
instance, to Perikles, but refused to Miltiades. The head and
bier of the dead were also crowned with fresh wreaths of myrtle
and ivy (see Fig. 31 8 — a vase-painting representing the adorning
of the dead Archemoros). The luxury of later times changed the
wreaths of flowers for golden ones, with regard to the dead of the
richer classes. Wreaths made of thin gold have repeatedly been
found in graves. The barrows of the old Pantikapaion have
yielded several beautiful wreaths of ivy and ears of corn (Ouvaroif,
" Antiquites du Bosphore Cimmerien," PL iv.) ; a gold imitation
of a crown of myrtle has been found in a grave in Ithaka (Stack-
elberg, " Graber der Griechen," Taf . 72). Other specimens from

JEWELRY.

181

Greek and Roman graves are preserved in our museums. A
golden crown of Greek workmanship, found at Armento, a village
of the Basilicata (at present in Munich), is particularly remark-
able (Fig. 225). A twig of oak forms the ground, from among
the thin golden leaves of which spring forth asters with chalices
of blue enamel, convolvulus, narcissus, ivy, roses, and myrtle,
gracefully intertwined. On the upper bend of the crown is the

Fio. 225.

image of a winged goddess, from the head of which, among pieces
of grass, rises the slender stalk of a rose. Four naked male genii
and two draped female ones, floating over the flowers, point
toward the goddess, who stands on a pedestal bearing this inscrip-
tion :

KPEIOnNIOS HSHKH TON ETH&ANON.

Ear-rings (ivayria, iWofita, eki/crfipes) were, in Greece, only
worn by women ; while among the Persians, Lydians, and Baby-

182

ORNAMENTS.

lonians they were common to both sexes. Their form varies from
simple rings to elaborate, tasteful pendants. Fig. 226, b, shows
a pendant, found in Ithaka, in the shape of a siren, holding a
double pipe in her hand. Fig. 226,/, shows an ear-ring trimmed
with garnets, found in the same place, with the head of a lion
at one end, and that of a snake at the other. Fig. 226, c, is an

Fig. 226.

ornament, found near Pantikapaion, in the form of two clubs,
hanging on an ear-ring of Syrian garnet. Fig. 226, d, shows a
pendant, found in the same neighborhood, resembling those now
in use. Numerous other illustrations are supplied by vase-paint-
ings, coins, and gems ; while works of sculpture reproduce orna-
ments only in rare cases.

Necklaces {irepiZepaia, opfiot), bracelets for the upper and un-
der arm (tyeXia octets), and rings worn round the leg, above the
ankle {TrdhaiyjpvGai irepLo-KeXiSe^, irepio-cpvpLa), are frequently met
with on monuments.1 Neck-ornaments either consisted of rings
joined into a chain, or of one single massive ring, spiral in form,
and made of bronze or precious metals, the latter being worn

1 A statue of Aphrodite in the Glyptothek of Munich wears a broad ring round
the upper arm.

OEMS. 183

principally by barbarous nations.1 Fig. 226, 0, shows a aTpex-ros
irepiavxevios of this kind, undoubtedly of Greek workmanship,
with figures of couching lions at each end. It has been found
in a grave near Pantikapaion. Armlets and anklets are mostly
of the form of snakes, whence their name o^et?.

It was an old custom, and the sign of a freeman, to wear rings
on the lingers, used both as signets and as mere ornaments. With
the signet (o-<f>pcvyfc) documents or property was marked. Solon
made the forging of a seal a capital crime. About the age of the
use of gems among the Greeks little is known : they most likely
belong to a period after Homer, instruments sufficiently hard to
cut them being wanting previously. The beginnings of the art
of engraving among the Assyrians, Egyptians, and Etruscans, are
of much earlier date. The common use of the signet soon
caused the artistic treatment of the gem. The setting (acfrev&ovr)),
on the contrary, was most simple, at least in most of the rings
preserved to us. On the other hand, the technique of the Greeks
in cutting and polishing the stone has not been equaled even by
the great skill of the celebrated engravers of the Cinque-cento
and the eighteenth century.

The stones chosen were such as did not resist the drill too
much, and allowed of a smooth line of incision. A further re-
quisite consisted in the stone being either of pure color, or in its
facilitating the varied representation of whole figures or parts of
the body and dress by means of patches, veins, or layers (zonce) of
various colors. The stones used most frequently were the car-
nelian, sardonyx, chalcedony, agate, onyx, jasper, and heliotrope,
more rarely the nephrite, turquoise, and rock-crystal, the silvery
magnet-ironstone, the amethyst, green quartz, and precious ser-
pentine. Of jewels proper only few were used, like the ruby,
genuine sapphire and emerald, the green beryl, the felspath-opal,
and the bluish genuine aquamarine. Topaz, hyacinth, Syrian and
Indian garnets, and chrysophrase (the latter being introduced into
Greece after the time of Alexander) were used equally. The
ancients also knew how to imitate jewels in colored glass, par-
ticularly the emerald in colored crystal. These paste copies
were, according to Pliny, a most lucrative article of counterfeit-
ing industry. They were the result of the desire of the middle

1 A torque is seen, for instance, round the neck of the dying gladiator.

184

SUN-SHADES.

classes for rich ornaments, and are frequently found in our muse-
ums. The accuracy and finish of the minutest details justify us in
supposing that the ancients knew all the utensils of the trade, e. g.,
the wheel, the diamond-point, diamond-dust, and even magnify-
ing-glasses, which latter are generally claimed as an invention of
modern times. The figures were either incised into the gem,
which in that case was used as a signet, or they were formed out
of the different layers of certain stones like onyx and sardonyx,
in relief. In the former case they are called gems (dvdyXvcfra,
gemmm sculptce, exsculptce, intaglio), in the latter cameos (eKTwrra,
gemrnce ccelatw). The latter, only used as ornaments, might,
when small, be set in rings ; when of larger dimensions, they
were used to adorn agraffes, girdles, necklaces, and weapons, or
they were let into the surfaces of vases and precious goblets.
The finest cameos and gems were made in Alexander's time, who
was not only painted by Apelles and sculptured by Lysippos, but
also had his portrait cut in a jewel by Pyrgoteles. The passion
for gems among all classes of both Greeks and Romans is proved
by the great number of them of more or less good workmanship
found in graves. Fig. 226, g, h, shows two elastic gold rings
trimmed with garnets, found in a grave in Ithaka. Their form
resembles the above-mentioned opheis.

Fig. 226, i, shows an ornamented girdle, also found in a grave
in Ithaka. It is made of gold, and is held together by means of
a gold clasp richly ornamented with hyacinthine stones. On it
hang two Silenus-masks, to each of which are attached three little
gold chains adorned with garnets (compare the girdle of the
marble statue of Euterpe in the Museo
Borbonico, xi., Taf. 59).

Greek, particularly Athenian, women
carried a sun-shade (o-tad&etov), or employed
slaves to hold it over them. In the Pana-
thenaic procession even the daughters of
metoikoi had to perform this service
(cr/aaSr)(f)op6Lv). Such sun-shades, which,
like our own, could be shut by means of
wires, we often see depicted on vases and Etruscan mirrors (Fig.
227, a). This form was undoubtedly the most common one.
The cap-like sun-shade painted on a skyphos, which a Silenus, in-

Fig. 227.

WALKING-STICKS.

185

stead of a servant, holds over a dignified lady walking in front
of him, is undoubtedly intended as a parody, perhaps copied from
the scene of a comedy (Gerhard, " Trinkschalen," ii., 27). In
vase-paintings we also see frequently the leaf-like painted fan
(o-/c67raafia) in the hand of women (Fig. 227, b, c).

Of the secrets of Greek toilette we will only disclose the fact
that ladies knew the use of paint. The white they used consist-
ed of white-lead (yjn/j.v0Lov) ; their reds were made either of red
minium (/jli\,to$) or of the root of the a<yxovaa- This unwhole-
some fashion of painting was even extended to the eyebrows, for
which black color was used, made either of pulverized antimony
(crrlfifjLL, (TTifijJUs) or of fine soot {aa/36\rj).

The mirrors {evoirrpov, KaroTrrpov) of the Greeks consisted of
circular pieces of polished bronze, either without a handle or
with one richly adorned.1 Frequently a
cover, for the reflecting surface, was added.
The Etruscan custom {see § 97.) of engrav-
ing figures on the back of the mirror or the
cover seems to have been rare among the
Greeks, to judge at least from the numer-
ous specimens of mirrors found in Greek
graves. Characteristic of these are, on the
other hand, the tasteful handles, represent-
ing mostly Aphrodite, as in a manner the
ideal of a beautifully adorned women {see
Fig. 228). These hand-mirrors frequently
occur in vase-paintings, particularly in those
containing bathing-utensils {see Fig. 231).

The carrying of a stick {ftatcrrjpia, or cntrprrpov) seems to have
been a common custom. It is mostly of great length, with a
crutched handle ; young Athenian dandies may have used shorter
walking-sticks {see Fig. 217). The first-mentioned sticks seem to
have been used principally for leaning upon in standing still, as is
indicated by frequent representations in pictures. Different from
this stick was the a/crjirrpov proper, a staff adorned with a knob
or a flower, which, as early as Homer, was the attribute of gods,

Fig. 228.

and of rulers descended from the gods.

In regal

families the

1 Compare the collection of ornamented Etruscan mirror-handles in Gerhard'3
Etruskische Spiegel," PI. xxiv., et seq.

186 FEMALE LIFE.

sceptre was a valued heirloom. The sceptre serving as the em-
blem of judicial power (pafihos) was a little shorter ; it was also
used by embassadors, and a herald had to present it to the orator
on his rising to address the council. In sculptures we frequently
see the sceptre as the attribute of divinities, for instance, on the
triangular altar in the Louvre. Our modern commander's staff is
a modification of it.

48. The life of married women, maidens, children while in the
care of women, and of female slaves, passed in the gynaikonitis,
from which they issued only on rare occasions. The family life
of Greek women widely differed from our Christian idea ; neither
did it resemble the life in an Oriental harem, to which it was far
superior. The idea of the family was held up by both law and
custom, and although concubinage and the intercourse with he-
tairai was suffered, nay favored, by the state, still such impure
elements never intruded on domestic relations. Our following
remarks refer, of course, only to the better classes, the struggle
for existence by the poor being nearly the same in all ages. In
the seclusion of the gynaikonitis the maiden grew up in compara-
tive ignorance. The care bestowed on domestic duties and on
her dress was the only interest of her monotonous existence.
Intellectual intercourse with the other sex was wanting entirely.
Even where maidens appeared in public at religious ceremonies,
they acted separately from the youths. An intercourse of this
kind, at any rate, could not have a lasting influence on their cult-
ure. Even marriage did not change this state of things. The
maiden only passed from the gynaikonitis of her father into that
of her husband. In the latter, however, she was the absolute
ruler, the olKo^eairoiva of her limited sphere. She did not share
the intellectual life of her husband — one of the fundamental con-
ditions of our family life. It is true that the husband watched
over her honor with jealousy, assisted by the gynaikonomoi, some-
times even by means of lock and key. It is also true that com-
mon custom protected a well-behaved woman against offense;
still her position was only that of the mother of the family. In-
deed, her duties and achievements were hardly considered, by
the husband, in a much higher light than those of a faithful do-
mestic slave. In prehistoric times the position of women seems
to have been, upon the whole, a more dignified one. Still, even

SPINNING AND WEAVING. 187

then, their duties were essentially limited to the house, as is
proved, for instance, by the words in which Telemachos bids his
mother mind her spindle and loom, instead of interfering with the
debates of men. As the state became more developed, it took
up the whole attention of the man, and still more separated him
from his wife. Happy marriages, of course, were by no means
impossible ; still, as a rule, the opinion prevailed of the woman
being by nature inferior to the man, and holding the position of
a minor with regard to civic rights. This principle has, indeed,
been repeatedly pronounced by ancient philosophers and law-
givers. Our remarks hitherto referred chiefly to the Ionic- Attic
tribe, renowned for the modesty of its women and maidens. The
Doric principle, expressed in the constitution of Sparta, gave, on
the contrary, full liberty to maidens to show themselves in public,
and to steel their strength by bodily exercise. This liberty,
however, was not the result of a philosophic idea of the equal-
ity of the two sexes, but was founded on the desire of produ-
cing strong children by means of strengthening the body of the
female.

The chief occupation of women, beyond the preparing of the
meals, consisted in spinning and weaving. In Homer we see the
wives of the nobles occupied in this way ; and the custom of the
women making the necessary articles of dress continued to prevail
even when the luxury of later times, together with the degeneracy
of the women themselves, had made the establishment of work-
shops and places of manufacture for this purpose necessary. An-
tique art has frequently treated these domestic occupations. The
Attic divinities, Athene Ergane and Aphrodite Urania, as well as
the Argive Here, Ilithyia the protecting goddess of child-bearing,
Persephone, and Artemis, all these plastic art represents as god-
desses of fate, weaving the thread of life, and, at the same time,
protecting female endeavors ; in which twofold quality they have
the emblem of domestic activity, the distaff, as their attribute.
Only few representations of spinning goddesses now remain ; but
many are the pictures of mortal spinning-maidens painted on
vases, chiefly for female use. Fig. 229 is one of them. It shows
a woman winding the raw wool from a kalathos round the distaff.
For the spinning, a spindle was used, as is still the case in places

188

WEAVING.

Fig. 229.

where the northern spinning-wheel has not supplanted the an-
tique custom. Homer describes noble ladies handling the distaff

{rfKaKOLTrjy coins) with the spindle (arpa/c-
To?, fusus) belonging to it. Helen re-
ceived a present of a golden spindle,
with a silver basket to keep the thread
in. The distaff, with a bundle of wool
or flax fastened to its point, was held
under the left arm, while the thumb
and first finger of the right hand, slightly
wetted, spun the thread, at the end of
which hung the spindle, made of metal.
The web (kXcoo-Trjp) was, from the spin-
dle, wound round a reel, to be further prepared on the loom.

Akin to spinning are the arts of weaving (yfavruai) and em-
broidering (iroiicCkTucrj). We frequently see in vase-paintings
women with embroidering-frames in their laps. The skill of
Greek ladies in embroidery is sufficiently proved by the tasteful
embroidered patterns and borders on Greek
dresses, both of men and women. The vase-
paintings supply many examples. Fig. 230,
after a vase-painting, shows a woman occupied
with embroidering at a frame which she holds
on her knees.

We know from Homer that, next to spin-
ning, weaving was one of the chief female oc-
cupations. Even at that period the art must
have been highly developed, as we conclude
from the description of Penelope's work. In
historic times the weaving of both male and female articles of dress
was the business of women ; in some places we even hear of corpo-
rations of women being bound by law to weave the festive gar-
ments of certain holy images. The Attic maidens were obliged
to weave a peplos for the statue of Athene Parthenos at the re-
turn (every four years) of the Panathenaia. Into this were woven
the portraits of men worthy of this high honor {afyoi rov ireifKov).
These peploi, therefore, served, as it were, as an illustrated chroni-
cle of Athens. Sixteen matrons were bound to weave a peplos
for the statue of Here at Olympia. The same duty devolved on

Fig. 230.

FEMALE OCCUPATIONS.

189

the noble maidens of Argos with regard to a statue of Artemis.
Spartan ladies had to renew the chiton of the old statue of the
Amikla'ic Apollo every year. Unfortunately, we have no pict-
ures illustrating the weaving process itself. Our information,
therefore, is but scanty. Originally weaving was done by means
of a frame placed perpendicularly (ppOios kttos), over which the
long or chain threads {arrjfiLov, stamen) were pulled in parallel
lines downward, the bottom ends being made into bunches, and
having weights (ayvvdes) attached to them; the woof (tcpo/cn,
i(j>v<f)rj, subtemeri) was drawn through them with a needle, in an
horizontal direction). The improved horizontal loom, invented
by the Egyptians, more resembled that at present in use {see
Marquardt's " Handbuch der romischen Alterthumer,,, v., 2, p.

Fig. 231.

130, et seq.). Ovid's description (Metam. vi., 53, et seq.) ought to
be read in connection with it.

The pretty vase-painting, Fig. 231, refers to this branch of
female occupation. Two maidens, in richly-embroidered dresses,
are occupied in folding a garment with a star-pattern embroidered
on it, perhaps part of the dowry of a third maiden, standing to
the right of them. Other garments are either hung up on the
wall (together with the inevitable hand-mirror) or lie piled up on
a chair between the two girls. The large press on the left most
likely also contains garments. In case we wish to give mytho-
logic significance to the picture, we may take it as an illustration
of Nausikaa bidding two servants to prepare the garments that
are to be taken to the washing-place (compare the picture of Nau-

190 BATHS.

sikaa and two servants drying garments in Panofka's " Bilder
antiken Lebens," PI. xviii., 5).

Our remarks about female duties in preparing the meal must
be short. The heavy parts of the duty, like grinding the corn
in hand-mills, were performed by servants. In the palace of
Odysseus twelve female slaves were employed all day in grinding
wheat and barley in an equal number of hand-mills, to supply the
numerous guests. The hand-mill (jivKrj, ^etpofivKrj) consisted (like
those still used in some Greek islands) of two stones, each about
two feet in diameter, the upper one of which was made to rotate
by means of a crooked handle, so as to crush the corn poured
through an opening in it (compare the Koman hand-mills found
at Pompeii, § 101). Baking and roasting meat on the spit were
among the duties of female slaves. In every house of even mod-
erate wealth, several of these were kept as cooks, chambermaids,
and companions of the ladies on their walks, it being deemed
improper for them to leave the house unaccompanied by several
slaves. How far ladies took immediate part in the preparing of
dainty dishes we cannot say. In later times it became customary
to buy or hire male slaves as cooks.

Antique representations of women bathing, adorning them-
selves, playing, and dancing, are numerous. The Athenian maid-
en, unlike her Spartan sister, did not think it proper to publicly
exhibit her bodily skill and beauty in a short chiton, but taking
a bath seems to have been among her every-day habits, as is
shown by the numerous bathing-scenes on vases. In one of them,
a slave pours the contents of a hydria over her nude mistress.
Cowering on the floor in another we see an undressed woman
catching in her hand the water-spout issuing from a mask of Pan
in the wall into a bath. An alabastron and comb are lying on
the floor {see Panofka " Bilder antiken Lebens," PL xviii.,
10, 11). A picture on an amphora in the Museum of Berlin
offers a most interesting view of the interior of a Greek bath-
chamber. We see a bathing establishment built in the Doric
style. By a row of columns the inner space is divided into two
bath-chambers, each for two women. The water is most likely
carried by pressure to the tops of the hollow columns, the com-
munication among which is effected by means of pipes about six
feet from the ground. The openings of the taps are formed into

GAMES.— MARRIAGE. 191

neatly-modeled heads of boars, lions, and panthers, from the
mouths of which a fine rain-spray is thrown on the bathers
Their hair has been tightly arranged into plaits. The above-
mentioned pipes were evidently used for hanging up the towels ;
perhaps they were even filled with hot water to warm the bathing
linen. Whether our picture represents a public or private bath
seems doubtful. The dressing after the bath has also been
frequently depicted. We need not enter upon the subject here,
having mentioned the chief utensils, as the comb, ointment-bot-
tle, mirror, etc., on a former occasion. The scenes thus depicted
are undoubtedly borrowed from daily life, although Aphrodite,
with her attendance of Cupids and Graces, has taken the place
of mortal women. For music, games, and dances, we refer to
§§ 52, et seq. Here we mention only a game at ball, which was
played in a dancing measure, and therefore considered as a prac-
tice of graceful movements. Homer mentions Nausikaa as a
skilled player of this game. It is remarkable that wherever
women playing at ball appear in pictures they are represented in
a sitting posture.

The swing (auopa) was essentially a female amusement. In
commemoration of the fate of Erigone, daughter of Ikarios, a
festival had been ordained at Athens at which the maidens
indulged in the joys of the swing. Illustrations of this pastime
occur frequently on vases, free from any mythological symbolism,
even in cases where Eros is made to move the swing (see Panofka,
" Griechinnen und Griechen nach Antiken," p. 6, and the same
author's " Bilder antiken Lebens," PI. xviii., 2).

49. We now come to the point in the maiden's life when she
is to preside over her own household as the legitimate mate of
her husband (yafieTtj, in Homer icovpi§lr) aXo^o?). In most cases
a Greek marriage was a matter of convenience, a man consider-
ing it his duty to provide for the legitimate continuation of his
family (TrcuSoTroLeiadcu 71/77(7/0)?). The Doric tribe does not at-
tempt to disguise this principle in its plain-spoken laws ; the rest
of Greece acknowledged it but in silence, owing to a more refined
conception of the moral significance of marriage. The seclusion
of female life, indeed, made the question of personal charms
appear of secondary importance. Equality of birth and wealth
were the chief considerations. The choice of the Athenian citizen

192 MARRIAGE.

(ao-To?) was limited to Athenian maidens {aarrj)\ only in that
case were the children entitled to full birthright (yvricnoi,), the
issue of a marriage of an Athenian man or maiden with a stranger
i£evr) or fei^o?) being considered illegitimate (voOoi) by the law.
Such a marriage was, indeed, nothing but a form of concubinage.
The laws referring to this point were, however, frequently evaded.
At the solemn betrothal (iyyvrjaw), always preceding the actual
marriage, the dowry of the bride {irpol^y fyepvrj) was settled ; her
position as a married woman greatly depended upon its value.
Frequently the daughter of poor, deserving citizens were pre-
sented with a dowry by the state or by a number of citizens. In
Homer's time the bridegroom wooed the bride with rich gifts ;
Iphidamas, for instance, offers a hundred heifers and a thousand
goats as a nuptial present. But afterward this was entirely
reversed, the father of the bride having to provide the dowry,
consisting partly in cash, partly in clothes, jewelry, and slaves.
In case of separation the dowry had, in most cases, to be returned
to the wife's parents. The most appropriate age for contracting
a marriage, Plato in his " Republic " fixes, for girls, at twenty,
for men, at thirty. There was, however, no rule, to this effect.
Parents were naturally anxious to dispose of their daughters as
early as possible, without taking objection to the advanced years
of the wooer, as is tersely pointed out by Aristophanes (Lysist.,
591, etseq.).

The actual marriage ceremony, or leading home, was preceded
by offerings to Zeus Teleios, Hera Teleia, Artemis Eukleia, and
other deities protecting marriage \6eol ^afirjXiot). The bridal
bath (XovTpov vvfupi/cov) was the second ceremony, which both
bride and bridegroom had to go through previous to their union.
In Athens the water for this bath was, since the earliest times,
taken from the well Kallirrhoe, called after its inclosure by
Peisistratos, Enneakrunos. Whether a boy or a girl acted as
water - carrier on this occasion (Xovrpocfropos) is differently stated
by ancient authors. The latter supposition is supported, among
other things, by an archaic picture on a hydria (Gerhard, " Aus-
erlesene griechische Vasenbilder," in., 306). To the left of
the spectator lies, as the inscription indicates, the holy fountain
Kallirrhoe, flowing from the head of a lion under a Doric super-
structure. A girl, holding in her hand branches of laurel and

TEE WEDDING. 193

myrtle, as used at lustrations, looks musingly down on the hydria
which is filling with the bridal water. Five other maidens oc-
cupy the remaining space of the picture. Some of them, with
empty pitchers on their heads, seem to wait for their turn ;
others are about to go home with their filled pitchers. Gerhard's
opinion of their forming a sacred procession is contradicted by
the evidence of ancient writers. As most weddings took place
in the month of marriage (ya/j,r]\iov\ the meeting of several bridal
water-carriers was, in a populous city like Athens, any thing but
unlikely ; and a scene of this kind is evidently the subject of our
picture.

On the wedding-day, toward dark, after the meal at her
parental home {Qoivr) yafu/crj) was over,1 the bride left the festive-
ly-adorned house, and was conducted by the bridegroom in a
chariot (i<f a/judges;) to his dwelling. She sat between the bride-
groom and the best man (Trapavfifyos, irapo'xos) chosen from among
his relatives or intimate friends. Accompanied by the sounds of
the hymenseos, and the festive sounds of flutes and friendly ac-
clamations from all passers-by, the procession moved slowly
toward the bridegroom's house, also adorned with wreaths of
foliage. The mother of the bride walked behind the chariot,
with the wedding torches, kindled at the parental hearth, accord-
ing to custom immemorial. At the door of the bridegroom his
mother was awaiting the young couple with burning torches in
her hand. In case no wedding-meal had been served at the bride's
house, the company now sat down to it. To prognosticate the
desired fertility of the union, cakes of sesame (jrefifiaTa) were dis-
tributed. The same symbolic meaning attached to the quince,
which, according to Solon's law, the bride had to eat. After the
meal the couple retired to the thalamos, w^here for the first time
the bride unveiled herself to her husband. Before the door of
the bridal chamber epitlialamia were sung, a charming specimen
of which we possess in the bridal hymn of Helena by Theokritos.
On the first two days after the wedding {iiravKia and airavKia),
wedding-presents were received by the pair. Not till after these
days did the bride appear without her veil.

Antique art has frequently illustrated the various customs of
the marriage-feast. A series of archaic vase-paintings (Gerhard,

1 At this meal, contrary to the usual custom, women were present
13

194

THE WEDDING.

"Auserlesene griechische
Vasenbilder," iii., PI.
310, et seq.) show Mgm
and quadrigon containing
the bridegroom with the
veiled bride, followed by
the paranymphos, and
surrounded by female
relatives and friends,
who carry the dowry in
baskets on their heads.
Hermes, the divine com-
panion and herald, pre-
cedes the procession,
looking back on it.
Another vase - painting
(Panofka, " Bilder anti-
ken Lebens," PI. xi., 3)
shows the crowned bride-
groom on foot leading
the veiled bride to his
house, at the entrance of
which stands the nym-
pheutria with burning
torches waiting for the
procession. A youth
preceding the couple ac-
companies the hymenaios
on a kithara ; the bride's
mother, recognizable by
her matron -like dress,
with a torch in her hand,
closes the procession.
The most remarkable of
all wedding scenes is
the glorious wall-paint-
ing known as the " Al-
dobrandini Wedding "
(Fig. 232). It is 4 feet
high by 8£ long. It
represents three differ-

THE WEDDING. 195

exit scenes painted on one surface, without regard to perspective,
as is frequently the case in antique bass-reliefs. The straight
line of the wall in the background is broken by two pillars,
by means of which the artist undoubtedly intended to open a
view into two different parts of the gynaikonitis, while the third
scene is meant to take place in front of the house. The picture
illustrates three different scenes of the marriage ceremony such
as might take place inside or in front of the bride's house before
the starting of the bridal procession. From this point of view
we must first consider the centre picture. In a chamber of the
gynaikonitis we see the bride ' chastely veiled and reclining on
a beautiful couch. Peitho, the goddess of persuasion, sits by
her side, as appears from the crown on her head, and from the
many-folded peplos falling over her back. She pleads the bride-
groom's cause, and seems to encourage the timorous maiden. A
third female figure to the left of the group, leaning on a piece of
column, seems to expect the girl's surrender, for she is pouring
ointment from an alabastron into a vase made of shell, so as to
have it ready for use after the bridal bath. Her peplos, only
held by the shoulder-clasp, leaves the upper part of her body
almost uncovered. Most likely she represents the second hand-
maiden of Aphrodite, Charis, who, according to the myth, bathed
and anointed her mistress with ambrosial oil in the holy grove at
Paphos. The pillar at the back of Charis indicates the partition-
wall between this chamber and the one next to it on the left,
to which we now must turn. We here see a large basin filled
with water, standing on a columnar base. The water is perhaps
that of the well Kallirrhoe, fetched by the young girl standing
close by for the \ovrpbv vv[K^lk6v. The girl seems to look in-
quiringly at a matronly figure approaching the basin on the
other side, and putting her finger into the water as if to examine
it. Her sublime form and priestly dress, together with the leaf-
shaped instrument in her hand (probably the instrument used at
lustrations), seem to betray her as Here Teleia, the protecting
goddess of marriage, in the act of examining and blessing the
bridal bath. The meaning of the third figure in the background
holding a large tablet is difficult to explain. Botticher (" Die
aldobrandinische Hochzeit," p. 106) believes that on the tablet is

1 Compare the statuette, Fig. 218.

196 BIRTH.

written the horoscope of the impending marriage. The third
scene, to the right of the spectator, is placed at the entrance of
the bride's house. The bridegroom, crowned with vine-branches,
is sitting on the threshold, as if listening impatiently for the close
of the ceremony inside the house. In front of him we see a
group of three girls, one of whom seems to be offering at a
portable altar, while the two others begin the hymenseos to the
accompaniment of the kithara.

Yery different from the social position of chaste women was
that of the hetairai. We are not speaking of the lowest class
of unfortunates, worshiping Aphrodite Pandemos, but of those
women who, owing to their beauty and grace of conversation,
exerted great influence even over superior men. We only remind
the reader of Aspasia. In the graces of society the hetairai were
naturally superior to respectable women, owing to their free
intercourse with men. For the hetairai did not shun the light of
day, and were not restrained by the law. Only the house of the
married man was closed to them.

50. Before passing from private to public life, we must cast
a glance at the early education of the child by the mother. We
begin with the earliest days of infancy. After the first bath the
new-born child was put into swaddling-clothes (a7rdpyava\ a cus-
tom not permitted by the rougher habits of Sparta. On the fifth
or seventh day the infant had to go through the ceremony of
purification ; the midwife, holding him in her arms, walked sev-
eral times round the burning altar. The day was called in conse-
quence Spofiidfjufaov rjfjbap, the ceremony itself, dfifaSpo/jua (the run-
round). A festive meal on this day was given to the family, the
doors being decorated with an olive-crown for a boy, with wool
for a girl. On the tenth day after its birth, when the child was
named, another feast (Be/carrf) took place. This ceremony implied
the acknowledgment, on the part of the father, of the child's
legitimacy. The name of the child was chosen by both parents,
generally after the name of either of the grandparents, sometimes,
also, after the name or attributes of a deity, under whose particu-
lar protection the child was thus placed. A sacrifice, offered
chiefly to the goddess of child-bearing, Here Ilithyia, and a meal,
concluded the ceremony. At the latter, friends and relatives
presented the infant with toys of metal or clay, while the mother

EARLY EDUCATION . 197

received painted vases. The antique cradle consisted of a flat
swing of basket-work (Xi/cvov), such as appears in a terra-cotta
relief in the British Museum of the infant Bacchus being carried
by a satyr brandishing a thyrsus, and a torch-bearing bacchante.
Another kind of cradle, in the form of a shoe, is shown (Fig. 238)
containing the infant Hermes, recognizable by his petasos. It
also is made of basket-work. The advantage of this cradle con-
sists in its having handles, and, therefore, being easily portable.
It also might be suspended on ropes, and
rocked without difficulty. Other cradles,
similar to our modern ones, belong to a later
period. The singing of lullabies (fiavKa-
XrjfjLara, KaTa^aVKaXrjae^), and the rocking
of children to sleep, were common among FlG. 2s3.

the ancients. Wet-nurses (tltOtj) were com-
monly employed among Ionian tribes ; wealthy Athenians chose
Spartan nurses in preference, as being generally strong and
healthy. After the child had been weaned it was fed by the dry
nurse (rj Tpo<f>6<;) and the mother with pap, made chiefly of honey.
The rattle (ifkaTayrj), said to be invented by Archytas, was
the first toy of the infant. Other toys of various kinds were
partly bought, partly made by the children themselves on
growing older. We mention painted clay puppets {icopai,
tcopoirXodoi, /copo7r\d(TTcu), representing human beings or animals,
such as tortoises, hares, ducks, and mother apes with their
offspring. Small stones were put inside, so as to produce a
rattling noise; which circumstance, together with the fact of
small figures of this kind being frequently found on children's
graves, proves their being toys. Small wooden carts (see Panof ka,
" Bilder antiken Lebens," PL i., 3), houses and ships made of
leather, and many other toys, made by the children themselves,
might be instanced. Up to their sixth year boys and girls were
brought up together under their mother's care ; from that point
their education became separate. The education proper of the
boy (TraiBeia) became a more public one, while the girl was
brought up by the mother at home, in a most simple way,
according to our notions. From among the domestic slaves a
trustworthy companion (7^8070)709) was chosen for the boy. He
was, however, not a tutor in our sense, but rather a faithful

198 • WRITING MATERIALS.

servant, who had to take care of the boy in his walks, particularly
on his way to and from school. He also had to instruct his pupil
in certain rules of good behavior (eu/coo-fiia). The boy had, for
instance, to walk in the street with his head bent, as a sign of
modesty, and to make room for his elders meeting him. In the
presence of the latter he had to preserve a respectful silence.
Proper behavior at table, a graceful way of wearing his gar-
ments, etc., might be mentioned as kindred subjects of edu-
cation. Boys were accompanied by pedagogues up to their six-
teenth year. The latter appear frequently in vase-paintings,
and are easily recognizable by their dress, consisting of chiton and
cloak, with high-laced boots ; they also carry sticks with crooked
handles, and their hair and beards give them a venerable aspect ;
while their pupils, according to Athenian custom, are clad more
lightly and gracefully. The pedagogue of the group of the Xio-
bides is well known.

Education was, at Athens, a matter of private enterprise.
Schools were kept by private teachers, the government supervi-
sion extending only to the moral not to the scientific qualification
of the school-master. Grammar (ypafifULra), music (jiovcritcr)), and
gymnastics (yv/jivacrTiKrj), to which Aristotle adds drawing (ypa<j)c-
kyj\ as a means of aBsthetic cultivation, were the common subjects
of education at schools and gymnasia. The expression ypdfi/Mara
comprised reading, writing, and arithmetic. The method of
teaching how to write consisted in the master's forming the let-
ters, which the pupils had to imitate on their tablets, sometimes
with the master's assistance. The writing materials were small
tablets covered with wax (7rLva/ce<;, irivaiaa, SiKroi), into which the
letters were scratched by means of a pencil (crrvko^ ypafahv)
made of metal or ivory. It was pointed at one end, and flattened
or bent at the other (Fig. 234, a) so as to extinguish the writing,
if required, and, at the same time, to smooth the surface again
for other letters. The burnisher Fig. 234, b, the broad side of
which is about equal in width to a tablet, most likely served to
smooth the wax cover of a whole tablet at once. By means of
joining several tablets together, in the manner of a book, the so-
called Trokvirrvxpi hekroi were formed (Fig. 234, c). Waxed tab-
lets were used also for letters, note-books, and other requirements
of daily life. A young girl in a charming Pompeian wall-

PAPER AND PARCHMENT.

199

painting (" Museo Borbonico," vol. vi., PL 35) has in her hand a
double tablet (SeXnov hlwnrxpv), while with her other hand she
holds a pencil to her chin, as if pondering over a letter. Her
nurse looking over her shoulder tries to decipher the contents of
the love-letter. Besides these tablets, Herodotos mentions the use
of paper (yS//3\o?) made of the bark of the Egyptian papyrus-
plant. The stalk (three or p
four feet in length) was cut j[ |
longitudinally, after which
the outer bark was first
taken off; the remaining
layers of bark, about twenty
in number (philurce), were
carefully severed with a
pin; and, afterward, the single stripes plaited crosswise; by
means of pressing and perforating the whole with lime-water,
the necessary consistency of the material was obtained. The
lower layers of bark yielded the best writing-paper, while
the outer layers were made into packing-paper (emporetica) ;
the uppermost bark was used for making ropes. Names of
different kinds of paper, such as charta jfigyjitiaca, Niliaca,
Saitica, Taneotica, were derived from different manufacturing
places in Egypt, which, down to late Eoman times, remained
the chief market for paper; other names, like charta regia
(j3aai\i/cri), Augusta, Ziviana, Fanniana, Claudia, Cornelia,
were invented after emperors and empresses. Of at least equal
antiquity with the use of papyrus was that of hides (8t,(j>depai)
for writing materials. The Ionian s used, according to Hero-
dotos, the hides of goats and sheep for this purpose from
time immemorial ; but the more careful preparation of the ma-
terial was invented not before the reign of Eumenes II. (197-
159 b. c.) at Pergamum, whence the name wepyafjLrjVTj — anglice,
parchment. The leaves of the papyrus had writing only on
one side, those of parchment on both. The latter were rolled
on sticks (Fig. 231:, e), kept in cylindrical cases, a small piece of
parchment (o-iXkv/Sos), with the title written on it, being fastened
to the upper end of each roll (compare § 102) for convenience'
sake. A case of this kind full of parchment-rolls (tcvTuv&pot),
with a cover to it, stands by the side of Klio in a wall-painting of

200 MUSICAL EDUCATION.

Herculaneum (Fig. 235). In her left hand the muse holds a half-
opened roll on which are inscribed the words KAEIS2 IC TO-
PI AN (Klio teaches history). The ink (to fjueXav) was made of a
black coloring-substance ; it was kept in an inkstand made of
metal, with a cover to it (/jueXavSoxov or 7ruft?). As is proved by
Fig. 234, d, it could be fastened to the girdle by means of a ring.
Double inkstands, frequently seen on monuments,
were most likely destined for the keeping of black
and red inks, the latter of which was frequently
used. To write on paper or parchment, the an-
cients used the Memphic, Gnidic, or Anaitic reeds
f7g. 23o7 {/caXafMo^y calamus, harundo, fistula, Fig. 234, d),
pointed and split like our pens. As we men-
tioned before, it was the custom of adults to write either reclining
on the kline, with the leaf resting on the bent leg, or sitting in a
low arm-chair, in which case the writing apparatus was supported
by the knee of the writer. The latter posture is exemplified by
a reading ephebos in a vase-painting (Panofka, " Bilder antiken
Lebens," PI. i., Fig. 11) ; it was, undoubtedly, also that of the
boys sitting on the rising steps used as forms (fiaOpa) at the
schools. After his elementary education was completed, the boy
was made acquainted with the works of national poetry, particu-
larly with the poems of Homer, the learning by heart and recit-
ing of which inspired him with patriotic pride.

51. Musical instruction formed the second part of general edu-
cation (iy/cv/cXtos iraiheta). Technical virtuosity was a secondary
consideration, the ethic influence of the art being the guiding
principle. The playing of one instrument, generally a stringed
one, was an important subject of education. At games and
meals, or in the throng of battle, the exhilarating and inspir-
ing influence of music was felt. Into the intricacies of Greek har-
mony, as developed among different tribes, we cannot enter here,
any more than into the relations of music to the sister-arts of
poetry and the dance ; or into the monodic and choral divisions of
vocal music (jjuekos). We must restrict ourselves to instrumenta-
tion proper, collectively called /cpovcn^, so far as it may be illus-
trated by the remaining specimens of antique instruments. It
ought to be remembered that the music of stringed instruments
only was called /adapto-TCfcrj, or ^frfXij /addpicns, KidaprpSi/cr} being

STRINGED INSTRUMENTS. 201

the term for vocal music accompanied by strings. In the same
way avXrjrcK)] or ijnXr) av\r)<ns signified music of wind-instruments ;
avkwhiaf) the combination of these instruments with the human
voice. We shall mention first the stringed instruments, after
them the wind-instruments, and conclude with the clanging in-
struments, chiefly used for orgiastic music.

a. The Greeks used no bows in playing on stringed instru-
ments. The strings were placed all at equal distance over the
sounding-board ; a low, straight bridge (v/coXvpiov, pcvyas, or
ficuydhov) only served to prevent the vibrating strings from
touching the sounding-board. The strings were fastened at
one end to the so-called " yoke " (%vyov or tyycofia) by means of
pegs (/coWoires, or tcoWaftoi) ; at the other they were attached
to the inside, or outside, of the sounding-box. The use of the
bow was thus made impossible, by the want of a curved bridge
(as it exists in our stringed instruments), by means of which the
relative height of the position of the single strings is modified.
The stringed instruments of the ancients were played with
the fingers, or with the straight or curved plectrum (7r\rj/crpov),
made of wood, ivory, or metal. Sometimes also both fingers and
plectrum were employed severally or simultaneously. Both the
shape and the use of the plectrum are illustrated by Fig. 237, c,
e, g. It was held in the right hand, and fastened to a long rib-
bon (Fig. 237, g). Large-stringed instruments, played with both
hands, or with the plectrum and the fingers of the left hand
simultaneously (see Fig. 237, e, e), were held in a convenient
position by means of a strap slung over the shoulder ; other
instruments, played only with the plectrum or the fingers of the
right hand, might rest on the left arm, without being tied to it.1
This trap, fastened by means of rings to either surface of the
sounding-board, appears most distinctly on the statue of Apollo
in the Museo Pio Clementino. The god wears the costume of
a kithara-player, accompanying his own song on the instrument
(see Miiller, " Denkmaler," Part I., No. 141, a / compare a statue
of Apollo in the same collection, ibid., Part II., No. 132). In
vase-paintings these straps have been generally omitted ; but
their necessity may be easily conjectured from the position of

1 In this sense the words eiruXhtov Ki&api£uv (in the hymn on Hermes, verses 432
and 510) must be understood.

202

THE LYRE.

the instrument, which seems to float in the air. The numerous
specimens in pictures, and the varied terms in authors, make
it here again next to impossible to explain the nuances of
nomenclature, the more so as the statements of the authors
are frequently very brief, and the representations of the artists
(particularly with regard to the number of strings) inaccurate.
The last-mentioned feature can, for this same reason, be no cri-
terion in classifying the different instruments; the construction
of the sounding-board, as illustrated by the monuments, must
be our only principle of division. Most likely the artists
rendered essentially the forms of the real instruments, although
the whole conception of Greek art forbade a slavish imitation of
details. The rich ornamentation of some stringed instruments,
as proved by the vase-paintings, is quite in accordance with the
general taste of the Greeks.

Three fundamental types of stringed instruments must be
distinguished — viz., the lyre, the kithara, and the harp. They

are exemplified by an in-
teresting vase-painting in
the old Pinakothek of
Munich (No. 805), the
centre group of which con-
sists of the three Muses,
Polymnia, Kalliope, and
Erato, playing respective-
ly on the three mentioned
instruments — the lyra, the
kithara, and the trigonon
(Fig. 236). The inven-
tion of the lyre (\vpa) is
ascribed, by the myth, to Hermes, who first drew strings across
the oval hollow of a tortoise-shell, which in this way became
the sounding-box of the instrument. This primitive form is
still in use among some of the South-Sea populations ; in
Greece it was only known traditionally. The remaining evi-
dence, both literary and artistic, refers only to the developed
form of the lyre. In this not only the back-shell of the tortoise,
but also the part covering the animal's chest, was used, the whole
forming a closed sounding-box, the natural openings for the

Fig. 236.

THE LYRE.

203

front leffs of which were used for the insertion of the roots of the
curved horns of a goat. Near their points these were joined
together by a transverse piece of wood, called the yoke. Across
this frame the strings were drawn, being more than twice as
long as those of the mythical lyre. On the chest part of the
shell (for only this flat part could be used for the purpose) was
placed a bridge, across which the strings were drawn, being at
one end tied in knots and fastened to the sounding-board; at
the other, either simply wound round the yoke, or fastened to
pegs. Figs. 237, a b, <?, d, e, illustrate a number of lyres, of
which c shows most distinctly the entire tortoise-shell. The arms
{irrixw) are> m c> d> ei made of goats' horns, which, as we shall
see in speaking of weapons, were also used for bows ; in a and b
they consist of wood. In e the construction of the sounding-

board is somewhat difficult to understand, showing as it does a
large round opening in the centre. Equally difficult is the clas-
sification of the instrument in Fig. 237, f. Fig. 237, g, shows
an instrument nearly related to the lyre. From the sounding-
box, consisting of a small tortoise-shell, two wooden arms issue
in divergent directions ; toward their upper ends they approach
each other, and are joined together by a yoke. In vase-painting
this instrument appears generally in the hands of either Alkaios
or Sappho, from which circumstance archaeologists have (not
without good reason) conjectured it to be the barbiton (fidpftirov,
fiapv/uTov), a low-toned instrument, which Terpander is said to
have introduced from Lydia into Greece. The iryicrfc and
fiayd&s, both of Lydian origin, may also have been of the nature
of lyres. Both expressions are applied by Greek authors pro-

204

THE KITHARA.

miscuously to one and the same, and to different instruments.
In Greece Sappho is said to have played on a pektis ; in Sicily it
seems, at a later period, to have been used at mysteries. The
magadis is said to have been one of the most perfect instru-
ments. It comprised two full octaves, the left hand playing the
same notes as the right, an octave lower. Still more perfect
was the inrvyoveiov, the name being derived from that of its
inventor, Epigonos. It had forty strings, most likely in double
rows — twice as many as the magadion. Neither of the two
instruments was played with a plectrum. They cannot be with
certainty recognized in the pictures ; but the large lyre with
fifteen strings, standing before a sitting agonethis, in a marble-
relief on a grave at Krissa (see Stackelberg, " Graber der Grie-
chen," PL ii.), doubtlessly belongs to the same species.

The second class of stringed instruments, differing from the

lyre both in shape and material, is called kithara (taOapa) ; it
was invented by Apollo, and therefore belonged to the kitharodes
kclt i%oxnv. The sounding-box here consists of thin plates of
wood, ivory, or metal ; it is generally angular, in other cases
semi-oval in shape, and is continued, in order to increase its re-
sounding power, by two arms, also hollow, and at their base equal
in thickness to the sounding-box itself. The size of the latter,
as well as the length of the arms, and their distance from each
other, depended on the greater or smaller number of strings, also
on the desired stronger or weaker resonance, not to speak of
the individual taste of the maker (XvpoTrotos), which, moreover,
could show itself in the rich ornamentation of this particular
kind of instrument. The sounding-board may have been equal
in power to that of our guitars. Fig. 238, a, 5, c, d, e, show a few

THE PHORMINX. 205

of the numerous variations of the kithara. Some of them
(particularly c) resemble perfectly the guitar {cither) used in
South Germany at the present day. Their forms are pleasing,
that of d (most likely an imitation of the ornamental kithara,
made of ivory or metal) magnificent. The distinction between
lyre and kithara, founded on the different constructions of their
sounding-boards, is not mentioned by ancient writers. The
existence of a distinction between these two species, however,
may be proved by written evidence, and is, moreover, confirmed
by the vase-painting in Fig. 236, where the three muses repre-
sent the three chief classes of stringed instruments. The more
complicated construction of the kithara, compared with the primi-
tive tortoise and goat's horns of the lyre, seems to prove its later
invention. The lyre was most likely of Thrakian origin ; Or-
pheus, Musaios, and Thamyris, were there celebrated as masters
on it, and thence it was most likely, together with the orgiastic
worship of Dionysos, introduced into Greece. Its connection
with that particular phase of religion is sufficiently proved by
the monuments. In Greece the musical education of the youth
began with the lyre ; together with the flute, it was the instru-
ment most commonly used, for instance, at festive meals. The
kithara, on the contrary, introduced from Asia into Greece by the
Ionians, was used at musical competitions, sacrifices, and pageants,
as is proved, for instance, by the Panathenaic procession on the
frieze of the Parthenon. The players always appeared on such
occasions in the costume of the kitharodes, i. e., crowned and clad
in long, flowing robes . The phorminx seems not to have differed
essentially from the kithara. Homer, at least, uses the expressions
<j>6p/jLiyyi KtOapl^eiv and icLQapis (popfit^etv as meaning the same
thing. The explanation by Hesychius of phorminx, as a kithara
carried on a ribbon over the shoulder {<f>6piu<y%. 7) tois w/zot?
<j>epoiJL6vr) icidapis), is most inappropriate, seeing that a difference,
if it existed at all, must have appeared in the construction of the
sounding-board, or the number of strings ; while, on the other
hand, the strap is common to all the forms of the kithara.

As the third form of stringed instruments we mention an
instrument resembling our harp, called by archaeologists trigonon
(rpirycovov). It was of triangular shape, as indicated by the name,
and of Syrian or Phrygian origin. We are therefore justified in

206 WINB-IN8TEUMENTS.

applying to the harp-like instruments (Figs. 236 and 238,/), both
taken from vase-paintings, the name of trigonon, or perhaps that
of o-afiftvfcr), an instrument defined by Suidas as e!8o? KiQapas
rpiycovov. As in our harp, the sounding-board was on the side
turned toward the player ; in the trigonon, however, the broader
side is turned upward, differing in this from the modern instru-
ment. To the sounding-board the strings were fastened by means
of studs ; the side of the instrument resting on the player's lap
took the place of the yoke. The strings, therefore, ran parallel
to the third side or arm of the instrument. From Fig. 238, f,
compared with similar representations, it would appear as if the
yoke had been a double one, with double rows of strings drawn
across it, as was the case in the above-mentioned epigoneion.
The third side of the trigonon consisted either of a simple stick,
connecting yoke and sounding-board, or it was shaped like an
animal (Fig. 238,/). In Fig. 236 it is wanting entirely, and the
trigonon, in consequence, resembles the harps, of different sizes,
found frequently on Egyptian monuments.1 An instrument with
two wooden arms and ten strings, appearing in a wall-painting
of Herculaneum (" Pitture d'Ercol.," Tav. i., PI. 171), belongs
undoubtedly to the same class ; analogous forms of this instrument
have also been found on Egyptian monuments (Wilkinson, " A
Popular Account of the Ancient Egyptians," vol. i., p. 119), and,
indeed, are still in use among certain tribes of the valley of the
Upper Nile. The names of other instruments we must omit, as
not sufficiently explained by monumental evidence. We only
mention a four-stringed instrument, with a sounding-board in the
form of a semi-globe to which a long and narrow neck is attached
just as in the modern guitar. It appears in a marble-relief of late
Roman origin in the Louvre, held by a muse (Clarac, " Musee,"
ii., PI. 119). Instruments of this kind do not appear on Egyp-
tian monuments.

h. The wind-instruments (avkol) may be divided into pipes
(crvpivyes), clarionets {avXol proper), and trumpets (o-dk7nyr/es).
The oldest and simplest form of wind-instrument is the reed-pipe

1 Among the " Swanes," a tribe of the Caucasus, a harp called Tschungi, resem-
bling the trigonon, is still in use. See Radde, " Berichte iiber biolog.-geograph.,
Untersuchungen in den Kaukasuslandern," i. (Tiflis, 1868), where a picture of the
instrument may be seen.

TEE SYRINX.

207

Fig. 2S9.

(crvpiyf;). The sound was produced by blowing either into the
orifice of a broken reed, or, as in the life (Querflote), into a hole
made to the side of the reed. The sound of the wind in the reeds
led most likely to the invention of the syrinx, which is ascribed
to Pan. According to the myth, Syrinx, the daughter of the
Arkadian river-god Ladon, pursued by Pan, was changed into a
reed, which the god thereupon cut into several pieces, joining to-
gether seven of them, decreasing in size, by means of wax. The
result received the name of syrinx, or Pan's pipe. The number
of reeds varied from seven to nine, as is proved both by the state-
ments of ancient authors and by the mon-
uments. Fig. 239, b, shows the simpler
syrinx, taken from a wall-painting at Her-
culaneum ; the pipes are seven in number,
and seemingly of equal length. Fig. 239,
a, taken from a candelabrum in the Louvre,
shows nine pipes of different sizes. The syrinx, together with
other wind-instruments and the lyre, appears most frequently in
the hands of Sileni and satyrs in scenes from the Bacchic myth —
for instance, on a gem in the Florence Gallery (Fig. 240), which
shows two Sileni with a syrinx, an aulos, and a lyre. In practi-
cal music the syrinx seems to have been used little, although it
appears occasionally, together with other instruments, in pictures
representing concerted music. An Etruscan
bass-relief (Micali, M L'ltalia avanti il dominio
dei Rom.," Atlas, Tav. 107) shows three girls
playing severally on a syrinx, a flute, and a
kithara; and in another Etruscan representa-
tion (Muller, " Denkmaler," Part ii., No. 757)
the sirens use it to allure Odysseus. Nearest
akin to the syrinx is the ifka<y[av\o<; (fife) said
to be invented by the Libyans. It was not a
favorite instrument with the Greeks, and is
rarely found on monuments. Fig. 241, m, shows a youth playing
on it, after a bass-relief in the Louvre (compare the statue of a
young satyr in Miiller's "Denkmaler," Part ii., No. 460). Gen-
erally both the instruments in Fig. 241, g and A, are also called
plagiauloi ; whether rightly or wrongly we will not venture to
decide.

Fig. 240.

208 THE AULOS.

The avkos proper resembles our hautboy or clarionet, differing,
however, from the latter in the fact of its lower notes being more
important than the higher ones. The aulos consisted of two con-
nected tubes and a mouth-piece, to the latter of which belonged
two so-called tongues (yXwcraai), in order to increase the trembling
motion of the air. The myth connected with the invention of
the aulos illustrates, at the same time, the mutual position of
wind and stringed instruments among the Greeks. Athene played
for the first time on an aulos, made from the bone of a hart, at a
feast of the gods. Here and Aphrodite rallied her on account of
her blown-up cheeks, and the goddess, after having ascertained
the truth of these objections by looking at her image, while
playing, in the fountain on Mount Ida, threw down the instru-
ment in disgust. It was found by Marsyas, the Phrygian Silenos,
who, on the strength of it, dared to compete with Apollo, the
inventor of the lyre, the muses being appointed as umpires. The
victory of the god symbolized that of stringed over wind instru-
ments. It took a long while before the playing on the pipe was
fully received in Greece ; and although in Athens it formed part
of the musical education, it never was there appreciated as much
as in Boeotia, whose inhabitants were celebrated for this art. Per-
haps the particularly fine reeds growing in the marshy plains of
Orchomenos tend to explain this phenomenon.

The materials of the aulos were, besides reeds, the wood of
box or laurel, the bones of the hart, and ivory; metals were
chiefly used in it for ornamental purposes. At first the aulos had
only three or four holes (rpr/para, Tpvirrj^ara, 7rapaTpv7rrj/jLara),
but Diodoros of Thebes added to the number. The addition of
side-holes, with keys to them, completed the aulos. It was
blown by means of a removable mouth-piece ; which, if not used,
was kept in a case {yXcocro-oKojjLelov). The /36/jl/3v% (reed) itself was
mostly straight ; sometimes it was bent upward near the open-
ing, which was wider or narrower according to the strength of
tone required. The simplest and oldest form of the aulos is seen
in Fig. 241, b and n ; it resembles a short shepherd's pipe (Schal-
mei), and the figures holding it in both cases are taken from the
statues of shepherds. The form of the mouth-piece appears dis-
tinctly in Fig. 241, a, d, e, f. The clarionet (jiovavkos, fiovo/cd-
Xafio?) with one tube only is seen also on the frieze of the Par-

DOUBLE AUL08.

209

thenon ; but still more common was the double clarionet, called
by the Romans tibia) gemince. It consisted of two tubes blown
simultaneously by means of one common or two separate mouth-
pieces (Fig. 241, a, d, e,f, t, k, Z), and comprises as many notes as
the syrinx. The tube held in the right hand, and blown with the
right side of the mouth, had three holes, and was called by the
Romans tibia dextra, by the Greeks the " male " clarionet (av\6<;
av&prj'ios;) ; the left tube had four holes, and was called tibia
sinistra, or "female" aulos (avXbs yvvcufcrjios). The former
produced the lower, the latter the upper notes.1 The tubes are

either both of the same length and shape (used to accompany
revels and gymnastic exercises, Fig. 241, a, d,f, k, I), or of un-
equal length but equal shape (av\ol <yanrjkio£) ; or, finally, differ-
ing totally both in shape and length (Fig. 241, e, i). The pipes
might be with (Fig. 241, d) or without keys (Fig. 241, a,f, k, J).
The first-mentioned instrument (d) appears on a sarcophagus in
the Vatican, in the hands of a genius displaying the attributes

1 Double shepherd's pipes, called " dutka," are still used by peasants in certain
parts of Russia.

210 THE SALPINX.

of Euterpe. Sometimes the lower opening was shaped like a
bell (kcoScov) (Fig. 241, c, d), as in our clarionets. The Phrygian
double pipe (eXvfioi avXol), with one tube straight and the other
bent downward like a horn, shows the largest extension of the
tube-opening. Fig. 241, i, shows a female figure playing the
Phrygian double - pipe, taken from a sarcophagus in . the Vati-
can ; the two Phrygian pipes, put crosswise (e), are taken from
one side of a square altar in the Yatican, and appear in exactly
the same form in a relief representing an Archigallus sur-
rounded by the attributes of his dignity (Muller, "Denkma-
ler," Part ii., No. 817). The difference in shape between the
two mouth-pieces is remarkable. Other varieties appear fre-
quently (see, for instance, " Museo Borbon.," vol. ix., Tav. 37 ;
and Fig. 247, b, representing a dancing bacchante, from a marble
relief). Both Greek and Koman players occasionally tied a
leather bandage round their lips and cheeks ((f>op/3eid, Gropis,
XuXtorrjp), through the hole of which, bouud with metal, the
mouth-pieces of the double clarionet were put (Fig. 241, I). The
purpose of this bandage was to soften the tone by preventing
violent breathing. It was used particularly at theatrical repre-
sentations, sacrifices, and pomps, to play long pieces on the large
double clarionets ; while the female players in representations
of symposia always appear without it. It was never used with
single clarionets. The bag-pipe is of antique invention. Fig.
242, taken from a bronze statuette, shows a bag-pipe player
(a(Tfcav\r)<;, utricularius). His instrument resembles those used
by modern piferari. Its squeaking notes naturally appealed
only to the taste of the lower classes.

The adkiT^ (trumpet) consists of a tube considerably increas-
ing in circumference toward the lower opening, and a mouth-piece
in the shape of a drinking-vessel. The long trumpet, unknown to
the Greeks in Homer's time, is said to have been introduced by
the Pelasgic Tyrrhenians ; the Hellenic salpinx was undoubtedly
identical with it. The far-sounding salpinx was a warlike instru-
ment, no less than the pipe and kithara, used as such chiefly
by the Spartans and Cretans ; it also accompanied religious
ceremonies. By the sound of an Argive salpinx Agyrtes rouses
the warlike spirit of Achilles, hidden among the women of
Deidameia in the isle of Skyros (Fig. 243, taken from a marble

TUB SALPINX.

211

relief), while Diomedes and Odysseus display shining weapons to
the young hero. Of other trumpets and horn-like instruments
ascribed by Greek authors to Oriental nations, but not to the
Greeks themselves, we mention the Egyptian ^z/oO?, used to call
the people to the sacrifice; it resembled the curved salpinx
(<7a\,7riyi; (TTpoyyuXr)), the comu of the Romans (Fig. 245). We
further name the trumpet called the Galatian, bronze, or shrill
(dgixfxovos;) salpinx, with a leaden mouth-piece and a kodon in the
shape of an animal's mouth ; by the Galatian Celts it was called
Kapvv%. The Paphlagonian trumpet was low-toned (fiapucjxovos),
and larger than the Greek salpinx ; from its kodon, bearing the
shape of a bull's head, it was called /36tVo?. The Medes used
a hollow-sounding salpinx, made of a bulrush, with a wide kodon.

Fig. 242.

Fig. 243.

Fig. 244.

This Median trumpet seems to be depicted in t*vo vase-paintings ;
in one of them (Micali, " L'ltalia avanti il dominio dei Romani,"
Atlas, Tav. 100) we see an Asiatic archer, in a Median or
Parthian dress, blowing on a very thin, long tube, with a
screwed-on mouth-piece, which he has fastened to his mouth by
means of a bandage in the manner of an aulos-player ; the other
(Gerhard, " Griechische Yasenbilder," Part ii., PI. 103) shows
the same instrument in the hands of the Amazon Antiope clad in
Greek armor. It appears from the position of both these figures
that this instrument was turned toward the ground on being
played, differing in this from the Greek trumpet. We finally
mention the Tyrrhenian bronze trumpet, the kodon of which was
bent upward (kgoScov tcefcXacr/Aevos) ; it was also called the curved

212

WATER-ORGAN.

or Etruscan lituus (\Itvov), and resembled, in its shape, the
Phrygian pipe (compare Fig. 241, i); it was used as a signal-
trumpet in battles, and at games and ceremonies. Horns (fcepara),
as warlike instruments, seem to have been unknown to the Greeks.
Barbarian nations frequently used them for that purpose. Fig.

244 shows a player on the horn {fceparavXr]^) whose pileus of black
lamb's wool betrays him as an Armenian or Persian. In the
vase-painting in which he occurs, he seems to encourage Asiatic
warriors fighting with Greeks, while the latter are called to battle
by the sounds of Hellenic trumpets.

To conclude, we mention the water-organ (t/SpauXo?, vBpavXk,
organon hydraulicum\ invented by Ktesibios the mechanician, and

described by his pupil, Hero of Alex-
andria. It was constructed on the syrinx
principle, and contained seven pipes made
partly of bronze, partly of reed. The
sound was produced by waving the air-
columns through the means of water.
It was played, organo modulari, on a
keyboard. Ktesibios' s invention was after-
ward considerably improved. Nero took
a particular interest in it, and during his
reign hydraulic organs of a new construc-
tion were built (prgana hydraulica novi et ignoti generis). Fig.

245 shows an organ taken from a Roman mosaic floor at Eennig.
A man is playing on the horn to the sound of the organ.

e. We now come to the " clanging instruments " used chiefly
at religious ceremonies connected with the worship of Dionysos
and Kybele — castanets, the cymbal, and
the tambourine. They were also used
as a rhythmical accompaniment of social
dances, played by the spectators, or the
dancers themselves, as is still the cus-
tom among peasants in the south of Europe. The castanets
(fcporaXoi,) said to be invented by the Sicilians, consisted, like our
modern ones, of small pieces of reed, wood, or metal, or of shells,
tied together with a ribbon. They were struck against each
other by the fingers at rhythmical intervals. The three pairs of
castanets seen in Fig. 246 appear in the hands of dancing-women

Fig, 245.

Fig. 246.

TYMPANOK—SEISTKON.

213

Fig. 247.

in wall-paintings and on vases. Their manipulation requires no
other explanation.

The cymbals (tcvfjt,/3a\a) consisted, like those of our military
bands, of two metal bowls in the form of semi-globes (Fig. 247, a).
They were held in the hollow of
the hand or by means of straps (see
" Museo Borbonico," vol. xv., Tav.
47). They were used at the above-
mentioned religious ceremonies, and
were also hung upon the branches of
holy trees (compare Fig. 1). Still
more noisy was the tambourine
(rvfiTravov), a broad ring of wood
or metal with a covering of hide.
Bells and pieces of brass were added
to increase the noise (Fig. 248). In
vase-paintings the tympanon ap-
pears with a sounding-bottom in the form of a semi-globe, which
makes it resemble our kettle-drum. To conclude, we mention
the sistrum (crelarpov, Fig. 249), not used by the Greeks, but in-
troduced to the Romans as part of
the secret worship of Isis. It con-
sisted of a sounding-box resembling
that of the lyre, made of brass or
precious metals, into which were in-
serted loosely small bars of metal,
bent down at the end so as to pre-
vent their sliding out. By means
of a handle the instrument was
shaken, whereat the vibrating mo-
tion of the bars produced a not inharmonious sound.

52. It was a distinguishing feature of the Greeks among an-
cient nations to consider corporeal exercise as a no less important
factor of education then mental progress itself. The harmonious
development of the body, and, indeed, of every single limb, was"
thought to be of the utmost importance for the attainment of self-
conscious determination in the practical demands of life. This
principle of acting, through means of the body, on the mind, was
realized in the gymnastic and agonistic institutions of Greece.

Fig. 248.

Fig. 249.

214 GYMNASTIC AND AGONISTIC EXERCISES.

Lueian, in his " Apology of Gymnastics," insists upon the ethic
bearing of athletic exercise on the mind of young men in directing
their ambition into the right channel, in preventing them from
laziness and its accompanying vices, and in endowing them with
that combination of good qualities which is collectively called
fcako/ccvyadla. The physical as well as the intellectual (for in-
stance, musical) education varied greatly among the different tribes
of Greece. Among the Doric tribes, chiefly in Sparta, it consisted
principally in hardening the body of the young citizen-warrior
against the influence of pain and exertion ; among Ionian tribes,
and chiefly at Athens, the harmonious development of body and
soul, i. e., grace and ease of bearing and demeanor {evpvOfila and
euapfioaTia), were the objects chiefly aimed at.

The beginnings of gymnastic and agonistic exercises, although
lacking at first the systematic development of later times, date
back to prehistoric ages. Games were held at an early period in
honor of gods and heroes ; and the laws of Solon and Lykurgos
only served to regulate and further develop the skill thus ac-
quired.

To our previous remarks (§ 25) we must add a few words as to
the important question of the separation of the gymnasion from the
palaestra. The separation of the two localities, destined as they
were for different branches of athletic exercise, seems established
beyond doubt, notwithstanding the utterances of ancient writers
frequently contradicting each other. Herodotos, for instance, calls
both the dromos and the palaestra yvfjuvdcna, while Yitruvius uses
palaestra for gymnasion and palaestra collectively. At one time
the palaestra was undoubtedly a building by itself, connected with,
or detached from, the gymnasion. At the time of the emperors,
but not before, this distinction seems to have disappeared ; hence
the mixing up of the two terms by Yitruvius. At Athens
the gymnasia were public institutions, supported by private or
public means, at which epheboi and men spent a part of their
day in athletic exercise and in instructive and social intercourse.
There were the Lykeion, the Kynosarges, the Academy, the
Ptolemaion, the splendid gymnasion of Hadrianus, and the small
gymnasion of Hermes. The number of palaestrai at Athens was
still greater. They were all private institutes kept by single
paedotribai, and destined for the athletic education of boys only.

GYMNASTIC AND AGONISTIC EXERCISES. 215

In smaller cities, the joint practice of youths and grown-up men
in the same locality was frequently inevitable. But it is errone-
ous to suppose that the palaestra was exclusively the resort of
athletai. The separation of youths and men from boys was de-
sirable both for moral and educational reasons. For the difficul-
ties of the task increased in proportion to the age of the aspi-
rant. Classifications according to age and abilities are contained
in the expressions 7rat8e? vecorepot and irpeafivrepoi, or wpcoTrj and
Bevrepa rfKmia — the former applying to younger, the latter to
older boys. A more advanced stage was the rplrrj r)\Lfcla, de-
noting the transition from the age of the boy to that of the
ephebos ; another name for these youths was aykveioi. Similar
distinctions existed undoubtedly among the epheboi of different
ages. These distinctions were especially marked in Sparta, where
each age had its particular amount of sufferings and exertions to
go through.

Before entering upon the single exercises we must try to de-
fine the three general appellations, yv/j,va<TTtfoi, aycovio-TucT], and
a&\i]TiKr\. The first term comprises all kinds of regulated bod-
ily exercise for the purpose of strengthening the body or single
limbs. The expressions avTayavio-Trjs and aycov apply to those
games on which the emulation of several persons was brought to
bear. The ayavio-Ti/crj comprises the gymnastic exercises tending
to prepare the athletai for the wrestling-matches, which formed
an important feature of national festivities, particularly of the
games of Olympia, celebrated once every H\e years, at the time of
the first full moon after the summer solstice. Here assembled,
invited by the peace-messengers of Zeus, the delegates of empires
and cities ; not to speak of crowds of enthusiastic spectators from
the most distant shores. The flower of Greek youth came to test
their skill in the noble competition for the crown of Zeus. Only
he whose unstained character and pure Hellenic descent had been
certified by the Hellanodikai was allowed to approach the silver
urn which contained the lots. A previous training of at least ten
months at a Greek gymnasion was further required for obtaining
the permission of taking part in the holy contest. Supreme were
the honors conferred on the victor. The umpires crowned him
with the fresh olive- wreath and the palm in the temple of Zeus ;
poets like Pindar sang his praise ; inscriptions and statues of brass
announced his fame to coming generations.

216 GYMNASTIC AND AGONISTIC EXERCISES.

The ethic purpose of gymnastic art came to be more and more
neglected when artificiality and affectation began to prevail. It
was then that the noble art deteriorated into a mechanical pro-
fession ; the a&\7}TLKrj is the later signification of that term.

To the fine arts the palaestra and gymnasion yielded an inex-
haustible supply of beautiful models both for youthful grace and
manly strength. The national pride of the Greeks further en-
couraged the artist in the choice of athletic subjects ; hence the
innumerable plastic monuments in the native cities of the victors,
and on the sites of their triumphs. Pausanias, who wrote after
the wholesale spoliation and destruction of Olympia by the Roman
conquerors, mentions no less than 230 bronze statues of Olympian
victors adorning her streets and squares as the remnants of past
glories. We possess only few specimens of this branch of Greek
art, but their excellence and technical finish demonstrate the
reciprocity between the feeling of the nation and its artistic ex-
pression. Scenes from the palaestra and gymnasion frequently
occur in vase-paintings. There we see older or younger men clad
in himatia, leaning on crooks, and looking down on the wrestlers,
or directing their movements by means of peculiarly forked staffs
(Gerhard, " Auserlesene griechische Vasenbilder," Taf. cclxxi.),
the destination of which, however, seems somewhat doubtful.
These men are the gymnastai and paedotribai ; the former having
to superintend the general development and deportment of the
body, the latter directing the single exercises. These were the
real teachers in gymnastics, and their place was among the wres-
tlers. Among other officials we mention the sophronistai, who
were responsible for the good behavior (a-co^poo-vvrj) of the boys.
Their number at Athens was ten, one being selected by each
phyle. During the imperial times we meet with a kosmetes, with
one anti-kosmetes and two hypo-kosmetai as assistants, who had
to watch the epheboi at the gymnasia. The gymnasiarchos was
the superintendent of the whole gymnasion, an honorary and,
moreover, expensive post. He had to pay the expenses of the
torch-races, and also for the oil used at the games, which after-
ward was supplied by the state. He also had to arrange memo-
rial processions in honor of great men.

It may be assumed that the simplest bodily exercises, viz., those
that required no weapons or antagonists, were also the oldest.

THE FOOT-RACE. 217

The most primitive of these was the foot-race (Spofios), which
always came first among the contests at the great Hellenic festi-
vals. At the Olympic games, indeed, the foot-race continued for
a long period the sole athletic exercise; and the Pythian, Ne-
mean, and Isthmian games, which were modeled after them,
always began with the foot-race whenever the pentathlon was
enacted in its entirety. The foot-race consisted of the simple
race (arahiov or Bpofios), in which the race-course had to be run
over once from beginning to end. The race of the boys, how-
ever, comprised but half the race-course, and those of the ageneioi
of two-thirds. This race of the boys was incorporated with the
Olympic games in the 37th Olympiad, and the names of the youth-
ful victors are invariably first quoted in old inscriptions. But in
those states in which the physique of the female sex was likewise
trained and developed, the foot-race was regarded as the most suit-
able of gymnastic exercises for maidens, the length of their course
being shorter by one-sixth than that reserved for men. In the
second species of race, the diaulos (BiavXos), the competitors had
to run twice over the whole length of the race-course. The goal
had to be doubled in a curve (Kafnrrj), whence tne name tca^eio?
Spouos. But the greatest exertion of strength and endurance had
to be displayed in the third species of races, the long-run (B6\t-
%o?,) in which, without stopping, the course had to be measured
so often that the whole distance, according to various reports,
consisted of 12, 20, or 24 stadia, that is, more than half a geo-
graphical mile, if we accept the highest computation.

We can understand, therefore, that the Spartan Ladas, when
crowned conqueror in the foot-race, after having, for twelve suc-
cessive times, run backward and forward over the course, should
have dropped down dead on reaching the goal. Strength of limb
and breath were, according to Lucian, the necessary requisites
in running this race ; while the greatest possible speed, on the
other hand, was required by those who took part in the shorter
course. The race in complete armor (ottXIttj^ Bpofws:) also be-
longed to these exercises. At first this was executed by young
men fully equipped with helmet, shield, and greaves ; but at a
later period their armor for this race was reduced to the simple
shield. This armed race was undoubtedly of the greatest im-
portance as a preparation for active service ; and Plato, with a

218 RACES.— THE LEAF.

view to this military object, demanded its being practised both
in the long and short running-matches. For the Greeks, like
the French, were wont to attack the ranks of the enemy at a
running pace. This is said to have been the case at the battle
of Marathon. At foot-races, as in all other exercises, the com-
batants used to appear quite naked, except in earlier times, when
they girded their loins with a cloth. The runners who repre-
sented themselves at the agon as candidates were ranged in
divisions (rafet?) (each consisting, as may be seen from monu-
ments, of four agonistai) and led to the starting-point, where it
was decided by lot in which order the different divisions were to
follow each other. Any kinds of tricks, bribery, or force, em-
ployed by racers to gain an advance upon the others, were strict-
ly prohibited. After the various divisions had run their race,
the victors of each had again to compete with each other ; and
only in the last race was it settled to whom the prize or garland
should be awarded. Races of this description, run by four men
or epheboi, are often represented on Panathenaic vases. The
runners here appear perfectly naked, and their lifted arms look
as though they were to increase the swiftness of their legs.1 The
torch-race (Xa/ii7raSrjSpofjLLa) may also be regarded as belonging to
this species of athletic sports. It was held at night in honor of
various gods and goddesses in different parts of Greece. The
principal object at these night-races was to reach the goal with
one's torch alight. Two epheboi, armed with round shields, and
flourishing torches in their hands, are thus depicted on a vase
(Gerhard, " Antike Yasenbilder," Cent, i., 4, Taf. 63). On two
other vessels (Tischbein, " Yas. d'Hamilton," Taf. iii., PL 48,
and ii., 25) Nike presents the crown, in sign of victory, to one
of three youthful torch-bearers competing for the prize. Other
races were connected with festivals of a religious character, such
as the Oschophoria at Athens, where runners, clad in female gar-
ments, bore vines covered with grapes from the temple of Diony-
sos to that of Athene Skiras in the Demos Fhaleros. These and
others, however, do not properly come under the category of races.
Leaping (akfjua) ranked next in the series of gymnastic exer-
cises. Homer already introduces practised leapers in his descrip-

1 " Mus. Gregorianum," ii., Tav. 42. " Monum. in edit. d. Inst, di Corrisp. arehe-
ol," i., Tav. 22. Gerhard, "Antike Bildwerke," Cent, i., Taf. 6, etc.

THE LEAP.

219

tion of the games of the Phaiakai, and the same exercises were
afterward, introduced among the gymnic agones ; they, as well as
the foot-race, formed a part of those sports to be presently de-
scribed as the pentathlon. The leaps upward, forward, and
downward, appear to have been practised at the palaestra and the
gymnasia, in a similar manner as in our modern gymnasiums.
But it is doubtful whether the Greeks were acquainted with the
long pole now habitually used in gymnastics ; the poles depicted
on many vases held in the hands of leaping epheboi having rather
the appearance of spears than poles. But if we consider that the
Greeks regarded gymnastics as a preparation for military service,
and that the spear was often employed in war to leap over ditches,
we may safely assume that poles were also used for gymnastic
purposes. This surmise is further strengthened by the Amazon
on a gem (Muller's " Denk-
maler," i., Taf. xxxi., No.
138, b\ who, grasping such
an instrument in her hands,
prepares for the leap. Writ-
ten and monumental evi-
dence proves, on the other
hand, that the Greeks, in or-
der to secure accuracy of
motion for the distant leap,
made use of so-called akrrj-
pe?. The form of this instrument, not unlike that of our own
dumb-bells, though rarely mentioned by ancient authors, appears
in numerous pictorial representations. On a vase where an ephe-
bos is just preparing for the leap, a pair of these instruments is de-
picted (Fig. 250). They were either pieces of metal of semi-oval
form, in the curved lines of which orifices were left for the hands,
or they consisted of short iron bars having knobs at each end, thus
resembling our dumb-bells in shape ; this latter kind was that in
use at the pentathlon. The mode of using these dumb-bells was
probably as follows: The person about to leap, whether first
stepping back a few paces or not, stretched his arms, laden with
the dumb-bells, back in a straight line ; and then, in the very act
of leaping, swung them forward again with a sudden motion
(Fig. 250). But as this violent motion of the arms necessarily

Fig. 250.

220 WRESTLING.

imparted an oblique and receding position to the body, in coming
down the person would necessarily have fallen on his back had
not the equilibrium been restored by a rapid backward motion of
the arms. It has, in fact, recently been proved by practical ex-
periments that a person in the act of leaping is capable of taking
a much wider leap by the aid of dumb-bells : still, even ac-
knowledging the greater practice of the Greeks, it remains inex-
plicable how Phayllos could, by aid of these dumb-bells, have
leaped to a distance of fifty-five feet, considering that the most
practised gymnasts of our time only succeed in leaping one-third
of that distance. As is the case in our gymnasiums, the ancients
marked, by a line dug in the ground, or a board, the spot whence
the leap had to be taken (fiarrip). Such a board, of a very lofty
height, whence a palsestrites takes the salto mortale, is depicted
in a wall-painting in an Etruscan burial-chamber (Micali, " L'ltalia
avanti il dominio dei Bomani," Atlas, Tav. 70), where, in fact,
the most varied exercises of the palaestra are most graphically
represented. The goal which had to be attained in leaping was
marked either by a furrow dug in the earth (crfcdfi/jLa), or the dis-
tance to which each of the competitors leaped was marked by an
incision in the ground. This drawing of furrows is probably in-
dicated by those agonistic representations on vases, of men with
hoes (Gerhard, uAuserlesene griechische Yasenbilder," Taf.
cclxxi.). Others, again, depicted in these paintings, carry long
red ribbons in their hands, probably pieces of tape, by which the
length of the leaps as well as other kinds of athletic exercises were
determined. Although the use of the dumb-bells as weights to be
held in leaping has not been introduced into modern gymnastics,
its strengthening the muscles of the arms, neck, and chest has,
nevertheless, been as fully recognized as it was by the ancients.

"Wrestling (Trakrj) was the third species of athletic exercise.
The custom of preparing for this exercise by anointing the body
(ekcuov) seems to have been introduced in post-Homeric times.
It contributed to the suppleness and elasticity of the limbs, and
was soon not only used in wrestling but in all other kinds of
athletic exercises. But in order to obviate the too great facility
of extricating the limbs from the embrace of an antagonist, the
wrestlers used to sprinkle their bodies with sand. Besides, as
Lucian says, this double covering of the skin prevents a too

THE WRESTLING-MATCH. 221

copious perspiration by closing the pores, which, owing to the
violent exercise, are open, and thus more exposed to the bad
effects of draughts ; it also strengthens the powers of endurance
generally. The duty of anointing the limbs devolved on the
akeiTTTTjs. At the end of the combat the body, of course, was
thoroughly cleansed ; and the ancients for that purpose used an
instrument of the nature of a scraper, which they called o-TXeyyfc
(strigilis). Both sexes were also in the habit of employing the
same scraper after every bath for the cleansing of their limbs.
This instrument, hollowed out in the shape of a spoon, and
consisting of metal, bone, or reed, was provided with a handle,
and we naturally find an instrument so constantly used in daily
life depicted in various paintings (Gerhard, "Auserlesene grie-
chische Vasenbilder," Taf. cclxxvii., cclxxxi. ; " Mus.
Gregor.," vol. ii., Tav. 87), the subjects of which are
taken from the palaestra or from domestic life. As a
rule, it appears together with a vessel of a globular
shape, in which the oil was kept. Fig. 251 may assist
the reader in forming a correct idea of a complete ap-
paratus of this sort, consisting of an oil-flask suspended
by cords, of scrapers of various lengths, and of a flat
dish ; the original is at the Museo Borbonico. The
manner of using this instrument is exemplified in a
particularly vivid manner by the beautiful statue of an
athlete scraping himself, in the Museo Chiaramonti, fiQ.251.
Fig. 252, generally known under the name of 'Atto^vo-
fjievos. In no other kind of contest was a professional training as
necessary as in the wrestling-matches. Not only rude strength
was required, but also firmness of eye in finding out an antago-
nist's weak points. No less useful were certain dexterous thrusts
learned at the wrestling-schools and quickness in outwitting an
antagonist by feigned turns and positions, all of which had, at
the same time, to be executed in a pleasing and decorous manner.
Certain rules were enforced at the wrestling-school which the
combatants were not allowed to transgress. They do not, it is
true, harmonize with our more humane ideas ; for, although the
beating of an opponent was then, as now, forbidden, not so were
pushing (w^tcr/Ao?), and spraining his fingers and toes, nor grasp-
ing his throat with the hands. The combatants were also

222

THE WRESTLING-MATCH.

allowed to knock their heads against each other (o-vvapdrreLv ra
fieTcoTra), unless this is to be understood as a mere pressing
together of foreheads, a position which is also permitted in our
modern gymnasiums. This latter species of combat seems de-
picted on a vase of the Blacas collection (" Musee Blacas," t. i.,
PI. 2 ; compare with it a similar representation in the " Museo Pio
Clemen tin o," vol. v., PI. 37), where two naked
wrestlers, with their heads pressed against each
other, endeavor to grasp each other's arms.
The Greeks had two species of wrestling. In
the first the wrestlers strove to throw each
other (tt&Xt) 6p0rj, bpOia) while standing in an
upright position, and, if thrown, to rise again
to renewed contest. If the opponent was
thrown three times in the same contest he had
to declare himself beaten. The other species
of wrestling formed the continuation of the
first ; the custom in this being that, as soon as
one of the combatants had been thrown, the
other knelt down upon him to prevent his ris-
ing, the contest (akivErjo-^, /cvkiais) being car-
ried on in this recumbent position. In both
species of wrestling certain tricks were used,
by means of which the wrestlers tried to deprive
their opponents of the free use of their arms and
legs, by closely embracing them. The opponents (Fig. 253) first
approached each other, at the beginning of the contest, with up-
lifted arms, at the same time advancing the right leg, and taking
a firm position with the upper body drawn back {efifSokai).

The contest, then, was begun with arms and fists (Fig. 253),

each antagonist try-
ing to encircle the
other's arms and
shoulders (hpaao-eiv).
Another (ryi^a (the
technical name for
the different tricks of wrestling) was done with the legs ; Odys-
seus, in his contest with Aias, applies it by knocking his heel
against the bend of the knee of his antagonist, and flooring him by

Fig. 255.

THROWING TEE DISKOS.

223

Fig. 254.

that means (vireXvae Be yvta). Another similar trick consisted in
suddenly lifting up the antagonist's leg with one's hands, and
throwing him down in that manner ; this is frequently depicted
in vase-paintings (" Monumenti
dell' Istit.," vol. i., 22, No. 8, b).
The encircling of the antagonist's
legs, continued even after the
wrestlers had fallen to the ground,
also belongs to this species of com-
bats ; it is illustrated by the cele-
brated marble group of "The
Wrestlers," at Florence. The
technical name for it was viroo-ice-
Xl^euvy and it formed an important
feature of the art. In the above-
mentioned group (Fig 254) the
uppermost wrestler has laid his left leg tightly round that of his
antagonist ; the latter endeavors to lift himself up by means of
his disengaged left arm and of his right knee. But his right arm
has been firmly grasped by the victor, and is being pushed up-
ward. Many other schemata of wrestling mentioned by ancient
authors we omit as not sufficiently explained.

The fourth kind of gymnastic exercise is the throwing of the
diskos (pca/coPoXia). Our illustration (Fig. 255) is taken from
the statue of a Diskobolos found in 1781 at the Villa Falombara,
belonging to Principe Massimi. It is undoubtedly a copy of the
celebrated statue by the sculptor Myron. The upper part of the
body is bent down toward the right, and rests on the left arm, the
left hand itself resting on the knee of the right leg, which is
slightly bent. The weight of the body, therefore, is thrown on
the right foot ; while the left one, with the toes bent slightly, only
touches the ground to keep up the equilibrium. The heavy diskos
lies on the lower part of the arm and the right hand. The right
arm is bent backward up to the height of the shoulder, so as to
add force to the throw. The neck and head are turned toward the
hand holding the diskos, so as to control the right direction of the
throw. The same position is also mentioned by Philostratos
(" Imag.," i., 24) in his description of a diskobolos, and was,
undoubtedly, the regular one. It somewhat resembles that of oui

224

SPEAR-THROWING.

players at nine-pins, with the difference, however, that in our
game the ball is thrown in a straight line, while the diskos was
propelled in a curve. This game is connected with mythical gods
and heroes ; Homer mentions it as a favorite occupation of men.

The Homeric diskos (0-0X09) consisted of
a heavy piece of cast-iron (avroxocovos)
or of stone ; as, for instance, among the
Phaiakai. The historic diskos has the
shape of a lens. It resembled a small
round shield without a handle, and was,
therefore, difficult to manage. The dis-
kobolos bent his fingers over the side
of the diskos which rested on his palm
and on the lower part of the arm (Fig.
255). A diskos found at JEgina is
M# in diameter, and weighs 3 lbs. 29
oz. It is at present in the antiquarium
of the Royal Museum of Berlin (Bron-
zen, No. 1273); on it are represented
two epheboi, one of them throwing a
spear, the other holding dumb-bells.1
The diskobolos stood on a small earth-mound (/3a\/3tV), and the
longest distance obtained decided the victory, whether or not a
goal had previously been marked.

Still more than was the case with the diskobolia another
exercise, viz., the throwing of spears (clkovtiov, a/covncrfjLos), was
considered as a preparation for actual warfare. It was well known
in Homer's time, and afterward counted among the gymnastic
and agonistic exercises. In Homer's time the game was per-
formed in full armor and with sharp spears ; later on, only point-
less spears were used, as is confirmed by several vase-paintings in
which epheboi appear with one or two spears without points. In
the pentathlon light, short spears, with long, thin points, were
used either in throwing at aims or only for long distances. We
shall return to the spears in treating of Greek weapons (§ 54).
The five exercises thus described, viz., running, leaping,

Fig. 256.

1 See the picture of a diskos (original size) in Ed. Pinder, " Ueber den Funf kampf
der Hellenen," Berlin, 1867.

BOXING. 225

wrestling, throwing the diskos, and the spear, formed the so-called
7revTa0\ov. At the four great national festivals all these had to
be gone through on one and the same day, and the prize was
awarded to him only who had been victorious in all of them.
According to Bockh, the pentathlon began with leaping ; after it
followed running ; after that, the throwing of the diskos and of
the spear, the last game being the wrestling. Other philologists
prefer a different order. It remains doubtful whether the whole
pentathlon was gone through each time. According to Krause
(" Gymnastik und Agonistik der Hellenen "), the Tpuayfio^ (viz.,
leaping, and throwing of diskos and spears) was obligatory in all
cases, the running and wrestling being omitted occasionally.

The most dangerous of all contests was the boxing-match
(7rvyfjL7], 7rv^). In order to increase the force of the clinched fist
each fighter (ttuktijs;) tied straps of bull's-hide (Ifiavre^) round
both his clinched fists, so as to leave only the fingers uncovered.
The ends of these straps were tied several
times round the wrists, so as to protect the
artery in that place. Such was the older
custom mentioned by Homer. The name
of this covering was fieiXlxal'> perhaps, as
Krause remarks, because it caused a soften-
ing of the blow dealt with it (see Fig. 256, a).
In other cases, strips of hardened leather,
or even nails and lead buckles, were attached to these coverings,
inflicting wounds at each well-aimed blow. The name of this
dreadful weapon was afyalpai (see Fig. 256, 5, taken from the
statue of a fighter in the Yilla Pamfili). The fingers there are
put through a ring of metal or leather, while round the arm
are wound numerous straps, to which is added a piece of metal
resembling a shield. A still more dangerous weapon is exem-
plified by the statue of a fighter in the Dresden Museum (Fig.
257) ; perhaps we there see what the ancients called pjvpy^K^.
The fighters entered the " ring " perfectly naked. After their
straps had been adjusted by experienced men, they chose their
places. After the signal had been given, they began the
combat with the upper part of the body bent forward, but
with the throat drawn back so as to remove it from the grasp
of the antagonist. Fig. 257, and many other statues and vase-
15

BOXING.— HORSE-RA CINQ.

paintings, exemplify this position. All kinds of tricks were used
by the fighter to tire out the antagonist and protect himself from
blows. Both hands were used alternately to deal blows, the

unemployed arm being used to
ward off attacks from the head,
the chest, or the belly. Quick-
ness and agility in changing the
position were no less required than
strength of muscles. Illicit means
of gaining the victory were severely
punished, as was also the inten-
tional killing of the antagonist.
Blows were chiefly aimed at the
chest, temples, ears, cheeks, nose,
mouth, and chin. The teeth were
frequently knocked in, and the
ears squashed, as appears from
several statues. Ear-cases of wool
or leather (a//,</)G>T/Se?) were used
in the gymnasia and palsestrai, but
not at public fights. Fighters of
about equal strength and dexterity
sometimes used to break their combat by short intervals of rest.
Strongly-contested fights, however, were generally continued with-
out interruption till either of the combatants confessed himself
beaten by lifting up his hand.

To conclude, we mention the Trcvy/cpaTiov, a combination of
wrestling and boxing. It was unknown in heroic times, and does
not appear among public games previous to Olympiad 33. Straps
were not used in it, as these would have impeded the motion of
the hands in wrestling. According to rule in the pankration, the
blow was not dealt with the clinched fist but only with the bent
fingers. Otherwise all tricks and schemata of both wrestling and
fighting were permitted, barring illicit means of weakening the
adversary {jcaKopay&v).

53. After having considered the gymnic agones (dyojv
yvfivifcos), we now come to the lirirLKo^ aycov* i. e., racing in
chariots and on horseback. Both these agones were considered
as the highest and noblest kinds of public games. Horses and

Fig. 257.

THE CHARIOT-RACE. 227

chariots, of course, could be owned only by the richer classes,
whence the fashionable character of these games. Firmness of
hand and eye in directing the horses was the most important
requisite of the art. The owners of horses, therefore, employed
frequently substitutes at the chariot-races {appuiTrjXao-la). The
architectural arrangements (aphesis, goal, etc.) of the race-course
have been described in § 28. "We add a few remarks about the
chariots themselves. The two-wheeled chariot used by Homeric
heroes, both in the race-course and on the field of battle, remained
in use at races during the historic period. The charioteer alone
occupied it. (Compare our remarks about the battle-chariot,
§ 54.) The number of chariots admitted at one race most likely
varied according to the width of the hippodrome ; in large hippo-
dromes, like that of Olympia, the aphesis of which, on each side,
was about 400 feet long, it was, no doubt, considerable. The
number of horses attached to each chariot was originally four of
full-grown size (fy)o/*o? 'lttttcov reXelow), afterward two (Ifanrav re-
\dcov avvcDpfc). The first kind of race was introduced 01. 25, the
second, 01. 93. The occurrence of three horses is proved by the
frieze of the Parthenon. After 01. 99, the custom of using colts
(7tco\ol), either by fours or twos, was introduced. The use of
mules in the hippodrome occurs only between 01. 70-84. The
places of the chariots were decided by drawing lots. At a given
signal the horses started simultaneously, animated by the driver's
shouts, and urged on to the utmost speed by his whip (fido-Tc^)
or goad (/cevrpov) ; thick clouds of dust followed the wild race.1
Just as in the foot-race, the course was either run through
once, without returning round the goal (atcapLTTTov), or the
chariots had to run back, as in the diaulos of the foot-race. The
equivalent of the dolichos would be the running twelve times
through the whole course with grown-up horses (SaSe/caros
fy>6/.io?), as done at the Olympia, Pythia, and Isthmia. We
also find, analogous to the 6tt\[t^ 8p6/j,o<; of the foot-race, a
chariot-race at which both horses and drivers appeared in full
armor. Usually, however, the charioteers were naked, while

1 The mastix consisted of a short stick with a number of thongs attached to it (Fig.
259) ; the kentron was a long pointed staff similar to that used in Southern Italy and
Spain at the present day. Sometimes rattles were attached to the point of the kentron
(see Muller, " Denkmaler," Part i., No. 91, 6).

228 THE HORSE-RACE.

the horses were harnessed as lightly as possible. Great danger
of upsetting, or even smashing, the chariot was incurred in
going round the goal, not to speak of many other inconveniences
connected with the imperfect leveling of the course. Nestor
refers to the former danger in the instruction addressed to his
son.

Chariot-races have been frequently the subjects both of sculpt-
ure and painting. A wall-painting in an Etruscan grave-cham-
ber (Fig. 258) illustrates the preparation for the race. On the
left a charioteer drives his biga into the race-course, while an
expert seems to examine the horses of the next-following chariot
before admitting it to the hippodrome. On the right, two horses
are put to a chariot by two servants. Other monuments show the

Fig. 253.

chariots amid the dangers of the race. In a vase-painting "(Pa-
nofka, " Bilder antiken Lebens," Taf. iii., 10) we see a running
horse with the rein torn ; a wall-painting (Micali, " L' Italia avanti
il dominio dei Eomani," Atlas, Tav. 70) shows a chariot smashed
by the kicking horses, while the charioteer is thrown up into the
air (see also the representation of Circensic games on a mosaic
floor at Lyons, § 104).

"We now have to consider the races on horseback (iinrohpofjLLa).
The art of riding, as applied to both warfare and racing, belongs
essentially to historic times, when the Homeric chariot began to
disappear from the fiel d of battle. Only barbarous nations retained
the chariot as an implement of war. In horse-racing we also meet
with the distinction between grown-up horses (fonrtp /ciXrjTi) and
colts (k6\7]tl waikrp), the race with the former dating from 01. 33,
that with the latter from 01. 131. The rules of horse-racing were
most likely identical with those of chariot-racing. The turning
round the goal in the former was much less dangerous than in the
latter ; but accidents, nevertheless, were not impossible, as appears
from a vase-painting (Panofka, " Bilder antiken Lebens," Taf. iii.,

GAMES AT BALL.

4), where a rider is dragged along the ground by his horse. The
arrival at the goal is illustrated by a vase-painting (Fig. 259), in
which the umpire receives the victor ; he is one horse's length in
advance of his competitors. The so-called koXtttj was a peculiar
kind of race in which the rider, while racing round the course for
the last time, jumped off his horse, and, holding it by the bridle,
made for the goal. Something similar to the kalpe (which, how-
ever, was soon discontinued) occasionally took place at chariot-
races. Two persons, viz., the driver (tylo-xps) and the competitor,
stood in the chariot. While the course was measured for the last
time the latter jumped from the chariot and ran by the side of it,
until very near the goal, when he jumped into it again, assisted by

Fig. 259.

the heniochos ; hence his name airofiaTr)? or avaftaTTjs. At the
Panathenaia this kind of race was most commonly practised, and
the frieze of the Parthenon undoubtedly contains examples of it.
There we see chariots with three horses, driven by charioteers,
while warriors, armed with helmet and shield, run by the side of
them, or are s.een jumping into them.

Among gymnastic exercises we also name the game at ball
((KpacpLariKj]), greatly recommended by Greek physicians as
strengthening the limbs, and, moreover, considered by the Greeks
as a chief means of developing the grace and agility of the body.
Boys and men, girls and women, practised it. It was played,
like other gymnic exercises, according to certain rules which had
to be learned. At the gymnasia a separate place (afycupurrripiov,

230

GAMES AT BALL.

a<palpiaTpa) was reserved for it, where a teacher (crcfxupLaTifcos;)
gave instruction in the art. The balls were of various colors,
made of leather, and stuffed with feathers, wool, or fig-seeds.
With regard to size the distinctions were — small, middle-sized,
and very large, empty balls. The game with the small ball (jxucpa)
was again divided into three classes, according as the smallest
(o-(f)cSpa futcpd), the slightly larger {pklrfto rovSe fiel&v), or the rel-
atively largest ball (afyaiplov fiei&v rcovBe) was used. The chief
difference between games with the larger and smaller balls seems
to have consisted in the position of the hands, which in the former
were not allowed to be raised above the height of the shoulders ;
while in the latter they might be lifted above the head. The ex-
planations of ancient authors are, however, not very perspicuous.
Our monumental evidence consists chiefly of women, in a sitting
position, playing with one or several balls. For want of a Greek
representation, we have chosen a scene from a Roman sphairiste-
rion (Fig. 260). It is taken from a wall-painting in the thermae

of Titus, in Eome. Three
epheboi, superintended by a
bearded teacher, are practis-
ing with six small balls. The
position of their arms accords
with the rule just mentioned.
The airoppafys was another
game with small balls. In it
the ball was thrown on the
ground in an oblique direc-
tion, and was caught by the
other player after having re-
bounded several times owing to its elasticity. These bounds used
to be counted. The players altered their positions only when the
ball, in rebounding, had changed its direction. Another game
with the small ball was called ovpavia, in which the little ball was
thrown into the air as high as possible, and had to be caught on
falling down again. In another game, of Spartan origin, called
eiricricvpos or itprjficfcrj, the players were divided into two parties,
separated by a line (afcvpov). Behind each party was drawn
another line which they were not allowed to cross in catching the
ball. The ball was placed on the skyron and thrown by a member

Fig. 260.

BATHING. 231

of one party toward the other party, who had to catch it, and
throw it back. As soon as either party were driven back behind"
their boundary-line the game was ended. About the games with
large and very large balls we are instructed less fully. They were
thrown with considerable force, and had to be caught and thrown
back by the antagonist with his arm or the palm of his hand. A
similar game, played by young men in Italy at the present day,
may be an antique reminiscence. "Whether the game called
<f)aivip$a, was played with large or small balls is uncertain. In
it the player pretended to throw the ball toward one of his antag-
onists, but changed its direction unexpectedly. We know that the
balls used in this game were hollow. We finally mention the
game with the korykos {jcdupvKOjj^ia, KwpvKoftokia). From' the
ceiling of a room was suspended, down to about the chest of the
player, a rope with a balloon attached to it, which latter was filled
with fiour, sand, or fig-seeds. The task of the player consisted in
putting the balloon in a gradually increasing motion, and in
throwing it back with his hands or chest.

Bathing also may be counted among corporeal exercises. The
warm bath as a means of refreshment after the day's labor is
mentioned by Homer. In historic times, also, the beneficial in-
fluence of a bath, particularly before meals, was generally ac-
knowledged by the Greeks, although they never cultivated bath-
ing as a fine art like the Komans. The too frequent use of hot
baths was rare among the Greeks. For warm baths, public and
private buildings (ftaXaveia hr^^ocna and IBia) were erected ; cer-
tain rooms in the gymnasia were reserved for the same purpose
(see page 107).

To judge by the vase-paintings — our chief means of infor-
mation with regard to the interior arrangements of baths — the
ablution of the body was effected in bathing-tubs, constantly sup-
plied with fresh spring-water (compare Gerhard's " Auserlesene
griech. Vasenbilder," Taf. cclxxvii.). In taking a sudatory
or steam bath (irvpiaty Trvpiarrjpicu), the bather was seated in a
tub, either standing free or let into the floor (wvekoiy ao-dfiwdoi,
Homer). After the bath, cold water was poured over him by the
master of the bath (ftaXavevsi) or his assistants (irapaxyrai)' To
the bath an anointing-room (akeuTrrrjpiov) was always attached,
where the body was scraped and rubbed with delicate ointment.

232 ARMOR.

Here, also, the bather dressed ; at least, in earlier times. Separate
"dressing-rooms {airohvTrjpia) were a later addition. The peculiar
arrangement of a bath for women, shown in a vase-painting, has
been mentioned before.

54. The games practised at the gymnasion were, to the Greek
youth, a preparation for actual warfare ; this we shall now have
to consider. Our chief attention will be directed toward the vari-
ous weapons and pieces of armature. The different phases of
Greek strategy we shall touch upon only in so far as they imply
at the same time a change in the implements of war. The de-
scription of complicated war-machines, invented by the Greeks,
we shall reserve for the Roman division of our work, seeing that
the only illustrations of them appear on monuments belonging to
the times of the emperors.

Our knowledge of Greek arms, both from written and monu-
mental evidence, is considerable. The preserved specimens, on
the other hand, are few in number, the weapons made of iron
being almost entirely destroyed by rust, the effects of which only
bronze has been able to withstand. The stone weapons of the
aborigines, found in Greece, we shall omit for the present, being
chiefly concerned with the classic period of Greek antiquity.
Yase-paintings and sculptures, our chief means of knowledge,
must be used with great caution, owing to the fantastic exaggera-
tions of archaic painters, and to the ideal treatment of sculptors,
both of whom were prone to sacrifice realistic truth to artistic
purpose. Moreover, our written and monumental means of knowl-
edge are not easily applicable to each other, unless we accept the
specimens on the great monuments of Roman imperial times as
equally illustrative of contemporary Greek armor.

To give the reader an idea of the full armor (iravoirXla) of
a Greek warrior, we will introduce him to the workshop of
Hephaistos (Fig. 261), taken from a bass-relief in the Louvre.
The god, dressed in a tucked-up chiton, is employed in adding
the handle to a large shield which one of his satyr-assistants is
scarcely able to hold. By the side of the master, another work-
man is sitting on the floor, polishing a greave. On a stele near
him are placed a sword and a cuirass, both in a finished condition.
To the left of this group we see a furnace blazing with flames,
and sitting near it a dwarfish figure, perhaps meant for Kedalion,

THE HELMET.

233

the faithful companion of the god. He somewhat resembles the
gnomes of Northern mythology. In our picture he is looking
with the eye of a
connoisseur on a hel-
met with a crest of
a horse's mane. A
satyr standing be-
hind the furnace jest-
ingly extends his
hand toward the pi-
leus of the old man.
Supposing this to be
an illustration of the

lines in the Iliad descriptive of Hephaistos working at the armor
of Achilles, we may consider ourselves as perfectly informed with
regard to the outfit of a Homeric hero.

As the chief weapons of defense we mention the helmet, the
coat of mail, the greaves, and the shield. The covering of the
head and the upper part of the body, to protect them from the
weather and the enemy's weapons, originally consisted of the
hide of wild animals. Thus the hunter's trophy became the war-
rior's armor. Herakles, the extirpator of ferocious animals, al-
ways wears the hide of the Nemsean lion as his attribute ; other
warriors appear on the monuments with a similar head-dress. On
an Etruscan box of ashes, the relief-ornamentation of which
shows the combat between Eteokles and Polyneikes, one of the
important figures wears a cap of lion's skin (Fig. 262, a). The
same custom prevailed among Germanic nations, and seems to
have been adopted by the Roman standard-bearers and trumpet-
ers, as is proved by the monuments of the imperial period. As
a medium between this primitive head-dress and the helmet of
metal, we mention the leather cap (jcwerj), made originally of the
raw-hide of an animal. A cap of this kind is worn by Diome-
des on his nightly expedition with Odysseus. It was close fit-
ting, without crest or knob, and was made of bull's-hide (icvvkr)
ravpeiri or Karalrv^). Odysseus wore a similar head-covering on
that occasion. His cap was entirely made of leather, lined with
felt, and fastened with straps inside ; on the outside it showed the
tusks of a boar, reminding one of the cap made of an animal's

234

TEE HELMET.

hide which we mentioned before. Dolon wore a morion made of
otter's skin (tcwer) /crcBir]). According to Homer, a cap of leather
was generally worn by yonnger warriors ; Fig. 262, b, taken from
a bronze statuette of Diomedes, may serve to illustrate its form.
The casque of metal (/cpdvos, by Homer called /copvs, or Kvverj
7rdyxa\fco<;) was a further development of this form. It was semi-
globular in shape, and made of brass. Gradually front, back, and
cheek pieces, visors and demi-visors, were added ; a crest served to
protect the skull. On a hydria of Yulci, showing the taking
leave of Amphiaraos and Eriphyle, the hero wears a semi-globular
helmet of brass (Fig. 262, c).

Fig. 262, d, is taken from the group of the iEginetai at
Munich. It represents the bowman, Teukros. His helmet
protects the head to a much greater extent than that just men-
tioned. The semi-globular cap has been made to fit the back

of his head, and to it have been added a neck-piece, of about
the width of a hand, and a narrow front-piece. Still more perfect
is the helmet worn by Telamon in the same group (Fig. 262, e).
The difference consists in a small piece of metal to cover the
bridge of the nose being added to the front-piece. Besides this,
short cheek-pieces ((f>d\apa) have been attached to the sides by
means of hinges, as appears from numerous vase-paintings ; these
cheek-pieces could be turned upward, which gave the helmet the
appearance of a winged helmet. Still more protection is afforded
by the helmet in Fig. 262,/*, found in the river Alpheios, near
Olyrapia. Front, neck, and cheek pieces are made of one piece
with the helmet, and completely cover the head down to the
shoulders ; only mouth, chin, and eyes, remain uncovered. The
avk&TTis was another form of the helmet, lighter and more grace-
ful than the one just described. The neck-piece is severed from
the front-piece by an incision, and the latter has been developed
into a complete visor, with small slits for the eyes (Fig. 262, g).

TEE CREST.

235

In the battle it was pulled down so as to cover the skull with the
cap, and the face with the visor ; otherwise it was worn pushed back
over the neck, so that the visor rested on the top of the head (see
Fig. 263, b : a head of Athene, from the Villa Albani). Frequently
the elegant Greek helmet appears without any front-piece, and
with a broad border bent upward (<ne$avrj), not unlike the open
visor of a mediaeval helmet (see the head of Athene, Fig. 263, a).
The leather cap, and frequently, also, the simple casque of
metal, were without a crest ((/>a\o?, see Fig. 262, d, e, f).
Hence the name acf>a\o<; applied to them. But Homer already
mentions a heavy helmet of metal, with a crest proceeding from
top to neck, and covering the seam which joins the two sides of

the helmet (Figs. 263, a, c, 264) : it served to protect the head
from blows, and also to fasten the crest (\o</>o<?). Yase-paintings
of the archaic kind also show this crest. To increase its power
of resistance, it was frequently made of four layers of metal.
Hence the name rerpafyaXos, rerpacfxzXrjpo^.1 Holes or notches
were made into the upper side of the phalos for the insertion of
bunches of horse-hair (Jirirovpis) or feathers (Fig. 262, g). The
KvufSa'Xps afcpoTaros mentioned by Homer (" Iliad," xv., 536) is,
perhaps, identical with the (f>d\o<;. When the phalos was want-
ing, the crest seems to have been fastened to the casque by means
of a small tube (Figs. 262, g, 263, d).

The helmets of the common soldiers were generally without
ornaments, those of the officers only being decorated with figures
or patterns ; the cap, visor, and stephane, were frequently covered
with these. The crest appears in many variations (Fig. 263,
b, c), and sometimes was increased to overloading by the addition
of feathers (Fig. 263, d). Decorated helmets of various kinds

1 According to Gobel's explanation; see " Philologus," 1862, p. 213.

236 THE ARMOR.

are generally worn by the statues of Athene, Ares, and several
heroes ; we also see them on the head of Athene and various por-
trait-heads on coins and gems — for instance, on cameos with the
heads of Ptolemy I. and II., in the collections of St. Petersburg and
Vienna. Fig. 263, c, shows the head of Athene from a silver coin of
Herakleia ; Fig. 263, e, the head of Neoptolemos, taken from a bass-
relief, most likely of Roman origin, published by Orti di Manara.
The second defensive weapon is the cuirass (dcbpa!;). Pausa-
nias describes its older form on speaking of the lesche painted
by Polygnotos at Delphi. " On the altar," he says, " lies an iron
cuirass of an unusual form, such as were formerly worn by the
heroes. It consists of two iron plates, connected by means of
buckles (7T6p6vaL), one of which covers the chest and stomach, the
other the back. The former is called yvaXov, the latter Trpoarjyov.
They seem sufficient to protect the body, even without a shield."
Pausanias here speaks of the solid cuirass (Ocopai; crrdSio^ or o-tcltos)
worn, in Homer, by the leaders, and, in consequence, frequently
depicted in the older vase-paintings (Fig. 264). We also refer to
the figure of Teukros in the JEginetan group at Munich. This
cuirass was made of strong plates, and went
down only as far as the hips, where it either
was cut off or had a curved border added to
it. Later on the plates were made thinner,
and more in accordance to the lines of the
muscles {see Fig. 261). The chief difference
between this and the older cuirass, besides its
being lighter arid more elegant, consists in
the prolongation of the front plate over the
navel. Altogether, it was more adapted to
the altered warfare of later times. It was
most likelv worn only by officers. Pound

Fig. 2C4. ,- . J f lT ix /> ' *» ' \

the waist was worn a belt (gcoarrjp, goovr))
over the cuirass, both to keep the parts of the harness together,
and to protect that part of the body. It was fastened with
buckles (in Homer, made of gold — o^e? 'xpvaziot). Odys-
seus wears a zoster of this kind over his jerkin, seemingly a
leather one, on an Etruscan box of ashes (Fig. 265). Under the
armor, but over the chiton, another broad belt, made of thin
metal and lined inside (fjiiTpa), was usually worn. It is, of course,
invisible in oictures, being covered by the armor ; but one speci-

TEE ARMOR.

237

Fig. 266

men of it (Fig. 266) has been preserved to us. It was purchased
by Bronsted in Eubcea, and described by him in his pamphlet,
" Die Bronzen von Siris." It consists of
bronze, and is eleven inches long. On the
inside fifteen larger and thirteen smaller
indentures have been made which, on the
outside, look like so many small semi-
globes ; the hooks at each end served to at-
tach it to the lining of the real belt. This
definition of zoster and mitra explains, at
the same time, Homer's description (" Iliad,"
iv., 135, et seq.).

We mention, together with the iron
cuirass, the linen jerkin (Xivodcopr}^) worn

by Aias, the son of Oileus and Am-
phios, in Homer ; and the iron chiton
(xakfcoxLTGov). Both were tight-fitting,
made of leather or linen, and had
pieces of iron attached to them to pro-
tect the heart and the shoulders (Figs.
265, 267). A belt was added, to protect the abdomen. The
shoulder-pieces tied to the belt or to the jerkin itself (Fig. 267)
were, as appears from numerous representations, richly orna-
mented. The reliefs on two bronze shoulder-
pieces, representing Aias fighting with an Ama-
zon, are among the masterpieces of Greek art.
Both are in the British Museum. The incorrect
statement of their having been found on the
banks of the Siris has given rise to the conjecture
of their having been part of the splendid armor
worn by Philip in the battle on the Siris. Not-
withstanding the erroneousness of this supposi-
tion, their common name, the " Bronzes of Siris,"
will probably remain unaltered. Both these light
jerkins (said to have been introduced among the
Athenian army by Iphikrates) and the cuirasses r». 207.

modeled after the lines of the body, had longer
or shorter stripes of leather or felt attached to their bottom parts.
These stripes consisted frequently of two layers, and were cov-

238 THE GREAVES.— THE SHIELD.

ered with plates of metal (irTepuyes). They served to protect the
abdomen, and were, like the shoulder-pieces, frequently orna-
mented. (Fig. 267 ; compare, as an example of the older armor,
the statue of a warrior on the stele of Aristion, in Overbeck's
"Geschichte der griechischen Plastik," Part i., p. 98). Such
Trripvye^ of smaller size were also attached to the arm-holes of the
cuirass, to protect the upper arm.

The coat of mail, consisting of a linen or leather shirt covered
with iron scales, occurs at an early period. The large scales were
imitated from those of a fish, the smaller ones from those of a
snake ; hence the names Ocopai; \e7n,$coT6<; or <J)o\i,&(ot6<;, respec-
tively applied to the two different kinds of armor.1 Scale-chitons
are worn, for instance, by Achilles and Patroklos on the vase
known as the " Kylix of Sosias " in the Koyal Antiquarium of
Berlin. The Persian bowman among the iEginetai, generally
called Paris, wears a tight-fitting armor of this kind. The cuirass
of chain (Qoapa^ akvo-iScoros) is of late Roman date, and, most
likely, of Oriental invention.

The lower part of the leg was protected, even in Homer's
time, by bronze greaves (/ei^ycuSe?) covering the leg from the ankle
to over the knee. They were made of flexible metal, and, in
being put on, they were first bent back (Fig. 268)
and afterward placed round the leg, and their open
sides bent together. They were tied across the
ankle with beautifully-wrought ribbons {eTna^vpid),
as is proved by some fragments of legs belonging to
the ^Eginetan group.2 They do not, however, ap-
pear on other monuments. Besides this, the greaves
were fastened round the calf with buckles or straps.
fig. 263. The putting-on of greaves is frequently depicted

on vases.
The principal weapon of defense was the circular or oval
shield. The circular shield {aairh ttclvtos itarj, ev/cv/cXos) — also
called the Argive, or more correctly the Doric, shield (Figs. 269,
a, b ; 270, b, <?), owing to its being first substituted for the long
shield by that tribe — was the smaller of the two, covering the

1 The fragments of a coat of mail have been found among the ruins of the old
Pantikapaion. See " Antiquites du Bosphore Cimmerien," PI. xxvii.

2 These ribbons have been preserved on the restored figures.

THE SHIELD.

239

soldier from about the chin to the knee. As in battle it fre-
quently had to be raised up to the helmet, an elastic cloth, made
of leather or felt, was added at the bottom (Xcuo-rj'Ca Trrepoevra ?),1
sufficiently strong to ward off blows and thrusts (Fig. 269, b),
This cloth was of Asiatic invention, but adopted by the Greeks
at an early period. The oval shield (acucosi), about 4£ feet long
by over 2 wide, covered the warrior almost from head to foot
(noBrjvetcr)?, afupifipoTcx;, Fig. 264). As mentioned before, the
older long shield was soon changed for the round shield; but
the oval shield, although considerably shortened, occurs up to
a very late period. Such
oval shields as had semi-
circular or oval incisions
in the centre were called
Boeotian (Figs. 264, 269,
c, 270, a). The use of
these incisions is not suffi-
ciently explained ; perhaps
they served as peep-holes.
This form of the shield ap-
pears in the scutcheon of
most of the Boeotian cities
(see Fig. 270, a, from a coin
of the Boeotian city of
Haliartos) and numerous archaic vase-paintings. The outer
surface of the shields was more or less bent. The older way of
carrying the shield, slung over head and neck by means of a strap
(reXajnoov) fastened to the inside of the shield, must have been
very inconvenient. For the left hand there was a handle (irop-
ira%) inside the shield to direct its position. The Karians, accord-
ing to Herodotos, improved this weapon considerably by intro-
ducing a band of leather or metal (oxavov), placed in the centre
of the hollow for the upper part of the arm ; to which was added
another handle for the arm near the rim of the shield (Figs. 264,
265, 270, c). Whether the reXafuov was dropped entirely, or kept
by — in order to carry the shield over the back on the march, as
was the Roman fashion — seems uncertain. The straps fastened
to a ring which occurs, together with the two handles, on the

1 Compare Aristophanes, Achon, v., 1088 : ra aTpA/iaf u iral dfjoov ek rijg aairidoc.

Fig. 270.

240 THE SHIELD.

shield of Ares, in the Villa Ludovici (Fig. 270, d), is undoubtedly
a telamon. In the older round shield we often see, instead of the
two handles, a broad bar (jcavcov) reaching from one rim to the
other. Through it the arm was put, the hand taking hold of the
thong of leather or cloth fastened round the whole inner edge of
the shield (Fig. 270, b). The numerous handles thus effected had
the advantage of enabling the soldier to change the position of
the shield in case one side of it was damaged. This mode of
holding the shield belongs, most likely, to earlier times, being
met with only on vase-paintings of the archaic period.

The shield was made of bull's-hides, and frequently consisted
of several, sometimes of no less than seven, layers, sewed one over
the other, with a metal plate fastened on the top of them by
means of nails. These nails protruded from the rim of the shield
like buckles (oficjxiXol, Fig. 269, a) ; hence the epithet o^aXoeaaai
applied to the shield by Homer. The centre boss, generally
richly ornamented, and used to parry blows, was the omphalos
tear iZoxrfv. The Greeks also had massive round shields of metal
(7raYx<z\/co? a<77r/?), which, owing to their weight, were soon
disused. The beauty of some shield-decorations appears from the
verses in the " Iliad " descriptive of the shield of Achilles made
by Hephaistos, and from Hesiod's description of that of Herakles.
The dreadful head of the Gorgon, lions (Fig. 269, b), panthers,
boars, bulls (Fig. 269, a), scorpions, snakes, anchors, tripods,
chariots, etc., appear frequently in vase-paintings as emblems
(i7TL(T7)fia, arjfiela) on shields, mostly with some reference to the
character of the wearer. The shield of Idomeneus, for instance,
showed a cock, in allusion to his descent from Helios, to whom
that bird was devoted ; Menelaos's scutcheon consisted of the image
of the dragon which had appeared to him in Aulis as a divine
message. A similar emblem, on the shield placed on Epami-
nondas's grave at Mantinea, indicated the descent of the hero
from Kadmos ; the shield of Alkibiades showed Eros throwing
the lightnings. We also recall iEschylos's description of the
shields of his seven heroes before Thebes. Besides these indi-
vidual signs (pliceia a-rjfjbela), there existed, also, national emblems
of the different Greek tribes. This custom dates from the Per-
sian wars. The shields of the Sikyonians showed a brilliant 2,
those of the Lakedsemonians an archaic lambda y (whence their

THE SHIELD.

241

name, lambda, or labda), those of the Mykenians a M, those of
the Athenians an owl, and those of the Thebans an owl or a
sphinx. Inscriptions also occur ; on the shield of Kapaneus was
written, Trprjaco iroXiv ; on that of Demosthenes, ar/ady TV)(rj,
Only one Greek shield has been preserved ; it is in the Museum of
Palermo.

The Persian wars caused an entire change of Greek strategy.
In the heroic age the valor of the individual showed itself in sin-
gle combats ; in more modern times the hoplitai, i. e., the heavy-
armed foot-soldiers, decided the battle.
These warriors retained the Homeric oval
shield, while the heavy iron cuirass was
changed for leather or linen jerkins with
iron plates ; helmet and greaves also were
made of lighter materials. After the Per-
sian wars we meet with light infantry as
distinguished from the hoplitai. After
the expedition of the Ten Thousand, the
light infantry became an essential feat-
ure of Greek armies; they were divided
into yv/jLvfjres, yvjjbvol, soldiers without
any armor, and TreXraaral, ireXro^opov,
i. e., soldiers wearing a pelta as defensive
weapon. They were destined to fight
at a distance; their weapons were, ac-
cording to their national predilections,
the bow, the sling, or the javelin. The
peltastai also wore a shield in the form
of a crescent (ireKTa). It was two feet

Fig. 2H.

long, made of wood
or osiers, and cov-
ered with leather.
It is said to have
been of Thrakian
origin. In vase-
paintings the pelta
is generally worn
by Amazons, and
a comprehensive knowledge of its more graceful forms might be
gathered from the numerous representations of battles of Ama-
16

EL dSk

Fig. 272.

Fig. 278.

242

THE SPEAR.

zons. Fig. 271, from a beautiful marble statue of the Dresden
collection, may serve to illustrate not only the pelta but the
whole warlike costume of the Amazons in Greek art. This
Amazon appears in a noble Greek dress ; more frequently, how-
ever, we meet with an Oriental costume, as worn, for instance,
by an Amazon shooting with a bow (Fig. 272). Sometimes the
Amazons also wear the vaulted oval shield of the Greek soldiers ;
on the above-mentioned bronze armor from Siris we see one
with a small flat pelta in the shape of a disk with only one
handle. Fig. 273 shows a peltastes from a skyphos at Athens.
The figure is of particular importance to us as being illustrative
of the new mode of attack for foot-soldiers introduced by Cha-
brias. Cornelius Nepos, in his biography of that commander,
says : Reliquam jphalangem loco vetuit cedere, dbnixoque genu
scuto, projectaque hasta impetum excvpere hostium docuit.

The aggressive weapons of the Greeks were the spear, sword,
club, battle-axe, bow, and sling. The spear
(ey%o?, Bopv) consisted of a smooth shaft (in
Homer's time generally made of ash-wood,
IMeikivov) about 6 to 7 feet long, over the
pointed end (icavkbs) of which an iron head
alyjir], afcwKT}) was drawn by means of a
socket (av\6s), and fastened to it with an iron
ring {iropKTj^). The shape of this spear-head
varies greatly; it frequently resembles a leaf
or a broad bulrush (Fig. 274, 5, c, e,f), at other
times it has a barb (Fig. 274, i) ; sometimes,
also, it is exactly like the spear's head used by
our modern lancers. To the other end of the
shaft (especially in post-Homeric times) a
" shoe " (aavprrip, Figs. 273, 274,/, g) was added,
which either served to fasten the spear in the
earth when not used, or supplied the spear's
head in case this was broken. Smaller spears
were used for throwing, longer ones for thrusting ;
of the former, the Homeric heroes generally have
two in their chariots. Warriors in vase-paint-
ings also generally carry two javelins; it appears, however,
on comparing these two spears on numerous monuments, that they

Fig. 274.

THE SPEAR.

243

were of unequal length, whence it may be concluded that the
longer was used for thrusting, the shorter for throwing (compare
the lances worn by Achilles and Aias in Panofka, " Bilder ant.
Lebens," Taf. x., 10, and by Peleus in Overbeck's "Gallerie
heroischer Bildwerke," Taf. viii., 6). Something analogous to
this unequal length of the spears we observe in the fact of the
Roman hastati and jyrincipes being armed with the pilum or
vericulum.

Besides these spears, of an average length of 5 to 7 feet, we
find in vase-paintings others only 2 to 3 feet long, in which
latter the iron part is equal to one-third of the entire length
(see Overbeck, ibid., Taf. xiii., 1, and Taf. xviii., 3, in the
latter of which the spear of Aias is still shorter, Fig. 274, I).
The same custom of carrying several spears of unequal length
was continued in historic times. The peltastai in Xenophon's
army carried five shorter and one longer javelin, the latter
having a strap (ayicvkn, amentum) attached to it, whence the
name peo-dy/cvkovy hasta amentata (Fig. 274, h). About the
handling of these spears with straps opinions differed for a long
time ; both written and monumental proofs with regard to this
point are, indeed, very scanty. Kochly was the first to treat
the question comprehensively, illustrating it at the same time by
means of practical trials (see " Verhandlungen der 26. Versamm-
lung cleutscher Philologen und Schulmanner," Leipzig, 1869,
pp. 226-238). According to him, this weapon was adopted by
the peltastai from the gymna-
sion. It must be considered as
a javelin, 2£ to 3 Greek yards
(Ellen) long by f inch thick,
to which, in its centre of grav-
ity, a leather strap was tied.
The two ends of the strap were
tied round the shaft several
times and arranged in a loop,
through which the fingers were put (SnrytcvTuDfievoi. Ovid,
" Metamorph.," xii., 326 : intent amento digitos). At the moment
of throwing the spear the loop was pulled violently, by means
of which the strap, in being unwound, conveyed to the spear a
rotating movement, similar to that of the missiles of our rifled

Fig. 275.

244 THE SPEAR.

guns. Fig. 275 is the only existing antique representation illus-
trative of the use of this weapon. From a passage in Plutarch's
" Life of Philopoimen," it appears that the ankyle remained at-
tached to the shaft. That commander is hit by a spear in both
thighs, and, owing to the force of the throw, the strap also is
pushed through one thigh, which makes the extraction of the
weapon a difficult matter.

The longest of all spears, called o-dpccro-a, <rdpL<ra, were used
by the Makedonians. According to Greek authors they were at
first 16, in later times 14 yards long, which, reckoning the Greek
yard at 1£ foot, would make 24 and 21 feet respectively. A
spear of such length would have been unwieldy in the hands of
the strongest soldier; we therefore agree with Riistow and
Kochly (" Geschichte des griechischen Kriegswesens," p. 238 est
seq.) in changing the " yards " of antique measurements into feet.
With this modification we will quote the description by iElianus
(" Theory of Tactics," c. xiv., est seq.1) of the Makedonian phalanx ;
our conjectural reductions of the measurements are added in
brackets : " Every man under arms in the closed phalanx stood at
a distance of 2 yards (2 feet, meaning the distance from the chest
of the man in the first row to that of the man in the second row).
The length of the sarissa was, according to the original pattern,
16 yards; in reality, however, only 14 yards (16 to 14 feet).
From this the space between the two hands holding the spear = 4
yards (4 feet) must be deducted ; the remaining 10 yards (10 feet)
lie in front of the first row of hoplitai. The second row stands 2
yards (2 feet) behind the first, their sarissai, therefore, protrude
by 8 yards (8 feet) from the front row, those of the third row by
6 yards (6 feet), of the fourth row by 4 yards (4 feet), of the fifth
row by 2 yards (2 feet) ; those standing in the sixth row are un-
able to let their sarissai protrude from the first row. The five
sarissai in front of every man of the first row naturally are of
fearful aspect to the enemies, while, at the same time, they give
fivefold strength to his attack."

Shorter than the sarissa, but still of considerable length, was
the lance of the Makedonion cavalry. Representations of this

1 Compare iElianus, c. xiv., in "Griechische Kriegsschriftsteller," erklart von
Kockly und Riistow.

TI1E SWORD.

245

Fig. 2T6.

weapon are scarce. A silver coin of the Thessalian city of Pelina

may serve to illustrate the arms used in Northern Greece. On

one side of the coin (Fig. 276) we see

a horseman, covered with a Thessalo-

Makedonian felt hat, and armed with

sauroter and sword ; the reverse shows

a light-armed foot- soldier with the

same kind of hat, and armed with a

Makedonian round shield, a sword, and

three short spears. The latter is perhaps meant for one of the

hypaspistai, introduced into the Makedonian army during the

reigns of Philip and Alexander ; the horseman is most likely a

representative of the celebrated Thessalian cavalry, who joined

the Makedonians as allies.

The hunting-spear (a/covriov) resembles, on monuments, that
used by soldiers ; Fig. 274, i, shows one with a double barb.

The sword (f t<£o?) was worn on the left side, about the height
of the hip. It was fastened, by
means of a loop (aoprrfp), to
a belt (reKafuov) which was
thrown over the right shoulder.
The hilt (kcotttj, \a/3rj), 4 to 5
inches long, had no guard; a
cross-hilt (Fig. 277, a), some-
times rounded (Fig. 277, d),
serving to protect the hand.
Hilt and blade were frequently
made of one piece ; in more
ornamental swords the blade
was let into the hilt. The
blade, sharpened on both sides
(a/ji(f)r)/ce<;, d^iyvov), was about
16 to 18 inches long by 2 to 2£
wide1 (Fig. 277, d). A scabbard (/coXeo?, Fig. 277, e*), made

1 A beautiful Greek sword, found near Pella in Makedonia, now in the Royal Anti-
quarium of Berlin, has a blade 1*7 inches long, and a handle measuring 4 inches. The
blade of another sword in the same collection is 19^ inches in length, the hilt being
4 inches long. The latter resembles perfectly our Fig. 277, d.

8 Sword and scabbard (Fig, 277, c, d) belong to one and the same figure.

Fig. 277.

246 THE SWORD.— THE HARPE.

either of leather or metal, covered the blade up to the hilt.1 The
sword of heroic times was, like most weapons, modified by the
changed mode of warfare of a later period. According to Corne-
lius Nepos, Iphikrates increased, according to Diodoros, he doub-
led, the length of the sword-blades of the infantry of the line ; the
hoplitai, however, retained the shorter sword of earlier times.
Besides this straight sword, ancient writers also mention another,
the Lakedsemonian sword (/ia%atpa) ; its blade was slightly bent
on one, the sharpened, side, while the other side was blunt like
the backs of our knives ; the end was pointed obliquely toward the
back (see Fig. 277, c, and Fig. 277, 5, in the latter of which the
form of the handle indicates a curved sword inside the scabbard).
A third kind of sword, the blade of which is like that of a dagger,
is repeatedly found on monuments (Fig. 277, a). Artistic orna-
mentation was chiefly applied to the hilt. The sword of the rest-
ing Ares in the Yilla Ludovici has a hilt in the form of an ani-
mal's head (Miiller, "Denkmaler," Part ii., No. 250).

To conclude, we mention the sickle, the most primitive instru-
ment for cutting grain, the form of which resembles that used at
the present day. For pruning of vines and trees, the pruning-
knif e (apirrj) was used. Kronos first applied
it in the fight with his father ; the harpe
(Fig. 278, a) belongs to an image of that god.
The knife iised at sacrifices to cut off the
animal's head resembles the sickle. It con-
sists of a straight blade with a sickle or hook-
like addition near its end (Fig. 278, h). In
exactly the same form the harpe appears in
renderings of the myth of Perseus, who with
this instrument cuts off the head of the Gor-
gon (compare Fig. 278, c, another form of
Perseus's weapon). Barbarous nations used
swords shaped like sickles, as appears from the monuments of im-
perial Pome. Battle-chariots with sickles attached to the wheels
and axle-trees (Bpeiravrj^opov apfia) were also used by barbarians,
but never by Greeks ; in the battle of Gaugamela fifty sickle-
chariots were placed in front of the centre of the Persian line.

1 The Royal Antiquarium of Berlin possesses a scabbard of chased silver, belong-
ing to a dagger-like weapon.

THE BOW.

247

A wooden and an iron club {poiraXov, /copvvr]), the former cut
by Hercules from the root of a tree, the latter made for that hero
by Hephaistos, are mentioned in the " Iliad." This weapon, how-
ever, was never introduced into the Greek army. Herodotos
mentions among the weapons of the Assyrians in Xerxes' s army
clubs covered with iron buckles {poiraXa TervXcofjuiva o-iSrjpw), re-
minding one of the maces, clubs, and flails, of the middle ages.

The battle-axe (fiovTrXrjj;, afyvrj) appears chiefly in the hands
of Amazons ; it is also carried by some of the heroes of the
" Iliad," for instance, by Peisandros in the hollow of his shield
(" Iliad," xiii., 611, et seq.). The later Greeks never
used this weapon. In the East it seems to have
been retained much longer ; even in Alexander's
time two thousand Barkanian horsemen in the Per-
sian army use battle-axes. Fig. 279, c, shows the
oldest form of the weapon as used by the inhab-
itants of the isle of Tenedos, and depicted by
them on their coins. Fig. 279, b shows a bill, d a double battle-
axe, a and e fighting-hammers combined with axes — all found in
the hands of Amazons, and all resembling mediaeval weapons of
the same kind.

We have to distinguish two forms of the antique bow (rogov).
The one, simpler and more easy to bend, consisted of a curved
elastic piece of wood, the ends of which were turned slightly

(fe

CfP

abed
Fig. 279.

Fig. 230.

upward, for the purpose of fastening to them the string (vevprj).
This bow, called Skythian or Parthian, is frequently found on
monuments. Fig. 280 reproduces a vase-painting in which three

248

THE QUIVER.

epheboi practise shooting with this bow. The aim is a cock
placed on a column. Only in few Greek states archery was re-
ceived among the gymnastic exercises, for which reason we have
not mentioned it among the agones. Whether the just-mentioned
bow, or that called the Greek bow proper, was the older of the
two, is difficult to determine. The simpler construction of the
former seems to indicate its greater antiquity, although the
Greek bow was universally used as early as the heroic period.
As to the construction and manipulation of the latter, we refer
the reader to Homer's graphic description (" Iliad." iv., 105,
et seq.).

Like the lyre, this bow was made of the horns (2J feet long)
of a kind of antelope (7r^u?), the growing ends of which were
joined together by a metal socket (/copcovij) ; on this the arrow
rested ; the other ends were tipped with iron, and to them the
string, made of calf-gut, was tied. Including the socket, the Ho-
meric bow must have been about 6 feet long, which allows 16 hands
for each horn. To bend a bow of this kind required considerable
strength. After being disused for some time it required greasing
to recover its elasticity. At a later time these horns were imi-
tated in wood, both because of the cheapness and the lightness of
the material. The arrow (oi'crro?, to?) consisted of a shaft (Bovaf;)
2 feet in length, made of reed or light wood, and of a generally
three-edged metal head 2 to 3 inches long, with or without a barb.
The back end of the arrow was feathered.
A notch (y\v<j>k) was cut into the shaft
where it lay on the string. The quiver
((jxtperpa, To^odr/KT]) was made of leather or
basket-work. It usually held nineteen or
twenty arrows (Fig. 281). It was carried on
the left side by a strap slung across the
shoulders (Figs. 272 and 280), and had a
cover attached to it (Fig. 281, b, c). Sometimes both bow and
arrows were kept in the quiver (Fig. 282), as is still the custom
among Mongolians and Kirghis. Bending the bow, the archer
generally put one knee on the ground — a position taken, for
instance, by the archer of the ^Eginetan group (compare Figs.
272, 280). As early as Homer's time the Kretans were re-
nowned as skillful archers. Kretan bowmen formed a peculiar

Fig. 282.

THE SLING.— THE CHARIOT. 249

feature of Greek armies up to the latest times, in the same
way as Macedonian archers were a separate corps of the light
infantry of Alexander the Great. Among barbarians, the
Skythians and Parthians were celebrated bowmen, both on foot
and horseback.

The sling (afevSovrj) consisted of a strap, broad in the centre
and narrowing toward the two ends. The stone or leaden bullet
(jjlo\v/38l<;) was placed on the broader part of the strap ; in
throwing, the slinger held the two ends of the strap in one hand,
and, after whirling the sling round his head several times, threw
the bullet by letting go one end. In the " Iliad " the sling is
mentioned only once as used by a Trojan; it seems to have been
of Oriental origin. Later on it seems to have
been adopted by various Greek tribes, who had
experienced its efficacy in the war with Xerxes.
At first the Akarnanians, afterward the in-
habitants of JEgium, Patrse, Dymse, Rhodes,
and Melos, were renowned as slingers. Accord-
ing to Livy (xxxviii., 29), the Greek sling
consisted of three straps sewed together; the
precision of which it was capable even surpassed that of the
Balearic slingers. The coins of the Pisidian city of Selge are the
only Greek sculptures which represent slingers (Fig. 283) ; they
frequently occur on Roman monuments.1

The use of battle-chariots belongs to the heroic period. The
warrior (TrapafiaTT)<;\ standing by the side of the charioteer
(17^/0^0?), was driven in front of the line to invite hostile war-
riors to single combat. When the strategic skill of the com-
mander superseded the demands on his personal valor, the chariot
was transferred from the battle-field to the hippodrome, where
alone its original form was preserved. The description of the
Homeric battle-chariot, therefore, to a great extent, also applies
to the historic chariot of the race-course. Notwithstanding the
plentiful monumental evidence, many important points, as, for
instance, the harnessing of the horses, remain open to contro-
versy. The generic term for chariot was apfia ; its other name
Stypos is a pars pro toto, the denomination of the body of the
chariot being applied to the whole. The body of the chariot

1 Compare § 107 as to the inscriptions on the missiles of slings.

250 THE CHAEIOT.

rested on two wheels (Tpo^ol, kvkXcl) connected by an axle-tree.
The small diameter (30 inches) of the former must be explained
from the desire of preventing the chariot from being upset by
the impediments of the battle-field, such as debris or dead bodies.
The axle-tree (agcov) was about 7 feet long, which, counting 1
foot for the nave of each wheel, leaves 5 feet for the chariot ; a
width sufficient not to impede the movements of the warrior.
The nave {ifkripbvq, yowi/ck) contained in its opening (o-vpcy^) an
inner ring (arapvov, ydpvov, hecrrpov), while two other metal rings,
one before, the other behind, the spokes (ifkrinvoheTos, dcopa]-),
surrounded it on the outside. The Homeric wheels had eight,
those in vase-paintings generally four, spokes (Kvrjfuu,, hence
oKTd/cvrjfjLa). They were let into the four feliles (a^rZSe?) forming
the rim of the wheel (tru?). In order to prevent the wheel from
falling to pieces, a tire of metal (ima-a-mrpov) was added. The
body of the vehicle (vTreprepia, or Stypos proper) rested on the
axle. To the axle a wooden frame (tovos, Ifiavrcoo-^ tov Bfypov)
was fastened by means of nails and pegs, and on this frame the
boards forming the bottom of the chariot (Trrepva), elliptic in
shape, were placed. Along the curved side of these boards rose
the sides of the chariot {irepi^pcuyfia, Tappiov), frequently made
of osiers in the manner of trellis-work (hence Homer's expression
8/0/90? evTrke/cTos), and reaching on the side of the horses up to
the knee of the charioteer, while toward the back it became grad-
ually lower (Fig. 258). The upper rim (avTvi;), made of wood or
metal, was either prolonged toward the back in
a large curvature (Fig. 258), or it was doubled
all along the sides of the chariot (Fig. 284). Its
form varies greatly in the vase-paintings. Its
destination was, most likely, twofold ; the back
part was grasped by the warrior on jumping on
to the chariot, while the front part served for

Fig 284

fastening the reins and the traces of the " wheel-
horses " — an important point, hitherto unnoticed. The diphros
was mounted from the back, which was open. The height of the
sides in front was about 2 feet ; in the Roman triumphal chariot
(an imitation of the Greek battle-chariot) it was increased up to
about the chest of the charioteer. A cover of leather served to
ward off missiles ; where it was wanting the sides were composed

VEHICLES.

251

Fig. 2t5.

of strong boards. Fig. 285, taken from a Koman relief, shows a
chariot into which the corpse of Antilochos is being lifted by his
friends. About the con-
struction of vehicles for
every-day use we know lit-
tle. As somewhat similar
to the two- wheeled diphros,
we mention the gig. The
wheels resemble those of
the chariot ; a seat for two
people, with a back and
sides to it, rests on the
axle (Fig. 286). In anoth-
er vase-painting (Gerhard,
"Auserlesene griech. Va-

senbilder," Taf . ccxvii.) this seat resembles a chest ; on it a
female figure is seated ; the driver sits at her feet close to the
pole, with his legs hanging down at the side, a
position similar to that of modern Neapolitan
coachmen. On a coin of the city of Ehegium
we see a one-horse vehicle on which the driver
sits in a cowering position. We are ignorant
of the names of these different forms of the
gig. 'Airrjvr} and afiaga seem both to apply to
four-wheeled vehicles of larger dimensions, used for carrying
people and goods. The dfia^a, for instance, served as bridal
chariot, on which the bride was seated between the bridegroom
and parachos, a circumstance which proves the greater width of
the vehicle. .On journeys, or as a means of enjoyment, vehicles
were used to a limited extent ; walking, and riding on horseback,
were deemed preferable.

The pole (pv^o?) of the diphros was firmly inserted into the
axle ; its other end was bound with metal, frequently shaped like
the head of an animal ; the ends of the axle-tree were frequently
adorned in like manner. To the point of the pole the yoke
(firyoy, made of ash, maple, or beech-wood) was fastened by
means of a very long strap (ZvyoBecrfjuov, Archaol. Zeitung, 1847,
T. vi.).

The slipping off of the yoke was, moreover, prevented by a

Fig. 286.

252 TEE EARNESS.

long nail (earcop) being stuck through the pole, and a ring (KpUo$)
put over it. The yoke itself consisted of two wooden half -rings
joined together by a transverse bar, which were put on the necks
of the animals, the inner surfaces being stuffed so as to prevent
chafing. To prevent the horse from shaking off the yoke, rings
were attached to the curved parts which, by means of straps, were
connected with the girths and the neck-straps (\i7raSva). Only
the two horses next to the pole carried a yoke (whence their
name £vyioi), the one or two additional horses running by the
side of them being called aeipaloi (creipacfropoi,, Trapaaaipoi, iraprj-
opoi\ or trace-horses, because they pulled by one trace only, fast-
ened to the antyx of the vehicle and to the neck-strap of the
animal. The harnessing of these trace-horses is illustrated by
numerous vase-paintings (Gerhard, " Auserlesene griech. Vasen-
bilder," Taf. 107, 112, 122, 123, 125, 131, 136, and others). In
one vase-painting (Taf. 102, ibid.) this mode of fastening the
traces to the antyx has even been applied to the biga. Whether
the yoke continued to be used at a later period remains doubtful ;
Pollux, in his description of the harnessing process, does not
mention it. With few exceptions (Fig. 258, compare Gerhard,
"Ueber die Lichtgottheiten," in " Abhandhmgen der Berliner
Akademie der Wissenschaften," 1»39, Taf. iii. 1, and iv., 2) the
yoke is invisible on the monuments, owing to the harness of the
yoke-horses being covered by the trace-horse nearest the spectator.
The bridle perfectly resembled that now in use. The Greeks
had names for the single parts of it, as, for instance, %a\tz/o? for
the bit, and icopvfyaia for the strap running from the bit upward
across the head. The reins were fastened to both ends of the
bit. As is evident from vase-paintings, all the reins were drawn
through a ring just above the pole ; they were held by the chari-
oteer.

About the warlike equipment of the horses and horsemen of
historic times we know little ; monumental evidence is almost
absent, seeing that the lancers occasionally met with on coins are
very imperfectly armed. The citizen-horsemen in the Pana-
thena'ic procession on the frieze of the Parthenon are quite
unarmed. As appears from this monument and various repre-
sentations of horse-races (Fig. 259), saddles were not used in
common life. Greek cavalry in battle used the saddle-cloth

THE TROPHY. 253

(i(f)L7nnov), fastened to the horse's back by means of a girth
(eiroxov). The horse of Alexander the Great in the Museo
Borbonico (Muller, "Denkmaler der alten Kunst," Part i.,
No. 170) wears a saddle-cloth. The ends of the cloth are there
joined together over the chest of the horse by means of an
elegant clasp ; the bridle is adorned with rosettes. Stirrups and
horseshoes were unknown to the Greeks. The rider jumped on
his horse, making use occasionally of stones lying by the road,
or of his lance. The horse was protected by pieces of armor for
the head {irpofieTwirlhiov)^ the chest (irpocrrepvlScov), and the sides
(TrapaTrXevp&ia). In a fragment of a vase-painting (Micali,
" Monumenti antichi," 1844, Atlas, PI. 45), a head-armor of this
kind is depicted, resembling a plate, which is fastened to the ,
horse's head by means of iron bands.

Almost all the battle-scenes on Greek monuments represent
mythical subjects. Historical battle-scenes, as frequently found
on Koman coins and triumphal monuments, are very rare. Of
historic representations we mention the battle between Greeks and
Persians on the frieze of the temple of Nike Apteros, at Athens,
the mosaic known by the name of " Battle of Alexander," and
the assembly of the nobles of Darius Hystaspis, painted on a vase
in the Museo Borbonico (Gerhard, " Denkmaler und Forschun-
gen," 1857, Taf. ciii.).

To conclude, we mention the trophy (rpoTraiov), which, ac-
cording to international custom, was erected from pieces of the
booty, on the spot where the enemy had turned to flight {rpeiray,
Tpoirr) ; Tpoiraiov arrjo-aL, ar^aaadac). Only in rare cases it was
erected with a view to permanency; as, for in-
stance, the trophy placed in the temple-grove Altis
by the inhabitants of Elis, in commemoration of
their victory over the Lakedsemonians. As a rule,
the trophy was temporary, and was frequently de-
stroyed by the beaten party in case their defeat
was not decisive enough to compel them to own it.
The trunk of a tree, on which a complete armor has been hung,
and at the foot of which pieces of booty have been heaped, ap-
pears as a tropaion on a coin struck by the Boeotians, most likely
in commemoration of some victory (Fig. 287). The commemora-
tion of victories and victorious generals at home by means of vo-

254

THE SHIP.

tive offerings, monuments, and inscriptions, was of a more lasting
kind, although the Greeks never indulged in the self -glorifying
exaggerations of the Roman emperors.

55. We add a few remarks about Greek war and merchant
vessels. Many attempts at explaining the construction of antique
ships have been made, but the mutual ignorance of seafaring men
and philologists with regard to the technical terms of their re-
spective branches of knowledge has, in many cases, led to be-
wildering confusion and wild conjectures. Moreover, antique
representations of ships — partly from the total want of perspec-
tive, partly from the omission of the most important details — are
of comparatively little assistance to us. Graser has attempted a
, new solution of this important problem, which is among the most
difficult tasks of antique research.1 Following the researches of
Bockh (in his celebrated work on the Attic navy) with regard to
the construction and rigging of Greek ships, Graser has expound-
ed an entirely new theory of the dimensions and rowing appara-
tus of Greek vessels. His intimate knowledge of modern ships
has been of considerable assistance to him. We have essentially
adopted the results of his investigations in preference to all pre-
vious conjectures.

We pass over the earliest attempts at navigation in hollow

trees or on rafts. The invention
of the art of ship-building, like
that of most other arts, must be
placed in prehistoric times; gods
and heroes are mentioned as its
originators. A bass-relief in the
British Museum (Fig. 288) shows
Athene supervising the building
of the Argo, in which Jason and
his companions are said to have
ventured on the first long voyage. Homer's descriptions of the
interior arrangements of ships prove that at the time of the Tro-
jan War the art of ship-building was considerably advanced.
Rowers (20 to 52 in number), sitting on benches (fckrjlSes;) along

Fig. 283.

1 Graser, " De veterum re navali." Berolini, 1864. " Philologus," supplementary
volume iii. part ii. — " Das Modell eines athenischen Fiinfreihenschiffs (Penteres), aus
der Zeit Alexanders des Grossen, im kgl. Museum zu Berlin." Berlin, 1866.

THE SHIP. 255

the sides of the ship, beat the waves simultaneously with their long
oars {eperfid) made of pine- wood. As in our sloops (Schaluppen),
the oars of the Homeric vessel were made fast between pegs
(aKaXfioi) by means of leather straps (fjpTvvavro 8' i per pa Tpoirols
ev Sep/jLCLTivoiaw), so as to prevent their slipping. In case of a
calm or of adverse winds the ship was propelled by the rowers ;
the mast (7<rro?) was placed in a case, or rather on props (loToSo/cif),
and kept in its position by means of ropes fastened to the prow
and poop of the vessel. The sail (icttlov) was attached to a yard
(eiriicpiov). Wind and oars were thus conjointly made servicea-
ble ; the helmsman (KvfSepvrjTrii) directing the course of the vessel
by means of the rudder (TrrjBakui). The war-vessels sent against
Ilion carried fifty to a hundred and twenty soldiers, who, un-
doubtedly, had also to act as rowers. Of the fifty men forming
the crew of the smallest vessels, forty plied the twenty oars by
turns, the others taking care of the rigging or acting as officers.
The small draught of , the vessels is proved by the fact of their
being, without much difficulty, pulled ashore, where wooden or
stone props {epfmra) served to keep them dry and protect them
from the waves.

The development of ship-building was undoubtedly due to the
Greeks. The numerous natural harbors of the Greek continent,
combined with the growing demands of intercommunication with
the islands, and the colonies of Asia Minor and Southern Italy,
favored the rapid growth of navigation. The continual wars

waged among the Greek tribes, and by them collectively against
barbarians, necessitated the keeping up of large navies. The
Homeric vessel, most likely only a transport, and unfit for battle,
was soon supplanted by war-vessels of larger dimensions. Be-
sides flat-bottomed vessels, called, according to the number of
rowers sitting on both sides, el/coo-opoL, rpiafcovropoi, irevT7)Kovropoi
(Fig. 289) and e/carovropoi, we also hear of ships of greater

STRUCTURE OF LARGER VESSELS.

draught, in which the oarsmen sat in two rows, one over the
other. During the Persian and Peloponnesian wars the fleets
consisted of Tpufipei? exclusively. Vessels with more than three
ranks of rowers, such as reTprjpeis and irevrripeis, were first intro-
duced by Dionysios I., tyrant of Syrakuse, after a Carthaginian
pattern. Dionysios II. introduced egr/peis. Even six rows were
not always deemed sufficient. Ten and (with a modification of
the system) more rows were placed one over the other, the result
being a surprising velocity and handiness of the vessels thus
constructed. In the battle of Actium we hear of ships with ten
rows ; Demetrios Poliorketes had even vessels of fifteen and
sixteen rows, the seaworthiness of which is warranted by antique
authors.

The construction of the war-vessel, as introduced shortly be-
fore the Persian wars, must now command our attention. The
keel (rpoTrus, carina) consisted of one horizontal beam, parallel to
the longitudinal axis of the vessel ; in older ships it rose from
the centre to the ends in a wide curve. The large ships of a
later period had keels composed of several straight beams joined
together, into the ends of which stem (areipa) and stern posts
(aaavhov) were inserted almost in a right angle, being only
slightly bent outward. Under the. keel another beam {^ekv^pa)
was placed parallel to it, so as to add to its power of resistance ;
corresponding to this, a third beam (Spvoxov) lay on the top of
the keel ; into this, the ribs of the ship (iy/coiXia, costw) were
let. The upper ends of each pair of corresponding ribs, forming
together one curvature, were joined together by means of a
straight cross-beam (arpcor^p), destined to carry the upper deck
(fcardcrTpcofjLa, constratum). The bulwark, inclosing the two long
sides of the latter, generally consisted of trellis-work. In larger
vessels a second layer of boards (£vyov, transtrum), underneath
the upper deck, was laid across the ribs of the vessel, destined to
carry the second or lower deck (e'Sa<£o9, pavimentwri). The
two decks communicated with each other and the hull (kolXov)
by means of steps, hatchways being cut in the boards for the pur-
pose. The hull contained the ballast and the pump.

Both in the prow (irpcopa, prora) and poop (7rplfj,va, puppis) of
the vessel small half -decks (iKplcofia), corresponding to our fore-
castle and quarter-deck, were placed considerably above the upper

STRUCTURE OF LARGER VESSELS.

257

deck. They rested on the prolongation of the ribs nearest to
stem and stern. The poop and prow were essentially identical in
construction, differing in this from all modern vessels excepting
our latest iron-clads.

The planks of the vessel (o-avl&es) were strengthened externally
by a wooden ledge {yofiel?) just above the water-line, corre-
sponding to which a number of boards (apfjuovlcu, Seo-fioi) were
placed along the ribs inside, so as to give firmness to the whole
fabric. As a further means of increasing their compactness, war-
vessels were provided with a band consisting of four stout ropes
(vTro&paTo) laid horizontally round the hull below the water-
line ; in case of a dangerous voyage, the number of these ropes
might be increased. These hypozomata are distinctly recogniz-
able on a small bronze in the Antiquarium of the Royal Museum,
Berlin (No. 1329), representing the prow of a man-of-war (com-
pare the small bronze statuette of Poseidon, No. 2469 of the
same collection).

A little lower than the upper deck, just above the upper holes
for the oars, a narrow gangway (7rdpo$os) runs along both sides of
the vessel ; in wood-clad vessels (fcard^paKToi, tectce) this parodos
is protected by strong massive boards (see Fig. 300, representing
a Roman bireme). Both stem and stern-
post ended in a volute. The tent-like house
\(7K7]vrj) of the helmsman (Fig. 290) stood
on the poop just underneath the volute.
From this point he directed the two rud-
ders (inj&akiov, gubemaeulum) to right and
left of the stern, which are peculiar to all
antique ships, by means of a rope (%a\«/o?)
running straight across the vessel. The
rudders were always kept parallel (Fig.
291). To the volute of the poop a leaf or
feather ornament (dcfAaarpov, aplustre) has
been added (Fig. 290). The prow frequently shows an ornament
resembling the neck of a swan (^wcr/co?), which, perhaps, at the
same time, served for fastening ropes. Between these two, the
flag-staff (tTTrfkk), with the flag (arjfjuelov) attached to it, was erected.
In merchant-vessels the flag-staff was frequently supplied by the
image of the protecting deity. Athenian vessels, for instance,
17

Fro. 290.

258 THE SHIP.

carried the image of Athene as clttlkov crrjfietov. The prow, as
we said before, exactly resembled the poop. Here, also, a strong
wooden band encircled the vessel on a level with the parodos.
The point where the outer ribs crossed each other was marked
by a ram's head (yrpoeixBoXiov) made of bronze, and serving either
as an ornament or as a protection to the upper part of the vessel.
Underneath this, on a level with the water-line, was the beak
(efjifioXov, rostrum), consisting of several rafters let into the body
of the vessel and ending in a point, which was made more for-
midable by the addition of a massive piece of iron divided into
three blunt teeth of unequal length. Two beams (eVajriSe?),
supported by props (ai/TT/ptSes), protruded
on both sides of the rostrum ; on these the
anchors were hung up. They also served
to protect the vessel from the attacks of
the enemy's beak. We finally mention an
opening on each side of the prow, through
which the cables were drawn; these holes
were bound with iron, and somewhat re-

Fig. 291.

sembled eyes, whence their name o^OakfjioL
The resemblance of a vessel thus constructed to a fish was not
unnoticed by the ancients {see Fig. 289). Something similar we
meet with in the imitation of dragons in the vessels of the Norse-
men, and in the construction of Chinese junks.

The beam of merchant-vessels was usually equal to a quarter,
that of men-of-war to one-eighth or one-tenth, of their length.
Hence the name vrjes fia/cpal (na/ces longce) applied to the lat-
ter. A trireme was 149 feet long by 14 wide (at the water-
line) and 19^ deep. Her draught was 8£ feet, her tonnage 232.
In the pentere the corresponding figures were 168 feet, 18
feet, and 26J feet ; the draught being 11 J feet, and the tonnage
534.

The main-mast (Icttos /Jbiyas) stood in the centre of the vessel.
It was square-rigged {icepaZoi, antennce), and carried two sails
([aria fjbeyaXa), one above the other, answering to our course and
top-sail. Above these was another square sail corresponding to
our topgallant-sail (BoXcov, dolori), and above that two triangular
sails {a-LTrapoi, suppara). Besides the main-mast there were two
smaller masts (jo-ros a/careto?), with two fore-and-aft lateen-sails

THE ANCHOR. 259

each, one over the other, which were important in tacking.
Strong ropes supported the main-mast (stays, irporovoi ; back-
stays, iiTLTovoc ; and shrouds, tcakoi) and the two smaller masts ;
thinner ropes served for lifting and bracing the yards, setting the
sails, etc.

Besides the ropes of the rigging, collectively called a-xevrj
fcpefAacrrd, a war-vessel required various contrivances of a similar
nature to protect her both against high seas and the missiles of
the enemy. To this class belonged strips of tarpaulin (vTrofikrjfia)
hung round the hull to cover the apertures for the oars, when
these had to be pulled in owing to the roughness of the sea ; as
also an awning (KaTd/3\7)fjLa) suspended over the upper deck as a
protection both from the sun and missiles; a woven stuff was
also pulled over the trellis of the bulwark (Trapa/SX^fiara, irapap-
pvfjLara) to ward off darts and arrows.

To conclude, we mention the anchor, the ship's ladder, the
boat-hook, and the lead. The most primitive forms of the anchor
(ay/cvpa, aneora) were blocks of stone, sand-bags, and baskets
filled with stones. Later, anchors in our sense, made of wood
and iron, and essentially like those at present in use, were
introduced. Their varieties are
illustrated by Fig. 292 ; a, c,
being taken from coins of the
city of Tuder ; b, from one of
Luceria; d, of German icia Cae-
sarea, and e, of Psestum. The
antique anchor, as appears from the pictures, has at the end of
the stem a ring, movable or immovable (a, b, d, e), to which
the cable is fastened; the cross-beam is underneath this ring
(c, d, e). The flukes of the anchor appear in many varieties on
the coins. Those on the coins of Psestum (e) exactly resemble
our modern ones. At the point where the flukes met, a loop or
staple (a, b, c, d) was attached to the anchor, to which a rope was
fastened for the purpose of lifting up the flukes so as to make
them catch. This could be done only where the water was not
very deep. The cable (trxpwla ay/cupeia, aneoralia, furies anco-
rales) was wound round a capstan (crrpocpeiov), by means of which
the anchor was weighed (see " Pitture d'Ercolano," t. ii., p. 14).

Fig. 292.

260

RO WING-APPARATUS.

Fig. 293.

The cable ran .through eye-like hawse-holes on both sides of the
prow. Each ship had several boat-hooks (kovtol) and ship's lad-
ders (KXifjuatclSesy scalce). Fig. 293 and other
monnments illustrate their use as bridges or
gangways thrown from the side of the high
vessel to the shore. As appears from a vase-
painting (Micali, "L'ltalia avanti il dom. dei
Romani," Tav. 103), these ladders were secured
to the rigging by means of ropes. Fig. 294,
from a bass-relief in the British Museum, shows
the lead (/3o\t?, KaTa7recpaTrjpy perjpendiculum)
suspended on the volute of the prow.

Fig. 295 shows a design of a triere, by means
of which the mutual position in the vessel of the
parts hitherto mentioned may be recognized : a is the periphery
of the vessel at the water-line; b, OaXafuraL ; c, ^vyurai ; d,
Opavlrcu ; h, irdpoho<; ; i, l/cpia (forecastle and
quarter-deck) ; Jc, Kardarpco/jui ; I, eVftm'Se? ;
m, dvrrjpiBes ; n, €fij3o\ov ; o, point where the
stern {crrelpa) begins ; p, d(rdvBiov ; q, I crro?
dfcareios ; r, lo-rbs fj,e<ya<; ; s, %a\iv6<; ; t, 7rr)$d-
Xlov ; u, SuKppdyfjLaTa.

The interior arrangement of the antique
ship, particularly with regard to the position
and manipulation of the oars, is subject to many doubts. Here,
also, Graser's investigation of the original sources, combined
with practical experiments, has elucidated the question to a
considerable extent. The rowing-apparatus (eyfccQirov) was con-
fined to the centre part of the hull. Poop and prow were un-
available, owing to their narrowness, and the former supposition
of the uppermost rank of rowers having sat on deck has been
completely abandoned, as has also the opinion that the space
for the rowers was divided by horizontal partitions of any
kind. The space for the rowers (^vycoo-cs;) was inclosed on the
one hand by the long sides of the ship, on the other by two
vertical partitions (Btacppdy/juaTa), with openings in them through
which the rowers (ipeTcu, nautce) -filed off to their seats. The
benches (£vyd, transtra), reaching from the diaphragma to the
side of the vessel, were arranged in rows of different heights.

Fig. 294.

RO WING-APPARATUS.

261

Owing to the outward curvature of the hull, the rowers in the
lower ranks naturally sat nearer to the side of the vessel than
those in the higher. The width of seat y

necessary for each man may be counted at ijl

8 square feet (Fig. 296). The benches
were arranged so that the seats of the
upper row were on a level with the heads
of the lower. Fig. 297, a, shows the
arrangement of the ranks, which, in a ^
manner, were dovetailed into each other m
(Fig. 297, b), in consequence of which the -
handles of the oars in one row required to -
be only two feet lower than those in the ""
row above it. This arrangement, which left
sufficient freedom to the movements of the „
rowers, explains why, in many-ranked ves- -
sels, the oars of the upper rows need not -
have been too long or too heavy to be "
plied by one man only. For Greek ships,
unlike mediaeval galleys, had only one
rower to each oar. In order to make this „
possible, the oar (Koyn-rj, remus) was bal- -
anced as much as possible, the weight of -
the part inside the vessel being increased '
by the thickness of the handle and addi-
tional pieces of lead, so as to make it
quite as heavy as or even a little heavier -
than the outer part. Besides this, the aper- -
ture for the oar (rprjfia, columbarium) was -
bound with metal, so as to reduce the fric- "
tion to a minimum. The force of the beat
of the different banks of oars on the water
was made equal through the proportion of _
the inner to the outer part of the oar being .
in the same proportion in all oars (at first,
1:2; afterward, 1 : 3).

As we said before, the rowers of each
bank sat horizontally behind each other, fig. 295.

the ranks themselves lying perpendicularly over each other.

! k J
1

ft®

-1 k

L-i

262

RO WINO-APPARA TUS.

Fig. 296.

The number of these ranks determined the name of the vessel
(rpLrjpTjs, triremis / rerpr/pr]^, quadriremis ; TrevTrjpr)*;, quinque-
remis / etc.). In the triere the rowers of the bottom bank were
called OaXa/jblrai, those of the middle ^vylrai, those
of the top row Opavhai ; in the pentere the rowers
of the fourth row were called TeTprjplrcu, those
of the fifth TrevTTjpLTcu. The distance between the
oars of the same row was exactly 4 feet ; but they
were always pushed one foot in front of the corre-
sponding oars of the upper row (see Fig. 298, b, c, d).
Reckoning the distance of the bottom row from the
water-line, the thalamitai would have required oars
of a length of 7£ feet. This length was increased by
3 feet in each ascending row, which determines the
length of the oars of the zygitai at 10£ feet, of the
thranitai (the topmost row of the triere) at 13£ feet,
of the tetreritai at 16£ foot, of the penteritai (the
top row of the pentere) at 19 J feet. The verti-
cal distance of the handles of the oars was, as we
said before, 2 feet (Fig. 298, a, b) ; but this dis-
tance was reduced to If feet by the curvature of
the sides of the vessel (c, d) ; that between the
apertures, seen from the outside, was, indeed,
only H foot (/, g). The distance of the top row from the sur-
face of the water in the pentere was only 8 feet, in the triere 5J
feet. For a ten-ranked ship this gives a distance of the aper-
tures from the water of 14^ feet, the length of the oar being
34f feet. Even in sixteen-ranked ships, such as were built by
Demetrios Poliorketes, the length of the uppermost oars could be
- reduced to 27f feet, so as to make the vessel
seaworthy. This was done by making the row-
locks more slanting. This explains the possi-
bility of the forty-ranked state-ship built by
Ptolemaios Philopator ; which, however, could
be used only in smooth water. The uppermost
oars were, according to AthenaBus, 57 feet
The celebrated state-ship of Hieron of Syrakuse was,
however, not a vessel of war, but of burden.

i See Graser, u De veterum re navali," §§ 64-70, Tab. iv. ,

Fig. 297, b.

Fig. 29S.

long.1

WHARVES AND DOCKS.

263

The number of rowers was increased by one in each ascend-
ing rank. The number of the thalamitai, counting both sides, was
54 ; of the zygitai, 58 ; of the thranitai, 62 ; of the tetreritai, dQ ;
of the penteritai, 70. The triere, therefore, contained altogether
175 rowers; the pentere, 310. All these were under the com-
mand of the /ceXevarrjs (hortator) and his lieutenant, the eTroirrr)^.
The rowing was accompanied by the rhythmical notes of a piper
(TpLTjpavkr)?). The number of marines (eTrifi&Tai) was compara-
tively very small. An Attic pentere contained only eighteen of
them, besides twenty-four sailors (vavrcu, nautce). The small
number of marines is explained by the fact of a Greek sea-fight
consisting chiefly in endeavors to knock a hole into the enemy's
vessel by means of the above-mentioned rostrum, or, at least, to
break her oars in passing close by her. Every thing, therefore,
depended upon skillful manoeuvring.

The building and equipping of vessels were done in military
harbors, of which that of Athens is in the best state of preservation.
It was separated from the commercial harbor, commonly called
Piraieus, and was divided into three basins, cut nearly circularly

Fig. 299.

into the Piraieus peninsula. The centre one, Munychia, could
hold twice as many men-of-war (viz., 200) as each of the two oth-
ers, Zea and Kantharos. The docks (vewroucai) lay round these
basins close to the water, their openings being turned toward the
centres or the outlets of the basin ; in them the ships, when not
in use, were protected from the weather. Farther back were

264:

THE ROMAN SHIP.

situated the arsenals (o-Kevodrjfcri), containing the fittings of the
ships not in use ; the name for the whole dockyard was vedopta.
The docks, or ship-sheds, generally contained one vessel each ; as,
for instance, was the case in the celebrated harbors of Rhodes,
Korinth, and Kyzikos, the latter of which could hold two hun-
dred ships; in Syrakuse, however, and some other places, each
dock contained two vessels. Graser's measurements of the Athe-
nian harbors have fully confirmed his above-mentioned conject-
ures as to the construction of the vessels themselves. Further
confirmation is derived from the bass-relief of an Attic Tprfpys
acppafCTos, but KardaTpcoTos, in which, therefore, the uppermost
bank of oars is visible (Fig. 299).

As the Roman vessel resembles the Greek in most points, we
will here add a few remarks about the former. The Latin terms

have already been given. As long as Roman conquests were
limited to Italy, their navy consisted only of long boats (caudices,
naves caudicarice) for river navigation, and of small sea-vessels as
a means of intercommunication between the maritime provinces,
not to mention the defense of the harbors. The Carthaginian wars
necessitated the building of a powerful fleet. In a space of two
months 130 penteres and trieres were constructed, after the pattern
of a stranded Carthaginian pentere. The timbers were roughly
cut, and the improvised sailors had to be trained on rowing-frames
erected on shore ; but the foundation was thus laid of a fleet of
triremes, quadriremes, and quinqueremes, commonly called naves
longce. The Romans, differing in this from the Greeks, trans-
ferred the mode of close fighting to their sea-battles. Two or

THE MEAL. 265

four towers {navis turrita) and catapults transformed the deck
into a castle, from which the marines began the light with mis-
siles till the vessels approached within boarding distance. The
marines, therefore, were much more numerous on board Ro-
man than Greek vessels. The quinquereme contained 120.
After the battle of Actium Roman ship-building underwent a
thorough change. That battle had been won against the Greek-
Egyptian fleet of Antony, built according to Greek rules, chiefly
by means of the ships of the Liburnian pirates, which had only
two banks of oars and a very light rigging. In consequence, the
Roman fleet was reorganized according to the same principle
{navis Libumd). Besides men-of-war, larger vessels of burden were
required ; these naves onerarice {(poprar/Goybs vavs or arpoyyvXv)
were about three or four times as long as they were broad. Many
statements in ancient authors prove the quickness of voyage in
those days. Balbilus went from Messina to Alexandria in six
days (the French mail-steamers require 6-J- days for the same
distance). Yalerius Maximus sailed from Puteoli to Alexandria
lenissimo flatu in nine days, and the voyage from Gades to Ostia
took only seven days, in case the wind was favorable ; that from
Gades to Gallia Narbonensis (perhaps to Massilia), three days.

56. From the serious business of life we now follow the
Greek citizen to scenes of merriment. We mentioned before
(J 33) that the chief difference between the customs at the
meals of earlier and later periods consisted in the former being
taken in a sitting, the latter in a reclining position {/caTaickicns).
The Kylix of Sosias, in the Berlin Museum, where the gods
appear at their meal sitting on thrones in couples, may serve to
illustrate the older Homeric custom. Only the Kretans pre-
served this old custom up to a later period. Almost all the later
representations show the men lying at their meals ; women and
children, on the contrary, appear in an upright posture, the
former sitting mostly on the farther end of the kline at the
feet of their husbands, or on separate chairs.1 The sons were
not allowed to recline till they came of age ; in Makedonia not
till they had killed a boar. The women we occasionally see
in pictures (mostly of later date) are probably hetairai {see

1 Compare the specimens collected by Welcker, " Alte Denkmaler," vol ii., p. 242,

266

GREEK FARE.

Fig. 301.

Fig. 304). This, however, is different in Etruscan representa-
tions, where a man and a woman are seen reclining on one and
same Mine. Aristotle says expressly that men and their

wives used among the Etrus-
cans to lie down to their
meals under one and the
same coverlid. In Greece,
also, a kline was gener-
ally occupied by no more
than two people. Fig. 301
shows two couches with
an older and a younger man reclining on each of them, talking
to each other in a lively manner. A cup-bearer is about to
replenish their emptied goblets. Where three or four persons
are seen on the same kline {see Fig. 304), we may suspect the
introduction of a Roman custom into Greece.

The gorgeous arrangement and more refined cookery of the
meals of latter days widely differed from the frugality of Homer-
ic times. Pieces of beef, mutton, goat-meat, or pork, roasted on
the spit, were placed by the maid-servants on little tables in front
of the guests {see § 33) ; the bread was handed round in baskets ;
and at the end of the meal wine was drunk, which had been pre-
viously mixed with water in huge krateres. The use of knives
and forks remained unknown, whence the custom of washing the
hands {airovtyacrQaC) and drying them on a towel {^eipofiaKTpov)
provided for the purpose. Tablecloths and napkins were equally
unknown. The latter were supplied by a peculiar kind of dough,
which served to clean the fingers from grease. Sometimes tem-
porary spoons were formed of the same material, to eat the more
fluid victuals. Such is still the custom in the East. Greek cook-
ery, even of a later period (not to mention Spartan frugality),
is described as simple, if not poor; consisting chiefly of fjud^a
(flat round cakes of barley, still eaten in Greece), various kinds
of salad, garlic, onions, and pulse, whence the derisive expres-
sions iiiKpoTpdire^oL or cpvWorpayyes applied to the Greeks. The
more refined tastes of Grecia Magna were only gradually intro-
duced among the richer classes of Greece itself. Various kinds
of fish and shell-fish, and different vegetables, gradually supplant-
ed the huge joints of Homeric times. The meals were prepared

THE SYMPOSION. 267

by cooks hired from the market, or by Sicilian " chefs," who, in
Roman times, were among the slaves of every rich Greek family.
The menus which might be composed from the statements of an-
cient authors seem little palatable according to our notions ; but
the rich and tasteful plate and other table-furniture described by
us (§ 33, et seq.) give us a high idea of the elegant appearance of a
Greek dinner-table.

Another characteristic of the meals of later time3 was the addi-
tion of the crvfiiroa-cov to the meal proper (hehrvov). Deipnon was
the name of the chief meal or dinner, about sunset ; aKpdrtafia
that of the breakfast ; apivTov that of the luncheon, about mid-day.
In early times the meal was considered as finished as soon as the
appetite was satisfied ; later, the drinking-bout, animated by con-
versation, music, mimic representations, and games, became the
most important part of the meal. Wit and humor were displayed
to their fullest advantage, for the Greek, differing in this from the
more indolent Roman, took an active part in the various amuse-
ments.

The removal of the dinner-table (cupew, airalpeiv, iiraipuv,
acjxupelv, ifccf)ep€Lv, jBaard^ew rds rpaire^a^), and the simultaneous
cleaning of the floor from bones, peelings, and other remnants of
the meal, gave the signal for rising. Sosus, the artist, imitated in
mosaic a floor, covered with such remnants and other rubbish, for
the dining-hall of the royal palace of Pergamon. At the end, as
at the beginning of the meal, the hands were washed with scented
soap (a/juf/y/LLa or oy/%ta) ; the meal proper then was closed by a liba-
tion of unmixed wine, which was drunk by all round to the good
spirit (dyaOov SaifjLGvos), or to each other's health (vyielas). A
second libation (awovBai) introduced the symposion. Hymns and
the solemn notes of a flute accompanied this libation, which, as it
were, gave a sacred character to the beginning symposion.

The dessert, called, in opposition to the irpwrai rpdire^at or
helirvov proper, hevrepai rpdire^ai or Tpcuy^iiara, later also iircBop-
ina, iTrcBopirlafiara, eiribopinoi Tpdire^ai, iTrlSenrva, iTriBeiirvtSes,
eirifyopyjiMiTa, eTTaiickia, ywyaXevfjLaTa, etc., consisted of about the
same dainties as nowadays. Piquant dishes, stimulating the
guests to drinking, were chosen in preference ; among cheeses,
those from Sicily and from the town of Tromileia in Achaia
were particularly liked ; cakes sprinkled with salt {eiriircurra) were

268

THE SYMPOSIOK

another important feature of the Greek dessert. Dried figs from
Attika and Khodes, dates from Syria and Egypt, almonds, melons,
etc., and salt mixed with spices, were seldom wanting. Many of
these dainties, as various fruits and Attic cakes shaped like pyra-
mids, may be recognized in pictures lying on little tables in front
of the topers. The drinking began simultaneously with the ap-
pearance of the dessert ; for during the meal no wine was served.
Unmixed wine (atcparov) was not as strictly forbidden to the
Greeks as to the inhabitants of Lokri, in Southern Italy, where
the law of Zeleukos made it a capital crime ; still, the diluting of
the wine with water was an old-established custom in Greece.
This dietetic measure, made necessary by the universal custom
even among the lower classes of drinking the fiery wine of the
South, was so common in Greece, that the contrary was consid-
ered as a characteristic of barbarous nations. Habitual drunken-
ness was exceptional among the Greeks, although occasional ine-
briation at symposia was by no means uncommon ; the severe
Doric customs of Sparta and Krete for that reason forbade the
post-prandial drinking-bout altogether. The wine was mixed
with hot or cold water ; in the latter case snow was frequently
mixed with the wine, or the filled vessel itself was put into a
wine-cooler filled with snow. The mixture always contained
more water than wine ; a mixture by halves (i<rov i<r(p) was very
uncommon. The proportion of water to wine was generally 3 : 1
(a mixture called by Athenseus in derision " frogs' wine " —
fiarpaxpLs olvoxpeiv), or 2 : 1, more rarely 3 : 2. This proportion,

however, was modified
by the taste of the
drinker and the qual-
ity of the wine. Large
krateres of metal or
burnt clay (see the ves-
sels standing on the
floor in Figs. 302 and 304) were used for mixing the wine. From
this large vessel the wine was poured into the goblets (phiale,
kylix, skyphos, kantharos, karchesion, keras, and rhyton) by
means of the kyathos or oinochoe (see the vase-painting, Fig.
302). Fig. 303 is taken from another vase-painting, in which
the youthful cup-bearer there depicted approaches two girls on a

Fig. 302.

Fig. 303.

THE SYMPOSIOK

269

kline with two kyathoi in his hands. As soon as the goblets
were filled a king of the feast (ySacrtXeu?, ap%(ov ttjs iroaew^;, o-vfi-
Trocriapxos, eWcrrafyto?) was chosen. His election was generally
decided by casting the dice, unless one of the topers chose himself.
This ruler had to decide the right mixture of the wine, the num-
ber of goblets to be drunk by each guest, and the general rules
of the feast (rpoTros t??? Troaecos;), which he occasionally had to en-
force by penalties. The drinking was begun with small goblets,
soon followed by larger ones, which had to be emptied by each

Fig. 804.

guest at one draught {airvBv<ni or afivorl irlveiv) to the health of
his right-hand neighbor. All this somewhat reminds one of the
customs of German students at their drinking-bouts. The south-
ern vivacity and wit of the Greeks gave a peculiar charm to these
feasts, which, however, frequently ended in sacrifices to Aphrodite
Pandemos, as is but too easily explainable from the presence of
beautiful girls as singers, players of flute and kithara and cup-
bearers. Frequently these feasts were held at the houses of cele-
brated hetairai.1 Fig. 304 represents one of these scenes, which

1 The presence of female slaves as cupbearers at these feats is proved by a bass-
relief (Mieali, " L'lt. av. il Dominio d. Rom." Atlas pi. 107), where a female slave

270

JUGGLERS.

in later times were undoubtedly of frequent occurrence, and have
often been the subjects of vase-paintings.

Jugglers of both sexes, either single or in gangs, were com-
mon all over Greece, putting up their booths, as Xenophon says,
wherever money and silly people could be found. These fre-
quently amused the guests at drinking-f easts with their tricks.
The reputation of this class of people was any thing but above
suspicion, as is proved by the verse of Manetho (" Apotheles," iv.,
276), in which they are described as the " birds of the country, the
foulest brood of the city." Their tricks were innumerable, and
outvied in boldness and ingenuity those of our conjurers, barring,

Fig. 305.

Fig. 306.

of course, such as are founded on the modern discoveries of natural
science. Male and female jugglers jumped forward and back-
ward over swords or tables ; girls threw up and caught again a
number of balls or hoops to the accompaniment of a musical
instrument ; others displayed an astounding skill with their feet
and toes while standing on their hands. Rope-dancers performed
the most dangerous dances and salti-mortali. In Rome even
elephants were trained to mount the rope. Flying-machines of a
construction unknown to us are also mentioned, on which bold
aeronauts traversed the air. Alkiphron tells a story about a
peasant who, on seeing a juggler pulling little bullets from the
noses, ears, and heads of the spectators, exclaimed : " Let such a
beast never enter my yard, or else every thing would soon dis-
appear." Descriptions of these tricks are frequent in ancient
writers, particularly in the indignant invectives of the early
fathers of the Church (compare § 100). Among the pictures of

fills the goblets of two couples reclining on couches, while three girls are playing on a
flute, lyre, and syrinx, respectively.

GAMES OF DICE AND DRAUGHTS. 271

female jugglers in all kinds of impossible postures we have
chosen three. Fig. 305 shows a girl in short drawers and with a
cap on her head, performing the dangerous sword-dance (e?
fiaxalpas /cvficaTav) described by Plato (" Euthymed.," p. 294)
and Xenophon (" Symposion," § 11). It consists in her turning
somersaults forward and backward across the points of three
swords stuck in the ground. A similar picture we see on a vase
of the Berlin Museum. Fig. 306 shows a female juggler dressed
in long drawers standing on her hands, and
filling with her feet a kantharos from a krater
placed in front of her. She holds the handle
of the kantharos with the toes of her left
foot, while the toes of her other foot cling
round the stem of the kyathos used for draw-
ing the liquor. A woman sitting in front
of her performs a game with three balls, in
which the ether artiste also seems to take a Fm* 80L

part. In Fig. 307 a girl, in a rather awkward position, is shoot-
ing an arrow from a bow.

Of social games played by the topers we mention, besides the
complicated kottabos, the games played on a board or with dice.
Homer already mentions a game of the former class (7rerTeta), and
names Palamedes as its inventor; of the exact nature of this
game we know little or nothing. Neither are we informed of the
details of another kind of petteia played with five little stones
(yjrf}(f)oi), on a board divided by five lines. The so-called " game
of cities" (7ro\et9 irai^eLv) seems to have resembled our chess
or draughts. The board was divided into five parts {iroXet^ or
%o>/?at). Each player tried to checkmate the other by the skillful
use of his men. Games of hazard with dice and astragal oi were
most likely greater favorites with the topers than the intellectual
ones hitherto described. The number of dice (kv/3oi, fcvfteia,
fcvfievTrjpta, t%sserce) was at first three, afterward two ; the figures
on the parallel sides being 1 and 6, 2 and 5, 3 and 4. In order
to prevent cheating, they were cast from conical beakers (irvpyos,
turricula\ the interior of which was formed into different steps.
Each cast had its name, sixty-four of which have been trans-
mitted to us by the grammarians. The luckiest cast, each of the
dice showing the figure 6 (rph ef), was called Aphrodite ; the

272 SOCIAL GAMES.

unluckiest, the three dice showing the figure 1, had the name
of " dog " or " wine " applied to it (kvcov, oho?, also T/>et? kv/3ol).
Another game of a similar nature was played with the so-called
astragaloi (aaTp&yaXoi,, tali), dice of a lengthy shape made of the
knuckles of animals. Two of the surfaces were flat, the third
being raised, and the fourth indented slightly. The last-men-
tioned side was marked 1, and had, among many other names,
that of " dog " (kvcov, canis) ; the opposite surface, marked 6, was
called kwos. The Latin names of the two other sides marked 3
and 4 were suppus smd planus respectively. The figures 2 and 5
were wanting on the astragaloi, the narrow end-surfaces not being
counted. The number of astragaloi used was always four, being
the same as in the game of dice. Here also the luckiest cast was
called Aphrodite, with which at the same time the honor of king-
of-the-feast was connected. Young girls liked to play at a game
with five astragaloi, or little stones, which were thrown into the
air and caught on the upper surface of the hand (irevTeXiOt^eiv,
irevraXiOl^eiv). This game is still in use in many countries. We
possess many antique representations of these various games.1
Two vase-paintings (Panofka, " Bilder antiken Lebens," Taf. x.,
Nos. 10, 11) show soldiers playing at draughts. Astragaloi and
dice of different sizes, some with the figures as above described
on them, others evidently counterfeited, are preserved in several
museums. Of larger representations we mention the marble
statue of a girl playing with astragaloi in the Berlin Museum,
and a Pompeian wall-painting (" Museo Borbon.," vol. v., Tav.
23) in which the children of Jason play the same game, while
Medea threatens their lives with a drawn sword. The celebrated
masterpiece of Polykletes, representing two boys playing with
astragaloi, formerly in the palace of Titus in Eome, has unfor-
tunately been lost. Another wall-painting (Millin, "Mytholo-
gische Gallerie," Taf. cxxxviii., ISTo. 515) shows in the fore-
ground Aglaia and Hileaira, daughters of Elobe, Jmeeling and
playing the same game.

In connection with these social games we mention a few other

1 Among the false dice of the R. Museum of Berlin one has the figure 4 twice
over ; another was evidently loaded with lead. Besides, there is a die in the shape
of an octagonal prism ; the surfaces show the following sequence of figures : 1, 1, 2,
6, 3, 5, 4, 8.

DANCES. 273

favorite amusements of the Greeks. The existence of cock-
fights (a\e/cTpvovo/jLaxla) is proved by vase-paintings, gems, and
written evidence. It was a favorite pastime with both old and
young. Themistokles, after his victory over the Persians, is said
to have founded an annual entertainment of cock-fights, which
made both these and the fights of quails popular among the
Greeks. The breeding of fighting-cocks was a matter of great
importance, Khodes, Chalkis, and Media, being particularly cele-
brated for their strong and large cocks. In order to increase
their fury, the animals were fed with garlic previous to the fight.
Sharp metal spurs were attached to their legs, after which they
were placed on a table with a raised border. Yery large sums
were frequently staked on them by owners and spectators. Here
again we see antique customs reproduced by various modern
nations. The Italian game of morra (il giuco alia morra or fare
alia morra) was also known to the an-
cients. In it both players open their
clinched right hands simultaneously with
the speed of lightning, whereat each has
to call out the number of fingers extend-
ed by the other. Fig. 308, from a vase-
painting in the Pinakothek of Munich,
shows Eros and Anteros playing this
game. It was called by the Greeks Sa/crvkcov iiraXka^, by the
Romans micare digitis. (Compare similar representations in
Archceologisehe Zeitung, 1871, Taf. 56.)

57. Mimetic dances, were another favorite amusement at
symposia. They mostly represented mythological scenes. A
few words about Greek dancing ought to be added. Homer
mentions dancing as one of the chief delights of the feast ;
he also praises the artistic dances of the Phaiakian youths.
This proves the esteem in which this art was held even at that
early period. In the dances of the Phaiakai, all the young
men performed a circular movement round a singer standing in
the centre, or else two skilled dancers executed a pas de deux.
Homer's words seem to indicate that the rhythmical motion was
not limited to the legs, as in our modern dances, but extended to
the upper part of the body and the arms. Perhaps the germs of
18

Fig. 308.

274

THE PYRRHIC DANCE.

mimetic art may be looked for in this dance. According to
Lucian, the aim of the dance was to express sentiment, passion,
and action, by means of gestures. It soon developed into highest
artistic beauty, combined with the rhythmic grace peculiar to
the Greeks. Like the gymnastic and agonistic arts, the dance
retained its original purity as long as public morality prevailed
in Greece : its connection with religious worship preserved it
from neglect. Gradually, however, here also mechanical virtuos-
ity began to supplant true artistic principles.

The division of dances according to their warlike or religious
character seems objectionable, because all of them were originally
connected with religious worship. The distinction between war-
like and peaceful dances, called by Plato to iroXe/juicbv el%o$ and
to elprjvitcov, is more appropriate. Among the warlike dances
particularly adapted to the Doric character, the Trvpplxv was the
oldest and that most in favor. It dates from mythical times.
Pyrrhichos, either a Kretan or Spartan by birth, the Dioskuroi,
also Pyrrhos the son of Achilles, are mentioned as its originators.
The Pyrrhic dance, performed by several men in armor, imitated
the movements of attack and defense. The various positions
were defined by rule ; hands and arms played an important part
in the mimetic action, hence the name ^eupovopbla also applied

to this dance. It formed the
chief feature of the Doric gym-
nopaidia and of the greater
and lesser Panathenaia at
Athens. The value attached
to it in the latter city is proved
by the fact of the Athenians
making Phrynichos command-
er-in-chief owing to the skill
displayed by him in the Pyrrhic dance. Later a Bacchic element
was introduced into this dance, which henceforth illustrated
the deeds of Dionysos. A fragment of a marble frieze (Fig.
309) shows a satyr with a thyrsos and laurel crown performing
a wild Bacchic dance between two soldiers, also executing a
dancing movement ; it most likely illustrates the Pyrrhic dance
of a later epoch. Of other warlike dances we mention the
Kapireia, which rendered the surprise of a warrior ploughing a

Fig. 309.

BACCHIC DANCES.

275

field by robbers, and the scuffle between them. It was accom-
panied on the flute.

More numerous, although less complicated, were the peaceful
choral dances performed at the feasts of different gods, accord-
ing to their individualities. With the exception of the Bacchic
dances, they consisted of measured movements round the altar.
More lively in character were the gymnopaidic dances performed
by men and boys. They were, like most Spartan choral dances,
renowned for their graceful rhythms. They consisted of an
imitation of gymnastic exercises, particularly of the wrestling,
match and the Pankration ; in later times it was generally
succeeded by the warlike Pyrrhic dance. Another dance, per-
formed by noble Spartan maidens in honor of Artemis Karyatis,
is depicted, Fig. 310. The chain-dance {opfio?) belongs to the
same class. It was danced by a number of youths and maidens

Fig. 810.

placed alternately in a ring, and holding each other's hands ; they
each performed the softer or more warlike movements suited to
their sex, so that the whole, according to Lucian, resembled a
chain of intertwined manly courage and female modesty (compare
Fig. 310). We pass over the names of several dances, of which
nothing is known to us beyond their connection with the worship
of Dionysos. In this worship, more than in any other, the sym-
bolic rendering of natural phenomena was felt by the people.
The dying throbs of Nature in autumn, her rigid torpor in winter,
and final revival in spring, were the fundamental ideas of the
Bacchic myth. The joy and sorrow expressed by the Bacchic
dances were in a manner inspired by these changes in Nature.
This dramatic element in the Bacchic dance was the germ of
theatrical representations. The grave and joyful feelings excited

276 THEATRICAL REPRESENTATION'S.

by the approach of winter or spring found their expressions both
in hymns and choric dances. In the intervals between two
hymns the choragos, disguised as a satyr, stepped forward, and
recited in an improvised oration the feats of Dionysos, celebrated
in the dithyrambos. His language was either serious or jocular,
according to the facts related. Thespis, by distinguishing the
actor from the chorus, and introducing a dialogue between him
and the choragoi, initiated the artistic drama. The choruses sung
at the Lenaia, the Bacchic winter celebrations, were descriptive of
the death of Nature, symbolized by the sufferings of Dionysos.
Tragedy owed its origin to them, while comedy was the develop-
ment of the small rural Dionysia at the conclusion of the vintage.
In the latter the phallus, the symbol of Nature's creative power,
was carried in festive procession, surrounded by a crowd, adorned
with wreaths and masks. After the Phallic and Ithyphallic songs
had been sung, unbounded merriment, raillery, and satire, became
the order of the day. Our remarks about the Greek theatre
will be limited to the decorative arrangement of the skene (as far
as it has not been considered in § 30), and the costumes of the
actors.

58. The assembled people in a crowded theatre must have
been an imposing spectacle, in which the gorgeous colors of the
dresses were blended with the azure of a southern sky. No an-
tique rendering of this subject remain's. The spectators began
to assemble at early dawn, for each wished to secure a good seat,
after paying his entrance-fee (Oecopi/cov). This, not exceeding
two oboloi, was payable to the builder or manager of the theatre.
After the erection of stone theatres at Athens, this entrance-fee
was paid for the poorer classes by government, and formed, in-
deed, one of the heaviest items of the budget. For not only at
the Dionysian ceremonies, but on many other festive occasions,
the people clamored for free admission, confirmed in their de-
mands by the demagogues. Frequently the money reserved for
the emergency of a war had to be spent for this purpose. The
seats in a theatre were, of course, not all equally good, and their
prices varied accordingly. The police of the theatre (pafi&ocjio-
poi, paft&ovxoi) had to take care that everybody took his seat
in the row marked on his ticket. Most of the spectators were
men. In older times women were allowed only to attend at

SCENIC ARRANGEMENTS. 277

tragedies, the coarse jokes of the comedy being deemed unfit for
the ears of Athenian ladies. Only hetairai made an exception to
this rule. It is almost certain that the seats of men and women
were separate. Boys were allowed to witness both tragedies and
comedies. Whether slaves were admitted among the spectators
seems doubtful. As pedagogues were not allowed to enter the
school-room, it seems likely that they had also to leave the theatre
after having shown their young masters to their seats. Neither
were the slaves carrying the cushions for their masters' seats ad-
mitted among the spectators. It is, however, possible that when
the seats became to be for sale, certain classes of slaves were al-
lowed to visit the theatre. Favorite poets and actors were re-
warded with applause and flowers ; while bad performers had to
submit to whistling and, possibly, other worse signs of public in-
dignation. Greek audiences resembled those of Southern Europe
at the present day in the vivacity of their demonstrations, which
were even extended to public characters among the spectators on
their entering the theatre.

The frontage of the skene consisted in the oldest times of
only one story, to which, however, several others were added
when the development of the drama by Aischylos demanded a
greater perfection of the scenic apparatus. According to Yitru-
vius, the skene was developed architecturally, like the facades of
large buildings, and, like these, adorned with columns, archi-
traves, and friezes. His statement is confirmed by the well-pre-
served skene of the theatre at Aspendos, which, however, was
built after a Eoman pattern {see the view and description of it,
§ 8±). According to Yitruvius, five doors were situated in the
background, the centre one being called the gate of the royal
palace {valvce regice), most likely owing to the action of the an-
tique tragedy generally taking place in front of a king's palace.
The two gates to both sides of this led into buildings connected
with the palace destined for the reception of guests, whence their
name hospitalia. The two remaining doors, lying near the cor-
ners of the skene-wall and the wings of the stage, were called adi-
tus and itinera respectively ; the former indicating the road to the
city, the lattenthat to foreign countries. In theatres where there
were only three doors, the latter names were applied to the two
doors to the right and left of the valvce regice. The chorus entered

278 SCENIC ARRANGEMENTS.

the orchestra through the parodoi ; the actors coming from home
or foreign parts could therefore conveniently enter and retire from
the stage by means of the steps ascending from the orchestra to
the logeiom Immediately before the skene-wall, perhaps only a
few feet distant from it, was placed a wooden framework, across
which the back-scene was fastened. The doors in this piece of
scenery corresponded to those in the stone-wall. The back-scene
could undoubtedly be made to slide to right and left from the
centre (scena ductilis), so as to produce a change of scenery, which,
as we shall show, could be made complete by the turning of the
periaktoi. Whether the back-scene consisted of only two, or, as
is more likely, of four or eight, movable pasteboard partitions we
must leave undecided. Lohde ' says that, in order to make the
parts of the back-scene, pushed behind the periaktoi, quite invis-
ible to the public, " slight frames of wood- work, covered with
painted paper-hangings, were placed at the farther end and to
both sides of the pulpitum, which were immediately connected
with the side-wings of the stage-building." By means of these
pieces of scenery the excessive length of the stage was considera-
bly shortened — the remaining space being still quite sufficient for
the few actors of the Greek drama. In order to cover the stone-
wall of the skene, the artificial wall alluded to had to be of con-
siderable height. To give it firmness, a second wooden erection
was placed several feet behind it, running parallel to it; both
were connected by means of cross-beams, and rested on firm foun-
dations, the remains of which have been discovered in the thea-
tres of Herculaneum, Pompeii, Orange, and Aries, belonging, it is
true, all of them to Roman times.

Besides the back-scene, two side-scenes (TrepicucToi, fjuj^aval)
existed in Greek theatres. They consisted of slight wooden
frames in the form of three-sided prisms, covered with painted
canvas. By means of pegs they could easily be revolved on
their axis, so that always one of their painted surfaces was turned
toward the spectators. Each of these three surfaces was painted
in a different manner, and the changed position of the periaktoi
indicated a total or partial change of locality on the stage. In
case the periaktos to the left of the spectator was moved, the

1 " Die Skene der Alten." Berlin, 1860. The chief points of which investigation
we have adopted in our description.

MASKS. 279

direction of the foreign road was supposed to be changed. <The
revolving of both periaktoi implied a modification of the back-
scene, an entire change of locality being thus indicated. The
periaktos to the right of the spectator could never be turned by
itself, for it indicated the position of home, which, as long as the
centre-scene was unchanged, naturally remained the same. The
few changes of scenery occurring in the antique drama could
easily be effected. To complete the skene, a kind of ceiling of
boards was necessary, traces of which can still be distinguished
on the wall of the skene of the theatre at Aspendos. On these
boards stood the crane on which was suspended the flying ap-
paratus (called wxavrj in general, or more especially yepavos,
alcoprj/jba, o-rpofalov, and r)p,iGTpb$iov). By means of it gods and
heroes and spectres entered and left the stage, or floated across it.
A floating machine of this kind was also the Oeokoyeiov, on which,
for instance, Zeus, with Eos and Thetis, appeared in Aischylos's
" Psychotasia." The upper conclusion of the stage was effected by
means of a piece of painted canvas (/caTdfiXrjfAa) hanging down,
which covered the wood-work of the ceiling and the machinery
placed there from the eyes of the spectators. The Charonic stair
we have mentioned before. Quite recently1 a hollow, of the
shape of a coffin, has been discovered on the stage of the Greek
theatre of Azanoi in Asia Minor, just in front of the porta regia.
This was undoubtedly the opening of the Charonic staircase.
Whether the old Attic stage had a curtain seems doubtful : later
a curtain (avXala, irapairerao-fiay originally called also Trpocncrjviov)
is mentioned. Perhaps it used to be parted in the middle, and
the two divisions pushed behind the sides of the proskenion.

An important part of the costume of the actors was the mask
(7Tp6cr(07rov). Its origin must undoubtedly be looked for in the
grotesque jocularities of the Dionysian worship. Disguises, the
painting of the face with the lees of wine, afterward with minium,
or the wearing of masks made of leaves or bark, were customary
from the earliest times. Thence the drama adopted its masks of
painted canvas. It must be remembered that the antique actor
was not so much the expounder of individual passion as the
representative of the different phases and classes of society. The

1 Sperling, " Ein Ausflug in die isaurischen Berge im Herbst, 1862," in Zeitschrift
fur allgemeine Erdkunde. New Series, xv., 1863, p. 435.

280

MASKS.

expression of his face, therefore, was of much less importance than
in the modern drama. K. O. Muller justly remarks that types like
Aischylos's Orestes, Sophokles's Aias, or Euripides's Medea, did
not demand the nucmces of facial expression that would be ex-
pected from Hamlet or Tasso. Moreover, the masks could be
changed so as to render the more general gradations of passion.
Owing to the large size of the Greek theatre, acoustical and opti-
cal means had to be applied to convey the words and movements of
the actors to the more distant rows of spectators. One of the latter
was the apparent increase of the actor's size by means of KoOopvoi
and high masks. The development of the mask into a covering,
not only of the face, but of the whole head with side and front hair
attached to it (07/C05), was ascribed to Aischylos. Openings were
left for mouth and eyes, the latter not being larger than the pupil
of the actor, and the former only just wide enough to afford egress
to the voice. This was the case at least in tragedy ; comic masks,
on the other hand, showed distorted features, and a mouth widely
opened, the lips serving as a kind of speaking-trumpet. Varieties

of modeling and painting, combined with the numerous changes
of hair and beard, tended to greatly modify the character of
the masks. The parts of young or old men and women and of
slaves had their characteristic masks assigned to them, all of
which are enumerated by Pollux. All this tended to some extent
to remove the stiffness of the mask. Figs. 311 and 312 show a
number of masks found on monuments. Fig. 311, a, h, c, d, are
tragic masks, b, c, being remarkable by their high onkoi ; d shows
a female countenance with waving locks, e the ivy-crowned and
nearly bald mask used in satyr-dramas. Fig. 312 illustrates the
varieties of comic masks ; it would, however, be difficult to identify
the masks described by Pollux on the monuments. The height of
the onkos demanded a proportionate increase of the size of the

COSTUMES.

281

body, which was effected by the actors walking on buskins
(tcoOopvo?) (see Fig. 313, illustrative of a scene from a tragedy) ;

they used to pad their limbs. The remainder of the actors' cos-
tumes was also to a great extent borrowed from the Dionysian
feast, both with regard to shape and color.
Tragic actors wore chitones and himatia of
light color richly embroidered, and em-
bellished by brilliant gold ornaments. In
comedy the dress of daily life was essentially
reproduced, with the difference, however,
that the old comedy caricatured this dress
by attaching to it the frequently indecent
emblems of Dionysian worship, while the
later comedy retained the caricatured mask, but discontinued the
grotesque costume of older times. The monuments contain only

" 11 IP

Fig. 814.

few representations of scenes from tragedies: scenes from the
satyr-drama and the older comedy are, on the contrary, very

COSTUMES.— SA ORIFICES.

frequent. Only in very few cases, however, are we able to trace
these scenes back to the dramas preserved to ns. Fig. 314
opens a view into the ^opyyelov or BiSao-KaXelov of a poet or
choragos before the performance of a satyr-drama. The aged
poet seems to instruct 'some choreutai in their parts, and to call
their attention to the masks lying before them ; a pipe-player is
practising his music. In the background to the right an actor

is putting on his costume
with the aid of a servant ;
his mask is lying by his side.
A similar rehearsal of a satyr-
drama is illustrated by a large
vase-painting, in the centre
of which Dionysos and Ari-

Fig. 315.

Fig. 316.

adne are reclining on a couch. A second female figure, perhaps
the Muse, is sitting on the other end of the couch, by the side
of which stand two actors (Fig. 315), one in the dress of Hera-
kles, the other in that of Seilenos. The third actor, in the rich
costume of an unknown hero, appears on the other side of the
kline. The whole group is surrounded by eleven choreutai in a
similar costume to those in Fig. 314. We also discover one kitha-
rodos and one pipe-player, and the youthful master of the chorus.
Fig. 316 depicts a scene from a comedy. Herakles, in a gro-
tesque boorish dress, presents two kerkopes, caught and impris-
oned by him in market-baskets, to the ruler, whose mask resembles
the head of an ape — quite in accordance with the ape-like form
of the imps.

59. Agones, hymns, and choric dances, were performed in
honor of the gods ; sacrifices and prayers, on the other hand,
established the immediate rapport between man and God. They
were offered either to pray for a divine gift, as a successful chase,

LUSTRATIONS. 283

harvest, etc., or they were intended to soften the wrath of the
gods in impending or actual danger, such as illness and storms.
A thank-oftering eventually followed the grant of these prayers.
A third sacrifice was that of expiation and atonement for a breach
of the law, human or divine. The mode of prayers and sacrifices
varied with their motives ; but, before a man entered into inter-
course with the deity, he had to undergo a symbolic process of
external purification (tcadapfjLol, ikaafjuoly rekeral). This was ex-
acted not only from those who sacrificed, but from all who en-
tered the precinct of a temple. Vessels with consecrated water
stood at the entrances to such places, the sprinkling being done
either by the person himself or by a priest. These lustrations
were even performed in daily life, previous to acts in any way
connected with religious ideas. The bridal bath described by us,
the lustrations before feasts, the vessel with water placed at the
door of a dead person for the use of the mourners on leaving the
house — all these had the same significance. The contact with a
dead body especially required a lustration, being considered as a
taint which temporally prohibited the intercourse with the deity.
Another kind of purification was that by fire and smoke. Odys-
seus performs a lustration with the steam of " curse-removing
sulphur " (irepLOelcoo-is) after the murder of the wooers ; the fire
burning on the altar, and the torches carried at religious ceremo-
nies, had the same significance of moral purification. The carry-
ing of the new-born infant round the flames of the domestic
altar has been mentioned before. The lustration with fire and
water even extended to the garments and to the utensils used at
sacrifices. Herakles purified the goblet with water and sulphur
before sacrificing to Zeus ; Penelope took a bath, and dressed her-
self in clean garments, before sacrificing and praying for the
safety of her son. To certain plants, such as myrtle, rosemary,
and juniper, purifying qualities were ascribed. A twig of Apol-
linian laurel was supposed to free the murderer from his guilt.
These purifications were also performed collectively by tribes and
nations ; in Homer, for instance, the Achaioi " purify themselves
and throw their stain into the sea." In historic times collective
lustrations of cities after epidemics or civil wars are mentioned
repeatedly. Epimenides, for instance, purified Athens after the
Kylonian massacre.

284 PRAYERS AND SACRIFICES.

The act of purification was followed by the prayer. Plato
says that it ought to precede every enterprise, great or little, and
that for a virtuous man there is nothing better than keeping up
the intercourse with the gods by means of offerings, prayers, and
vows. Almost all important events or customs in the daily life,
both of individuals and communities, were accompanied by
prayers, consisting chiefly of old traditional formulas. Three
gods — for instance, Zeus in conjunction with Athene and Apollo —
were usually addressed together. In order not to offend the deity
by omitting one of its names, certain formulas were usually
added to the prayer, such as " whether you be a god or goddess ; "
or, " whoever you may be ; " or, " whether this or another be your
favorite name." The Olympian gods were prayed to in an
upright position with raised hands ; the marine gods, with hands
held horizontally ; the gods of Tartarus, with hands held down :
the latter were also invoked by knocking or stamping the foot on
the ground. Kneeling was not a custom of the Greeks : when-
ever it is mentioned among them, Oriental influence must be sus-
pected. Only those craving protection used to embrace the statue
of the god in a kneeling position, which is frequently represented
on the monuments. Akin to the prayer was the curse against
criminals : the Erinies were implored to execute it. Zeus Hor-
kios, the revenger of oaths, punished the perjurer with his wrath.
The solemn oath was taken on hallowed ground before the altar
or statue of a god. The swearing person either touched these or
immersed his hand in the blood of a sacrificed animal, calling, as
in the prayer, usually on three gods as witnesses. This was the
later custom : in Homer the heroes taking an oath raised their
sceptre against the sky.

Prayers were always accompanied by gifts, to propitiate the
gods. They were either gifts for the moment, to be deposited on
the altar or consumed by fire ; or they took the shape of votive
offerings, which remained the property of the sanctuary. Gifts,
as an old proverb says, determine the acts of gods and kings.
Offerings of the former class consisted of the first-fruits of the
field, such as onions, pumpkins, grapes, figs, and olives. Prepared
eatables, such as cakes (Trefifjuara, irekavoi) and other pastry, fre-
quently in the shapes of animals, and in the place of real ones,
were also offered to the gods. Koasted barley (ovkai, ovXoxvtcu)

SACRIFICES.

285

was another common gift; it was either thrown into the flames or
sprinkled on the necks of the animals brought for sacrifice. A
bloodless offering is depicted in Fig. 317. The laurel-crowned
priest stands in front of the fire on the altar, throwing into it the
barley which is presented to him by an attendant in a basket
adorned with sacred twigs. On the other side another youthful
attendant is holding a long staff resembling a torch, to the upper
end of which is fastened some wool or oakum, serving most likely
to light a fire. By other archaeologists this figure is explained as
a neokoros with a besom of laurel-branches ; a musician accom-

Fig. 817.

panies the ceremony on the pipe. Libations formed an essential
feature of sacrifices, just as they did at the meals of mortals. To
some gods unmixed wine was offered; others, for instance the
Erinies, Nymphs, Muses, and deities of Light, received honey,
milk, and oil. A libation of this kind is represented in the
frequently-repeated choragic bass-reliefs, where Nike pours the
sacred beverage into a vase which is offered to her by the vic-
torious Kitharoidos (Millin, " Galerie mythol.," PL xvii., No. 58).
The choice of the animals to be sacrificed depended on the
individual qualities of the various gods. The Olympian gods pre-
ferred white animals ; those of the sea and the nether world, black
ones. To Demeter a pig was sacrificed, to Dionysos a he-goat,
because these animals destroyed the gifts granted to man by these
gods. Heifers, sheep, goats, and pigs, were offered in larger or
smaller numbers, according to the wealth of the worshiper ;

286 SACRIFICES.

sometimes these different animals were promiscuously offered on
one and the same occasion. In Homer sometimes twelve, at
others ninety-nine, bulls are slaughtered together ; in later times
we repeatedly hear of hecatombs of a hundred and more bulls
being killed. The original custom of burning the entire animal
gradually disappeared ; and, even in Homer's time, the gods re-
ceived only the haunches and small pieces of flesh as their share,
the remainder being eaten by those present. These sacrificial
meals, shared, as it were, by gods and men, became an integral
part of the sacrifice ; only offerings for the dead, and the
sacrifices on which lay a curse, were buried entire. The animals
had to be strong and healthy, and their previous use for human
purposes made them inadmissible ; only in Sparta, where luxu-
rious sacrifices were altogether unusual, owing to Doric fru-
gality, this absolute purity of the animals was less strictly insisted
upon.

For a graphic account of the sacrificial ceremonies, which
remained essentially unaltered in later times, we refer the reader
to two passages in Homer (Od., iii., 436, et seq., and II., i., 458,
et seq).

The custom of gilding the horns mentioned by Homer was
afterward changed into adorning them with wreaths and tainiai.
It was considered a favorable omen if the animal went to the
sacrifice without opposition, or even nodded its head, as- if con-
senting to its death. According to the sacrifice being for the
Olympian or nether world, the head of the animal was bent
upward or downward. Its throat was then pierced with a knife.
Vase-paintings frequently show Nike in the act of sacrificing
a bull. The animals, as well as the baskets and other sacrifi-
cial utensils, were adorned with twigs or wreaths; the latter,
or instead of them a woolen tie, were worn by the Greeks at
all religious acts. Criminals only were forbidden to wear them,
and were by that means excluded from sacrificial ceremonies.
Barring a few representations not easily to be explained (e. g.,
"Museo Borbon.," vol. v., Tav. 23), Greek monuments, as a
rule, illustrate only simple sacrificial acts, as the adorning of
divine images or the offerings of gifts of various kinds ; we
therefore refrain from entering into details. To the sacrifices for
the dead we shall return hereafter.

THE PANATHENAIA. 287

The most brilliant exhibitions of religious worship were the
festive processions. The Panathenaia, in which the whole Athe-
nian population took part, are rendered, on the cella frieze of
the Parthenon, by the master-hand of Phidias. Theseus, who
united the Attic komai into one city, was also named as the
originator of this celebration of fraternity. At first only horse
and chariot races took place, to which were added, in Peisistra-
tos's time, gy mnic agones, and, since Perikles, poetical and musi-
cal competitions. The performance of all these agones took place
in the third year of every Olympiad, between the twenty-fifth
and twenty-seventh days of the month of Hekatombaion. The
climax of the feast — the procession — was held on the twenty-eighth
day of that month. It moved through the streets of the city to
the seat of the goddess, in the Akropolis. On the morning of
that day the citizens of Athens, together with the peasants of
the neighboring country, assembled before the chief gate of the
city, and formed themselves into a procession according to a
fixed ceremonial. Kitharoidoi and auletai opened the proces-
sion ; the reason of this distinction being that the musico-poeti-
cal agones were those last introduced at the Panathenaia. After
them followed, in good order, citizens on foot, armed with spear
and shield, and others on horseback. Next came the victors in
the horse and chariot races ; the former riding on their horses,
or leading them ; the latter standing on their splendid quadrigae.
Priests, with their attendants, guarded the hecatombs to be
sacrificed; old men, chosen for their dignified appearance, held
olive-branches, from the holy tree of the Academy, in their hands
(6a\\o<f)6pot) ; other distinguished persons carried the votive
offerings destined for the goddess ; a select band of citizens'
daughters carried baskets containing the utensils of the sacrifice
(tcavr)<f)6poi,) ; while epheboi brought valuable plate, wrought by
the most celebrated masters. After them followed the wives and
daughters of the tribes protected by the Athenians ; the matrons
holding in their hands oak-branches, the emblem of Zeus Xenios,
so as to mark them as guests ; the maidens carying the sun-shades
and chairs of the citizens' daughters (aiaahrifyopoi, hitypofyopot).
The centre of the procession was formed by a ship resting on
wheels, which carried, by way of a sail, the peplos of Athene,
woven by Attic maidens, and richly embroidered, in which the

288 THE PANATHENAIA.—THE BURIAL.

old Xoanon of the goddess in the Akropolis was dressed. In this
order the procession moved through the most splendid streets
of the city, past the most celebrated sanctuaries where gifts were
offered, round the rock of the Akropolis, entering, at last, through
the celebrated Propylsea. Here the procession divided, to gather
again on the east side of the Parthenon. All arms were taken
off, and hymns were sung to the goddess by the assembled crowd,
while burnt-offerings blazed on the altars, and votive-offerings
were deposited in the sanctuary.

Although the frieze of the Parthenon-cella does not syste-
matically render the procession, we can easily reconstruct it from
the indications thus offered ; indeed, all the important components
of the festive crowd appear in the different groups. According
to Botticher,1 however, the subject of the frieze is not the proces-
sion itself, but the preparations for it, such as the division, among
the persons destined to carry them, of chairs, couches, and
bolsters, which were kept in the Hekatompedon, and other pre-
paratory arrangements. The various scenes represented are,
according to him, divided both by space and time. Botticher' s
conjecture was started in contradiction to all previous archaeolo-
gists.

60. We now have to follow the Greek to his last place of rest,
to see how the holy rites {ra St/ccua or ra vofiifjua) are duly per-
formed for him. To watch over the rights of the dead, and to
do him the last honor, so that his spirit might not wander rest-
lessly on the bauks of Acheron, excluded from the Elysian fields —
this was the beautiful Greek custom sanctified by the precepts
of religion. Hence the pious usage of adorning the dead for their
last journey, of burying them with becoming ceremonies, and of
considering their graves as holy places not to be profaned. "With
the same view the bodies of those who died in foreign countries
were brought home, or, where this proved impossible, an empty
tomb, a kenotaphion, was erected in their birthplace. It would
have been disgraceful to deprive even enemies of the honor of a
burial, and it was the custom, after a battle, to interrupt hostilities
till both parties had buried their dead. Solon's laws discharged
the son from all obligations toward his father in case the latter

1 In " Konigliche Museen. Erklarendes Verzeichniss der Abgiisse antiker Worke."
Berlin, 1871, pp. 188-228.

BURIAL-RITES. 289

had committed an immoral act against him, with the exception
only of the duty " of," to use the words of Aischines, " burying
his father according to prescribed custom in honor of the gods
and the law. For he who receives the benefit is no more able to
feel it." Only he who had betrayed his country or committed a
capital crime was deprived of the honor of a burial. His corpse
remained unburied, the prey of wild beasts, with no friend near
to throw at least a handful of earth on it. On the other hand, an
honorable burial (yiro tcov eavrov i/cyovcov /caXw? kol fLeydkoirpeiro)^
racftrjvcn,) was, as Plato says in " Hippias Maj.," the most beautiful
conclusion of a life prolonged to old age, and surrounded by
wealth, health, and the esteem of men.

We first turn to the burial-rites of heroic times. The closing
of lips and eyes of the dead was, as early as Homer's time, the
first service of love (to yap yepas iarl davovrwv) on the part of
the surviving relatives or friends. After it the body was washed,
anointed, and clothed in white thin garments; only the head
remaining uncovered. Thus arranged, the body was placed on a
kline, the foot-end of which was turned toward the door of the
house. Thereupon began the lament, for a specimen of which we
refer the reader to the passage of the " Iliad " in which the death
of Patroklos is announced to Achilles. The ceremonies per-
formed at the couch of the slain Hektor prove the existence of a
regulated lament for the dead at that time. We there hear of
singers intoning chants of complaint (Oprjvoi), interrupted by the
loud lamentations of Andromache, Hekabe, and Helen. The
corpse was exhibited for several days (e. g., that of Achilles seven-
teen days, that of Hektor nine), during which time the lamenta-
tions were renewed incessantly ; ultimately it was placed on the
funeral-pile to be given to the flames, numerous sheep and heifers
being sacrificed simultaneously round the pyre. As soon as the
funeral-pile was consumed by the flames, the fire was extinguished
with wine. The ashes, after having been sprinkled with oil
and wine, were collected into urns or boxes of valuable materials.
The urn itself was covered with gorgeous purple draperies, and
deposited in the grave.1 On this grave was heaped a high earth-

1 Ross states that in the large graves of the Isle of Rhenaea (" Archgeolog. Auf-
satze," i., p. 62) two different kinds of vessels containing ashes (boTodiJKai) have been
discovered. The first kind consists of semi-globular vases {k&Ittiq ) of thin bronze', 10
19

BURIAL-RITES.

mound, as examples of which custom we mention the grave-
mounds raised in honor of Achilles and Patroklos bj the Greek
army. Agones and a festive meal concluded the ceremonies, as
described by Homer.

In early times the Attic burial-rites are said to have been very
simple. The grave was dug by the nearest relative, and the
corpse buried in it ; whereupon the mound was sown with corn,
by means of which the decaying body was supposed to be pacified.
A meal, at which the real worth of the deceased was extolled by
the survivors {nam mentiri nefas habebatur), concluded the cere-
mony. The more luxurious habits of a later period made the
great funeral pomps originally reserved for heroes a common

Fig. 818.

custom among all classes. Solon had to prescribe distinct burial
regulations, by which the protracted exhibition of the dead and
other abuses were forbidden. Upon the whole, however, the
ceremonies described by Homer remained essentially unaltered.
An obolos, being the ferriage (vavXov, havcucrj) for Charon, was put
into the mouth of the corpse; the body then was washed and
anointed by the relatives (particularly the women), and clothed in
a white shroud. It was crowned with flowers and wreaths, also
provided by the relatives, and thus prepared for the customary
lying-in-state (irpoOecns, irpoTiOeaOat). This adorning of the
corpse is illustrated by an interesting Apulian vase-painting,
representing the crowning of the body of Archemoros (Fig. 318).

to 12 inches in diameter, which, owing to their brittleness, have been fitted into marble
cases with covers to them. Such marble shells, containing bronze vases covered with
rust and partly destroyed, have been discovered in the graves of the Peiraieus. The
second kind consists of square or round boxes of lead, also with covers to them.

BURIAL-RITES. 291

On a kline covered with bolsters and cushions is lying the body of
Archemoros, who, when little more than a boy, had been killed by
a clragon. Hypsipyle, the careless nurse of the boy, stands by
the side of the bier about to put the myrtle-wreath on the curly
head of the dead ; another, younger female, standing at the head
of the kline, holds a sun-shade over the bier, in allusion, as Ger-
hard thinks, to the old notion that the light of Helios should
accompany the dead to his dark house, a night-burial being
considered dishonorable (compare Euripides, Troad., 446 : rj va/cbs
yca/ceo? racfrrjcrr) vvktos, ovk iv rjiiepa). At the foot of the bed we
observe the pedagogue, recognizable by his dress and the inscrip-
tion over his head. In his left hand he is holding a lyre, in
order, perhaps, to add it to the gifts destined to adorn the
chamber of the dead. Under the kline stands a pitcher, the
contents of which had undoubtedly served as a libation. Next
to the pedagogue are standing two attendants, carrying on their
heads tables, on which various vessels adorned with tainiai are
placed. All these, as well as the splendid amphora standing on
the ground, and the krater carried by an ephebos on the left?
belong to the vessels which a pious custom deposited in the grave
or on the funeral -pile. At the lying-in-view of the corpse, which
by Solon was considerably shortened, and of which Plato approved
only as a means to prevent burying alive, the relatives and friends
assembled to begin the lamentation. To avoid violent outbreaks
of grief, such as described by Homer,
Solon forbade a demonstrative behav-
ior, particularly on the part of women :
the severe law of Charondas even pro-
hibited all kind of complaints at the
bier of the dead. Frequently women
were paid on such occasions for sing-
ing woful songs accompanied by the

flute. Fig. 319, taken from a bass-relief on an Etruscan ash-box,
shows three women, most likely of this kind, at the kline of a
deceased person ; a fourth seems to lacerate her face with her
hands ; a smaller figure, standing near the bier, whose raised
arms indicate deep grief, seems to be the son of the deceased.

After the lying-in-view of the corpse, the burial proper (eV(f>o-
pa) took place early in the morning of the following day. The

292 BURIAL-PLACES.

cortege was opened by a hired chorus of men chanting mourning
songs (OprjvySoi), or by a number of females playing on flutes
(/caplvai), who were followed by the male mourners in gray or
black garments and with their hair cut off. All these preceded
the corpse, generally carried by relations or friends. The fe-
male mourners walked behind the bier : by Solon's law, however,
women under sixty, unless the nearest relatives, were excluded.
The old custom of burying those fallen for their country at the
public expense is thus alluded to by Thukydides (ii., 34) : " Ac-
cording to custom, the Athenians prepared a public funeral for
those fallen in battle in this manner : three days previously they
erected a tent, in which the remains of the killed lay in view ;
every one there might bring offerings for his deceased relatives.
At the funeral, the coffins of cypress-wood are placed on carts,
one being assigned to each phyle ; in the coffin of each phyle the
remains of those belonging to it are laid. An empty covered
kline is carried for those missing, whose bodies have not been re-
covered. Citizens and friends follow the procession, the women
attending at the funeral with lamentations. The remains are
buried in a public grave lying in the most beautiful suburb of
Athens. This place is always used for burying those fallen rn
battle, with the exception of those killed at Marathon, who were
buried on the spot, their courage being deemed worthy of that
distinction. After the bones have been covered with earth, a wise
and respected man, chosen by the citizens, pronounces the eulo-
gium of the slain, standing on a tribune erected for the purpose."
Funeral orations of this kind at the grave were in classic times
usual at public funerals only.

The choice of a place for the burial and the ceremonies accom-
panying it varied according to the means of the deceased and the
customs among different tribes. In the earliest times the burial-
places seem to have been in the houses of the deceased themselves.
This immediate contact with the dead, however, being considered
unclean, burial-grounds were prepared outside the city walls both
at Athens and Sikyon. Sparta and Tarentum had burial-grounds
in the city in order (as the law of Lykurgos has it) to steel the
minds of the youths against the fear of death. Such burial-grounds
lie along the roads outside the gates of almost every city, and yield
the most important specimens of the grave-monuments described

CREMATION AND INTERMENT.

in §§ 23 and 24. The Athenian law forbidding monuments of
greater splendor than could be completed by ten men in three
days must have been often infringed. Private persons were al-
lowed to bury their dead in fields belonging to them instead of
in the nekropolis. That the burning of the bodies — at least, of
the Greek nobles — and the preserving of their ashes, were custom-
ary in the heroic age, is sufficiently proved by Homer. Accord-
ing to Lueian, the same practice continued to be the most usual
among the Greeks ; recent investigations of numerous graves in
the Attic plain, however, seem to prove that the burial of unburnt
bodies in wooden or earthen coffins ( Xapva%y <ropo<;), or in grave-
chambers cut from the living rock, was at least equally frequent ;
according to Cicero (De Legg., 2, 22), the latter custom was even
the older of the two. Most likely the wish of the deceased or his

Fig. 320.

Fig. 821.

relatives, and also the greater or less abundance of timber in a
country, decided the matter. The rocky soil of Attika, bare of
trees, necessitated the burial in grave-chambers for the majority
of the inhabitants. The expression Qwktuv applied to either
kind of burial ; Kaietv signified cremation ; Karopyrreiv, interment
in particular. Cremation became necessary particularly when the
accumulation of bodies after a battle, or, for instance, after the
plague of Athens, caused dangerous evaporations. The same pro-
cess facilitated the transfer home of the remains of a person dy-
ing in a foreign country.

After the burial the cortege returned to the house of the de-
ceased and sat down to a meal (Trepihenrvov), they being consid-
ed, in a manner, as the guests of the dead person. The first (rpl-

294

DEATH AND BURIAL-RITES.

t«), second (evara), and third (rptaKa^) sacrifices at the grave took
place on the third, tenth, and thirteenth days after the funeral.
The last concluded the mourning period at Athens, that at Spar-
ta being still shorter. The tomb adorned with flowers was a hal-
lowed spot where on certain days of the year oblations and liba-
tions were offered in memory of the deceased (ivdyicrfjia, ivayi&iv,
also xoac used chiefly of libations).

Representations of this pious custom are common, particularly
on the lekythoi, which, in a more or less preserved condition, are
frequently found by the side of stelai, or among the remains of
funeral-piles. For it was the custom, particularly of the Athe-
nians, to throw behind them the vessels used on such occasions,
no utensil used at funerals being allowed to serve the wants of
the living. Figs. 320 and 321 are pictures taken from Athenian
lekythoi. The former represents a stele adorned at the top with

a " meandering " ornamentation
and crowned by a capital of col-
ored acanthus-leaves. A blue tai-
nia has been wound round the
stele. On either side a woman is
approaching. She to the right of
the spectator carries a large flat
dish, on which stands a lekythos,
with a tainia laid round it. The
figure on the left carries a similar
dish in her left hand, while her
right hand holds a large flat basket, destined most likely for carry-
ing flowers and cakes. The second picture, only partially repro-
duced here (Fig. 321), represents the adorning of the tombstone.
A crown of ivy and a lekythos containing the secred oil are seen
on the steps of the simple stele, round which a woman is employed
in tying red tainiai, with lekythoi attached to them. Fig. 322
shows Hermes Psychopompos gently leading a female shade to
the boat of Charon, on her way to the thrones of Hades and
Persephone, where stern judgment awaits her.

THE ROMANS

61. The design of the Greek temple, in its highest perfection,
was, as we have seen, a gradual development of the dwelling-
house. This simple, necessary, and logical growth of artistic
perfection would be looked for in vain in Roman sacred architect-
ure. The numerous indigenous and foreign elements observ-
able in the general development of that nation have produced a
variety of forms in their sacred edifices which makes the me-
thodical evolution of a purely artistic principle, like that of
Greek architecture, impossible. It is true that all the forms of
the Greek temple described by us also occur among the Romans ;
at the same time essential differences occur, owing to the above-
mentioned mixture of indigenous and Greek elements in the
national life of the Romans. In speaking of the architecture of
the Roman temple we therefore shall have to consider three
points — viz., firstly, the requirements of the original Italian re-
ligion ; secondly, the introduction of Greek forms ; and, lastly,
the reciprocal influence of Roman taste and culture on the forms
borrowed from the Greeks, and the modification of the latter re-
sulting therefrom.

Concerning the religious ideas of the old Italian tribes, we
have to bear in mind that their notions of the Deity did not
approach the human type as nearly as did those of the more
artistic Greeks. The rational and reflecting Romans considered
the gods as the rulers of human affairs and the prototypes of
human virtues. Even the names of the old Italian deities were
identical with those of the particular phases of moral and physi-
cal life protected by them ; hence the symbolism and want of
individuality of type in Roman mythology. The notion of the
god as an idealized man into which the Greeks bad developed

NATURE OF ROMAN RELIGION

the original symbolism of their religion was absent from the
Roman mind. Roman deities, therefore, were not in want of a
protecting dwelling.

Nevertheless, statues of gods and houses for them occur
among the Romans at a very early period, originating partly
in the universal tendency of primitive nations in that direction,
partly in the influence of Greek on Italian culture, which dates
back to farthest antiquity. But, whenever these houses are of
purely Italian origin, their form differs essentially from that of
the Greek temple. For, to the desire of giving protection to the
deity, another purpose of no less, perhaps even greater, importance
was added.

For, instead of humanizing their gods, the Romans were in-
tent upon pointing out, in the strongest manner, the divine influ-
ence on human affairs. Hence their anxiety to know the will of
the god so as to regulate their actions accordingly. This knowl-
edge, however, they did not derive from the utterance of a god-in-
spired person, as was the case in Greek oracles ; the practical mind
of the Romans was directed entirely upon obtaining from the gods
a decisive Yes or No with regard to a particular action or resolu-
tion. Hence the development of augural science, which, by cer-
tain signs in the sky, as the flight of birds or the flashes of light-
ning, determined the positive or negative decision of the divine
will. The observation and explanation of these signs most likely
; belonged originally to the head of the family, in whom centred
the authority with regard to both religious and legal questions.
As social and political relations grew more complicated, and the
prediction of the future itself took the form of a science, the
function of an augur seems to have devolved, first upon the king,
afterward on students of the science, who took the official name
of augurs, and formed one of the most important priestly colleges
among the Romans. Individuals were allowed, and representa-
tives of the state compelled, to consult the augurs on all impor-
tant occasions.

For the observations of these augurs a space in the temple
had to be assigned, and protected against the intrusions of the
profane. The Romans derived the origin of the science from the
Etruscans, in whose theology, it is true, the limitation of the
templum was determined in its minutest details ; it seems, how-

1 1

THE TEMPLUM. 297

ever, certain that the science itself was common to all old Italian
tribes. The observatory of the augurs was originally a square
piece of ground, inclosed in the simplest and, at the same time,
most appropriate manner. The generic term for such a space
was templuniy from an old Italian root related to the Greek word
refiveiv (to cut off, to border), whence re^evo^, the Greek analogue
of templum. In order to enable the augurs to decide the favor-
able or unfavorable character of the auspices,
the space alluded to, and, in accordance with « */ d,

it, the sky, was, by a line drawn from east to
west (Fig. 323, e, f\ divided into a day and
night side ; a second line drawn through it W e ~
in a right angle to the first, from north to
south (g, A), marked the sides of the increas-
ing and decreasing day, or of morning and J*
evening. The former line (e, f) was called
decumanus, the latter (g, h) cardo. The whole space was thus
divided into four equal rectangular regions. The augur stood
in the point of section (decussis) of these lines, the regions
taking their different denominations according to the lines.
The cardo divided the space into a right or western half (a, g, h, b),
called pars dextra, or exortiva, and into an eastern one (g, d, c, A),
called pars sinistra. The former comprised the third and fourth
(0 to 180°), the latter the first and second (180° to 360°), chief
regions ; that is, the range of sight of the augur, when turned
toward the south, comprised the southeast on the left and the
southwest on the right. The decumanus, on the other hand,
divided the space into a northern half (a, e, f, d), pars postica,
lying at the back of the augur, and a southern half (e, b, c,f),
pars antica, lying in front of him ; that is, the augur looking
toward the east had the northeast on his left and the southeast
on his right. Signs appearing on the left were always considered
as lucky, those on the right as the reverse. This division of the
templum into four chief regions was the common one in the
times of Cicero and Pliny, the older rule being observed no more.
The older division of the temple into sixteen regions originated
with the Etruscans; it implied a close observation of the con-
stellations. This division is of the utmost importance for the
investigation of Roman temples, which, according to Nissen's

298 THE TUSCAN TEMPLE.

clever researches, are by no means all built in the same direction.1
The axis of the temple was directed toward the point of the
horizon in which the sun rose on the day of the foundation-stone
being laid, which coincided with the native day or chief feast of
the god to whom the temple was dedicated. This point changes
in Italy during the course of the year by 65°, in consequence of
which the Italian temples lie in almost all directions of the com-
pass. The old Etruscan rule of building temples from north to
south seems to have been adhered to by the Komans only in rare
cases, as is proved by Nissen's investigations. As the Romans
during their prayer always turned toward the east, the image to
which their prayer was directed had to look westward.

The square form of the tern plum necessitated an almost identi-
cal shape of the temple-inclosure. In this respect the old Italian,
or as it was called by the Romans, Tuscan, temple differs essen-
tially from the Greek, the latter being an oblong with a depth
almost twice as long as its frontage ; in the Tuscan temple the
proportion of depth to frontage was 6:5. No examples of the
Tuscan temple remain, it having been sup-
planted by the forms of Greek architecture ;
but with the assistance of Yitruvius's de-
scription (iv., 7) we are able to gain a tol-
erably clear notion of its appearance. Fig.
324 shows the plan of an Etruscan temple
according to Hirt's conjectures. It strikes
us at once that inside the cellse, which occupy
about one-half of the whole area, no columns
Feet, are to be seen. The pronaos has four columns
in front, the two corner ones of which cor-
respond with the cmfoe-pillars. Two other columns are placed
between these pillars. Peculiar to the Tuscan style is the slender
smooth column seven diameters in height and tapering by one-
quarter. It has a base divided into two parts, viz., a circular
plinth and a torus, of equal height, and a capital consisting of three
parts, of equal height. This older form of the column occurs fre-
quently in the decorative semi-columns of later Roman architecture.
62. The design of larger temples was much more varied. The
style seems to have attained its climax in the temple of the

1 Nissen, " Das Templum." Berlin, 1869.

THE CAPITOLINE TEMPLE.

299

Capitoline deities, which, according to Roman tradition, Tar-
quinius Priscus intended for a national sanctuary of the Roman
people. He chose for the purpose the highest summit of the
Capitoline Hill, which, however, was found insufficient both with
regard to size and level surface, and therefore had to be extended
and propped by means of enormous substructures. In this man-
ner an all but square area 800 feet in circumference was formed
for the reception of the temple, either on the western (present
site of the Chiesa Araceli) or eastern (present site of the Palazzo
Caffarelli) summit of the hill. The undertaking, however, both
with regard to working power and expense, was so enormous
that Tarquinius Priscus did not even begin the temple itself,
which was brought nearer its completion only by Tarquinius
Superbus, after (according to some writers) Servius Tullius had
made efforts in the same direction. To the Republic was re-
served the honor of completing the national sanctuary. M.
Horatius Pulvillus, who was consul together with P. Valerius
Poplicola in the third year
of the Republic, is said to
have inaugurated the tem-
ple. It stood in its original
form for 413 years, when
it was totally destroyed
by fire. It was rebuilt by
Sulla, essentially unaltered
with regard to the original
measures and proportions,
although modified as to ar-
chitectural details, as ap-
pears from Tacitus's expres-
sion, " iisdem rursus ves-
tigiis situm est " (" Hist.,"
iii., 72). ' The description,
therefore, of the later tem-
ple by Dionysios of Halikarnassos (iv., pp. 251, 260) applies to
some extent to the original Tarquinian structure. Fig. 325

1 It was again burned down during the Vitellian riots, and rebuilt by Vespasian.
After this new structure had also been destroyed by fire it was rebuilt, and inaugu-
rated for the fourth time, by Domitian.

300

THE CAPITOLINE TEMPLE.

gives the plan, Fig. 326 the view, of the temple according to L.
Canina's conjectural designs. In Fig. 325 we recognize the above-
mentioned divisions of the temple into a front and a back half,
the former of which, turned toward the south, is inclosed by col-
umns without a wall, while the latter contains under a common
roof the three cellse of the Capitoline deities to whom the temple
was dedicated. The centre cella belonged to Jupiter, the two
smaller ones to left and right being assigned to Minerva and Juno
respectively. By diminishing the dimensions of these two latter
cellae, Canina has succeeded in making his reconstruction to some
extent tally with that part of Dionysios's description according to
which the temple had three rows of columns in front and only

Fig. 326.

two on each of the long sides. Differing from Dionysios, and not
quite free from objection, is Canina's conjecture of there being
only six columns in the facade, to which he was led by the repre-
sentation of the Capitoline temple on Roman coins, where it un-
doubtedly appears as a hexastylos. At any rate the illustrations
offered by us will give the reader a correct general notion of this
and other temples with three cellse. For Fig. 326, old Roman
and Etruscan monuments have been consulted to determine not
only the columns and their proportions, but also the beams and
their ornamentation with triglyphs and metopse. The statues on
the gable were, according to Etruscan custom, of burnt clay.

INFLUENCE OF GREEK CULTURE. 301

63. So much about the original Roman or Tuscan style of
architecture which, as we said before, was founded on the require-
ments of old Italian worships. The detailed rules given by Vitru-
vius for the Tuscan order of columns remind one of Greek forms,
and may serve to prove Greek influence on this as on other
branches of earliest Italian development — an influence which will
appear still more distinctly in our remarks about old Italian graves
and wall-structures.

In following the further history of Roman civilization one
observes this influence becoming stronger and stronger. During
the times of the kings, to which the development of Tuscan
architecture belongs, the relations of the two nations were of the
simplest kind ; a conscious imitation of Greek customs cannot be
thought of, least of all in Latium, the poverty and simplicity of
whose inhabitants prevented a deeper-going influence in that direc-
tion. This, however, was different in Etruria, the political secu-
rity and greater wealth of which made it more susceptible to the
charms of Greek culture. Hence the notion common among the
Romans, although considerably shaken by modern science, of the
Etruscans having introduced Greek culture to them.

After the expulsion of the kings the influence of Greek on
Italian manners begins to increase. The time when first the
Roman people were enabled to model more fully their political
and legal institutions coincided with the highest climax of Greek
culture with regard to political, military, and artistic phases of
development. ISTo wonder, therefore, that over the whole Italian
peninsula a new civilization, akin to the Greek model, and
fashioned after it, began to gain strength more and more.
Etruria began to abound with Greek works of art, and even to
rival those great models; Apulia had, from the first, followed
Greek examples ; in Lucania and Campania Greek language and
Greek characters of writing prevailed to a great extent — the
surest sign of mental affinity. Rome, which always must claim
our chief attention, was, by its constitutional struggles and the
warlike spirit of its inhabitants, prevented from receiving with a
collected mind the germs of Greek civilization. Nevertheless,
the world-conquering power of this civilization could not wholly
be evaded, and we can look for no more striking proof of the
civilizing mission of the Hellenes than in the fact of the Romans

302 INFLUENCE OF GREEK CULTURE.

becoming more and more subjected to their genius, notwithstand-
ing these unfavorable circumstances.

This influence is recognizable in political no less than in legal
and commercial matters. After the conquest of Campania, in the
fifth century of the city, the knowledge of Greek institutions,
formerly limited to individual statesmen and lawgivers, became
diffused among wider circles. But, besides this strong and ever-
increasing intrusion of Greek uses (and but too frequently) abuses,
we have to consider another point of affinity which, from the very
beginning of this new epoch, became more and more important,
particularly as far as sacred architecture is concerned.

We are alluding to the old religious connections between
Greece and Rome, which remained unobliterated in the con-
sciousness of the two nations — the signs, as it were, of a common
origin, and which led to continued intercourse. The want of per-
sonality in the old Italian myths was thus supplied from the rich
stores of Greek mythological lore, and the worships of certain gods
were, by public authority, transferred from Greece to Rome. This
enlargement of the religious horizon is not without political signifi-
cance. At first the priestly office was entirely monopolized by
the patricians ; but, with the growing power of the plebeian ele-
ment, the introduction of new objects of public worship became
necessary. The kings already tried to mediate between plebeians
and nobles by erecting a centre of national worship, and the fre-
quent introduction, in the following centuries, of Greek deities
by government was, in a manner, a continuation of this attempt
at conciliating these classes.1

The adoption of Greek architectural forms was, therefore, due
to religious causes, previous even to the entering of sesthetical
considerations into the question. During the last century of the
Republic the attachment to the old indigenous form of worship
was more and more supplanted by the influence of modern Greek
civilization. This admixture of Greek mythology and, but too
often, Greek skepticism soon tended to abolish the deep religious

1 The temple of the Capitoline deities must be considered as this centre of
national worship (Ambrosch, " Stud.," i., 196), independent of patrician exclusiveness.
Similar transformations of the Roman religion seem to have been attempted by the
earlier Tarquinians. Tarquinius Priscus is said to have erected the first images of
gods, and, after him, Servius Tullius ordered the statue of the Aventine Diana to be
fashioned after the model of the Artemis of Ephesos, known to the Romans through
the Greeks of Massilia.

TEMPLE OF ZEUS AT ATHENS. 303

feeling characteristic of the old Romans. The religious indiffer-
ence of the upper classes grew into a decided aversion to religion
itself, and soon complaints began to be raised of the temples
standing empty and being allowed to go to ruin. Augustus re-
stored as many as eighty-two temples, most of them undoubtedly
according to the principles of Greek taste, which at that time pre-
vailed in all artistic and poetical creations of the Romans.

Such were the different phases of the influence of Greek on
Roman sacred architecture, which gradually led to the entire
transformation of the old Italian temple. Indeed, all the different
forms of the Greek temple are met with among the sacred edi-
fices of the Romans.

The simplest form of the templum in cmtds (see § 5) occurred,
according to Yitruvius (iii., 1), in a temple of the Three Fortunes,
outside the Porta Collina : the prostylos (see § 7) was very
frequent. To this we shall have to return (§ 65). Even of the
amphiprostylos (see § 8), which was rare among the Greeks them-
selves, and of which Yitruvius mentions no example either in
Greece or Rome, we have at least one specimen in the temple
on the Forum of Yelleja (compare § 82). Of the peripteros
(see § 9), Yitruvius mentions two examples, viz., the temple of
Jupiter in the Hall of Metellus, and that of Yirtus and Honos,
also in Rome, which the architect Mutius had built for Marius.
The form of the pseudo-dipteros, of which only one specimen
exists in Greece (see § 10), was frequently used by Roman
architects, as we shall see hereafter. Yitruvius mentions one
specimen of the dipteros (see § 12), viz., the temple of Quirinus,
erected by Augustus on the Quirinal. It had double colonnades
of seventy-six columns, and was counted among the most splendid
edifices of Rome. Of this temple no traces remain. We, therefore,
shall specify the influence of Greek on Augustan architecture by
some remains of a Greco-Roman temple at Athens. We are speak-
ing of the beautiful columns standing southeast of the Akropolis,
60 feet in height, and partly still showing their architraves. They
belonged to the temple of the Olympian Zeus, the building of
which was begun by Pisistratos, but not continued till the reign of
Antiochus Epiphanes. On the latter occasion we hear of a Roman
knight, Cossutius, acting as architect. The temple was finished by
the art-loving Emperor Adrian. Yitruvius, in the preface of his

304

TEMPLE OF ZEUS AT ATHENS,

seventh book, says that Cossutius built the walls and the double
colonnade, and also covered the beams. The additions of
Adrian must therefore have consisted either of the ultimate
completion of the last-mentioned parts, or of the decorative ar-
rangements of the interior. Fig. 327 shows the plan of the tem-
ple. It was a dipteros 173
feet broad by 359 long.
Livy (xl., 20) justly des-
ignates it as unique. It
had ten columns on the
narrow and twenty on the
long sides ; on the nar-
row sides it had three rows
of columns instead of the
two usually found in the
dipteros, as may still be
seen from the remains.
Of the two other orders of
the temple, the pseudo-
dipteros (§ 13) and the
hypsethros (§ 11), there
were, according to Yitru-
vius, no specimens in
Eome. The temple of
Yenus and Eoma, how-
ever, to which we shall
have to return (§ 66), un-
doubtedly showed the es-
sential characteristics of
the pseudo-dipteros ; and
Yitruvius's own descrip-
tion (iii., 2) proves that
the just mentioned tem-
ple of Jupiter Olympius was, like the Parthenon in its vicinity,
a hypsethros.

64. The forms of Greek architecture thus adopted by the
Eomans were considerably modified by them. These modifica-
tions were of a twofold kind. They either originated in the
reaction of the Italian on the Greek temple, in which case the

Fig. 82T.

THE TUSCAN ORDER.

305

■iimiiiiiiiiiilllMiiiiiiiiiiillii

design and local division of the building were affected ; or they
were caused by entirely new modes of construction being applied
either to the purely Greek or Greco-Roman temple. In that case
the whole character of the edifice was altered.

Before, however, entering into these more important modifi-
cations, we must mention a few minor changes, chiefly with re-
gard to the order of columns. All the Greek orders of columns
described by us were also used by Roman architects. As exam-
ples of the Doric order, we name the temples of Quirinus at Rome
and of Hercules at Cori : not to mention several other specimens of
the Doric style collect-
ed by Canina, " Archi-
tettura Romana," Tav.
67. The graceful forms
of Greek architecture
have, however, been fre-
quently misunderstood ;
and have, in conse-
quence, lost their ori-
ginal purity and harmo-
nious proportions. The
Tuscan order, frequent-
ly used by the Romans,
is itself nearly related
to the Doric style. It
must be explained from
the adoption and par-
tial modification of the
Greek original by the
Etruscans, from whom
it again was borrowed
by the Romans, the
latter developing the
forms thus received in-
to a system of their
own. The statements
of Yitruvius, together
with some archaic specimens found on Etruscan graves (for in-
stance, the fragments of columns of the Cucumella of Yulci), and
20

Fig. 328.

306 MIXTURE OF GREEK AND ROMAN FORMS.

other examples of this style in later Eoman buildings, enable us
to form a distinct notion of this old-Etruscan order of columns.
It must suffice to refer the reader to the facade of the Capitoline
temple (Fig. 326), which displays the Tuscan order with the modi-
fications alluded to.

The Ionic order of columns, likewise, is found in Roman edi-
fices ; for instance, in a small temple of Tivoli (see Fig. 330), and
in the still standing temple of Fortuna Yirilis in Rome ; also in
that of Saturn in the Roman Forum. The second stories of both
the Coliseum (§ 85) and the theatre of Marcellus are adorned with
Ionic semi-columns ; a few specimens of this style have been
found at Pompeii. Almost all these specimens show more or less
important deviations from the pure Greek form. Particularly,
the graceful sweep of the curvatures and the spiral lines of the
volutes have been lost — an observation which also applies to the
large Ionic temples of Asia Minor (see Figs. 9 and 10). A char-
acteristic example of the Roman form of the Ionic capital occurs
in Desgodetz's description of the temple of Fortuna Yirilis in
Rome (PL iii.).

While the Ionic and Doric orders were thus deteriorated by
Roman architects, the Korinthian column, and especially the Ko-
rinthian capital, received a richer and more splendid development
at their hands. The peculiarities of this style seem to have been
congenial to the Roman mind ; it is, indeed, particularly adapted
to an architecture which derives its effects more from the grand-
eur of massive structure than from the harmonious proportions of
architectural lines. The capitals are formed by two or three rows
of delicate acanthus-leaves, from between which appear volutes,
flowers, or the forms of men and animals, the richer development
of the beams being in harmony with this splendid style of orna-
mentation. This order has been most frequently applied by the
Romans, the greater number of whose edifices are, indeed, built in
the Korinthian style. We have met with it already in the temple
of the Olympian Zeus at Athens, and shall find it again in almost
all the monuments we shall have to mention. One of the finest
specimens of the style is the Pantheon (see Figs. 342 to 344), a
column of which, with the beam resting on it, is shown in Fig.
328. In later times, the style became overloaded, and by the
addition of Ionic volutes the so-called " composite capital " was

TEMPLE OF THE SIBYL OF TIVOLI.

307

Fig. 329.

arrived at, of which Desgodetz (v., 17) and Cameron (" Baths of
the Romans," PL 30) show examples (compare, also, the trium-
phal arch of Titus, Fig. 448).

65. The requirements of the old Italian religion led naturally
to the adoption of that more or less modified form of the Greek
temple which was most suited to its peculiar rites 5 this form was
the prostylos. The Tuscan temple, the frontage of which con-
sisted only of colonnades, so as not to obstruct the view of the
sky, was itself a prostylos. At the same time the prostylos could,
by means of a simple enlargement, be easily adapted to the
demands of Italian worship. This enlargement was effected by
adding one or more rows of columns to the one which in the Greek
temple formed the portico of the
building. In this manner the front
part, surrounded only by columns
{pars antica, § 61), became of almost
equal size with the back part (postica),
occupied by the cella. The door of
the cella, therefore, where the augur
used to stand, was exactly, or at least
very nearly, in the centre of the temple. This form of the pro-
stylos with a far-protruding portico occurs so frequently that
it may be called that of the Roman temple par excellence. As
such, it is distinguished from both the Tuscan and purely Greek
temples, the elements of which it amalgamates to artistic unity.

The simple form of the prostylos, protruding in front by one
column only, is also frequently found
among Roman edifices, more fre-
quently, indeed, than in Greece,
where it was used very rarely. Yi-
truvius, for instance, mentions no
specimen of it jn Greece, but two in
Rome, viz., the temple of Faunus and
that of Jupiter in the Island of the
Tiber. Figs. 329 and 330 show the
design and view of a small half-ruined
prostylos at Tivoli, near the well-
known round temple (see Fig. 340, et seq.). It is preserved up to
the height of the capitals ; the wall of the cella is adorned with

Fig. 830.

308

TEMPLE OF ISIS AT POMPEII.

Ionic half -columns, and therefore appears in the form of a pseudo-
dipteros (§ 10), frequently applied by the Komans. On each of
the long sides, between the two pairs of centre columns (count-
ing those of the portico) we see a small window growing nar-
rower toward the top, and adorned with an elegant cornice. Ac-
cording to Canina, from whom our woodcuts are taken, the temple
was built toward the end of the republican era, and dedicated
most likely to the Sibylla Tiburtina or Albunea.

The first and most natural enlargement was effected by the
addition of another column to the projecting one which carried
the portico. This form also occurs frequently. Besides the
above-mentioned temple of Fortuna Yirilis (at present S. Maria

Fig. 331.

Egiziaca) in Eome, the temple of Isis at Pompeii shows this en-
larged form of the portico. The all but square size of this tem-
ple reminds one of Vitruvius's rules for the Tuscan temple. A
small oblong temple at Palmyra, most likely from the time of
Aurelianus, shows the same form of the enlarged prostylos. Like
that of Isis at Pompeii, it has four columns in the facade, which,
together with the two on each side, form the pronaos, almost
equal in size to the cella.

The design is more interesting where the portico projects
by three columns. This arrangement is shown in the beautiful

TEMPLE OF JUPITER AT POMPEII.

309

temple of Antoninus and Faustina, the portico of which is carried
by six columns in front and three on each side, each of the
columns consisting of one piece of green-veined marble. The
walls of the cella, also preserved, consist of the stone called com-
monly travertine.

Fig. 331 shows an unusually well-preserved temple of the
same order at Nismes (the old Nemausus), in Southern France.
It belongs to the best period of
Roman architecture, and was
erected, according to an inscrip-
tion on it, by Augustus, in honor
of the sons of the faithful Agrip-
pa, Caius and Lucius, adopted by
the emperor. The temple, known
as Maison quarree, consists of a
cella (pseudo - dipteros) adorned
with Korinthian half -columns, and
a portico formed by six columns
in front and three on each side.
The beams, in perfect preserva-
tion, resting on the wall and the
columns, show a frieze with beau-
tiful bass-relief ornaments. The
old pediments with their beautiful
cornices are also preserved. The
interior of the temple is at present
used as a museum, in which the
numerous antiquities found in and
near jNismes are kept.

A further development of the same principle of Roman archi-
tecture appears in the large temple of Jupiter at Pompeii, which
at the same time may be considered as one of the finest examples
of this style. Fig. 332 (scale 24 Par. feet) shows the plan, Fig.
333, a restored section of the building. The protrusion of the
portico is increased by a further column, six columns standing in
front and four on each side. In front of the portico (b) lies a
platform, with steps leading up to it (a), by means of which the
whole front part was made equal in length to the back part, in
accordance with Vitruvius's rules for the Tuscan temple. The

6 tii IS it-

310

TEMPLE OF JUPITER AT POMPEII.

position of the temple from north to south also accords with
these rules. Through the door which lay exactly in the centre
of the building one entered the cella, on both sides of which there
were galleries of eight Ionic columns each {ff). In front of the
back wall of the cella lay a kind of substructure containing three
small cellaa (d). The Ionic columns (as appears from Fig. 333)
seem to have carried a gallery of Korinthian columns, up to which
led a staircase in the back wall of the cella (Fig. 332, e). The
substructure (d) may have supported a statue, the head of which,
in the character of Jupiter, has been discovered there. The three
cellae most likely served to keep documents and treasures, as was
frequently the case in temples. The walls of the cella were richly

Fig. 333.

painted, as were also the columns of the portico, consisting of lava.
The floor of the temple was adorned with mosaic. The temple
itself lay in the most beautiful part of the Forum. A tasteful
and clever reconstruction of both it and the Forum is found in
Gandy's "Pompeiana ? (PI. 51).

In connection with these specimens of the Eoman prostylos
we mention the temple of Concordia in Home, differing in design
from all other similar buildings. It was built in consequence of
a vow made by Camillus after he had spoken in the senate in
favor of the claims of the plebeians to the consular dignity. It
was intended as a symbol of the restored concord between patri-
cians and plebeians. It lay at the northern end of the Forum

TEMPLE OF CONCORDIA IN ROME.

311

Romanum, close to the enormous foundations of the Tabularium

(see § 81). The remains found on the spot do, however, not

belong to the older temple of Concordia, but to the splendid

temple .built by Tiberius on its site. Only the large substructure

of the temple, to which led a

flight of steps from the Forum,

may be recognized by some

remnants of masonry, which,

together with the Capitoline

plan of the city, enable us to

define the original situation

of the building. The entire

building (see plan, Fig. 334)

formed an all but regular

square stretching from north

to south, one-half of which

(postica) was occupied by the

transverse cella, while the

other half (antica) consisted

of the substructure and the

portico, projecting by six columns. The cella was used at the

same time as the meeting-hall of the senate, and therefore was

known at first by the name of senaculwn, in later imperial times

by that of curia. (The same was the case with the cella of the

above-mentioned temple of Jupiter at Pompeii.) To judge by

the few preserved pieces of the architrave, with the cornice, and

by the slabs of painted marble which formed the floor, the beauty

and purity of the style of this temple must have been unsurpassed

in Rome. According to ancient writers, the interior, most likely

the senate-hall, contained twelve statues of gods by the hands of

the greatest masters.

66. The third modification of the Roman temple above referred
to was caused by the introduction of a mode of construction seldom
used by the Greeks, and never on a large scale. It enabled
Roman architects to cover the cellse of the temples in an imposing
monumental manner. "We are speaking of the vault, by the bold
and consistent development of which Roman architecture differs
essentially from the art of the Greeks. We cannot here discuss
whether and when the art of vaulting became known to the

Fkj. 334.

312

TEMPLE AT HELIOPOLIS.

Greeks, or whether it was invented by the Italians. Suffice it to
say, that vaulted buildings occur at a very early period among
the Etruscans and other Italian tribes ; but that it was left to the
Romans to carry this important principle to its technical and
sesthetical perfection. We shall have frequently to speak of the
vault, as applied to canals, bridges, aqueducts, gates, and trium-
phal arches. By its means the Romans were enabled to get over
architectural difficulties in a manner differing from, and much
grander than, any known to the Greeks. At present, we must
consider the vault in its influence on the development of the
temple. The exterior of the temple never displays vaults or
arches in any noticeable manner; the interior, on the other hand,
was considerably transformed by the new principle, even the

largest cellae now being spanned by
bold and richly-decorated vaults, in-
stead of the flat lacunaria-ceilmg for-
merly in use. As an example of this
style we mention the smaller of the
two temples at Heliopolis, in Syria,
to the larger of which, the so-called
Temple of the Sun, we shall return
(§ 68). Fig. 335 shows the plan (scale
80 feet English measure), Fig. 336
the view, of a prostylos of the above-
described kind, which, in addition, has
been surrounded by a colonnade. Ex-
cepting the front row of columns of the
facade, it has been perfectly preserved.
A flight of steps (A) leads to the colon-
nade (B), through which one enters
into the pronaos (C), the ceiling of
which consists of a transverse barrel-
vault. A splendid door (D), on each
side of which a staircase has been let
into the wall, opens into the inner
cella. It is divided into two parts;
the first of which, lying on a level with the pronaos, is spanned
by a bold barrel-vault richly adorned with laquearia. The
side-walls are adorned with beautiful Korinthian half-columns

Pig. 886.

TEMPLE AT HELIOPOLIS.

313

inclosing niches. Opposite the entrance lies a raised space
(F), up to which seem to have led steps. It was separated
from the space in front of it by two columns, and most likely

I L k |:„ L U \a \o 1ft

Fig. 386.

contained the statue of the temple. In the inside of the raised
platform is a space evidently destined for the reception of sacred
implements and other valuable objects. The style of the archi-

Fig. 887.

tecture is splendid, as was usual under the Emperor Caracalla,
who seems to have finished the buiding begun most likely by his
father Severus.

314

TEMPLE OF VENUS AND ROMA.

The temple of
Venus and Eoma in
Rome shows the same
principle of vaulting,
although belonging to
an earlier period. It
is, at the same time,
one of the few spe-
cimens of a double
temple in Roman ar-
chitecture. It stood
between the Forum
Romanum and the
Coliseum, rising on
a strong substruct-
ure. It was begun by
Adrian, a lover of art,
and himself an ama-
teur architect, and
most likely finished
|* by Antoninus Pius. It
6 belonged to the most
splendid monuments
of Rome, and its ruins
are still of imposing
aspect. These remains
at the same time en-
able us to distinguish
the position of the
two separate cellse be-
longing to the above-
named goddesses.

In the centre of
the temple were two
semicircular niches
touching each other,
adorned with beauti-
ful semi-cupolas, and
containing the statues
of Yenus and Roma.
One of them was turn-
ed toward the west,

THE ROMAN ROUND TEMPLE. 315

the other toward the east. Fig. 337 shows the plan of the temple.
It must be described as a pseudo-dipteros dekastylos, having ten
columns in the facades. The distance of the colonnade from the
wall was sufficient to leave space for another omitted row of
columns (compare § 13). Each of the long sides had twenty col-
umns. The entrances to the two divisions of the cella lay toward
east and west respectively ; the entrance to them was through
pronaoi, formed by the prolongations of the cella-walls, and by
four columns placed between the antce of these walls. The two
cellse were covered by richly-adorned barrel-vaults {see Fig. 338),
which were in beautiful harmony with the semi-cupolas over the
two niches. The side-walls contained niches with half-columns
inclosing them, additional splendor being produced by colored
tablets of marble. The outside consisted entirely of Prokonne-
sian marble. Steps led from the Forum to the terrace (500 feet
long by 309 wide) on which the temple stood. Some remains of
these steps are still in existence. The two long sides had no steps.
Fragments of shafts of columns made of gray granite have been
found near the edges of the substructure. They tend to prove
the existence of a colonnade round the building. The temple
itself lay on a separate platform inside the colonnade, by six or
seven steps above the level of the substructure.

67. In the examples of vaulted temples hitherto cited a so-
called barrel- vault was joined immediately to the quadrangular
shape of the cella or the pronaos. Another no less important
kind of the vault is the cupola applied to circular buildings. The
Romans used it frequently, sometimes with great effect.1 We
have mentioned the round temple in Greek architecture (§ 14),
without, however, being able to cite examples of this style, bar-
ring, perhaps, the monument of Lysikrates at Athens (Fig. 152)
and the conjectural design of the Philippeum of Olympia (Fig.
36). In Rome these buildings were both more frequent and more
developed than among the Greeks ; they indeed form a consid-
erable fraction of Roman edifices. According to Servius {see

1 Adler (" Das Pantheon zu Rom," 31. " Programm zum Winckelmannsfest der
archaeolog. Ges. zu Berlin, 1871, p. 16, et seq.) contends that the cupola was an old
Oriental, not a Roman, invention. In Alexander's time it attained its climax in
Western Asia and Lower Egypt, whence it came to the Romans, who brought it to its
highest perfection in the cupola of the Pantheon.

316

THE MONOPTEROS.

" ^En.," ix., 408), they were dedicated chiefly to the goddesses
Vesta and Diana, also to Hercnles and Mercury. Vitruvius (iv.,
7) mentions two kinds of this temple, one of which he calls mono-
pteros, the other peripteros. The monopteros consists of a num-
ber of columns arranged in a circular form, standing on a base
with steps (stylobat), and carrying the beams, also circular in
shape, and, by means of them, the vaulted cupola, made either of
stone or wood. These temples, in the centre of which the statue
of the deity was placed, had therefore no separate cella ; which
want was perhaps supplied by railings between the single col-
umns, as appears from a bass-relief. No specimens of this style
are preserved. To judge by a coin of Augustus, the temple of
Mars Ultor (not to be mistaken for the splendid temple of later
origin) in the Capitol, built by that emperor, was a monopteros,
which form also appears on another coin repre-
senting an open temple containing the statue of
Yesta (Fig. 339). On the top of the cupola is
a flower-like ornament quite in accordance with
Vitruvius's statement, who (iv., 7) prescribes a
certain measure for this flower (flos). The in-
accuracy of such representations, however, pre-
vents us from deciding with certainty whether
our illustration is not perhaps intended to represent the Koman
temple of Yesta still in existence, although that belongs to the
second form of round temples.

The temples of the second kind also rest on a circular base ;
but here the separate columns encircle a
round cella, which is covered by a cupola
resting on the colonnade. This arrange-
ment is specified by the above-mentioned
temple of Yesta, more commonly called the
temple of Hercules Yictor. It has been
transformed into a Christian church (S.
Maria in Cosmedin), to which circumstance
it owes its preservation. The celebrated
temple of Yesta, which now has entirely
disappeared, lay at the foot of the Palatine,
near the church S. Maria Liberatrice, a

Fig. 339.

A*H MUM i ULc
Fio. 840.

little way from the Yia Sacra.

PERIPTEROS.— TEMPLE OF VESTA AT TIVOLL 317

The ruins of another temple, ascribed to Yesta with more
certainty, are found at Tivoli. Its original appearance can dis-
tinctly be recognized. It is one of the finest specimens of the
class of round temples called by Vitruvius peripteroi. Fig. 340
shows the design, Fig. 341 the view, both after Yalladier's draw-
ings of the remains, to which Canina has added the missing
parts. The cella is formed by a circular chamber {see Fig. 340),
whose wall contains a handsome door and two elegant windows.

Fig. 841.

The cella is surrounded by twenty Korinthian columns, carrying
richly-ornamented beams {see Fig. 341). The upper part of the
cella-wall, surrounded by a graceful cornice, rises above these
beams, the conclusion being made by the cupola, crowned by an
ornament. The whole structure stands on a base, also surround-
ed by a slight cornice, up to which base leads a narrow flight of
steps in accordance with Yitruvius's rule. The building must be
considered as one of the finest specimens of late republican ar-
chitecture.1

1 Weiss in his " Costiimkunde " (Part i., p. 1169) suggests that the round temple
may have been a reminiscence of the circular huts of the old-Italian populations.

318 THE PANTHEON.

Hirt has called attention to the remarkable circumstance of
Yitruvius limiting his description to these two kinds of the round
temple without mentioning a third class, in which the circular
body of the building (in that case generally of larger dimensions)
is not inclosed by columns at all, but only shows a projecting
portico like the other Roman temples (prostyloi). This omission
on the part of Yitruvius is all the more remarkable, as in his
time already Roman architecture had achieved its highest success
in that particular style.

We are speaking of the Pantheon, the splendid building erect-
ed by M. Agrippa, the friend of Augustus, in immediate connec-
tion with the Thermae, built and dedicated to Jupitor Ultor by
him. This building, which embodied, as it were, the highest aspi-
rations of Bo man national pride and power, was completed, accord-
ing to the original inscription preserved on it, b. c. 25, in which
year Agrippa was consul for the third time. According to the
statement of Pliny (u Hist. Nat.," 36, 24, 1), which, however, has
been disputed, it was originally dedicated to Jupitor Ultor, whose
statue, therefore, undoubtedly stood in the chief niche opposite
the entrance. The other six niches contained the statues of as
many gods ; those of the chief deities of the Julian family, Mars
and Yenus, and of the greatest son of that family, the divine
Caesar, being the only ones among the number of which we have
certain knowledge. Was it that the statues of Mars and Yenus
showed the attributes of the other principal gods, or that the
statues of the latter stood in the small chapels (cediculm) between
the niches, or that the unequaled enormous cupola was supposed
to represent heaven, that is, the house of all the gods ? Certain
it is that, together with the old appellation, the new name of the
Pantheon, i. e., temple of all the gods, was soon applied to the
building. This latter name has been unanimously adopted by
posterity, and has even originated the Christian destination of the
edifice as church of all the martyrs (S. Maria ad Martyres).
Without entering into the consecutive changes the building has
undergone in the course of time, we will now attempt a descrip-
tion of its principal features. The temple consists of two parts,
the round edifice and the portico (see plan, Fig. 342). The former
was 132 feet in diameter, exclusive of the thickness of the wall,
which amounts to 19 feet. The wall is perfectly circular, and

THE PANTHEON IN ROME.

319

contains eight apertures, one of which serves as entrance, while
the others form, in a certain order, either semicircular or quad-
rangular niches; the former are covered by semi-cupolas, the lat-
ter, by barrel- vaults. Only the niche opposite the entrance is,
at the present time, uninterrupted, and open up to its full height,
thus corresponding with the formation of the entrance (compare
section, Fig. 344) ; in front of each of the others, two columns
have been erected, the beams of which close the opening of the
semicircular vault. To this chief portion of the building is
attached the splendid portico which, in the manner of the above-

Fig. 342.

mentioned temples, projects by three columns, besides a massive
wall-structure. The frontage shows eight columns. As a rule,
the whole space of the pronaos was without columns ; contrary to
this rule, we here see it divided into three naves by means of two
pairs of columns. The centre nave, which was also the widest,
led to the entrance-door, each of the two others being terminated
by an enormous niche. Not to mention sesthetical considerations,
these columns were required as props of the roof covering this
vast space (the portico is about 100 feet long).

The columns of the portico (one of the capitals is shown, Fig.

320

THE PANTHEON IN ROME.

328) carried beams, on the frieze of which the following inscrip-
tion in large letters has been placed : MAGRIPPA-LFCOS-
TEBTIUMFECIT. Another inscription below this one, in
smaller characters, states the building to have been restored
by Septimius Severus and Caracalla. The beams carry a large
pediment, originally adorned with groups of statues representing
Jupiter's victories over the Grigantes. Behind and above this
gable rises a second one of the same proportions, serving as an
ornament of the projecting wall which connects the round
building with the portico {see also plan, Fig. 344). The roof of
the portico was supported by beams made of brass. According to

Fig. 343.

the drawing of Serlio, these beams were not massive, but consisted
of brass plates riveted together into square pipes — a principle
frequently applied by modern engineers on a larger scale in
building bridges, etc. Unfortunately, the material of the roof,
barring some of the large rivets, has been used by Pope Urban
Till, for guns and various ornaments of doubtful taste in
St. Peter's Cathedral. The large columns carrying the ugly
tabernacle on the grave of St. Peter are one of the results of this
barbarous spoliation. The old door, also made of brass, which
leads from the portico into the interior has, on the contrary, been
preserved. The outer appearance of the round building is simple

THE PANTEEON IN ROME. 321

and dignified. It most likely was originally covered with stucco
and terra-cotta ornaments, of which, however, little remains at
present ; but the simple bricks, particularly in the upper stripes,
where the insertion of the vault becomes visible, look, perhaps,
quite as beautiful as the original coating. The whole cylinder of '
masonry is divided into three stripes by means of cornices, which
break the heaviness of the outline, the divisions of the inner space
corresponding to those of the outer surface (see Figs. 343 and
344). The first of these stripes is about forty feet high, and rests
on a base of Travertine freestone. It consists of simple horizon-
tal slabs of stone, broken only by doors which lead to chambers
built in the thickness of the wall between the niches (see plan,
Fig. 342). It corresponds to the columns forming the first story
of the interior, the two cornices, in and outside, being on a level.
The second stripe, about 30 feet in height, answers to the second
story of the interior, where the semicircular arches of the niches
are situated. The horizontal stone layers outside are accordingly
broken by large double arches, destined to balance the vaults in
the interior. They alternate with smaller arches, thus forming a
decoration of the exterior at once dignified and in harmony with
the general design of the building. The two cornices in and
outside are again on a level. The third stripe corresponds to the
cupola, the tension of which is equal to 140 feet. The outer
masonry reaches up to about a third of its height, from which
point the cupola proper begins to rise in seven mighty steps.

The height of the dome is equal to the diameter of the cylin-
drical building, which adds to the sober and harmonious impres-
sion of the whole building. The lower of the above-mentioned
interior stories is adorned with columns and pilasters, the latter
of which inclosed the niches. Eight of these columns, over
thirty-two feet in height, are monoliths of giallo antico — a yellow
kind of marble beautifully veined, and belonging to the most
valuable materials used by ancient architects. Six other col-
umns are made of a kind of marble known as 'pavonazzetto / by
an ingenious mode of coloring these columns are made to har-
monize with those consisting of the rarer material. Above the
first lies a second lower story, the architectural arrangements of
which may be recognized from Adler's ingenious attempt at re-
construction (see Fig. 344). Its original decoration consisted of
21

322

TEMPLE-IN GL OSURES.

tablets of colored marble, the effect being similar to that of a se-
quence of narrow pilasters. This original decoration has later been
changed for another. Above the chief cornice which crowns this
story, and at the same time terminates the circular walls, rises the
cupola, divided into five stripes, each of which contains twenty-
five " caskets " beautifully worked and in excellent perspective. In
the centre at the top is an opening, forty feet in diameter, through
which the light enters the building. Near this opening a frag-
ment has been preserved of the bronze ornamentation which once
seems to have covered the whole cupola. Even without these

Fig. 344.

elegant decorations the building still excites the spectator's ad-
miration as one of the masterpieces of Roman genius.

68. The temple-inclosures of the Romans were, as a rule, still
more splendid than the periboloi of the Greeks. Although few
in number, the remaining specimens of these surrounding courts
are sufficient to give us a distinct idea of the whole arrangement.
The original purpose of these courts was to seclude the sanctuary
from the profane bustle of the world, for which purpose the in-
closure of the space immediately in front of the temple was suffi-
cient. Several inclosures of this kind have been preserved at
Pompeii. In front of a prostylos with a colonnade projecting by
two columns, commonly designated as the temple of ^Esculapius,

TEMPLE OF VENUS AT POMPEII.

323

is situated a simple court inclosed on two sides by a bare wall,
only the third side fronting the temple being adorned with a
portico of two columns. Another still smaller sanctuary, with-
out columns, at Pompeii, formerly described as the temple of
Mercury, at present as that of Quirinus, shows an entrance-court
the walls of which on two sides are adorned with pilasters, the
third consisting of a portico of four columns. Through the latter
one enters the court of the temple, in the background of which,
on a broad base, rises the cella containing the statue of the god ;
in the centre of the court stands an altar remarkable for its relief-
ornamentation.

In other cases the courts were richly decorated and of larger
dimensions, surrounding the temple on all sides. This seems to

have been the case in almost all the larger and in most of the
smaller temples wherever the locality would permit it. In Pom-
peii we again refer to the above-mentioned temple of Isis, which
is built in a regular space surrounded by walls. The court is sur-
rounded by a colonnade ; in the centre of it lies the cella with the
pronaos. A similar arrangement, on a larger scale, we see in the
so-called temple of Yenus, occupying 'the western side of the
Forum of Pompeii. It is a peripteros surrounded by twenty-eight
splendid Korinthian columns, with a portico of considerable pro-
jection in front. The temple is inclosed by a covered court
adorned with columns ; the colonnades on the narrower sides con-
sisting of nine, those on the broader sides of seventeen, detached
Korinthian columns. The wall on the right is joined on the out-
side by a similar colonnade (Fig. 345, a) of Doric columns, which

324 TEMPLE OF JUPITER AND JUNO IN ROME.

belongs to the surroundings of the forum. The remnants of both
the temple and the court are in a state of tolerable preservation.
Mazois has attempted a trustworthy conjectural design of the ori-
ginal building {see Fig. 345). The temple rises in beautiful pro-
portions over the surrounding colonnades. Both with regard to
elegance of proportions and splendor of decorations it ranks among
the finest buildings of Pompeii. In front of the steps leading to
the base stands the small altar, occupying the centre of the fore-
ground. The surface of the inner walls of the cella is divided into
several parts separated by pilasters of stucco. They are of a light-
yellow color, while those of the peribolos are richly adorned in
the manner of perspective room-decorations — only rarely met with
in temples. The back wall of the peribolos is joined by a number
of small chambers destined, perhaps, for the priests. Their walls
are decorated with beautiful figure-pictures.

In Rome no temple-inclosures of this kind have been pre-
served, but their existence in ancient times is proved by the tem-
ple of Venus and Roma described by us (Figs. 336 and 337). Of
a very early structure of a similar kind, we have knowledge from
the plan of the city of Rome, which, made of marble, was placed
in the temple of Romulus, and the fragments of which are now
let into the walls of the staircase of the Capitoline Museum. In
this fragment we see two temples standing near each other, and
inclosed at a moderate distance by a single oblong colonnade.1
This colonnade was built most likely of common material by Q.
Csecilius Metellus ; Augustus reconstructed it on a larger scale in
marble in the name of his sister Octavia. In front of the two
temples stood, as appears from the Capitoline fragment, groups
of twenty-five horsemen, the work of Lysippus, which had been
brought as spoil from Macedon by Metellus. In the reign of
Titus (a. d. TO) both temples were burned down in a fire which
destroyed a great part of Rome. They were rebuilt, according to
an inscription found on them, by the Emperor L. Septimius Seve-
rus (a. d. 203). Both temples were dedicated to Jupiter and Juno.
Remains of the portico leading to the court are found in the

1 See F. Reber, " Die Ruinen Roms und der Campagna." Leipsic, 1863, p. 210, et
seq. P. 211 contains a view of the portico of Octavia; p. 213, the fragment of the
Capitoline plan referring to it.

TEMPLE OF THE SUN AT PALMYRA. 325

Piazza di Pescaria; some columns of the temple of Juno belong
to a private house in the Yia di S. Angelo di Pescaria.

The largest temple-inclosure among the monuments known
to us belonged to the temple of the Sun at Palmyra, the mighty
city of the desert, situated on the frontier of the Roman and Par-
thian Empires. In it the most gorgeous specimens of almost all
classes of Eoman architecture are found. The open colonnade,
for instance, more than 4,000 feet long, consisting of four rows of
Korinthian columns, had not its equal in Rome, no more than the
just-mentioned temple-inclosure. The latter occupies a square
nearly 3,000 feet in circumference. The outer wall, of consider-
able height, is broken on three sides by windows cut into it at
regular intervals between the pilasters, which adorn the wall both
in front and at the back. The fourth side has no windows, but
instead of them a high entrance-portal in the centre, which may
be considered as one of the most splendid specimens of Rornan
architecture under the Emperor Aurelianus. The court which
one enters through this portal is of proportionate size and splen-
dor. Each of the sides (over 100 feet in length) is adorned with
colonnades ; those on three sides being double (i. e., formed by
two rows of columns), that on the side of the entrance single.
The whole area of the court is covered with slabs of marble, and
it contains, on both sides of the entrance, two large regular hol-
lows, most likely used as ponds. Opposite the entrance, facing
it with its long side, lies the temple, a dipteros about 110 feet
wide by 200 long ; the entrance to it lies on the long side of the
cella, opposite the portal of the inclosure-wall. This is a deviation
from the ordinary design of temples ; another irregularity consist-
ing in the windows which are broken into the walls of the cella.
The inner sides of each of the two narrow walls of the cella con-
tain a quadrangular niche destined to receive the statue of a god.
This fact accords with the statement of Aurelian having placed
here the statues of Helios and Belus. The same emperor restored
the older temple in a manner the splendor of which is frequently
praised by ancient writers, and still is apparent from the remains.
Less in size, but not in splendor or individual peculiarities,
were the courts of the temple of the Sun in Heliopolis, the modern
Balbek. One of the chief temples of that city we have mentioned
in § 66 (see Figs. 335 and 336). The other one, larger than the

326 TEMPLE OF THE SUN AT HELIOPOLIS.

first, and most likely devoted to Jupiter, as god of the sun, was
a peripteros with ten columns in front, and nineteen on each of
the long sides. Its width was 160 feet ; its length, exclusive of
the steps, about 300 feet. The cella of the temple has been de-
stroyed beyond restoration ; only the beautiful Korinthian col-
umns of the colonnade (about 7 feet in bottom diameter) may
still be recognized. The courts in front of the temple, and the
entrance-portal belonging to them, are comparatively well pre-
served. The latter (see plan, Fig. 346 ; scale 200 feet) consists of
a portico of twelve columns, up to which led a broad flight of
steps, the entrance into the first court being formed by three
magnificent gates. The court itself shows the unusual shape of

a hexagon. Opposite the
entrance lies the chief por-
tal, leading to the second
court. The four remain-
ing sides show halls, open-
ing toward the court
through colonnades ; the
niches in the walls of
these halls, with their
beautifully vaulted ceilings, may still be recognized from the
ruins. The second court, square in shape, was designed in a simi-
lar manner, each of three of its sides (400 feet in length) contain-
ing open halls (exedrce) alternating with semicircular niches. The
walls of the halls are adorned with niches, most likely containing
statues. On the fourth side, opposite the splendid portal with
three gates above mentioned, rises the facade of the temple, con-
cerning the arrangement of which we have spoken before.

So much about the inclosures and courts of temples. Fre-
quently these temples were also erected in public squares, to
which arrangement we shall have to return in speaking of the
Fora of Rome and Pompeii (see § 82). The grand impression
of a temple is frequently increased by the artificial base on which
it stands. We have spoken of such a base in reference to the
Capitoline sanctuary (§ 62). The foundations of the court of the
temple of Yen as and Roma were, as we have seen, on the largest
scale. Similar preparatory works were necessary for the base of
the just-mentioned temple of Heliopolis. Large walls of free-

Li_»..

^
^

.....

■
1

III . 1 1

'"- LktZJKJZ

Fig. 846.

TEMPLE OF FORTUNA AT PRJENESTE.

327

stone had been erected for the purpose on three sides, consisting
of stones of thirty or even of sixty feet in length. In a temple
erected on rising ground, the base itself could be architecturally
developed; terraces, frequently of imposing proportions, often
led up to the temple. As an instance, we add the temple of
Fortuna of Prseneste, at Palestrina, conjecturally redesigned by
Canina (Fig. 347). According to this design, the mountain, on
the slope of which the old town of Prseneste lay, was converted
into terraces up to half its height, which were propped by mighty
basements of different kinds and ages. The midmost terraces,
for instance, show front walls of Cyclopic-Pelasgic workmanship

Fig. 847.

(see % 17), and are therefore dated by Canina back to the time in
which the similarly constructed walls of Prseneste itself were
built. This structure was afterward enlarged toward both top
and bottom, these later parts accordingly showing regular free-
stone architecture. Other parts again show the so-called opus
incertum (see § 69), and, also, the regular brick-architecture of
imperial times. The modem town of Palestrina has been built
among these ruins, which latter have been an object of continued
research ever since the sixteenth century (we mention only the
important works on the subject by Pirro Ligorio and Pietro da

328 ROMAN WALLS.

Cortona). In comparing the remains with the statements of an-
cient writers, we find that the temple of moderate dimensions lay
abont half-way up the mountain resting on the above-mentioned
terraces, which again were architecturally adorned in various
ways. The bottom story, if we may use that expression, was
formed by a grand archway carried by pillars ; it extended to a
considerable length, running parallel with the highway which
passes the mountains on that side. On both sides of it two large
covered cisterns have been discovered. From here, stairs led up
to a terrace of large size, on which two other large tanks were
situated — an arrangement met with also in the court of the tem-
ple of the Sun at Palmyra. From here stairs led up to a second
terrace, in the centre of which remains of a gorgeous building
have been discovered. It consisted of two large halls connected
by means of a colonnade ; in one of the halls a celebrated mosaic
floor has been discovered. Pietro da Cartona transferred it to
the palace of the Barberini family, built on the ruins of this
structure, where it still remains. Double flights of steps led up
to a third and a fourth terrace ; on the fifth terrace stood an arch-
way running along the front edge ; on the sixth we see a large
square court surrounded by colonnades (peristylos), joined by
another similar court of semicircular shape. From this a flight
of steps, semicircular in design, led up to the temple of Fortuna
itself, of which, however, nothing now remains.

69. We now have to consider the wall — the most primitive
form of protective architecture. A great similarity exists be-
tween the first attempts of this kind in Greece and Italy, which
proves the relationship and analogous development of the two
nations. The oldest Italian town-walls known to us consist of
large stones, in the cutting and placing on each other of which
we notice the same different modes of proceeding as in the Pelas-
gic walls (compare Figs. 53 to 56). We therefore need not re-
peat our previous remarks, and only add, that not only towns,
but also other places, were inclosed with walls for purposes of
safety or religious worship. Wall-inclosures of this kind are fre-
quently found on heights in various parts of Italy ; it is indeed
probable that one of the chief centres of Rome, the Capitoline
Hill, was inclosed originally for the purpose of defense rather
than of habitation. In this manner it became, like the akropolis

ROMAN WALLS.

of a Greek city, the centre point round which the first dwelling-
houses of the city were grouped.

When a town was to be founded systematically, as frequently
was the case with a colonizing nation like the Komans, certain re-
ligious ceremonies had to be observed. A bull and a cow were
harnessed to a plough in order to encircle the place destined for
the city with a furrow. For the gates, the number of which was
also determined by holy traditions, a space was left by lifting up
the plough. The ploughed-up earth had to lie toward the town,
the furrow itself toward the country, this arrangement being in a
manner suggestive of the wall and moat of Italian and Roman cit-
ies. Where the locality permitted it, the space for the town was
designed as a square, an instance of which was the old Roma qua-
drata on the Palatine Hill : this arrangement recalls the form of
the templum (see § 61, et seq.), the centre of the town being, like
that of the temple, considered as holy, and marked as such by the
deposition of gifts and offerings.

The walls of the Romans were generally made of bricks. Re-
cently, however, some remains of the oldest fortifications of Rome
have been discovered which
are built of freestone in the
Greek manner. On the
Aventine Hill, for instance,
may be traced for a consid-
erable distance the line of
a freestone wall, which un-
doubtedly belongs to the
so-called fortifications of ^ mM

o r -i. i Fig. 848.

feervius. It lies on the top

of a large earth-wall (agger), which is expressly mentioned among
those fortifications, and it contains, like the walls of the Greeks,
projections for the purpose of defense ; the arches placed at inter-
vals for the sake of increasing the firmness of the layers of stones
are thoroughly Italian in character. Of a similar kind are the
substruction-walls which have been recently found on the Pala-
tine Hill, forming, most likely, the original fortification of that
hill (see Fig. 348).

In later times, as we mentioned before, brick was used in for-
tifications. Vitruvius states that first of all masses of earth were

330

TO WW- WALLS OF POMPEII.

use, by
appear-

Fig. 349.

heaped up, and the erection thus gained was inclosed on both sides
with strong brick walls. In these walls, as well as in those made of

massive stone, different modes
of structure were in
means of which the
ance of the walls was consid-
erably modified. Either the
whole wall consisted of a mixt-
ure of mortar and unbaked
bricks (called opis incertum by
Yitruvius), or the outer surface
of the wall was faced with reg-
ular bricks of equal size. In
this case, also, two modes of
construction became possible, the stones being either triangular in
shape and arranged in horizontal layers (Fig. 349), or being cut in-
to quadrangular prisms
which were pressed into
the soft mortar, so that
the joints crossed each
other in a net-like man-
ner {opus reticulatwn).
Fig. 350 illustrates the
latter mode of structure,
which also appears, for
instance, in the walls of
FlG- 35°- a conduit of the Alsie-

tine aqueduct. The inside of these walls consists of irregular
bricks joined together by mortar {opus incertum), while the outer
surface consists of reticulated brickwork coated over with stucco.
Sometimes the reticular and horizontal principles appear com-
bined, in which case the reticular surfaces are interrupted by nar-
rower pieces of horizontal layers. This is the case, for instance,
in several parts of the Eoman town-walls.

We quote two instances of town-walls in illustration of the
principles hitherto insisted upon, viz., the walls of Pompeii and
the so-called Aurelian fortification of Rome. In the former the
wall consists, according to Yitruvius's rule, of an irregularly
heaped mass of stones, faced both in front and at the back with

THE AURELIAN FORTIFICATION.

331

flag-stones (scarp and counterscarp), to which additional firmness
is added by means of buttresses. The upper surface of the wall is,
toward the outside, protected by battlements four feet in height,
into which, at intervals of nine feet, embrasures have been cut ;
they project toward the inside by three feet, thus yielding a safe
position to the besieged. Toward the
town side the wall is considerably raised,
reaching a height of forty-two feet from
the level of the ground. Broad but
rather steep steps lead from the town
up to the wall. Square towers com-
municated with the top of the wall
by means of (generally round-arched)
gates.

In our second example (Fig. 352),
the Aurelian fortification of Kome, the
wall toward the inside is propped by
strong buttresses connected with each other by means of round
arches. The top of the wall here, also, is protected by battle-
ments. A sort of gallery is formed by these arches," in the single
divisions of which semicircular niches are cut into the thickness

Fig. 851.

Fig. 852.

of the wall which communicate with the outside by means of nar-
row shot-holes, thus yielding a strong position both for attack
and defense (another arrangement of the wall is illustrated by
Fig. 359). Here also turrets are placed at certain intervals, such

332

ROMAN GAMPS.

W CML<&&j/j

Fig. 353.

as we have met with before at Pompeii (Fig. 341) and in Greece
(compare § 19, Figs. 70-7.7). Upon the whole, Koman towers
differ little from the Greek but for the vault, which adds to their
strength. Fig. 353 (scale, 18 feet) shows a section of a turret at
Pompeii, rising in three stories to a height of about forty feet.
_- ^ The ceiling between the two lower sto-

KJ ries inclines slightly toward the ont-

HpHHEBB, s^e' wn^cn *s a^so tne case with the

Urrpl openings above referred to. The steps

necessary for communication lie in the
back part of the turret, which is slightly
raised. The topmost chamber commu-
nicates with the circuit of the wall by
means of a vaulted gate (compare Fig.
351). The upper platform also inclines
outward so as to let the rain run off,
stone eaves being added for the same
purpose, as is also the case with the cir-
cuits of the wall. Battlements protect the platform.

A few words ought to be added about fortified camps, so im-
portant in Poman warfare. They were erected at considerable
distances from each other, to protect the frontier from the bar-
barians, sometimes connected with each other by long lines of
wall with intervening smaller fortifications. They, of course,
required large garrisons. The remains of a large fortified camp
are still visible in the Taunus Mountains, about an hour's walk
from Homburg vor der Hohe, and 250 paces from the large
Eoman line of defense commonly called the Pfahlgrdben. The
present name of the camp is Saalburg j it is most likely identical
with the Arctaunon (Arxtauni) mentioned by Ptolemseus. It
was built by Drusus in the year 11 (b. c), and reerected by his
son Germanicus after its partial destruction by the Germans
(a. d. 9). Continued, but not yet finished, excavations have made
it possible to discern the whole plan of the camp (see Fig. 354,
after the designs of Archivrath Habel). The shape of the for-
tification was quadrangular, being 700 feet long by 450 wide.
The outer wall, consisting of irregular blocks of stone, had a
thickness of 5 feet, slightly increased on the north side, which
was most exposed to the attacks of the enemy. The four angles

FORTIFIED CAMP NEAR HOMBURG.

333

are rounded. The original height of the wall cannot be deter-
mined with certainty ; in some parts the remaining portions rise
to 6 feet from the ground. Outside of this wall lies a double
moat ; inside of it we see a second higher line of wall, about 7
feet wide, which, in our plan, is marked by a double line of dots.
Behind this wall lies a road 30 feet wide, the via cmgularis (E)
(marked by a single dotted
line in our plan), destined *

for the reception of larger
bodies of troops. The other
arrangements of the camp
perfectly tally with the de-
scriptions of ancient writers.
On the front side, between
two towers projecting inside,
lies the chief gate, porta prce-
toria (A), with which corre-
sponds, on the opposite side,
\hsporta decumana (D). On
the two long sides we have
the porta principalis dextra,
also protected by towers (B),
and the porta principalis
sinistra (C). In the centre of
the camp, where the connect-
ing lines between the oppo-
site gates meet, stands the
dwelling of the commander,

the praitorium (F). Erected without much care and in a hurry, it
still shows several compartments, partly for the private use of the
general, partly for military purposes. There is no entrance on the
side of the porta pyrmtoria, in the place of which we see a square
tower (g) ; on the opposite side the building terminates in an ob-
long room (a\ the three outlying sides of which contain three
doors exactly opposite the three gates in the corresponding walls of
the camp. Near G and H remains of buildings have been discov-
ered, most likely those of dwelling-houses. The narrow intervals
between the cross-walls of H seem to indicate the existence of
a heating-apparatus. I marks a small sanctuary, K a well. The

Fig. 354.

334

FORTIFIED GAMP AT GAMZIGRAD.

prcetorium was reserved for the staff and the corps oV elite / the
rest of the army lived, according to the rules of castrametatio, in
the open spaces between the praetorium and the wall of the camp.
Light huts, made of earth or wood, were most likely constructed
for the purpose, the German climate being too cold to permit
living in tents for long. Stone foundations of the soldiers' dwell-
ings have not been discovered.

Another camp, at Gamzigrad in Servia, carefully investigated
for the first time by F* Kanitz, is much larger and in a better
state of preservation than the one just described. It dates, un-
doubtedly, from late Koman times. It was erected to protect
the Timon Valley, and is of enormous dimensions. It formed an

Fig. 355.

irregular square (Fig. 355), the narrow sides having a length of
1,461 and 1,351 feet respectively, while the two long sides show
the enormous measures of 1,908 and 1,896 feet. Eound towers,
180 feet in diameter, and with walls 24 feet thick, stand at the
four corners, a number of smaller round towers projecting almost
circularly from the wall at irregular intervals. At a distance of
about 108 feet from this wall the remains of a second row of tow-
ers have been discovered also, most likely connected with each
other by walls. The substructure of a square building of 84 by
132 feet occupies the centre of the fortification. Unfortunately,
no excavations have taken place, by means of which the name of
this camp might, perhaps, be discovered.

ROMAN GATES.

335

70. The Eoman gates differ from the Greek ones more than
is the ease with towers or walls. It is true that their position in
the wall remained essentially unaltered ; that is, they were in-
serted mostly in the parts most protected by nature, and further
strengthened by projections of the wall, built in such a manner
as to afford a point of attack on the left side of the besieging
enemy. As we have seen before, the gates were flanked by towers
(compare also our description of the castle of Salona, § 76, Fig.
392).

All these points the Roman gates have in common with the
Greek. The chief difference consists in the principle of vaulting
applied to the Roman structures. By means of this principle,
applied also to subterraneous canals, the Romans were able to
cover wide spaces without difficulty. We quote a few examples
of Roman gates, classed according to the number of their open-

The simplest form naturally consists of one arch, either flanked
by projections and cut into the thickness of the wall, or else
repeated on the opposite sides of a tower. A beautiful specimen
of the first kind is the
gate of Perusia, where a
second decorative arch is
added above the actual
opening. An example of
the second kind we see in
the gate of Yolterra, which
shows all the simplicity of
the old-Italian arch. The
gate of Pompeii, leading
to ISTola, is of later date ;
its simple arch does not
lie in the wall but at the
end of a small passage,
which touches the wall at
an obtuse angle, thus com-
pelling the besiegers to expose themselves to the attack of those
standing on the side-walls of this passage. Later still, and evi-
dently erected with a view to decoration as well as to safety, is
one of the gates of the above-mentioned villa of Diocletianus, at

Fig. 856.

336

TEE PORTA ATJREA.

Salona, called porta aurea, most likely owing to its splendid or-
namentation (see § 78). Like the other gates of this building, it
is flanked by towers, and contains one opening only. The latter
shows a round arch, closed at the bottom by a straight ledge of
stone (see Fig. 356). The surface of the wall is decorated in the
late Eoman style, with small columns on bases, inclosing niches.
A cornice, partly destroyed, adds to the beauty of the gate even
in its present condition.

Fig. 357.

Gates with two openings are of rarer occurrence. As an ex-
ample we quote one of the oldest and most beautiful gates of
Home, at present called Porta Maggiore, the original aspect of
which is shown Fig. 35T.1 The design is very complicated,
owing to various considerations ; but it shows, at the same time,
the artistic skill of the Romans in getting over architectural
difficulties. Two high arched portals afford an opening to two
Roman highways, the Yia Labicana and Yia Prgenestina, which
here met at a pointed angle. These portals are inclosed by
two mighty piers, the upper parts of which are broken by
smaller arches and decorated with two semi-columns each, on
the latter of which rest beams and pediments. The centre pier

1 Compare the gate of Messene (Fig 67), the opening of which seems to have been
divided into two halves by a pillar.

THE PORTA MAGGIORE IN ROME.

337

shows, below the just-mentioned opening, another small, round-
arched gate. The arches served at the same time to carry two
aqueducts. Just above them lies an " attic," which, however,
does not contain water ; but above this we see two other " attics : "
the lower one forms the conduit of the Aqua Claudia, the upper
one that of the Anio Nova. Three large inscriptions cover the
three attics. The first states that the Emperor Claudius built the
aqueduct called Aqua Claudia, by which the waters of the two
wells called Caeruleus and Curtius, lying near the forty-fifth

Figs. 858 and

milestone, were conducted into Eome. The second inscription says
that the same emperor conducted the Anio Nova to Eome from a
distance of sixty-two Roman miles. The third inscription men-
tions Vespasian and Titus as the restorers of the gigantic build-
ing of Claudius.

More frequent than two, are three gate-openings, of which the
centre one is usually wider and higher than the two others : the
former being destined for horses and carriages, the latter for foot-
passengers. The two purposes of defense and traffic are beauti-
fully combined in a gate belonging to the fortifications of Aosta,
22

GATE OF AOSTA.

built by Augustus {see view, Fig. 358, and plan, Fig. 359). The
wall to which the gate belongs differs essentially from those of
Pompeii, the interval between the lower and outer (Fig. 359, a),
and the higher and inner, wall-facings (B) being not filled up
with earth, but left empty, the connection between the two
wall-facings is effected by means of arches. This interval is thus
transformed into a number of small, vaulted chambers (C) which

Fig. 360.

open toward the town, and thus somewhat resemble the inner
divisions of the Aurelian walls. Two towers (D D), inclosing the
outer gate (F), project from this double wall. The gate shows
the just-mentioned division into three openings, all of which could
be closed by strong portcullis. After this gate follows an open
space (H), called by Yegetius propugnaeulum, because here the
besiegers that might have advanced so far could be attacked from
the platforms of the low towers. On the opposite side of this
space lies the inner gate (G), the three openings of which were

ROMAN ROADS. 339

closed by doors studded with iron. The architecture is dignified
and even severe in style, and this work of Augustus may be
counted among the finest of its class.

A similar though less fortified structure we see in one of the
gates of Pompeii, called, from the direction of the road passing
through it, the Herculanean gate {see the outer view of it, Fig.
360, from the conjectural designs of Mazois). On the left it is
protected by a projection of the wall ; it has one centre and two
side entrances, the latter for foot-passengers. The inward side of
the gate shows the same arrangement. The narrow space lying
between the two chief portals was uncovered, thus forming a kind
of prqpugnaeulum, similar to that of the gate of Aosta. The
side entrances are vaulted in their full length ; they were each
connected with the uncovered space in the centre by means of
two arches, through which the necessary light is conveyed into
the long and narrow passages. The large portals could, at one
time, be closed by portcullis, which, however, at the time of the
destruction, seem to have been no more in use. The side
entrances contained doors, as indicated by the still-preserved
hinges. The whole structure consists of pieces of tufa and
mortar, coated with stucco. The remains show how carefully the
surface was smoothed. The whole gate was 16.80 metres deep
by 14 wide. The width of the centre passage is 4. 70 metres, that
of each side passage 1.30.

71. The structures of utility, to which we have now to turn,
differ from those of the Greeks by their greater variety of
purpose, and of the means used to accomplish this purpose. It is
here that the practical sense of the Eomans shows to greatest
advantage.

The Romans soon discovered the political importance of roads,
and showed great energy and consistency in carrying out their
ideas, differing in this from the Greeks. With the latter, religious
purposes formed an important consideration in the building of
roads ; the Romans only considered the necessities of the state.
Artistic road-building commenced as soon as the Roman dominion
began to extend beyond its original limits. Conquered provinces
had to be connected with the heart of the state, i. e., the city of
Rome. The roads thus became a means of political, commercial,
and intellectual interchange between Rome and the provinces.

340

THE GROTTO OF TEE POSIL1PPO.

The chief and first purpose, however, was of a military kind ;
large masses of troops had to be conveyed with ease to distant
provinces. In this way originated the first artistic road, the Yia
Appia, and its continuation to Arminum, the Yia Flaminia : the
subjection of the Boii, on the Po, led to the construction of the
Via ^Emilia; while that of the Gallic and Germanic nations
caused the grand system of roads in the Alps and the countries
on the Rhine and Danube. The gradual extension of the Roman
territory may be followed in the history of road-building. These
large political considerations, of course, were out of the question
among the numerous and, to a great extent, isolated states of
Greece. This difference of purpose between the two nations also
influenced their modes of constructing roads. The Greeks built
their roads according to the nature of the locality, or even to old
traditional routes of travelers, heedless of occasional detours.
The Romans, on the contrary, true to the indomitable energy of
their character, follow the one plan of building as nearly as
possible in a straight line. The nature of the ground is almost
totally disregarded ; where mountains intervene they are broken

through ; hollows are made level by
means of dams ; deep valleys or rapid
streams are spanned by bridges, the
bold design of which still excites the
admiration of modern engineers, far
superior though they are to the Romans
in technical, scientific, and mechanical
resources.

Of tunnels through mountains we
mention the so-called " Grotto of the Po-
silippo," near Naples, which is still daily
passed through by thousands (Fig. 361).
It is cut through a promontory between
Naples and Baise, being in length 2,654
Neap, palms by 24 wide. The height
inside varies from 26 to 74 palms. At the two ends there are
arches of 94 and 98 palms respectively, tending to increase the firm-
ness of the structure. The tunnel is bored through the solid rock.
Other difficulties had to be overcome in marshy places. The
soil here had to be made firm and its level raised by means of a

Fig. 361.

THE VIA APPIA.

341

dam. Tlie Via Appia, for instance, was thus conducted through
the Pontine marshes. In other places, again, the road had to be
carried on along precipices on walled substructures or viaducts.
This is the case in that
part of the Yia Appia
which descends from Al-
bano to the valley of
Ariccia; just below the
village of Ariccia it runs
for a considerable dis-
tance on an embankment
faced with freestone. Fig.
362 shows this part of the road with massive balustrades and seats
on both sides of it. Vaulted openings in the basement evidently
served as outlets for the mountain-streams.

As to the technical arrangements of the roads, such as pave-
ment, gutters, etc., full information is derived from Hirt's work,
" Die Lehre von den Gebauden bei den Griechen und Romern,"
which we have followed in many points. The roads were either
strewed with sand and gravel (glarea mam sternere) or paved with

Fig. 362.

Fig. 3G3.

Fig. 364.

Fig. 365.

solid stones. In the latter case generally polygonal blocks of
some hard stone, generally basalt, are chosen for the roadway, the
surface being made as smooth as possible (silice sternere viam\ as
is shown by the part of the Yia Appia in Fig. 363. In case there
were raised pavements for foot-passengers, they were generally
made of the softer common tufa (lapide sternere). The middle
of the road was generally raised a little, so as to make the
rain-water flow off ; small outlets for the water, such as we

342

THE PONTE DI NONA.

mentioned in speaking of the wall {see Fig. 353), also occur on
roads. Figs. 364 and 365 illustrate the draining apparatus of the
Yia Appia, where an arched passage under the road serves as an
outlet for the water, perhaps also as a means of communication.
Fig. 364 shows the front view ; Fig. 365 the sections. The road-
way itself is about 18 feet wide ; it has a massive stone balustrade
on each side.

The streets of Pompeii were of similar construction, drains
being frequently found below them ; the pavements for foot-pas-
sengers to both sides are generally raised a little, posts, connected
by curb-stones, being placed at certain intervals to prevent the in-
trusion of horses or vehicles. At intervals of 1,000 paces, mile-
stones (milliaria) were placed on the highways, with the distances
from the larger towns written on them. Frequently seats for ex-
hausted travelers were placed near these mile-stones.

72. In their construction of bridges the Romans differ widely
from the Greeks, owing to the use of the arch in Roman architec-
ture. The viaducts and bridges of the Romans are among the

most remarkable monu-
ments of antiquity. At
the ninth mile-stone from
Rome, on the road to Ga-
bii, is a viaduct across a
broad valley, which only
during the rainy season of
the year is partly flooded.
Nevertheless, the viaduct
is built on as many as seven
arches. It is 285 feet long,
and consists of blocks of " peperin " and red tufa. Owing to the
softness of the material the pillars are very stout, and the in-
tervals spanned by the arches small. From the simple and solid
structure of the work (which is now called Ponte di JSTona, and
still in use), Hirt believes it to belong to the time of Caius Grac-
chus, who, while a tribune (124-121 b. c), constructed a great
many roads, and of whom Plutarch distinctly remarks (C. Grac-
chus, c. iii.) that he considered not only usefulness but also beauty
and elegance {x^PLV Kai K°XKxii).

Where a stream had to be crossed, the arch naturally became

Fig.

BRIDGE ACROSS THE FIORA.

343

of still greater importance. Bridges, moreover, seem to have been
regarded almost like religious monuments. In the early history
of the city of Home, so closely connected with the Tiber, the
bridges across that river were of such religious import that the
care of them was assigned to a fraternity of priests (pontifices, i. e.,
bridge-makers), of which the highest college of priests in Rome
was a further development. The name Pontifex Maximus re-
mained attached to the office of high-priest, and is at present that
of the pope.

Although of great importance, the arch was not indispensable
in Roman bridge-architecture. Not to speak of temporary bridges
of boats, we mention permanent wooden bridges, such as the
Pons Sublicius, the oldest bridge in Rome, and the bridge that
Caesar threw across the Rhine. In other bridges wood-work
and masonry occur combined, as, for instance, in the splendid
bridge built across the Danube by Trajan. It rested on twenty
strong stone pillars, standing at distances of 170 feet, and con-
nected with each other by wooden arches instead of stone vault-
ings. A representation of this bridge is seen on the column of
Trajan.

Arched structures made of stone marked the highest perfec-
tion of the art, combining, as they did, firmness of structure with
the capability of spanning wide spaces without impeding (owing
to the height of the arches)
the navigation on the river.
Without entering into de-
tails, we will, in the fol-
lowing pages, quote a few
examples of bridges, class-
ing them according to the
number of their principal
arches. The bridge near
Volci, across the river
Fiora (Fig. 367), shows
one chief arch, with two smaller ones on the banks of the river.
This bridge also serves to carry an aqueduct across the river
(compare § 74).

Fig. 368 shows a still-existing Roman bridge with two prin-
cipal arches, generally known as the Ponte de' Quattro Capi,

Fig. 867.

THE PONTE 8. ANGEL 0.

owing to the two heads of Janus Quadrifrons on stelai placed on
the balustrade above the tetes-du-pont. According to the inscrip-
tions it was built in 62 b. c. by L. Fabricius, at that time curator
viarum. Its condition was, in 21 b. a, examined and testified as
safe by the consuls Q. Lepidus and M. Lollius. It connects the
city with the island of the Tiber, and consists of two arches
extending in graceful lines from a strong pillar in the centre of
the river to its two banks. On the base of the pillar, between

Fig. 368.

the two chief arches, the masonry is interrupted by a third arch,
which gives an appearance of grace to the whole structure. The
side of the pillar- turned toward the current of the stream is
made into a sharp edge. Two other smaller arches, nearer the
banks, add to the firmness of the structure, being filled up with
earth.

One of the first Eoman bridges is the Pons iElius, built across

the Tiber by the Emperor Hadrian. It opened the access to the
tomb erected by him on the right bank of the river (compare
§ 78). The bed of the river was crossed by three semicircular
arches, joined to right and left by four smaller vaultings. It is
in a state of excellent preservation, and well known by the name
of Ponte S. Angelo. On its restoration at a later date one of the
arches has been filled up, and is hidden by the extended embank-

ROMAN HARBORS.

345

ment. Fig. 3(59 shows the original design of the bridge ; Fig. 370
its present aspect at low water, which shows the massive structure
of the foundations and piers.

73. Of still greater magnificence and boldness of construction
than the bridges were the harbors, canals, and similar structures.
Ilirt (" Lehre von den Gebauden," p. 367) justly remarks, " that
even the splendor of Nero's golden house dwindles into nothing
compared with the harbor of Ostia, the drainage-works of the
Fucinine Lake, and the two large aqueducts, Aqua Claudia and
Anio Nova, all built by Claudius. In their water-works the an-
cients seem to have surpassed themselves." Of the harbors of
the Greeks, partly of considerable dimensions, we have spoken

Fig. 870.

before (§ 20) : in comparing them with those of the Romans we
find the same difference as between the roads of the two nations ;
that is, the Greeks adapt their structures to the conditions of the
soil, while the Romans, without neglecting local advantages, as a
rule, force Nature to their powerful will. In Greece, harbors
generally consisted of natural bays enlarged and fortified by dams
and similar structures : the Romans built their harbors where no
such natural opportunities offered themselves. It is true that
their coasts, compared with Greece, were wanting in bays and
promontories. Instead of these, therefore, the Romans built

346

HARBORS OF GENTUMOELLM AND OSTIA.

dams and walls far into the sea, to obtain safe anchorage for their
ships ; nay, entire artificial islands were produced in the sea so as
to protect equally artificial harbors from the waves. This was
the case, for instance, in the harbor of Centumcellge (the modern
Civita Yecchia), built by Trajan. Of the gradual progress of this
structure we are told by the younger Pliny (§ 31) : two enormous

piers were being built, of

Fig. 371.

which that to the left was
finished first ; at the same
time an artificial island in
front of them was in prog-
ress of construction. Enor-
mous loads of blocks of
stone were brought in flat
vessels, and thrown into
the sea in proper places.
In this manner a powerful
stone-wall was formed
x*ujijutkci*5o» nnder the water, which,
at the time when Pliny
wrote, already protruded from the surface of the sea. {See the
plan of the harbor, Fig. 371, according to Canina's design.)

Similar structures, although on a different plan, had been
attempted at a much earlier period. When the harbor of Ostia
(built at the mouth of the Tiber by Ancus Martins, and already
covered with sand about the end of the Republic) was being
restored, we hear of an artificial island of this kind. It formed a
breakwater in front of the large piers of the harbor, and earned
a light-house almost equal in size to the celebrated Pharus in the
harbor of Alexandria. Instead of rough stones, the Emperor
Claudius, who took a particular pride in buildings of this kind,
used chalk, mortar, and Puzzuolan clay. Of these materials three
enormous pillars were built and sunk into the sea together with
the colossal ship on which they stood.1 The clay received an in-
destructible firmness by the accession of the salt-water, and in
this manner the foundation of the island was formed. As to

1 This was the same vessel in which, under Caligula, the obelisk of the Vatican
had been brought to Italy. By the Romans it was believed to be the largest vessel
that ever sailed on the ocean.

HARBOR OF OSTIA. 347

the rest, this harbor resembled that of Centumcellae. Like the
latter, it consisted of an outer harbor built into the sea by Clau-
dius, and of a large basin • afterward dug into the shore by com-
mand of the Emperor Trajan. The basin was inclosed by
freestone walls, and communicated with the outer harbor by
artificial canals, as also with the open sea by means of the Tiber,
the stream of which was well regulated and embanked. Fig. 372
(scale 1,000 metres) shows Canina's design, made according to the
existing remnants of the harbor. The ruins of the harbor of

Fig. 872.

Claudius now lie one miglia inland, owing to the deposits of the
sea. Our design also indicates the storehouses for grains and
other merchandise by which the inner hexagonal basin was sur-
rounded. A coin struck during the fifth consulate of Trajan
(a. d. 103) gives a distinct view of this harbor and the buildings
surrounding it. As to the arrangements of such storehouses we

348

A STOREHOUSE IN ROME.

may perhaps derive some knowledge from the remains of a build-
ing discovered by Piranesi near the Emporium in Rome, on the
left bank of the Tiber (see Fig. 374). It
rose from the river to the city in terraces in
accordance with the natural conditions of
the ground. The ceilings of the store-rooms
were vaulted; graceful arches in the in-
closing walls effected an easy communication
with the street.

Fig. 375 shows the view of a harbor
from a Pompeian wall-painting. Walls
crowned by towers serve as a means of
protection. Storehouses sur-
round the basin, connected
with the shore by means of
a bridge. On an island con-
nected with one of the ietties

Fig. 374. J_

we see a temple and a dwell-
ing-house adorned with columns, both standing on artificial ter-

Fig. 373.

iSl

IIUU

Fig. 375.

races, to which lead steps. Groups of trees add to the pictu-
resqueness of the whole. The most remarkable feature is the

THE CLOACA MAXIMA.

349

jetty, to the right of the harbor, projecting far into the sea, and
containing a number of arcades destined for the keeping out of
mud or for the reception of smaller vessels.

74. We now have to consider the drainage-works of the
Romans — less imposing, but no less useful, than their harbors.
We mention particularly the drainings of the Pontine marshes,
the meadows of the Po, etc., where, by means of canals, ditches,
and drains of various kinds, damp, boggy stretches of country have
been transformed into arable land. A still more remarkable
example of a complicated system of drainage is the city of Rome
itself. Lying on several hills, with a river flowing through it,
the lower parts of the city naturally were liable to the formation
of unhealthy swamps. To remove this nuisance, a system of
subterraneous canals was built, whose grand and skillful design
still excites our admiration ; they serve their purpose, after about
2,500 years, in the most perfect manner. The fundamental idea
was to collect the water by means of a system of smaller canals
into one large sewer, which conducted it, together with the refuse
of the city, to the river. This chief canal, known as Cloaca
Maxima, is still preserved for a distance of nearly 1,000 feet.
It served, and still serves, to conduct the waters from the
Capitoline and Palatine Hills, collecting in the Yelabrum, into
the Tiber {see its open-
ing toward the river,
Fig. 376). A barrel-
vault of tufa, with arches
of travertine inserted
into it at intervals of
10 feet, covers the canal,
which is about 20 feet
wide. Its original height
was 12 feet, now re-
duced to 6 to 7 feet by
the mud and dust which have collected in its bed, in spite of
frequent clearings out. The commencement of cloaca-buildings
in general, and that of the Cloaca Maxima in particular, is gener-
ally ascribed to the last three kings ; several additions to the latter
were necessitated by the increasing size of the city. Frequent
clearings out of the canal were required, owing to the gathering

Fig. 876.

350 DRAINAGE WORKS OF THE ROMANS,

of mud ; some of them, carried on at great expense, are mentioned
by contemporary writers. One of the late extensions is ascribed
to M. Agrippa, the friend of Augustus. He seems to have con-
structed a new system of canals underneath the Campus Martius,
one of which still passes under the floor of the Pantheon.

Of no less importance were the structures serving as outlets of
lakes, either to prevent inundations or to regain arable land from
the water. Such outlets, emissaria, also are mentioned at a very
early period. They were either opeD or covered, and served to
conduct the superfluous water from the lake to lower ground.
The greatest difficulty naturally consisted in cutting the canals
through solid mountains, or in conducting them in subterraneous
tunnels. This was, for instance, the case with the drainage of
the Albanian Lake, which Livy (v., 15, est seq.) connects with the
story of the conquest of Veii by M. Furius Camillus (396 b. a).
The water-works are still in use at the present day. From the
high level of the lake, which lay in the crater of the old Albanian
volcano, the water was let off by means of a shaft cut through
the mountain for a distance of several thousand feet. According
to the precept of the Delphic oracle, it was not led into the
sea, but divided over the neighboring fields, which thus were
made fertile, the periodical inundations being at the same time
prevented.

In a similar manner, but by an open canal, the drainage of
the Yeline Lake, in the country of the Sabii, was effected, after
the conquest of those parts by Curius Dentatus (290 b. c). By
this means the country round Eeate was converted into one of
the most fertile regions of Italy. These works also are still in
use.

The largest structure of this kind were the drainage-works of
the Lacus Fucinas, in the country of the Marsi, which had been
desired for a long time by the inhabitants, owing to the danger-
ous inundations, and were planned by Csesar, but not executed
till the reign of Claudius, Here the whole basin of the lake
was to be laid dry, and thus gained for agricultural purposes.
This was effected by means of a shaft cut through the living
rock from the lake down to the river Liris (at present called
Garigliano), which discharged the water into the Mediterranean,
near Minturnse. According to ancient authors, the shaft was

AQUEDUCTS. 351

3,000 pas8U8 long by 14 high and 9 wide. Fig. 377, a c, gives
the section of the shaft in its full length, the line a b marking the

Fig. 31

horizon so as to show the strong incline of the shaft. The vertical
and oblique lines indicate shafts and galleries leading from the
surface to the canal ; the former destined for carrying off the
rubbish, the latter for the descent of the workmen, thirty thousand
of whom were occupied for eleven years in constructing the canal.

From the emissaria we turn to the aquceductus, destined to
conduct the water necessary for human use from distant places.
The care and skill bestowed on their construction and preserva-
tion was equal, if not superior, to that required by the first-men-
tioned canals.

The first thing required after the discovery of a spring in a
high place was to collect the water in a sheltered spot. This led
to the erection of fountain-houses, specimens of which, in Greece,
we have before described (see Figs. 90 and 91). . In Italy also
some archaic buildings of this kind are extant, as, for instance,
the fountain-house discovered at Tusculum, and made known in
his description of Tusculum by Canina. It consists of an oblong
chamber divided into several compartments, the ceiling being
constructed by the overlaying of stones on the old Greek system,
afterward supplied among the Romans by the vault. The man-
ner of conducting the water to the cities was, of course, modified
by the nature of the soil, as well as by the material at hand.
One way was to conduct it underground in pipes (tubi, fistidce)
or subterraneous canals. The pipes were generally made of lead
or clay ; in some towns some of these have been preserved with
the municipal stamp on them. The canals were, like the emis-
saria, either cut into the rock, or, where the soil was soft, dug
into the earth and walled in. In either case shafts or other open-
ings placed at certain intervals served as communications of the
water with the fresh air. Such openings were also contrived

352 AQUEDUCTS.

where the canal, owing to the nature of the soil, was sunk below
its ordinary level. A hollow extension of this kind was called
venter, and above it a perpendicular shaft was laid as far as, or
beyond, the surface of the earth, from which in the latter case it
protruded like a chimney. In this shaft the water rose again
to its ordinary level, by means of which it not only communi-
cated with the open air, but also received additional pressure.
The expenses of these aqueducts, so far as they were used for
public purposes, were borne by the municipal governments ; the
private use of the water for houses, land, or the carrying on of a
trade, was subjected to a tax.

Where the aqueducts lay above-ground, it was usual to place
them on the tops of walls {see Fig. 378). In that case the
water-channels usually were made of freestone
or brick, and covered, in the former case, with
slabs of stone, in the latter with vaults. In
either case the interior of their walls received
a water-tight coating, consisting of chalk and
fragments of bricks, instead of the more com-
mon sand. The same coating was used in

Fig. 378. &

canals cut through the rock.

An uninterrupted wall would have been a great obstacle to
the traffic, for which reason here also the all-important vaulting
principle was applied. By means of intervening arches the
wall of the aqueduct was divided into pillars at intervals, suffi-
ciently large to leave space for the passage of roads, or even of
rivers, without endangering the firmness of the structure. As
an example we cite the arches of different dimensions across the
FioraYalley, near Yolci, which carry both a road and an aqueduct
{see p. 343, Fig. 367).

The Porta Maggiore in Rome {see p. 336, Fig. 357) ought
also to be mentioned again as being part of two of the most cele-
brated Roman aqueducts. We have stated above how across the
arches of this gate the waters of the Aqua Claudia and of the
Anio Nova were conducted into the city in two different channels.
Both aqueducts were begun by Caligula (a. d. 38), and finished
fourteen years later by Claudius. The former, comparable by
the excellency of its water to the celebrated Aqua Marcia,1 began

1 Called since its restoration by Pius IX., June 21, 1870, Aqua Pia.

AQUEDUCTS. 353

near the thirty-fifth mile-stone of the Via Sublacensis, in the
Sabine Mountains, and was fed by two plentiful springs, besides
receiving part of the Aqua Marcia. Owing to some turns neces-
sitated by local conditions, the length of the aqueduct was ex-
tended to forty-five miles, thirty-five of which were taken up by
subterraneous canals, the remaining ten by open-air structures.
The Anio Nova was fed, as its name indicates, by the river Anio,
the word nova being added to distinguish it from an older aque-
duct, Anio Yetus. It commenced at the sixty-second mile-stone
of the same road, and received its water not immediately from
the river, but from a basin into which it was led for the purpose
of purification ; near the thirty-eighth mile-stone a spring of still
purer water, the Rivus Herculaneus, joined the aqueduct. Its
whole length amounts to sixty-two Roman miles, partly above,
partly under ground. About six miles from the city the two
aqueducts join, and are carried on to the end by a common struct-
ure of arches, in some places 109 feet high ; the channel of the
Anio Nova, lying above that of the Aqua Claudia, was considered
to be the highest aqueduct in Rome.

Some provincial aqueducts reach a still greater height. One
of them is found near Nemausus (Nismes), in Southern Gaul,
whose beautiful temple we have mentioned before. The magnifi-
cent aqueduct, which crosses a valley, is in a good state of preser-
vation. Its highest portion, known as Pont du Gard, rises in
two stories to a height of nearly 150 feet. A row of smaller
arcades is added on the top of the chief structure. The arcades
are wide-arched, and convey the impression of a bold, graceful
construction. Of a similar kind were the aqueducts of Segovia
and Tarragona in Spain. The former is 2,400 feet long, and con-
sists of a row of vaulted arcades : where the valley is deepest, the
arcades rise in two stories up to a height of 100 Castilian feet,
combining grace with firmness of structure. Owing to its excel-
lent construction the aqueduct is still in good preservation.1 The
aqueduct of Tarragona is 876 feet long by 83 high.

So much about the aqueducts themselves. Many other con-
trivances were, however, required to make and keep the water fit
for human use, as also to distribute it regularly. For the former

1 See Andres Gomez de Sommorostro, " El Acueducto y otras Antigucdades de
Segovia." Madrid, 1820.
23

354 RESERVOIRS.

purpose we mention, besides the shafts described above, the so-
called castella, or reservoirs for collecting and purifying the water.
At the beginning of the Anio Nova, for instance, lay a large
mud-reservoir (piscina limaria), destined for filtering the water
from the river. At the Aqua Virgo the waters of several springs
had to be collected in separate reservoirs before being led into
the common aqueduct.

The above-mentioned castella also served different purposes
(see Fig. 379, representing a castellum of the Aqua Claudia).

According to Yitruvius, they had to be
repeated at intervals of 24,000 feet, par-
ticularly in high aqueducts, their pur-
pose being chiefly to give opportunities
for distributing the water among the
inhabitants of the surrounding coun-
tries ; in case of stoppages, they also
considerably facilitated the finding of
the damaged places. Particular care was
required for the castella at the ends of the aqueducts, from which
the distribution of the water for the different purposes of the
town took place. According to Yitruvius, the water seems to
have been divided into three portions — one for the public foun-
tains, the other for the thermae, and the third for private use.
For these three purposes three reservoirs served, each fed by a
separate pipe ; by means of other pipes the water was further dis-
tributed from these reservoirs. As, moreover, the water had to
be divided over several quarters of the town, a number of smaller
castella, and indeed a whole system of canals and reservoirs (247
of such are counted), became necessary, the excellent management
of which, by a numerous staff, is a brilliant proof of the practical
capacities of the Romans. Besides the usefulness of this quantity
of water, it also served to embellish Rome. Numerous fountains
adorned the city ; M. Agrippa alone is said to have placed 105
jets. Rome still has the reputation of possessing a greater num-
ber of fountains than any other city in the world.

The above-mentioned piseincB could also be constructed on a
larger scale, in which case they became real reservoirs. In order
to keep the water pure and cool a vault was constructed over the
basin. As an example of these magnificent structures, we quote

ROMAN DWELLING-HOUSES.

355

Fig. 380.

the piscina at Fermo {see section, Fig. 380), which contains
in two stories six wide oblong compartments covered with so-
called barrel - vaults, and connected
with each other by means of smaller
openings. Fig. 381 shows the large
reservoir still preserved near Baiae,
which is known as Piscina Mirabile.
It is 270 palms long by '108 wide, and
is covered with a vault broken by ven-
tilation-holes, and carried by forty-
eight detached slender pillars. Two
stairs of forty steps each lead to the bot-
tom of the reservoir, in the centre of which
is a considerable cavity for the reception
of the settling mud. Walls and pillars
are coated with a peculiar kind of very
hard stucco, impenetrable, it is said, even
to iron.

75. In the private buildings of the
Romans we discover the same mixture
of old Italian and Greek elements as in
their temples.

In order to understand the peculiarities of the Roman dwell-
ing-house as distinguished from the Greek {see § 22) we have to
consider the three most important parts of the former, as they can
be plainly recognized from existing specimens. As is generally
known, the three towns of Pompeii, Stabiae, and Herculaneum,
were buried by an eruption of Vesuvius in 79 a. d. "While the
two latter towns were more or less destroyed by streams of lava,
Pompeii was only covered with ashes ; after, therefore, the ashes
and the arable land on the top of them have been removed, the
buried buildings reappear in their original condition, unless they
have been damaged by fire. In this way we gain a perfect idea
of a provincial town, which, although Oscio-Samnitic by origin
and Greek by development,1 still, by its long connection with the
Roman Empire, may, in its present condition, be considered as
essentially Roman. The dwelling-houses there preserved may

1 Some of the oldest buildings, as, for instance, the so-called temple of Hercules,
show the old Doric style.

Fig. 381.

356 TEE ATRIUM.

therefore be fairly quoted as proofs, and indeed the only. re-
maining proofs, of the Greek influence on private architecture.

The historic Roman house must be divided into a front
space partly covered (atrium), a centre space wholly covered
(tablinum), and adjoining it an open court surrounded by col-
umns (peristylium). These three parts are found in the same
order in almost every house, other smaller rooms being grouped
round them in various ways. The atrium seems to be of ex-
clusively Italian origin, as is proved by its mode of design en-
tirely differing from Greek architecture, as also by its name. It
consists of a square space covered by a roof which projects from
the four walls, only a .square opening being left in the centre.
In this simplest form, of which several examples are known to
us, the atrium is called Tuseanicum, for, like most other old
Italian institutions, it was believed to owe its origin to the
Etruscans (compare § 61, et seq.). Yarro and other Roman
antiquarians adhering to this notion have derived the name
from the Etruscan town of Hatria; others derive the word
from the Greek aWpiov, or from the Latin ater (black). Ac-
cording to the former etymology, atrium would mean a room
open to the sky {yir aldpUp) ; according to the latter, which is
now generally accepted, a room blackened by the smoke of the
hearth placed here. The latter explanation implies that the
atrium was the chief room of the Italian house, owing to its
containing the hearth, or, which is the same in other words, that,
with the rooms immediately adjoining, it originally was the Ital-
ian house itself.

In sacred parlance, which retains the oldest ideas and expres-
sions longer than any other, the house of King Numa is called
atrium regium, which perhaps is identical with the atrium
Vestal, for this house lay close to the temple of Yesta, i. e.,
the common hearth of the Roman state. An old legal custom
also proves the high age of the atrium. The opening in
the centre of the roof was, as we said before, an essential
feature of the atrium. Through it the smoke ascended, but
also the rain entered, for which latter reason it was called, in
conjunction with the slight excavation of the floor just under-
neath it, the impluvium and compluvium. The old law alluded
to prescribed that if a man in fetters entered the house of the

THE ATRIUM.

357

Flamen dialis, these fetters were to be taken from him and
thrown through the impluvium into the street, which proves suf-
ficiently that at the time the law was made the atrium was an
essential part of the house.

The simplicity of early times easily leads to the conclusion of
the atrium having been the old Italian house itself ; it was, like
the court, surrounded by columns in the
Greek house, at once the starting-point
and the remaining essential feature of
later developments. Marini (see his
" Vitruvius," c. iii., Fig. 2) has attempt-
ed to reconstruct the old Italian house
on this basis. As an important, though
indirect, proof of our opinion, we also
mention an old Etruscan box of ashes
discovered at Poggio Gajello (see Fig. 382). It is evidently in-
tended for the imitation of a house, as is not unfrequently the
case with similar boxes. We can distinguish the protruding roof
(mentioned by Yitruvius as a feature of the old Etruscan temple),
the doors, and the impluvium, which is indicated by a cavity in
the raised centre portion of the house, which accordingly consist-
ed only of the atrium, surrounded perhaps by some smaller rooms.

Fig. 382.

Fig. 884.

Among the numerous houses of Pompeii
are moreover several which show this simple
structure, and are evidently reminiscences of
the original form. Fig. 383 shows the de-
sign, Fig. 384 (scale, 18 feet) the section, of one of these ; besides
a shop (b) lying toward the street, and a small passage (a\ it con-
sists exclusively of the atrium. The roof, protruding on three
sides (on the fourth there is a simple wall), is supported by two

358

HOUSES AT POMPEII.

columns (<?), to which correspond two semi-columns in the wall ;
d indicates the impluvium. Within the atrium, and under the
same roof with it, we see a small separate compartment (g), to the
upper story of which (most likely the bedroom of the slaves) leads
a staircase (f ) ; a larger room (e) adjoining the atrium is evidently
the sitting and bed room of the owner (cubiculum), the small
compartment observable in it being most likely a sort of alcove for
his bed.

Another house, the design of which is shown, Fig. 385 (scale,
18 feet), is of no less importance. Here again we see nothing
but an atrium (c), inclosed on two sides by the walls of the house,
while the two other sides open into various
rooms. We first observe the entrance-hall (a)
and a small chamber (A), to the upper story of
which leads a staircase (b) ; the other rooms
(f, f, g) communicate with the atrium by
means of narrow doors. The atrium itself,
like the above-mentioned Tuscan one, is with-
out columns ; the roof protrudes equally from
the four walls without further props ; the im-
pluvium (d) is comparatively small. A par-
ticularly important feature of this house is
another room (e) not hitherto met with, which
adjoins one long side of the atrium, into which it opens complete-
ly, and not by means of doors, as in other cases. On comparing
the design of the older Greek house (Fig. 92) we shall find that
this room (e) lies in a similar position to the atrium as the pros-
tas (Fig. 92, C) does to the court (B), with the only difference
that in our present case, for want of space, the room could not,
like the prostas, be placed opposite the entrance. This room (e)
therefore becomes the chief apartment of the whole house, and
we recognize in it the simplest form of the tablinum, to which we
shall return presently.

The modifications of this original type of the dwelling-house
were, as in the temple, caused by the intrusion of Greek elements.
Here also they consist, first of all, of an enlargement of the house.
As we remarked before, the greater number of existing Roman
dwelling-houses contain, besides the atrium, a second important
part, viz., the court surrounded by a colonnade. The mode of ex-

Fig. 385.

TABLINUM AND PERISTTLIUM. 359

tending the house for natural reasons resembled that explained by
us with regard to the Greek dwelling (compare Fig. 93, et seq.).
We there recognized the court and the prostas as the oldest parts.
to which afterward a second back court was added. This court we
also observe in most Roman houses. Between it and the atrium
lies an open hall, called tablinum, which thus forms the centre of
the house. It lies in the same place and served the same purpose
as the prostas in the Greek dwelling. It was reserved to the mas-
ter of the house, who from it could overlook the two other divis-
ions ; here he kept his money and documents, here he transacted
his business. Zumpt calls it the office, or writing-room, of the
owner, and derives its name from tabellce (writing-tablets) ; an-
other derivation is that from tabula, tabellce i. e., family pictures,
which are said to have hung in the tablinum.1 Notwithstanding
its being open and lying between the atrium and peristylium, the
tablinum was not used as a passage between the two ; slaves and
other domestics rarely entered it ; some remaining traces seem to
indicate that it could be closed by means of sliding doors or cur-
tains. The communication between the atrium and perystylium
was effected by means of narrow corridors {fauces) running most-
ly alongside the tablinum.

The peristylium2 is the court added to the Roman house at a
later period, after Greek architecture had become prevalent. Ac-
cording to Greek patterns, it was surrounded by columns ; its name
also is Greek ; while tablinum and atrium are derived from Latin
roots. It is natural, and moreover confirmed by Vitruvius's state-
ment and the remaining specimens, that in the houses of the less
wealthy classes the peristylium, if found at all, was of secondary
importance compared with the atrium ; in many cases it certainly
was very unlike the regular court surrounded by colonnades on
its four sides prescribed by Vitruvius. Some houses in Pompeii
have a court without any columns, instead of the peristylium.
The Casa della Toeletta del Ermafrodito, or di Adone ferito
(called so from the pictures found in it), at Pompeii, shows a reg-

1 According to other accounts, these family pictures were kept in separate rooms,
called alee, the position of which seems uncertain but for the undisputed fact of their
being part of the atrium.

1 The expression, cavum cedium, which occurs frequently, and has been explained
m various ways, seems to be applicable to the peristylium.

360

HOUSE OF PANSA AT POMPEII.

ular and spacious atrium ; while the peristylium (the open part of
which is not longer than the atrium) shows columns only on two
sides, the two others being occupied by the walls, which inclose
the house toward two streets crossing each other. A similar de-
sign we find in the peristylium of the Casa della Caccia, or di
Dedalo e Pasifae, but for its being still more irregular, owing to
the want of a rectangular termination ; the atrium of this house
also is spacious, and perfectly regular. The latter is the case also
in the house of Sallustius, the peristylium of which is surrounded
by columns on three sides.

We must omit other more or less irregular designs, and turn
to a house at Pompeii which is remarkable for the regularity
of the corps de logis of the owner, and also for the manner in
which other parts of the premises have been made useful for mer-
cantile purposes, or let out to other persons. We are speaking of
the house of Pansa, so called after the inscription on the facade,
which, however, does not indicate the owner. The house, includ-

E23 p

— 1 cz
hi-

ta to no to .so
Fig. 386.

•Oii V- e*

ing the above-mentioned smaller habitations, is a complete oblong,
surrounded by streets on all four sides (in front by that of Delle
Terme), and therefore forming a so-called insula. The dwelling
of the owner is surrounded on three sides by smaller houses (see
Fig. 386), which appear hatched in our plan. Part of the facade
and the right side of the premises are occupied by various build-
ings, used partly as shops, partly let to so-called minor lodgers.
The chief part of the opposite side is taken up by a bakery, with

HOUSE OF PANS A AT POMPEII. 361

the mill (12) belonging to it, and by three shops (tabemce) with
small apartments attached to them. The entrance to the dwell-
ing-house lies between two shops, let separately. A narrow hall
(vestibulum, l),1 the inner threshold of which shows a " Salve "
in mosaic, leads to the spacious atrium (2 2), the impluvium of
which is marked' 3 in our plan. Six side-chambers (cubicula)
communicate with the atrium by means of doors ; two other
rooms being entirely open toward it may be considered as the
side- wings of the atrium, whence their name alee (compare the
Greek house, Fig. 92, 4, 5, and Fig. 93). Opposite the entrance
lies the tablinum (4), which, both by its position and the beauti-
ful mosaic on its floor, is marked as the chief room of the house.
Although open toward both sides of the house, it did not serve
as a passage, the communication being effected by narrow cor-
ridors (fauces, 5) to the right of the tablinum. On its left, tow-
ard the atrium, lies a good-sized room (6), which shows a mo-
saic floor similar to that of the tablinum. Remains of writ-
ten documents have been found in it, whence it is believed to
have been the archive or library of the owner. On the opposite
side, separated from the tablinum by the fauces, lies a smaller
apartment, the entrance of which lies toward the peristylium.
Overbeck believes this to be a winter triclinium, frequently met
with in a similar situation. We now come to the beautiful sym-
metrical peristylium (7) (20.15 x 13.10 metres), the open centre
space (8) of which is surrounded by sixteen graceful columns of the
Ionic-Korinthian order ; its floor is occupied by a fountain (pis-
cina), the sides of which, two metres in height, are painted with
fish and water-plants. A narrow passage between two of the
out-houses led from the peristylium into the side-street. Sev-
eral rooms open into the colonnade of the peristylium, those to
the left of the entrance being bedrooms (cubicula) ; while a larger
room on the right was the triclinium,3 or dining-room, the adjoin-
ing room serving as pantry, or as assembling-room for the jug-

1 Some authors (in accordance with Vitruvius, vi., 8) call vestibulum an open space
in front of the house. In Rmipeii there is no example of such, unless we call the
small space immediately before the door (ostium, janua) by that name, in which case
the word iter (used by Vitruvius) would apply to the entrance-hall. Vestibulum
to have been used by the ancients in different senses.

8 About the arrangement of the triclinium we shall speak at greater length (§
but we omit the description of the banqueting-halls (oeci).

362 HOUSE OF PANSA AT POMPEII.

glers and dancers appearing toward the close of the meal. Be-
hind the peristylium lies a garden, the connection between
which and the peristylium is formed by a second kind of tabli-
num, the cecus (9) or state-room of the house. A corridor (10)
by the side of the cecus, and communicating with it by means of
a door, proves that the cecus itself was not used as a passage. To
the left of the last-mentioned corridor lay the kitchen, and another
room in which the dishes were dressed. The back facade, adorned
with a portico, is joined by a garden (11) ; the regularly-shaped
beds (where most likely vegetables were grown), as also the lead
pipes for watering the garden, are still visible ; in the background,
opposite the entrance to the cecus, seems to have been a sort of
open hall (12).

One of the shops adjoining the dwelling-house was connected
with the atrium by means of a back-room (the blank compart-
ment of our plan, the second to j;he left of the entrance). Per-
haps the owner here sold the produce of his garden or estate.
The largest and best preserved of the offices is the bakery (pis-
trinum), lying in the left division of the facade, next to the last-
mentioned shop. Here we see the well-preserved oven, the mills,
baking-table, water-reservoir, etc. Other shops were used for the
sale of different goods, as, for instance, the colors used for wall-
paintings. The owners lived in the dark rooms behind their
shops, or in the rooms on the upper flats, to which led stairs from
the shops. There are indisputable indications of the existence of
a second story in this house, even parts of the floors of the upper
rooms have been preserved. Mazois, to whom we owe a masterly
publication of Pompeian buildings, remarks that here objects of
female toilet have been discovered, which makes it appear
probable that the sitting and bed rooms of the women lay on the
second floor. According to Mazois' s trustworthy design the
rooms of this upper story were lower than those of the ground-
floor ; they were grouped round the two large open rooms of the
house, so however that their walls did not take away air and light
from the atrium and peristylium. Their windows, as far, at
least, as the chief dwelling-house is concerned, looked toward the
interior. The staircases in the out-houses here also prove the ex-
istence of a second floor, the windows of which, of course, lay
toward the street (see Fig. 388).

GASA DI CHAMPIONNET.

Home, of course, differed in many respects from provincial
towns. Originally built without a plan and on uneven ground,
its narrow, angular streets were inhabited, about the time of the
Antonines, by nearly a million and a half of people. Only the
wealthy could have houses of their own, the middle and poorer
classes living in hired lodgings. Speculators erected houses of
many stories, of light wood-work or bad material, repairs were
neglected, and enormous rents had to make up for the losses of
the owners caused by their houses breaking down or being con-
sumed by fire — daily occurrences in Rome. As early as the Re-
public houses of three or four flats were common in Rome. By
a law of Augustus the street-frontage of no private house was
allowed to exceed 70 feet (Roman measure), which limit was,
after the fire of Nero, further reduced to 60 feet.

Fig. 887.

To conclude, we add (Fig. 387) the section of a regular and
tasteful middle-class house, the so-called Casa di Championnet, at
Pompeii : a indicates the passage leading from the street to the
atrium ; ft the atrium, the ceiling of which is carried by four
slender columns : here lies the altar-like mouth (puteal) of a
cistern, also met with in the peristylium of the house of Pansa ;
o is the tablinum, the walls of which are still adorned with paint-
ings ; d the peristylium, the open space of which is occupied by
a cavity used as a conservatory ; underneath this is a vaulted
cellar (hypogceum) for the keeping of stores.

76. We add a few further remarks about the outward appear-
ance of the houses, as also about certain modifications of their
ordinary design. About the facades we know but little, seeiag
that in Pompeii all the upper stories of houses have been de-

364

FAQADES, DOORS, AND WINDOWS.

stroyed. Most likely they were generally in very simple taste ;
for antique private architecture was chiefly intent upon the dec-
oration of the inner apartments. The frontages of houses may,
however, have been adorned in a simple way. We must dis-
tinguish between houses with or without shops in front. Of such
shops we have already seen some examples (Figs. 385 and 386).
They seem to have been open toward the street in their full width.
The want of architectural beauty was supplied by a tasteful
arrangement of the goods, in which the Italians of the present
day, particularly with regard to fruit and other eatables, are still
unsurpassed.

Of a house without a shop, opening toward the street only by
a door, Mazois has attempted the reconstruction (Fig. 388). The
facade shows a door in the centre between two Korinthian pilas-
ters ; the walls to the right and left are coated with stucco imitat-
ing freestone, the lower part representing large slabs, the upper

regular layers of small stones. A
simple ledge finishes the lower story,
over which a second story has been
erected, with three small windows in
it. The second story protruded from
the surface in the manner of a bow-
window, as is proved by several houses
in the lane del Balcone Pensile at
Pompeii. As to the manner of closing
the window-holes we are uncertain
in most cases. Sometimes movable
wooden shutters have been used, as is
proved by the wooden frames found beside the windows of the
house of the "tragic poet." at Pompeii; in other cases thin
broken tablets of clay served the purpose, of which also several
specimens have been preserved at Pompeii ; we further hear of a
transparent stone {lapis specularis) being used for the same pur-
pose ; window-panes of artificial glass have also been found at
Pompeii.

Several specimens of doors (see Fig. 389) have been preserved
to us : about the construction of their leaves and the manner of
closing them we shall speak hereafter (§ 93). Fig. 389 shows a
very simple door found at Pompeii. We there see the small,

Fig. 383.

MURAL DECORATIONS.

365

window-like opening in the pilasters, through which the porter
(ostiarius) could look at the callers after they had knocked with
the knocker, also visible in our illustration. The most striking
point on entering the house is the painting of the walls. The
thorough artistic taste of all classes is proved
by the fact of the walls of even poorer
houses being always either decorated pic-
torially or at least painted. The careful
plastering of the walls, much superior to our
present method, is equaled by the execution
of the paintings themselves, which, although
sometimes technically imperfect and me-
chanical in design, still give us some notion
of the proportionately higher finish of real
antique art. The large mythological figure-
pictures painted on, or let into, the centre-pieces of walls at Pom-
peii and Herculaneum show the prevailing influence of Greek

JLH.

Fig. 389.

Fio. 890.

art, while the landscapes, still-lives, and architectural decorations,
are more specifically Roman in taste.

To these wall-paintings also we shall have to return (see § 93).

366 INTERIOR OF THE HOUSE OF PAN'S A.

We add a few illustrations of single parts of houses, designed
in accordance with the remaining specimens. Tig. 390 shows
the open court of the house of Sallustius (also called the house
of Actseon) turned into a garden. One side of it is occupied by
the wall of the house, while the other shows a colonnade with a
low wall (pluteus) in the columnar interstices ; on the third side,
near a fountain, the remains of which still exist, stands a sort of
veranda or bower, decorated by Mazois in the well-known man-
ner of a triclinium.

Fig. 391 shows the interior of the house of Pansa, from the
reconstructive design of Gell. We first see the atrium, contain-
ing statues and other objects ; several alas and cubicula open into it

Fig. 391.

(compare Fig. 386) ; we further see the triclinium, to the left of
which lies a cabinet ; while to the right we discover the corridors
or fauces leading to the large peristylium, which itself is visible
in the distance with its lofty colonnades. Every thing gives the
idea of a secluded, comfortable home.

When the wealth of the owner or the situation of the house
in the country gave additional space to the architect, he was
naturally tempted to develop new and enlarged modes of design.
This led, in the former case, to the palace ; in the latter, to the
villa. This distinction, however, cannot always be preserved ;
for, on the one hand, the town-palaces of later times sometimes
comprised pleasure-grounds, etc., belonging properly to a country

THE GOLDEN HOUSE OF NERO. 367

residence ; while, on the other hand, the villa of a rich, luxurious
Roman took the form of a monumental palace.

During the last century of the Republic the splendid mansions
of private persons begin to be mentioned more and more fre-
quently. We only remind the reader of the house built on the
Palatine by M. iEmilius Scaurus, the step-son of the dictator, L.
Cornelius Sulla, a man celebrated for his wealth. He first bought
one of the most celebrated houses of the time, that of Cn. Octa-
vius, with adjacent pieces of ground, to erect his own mansion on
the site. As a specimen of great luxury Pliny mentions the mar-
ble columns, thirty-eight feet in height, which adorned the fore-
court. They most likely had formerly belonged to the theatre
built by Scaurus {see § 84), and their size certainly implies a local-
ity of more than ordinary dimensions, even if compared with the
larger dwelling-houses at Pompeii. Mazois has attempted a con-
jectural design of the palace of Scaurus, which gives an idea of
the splendor and variety of its single parts. But all this was far
surpassed by the buildings of imperial times, of which we will
only mention the " golden house " of Nero, the product of an
exaggerated love of splendid architecture which did not shrink
from incendiarism to satisfy its craving on the ruins of Rome.
The palace was built on the Palatine, and extended from there,
by means of intermediate structures {domus transitoria), to the
Esquiline, containing all the luxuries and conveniences imagi-
nable. A fore-court surrounded by a triple colonnade (a Roman
mile, or 1,478.50 metres, long) contained the statue of the em-
peror, 37 metres in height ; ponds of the size of lakes, with
rows of houses on their banks, gardens, vineyards, meadows, and
woods, inhabited by tame and ferocious animals, occupied the
various courts ; the walls of the rooms were covered with gold,
jewels, and pearls ; the ivory with which the ceiling of the din-
ing-halls was inlaid was made to slide back, so as to admit a rain
of roses or fragrant waters on the heads of the carousers. Under
Otho this gigantic building was continued at an expense of about
£525,000, but only to be pulled down for the greater part by
Yespasian. On the site of the above-mentioned ponds stood the
large amphitheatre finished by Titus (see § 85), and on the foun-
dations of Nero's buildings on the Esquiline the thermae of the
same emperor were erected. The Palatine proper remained the

368

TEE PALACE OF DIOCLETIAN AT SALONA.

chief residence of the later emperors, who greatly altered the
original arrangements. The excavations ordered by Napoleon
III. and Pius IX., and conducted by the architect Rosa, have
yielded the most important contributions to the history of the
Palatine edifices, from the oldest times of the Roma Quad rata
down to the Flavii.

A work of later date must serve to give us a more distinct
idea of Roman palatial architecture. We are speaking of the
palace erected by the Emperor Diocletian on the coast of Dal-
matia, near his birthplace, Salona, where he spent the last years
of his life after his abdication. On the few occasions when this
large and splendid building is mentioned by ancient authors it is
simply called a villa. It might more properly be described as a
castle fortified in the manner of a camp {see § 70), for the whole
area occupied by the palace and other houses adjoining it is in-
closed on three sides by a solid wall, protected by square or oc-
tagonal towers. The whole space thus inclosed is about 500 feet
wide by 600 long. Among the ruins of the house now lies a
great part of the town of Spalatro. Between the centre pair of

the above-mentioned towers on
each of the three sides lies a
gate (compare Fig. 356), those
on the two long sides being con-
nected by means of a street,
just as we found it in the
Saalburg, near Homburg (com-
pare Fig. 354). Another street,
crossing the first in the centre,
starts from the gate on the third,
narrower side, without, how-
ever, being continued to the
opposite side. This street, after
passing between two temples,
ends in what may be considered
as the vestibule or entrance-hall
of the imperial palace proper.
This palace occupied the fourth side toward the sea. Instead of
the solid walls we here see an open passage with arcades, into
which open the numerous different apartments of the imperial

E 4JiiMiiiii)ijr^iiiiiHi^ 3

'""nil

Fig. 892.

'tooF

ROMAN VILLAS. 369

dwelling. The view of the sea and surrounding country is beau-
tiful. The space of the whole area not occupied by the palace
itself (see plan, Fig. 392) is divided into four quarters by means
of the above-mentioned streets, the two outer ones being taken
up by the houses for the body-guard and other attendants of the
emperor, while the two remaining quarters form open spaces,
with a temple standing in the centre of each. One of these
temples, to the left of the palace-entrance is a simple prostylos
of moderate dimensions; the other is a fine specimen of the
vaulted round temple, for, although octagonal in its outer
shape, it is circular in the interior. The wall is adorned with
two rows of columns, one above the other, and by an elegant
cupola.

There is no room within the inclosing wall for gardens and
fields, and it is moreover mentioned expressly that these lay out-
side. The character of the architecture is rich and splendid, but
shows a decline if compared with the purity of the end of the
Republic and the beginning of the Empire.

Villas proper, i. e., country residences, were greatly in favor
with wealthy Romans, and we in consequence possess numerous
descriptions of them of various dates, on the authority of which
architects and scholars since Pirro Ligorio have attempted various
reconstructive designs. The old villa rustica, of which Cato and
after him Yarro speak, comprises a combination of the dwelling-
houses and of the various buildings required for farming purposes.
Yarro already complains of the latter consideration being thrown
into the background by the desire of transforming large agri-
cultural districts into beautiful landscapes, the villas themselves
being at the same time reconstructed on the luxurious system of
town architecture (villa urbana), Vitruvius, whose statements
about the villa rustica tally with those of Yarro, says that the
villa urbana was constructed like a town-house, with the distinc-
tion of its being more regular in design, and that of its site
being chosen better than the narrow space between the adjoining
houses of a street would permit. The increasing scale of luxury
and comfort may be marked by comparing the simplicity of the
older Scipio's Lintemum in Campania, or the family-seat of
Cicero at Arpinum, with the more comfortable villa of the latter
at Tusculum or his Formianum, and finally with the splendid
24

370 VILLA OF HADRIAN AT TIVOLL

country residences of Metellus and Lucullus. We possess the
description and partly the remains of some of the villas of impe-
rial times, which give ns a high idea of the variety and splen-
dor of their architectural arrangements. The younger Pliny
has described in two letters his Tuscum (Ep. v., 6 ; compare §
94) and his villa at Laurentum (ii., 17). He there mentions a
great number of apartments, halls, courts, baths, and other con-
veniences for the enjoyment of life in different weathers and
seasons ; he at the same time notices the absence of fish-ponds,
museums, libraries, etc., such as were considered indispensable at
other villas. These statements refer to the time of Trajan. Of
the time of Hadrian we know the villa constructed for himself ,
by that art-loving emperor at Tibur, the former splendor of which
is still visible in the numerous remains of it found near the
modern Tivoli; a short description of the same villa by Spar-
tianus (v., Hadriani, 26) assists us further in realizing its grand
design. The ground belonging to it had a circumference of
seven Roman miglie. We are still able to distinguish two larger
theatres, and an odeum, smaller in size, and destined, most likely,
for musical performances ; a great number of chambers, still
recognizable, seem to have been destined for the pilgrims visiting
a temple and oracle here situated ; other rooms in a still better
state of preservation (" le Cento Camarelle ") may have belonged
to the emperor's body-guard. Near them lie the ruins of what
is supposed to have been the emperor's dwelling. Other struct-
ures were called by the names of celebrated buildings in different
provinces of the empire. The Canopus (an imitation of the
temple of Serapis at Canopus) mentioned by Spartianus has been
recognized in the ruin of a round temple lying in a valley, in-
closed architecturally. It was adorned with numerous statues
in the Egyptian style, the remains of which are in the Capitoline
Museum. Other ruins containing the remains of baths are said
to have been the Lyceum and Academy ; a large square surrounded
by columns was the Poikile, adjoining which lie a basilica and a
round building, most likely the Prytaneum mentioned by Spar-
tianus. Even the valley of Tempe had been imitated, while
Hades is recognized by some in a still-preserved labyrinth of
subterraneous chambers. The architecture was technically per-
fect, as is shown by the remaining brick walls and vaults : some

VILLA OF DI0MEDE8 AT POMPEII.

371

of the ruins seem to prove that the walls were adorned with slabs
of marble, and that the vaulted ceilings were coated with stucco.
Numerous fragments of columns, beams, valuable pavements, and
sculptures, have been (during the last three centuries) and are still
being recovered from the ruins.

To illustrate the simpler villas of the higher middle class we
have inserted the plan of the so-called villa suburbana of M. Arrius
Diomedes at Pompeii (Fig. 393 ; scale, 100 feet). It lies near the
city in the street of graves, which passes the building in an
oblique direction. The ground in this place slopes downward

Fig. 893.

from the street ; and as the house has to follow this declivity,
the front parts (marked in our plan by black lines) lie higher
than the back ones (marked by hatched lines), rising above them
in the form of terraces. Near the entrance the pavement of the
street is raised, and from it seven further steps ascend to the door
(1) through which one enters the peristylium (2), quite in accord-
ance with Vitruvius's (vi., 8) rules for such villas, called by
him pseudourbance ; in the position of the peristylium they there-
fore differ essentially from town-houses. Fourteen Doric columns
(the lower third of which is not fluted, but painted red, while the
two upper thirds are white and fluted) form the peristylium, and

372

VILLA OF DIOMEDES AT POMPEII.

surround a compluvium, the water of which communicated with
two fountains (jputeaT) between the columns. On the side opposite
the door of the peristylium lies the tablinum (3), the other sides
being adjoined by smaller chambers, some of which were bed-
rooms, as appears from the beds worked into the walls. The
tablinum opens into a sort of gallery (4), connected on one side
with the peristylium by means of fauces, and opening on the
other into a large hall (5), the cecus. This again opens into a
second large court with colonnades by means of a window reaching
almost to the ground. The inclosing walls of the space hitherto

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:; .

^■i" ^^*^fe • "•^..:^Im Jj* jfi^K '^^fr .^JP^' v^ -.

Ms - ...

Fig. 394.

described are marked black in our plan, the hatched lines between
them being meant for the walls of smaller chambers on the
ground-floor underneath it. The just-mentioned court (6), meas-
uring 33 square metres, was surrounded by a vaulted passage
(7), supported by pillars (cri/ptoporticus), two sides of which are
in perfect preservation ; to judge by some of the remains it must
have had a second story. In the centre of the court lies a large
piscina adorned with a jet, and behind it an open structure re-
sembling a temple, which most likely served as triclinium in
the summer. The six columns formerly supporting it are partly

ROMAN GRAVES, 373

preserved. To the left of the street-door we notice a triangular
court (8) inclosed on two sides by a covered passage, the third
longer side being occupied by a cold plunging-bath. We also
find a tepidarium (9) and calidarium (10) for tepid and hot baths,
in the latter of which the tub for the hot water, the niche for the
labrum, and the heating-apparatus, are preserved (compare § .80).
Eemarkable is also a beautiful bedroom (11), the semicircular
projection of which contains three large windows, to let in the
sun in the morning, afternoon, and evening ; the view from these
windows is beautiful. The back-wall of this room contains the
alcove for the bed, that could be closed by means of a curtain, as
is proved by the rings still in existence ; 12 marks a small cham-
ber, through which, by means of a staircase, one passed into the
lower story and the rooms lying near the large court. To con-
clude, we add (Fig 394) the view of a villa by the sea, from a
Pompeian wall-painting.

77. From the houses of the living we pass to the graves and
grave-monuments. Among the numerous and variegated Roman
graves we must limit our remarks to a few specimens. Almost
all the different kinds of Roman tombs have their analogies in
Greek architecture. We cannot discuss the question whether,
as seems likely, the old Latin or Italian custom consisted in sim-
ply covering the corpse with earth ; neither will we try to de-
termine when this custom was superseded by the construction of
grave-chambers or detached monuments for the reception of the
ashes of burned bodies. Certain it is that at the time when
this was done models for all the varieties of tombs as developed
by the Greeks {see §§ 23 and 24) were to be found among the
neighboring Etruscans. Among the Etruscan tombs we dis-
tinguish the subterraneous grave-chamber, the tomb cut into
the rock with a more or less elaborate facade, and finally the
detached grave-mounds. Of the first kind the old graves of
Caere and the burial-places of Yulci and Corneto offer numerous
examples.

Among the former we have chosen the grave known as
Tomba delle Sedie {see plan, Fig. 395, and section, Fig. 396).
The plan shows an inclined passage leading (partly by means of
steps) down to a vestibule, into which open three doors ; the two
at the sides lead each into a chamber all but square in shape

374

GRAVES OF GMRE AND NORCHA.

(d); the third between these two is the entrance to the chief
burial-chamber (a). It is an oblong, and shows on the wall oppo-
site the entrance two stone chairs (see Fig. 396), whence the name

* S. i f s

Fig. 395.

of the grave is derived ; along the other three
walls run benches (c). After this chief apart-
ment follow three smaller chambers, of which
that on the right contains a niche in the
wall (b).
Of graves cut into the rock we find several examples in the
narrow valleys of Norchia and Castell d'Asso, the steep slopes
of which contain the entrances to the graves; steps lead up to
them. Some of the facades are adorned with columns (compare
Lenoir, " Tombeaux de Norchia ;" Ann. dell' Instit., iv., 289 ;
" Mon. Ined.," i., tav. xlviii., 4), while others (see Fig. 397) show

Fig. 397.

no artificial work beyond the doors and the steps leading up to
them.

Of the third or detached grave we find numerous specimens
in the burial-places of Vulci and other towns. Most of these
resemble the above-mentioned grave-mound in the isle of Syme
(see Fig. 98) ; our illustration (Fig. 398), the so-called Cucumella,
differs from it only by its larger diameter (200 feet) and by the

TOMBS OF TEE SCIPIONES.

375

Fig. 398.

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careful stone-border surrounding its whole circumference. On the
slope of the mound we also discover ruins of old Etruscan struct-
ures which indicate a more
elaborate architectural de-
coration of this grave.

We now come to the
subterraneous Roman
graves built after the Etruscan pattern. Like the Greek tombs
they varied in design according to the conditions of the soil,
being either cut into the hard rock, or dug into the earth and
inclosed with walls where the softness of the soil required it ; in
the construction of the
ceiling the vault became
an important element. Of
graves in rocks we possess
a very primitive example
in the tombs of the Scipi-
ones — a kind of labyrinth
of irregular subterraneous
passages, previously used
as a quarry. Originally

they lay outside the city in the Yia Appia, but on the enlarge-
ment of Eome they came within the circle inclosed by the
Aurelian Wall. Of the monuments found there we quote (Fig.
399) the sarcophagus containing the remains of L. Cornelius
Scipio Barbatus (consul, 298 b. c). It is made of common stone,
and may be considered as one of the most important proofs of
the early influence of Greek on Roman art, showing an orna-
mental border resembling the frieze of Doric art, and a cornice of
dentils, which, like the volutes of the top decoration, remind one
of Ionic patterns.

More regular is the tomb of the Nasones, in the Yia Flaminia.
It consists of a subterraneous chamber, with semicircular niches
for the coffins. The grave of the Gens Furia, near Frascati,
consists of a semicircular chamber surrounded by a narrow pas-
sage, the entrance to which, on the slope of the mountain, is
adorned with a facade.

We finally mention the subterraneous grave-chambers common
to a tribe or to the slaves and f reedmen of the imperial or other

Fig. 399.

376

COLUMBARIA.

noble families. The urns (pUa), with simple covers to them, stand
in niches somewhat resembling pigeon-holes, whence the name of
columbarium (dovecot) applied to these graves ; a small marble

tablet above each niche records

the name of the deceased. Sev-
eral of these columbaria have
been found in and near Rome.
Figs. 400 and 401 give the
plan and view of the colum-
barium in which the freed-
men of Livia, the wife of
Augustus, were buried. It
lies in the Via Appia, and
consists of several apartments,
of which the one nearest the
entrance is very simple, while
the larger ones, reached by
descending a staircase, are decorated more richly. Large niches,

itcafa dl*Itetx&

Fig. 400.

Fig. 401.

square or circular in shape, were destined for the reception
of sarcophagi; while seven ascending rows of smaller openings

DETACHED TOMBS.

377

in the walls contained the cinerary urns. Another colum-
barium in the Vigna Codini contains 425 niches in nine rows.
The interior arrangements
of detached graves are of a fltt

similar kind (compare § 78). w^^ /j

Fig. 402 illustrates the in-
terior of a detached tomb,
the exterior of which we
shall consider hereafter {see
Fig. 412). The simple room
covered with a barrel-vault
receives its light from a
single window in the ceil-
ing. Niches in- the walls
and in the benches contain the urns, others of which are standing
on these benches.

78. The simplest forms of detached graves above-ground are
nearly related to Etruscan structures of the same kind. We pass
from the simple earth-mounds {tumult) to those tombs which show
a distinct architectural design. Fig. 403 shows Hirt's reconstruc-
tive design of a partly destroyed, but still recognizable, grave

Fig. 402.

Fig. 403.

r*s

near Naples, generally called the tomb of Yirgil. It consists
of a square base made of bricks, the frontage of which contains
a round-arched door leading into the grave. On this base stands
a flattened cone, also made of brick, except the bottom layers,
which consist of hewn stones.

A similar, though more artistic, design appears in the so-called
tomb of the Horatii and Curiatii, standing on the road from Rome

378

TOMB OF CECILIA METELLA.

to Albano, near the last-mentioned place (see view and design,
Figs. 404 and 405). It seemingly belongs to the time of the
Kepublic. Its material is a stone found in the quarries of Albano,
generally called " peperin." The substructure is nineteen metres
in circumference, and shows a base and a cornice carefully
worked out. On it stands a conical structure,
similar to that of the grave of Yirgil. Here, how-
ever, several smaller cones are grouped round the
centre one, the former occupying the four corners
of the substructure. The centre cone is both thicker
and higher than the others. Perhaps an individual
Etruscan model has here been imitated ; the descriptions, at least,
of the tomb of the Etruscan King Porsenna indicate a similar
arrangement of four conical turrets.

Akin to these conical erections is the round tower on a square
base, such as found in the grave in the Via Appia belonging,
according to its inscription, to Caecilia Metella, daughter of Q.
Creticus, and wife of the triumvir C. Crassus, celebrated for his

Fig. 405.

Fig. 406.

riches (406). The base is made of quarry-stone, the round tower
being carefully faced with freestone, and adorned with frieze and
cornice. The decoration of the frieze is composed of alternating
flowers and skulls of animals, whence the popular name of the
monument " Capo di Bove." A small door leads into the circu-
lar grave-chamber. What the original roof of the building has

PYRAMID OF CESTIUS.

379

been, can no more be ascertained ; the battlement seen in our illus-
tration dates from the middle ages, when the Caetani turned the
tomb into a tower of defense, connecting it with other fortifica-
tions still preserved.

Another monument built in imitation of the Egyptian pyra-
mids belongs to the age of Augustus (Fig. 407). The pyramid
is of rather steep ascent, its base being 30 metres in circumfer-
ence, its height 37 metres. It is built of a very firm composition
of mortar and small stones faced with tablets of white marble.
The grave-chamber is comparatively small, and still shows traces

Fia. 40T.

of beautiful wall-paintings. The original entrance was effected
by means of an inclined shaft about half-way up the northern
side of the pyramid. This shaft, covered outside with a stone,
led straight to the centre of the vault, covering the grave-
el uunber. Columns and statues adorned the exterior. Several
inscriptions record the dignities of the deceased inmate, among
which we count those of praetor and tribune of the people.
His name was C. Cestius. The monument was erected to him
by his heirs, one of whom was M. Agrippa. In accordance with

380

TOMBS AT PALMYRA.

Fig. 408.

the last will of the deceased it had been completed in 330
days.

Other forms of the grave resemble the design of a temple,
as does, for instance, a monument discovered near the northern

corner of the Capitol (Fig. 408). It
is built of freestone, and shows on
its base an inscription, according to
which it was dedicated by the peo-
ple and senate to the memory of the
sedile Caius Poblicius Bibulus. The
upper part contains on the side shown
in our illustration a door between
two Doric or Tuscan pilasters, which
at the same time carry the beams,
with a sort of balustrade on the top
of them. The frieze shows a decoration of flowers and skulls
of bulls, similar to that of the tomb of Caecilia Metella. Another
tomb at Palmyra shows a still closer resemblance to the temple ;

it may, indeed, be described as a pro-
stylos hexastylos {see Fig. 409 ; scale,
40 feet). It forms an all but perfect
square, with a portico of six detached
columns added to it. The arrange-
ment of the interior proves its destina-
tion as a family-grave; on three sides
we see rows of narrow cellae or grave-
chambers, while almost in the centre
of the building stands a structure of
four columns itetrastylos), most likely
destined for the reception of the chief
sarcophagus. Another grave in the
form of a tower is also found at Palmyra (Fig. 410; scale,
24 feet), the front side of which shows the statue of the
deceased in a lying position; while the interior contains, in
different stories, a number of niches for the reception of cinerary
urns.

All the monuments hitherto mentioned are, if not small, at
least of moderate dimensions ; the increasing luxury of later
times, however, also extended to grave-monuments. This was

«-Vi

j ii m

o to

•ki

Fig. 409.

TOMBS OF AUGUSTUS AND HADRIAN.

381

particularly the case where the dignity of the state itself was rep-
resented by the deceased person. The monument erected by Au-
gustus to himself and his descendants shows colossal dimensions.
On a square base rose an enormous round building (similar to
that of the tomb of Csecilia Metella), on which _ ■_

was heaped an additional tumulus, while under-
neath it lay the imperial grave-chambers. The
inclosing walls are preserved sufficiently to give
an idea of the original grandeur of the structure.

When, in the course of a century, it had been
filled with the remains of emperors, Hadrian de-
termined upon erecting a similar structure for
himself and his successors.

The site chosen lay on the other side of the
Tiber, opposite the tomb of Augustus, connected
with the city by means of the above-mentioned
Pons iElius (Figs. 369 and 370), at present
called Ponte S. Angelo. This tomb also con-
sists of a square basis (90 metres), and, standing on it, a colossal
round tower (67 metres in diameter by 22 high), originally faced

Fig. 41L

with Parian marble, and decorated more richly than the mauso-
leum of Augustus. According to a tradition, the twenty-four

382

TOMB OF HADRIAN.

Korinthian columns in the centre nave of St. Paul's Basilica ori-
ginally belonged to this Moles Hadriani, which indicates its hav-
ing been surrounded by colonnades in the manner of a round pe-
ripteros. This conjecture becomes still more probable from the
fact of plastic works of art being mentioned in connection with
the mausoleum, which statues most likely stood in these colon-
nades : excellent works of art have indeed been found in the
neighborhood. The chief part of the edifice has been preserved
in the round tower of the Castello S. Angelo, which makes a care-
ful investigation of the interior a matter of some difficulty. Sev-

Pig. 412.

eral designs of the original form of the building have been at-
tempted. Fig. 411 shows that of Canina, who, in opposition to
Hirt, assumes the existence of two external colonnades. Canina
crowns the building with a pyramidal roof, the top ornament
being a large pineapple of bronze, found in the neighborhood,
and at present in the garden of the Vatican.

Of other smaller grave-monuments, partly containing the
grave-chambers, partly built above them, we possess a variety
of forms. They either resembled small round or square altars
(cvppi), or they consisted of simple pillars (hermw), the tops of

STREET OF GRAVES AT POMPEII. 383

which were rounded on one side, so as to almost resemble a
human head cut in half. Of all these forms we see specimens in
the street of graves at Pompeii (Fig. 412). On both sides of the
street (our view is taken from a point near the villa of Diomedes,
Fig. 393), we see numerous graves, generally with the names of
individuals or families inscribed on them. Where space permit-
ted the monument was, like the temple, surrounded by a small
court, separated from the street and other graves by a wall.
These inclosures, besides indicating the hallowed character of the
place, were, in some cases, used for the solemn burning of the
body and the collecting of the remains according to prescribed
rites (ossilegium). In case the inclosure served this purpose it
was denominated ustrina (from urere, to burn). In some places,
however, the burning of the body near the grave was forbidden,
besides which the poorer classes could not afford separate inclos-
ures; for these reasons public ustrina had to be provided, one
of which, in the form of a square space inclosed by a wall, has
been discovered at Pompeii. Another large public ustrinum, in
the Yia Appia, about five miglie from the Porta S. Sebastiano,
has been discovered by Piranesi, and described by him in his
u Antichita di Koma " (iii., 4). It is a vast square, surrounded
on all sides by walls of large blocks of peperin-stone. On the
wall is a path with a low parapet, evidently intended to enable
the mourners to witness the burning of the body in the square,
after which the collecting of the ashes took place.

Among the tombs of the Pompeian street of graves (Fig. 412)
we discover on the left, first, a small monument like a temple, with
two columns ; it lies just opposite the villa of Diomedes, and was,
according to its inscription, the common grave of the family of
M. Arrius Diomedes ; to it belong the two cippi which lie on a
common base with the chief monument, and are inscribed to two
members of the same family. The second larger monument on
the same side is devoted to the memory of L. Ceius Labeo ; his
and his wife's busts, which formerly stood on the grave, are now
in the Museo Borbonico. • On the right side of our illustration
we see a wall covered by a gable ; a low door in this wall leads
into an uncovered square court adjoining one corner of the villa
of Diomedes, in which court the arrangements for the funeral
repast, the last ceremony of the burial, have been found. In this

384:

STREET OF GRAVES AT POMPEII.

court we recognize a triclinium funebre resembling the dining-
rooms of private houses, with their gently-inclining couches ;
its walls were covered with paintings, now in an all but destroyed
condition. Next to this triclinium stands, on a rich base, an
altar-like monument, which is among the finest and best-pre-
served tombs of Pompeii. It lies in a court, the wall of which
is adorned with small turrets ; a door in this wall opens into the
street. The grave-chamber lies inside the base (see the view of
the interior, Fig. 402) ; the cippus, resembling an altar, which
rises above the base on several steps to a height exceeding that

Fig. 413.

of the inclosing wall, is richly adorned with bass-reliefs. The
inscription on its front side says that JSTsevoleia Tyche, the f reed-
woman of Lucius ISTsevoleius, has erected the monument dur-
ing her lifetime to herself, to L. Munatius Faustus, and to their
liberated slaves of both sexes. Among the monuments following
on the same side, and still visible in our illustration, we mention
the cenotaphium of C. Calventius Quietus, in the form of an al-
tar. After it follows a family-grave without inscription, consist-
ing of a round, flat tower surrounded by a wall, crowned by tur-
rets, with decorations in relief. We further mention the tomb of

MEMORIAL STRUCTURES.

385

Scaurus, interesting by its bass-reliefs representing gladiators
(compare Figs. 505, 507, 508).

To conclude, we add
an illustration of a portion
of the Yia Appia, near
Rome. This important
highway was peculiarly
adapted to be adorned
with tombs and other
monuments, the traces of
which have been discov-
ered for a distance of
several miles from Rome.
After carefully examin-
ing the remains and com-
paring them with other
monuments, the architect
Canina has tried to illus-
trate parts of the Yia in
their original appearance.
Fig. 413 is a reproduc-
tion of one of these at-
tempts.

79. We now come to
those monuments which,
instead of being the re-
ceptacles of dead persons,
served to prolong the
memory of their deeds
and merits. Some mon-
uments served both as
tombs and memorial
structures (compare our
remarks about the keno-
taphion of the Greeks,
§ 24, g). The most
striking illustration of

the combination of these two different purposes is the column of
the Emperor Trajan, to which we shall have to return. Fig. 414
.25

Fig. 414.

386 MONUMENT AT IGEL.

shows a monument, which in a manner forms the connecting link
between the two species of edifices almded to. It lies near the
village of Igel, in the vicinity of Treves ; onr illustration shows
the north side. It is built of freestone, and rises in several di-
visions to a height of 64 feet, according to the lowest of the dif-
ferent measurements. The sides toward north and south are 15,
those toward east and west 12 feet wide. The steep roof, resem-
bling a pyramid with curved outlines, is adorned with decorations
not unlike scales. It is crowned by a sort of capital, adorned
with human figures in the four corners, on which rests a globe
supported by four small sphinxes. Some fragments on the top
of this globe seem to indicate that here was placed originally an
eagle carrying a human figure to heaven — an apotheosis of the
persons to whom the monument was dedicated. Besides these
greatly injured sculptures we observe a profusion of figures in
relief on all sides and in all divisions of the structure. Like the
chief representation on the south side they refer partly to the in-
dividuals to be honored by the monument, partly to mythologi-
cal objects (the centre bass-relief visible in our illustration, for
instance, shows the god of the sun in his chariot), partly also they
illustrate scenes of actual life in reference to the person s alluded
to. Of this more anon. The style of the sculptures and archi-
tecture belongs to late imperial times. An inscription, although
partly destroyed, and explained in many different ways, seems to
prove beyond doubt that the monument was erected by L. Secun-
dinius Aventinus and Secundinius Securus in honor of their
parents and other blood-relations. It was the common monument
of the Secundinii, several members of which family are men-
tioned in inscriptions found near Treves as holding offices of
various kinds. Similar monuments of Eoman origin have been
found by Barth in the south of the Tripolitan country (the
Syrtica Tripolitana of the Komans), in the Wadi Tagidje, and
near the fountain of Taborieh {see H. Barth, " Reisen und
Entdeckungen in Nord- und Central-Afrika," i., pp. 125 and
132).

In turning to the monuments of honor proper we must pre-
mise that among such may be counted all structures, be they tem-
ples, halls, theatres, columns, pillars, or gates, erected in honor of
a person or in celebration of an event. To Caesar and several

THE COLUMN A R08TBATA. 387

emperors temples have been erected ; small buildings resembling
chapels, built in honor of individuals, occur at Palmyra ; halls and
colonnades in Rome served, as they did among the Greeks, to
perpetuate the memory of great men ; even a theatre in Rome
was built in honor of a favorite of the Emperor Augustus. We
must refrain from describing these and similar structures. We
mention only two forms of the monument of honor, one of which
has been invented, the other applied in preference, by the Ro-
mans. To the latter class belong the columns; to the former
the triumphal arches. Columns were frequently erected by the
Greeks for the same purpose, and in that case bore the statue of
the person to be honored (as, for instance, that of the orator
Isokrates), or some object referring to the deeds or merits of this
person. A second column erected to the same Isokrates showed
the image of a siren as a symbol of eloquence ; other columns,
partly still preserved, carried tripods, such as were awarded to
the victors of the agones.1 Sometimes the columns showed only
inscriptions without sculptural decorations. Columns of all three
kinds may have occurred among the Romans, who at an early date
adopted this mode of honoring meritorious citizens from the
Greeks. Originally they were awarded only by the senate, after-
ward also by the people, the expenses being either raised by
private collections or paid by the state. Having frequently de-
scribed the architectural characteristics of the column, we shall
here refer to such columnar monuments only as greatly deviate
from the common type. We first mention the oldest of all such
columns, viz., the Columna Rostrata, built in the Forum, and
adorned with the prows of ships, to celebrate the naval victory of
C. Duilius over the Carthaginians (b. c. 261). A modern imita-
tion of it with the antique inscription is preserved in the Capito-
line museum. This venerable monument became the model of
other columncB rostratce found on various coins of imperial origin,
struck in celebration of naval victories. Whether these columns
(as, for instance, those on silver coins of Augustus and Titus, with
the statues of these emperors on the top of the columns) were
actually erected, remains uncertain. Other columns show the

1 On the south side of the Akropolis, near the castle-wall, above the theatre of
Dionysos, are still standing several columns of this kind, the Korinthian capitals of
which have been made triangular, so as to fit the tripods to be placed on them.

388 COLUMN OF TRAJAN.

deeds of their heroes in relief representations, winding generally
in a spiral line round the shaft of the column from base to capi-
tal. A column of this kind was the chief ornament of the Forum
built by Trajan, to which we shall later have to return (see § 82).
The column stands on a square base covered with the inscription
and with numerous warlike trophies of various kinds. The ped-
estal is 17 feet high ; the column itself, including base and capi-
tal, 92 feet. Above the capital rises a pedestal, on which the
bronze statue of the emperor stood : it has been lost, and replaced
by that of St. Peter. The column itself, consisting of twenty-
three drums of marble, is in surprisingly good preservation.
The bass-reliefs surrounding it, in twenty-two spiral curves, form
a consecutive number of scenes from Trajan's wars with the
Dacians. The inscription on the base gives the date and purpose
of its erection.1 According to a doubtful tradition the ashes of
the emperor were inclosed in a globe held by the statue ; while,
according to another more trustworthy account, Hadrian deposited
the remains of his predecessor in a golden urn underneath the
column. A winding staircase of 185 steps inside the column
(the entrance to which lies in the pedestal) leads to the top of the
capital.

Kesembling the column of Trajan, although not equal to it
in workmanship and beauty, is the column erected by senate and
people to the memory of the noble Marcus Aurelius Antoninus.
It seems to have been connected with a temple devoted to the
same emperor. Like the column of Trajan, it is well preserved,
and, like it, it has lost the original statue of the emperor, the
present one of St. Paul having been placed on it by the same
pope, Sixtus Y ., who put the statue of St. Peter on the column of
Trajan, on the occasion of both these monuments being cleaned
and restored. Fig. 415 shows a design of Canina of the column
with its original surroundings. Like the first-mentioned column,
it consists of large cylindrical blocks of marble worked, on the
inside, into a winding staircase of at present 190 steps. According
to an inscription found near it, its height is 100 old Koman feet.

'SENATUS POPULUSQUE ROMANUS IMP CAESARI DIVI NERVAE F
NERVAE TRAIANO AUG GERM DACICO PONTIF MAXIMO TRIB POT XVII
IMP VI COS VI P P AD DECLARANDUM QUANTAE ALTITUDINIS MONS ET
LOCUS TANTIS OPERIBUS SIT EGESTUS.

TRIUMPHAL ARCHES AND GATES.

389

The shaft is like that of the column of Trajan, but the pedestal
is considerably higher in this case ; part of it is now hidden by the
earth. The bass-reliefs winding round the column in twenty spiral
curves refer to the wars of the emperor with the Marcomans and
other tribes to the north of the Lower Danube (compare § 107).
Triumphal arches were frequently erected by the Romans, in

Fig. 415.

this case without the aid of numerous models in Greek architect-
ure. Both by their character and destination these structures
are essentially Roman. The custom of arranging festive pageants
in celebration of happy events soon led to the erection of
triumphal gates for the procession to pass through. Besides

390 TRIUMPHAL ARCHES.

decorating the gates of the city for the occasion, the Eomans used
to erect detached gates of a monumental character. Such tri-
umphal arches might be the reward of all kinds of civic merit.
An arch erected to Augustus at Araminium (Kimini) celebrated
his construction of the Flaminian road from that town to Rome ;
an arch, still standing, on the jetty of Ancona records Trajan's
restoration of that harbor; another arch at Beneventum was
dedicated to the same emperor for his restoration of the Yia
Appia ; an arch still preserved, near the Olympicum, commemo-
rates the building of a new splendid quarter of Athens by Ha-
drian. The so-called arch of the Sergii at Pola records the merits
of a family ; a small but richly-decorated triumphal gate in the
Forum Boarium in Borne was erected to Septimius Severus by
the goldsmiths and cattle-dealers.

In most cases, however, these arches were designed for the
triumphal entrance of a commander at the head of his army after
a victorious war. These triumphal entrances (compare § 109) are
essentially representative of the national spirit of the Romans,
quite as much as the public games were of that of the Greeks.
The sculptural decorations of the arches generally represent the
processions that were to pass through them : on the arch of
Titus we even see a sculptural reproduction of this monument
itself. As the arch itself is a product of Roman national spirit,
so its design is preeminently representative of that specifically
Roman element in architecture — the vaulting or arching prin-
ciple. Nowhere is this principle displayed more simply and more
effectively, nowhere does the mixture of Greek columnar archi-
tecture with Roman elements appear in a more striking manner,
than in these detached triumphal gates, the arcades of which are
in a manner framed with columns or semi-columns appearing to
support the flat coverings of the arches and the second lower
stories on the top of them. Into the architectural varieties of the
triumphal arch we cannot enter here ; we only shall quote two
examples, representative of the two principal divisions of these
monuments. Like the city-gate, the triumphal arch can have
either one (compare Fig. 356) or three openings (358-360), the
possibility of two openings occurring in some Roman gates (Fig.
357) being naturally excluded.

A beautiful example of the first species is the arch of Titus

ARCH OF TITUS.

391

in Kome, built of Pentelic marble (see design, with the statue
of the emperor in a quadriga added to it, Fig. 416). Its height
is 15.40 metres, its width 13.50, its depth 4.75 metres. The
arched opening is 5.36 metres wide by 8.30 high. In the middle
ages a tower of f ortitication had been built on it ; but it was re-
stored to its present form in 1822. Its construction is very simple :
two strong piers have been connected by means of an arch for the
triumphal procession to pass through. To right and left of the

&Uaidi

Fig. 416.

arch the piers show two fluted semi-columns of the " composite "
order, being the earliest specimens of that order (the two outside
ones in travertine and without flutes are a modern addition) ; they
stand on a common base, and inclose on each side of the arch a
so-called false window. The beams, which are supported by the
columns, and which at the same time cover the arch, are richly
decorated ; the frieze shows a small bass-relief representation of
a sacrificial pageant. Above the beams rises the attic, divided,
like the lower story, into three parts, the centre one of which

392 ARCH OF CONSTANTINE.

shows the inscription. The sculptural decorations of the arch it-
self are beautiful ; the triangular surfaces between the arch and
the columns are occupied by winged Yictories with warlike attri-
butes. Inside the opening the walls to right and left are adorned
with bass-reliefs, one of which represents the emperor in his tri-
umphal chariot, the other groups of soldiers with the booty of the
Jewish War, among which we discover the seven-branched candle-
stick of the temple of Jerusalem (compare § 109). The barrel-
vault of the archway is adorned with laquearia, a bass-relief in the
centre showing the apotheosis of the emperor, who is carried to
heaven by an eagle. According to the inscription, the monument
has been erected to the memory of Titus by senate and people in
the reign of his successor Domitian. It lies in a beautiful posi-
tion, between the temple of Venus and Roma and the Coliseum
above the Yia Sacra, and is one of the most remarkable architect-
ural monuments of Rome.

Still more important for the history of art, although of later
date, is the triumphal arch of the Emperor Con stan tine. In it
the traces of two very different periods are distinguishable. For
it marks the closing period of the old empire and the rise of
Christianity, being erected in celebration of the victory of Con-
stantine over his .rival Maxentius, by means of which Christian-
ity was established as the official religion of the Roman state.
On the other hand, it takes us back to one of the most glorious
epochs of Roman history, viz., the time of Trajan's victories over

the Dacians. For when, after the

EJff JUL 4JISL victory at the Pons Milvius (a. d.
312), people and senate decided upon
P| erecting an arch for the victor, the
|f|f jf ]|jr shortness of time or the want of artis-

Pig. 4iT. tic means at their disposal compelled

them to make use of the plastic and
architectural decorations of an older monument for their new
structure.1 This latter {see plan, Fig. 417) has three openings,
the centre one of which is both higher and wider than the two
others, being destined for the triumphal chariot of the emperor.
The three entrances were inclosed by detached columns, instead of

1 Height, 21 metres ; width, 25.'70 ; depth, 7.40. Height of centre arch, 11.50, of
side arches 1A0.

ARCH OF CONSTANTWE.

393

the usual semi-columns {see Fig. 418), four of which, made of
yellow Numidian marble {giallo antico\ stood on each side of the
structure. According to Hirt, their workmanship denotes the
purer style of the reign of Hadrian. The greater part of the
sculptures, on both sides of the structure and inside the centre
arch, are taken from the triumphal gate (according to Hirt, two
different gates) erected to Trajan for his victories over the Dacians
and Parthians. The arrangement of these sculptures is very taste-
ful. They begin at the bases of the columns, which are adorned

with large relief -figures in standing postures ; on each side of the
richly-decorated arch-inclosures we see two seated Yictories.
After them follows, in the manner of a frieze, over the smaller
entrances, a series of smaller bass-reliefs ; above each of these
lower bass-reliefs are two circular bass-reliefs (" medallions," eight
in all), representing scenes from the private life of Trajan, to
which correspond eight square bass-reliefs with larger figures in
the so-called Attic. The scenes represented by the last-mentioned
sculptures begin, according to l^raun's description, on the side
turned toward the Aventine. " They commence," he says,1 " with
an illustration of the triumphal entrance of Trajan after the first

1 In his work on the " Ruins and Museums of Rome," p. 8.

394 AROH OF CONST ANTINE.

Dacian War, and then turn to his merits in conducting the Via
Appia through the Pontine marshes, and in founding an orphan-
age. They also refer to his relations to Parthamasires, King of
Armenia, and to Parthamaspates, to whom he gives the Parthian
crown ; also, finally, to Decebalus, King of the Dacians, whose
hired assassins are brought before the emperor. The remaining
groups show the emperor addressing the soldiers, also the usual
sacrifices of pigs, sheep, and oxen." About the "medallions"
representing the private life of the emperor, "in simple and
graceful compositions," Braun makes the following remarks :
" They begin with the setting out for the chase. The second group
represents a sacrifice to Sylvanus, the protecting god of the forest.
The third shows the emperor on horseback hunting a boar ; the
fourth, the thank-offering to the goddess of the chase. The groups
on the side of the Coliseum show a boar-hunt, a sacrifice to Apol-
lo, the inspection of a killed lion, and, lastly, an unexplained oracu-
lar scene, most likely referring to the miraculous escape of Trajan
from an earthquake at Antiochia."

The above-mentioned frieze continued over the central open-
ing represents consecutively the battle, the flight, and chase of
the enemy, and the crowning of the emperor by the Goddess of
Victory. It is dedicated to Constantine as the "founder of
peace," and the " liberator of the city ; " which inscriptions refer
to Constantine's victory over Maxentius, and his occupation of
Rome. Only the latter sculptures — the seated Victories, and the
standing figures on the pedestals of the columns — date from Con-
stantine's time. By their bad execution and clumsy composition
they denote the decline of Roman art ; while the bass-reliefs from
the time of Trajan, together with the figures of captive barbari-
ans over the columns, are perfect in both these respects (compare
§§ 107 to 109).

80. We have described (§ 25) the development of the Greek
gymnasia from private institutions for the requirements of indi-
viduals to centres of public intercourse and recreation. A similar
position in Roman life was held by the public baths. They also
grew from private into public institutions of great magnificence
indispensable to the Romans, and, therefore, found in all impor-
tant towns.

These baths, from the greater importance of the warm baths

ROMAN BATHS. 395

contained in them, generally called thermce, are, in many respects,
comparable to the Greek gymnasia, which name was, indeed,
occasionally applied to them in later times ; in other points, how-
ever, the two differ entirely. Although the gymnastic exercises,
together with their Greek names, were adopted by the Komans,
they never gained national importance among them : war, and
warlike evolutions in the field, remained the chief means of their
corporeal education. In their bathing-establishments the thermae
or baths had, therefore, the largest space assigned to them, smaller
localities being reserved for agonistic games ; the Greek notions
about the relative importance of these two purposes were thus
exactly reversed. Common to both Greek and Roman institu-
tions were the localities serving as walks and places of meeting
and conversation to all visitors. The luxury of imperial times
added to the thermae means of intellectual enjoyment, such as
libraries and museums.

In older times, before bathing had become a necessity of daily
existence, the lavatrina, or wash-house, lying next to the kitchen,
and connected with it by a heating-apparatus, served also as bath-
room. But this simple arrangement soon became insufficient.
Hot, sudatory, tepid, and cold baths, shower-baths, rubbing and
oiling of the body — all these required separate apartments, to
which, at the thermae, were added dressing and undressing
rooms and other apartments for conversation and various kinds
of amusement. From numerous remains of baths discovered in
various points of the Roman Empire we have a distinct idea
of their original arrangements ; these remains, moreover, tally
in a remarkable degree with Vitruvius's rules. We ought to
add that the picture of the interior of a bath supposed to have
been found in the thermae of Titus, and reproduced in most
compendiums of Roman antiquities for a century and a half, has
been proved by Marquardt * to be an invention of the architect
Giov. Ant. Rusconi (1553).

All the bath-rooms lie over a substructure (suspensu?w) about
two feet high, the ceiling of which rested on rows of pillars stand-
ing at distances of one and a half foot. The furnace ijiypo-
ccmsis), with the firing-room (propnigeum, prcefumium) lying

1 In " Handbuch der romischen Alterthiimer, etc., begonnen von W. A. Becker,
fortgesetzt von J. Marquardt," Part v., Division i., p. 288, et seq. Leipsic, 1864.

396 ROMAN BATHS.

in front of it, occupied the centre of the establishment. From
here the heat was diffused through the basement, and ascended in
earthen or leaden pipes (tubi) in the walls to the bath-rooms.
The cold, tepid, or hot water required for the baths came from
three tanks lying above the furnace, and connected with each
other by means of pipes. The bath-rooms, over the basement,
grouped round the furnace at greater or less distances, were
divided, by the different degrees of heat attained in them, into
tepidaria (sudatory air-baths), caldaria (hot baths), andfrigidaria
(cold baths). Tanks (piscina), or tubs (solium, alveus), occupied
the centre of the caldaria and frigidaria ; benches and chairs were
ranged along the walls, or stood in niches ; a flat tub (lafo'um, see
Fig. 202), placed in a niche on the narrow side of the oblong
calidarium, was filled with cold water for a plunge after the hot
bath. In larger, particularly public, baths separate rooms served
for dressing and undressing (apodyterium), rubbing (destricta-
rium) and oiling the body (unetorium). In smaller baths, the
latter process was occasionally gone through in the tepidarium.
After the end of the Republic, larger establishments used to have
a separate steam-bath (laconicum) in imitation of the Greek
TTvpiaTrjpiov. Next to the tepidarium, but separated from it by a
wall, lay, according to Vitruvius, a small circular building covered
by a cupola, which received its light through an aperture in the
centre of the dome. By means of a separate heating-apparatus
its temperature could be increased to an enormous degree. A
brass plate (clypeus) was suspended on chains from the dome ; by
lowering it, or pulling it up, the hot air in the apartment became
more or less condensed.

So much about the general arrangements of the bath. We
now must turn our attention to some of the remains of baths pre-
served to us. A house at Pompeii shows very simple arrange-
ments. A small dressing-room (apodyterium), with a chamber
for a tepid air-bath (tepidarium) and a hot bath (caldarium), may
still be recognized. A similar arrangement we see in the above-
mentioned villa suourbana, where to the tepid and hot baths
(Fig. 393, 9 and 10) is added a court for a cold bath (8). The
reservoir of the latter, as well as the apparatus for heating the
water of the hot bath, is still recognizable.

The same arrangements, although increased in number and

THERM JE OF VELEIA,

397

varied in form, we meet with in the thermae proper, or public
baths ; as the simplest specimen of such we quote the thermae
of Veleia. Yeleia, or Velleia, was built in the first century of
the Christian era by the Yeleiates, a Ligurian tribe dwelling
previously in villages in the country traversed by the Via ^Emilia,
not far from the modern Piacenza. Under one of the successors of
Constantine the town was buried by the fall of a mountain, and
all knowledge of it was lost till 1747, when the discovery of the
largest existing bronze inscription, the so-called tabula alimentaria
of Trajan, near the village of Macinisso, indicated the existence
of a Roman settlement. In 1760, by command of Don Philip
of Parma, systematic excavations were begun, which, after five
years, resulted in the discovery of a moderate provincial town of
the first centuries of the Empire. Fig. 419 shows the plan of the

'^..u.lfiJ &^™

rz—2

partly-destroyed thermae of Yeleia according to the design of the
architect Antolini. The facade (1 to 12) contains several en-
trances. That lying on the extreme right (1) leads into the baths
for women, consisting of a sort of entrance-hall (2) and of a larger
apartment for hot baths (4). The smaller room lying between the
two may have contained the heating-apparatus (hypocaustum).
On the other side of the vestibule, common to both divisions, lies
the entrance-hall of the men's baths (3). After it follows the
bath-room for men (5), separated from that for women by a space
containing a staircase. The room adjoining it (6) was intended
for social intercourse ; after it follows the swimming-bath {natatio)
of the men (7), surrounded by a colonnade. Into this peristylium
open a narrow apartment (8), in which a mosaic floor has been

398

TRERMM OF POMPEII.

discovered, and a covered passage (crypta, 10). The street (11)
runs parallel with the latter : on the opposite side of the building
was also a street, while in front of it seems to have been an open
square.

More complicated in design and larger in size are the thermae
excavated at Pompeii in 1824 (see plan, Fig. 420). Like the
house of Pansa (Fig. 386), they are surrounded by a number of
shops and lodging-houses, which, however, are unconnected with
the bathing-establishment. The whole block of houses (insula)
forms an irregular square bordered on all sides by streets. Here

*-*+* W J^tm-s

Fig. 420.

also, the baths of women and men are separate, and have different
entrances. The former comprise the rooms K L M N 0 P, the
entrance being near 0; the latter, the rooms BDEGBL
Four entrances lead into them from the street on three different
sides (A A A). The heating-apparatus (F) is common to both
divisions, and lies between them. The remainder of the area
(marked in our plan Q, or left blank) is occupied by shops and
private lodgings belonging to them. 0, as we mentioned before,

THERMS OF POMPEII. 399

marks the entrance to the women's bath in a projection of the
wall. To the left of it lies a small apartment furnished with
benches, undoubtedly a sort of waiting-room. The larger room
L is generally believed to be an apodyterium ; it also is fitted up
with stone benches. In the small alcove-like part of it nearest
the entrance we recognize the frigidarium, with the piscina
belonging to it, to which latter descend steps {see plan). From
the apodyterium one enters the tepidarium M), under the floor
of which, as well as under that of the caldarium (K) adjoining it,
the suspensurse for the diffusion of the hot air are still recogniz-
able. In a sort of niche in the latter room we discover the
labrum, intended for cold ablutions. Near iVis the opening of the
canal through which the hot air and hot water were conducted
from the firing-room (F) to the caldarium. Here we see the
heating- apparatus inclosed in thick walls: it consists of a
circular furnace, about 8 to 9 feet in diameter, from which the
hot air was conveyed to the two caldaria for women {K) and
men (F) by means of canals of brickwork which pass underneath
the raised floors. We also mention two caldrons in which the
bathing- water was heated ; they were filled with cold water from
a quadrangular reservoir lying behind them. The fuel was kept
in a court, perhaps covered, and connected with F by means of
narrow passages.

The rooms for the baths of the men were also grouped round
this central heating-apparatus, those requiring the greatest heat
lying nearest to it. The caldarium of the men (F\ lying close to
the furnace, consists of an oblong apartment, covered with a
barrel-vault, containing openings to admit the light and let out
the steam. The slightly raised floor of the centre part lies above
the suspensurge. On the sides narrow openings were left between
the stones of the wall and its outer surface to let the hot air pass
through. On the narrow eastern side of the room lies a large tub
for hot baths (lavatio calda) ; several steps led up to this tub or
tank, which is connected with the wall itself. The opposite
western side, ending in a semicircular niche, contains a detached
round labrum, for cold ablutions, about eight inches deep, and
raised above the ground by one metre; a bronze pipe at the
bottom of it admitted the water. An inscription in bronze letters
on the border of the tub says that it had been purchased by

400

THERMAE OF POMPEII.

decree of the decuriones for the sum of 5,250 sestertii (about

£38).

A door connects the caldarium with the tepidarmm (Z>),
smaller in size, but more richly decorated with sculptures and
paintings: a bronze hearth and three benches of the same
material have been discovered in this elegant and comfortable
apartment (Fig. 421). Inscriptions on the seats of the benches
name M. Mgidius Vaccula as the donor. Parallel with the
tepidarium, and connected with it by means of a door, we see
another slightly larger room (B). It also has a barrel-vault, but

Fig. 421.

is decorated less richly than the tepidarium. It served as apody-
terium, and was surrounded by stone benches with a low step in
front of them. On one of the narrow sides of this room lies a
small chamber (^4.) belonging to the keeper of the bathers'
clothes (capsarius from capsa, i. e., cupboard where valuables are
kept). On the opposite side the apodyterium is adjoined by a
round room (rotatio, G), covered WTith a cupola, in which
room a round marble basin served for cold baths, and which may
therefore be described as f rigidarium. A small aperture in the
conical ceiling admitted the light, while the tepidarium was

THE NEW THERMAE AT POMPEII. 401

lighted by means of a window closed with one pane of ground
glass. In accordance with its destination, the tepidarium was
connected with the street (A) by means of a narrow corridor. In
the wall opposite the opening of this corridor,- by the side of the
entrance to the frigidarium, lies the door of another narrow cor-
ridor leading to an open court (II). This court, accessible from
the street by two other entrances (A A\ resembles a peristylium,
two of its sides being occupied by covered Doric colonnades,
while on a third lies a vaulted hall, cryptoporticus, receiving its
light from several large windows. One of the colonnades is ad-
joined by a hall (I, exedra), serving for purposes of conversation
and amusement. The court itself was used for gymnastic exer-
cise and walks, whence its name ambulatio. It was particularly
adapted to advertising purposes, whence the numerous inscrip-
tions on the walls, most of which, however, are no longer legible.
Here has been found a box, in which, most likely, the entrance-
fees were collected by the janitor.

Much larger than those just described are the so-called " new
thermae " at Pompeii, the excavation of which was finished in 1860.
Here all the walls are covered with rich paintings ; the upper rooms,
moreover, are larger in size, and several new accommodations have
been added. Among these, we principally count an uncovered
marble swimming-bath (natatio ; compare Fig. 419, 7), 16.5 by 8
metres in size, opening with its full width toward the palaestra.

The thermae of Pompeii were naturally surpassed by those of
Pome ; nevertheless, they are to us of almost greater importance
than the latter, owing to their better state of preservation. The
dimensions and splendor of the Poman thermae may, for instance,
be seen from the fact that the Pantheon itself, one of the grandest
monuments of Poman architecture, formed only a small portion
of the thermae built by M. Agrippa. In later imperial times,
even this splendor was surpassed ; Seneca already mentions the
coating of the walls with the most valuable kinds of marble, the
introduction of silver mouth-pieces for the water-pipes, and the
placing of numbers of columns and statues in the public baths —
a statement which is confirmed by the fragments of beautiful
statues found among the ruins of thermae ; an ancient author
justly compares their extensive grounds to whole provinces.

Fig. 422 shows the plan of the thermae of Caracalla, designed
26

402

BATHS OF GARAGALLA IN ROME.

by Cameron. His design, however, only represents the chief
building: an enormous court with which the Emperor Decius
afterward surrounded it has been omitted; but, even without
this addition, the thermse finished by Caracalla in the fourth year
of his reign (a.d. 217) must be considered as the most magnifi-
cent Koman structure of the kind. The walls and part of the
vaults are well preserved ; the latter are made of porous tufa,
lighter than the common one, which adds to the boldness of their
design. This applies particularly to the magnificent entrance-
hall, a rotunda (A) with eight niches, similar in design to the
Pantheon, which it almost equals in size, its diameter being 111

Fig. 422.

feet. The vault is not, as in the Pantheon, spherical, but sur-
prisingly flat in design, and has, for that reason, been compared
by the ancients with a sole, whence the name of the structure
cella solearis. The architects of the time of Constantine ex-
plained the possibility of this kind of vaulting by presuming
that metal sticks were placed in the interior to support the ceil-
ing ; Hirt, however, thinks that the lightness of the material is
sufficient to account for the difficulty. After having passed
through the cella solearis one entered the apodyterium (B\ be-
hind which lay the chief hall — the ephebeum (C) (compare the

BATHS OF CARACALLA IN ROME.

403

gymnasium of Ephesos, Fig. 154, C\ by Roman authors also
called xystus. Eight colossal granite columns, one of which now
stands in the square S. Trinita in Florence, carried the intersect-
ing-vaults of the ceiling (see view of the interior, Fig. 423) ; the
length of the whole room was 179 feet. Adjoining the two nar-
row sides of the ephebeum, and separated from it by columns
only, lay smaller rooms (Q Q) destined for spectators or wres-
tlers ; exedroe resembling niches (Z Z Z Z) lay on the longer sides
of the hall. We next come to another hall (D) of equal length,
in which lay the swimming-bath (piscina) ; this room also was

Fig. 423.

adjoined by niches (Z Z) and other apartments for the spectators
(E E). The rooms hitherto mentioned formed the chief part of
the building, distinguished from the other divisions by its greater
height. The destination of these latter lying to both sides of the
centre structure cannot always be determined with certainty.
According to Cameron, F marks vestibules or libraries; G, the
dressing-rooms for the wrestlers, near which the remains of stair-
cases to the upper stories have been found. He further mentions
peristylia with swimming-baths (H\ rooms for practising (/),
elseothesia (K), with konisteria (Y) adjoining them ; also vesti-
bules (X), above which rooms with mosaic pavements have been

404 THE CURIAE.

discovered. M, iT, 0, P, respectively marked the laconicum,
caldarium, tepidarium, and frigidarium ; B indicates larger rooms
(exedrce) for conversation. Fig. 423 shows the interior of the
chief hall (G) in its original condition, for the reconstructive de-
sign of which the analogous hall of the thermae- of Diocletian,
preserved in the church S. Maria degli Angeli, has been of con-
siderable assistance. Other reconstructive designs of the whole
building may be found in the comprehensive work, " Les Ther-
mes de Caracalla," by the French architect, Abel Blouet.

81. The enormous development of their political power natu-
rally reacted on the architecture of the Komans ; its tasks were
greater and more varied than those of Greek architecture. With
the extension of the empire, the number of officials in the central
seat of government increased proportionately, for whose accom-
modation large public buildings were required. Other buildings
served to supply the demands of the more extensive and varied
judicial and commercial developments of the people, while fur-
ther structures were required to satisfy the craving of the popu-
lace for pageantry and theatrical splendor. Hence the number
of basilicas (both for judicial and commercial purposes), of colon-
nades (for social intercourse), of forums and theatres ; hence, also,
the enormous extension of the circus to accommodate the cruel
populace of the metropolis : the amphitheatre of Vespasian may?
in a manner, be considered as the embodiment of the power and
splendor of the empire. The same phenomena, though on a
smaller scale, we see repeated in the provincial towns in propor-
tion to their growing wealth and independence.

The remains of political buildings of the time of the repub-
lic are scarce ; republican Rome soon became transformed into
imperial Rome, the different phases of which latter are illus-
trated by numerous monuments. Our knowledge of the official
buildings of republican magistrates is, to a great extent, conject-
ural ; sometimes their meetings may have taken place in certain
parts of the Forum or in temples. About the meeting-place
of the senate, generically called curia, we know little — neither
as regards the curia HosUUa belonging to the times of the kings
nor the curia Julia instituted by Caesar, nor, indeed, those other
curiae called by the names of Marcellus, Pompey, etc. Most like-
ly they were roomy, oblong halls of some kind, which view is

THE CURIM 405

supported by the fact that the cellse of the temples, where the sit-
tings of the senate frequently took place, show the same form.
Of particular importance, in this respect, are the remains of the
temple of Concordia in the Forum Romanum, already described
by us {see Fig. 334) : it was here that Cicero delivered his fourth
oration against Catilina and several of his Philippics ; here also
the condemnation to death of ^Elius Seianus, the notorious favor-
ite of Tiberius, was pronounced by the senate.

The meeting-place of the quaestors also was a temple, viz.,
that of Saturn, of which eight columns on a high base are still
preserved in the Forum. Here the treasure of the state (mrari-
um\ with the documents belonging to it, as also the standards of
the army, were kept. The tablets of the law and other political
documents {tabulae) were kept in the so-called Tabularium or
archive. This building, lately investigated, rests on a large sub-
structure, seventy-one metres in length, which seemingly adds to
the firmness of the Capitoline Hill on the side of the Forum. It
lies immediately above the just-mentioned temple of Concordia
(compare Fig. 428, E F G H). One wall of the Tabularium, and
a row of arcades erected on it, are still in existence {see Fig. 334,
a). The arcades rest on strong separate pillars of freestone,
adorned, toward the Forum, with Doric semi-columns. Above
them rises the ci Palazzo del Senatore," built in the sixteenth cen-
tury, and supposed to occupy the site of the Tabularium, which,
therefore, must have been of considerable dimensions. Accord-
ing to an inscription, both the substructure and the Tabularium
itself were built by Q. Lutatius Catulus (b. o. 78). Under Nero
the Capitol and the archives were destroyed by fire. Yespasian
undertook the new building. According to Suetonius (Yespas.
8), " the emperor restored 3,000 bronze tablets melted by the fire
after having searched for copies of their contents, the finest and
oldest collection of documents {instrumentum) of the empire, in
which, since the foundation of the city, all the decrees of the sen-
ate, and the plebiscites with regard to the right of confederation,
and the privileges granted to each community, were kept."

The censors had their office in the so-called atrium libertatis
— to judge by its name, a building of some religious character
(compare what has been said about the atrium in § 74). The prae-
tors performed their judicial function at first in " tribunals " (i. e.,

406

THE GUEIM.

square raised substructures standing in the Forum), afterward in
basilicas. Before describing the latter most developed form of
Koman architecture we must mention a few smaller buildings as
examples of simple meeting-places of municipal officials and
boards.

We are alluding to three buildings in the immediate vicinity
of the forum of Pompeii {see their plans, Fig. 424). They con-
sist of three halls (9 to 10 metres broad by 16 to 18 long) of sim-
plest design. The entrances lie on the narrow side toward the
forum, separated, from the latter by a double colonnade. On the
side opposite the entrances there are niches, destined evidently to
receive the seats of the functionaries. In a this niche (tribunal)
is semicircular in form; in b it is smaller, and appears termi-

nated by two parallel walls to which a flattened segment has
been affixed ; in c we see a further square indenture in the cen-
tre of the wall of the otherwise semicircular niche. Every
thing indicates that these buildings were used for the meet-
ings of some board, and not as temples or treasure-houses, as
has been conjectured.

The destination of another building in the forum of Pompeii
as the meeting-house or senaculum of the decurions can be deter-
mined with more certainty.- It consists of a large square hall (20
by 18 metres), to the back of which is added a semicircular apse
11 metres wide (at the opening) by 6.50 deep. In the background
of this apse is situated a broad dais for the seats of the presiding
magistrates. These and similar buildings may be safely classed as

THE BASILICAS, 407

curice, a name which was generically applied to council-houses
of magistrates : a building, for instance, devoted to Mars, where
the priestly college of the Salii held their meetings, was called a
curia.

Still more often occurs the name of basilica, a kind of struct-
ure frequently described by antique authors, and, moreover, suf-
ciently illustrated by the remaining specimens. The name was
derived from the kingly hall (a-roa /3a<rtkeio<; ) at Athens, where
the archon basileus sat in judgment. This derivation is con-
firmed by the fact that the first basilica was erected at a period
when the influence of Greek on Roman architecture had already
become powerful. When, during the consulate of Q. Fabius
Maximus and M. Marcellus (b. o. 214), a fire destroyed part of the
Forum, no basilica was in existence : a fact which Livy (xxvi.,
27) thinks it necessary to tell his contemporaries, to whom the
ideas of forum and basilica had become inseparable. About thir
ty years after this event M. Porcius Cato, while censor (b. o. 184),
erected the first basilica at public expense, after having purchased
two plots of ground in the Latomia, besides four shops, for the
site of the building. The latter lay beside the curia in the Forum,
of which it was in a manner a continuation, being destined for
commercial and judicial purposes. For which of these two pur-
poses Cato intended the building, called by himself Basilica Por-
cia, is difficult to decide, seeing that written testimony is wanting,
and that the building itself has been totally destroyed during the
riots of Clodius. Yitruvius (Arch., v., 1) seems to think only
of commercial convenience. " Basilicas," he says, " ought to be
built in the warmest quarters of the market-places, in order that,
in winter, the merchants assembling there may not be inconven-
ienced by bad weather." In his description, on the other hand,
of the basilica built by himself at Fanestrum (the modern Fano),
he mentions the " tribunal," which he calls " hemicyclium ; " but
says that the curve was not a complete semicircle, its depth being
15 feet by 46 wide, " in order," he adds, " that those who stand
near the magistrates may not be disturbed by those doing busi-
ness in the basilica." ■ The twofold use of the basilica appears

1 The first passage (edition of Rose and Muller-Striibing) reads, Ut per hiemem
sine molestia tempestatium se conferre in eas negotiatores possint ; the second, Uii qui
apud magistratus starenl negotiantes in basilica ne impedirent : according to this
version, here also the commercial interest is put in the foreground.

408

TEE BASILICAS.

sufficiently from these two passages. With regard to the construc-
tion of such buildings Vitruvius adds the following rules : " Their
width must not be less than one-third, and not more than one-
half, of their length, providing the nature of the locality does not
necessitate different proportions. If the site is of considerable
length, chalcidica ought to be added at both ends of the building."
The latter seem to have been halls added to the narrow sides of
the basilica, in order to make use of the whole space at disposal.
The basilica is divided lengthwise into three parts, the two at the
sides being called portions ; their width is to be equal to one-third
of that of the centre space ; the height of the columns is to be
equal to this width ; above the first porticus lies a second, with
columns lower by one-quarter than the bottom ones; between
these lies a high parapet. From the further description of the
basilica of Fanestrum, it appears that all the rooms were covered.
All these rules, however, must be taken in a general sense only ;

individual buildings frequently de-
viate from them. One class of ex-
ceptions are, for instance, the basili-
cas with one instead of three naves ;
other basilicas occurring at an ear-
ly period had as many as five
naves. Of such with one nave,
and therefore without porticus, we
mention the remains of a basilica
at Aquino (the old Aquinum in
Latium), where the walls of the
+*■**• tribunal built of freestone are
still recognizable ; also that at Pa-
lestrina (the old Prseneste), where the " hemicyclical " tribunal,
with a " chalcidicum," has been preserved. The design of the
three tribunals in the forum of Pompeii is, in a more or less
modified way, repeated in most of these buildings ; this is, for
instance, the case in a basilica at Palmyra, consisting of an ob-
long hall, to one of the narrow sides of which a perfectly semi-
circular niche has been added, while the opposite side shows
an entrance-portico of four columns. To the other sides of the
building wings have been added, which, however, are inclosed
by detached columns instead of walls. Each of these wings

Fig. 425.

TEE BASILICAS.

409

contains twenty columns arranged in five rows of four columns
each ; they were covered with roofs, and thus formed convenient
places of meeting for the merchants whose disputes were decided
in the interior of the building.

We also possess several specimens of basilicas with three
naves; one of them was discovered near the modern Otricoli,
in 1/T75. It has been recognized as the basilica of the Roman
municvpium of Ocriculum, one of the larger towns of Umbria,
situated on the Yia Flaminia (Fig. 425). The shape of the
basilica considerably differs from Yitruvius's rule, forming an all
but perfect square. It is divided by two rows of columns (three
in number) into three naves, the centre one of which is the widest.
To this has been added a semicircular tribunal, up to which lead

Fig. 426.

steps. On the floor of the first a second dais seems to have been
raised. On both sides of the hemicyclium lie two small quad-
rangular chambers, accessible also from the two side-naves, besides
being connected with the niche of the tribunal. A narrow
passage (cryptoporticus) surrounds the space on three sides. Of
other basilicas with three naves, we mention the church of Alba
on the Fucine Lake, and a basilica at Treves (233 by 88 feet) ; as
also the so-called " Temple of Peace " in Eome, lying between the
Coliseum and the temple of Yenus and Eoma. It was begun by
Maxentius, and finished by Constantine ; its ruins are among the
most splendid of Eome. Four enormous piers divided the inner
space into a wide centre and two narrower side-naves, the former
being covered with an intersected vault, the two latter with barrel-

410 BASILICA OF POMPEII.

vaults. Two apses were reserved for the seats of the judges.
The form of the principal hall in the thermae of Caracalla (Fig.
423) is exactly like that of the present building, but for the ab-
sence of a tribunal in the former.

Fig. 426 (scale 36 feet) illustrates the basilica with three
naves at Pompeii, from which we are able to derive a distinct
idea of the arrangement of such buildings. With its narrow side
it touched the forum, the colonnade of which hid the front of
the basilica, a in our plan marks a small fore-hall, most likely
a chalcidicum. On four steps of the same width as the building
we ascend the basilica proper — an oblong edifice with five doors,
surrounded on all four sides by a colonnade (portions, b b,fg),
by means of which the whole is divided lengthwise into three
naves. These columns were of the Ionic order. Thinner pilas-
ters, of Korintho-Eoman order, were let into the walls, which
latter most likely contained windows, seeing that in all probability
the centre space (c) also had a roof to it. The quadrangular tri-
bunal (e) is raised several feet above the ground, and is adorned
in front with a row of smaller Korinthian columns. From two
chambers stairs led up to this seat of the judges ; another staircase
led into the vaulted chamber under the tribunal, which received
its light from an opening in the floor of the tribunal, not to men-
tion several small side-openings. This chamber was most likely
a temporary prison. The ruins show traces of rich mural deco-
rations all over the building ; the pavement consisted of marble.
Near d a pedestal has been discovered, which, to judge by some
sculptural fragments, carried an equestrian statue. According to
Mazois, the three naves were of nearly equal height, the centre
one only being raised a little. The entire length of the basilica
was 67 metres, by a width of 27.35 metres. The staircase (h) in
our plan is not connected with the basilica ; it leads up to the
roof of the colonnade surrounding the forum.

Of basilicas with ^ve naves we mention the Basilica Julia,
built by Caesar for the centumviral courts of justice in the Forum,
between the temple of the Dioscuri and that of Saturn. Accord-
ing to the latest excavations, it was a large building surrounded
by a double porticus, and divided by four rows of strong traver-
tine stone pillars into five naves. The pavement consists of gray,
reddish, and yellow slabs of marble, which are in an excellent

BASILICA ULPIA.

411

state of preservation. The building (some arches of which were
still in existence in 1849) was so large that four judges could sit
in its different parts simultaneously. Fig. 427 shows the plan
of the Basilica Ulpia, built by Trajan as part of the splendid
decoration of his forum. A fragment of the antique plan of
Kome,1 frequently mentioned by us, distinctly shows the five
naves, and even the large niche of the tribunal. The covering of
the building with beams of bronze is mentioned with admiration
by ancient writers.

82. About the places where public meetings were held in
republican times we know but little. In most cases open spaces

BOO

|, |f| », |.| '.| . . j.: j » | . 1 '.. M ■ 1*1 BC

1*1 l»l 1*1 1*1 1.1 | j | ■*. 1 .' ,.: j 1.: ;.'. . ■

l»i 1*1 1*1 t 1*1 l» 1*1 1*1 » 1*1 1*1 1*1 1*1 1*1 www

it ji i.i m m m <*■ ■ ■ ■ »rnw ■

j pifififii ■ ■ | pfftfta

ijcalcu

Ml!!80 P

<tC *a

Fig. 427.

withont much monumental decoration served the purpose. Only
the curios, i. e., the divisions of the people according to old tribal
traditions, form an exception to this rule. The buildings where
they met, originally situated in the old parts of the town, were
for the greater part afterward transferred to the more modern
quarters, whence the distinction between curice veteres and curies
novce. The importance of the curia as a tribal community,
although to a great extent divested of its political character, re-
mained unaltered. Their original places of meeting were un-
doubtedly of the simplest construction, the curise of later date,
mentioned in § 81, being most likely fashioned after their model.

1 This plan, engraved on slabs of marble, represents Rome under Septimius Severus
and Caracalla. Fragments of it were found, under Pope Pius IV., behind the church
of SS. Cosmo e Damiano, and deposited by Benedict XIV. in the Capitoline Museum
founded by him. According to Canina, the scale of the plan, barring some inaccura-
cies, was 1 : 250.

412 TEE COMITfA.

They were connected with sanctuaries {sacelld) of Juno Quiritis,
the protecting goddess of the old tribal unions. They were
destined for deliberations and sacrificial acts under the presidency
of the curio, as also for common meals of the members (curiales).
The comitia, on the other hand, were the places of meeting of
the whole sovereign people ; the name was applied both to the
assemblies themselves and to the place in the upper part of the
Forum Romanum where they were held (see Fig. 428, R). The
meetings were held in the open air till 208 b. c. (546 of the city),
in which year, on the occasion of a census (which fixed the num-
ber of citizens at 137,108), the comitium was for the first time
(see Livy, xxvii., 36) covered — most likely with canvas, in the
manner of the theatres and amphitheatres.

The comitia tributa and comitia centuriata were frequently
held in the Campus Martius, where for that purpose certain places
called sheep-pens (ovile) were fenced in ; later they were called
septa, or lists. They were made of wood till Julius Caesar erected
splendid marble ones (septa marmorea, septa Julia). About
their form nothing is known, beyond what appears from the old
plan of Rome, and various, coins relating to them ; the space in
the interior must have been very large, seeing that at a later date
fights of gladiators and naval battles took place in it. They were
completed by Agrippa, destroyed by fire under Titus, and after-
ward restored by Hadrian. In the same Campus Martius, most
likely connected with the septa, lay the diribitorium, a splendid
building, used for counting, perhaps also for giving, votes ; of its
original roof, a beam 100 feet long used to be shown in the septa
as a curiosity.

"We have to add a few remarks about the market-places (ford),
in which many of the public buildings mentioned by us were
situated. Their importance for political life was still greater
among the Romans than among the Greeks (compare § 26).
Particularly the Forum Romanum appears like the heart of the
body politic. In the course of centuries it was adorned with
numerous structures of both historic and artistic importance.
Fig. 428 shows the plan of the Forum Romanum in accordance
with the latest investigations by Reber and Detlefsen ; we
shall, in the following remarks, attempt to convey to the reader .
an idea of what the Forum was during the first centuries of

THE FORUM ROMANUM. 413

the empire. Upon a discussion of controverted minor points we
cannot enter.

The Forum (A) occupies the valley to the northwest of the
ridge of mountains connecting the two Capitoline hills (S S) ; to
the southeast it extends as far as the Yelia, a part of the
Palatine (T). Its shape is an irregular oblong, the southwestern
long side of which is determined by the recently-discovered an-
tique pavement of the Yia Sacra and several buildings touching
it. The northeastern side is still covered by a mass of rubbish
(30 feet deep), on which later structures have been erected. The
antique buildings formerly situated there are for that reason
indicated in our plan by dotted lines, with the exception only of
the Mamertine prison and the temple of Faustina. Of the two
narrow sides, that lying toward the slope of the Capitoline hills
has been determined by the discovery of the substructures of
several temples, identifiable both by their inscriptions and by the
testimony of ancient authors ; the opposite side (at a distance of
570 feet) can be distinguished from the vicinity of the Rostra
Julia (W) ; the arch of the Fabii, formerly standing there, has,
on the other hand, entirely disappeared. We first enumerate the
buildings bounding the southwestern side of the Forum, also
called sub veteribus so. tabemis. According to antique authors,
the Atrium of Yesta (Q) lay at the foot of the Palatine (T) ; its
exact situation can no more be determined. By the side of it
rose the temple of Castor and Pollux, of which three Korinthian
columns, connected by a richly-ornamented architrave, are still
standing erect. It was devoted to the memory of the victory
near the Regillus Lake (b. c. 485), but was most likely burnt down
together with the Basilica Julia in its vicinity. Tiberius rebuilt
it a. d. 6. The excavations, begun in October, 1871, have already
laid open three sides of the building, the pavement of which lies
10 metres below the surface of the modern street. The above-
mentioned Basilica Julia (C) was separated from this building
only by a street; its substructure has been laid open in its full
length. After it follows the temple of Saturn, the cerarium or
public treasury (D), eight granite columns of which (six belong-
ing to the frontage, the two others to the two long sides), with
the architrave resting on them, are still in existence. The first
erection of this temple dates back to early republican times ; it

414

THE FORUM ROMANUM.

THE FORUM ROMANUM. 415

was, however, restored repeatedly, for the last time in bad style,
under one of the later emperors.

The northwestern side of the Forum was bounded by four
buildings, viz., the porticus of the Dii Consentes (E), the temple
of Vespasian (F, formerly called temple of Jupiter Tonans), the
temple of Concordia (H, see also Fig. 334), and, towering above
them all, the Tabularium (G) already mentioned. The porticus
of the advice-giving gods (Dii Consentes), or twelve chief Eoman
deities, has been partly restored in modern times with the aid of
excavated fragments of antique columns and architraves. The
statues of the gods stood, most likely, in front of, or between, the
columns. Of the temple built by Yespasian in honor of Domi-
tian (a prostylos hexastylos), three Korinthian columns with their
beams are still standing.

Our knowledge of the buildings on the northeast side of the
Forum is to a great extent conjectural. Only the two corners
are distinctly marked by the ruins of the Mamertine prison (I)
and those of the temple of Antoninus and Faustina (P). The
foundations of the intervening buildings, viz., the Curia Hostilia
(M ; the senate-house till b. c. 55, when it was destroyed by fire),
the Curia Julia built by Augustus (N), and the Basilica JEmilia
et Paulli (O), have been built over at a later date. The Mamer-
tine prison lies underneath the church S. G-uiseppe de' Falegnami
and the chapel S. Pietro in Carcere, from which a modern stair-
case leads down to the uppermost of the two subterraneous cham-
bers (according to tradition the prison of the Apostles Peter
and Paul). From here another staircase descends to the lower
chamber, under which lies the co-called Tullianum (from the old
Latin word tullii, which, according to Festus, means " fountain-
vault"), in which Jugurtha, Sejanus, and others, found their
death. ISTo trace remains of the notorious staircase leading
from the prison to the Forum, on which the corpses of the exe-
cuted were exhibited, and on which the Emperor Yitellius was
killed. In comparatively the best state of preservation is the
temple of Antoninus and Faustina (P), a prostylos hexastylos,
inside of which the church S. Lorenzo in Miranda has been
erected.

The upper part of the space surrounded by these buildings
was, in republican ' times, occupied by the comitium (K) ; the

416 THE FORUM ROMANUM.

lower part formed the Forum proper. The two divisions were
of about equal size : on the northeast side stood the old tribune
for the orators, the rostra Vetera (Y), protected from the populace
thronging the Forum by a semicircular balustrade ; behind it lay
the above-mentioned Curia Hostilia and the older Grsecostasis, an
uncovered terrace (locus substructus) surrounded by a balustrade,
where foreign embassadors waited for the decision of the curia.
After Ceesar's time the rostra was transferred to the lower Forum,
where it existed during the first two centuries of the empire un-
der the name of Kostra Julia (W). After the downfall of the
republic, the comitium and the whole republican arrangements of
the Forum lost their political significance ; new buildings were
erected, the old ones remodeled. Septimius Severus at last (203
a. d.) built a triumphal arch (K), of Pentelic marble, on the north-
west side of the Forum, and at the same time transferred the Yia
Sacra (which previously ran along the older booths — sub veteribus
— on the southwest side of the Forum) to the opposite side, di-
recting it straight toward the triumphal arch ; behind the latter
the road most likely turned westward in a curve (marked by a
bent arrow), joining the old Yia Sacra at the foot of the Clivus
Capitolinus. Near the arch of Severus lies, at present, a terrace
(U), slightly curved toward the Forum, and showing the remains
of a marble balustrade ; a brick base in the corner nearest the arch
of Severus is believed to be a remnant of the milliarium aureum,
built by Augustus, i. e., the central mile-stone, and at once the
centre (umbilicus) of the Roman Empire. The terrace itself is,
by some modern archaeologists, believed to be the Rostra Capito-
lina of imperial times ; others call it Grsecostasis.

Yitruvius (v., 1), in his rules for the building of regularly-
planned fora, says that their shape ought to be oblong, instead of
showing the square form of the older Greek agora ; the reason
for this modification being the public games (combats of gladia-
tors) whieh, according to old Italian custom, were held in them.
For this purpose the oblong form seems to have been the more
convenient one. In order not to obstruct the view of the specta-
tors, the columns of the surrounding colonnades ought to stand at
considerable distances from each other. Inside these colonnades
shops (tabemcB argentarice, i. e., money-changers' offices) ought
to be built, with a second story above them. The width of the

THE FORUM OF YE LEI A.

4cl7

forum ought to be equal to two-thirds of its length. The latter
rule is strictly followed in the forum of the Ligurian town of
Yeleia, formerly mentioned by us (see Fig. 429, from Antolini's
design). The open space (1) is 150 Roman palms long by 100
wide ; it is surrounded on three sides by colonnades (14), the sin-
gle Doric columns of which are ranged at considerable distances
from each other. In the open space several pieces of solid ma-
sonry (2), most likely the remains of decorative monuments, have
been discovered. A still-existing canal surrounded the whole
area in order to drain off the water ; a stripe of marble (marked
in our plan by thinner lines), with a bronze inscription on it»

Fig. 429.

J-™
RJfamaaw.

lay right across the forum : according to the inscription, L. Lu-
cilius Priscus had the Forum paved with stone slabs (laminis
stravit) at his expense. A temple (3) occupies the centre of the
side on which one enters the square, the entrance being through
small passages leading past the temple, not unlike the fauces of
private houses.1 To right and left of the temple lie two good-
sized rooms, one of them (4, 6) believed to be the dwelling of the
priest, the other (5) a meeting-hall (comitium) reserved for the
deliberations of religious communities. On entering the forum
through the temple or the fauces, one sees to the left a row of

1 The temple itself has been mentioned by us (§
of an amphiprostvlos.
27

as one of the rare examples

418 THE FORUM OF VELEIA.

shops (9), opening into the surrounding colonnades ; 10, on the
same side, marks another entrance, through which one ascends the
forum by means of steps ; 7 and 8 have been explained as prisons.
Opposite the temple lies a large building, generally called a basil-
ica (10), with chalcidica (11) on both sides ; it bounds the area in
its full width. 13 is supposed to be another larger and detached
chalcidicum : an inscription found there says that Bsebia Basilla
presented a chalcidicum to her fellow-citizens. The space be-
tween this chalcidicum and the supposed dwelling of the priest is
generally considered as the site of the aerarjum. In this Forum
was undoubtedly kept the large inscription, the finding of which
led to the rediscovery of Yeleia itself : it is written on a plate of
bronze 8 feet 8 inches long by 4 feet 4 inches high, and is be-
lieved to be the largest inscription on metal in existence ; it is
known by the name of tabula alimentayria, because it contains the
regulations of Trajan for the keeping of the orphans and other
poor children of the town, the number provided for being 246
boys (pueri alimenta/rii) and 35 girls (puelloe alimentarice). Be-
sides a separate fund for 19 other children, a sum of 1,044,000
sestertii (about £11,344) was mortgaged on houses and land in Ye-
leia, the interest of which at 5 per cent, was divided among the
children.

Much more splendid than the Forum of Yeleia was that of
Pompeii : the remains of the buildings surrounding it seem to
indicate a uniform architectural design. Including the colon-
nades in front of the curee its length is 160 metres, its medium
width from north to south 42 metres. An uninterrupted colon-
nade surrounds the Forum on the western long side, the southern
narrow side, and part of the eastern long side. On the remaining
sides the colonnade is interrupted in several points. The con-
tinued colonnades carried (in accordance with Yitruvius's precept)
a second story, the former existence of which is proved by the
preserved: staircase leading up to it. On the north side stands
the temple of Jupiter, already described (see Figs. 332 and 338) ;
to both sides of it lie two gates, that on the right being, to judge
by its remnants, a triumphal gate. It was, at the same time, the
chief entrance to the Forum. On the eastern long side, to the
left of the triumphal arch, lie the so-called Pantheon, with the
money-changers' shops (tabemce argentarice) in front of it, the

FORA VENALIA. 419

curia of the decuriones, the small so-called temple of Mercury or
Quirinus, the chalcidicum of Eumachia, and, separated from these
by a street, another edifice, perhaps a public school. On the
south side (adorned with a double colonnade), opposite the temple
of Jupiter, lie the council-houses (shown in Fig. 424) ; on the
west side the basilica (see Fig. 426) and the so-called temple of
Yenus, the long side of which latter, with its splendid colonnade,
is turned toward the Forum, but is accessible from it only by a
gate, the chief entrance to the temple lying in a street leading to
the Forum. By the side of the last-mentioned gate, in a niche,
stands an interesting monument, viz., the gauging-stone, consisting
of two tables, one on the top of the other, into the slabs of which
the normal measures have been inserted. The original is at pres-
ent in the Museum of Naples, being supplied at Pompeii by a
rough imitation. On the same side of the Forum and opening on
to it lies also a large hall (10 metres deep by 34 wide), considered
by some as a picture-gallery (stoa jpoekile) ; by Overbeck, with
better reason, as a public room for conversation.

Hitherto we have considered only the fora reserved for civic
intercourse (fora civilia), from which mercantile pursuits (barring
the shops of the money-changers) were excluded. Market-places
for the latter purposes (fora venalia) also occur in Rome and other
towns, as, for instance, markets for vegetables (forum olitorium\
oxen (f. boarium), pigs (f. suarium), fish (f. piscarium), meat and
vegetables conjointly (f. macellum), etc. In Rome itself there
were, besides the Forum Romanum, several other fora civilia,
originated by the increasing number of citizens and by the desire
on the part of the emperors to gain popularity by the erection of
splendid structures for common use. Whole blocks of houses had
frequently to be bought and leveled for the purpose. The Forum
of Julius Caesar, surrounded by double colonnades and adorned
with the splendid temple of Yenus Genitrix, has almost entirely
disappeared. We mention besides the fora of Augustus, Yespa-
pasian, Nerva (also called Forum Transitm^ium or Palladium),
and of Trajan, the last of which surpassed all the others in size and
splendor. All these fora lay grouped together on the north side
of the Forum Romanum, of which they were in a manner a
splendid continuation.

83. Our remarks about the buildings for public games and

420

THE CIRCUS OF BOVILLM.

Fig. 480.

similar enjoyments, so important for
Roman life, and so fully illustrated by
the remaining specimens, can be couched
in few words. What we have said about
the Greek hippodrome (§ 28), stadion
(§ 29), and theatre (§ 30), applies to a
prevailing extent also to the Roman cir-
cus and theatre. Peculiar to the latter
nation is only the amphitheatre ; but here
also the architectural principles of the
Greek theatre in conjunction with those of
the stadion and hippodrome may be recog-
nized. About the games of the circus iludi
circenses), the theatrical representations,
and the fights of the gladiators, we shall
have to speak at greater length hereafter.
Fig. 430 shows the plan of a circus or
race-course discovered, in 1823, among the
ruins of the old Bovillse, a small town in
Latium lying on the Yia Appia, at the
foot of the Albanian Mountains. It is
comparatively small, much smaller, for
instance, than the race-courses in Rome.
The foundations are of simple construc-
tion, and show a very moderate use of the
vault, generally one of the grandest and
most characteristic features of similar
structures. On the other hand, it is
more than usually well-preserved, partic-
ularly that part of it where the race
began; it resembles the hippaphesis of
the hippodrome of Olympia, and is one
of the most essential features of the
whole arrangement. We are speaking of
the compartments for the single chariots
(carceres), being placed in a line at once
curved and oblique, in order to produce
equal distance from the point where
the real race began (see plan, Fig.

CIRCUS MAXIMUS IN ROME.

421

430). The number of these carceres, in the middle of which
lay the entrance-portal, was twelve : on the two sides are tower-
like buildings (qppida), occurring also in other race-courses. In
one of these towers we discover steps leading to the seats on
the roofs of the carceres. In the middle of the course lies the
spina (a raised line), with the metw (goals) at both ends ; round
these the chariots had to race a certain number of times. In the
centre of the semicircular curve of the course, opposite the car-
ceres, lies the triumphal gate (porta triumphalis) through which
the victor left the circus.

Fig. 431.

The same arrangements, on a large scale, we find repeated in
the numerous race-courses of Rome itself. We mention only the
Circus Maxim us, lying in the broad valley between the Palatine
and Aventine hills. This circus (afterward, in comparison to oth-
er smaller ones, called "the largest") is said to have been built
by King Tarquinius Priscus, who also arranged the seats of the
people, according to their division, into thirty curiae. In Tar-
quinius Superbus's time already the circus was enlarged and the
seats rearranged, which process of enlargement and embellish-
ment was, in the course of a thousand years, repeated frequently,
the last restorer being Constantine or his son Constantius. The

422 TEE ROMAN TEEATBE.

additions consisted of massive buildings in several stories, by
means of which the number of seats was gradually increased from
150,000 to 260,000, according to a later account even to 383,000 ?
The circus has entirely disappeared, the regulated formation of the
sides of the valley being the only trace of its existence. Fig. 431
shows its original aspect ; we there see the raised substructure
{podium) and the different stories of the spectators' seats {mmni-
ana), overlooked on the left by the imperial palaces, also the spina
with its manifold decorations (the goals, several sanctuaries, an
obelisk, etc.), and the porta triumphalis.

The stadia, of which there was a considerable number in Eome,
exactly resemble those of the Greeks.

84. "After the market-place has been designed," Yitruvius
continues (v., 3, et seq.), tC a very healthy spot must be chosen for
the theatre, where the people can witness the dramas on the feast-
days of the immortal gods." Unless a natural rising of the ground
had been made use of, as was mostly the case in Greece, founda-
tions and substructures had to be built. "On this basement
marble or stone steps {gradationes) must be raised." The latter
remark refers to the place for the spectators, which, in analogy to
the koTKov {see § 30), was called cavea (hollow). Part of it was
the orchestra, which was not, as in Greek theatres, used for the
performance, but contained seats for the spectators. The seats
were, as in the Greek theatre, interrupted by parallel passages
{prceeinetiones — Bia^cofiara), the name of the several divisions
being mceniana.

" The number of the prgecinctiones," Yitruvius continues,
" must be in proportion to the height of the theatre. They ought
not to be higher than they are broad ; for if they were higher
they would throw the voices back toward the top, and thus pre-
vent those occupying the uppermost seats above the prgecinctiones
from hearing the words distinctly. A line drawn from the high-
est sitting-step {gradus) ought to touch all the corners or edges of
the steps, so as nowhere to impede the voice." After having
treated in the following chapters (iv. and v.) of several acoustic
calculations and contrivances, Yitruvius (chapters v. and vii.) adds
some prescriptions as to the size and proportions of the stage and

1 According to the latest calculations, the circus, in late imperial times, must have
contained 480,000 seats. It is about 21,000 feet long by 400 wide.

THEATRE OF SYRACUSE.

423

of the place for the spectators. The orchestra, like the sitting-
steps rising round it, ought to be semicircular in shape. Between
the orchestra, where the arm-chairs of the senators are placed, and
the back wall (frons scence) lies the stage {jpulpiUc7n\ which ought
to be twice as long as the diameter of the orchestra, and wider
than the Greek stage, because in the Roman theatre " all the act-
ors act on the stage. . . . The height of the pulpitum must be
above five feet, so as to enable those sitting in the orchestra to
see the gestures of the actors."

The sitting-steps of the spectators are to be divided not only
horizontally by the prascinctiones, but also into wedge-like parts
(cunei) by means of stairs. In the same manner, radiating from
the centre of the orchestra, are to be designed the entrances, lying
between the walls of the substructure (also designed as radii).

Fig. 432.

Care must be taken not to let the entrance-passages to the upper
seats cross those to the lower, so that on leaving their seats the
people may not press on each other (chap. iii.).

Having considered Yitruvius's precepts, we now must turn to
some of the remaining specimens of theatres. Fig. 432 (scale, 100
Sicilian palms) shows the cross-section of the theatre of Syracuse,
being, as we mentioned before (§ 30), a Greek structure with Eo-
man additions. The cavea lying on the slope is of Greek origin.
The seats are made of the rock itself. The remaining parts of
the stage-wall indicate Eoman origin : with the aid of these rem-
nants a reconstructive design of the two stories of the skene has
been attempted. The colonnade of the spectators' place also is a
Eoman addition.

Of Eoman theatres we mention that built by Pompeius, b. c.

424

THEATRE OF POMPEIUS.

55. All previous theatres, although splendidly decorated,1 had
been built of wood, to be pulled down after the festive perform-
ances were over. Of the theatre of Pompeius little remains ; but
a fragment of the old plan of Rome enables us to distinguish its
general design, and even the arrangement of the single parts {see
Fig. 433). The cavea (a) contained, it is said, 40,000 seats ; it
shows the above-mentioned radiating direction of the walls, be-
tween which the entrance-passages of the spectators lay, and on

Fig. 433.

which the sitting-steps rested. The. stage (b b) shows a skene-wall
richly decorated with columns and semicircular niches. " Behind
the stage lies a portico (e), in order," as Yitruvius adds (chapter
ix.), " that, in case the play is interrupted by a shower of rain,
the people may find refuge there ; also in order to give the cho-
ragi room for arranging the chorus." The design of this por-
tico indicates various embellishments : the ancients indeed boast

1 The theatre of Scaurus already mentioned, built 52 b. a, had 80,000 seats. The
stage-wall was three stories high and adorned with 360 marble colums partly of co-
lossal size. The wall of the first story was coated with marble, that of the second
with glass (most likely colored glass mosaic), that of the third with plates of gilt met-
al. Between the columns bronze statues, to the almost incredible number of 3,000,
were placed, not to mention various other decorations.

THEATRE OF MARGELLUS.

425

of its statues and valua-
ble tapestry, also of the
groves, fountains, wild
animals, etc., found in it.
Another theatre, in a
better state of preserva-
tion, is that built by
Augustus (after a plan of
Caesar), and called by him
after the name of his
nephew Marcellus. It was
opened b. c. 13, the same
year in which the theatre
of Cornelius Balbus was
completed. These three
were the only theatres in
Home. The theatre of
Marcellus stood near the
hall called after his mother
Octavia : during the mid-
dle ages the Savelli family
used the remains of the
theatre for the erection of
their palace, at present
owned by the Orsinis.
The passages between the
foundation - walls of the
theatre are at present used
as offices, and part of the
old wall of the cavea may
still be recognized in the
inclosing wall of the pal-
ace. The cavea was semi-
circular in shape, and
rose in three stories, the
two lower of which were
adorned with arcades and
Doric and Ionic semi-
columns, while the upper
one consisted of a mas-
sive wall adorned with

426

THEATRE OF MARCELLUS.

Korinthian pilasters — an arrangement which (but for the addi-
tional fourth story, here wanting) resembled that found in the
Coliseum (compare Fig. 439). Fig. 434, after Canina's design,
shows the cross-section of the interior, containing 30,000 seats.
We there see the form of the substructure with the stairs and
passages, also the corridors, already described in the theatre
of Pompeius, which surround the cavea and open into the ar-
cades, also mentioned in the above. The rows of seats of the
cavea rise in beautiful proportions from the orchestra and the low
podium ; they are divided into two parts by a prsecinctio, tallying

-& m — -s~m m~%

Fig. 435.

in this respect, and also as regards the cunei, with the precepts
of Vitruvius. The upper end is finished off by a colonnade, which
also contains places for the spectators, and which is mentioned by
Vitruvius among the necessary requirements of a Koman theatre.
" The roof of the arcade," he says (chap, vii.), " ought to corre-
spond with the height of the skene, because in that case the voice
spreads simultaneously to the upper ranks and the roof ; while
if the two differ in height the voice is broken by the first lower
point it encounters." On the roof of the arcade the ropes
were fastened, by means of which a canvas could be stretched

THEATRE OF HERODES ATTIGVS. 427

over the cavea, so as to protect the spectators from the sun (see
§85).

About the stage itself little was known till the discovery of
the theatre of Aspendos in Pamphilia ; the closer investigation of
the Roman theatre at Orange, in the south of France, has also
yielded, interesting results as to this important portion of the
antique theatre (see Lohde's work, "Die Skene der Alten").
Besides these two buildings we mention the theatre of Herod at
Athens, the stage of which seems to show a similar arrangement.
The latter theatre, counting among the best-preserved antique
buildings of Athens, lies on the western side of the southern slope
of the Akropolis, the seats being worked into the rock. Skene
and paraskenia have been well preserved, rising partly up to
three stories, interrupted by arcades. The end wall of the hypo-
skenion, which carried the logeion, and the stairs leading up to the
stage, have been partly recovered by recent excavations. These
arrangements have been imitated from Greek architecture, while
the magnificent stage-building itself shows the Roman method.
The cavea (Fig. 435, B) lying toward the rock of the Akropolis
is divided into two ranks of sitting-steps by means of a preecinc-
tio 4 feet wide : the lower division contained twenty, the upper
most likely thirteen steps ; the latter are completely destroyed.
The height of each step is 1£ foot : the lower section of steps is
again divided by six, the upper one by twelve, staircases. The or-
chestra (A) is semi-elliptical in shape, its diameter being 60 feet
long ; it is paved with square slabs of white Pentelic marble and
of Oipollino from Karystos, the latter with green, yellow, or gray
veins. As in Greek theatres, the lowest row of steps does not
immediately touch the stage, but is divided from it by the
parodoi (D D). The stage, 24 feet deep, lies 4£ feet above the
floor of the orchestra. The skene-wall contains three doors,
through one of which one enters a room (I), the remains of which,
like those of the rooms marked E E and F F, show the traces of
a vaulted ceiling. The theatre was built between 160 and 170 a. d.
by Herodes Atticus of Marathon, celebrated for his wealth and
his oratorical talents : to him Athens also owes the Panathenaic
stadion on the ' Ilissos. When Pausanias visited Athens this
theatre had not yet been erected ; in another passage he speaks of
it as an odeum, and counts it among the most splendid buildings

428

THEATRE OF ORANGE.

in Greece. Philostrates calls it the theatre of Annia Regilla, the
deceased wife of Herod, in whose honor her husband erected it.
According to the same author, its roof consisted of cedar-wood, a
remarkable feature in a building of such dimensions.

Fig. 436 gives a perspective view of the repeatedly-mentioned
theatre of Orange, the stage of which is in perfect preservation.
The cavea lies on the slope of a hill. Behind the richly decorated
skene-wall lies a narrow building of three stories, the facade of
which, adorned with arcades, is seen in our illustration. Between
the wall of the skene and the outer wall are several staircases.
The stage-building is 103.15 metres long by 36.821 high; the

Fig. 486.

length of the proskenion, from paraskenion to paraskenion, is
61.20 metres ; the distance between its facing wall and the centre
door of the skene-wall is 13.20, that from the two side-doors 18
metres : an oblique roof of timber covered this whole space (see
Lohde, " Die Skene der Alten," p. 5, et seq.).

Of a similar kind was the arrangement ol the theatre of
Aspendos (see Fig. 437, where the position of the oblique roof of
the stage may be distinguished). The spectators' seats lie on the
slope of the hill on which the town of Aspendos is situated. The
rows of seats rise from the semicircular orchestra, which first is
surrounded by a podium of considerable height. A diazoma
divides the rows of seats into two stories, the upper one of which

THEATRE OF ASPENDOS.

429

is surrounded by arcades, with a barrel-vaulted niche attached to
each of them. The cavea is more than usually well preserved.
The top of the arcades is on a level with that of the skene-wall,
in accordance with Vitruvius's precept. The wall of the skene
rises in three stories, richly adorned with columns, which have
disappeared ; the projecting beams carried by them are, however,
still visible, as are also the gables. All these projecting parts,
and the window-sills of the first stories, are made of marble;
the wall itself consists of large blocks of a kind of breccia, joined
together without mortar ; the whole back-wall of the skene was
once adorned in an encaustic manner. Above the third series of

Fig. 437.

columns lay the oblique roof covering the whole stage : traces of
its insertion into the wall of the proskenion may be discovered in
our illustration. Besides the usual three doors, two apertures
in the wall of the paraskenion opened on to the stage, similar
to those in the theatres of Herod and at Orange. Above each
of these two doors the walls of the proskenion contain two other
openings, leading, most likely, to small balconies or boxes for
distinguished spectators. The building behind the wall of the
skene is narrow, as at Orange. It had three stories, the middle
one of which communicated by a door with the space which lay

430 THE AMPEITHEATRE.-THEATRE OF CURIO.

between the wall of the skene and the back scene, put in front of
it during the performance.

85. We now have to mention a building unique as regards
mechanical appliances, and important for us in so far as it un-
doubtedly was the intermediate step to another class of edifices
for public amusement. We are speaking of the building erected
by C. Curio during his tribunate (b. c. 50) for an enormous sum
of money, given to him by Caesar for the furthering of party

y&JUu.

Fig. 438.

purposes. Both the stone theatre of Pompey (55 b. c.) and the
wooden one of Scaurus were already in existence. A new con-
trivance of astonishing boldness had to be invented, so as to
excite the admiration of the multitude. Pliny (Hist. Nat.,
xxxvi., 24, 8) gives the following description of the astonishing
structure : " He (Curio) built two wooden theatres by the side of
each other, each of them kept its balance by means of movable
pegs. In the forenoon comedies were performed on them, and
the two theatres were turned away from each other, so that the

AMPHITHEATRES OF ROME AND CAPUA. 431

noises on the two stages should not interfere with each other.
All of a sudden they were whirled round, so as to stand opposite
each other ; in the evening the wooden partitions of the stages
were removed, the ends of the sitting-steps (cornua) touched each
other, and an amphitheatre was thus created, in which Curio,
after having endangered the lives of the people themselves,
arranged battles of gladiators." Pliny strongly reproves both
tribune and people for trusting their lives to a fragile wooden
machinery.

Whether this was the first attempt at constructing an amphi-
theatre we cannot tell ; certain it is that foar years later Caesar
built an edifice for the battles of gladiators and the fights of ani-
mals, which resembled the bold attempt of Curio, and to which
the name of amphitheatrum was technically applied.1 It was
built of wood, but richly decorated. The first stone amphitheatre
in Rome was built during the reign of Augustus by Statilius
Taurus, the friend of that emperor; it was destroyed by fire
under Nero. The amphitheatres, to which the gladiatorial bat-
tles formerly fought in the forum or circus were transferred,
became so popular in consequence, that even provincial towns
went to enormous expenses in erecting them. Fig. 438 shows
the plan of the amphitheatre of Capua, consisting of an oval
arena surrounded by rows of seats. It was built at the expense
of the town, after the model of the Flavian amphitheatre in
Rome, from which the substructure and the arrangement of the
sitting-steps and of the stairs leading up to them are imitated
almost exactly. It nearly equaled the size of its model, being the
second largest of all the amphitheatres known to us. An inscrip-
tion says that the Emperor Hadrian added the columns and their
roof, meaning the colonnade surrounding the highest row of steps,
as in a theatre (compare Fig. 434). Underneath the arena were
vaulted chambers (also found in the Flavian amphitheatre), des-

1 Amphitheatrum means literally a building with a dedrpov, spectators' place or
cavea, on two sides. The buildings for the so-called naumachia (naval battles) also
had the form of amphitheatres. Hirt (he. cit.} hi, 159) points out that the elliptical
shape was chosen in preference to the circular as it held more spectators on an
equal space ; the greater length of the arena, moreover, left more freedom to the
movements of men and animals than a circle would have done. Acoustic consid-
erations were out of the question, as there was nothing to be heard, but only some-
thing to be seen.

432

THE COLISEUM.

tined for the keeping of the wild animals, also for making the
necessary preparations for the performances.

The Flavian amphitheatre, better known as the Coliseum,
was begun by Yespasian, and completed by his successor Titus, on
the site of a large pond (stagna Neronis) in the " Golden House "
of Nero. Augustus is said to have planned an amphitheatre to
be erected on the same spot. It is said to have contained 87,000
seats (loco), and was, owing to its central situation, one of the
most favorite places of amusement of the Roman people. Its
plan is shown in Fig. 438. The arena, underneath which vaulted

Fig. 439.

chambers have been discovered, has the form of an ellipse, the
larger diameter measuring 264, the smaller 156 feet. The sur-
rounding edifice has a uniform depth of 155 feet, which gives a
total diameter of 574 feet, or of 466 feet for the inclosing outer
wall. The latter was interrupted by eighty arcades, forming the
openings of the numerous systematically arranged corridors and
staircases of the interior. The lowest row of these arcades
(vomitoria) is adorned with Doric, the second story with Ionic,
and the third with Korinthian semi-columns. The fourth story
consists of a wall adorned with Korinthian pilasters, and inter-

THE COLISEUM.

433

rupted by windows. The total height is 156 feet. Figs. 439 and
441 show views of the exterior and interior of the Coliseum in
its present state. In the upper story 240 small projections are
conspicuous, to which answer as many openings in the chief cor-
nice. These were destined to carry masts, to which ropes were
fastened, to support an awning {velarium) stretched across the
enormous space. The section (Fig. 440, from a design by Fontana,
modified by Hirt) serves to illustrate the interior arrangements
(compare also Fig. 434). The Coliseum consists almost entirely
of travertine freestone, carefully hewn ; the interior, partly built

Fig. 440.

of bricks, has considerably suffered during the middle ages. At
one time it served as the castle of the Frangipani family ; at
another it was systematically ransacked for building-materials
(the Palazzo della Cancelleria, Palazzo Farnese, and Palazzo di
S. Marco have been built of such) ; but its grand forms have
withstood all these attempts at destruction. In the substructure
of the rows of seats, the corridors {itinera), passages, and stairs
leading up to them, are still recognizable. The lowest part of the
spectators' place, viz., the podium, has been built higher than was
the custom in theatres : as a further means of protection against
28

434

THE COLISEUM.

the wild animals in the arena other contrivances were added.
Near the podium were the seats of the imperial family, of the
highest magistrates, and of the Vestals ; at the back of them fol-
lowed the ordinary rows of seats in three stories (mceniana, cor-
responding to those of the exterior arcades), the lower of which,
containing about twenty steps (gradus, no more in existence), was
reserved for magistrates and knights, the next following one (of
about sixteen steps) for Eoman citizens. ' The prsecinction-wall,
between the second and third stories, is higher than usual, and the
upper rows themselves show a steeper ascent than the lower ones,
in order to enable the spectators seated there to overlook the arena.

Fig. 441.

This highpraecinction-wall, called balteus, was richly decorated (ac-
cording to Hirt, with glass mosaic) in the same manner as that
of the theatre of Scaurus. The fourth story, the steps of which
were considerably higher than those of the lower rows, was sur-
rounded with an open portico, also richly decorated. Here were
the seats for the women, and perhaps at both ends of the longer
diameter, those for the common people. The differences of rank
and station coexisting with the legal equality of the Eoman peo-
ple appear thus distinctly marked in the Coliseo, which, in a man-
ner, becomes the symbol of the grandeur and variegated develop-
ment of the nation itself.

GENERAL REMARKS ABOUT ROMAN UTENSILS. 435

86. We now turn to the consideration of the implements of
domestic use ; our knowledge of these is much more accurate than
of those of Greek origin, owing, to a great extent, to the preser-
vation of the dwelling-house itself, to which these utensils belong.
We have mentioned before how, during the eruption of Vesuvius
(79 a. d.), Herculaneum and Stabise were more or less destroyed
by a stream of lava, while Pompeii was first covered with a shower
of glowing rajpilli, on which lava afterward collected. Only in
1748 Pompeii was rediscovered by an accident. At Herculaneum
the hardened lava could only partially be removed : at Pompeii,
on the other hand, the layers of loose ashes, to a depth of seven to
eight metres, offered comparatively little difficulty to attempts at
excavation. At first these excavations were made without plan
or system ; the recovered objects were left for a long time at the
mercy of the weather, not to speak of the spoliation of unculti-
vated or unprincipled persons. Arditi, in 1812, was the first to
bring system into the work; and, after the expulsion of the
Bourbons, Fiorelli has continued his predecessor's efforts, intro-
ducing at the same time a new method, viz., that of horizontal
instead of vertical digging ; in this manner, the former danger of
the houses breaking down as soon as their props were taken away,
has been removed. A little less than one-half of Pompeii has
thus been discovered. The wall, about 10,000 feet long, surround-
ing the whole town in the shape of an irregular oval, shows Pom-
peii to have been of moderate dimensions ; but the numerous pub-
lic buildings and the comfort of many of the private houses prove
the wealth of the citizens. Pompeii, and (in a lesser degree) many
other seats of Roman culture, have yielded from among their
ruins a rich harvest of utensils and implements of daily life and

436 GENERAL REMARKS ABOUT ROMAN UTENSILS.

intercourse, such as vessels (of metal, glass, and earthenware),
lamps, armor, jewelry, coins, etc. Most of these have passed into
private and public collections; numerous valuable objects have
been purloined and destroyed by the finders.

In looking at these utensils, and comparing them with similar
objects of Greek origin, we have to consider the question whether
they were really of Roman make — that is, worked by Roman
artificers. In trying to answer this question we must briefly
touch upon the political history of Rome. To south and north
of the Roman territory, the country was inhabited by nations
superior to the Romans in both material and intellectual respects.
We are speaking of the Greek colonies in the southern, and of
the Etruscan cities in the more northern, parts of Italy. The
splendor of both nations, however, was waning when they came
into contact with their less-civilized neighbors : first the Etruscans,
and after them the Greeks, had to submit to the superior military
tactics of the Romans. The military spirit of the conquerors
prevented them at first from adopting the higher culture of the
vanquished. At the same time it must be remembered that at an
early period Etruscan artists adorned the public edifices of Rome
with the works of their handicraft ; moreover, the statues of gods
and other works of art, brought to Rome as booty from the con-
quered and devastated Etruscan cities, formed an intellectual and
religious link between conquerors and conquered. Political mo-
tives thus cooperated with growing artistic culture. The statue
of the Juno Regina was. brought from Yeii by Camillus, that of
Jupiter Imperator from Prseneste by Cincinnatus, with a view to
amalgamating the nations.

Of still greater importance was the treasure of master-works
of art and culture found by the Romans in the cities of Magna
Grsecia and Sicily, such as Capua, Tarentum, and Syracuse, further
augumented by the spoils of the Greek peninsula, Macedon, and
the Asiatic empires. The art-treasures paraded in the three
days' triumph by Quinctius Flaminius and Paullus iEmilius, the
conquerors of Philip and Perseus of Macedon, were of enormous
value. Roman praetors used to ransack their Greek provinces for
valuable objects of art : Scaurus, for instance, adorned his theatre
with Greek statues and pictures acquired in this manner ; and,

GENERAL REMARKS ABOUT ROMAN UTENSILS. 437

when his villa at Tusculum was burned by his enraged slaves,
Greek works of art to the value of about £600,000 are said to
have perished in the flames. Omitting many other instances of
spoliation, we remind the reader only of that of Nero, by which
Delphi and Olympia were deprived of the statues still remaining
there. Thus Italy was flooded with the creations of Greek genius,
and the craving for foreign art diffused among all classes of the
Eomans could not but throw into the background the productions
of native artists. Many Greek artificers, moreover, came to Rome
as the best market for their wares : even among the Greek slaves
artistic talent was of no rare occurrence. In this way Greek
patterns became prevalent, not only in high art but also in
mechanical handicrafts. Even at a later period, when Greek art
itself had declined, and Roman customs and ideas had, to a great
extent, absorbed the national peculiarities of the conquered races,
the artistic creations of what is generally called the national
Roman style are, for the greater part, only reminiscences of
originally Greek ideas. At Pompeii, also, much of what we now
call Roman is undoubtedly of Greek origin ; the compositions of
the best wall-paintings and mosaics breathe Greek spirit, as
might be expected in a town which, although Romanized to a
great extent, still retained traces of its Greek origin. Never-
theless, most of these wall-paintings, mosaics, and other objects of
art and industry, although perhaps composed by Greek artists, or
after Greek patterns, are justly denominated Roman, as they
undoubtedly belong to the period of municipal power and inde-
pendence, which fostered the growth of the Roman national
element.

87. Seats and couches are sufficiently illustrated by wall-paint-
ings at Pompeii and Herculaneum, and by the remaining speci-
mens. The simple folding-stool with crossed legs, the backless
chair with four perpendicular legs, the chair with a low or high
back, and the state-throne (see § 31) — all these were made after
Greek patterns. The word sella is the generic term for the differ-
ent classes of chairs comprised in the Greek diphroi and klismoi ;
only the chair with a back to it is distinguished as cathedra. The
form of the cathedra resembles that of our ordinary drawing-room
chairs but for the wider, frequently semicircular, curve of the

438

SEATS.

back, which greatly adds to the comfort of the seated person.
Soft cushions, placed both against the back and on the seat, mark
the cathedra as a piece of furniture belonging essentially to the
women's apartments ; the more effeminate men of a later period,
however, used these fauteuils in preference. The marble statues

of the younger Faustina (Fig. 469)
and of Agrippina the wife of Ger-
manicus, both in the gallery of Flo-
rence (Clarac, "Musee," Pis. 955, 930),
are seated on cathedrae. The legs of
the chairs were frequently shaped in
some graceful fashion, and adorned
with valuable ornaments of metal and
ivory ; tasteful turnery Was also often
applied to them : all this is suffi-
ciently proved by the wall-paintings
(compare Fig. 471). Different from
these chairs is the solium, the dignified
form of which designates it as the seat
of honor for the master of the house,
or as the throne of rulers of the state and gods; it answers,
therefore, to the thronos of the Greeks. The richly-decorated
back rises perpendicularly sometimes up to the height of the
shoulders, at others, above the head, of the seated person ; two
elbows, mostly of massive workmanship, are attached to the
back. The throne stands on a strong base or on high legs ; it
was generally made of solid, heavy materials. Of the wooden
solium, seated on which the patron gave advice to his clients,
naturally no specimen remains; but we possess several marble
thrones, most likely the seats of emperors, and others placed, ac-
cording to Greek custom, near the divine images in the temples.
A marble throne of the first-mentioned class, richly decorated with
sculptures, is in the Koyal Collection of Antiques in Berlin. Fig.
442 shows a throne from a temple — one of the two of the kind
preserved in the Louvre. The symbolical sculptures on the inner
surface of the back, both above and below the seat, consisting of
a pair of winged snakes, the mystical basket, and the sickle, also
the two torches serving in a manner as props of the back, seem

Fig. 442.

THE SELLA CURULIS. 439

to indicate its connection with the worship of Ceres. The seat is
supported by two sphinxes, the wings of which form the elbows
of the chair. The companion-chair in the Louvre shows the
Bacchic attributes arranged in a similar manner. Similar thrones
of gods occur frequently in Pompeian wall-paintings and on
Roman coins ; we also mention in connection with the subject a
wall-painting at Herculaneum ("Pitture antiche d'Ercolano,"
vol. i., p. 155). These thrones generally show light, graceful
forms of legs, and broad seats covered with soft cushions ; the
back and elbows are frequently enveloped in rich folds of drapery.
Of the two thrones in the Herculaneum wall-painting referred to,
one has a helmet, the other a dove, on its seat — the respective
emblems of Mars and Yenus. The solium used by the magistrates
of the republic was without back or elbows.

Peculiar to the Romans was the sella curulis, a folding-stool
with curved legs placed crosswise ; at first it was made of ivory,
afterward of metal : it most likely dates from the times of the
kings. At that period it was in reality a seat on wheels, from
which the kings exercised their legal functions : afterward the sella
curulis, although deprived of its wheels, remained the attribute of
certain magistrates ; it was placed on the tribunal, from the height
of which the judge pronounced his sentence. The use of the sella
curulis was permitted to the consuls, praetors, propraetors, and the
curulian aediles ; also to the dictator, the magister equitum, the
decemviri, and, at a later period, the quaestor. Among priests,
only the Flamen Dialis enjoyed the same privilege, together with
a seat in the senate. On some of the denarii of Roman families,
such as the Gens Caecilia, Cestia, Cornelia, Furia,
Julia, Livineia, Plaetoria, Pompeia, Yaleria, we fre- yf7 ^\
quently see the sella curulis connected with the , ESjjSjHj' M
names of those members of the gens who held one I %&*% /)
of the curulian offices. Fasces, lituus, crowns, and s^^^ks
branches, frequently are arranged round the chair FiQ 448
to indicate the particular function of the magis-
trate. Fig. 443 shows the reverse of a coin of the Gens Furia,
with a sella curulis depicted on it. On the chair are inscribed
the words P. FOYRIYS ; underneath it we read, CRASSIPES :
the other side of the coin shows the crowned head of Cybele

440 BEDS.

with the inscription, AED. CYR. The emperors also claimed the
privilege of the sella cnrnlis. The marble statue of the Emperor
Claudius in the Villa Albani (Clarac, " Musee," PL 936, B) is, for
instance, seated on the sella curulis, or rather sella irwperatoria.
Several bronze legs of chairs, in the Museo Borbonico, worked
like necks of animals and placed crosswise, most likely belonged
to chairs of this kind. The subsellium, a low bench with room

for several persons, was destined
for the magistrates of the people,
i. e., for the tribuni and sediles
plebis. Silver coins of the Gens
Calpurnia, Critonia, Fannia, and
Statilia, show this bench always oc-
cupied by two sediles (see Kiccio,
" Le Monete delle antiche Famiglie
di Roma," Tavs. x., xvii., xx., xlv.).
Another seat of honor was the bisellium, a very broad chair, or
rather double chair, without a back, destined for the decuriones
and augustales. Two bronze bisellia have been found at Pompeii,
one of which is shown, Fig. 444.

88. The couches and beds show the same elegance and comfort
as the chairs. We need only add a few remarks to what we
have already said about Greek couches (§ 32). The body of the
bed, made either of wood inlaid with ivory and tortoise-shell, or
of valuable metal (lecti eborati, testudinei, inargentati, inaurati),
rested on gracefully-formed legs. Sometimes the whole bed-
frame was made of bronze, and in a few cases (e. g., the bed of
Elagabalus) of solid silver. A bronze bed-frame somewhat re-
sembling our iron truckle-beds may be seen on an Etruscan tomb
(see " Museum Gregorianum," vol. i., Tav. 16). A bronze trellis-
work here carries the mattress, instead of the more usual web-
bing ( fasciae, institoe, tenia cubilia). The mattress (torus), origi-
nally filled with straw, was afterward stuffed with sheep's wool
(tomentum) or the down of (particularly German) geese and swans ;
Elagabalus chose the soft plumage under the wings of the partridge
for his mattresses. Bolsters and cushions (culcita) were stuffed
with the same material (see, for instance, Zahn's " Schonste
Ornamente," Series iii., Taf. 41). Blankets and sheets (vestes

COUCHES. 441

stragulw), according to the owner's wealth, made either of simple
material or dyed and adorned with embroidered or woven patterns
and borders, were spread over the cushions and bolsters. One or
several pillows (pulvinus) served to prop the head (whence their
name cervicalia) or the left elbow of the sleeping or reclining
persons (compare the couches in Fig. 232 and those in Figs. 187
to 190, the latter of which, although taken from Greek vase-
paintings, are equally illustrative of Roman forms). Footstools
(subsellia, scdbella, scamna), used for mounting high thrones and
beds, or with cathedrae for resting the feet, were as general among
the Romans as among the Greeks. Wooden bed-frames, like
all other wooden utensils, have been destroyed at Pompeii ; but
we see many couches (on the average 2.50 metres long by 1
wide) let into the walls of the niches of bedrooms ; these niches,
as, for instance, that in the villa of Diomedes, could be closed by
means of curtains or pasteboard partitions (" Spanish walls ").J
As we said before, the couch was used, not only for sleeping, but
also for meditating, reading, and writing in a reclining position,
the left arm leaning on the cushions. This custom was undoubt-
edly adopted from the Greek. The two names, derived from the
different purposes, lectus cubicularius and lectus lucubratorius,
most likely apply to one and the same kind of couch ; perhaps in
the latter there was attached to the back of the couch (pluteus)
nearest the head a contrivance like our reading-desks, to put books
and writing-materials on ; a similar contrivance is mentioned in
connection with the cathedra.

In later times, when the simple custom of sitting at their
meals was abandoned by the Romans, men used to lie down to
their meals on couches. The wife sat on the foot-end of the
lectus, the children on separate chairs, and the servants on benches
(subselliitm). This custom, as illustrated by numerous bass-reliefs,
was limited to the family circle. In the dining-rooms (triclinium),
where guests were received, a particular arrangement of the
couches became necessary. A square table stood in the centre
of the triclinium (several of which are perfectly preserved at
Pompeii) surrounded on three sides by so many low couches

1 See a picture of the remains of such a partition found at Pompeii in Overbeck's
" Pompeji," second edition, ii., p. 48.

442

THE LE V TVS TRIGLINAEIS.

Fig. 445.

{lectus triclinaris), while the fourth side remained open to the
access of the attending slaves. Fig. 445 shows the arrangement
of a triclinium. M indicates the table surrounded by the three
couches. The latter, as is proved by several couches made of ma-
sonry at Pompeii (Ma-
zois, " Ruines de Pom-
pei,"t. i., PI. 20), had the
edge nearest the table
slightly raised (compare
the summer triclinium in
the background of Fig.
j. 390). The couch was
ascended by the guests
(accubare) on the lower
side, the space between
the edge of the table and
the couch being too nar-
row for a person to pass.
Each couch had room for three persons reclining in the direction
of the arrow in our plan ; the left arm rested on the cushions,
while the disengaged right hand was used for eating. Z. i.
mark the lowest {lectus imus), L. m. the middle (lectus medius),
and L. s. the highest {lectus summus) couch. In the same man-
ner the single seats on each couch were distinguished as locus
imus, medius, and summus. On the lectus imus 1 marks the
lowest, 3 the highest, and 2 the middle place. On the lectus
medius 3 marks the highest, 1 the lowest, and 2 the middle.
The last-mentioned place was the place of honor ; 1 was called
the locus consularis, because if a consul was present this place
was occupied by him, in order that he might be able to receive
important communications during dinner. The place on the
lectus imus (3) touching his was occupied by the host. On the
lectus summus the places followed in the reverse order of that
on the lectus imus. The stronger lines on the edges of the loci
summi mark the low backs against which the cushions belong-
ing to these seats were placed ; the cushions belonging to the
other places lay in the middle of the couch, and therefore did
not require a prop. In later times three or more triclinia were

TEE SIGMA. 443

frequently placed in one dining-room, which must have been of
considerable size, taking into account the additional space required
for the servants, dancers, musicians, etc.

About the end of the Republic the use of round tables (orbes)
instead of square ones became more frequent ; the three couches
standing at right angles were accordingly transformed into one,
the shape of which, following the curve of the table, became
semicircular, resembling the form of a Greek C, whence its name
sigma or stibadium. The two corner seats (cornua) now became
the places of honor, that on the right (in dextro cornu) being con-
sidered superior to that on the left (in cornu smistro). On a
sigma of this kind are reclining several Cupids, round a table
covered with drin king-cups (see the graceful Pompeian wall-
painting, " Museo Borbon.," vol. xv., Tav. 46). One large bolster
on the edge of the couch nearest the table serves as prop for the
left arms of the topers ; a light awning protects them from the
sun. A different arrangement we see in the wall-painting found
near the tomb of the Scipiones in the Yia Appia (Campana, " Di
due Sepolcri Romani del Secolo di Augusto, etc.," Roma, 1840.
Tav. xiv.). Here the table has the form of a crescent (mensa
hmata) ; along its outer edge is placed the sigma, on which
eleven persons are reclining, partaking of the funereal repast
(compare the description of a similar scene in " Bullettino arch.
Napoletano," 1845, p. 82). We refrain from describing the rich
ornamentation of these couches, with their bolsters and valuable
carpets, harmonizing with the wall-decorations and the mosaic
pavement of the dining-room itself.

To conclude, we mention the benches of bronze found in the
tepidarium of the thermge at Pompeii (Fig. 421), as also the
hemieyclia, semicircular stone benches, holding a greater number
of persons, such as were placed in gardens and by the side of
public roads. Two marble hemicyclia may be seen by the side of
the street of graves, near the Herculanean gate at Pompeii ; a
third bench occupies the background of a small portico opening
into the street (see " Mus. Borb.," vol. xv., Tav. 25, 26).

89. We have already made mention of square, round, and
crescenkshaped tables. The brick leg of a table, the wooden slab
of which has disappeared, may be seen in the triclinium funebre

444 TABLES.

at Pompeii; it is surrounded by three well-preserved couches.
The above-mentioned mensa lunata in a wall-painting is, on the
other hand, supported by three legs shaped like animals. Besides
these larger tables, others of smaller size, and more easily mov-
able, were in frequent use. They might be either round or
square, and were placed by the side of the couches : like the
dining-tables, they were not higher than the couches. For their
various forms we refer the reader to the Greek tables shown in
Fig. 191. The way of ornamenting the tables was far more
splendid and expensive among the Romans than among the
Greeks. ISTot only were the legs beautifully worked in wood,
metal, or stone (the graceful forms of the numerous marble and
bronze legs found at Pompeii have become the models of modern
wood-carvers), but the slabs also consisted of metal and rare kinds
of stone or wood wrought in elegant and graceful shapes. Par-
ticularly the slabs of one-legged tables {monopodia orbes) used to
be made of the rarest woods ; the wood of the Thyia cypressiodes,
a tree growing on the slopes of the Atlas, the stem of which, near
the root, is frequently several feet thick, was chosen in preference ;
the Roman name of this tree was citrus, not to be mistaken for the
citron-tree. The value of large slabs of citrus-wood was enormous.
According to Pliny, Cicero (by no means a wealthy man according
to Roman notions) spent 500,000 H. S. (about £5,400), Asinius
Pollio £10,800, King Juba £13,050, and the family of the Cethegi

£15,150, for a single slab of this
material. The value of this wood
consisted chiefly in the beautiful
lines of the veins and fibres (ma-
cula), shown to still greater advan-
tage by the polish. The Romans
classified the slabs by their designs
into tiger, panther, wavy, and pea-
FlG- m- cock-feather, etc., patterns. The

enormous price of the massive
slabs naturally led to the custom of veneering other wood
with citrus. Valuable tables of this kind were taken out of
their covers only on festive occasions. The plate and nicknacks,
always found in elegant Roman houses, were displayed on small
one or three legged tables (frapezophoron), the slabs of which

TRIPODS.

445

(abacus, a word which, like trapezophoron, is sometimes used for
the whole table) had raised edges round them : several richly-or-
namented specimens of such tables have been found at Pompeii.
Fig. 446 shows a small abacus resting on three marble legs, which
has been found in the house of the " Little Mosaic-Fountain " at
Pompeii. Another table ("Museo Borb.," vol. xv., Tav. 6),
with a slab of rosso antico resting on four graceful bronze
legs, deserves attention on account of an ingenious contrivance
between the legs, by means of which it could be lowered or
heightened at will : a similar contrivance occurs in several tri-
pods.

A table of a different kind was the tripod (delphica so. mensa),
imitated from the Greek Tplirov^,
and used chiefly at meals to put
vessels and dishes on : several
elegant specimens of the tripod
have been discovered at Pompeii.
The ends of the three legs were
generally shaped like the paws
of animals; the legs, connected
by means of metal bars and gen-
erally ornamented with figures
or foliage, carry a metal basin,
either flat-bottomed or of semi-
globular shape (Fig. 447). Wheth-
er the tripods found in the rooms
of houses were used for sacred
or profane purposes cannot al-
ways be decided with certainty.
The skulls and garlands sur-
rounding the top of our tripod
(Fig. 447) seem to indicate its

sacred character : other tripods are without any decoration. The
top of the sacred tripods generally consisted of deep, caldron-like
basins : specimens of them have been found in Etruscan graves ;
they also occur in various forms on coins and vases.

90. The numerous vases found in the graves of Italy (see § 38,
et seq.) are, as we have seen, of Greek origin, although frequently
manufactured on Eoman territory. The pictures on them illus-

Fig. 447.

446

CROCKERY.

trate myths, or scenes from the daily life of Greeks or Etrus-
cans ; we therefore have refrained from referring to them in
speaking of Roman customs and artistic achievements. As to
the degree of skill with which native Roman artificers worked
after Greek patterns we are unable to judge, seeing that most
of the specimens of Roman native pottery preserved to us be-
long to a low class of art. Local potteries were found in almost
all places of any importance ; and the former existence of manu-
factures is betrayed by the heaps of potsherds found in such
places — as, for instance, in the valley of the Neckar. Whole
vessels are, however, found very rarely. More numerous are the
specimens of clay vessels found in Roman graves: their style
and material are far inferior to those of Greek make. About the
forms of the smaller drinking and drawing vessels and ointment-
bottles (to which classes they chiefly belong), we have spoken before
(compare Fig. 198) : new to us only are the kitchen utensils of
clay, numerous interesting specimens of which have been dug
up. The destinations of most of these can be determined from
their similarity to vessels now in use. Besides these earthen-

Fig. 448.

ware vessels a great many others made of bronze have been found
at Pompeii and other Roman settlements ; their elegant and, at
the same time, useful forms excite our highest admiration. In
most cases the names occurring in ancient authors cannot, unfor-
tunately, be applied with certainty to the remaining specimens.
Figs. 448 and 449 show a variety of vessels, all found at Pompeii ;
Fig. 448, g, shows a kettle, semi-oval in shape and with a com-
paratively narrow opening, to the rim of which the handle is
fastened ; it rests on a tripod {tripes). Similar kettles, with
covers (testum, testu) fastened to their necks by means of little

KITCHEN-- UTENSILS.

447

chains, have been found in several places (" Mus. Borbon.," vol.
v., Tav. 58). A pot (plla cacabus), similar to those now in use, the
handle of which is made in the shape of a dolphin, is represented,
Fig. 448, d. Porridge, meat, and vegetables, were cooked in it.

Of pails we possess a considerable number (Fig. 448, a, b).
Their rims are adorned with graceful patterns, and the rings to
which the handles are fastened often show palmetto ornaments.
The pail, Fig. 448, b, shows small -pegs on both sides of the rings
to prevent the heavy handle from falling on the graceful rim of
the vessel ; the double handle (Fig. 448, a) served to steady the
vessel while being carried ; thus usefulness and elegance of form
were combined.

Fig. 449, y, resembles our saucepan. Two vessels of this kind,
the ends of whose horizontal handles are shaped like heads of

swans, have recently been found, the one at Teplitz in Bohemia,
the other at Hagenow in Mecklenburg ; both show, on the upper
surface of the handle, the stamp of the same manufacturer —
TIBEKIVS KOBILIYS SITALCES. The vessel found in
Bohemia shows underneath this inscription another name,
GAIYS ATILIVS HANtfO, which Mommsen (Archaologischer
Anzeiger, 1858, ISTos. 115-117) takes to be that of the modeler.
The flat pan (sartago, Fig. 449, h) was used to heat the oil — an
important ingredient of Southern cookery. Fig. 449, i, shows a
pan with four indentures, used most likely for poaching eggs ;
Fig. 449, I, a sort of shovel with a handle and an elegant border-
pattern ; and Fig. 449, g, a two-handled vessel, also for kitchen
use. In Fig. 449, m and n, we see two forms of the spoon

448 ROMAN VESSELS.

(cochlear, ligula) / they were used not only for eating soup and
porridge, but also for the opening of eggs, oysters, and snails,
whence their pointed ends. Fig. 449, e and d, show ladles for
drawing water ; Fig. 449 a, b, c, specimens of the long-handled
trua or trulla (the Greek kyathos, compare Fig. 303), to draw
the wine from deep butts, etc. Of sieves (colum, Fig. 449, k),
funnels (infundibulum), and similar kitchen-utensils, most of the
larger museums contain specimens ; we refer the reader to the nu-
merous works illustrative of the kitchen-utensils found at Pompeii.

Meat and fish were put on small or large flat dishes (jpatind)
with raised edges, mostly made of clay. Those of rich people were
made of precious metals beautifully chiseled (argentum ccelatum).
But even those made of clay frequently were bought at enormous
prices. Pliny relates that the tragic actor Clodius iEsopus pos-
sessed a dish worth 100,000 sestertii. Vitellius had an earthen-
ware dish made for himself at the price of one million sestertii ;
an oven had to be erected in the fields for the purpose. Among
dishes resembling plates we mention the lanx. According to
Pliny, there were in Rome, after Sulla's wars, more than 150
lances of silver, weighing each 100 Roman pounds. Drusilianus
Rotundus, the slave of the Emperor Claudius, owned a dish of
500 Roman pounds weight, while his fellow-slaves possessed eight,
weighing each 250 Roman pounds. The patella, catinum, catil-
lum, and parqpsis, resembled our plates ; the latter was chiefly for
dessert (ojpsonium).

91. The names of Roman drinking- vessels, calix, patera,
scyphus, cyaihus, sufficiently indicate their Greek origin; their
shapes show the same variety as those of their Greek models
(see § 38). Their names cannot always be identified, but the
existence of a few measuring-vessels with the gauge marked on
them enables us to speak with certainty about the cubic contents
of some of their forms.1 Here, however, we must limit ourselves
to the outer appearance of the vessels, and the material of which
they are made. All vessels made of precious metals were either
pura, i. e., without any relief -work and therefore of smooth surface,
or they were cazlata, that is, adorned with bass-reliefs, either
wrought of the material itself or soldered to its surface. Many

1 Compare Hultsch, " Grieschische und romische Metrologie," p. 87, et seq., and
Becker's " Gallus," herausgegeben von Rein, third edition, Part iii., p. 280, et seq.

ROMAN VESSELS. 449

Greek and Oriental vessels of great value were brought to
Rome, and kept in Roman families as precious heirlooms ; oth-
ers made of precious metals were melted and recast according to
Roman taste. The custom of adorning drinking-vessels with
precious stones, known to the Greeks, was exaggerated by the
luxurious Romans of imperial times to an unprecedented degree
(Pliny, " Hist. Katur.," xxxiii., 2). Such vases (gemmata pota-
ria) were sent by foreign kings to the Roman people, and with
them the emperors rewarded the services of their generals or of
the chieftains of Germanic tribes (Tacitus, " Germania," v.).
We possess numerous vessels of earthenware, adorned with gar-
lands of leaves and flowers, and inscribed with gay devices ; such
as, COPO IMPLE ; BIBE AMICE EX ME ; SITIO ; MISCE ;
REPLETE, etc. Vessels of precious metal are of rarer occurrence.
We have mentioned before the luxurious custom, common
among the Romans after the conquest of Greece and Asia, of
having their utensils of the table, and even of the kitchen, made
of solid silver. Valuable plate {argentum escarium and jpotorium)
was of common occurrence in the houses of the rich. According
to Pliny, common soldiers had the handles of their swords and
their belts studded with silver ; the baths of women were covered
with the same valuable material, which was even used for the
common implements of kitchen and scullery. Large manufac-
tories of silver utensils were started in which each part of the
work was assigned to a special artificer ; here the orders of the
silver-merchants (negotiatores argentarii vascularity were exe-
cuted. Among the special workmen of these manufactories were
the figuratores (modelers), flatuarii or fusores (founders), tritores
(turners or polishers), ccelatores (chiselers), crustarii (the workmen
who attached the bass-reliefs to the surface of the vessel), and the
inauratores or deauratores (gilders). Many valuable vessels have
been recovered in the present century ; others (for instance, sev-
eral hundred silver vessels found near the old Falerii) have trace-
lessly disappeared. Among the discoveries which happily have
escaped the hands of the melter we mention the treasure of more
than one hundred silver vessels, weighing together about 50 lbs.,
found by Bernay in Normandy (1830). According to their in-
scriptions, these vessels belonged to the treasury of a temple of
Mercury; they are at present in the late Imperial Library at
29

450

ROMAN VESSELS.

Paris. In the south of Russia the excavations carried on in 1831,
1802, and 1863, among the graves of the kings of the Bosporic
empire, have yielded an astonishing number of gold and silver

Fig. 450.

vessels and ornaments belonging to the third century of our era.
At Pompeii fourteen silver vases were discovered in 1835 ; at

Fig. 451.

Csere (1836) a number of silver vases (now in the Museo Grego-
riano) were found in a grave. One of the most interesting dis-
coveries was made near Hildesheim, October 7, 1868, consisting

THE TREASURE OF HILDESHEIM. 451

of seventy-four eating and drinking vessels, mostly well preserved ;
not to speak of numerous fragments which seem to prove that only
part of the original treasure has been recovered ; the weight of all
the vessels (now in the Antiquarium of the Koyal Museum, Ber-
lin) amounts to 107.144 lbs. of silver. The style and technical
finish of the vases prove them to have been manufactured in
Home ; the form of the letters of the inscriptions found on twen-
ty-four vessels indicates the first half of the first century after
Christ. The surfaces of many of them are covered with alto-
rilievos of beaten silver — a circumstance which traces back their
origin to imperial times, distinguishing them, at the same time,
from the bass-relief ornamentations of the acme of Greek art.
The gilding of the draperies and weapons, and the silver color of
the naked parts, in imitation, as it were, of the gold-and-ivory stat-
ues of Greek art, also indicate Roman workmanship. Figs. 450
and 451 show some of the finest pieces of this treasure. The
composition of the figures on the surface of the vase in Fig. 450
shows true artistic genius : naked children are balancing them-
selves on water-plants growing in winding curves from a pair of
griffins ; some of the children attack crabs and eels with harpoons,
while others drag the killed animals from the water. The grace-
ful groups on the drinking-vessels in Fig. 451 are mostly taken
from the Bacchic cycle of myths.

Besides vessels of precious metals and stones, those of glass
were in favorite use among the Romans. The manufactory of
glass, originating in Sidon, had reached its climax of perfection,
both with regard to color and form, in Alexandria about the time
of the Ptolemies. Many of these Alexandrine glasses have been
preserved to us, and their beauty fully explains their superiority
in the opinion of the ancients to those manufactured in Italy.
Here also, after the discovery of excellent sand at Cumae and
Linternum, glass-works had been established. Most of our mu-
seums possess some specimens of antique glass manufacture, in
the shape of balsam or medicine bottles of white or colored
glass. We also possess goblets and drinking-bottles of various
shapes and sizes, made of white or common green glass ; they
generally taper toward the bottom, and frequently show grooves
or raised points on their outer surfaces, so as to prevent the glass
from slipping from the hand ; urns, oinochoai, and dishes of vari-

452 THE PORTLAND VASE.

cms sizes made of glass are of frequent occurrence (Fig. 452).
Some of these are dark blue or green, others party-colored with
stripes winding round them in zigzag or in spiral lines, reminding
one of mosaic patterns. Pieces of glittering glass, being most
likely fragments of -so-called allassontes versicolores (not to be
mistaken for originally white glass which has been discolored by
exposure to the weather), are not unfrequently found. We pro-
pose to name in the following pages a few of the more important
specimens of antique glass-fabrication. One of the finest among
these is the vessel known as the Barberini or Portland Yase, which
was found in the sixteenth century in the sarcophagus of the so-
called tomb of Severus Alexander and of his mother Julia Mam-
msea. It was kept in the Barberini Palace for several centuries,
till it was purchased by the Duke of Portland, after whose death

Fig. 452

it was placed in the British Museum. After having been broken
by the hand of a barbarian, it has fortunately been restored satis-
factorily. Many reproductions of this vase in china and terra-
cotta have made it known in wide circles. The mythological bass-
reliefs have not as yet been sufficiently explained. Similar glass
vases with bass-relief ornamentation occur occasionally either whole
or in fragments. The present writer saw in the collection of the
late Mr. Hertz, in London, a small tablet of transparent green
emerald resembling a shield, in the centre of which appears an
expressive head of a warrior in gilt opaque glass similar to the
bass-reliefs of the Portland Yase ; this tablet is said to have been
found at Pompeii. According to a story told by several writers
in the time of Tiberius, a composition of glass had been invented
which could be bent and worked with a hammer.

VASA MURRHINA. 453

We further mention a small number of very interesting gob"
lets, which, to judge by their style, evidently belong to the same
place of manufactory as the Portland vase. They perhaps belong
to the class of goblets known as vasa diat/reta^ some specimens of
which were sent by Hadrian from Egypt to his friends in Koine.
The goblet, Fig. 453, foimd near Novara may serve as specimen.
Winckelmann, in his " History of Art," gives a description of it.
He speaks of a reticulated outer shell at some distauce from the,
glass itself, and connected with it by means of thin threads of
glass. The inscription, BIBE YIYAS MVLTIS ANNIS, is in
projecting green letters, the color of the net being sky-blue, and
the color of the glass itself that of the opal, i. e., a mixture of red,
white, yellow, and sky-blue, such as appears in glasses that have
been covered with earth for a long time. Three vases of a simi-
lar kind have been found at Strasburg and Cologne (see " Jahr-
biicher des Yereins von Alterthumsfreunden
im Rheinlande," Year v., p. 337, Tafs. xi.,
xii.) ; all these distinctly show that they have
been made of solid glass by means of a wheel,
together with the net and letters. The highest
prices were paid for the so-called Murrhine
vases (vasa Murrhina) brought to Rome from
the East. Pompey, after his victory over Mith-
ridates, was the first to bring one of them to
Rome, which he placed in the temple of the Capitoline Jupi-
ter. Augustus, as is well known, kept a Murrhine goblet from
Cleopatra's treasure for himself, while all her gold plate was
melted. The Consularis T. Petronius, who owned one of the
largest collections of rare vases, bought a basin from Murrha
for 300,000 sestertii ; before his death he destroyed this match-
less piece of his collection, so as to prevent Nero from laying hold
of it. Nero himself paid for a handled drinking-goblet from
Murrha a million sestertii. Crystal vases also fetched enormous
prices. There is some doubt about the material of these Murrhine
vases, which is the more difficult to solve, as the only vase in
existence which perhaps may lay claim to that name is too thin
and fragile to allow of closer investigation. It was found in the
Tyrol in 1837 {see Neue Zeitschrift des Ferdinandeums, vol. v.,
1839). Pliny describes the color of the Murrhine vases as

454

JUGS AND OTHER VESSELS.

a mixture of white and purple ; according to some ancient
writers, they even improved the taste of the wine drunk out of
them.

Fig. 454 shows two bronze jugs, at present in the Museo Bor-

bonico, for the drawing
or pouring out of liquor
(compare the correspond-
ing Greek forms, Fig. 198).
The metal admitted of a
more artistic treatment
than the clay used by the
Greeks. The more or less
bent handles are adorned
at their ends with figures,
masks, or palmetto or-
fig. 454. naments ; the gracefully-

curved mouths of the
vessels frequently show borders of leaves and branches ; the
body of the vessel is either smooth or decorated by toreutic art.
These vessels served for domestic uses, such as pouring water
over the hands of the guests after dinner, or keeping the wine
in. One particular kind of them, similar in form to the wine-
vessels found on Christian altars, was reserved for libations
(compare § 103).

We finally mention two graceful vessels, one of which, made

of bronze (Fig. 455), rep-
resents a Roman fortified
camp ; the walls, as well as
the towers flanking them,
are hollow ; into these
boiling water was poured,
in order to keep warm the
dishes placed on the para-
fig. 455. pet of the walls, or fitted

into the centre hollow,
which was also filled with water. The tower in the right corner .
of our illustration shows a lid ; the water ran off through a tap
on the left. The handles visible in Figs. 455 and 450 tend to
show that both vessels were meant to be lifted on to the table.

HE A TING-APPARA TUS.

455

The construction of the latter heating-apparatus is of a compli-
cated kind. A square box on four graceful legs supports a high,
barrel-like vase with a lid to it ; the mask just underneath serves
as a. safety-valve for the steam inside the vases ; a similar con-
trivance appears on a semicircular water-box connected with the
former. Three birds on the upper brim of the latter served as
stands for a kettle. Whether the open box contained hot water
or burning coals seems uncertain.

The Greek custom mentioned in § 39 of decorating buildings
with ornamental vases was further developed by the Komans, who

Fig. 466.

loved to place krateres, amphorae, urns, and paterae, in their rooms
or on the outsides of their houses ; open halls and gardens were
adorned in the same manner. Marble, porphyry, bronze, and
precious metals, were used for these ornamental vases, several
specimens of which, in stone and bronze, have been preserved to
us. The Museo Borbonico in Naples possesses a pitcher or kettle
with a richly-ornamented border, resting on three fabulous ani-
mals ; also a bronze krater of great beauty. Fig. 457 shows a
bronze mixing-vessel of Etruscan workmanship, of noble sim-
plicity in form and decoration. Another vase of marble (Fig.

456

ROMAN WAY OF MAKING WINE.

Fig. 457.

458) belongs both by its graceful shape and by the execution of
its ornamental details to the finest specimens of antique art. It
most likely came from a Greek workshop
(some say from that of Lysippus), and .has
been found among the ruins of Hadrian's
villa at Tivoli ; at present it is in War-
wick Castle, whence the name of War-
wick Vase by which it is generally known.
It has been frequently reproduced on a
smaller scale ; a copy, in the original size,
adorns the staircase of the Royal Muse-
um, Berlin.

Among the earthen vessels used for
keeping wine and other liquors we men-
tion the dolia, and the amphorce and
cadi, specimens of which are to be found
in all our larger museums. They are
of rude workmanship, showing either two small handles or
none at all. The former resembles a pumpkin ; the bodies of
the latter are slender, ending in a point (see Fig. 459) ; they were

dug into the earth about half-
way, or put against the wall in
an oblique position in order to
prevent them from falling. In
the latter position a number of
these vessels have been found
in the house of Diomedes at
Pompeii.

We subjoin a few remarks
about the Roman way of mak-
ing wine. After the grapes
for eating had been separated, the remainder was put into
coops and stamped on with the feet. After this the grapes
were once more operated upon with a wine-press. The juice
thus produced was poured into dolia or large tubs, and taken
to the wine-cellars (cella vinaria), which, in order to make
them cool, were always built facing the north. In these
open tubs the wine was left to ferment for a year: after that
it was either drunk or (in case its quality was to be improved

Fig. 458.

WINES AND LIQUEURS. 457

by longer keeping) poured from the dolia into the amphorae and
cadi (diffundere). The amphorae, after having been pitched (hence
vinum picatum) and cleaned with sea or salt water, were further
rubbed with ashes of vines and smoked with burnt myrrh, after
which they were closed with clay stoppers, and sealed up with
pitch, chalk, or cement (oblinere, gypsare). A small tablet (tes-
sera, notce, pittiacia) attached to the body of the vessel indicated
the size of the vessel and the name of the wine, also the consul
under whom it had been stowed away. One amphora, for instance,
bears the following inscription— RYBR. YET. Y. P. CII. (ru-
brum vetus vinum picatum CII.), i. e., old pitched red wine, con-
tents 102 lagenoe. The amphorae were put in the upper story of
the house, in order that the ascending smoke should give the
wine a mild flavor (compare Horace, Od. iii., 8, 9). Owing to
the copious sediment produced by this method, the wine had to
be strained each time before it was drunk. Several strainers
(eokim) made of metal have indeed been found at Pompeii.
Sometimes a basin filled with snow (colum nivarium) was put on
the top of a larger vessel. The wine was poured on the snow,
through which it dripped into the amphora both cooled and fil-
tered. Wooden barrels were not used in Rome in Pliny's time;
they seem to have been introduced from the. Alpine countries at
a later period.

Innumerable different kinds of wine were grown in Italy, not
to mention the Greek islands. The Romans became acquainted
with the vine through the South Italian Greeks, who brought it
from the mother-country. Italian soil and climate were favorable
to its growth, and Italian growers were, moreover, encouraged
by laws prohibiting the planting of new vineyards in the prov-
inces. According to Pliny ("Natural Hist.," xxxiii., 20), the
Surrentum (so. vinum) was the favorite wine of earlier times,
afterward supplanted by the Falernum or Albanum. These and
other celebrated wines were frequently imitated. Of great ce-
lebrity were also the Csecubum (afterward supplanted by the
Setinum), the Massicum, Albanum, Calenum, Capuanum, Mamer-
tinum, Tarentinum, and others. Altogether eighty places are
mentioned as famous for their wines, two-thirds of which were in
Italy. Besides these we count about fifty kinds of liqueurs made
of odoriferous herbs and flowers, such as roses, violets, aniseed,

458

WINE-SKINS.

thyme, myrtle, etc., also several beverages extracted from various
fruits.

We possess several representations of vintages and of the
process of pressing the grapes. In the centre of a bass-relief in
the Yilla Albani (Panofka, " Bilder antiken Lebens," Taf. xiv.,
9) we see a large tub, in which three boys are stamping with
their feet on grapes brought to them in baskets. The must runs
from the large tub into a smaller one, whence another boy pours
it into a vessel made of osiers secured with pitch ; to the right
another boy pours the contents of a vessel of the same kind into
a dolium. A wine-press is seen in the background. In another
picture (Zahn, " Die schonsten Ornamente," etc., third series, Taf.
13) we see three Sileni occupied in the same manner as the three
boys.

We mentioned before (§ 38) that the custom, still obtaining in

Fig. 459.

the South, of keeping the wine in hides of animals, is of antique
origin. The hairy part, rubbed with a resinous substance, was
turned inside. Both Roman and Greek peasants brought their
cheap wines to market in such skins inter). In case larger
quantities had to be transported, several skins were sewed to-
gether, and the whole put on a cart. Fig. 459 shows a wine-cart
from a wall-painting, with which the interior of a tavern at
Pompeii is appropriately decorated. The picture, which requires
no further explanation, gives a vivid idea of a Roman market-
scene.

92. Among all domestic utensils dug up, the lamps, particular-

LAMPS.

459

ly those made of bronze, claim our foremost attention, both by
their number and by the variety of their forms. Lamps, like
other earthenware utensils, were made in the most outlying set-
tlements, or were (in case their designs were of a more elaborate
kind) imported there from larger towns. The older Greek cus-
tom of burning wax and tallow candles (candelce cerece, sebaceae)
or pine-torches {see § 40) was soon superseded by the invention
of the oil-lamp (lucerna) ; these candles, moreover, were always
of a primitive kind, consisting of a wick of oakum (stuppa) or
the pith of a bulrush (scirpus) dipped into the liquid wax or
tallow, and dried afterward. Even the lighting of the rooms by

Fig. 460.

lamps (notwithstanding the elegant forms of the latter) was not
on a par with other comforts and luxuries of Roman life. Glass
chimneys were unknown, and the soot of the oil-lamps settling on
furniture and wall-paintings had to be carefully sponged off by
the slaves every morning.

The lamp consisted of the oil-reservoir (discus, infundibulam),
either circular or elliptic in form, the nose (nasus), through which
the wick was pulled, and the handle (ansa). The material com-'
monly used was terra-cotta, yellow, brownish red, or scarlet in
color, frequently glazed over with silicate. The simplest forms

460

LAMPS.

of the lamp are specified in Fig. 460, d, e, I, m. All these lamps
have only one opening for the wick (monomyxos, monolychnis),
others (5, c, h) have two such openings {dimyxi, trimyxi,polymyxiy
Birch (" History of Ancient Pottery," vol. ii., pp. 274 and 275)
gives earthenware lamps with seven, and even twelve, nasi from
originals in the British Musenm. The Eoyal Antiquarium in
Berlin also possesses two earthenware lamps with twelve nasi.
The disks and handles of many of these lamps are adorned with
graceful bass-reliefs, representing mythological events, animals,
domestic life, or battles, fights of gladiators, flowers, garlands, etc.,
frequently original in composition. Fig. 460, d, shows Apollo, I a
Koman warrior standing by a battering-ram, m two soldiers fight-

Fi<5. 461.

ing. Of particular interest is Fig. 460, e representing an earthen-
ware lamp, which, according to its inscription, was intended for a
New-Tear's present (strence).1 The device on the shield of the God-
dess of Victory reads : ANNO NO YO FAVST VM FELIX TIBI.
A number of lamps show on their bases inscriptions, either
incised or in relief, indicative of the name of the potter, the
owner, or the reigning emperor, etc. ; sometimes we also meet
with trade-marks affixed to the lamps.

1 Several lamps, intended as New Year's gifts, such as were habitually exchanged
by friends among the Romans, are in the Royal Antiquarium of Berlin.

CANDELABRA.

461

The forms of the lamps in Fig. 460, b, i, are of an unusual
kind. The former shows a sacellum with the enthroned figure of
Pluto ; the latter has the semblance of a sandaled foot. Greater
elegance and variety are displayed in the bronze lamps frequently
found in our museums (Fig. 460, a,f, g, A, 1c). Herculaneum
and Pompeii have yielded a number of
beautiful specimens, counting among the
most graceful utensils of antique times.
To snuff the wick (putres fungi) and
to pull it out, small pincers were used,
numbers of which have been found at
Pompeii ; another instrument serving the
same purpose appears in Fig. 460, a,
where the figure standing on the lamp
holds it by a chain.

In order to light up larger rooms
these lamps were either put on stands or
they were suspended by chains from
lamp-holders or from the ceiling. These
stands or lamp-holders (candelabrum)
were, among the poorer classes, made of
wood or common metal ; the rich, on the
other hand, had them executed in the
most graceful and elegant forms. The
thin stem, sometimes fluted, sometimes
formed like the stem of a tree, rises to a
height of 3 to 5 feet, on a base generally
formed by three paws of animals ; on
this stem rests either a diminutive capi-
tal or a human figure, destined to carry
the plate (discus) on which the lamp
stands. The shaft is frequently adorned
with figures of all kinds of animals.
Sometimes we see a marten or a cat crawl-
ing up the shaft of the candelabrum, intent upon catching the
pigeons carelessly sitting on the disk — a favorite subject, which
occurs, with many variations, in the candelabra found in Etrus-
can grave-chambers. Besides these massive candelabra, there
were others with hollow stems, into which a second stem was in-

Fig. 462.

462

LAMPADARIA.

serted, which could be pulled out and fastened by means of bolts ;
in this manner the candelabrum could be shortened or lengthened
at will. Fig. 461, #, shows a candelabrum in the shape of a tree,
the branches of which carry two disks for lamps. At the foot of
the tree a Silenus is seated on a rock — an appropriate ornament,
seeing that the lamp was destined to give light to merry to-
pers.

Different from the candelabrum is the lampadarium. Here
the stem resembles a column or pillar, and is
often architecturally developed ; from the capital
at the top issue several thin branches gracefully
bent, from which the lamps are suspended by
chains. Fig. 461, b and c, represent two elegant
specimens of lampadaria ; in the latter the base
takes the shape of a platform, on the front part
of which we see an altar with the fire burning on
it, and on the opposite side Bacchus riding on a
panther. Each of the four lamps is made after
a different pattern, which is also the case with
the lamps in Fig. 461, h.

All the candelabra and lampadaria hitherto
mentioned could be placed and replaced as con-
venience required ; others were too heavy to be
moved. We are speaking of the long marble
candelabra, specimens of which are shown in
Figs. 462 and 463 ; they were placed as anathe-
mata in temples, or in the halls of the rich, and
on festive days blazing fires were lit on them.
The sacred character of the candelabrum (Fig.
462) is proved by the altar-like base resting on
three sphinxes, and by the rams' heads at the corners. Cicero,
in his impeachment of Yerres, mentions a candelabrum adorned
with jewels destined by the sons of Antiochus for the temple of
the Capitoline Jupiter, but appropriated by Yerres before it had
reached its place of destination. The candelabrum (Fig. 463),
the stem of which is supported by kneeling Atlantes, most likely
belonged to a private mansion.

Lanterns also (latema) have been found at Pompeii; they

Fig. 463.

BOLTS, LOCKS, AND KEYS. 463

consist of cylindrical cases protected by a cover, and attached to
a chain. Transparent materials, such as horn, oiled canvas, and
bladder, were used instead of glass, which was introduced at a
later period.

To conclude, we mention some Greek lamps, mostly found in
Roman catacombs, which, by the Christian subjects of their bass-
reliefs and by the sign of the cross and the monogram of Christ
frequently found on them, can be distinguished from other con-
temporary lamps, from which, however, they do not differ in form.

93. To complete our description of domestic utensils, we must
once more pass through the different rooms of the Roman house
with the assistance of our plan (Fig. 386). Entering the ostium
from the street we first observe the folding-doors (fores, hi/ores),
made of wood, frequently inlaid with ivory or tortoise-shell ; in
public buildings, particularly in temples, these always open out-
ward, in private houses inward. They, however, did not, like
the doors of our rooms, move on hinges, but on pivots (cardvnes)
let into the lintel (limen superum) and the stone sill (limen in-
ferwn). Holes for this purpose have been found in the thresh-
olds of houses at Pompeii. Like the threshold, the door-post
(postes) in good houses consisted of marble or of elegant wood-
work. Knockers, fastened in the centre of the panel, may be
seen in wall-paintings ; a few specimens of these have been pre-
served. The janitor or porter (whose office was held in every
good house by a particular slave, and whose box, cella ostiarii,
was near the door) opened the door by pushing back the bolt
(pessuli) or bar (sera, whence the expression reserare, to unbolt).
Doors opening outward, particularly those of cupboards, etc.,
were not bolted, but closed
with lock and key. Most
of our larger museums pos-
sess specimens of iron or
bronze keys (Fig. 464).
They are of all sizes, from
the small ring-key (Fig. 464,
a) attached to the finger-
ring, or the small skeleton-key (Fig. 464, c), to the large latch-key.
Frequently they are of a peculiar shape (Fig. 464, b), and the
locks to which they were fitted must have been contrived with

464 FAMILY PIC TUBES.

great mechanical ingenuity. A few locks have been preserved ; but
most of them, like, for instance, those found at Neuwied, are in
an almost decayed condition.

There were no separate doors to the single rooms, which were
closed only by curtains (vela), so as not to shut out the fresh air
from the generally small bedrooms and sitting-rooms. Poles and
rings for these curtains have been found at Pompeii.

We now enter the interior of the house, undeterred by the
rod (virga) or threatening list, which the porter (ostiarius) was
wont to oppose to unwelcome visitors. A " SAL YE " on the
threshold bids us welcome. We first come to the atrium, the
centre of house and family, where stood the hearth with its Lares
and Penates and the venerable marital couch (lectus genialis).
Here, in ancient times, the matron, surrounded by her children
and handmaidens, used to sit and weave. These old customs,
however, soon disappeared. It is true that even at a later period
the altar was reflected in the waves of the fountain ; but no fire
was lit on it ; it remained in its place only as a tradition of
former ages. Another memorial of ancient times are the family-
portraits {imagines maiorum) looking down upon us from the
opened wall-presses (armaria) surrounding the room. In the
atria of old family houses were found masks of wax (cerce), taken
from the features of the dead persons, with tablets (titulus, elo-
giuin) telling of their names, dignities, and deeds, attached to
them. " The lines of the pedigree " (Pliny, " Nat. Hist.," xxxv.,
2) " were drawn to the pictures, and the family archives filled
with written and monumental evidence of their deeds. By the
doors were seen representations of their valor, and near these were
hung the weapons captured from the enemy, which even subse-
quent owners of the house were not allowed to remove." This
custom was abandoned when upstarts bought the old mansions,
and placed the marble or bronze busts of fictitious ancestors in
their niches. Needy scholars were not wanting to trace back
pedigrees to iEneas himself. The craving for portrait-statues is
ridiculed by Pliny, who says that the libraries frequently contain
sculptural reproductions of features invented for the purpose, as,
for instance, those of Homer.

The wall-paintings found at Pompeii and Herculaneum,
although belonging to provincial towns, afford us sufficient

WALL-PAINTING.

465

asassas

Fig. 466.

466 WALL-PAINTING.

insight to judge approximately of the art of painting as practised
•among the Greeks; for this art also the Romans had adopted
from them. How far the Greeks used this art for wall-decoration
of their private houses is difficult to decide, seeing that all such
houses have disappeared and that Greek authors only mention the
large paintings found in public buildings. Perhaps private wall-
painting, although certainly not unknown to the Greeks, was
practised among the Eomans more extensively than among their
instructors. Most of the better wall-paintings were undoubtedly
executed by Greek artists living in Italy. In most cities there
were guilds of painters, presided over by a master, perhaps of
Greek birth, who himself made the designs of the better pictures,
leaving the mechanical part of the work to his assistant. Many
of the imperfect designs, however, found at Pompeii are evidently
the work of inexperienced mechanics ; but even in these a certain
grace of workmanship betrays the influence of Greek schools.
The same influence is displayed still more distinctly in those fan-
tastic arabesques which Vitruvius (" Arch.," vii., 3) considers as
the excrescences of a degenerated taste. With this censure we
are unable to agree fully ; for these compositions, although
frequently hizarre, surprise us by the boldness and accuracy
of their designs, which, at any rate, betray a thorough artistic
training.

Whether the remaining wall-paintings are originals or copies
is in most cases impossible to decide : four monochromes at Her-
culaneum have the name of the artist, Alexandros of Athens,
added to them. The fact, however, that among the numerous
paintings found in two neighboring towns, and frequently treat-
ing the same subjects, no two compositions exactly like each other
have been discovered, seems to prove that the copying of pictures,
barring a few celebrated masterpieces, was not customary ; single
features of compositions are, however, frequently repeated, which,
like the uniform treatment of color and design, and the almost
unvaried repetition of certain figures, tends to prove the existence
of schools of decorative painters.

All the different classes of wall-paintings specified by Vitru-
vius— viz., architectural design, landscapes, still-lives, scenes from
daily life, tragic and satirical representations, and renderings of
mythical subjects — are specified by one or more examples among

WALL-PAINTING.

467

the wall-pictures of Pompeii and Ilerculaneum. Imitations of
architectural materials, particularly of marble, occur frequently,
as do also fanciful architectural designs, used mostly as frames of
large surfaces adorned with pictures (Fig. 465) ; lofty buildings
resting on thin columns, with winding staircases, windows, doors,
and roofs of fantastic, almost Chinese, shape, throughout adorned
with statuettes, garlands, and small animal pictures, are drawn
in white or light-yellow contours on a dark background. Small
views of the sea, with ships on it, of harbors, temples, vil-
las {see Figs. 375, 394), halls, forests, and rocks, with figures
in the foreground, paint-
ed generally on friezes
and bases of columns,
give us an idea of Greek
landscape-painting. The
painter Tadius, in the
reign of Augustus, was,
according to Pliny, the
inventor of this style of
painting. Still-life is
represented by numerous
culinary subjects, such as
game, fish and other ma-
rine creatures, fruits, and
pastry {see Fig. 479).
Among genre pictures we
count numerous scenes
from daily life, such as
interiors of workshops

with genii as carpenters and cobblers, a fullonica with (Figs. 472,
473) workmen, vintners carting home their grapes (Fig. 459),
symposia, sales of Cupids, etc.; also representations connected
with the theatre, both on the stage and behind the scenes, dancing-
girls, and floating figures, the latter particularly being among the
highest achievements of antique painting. We, moreover, refer to
the above-described charming picture of a young lady with a pen-
cil and writing-tablet in her hands, as also to that of a female
painter (Fig. 466). The artist dips her brush into a color-box
standing on a piece of column ; in her left she holds her palette ;

Fig. 466.

468 WALL-PAINTING.

her eye rests on the herme of a bearded Bacchus, which she has
been copying ; a boy kneeling by the base of the herme holds the
canvas, with the picture of the god nearly finished. We mention
in connection with this picture the name of Iaia of Kyzikos, who,
according to Pliny, lived in Rome when Marcus Yarro was a
young man : she painted with the brush and also engraved on
ivory, chiefly female portraits ; in Naples she painted on a large
tablet the portrait of an old woman, and also her own likeness
from a looking-glass.

Of mythological subjects we see specimens in all the more
important houses at Pompeii, as, for instance, in the Casa delle
Pareti Nere, Casa delle Baccanti, Casa degli Scienziati, Casa
delle Sonatrici (with life-size figures), Casa di Adone, di Mele-
agro, del Poeta Tragico : consisting of larger compositions or
of single figures, these pictures occupy the centre spaces of the
walls, either in square or round frames. Among single figures,
we frequently meet with those of Jupiter and Ceres. Of sub-
jects we mention the finding of Ariadne by Bacchus, Adonis
bleeding himself to death in the arms of Yenus, Mars and Yenus,
Luna and Endymion, not to mention numerous other amorous
adventures of the gods, with which the lascivious taste of the
time was wont to adorn bedrooms and triclinia. The same pref-
erence for erotic and sentimental subjects appears in many
pictures representing the mythical adventures of heroes ; others
are treated in a purely artistic spirit without sensuous admixture.
Among the latter we refer to the graceful picture of Leda, hold-
ing in her hand the nest containing Helen and the Dioscuri;
also to the pictures of the sacrifice of Iphigenia, Chiron giving a
music-lesson to the youthful Achilles, the discovery of the same
hero among the daughters of Lykomedes, and the abduction of
Briseis from Achilles' s tent. The backgrounds of these pictures
are black, reddish-brown, deep-yellow, or dark-blue ; particularly
on black and dark-blue backgrounds the figures appear with a
distinctness rivaling plastic art. This contrast of colors, no less
than the effects of light and shade, and the grace and truth of
many of the compositions, more than fully make up for occasional
inaccuracies of drawing.

In order to preserve the pictures, the most important ones
among them have been sawed from out of the walls and

THE DIFFERENT SCHOOLS OF PAINTERS. 469

removed to the Museum of Naples, where, after many of them have
been partly destroyed by unskillful treatment, the remainder are
now placed in a favorable position. Many of those not removed
have partly or entirely been destroyed by the influences of day-
light and weather; only in cases where the pictures had been
protected in time by roofs has the process of decay been, at least,
retarded. Two Germans, Zahn and Ternite,1 deserve our grati-
tude for having copied and published a number of the chief pict-
ures at a time when they were still in a good state of preserva-
tion. The accurate reproduction of designs and colors leaves
nothing to be desired, which is more than can be said of the much
more numerous copies which have appeared in the " Museo Bor-
bonico." a The latter reproductions are without colors. In judg-
ing of the effects of color in these pictures it ought to be remem-
bered that they were intended to be seen by the subdued light of
the atria and peristylia, or of the adjoining chambers, which had
no windows of their own.

A few words ought to be added about the mechanical method
of painting among the ancients. Many authors speak about the
gradual development of the art from the first silhouettes (linearis
pictura) attempted at Korinth and Sikyon, to the painting of
the outlines in monochrome. Darker lines were added to ex-
press the various parts of the body and drapery ; and this led
ultimately to a perspective, life-like conception of the human
figure, in exactly the same gradual manner which we observed in
vase-painting. About the time of Polygnotos the use of four
colors, viz., white earth of Melos, red earth of Sinope, yellow-
ochre of Attika, and black, began to supersede painting in mon-
ochrome. The use of these four colors and their mixtures
implied the fundamental notions of light and shade, the first
introduction of which has been severally ascribed to Apollodoros
of Athens, Zeuxis, and Parrhasios, the founder of the Ionic school.
The highest degree of artistic skill was attained by the school
of Sikyon, founded by Eupompos, and brought to its climax of
perfection by Apelles. Unfortunately, no pictures of the great

1 W. Zahn, " Die schonsten Ornamente und merkwiirdigsten Gemalde aus Pompeji,
Herculanum und Stabiae." Series 1-3. Berlin, 1827-1859. Ternite, "Wandge-
malde aus Pompeji und Herculanum." 11 parts. Berlin, 1839.

3 " Real Museo Borbonico," vols, i.-xvi. Napoli, 1824-1857.

470 THE COLORS.

Greek artists have come to us. The canvases of the great Greek
masters were either brought to Rome as spoil or they were
imported by the dealers. Even wall-pictures were sawed from
out of the walls, in order to be framed and taken to Italy by the
conquerors ; this was done, for instance, in several buildings of
Sparta. All these paintings have been lost in the course of cen-
turies. Only the burial-places of Etruria, the houses of Pom-
peii and Herculaneum, some parts of the imperial thermae in
Rome, and a few remnants of wall-paintings found in various
other places, bear witness of the great perfection of Greek
technique preserved in Italy even after the decay of Greek art
itself. It has been proved by careful and still-continued inves-
tigations that the substances used for the color were almost
exclusively minerals : of animal substances we only know the
slimy matter of the purple snail mixed with chalk ; the only
vegetable substance used was the black of charcoal. As unmixed
colors were used the white of chalk and the yellow of ochre,
the admixture of chalk and minium to the latter producing light
yellow and orange ; for blue, was used oxidized copper ; for red,
red chalk or minium ; and for brown, burnt ochre. Green was
only produced by mixture. Previously to applying the color (see
Yitruvius, vii., 3, 8) one layer of plaster was laid on the wall, on
the top of which one or more thin layers of fine mortar were add-
ed : over these several layers of mortar mixed with powdered mar-
ble or chalk were laid, the upper one being added before the lower
had quite dried, by means of which the whole surface received a
firmness and consistency almost equaling marble. The upper lay-
ers were finally beaten down and smoothed by means of a wooden
instrument called baculus (stick), the impressions of which are,
according to Mazois, still recognizable on several walls at Pompeii.
The painting was done either alfresco or a tempera. In the former
case the colors, moistened with water, were put on the damp
wall ; by means of a chemical amalgamation the picture was thus
indelibly affixed to the hardening surface. In a tempera painting,
the colors, after having received an admixture of size in order
to make them adhesive, were put on the dry surface. Both
methods have been used at Pompeii (see Overbeck, " Pompeji,"
second edition, vol. ii., p. 182, et seq.). The backgrounds were
always painted alfresco, as were also generally the architectural

MOSAIC. 471

ornaments, imitations of colored stones ; and, in a few cases, the
subject-pictures in the centre. As a rule, the latter, however,
were painted a tempera on the alfresco background or imme-
diately on the wall, a space being in that case left free for them ;
the latter pictures may be removed from the wall in thin layers,
while a removal of the alfresco paintings implies the destruction
of the surface underneath.

Encaustic colors were never applied in wall-decorations, al-
though frequently in pictures painted on tablets or canvas. Col-
ors prepared with a resinous substance have been found in the
shop of a colorman belonging to the Casa del Arciduca, at Pom-
peii. In order to preserve them from the influence of the open
air the pictures were frequently coated over with varnish made
of wax or resinous matter.

94. The floors of the rooms consisted originally of clay,
stamped or beaten to make it smooth, and mixed with potsherds
to add to its firmness (pavimentum testaceum). Soon, however,
this primitive method was superseded by a pavement consisting
of slabs of white or party-colored marble, placed together in geo-
metrical figures of three, four, or six angles (pavimentum sectile) ;
sometimes also square tablets were composed into checkered
patterns {pavimentum tessellatum). The latter kind of pavement
was common in Italy even before the Cimbrian War ; it was
applied, for the first time on a large scale, in the temple of the
Capitoline Jupiter, after the beginning of the third Carthaginian
"War (see Pliny, " Nat. Hist.," xxxvi., 25, 61). From this kind of
pavement (which remained in use down to late Roman times)
the mosaic proper was developed, the larger tablets being changed
for small party-colored pieces of marble, valuable stones (such as
onyx or agate), and glass, placed together in various patterns.
The art of working in mosaic had been practised in the East from
a very early period. The method of surrounding the centre
pictures with decorative designs was adopted for these pavements
from wall-painting. The dark stripes of the geometrical figures
thus form, in a manner, the frames of the pictures themselves.
Sometimes the whole floor of a room was occupied by one design,
at other times by several smaller medallion-like pictures. Work
of this kind received the name of mosaic {pavimentum musivum).
Before the mosaic was placed, the ground underneath was firmly

472 MOSAIC.

stamped down, or received a foundation of slabs of stone ; to this
foundation a layer of plaster, slow in drying and very adhesive,
was added, into which the above-mentioned small pieces were
inserted after a certain pattern ; the whole formed a compact
mass, impenetrable to dust and rain.

The mosaic floors found in almost every Roman house have
mostly been well preserved under the rubbish of centuries. In
the various Roman temples, baths, and dwelling-houses, we see
numerous specimens of mosaic, varying from rude attempts to the
highest perfection of workmanship. Remains of Greek mosaic
preserved in Greece have not as yet been discovered, barring a
rather rude composition of colored stones in the pronaos and
peristylos of the temple of Zeus at Olympia.

The compositions of the mosaic pictures are of the most varied
kind, not to speak of the numerous decorative patterns of generally
black lines on a white ground. Masks and scenic representations
(mosaic of Palestrina), races in the circus (mosaic found at Lyons,
see § 104), mythological representations (fight of Theseus with
Minotauros, found among the ruins of Iuvavia, the modern
Salzburg), historical battles (battle of Alexander in the Casa
del Fauno, at Pompeii), musical instruments (mosaic pavement in
the villa at Nennig, Fig. 245) — such are the subjects chosen, and
executed with admirable neatness, by antique artists. Among
the most celebrated mosaics no more in existence we mention the
pavement of the dining-hall of the royal palace of Pergamum,
executed by Sosus. It imitated a floor with the remains of a
dinner lying on it ; the name applied to this hall was " the un-
swept" (oIkos ao-dpcoros;), afterward transferred to all mosaic-
work of a similar kind {opus asarotum). Pliny also mentions
another mosaic in the same palace representing a dove sitting on
the rim of a fountain, with the shadow of its head thrown on to
the water. Perhaps the two mosaics seen in the villa of Hadrian
and at Naples were imitations of those of Pergamum. Among
mosaics still preserved, we mention particularly the large battle-
scene found, in 1831, in the Casa del Fauno, at present to be seen
in the Royal Museum, Naples. With regard to both size and
beauty of composition it ranks among the finest works of
antique art. It represents, most likely, the final victory of
Alexander over Darius at Issos : both kings appear in the melee,

THE GARDEN-. 473

the former piercing with his spear a noble Persian, the latter
standing on his chariot surrounded by a few faithful followers :
a horse is kept ready for his flight. From
the left the Greek cavalry are making an
irresistible attack on the wavering lines of
the Persians. Helen, the daughter of Ti-
mon the Egyptian, is said to have painted
a picture of this battle, which Yespasian
brought to Rome ; perhaps our mosaic is fig. 467.

a copy of it. The accuracy of the details
may be concluded from the fact that each square inch is com-
posed of one hundred and fifty pieces of glass or marble. Fig.
467 represents a mosaic found in the house of the Poeta Tragi co
at Pompeii.

Before leaving the house, we must cast a passing glance at the
viridarium. Homer already mentions a large garden belonging
to the palace of Alkinoos, king of the Phaiakai. Inclosed by a
quadrangular wall, it contained the choicest kinds of pears, figs,
pomegranates, olives, apples, and grapes, not to speak of beauti-
ful beds of flowers. The water-supply was plentiful. Horticult-
ure, however, limited itself to the indigenous productions of the
soil: the importation of tropical plants was unknown both to
Greeks and Romans. We quote a letter of the younger Pliny to
give some idea of Roman horticultural art ; it somewhat reminds
us of the style of the time of Louis XIY., as displayed in the gar-
dens of Versailles. " In front of the portico of the house," Pliny
says, speaking of his Tuscan villa, " lies a terrace cut into all kinds
of shapes, and edged with box ; it is adjoined by a sloping lawn,
at the side of which the box is cut into the forms of various ani-
mals looking at each other. In the plain stands a cluster of deli-
cate acanthus-plants, round which there is a walk, the latter being
inclosed by a hedge of evergreen cut into different shapes and
always kept under the shears. By the side of it an avenue re-
sembling a race-course winds round clusters of box cut into vari-
ous shapes, and trees not allowed to grow high. The whole is in-
closed by a wall hidden from sight by box planted in a terrace-like
manner. Behind the wall follows a meadow, pleasing by its natu-
ral beauties no less than the garden by its artificial charms. Fields
and many other meadows and groves lie around." After this

474 DRESS.

follows a glowing description of the villa itself, and the summer-
house with its beautiful view of garden, fields, and woods. " In
front of this building," he continues, " lies a roomy manege, open in
the centre and surrounded by maple-trees ; ivy encircles their stems
and branches, winding from one tree to another. Here you see
a small meadow, there clusters of box cut into a thousand shapes,
sometimes in the form of letters indicating the name of the owner
or that of the gardener. You next come to a grove with a bench
of white marble, overshadowed by a grape-vine propped by four
small columns of Carystian marble. A small water-spout issues
from the bench, as if caused by the pressure of those sitting on
it; the water falls into a hollowed stone, whence it flows un-
noticeably into another marble basin. In case people want to
dine here, the heavy dishes are put on the rim of the basin, while
the lighter ones, shaped like birds or fish, are set afloat on the
water." Pliny, of course, is describing one of those large gardens
belonging to the country-residences of the rich. In large cities,
particularly in Rome, where every square foot of ground was
of great value, gardens even of very moderate dimensions could
be indulged in only at great expense. Such viridaria, deprived
of the charms of living trees and flowers, but still showing the re-
mains of verandas, statuettes, and fountains (compare " Pitture
antiche d'Ercolano," vol. ii., Tav. 21), ponds, and borders of flow-
er-beds, have been discovered among the ruins of Pompeii ; for
instance, in connection with the houses of Diomedes, of Sallustius
(see Fig. 390), of Meleager, of the Small Fountain, and of the Cen-
taur. The existence of glass houses to protect tender plants from
the cold of the winter is proved by the verses of Martial (viii., 14).

95. The art of arranging in a picturesque manner the few
pieces of clothing required by the southern climate of Italy, or
by their feeling of propriety, the Romans had adopted at an ear-
ly period from their Greek neighbors, aided in this respect by
their own sense of the picturesque. The old republican type of
the Roman dress, although to some extent modified with regard
to shape and color by the luxurious habits of later times, still
remained essentially unaltered.

The Greek distinction between epiblemata and endymata re-
appears in the amictus and indutus of the Romans ; the former
class being chiefly represented by the toga, the latter by the tuni-

THE TOGA. 475

ca. The toga, the specifically national dress of the Romans, was
originally put on the naked body, fitting much more tightly than
the rich folds of the togas of later times. About the shape of this
toga, which is described as a semicircular cloak (wepifioXcuov
7]futcv/c\i,ov), many different opinions prevail. Some scholars con-
sider it to have been an oblong piece of woven cloth like the
Greek epiblemata described by us (§ 42) ; others construct it of
one or even two pieces cut into segments of a circle. Here again
we shall adopt in the main the results arrived at through practi-
cal trials by Weiss (" Costiimkunde," p. 956, et seq.). The Roman
toga, therefore, was not, like the Greek epiblemata, a quadrangu-
lar oblong, but " had the shape of an oblong edged off into the
form of an oval, the middle length being equal to about three
times the height of a grown-up man (exclusive of the head), and
its middle breadth equal to twice the same length. In putting it
on, the toga was at first folded lengthwise, and the double dress
thus originated was laid in folds on the straight edge and thrown
over the left shoulder in the simple manner of the Greek or Tus-
can cloak ; the toga, however, covered the whole left side and even
dragged on the ground to a considerable extent. The cloak was
then pulled across the back and through the right arm, the ends
being again thrown over the left shoulder backward. The part
of the drapery covering the back was once more pulled toward
the right shoulder, so as to add to the richness of the folds."
Counting the whole length of the toga at three lengths of a full-
grown man, the first third of the toga would go to the front part
of the drapery up to the height of the left shoulder, the second
third to the part pulled across the back and under the right arm,
the remaining third being occupied by the part pulled across the
chest and again thrown over the left arm. If the toga is folded
so that the two half -ovals are not congruent to each other, and
that therefore the lower edges of the cloak do not fall together,
the result will be that in putting on the toga two layers of cloth-
ing will appear, the longer one reaching down to the calves (media
crura), the shorter one only to the knee (see Fig. 468). The for-
mer part of the cloak touches the body, the latter one lying out-
side.

The simpler, that is narrower, toga of earlier times naturally
clung more tightly to the body ; a wide bend of the part reaching

476

THE TOGA.

from the right arm across the chest to the left shoulder was
therefore impossible. This rich fold in the later toga is com-
pared by an author to the belt of a sword (qui sub humero dextro
ad sinistrum obUque ducitur, velut balteus — Quinctil., xi., 3, 137).
The same author adds that the old Koman toga had no such fold
(sinus), which in the later toga was large enough to hide objects

in. The part of the toga
touching the ground was
pulled across the sinus and
arranged in large folds, as
appears, for instance, from
the statue of the Emperor
Lucius Severus (Fig. 468).
Whether the part thus ar-
ranged was called umbo we
will not venture to decide.
Although the older toga
impeded comparatively
little the motions of the
body, soldiers thought it
necessary to tie the end
thrown over the left shoul-
der round their waists, so
as to keep their arms free.
This sort of belt (cinctus
Gabinus) remained the
military costume till the
sagum was introduced :
even after that time the
belted toga used to be worn
at certain religious rites,
such as the founding of
cities or the opening of the
temple of Janus ; also by the consul when performing certain reli-
gious ceremonies previously to setting out on a campaign. The
Eomans had undoubtedly adopted this costume from the inhabi-
tants of the neighboring Gabii, who on their part received it
from the Etruscans. The later toga, with its rich folds covering
the whole body, prevented each rapid motion which might have

Fro. 468.

TEE TOGA. 477

disturbed their careful arrangement. In order to produce, and
give a certain consistency to, these folds, they were arranged by
slaves on the preceding evening ; sometimes small pieces of wood
were put between the single folds, so as to form them more dis-
tinctly. Pins or clasps to fasten the toga seem not to have been
used. Small pieces of lead sewed into the ends, hidden by tassels,
served to preserve the drapery ; a similar practice we noticed
among the Greeks.

The toga as the Roman national dress was allowed to be worn
by free citizens only. A stranger not in full possession of the
rights of a Roman citizen could not venture to appear in it. Even
banished Romans were in imperial times precluded from wearing
it. The appearance in public in a foreign dress was considered
as contempt of the majesty of the Roman people. Even boys
appeared in the toga, called, owing to the purple edge attached to
it (a custom adopted from the Etruscans), toga prodexta. On
completing his sixteenth, afterward his fifteenth, year {firocinium
fori), the boy exchanged the toga praetexta for the toga mriUs,
pura, or libera — a white cloak without the purple edge. Roman
ladies (for these also wore the toga) abandoned the purple edge
on being married. The toga praetexta was the official dress of
all magistrates who had a right to the curulean chair and the
fasces ; the censors, although not entitled to the latter, also wore
the toga praetexta. Among priests, the Flamen Dialis, the pon-
tifices, augures, septemviri, quindecimviri, and arvales, wore the
praetexta, while acting in their official capacity ; tribunes and
aediles of the people, quaestors and other lower magistrates were
prohibited from wearing it. The toga picta and the toga palmata
(the latter called so from the palm-branches embroidered on it)
were worn hy victorious commanders at their triumphs ; also (in
imperial times) by consuls on entering on their office, by the
praetors at the pompa circensis, and by tribunes of the people at
the Augustalia. Being originally the festal dress of the Capito-
line Jupiter, this toga was also called Capitolina ; it was presented
by the senate to foreign potentates. Masinissa, for instance, re-
ceived a golden crown, the sella eurulis, an ivory sceptre, the toga
picta, and the tunica palmata.

Besides the somewhat unwieldy toga, there were other kinds
of cloaks both warmer and more comfortable. In imperial times

478 PMNULA AND SAGUM.

the toga was indispensable only in the law courts, the theatre?
the circus, and at court ; under the Republic it was considered
improper to appear in public without it. Among other cover-
ings we mention the pce?iula, a cloak reaching down to the knees,
adopted most likely from the Celts. It was without sleeves and
fastened together at the back (vestimentum clausum), a round
opening being left to put the head through. It was open at both
sides, and had a seam in front at least two-thirds of its length
from the neck downward. It consisted of thick wool or leather,
and was worn by both men and women, over the toga or tunica,
during journeys or in bad weather. At first it used to be made
of a sort of foreign linen (gausapa), the outer side being rough,
the inner smooth ; the woolen cloak (pcenula gausapina) was an
introduction of later date. The psenula was, most likely, worn
by soldiers sent to a rough climate. Another kind of cloak,
also worn over the toga or tunica, was the lacerna. Its cut re-
sembles that of the Greek chlamys, being an oblong open piece
of cloth, fastened on the shoulder by means of a fibula. Although
introduced much later than the psenula, it had become the com-
mon costume of imperial times, in which Romans appeared even
on festive occasions. Being made of thinner material than the
paenula, the lacerna gave more opportunity for the artistic arrange-
ment of the folds. Large sums were spent on well-made and par-
ticularly well-dyed lacernae. As a further protection from wind
and weather a hood (cucullus) was affixed to both psenula and
lacerna ; to this we shall have to return.

Similar in cut to the lacerna was the warrior's cloak, called
originally trabea, later jpaludamentiim and sagum ; it is essentially
identical with the Greek chlamys. The paludamentum, always
red in color, was in republican times the exclusive privilege of
the general-in-chief, who, on leaving for the war, was invested
with it in the Capitol, and on his return changed it for the
toga (togam paludamento mutare). In imperial times, when the
military commandership was concentrated in the person of the
emperor, the paludamentum became the sign of imperial dignity.
It was laid round the body in rich, picturesque folds. The sagum
or sagulum was a shorter military cloak, also fastened across the
shoulder like a chlamys ; it was worn by both officers and private
soldiers in time of war. The sagum of imperial times was longer

THE TUNICA. 479

than that of the Republic. In the representations of " Allocu-
tions," frequently occurring on monuments (for instance, on the
arch of Septimius Severus and the Columna Antoniniana, Fig.
530), both officers and privates appear in richly-draped saga, reach-
ing down to the knees. The name sagulum most likely applies
to the short mantle reaching hardly lower than the hips which
is worn by the barbarian soldiers in the bass-relief of the arch of
Severus.

About the form of an article of dress called by the Greek
name of synthesis we are entirely uncertain ; we do not even
know whether to class it as amictus or indumentum. Out-of-doors
it was only worn by the highest classes of society at the Satur-
nalia ; in-doors it was usually worn at dinner (vestes cenatorice).
Nevertheless the synthesis never appears in the numerous repre-
sentations of festive meals. An epigram of Martial, in which
Zoilus is made fun of for changing this synthesis eleven times,
owing to its being saturated with perspiration, seems to indicate
that it must have been a close-fitting dress like the tunica.

The tunica was put on in the same way as the Greek chiton.
Its cut was the same for men and women, and its simple original
type was never essentially modified by the additions of later
fashion. It was light and comfortable, and was worn especially
at home ; out-of-doors the toga was arranged over it. Like the
chiton, it could be worn with or without sleeves, and reached
down to the calves ; underneath the chest it was fastened round
the body with a girdle (cinctura), across which it was pulled and
arranged in folds in the Greek fashion. The persons carrying the
temple-treasure of Jerusalem on the arch of Titus (see Figs. 536
and 537) wear the simple tunica arranged in this manner. In
statues clad with the toga, the dress covering the upper part of
the body to the neck must be designated as tunica (Fig. 468, com-
pare the statues of Julius Coesar, Augustus, Tiberius, and Claudius,
in Clarac, " Musee de Sculpture," Nos. 916, 924, 912 A, 936 B).
The soldiers on the monuments of imperial times wear the tunica
underneath their armor or sagum. About the time of Commodus
sleeves were added to both male and female tunics (tunica mani-
cata), covering the arm almost to the wrist ; in a late Roman bass-
relief we even see a prolongation of the sleeve resembling a cuff ;
this kind of tunica is also called dalmatica. At a later date two

480

THE 8T0LA.

or three tunics were put on in cold weather ; Augustus is said to
have worn four in the winter. The tunic nearest to the body
was called subucula ; the one over this, intusium or mpparus.
A tunic with a purple edge was the privilege of senators and
knights, the sign of the ordo senatorius being one broad stripe,
that of the ordo equester two narrower ones ; the former ornament
was called clavus latus, the latter clavus angustus, whence the
distinction between tunica laticlavia and tunica angusticlavia.

Fig. 469.

"Women also used to wear a double tunica, the one nearest to
the body (tunica interior) being a close-fitting sleeveless chemise
reaching down over the knee. No girdle was required for it ;
a thin band (mammillare, strophium) served to support the bosom.
Above the lower tunica the long stola fell in many folds ; as to
its cut and the way of putting it on we refer the reader to our
remarks about the simple Doric chiton of Greek women. Like

THE PALLA.

481

this, the stola was an oblong chemise, cut open on the two upper
sides, the open ends being fastened on both shoulders by means of
clasps (compare the statue of Livia in " Mus. Borbon.," vol. iii.,
Tav. 37). Underneath the bosom the stola was fastened to the
body by means of a girdle, through which it was pulled, so that
its lower edge just touched the ground.
In case the tunica had sleeves, the stola
worn over it had none, and vice versa.
The sleeves of the tunica or stola were
cut open, and the ends fastened together
by means of buttons or clasps, in the same
manner as described by us in speaking of
Greek dress {see the celebrated marble
statue of the younger Faustina, Fig. 469 ;
also Fig. 471). An essential part of the
stola is the furbelow (instita) or orna-
mental border attached to the bottom of
the dress {see Fig. 471).

Out-of-doors women wore a cloak
{palla), appearing frequently on statues.
Its cut resembled either that of the toga
or that of the Greek himation, arranged
in graceful folds according to the taste
of the wearer, unrestricted by the laws
of fashion, which exactly prescribed the
folds of the male toga. A third kind of
palla seems to have consisted of two
pieces of cloth fastened over the shoulders
with fibula, and either falling down in
loose folds or fastened round the body
by means of a girdle. These three
kinds of the palla occur on monuments,
the first-mentioned being seen most fre-
quently on the statues of matrons of the

imperial family, or other portrait-statues of imperial times. Some-
times the back part of the palla is drawn over the back of the
head in the manner of a veil {see the statue of the younger Agrip-
pina, Fig. 470). Other graceful arrangements of the palla appear
in Fig. 469, and on a seated statue of Agrippiha, the wife of Ger-
31

Fig. 470.

482

TEE " TOILET OF THE BRIDE:'1

manicus, in the Museum of Florence. Before the introduction of
the palla, Roman ladies used to wear a shorter and tighter square
cloak, called ricinium, which afterward seems to have been worn
only at certain religious ceremonies. Similar articles of dress
were the rim and suffibulum, the former worn by the Flaminica,
the latter by the Yestals in the manner of a veil. Fig. 471 repro-

Fio. 471.

duces a graceful picture found in a room at Herculaneum (1761),
with several others, leaning against the wall. It is generally
designated as the " Toilet of the Bride." On a throne is seated
the still youthful mother of the bride, dressed in the stola, tied
round the body with the strophium. The lower part of the body
is covered by the folds of the palla; down her back floats a

MATERIALS AND COLORS OF DRESSES. 483

long veil fastened to the back of her head. Her right arm ten-
derly embraces the neck of her daughter ; both are gazing at the
bride standing in the middle of the room. The stola of this, her
second, daughter shows the broad instita already mentioned ; its
open sleeves, or those of the tunica underneath, are fastened to
the upper arm by means of buttons. She wears a palla of the
toga kind over her other garments. A maid-servant, standing
behind her, is clad in a stola (with sleeves reaching down to the
wrists) and a palla.

Up to the end of the Republic the only materials used for
these dresses were wool (lanea) and linen (lintea). The togae were
made of various kinds of wool, those of Apulia and Tarentum
being considered the best among Italian, and those of Attica,
Laconica, Miletus, Laodicea, and BEetica, the finest of foreign
materials. "Women's underclothing was made of linen, the ma-
terials of Spain, Syria, and Egypt being preferred to those of
Italian origin. Both materials were worked into lighter dresses
for the summer, and warmer ones for the winter. Silk dresses
{holoserica) and half-silk dresses (subserica) began to be worn by
ladies about the end of the Republic; under the Empire they
were even adopted by men, notwithstanding the prohibitory law
of Titus. About the importation of raw silk from Asia into
Greece, and thence into Italy, we have spoken before. We only
add that the transparent sea-green veils, made principally in the
isle of Kos, occur repeatedly in wall-pictures (see " Mus. Borbon.,"
vol. viii., Tav. 5, iii., 36, vii., 20). Goat's-hair was used only for
coarse cloaks, blankets, and shoes.

The usual color of the dress was originally white (for the
toga this was prescribed by law) : only poor people, slaves, and
freedmen, wore dresses of the natural brown or black color of
the wool, most likely for economical reasons. Only the mourn-
ing dresses of the upper classes showed dark colors (toga j)ulla,
sordida). In imperial times, however, even men adopted dresses
of scarlet, violet, or purple, colors formerly worn only by women.
Fig. 471 may serve to illustrate the different colors of the dresses.
The veil of the mother is blue, her stola of a transparent white,
through which one sees the flesh-color of the bosom ; her palla
is reddish-white, with a bluish-white border. The stola of the
daughter nearest the mother is also reddish-white, her palla being

484 PURPLE D BESSES.

yellow, with a bluish-white border. Yellow was, according to
Pliny, a favorite color with women, particularly for brides'
veils. The bride wears a reddish-violet stola, adorned with an
embroidered instita of darker hue ; her palla is light-blue. The
servant wears a blue upper dress with white underclothing.
Frequently the inside of dresses appears in the pictures of another
color than the outside. In a picture, for instance, representing
Perseus and Andromeda (Zahn, "Die schon. Orn.," Series 3,
Taf. 24), the outside of Perseus's dress is reddish-brown, the
inside white ; while Andromeda's dress is yellow outside and blue
inside. Perhaps these dresses were lined with material of a
different color.

Particularly interesting are the purple-colored silk or woolen
dresses of the Komans ; the raw materials were subjected to the
dyeing process. Two kinds of snails, the trumpet-snail (buccinum,
murex) and the purple snail proper (purpura, pelagia), yielded
the color ; the exudations of the latter were, in reality, of a yel-
lowish-white color, but by the combined influence of the sun and
of dampness they turned into a rich violet color. The scarlet

juice of the buccinum was generally mixed with purple color in
order to prevent its fading. The purple color proper had two
shades, a black and a red one ; it was applied either pure or mixed
with other substances. By means of these mixtures, and by dip-
ping the cloth into the color more than once, the ancients con-
trived to produce no less than thirteen different shades and
nuances of color. By mixing blackish-purple with the buccinum-

juice the favorite amethyst-violet and hyacinth-purple colors were
produced Jianthinum, violaceum}. In order to gain brightness
and intensity of color the dress was dyed twice (bis tinctus,
8lj3a(j>o<;), being dipped first into the purple juice and afterward
into that of the buccinum. Looked at straight, the blood-red dress
thus prepared had a blackish tint, looked at from underneath it
showed a bright-red color. The double-dyed purple dresses, par-
ticularly those of Tyrian and Laconic origin, fetched the highest
prices, a pound of double-dyed Tyrian wool being sold at 1,000
denarii (about £43), while a pound of the above-mentioned violet-
amethyst-purple wool cost only £15.

At first only the broad or narrow hems of togas and tunicas
(worn by senators, magistrates, and knights) were colored with

A FULLERS WORKSHOP.

485

genuine purple (blatta) ; those of private persons being dyed with
an imitation purple. The white toga, with a hem of genuine
purple, remained the official dress of certain magistrates ; but as
early as the last years of the Republic it became the fashion
among men to wear entire purple togas. The first to wear one
of these as the sign of highest dignity was Julius Caesar, who,
like several successive emperors, tried to stem the luxurious habit
by restrictive laws ; which, however, became soon disregarded.
The wearing of genuine purple, however, remained the exclusive
privilege of the emperors. Even women were punished for
infringing this law, as were also merchants for trafficking in the
genuine article.

After being woven the materials of the dresses were further
prepared with needle and scissors, as is sufficiently proved by the
cut of most of the under-dresses, particularly of the paenula and
tunica. Most of the Greek dresses were worn unsewed. In
Rome each wealthy household counted among its slaves several
tailors (vestiarii, pcenularii). The existence of guilds of profes-
sional tailors is established beyond doubt. The guilds of fullers
and dyers carried on two important trades connected with cloth-
ing. The old Greek custom for kings' daughters to superintend
personally the cleaning of clothes was, if ever imitated by the
Roman ladies of noble families, soon abandoned by them. The
cleaning, moreover, of the white woolen materials chiefly worn
among the Romans required arti-
ficial means. For this purpose the
guild of the fullers (fullones) was
established at an early period ; like
that of the cloth- weavers (collegium
textorum jpanni), it did a large and
profitable business. The shop and
the work of a fuller are illustrated
by the remains of a fullery (ful-
lonica) found at Pompeii, and also
by several paintings on its walls

(see Figs. 472 and 473). Near the back wall are four large tanks
consisting of masonry, and connected with each other, but on a
different level, in order to let the water run from the highest to
the lowest. A raised platform runs along these tanks, which one

Fig. 472.

486

A FULLER'S WORKSHOP.

ascends on several steps. To the right of it lie six small com-
partments destined, most likely, to receive the washing-tubs.
To the right of the peristylium there is, moreover, a vaulted
chamber containing a large tub and a stone table to beat the
clothes on. Large quantities of soap have been found in this
apartment, which was the washing- room proper. On one of the
corner pillars of the peristylium four wall-paintings have been

discovered illustrative of
the work of a fuller. In
the first (Fig. 472) we
see, standing in niches,
several tubs filled with
water, in the centre one
of which a fuller is tread-
ing on the clothes, for
the purpose of cleaning
them ; in the tubs on
both sides (we only re-
produce part of the pict-
ure) two other men are
occupied in pulling the
clothes out of the water, and in rubbing off such stains as may
remain on them. After this the clothes were once more rinsed
with pure water, to remove the nitre or urine frequently used in
fulling. The other picture (Fig. 473) introduces us to a different
part of the fullery. In the background a workman is brushing a
white dress with a purple hem which hangs over a pole ; on the
right another workman approaches with a frame resembling a
hen-coop, across which the clothes were drawn for the purpose
of sulphuration ; the vessel carried by the man most likely con-
tains the necessary sulphur. On the top of the frame the bird of
Athene Ergane, the goddess of industry, has appropriately been
placed. In the foreground is the seated figure of a richly-dressed
woman, who seems to examine a piece of cloth given to her by a
young work-girl. The third picture, not here reproduced, shows
the drying-chamber, with pieces of cloth hung on poles for dry-
ing. A fourth picture shows a press with two screws, for the
final preparation of the cloth.

96. With regard to Roman head-coverings of men we have

Fig. 473.

ROMAN HEAD-COVERINGS. 487

little to add to our remarks about Greek hats {see § 43, Fig. 222).

Most of the forms there shown also occur among the Romans.

The Roman, like the Greek, generally wore his head uncovered,

the toga pulled over the back part of the head being sufficient

shelter in case of need. The pileus and petasus, however, were

worn by the poorer working-classes continually

exposed to the weather, and by rich people on

journeys or at public games as a protection from

the sun. The pileus was occasionally replaced

by the hood {cueullus, cucullio), introduced into

Rome from northern countries,. most likely from

Gaul, North Italy, and Dalmatia. The cueullus

was either fastened to the psenula or lacema like

the cowl of a monk, or it was worn as a separate

article of dress. A cueullus of the latter kind, ^G, 474#

covering head and body down to the knees, is

worn in a bass-relief by a traveler who is just settling his bill

with the hostess of his inn (" Bullet. Napoletano," vi., 1) ; the

smaller cueullus is worn in a wall-painting by several persons at

a rural feast (Fig. 474).

The custom of leaving the head uncovered naturally led to a
careful treatment of the hair. According to Varro, Romans used
to wear long hair and long floating beards covering chin and
cheeks till the year 454 of the city. At that time the first barbers
{tonsores) came to Rome from Sicily ; Scipio Africanus is said to
have been the first Roman who had himself shaved iradere) with
a razor (novacula) every day. The fashion of wearing the hair
cropped short seems to have made slow progress, and only
among the higher classes. The hair was either worn in wavy
locks, or it was arranged in short curls {cincinni) by means of
a curling-iron resembling a reed, and for that reason called
calamistrum ; the slaves charged with this manipulation were
called ciniflones. The different ways of wearing the hair become
apparent from a comparison of the numerous male portrait-heads
occurring on coins and statues. " Swells " of the period of moral
decline managed to twist their hair into all kinds of unnatural
shapes. A common fashion was, for example, to wear curls
arranged in several steps {coma in gradus formata), such as
found on the head of M. Antonius at Venice. Of the Emperor

488 BARBERS' SHOPS.

Gallieniis it is told that he had his hair powdered with gold-dust.
About the beginning of the Empire it was a common custom,
both among men and women, to wear false hair (capillamenfaim),
either to hide bald places or to give a fuller appearance to the
natural hair. Sometimes also hair was painted on the bald head,
so as to produce the semblance of short hair, at least at a distance
(compare Martial's Epigram, vi., 57). The close-cropped hair
seems to have been the fashion from the time of the Emperor
Macrinus to that of Constantine.

Full beards became again the fashion about the time of Ha-
drian. Up to the time of Constantine an uninterrupted series of
portrait-heads of emperors on coins yields excellent inf ormation
with regard to these matters ; afterward the type of the coins
degenerates. Between the reigns of the two above-mentioned
emperors the heads appear with full beards, with only a few
exceptions, as, for instance, the heads of Elagabalus, Balbinus,
Philippus the younger, and Hostilianus, which are always repre-
sented with smooth chins. Barber-shops (tonstrind) were natu-
rally of frequent occurrence among the Komans. They were the
gathering-places of all idlers and the centres of town-gossip in
Italy, as well as in Greece. They were well furnished with
razors (novacula\ tongs (volsella) to pull out the hairs of the
beard, scissors (axisia), several pomatums to destroy the hair in
certain places, combs (pecten), curling-irons (calamistrum), mirrors
(speculum), towels, etc. The small so-called barber's shop in the
street of Mercury at Pompeii, next to the fullonica, can, it is
true, not have accommodated many persons at a time ; but, most
likely, the establishments in the capital were on a larger and more
splendid scale.

Women do not seem to have worn hats ; they generally pulled
their palla over the back of their heads (see Fig. 470). Still
more picturesque was the veil fastened to the top of the head
(Fig. 471), and dropping over neck and back in graceful folds.
The mitra was a cloth wound round the head in the manner of a
cap ; it resembled the Greek sakkos, and served to keep the hair
in its position (see the servant, Fig. 471 ; and Fig. 232, where
the woman sacrificing in front of the bridal-chamber wears the
sakkos). This cap frequently consisted of the bladder of an
animal ; it never reached higher than the top of the head ;

FEMALE HAIR-DRESS. 489

the front-hair was always arranged in graceful, wavy lines. A
more handsome head-covering was the net made of gold-thread
(reticulum), also worn by Greek and indeed by our modern ladies
(see Fig. 473, where the seated female wears it).

More variegated were the ways of dressing the hair as illus-
trated by the numerous female statues of imperial times. Ovid
remarks that " the different ways of dressing the hair in Rome
were equal in number to the acorns of a many-branched oak, to
the bees of the Hybla, to the game on the Alps, every new day
adding to the number." Compared with this variety even the
numerous hair-dresses appearing on coins, representing empresses,
ladies of the imperial court, or private persons, seem few in num-
ber. At the same time they are representative of the leading
fashions. In the first centuries of the Republic the hair was
arranged in a simple, graceful manner, in accordance with the
general character of the dress. The long hair, either parted or
un parted, was combed back in wavy lines, and plaited or tied in
a knot (crines in nodum vincti, crines ligati), sometimes arranged
round the top of the head like a crown, at others fastened low
down the neck by means of ribbons or clasps (see the daughter
standing by the mother's side, Fig. 471). Another fashion was
to arrange the hair round the head in long curls, or to arrange the
front-hair in thick plaits, connecting it with the back-hair, etc.
The form of the face and the taste of the lady naturally were
decisive in this matter (compare Ovid, " Ars Amat.," iii., 137,
et seq). Married ladies were, at least in earlier times, excluded
from this license ; they always used to arrange their hair in a
high toupe, called tutulus, fastened on the top of the head by
means of ribbons. This at least, seems to us the right explana-
tion of the description of the tutulus by Yarro (vii., 44): "Tutu-
lus appellator ah eo quod matres familias crines convolutos adver-
ticem capitis quos habe?it vitta velatos, dicebantitr tutuli, sive ah eo
quod id tuendi causa capillijiebat, sive ah eo quod altissimum in ur-
be quod est, arx, tutissimum vocatur." Perhaps the arrangement
of the mother's hair in Fig. 471 ought to be described as a tutulus
fastened with gold rings instead of ribbons. The original simple
and beautiful arrangement of the hair was soon superseded by
fantastic structures of natural and artificial hair, justly described
by Juvenal (vi., 502) as " towers of many stories." Hairdress-

490 IEMALE HAIR-DRESS.

ing became a science, and occupied a considerable part of a
fashionable lady's time. Special maid-servants were employed
for the purpose, whose naked arms frequently had to suffer the
pricks of the needle of the fastidious beauty, who perhaps all
the while seemed to listen to the speeches of philosophers and
rhetoricians. Among the numerous heads illustrating the hair-
fashions of imperial times we have chosen the portraits of three
empresses (Fig. 475), viz., those of Sabina, wife of Hadrian (a),
of Annia Galeria Faustina, wife of Antoninus Pius (#), and of

Julia Domna, wife of
Septimius Severus (c).
The natural hair was
frequently insufficient
for the tower-like coif-
fures, and the want had
to be supplied either
by false plaits or by
complete wigs. Even
plastic art imitated this
custom by adding to the head a removable marble hair-dress
which could be replaced by a new one according to fashion. In
the Royal Collection of Antiques, Berlin, there is a bust with
movable hair, ascribed to Lucilla. The custom of dyeing their
hair became common among Roman ladies at an early period. As
early as Cato's time the Greek custom of dyeing the hair a red-
dish-yellow color had been introduced in Rome ; caustic soap (spu-
ma caustica, also called spuma Batawa), made of tallow and ashes,
was imported from Gaul for the purpose. The long wars of the
Romans with the Germans engendered among Roman ladies a
predilection for the blond hair of German women (flavce com.ce) ;
this hair became, in consequence, a valuable merchandise: Ro-
man ladies used to hide their own hair under fair wigs of German
growth.

We have already mentioned the numerous pomatums and bal-
sams used for dressing and scenting the hair, by both men and
women. Cicero speaks of the demoralized companions of Catili-
na as shining with ointments. Kriton, the body-physician of the
Empress Plotina, gives in his work on " Cosmetics " the receipts
of twenty-five different pomatums and scents.

RIBBONS AND HAIR-PINS.

491

Ribbons and pins served at once to fasten and adorn the
hair. These ribbons (worn, for instance, by the daughter
standing by the mother's side, Fig. 471) were adorned with
pearls and jewels; frequently they were replaced by a ring of
thin gold or gold-thread (see the hair of the mother and the
bride, Fig. 471). Strings of pearls also were tied up with the
hair (see the hair-dress of the Empress Sabina, Fig. 475, a), with
the addition of a stephane studded with jewels (Fig. 475, a, b).
Not the least graceful adornment of the hair were the wreaths,
consisting either of leaves of flowers joined together (coronce su~
tiles) or of branches with leaves and blossoms (coronce plexites).
In a wall-painting of Pompeii (" Mus. Borb.," vol. iv., Tav. 47)
we see four Cupids sitting round a table, occupied in arranging
wreaths and garlands.

Hair-pins, made of metal or ivory, have been found in great
numbers and varieties. We reproduce (Fig. 476, a, b, c, h, i, k)
some of the more
graceful ones worked
in ivory, one of which
(c) shows Yenus rising
from the sea and strok-
ing back her wet hair,
a common subject of
antique sculpture. Fig.
476, 0, shows a poma-
tum-box with a reclin-
ing Cupid in bass-relief

represented on it ; f, a bronze comb (peeten), which was used (as by
the Greeks) only to comb, never to fasten, the hair. A very elegant
bronze comb adorned with colored stones was found some time
ago near Aigle, and is at present in the Museum of Lausanne.
Combs made of box or ivory are preserved in many of our museums.

We have given (§ 46) a comprehensive account of the sandals,
the boots, and the shoes, used among the Greeks. The same
remarks apply essentially also to Roman foot-coverings ; little
remains to be added. The equivalent of the Greek sandal is the
Roman solea (worn by the mother, Fig. 471). They were worn
by men and women at home, and on all occasions where the offi-
cial toga did not require a corresponding foot-dress. At table the

492 SANDALS AND SHOES.

soles were taken off, for which reason the two expressions, demure
soleas and poscere soleas, are synonymous with lying down to,
and getting up from, table. It is, however, unlikely that even
in older times the Romans ever appeared in public with naked
feet, as is told of the Greeks. The solea, like the tunica and la-
cernse, belonged to private life ; the official toga required the cor-
responding calceus, a closed high shoe resembling our ladies' boots.
Calcei are frequently worn by male and female statues. Official
distinctions were, however, made. The calceus fastened to the
ankle and calf with four strings (corrigice), and, moreover, adorned
with a crescent-shaped piece of ivory (lunula) on the top of the
foot, was most likely worn by senators, being, in that case, iden-
tical with the black calceus senator ius, as distinguished from
the calceus patricius or mulleus. The mulleus, made of red leath-
er, and with a high sole like a cothurnus, was originally worn
by the kings of Alba, but afterward adopted by the patricians :
it reached up to the calf ; little hooks (inalleoli) were attached
to its back leather for the purpose of fastening the laces. The
calceus was cleaned with a sponge, as is proved by the bronze
statuette (in the late Hertz collection) of an Ethiopian slave occu-
pied in that manner.1

Besides the calceus, we find on statues numerous varieties of
the sandal, and also a sort of stocking tied with laces from the
instep to the calf ; the name of the latter is entirely unknown to
us ; it appears frequently on the warlike statues of emperors, the
upper borders, made of cloth or leather, being adorned with the
heads of lions and other animals,, worked most likely in metal
(see, for instance, the statues of Caesar, Tiberius, Caligula, Yitel-
lius, Hadrian, and others, in Clarac, "Musee," pi. 891, et seq.).
The just-mentioned combination of toga and calceus has, however,
not always been preserved by the artists : the statues, for instance,
of Cicero in the Museum of Yenice, of Sulla at Florence, and of
M. Claudius Marcellus in the Museo Chiaramonti, wear sandals ;
while, on the other hand, the statue of Balbus in the Museo Bor-
bonico, and many other portrait-statues, correctly wear calcei with
the toga.

The caliga was a sort of military boot of imperial times.

1 " Catalogue of the Collection of Assyrian, etc., Antiquities f&rmed by Hertz." Re-
vised by W. Koner. London, 1851. Tab. iii.

FEMALE ORNAMENTS. 493

Cams Caesar received his nickname Caligula from this boot. The
caliga was most likely a boot with a short top, turned over at the
upper edge, resembling the Spanish boots of the middle ages
(compare Fig. 523).

Sandals and shoes were fastened to the foot by means of
straps tied round the foot and the leg, from the ankle upward.
These straps mostly covered about half of the calf (fascim crura-
les, tibiales), extending, however, sometimes up to the thigh (fas-
cice feminales) ; the latter mode of wearing them was considered
to be effeminate. On historic monuments of imperial times we see
Roman legionaries clad in socks reaching up to the middle of
the calf, and fastened with straps covering the heel, foot (with
the exception of the toes), and the leg, up to some inches above
the ankle ; they were, most likely, part of the military dress, and
very convenient for marching.

Breeches (braccce) were originally worn by barbarous nations,
but adopted by Roman soldiers exposed to northern climes. The
trumpeters opening the procession, and the soldiers carrying Vic-
tories (Figs. 532, 533), are clad in trunk-hose, similar to those
worn by the barbarians following the triumphal chariot (Fig. 538,
compare Fig. 526). The Persian warriors in the Pompeian mo-
saic of the "Battle of Alexander" wear close-fitting breeches
similar to the tights in which Amazons are generally depicted {see
Fig. 272).

97. We add a few remarks with regard to the numerous or-
naments made of precious metals, ivory, jewels, and pearls, some
of them of artistic value, which have been found at Pompeii and
other places, particularly in graves. Hair-pins, ear-rings, neck-
laces, bracelets, girdles, and agraffes, compose what were collective-
ly called ornamenta muliebria.1 Most of these objects have
already been mentioned as worn by Greek ladies (compare § 47,
Figs. 225 and 226) ; the specimens found in Italy distinctly betray
Greek workmanship.

1 A complete set of a lady's ornaments, consisting of bracelets, necklaces, rings,
ear-rings, brooches, and pins, has been found near Lyons in 1841 (see Comarmond,
" Description de l'Ecrin d'une dame Romaine trouv6 a Lyon en 1841," Paris et Lyon,
1844). Of particular value are the seven necklaces, consisting of emeralds, garnets,
sapphires, amethysts, and corals. Pliny, " N. H.," ix., 117, relates that Lollia Paulina,
the wife of Caligula, used on ordinary occasions to wear ornaments to the value of forty
million sestertii (about £450,000).

494 VARIOUS ORNAMENTS.

About hair-pins (crinales) we have spoken above (see Fig.
476). Simpler specimens, about seven-eighths of an inch long,
with round or angular heads, or with eyes for the fastening of
the strings of pearls, are found in most collections. The bride
(Fig. 471) has her hair fastened with elastic gold bandeaux, open
in front.

The neck and bosom were adorned with necklaces (monilia)
or chains (catellw, see mother and daughter, Fig. 47.1) of gold,
studded with jewels and pearls. A necklace of beautiful work-
manship, consisting of elastic gold-threads twisted together, has
been found at Pompeii ("Mus. Borbon.," vol. ii., Tav. 14);
attached to it is a lock adorned with frogs. A gold chain for
the neck, 5 feet six inches in length, and equal in weight to 203

ducats, has been found
near the Magura Moun-
tain in Siebenbiirgen
(Austria), and is at
present in the Miinz-
und Antiken-Cabinet,
Vienna: fifty different
instruments, en minia-
ture, such as scissors,
keys, anchors, saws,
tongs, hammers, etc.,
are attached to it by
means of thirty rings (Fig. 477) ; compare the description of the
necklace found at Lyons in Marquardt, " Eomische Privatalter-
thumer," second Series, 1867, p. 294). Other chains, wound sev-
eral times round the neck, and falling down to the bosom, had
frequently a little case (bulla) attached to them. It contained a
charm against sickness and the evil-eye, and was worn by boys of
noble families, afterward also by the legitimate sons of freedmen,
up to the time of their relinquishing the toga praetexta. The
custom was of Etruscan origin. At a later' period grown-up per-
sons, particularly victorious generals at triumphs, used to wear a
protective bulla (inelusis intra earn remediis, qum crederent ad-
versus invidiam valentissima). It appears on several statues of
Eoman youths, as also on the statue of a young man clad with
the toga in the Dresden Gallery (Clarac, " Musee," pi. 906). A

BRACELETS AND EAR-RINGS. 495

bulla fastened to an elastic gold-thread, found at Pompeii, was
evidently meant to be worn by a woman (compare the bulla, Fig.
477).

Bracelets (armillce, bracchialia) in the form of snakes (com-
pare the Greek o^et?) or simple ribbons, also of rings or plaited
gold-thread, adorned the lower and upper parts of women's arms.
Bracelets frequently appear on statues ; others, made of bronze
or precious metals, have been found in Roman graves. They were
used as male ornaments by the Etruscan and other Italian nations,
as is proved by the story of Tarpeia's treason, as also by the male
figures on Etruscan cinerary-boxes. In imperial times massive
arm-rings were given to Roman men as the reward of prowess
(see the centurion, Fig. 531).

Pendants (inaures,pendentes) were worn by Roman as well as
by Greek ladies, as is proved by several specimens found at Pom-
peii ; the form of the segment of a globe was, in the first centmy
of the Empire, used frequently for them. We also hear of pearls
and jewels fastened to the ear by means of hooks of gold-thread
(see Fig. 471). " Two pearls beside each other," Seneca com-
plains, " with a third on the top, now go to a single pendant.
The extravagant fools probably think their husbands are not suffi-
ciently plagued without their having two or three heritages hang-
ing down from their ears." Another fashion was to wear a sin-
gle large pearl (unio) as a pendant. White pearls, resembling
the color of alum, fetched the highest prices, their value being
proportionate to their size, smoothness, and roundness. Caesar
presented to the mother of Marcus Brutus a pearl which had cost
him six million sestertii ; the pearl which Cleopatra drank dis-
solved in vinegar was worth ten million sestertii.

Enormous sums also were spent on rings adorned with jewels
and cameos. According to the simpler custom of old times,
adopted from the Etruscans, an iron signet-ring was worn on the
right hand : even after the introduction of gold rings old families
continued wearing the primitive iron signet-ring. Originally
only embassadors sent to foreign nations were allowed to wear
gold rings, and were supplied with such at the public expense as
a sign of their dignity ; later, senators and other magistrates of
equal rank, and soon afterward knights, received the jus annuli
aurei. After the civil war, when many equites had to drop their

496 RINGS.

knighthood owing to the loss of the census, the privilege was
frequently encroached upon. The first emperors tried to reenf orce
the old law, "but as many of their freedmen had become entitled-
to wear gold rings the distinction lost its value. After Hadrian
the gold ring ceased to be the sign of rank ; Justinian granted it
to all citizens, free-bom or liberated. This annulus aureus most
likely was a plain and heavy ring, like our wedding-rings. To
distinguish it from other rings adorned with stones, etc., the
wearing of which was free to men or women of all classes, the
gold ring retained its original shape unimpaired by fashion. The
passion for rings adorned with jewels and cameos (compare our
remarks about Greek rings, p. 182) seems to have been common
to all classes. Almost every excavation adds new specimens to
our collections of cameos, the number and variety of which enable
us to follow the history of the art of engraving from its rise in
the time of Alexander the Great to its deepest decline. It is true,
however, that a strictly historic basis cannot be established, seeing
that the names of artists occasionally found on their works can be
fixed historically only in the fewest cases ; while, on the other hand,
the portrait-heads occurring on cameos give but an approximate
indication of the time of their origin. Moreover, the work of
incompetent beginners occurs but too frequently contempora-
neously with the highest achievements of the art, the general
passion for cameos making cheapness appear an almost more
important consideration than perfection of workmanship. In this
art, also, the Komans were seldom creative, as appears from the
Greek names of most of the artists found in the inscriptions, or
mentioned by ancient authors. Eoman men and women used to
cover their fingers with rings of this kind, used partly for sealing,
partly as ornaments ; small boxes of a peculiar kind {dactyliothecce)
served to keep the rings. " At first," Pliny says, " it was the
custom to wear rings on the fourth finger only ; later, the little
and second fingers also were covered with them, the middle finger
only remaining free. Some people put all the rings on their
smallest finger ; others put on it only one ring, to distinguish that
which they use for sealing." Eich people had several sets of
rings ; lighter ones for the summer, heavier ones for the winter.
Large public and private dactyliothecse existed in Eome, where
the cameos brought home from foreign wars were exhibited. The

MIRRORS. 497

well-known Scaurus, for instance, owned a collection of cameos
among his Greek art-treasures ; Pompey placed a rich collection
of cameos, taken from Mithridates, in the Capitol as a votive
offering ; Caesar gave six collections of the same kind to the
temple of Venus Genetrix.

To conclude, we mention the buckles and brooches (fibulce)
destined to fasten the palla of women, and the ends of the toga
and paludamentum of men, on the
right shoulder; they stood the an-
cients in the stead of our buttons,
hooks, and pins, and are frequently
found on the sites of habitations or
on battle-fields. At first they con-
sisted of bronze, afterward of silver
and gold, frequently studded with
jewels and cameos, fibulce gemmatce.
Aurelian permitted the wearing of

gold instead of silver buckles, even to common soldiers. The
most common forms of the buckle are shown, Fig. 478.

Mirrors of glass were unknown to the Romans : their mirrors
were made of polished metal, either square or round in form.
The handle attached to it served to hold the mirror in the hand,
or to suspend it by, if not nsed (Fig. 476, g, compare Fig. 228).
Mirrors hanging on the wall appear in numerous vase-paintings ;
valuable specimens were kept in cases. Other mirrors could be
placed upright (Fig. 476, d). The handle and the back and
border of the mirror afforded opportunities for engraved or bass-
relief ornamentation. At first mirrors were made of a composi-
tion of tin and copper ; Pasiteles, a contemporary of Pompey, is
said to have introduced silver mirrors. In Pliny's time the back
of the mirror used to be gilt, which was thought to add to the
power of the reflecting surface. Seneca (" Qusest. Nat.," i., 17)
complains that for one of the large upright gold or silver mirrors,
equal in size to a grown-up person {specula totis corporibus paria\
larger sums were expended than were given by the state as
dowry to the daughters of poor generals. The poorer classes had
to be satisfied with a composition of copper and lead, imitating, or
plated with, silver. Numerous specimens of a peculiar kind of
mirror have been found among the ruins of the old Pneneste,

498 PAINTING AND OTHER TOILET-MYSTERIES.

and in several burial-places of Etruria. Their form and orna-
mentation distinguish them from other mirrors. They are
known by the name of Etruscan metal mirrors, and have been
described by Gerhard in his work, " Die etruskischen Spiegel "
(4 vols., Berlin, 1838-1869). They are either perfectly round or
have the shape of a pear ; their backs show engravings of mytho-
logical or realistic scenes, for the greater part slovenly imitations
of Greek originals ; the treatment of the figures is repulsively soft
and sensuous ; only few of them have artistic value. Many of
these mirrors, particularly those found at Prseneste, have been
discovered together with other toilet articles in cylindrical boxes
with curved lids, made of wood covered with leather and studded
with metal, or consisting entirely of metal. These boxes, owing
to their resemblance to the holy snake-baskets, frequently occur-
ring on monuments, have been called mystic boxes {cista mystica).
Owing to the engravings on the back of the mirrors (resembling
those on the cista), and to the slightly bent borders of the re-
flecting surface, these mirrors have been for a long time mistaken
for paterae, which they somewhat resemble in form. Gerhard's
opinion, however, of their being nothing but mirrors of early
Etruscan make has, at present, been generally adopted.

About the mysteries of the toilet of Roman ladies, merci-
lessly laid bare by the authors of imperial times, we shall say
little. Great care was particularly bestowed on the complexion,
and on the artificial reproduction of other charms, lost too soon in
the exciting atmosphere of imperial court-life. During the night
a mask (tectorium) of dough and ass's milk was laid on the face,
to preserve the complexion ; this mask was an invention of
Poppaea, the wife of Nero, hence its name Poppceana. Another
mask, composed of rice and bean-flour, served to remove the
wrinkles from the face. It was washed off in the morning wTith
tepid ass's milk (Juvenal, vi., 467), and the face afterward bathed
in fresh ass's milk several times in the course of the day. Pop-
paaa was, for the purpose, always accompanied in her travels by
herds of she-asses (Pliny, " Nat. Hist.," xxviii., 12). The two
chief paints used for the face were a white (creta, cerussa) and a
red substance {fucus minium, purpurissum), moistened with spit-
tle. Brows and eyelashes were dyed black, or painted over ; even
the veins on the temples were marked with lines of a tender blue

THE ROMAN CUISINE.

499

color. Many different pastes and powders were used to preserve
and clean the teeth. Artificial teeth made of ivory and fastened
with gold-thread were known to the Romans at the time when
the laws of the twelve tablets were made, one of which laws pro-
hibits the deposition of gold in the graves of the dead, excepting
the material required for the fastening of false teeth.

98. In order somewhat to illustrate our remarks on the Eoman
cuisine, We reproduce (Fig. 479) one of the numerous wall-paint-
ings at Pompeii and Herculaneum, illustrative of the various
dainties of the table, such as grapes, apples, pears, quinces, figs,
mushrooms, sometimes kept in transparent glass vessels ; also
game, fish, and shell-fish; the composition of these groups

reminds us somewhat of the still-lives of the older Dutch
school.1

The breakfast (ientaculum, iantaculum) of the Romans, taken
earlier or later according to the hour of rising, consisted of bread,
dipped in wine or flavored with salt, grapes, olives, cheese, milk,
and eggs. Luncheon (jprandium), consisting of more solid dishes,
both hot and cold, was taken about the middle of the day, or at
the sixth hour, according to Roman nomenclature. The chief
meal, or dinner (cena), was taken about the ninth hour, between
noon and sunset. The poorer classes at all periods chiefly fed on
porridge ( puis) made of a farinaceous substance (far, odor), which
served them as bread, besides vegetables, such as cabbage

1 Compare " Mus. Borb.," viil, Tavs. 20, 57. " Pitture antiche d'Ercolano,"
vol. ii., Tavs. 56, et seq. ; III., Tav. 56.

500 THE ROMAN CUISINE.

(brassica), turnips and radishes (napus, beta, pastinaca), leak
(porrum), garlic (allium), onions (cepa), pulse (legumina), cucum-
ber (cuoumis), pumpkins (cucurbita), melons (melo), etc. Meat
was eaten only on festive occasions. In early times the arrange-
ments of the kitchen were in harmony with the simplicity of the
dishes prepared there ; slaves and masters partook, according to
Pliny, of the same fare. On particular occasions professional
cooks were hired, who offered their services in the macellum or
market. After the Roman conquests in Greece and Asia the diet
of the richer classes, with regard to both the number and quality
of the dishes, became essentially altered. Simple vegetables suf-
ficed no longer ; various kinds of meat and fish, delicately fla-
vored, salads, and rare fruits, were found in their stead. A numer-
ous staff of domestic cooks and scullions was required to prepare
even the ordinary meals. A particular slave was retained for
baking the pastry — an office formerly held by the women of the
household. Experienced cooks and pastry-cooks received high
wages. Upon the whole, however, over-refinement of taste was
less the fault of the Romans than disgusting gluttony — a vice
which reached its climax between the battle of Actium and the
reign of Yespasian, during which period prohibitive laws against
luxury, repeated eight different times, were vainly put in force to
put a stop to it.

The smaller kind of fish, such as lacertus, mcena, and mullus
(mullet), were eaten chiefly by the poorer and middle classes ; the
larger mullus, on the contrary, was one of the most expensive
dainties. Its price increased with its size, one of 4 lbs. being
paid with 1,000 sestertii, one of 6 lbs. with 6,000 sestertii, and
so forth, in increasing proportion. Other fish much appreciated
were the murcena (a sort of salt-water eel, caught particularly in
the straits of Sicily and Tartessus), the rhombus (flounder, gener-
ally imported from Ravenna), the aurata, the lupus (pike, kept
in ponds), also the various kinds of salt and preserved fish
(collectively called Ta/^%o?), which were imported from the
Pontine, Sardinian, and Spanish coasts. Yarious sauces (garum,
muria alec) served to flavor the fish. Among shell-fish or
mussels we mention the eatable purple snail (murex), the echinus,
different slugs (cochlea), and, most important of all, the oyster
(ostrea), called by Pliny (" Nat. Hist.," xxxii., 6, 21) palma

DAINTIES. 501

mensarum dwitum. In order to have the fish always ready at
hand the Romans constructed fish-ponds (Lucinius Muraena is
said to have set the example), filled with salt or fresh water
{dulces or salsce), according to the nature of the fish kept in them.
These piscinae, or vwaria piscium, were connected with canals,
to renew the water, the openings of which were closed with iron
grates. Lucullus had a canal dug through a ridge of mountains
by the sea in order to supply his piscinae with salt-water. Other
celebrated piscinae were those of the orator Hortensius at Bauli,
near Baiae ; according to Pliny (ix., 55, 81), he shed tears at the
death of one of his muraenae. Antonina, the wife of Drusus, is
said to have adorned a favorite fish of the same kind with ear-
rings. The breeding and taming of fish was a favorite occupa-
tion with fashionable idlers. The invention of oyster-banks
{vivaria ostrearum) is ascribed to the gourmand Sergius Orata
(his second name was given him from his preference for the fish
called orata). Snail-preserves were first kept by Fulvius Lupinus,
in the neighborhood of Tarquinii. The different kinds of snails
(Illyrian, African, etc.) were carefully kept apart, and fed on flour
mixed with thickened must. The Romans also had preserves
of birds {vivaria avium, or aviaria), as, for instance, of ordinary
poultry, fig-thrushes, Guinea-fowls, pheasants, peacocks, and of
the favorite fieldfare. As the inventor of the aviaries, M. Lae-
nius Strato, of Brundusium, is mentioned. Hortensius was the
first to treat his guests to roast-peacock, having imported the bird
from Samos. Peacocks, like pheasants (introduced from Asia)
and fieldfare, were kept in great numbers in the aviaries ; the two
latter birds, and the eggs of the former, being considered great
delicacies. For many of the wealthy Romans their ponds and
aviaries were, moreover, a considerable source of income, derived
from the sale of fish and birds.

Hares and rabbits were favorite dainties, the former being
kept in so-called leporaria. In the Balearic Islands the rabbits
repeatedly destroyed the harvest, and the inhabitants had to apply
to Augustus for military assistance, in order to diminish their
number. "We also mention kids (of which the finest were im-
ported from Ambracia), pigs, and boars. Pliny ("Nat. Hist.,"
viii., 51, 77) remarks that, while other animals are only partly
eatable, the pig furnishes no less than fifty different dainties.

502 DAINTIES.

The parts eaten in preference were the udder (sumen), the womb
(vulva), and the liver, the latter being artificially enlarged by a
diet invented by the chef Marcus Apicius. Pork ham (perna)
and sausages (botulus, tornaculum) also were much liked, the latter
being carried about the streets in portable ovens, and cried out
by the sausage-venders (botularii).

Among plants used for the excellent salads of the Romano we
mention rue (ruta), lettuce (lacticca), cress (lepidium), mallows,
(malva), and sorrel (lapathum). To these indigenous plants
others, brought from the kitchen-gardens of the provinces, were
added.

Italy was particularly rich in fruit-trees, both indigenous
and acclimatized. Yarro calls the Peninsula one large orchard.
Apples, particularly honey-apples (melimela), pears, plums, cher-
ries, quinces, peaches, pomegranates, figs, nuts, chestnuts, grapes,
olives, etc., were found on all good tables. Other fruits and
cereals, however, now commonly found in Italy and most parts
of Southern Europe, were unknown to the Romans. Melons,
oranges, lemons, citrons, and bitter oranges (Pomeranzen), were
not grown in Italy in Pliny's time. Melons and citrons began to
be cultivated in the first century after Christ. Lemons and bitter
oranges came to Europe in the time of the Crusades ; while the
orange was imported from China by the Portuguese as late as the
sixteenth century. Of corn the Romans only knew wheat and
barley ; oats, rye, maize, and rice, were unknown to them.

Of particular importance from a culinary point of view was
naturally the cena. In older times it consisted of two — later of
three — courses, the entrees (gustus, gustatio) being composed of
such dishes as were supposed to excite the appetite, for instance,
mussels, light kinds of fish, soft eggs, salad, cabbage, etc. With
these was drunk a mixture of honey and wine or must (the pro-
portions being four-fifths wine to one-fifth honey, or ten-elevenths
must to one-eleventh honey), so as to prepare the stomach for
the richer wines. This mixture was called mulsum, whence
this part of the meal also received the name promulsis. After
these entrees the cena proper was put on the table. It consisted
of three courses (ferculum), called respectively prima, altera, and
tertia cena. The dishes of each of these courses were brought
in simultaneously on a tray (repositorium). The dessert (mensce

DRINKS. 503

secundce) consisted of confectionery, preserves, and dried and fresh
fruits. We subjoin the menu of a cena pontificalia given by
Lentulus about the middle of the last century of the Republic,
in celebration of his entering on his priestly office. We give the
original words of Macrobius, leaving it to the reader to tind or
imagine approximate modern equivalents for the dainties speci-
fied: " Cosna" Macrobius says ("Saturn.," iii., 13), "hcec fuit:
Ante coenam echinos, ostreas crudas, quantum vellent, peloridas,
sphondylos, turdum asparagos subtus, gallinam altilem, patmam
ostrearum peloridum, balanos nigros, balanos albos : iterum
sphondylos^ glycomaridas urticas ficedulas, lumbos capraginos,
aprugnos, altilia, ex farina involuta, ficedulas murices et purpu-
ras. In coena sumina, sinciput aprugnum, patinam piscium,
patinam su?ninis, anates, querquedulas elixas, lepores, altilia
assa, amulum, panes Picentes." We also refer the reader to the
amusing description of Trimalchio's feast in Petronius.

Of drinks we have already mentioned the mulsum and the
various kinds of wine. Like the Greeks, the Romans used to
mix the wine with water ; as to the strength of the mixture we
are not informed accurately. To drink unmixed wine (merum
bibere) was considered a sign of intemperance ; even the adding
of but little water {ineracius bibere) did not escape reproof ; a
rather weak mixture was considered proper for a sober man
{homo frugi). The strength of the mixture, however, was left
to the decision of every individual; youthful slaves (pueri ad
cyathos, ministri vini, pocillatores) prepared the mixture, adding
either hot water or snow, according to taste and season. The
hot beverage was called calda, and we still possess a beautiful
chiseled bronze vessel destined for its preparation. It has two
handles, and rests on three lions' claws ; the cover, fastened to it
with a hinge, is of conical shape (see the picture of the vessel
in Overbeck's " Pompeii," p. 312). In the middle of the vessel
is a cylindrical case for the hot coal, with a receptacle for the
ashes at the bottom. A separate cover closes the space round this
cylinder, containing the calda. A tap, about the middle of the
vessel, served to emit the fluid, which was poured in by means of
a pipe let into the upper rim on the opposite side. During the
cena the drinking was moderate ; but after it not seldom followed
a drinking-bout (comissatio), at which the customs and jokes of

504 SOCIAL GAMES.

the Greek symposion were frequently imitated (Grceco more bibere).
With their heads and lower limbs crowned with flowers, the
topers reclined round the table after the dishes had been removed.
A master or king of the feast (magister, or rex convivii, arbiter
bibendi) was chosen by a cast of the dice, the cast of Venus being
decisive, as in the case of the fiaa-Ckevs. The healths were drunk
of present persons (who had then to drain the goblet), with the
words, bene ti~b% vivas, or of absent friends ; in later times,
particularly of the emperor and the army. In case a lady was
the object of the toast, the number of cyathi (wine-glasses of
moderate size) to be drained consecutively was equal in number
to the letters of her name (nomen bibere; compare Martial, i., 72).
Cicero compares the end of a convivium given by Verres (Yerr.,
v., 11) to the end of the battle of Cannse, where some were
carried away disabled, while others remained in an unconscious
state on the field of battle.

Besides witty conversation, many games of hazard and bets
tended to enliven and excite the guests. Particularly games of
dice (alea), although prohibited by the law, were often secretly
indulged in (compare our description of this game, p. 271).
Prohibitive laws, and the legal determination that complaints
of cheating or misconduct at gambling-places were not admis-
sible in courts of justice, were unable to check the passion for
gambling, which was carried on on* an enormous scale in private
houses and pqpince. Games at dice were permitted only when no
money was staked, as were also the various more intellectual games
played on a board, such as the Indus latrunculorum, resembling
our chess, played on a tabula latrunculoria divided in squares ;
the purpose was, by means of clever drawing (ciere), to take away
or block up (ligare, alligare, obligare) the men of the adversary,
so as to checkmate him (ad incitas redigitur). The men (latrones)
consisted of pieces (calculi) of glass, ivory, or metal, colored in
different ways, and used in a different manner ; the mandra, for
instance, were a particular kind of men in one game. Another
game of this class was the ludus duodecim scriptorum, played on a
board divided into twenty-four parts by means of twelve parallel
lines and one transverse line. Each move (dare calculum) of
the fifteen men, black and white in color, was determined by a
previous cast of the dice. Augustus diverted his guests by a

PUBLIC BATHS. 505

lottery with valuable prizes, such as pictures of Greek masters,
turned with their backs to those partaking in the game. Culti-
vated people used to amuse their guests with reading or vocal and
instrumental music, to which, however, objection was occasionally
taken (compare Martial, ix., 77). Less innocent were the dances
and scenic representations performed at these feasts by actors and
dancers of both sexes since the time of Sulla ; even fights of
gladiators are said to have taken place at meals on a few occa-
sions.

99. Public bathing-establishments have already been men-
tioned (§ 80). Originally bathing was with the Roman a matter
of health and cleanliness only, in consequence of which the older
bathing-establishments were undoubtedly of a very simple kind.
Of these older buildings no traces remain ; all the splendid
buildings described by us (compare Figs. 419-423) belong to
a later and more refined period. The chief additions made to
the simple cold and tepid baths of older times were the sudatory
bath, and the numerous accommodations for walks, conversation,
and gymnastic exercises, found in all later establishments.

The usual time of taking a bath was the eighth or ninth
hour, or indeed any time shortly before the hour of the cena,
which greatly varied according to the occupation or convenience
of individuals. For that reason the public baths were open
during the greater part of the day till sunset. In imperial times
they continued open during part of the night, as is proved by
numerous lamps found in thermae, and by the marks of lamp-
soot on the walls of the baths of Pompeii. The opening and
closing of the establishment was announced by the sound of a
bell. Each visitor had first to pay an entrance-fee, which differed
according to the accommodation offered, but amounted on the
average to a quadrans for men. The janitor threw the money
into a box (as has been concluded from a box of this kind found
in the portico of the thermae of Pompeii), and returned to the
bather a ticket to be delivered to the bathing-master. Some-
times this entrance-fee was remitted to the people by the aediles
desirous to gain popularity. The aedile Agrippa, while in office,
built one hundred and seventy bathing-chambers, to which every-
body was admitted gratis for the space of one year ; on his death,
he left his magnificent private thermae to the people. In the

506 BATES.

apodyteria of the Pompeian thermae we still see the holes in the
walls into which the pegs for suspending the clothes were in-
serted. The bather next entered the tepidarium (sudatory bath),
Where the dry rubbing {destringei%e) also took place, whence he
proceeded to the caldarium to take a hot bath, originally in a
tub (afoeus), in later times in a large reservoir ; in a niche of this
room stood the flat labrum with cold water. A cold plunge in
the cistema or piscina of the frigidarium terminated the bath
proper. Afterward the bather went into the unctorium), to be
rubbed, or rub himself, with oil ; sometimes this took place in the
tepidarium. Even before, and in the intervals of, the bath the
bather was frequently anointed, a slave carrying the oil-bottles
(ampulla olearia), the scraper (strigilis), to remove oil and per-
spiration from the skin, and the linen towels (lintea),
after his master to the bath (compare the bathing-
apparatus, Fig. 480). Soap became known only in
imperial times; in its stead were previously used
by the poorer classes a sort of paste made of the
fruit of the lupine (lomentum), by wealthy people
different ointments. After the bath the hair and
skin were again rubbed with odoriferous ointment ;
even the clothes were scented. For these scented
ointments were used native flowers, and shrubs like
the rose, crocus, myrtle, cypress, or Oriental ingre-
Fig.Tso. dients, which, if genuine, were bought at enormous
prices. Among the most valuable of these Oriental
ointments was the nardium oleum, made of Indian or Arabian
nard. It was kept in bottles of precious metals or stone, such
as the alabastron mentioned by us on a former occasion. Scented
powders (diapasmata) were strewed over the body ; the water was
mixed with saffron and other scents, in addition to which the
limbs after the bath were stretched, and the whole body rubbed
with swan's-down or purple sponges. The laconicum above
described was the place for sudatory cures frequently repaired
to by the gourmands of imperial times.

The increasing luxury of Roman manners became particularly
visible in the interior arrangements of the baths. Seneca speaks
of the decorations of private bath-chambers with the most
valuable kinds of marble or with glass; even the taps of the

WATERING-PLACES. 507

water-pipes had to be made of silver. The elder Pliny says that
many Eoman ladies would not think of entering a bath without
silver fittings. This luxury of private baths was far surpassed by
the enormous public thermae of imperial times, where fashionable
Romans passed a great part of their day in luxurious idleness or
animating conversation. The large thermae of Agrippa, in the
Campus Martius, have already been mentioned ; near them lay
(between the modern Piazza JSavona and the Pantheon) the
thermae Neronianae, called, after their enlargement by Alexander
Severus, thermae Alexandrinae. After these follow in chronolo-
gical order the thermae of Titus, Trajan, Commodus, the thermae
Antoninianae built by Caracalla, the thermae of Decius, Diocle-
tian, and of Constantine. The ruins of other thermae, although
smaller in size than those of the metropolis, are found in provin-
cial towns, almost every year adding a new discovery of sub-
structures, which, by their hypocausta, can be recognized as
Roman baths. Besides these common baths, the Romans knew
and used the medicinal powers of mineral springs. From the
waters of the Rhenish country, such as the aquae Mattiacce (Wies-
baden) or aquae Aureliae (Baden-Baden), to the numerous springs
on the slope of the Atlas, the aqua3 Tibilitanw, and other aquae
calidce — from the " Baths of Hercules," near Mehadia, in Sieben-
biirgen, to the waters of Bagneres in the Pyrenees — few medici-
nal wells had escaped the notice of the Romans ; many votive in-
scriptions tell of successful cures in these places, which frequently
also show the remains of old bathing-houses. The watering-places
of the Romans, like those of modern times, were frequented by
both sick and healthy ; some, indeed, Baiae foremost among them,
became centres of fashionable life and amusement. The beauti-
ful air and scenery, and the vicinity of Naples, Puteoli, Cumae,
and Misenum, the chief station of the navy, not to speak of the
hot sulphur-wells, the steam of which led by means of pipes into
the sudatoria was considered a remedy of various illnesses — all
this tended to make Baiae a fashionable watering-place. The
dance, the chase, gambling and other vices, were the order of the
day, and indulged in with even greater freedom than in Rome.
Seneca calls Baiae the seat of vice (" diversorium vitiorum "), a
term which, in a modified sense, may have applied to many of the
smaller watering-places.

508 GYMNASTIC EXERCISES.

Of the accommodations for games, walks, and conversation,
connected with the thermae, we have spoken before. H in the
plan of the Pompeian thermae (Fig. 420) signifies a court sur-
rounded on two sides by colonnades, while a third is occupied
by a vaulted hall receiving its light through large windows.
This court was the ambulatio (walk), the hall (Fig. 420, /) being
destined for conversation. For gymnastic exercise previous to
the bath no separate space is assigned ; in the thermae of Cara-
calla (Fig. 422) we find, on the contrary, ephebea, conisteria, and
places for the spectators at wrestling competitions. Together
with the youths, men of riper years took part in these exercises,
the abstaining from which was a matter of reproof except in
cases where bodily infirmities or a learned occupation (as in
Cicero's case) were considered as sufficient excuse. These gym-
nastic exercises, however, never attained among the Romans
the high development of Greek agonistic games. In Rome these
exercises were chiefly considered as a preparatory school for
actual warfare : the principal ones among them were the throw-
ing of the disk, the use of dumb-bells, fencing with a wooden
sword against a pole (palus, stipes, frequently practised by
grown-up people before their bath), wrestling, and running.
Although the Greek scheme was thus essentially adopted by the
Romans, their public games took an entirely different character
from those of the Greeks : instead of the KaXoicar/adla, the chief
aim of the Romans was enjoyment. They merely assembled to
witness the agonistic prowess and skill of professional athletes,
notwithstanding the attempts made in imperial times at intro-
ducing the Greek agones in their full significance. The same was
the case in the thermae : members of the guilds of professional
wrestlers showed their skill, the wealthy Roman looking on and
preferring for himself some easier means of exercise. For this
purpose a sphaeristerium was added to most larger private houses,
consisting, like those of the thermae, of open or covered halls,
in which young and old previously to taking a bath practised
some easy kind of gymnastic exercise, as, particularly, the game
at ball.

We have described at some length (p. 229) this game as played
by the Greeks : we therefore add only a few remarks with regard
to Roman peculiarities. Three kinds of balls were used, viz., the

TRADES AND HANDICRAFTS. 509

follis (a large ball filled with air), pila, and paganica. The ball
was thrown up, and caught, and thrown back again, by the differ-
ent players — a game described in the words datatim ludere.
Another kind of game at ball is described by the words expulsim
ludere : as to its nature we know nothing ; it is, perhaps, identical
with an exciting game played by modern Italians, in which the
ball before touching the ground has to be caught, and thrown back
with a wooden ring round the under part of the right arm. The
paganica was a ball stuffed with feathers, as to the use of .which
we have no means of information. The game at ball could be
played by two or more persons ; the name trigon or pila trigonalis
indicates three players, who, if skillful, threw and caught the ball
with the left hand. The harpastum, according to Athenseus
originally called (pcuvtvSa, admitted of any number of players ; it
was a rough, exciting game : one or more balls were thrown up
into the air by one person, whereat the players standing next tried
to catch them. The interior of a sphseristerium or tennis-court is
shown in Fig. 260, taken from a wall-painting in the thermae of
Titus. Boys, however, used to improvise sphseristeria in the
streets and squares of Rome, particularly in front of the butchers'
booths in the Forum Romanum.

100. Trades and handicrafts were, according to the aristocratic
notions of the Romans, somewhat beneath the dignity of a free
citizen ; even commerce, particularly retail traffic, was little es-
teemed. Landed property on a large scale was the only source
of income not unworthy of a free Roman of good position in
society. Cicero in his " De Offieiis" expounds this view at some
length; he, however, makes a distinction between the trades ac-
cording to their usefulness and to the intellectual faculties required
by them. Commerce, if carried on honestly and on a large scale,
is to some extent approved of, particularly if its proceeds are in-
vested in landed property, the only source of income quite worthy
of the Roman gentleman.

Slaves and freedmen were the chief tradesmen and mechanics,
the former supplying the various requirements of the household,
the latter working for payment and selling their wares in shops.
The list of slaves attached to a wealthy Roman household com-
prises handicraftsmen of almost every kind. For the present
we omit the slaves employed in agriculture and horticulture : we

510 "FAMILIjE" of slaves.

mention a complete staff of architects, etc. (architecti, fabri,
tectores, pictores), tailors and hair-dressers (vestiarii, pcenularii,
cosmetce, tonsores), cooks, pastry-cooks, etc. (pistores, coqui, dul-
ciarii, fartores, placentarii), together with slaves employed in
the triclinium (triclmarii, with the triclinarchns at their head,
structores, seissores) ; also musicians and troops of mimics and
jugglers. Physicians and surgeons were mostly slaves or f reed-
men ; the important post of private secretary of the master of the
house also was occupied by a slave. ^-^

The numerous class of the slaves was recruited by the children
of slaves, captives taken on the field of battle or in conquered
cities, and sold at once by the quaestor accompanying the army,1
and by slaves continually imported from other slave-holding coun-
tries. Slave-traders {mangones^ venalicii) always followed the
armies, or bought their human wares in the chief markets of
Rome and Delos, etc. Ordinary slaves were exhibited on a
scaffolding (catasta) erected for the purpose: a tablet (titulus)
fastened to the neck of the captive indicated his country, age,
corporal and intellectual achievements or debilities, as also his
guiltlessness of crime. Accomplished slaves, particularly of Greek
origin, were kept in separate rooms of taverns, and shown only
to wealthy customers. To distinguish them from free-born cap-
tives, the children of slave-parents or of a slave-mother were called
vemce or home-slaves, in reference to the masters to whom they
belonged by birth.

All the slaves belonging to a master were collectively called
familia. In older times their number was small, the work of the
simple town household or of the farm (the latter, for the greater
part, performed by the owner himself) not requiring many hands.
As town and country houses grew larger and more splendid, the
number of slaves had to be increased accordingly. For almost
every one of the many services required by the luxurious owner
and his family a separate slave was kept, this perfect division of
labor being considered characteristic of a grand house. The slaves
employed in the town-house were called familia urbana, those
attached to the villa, familia rustica, a distinction which, however,
was not always strictly kept, the same slaves often serving both

1 Such captives were crowned with a wreath to show their being for sale, whence
the expression — sub corona venire.

SLAVES.— THE SEDAN-CHAIR. 511

purposes, at least among the less wealthy classes. Some of the
slaves even of rich people occasionally followed their master from
the villa urbana to the villa rustica.

The latifundia taking the place of the old farms naturally
required a much larger staff of laborers. Besides the agricultural
slaves proper, employed in ploughing, sowing, reaping, or attend-
ing to olive-trees and vines, gardeners for orchard, kitchen, and
flower-gardens, were required ; not to speak of those who had to
take care of the poultry-yard, the fish-pond, the bee-hive, and the
game-cover. Sometimes several thousands of slaves were re-
quired for these various purposes.

Another class of slaves were those employed in the household,
or waiting upon the master and his family. Among the lower
domestic slaves (yulgares) we mention first the ostiarms or jani-
tor, who, from his box (ostiaria), had to watch the entrance of the
house, and the cubicularii, who had to keep bedrooms and sitting-
rooms in order, and also to announce visitors. In the houses of
rich people a particular nomenclator was appointed for the latter
purpose, whose office it was to call out the names of clients who
came to say their matutinal Ave (salutatio) to their patronus, and
of numerous other visitors thronging the vestibule in the early
hours of the day. The same nomenclator had often to accompany
his master in his walks, to recall to his memory the names and
circumstances of persons met in the street whose vote or assist-
ance were required for a particular purpose.

The wealthy Roman was always accompanied by one or more
slaves (pedisequus), who had to carry any object that might be
required at the bath or a party, and also to act as torch-bearers
on returning at night. Another class of slaves were the lectiarii,
or carriers of sedan-chairs, which, about the end of the Republic,
had become the usual means of conveyance in traveling. In
town only senators and ladies were allowed to be carried in them,
a law which, most likely, was often infringed. "We have to dis-
tinguish the litter (lectica), a frame with straps to support a mat-
tress and pillow, and the sedan-chair (lectica qperta) with a canopy
(arcus), and curtains (vela, plagw, plagula) that could be pulled
up or down. The latter means of conveyance was always used
by modest women ; it resembled the modern Oriental palankeen,
and is said to have been introduced from the East, together with

512 CARRIAGES.

numerous other Oriental customs, after the defeat of Antiochus
by the Romans. Strong slaves, in rich red liveries, carried the
litter on their shoulders by means of poles (asseres) passed under
its bottom.1 Syrians, Germans, Celts, Liburnians, and Moesians,
in later times particularly Cappadocians, were employed as car-
riers, their number varying with the size of the litter. A port-
able chair {sella gestatoria or portatoria) was introduced by Clau-
dius, and used chiefly by emperors and consulares ; it was covered
at the top, and could be closed with curtains. One or several
litters, with slaves to carry them, were found in every good
Roman household ; there were, however, in Rome litters on hire,
the stand (castra lecticariorum) of which was in the " XIV. regio
trans Tiberim."

Besides litters, carriages were employed on travels ; their use
in Rome, and most likely also in the colonies and municipia, was
restricted by law. Under the Republic respectable women were
allowed to drive in town, a privilege taken away from them in
imperial times. Yestals, Flamines, and the Rex sacrorum, in cer-
tain sacred processions, as also the triumphing general, and the
magistrates in the procession preceding the festive ludi eircenses,
were allowed to drive in carriages. Even carts with merchan-
dise, etc.; were forbidden to appear in the streets of Rome during
the ten hours from sunrise to sunset (by the lex Julia, passed
45 b. a), with the exception of those destined to transport the
materials of the large buildings. With the beginning of the
third century carriages became more frequent in the cities,
although their use remained the privilege of the highest imperial
officials. We possess many representations of carts and carriages,
the classification of which according to the expressions found in
the authors is not always possible. The body of the carriage
is generally clumsy, while the wheels, with spokes {rota radiata),
are almost always of a graceful shape. On the monument of Igel
(Fig. 414) we see a small open carriage on two wheels drawn by
mules, in which two persons are seated ; perhaps we may recognize
in it a cisium or essedum. Another richly-decorated carriage
(carpentum), also on two wheels, but with an awning to it, appears
on the coins of Julia, daughter of Titus, and on those of Agrip-

1 A small terra-cotta, not yet reproduced, in the Museo Borbonico at Naples
shows two men carrying a litter in the manner described.

CARTS.

513

Fig. 481.

pina, daughter of Germanicus. Fig. 481 shows a two-wheeled
traveling-carriage (covinus f) with an awning. Reda and curru-
ca, mentioned by the authors as large traveling-carriages for sev-
eral persons, do not appear on the monuments ; where, on the
other hand, we frequently meet with carts and wagons loaded
with rural produce, merchan-
dise, armor, etc. ; the generic
term for these is plaustrum,
the expressions sarracum,
carrus, and arcera marking
subdivisions no longer defin-
able by us. Fig. 459 shows
a four-wheeled market-cart
with a wine-skin on it ; Fig.
482 (from a mosaic found at
Orbe, in Switzerland), a
cart, drawn by two oxen,

the load of which is secured against rain by a blanket ; even the
step to mount the cart has not been omitted. On the arch
of Severus (compare Fig. 535) and the column of Antoninus
we see a number of baggage-carts, some of them on two
wheels with spokes, others on massive round disks of wood
{tympanum), all laden with pieces of armor and provisions
in sacks and barrels. Bronze rings attached to the collars of
horses, bits, and other parts of the harness, as well as the
ends of poles shaped like animals' heads, exist in numerous speci-
mens.1

Numerous slaves followed the traveling-carriage or litter of the
wealthy Eoman, the scanty accommoda-
tion of the inns making a complete
traveling-apparatus a matter of neces-
sity. The members of the imperial
family and other wealthy Romans took
a pride in their traveling-equipment,
and the precious plate and carpets
carried after them by a numerous train
of pack-horses. Numidian horsemen, forerunners, negroes, etc.,

Fig. 482.

1 See Lindenschmit, M Die Alterthumer unserer heidnischen Vorzeit,
Part ii. ; 5, and vol. ii., Part x., 3, 5.

vol. i.

514 DANCERS AND JESTERS.

saddle-horses, grooms, domestic and body slaves, preceded the
caravan or brought up the rear.

Among the slaves (vulgares) we further mention the tailors of
the master and his family, also valets and chambermaids, besides
which lower slaves the Komans used to keep a number of other
menials to amuse them and their guests, particularly at table, such
as bands of musicians (pueri symphoniaci), mimics, dancers of
both sexes, gladiators (who frequently accompanied the master in
his walks), jugglers, and rope-dancers (compare our description of

the Greek symposion, p. 270, Figs. 305-
307). About the arts of these acrobats and
rope-dancers (^funambuli, schoenobatce)
we hear astonishing accounts from the
ancient authors. Even elephants were
trained to mount the rope (Pliny viii., 2,
3). Fig. 483 shows the reverse of a
coin of Cyzicus (a city celebrated for its
acrobatic feats) illustrating the mounting
of a rope. We also hear of petauristce
among the domestic slaves, i. e., flying
men, who rose into the air by means of the jpetauron or flying-
machine, the construction of which, in the absence of monumental
evidence, cannot be sufficiently understood from the meagre ac-
counts of the authors.

Among domestic slaves we also mention the unfortunate
beings whose bodily or intellectual frailties were the laughing
stock of their master (moriones, fatui, and fatuce). Dwarfs of
both sexes (nani, nance), who were taught to fight and dance,
were particular favorites with ladies. A pet dwarf of Julia, the
granddaughter of Augustus, was only two feet one palm high ; his
name was Canopas. Two bronze statuettes found at Pompeii rep-
resent two crippled, misshapen forms with large heads, one of them
dancing and beating the castanets, the other clad in a toga, with a
bulla fastened to a chain round his neck, and holding a writing-
tablet in his hand (compare also " Pitture d'Ercol.," vol. ii., Tavs.
91, 92).

Several overseers were employed in keeping the numerous
slaves in order; the higher officials of this kind had also to
superintend the management of the house, the stores, etc. The

SLA VES. 515

procurator, the first person among the familia of slaves, managed
the income and domestic expense of his master. The agent of
the landed property was called actor y to whom, in case he had
no agricultural knowledge, a practical farmer (villous) was given
as assistant. At the villa urbana the atriensis, or steward, kept
the accounts, at least in older times ; afterward this became the
business of a separate official, dispensator, the atriensis being
limited to the superintendence of domestic arrangements. The
cellarius or jpromus had the keys to store-room and wine-cellar.
The higher slaves of the last-mentioned kind were collectively
called ordinarii.

An important position was held by the leetores or anagnostce,
slaves who had to read out to their master while at table' or in
the bath, and to write from dictation, copy documents, or take
care of the library.

We finally mention the physicians and surgeons, who, at least
in republican times, belonged for the greater part to the classes
of slaves and freedmen.

. The position of the slave among the Romans was widely
different from that of his fellow-sufferer in Greece. In the latter
country the mutual positions of master and slave were legally
defined, the right of punishing or even killing a slave being con-
siderably limited by the law. Different in Rome : here the slave
was the absolute property of the master, unprotected by the law
against his cruelty. The harshness of this relation was, of course,
in individual cases, modified by the humanity of the master
or the usefulness of the slave; but as many of his numerous
slaves were hardly known to the master, they were, particularly
in the countiy, at the mercy of overseers. This, of course, was
not to be feared in earlier times, when the slaves sat down to
their meals on lower benches (subsellia) at the foot of their mas-
ter's couch, or when the latter shared the labor of the field with
his servants. But the attachment thus engendered disappeared
with the increasing luxury of later times, which banished most
of the slaves from any familiar intercourse with their owners.
They now had their rations (demensum) dealt out to them by
the day or month, and with the savings out of these ( pecvlium),
to which the master had no right, the slaves frequently bought
their liberty; unless they tried the shorter way of theft and

516 LIBERATION OF A SLAVE.

defraudation, undaunted by the cruel punishment to which their
slightest misdemeanors were liable. The pride of a freeman made
captive on the field of battle could ill brook such treatment,
whence the furious determination with which the death-struggle
of the revolted slaves was carried on. Refractory slaves had their
legs fettered with compedes, so as to make their escape impossible,
or, loaded with iron collars (collare) and manacles (manica), they
were imprisoned in dungeons (ergastulum, jpistrinum) built on
most farms for the purpose, or condemned to hard labor in the
quarries. Flagellation with a stick, rod, or whip, was a common
punishment (fustis, virga, mastix), as was also the carrying of
the /urea, a fork-like instrument laid round the neck, the arms
being tied to the protruding front part of the furca. Runaway
slaves, or those found guilty of theft, had the initial letter of the
crime branded on their foreheads with a hot iron (stigma, whence
their name stigmosi or literati). Their capital punishment was
crucifixion (in, crueem ager, figere), or being thrown into the
vivaria, or opposed to wild animals in the amphitheatre.

Slaves were, of course, forbidden to wear the toga. Their
costume was the tunica, of coarse dark materials, worn in the
manner of the Greek exorais, to which workman's costume a
psenula or lacerna might be added in bad weather. Other slaves,
who had to wait personally on the master and his family, most
likely wore a finer tunic of lighter colors.

After his liberation (manumissio) had been granted, the slave
stood to his patron in the relation of a liberties. This manumissio
was effected by the patron presenting himself with his slave
before the highest magistrate of the city ; after having proved
his right of possession (iusta servitus), he pronounced the words,
" Hunc hominem ego volo liberum esse," whereat the assertor
(without whom the slave could not appear in a legal transaction,
not having yet received his liberty) touched the slave with a rod
on the top of his head, or, according to a later custom, boxed his
ear. After this the patron took his former slave by the hand,
turned him round, and ended the ceremony by once more repeat-
ing the just-mentioned formula. Besides this liberation, called
manumissio vindieta, there existed the so-called manumissio
censu, consisting in the name of lihertus being entered in the
census-lists; and the manumiseio te-stamento, i. e., the liberation

THE GUILDS. 517

of the slave by the owner's last will. After his liberation the
former slave put on the pileus, donned the toga, wore a ring, and
shaved his beard — the signs of a freeman.

101. The mechanical or intellectual occupations of the slaves
were continued by them as freedmen, in consequence of which
the trades were shared by the plebs with the liberti. The con-
tempt against trades expressed by Cicero is further illustrated by
the fact of tradesmen being, with few exceptions, debarred from
serving in the legions. Roman tradesmen and mechanics, there-
fore, were a low, cowardly, and at the same time unruly class of
people— -fcex urbana, as Cicero calls them. Livy mentions par-
ticularly that when, in the year 426 of the city, the Gauls threat-
ened Rome, the Consul L. ^Emilius Mamercinus was compelled
to recruit his legions from the just-mentioned classes, " minime
militioB idoneum genus." The same Livy reproaches the Consul
Terentius Yarro, known by the battle of Cannge, with his descent
from a butcher's family. Epigrammatists loved to ridicule trades-
men grown wealthy, who, like true parvenus, made a show of
their riches.

Mechanics' guilds (collegia qpificum) existed at an early period,
their origin being traced back to King Numa ; they were nine in
number, viz., pipers, carpenters, goldsmiths, dyers, leather-workers,
tanners, smiths, and potters, and another guild combining, at
first, all the remaining handicrafts, which afterward developed
into new separate societies. Among these later guilds, frequently
mentioned in inscriptions, we name the goldsmiths, bakers, purple
dyers, pig-dealers, sailors, ferrymen, physicians, etc. They had
their separate inns (curia, schola), their statutes and rules of re-
ception and expulsion of members, their collective and individual
privileges, their laws of mutual protection, and their widows'
fund, not unlike the mediaeval guilds. There was, however, no
compulsion to join a guild. In consequence, there was much
competition from freedmen — foreign, particularly Greek, work-
men who settled in Rome, as also from the domestic slaves who
supplied the wants of the large families — reasons enough to pre-
vent the trades from acquiring much importance. They had,
however, their time-honored customs, consisting of sacrifices and
festive gatherings at their inns ; on which occasions their banners
(yexilla) and emblems were carried about the streets in procession.

518 SHOPS.

A wall-painting at Pompeii (Arc/idol. Zeitung, T. xvii., 1850, p.
177, et seq.) is most likely intended as an illustration of a carpen-
ters' procession. A large wooden tray (ferculum), surmounted
by a decorated baldachin, is being carried on the shoulders of
young workmen. On the tray stands a carpenter's bench in
miniature, with two men at their work, the figure of Daedalus
being seen in the foreground.

The shops in which the mechanics worked and exhibited their
wares were collectively called tabemce, a name derived from the
old booths (quod ex tabulis olim febant), such as stood in the
Forum Romanum in old times. Under Domitian these wooden
structures were banished from the streets and Forum of Rome,
only the money-changers being allowed to retain their old places.
Martial (vii., 61) highly approves of this measure. The shops lay
in the ground-floors of houses opening toward the street. The
shops of a provincial town, as, for instance, of Pompeii, consisted
of one large compartment with one or two smaller back-rooms,
the latter sometimes connected by means of stairs with bedrooms
in the upper story (compare the house of Pansa, Fig. 386). The
shops are open toward the street (in corner houses even on both
sides), so as not to impede the view of the wares. Facing the
street stood a stone counter, a narrow passage being left for those
who wished to enter the shop ; bottles containing the liquids for
sale were let into this counter, cases in the back-wall of the shop
being filled with glasses, bottles, and stores. Shop-signs, mostly
hewn in stone), indicated the nature of the objects for sale ; the
shop of a milkman at Pompeii shows the sign of a goat ; that of
a wine-merchant exhibits two men carrying an amphora on a
stick over their shoulders ; that of a baker, a mill put in motion
by a donkey.

Private bakeries, as attached to every large household, have
been found in several Pompeian houses, as, for instance, in those
of Pansa and Sallustius; in an oven belonging to the Casa di
Marte e Yenere numerous loaves of bread have been found,
completely burnt, but still distinctly recognizable. Close to the
house of Sallustius lies a large bakery containing four mills made
of coarse porous tufa. Fig. 484 serves to illustrate their con-
struction, one half showing the exterior aspect, the other the
cross-section of a mill. The stone base, in the form of a disk, is

MILLS AND BAKERIES. 519

marked a ; its upper surface shows a rill or groove (b), going all
round it. On this base stands a massive conical stone (c, meta,
fMvXrj), being worked of one piece with the base, or otherwise let
into it. This stone is surmounted by a hollow double cone or
funnel (d d, catillus, ovos), the corn being poured into its upper
half, whence it drop 3d through another g roove (e) into the nar-
row space between the lower half of the double funnel and the
outer surface of the cone (<?). On the double funnel (d d) being
whirled round the corn was crushed, the flour dropping into the
groove (b). The groove (e) could be closed by means of an iron
plate with five holes, the centre one of which was connected with
the top of the cone by means of a strong
iron peg, so as to facilitate the action of
the double funnel, the four other holes
serving to admit the grain. Two bars
(«/*/)> fastened in the middle of the double
funnel, served to work the mill, which was
done either by men (mola versatilis) or ani-
mals (mola jumentaria, asinaria). Windmills " fig. 484.
were unknown to the Romans ; not so water-
mills (mola aquaria, hydraleta), one of which is described by
Yitruvius ; its principle of action resembled that just explained :
water-mills were introduced in Rome about the fourth or fifth
century A. d. A Pompeian wall-painting (" Mus. Borbon.," vol.
vi., Tav. 51) depicts the Vestalia, or millers* feast, celebrated on
the 9th of June, genii taking the place of men, as is often the
case in these pictures. The day was celebrated by the millers
and bakers by a simple family dinner, consisting of bread, salt,
vegetables, and fish, served in earthenware. The donkeys had a
resting-day, animals and mill being adorned with flowers, and
garlands composed of loaves strung together. In the just-men-
tioned bakery of Pompeii we see also an oven cleverly con-
structed, and furnished with a contrivance to retain the heat.
The act of baking itself is illustrated on a small grave-monument
in Rome, just outside the Porta Maggiore, where the Yia Labi-
cana and Yia Prsenestina meet at a pointed angle. According to
the inscription: EST HOC MONIMENTVM MARCEI YER-
GILEI EYRYSACIS PISTORIS REDEMPTORIS APPA-
RET, it has been erected by H. Yergilius Eurysaces, baker and

520

SCALES.

bread-dealer, for himself and his wife, Atistia. The name of the
monument is panarium (bread-basket), and it is adorned with the
emblems of the trade, among which we distinguish heaps of corn,
two mills moved by donkeys, two flour-strainers, and two miller's
knives ; also a machine for kneading dough moved by horses. A
similar machine appears in a relief on a sarcophagus of the La-
teran (Gerhard, " Denkm. u. Forsch.," 1861, No. 148). Scales to
weigh large and heavy quantities (a pair of which also appears

Fig. 485.

on the monument of Eurysaces) are frequently met with on Koman
and Greek monuments ; they resemble those at present in use.

Smaller quantities of dry or liquid substances, such as meat,
fish, oil, or chemicals, were weighed in the libra (Fig. 485), two
specimens of which have been found at Pompeii. The object to
be weighed is suspended from the smaller of the two unequal
ends of the beam (jugum), while to the longer end is attached a
weight (cequipondium), by means of a movable ring. By push-
ing this equipoise to and from the point of revolution the weight

INNS AND WINE-SHOPS. 521

of the object could be determined exactly, this part of the beam
being divided by means of incised points. Fig. 485, a, shows an-
other balance, from the shorter end of whose beam are suspended
a hook and a scale {lanx\ the former for the fastening of bottles
or pots with fluids, the latter for the reception of dry objects to
be weighed. The longer end of the beam is here divided by a
double system of points, the one to determine the weights of sol-
id, the other that of fluid substances. In other balances the beam
is divided into two equal parts (Fig. 485, b), a scale being sus-
pended from each end. One of these ends, moreover, is marked
in the manner described, the equipoise here showing the form of
an acorn, while in the former case it was a head of Minerva ; the
heads or forms of animals occur often. Numerous other weights
to be put in one of the scales have been found. They are made
of bronze, lead, or stone ; some of them have their value marked
on them.

After the bakeries we mention cook-shops, low inns (pqpince),
and wine-shops (caiiponce). They were frequented by the poor-
est classes, and were often the scenes of vice ; it was considered
disreputable for a gentleman to visit such places. There were,
however, taverns, etc., for roues of the better classes, where de-
bauchery and games of hazard were the order of the day ; the
trade of innkeeper (caupo) was, for these reasons, considered dis-
reputable. The interior arrangement of such places most likely
resembled that of the modern osterie. Sign-boards {insignia),
hung out at the door, proclaimed the name of the house : at Pom-
peii there was an Elephant inn ; in Eome, near the Forum, a Cock ;
at Lyons, a Mercury and Apollo, etc. A wall-painting at Hercu-
laneum (" Pitture d'Ercol.," vol. iii., p. 227) gives a vivid idea of
an antique tabema. In the foreground of a square, which a
colonnade shows to be a forum, mine host is helping a guest to
some beverage brewing in a kettle on the fire ; in the background
a woman is selling pears and vegetables.

With the work of a potter we have already become acquainted
{see § 90 and Figs. 193 and 194). In Pompeii a potter's oven has
been found to the left of the street of graves. The fireplace has
a flat top full of holes, through which the heat enters the baking-
oven. A similar arrangement is shown in the tiler's and potter's
ovens found near Rheinzabern (in 1858, thirty-six of the former

522

A CUTLERS SHOP.

and seventy-seven of the latter kind had been discovered), as also
in those found near Waiblingen (Wiirtemberg) ; at the excava-
tion of the latter, in 1840, the author was present.

The surface of a kylix in the Royal Museum, Berlin (Gerhard,
" Trinkschalen des Kgl. Museums," Tafs. xii., xiii.), represents
the workshop of a metal-founder ; although taken from Greek
life, the picture will serve our present purpose. We there see
the large furnace with the caldron standing on it ; one workman
is poking the fire, while another, leaning on his sledge-hammer,
seems to wait for the melting of the metal. In another part of
the shop the bronze statue of a praying youth lies on the floor.
The head has not yet been soldered on to the body ; a man is

working with a hammer at
one arm of the figure. On
the opposite side is seen,
under a scaffolding, the fin-
ished colossal statue of a
youthful warrior ; two work-
men are polishing the legs
with a scraper, while two
men in long cloaks, most
likely the artist and the own-
er of the f oundery, are look-
ing on. Hammers, saws,
modeled arms, legs, and
heads, and sketches on tab-
lets, cover the walls. Vul-
can's smithy has been shown,
Fig. 261 : cyclops at their work are frequently met with in bass-
reliefs (Millin, " Gallerie Mythol.," No. 383). A cutler's shop
and workshop are illustrated by two bass-reliefs on a cippus in the
Vatican, the former of which (Fig. 486) shows a rich choice of
sickles, pruning-knives, and long carving-knives. The owner of
the business seems to be selling a knife to a customer.

Fig. 487, from a bass-relief found at Capua, has, according to
its inscription, been let into the proscenium-wall of a stage by
Lucceius Peculiaris, a builder, in consequence of a dream he had.
Near the figure of Athene Ergane we see a sculptor working at
a Korinthian capital, while two men are lifting the drums of a

Fig. 486.

VARIOUS KINDS OF WORKSHOPS.

523

column by means of a tread-wheel. Chisels, gravers, files, drills,
and half-finished statues, have been discovered in a sculptor's
studio at Pompeii ; pairs of compasses used by stone-masons and
carpenters, leads, and folding foot-rules, have also been found at
Pompeii, the latter divided into twelve uncice (by points on the
side surface) and sixteen digiti (marked on the edge) ; ■ similar
instruments appear as emblems on tombstones.

A blacksmith's workshop, recognizable by the axles of carts,
fellies, and tools found there, has been discovered at Pompeii
outside the Herculaneum gate. A carpenter's workshop appears
in a wall-painting at Herculaneum, where two Cupids are sawing
a board with a saw exactly resembling those at present in use.

Fig. 4S7.

The bottom of a glass vessel found in the catacombs of Eome rep-
resents the manipulations of a cabinet-maker and cutter of wood
in six pictures painted on a gold ground ("Pitture d'Ercol.,"
vol. i., Tav. xxxiv., and Perret, " Catacombes de Pome," T. iv.,
22, 14 .; see also Jahn, too. cit., Taf. xi., 1).

Tanneries are represented (Figs. 472 and 473) in Pompeian
wall-paintings : the interior of a cobbler's shop appears in a wall-
painting at Herculaneum (" Pitture d'Ercol.," vol. i., T. xxxv.),
where one of two Cupids sitting by a table seems to beat the
leather on a last, while the other is sewing at a shoe; rows of
finished shoes stand in an open cupboard and on boards on the
wall, which proves that the shop was used both for working and

1 See " Mus. Borb.," T. vi., Tav. xv.

524 PHYSICIANS.

selling. In the street leading toward the Odeum at Pompeii,
there is the shop of an oil-merchant, with eight earthen vessels
let into the counter, in which olives and clotted oil have been
found; we also mention a perfumer's shop, the sign-boards of
which, now illegible, announced the sale of pomatum, incense, and
the ingredients for embalming the dead: in a colorman's shop
in the Casa del Arciduca di Toscana, colors, partly in a raw state,
partly prepared with resin, have been found. A series of market-
scenes appear in a picture at Herculaneum (" Pitture d'Ercol.,"
vol. iii., Tav. xlii., et seq.) representing the colonnade of a forum,
where clothes, bronze vessels, iron-ware, and cakes are sold, while
shoemakers take the measure of people sitting on benches.

102. Three classes among the slaves and freedmen held a dis-
tinguished position by their intellectual accomplishments, viz., the
medici, chirurgi, and literari. About physicians, their first ap-
pearance among the Romans and their social position, we gather
interesting information from Pliny's remarks at the beginning of
the twenty-ninth book of his "Natural History." In the first
centuries of the Republic slaves and freedmen used to treat their
patients according to certain old prescriptions and nostrums. In
the year 575 of the city (219 b. c.) a Greek surgeon of the name
of Archagathus settled in Rome, whose art was acknowledged by
the erection, at the public expense, of a booth for him on the
Acilian cross-road. To his passion for burning and cutting he
owed the nickname of butcher : altogether he brought discredit on
Greek doctors ; they were called charlatans, filling their purses
and endangering their patients' lives by their ignorance, there
being no law to restrict or punish them. Nevertheless, the appear-
ance of Archagathus and other Greek medical men gave rise to
the establishment of a medical profession in Rome. Numerous
physicians became known, one rejecting the remedies of the
other, and seeking renown by the introduction of new methods.
" Hence," says Pliny, " those disgraceful squabbles at sick-beds,
when all the physicians disagree only in order to avoid the
appearance of consent ; hence the dreadful inscription on tombs —
1 The number of his doctors has killed him.' Medical art is
changed every day by new additions; we are sailing before a
Greek wind, and the decision of life and death lies with him who
has got most to say for himself," etc. The large income of a

PHYSICIANS AND SURGEONS.

525

Flu. 4S;

physician (for want of chemists, they also sold their drugs, fre-
quently composed of expensive ingredients) may be guessed from
the fact that Quintus Stertinius, body-physician to the emperor,
considered it highly meritorious on his part to be satisfied with
500,000 sestertii, as his private practice had brought him 600,000
sestertii (£6,450 according to the value of
money in Augustus's time). Krinas, a con-
temporary of Pliny, left at his death ten
million sestertii, after having spent almost
as much on the building of fortifications at
Massilia (his native town) and other cities.'
Under Nero the medical profession became
organized, an upper class of physicians, the
archiatri, being created, among which the
body-physicians of the emperors (archiatri
palatini) and the archiatri populares held
again distinguished ranks. The former were
among the most important court-officials,
their title being spectdbiles. After the time of Antoninus Pius a
certain number of the archiatri populares were appointed to reside
in each town ; they were elected by the citizens and examined by
the college of archiatri / they received a salary from the city,
besides being exempted from all munera, for which in return they
had to attend the poor. Medical men were divided into physicians
(medici), surgeons (medici vulnerum, vulnerarii, chirurgi), and
oculists (ocularii or medici ah oculis) ; besides these, we hear of
dentists, specialists for diseases of the ear, lady-physicians for the
diseases of their own sex, midwives, and assistants (intraliptce),
whose chief business was to rub patients with medicinal ointment ;
we also mention the numerous sellers of Oriental salves, etc., who
added their share to the grand system of quackery obtaining in
Rome. Surgical instruments and medicine-boxes made of bronze
with silver inlaid covers have been discovered ; little weights, to
exactly determine the quantity of the medicine used, were also
kept in these boxes. Fig. 488 represents a box found in the
Rhenish country, at present in the Royal Museum, Berlin. , On its
sliding cover it shows the inlaid image of iEsculapius placed in
a small temple. In Pompeii two chemists' shops have been found,
the sign-boards of which show the snake of the same god, with a

526

OCULISTS.

pineapple in its month; solid medical substances, liquids dried
up in glasses, and a surgical apparatus of bronze (now in the
Museum of Naples), have been discovered there. Fig. 480
represents a number of surgical instruments found in the house
of a surgeon in the Strada Consolare at Pompeii : a is a bronze
box containing probes (specillum), such as appear separately in
n, o,p. Pincers (forceps) are seen e, g, i; /'is a scalpel (scalpel,
lum) ; Z, a spatula ; m, a sound ; q, a straight pin ; k, pincers to
remove splinters of bones ; h, a speculum magnum matricis / d, a
chopper of unknown use.

Frequent diseases of the eye occurring from about the end of
the Eepublic, as the results of vice or exaggerated hot bathing,
necessitated a separate class of oculists. The names of the oculists
of the Empress Li via are found in her columbarium. Many small

1 03

F.G. 4t

vases, previously taken for children's toys, have turned out to be
receptacles of drops and salves for diseases of the eye: one of
them shows the inscription " Lycium Iasonis" i. e., the prescrip-
tion of the Greek oculist Iason. Particularly in the Occidental
provinces of the empire small tablets of slate are found in great
numbers, indicating the names of oculists, their prescriptions and
the way of applying them : these were advertisements of Poman
oculists. The quackeries of medical men were favorite subjects
with both Athenian and Poman playwrights. A Greek vase,
painting (Panofka, " Bild. antik. Leb.," Taf. vii., 5) represents a
traveling quack practising his art in a booth standing in a market-
place ; he is feeling the head of a patient, whom, with the assist-
ance of his servant, he is pulling up the stairs of his booth.

Numerous tabemce were, by the advertisements on the door-

THE BOOK-TRADE. 527

posts or porticoes of the houses, marked as booksellers' shops.
Such shops were found in Rome, in the Forum near the Curia, in
the Yicus Sandalarius, and in many other much - frequented
quarters. Several names of celebrated publishing firms are
known to us. Inside the shops lay in pigeon-holes {armaria,
nidi), carefully arranged, the book-rolls, in more or less costly
bindings. The shops, at the same time, were meeting-places of
literary men and persons interested in literature. In reading of
the numerous private libraries, and the enormous quantities of
books required by the reading public of the Empire, we naturally
ask how this demand could be supplied without the printing-press.
We answer this question in the words of Schmidt (" Geschichte
der Denk- und Glaubensf reiheit im ersten Jahrhundert der Kaiser-
herrschaft," p. 119) : " The place of the press in our literature was
taken by the slaves." We have already mentioned the literati,
cultivated slaves, generally of Greek origin, who had to copy
books or write from dictation. By these slaves manuscripts were
copied with astounding celerity, with the aid of abbreviations
called, from their inventor, Tiro, a freedman of Cicero, Tironian
notes. These copies, sometimes full of mistakes, went to the
shops of the booksellers (bibliqpola), unless these kept copyists in
their own shops. Numerous copies were thus produced in little
time. The satirical writings oft)vidius, Propertius, and Martialis,
were in everybody's hands, as were also the works of Homer and
Virgil, the odes of Horace, and the speeches of Cicero ; grammars,
anthologies, etc., for schools, were reproduced in the same
manner ; indeed, the antique book-trade was carried on on a
scale hardly surpassed by modem times. Augustus confiscated,
for instance, in Rome alone, 2,000 copies of the pseudo-Sibylline
books — by no means a recent work. Pomponius Atticus, the
friend and publisher of Cicero, possessed a large number of slaves
for the manufacturing of writing-materials and the copying and
correcting of manuscripts ; besides which he carried on a lucrative
publishing business (see Cicero's speech " Pro Ligario "). More-
over, authors used (according to a custom introduced by Asinius
Polio in Augustus's time) to read their unpublished productions
either to their friends or (after due advertisement) to public
audiences in the Forum, at theatres, baths, etc. Hardly a day
passed without an exhibition of this kind ; the younger Pliny, in

528 WRITING MATERIALS.

one of his letters (i., 13) graphically describes the difficulties of
attracting, and still more of retaining, the blase audiences of the
metropolis.

About the writing-materials of the Greeks we have spoken
before. The Komans also used wax tablets (Fig. 490, c, d), called
tabellce, pugillares, or simply cerce, for writing letters, notes, first
drafts, or school-exercises. Only the inner side was written on,
a raised wooden border serving to protect the writing when
two or more tablets were joined together or made into a book
(duplices, Slwrv^a, triplices, Tplirrv^a, multiplices, irokvirrv^a).
The outer surface or cover was generally adorned with ivory
carvings, jewels, or precious metals. Several of these diptycha,
which, in imperial times, the newly-appointed consuls and praetors
used to present to each other, have been preserved. Several wax
tablets, most of them with Koman, and a few with Greek,
documents written on them, have been discovered at various times
since 1786 -in the old Roman mines near the towns of Abrudbanya
(Gross Schlatte) and Yorospatak, in Siebenbiirgen ; most of them
are at present in the Hungarian National Museum, Pesth, a few

others in private collections.1
The pencil {stilus graphium),
used for incising or erasing the
%tters (stilum vertere), we have
mentioned before. Fig. 490
fig 490 c d shows a pencil lying on an

open book (c). The tablets were
also used for writing letters, separate slaves or freedmen being
occasionally employed as librariv ab epistulis. On sending the
letter the tabellce were fastened together with a thread tied into
a knot, on which the wax seal was pressed. The outside of the
letter bore the address. Another kind of writing was done
with ink {atramentum Ubrarium), made of a solution of soot and
gum, on papyrus or parchment (see Fig. 490, the inkstand, a,
with the calamus lying on it, and the half-opened writing-
scroll, b). Of the materials and manufactory of the papyrus

1 The chronological enumeration ©f these discoveries from 1786 to 1856 is found in
Erdy, " De Tabulis ceratis in Transsilvania repertis." Pesth, 1856. See Massmann,
"Libellus aurarius sive Tabulae ceratae," Leipsic, 1840; and Detlefsen's Contributions
to the Sitzungsberichte of the Wiener Akademie der Wissenschaften, Hist. CI., vols,
xxiii. and xxvii.

PUBLIC LIBRARIES. 529

we have already spoken. The height of the scroll varied, ac-
cording to the quality of the paper, from 6 to 13 inches ; as to
its length, no rule can be given. A papyrus found in 1821,
containing a fragment of the twenty-fourth book of the Iliad, is
8 feet long by 10 inches high. One end of the papyrus was fitted
into the hollow part of a cane, and rolled round the cane, the
ends of which, slightly protruding, were adorned with buttons of
ivory or metal (cornua, umbilici). To secure it against moths and
dust the papyrus was put in a purple or yellow case (membrana) :
to it, or (as appears from several wall-paintings) to the umbilici,
the title of the book was tied. Several scrolls together were put
into a cylindrical case (scrinium, compare Fig. 235) with a cover
to it ; books or documents could thus be conveniently carried.
Several statues, clad in the toga (" Augusteum," Tafs. 117, 119),
have a scrinium standing at their feet; and in a bass-relief
(Micali, "Monumenti per servire alia Storia degli ant. Popoli
Italiani," Atlas, Tav. 112,) a scrinium, together with the sella
curulis and several books, is carried by the attendants (apparito-
res) in front of a procession of magistrates. Most houses had a
library, which, according to Yitruvius, ought to face the east in
order to admit the light of the morning, and to prevent the books
from becoming mouldy. At Herculaneum a library with book-
cases containing 1,700 scrolls has been discovered. The gram-
marian Epaphroditus possessed a library of 30,000, and Samina-
nicus Serenus, the tutor of the younger Gordian, one of 62,000
books. Seneca ridicules the fashionable folly of illiterate men
who adorned their walls with thousands of books, the titles of
which were the delight of the yawning owner. According to
Publius Victor, Rome possessed twenty-nine public libraries, the
first of which was opened by Asinius Polio in the forecourt of the
Temple of Peace ; two others were founded during the reign of
Augustus, viz., the Octavian and the Palatine libraries. Tiberius,
Yespasian, Domitian, and Trajan, added to their number ; the
Ulpian library, founded by the last-mentioned emperor, being the
most important of all.

Of agricultural implements we first mention the plough

(aratrum). Originally the land was turned up by means of a long

hoe, which soon was developed into the wooden plough, consisting

of a strong wooden hook pointed at the bottom like a ploughshare,

530 THE PLOUGH.

or cased with iron, the back part forming the plough-handle. This
plough, of Etruscan origin, but adopted by the Romans, is shown,
Fig. 491, from an Etruscan bronze group ; it naturally could
only dig into the earth, without turning up the furrows. The
later Roman plough consisted of a share-beam (dentale), with the
ploughshare (vomer) at one end, and the stiva (plough-handle)
with a cross-bar (manicula) at the other ; beam and handle might
be made of one piece, or the latter inserted into the former ; the
manicula served to direct the plough by being either raised or
pressed down by the ploughman. About the middle of the
share-beam was fastened the buris or bura (plough-tail), about
eight feet long and slightly bent ; in the Roman plough it served
at the same time as pole (terno), to the farther end of which the
oxen were yoked (see Fig. 491, where the yoke itself is also

shown separately above the
animals). To even the furrows
two mould-boards (aures) were
fastened behind the plough-
share. A particular kind of
plough was the jplaustrara-
trum, used in Gallic Rhetia
and in the north of Italy. In
it the plough-tail rested on two
low wheels, into the axle-tree of which the pole was inserted.
The plough was drawn by two or more oxen, according to the
nature of the soil. We next mention the harrow (occa, crater)
and the irpex, an instrument consisting of iron hooks. It was
drawn by oxen, and served to tear up roots and weeds. We
further name the bidens, an instrument with two prongs, the rake
(rastrum), the ligo (a hoe used in gardens and vineyards), and the
spade (pala, rutrum). The falx vinitoria and falx arboraria
were used for pruning vines and trees. The former had a curved
blade and a spike, the latter a bent blade. Sickles were used
to cut grass or corn, not too near the root ; the ears were gathered
in baskets and trodden out by oxen on an open piece of ground,
which had previously been made firm by being stamped upon ;
a custom still obtaining in southern countries. Another way of
thrashing the corn was by means of the tribulum — according to
Varro, a board, portions of which were raised by means of inserted

Fig. 491.

THE VINE AND OLIVE. 531

stones or pieces of iron. It was pulled across the ears by oxen,
the ploughman standing on it. The remaining husks were left
to be blown away by the wind, or else removed. The corn was
kept in subterraneous caves (horreum subterraneum), still in use
in southern countries, or in dry, airy granaries resting on
columns {horreum pensile). In times of famine these granaries
were filled at public expense, according to the example set by
C. Sempronius Gracchus. The ruins of the large horreapopuli
Romani were still visible in the sixteenth century, between the
Aventine Hill and the Monte Testaceo ; at present they have
entirely disappeared, as have also the granaries called by the
names of their founders, horrea Aniceti, Vargunteii, Seiani,
Augusti Domitiani.

The culture of the olive-tree in Italy dates from the times of
the kings. Yenafrum, Casinum, and the Sabine country, were
celebrated for their oils. The culture of the vine is of later
date. It became of importance only when the growing of grain
began to cease. The shoots were planted in furrows or holes,
and the vines were trailed (maritare) on trees, chiefly elms,
planted at distances of twenty feet ; their distance apart was
doubled in case the ground lying between was used for the grow-
ing of grain, as is still the case in modern Italy. The custom of
trailing the vine on poles or trellis-work was equally known to
the Romans. Hedges of briers, fences made of osiers, or walls,
protected the vineyards against the cattle. Numerous sculptural
groups of reapers and herds of cattle illustrate the agricultural
pursuits of the Roman people.

103. We propose in the following pages to give a short sketch
of the priestly colleges, the sacrificial rites, and the festive games
connected with them, always availing ourselves of monumental
evidence. All religious acts performed in holy places (locus sacer)
were called sacra : in case they were performed by individuals
or by the head of a family in honor of the domestic gods, the
Lares, Penates, etc., or by a priest in the name of a community
(gens), they were called sacra privata; sacra publica, on the
other hand, were performed at the public expense by public
priests (sacer dotes populi Romani) for the people (pro populo), or
by certain societies (sodalitates) which were charged by the state
with the veneration of certain deities, as, for instance, the Gens

532 THE PONTIFICES.

Nautia with that of Minerva, the Gens Julia with that of Apollo,
and the Gens Anrelia with that of Sol. The public priests {sacer-
dotes) were divided into three classes : the first class, that of the
sacer dotes publici populi JRomani, formed the great collegia of the
pontifices, comprising the subdivisions of the Vllviri epulones, the
XV viri sacris faciundis, the augur es, Salii and Fetiales ; the
second class comprised the sodalitates, which had to perform the
sacra popularia ; the third, those officiating at the sacra gentilitia.

The priests of the first class enjoyed many privileges ; they
were allowed to wear the toga praetexta, they were exempt from
military or civil service, and had seats of honor at feasts and
games. They were also in possession of public land (ager publicus),
the rental of which covered the expenses of the sacra ; moreover,
the state kept for them a number of subaltern officials, partly
slaves (servi publici), partly freemen. Among these we mention
the lictores, mostly freedmen, who preceded priests and priestess-
es (just like the lictores of civil magistrates), in order to make
room for them through a crowd ; also the pullarii (keepers of
the fowls), the victimarii (sacrificial butchers), the tibicines and
fidicines (musicians), the calatores (messengers to announce meet-
ings), and the camilli and Camilla}, boys and girls partly officiating
at the sacrifices, partly aspirants for the priestly dignity. For the
last-mentioned class ' originally free-born children alone were
eligible with parents still alive (pueri patrimi et matrimi and
puellai patrimai et matrimai).

The pontifices formed, in the time of the kings, a college of
four priests, with the king himself as high-priest at their head.
When (300 b. c.) the tribunes of the people Q. and Cn. Ogulnius
carried a plebiscite granting the plebeians admittance to the priest-
ly offices, previously held by patricians only, four plebeians were
added to the original four pontifices, the high-priest {pontifex
maximus) being chosen from among them. Sulla, the reformer
of many priestly colleges, increased the pontifices to fifteen. In
imperial times the dignity of pontifex maximus was, by the sen -
ate, conferred on, or on his own authority assumed by, the em-
peror. We possess, for instance, a statue of Hadrian in pontifi-
cals, with a sacrificial vase in his hand (Clarac, " Musee," Tom. ii.,
pi. 945). Saturnus, Ops, and Yesta, were the chief gods whose
worship was committed to the pontifices. The high-priest had

THE PONTIFICES. 533

his dwelling in the Regia, near the temple of Vesta in the Fo-
rum. The atrium of Yesta was the hearth of the state household,
where the priests, as heads of the Roman family, and the Yestals,
like the maidens in private families, performed sacrificial rites.
The college of pontifices, therefore, formed the centre of Roman
public worship, and to them was confided the keeping of the re-
ligious state-archive, where the religious annals (annales maximi),
written by the high-priest himself, the leges regice (the oldest cus-
tomary laws referring to sacred matters), the libri pontificii, and
the minutes and decisions of the meetings of pontifices (commen-
tarii pontifieum), were deposited. By this college was pro-
nounced every year the sollemnis votorum nuneupatio (the vows
of the state), and its advice was asked by the magistrates with
regard to religious ceremonies, the pontifices alone being supposed
to know the sacrifices agreeable to the gods. Previous to devot-
ing a place or object (statue, vase, etc.) to the gods, men had to
solicit the approbation of the pontifices, who also performed the
consecratio preceding the act of devotion itself. They were con-
sulted about the mode of expiatio, when faults had been commit-
ted against the sacred precepts, or at burials (where the manes had
to be pacified), etc.

Among other offices connected with this college we mention
that of " sacrificial king " (rex sacrorum or rex sacriflculus), a
dignity held at first by the Roman kings, and, after their expul-
sion, by a priest, who had to perform certain acts of worship, par-
ticularly the sacra of Janus. Although his functions were of
comparatively little importance, the sacrificial king occupied
nominally a higher rank than the pontifices themselves, at whose
festive meals the place of honor was granted to him. His wife,
the regina sacrorum^ shared the honor of his priesthood.

The pontifices, like several other priestly brotherhoods (e. g.,
the fratres Arvales and sodales AugustaUs), had sacrificial priests
(flamines) attached to them, whose name was derived from flare
(to blow the fire). The number of flamines attached to the pon-
tifices was fifteen, the three highest of whom (flamines maiores),
viz., the flamen Dialis, Martialis, and Quirinalis, were always
chosen from old patrician families; the remaining twelve were
called flamines minores. Free from all civil duties, the Flamen
Dialis, with his wife and children, exclusively devoted himself to

534

THE FLAMEN DIALIS.

the service of the deity. His house (domus flaminia) lay on the
Palatine Hill. His marriage was dissoluble by death only ; he was
not allowed to take an oath, mount a horse, or look at an army.
He was forbidden to remain a night away from his house, and his
hand touched nothing unclean, for which reason he never ap-
proached a corpse or a burial-place. He always appeared in his
official dress, consisting of a toga praetexta, woven by his wife of
thick wool (Iwna), which was not allowed to be tied in a knot, but
had to be fastened by means of fibulae, the sight of fetters being
forbidden to him. For the same reason the ring he wore on his
finger had to be a broken one ; neither was he allowed to approach

a trailed vine or touch ivy : a prisoner on entering his house was
freed from his fetters, which were thrown through the impluvium
into the street. His head-dress was the albogalerus, a sort of
pileus, to the top (apex) of which was tied an olive-branch with a
white woolen thread (filum). This head-dress appears on several
coins, of which we mention one of Julius Caesar, bearing the
inscriptions PONT. MAX. and AVGVK. The albogalerus, Fig.
492, &, resembles that seen in a bass-relief of the temple of
Yespasian in Pome,1 but for its apex, which is a little lower.
The adornment of the albogalerus with a flash of lightning
shows its being destined for a Flamen Dialis. In the daytime
the Flamen Dialis was not allowed to take off his head-dress,
and he was obliged to resign his office in case it fell off by

1 Reber, " Die Ruinen Roms." 1863, p. 82.

THE VESTALS. 535

accident. In his belt lie carried the sacrificial knife (seeesjnta),
and in his hand he held a rod (commetacula), in order to keep off
the people on his way to the sacrifice. For the same purpose he
was preceded by a lictor, who compelled everybody on the way to
lay down his work, the flamen not being allowed to see the
business of daily life. The wife of the flamen (fluminica) had to
submit to an equally strict etiquette ; she also appeared always in
long woolen robes, her hair was tied in a tutulus with a woolen
ribbou of purple color, over which a kerchief (ricd) was fastened
with the bough of a lucky tree (arbor felix) attached to it. She
wore a purple veil (flammeum), and her shoes had to be made of
the leather of sacrificed animals. She also carried the sacrificial
knife. Fig. 492 shows a bass-relief illustrative of all the utensils
used at sacrificial acts by the upper priests, such as the sacrificial
vase (culullus, e), the vessels for drawing liquids (simpulum, /*),
the sacrificial knife (secespita) in a case (g), and the albogalerus (k).1
Besides the flamines, the Yestals (virgines Vestales, virgines
Vestce) were closely connected with the college of pontifices. They
are said to have come from Alba soon after the foundation of
Rome : at first there were two Yestals for each of the two tribes
Ramnes and Tities; afterward two others were added for the
Luceres, and the number of six was exceeded at no period. The
Yestal, on being chosen, was not allowed to be younger than six
or older than ten years ; she was to be patrima et matrima, and
free from bodily defects. After having been examined she was
clad in white garments and devoted to the service of Yesta for
thirty years ; during the first ten years she was a novice, during
the second ten an active priestess, and for the remaining period a
teacher of novices. After this period she was at liberty either to
remain in the service of the goddess (which was generally done)
or to return to her family and get married. Her dress was always
white ; round her forehead she wore a broad band like a diadem
(infuld), with ribbons (vittce) attached to it. During the sacrifice,
or at processions, she was covered with a white veil (suffibulum),
fastened under her chin with a fibula (see Gerhard, "Antike
Bildwerke," Taf. xxiv., and the Yestal Claudia Quinta, Fig. 493,

1 Sacrificial utensils appear frequently on cameos and coins ; for instance, on the
denarii of the families Antestia, Antonia, Cassia, Cornelia, Domitia, Iulia, Hirtia, Sul-
picia, etc.

536 THE VESTALS.

from a bass-relief). She was carefully guarded against insult or
temptation ; an offense offered to her was punished with death :
no man was allowed to enter her dwelling or approach the temple
by night ; in public every one, even the consul, made way to the
lictor preceding the maiden. At public games and pontifical ban-
quets she had the seat of honor ; and a convicted criminal ac-
cidentally meeting her was released. Among her priestly func-
tions was the keeping of the eternal fire in the temple of Yesta,
each Yestal taking her turn at watching ; in case the fire went
out the negligent maiden was liable to corporal punishment
at the hands of the Pontifex Maximus. The temple of Yesta
had, moreover, to be sprinkled every day with the water of the
fountain of Egeria; on the 1st of March of every year it was
decorated anew with purifying laurel (see the laurel-branch lying
on a censer, Fig. 492, a). The sprinkling with water was done
with an aspergillum, sometimes in the form of a horse's leg with
a horse's tail attached to it (see Fig. 492, A), sometimes with a
spiral handle. In accordance with the simple offerings at the
domestic hearth, the gift of the Yestals consisted of different
preparations of salt (muries and mola salsa), offered in earthen
vessels. The sacrifice was accompanied by prayers for the peo-
ple. Breach of chastity on the part of the Yestal was punished
with death ; the culprit was carried on a bier to the campus scele-
ratus, outside the Porta Collina, beaten with rods, and afterward
immured alive, the violent killing of a Yestal being considered
nefas ; only miraculous intercession of the goddess could save the
culprit. We know of twelve cases of Yestals being punished in
this manner.

We now come to the colleges independent of the pontifices,
mentioning first the VII viri epulones. Their origin dates from the
year 196 b. c, when, owing to the pontifices being overworked,
a separate college of seven members was founded, chiefly in order
to perform the rites of the sacrificial meal (epidum Jovis), taken
in the temple of the Capitoline Jupiter, in the presence of the
whole senate ; the ludiplebii always followed on the next day. In
later times such meals were arranged on many public occasions,
the viri epulones always presiding.

The colleges hitherto mentioned had the care of the worship
of the old Roman gods (dii patrii); XV viri sacris faciundis,

PRIESTLY COLLEGES. 537

on the other hand, presided over the religious rites of strange
gods (dii peregrini) introduced in Rome. The number of these
priests was, under Tarquinius Superbus, two ; since the year 367
b. o. the college consisted of five patrician and five plebeian mem-
bers, to whom five further priests were added, most likely by
Sulla. They had to keep and expound the Sibylline books, and
to choose the new decisions of oracles to be recorded in them.
As is well known, nine books of oracular sayings were offered to
Tarquinius Superbus by the sibyl of Cumse, three of which the
king bought, while the others were thrown into the flames by the
sibyl. These three books were kept in the temple of the Capito-
line Jupiter, together with which they were destroyed by fire
(83 b. c). A new collection of oracles was made in Asia Minor
(the most fertile soil for such sayings) and other countries, which
again was deposited in the rebuilt Capitol. The XV viri were
charged by Augustus with the critical selection of these oracular
sayings, many corrections and additions being made under subse-
quent emperors. Stilicho is said to have burnt these books. In
times of plagues, earthquakes, and the like, these books were con-
sulted by the priests, and the proper mode of expiation expounded
from them. One of the expiatory acts was the introduction of
new gods. The worship of Apollo, Artemis, Ceres, Dis pater
Venus, Salus, Mercury, JEsculapius, and Magna Mater (Cybele),
were thus transferred to Rome on the authority of the Sibylline
books, public games being at the same time introduced in honor
of many of these gods, as, for instance, the Apollinaria and Secu-
lar games in honor of Apollo, the
ludi Cereris, in honor of Ceres, and
the Megalenses to celebrate the Magna
Mater. Fig. 493 refers to the wor-
ship of the latter goddess. The fig-
ure of the Yestal drawing with her
girdle the vessel on whose deck Cybele
is seated, is Claudia Quinta. A late no. 493.

Roman bass-relief on a sarcophagus

represents a scene from the grand procession preceding the
ludi circenses during the festive days of the Megalenses {see
Gerhard, "Ant. Denkm.," Taf. cxx., 1). The image of Cybele
in her chariot drawn by lions is carried on the shoulders of seven-

538 THE AUGURES.

teen persons. The two figures clad with the toga, opening the
procession, are most likely two of the XV viri.

The augures also were fifteen in number. Their institution
coincided with the foundation of the city, Romulus himself being
mentioned as the first augur. No public act or ceremony in
peace or war, no inauguration or exauguration could be performed
without the augurs' assistance, who, according to certain rules,
derived the will of the gods from the appearance, non-appearance,
or manner of appearance, of the sign. Only the magistrate had
a right to consult the augurs about the auspices with reference to
public affairs (spectio) ; his questions only were answered by the
augur (nuntiatio). The important political position of these priests
is sufficiently explained by these facts. Standing in the centre of
the temple, or temple-inclosure, under a tent (tabernaculum) the
augur (after having divided the holy precinct into regions with a
smooth stick slightly bent at the top, lituus, see Fig. 494) turned
toward the south, and, offering prayers, expected the divine mes-
sage. Lightning (servare de ccelo) and the flight of birds were the
principal signs. The lightnings coming from the left
(fulmina sinistra) were considered favorable, those from
the right unfavorable. The Etruscans had no less than
eleven categories of lightnings, according to their direc-
tion, color, etc. : the Roman theory was less elaborate,

Fig. 494. , . . . . .

the lightnings being classified only according to their
occurring in the night or daytime ; in imperial times, however,
the Etruscan theories were more generally adopted, which
had previously been the case only in a few
instances, such as the purification of places struck
by the lightning. For, like the body of the
dead, the lightning had to be buried, which was
clone by building a shaft with walls of masonry,
which protruded from the ground like the rim
of a fountain (whence the name puteal) ; this
tomb of the lightning was inscribed, Fulgus conditum ; another
name, bidental, was derived from the circumstance of an animal
two years old being sacrificed on the spot. A puteal consisting
of a round structure resting on eight Doric columns has been
found at Pompeii. Fig. 495 represents a puteal from a
denarius of L. Scribonius Libo, with the inscription, PYTEAL

THE II ARU SPICES.

539

SCKIBON.1 We observe laurel-wreaths, lyres, and a pair of
pincers on the puteal, which has the form of an altar. Scribonius
had been commissioned by the senate to find the spot struck by
lightning, and had, in consequence, erected a puteal in the temple
of Minerva.

The birds of omen (signa ex avibus) were divided by the augur
into those whose cry {oscines) and into those whose flight (alites)
signified the divine will. To the former class belonged the raven,
the crow, the owl, the woodpecker, and the cock ; to the latter,
the eagle (Jovis ales), hawk, and vulture. These auspices were in
later times (particularly during campaigns, or on other occasions
when no augur was present) supplied by
the signs derived from the manner of eat-
ing observed in the sacred hens (auspicia
pullaria or auspicia ex tripudiis). Hens
were kept in a cage for the purpose ; in
case the animals devoured their dumplings
(of a pultis) as soon as the hen-keeper
(pullarius) opened the hen-coop, the omen
was favorable, particularly if they dropped
little pieces while eating (tripudium sol-
listimum) ; in case they refused to eat or to leave the cage, evil
might be anticipated. Sometimes the pullarii or augurs used
undoubtedly artificial means in bringing about the desired omen.
Fig. 496 shows a hen-coop with two chickens eating, from a cameo
(several cameos with similar representations are in the Berlin
Museum ; compare Toelken, " Yerzeichniss der antik vertieft
geschnittenen Steine der kgl. Preuss. Gemmensammlung, p. 77,
No. 175, and p. 250, No. 1484, et seq). We finally mention the
two less important auguria ex quadrupedibus and ex diris. To
meet certain animals, such as a wolf, a fox, a snake, etc., was con-
sidered an evil augury.

The haruspiees, nearly related to the augures, were of Etrus-
can origin : under the Bepublic they were consulted only in a few
individual cases ; under the emperors they gained more impor-
tance, remaining, however, inferior to the other priestly colleges.

1 On the puteal depicted on a gold coin of ^Emilia Scribonia we see a hammer
instead of these pincers ; see Cohen, " Descr. g6n. des Monnaies de la Republ. Rom.,"
pl.i.

Fig. 496.

540 THE SALIT.

They also expounded and procured lightnings and " prodigies,"
and moreover examined the intestines of sacrificed animals ; their
more developed Etruscan method competing successfully with
that of their Roman colleagues. Besides drawing down the light-
ning by their art, etc., the haruspices had made a specialty of the
inspection of the intestines of animals. Heart, liver, and lungs,
were carefully examined, every anomaly being explained in a favor-
able or unfavorable sense. Although on solemn occasions the ha-
ruspices were officially invited to Rome for consultation, their art
was never much esteemed by the more enlightened classes. Cato's
saying, that no haruspex could look at his fellow without laugh-
ing, is significant in this respect.

The fifth college of priests, that of the Salii, was traced back
to Numa. In his time a shield of peculiar form (ancile) is said
to have dropped from the sky. To prevent it from being stolen
the king ordered eleven other shields exactly like it to be made
by the artist Mamurius. In order to keep these shields a college
of twelve priests, the Salii, was instituted on the Palatine. Un-
fortunately for the story, however, there was another college of
Salii, of Sabine origin, on the Quirinal Hill, the former being de-
voted to the worship of Mars, the latter to that of Quirinus ; both
were undoubtedly representatives of the oldest worship of Mars,
whose name is also connected with the above-mentioned tradition
of the shield. In the month of March, devoted to that god, the
feast in his honor was celebrated. Clad in the toga picta and in
full armor, the toga prsetexta, worn above them, being tied in a
Gabine knot, the head covered with the helmet (resembling the
above-mentioned apex), armed with sword and lance, and carrying
(on the left arm or fastened round the neck) the ancile, the Salii
walked through the streets in solemn procession, dancing a war-
like dance (whence their name) before every sanctuary, and beat-
ing their shields with their lances or staffs to the measure of an old
song, the words of which (axamenta, assamenta, carmina saliaria)
had, at a later period, become incomprehensible to the priests them-
selves. These songs celebrated Janus, Jupiter, Juno, Minerva,
and Mars, the names of departed citizens being added to these as
a mark of highest distinction. During the greater part of March
these processions were repeated daily, and returned every evening
to the quarters (mansiones) of the Salii, several of which existed

THE FETIALES. 541

in Rome. The ancilia were carried into the house by servants on
poles (they were not allowed to touch them), a festive meal, cele-
brated for its sumptuousness, ending the pro-
ceedings. Fig. 497, from a cameo in the Flor-
entine collection, shows several of these ancilia
being carried by servants in the manner de-
scribed. A silver coin of the Gens Licinia (Co-
hen, " Desc. gen. des Monnaies de la Republ.
Rom.," pi. xxiv.) shows two ancilia and an apex fig. 497.

with the inscription, PYBL. STOLO III YIR.

The next college of priests, that of the Fetiales, also dates back
from the time of the first kings. They had to perform the sacred
rites accompanying declarations of war and treaties of peace or
alliance. Usually four Fetiales, with a speaker (pater patratus),
were sent by the king, and afterward by the senate, to foreign
nations to demand satisfaction for injuries received. They were
clad in priestly robes, and in front of them were carried holy
herbs (sagmind), which the consul or praetor delivered to them in
the Capitol, after having touched with them the forehead of the
pater patratus. Thus equipped they demanded satisfaction from
the foreign nation, calling down the wrath of the gods upon their
own heads in case their requests were unjust. On this demand
being refused they returned to Rome, and after an interval of
from ten to thirty days the pater patratus declared war by throw-
ing a bloody spear across the frontier into the enemy's country
in the presence of three witnesses. When the Roman territory
began to extend more and more, this ceremony was performed in
Rome itself, a piece of ground near the temple of Bellona being
considered as the enemy's country (terra hostilis), on which a co-
lumna bellica was erected at a later period. At least two Fetiales
had to be present at the conclusion of treaties of alliance, viz., the
pater patratus and the herald carrying the holy herbs (verbena-
rius). After the words of the treaty had been read, a pig was
killed with a pebble (sil'ex) kept in the temple of Jupiter Fere-
trius, whence the expression foedus ferire. This ceremony is
represented on a silver coin of the Gens Antistia, and on a num-
ber of coins of the cities of Capua and Atella.

The only remaining priestly college, that of the Curiones and
the religious sodalities of the Luperei, Titii, and Fratres Arvales,

542 SACRIFICES.

we refrain from noticing for want of monumental evidence. The
head-dress of the last-mentioned sodality consisted of a crown of
wheat-ears.

The dress of those going to pray or sacrifice was usually white,
a symbol of guiltlessness and chastity. The sacrificial utensils
and the offering itself had to be free from stain ; profane inter-
ruption by word or deed was considered a bad omen, whence the
exclamation favete Unguis, pronounced at the beginning of the
sacrifice. A flute-player accompanied the holy act on his instru-
ment, as appears from the representation of a sacrifice on an earth-
en lamp (Passerius, " Lucernse Fict.," i., 35). To the right of the
altar stands the priest, and an assistant carrying a box of incense ;
to the left we see the butcher with his axe ; in the foreground sev-
eral fettered bulls lie on the ground, and behind the altar a tibicen
is playing on the double-flute.

Prayers to the celestial gods were offered standing and with
hands held up to the eastern sky (see the bass-relief of a praying
woman, Zoega, " Bassiril," vol. i., Tav. 18). The gods of the
nether world were propitiated by touching the earth with the
hands, and the supplicationes were offered kneeling ; at the sup-
plications for the averting of threatening evil, women appeared
with loosened hair. Unlike the Greek, the Roman sacrificed with
the toga pulled over the back of his head in the manner of a veil ;
only the sacrifices imported from Greece were performed (Grceco
ritu) bareheaded.

In the oldest time the offerings were bloodless: first-fruits,
mola salsa, milk, honey, wine, and cakes, were offered. The ani-
mals (which began to be sacrificed under the last kings) were
divided by the Romans into victims and hostice, i. e., heifers and
smaller animals, offered to different gods according to holy cus-
tom. After having been examined, and found without blemish,
the animal was led by the attendant (popa) to the flower-crowned
altar, the resistance, and still more the flight, of the animal being
looked upon as a bad omen. The horns of oxen and wethers were
frequently gilt, and the animals always adorned with ribbons and
ties (vittcB, infulce), partly wound round the horns, partly spread
over the back (compare Figs. 498, 539, and 492, b, I). The
question " agone ? " of the sacrificial butcher (mctimarius) was
answered by the officiating priest with " hoc age" after which the

SACRIFICES.

543

priest strewed mola salsa and incense on the head of the animal,
and burnt a bunch of hair cut from between its horns ; he also
drew with a knife a line on the back of the animal from the
forehead to the tail. The victim thus prepared (macta est) was
killed by the victimarius with an axe (securis, bipennis, Fig. 492,
e), or mallet (malleus, Fig. 492,/), provided it was a large ani-
mal : pigs, sheep, and birds, had their throats pierced with a knife
by the eultrarius, who caught the blood in a vase (Fig. 492, e) ;
it was then poured over and round the altar. After this the body
was opened with the secespita (Fig. 492, g) and the intestines
taken out with smaller knives (cultri, Fig. 492, d), and examined
by the haruspices. In case of
an unfavorable omen the sacri-
fice had to be renewed ; other-
wise the intestines were sprin-
kled with wine and burned on
the altar amid prayers. A li-
bation of wine and incense, the
former poured from an amphora
(jwcefericulum, Fig. 492, c), the
latter taken from a box (acerra,
turibulum, Fig. 492, i), con-
cluded the sacrifice, after which
the priest dismissed those pres-
ent with the word " Ilicetr
A meal followed ; prepared by
the priests in case the sacrifice
had been public, by the family in case it had been private.

To conclude, we mention the expiatory sacrifice performed at
the end of a lustrum and after the triumph ; in the latter case
by the triumphator in honor of the Capitoline Jupiter : the
technical name was suovetaurilia, i. e., sacrifices of pigs, sheep, and
oxen. The first-mentioned sacrifice is illustrated by a bass-relief
(Clarac, "Musee," pi. 221, No. 751) composed of twenty-one
figures. On the left we see the censor inserting the names of
citizens and soldiers in the census-lists ; two musicians play on
the cithara and flute respectively. To the right three crowned
animals are brought forward by the servants, while another
attendant carries a box of incense on his shoulders. The priest

FlQ. 498.

544 " VOTIVE GAMES.

is pouring the libation into a vase presented to him by a camillus.
Fig. 498, taken from the arch of Constantine, represents the
sacrifice of the emperor, surrounded by his army, in honor of
Jupiter after his triumph. The emperor "pours a libation on the
burning altar. Suovetaurilia are led forward by crowned ser-
vants. A camillus offers a box of incense to the emperor, while
the tibicen plays on his instrument.

104. Public games were, from the earliest times, connected
with religious acts, the Roman custom tallying in this respect
with the Greek. Such games were promised to the gods to gain
their favor, and afterward carried out as a sign of gratitude for
their assistance. Such vows (vota pro salute rei publieoi) were
made on the 1st of January of every year by the newly-elected
consuls, according to a formula first pronounced by the Pontifex
Maximus ; after Caesar's time special vota pro salute principis were
added to these. The expenses of the games thus promised
(whether the vow was made in Rome by the highest magistrate
or in the field by the general) were at once guaranteed, either
from the public treasury or from the booty. These ludi votivi
were either performed only once, or repeated annually (ludi an-
nul, solemnes, stati, ordinarii) on a certain day appointed for the
purpose. During the first years of the Republic the consuls had
to arrange the games ; but after the creation of sediles (494 b. c.)
this duty devolved upon them, the higher magistrates only su-
perintending. The expense was, at least for the greater j>art,
covered by the state ; in later times, however, the public money
by no means sufficed for the splendid preparations required, and
the sediles, and later on the imperial officials appointed for the
arrangement of the ludi circensis, had frequently to waste their
private property in the service of the multitude. The admission
to the games arranged by the state was gratis ; private persons
who arranged games at their own expense (editor ludi) were
allowed to raise entrance-fees. In imperial times the number of
annual games increased enormously, the birthday of the emperor,
the anniversary of his accession, the delivery of the empress, the
memorial days of the dead members of the family, becoming
occasions for the ruler to gain the favor of the multitude by the
institution of splendid games. Augustus charged the praetors
with the arrangement of public games, but on the onerous offer

LUDI CIRCENSES. 545

proving too much for them alone, the consuls and quaestors were
conjointly made responsible ; the arrangement of the most
expensive games, however, the emperor reserved to himself, a
court official {curator ludorum) being appointed for the purpose.

As early as the times of the kings, horse and chariot races are
said to have taken place in the circus ; in 364 b. c. scenic repre-
sentations introduced from Etruria were added to them. Both
were performed either separately or on one and the same occasion,
in which latter case the beginning was always made with the see-
nic representations. Fights of gladiators, at first arranged only
by private individuals, soon became an equally important feature
of the public games. The agon of gymnastic and musical arts,
so highly developed among the Greeks, never became popular
among the Romans. Augustus initiated one of these in memory
of the battle of Actium. Nero instituted an agon consisting of
horse-races and gymnastic and musical competitions, in the latter
of which he took part himself ; his agon was a certamen quinquen-
nale. The agones were renewed for the last time by Gordianus III.

The nature of the games necessitated different local arrange-
ments. Horse and chariot races took place in the circus, fights
of gladiators and wild animals in the amphitheatre, and scenic
representations in the theatre (compare §§ 83-85). . The two
earliest among the ludi circenses were the consualia and equiria
said to have been founded by Romulus ; both were celebrated
twice a year, the former on the 21st of August and the 15th of
December, the latter on February 27th and March 14th ; they
consisted of chariot-races in the Campus Martius. The ludi Ro-
mani, also dating from the time of the kings, were celebrated in
honor of the three Capitoline deities ; they lasted at first only a
few days : Augustus extended their duration from September
4th to 19th. The ludi jplebei were instituted in memory of the
confirmation of popular power after the secession on the Aven-
tine ; their duration was afterward extended to a fortnight (No-
vember 4th to 17th), the final days being in this, as in the just-
mentioned games, reserved for the ludi circenses. The Cereales
were celebrated from April 12th to April 19th ; their institution
seems connected with the building, by the dictator Postumius, of
a temple for Ceres, Liber, and Libera ; at first they were ludi vo-
tivi} having to be decreed each time by the senate, afterward thoy
35

546 LUDI GIR CENSES.

became annual : Caesar appointed separate cediles Cereales. The
ludi Apollinares were instituted in consequence of an oracle
contained in the carmina Marciana to the effect that the expul-
sion of the Carthaginians would be impossible till games in honor
of Apollo were instituted. Ludi circenses took place on the final
day, being preceded by dramatic representations. They dated
from 212 b. o., being at first ludi votlvi, afterward ludi stati, cele-
brated on the 5th of July ; still later, from the 5th or 6th till the
13th of July. The praetor urbanus was charged with the arrange-
ments. The ludi Megalenses (also comprising ludi circenses) were
instituted to celebrate the arrival in Rome of the Magna Mater,
on April 12th, 204 b. c. In order not to interfere with the Ce-
realia (April 12th to 19th), these games were celebrated from
April 4th to 10th, it being always the custom to add new days not
after, but before, the day first appointed. We finally mention the
F lor alia (April 28th to May 3d), the last day of which was
occupied with the hunting of tame deer in the Circus Maximus ;
also the temporary games in honor of Caesar Augustus (ludi vie-
torice Cmsaris, Augustalia), etc., always ending in ludi circenses.

About the Circus Maximus we have spoken before (see Fig.
431). A second circus, that of Flaminius, was built 220 b. c. by
the censor C. Flaminius in the meadows called after his name.
Other buildings of the same kind, partly still recognizable by
their ruins, were the results of later times ; we mention the cir-
cus built by Caligula in the gardens of Agrippina, commonly
called the Circus of Nero, also the circus near the grave of Caeci-
lia Metella (erroneously called Circo di Caracalla), built by Romu-
lus, son of Maxentius, not to speak of numerous race-courses in
provincial towns (compare Fig. 430). From circumstantial evi-
dence (such as the plan of the circus of Bovillae, Fig. 430, sculpt-
ural representations, and descriptions by the authors) we are able
to give an accurate account of the arrangements of the Circus
Maximus, which itself has disappeared almost entirely.

On entering through the festive entrance-gate (to both sides
of which lay the cages, careeres, for the racing-chariots) one ob-
served, in the centre of the course, the spina, with three conical
columns (metce, i. e., goals) at each end. The spina itself was
adorned with columns, small sanctuaries, statues of gods, and a
tall mast, instead of which Augustus erected the obelisk now in

LUDI CIRCENSES.

547

548 CHARIOT-RACES.

the Piazza del Popolo. Constantine added a second higher
obelisk, now standing in front of the Lateran. M. Agrippa
adorned the spina with seven water-spouts in the shape of
dolphins, in allusion, most likely, to Neptunus Equester, to whom
races were dedicated. Here also stood an altar (see Gerhard,
"Antike Bildw.," Taf. cxx., 2) with seven egg-shaped objects
(ova) lying on it, in remembrance of the origin of Castor and
Pollux, horse-breakers jwr excellence. Each time the course had
been run through, one of these eggs was removed as a sign to the
spectators. Most of these arrangements may be observed in the
mosaic, 15 feet 6 inches by 9 feet 6 inches, found in the circus of
Lyons, Fig. 499. On both sides of the chief entrance we see four
carceres; we further observe three conical metae standing on
semicircular bases at both ends of the spina, which is here
formed by two water-reservoirs with brick facings, each of them
filled by seven water-spouts in the shape of dolphins. Between
the two ponds rises an obelisk, while the ova lie on two rows of
poles standing in the water. A different arrangement appears in
a bass-relief on a late Roman sarcophagus ^(Gerhard, u Antike
Bildwerke," Taf. cxx., 2), the lower half of which most likely
represents a chariot-race in the circus, in the presence of the
Emperor Maximus. The spina there is adorned with an obelisk,
two Korinthian columns, and a Korinthian base, on which the
dolphins are placed. The ova lie on a small altar at a little
distance.

We have shown, Fig. 258, the light two- wheeled chariot used
at races. The Eoman charioteers [auriga, agitator), unlike the
Greeks who appeared naked, wore a short tunic strapped tightly
round the upper part of the body ; they used to have a curved
knife in their belt, in order to cut the traces on the horses running
away ; the thighs had straps tied round them (see the statue of an
auriga in the Museo Pio Clementino), or else the arms and legs
were dressed in reticulated tights (see Gerhard, "Antike Bild-
werke," Taf. cxx., 2). Their head-dress consisted of a leathern
cap resembling a helmet. Bigse and quadrigge, and more rarely
trigse, were used for racing ; an inscription mentions the victor of
a race won with seven horses running in a row. In the biga the
two horses were yoked together, in the quadriga only the two
wheel-horses carried the yoke. Favorite charioteers and horses

CHARIOT-RAGES. 549

were received by the public with loud applause. Sicily, Spain,
Africa, Cappadocia, etc., were celebrated for their race-horses,
whose pedigree, age, and name, were recorded with the utmost
accuracy. The left wheel-horse was watched with particular
anxiety, because it had the most difficult task in doubling the
meta ; its running against, or being frightened at, the meta ex-
posed chariot and charioteer to the danger of destruction. In
inscriptions the name of the victorious horse is frequently men-
tioned together with that of the charioteer.

The umpire, sitting on a balcony above the chief entrance-
portal, gave the sign for beginning the race by throwing a white
cloth (mappa) into the arena (compare Fig. 499). On the towers
or oppida mentioned by us stood musicians, who played in the
intervals between the races. The chariots began the race from
the right-hand side of the entrance-portal, keeping on the right
side of the spina, and returning on the left after doubling the
meta ; in this way the course was measured seven times without
stopping. After the last time they left the circus through the
carceres on the left side of the chief entrance. The whole race of
seven courses was c*alled missus, a single course being denominated
curriculum or spatium. Usually four chariots ran at a time;
the first arrival after the missus at a line marked with chalk
in front of the carceres on the left being decisive as to the victory.
In republican times about ten or twelve races were run in a
day ; after Caligula the usual number seems to have been twenty-
four, an amount sufficient to fill up the whole day. Counting the
length of the Circus Maximus, which had to be measured fourteen
times, at three stadia, the whole distance run in each missus
amounts to 25,176 feet, Rhenish measure. Making allowance
for preparations, removing of impediments, and smaller intervals
after the completion of six races, etc., and counting the day
at twelve hours in which the twenty-four races were run,
the time for each race may be roughly calculated at twenty-five
minutes.

Sometimes the ordinary number of four chariots must have
been increased to six, as appears from the temporary existence of
six " factions " of the circus (of which more anon), and from the
fact that the circus of Maxentius had twelve carceres.

In republican times already, two parties of the circus

550 CHARIOT-RACES.

(factiones) had been formed, each of which furnished two of the
racing-chariots, the charioteers wearing either red or white tunics,
according to the party they belonged to. The names of these
parties were f actio albata and f actio russata. The increased
insania et furor circi of imperial times called two new parties into
life, the /actio prasina (green) and the /actio veneta (blue) ; under
Domitian two other parties, the aurea and purpurea, were tempo-
rarily added to these. About the end of the third century a. d.,
the four original factions were combined into two, white joining
green, and red blue, the prasina and veneta taking the lead, fol-
lowed by the two other colors, whose separate existence, however,
did not entirely cease. These four colors appear in the tunics of
the mosaic of Lyons (Fig. 499) : in our illustration the oblique
lines signify green, the horizontal ones blue, and the vertical ones
red ; while the white tunics are left blank. In Constantinople
these parties (Brjfioc) of the circus received a political character,
and frequently made the circus the scene of their internecine war-
fare. In 501 a. d., under Anastasius, 3,000 citizens were thus
killed in the hippodrome : during the so-called Nika revolt, a. d.
532, under Justinian, no less than 30,000 people were killed in
three days, the throne being saved only by means of the German
soldiers under Belisarius.

In older times the charioteers were free citizens ; afterward
this occupation, although never dishonorable, like that of the
gladiators, was considered unworthy of a free Horn an, and there-
fore mostly left to slaves and freedmen, who, previous to appear-
ing in public, were trained at schools. Such schools, comprising a
complete staff of chariot -makers, tailors, shoemakers, surgeons,
teachers, etc., were kept by one or several domini/actionum, who
let out both chariots and charioteers to the highest bidding of the
parties of the circus. Yictorious charioteers received silver crowns,
valuable garments, and money ; the successful ones among them
frequently made large fortunes, and became domini /actionum on
their own account.

Horse-races were not run in the Roman circus : occasionally
a horseman appeared with two horses (desultores), who jumped
from one on the other while they were running at full speed, a
trick learned from the Numidian cavalry (see Bartoli, " Lucerne
Antiche," p. 24). The destination of the horsemen seen riding

LUDI CIRCENSES. 551

by the side of the chariots (see, for instance, Fig. 499, and Ger-
hard, loc. cit., Taf. Cxx., 2) seems uncertain.

Like the charioteers, the wrestlers and athletes appearing in
the circus were, at least in later times, always professional men.
Only exceptionally, and by express command of the emperor,
Roman noblemen appeared in this capacity. Different in the
military games and evolutions, ludi sevirales and ludus Troice ;
the former, instituted by Augustus in honor of Mars, were per-
formed in the circus by six turmce of Roman knights with three
seviri at their head, and commanded by the princeps iuventutis,
a title borne by the imperial princes, and, after Caracalla, claimed
by the emperors themselves ; the imperial coins with the inscrip-
tion PRLNC. IVY., showing a galloping horseman, refer to the
ludi sevirales. The ludus Troice was a military exercise per-
formed by boys of noble families on horseback.

Whether all ludi circenses were opened with a,po?npa seems
uncertain ; the fact is proved, however, of the ludi Romani,
Megalenses, and the ludi votwi / it may be assumed with tolera-
ble certainty of the ludi Cereris. The procession was opened by
a band of musicians, followed by the officiating magistrate in a
triumphal chariot, clad in the costume of a triumphator, and
holding in his hand an ivory sceptre adorned with an eagle. A
servus puolicus held a golden crown studded with jewels over his
head. His chariot was surrounded by white-robed clients {see
Fig. 540), and followed by the images of the gods, with the
priestly sodalities and colleges belonging to them, also by the
statues of the reigning family, and of those of the deceased mem-
bers of that family to whom the games were devoted. This
splendid procession, starting from the Capitol, traversed the
Forum, the Yicus Tuscus, the Velabrum, and Forum Boarium,
entering the Circus Maximus through the chief entrance. Accom-
panied by the applause of the spectators, who rose to their feet, it
once walked round the nearest meta, and repaired to the seats re-
served for the purpose, whereat the sign for the beginning of the
race was given in the manner described.

105. The fights of gladiators and the baiting of wild animals
took place in the amphitheatre {see § 85). The former became
known in Rome in the third century b. c, and were thence intro-
duced into Athens, where at first they were little relished by the

552 GLADIA10RS.

refined inhabitants. Only after the conquered Greeks had become
demoralized they accepted this, with other Koman customs. The
origin of the gladiatorial games must, most likely, be looked for
in Etruria, where they formed part of the funereal ceremonies,
replacing the still older custom of human sacrifices ; they seem to
have been connected with the worship of Saturn — an opinion con-
firmed by the fact that in Rome duels of this kind originally
formed part of the Saturnalia — a limitation soon swept away by
the growing passion for such exhibitions. It was natural to the
warlike spirit of the republican Romans to wish for the continua-
tion of the scenes of war on a smaller scale at home ; but the
gloating over the sight of the vilis sanguis of the slaves, indulged
in to an ever-increasing degree, was more apt to breed cruel
tyrants than high-minded patriots.

The first munus gladiatorium was, according to Valerius
Maximus, arranged by the brothers Marcus and Decimus Brutus
in the Forum Boarium (264 b. c.) on the occasion of their father's
burial. Rome did not possess an amphitheatre at that time.
Several other gladiatorial fights are mentioned in connection with
funerals. In the year 200 b. c. the sons of Marcus Yalerius
Lsevinus arranged a fight of twenty-five pairs of gladiators at his
funeral. In 174 b. c. T. Flaminius arranged a fight lasting three
days in honor of his deceased father, seventy-four gladiators being
hired for the occasion. The development of gladiatorial games as
an established institution belongs to the last years of the Republic.
Schools of gladiators (ludi gladiator ii), comprising the familim
gladiator um, owned by the state or private individuals (lanistce),
were formed in Rome and many other cities of the empire. They
became the rallying-points of many of the most depraved elements
of Roman society, and the revolts of the slaves and gladiators
more than once endangered the state. Most of the fighters ap-
pearing at the public fights came from these schools. Soon these
fights became an essential f eature of the public games ; the sediles
and other magistrates, and ultimately the emperors themselves,
trying to gain popularity by means of them (ad plebem placan-
dam et mulcendam). The lex Tullia against gladiatorial extrava-
gance, moved by Cicero less from humane considerations than in
order to stay the party intrigues furthered by such exhibitions,
was but too soon forgotten. Augustus (22 b. c.) ordered that

SCHOOLS OF GLADIATORS. 553

fights of gladiators should take place only twice a year after the
consent of the senate had been obtained, the number of the gladi-
ators being limited to 120 ; but this restriction was canceled by
Caracalla, who arranged battles of gladiators fighting not only in
couples but catervatim. He even compelled twenty-six knights
who had ruined themselves to appear in this dishonorable combat.
Many characteristic incidents of the gladiatorial fights arranged by
Claudius, Nero, and Domitian, are recorded by the authors ; even
Trajan, after his return from the victorious campaign on the
Danube, arranged festive gladiatorial games lasting 123 days,
10,000 fighters being engaged for the occasion. Commodus, of
whom Lampridius relates, " et n&mina gladiatorum recepit eo
gaudio, quasi acciperet triumphalia" and who designated him-
self as primus palus secutorum, brought the passion for exhibi-
tions of this kind to its climax, the income of the state being
squandered for this ignoble purpose. Even the Christian em-
perors were obliged to buy the favor of the populace, and divert
its attention from political passions by inhumane spectacles of this
kind. Private schools of gladiators, and gangs of them among
the families of rich Romans, were of common occurrence during
the last years of the Republic. The emperors often used to es-
tablish imperial institutions of the same kind. Domitian built in
Rome four large gladiatorial schools, viz., the ludus Gallicus,
Dacius, magnus, and matutinus. Several towns, as Pneneste,
Ravenna, and Alexandria, were recommended for the same pur-
pose, owing to their healthy situation. Capua was, from the first,
celebrated for its gladiatorial schools. In Pompeii, barracks of
gladiators have been recognized as such by Garrucci by the fit-
tings, by inscriptions, and pictures of gladiators, etc., scribbled on
walls and column's, and by the numerous gladiatorial weapons
found there. The structure consists of an open court (55 by 40.-10
metres) surrounded by colonnades, and adjoined by buildings of
two stories, containing sixty-six separate rooms. Counting two
gladiators to each room, the number of the inmates must have
been 132. Captive Germans, Dacians, Gauls, Ethiopians, etc., as
also slaves and criminals condemned to death, were received as
members of the familia gladiatorum • even free-born Romans,
after having wasted their property, frequently sold themselves to
the lanistce, receiving sums of money (auctoramentum gladiato-

554

GLADIATORS.

rium) as the price of their infamy (auctorati). Guided by the
fencing-master {doctor es or magistri), and fed on a peculiar diet
(sagina, chosen with a view to strengthen the muscles), the ap-
prenticed gladiator (tiro) practised the technical manipulations of
his art at first with light wooden, and afterward with exceedingly
heavy, weapons against a post or a straw puppet. After having
got successfully through his public debut, he received an oblong
tablet of ivory (tessera gladiatoria) as a reward, and sign of his
proficiency, on which were written his name, that of his master,
and the day of his first fight and victory. The tyro was thus ad-

mitted to the rank of the spectati (distinguished persons) ; a cer-
tain number of these decorations most likely entitled the gladia-
tor to be received among the veterani. About sixty genuine
tesserae marked SP, in rare cases SPECT or SPECTAT (specta-
tus), have been discovered (compare Fr. Ritschl, " Die Tesserae
gladiatorise der Bomer." Mtinchen, 1864).

A number of weapons of gladiators have been found ; by
means of these, and of numerous specimens seen in pictures and

GLADIATORS WEAPONS. 555

plastic representations, we are enabled to give an accurate account
of their form, which essentially differs from that of the weapons
used by legionaries. Several gladiatorial helmets are kept in the
Museo Borbonico : the one shown Fig. 500, <?, has a massive crest
adorned with sculptures ; a broad brim serves to protect neck and
forehead. The visor consists of four plates, the two lower ones
being massive, the two upper ones pierced with holes like a sieve
for the gladiator to look through. The visor in Fig. 500, 5, con-
sists of two plates, with an opening for the eye in each ; the open-
ing on the left being round, while that on the right resembles a
sieve. Fig. 500, a, shows a helmet of a similar kind also kept in
the Museo Borbonico. Many different kinds of the gladiatorial
helmet appear on the monuments.

The shield of the gladiator was the square, oval, or circular
jparma (compare Fig. 505), differing from that used in the army
by its lighter weight and more graceful form, etc. An oblong
shield of a very different form, with rounded edges and a curve at
the upper end to ease the movements of the shoulder and upper
arm, is kept in the Museo Borbonico. The right hand and arm
were protected by straps of leather (compare Fig. 505) or by iron
splints (Fig. 500, g). The way of protecting the legs seems to
have differed among the various classes of gladiators. Some ap-
pear with straps round their thighs, while their shins are protected
by greaves (Fig. 505). Others wear greaves or leather gaiters
(resembling the Kakr^a of the modern Greeks) on the right or
the left leg only (Fig. 500, y, compare Fig. 505) ; others, again,
wear the foot-coverings of the legionaries, or appear with naked
feet (Fig. 501). (Fig. 500, g, Ji, shows two richly-ornamented, not
to say overloaded, coverings for arm and thigh, from originals in
the Museo Borbonico.

The aggressive weapons of the gladiators were the lance, the
dagger, straight or curved, and the Roman sword, or, in its stead,
the rapier (Fig. 500, d, e, compare Fig. 504). The gladiator's
chest was uncovered ; his body was dressed in a loose garment
fastened with a belt, and hanging down to the knees in front, but
pulled up on the hips (Figs. 502, 503).

The different classes of gladiators were distinguished by their
weapons and by their mode of fighting. The Samnites derived
their name from their peculiar equipment, imitated from that

556

VARIOUS CLASSES OF GLADIATORS.

nation.1 It consisted of a large oblong shield (scutum), a helmet
with visor, crest, and plume, a greave on the left leg, and a sleeve
of leather or metal for the right arm, to which a shoulder-piece
(galerus) reaching above the shoulder was attached (compare

Fig. 501, a.

" Bullet. Napol.," New Series, i., Tav. 7). Their sword was short.
It is difficult to distinguish the Samnites among the numerous
statues of gladiators ; neither does it appear from the authors what
class of gladiators was usually opposed to them, for the gladiators

AST I AN A*

JfAENDlC* 0

Fig. 501, b.

fighting with each other never belonged to the same class. A
second class of gladiators, much liked in imperial times, were the
secutores, whose antagonists were the retiarii. The latter wore a
short tunic or apron subligaculum\ fastened round the body with

1 It is said that after the defeat of the Samnites by the Dictator Papirius Cursor in
the year 444 of the city, their national armor was adopted for the gladiators as a sign
of contempt.

VARIOUS CLASSES OF GLADIATORS.

557

Fig. 502.

a belt, and generally a sleeve on the left arm. Their head was
uncovered. Their weapons of attack were the trident {fuscina,
tridens) and the dagger ; besides which they
carried a large net (iaculum), in which they
tried to entangle the secutores, the latter being
armed with helmet, shield, and sword. Sue-
tonius, in his life of Caligula (cap. 30), tells
of a light between live gladiators of each class,
in which the retiarii were beaten without
offering resistance; but when by command
of the emeperor they were to be killed, one
of them suddenly took a fuscina and killed
all the secutores. A mosaic (Fig. 501, a, b,) il-
lustrates their mode of fighting. In Fig. 501,
a, the secutor, entangled in the net, attacks the
retiarius lying on the ground, while the latter, having dropped
his trident, defends himself with a dagger. In Fig. 501, b, the re-
tiarius attacks his entangled an-
tagonist with the fuscina, seem-
ingly with success. According
to Isidorus, the secutores car-
ried a stick with lead bul-
lets attached to it, with which
they tried to keep off the net.1
The laquearii also were light-
armed gladiators. They carried
a sort of lasso, which they threw
over their antagonist in order
to pull him down. They were
of late imperial origin. The
myrmiUo and the G alius were
frequently opposed to the reti-
arius. Their armor was that of
the Gauls, the name myrmillo

being derived from a fish (fiop/MuXo?) adorning the crest of their
helmet. Fig. 502, taken from a tomb, most likely represents a

1 "Ge&tabat cnim cuspidem et massam plumbeamy quae adversarii iaculum impedi-
ret, ut antequam feriret rete, isi-e mperaret ;" compare Revue Archeol., ix., p. 80.

Fio. 508.

558

VARIOUS GLASSES OF GLADIATORS.

myrmillo. A fight between a myrmillo and a retiarius is repre-
sented in the mosaic pavement of the Roman villa at Nermig (see
v. Wilmowsky, " Die rom. Yilla zu Nennig "). The torques round
the neck of the gladiator in our illustration (Fig. 502) indicates the
Galhis, while the crest of the helmet hung on the pole distinctly
shows the fish, characteristic of the myrmillo. Another class of
gladiators, frequently mentioned in imperial times, were the Thra-
ces. They were armed with a small round shield (parma), greaves,
and a dagger either curved like a scythe (siea, frequently seen on
imperial monuments in the hands of barbarian warriors) or bent
in a straight-lined angle. The hoplomachi were completely armed
with helmet, cuirass, and greaves. Gladiators also fought in chari-
ots or on horseback. A large bass-relief at Pompeii (Fig. 505) con-
tains two equites, wearing helmets with closed visors ; their arms,

Fig. 504.

like those of the secutores, were protected by straps ; their offen-
sive and defensive weapons were the spieulum and parma respec-
tively. The gladiators fighting in chariots were called essedarii.
This mode of fighting seems to have been introduced by Caesar,
in imitation of the skillful manoeuvres of the chariot-fighters of
Brittany described by him (" De Bello Gall.," it., 33). We finally
mention the anddbatce, who wore helmets with closed visors,
containing no opening for the eyes ; and the dimachceri, who
fought with two swords, a mode of fighting belonging exclusively
to a later age. Fig. 503 perhaps represents a gladiator of this
kind — a supposition which, however, has been greatly doubted
of late.

The announcement of gladiatorial fights was made by libelli

FIGHT OF GLADIATORS.

559

sent to the people in the neighborhood or by advertisements on
the walls {programmata). An inscription
on the Basilica of Pompeii announces the
appearance of the " family " of the lanista,
N. Festus Ampliatus, in these words : "i\T.
Festi Ampliati familia gladiatoria pug-
nabit iterum, pugnabit X VI Teal. lunias,
venatio, vela" In these advertisements
the number and names of the gladiators
and the mode of their fighting were an-
nounced. On the day of the performance
a solemn procession of gladiators, walking
in couples, went through the streets to the
arena ; there the weapons were examined,
and a sort of introductory fight (prolusio)
with blunt weapons (arma lusoria) opened
the proceedings. The sound of a bugle
announced the commencement of the real
fight. The words of command were
shouted : "Ponite iam gladios hebetes,pug-
natur iam acutis" whereat the lanista or
editor muneris gladiatorii determined the
position of the antagonists, and drew the
limits within which the battle was to be
fought. Fig. 504, from a Pompeian wall-
painting, illustrates these preparations. In
the centre stands the lanista marking the
lines in the sand with a stick. One of the
gladiators stands ready for the fight, while
an assistant presents his sword to him ; his
antagonist is blowing the signal-horn, while
two attendants cowering in the background
hold his helmet and shield in readiness.
On one of the gladiators being disabled,
the words "Hoc habet" were shouted.
The wounded man dropped his weapons
{arma submittit) and, holding up his fore- l
finger, begged his life from the people, or Flo> fi06*

from the lanista or editor muneris in case he was their private

560 FIGHT OF GLADIATORS.

property. In imperial times the emperor, of course, had the deci-
sion of life and death. In case the spectators lifted their clinched
lists (verso pollice) the fight had to be continued ; the waving of
handkerchiefs was the sign of mercy granted. A gladiator who
had behaved in a cowardly manner had no claim to mercy ; he
had to take up his weapon (ferrum recipere), and was, if neces-
sary, compelled by whipping or burning with a hot iron to resume
the fight. In case the fight was sine reinissione (i. e., without
quarter asked or given) no appeal to the people could take place.
The victor was rewarded with a palm-branch, crowns, and, in im-
perial times, money. The blunt rapier (rudis) given to a gladia-
tor signified his release; he then again became a slave till the
granting of the pileus made him a freedman.

Fig. 505 shows a large bass-relief adorning the wall of the
erroneously so-called tomb of Scaurus at Pompeii. The two
equites in the left corner (armed both alike) we have mentioned
before. The curved spike of their helmets is remarkable. The
two next following gladiators are also armed alike, but for the
coverings of their legs. One of them, bleeding from a wound in
his chest, is leaning on his shield, and implores mercy with lifted
forefinger, his unwounded antagonist seeming to wait for the per-
mission to continue the fight. In the next group one of the
gladiators, wounded in his chest, and sunk on his knee, implores
mercy in the manner just described ; he has dropped shield and
lance, and turns his head toward his threatening antagonist. Here
we notice a difference of greaves and shields in the two gladiators.
The third group shows the final execution of a conquered gladiator
by his victor. A figure holding a trident, most likely an assistant
destined to carry off the killed gladiator through the porta libiti-
nensis to the death-chamber (spoliarium), lays hold of the dying
man. Another official of the same kind is seen in the back-
ground. If on arriving in the death-chamber there remained
signs of life in the vanquished gladiator, it was the duty of these
people to kill him.

Another spectacle, no less sanguinary, of which, in imperial
times, the amphitheatre, and in some cases the circus, were the
scene, is the venatio of wild animals, the introduction of which
dates back to the year 186 b. c. Like the gladiators, the fighters
with animals (bestiarii, venatores) were trained at schools (familice

FIGHTS WITH ANIMALS.

501

venatorice). Sometimes they were hirelings, sometimes captives or
criminals, compelled to fight the ferocious animals in the arena.
In the latter case the spectacle of untrained men imperfectly armed
or quite without defense exposed to the fury of the animals must
have been horrible. At other times these animals, made furious
by hunger or fire, were let loose at each other. The rarest animals
from the most distant
regions were brought to
Rome for the purpose.
Pompeius arranged a
fight of 500 or 600 lions,
18 elephants, and 410
other ferocious animals
brought from Africa. In
a chase arranged by Au-
gustus (a. d. 5), 36 croc-
odiles were killed in the
Flaminian circus, flooded
for the purpose. Calig-
ula arranged a fight between 400 bears and an equal number of
African wild beasts. The authors are full of horrid descriptions of
animal-fights under the later emperors, at which frequently num-
bers of captives lost their lives. Among the numerous plastic rep-
resentations of such scenes we have chosen (Fig. 506) a bass-relief
rendering a fight of armed bestiarii with animals near the theatre

Fig. 506.

Fig. 507.

of Marcellus, which is seen in the background. The animals (a
bear, panther, and lion) wear the leathern girths with rings attached
to them, by means of which they were fettered in their cages un-
derneath the arena. Figs. 507 and 508 render subjects of a simi-
lar nature; they are taken from the above-mentioned gladiatorial
bass-relief on a tomb at Pompeii. The former shows the fight
between a bestiarius and a panther or tiger leashed to a bull,
36

562 THE NAUMACHIA.

which latter is made to advance by the pricks of the lance of
anofher bestiarius. This is one of the less dangerous tricks of

professional bestiarii. Fig. 508 shows
a bestiarius with arm and leg protected
by straps, and holding in his hand a
cloth to be thrown over the head of the
attacking bear.
FlG. 508. A third spectacle produced at some

of the amphitheatres was the nauma-
chia, or naval combat. The arena was flooded by means of a sys-
tem of canals, pipes, and locks ; in other cases large ponds were
dug for the purpose. Caesar built the first naumachia in the
Campus Martius (46 b. a), large enough for the manoeuvres of
two fleets manned by 1,000 soldiers and 2,000 rowers. Augustus
(2 b. c.) built a naumachia of stone in the vicinity of the horti
Ccesaris, near the Tiber, in which a naval battle between
Athenians and Persians was fought by thirty vessels. Titus and
Domitian used the Coliseum for the same purpose. Of existing
amphitheatres that of Capua shows the flooding apparatus in the
best state of preservation. The largest of all naval fights was
that arranged by Domitian on the Fucine Lake (52 a. d.). One
hundred men-of-war, manned by 19,000 soldiers and rowers, at-
tacked each other at \he signal of a trumpet blown by a Triton,
who suddenly emerged from the water in the centre of the lake.
The number of killed tends to prove that the battle was by no
means a feigned one.

Sometimes mythological scenes were performed in the arena
with cruel accuracy. Condemned criminals had to mount the
pyre like Hercules, or to give their hand to the flames like
Mucius Scaevola, or to be crucified like Laureolus the robber;
others were torn by bears, in imitation of the fate of Orpheus.
Mythological scenes of a frivolous kind also were enacted : dwarfs
and women performed sham-fights, etc. Seneca sternly reproves
these levities.

106. The first scenic performances are said to have taken
place in Rome in 364 b. c, when, during a plague, Etruscan
actors performed mimic dances to appease the divine wrath. The
mimic dances thus introduced were soon afterward accompanied
by the recital of comic verses in changing metres, the result being

THEATRES. 563

the satirical drama (satura). The creator of the drama proper
was Livius Andronicus, who first added to the pantomime, accom-
panied by flute-playing and singing, the dialogue {diverbium)
founded on a story or plot {fabula). His successors were Nasvius,
Ennius, Plautus, Terentius, Pacuvius, Atticus, and others who,
under the influence of Greek models, further developed the
Koman drama. The close relation of Roman to the later Greek
comedy explains the absence of the chorus, which, in its turn,
accounts for the want of the orchestra in Roman theatres, the
space assigned for it in Greek theatres being used for seats of
spectators. The action, therefore, was limited to the stage itself,
which was both wider and deeper than that of the Greeks, to give
space to the numerous actors of the Roman drama,1 and to the
gorgeous pageants frequently introduced in imperial times. At
first a temporary wooden stage was erected for the ludi scenici,
mostly on the slope of a hill. There were no seats for the public,
neither was a space reserved for the upper classes. The first dis-
tinction of this kind was made in 194 b. c, when the front part
of the cavea was separated from the rest by a barrier, and reserved
for senators. During the next forty years it became the custom
of the rich to have chairs carried after them to the theatre by
slaves ; but the original form of the cavea was retained till after
the subjection of Greece, when the first theatre, with semicircular
rows of seats rising in the manner of terraces, was erected ; the
seats of the senators were placed immediately in front of the
stage, not without the indignant murmurs of the populace.
Further distinctions soon were made. The fourteen rows behind
the seats of the senators were assigned to the knights, the
priestly colleges received seats of honor ; the women were placed
higher up, separated from the men, only the highest steps of
the cavea remaining to the populace. All the theatres built in
the seventh century of the city consisted of wood, and were
pulled down after being used. The first stone theatre was built
by Pompeius in the year 699 of the city (55 b. c), the second
by Cornelius Balbus, 13 b. c, the third by Augustus in honor of
Marcellus. All the other theatres mentioned in imperial times

1 In the Greek drama the various parts were divided among three actors : not so
in Rome, where each part was performed by a separate actor.

564 ACTORS.— TEE DRAMA.

consisted of wood, and were pulled down after having been used
once.

About the scenery and mechanical appliances of the Roman
theatre nothing certain is known ; most likely they resembled those
of the Greek stage. The curtain (aulancm), after the performance,
did not drop, but was raised. Besides this chief curtain there was
a second (siparium) one, closed between the acts ; it parted in
the middle.

The professional actors were mostly slaves or f reedmen, united
in troupes (greges, catervce), and kept by a manager (dominies
gregis), frequently by an old principal actor (actor jprimarum).
This manager treated with the magistrate, who had the cura ludo-
rum, and who paid the salary of the actors. Not inconsiderable
sums were paid to favorite actors, at least in later times, when the
theatre had gained vast popularity : besides this, the actor who
had gained the loudest applause was rewarded by the curator
ludorum with the palm or crown of victory and honor, in impe-
rial times also with costly robes and money.

Since the time of Terentius actors used to wear masks ; up to
that time a fair, black, or reddish head-dress (galerus), resembling
most likely the onkos of the Greeks, served to mark the actor's
age. The costume varied in accordance with the different kinds
of masks required for tragedy and comedy (compare Figs. 311 and
312) : in the former long floating garments (syrmata) and the high
cothurnus were worn, while comedians appeared in an every-day
dress of the loudest possible colors and in low shoes (soccus).

Among dramatic representations we also mention the ateUance,
the mimus, and the pantomimus. The atellance fabulce, called
after the Oscian city of Atella, were a thoroughly national and
thoroughly Italian burlesque, played by young citizens in typical
masks. Among these types still recognizable in those of the
modern commedia delV arte we mention maccus (arlechino);
pappus or casnar, the grave old father of the piece (pantaleone) ;
bucco, the glutton (brighella); and dossennus, the humpbacked
charlatan, and soothsayer (dottore). At first these plays, partly
improvised, contained only rough parodies of tradesman and
peasant life ; after the war with Carthage they were developed
more regularly by special playwrights, and given on the regular
stage as postludes (exodium) of the drama. At the same time the

BURLESQUE. 565

parts were given over to professional actors, the citizens naturally
shrinking from an occupation which, even in later times, was at
least legally infamous.

The mimus, also, was a sort of burlesque, serving, like the
atellange, as interlude to the serious drama. The dialogue was
witty, frequently coarse, the whole being destined to parody real
life in a grotesque, not seldom indecent manner. The chief actor
(archimimus) was dressed in the party-colored costume of a harle-
quin (centunculus), over which a short cloak (ricinium) was worn ;
he acted before a curtain which divided the front part from the
back of the stage. The other characters (among which we mention
particularly the bald-headed parasitus or stupidus) played minor
parts, mainly seconding, by occasional retorts or gesticulations, the
chief actor. Actors of both sexes appeared in the mimus, the
grossest obscenities frequently adding to the attractiveness of the
play — at least, at a later period.

The pantomimus was an outgrowth of the canticum of the
comedy, in which the actor indicated by a dramatic dance or by
gesticulations the subject of the song. Already in republican
times this dance had become a separate branch of art, brought
to its climax of perfection in imperial times by Pylades of Cilicia
and Bathyllos of Alexandria. The subjects of the pantomime
were taken from the myths of gods and heroes, the actor having
to represent male and female characters by turns, while a choir,
accompanied by flute-players, sang the corresponding canticum.
Sometimes several male and female dancers appeared in the
pantomime, which in that case became a sort of dramatic ballet
called pyrrhicha (not to be mistaken for the Pyrrhic dance of the
Dacians).

107. Notwithstanding many descriptions of the Roman army,
not to speak of the numerous remaining specimens of weapons, our
account of the equipment of the Roman soldier must be in many
cases imperfect and conjectural. "We shall limit ourselves, in
accordance with the aim of our book, to a description of Roman
armor as far as it can be illustrated by the remaining monuments.
The comparatively small number of weapons found on the numer-
ous battle-fields is explained by the fact, that a century before our
era bronze weapons began to be replaced by iron ones, which latter
metal is more liable to destruction by rust.

566

SOLDIERS' ARMOR.

We first turn to the weapons of defense. The Eoman helmet
(cassis, galea) differs from the Greek by the absence of a visor.
The simplest form, specified by two helmets found in Etruscan
graves (Fig. 509, o, d), resembles the pileus, and at the same time
reminds one of the steel cap worn by common soldiers in the
middle ages. A more developed form of the helmet is shown,
Fig. 509,/, from an original in the Museo Borbonico. To the low
semi-globular cap a stripe of metal has been added, surromiding
the head on all sides, and considerably enlarged at the back so as
to protect the neck. It covers the forehead to about the eyes.
Cheek-pieces (bucculoe) are added. The top of the common soldier's
helmet consists of a simple button (see Fig. 509, e, from the arch of
Severus) ; sometimes it is acforned with a short plume : a helmet of
the latter kind is worn by almost all the soldiers on the arch of

Fio. 509.

Constantine. The helmets of centurions and higher officers are
adorned with three feathers, or with a crest of horse-hair (crista,
iuba), which was taken off on the march, but put on again in the
battle, so as to distinguish the leaders in the fight (see the two hel-
mets, Fig. 509, a, b, from the arch of Constantine, where they are
worn by foot-soldiers and horsemen). The upper part of the body
was protected by an iron cuirass, fashioned according to the lines
of the muscles both in front and at the back, like the old Greek
6a>pai; ardhio^. Servius Tullius reorganized the Roman army of
citizens after the pattern of the Greek phalanx, and adopted the
iron helmet, the oval shield, and the cuirass of the hoplitai for
the first two ranks of the phalanx. At the later reorganization of
the army the cuirass was dropped by the common soldiers, and
perhaps retained only by the leaders in exceptional cases. The
Latin name of the cuirass is unknown to us. The lorica ferrea,

SOLDIERS' ARMOR.

567

which Tacitus (Hist., ii., 11) mentions as worn by the Emperor
Otho, was most likely an iron cuirass. Several specimens of the
bronze cuirass are still in existence (Fig. 510, a). It was, per-
haps, by Camillus, the great reformer of tactics and armor, ex-
changed for the lorica proper, made of stripes of metal. It was
commonly worn by the legionaries of the empire. From five to
seven stripes of beaten iron or bronze (Fig. 510, 5), each equal in
width to about three fingers, attached to leather straps, were
fastened round the body with hooks from the
waist up to the armpit, thus forming the breast-
armor (pectorale, Fig. 511) proper, while simi-
lar stripes were laid across the shoulders (hume-
ralia), and fastened by means of hooks to the
upper stripes of the pectorale. Several stripes,
hanging down in front, protected the lower
part of the body. Quite as common as the
lorica is the tight-fitting leather jerkin, reaching
down a little lower than the thighs, and worn
over the tunic by the common soldiers on im-
perial monuments (see the soldier to the right,
Fig. 530). Occasionally (for instance, by a num-
ber of soldiers on the arch of Severus) the lorica,
or a portion of it, is worn over this jerkin . Scale
and chain armor (lorica squamata and hamata)
was (owing to its high price) worn in older times only by the ha-
stati and principes ; at a later period, also, it remained the exclu-
sive dress of officers and of certain corps of the army (Fig. 512).
The Antiquarium of the Eoyal Museum, Berlin (bronzes, No. 1025),
possesses a fragment of a chain-and-scale armor, found near Rome,
in which the scales are put on the meshes of the fine iron mail.

Generals, and the emperor himself, wore undoubtedly the
more costly Greek chalkochiton, which, perhaps in an idealized
form, appears on monuments frequently adorned with inlaid or
chiseled ornaments (see, for instance, the military statue of Ca-
ligula, Fig. 510, c). The marble statuette of Augustus, found in
1863 in the villa of the Caesars, nine miglie from the Porta del
Popolo, is most remarkable, both by the chiseled decoration of the
armor and by the perfect colors in which the marble is painted.

Greaves (ocrea) of bronze are found in many of our museums.

568

THE SHIELD.

They were worn in the time of the Eepublic by the hastati, prin-
cipes, and triarii, on the right leg, unprotected by the shield ; the
cavalry in Polybius's time wore greaves made of leather. In im-
perial times metal greaves were, at least by the legionaries, alto-

Fig. 511.

Fig. 512.

gether abandoned for leather or woolen stockings extending over
the calf. The foot, to above the ankle, was covered with straps
by the whole army (see Figs. 511 and 512).

According to Diodorus, the Romans, previously to becoming
acquainted with the Etruscans, used square shields ;
from the Etruscans they adopted the common Ar-
give aspis (see page 238 , or the circular iron
shield clypeus.1 Besides this shield, the Romans
are said to have adopted from the Samnites the
four-cornered scutum (4 feet long by 2 \ feet wide),
a wooden shield covered with leather, showing the
form of a cylinder cut in half (compare our re-
mark about the shield of the gladiators called Sam-
nites, p. 555). The upper and lower edges of the shield were, by

1 The Royal Museum, Berlin (bronzes, No. 1008), possesses an Etruscan shield
(found in a grave near Corneto) of gilt bronze, richly ornamented. The thinness of
the metal in this and other shields found in the graves of Caere and Tarquinii seems
to show their purely ornamental character (see Friederichs, " Berlins ant. Bildwerke,"
ii., 1871, p. 218, etseq.).

Fig. 513.

THE SHIELD.

569

Camillus's order, lined with iron. In the old Eoman phalanx the
first class of legionaries carried the clypeus, the second, third, and
fourth classes the scutum ; after the Servian re-
organization of the army the latter was worn by
hastati, principes, and triarii, while the heavy
iron clypeus disappeared entirely, the light cir-
cular parma made of leather being given in its
stead to the light-armed soldier (velites). Of
the time when the oval and hexagonal shields
were introduced in the army we have no cer-
tain knowledge. Rectangular, hexagonal, and
oval shields are worn by the Roman soldiers on
the bass-reliefs of one and the same triumphal
gate or column ; for instance, on the arch of
Septimius Severus. It therefore may be as-
sumed with certainty that the different parts
of the army were distinguished not only by the
form, but also by the painting on their shields
(see Figs. 521, 523, 525, 526) of various signs,
such as appear on the shields of larger or smaller
divisions on the monuments of imperial times.
We there see winged thunder-bolts, lightnings
surrounded by wreaths, single and double eagles
(" Col. Traian.," 26, 91, 110 ; " Col. Anton.," 31,
45, 46, 58), rhombic figures, crescents, and crowns
of lilies (" Col. Anton.," 21), laurel-crowns round
the umbo of the shield ("Col. Traian.," 71, 72),
and other designs composed of rhomboids, cres-
cents, and rays. While marching, the foot-sol-
diers frequently hung their shields over their
backs on straps (" Col. Anton.") ; horsemen
fastened them under the saddle-cloth at the
horse's side (" Col. Traian.," 66).

The spears used by the different divisions of the Roman army
greatly varied in form ; their shape also changed considerably in
the course of centuries (see the different spear-heads, Figs. 513).
The long Etruscan hasta (resembling the old Greek lance) is said
to have been introduced by Servius Tullius ; Camillus retained
it for the triarii, while to the hastati and principes he gave an

Fig. 514.

570 LANCES.

additional javelin (pilum), used for throwing. Several heads
of pila have been found in the Khinelands and Switzerland.
Lindenschmit and Kochly1 have made careful researches both
with regard to the history and the varieties of the pilum. The
oldest pilum used by the triarii, chiefly for the defense of walls
against a storming enemy, was a long, heavy weapon {pilum
murale) ; in later times it was used only on rare occasions. The
consecutive modifications of the pilum by Marius (Plutarch, 25)
and Caesar belong to the special history of Roman arms. The
entire length of the Caesarian pilum was six feet, the iron head
and the shaft being each three feet long. Fig. 514, a, shows a
pilum from the tombstone of Q. Petilius Secundus, a private of
the 15th Legion, in the Museum of Bonn. Another tombstone
in the same museum, and two spear-heads (most likely of pi] a)
found near Mayence, and now in the museum of that city (see one
of them, Fig. 514, b), further illustrate the form of the pilum.
The two spear-heads consist of four-edged pieces of iron (two feet
long) with four-edged pyramidal points to them, and with a flat
piece attached to the bottom-end, which was let into a
split of the shaft. A four-edged ring was pulled over
the spear-head up the shaft, besides which the iron was
made fast by means of cross-nails (see the restored pilum,
Fig. 514, c).

Yegetius describes the spieulum, a kind of pilum used
in late imperial times. It was 5£ feet long, the size of
the three-edged spear-head being 9 inches to 1 foot. The
soldiers of later imperial times who objected to the older
heavy pilum, frequently used the vericulum (called in
Yegetius's time verutum), 3J feet long, with an iron
point 5 inches long. About the same time we hear of javelins
with a leathern strap (amentum) attached to them, so as to increase
their effect on being thrown (compare our remarks about the ay/cvXr},
p. 242, as also Clarac, " Musee," ii., pi. 148, No. 319). Some of
the troops of late imperial times were armed with arrows to be
thrown (martiobarbuli^plumbatce sc. sagittce), of which every soldier

1 " Verhandlungen der 21. Versammlung deutscher Philologen und Schulmanner
in Augsburg." Leipsic, 1863, p. 139, et seq. Compare Lindenschmit, "Die vater-
landischen Alterthiimer der F. Hohenzoller'schen Sammlungen zu Sigmaringen."
Mainz, 1860, p. 17, et seq.

SWORDS.

571

carried five fastened inside the shield. Their heads were made
heavy with lead, and had a barb. Fig. 515 shows an arrow-head
of this kind (8 inches long), found near Mayence, at present in
the Museum of Wiesbaden.

Of swords {gladius) used by Roman soldiers we have to dis-
tinguish the older Gallic and the later Spanish swords. The
Gallic sword was rather long and heavy ;
it had no point, and its blade was sharp-
ened on one side only. After the battle
of Cannae, in which the Romans expe-
rienced the superiority of the lighter
two-edged Spanish sword used by the
Carthaginians, the latter weapon was
adopted by them. The older sword does
not appear on monuments. The two
swords shown, Fig. 516, a and b, are such
as were used by common soldiers ; of
these, numerous specimens are still in ex-
istence. Officers undoubtedly used supe-
rior weapons, distinguished by the grace-
ful form of the handle (Fig. 516, c) or by
the valuable material and ornamentation
of the scabbard. Fig. 516, d, shows a
scabbard adorned with gold and silver
ornaments ; it was found, in 1848, near
Mayence, and is, perhaps, a sword of
honor presented by Tiberius (whose por-
trait, en medaillon, appears on it) to one
of his generals. The Spanish sword was
carried in a shoulder-belt (balteus, Figs.
511 and 512) or waist-belt (Fig. 523); in
the latter way it was worn chiefly by su-
perior officers, and always on the right
side, while the old Gallic sword was worn on the left. In close
fights the soldiers used to advance the right leg, while in throw-
ing the javelin the left leg was put forward. Besides the sword
the soldiers on the imperial monuments frequently have a long
narrow dagger on the right side (see the signifer in Lersch,
" Centralmuseum," ii., and the centurio, Clarac, " Musee, ii., pi.

Fig. 516.

572 BOWMEN AND 8LINGERS.

148, No. 319), which considerably differs from the broad, short
dagger, frequently found in the graves of barbarian nations.
Longer swords (spatha) reappear after the time of Hadrian, used
only by certain divisions of the army. Fig. 516, 6, represents a
sabre worn (on arches and columns) only by barbarian soldiers.

Bow (arcus) and arrows (sagitta) seem to have been first
adopted in the time of Marius from the foreign allies, and their

Fig. 51T. Ftg. 518.

use always remained limited to these. On imperial monuments
we, therefore, see this weapon always in the hands of barbarians
or of such soldiers of the Roman army as, by their dress, are
marked as auxiliaries {see Figs. 517 and 518). After the wars
with Carthage the bow gained greater importance, and troops of
Cretan and Balearic bowmen ever since that time formed regular
divisions of the Roman infantry. The Asiatic allies sent chiefly
bowmen on horseback, covered from head to foot in scale-armor
(cataphracti, loricati equites, Fig. 518). They were renowned for
their skill. The bow and arrows used by all these troops
exactly resembled those of the Greeks {see two arrow-
heads, Fig. 519). Three-edged arrow-heads are fre-
quently found among Roman ruins ; they were fastened
to the shaft with a nail. The crossbow marked among
the ancients the transition from light to heavy artillery.
It was called arcuballista {yaa-rpa^errjs;), and to bend it
the small three-spiked instruments found in our museums
were most likely used.
Slingers {fundibalatores) we find, under the name of accensi ve-
lati, as a corps of the older Roman army attached to the rorarii.
Like the bow, the sling gained its real importance after the Cartha-

ELEPHANTS.— TENTS.

573

Fig. 520.

ginian wars, owing to the skill of the Balearic allies. Dressed
in the tunic and sagum, in the folds of which latter thrown
over the left arm the ammunition was kept (see Fig. 520),
the slinger held his weapon (funda, com-
pare p. 249) in the right. The slingers
of the Columna Traiana are, moreover,
armed with a short sword and a small
one-handled shield, while a slinger on the
Columna Antonina is without either. The
missiles thrown by the slingers were either
stones (lapides missiles) or pieces of lead
in the form of acorns (glans) ; many such,
found chiefly at Enna, in Sicily, and at
Asculum, are seen in our museums, some with defying inscrip-
tions in Latin or Greek, such as, pete culum Octaviani, fugitwi
peristis, feri Pomp(ejum\ Bigcu, etc. (see the missiles kept in the
Royal Museum, Berlin, bronzes, No. 1128-42).

Elephants appear in the Roman army for the first time during
the war with Philip, after they had been used for many cen-
turies by Asiatic nations, from whom they were adopted by the
Greeks. The elephant was conducted by a rector riding on the
neck of the animal, and pricking it with an instrument called
cuspis, resembling a harpe (Fig. 278,
b). A bronze coin of the city of Ni-
caea, with the head of Caracalla, shows
on its reverse a rector riding on an
elephant with the cuspis in his hand.

Soldiers on the march had to carry
a rather heavy baggage besides their
arms. Only a change of arms and the
heavy baggage were carried by pack-
horses and mules (iumenta sarcinaria).
In imperial times carts on two or four
wheels were used for the purpose, as
appears from the baggage-trains on
the column of Antoninus and the

arch of Severus. Among the heavy baggage were the tents
(tentorium, tabemaculum), made of leather or canvas, and the
poles and pegs belonging to them. The base of the tent was

574

MILITARY STORES.

about 10 square feet ; it had a roof-like cover (see " Col. Anton.,"
Nos. 10 and 26), accommodating about ten men (contubemiwn).
Each centurio had, moreover, a separate tent, and each tribunus
two for himself and his attendants. The camp of a legion, there-
fore, consisted of about 500 tents. Poles to mark out the camp,
standards, and tools, and, on large expeditions, stores and hand-
mills, were carried after the army. The legionaries themselves
had, moreover, at least in older times, to carry saws, spades, axes,
hoes, sickles, linen, a cooking-apparatus, a change of clothes, and,
on longer expeditions, stores for twelve days, to which list we
have to add, in ante-Csesarean times, the gabions. The baggage
of the foot-soldier, including arms, weighed about sixty pounds,
or about as much as that of a soldier of the Prussian infantry in
former years. The soldier's knapsack was unknown to the Ro-
mans. Marius greatly eased the burden of the soldiers by the

rYWYVrrrrtArr

so-called Marian mule (mull Marlani), that is, a pole with forked
ends, across which a piece of wood was laid ; the victuals and
dress, being made into a bundle (sarcma) and fastened to the cross-
pole, were thus conveniently shouldered, and taken off at the be-
ginning of the fight. This arrangement seems to have remained
unaltered in imperial times, as appears from a group of marching
soldiers on the column of Trajan (Fig. 521).

To supply the men and horses with food in barren countries
magazines containing corn (horrea) and hay (fan/ilia, palearia)
were instituted on the line of march, places with good communica-
tions by road and water being chosen in preference. Stores of fuel
and wood for gabions, bridges, and besieging-engines, also were
collected. Such magazines, fortified by palisades, are shown in
the first of the series of bass-reliefs on the columns of both Trajan

THE PIUETORIANL

575

and Antoninus (Fig. 522, #, b, c). Fig. 522, d, shows one of the
fortified sentry-boxes, which were placed at moderate distances
from each other. The sentry who had to watch the enemy's
movements stood on the gallery surrounding the building, and
gave the signal of alarm by lighting a torch.

Fig. 523 shows two prostoriani from a bass-relief in the
Louvre, restored, it is true, in rather an arbitrary manner. Au-
gustus instituted an imperial body-
guard of nine cohortes (cohortes prce-
torce or jprcetoricmi milites), stationed
in Rome and the neighboring towns;
by Yitellius this guard was increased
to sixteen cohortes or 16,000 men, af-
terward reduced again to ten cohortes.
Their pay was better and their time of

service shorter than that of ordinary jm f//i/M

legionaries, from whom they were also
distinguished by their dress. They
had barracks (castra) assigned to them
in Rome by Tiberius ; they frequently
exercised the most detrimental influ-
ence on political affairs, and on the
decisions of the emperor himself. Our

group distinctly shows the proud, overbearing demeanor of these
soldiers.

The standard had the same importance for Roman soldiers as
for those of the middle ages and of modern times. By it the
soldier was sworn ; it formed the rallying-point in the battle ; its
preservation was a point of honor, and its loss brought contempt
on the standard-bearer and the legion. In several cases officers
threw the colors into the ranks of the enemy or across his forti-
fications, so as to excite the valor of the troops in its recovery.
In the battle on the Trasimenus, the dying standard-bearer buried
the eagle (signum) with his sword ; and at the defeat of Yarus
the standard-bearer tore the eagle from its pole to hide himself
with it in a bog.

The original form of the standard was that of a bunch of
hay 1 fastened to the point of a lance. This hay was changed for

1 The bunches of leaves tied together with ribbons frequently seen on the stand-

576

THE STANDARD.

a cloth {vexillum, Fig. 521, a) fastened to a transverse piece of
wood ; this standard belonged to smaller divisions of infantry or,
more frequently, of cavalry (see " Col. Traian.," Nos. 6, 16, 66 ;
" Col. Antonin.," Nos. 26, 51, 52). Different from the vexillum is
the signum, consisting of an animal's form (insigne) fastened to
a pole ; the animals usually chosen were a she- wolf , horse, ele-
phant, boar, and Capricorn : we also meet with an open hand (Fig.
524, c, d, h, i), usually in the standard of a mcmiplus, while
that of the cohors shows the above-mentioned animals. The
common signum of the whole legion was, since Marius, a silver
or golden eagle (aquild), always with extended wings, and fre-
quently holding a thunder-bolt in its fangs. Many signa found

kl m

on coins or bass-reliefs cannot be classified for want of written
evidence. The poles generally showed, besides animals, the images
of generals or emperors (Fig. 521, d, f, i), disks (Fig. 521, c, d, g,
A), walls with gates and battlements (Fig. 521, d, g, A), most likely
memorials of conquered cities, rostra, and tablets with the number
of the cohors written on them. The eagle-standards, however,
are without these additional decorations (Fig. 511), showing only
occasionally a vexillum (Fig. 521, b). The chief banner of the
Christian emperors was the so-called labarum. Eusebius describes
it as a long lance with a cross-piece ; to the latter a square silk flag

ards of later times are perhaps a reminiscence of those primitive ones (Fig. 524,
a, c, e, /, h).

TRUMPETERS AND BUGLERS. 577

was attached, into which the images of the reigning emperor and
his children were woven. To the point of the lance was fastened
a golden crown inclosing the monogram of Christ and the sign of
the cross. A banner answering this description, save that the
monogram of Christ is inscribed on the flag, is seen on the coins
of Constantine the Great, Constantius II., Valens, and others ; it
was considered as the palladium of the army, and always protected
by a guard of fifty picked men.

The standards of barbarian nations greatly differ from those
of the Romans. Sometimes they resemble mediaeval banners
(Fig. 524, I), but most frequently they appear in the form of
dragons with open mouths, showing rows of sharp teeth (Fig. 524,
k, m) ; they frequently are seen among the trophies on Roman
monuments. According to Suidas, these dragons were made of
silk ; they were inflated with wind through their mouths, emit-
ting it again with a hissing sound through small openings in the
tail.

Trumpeters (tubicines) and buglers (comicines) formed the
military bands. The former had to blow the signals of attack
and retreat on their tuba or straight trumpet, as also to intone
the fanfare at the sacrifice celebrated by the emperor in the
presence of the army {see Fig. 498). The signal for the starting
of the army was given on the horn (comu\ a marching-tune
being perhaps played on the same instruments. Buglers, at least,
walk in front of the marching army on the column of Antoninus
and the arch of Constantine (Fig. 532). The signal of relieving
the sentries at night was given on a smaller spiral brass instru-
ment (bueina), while the cavalry used a brass instrument (lituus)
curved like the shaft of an auger (compare Fig. 241, i). After
the wars with the Germans it seems to have become the custom
of the Romans to dress their standard-bearers and buglers in
skins of animals ( Wildschur), after the German fashion (compare
Figs. 529, 530).

We now come to the heavy artillery and to the engines
destined to protect the storming-columns. In case fortifications
were attacked without protecting engines, the second rank and
those following used to hold their shields horizontally over their
heads, while the first rank and the two end-men of each rank
held theirs vertically in front of them. In this manner a protect-
37

578

BESIEGING-ENGINES.

ing roof resembling the shell of a tortoise (testudo) was formed
(Fig. 525).

A regular siege of fortified places of course required many
preparations. First of all, the besieged city was surrounded by
a wall with bastions (circumvallatio), so as to cut off supplies.
From this circumvallation the further operations were conducted.
Sheds (musculi) were erected, under cover of which the miners
worked and the storming-party mounted the breach. Similar
engines of protection for bowmen, slingers, and diggers, were the
crates (hurdle), plutei (sheds), vinece (literally bowers of vine-

Fig. 525.

branches), etc. The besieging wall {agger) and the walking tow-
ers {turres ambulatories or mobiles) had to be erected, and the
heavy besieging-engines (tor^menta) placed in favorable positions.
Of the latter we have descriptions ; while, on the other hand, the
specimens seen on the columns of Trajan and Antoninus render
us but little assistance in forming an idea of their aspect. Accu-
rate descriptions, founded on technical knowledge and scholarly
research, we owe to the joint efforts of Rustow and Kochly.1

1 Rustow and Kochly, "Geschichte des griechischen Kriegswesens," p. 196, et seq.,
307, etseq., 378, et seq. Rustow, " Heerwesen and Kriegfuhrung C. Julius Caesar's," pp.
137-154. " Griechische Kriegsschriftsteller, griechisch und deutsch, mit kritischen
und erklarenden Anmerkungen von Kochly und Rustow."

BESIEGWG-EN-QINES.

579

We mention a few engines occurring on the monuments of the
imperial epoch.

After the wall of the beleaguered city had been approached
sufficiently, a strong beam, the end of which, cased in iron, had
the shape of a ram's head (whence the name wies, Kpio<;\ was
brought into action. The small-
er and older battering-ram was
knocked against the walls at reg-
ular intervals by a number of
strong men (see the attack by
barbarian soldiers on a Roman
fortification on the column of
Trajan, Fig. 526). Among the
smaller battering-rams we also
count the aries subrotatus, rest-
ing on wheels, which were used
up to a late period (see Fig. 460,
7, from a bass-relief on an earthen
lamp). The Greeks greatly per-
fected the battering-ram by intro-
ducing, instead of the short beam,

a mast composed of several pieces, the whole from 60 to 100 feet
long (that invented by Hegetor, of Byzantium, measured 180 feet),
which was suspended from an horizontal beam, and put in motion
by means of ropes fastened to the beams. Another large batter-
ing-ram stood on a sort of bank, and could be pushed backward
and forward by means of rollers.

To protect the battering-ram, and the soldiers working it,
against the enemy's missiles, another engine, the so-called testudo
arietaria (^eXo^?; /cpiocpopos), was
erected — a wooden frame or house
(Fig. 527) with a slanting roof, to
which frequently a smaller structure
of the same kind, with a ram's head
protruding from its gable, was appended. Wall-sickles (falx
muralis) to tear the stones out of the wall, and the wall-drill
(terebra, rpvjravov), consisting of a battering-ram with a sharp
point, were protected by similar roofs. The besieged threw pots
of fire, torches of pitch, melted lead, burning arrows, and stones,

Fig. 526.

Fig. 527.

580 BESIEGING-ENGINES.

on the storming-columns (Fig. 525). They interrupted the work
of the besiegers in various manners, tried to set fire to their en-
gines or to crush them. Large stones, suspended by ropes, slings,

and large pincers, were used to
catch hold of and divert the
ram ; sand-bags or mats of reed
were let down from the battle-
mants to neutralize its force.
An engine of defense, difficult
to explain, appears on the Co-
lumna Traiana (Fig. 528). We
have already mentioned the musoulus (%eA,&w?? Scopy/crls;), a wooden
structure covered with a roof, which, with its straight long side,
was pushed against the wall, to protect the sappers employed in
undermining the foundation of the wall ; an engine of this kind,
resting on wheels (perhaps a musculus), appears on the Columna
Antoniniana, pulled and pushed along by horses and soldiers on
their march.

It is difficult to give a distinct idea of the working and moving
of the large walking-towers (turris ambulatoria. mobilis, 7rvpyo<}),
although their construction is sufficiently described by ancient
authors. According to Diades, a Greek military authority, the
smallest tower of this kind had a height of at least 90 feet by a
base of 25£ square, and contained ten different stories, connected
with each other by steps (tabulata or tecta, whence turris con-
tabulata, dreyr)). The beams protruding from the outer surface
by several yards supported galleries with wooden battlements,
surrounding the whole tower. The highest story, or, in other
terms, the upper platform, covered with a roof, was the place for
the light artillery, while the water and various contrivances for
extinguishing flames were kept in the bottom story. On a level
with the wall of the beleaguered city a drawbridge (pons, eirifiaOpa,
<rafi/3v/erj) was constructed to open the way to the top of the
enemy's fortifications. About the way of moving the towers
nothing appears in ancient writers.

To cross unfordable rivers light boats were used, consisting of
wooden frames, timbered on the spot, the sides consisting of hides
and osiers. In imperial times each legion carried ready-made
pontoons with it. The bridges made of these boats were con-

THE ALLOCUTIO.

581

structed by first placing the pontoons in their right position,
which was done by means of light skiffs. They were anchored
by means of pyramidally - shaped baskets filled with stones.
Beams with boards laid across them connected the boats with
each other ; wooden rails added to the firmness of the structure,
and prevented accidents through falling over the edge of the
bridge. Sometimes walking-towers were placed on one end of
the bridge to protect it against the enemy. Fig. 529 illustrates
the crossing of the Danube by the Eoman army on a bridge
constructed by the Emperor Trajan.

Fig. o-'J.

We add a representation of an allocutio, or speech of the
general to his army (Fig. 530), a subject frequently treated on
coins, and occurring on the columns of Trajan and Antoninus.
Surrounded by his officers, standard-bearers, etc., the emperor
used to address the army from a raised stand-point, praising,
blaming, or encouraging to new deeds of valor, according to
circumstances ; from here he pronounced the punishment of
cowardice, which was at once executed by his lictors ; x from here

1 We add a few remarks about the fasces, seen in the hands of the lictors, Fig.
530 (compare Fig. 540). The fasces were bundles of rods (virgce) of elm or birch-
wood, tied together round the handle of an axe (secvris) with (most likely red)
straps. The iron of the axe, which was the executioner's tool, protruded from the
sticks. The fasces were carried on their left shoulders by the lictors, who walked
in front of certain magistrates, making room for them, and compelling all people to
move out of the way (summovere), barring Vestals and Roman matrons. To about

582

MILITARY DECORATIONS.

he divided the prizes awarded by him, or the army itself, to the
bravest among them.

108. Military decorations and rewards of valor (dona, prcemia
militaria) occur in many forms among the Romans. We pass
over such dona as a share of the booty, advancement, or the
honorable mentioning of a soldier's name before the assembled

Fig. 530.

legion. The highest military decoration was the crown of grass
(corona graminea), awarded, according to Pliny (" Hist. Nat.,"
xxii., 3, 4), only after a desperate deed of valor, and by com-
mon consent of the whole army. " All other rewards were given
by the general to the soldiers, but this the soldiers gave to their
leader. It was also called crown of siege (corona obsidionalis)

the end of the Republic, when a special executioner was appointed, the lictors
inflicted capital punishment. The king was entitled to twelve fasces, the same
number being granted to the consuls (after the passing of P. Valerius Publicola's
law " de provocatione ad populum," only one of the two consuls within the walls of
Rome was allowed to have the axe carried in front of him), or the officials endowed
with consularis potestas, also to decemviri, war-tribunes, and proconsuls outside Rome.
The dictator was entitled to twenty-four lictors, the magister equitum appointed by
him to six, the Roman praetor to two, the provincial praetor to six, an equal number
being allowed to propraetors. Since 42 b. c. the Flamen Dialis and the Vestals also
were entitled to one lictor each. In case a higher official met his inferior in the
street, he was saluted by the lictors of the latter withdrawing the axe and lowering
fasces (fasces submitiere).

MILITARY DECORATIONS. 583

in case a whole camp had been delivered from a siege or dishon-
orable terms. It was composed of green herbs picked on the
spot where the besieged had been delivered." This honor was
conferred only in very rare cases.

The corona triumphalis, a laurel-crown, was given to generals
returning in triumph from a victorious campaign. Originally it
was made of real leaves, afterward imitated in gold ; after Caesar's
dictatorship it became the diadem of the emperors, worn by them
in the theatre and circus. The radiated crown (corona radiata),
at first a decoration of the images of the dead, occurs after Nero's
time on senatorial coins, but did not become the imperial crown
till the third century. The myrtle-crown (corona myrtea), worn
by the generals at the so-called ovatio (small triumph, whence its
other name ovalis), resembles the triumphal crown. The rescue of
a citizen from the throng of battle was rewarded with the corona
civica, made of oak-leaves. The heads of Augustus and Galba
are crowned with it on several coins ; still more frequently we see
it on the reverses of imperial coins, with the surrounding motto :
OB CIYES SEKYATOS. He who first mounted the walls of a
besieged city or camp received the golden corona muralis, also
called castrensis or vallaris. The corona rostrata, navalis, or clas-
sica, was the reward of him who first boarded the enemy's vessel.
It was awarded on rare occasions, and only to commanders.
Agrippa received it after the double victory of Actium. We see
it, on a gold coin, adorning the head of Agrippa, a mural crown
being placed on the top of the corona navalis ; the latter, in the
form of a laurel-wreath studded with rostra, also appears on a
bronze coin of the city of Nikopolis, founded by Augustus after
the battle of Actium.

Another class of decorations adorned the chest of the brave
soldier. We first mention the chain of honor (torques), originally
worn by barbarian leaders (we remind the reader of the single
combat of T. Manlius with a Gallic warrior, to which he owed his
surname Torquatus), but afterward adopted by the Komans, who
distinguished a heavy kind (torques proper) and a lighter kind
(catellce), wound several times round the neck and hanging down
over the chest. To these we add the decorations in our modern
sense, i. e., small round silver tablets (phalerce) adorned with bass-
reliefs, resembling the tablets found on the standard of the cohortes.

584

THE TRIUMPH.

Fig. 531.

Since Caracalla they consisted of large gold medals, frequently
adorned with jewels, and fastened by means of straps across
the cuirass, as is proved by the phalerce found on the Lauersfort
estate, near Crefeld. We finally name among signs of honor,
arm-rings (armillce), the hasta pura (a lance of precious metal
with a button instead of a point), and the different kinds of

vexilla, named according to their
colors pura, argentea, ccerulea,
or bicolora. The tombstones of
the centurio Q. Sertorius, at
Verona, of the standard-bearer,
Cn. Musius, at Mayence, and of
the legatus Manius Cselius, killed
in the battle lost by Varus
(Fig. 531), show the profusion
with which emperors and gen-
erals rewarded military merit.
Cselius is adorned with one or
even two civic crowns, his neck is encircled with a massive torques ;
two heavy rings, held by a ribbon laid across the shoulders, hang
down on his chest, which is adorned besides with five medals
attached to straps ; he also wears bracelets round his knuckles.
L. Siccius Denatus, the tribune of the people, was rewarded for
his valor, proved in one hundred and twenty battles, with 22
hastm puree, 25 phalerce, 83 torques, 160 armillce, and 26 coronce,
viz., 14 civicce aurece, 3 murales, and one obsidionalis.

109. The highest reward of the commander was the triumphal
entrance. At first it was awarded by senate and people to real
merit in the field, and its arrangement was simple and dignified ;
but soon it became an opportunity of displaying the results of
insatiable Roman rapacity and love of conquest. Only the
dictators, consuls, praetors, and, in late republican times, occa-
sionally legates, were permitted by the senate to enter Rome in
triumph, the permission to the legate being granted only in case
he had commanded independently (suis auspiciis), and conducted
the army to Rome from a victorious campaign in sua provincia.
As in later times it was impossible to conduct the whole army
from distant provinces to Rome, the last-mentioned condition was
dispensed with, the claim of the commander to a triumph being

THE TRIUMPH. 585

acknowledged in case in one of the battles gained by him 5,000
enemies had been killed. The senate granted the expenses neces-
sary for the procession after the quaestor urbanns had examined
and confirmed the commander's claims. Streets and squares
through which the procession had to pass were festively adorned.
The temples were opened, and incense burnt on the altars. Im-
provised stands were erected in the street, filled with festive
crowds shouting "Io triumphe ! " The commander, in the mean
time, collected his troops near the temples of Bellona and Apollo,
outside the gates of Rome ; the invperium within the walls being
exceptionally granted him during the triumph. The victor was
met at thepwta triumplialis by the senate, the city magistrates,
and numerous citizens, who took the lead of the procession,
while lictors opened a way through the crowd. After the city
dignitaries followed tibicines, after them the booty, consisting of
armor, standards arranged as trophies, also models of the cities
or ships taken from the enemy, and pictures of battles, tablets
with the deeds of the victor inscribed on them, statues personi-
fying the rivers and towns of the subjected country — all these
being carried by crowned soldiers at the points of long lances
or on portable stands (furculce) ; we further mention treasures
of art, valuable plate and vases, silver and gold coins, and prod-
ucts of the conquered soil. Fettered kings, princes, and nobles
followed, doomed to detention in the Mamertine Prison. Next
came sacrificial oxen with gilt horns, accompanied by priests;
and finally, preceded by singers, musicians, and jesters, the tri-
umphal chariot drawn by four horses. Clad in a toga picta and
the tunica palmata, temporarily taken from the statue of the
Capitoline Jupiter, the triumphator stood in his chariot holding
the eagle-crowned ivory sceptre1 in his hand, while a servus
publicus standing behind him held the corona triumphalis over
His head. The army brought up the rear of the procession,
which moved from the Campus Martius through the circus of
Flaminius to the Porta Carmentalis, and thence, by way of the
Velabrum and the Circus Maximus, the Yia Sacra and the Forum,

1 According to a custom introduced by Augustus, the emperors wore a crown and
held a branch of laurel taken from a grove which that emperor had planted at the
ninth mile-stone of the Via Flaminia, near the villa of Livia. After the triumph, the
laurel-branch was planted again.

586

THE TRIUMPH.

to the Capitol. Here the triumphator deposited his golden
crown in the lap of the Capitoline Jupiter, and sacrificed the usual
suovetaurilia. A festive meal concluded the day. In the last
centuries of the Kepublic, when the art-treasures of Greece and
the wealth of the East were paraded in these processions, one day

Fig. 534.

Fig. 532.

was found insufficient. The triumph of Sulla, for instance, lasted
two; that of yEmilius Paullus, after his victory over Perseus,
three days. The last triumph of a Koman general was that
granted to Octavianus, after his victory over Antonius. After
this the emperors reserved the right of the triumphal entrance

Fig. 53E

to themselves, the omamenta triumphalis, consisting of the toga
picta, the tunica palmata, the Scipio eburneus, the sella curulis, the
currus triumphalis, and the corona laurea, being granted to the
generals instead. The emperors immortalized their feats by the

THE TRIUMPH.

587

erection of triumphal arches. Our illustrations of the triumphs
are taken from the bass-reliefs of several imperial monuments,
being arranged in the order indicated above. The buglers opening
the procession (Fig. 532) are taken from the arch of Constantine, as

Fig. 536.

are also the soldiers following them, who carry Victories and other
statuettes (Fig. 533). The next following figure of a warrior and
his tropseum (Fig. 53-1) we have had to compose from various stat-
ues for want of an original suiting our purpose ; the soldier himself

Fig. 537.

is from the arch of Severus, the trophy from the theatre of Orange.
Fig. 534, soldiers with carts containing stores, is taken from the
column of Severus : we add it for the sake of completeness.
Fig. 536, from the arch of Titus, shows soldiers carrying the

588

THE TRIUMPH.

treasure of the temple of Jerusalem ; in front the golden table of
sacrifice, the chalice, the tubce used at the Jewish service, and
farther back the seven-branched candlestick. Magistrates clad in
the toga accompany these valuable pieces of booty. Fig. 537,

Fig. 53S.

Fig. 539.

from the same arch, shows the river-god Jordan in a similar posi-
tion to those of Ehenus and Nilus in the Vatican. The group
of fettered Parthian princes (Fig. 538) is taken from the arch of
the Goldsmiths. Fig. 539, from the arch of Titus, shows an ox

■— *^*^P5K G§f\ t

\ \ it w\ i

i^^ysi \jzd

Mdimi

J^^^mMxL

§£E?i^<3"

Wmmm

rSffS

WSBSSsi ill

M^mmR

Wmrn

^KmJM.

Fig. 540.

led by a butcher and accompanied by priests. Fig. 540, lastly,
shows the emperor, with the sceptre in his hand, in his triumphal
chariot. The corona triumphalis is held over his head by the
Goddess of Victory, while Roma leads the horses of the quadriga.

THE BURIAL.

589

Fig. 541.

Lictors and senators surround the chariot. Sometimes the chariot
was drawn by four elephants, as is proved by monumental (coins)
and written evidence. Fig.
541, from the arch of Constan-
tine, shows the sacrifice per-
formed by Trajan in the pres-
ence of his army.

The ovatio was granted for
less important conquests, or to
a general for victories not won
suis auspiciis. The victor,
adorned'with the toga prsetexta
and the myrtle - crown, origi-
nally used to walk ; in later times
he rode on horseback.

110. Justa facere or ferre
was the expression used for
doing the last honor to the dead

(compare the Greek expressions tcl hUaia and tcl vofu/jua, § 60).
The nearest relative used to receive the last breath of the dying
person in a kiss (extremum spiritum ore excipere) ; his hand also
closed the eyes and the mouth of the deceased, so as to produce a
peaceful impression of death. After this, the name of the deceased
or a wail was uttered several times by those present, so as to make
sure of his death, after which the last farewell (extremum vale)
was said (conclamatio).

The preparation for the burial naturally varied according to
the wealth of the owner. The body of a poor person was, after
the usual ablutions, put on a bier (sandapila) and carried at night
by the vespillones (carriers of corpses) to the common burial-ground
outside the Esquiline gate — a quarter chosen by Horace for the
scene of Canidia's conjurings, but transformed by Maecenas into a
park (horti Mcecenatiani). Burial-clubs (collegia tenuiorum)
were formed by the poorer classes, from whose funds, supplied
by annual contributions, a certain sum was paid to the surviving
families of the members. The burials of the wealthy classes were
conducted on a more splendid scale. The death was first an-
nounced to the libitinarius (an official of the temple of Venus
Libitina), who inserted the name in the register of deaths (a

590 THE BURIAL.

register of births was kept at the temple of Venus Lucina). The
libitinarians furnished for payment the utensils and slaves neces-
sary for the preparation and burial of the corpse. The corpse was
taken from the death-bed and laid on the ground (deponere), where
it was washed with hot water and anointed by the pollinator,
partly in order to take away from the terror of death, partly to
stop the decomposition, because among well-to-do people it was
kept for seven days. Clad in a toga and adorned with the richest
garments, the body was placed on the lectusfunebris, a bed entirely
made of ivory, or at least resting on ivory legs, over which purple
blankets embroidered with gold were spread. Flowers and foliage
adorned the bed, but not the body itself, as was the custom among
the Greeks ; only crowns of honor, earned during their lifetime,
were deposited in the graves of dead persons, and have repeatedly
been discovered there, being made of very thin gold-leaf. The
lectus funebris was put in the atrium of the house, with the foot-
end turned toward the door, and a pan with incense was placed by
its side. Branches of cypress and fir-trees were fastened in front
of the house as signs of mourning.

After having been exhibited for seven days, the body was buried
in the forenoon, when the streets were filled with the bustle of life
and when the largest attendance of invited guests and spectators
might be expected. In case the funeral was connected with public
games, a herald solicited the attendance of the people. A public
burial of this kind was c&Wedfunus indictivum or funus publicum.
The following is the formula used by the public crier in inviting
the spectators : " Ollus Quiris leto datus est. Exsequias (Z. Titio.
L.filid) ire cui commodum est, iamtempus est. Ollus ex cedibus
effertur." The procession was arranged in front of the house of
the deceased by the dissignator, with the aid of an accensus and
of one or several lictors to keep order. Ten tibicines (this was
the highest number permitted by the law of the twelve tablets)
opened the procession, followed, at least in older times, by female
mourners (prceficce) singing plaintive songs {ncenice, mortualia) in
honor of the deceased. A band of actors following served to
attract and entertain the crowd ; they recited passages from tragic
poets with reference to the deceased, or they acted comic scenes,
one among their number sometimes mimicking the peculiarities
of the dead person. In front of the deceased, the wax masks of

THE BURIAL. 591

his ancestors were worn by persons appointed for the purpose ;
the historic costume of the dead person, including even his insig-
nia, had to be rendered exactly. The collateral lines of old families
used to send their ancestors to the funeral of a relative, while par-
venus frequently paraded images of fictitious persons. The bier
was carried by the nearest relatives, or by the slaves liberated by
the last will of the deceased. Other relatives, friends, and freedmen,
surrounded the bier in black garments without gold ornaments.
In imperial times, when the wearing of colors had become cus-
tomary, white was considered mourning, at least for women. The
procession went to the Forum, where the bier was set down in front
of the rostra, whereat the wearers of the ancestral masks sat down
on the sellse curules, and one of the relatives mounted the tribune
to deliver an oration (laudatio funebris) in honor of the deceased
and of his ancestors, whose images were present. The expression of
Cicero as to the earlier Greek funeral eulogiums, u nam mentiri
nefas habebatur" was not strictly acted upon by the Eomans,
their orators refraining at least from all censure. After the speech
was over, the procession proceeded to the burial-place in the order
described.

The corpse was either placed in a sarcophagus (area, capulus)
and deposited in a grave made of brick or stone, according to the
older custom * retained by some patrician families, for instance,
by the Cornelii, up to a late period, or it was burnt, and the ashes,
collected in an urn, deposited in the grave-chamber (see § 77).
Cremation is said to have been introduced by Sulla, who feared
that his body would be defiled by the people. Inhumation in
coffins (humatio), however, by no means ceased ; both kinds of
burial existed together, no law being made on the subject. Each
burial-place had a separate inclosure for burning the bodies (ustri-
num\ private ustrina being attached to large family-graves where
there was no law to prevent it. In the ustrinum the pyre (pyra,
rogus) was erected, the height and decorations of which again de-
pended upon the wealth of the family. It consisted of pieces of
wood and other combustible materials, piled up in the shape of an
altar, on which the bier with the body was placed, after having

1 According to Pliny (" Hist. Nat.," ii., 98 ; compare xxxvi., 27), there existed
near Assos, in Troas, a kind of stone which, made into coffins, destroyed the corpse
in forty days, excepting the teeth, and which therefore was called flesh- eater
{sarcophagos).

592 TEE BURIAL.

been covered with balsam, incense, utensils, ornaments, or weapons.
The pile was ignited by one of the nearest relatives or friends,
with face averted, the by-standers raising a conclamatio.

After the pile was consumed (pustum\ the hot ashes were ex-
tinguished with wine, and the bones collected by the relatives
(amid acclamations to the manes of the deceased) in the folds of
their mourning-robes (ossilegium) ; a previous washing of the hands
was, of course, not forgotten. The remains were sprinkled with
milk and wine, then dried with linen, and mixed with scents, after
which preparations they were inclosed in an urn {ossa condere\
to be afterward deposited in the grave-chamber. The last fare-
well was spoken by those present in the words : " Have anima,
Candida" or " Terra tibi levis sit" or " Molliter cubent ossa ; "
and after the usual lustrations had been performed the mourners
separated. Urns (urna, olla ossuaria), frequently in the form of
hydrise, or (in Etruscan graves) of cinerary-boxes with covers to
them, are found in most of the grave-chambers described in § 77,
et seq.y as also in the columbaria (Fig. 401, et seq.) and sarcophagi ;
they are generally made of burnt clay, travertine, marble, alabas-
ter, porphyry, or bronze. We also meet with glass urns, mostly
protected by leaden cases of a shape similar to that of the urn ;
three urns of this kind have been found in the above-mentioned
grave of Nsevoleia Tyche at Pompeii.

The second offering to the manes, and a meal connected with
it, took place on the ninth day after the burial (novemdialia, ferice
novemdiales), in accordance with the Greek custom. On the steps
of the grave-monument a simple meal (ejpulaz funebres), consisting
of milk, honey, oil, and blood of the sacrificed animals, was pre-
pared ; larger tombs had a separate ■triclinium funebre attached
to them, where the meal was taken. The limited space of the
necropolis did not admit of numerous guests, for which reason
wealthy people (particularly in cases where games were connected
with the funeral) used to distribute meat (mscerationes), in later
times money, among the people. The sacrifices to the manes
were repeated by the relatives on the anniversary of the birth or
death of the deceased {parentalia) : the 21st of February of each
year was the day of the dead celebrated by the whole people by
sacrifices to the manes (feralia).

The funeral of the emperor was arranged in the grandest way?

THE CONSECRATION.

593

particularly if his consecratio by the senate was connected with it.
Caesar was the first Roman received among the gods as Divus
Julius by decree of the senate : Octavianus instituted a permanent
worship of this divinity. The same honor after death was
awarded to Augustus himself, and after him to many emperors
and empresses down to Constantine the Great ; their names ap-
pear on coins marked as consecration-medals by the word CON-
SECRATIO inscribed on them. Herodian (iv., 3) gives a full
account of the ceremony of consecration. "It is the Roman
custom," he says, " to consecrate the emperors who leave heirs.
The mortal remains are buried, according to custom, in a splendid
manner ; but the wax image of the emperor is placed on an ivory
bed covered with gold-embroidered carpets in front of the palace.
The expression of the face is that of one dangerously ill. To the
left side of the bed stand, during greater part of the day, the
members of the senate ; to the right the ladies entitled by birth
or marriage to appear at court, in the usual simple white mourn-
ing-dresses, without gold ornaments or necklaces. This ceremony
lasts seven days, during which time the imperial physicians daily
approach the bed as if to examine the patient, who, of course, is
declining rapidly. At last they declare the emperor dead ; after
which the bier is carried by the highest-born knights and the
younger senators through the Yia Sacra to the old Forum, and
there deposited on a scaffolding built in the manner of a terrace.
On one side stand young patricians, on the other noble ladies, in-
toning hymns and paeans in honor of the deceased to a solemn,
sad tune ; after which the bier is taken up again and carried to
the Campus Martius. A wooden struct-
ure in the form of a house has been
erected on large blocks of wood on a
square base ; the inside has been filled
with dry sticks; the outside is adorned
with gold - embroidered carpets, ivory
statues, and various sculptures. The bot-
tom story, a little lower than the second,
shows the same form and ornamentation
as this ; it has open doors and windows :
above these two stories rise others, grow-
ing narrow toward the top like a pyramid (Fig. 542). The whole
38

Fig. 542.

594:

THE CONSECRATION.

structure might be compared to the light-houses (cfrdpoi) erected in
harbors. The bier is placed in the second story, spices, incense,
odoriferous fruits, and herbs, being heaped round it. After the
whole room has been tilled with incense, the knights move in pro-
cession round the whole structure, and perform some military
evolutions; they are followed by chariots filled with persons
wearing masks, and clad in purple robes, who represent historic
characters, such as celebrated generals and kings. After these
ceremonies are over the heir to the throne throws a torch into the
house, into which, at the same time, flames are dashed from all
sides, which, fed by the combustible materials and the incense,
soon begin to devour the whole building. At this juncture an
eagle rises into the air from the highest story as from a lofty bat-
tlement, and carries, according to the idea of the Romans, the
soul of the dead emperor to heaven (Fig. 543) ; from that moment
h<^ partakes of the honors of the gods."

Fig. 543.

LIST OF ILLUSTEATIOXS.

Fio
1.

7,8

10.
11.
12,

14.
15.
16.

17,
19.

Holy fir-tree. — Botticher, "Baumcul-
tus der Hellenen," Fig. 5.

Oracle-cave at Bura. — Blouet, "Ex-
pedition scientifique de Moree," iii.,
PI. 84, Fig. 1.

Tree with images of gods. — Botticher,
" Bauracultus der Hellenen," Fig. 48.

5. View, plan, and interior of the tem-
ple on Mount Ocha. — " Monuraenti
inediti dell' Instituto di Corrispon-
denza archeologica," 1842, iii., Tav.
37.

Doric column from the Parthenon.
— Stuart and Revett, " Antiquities
of Athens," ii., Ch. ii., PL 3.

Doric column from the temple on the
Ilissos at Athens. — Stuart and
Revett," Antiquities of Athens," ii.,
Ch. ii., PI. 3.

Ionic capital from the Erechtheion at
Athens. — Stuart and Revett, " Anti-
quities of Athens," ii., Ch. ii., PI. 8.

Korinthian capital from the monument
of Lysikrates. — Stuart and Revett,
" Antiquities of Athens."

13. Plan and facade of the temple of
Themis at Rhamnus. — " Unedited
Antiquities of Attica," Ch. vii., Pis.
1 &2.

Greek roof-ornament. — Canina, "Sto-
ria dell' Architettura antica. Arch,
greca," Tav. 98, Fig. 13.

Plan of the temple of Artemis Pro-
pykea at Eleusis. — "Uned. Antiq.
of Attica," Ch. v., PI. 1.

Plan of the temple of Empedokles at
Selinus. — Hittorf and Zanth, " Ar-
chitecture antique de la Sicile," PI.
16, Fig. 1.

18. Plan and side-view of the temple
of Nike Apteros at Athens. — Ross
and Schaubert, " Die Akropolis von
Athen," Taf. ii., Fig. 2 and Taf. v.

Plan of the temple on the Ilissos at
Athens. — Stuart and Revett, " An-
tiq. of Athens," i., Ch. ii., Taf. 2.

Fig.

20. Section of a Greek peripteros, from a

design by Prof. Lohde ; compare
Fig. 30.

21. Plan of the temple at Selinus. — Serra

di Falco, " Antichita di Sicilia," ii.,
Tav. 11.

22. Plan of the Theseion at Athens. —

Stuart and Revett, " Antiq. of Ath-
ens, hi., Ch. i., PI. 2.

23. Plan of a temple at Selinus. — Serra di

Falco, "Antich. di Sicilia," ii., Tav.
8.

24. Plan of the Parthenon at Athens. —

Ussing, " Forschungen in Griechen-
land."

25. Original aspect of the Parthenon. —

Guhl, "Denkmaler der Kunst," i.,
Taf. 12, Fig. 21.

26. Plan of the temple of Apollo Epikuri-

os at Phigalia. — Blouet, "Expedi-
tion scientifique de Moree," ii.,
PI. 5.

27. Interior of the temple of Poseidon at

Paestum. — Major, " Ruines de Paes-
tum," PI. ix.

28. Plan of the temple of Zeus at Olym-

pia. — Blouet, "Exped. de Moree,"
i., PI. 65.

29. Longitudinal section of the temple of

Zeus at Olympia, from a design by
Prof. Lohde.

30. Cross-section of the same, by the same.

31. Plan of the temple of Apollo at Mile-

tos. — Canina, " Storia dell' Archi-
tettura antica. Arch, greca," ii.,
Tav. 42.

32. Facade of the same. — Canina, " Storia

dell' Architettura antica. Arch, gre-
ca," ii., Tav. 43.

33. Plan of the pseudo-dipteros at Selinus.

—Serra di Falco, " Antichita di Si-
cilia," ii., Tav. 21.

34. Plan of the temple at Aphrodisias —

"Ionian Antiquities," iii., 2, 14.

35. Front view of the same temple. — Ibid.,

iii., 2, 16.

596

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

Fig.

36. Plan of the Philippeion at Olympia. —

Hirt, " Geschichte der Baukunst,"
Taf. 10, 20 b.

37. Plan of the Erechtheion at Athens. —

Reber, " Kunstgeschichte des Alter-
thums," 1871. P. 239, after C.
Botticher.

38. Original aspect of the same temple.—

Inwood, " Das Erechtheion," trans-
lated by F. v. Quast, Taf. iii.

39. Plan of the votive temple at Eleusis.

— "Uned. Antiquities of Attica,"
iv., 1.

40. Capital of the votive temple at Eleusis.

— " Uned. Antiquities of Attica,"
iv., 1.

41. 42. Plan and view of the terrace and

the altar of Zeus Hypatos at Athens.
— Cockerell, "Supplements to the
Antiquities of Athens," PI. 3, and
Vignette on p. 22.

43. Altar, from a vase-painting. — Von

Stackelberg, " Graber der Helle-
nen," Taf. xviii.

44. Altar from Athens. — Canina, "Arch.

Greca," Tav. 100.
46. Altar from the isle of Delos. — Blouet,
"Exped. de Moree," iii., 19, 5.

46. Sacrificial table, from a bass-relief. —

Canina, "Arch, greca," Tav. 101.

47. Portal in the isle of Palatia. — Blouet,

" Expedition de Moree," hi., 24, 2.

48. Plan of the propylaea of Sunion. — Blou-

et, " Expedition de Moree," iii., 37.

49. Plan of the temple-inclosure at Eleusis.

— " Uned. Antiquities of Attica,"
Ch. i., 5.
60. Cross-section of the large propylaea at
Eleusis. — " Uned. Antiquities of At-
tica," Ch. ii., PI. 12.

51. Plan of the small ditto. — " Uned. An-

tiq. of Attica," Ch. hi., 1.

52. Plan of the Akropolis of Athens. —

Curtius, " Sieben Karten zur Topo-
graphic von Athen," Taf. 6.

53. Wall of Tiryns. — Gell, " Probestiicke

von Stadtemauern des alten Grie-
chenlands, aus dem Englischen iiber-
setz," Taf. v.

54. Wall of Mykenae. — Gell, "Probestiicke

von Stadtemauern des alten Grie-
chenlands," Taf. ix.

55. Wall of Psophis.— Gell, " Probestiicke

von Stadtemauern des alten Grie-
chenlands," Taf. xviii.

56. Wall-projection at Panopeus. — Dod-

well, " Cyclopean Remains," 46.

57. Plan of the Akropolis of Tiryns. —

Fig.

58.
59.

60.

61.
62.

64.
65.
66.
67.

68.
69.
70.

71.
72.
73.
74.

75.

76.

77.

78.

79.
80.
81.

Gell, " Itinerary in Greece. Argolis"
PI. 15.

Gate of Tiryns. — Dodwell, "Cyclo-
pean Remains," PL 5.

Gallery in the wall of the castle of
Tiryns. — Gerhard, Archaologische
Zeitung. 1845. Taf. xxvi.

Galleries in the interior of the wall of
Tiryns. — Gerhard, Archaologische
Zeitung. 1845. Taf. xxvi.

Gate at Phigalia. — Blouet, "Expedi-

Gate at Messene. — Blouet, "Expedi-
tion de Moree," i., 37, 5.

Gate at Mykenge. — Dodwell, " Cyclo-
pean Remains," PI. viii.

Gate at (Eniadae. — Gell, " Probestiicke
von Stadtemauern," Taf. xix.

The lions' gate at Mykenae. — Blouet,
"Expedition de Mor6e," ii., 64, 1.

Gate of Orchomenos. — Dodwell, " Cy-
clopean Remains," PI. xiv.

Plan of the gate of Messene. — " Supple-
ments to the Antiq. of Athens," i., 1.

Section of the same. — " Supplements
to the Antiq. of Athens," i., 2.

Gate of CEniadae. — Heuzey, " Le Mont
Olympe et l'Acarnanie," PI. xiii.

Tower-like projections in the wall of
Phigalia. — Blouet, "Expedition de
Moree," ii., 2, 2 and 3.

Tower of Orchomenos. — Dodwell, " Cy-
clopean Remains," PI. xv.

Plan of a tower at Messene. — Blouet,
"Expedition de Moree," i., 41, 1.

View of the same. — Blouet, " Exped.
de Moree," i., 41, 2.

Section of a wall and tower at Mes-
sene.— Blouet, "Exped. de Moree,"
i., 39, 3.

Plan of the gate and towers of Man-
tinea. — Blouet, "Expedition de
Moree," ii., 53, 1.

Tower in the isle of Andros. — Fiedler,
"Reisen in Griechenland," ii., Taf.
4, Fig. 1.

Section of a room in the tower of An-
dros.— Ross, " Inselreisen," ii., p.
12.

Plan of a tower and court in the isle
of Tenos. — Ross, "Inselreisen," ii.,
p. 44.

Harbor of Pylos. — Blouet, "Expedi-
tion de Moree," i., 7, 4.

Harbor of Methone. — Blouet, "Expe-
dition de Moree," i., 15, 2.

Harbor of Rhodes. — Ross, " Insel-
reisen," iii., p. 77.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

597

Fig.

82. Bridge near Pylos.— Blouet, " Expe-
dition de Moree," i., 8, 8.

83-85. Plan, view, and opening of a
bridge across the Pamisos. — Blouet,
"Exped. de Moree," i., 48.

86. Plan of the bridge across the Euro-

tas. — Blouet, "Exped. de Moree,"
ii., 49, 6.

87. View of the same. — " "Voyage du due

de Montpensier." ("Album pitto-
resque." Plates not numbered.)

88. Plan of the treasury of Atreus at

Mvkcnae. — Blouet, "Expedition de
Mor6e," ii., 66, 2.

89. Section of the treasury of Atreus. —

Blouet, "Expedition de Moree,"
ii., 67.

90. Plan of a fountain-house in the isle

of Kos. — Ross, in Gerhard's Archa-
ologische Zeitung. 1 850. Taf. xxii.

91. Section of the same. — Ross, ibid., and

" Inselreisen," hi., p. 133.

92. Greek house with a court, designed

by Guhl.

93. Greek house with two courts, designed

by Guhl.

94. Plan of a house in the isle of Delos.

— " Ionian Antiquities," in., 1, 4.

95. Portal of a house in the isle of De-

los.— " Ionian Antiquities," iii., 1,
13.

96. Grave-hill at Marathon. — Dodwell,

" Travels in Greece," ii., p. 160.

97. Grave-hill at Panticapaion. — Mac-

pherson, "Antiquities of Kertsch,"
PI. ii., Fig. 5.

98. 99. View and plan of a grave-hill in

the isle of Syme. — Ross, in Ger-
hard's Archaolog. Zeitung. 1850.
Taf. xiii.

100. Subterranean grave-chambers at Pan-

ticapaion.— Macpherson, " Antiqui-
ties of Kertsch," title-page, Fig. 8.

101. Tunnel near the graves of Pantica-

paion.— Macpherson, " Antiquities
of Kertsch," p. 61.

102. 103. Plan and section of a grave in

the isle of ^Egina. — Blouet, " Ex-

peM. de Moree," iii., 40, 1 & 3.
104, 105. Plan and section of a grave in

the isle of Melos. — Blouet, '* Exp6d.

de Mor6e," iii., 28, Figs. 1 & 2.
106, 107. Plan and section of a grave in

the isle of Delos. — Blouet, " Expend.

de Moree," iii., 13.

108. Plan of a grave in the isle of Chalke.

— Ross, "Inselreisen," iii., p. 116.

109. Grave in the isle of Ohilidromia. —

Fig.

Fiedler, " Reisen in Griechenland,"
iii., 2, 1.

110. Coffin at Athens.— V. Stackelberg,

" Graber der Hellenen," Taf. viii.

111. Coffin at Athens. — V. Stackelberg,

" Graber der Hellenen," Taf. vii.

112. Grave at Xanthos. — Fellows, "Ly-

cia," PI. xii., p. 130.

113. Grave at Myra. — Fellows, "Lycia,"

p. 200.

114. Grave at Telmessos. — Fellows, "Ly-

cia," PI. ix., 4.

115. 116. Plan and section of a grave in

the isle of Kos. — Ross, in Gerhard's
Archaol. Zeitung. 1850. xxii. 5
&3.

117. Grave at Lindos. — Ross, "Inselrei-

sen," iii., title-page.

118. Grave in the isle of Cyprus. — Ross,

in Gerhard's Archaol. Zeitung.
1851. Taf. xxviii., 4.

119. Plan of the same. — Ross, ibid. 1851.

Taf. xxviii., 3.

120. 121. Plan and view of part of the

Nekropolis of Kyrene. — Pachd,
"Voyage de la Cyr6naique," PI.
xxxvii.

122. View of another part of the same. —

Pacho, "Voyage de la Cyrenai'que,"
PI. xxxii.

123. Grave-altar of Delos.— Blouet, "Ex-

pedition de Moree," iii., 13, 1.

124. Grave-altar of Delos.— Blouet, "Ex-

petition de Moree," iii., 21, 3.

125. Grave-stele at Athens. — V. Stackel-

berg, " Graber der Hellenen," Taf.
vi.

126. Decorated grave-column, from an

Athenian vase. — Von Stackelberg,
" Graber d. Hellenen," Taf. xliv.

127. Decorated grave-column, from an

Athenian vase. — Von Stackelberg,
" Graber d. Hellenen," Taf. xlv.

128. Bass-relief stele of Delos. — Blouet,

" Expedition de Mor6e," Hi., 14, 3.

129. Bass-relief stele of Athens. — Von

Stackelberg, "Graber der Helle-
nen," Taf. i.

130. Grave at Tlos.— Fellows, "Lycia,'

p. 104.

131. Lykian tomb. — Fellows, "Lycia,"

PI. vi., p. 130.

132. Tomb at Antiphellos in Lykia. —

Fellows, "Asia Minor," p. 219.

133. Tomb at Pinara. — Fellows, " Lvcia,"

p. 142.

134. Tomb in the isle of Rhodes. — Ross,

" Inselreisen," iv., p. 61.

598

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

Fig.

135, 136. View and plan of a tomb in the
isle of Rhodes. — Ross, in Gerhard's
Archdol. Zeitung. 1850. Taf. xix.

137-139. Plan, front view, and section of
the pyramid of Kenchreai. — " Sup-
plements to the Antiq. of Athens,"
PI. ix.

140. Tomb at Kyrene. — Pacho, " Voyage

de la Cyrenai'que," PI. xxiv., Fig.
2.

141. Tomb at Mykenae. — Blouet, "Expe-

dition de Moree," ii., 69, 2.

142. Tomb at Delphi.— Thiersch, "Ab-

handlungen der Miinchener Aka-
demie." 1840. ill., 1, p. 7.

143. 144. Plan and front view of a tomb

at Carpuseli. — Donaldson, " Suppl.
to the Antiq. of Athens," PI. v.

1 45. Tomb in the isle of Amorgos. — Ross,

" Inselreisen," ii., p. 41.

146. Tomb at Sidyma.— Fellows, " Lycia,"

PL x., 4, p. 155.

147. Tomb at Kyrene. — Pacho, "Voyage

de la Cyrenai'que," PI. xvi.

148. 149. Plan and view of the monument

at Xanthos. — Falkener, "Museum
of Classical Antiquities," vol. i.,
pp. 256, 262.

150. Tomb near Constantine. — Falkener,

" Museum of Classical Antiquities,"
vol. i., p. 172.

151. Restoration of the mausoleum at

Halikarnassos. — Newton, "A His-
tory of Discovery at Halicarnassus,
Cnidus, and Branchides," vol. i.,
Plates, PI. xix.

152. The choragic monument of Lysi-

krates at Athens. — Stuart and
Revett, "Antiq. of Athens," vol.
i., Ch. iv., PI. 3.

153. Plan of the gymnasion at Hierapolis.

— Canina, "Arch, greca," Tav.
133.

154. Plan of the gymnasion at Ephesos.

— "Ionian Antiquities," ii., PI.
40.

155. 156. Plan and frontage of part of

the agora of Delos. — " Ionian An-
tiquities," ill., 1, 29, et seq.
157, 158. Plan and frontage of the Tower
of the Winds at Athens. — Stuart
and Revett, "Antiquities of Ath-
ens," vol. i., Ch. iii., Pis. 2 & 3.

159. Stoa at Thorikos. — " lined. Antiq.

of Attica," Ch. ix., Fig. 1.

160. Stoa of the Hellanodikoi at Olympia.

— Hirt, " Gesch. d. Baukunst," iii.,
Taf. 21, Fig. 5.

Fig.
161

162.
163,

165-

168.
169.
170.

itt,

173.
174.

175,

177.

178.

179.
180.

181.

182,

184.
185.

Plan of the hippodrome at Olympia.
— Hirt, " Geschichte der Bau-
kunst," iii., Taf. 20, Fig. 8.
View of the stadion at Laodicea. —

" Ionian Antiquities," ii., PI. 84.
164. Plan and cross-section of the
stadion at Messene. — Blouet, " Ex-
ped. de Moree," i., Pis. 24 & 25,
Fig. 4.
-167. Plan, cross and longitudinal
sections of the stadion of Aphrodi-
sias. — "Ionian Antiquities," hi.,
Ch. ii., Pis. 10 & 11.
Plan of the theatre of Delos. — Blouet,

" Exped. de Moree," iii., PI. 10.

Plan of the theatre of Stratonikeia.

"Antiquities of Ionia," ii., PI. 36.

Plan of the theatre of Megalopolis.

—Blouet, "Exp6d. de Moree," ii.,

PI. 39.

172. View and plan of the theatre of

Segesta. — Serra di Falco, " Antich.

di Sicilia," i., Tavs. 9 & 11, Fig. 1.

Plan of the theatre of Knidos. —

" Antiquities of Ionia," iii., PI. 2.
Plan of the theatre of Dramyssos. —
" Supplement to the Antiq. of Ath-
ens," by Donaldson, PI. hi., Fig. 1.
176. Plan, section, and vaulted pas-
sage of the theatre of Sikyon. —
Blouet, "Expedition de Moree,"
iii., PI. 82, Figs. 1, 2, and 4.
Sitting-steps of the theatre of Catana.
— Serra di Falco, " Antichita di
Sicilia," v., Tav. 4, Fig. 2.
Sitting-steps and stairs of the theatre
of Acrae. — Serra di Falco, "Anti-
chita di Sicilia," iv., Tav. 32, Fig.
3.
Sitting-steps of the theatre of Me-
galopolis. — Blouet, " Expedition
de Moree," ii., PI. 39, Fig. 4.
Sitting-steps of the theatre of Sparta.
— Blouet, " Exped. de Moree," ii.,
PL 47, Fig. 4.
Sitting-steps and diazoma of the the-
atre of Dionysos at Athens. —
Beck, " Photographische Ansich-
ten von Athen."
183. Plan, and part of the skene-
wall of the theatre of Telmessos. —
Texier, " Asie mineure," PL 178.
Interior of a Greek theatre. — Strack,

" Das griech. Theater."
Diphros : a, V. Stackelberg, " Graber
d. Hellenen," Taf. ii. ; 6, c, after
Gerhard's " Trinkschalen ;" d, Miil-
ler's " Denkmaler," L, Taf. xxiii. —

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

599

Fio.

Klismos : e, /, from Lenormant and
De Witte, " Monum. ceramogra-
phiques;" g, Archdol. Zeitung ^
1843. Taf. iv.— Thronos : hy Over-
beck, M Gallerie heroisch. Bilder,"
i., Taf. xxviii.

186. Thronos.— a, u Collect, of Anc. Mar-

bles in the British Mus.," viii., PI.
ii. ; b, Miiller's " Denkmaler," i.,
Taf. v., 66 ; c, " Annali dell' Instit.
arch." 1830. Tav. adg. G.

187. Kline. — a, Millingen, " Peintures d.

Vases grecs," PI. ix. ; b, Micali,
" Monum. inediti," Tav. xxiii. ; c,
Panofka, M Bilder antiken Lebens,"
Taf. xii., 1.

188. Kline. — Lenormant and De Witte,

" Monum. ceramogr., " ii., PI.
xxxiii., A.

189. Kline. — Panofka, "Bilder antiken

Lebens," Taf. vii., 2.

190. Kline. — Miiller, "Denkmaler," ii.,

No. 858.

191. Tables. — From various vase-paint-

ings.

192. a-h, Drawers and boxes from Ger-

hard's " Apulische Vasenbilder"
and Gerhard's "Auserlesene Vasen-
bilder."

193. Potter, cameo. — Panofka, "Bilder

antiken Lebens," Taf. viii., 8.

194. Potter, cameo. — Panofka, "Bilder

antiken Lebens," Taf. viii., 9.

195. Earthen vessels. — Birch, "History

of Ancient Pottery," i., pp. 260,
261.

196. Picture of a woman, from an archaic

vase. — Gerhard, " Auserlesene
Vasenbilder," iii., Taf. clxvii.

197. Earthen vessels. — a, Dubois Maison-

neuve, " Introd. a l'Etude des
Vases ant.," PI. vii. ; 6, ibid., PI.
ii. ; c, ibid., PI. lxvii. ; </, ibid., PI.
xxxvii. ; c, ibid., PI. vii.

198. Different shapes of earthen vessels. —

Jahn, " Beschreibung d. Vasen-
sammlung Konig Ludwigs in der
Pinakothek zu Miinchen," Tafs. i.,
ii.

199. Epheboi drawing wine, vase-painting.

— Panofka, " Cabinet Pourtales,"
PI. xxxiv., 2.

200. Earthen vessels. — Levezow, "Ver-

zeichniss d. antik. Denkmaler ira
Antiquarium des konigl. Museums
zu Berlin," Taf. x., 213.

201. a-g, Drinking-horns. — Panofka,

" Griechische Trinkhorner."

Fig.

202.

203.

204.

205.

206.
207.
208.
209.
210.
211.

212.
213.

214.

215.

216,

218.

219.

220.
221.

Louter. — Dubois Maisonneuve, "In-
troduction a l'Etude des Vases
antiques," PI. liv.

Basket-work. — a, Gerhard, "Auser-
les. griechische Vasenbilder," iv.,
Taf. cccii. ; 6, Dubois Maisonneuve,
"Peintures des Vases antiques,
PI. liii. ; c, ibid., PI. xxxix. ; </,
Dubois Maisonneuve, "Introd. a
l'Etude des Vases ant.," PI. liv. ;
e and/, Panofka, "Bilder antiken
Lebens," Taf. xiv.

Torches. — a, Gerhard, " Denkm. u.
Forschungen." 1858. Taf. cxvii.,
5 ; 6, Gerhard. Archdolog. Zeitung
1844. Taf. xv. ; c, ibid. 1843. Taf.
xi.

Candelabrum from a vase-painting. —
Gerhard, " Denkm. und Forschun-
gen." 1858. Taf. cxvii., 9.

Lamp. — Von Stackelberg, " Graber
der Hellenen," Taf. Iii.

Soldier in. a chiton, bass-relief. —
Miiller, " Denkmaler," i., Taf. xxix.

Building of the Argo, bass-relief. —
Winckelmann, " Opere," Tav. lvii.

Dancing-girl, vase-painting. — Miiller,
"Denkmaler," ii., Taf. xvii., 188.

Female figure in a double chiton,
vase-painting. — Gerhard, Archd-
olog. Zeitung. 1843. Taf. xi.

Draped female figure, statue. — " Mu-
seo Borbonico," ii., Tav. iv.

Draped female figure, statue. — Ger-
hard, " Denkm. und Forschungen."
1849. Taf. i.

Caryatid from the Erechtheion. —
Stuart and Revett, "Antiq. of
Athens," vol. ii., Cap. ii., PI. xix.

Draped female figure, vase-painting.
— Gerhard, " Auserles. Vasenbil-
der," iii., Taf. clxxxix.

217. Draped male figures, vase-paint-
ings.— Gerhard, Archdol. Zeitung.
1848. Tav. xiii.

Draped female figure, terra-cotta. —
V. Stackelberg, " Graber d. Hel-
lenen," Taf. lxvii.

Draped female figure, vase-painting.
— Gerhard, "Auserlesene Vasen-
bilder," iii., Taf. clxxxvii.

Statue of Phokion.— " Mus. Pio Cle-
ment.," ii., Tav. xliii.

Draped female figure, vase-painting.
— Gerhard, Archdolog. Zeitung.
1846. Taf. xliv.,/.

600

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

Fig.
222.

223.
224.

225.
226.

227.

228.

229.

230.

231.

232.

233.
234.

Hats. — a, Panofka, " Bilder antiken
Lebens," Taf. viii., 5 ; b, Miiller,
"Denkmaler," i., Taf. xlvii., No.
215 a; c, Panofka, "Bilder antik.
Lebens," Taf. xiv., 3 ; d, " Museo
Pio Clement," v., Tav. xvi. ; e,
Millingen, " Anc. uned. Monu-
ments," ii., PI. xii. ; /, Gerhard,
Archaol. Zeitung. 1844. Taf. xiv.;
ff, Miiller, " Denkm.," i., No. 215 a;
A, ibid., i., No. 327.

a-i, Female hair-dresses, terra-cottas.

— Von Stackelberg, " Graber der
Hellenen," Taf. lxxv., et seq.

Shoes and boots. — 1. "Museo Pio
Clement.," iv., Tav. viii. ; 2. " Mu-
seo Borbon.," x., liii. ; 3. Winckel-
mann, " Opere," Tav. Hi. ; 4. Clarac,
" Musee," v., PI. 848,4, No. 2139 a;
5. Clarac, "Musee," No. 813 6; 6.
" Museo Borbon.," x., Tav. xxi. ; 7.
" Museo Pio Clement.," iv., Tav.
xiv. ; 8. " Museo Borbon., x., Tav.
xx.

Gold wreath. — Arneth, "Antike Gold-
und Silber-Monum. d. k. k. Miinz-
u. Antiken-Cab. in Wien," Taf. xiii.

Gold ornaments. — a, " Antiquites du
Bosphore," PI. xxiv.; b, V. Stackel-
berg, " Graber der Hellenen," Taf.
lxxiii. ; c, " Antiquites du Bos-
phore," PI. vii. ; (/, ibid., PI. xix. ;
e, ibid., PI. viii. ; /, V. Stackelberg,
" Graber d. Hellenen," Taf. lxxiv.;
g, ibid., Taf. lxxiv. ; A, ibid., Taf.
lxxiii. ; i, ibid., Taf. lxxiii.

a-c, Fan and parasol, from vase-
paintings. — Gerhard's " Apulische
Vasenbilder."

Bronze mirror from Athens. — Von
Stackelberg, "Graber der Helle-
nen," Taf. lxxiv.

Spinning-girl, vase-painting. — Panof-
ka, " Griechen und Griechinnen,"
Taf. i., 6.

Girl embroidering, vase-painting. —
Panofka, " Griechen und Griechin-
nen," Taf. i., 3.

Female occupations at home, vase-
painting. — Gerhard, " Auserelsene
griech. Vasenbilder." iv., Taf. ccci.

Aldobrandini wedding, wall-painting.

— Botticher, " Aldobrandinische
Hochzeit."

Cradle. — Panofka, " Griechen und

Griechinnen," Taf. i., 1.
Writing-materials. — a, Grivaud de la

Vincelle, "Arts et Metiers," PI.

Fig.

viii. ; b-e, " Museo Borbon.," i.
Tav. xii.

235. Case with documents. — " Pitture

d'Ercol.," ii., Tav. ii.

236. Players on stringed instruments, vase-

painting. — Lenormant and De Wit-
te, " Monuments ceramograph.,"
vol. ii., PI. lxxxvi.

237. Stringed instruments. — a, Tischbein,

"Peintures des Vases antiques,"
iv., 59 ; b, De Laborde, " Collect,
d. Vases gr.," i., PI. 11 ; c, " Museo
Borbon.," x., Tav. liv. ; d, ibid.,
xi., Tav. xxxi. ; e, ibid., x., Tav.
xxxvii. ; /, ibid., xi., Tav. xxiii. ;
g, Gerhard, " Trinkschalen," vi., 1.

238. Stringed instruments. — a, " Museo

Borbon.," xiii., Tav. xl. ; 6, ibid., •
x., Tav. vi. ; c, Welcker, " Denkm.,"
Hi., 31; d, "Mus. Borbon.," xii.,
Tav. xxxiv. ; e, Lenormant and De
Witte, "Monum. ceramogr.," ii.,
PI. xiii.; /, Gerhard, " Apul. Vasen-
bilder," Taf. E, 8.

239. Syrinx.— a, Clarac, "Musee," ii., PI.

cxlii. ; b, " Pitture d'Ercol., i., p.
85.

240. Sileni playing on musical instru-

ments, cameo. — " Galeria di Fi-
renze," 5th ser., Tav. xxxiii.

241. Wind instruments. — a, Gerhard,

" Trinkschalen," Taf. xvii. ; b, Cla-
rac, " Mus6e," iv., PI. 741 ; c, " Mu-
seo Pio Clement.," iv., Tav. xiv. ;
d, ibid., iv., Tav. xv.; e, Millin," Gal-
lerie mythol.," PI. iv. ; /, Lenor-
mant and De Witte, " Monum. cera-
mograph.," ii., PI. lxx. ; g, " Collect,
of Anc. Marbles in the British Mu-
seum," ii., PI. xxxv. ; h, " Museo
Pio Clement.," v., Tav. xiii.; i, ibid.,
v., tailpiece ; &, Lenormant and De
Witte, " Monum. ceramogr.," ii.,
PI. cvi. ; I, Gerhard " Auserles.
Vasenbilder," Taf. cclxxii. ; m,
Clarac, "Musee," ii., PI. 139, No.
141 ; w, ibid., iv., PI. 741.

242. Askaules, bronze statuette. — Rich,

" Companion to the Latin Diction-
ary and Greek Lexicon," p. 61.

243. Salpinx-player, bass-relief. — " Museo

Pio Clement.," v., Tav. xvii.

244. Horn-player, vase-painting. — Panof-

ka, " Bilder antiken Lebens," Taf.
vi., 9.

245. Organon, mosaic. — Caumont, "Bul-

letin monument." 1855. PI. 13.

246. Krotalai. — a, "Museo Borbonico,"

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

601

Fro.

xv., Tuv. xvii. ; 6, Gerhard, "Auser-
lesene Vasenbilder," Taf. cxv. ; c,
same author's " Trinkschalen, "
Tafs. iv., v.

247. a, Woman beating the cymbals; b,

Woman playing on the double flute,
both from wall-paintings. — " Museo
Borbon.," iii., Tav. xl.

248. Tvmpanon.— u Pitture d'Ercol.," i.,

p. 109.

249. Sistrum. — Micali, "Monum. incd.,"

Tav. xvii.

250. Halteres, vase - painting. — Dubois

Maisonneuve, "Introd. a l'Etude
des Vases an*.," PI. xvi.

251. Strigiles, bronze. — " Museo Borboni-

co," vii., Tav. xvi.

252. Statue of Apoxyomenos. — Clarac,

" Musee," PI. 848 B.

253. Wrestling - school, wall-painting. —

Micali, "Monum. per servire alia
Storia d. ant. Popoli ital.," Tav.
lxx.

254. Pankratiastai, statue. — Winckel -

mann, " Opere," Tav. xlv.

255. Diskobolos, statue. — Liibke, " Grund-

riss der Kunstgeschichte," fifth
edition. 1851. Fig. 83.

256. a, 6, Wrestling-straps, from statues.

—Clarac, " Musee," v., Pis. 856,
858 D.

257. Wrestlers, statue.— Clarac, " Musee,"

v., PI. 858.

258. Preparation for the chariot-race, wall-

painting. — Micali, " Monum. per
servire alia Storia d. ant. Popoli
ital.," Tav. lxyiii.

259. Horse-race, vase-painting. — Gerhard,

" Trinkschalen," Taf. xiv.

260. Game at ball, wall-painting. — Pa-

nofka, "Bilder antiken Lebens,"
Taf. x., 1.

261. Armorer, bass - relief. — Panofka,

" Bilder antiken Lebens," Taf. viii.,
2.

262. Helmets. — a, Inghirami, " Museo

Chiusino," Tav. 190 ; b, Smith,
" Dictionary of Greek and Roman
Antiquities," p. 566 ; c, Overbeck,
" Gallerie heroischer Bilder," i.,
Taf. iv., 1 ; d, e, Clarac, " Musee,"
Pis. 816, 819;/, Dodwell, "Tour
through Greece," ii., p. 330 ; g, Mil-
lin, " Peintures de Vases," PI. xxii.

263. Helmets. — a, " Museo Borbon.," iv.,

Tav. xxxviii. ; b, Midler, "Denk-
maler," ii., Tav. xix., No. 198 ; c,
d, Millin, "Peintures de Vases,"

Fig.

PI. xli. ; e, Orti di Manara, M Antichi
Monumenti greci e romani."

264. Warriors, vase-painting. — Gerhard,

"Denkmaler u. Forsch." 1851.
Taf. xxx.

265. Warrior. — Overbeck, "Gallerie he-

roischer Bilder," i., Taf. xxxiii., 2.

266. Mitra. — Bronsted, "Die Bronzen von

Siris."

267. Warrior, vase-painting. — Gerhard,

"Auserles. Vasenbilder," Taf. cc.

268. Warrior, vase-painting. — " Museum

Gregorianum," ii., Tav. xlvii.

269. Shields. — a, " Museum Gregorianum,"

ii., Tav. xxxviii. ; 6, ibid., ii., Tav.
lxxxvi. ; c, ibid., ii., Tav. xxxviii.

270. Shields.— a, Cadalvene, " Recueil de

M6dailles grecques," PI. ii., 19; 6,
Panofka, "Bilder ant. Lebens,"
Taf. vi., 5; c, Clarac, "Musee,"
PI. 819; d, Miiller, "Denkmaler,"
ii., Taf. xxiii., No. 250.

271. Amazon, statue. — Clarac, "Musee,"

PI. 810 A.

272. Amazon, vase - painting. — " Museo

Borbon.," vi., Tav. v.

273. Peltastes, vase-painting. — V. Stackel-

berg, " Graber der Hellenen," Taf.
xxxviii.

274. a-l, Lances from various vases.

275. Spear with straps (amentum), vase-

painting. — Revue Archeologique.
1860. T. ii., p. 211.

276. Coin of Pelinna. — "Museum Hun-

ter.," PI. 42, i.

277. Swords. — a, "Monum. ined. dell'

Instit." 1856. Tav. x. ; b, Millin-
gen, "Peintures des Vases," PI.
lvii. ; c, ibid., PI. v. ; d, e, Gerhard,
" Auserles. Vasenbilder," Taf. cci.

278. Sickle and harpe. — a, " Museo Bor-

bon.," ix., Tav. xxvi. ; 6, Millin,
"Gallerie mvthol.," No. 110; c,
ibid., No. 1.

279. Battle-axes. — a, "Museo Borbon.,"

vi., Tav. vii. ; b\ Archaolog. Zeitung.
1847. Taf. vii. ; c, " Museum Hun-
ter.," PI. 57, vii. ; d, ibid., 60, iii. ;
c, " Museo Borbon.," vi., Taf. iii.

280. Shooting with the bow, vase-painting.

— Panofka, "Bilder antiken Le-
bens," Taf. x., 3.

281. Bow and quiver. — a, " Museum Hun-

ter.," PI. 23, i. ; b, ibid., PI. 49, xxii.

282. Quiver with bow and arrows. — " Mu-

seo Pio Clementino," iv., Tav. xliil

283. Slinger, coin of the town of Selge. —

" Museum Hunter.," PI. 7, xix.

602

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

Fig.

284. Battle-chariot. — Gerhard, "Auserles.

Vasenbilder," Taf. ccliv.

285. Battle-chariot,bass-relief. — Overbeck,

" Gallerie heroischer Bilder," i.,
Taf. xxii., 12.

286. Battle-chariot. — Panofka, " Bilder

ant. Lebens," Taf. iii., 8.

287. Tropaeum, coin of the Boeotians. —

Combe, "Veterum Populorum et
Begum numi qui in Mus. Brit, ad-
servantur," Tab. vi., No. 7.

288. Building of the Argo. — Same as Fig.

209.

289. Ship with fifty oars, most likely after

a Phoenician pattern, vase-painting.
— Panofka. " Bilder antiken Le-
bens," Taf. xv., *J.

290. Ship, cameo. — Millin, " Gallerie my-

thol.," PI. 157.

291. Construction of the rudder. — Graser,

" De Veterum re navali."

292. Anchor. — a-c, e, Carelli, "Numi

Italiae veteres," Tabs, xvii., 1.,
cxxxi. ; d, " Mus. Brit," Tab. xii.

293. Ship's - ladder, vase-painting. — Ger-

hard, Archaolog. Zeitung. 1846.
Taf. xlv.

294. Plumb-line. — Rich, "Companion to

the Latin Dictionary and Greek
Lexicon."

295. Design of a triere. — Graser, " De

Veterum re navali."

296. 297. a, 6, Rowers in profile. — Ibid.

298. Arrangement of the holes for the oars.

—Ibid.

299. Attic triere, bass-relief. — " Annali

dell' Instituto di Corrispondenza
archeologica," T. xxxii. 1861. Tav.
d'adg. 31., 2.

300. Roman turret -ship, bass-relief. —

Winckelmann, " Opere," Tav.
olxxvi.

301. Symposion, vase-painting. — " Museum

Gregorianum," ii., Tav. lxxix.

302. Epheboi drawing wine. — Same as

Fig. 199.

303. Cup-bearer, vase-painting. — Winck-

elmann, " Opere," Tav. clxxii.

304. Symposion, vase-painting. — Panofka,

"Bilder ant. Lebens," Taf. xii., 3.

305. Female juggler, vase-painting. — " Mu-

seo Borbon.," vii., Tav. lviii.

306. Female juggler, vase - painting. —

Hamilton, "Pitture de' Vasi ant.,"
i., Tav. lx.

307. Female juggler, vase-painting. —

" Bull. Napol.," v., Tav. vi.

308. Game of morra, vase-painting. — Pa-

Fig.

nofka, "Bilder antiken Lebens,"
Taf. x., 9.

309. War-dance, bass-relief. — Panofka,

" Bilder ant. Lebens," Taf. ix., 3.

310. Choral dance, vase-painting. — Panof-

ka, " Bilder antiken Lebens," Taf.
ix., 5.
311,312. Masks.— Wieseler, "Theaterge-
baude und Denkmaler des Biihnen-
wesens," Taf. v.

313. Actors, vase-painting. — Wieseler,

" Theatergebaude, etc.," Taf. ix.

314. Actors, wall - painting. — Wieseler,

" Theatergebaude, etc.," Taf. vi.

315. Actors, vase-painting. — Wieseler,

" Theatergebaude, etc.," Taf. vi.

316. Actors, vase-painting. — Wieseler,

" Theatergebaude, etc.," Taf. ix.

317. Sacrifice, vase-painting. — Panofka,

" Bilder antiken Lebens," Taf.
xiii., 7.

318. Death of Archemoros, vase-painting.

— Gerhard, " Archemoros und die
Hesperiden in : Abhandl. der Ber-
liner Akademie der Wissenschaf-
ten," 1836.

319. Complaint for the dead, bass-relief. —

Micali, " Monum. per servire alia
Storia d. ant. Popoli ital.," Tav.
lvi.

320. Sacrifice for the dead, vase-painting.

— V. Stackelberg, " Graber der
Hellenen," Taf. xii v.

321. Grave - decoration, vase-painting. —

Same as Fig. 127.

322. Hermes Psychopompos, vase-paint-

ing. — Panofka, " Bilder antiken
Lebens," Taf. xx., 7.

323. Limitation of the templum.

324. Plan of an Etruscan temple. — Hirt,

" Die Geschichte d. Baukunst bei
den Alten," Taf. 17, 7.

325. 326. Plan and frontage of the temple

of the Capitoline Deities in Rome.
— Canina, "Storia dell' Architet-
tura antica (Arch, rom.)," Tavs.
41 & 42.

327. Plan of the temple of the Olympian

Jupiter at Athens. — Canina,
" Archit. rom.," Tav. 37.

328. Korinthian capital, from the Pan-

theon in Rome. — Desgodetz, " Les
Edifices antiques de Rome," Ch.
i., PI. 8.

329. 330. Plan and frontage of an Ionic

temple at Tivoli. — Canina, " Arch,
rom.," Tav. 54.
331. Perspective view of a Korinthian

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

003

Fio.
332,

334.
335,

337, 338

339.
340,

342,

344.

345.
346.
347.
348.

349.
350.

351.
352.
353.

temple (maison quarree) at Nismes.
— From a photograph.

333. Plan and section of the temple
of Jupiter at Pompeii. — Mazois,
" Les Ruines de Pompei," iii., Pis.
30 & 32.

Plan of the temple of Concordia in
Rome. — Canina, " Arch, rom.,"
Tav. 62.

336. Plan and section of a Korin-
thian temple at Heliopolia (Bal-
bek). — Wood, " Les Ruines de Bal-
bek," Pis. 35 & 36.
. Plan and section of the temple
of Venus and Roma in Rome. —
Canina, "Arch, rom.," Tavs. 32 &
33.

Circular temple of Vesta, from a Ro-
man coin. — Canina, "Arch. Rom.,"
Tav. 42, Fig. A.

341. Plan and frontage of the tem-
ple of Vesta at Tivoli. — Valadier,
" Raccolta delle piu insigni Fab-
briche di Roma antica," Pis. 1 & 3
(and Canina, "Arch, rom.," Tav.
41).

343. Plan and frontage of the Pan-
theon in Rome. — Desgodetz, " Les
Fidifices antiques de Rome," Ch. i.,
PI. 1, 36.

Section of the same. — Adler, "Das
Pantheon zu Rome ; 31. Programm
zum Winckelmannsfest der archae-
olog. Ges. zu Berlin." 1871.

Temple of Venus at Pompeii. — Ma-
zois, "Les Ruines de Pompei," iv.,
PI. 18.

Plan of the great Temple of the Sun
at Heliopolis. — Wood, " Les Ruines
de Balbek," PI. iii.

Temple of Fortuna at Praeneste (Pal-
estrina). — Canina, "Arch, rom.,"
Tav. 62.

Walls on the Palatine in Rome. —
" Monumenti inediti dell' Instituto
di Corrispondenza archeologica,"
v., Tav. 39.

Roman walls. — Piranesi, "Antichita
di Roma," iii., Tav. 5.

Wall-coating of a conduit of the Al-
sietine aqueduct near Rome. — Pi-
ranesi, "Antichita di Roma," i.,
Tav. 12, 1.

Wall of Pompeii. — Mazois, " Les
Ruines de Pompei," i., PI. 13, 2.

Wall of Rome. — Piranesi, " Ant. di
Roma," i., Tav. 8, 2.

Section of a tower at Pompeii. — Ma-

Fio.

zois, " Les Ruines de Poiupei," i.,
PI. 41, 1.

354. Plan of the Roman camp at Saalburg,

near Homburg. — Krieg v. Hochfel-
den, " Geschichte der Militar-Archi-
tektur des fruheren Mittelalters,"
p. 60.

355. Roman camp at Gamzigrad. — Kanitz,

" Serbien." 1868. p. 316.

356. The Golden Gate of the villa of

Diocletian at Salona (Spalatro). —
Adam, " Ruins of the Palace of the
Emperor Diocletian at Spalatro,"
PI. 12.

357. Porta Maggiore in Rome. — "Annali

dell' Instituto di Corrispondenza ar-
cheologica," vol. x., Tavola d'aggi-
unta K.

358. 359. Plan and frontage of a fortified

gate of Aosta. — Krieg v. Hochfel-
den, " Geschichte der Militar-archi-
tektur des fruheren Mittelalters,"
p. 25.

360. The Herculaneum gate at Pompeii. —

Gell and Gandy, " Pompeiana," PI.
19.

361. The grotto of the Posilippo, near Na-

ples.— Ancora, " Guida ragionata
di Puzzuoli," Tav. 7.

362. View of the Via Appia, near Ariccia.

—Canina, "Arch. rom.," Tav. 183.

363. Roman pavement (Via Appia). — Pi-

ranesi, Antichita di Roma," iii., 7.

364. 365. View and section of a drain of

the Via Appia. — "Monumenti in-
editi dell' Instituto di Corrispon-
denza archeologica," ii., 39.

366. Bridge across a valley at the ninth

mile-stone of the Via Praenestina
(Ponte di Nona) near Rome. — Ca-
nina, " Arch, rom.," Tav. 183.

367. Acqueduct and bridge across the Fi-

ora near Vulci. — Canina, " Arch,
rom.," Tav. 165.

368. Pons Fabricius in Rome. — Piranesi,

" Antichita di Roma," iv., 18.

369. 370. Frontage and view of the Pons

^Elius (Ponte S. Angelo) in Rome.
— Piranesi, "Ant. di Roma," iv., 6
& 12.

371. Plan of the harbor of Centumcellae

(Civita Vecchia). — Canina, "Arch,
rom.," Tav. 160.

372, 373. Plan of the harbor of Ostia, and

view of one of its basins, from
a Roman coin. — Canina, "Arch,
rom.," Tav. 157.
374. Plan of the Emporium in Rome. —

604

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

Fig.

Piranesi, " Antichita di Roma," iv.,
48.

375. View of a Roman harbor, from a

Pompeian wall-painting. — Gell,
"Pompeiana," ii. Series, PI. 57,
p. 130.

376. Mouth of the Cloaca Maxima in Rome.

— Reber, " Geschicbte der Bau-
kunst in Alterthum," p. 393.

377. Section of the drains of the Fucine

Lake. — Hirt, u Gesch. der Bauk.
bei den Alten," Taf. xiii., Fig 32.

378. The canal of a Roman aqueduct. —

Piranesi, " Ant. di roma," i., 8.

379. Castellum of the Aqua Claudia near

* Rome. — Piranesi, " Ant. di Roma,"
i., 17, 1.

380. Section of a reservoir (piscina) at Fer-

mo. — " Monumenti inediti dell' In-
stituto," etc., iv., 25.

381. Reservoir (Piscina Mirabile) at Baiae,

near Naples. — Ancora, " Guida ra-
gionata di Puzzuoli," Tav. 40.

382. Cinerary-box in the form of a house.

— Braun, " 11 Laberinto di Porsen-
na," Taf. 5 A.

383. 384. Plan and section of a simple

dwelling-house at Pompeii. — Ma-
zois, " Ruines de Pompei," ii., PI.
9, Figs. 1 & 4.

385. Plan of a dwelling-house at Pompeii.

— Mazois, "Ruines de Pompei,"
ii., PI. 11, Fig. 1.

386. Plan of the house of Pansa at Pom-

peii.— Donaldson, "Pompeii," PI.
2, p. 3.

387. Section of the Casa di Championnet

at Pompeii. — Mazois, " Ruines de
Pompei," ii., PI. 22.

388. Facade of a house at Pompei. — Ma-

zois, " Ruines de Pompei," ii., p.
42, vignette.

389. Door of a house at Pompeii. — Ma-

zois, " Ruines de Pompei," ii., PI.
7, Fig. 1 (letter-press, p. 41).

390. Open court of the house of Sallustius

at Pompeii. — Mazois, " Ruines de
Pompei," ii., 38, 1.

391. Interior of the house of Pansa at

Pompeii. — Gell and Gandy, " Pom-
peiana," PI. 36.

392. Plan of the villa of Diocletian at Sa-

lona (Spalat»*o). — Adam, " Ruins of
the Palace of the Emperor Diocle-
tian at Spalatro," PI. 5.

393. Plan of the villa of Diomedes at Pom-

peii.— Donaldson, "Pompeii," ii.,
Plate to p. 1.

Fig.

394. View of a Roman villa from a Pom-

peian wall-painting. — Gell and
Gandy, " Pompeiana," PI. 60.

395, 396. Plan and section of a tomb at

Caere. — " Monumenti inediti dell'
Instituto," ii., Tav. xix., Figs. G & /.

397. Facades of tombs at Caere. — " Monu-

menti inediti dell' Instituto," ii.,
Tav. xix., Fig. A.

398. View of the Cucumella at Vulci.—

" Monum. inediti dell' Instit. " i
Tav. 41, Fig. 2.

399. Sarcophagus of L. Cornelius Sci-

pio Barbatus in Rome. — Canina,
"Arch, rom.," Tav. 225, Fig. 1.

400. 401. Plan and view of the grave of

the freedman of Augustus, near
Rome. — Piranesi, "Antichita di
Roma," iii., 6 & 26.

402. Grave-chamber at Pompeii. — Gell and

Gandy, " Pompeiana," PI. 6.

403. The so-called grave of Virgil, near

Naples. — Hirt, " Geschichte der
Baukunst," xxx., 11.

404. 405. Plan and frontage of the so-

called tomb of the Horatii and Cu-
riatii near Albano. — " Monumenti
inediti dell' Instituto," ii., Tav. 39.

406. Tomb of Caecilia Metella near Rome.

— Piranesi, " Antichita di Roma,"
iii., 51.

407. Pyramid of Cestius in Rome. — Pira-

nesi, " Antichita di Roma," iii., 40.

408. Tomb of C. Poblicius Bibulus in

Rome. — Canina, " Arch-, rom.,"
Tav. 212.

409. Plan of a family-tomb at Palmyra. —

Wood, " Ruines de Palmyre," PI.
36.

410. Tower-shaped tomb at Palmyra. —

Wood, "Ruines de Palmyre," PI.
56.

411. Original view of the tomb of Hadrian

in Rome. — Canina, " Arch, rom.,"
Tav. 224.

412. The street of tombs at Pompeii. —

Gell and Gandy, " Pompeiana," PI.
3.

413. Via Appia, near Rome, in its original

state. — Canina, "La prima Parte
della Via Appia dalla Porta Capena
a Boville," ii., Tav. 6.

414. Tomb of the Secundini at Igel, near

Treves. — Neurohr, " Abbildung des
romischen Monumentes in Igel,"
Taf. 2.

415. Column of Marcus Aurelius in Rome.

—Canina, "Arch, rom.," Tav. 204.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

605

Fig.

416. Triumphal arch of Titus in Rome.—

Dasgodetz, "Edifices antiques de
Rome," ii., Ch. 17, PI. 1, 2; and
Canina, "Arch, rom.," Tav. 188.

417. Plan of the triumphal arch of Con-

stantine in Rome. — Desgodetz,
"Edifices antiques de Rome," ii.,
Ch. 20, PI. 1.

418. View of the same from a photograph.

419. Plan of the thermae of Veleia. —

Antolini, "Le Rovine di Veleja,"
ii., 7.

420. Plan of the thermae of Pompeii. —

Mazois, " Ruines de Pomp&," iii.,
PL 47.

421. Interior of the tepidarium in the

thermae of Pompeii. — Gell, " Pom-
peiana," ii., i. Series, PL 29.

422. Plan of the thermae of Caracalla in

Rome. — Cameron, "The Baths of
the Romans," PL 12 ; compare
Blouet, " Restauration des Ther-
mes d'Antonin Caracalla," PL 5.

423. Interior of the chief hall of the ther-

mae of Caracalla in Rome. — Canina,
"Arch, rom.," Tav. 152.

424. Plans of three curiae in the Forum of

Pompeii. — Mazois, " Ruines de
Pompei," iii., PL 38, E, Z>, F.

425. Plan of the basilica of Otricoli. —

Hirt, " Geschichte der Baukunst,"
Taf. 11, Fig. 12.

426. Plan of the basilica of Pompeii. — Ma-

zois, "Ruines de Pompei," iii., 15.

427. Plan of the Basilica Ulpia in Rome.

Canina, " Arch, rom., " Tav. 89.

428. Plan of the Forum Romanum, after

Detlefsen and Reber, drawn by
Koner.

429. Plan of the Forum of Veleia. — An-

tolini, "Le Rovine di Veleja," ii.,
Tav. 1.

430. Plan of the circus of Bovillae. — Ca-

nina, "Arch, rom.," Tav. 137.

431. Original view of the Circus Maximus

in Rome. — Canina, " Arch, rom.,"
Tav. 136.

432. Cross-section of the theatre of Syra-

kuse. — Serra di Falco, "Antichita
di Sicilia," v., Tav. 22.

433. Plan of the theatre of Pompey, from

a fragment of the old plan of
Rome. — Piranesi, "Antichita di
Roma," i., 2, fragment 22.

434. Cross-section of the theatre of Mar-

cellus in Rome. — Canina, "Arch,
rom.," Tav. 105.

435. Plan of the theatre of Herodes

Fig.

Atticus at Athens. — Schillbach,
" Ueber das Odeion des Herodes
Attikos." Jena, 1858.

436. Exterior of the stage-building of

the theatre of Orange. — Christie,
"Monuments antiques a Orange,"
PL 31.

437. Interior of the theatre of Aspendos.

— Texier, "Description de l'Asie
mineure," iii., PL 232 bis.

438. Plan of the amphitheatre of Capua —

Canina, " Arch, rom.," Tav. 123.

439. Exterior of the Coliseum in Rome. —

Cooke, " Views of the Coliseum,"
PL 13.

440. Cross-section of the same. — Fonta-

na, "L'anfiteatro Flavio," Tav. 17;
Canina, "Arch, rom.," Tav. 117.
(Half-longitudinal section.)

441. Interior of the same. — Cooke, " Views

of the Coliseum," PL 4.

442. Marble throne. — Clarac, " Musee," T.

ii., PL 258, No. 245.

443. Sella curulis, from a silver coin. —

Cohen, " Descr. des Monnaies de la
Republ. rom., PL xix.

444. Bisellium of bronze. — " Museo Bor-

bon.," ii., Tav. xxxi.

445. Plan of a triclinium.

446. Abacus of marble. — " Museo Bor-

bon.," iii., Tav. xxx.

447. Tripod of bronze. — Gargiulo, " Rac-

colta di Monum. piu inter, del R.
Museo Borbon.," Tav. 59.

448. Bronze kitchen-utensils. — a, 6, " Mu-

seo Borbon.," iv., Tav. xii. ; c,
ibid., v., Tav. lviii. ; d, ibid., v.,
Tav. xlix.

449. Bronze kitchen-utensils. — a-ey "Mu-

seo Borbon.," iv., Tav. xii.; f-i,
ibid., v., Tav. lviii., el seq.; k, ibid.,
iii., Tav. xxxi. ; /, ibid., x., Tav.
lxiv. ; m, w, ibid., x., Tav. xlvi.

450. 451. Treasure found at Hildesheim,

from photographs.

452. Glass vessels from Pompeii (" Museo

Borbon.," vi., Tav. 46), and from
the Antiquarium of the Museum
of Berlin.

453. Glass vessel from Novara. — Winck-

elmann, " Opere," Tav. iv.

454. Bronze vessels. — "Museo Borbon.,"

ii., Tav. xlvii., and x., Tav. xxxii.

455. Bronze cooking-apparatus. — " Museo

Borbon.," ii., Tav. xlvi.

456. Bronze cooking-apparatus. — "Museo

Borbon.," v., Tav. xliv.

457. Bronze mixing - vessel. — Gargiulo,

606

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

Fig.

458.
459.

460.

461.

462.

463.
464.
465.

466.
467.
468.
469.
470.
471.

472,
474.
475.

476.

Raccolta di Monum. piu inter, del
R. Museo Borbon.," Tav. 71.

Warwick Vase. — Clarac, "Musee,"
ii., PL 145.

Cart with wine-skin, wall-painting. —
Panofka, " Bilder antiken Lebens,"
Taf. xvi., No. 2.

Lamps. — a, " Museo Borbon.," iv.,
Tav. lviii. ; 6, Passerius, " Lucernae
fictiles," L, Tab. 30; c, ibid., L,
Tab. 27; d, ibid., ii., Tab. 6; e,
ibid., L, Tab. 6; /, g, h, "Museo
Borbon.," vi., Tav. xlvii. ; i, ibid.,
vi., Tav. xxx. ; k, Bellori, " Antiche
Lucerne ; " I, Passerius, " Lucernae
fictiles," ii., Tab. 29 ; m, ibid., ii.,
Tab. 96.

Lampadaria of bronze. — a, Gargiulo,
" Raccolta di Monum. piu inter, del
R. Museo Borbon.," Tav. 63; 6,
" Museo Borbon.," viii., Tav. xxxi. ;
c, ibid., ii., Tav. xiii.

Candelabrum of marble. — Gargiulo,
" Raccolta di Monum. piu inter, del
R. Museo Borbon.," Tav. 40.

Candelabrum of marble. — Clarac,
" Musee," ii., PI. 257.

Keys. — Grivaud de la Vincelle, " Arts
et Metiers," PI. xxxvi.

Wall-decoration from Pompeii. — Ma-,
zois, " Ruines de Pompei," ii., PL
26.

Painter's studio, wall-picture. — "Mu-
seo Borbon.," vii., Tav. iii.

Mosaic. — " Museo Borbon.," ii., Tav.
lvi.

Statue of Lucius Verus. — Clarac,
"Musee," v., PI. 957.

Statue of the younger Faustina. —
Clarac, " Musee," v., PL 955.

Statue of the younger Agrippina. —
Clarac, "Musee," v., PI. 929.

Toilet of the bride, wall-painting. —
Zahn, " Die schonsten Ornamente,
etc.," New Series, Taf. xv.

473. Fullonia, wall-painting. — " Mu-
seo Borbon.," iv., Tav. xlix.

Cucullus, from a wall-painting. —
" Museo Borbon.," iv., Tav. A.

a, Head of Sabina, from a coin. — Co-
hen, " Descr. hist, des Monnaies,
etc.,' T. ii., PL 7 ; 6, Head of Faus-
tina, from a coin. — Ibid., T. ii., PL
14 ; c, Head of Julia Domna, from
a bronze coin.

ctr-k, Hair-pin, mirror, ointment-box,
comb. — " Museo Borbon.," ix.,
Tavs. xiv , xv.

Fig

477. Gold chain for the neck, from Sieben-

burgen. — Arneth, "Die antiken
Gold-und Silbermonumente des k.
k. Miinz-und Antiken-Cabinets in
Wien," Taf. i.

478. Fibulae. — Grivaud de la Vincelle,

"Arts et Metiers," Pis. xli., xliii.

479. Genre-pictnre, wall - painting from

Pompeii. — "Museo Borbon.," vi.,
Tav. xxxviii.

480. Strigilis.— Same as Fig. 251.

481. Cart, bass-relief. — Micali, "Antichi

Moniimenti per servire all' Opera
intitolata : L'ltalia avanti il Do-
minino dei Romani," Tav. 28.

482. Cart, mosaic from Orbe. — De Bon-

stetten, "Receuil d' Antiq. suisses."
1855. PL 19.

483. Coin of Cyzicus. — From a paste in

the Royal Munzkabinet, Berlin.

484. Mill at Pompeii. — Overbeck, "Pom-

peji," p. 264.

485. a, b, Scales of bronze. — Gargiulo,

"Osserv. intorno le Particularity
di alcune Bilance antiche."

486. Cutler's shop, bass - relief. — Jahn,

"Berichte der phil. hist. CI. d. k.
sachs. Ges. d. Wiss. 1861. Taf.
ix., 9 & 9 a.

487. Erection of a column, left half of a

bass-relief. — Millin, " Gallerie my-
thologique," PL xxxviii., No. 139.

488. Medicine-box. — " Jahrb. d. Vereins v.

Alterthumsfr. im Rheinlande," xiv.,
1849. Taf. ii.

489. Surgical instruments. — Vulpes, "Stru-

menti chirurgici."

490. a-d, Writing-materials, from wall-

paintings. — "Museo Borbon.," i.,
Tav. xii.

491. Ploughman, group of marble. — Mi-

cali, " Monumenti per servire alia
Storia d. ant. Popoli ital.," PL 114.

492. Sacrificial implements, bass-relief. —

Clarac, " Musee," vol. ii., PL 220,
No. 252.

493. Idol of Cybele, brought to Rome by

Claudia Quinta, bass-relief. — Millin,
" Gallerie mythologique," PL 4.

494. Lituus, from a silver coin of Julius

Caesar, slightly enlarged.

495. Puteal, from a silvor coin of the Gens

Scribonia. — Cohen, " Descr. gen.
des Monnaies de la Republique
romaine," PL xxxvi.

496. Auspicia pullaria, from a bass-relief.

— Zoega, " Li Bassirilievi antichi
di Roma," Tom. L, Tav. xvi.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

607

Napoletano," N.
Overbeck, " Pom-

/, " Museo Bor-
xxx. ; g, h, ibid.,

Fro.

497. Ancilia, cameo. — "Galleria di Firen-

ze," Ser. v., Tav. 21.

498. Sacrifice of Trajan, bass-relief from

the arch of Constantine. — De Ru-
beis, " Veteres Arcus Augustales,"
Tab. 27.

499. Ludi circenses, mosaic. — Artaud,

" Mosai'que de Lyon."

500. Weapons of gladiators. — a, " Museo

Borbon.," vii., Tav. xiv. ; 6, ibid.,

xv., Tav. xxx. ; c, ibid., x., Tav.

xxxi. ; d, " Bull

Ser. i., Tav. 7 ; e,

peji," Fig. 118

bon.," xv., Tav.

iv., Tav. xiii.

501. a, b, Secutores and retiarii, mosaic.

— Winckelmann, " Opere," Tav.
clxxi.

502. Gladiator, bass-relief. — Winckel-

mann, " Opere," Tav. clxxii.

503. Gladiator, statue. — " Museo Borbon.,"

v., Tav. vii.

504. Gladiatoi-s, wall-painting. — Gell and

Gandy, "Pompeiana," PI. 75.

505. Fight of gladiators, bass-relief from

the tomb of Scaurus at Pompeii. —
" Museo Borbon.," xv., Tav. xxx.

505. Fight of gladiators with animals, bass-
relief. — "Monum. ined. dell' Instit.
arch.," iii. 1842. Tav. xxxviii.

507, 508. Baiting of animals, bass-reliefs,
from the tomb of Scaurus at Pom-
peii.— " Museo Borbon.," xv., Tav.
xxix.

509. Helmets. — a, 6, De Rubeis, "Veteres

Arcus August.," Tab. 42, 43 ; c, d,
Micali, "Monumenti inediti," PI.
53 ; e, De Rubeis, u Veteres Arcus,"
Tab. 13 ; /, " Museo Borbon.," iv.,
Tav. xliv.

510. a, Armor. — "Museo Borbon.," iv.,

Tav. xliv. ; b, Pectorale, drawn from
the original in the Royal Museum,
Berlin ; c, Armor from the statue of
Caracalla. — "Museo Borbon.," v.,
Tav. xxxvi.

511. Soldier in the lorica, from the Arch

of Severus. — De Rubeis, " Veteres
Arcus ; Arcus Severi," Tab. iv.

512. Soldier in the lorica squamata, from

the Arch of Severus. — Bellorius,
" Columna Antonin.," Tab. 53.

513. Heads of lances. — " Museo Borbon.,"

iv., Tav. xliv.

514. Pilum. — a, from the tombstone of Q.

Petilius Secundus. — Lindenschmit,

Fig.

515.
516.

517.

518.

519.
520.

521.

522.

523.
524.

525.

526.
527.

528.

529.

530.

" Alterthiimer unserer heidnischen
Vorzeit," L, Part viii., Taf. 6, 1 ;
b, Spear-head of a pilum in the
Museum of Mayence. — Ibid., i., Part
xi., Taf. 5, 1 ; c, the same pilum
restored. — Ibid., i., Part xi., Taf.
5,6.

Javelin.— Lindenschmit, " Alterthii-
mer unserer heidnischen Vorzeit,"
Part v., Taf. 5.

Swords. — a, 6, " Museo Borbon.," iv.,
Tav. xliv. ; c, ibid., v., Tav. xxix. ;
c?, Lersch, " Das sogenannte Schwert
des Tiberius ; " e, Bellorius, " Col.
Antonin.," Tab. 22.

Bowman, from the column of Anto-
ninus.— Bellorius, " Columna Anto-
nin.," Tab. 27.

Bowman, from the column of Tra-
jan.— Bartoli, " Colonna Traiana,"
Tav. 27.

Arrow-heads, from originals in the
Royal Museum, Berlin.

Slinger, from the column of Trajan.
—Bartoli, "Col. Traiana," Tav.
46.

Roman soldiers with baggage, from
the column of Trajan. — Bartoli,
" Col. Traiana," Tav. 4.

Horrea, foenilia, and fortified outposts,
from the columns of Antoninus
and Trajan ; a, b, Bellorius, " Co-
lumna Antonin.," Tav. 4 ; c, </, Bar-
toli, " Col. Traiana," Tav. 1.

Praetorians, bass - relief. — Clarac,
"Musee," ii., PI. 216.

Standards, from various monuments.
— a, c, c?, #, hy i, Bellorius, "Col.
Antonin. ; " b, e, f, De Rubeis,
" Veteres Arcus ; Arcus Const. ; "
k, I, ibid., " Arcus Severi ; " m,
" Museo Borbon." iii., Tav. lviii.

Testudo, from the column of Anto-
ninus.— Bellorius, " Col. Antonin.,"
Tav. 36.

Aries, from the column of Trajan. —
Bartoli, " Col. Traiana," Tav. 23.

Aries, from the column of Trajan. —
De Rubeis, " Veteres Arcus," Tab.
11.

Engine for defending the wall, from
the column of Trajan. — Bartoli,
" Col. Traiana," Nos. 87, 88.

Bridge of boats, from the column of
Antoninus. — Bellorius, " Col. Anto
nin.," Tav. 6.

Allocutio, from the column of Anto-

608

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

Fig.

ninus. — Bartoli, " Col. Antonin.,"
No. 37.

531. Military decorations, bass-relief." —

Lersch, " Centralmuseum," ii.

532, 533. Triumphal procession. — De Ru-

beis, " Veteres Arcus," Tab. 46.

534. Ditto, soldiers from the Arch of Se-

verus ; the tropseum from " Museo
Borbon.," v., Tav. xlvii.

535. Ditto. — De Rubeis, " Veteres Arcus,"

Tab. 14.

536. Ditto. — De Rubeis, " Veteres Arcus,"

Tab. 5.

Fig.

537. Triumphal Procession. — De Rubeis,

" Veteres Arcus," Tab. 6.

538. Ditto. — Turconi, "Fabbriche antiche

di Roma," Tav. 13.

539. Ditto. — De Rubeis, " Veteres Arcus,"

Tabs. 6, 7.

540. Ditto.— Ibid., Tab. 4.

541. Ditto.— Same as Fig. 498.

542. Consecration coin. — Cohen, "Descr.

hist. d. Monnaies," ii., PI. xiii.

543. Consecration of Antoninus and Faus-

tina, bass-relief — De Rubeis, " Sty-
lobates Columnae Antoninae."

INDEX OF TERMS.

Abacus, 8, 445.
tfjSo*, 8.

accensus, 572, 590.
acerra, 543.
h-xiToov, 161.
actor, 515, 564.
aditus, 277.
aediculae, 318.
aerarium, 418.
olctSs, oeTW/io, 13, 21.
&yXov<rat 185.
dyeVeioi, 215.
ager publicus, 532.
agger, 329, 578.
agitator, 548. *
&7KUA.77, 243, 570.
ayicvpa, (see ancora).
kyvvdes, 189.
oywj/, 215; lirmicSs, 226.
Agora, 111.
cuxpfl, 242.^

aiOoucra av\rjs, 75 ; SAfxaTos,
75.

alwpa, 191.

aidopTifjLa, 279.

&Ka/XTrTOU, 227.

o.k6vtiov, aK0VTifffx6si 224,

245.
a/cowrj, 242.
dtcparov, 268.
Akropolis, 57.

&.Kp<t)T'fiptOV> 13.

ala, 81, 359, 361.
&\dfia<TTpov, 151, 154.
albogalerus, 534.
alea, 504.
a\eiirT-f)pioVj 231.
dAe^TTTrjs, 221.

alkee, 539.
allocutio, 581.

alveus, 396, 506.
Araazons, 242.
ambulatio, 401, 508.
amentum, 243, 570.
a/xopyiua, 169.
a/j-nex^yiou, 166.
afj.rpL$p6[Aia, 196.
a(M<pi€(rrpid€5, 138.
amphiprostylos, 17.
afMpiTdirrjTes, 138.
amphithalamus, 82, 430.
Amphitheatre, 431.
amphora, 147, 149, 456, et

seq.
afupwrtSes, 226.
ampulla olearia, 506.
avafrlTriSy 229.
avdy\v<pa, 184.
anagnostae, 515.
avaKAivrpov, 137.
ancile, 540.
ancora, ayicvpa — ancoralia,

ayKvpua, 259.
avtipwviTis, 78.
Anio nova, vetus, 353.
annales maximi, 533.
annulus, 8, 495.
ansa, 459.
antae, 11.

avTayowHTT-hs, 215.
antenna;, 258.
avTrjpiSes, 258.
&vrvt, 250.
bopriip, 245.
biravKia, 193.
air-fjvrj, 251.
apex, 534.
&?>aA.o$, 235.
&<pe<ris, 118.
&<p\a(TTpovt 257.

aplustre, 257.

dTTOjSeb-Tjs, 229.

cwto5utV°", 107, 232, 396.

airovl\paardai, 266.

a7T^a|ts, 230.

Aqua Claudia, 353 ; Marcia,

353.
aquaeductus, 351, et seq.
aquila, 576.
aratrum, 529.
arbor felix, 535.
area, 591.
archiatri, 525.
archimimus, 565.
&PXM *%* ir6<re<i)S, 269.
arcuballista, 572.
arcus, 512, 572.
arena, 431.
argentum escarium and po-

torium, 449.
aries, 579.
&pi<rTov, 267.
armaria, 464, 527.
armilla, 495, 584.
apvPakKos, 152.
apvffTixos, 152.
apvraiva, 152.
aadpiivdos, 156, 231.
acrdvSiou, 256.
as&6\ri, 185.
ao7cauA.7js, 210.
cutk6s, 155.
aspergillum, 536.
ienr/y, 238.
asseres, 512.
assertor, 516.
oo-rrj, currSs, 192.
d(TTpd')aXoi, 272.
drapvov, 250.
Atellana fabula, 564.

610

INDEX OF TEEMS.

&TpCUCTOS, 188.

atramentum, 528.

atriensis, 515.

atrium, 356 ; Libertatis, 405 ;

Tuscanicum, 356; regium,

356.
auctoramentum, auctorati,

553.
augures, 297, 539.
Augustalia, 546.
av\ala, aulaeum, 2*79, 564.
avK-fj, 74, 80.
av\wiris, 234.
av\6s, 206, 209, 242.
aurata, 500.
aures, .530.
auriga, 548.
auspicia, 539.
aviaria, 501.

axamenta, assamenta, 540.
axisia, 489.
fylvy, 247.
££«»/, 250.

Baculus, 470.

fiaKTripla, 185.

fraXaufTiov, 107, 156, 231.

fraXavsvs, 231.

j8aAj8/s, 224.

balteus (Theatre), 434 ;

(s word-belt), 571.
fidpfiiTOV, fiapv/JLirov, 203.
fiaaiXevs rijs ir6<T€a>s, 269

(see rex convivii).
Basilica, 407.
j8a%, 220.
ftdepa, 200.
j8au/coA7]/iOTa, 197.
/3rj(rfoi>, fi-fi<r<Ta, 150.
bestiarius, 560.
bibliopola, 527.
pi&\os, 199.
bidens, 530.
bidental, 538.
bifores, 463.
0ikos, 149.
bipennis, 543.
bisellium, 440.
blatta, 485.
jSAauTT?, 178.
£<W, 211.
pokis, 260.
Poixfivxiva, 169.
jSoju/SuAi^s, pofx&v\7i, T50.
j8<J/*0u|, 208.
/tofufc, 49.

botulus, botularii, 502.
/8omrA.^|, 247.
braccse, 493.

bracchialia, 495.
buccinum, 484.
bucco, 564.
bucculae, 566.
bucina, 577.
bulla, 494.
bura, buris, 530.
bustum, 592.
Byssos, 168.

cacabus, 447.

cadus, 456, el seq.

caelatores, 449.

calamistrum, 487.

calamus, 200, 528.

calator, 532.

calceus, 492.

calculus. 504.

calda, 503.

caldarium, 396.

caliga, 492.

calix, 448.

Camilla?, camilli, 532.

campus sceleratus, 536

candela, 459.

candelabrum, 160, 461.

canticum, 565.

capillamentum, 488.

capsarius, 400.

capulus, 591.

carceres, 420, 546.

cardo, 297, 463.

carina, 256.

carpentum, 512.

carrus, 513.

cassis, 566.

castra lecticariorum, 512.

cataphracti, 572.

catasta, 510.

catella, 494, 583.

cathedra, 438.

catillum, catinum^ 448, 519.

caudices naves, 264.

caupo, caupona, 521.

cavea, 422, 563.

cavum aedium, 359.

cella solearis, 402.

cella vinaria, 450; ostiarii,

463.
cellarius, 515.
cena, 499.
centunculus, 565.
cerse, 464, 528.
Cereales, 545.
cerussa, 498.
cervicalia, 441.
chalcidicum, 408, 418.
XakivSs, 252, 257.
XaKKOxiruj/y 237.

charta, 199.

Xa-P&vtioi K\l/J.aKes, 132.

XetAwTTjp, 210.

Xetptees, 177.

XeipdfJ-aKTpov, 266.

XeipofivAri, 190.

Xeipovofiia, 274.

X*h-<t>vv KpicxpSpos, 579 ; Sio-

pvKris, 580.
Xi^J, 139.
X^vs/xa, 256.
XWio-k6s, 257.
Xitwu, 161 ; irob-ffprjs, 164,

166 ; x€lPl^WT^s> 1^2.
X^aiua, 137.
X^ctfivs, 168.
Xvovs, 211.
Xoal, 294.
XoivikIs, 250.
Xw/xa (Hippodrome), 118,

120; (Gravehill) 85.
X&pat, 271.
Xop6s, 123.
Xovs, 152.
Xvrpa, 155, 160.
Xvrpoirovs, 155.
ciere, 504.
cincinni, 487.
cinctura, 479.
cinctus Gabinus, 476.
ciniflones, 487.
cippus, 382.
circumvallatio, 578.
circus, 420, 546.
cisium, 512.
cisterna, 69, 506.
cista mystica, 498.
citrus, 444.

clavus latus, 170, 480.
Cloaca maxima, 349.
clypeus, 396, 568.
cochlea, 500.
cochlear, 448.
Coliseum, 432, et seq.
collare, 516.
collegia opificum, 517; te-

nuiorum, 589.
colum, 448, 457.
columbaria (ship), 261.
Columbaria, 376.
Columna rostrata, 387 ; bel-

lica, 541.
colus, 188.
commissatio, 503.
comitium, 412, 415.
commentarii pontificum,

531.
commetacula, 535.
compes, 516.

IXDEX OF TERMS.

611

compluvium, 356.

conclaraatio, 589.

consecratio, 533, 593.

Circus maximus, 421.

constratum, 253.

Consualia, 545.

contubernium, 574.

cornicines, 577.

cornu (wind-instrument),
211,577; (theatre), 431;
(writing), 529; (table),
443.

corona graminea, obsidiona-
lis, triumphalis, radiata,
myrtea, ovalis, civica, mu-
ralis, castrensis, vallaris,
rostrata, navalis, classica,
582, et seq. ; sutilis, plexi-
tis, 491.

corrigia, 492.

Coryceum, 108.

costa, 256.

covinus, 512.

crater, 530.

crates, 578.

crematio, 591.

creta, 498.

crinales, 491, 494.

crista, 566.

crustarii, 449.

crypta, 398.

cryptoportieus, 372, 401,
409.

cubicularius, 511.

cubiculum, 361.

cucullus, cucullio, 487.

Cucumella near Vulci, 374.

culcita, 441.

culter, 543.

culullus, 535.

cunei, 423.

curator ludorum, 545, 564.

curia, 404.

curiales, 412.

curio, 412.

curiones, 541.

curriculum, 549.

curruca, 512.

cuspis, 573.

dactyliotheca, 496.

SaSes, 159.

SaKTv\<au <=7raAA.a£is, 273.

Sai/a«r77, 290.

SctTrtSes, 133.

decumanus, 297.

decussis, 297.

feKdrrj, 196.

Selirvov, 267.

5«Atoi, 198.
ilciiiciisum, 515.
Sffivta, 137.
Srjfioi, 550.
dentale, 530.

5«ras a/MptKinreWov, 154.
despot, 2T»7.
destrictarium, 396
deetringere, 506.
Sftrrpou, 250.
desul tores, 550.
diapasmata, 506.
Sia<ppdy/xaTa, 257
8iav\os, 217.
8la(&fia, 127.
diil'undcre vinum, 457.
dimachaeri, 558.
8?j/os, 152.
8L<ppos, 134, 250.
Si(ppo(pope?y, 135, 287.
S t7r Ao is, dnrXo'idiov, 164, 165.
dipteros, 38.
diptycha, 199, 528.
diribitorium, 412.
discus (lamp), 459, 461.
8i<TKol3o\ia, SIo-kos, 223.
dispensator, 515.
dissignator, 590.
Dithyrambos, 276.
diverbium, 563.
dolium, 456 ; S6\wu, dolon,

258.
86[jLa, SSfjLos, 75.
domini factionum, 550 ; gre-

gis, 564.
domus transitoria, 447 ;

flaminia, 534.
Uvat, 248.
S6pv, 242.
dossennus, 564.
Spdo-ffetv, 222.
dp6iraur)({>6pov ap/xa, 246.
Spofjud/Mpiou ^fiap, 196,
8p6fios, 107, 217; ScoSe/eot-ros,

227; 86\ixos, 217; fcd/A-

ireios, 217 ; dirklrys, 217 ;

Xrnrcau Te\eiW, 227.
Spvoxov, 256.

4x?"os (capital), 8.
echinus, 500.
ZScupos, 256.
486\iov, 125.
tyxos, 242.
iyyvricris, 192.
4yicol\ia, 256.
tyKwirov, 260.
4K(popd, 291.
inTviray 184.

l\aioM)<nov, 107.
r/Acucarr?, 188.
thcuov, 220.
%\c(pas, 155.
tAX60ta, 181.
eWvxviou, 160.
ififids, 179.
ifiPoAai, 222.
cfipoAov, 258.
emissaria, 350.
(vir\€KTov, 60.
Emporium, 348.
ivdyto-fxa, 294.
tvara, 294.
ivSpofils, 179.
eV8u/xoTo, 161.
evoirrpov, 185.
eVwTto, 181.
Zvtclgis, 7.

<W\lO, 193.

i<\>T)&eiov, 107.
4<pT}&iKr), 230.
icpevrplSes, 138.
i(pliririoi/, 253.
i<t>v<p1i, 189.
eVtjSaTot, 263.
iiriPddpa, 580.
iTrifi\€fiaTa, 138, 166.
iiri&Aaia, 138.
iirixvcris, 152.
iTuySveioi/, 204.
iiriKXivrpov, 137.
eirlKpiov, 255.
eirlTracrTa, 268.
iirltrvfJia (shield), 240.
inladafws, 269.
eTTHnchvtov, 132.
iirlaKupos, 230.
itria<pvpia, 238.
iirl<T<ra)Tpov, 250.

fTTHTTVKlOV, 13.

iirlrovoi, 2,59.

iirSiTTris, 263.

eiroxov, 253.

eVtoTtSes, 258.

epulum Iovis, 536; epulae

funebres, 592.
Equina, 545.
equites, 558.
iperai, 260.
iperfid, 255.
ergastulum, 516.
<?<rX<*pT?, 75, 160.
essedarii, 558.
essedum, 512.
exedra, 108, 401.
exodium, 564.
*{o/ih, 162.
expiatio, 533.

612

INDEX OF TERMS.

fabula, 563.
factiones (circus), 550.
falx, 530; muralis, 579.
familise servorum, 510 ; gla-

diatorum, 552 ; venatoriae,

560.
far, 499.
fasces, 581.
fasciae, 19, 440 ; crurales, ti-

biales, feminales, 493.
fatui, fatuae, 514.
fauces, 359, 372, 417.
feralia, 592.
ferculum, 502, 518.
feriae novemdiales, 592.
fetiales, 541.
fibula, 497.
figuratores, 449.
filum, 534.
fistula, 200.
flamen dialis, martialis, qui-

rinalis, 533.
flaminica, 535.
flammeum, 535.
flatuarii, 449.
Floralia, 546.
foedus ferire, 541.
foenile, 674.
follis, 509.
forceps, 526.
fores, 463.
Forum, 4 I2,etseg.; boarium,

419 ; civile, 419 ; transi-

torium or palladium, 419 ;

Romanum, 414 ; venale,

419.
fratres Arvales, 533, 541.
frigidarium, 108, 396, 506.
frons scenae, 423.
fucus, 498.

fullones, fullonica, 485.
fulmen, 538.
funambuli, 514.
funda, fundibalator, 572.
funus, 590.
furca, 516.
furcula, 585.
fuscina, 557.
fustis, 516.
fusus, 188.

galea, 566.
galerus, 564.
Gallus, 557
ydpvov, 250.
yaffrpacperris, 572.
gausapa, 478.
yrj KepafUTis, 143.
yeiffov, 19.

gemmata, potoria, 449.
gemmae, 184.
ye<pvpai, 71.
yipavos, 279.
gladiatores, 553, 555.
gladius, 571.
glans, 673.
y\u><T(Tai, 208.
yXwacroKo/jLciov, 208.
y\v<pis, 248.
gradationes, 422
gradus, 434.
Graecostasis, 416.
ypdfx/xara, 198.
ypcupeTov, graphium, 198,

528.
7ptty, 155.
gubernaculum, 257.
gustus, gustatio, 502.
ytaAov, 236.

gymnasion, 106, et seq., 214.
yvvaiKeoinris, 75, 80.

a\li>5T)<ns, 222.

a\/xa, 218.

aKTTJpes, 219.

o^alo, 251.

fyls, 250.

ap/xa, 249 ; Speiravr](p6pov,

246.
apfxarriKcurla, 227.
apuoulaL, 257.
harpastum, 509.
apirt], 246.
harundo, 200.
haruspex, 539.
hasta, 569 ; amentata, 242,

pura, 584.
eScwAioj/, 125.
Hekatompedon, 28.
e'tfiara Siacpavij, 169.
f)\tKia, 215.
eAiKrrjpes, 181.
hemicyclium, 407, 443.
rjfjilouosy 155.
fifii(TTp6<piov, 279.
wioxos, 229, 249.
ep/jLara, 255.
Heroon, 94.
effrwp, 252.
Hexastylos, 38.
Upd, 51.
l\afffwl, 283.
Ifidvres, 225.
ifidvTwiTis, 250.
l/xdrtov, 166.
linra<p€<ris, 118.
Hippodrome, 116, 547.
'nnroSpofila, 228.

tWos, 155.
'iinrovpis, 235.
iariou, 255, 258.
1<tto56k7), 255.
t<rr6st 189, 255, 258.
holoserica, 483.
hoplomachi, 558.
Zpfxos, 182, 275.
horreum, 531, 574.
hortator, 263.
hospitalia, 277.
hostiae, 542.
humatio, 591.
humeralia, 567.
vSavAis, vdpav\os, 212.
vSpia vSpiaKt], 150.
Hypaethros, 31, 304.
Hypaspistei, 245.
vnepwov, 76.
inrepTtpla, 250.
ixpavTticf), 188.
inr6fi\7ifjLa, 259.
hypocausis, 395.
hypocaustum, 397.
wr687)fjLa, 178.
hypogaeum, 363.
inrOKpr}T4)pia, 151.
inroXvpiov., 201.
vno(TKs\l(€iP, 223.

VTTOO'K'fiUlOVy 132.

inroffTpw/jLara, 138.
V7r6dr)iji.a, inroTrvdfirjy, 155.
inroOvfjiiSiS, vnodv/xiddes, 180.
inrorpaxfaiov, 8.
inroty/xaTa, 257.
vpxVi 149.

iaculum, 557.

janitor, 511.

ianua, 361.

iatralipta, 525.

ientaculum, 499.

licplwfxa, 256.

imagines majorum, 464, 591.

impluvium, 356.

inaures, 495.

inauratores, 449.

indutus indumentum, 474,

479.
infula, 535, 542.
infundibulum, 448, 459.
insigne, 521, 576.
instita, 440, 481.
insula, 360, 398.
intusium, 480.
16s, 248.
irpex, 530.

itinera (theatre), 278, 433.
?tu|, 250.

INDEX OF TERMS.

613

iuba, 566.
jugum, 520.

jumenta sarcinaria, 573.
jus annuli aurei, 495.

iciSos, cadus, 149.
Kaleiv, 293.
KaKOjxax^Vy 226.
KxKa(XQSy 200.
Ka\a,dos>Kdka.9lsi Ka\adl(TKos,

152, 158.
Kd\irr), 229.
K<x\Tris, 150, 289.
KdKv/j.jj.a, 176.
KaKvirrpa, 176.
Kafx-ni), 'ill.
Koiueov, 158.
Kavri<p6poi, 158, 287.
KavdiUy 2 I".
KavQapos, 154.
Kiwpos, 155.
Kapx"fl<rioUj 154.
tcaplvai, 292.
Kzpuu£, 211.
Kapweia, 274.
Caryatid, 47, 165.
KaTaPavKaX-ficreis, 197.
Kard&\nna, 259, 279.
KarcuYul, 233.

KCLTaKXHTlS, 265.

KaraweipaT-fip, 260.
KardcrTpoifAa, 256.
KaOap/xSs, 283.
KardcppaKTOs, 257.
KaroiTTpoVy 185.
KaropvTTfiv, 293.
«avA(*y, 160, 242.
Kavj-ia> 173.
Keipfa, 138.

K€KpV(pa\OS, 177.

KeAeixrr^y, 263.

Kenotaphion, 105, 288, 385.

Kei/rpov, 227.

Ke<pd\cuov, 8.

Kepaloi, 258.

/repay (drinking-horn), 154;

(wind-instrument), 212.
KipaTav\7]9y 212.
tcepiclfes, 128, 133.
Kepuos, 153.
/ctflapa, 204.
/cATjiSey, 255.
k\Iiicuc€s, KXifjLcuclSes, k\i-

HCLKTTJpes, 132, 260.
/cAfi/rj, 138.

K\lVTT)p, K\i(TflOS, K\l<rlT),

134,
K\a><TT-fip, 188.
KV/J/ieu, 250.

fci^/irjcy, 238.
Kve<paKov, 137.
/c<$5«j/, 210, 211.

KW€0, 137.

/coiAoi/, 125, 256.
KoktSs, 245.

k<JA\ojt6j, K6\\apoi, 201.
noKuvol (graves), 85.
k6\ttos, 164.
Ko\vjxflT)6pa, 156.

KOVl(TT-i)piOV, 107.

Kovltrrpa, 131.

/coj/rof, 260.

/oioy, 272.

kcS/ttj, 245, 261.

K6pai, KopoTr\66oiy KopoirKaff-

toi, 197.
Kop&vi), 248.
KwpvKos, 108 ; KwpvieojAaxia,

KwpvKofioXla, 231.
K6pvjif}os, 176.
Kopvvri, 247.
Kopvcpaia, 252.
/e<^t/y, 234.
Kosmetai, Antikosmetai,

Hypokosmetai, 216.
kc60wj/, 150.
KSdopvos, 280, 564.
Kottabos, 271.
KorvKr], k6tv\os, 152.
Koupuov, Kovpevs, 174.
Kpdvos, 234.
/cporrjp, Kp-qr-fip, 151.
Kp"f}8€/XVOI', 176.

/cp777r/y, 50, 86, 179.

/cpforoy, 252.

Kpi<fy, 579.

Kpca&u\os, 173.

Kp6icr], 189.

Kp(txr<r6sy KpaxrSs, Kpwcrcrloi/,

150.
Kp6ra\oi, 3, 212.
Kpovais, 200.
/CTe/y, 180.
Kuofloy, 153, 448.
KvPepvfiTi)s, 255.
KityJoi, Kvfiela, Kv&eur-fipia,

271.
/cu/cAa, 250.
KvXivSpoi, 199.
/cuAi<ny, 222.
KvAtf, 153.
/cu/ijSaxoy, 235.
KVfifia\a, 213.
KV/jLfHov, KVfxfiri, 153.
Kuj/e'17, /CUK7J, 171, 175,

233.
kjW, 272.
Kvpiros, 159.

labarum, 576.
Ao/3^, 245.
labrura, 396, 506.
lacerna, 478.
lacertus, 500.
Laconicura, 108, 396.
lacunaria, 21.
laena, 534.
Ad-yvj/oy, 150.
Aaro-rjia, 239.
lampadaria, 462.
\a/j.Tra8ri$pofj.la, 218.

AO/UTTT^p, 160.

lanea, 483.

lanista, 552.

lanx, 448, 521.

lapis specularis, 364; mis-
silis, 573.

laquearii, 557.

Aapi/o|, 293.

Aacrai/oi', 155.

latrones, 504.

laudatio funebris, 591.

lavatio caldo, 108, 399.

lavatrina, 395.

Ae'jSi??, 155.

lectica, lecticarii, 511.

lector, 515.

lectus, 440; triclinaris, 443 ;
cubicularius, 441 ; fune-
bris, 590; genialis, 464;
lucubratorius, 441.

leges regiae, 533.

Ar?/cu0oy, 150, 294.

AeiraSj/a, 252.

libellus, 558.

libertus, 516.

libitinarius, 589.

libra, 520.

librarii, 528.

libri pontificii, 533.

Liburna navis, 262.

lictor, 532, 535, 581.

ligare, 504.

ligo, 530.

ligula, 448.

\lnpop, 197.

limen superum, inferum,
463.

\ivo6cjprit, 237.

lintea, 483, 506.

literati, 516, 527.

\l6oi aypoi, 87.

\ldos x^y 158.

lituus, Afruov, 212, 538, 577.

AoyoSey, 87.

Koyeiov, 132.

lomentum, 506.

Ao<pfy, 159.

614

INDEX OF TERMS.

\6<j>os, 235.

lorica, 566 ; ferrea, 566 ; ha-
mata, squamata, 56*7.

loricati, 572.

Aovrrjp, 156.

\ovrp6u, 108.

Kovrpbv vviMpiic6i>, 192.

\ovrpo(p6pos, 192.

lucerna, 459, et seq.

ludere datatim, expulsim,
509.

ludi annui, stati, ordinarii,
solemnes, 544 ; circenses,
545 ; gladiatorii, 552 ;
Apollinares, 546 ; Mega-
lenses, 537 ; Cereris, 545,
551 ; plebeii, 536 ; sceni-
ci, 563 ; Romani, 545,
551 ; sevirales, 551 ; vo-
tivi, 544, 551.

luclus gladiatorius, 552 ; la-
trunculorum, 504 ; duode-
cim scriptorum, 504 ; Tror
jae, 551.

ludus Gallicus, Dacicus, etc.,
553.

lunula, 492.

luperci, 541.

lustratio, 283.

\vxvovxos, 160.

Avkos, 155.

At/pa, 202.

niaccus, 564.
macellum, 419, 500.
fidxcupa, 246.
maculae, 444.
maena, 500.
maenianum, 422.
fiaydBis, 203.
fidyas, (wrydSiov, 201.
fidicTpa, 156.
malleolus, 492.
malleus, 543.
mammillare, 480.
mandra, 504.
mango, 510.
manica, 516.
manicula, 530.
manumissio, 516.
mappa, 549.
margines, 108.
maritare, 531.
martiobarbulus, 570.
/wurril, 227, 516.
/ta£ia, 266.
H7)Xav4), 279.
medioi, 524.
Megalenses (see ludi).

fxcyapa, 48.

fxeyapov, 75.

/xciKixcu, 225.

fxshuv (j.€\auS6xovf 200.

fie\os, 200.

membrana, 529.

mensa lunata, 443 ; prima,

secunda, 502.
merum, 503.
fiecrdyKuKov, 243.
jiteeravAos, 83.
meta, 421, 519, 546.
/ieTo|a, fidra^a, 169.
ficravXos, 83.
metopa, 13.
milliarium, 342, 416.
fil\ros, 185.
mimus, 564.
missus, 549.
fiirpa, mitra, 172, 177, 236,

488.
mola salsa, 536, 542.
mola versatilis, jumentaria,

asinaria, aquaria, 519.
moles Hadriani, 382.
Ho\v&Sis, 249.
p.6vav\os, fj.ovoKd\a/xos, 208.

fJLOVOX^TGOV, 161.

monilia, 494.
monopodia, 444.
monopteros, 316.
moriones, 514.
fwp/j.v\os, 557.
mortualia, 590.
muli Mariani, 574.
mulleus, 492.
mullus, 500.
mulsum, 502.
munus gladiatorum, 552.
Muraena, 500.
murex, 484, 500.
muries, 536.
musculus, 578, 580.

[XOVfflKT], 198.

fxv\Tr]p, 160.
IxvXi), 190.
fivpfirjKes, 225.
myrmillo, 557.
fxvppivai, 180.
Mysteria, 48.

naeniae, 590.
vcuo~kos, 43.
nani, nanae, 514.
va6s, 11 ; SittAoCs, 44.
nasus, 459.
natatio, 397, 401.
vavXov, 290.
naumachia, 562.

nauta, 263.

vavs <popTaywy6s, 265.

navis, 254 ; turrita, 265 ;
caudicaria, 264 ; longa,
258, 264 ; oneraria, 265 ;
tecta, 257 ; Liburna, 265.

negotiatores argentarii vas-
cularis 449.

vewpia, 264.

vedxroiKos, 263.

vevpri, 247.

nidus, 527.

vouch, 257.

nomenclator, 511.

novacula, 487.

novemdialia, 592.

nuntiato, 538.

vv<ro~a, 121.

Obolos, 290.

occa, 530.

uxavov, 239.

ocrea, 567.

cecus, 362.

offa pultis, 539.

ijyfcos, 280.

oXict)p.a, Trepupepts, 43.

o'lK^pMra, 118.

olKoScairoiva, 186.

oIkos aadpfxarosy 472.

olvox6v, 152, 268.

fcarSs, 248.

o/cAo5tas, 134.

Oktastylos, 38.

olla, 376, 447, 592.

o\irt\, u\ira, oAiris, 151.

dfjupaXSs, 153, 240.

6uos, 155, 519.

Onyx, 156.

6<pis, 183.

6<p6a\noi, 258.

6iri<r66Sop.os, 15, 29.

6iri(rdo(r<(>€vS6vrif 177

oppidum, 421, 549.

opus asarotum, 492 ; incer-

tum, 330 ; reticulatum,

330.
orata, 501.
orbes, 443, 444.
Orchestra, 124, 131.
organon hydraulicum, 212.
ornamentatriumphalia, 586 ;

muliebria, 493.
oscincs, 539.
ossa condere, componere,

592.
ossilegium, 383, 592.
ossuaria, 592.
ostiarius, 365, 464, 511.

INDEX OF TERMS.

61fi

ostium, 861.
offToOrJKat, 289.
ostrea, 500.
o>et(rn6s, 221.
ov\ai ovKoxvtcu, 284.
ovpavia, 880<
ova, 648.
ovatio, 589.
ovile, 412.

paenula, 478.

paganica, 509.

iraynpaTiov, 226.

iraiBaywy6si 197, 277.

7rcu5e£a, 197.

pala, 530.

Palaestra, 106, 214.

iraXt], 220.

palearia, 574.

palla, 481.

paludamentum, 478.

palus, 508.

iravoir\la, 232.

pantomimus, 564.

pappus, 564.

Papyrus, 199, 529.

7rapa)3c£T7js, 249.

irapdfj\riix.a, 259.

itapdvv^.<pos, 193.

7rapa7reTao7*a, 279.

irapair\evpl8ia, 253.

irapappvfMTa, 259.

parasitus, 565.

trapa<Tici}viov, 132, 427.

7ropacrTo5€s, 11.

7ropatrTos, 80.

Trapdcnaaiv eV, 11.

parentalia, 592.

parma, 555, 569.

irdpoxos, 193.

7ropd5os, 132, 257.

vapvcpal, 170.

ircuTTCis, 80.

pater patratus, 541.

patera, 448.

patina, 448.

pavimentum testaceum, sec-
tile, tessellatum, musi-
vum, 471, et seq. ; (ship),
256.

iri)xvs (stringed instru-
ments), 203; (bow), 248.

pecten, 488.

pectorale, 567.

peculium, 515.

Tr4Satt 182.

icri5d\ioi>, 255, 257.

ire'SiAo, 177.

pedisequus, 511.

tWktIs, 203.

irc\auott 284.

ireAlKTj, 152.

irtkra, ireA/raCTaf, ire\ro<p6-

poi, 241.
Tre/ijiiOTO, 193, 284.
pendentes, 495.
TreWaflAo*', 225.
irevTeKiel&ii/, 272.
Trej/r^pTjs, 256.
ir€pyafj.4i>r), 199.
ireplaKTOi, 278.
■7r€pij8A.7jjuoTo, 161, 166.
Peribolos (temple), 53.
ireplSeiirvov, 293.
7repi8epaea, 182.
irepiSpo/xls, 108.
Peridromos, 68.
irepHpepes oinrifxa, 43.
TreplippayfjLa, 250.
peripteros, 21.
irepiffKeXls, 155, 182.
irepi<T<pvpia, 182.
irepiffrpdofxaTa, 138.
vepiffrvXiov, peristylium, 80,

107, 359.
TreplcrrvAos va6s, 22.
nepSvai, 236.
perpendiculum, 260.
pessulus, 463.
7reTO(ros, 172, 487.
petauron, 270, 514.
7reTTe/o, 271.
(paivlvSa, 231, 509.
Phalanx, 244.
<pd\apa, 234.
phalera, 583.
4>aAos, 235.
<jt>cu/<k <£a*^, 160.
(paperpa, 248.
<j!HaA7j, 153.
(pXaffKlov, 150.
philura, 199.
(p\ofi6s, 160.
cpopfeid, 210.
<pa>pia[j.6s, 139.
(pSpfjLiyt, 205.
Phrygiones, 170.
pictura linearis, 469.
pila, 509.
pileus, 487.
ttZXos, 171.
pilum, 570.
TrfVa/ces, Trij/ctam, 198.
piscina, 354, 396, 401, 501 ;

limaria, 334.
pistrinum, 362, 516.
iriBdKvai, 149.
irldos, 149.

pittiacia, 457.

ir\ayiav\os, 207.

planus, 272.

irAaTay-f), 197.

plaustraratrum, 530.

plaustrum, 513.

irXriKTpov, 201.

ttA^/u/tj, 250.

7rAii/0os, 9.

plumbatae, 570.

pluteus, 440, 578.

pocillator, 503.

podium, 422.

irwyuu, 174.

iroiKiArticfi, 188.

Tr6\€is iralfav, 271.

pollinctor, 590.

nu\oi, 227.

7roAu7rrvxa> 528.

pompa, 287, 551.

pontifex maximus, 343, 532.

pontifices, 343, 532.

popa, 542.

popina, 521.

Poppaeana, 498.

ir6pKT]s, 242.

?r<*pira|, 239.

Porta triumphalis, 421, 585.

Porticus (basilica), 408 ;

(theatre), 424 ; stadiatae,

107.
posticum, 15.
postis, 463.
praecinctio, 422.
praefericulum, 543.
praeficae, 590.
praefurnium, 395.
praetoriani, 575.
prandium, 499.
Princeps juventutis, 551.
irpSxovs, 152.
procurator, 515.
icp68ofios, 11, 74.
irpoefJ.fi6\iov, 258.
programma, 559.
irpoi^ 192.
prolusio, 559.
TrpofiiTccrriSioVy 253.
promulsis, 502.
promus, 515.
Trp6vaos, 11.
propnigeum, 108, 895.
propugnaculum, 338.
Propylaea, 54.
irpoirv\cuov, 84.
icp&pa, prora, 256.
■Kpoariyov, 236.
trpoarK^viov, 132, 279.
irp6<Tc,nrov, 279.

616

INDEX OF TERMS.

irpoffrds, 80.
irpoffTepi/lSiov, 253.
Prostylos, 15, 307.
irp66e<ris Trporideirdai, 290.
TTpSQvpov, 75, 81.
irpSdvais, 50.
TrpSrovoi, 259.
irpt/Ava, 256.
\J/7j<J>oi, 271.

Pseudodipteros, 29, 40, 304.
tytAoddiriSes, 138.
^ifivdiou, 185.

TpVKTJlp, 151.

Trrepva, 250.

TTTep6v, 21.

iTTcpvyes, 237.

pueri symphoniaci, 514; ad

cyathos, 503.
pugillares, 528.
Vullarius, 532, 539.
pulpitum, 423.
puis, 499.
pulvinar, 10.
pulvinus, 441.
puppis, 256.
puteal, 372, 538.
putres fungi, 461.
ir6e\os, 156, 231.
TrvyfjL'i], 225.
■nvKTt)sy 225.
7rv\ai, Trv\l8es, 62.
irv\dv, 79.
pyra, 591.
irvpua, 160.
ti^os, 82, 271, 580.
Trvpiarftpiov, 107, 231, 396.
irvp^xVi pyrrhicha, 274, 565.
"KVTivri, 149.
tti5|, 225.
irvfrs, 200.

quadriremis, 262.
quinqueremis, 262.

rector, 573.

rastrum, 530.

reda, 513.

regia, 533.

regina sacrorum, 533.

remus, 261.

repositorium, 502.

retiarii, 556.

reticulum, 489.

rex convivii, 504.

rex sacrorum, sacrificulus,

533.
pafi$o(p6poi, paf&Zovxoi, 276.
p-d&os, 170, 186.

^yea, 137.
rhombus, 500.
p'SiraXov, 247.
f>vp.6s, 251.
p"vr6v, 154.
rica, 482, 535.
ricinium, 482, 565.
rogus, 591.
rostra, 416.
rostrum, 258.
rota radiata, 512.
rotatio, 400.
rudis, 560.
rutrum, 530.

sacella, 412.

sacerdotes, 531.

sacra privata, publica, 531.

sagina, 554.

sagitta, 572.

sagmina, 541.

sagum, sagulum, 478.

crdnKos, 177.

<raic6s, 239.

a-aKia, 163.

Salii, 540.

<rd\iriyt, 206, 210.

salutatio, 511.

cranfivKT), 206, 580.

Samnites, 555, 568.

<rdi>8a\ov, 178.

sandapila, 589.

aavldes, 257.

sarcina, 574.

<rdpi<r<ra, 244.

Sarcophagi, 96, 375, 591.

sarracum, 512.

sartago, 447.

satura, 563.

ffavpan-fip, 242.

scabellum, 441.

scala, 260.

scalpellum, 526.

scamillus, 9.

scamnum, 441.

scena, 132.

sceptrum eburneum, 551.

schoenobataB, 514.

scirpus, 459.

scrinium, 529.

scutum, 555, 568.

secespita, 535, 543.

securis, 543, 581.

secutores, 556.

fftipaioi, 252.

(relarpop (see sistrum).

sella, 438; curulis, 439; ges-

tatoria, portatoria, 512;

imperatoria, 440.

a-flM-a, 116.

arj/xeTov (shield), 240 ; (ship).

257.
septa, 412.
sera, 463.

(TT]piKd, 168.

servare de caelo, 538.

servus publicus, 532, 551.

seviri, 551.

sica, 558.

sigma, 443.

signa ex avibus, 539.

signa militaria, 576.

silex, 541.

aiXhvfros, 199.

simpulum, 535.

sinus, 476.

siparium, 564.

fflirapoiy 258.

sistrum, 213.

aKctAfjiol, 265.

aitdnfia, 220.

ffK-nvfi, 132, 257, 277.

aKeiraaiia, 185.

(TXriirrpov, 185.

<TK€vr) Kpefjuurrd, 259.

(TKevod-fiKTjy 264.

(TKidSeiov, 184.

<TKia8r]<p6poi, 184, 287.

(TKixpos, 153, 448.

arKvpov, 230.

(rfMrjyfia, ff/xrjfjLa, 267.

sodales Augustales, 533.

soccus, 564.

solea, 491.

solium, 396, 438.

<r6\os, 224.

Sophronistai, 216.

a-opol, 90, 293.

airdpyava, 196.

spatha, 572.

spatium, 549.

spatula, 526.

specillum, 526.

spectatus, 554.

spectio, 538.

speculum, 497, 526.

acpcupa, 225 ; (ball), 229, et

seq.
a-<paipiffT'f}piov, 107, 229, 509.
aipaipKTTiKJi, 229; <T<pcupiaTi-

k6s, 230.
(T^eA-os, 136.
<r<pev86vr] (Stadion), 121 ;

(ornament of the hair),

183; (ring), 183; (sling),

249.
<r<ppayi$, 183.
spiculum, 558, 670.

INDEX OF TERMS.

617

spina, 118, 421, 546.
spoliarium, 560.
airovSaiy 267.
(Tir6v8v\oi, 7.
spuraa, 490.
airvpls, 158.
Stadion, 116, 119, 217.
stamen, 189.
(rrduvos, 149.
arfyrjy 580.
srelpa, 256.

(TT7JA.7;, 95.
<TTTl\lsy 257.

ffT7)fJLtOVy 189.

CTetpdvt], 176. 235.

stibadium, 443.

stigma, stigmosi, 516.

stilus, 528.

crrlfifii, crri/xfj.iSy 185.

stipes, 508.

stiva, 530.

<TT\€yyis, 177, 221.

Stoa, 114; *(TToa fiaaiAeios,

116 ; stool 5iir\rj, 115 ;

aroa ttoik'iKt], 115.
stola, 480.

CTOjXlSy 210.
0~TOp€VS, 160.

strenae, 460.

(TTpeirrbs irepiavxevios, 183.
strigilis, 221, 506.
aTpo<pe?ov, 259, 279.
o~Tp6<piovt strophium, 164,

480.
stupidus, 565.
stuppa, 459.
<rr{>\os, 198.
subligaculum, 556.
subsellia, 440, 515.
subserica, 483.
subtemen, 189.
subucula, 480.
suffibulum, 482, 535.
sumen, 502.
suovetaurilia, 543.
supparum, 258.
supparus, 480.
supplicatio, 542.
suppus, 272.
suspensura, 395.
Symposiarchos, 269.
Symposion, 267.
ffwapdrrnv to fiera-ira, 222.
avvwph rhnr(ou t^cIw, 227.
synthesis, 479.
<rvpiy£, 206.
syrmata, 564.

tabellae, 359, 528.

tabernaculum, 538, 573.
taberme, 361, 416, 518, 521.
tablinum, 359.
tabula alimentaria, 397,418.
tabulae, 405; latrunculoria,

504.
tabularium, 405.
tabulatum, 580.
raKapos tt\€Kt6s, 159.
talus, 272.
rciirr/Tcs, 138.
Taraxippos, 118.
rdpixos, 500.
rdppiouy 250.
rapcr6s, 159.
rdtis, 218.
tectorium, 498.
TtKafjutv, 239, 245.
7reA.e(TT^pta, 48.
TeAerat, 283.
temo, 530.
templum, 300, 538.
tenta cubilia, 440.
tentorium, 573.
tepidarium, 108, 396.
terebra, 579.
rep/xa, 121.
tessera, 271, 457 ; gladiato-

ria, 554.
testudo, 578 ; arietaria, 579.
testum, 446.
rerpa(pd\os, T€rpa<pd\T)po€t

235.
Tetrastylos, 38.
T€T/J7jprjS, TeTprjpTrai, 256,

262.
Thalamitai, 260.
dd\a/xos, 75.
da\\o<p6poi, 287.
edirT€tu, 293.
Bearpov, 121.

deol kt^o-ioi, 81 ; irarpdot, 81.
QeoXoyeiov, 279.
OeapiKSv, 276.
Thermae, 395, 507.
9ri<ravp6s, 76.
doluri yafwcf], 193.
06\os, 43.
0cfyo|, 236, 250.
Thraces, 558.
Thranitai, 260.
dp-nvcpSol, 292.
dprjvoi, 289.
eprjws, 136.
dpiyic6s, 86.
dp6vos, thronus, 134, 135,

438.
OpvaWls, 160.
Thj'meie, 52.

dvpa ati\ctos, 82 ; fitaavKos,
fi(Tav\os, 81 ; Krjiraia, 82 ;
dvpat 8^kA.j8cs, 74.

0upc6j/, 79.

OvpwpiioVy 79.

dwfipiov, 49.

tibia, 209.

tibicen, 532.

tiro, 554.

rlrdrj, 197.

titulus, 464, 510.

Titii, 541.

toga, 474; praetexta, pura,
picta, palmata, Capitolina,
477; sprdida, pulla, 483.

tomaculum, 502.

tomentum, 440.

t6vos, 250.

tonsor, tonstrina, 487, et seq.

tSttos ircpuclow, 79.

tormentum, 578.

torques, 558, 583.

torus, 9, 440.

t6£ov, 247.

To|o0rj/C77, 248.

transtrum, 256, 260.

rpdirefa 139, 267; Upd or
Ovcopos, 51.

trapezophoron, 445.

rprjfia, 208, 261.

Tptay/xSs, 225.

rpiaicds, 294.

rplfioov, rpifidovioi', 168.

tribulum, 530.

tribunal, 407, 410.

triclinarius, 510.

triclinium, 442 ; funebre,
444, 592.

tridens, 557.

rpir)pav\r)s, 263.

Tpt-fjprjs, 256, et seq.

rply\v<pos, 13.

trigon, 509.

rpiycovov, 205.

tripes, 446.

rpliroSes, 139, 155, 445.

rplirrvxa, 528.

tripudium, 539.

triremis, 262.

rplra, 293.

tritores, 449.

rp6xi*-ost 9.

TpoxAs, 250 ; Kepdficios, 143.

Tp6ircuov, 253.

rp6iris, 256.

Tp<xp6s, 197.

trua, trulla, 448.

Tptnrcwov, 579.

tubicen, 577.

618

INDEX OF TERMS.

tubus, 396.

tumulus, 84, 377.

tunica, 479.

turibulum, 543.

turricula, 271.

turris ambulatoria, mobilis,
contabulata, tabulata, 580.

tutulus, 489.

TiJAr?, 137.

rvfjuravou (gable), 13 ; (musi-
cal instrument), 213 ;
(wheel), 513.

umbilicus (in Rome), 416 ;

(scrolls), 529.
umbo, 476.
unctorium, 396, 506.
unio, 495.
urna, 592.
ustrinum, 383, 591.
uter, 458.
utricularius, 210.

valvae regiae, 277.

vasa diatreta, Murrhina, 453.

vela, 464, 511.

velarium, 433.

velites, 569.

venalicius, 510.

venationes, 560.

venatores, 560.

venter, 352.

verbenarius, 541.

vericulum, 570.

verutum, 570.

vespillo, 589.

Vestalia, 519.

Vestals, 535.

vestes stragulae, 441 ; cena-

toriae, 479.
vestibulum, 361.
veteranus, 554.
vexillum, 518, 576, 584.
victima, 542.
victimarius, 532, 542.
vilicus, 515.
villa, 369, etseq. ; pseudour-

bana, 371 ; rustica, 369,

511 ; suburbana, 371 ; ur-

bana, 369.
vinea, 578.
vinum picatum, 457.
virga, 464, 516, 581.
VII viri epulones, 532,

536.
XV viri sacris faciundis,

534, 537.

viridarium, 473.
viscerationes, 592.
vitta, 535, 542.
vivaria piscium, ostrearum,

avium, 501.
vomer, 530.
vomitorium, 432.
vota, 544.
vulnerarii, 525.

|£<f>oy, 245.

luor/Ses x/5U(r^7rao'TOt> 188.

\v<tt6s, xysti, 107, 403.

(wa, 13.

Zona (ring), 183.

(J>vn, 236.

£d>viov, 164.

fa<p6pos, 13.

CoxrHjp, 236.

(vy?Tai, 260.

(tyioi, 252.

(vy6Sea-/j.oyt 25 If

Cvy6v, fyywjxa (stringed in-
struments), 201 ; (yoke),
251; (ship), 256, 260.

Cvy6s, 178.

(vyuais, 260.

THE END.

D. APPLETON 8l CO.,

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The International Scientific Series is enf '
Youmans, who spent the greater part of a year

The International Scientific Series is entirely an American project, and was originated and organized by Dr. E. L.
is, who spent the greater part of a year in Europe, arranging with authors and publishers. The forthcoming volume*
are as follow* :
Prof. W. Kingdon Clifford, M. A., The First Principles of the

Exact Sciences explained to the Non-Mathematical.
Prof. T. H. Huxley, LL. D., F. R. S., Bodily Motion and Con-
sciousness.
Dr. W. B. Carpenter, LL. D., F. R. S., The Physical Geogra-

phy of the Sea.
>f. Wm. O

Prof. Wm. Odling, F. R. S., The Old Chemistry visaed from

the New Stand-point.
W. Lauder Lindsay, M. D., F. R. S. E., Mind in the Lower

A nimals.
Sir John Lubbock, Bart., F. R. S., On Ants and Bees.
Prof. W.T. Thiselton Dykr, B. A., B. Sc., Form and Habit in

Flowering Plants.
Mr. J. N. Lockyer, F. R. S., Spectrum Analysis.
Prof. Michael Foster, M. D.^Protoplasm and the Cell Theory.
H. Charlton Bastian, M. D., F. R. S., The Brain as an

Organ of Mind.
Prof. A. C. Ramsay, LL. D., F. R. S., Earth Sculpture; Hills,

Valleys, Mountains, Plains, Rive-s, Lakes; now they were

produced, and how they have been destroyed.
Prof. Rudolph Virchow (Berlin University), Morbid Physiolo-

gical Action.
jf.C

Prof. Claude Bernard, History of the Theories of Life.

Prof. H. Saint-Claire Dkville, An Introduction to General
Chemistry.

Prof. Wurtz, Atoms and the Atomic Theory.

Prof. De Quatrefages, The Human Race.

Prof. Lacaze-Duthiers, Zoology since Cuvier.

Prof. Berthklot, Chemical Si/nthesis.

Prof. C. A. Young, Ph. D. (of Dartmouth College), The Sun.

Prof. Ogden N. Rood (Columbia College, New York), Mod-
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Dr. Eugene Lommel (University of Erlangen), The Nature of

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Head-Characters in the Gradation and Progress of Life.
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Prof. Aurtin Flint, Jr., M. D., The Nervous System, and it*

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Prof. Ferdinand Cohn (Bretlau University), Thallophyte*

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other Cosmical Conditions.
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Primitive Elements of Political Constitutions.
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Mons. Debray, Precious Metals.
Prof. Corfield, M. A., M. D. (Oxon.), Air in its Relation ft

Health.

Prof A. Giard, General Embryology.

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MEMOIRS OF GENERAL WILLIAM T. SHERMAN,

Complete in Two Volumes. With a Military Map showing the Marches of
the Armies under General Sherman's Command, inserted in a pocket at
the end of the second volume ; size, 30 by 47 inches. Small 8vo, 400
pages each. Price, in Blue Cloth, $5.50; Sheep, $7.00; Half Morocco,
$8.50; Full Morocco, $12.00.

" An autobiography so unreserved as this of General Sherman, printed during the
lifetime of the writer, would certainly be an unsafe procedure for one who had the
least need of any assistance from humbug. The author of these memoirs is a man
who can afford to be seen as he is. Strip him of his epaulets, his brass buttons, and
his cocked-hat, and he still appears a valiant, able, and distinguished person. Indeed,
it is quite necessary that he should be stripped of these accoutrements. We need to
see him amid the camp-fires of Georgia, or on the march with his wagon-trains and
foraging-bummers. So much for the picturesque and external man. But there is no
need that he should conceal the mind behind all this. General Sherman has told his
story with the most entire unreserve, and the story is one which Americans will be
proud to read. We cannot help a feeling of satisfaction in being of the same race and
the same country with such a man. We have here a picture of a person, resolute yet
cautious, bold yet prudent, confident yet modest ; a man of action to his finger-ends,
yet withal something of a poet ; we see all through the book the evidences of a chival-
rous mind and of an intellect of singular force and precision. . . . We have spoken of
Sherman as, in some sort, a poet. All through these great campaigns, while his whole
mind is absorbed with the events he is conducting, he nevertheless appears to take a
poet's joy in the spectacle of his battle-fields and moving armies. His enthusiasm will
be shared by his readers. That passage in which he speaks of his last look on Atlanta,
and tells us how it brought to his mind ' many a thought of desperate battle, of hope
and fear,' has an eloquence which no mere writer of books can reach. The skill to
write in that way is not taught in Blair or Whately." — N. Y. Evening Post.

"These memoirs are by far the most interesting and important contribution yet
made to the military history of the Rebellion by any of the leading actors in the great
struggle. The staggering blows which General Sherman dealt to the Confederacy have
secured him the undying gratitude of his countrymen, while the brilliancy which he
displayed as a strategist, and the surpassing ability which he developed as a com-
mander, entitle him to rank among the most distinguished leaders that the world has
produced. The personal history of so marked a man must always possess extraordi-
nary interest. When it is related by the man himself, and in that peculiarly racy style
which General Sherman's letters and speeches have made familiar to the public, it
becomes not only absorbing but fascinating. In military annals the narrative is
unique, but it must be read in its entirety to be appreciated. The terse, clear, vigorous
English in which the memoirs are written is one of their greatest charms. This fitly
reflects the intense personality of the man. The straightforward, spirited narrative will
enable a grateful country better to appreciate the immense value of the services which
General Sherman rendered it in the critical period through which he helped guide it,
and it will also aid others than Americans in forming a clearer estimate of the tre-
mendous struggle in which the author of these memoirs bore so distinguished a part."
— N. Y. Times.

" This is a book to be read rather than reviewed. Eight hundred odd pages, con-
taining the personal reminiscences of a soldier who to opportunity for observation
added capacity for observation — reminiscences extending over a period of twenty most
eventful years — are not easily to be presented in a couple of columns, with any justice
to the spirit and style of their author. General Sherman, be it said, is, on the whole,
an admirable writer of autobiography, particularly of military autobiography. . . . For
all this, the book is one that once taken up will not readily be laid down. These lapses
into the colloquial and trivial are but the seal of genuineness, the stamp of individual
character. They form the charm of the autobiography. From title-page to finis the
book is Sherman's book ; the story abounds in ' I's ; ' hardly a page but contains a
dozen sentences wherein the manner is subordinated to the matter ; the soldier over-
comes and eclipses the author." — N. Y. World.

D. APPLETON & CO., Publishers, 549 & 551 Broadway, New York..

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