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BX  4905  .V38  1831  v. 2 
Vaughan,  Robert,  1795-1868 
The  life  and  opinions  of 
John  de  Wycliffe 


JUL  19   1974 

THE 


LIFE  AND  OPINIONS 


JOHN    DE   WYCLIFFE,    D.D. 


VOL.  II. 


AMS  PRESS 

NEW  YORK 


THE 

LIFE  AND  OPINIONS 

OF 

JOHN    DE   WYCLIFFE,    D.  D. 

ILLUSTRATED   HRINCIPALLV  FKOM    HIS 


A    PRELIMINARY    VIEW    OF    THE    PAPAL    SYSTEM,    AND    OF    THE    STATE    OF 
THE    PROTESTANT    DOCTRINE    IN    EUROPE, 


COMMENCEMENT  OF  THE  FOURTEENTH  CENTURY, 

BY 

ROBERT  VAUGHAN. 

VOL.  II. 
SECOND  EDITION, 

MUCH   ni PROVED. 


'  Qiiod  si  deficiant  vires,  audacia  certe 

Lans  crii;  in  magisis  et  volnisse  sat  est." 

Propeiitius. 


LONDON : 
HOLDS  WORTH    AND     BALL, 

18,    ST.    pail's   CHURCH-YARD. 
MDCCCXXXI. 


Library  of  Congress  Cataloging  in  Publication  Data 

Vaughan,  Robert,  1795-1868. 

The  life  and  opinions  of  John  de  Wycliffe,  D.  D, 


Includes  bibliographical  references o 

1.  Wycliffe,  John,  d.  1384-.  I.  Title. 

BX4905oV36  1973      270.5 '092'4  [B]     71-178561 

ISBN  0-4.04-56678-2  (set) 


Reprinted  from  an  original  copy  in  the  collections  of 
the  University  of  Pennsylvania 

From  the  edition  of  1831,   London 
First  AMS  edition  published  in  1973 
Manufactured  in  the  United  States  of  America 

International  Standard  Book  Number 
Complete  Set:    0-404-56678-2 
Volume  Two:    0-404-56680-4 

AMS  PRESS  INC. 

NEW  YORK,  N.Y.   10003 


CONTENTS. 


THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE. 


CHAPTER  I. 

PAGE 

Origin  and  Effects  of  the  Papal  Schism. — Wycliffe's  tract  "  On  the 
"  Schism  of  the  Popes,"  and  other  references  to  that  event.  —  His 
work  "  On  the  Truth  and  Meaning  of  Scripture." — His  sickness  at 
Oxford,  and  recovery. — Importance  attached  by  him  to  Preaching 
— his  laborious  attention  to  it — reasons  of  his  particular  reverence 
for  that  exercise. — Methods  of  Preaching. — Character  of  Wycliffe's 
Manuscript  Discourses. — Extracts,  illustrating  his  manner  of  Exposing 
the  Errors  and  Disorders  of  the  Ecclesiastical  System— of  incul- 
cating the  SuflBciency  of  Scripture — the  Right  of  Private  Judgment — 
the  Doctrines  peculiar  to  the  Gospel  —  and  the  various  obligations, 
and  the  means  conducing,  to  Religious  Devotedness 1 


CHAPTER  II. 

History  of  attempts  toward  a  Translation  of  the  Scriptures  into  the 
Language  of  this  Country  before  the  age  of  Wycliffe^ — ^by  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  Clergy  —  by  the  Anglo-Norman.  —  Wycliffe's  purpose,  as 
embracing  a  Translation  of  the  whole  Volume,  and  its  General  Circu- 
lation, strictly  a  Novelty.  —  This  affirmed  by  Knighton.  —  Some 
circumstances  favourable  to  this  enterprise. — Extracts  exhibiting  the 
Reformer's  manner  of  defending  this  effort. — The  insurrection  of 
the  Commons 


CHAPTER  III. 

Transubstantiation — opposed  by  Berengarius — and  by  the  Vaudois  and 
Albigenses — not  recognised  by  the  Anglo-Saxon  Church — defended 
by  Lanfranc,  and  espoused  by  the  Anglo-Norman  Clergy. — Wycliffe's 
Opposition  to  it. — Severe  Penalties  to  be  inflicted  on  all  who  should 
favour  his  Opinions  concerning  it.  —  His  Appeal  to  the  Civil  Power 
for  protection. — His  feeling  under  these  Persecutions.— Analysis  of 
his  "  Wicket." — Proceedings  of  Courtney,  and  the  Synod  at  the  Grey 
VOL.  II.  b 


IV  CONTENTS. 

Friars. — Wycliffe  favoured  by  the  University. — State  of  parties  in 
the  nation  nnfriendly  to  the  efforts  of  the  Reformers. — Inquisitorial 
Statute  obtained  by  the  Clergy. — Notice  of  Robert  Rigge,  Dr.  Here- 
ford, Reppington,  Ashton,  and  others 52 

CHAPTER  IV. 

Persecution. — Wycliffe's  devotional  allusion  to  the  evils  of  his  time.— 
Summary  of  his  Complaint  addressed  to  the  King  and  Parliament. — 
Effect  of  that  Appeal. — The  Reformer  is  forsaken  by  Lancaster. — His 
purposes  unaltered  by  that  event. — His  vigorous  perception  of  the 
bearings  of  the  Controversy  respecting  the  Eucharist,  and  his  confi- 
dence of  ultimate  success. — He  appears  before  the  Convocation  at 
Oxford. — Substance  of  his  Confession. — Perplexity  of  his  Judges. — 
He  retires  to  I-utterworth. — His  Letter  to  the  Pontiff 91 

CHAPTER  V. 

State  of  the  Reformed  Doctrine  on  the  Continent  during  the  age  of 
Wycliffe. — Causes  of  the  protection  frequently  afforded  to  its  Dis- 
ciples by  the  Secular  Power. — Probable  motives  of  the  Duke  of 
Lancaster  in  patronizing  Wycliffe.— The  Reformer  is  favoured  by  the 
Duke  of  Gloucester^the  Queen  Mother — Anne  of  Bohemia. — Farther 
notice  of  Wycliffe's  more  distinguished  followers. — Geoffrey  Chaucer. 
Influence  of  Poetry  on  the  Reformation  of  the  Church.— Notice  of  St. 
Amour— of  the  Roman  De  la  Rose— and  of  Robert  Longland     .     .     .124 

CHAPTER  VI. 

Number  of  Wycliffe's  Disciples. — Tlie  Lollards  consisted  of  two  classes. 
—Notice  of  John  of  Northampton.  —  Prospects  of  the  Reformers 
under  Richard  the  Second.^Testimony  of  Knighton  respecting  the 
Number  and  the  Character  of  Wycliffe's  followers.— Analysis  of  the 
Plowman's  Tale. — Theological  opinions  of  the  Disciples  of  Wycliffe. 
Character  of  his  "  Poor  Priests."— Analysis  of  the  tract,  "  M'hy  Poor 
Priests  have  no  Benefices." — Notice  of  William  Thorp 150 

CHAPTER  VII. 

Notice  of  Wycliffe's  Writings  subsequent  to  his  exclusion  from  Oxford 
— His  Trialogus — on  Obedience  to  Prelates — on  the  Deceits  of  Satan 
and  of  his  Priests— on  the  Duty  of  Lords— of  Servants  and  Lords— of 
Good  Preaching  Priests— on  the  Four  Deceits  of  Antichrist— on  the 
Prayers  of  Good  Men— of  Clerks  Possessioners.— Rise  of  the  Crusade 
against  the  Avignon  Pope,  and  its  Failure. — Wycliffe  renews  his 
contest  with  the  Mendicants.— His  Treatise  on  the  Sentence  of  the 
Curse  Expounded.— On  Prelates  and  other  subjects. — His  Senti- 
ments on  War.  —  Extracts  from  his  Sermons.— His  .Sickness  and 
Death 171 


CONTEXTS. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

The  Opinions  of  WycUffe. 

Design  of  the  Chapter.  —  The  Doctrine  of  WyclifFe  respecting  the 
Pope's  Temporal  Power. — The  Secular  Exemptions  of  the  Clergy.— 
The  General  Authority  of  the  Magistrate. — The  limits  of  that  Autho- 
rity.—The  Obligations  of  the  Magistrate  with  respect  to  the  Church. 
— The  Customs  of  Patronage. — Tithes  and  Ecclesiastical  Endow- 
ments.— The  Principles  of  the  Reformer's  theory  derived  in  part 
from  the  existing  system. — His  Reverence  for  the  Priestly  Office. — 
His  judgment  of  the  Contemporary  Priesthood. — A  Summary  of  his 
Doctrine  relative  to  the  Civil  Establishment  of  Christianity  and 
Clerical  Revenue. — His  Opinions  relating  to  Simony. — The  Spiritual 
Power  of  the  Pope. — The  Hierarchy. — The  Religious  Orders. — Tiie 
Nature  of  a  Christian  Church.— The  Power  of  the  Keys. — Purgatory 
and  Masses  for  the  Dead. — The  Invocation  of  Saints. — The  Worship 
of  Images. — Confession.  — The  Doctrine  of  Indulgences. — The  Celi- 
bacy of  the  Clergy. — The  Sacraments. — Transubstantiation. — Public 
Worship. — Sufficiency  of  the  Scriptures,  and  the  Right  of  Private 
Judgment. — A  Summary  of  his  Theological  Doctrine 226 


CHAPTER  IX. 

Observations  on   the  Character  of  WtjcUffe,  and  on  the  Connexion 
of  his  Doctrine  with  the  Reformation  of  the  Sixteenth  Centurif. 

AVycliffe's  claim  to  Originality. — His  Learning,  and  Intellectual  Cha- 
racter.— His  Patriotism  and  love  of  Mankind. — His  Piety. — Luther 
and  WycUffe  compared.— The  bones  of  Wycliffe  burnt. — State  of  tlie 
Reformed  Doctrine  in  England,  from  the  decease  of  W^yc  iffe  to 
the  age  of  Luther. — Accession  of  the  House  of  Lancaster. — Character 
of  the  Persecutions  sanctioned  by  Henry  the  Fourth. — The  Doctrine 
of  Wycliffe  survives  them. — The  Martyrdom  of  Lord  Cobhani  — 
Conclusion 329 


CHAPTER  X. 

On  the  Writings  of  John  MycUffe,  D.D .     379 

SECTION  I. 
His  p-inted  Works        .     .     c 380 


VI  CONTENTS. 


SECTION  11. 


WyclifFe's  Manuscripts  extant  in  England  and  Ireland.  This  series 
contains  nearly  forty  MSS.  preserved  in  the  Library  of  Trinity  Col- 
lege, Dublin,  the  existence  of  which  has  been  hitherto  unknown  to 
the  Reformer's  Biographers 385 


SECTION  III. 
His  Pieces  in  the  Imperial  Library  of  Vienna 393 

SECTION  IV. 

Titles  of  his  Pieces  known  only  by  their  names 393 

SECTION  V. 

Works  which  have  been  improperly  attributed  to  AVycliffe      ....  ?.95 

NOTES 397 

APPENDIX -1-24 


THE 


LIFE     OF     W  Y  C  L  I  F  F  E. 


CHAPTER  I. 


ORIGIN    AND     EFFECTS     OF    THE     PAPAL     SCHISM. WYCLIFFE  S     TRACT 


II 


"  THE    SCHISM     OF    THE    POPES,       AND    OTHER   REFERENCES    TO    THAT  EVENT. 

HIS    WORK    "  ON    THE     TRUTH     AND    MEANING    OF    SCRIPTURE." HIS 

SICKNESS    AT   OXFORD,    AND     RECOVERY. IMPORTANCE   ATTACHED    BY   HIM 

TO     PREACHING   ; HIS      LABORIOUS     ATTENTION      TO      IT  ; REASONS      OF      HIS 

PARTICULAR  REVERENCE   FOR  THAT   EXERCISE. METHODS  OF   PREACHING. 

• CHARACTER     OF    WYCLIFFe's     MANUSCRIPT    DISCOURSES. EXTRACTS, 

ILLUSTRATING  HIS  MANNER  OF  EXPOSING  THE  ERRORS  AND  DISORDERS  OF 
THE  ECCLESIASTICAL  SYSTEM OF  INCULCATING  THE  SUFFICIENCY  OF  SCRIP- 
TURE  THE  RIGHT    OF    PRIVATE  JUDGMENT THE    DOCTRINES    PECULIAR    TO 

THE  GOSPEL AND  THE  VARIOUS  OBLIGATIONS,  AND  THE  MEANS  CON- 
DUCING,   TO    RELIGIOUS    DEVOTEDNESS. 

The    residence    of  the   pontiffs    during   seventy  chap. 

years  at  Avignon,  was  described  by  the  Italians L_ 

as  a  second  Babylonish  captivity.  That  capti- f^;f47/'"^ 
vity,  if  such  it  may  be  called,  had  indeed  a  ten-  ^^^^^^^''^ 
dency  to  moderate  the  papal  claims ;  but  it  was 
far  from  being  the  most  serious  feature  of  that 
disgrace  which  accompanied  the  representatives 
of  St.  Peter  on  returning  to  the  ancient  seat  of 
their  authority.  On  the  death  of  Gregory  the 
eleventh,  in  1378,  the  cardinals  assembled  to  elect 
his  successor ;  but  the  Roman  populace,  aware 
that  three-fourths  of  the  conclave  were  French- 
men, and  indignant  that  tlie  vacant  honour  had 

VOL.   II.  !i 


2  THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE. 

CHAP.  |)gejj  gQ  frequently  conferred  on  ecclesiastics  of 

that   nation,   gathered   tumultuously   around   the 

place  of  meeting,  and  uttered  the  most  alarming 
menaces  with  a  view  to  secure  the  suffrage  of 
the  electors  in  favour  of  an  Italian.  The  car- 
dinals trembled  for  their  safety,  and  immediately 
pronounced  Bartholomew  de  Pregnano,  a  Neapo- 
litan, and  then  archbishop  of  Bari,  as  the  object 
of  their  choice.  The  new  pontiff  assumed  the 
name  of  Urban  the  sixth ;  but  his  conduct  soon 
became  such  as  to  exasperate  his  enemies  and 
alienate  his  friends.  From  this  cause,  or  from 
national  partialities,  some  of  the  leading  cardinals 
retired  from  Rome  to  Anagni;  and  at  Fondi,  a 
city  of  Naples,  they  chose  their  brother  of  Ge- 
neva to  be  the  successor  of  Gregory,  and  he  was 
immediately  proclaimed  as  Clement  the  seventh. 
To  justify  this  bold  measure,  it  was  pleaded  that 
the  election  of  Urban  was  the  result  of  intimida- 
tion, and  accordingly  invalid.  France,  and  her 
allies,  including  Spain,  Sicily,  and  Cyprus,  ac- 
knowledged the  authority  of  Clement ;  while 
England,  and  the  rest  of  Europe,  adhered  to  that 
of  Urban.'  "  And  which  of  these  two,"  observes 
Mosheim,  "is  to  be  considered  as  the  true  and 
"•  lawful  pope,  is  to  this  day  matter  of  doubt,  nor 
*'  will  the  records  and  writings  alleged  by  the 
"  contending  parties  enable  us  to  adjust  that  point 
"  with  any  certainty."^ 

But  whatever  were  the  merits  of  this  con- 
troversy, its  effects  were  by  no  means  doubtful. 
Through  the  next  half  century,  the  church  had 
two  or  three  different  heads  at  the  same  time ; 

'  Mosheim,  iii.  326,  327.  2  Ibid. 


THE     LIFE     OF    MYCLIFFE.  3 

each  of  the  contending  popes  forming  plots,  and  chap. 

thundering  out  anathemas  against  their  competi- '— 

tors.  "  The  distress  and  calamity  of  these  times" 
is  said  to  have  been  "  beyond  all  power  of  de- 
"  scription  ;  for  not  to  insist  on  the  perpetual  con- 
**  tentions  and  wars  between  the  factions  of  the 
"  several  popes,  by  which  multitudes  lost  their 
"  fortunes  and  lives,  all  sense  of  religion  was  ex- 
''  tinguished  in  most  places,  and  profligacy  arose 
"  to  a  most  scandalous  excess.  The  clergy,  while 
"  they  vehemently  contended  which  of  the  reigning 
"  popes  was  the  true  successor  of  Christ,  were  so 
"  excessively  corrupt  as  to  be  no  longer  studious 
"  to  keep  up  even  the  appearance  of  religion  or 
"  decency;  and  in  consequence  of  all  this,  many 
"  plain,  well-meaning  people,  who  concluded  that 
"  no  one  could  possibly  partake  of  eternal  life 
"  unless  united  with  the  vicar  of  Christ,  were 
"  overwhelmed  with  doubt,  and  were  plunged  into 
"  the  deepest  distress  of  mind."^  And  thus,  also, 
it  was,  that  multitudes  were  prepared  to  doubt 
whether  the  supremacy  claimed  by  the  pontiffs, 
since  it  could  become  involved  in  such  fearful  un- 
certainty, could  really  be  an  article  of  faith  or 
discipline  so  momentous  as  had  been  commonly 
supposed.  Wycliffe,  whose  escape  from  the  ven- 
geance of  the  clergy,  must  be  attributed  in  a  great 
degree  to  the  distractions  occasioned  by  this  event, 
was  fully  aware  of  the  aid  which  it  might  be  made 
to  confer  on  his  efforts  as  a  reformer. 

The    controversy   had   no   sooner  commenced,  wyciiffe-s 
than   he    published    a   tract   intitled, — "  On    the  ti.e'schism 

of  the 
Pope^." 

3  Mosheiin,  iii.  328. 
B     2 


4  THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE. 

CHAP.  ''  Schism  of  the  Popes,"*  in  which  he  adverts  to 
— '- —  this    dispute    as    having    divided    the   hierarchy 
against  itself,  and  as  presenting   a  powerful  in- 
ducement  to    attempt   the    destruction   of    those 
laws  and  customs,  which  had  served  so  greatly 
to  corrupt  the  christian  priesthood,  and  to  afflict 
the    whole    christian    community.     The    endow- 
ments of  the   church,    whether   claimed    by   the 
pontiffs,  or  by  the  national  clergy,  he  names  as  a 
principal  cause  of  the  degeneracy  of  both  ;  and 
the    property   entrusted    to    the    stewardship    of 
churchmen,    he  affirms  to  be  capable,  generally, 
of  a  more  just,  and  of  a  far  less  dangerous  appli- 
cation.    To  effect  this  new  appropriation  of  the 
wealth,  which  it  is  said  had  been  frequently  ill 
acquired,  and  as  frequently  worse  employed,  the 
appeal    made  is  not   to  the    passions  of  the  few 
or  the  many,  but  to  the  sacred  responsibilities  of 
the  sovereigns  and   rulers  of  Christendom.     And 
that  this  exhortation   might  not   be  in  vain,  he 
renews  his  attack  upon  those  superstitions  from 
which    the    undue    influence   of  the    clergy   had 
derived    its     being     and     continuance.       Instead 
of  conceding  that  the  power  of  the  clergy,  or  of 
the  pope,  over  the  disembodied  spirit,  must  ever 
regulate  its  destiny,  he  contends,  that  when  cor- 
rectly exercised,    it  is  merely   ministerial ;    and 
that  inasmuch  as  the  decisions  of  these  men  were 
frequently  opposed  to  moral  propriety,  and  to  the 
known  will  of  God,  they  were  frequently  to  be 
viewed  as  the  mere  assumptions  of  human  weak- 
ness  or   passion,   from   which  no  evil  should  be 

*  MS.  Trinity  CollcRe,  Dublin,  class  C.  tab.  3,  No.  12,  p.  193-208. 


THE    LIFE    OF     WYCLIFFE.  O 

apprehended.     His  advice,  therefore,  is,   "Trust  chap. 

"we  in  the  help  of  Christ  on  this  point,  for  he '- — 

*'  hath  begun  already  to  help  us  graciously,  in 
"  that  he  hath  clove  the  head  of  Antichrist,  and 
*'  made  the  two  parts  fight  against  each  other. 
"  For  it  is  not  doubtftd,  that  the  sin  of  the  popes, 
"  which  hath  been  so  long  continued,  hath 
"  brought  in  this  division."  Should  the  rival 
pontiffs  continue  to  lance  their  anathemas  against 
each  other,  or  should  either  prevail,  a  serious 
wound  is  believed  to  be  inflicted,  and  it  is  urged 
accordingly,  that  "  emperors,  and  kings,  should 
"  help  in  this  cause,  to  maintain  God's  law,  to 
"  recover  the  heritage  of  the  church,  and  to  de- 
"  stroy  the  foul  sins  of  clerks,  saving  their  per- 
"  sons.  Thus  should  peace  be  established,  and 
"  simony  destroyed."  As  to  the  infallibility  of 
the  popes,  he  remarks,  that  there  is  nothing  in 
the  suffrage  of  princes  or  cardinals  to  impart  any 
such  attribute  to  erring  man.  On  this  point,  he 
observes,  "  the  children  of  the  fiend  should  learn 
"  their  logic,  and  their  philosophy  well,  lest  they 
"  prove  heretical  by  a  false  understanding  of  the 
"  law  of  Christ."  Except  the  person  elected  to  an 
ecclesiastical  office  shall  possess  the  virtues  which 
bespeak  him  a  servant  of  Christ,  the  most  vaunted 
forms  of  investing  him  with  that  dignity  are 
declared  to  be  vain.  Among  heresies,  he  affirms, 
that  "  there  is  no  greater,  than  for  a  man  to 
"  believe  that  he  is  absolved  from  his  sin,  if  he 
•'  give  money,  or  because  a  priest  layeth  his 
"  hand  on  the  head,  and  saith  I  absolve  thee. 
"  For  thou  must  be  sorrowful  in  thy  heart,"  he 
adds,  "or  else  God  absolveth  thee  not."     In  the 


6  THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE. 

CHAP,  same  treatise,  the  necessity  of  confession  to  a 
' priest  is  denied  no  less  distinctly  than  tlie  re- 
ceived doctrine  on  the  power  of  the  keys.  And 
having  thus  wrested  the  weapons  from  the 
hands  of  churchmen,  which  had  been  wielded 
with  so  much  success  against  human  liberty,  he 
calls  upon  the  secular  authorities  to  attempt  the 
long-needed  reformation  of  the  ecclesiastical  body, 
both  in  its  head  and  its  members. 
other  re.  ^ Qy  was  it  in  thls  Droductiou  only  that  these  bold 
that  event.  scRtimcnts  wcre  uttered.  In  his  writmgs  from  this 
period  to  his  death,the  lust  of  dominion,  the  avarice, 
and  the  cruelty,  discovered  by  these  rival  pontiffs, 
in  prosecuting  their  different  claims,  are  all  placed 
in  fearless  contrast  with  the  maxims  and  spirit  of 
Christ  and  his  apostles.  "  Simon  Magus,"  he 
observes,  "never  laboured  more  in  the  work  of 
"  simony,  than  do  these  priests.  And  so  God 
"  would  no  longer  suffer  the  fiend  to  reign  in  only 
"  one  such  priest,  but  for  the  sin  which  they  had 
"  done,  made  division  among  two,  so  that  men,  in 
"  Christ's  name,  may  the  more  easily  overcome 
"  them  both."  Evil,  it  is  remarked,  is  weakened 
by  diffusion,  no  less  than  good  ;  "  and  this  now 
"  moveth  poor  priests  to  speak  heartily  in  this 
**  matter,  for  when  God  will  bless  the  church,  but 
**  men  are  slothful,  and  will  not  labour,  their  sloth 
"  is  to  be  rebuked  for  many  reasons."'  In  his 
parochial  discourses,  delivered  to  his  flock  at 
Lutterworth,  the  schism  of  the  papacy  is  fre- 
quently adverted  to,  and  always  in  a  manner 
tending  to  deliver  men  from  the  fear  of  the  priest, 

*  MS.  Of  the  Church  uuJ  lier  Govcrnauce.     Bib.  Reg.  xviii.  b.  i\. 


THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE.  7 

and,   at  the   same  time,    to    impress    them  with  chap, 

the  fear  of  God.^  L_ 

It  was  at  this  period  that  the  reformer  com- ^'^''^^ «f 

}^  ■.  f-f^  '"'s  work 

pleted  a  work,   '*  On  the  Truth  and  Meaning-  of  "o..  the 

o        .  „        ,  1  •/>  Truth  and 

Scripture,  the  most  extended,  if  not  the  most  Meaning  of 
systematically  arranged,  of  all  his  productions. 
A  copy  of  this  treatise  was  in  the  possession  of 
our  venerable  martyrologist,  and  appears  to  have 
been  considered  the  only  one  extant.  That  at 
present  in  the  Bodleian  library  was  formerly  the 
property  of  Dr.  Allen,  a  great  admirer  of  WyclifFe, 
and  a  diligent  collector  of  his  manuscripts.  It  is 
without  a  title  page,  and  a  few  leaves  from  the 
commencement  are  lost :  the  remaining  portion 
of  the  volume,  extending  to  more  than  six  hun- 
dred pages,  is  in  good  preservation.  Besides  this 
copy,  the  only  one  hitherto  mentioned  in  the 
printed  catalogues  of  the  reformer's  writings, 
there  is  another  in  the  library  at  Trinity  College, 
Dublin.  This  is  complete,  and  in  an  excellent 
state.  The  work  itself  has  required  this  parti- 
cular notice,  not  only  from  its  extent,  but  from  its 
character,  as  embodying  almost  every  sentiment 
peculiar  to  the  mind  of  our  reformer.  The  su- 
preme authority  of  holy  writ;  the  unalienable 
right  of  private  judgment;  all  the  branches  of 
clerical  power ;  the  sacraments  of  the  church ; 
together  with  almost  every  article  of  moral  obli- 

*  Thus   in  one  of  his  homilies  (on  "  Peter  ;  bat  spoileth  them,  and  sla^'cth 

Rom.   xiii.)     it    is    affirmed    of    the  "  them,  and  leadeth  them  many  wrong 

pontift',    "  that  he   is  not   on  Christ's  "  ways."     The  same  contrast  is  pur- 

"  side,  who  put  his  soul  for  his  slieep,  sued  in  the  homily  on  John,  Ep.  i.  c.  ii. 

"but  on  the   side  of  antichrist,  who  and  much  more  at  length  in  the  treatise 

"  putteth   many    souls    for   his   pride.  "  On  the  Seven  Deadly   Sins." — MS. 

"  This  man  feedeth   not  the  sheep  of  Bibl.  Bodl. 
"  Christ,  as  Christ  thrice  commanded 


8  THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE. 

CHAP,  gation,  may  be  found   largely  discussed  in  this 

'. —  volume.     The  author  of  the  Acts  and  Monuments 

intended  giving  it  to  the  world  ;  and  we  may 
regret  that  his  purpose  was  not  accomplished. 
Were  this  the  only  work  preserved  from  the  pen 
of  WyclifFe,  it  would  alone  be  sufficient,  to  merit 
for  its  author  the  first  place  among  the  intrepid 
advocates  of  truth  and  piety  in  the  annals  of  this 
country.'' 
ii;s  sickness      But  the  labour  of  producing;  such  compositions, 

at  Oxford.  .  ^,  ?  1        P  1  1 

and  the  excitements  mseparable  from  the  restless 
hostilities  of  his  enemies,  so  shook  his  frame,  at 
this  period,  as  to  threaten  his  speedy  dissolution, 
— and,  in  truth,  to  lay  the  foundation  of  the 
malady  which  a  few  years  later  was  the  occasion 
of  his  death.  Such  also  was  the  force  of  religious 
prejudice  in  the  fourteenth  century,  that  his  old 
antagonists,  the  mendicants,  conceived  it  next  to 
impossible,  that  an  heresiarch  so  notorious,  should 
find  himself  near  a  future  world  without  the  most 
serious  apprehensions  of  approaching  vengeance. 
But  while  thus  conscious  of  their  own  rectitude, 
and  certain  that  the  dogmas  of  the  reformer  had 
arisen  from  the  suggestions  of  the  great  enemy, 
some  advantages  to  their  cause  were  anticipated, 
could  the  dying  culprit  be  induced  to  utter  any 
recantation  of  his  published  opinions.  Wyclifie 
was  in  Oxford  when  this  sickness  arrested  his 
activity,  and  confined  him  to  his  chamber.  From 
the  four  orders  of  friars,  four  doctors,  who  were 
also  called  regents,  were  gravely  deputed  to  wait 

7  MS.  Bibl.  Bodl.  Rotiila-  in  Aichi.  Sensu  et  Veritate  Scripture,  is  the 
A.  3021,  32.  MS.  Trinity  Collt!;e,  (ille  j^ivcn  lo  \\\v  worii  by  Fox, 
Dublin,   clas.s  C.  tub.  1.  No.  24        De       i.  583. 


THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE.  9 

on  their  expiring  enemy;  and  to  these  the  same  chap. 

number  of  civil  officers,  called  senators  of  the  city, '. 

and  aldermen  of  the  wards,  were  added.  When 
this  embassy  entered  the  apartment  of  the  rector 
of  Lutterworth,  he  was  seen  stretched  on  his  bed. 
Some  kind  wishes  were  first  expressed  as  to  his 
better  health,  and  the  blessing  of  a  speedy  re- 
covery. It  was  presently  suggested,  that  he  must 
be  aware  of  the  many  wrongs  which  the  whole 
mendicant  brotherhood  had  sustained  from  his 
attacks,  especially  in  his  sermons,  and  in  certain 
of  his  writings  ;  and  as  death  was  now,  apparently, 
about  to  remove  him,  it  was  sincerely  hoped,  that 
he  would  not  conceal  his  penitence,  but  distinctly 
revoke  whatever  he  had  said  tending  to  the  in- 
jury of  those  holy  fraternities.  The  sick  man 
remained  silent,  and  motionless,  until  this  address 
was  concluded.  He  then  beckoned  his  servants 
to  raise  him  in  his  bed ;  and  fixing  his  eyes  on 
the  persons  assembled,  summoned  all  his  remain- 
ing strength,  as  he  exclaimed  aloud,  "  1  shall  not 
"  die  but  live,  and  shall  again  declare  the  evil  deeds 
"  of  the  friars!"  The  doctors,  and  their  attend- 
ants, retreated  in  mortification  and  dismay,  and 
they  lived  to  feel  the  truth  of  the  reformer's  predic- 
tion ;  nor  will  it  be  easy  to  imagine  another  scene, 
more  characteristic  of  the  parties  composing  it,  or 
of  the  times  with  which  it  is  connected.^ 

While  the  writings   of  Wycliffe  were  thus  per-  nis  senti. 
forming  their  part  on  the  mind  of  his  countrymen,  lespcctto 
it  was  not  merely  his  divinity  lectures,   but  the 
whole  of  his  pulpit  instructions,  which  were  stu- 
diously directed  to  the  same  object,      [t  is  known 

«■  Lewis,  civ.  82.     Bale,  419,  ,.\c. 


10  THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE. 

CHAP,  that  in  the  fourteenth  century,  the  exercises  of 
'  public  worship  consisted  of  little  beside  that  spe- 
cies of  mechanical  occupation  which  an  apostle 
describes  as  "  bodily  exercise,"  and  as  "  profiting 
little."  These,  however,  and  that  domestic 
ministration  of  the  sacraments,  to  which  the  most 
feeble  or  depraved  among  the  clergy  were  deemed 
fully  competent,  were  generally  considered  as 
securing  to  the  worshipper  whatever  it  was  the 
design  of  Christianity  to  bestow.  As  the  conse- 
quence of  questioning  this  theory,  and  at  length 
of  wholly  denying  the  efficacy  of  such  services, 
except  as  accompanied  by  appropriate  perception 
and  feeling  on  the  part  of  the  persons  engaged  in 
them,  was  the  importance  attached  by  our  re- 
former to  the  office  of  preaching.  No  language 
can  be  more  forcible,  than  that  in  which  the 
sacred  writers  speak  of  the  preaching  of  the  cross, 
as  the  divinely  appointed  means  of  bringing  the 
nations  to  the  obedience  of  the  gospel ;  and  in 
proportion  as  men  have  imbibed  the  spirit  of 
primitive  piety,  in  any  subsequent  age,  has  been 
the  prominence  assigned  to  this  department  of 
ministerial  duty.  Among  the  means  which  had 
induced  our  Saxon  ancestors  to  renounce  their 
ancient  idolatry,  preaching  held  a  conspicuous 
place;"  but  from  that  period  to  the  age  of  Wycliffe, 
it  fell  into  comparative  disuse  in  the  practice  of 
the  English  clergy.  Grossteste  deplored  this  fact, 
and  with  a  view  to  supply  the  deficiency,  became 
a  zealous  patron  of  the  preaching  friars.    He  lived, 

9    This  was  the   service   to   which  Saxons,  Oswald,  the  sovereign,  acted 

Aidan,   the    apostle   of   Northunibria,  as   his  interpreter.      Bj  the  Scottish 

devoted   his   life.    (Bede,   c.  v.)      In  missionaries,  in  general,  the  same  iin- 

his  first  attempt  to  address  the  pagan  portance  was  attached  to  this  function. 


THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE.  11 

however,  to  regret  that  remedy,  as  bemg  even  chap. 
worse  than  the  disease. '•*  Yet  so  powerful  were^--^- 
the  effects  of  preaching,  even  in  the  hands  of  the 
mendicants,  that  had  not  their  rapid  success  pro- 
duced so  speedy  a  corruption  of  their  institute, 
the  parochial  clergy,  by  limiting  their  official  ser- 
vices to  the  prescribed  repetitions  from  the  mass 
book,  must  have  lost  the  whole  of  their  influence 
over  the  mind  of  the  people.''  Wycliffe  saw  this 
state  of  things,  but  wliile  he  complained  of  the 
indolence  and  the  vices  of  the  secular  clergy,  as 
leading  to  the  prevalent  neglect  of  this  exercise, 
his  boldest  censures  were  reserved  for  the  frater- 
nities, in  whose  labours  he  could  discern  nothing 
but  the  abuses  of  the  function,  which  they  had  as- 
sumed as  their  peculiar  province.  The  itinerant 
character  of  their  ministry  could  hardly  have  dis- 
pleased him,  as  he  often  defended  the  same  prac- 
tice- in  his  followers.  It  was  their  substituting 
'*  fables — chronicles  of  the  world — and  stories 
from  the  battle  of  Troy" — in  the  place  of  the 
gospel ;  and  the  religious  delusions  imposed  by 
them  on  the  rich  and  the  poor,  to  raise  themselves 
into  distinction,  and  to  gratify  their  avarice  and 
sensuality,  which  filled  him  with  so  restless  an 
abhorrence  of  "  these  new  orders."  Instead,  how- 
ever, of  imbibing  a  disgust  of  preaching,  from 
seeing  it  thus  perverted,  the  reformer  appears  to 
have  judged  only  the  more  favourably  of  its  power 
as  the  means  of  reformation,  if  rightly  applied. 
Possessed  himself  of  such  learning  as  had  aided 
the  mendicants  in  acquiring  their  reputation,  he 
was  also  a  proficient  in  that  power  of  oral  com- 

'"  Palis,  873.  "  See  Piclini.  View,  c.iii.  scct.i. 


12  THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE. 

CHAP,  munication  which  was  their  special  faculty.  In 
'■ —  Wycliffe,  the  severity  of  the  cloister  was  asso- 
ciated with  the  learning  of  the  college,  and  with 
that  power  of  interesting  the  understanding  and 
affections  of  ordinary  minds,  which  is  rarely  found 
in  such  combinations.  In  secret,  he  mourned  over 
the  degraded  state  of  his  country,  and  over  that 
immense  expenditure  of  wealth  in  favour  of  the 
clergy,  which  served  only  to  perpetuate  their 
secular  character,  and  to  strengthen  every  cord 
of  the  national  thraldom  ;  and  to  contribute  some- 
thing toward  the  recovery  of  his  native  land  from 
this  state  of  gloomy  bondage,  was  the  object  to 
which  the  acquirements,  and  the  energies,  of  his 
generous  nature  were  readily  devoted. 
Mis  1.1,.,.  ^^Q  know  not  the  number  of  sermons  composed 
!,Ze'",f''  ^y  Wycliffe,  but  that  copies  of  nearly  three  hun- 
i>.eaciin,s.  drcd  should  have  escaped  the  effort  which  was 
so  long  made  to  effect  the  destruction  of  what- 
ever his  pen  had  produced,  is  sufficient  to  as- 
sure us,  that  his  labours  as  a  preacher  were 
abundant.'*  His  zeal  was  not  of  that  spurious  kind 
which  assails  the  vast  only,  or  which  expatiates  on 
the  great  and  the  future,  at  the  cost  of  every  nearer 
and  more  humble  department  of  duty.  Accord- 
ingly, to  appreciate  the  character  of  the  English 
reformer,  it  is  necessary  to  view  him,  not  only  as 
advocating  the  claims  of  his  sovereign  before  the 
delegates  of  the  pontiff;  as  solving  the  questions 
which  perplexed  the  English   parliament ;  or  as 

'2  The  copy  which  I  have  princi-  the  close  of  the  fourteenth  century, 
pally  consulted,  is  that  of  the  British  and  in  others  later,  are  still  extant 
Museum. — Bib.  Reg.  xviii.  b.  ix.  Se-  in  the  Museum,  and  in  the  libraries 
veral  copies,  more  or  less  perfect,  and  of  Oxford,  Cambridge,  and  Dub- 
written,    in     some    instances,     before  lin. 


THE    LIFE    or    WYCLIFFE.  13 

challenging  the    most  intellectual  of  the  age  to  chap. 

discussions  on  the  truth  of  his  acknowledged  doc- '. 

trine.  To  all  this  he  added  the  diligent  perform- 
ance of  those  less  imposing  duties  which  devolve 
on  the  parish  priest.  It  was  no  novelty  to  see  the 
venerable  Wycliffe  in  a  village  pulpit,  surrounded 
by  his  rustic  auditory  ;  or  in  the  lowest  hovel  of 
the  poor,  fulfilling  his  office  at  the  bedside  of  the 
sick  and  the  dying,  whether  freeman  or  slave.  It 
was  over  a  sphere  thus  extended,  that  his  genius 
and  benevolence  were  diffused.  Previous  to  this 
period,  he  had  required  his  disciples  to  unite  with 
the  devotions  of  the  sabbath,  a  regular  attention  to 
the  wants  of  the  afflicted  and  the  poor.  The  pub- 
lic exercises  of  that  day  being  devoutly  performed, 
the  christian  man  is  enjoined  "  to  visit  those  who 
"  are  sick,  or  who  are  in  trouble,  especially  those 
*'  whom  God  hath  made  needy  by  age,  or  by  other 
"  sickness,  as  the  feeble,  the  blind,  and  the  lame, 
"  who  are  in  poverty.  These  thou  shalt  relieve 
"  with  thy  goods,  after  thy  power,  and  after  their 
"  need,  for  thus  biddeth  the  gospel.""  It  is  but 
just  to  suppose,  that  the  preacher,  who,  under 
such  circumstances,  was  forward  to  inculcate 
these  and  similar  offices  of  domestic  charity,  was 
himself  accustomed  to  conform  to  them.  But  his 
favourite  doctrine,  which  defined  true  charity  as 
"  beginning  at  the  love  of  man's  spirit,"  was  so  far 
extended,  as  to  induce  him  to  believe,  that  "  men 
"  who  love  not  the  souls,  love  little  the  bodies 
"of  their  neighbours;''  and  hence  the  work  of 
christian  instruction  is   described,  as   "  the  best 

'=  JIS.  Exposition  of  the  Decalo-nc.  Cotton.  Titus,  D.  xiv.  1:22. 


14  THE    LIFE    OF    -WYCLIFFE. 

c H  A  P.  "  service   that   man  may  do   for   his   brother."^* 

!_  Priests  who  are  found  "  in  taverns,   and  hunting, 

"  and  playing  at  their  tables,"  instead  of  "  learn- 
''  ing  God's  law,  and  preaching,"  are  accordingly 
denounced  as  "  foulest  traitors,"  since  among  the 
duties  of  their  office,  *'  most  of  all  is  the  preaching 
•*  of  the  gospel ;  for  this  Christ  enjoined  on  his 
"  disciples  more  than  any  other ;  by  this  he  con- 
*'  quered  the  world  out  of  the  fiend's  hand  ;  and 
*'  whosoever  he  be  that  can  but  bring  priests  to 
"  act  thus,  hath  authority  from  God,  and  merit  in 
'*  his  deed."'* 
wyciiffes  As  the  impression  made  by  Wycliffe,  and  his 
.'nTv"ourof  followcrs,  ou  the  mind  of  their  contemporaries,  may 
preaching.  ^^  attributcd,  In  a  great  degree,  to  their  peculiar 
sentiments  on  the  relative  importance  of  preach- 
ing, it  will  not  perhaps  be  uninteresting  to  the 
reader,  to  notice  the  statements  and  reasonings 
of  the  reformer,  on  this  point,  more  at  length. 
'*  I.  The  highest  service  that  men  may  attain  to 
"  on  earth,"  is  said  to  be,  to  "  preach  the  word 
**  of  God.  This  service  falls  peculiarly  to  priests, 
*'  and  therefore  God  more  straightly  demands  it 
"  of  them.  Hereby  should  they  produce  children 
"  to  God,  and  that  is  the  end  for  which  God  has 
"  wedded  the  church.  Lovely  it  might  be,  to  have 
"  a  son  that  were  lord  of  this  world,  but  fairer 
"  much  it  were  to  have  a  son  in  God,  who,  as  a 
"  member  of  holy  church,  shall  ascend  to  heaven! 
"  And  for  this  cause,  Jesus  Christ  left  other  works, 
**  and  occupied  himself  mostly  in  preaching ;  and 
'*  thus  did  his  apostles,  and  for  this  God  loved 

'*  Homily  on  Philippians,  c.  iii.  '^  Epistola  ad  Siinplices  Saceidotes. 


THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE.  L5 

"them.     II.  Also,  he  does  best,  who  best  keeps  ^hap. 

"  the   commandments   of   God.      Now  the   first  — '- — 

"  commandment  of  the  second  table  bids  us   ho- 

"  nour  our  elders,  as  our  father  and  mother.     But 

■*  this  honour  should  be  first  given  to  holy  church, 

■*  for  she  is  the  mother  we  should  most  love,  and 

■'  for  her,  as  our  faith  teaches,  Christ  died.     The 

'  church,    however,    is    honoured    most   by    the 

'  preaching  of  God's  word,  and  hence  this  is  the 

'  best  service  that  priests  may  render  unto  God. 

'  Thus  a  woman  said  to  Christ,  that  the  womb 

'  which  bare  him,  and  the  breasts  which  he  had 

'  sucked,  should  be  blessed  of  God ;   but  Christ 

'  said,   rather  should  that  man  be  blessed,  who 

*  should  hear  the  words  of  God,  and  keep  them. 
'  And  this  should  preachers  do  more  than  other 
'  men,  and  this  word  should  they  keep  more  than 
'  any  other  treasure.  Idleness  in  this  office  is 
'  to   the    church  its   greatest    injury,    producing 

*  most  the  children  of  the  fiend,  and  sendino- 
'  them  to  his  court.  III.  Also,  that  service  is  the 
'  best,  which  has  the  worst  opposed  to  it.  But 
'  the  opposite  of  preaching,  is  of  all  things  the 
'  worst ;  and  therefore  preaching,  if  it  be  well 
'  done,  is  the  best  of  all.  And  accordingly, 
'  Jesus  Christ,  when  he  ascended  into  heaven, 
'  commanded  it  especially  to  all  his  apostles,  to 
'  preach  the  gospel  freely  to  every  man.  So  also, 
'  when  Christ  spoke  last  with  Peter,  he  bade  him 
'  thrice,  as  he  loved  him,  to  feed  his  sheep  ;  and 

*  this  would  not  a  wise  shepherd  have  done,  had 
'  he  not  himself  loved  it  well.  In  this  stands  the 
'  office  of  the  spiritual  shepherd.  As  the  bishop 
'  of  the  temple  hindered  Christ,  so  is  he  hindered 


16  THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLTFFE. 

CHAP.  **  by  the  hindering  of  this  deed.  Therefore  Christ 
— '. —  *'  told  them,  that  at  the  day  of  doom,  Sodom  and 
**  Gomorrah  should  better  fare  than  they.  And 
*'  thus,  if  our  bishops  preach  not  in  their  own 
**  persons,  and  hinder  true  priests  from  preaching, 
"  they  are  in  the  sin  of  the  bishops  who  killed 
"  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ."" 

So  far  then  was  the  reformer  from  confiding  in 
the  sacraments  of  the  church,  as  certainly  con- 
nected  with    a   participation    in    the    mercies    of 
redemption.     Man  he   considers,   as  a  being  en- 
dowed  with  reason    and  with  passions,   and   he 
attempts  the  discipline  of  his  affections,  only  by 
bringing  the  light  of  divine  truth  to  bear  upon  his 
understanding.       This,     in    the   language  of   the 
church  of  Rome,  was  to  ensnare  the  unwary,  by 
an  artful  appeal  to  the  vanity  and  self-confidence 
of  the  human   mind.       But  if  there  be  truth   in 
religion,  or  nature,  intellectual  culture  is  the  only 
medium  through  which   the   moral   improvement 
of  man   should  be   contemplated.     The  faculties 
of  his  being,  and  the  known  will  of  the   Deity, 
announce    him  as  accountable  ;    and   the  theory 
which  serves  at  all  to  weaken  the  feeling  of  this 
accountableness,  must  be  of  murderous  tendency. 
There  is  another  motive,  however,  from  which 
objection  to  the  office  of  preaching  has  sometimes 
arisen.      To  have   imitated  the  zeal  of  Wycliffe, 
on  this    point,   would   have    required  a   different 
faculty  from  what  was   necessary  to  go  through 
the  usual  routine  of  parish  duty.     The  class   of 
men,  who  were  satisfied  with  their  ability  for  such 
performances,  and  still  more  the  inmates  of  con- 
's MS.  Contra  Fralres  Bibl.  Bodl.  Archi.  A.  83,  p.  19,  20. 


THE     LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE.  17 

vents,  would  affect  to  be  astonished  at  the  weak-  chap. 
ness,  or  the  novelty,  of  the  reformer's  opinions,  — '- — 
respecting  a  function,  which  the  care  of  the 
church  had  rendered  almost  superfluous,  which 
had  ever  been  but  too  much  allied  to  ostentation, 
and  pregnant  with  no  small  danger  to  the  peace 
and  unity  of  the  christian  commonwealth.  It  is 
thus  he  reasons  with  such  objectors  :  "  When 
''  true  men  teach,  that  by  the  law  of  God,  and 
"  wit,  and  reason,  each  priest  is  bound  to  do  his 
"  utmost  to  preach  the  gospel  of  Christ,  the  fiend 
"  beguileth  hypocrites  to  excuse  him  from  this 
"  service  by  teaching  a  feigned  contemplative 
"  life  ; — and  urging,  that  since  that  is  the  best, 
"  and  they  may  not  do  both,  they  are  needed, 
"  from  their  love  of  God,  to  leave  the  preaching 
"  of  the  gospel  to  live  in  contemplation.  But  see 
"  now  the  hypocrisy  and  falsehood  of  this.  Our 
"  faith  teaches  us,  that  since  Christ  was  God, 
"  and  might  not  err,  he  taught  and  did  the  best 
"  life  for  priests  ;  yet  Christ  preached  the  gospel, 
"  and  charged  all  his  apostles  and  disciples  to  go 
"  and  preach  the  gospel  to  all  men.  The  best  life 
"  then  for  priests,  in  this  world,  is  to  teach  and 
"  preach  the  gospel.  God  also  teacheth  in  the 
"  old  law,  that  the  office  of  a  priest  is  to  shew  to 
"  the  people  their  sins.  But  as  each  priest  is  a 
"  prophet  by  his  order,  according  to  St.  Gregory 
"  on  the  Gospels,  it  is  then  the  office  of  each  to 
"  preach  and  to  proclaim  the  sins  of  the  people; 
"  and  in  this  manner  shall  each  priest  be  an  angel 
"  of  God,  as  holy  writ  affirms.  Also  Christ,  and 
"  John  the  Baptist,  left  the  desert,  and  preached 
"  the  gospel  to  their  death.  To  do  this,  therefore, 
^'  o  L .  1 1 .  c 


18  THE     LIFE    OF    AVYCLTFFE. 

CHAP.  <*  is  the  greatest  charity,  or  else  they  were  out  of 

"  charity,  or  at  least  imperfect  in  it ;    and  that 

"  may  hardly  be,  since  the  one  was  God ;  and 
"  since  no  man,  after  Christ,  hath  been  holier 
"  than  the  Baptist." 

"  Also,  the  holy  prophet,  Jeremiah,  hallowed  in 
"  his  mother's  womb,  might  not  be  excused  from 
**  preaching  by  his  love  of  contemplation,  but  was 
**  charged  of  God  to  proclaim  the  sins  of  the 
**  people,  and  to  suffer  hard  pain  for  doing  so  ;  and 
'*  so  were  all  the  prophets  of  God.  Ah !  Lord, 
"  since  Christ  and  John,  and  all  the  prophets, 
"  were  compelled  by  charity  to  come  out  of  the 
'*  desert  to  preach  to  the  people,  and  to  leave 
**  their  solitary  prayers,  how  dare  these  pretend- 
"  ing  heretics  say  it  is  better  to  be  still,  and  to 
"  pray  over  their  own  feigned  ordinances,  than  to 
"preach  the  gospel  of  Christ?  Lord!  what 
"  cursed  spirit  of  falsehood  moveth  priests  to  close 
'*  themselves  within  stone  walls  for  all  their  life, 
**  since  Christ  commanded  all  his  apostles  and 
"  priests  to  go  into  all  the  world,  and  to  preach 
*'  the  gospel?  Certainly  they  are  open  fools,  and 
"  do  plainly  against  the  gospel ;  and  if  they 
'*  continue  in  this  error,  are  accursed  of  God,  as 
"  perilous  deceivers,  and  heretics.  For  in  the 
"  best  part  of  the  pope's  law,  it  is  said,  that  each 
"  man  who  cometh  to  the  priesthood,  taketh  on 
"  him  the  office  of  a  beadle,  or  a  crier,  to  go 
"  before  doomsday,  and  to  cry  to  the  people  their 
"  sins,  and  the  vengeance  of  God  ;  and  since  men 
"  are  holden  heretics  who  do  against  the  pope's 
*'  law,  are  not  those  priests  heretics,  who  refuse 
'*  to  preach  the  gospel  of  Christ,  and  compel  other 


THE     LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE.  19 

"  true  men  to  leave  the  preaching  of  it?    All  laws  chap. 

"  opposed  to  this  service,  are  opposed  to  God's '. — 

**  law,  and  reason  and  charity,  and  for  the  main- 
"  tenance  of  pride  and  covetousness  in  Antichrist's 
"  worldly  clerks."" 

To  those  who  allege  from  the  gospel,  that 
Magdalene  chose  the  better  part,  in  preferring  a 
contemplative  to  an  active  life,  it  is  replied,  that 
the  quotation  might  have  some  pertinence,  if 
priests  were  women,  and  if  no  command  opposed 
to  a  life  of  solitude  and  uselessness  could  be 
found  in  scripture.  The  result,  indeed,  of  the 
reasonings  commonly  adopted  on  this  subject,  is 
said  to  be,  '*  that  Christ,  when  in  this  world,  chose 
"  the  life  least  suited  to  it,  and  that  he  has  obliged 
"  all  his  priests  to  forsake  the  better  and  take 
"the  worse.  It  is  thus,"  he  adds,  "these  de- 
"  ceivers  put  error  on  Jesus  Christ.  *  *  *  Prayer,'' 
it  is  cautiously  affirmed,  "  is  good,  but  not  so 
"  good  as  preaching  ;  and,  accordingly,  in  preach- 
"  ing,  and  also  in  praying,  in  the  giving  of  sacra- 
"  ments,  the  learning  of  the  law  of  God,  and  the 
"  rendering  of  a  good  example  by  purity  of  life, 
"  in  these  should  stand  the  life  of  a  priest."'^ 
Such  were  the  opinions  of  Wycliffe  with  respect 
to  preaching,  as  compared  with  the  other  duties 
of  the  christian  minister,  and  from  his  adherence 
to  these  arose  much  of  his  efficiency  as  a  re- 
former. Opinions  so  true,  so  practical,  and  so 
plainly  stated,  could  not  have  been  reiterated  in 
vain  ;    and  we   find   them   creatins:   the  class  of 


"  MS.  Of  a  Feigned  Contemplative  '^  MS.  Contra  Fratres,  Bibl.  Bodl. 

Life,    &c.    Trinity    College,    Dublin,        Arch    A.  83. 
class  C.  tab.  3.  No.  12. 


20  THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLTFFE. 

CHAP,  men,  called  by  the  rector  of  Lutterworth,  ''poor 

"  priests  ;" — persons,  whose  itinerant  preaching, 

we  shall  presently  see,  was  laboriously  directed 
to  discredit  the  superstitions,  and  to  advance  the 
piety  of  their  countrymen. 
Methods  of  While  such  was  the  place  assigned  by  the  re- 
former to  the  office  of  preaching,  it  may  be  proper 
to  remark,  that  to  the  commencement  of  the  thir- 
teenth century,  two  methods  of  performing  this 
service  had  prevailed.  These  were  technically 
called,  "declaring,"  and  "  postulating,"  According 
to  the  former,  the  preacher  commenced,  by  an- 
nouncing the  subject  on  which  he  meant  to  dis- 
course, and  proceeded  to  deliver,  what  in  modern 
language  would  be  considered  an  oration,  or  an 
essay,  rather  than  a  sermon.  To  postillate,  was 
to  commence  with  reading  a  portion  of  scripture, 
and  then  taking  its  parts,  in  the  order  of  the 
writer,  to  offer  such  remarks  upon  them,  as  were 
fitted  to  explain  their  meaning,  and  secure  their 
application.  To  the  latter  method,  which  is  the 
same  with  what  is  still  called  lecturing,  or  expo- 
sition, another  was  added  about  this  period,  and 
one  by  which  the  ancient  practice  of  declaring  was 
ere  long  nearly  abolished,  and  the  far  better  cus- 
tom of  postillating  was  rendered  much  less  fre- 
quent. The  sacred  text  had  been  recently  divided 
into  its  present  order  of  chapters;  and  the  logic 
to  which  the  schoolmen  were  so  devoted,  sug- 
gested the  selecting  of  some  brief  portion  of 
scripture  as  the  basis  of  a  sermon,  and  also  that 
the  matters  introduced  to  illustrate  the  doctrine  or 
duty  to  be  discussed,  should  be  divided  and  sub- 
divided, in  the  manner  still  so  generally  adopted 


THE     LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE.  21 

by  preachers."      The   sacred   writings   were  too  chap. 

highly  valued  by  Wyclifte,  to  be  dispensed  with '- — 

as  the  obvious  foundation  of  the  instructions  de- 
livered by  him  from  the  pulpit.  This  motive,  also, 
which  led  him  to  avoid  the  practice  of  declaring, 
appears  to  have  rendered  him  doubtful  concerning 
the  utility  of  the  new  scholastic  mode  of  teaching, 
and  to  have  determined  his  general  preference  of 
the  expository  method. 

His  compositions  for  the  pulpit,  therefore,  which  cimracter 
have  descended  to  us,  are  nearly  all  of  the  class  sermons. 
described  as  "  postils."  They  are  also  the  produc- 
tion of  different  periods,  through  the  interval  from 
1376,  when  the  writer  became  rector  of  Lutter- 
worth, to  the  close  of  1384.  In  some  instances, 
they  consist  of  little  more  than  a  few  brief  notes, 
appended  to  a  vernacular  translation  of  the  lesson 
for  the  day,  in  others  they  approach  nearer  to  the 
length  of  a  modern  sermon.  But,  when  filling  seve- 
ral closely-written  folio  pages,  we  know  not  how  far 
to  regard  them  as  exhibiting  any  thing  beyond 
the  spirit  or  the  general  manner  of  the  reformer's 
efforts  as  a  preacher.     That  he  wholly  restricted 


"  Wood  i.  58,  59.     Knighton,  col.  "  of  certain  novices,  whohave  invented 

2430.     The  former  writer  lias   intro-  "  a  new  way  of  preaching,  by  endless 

duced    friar    Bacon,     as    bitterly    la-  "  divisions  and   quibblings,   in  which 

menting  the  prevalence    of  the   scho-  "  there  is  neither  sublimity  of  style, 

lastic  methods   of  preaching,    and  as  "  nor    depth    of   wisdom,    but    much 

accounting  for  its   adoption   in  a  way  "  childish  trilling  and  folly,  unsuitable 

not  very  honourable  to  the  contempo-  "  to  the  dignity  of  the  pulpit.     May 

rary   clergy.     "  The   greatest   part  of  "  God,"    he    exclaims,    "  banish   this 

"  our  prelates,"  he  observes,  "  having  "conceited     and     artificial     way     of 

"  but  little  knowledge  in  divinity,  and  "  preaching  out  of  his  church,  for  it 

"  having  been  little  used  to  preaching  "  will  never  do  any  good,  nor  elevate 

"  in  their  youth,  when   they  become  "  the  hearts   of   the   hearers    to    any 

"  bishops,  and  are  sometimes  obliged  "  thing  that  is  good   or  excellent." 

"  to  preach,   are  under  a  necessity  of  Henry's  Hist.  viii.  182—18-7. 
•'  begging  and  borrowing  the  sermons 


22  THE    LIFE    OF    M'YCLIFFE. 

CHAP. himself,  in  any  case,  to  what  he  had  written,  is 
'. —  improbable,  from  his  known  facility  of  extem- 
poraneous communication,  and  from  the  fact  that 
these  preparations  for  the  pulpit,  sometimes  re- 
semble the  mere  specifications  of  topics,  rather 
than  any  regular  discussion  of  them.  Nor  is  it 
certain,  indeed,  that  their  publication  was  the  act 
of  the  reformer,  or  at  all  anticipated  by  him.  They 
contain  nothing  opposed  to  the  supposition  of  their 
having  been  collected  and  published  after  his  de- 
cease ;  and  the  character  of  Purvey,  his  curate  at 
that  period,  renders  it  certain  that  a  careful  eftbrt 
would  be  made  to  preserve  every  such  document. 
But  through  whatever  medium  the  copies  of  these 
discourses  have  been  transmitted,  we  may  safely 
conclude  that  what  they  contain  was  delivered  to 
the  people  of  Lutterworth  by  their  rector ;  and 
there  is  scarcely  a  peculiarity  of  opinion  adopted 
by  Wycliffe,  the  nature,  or  the  progress  of  which, 
might  not  be  illustrated  from  these  voluminous  re- 
mains. It  should  also  be  stated,  that  these  com- 
positions are  strictly  of  a  popular  character. 
References  to  abstruse  or  speculative  questions 
frequently  arise,  either  from  the  import  of  the  text, 
or  from  the  reasonings  suggested  by  it ;  but  these 
are  almost  invariably  dismissed,  that  "  things  more 
"  profiting"  might  become  the  matter  of  attention. 
Through  the  whole,  the  multiplied  corruptions  of 
the  hierarchy  are  vigorously  assailed,  as  forming 
the  great  barrier  to  all  religious  improvement. 
The  social  obligations  of  men  are  also  frequently 
discussed,  and  traced  with  a  cautious  firmness  to 
the  authority  of  the  scriptures  ;  while  the  doctrines 
of  the  gospel  are  uniformly  exhibited,  as  declaring 


THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE.  23 

the  guilt,  and  the  spiritual  infirmities  of  men,  to  be  chap. 

such  as  to  render  the  atonement  of  Christ  their 

only  way  of  pardon,  and  the  grace  of  the  divine 
Spirit  their  only  hope  of  purity.  A  few  extracts 
will  farther  assist  the  reader  in  judging  of  the  man- 
ner in  which  the  reformer  discharged  the  duties 
of  the  humble  but  important  office  of  village 
preacher. 

It  is  thus  he  addressed  his  parishioners,  on  the  "'"nodeof 

'  treating-  tlie 

oblie^ation  of  priests,  to  extend  their  services  as  questions  of 

"  ^  .  reform  from 

preachers  to  the  village  and  the  hamlet,  and  to  twe  puipn. 

the  most   scattered   portions   of  the   community. 

"  The  gospel  telleth  us  the  duty  which  falls  to  all 

"  the  disciples  of  Christ,  and  also  telleth  us  how 

"  priests,  both  high  and  low,  should  occupy  them- 

**  selves  in  the  church  of  God,  and  in  serving  him. 

"  And  first,  Jesus  himself  did  indeed  the  lessons 

"  which  he  taught.     The  gospel  relates  how  Jesus 

"  went  about  in  the  places  of  the  country,  both 

*'  great   and    small,   as  in  cities   and   castles,   or 

"  small  towns,  and  this  to  teach  us  to  profit  gene- 

"  rally  unto  men,  and  not  to  forbear  to  preach 

"  to  a  people  because  they  are  few,  and  our  name 

"  may   not,   in  consequence,  be  great.     For  we 

"  should  labour  for  God,  and  from  him  hope  for 

"  our   reward.     There  is    no  doubt,   that  Christ 

**  went  into  small  uplandish  towns,  as  to  Beth- 

"  phage,  and  Cana  in  Galilee ;   for  Christ  went  to 

"  all  those  places  where  he  wished  to  do  good. 

"  And  he  laboured  not  thus  for  gain,  for  he  was 

**  not  smitten  with  pride  or  with  covetousness."^" 

In  a  subsequent  discourse,  he  remarks,  that  *'  it 

"  was   ever   the  manner  of  Jesus    to   speak    the 

^-J  Homilies,  Bib.  Reg.  xviii.  b.  ix.  134. 


24  THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE. 

c  HA  P.  <' morels  of  God,   wherever   he   knew  that  they 

**  would  be  profitable  to  others  who  heard  them  ; 

**  and  hence  Christ  often  preached,  now  at  meat, 
"  and  now  at  supper,  and  indeed  at  whatever  time 
"  it  was  convenient  for  others  to  hear  him."^'  It 
is  accordingly  regretted,  that  the  *' craft  of  the 
**  fiend"  had  given  that  form  to  the  jurisdiction  of 
the  prelates,  which  greatly  prevented  good  men 
in  their  attempts  to  imitate  those  retired  eiforts  in 
the  cause  of  humanity  and  religion,  which  appear 
so  lovely  in  the  history  of  the  Saviour.  While 
Hebrew  priests  admitted  the  Master  to  their  syna- 
gogues, the  successors  of  the  apostles  are  said  to 
exclude  his  servants  from  their  churches." 

In  an  exposition  of  the  epistle  read  on  the 
third  Sunday  after  advent,  he  thus  proceeds ; — 
"  Let  a  man  so  guess  of  us,  as  of  the  ministers  of 
"  God,  and  as  dispensers  of  his  services.  And  if 
"  each  man  should  be  found  true  in  this  matter, 
**  priests,  both  high  and  low,  should  be  found 
"  more  true.  But  most  foul  is  the  failure  and 
"  the  sin  of  priests  in  this  respect.  As  if  ashamed 
"  to  appear  as  the  servants  of  Christ,  the  pope 
*'  and  his  bishops  show  the  life  of  emperors,  and 
"  of  the  lordly  in  the  world,  and  not  the  living  of 
**  Christ.  But  since  Christ  hated  such  things, 
"  they  give  us  no  room  to  guess  them  to  be  the 
*'  ministers  of  Christ.  And  so  they  fail  in  the 
"  first  lesson  which  Paul  teacheth  in  this  scrip- 
'*  ture.  Lord  !  what  good  doth  the  idle  talk  of  the 
"  pope,  who  must  be  called  of  men  most  blessed 
"  father,  and  bishops  most  reverend  men,  while 
"  their  life  is  discordant  from  that  of  Christ?    In 

21  Horn.  Bib.  Rep.  p.  1G9  -  Ibid.  131. 


THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE.  25 

"  SO  taking  of  these  names,  they  show  that  they  chap. 

"  are  on  the  fiend's  side,  and  children  of  the  father 

"  of  falsehood.  After  St.  Gregory,  the  pope  may 
"  say,  that  he  is  the  servant  of  the  servants  of 
"  God,  but  his  life  reverseth  his  name ;  for  he 
"  faileth  to  follow  Christ,  and  is  not  the  dispenser 
"  of  the  services  which  God  hath  bidden,  but  de- 
"  parteth  from  this  service  to  that  lordship  which 
"  emperors  have  bestowed.  And  thus,  all  the 
"  services  of  the  church,  which  Christ  hath  ap- 
"  pointed  to  his  priests,  are  turned  aside,  so  that 
"  if  men  will  take  heed  to  that  service  which 
"  Christ  hath  thus  limited,  it  is  all  turned  upside 
"  down,  and  hypocrites  are  become  rulers. "^^ 
But  it  would  have  been  of  small  service  to  have 
shown  that  the  ruling  clergy  were  little  worthy  of 
the  regard  which  their  titles  claimed  for  them, 
unless  some  protection  could  be  afforded  from  the 
usual  consequences  of  clerical  displeasure.  To 
this  point  the  remaining  portion  of  the  sermon 
distinctly  relates.  The  apostle  is  noticed  as 
affirming,  "  that  in  his  case  it  was  a  small  thing 
"  to  be  judged  of  man's  judgment;"  and  from 
this  it  is  observed,  "  that  men  should  not  suppose 
"  themselves  injured  by  the  blind  judgment  of 
"  men,  since  God  will  judge  all  things,  whether 
"  to  good  or  evil.  Paul  therefore  taketh  little 
*'  heed  to  the  judgment  that  man  judgeth,  for 
"  he  knew  well,  from  the  scriptures,  that  if  God 
"  judgeth  thus,  then  man's  judgment  must  stand, 
"  and  not  else.  Thus  there  are  two  days  ol" 
"  judgment,  the  day  of  the  Lord,  and  man's 
"  day.     The  day  of  the  Lord  is  the  day  of  doom, 


26  THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE. 

CHAP.  ♦*  when  he  shall  judge  all  manner  of  men;  the 
— '. —  "  day  of  man  is  now  present,  when  man  judgeth, 
**  and  by  the  law  of  man.  Now  every  present 
"  judgment  must  be  reversed,  if  it  ought  reverseth 
**  reason.  But  at  the  day  of  doom,  all  shall  stand 
•*  according  to  the  judgment  of  God.  That  is  the 
"  day  of  the  Lord,  because  then  all  shall  be  as  he 
"  will,  and  nothing  shall  reverse  his  judgment; 
"  and  St.  Paul  therefore  saith,  '  Judge  nothing 
**  before  the  time,  until  the  time  of  the  Lord  come, 
**  the  which  shall  light  the  hidden  things  of  dark- 
**  ness,  and  shall  make  known  the  counsels  of  the 
"  heart.' — And  this  moveth  many  men  to  think 
"  day  and  night  upon  the  law  of  God,  for  that 
"  leadeth  to  a  knowledge  of  what  is  God's  will, 
"  and  without  a  knowledge  of  this  should  man  do 
"  nothing,  and  this  also  moveth  men  to  forsake 
"  the  judgment  of  man.  To  St.  Paul,  the  truth 
**  of  holy  writ,  which  is  the  will  of  the  first  Judge, 
"  was  enough  until  doomsday.  Stewards  of  the 
"  church,  therefore,  should  not  judge  merely  ac- 
**  cording  to  their  own  will,  but  always  accord- 
**  ing  to  the  law  of  God,  and  in  things  of  which 
"  they  are  certain.  But  the  laws  and  judgments 
"  which  Antichrist  has  brought  in,  and  added 
'*  to  the  law  of  God,  mar  too  much  the  church  of 
"  Christ.  For  with  the  stewards  of  the  church, 
**  the  laws  of  Antichrist  are  the  rules  by  which 
"  they  make  officers  therein  ;  and  to  deceive  the 
"  laity.  Antichrist  challengeth  to  be,  in  such  things, 
**  fully  God's  fellow ;  for  he  affirms  that,  if  he 
"  judgeth  thus,  his  will  should  be  taken  for  reason, 
"  whereas  this  is  the  highest  point  that  falleth 
"  to  the  godhead.     Popes,  and   kings,  therefore. 


THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE.  27 

*'  should  seek  a  reason  above  their  own  will,  for  chap. 
"such  blasphemy  often  bringeth  to  men  more__l_ 
"  than  the  pride  of  Lucifer.  He  said  he  would 
"  ascend,  and  be  like  the  Most  High,  but  he  chal- 
'*  lenged  not  to  be  the  fellow  of  God,  even  with 
"  him,  or  passing  him!  May  God  bring  down 
"  this  pride,  and  help,  that  his  word  may  reverse 
'*  that  of  the  fiend !  Well  indeed,  I  know,  that 
"  when  it  is  at  the  highest,  this  smoke  shall  dis- 
**  appear."  ^*  The  advice  of  the  preacher  in  con- 
clusion is,  that  his  hearers  should  study  the 
will  of  God,  and  thus  learn  to  cherish  an  inde- 
pendence of  the  judgments  pronounced  upon 
them  by  "popes  or  prelates,"  inasmuch  as  such 
decisions  "stretch  not  to  doomsday" — the  pe- 
riod, when  the  will  of  God  shall  be  felt  as  su- 
preme, and  unalterable. 

One  more  extract  must  be  sufficient,  to  illus- 
trate the  manner  in  which  the  reformer  was  accus- 
tomed to  notice  the  disorders  of  the  hierarchy 
from  the  pulpit.  "  Freedom,"  it  is  remarked,  "is 
"  much  coveted,  as  men  know  by  nature,  but 
"  much  more  should  christian  men  covet  the 
"  better  freedom  of  Christ.  It  is  known,  however, 
"  that  Antichrist  hath  enthralled  the  church  more 
"  than  it  was  under  the  old  law,  though  then 
"  the  service  was  not  to  be  borne.  New  laws  are 
"  now  made  by  Antichrist,  and  such  as  are  not 
"  founded  on  the  laws  of  the  Saviour.  More 
"  ceremonies  too  are  now  brought  in  than  were 
"  in  the  old  law,  and  more  do  they  tarry  men 
"  in  coming  to  heaven,  than  did  the  traditions  of 
"  the  Scribes  and  Pharisees.     One  cord  of  this 

•■'  Horn.  Bib.  Rcir. 


28  THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE. 

CHAP.  *'  thraldom,  is  the  lordship  claimed  by  Antichrist, 

'. "  as  being  full  lord  both  of  spirituals  and  tem- 

"  porals.     Thus  he  turneth   christian  men  aside 
"  from   serving  Christ  in   christian   freedom ;   so 
"  much  so,  that  they  might  well  say  as  the  poet 
'*  saith  in   his   fable  the   frogs  said   to  the   har- 
'*  row — *  Cursed  be   so  many  masters.'     For  in 
'*  this  day,  christian  men  are  oppressed,  now  with 
"  popes,  and  now  with  bishops,  now  with  cardi- 
"  nals  under  popes,  and  now  with  prelates  under 
"  bishops,  and  now  their  head  is  assailed  with 
**  censures, — in  short,  buffeted  are  they  as  men 
"  would  serve  a  football.     But  certainly,  if  the 
"  Baptist  were  not  worthy  to  loose  the  latchet  of 
'*  the  shoe  of  Christ,  Antichrist  hath  no  power 
**  thus  to  impede  the  freedom  which  Christ  hath 
*'  bought.     Christ  gave  this  freedom  to  men,  that 
"  they  might  come  to  the  bliss  of  Heaven  with 
'*  less  difficulty ;  but  Antichrist  burdens  them,  that 
**  they  may  give  him  money.     Foul,  therefore,  is 
**  this  doing,  with  respect  both  to  God  and  his 
"  law.     Ever  also  do  these  hypocrites  dread  lest 
"  God's  law  should  be  shown,  and  they  should 
**  thus  be  convicted  of  their  falsehood.     For  God 
"  and  his  law  are  most  powerful;    and  for  a  time, 
"  only,    may   these   deceivers   hold   men   in   the 
"  thraldom  of  Satan." '^' 
Extracts         But  whilc   thcsc   and  similar   evils   were  fre- 
theiheoio.  quently  noticed  in  the  sermons  of  the  reformer, 
trineandthe  aud  always  in  this  intrepid  temper,  the  flock  com- 
feeiingofhis  mittcd  to  his  care,  as  rector  of  Lutterworth,  was  far 
addresses,    from  bciug  uuaccustomed  to  the  sound  of  themes 
more  devotional  in  their  character,  and  less  con- 

'»  Horn.  Bib.  Reg. 


THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE.  29 

iiected  with  the  passions  too  commonly  excited  by  chap. 

controversy.     The  following  is  the  substance  of  a '- — 

sermon  delivered  by  him  on  a  Christmas  day,  and 
upon  the  passage  in  Isaiah,  beginning  with  the 
words,  "  Unto  us  a  child  is  born."  "  On  this 
"  day  we  may  affirm  that  a  Child  is  born  to  us, 
"  since  Jesus,  according  to  our  belief,  was  this 
"  day  born.  Both  in  figure,  and  in  letter,  God 
"  spake  of  old  to  this  intent,  that  to  us  a  Child 
"  should  be  born,  in  whom  we  should  have  joy. 
"  From  this  speech  of  Isaiah,  three  short  lessons 
*'  are  to  be  delivered,  that  men  may  rejoice  in  the 
"  after-services  of  this  Child.  First,  we  hold  it 
"  as  a  part  of  our  faith,  that  as  our  first  parents 
"  had  sinned,  there  must  be  atonement  made  for 
"  it,  according  to  the  righteousness  of  God.  For 
"  as  God  is  merciful,  so  he  is  full  of  righteousness. 
*'  But  except  he  keep  his  righteousness  in  this 
**  point,  how  may  he  judge  all  the  world?  There 
"  is  no  sin  done  but  what  is  against  God,  but  this 
"  sin  was  done  directly  against  the  Lord  Al- 
"  mighty,  and  Allrightful.  The  greater  also  the 
"  Lord  is,  against  whom  any  sin  is  done,  the 
"  greater  always  is  the  sin, — just  as  to  do  against 
"  the  king's  bidding  is  deemed  the  greatest  of 
"  offences.  But  the  sin  which  is  done  against 
"  God's  bidding  is  greater  without  measure.  God 
"  then,  according  to  our  belief,  bid  Adam  that  he 
"  should  not  eat  of  the  apple.  Yet  he  broke 
"  God's  command ;  nor  was  he  to  be  excused 
"  therein  by  his  own  weakness,  by  Eve,  nor  by 
"  the  serpent ;  and  hence,  according  to  the  righ- 
"  teousness  of  God,  this  sin  must  always  be  pu- 
"  nished.     It  is  to  speak  lightly,  to  say  that  God 


30  THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE. 

CHAP.  *'  might  of  his  mere  power  forgive  this  sin,  without 

! "  the  atonement  which  was  made  for  it,  since  the 

**  justice  of  God  would  not  suffer  this,  but  re- 
"  quires  that  every  trespass  be  punished  either  in 
**  earth  or  in  hell.  God  may  not  accept  a  person, 
"  to  forgive  him  his  sin  without  an  atonement, 
/*  else  he  must  give  free  licence  to  sin,  both  in 
"  angels  and  men,  and  then  sin  were  no  sin,  and 
**  our  God  were  no  God ! 

**  Such  is  the  first  lesson  we  take  as  a  part  of  our 
*'  faith ;  the  second  is,  that  the  person  who  may 
'*  make  atonement  for  the  sin  of  our  first  father, 
**  must  needs  be  God  and  man.  For  as  man's  nature 
**  trespassed,  so  must  man's  nature  render  atone- 
"  ment.  An  angel  therefore  would  attempt  in  vain 
**  to  make  atonement  for  man,  for  he  has  not  the 
**  power  to  do  it,  nor  was  his  the  nature  that  here 
**  sinned.  But  since  all  men  form  one  person,  if 
"  any  member  of  this  person  maketh  atonement, 
**  the  whole  person  maketh  it.  But  we  may  see 
"  that  if  God  made  a  man  of  nought,  or  strictly 
•'  anew,  after  the  manner  of  Adam,  yet  he  were 
**  bound  to  God,  to  the  extent  of  his  power  for 
**  himself,  having  nothing  wherewith  to  make 
*'  atonement  for  his  own,  or  for  Adam's  sin. 
**  Since  then,  atonement  must  be  made  for  the 
**  sin  of  Adam,  as  we  have  shown,  the  person 
"  to  make  the  atonement  must  be  God  and  man, 
**  for  then  the  worthiness  of  this  person's  deeds 
**  were  even  with  the  unworthiness  of  the  sin." 
From  this  necessity  of  an  atonement  for  sin, 
and  of  the  incarnation  that  it  might  be  made,  the 
conclusion  is  said  to  follow,  that  the  Child  born 
must  needs  be  God  and  man.     The  doctrine  of 


THE    LIFE     OF    WYCLIFFE.  31 

the  discourse  is  then  made  to  assume  a  practical  chap. 

bearing.      "  And     we    suppose,"    observes    the '- — 

preacher,  '*  that  this  Child  is  only  born  to  the 
"  men  who  follow  him  in  his  manner  of  life,  for 
"  he  was  born  against  others.  The  men  who  are 
"  unjust  and  proud,  and  who  rebel  against  God, 
"  may  read  their  judgment  in  the  person  of  Christ. 
"  By  him,  they  must  needs  be  condemned,  and 
**  most  certainly  if  they  continue  wicked  toward 
'*  his  Spirit  to  their  death.  And  if  we  covet  sin- 
**  cerely  that  this  Child  may  prove  to  be  born  to 
"  us ;  have  we  joy  of  him,  and  follow  we  him  in 
**  these  three  virtues,  in  righteousness,  and  meek- 
**  ness,  and  in  patience  for  our  God.  For  whoever 
*'  shall  be  against  Christ  and  his  Spirit  in  these 
*'  unto  his  death,  must  needs  be  condemned  of 
**  this  Child,  as  others  must  needs  be  saved.  And 
"  thus  the  joy  professed  in  this  Child,  who  was 
"  all  meekness,  and  full  of  virtues,  should  make 
*'  men  to  be  children  in  malice,  and  then  they 
"  would  well  keep  this  festival.  To  those  who 
**  would  indulge  in  strife,  I  would  say  that  the 
*'  Child  who  is  born  is  also  Prince  of  peace,  and 
**  loveth  peace,  and  contemneth  men  contrary 
"  to  peace.  Reflect  we  then  how  Christ  came 
"  in  the  fulness  of  time,  when  he  should ;  and 
"  how  he  came  in  meekness,  teaching  us  this  at 
''his  birth;  and  how  he  came  in  patience,  con- 
*'  tinning  even  from  his  birth  unto  his  death ;  and 
**  follow  we  him  in  these  things,  for  the  joy  that 
"  we  here  have  in  him,  and  because  this  joy 
**  in  the  patience  of  Christ  bringeth  to  joy  that 
*'  ever  shall  last."  '" 

26  Horn.  Bib.  Reg. 


32 


THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLTFFE. 


CHAP.      The  doctrines  of  scripture  witli  regard  to  the 

'■ —  person  of  Christ,  and  his  sufferings  considered  as 

the  price  of  our  redemption,  are  of  frequent  occur- 
rence in  these  discourses.  It  was  in  the  following 
manner  that  the  reformer  generally  spoke  on  the 
latter  subject.  "  Men  mark  the  passion  of  Christ, 
'*  and  print  it  on  their  heart,  somewhat  to  follow 
it.  It  was  the  most  voluntary  passion  that  ever 
was  suffered,  and  the  most  luunful.  It  was 
most  voluntary,  and  so  most  meritorious.  Hence, 
■'  when  Christ  went  to  Jerusalem,  he  foretold 
the  form  of  his  passion  to  his  disciples,  and  he 
who  before  concealed  himself  to  come  to  the 
city,  came  now  to  his  suffering  in  a  way  to 
shew  his  free  will.  Hence  also  he  saith  at  the 
"■  supper,  '  With  desire  have  I  coveted  to  eat  of 
this  passover  with  you.'  The  desire  of  his  god- 
head, and  the  desire  of  his  manhood,  moved  him 
"  to  eat  thereof,  and  afterwards  to  suffer.  But 
all  this  was  significant,  and  in  figure  of  his  last 
'"'  supper  which  he  eateth  in  heaven  with  the  men 
whom  he  hath  chosen.  And  since  Christ  suf- 
"  fered  thus  cheerfully  for  the  sins  of  his  brethren, 
"  they  should  suffer  gratefully  for  their  own  sins, 
'  and  should  purpose  to  forsake  them.  This,  in- 
deed, is  the  cause  why  God  would  have  the 
"  passion  of  Christ  rehearsed — the  profit  of  the 
"  brethren  of  Christ,  and  not  his  own.  But  the 
"  ;m/;^  of  Christ's  passion,  passed  all  other  pain, 
for  he  was  the  most  tender  of  men,  and  in 
'*  middle  age ;  and  God,  by  miracle,  allowed  his 
mind  to  suffer,  for  else,  by  his  joy,  he  might 
not  have  known  sorrow.  In  Christ's  passion, 
indeed,    were    all    tiiinos,    which    could    make 


TI[E    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE. 


33 


"  his  pain  great,  and  so  make  it  the  more  men-  ^hap 

"  torious.     The   place  was  solemn,   and  the  day 

"  also,  and  the  hour,  the  most  so  known  to  Jews, 
"■  or  heathen  men  ;  and  the  ingratitude,  and  con- 
"  tempt  were  most ;  for  men  who  should  most 
"  have  loved  Christ,  ordained  the  foulest  death, 
"  in  return  for  his  deepest  kindness  !  We  should 
"  also  believe,  that  Christ  suffered  not,  in  any 
"  manner,  but  for  some  certain  reason  ;  for  he 
"  is  both  God  and  man,  who  made  all  things  in 
"  their  number,  and  so  would  frame  his  passion 
"  to  answer  to  the  greatness  of  man's  sin.  Fol- 
"  low  we  then  after  Christ  in  his  blessed  passion, 
"  and  keep  we  ourselves  from  sin  hereafter,  and 
"  gather  we  a  devout  mind  from  him.""^'  The 
reader  will  remember,  that  these  devotional  in- 
structions were  prepared  for  the  usual  auditory  of 
a  parish  church  in  the  fourteenth  century. 

The  following  passages  were  intended  by  the  r)"'^trinooi 
preacher,  to  explain  the  only  sense  in  which  he  "^ 
could  admit  that  men  might  be  said  to  '*  deserve" 
the  felicities  of  heaven.  *'  We  should  know  that 
"  faith  is  a  gift  of  God,  and  that  it  may  not  be 
"  given  to  men  except  it  be  graciously.  Thus, 
"  indeed,  all  the  good  which  men  have  is  of  God, 
"  and  accordingly  when  God  rewardeth  a  good 
"  work  of  man,  he  crowneth  his  own  gift.  This 
"  then  is  also  of  grace,  even  as  all  things  are  of 
"  grace  that  men  have  according  to  the  will  of 
"  God.  God's  goodness  is  the  first  cause  why 
"  he  confers  any  good  on  man  ;  and  so  it  may  not 
"  be  that  God  doeth  good  to  men,  but  if  he  do  it 
"  freely,  by  his  own  grace;  and  with  this  under- 

-•-  Horn.  Bib.  Re-.  i).Gl. 
VOL.    I!.  D 


34  THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE. 

CHAP.  <*  stood,  we  shall  grant  that  men  deserve  of  God." 
— * —  But  the  doctrine  of  short-sighted  men  *'  as  was 
**  Pelagius,  and  others,  who  conceive  that  nothing 
**  may  be,  unless  it  be  of  itself,  as  are  mere  sub- 
**  stances,  is  to  be  scorned,  and  left  to  idiots."     It 
is  then  remarked,  in  connexion  with  the  story  of 
the  centurion,  whose  faith  had  elicited  the  above 
observation,    "  Learn  we  of  this  knight,   to  be 
"  meek  in  heart,  and  in  word,  and  in  deed ;  for 
*'  he  granted  first,  that  he  was  under  man's  power, 
*'  and  yet  by  power  of  man  he  might  do  many 
"  things  ;    much  more  should  we  know  that  we 
*'  are  under  God's  power,  and  that  we  may  do 
"  nothing  but  by  the  power  of  God;  and  woe  shall 
"  hereafter  be  to   us,   if  we   abuse  this  power. 
"  This  root  of  meekness,  therefore,  should  pro- 
*'  duce  in  us  all  other  virtues."     It  is  evident 
that,  in  the  mind  of  the  reformer,  the  doctrine  of 
these  passages,  dangerous  as  its  tendencies  are 
sometimes    said    to    be,  was  connected  with  a 
feeling  of  the  most  sincere  devotion. 
^iati'ons''of       I^  ^s  t^^s  ^^  endeavours  to  strengthen  the  mind 
religion,     ^f  ^hc  chrlstiau  worshipper,  while  suffering  under 
the  adversities  of  life,   and  especially  from  the 
contempt  of  men.     **  As  men  who  are  in  a  fever 
*'  desire  not  that  which  were  best  for  them,  so 
"  men  in  sin  covet  not  that  which  is  best  for 
"  them  in  this  world.     The  world  said  that  the 
**  apostles  were  fools,  and  forsaken  of  God ;  and 
"  so   it  would  say  to-day  of  all   who   live   like 
"  them  ;  for  worldly  joy,  and  earthly  possessions 
"  alone  pleaseth  them,  while  of  heavenly  things, 
"  and  of  a  right  following  after  Christ,  they  savour 
"  not.      And  this   their  choice,   in  the  present 


THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE.  35 

*'  world,  is  a  manifest  proof  against  them,  that,  in  chap. 

'*  soul,  they  are  not  holy,  but  turned  aside  to  the  — '. 

*'  things  of  the  world.  For  as  the  palate  of  a 
*'  sick  man,  distempered  from  good  meat,  moveth 
'*  him  to  covet  things  contrary  to  his  health,  so  it 
**  is  with  the  soul  of  man  when  it  savoureth  not 
"  of  the  law  of  God.  And  as  the  want  of  na- 
*'  tural  appetite  is  a  deadly  sign  to  man,  so  a 
"  wanting  of  spiritual  relish  for  God's  word  is  a 
**  sign  of  his  second  death."  Yet  men  are  said  to 
judge  of  their  participation  in  the  favour  of  God, 
by  the  success  of  their  worldly  enterprises.  But 
to  expose  this  error,  it  is  observed,  *'  we  should 
**  leave  these  sensible  signs,  and  take  the  example 
**  of  holy  men,  as  of  Christ,  and  his  apostles;  how 
**  they  had  not  their  bliss  on  earth,  but  that  here 
"  Christ  ordained  them  pain,  and  the  hatred  of 
**  the  world,  even  much  suffering  to  the  men 
**  whom  he  most  loved,— and  this,  to  teach  us 
"  how  to  follow  him."  It  is  therefore  said  to 
follow,  that  in  this  world  the  marks  of  patient 
suffering  should  much  rather  be  taken  as  those 
which  bespeak  the  love  of  God.^ 

The  connexion  between  this  independence  of  Connection 

'  between 

terrestrial  evils,  and  the  faith  of  the  sfospel,  is^^ithand 

.  or  devotion. 

thus  pomted  out.  **  If  thou  hast  a  full  belief  of 
"  Christ,  how  he  lived  here  on  the  earth,  and 
**  how  he  overcame  the  world,  thou  also  over- 
**  comest  it,  as  a  kind  son.  For  if  thou  takest 
**  heed  how  Christ  despised  the  world,  and  fol- 
'*  lowest  him  here,  as  thou  shouldst  by  the  faith 
**  of  the  Father,  thou  must  needs  overcome  it. 
'*  And  here  it  is  manifest  what  many  men  are  in 

«8  Horn.  Bib.  Reg.  p.  78, 
D  2 


36  THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE. 

CHAP.  '*  this  world.  They  are  not  born  of  God,  nor  do 
— '. —  "  they  believe  in  Christ.  For  if  this  belief  were 
"  in  them,  they  should  follow  Christ  in  the  man- 
"  ner  of  his  life,  but  they  are  not  of  faith,  as  will 
"  be  known  in  the  day  of  doom.  What  man 
"  should  fully  believe  that  the  day  of  doom  will 
"  be  anon,  and  that  God  shall  then  judge  men, 
**  after  what  they  have  been  in  his  cause,  and  not 
"  prepare  himself  to  follow  Christ  for  this  bless- 
"  ing  thereof?  Either  the  belief  of  such  men 
"  sleepeth,  or  they  want  a  right  belief;  since 
"  men  who  love  this  world,  and  rest  in  the  lusts 
"  thereof,  live  as  if  God  had  never  spoken  as  in 
*'  his  word,  or  would  fail  to  judge  them  for  their 
"  doing.  To  all  christian  men,  therefore,  the 
"  faith  of  Christ's  life  is  needful,  and  hence  we 
"  should  know  the  gospel,  for  this  telleth  the  be- 
"  lief  of  Christ. "-^^ 


*  Horn.  Bib.  Reg  p.  70.     It  may  be  liad  been  presented   to  the  public,  nor 

due  to  myself  to  .state,  tliat  previous  to  have  they  been  at  all  quoted,  so  as  to 

the  publication  of  the  present  work,  no  assist  the  reader  in  forming  any  judg- 

inforniation,   at  all    satisfactory,  as  to  ment    respecting   them.      Note   to   the 

tlie  general  character  of  tiiese  li(in:i!ies  second  editicm. 


THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE.  37 


CHAPTER  II. 


HISTORY    OF     ATTEMPTS     TOWARD    A    TRANSLATION    OF    THE    SCRIPTURES    INTO 

THE    LANGUAGE     OF     THIS     COUNTRY    BEFORE    THE    AGE    OF     WYCLIFFE^ BV 

THE     ANGLO-SAXON     CLERGY  —  BY     THE     ANGLO-NORMAN.  WYCLIFFe's 

PURPOSE,    AS    EMBRACING     A     TRANSLATION    OF    THE    WHOLE     VOLUME,    AND 

ITS    GENERAL    CIRCULATION,    STRICTLY    A    NOVELTY. THIS   AFFIRMED   BY 

KNIGHTON. SOME    CIRCUMSTANCES    FAVOURABLE  TO    THIS  ENTERPRISE. 

EXTRACTS     EXHIBITING      THE     REFORMER'S     MANNER      OF     DEFENDING     THIS 
EFFORT. THE    INSURRECTION    OF    THE    COMMONS. 

That  the  gospel  was  known  to  the  people  of  chap. 

this  island,  before  the  close  of  the  first  century,  __J 

is  the  general  testimony  of  historians. '  Three 
centuries,  also,  intervened,  before  that  connexion 
between  the  subject  provinces  of  Britain  and  the 
capital  of  the  empire,  which  had  led  to  this  diffu- 
sion of  Christianity,  was  dissolved.  We  have  no 
authority,  however,  for  supposing,  that  any  por- 
tion of  the  sacred  writings  was  possessed  by  our 
Celtic  ancestors,  during  that  period,  in  the  verna- 
cular tongue.  With  the  few,  indeed,  who  could 
read,  the  Latin,  though  introduced  by  their  con- 
querors, was  the  principal  object  of  attention  ;'-' 
and  the  importance  of  obtaining  the  scriptures  in 
their  own  dialect,  which  this  circumstance  served 
greatly  to  diminish,  was  probably  overlooked. 
Subsequently,    the   religion  of  the   Britons  must 

'   Uiilier,  Stillingfleet,  Collier.  from  the  prevalence   of  the  Latin  lan- 

-  Tacitus,  Vita  Ajfric.  c.xxi.   GilJas,        guage,  Britain  niij^ht  Lave  been  called 
Hist.     The  last  writer  obser>es,  that        a  Roman  rather  than  a  British  island. 


38  THE     LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE. 

CHAP,  have   suffered   much    from   their   protracted  war 
1_  with  the  Saxons  ;  and  after  the  arrival  of  Augus- 
tine, nearly  a  century  v^as  occupied  in  bringing 
the  disciples  of  Odin  to  their  partial  acknowledg- 
ment of  the  God  of  the  Christians. 
Attempts        It  was  in  the  seventh  century  that  Cedman, 
traTJiatfon  au  Auglo-SaxoH  monk,  produced  a  composition, 
turerb'JX  which  claimed  the  attention  of  his  countrymen, 
Wis.      as  exhibiting  the  first   application   of  their  lan- 
guage to  sacred  poetry ;  and  as  the  first  attempt 
to  render  any  part  of  the  inspired  volume  in  the 
speech  of  our  forefathers."    This  poem,  which  has 
all  the  marks  of  the  antiquity  assigned  to  it,  in- 
cludes the  leading  events  of  Old  Testament  his- 
tory,   as   the   creation  of  the  world,   the  fall   of 
angels   and   of  man,   the  deluge,    the   departure 
from    Egypt,    the   entrance   upon    Canaan,    with 
7oi»-         some  subsequent  occurrences.     In  the  following 
century,    Aldhelm,    bishop   of    Sherborne ;    and 
Guthlac,    the    celebrated    anchoret,    are    among 
the  authors  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  versions  *of  the 
Psalter.     In  the  same  age,  the  venerable  Bede 
prefers  his  claim  to  the  honour  of  a  literal  trans- 

3  Bede,  iv.  24. — On  this  interesting  "  of  the  Scriptares,  previous  to  the 
subject,  Mr.  Lewis's  volume,  intitled  "  opening  of  the  Fifteenth  Centurj," 
"  A  History  of  the  English  Transla-  and  it  determines  every  question  on 
tions  of  the  Bible,"  is  well  known  ;  also  this  subject  to  the  time  of  Wycliffe. 
a  lesser  work,  by  Johnson.  The  latter  The  brief  memoirs  of  oor  reformer, 
production, however, thoughfrequently  published  in  connexion  with  the  same 
cited  as  an  authority,  and  honoured  work,  I  should  have  noticed  in  the 
with  a  place  among  bishop  Watson's  Preface,  had  I  not  been  sensible  that 
Theological  Tracts,  is  strangely  inac-  the  writer  is  too  well  acquainted  with 
curate.  I  have  found  no  better  guide  these  things,  not  to  be  fully  aware, 
than  Mr.  Baber,  a  gentleman  to  whose  that  his  notices  respecting  the  sacred 
discernment  the  public  are  indebted  scriptures,  and  his  enlarged  and  re- 
fer a  reprint  of  Wyclifte's  New  Testa-  vised  catalogue  of  the  Wyclifle  manu- 
ment.  To  that  work  a  chapter  is  pre-  scripts,  impart  to  that  portion  of  his 
fixed,  intitled,  "  An  Historical  Account  publication  its  chief  value. 
"  of  (he  Suxou  and  English  \  eisions 


THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE.  39 

lation  of  St.  John's  gospel/     A  manuscript  copy  chap. 

of  the  Latin  gospels,  with  a  Saxon  version  inter-  '. 

lined,  known  by  the  name  of  the  Durham  book, 
is  attributed  on  probable  evidence  to  about  the 
time  of  Alfred.*  The  Rushworth  Gloss,  is  a 900. 
Latin  transcript  of  the  same  portion  of  the  sacred 
volume,  with  a  Saxon  translation,  introduced  after 
the  same  manner,  the  latter  being  apparently  the 
production  of  the  tenth  century."  Among  the 
valuable  manuscripts  of  Benet  College,  Cam- 
bridge, is  a  third  copy  of  the  gospels  in  the 
Saxon  tongue,  written  a  little  before  the  con- 
quest ;  and  a  fourth,  which  belongs  to  the  same  loao. 
period,  and  appears  to  have  been  copied  from  the 
former,  may  be  seen  in  the  Bodleian  library.' 
But  an  ecclesiastic,  who  did  more  than  all  his 
brethren  toward  supplying  his  countrymen  with 
the  scriptures  in  their  own  language,  was  Elfric. 
This  industrious  scholar  lived  during  the  reign 
of  Ethelred,  and  subscribes  himself,  at  different 
periods,  as  monk,  mass  priest,  and  abbot.  In  his  1000. 
epitome  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament,  com- 
posed for  Sigwerd,  a  nobleman,  we  are  informed, 
that  at  the  request  of  various  persons,  he  had 
translated  the  Pentateuch,  the  books  of  Joshua 
and  Judges,  those  of  Esther,  Job,  and  Judith, 
also  the  two  books  of  Maccabees,  with  part  of 
the  first   and  second   book  of  Kings.  ^      Alfred, 

■•  Baber.  Cutbberti  Vita  Ven.  Bedae.  its  former  possessor,  John  Rushworth, 

5   It    is    preserved    in    the    British  Esq.   of  Lincoln's -inn.      Baber,    nbi 

Museum,  Nero,  D.iv.  and  is  described  supra. 

by  Mr.  Baber,  as  the  finest  specimen  7  ]bid. 

of  Saxon  calligraphy  and  decoration  ^  Turner's    Hist.  iii.  442.      Baber. 

extant.  The    extent    of    Elfric's    labours     is 

*  This  is  in  the  Bodleian,  D.  xxiv.  learnt,  as  stated  above,  from  various 

No.  3964.     It  derived  its  name  from  incidental  notices  occurring  in  such  of 


Alls 

Noim.'iii 


40  THE     LIFE    OF    AVYCLIFFE. 

CHAP,  whose  name  is  associated  by  the  admiration  of 

'. —  our  ancestors,  with   ahuost  every  thing  enhght- 

ened  in  their  polity  or  rehgion,  is  noticed  as 
having  prefixed  a  translation  of  certain  passages 
from  the  Mosaic  writings  to  his  code  of  laws  ; 
and  he  is  said  to  have  made  a  considerable  pro- 
gress in  a  Saxon  version  of  the  Psalms  a  little 
previous  to  his  death. ^ 
By  the  This,  however,  is  the  extent  of  our  information, 

on  this  interesting  question,  as  connected  with 
the  Anglo-Saxon  period  of  our  history.  The 
Anglo-Norman  clergy  were  far  more  competent 
to  have  supplied  their  flock  with  this  efficient 
means  of  sacred  knowledge  ;  but,  in  this  respect, 
the  example  of  their  predecessors  was  slighted, 
or  rather  disapproved.  Some  fragments  of  scrip- 
tural truth  may  have  been  preserved  by  means  of 
certain  lessons  which  occurred  in  the  ritual  of  the 
period  ;  but  the  first  attempt,  after  the  conquest, 
to  place  any  more  complete  portion  of  the  scrip- 
tures before  the  English  people,  appears  to  have 
been  made  by  the  author  of  a  rhyming  paraphrase 
on  the  Gospels  and  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  in- 
titled  '*  Ormulum."^"  Subsequent  to  the  date  of 
this  work,  which  evidently  belongs  to  one  of  the 

liis  works  as  have  descended  to  us.  "  very  wise  is  lie  who  speaketh  by  liis 
In  his  Epitome  of  the  Old  and  New  "  doings  ;  and  well  proceedeth  lie  both 
Testament,  lie  has  not  only  made  his  "  with  God  and  with  the  woild,  who 
selection  from  tlie  scriptures,  but  has  "  furnisheth  himself  with  good  works. 
fre(iueiitly  added  things  to  the  sacred  "  And  very  plain  it  is  in  holy  scrip- 
story  from  other  writings.  A  copy  of  "  ture,  that  holy  men  employed  in  well 
this  work,  printed  with  an  English  "  doing,  were  in  this  world  held  in 
translation  by  William  L'IsIe  in  1G23,  "  good  reputation." 
is  in  the  Bodleian,  and  another  has  9  Spelman,  i.  3.34.  Prefatio  Regis 
been  for  some  time  in  my  possession.  Aluredi,  M.  ad  Leges  suas.  .See  also 
It  is  thus  it  bci^in>  ;   "  Abbot   Elfrike,  Baber,  02. 

"  greeteth  friendly   .Sigwerd,   at    East  i"   Ibid.  Budkian.   .lunius,  i. 
"  IL'olon.     True  it  i.,  I  tell   llice,   ilia! 


THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE.  41 

earliest   stages  of  our   language,   we   perceive   a  chap. 

similar  application  of  mind  in  a  collection  of  me-  '— 

trical  pieces,  called  Salus  Animas,  or  in  English,  '^"''" 
"  Sowlehele.""  In  the  huge  volume  thus  de- 
signated, the  materials  are  not  all  of  the  same 
class.  The  object  of  the  compiler,  or  transcriber, 
seems  to  have  been  to  furnish  a  complete  body  of 
legendary  and  scriptural  history  in  verse,  or  rather 
to  collect  into  one  view,  all  the  religious  history 
he  could  find.  It  professes,  however,  to  exhibit 
an  outline,  both  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament, 
and  its  composition  is  supposed  to  have  preceded  1300. 
the  opening  of  the  fourteenth  century.  In  Benet 
College,  Cambridge,  there  is  another  work  of  the 
same  description,  the  offspring  of  the  same  period, 
and  containing  notices  of  the  principal  events  re- 
corded in  the  books  of  Genesis  and  Exodus.  In 
that  collection,  there  is  also  a  copy  of  the  Psalms 
in  English  metre,  which  is  attributed  to  about 
the  year  1300;  and  two  transcripts,  of  nearly  the 
same  antiquity,  have  been  preserved — the  one  in 
the  Bodleian  library,  the  other  in  that  of  Sir 
Robert  Cotton.'^  But  it  is  not  until  the  middle 
of  the  following  century,  that  we  trace  the  re- 
motest attempt  to  produce  a  literal  translation  1350. 
even  of  detached  portions  of  the  scriptures.  The 
effort  then  made  was  by  Richard  Roll,  called  the 
Hermit  of  Hampole.  His  labours,  also,  were  re- 
stricted to  a  little  more  than  half  the  book  of 
Psalms,  and  to  these  a  devotional  commentary 
was  annexed.  Contemporary  with  this  recluse, 
were  some  devout  men   among  the  clergy,   who 

"   Walton's  History  of  English  Poetry,  sect.  i.     MSS.  Bodleian,  77<J,   Babcr. 
'=  Ibid.  G3. 


42  THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE. 

CHAP,  produced  translations  of  such  passages  from  the 

'. scriptures  as  were  prominent  in  the  offices  of  the 

church ;  while  others  ventured  to  complete  sepa- 
rate versions  of  the  gospels,  or  the  epistles.  The 
persons  thus  laudably  employed  were  certainly 
few  in  number;  but  parts  of  St.  Mark,  and  of  St. 
Luke,  and  of  several  among  the  epistles,  are  in- 
cluded in  the  results  of  their  labour  which  have 
descended  to  us.  It  should  be  added,  that 
these  versions,  which  are  of  various  merit,  were 
generally  guarded  by  a  comment." 
Novelty  of       From  these  details,  as  the  sum  of  our  informa- 

AVycliftVs  .  1-11  r  ■        ■ 

design  in  tion  ou  thc  point  to  which  they  refer,  it  is  evi- 
ti.e  scrip."  dent,  first,  that  a  literal  translation,  of  the  entire 
scriptures — the  laborious  enterprise  completed  by 
WycliiT^  about  this  period — was  strictly  a  novel 
event  in  our  religious  history  ;  and,  secondly, 
that  the  publication  of  such  a  work,  to  be  the 
property,  not  of  distinguished  individuals,  but  of 
the  people  in  general,  was  a  measure  far  beyond 
any  thing  contemplated  by  his  precursors  in  the 
labours  of  translation.  The  only  ground  of  sus- 
picion, in  the  least  degree  plausible,  as  to  the 
claims  of  Wycliffe  to  the  originalty  asserted,  is 
contained  in  a  production  described  as  ''  a  Pro- 
logue to  the  Bible,"  and  in  a  manuscript  of  the 
Bodleian.  The  writer  of  the  Prologue  speaks  of 
being  employed  in  translating  the  whole  Bible, 
and  refers  also  to  an  existing  version.  But  that 
this  document  has  been  erroneously  attributed  to 
Wycliffe,  is  unquestionable,  as  it  adverts  to  more 
than  one  event  subsequent  to  the  decease  of  our 

!•  Briber,  66,  C7.     Lewis. 


THE    LTFK    OF    WYCLIFFE.  43 

reformer.  '^    In  the  Oxford  manuscript,  also,  every  c  ha  p. 

thing  depends  on  the  date  attached  to  it;   but 

here  an  erasure  has  evidently  been  effected  ;  and 
it  is  hardly  to  be  doubted,  that  to  supply  the 
vacancy  thus  produced,  w^ould  be  to  make  the 
work  a  production  of  the  year  1408.*'  The  author 
of  the  Prologue,  noticed  above,  refers  to  an  *'  En- 
"  glyshe  Bible  of  late  translated,"  by  which  he 
evidently  intends  that  produced  by  the  rector  of 
Lutterworth.  In  the  esteem  of  the  reformer's 
opponents,  to  have  produced  our  first  translation 
of  the  sacred  writings  must  have  been  a  very 
doubtful  honour.  It  is  nevertheless  one,  of  which 
they  have  been  not  a  little  concerned  to  deprive 
him. 

Had   their   zeal  in  this  particular  been   much  Testimony 
better  sustained  by  authority,  the   testimony  of  respecting 
Knighton  must  have  been  sufficient  for  ever  to  de-  JsZ^^'^. 
termine  the  question  with  the  unprejudiced  en-  s^ripturel^ 
quirer.     That  historian  must  be  allowed  to  have 
known  the  customs    of  his  contemporaries,  and 
especially  the   place  assigned  by  his  own  order 
to  the  inspired  records,  quite  as  well  as  any  mo- 
dern writer.      Adverting  to  the  zeal  of  WyclifFe 
in   rendering   the  scriptures  the  property  of  the 
people,   he  thus  writes:    "Christ   delivered   his 
"  gospel  to  the  clergy  and  doctors  of  the  church, 
"  that  they  might  administer  to  the  laity  and  to 
**  weaker  persons,  according  to  the  state  of  the 

'^  It  is   a   carious  prodaction,    and  '^  Baber.    Historical   Account  and 

lias   been  twice   printed.      The    refe-  Memoirs  of  Wiclif.    The  present  state 

rences   to    John   Gerson,    to   a   novel  of  the  numerals  referred  to  is  as  fol- 

regulation   in   the   University  of   Ox-  lows,  MCCC    viii.     To  supply  the  va- 

ford,    and   to  the  proceedings   of  the  cancy   would  be,  we  may  reasonably 

parliament  in  1395,  determine  its  date  suppose,  to  form  the  date  assumed  iu 

as  subsequent  to  the  time  of  Wyclifte.  the  text. 


44  THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFK. 

CHAP.  "  times  and  the  wants  of  men.     But  this  master 

L_  "  John  Wycliffe  translated  it  out  of  Latin  into  En- 

"  glish,  and  thus  laid  it  more  open  to  the  laity,  and 
"  to  women,  who  could  read,  than  it  had  formerly 
"  been  to  the  most  learned  of  the  clergy,  even  to 
"  those  of  them  who  had  the  best  understanding. 
'  And  in  this  way  the  gospel  pearl  is  cast  abroad, 
"  and  trodden  under  foot  of  swine,  and  that  which 
"  was  before  precious  to  both  clergy  and  laity,  is 
"  rendered,  as  it  were,  the  common  jest  of  both. 
"  The  jewel  of  the  church  is  turned  into  the  sport 
"  of  the  people,  and  what  was  hitherto  the  principal 
"  gift  of  the  clergy  and  divines,  is  made  for  ever 
"  common  to  the  laity."'"  It  was  thus  the  canon 
of  Leicester  bewailed  the  translation  of  the  Bible 
into  the  language  of  his  country.  To  him,  it  not 
only  appeared  as  a  novelty  in  the  history  of  offences, 
but  as  an  innovation  on  ecclesiastical  discipline, 
amounting  to  nothing  short  of  sacrilege,  and  as 
tending  to  destroy  even  the  appearances  of  religion. 
Nor  can  we  forbear  to  regard  his  sentiments,  in 
this  respect,  as  those  of  his  order  in  the  fourteenth 

''J  De  Eventibus  Col.  2C44.     To  tlie  "  aforesaid,  or  since,  or  hereafter  to 

same  ellect  is  the  decision  of  an  Eng-  "  to  be  composed,  be   read  in   wliole 

lish   Council  in  1408,   with  the  arch-  "  or  iu  part,  in  publi(i  or  in  private, 

bishop   Arundel   at  its  head.      "The  "  under  the  pain  of  tiie  greater  excom- 

"  translation  of  the  text  of  \\o\y  scrip-  "  niunication.  "      Wiikins.     Concilia, 

"  tures  out  of  one  tongue  into  another  iii.  317.     The  .<ipirit  of  this  enactment 

"  is  a  dangerous  thing,  as  St.  Jerome  was  evidently  that  of  the  majority  of 

"  testifies,   because  it  is  not  easy  to  the  clergy  in  the  age  of  WyclifTe.    He 

"  make  the   verse   in  all  respects  the  describes   them   as   affirming  it  to   be 

"  tlie  same.     Tlierefore  we  enact,  and  "  heresy  to  speak  of  the  holy  scrip- 

"  ordain,   that  no   one  henceforth  do,  "tures  in  English."     But  this  is  said 

"  by  his  own  authority,  translate  any  to  be  a  condemnation   of  "  the  Holy 

"  text  of  holy  scripture  into  the  Eng-  "  Ghost,  who  first  gave  the  scriptures  in 

"  lish  tongue,  or  any  other,  by  way  of  "  tongues  to  the  apostles  of  Christ,  as 

"  hook  or  treatise  ;   nor  let  any  such  "it  is  written,  to  speak  the  word  in 

"  book   or   treatise    now    lately   com-  "  all  languages  that  were  ordained  of 

"  posed  in  the  time  of  John  Wyclitle  "  God  under  heaven."     Wicket. 


THE     LIFE    OF    ^VVCLIFFE.  45 

century.     The  historian  no  doubt  knew  that  frag-  chap. 

ments,  and  even  considerable  portions  of  holy  writ,  '- — 

had  been  clothed  in  this  unconsecrated  dialect ; 
but  he  also  knew,  that,  hitherto,  they  were  merely 
parts  of  that  secreted  volume  which  had  been  so 
rendered,  and  that  these  curious  documents  sel- 
dom passed  into  the  hands  of  the  laity,  and  that 
they  were  never  meant  to  pass  into  those  of  the 
people.  Hence,  to  invite  the  community,  with- 
out distinction,  to  the  study  of  the  gospel,  exhort- 
ing them  to  regulate  their  present  conduct,  and 
their  hopes  and  fears  in  relation  to  the  future, 
purely  by  its  sanctions,  is  described  as  the  as- 
sumption of  ground  for  which  no  precedent  could 
be  pleaded,  and  is  justly  viewed  as  threatening 
the  existing  fabric  of  ecclesiastical  power  with 
dissolution. 

Previous  to  the  conquest,  and  through  a  con- 
siderable interval  afterwards,  there  was  little  evil 
to  be  apprehended  from  any  such  employment 
of  the  Bible.  The  repose  of  ignorance  was  too 
profound  to  be  readily  broken,  and  the  vassalage, 
both  of  the  body  and  of  the  mind,  had  been  too 
little  disturbed  to  admit  of  being  speedily  re- 
moved. But  in  the  age  of  Wycliffe,  the  aspect  of 
society  in  England  retained  but  a  faint  tracing 
of  its  earlier  features.  The  augmented  population 
of  the  country,  the  progress  of  commerce,  and  of 
a  representative  government,  and  the  partial 
revival  of  learning,  had  all  contributed  to  im- 
provement ;  and  together  with  the  bolder  en- 
croachments of  the  papacy,  and  that  spirit  of 
complaint  and  resistance  which  these  had  pro- 
duced, were  pre-eminently  favourable  to  the  zeal 


46  THE     LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE. 

CHAP,  of  our  reformer  as  employed  in  applying  the 
■"—  popular  language  to  the  pure  records  of  the  gos- 
pel. His  antagonists,  we  have  seen,  were  by  no 
means  insensible  to  the  probable  results  of  the 
enterprise  in  which  his  energies  were  engaged  ; 
and  to  his  own  discernment,  they  were  obvious  in 
a  much  greater  degree.  He  knew  that  to  render 
the  contents  of  the  Bible  familiar  to  the  people, 
was  to  introduce  a  light  which  must  impart  a 
faithful  colouring  to  the  actions  of  men  ;  and  that 
ignorance,  and  irreligion,  might  well  tremble  for 
their  sway,  when  thus  brought  into  nearest  con- 
1379.  nection  with  their  opposites.  Nearly  twenty 
years  had  now  passed  since  his  first  dispute  with 
the  mendicants ;  and  during  this  period  his  writ- 
ings disclose  a  growing  conviction  as  to  the  suffi- 
ciency of  the  scriptures,  and  the  importance  of 
the  right  of  private  judgment.  The  success,  also, 
which  attended  his  discussions  on  these  points, 
evidently  prepared  him  for  his  present  effort ;  the 
effect  of  which,  according  to  his  enemies,  was  to 
make  the  matters  of  the  gospel  revelation  better 
known  to  the  laity,  and  even  to  females,  than  they 
had  hitherto  been  to  the  most  distinguished  among 
the  clergy." 

'7  Knighton,   Col.  2644.      Another  "  of  the  laws,  and  of  the  pleadings  in 

fact,  which    was  highly  favourable  to  "  the  courts  of  judicature.     Latin  was 

this  great   work   of  the   reformer,    is  "  used  for  the  services  of  the  church, 

thus  briefly  and   luminously  stated  by  "  and  the  general  purposes  of  litera- 

Mr.  Baber  :    "Englishmen  were  now  "  ture  ;  and  the  Anglo-Saxon  remained 

"  beginning   to  be  more  attentive  to  "  chiefly  confined  to  the  commonalty. 

"  their  own  tongue.     Before  the  con-  "  In  the   thirteenth   century,   the   po- 

"  quest,  the  popular  language  had  been  "  pular  language  began  in   some  de- 

"  invaded   by  the  Normannic.     After  "  gree  to  recover  its  rank  ;  the  nobles, 

"  that  event,  as  the  Norman  lords  in-  "  and  the  higher  classes  of  society,  did 

"  creased  in  power,  their  tongue  be-  '■  not,  as  heretofore,  disdain  to  resort 

"  came  the  language  orpolished  society,  "  to  it  as  a  colloquial  tongue  ;  and  ori- 


THE     LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE.  47 

Some  extracts,    illustrative   of  the  arguments  chap. 

with  which  the  reformer  opposed  the  clamours  of '. 

his  adversaries  on  this  question,  will  be  expected  mannefof 

by  the  reader.     These  we  might  select  from  nearly  Sf  "oliduct 

the  whole  of  his  writings,  subsequent  to  the  year'*""''''^"'"' 

1378.     In  one  of  his  earliest  vindications  he  thus 

writes ;  ''  As  it  is  certain  that  the  truth  of  the 

"  christian  faith  becomes  more  evident  the  more 

'*  the  faith  itself  is  known,  and  that  lord  bishops 

"  condemn    in    the   ear  of  secular  lords  what  is 

"  faithful  and  true,  on  account  of  hatred  to  the 

'*  person  who  maintains  it, — honest  men  are  bound 

"  to  declare  the  doctrine  which  they   hold,  not 

'*  only  in  Latin,  but  in  the  vulgar  tongue,  that  the 

"  truth  may   be   more  plainly  and  more  widely 

"  known."     The  writer  then  refers  to  an  Ensflish 

treatise  which   he   had   previously   addressed   to 

secular  lords,  and  in  which  he  had  urged  them  to 

regulate  their  life   "  solely  according  to  the  law 

**  of  Christ."  That  work  is  now  lost,  but  the  Latin 


"  ginal  works,  as  well  as  translations  "  period  numerous  and  striking  ;    for 

"  from  the  productions  of  authors  who  "  our  language,  as  it  was  now  spoken 

"  had  written  in  French,  now  began  to  "  by  the  noble  and  the  learned,  was 

"  appear  in  an  English  dress.     But  at  "  considerably  enriched  by  words  bor- 

"  this  period,  it  must  be  allowed,  our  "  rowed  from  the  Roman  and  French 

"  language  was  rough  and  unpolished,  "  dialects,  and  much  altered  in  its  pro- 

"  and    those   who   wrote    in    it  were  "  nunciation,  its  form,  and  its  termina- 

"  authors  who  possessed  few  ideas  of  "  tions.    Among    the  lower  orders  of 

"  taste   or  elegance.      In  proportion,  "  the    people,    however,    upon    whom 

"  however,  as  the  tyrannical  power  of  "  refinement  makes  but  slow  advances, 

"  the  barons  declined,  and  as  the  paths  "English,   with   respect   to  its    great 

"  which  led  to  honour  and  distinction  "  mass,  preserved  more  of  its  Saxon 

"  became   more   open   to  commoners,  "  origin  and  phraseology.     Such  was 

"  the  English  tongue,  in  the  fourteenth  "  the  slate  of  the  vernacular   tongue 

"  century,  became  more  general,  and  "  at  the  time  in  which  Wiclif  wrote. 

"  its  improvements  were  considerable.  "  The  reformer  quickly  discerned  the 

"  The  accessions  it  had  received,  and  "  advantage  which  might  be  derived 

•' the  changes  it  had  experienced  within  "  from  this  propitious  circumstance." 

"  the  last  three  centuries,  were  at  this  — Memoirs  of  Wiclif,  36,  37. 


48  THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE. 

CHAP,  composition,  under  the  same  title,  is  preserved, 
'  and  in  this  the  author  proceeds  to  state  that 
"  those  heretics  ought  not  to  be  heard,  who  ima- 
"  gine  that  temporal  lords  should  not  possess 
"  the  law  of  God,  but  that  it  is  sufficient  for  them 
"  to  know  what  may  be  learnt  from  the  lips  of 
"  their  priests  and  prelates."  The  error  of  this 
doctrine  is  thus  exposed  :  "As  the  faith  of  the 
"  church  is  contained  in  the  scriptures,  the  more 
"  these  are  known  in  an  orthodox  sense,  the  bet- 
"  ter.  And  since  secular  men  should  assuredly 
"  understand  the  faith,  it  should  be  taught  them 
"  in  whatever  language  is  best  known  to  them. 
"  Inasmuch,  also,  as  the  doctrines  of  our  faith 
"  are  more  clearly  and  precisely  expressed  in  the 
'*  scriptures,  than  they  may  possibly  be  by  priests, 
"  — seeing,  if  one  may  venture  so  to  speak,  that 
"  many  prelates  are  but  too  ignorant  of  scripture, 
"  while  others  conceal  parts  of  scripture, — and  as 
"  the  verbal  instructions  of  priests  have  many 
"  other  defects,  the  conclusion  is  abundantly 
"  plain,  that  believers  should  ascertain  for  them- 
"  selves  the  matters  of  their  faith,  by  having  the 
''  scriptures  in  a  language  which  they  fully  under- 
"  stand.  Besides,  it  was  by  faith,  as  described 
"  by  the  apostle  (Heb.  chap,  xi,),  that  the  saints 
•'  of  old  overcame  kingdoms,  and  hastened  to 
"  their  own  country.  Why  then  should  not  the 
"  things  of  faith  be  disclosed  to  the  people  now, 
"  so  that  they  may  comprehend  them  more 
"clearly?  He,  in  consequence,  who  shall  pre- 
"  vent  this,  or  murmur  against  it,  does  his  utmost 
"  to  continue  the  people  in  a  state  of  unbelief, 
"  and  condemnation.    Hence,  also,  tJie  laws  made 


THE    LIFE    OF    WYCUFFE.  49 

"  by  prelates  are  not  to  be  received  as  matters  of  chap. 

"  faith,  nor  are  we  to  confide  in  their  public  in-  '. 

"  structions,  or  in  any  of  their  words,  but  as  they 
"  are  founded  on  holy  writ ;  for  according  to  the 
"  constant  doctrine  of  Augustine,  the  scriptures 
"  contain  the  whole  of  truth;'*  and  this  translation 
"  of  them  should  therefore  do  at  least  this  good, 
"  viz.  placing  bishops  and  priests  above  suspicion 
"  as  to  the  parts  of  it  which  they  profess  to  ex- 
"  plain.  Other  means  also,  as  prelates,  the  pope, 
"  and  friars,  may  prove  defective ;  and  to  provide 
"  against  this,  Christ,  and  his  apostles,  evangelized 
"  the  greater  portion  of  the  world,  by  making 
"  known  the  scriptures  in  a  language  which  was 
"  familiar  to  the  people.  To  this  end,  indeed, 
"  did  the  Holy  Spirit  endow  them  with  the  know- 
"  ledge  of  all  tongues.  Why,  therefore,  should 
"  not  the  living  disciples  of  Christ  do  as  they  did, 
"  opening  the  scriptures  to  the  people  so  clearly 
"  and  plainly  that  they  may  verily  understand 
"  them,  since,  except  to  the  unbeliever  disposed 
"  to  resist  the  Holy  Spirit,  the  things  contained  in 
''  scripture  are  no  fiction?"  The  reformer  then 
solemnly  inculcates  the  doctrine  of  individual 
responsibility,  as  extending  to  all  the  matters  of 
faith  and  practice.  From  the  certainty,  also,  that 
the  answer  of  a  prelate  or  a  canonist  will  be  of  no 
avail,  in  the  day  when  each  man  shall  stand  before 
the  judgment-seat  of  the  Redeemer,  he  again  vin- 
dicates his  appeal  to  the  right  of  private  judgment, 
and  urges  on  the  laity  the  duty  of  a  devout  atten- 

'8  Doctrina  Christiana,  lib.  ii.  in  fine  "  crees  of  bishops  in  the  church,  are 

ep.  ad   Volusianum,   cited  by  Lewis,  "  of  greater  authority  and  dignity  tliaii 

c.  V.     Walden,  the  known  antagonist  "  is  the  authority  of  the   scriptures." 

of  Wyclifte,  affirmed,  that   "the  de-  Waldcn.  Doc.  Tri.i.  lib.ii.  c.21. 

VOL.    II.  E 


50 


THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE. 


CHAP,  tion  to  whatever  may  promote  their  faith  in  the 
"•  grace  of  the  Saviour,  and  obedience  to  his  will. 
From  motives  thus  enlightened,  did  WyclifFe 
prosecute  his  translation  of  the  Bible.  How  far 
he  was  assisted  in  this  great  work  is  unknown. 
There  is  a  notice  attached  to  one  of  his  Bibles, 
which  attributes  a  translation  of  a  portion  of 
Baruch  to  Nicholas  Hereford.  The  statement  is 
written  in  less  durable  ink  than  the  volume  itself, 
and  in  a  different  hand,  but  is  probably  correct. 
We  know  that  copies  of  the  whole,  or  of  parts, 
of  the  scriptures,  in  the  language  of  the  people, 
were  now  multiplied  with  surprising  rapidity.'^ 
Among  the  manuscripts   which  have  escaped 


'»  MS.  Speculum  Secularium  Domi- 
norum.  Usser.  De  Script.  160.  c.  v. 
Lewis,  o.  V.  Baber's  Historical  Ac- 
count, 69.  When  certain  objections 
were  urged  against  translating  the 
scriptures  into  English,  it  was  re- 
marked that  the  same  might  be  said  of 
rendering  them  from  the  Greek  into 
Latin,  since  it  was  certain  that  ih« 
Latins  had  not  always  used  their  ver- 
sion without  abusing  it.  And  men 
there  were,  who  did  not  hesitate  to  go 
the  length  of  affirming,  that  evil  must 
result  from  submitting  the  scriptures 
to  an  indiscriminate  inspection  in  anj' 
language.  It  is  thus  that  William 
Butler,  a  Franciscan,  and  an  opponent 
of  Wjclifte,  writes  on  this  point :  "  The 
"  prelates  ought  not  to  allow  that  any 
"  person  should  read  the  scriptures 
"  translated  into  Latin,  at  pleasure  ; 
"  because,  as  experience  proves,  this 
"  has  been  the  occasion  of  many  falling 
"  into  heresies  and  errors.  It  is  not, 
"  therefore,  wise  that  any  one,  whenso- 
"  ever  and  wheresoever  he  will,  should 
"  be  left  to  the  eager  study  of  the 
"  scriptures. "^Usser.  De  Script.  163. 
Ijcwis,  c.  V.  Such  was  the  danger  ap- 
prehended from  this  source,  that  some 
twenty  years  after  Wycliffe's  decease, 


it  was  made  a  law  of  the  university  of 
Oxford  "  that  no  man  should  learn  di- 
"  vinity,  neither  holy  writ,  except  he 
"  had  done  his  form  in  art;  that  is, 
"  that  hath  commenced  in  art,  and  hath 
"  been  regent  two  years  after,  which 
"  would  be  nine  years,  or  ten,  before 
"  he  would  learn  holy  writ!  " — Eluci- 
darium  Bibliorum,  c.  xiii. 

Previous  to  the  decision  of  the 
council  of  Trent  on  that  subject,  many 
sound  catholics  discarded  the  apo- 
cryphal writings,  which  had  become 
appended  to  the  Old  Testament. 
(Cosin,  on  the  Canon.)  WyclifFe 
was  guided  chietly  by  the  authority  of 
Jerome,  and  retained  only  such  books 
in  the  sacred  canon  as  are  at  present 
received  by  the  protestant  churches. 
"Satis  est  (ecclesiam)  pro  sui  militia 
"  habere  22  libros  de  veteri  testamento 
"  authenticos  *  *  *  Non  oportet  eccle- 
"  siam  militantem  illis  libris  credere 
"  tanqnam  authenticis.  MS.  DeVeritate 
"  Scripturae."  Yet  to  the  close  of  his 
life  he  continued  to  cite  the  apocryphal 
books  as  a  reputable,  though  not  as  an 
inspired  authority.  An  extract  from 
the  reformer's  translation  of  the  Old 
Testament  may  be  seen  in  the  Appen- 
dix, No.  I. 


THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE.  51 

the  destroying  hand  of  our  native  inquisitors,  are  chap. 

several   which   appear   to    have   been  completed L_ 

before  the  decease  of  the  reformer.  The  effect 
we  learn  from  other  sources  besides  the  invectives 
of  Knighton.  It  was  at  no  mean  cost  of  labour, 
reproach,  and  danger ;  and  with  a  view,  evidently, 
to  the  accomplishment  of  the  most  important  ends, 
that  this  service  was  performed.  The  achieve- 
ment, indeed,  is  one,  which  of  itself  must  vest  the 
name  of  Wycliffe  with  a  peculiar  halo,  in  the  re- 
collections of  every  man  regarding  the  dissolution 
of  the  papal  thraldom  in  this  island,  as  the  fall  of 
ignorance,  oppression,  and  impiety. 

But  while  the  reformer  was  employed  in  this  insurrection 
master- effort  to  enlighten  the  piety  of  his  country-  mona, 
men,  an  insurrection  broke  out  among  the  popu- 
lace, and  one  which  appeared  to  threaten  the 
overthrow  of  every  established  authority.  The 
event  fills  a  prominent  place  in  the  general  history 
of  this  period,  and  the  enemies  of  Wycliffe  cease 
not  to  insinuate,  that  the  violence  of  the  insur- 
gents arose,  in  no  small  degree,  from  the  tendency 
of  his  projected  innovations.  Had  the  name  of 
our  reformer  been  wholly  unconnected  with  this 
memorable  occurrence,  a  distinct  notice  of  its 
causes  and  character  would  not  have  been  foreign 
from  the  design  of  the  present  work.  The  zeal 
of  his  adversaries  has  rendered  this  indispensable. 
The  inquiry,  however,  would  interrupt  our  narra- 
tive very  considerably,  and  I  have  therefore 
thought  it  proper  to  place  the  substance  of  what 
may  be  known  on  this  subject,  in  a  note  at  the 
end  of  the  volume. '^^ 

=0  See  Note  A. 
E  2 


52  THE    LIFE    OF     WYCLIFFE. 


CHAPTER  III. 

TRANSUBSTANTIA7I0N OPPOSED     BY     BERENGARIUS AND      BV     THE     VAUDOIS 

AND      ALBIGENSES NOT      HECOGNISED      BY      THE      ANGLO-SAXON     CHURCH 

DEFENDED    BY   LANFRANC,  AND    ESPOUSED    BY    THE  ANGLO-NORMAN  CLERGY. 

WYCLIFFe's  opposition  to  it. SEVERE  PENALTIES  TO  BE  INFLICTED 

OX    ALL    WHO    SHOULD    FAVOUR    HIS    OPINIONS    CONCERNING    IT, HIS    AP- 
PEAL TO  THE  CIVIL  POWER  FOR  PROTECTION. HIS  FEELING  UNDER  THESE 

PERSECUTIONS. ■ ANALYSIS       OF       HIS       "   WICKET." PROCEEDINGS      OF 

COURTNEY,  AND   THE   SYNOD    AT   THE   GREY    FRIARS. WYCLIFFE   FAVOURED 

BY    THE    UNIVERSITY. • STATE    OF    PARTIES     IN    THE    NATION    UNFRIENDLY 

TO  THE  EFFORTS   OF   THE    REFORMERS. INQUISITORIAL   STATUTE  OBTAINED 

BY  THE  CLERGY. NOTICE  OF  ROBERT  RIGGE,  DR.  HEREFORD,  REPPINGTON, 

ASHTON,    AND  OTHERS. 

C  H  AP 

III.  *  It  has  appeared,  that  until  the  middle  of  the 
^f^~^  ninth  century,  the  manner  in  which  the  body  and 
stantiation.  ^j^g  blood  of  Christ  are  present  in  the  eucharist, 
was  the  subject  of  debate,  or  rather  of  a  peaceful 
difference  of  sentiment,  among  persons  holding 
the  chief  dignities  of  the  hierarchy.  The  same 
may  be  said  of  a  considerable  interval  afterwards. 
But  from  that  period,  and  from  causes  which 
have  also  been  explained,'  the  advocates  of  the 
mysterious  dogma,  which  in  the  twelfth  century 
began  to  be  designated  transubstantiation,  rapidly 
Bernga-  '^  incrcascd.  Its  progress,  however,  was  far  from 
being  uninterrupted ;  and  among  its  opponents 
the  most  distinguished  place  must  be  allotted  to 
Berengarius,  a  gallic  prelate,  who  about  the 
middle  of  the  eleventh  century  brought  his  genius 

'  Pieliiii.  Vievt-,  c    i.  sect.  3. 


THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE.  53 

and  learning,  which  were  both  greatly  above  the  chap. 

character  of  the    age,    to  an  investigation  of  its L 

claims.  His  doctrine  was  strictly  that  of  the 
primitive  church,  and  of  the  existing  protestant 
communities.  The  zeal  and  ability  with  which  it 
was  supported,  diffused  his  name  through  Europe, 
and  attracted  the  enmity  or  admiration  of  the 
clergy  through  the  western  nations.  In  the  cause 
of  his  opinions,  the  disputant  patiently  submitted 
to  the  spiritual  censures  of  the  pontiff,  and  of  a 
council  assembled  at  Paris  ;  and  the  displeasure 
of  his  sovereign,  which  his  zeal  had  provoked, 
was  followed  by  the  forfeiture  of  his  episcopal  re- 
venues. The  burden  of  such  evils  was  probably 
lightened  by  remembering  that  his  disciples  in 
France,  in  Italy,  in  England,  and  particularly  in 
the  states  of  Germany,  were  numerous  and  in- 
creasing. But  such,  it  appears,  was  the  extent 
of  the  suffering,  which  this  advocate  of  truth  and 
reason  was  prepared  to  endure  in  defence  of  his 
tenets.  Thrice  was  he  compelled  to  appear  at 
Rome ;  and  as  often  was  his  doctrine  formally  re- 
nounced, only  to  be  again  avowed,  as  the  prospect 
of  impunity  returned.  Toward  the  close  of  life, 
he  retired  from  the  agitated  scenes  which  for  more 
than  thirty  years  had  been  familiar  to  him  ;  and 
the  remembrance  of  the  indecision,  which  had 
been  allowed  to  sully  his  character,  is  said  to 
have  embittered  his  seclusion.  But  he  died  with 
the  reputation  of  sanctity,  and  his  followers  never 
became  extinct.^ 

The  Vaudois  and  Albigenses,  who  had   never  And  by  the 
embraced  the  marvellous  theory  adverted  to,  were  Aibigel'^cT 

Mosheim,  ii.  558 — 5G9,  where  this  subject  is  fully  and  luuiiiiously  treated. 


54  THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE. 

CHAP,  invigorated  in  their  opposition  to  it  by  the  labours 


III 


of  Berengarius  and  his  partisans.  That  the  sec- 
taries had  adopted  the  heresy  of  that  prelate,  was 
often  urged  as  their  reproach ;  and  it  is  evident 
from  certain  fragments  of  their  reasoning  on  this 
subject,  which  their  enemies  have  preserved,  that, 
had  the  assertion  been  correct,  the  disciple  must 
have  been  frequently  acknowledged  as  by  no 
means  unworthy  of  his  master.  From  one  of 
their  adversaries,  we  learn,  that  they  were  accus- 
tomed to  appeal  to  the  Apostles'  Creed,  and  to 
that  of  Nice,  and  Athanasius,  as  including  every 
important  article  of  christian  doctrine  ;  expressing 
their  surprise,  that  in  these  summaries  of  religious 
truth,  no  reference  should  be  made  to  the  matter 
of  transubstantiation,  though  a  doctrine  so  greatly 
needing  the  aid  of  external  evidence  to  counter- 
act, in  some  degree,  its  intrinsic,  and  surpassing 
difficulties.  These  perplexities,  also,  the  same 
fraternities  are  described  as  exposing  with  a  seve- 
rity of  criticism,  which  must  often  have  be- 
wildered their  antagonists ;  urging  with  fluency 
almost  every  question  tending  to  involve  the  sub- 
ject in  mystery,  contradiction,  or  absurdity.^ 

3  See  Prelim.  Aiew,  0.  i.  sec.  ii.  The  "  chewed   with  the  teeth,  and  conse- 

celebrated  schoolman  Alarms  Magnus,  "  quently  divided  into  parts?     Whe- 

thus  describes   the   manner   in   which  "  ther    the    bread   becomes   the   body 

these   contemporary  heretics  opposed  "  of    Christ?     because    then    it    will 

this  dogma  of  the  church.      "  If  the  "  really    be     the    body    of    Christ  — 

"  bread  should  be  changed  every  day  "  that    is     to     say,    something     else 

"  into  the  body  of  Christ,  it  would  be  "  than  it  is.     Whether  the  bread  be- 

"  infinitely  increased.      They  inquire  "  conies  the  body  of  Christ?  because, 

"  also  whether  the  bread  ceaseth  to  be,  "  if  so,  then  bread  will  be  the  matter 

"  and  if  it  ceaseth  to  be,  then  it  isanni-  "  of  Christ's  body.     Also,  after  tran- 

"  hilated,  and  so  it  is  spoiled.  Also  they  "  substantiation,  the  accidents  remain  ; 

"  ask.howabody  of  so  greatabulk  can  "  if  so  they  must  be  in  another  sub- 

"  enter  into  the  mouth  of  a  man  ?  Whe-  "  ject — as  for  instance,  in  the  air.  But 

"  ther  the  body  of  Christ   be    eaten,  "  if  it  be  there,  then  some  part  of  the 


church. 


THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE.  55 

But  we  are  principally  concerned  to  know  the  chap. 

fate    of  this  doctrine    in  England.      Our  Saxon — 

ancestors  were  in  general  sufficiently  obedient  to  J!°l,''byfhe 
the  opinions  and  customs  of  the  papacy,  and  we  s^"|^°' 
may  believe  that  the  doctrine  of  transubstantiation 
was  not  unknown,  nor  wholly  unapproved,  by 
their  spiritual  guides.  We  have,  however,  the 
most  decisive  proof,  that  the  dogma  so  named, 
formed  no  part  of  the  national  creed  in  the  tenth 
century.  Elfric,  a  contemporary  of  St.  Dunstan, 
and  the  correspondent  and  associate  of  the  prin- 
cipal ecclesiastics  of  that  period,  has  adverted  in 
one  of  his  epistles-  to  the  elements  of  the  eucharist 
in  a  manner  which  incidentally,  but  most  dis- 
tinctly, proscribes  the  doctrine  of  a  '*  real  pre- 
"  sence."  This  letter  was  addressed  to  Wulfstan, 
archbishop  of  York,  and  as  its  translation  into 
the  vernacular  language  was  in  compliance  with 
the  request  of  that  prelate,  it  must  be  admitted  as 

"  air  must  be  round,  and  savory,  and  "  bodj   of  Christ  be   in  every  part  of 

"  white;   and  as  this  form  is  carried  "that  host?     Again,   if  the    body  of 

"  through  divers  places,  so  the  acci-  "  Christ   be    hid   in  that  little    form, 

"  dents  change  their  subject.    Again,  "  where  is  the  head,   and  where  the 

"these  accidents   abide  in    the  same  "foot? — as  a  consequence  his  mem- 

"  part  of  the  air,  and  so  solidity  will  "  bers     must    be     undistinguishable. 

"  be    in    the   air;    because    they    are  "Again,  Christ  gave  his  body  to  his 

"  solid,  and  consequently  the  air  will  "disciples  before  his  passion.     Now 

"be   solid.      Hence    it    appears    that  "  he  gave  it  them  either  mortal  or  im- 

"  these  accidents  are  not  in  the  air,  "mortal;    yet    if    he     gave     it    im- 

"  neither    are    they    in    the   body   of  "  mortal,  it  is  certain  that  then  it  was 

"  Christ,   neither  can  any  other  body  "  mortal,  and  consequently  while  it  is 

"  be  assigned  in   its  place,  in   which  "really  mortal   it  was  yet  immortal, 

"  they  shall  appear  to  be,   and  there-  "  which  is  impossible." — Alanns  con- 

"  fore  the   accidents    do    not  merely  tra  Albigenses,  &c.  c.  i.  cited  in  the 

"  seem  to  remain.     Again,  when  the  Latin  from  Alauus,   by  Dr.  AUix,  in 

"  form  or   figure  in   which  the  body  his  remarks    on  the  Churches  of  the 

"  of   Christ    lieth,     is    divided     into  Albigenses,  c.  xvi.  146.      The  above 

"  parts,  the  body  of  Christ  continues  are    a   few  only  of  the  queries  with 

"  no  longer  in  that  figure  which  it  had  which  the  heretics   were  accustomed 

"  before — how,     therefore,     can     the  to  perplex  the  faith  of  the  orthodox. 


56  THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE- 

CHAP,  a  document  of  no  mean  authority.''     According 
"^'     to  this  writer,  the  "  housel  is  Christ's  body,  not 
"  bodily,  but  spiritually.      Not  the  body  which 
"  he  suffered  in,  but  the  body  of  which  he  spake 
'*  when  he  blessed  bread  and  wine,  a  night  before 
*'  his  sufferings."      "  The  apostle,"   he  observes, 
"  has  said  of  the  Hebrews,  that  they  all  did  eat 
'*  the  same  ghostly  meat,  and  they  all  did  drink 
*'  the  same  ghostly  drink.     And  this  he  said,  not 
''  bodily,  but  ghostly,  Christ  being  not  yet  born, 
**  nor  his  blood    shed   when  that   the   people   of 
"  Israel  ate  that  meat,  and  drank  of  that  stone. 
**  And  the  stone  was  not  bodily,   though   he  so 
*'  said.     It  was  the  same  mystery  in  the  old  law, 
"  and    they    did     ghostly    signify    that    ghostly 
*'  'housel'  of  our  Saviour's  body  which  we  con- 
*'  secrate  now."      In  his  homily,   "  appointed  in 
"  the  reign  of  the  Saxons  to  be  spoken  unto  the 
"  people  at  Easter,"  the  doctrine  of  Elfric,   and 
of  the  Anglo-Saxon  clergy  in  relation  to  this  ser- 
vice, is  more  fully  exhibited.     He  there  repeats 
his  allusion  to  the   manna,  and  the  rock  of  the 
wilderness,  and  speaks  of  the  bread  in  the  chris- 
tian sacrament  as  being  the  body  of  Christ,  only 
as  the  waters  of  baptism  may  be  said  to  be  the 
divinity  of  the   Holy  Spirit.      In  describing  the 
difference  between  the  body  Christ  suffered  in, 
and  the  body  that  is  hallowed  to  "  housel,"  he 
states  that  the  one  was  born  of  the  flesh  of  Mary, 

■»  The  work  from  which  I  quote  has  "  publicly  preached,  and  also  received 

the  following  title  page:    "   A  Testi-  "  in  the  Saxon  tjme  above  COO  years 

"  monie    of  Antiquitie,    showing    the  "ago.     Printed  by  John  Day,  beneath 

"  auncient  fayth  in  the  church  of  En-  "  St.  IMartyns,  Cum  Privilegio  Regiae 

"  gland,  touching  the  sacrament  of  the  "  Maiestatio."     1567. 
"  body  and  blood  of   the   Lord,  here 


THE     LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE.  57 


CHAP. 
III. 


and  that  the  other  is  gathered  of  many  corns ;  and 

that    "  nothing    therefore    is    to    be    understood 

"  therein  bodily,  but  all  is  ghostly  to  be  under- 
**  stood."  The  bread  which  is  farther  described, 
as  having  bodily  shape,  is  again  contrasted  with 
the  body  of  Christ,  which  is  said  to  be  present, 
only  in  its  "  ghostly  might."  The  body  also  in 
which  Christ  rose  from  the  dead  never  dieth,  but 
the  consecrated  bread  is  declared  to  be  temporal, 
not  eternal.  The  latter  is  divided  into  parts,  and 
some  receive  a  larger  portion,  and  some  a  less  ; 
but  the  body  of  Christ  "  after  ghostly  mystery" 
is  undivided,  and  equally  in  all.  This  series  of 
distinctions  the  writer  concludes  by  observing, 
that  the  things  appealing  to  the  senses  in  the 
eucharist,  are  a  pledge  and  figure,  while  Christ's 
body  is  truth  itself. 

The  authenticity  of  this  production  is  beyond 
suspicion,  and  that  the  printed  copy  is  correctly 
given  from  the  original  is  attested  by  archbishop 
Parker,  by  his  brother  of  York,  and  by  the  suf- 
fragans of  both. 

But  though  it  is  thus  certain  that  the  mystery  !?yL"„^f'anc. 
of  transubstantiation  was  not  among  the  recog- 
nised doctrines  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  hierarchy,  its 
general  adoption  was  to  be  among  the  immediate 
results  of  the  conquest.  By  the  transfer  of  the 
English  sceptre  to  the  hand  of  a  Norman,  the 
political  influence  of  the  pontiffs  in  this  island 
was  for  a  while  materially  impeded  and  restrained. 
But  Lanfranc,  who  filled  the  see  of  Canterbury  ^'p",""^*^ 
under  the  first  William,    was    the   most    distin-  Angio.Nor. 

man  clergy, 

guished  opponent  of  Berengarius  ;  and  from  that 
period,  to  the  age  of  Wyclitfe,   the   faith  of  the 


58  THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE. 

CHAP,  real  presence  was  inculcated  by  the  native  clergy 

—  without  any  visible  opposition.* 

In  attempting  the  overthrow  of  this  doctrine, 
our  reformer  must  have  been  aware  of  the 
danger  and  suffering  to  which  the  effort  would 
expose  him.  And  we  must  presume  that  evils 
so  certain  and  serious  would  hardly  have  been 
encountered,  had  not  the  error  to  be  assailed 
appeared  to  him  as  fraught  with  impiety  and 
abuses  of  the  most  revolting  description.  Of  the 
steps  which  led  him  so  to  regard  it,  and  which 
determined  his  hostile  movements  relating  to  it, 
we  are  only  partially  informed.  It  is,  however, 
by  no  means  surprising,  that  a  study  of  the  scrip- 
tures, which  had  been  devoutly  pursued  through 
so  long  an  interval,  and  which  had  produced  a 
renunciation  of  so  many  established  opinions, 
should  issue  in  the  abandonment  of  a  doctrine, 
containing  the  grossest  of  the  insults,  which 
priests,  in  their  insolence  of  triumph,  had  be- 
stowed on  the  prostrate  capacities  of  their  victims. 
Of  the  spirit  with  which  Wycliffe  addressed  him- 
self to  this  contest,  we  may  judge  from  the  follow- 
ing extract,  which  forms  the  introduction  to  one 
of  his  most  popular  pieces  on  the  subject.  "  For- 
"  asmuch  as  our  Saviour,  Jesus  Christ,  with  the 
"  prophets  who  were  before  him,  and  the  apostles 
"  who  were  presently  with  him,  whom  he  also  left 
"  after  him,  and  whose  hearts  were  mollified  by 
"  the  Holy  Ghost — have  warned  us,  and  given  us 
*'  knowledge  that  there  are  two  manners  of  ways, 
*'  the  one  to  life,  the  other  to  death,  therefore  pray 

i  Mobheim,  ii.  560. 


THE     LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE.  59 

"  we  heartily  to  God,  that  he,  of  his  mere  mercy,  chap. 

"  will  so  strengthen  us  with  the  grace  and  stedfast-  __il_ 

**  ness  of  his  Holy  Spirit,  as  to  make  us  strong  in 

"  spiritual  living  according  to  the  gospel,  that  so 

"  the  world — no  not  the  very  infidels,  papists,  nor 

"  apostates,   may  gather   any  occasion  to  speak 

"  evil  of  us;    that  we  may  enter  into  that  strait 

"  gate  as  Christ  our  Saviour,  and  all  that  follow 

*'  him  have  done,  not  in  idle  living,  but  in  diligent 

"  labouring — yea  in  great  sufferance  of  persecu- 

"■  tion,  even  to  the  death." ^ 

It  was  with  sentiments  thus  devout,  and  a  pur- 
pose thus  matured,  that  Wycliffe  commenced  his 
attack  on  the  received  doctrine  concerning  the 
eucharist.  The  weakness  and  the  contradictions 
inseparable  from  that  tenet,  would  have  been  of 
themselves  sufficient  to  justify  a  zealous  oppo- 
sition ;  but  in  the  view  of  the  reformer,  the  sin 
of  the  officiating  priest  was  less  the  result  of  in- 
attention than  of  impiety,  and  such  as  rendered 
him  a  false  guide  to  the  community,  conducting 
his  followers  into  the  snares  of  a  ruinous  idolatry. 
The  doctrine  promulgated  by  Wycliffe  on  this 
point,  is  of  such  frequent  occurrence  in  the  course 
of  his  sermons,  as  to  render  it  probable  that  it 
had  been  broached  from  the  pulpit,  prior  to  its 
admission  into  his  lectures  at  Oxford.  In  these, 
however,  a  laborious  prominence  was  assigned 
to  it  in  the  spring  of  1381.^  Twelve  conclusions 
were  then  published,  in  which  he  challenged  the 
attention  of  the  members  of  the  university  to  his 


6  MS.  OstiolutnWiclevi.  This  piece        under  the  title  of  Wyclif 
was  printed   at    Noreoberch,  in  1546,  '  Wood,  188.     Lewis, 


60  THE    LIFE     OF    WYCLIFFE. 

CHAP,  exposition    of  this  sacrament.*      In  these,  while 
—  admitting  that  the  words  of  consecration  conferred 


a  peculiar,  and  even  a  mysterious  dignity  on  the 
bread  and  wine,  it  was  most  distinctly  stated  that 
those  elements  were  not  to  be  considered,  "  as 
"  Christ,  or  as  any  part  of  him,"  but  "  as  an 
**  effectual  sign  of  him."  To  the  easy  faith  of  the 
majority,  in  that  age,  few  things  in  religion  could 
occur  as  difficult  if  sanctioned  by  the  church. 
With  others,  it  was  a  matter  of  strange  perplexity, 
that  the  sensible  qualities  which  had  distin- 
guished the  bread  of  the  eucharist  previous  to 
its  consecration,  should  continue  to  all  human 
perception  precisely  unaltered  after  that  mystic 
ceremony  had  been  performed.  To  counteract 
this  inconvenient  verdict  of  the  senses,  the  genius 
of  the  mendicants  struck  out  a  new  path  in  logical 
science.  They  affirmed  that  an  accident^  or  the 
property  of  an  object,  as  its  whiteness,  or  its 
roundness,  may  be  supposed  to  exist,  even  when 
the  object  itself  had  ceased  to  be.  The  discern- 
ment of  Wycliffe  was  so  deeply  offended  by  this 
hardy  assertion,  that  his  writings  from  this  period 
abound  with  allusions  to  it ;  nor  does  he  hesitate 
to  denounce  it  as  an  absurdity  betraying  so  much 
fraudulence  of  temper,  as  to  render  its  abettors 
altogether  unworthy  of  the  public  confidence.  In 
the  conclusions  now  published,  this  favourite 
dogma  of  his  old  antagonists  was  especially  con- 
demned. 

It  will  be  supposed,  that  a  tenet  which  artifice 
had  rendered  so  subservient  to  the  interests  of  the 

°  Ani)eiiilix,  No.  II. 


THE    LIFE     OF    WA'CLTFFE.  61 

priesthood,  was  not  thus  assailed  without  exciting  chap. 

the    most   serious  opposition.      It  appears,   also,  _ 

that  much  the  larger  portion  of  the  honours  of  the 
university  was  possessed  at  this  time  by  the  reli- 
gious orders,  notwithstanding  the  various, attempts 
to  reduce  their  influence.  The  chancellor,  William 
de  Berton, — whether  awed  by  their  power,  or 
truly  alarmed  by  the  intrepidity  of  WyclifFe,  be- 
came a  party  to  measures,  which  were  speedily 
adopted  with  a  view  to  prevent  the  diffusion  of 
the  new  doctrine.  In  a  convention  of  twelve 
doctors,  eight  of  whom  were  either  monks  or 
mendicants,  the  reformer  was  represented  as 
teaching,  that  in  the  sacrament  of  the  altar,  the 
substance  of  material  bread  and  wine  remained 
without  change  after  the  words  of  consecration 
were  pronounced  ;  and  that  in  the  same  venerable 
sacrament,  there  is  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ, 
not  essentially,  nor  substantially,  nor  even  bodily, 
but  figuratively  or  tropically — so  that  Christ  is 
not  there  truly,  or  verily  in  his  own  bodily  pre- 
sence. To  pass  a  sentence  of  reprobation  upon  comiemna. 
opinions,  which  so  completely  destroyed  the  doctdne  of 
mystery  of  transubstantiation,  would  be  the  ready  ^^''^'^^^ 
determination  of  such  an  assembly.  It  was 
accordingly  agreed  to  describe  these  novelties  as 
erroneous,  as  opposed  to  the  decisions  of  the 
church,  and  to  state  it  as  the  true  doctrine  of  the 
eucharistj'^that  by  the  sacramental  words,  duly 
"  pronounced  by  the  priest,  the  bread  and  wine 
*'  upon  the  altar  are  transubstantiated,  or  sub- 
"  stantially  converted  into  the  true  body  and 
"  blood  of  Christ — so  that  after  consecration, 
*'  there   is   not    in   that  venerable  sacrament  the 


62  THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE. 

CHAP.  *'  material  bread  and  wine  which  before  existed, 

. L    "  considered  in  their  own  substances  or  natures, 

"  but  only  the  species  of  the  same,  under  which 
**  are  contained  the  true  body  of  Christ,  and  his 
*'  blood,  not  figuratively,  nor  tropically,  but  es- 
"  sentially,  substantially,  and  corporally — so  that 
"  Christ  is  verily  there  in  his  own  proper  bodily 
"  presence."  To  protect  these  dogmas  from  the 
process  of  investigation  with  which  they  were 
now  threatened,  it  was  resolved  that  the  sentence 
of  the  greater  excommunication,  suspension  from 
all  scholastic  exercises,  and  the  forfeiture  of  per- 
sonal liberty,  should  be  incurred  by  any  member 
of  the  University,  who  either  in  the  schools  or 
out  of  them,  should  inculcate  the  opinions  pub- 
lished by  WyclifFe.  The  same  penalties  were 
also  adjudged,  to  such  as  should  be  convicted 
of  listening  to  any  defence  of  "  the  two  aforesaid 
*'  erroneous  assertions."^ 

The  meeting  in  which  these  resolutions  were 
adopted  appears  to  have  been  privately  convened. 
The  reformer  was  in  the  school  of  the  Augus- 
tinians,  seated  in  his  chair  as  professor,  and  lec- 
turing amidst  his  pupils  on  this  very  doctrine, 
when  a  messenger  entered  the  apartment,  who,  in 
the  name  of  the  chancellor,  and  of  the  divines  his 
coadjutors,  pronounced  the  above  sentence  re- 
lating to  the  sacrament  of  the  altar,  and  such  as 
should  favour  the  recent  heresies  on  that  subject. 

s  See  Appendix,  No.  ni.  Lelaiid.De  concludes  that  "  the  opinion  of  tran- 

Script.  Brit.  379.     Sir  R.  Twisden  re-  "  substantiation,  that  brought  so  many 

fers  to  the  above  censures,  in  support  "  to  the  staiie,   had   not  more  than  a 

of  this  doctrine,  as  "  the  first  plenary  "  hundred  and  forty  years' prescription 

"  determination  of  the  church  of  En-  "  before  Martin  Luther." — Historical 

•'  glnnd"  respecting  it;  aud  accordingly  Vindication,  193,  194. 


THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE.  63 

WyclifFe  paused,  as  if  taken  by  surprise,  and  in  chap. 

doubt  as  to  the  best  mode  of  resisting  the  hostility 1_ 

which  had  so  suddenly  assumed  this  formidable 
shape.  But  a  moment  was  sufficient  to  restore 
his  confidence ; — he  then  rose,  complained  of  this 
substitution  of  brute  force  in  the  place  of  reason, 
and  challenged  the  collected  strength  of  his  op- 
ponents to  a  fair  refutation  of  his  published  opi- 
nions. He  had  often  declared  it  to  be  the  duty 
of  the  magistrate  to  protect  the  life,  the  property, 
and  in  all  such  cases  as  the  present,  the  personal 
freedom  of  the  subject.  On  this  maxim  he  was 
now  resolved  to  act  with  a  firmness  not  inferior 
to  that  of  his  adversaries.  The  alternative  placed  His  appeal 
before  him,  was  silence  or  imprisonment ;  and  poLr"^' 
the  chancellor  was  therefore  informed,  that  since 
it  was  resolved  to  punish  the  persons  who  should 
avow  his  doctrine  with  civil  penalties,  it  was  his 
own  determination  to  appeal  from  the  decision  of 
his  present  judges  to  the  protection  of  the  civil 
power.  They  were  looking  to  that  power  to  crush 
opinion  and  investigation  ;  he  would  look  to  it  for 
an  opposite  purpose.*" 

A  considerable  interval,  however,  was  to  elapse 
before  the  meeting  of  the  next  parliament,  and  it 
is  probable  that  during  that  period  the  lectures 
of  the  reformer,  as  divinity  professor,  were  devoted 
to  topics  less  dangerous  to  his  personal  liberty. 
The  prohibition  of  the  chancellor,  however,  would 
be  limited  to  the  sphere  of  his  particular  jurisdic- 
tion, and  it  is  to  be  observed,  that  even  within  the 
University,  it  referred  only  to  oral  communication. 
Wycliffe's  province  as  rector  of  Lutterworth,  was 

'0  Sndbary's  Register,  in  Wilkins,  iii.  170, 171. 


64  THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE. 

CHAP,  still  open,  and  the  partial  silence  imposed  on  his 

L-  lips,  would  naturally  impart  an  additional  industry 

wswfcket.to  his  pen.     His  piece,  intitled.  The  Wicket,  was 
composed  during    this   crisis.      Before    proceed- 
ing to  the  discussion  which  it  was   intended    to 
embrace,  the  writer  feelingly  adverts  to  the  treat- 
ment which  he    had   recently  experienced  from 
"  clerks  of  the   law."      "  These,"    he  observes, 
"  have  ever  been  against  God  the  Lord,  both  in 
"  the  old  law,  and  in  the  new^ ;  slaying  the  pro- 
"  phets  which  spake  to  them  the  words  of  God. 
"  Yea,  they  spared  not  the  Son  of  God,  when  the 
"  temporal  judge  would  have  delivered  him.    And 
"  so  forth  of  the  apostles  and  martyrs  who  have 
"  spoken  truly  of  the  word  of  God."     Thus,  as 
the  great  foes  of  truth,  instead  of  occupying  the 
foreground  in  its  defence,  they  are  said  to  have 
denounced   it   as   "  heresy  to  speak  of  the  holy 
"  scriptures  in  English  ;"  and  the  same  cause  is 
said  to  have  produced  "  the  law  which  they  have 
'*  made  on  the  sacred  host."     In  the  latter,  *'  the 
"  falsest  belief"  is  declared  to  be  inculcated,  and 
of  those   who  bow  to  its   authority,  worshipping 
the   consecrated   bread,    it  is  inquired,    "  Where 
*'  find  you  that  ever  Christ,  or  any  of  his  apostles 
**  worshipped  it  ?"  Appealing  to  the  ancient  creeds 
which  assert  the  eternity  and  immutability  of  the 
Saviour's  existence,   he  demands  with  solemnity, 
*'  may  the  thing  made,  turn  again,  and  make  him 
''  who  made  it  ?     Thou  then,  that  art  an  earthly 
"  man,  by  what  reason  mayest  thou  say  that  thou 
"  makest  thy  Maker  ?"     Leaving  this  difficulty  to 
be  solved  by  the  wisdom  of  orthodoxy,  he  next 
inquires,  whether  the  body  understood  to  be  made 


THE     LIFE    OF     WVCLIFFE.  65 

by  the  priest  at  the  altar,  must  be  considered  as  chap. 

that  of  the  Redeemer,  previous  or  subsequent  to — 

his  resurrection.  If  it  be  said  to  be  the  spiritual 
body  in  which  he  ascended  to  the  Father,  that, 
according  to  the  scriptures,  "'  the  heavens  must 
"  receive  until  the  restitution  of  all  things."  If  it 
be  the  body  of  Christ  previous  to  his  dissolution, 
then  is  it  one  w^hich  has  yet  to  die,  since  the 
scriptures  vv^hich  speak  of  his  incarnation,  speak 
no  less  distinctly  of  his  agony  and  death.  From 
this  dilemma,  the  reformer  proceeds  to  object  to 
the  received  interpretation  of  the  words,  "  This  is 
"  my  body."  These  he  contends,  are  improperly 
regarded  as  being  at  all  the  words  of  consecration, 
since  it  is  evident,  from  the  mode  of  their  intro- 
duction in  the  gospel,  that  they  related  simply  to 
the  act  of  distribution.  "  Seek  ye  busily,"  he 
writes,  *'  if  ye  can  find. two  words  of  blessing  or 
**  giving  of  thanks  wherewith  Christ  made  his 
"  body  and  blood  of  the  bread  and  wine.  For  if 
**  ye  might  once  find  out  those  words,  then  should 
"  ye  wax  great  masters  above  Christ,  and  then 
"  ye  might  be  givers  of  his  substance,  and  as  fa- 
*'  thers,  and  makers  of  him,  he  should  worship  you, 
"  as  it  is  written,  *  Thou  shalt  worship  thy  father 
**  and  thy  mother.'  Of  such  as  desire  such  wor- 
"  ship  against  the  law  of  God,  speaks  St.  Paul, 
"  when  writing  of  the  Man  of  sin,  that  advanceth 
**  himself  as  he  were  God.  Whether  our  clergy 
"  be  guilty  of  this,  judge  ye,  or  they  who  know 
**  most."  The  conclusion  resulting  from  this  doc- 
trine, he  remarks,  is,  "that  the  thing  which  is 
"  not  God  to-day,  shall  be  God  to-morrow — yea, 
"  that  the  thing  which  is  without  spirit  of  Hfe,  but 

VOL.    11.  F 


6G  THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE. 

CHAP.  *' groweth  in  the  field  by  nature,   shall  another 

"  time  be  God !    and    still  we  ought  to  believe, 

"  that  God  is  without  beginning  and  without 
"  ending!"  The  men  who  could  be  insensible  to 
these  impossibilities,  or  perceiving  them,  were  so 
impious  as  to  pretend  to  believe  the  doctrine 
which  involved  them,  are  reminded  of  the  Mosaic 
account  of  the  creation,  and  are  required  to 
imitate  that  achievement  of  Deity,  before  they 
pretend  to  give  existence  to  his  attributes.  "If 
"  ye  cannot  make  the  works  which  he  made, 
"  how,"  it  is  demanded,  "  shall  ye  make  Him  who 
"made  them?"  To  avoid  the  difficulty  which 
arose  from  teaching  that  each  portion  of  the  sa- 
cramental bread  became  the  undivided  body  of 
Christ,  it  was  usual  to  remark,  that  though  a 
glass  should  be  broken  into  a  multitude  of  pieces, 
yet  each  fragment  retained  the  power  of  reflecting 
the  same  countenance.  But  this  unfortunate 
exercise  of  ingenuity  is  noticed  by  the  reformer 
as  favourable  to  his  doctrine,  and  at  variance  with 
that  of  his  opponents,  since  in  every  such  frag- 
ment, "it  is  not  the  very  face,  but  the  figure 
"  thereof"  which  is  perceptible,  "and  just  so,"  it  is 
observed,  "  the  bread  is  the  figure  of  Christ's 
"  body."  And  as  the  Redeemer  meant  not  a 
material  cup  when  that  term  was  employed  by 
him  in  the  agony  of  the  garden,  and  in  his  pre- 
vious address  to  the  sons  of  Zebedee,  it  is  affirmed 
to  be  reasonable  that  we  attach  a  figurative  mean- 
ing to  certain  of  his  expressions  which  occur  in 
connexion  with  the  last  supper.  With  the  fol- 
lowing paragraphs  the  work  concludes.  "  There- 
"  fore  let  every  man  wisely,  with  meek  prayers, 


THE    LIFE    OF    ArVCLIFFE.  67 

"and  great  study,  and   also  with  charity,  read  chap. 

*'  the  words  of  God,   and  holy  scriptures.     But  '-— 

"  many  of  you  are  like  the  mother  of  Zebedee's 
*'  children,  to  whom  Christ  said,  *  Thou  wottest  not 
**  what  thou  askest.'  You  wot  not  what  ye  ask, 
"  nor  what  ye  do.'  For  if  ye  did,  ye  would  not 
**  blaspheme  God  as  ye  do,  setting  an  alien  god, 
"  instead  of  the  living  God.  Christ  saith,  'I  am 
"  a  very  vine.'  Wherefore  worship  ye  not  the^ 
"  vine  for  God,  as  ye  do  the  bread  ?  Wherein  was 
"  Christ  a  very  vine  ?  or  wherein  was  the  bread 
*'  Christ's  body  ?  It  was  in  figurative  speech,  j 
**  which  is  hidden  to  the  understanding  of  sinners.  ■ 
**  And  thus,  as  Christ  became  not  a  material  nor 
**  an  earthly  vine,  nor  a  material  vine  the  body  of 
**  Christ,  so  neither  is  material  bread  changed 
"  from  its  substance  to  the  flesh  and  blood  of 
**  Christ.  Have  you  not  read  that  when  Christ 
**  came  into  the  temple,  they  asked  of  him  what 
"  token  he  would  give  that  they  might  believe  him, 
*'  and  he  answered,  *  Cast  down  this  temple,  and 
*'  in  three  days  I  will  raise  it  again,'  which  words 
**  were  fulfilled  in  his  rising  from  the  dead.  But 
**  when  he  said,  '  Undo  this  temple,'  in  that  he 
*'  meant  thus,  they  were  deceived,  for  they  under- 
"  stood  it  fleshly,  and  thought  that  he  had  spoken 
*'  of  the  temple  at  Jerusalem,  because  he  stood  in 
**  it.  And  therefore,  at  his  passion,  they  accused 
"  him  full  falsely,  for  he  spake  of  the  temple  of 
"  his  blessed  body,  which  rose  again  on  the  third 
"  day.  And  just  so  Christ  spake  of  his  holy  body, 
"  when  he  said,  '  This  is  my  body  which  shall  be 
**  given  for  you,'  which  was  given  to  death,  and 
*'  unto  rising  again  to  bliss  for  all  that  shall  be 
F  2 


68  THE     LIFE    OF     WVCLIFFE. 

CH  Ap. "  saved  by  him.     But  just  as   they   falsely  ac- 

1_  "  cused  him  respecting  the  temple  of  Jerusalem, 

**  so,  now-a  days,  they  accuse  falsely  against 
"  Christ,  and  say  that  he  spake  of  the  bread  which 
*'  he  brake  among  his  apostles.  For  in  that 
"  Christ  said  this  figuratively  they  are  deceived, 
*'  taking  it  fleshly,  and  turning  it  to  the  material 
"  bread,  as  the  Jews  did  in  the  matter  of  the 
**  temple.  And  on  this  foul  misunderstanding  they 
**  make  '  the  abomination  of  discomfort,'  which  is 
*'  spoken  of  by  the  prophet  Daniel,  as  standing 
'*  in  the  holy  place. ^ — He  that  readeth,  let  him 
•*  understand.  Now,  therefore,  pray  we  heartily 
•*  to  God,  that  this  evil  time  may  be  made  short 
"  for  the  sake  of  the  chosen  men,  as  he  hath 
*'  promised  in  his  holy  gospel,  and  that  the  large 
"  and  broad  way  that  leadeth  to  perdition  may 
**  be  stopped,  and  that  the  strait  and  narrow  way 
"  that  leadeth  to  bliss  may  be  made  open  by  the 
"  holy  scriptures,  that  we  may  know  what  is 
"  the  will  of  God,  to  serve  him  with  certainty 
"  and  holiness,  and  in  fear,  that  we  may  find  by 
'*  him  the  way  of  bliss  everlasting."  Such  was 
the  doctrine  of  Wycliffe,  in  relation  to  the  eucha- 
rist.  As  the  person  who  is  raised  to  prelatical 
or  princely  dignity  is  still  a  man,  so  it  was  af- 
firmed, the  bread,  exalted  as  it  may  be  from  the 
purposes  to  which  it  is  applied  in  the  sacrament 
of  the  altar  is,  in  every  property,  what  it  pre- 
viously was ;  and  the  doctrine  of  transubstantia- 
tion  is  accordingly  treated  as  the  strange  result  of 
attaching  a  literal  import  to  metaphorical  expres- 
sions." 

"  Trialogns,  lib.  iv.  c.  iv.  tii. 


THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE.  69 

It  will  be  in  the  recollection  of  the  reader,  that  chap. 

Ill 
the  summer  of  1381  became  memorable  from  the L 

insurrection  of  the  commons/'^  and  that  Wycliffe's 
public  opposition  to  the  tenet  now  adverted  to 
commenced  about  the  same  period.  On  the  14th 
of  June,  in  that  year,  the  see  of  Canterbury  be- 
came vacant  by  the  death  of  Simon  Sudbury  ;  and 
in  the  October  following,  it  was  filled  by  Court- 
ney, previously  bishop  of  London.  The  transla- 
tion of  this  prelate  was  secured  by  a  bull  of 
Urban  the  sixth,  and  the  obligation  thus  con- 
ferred on  the  new  primate,  by  his  ecclesiastical 
sovereign,  increased  his  scrupulous  submission  to 
the  pleasure  of  the  papacy.  Until  the  pall,  which 
custom  had  rendered  the  badge  of  his  present 
dignity,  was  procured  from  Rome,  the  jurisdiction 
of  his  see  and  its  usual  insignia  were  declined. 
But  this  ornament  obtained,  the  archiepiscopal 
staff  was  assumed ;  and  the  ecclesiastic,  who, 
as  bishop  of  the  capital,  had  shewn  the  most  zea- 
lous opposition  to  the  opinions  of  our  reformer, 
avowed  his  determination  to  employ  the  whole  of 
his  more  extended  influence  to  complete  their 
extirpation." 

Early  in  May,  in  the  year  1382,  this  *'  pillar  of  Proceedings 
the  church,"  as  he  was  described  by  the  orthodox, 
deemed  himself  canonically  invested  with  the  pri- 
macy, and  two  days  subsequent  a  parliament  was 
convened  at  Westminster.  The  mandates  of  the 
archbishop  were  immediately  issued,  calling  a 
synod  to  deliberate  as  to  the  decisions  proper  to 
be    adopted  with   regard  to  certain  strange  and 

"  From  the  proclamation  in  Rymer,       began   to  lower  early   in   the  spring, 
vii.  311,   it   appears    that   the    storm  '3  Wake's  State  of  the  Chnrch,  313. 


70  THE    LIFE    OF    >VYCLIFFE. 

CHAP,  dangerous   opinions   said  to  be  widely  diffused, 
!_  "  as  well  among  the  nobility  as  the  commons  of 


"  this  realm  of  England."  On  the  seventeenth  of 
the  same  month,  an  assembly  was  accordingly 
convened,  including  eight  prelates,  fourteen  doc- 
tors of  the  civil,  and  of  the  canon  law,  six  bachelors 
of  divinity,  fifteen  mendicants,  and  four  monks. 
Synodal  A  rcsidencc  of  the  grey  friars  in  the  metropolis 
inais.May  was  thc  olacc  of  meetinor;  and  the  policy  of  the 

17,  1382.  ,   ,    .     ,  ,  ,  r  J 

archbishop  appears  to  have  been,  to  procure  a 
formal  condemnation  of  the  tenets  of  the  refor- 
mers, and  then  to  commence  an  unsparing  pro- 
secution of  such  as  should  hesitate  to  renounce 
them.  Nor  was  this  mode  of  procedure  more 
vigorously  chosen  than  pursued.  It  happened, 
however,  that  the  synod  had  scarcely  approached 
the  matters  to  be  adjusted  by  its  wisdom,  when 
the  city  was  shaken  by  an  earthquake.  The 
courage  of  the  parties  assembled  was  so  far  im- 
paired by  this  event,  that  some  ventured  to  ex- 
press their  doubts  whether  the  object  before  them 
might  not  be  displeasing  to  heaven,  and  it  began 
to  be  uncertain  whether  the  meeting  would  not 
dissolve  without  coming  to  any  decision.  But 
the  ready  genius  of  the  primate  who  presided, 
conferred  a  different  meaning  on  the  incident, 
comparing  the  dispersion  of  noxious  vapours, 
produced  by  such  convulsions,  with  the  purity 
which  should  be  secured  to  the  church,  as  the 
result  of  the  present  struggle  to  remove  the  pesti- 
lent from  her  communion.  The  courage  of  the 
wavering  being  thus  restored,  twenty-four  con- 
clusions were  read  as  those  which  had  been 
preached,   "  generally,  commonly,   and  publicly. 


THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE.  71 

'.' through  the  province  of  Canterbury,  and  chap, 

"  the  realm  of  England."     After  the  "  good  deli-        ^' 
"  beration"  of  three  days,  it  was  agreed,  that  ten 
of  these  conclusions  were  heretical,  and  the  re- 
maining were  declared  to  be  erroneous. 

The  statements  condemned  as  heretical  related 
to  the  sacrament  of  the  altar  as  including  no  change 
in  the  substance  of  the  bread  and  wine — to  priests 
and  bishops  as  forfeiting  their  power,  as  such,  by 
yielding  to  deadly  sin — to  auricular  confession  as 
unnecessary — to  clerical  endowments  as  unlaw- 
ful— and  to  the  claims  of  a  depraved  pontiff  as 
derivable  from  the  edicts  of  the  emperor,  but 
not  from  the  gospel.  In  the  propositions  de- 
scribed as  erroneous,  the  accused  are  made  to 
say,  that  a  prelate  excommunicating  any  man 
without  knowing  him  to  be  so  judged  of  God,  is 
himself  a  heretic,  and  excommunicated  —  that  to 
prohibit  appeals  from  the  tribunal  of  the  clergy 
to  that  of  the  king,  is  to  incur  the  guilt  of  trea- 
son^ — that  priests  and  deacons  are  all  empowered 
to  preach  the  gospel  without  waiting  for  the  sanc- 
tion of  popes  or  prelates — that  to  forego  this  ser- 
vice from  the  fear  of  clerical  censures,  must  be  to 
appear  as  a  traitor  to  God  in  the  day  of  doom — 
that  temporal  lords  may  deprive  an  offending 
clergy  of  their  possessions — that  tythes  are  merely 
alms,  to  be  yielded  to  the  clergy  only  as  they  are 
devout  men,  and  according  to  the  discretion  of  the 
contributors — and  finally,  that  the  institutions  of 
the  religious  are  in  themselves  sinful,  and  tend  in 
many  ways  to  the  injury  of  piety.'* 

'*  Wilkins,  iii.  157.     Lewis,  c.  vi.        Lewis,  states  that  llie  eartiiquake  no- 
The  Godblow  chronicle,  cited  by  Mr.       ticed  in  the  preceding  page  took  place 


72  THE    LIFE    or    M^YCLIFFE. 

CHAP.      That   some   of  these  doctrines  were  correctly 

'—  attributed    to   the  avowed  disciples  of  WyclifFe, 

p/SL"!.  will  not  be  disputed,  but  others  appear  to  have 
derived  a  part  of  their  complexion  from  the  pre- 
judice  of  adversaries.     The   pomp,  however,   of 
that  authority  which  had  condemned  the  whole, 
is   frequently  appealed    to   in  vindication  of  the 
measures  which  were  now  adopted  to   suppress 
them.     Courtney  was  fully  aware,  that  the  uni- 
versity, which  had  so  long  been  the  residence  of 
our  reformer,  was  scarcely  more  fertile  of  heresy 
than  the  metropolis   of  the  kingdom.     A  letter 
was  accordingly  addressed  to  the  bishop  of  Lon- 
don, in  which,  having  announced  himself  as  me- 
tropolitan   of    all    England,    and    legate    of    the 
apostolic    see,    the   archbishop    laments,    that   in 
contempt   of  certain    canons   which    had    wisely 
restricted  the  office  of  preaching,  whether  pub- 
licly or  privately,  to  such  as  are  sanctioned  by  the 
holy  see,  or  by  their  prelates,  many  were  every 
where  found  teaching  doctrines  subversive  of  the 
whole    church,    "  infecting    many   well-meaning 
"  christians,    and   causing  them    to  wander  grie- 
"  vously  from    the  catholic  communion,   without 
"  which  there    is  no   salvation."     The  bishop  is 
then  reminded  of  the  high  authority  by  which  the 
propositions  referred  to  had  been  declared  hereti- 
cal and  false ;  and  he  is,  in  conclusion,  exhorted, 
in   common   with    all   his    brethren   suffragans  of 
Canterbury,   "  To  admonish,  and  warn,  that   no 
**  man  do  henceforth  hold,  preach,  or  defend  the 

about  one  o'clock  in  the  forenoon  of  This  was  j)robably  a  second  convul- 
the  Wedtiesdaj'  previous  to  Wliitsun-  sion,  for  tlie  meeting  of  tlic  synod  took 
tide,  which  was  May  30th.  (c.  vi.  106.)        place  nearly  a  fortnight  earlier. 


THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE.  73 

"  foresaid  heresies,  and  errors,  or  any  of  them."  ^^„^^' 

To  secure  this  object  it  is  required,  that  neither 

himself,  nor  his  brethren  in  the  prelacy,  do  admit 
any  suspected  persons  to  the  liberty  of  preach- 
ing— that  they  listen  not  to  the  abettors  of  the 
above  pernicious  tenets — that  they  lean  not  to 
them,  either  publicly  or  privately,  but  rather  shun 
them  as  serpents  who  diffuse  pestilence  and  poi- 
son— and  that  this  be  done  on  pain  of  the  greater 
excommunication,  that  being  the  sentence  de- 
nounced on  all,  and  every  one,  who  shall  be  found 
in  these  things  disobedient/'' 

That  the  greater  publicity  might  be  given  to 
this  crusade  against  heresy,  it  was  arranged,  that 
during  the  ensuing  Whitsuntide,  a  religious  pro- 
cession should  pass  through  the  streets  of  London. 
On  the  appointed  day,  the  attention  of  the 
populace  was  arrested  by  numbers  of  the  clergy 
and  laity  moving  bare-footed  towards  St.  Paul's. 
There  a  carmelite  friar  ascended  the  pulpit,  and 
informed  the  mourning  multitude  of  their  duty 
with  regard  to  the  church  and  her  enemies  at  this 
foreboding  crisis.  But  it  has  appeared  that  the 
commands  of  the  archbishop,  which  doubtless 
produced  this  edifying  spectacle,  were  not  only 
addressed  to  the  bishop  of  the  metropolis,  but  to 
the  whole  of  the  prelates  his  suffragans.  A  copy 
of  the  primate's  letter  was,  accordingly,  conveyed 
to  "Wycliffe's  diocesan,  the  bishop  of  Lincoln ; 
and  to  secure  a  speedy  and  certain  execution  of 
its  instructions,  official  documents  were  imme- 
diately addressed  by  this  prelate  to  the  abbots 
and  priors,  and  the  different  officers,  even  to  the 

"Fox.    Acts  and  Monuments,  i.  569.     Knighton,  2050,  2651. 


74  THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE. 

CHAP,  rectors,  vicars,  and  parochial  chaplains,  through- 
L_  out  the  district  to  which  the  church  of  Lutter- 
worth pertained.  That  church  is  described,  as  in 
the  deanery  of  Goodlaxton,  in  the  archdeaconry 
of  Leicester.  And  it  will  be  presumed,  that  while 
every  clergyman  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  re- 
former was  thus  canonically  admonished  of  his 
obligations  in  relation  to  the  heresy  of  the  times, 
WyclifFe  himself  would  not  fail  to  receive  his 
share  of  the  salutary  warning.  There  were  causes, 
however,  by  which  the  proceedings  meditated 
against  him  were  for  a  while  delayed.'** 

Connected  with  these  attempts  to  diffuse  a 
spirit  of  persecution  through  the  provinces  by  the 
agency  of  the  prelates,  were  similar  efforts  with 
respect  to  the  seats  of  learning.  At  this  period 
one  Peter  Stokes,  a  carmelite,  and  a  doctor  of 
divinity,  had  distinguished  himself,  in  Oxford,  by 
the  ardour  with  which  he  had  opposed  the  new 
opinions.  His  conduct  in  this  particular  procured 
him  the  notice  and  the  patronage  of  the  arch- 
bishop, who,  in  a  letter,  dated  a  week  subsequent 
^i^yii.  to  the  meeting  at  the  Grey  Friars,  enjoins  it  upon 
the  zealous  mendicant  to  publish  the  decisions  of 
that  assembly  through  the  university.  In  this  do- 
cument, which  is  nearly  a  transcript  of  that  sent 
to  the  bishops,  the  primate  adverts  to  the  con- 
tempt of  all  episcopal  sanctions  observable  in  the 
conduct  of  the  new  preachers  ;  to  their  doctrine 
as  subversive  of  the  faith  in  which  alone  there  is 
salvation ;  and  to  the  high  authority  of  the  synod 
by  which  their  novelties  had  been  condemned  ; 
and  proceeding  to   inculcate,   that  to   refuse  the 

'6  Kniglitou,  2650.     Fo.v.  Acts  and  Monumenls,  ubi  supra.     Lewis. 


THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE.  75 

needful  aid  for  savino^  men  from  destruction,  is  chap. 

Ill 
to  become  chargeable  with  their  blood,  he  com- '— 

mands  that  the  persons  maintaining  the  heresies 

and  errors  specified,  be   holden   in  the   strictest 

abhorrence,  under  the  penalty  of  the  great  ana- 

thema.^'' 

It  was  of  little  avail,  however,  to  dispatch  such  ^vydiflfefa. 

.  voiircd  by 

instructions   to   the    university,    while    its    chan- "'« "n'ver. 

^  sity. 

cellor,  and  so  large  a  portion  of  its  members,  were 
the  secret,  if  not  the  open  adherents  of  the  per- 
secuted. That  office,  which  in  the  preceding 
year  had  been  sustained  by  William  de  Berton, 
was  now  filled  by  Robert  Rigge,  a  scholar  who 
exposed  himself  to  much  inconvenience  and  suf- 
fering from  his  attachment  to  certain  of  the  re- 
former's opinions.  In  the  records  of  this  period, 
the  name  of  Dr.  Nicholas  Hereford  is  also  of 
frequent  occurrence,  as  that  of  a  principal  follower 
of  WyclifFe.  Before  the  assembling  of  the  late 
synod,  this  divine,  to  use  the  language  of  the 
primate,  had  been  **  vehemently  suspected  of 
**  heresy."  At  this  moment,  however,  and  while 
the  inquisitorial  purposes  of  the  archbishop  were 
sufficiently  known,  Hereford  is  called  by  the 
chancellor  to  preach  before  the  university;  and 
the  service  which  thus  devolved  upon  him  was 
deemed  the  most  honourable  of  its  class  through 
the  year.  A  similar  mark  of  approbation,  it  ap- 
pears, was  conferred,  at  about  the  same  period, 
on  Ralph  Rippington,  who  was  also  doctor  of 
divinity,  and  equally  an  admirer  of  Wycliffe ;  and 
the  discourses  of  both  are  described  as  containing 
a  passionate  eulogy  on    the   character   and    the 

"7  See  Appendix,  No.  IV. 


76  THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE. 

CHAP,  general  doctrine  of  the  reformer.     But  this  exer- 

III 
'—  cise  of  the  chancellor's    authority   was  instantly 

reported  to  the  archbishop,  and  an  expostulatory 
letter  was  suddenly  dispatched,  advising  a  more 
dutiful  employment  of  his  influence.  It  required 
him  indeed  to  loathe  the  opinions  and  the  inter- 
course "  of  these  presumptuous  men,"  and,  as  he 
would  not  himself  be  suspected  of  heretical  pra- 
vity,  to  afford  immediate  aid  to  Peter  Stokes,  that 
the  letters  possessed  by  him  might  be  duly  pub- 
lished, and  that  the  reign  of  a  sect,  against  which 
the  king  and  the  lords  had  promised  to  unite  their 
authority,  might  at  length  be  brought  to  its  close.^* 

circum.  The  statement  of  the  primate,  as  to  the  inten- 

ti.ismoment  tions  of  thc  court,  was  not  without  foundation. 

"oVirefforts  Richard  was  now  in  the  sixteenth  year  of  his  age. 

formers!'  The  failurc  of  some  martial  preparations,  which 
engaged  the  attention  of  his  government  during 
the  earlier  period  of  his  reign,  involved  his  ex- 
chequer in  the  most  serious  difficulties.  And  the 
efforts  of  his  ministers  to  extricate  the  vessel  of 
the  state,  served  only  to  increase  its  perils,  until 
an  insurrection,  and  such  as  had  been  hitherto 
unknown  in  our  history,  threatened  the  extinction 
of  every  privileged  order  in  the  kingdom.  The 
zeal  and  ingenuity  of  such  churchmen  as  the 
present  archbishop,  would  not  be  slow  in  sug- 
gesting to  the  young  monarch,  that  the  convulsions 
which  had  recently  shaken  the  kingdom  must  be 
expected  to  return ;  and,  that  their  object  in 
some  evil  hour  must  be  achieved,  should  the 
present  rector  of  Lutterworth,  and  his  numerous 
disciples  be  allowed  to  continue  their  appeal  to 

'*  Fox.    Acts,  &c. 


THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE.  77 

the  passions  of  the  populace.     Under  the  known  chap. 

disaffection  of  the  commons,  it  became,  also,  a '— 

point  of  peculiar  moment  to  propitiate  the  clergy. 
Their  wealth  might  enable  the  government  to 
abolish,  or  at  least  to  abridge,  that  system  of 
taxation,  which  had  recently  goaded  the  people 
into  madness.  Lancaster,  too,  who  during  the 
late  commotions,  had  been  employed  in  treating 
with  the  Scots  on  the  border,  had  shared  much 
in  the  resentment  of  the  insurgents.  And  there 
were  other  causes  which  rendered  him  far  from 
acceptable  to  the  existing  ministry.  Thus  fa- 
vourable was  the  crisis  to  a  nearer  alliance  be- 
tween the  mitre  and  the  crown.  Nor  should  it 
be  forgotten,  that  the  family  of  the  ecclesiastic 
now  raised  to  the  primacy  of  the  English  church, 
possessed  considerable  influence  with  a  large 
body  of  the  nobility  of  the  age.'^  A  few  months 
only  had  passed,  since  the  ])lood  of  the  commons 
had  been  freely  shed,  as  the  price  of  their  tran- 
sient ascendency ;  and  though  the  king  proceeded 
so  far  as  to  submit  to  his  next  parliament  the 
propriety  of  wholly  abolishing  the  service  of  vil- 
lanage,  and  the  house  of  commons  declared  the 
late  insurrection  to  be  wholly  chargeable  on  the 
government,  almost  the  only  immediate  conse- 
quence of  that  convulsion  appears  to  have  been, 
to  supply  the  tyrannical  with  new  facts  by  which 
to  enforce  the  usual  pleas  for  oppression. 


'9  Barne's   Edward  the  Third,  904.  first.     Lewis,  c.  iv.  58.     Gibbon  has 

He  was  fourth  son  of  Hugh  Courtney,  given  an  extended  notice  of  the  ho- 

earl    of     Devonsliire,     by    Margaret,  nours   which   centred    in  this    family, 

daughter  of  Humphry  Bohun,  earl  of  in  the  eleventh  volume  of  his  history, 

Hereford    and    Essex,    by    his    wife  287—300. 
Elizabeth,   daughter    of   Edward    the 


78 


THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLTFFE. 


CHAP. 
III. 


It  is  at  this  moment,  so  auspicious  to  their 
cause,  that  the  English  clergy  unite  in  preferring 
to  the  sovereign  and  the  court,  a  series  of  com- 
plaints against  the  doctrine  and  practices  of  the 
followers  of  Wycliffe.  With  a  view  also  to  in- 
crease the  odium  so  industriously  bestowed  upon 
the  disciples  of  the  reformer,  they  were  now 
designated  Lollards,'"' — a  name  which  had  long 
distinguished  certain  sectaries  on  the  continent, 
to  whom,  after  the  custom  of  the  times,  almost 
every  thing  degrading  had  been  imputed.  The 
persons  in  England,  who,  from  this  period,  were 
classed  with  those  injured  people,  are  described 
by  the  prelates,  abbots,  and  friars,  representing 
the  hierarchy,  as  teaching — that  since  the  time 


■'>  Fox,  i.  578.  There  are  few  minor 
points  in  ecclesiastical  history  on 
which  a  greater  diversity  of  opinion 
has  prevailed,  than  with  respect  to  the 
origin  of  the  term  Lollard.  The  sub- 
ject has  received  more  attention  from 
Mosheim  than  from  any  other  writer 
known  to  me,  and  his  statement  is  as 
follows  :  "  As  the  clergy  of  this  age 
"  (the  fourteenth  century)  took  little 
"  care  of  the  si(;k  and  dying,  and 
"  deserted  such  as  were  infected  with 
"  those  pestilential  disorders  which 
"  were  then  very  frequent,  some  com- 
"  passionate  and  pious  persons  at 
"  Antwerp  formed  themselves  into  a 
"  society  for  the  performance  of  those 
"  religious  offices  which  the  sacer- 
"  dotal  orders  so  shamefully  neglected. 
"  Pursuant  to  this  agreement,  they 
"  visited  and  comforted  the  sick, 
"  assisted  the  dying  with  their  prayers 
"  and  exhortations,  took  care  of  the 
"  interment  of  those  who  were  cut  off 
"  by  the  plague,  and  on  that  account 
"  forsaken  by  the  aftVighted  clergy, 
"  and   committed  them    to  the   grave 


"  with  a  solemn  funeral  dirge.  It  was 
"  with  reference  to  this  last  otfice,  that 
"  the  common  people  g;ive  them  the 
"  name  of  Lollards.  The  example  of 
"  these  good  people  had  such  an  ex- 
"  tensive  influence,  that  in  a  little  time 
"  societies  of  the  same  sort  of  Lollards, 
"  consisting  both  of  men  and  women, 
"  were  formed  in  most  parts  of  Ger- 
"  many  and  Flanders,  and  were  sup- 
"  ported  partly  by  their  manual 
"  labours,  and  partly  by  the  charitable 
"  donations  of  pious  persons."  Hist, 
iii.  355—358.  But  the  existence  of 
such  societies  reflected  on  the  charac- 
ter of  the  clergy,  and  impaired  the 
resources  of  the  mendicants  ;  and  everj' 
art  was  accordingly  resorted  to  for  the 
purpose  of  rendering  them  odious. 
Such  too  was  the  success  of  these 
efforts,  that  the  name,  though  so  re- 
putable in  its  origin,  came  to  be  descrip- 
tive of  all  persons  who  were  thought 
to  conceal  enormous  vices  under  the 
appearance  of  sanctity.  See  a  curious 
notice  from  l\Iosheim  on  this  subject, 
at  the  end  of  the  volume.     Note  B. 


THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE.  79 

of  Silvester,  there  has  been  no  true  pope,  and  that  chap. 

the  last  to  whom  that  name  should  be  given  is  '- — 

the  existing  pontiff.  Urban  the  sixth  ;  that  the 
power  of  granting  indulgences,  and  of  binding 
and  loosing,  as  claimed  by  ecclesiastics,  is  a  de- 
lusion, and  that  those  who  confide  in  it  are  in 
consequence  accursed  ;  that  auricular  confession 
is  a  superfluous  service ;  that  the  bishop  of  Rome 
has  no  legislative  authority  in  the  christian 
church  ;  that  the  invocation  of  saints  is  an  un- 
authorized custom  ;  that  the  worship  of  images  or 
pictures  is  idolatry,  and  that  the  miracles  attri- 
buted to  them  are  false  ;  that  the  clergy  are  bound 
to  reside  on  their  benefices,  and  not  to  farm  them 
to  others,  and  that  such  as  fail  in  these  duties 
should  be  degraded  as  wasters  of  the  goods  of  the 
church ;  and,  finally,  that  the  pomp  of  the  higher 
orders  of  the  priesthood  should  be  in  all  things 
done  away,  and  their  doctrine  as  to  the  vanity  of 
the  world  be  enforced  by  example.  Doctrines 
at  all  of  this  character  could  not  have  been 
widely  disseminated,  without  deeply  irritating 
the  men  to  whose  pretensions  they  were  so  ex- 
plicitly opposed. 

By  their  present  appeal,   the  clergy  obtained  persecuting 
the  sanction  of  the  king,  and  of  certain  lords,  to  reputmusiy 

,    .     ,  1  ^  •  T         obtained  by 

a  statute  which  occurs  as  the  first  m  our  parlia- the  dergy. 
mentary  history,  providing  for  the  punishment  of 
the  variable  crime  designated  heresy.  For  this 
reason,  and  as  it  farther  discloses  the  energy  and 
activity  with  which  Wycliffe's  "  poor  priests" 
were  now  prosecuting  their  plans  of  reform,  it  is 
here  inserted  without  abridgemnt.  "  Foras- 
"  much  as   it  is  openly  known,   that    there  are 


80  THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLTFFE. 

divers  evil  persons  within  the  reahii  going  from 
county  to  county,  and  from  town  to  town,  in 
certain  habits,  under  dissimulation  of  great  holi- 
ness, and  without  the  licence  of  the  ordinaries 
of  the  places,  or  other  sufficient  authority, 
preaching  daily,  not  only  in  churches,  and 
churchyards,  but  also  in  markets,  fairs,  and 
other  open  places,  where  a  great  congregation 
of  people  is,  divers  sermons,  containing  heresies, 
and  notorious  errors,  to  the  great  blemishing 
of  the  christian  faith,  and  destruction  of  the 
laws  and  estate  of  holy-church,  to  the  great 
peril  of  the  souls  of  the  people,  and  of  all  the 
realm  of  England,  (as  more  plainly  is  found, 
and  sufficiently  proved,  before  the  reverend 
father  in  God,  the  archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
and  the  bishops  and  other  prelates,  masters  of 
divinity,  and  doctors  of  canon  and  of  civil  law, 
and  a  great  part  of  the  clergy  of  the  same  realm 
especially  assembled  for  this  cause,)  which  per- 
sons do  also  preach  divers  matters  of  slander,  to 
engender  discord  and  dissension  between  divers 
estates  of  the  said  realm,  as  well  spiritual  as 
temporal,  in  exciting  of  the  people  to  the  great 
peril  of  all  the  realm ;  which  preachers  being 
cited  or  summoned  before  the  ordinaries  of  the 
places,  there  to  answer  to  that  whereof  they  be 
impeached,  they  will  not  obey  to  their  summons 
and  commandments,  nor  care  for  their  moni- 
tions, nor  for  the  censures  of  holy-church,  but 
expressly  despise  them ;  and  moreover,  by 
their  subtle  and  ingenious  words  do  draw  the 
people  to  hear  their  sermons,  and  do  maintain 
them   in  their  errors,  by  strong  hand,  and  by 


THE     LIFE    OF     WYCLIFFE.  01 

It  is  therefore  ordained  and  as-   ^^.j^- 

"  sented  in    this    present    parliament,    that    the 

"  king's  commissions  be  made  and  directed  to  the 
"  sheriffs,  and  other  ministers  of  our  sovereign  lord 
"  the  king,  or  other  sufficient  persons  learned,  and 
"  according  to  the  certifications  of  the  prelates 
"  thereof,  to  be  made  in  the  chancery  from  time 
"  to  time,  to  arrest  all  such  preachers,  and  also 
"  their  fautors,  maintainers,  and  abettors,  and  to 
"  hold  them  in  arrest  and  strong  prison,  till  they 
"  will  justify  themselves  according  to  the  law  and 
"  reason  of  holy-church.  And  the  king  willeth 
"  and  commandeth,  that  the  chancellor  make 
"  such  commissions  at  all  times,  that  he,  by  the 
"  prelates,  or  any  of  them,  shall  be  certified,  and 
''  thereof  required,  as  is  aforesaid."^' 

By  this  document,  invalid  as  it  was  in  point 
of  law,  much  was  done  toward  rendering  the 
magistracy  through  the  kingdom,  the  passive  in- 
struments of  that  "  holy  office"  which  the  scheme 
was  meant  to  establish  in  every  diocese.  Court- 
ney felt  no  delicacy  in  describing  himself,  as 
"  chief  inquisitor  of  heretical  pravity  for  the  pro- 
"  vince  of  Canterbury  ;"  and  to  him,  the  success 
of  such  a  plan  would,  of  course,  have  been  singu- 
larly grateful.  That  the  suspected  through  the 
nation,  might  be  placed  under  immediate  "arrest, 
"  and  in  strong  prison."  the  force  at  the  command 
of  the  sheriff's,  was  to  be  subject,  in  every  place, 
and  at  every  season,  to  the  bidding  of  the  pre- 
lates; and  no  process  instituted  was  to  terminate, 


^'  This   document,   and   those   from 

seen    in    Fox,   575  — 

-580.      See    also 

which    the    remaining    facts     of    this 

VVilkins.  Concilia,  ii 

i.  ubi  supra,  and 

chapter  are  mostly   derived,   uiay   be 

Lewis. 

\'  O  I . .    II. 

G 

82  THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE. 

CHAP- except  as  the  parties  accused  should  "justify 
^  *'  themselves  according  to  the  law,  and  the  reason, 
"  of  holy-church."  And  if  it  be  remembered, 
that  our  statute  book  had  not  hitherto  included 
the  remotest  provision  for  correcting  religious 
opinions,  the  matured  form  in  which  this  op- 
pressive policy  was  introduced  must  be  viewed  as 
bespeaking  no  mean  confidence  of  strength  on  the 
part  of  the  ruling  clergy. 

The  facts  adverted  to,  are  also  widely  at  issue 
with  the  theory  which  transfers  the  odium  of  the 
atrocious  persecutions  so  frequent  in  ancient 
Christendom  to  the  temper  of  the  magistrate,  or 
to  the  maxims  which  had  become  incorporated 
with  the  policy  of  princes  before  the  diffusion  of 
the  gospel.  In  the  annals  of  our  own  country,  it 
is  plain  that  the  laity  were  indebted  to  the  clergy 
for  their  first  attempt  to  enforce  the  doctrines  of 
their  religion  by  the  terrors  of  the  dungeon  and  the 
stake  ;  and  it  is  not  less  certain,  that  the  zeal 
which  first  taught  them  to  prize  the  scent  of 
blood,  propelled  them  in  the  chase. 

The  attention  of  the  primate,  on  thus  obtaining 
the  aid  of  the  magistrate,  was  first  directed  to 
13S2.  Oxford.  The  synod  which  had  separated  on  the 
twenty-first  of  May,  was  convened  again,  in 
the  chamber  of  the  preaching  friars,  on  the 
twelfth  of  June ;  and  Robert  Rigge,  the  chan- 
cellor of  the  university,  and  William  Brightwell, 
a  doctor  of  divinity,  appeared  at  the  place  of 
meeting,  to  answer  respecting  their  late  conduct 
in  favour  of  Hereford  and  Rippington ;  and,  also, 
as  to  their  opinion  concerning  the  "  aforesaid 
"  articles."      Rigge    was    a   zealous    advocate  of 


THE     LIFE    OF    WYCLfFFE.  83 

the  university,  as  an  establishment  which  should  chap. 

be  less  subject  to   the  control   of  the  ecclesias- 1_ 

tical  than  of  the  civil  power  ;  and  hence  was 
strongly  opposed  to  the  religious  orders,  who 
were  concerned  that  it  should  be  subject  to  the 
authority  of  the  primate,  as  legate  of  the  apostolic 
see.  Our  reformer  had  distinguished  himself  in 
the  same  cause.  But  while  the  chancellor  cer- 
tainly admired  the  character  of  Wycliffe,  it  is  pro- 
bable that  his  admiration  did  not  extend  to  every 
tenet  which  the  reformer  was  known  to  advocate. 
Before  the  synod,  indeed,  he  declared  his  assent  to 
the  judgment  passed  on  the  twenty-four  articles  in 
the  previous  meeting ;  and  Brightwell,  after  some 
hesitation,  was  induced  to  follow  his  example. 
As  the  prospect  of  successful  resistance  began  to 
disappear,  the  courage  of  both  may  have  been  so 
far  subdued  as  to  admit  the  partial  concealment  of 
their  opinions.  It  is  certain  that  a  letter  was  now 
delivered  by  the  archbishop  to  **  his  well  be- 
"  loved  son  in  Christ,  the  chancellor  of  Oxford," 
requiring  him  to  publish  the  proscribed  articles, 
in  the  schools  and  churches,  at  the  hours  of 
lecturing  and  preaching ;  and  to  give  the  greater 
efficacy  to  this  proclamation,  it  was  to  be  made 
in  Latin,  and  in  the  vulgar  tongue.  In  the  docu- 
ment containing  these  instructions,  the  names  of 
John  Wycliffe,  Nicholas  Hereford,  Philip  Rip- 
pington,  John  Ashton,  and  Lawrence  Redman, 
occur  as  those  of  persons  notoriously  suspected 
of  heresy ;  and  adverting  to  these,  and  such  as 
should  in  any  way  favour  their  persons  or  their 
doctrine,  the  primate  writes,  "  we  suspend  the 
"  same    suspected    persons    from   all    scholastic 


84  THE    LIFE    OF     M^YCMFFE. 

CHAP.  "  exercises,    until  such  time  as  they  shall  have 

!_''  purified  themselves  before  us;  and  we  require 

"  that  you  publicly  denounce  the  same  to  have 
"  been,  and  to  be,  by  us  suspended  ;  and  that  you 
"  diligently  and  faithfully  search  after  all  their 
'*  patrons  and  adherents,  and  cause  inquiry  to 
'*  be  made  respecting  them  through  every  hall  in 
"  the  said  university ;  and  that  obtaining  intelli- 
"  gence  of  their  names  and  persons,  you  do  compel 
"  all  and  each  of  them  to  abjure  their  errors 
"  by  ecclesiastical  censures,  and  by  any  canonical 
*'  penalties  whatsoever,  under  pain  of  the  greater 
*'  anathema,  the  which  we  now  denounce  against 
*'  all  and  each  who  shall  not  be  obedient ;  *  *  *  * 
"  and  the  absolving  of  such,  as  may  incur  the 
"  sentence  of  the  instrument,  we  reserve  wholly 
"  to  ourselves."  But  the  chancellor  had  scarcely 
left  the  place  of  meeting  when  the  suspicions  of 
the  primate  appear  to  have  been  renewed.  In  a 
letter,  dated  on  the  same  day  with  the  above,  and 
from  the  same  place,  he  informs  Robert  Rigge, 
that  he  had  learnt  from  credible  information,  and 
partly  from  experience,  his  disposition  to  favour 
"  the  aforesaid  damnable  conclusions,"  and  his 
intention  to  molest  by  his  authority,  the  persons 
who  should  oppose  them  in  the  schools  of  the 
university.  In  consequence  of  this  information, 
the  archbishop  thus  writes,  "  We  admonish  thee, 
"  master  Robert,  chancellor  as  before  named, 
"  the  first,  second,  and  third  time,  and  peremp- 
"  torily,  that  thou  dost  not  grieve,  hinder,  nor 
"  molest  judicially,  nor  extra-judicially,  publicly 
"  nor  privately,  nor  cause  to  be  grieved,  hindered 
"  or  molested,  nor  procure  indirectly  by  thyself, 


THE     LIFE    OF     WYCLIFFE.  S5 

"  or  others,  to  be  o-iieved,  the  foresaid  clerks  se-  chap. 

III. 
"  cular  or  regular,  or  such  as  favour  them  in  the ^- 

*'  points  determined  in  their  scholastic  acts,  or  in 
"  any  other  condition  whatsoever."  The  eccle- 
siastics who  had  joined  with  the  primate  in  his 
recent  process  against  the  chancellor  of  Oxford, 
were  many  of  them  members  of  the  university. 
On  returning  to  that  seminary,  the  men  who  had 
lately  sat  in  judgment  upon  the  conduct  of  its 
principal  officer,  would  be  again  subject  to  his 
authority,  and  it  was  deemed  important  to  se- 
cure them  from  that  resentment  which  their 
fears  had  taught  them  to  anticipate. 

The  synod  which  we  have  seen  convoked  on 
the  nineteenth  of  May,  and  re-assembled  on  the 
twelfth  of  June,  was  again  convened  on  the  eigh- 
teenth, the  twentieth,  and  the  twenty-eighth  of 
the  same  month,  and  on  the  first,  and  twelfth,  of  1382. 
the  month  ensuing.  In  each  of  these  meetings, 
the  prosecution  of  Hereford  and  his  associates  was 
continued,  but  with  various  success.  The  ac- 
counts, indeed,  which  their  enemies  have  trans- 
mitted to  us,  are  not  only  imperfect,  but  in  many 
things  contradictory  and  improbable  ;  and  as  these 
form  almost  our  only  source  of  information  re- 
specting the  accused,  their  conduct  at  this  period, 
and  their  real  character,  are  left  in  a  great  degree 
uncertain.  Wycliffe,  who  at  the  time  of  these 
proceedings,  was  residing  at  his  rectory,  would 
be  a  close  observer  of  movements,  intended  to 
annihilate  a  cause  which  his  life  had  been  devoted 
to  create  and  sustain.  In  one  of  his  sermons, 
composed  during  this  interval,  he  clearly  refers 
to  the  measures  in  progress  against  Dr.  Hereford, 


86  THE     LIFE    OF     WYCLIFFE. 

^  nt^'  ^^^^  master  John  Ashton.  By  the  first  our  re- 
former  appears  to  have  been  assisted  in  his  trans- 
lation of  the  scriptures ;  and  he  is  presumed  to 
have  been  the  author  of  some  English  pieces,  de- 
signed to  forward  the  projected  reformation  of  the 
church.  Ashton  was  known  through  nearly  half 
the  kingdom  as  an  itinerant  preacher,  and  accord- 
ing to  the  accounts  given  by  his  adversaries,  was 
possessed  of  qualifications  which  gave  an  amazing 
efficiency  to  his  labours.  To  the  doctrines  of 
Wycliff'e  he  is  said  to  have  annexed  certain 
novelties  of  his  own.  Knighton,  who  describes 
his  appearing  in  coarse  attire,  and  with  a  staff  in 
his  hand,  as  the  affectation  of  simplicity,  bears 
testimony  to  the  assiduity  with  which  he  fre- 
quented churches,  and  mingled  in  family  circles, 
to  effect  the  dissemination  of  his  tenets.  The 
same  writer  has  preserved  the  outline  of  two 
sermons,  said  to  have  been  delivered  by  this 
pedestrian  teacher,  the  one  at  Leicester,  the  other 
at  Gloucester.  In  these  we  recognize  the  opi- 
nions of  our  reformer  as  to  the  authority  of  the 
sovereign  in  relation  to  the  church,  the  delusion 
and  abuses  of  spiritual  censures,  the  pernicious 
influence  of  religious  temporalities,  the  unscrip- 
tural  origin  of  distinctions  among  the  clergy, 
and  the  folly  of  transubstantiation,  together 
with  a  special  exposure  of  the  malignity  which 
had  always  characterized  crusades — those  perni- 
cious fruits  of  the  dispensing  power  assumed  by 
the  priesthood.  That  neither  the  learning  of 
Hereford,  nor  the  ardour  of  Ashton  might  be 
any  longer  employed  in  diffusing  sentiments  so 
hostile  to  the  existing  order  of  things,  both  were 


THE  lifj:  of   wycliffe.  87 

summoned  to  appear  before  the  archbishop,  who,  chap. 

to  his  titles  as  primate,  was  pleased  to  annex  the — 

name  of  "  Chief  Inquisitor."" 

It  is  while  this  process  is  pending,  that  Wycliffe 
adverts  to  it  in  one  of  his  parochial  expositions. 
The  persecution  he  attributes  principally  to  the 
zeal  of  Courtney,  whom  he  describes,  as  the 
*'  great  bishop  of  England,"  and  as  deeply  in- 
censed "  because  God's  law  is  written  in  English, 
"  to  lewd  men.""  "He  pursueth  a  certain  priest," 
observes  the  preacher,  "  because  he  writeth  to 
"  men  this  English,  and  summoneth  him,  and  tra- 
"  veleth  him  so  that  it  is  hard  for  him  to  bear  it. 
"  And  thus  he  pursueth  another  priest,  by  the  help 
"  of  pharisees,  because  he  preacheth  Christ's  gos- 
"  pel  freely,  and  without  fables.  Oh!  men  who 
"  are  on  Christ's  behalf,  help  ye  now  against  Anti- 
"  Christ,  for  the  perilous  times  are  come  which 
"  Christ  and  Paul  foretold  !"'^^  We  can  believe 
that  Wycliffe's  auditory  would  not  fail  to  sym- 
pathize with  their  pastor  at  this  foreboding  mo- 
ment ;  but  according  to  the  statements  of  their 
persecutors,  the  efforts  made  by  the  men  who  were 
thus  feelingly  adverted  to,  in  the  hope  of  escaping 
from  the  strong  hand  of  their  oppressors,  were 
fruitless. 

It  should  be  remembered,  however,  that  when 
authority  was  once  appealed  to,  with  a  view  to 
suppress  the  doctrine  of  Wycliffe,  it  became  a  point 
of  some  importance  that  the  end  proposed  should, 
at  least,  seem  to  have  been  obtained,  Hereford 
and  Hippington,  after  repeated  struggles  to  evade 

•••  Knighton,  2GJ5— 2660.    Wilkins.     ^j    .  La>,uen."      •'  MS.  Horn.  Bib.  Reg. 


88  THE    LIFE    OF    ^VYCLIFFE. 

CHAP,  any  confession  of  their   faith,   are   described   as 

'—  at  length  admitting  the  twenty-four  conclusions 

censured  by  the  synod,  to  be,  with  certain  ex- 
planations, partly  heretical  and  partly  false. 
They  are  said  also  to  have  stated,  that  in  no 
instance  had  they  publicly  avowed  the  tenets 
which  in  those  articles  were  imputed  to  them. 
Their  confession,  however,  such  as  it  was,  proved 
so  little  satisfactory,  that  each  member  of  the 
synod  declared  it  to  be,  with  respect  to  numerous 
articles,  "  heretical,  subtle,  erroneous,  and  per- 
"  verse."  But  all  farther  explanation  of  their 
creed  was  steadily  refused,  and  for  a  while  the 
terrors  of  excommunication  were  braved,  though 
its  sentence,  that  it  might  operate  as  a  warning 
to  the  infected,  was  pronounced  with  studious 
pomp  and  publicity.  Ashton  conducted  his  de- 
fence with  considerable  spirit,  but  affirmed  that 
he  should  decline  answering  the  questions  of  his 
judges  on  the  conclusions  adduced.  He  was 
repeatedly  urged  to  make  his  communications  to 
the  court  in  Latin,  that  no  erroneous  impression 
might  be  produced  on  the  mind  of  the  laity  who 
were  auditors;  but  the  consciousness  of  a  bad 
cause,  and  the  spirit  of  domination  which  this 
unauthorized  injunction  betrayed,  roused  the  in- 
dignation of  the  prisoner,  and  called  forth  an 
appeal  to  the  people  in  their  own  tongue,  which 
the  archbishop  deemed  it  important  to  check,  by 
hastening  the  business  of  the  day  to  its  close.  In 
the  sentence  delivered,  the  silence  of  the  sus- 
pected person  was  regarded  as  the  proof  of  guilt, 
and  he  was  exposed  accordingly  to  all  the  conse- 
quences of  holding  the  censured  articles. 


THE    LIFE    6V    WYCLIFFE.  89 

Could  we  always  submit   to   the  authority   of  chap. 

Knighton,  we  should  believe  that  Hereford  and — 

Ashton  delivered  written  confessions  to  the  synod 
on  the  doctrine  of  the  eucharist,  and  such  as  con- 
tained every  mystery  which  the  priesthood  had 
connected  with  it.  But  there  is  room  to  sus- 
pect that  these  papers  belong  to  that  numerous 
class  of  productions  which  owe  their  origin  to 
pious  fraud.  Were  they  authentic,  we  should 
not  have  had  to  search  in  vain  for  them  in  the 
Courtney  register,  where  so  large  a  space  is 
devoted  to  these  proceedings.  In  addition  to 
which,  Ashton  is  made  to  affirm  in  this  document, 
that  he  had  never  questioned  the  tenet  of  tran- 
substantiation — a  statement  which,  according  to 
the  historian  who  has  adopted  it,  was  contrary  to 
fact,  and  one  which  must  have  contained  a  false- 
hood for  which  no  motive  can  be  assigned.  And 
had  Hereford  descended  to  employ  the  language 
attributed  to  him  on  the  same  article,  the  rest  in 
the  series  would  doubtless  have  been  disposed  of 
in  the  same  manner,  and  his  escape  could  hardly 
then  have  been  attributed,  purely  to  the  interfe- 
rence of  the  duke  of  Lancaster.  It  appears,  how- 
ever, that  Rippington  ultimately  conformed  to  the 
requisitions  of  the  church,  and  that  after  a  time 
he  endeavoured  to  place  his  orthodoxy  beyond 
suspicion  by  persecuting  his  old  associates.  The 
dispute  with  Ashton,  also,  was  subsequently  so 
far  accommodated  as  to  admit  of  his  returning  to 
his  scholastic  exercises.  But  in  1387,  Hereford 
was  generally  believed  to  be  a  disciple  of  Wycliffe  ; 
and  so  late  as  the  year  1392,  he  solicited  and 
obtained  the  protection  of  the  court  against  the 


90 


THE    LIFE    OF    WTCLIFFE. 


CHAP,  machinations   of  his    enemies   which   had  arisen 
L_  from  that  cause.^^ 


25  It  is  from  Knighton,  (2657)  that 
we  learn  the  fact  of  Hereford's  "  es- 
"  cape  from  the  bitterness  of  death" 
through  the  influence  of  the  duke  of 
Lancaster.  But  in  1391  we  find  hira 
with  the  clergy  who  sat  in  judgment 
on  the  celebrated  Lollard,  Waller 
Brute.  Bj  his  indecision  he  ap- 
pears to  have  forfeited  the  confidence 
both  of  the  orthodox  and  of  their  op- 
ponents, and  probablj  his  own  peace 
of  mind.     The  firmness  of  the  martyr 


is  not  the  possession  of  every  good 
man.  Fox,  i.  654.  Mr.  Godwin  de- 
scribes him  as  "  the  most  refined  and 
virtuous  of  the  adherents  of  "  Wj- 
cliffe."  It  may  be  that  the  Lollards 
did  not  possess  his  superior  as  a 
scholar,  but  in  the  virtues  of  firmness 
and  consistency  he  was  surpassed  by 
many  of  that  class.  Life  of  Chaueer, 
ii.  336.  Ashton  is  said  to  have  died 
as  he  lived.  Thorp's  Examination. 
Wals.  328.    Lewis,  c.  X. 


THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE.  91 


CHAPTER  IV. 

PERSECUTION. WYCLIFFe's    DEVOTIONAL     ALLUSION    TO     THE    EVILS    OF    HIS 

TIME. SUMMARY     OF     HIS     COMPLAINT     ADDRESSED     TO     THE     KING      AND 

PARLIAMENT. EFFECT     OF     THAT     APPEAL. THE     REFORMER      IS      FOR- 
SAKEN   BY    LANCASTER. HIS  PURPOSES   UNALTERED    BY  THAT  EVENT. 

HIS     VIGOROUS     PERCEPTION    OF     THE    BEARINGS    OF    THE    CONTROVERSY     RE- 
SPECTING   THE    EUCHARIST,    AND      HIS     CONFIDENCE    OF      ULTIMATE     SUCCESS. 

HE    APPEARS     BEFORE     THE     CONVOCATION     AT     OXFORD. SUBSTANCE 

OF    HIS    CONFESSION. PERPLEXITY      OF     HIS     JUDGES.  HE    RETIRES     TO 

LUTTERWORTH.  -HIS    LETTER    TO    THE    PONTIFF. 

The    history  of  persecution    affords  abundant  chap. 

evidence  of  its  general  inefficacy,  and  of  its  tur- 1— 

pitude.  That  it  should  have  pervaded  the  nations  ,^",'*'"" 
of  Christendom  so  entirely,  and  through  so  long  a 
period,  is  in  every  view  humiliating.  The  civil 
penalties  by  which  the  religious  obedience  of  the 
ancient  Israelite  was  enforced,  are  sufficiently  ex- 
plained by  the  fact  that  such  was  the  nature  of 
the  Hebrew  government,  that  to  yield  to  the  prac- 
tice of  idolatry,  was  to  incur  the  guilt  of  treason. 
But  no  second  theocracy  has  been  established. 
The  power,  accordingly,  both  of  the  sovereign  and 
of  the  priest,  may  be  presumed  to  have  been  ma- 
terially affected  by  the  departure  of  the  Mosaic 
economy.  The  limits  now  assigned  to  the  autho- 
rity of  each,  is  a  subject  requiring  the  most  deli- 
berate attention,  whether  viewed  in  connexion 
with  the  many  questions  which  it  involves,  or  in  its 
practical  importance.   The  consequences  resulting 


92  THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE. 

CHAP,  from  opposite  decisions  concerning  it,  have  ever 

1_  been  fraught  with  a  large  amount  of  good  or  evil 

to  mankind. 

Among  the  heathen  states  of  antiquity,  tole- 
ration was  scarcely  a  virtue,  as  the  local  aspect  of 
their  idolatry  left  the  province  of  every  existing 
deity  undisturbed,  even  while  new  objects  of 
worship  were  introduced.  But  the  gospel  was 
not  of  a  character  to  enter  into  any  such  partner- 
ship with  human  inventions.  On  the  contrary, 
as  being  alone  true,  it  claimed  an  undivided 
empire.  By  its  first  disciples,  its  pretensions 
in  this  respect  were  fearlessly  urged ;  nor  were 
their  nearer  descendants  concerned,  either  to  deny 
or  to  conceal  this  peculiarity  of  their  faith,  though 
but  too  well  apprised  of  the  loathing  which  it  had 
brought  upon  them  from  all  the  votaries  of  Gentile 
worship.  In  some  instances,  that  contempt  of 
the  pomp  and  pleasure  of  the  world  which  not 
unfrequently  distinguished  the  professors  of  Chris- 
tianity in  those  ages,  was  increased  and  purified 
by  the  external  sufferings  thus  incurred.  But  in 
others,  the  turbulence  of  the  passions  was  less 
subdued  by  the  better  spirit  of  the  gospel,  and  the 
violence  employed  to  suppress  the  doctrines  of  the 
cross  sometimes  excited  a  re-action  of  the  same 
evil  temper  in  their  support.  These  inflammable 
materials  had  been  for  some  time  increasing  in 
the  church,  when,  under  Constantine,  Christianity 
was  recognized  as  the  religion  of  the  empire.  As 
the  consequence  of  that  event,  these  dangerous 
elements  became  so  far  dominant  among  the  no- 
minal professors  of  the  gospel,  as  to  leave  the 
partisans  of  the  ancient  idolatry  to  deplore  the 


THE     LIFE     OF    AV^YCLIFFE.  93 

severity  of   weapons    which   they    had    recently  chap. 

wielded  with  so  much  freedom  against  its  oppo- ._ 

nents.  But  when  attempts  to  convince  the  un- 
derstanding of  its  errors,  by  means  of  confiscations, 
and  torture,  and  exile,  were  not  only  considered 
as  rational,  but  when  to  be  zealous  in  the  appli- 
cation of  this  species  of  logic,  was  to  secure, 
moreover,  the  reputation  of  unusual  sanctity,  it 
was  not  the  grosser  forms  of  heathenism  merely, 
which  would  feel  the  disastrous  influence  of  this 
strange  delusion.  The  diversities  of  opinion  ob- 
servable among  the  avowed  disciples  of  the  same 
Master,  soon  attracted  the  critical  attention  of 
churchmen.  These  diff'erences  were  found  to  be 
retained  with  much  tenacity,  and  the  obstinacy  of 
the  weak  provoked  the  indignation  of  the  strong. 
No  little  artifice  was,  in  consequence,  employed,  to 
clothe  the  doctrine  of  dissentients  with  almost  every 
feature  of  impiety — as  the  best  method  of  vindi- 
cating the  infliction  of  penalties  upon  them  which 
had  once  been  the  award  of  idolatry.  Nor  is  it  to  be 
doubted,  that  the  guilt  of  transferring  the  maxims 
of  persecution,  from  the  policy  of  pagan  Rome  to 
that  of  the  papal  hierarchy,  so  as  to  render  them 
the  law  both  of  its  head  and  of  its  members,  be- 
longs, chiefly,  to  the  higher  orders  of  the  clergy. 
Amid  the  declining  civilization  of  the  empire,  the 
power  of  that  class  of  men  steadily  increased, 
until  their  supremacy  over  the  conscience  of  their 
victims  was  completed.  It  is,  however,  a  stub- 
born and  a  melancholy  fact,  that  with  every  step 
of  their  progress  persecution  became  more  syste- 
matic and  relentless.  The  notion  of  divine  right 
was  by  degrees  connected  with  the  regal  office. 


94  THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE. 

CHAP,  and  while  monarchs,  if  obedient  to  the  will  of  the 
1.  church,  were  placed  on  a  level  with  the  sove- 
reigns of  Judah,  ecclesiastics  claimed  to  be  the 
representatives  of  Deity,  and  to  an  extent  greatly 
surpassing  any  thing  to  which  the  Jewish  priest- 
hood had  aspired.  The  ministers  of  the  christian 
sanctuary  being  once  acknowledged  as  the  uner- 
ring interpreters  of  the  will  of  Heaven,  to  dissent 
from  the  church,  whether  its  judgment  were  inter- 
posed to  enforce  the  claims  of  princes,  or  to 
determine  articles  of  faith,  was  to  resist  the 
Almighty,  and  to  fall  under  the  double  censure 
of  the  rebel  and  the  impious.  Monarchs,  indeed, 
were  sometimes  slow  to  act  on  the  suggestions  of 
their  pastors,  as  to  the  best  mode  of  subduing  the 
heresies  of  their  people ;  but  such  as  were  solici- 
tous of  repose,  or  concerned  to  hold  the  sceptre 
with  a  steady  hand,  were  generally  induced  to 
become  the  instruments  of  almost  any  scheme, 
which  promised  to  the  church  the  reverence 
claimed  for  her  supposed  infallibility. 

It  is  true  the  civil  authorities  of  England,  pre- 
vious to  the  age  of  Wycliffe,  are  less  stained 
with  the  blood  which  was  so  freely  shed  for  the 
protection  of  orthodoxy  than  were  the  rulers  of 
almost  every  state  upon  the  continent.  But  this 
arose  simply  from  the  circumstance,  that  until 
the  former  half  of  the  fourteenth  century  had 
passed,  certain  encroachments  in  discipline  formed 
the  only  matters  of  serious  complaint.  The  ho- 
nour of  first  attempting  to  render  it  a  part  of  our 
statute  law,  that  on  all  questions  of  heresy  the 
magistrate  should  become  the  executioner  of  the 
will  of  the  church,   belongs   to  the   zeal  of  the 


THE    LIFE    OF    M^YCLIFFE.  95 

primate  Courtney.     Nor  was   the  effort  wholly  chap. 

futile,   though    its    immediate   result   was   trivial '— 

when  compared  with  its  design.  The  degree  of 
success,  however,  which  attended  this  claim  on 
the  secular  power,  served  as  a  precedent  and  a 
motive  in  the  series  of  measures  which  were  ere 
long  to  involve  both  the  church  and  the  state  in 
all  the  odious  consequences  generally  attendant 
on  a  coercive  warfare  with  religious  opinion. 
Wycliffe  marked  this  tendency  of  events,  and  by 
his  benevolent  genius  the  progress  of  intolerance 
was  for  a  while  impeded.  His  declining  health, 
or  the  fear,  perhaps,  of  encountering  the  political 
influence  of  Lancaster,  proved  the  security  of  the 
reformer  during  the  late  prosecution  of  his  friends. 
It  is  stated,  indeed,  that  Hereford  and  Ripping- 
ton,  when  falling  before  the  strength  of  their  an- 
tagonists, solicited  the  protection  of  John  of 
Gaunt,  and  that  the  reply  of  that  nobleman  con- 
sisted of  instructions  respecting  the  duty  of  sub- 
mitting, in  all  such  matters,  to  the  decision  of 
their  ordinaries.  That  such  an  appeal  was  made, 
and  that  such  was  its  result  is  perhaps  true,  but 
that  it  did  not  include  the  name  of  Wycliffe,  may 
be  safely  inferred  from  his  confidence  in  the 
*'  noble  duke,"  as  expressed  in  the  petition  which 
he  presented  immediately  afterwards  to  the  king 
and  the  parliament. 

It  appears,  also,  from  a  discourse  composed  by  ^^^"^,1^^^^* 
the  reformer,  about  this  period,  that  he  was  not ''""'^°"  ♦" 

'  "^  '  ^  the  evils 

ignorant  of  the  artifice  and  corruption  to  which  of  "^e  day. 
his  adversaries  had  resorted,  in  the  hope  of  op- 
posing the  force  of  the  civil  government'  to  the 
intended   reformation   of  religion.      Commenting 


96  THE     LIFE    OF     WYCLTFFE. 

CHAP,  on  the  entombment  of  Christ,  and  on  the  vain 

IV 

L_  eftbrt  of  the  priests  and   the  soldiers  to  prevent 

his  resurrection,  the  preacher  adverts  to  the 
measures  recently  adopted,  both  by  the  civil  and 
ecclesiastical  authorities,  with  a  view  to  consign 
the  gospel  to  oblivion.  "  Thus,"  he  observes, 
"  do  our  high  priests,  and  our  new  religious  fear 
"  them,  lest  God's  law,  after  all  they  have  done, 
"  should  be  quickened.  Therefore  make  they 
"  statutes  stable  as  a  rock,  and  they  obtain  grace 
"  of  knights  to  confirm  them,  and  this  they  well 
"  mark  with  the  witness  of  lords;  and  all  lest 
"  the  truth  of  God's  law,  hid  in  the  sepulchre, 
''  should  break  out  to  the  knowing  of  the  common 
"  people.  Oh !  Christ,  thy  law  is  hidden  thus, 
"  when  wilt  thou  send  thine  angel  to  remove  the 
"  stone,  and  show  thy  truth  unto  thy  flock  ?  Well 
*'  I  know  that  knis^hts  have  taken  s^old  in  this 
"  case,  to  help  that  thy  law  may  be  thus  hid,  and 
*'  thine  ordinances  consumed.  But  well  I  know 
"  that  at  the  day  of  doom  it  shall  be  manifest,  and 
"  even  before,  when  thou  arisest  against  all  thine 
*'  enemies  !"' 

While  such  was  the  policy  of  the  leading  mem- 
bers of  the  hierarchy,  it  was  obvious  to  Wycliffe, 
that  nothing  remained  but  to  submit  to  their  des- 
potism, or  to  attempt  a  counteraction  of  their 
ettbrts  as  made  to  obtain  the  sanction  of  the  court 
and  the  senate.  Nearly  sixty  winters  had  now 
passed  over  the  head  of  our  reformer,  and  sick- 
ness had  made  a  serious  inroad  on  his  physical 
strength — that  important  auxiliary  of  intellectual 
vigour  and  prowess.      But  his  furrowed  brow,  and 

1  MS.  Horn.  Bib.  Resj. 


THE    LIFE    OF     WVCLIFFE. 


97 


1382. 
November. 


whitened    hairs,  were   still    allied    to    an   energy  ^^^^^ 

v/hich  could  ill  submit  to  a  tame  surrendering-  of 

the  fortress  of  equity,  and  truth,  and  godliness. 
Each  step  in  the  progress  of  the  late  persecutions, 
\vas  seen  as  facilitating  the  meditated  blow  against 
himself.  Should  it  be  his  lot  to  perish  beneath 
the  fangs  of  the  rising  tyranny,  it  was  his  resolve 
that  his  countrymen  should  not  be  ignorant  of  the 
opinions  for  which  he  suffered.  In  conformity 
with  this  determination,  and  with  his  message  to 
the  chancellor  of  Oxford  some  months  previously, 
he  presented  a  summary  of  the  more  important 
of  his  tenets,  in  the  form  of  a  petition,  to  the  king 
and  the  parliament.  The  assembly  to  which  this 
appeal  was  addressed,  was  summoned  on  the  fif- 
teenth of  October,  and  met  on  the  nineteenth  of 
November,^  and  in  this  document  it  is  supposed 
to  be  already  convened.  It  appears  also  to  have 
been  known  that  in  this  meeting  of  "  the  great 
"  men  of  the  realm,  both  seculars  and  men  of 
"  holy-church,"  the  articles  included  in  this  ap- 
peal would  become  the  matters  of  discussion. 
The  doctrine  thus  submitted  to  their  judgment, 
is  said  to  be  "  proved  both  by  authority  and 
"  reason,"  and  this  that  the  "  christian  religion 
"  may  be  increased,  maintained,  and  made  stable, 
"  since  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  very  God  and  very 
"  man,  is  head  and  prelate  of  this  religion,  and 
"  shed  his  precious  heart's  blood,  and  water  out 
*'  of  his  side,  on  the  cross,  to  make  this  religion 
*'  perfect  and  stable,  and  clean  without  error."* 

'  Fox.  Acts,  &c.  Library.      It   will   be   remembered  as 

3  M.S.  Ad   regem   et  parliamentum,        one  of  the  two  works  printed  bv  Dr. 
C.  C.  C.  Cambridge,  and  in  the  Cotton       James  in  1608. 

VOL.   II.  H 


98  THE    LTPE    OF    WYCLIFFE. 

CHAP.      The  articles  thus  introduced  are  four  in  num- 

IV. 

'- — bar.    The  first  relates  to  the  vows  of  the  religious, 

wydiffeC^  declaring  them  to  be  a  device  of  man,  and  of  no 
piair.'-  obligation  :  the  second  asserts  that  '*  secular  lords 
*'  may  lawfully,  and  meritoriously,  in  many  cases, 
'*  take  away  temporal  goods  given  to  men  of  the 
"  church."  In  the  third  it  is  affirmed  that  even 
tythes,  and  other  voluntary  offerings,  should  be 
withdrawn  **  from  prelates,  or  other  priests  who- 
**  ever  they  be,"  on  their  yielding  to  "  great  sins, 
'*  as  pride,  simony,  and  man-slaying,  gluttony, 
"  drunkenness,  and  lechery."  In  the  last,  the 
reformer  prays  that  the  doctrine  of  the  eucharist, 
**  which  is  plainly  taught  by  Christ  and  his 
**  apostles  in  the  gospels,  and  epistles,  might  be 
**  also  openly  taught  in  the  churches." 

Nearly  half  this  paper  is  occupied  in  demon- 
strating the  first  of  these  positions  ;  and  to  discern 
the  propriety  of  this,  it  should  be  remembered, 
that  the  archbishop  derived  his  most  efficient 
aid  in  his  present  arbitrary  measures,  from  the 
begging  fraternities  and  the  monks.  It  has  ap- 
peared that  the  sentence  which  excluded  every 
teacher  of  Wycliffe's  doctrine  concerning  the 
eucharist  from  the  university,  was  the  effect  of 
their  influence ;  and  in  the  synod  which  had  since 
prosecuted  his  disciples,  with  all  possible  se- 
verity, the  same  order  of  men  prevailed.  It  be- 
came important,  therefore,  in  the  judgment  of  the 
reformer,  to  shew  distinctly  that  so  far  from 
meriting  the  pre-eminence  conceded  to  them,  the 
vows  which  gave  to  these  persons  their  distinction 
were  a  human  invention ;  an  invention  also  of 
comparatively   recent    date  ;     and    injurious,    in 


THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE.  99 

various  ways,  to  religion,  and  to  the  interests  of  c  h  a  p. 

•     ,  IV. 

society.  

In  this  memorable  appeal,  these  points  are  fully 
proved.  The  writer  especially  adverts  to  the 
practice  of  the  religious  in  forsaking  one  rule, 
deemed  less  perfect,  to  embrace  another  regarded 
as  of  higher  sanctity.  The  rule  of  Christ,  it  is 
contended,  must  of  necessity  be  the  most  com- 
plete, and  it  is  thence  inferred  that  all  men  should 
be  held  free  from  any  painful  consequences  in 
relinquishing  any  "  private  sect,"  the  contrivance 
of  "  sinful  men,"  for  the  rule  of  the  gospel.  This, 
it  is  justly  observed,  should  be  the  more  readily 
admitted  by  the  parties  alluded  to,  as  they  were 
not  slow  to  forget  their  vows  of  poverty  and 
seclusion,  when  the  attractions  of  a  mitre  were 
allowed  to  descend  upon  them.  The  change, 
also,  ^hich  followed  in  such  cases,  is  described  as 
partaking  less  of  an  increased  separation  from  the 
world,  than  of  an  actual  return  to  it.  If  to  all 
this,  it  should  be  replied,  that  the  customs  of  the 
religious  are  not  at  variance  with  the  institute  of 
the  Saviour  and  his  apostles,  but  rather  parts 
of  it;  the  persons  so  reasoning,  are  called  upon 
to  name  the  portion  of  holy  writ,  containing  the 
articles  of  discipline  which  have  given  existence 
to  canons,  and  monks,  and  mendicants  ;  and  to 
expose  the  failure  which  must  be  attendant  on 
the  attempt  to  do  this,  various  of  the  regulations 
adopted  by  these  communities  are  specified. 
Respecting  this  moiety  of  the  work,  in  which  that 
momentous  doctrine,  the  sufficiency  of  scripture, 
is  maintained  in  the  most  satisfactory  terms,  a 
correct  idea  may  be  formed  from  the  following 
H  2 


100  THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE. 

CHAP,  extract.  It  is  intended  to  exhibit  the  supreme 
■  authority  of  the  inspired  writings,  and  clearly  as- 
sumes the  right  of  private  judgment.  "  Inasmuch 
"  as  one  patron  or  founder  is  more  perfect,  more 
"  mighty,  more  wise,  more  holy,  and  in  more 
"  charity  than  another,  insomuch  is  the  first 
"  patron's  rule  better  and  more  perfect  than  is 
"  that  of  the  second.  But  Jesus  Christ,  the 
"  patron  of  the  christian  religion,  given  to  the 
"  apostles,  passeth  without  measure,  in  might, 
"  and  wisdom,  and  good-will,  the  perfection  of 
"  every  patron  of  any  private  sect-— his  rule  is 
"  therefore  more  perfect.  Also  that  Christ's  pure 
"  reliction,  without  the  addition  of  sinful  men's 
**  errors,  is  the  most  perfect  of  all,  may  be  thus 
"  shewn.  For  either  Christ  might  give  such  a 
"  rule,  the  most  perfect  to  be  kept  in  this  life, 
"  and  would  not;  and  then  he  was  envious — as 
"  St.  Austin  proveth  in  other  matters — or  else 
"  Christ  would  ordain  such  a  rule,  and  might  not; 
"  and  then  Christ  was  unmighty,  but  to  affirm 
"  that  of  Christ  is  heresy — or  else  he  might  and 
"  could,  but  would  not ;  and  then  he  was  unwise, 
"  and  that  is  a  heresy  no  man  should  consent  to 
*'  hear.  Therefore,  it  is  plain,  that  Christ  both 
"  might,  and  could,  and  would  ordain  a  rule  the 
"  most  perfect  that  should  be  kept  in  this  life. 
"  And  so  Christ,  of  his  endless  wisdom  and  cha- 
'*  rity,  has  ordained  such  a  rule.  And  thus  on 
'*  each  side  men  are  bound,  upon  pain  of  heresy, 
*'  and  of  blasphemy,  and  of  condemnation,  to 
"  believe  and  acknowledge  that  the  religion  of 
"  Jesus  Christ  to  his  apostles,  and  kept  by  them 
"  in  its  own  freedom,  without  addition  from  sinful 


THE     LIFE     OF     MVCLIFFE.  101 

*'  man's  error,  is  the  most  perfect  of  all ;  and  so  to  chap. 

"  hinder  no  man  from  forsaking  a  private  religion, ^— 

"  and  keeping  the  piu'e  religion  of  Christ." 

These  reasonings  are  also  enforced  by  the  fact, 
that  in  the  early  ages,  when  neither  monks  nor 
friars  were  known,  "  the  church  increased  and 
"  prospered  most,  for  then  almost  all  men  disposed 
"  themselves  to  martyrdom  after  the  example 
'*  of  Christ."  His  conclusion  therefore  is,  that  "  it 
"  were  not  only  meritorious  to  the  church  now, 
"  but  most  meritorious,  to  live  so  in  ail  tilings, 
*'  and  by  all  things."  As  the  consequence  of 
tliese  opinions  with  regard  to  the  gospel,  and  its 
Author,  WyclifFe  claimed  for  himself,  and  others, 
the  same  liberty  in  adhering  to  the  simple  order 
said  to  be  instituted  by  the  Redeemer,  which  was 
conceded  to  such  as  professed  to  adopt  some  one 
system  of  man's  invention  in  preference  to  others. 
And  had  the  religious  been  disposed  to  tolerate 
this  exclusive  attachment  to  scriptural  vows  of 
spirituality  or  seclusion,  their  own  authority  might 
have  been  less  disturbed,  and  of  longer  con- 
tinuance. But  they  saw  this  kind  of  profession 
as  reflecting  on  every  other,  regarding  them  as 
innovations  of  yesterday,  and  as  opposed  to  the 
veneration  due  to  the  Redeemer,  who  in  oppo- 
sition to  the  infallibility  assumed  by  the  church, 
was  declared  to  be  alone  above  the  influence  of 
error.  Hence  arose  the  spirit  of  persecution,  and 
hence  the  reaction  which  violence  rarely  fails 
to  produce. 

In  the  second  of  the  articles  contained  in  this 
paper,  the  reformer  combats  the  theory  of  certain 
friars,   who   had   maintained   on  some  recent  and 


102  THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE. 

CHAP,  public  occasion,   that  both  the    persons  and  the 
— i^'—  property  of  the  clergy,  and  of  the  religious,  were 
strictly  beyond  the  jurisdiction  of  the  sovereign. 
The   absurdity   of   this   fashionable   doctrine  the 
reformer  had  often  exposed,  and  it  is  again  ex- 
hibited,   and  principally  by  tracing  it  to  its  re- 
sults.    It  is  remarked  that  if  to  hold  the  opposite 
of  this  doctrine,   "  be  error  touching  the  health 
"  of  man's  soul,"  then  the  race  of  English  princes, 
and   the   men    who    have  formed  the   successive 
councils  of  the  realm,  must  be  viewed  as  among 
the  lost.       And,   not   to   dwell  on  the   recorded 
opinions  of  such  parties,  as  opposed  to  this  tenet, 
nor  on  the  measures  which  frequently  arose  from 
them,  it  is  observed,  that  if  they  were  in  error  in 
this  matter,  it  must  then  follow  that  should  "  an 
"  abbot  and  all  his  convent  prove  open  traitors, 
"  conspiring  the  death  of  the  king  and  the  queen, 
"  and  of  other  lords,    and    exert  themselves  to 
*•  destroy  the  whole  realm,  the  king  may  not  take 
"  from  them  one  halfpenny,  or  farthing,  nor  its 
"  worth,  since  all  these  are  temporal  goods.    Also, 
"  though  other  clerks  should  send  to  our  enemies 
**  all  the  rents  which  they  have  in  our  land,  and 
"  whatever  they  may  rob  or  steal  of  the  king's 
**  liege  men,  yet  our  king  may  not  punish  them 
*•  by  one  farthing,  nor  farthing's  worth.     Also,  by 
*'  this  doctrine  of  friars,  though  monks  or  friars, 
"  or  other  clerks,  whatever  they  be,  should  slay 
"  lords'  tenants,  the  king's  liege   men,  and  dis- 
"  honour  lords'  wives,  yea,  the  queen,  which  God 
**  forbid,   or   the  empress,  yet  the  king  may  not 
"  punish  them  by  the  loss  of  one  farthing.     Also, 
**  it  followeth   plainly,  that    men  called  men  of 


THE    LIFK    OF     WYCLIFFE.  103 

"holy-church  may  dwell   in  this  land   at   their  chap. 

"  liking,  and  do  what  kind  of  sin,  and  what  kind ^'— 

"  of  treason  they  like,  and  the  king,  nevertheless, 
"  may  not  punish  them,  neither  in  their  temporal 
"  goods,  nor  in  their  bodies,  since  if  he  may  not 
"  punish  them  in  the  less,  he  may  not  in  the 
**  greater.  And  should  they  make  one  of  theni- 
"  selves  king,  no  secular  lord  may  hinder  him  in 
"  conquering  all  the  secular  lordships  of  this 
"  earth :  and  these  men  might  destroy  all  lords 
"  and  ladies,  and  their  blood  and  affinity,  without 
"  any  penalty  arising  in  this  life,  either  in  their 
"  body  or  estate.  Ye  lords  !  then  see  and  under- 
"  stand,  with  what  punishing  they  deserve  to  be 
"  punished,  who  thus  hastily  and  wrongfully  have 
"  condemned  you  for  heretics,  forasmuch  as  you 
"  do  execution  and  righteousness  according  to 
"  God's  law  and  man's.  For  the  chief  lordship 
*'  of  all  temporalities  in  this  land,  both  of  secular 
*'  men  and  religious,  pertains  to  the  king,  of  his 
"  general  governing,  or  else  he  were  not  king  of 
*'  all  England,  but  merely  of  a  little  part  thereof." 
This  refutation  of  the  ambitious  tenet  to  which 
this  part  of  the  petition  refers,  is  farther  strength- 
ened by  the  language  of  St.  Paul,  respecting 
magistracy,  as  "God's  ordinance;"  and  it  is 
remarked,  that  the  apostle,  who  "  putteth  all  men 
"  in  subjection  to  kings,  out  taketh  never  a  one." 
From  these  premises,  the  known  doctrine  of  our 
reformer  concerning  the  power  of  the  crown,  as 
extending  over  the  whole  property  of  the  clergy, 
and  over  the  persons  of  that  order  in  all  civil 
affairs,  is  in  conclusion  adduced. 

The  third  article  relates  to  the  application   of 


104  THE     LIFE    OF     WYCLIFFE. 

CHAP.  "  tythes  and  offerings,"   as  required   "  by  God's 

! —  *'  law,   and  the  pope's  law."     In  this  the  claims 

of  the  most  devoted  among  the  clergy,  are  limited 
to  the  needful  matters  of  food  and  clothing;  while 
the  ignorant,  the  indolent,  or  the  vicious,  are  de- 
scribed as  having  forfeited  all  right  to  any  part  in 
the  goods  of  the  church.  In  support  of  this  doc- 
trine, the  writer  appeals  to  the  conduct  of  Tobit, 
in  withholding  his  offerings  from  the  priests  of 
Jeroboam,  and  rendering  them  to  the  true  de- 
scendants of  Aaron,  who  resided  at  Jerusalem  ; 
to  the  story  of  Eli  and  his  sons  ;  and  to  the 
advice  of  Paul  in  his  letters  to  Timothy.  From 
the  authorities  of  a  subsequent  date,  the  names 
of  Jerome,  Augustine,  and  of  Gregory  the  great, 
are  cited,  together  with  those  of  Bernard  and 
Grossteste,  all  as  more  or  less  favourable  to  the 
position  advanced.  Two  things  are  said,  in  con- 
clusion, to  follow  from  what  is  thus  introduced. 
First,  that  if  curates  do  not  their  office  in  word 
and  example  as  God  has  commanded,  their  people 
are  under  no  obligation  to  pay  them  tythes  and 
offerings,  since  the  end  for  which  such  payments 
are  made  is  wanting  :  secondly,  that  curates  are 
more  guilty  in  withholding  their  teaching  by  word 
and  example,  than  their  parishioners  would  be 
in  refusing  tythes  and  offerings,  even  though  the 
office  of  the  curate  were  well  performed.  It  is 
true,  that  to  withhold  these  contributions,  in  such 
a  case,  is  frequently  described  as  a  neglect  of 
duty ;  but  Wycliffe  does  not  hesitate  to  affirm  the 
latter  delinquency,  serious  as  it  may  be,  to  be  far 
less  so  than  the  former. 

The   last   article   of  this    complaint,  we    have 


THE     J.IFE     OF     M'VCLIFFE.  105 

noticed  as  relatino-  to  the  doctrine  of  the  eucharist.  c  h  a  p. 

7  .  .  .  IV. 

The  reformer  claims  it  as  a  right  to  publish  freely 

the  scripture  representations  of  that  sacrament, 
but  he  abstains  from  any  statement  of  his  pe- 
culiar views  respecting  it,  which  were  indeed 
sufficiently  known,  and  adverts  chiefly  to  the 
evils  arising  from  "  the  worldly  business  of 
priests." 

His  manner  of  concluding  the  portion  of  this 
work  which  relates  to  tythes  and  offerings,  is 
expressive  of  that  sense  of  justice,  humanity,  and 
religion,  which  sustained  the  mind  of  the  writer, 
while  called  to  witness  the  growing  strength  of 
the  enemies  of  reform.  "  Ah  !  Lord  God,"  he 
exclaims,  "  can  it  be  reason,  to  constrain  the  poor 
"  people  to  provide  a  worldly  priest,  sometimes 
"  unable  both  of  life  and  knowledge,  in  his  pomp 
"  and  pride,  covetousness  and  envy,  gluttony,  drun- 
"  kenness,  and  lechery,  in  simony  and  heresy, — 
*'  with  a  fine  horse,  and  gay  saddles,  and  bridles 
"  ringing  by  the  way,  and  himself  in  costly  clothes, 
"  and  fine  furs — and  to  sufter  their  wives  and 
"  children,  and  poor  neighbours  to  perish  from 
"  hunger,  thirst,  and  cold,  and  other  mischiefs 
"  of  the  world!  Ah  !  Lord  Jesus  Christ!  since 
"  within  a  few  years,  men  paid  their  tythes  and 
"  oiferings  of  their  own  free  will,  to  good  men, 
"  and  able  to  conduct  the  great  worship  of  God, 
"  to  the  profit  and  beauty  of  the  holy  church 
"  fighting  on  the  earth  ;  can  it  be  needful  or  lawful 
*'  that  a  worldly  priest  should  destroy  this  holy 
"  and  approved  custom,  constraining  men  to 
"  forsake  this  freedom,  and  turning  tythes  and 
"  oiierings  to   wicked  uses,  or  at   least   to  those 


106  THE    LIFE    OF     WYCLIFFE. 

CHAP.  "  which   are    not    so    good    as   was   the   custom 


IV 


before  ? '' 


Eftectof  The  impression  made  on  the  parliament  by  this 
appeal  was  considerable,  and  to  Wycliffe  must 
have  been  highly  gratifying.  In  a  petition  to  the 
king,  the  members  of  the  commons  cited  those 
provisions  of  the  spurious  statute  obtained  by  the 
primate,  which,  to  effect  the  imprisonment  of  the 
new  preachers,  and  their  abettors,  until  obedient 
to  the  church,  had  rendered  every  sheriff  in  the 
kingdom  the  tool  of  his  diocesan,  requiring  him  to 
root  out  the  errors  by  the  sword  entrusted  to  him, 
which  neither  the  persuasions  nor  the  terrors  of 
an  infallible  church  had  been  sufficient  to  destroy. 
But  as  this  pretended  law  "  was  never  agreed  to 
'*  nor  granted  by  the  commons,  but  whatsoever 
*'  was  moved  therein  was  without  their  assent," 
it  is  required  "  that  the  said  statute  be  disan- 
"  nulled,"  and  it  is  farther  declared  to  be  "  in  no 
*'  wise  their  meaning,  that  either  themselves,  or 
"  such  as  shall  succeed  them,  shall  be  farther 
"  bound  to  the  prelates,  than  were  their  ancestors 
**  in  former  times."" 

But  to  procure  the  enactment  or  the  repeal  of 
statutes,  however  formally  either  might  be  done, 
was  but  a  minor  part  of  the  labour  which  de- 
volved on  our  parliaments  in  those  ages.  No- 
thing, indeed,  was  more  common,  than  the 
violation  of  promises,  and  even  of  oaths,  on  the 
part  of  the  sovereign,  or  of  the  government ;  and 
to  justify  this  bad  faith,  the  secret,  or  avowed 
pretext  generally  was,  that  the  concessions  made 
had  been  improperly  extorted.     Hence  to  secure 

■•  Fox.  Acts  and  Monuments,  i.  57G.  LiMj;;xid,  iv.  251). 


THE     LIFE     OF    WYCLIFFE.  107 

the  enforcement  of  laws,  was  commonly  a  work  chap. 

IV 

of  much  greater  difficulty,   than  to   effect   their !_ 

apparent  adoption.  From  this  disgraceful  cir- 
cumstance, arose  the  custom  of  so  frequently 
confirming  anew  the  most  acknowledged  prin- 
ciples of  the  constitution.  Nor  is  it  at  all  doubt- 
ful, that  to  this  state  of  things,  as  pervading  the 
cabinets  of  Europe,  the  court  of  Rome  had 
greatly  contributed,  as  well  by  her  general  po- 
licy, as  by  the  most  flagrant  abuses  of  her  dispen- 
sing power.  With  the  papal  maxims,  the  present 
archbishop  of  Canterbury  was  thoroughly  imbued, 
and  to  him  we  may  attribute  the  exclusion  of  this 
act  of  repeal,  so  honourable  to  its  authors,  from 
the  parliamentary  records ;  and  also  the  subse- 
quent conduct  of  the  young  king,  by  which  his 
message  to  the  commons,  in  reply  to  their  peti- 
tion, was  virtually  falsified. 

In  his  letters,  Richard  had  been  made  to  threa- 
ten the  penalties  of  exclusion  from  the  university, 
imprisonment,  and  confiscation,  against  all  who 
should  hold  the  doctrine  of  Wyclifte,  or  such 
as  should  in  any  way  favour  its  abettors.  And 
though  the  monarch  subsequently  declared  him- 
self pleased  with  the  repeal  of  the  statute  on 
which  these  instructions  were  founded,  the  violent 
measures  which  it  had  been  framed  to  sanction 
were  still  pursued,  and  with  but  too  much  suc- 
cess. It  was,  as  we  have  remarked,  on  the  1 9th 
of  November,  that  the  parliament  and  the  con- 
vocation assembled  at  Oxford.  The  clergy  there 
convened,  were  informed  by  the  primate,  that  the 
business  before  them  was  to  grant  a  subsidy  to 
the  crown  ;  and  to  remedy  certain  disorders  which 


IQ^  THE    LIFE    OF     WYCLIFFE. 

CHAP,  had  too  long  disgraced  the  university,  and  were 
^^ '  extending  rapidly  to  the  whole  community,  of 
whose  spiritual  safety  they  were  the  properly 
constituted  guardians.  In  this  meeting  the  arch- 
bishop had  concentrated  his  whole  strength,  and 
the  rector  of  Lutterworth  was  now  summoned  to 
answer  before  him  on  the  articles  which  were 
regarded  as  containing  his  opinions.  There  were 
circumstances,  however,  which  served  greatly  to 
narrow  the  field  of  discussion  on  this  occasion. 
On  all  the  more  important  questions  of  ecclesi- 
astical polity,  Wycliffe  had  spoken  freely,  in  his 
various  writings,  and  in  his  address  to  "  the 
**  secular  lords  and  men  of  holy  church"  who 
were  now  met.  But  the  resentment  of  the  com- 
mons, which  the  meditated  encroachment  of  tlie 
prelates  had  excited,  was  not  to  be  overlooked, 
and  it  appears  to  have  suggested  the  utmost  cau- 
tion in  the  method  of  proceeding  at  this  juncture. 
It  was  not  difficult  to  perceive,  that  matters  of 
discipline,  as  less  important,  and  less  protected 
by  the  supposed  infallibility  of  the  church,  might 
form  but  an  inefficient  ground  of  accusation  ;  and 
as  the  doctrine  of  the  eucharist  was  an  acknow- 
ledged article  of  faith,  and  one  also  of  the  gravest 
moment,  the  faith  of  the  reformer  with  respect  to 
that  sacrament  became  the  subject  of  special  in- 
Heisfor-  quisltiou.  Lancaster,  who  appears  to  have  been 
uuca!ier.  concemcd,  at  this  crisis,  to  avoid  any  renewal  of 
hostilities  with  the  clergy,  is  said  to  have  advised 
his  submission  in  all  doctrinal  matters  to  the  judg- 
ment of  his  order. ^     But  Wycliffe,   though  sen- 

5    In  tbe  Sudbury  Register,    (Wil-        iiieiukd    lur   his   cciuliu-t    in    this  iu- 
kius,  iii.  171.)  the  duke  is  liiiihly  com-        stance. 


THE     LIFE    OF    AVYCLIFFE.  J  09 

siblc  of  the  aid  which  he  had  derived  from  the  chap. 
patronage  of  that  illustrious  nobleman,  had  ad-  ^^' 
vanced  to  a  point  from  which  there  was  no 
receding-,  except  at  the  cost  of  consistency  and 
truth.  The  state  of  affairs,  at  this  moment,  pre- 
sented a  powerful  test  to  the  integrity  and  energy 
of  his  character ;  and  the  result  has  served  to 
place  him  among  the  most  distinguished  of  con- 
fessors. To  have  denied  his  doctrine  on  the 
eucharist,  —  or  simply  to  have  abstained  from 
teaching  it,  would  have  been  to  continue  shel- 
tered from  the  resentment  of  the  clergy,  by  the 
power  of  one  who  was  still  the  second  man  in 
the  kingdom.  To  proceed  in  exposing  the  weak- 
ness and  impiety  of  the  received  opinions  on  that 
sacrament,  and  this  in  opposition  to  the  serious 
admonitions  of  John  of  Gaunt,  was  deliberately 
to  encounter  the  unbridled  malevolence  of  his 
enemies.  The  latter  course,  however,  costly  as 
it  might  prove,  was  the  object  of  his  choice.  Wenispur. 
also  learn,  and  from  a  writer  who  was  not  a  little  t^ed  by ^' 
solicitous  to  fasten  the  disgrace  of  equivocation 
upon  the  name  of  Wyclitfe,  that  the  command  of 
the  duke,  in  this  particular,  affected  his  purposes 
in  no  degree  more  than  the  injunctions  of  the 
primate.  And  it  is  added  by  the  same  authority, 
that  in  his  public  defence  on  the  sacrament  of  the 
altar,  "  like  an  obstinate  heretic,  he  refuted  all 
"  the  doctors  of  the  second  millenary. '"" 

To  understand  the  zeal  with  which  the  re- 
former assailed  the  errors  of  transubstantiation, 
we  must  bear  in  mind  the  views  which  he  had 
adopted  concerning  it.     The  adoration  of  a  piece 

«  Walsingliam,  Hist.  283. 


110  THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE. 

CHAP,  of  bread  in  the  place  of  the  Deity,  was,  in  his 

judgment,  idolatry.     The  conduct  of  the  priest, 

also,  in  pretending  to  re-make  his  Maker,  he 
vehemently  pronounced  to  be  the  last  step  of  pre- 
sumption and  blasphemy.  Nor  was  this  all ;  for 
in  a  treatise  published  soon  after  this  period,  and 
which,  from  its  extent  and  its  character,  we  may 
presume  to  have  been  already  in  a  great  degree 
composed,  he  attacks  the  orthodox  mysteries  con- 
nected with  the  eucharist,  from  a  most  luminous 
His  views  of  perception  of  their  general  bearing.  So  long  as 
if£con"  these  are  received  in  the  church,  their  tendency, 
troversy.  ^^  affirms,  must  be  to  facilitate  the  introduction 
of  any  dogma  serving  to  elevate  the  priesthood, 
however  much  opposed  to  scripture,  to  reason,  or 
to  the  senses.  The  doctrine  of  a  real  presence, 
he  declares  to  be  the  offspring  of  Satan ;  and 
the  author  of  evil  is  viewed,  while  inventing  it, 
as  reasoning  thus  with  himself.  "  Should  I  once 
**  so  far  beguile  the  faithful  of  the  church,  by  the 
*'  aid  of  Antichrist,  my  vicegerent,  as  to  persuade 
"  them  to  deny  that  this  sacrament  is  bread,  and 
"  to  induce  them  to  regard  it  as  merely  an  acci- 
*'  dent,  there  will  be  nothing  then  which  I  may 
"•  not  bring  them  to  receive,  since  there  can  be 
"  nothing  more  opposite  to  the  scriptures,  or  to 
''  common  discernment.  Let  the  life  of  a  prelate 
"  then  be  what  it  may,  let  him  be  guilty  of  luxury, 
*'  simony,  or  murder,  the  people  may  be  led  to 
*'  believe  that  he  is  really  no  such  man — nay,  they 
"  may  then  be  persuaded  to  admit,  that  the  pope 
**  is  infallible,  at  least  with  respect  to  the  matters 
'*  of  christian  faith ;  and  that,  inasmuch  as  he  is 
*'  known  by  the  name  of  Most  Holy  Father,  he  is 


THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE.  Ill 

"  of  course  free  from  sin."^     Thus  it  appeared  to  chap. 

Wycliffe,  that  while  the  authority  of  the  church — 

was  so  far  submitted  to,  as  to  involve  the  adoption 
of  this  marvellous  dogma,  no  limit  could  possibly 
be  assigned  to  the  schemes  of  clerical  imposture 
and  oppression.  He  sought  its  overthrow  accord- 
ingly, as  being  false  in  itself;  and  still  more  as 
being  the  parent,  directly  or  indirectly,  of  innu- 
merable falsehoods.  His  attack,  therefore,  upon 
transubstantiation,  was  evidently  conducted  with 
a  view  to  the  general  freedom  of  the  human  mind. 

Nor  was  the  reformer  without  that  stimulus  in  Hiscoufi. 
the  present  unequal  contest,  which  arises  from  Jtima'te 
the  confidence  of  success.  In  an  earlier  chapter '""""''■ 
of  the  treatise  last  cited,  he  exclaims,  "  Oh!  that 
"  all  who  believe  could  see  how  Antichrist  and  his 
"  instruments  condemn  the  sons  of  the  church, 
"  and  persecute  them  even  to  death,  because  they 
"  maintain  this  truth  as  taught  in  the  gospel. 
"  Truly  aware  I  am,  that  the  doctrine  of  the  gos- 
"  pel  may  for  a  season  be  trampled  under  foot, 
"  that  it  may  be  overpowered  in  high  places,  and 
''  even  suppressed  by  the  threatenings  of  Anti- 
"  Christ ;  but  equally  sure  I  am,  that  it  shall  never 
"  be  extinguished,  for  it  is  the  recording  of  truth 
"  itself,  '  Heaven  and  earth  shall  pass  away,  but 
"  so  shall  not  my  words.'  Let  the  spirit  of  the 
"  faithful  therefore  awake  itself,  and  diligently 
"  enquire  as  to  the  nature  of  this  venerable  sacra- 
"  ment,  whether  it  be  not  indeed  bread,  as  the 
"  gospel,  the  senses,  and  reason  assure  us.  Cer- 
"  tain,  verily,  I  am,  that  the  idolaters  who  make 

7  Trialogus,   lib.iv.c.  7.    The  sub-        MS.  Contra  Fralres,  Bibl.Bodl.Archi. 
stance  of  this  passage  occurs  in  the        A.  83. 


aiice  before 
the  convoca. 
tion  at 
ford. 


112  THE    LIFE     OF    WYCLIFFE. 

CHAP.  "  to  themselves  gods,  are  not  ignorant  of  the  real 

. '—  "nature  of    these    gods  —  though  they    pretend 

"  there   is    a   something    of    deity    within    them, 
"  which  is  communicated,  as  by  the  God  of  gods." 
To  believe  this,  he  remarks,  is  to  sink  in  the  scale 
of   perception  beneath  the    pagan  or  the    brute  ; 
and  from  what  he  had  written,  the  conclusion  is 
said  to  follow,   "  that  this  venerable  sacrament  is 
*'  naturally  bread,   and   sacramentally,  the  body 
"  of  Christ. "'^ 
His  appear-      ^^it  to  rctum  to  the  proceedings  of  the  con- 
vocation at  Oxford.     The  assembly  on  which  it 
®''"  devolved  to  ascertain    the   opinions  of  Wycliffe, 
and  to  determine  their  character,  consisted  of  the 
archbishop  of  Canterbury,  the  bishops  of  Lincoln, 
Norwich,    Worcester,    London,     Salisbury,     and 
Hereford,  with  a  numerous  selection  of  doctors, 
together  with   the  chancellor    of  the    university, 
and   many  of  the  inferior  clergy.     Around  these 
also,  the  laity  were  crowded  as  auditors,  variously 
interested  in  the  object  of  the  meeting.     Before 
this    imposing    array   of    authority   and    learning, 
and  all  marshalled  against  him,  stood  the  rector 
of  Lutterworth.     More  than  forty  years  had  now 
elapsed,  since  Oxford  had  first  become  his  resi- 
dence, and  a  place  associated  in  his  mind  with 
many  pleasing  recollections  or  pursuits.    Through 
that  long   period    it   had   been  more  or    less   his 
home.     Before  him   it  stood,    a  venerable  esta- 
blishment, formed    to  nurse  the   intellect  of  his 
country,  in  subservience  to  the  great  designs  of 
patriotism,  philanthropy,  and  religion.     Hence  he 
had  always  been  among  the  foremost  to  defend 

■*  Trialogus,  lib.  iv.  c.  4. 


THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE.  113 

its  jurisdiction  as  independent  of  all  foreign  con-  chap. 

trol,  and  especially  of  that  which  proceeded  from  

the  papacy.  He  was  now  grey  with  age,  or 
rather,  perhaps,  as  the  effect  of  those  religious 
solicitudes,  and  that  mental  activity,  which  appear 
always  to  have  surpassed  the  ability  of  his  feebler 
nature,  and  to  have  been  constantly  exposing  him 
to  the  inroads  of  disease.  The  place,  also,  in 
which  he  now  appeared,  under  so  much  serious 
accusation,  and  upon  such  unequal  terms,  had  fre- 
cjuently  echoed  to  the  utterance  of  his  praise  by 
admiring  converts,  and,  to  the  sound  of  his  voice, 
as  the  advocate  of  doctrines  endeared  to  the  purer 
ages  of  the  church.  Nor  is  it  to  be  supposed 
that  his  numerous  followers  had  become  suddenly 
extinct.  But  at  this  moment,  the  partizans  of 
the  established  superstitions  had  so  far  diffused 
the  terrors  of  their  strength,  that  the  reformer, 
like  another  Elijah,  stands  apparently  alone  amid 
a  generation  of  his  countrymen.  Still,  while 
certain  affecting  recollections  were  doubtless  fresh 
within  him,  and  while  his  present  circumstances 
were  quite  alarming  enough  to  have  shaken  even 
an  extraordinary  mind,  such  was  his  conviction  of 
the  goodness  of  his  cause,  that  his  firmness  con- 
tinues unbroken. 

His  defence,  we  have  seen,  was  such  as  to 
extort  from  adversaries  the  praise  of  an  unri- 
valled acuteness.  And  his  written  confessions, 
which  the  same  adversaries  have  transmitted 
to  us,  contain  the  most  distinct  announcements 
of  whatever  he  had  previously  taught  on  the 
sacrament  to  which  they  relate.  That  two 
confessions    referring    to  this    article    should   be 

VOL.    II.  I 


114  THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE. 

CHAP,  attributed  to  him,   will  be  in  part  explained  by 

'—  observing,  that  the  one  is  in  Latin,  the  other  in 

English.  In  addition  to  which,  the  first  treats 
the  question  in  a  style  which  the  more  learned 
of  his  judges  must  have  seen  to  be  adapted  to  their 
taste,  simply  for  the  purpose  of  defeating  them 
with  their  own  weapons  ;  while  the  English  docu- 
ment touches  but  distantly  on  the  distinctions  of 
the  schools,  and  is  framed  to  meet  the  popular 
apprehension.  It  was  not  unusual  to  exact  con- 
fessions from  suspected  persons  in  this  double 
form ;  and  had  those  of  Wycliffe  contained  any 
recantation,  both  would  have  been  publicly  read 
in  the  schools  of  the  university,  and  from  the 
pulpits  of  the  clergy.  In  this  manner  the  twenty- 
four  articles  had  been  published,  which  were  con- 
demned some  months  previously  by  the  synod  at 
the  preaching  friars. 
Substance        Jn  hls  Latin  confession,"  Wycliffe  applies  him- 

of  his  con-  1       •  I  T     1  n       1 

fession.  self  to  demonstrate,  and  ni  the  dialect  of  the 
schools,  "  that  this  venerable  sacrament  is  ?iatu- 
"  r^//j/ bread  and  wine,  but  sacrametitalli/  the,  body 
*'  and  blood  of  Christ."  With  a  view  to  this 
object,  he  observes,  that  there  are  six  modes  of 
existing  that  may  be  attributed  to  the  body  of  the 
Saviour  ;  and  that  three  of  these  may  be  affirmed 
of  that  body  as  it  is  present  in  the  eucharist ;  and 
three  of  its  state  as  peculiar  to  the  heavenly 
world.  In  the  eucharist,  he  is  virtually,  spiri- 
tually, and  sacramentally  present,  but  his  sub- 
stantial, his  corporeal,  and  his  dimensional 
presence,  is  declared  to  pertain  exclusively  to 
his    mode  of  being   in  the   celestial  state.     The 

9  See  it  in  the  Appendix,  No.  Vf . 


THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE.  115 

reformer  then  repeats  the  doctrine  maintained  by  chap. 


himself  and  his  followers ;  denies  the  charge  of 
their  adoring  the  elements  of  bread  and  wine ; 
and  observes  that  he  had  detected  the  fallacies  of 
his  opponents,  who,  in  citing  the  language  of  the 
fathers  on  this  sacrament,  were  always  disposed 
to  confound  the  notion  of  a  sacramental,  with  that 
of  an  identical  presence.  The  result  of  this 
mistake  is  affirmed  to  be,  the  insane  fiction  of  an 
accident,  or  quality,  without  a  subject, — a  tenet 
declared  to  be  equally  insulting  to  the  church,  and 
injurious  to  God. 

The  English  confession,  if  we  discard  its  or- 
thography, and  something  of  its  obsolete  expres- 
sion, will  state  his  judgment  on  this  important 
article  more  distinctly  than  any  abridgment  in 
other  language.  *'  We  believe,"  he  writes,  "  as 
''  Christ  and  his  apostles  have  taught  us,  that  the 
"  sacrament  of  the  altar,  white  and  round,  and 
"  like  to  our  bread  or  host  unconsecrated,  is  verily 
"  God's  body  in  the  form  of  bread  ;  and  if  it  be 
"  broken  into  three  parts,  as  is  the  custom  of  the 
*'  church,  or  into  a  thousand,  every  one  of  these 
**  parts  is  in  the  same  sense  God's  body.  And 
"  just  as  the  person  of  Christ  is  very  God,  and 
"  very  man,  so  the  church  through  many  hun- 
"  dred  winters  hath  believed  the  same  sacrament 
"to  be  very  God's  body,  and  very  bread,  since 
"  it  is  the  form  of  God's  body,  and  the  form  of 
"  bread,  as  Christ  and  his  apostles  taught. 
"  Hence,  St.  Paul  nameth  it  never  without  call- 
"  ing  it  bread,  and  he,  according  to  our  belief, 
"  obtained  his  knowledge  in  this  matter  from  God. 
"  And  the  arguments  of  heretics  against  this 
I  2 


IV. 


116  THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE. 

CHAP."  doctrine,  a  christian  man  may  easily  answer.  For 

—  "  just  as  it  is  heresy  to  believe  that  Christ  is  a 

"  spirit  and  no  body,  so  is  it  heresy  to  suppose 
"  that  this  sacrament  is  God's  body  and  no  bread, 
*'  for  it  is  both  together.  But  the  gTcatest  heresy 
"  which  God  has  suffered  to  come  to  his  church, 
"  is  to  suppose  that  this  sacrament  is  an  acci- 
"  dent,  or  a  mere  quality  without  a  substance, 
*'  and  may  in  no  sense  be  God's  body ;  for 
"  Christ  himself,  as  witnessed  by  John,  said, 
*'  *  This  is  my  body.'  And  if  they  say,  that 
'*  according  to  this  showing  holy  church  has 
"  been  in  heresy  many  hundred  winters,  in  truth 
"so  it  is;  and  especially  since  the  fiend  was 
"  loosed,  who  is  witnessed  of  by  the  angel  to  St. 
"  John,  as  to  be  loosed  in  a  thousand  winters 
"  after  Christ  was  ascended  into  heaven.  But  it 
"  is  also  to  suppose,  that  many  saints  who  died 
"  in  the  mean  time,  were  purified  from  this  error 
"  before  their  death.  Mark  how  great  a  diver- 
"  sity  there  is,  between  us  who  suppose  that  this 
**  sacrament  is  very  bread  in  its  kind,  and  be- 
"  tween  heretics  who  tell  us  that  it  is  an  accident 
*'  without  a  subject.  For  before  the  fiend,  the 
*'  father  of  falsehood,  was  loosed,  this  deceitful 
"  prating  was  never  invented.  And  how  great 
"  diversity  also  there  is  between  us  who  suppose 
"  that  this  sacrament,  which  in  its  kind  is  very 
"  bread,  and  sacramentally  God's  body,  and 
**  heretics,  who  think  and  teach  that  this  sacra- 
**  ment  may  in  no  wise  be  God's  body.  For  I 
"  dare  assuredly  to  say,  if  this  were  true,  Christ 
**  and  his  saints  died  heretics,  and  that  the 
*'  greater  part  of  the  holy  church  now  believeth 


THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE.  117 

"heresy.       Therefore  devout  men  suppose,  that  chap. 

*'  the    council    of    friars     in     London,    was    the !_ 

"  cause  of  the  earthquake.  For  they  put  a 
"  heresy  on  Christ  and  on  the  saints  in  heaven  : 
"  wherefore  the  earth  trembled  :  the  faithful  land 
*'  answered  the  voice  of  man  for  God,  as  it  did 
"  in  the  time  of  his  passion,  when  he  was  sen- 
"  tenced  to  bodily  death.  May  Christ,  and  his 
'*  mother,  who  in  the  beginning  destroyed  all 
"  heresies,  keep  his  church  in  a  right  belief  of 
"this  sacrament;  and  move  the  king  and  his 
"  kingdom  to  ask  sharply  of  his  clerks  this  ser- 
"  vice  —  that  all  his  possessioners,  on  pain  of 
"  losing  all  their  temporalities,  tell  the  king  and 
"  his  kingdom,  and  with  sufficient  evidence,  what 
"  this  sacrament  is — and  that  all  the  orders  of 
*'  friars,  on  pain  of  losing  their  allegiance,  tell 
"  the  king  and  his  kingdom,  and  with  good  rea- 
"  son  also,  what  is  the  nature  of  this  sacrament. 
"  For  I  am  certain  that  a  third  part  of  the  clergy, 
"  who  defend  this  doutes  that  is  here  said,  that 
*'  they  will  defend  it  on  pain  of  their  life."^" 

It  will  be  remembered  by  the  reader,  that  to 
affirm  the  existence  of  bread  in  the  eucharist, 
after  the  words  of  consecration  were  pronounced, 
was  to  deny  the  doctrine  of  transubstantiation. 
In  these  papers  this  assertion  is  not  only  made, 
but  repeated,  and  that  with  a  plainness  which  is 
obvious  on  the  sliohtest  attention.     In  addition  to 


'"Appendix,   No.  VII.     Wjclifleis  appears  to  be,  that,  in  tlie  conviction  of 

commonly  understood  as  stating  in  the  the  leforiiier,  a  third  pari  of  the  men 

last  sentence,  that  his  doctrine  on  the  wlio  liad  embraced  iiis  doctrine  on  this 

eucharist  was    really  that  of  a  third  point,   would  die    rather    than    relin- 

aniong    the    clergy.     The   passage   is  ijuish  it. 
obscure.     To   me   its   meaning   rather 


118  THE    LIFE    OF     M'YCLIFFE. 

CHAP,  which,  the  reformer  has  gratuitously  annexed  to 

these  explicit  statements  of  his  own  doctrine,  an 

attack  on  that  of  his  opponents — and  one  quite 
as  uncompromising  as  may  be  selected  from  any 
portion  of  his  writings.  We  have  before  remarked, 
that  the  properties  of  whiteness  and  roundness, 
pertaining  to  the  sacramental  bread  before  the  act 
of  consecration  was  performed,  were  acknow- 
ledged to  exist  afterwards  ;  but  that  it  was,  never- 
theless, contended,  that  the  bread  itself  had 
ceased  to  be.  WyclifFe  knew  well  that  this  asser- 
tion, offering  as  it  did  the  most  hardy  insult  both 
to  the  reason  and  the  senses,  was  the  formal  doc- 
trine of  the  men  who  were  now  before  him  as 
his  judges.  This  doctrine,  however,  he  affirms 
to  be  erroneous,  heretical,  a  mockery  of  human 
perception,  the  imputing  of  blasphemy  to  Christ 
and  to  his  saints,  and  of  all  the  anti-christian 
delusions  which  had  been  poured  upon  the  church, 
since  the  fatal  hour  of  Satan's  enlargement,  this 
is  declared  to  be  the  most  repugnant  to  the  reli- 
gion of  the  Bible ! 

Walsingham  felt  himself  obliged  to  concede, 
that  Wycliffe's  confession  was  a  re-assertion  in- 
stead of  a  renunciation  of  his  doctrine.  But  the 
sagacious  Henry  Knighton,  while  inserting  the 
above  paper  in  his  annals,  describes  the  reformer 
as  renouncing  his  creed  to  avoid  the  pains  of 
death.  Under  shelter  too,  of  this  feeble  autho- 
rity, the  calumny  has  been  often  repeated ;  and 
it  still  continues  to  be  the  ground  of  insinuations 
intended  to  fix  upon  Wycliffe  the  reproach  of 
timidity  and  concealment.  This  may  have  arisen 
in  some  instances,  from  weakness  and  misappre- 


THE    LIFE    OF    WTCLIFFE.  119 

liension,  as  would  seem  to  have  been  the  case  chap. 
with  Knighton;    in  others,  from  indolence;    but '- — 


in  many  it  is  difficult  to  view  it  in  any  other  light 
than  as  an  effect  of  that  imperfect  reverence  for 
truth,  which  is  too  commonly  the  result  of  party 
zeal.  The  denial,  indeed,  of  transubstantiation,  in 
the  above  documents,  is  too  evident  to  require  far- 
ther notice;"  and  if  there  are  expressions  in  both 
which  betray  some  hesitation  of  thought,  as  to  the 
precise  manner  in  which  the  body  and  blood  of 
Christ  are  really  present  with  their  visible  em- 
blems in  the  ordinance  of  the  Lord's  Supper,  it  is 
certain  that  these  expressions  were  by  no  means 
peculiar  to  the  present  crisis.'^  On  the  contrary, 
they  had  long  been,  and  they  continue  ever  after  to 
be,  of  such  constant  occurrence  in  his  numerous 
writings,  whenever  this  topic  is  referred  to,  that  a 
volume  mio-ht  be  filled  with  extracts,  exhibitino- 
every  shade  of  sentiment  and  language  observable 
in  these  more  formal  statements  of  his  creed." 

"  It  will  be  remembered,  that  the  this  instance.  It  was  not  to  be  known 
chancellor,  William  de  Berton,  and  from  any  thing  already  before  the 
liis  coadjutors,  when  condemning  the  public,  whether  this  sameness  of  sen- 
doctrine  of  Wycliffe  with  such  severe  timent  atid  expression  existed  or  not. 
penalties,  affirmed,  in  opposition  to  For  any  thin^  that  appeared,  WyclitVe 
the  reformer,  that  in  this  venerable  might  have  published  a  doctrine  on 
sacrament,  "  the  very  body  of  Christ  this  subject  from  his  pulpit  at  Lutter- 
"  and  bis  blood  are  really  contained,  worth  widely  different  from  that  now 
"  not  on]y  fguratively  or  tropically,  hut  delivered  to  the  convocation.  I  have 
"  essentially,  suhstani tally ,  and  corpo-  read  every  page  delivered  from  that 
"  rally ;  so  that  Christ  is  there  verily  pulpit  which  has  descended  to  us,  and 
"  in  bis  own  proper  bodily  presence."  the  reformer's  writings  generally,  with 
The  reader  will  perceive  that  the  doc-  a  careful  reference  to  this  point.  The 
trine  thus  condemned  is  precisely  that  result  has  been  to  ascertain,  that  if 
which  Wycliffe  re-asserts,  and  in  the  Wycliffe  was  more  of  a  Protestant,  he 
very  terms  of  its  former  announcement  was  also  more  of  a  schoolman,  than  has 
•See  Ch.  iii.  and  Appendix,  Nos.  II. III.  been  commonly  supposed.   Note  to  the 

'2   I    have   been   at   some   pains   to  second  edition, 
ascertain  this  fact,  as  it  appeared  to  '3  Thus  his  work,  intitled,  "  Against 

me    strictly   necessary    to    a    correct  the   Blasphemies    of   the    Friars,"    a 

judgment  of  the  reformer's  conduct  in  manuscript   extending   to   about  forty 


120 


THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE. 


CHAP. 
IV. 

Perplexity 
of  his 
judiies. 

But  far  as  WyclifFe's  confessions  must  have 
been  from  affording  satisfaction  to  his  judges, 
it  is  easy  to  conceive  that  no  little  difficulty  would 
be  felt  in  adjusting  the  measures  to  be  adopted 
concerning  him.  It  was  known  that  he  had 
acquired  no  mean  place  in  the  affections  of  the 
people,  and  that  many  of  the  learned  and  of  the 
powerful  had  shown  themselves  disposed  to  ve- 
nerate his  character.  But  from  this  period,  and 
by  virtue  of  letters  obtained  from  the  king,  his 
connexion   with    Oxford  was  dissolved.'^      This, 


quarto  pages,  and  written  after  this 
time,  contains  every  thing  to  be  found 
in  his  confessions  ;  the  same  firmness 
in  denying  the  doctrine  of  transub- 
stantiation,  and  the  same  partial  ob- 
scurity as  to  the  real  mode  of  the 
Saviour's  presence  in  the  eucharist. — 
Bibl.  Bodl.  Archi.  A.  83.  The  first  of 
the  heresies  maintained  by  the  friars 
is  said  to  be  "  of  the  sacrament." 
"  And  as  to  the  first  we  say,  surely,  of 
"  our  faith,  that  the  white  thing  and 
"  round  that  the  priest  consecrates 
"  like  to  the  unconsecrated  host,  and 
"  which  is  broken  and  eaten,  is  verily 
"  God's  body  in  the  form  of  bread." 
This  he  states  as  his  doctrine,  and 
proceeds  to  expose  the  absurdity  of 
denying  the  existence  of  bread  in  the 
sacrament,  after  the  words  of  conse- 
cration were  uttered,  adding,  "  we 
"  should  scorn  those  heretics  who 
"  leave  the  words  of  Christ,  and  feign 
"  words   or    sentence   without   autho- 

"  rity" "since  bodily  eating  was 

"  bidden  of  Christ,  and  this  bodily 
"  eating  might  not  be  unless  there  were 
"  bread,  then  this  bread  lasts  after  the 
"  sacreding."  This  is  said  to  follow 
so  plainly  from  the  words  of  Christ, 
that  should  "  a  hundred  cardinals" 
assert  the  contrary,  they  are  not  to  be 
credited.  His  opponenis  also  are 
compared  to  "  crabs  who  start  aback," 


as  soon  as  pressed  to  give  any  rational 
account  of  their  doctrine. 

Thus  also  he  is  continually  express- 
ing himself  in  his  homilies.  Jn  that 
on  Ephes.iv.  he  thus  writes: — "  Christ 
"  saith,  and  saints  after,  that  the  host 
"  which  is  sacred  is  verily  Christ's 
"  own  body  in  form  of  bread,  as  cliris- 
"  tian  men  believe,  and  neither  an 
"  accident  without  a  subject,  nor 
"  nought,  as  heretics  say.  An  error  in 
"  understanding  holy  writ  hath  brought 
"  in  this  heresy."  Again,  on  1  Tbes- 
salonians,  iv.  "  Would  God  that  men 
"  took  heed  to  the  speech  of  Paul 
"  in  this  place,  both  to  hold  virtues 
"  and  to  flee  heresies,  for  both  are 
"  needful  to  men.  Then  men  should 
"  hear  God's  word  gladly,  and  despise 
"  fables,  and  err  not  in  the  sacred 
"  host,  hut  grant  that  it  is  both  things, 
"  both  bread  and  God's  body."  Thus 
also  in  the  discourse  on  the  tenth 
chapter  in  the  1st  Coriiithians,  noticing 
the  evangelical  meaning  given  by  the 
apostle  to  the  rock  of  the  wilderness, 
as  a  figure  of  Christ,  he  exclaims, 
'  And  would  God  that  heretics,  iu  the 
'  matter  of  the  sacred  host,  under- 
'  stood  these  subtle  words  to  the 
'  intent  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  then 
'  should  they  not  fear  to  grant  that 
'  this  bread  is  Cod's  body." 
'*  Fox.  Acts,  &:c. 


THE    LIFE    OF    MYCLIFFE.  121 

however,  was  not  until  the  seeds  of  his  doctrine  chap. 

had  been  sown  there  with  such   profusion  as  to '— 

defy  every  subsequent  effort  to  remove  them. 
The  reformer  now  retired  to  Lutterworth,  and 
to  eftect  a  wider  diffusion  of  his  principles,  by 
means  of  his  writings,  he  there  laboured  with  an 
industry  which  seems  to  have  increased  with 
his  years  and  infirmities.'' 

It  is  about  this  period  that  Wycliffe  was  sum- "'='^<^'ted 

'  ''  to  appeal 

moned   by    Urban  to   appear   at   Rome,    and   to  >'«'f'^'^'' "•= 

•^  ^  '  liontiff. 

answer  before  the  chair  of  St.  Peter,  on  the 
matters  imputed  to  him."^  His  sufferings  from 
paralysis,  rendered  his  taking  such  a  journey 
impracticable;  and  had  it  been  otherwise,  it  would 
have  been  no  part  of  wisdom  to  have  exposed 
himself  to  a  conflict  even  less  equal  than  that 
which  he  had  been  called  to  encounter  nearer 
home.  When  the  venerable  Grossteste  ventured 
to  publish  his  opposition  to  a  particular  branch  of 
papal  corruption,  he  chose  an  indirect  method 
of  conveying  his  reproof.''^  "  If  we  except  the 
"  sins  of  Lucifer  and  Antichrist,"  he  observes, 
"  there  is  not,  nor  can  there  be,  a  greater  crime, 
"  nor  any  thing  more  opposed  to  the  doctrine 
"  of  the  gospel,  or  more  odious  and  abominable 
"  in  the  sight  of  Jesus  Christ,  than  to  desolate 
*'  and  destroy  the  souls  of  men  by  depriving  them 

'^  Wood  (189)   lias   taken   up    the  are  tlie  names  of  tlie  assailants:   Wil- 

calunin}'    of    Wyclift'e's    having    de-  liamde  Berton,  who  had  previously  con- 

scended   to   recant    his    opinions,  —  a  deuined  the  doctrine  of  Wjcliflc,  and 

statement  which,  as  Dr.  Wordswortii  now  extends  his  anathema  on  this  docu- 

observes,  does  not  accord  with   what  merit ;  John  Tyssingtou  ;  Thomas  Win- 

the  same  writer  "  tells  us  in  the  same  terton;  John  Welleys  ;Ughtred  Bolton  ; 

"page,   that  this  confession  was  en-  Simon  Southry  ;  all,  with  the  exception 

"  countered  by  no  less  than  six  several  of  Berton,  being  either  monks  or  friars, 
"antagonists     immediately    after     its  '*>  See  Appendix,  No.  VIII. 

"  publication,"  p.  49.     The  following  i'  Paris,  870, 


122  THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE. 

CHAP,  "of  the  ministry,  and  the  spiritual  aid  of  their 

1_  *'  pastors.     It  is  impossible,    therefore,  that  the 

"  holy  apostolic  see,  which  has  received  its  power 
**  from  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ  for  edification  and 
*'  not  for  destruction,  can  be  guilty  of  such  a 
"  crime,  or  any  thing  approaching  to  it,  so  hateful 
"  to  God,  so  injurious  to  man.  This  would  be  a 
"  most  manifest  corruption  of  its  authority,  the 
"  forfeiture  of  all  its  glory,  and  the  means  of 
"  plunging  it  into  the  pains  of  hell."  The  bishop 
of  Lincoln,  however,  well  knew  that  the  sins 
which  he  so  forcibly  condemns,  were  the  daily 
practice  of  the  pontiffs.  Wycliffe,  who  was  not 
unacquainted  with  the  memorable  remonstrance 
of  this  prelate,  appears  to  have  made  it  the  model 
of  his  own  address  to  the  same  power,  but  glances 
more  widely  at  the  features  of  its  degeneracy, 
speaks  with  more  plainness  of  the  necessity  of 
reformation,  and  also  as  to  the  principles  which 
His  reply.  shouM  Icad  to  it.  He  begins  his  letter  by  ob- 
serving, "  I  have  joyfully  to  tell  the  belief  which 
"  I  hold,  and  always  to  the  pope.  For  I  suppose, 
"  that  if  my  faith  be  right  and  given  of  God,  the 
'*  pope  will  gladly  preserve  it,  and  that  if  my 
"  faith  be  error,  the  pope  will  wisely  amend  it." 
From  this  introduction  he  proceeds  to  declare 
his  faith  in  the  supreme  authority  of  the  scrip- 
tures, and  his  determination  to  follow  the  pontiff 
himself,  only  as  he  shall  be  found  to  follow  the 
Author  of  the  gospel.  Describing  "  the  gospel 
"  of  Christ"  as  a  "part  of  the  body  of  God's 
"  law,"  he  thus  proceeds.  "  For  I  believe  that 
"  Jesus  Christ,  who  gave  in  his  own  person  this 
"  gospel,  is  very  God,  and  very  man,   and  that 


THE    LIFE    OF    WVCLIFFE.  123 

"  for  this  reason  it  passes  all  other  laws.     I  sup-  chap. 

"  pose  over  this  that  the  pope  is  most  obliged  to  '. — 

"  the  keeping  of  the  gospel,  among  all  men  who 
*'  here  live,  for  the  pope  is  the  highest  vicar  that 
"  Christ  has  here  on  earth.  But  the  greatness 
"  of  Christ's  vicars  is  not  measured  by  worldly 
"  greatness,  but  by  this,  that  this  same  vicar 
"  follows  Christ  most  in  virtuous  living,  for  thus 
"  teaches  the  gospel.  That  this  is  the  judgment 
"  of  Christ  and  his  apostles,  I  take  as  a  part  of 
'*  faith,  since  Christ,  during  the  time  that  he 
"  walked  here,  was  the  most  poor  of  all  men 
"  both  in  spirit  and  in  possession,  for  Christ  says, 
"  that  he  had  no  where  for  to  rest  his  head. 
"  And  beside  this,  I  take  as  a  part  of  faith,  that 
"  no  man  should  follow  the  pope,  no,  nor  any 
"  saint  that  is  now  in  heaven,  but  inasmuch  as 
"  he  followed  Christ ;  for  James  and  John  erred, 
"  and  Peter  and  Paul  siimed."  If  this  language 
could  not  fail  to  offend,  the  following  statement 
would  be  equally  unwelcome.  "  This,"  he  ob- 
serves, "  I  take  as  wholesome  counsel,  that  the 
"  pope  should  leave  his  worldly  lordship  to 
"  worldly  lords,  as  Christ  enjoins  him  ;  and  that 
"  he  should  speedily  move  all  his  clerks  to  do  so, 
"  for  thus  did  Christ,  and  taught  his  disciples 
"  thus,  until  the  fiend  had  blinded  this  world." 
He  concludes  with  his  usual  expression  of  wil- 
lingness to  retract  his  opinions,  should  they  be 
proved  erroneous ;  and  by  stating,  that  as  the 
providence  of  the  Redeemer  was  plainly  opposed 
to  his  visiting  Rome,  he  trusts  the  pontiff  will  not 
shew  himself  to  be  indeed  Antichrist,  by  insisting 
on  a  compliance  with  his  pleasure  on  that  point. 


THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE. 


CHAPTER  V. 

STATE  OF    THE   REFORMED    DOCTRINE    ON    THE    CONTINENT   DURING  THE  AGE  OF 

WYCLIFFE. CAUSES  OF    THE    PROTECTION    FREQUENTLY    AFFORDED  TO  ITS 

DISCIPLES    BY     THE    SECULAR   POWER. PROBABLE    MOTIVES    OF    THE    DUKE 

OF  LANCASTER   IN  PATRONIZING  WYCLIFFE. THE  REFORMER   IS  FAVOURED 

BY  THE    DUKE    OF    GLOUCESTER THE    QUEEN    MOTHER ANNE    OF    BOHEMIA. 

FARTHER    NOTICE     OF     WYCLIFFe's    MORE     DISTINGUISHED     FOLLOWERS. 

GEOFFREY    CHAUCER.' INFLUENCE   OF   POETRY  ON   THE   REFORMATION 

OF  THE  CHURCH. NOTICE  OF    ST.  AMOUR OF  THE   ROMAN    DE    LA    ROSE 

AND  OF  ROBERT  LONGLAND. 

CH^p.       While    the   English   reformer   was   thus   em- 
ployed    in    diffusino-   the    principles    of   spiritual 

state  of  the    ^        J  O  1  i       i    •  l  i 

reformed     freedoHi  through  this  once  vassal    kmgdom,   the 
theconti-    descendants  of  the  Vaudois  and  Albigenses    had 

nent  during       .     .,   ,         •  i     .  r-       i 

the  age  of    visiolv  Hicrcascd  in  many  parts  oi  the  continent. 

Wycliffe.       ^,  *^  ,.,,''...  , 

The  secrecy  to  which  their  opinions  and  practices 
had  been  consigned,  as  affording  their  only  hope 
of  security  from  the  return  of  persecution,  was 
less  cautiously  observed ;  and  their  names  occur, 
in  consequence,  with  greater  frequency  in  the 
bulls  of  the  pontiffs,  and  in  the  decress  of  clerical 
assemblies.  We  find  them  variously  scattered 
through  Germany,  France,  and  Italy  itself;  and 
traces  of  them  are  observable  in  Poland,  in  Spain, 
in  Bohemia,  and  along  the  farthest  shores  of  the 
Adriatic.  But  in  every  locality  the  same  vicissi- 
tudes attended  them.  In  many  instances,  the 
profits  which  arose  from  the  confiscation  of  their 
property,  appears  to  have  supplied  the  principal 
motive  to  persecution  ;  in  some  it  resulted  from 


THE     LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE.  125 

that  mixture  of  irritation  and  contempt  that  is  not  chap. 

unfrequently  produced  by  objects   which,   if   too ^— 

insignificant  to  create  alarm,  are  sufficiently  im- 
portant to  prove  an  annoyance.  Despised,  how- 
ever, as  the  feeble  remnant  of  the  Waldenses 
generally  was,  at  this  period,  they  were  to  do 
much  among  the  nations  of  the  continent  toward 
preserving  the  seeds  of  that  momentous  revolu- 
tion, which  stands  so  prominently  connected  with 
the  names  of  WyclifFe,  Huss,  and  Luther. 

In  districts  where  the  continuance  of  these  peo-  Motives  of 
pie  was  such  as  to  render  them  known,  the  no-  fui  inV." 
bility,  and  the  proprietors  of  the  soil,  generally  senters^froni 
proved  their  protectors  and  friends.  This  may  rarchy!' 
have  arisen,  in  some  cases,  from  those  motives  of 
interest,  which  the  industry  and  frugality  of  the 
sectaries  contributed  so  largely  to  affect ;  and  in 
others,  from  an  admiration  of  those  unquestionable 
virtues,  which  were  found  to  distinguish  these 
suspected  communities.  From  considerations  of 
this  nature,  nobles,  who  were  not  themselves  pre- 
pared to  abandon  the  communion  of  Rome,  were 
often  constrained  to  shelter  a  people  who  were 
known  to  be  opposed  to  its  pretensions.  It  is 
probable,  also,  that  they  frequently  saw  much  to 
deplore  in  the  ambition  or  the  worldliness  of  the 
existing  priesthood,  and  in  the  superstitions  which 
were  generally  imposed  on  the  people ;  and  that 
perceiving  the  virtues  which  the  papal  sacraments 
were  not  always  known  to  confer,  could  exist  in 
contempt  of  them,  they  began  in  some  instances  to 
possess  a  real  sympathy  with  these  humble  devo- 
tees, in  their  sighs  to  escape  from  the  yoke  of  the 
pontiffs.     But  the  machinery  of  despotism   had 


126  THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE. 

CHAP,  been  too  completely  adjusted,  with  a  view  to  crush 
'- —  every  victim  that  would  be  free,  and  too  long- 
sanctified  by  the  practice  and  the  laws  of  nations, 
to  admit  of  being  materially  injured  by  local  and 
isolated  efforts.  The  reformation  to  be  attempted 
by  such  influence,  could  refer  only  to  the  details, 
or  to  the  more  glaring  abuses  of  the  system,  leav- 
ing all  its  great  principles,  and  the  sources  of  its 
strength,  undisturbed.' 

The  whole  of  these  motives,  though  in  them- 
selves of  various  excellence,  imply  much  that  is 
honourable  with  respect  to  the  character  of  the 
parties  who  were  so  often  indebted  to  them  for 
Probable  protcction.  Considerations  of  the  mixed  cha- 
jo°hn'^or  racter  described,  appear  to  have  influenced  the 
pJtronizinij  dukc  of  Laucastcr  in  his  patronage  of  Wyclifl'e. 
wyti.ffe.  rp|_^g  encroachmcuts  of  the  papacy,  not  only  in 
reference  to  the  honours  and  the  property  of  the 
English  church,  but,  through  that  medium,  on  the 
authority  of  the  crown,  had  evidently  displeased 
him.  He  was  thus  prepared  to  encourage  the 
labours  of  a  man  who  proposed  to  shew,  that  such 
things  were  as  unlike  pure  Christianity,  as  they 
were  unfriendly  to  the  interests  of  the  nation. 
So  long,  therefore,  as  the  zeal  of  the  rector  of 
Lutterworth  was  limited  to  the  discipline  emanat- 
ing from  the  court  of  Rome,  or  to  the  more  ob- 
noxious of  the  superstitions  which  its  authority 
had  sanctioned,  the  shield  of  Lancaster  was  over 
him.  But  some  time  before  the  meeting  at  Ox- 
ford in  1382,  WyclifFe  had  extended  his  attacks 
from  the  politics  to  the  doctrine  of  the  hierarchy, 

•    The    reader    disposed   to    attend  further   to    this    subject  is   referred  to 
Note  C. 


THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLTFFE.  127 

and  that  in  many  particulars  besides  the  point  of  chap. 

the  real  presence.     This  distinction  between  the         ' 

spiritual  dogmas  of  the  church,  and  her  external 
polity,  had  long  been  familiar  to  the  laity  of 
Europe  ;  and  the  reformer's  innovations  upon  the 
one,  would  not  fail  to  alarm  many  of  his  contem- 
poraries, who  had  been  most  sincere  in  his  cause 
while  concerning  himself  only  with  the  other. 
Thus  it  was  in  general  upon  the  continent,  and 
thus  it  long  continued  to  be  in  England.  To  a 
solicitude  for  the  independence  of  his  country,  the 
duke  certainly  added  a  respect  for  literature,  and 
for  good  men ;  and  from  these  causes  alone,  he 
might  honestly  favour  the  efforts  which  were 
designed  to  secure  some  narrower  limits  to  the 
empire  of  the  popes.  His  second  marriage,  how- 
ever, contracted  simply  because  it  promised  to 
open  his  way  to  the  throne  which  had  been  so 
much  disgraced  by  Peter  the  cruel ;  and  the  na- 
ture of  his  subsequent  connexion  with  Catharine 
Swinford,  are  particulars  in  his  history  which  can- 
not be  rendered  pleasing.  From  these,  and  some 
other  less  prominent  facts  in  the  story  of  his  life, 
it  is  but  too  certain,  that  however  much  the  poli- 
tical creed  of  Wycliife  might  commend  itself  to 
the  mind  of  John  of  Gaunt,  it  was  not  the  happi- 
ness of  that  distinguished  nobleman  to  follow  the 
lessons  of  the  reformer  with  respect  to  moral 
obligation  and  the  nature  of  piety.  Wycliffe 
might  oppose  the  secular  ambition  of  the  clergy 
with  all  the  decision  of  Arnold  of  Brescia;  or  assail 
the  idolatrous  customs  of  the  church  with  the 
severity  of  Vigilantius  ;  but  to  inculcate  the 
claims  of  the  christian  doctrine  with  the  purity 


128  THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE. 

CHAP,  and  earnestness  of  a  primitive  believer,   v^as   to 
'      proceed  where  a  few  only  would  follow. 

It  is  at  the  same  time  greatly  to  the  honour  of 
the  duke,  that,  disapproving  as  he  did  of  the  doc- 
trine of  WyclifFe  in  relation  to  the  eucharist,  and 
unprepared  as  he  was  to  follow  out  the  plans  of 
improvement  proposed  in  the  writings  of  that 
reformer,  he  continued  to  be  known  as  an  admirer 
of  his  character,  and  as  the  friend  of  his  follow- 
ers. He  had  listened  to  the  herald  of  the  ap- 
proaching change  in  the  faith  and  customs  of 
Europe  with  delightful  interest ;  and  if  there  were 
things  which  he  was  not  disposed  to  relinquish, 
though  denounced  as  unlawful,  it  was  not  his 
manner  to  forget  the  excellencies  which  he  knew 
to  be  connected  with  what  he  discountenanced  as 
error.  More  than  once,  subsequently  to  the  year 
1382,  his  authority  was  successfully  employed  in 
behalf  of  the  persecuted ;  to  his  death,  no  man's 
life  was  the  forfeiture  incurred  by  his  creed. 
Among  his  latest  acts,  was  a  defence  in  parliament 
of  the  translation  of  the  scriptures  into  English. 
These  he  declared  to  be  the  property  of  the  peo- 
ple, and  a  property  which  no  priesthood  should 
be  allowed  to  wrest  from  them. 

It  should  also  be  remarked,  that,  had  the  re- 
formed opinions  been  more  fully  adopted  by  Lan- 
caster; it  is  difficult  to  perceive  how  his  authority 
could  have  been  rendered  equal  to  the  task,  of 
completely  protecting  the  men  who  had  embraced 
them.  Richard,  by  his  extravagance  and  his  fa- 
vouritism, and  by  his  participation  in  the  disputes 
which  had  been  so  unhappily  prevalent  from  the 
commencement  of  his  reign,  had  rendered  himself 


THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE.  129 

almost  dependent  on  the  clergy.  By  the  queen-  chap. 
mother,  he  may  have  been  taught  to  think  favour-  - — 1— 
ably  of  the  character  of  Wycliffe  ;  but  alone,  he 
could  never  have  withstood  the  enmity  of  the 
church,  which  would  have  been  the  certain  conse- 
quence of  his  befriending  the  reformers.  His 
uncle,  of  Lancaster,  was  the  only  statesman  who 
could  have  afforded  him  any  material  aid  in  pur- 
suing such  a  line  of  policy  ;  and  the  malevolent 
rumours  circulated  with  respect  to  him,  had  so 
far  injured  him  both  with  the  court  and  the 
people,  as  to  render  it  improbable  that  even  his 
influence  would  have  been  equal  to  such  a  crisis.'* 
The  king  possessed  neither  the  consistency,  nor 
the  energy,  which,  at  such  a  moment,  could  alone 
inspire  confidence ;  while  a  boisterous  temper, 
which  seemed  to  forebode  the  coming  disasters  of 
the  whole  state,  was  constantly  disclosing  itself, 
both  among  the  governing  and  the  governed.  But 
over  all  these  circumstances,  there  was  one  Mind 
presiding,  to  whose  infinite  discernment  it  ap- 
peared well,  that  there  should  be  in  the  regene- 
ration of  Christendom,  as  in  the  system  of  nature, 
a  seed  time,  and  a  wintry  interval,  before  the  ap- 
pearance of  spring,  and  the  abundance  of  harvest. 

Nor  was  the  duke  of  Lancaster  the  only  dis- Hiseftoru 
tinguished  person  in  the  fourteenth  century,  whobyouief 
was  known  to  be  favourable  to  a  reformation  ofed't'"""' '" 
the  Anglican  church.  His  brother  of  Gloucester 
may  be  presumed,  from  the  work  which  Wycliffe 
dedicated  to  him,  to  have  been  friendly  to  the  zeal 

2  KiiightoD,  2657.  Lewis,  c.  v.  All  his  great  admirer,  Mr.  Godwin.  See 
.that  may  be  said  in  favour  of  John  of  the  Life  of  Chaucer,  ii.  219,  383—386, 
Gaunt  has  been  elaborately  adduced  by        and  elsewhere. 

VOL.    II.  K 


.  persons 


]30  THE     LIFE    OF    WYCLTFFE. 

^  ^y  ^'  of  the  reformer,  as  directed  against  the  evils  intro- 
duced  into  the  ecclesiastical  system  by  the  men- 
dicants.^ In  the  number  of  his  friends,  we  also 
find  the  widow  of  the  Black  Prince,  the  mother 
of  the  youthful  Richard, — a  female,  whose  cha- 
racter, equally  amiable  and  commanding,  seemed 
to  authorize  that  interference  with  the  disputes 
of  the  period  which  is  not  unfrequent  in  her  his- 
tory. It  is  conjectured,  that  her  husband,  toward 
the  close  of  life,  had  regarded  Lancaster  with  an 
eye  of  suspicion."*  If  so,  the  protection  which  the 
reformer  obtained  from  that  quarter,  while  known 
to  be  under  the  peculiar  patronage  of  John  of 
Gaunt,  is  the  more  honourable  to  the  mother  of  the 
sovereign,  and  to  the  object  of  her  favour.  The 
motives  which  led  her  to  prevent  any  definite  sen- 
tence from  being  passed  on  the  opinions  of  Wycliffe, 
by  the  synod  at  Lambeth,  would  perhaps  induce 
an  effort  to  create  an  esteem  of  the  character  and 
doctrine  of  the  reformer  in  the  mind  of  her  son. 
But  the  feeble  monarch  began  his  career  in  too 
much  dependence  on  the  clergy;  lending  his 
name,  and  that  in  contempt  of  the  constitution, 
to  aid  their  measures  of  intolerance. 
Anne  of  His  Qucen  came  to  this  country  in  1382.     She 

Bohemia.  *  -^ 

was  daughter  to  the  emperor  Charles  the  fourth, 
and  sister  to  the  king  of  Bohemia.  By  Wycliffe 
she  is  described  as  the   sister  of  Csesar,  and  as 

3  MS.   of  Trinity   College,   Dublin,  is  said  to  have  taken  place  in  the  pre- 

class  C.    tab.  3.    No.  12.      This  work  sence  of  the  duke  ;    and  that  Knighton 

treats  considerably  of  theological  opi-  speaks  of  more  than  one  person  bear- 

nions.    The  writer  states,  among  other  ing  that  title,  as  among  the  friends  of 

things,  that  "God  is  so  good  that  in  Wycliffe,  "  cum  rfuciiiM  et  comitibus." 

each   goodness   he   is    before,   and   in  De  Event.  2661. 
each  evil  he  conieth  after  the  effect."  "•  Vol.  i.  346,  377. 

It  should  be  added  that  the  discassiou 


THE    LIFE    OF    AVYCLIFFE.  131 

possessing  the  gospel  written  in  three  languages,  chap. 

Bohemian,  German,  and  Latin  ;   and  the  reformer- 

inquires  whether  to  "  hereticate  her  on  that 
"  account,  would  not  be  luciferian  folly. "^  Her 
removal  from  this  world,  in  which  little  repose 
was  allotted  to  her,  took  place  in  1394,  and  Arun- 
del, the  primate,  noticing  her  loss,  observes,  that 
**  although  she  was  a  stranger,  yet  she  constantly 
**  studied  the  four  gospels  in  English,  and  ex- 
"  plained  by  the  exposition  of  the  doctors ;  and 
''  in  the  study  of  these,  and  reading  of  godly 
"  books,  she  was  more  diligent  than  even  the  pre- 
*'  lates  themselves,  though  their  office  and  busi- 
"  ness  require  this  of  them."^  The  queen's 
connexion  with  Germany,  and  especially  with 
Bohemia,  may,  in  some  measure,  explain  this 
attachment  to  the  scriptures  in  the  vernacular 
tongue,  and  the  favour  w^ith  which  she  is  said  to 
have  regarded  the  reformers.  In  Germany,  the 
power  of  the  pontiffs  had  always  to  contend  with 
the  rival  power  of  the  emperors ;  and,  in  addition 
to  this,  with  the  less  partial  hostilities  of  sectaries, 
whom  no  persecution  could  destroy.' 

While  the  nearest  connexions  of  the  sovereign 
were  so  far  interested  in  the  character  and  the 
labours  of  Wycliffe,  it  will  be  supposed  that  the 
reformer  did  not  fail  to  obtain  partisans  among 
other  privileged  classes  of  his  countrymen.  It 
was  indeed  a  matter  of  thankfulness  with  him, 
that  **  many  knights  favoured  the  gospel,  and 
"  had  a  mind  to  read  it  in  English  f  ^    and  it  is 

5  Lewis.  in  the  text  of  the  former  edition,  will 

«  Fox.    Acts,  &c.  be  found   at   the  end  of  this  volume, 

7  The  sketch  of    the  religious   his-  in  Note  D. 
tory  of  Bohemia,  which  had  its  place  ^  jyis.  Horn,  on  Matt.  xi.  Bib.  Reg" 

K  2 


132  THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE. 

CHAP,  the  sincere  lamentation  of  the  orthodox   Henry 

L_  Knighton,  that  these  ''  having  a   zeal  for   God, 

"  but  not  according  to  knowledge,  often  sur- 
"  rounded  the  false  preachers  with  military  bands, 
"  that  they  might  not  suffer  any  reproaches  or 
"  losses  on  account  of  their  profane  doctrine." 
That  such  men,  and  their  attendants,  should 
appear  in  arms,  was  the  custom  of  the  age ;  and 
hardly  worthy  of  that  distinction  would  they 
have  been,  had  they  hesitated  to  employ  their 
authority  with  a  view  to  protect  the  men  from 
reproach  and  losses,  whom  they  professed  to 
consider  as  worthy  of  far  other  treatment.  To 
act  upon  the  defensive  merely,  was  to  deserve 
the  praise  of  moderation.  We  have  seen  that  so 
early  as  the  year  1377,  Lord  Percy,  the  earl 
marshal,  avowed  himself  the  friend  of  Wycliffe, 
and  appeared  in  that  character  with  John  of  Gaunt 
before  the  synod  at  St.  Paul's.  But  the  names 
which  occur  most  frequently,  as  those  of  per- 
sons in  the  higher  classes  who  favoured  the  doc- 
trine of  the  reformer,  are  Sir  John  Pecche,  Sir 
Reginald  Hilton,  Sir  John  Trussel,  Sir  William 
Neville,  Sir  John  Clenboun,  Sir  John  Montague, 
Sir  Lewis  Clifford,  Sir  Thomas  Latimer,  and  Sir 
Richard  Sturry. 

The  father  of  Sir  John  Pecche  was  a  knight  of 
Wormleighton,  in  Warwickshire.  He  had  been 
warden  of  the  Cinque  Ports,  and  governor  of 
Corfe  Castle,  and  died  in  the  last  year  of  Edward 
the  third.  His  son  survived  the  reformer  but 
two  years.  Sir  Reginald  Hilton  is  described  as 
of  Hilton,  in  the  county  palatine  of  Durham, 
and  Sir  John  Trussel,  as  of  Cubleston  in  Stafford- 


THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE.  133 

shire.     Sir  William  Neville  was  the  third  son  ofcHAi\ 

Ralph,  lord  Neville  ;   Sir  John  Montague  or  Mon-  !_ 

tacute,  was  brother  to  William  de  Montacute, 
earl  of  Salisbury  ;  the  family  of  Sir  John 
Clenboun  is  unknown.  By  certain  of  these  no- 
blemen, the  images  found  in  the  churches  sub- 
ject to  their  patronage,  are  said  to  have  been 
demolished ; — a  fact  which  suggests,  that  their 
attachment  to  WyclifFe  arose  from  an  approbation 
of  his  theological,  as  well  as  of  his  political  creed. 
Sir  Lewis  Clifford  was  the  younger  son  of  Sir 
Roger  Clifford,  of  Hert  and  Hertness,  in  the 
county  of  Durham.  In  1385,  he  received  the 
order  of  the  garter,  and  he  will  be  remembered 
as  the  messenger  of  the  queen-mother  to  the 
synod  at  Lambeth,  requiring  a  suspension  of  the 
process  commenced  against  Wycliffe.  Sir  Tho- 
mas Latimer  was  the  son  of  John  le  Latimer,  of 
Brabroke,  in  Northamptonshire.  Sir  Richard 
Slurry  was  the  advocate  of  the  Lollards  in  their 
memorable  appeal  to  the  government  in  1395; 
when  his  temerity  is  said  to  have  been  severely 
reprimanded  by  Richard." 

Through  a   series   of  ages,  the  drawing  up   of 
testamentary  documents  wtxs  left  to  the  taste,  or 

9  It  is  of  the  persons  noticed  above  that  he  "was  one  of  the  chief  of  the 

that  Knighton  thus  writes  ;  "  Isti  erant  "  sect  of  the  Lollaids,  and  tlie  greatest 

"  liujus  secte'prouiotores  strenuisimi,  "  fanatic  of  them  ail  ;    being  so  trans- 

"  et  propngnatores  fortissimi :  qui  mi-  "  ()oited  with  zea],  that  he  caused  all 

"  litari  cingulo  ambiebant,  nt  a  recte  "  the  images  that  were  in  the   chapel 

"  credentibus    aliquid    approbrii    aut  "  at  Schenele  (Shenly  in  Buckingham- 

"  darapni   propter    eoruni   prophanam  "  shire),  that  had  been   there  set  up 

"  doctrinam  sortirentur."     De  Event.  "  by  the  ancestors  of  his  wife,  to  he 

Anglae.  2Gt)l.     Dugdale  has  collected  "  taken  down  and  thrown  into  obscure 

the  information  respecting  these  friends  "  places,  only  the  image  of  St.  Cathe- 

of  reform  which  is  given   in  the  text.  "  rine,  in  regard  that  many  did  affect 

Baronage,    i.   ii.    ubi    supra.      Of  Sir  "  it,  he  gave  leave  that  it  should  stand 

John  Moatacule,  the  antiquarian  writes  "  in  his  bakehouse."  Baronage,  i  650. 


134  THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE. 

CHAP  rather  to  the  policy  of  the  clergy,  and  in  such  re- 
'  cords  the  leading  articles  of  the  established  creed 
generally  made  their  appearance.  Hence  it  hap- 
pened, that  any  omission  in  such  documents  of 
appeals  to  the  clemency  of  the  Virgin,  or  of  pro- 
vision for  masses  after  death,  came  to  be  regarded 
as  indicating  a  repugnance  to  such  tenets  on  the 
part  of  the  deceased.  Nor  is  it  merely  a  nega- 
tive evidence  of  this  kind,  which  is  sometimes 
supplied  by  such  memorials.  The  influence  of 
Wycliffe's  teaching  vv^as  frequently  such  as  to  in- 
duce his  followers  to  discard  the  usual  pomp  of 
funerals,  and  to  bestow  their  alms  on  the  neces- 
sitous, instead  of  adding  to  the  opulence  of  the 
priesthood.  Thus  the  will  of  Sir  John  Montague, 
dated  1388,  requires  *' that  a  black  cloth  of  wool 
"  (instead  of  a  pall  of  silk  or  velvet,)  should  be 
*'  laid  over  his  body,  and  about,  as  also  within  his 
*'  hearse ;  and  to  cover  the  ground  should  be 
**  cloth  of  russet  and  white,  to  be  distributed  to 
"  poor  people  after  the  burial,  namely,  as  much 
"  as  might  make  every  poor  man  a  coat  and 
'*  a  hood."  Thus  also.  Sir  Thomas  Latimer, 
wholly  omitting  the  usual  donation  for  masses, 
and  month-minds,  enjoins  "  that  there  be  no  man- 
*'  ner  of  cost  done  about  his  burying,  neither  in 
'*  meat,  neither  in  drink,  nor  in  any  other  thing, 
*'  unless  it  be  to  any  such  one  as  needeth  it  after 
**  the  law  of  God."  Similar  instructions  are  found 
in  the  will  of  Lewis  Cliff'ord,  who,  in  common  with 
the  knight  last  mentioned,  commends  his  spirit 
*'  simply  to  the  grace  and  the  great  mercy  of  the 
"  Trinity;"  though  aware  thatthe  orthodox  mode 
of  disposing  of  the  soul,  was  to  commit  it  to  the 


THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE.  135 

care  of  the  Viroin,  and  of  all  saints.     Some  hum-  chap. 

.     .                                                                V. 
ble  confessions  of  sinfulness  made  by  these  per- 

sons,  have  been  interpreted  as  proofs  of  their 
penitence,  on  account  of  the  sanction  which  they 
had  given  to  the  heresies  of  Wycliffe,  But  such 
was  the  doctrine  of  that  reformer  respecting  the 
extent  of  human  depravity,  that  no  one  sincerely 
embracing  it,  would  be  found  slow  to  confess  him- 
self "  a  false  knight  to  God,  and  unworthy  to  be 
*'  called  a  christian  man."  ^'^ 

Of  the  degree  in  which  the  opinions  of  Wyclifte 
were  adopted  by  these  distinguished  persons, 
we  cannot  speak  with  precision  ;  but  it  is  certain 
that  their  known  favourable  feeling  was  of  no 
trivial  service  to  his  cause.  The  wealth  of  such 
men,  also,  was  strictly  necessary,  in  the  absence 
of  printing,  to  effect  any  considerable  multipli- 
cation of  his  writings ;  and  their  power,  which 
could  alone  awe  the  curious  zeal  of  inquisitors, 
was  no  less  important  as  the  means  of  preserving 
such  prohibited  treasures  when  obtained.  Could 
it  be  shewn,  therefore,  that  the  knights  of  the 
fourteenth  century  were  few  of  them  prepared 
to  brave  any  serious  losses,  in  defence  of  what 
may  be  called  protestant  doctrine,  it  is  certain 
that  many  of  them  were  so  far  attached  to  good 
men,  and  to  the  principles  of  religious  freedom, 
as  to  prove  the  means  of  saving  many  of  the 
works  of  the  father  of  the  reformation  from  obli- 
vion. And  it  is  only  from  the  writings  of  Wycliffe 
that  we  can  hope  to  place  his  conduct  and  opi- 
nions in  their  proper  light.  The  volume  in  the 
library    of  Corpus   Christi   College,    Cambridge, 

'"  Dugdale's  Baronage. 


136  THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE. 

CHAP. containing  as  it  does  the  most  popular  of  the 
'  reformer's  pieces,  and  extending  to  more  than 
three  hundred  pages,  with  double  columns,  closely 
written,  is  the  work  of  one  transcriber.  The 
same  is  true  of  another  volume,  including  nearly 
the  same  series  of  treatises,  in  the  library  of  Tri- 
nity College,  Dublin.  Such  labour  could  not 
have  been  procured  without  cost ;  nor  is  it  easy 
to  conceive  how  works  so  formidable,  and  for- 
bidden under  such  penalties,  should  have  been 
preserved  through  so  long  an  interval,  except  we 
view  them  as  being  for  some  generations  the  pro- 
perty of  the  powerful.  Had  they  become  the 
possession  of  churchmen,  they  would  have  been 
committed  to  the  flames,  or  have  been  deposited 
among  the  secreted  articles  which  have  some- 
times found  their  place  in  ecclesiastical  libraries. 
But  the  reader  will  perceive  from  the  catalogue 
of  the  reformer's  manuscripts,  appended  to  this 
volume,  that  it  is  not  from  such  sources  that  any 
material  information  is  to  be  derived,  respecting 
the  history  or  the  opinions  of  WyclifFe.  His 
works  are  ours,  mainly,  as  the  fruit  of  that  mental 
independence,  which  began  to  distinguish  the  lay 
nobility,  and  the  leaders  of  the  commons  in  this 
country,  before  the  disastrous  accession  of  Henry 
the  fourth. 

Nor  is  it  to  be  supposed,  that  the  penalties  were 
always  inconsiderable,  which  were  incurred  by 
public  men  when  they  became  known  to  the  clergy 
as  the  friends  of  Wycliffe,  or,  indeed,  as  refusing 
to  show  themselves  his  enemies.  The  reverse  is 
evident  in  the  case  of  the  duke  of  Lancaster,  and 
of  several  others.     But  numbered  with  these  early 


THE    LIFE    OF    AVYCLIFFE.  137 

advocates  of  the  reformed  doctrines,  and  at  the  ^h  a  p. 

same   time   distinguished    from  them    all   by  his '- — 

heroic  sufferings,  is  Sir  John  Oldcastle,  a  knight, 
who  from  the  inheritance  of  his  wife,  obtained 
the  name  of  lord  Cobham,  and  who  after  earning 
the  confidence  of  Henry  the  fourth,  and  of  his 
successor,  was  doomed  to  perish  at  the  stake  as 
a  peace-offering,  supplied  by  the  sovereign  to 
appease  the  wrath  of  an  intolerant  priesthood. 
This  illustrious  martyr  was  contemporary  with 
Wycliffe ;  but  as  the  story  of  his  wrongs  relates 
to  a  period  considerably  subsequent  to  the 
decease  of  our  reformer,  it  will  more  properly 
claim  our  attention  in  the  last  chapter  of  this 
volume. 

It  was  not  without  many  appearances  of  pro-  ^|'°J[^^y 
priety,  that  the  early  admirers  of  Wycliffe's  cha- 
racter were  accustomed  to  reckon  the  name  of 
Geoffrey  Chaucer,  the  father  of  English  poetry, 
with  those  of  his  disciples.  The  poet  was  a  native 
of  London,  and  about  four  years  younger  than  the 
reformer.  Among  his  earliest  efforts  had  been 
a  translation  of  the  Roman  de  la  Rose, — a  poem 
which  satyrized  the  vices  of  the  mendicants,  with 
a  freedom  which  must  have  been  highly  accept- 
able to  Wycliffe  ;  and  both  these  distinguished 
men  found  their  leading  patron  in  John  of  Gaunt. 
It  was  to  be  presumed  that  Chaucer  had  em- 
braced the  doctrines  which  called  for  the  refor- 
mation of  the  church,  to  the  degree  in  which  they 
were  adopted  by  Lancaster ;  and  if  some  pieces 
fraught  with  protestant  sentiments  have  been 
improperly  attributed  to  him,  there  are  others  of 
unquestionable  authenticity  which  place  this  fact 


138  THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE. 

CHAP,  beyond  suspicion."     There  is  one  circumstance, 

however,  which  is  alone  sufficient  to  prevent  our 

regarding  the  author  of  the  Canterbury  Tales, 
as  being,  in  all  respects,  a  disciple  of  Wycliffe, 
and  one,  the  bearing  of  which,  in  this  view,  has 
not  been  adequately  noticed.  The  reformer  was 
scarcely  more  distinguished  from  the  age  in  which 
he  lived,  by  the  truth  and  sublimity  of  his  reli- 
gious doctrine,  than  by  the  purity  of  his  maxims 
and  of  his  feelings  with  regard  to  morals.  Chaucer, 
too,  has  shown  that  he  could  sometimes  appre- 
ciate a  delicacy  of  this  kind.  But  in  other  in- 
stances he  could  dwell  on  licentious  themes,  could 
descend  to  play  with  them,  and  to  extract  amuse- 
ment from  them,  in  a  manner  which,  in  the 
judgment  of  Wycliffe,  must  have  been  seriously 
reprehensible."  With  him,  to  touch  such  mat- 
ters, except  for  the  purpose  of  loud  and  imme- 
diate rebuke,  was  not  only  to  be  exposed  to 
infection,  but  to  betray  the  interests  of  religion 
and  of  society.  It  should  be  remembered,  also, 
that  the  poet  speaks  with  reverence,  even  in  his 
latest  compositions,  of  transubstantiation,  and  of 
confession  to  a  priest.''  Few,  however,  are  the 
evils,  either  in  the  church  or  in  the  state  of 
society,  to  which  the  censure  of  Wycliffe  was 
applied,  which  may  not  be  found  as  the  subject 
of  satire  or  complaint  in  the  poems  of  Chaucer. 
And  if  the  same  things  are  treated  with  more 
severity  by  the  reformer  than  by  the  poet,  it  is 
as  the  obvious  consequence  of  a  more  adequate 

•I  Godwin's    Life   of   Chaucer,   ubi  apologize  for  tliis  feature  of  liis  writ- 

supra.  ings.    See  Preface  lo  his  Fables. 

"  Drjden,  with  all  his  admiration  of  '^  Ibid. 
Chaucer's   genius,  knew   not  how    to 


THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE.  139 

perception  with  respect  to  the  evil  involved  in  that  chap. 
apostacy  which  had  come  upon  the  church,  and  — - — 
which  shed  its  baneful  influence  through  every 
part  of  society.  As  a  faithful  delineation  of  the 
manners  of  our  ancestors,  in  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury, the  works  of  Chaucer  must  ever  be  valuable; 
and  notwithstanding  his  too  frequent  innovations 
on  its  purity,  his  labours  certainly  contributed 
much  to  give  form  and  efficiency  to  the  language 
of  his  country. 

But  the  celebrity  of  our  father-poet  is  not  to  be 
considered  as  arising,  in  any  great  degree,  from 
such  extrinsic  causes.  Chaucer  has  been  fre- 
quently associated  with  Dante  and  Petrarch, 
though  to  modern  readers,  even  among  ourselves, 
his  name  is  much  more  familiar  than  his  writings. 
Reviewing  his  productions  of  a  graver  cast,  it 
must  be  confessed,  that,  had  his  attention  been 
limited  to  such  themes,  his  fame  would  have  been 
very  much  less  than  at  present.  His  Parson's 
Tale  has  been  sometimes  noticed  as  probably  sug- 
gested by  the  known  excellencies  of  the  rector 
of  Lutterworth.  But  if  it  were  so,  there  can 
hardly  be  a  more  striking  proof  of  the  writer's 
incapacity  to  describe,  or  even  to  understand,  the 
more  commanding  elements  of  human  character. 
The  speaker  is  evidently  one  of  those  men,  whose 
amiable  qualities  can  hardly  fail  to  be  revered  in 
a  parish  ;  but  who  has  none  of  the  power  neces- 
sary to  produce  the  smallest  indulation  on  the 
surface  of  society  beyond  that  little  boundary. 
In  Wycliffe,  that  religious  condescension  which 
must  win  the  affections  of  a  village,  was  united 
with    proofs    of    capacity    which     inspired     the 


140  THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE. 

CHAP,  confidence   of  senates,    and   with    an    energy   in 


L_  action    which    menaced   the    very   throne  of  the 

papacy,  and  provoked  its  whole  strength  to  the 
conflict.  Sublimity,  either  in  thought  or  expres- 
sion, was  not  the  excellence  of  Chaucer.  This 
must  much  rather  be  sought  in  his  humorous 
notices  of  the  manners  of  the  age.  The  tran- 
sition is,  as  from  slumber  to  wakefulness,  the 
moment  his  narrative  becomes  embued  with 
mirth  or  satire;  and  it  may  be  regretted,  that  his 
vivacity  and  playfulness  are  commonly  increased 
by  coming  in  contact  with  impurity.  The  Knight's 
Tale,  though  a  borrowed  story,  is  so  treated  as 
to  demonstrate  the  vigour  of  his  fancy.  His 
Troilus  and  Cresida  would  have  been  more  beau- 
tiful and  more  popular,  had  its  author  known  how 
to  compress  his  pleasing  theme  ;  but  the  whole 
of  the  Canterbury  Tales,  and  especially  their 
prologue,  should  be  attentively  read  by  the  stu- 
dent of  poetry,  who  would  form  a  just  estimate 
of  Chaucer's  genius. 
Influence  of  Of  poctry  lu  general,  it  has  been  frequently  re- 
S^reforma-  marked,  that  its  earliest  strains  were  the  offspring- 
church!  "  of  devotion.  It  was  thus  with  the  descendants  of 
Abraham  :  and  among  gentile  nations,  the  harp 
would  seem  to  have  been  first  struck  in  honour  of 
their  gods.  The  drama  itself  was  a  creation  of 
the  Greek  mythology,  and  a  part  of  their  religious 
ritual ;  and  it  is  curious  to  observe,  that  its  re- 
appearance in  Europe  was  as  an  appendage  to 
religion.  In  those  scenic  exhibitions,  to  which 
ecclesiastics  were  so  much  attached  during  the 
season  of  Lent,  the  steps  which  issued  in  the  cre- 
ation or  in  the  redemption  of  the  world,  and  the 


THE     LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE.  141 

most  striking  portions  of  scripture  history,  all  of  chap. 

which  their  chroniclers  had  previously  versified, '. — 

were  acted  in  detail.  Such  performances  are  still 
encouraged  in  catholic  countries ;  and  as  they 
gradually  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  lay  min- 
strels, they  became  the  vehicle  of  much  whole- 
some satire  on  the  manners  of  the  clergy,  and 
continued  to  be  until  the  age  of  the  reformation. 
The  troubadours,  who  united  the  office  of  the 
minstrel  and  the  poet,  and  were  in  fact  the  bards 
of  modern  Europe,  rose  with  the  opening  of  the 
twelfth  century.  On  many  of  these,  considerable 
praise  was  bestowed  by  Dante  and  Petrarch ;  but 
their  printed  compositions  have  not  equalled  the 
anticipations  which  ,the  eulogies  of  such  men 
would  necessarily  excite.  It  is  probable  that  most 
of  their  pieces  have  suffered  from  translation ; 
and  greatly  more,  from  losing  that  accompaniment 
of  the  voice  and  instrument,  to  which  they  were 
no  doubt  adjusted  with  considerable  ingenuity. 
To  the  troubadours  much  licence  was  conceded  in 
handling  the  weapons  of  satire  ;  and  while  some 
of  them  sung  with  delight  the  downfall  of  heresy, 
others,  and  even  a  greater  number,  were  no  less 
disposed  to  lash  the  vices,  and  question  the  pre- 
tensions  of  the  accredited  priesthood.'"'     A  dis- 

"  The  following  is  a  specimen  of  the  "  cile  ?    Thou  wilt  not  yield  !    But  the 

manner  in  which  the  catholic  trouba-  "  ilames  and  the  torture  await  thee, 

dour  was  accustomed  to  address  the  "  and   thou   art    going    to   experience 

lieretics  of  his  day:  "  See  now,  here-  "  them.     Gnd  ought  to  punish  thee  in 

"  tic,  if  thou  dost  not  commit  an  in-  "  hell  worse  than  the  demons.     Before 

"famous   perfidy;     thou  liest  like  a  "  thou  art  delivered  up  to  the  flames, 

"  robber,    and  thou  art   in    truth   the  ''  as  thou  wilt  be  if  thou  dost  not  re- 

"  thief  of  souls.    If  thou  refusest  to  "  tract,  I  wish  to  ask  thee,  &c.    Wlio- 

"  believe,    behold    the   fire    which    is  "  ever  does  not   believe  these   things 

'•burning    thy   companions    ready   to  "  ought  not  to  complain  if  he  be  seized 

"  consume   thee.      What,    still    indo-  "  and   burnt.      Every  country  where 


142  THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE. 

CHAP,  tinguished    living    writer   has    remarked   of    the 
tedious  collections  made  by  Millot  from  this  class 


of  men,  that  "  they  will  always  be  useful  to  the 
"  enquirer  into  the  manners  and  opinions  of  the 
"  middle  ages,  from  the  numerous  illustrations 
"  which  they  contain  of  two  general  facts, — the 
*'  extreme  dissoluteness  of  morals  in  the  higher 
"ranks,  —  and  the  prevailing  animosity  of  all 
**  classes  against  the  clergy.""^  What  is  thus 
stated  of  the  poems  of  the  troubadours,  is  equally 
true  of  the  romances  of  chivalry. 
The  Roman  Tq  thc  lattcr  class  of  compositions,  as  its  name 
imports,  belongs  the  Roman  de  la  Rose.  This 
poem,  which  reached  the  alarming  extent  of 
twenty  thousand  verses,  was  the  joint  production 
of  William  de  Lorris,  and  John  de  Meun  ;  and  was 
completed  a  little  before  the  close  of  the  thirteenth 
century.  The  work  is  an  elaborate  allegory  ;  and 
notwithstanding  some  puerile  conceits,  which 
occur  both  in  the  structure  and  in  the  details  of 
the  story,  and  some  other  defects,  it  is  one  of  no 

"  thy  perfidioas  dochiue  has  been  "  covetousuess  blinds  you,  you  shear 
"spread  ought  to  be  swallowed  np.  "  the  wool  of  your  sheep  too  close.  If 
"  Unless  thou  confessest  instantly,  the  "  my  prayers  could  be  heard,  I  would 
"  fire  is  already  lighted  ;  thou  shalt  be  "  bruise  your  beak.  Rome,  in  whom 
"  proclaimed  by  trumpet  through  the  "  all  the  Greek  is  found  !  Rome,  of 
"  city,  and  the  people  will  assemble  to  "  evil  manners  and  of  evil  faith,  who 
"see  thee  burnt."  Hist.  Tronb.  pp.  "has  made  so  great  a  carnage,  who 
48,  49,  52,  57,  59,  GO.  But  this  raer-  "  has  established  her  seat  at  the  bot- 
ciless  wrath  was  fitted  to  produce  a  "  torn  of  the  abyss  of  perdition  ;  may 
re-action  of  violence.  The  following  "  God  never  pardon  you  your  pilgrim- 
is  from  the  pen  of  a  writer  of  the  same  "  age  to  Avignon.  Without  a  cause 
order,  who  had  witnessed  the  massa-  "  have  yon  put  innumerable  people  to 
ores  of  Toulouse  :  "I  know  they  wish  "  death.  May  the  demons  carry  you 
"me  ill  because  I  have  made  a  sir-  "  to  the  fire  of  hell."  Ibid.  449 — 451. 
"  vente  against  the  false  tribe  of  Rome,  The  writer  giving  publicity  to  such 
"  the  source  of  all  decline.  I  am  not  sentiments,  must  have  been  aware  that 
"  astonished  that  the  world  is  full  of  they  were  not  peculiar  to  himself.  See 
"  error.  It  is  deceitful  Rome  which  Turner's  Hist.  i.  447,  448. 
"  soweth  it  with  trouble  and  war.  Your  "  Hallam's  View  of  Society,  &c. 


THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE. 


143 


ordinary  merit,  whether  viewed  in  connexion  with  cf^ap. 

the  age  that  produced  it,  or  with  the  inventions  

of  the  same  class  by  which  it  was  preceded. 
The  master  passion  in  the  tale  is  love ;  and  this, 
together  with  every  abstract  quality  which  might 
be  supposed  to  retard  or  facilitate  the  possession 
of  its  object,  the  writer  has  personified.  When 
the  untaught  genius  of  Bunyan  conferred  so 
much  dramatic  attraction  on  the  same  species  of 
machinery,  he  was  doubtless  ignorant  of  the  work 
of  de  Lorris,  and  probably  of  its  various  imita- 
tions. But  Thomson  possessed  them  all  as  his 
models,  when  lavishing  his  refinement  and  power 
on  The  Castle  of  Indolence.  It  is  somewhat 
more  than  the  latter  half  of  the  Roman  de  la 
Rose,  which  is  attributed  to  John  de  Meun  ;  and 
though  the  former  portion  of  the  work  is  de- 
scribed as  possessing  most  of  poetical  feeling 
and  animation,  the  remaining  is  more  worthy  of 
notice  in  this  place,  since,  in  some  of  its  parts, 
it  more  directly  illustrates  the  religion  of  the 
period.^" 

A  dispute  had  arisen  sometime  since,  between 
the  mendicant  orders,  respecting  the  latitude 
in  which  their  vows  of  poverty  should  be  inter- 
preted. By  a  numerous  party,  a  papal  bull  was 
procured,  empowering  them  to  build  convents, 
and  furnish  them,  on  condition  that  such  property 
should  belong  to  the  see  of  Rome,  so  as  to  be 
disposed  of  at  the  pleasure  of  the  pontiffs.  But 
this,  the  more  severe,  or,  as  they  were  afterwards 
called,  the  more  spiritual,  considered  as  a  violation 
of  their  rule,  and  as  an  opening  to  every  abuse 

'*  Godwin's  Chaucer,  ii.  c.  i.  2. 


144  THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE. 

CHAP,  which  had  so  long  disgraced  the  monastic  esta- 

L_  bUshments.     Aided    by   the  prophetic    genius   of 

the  abbot  Joachim,  these  spiritual  controversialists 
discovered  their  founder,  St.  Francis,  in  the  angel 
described  in  the  Apocalypse  as  flying  through 
the  midst  of  heaven  bearing  the  everlasting  gos- 
pel. Charmed  with  this  new  light,  the  general 
theory  of  the  Calabrian  prophet  was  presently 
adopted ;  and  it  was  boldly  affirmed,  that  three 
dispensations  of  religion  were  appointed  to  the 
world ;  the  first  being  that  of  the  Old  Testament, 
and  proceeding  from  the  Father  ;  the  second,  that 
of  the  New,  which  had  proceeded  from  the  Son  ; 
and  the  last,  that  of  the  everlasting  gospel,  which, 
after  the  year  1260,  would  be  found  to  proceed 
from  the  Holy  Ghost.  This  gospel  Joachim  had 
been  inspired  to  write,  and  the  surpassing  bles- 
sedness of  the  new  economy  was  to  be  intro- 
duced by  the  labours  of  the  spiritual  brotherhood, 
as  being  alone  the  disciples  of  evangelical  po- 
verty.'' 
St.  Amour,  In  publishing  these  dogmas,  the  mendicants 
found  their  principal  antagonist  in  the  celebrated 
William  de  St.  Amour,  who,  in  his  memorable 
work  entitled,  De  Periculis  Novissimorum  Tem- 
porum,  describes  them  as  being  the  Man  of  sin 
foretold  by  St.  Paul.  Of  this  treatise,  an  abstract 
is  interwoven  by  John  de  Meun,  in  the  Roman 
de  la  Rose.  There  are  two  points  which  are 
urged  with  great  emphasis  by  both  writers.   "  First, 

'7  Mosheim.  iii.   209 — 211.      Cave.  to    have    possessed    considerable    in- 

Hist    Lit.  Art.  Joachimus.     The  pro-  fluence  over  the  mind  of  the  visionarj, 

phecies  of  Joachim    have    been    fre-  and  to  have   been  sometimes  treated 

quentlj  printed  on  the  continent.    And  with    respect   by  persons    of   another 

down  to  verj  recent  times  they  appear  class.    See  MosLeira,  iii.  238,  289. 


THE    LIFE    OF     M^YCLIFFE.  145 

the  conduct  of  these  friars  in  insinuatino-  them-  chap. 

.      .    .        ,                            V. 
selves  into  the  houses  of  individuals,    hearing  '. — 


*'  their  confessions,  giving  them  absolution,  and 
"  seducing  them  from  their  spiritual  pastors  and 
**  bishops,  under  whose  care  and  superintendence 
"  the  established  order  of  the  christian  hierarchy 
"  had  placed  them.  John  de  Meun  alleges,  in 
"  a  satirical  manner,  that  the  friars  are  very  little 
"  disposed  to  exercise  their  powers  of  edification 
''  upon  the  poor,  but  that  they  confine  themselves 
"  to  the  eminent,  the  powerful,  and  the  wealthy. 
'*  They  urge,  he  says,  in  vindication  of  this  con- 
"  duct,  that  such  men  are  more  exposed  to  the 
"  temptations  of  the  world,  have  more  sins  to 
"  answer  for,  and  therefore  stand  in  more  urgent 
"  need  of  spiritual  assistance.  The  other  point, 
"  very  elaborately  treated  against  the  mendicants, 
"  is  their  idleness,  and  their  mode  of  subsisting 
"  upon  the  earnings  of  men  more  industrious  than 
"  themselves.  The  friars  alleged  that  Christ  and 
"  his  apostles  lived  in  the  same  manner,  wan- 
"  derers  upon  the  face  of  the  earth,  and  without 
"  visible  means  of  subsistence.  But  against  this, 
"  their  opponents  urged  certain  texts  of  St.  Paul, 
"  in  which  he  recommends  to  his  followers  to 
**  work  with  their  own  hands,  and  appeals  to 
"  those  he  taught,  whether  at  any  time  he  ac- 
"  cepted  any  man's  silver  or  gold.  St.  Augustine 
"  is  also  quoted  to  prove  that  devotion  has  by  no 
"  means  so  exclusive  a  claim  upon  us,  as  to  su- 
"  persede  the  exercise  of  secular  industry."" 

The  evils  stated  in  this  extract  will  be  remem- 
bered  as  those  which  provoked  the   displeasure 

>s  Godwia's  Cliaucer,  ii.  c.  ii. 
VOL.  II.  L 


146  THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE. 

c  H  A  P.  of  WyclifFe  ;  and  the  reasonings  opposed  to  them 
— '■ —  are  precisely  such  as  are  of  constant  occurrence 
in  the  writings  of  the  English  reformer.     So  loud, 
however,  and  so  general  was  the  condemnation  of 
the  eternal  gospel,  that  Alexander  the  fourth  con- 
sidered it  prudent  to  order  its  suppression.     This 
decision  of  the  pontiff  called  forth  an  embassy  in 
the  following  year,   with    Albertus  Magnus  and 
Thomas  Aquinas  at  its  head  ;  and  it  was  granted, 
that  a  sentence  of  banishment  should  be  imme- 
diately pronounced   against   their  adversary,   St. 
Amour,   and  that  his  obnoxious  work  should   be 
burnt  as  heretical,  by  the  public  executioner.    But 
on  the  death  of  Alexander,  the  exile  returned  to 
Paris,  and,  protected  by  the  university,  he  con- 
tinued his  attacks  on  the  authors  of  his  disgrace, 
to  the  close  of  his  life.     When  we  consider  the 
heavy  and  involved  character  of  the    Roman  de 
la  Rose,  its  great  popularity,  from  the  period  of 
its  appearance  to  the  age  of  Luther,  is  not  a  little 
surprising ;    as   including   the   substance   of   the 
controversy   which    so    powerfully   attracted    St. 
Amour   and   WyclifFe,   its  influence   on   the   ap- 
proaching reformation  was  not   trivial.     By  the 
early  reformers,  its  celebrity  was  regarded  with 
exultation ;  while  among  the  more  zealous  of  the 
Romanists,   it  was   the  object  of  special   abhor- 
rence.    Gerson,  whose  name  is  of  such  frequent 
occurrence  in  the  history  of  the  council  of  Con- 
stance, affirmed  before  that  assembly,  that  unless 
he  could  suppose   the  author   of   that   composi- 
tion had  lived  to  repent  of  his  labour,  he  would 
no  more  pray  for  his  soul  than  for  that  of  Judas. ^^ 

'9  Godwin's  Chaucer,  jibi  supra. 


THE     LIFE    OF     WYCLIFFE.  147 

That  Chaucer  had  laboured  to  render  so  ob-  chap. 

V. 

noxious  a  book  more  generally  known,  would  be '— 

sufficient  to  excite  the  suspicions  of  the  ortho- 
dox, and  to  induce  the  reformers  to  number  him 
with  their  friends.  In  addition  to  which,  no  small 
portion  of  the  materials  found  in  his  own  pro- 
ductions, was  evidently  derived  from  that  work ; 
and  those  corruptions  of  the  ecclesiastical  system, 
which  the  Roman  de  la  Rose  tended  so  deeply 
to  unveil,  are  assailed  with  equal  freedom  in  the 
Canterbury  Tales.  Thus  the  story  of  the  Somp- 
noure  describes  the  practices  of  the  mendicants, 
as  supplying  to  the  infernal  regions  the  larger 
portion  of  its  inhabitants ;  reserving  its  foulest 
locality  for  swarms  of  friars.  Whether  preaching 
in  the  church,  the  castle,  or  the  cottage,  or  per- 
forming the  function  of  confessors  at  the  bed- 
side of  the  sick,  the  religion  of  these  men  is 
viewed  as  a  mere  craft,  in  which  fables,  falsehood, 
and  cruelty,  are  made  to  favour  the  schemes  of 
avarice,  and  to  pander  to  the  lowest  sensuality. 
The  Pardoner's  Tale  is  a  farther  exhibition  of  the 
same  species  of  artifice.  His  favourite  text  is, 
that  the  love  of  money  is  the  root  of  evil,  and  it  is, 
at  the  same  time,  his  steady  policy,  to  increase  his 
store  by  the  abuse  of  every  fear  which  the  popular 
superstition  might  be  made  to  excite.  While  such 
is  the  character  which  the  Pardoner  is  made  to 
give  of  himself,  and  which  the  Sompnoure  affirms 
of  the  mendicant,  the  friar  in  his  turn  asserts 
equal  villanies  to  be  the  every-day  practice  of  his 
accuser.  It  was  the  office  of  the  Sompnoure  to 
cite  all  persons  who  were  accused  of  irreligion  or 
of  immoral  conduct  before  the  spiritual  courts,  and 
l2 


Notice  of 
LoQi'land. 


148  THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE. 

CHAP,  to  enforce  the  penalties  awarded  to  the  guilty  by 

those  tribunals.     In   performing  this  service,  he 

is  said  to  practise  the  most  odious  injustice  and 
oppression  ;  and  the  jurisdiction  of  the  prelates  is 
described,  as  embracing  corruptions  which  fully 
warrant  the  indignant  complaints  of  Wycliffe  re- 
specting it.^°  It  is  certain  that  Chaucer  would 
hardly  have  employed  the  whole  strength  of  his 
genius  in  completing  these  and  similar  portraits, 
had  he  not  known  that,  with  many  of  his  contem- 
poraries, their  truth  would  be  speedily  recognised. 
Nor  was  Chaucer  alone  in  employing  the  lan- 
guage of  poetry  to  satirize  the  disorders  of  the 
church.  It  was  about  the  year  1350,  when  he 
had  but  recently  passed  his  minority,  that  the 
poem,  called  the  Visions  of  Peirce  Plowman,  was 
written.  Robert  Longland,  a  priest,  and  a  native 
of  Salop,  is  regarded  as  its  author  ;  and  with  the 
allegorical  character  of  the  piece,  the  poet  has 
contrived  to  interweave  some  bold  censures  of 
prevalent  vices,  but  especially  of  those  allied  to 
superstition,  or  observable  in  the  ecclesiastical 
orders.  Chaucer's  best  compositions  of  this  class 
were    subsequent   to    the   decease    of    Wycliffe. 

20  See  the   Canterbury  Tales.    The  Thatte  Seint  Peter  hadde,  when  that  he 
poet  who  states  in  bis  prologue  that,  went 

"  In  stede  of  weping  and  praieres,  Upon  the  see  till  Jesu  Christ  him  kent : 

Men    mote    give    silver   to   the   pour  He  had  a  cross  of  laton  full  of  stones, 

e        ,  >.  And  in  a  glass  he  hadde  pigges  bones, 
But  with  these  relikes,  whanne  that  he 
thus  describes  the  Pardoner  :  found 

"  But  of  this  craft  fro  Berwick  unto  A  pour  person  dwelling  up  on  lond, 

Ware  Upon  a  dny  he  gat  him  more  money 

Ne    was   ther    swiche    an    other    par-  Than   that  the  parson   gat  in   monthes 

donere ;—  tweie; 

For  in  his  male  he  hadde  a  pilwebere,  And  thus  with  fained  flattering  andjapes 

Which  as  he  saide  was  our  Ladies  viel  ;  He  made  the  persone  and  the  people 

He  said  he  hadde  a  gobbet  of  the  seyl  his  apes." 


THE     LIFE     OF     WYCLIFFE.  149 

Longland   may    be    described     as   his    precursor,  chap. 

Six  years  had  passed  since  the  publishing  of  the  '- 

Visions  of  Peirce  Plowman,  when  the  reformer's 
first  treatise,  entitled.  The  Last  Age  of  the 
Church,  was  written.  Men  had  previously  arisen, 
who  had  opposed  the  same  weapons  to  the  same 
evils,  but  their  intrepidity  and  genius  were  greatly 
surpassed  by  Longland.  It  is  probable  that  he 
found  an  early  grave ;  and,  similar  as  were  many 
of  his  sentiments  to  those  of  Wycliffe,  he  would, 
perhaps,  have  shrunk  from  the  daring  measures 
recommended  by  the  reformer,  as  the  only  means 
of  expelling  the  corruptions  which  they  equally 
deplored.  It  is  certain  that  the  veneration  con- 
ferred on  the  poetry  of  Longland  by  the  Lollards 
was  the  principal  cause  of  its  preservation.  He 
had  foretold  the  approaching  reformation  with  a 
distinctness  that  astonished  and  delighted  the 
men  of  a  later  age ;  and  while  the  patriot,  the 
Lutheran,  and  the  Calvinist,  have  since  united  to 
perpetuate  his  fame,  the  partisans  of  superstition 
and  of  despotism  have  not  failed  to  honour  him 
with  their  marked  enmity.  So  popular  were  the 
Visions  of  the  Plowman,  that  other  compositions 
make  their  appearance  at  intervals  under  the  same 
title.  Hence,  we  have  not  only  the  Visions  of 
the  Plowman,  but  the  Plowman's  Creed,  and  the 
Plowman's  Tale.  The  authors  of  the  latter  pro- 
ductions are  unknown  ;  but  from  the  age  of  Long- 
land,  the  name  of  such  pieces  was  sufficient  to 
prepare  the  reader  for  an  exposure  of  clerical  de- 
linquency, and  a  bold  utterance  of  the  language 
of  reform. ^^ 

2'  See  Waitou's  History  of  Poelry,  i,  sect.  8,  9  ;   aud  Godwiu's  Chaucer 


150  THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE. 


CHAPTER  VI. 


NUMBER    OF    WYCLIFFE  S     DISCIPLES. THE     LOLLARDS     CONSISTED     OF     TWO 

CLASSES. NOTICE     OF     JOHN    OF     NORTHAMPTON. PROSPECTS     OF      THE 

REFORMERS  UNDER   RICHARD  THE  SECOND. TESTIMONY  OF  KNIGHTON    RE- 
SPECTING THE  NUMBER  AND  THE  CHARACTER  OF  WYCLIFFe's  FOLLOWERS. 

ANALYSIS    OF    THE    PLOWMAn's     TALE. THEOLOGICAL      OPINIONS     OF     THE 

DISCIPLES    OF    WYCLIFFE. CHARACTER    OF     HIS     "POOR      PRIESTS."  

ANALYSIS    OF    THE  TRACT,    "  WHY   POOR   PRIESTS  HAVE    NO    BENEFICES." 

NOTICE    OF    WILLIAM    THORP. 


CHAP.      The  existence  of  such  literature  as  we  have 
^''     seen  to  be  connected  with  the  names  of  Longland 
wyd^ffef  and  Chaucer,  suggests   some  important  conclu- 
discipies.    g^Qus  as  to  the  state  of  society  during  their  time. 
If  we  consider  the  supply  as  at  all  regulated  by 
the  demand,  it  follows,  that,  among  our  ancestors 
of  the  fourteenth  century,   the  friends  to  eccle- 
siastical reform  constituted  a  formidable  body,  both 
in  numbers  and  intelligence.     These,  however,  as 
in  the  case  of  the  writers  above  named,  were  not 
always  to  be  viewed  as  receiving  the  entire  doc- 
Theycon-   trlnG  of  Wycliffc.     If  by  the  term  Lollard,   be 
elites!  ^***  meant,  not  only  those  who  had  embraced  every 
important  principle  avowed  by  our  reformer,  but 
those  also,  who  without  proceeding  to  such  lengths, 
were  known  to  echo  many  of  his  complaints,  we 
may,   perhaps,    safely  conclude   with   Knighton, 
that  in  the  year  1382  every  second  man  in  the 
kingdom  was  of  that  sect.^    At  such  a  moment,  to 

'  De  Eveutibus  Angliae,  ud  Aun. 


THE    LIFE    OF     WYCLIFFE.  151 

adopt   any   part    of   the   language   distinguishing  chap. 

the  disciples  of  Wyclifte,  would  be  to  incur  the '— 

reproach  of  having  adopted  the  most  obnoxious  of 
his  tenets.  Hence  it  sometimes  happened,  that 
the  men  who  were  loud  in  their  censures  of  some 
branches  of  papal  and  prelatical  encroachment, 
were  equally  loud  in  their  censures  of  certain 
doctrines,  as  those  maintained  by  the  rector  of 
Lutterworth.  To  persons  who  were  concerned  to 
obtain  the  praise  of  being  wise  and  moderate  men, 
there  remained  scarcely  any  other  mode  of  placing 
their  orthodoxy  beyond  suspicion,  and  in  many 
cases  even  this  was  insufficient. 

Among  the  more  decided  adherents,  both  to  Notice  of 
the  political  and  the  religious  creed  of  our  re-  Northamp. 
former,  a  place  should  be  assigned  to  John  of 
Northampton.  This  opulent  citizen  is  described 
by  Walsingham  as  a  Lollard.  While  mayor  of 
London,  in  1382,  he  braved  the  displeasure  of  the 
clergy,  by  invading  the  province  of  their  spiritual 
courts.  Those  improved  notions  of  government, 
which  in  every  state  had  been  found  to  keep  pace 
with  the  progress  of  its  cities  and  its  commerce, 
were  eagerly  embraced  by  the  inhabitants  of  the 
English  metropolis.  A  new  power  had  arisen  in 
the  community,  and  one,  the  strength  of  which 
the  elder  authorities  were  obliged  to  feel  once  and 
again,  before  they  could  learn  to  credit  its  exist- 
ence. The  baronial  castle  was  ceasing  to  be  the 
only  place  of  authority,  and  every  gradation  of 
modern  society  was  beginning  to  appear.  This  is 
evident  from  the  measures  of  John  of  Northamp- 
ton, and  from  that  state  of  popular  feeling,  in  the 
absence  of  which,  to  have  entertained  his  plans 


152  THE    LIFE    OF    M^YCLIFFE. 

CHAP,  for  a  moment,  would  have  been  a  weakness  fo- 

1—  reign  to  his  character.     He  not  only  complained 

of  neglect  on  the  part  of  the  clergy,  considered 
as  the  appointed  guardians  of  the  public  morals  ; 
but  accused  them  of  a  covetousness,  which  had 
frequently  led  them  to  compound  with  the  most 
notorious  offenders ;  affirming,  at  the  same  time, 
that  unless  some  wholesome  severities  were  re- 
sorted to,  the  dissolute  practices  which  became 
daily  more  prevalent  through  the  city,  must  be 
expected  to  bring  the  displeasure  of  Heaven  upon 
its  inhabitants,  and  upon  the  nation.  Accordingly, 
as  chief  magistrate  of  the  capital,  he  seized  on 
some  of  the  more  vicious  persons  of  both  sexes,  and 
depriving  them  of  their  hair,  ordered  them  to  be 
led  in  procession  through  the  streets,  as  in  cases 
of  theft.    The  bishop  and  his  dependants  stormed 
at  this  intrusion  on  the  sphere  of  their  acknow- 
ledged jurisdiction  :  but  their  wrath  was  fruitless. 
In    the    following   year,    Northampton    was    re- 
elected, and  through  both  periods  of  office,  failed 
not  to  render  himself  the  terror  of  the  licentious, 
in  a  licentious  age.     He  was  aware  of  being  sup- 
ported by  the  more  reputable  of  his  fellow  citizens ; 
and  their  joint  conduct  is  described  by  Walsing- 
ham,   as   the   effect  of  that   spirit  of   insolence, 
presumption,  and  heresy,  which  had  long  charac- 
terized the  Londoners,  and  scattered  its  infection 
over  other  cities.^ 
Prospectsof      Jt  is  mostly  from  expressions  thus  loose,  and 

the  reform-  iii  •      r  i  r>i 

ersatthis    gcucral,  that  we  have  to  mier  the  state  oi  the 

crisis.  ,  .  .  .    .  ,       ^  , 

protestant  doctrme  m  our  cities  beiore  the   ac- 

2  Walsingham,  Hist.  1382.     Knighton,  ad  Ann.    Stowe's  Survey  of  London. 
Godwin's  Chaucer,  c.  xlix. 


THE    LIFE    OF    WVCLIFFE.  153 

cession  of  the  house  of  Lancaster.     We   know,  chap. 

VI. 

indeed,  that  the  doctrines  of  the  reformation  were '— 

more  or  less  known  to  all  classes ;  and  that  while 
various  opinions  were  very  naturally  entertained, 
as  to  the  extent  in  which  the  proposed  change 
was  desirable,  the  majority  of  the  nation  would, 
probably,  have  acquiesced  in  a  revolution  quite 
as  matured  as  that  accomplished  by  Henry  the 
eighth,  rather  than  submit  to  a  continuance  of  the 
evils  which  all  parties  had  so  often  professed  to 
deprecate.  Nor  is  it,  perhaps,  too  much  to  assert, 
that  a  prince  capable  of  securing  the  attachment 
of  the  people  might,  at  this  crisis,  have  put  the 
strength  of  the  papal  power  at  defiance,  and  have 
controlled  the  national  priesthood  at  pleasure. 
They  were  but  few,  indeed,  among  the  clergy, 
who  had  hitherto  betrayed  a  disposition  favour- 
able to  the  opinions  of  Wycliffe.  But  unsup- 
ported by  the  majority  of  the  nation,  and  certainly 
by  its  intelligence,  as  in  the  supposed  case  they 
would  speedily  have  been,  we  may  presume  that 
the  firmness  of  most  of  them  would  soon  have 
yielded  to  the  current.  Such,  at  least,  has  been 
the  pliancy  of  the  same  order  of  men  in  later 
times.  The  ease  with  which  the  proudest  mem- 
bers of  the  hierarchy  were  humbled  by  Edward 
the  first,  and  that  while  scarcely  a  ray  of  the  light 
of  the  reformation  illumined  the  darkness,  and  be- 
fore the  papacy  had  suff'ered  any  material  dimi- 
nution of  its  power,  is  a  fact,  among  many, 
conferring  no  little  plausibility  on  this  opinion. 
Oxford  was  the  centre  from  which  the  sentiments 
of  Wycliffe  had  emanated  to  the  different  quarters 
of  the  kingdom ;   and  though  the  court,  and  the 


154  THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE. 

CHAP,  hierarchy,  were  after  a  while  united  in  the  effort 

VI. 

1—  to  exclude  his  doctrine  from  that  seminary,  it  was 

only  with  a  partial  measure  of  success.  Previous 
to  the  reformer's  exclusion  from  that  university, 
the  majority  of  the  students  appear  to  have  been 
prepared  for  the  adoption  of  a  more  scriptural 
creed  ;  and  favoured,  in  this  respect,  by  the 
national  authorities,  or  even  left  to  themselves, 
they  would  ere  long  have  given  a  strictly  pro- 
testant  character  to  that  important  establishment. 
The  study  of  the  ancient  classics,  was  indeed 
revived  considerably  toward  the  opening  of  the 
sixteenth  century ;  but  it  may  be  safely  credited, 
that  the  capacity  of  judging  on  the  questions  of 
legislation,  and  religion,  evinced  by  the  educated 
classes,  and  by  a  large  portion  of  the  people  in 
this  country  before  the  death  of  Richard  the 
second,  was  far  from  being  regained  when  the 
English  sceptre  passed  into  the  hands  of  Henry 
the  eighth.  The  interval  which  preceded  that 
event,  was  one  of  some  hopeful  changes  on  the 
continent,  but  in  this  kingdom  it  was  a  time  of 
fearful  declension ;  and  had  not  the  seed  time 
under  Edward  the  third,  and  his  successor,  been 
so  devoutly  improved,  the  return  of  more  aus- 
picious influences  from  above,  would  not  so  sud- 
denly have  ripened  the  surface  into  fruitfulness 
and  harvest. 

Testimony       The  lansfuagc  of  Knighton,  with  respect  to  the 

of  Knighton  /^    rO"   '      ^-        •     1  "  1      . 

respecting  numbcr  01  Wycliite  s  disciples,  is  somewhat  more 
andcharac-  dcfinitc  thau  that  of  Walsingham.  It  is  that  also 
wyciiffe's  of  a  contemporary,  and  thouarh   to   be  admitted 

disciples.  .    ,  .        ^  .         "^      .  °        ,  , 

with  caution,  is  too  important  to  be  passed  over. 
In  the  year  1382,  he  states  that  "their  number 


THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE.  155 

"very  much    increased,   and   that,   starting   like  chap. 

"  saplings,   from  the  root  of  a   tree,   they  were L_ 

"  multiplied,  and  filled  every  place  within  the 
**  compass  of  the  land."^  So  far,  indeed,  had 
they  prevailed,  as  to  bring  over  to  their  sect, 
*'  the  greater  part  of  the  people."  A  concession 
to  the  same  effect  is  reluctantly  made  by  Sir 
Thomas  More.  It  must,  at  the  same  time,  be 
remembered,  that  Knighton,  whose  information 
even  on  contemporary  topics  is  often  strangely 
imperfect,  resided  in  Leicester,  within  that 
diocese  where  the  labours  of  Wycliffe  and  of 
his  assistants  had  been  most  abundant.  What 
the  historian  has  more  than  once  affirmed  with 
respect  to  the  whole  kingdom,  was  no  doubt  true 
with  respect  to  that  division  of  it.  But  while 
within  those  limits,  the  larger  portion  of  the  peo- 
ple were  more  or  less  attached  to  the  doctrines 
of  reform,  it  would  appear  from  such  records  in 
the  diocesan  registers  as  relate  to  the  subsequent 
persecutions,  that  persons  of  this  character  were 
more  thinly  scattered  over  other  parts  of  the  land. 
Still,  in  every  city  and  town,  there  were  those  by 
whom  such  opinions  were  understood  and  revered, 
and  from  such  localities  the  leaven  was  variously* 
extended  to  the  mass  of  the  people." 

The  same  historian,  in  attempting  to  account 
for  this  fact,  which  he  deplores  as  the  most  evil 
feature  of  the  times,  has  remarked  that  the  sec- 
tarian teachers  "  always  pretended  in  their  dis- 
"  courses  to  have  a  great  respect  for  the  law  of 
"  God,  or,  as  they  expressed  themselves,  goddis  law, 

3  De  Eventibus  ADglise,  ad  Ann. 

*  Lewis,  c.  X.    See  also  Chap.  ix.  of  this  volume;  and  Fox,  ubi  supra. 


156  THE    LIFE    OF     WYCLIFFE. 

CHAP.  *<■  tQ  which  they  declared  themselves  to  be  strictly 

'*  conformed  both  in  their  opinions  and  their  con- 

*'  duct."  The^  effect  of  this  appeal  to  the  scrip- 
tures, as  opposed  to  that  rival  authority  which 
had  been  assumed  by  the  church,  is  said  to  be, 
that  a  great  many  well  -  meaning  people  were 
deluded,  and  were  induced  to  unite  with  the 
innovators,  lest  they  should  seem  to  be  enemies 
to  the  law  of  God.  This  writer  has  also  at- 
tempted to  describe  the  character  of  the  new 
sectaries,  and  his  statements,  though  but  partially 
true,  and  in  some  respects  contradictory,  are  de- 
serving of  notice.  It  may  be  correct,  that  "  like 
"  their  master,  they  were  too  eloquent,  and  too 
'*  much  for  other  people,  in  all  contentions  by 
*'  word  of  mouth ;  that  mighty  in  words,  they 
*'  exceeded  all  men  in  making-  speeches,  out- 
"  talking  every  one  in  litigious  disputations." 
So  marked  also  was  the  contrast  between  the 
Christianity  of  the  scriptures,  now  first  disclosed 
to  these  persons,  and  that  which  they  found  sanc- 
tioned by  popes  and  councils,  that  we  are  not 
in  any  measure  surprised  to  find,  that  "both  men 
"  and  women,  though  never  so  lately  converted 
"  to  this  sect,  were  distinguished  by  the  same 
"  modes  of  speech,  and  by  a  wonderful  agreement 
"  in  the  same  opinions."  Novel  as  the  event 
appeared,  the  light  introduced  rendered  the  im- 
purities which  the  darkness  had  concealed  so  far 
visible,  as  to  have  precisely  this  eff'ect,  except 
indeed,  where  the  influence  of  prejudice,  the 
power  of  which  is  commonly  derived  from  a  re- 
gard to  some  selfish  interest,  was  such  as  to  pro- 
duce its  wonted  evasion  of  evidence.     But  when 


THE     LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE.  157 

the  historian  proceeds  to  describe  this  people,  as  chap. 
remarkable  for  "  a  proud  and  warlike  disposition, 


and  as  resembling  the  disciples  of  Mahomet, 
"  more  than  the  followers  of  Christ,"  it  is  not 
difficult  to  determine  the  degree  of  credit  which 
should  be  attached  to  his  assertions.  It  was 
among  the  sins  frequently  imputed  to  them,  that 
they  discountenanced  war,  and  questioned  even 
the  right  of  the  magistrate  to  take  away  life; 
while  the  utmost  of  their  claims,  at  any  period, 
was,  that  the  civil  power  should  protect  them  in 
their  persons  and  property,  and  that  they  should 
not  be  held  accountable  for  their  religious  opi- 
nions to  the  ruling  church.  Indeed,  from  the 
above  statements,  it  is  evident,  that  the  suffi- 
ciency of  the  scriptures,  and  the  right  of  private 
judgment,  constituted  the  foundation  of  the  edifice 
which  the  followers  of  Wyclitfe  laboured  to  erect; 
and  their  acknowledged  adroitness  in  debate, 
suggests  what  kind  of  weapon  it  was  in  which 
they  confided  for  success  when  employed  in  de- 
fending it. 

But  there  are  other  sources  of  information  re- 
specting the  character  of  Wycliffe's  disciples, 
which  are  more  worthy  of  confidence,  and  in 
every  view  more  satisfactory.  The  poem  called 
The  Plowman's  Tale,  was  written  before  the  Anaiysisof 
death  of  Richard  the  second,  and  perhaps  before  nwsxde. 
that  of  our  reformer.  It  is  valuable,  because 
plainly  intended  to  embody  the  points  of  con- 
troversy between  the  Lollards  and  the  orthodox ; 
and  to  illustrate  the  manner  in  which  they  were 
accustomed  to  advocate  their  respective  tenets. 
The  production  consists  of  a  dialogue  between  a 


158  THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE. 

CHAP,  griffin  and  a  pelican,  the  latter  representing  the 

!_  true  church,  who,  like  her  Lord,  has  been  called 

to  nourish  her  offspring  with  her  blood  ;  the  for- 
mer, serving  as  the  emblem  of  the  hierarchy, 
because  strong,  soaring,  and  oppressive.  In  the 
conclusion,  a  struggle  ensues,  during  which,  a 
phoenix  appears,  in  aid  of  the  defenceless  pelican, 
and  destroys  her  antagonist,  together  with  a  host 
of  foul  birds  collected  as  allies.  The  Plowman, 
having  finished  his  narrative,  observes  that  he  is 
not  to  be  considered  as  a  party  to  the  quarrel 
described,  but  simply  as  giving  a  faithful  report 
of  its  progress  and  result. 

"  The  pelican  who 
To  these  loUers  ylaid  his  lure," 

commences  with  a  characteristic  praise  of  meek- 
ness, and  of  mercy,  as  enjoined  above  all  things 
in  the  gospel ;  and  as  especially  commended  by 
the  example  of  Christ,  whose  favourite  emblem, 
accordingly,  was  the  lamb.  As  the  Saviour  was 
in  this  world,  so  it  is  contended  his  professed 
followers  should  be,  contemptuous  of  worldly 
honour  and  of  worldly  gain  ;  and  the  clergy  who 
yield  to  opposite  propensities,  are  viewed  as  trai- 
tors to  Christ,  and  as  doomed  to  fall  low  as 
Lucifer.  It  is  matter  of  sorrowful  complaint, 
that  while  some  would  be  higher  than  the  em- 
peror, others  must  exchange  the  friar's  garb  and 
staff  for  the  dress  and  the  implements  of  the 
soldier;  and  that  many,  to  maintain  a  state  of 
luxurious  splendour,  resembling,  or  even  sur- 
passing, that  of  princes,  could  descend,  and  with 
all  the  regularity  of  habit,  to  numberless  acts 
of  fraud  and  oppression.     Yet  while  thus  bearing 


THE    LIFE     OF     WYCLIFFE.  159 

all  the  marks  of  Antichrist,  to  suggest  concerning  chap. 

some  of  them,  that  they  were  even  liable  to  sin, '— 

was  to  be  in  danger  of  destruction.  By  the  doc- 
trine of  the  pope's  supremacy,  also,  the  command- 
ments of  God  are  said  to  have  been  stripped  of 
their  authority,  and  Christ  himself  to  have  become 
the  Head  of  the  church  only  in  name.  The  pro- 
faneness  of  ecclesiastics  is  next  reproved,  and 
particularly  their  simony  ;  and  while  the  latter  sin 
affected  every  department  of  the  hierarchy,  their 
known  proneness  to  debauchery  is  noticed  as 
extending  the  worst  evils  to  many  a  domestic 
circle.  Notwithstanding  the  prevalence  of  such 
intrigues,  the  same  vices  in  the  laity  were  some- 
times visited  with  the  severest  penalties  in  the 
spiritual  courts.  It  was  nevertheless  unblush- 
ingly  affirmed  by  these  holy  culprits,  that,  unless 
confession  of  sin  should  be  made  to  them,  its 
remission  must  be  foregone  for  ever.  But  the 
supposition  that  the  authority  claimed  by  the 
doctrine  of  the  keys,  was  really  entrusted  to  such 
victims  of  sensuality ;  or  to  others,  who,  if  free 
from  that  sort  of  vice,  were  men  of  the  feeblest 
perceptions  ;  or  to  a  third  class,  who,  without 
being  fools  or  sensualists,  frequently  added  the 
pride  of  Alexander  to  the  cruelty  of  Nero,  is 
treated  with  powerful  scorn.  By  resorting  to 
the  use  of  that  carnal  sword  which  Peter  was 
forbidden  to  employ,  and  by  an  abuse  of  that 
spiritual  power  which  was  committed  to  him  only 
in  common  with  his  brethren,  the  pontiffs  are 
said  to  invade  every  security  conferred  by  the 
laws,  either  on  the  property,  or  the  persons  of 
Englishmen.      The  assent  of  the  commonalty  is 


]60  THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE. 

CHAP,  declared  to  be  necessary  to  every  measure  of 
taxation ;  but  the  pope,  who  obtained  his  ele- 
vation from  the  emperor,  ere  long  to  become  his 
superior,  is  regarded  as  viewing  the  power  of 
the  English  constitution  in  the  light  of  a  rival 
authority ;  and  the  king  and  the  lords  are  admo- 
mished  to  bear  this  in  mind,  and  to  prove  them- 
selves the  shield  of  the  nation  against  the 
meditated  encroachments  of  a  merciless  despot- 
ism/ In  enumerating  the  many  expedients  of  the 
priesthood  to  gratify  their  avarice,  the  worship  of 
images,  and  the  miracles  falsely  attributed  to 
them  are  not  overlooked ;  and  passing  from  the 
corruptions  of  the  mendicant  orders,  and  of  the 
secular  clergy,  the  same  kind  of  complaint  is 
extended  to  the  monastic  societies,  who  are  con- 
sidered as  equally  removed  from  the  require- 
ments of  scripture  and  from  the  ancient  spirit  of 
their  institute. 

To  this  series  of  objections,  the  advocates  of  the 
hierarchy  are  made  to  reply,  and  with  visible  in- 
dignation, that  were  the  papal  supremacy  to  be 
destroyed,  the  church  could  have  neither  head 
nor  order ;  that  to  deprive  the  ecclesiastical  body 
of  its  wealth,  must  be  of  necessity  to  render  the 
ministers  of  religion  contemptible;  and  that  as 
the  Creator  is  assuredly  the  highest  of  all  sove- 
reigns, his  worship  should  be  accompanied  by 
every  external  splendour  that  wealth   or  genius 

*   "  The  king  ne  taketh  nat  his  men  Hereto  taken  no  lite  entente 

But  by  assent  of  the  comminalte,  To  help  the  people  out  of  hir  honde, 

But  these  echeyere  not  raunsonihem  For  they  ben  harder  in  hir  bonde 

Maisterfully,  more  than  dothe  he.  Worse  bete,  and  crueller  ybrende 

Wonder  is  that  the  parliamente  Thou  to  the  king;  is  understonde  ; 

And  al  the  lordes  of  this  londe,  God  him  help  this  for  to  amende  !" 


THE    LIFE    OF    ^VYCLIFFE. 


IGl 


may  bring  to  it.       But  it   is  affirmed  in  return,  c  ha  p. 

that    Christ  is,   and   is    alone,   the   Head   of  the 

church ;  that  he  has  furthermore  prohibited  his 
disciples  from  acknowledging  any  other  master 
on  earth  ;  and  that  the  costly  appendages  of 
christian  worship  should  be  rather  sought  in  the 
state  of  the  mind,  in  the  justice  of  its  principles, 
in  charity,  poverty  of  spirit,  hope  in  God,  and  a 
pure  conscience.  These  enlightened  sentiments 
are  then  assailed  as  the  cant  of  a  faction,  and 
of  a  faction  whose  activities  are  ever  the  result 
of  envy,  covetousness,  and  a  love  of  anarchy ; 
and  it  is  boisterously  asserted,  that  each  man 
should  deem  it  enough  to  live  devoutly  himself, 
and  "  let  other  men  live  as  they  list."  But  the 
tenets  thus  assailed  are  repeated,  and  with  a 
deeper  emphasis ;  and  the  anathema,  the  stake, 
and  the  gallows,  are  passionately  named,  as  form- 
ing the  only  kind  of  argument  which  shall  hence- 
forth be  employed  to  crush  these  pestilent 
heresies.  The  heresiarch  calmly  replies,  that 
the  curse  of  Nero  was  never  more  pointless  than 
is  that  of  a  churchman  in  such  a  cause ;  adding, 
that  to  suffer  for  the  sake  of  the  gospel  has  ever 
been  the  lot  of  its  truest  disciples." 

Such  is  the  substance  of  the  Plowman's  Tale, 
a  work  throughout  which  there  is  that  constant 
reference  to  scripture  precept,  and  to  scripture 
example,  which  distinguished  the  mode  of  war- 

"  See  Chaucer's  Works.    The  Plow-  which  were  commonly  imputed  to  tliein. 

man's  Crede  describes  an  enquirer  as  He  next  meets  with  a  plowman,  who 

seeking  relin;ious  advice  from  liie  four  confirms  all  his  impressions  respecting 

orders  of  friars,  and  as  becoming  dis-  the  hypocrisies  of  the  religious  orders, 

gnsted   on   witnessing   the  practice   of  and  instructs  him  in  the  doctrine  of  the 

tliose  vices  in  their  several  convents,  reformers.     See  Warton,  i.  sect.  ix. 
V(^,  ],.    II.  M 


162  THE    LIFE    OF    AUYCLIFFE. 

CHAP,  fare  adopted  by  the  followers  of  WyclifFe ;    and 

1—  which  so  generally  confounded  their  adversaries, 

as  to  leave  them  no  hope  of  preserving  their  au- 
thority, except  by  the  aid  of  brute  force.  Nor  is 
the  degree  of  improvement  which  the  theology 
connected  with  these  principles  of  reform  exhi- 
bited wholly  a  matter  of  conjecture.  In  all  the 
maxims  stated  above,  we  perceive  a  direct  ten- 
dency to  separate  religion  from  the  influence  by 
which  it  had  been  so  greatly  corrupted.  While 
distinguishing  so  wisely  between  the  formalities 
of  superstition,  and  the  nature  of  a  religion 
founded  on  principle,  and  having  its  home  in  the 
affections ;  they  are  expressive  of  an  equal  soli- 
citude to  call  off  the  reliance  of  men  from  the 
supposed  power  of  the  priesthood,  with  respect 
to  their  state  hereafter. 
Theological  But  the  wisdom  of  attempting  to  destroy  that 
X  d','scip°es  false  confidence  wdiich  superstition  had  created,  may 
^" '' be  seriously  questioned,  unless  accompanied  by 
an  eff'ort  to  make  known  that  better  source  of  re- 
ligious hope  and  religious  motive,  which  is  revealed 
in  the  gospel.  Nor  can  the  reformers  of  the  four- 
teenth century  be  charged  with  a  want  of  atten- 
tion to  this  fact.  On  the  contrary,  with  their 
attacks  on  the  delusive  theories  of  the  age,  re- 
specting the  mode  of  obtaining  the  favour  of 
Heaven,  they  were  careful  to  unite  an  appeal 
to  the  scripture  doctrine  of  a  free  remission,  in 
virtue  of  His  mediation,  who  has  redeemed  the 
church  of  God  by  his  own  blood.  The  theological 
opinions  of  Wyclifte  are  known,  and  it  is  certain 
that  these,  which  were  in  substance  the  creed 
of  the  poor  priests,  his  coadjutors,  were  widely 


THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE.  163 

disseminated  by  the  activities  of  those  devoted  cha.p. 

VI 

men.     It  may  be  added,  also,  that  the  reformer ^— 

frequently  speaks  of  his  contemporaries,  in  a  man- 
ner which  discovers  that  many,  on  receiving  his 
general  doctrine,  became,  in  his  judgment,  better 
men,  in  the  feelings  which  belong  to  the  nature  of 
piety,  as  well  as  in  their  regard  of  social  obli- 
gation. Accordingly,  the  most  devout  of  his 
doctrines  are  rarely  noticed  as  though  peculiar  to 
himself,  but  rather  as  maintained  by  him  in  com- 
mon with  "  many  true  men." 

The  motives  which  render  us  curious  to  possess  character  of 
whatever  may  be  known  with  respect  to  the  cha-  priertt' 
racter  of  WyclifFe's  disciples,  must  impart  a  degree 
of  interest  to  such  particulars  as  may  be  ascer- 
tained concerning  the  persons  to  whom  we  have 
often  referred  under  the  name  of  "  poor  priests," 
and  of  whom  the  reformer  frequently  writes  in 
terms  of  high  commendation.  From  the  preamble 
to  the  persecuting  law,  so  dishonestly  obtained 
by  Courtney  in  1382,  it  appears  that  these  labo- 
rious teachers  were  accustomed  to  journey  from 
town  to  town,  and  from  county  to  county ;  that, 
clothed  in  habits  of  peculiar  simplicity,  and  with- 
out any  licence  from  the  local  ordinaries,  it  was 
their  manner  to  preach  their  doctrine  openly,  not 
only  in  churches  and  church-yards,  but  also  in 
the  midst  of  markets  and  fairs,  and,  indeed,  in 
all  places  where  multitudes  were  convened. 
When  cited  by  their  ecclesiastical  superiors  to 
answer  before  them,  on  account  of  these  dis- 
orders, they  are  described  as  treating  the  autho- 
rity claimed  by  such  officers  with  contempt. 
The  alternative  that  would  be  submitted  to  them, 
M  2 


1G4  THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE. 

CHAP,  on   appearing  before  such   a  tribunal,   they  well 

knew  to  be  silence  or  imprisonment ;  and  as  they 

were  not  at  all  concerned  about  the  spiritual  cen- 
sures which  their  conduct  might  incur,  it  was 
natural  that  a  summons  from  such  quarters  should 
be  rarely  obeyed.  In  the  same  document,  it  is 
stated,  that  "  by  their  subtle  and  ingenious  words, 
"  they  contrived  to  draw  the  people  to  their  ser- 
"  mons,  and  to  maintain  them  in  their  errors," 
from  which  it  appears  that  the  new  preachers 
were  generally  popular. 
Auaiysisof       It  was  to  ^ivc  some  explanation  of  these  novel 

llie  tract,  t  i  i  1        •  p      ^ 

"WhyPoorproceedmos    and  to  counteract  the  design  ot  the 

Priests  have  !  .     .  ^  ,  ...  ^  , 

....  Bene-  mquisitorial  statute  which  was  meant  to  put  an  end 
to  them,  that  Wycliffe  published  his  tract  on  the 
question,  "  Why  Poor  Priests  have  no  Benefices?" 
A  brief  analysis  of  this  treatise  will  place  the 
character  of  the  men  to  whom  it  relates  dis- 
tinctly before  us.  Three  reasons  are  assigned  for 
their  refusal  of  benefices.  First,  the  dread  of 
simony ;  secondly,  the  fear  of  mispending  poor 
men's  goods  ;  and  thirdly,  the  hope  of  doing  more 
good  by  itinerant  labours,  than  by  limiting  their 
exertions  to  a  single  parish. 

The  customs  connected  with  the  system  of 
patronage  are  said  to  be  such,  that  whether  an 
appointment  to  a  benefice  proceed  from  a  prelate, 
or  from  a  secular  lord,  the  demands  usually  made 
on  the  incumbent  are  of  a  description  which  must 
expose  him  to  the  guilt  of  simony.  To  prelates, 
he  must  render  the  first  fruits,  and  many  other 
unlawful  contributions  ;  or  he  must  descend  to 
hold  some  worldly  office,  inconsistent  with  the 
life  of  a  priest,  and  far  from  being  taught  by  the 


THE     LIFE    OF     WYCLIFFE.  1G5 

example  of  Christ,  or  of  his  apostles.     Men  who  chap. 

feel  no  scruple  in  conforming  to  these  customs, '■ — 

however  vicious  or  incompetent,  may  obtain  with 
ease  the  care  of  many  thousand  souls  ;  **  but  if 
"  there  be  any  simple  man  who  desireth  to  live 
"  well,  and  to  teach  truly  the  law  of  God,  he 
*'  shall  be  deemed  a  hypocrite,  a  new  teacher, 
*'  a  heretic,  and  not  suffered  to  come  to  any  be- 
"  nefice.  If  in  any  little  poor  place  he  shall 
*'  live  a  poor  life,  he  shall  be  so  persecuted  and 
"  slandered,  that  he  shall  be  put  out  by  wiles, 
"  extortions,  frauds,  and  worldly  violence,  and 
"  imprisoned  or  burnt."  While  such  was  the 
treatment  experienced  by  the  enlightened  and 
conscientious  clergyman,  though  receiving  his 
appointment  from  the  prelates,  lay  patrons  will 
not  be  supposed  to  have  been  less  affected  by  tlie 
spirit  of  avarice  and  irreligion.  It  is  observed 
that  "  some  lords,  to  cover  their  simony,  will  not 
"  take  for  themselves,  but  kerchiefs  for  the  lady, 
"  or  a  palfry,  or  a  tun  of  wine.  And  when  some 
"■  lords  would  present  a  good  man,  then  some 
"  ladies  are  the  means  of  having  a  dancer  pre- 
"  sented,  or  a  tripper  on  tapits,  or  a  hunter,  or  a 
"  hawker,  or  a  wild  player  of  summer  gambols." 
These  practices  are  all  denounced  as  treason 
against  God  ;  first,  in  the  case  of  prelates  and 
lords,  who,  by  selecting  such  men,  betray  their 
trust,  and  become  the  vicars  of  Satan;  secondly, 
in  the  instance  of  curates,  who  comply  with  such 
customs,  and  who,  beginning  their  career  in 
treachery  with  respect  to  their  Maker,  are  not 
likely  to  prove  faithful  in  the  obligations  which 
relate    to    society ;     and   finally,    in    the    case    of 


166  THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE. 

CHAP,  confessors,  who  fail  honestly  to  censure  such  evils, 
__I'_1_**  lest  they  should  give  offence,  and  thereby  lose 
"  their  friendships  and  gifts."  One  reason,  there- 
fore, why  poor  priests  have  no  benefices,  is,  that 
it  was  scarcely  possible  to  accept  of  them  without 
in  many  ways  contracting  the  guilt  of  simony. 

The  second  reason  of  their  conduct,  in  this 
particular,  was  the  fear  of  being  compelled  to 
mispend  poor  men's  goods.  Whatever  of  clerical 
revenue  shall  remain,  after  food  and  clothing  are 
provided,  is  said  to  come  under  this  denomination. 
But  to  be  inducted  to  a  living,  much  gold  must 
be  given  to  a  gradation  of  ecclesiastical  officers ; 
and  afterwards,  many  rich  entertainments  must 
be  made  ;  sometimes  for  the  gratification  of  lay 
patrons,  and  sometimes  as  a  duty  owing  to  the 
higher  clergy  when  performing  their  "  feigned 
visitations."  From  such  customs,  it  is  said  to 
follow  that  beneficed  clergymen,  "  shall  not  spend 
"  their  tithes  and  offerings  after  a  good  consci- 
"  ence,  and  God's  law,  but  must  waste  them  on 
"  the  rich  and  the  idle."  It  is  observed,  also, 
that  "  on  each  holy  day  these  small  curates  shall 
*'  commonly  have  letters  from  their  ordinaries  to 
"  summon  and  to  curse  poor  men,  and  for  nought, 
*'  except  the  covetousness  of  the  clerks  of  Anti- 
"  Christ ;  and  if  they  refuse  to  summon  and  curse 
"  them,  though  they  know  not  why  they  should, 
"  they  shall  be  injured,  and  summoned  from  day 
"  to  day,  from  one  far  place  to  a  farther,  or  be 
"  accursed,  or  lose  their  benefice,  or  their  profits." 
Refusing  to  become  parties  to  such  proceedings, 
they  are  instantly  reproached  as  the  enemies  of 
all  episcopal  jurisdiction  ;   and  to  avoid  that  expen- 


THE     LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE.  167 

diture  which  the   o:^tentations  and  the  luxurious  c  h  a  p. 

manners  of  the  clergy  in  that  age  required,  was  to '— 

become  the  object  of  almost  every  kind  of  per- 
secution. "  So  many  cursed  deceits,"  observes 
the  reformer,  **  hath  Antichrist  brought  up  by  his 
"  worldly  clerks,  to  make  curates  mispend  poor 
"  men's  goods,  and  not  truly  to  do  their  office  ;  or 
"  else  to  forsake  all,  and  to  leave  the  clerks  of 
''  Antichrist  as  lords  of  this  world,  to  rob  the 
"  people  by  feigned  censures,  and  to  teach  the 
"  lore  of  the  fiend,  both  by  open  preaching,  and 
"  the  example  of  an  accursed  life."  Hence  it 
appears,  that  if  to  become  conformists,  in  the 
particulars  stated,  was  to  misapply  the  patrimony 
of  the  poor,  and  to  convert  a  spiritual  office  into 
the  instrument  of  secular  oppression  and  aggran- 
dizement,— to  be  silent  amid  the  prevalence  of 
such  evils,  was  regarded  as  not  less  opposed  to 
fidelity.  To  be  without  a  benefice,  was  not  to 
be  released  from  the  obligation  of  preaching;  and 
where  the  doors  of  the  church  were  closed,  the 
voice  of  these  conscientious  men  might  often  be 
heard  in  its  precincts,  or  in  the  high  way  to 
the  towns  and  villages  of  the  land.  So  many, 
indeed,  and  so  serious  were  the  corruptions  in 
which  the  beneficed  clergyman  was  expected  to 
participate,  that  the  root  which  they  had  acquired 
in  the  ecclesiastical  system,  is  viewed  as  a  phe- 
nomenon admitting  of  no  explanation,  except  as 
forming  the  signal  chastisement  of  heaven,  in- 
curred by  the  reckless  depravity  which  had 
marked  the  later  ages  of  the  world. 

The   last  reason  why  some    poor  priests  have 
no   benefices,    and    that    to   which    the   greatest 


168  THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE. 

CHAP,  importance  is  attached,  is,  that  by  such  a  restric- 

. '—  tion,  they  should  probably  "  be  hindered  from  bet- 

"  ter  occupation,  and  from  more  profiting  of  holy 
"  church."  The  charge  which  they  had  received 
from  above,  is  declared  to  have  respect  to  men 
in  general,  and  to  be  binding,  "wherever  they 
"  may  help  their  brethren  to  heavenward,  whe- 
"  ther  by  teaching,  praying,  or  example  giving." 
This  general  mission  is  conceived  to  require  "  a 
"  general  cure  of  charity,  as  had  Christ  and  his 
"  apostles."  It  is  observed,  also,  "  that  by  this 
**  they  most  surely  save  themselves,  and  help 
"  their  brethren  ;  and  they  are  free  to  fly  from 
"  one  city  to  another,  when  they  are  persecuted 
"  by  the  clerks  of  Antichrist,  as  Christ  biddetli, 
"  and  the  gospel.  And  thus  they  may  best, 
"  without  any  challenging  of  men,  go  and  dwell 
"  among  the  people  where  they  shall  most  profit, 
"  and  for  the  time  convenient,  coming  and  going 
"  after  the  moving  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  not 
"  being  hindered  from  doing  what  is  best  by  the 
"jurisdiction  of  sinful  men.  Also,  they  follow 
"  Christ  and  his  apostles  more,  in  taking  volun- 
"  tary  alms  of  the  people  whom  they  teach,  than 
"  in  taking  dymes  and  offerings,  by  customs 
"  which  sinfLd  men  have  ordained  in  the  time  of 
"  grace."  Were  these  primitive  manners  to  re- 
turn to  the  church,  the  effect  it  is  contended 
would  be,  that  "  those  alms  which  the  people 
"  might  and  should  give  to  true  priests  who  truly 
"  keep  their  order,"  would  be  freely  rendered ; 
and  all  pomp  and  luxury  being  excluded  from  the 
hierarchy,  the  principal  motives  to  that  covet- 
ousness  which  had  so  pervaded  the   clergy,  and 


THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE.  1G9 

proved   so   afflictive  to   the  laity,  would  be  de-  chap. 

stroyed.      To    expect    that    the    people    should L- 

abstain  from  any  sinful  indulgence,  while  their 
guides  are  evidently  enslaved  by  it,  is  treated 
as  folly.  "  For  these  dreads,"  it  is  remarked, 
"  and  for  many  thousand  more;  and  for  to  be 
'*  more  like  to  the  life  of  Christ  and  his  apostles ; 
*'  and  for  to  profit  more  their  own  souls,  and 
"  other  men's,  some  poor  priests  think,  with  God, 
"  to  travel  about  where  tliey  shall  most  profit, 
"  and  by  the  evidence  that  God  giveth  them, 
"  while  they  have  time,  and  a  little  bodily  strength 
*'  and  youth.  Nevertheless,  they  condemn  not 
"  curates  who  do  well  their  office,  and  dwell 
•'  where  they  shall  most  profit,  and  teach  truly 
*'  and  stably  the  law  of  God  against  false  pro- 
"  phets,  and  the  accursed  deceptions  of  the  fiend. 
"  Christ,  for  his  endless  mercy,  help  his  priests 
"  and  common  people  to  beware  of  Antichrist's 
"  deceits,  and  to  go  even  the  right  way  to 
"  heaven.  Amen,  Jesu,  for  thy  endless  charity." 
The  concession  made  in  this  extract  should  be 
remembered.  It  was  not  presumed  by  these 
itinerant  instructors,  that  every  beneficed  man 
was  necessarily  a  partisan  of  the  practices  which 
were  the  object  of  their  censure.  Leaving  every 
such  priest,  if  devoutly  performing  the  duties, 
whether  of  prelacy  or  of  the  village  pastor,  to 
the  guidance  of  his  own  conscience,  they  sim- 
ply claimed  for  themselves  the  right  of  emula- 
ting the  zeal  of  evangelists,  the  office  of  such 
being,  in  their  view,  less  connected  with  temp- 
tation, and  more  adapted  to  the  necessities  of 
the  times. 


170  THE    LIFE    OF     WYCLIFFE. 

Among  the  persons  who  carried  these  devout 
sentiments  into  action,  an  important  place  is  occu- 
pied by  William  Thorp.  Within  the  parish  of  Wy- 
clifFe  was  a  hamlet  bearing  the  name  of  Thorp. 
In  the  fourteenth  century  it  was  the  residence  of 
a  family,  known  by  the  same  designation  : '  and 
there  are  circumstances  which  render  it  probable, 
that  the  confessor  referred  to  was  a  native  of  that 
spot,  and  a  member  of  its  principal  household. 
It  is  from  himself  we  learn,  that  his  parents  were 
in  circumstances  which  enabled  them  to  expend 
considerable  sums  upon  his  education,  with  a  view 
to  his  becoming  a  priest.  But  on  reaching  the 
years  of  manhood,  he  felt  some  grave  scruples  as 
to  the  propriety  of  assuming  that  office.  His  hesi- 
tation disappointed  his  friends,  and  so  far  excited 
their  displeasure,  that  he  had  nearly  resolved  on 
quitting  the  home  which  his  conscientious  feeling 
had  rendered  a  place  of  the  greatest  discomfort. 
Apprised  of  his  half- formed  purpose,  his  relatives 
were  induced  for  a  while  to  soften  the  severity 
of  their  manners  toward  him.  The  alternative, 
however,  ere  long,  before  him,  was  either  to  enter 
the  church,  or  to  wander  a  fugitive  under  the 
anathema  of  his  parents.  If  a  native  of  the  pa- 
rish of  Wycliffe,  the  name  and  the  doctrines  of 
our  reformer  could  hardly  have  been  unknown  to 
him.  He  submitted  to  his  parents,  that  previous 
to  forming  his  decision,  he  should  be  allowed  to 
ascertain  from  certain  who  were  considered  wise 
priests,  and  of  virtuous  conversation,  what  the 
office  of  priesthood  really  imported.    It  is  evident 

7  Tliis   i.ppears   from  Ibc  iujeiiptiuus    in   tliu  jiHrisli  chuicli,  and  from  otiicr 
local  records. 


THE     LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE.  171 

that  the  men  intended  were  the  rector  of  Lutter-  chap. 

worth,  and  his  poor  priests.     The  consent  of  his ^'— 

parents  was  obtained,  who  supplied  him  with 
money,  and  gave  him  their  blessing,  as  he  set 
forth  on  his  journey.  "  And  so,"  he  observes,  "  I 
"  went  to  those  priests,  whom  I  heard  to  be  of 
"  best  name,  and  of  most  holy  living,  and  best 
"  learned,  and  most  wise  of  heavenly  wisdom ; 
"  and  so  I  communed  with  them  unto  the  time 
"  that  I  perceived  by  their  virtuous  and  continual 
"  occupations,  that  their  honest  and  charitable 
"  works  passed  their  fame  which  I  had  heard  be- 
"  fore  of  them."  After  a  considerable  intercourse 
with  these  men,  among  whom  Hereford  and  Rip- 
pington  were  then  numbered,  and  particularly 
with  Wycliffe  himself,  Thorp  resolved  on  joining 
them  in  their  labours.  Through  more  than  thirty 
winters,  he  continued  to  advocate  their  doctrines 
in  the  different  parts  of  England,  especially  in  the 
northern  counties.  At  the  close  of  that  period, 
terror  and  persuasion  were  employed,  with  a  view 
to  induce  a  renunciation  of  the  tenets  which  he 
had  learned  from  the  lips  and  from  the  writings 
of  our  reformer,  but  they  were  employed  in  vain. 
His  examination  before  archbishop  Arundel  will 
be  noticed  in  a  subsequent  chapter  ;  but  his  sen- 
timents with  respect  to  preaching,  and  the  gene- 
ral obligations  of  the  priestly  office,  were  common 
to  the  class  of  men  with  whom  he  considered  it 
no  small  honour  to  be  associated.  These  may  be 
inserted  in  this  place. 

Accused  by  the  primate  of  preaching  without 
a  licence,  and  of  laying  claim  to  a  peculiar  wisdom 
and.   sanctity,    the    prisoner   replies:     "By    the 


172  THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE. 

CHAP.  "  authority  of  God's  law,  and  also  of  saints  and 

1_  "  doctors,  I  am  taught  to  believe  that  it  is  every 

"  priest's  office  and  duty  to  preach  busily,  freely, 
"  and  truly  the  word  of  God.  For,  no  doubt, 
"  every  priest  should  propose  first  in  his  soul,  to 
"  make  known  to  the  people  the  word  of  God, 
"  according  to  his  knowledge  and  power,  ever 
*'  proving  his  words  to  be  true  by  his  virtuous 
"  works.  For  this  intent,  also,  we  suppose  that 
"  bishops  and  other  prelates  of  holy  church 
"  should  chiefly  take  and  use  their  prelacy,  and 
"  for  the  same  cause  bishops  should  give  to  priests 
"  their  orders.  For  bishops  should  admit  no 
"  man  to  the  priesthood,  except  that  he  hath 
"  good  will,  and  full  purpose,  and  were  well  dis- 
"  posed,  and  well  learned  to  preach.  Wherefore, 
"  Sir,  by  the  bidding  of  Christ,  and  by  the 
"  example  of  his  most  holy  living,  and  also  by 
"  the  living  of  his  holy  apostles  and  prophets,  we 
"  are  bound  under  full  great  pain,  to  exercise  our- 
"■  selves  after  our  knowledge  and  power  (as  every 
*'  priest  is  likewise  charged  of  God)  that  we  may 
"  fulfil  duly  the  office  of  priesthood.  We  pre- 
"  sume  not  here  of  ourselves,  for  to  be  esteemed 
*'  faithful  disciples,  and  special  followers  of  Christ, 
"  neither  in  our  own  reputation,  nor  in  any  other 
"  man's.  But,  Sir,  as  I  said  to  you  before,  we 
"  judge  thus  from  the  authority  chiefly  of  God's 
"  word,  where  it  is  the  chief  duty  of  every  priest 
"  to  employ  himself  faithfully  in  making  known 
"  the  law  of  God  unto  the  people,  and  so  to  com- 
"  municate  the  commandments  of  God  in  charity, 
"  when,  and  to  whom,  that  ever  wc  may."  Such 
are    the   obligcrtions    which    are    said    to    devolve 


THE    LIFE    OF    M'VCLIFFE.  173 

imperiously  on  every  priest,   and  desiring  to  be  chap. 

faithful  disciples  of  Christ  he  writes,  **  We  pray  '— 

"■  this  gracious  Lord,  for  his  holy  name,  that  he 
*'  would  make  us  able  to  please  him  with  devout 
*'  prayers,  and  charitable  priestly  works,  that  we 
"  may  obiain  of  him  to  follow  him  thankfully. "^ 

8  Fox,  i.  G87— 708.     Wordsworth's  Ecclesiastical  Biograph)-,  i. 


174  THE     LITE     OF    M'YCLIFFE. 


CHAl 
VII. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

NOTICE    OF    WYCLIFFe's    WRITINGS    SUBSEQUENT    TO    HI6  EXCLUSION    FROM    OX- 
FORD  HIS  TRIALOGUS ON    OBEDIENCE  TO    PRELATES ON     THE    DECEITS    OF 

SATAN     AND    OF    HIS    PRIESTS ON  THE   DUTY     OF    LORDS OF    SERVANTS    AND 

LORDS OF  GOOD  PREACHING  PRIESTS ON  THE  FOUR  DECEITS  OF  ANTICHRIST 

ON    THE   PRAYERS    OF   GOOD   MEN OF  CLERKS    POSSESSIONERS. RISE   OF 

THE  CRUSADE  AGAINST  THE  AVIGNON   POPE,  AND  ITS  FAILURE. WYCLIFFE 

RENEWS    HIS    CONTEST     WITH    THE      MENDICANTS. HIS    TREATISE     ON    THE 

SENTENCE  OF    THE    CURSE     EXPOUNDED. ON     PRELATES    AND    OTHER     SUB- 
JECTS.  HIS    SENTIMENTS      ON     WAR. EXTRACTS    FROM      HIS     SERMONS. 

HIS   SICKNESS   AND   DEATH. 

The  reader  must  be  left  to  judge  of  the  fore- 
boding which  possessed  the  mind  of  Thorp  and 
his  brethren,  as  the  arm  of  intolerance  was  raised 
to  reduce  them  to  silence  or  consign  them  to  a 
prison.  They  would  regard  their  own  fate,  as 
involved  in  the  case  of  Hereford  and  his  asso- 
ciates ;  and  as  rendered  certain  by  the  result  of 
the  prosecution  instituted  against  WyclifFe.  That 
result  we  have  witnessed,  and  our  attention  is  now 
called  to  the  conduct  of  the  reformer  during  the 
two  last  years  of  his  life,  which  were  spent  wholly 
at  Lutterworth.  But  while  evidently  sedulous  in 
the  performance  of  his  parochial  duties,  his  dis- 
courses, and  his  numerous  compositions,  produced 
at  this  period,  demonstrate,  that  his  zeal  as  a 
reformer  had  gathered  intensity  from  the  means 
which  had  been  employed  to  extinguish  it. 

During  the  interval  between  his  appearance 
before  the  papal  delegates  at  Lambeth  in  1378, 
and  before  the  Oxford  convocation  in   1382,  his 


THE     LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE.  175 

industry  appears  to  have  been  almost  exclusively  chap. 

directed  to  effect  his  translation  of  the  scriptures.  L 

That  great  vs^ork  achieved,  he  commenced  his 
attack  on  the  doctrine  of  transubstantiation ;  and 
expelled  for  this  cause  from  the  university,  he 
addressed  himself  to  the  composition  of  a  series  of 
books,  all  intended  to  demonstrate  the  necessity 
of  reform  in  the  faith  and  manners  of  the  church. 

Among    his    works    completed    subsequent  to  JJ'^j^'jyJ^ 
his   exclusion  from  Oxford,  the  first  place  must  ^"r't'is^ 

^  subsequent 

be  allotted  to  his  Trialogus.    A  modern  historian,  tohisexciu. 

_  sion  from 

whose  patient  research  has  merited  the  confidence  ^^'""fi  "'« 

Trialogus, 

of  the  public,  describes  this  treatise  as  a  production 
of  the  period  between  1372  and  1377.  This  is 
presumed  to  follow  from  the  circumstance,  that 
the  writer  refers  to  the  first  of  those  years  as 
recent.  The  work,  however,  is  replete  with  the 
author's  objections  to  the  received  doctrine  on 
the  eucharist,  embracing  all  the  points  of  the 
controversy  which  arose  with  respect  to  that 
sacrament.  Whatever  the  reformer's  opinions 
were  on  that  subject  in  1377,  it  is  evident, 
from  the  events  of  that  year,  and  of  the  following, 
that  they  had  not  then  attracted  the  notice  of  the 
clergy.  But  apart  from  these  particulars,  the  date 
of  this  work  is  placed  beyond  doubt,  by  the  fact, 
that  the  very  passage  in  which  the  year  1372  is 
adverted  to  as  recent,  contains  an  allusion  to  the 
council  and  the  earthquake  which  took  place  just 
ten  years  later.* 

'  It  is  surprising  that  this  should  British  Museum,  and  one  equally  beau- 
have  escaped  Mr.  Turner's  notice.  See  tiful  in  the  possession  of  the  Rev. 
Hist  V.  177.  Trialogus,  lib.  iv.  c.  36.  Thomas  Russell,  A.  M.  of  Walworlh. 
The  printed  copies  of  this  work  whicli  See  chapter  on  the  reformer's  writings. 
I  have  chiefly  consulted,  are  that  in  the  Art.  Trial. 


17G  THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE. 

CHAP.      It  is  not  improbable  that  the  reformer  had  de- 

L  livered  the  larger  portion  of  the  Trialogus  from 

his  divinity  chair  at  different  periods,  previous  to 
1382;    but  M^hen  those  parts  were  arranged  for 
publication  in  the  form  of  a  treatise,  many  addi- 
tions appear  to  have  been  made  to  them;    and 
such  as  render  the  entire  work  a  more  complete 
exhibition  of  the  mind   of  the  author,  than  any 
other  separate  production.     It  is  the  same  com- 
position which  is  frequently  referred  to  under  the 
name  of  Dialogues ;  and  toward  the  close  of  the 
work,  it  is  remarked,  that  the  form  of  a  dialogue 
had  been  adopted,  because  usually  more  animated, 
and  more  attractive  to  the  general  reader,  than 
that    of    dissertations.       Truth,    Falsehood,    and 
Wisdom,  are  accordingly  personified  ;  and  in  dis- 
cussing almost  every  point  of  controversy  con- 
nected with  rehgion  in  that  age,  the  first  proposes 
the   question,    the  second  urges   objections,  and 
the  last  performs  the  office  of  umpire.     Through 
the  whole,  the  attention  is  frequently  called  from 
the  simpler  views  of  morality  and  religion,  to  con- 
template them  through  the  medium  of  scholastic 
abstractions ;  a  circumstance  which  may  be  re- 
gretted, but  which,   at  the  same  time,  serves  to 
render  the  work  a  more  faithful  disclosure  of  the 
modes  of  thinking  familiar  to  the  devout  and  the 
educated  among  our  ancestors,  in  the  fourteenth 
century.    It  should  be  stated,  also,  that  the  native 
obscurity  of  many  things  contained  in  this  book, 
is  rendered  still  more  perplexing  by  a  style  which 
partakes  considerably  of  the  barbarism  of  the  age, 
and    by  numerous    errors  which  appear  to  have 
been  those  of  transcribers  or  of  the  press.     Yet, 


THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE.  177 

passing    over   these    defects,    and    the    obsolete  chap. 

character  of  the    learning    which    it    frequently — 

displays ;  the  lucid  statements  of  the  most  im- 
portant doctrines,  which  are  frequently  occur- 
ring in  the  Trialogus,  confer  upon  it  a  value  to 
which  no  other  production  of  the  same  period  is 
entitled.'' 

The  work  consists  of  four  books,  and  these  are 
subdivided  into  numerous  chapters.  Nearly  the 
whole  of  the  first  book  is  occupied  in  discussing  a 
series  of  questions  relating  to  the  existence  and 
perfections  of  the  Deity.  All  excellencies  that 
may  possibly  exist,  are  considered  as  having  their 
place  in  the  divine  nature  ;  and  while  those  dif- 
fused over  creation  proceed  alone  from  him,  every 
thing  in  man  opposed  to  the  nature  of  God,  con- 
sidered in  his  spiritual  attributes,  is  affirmed  to  be 
depravity,  and  to  be  founded  in  weakness  and 
error.  The  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  is  of  course 
discussed,  and  some  attention  is  bestowed  on  cer- 
tain natural  appearances  which  were  supposed  to 
illustrate  that  mysterious  truth.  After  some  re- 
marks on  the  theories  of  Plato  and  Aristotle 
respecting  ideas,  the  writer  concludes  with  a  cen- 
sure on  the  papal  authority — as  by  sanctioning 
the  doctrine  which  declared  the  sacred  host  to  be 
an  accident  without  a  subject,  it  had  affirmed  that 
to  be  true,  which  no  mind  may  possibly  compre- 
hend.    In  a  previous  conversation  relating  to  the 

»  Mr.  Turner  observes,  "  Its  attruc-  "  it   was  the   respected  academician, 

"  live  merit  was,  that  it  combined  the  "  reasoning    with    the    ideas    of   the 

"  new  opinions    with    the    scholastic  "  reformer." — Hist.   v.  177.     Lenfant 

"  style  of  thinking  and  deduction.     It  discovered   a  copy  of    this    work    in 

"  was  not  the  mere  illiterate  reformer,  the  library  of  the  university  of  Frank- 

"  teaching   novelties,   whom  the  man  fort   on   the  Oder.     Council    of  Con- 

"  of  education  disdained  and  derided  ;  stance,  i.  532. 

VOL.   II.  N 


178  THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE. 

c  ^,^^'  mystery  of  the  Trinity,  the  reformer  had  observed : 

L  *'  Some  men  are  so  strangely  mistaken  in  judging 

"  on  this  subject,  as  to  suppose  that  the  light  of 
**  faith  is  contrary  to  that  of  nature  ;  and  accord- 
**  ingly,  that  what  may  seem  impossible  to  the 
*'  latter,  should  be  implicitly  received  upon  the 
"  testimony  of  the  former.  But  the  truth  is,  men 
"  call  their  own  darkness  the  light  of  nature,  and 
**  hence  weakly  suppose  that  the  light  of  reason 
"  and  of  scripture  are  at  variance  with  each  other." 
Thus  also,  in  concluding  the  above  observation  on 
the  eucharist,  it  is  remarked,  that  *'  God  teaches 
"  us  the  truth,  and  nothing  but  the  truth,  and 
*'  what  may  be  known  by  us  to  be  such."  This 
doctrine  is  inculcated  for  the  immediate  purpose 
of  exposing  the  necessary  falsehood  of  transub- 
stantiation  ;  but  it  is  also  urged  in  this,  and  in 
other  instances,  to  secure  to  the  reason  of  man  its 
due  influence  with  respect  to  religious  faith  in 
general ;  and  the  ingenuity  of  the  writer  is  suc- 
cessfully employed,  to  vindicate  his  assent  to  the 
doctrine  of  the  Trinit5^  while  rejecting  the  dog- 
mas which  had  corrupted  the  eucharist. 

A  large  portion  of  the  second  book  is  devoted  to 
the  speculations  of  the  day  on  the  elements  and 
revolutions  of  the  visible  universe  ;  and  as  a  whole, 
it  is  chiefly  remarkable  as  opposing  the  mate- 
rialism of  Averroes  respecting  the  human  soul :  as 
stating  the  old  series  of  philosophical  arguments 
in  proof  of  the  soul's  immortality  :  as  containing 
the  doctrine  of  the  reformer  on  predestination  and 
grace :  and  as  treating  the  pretensions  of  the 
astrologer  with  contempt,  and  the  whole  science 
of  natural  philosophy  as  yet  in  its  infancy.     The 


THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE.  179 

two  last  conclusions  are  truths  of  which  men  are  chap. 

VII. 

now  fully  aware,   but  which  some  of  the  most — 

enlightened    scholars    in   the   fourteenth   century 
would  have  been  slow  to  acknowledge. 

The  third  book  relates  more  immediately  to 
moral  and  theological  opinions.  The  power  to 
act  virtuously  and  devoutly,  wherever  possessed, 
is  said  to  be  derived  from  the  grace  of  God ;  and 
hence  it  is  inferred,  that  no  excellence  of  mind 
or  conduct  can  be  justly  regarded  as  meriting 
eternal  life.  Faith  is  defined  as  an  assent  of  the 
reason,  referring  exclusively  to  the  truth,  and  to 
things  unseen  ;  as  forming  the  basis  of  all  christian 
enjoyment ;  and  as  that  principle,  the  declension 
of  which  must  necessarily  precede  each  gradation 
in  apostacy.  The  love  of  God  is  beautifully  in- 
culcated as  the  only  secure  foundation  of  morals, 
and  of  social  happiness.  He  is  described  as  in  all 
things  worthy  of  supreme  affection  ;  and  the  love 
of  his  nature  is  declared  to  be  inseparable  from 
that  of  his  laws,  which  are  truly  the  expression  of 
his  character,  the  revelation  of  himself.  Hence, 
philanthropy,  and  whatever  is  included  in  faith, 
hope,  or  charity,  is  viewed  as  comprehended  in 
what  the  laws  of  the  Creator  require.  The  por- 
tions of  this  book  which  relate  to  the  evil  of  sin ; 
to  the  Saviour's  incarnation  and  sacrifice,  as  neces- 
sary to  procure  its  remission ;  to  the  excellencies 
of  the  Redeemer's  character ;  and  to  the  doctrines 
of  grace  ;  are  distinguished  from  passages  referring 
to  the  same  matters,  and  inserted  in  some  other 
pages  of  this  work,  only  as  being  more  strongly 
marked  by  the  scholastic  method  of  treating  them — 
a  peculiarity  which  would  not  add  to  their  attrac- 
N  2 


180  THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE. 

^'x'ii^'  ^^^^  ^ith  a  modern  reader.     In  the  seventh  and 

eighth   chapters   the   disciples  of  Pelagius,    and 

those  who  only  partially  adopt  his  system,  are 
assailed  as  "  weak  simonists,"  who  conceive  that 
grace  is  to  be  bought  or  sold  as  an  article  of  mer- 
chandise ;  and  the  writer  states  his  own  doctrine 
respecting  the  necessity  of  future  events,  in  strong, 
and  somewhat  perplexing  language.  But  the 
thirtieth  and  the  thirty-first  chapters  are  the  most 
important  in  the  series.  In  these,  the  authority  of 
the  church,  the  invocation  of  saints,  and  many 
other  errors  are  exposed ;  and  the  sufficiency 
of  the  scriptures,  and  of  the  aids  of  the  One 
Mediator,  together  with  some  other  articles  of 
protestant  doctrine,  are  boldly  taught. 

It  is,  however,  in  the  last  book  of  the  Tria- 
logus,  that  the  peculiar  doctrines  of  its  author 
become  most  conspicuous  ;  and  to  this  his  oppo- 
nents directed  their  chief  attention.  While  con- 
sidering what  are  called  the  seven  sacraments,  as 
possessing  different  measures  of  importance,  and 
all  as  more  or  less  disfigured  by  human  inven- 
tions, the  validity  of  each  is  still  left  unquestioned. 
The  doctrine  of  the  eucharist  is  treated  pre- 
cisely as  in  his  Wicket,  and  Confessions.  In 
its  nature,  it  is  verily  bread,  sacramentally,  it 
is  the  body  of  Christ ;  and  much  powerful 
reasoning  is  employed,  to  expose  the  gross  im- 
possibilities inseparable  from  the  tenet  of  tran- 
substantiation.  In  the  sanction  conferred  on  this 
dogma  by  the  pontiffs,  the  writer  perceives  the 
fulfilment  of  the  prophet  Daniel's  prediction,  con- 
cerning the  desolation  which  should  profane  the 
holy  place.     "  For  what,"  it  is  inquired,    "  can 


THE     LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE.  181 

form  a  more  odious  desolation,  than  to  see  upon  chap. 


'*  the  christian  altar,  by  the  appointment  of  Anti- 
"  Christ,  a  number  of  consecrated  hosts,  all  ex- 
"  posed  to  the  adoration  of  the  people,  though 
"  naturally  they  are  merely  bread,  and  the 
"  body  of  Christ  only  in  figure  ?  Nor  is  it  at 
**  all  to  the  purpose  to  say,  that  they  do  not 
*'  worship  the  host,  but  that  they  reverence  it  for 
"  the  sake  of  the  body  of  Christ  which  is  in  it  : 
"  for  the  uncreated  Trinity  is  a  nobler  object 
*'  than  the  mere  body  and  blood  of  Christ ;  and 
"  as  there  is  no  creature  wherein  the  Trinity  is 
'*  not,  all  creatures  should  for  the  same  reason  be 
"  adored."  Baptism  he  describes  as  removing 
the  stain  of  original  sin ;  and  it  is  even  asserted, 
that  no  man  may  be  saved  while  refusing  to  submit 
to  it.  Confirmation  is  also  viewed  as  placing  the 
soul  under  the  immediate  influences  of  the  Holy 
Spirit ;  and  ordination,  as  far  as  it  was  connected 
with  the  appointment  of  priests  and  deacons,  is 
viewed  as  of  divine  origin  ;  but  the  application 
of  that  rite  to  men,  distinguished  by  other  names, 
or  sustaining  other  offices,  is  described  as  an  in- 
novation, and  as  of  very  doubtful  propriety.  His 
subsequent  remarks  on  the  sacramental  services 
have  nothing  peculiar  in  them.  They  are  con- 
nected, however,  as  usual,  with  complaints  re- 
specting the  vices  of  the  mendicants,  aad  the 
worldliness  of  the  secular  clergy ;  and  it  is  re- 
peatedly affirmed  to  be  an  act  of  weakness,  to 
concede  to  the  pontiffs  that  secular  or  spiri- 
tual supremacy  which  they  had  so  long  claimed. 
In  the  concluding  chapters,  the  writer  treats  of 
death,   the  resurrection,  the  judgment,  and   the 


182 


THE    LIFE    OF    AVYCLIFFE. 


CHAT' 
VII. 


His  treatise 
"  On  Obe- 
dience to 
Prelates." 


character  of  the  opposite  allotments  awaiting  the 
human  race  after  the  dissolution  of  all  things.  In 
this  part  of  the  work,  amid  much  that  is  specu- 
lative, there  is  much  that  is  distinguished  by  its 
seriousness  and  devotion.' 

Among  the  reformer's  manuscripts  still  extant, 
are  many  pieces  which  were  evidently  produced 
about  the  same  period  with  the  work  now  de- 
scribed. His  treatise  intitled  *'  On  Obedience  to 
"  Prelates,"*  was  written  subsequent  to  the 
spring  of  1382.     It  commences  with  stating,  that 


3  The  following  passage  has  been  ad- 
duced, to  show  the  consciousness  of 
danger  with  which  the  writer  pur- 
sued his  plans  as  a  reformer.  We 
shall  meet  with  many  such  in  his  other 
works  relating  to  the  same  period. 
"  As  all  ought  to  be  the  soldiers  of 
"  Christ,  it  is  evident  how  many  are 
"  condemned  by  their  sloth,  who  allow 
"  tlie  fear  of  losing  temporal  benefits, 
"  or  of  worldly  friendships,  or  of  the 
"  welfare  of  the  body,  to  make  them 
"  unfaithful  to  God's  cause,  or  averse  to 
"  stand  manfully  for  it,  even  to  death, 
"  if  necessary.  Modern  hypocrites 
"  say,  through  the  device  of  Satan, 
"  that  it  is  not  necessary  now  to  sufler 
"  martyrdom,  as  it  was  in  the  primi- 
"  tive  church,  because  now,  all  or  the 
"  greater  part  of  living  men  are  be- 
"  lievers,  and  that  there  are  now  no 
"  tyrants  to  put  christians  to  death. 
"  This  excuse  comes  of  Satan  ;  for,  if 
"  the  faithful  now  would  stand  firm  for 
"  the  law  of  Christ,  and  as  his  soldiers 
"  endure  bravely  any  sufl'erings,  they 
"  might  tell  the  pope,  the  cardinals, 
"  the  bishops,  and  other  prelates,  how, 
"  departing  from  the  faith  of  the  gos- 
"  pel,  they  minister  improperly  to  God, 
"  and  commit  perilous  injury  against 
"  his  people.'— Trial.  The  conduct 
thus  adverted  to,  as  leading  to  mar- 
tyrdom, will  be  remembered   as   that 


which  the  reformer  was  steadily  pur- 
suing. Again,  he  powerfully  adds, 
"  Visit  not  pagans  to  convert  them  bj 
"  martyrdom,  but  rather  preach  con- 
"  stantly  the  law  of  Christ,  even  to  the 
"  princely  prelates  ;  and  if  we  perse- 
"  verein  faith  and  patience,  martyrdom 
"  will  come  with  sufficient  speed." — 
Ibid.  Turner.  Hist.  v.  181,  182.  For 
some  further  notices  of  this  work,  see 
the  chapter  on  the  opinions  of  Wyc- 
lifPe,  and  that  on  bis  writings. 

Mr.  Lewis's  volume  contains  no  in- 
formation as  to  the  date,  or  the  general 
contents  of  the  Trialogus.  The  same 
may  be  said  of  the  series  of  treatises 
to  be  noticed  in  this  chapter,  nearly 
twenty  in  number.  Some  judgment 
may  have  been  formed  of  several  of 
these  productions,  from  the  brief  ex- 
tracts which  have  been  printed  from 
them  ;  the  rest  have  been  known  only 
by  their  titles.  Note  to  the  second 
edition. 

■I  MS.  C.  C.C.Cambridge.  Trinity 
College,  Dublin,  class  C.  tab.  3.  No. 12. 
For  the  passages  proving  the  date  of 
this,  and  several  following  works,  see 
Vol.  I.  Chap.  V.  note  8.  This  work. 
On  Obedience  to  Prelates,  is  a  difl'e- 
rent  work  from  that  On  Prelates,  but 
the  date  of  both  is  determined  by  their 
reference  to  the  same  circumstances, 
especially   to   the   jurisdiction  of  the 


THE     LIFE    OF     WYCLIFFE.  183 

"  prelates  slander  poor  priests,  and  other  christian  chap. 

*'  men,  saying  that  they  will  not  obey  their  sove-  L 

'*  reign,  nor  fear  the  curse,  nor  dread,  nor  keep 
*'  the  law,  but  despise  all  things  which  are  against 
**  their  liking;  and  that  they  ought  in  consequence 
"  to  be  destroyed,  lest  they  prove  the  destruction 
**  of  holy  church,  and  of  Christendom."  Tn  his 
attempt  to  refute  this  calumny,  and  to  counteract 
the  malignant  purposes  which  it  was  meant  to 
accomplish,  he  avows  his  readiness,  and  that  of 
his  followers,  to  honour  the  prelates,  and  to  obey 
their  injunctions  so  long  as  their  doctrine  and 
their  life  should  be  found  conformable  to  the  les- 
sons of  scripture.  To  demand  more  than  this,  it 
is  argued,  must  be  to  require  a  degree  of  submis- 
sion, which  neither  the  apostles  nor  the  Lord 
himself  exacted,  though  possessing  the  gifts  of 
inspiration  and  miracles,  and  exhibiting  a  life  of 
unexampled  devotion.  If  the  instruction  of  the 
word  of  God,  and  the  nature  of  the  jurisdiction 
exercised  by  the  prelates,  be  found  opposed  to 
each  other,  reason  and  piety  are  said  to  suggest, 
that  the  authority  of  the  greater  should  be  pre- 
ferred to  that  of  the  less.  Let  bishops  emulate 
the  zeal  of  apostles,  and  the  homage  of  the  priest- 
hood, and  of  the  people,  will  not  be  wanting. 
And  let  the  same  regard  for  the  will  of  the  supreme 
Lord,  as  it  is  contained  in  the  scriptures,  regulate 
their  application  of  spiritual  censures ;  or  be  ob- 
servable in  the  laws  of  any  christian  community ; 
and  true  men  will  be  the  last  to  despise  the  one 

prelates,  as  infringed  by  the  labours       which  followed.     Note  to  the  second 
of  the  reformer's  "  poor  priests,"  and        edition, 
to   the    contentious   and  persecutions 


184  THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLTFFE. 

CHAP,  or  the  other.     But  modern  prelates,  it  is  asserted, 


VIJ 


His  tract  on 
the  Deceits 


are  too  frequently  the  enemies  of  all  piety ;  and 
their  ceaseless  efforts  to  assimilate  the  maxims  of 
the  gospel  to  their  own  worldly  desires,  is  declared 
to  be  the  source  to  which  nearly  every  existing 
corruption  should  be  traced.  The  vigour  with 
which  these  topics  are  discussed,  will  appear  from 
extracts  to  be  inserted  in  the  next  chapter.  It  is 
thus  the  writer  concludes  the  defence  of  him- 
self and  his  disciples  :  '*  Let  worldly  prelates, 
*'  then,  cease  to  slander  poor  priests,  saying, 
"  that  they  will  not  obey  their  sovereigns,  nor 
**  dread  the  curse,  but  despise  the  law ;  for  in 
*'  all  these  three  they  are  clear  before  God  and 
**  man,  if  right,  and  reason,  and  charity  be  well 
**  sought." 

Another  composition,  bearing  upon  the  same 
of'sManTnd  cvlls,  Is  dcscribed  by  its  author  as  shewing  **  how 
Priests.  '*  Satan,  and  his  priests,  and  his  feigned  religious, 
**  study  by  their  cursed  heresies  to  destroy  all 
"  good  living,  and  to  maintain  all  manner  of 
"  sin."^  The  allusions  in  this  tract  to  the  con- 
troversy respecting  the  translating  of  the  scrip- 
tures into  the  vulgar  tongue,  and  to  the  existing 
persecutions,  determine  its  date.  The  writer 
complains  indignantly  of  the  efforts  which  were 
made  to  diminish  the  authority  of  holy  writ,  and 
to  raise  man's  interpretation  of  its  meaning  into 
the  place  that  should  be  peculiar  to  the  volume 
itself.  This  policy  he  defines  as  "  a  feigning  to 
"  be  wiser  than  God.'  He  also  censures  the 
artifices  by  which  the  religious  were  frequently 

■  MS.   C.C.C.  Cambiidjrt.. 


THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLFFFE.  185 

known  to  induce  the  young  to  adopt  the  vows  of  en  \p. 

their  fraternities ;  and   to  the  charge  of  malevo- — 

lence,  as  preferred  by  the  clergy  while  suffering 
under  his  rebuke,  it  is  replied,  that  if  such  re- 
proofs are  inconsistent  with  charity,  the  life  of 
Christ,  of  his  apostles,  and  of  the  prophets  who 
preceded  them,  must  form  a  dangerous  example 
to  the  church.  *'  Almighty  God,"  he  observes, 
"  who  is  full  of  charity,  commandeth  the  prophet 
'*  Isaiah,  to  cry,  and  cease  not,  and  to  shew  to  the 
"  people  their  great  sins.  The  sin  of  the  com- 
"  mons  is  great,  the  sin  of  lords,  of  mighty  men, 
"  and  of  wise  men  is  more ;  but  the  sin  of  pre- 
"  lates  is  most  of  all,  and  mostblindeth  the  people. 
"  True  men  are  bound,  therefore,  by  God's  com- 
*'  mand,  to  cry  most  against  the  sins  of  prelates, 
"  since  it  is  in  itself  the  most,  and  harmeth  most 
**  the  people."  It  was  particularly  objected,  that 
the  censures  adverted  to  were  generally  ut- 
tered in  the  absence  of  the  parties  concerned. 
But  it  is  remarked  of  these  same  parties,  that 
"  Antichrist  maketh  them  so  mighty,  that  in  their 
"  presence  no  man  dare  speak  against  their  open 
"  sins,  unless  he  would  be  dead  anon. "  It 
is  accordingly  suggested,  that  to  limit  freedom 
of  speech  to  such  occasions,  was  to  proscribe 
it  entirely.  The  writer  concludes  by  devoutly 
praying,  that  God  himself  would  divest  the  clerks 
of  Antichrist  of  their  power  to  impede  the  pro- 
gress of  his  truth  ;  and  that  *'  he  would  strengthen 
"  all  manner  of  men  to  maintain  the  truth  of  holy 
"  writ,  and  to  destroy  all  falsehood,  and  openly  to 
"  oppose,  both  in  word  and  deed,  all  hypocrisy, 
"  and   heresy,   and   covetousncss,  in   all  prelates 


186  THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE. 

CHAP.  '<  and  priests:  for  thus  shall  good  life  and  truth, 

—  "  and  peace,  and  charity,  reign  among  christian 

''  men  !  Jesus  Christ !  for  thine  endless  mercy, 
**  grant  us  this  !  Amen." 
ontho.iuty  Connected  with  this  reproof  of  the  temper 
and  maxims  of  the  clergy,  was  a  renewed  appeal 
to  the  secular  authorities,  stating  three  "  skills," 
or  reasons,  which  would  induce  lords  "  to  con- 
"  strain  clerks  to  live  in  meekness,  wilful  poverty, 
"  and  discreet  penance,  and  ghostly  travail."" 
The  first  argument  employed  is  deduced  from 
those  parts  of  scripture  which  were  understood  as 
threatening  magistrates  who  should  neglect  this 
momentous  duty  with  serious  penalties.  The 
second  is  deduced  from  the  happiness  which  must 
be  diffused,  by  extending  the  influence  of  an  en- 
lightened piety.  The  last  is  founded  on  the  poli- 
tical benefits  which  must  result  from  a  correction 
of  religious  abuses.  From  this  spirited  produc- 
tion, some  extracts  will  also  be  given  in  the  chapter 
devoted  to  the  fuller  statement  of  the  reformer's 
opinions. 

In  aid  of  these  appeals  to  the  magistrate, 
Wycliffe  also  published  his  treatise,  intitled,  "  Of 
"  Servants  and  Lords,  how  each  should  keep  his 
"  degree."'^  In  this  work,  the  author  asserts 
the  legitimate  authority  of  the  civil  power ;  and 
largely  quotes  from  the  New  Testament  scrip- 
tures, to  demonstrate  that  the  principles  which 
induce  some  devout  men  to  discard  the  guidance 
of  a  vicious  clergy  in  religion,  are  not  such  as  to 
interfere  with  any  branch  of  their  duty  as  subjects 

0  MS.  C.  C.C.Cambridge. 

7  Ibid.  Sec  for  the  date  oiK\\U  MS.  Vol.  I.  Cliai..  v,  note  8. 


Viints  and 
Lords." 


THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE.  187 

of  the  sovereign.     To  the   evils  of  bad   govern-  chap. 

ment,    the    w^riter  shows    himself   to   be   keenly '- 

sensible;  but  while  reproving  vice  with  the  same 
freedom,  whether  found  in  lords  or  churchmen, 
his  protest  is  entered  against  the  artifice  of  ap- 
plying to  the  magistrate  the  reasonings  which  he 
had  employed  merely  to  invalidate  the  false  pre- 
tensions of  the  priest.  The  manner  in  which  the 
reformer  distinguished  between  the  claims  of  the 
two  authorities,  will  presently  invite  our  attention. 
It  will  be  sufficient  here  to  remark  of  this  pro- 
duction, that  there  is  no  seed  of  anarchy  to  be 
extracted  from  it.  It  is  rather  fraught  with  every 
scriptural  element  of  social  and  religious  obliga- 
tion. 

It  was  at  this  period,  also,  that  Wycliffe  finished  p^Idiin- 
a  work  on  the  subject  "  Of  Good  Preaching  Priests.-' 
"  Priests."'  Its  design  was  to  afford  a  farther 
developement  of  the  principles  embraced  by  the 
reformer's  poor  priests.  Their  first  object  is  said 
to  be,  "  that  the  law  of  God  may  be  steadily 
"  known,  taught,  maintained,  and  magnified ; 
"  secondly,  that  great  and  open  sin,  which  reign- 
"  eth  in  divers  states,  be  destroyed,  and  also  the 
*'  heresy  and  hypocrisy  of  Antichrist  and  of  his 
"followers;  thirdly,  that  very  peace  and  pro- 
**  sperity,  and  burning  charity,  be  increased  in 
*'  Christendom,  and  particularly  in  the  realm  of 
"  England,  for  to  bring  men  readily  to  the  bliss  of 
**  heaven."  In  a  series  of  articles,  the  writer  then 
proceeds  to  demonstrate  the  necessity  of  the  effort 
made   by  these   reformers ;    censures   loudly  the 

8  IMS.     C.  C.  C.    CambiiJge.      See        points  wliich    determine    tbe   dale    of 
also  Vol.  I.  Chap.  v.   note  8,  for  the        tbis  work. 


Oil  Uie  four 
deceits  of 
Antichrist. 


188  TPI£    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE. 

CHAP,  imprisonment  of  men  before  openly  convicted  of 
offence  ;  and  condemning  every  sort  of  secret  pro- 
cess against  an  accused  party,  he  demands  for 
each  man,  as  an  unalienable  right,  the  substance 
of  that  security  from  the  arbitrary  temper  of  the 
magistrate^  and  of  the  prelates,  which  has  since 
become  the  chartered  inheritance,  and  the  real 
possession  of  Englishmen. 

The  opponents  of  Wycliffe  were  fully  aware, 
that  the  proficiency  of  his  disciples  as  preachers, 
was  a  circumstance  from  which  they  derived  the 
principal  share  of  their  influence  ;  and  it  would 
be  deemed  important  that  the  authority  employed 
to  silence  them,  should  be  accompanied  by  some 
shew  of  reasoning.  It  is  accordingly  the  object 
of  one  of  the  reformer's  pieces,  completed  about 
this  time,  to  expose,  "  four  deceits  by  which  An- 
"  tichrist,  and  his  clerks,  would  prevent  true 
"  priests  from  preaching  Christ's  gospel.""  The 
first  objection  to  this  favourite  occupation  of  the 
poor  priests,  is,  that  "  it  maketh  dissension  and 
"  enmity."  But  to  this  it  is  replied,  that  there 
is  a  kind  of  peace  which  the  Author  of  the  gospel 
came  not  to  establish  ;  that  the  only  repose  which 
may  be  innocently  left  unbroken,  is  that  which  is 
founded  on  just  principles,  and  heavenly  affec- 
tions ;  and  that  whatever  hostility  maybe  excited, 
by  the  effort  to  place  the  minds  of  men  in  subjec- 
tion to  such  principles  and  such  affections,  should 
be  encountered  without  fear.  If  the  first  objec- 
tion to  the  zeal  of  the  new  preachers  be  deemed 
weak,  the  second  must  be  considered  as  much 
more  so.    Many,  it  is  affirmed,  will  perish,  though 

^  MS.  C. C.C.Cambridge. 


THE    LTFE    OF    M'YCLIFFE.  189 

they   hear  the  gospel;    and  perish  the  more  iin-  chap. 

happily,  "  because  they  hear  God's  word,  and  do L 

"  not  thereafter."  But  in  reply,  it  is  proved  to 
be  a  doctrine  of  scripture,  that  the  more  the  gos- 
pel is  preached,  the  fewer  men  will  be  lost ;  and 
that  where  men  really  fail  to  embrace  the  faith 
of  Christ,  many  a  partial  renunciation  of  sin,  and 
many  a  real  though  imperfect  virtue,  may  be  the 
result  of  listening  to  its  ministry;  and  such  re- 
sults are  viewed  as  serving  to  diminish  the  suffer- 
ings even  of  the  finally  impenitent.  "  But 
*'  wherever  a  gathering  of  people  is,"  it  is  re- 
marked, *'  there  is  commonly  some  good  men, 
"  and  for  them  principally  men  preach  God's 
*'  word."  Nor  was  this  antinomian  tenet,  as  op- 
posed to  preaching,  considered  merely  with  respect 
to  the  impenitent,  but  also  as  referring  to  the 
elect.  "  Good  men,"  it  was  asserted,  "  shall  be 
"saved,  though  there  be  no  preaching;  for  as 
"  God  saith  it,  they  may  not  perish."  It  is  thus, 
that  this  objection  is  refuted.  "  Here  true  men 
"  say,  that  as  God  hath  ordained  good  men  to 
"  bliss,  so  he  hath  ordained  them  to  come  to  bliss 
"  by  the  preaching,  and  by  the  keeping  of  his 
"  word.  So  that  even  as  they  must  need  come  to 
"  bliss,  they  must  needs  hear  and  keep  God's 
*'  commandments.  And  herein  to  them  serveth 
''  preaching."  Whatever  of  necessity  there  may 
be  in  the  end,  was  thus  extended  to  the  means. 
The  fourth  deceit  employed  to  degrade  the  office 
of  preaching,  is  said  to  be  "  that  men  should 
''  cease  from  preaching,  and  give  themselves  to 
"  holy  prayers  and  contemplation,  for  that  helpeth 
"  christian  men  more,  and  is  better."     But  it  is 


190  THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE. 

CHAP,  immediately  added,   "  True  men  say  boldly,  that 

_  "  true  preaching  is  better  than  praying  by  mouth, 

"  even  though  it  come  from  the  heart,  and  with 
"  pure  devotion.  The  people,  too,  it  edifieth 
"  more.  And  therefore  Christ  especially  com- 
'*  mandeth  his  apostles  and  disciples  to  preach  the 
"  gospel,  and  not  to  close  themselves  in  cloisters 
"  nor  churches,  nor  in  caves  to  pray  thus.  There- 
"  fore,  Paul  saith,  woe  is  me,  if  I  preach  not  the 
"  gospel.  Devout  prayer  of  men  of  good  life,  is 
"  good,  in  certain  times ;  but  it  is  against  charity 
"  for  priests  to  pray  evermore,  and  at  no  time  to 
"  preach;  since  Christ  chargeth  priests  more  to 
"  preach  the  gospel,  than  to  say  mass  and  matins." 
o„,he  It   was   thus   that   the   reformer   continued    to 

ST.ie'a'!  defend  the  practice  of  his  clerical  disciples.  The 
reasoning  with  which  the  above  treatise  concludes, 
was  also  much  extended  in  a  work  which  pro- 
posed to  shew,  ''  how  the  prayer  of  good  men 
"  helpeth  much,  and  prayer  of  sinful  men  dis- 
'*  pleaseth  God,  and  harmeth  themselves,  and 
"  other  men."^"  In  this  piece,  which  breathes 
a  spirit  of  the  purest  devotion,  the  promises  and 
the  examples  of  scripture  are  largely  cited,  to 
demonstrate  the  excellence  and  the  efficacy  of 
prayer.  The  same  book  is  appealed  to,  as  teach- 
ing no  less  decisively  the  vanity  of  the  most 
costly  offerings  that  may  be  presented  by  the 
hypocrite,  the  vicious,  or  the  formalist.  It  is  de- 
plored, as  among  the  most  foreboding  circum- 
stances of  the  times,  that  men  are  so  far  disposed 
to  confide  in  the  prayers  of  such  intercessors  ;  and 
thus  to  yield  to  a  delusion,  which  not  only  tended 

'"  MS.   CC.C.  Caiubiid-e. 


THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE.  191 

to  impoverish  them  in  this  world,  but  to  involve  chap. 
them  in  the  ruin  of  the  next.  __^ 

Indeed,  there  is  scarcely  a  class  of  men,  or  a 
species  of  religious  error,  of  which  the  writings 
of  WyclifTe,  at  this  period,  may  not  be  found  to 
treat,  and  in  a  manner  which  anticipates  almost 
every  fact  in  our  subsequent  improvement  as  a 
nation.  Thus  in  one  of  his  productions,  the 
manner  in  which  he  had  refuted  the  errors  op- 
posed to  the  office  of  preaching,  is  extended  to 
a  series  of  similar  misconceptions  with  respect 
to  religion  in  general.  It  is  remarked,  for  instance, 
that  by  the  phrase  "  holy  church,"  men  commonly 
understand  a  sort  of  clerical  parliament ;  by  the 
term  "  religious,"  they  mean  hordes  of  vagrant 
friars,  or  the  useless  inmates  of  a  cloister  ;  by  the 
expression,  "  the  law  of  the  church,"  they  intend 
the  decrees  of  popes  and  councils,  not  the 
decisions  of  holy  writ;  to  yield  "obedience," 
was  not  to  submit  to  what  the  conscience  had  re- 
cognised as  the  will  of  God,  but  to  bow  to  what 
presumption  had  imposed  upon  the  credulous ; 
and  by  "sin,"  was  generally  meant  some  venial 
offence,  the  guilt  of  which  "  might  be  washed 
"  away  with  a  paternoster,  with  holy  water,  a 
"  pardon,  a  bishop's  blessing,  and  in  many  other 
*'  light  ways."  Another  treatise  commences  with 
the  assertion,  that  nearly  all  the  evils  of  the  land 
arose  from  the  delinquencies  "  of  false  confessors, 
*'  false  merchants,  and  false  men  of  law;"  and  the 
object  of  the  writer  is  to  prove  the  truth  of  this 
assertion.  The  confessors  chiefly  intended  are 
the  mendicants,  for  they  had  nearly  engrossed 
that  function  to  themselves ;  the  merchants,  are 


192  THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE. 

CHAP,  the  conductors  of  our  infant  commerce,  but  who, 

it  would  seem,  had  already  begun  to  diffuse  the 

evils  of  their  traffic  along  with  his  benefits ;  and 
the  lawyers  adverted  to,  are  principally  those  en- 
trusted with  the  power  of  the  spiritual  courts. 
"Of Clerks  But  at  this  period  it  was,  in  a  treatise  called 
ers." '"°""  "  Of  Clerks  Possessioners,""  that  the  reformer 
mainly  attempted  his  exposure  of  the  irreligion, 
which,  in  his  view,  had  resulted  to  so  great  a 
degree,  from  the  opulence,  and  the  secular  juris- 
diction of  the  clergy.  This  work  consists  of  forty 
chapters,  and  from  its  notices  of  the  wrongs  in- 
flicted on  certain  preachers  of  the  gospel,  and 
also  of  some  other  topics  of  controversy,  its  date 
could  not  have  been  earlier  than  1382,  nor  later 
than  the  year  following.  Each  chapter  is  de- 
voted to  an  investigation  of  some  feature  in  the 
general  corruption  of  the  church.  One  leading 
subject  of  complaint  is,  that  the  ample  revenues 
which  are  known  to  be  "  poor  men's  goods," 
rather  than  the  property  of  the  clergy,  should  be 
so  commonly  spent  by  that  order  in  luxurious 
living,  and  in  carelessness  of  the  wants  which 
often  oppressed  the  members  of  their  flock.  It  is 
deplored,  also,  that  while  the  wealth  of  ecclesias- 
tics served  thus  to  ensnare  them  to  modes  of  life 
which  were  unbecoming  their  vocation,  the  nature 
of  their  jurisdiction,  and  of  the  offices  which  they 
were  frequently  induced  to  hold,  should  be  such 
as  of  necessity  to  divert  their  attention,  in  a  still 
greater  degree,  from  spiritual  things.  It  is  more- 
over stated  that  the  affluence,  and  the  secular 
power  of  the  clergy,  had  every  where  become  the 

>'  MS.  C.C.C.Caiiibriilge.     See  Vol.  I.  Chap.  v.  note  8. 


THE    LTFE    OF    WYCLIFFE.  193 

most  potent  engines  of  oppression — crushing  every  chap. 

man   who   dared    attempt   a   separation   between — 

the  doctrines  of  Christianity,  and  the  dreams  of 
superstition.  If  the  christian  priesthood  be  ever 
again  employed  "  in  studying  and  teaching  of 
"  holy  writ,  in  devotion  and  prayer,  in  thinking, 
'*  and  heavenly  sweetness,"  the  preliminary  steps, 
it  is  contended,  must  be  to  diminish  the  force  of 
temptation,  by  a  reduction  of  their  revenue,  and 
by  releasing  them  from  the  bonds  of  secular  em- 
ployment. Neither  Christ,  nor  his  apostles, 
could  be  induced  to  unite  the  office  of  the  secular 
and  the  spiritual  steward;  and  hence,  it  is  argued, 
that  unless  the  churchmen  of  the  age  should 
prove  themselves  to  be  superior  in  capacity  to  the 
Head  of  the  church,  and  to  the  men  who  were 
witnesses  of  his  resurrection,  the  effect  of  the 
existing  order  of  things  must  be  pernicious.  His 
prayer  in  conclusion  is,  that  "  Almighty  God 
*'  would  stir  up  his  priests,  lords,  and  commons, 
"  to  detect  the  hypocrisy,  heresy,  and  treason  of 
"  Antichrist's  worldly  clerks ;  and  to  know,  and 
"  maintain  the  rightful  ordinance  of  God,  and  the 
*'  profit  and  freedom  of  the  gospel." 

But  while  these,  and  similar  compositions, — all  Rise  of  the 
certainly  produced  about  this  period,  bespoke  theagaLtthe 
growing  zeal  with  which  the  rector  of  Lutterworth  po^l"""" 
continued  to  prosecute  the  work  of  reform,  a  test 
was  applied   to  the   popular  feeling  in  England, 
which    discovered    that    his    doctrines,     though 
widely  disseminated,  had  hitherto  acquired  but  a 
limited  ascendancy  over  the  mind  of  his  country- 
men.     The    reader    will    remember   the    schism 
which  at  this  moment  divided  the  papacy.  France 

VOL.   II.  o 


194  THE     LIFE    OF    WYCLTFFE. 

CHAP,  acknowledged  the  authority  of  Clement,  who  had 

L  fixed  his   residence   at   Avignon :    and    England 

was  at  the  head  of  that  portion  of  Christendom, 
which  recognised  the  claims  of  Urban. ^^  These 
pontiffs  had  employed  their  spiritual  weapons 
against  each  other,  and  against  their  respective 
partisans,  with  the  most  boisterous  freedom :  but 
the  last  arrow,  on  either  side,  had  been  spent  in 
vain.  It  was  now  resolved  to  ascertain  the  effect 
of  an  alliance  between  the  elements  of  this  world 
and  the  terrors  of  the  next.  To  produce  a  mili- 
tary crusade  against  the  Avignon  pontiff  and  his 
adherents,  every  kind  of  indulgence  which  had 
been  granted  for  the  purpose  of  propelling  the 
western  nations  toward  the  holy  sepulchre  was 
resorted  to.  As  the  hostilities  thus  devised,  were 
to  be  considered  as  the  effort  of  the  church,  it 
was  the  determination  of  the  pope  to  reserve  the 
principal  command  to  an  ecclesiastic ;  and  this 
doubtful  honour  was  conferred  on  Spencer,  bishop 
of  Norwich,  a  prelate  who  had  already  given  de- 
cisive evidence  of  his  passion  for  military  ad- 
venture. In  1377,'*  an  incident  occurred,  which 
betrayed  his  contempt  of  the  civil  power,  as 
compared  with  that  of  his  own  order;  but  his 
vanity  proved  so  offensive  to  the  populace  of  the 
town  in  which  it  was  thought  convenient  to  dis- 
play it,  that  his  life  became  endangered.  His 
rough  treatment,  in  that  instance,  may  have  in- 
creased his  christian  abhorrence  of  that  class  of 
society,  which  he  had  scornfully  described  as  the 
ribald  multitude ;   for  during  the  insurrection  of 

'-See  chap.   i.      The   story  of  (his        told  by  Froissart.     Vol.  vi.  c.  51— C5. 
enterprize  is  minutely  and  amusingly  "^  pox,  Acts,  &:c. 


THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE.  195 

the  commons  in  1382,  while  the  government  was  chap. 

strangely  inactive,  Spencer  was  at  the  head  of  his L 

vassals,  and  the  tranquillity  of  his  diocese  is  at- 
tributed to  his  vigilance.     His  name,  also,  occurs 
in  the  list  of  the  prelates  who  sat  in  judgment  on 
WyclifFe  at  Oxford ;   and  his  memorable  contro- 
versy with  Epringham,  who  was  a  disciple  of  our 
reformer  and  a  magistrate  of  Norwich,  has  placed 
his  hatred  of  the  Lollards  beyond  dispute.'*     The 
bull   with  which  he  was  entrusted,   vested    him 
with  extraordinary  powers.     The   laity  adhering 
to    the    antipope,    and    all  who    should    in    any 
manner  favour  them,  were  not  only  sentenced  to 
lose  every  worldly  office  and  possession,  but  to  be 
slain  with  the  sword.     With  respect  to  the  clergy 
who  had  become  parties  to  the  schism,  the  bishop 
was  instructed  to  exert  his  whole  power  with  a 
view  to  deprive  them  of  every  cure,  honour,  and 
emolument ;  and  it  was  left  to  his  discretion,  to 
insist   on  the  presence  of    the   most    privileged 
members  of  the  English  hierarchy,  in  the  camp 
of  the  crusaders.      Against  all  who  should  pre- 
sume to  oppose  the  discharge  of  this  commission, 
though  possessing  regal  dignity,  the  prelate  was 
to  launch  the  anathemas  of  the  church  ;  while,  to 
such  as  should  enlist   themselves  in  aid  of  this 
sacred  enterprise,  though  dying  before  the  strug- 
gle  should   commence,    and    to   such   as   should 
contribute  the  smallest  portion  of  their  property 
with  the   same  view,  the  remission  of  all  tres- 
passes was  awarded,  together  with  every  immu- 
nity conceded  to  such  '*  as  go  to  fight  for  the 
holy  land." '^ 

'1  Wals.  Hist,  ubi  supra.  '^  Fox,  i.  582,  583. 

o  2 


196  THE     LIFE     OF     WYCLIFFE. 

CHAP.       To  render  this  measure  as  little  objectionable 

VII.  .  .  . 
as  possible  to  the  English  court  and  parliament, 

it  was  suggested  by  the  pontiff,  that  to  meet  its 
expenses,  a  tenth  should  be  raised  from  the 
revenues  of  the  clergy ;  and  that  every  thing- 
obtained  from  the  laity  should  be  strictly  volun- 
tary, and  bear  the  name  of  alms.  Such,  however, 
was  the  zeal  of  Urban,  that  more  than  thirty  bulls 
were  dispatched  to  England  on  this  subject ;  and 
the  conduct  of  the  English  prelates,  in  rendering 
these  documents  the  ground  of  inflammatory  ap- 
peals from  the  pulpit,  supplied  an  example  which 
the  inferior  clergy  would  not  be  slow  to  imitate.^" 
"  All  who  should  die  at  this  time,"  observes 
Froissart,  "  and  who  had  given  their  money,  were 
"  absolved  from  every  fault,  and  by  the  tenure  of 
*'  the  bull,  happy  were  they  who  could  now  die, 
"  in  order  to  obtain  so  noble  an  absolution."  It 
was  the  arrangement  of  the  pope,  that  France 
and  Spain  should  be  invaded  at  the  same  mo- 
ment ;  the  expedition  against  the  latter  kingdom 
being  entrusted  to  the  duke  of  Lancaster,  in  virtue 
of  his  claim  as  king  of  Castile,  and  perhaps,  with 
the  hope  of  detaching  him  more  completely  from 
the  rank  of  the  reformers.  Froissart  assures  us, 
that  the  sums  raised  by  these  expedients  were 
considered  sufficient  for  both  enterprises ;  but 
while  smiling  at  the  easy  faith  of  the  good  people 
of  England,  he  states  it  as  well  known,  that  the 
nobles  of  this  land  held  the  absolutions  of  the 
church  in  so  little  esteem,  that  with  them,  unless 
offers  of  money  were  made,  all  other  inducements 
would  be  useless.      "  Men  at  arms,"    he    adds. 


THE    LIFE    OF     W'VCLIFFE.  197 

"  cannot  live  on  pardons,  nor  do  they  pay  much  ^^,^^- 

*'  attention  to  them,  except  at  the  point  of  death." 1 

If  Lancaster  was  ever  really  interested  in  the  part 
allotted  to  him,  he  soon  found  himself  obliged  to 
abandon  it.  France  was  the  nearer,  and  the  rival 
kingdom  ;  and  though  to  invade  it  under  the  com- 
mand of  a  churchman  might  occur  as  a  difficulty, 
yet  that  churchman  was  a  man  of  family,  and  the 
representative  of  the  head  of  Christendom .  Before 
leaving  England,  Spencer  and  his  followers  were 
sworn  to  limit  their  hostilities  to  the  adherents 
of  the  antipope,  and  on  the  twenty-third  of  April, 
1383,  they  disembarked  at  Calais.  Some  weeks 
were  there  passed  in  waiting  the  arrival  of  Sir 
William  Beauchamp,  whose  presence,  with  some 
reinforcements,  had  been  promised  by  the  English 
monarch.  But  that  knight  failed  to  make  his  ap- 
pearance :  the  bishop  became  impatient ;  and  it 
was  resolved  to  make  an  excursion  into  Flanders — 
a  country  then  subject  to  the  power  of  France. 
Sir  Hugh  Calverly,  who  appears  to  be  the  only 
man  engaged  in  this  undertaking  without  relin- 
quishing the  guidance  of  common  sense,  objected 
seriously  to  the  proposed  movement — insisting 
that  the  king's  instructions  respecting  Sir  Wil- 
liam Beauchamp  ought  not  to  be  violated;  and 
moreover,  that  the  earl  of  Flanders,  and  his 
subjects,  were  believed  to  be  good  Urbanists. 
To  these  obstacles,  the  bishop  opposed  a  torrent 
of  angry  and  contemptuous  declamation.  The 
experienced  soldier  was  provoked,  and  avowed 
himself  prepared  to  execute  the  instructions  of 
his  superior,  however  perilous,  or  however  much 
he  might  question  their  justice  or  their  policy. 


198  THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE. 

CHAP.  The  town  of  Gravelines  was  first  assailed.      It 

VII 

_  was  inhabited  principally  by  fishermen,  possessed 

but  the  feeblest  means  of  defence,  and  was  farther 
exposed  to  all  the  disadvantages  of  a  surprise. 
The  followers  of  the  bishop  were  scrupulous  in 
executing  his  commands,  and  v/hether  exaspe- 
rated by  the  resistance  which  he  had  encoun- 
tered, or  wishing  to  operate  by  the  agency  of 
terror,  the  innocent  inhabitants  were  slaughtered 
with  an  atrocity  so  unsparing,  that,  according 
to  Walsingham,  not  an  infant  remained  alive. 
The  earl  of  Flanders  sent  his  messengers  to 
complain  of  this  wanton  aggression.  But  the 
devout  priest  replied,  with  an  oath,  that  the  in- 
vaded territory  had  been  conquered  by  the 
French ;  and  that  the  effort  of  the  English  to 
wrest  it  from  the  grasp  of  a  power  with  which 
they  were  at  war,  was  an  act  which  required  no 
explanation.  From  Gravelines,  the  crusaders 
proceeded  to  Dunkirk,  where  a  struggle  ensued, 
in  which  several  hundreds  of  the  English,  and 
nearly  ten  thousand  of  the  Flemings  are  said  to 
have  perished.  The  capture  of  that  town  was 
soon  followed  by  the  possession  of  others,  where 
the  inhabitants  hoped  to  protect  themselves  from 
the  ferocity  of  the  victors  by  the  show  of  sub- 
mission. Spencer,  it  will  be  supposed,  was 
elated  beyond  measure  by  these  triumphs.  So 
much  was  this  the  case,  that  he  boasted  of  his 
readiness  to  measure  his  strength  with  that  of  the 
king  of  France,  and  of  the  duke  of  Burgundy, 
who  had  united  their  forces,  and  were  proceeding 
by  slow  marches  to  strip  him  of  his  spoil.  On 
their  approach,  his  acquisitions  fell  from  his  grasp. 


THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE. 


]99 


renews  his 
contest  witli 
raendi- 


with  a  rapidity  equal  to  that  with  which  they  had  ^yi^^* 

been    secured.       Any   rash   man,    in   the    same 

circumstances,  might  have  made  them ;  and  rash 
men  only,  could  for  a  moment  have  regarded 
them  as  permanent.  His  escape  to  England  was 
among  the  fortunate  incidents  of  his  life  :  but  the 
censure  and  contempt  with  which  he  was  every 
where  assailed  on  his  return,  must  have  been  one 
of  the  severest  trials  that  his  vain  and  irritable 
spirit  could  have  had  to  sustain." 

The  reader  will  remember,  that  the  proceed-  '^jf^f^^. 
ings  against  Wycliffe  before  the  Oxford  convo- « 
cation  in  1382,  derived  much  of  their  severity  cauu 
from  the  hatred  of  the  mendicants.  Stern  as  the 
discussions  had  often  been  betwixt  the  religious 
orders,  and  the  secular  clergy,  their  animosities 
were  for  a  while  suspended,  that  the  parties  re- 
garded as  hostile  to  both  might  be  at  once  over- 
powered. The  ebullition  of  fanaticism  described 
above,  took  place  in  1383,  and  in  giving  it  exist- 
ence, the  officious  zeal  of  the  new  orders  was 
every  where  prominent.  The  reformer  had  no 
sooner  returned  to  Lutterworth,  than  he  published 
an  extended  commentary  on  the  text,  *'  Beware  of 
**  the  leaven  of  the  pharisees,  which  is  hypo- 
"  crisy."'*  The  design  of  this  address  was  to 
identify  the  followers  of  St.  Francis  and  of  St. 
Dominic,  in  the  existing  system,  with  the  pha- 
risees of  Judea  at  the  period  of  the  advent.     Both 

"  Froissart.  Wals.    The  companions  W.  Elmham,  Sir   W.    Farndon,    Sir 

of  Spencer  shared  in  his  disgrace.  Ro-  Thomas  Trivet,  and  Robert  Filzrauf. 

bertdeFoulnier,  a  clergyman,  and  trua-  This  sentence,    however,    which   was 

surer  to  the  bishop  of  Norwich,  was  announced  on  the  6th   of  Marcli,  was 

imprisoned,    and   5000  golden    francs  rescinded  on  the  14th  of  May.  Rynier, 

levied   on   his  goods.     A   similar   pu-  ann.  1384. 

nishment  was    also    awarded  to     Sir  "  MS.  C.C.C.  Cambridge. 


200  THE     LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE. 

CHAP,  parties  are  minutely  described,  and  they  are  said 
'—  to  rival  each  other  in  the  sanctity  of  their  pre- 
tensions, and  in  the  character  and  multitude  of 
their  offences.  But  as  the  vices  of  the  friars 
w^ere  rendered  still  more  dark  by  the  veil  of  their 
extraordinary  pretension  to  piety,  their  hypocrisy 
is  declared  to  be  "  the  most  accursed  and  poison- 
"  ous  of  all."  It  is  affirmed  also,  that  "  if  by 
"  subtlety,  by  hypocrisy,  and  by  help  from  the 
"  laws  of  Antichrist,  they  hinder  curates  and  poor 
"  priests  from  teaching  men  the  law  of  God,  for 
"  fear  lest  their  hypocrisy  be  perceived,  and  their 
"  winning-  and  worldly  fame  be  laid  low, — they 
**  are  accursed  man-slayers,  and  the  cause  of  de- 
•'  struction  to  all  the  souls  that  perish  from  default 
"in  knowing  and  keeping  the  commandments  of 
"  God.  And  if  they  preach  principally  for 
"  worldly  gain  and  vain-glory,  and  so  preach 
"  themselves  to  be  praised  of  men,  and  not 
"  simply  and  plainly  the  gospel  of  Christ,  for  his 
"  glory,  and  the  gaining  of  men's  souls,  they  deal 
*'  unfaithfully  with  the  word  of  God,  as  Paul 
"  saith."'"     He  afterward  adverts  to  the  mendi- 


'^  Tlie  following   portrait  from  the  And  specially,  aboven  every  thing 

Sompnoure's  Tale,    in   Chaucer,  may  Excited  he  the  peple  in  his  preching 

be  worthy  of  a  place  here,   from  its  To  trentalls,  and  to  yeve,  for  Goddes 
strict  agreement  with  Wycliffe's  no-  sake, 

tices  of  the  same  order :  Wherwilh  men   mighten   holy  houses 
"  Lordings  !    there  is  in  Yorkshire,  as  make, 


gesse. 


Ther  as  divine  service  is  honoured, - 


A  mersh  contree  ycalled  Holdernesse,  Not  ther  as  it  is  wasted  and  devoured  ; 

In  which  ther  went  a  limitour  aboute,  ^e  ther  it  nedeth  not  for  to  be  yeven 

To  preche  —  and,  eke,  to  beg,  it  is  no  As  to  possessioners,  that  morven  leveu 

doubte.  (Thanked  be  God)  in  well  and  abund- 
And  so  befell,  that  on  a  day  this  frere,  ^^'^^ 

Had  preched  at  a  chirche  in  Lis  ma-  '  Trentalls,'   said    he,   '  deliveren  fro 

nere.  penance 


THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE. 


201 


cants  as  parties    to  the  existing   schism    in    the  ^,^j^^' 

papacy,    and    to    each    party  as  declaring  their 

opponents  to  be  "  heretics  out  of  belief."  His 
own  assertion  is,  that  "  both  are  indeed  out  of 
"  belief;"  and  that  they  "  are  bringing  all  other 
"  men  out  of  belief."  Nor  is  the  reformer  less 
decisive,  when  referring  to  the  duties  of  the  men 
who  profess  to  deplore  these  and  similar  evils. 
He  complains  of  "  the  cowardice  of  Christ's  dis- 
"  ciples,  if  they  spare  from  fear  of  bodily  pain 
"  or  death,  to  tell  openly  the  truth  of  God's  law. 
"  And  therefore,"  he  observes,  "  telleth  Christ 
"  often  to  his  disciples,  that  they  should  fear  God 
"  above  all,  and  fear  nothing  else.     Truly,  saith 


'  Hir   freiides    soules  as  wel   olde  as 

yonge. 
'  Ye,  whan  that  they  ben  hastily  ysonge , 
'  (Not  for  to  hold  a  preest  jolif  and 

gay; 

'  He  singeth  notbutomasseon  aday;) 
'  Delivereth  out,  quod  he,    anon,  the 

soules. 
'  Ful  hard  it  is,  with  fleshhook,  or  with 

oules, 
'  To  ben  yclawed  ;  or  to  bren,  or  bake, 
'  Now  spede    you  hastily  for  Cristes 

sake.' 
And  whan  this  frere  had  said  all  his 

entent, 
With  '  qui  cum  patre'  forth  his  way  he 

went. 
Whan  folk  in  chirche  had  yeve  him 

what  hem  lest. 
He  went  his  way,  no  lenger  wold  he 

rest. 
With  scrippe,  and  tipped  staf,  ytucked 

hie  : 
In  every  hous  he  gan  to  pore  and  prie. 
And  begged  mele  and  chese,  or  elles 

corn, 
His  felaw  had  a  staf  tipped  with  horn, 
A  pair  of  tables  all  of  ivory. 
And  a  pointel  y polished  fetisly, — 


And  wrote  alway  the  names,    as   he 

stood, 
Of  alle  folk  that  yave  hem  any  good, 
AskauDce  that  he  wolde  for  hem  preye, 
'  Yeve  us  a  bushel  whete,  or  malt,  or 

reye, 
'  A  Goddes  kichel,  or  a  trippe  of  chese  ; 
'  Or  elles  what  you  list,  we  may  not 

chese 
'  A  Goddes  halfpeny,  or  a  masse  peny, 
'  Or  yeve  us  of  your  braun,  if  he  have 

any, 
'  A  dagon  of  your  blanket,  leve  dame  I 
'  Our  su.stre  dere  I    (lo,  here  I  write 

your  name,) 
'  Bacon   or   beef,  or  swiche  thing  as 

ye  find.' 
A  sturdy  harlot  went  hem,  ay,  behind. 
That  was  her  hostes  man,  and  bare  a 

sakke, 
And  what  men  gave  hem  laid  it  on  his 

bakke, 
And,  whan  that  he  was  out  at  dore, — 

anon 
He  planed  away  the  names  everich  on. 
That  he  before  had  written  in  his  tables. 
He  served  him  with  nifles   and  with 

fables." 


202  THE    LIFE     OF    WYCLIFFE. 

CHAP.  "  Christ,   '  T  will  forewarn  you  whom  you  shall 

1_  "  fear,  fear  not  those  who  can  destroy  the  body, 

*'  and  no  more,  but  fear  him  who  can  destroy 
*'  both  body  and  soul  in  hell,  yea  I  say,  fear  ye 
**  him.'  Here  Christ  would  that  men  should  fear 
"  nothing,  chiefly,  but  God,  and  the  offending  of 
"  him.  For  if  men  fear  bodily  pain  and  death, 
'*  and  therefore  cease  to  tell  openly  the  truth, 
'*  they  are  with  this  unable  to  regain  the  bliss  of 
"  heaven.  But  if  they  say  openly  and  steadily 
"  the  truth  of  God,  nothing  may  harm  them,  so 
"  they  keep  patience  and  charity."  It  was  to 
comfort  his  disciples  in  suffering,  and  especially 
in  the  season  of  persecution,  that  the  Saviour  re- 
minded them  of  the  Father's  care  as  extending 
to  the  falling  sparrow,  and  to  the  hairs  of  their 
head  ;  '*  for  thus  should  they  learn  to  believe  that 
"  nothing  comes  without  his  knowledge  and  his 
"  ordaining,  and  that  it  is  all  for  the  best."  He  is 
also  said  to  "  make  his  servants  ready  to  die  for 
"  his  law  by  hope  of  reward,  when  he  saith  thus, 
**  '  each  who  shall  acknowledge  me  before  men, 
**  shall  the  Son  of  man  acknowledge  before  the 
'*  angels.' " 

The  date  of  this  production  is  certain,  from 
its  allusion  to  the  papal  schism,  and  to  the  con- 
troversy respecting  the  eucharist.^^"  A  few  months 
only  had  elapsed  from  the  time  of  its  publication, 
when  the  instructions  of  Urban,  with  a  view  to 
destroy  the  power  of  his  rival,  called  the  mendi- 
cant orders  into  new  activity  and  importance. 
It  was  their  labour  and  artifice,  which  did  most 

'"  This  is  the  tract  on  which  the  no-        adverted   to,   appears.        See  Vol.    i. 
tice    by    archbishop     Usher,    already        304,  305. 


THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE. 


203 


toward  involving  the  states  of  Christendom,  in  all  ^^j^^- 

the  calamities  of  a  religious  war.     Their  ardour  — 

to  crowd  the  ranks  of  the  crusaders,  roused  the  iutiued  ob. 
indignation  of  the  rector  of  Lutterworth,  and  Freres.'  ° 
during  Spencer's  adventure  in  Flanders,  pro'duced 
his  treatise  intitled,  **  Objections  to  Freres,"  a 
w^ork  in  which  he  has  concentrated  his  objections 
to  the  character  and  opinions  of  that  class  of 
men.'*' 

It  was  near  the  same  time   that  the  reformer  o..  the  se... 

,       ,   .  .  .  11       -1  mi         tenceofthe 

composed  his  important  treatise  called  "IhecurseEx. 
"  Sentence  of  the  Curse  Expounded.""  The  ^'""'^'"^' 
war  in  Flanders,  waged  "  for  the  love  of  two  false 
"  priests,  who  are  open  antichrists,"  is  noticed  in 
the  sixteenth  chapter  as  still  in  progress.  The 
date  of  the  work  is  thus  determined.  It  is 
divided  into  twenty-nine  chapters,  and  extends 
to  a  hundred  quarto  pages.  As  its  title  imports, 
its  design  is  to  expound  the  doctrine  of  spiritual 
censures."  Each  chapter  contemplates  some  well 
known  application  of  this  power ;  and  while  the 
authority  itself  is  in  some  instances  questioned, 
in  others  it  is  viewed  as  improperly  exercised, 
and  in  others  the  men  inflicting  the  supposed 
penalties  are  shewn  to  be  themselves,  and  accord- 
ing to  their  own  maxims,  far  greater  off'enders 
than  the  parties  accursed.    Thus  the  denunciation 

2'  See  Vol.  I.  265— 272.  "  of  lioly  chirche,  or   thereto    assent 

22  MS.  C.C.C.  Cambridge,  "  with  deed  or  connse^'le.     And  also 

2^  The  censures  principally  noticed  "  all  those  that  pryve  holy  chirche  of 

in    this   exposition,   are    those   which  "  any  ryght,  or  make  of  holy  chirche 

were  pronounced    in    the    service    of  "  any  laye  fee  that  is  allowed  or  sanc- 

every  church  foar  times  a  year.     The  "  tified,"  &c.  &c.     Festival,  fol.  200. 

form  thus  began  ;—"  I  denounce,  and  Having  in  this  manner  protected  the 

"  showe  for  accursed,    all  those   that  ecclesiastical  state,  the  form  proceeds 

"  fraunchyse  of  holy  chirche,   bryke,  to  other  matters. 
"  or  dystrouble,  or  are  agen  the  state 


204  THE   liff:   of   wycliffe. 

CHAP,  uttered  four  times  a  year  against  heretics,  is  con- 

'—  sidered  as  more  justly  incurred  by  the  reigning 

clergy,  than  by  any  portion  of  the  laity,  if  by 
heresy  be  meant,  *'  according  to  St.  Austin,  the 
"  maintenance  of  error  against  holy  writ ;  "  and  the 
anathemas  pronounced  on  secular  men  who  in- 
vade the  property  of  the  priesthood,  are  shewn  to 
be  much  more  applicable  to  churchmen  them- 
selves, who  have  long  conspired  to  estrange  the 
larger  part  of  such  possessions  from  their  original 
design.  In  this  manner,  the  whole  machinery  of 
spiritual  domination  is  scrutinized.  In  its  details, 
as  well  as  in  its  more  general  features,  it  is  ex- 
hibited as  arising  from  presumption  and  impiety  ; 
as  tending  to  perpetuate  the  present  character  of 
the  clergy,  and  to  enslave  and  debase  every 
passion  and  faculty  in  the  soul  of  their  victims. 
The  solemn  and  often  repeated  counsel  of  the 
writer  is,  that  men  should  study  the  will  of  God, 
and  allow  their  apprehensions  of  good  or  evil  to 
be  affected  by  human  authority,  only  as  the  exer- 
cise of  that  authority  should  be  known  to  accord 
with  the  scriptures.  The  work,  indeed,  is  replete 
with  almost  every  sentiment  distinguishing  the 
religion  of  the  Bible  from  that  of  the  papal  power. 
Of  Prelates,  A  fcw  mouths  ouly  could  have  elapsed  since 
Priesthood,  publishing  the  above  treatise,  when  the  reformer 
composed  his  work  "  On  Prelates,"  and  nearly 
contemporary  with  this  was  the  publication  of  his 
work,  intitled,  "  How  the  Office  of  Curates  is 
"  ordained  of  God,"  and  of  another  described  as 
"  For  the  Order  of  Priesthood."^*     The  first  of 

21  MS.  C.  C.  C.   Cambridfre.      See        of  the  first   of  these  works  is  deter- 
Vol.I.  Chap.  V.    Note  8.       The    date        rained    hy   the    particulars    stated    iu 


THE     LIFE     OF     WVCLTFFE.  205 

these  publications   consists  of   forty-three  chap- chap. 

ters  ;   the  last,   which  is  the  shortest,  extends  to — 

twenty-nine.  The  intention  of  the  writer  is  to 
state,  on  the  authority  of  scripture,  the  duties  of 
the  clergy  sustaining  the  several  ecclesiastical 
offices  ;  to  expose  the  frequent  vices  and  defi- 
ciencies of  the  men  on  whom  these  solemn  re- 
sponsibilities devolved  ;  and  to  point  out  the  evils 
resulting  from  the  degeneracy  of  churchmen,  with 
respect  both  to  the  present  and  the  future,  to  the 
people  and  themselves.  In  the  next  chapter  some 
extracts  will  be  given  from  each  of  these  pieces, 
demonstrating  the  zeal  with  which  Wycliffe  con- 
tinued to  advocate  the  cause  of  enlightened  piety, 
and  of  social  improvement. 

Another  production  which  appeared  during  this  ontheia. 
active  period  of  the  reformer's  life,   is  worthy  of  tiXist  an"d 
notice,  as  elicited  by  the  controversy  which  arose,  to  destroy" 
respecting  the  translating  of  the  scriptures  into&c?&7"' 
the  mother  tongue,  and  as  expressing  the  judg- 
ment   of   Wycliffe    concerning   the    tUithority  of 
tradition,  and  the  infallibility  of  the  church.^    He 
commences    by    stating   that    "  our    Lord  Jesus 
"  Christ  ordained  that  his  gospel  should  be  fully 
"  known,    and   maintained   against   heretics,  and 
"  men  out  of  belief,   by  the  writings  of  the  four 
*'  Evangelists ;  and  that  accordingly  the  devil  stu- 
"  dieth  by  Antichrist,  and  his  false  worldly  clerks, 

the   note  referred  to.     The   work    on  sive  of  its  date,  as  subsequent  to  the 

Curates  could  not  have  appeared  un-  persecutions   which  began  soon    after 

til    about    1380,    as    it    notices     the  the  insurrection  of  the  commons.   Note 

arguments    emplo^'ed    to   prevent  se-  to  the  second  edition, 

cular    men    from    "  meddleing     tliem  "  MS.  C.  C.C.  Cambridge.    "How 

"  with    the    gospel,    to  read  it  in  the  "  antichrist    and    his     clerics    travail 

"  niotlier  tongue."  c.  \xvi.      The  con-  "  to    destroy    holy    writ,"    &c.    &c. 

tents  of   (!ie   third    are    equally  deci-  iS:c. 


206  THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE. 

CHAP. ''  to  destroy  holy  writ,  and  the  belief  of  christian 

1_  "  men,  by  four  accursed  methods,  or  false  reason- 

"  ings.     1st.  That  the  church  is  of  more  autho- 
**  rity  and  credence  than  any  gospel ;    2nd.  That 
"  Augustine  saith,  he  would  not  believe  in  the 
"  gospel  if  the  church  had   not  taught  him  so ; 
"  3rd.  That  no  man  now  alive  knoweth  which  is 
"  the  gospel,  except  it  be  by  an  approval  of  the 
"  church;  4th.  And  hence,  if  men  say  that  they 
"  believe  this  to  be  the  gospel  of  Matthew,  or 
'*  John,  they  do  so  for  no  cause  but  that  the  church 
**  confirmeth  it,  and  teacheth  it."     In  support  of 
the  first  assertion,  it  was  usual  to  remark,  that 
the  supreme  authority  of  the  church   is  evident 
from  the  fact,  that  in  the  early  ages  it  devolved 
upon  its  members  to  distinguish  between  the  true 
and  the  spurious  gospels.    But  to  this  it  is  replied, 
that  "  these  far-sighted  heretics  understand  by  the 
"  church,   the  pope  of  Rome,  and  his  cardinals, 
"  and  the  multitude  of  worldly  priests,  assenting 
**  to  his  simony  and  lordship  as  above  that  of  all 
"  the  kings  and  emperors  of  this  world.     It  were 
"  not  to  their  purpose  else  thus  to  magnify  the 
"  church."     It  is  contended,  however,  that  eccle- 
siastics alone  do  not  constitute  the  church  ;  and 
if  they  did,  the  pastors  of  primitive  times  are  de- 
scribed as  men  of  holy  life,  and  moved  by  the 
Holy  Ghost,  whereas  the  clergy  of  later  ages  have 
too  often  betrayed  their  contempt  of  every  thing  de- 
serving the  name  of  sanctity.     Still  they  claim  the 
homage  due  to  infallible  guides.    But  it  is  argued, 
that  to  concede  their  pretensions,  must  be  to  share 
in  the   guilt   of  their  presumption  and  impiety. 
The  term  church,  as  used  by  Augustine,  is  inter- 


THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE.  207 

preted  as  referring  merely  "  to  Christ,  the  head  of  chap. 

"  holy  church,  to  the  saints  in  heaven,  and  to  the 

"  apostles."  The  men  who  assert  that  the  most 
illustrious  of  the  fathers  "  would  not  have  be- 
*'  lieved  the  gospel  of  Jesus  Christ,  unless  the 
^'  accursed  multitude  of  worldly  clerks  had  ap- 
"  proved  it,"  are  described  as  adhering  to  this 
artifice  for  the  purpose  of  colouring  their  own 
"  false  understanding  and  heresy,  by  the  name 
''  of  that  holy  doctor.  For  by  this  means,  the 
"  clerks  of  Antichrist  condemn  the  faith  of  chris- 
"  tian  men,  and  the  commandments  of  God,  and 
"  the  doctrines  of  charity,  and  bring  in  their  own 
'*  wayward  laws — therefore  christian  men  should 
"  stand  to  the  death  for  the  maintenance  of  Christ's 
*'  gospel,  and  for  the  true  understanding  thereof, 
*'  obtained  by  holy  life  and  great  study !" 

The  four  assertions  above  stated,  are  said  to  be 
the  four  wheels  which  chiefly  accelerate  the  car 
of  Antichrist  through  the  world.  In  meeting  the 
two  remaining  objections,  the  writer  affirms,  in 
powerful  language,  that  the  most  obscure  student 
of  the  Bible  may  find  in  that  book  a  more  certain 
guide  to  truth,  than  in  the  pontiff's,  or  in  the  wisest 
of  their  councils.  "  Christian  men,"  he  observes, 
*'  are  certain  of  the  reality  of  their  faith  by  the 
"  gracious  gift  of  Jesus  Christ;  and  that  the 
"  truth  in  the  gospel  was  taught  by  Christ  and  his 
"  apostles,  though  all  the  clerks  of  Antichrist  say 
"  the  contrary  never  so  fast,  and  on  pain  of  their 
*'  curse,  and  imprisonment,  and  burning.  And 
"  this  faith  is  not  grounded  on  the  pope  and  his 
"  cardinals,  for  then  it  must  fail,  and  be  undone, 
'*  as  they  fail  and  are  sometimes  destroyed  ;  but 


208 


THE    LIFE    OF     WYCLTFFE. 


it  rests  on  Jesus  Christ,  God  and  man,  and  on 
the  Holy  Trinity,  and  so  it  may  never  fail, 
except  from  his  default,  who  while  he  should 
love  and  serve  God,  faileth  in  these  things. 
Almighty  God,  and  his  truth,  are  the  foundation 
of  the  faith  of  christian  men ;  and  as  St.  Paul 
saith,  *  other  foundation  may  no  man  set  beside 
that  which  is  set,  that  is,  Jesus  Christ.'  There- 
fore, though  Antichrist  and  all  his  clerks  were 
buried  deep  in  hell,  for  their  simony  and  pride, 
and  other  sins,  yet  the  faith  of  the  christian 
faileth  not,  because  these  are  not  the  ground 
thereof,  but  Jesus  Christ.  He  is  our  God,  and 
our  best  Master ;  and  ever  ready  to  teach  true 
men  all  things  which  are  profitable,  and  needful 
to  their  souls.  But  they  would  have,  that 
whatever  these  prelates  teach  openly  and  main- 
tain stedfastly,  were  of  as  great  authority,  and 
even  more  than  is  the  gospel  of  Christ.  And 
thus  they  would  destroy  holy  writ,  and  christian 
faith,  and  at  length  maintain  that  whatever  they 
do  is  no  sin.  But  christian  men  receive  their 
faith  of  God,  as  his  gracious  gift.  He  giveth 
them  the  knowing,  and  the  understanding  of 
truths,  needful  to  save  their  souls ;  giving  them 
grace  to  assent  in  their  heart  to  those  truths. 
And  if  Antichrist  say  that  each  man  may 
pretend  that  he  has  a  right  faith,  and  a  good 
understanding  of  holy  writ  when  he  is  in  error ; 
we  answer,  let  a  man  seek  in  all  things  truly 
the  honour  of  God,  and  live  justly  to  God  and 
man ;  and  to  him,  God  will  not  fail  in  any 
thing  that  is  needful,  neither  in  faith  nor  under- 
standing,  nor  in  answer  against  his  enemies." 


THE     LIFE    OF    WYCLFFFE.  209 

He  concludes  by  praying   "that  God  Almighty  chap. 

"would  strengthen   his   little  flock  against  Anti-  '— 

"  Christ,  that  they  may  seek  truly  the  honour  of 
"  Jesus  Christ,  and  the  salvation  of  the  souls  of 
"  men  ;  that  they  may  despise  Antichrist's  boast- 
"  ing  and  pretended  power,  and  willingly,  and 
"  even  joyfully  suffer  pain  and  reproach  in  the 
**  world  for  the  name  of  Jesus  Christ  and  his 
"  gospel ;  affording  a  steady  example  to  others  to 
"  follow  them,  so  as  to  conquer  the  high  bliss  of 
"  heaven  by  glorious  martyrdom,  as  other  saints 
"  before  them  have  done.  Jesu !  for  thy  endless 
"  might,  endless  wisdom,  endless  goodness,  and 
"  charity,  grant  to  us  sinful  wretches  this  love  of 
"  thee.     Amen.^' 

There  is  yet  one  composition  belonging  to  this  Treatise  o>, 
period,  which  must  obtain  a  passing  notice.  It  aeiuiysins. 
is  on  "  the  seven  deadly  sins,"  in  treating  of 
which,  the  reformer  adverts  to  the  crusade  against 
the  antipope,  and  delivers  some  novel  sentiments 
on  the  practice  of  war.  The  treatise  consists  of 
about  eighty  quarto  pages,  and,  as  its  title  will 
indicate,  it  touches  on  a  variety  of  topics. ■''°  By 
dividing  the  members  of  the  visible  church  into 
three  classes,  the  writer  is  enabled  to  shew  how 
the  same  forbidden  passions  were  operating- 
through  the  different  portions  of  society;  but 
the  chief  peculiarity  of  the  work,  is  its  announce- 
ment of  those  humane  doctrines  with  respect  to 
war,  which  have  been  advocated  with  no  mean 
ability,  in  more  recent  times,  by  the  disciples  of 
Penn,    and  Barclay.      The  doctrine  of   the  con- 

^iJ  MS.  Bi'ol.  Bodl.    The  same  topics        logus,   and   are   treated    in    tlie   same 
occur   in  the  third  book   of  his  Tria-        manner. 


210  THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLTFFE. 

CHAP,  temporary  clergy  is  said  to  be,  ''  that  it  is  lawful 

*'  to  annoy  an  enemy  in  whatever  way  you  can." 

But  it  is  remarked,  that  "  the  charity  of  Christ 
"  biddeth  the  contrary."  Nevertheless,  "  to  keep 
"  men  fighting,  though  humanity  teaches  that  men 
"  should  not  fight,  Antichrist  argues,  that  as  an 
"  adder  by  his  nature  stings  a  man  who  treads  on 
"  him,  why  should  not  we  fight  against  our 
"  enemies,  especially  as  they  would  else  destroy 
"  us,  and  ruin  their  own  souls  ?  It  is  for  love, 
"  therefore,  that  we  chastise  them.  But  what  man 
"  that  hath  wit,  cannot  see  this  fallacy  ?" 

With  respect  to  all  offensive  wars,  he  thus 
writes.  "  As  to  the  title  of  conquest,  we  should 
'*  understand  that  if  God  enjoin  conquest,  it  may 
"  then  be  lawful,  as  in  the  case  of  the  children 
"  of  Israel.  When  a  kingdom  by  sin  has  for- 
"  feited,  against  its  chief  Lord  Christ,  in  punish- 
"  ment  of  such  trespass,  he  may  give  it  to  another 
"  people.  But  men  should  not  dream  that  a 
"  people  have  so  sinned,  and  that  God  will  thus 
"  punish  them,  except  God  tell  it  them."  If  to 
this  it  be  objected,  that  the  pope  approves  cru- 
sades, it  is  urged  in  reply,  that  as  St.  Peter  could 
err,  his  successor  may  perhaps  be  found  to  inherit 
his  infirmity  in  that  respect  along  with  his  power. 
It  is  admitted  that  under  the  law  devout  men 
were  soldiers,  but  it  is  remarked  that  they  fought 
with  God's  enemies,  to  avenge  God's  injuries,  and 
for  no  other  cause  ;  and  whatever  hostility  is  com- 
menced without  a  special  commission  from  above, 
is  declared  to  be  no  less  criminal  under  the  present 
dispensation,  than  it  would  have  been  under  the 
Jewish  theocracy.     An  attention    to  this  simple 


T  H  E     L 1  F  E     O  F     W'  Y  C  L I  F  F  E .  211 

fact  is  noticed,  as  including  every  thing  necessary  chap, 

to  realize  the  vision  of  the  prophet,  v^^hen   men  1- 

shall  break  their  swords  into  ploughshares,  and 
spears  into  pruninghooks,  and  nations  shall  learn 
war  no  more. 

The  means  of  self-defence,  however,  are  not 
considered  as  relinquished,  even  by  the  man  who 
deems  an  appeal  to  mortal  conflict,  to  be  in  every 
case  unlawful.  It  is  observed,  "  that  angels  with- 
"  stood  fiends,  and  many  men  with  right  of  law 
"  withstand  their  enemies,  and  yet  they  kill 
"  them  not,  neither  fight  with  them.  The  wise 
"  men  of  the  world  hold  this  for  wisdom,  and 
"  have  thus  vanquished  their  enemies  without 
"  striking  them ;  and  men  of  the  gospel,  by 
"  patience,  and  the  prospect  of  rest  and  peace, 
"  have  vanquished  through  the  suffering  of  death, 
**  just  as  we  may  do  now.  But  here  men  of  the 
**  world  come  and  say,  that  by  this  wise,  king- 
"  doms  would  be  destroyed  ;  but  here  our  faith 
"  teaches,  that  since  Christ  is  our  God,  kingdoms 
"  should  be  thus  established,  and  their  enemies 
'*  overcome.  But  perad venture  some  men  w^ould 
*'  lose  their  worldly  riches— and  what  harm  were 
'*  thereof?  Well,  indeed,  I  know,  that  men  will 
"  scorn  this  doctrine.  But  men  who  would  be 
"  martyrs  for  the  law  of  God,  will  hold  thereby. 
"  Lord,  what  honour  falls  to  a  knight  that  he  kills 
**  many  men ;  the  hangman  killeth  many  more, 
*'  and  with  a  better  title.  Better  were  it  for  men 
"  to  be  butchers  of  beasts,  than  butchers  of  their 
"  brethren  1"*'^  As  according  to  "  common  law, 
"  no  man  will  make  battle,  except  he  have  leave 

"  MS.  Horn.  Bib.  Re^.  18.  b.  ix.  109. 
P   2 


212  THE     LIFE    OF     WVCEIFFE. 

^^,^P-  "  from  the  prince  of  the  people,  so,"  it  is  observed, 

"  no  man  should  take  vengeance,  unless  God  move 

"  him,  and  warn  him  as  his  instrument,  saying, 
"  how  he  will  have  vengeance."  Even  knights, 
though  "  approved  of  God  to  defend  his  church 
"  by  strength,"  are  regarded  as  under  the  inhibi- 
tion "  to  kill  no  man." 

While  such  were  the  reformer's  sentiments 
on  war  in  general,  the  reader  will  expect  his  loud 
condemnation  of  the  martial  enterprise  entrusted 
to  the  bishop  of  Norwich.  It  is  thus  he  refers 
to  it.  "  Christ  is  a  good  shepherd,  for  he  puts 
"  his  own  life  for  the  saving  of  the  sheep.  But 
"  Antichrist  is  a  wolf  of  ravening,  for  he  ever 
"  does  the  reverse,  putting  many  thousand  lives 
"  for  his  own  wretched  life.  By  forsaking  things 
"  which  Christ  has  bid  his  priests  forsake,  he 
"  might  end  all  this  strife.  Why  is  not  he  a 
"  fiend,  stained  foul  with  homicide,  who  though 
"a  priest,  fights  in  such  a  cause?  If  man- 
"  slaying  in  others  be  odious  to  God,  much  more 
"  in  priests,  who  should  be  the  vicars  of  Christ. 
"  And  I  am  certain,  that  neither  the  pope,  nor 
"  all  the  men  of  his  council,  can  produce  a  spark 
"  of  reason  to  prove  that  he  should  do  this. '■^''  To 
his  flock  at  Lutterworth,  he  farther  observes, 
"  Friars  now  say  that  bishops  can  fight  best  of  all 
"  men,  and  that  it  falleth  most  properly  to  them, 
"  since  they  are  lords  of  all  this  world.  Thus, 
"  they  say,  Maccabeus  fought,  and  Christ  bade 
"  his  disciples  sell  their  coats,  and  buy  them 
"  swords,  but  whereto,  if  not  to  fight  ?  Thus  friars 
"  make  a  great  array,  and  stir  up  many  men  to 

-^  MS.  CocUl.  Ric.  Jaincsii,  Bibl.  Bodl. 


THE     LIFK    01'     MYCLIFFE.  213 

"  fight.    But  Christ  taught  not  his  apostles  to  fight  chap. 

"  with  a  sword  of  iron,  but  with  the  sword   of— L 

"  God's  word,  which  standeth  in  meekness  of 
"  heart,  and  in  the  prudence  of  map's  tongue. 
"  And  as  Christ  was  the  meekest  of  men,  so  he 
"  was  most  drawn  from  the  world,  and  would  not 
"  judge  or  divide  a  heritage  among  men,  and  yet 
"  he  could  have  done  that  best."  Such  facts 
are  said  to  deserve  the  attention  "  of  these  two 
*'  popes,  when  they  fight  one  with  the  other, 
"  with  the  most  blasphemous  leasings  that  ever 
"  sprang  out  of  hell.  But  they  were  occupied 
"  many  years  before  in  blasphemy,  and  in  sinning 
"  against  God  and  his  church.  And  this  made 
"  them  to  sin  more,  as  an  ambling  blind  horse, 
"  when  he  beginneth  to  stumble,  lasteth  in  his 
"  stumbling,  until  he  casts  himself  down."*" 

It  thus  appears  that  it  was  not  merely  the  act 
of  invasion,  but  the  slaughter  of  men  under  any 
circumstances,  which  the  reformer  considered  as 
opposed  to  the  spirit  and  the  letter  of  Chris- 
tianity. It  is  also  evident,  that  he  was  aware  of 
the  opposition  and  contempt  which  the  advocates 
of  such  opinions  must  encounter,  so  long  as  the 
state  of  the  world  should  continue  to  be  at  all 
such  as  it  had  hitherto  been.  But  the  New 
Testament  was  before  him,  and  that  volume  was 
understood  as  requiring  that  each  professor  of 
the  gospel  should  adhere  to  such  modes  of  re- 
sistance only  as  are  there  prescribed,  or  as  occur 
in  the  recorded  example  of  Christ,  and  of  his 
apostles.  Such,  it  was  urged,  is  the  pattern,  and 
such  are  the  commands  of  the  Redeemer.     His 

-'  MS.  Codd.  Rie.  Jamesii,  Bibl.  Bodl. 


214  THE     LIFE    OF    WVCLIFFE. 

CHAP,  injunctions  in  tliis  particular  were  considered,  more- 
over,  as  clearly  expressive  of  his  benevolence  ;  in- 
asmuch as  the  evils  to  be  anticipated  from  adhering 
to  them,  were  believed  to  be  trivial,  when  compared 
with  those  which  had  so  commonly  attended  the 
schemes  of  conquest,  vain-glory,  and  revenge. 
The  malignant  influence  of  the  laws  of  retaliation 
had  been  long  since  ascertained,  and  the  experi- 
ment of  the  effect  to  be  produced  by  the  pacific 
temper  which  the  gospel  enjoins,  was  said  to  have 
been  successfully  made  in  the  early  and  better 
ages  of  the  church.  Men  were  therefore  exhorted 
to  renounce  those  brute  methods  of  adjusting  dis- 
putes, which  had  not  only  incurred  the  severest 
of  their  present  privations,  and  inflicted  the  deep- 
est of  their  present  woes,  but  which  had  so  often 
proved  the  grave  of  every  virtue,  and  the  parent 
of  every  crime.  The  disastrous  influence  of  war 
on  civilization,  on  literature,  and  liberty,  the  re- 
former could  deplore  ;  but  its  demoralizing  effects, 
and  the  desolation  which  it  must  forebode  with 
respect  to  eternity,  filled  his  mind  with  amaze- 
ment and  dismay. 
from'w  '^^^  passage  last  cited  from  the  pen  of  the  re- 
ciiffe's  later  formcr,  is  from  one  in  a  series  of  sermons,  deli- 
vered  to  the  parishioners  of  Lutterworth  subsequent 
to  the  opening  of  1382.  There  is  much  in  those 
compositions,  serving  to  disclose  the  feeling  and 
purpose  of  the  preacher,  at  this  important  period 
of  his  history  ;  and  as  these  productions  have  been 
hitherto  unknown  to  the  public,  a  few  characte- 
ristic extracts  will  not  perhaps  be  unacceptable 
to  the  reader.  While  so  determined  a  foe  to  the 
practice  of  war,  the  conflict  in  aid  of  truth  and 


THE     LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE.  215 

piety  is  one  in  which  he  would  have  all  the  capa-  chap. 

bilities  of  men  employed,  and  of  this  he  frequently • 

speaks  in  such  language  as  the  following.  "  The 
"  captain  of  our  battle  is  Christ,  both  God  and 
"  man ;  who  hath  the  lordship  of  all  this  world, 
**  being  the  Lord  of  lords.  What  good  knight 
*'  then  should  dread  him  to  fight  in  the  armies  of 
**  this  Lord?  From  the  words  of  Paul  it  follow- 
"  eth,  that  he  is  of  more  power  than  all  the  fiends 
"  that  are  in  hell,  or  aught  that  may  oppose  him. 
"  And  since  he  overcame  the  fiend  who  is  the 
"  head  of  the  contrary  battle,  he  hath  virtue  by 
"  his  manhood  to  overcome  all  the  enemies  of  his 
"■  spiritual  knights.  In  this,  the  knights  of 
*'  Christ's  battle  should  be  comforted,  so  as  to 
"  fight  in  his  cause,  and  therefore  Paul  biddeth 
"  us  take  our  arms  in  God's  name."^"  Advert- 
ing to  the  promise  of  the  Saviour,  which  affirms 
*'  that  his  servant  shall  be  there,  both  in  bliss  and 
*'  place,  where  he  is,  without  end,"  it  is  observed 
that  men  should  accordingly  be  prepared  "  to  fol- 
**  low  Christ,  although  it  be  hard."  The  sub- 
stance of  his  doctrine  on  this  important  branch 
of  christian  duty,  is  thus  stated.  "  Certainly 
"  man  should  more  love  his  soul  than  his  body : 
"  and  always  should  he  most  love  God,  and  his 
*'  law :  and  whoever  so  loveth  these,  is  ready  to 
"  sufi"er  the  death  of  his  body,  for  the  love  of  his 
''  God."^' 

The  lecture  following  that  from  which  the  last 
extract  is  taken,  is  said  to  teach  **  as  the  former 
*'  doth,  how  a  man  should  ordain  himself  to  suffer 
"  martyrdom."      It  relates   chiefly   to   the  text, 

3»  MS.  Codd.  Ric.  Jaraesii,  Bibl.  Bodl.  109.  3'  Ibid.  130. 


216  THE     LIFE    OF     WVCLIFFE. 

(HAP.  ''  Whosoever  loseth  his  life,  for  my  sake,  and  the 

VII. 

'~  "  gospel's,  shall  save  it ;"  and  the  preacher  re- 
marks, *'  since  the  life  of  man  is  ordained  of 
"  God,  evermore  to  be,  it  is  not  lost  to  God,  but 
"  he  for  vi^hom  this  life  is  lost  keepeth  it  well,  and 
"  giveth  it  him  in  bliss  in  the  other  world.  And 
"  who  would  not  thus  traffic  with  his  own  life?" 
To  hesitate,  is  "  to  fail  in  charity,  and  in  the  first 
"  commandment,"  and  to  make  light  of  the  pro- 
mises which  speak  of  the  glorious  things  to  be 
accomplished  in  the  saints,  when  their  Lord  shall 
appear  in  his  kingdom  to  beautify  the  bodies  which 
have  been  yielded  as  a  sacrifice  to  him.^^ 

On  another  occasion  he  describes  the  gospel 
for  the  day  as  "  telling  to  the  martyrs  of  Christ, 
"  what  perils  shall  befall  his  house,"  and  the  per- 
secutions foretold  as  to  come  upon  his  disciples, 
are  said  to  be  at  present  inflicted  on  good  men. 
"  They  shall  put  them  into  holds  falsely,  and 
"  shall  punish  them  many  ways.  And  often 
"  shall  they  draw  them  to  kings,  and  to  justices 
"  who  are  mighty  in  this  world,  and  thus  for 
"  Christ  shall  they  be  punished.  And  like  to 
"  this  falleth  now,  by  the  punishings  of  Anti- 
"  Christ,  But  Jesus  saith  to  his  disciples,  that 
"  it  shall  fall  to  them  for  a  witness  that  they 
"  are  on  the  true  side.  That  they  shall  have  a 
'*  clear  answer  to  give,  which  all  their  adver- 
**  saries  shall  not  in  any  way  withstand,  and  this 
**  shall  be  from  the  love  of  God  coming  so  openly 
"  to  them."  But  this  experience  of  the  divine 
approbation,  is  said  to  be  unknown  to  the  ruling 
clergy,  their  propensities  being,   in  general,  too 

^'  MS.  Codd.  Ric.  J.iinesii,  Bibl.  Bodl. 


THE     I.IFE     OF     ArYCLIFl-E.  217 

earthly  to  allow  of  their  cherishing  the  commii-  chap. 

nications   of  heavenly  wisdom.       "  If  a   prelate '— 

"  feign  that  he  hath  power  and  wit  given  of  God 
"  to  rule  his  church,  and  doth  all  amiss, in  such 
"  things,  following  not  God  nor  his  law,  certainly 
"  such  a  hypocrite  uttereth  first  a  falsehood,  and 
"  by  his  treachery  he  leadeth  the  sheep  of  Christ 
"  amiss.  And  though  the  wasting  of  God's  goods 
"  be  the  worst  of  sins,  because  his  goods  are  best, 
"  yet  men  that  should  be  martyrs,  are  so  smitten 
"  with  cowardice,  that  they  dare  not  speak  a 
"  word  for  right  belief  in  this  matter,  but  as 
''  though  men  were  beasts,  do  they  constrain 
"  them  to  assent  to  falsehood  as  true.  Such  are 
"  many  of  the  blasphemies  and  falsehoods  in- 
"  vented  by  popes  and  other  prelates;  and  who- 
"  ever  in  Christ  opposeth  them,  he  may  be  a 
''  martyr  if  he  dare.  And  better  cause  of  mar- 
"  tyrdom  to  God's  servants  find  we  none.  For  as 
"  the  maintaining  of  faith  is  the  cause  of  martyr- 
"  dom,  so  the  maintenance  of  things  which  are 
''  not  of  faith  should  be  reversed  by  christian 
"  men,  for  else  might  all  faith  be  changed,  the 
*'  old  put  out,  and  new  brought  in.  Thus  they 
"  say,  that  it  is  of  faith  that  the  pope  is  head  of 
'*  holy  church,  and  that  whatsoever  thing  he 
"  affects  to  do,  is  performed  of  Christ,  but  a  more 
"  perilous  heresy  was  never  feigned  by  the 
"  fiend."''  In  the  sermon  concluding  thus,  the 
doctrines  of  the  pope's  supremacy  and  infallibi- 
lity, which  are  so  strongly  rejected,  are  noticed  as 
forming  the  pressing  questions  of  the  orthodox.'* 

""^  MS.    Codd.    Ric.   Jamesii,   Bibl.  ^i  [„  another  instance  he  thus  coin- 

Bodl.  139.  plains  of  priests,  as  having  taken  away 


218  THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE. 

CHAP.      On  the  text,  **  Blessed  are  ye  that  weep  now, 

'—  *'  for  you  shall  laugh,"  he  thus  writes  ;    "  It  is 

"  known  that  whosoever  truly  loveth  God's  law, 
"  must  needs  weep  here  over  the  enemies  of 
*'  Christ.  For  these  who  are  God's  servants,  will 
**  be  persecuted  here  for  reproving  of  sinners  who 
"  are  God's  enemies.  But  he  is  a  coward  against 
*'  God  who  speaketh  not  boldly  against  sin.  And 
"  therefore  John  the  Baptist,  and  Christ's  apo- 
*'  sties,  took  example  of  Christ,  and  thus  they 
'*  wept  always  over  sin.  And  since  Christ  in  his 
*'  three  weepings,  wept  for  other  men's  sins,  he 
'*  loveth  not  Christ  and  his  mother  well,  who 
"  sorroweth  not  for  the  injury  and  despite  that 
"  is  done  to  them.  But  such  as  do  this  are  men 
''  of  charity,  and  shall  rejoice  at  the  day  of  doom." 
The  various  sufferings  which  attended  the  pro- 
fession of  a  scriptural  creed  in  the  age  of  Wycliffe, 
are  thus  described.  "  Worldly  men  avoid  such 
"  professors,  and  leave  them  to  themselves.  They 
'*  are   accursed   of  Antichrist ;     are    put    out   of 

the  key  of  knowledge,  and  substituted  "  as  open  heretics.    To  this  doing  they 

their  own  tradition  in  tlie  place  of  the  "  council    not   with   God's    law,    but 

scripture.     "  Since  the  kindred  of  the  "with     established     heresies     which 

"  fiend  is  now  most  among  priests,  as  '•  themselves  hold,  viz.  that  they  may 

"  it  was  ■□  the   time  of  Christ,   true  "  not  sin  nor  err  in  such  judgments. 

"  men  should  speak  to  them  sharply  as  "  But  all  manner  of  men,  who  say  that 

"  Christ  did.     For   they  have   exiled  "  liiey  should  follow  Christ's  life,  and 

"  the  law  of  God  by  which  they  should  "  leave  their  worldly  life,  they  judge 

"  work,  and  brought  in  the  fiend's  law  "  for  heretics.     But  if  they  thus  give 

"  by  which  they  now  govern.      Christ  "  themselves   to   lordships,    forsaking 

"  often  says  how  the  lawyers  watched  "  the  life   of  Christ,  they  are   fiend's 

"  him,  that  they  might  take  something  "  children  and  open  antichrists.  Christ's 

"  of  his  words  to  accuse  him,  and  so  "  children  they  may  not  be,  but  if  they 

"doom  him   to  death,  and  thus   did  "  follow  him,  and  especially  hold  them- 

"  those  hypocrites  pretend  to  fulfil  the  "  selves    in    meekness   and    poverty. 

"law.     And   thus    it    is   at  this   day  "  And  here  we  may  know  men  whether 

"  among  these  high-priests  ;    for  they  "  they  dare  be  martyrs."      MS.  Codd. 

"have  new  laws  made  beside  God's  Ric.  Jamesii,  Bibl.  Bodl.  145. 
"  law,  by  which  to  doom  men  to  death 


THE     LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE.  219 

*  churches;  and  are  parted  in  prisons  from  other  chap. 
'  men  of  the  world  ;    and  in  all  these  states  they  — 

'  suffer  reproofs.  But  if  they  are  certain  from 
'  the  matter  of  their  belief,  that  in  all  this  they 

*  suffer  for  the  cause  of  their  God,  they  may  be 
'  blessed  and  joyful  in  hope  of  their  end ;    even 

*  as  a  sick  man  will  gladly  suffer  pain,  when 
'  he  hopeth  thereby  to  come  to  health.  And 
'  the  joy  which  saints  have  when  they  suffer  thus, 
'  is  a  manner  of  bliss  which  belongs  to  them 
'  here,  and  it  is  more  of  joy  to  them  than   all 

*  their  worldly  desires.      Christ  also  telleth,  that 

*  those  who  stand  in  his  cause,  have  their  names 
'  cast  out  as  cursed  men  and  heretics.  So  blind 
'  are  their  enemies,  and  so  deep  in  their  sin,  that 
'  they  call  good  evil,  and  evil  good.  But  woe 
'  be  to  such !     And  Christ  biddeth  his  servants 

*  rejoice  in  that  day  in  their  heart,  and  to  shew 

*  a  glad  countenance  to  men  that  be  about  them, 
'  for  certainly  their  mede  is  much  in  the  king- 
'  dom  of  heaven.  And  this  word  comforteth 
'  simple  men,  who  are  called  heretics,  and  ene- 
'  mies  to  the  church,  because  they  tell  the 
'  law  of  God.  For  they  are  summoned  and 
'  reproved  in  many  ways,  and  are  after  put  in 
'  prison,   and  burnt  or  killed,  as   though  worse 

*  than  thieves.  And  the  masters  in  this  per- 
'  secuting,  are  priests,  high  and  low,  and  mostly 

*  friars  ;  as  Christ  was  persecuted  by  Caiaphas, 
'  and  other  priests,  but  especially  by  the  pha- 
'  risees.  To  all  thus  persecuted,  this  gospel  is 
'  a  comfort,  for  as  certainly  as  traditions  made 
'  beside  the  law  of  God,  by  priests,  and  scribes, 
'  and  pharisees,  blinded  them  in  that  law,  and 


220  THE    LIFE     OF    WYCLIFFE. 

CHAP.  "  made  it  despised — so  it  is  now,   by  the  new 

'^  *'  laws   of  men   called   decretals    and   decrees — 

"  but  a  remedy  against  this  abuse,  and  one  used 
"  of  many  men,  is  to  despise  all  such  laws  when 
"they  are  alleged;  and  to  say  unto  men  who 
"  allege  them,  that  their  honesty  is  more  sus- 
"  pected  for  their  citing  of  such  laws,  since 
"  God's  law  telleth  all  truth  that  is  needful  to 
"  man."'' 

It  is  in  the  following  language  that  the  re- 
former expresses  his  confidence  in  the  power  of 
truth,  and  as  to  the  issue  of  every  conflict  sus- 
tained in  its  cause.  "  Men  should  not  fear, 
"  except  on  account  of  sin,  or  the  losing  of  virtues; 
"  since  pain  is  just,  and  according  to  the  will  of 
"  God,  and  the  truth  is  stronger  than  all  their 
"  enemies.  Why  then  should  men  fear  or  sorrow 
"  for  it  ?  The  prophet  bid  his  servant  that  he 
"  should  not  fear,  because  many  more  were  with 
"  them  than  with  the  contrary  part.  Let  a  man 
"  stand  in  virtue  and  truth,  and  all  this  world 
"  overcometh  him  not ;  for  if  they  overcome  him 
"  with  these,  then  they  overcome  God  and  his 
"  angels,  and  then  they  should  make  him  to  be 
"  no  God. — Thus  good  men  are  comforted  to  put 
"  away  fear,  since  be  they  never  so  few  nor 
*'  feeble,  they  believe  that  they  may  not  be  dis- 
"  comfited.  Thus  the  words  of  Christ  make  his 
"  knights  to  be  hardy."'" 

One  extract  more,  must  suffice  to  exhibit  the 
temper  with  which  the  reformer  continued  to  the 
last  to  discharge  his  duties  as  a  village  teacher  ; 

3'  MS.   Codd.  Ric.    Jaiiiesii,    Bib).  '-'■■  MS.  Codd.  Ric.    Jamcsii,    Bibl. 

Bodl.  13G.  Bodl.  im. 


THE     LIFE    OF    WVCLIFFE.  221 

and  the  firmness,  with  which  he  constantly  anti-  chap. 

cipated  the  infliction  of  the  worst  evils  that  his '__ 

fidelity  might  be  found  to  provoke.  "  Know  we 
*'  not,  that  Peter  wist  well  how  he  should  spend 
*'  God's  treasure,  so  as  to  profit  his  church  ? 
*'  Who  dare  then  put  on  Peter  the  charge,  that 
"  he  was  negligent  in  this,  that  he  spared  that 
"  treasure  of  God  which  popes  now  wisely  dis- 
"  pense  ?  All  men,  therefore,  but  especially  pre- 
"  lates,  should  oversee  their  state  and  their  life, 
"  whether  it  be  according  to  God's  law,  or  after 
"  the  customs  of  the  fiend.  Such  a  reckoning 
"  every  man  should  make,  every  day  of  his  life  ; 
"  for  this  is  a  common  word  with  many  saints, 
"  '  each  time  that  God  hath  given  thee,  will  he 
"  ask  full  sharply  as  to  how  thou  hast  spent  it, 
"  whether  well  in  his  service  or  amiss.'  That 
"  reckoning  should  each  man  fear;  but  especially 
"  high-priests,  for  their  office  is  more  perilous. 
"  And  however  men  feign,  their  oflSce  is  told  in 
"  the  law  of  Christ,  how  they  should  be  occupied 
"  in  three  things  as  shepherds.  They  should 
"  wisely  lead  their  sheep  into  the  sound  pastures 
"  of  God's  law,  and  always  put  their  own  life 
"  to  save  their  sheep  against  wolves.  And  these 
**  shepherds  should  not  flee  in  the  time  when 
"  thieves  slay  the  sheep,  nor  covet  more  the  wool 
"  than  they  covet  their  soul's  health,  for  that  is 
"  the  wolf's  intent.  If  it  be  thus  they  take  the 
"  office  of  shepherds,  then  are  they  wolves  from 
*'  the  beginning.  It  follows  then,  that  the  time 
"  spent  in  labouring  for  high  estate,  for  riches,  or 
"  any  other  than  God's  worship  for  the  profit  of 
"  their  sheep,  by  the  rules  of  God's  law,  is  time 


222  THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE. 

CHAP. '<  wasted."     The  preacher  concludes  a  series  of 

'—  similar   admonitions    by   observing,    that    ''  such 

"  oversight  of  our  life,  and  especially  of  high 
**  prelates,  helpeth  the  church,  and  maketh  men 
'*  to  fear  God,  and  serve  him  well."  WyclifFe 
could  not  be  insensible,  while  reiterating  these 
severe  maxims,  that  the  strictest  comparisons 
would  be  frequently  made  between  his  sentiments 
thus  published,  and  his  general  conduct.  In  the 
case  of  such  a  man,  the  only  conclusion  to  be 
fairly  adopted  is,  that  his  daily  practice  was  such 
as  fully  accorded  with  his  public  instructions. 

We  are  now  approaching  the  close  of  the  re- 
former's history,  and  the  passages  from  his 
writings  which  have  occurred,  must  afford  suf- 
ficient proof,  that,  as  the  evening  of  life  was  felt 
to  be  descending  upon  him,  his  devout  antici- 
pations of  future  blessedness,  his  zeal  in  the  cause 
of  christian  reformation,  and  his  feelings  with 
regard  to  the  sufferings  which  his  persecutors 
might  be  allowed  to  inflict  upon  him,  were  all 
greatly  purified  and  elevated.  To  oppose  the 
errors  which  time,  and  custom,  and  law  had 
established ;  and  to  publish  aloud  the  truths 
contained  in  the  christian  scriptures ;  he  affirms 
to  be  the  imperative  obligation  of  every  christian 
man,  and  to  be  such  notwithstanding  the  evils 
incurred  should  be  scorn  and  poverty,  imprison- 
ment and  death.  The  course  of  activity,  which 
would  assuredly  bring  these  consequences  along 
with  it,  is  variously  and  minutely  described  ;  and 
is  strictly  that,  which  formed  his  own  daily  em- 
ployment. The  closing  years  of  his  life,  accord- 
ingly,  were   passed    in    the   strong    expectation. 


THE    LIFE    OF    WYCLIFFE.  223 

that  the  cell  of  the  convict,  if  not  the  horrors  of  chap. 

VII. 

the  stake,  would  ere  long  be  added  to  the  con 

tumely  and  poverty  v^hich  he  had  already  incurred. 
His  auditors  w^ell  knevs^,  that  no  wrath  could  equal 
that  which  would  be  certainly  excited,  by  his 
opposing  the  mass  of  those  fictions  in  relation  to 
the  soul  and  the  future,  which  had  enabled  the 
priesthood  to  attract  to  themselves  their  vast  pos- 
sessions, and  their  worldly  dominion.  Those 
fictions  were  nevertheless  assailed,  and  the  pur- 
poses to  which  they  were  applied,  are  described 
as  those  which  could  prove  ensnaring  only  to  the 
children  of  Antichrist.  While  nations  are  called 
upon  to  reject  much  of  that  spiritual  authority 
which  their  religious  guides  had  assumed ;  their 
rulers  are  urged,  as  they  would  escape  at  the  day 
of  doom,  to  divest  that  class  of  men  of  their  need- 
less wealth,  and  of  that  vain  authority,  which 
certain  delusive  tenets  had  enabled  them  to  ac- 
quire, and  which  as  certainly  as  the  scriptures 
were  true,  must  expose  the  blind  and  their 
leaders  to  the  same  pit  of  destruction.  The  lan- 
guage of  his  conduct,  amid  the  growing  power  of 
his  enemies,  would  seem  to  be,  "  To  live,  and  to 
"  be  silent,  is,  with  me,  impossible — the  guilt 
**  of  such  treason  against  the  Lord  of  heaven  is 
"  more  to  be  dreaded  than  many  deaths.  Let 
*'  the  blow  therefore  fall.  Enough  I  know  of 
'*  the  men  whom  I  oppose,  of  the  times  on  which 
"  I  am  thrown,  and  of  the  mysterious  providence 
*'  which  relates  to  our  sinful  race,  to  believe  that 
"  the  stroke  may  ere  long  descend.  But  my 
"  purpose  is  unalterable.  I  wait  its  coming!" 
The  temper  of  his  chief  opponents  was  suf- 


224  THE    LIFE     OF     WYCLIFFE. 

CHAP. ficiently    known,    to    satisfy  him  that    the   con- 

L.  tinuance   of  his  personal  liberty,  and  even  of  his 

life,  arose  less  from  their  inclination  than  from 
their  weakness.''  But  his  anticipations  of  a 
season,  in  which  their  power  would  be  equal  to 
their  malice,  were  not  to  be  realized.  The  fact 
admits  of  explanation.  It  was  known,  that  the 
duke  of  Lancaster  still  entertained  a  favourable 
judgment  of  his  character.  The  papal  schism 
absorbed  the  attention  of  the  pontiffs.  And  the 
domestic  disquietudes  in  this  country,  had  long- 
rendered  the  factions  who  governed  it  fearful,  in 
a  great  degree,  of  each  other.  In  addition  to 
these  causes,  as  serving  to  delay  the  introduction 
of  more  sanguinary  persecutions,  the  declining 
health  of  the  reformer  should  be  noticed.  It  was 
probable  that  his  career  would  soon  terminate  : 
and  with  him,  his  partisans  may  have  been 
expected  to  disappear.  Previous  to  his  death,  he 
needed  the  assistance  of  a  curate  in  performing 
his  parochial  duties.  In  this  infirm  state,  how- 
ever, he  continued  at  times  to  officiate ;  and  he  is 
said  to  have  been  employed  in  administering  the 
bread  of  the  eucharist,  when  assailed  by  his  last 
sickness.  The  paralysis  which  now  seized  his 
frame,  deprived  him  at  once  of  consciousness,  and 
after  an  illness  of  a  few  days,  issued  in  the  re- 
moval of  his  devout  spirit  to  the  abode  of  natures 
more  congenial  with  his  own.  This  event  hap- 
pened on  the  last  day  of  December,  in  the  year 


^  MS.    De  Obedientia  Prelatorum.  customed  to  declaim  against  the  doc- 

In  the  Trialogus,  Truth  remarks  that  a  trine   of  the   reformer,   "studying   in 

great  number  of  the  religious,  and  of  "  a  thousand  ways,  to  deprive  him  of 

the  people  called  christians,  were  ac-  "  I'ife."  iv.  c.  4 


HIE     LIFE     OF     M'YCLIFFE 


225 


1384.^'*  Many  good  men  have  prayed  to  be  called 
to  their  rest,  while  occupied  in  such  services. 
We  know  not  that  it  was  so  with  Wycliffe  :  but 
we  know  that  he  was  taken  "  from  the  evil  to 
come."  It  is  not  the  province  of  the  biographer 
to  supply  the  deficiencies  in  his  materials  from 
the  stores  of  his  imagination,  or  we  might  dwell 
on  the  probabilities  of  the  spectacle  exhibited,  in 
the  death  chamber,  and  the  burial  scene  of  such 
a  man!  We  leave  his  enemies  to  indulge  their 
feeling  of  triumph  ;  and  his  followers  to  mourn  a 
loss,  which  no  second  man  was  to  supply.  Some 
farther  observations  on  the  character  of  this 
much-injured  confessor;  and  on  the  influence  of 
his  doctrine,  with  respect  to  the  reformation  of  the 
sixteenth  century,  will  be  found  in  a  subsequent 
chapter  of  this  volume.  But  before  proceeding 
to  those  topics,  it  will  be  proper  to  take  a  more 
complete,  and  a  more  connected  view,  of  the 
opinions  which  he  laboured  to  propagate. 


c  H  A  p. 

VII. 


39  See  the  extract  IVom  the  Bok- 
ynghaiii  Register,  Vol.  T.  346,  and 
Walsingliain,  Hvpod.  Neust.  From 
Walsingliam,  and  from  the  Teignmouth 
Chronicle,  it  appears  that  the  attack  of 
palsy  took  place  on  tiie  29th  of  the 
month  —  the  festival  of  Thomas-ii- 
Eecket,  and  his  death  on  the  3!st, 
the  day  consecrated  to  the  memory  of 


Silvester  ;  and  it  is  observed  by  Wal- 
singham,  that  against  both  of  these 
saints  the  reformer  often  directed  his 
blasphemies.  Of  Silvester,  however, 
he  frequently  spoke  with  respect ;  but 
the  saintship  of  Becket  he  treated  with 
contempt.  Lewis,  c.  vii.  Trial,  iv. 
c.  17.     Horn.  Bib.  Reg. 


VOL.    II. 


226  THE    OPIXIONS    OF    AVYCLIFFE. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 


On  the  Opinions  of  John  JVycliffe,  D.  D. 


DESIGN    OF    THE    CHAPTER. THE    DOCTRINE    OF    WYCLIFFE    RESPECTING  THE 

pope's    TEMPORAL  power. THE    SECULAR   EXEMPTIONS    OF    THE  CLERGY. 

THE    GENERAL     AUTHORITY     OF    THE     MAGISTRATE. THE     LIMITS     OF 

THAT  AUTHORITY. THE  OBLIGATIONS  OF  THE  MAGISTRATE  WITH    RESPECT 

TO  THE  CHURCH. THE  CUSTOMS  OF   PATRONAGE. TITHES   AND  ECCLESI- 
ASTICAL ENDOWMENTS. THE     PRINCIPLES    OF    THE    REFORMER'S    THEORY 

DERIVED  IN  PART  FROM  THE  EXISTING  SYSTEM. HIS  REVERENCE  FOR  THE 

PRIESTLY    OFFICE. HIS    JUDGMENT  OF  THE  CONTEMPORARY   PRIESTHOOD. 

A  SUMMARY   OF  HIS    DOCTRINE  RELATING  TO  THE  CIVIL  ESTABLISHMENT 

OF    CHRISTIANITY    AND    CLERICAL    REVENUE. HIS  OPINIONS  RELATING  TO 

SIMONY. THE  SPIRITUAL  POWER  OF  THE  POPE. THE  HIERARCHY. 

THE    RELIGIOUS  ORDERS. THE    NATURE     OF     A     CHRISTIAN    CHURCH, 

THE  POWER  OF  THE  KEYS. PURGATORY   AND   MASSES  FOR  THE   DEAD. 

THE    INVOCATION    OF    SAINTS. THE  WORSHIP  OF  IMAGES. CONFESSION. 

THE    DOCTRINE    OF    INDULGENCES. THE     CELIBACY     OF    THE    CLERGY. 

THE     SACRAMENTS. TRANSUBSTANTIATION. PUBLIC      WORSHIP. 

• SUFFICIENCY   OF  THE  SCRIPTURES,    AND   THE    RIGHT    OF    PRIVATE    JUDG- 
MENT.  A  SUMMARY  OF   HIS    THEOLOGICAL    DOCTRINE. 

CHAP.      Many  of  the  doctrines  which  distinguished  the 

1_  creed  of  WycIifFe,   have  been  introduced  in  the 

Srchlp'ter.  preceding  chapters,  and  in  the  order  in  which 
they  appear  in  his  writings.  But  in  some  in- 
stances, they  have  obtained  a  passing  notice  only; 
and  in  every  case,  they  admit  of  a  more  complete 
illustration  from  the  WycIifFe  manuscripts,  and  of 
a  more  advantageous  exhibition  as  connected 
with  the  reformer's  general  doctrine.     There  are 


THE    OPINIONS    OF    WYCMFFE.  227 

opinions,  also,  relating  both  to  doctrine  and  dis-  chap. 

cipline,  which  he    laboured    to   disseminate,    but — 

which  have  not  obtained  any  place  in  our  narra- 
tive. 

During-  the  middle  ages,  the  parties  who  were  Doctrine  o.- 

O        '  I  Wyclifle  on 

most  offended  by  the  false  doctrines,  or  by  the  ^''^  pope's 

T    •        1  •  n         ^  11  temporal 

political  usurpations  oi  the  papacy,  and  whose  p^^^er. 
efforts  were  to  issue  in  so  great  a  diminution 
of  its  opulence  and  power,  are  found,  in  general, 
directing  their  first  and  most  vigorous  attacks 
against  its  latest  corruptions.  These  could  not 
be  readily  shielded  by  the  plea  of  ancient  cus- 
tom. Forming  also,  as  they  did,  the  more  recent 
measures  of  a  power,  which  had  long  dispensed 
with  the  restraints  of  modesty  in  prosecuting  its 
system  of  encroachment,  they  were  commonly 
matters  in  which  the  want  of  reason  was  quite  as 
obvious  as  the  want  of  antiquity.  Among  the 
assumptions  of  this  class,  the  doctrine  of  the 
pope's  temporal  power  will  claim  our  first  atten- 
tion. It  is  not  surprising,  that  the  modern  catho- 
lic, whose  creed  has  been  so  materially  affected 
by  the  progress  of  society,  should  regret  the 
prominence  conferred  by  protestant  historians  on 
this  tenet,  as  interwoven  with  the  story  of  his 
church.  The  facts,  however,  with  which  it  is 
connected,  afford  those  illustrations  of  human 
character,  and  of  the  necessary  tendencies  of  the 
system  which  produced  them,  that  are  too  in- 
structive to  be  wholly  forgotten.  The  avowed 
successors  of  the  Galilean  fisherman,  have  gravely 
assumed  an  authority  over  all  worlds  ;  disposing 
at  pleasure  of  the  crowns  and  kingdoms  of  the 
present,  and  of  the  weal  or  woe  of  the  future  ! 
q2 


228  THE    OPIXIOXS     OF    WYCLIFFE. 

CHAP.  To  prevent  the  return  of  any  similar  tyranny,  it 
^"^'  is  important  that  this  scheme  of  successful  am- 
bition should  be  frequently  depicted  in  its  native 
colours,  and  viewed  in  connexion  with  the  prin- 
ciples which  form  its  true  source.  In  a  sameness 
of  circumstances,  man  has  ever  shown  himself 
the  same. 

That  every  political  government  is,  and  ought 
to  be,  subject  to  the  dominion  of  the  spiritual 
church,  is  taught  by  Baronius  as  a  verity  that 
should  never  have  been  questioned.  Nor  is  there 
any  real  difference  between  this  opinion,  and  that 
expressed  by  Bellarmine,  as  the  general  doctrine 
of  catholics  in  his  day.'  From  WyclifFe's  de- 
fence of  the  English  parliament,  in  abolishing  the 
census  which  had  been  extorted  from  king  John, 
it  appears,  that  previous  to  the  year  1366,  he  had 
learnt  to  discard  this  preposterous  claim  as  novel, 
fraudulent,  and  impious.  It  was  in  consequence 
of  the  pontiff's  political  interferences,  founded  on 
this  doctrine,  that  he  became,  in  the  language 
of  our  reformer,  "the  evil  man  -  slayer,  poi- 
soner, "  and  burner  of  the  servants  of  Christ." 
Wycliffe  complains  indignantly  of  the  men  who 
profess  to  regard  "  this  root  of  all  the  misgovern- 
"  ance  in  the  church,  as  the  head  of  holy  church — 
"  and  as  the  most  holy  father,  who  may  not  sin." 
With  equal  regret  he  observes,  "  that  if  men 
"  foolishly  make  a  vow  to  go  to  Rome,  Jerusalem, 
"  or  Canterbury,  or  on  any  other  pilgrimage,  that 
"  they  will  value  more  than  the  great  vow  to  keep 
"  God's  commandments,  and  to  forsake  the  fiend 
"  and  all  his  works,  which  was   made    at  their 

'  Apologia,  c.  13.     Barrow  on   the    Pope's  Supremacy,  p.  G. 


THE    OPINION'S    OF     WVCLIFFE.  229 

**  christening.     And  if  a  mail  break  the  hiohest  chap. 

.  VIII 

"  commands   of    God,    the    rudest   parish   priest    — 

"  shall  absolve  him  anon;  but  of  the  vows  made 
"  from  our  own  head,  though  many  times  against 
"  the  will  of  God,  no  man  shall  absolve,  except 
**  a  great  worldly  bishop,  or  the  most  worldly 
"  priest  of  Rome!  the  master  of  the  emperor! 
"  the  fellow  of  God  1  the  Deity  on  earth  ! "  While 
the  monarch  of  that  worldly  kingdom  which  had 
been  introduced  into  the  church  was  thus  resisted 
and  rebuked  ;  it  is  in  the  following  language,  that 
the  reformer  adverts  to  the  conduct  of  the  men 
who  were  concerned,  more  or  less,  to  perpetuate 
this  degrading  usurpation.  "  Commonly,  the  new 
"  laws  which  the  clergy  have  made,  are  cunningly 
"  devised  to  bring  down  the  power  of  lords 
**  and  kings  which  God  ordained,  and  to  make 
"■  themselves  lords,  and  to  have  all  things  at  their 
"  doom.  Certainly  it  seemeth,  that  these  worldly 
"  prelates  would  more  completely  destroy  the 
**  power  of  kings  and  lords,  which  God  ordained 
**  for  the  government  of  christian  men,  than  God 
*'  destroyeth  the  power  even  of  the  fiend.  For 
*'  God,  in  setting  a  term  which  Satan  may  do, 
*'  and  no  more,  still  sufFereth  his  power  to  last, 
"  for  the  profit  of  christian  men,  and  the  just 
"  punishment  of  evil  doers.  But  these  worldly 
"  clerks  would  never  cease,  if  unchecked,  until 
"  they  had  destroyed  kings  and  lords  with  their 
"  regalia  and  power." ^ 

It  was  not  unusual,  however,  in  the  ages  before  on  ti.e 
Luther,  for  ecclesiastics  who  denied  the  authority  emptions  of 
of  the  popes  as  extending  over  the  kingdoms  of  "'""'^" 

2  MS.  Sentence  of  the  Curse  Expounded,  c.3,  6, 11.  See  also  Vol.  I.  Chap.  ii. 


230 


THE    OPINIONS    OF    WYCLIFFE. 


CHAP,  the  world,  to  admit  its  validity  as  extended  over 

VIII  • 

'-  the  property  of  their  own  order.     To  escape  the 

exactions  of  princes,  churchmen  had  frequently 
ventured  to  plead  this  claim  of  their  spiritual 
sovereign.  But  it  was  among  the  early  doctrines 
of  Wycliffe,  that  the  authority  of  the  magistrate 
should  be  final  as  to  the  wealth  of  the  clergy,  and 
as  to  the  whole  of  their  conduct,  considered  as 
members  of  society.  "  Worldly  clerks  and 
"  feigned  religious,"  he  observes,  **  break  and 
destroy  the  king's  peace  and  his  realm.  For 
"  the  prelates  of  this  world,  and  the  priests,  high 
and  low,  say  freely,  and  write  in  their  law, 
'*  that  the  king  hath  no  jurisdiction  nor  power 
over  their  persons,  nor  over  the  goods  of  holy 
church.  And  yet  Christ  and  his  apostles  were 
*  most  obedient  to  kings  and  lords,  and  taught 
all  men  to  be  subject  to  them,  and  to  serve 
them  truly  and  cheerfully  in  bodily  works,  and 
to  fear  them,  and  honour  them  above  all  other 
men.  The  wise  king  Solomon  also,  put  down 
a  high  bishop,  who  was  unfaithful  to  him  and 
his  kingdom,  and  exiled  him,  and  ordained  a 
"  good  priest  in  his  room,  as  the  book  of  Kings 
telleth.  And  Jesus  Christ  paid  tribute  to  the 
"  emperor,  and  commanded  men  to  pay  him 
tribute.  St.  Peter  also  commandeth  christian 
men  to  be  subject  to  every  ordinance  of  man, 
whether  unto  the  king  as  more  high  than  others, 
or  unto  dukes,  as  sent  of  him,  to  the  vengeance 
'  of  evil  doers,  and  the  praising  of  good  men. 
"  Also  St.  Paul  commandeth  by  the  authority  of 
■'  God  that  'every  soul  be  subject  to  the  higher 
powers,   for   there   is  no   power   but   of    God. 


THE    OPINIONS    OF     WYCLIFFE,  231 

*'  Princes  are  not  to  the  dread  of  good  works,  but  chap. 

"  of  evil.     Wilt  thou  not  dread  the  power? — do — 

"  good,  and  thou  shalt  have  praise  of  the  same, 
"  for  he  is  God's  minister  to  thee  for  good.  If 
"  thou  hast  done  evil,  assuredly  thou  shouldst 
"  fear,  for  he  beareth  not  the  sword  in  vain. 
"  Therefore  ye  must  needs  be  subject,  not  only 
"  for  wrath,  but  also  for  conscience.  For  there- 
"  fore  ye  give  tribute,  they  being  the  ministers 
**  of  God  serving  to  this  same  thing.  Therefore 
"  yield  ye  to  all  men's  debts,  to  whom  tribute, 
"  tribute;  to  whom  toll,  toll;  to  whom  dread, 
*' dread ;  to  whom  honour,  honour.'  Our  Sa- 
*'  viour,  Jesus  Christ,  meekly  suffered  a  painful 
*'  death  under  Pilate,  not  excusing  himself  from 
"  that  jurisdiction,  by  virtue  of  his  office.  And 
"  St.  Paul  professed  himself  ready  to  suffer  death, 
"  by  the  doom  of  the  emperor's  justice,  if  he 
"  were  worthy  of  death,  as  the  deeds  of  the 
"  apostles  teach.  And  Paul  appealed  to  the 
"  heathen  emperor,  from  the  priests  of  the  Jews, 
"  to  be  under  his  jurisdiction,  and  so  to  save  his 
"  life.'  Lord,  who  hath  made  our  worldly  clergy 
"•  exempt  from  the  king's  jurisdiction,  and  chas- 
"  tening,  since  God  hath  given  kings  this  office 
"  over  all  misdoers  ?  Clerks,  and  particularly 
"  high-priests,  should  be  most  meek  and  obe- 
"  dient  to  the  laws  of  this  world,  as  were  Christ 
"  and  his  apostles;  and  thus  be  a  mirror  to  all 
"  men,  that  they  may  yield  this  meekness  and 
"  obedience  to  the  king,  and  to  his  righteous 
"  laws.     What  sturdy  robbers  and  traitors  then, 

2  It   was   thus   the   reroriner   would       authority.      See  Chap.  iii.  of  this  vo- 
vindicate  his  own  appeal  to  the   same      luiiic. 


232  THE    OPINIONS    OF    WYCLIFFE. 

CJIAP.  <<  are  these  to  lords  and  kings    in   refusing  this 

'—  "  obedience,   and  in  thus  giving  an  example    to 

"  all  the  men  of  the  land  to  become  rebels  against 
"  the  king  and  the  lords.  For  in  this,  and  in 
"  what  they  teach,  they  instruct  the  commons 
"  of  the  land,  both  in  words  and  deeds,  to  be  un- 
"  faithful  and  rebellious  against  the  king.  And 
*'  this  seemeth  well,  according  to  their  new  law 
"  of  decretals,  where  proud  clerks  have  ordained 
"  that  our  clergy  shall  pay  no  subsidy  nor  tax, 
"  nor  any  thing  for  the  keeping  of  our  king  and 
*'  our  realm,  without  assent  from  the  worldly 
"  priest  of  Rome.  And  yet  many  times  this 
"  proud  worldly  priest  is  an  enemy  of  our  land, 
*'  and  secretly  maintaining  our  enemies  in  war 
"  against  us  with  our  own  gold.  Thus  an  alien 
"  priest,  and  the  proudest  of  all  priests,  they 
"  make  the  chief  lord  over  the  whole  of  the  goods 
"  which  clerks  possess  in  this  kingdom,  and  that 
*'  is  the  greater  part  thereof.  And  where  are 
*'  there  greater  traitors,  either  to  God,  or  holy 
"  church,  and  especially  to  our  liege  lord  and  his 
**  kingdom  ?  An  alien  worldly  priest,  and  an 
"  enemy  to  us,  is  made  chief  lord  over  the  greater 
"  part  of  our  country  !"' 

To  this  decisive  passage,  others  of  the  same 
import,  and  e'^;  i-dly  bold  in  their  character,  might 
be  added.  In  a  subsequent  chapter  of  the  same 
work,  the  writer  has  supposed  a  number  of 
extreme  cases,  witb  a  view  to  exhibit  more  vividly 
the  evils  which  must  be  inseparable  from  these 
clerical  exemptions.  Thus  he  remarks, — should 
churchmen  refuse  the  payment  of  the  most  lawful 

^  MS.  Sentence  of  the  Curse  Expounded,  c.  11. 


THE    OPINIONS    OF    WYCLIFFE.  233 

debts,  such  is  the  nature  of  the  immunities  which  cmap. 

they  claim,  that  no  lay  authority  would  be  left  to - 

enforce  it.  And  were  this  privileged  class  of  men 
to  determine  on  conveying  the  whole  of  their 
wealth  to  another  soil,  the  nation  may  do  nothing 
to  prevent  a  measure,  which,  if  adopted,  must 
reduce  it  to  poverty.  For  the  same  reason,  it  is 
argued,  were  the  clergy  to  conspire  the  death 
of  the  king,  of  the  court,  and  of  the  nobility  of 
the  realm,  neither  the  monarch,  nor  the  aristo- 
cracy, might  punish  these  daring  delinquents  with 
the  smallest  possible  forfeiture  of  liberty  or  goods. 
To  such  uncourtly  extremes,  indeed,  is  the  re- 
former carried  by  the  warmth  of  his  indignation, 
that  he  ventures  to  suppose  the  college  of  car- 
dinals transformed  into  a  regular  banditti ;  and 
he  enquires  what  the  state  of  a  people  must  be, 
who  should  be  weak  enough  to  believe  that,  to 
resist  these  holy  depredators,  must  be  to  incur 
the  guilt  of  sacrilege,  and  to  sink  into  the  lowest 
perdition  !  * 

But  the  reformer  is  said  to  have  taught  a  doc-  o..  ti.e 
trine    which    has    been    sometimes     designated,  "wnty  of 

the  mao-is. 

"  dominion  founded  on  grace."      This  article  oftrate. 
his  creed  was  described  as  hostile  to  every  social 

5  MS.  Sentence  of  the   Curse   Ex-  shown  th. ','' the  Sentence  of  the  Curse 

pounded,  c.  19.    Dr.  Lingard  (Hist.  iv.  "Expounded"  did  not  appear  until 

2G2,)   has    cited    the    reformer's   Ian-  n/?er  the  Trialogus,     It  is  cer     n  that 

guage  in  his  Trialogus  (iv.  18.)  which  they  were  published  so  nearly  together, 

expresses  his  doctrine  respecting  the  tl)at  the  priority  of  either  can  be  of  no 

duty  of  lords  to  deprive  a  church  lia-  moment.     A    few   montiis   only   could 

bitually  delinquent  of  her  possessions;  have  intervened.      The  passage,   too, 

and   lias  quoted  an  extract   from   the  instead  of  being  what  Dr.  Lingard  in- 

passage,   of    which    the    substance   is  sinuates,  is  one  which,  as  the  reader 

given  in  tiie  text,  as  showing  that  the  will  perceive,  presents  the  most  vigo- 

writer   "  afterwards  attempted  to  ex-  rous    enforcement    ol'    the    obnoxious 

"  plain  it  away."     But  it  remains  to  be  article  intended. 


234  THE    OPINIONS    OF    WYCLIFFE. 

CHAP,  institution;  and  being  in  consequence  suited  to 
!_  awaken  the  jealousy  of  the  civil  power,  a  cau- 
tious prominence  was  given  to  it  by  his  enemies. 
Woodford,  a  well-known  adversary  of  Wycliffe, 
laboured  to  make  his  refutation  of  this  supposed 
heresy  as  formal  and  imposing  as  possible.  Sub- 
sequently, the  fathers  of  the  council  of  Constance, 
in  their  great  care  to  preserve  the  regal  authority 
from  injury,  placed  this  dangerous  tenet  under 
their  anathema;  and  the  cardinal  Bellarmine, 
moved  by  the  same  solicitude,  assures  the  king 
of  England,  that  the  doctrine  which  sanctifies 
the  murder  of  princes,  and  which  the  monarch 
had  inadvertently  imputed  to  catholics,  is  the 
property  of  the  innovators,  "  certainly,  of  John 
*'  Wycliffe."  But  with  the  consistency  which 
usually  attends  the  defence  of  a  bad  cause,  the 
enemies  of  the  reformer  have  been  no  less  forward 
on  other  occasions,  in  charging  him  with  making 
the  most  flattering  appeals  to  the  secular  autho- 
rities, in  hope  of  arraying  them  against  the  power 
and  possessions  of  the  priesthood.  If  this  was 
his  design,  and  he  has  scarcely  a  foe  who  does 
not  impute  it  to  him,  it  is  needless  to  enquire 
whether  he  could,  for  a  moment,  have  regarded 
it  as  expedient,  to  become  the  abettor  of  any 
doctrine  unfriendly  to  the  influence  of  the  civil 
power.  In  the  very  consistent  language  of  party 
zeal,  the  sword  of  the  magistrate  was  at  once  his 
idol  and  his  hatred ;  a  weapon  which  at  one 
moment  he  would  extend  far  beyond  the  due 
sphere  of  its  influence,  and  at  another,  consign 
to  its  scabbard,  that  every  lawless  passion  might 
be  loosened  on  the  world.     There  are  other  facts. 


THE    OPINIONS    OF    WYCLIFFE.  235 

also,  which  warrant  a  suspicion,  as  to  the  fidelity,  chap. 

or   the  correct  information,    of  the  persons  who — 

dwell  with  such  marked  interest  on  the  pernicious 
tendencies  of  the  doctrine  adverted  to.  The 
authorities  cited  by  WyclifFe,  in  support  of  this 
tenet,  whatever  it  was,  are  St.  Augustine  and  St. 
Bernard,  —  names,  which  have  not  often  com- 
mended themselves  to  the  agents  of  political  dis- 
cord. And  it  is  no  less  remarkable,  that  amid 
the  voluminous  works  of  the  reformer,  one  only 
has  been  cited  as  really  containing  this  alarming 
dogma.  In  his  English  compositions  —  which 
were  by  far  the  greater  number,  and  which  were 
alone  addressed  to  the  people — it  is  not  in  more 
than  two  or  three  instances,  that  the  remotest 
indication  of  it  occurs.  Yet  from  the  period  of 
his  death,  to  the  present  hour,  this  obnoxious  spe- 
culation has  been  described  as  the  reformer's 
''favourite  maxim." ^     From  this  fact,  the  reader 

^  Such  is  Dr.  Lingard's  description  "  sunt  leges  civilis  et  consuetude  do- 
of  it.  (Hist,  iv.)  The  doctor  also  refers  "  minantium  seciilariter  ab  ista  sen- 
to  the  seventeenth  chapter  in  the  fourth  "  tentia.  Et  haec  ratio  quare  leges 
bookoftheTrialngus,  as  containing  this  "  istae  mundanae  et  execntio  furiosa 
tenet.  The  passage  in  that  chapter  "illarum:  sunt  tain  culpabiliter  etiam 
which  relates  to  it,  is  given  below,  and  "  inter  clericos  introducfas.  Et  patet 
it  will  not  perhaps  occur  to  the  reader  "  que  conclusio  quain  infers  est  con- 
as  very  deeply  charged  either  with  "  cendenda,  sed  habitio  distinguenda. 
theological  or  political  heresy.  "Titulo  "  Nam  habere  civiliter  cum  necessitat 
"  autemoriginalis  justiciaehabuitChris-  "  ad  solicitudinem  circa  temporalia  et 
"  tus  omnia  bona  mundi,  ut  sepje  de-  "  leges  hominam  observandus,  debet 
"  clarat  August!,  illo  titulo,  vel  titulo  "  omino  clericis  interdici.  Et  quan- 
"  gratia;  justorum  sunt  omnia,  sed  "  turn  ad  Silvestrura  et  alios  est  mihi 
"  longe  ab  illo  titulo  civilis  possessio.  "  probabile,  quae  in  recipiendo  taliter 
"  Unde  Christus  et  sui  Apostoli  spreta  "  dotationem  graviter  peccaverunt. 
"  doniinatione  civili,  fuerunt  de  habi-  "  Sed  possumus  supponere  que  de  hoc 
"  tione  pure  :  secundum  ilium  titulum  "  fructuose  posterius  paenitebant.  Et 
"  contetitati.  Ideo  reguia  Cliristi  est,  "sic  concendo  tibi  que  licet  clericis 
"  que  nullus  suor'uu  discipulorum  pre-  "  habere  temporalia,  sed  titulo  et  modo 
"  sumat  proteinpnralibus  suis  conten-  "  habendi  quem  deus  instituit."  p. 129. 
"  dere.  Ut  patet  I\Iat.  vi.  qui  aufert  From  this  passage  it  would  appear 
"quae  tua  sunt  nc  rcpetas.     Sed  longe  that   such  was   tiie   faith   of   Wyclifle 


236 


THE    OPINIONS    OF    WYCLIFFE. 


CHAP. 
VIII. 


will  judge  as  to  the  force  of  that  prejudice  with 
which  the  memory  of  this  man  has  been  assailed. 
It  would  not  be  difficult  to  collect  a  volume 
of  extracts  from  the  writings  of  Wycliffe,  to  de- 
monstrate that  no  doctrine  was  embraced  by  him 
at  all  affecting  the  legal  possession  of  property. 
He  knew  that  many  things  might  be  lawful,  as 
done  by  the  Supreme  Judge,  which  would  be 
flagrant  injustice,  as  performed  by  man,  except 
in  obedience  to  a  mandate  from  that  Judge.  To 
illustrate  his  meaning,  with  respect  to  cases  of  the 
last  description,  he  appeals  to  the  conduct  of  the 
Israelites  toward  the  nations  of  Canaan.''      This 


with  regard  to  the  mediation  of  Christ, 
that  be  considered  every  man  as  in- 
debted to  the  grace  of  the  Redeemer 
for  tlie  benefits  of  tliis  world,  no  less 
than  for  the  hope  of  a  better  ;  and  that 
accordingly  he  viewed  the  sin  which 
incurred  the  forfeiture  of  heaven,  as 
separating  the  ofl'ender  at  the  same 
moment  from  all  claim,  with  respect  to 
God,  as  to  the  honours  or  possessions 
of  the  earth.  Such  is  the  theology  of 
the  scriptures.  But  it  is  insinuated, 
that  the  reformer  proceeded  from  this 
general  statement  to  infer,  as  a  general 
consequence,  that  every  such  delin- 
quent might  be  divested  of  property  or 
office  by  the  saints,  as  of  things  for- 
feited with  respect  to  the  supreme 
Lord.  Could  the  rector  of  Lutterworth 
be  shewn  to  have  adopted  such  a  con- 
clusion, it  must  have  been  in  some 
moment  of  derangement.  We  are  not 
dependant,  however,  on  sncli  a  suppo- 
sition. When  this  scene  of  probation 
shall  reach  its  close,  it  will  appear 
that  the  doctrine  of  Wycliffe,  however 
much  despised  or  calunmiated,  is  a 
momentous  truth,  and  that  no  dominion 
can  have  the  clement  of  duration  but 
what  is  founded  in  grace:  And  though 
it  was  not  his  manner  to  blend  the  re- 


tributions of  a  future  world  with  the 
arrangements  peculiar  to  the  present, 
he  might  deem  it  important  to  admo- 
nish tlie  worldly  and  the  powerful  as 
to  the  ground  on  which  the  adjust- 
ments of  (hat  great  crisis  will  t:ike 
place  ;  assuring  them  that  the  delay  of 
those  fearful  decisions  which  will  then 
be  announced,  arose  less  from  any  legal 
impediment,  than  from  the  long-sufler- 
ing  of  God.  The  only  notices,  how- 
ever, of  this  doctrine  which  I  have  met 
with  in  the  reformer's  writings  are  in 
his  answer  to  the  question  of  Richard's 
first  parliament,  (Vol.  T.  Chap,  iv.) 
in  one  of  his  homilies,  (Bib.  Rei^.  9",) 
and  in  his  treatise  on  the  Seven  Deadly 
Sins.  In  the  first  instance  it  is  applied 
to  the  ofiice  and  possessions  of  the 
clergy  only  ;  in  the  second  it  is  merely 
a  passing  observation  ;  and  in  the  last 
it  will  be  remembered  as  introduced  to 
discountenance,  and  not  to  pncouragu 
an  invasion  of  the  rights  of  others. 
See  Chap.  vii. 

^  MS.  on  the  Seven  Deadly  Sins. 
See  Chap.  vii.  The  additions  which  I 
have  been  able  to  make  to  what  was 
previously  known  respecting  this  much 
controverted  subject,  consist  in  the 
important  fact  stated  in  the  preceding 


THE     OPiyiOXS     OF    AVYCLIFFE.  237 

distinction,     however,    which    was    never    absent  chap. 

VIII. 

from  the  reformer's  mind,  appears  to  have  wholly  — 

escaped  the  discernment  of  his  accusers.  It  is 
not  to  be  denied  that  he  regarded  the  churchman 
convicted  of  mortal  sin  as  having  forfeited  his 
office.  In  every  such  case,  he  would  have  trans- 
ferred the  office  so  degraded,  together  with  its 
jurisdiction  and  its  revenue,  to  other  and  more 
worthy  hands ;  and  this  maxim  it  was,  which 
brought  upon  him  the  reproach  of  favouring  a 
disruption  of  the  social  system.^  To  save  them- 
selves from  the  consequences  of  such  a  doctrine, 
the  clergy  laboured  to  make  it  appear  that  the 
creed  of  their  assailant  teemed  with  revolutionary 
novelties,  such  as  must  apply  to  civil,  no  less 
than  to  ecclesiastical  offices,  and  prove  as  peri- 
lous to  the  possessions  of  the  laity,  as  to  those 
of  the  church. 

It  is  in  the  following  language,  that  Wyclifte 
complains  of  the  injury  thus  done  to  himself  and 
his  followers.  "  Prelates  slander  poor  priests, 
"  and  other  christian  men,  saying,  they  will  not 
"  obey  their  sovereigns,  nor  fear  the  curse,  nor 
"  keep  the  laws,  but  despise  all  things  that  are 
"  not  to  their  liking;  and  that  they  are,  therefore, 
''  worse  than  jews  or  pagans  ;  and  that  all  lords 
"  and  prelates,  and  mighty  men  should  destroy 
"  them,  or  else  they  will  destroy  holy  church, 
"  and  make  each  man  to  live  as  him  liketh,  and 
"  nothing  may  more  destroy  Christendom."'^     In 

note,  and  in  a  few  extracts  which  are  meaning    and    an   importance    to   this 

more   explicit   on  the  points   at    issue  doctrine,  which  he   liad   never  himself 

tlian     any   tiling    hitherto    cited    linin  attached    to    it. — Note    to   tlie    second 

the    reformer's    writings.        ft   can,    I  edition. 

trust,    he  no  longer  doubted  that  the  8  See  \'ol.  i.  Chap.  iv.  p.  3G1— 3G.",. 

opponents     of    Wyclilfe     allaolivd    a  »  >rS.  De  Oi)cdicnti:i  Prelatorum. 


238  THE    OPINIONS    OF    WYCLIFFE. 

CHAP,  meeting  these  serious  charges,  it  is  admitted,  that 

1   **  the  fiend  moveth  some  men  to  say,  that  chris- 

"  tian  men    should    not   be   servants  nor  vassals 
"  to  heathen  lords,   since  they  are  false  to  God, 
"  and    less    worthy   than    themselves.      Neither 
*'  should   they  be  such  to  christian  lords,   since 
"  they  are   brethren    in   kind,    (by   nature)    and 
"  Jesus    Christ    bought    christian    men    on    the 
"  cross,   and   made   them   free."      But  it  is  ob- 
served, in  reply,   that  '*  the  apostles  Peter  and 
"  Paul  have  M^ritten  against  this  heresy  in  God's 
*'  law,"    and    their  various  lessons  on   obedience 
to  magistrates  are   so  explained,  as  to   favour  a 
submission   which,    if  faulty   at   all,    is   so   from 
excess.     Conscious  of  injury,  it  is  with  becoming 
feeling  he  remarks,  "  yet  some  men  who  are  out 
"  of  charity,  slander  poor  priests  with  this  error, 
"  namely,  that  servants  or  tenants  may  lawfully 
"  withhold   rents   and    services  from  their  lords, 
"  when  lords  are  openly  wicked  in  their  living. 
**  And    they    invent    this    treacherous    falsehood 
"  against  poor  priests,  to  make  lords  to  hate  them, 
*'  and  not  to  maintain  that  truth  of  God,  which 
**  they  teach  openly  for  his  honour,  for  the  profit 
"  of  the  realm,  for  the  establishing  of  the  king's 
"  power,  and  the  destroying  of  sin."     He  after- 
wards exposes  the  sophistry  by  which   the  ene- 
mies of  the  poor  priests  frequently  succeeded  in 
procuring  a  currency  for  this  slander  among  the 
laity.     "  The  feigned  reasoning  of  the  clerks  of 
"  Antichrist  is  this:  if  subjects  may  lawfully  with- 
"  draw  tithes  and  off'erings  from  curates  who  live 
"  in  open  lechery,  or  in  other  great  sins,  and  do 
"  not  the  ofiice — then  servants  and  tenants  may 


THE    OPINIONS     OF    WYCLIFFE.  239 

"  lawfully  withdraw  their  service  and  rents  from  chap. 

.  .  VIII. 

'*  their  lords,  who  live  openly  an  accursed  life."  L 

In  answer  to  this,  it  is  stated,  "  that  men  are 
"  charged  of  God,  by  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul, 
"  to  be  thus  subject  to  wicked  lords  ;  and  there- 
"  fore  Christ  paid  tribute  for  himself,  and  his 
"  apostles,  to  the  heathen  emperors.  Yet  we 
**  read  not  that  he,  or  any  apostle,  paid  tithes  to 
"  the  wicked  high  priests,  after  the  time  that 
"  he  began  to  preach."''' 

But  while  it  is  thus  certain  that  no  sanction  of  on  the  w. 

mits  of  ma- 

popular  violence  could  be  fairly  extracted  from  the  i;istemi 

1-    •         1  1         /-       1  n  11  authority. 

political  creed  of  the  reformer,  he  knew  that  the 
relation  subsisting  between  the  governing  and  the 
governed  involved  mutual  obligations.  Hence, 
as  the  governed  are  cautioned  against  the  evils 
of  insubordination,  and  restricted  to  the  use  of 
rational  and  constitutional  means  in  seeking  the 
redress  of  grievances ;  the  governing  are  re- 
minded, that  they  are  the  recognised  ministers 
of  God  in  the  use,  and  not  in  the  abuse  of  their 
power — the  extent  in  which  they  prove  a  terror 
to  evil  doers,  and  a  praise  to  those  who  do  well, 

'"MS.  Of  Servants  and  Lords;  how  "  And  to  a  christian  lord,  serve  not 
each  should  keep  his  degree.  This  "  with  grudging,  nor  only  in  liis  pre- 
treatise,  and  the  Trialogus,  appeared  "  sence,  but  truly,  and  cheerfully,  and 
about  the  same  time.  The  following  "  in  his  absence.  And  not  only  for 
passage  is  a  fair  specimen  of  the  re-  "  worldly  dread,  or  worldly  reward, 
former's  manner  in  treating  of  social  "  but  for  the  fear  of  God  and  con- 
obligations  as  devolving  on  the  im-  "  science,  and  a  reward  in  heaven, 
portant  class  of  persons  to  which  it  is  "  For  that  God  who  appoictelli  thee  to 
chiefly  addressed.  "If  thou  art  a  la-  "such  service,  knowelh  which  state 
"  bourer  live  in  meekness,  and  truly  "  is  best  for  thee,  and  will  reward 
"  and  cheerfully  do  thy  labour,  that  if  "  thee  more  than  all  other  lords  nioy 
"  thy  lord  or  thy  master  be  a  heathen  "  do  if  thou  doest  thy  service  truly 
"  man,  he,  by  thy  meekness,  and  "  and  cheerfully  for  the  sake  of  iiis 
"  cheerful  and  true  service,  mv.y  have  "  ordinance."  MS.  A  Short  Rule  of 
"  nought  to  grudge  against  thee,  nor  Life,  &c. 
"  to  sl:inder  thv  God  nor  Christendom. 


240  THE    OPINIONS     OF    WYCLIFFE. 

CHAP,  being  that  of  their  real  claims  on  the  homage  of 

L  the  people.     He  therefore  proceeds  so   far  as  to 

assert,  that  while  by  the  force  of  some  human 
institution,  the  name  of  king,  prince,  or  lord,  may 
be  retained  in  favour  of  men  who  indulge  in 
"  wrongs  and  extortions,"  such  rulers  are,  in 
truth,  "  traitors  to  God,  and  to  his  people."  In 
noticing  "  how  lords  should  live  in  their  state," 
he  remarks  that  "  first,  they  should  know  the  law 
"of  God,  and  study  it,  and  maintain  it;  that 
*'  they  should  despise  injustice,  and  maintain 
"  poor  men  in  their  right,  to  live  in  rest,  and 
"  peace,  and  charity ;  and  that  they  should  suffer 
"  no  man  under  colour  of  their  authority  to  do 
"  extortion,  to  strike  men,  or  to  hold  the  poor 
"  from  their  right."'*  Instead  of  abandoning 
themselves  to  sensual  indulgence,  they  should  be 
careful  in  their  prosperity  to  emulate  the  patriarch, 
who  could  say,  "  when  the  ear  heard  me,  then  it 
"  blessed  me  ;  and  when  the  eye  saw  me,  it  gave 
"witness  to  me;  because  I  delivered  the  poor 
"  that  cried,  and  the  fatherless,  and  him  that  had 
"  none  to  help  him.  The  blessing  of  him  that 
"  was  ready  to  perish  came  upon  me,  and  I 
"  caused  the  widow's  heart  to  sing  for  joy.  I 
"  was  a  father  to  the  poor,  and  searched  out  the 
"  cause  that  I  knew  not,  and  brake  the  jaws  of 
"  the  wicked  and  drew  the  spoil  from  his  teeth." '^ 
In  this  manner  "  to  withstand  wrong  and  evil 
"  doers,  and  to  help  the  poor,  and  fatherless,  and 
"  motherless,  and  the  widow,  and  the  alien  in 
"  their  lordship,"  would  be  "to  govern  them- 
"  selves  in  their  state  as  God  ordained  it,  in  great 

"  MS.  or  Servants  and  Lords.  '^  Job,  cliaji.  x\i\. 


TMF,    OPINIONS     OF     M'YCLIFFE.  241 

"  wisdom,  and  in  might  of  men,  and  sufficiency  chap. 

"  of  riches.""      And    as    civil    government    was  - '- 

plainly  instituted  for  these  purposes,  the  magis- 
trate who  shall  contravene,  or  neglect  them,  is 
admonished  that  for  this  cause  the  providence  of 
God  will  very  probably  transfer  his  power,  and 
at  no  distant  period,  to  hands  of  more  fidelity. 
The  point,  indeed,  at  which  the  wrongs  of  tyranny 
may  be  innocently  encountered  by  force,  the  re- 
former has  not  attempted  to  define.  It  was  to 
imbibe  the  generous  sentiments  of  much  later 
times,  to  treat  the  duties  of  civil  rulers  as  things 
which  should  be  canvassed  with  the  same  freedom 
as  those  of  the  people ;  and  to  regard  the  delin- 
quencies of  both  as  calling  equally  for  reproof 
and  correction. 

But  in  the  fourteenth  century,  the  doctrine  of  Ti>e  owiga. 
WyclifFe  as  to  the  power  of  the  magistrate  with  magistrate 
regard  to  the  church,  was  a  much  greater  novelty 
than  any  thing  taught  by  him  with  respect  to 
secular  government.  We  have  seen  that  he  re- 
garded the  clergy,  as  subject  to  the  magistrate  in 
every  thing  affecting  the  social  interests  of  the 
laity  ;  and  that  he  considered  the  property  of  the 
church,  as  in  no  way  at  the  disposal  of  the  pon- 
tiff— but  as  held  entirely  of  the  crown,  and  as 
liable,  at  the  will  of  the  sovereign,  to  its  share  in 
the  contributions  required  from  the  general  re- 
sources of  the  state.  This,  however,  was  not  the 
whole  of  the  influence  conceded  by  the  reformer 
to  the  civil  government,  with  reference  to  the 
national  priesthood,  and  its  vast  possessions.  To 
tlie  state,  Wycliffe  appealed   lor  protection  iVoni 

1'  MS.  or  good  Pic:ic!iini,-  Pricsls. 


n  relation 
to  the 
cluircli. 


242  THE    OPINIONS    OF    WYCT,IFr£. 

CHAP,  the  persecutions  to  which  he  was  exposed  from 

'-  the  clergy.     Despairing  of  such  a  change,  as  to 

emanate  from  that  order,  he  insisted  also  that  the 
labour  of  reforming  the  ecclesiastical  establish- 
ment had  become  the  duty  of  the  magistrate. 
The  ecclesiastics  of  the  period  are  described  as 
frequently  "  cursing  the  king,  and  his  justices, 
"  and  officers,  because  they  maintain  the  gospel, 
"  and  the  true  preachers  thereof,  and  will  not 
"  punish  them  according  to  the  wrongful  com- 
*'  mands  of  Antichrist  and  his  clerks."  It  is  then 
inquired  "  Where  are  fouler  heretics  than  these 
"  worldly  clerks,  thus  cursing  true  men,  and 
"  stirring  up  the  king  and  his  liege  men  to  perse- 
"  cute  Jesus  Christ  in  his  members,  and  to  exile 
"  the  gospel  out  of  our  land?"  "  Sometimes,"  he 
observes,  "  they  succeed  in  persuading  the  king, 
"  and  lords,  to  torment  the  body  of  a  just  man, 
"  over  which  Satan  has  no  power,  and  to  cast  him 
'*  into  a  deep  prison,  as  though  he  were  some 
*'  sturdy  thief,  and  all  to  make  other  men  afraid 
"  to  stand  forth  on  God's  part  against  their  he- 
"  resies."'*  Exposing  the  abuse  of  spiritual  cen- 
sures, he  thus  adverts  to  the  oppressions  of  the 
times.  "  If  a  true  man  displease  a  worldly 
"  prelate,  by  teaching  and  maintaining  the  law  of 
'*  God,  he  shall  be  slandered  as  a  man  in  error, 
**  and  forbidden  to  preach  the  gospel  of  Christ ; 
**  and  the  people  shall  be  charged  on  pain  of  the 
'*  greater  curse  to  avoid  him,  and  not  to  hear 
"  such  a  man.  And  this  shall  be  done  under 
'*  the  colour  of  holiness.  For  they  will  say,  that 
"  such  a    man    teacheth    heresy,    and    they  will 

'*  MS.   Sentence  of  the  ("iii<c   F,'- noiiiided.  c.  wiii. 


THE    OPINIONS     OF     WYCLIFFE.  243 

"  bring  many  false  witnesses  and  notaries  in  his  chap. 

"  absence,  while  in  his  presence  they  speak  not  a L 

"  word.  And  for  this  they  plead  the  false  law, 
"  that  if  three  or  four  witnesses,  though  false,  anu 
*'  hired  by  money,  say  each  a  thing  against  a 
*'  true  man,  then  he  shall  not  himself  be  heard, 
"  though  he  might  prove  the  contrary  by  the  wit- 
"  nessing  of  two  or  three  hundred."'^  It  is  then 
contended,  that  if  such  evidence  may  be  regarded 
as  sufficient  to  justify  the  conduct  of  persecutors, 
it  would  be  easy  to  establish  the  innocence  of 
multitudes  who  have  shed  the  blood  of  martyrs, 
and  even  to  vindicate  the  conduct  of  the  men  who 
crucified  the  Saviour  of  the  world.  But  while 
these  proceedings  could  not  fail  to  excite  his 
sorrow  and  displeasure,  he  speaks  of  being  sus- 
tained by  a  consciousness  that  as  the  voice  of 
Elijah  at  length  prevailed  against  that  of  eight 
hundred  false  priests  of  Baal,  so  should  the  testi- 
mony of  one  true  man  become  triumphant  over 
a  host  of  Cesarean  prelates.  Still  to  the  re- 
former it  appeared  as  prudent,  and  just,  that  pro- 
tection should  be  sought  in  all  cases  of  clerical 
persecution,  from  the  bearer  of  the  civil  sword. 
From  the  equity  of  the  state,  it  was  accordingly 
solicited,  "  that  no  priest,  nor  religious  man  in 
"  our  land,  should  be  imprisoned  without  an  open 
"  trial,  and  true  cause  fully  shewn  to  our  king, 
"  or  to  his  proper  council — and  that  christian  men 
"  give  more  credence  to  Christ's  gospel,  and  his 
"  life,  than  to  any  bulls  of  the  sinful  bishops  of 

15  MS.    Of  Prelates.      This   custnm        luid    Foiiesrue's    De    Jv^'idilnis,    willi 
wns    founded    on   the    inaxiins    of    the        Seidell's  notes. 
.•Mil  l;i\v.   Soe^^)l.^.  Ch.  i.p.-2:M.23-i, 

\i    2 


244  THE  OPINIONS   of   wycliffe. 

c  HA  p. '' this  world.""'     It  is  in  the  foUowino-  lanauao-e 


vin. 


that  he  contends  for  that  liberty  of  prophesying, 
which  has  done  so  much  for  the  institutions  of 
this  country,  and  the  character  of  its  people, 
"  Worldly  prelates  command  that  no  man  should 
'*  preach  the  gospel,  but  according  to  their  will 
"  and  limitation,  and  forbid  men  to  hear  the 
**  gospel  on  pain  of  the  great  curse.  But  Satan, 
"  in  his  own  person,  durst  never  do  so  much 
"  despite  to  Christ  and  to  his  gospel,  for  he  al- 
"  leged  holy  writ  in  tempting  Christ,  and  thereby 
"  would  have  pursued  his  intent.  And  since  it  is 
"  the  counsel  and  commandment  of  Christ  to 
"  priests  generally,  that  they  preach  the  gospel, 
"  and  as  this  they  must  not  do  without  leave  of 
"  prelates,  who  it  may  be  are  fiends  of  hell — it 
"  follows  that  priests  may  not  do  the  commands 
"of  Christ,  without  the  leave  of  fiends.  Ah! 
"  Lord  Jesus,  are  these  sinful  fools,  and  in 
*'  some  cases  fiends  of  hell,  more  witty  and 
"  mighty  than  thou,  that  true  men  may  not  do 
*' thy  will,  v/ithout  authority  from  them?  Ah! 
"  Lord  God  Almighty,   all  wise,   and  all  full  of 

"'  MS.    Of  good  Preaching  Priests.  cioii,  it  is  observed,  belongs  to  "  lords' 

Yet  he  remarks,  "  I  would  certainly  "  oHice,  as  Peter  and  Paul  teacheth,'' 

"  that  lords    should   wisely   imprison  and  it  is  contended  that   the  punisli- 

"  those  who    are    cursed  of   God   for  ineiits  affecting  the  body  or  the  goods 

"  breaking  his  commandments,  unless  should    proceed    from   that  authority 

"  they    would    leave   their    false    and  alone.     In  the  (ifteentli  chapter  of  the 

"  needless    swearing,    and   the    frauds  same  work  he  complains  that  the  pro- 

"  which  they  use  each  to  the  other."  cess  of  examination  to  which  tlie  Re- 

MS.     Sentence     of     tlie     Curse    Ex-  deemer    "  God  and   man,"    and  Paul 

pounded,  c.  23.      The  twelfth  chapter  "from  the  third  heavens,"  submitted 

of  his  work,  on  Prelates,  censures  the  their  doctrine,  is  abandoned   by  their 

conduct  of  bishops    wiio    fine,  curse,  professed  disciples,  who  deemitsuffi- 

and  imprison  men  on  account  of  reli-  cient  to  plead  the  infallibility  of  their 

gion,  while  they  pardon  the  most  noto-  church,   and   who    persecute   such    as 

rious  oflfenders  on  condition  of  their  dissent  from  that  dogma,  and  question 

"  V^y^"S  ^  '■f"'  'o  Antichrist."    Goer-  the  opinions  it   is  cited  to  establish. 


THE    OPINIONS    OF    WYCLl  KFl:;.  245 

'*  charity,   how  lon^'  wilt  thou  sufier  these  Anti-  chap. 

.                                                             vni. 
''  christs  to  despise  thee,  and  thy  holy  gospel,  and '- 

"  to  prevent  the  health  of  the  souls  of  christian 
"  men?  Lord  of  endless  righteousness,  this  thou 
"  sufferest,  because  of  sin  generally  reigning 
"  among  the  people  ;  but  of  thine  endless  mercy 
"  and  goodness,  help  thy  poor  wretched  priests 
"  and  servants,  that  they  possess  the  love  and 
"  reverence  of  thy  gospel,  and  be  not  hindered  to 
"  do  thy  worship  and  will  by  the  false  feignings  of 
"  Antichrist.  Almighty  Lord  God,  most  merciful, 
"  and  in  wisdom  boundless,  since  thou  sufferedst 
"  Peter  and  all  apostles  to  have  so  great  fear  and 
"  cowardice  at  the  time  of  thy  passion,  that  they 
"  flew  all  away  for  dread  of  death,  and  for  a  poor 
**  woman's  voice ;  and  since  afterwards,  by  the 
"  comfort  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  thou  madest  them 
"  so  strong  that  they  were  afraid  of  no  man,  nor 
"  of  pain,  nor  death;  help  now,  by  gifts  of  the 
"  same  Spirit,  thy  poor  servants,  who  all  their  life 
"  have  been  cowards,  and  make  them  strong,  and 
"  bold  in  thy  cause,  to  maintain  the  gospel  against 
'*  Antichrist,  and  the  tyrants  of  this  world."" 

With  so  much  energy,  and  with  these  devout 
aspirations,  did  the  reformer  contend  for  the  un- 
fettered ministration  of  the  gospel.  Nor  is  there 
room  to  charge  him  with  claiming  a  freedom  in 
this  particular,  which  he  would  not  have  conceded 
to  others.  His  invectives,  indeed,  are  often  vio- 
lent ;  but  when  recommending  his  most  severe 
chastisement  of  the  men  who  had  done  most  to 
destroy  the  purity  of  the  christian  faith,  the  clause 

"  MS.  Of  Prelates,  c.  vil.  p.  T7.  esiieciuliv  in  xv.  x\i.  Nxi.  \xvi.  xvvii. 
Siinilcir  scut'mients  are  expressed  in  \x>iii.  See  hI.io  iloiiniie.--,  IJil).  Kc:;. 
several    ntlaT   clnplers   of  this   work,        np.  I'i'),  i:i7,  Ki"^. 


24C  THE     OPINIONS     OF     WYCLIFFE, 

CHAP.  "  sparing  their  persons,"  is  of  very  frequent  oc- 

—  currence.''     On   this  point,   as  on  many  others, 

his  opinions  belong  not  to  the  age  in  which  he 
lived.  To  attempt  the  conversion  of  a  spiritual 
offender,  by  the  same  measures  which  heathens 
employ  to  correct  their  thieves,  is  condemned  by 
him  as  equally  opposed  to  sound  reason,  and  to 
the  letter  and  spirit  of  the  gospel.  Hence,  the 
extent  of  the  reformation  which  he  proposed,  in 
this  respect,  was  "  that  none  of  the  clergy  be  hin- 
"^  dered  from  keeping  truly  and  freely  the  gospel 
*'  of  Christ,  in  devout  living,  and  true  teaching,  on 
"  account  of  any  feigned  privilege  or  tradition;"'^ 
and  also  that  the  revenues  of  that  order  should  be 
limited  to  the  means  of  a  decent  maintenance,  and 
to  such  persons  among  them,  as  were  free  from 
the  vices  by  which  the  sanctity  of  their  profession 
had  been  so  commonly  degraded. 

To  extend  this  protection  to  devout  men,  and 
to  effect  this  momentous  revolution  with  respect 
to  the  property  of  the  hierarchy,  and  the  cha- 
racter of  its  ministers,  is  declared  to  be  the  pro- 
vince of  the  magistrate.  To  neglect  this  great  work, 
under  existing  circumstances,  must  be  at  the 
peril  of  his  soul.  "  Think  ye,  lords,  and  mighty 
"  men,  who  support  priests,  how  fearful  it  is  to 
"  maintain  worldly  priests  in  their  lusts,  who 
"  neither  know  good  nor  will  learn  it,  nor  will  live 
"  as  holy  men  in  this  order.  For  ye  may  lightly 
'*  amend  them,  by  only  telling  them  that  ye  will 
'*  not  support  them  but  as  they  do  their  duty, 
"  live  well,  and  preach  the  gospel.  Then,  indeed, 
"  they  would  certainly  do  this.      And  think  ye, 

's  Hoiii.  Bib.    Keg.     pp.  10:i,    114.        Parliaiiieiituiii,  and  elsewhoie. 
Objcclioiis   to  Freics.     .\d  Regeiii  ct  '^  MS,  01"  good  Prcacliiog  Priests. 


THE    OPlxMOXS    OF     WVCLIFFE.  247 

'  great  men,  were  not  this  a  thousand-fold  better,  ch  a  p. 
'  than  to  conquer  all  the  world  ?     Hereby  there '- 

*  should  be  no  more  cost  to  you,  nor  travail,  but 
'  honour  to  God,  and  endless  good  to  yourselves, 
'  to  priests,  and  to  all  Christendom.  God  for  his 
'  endless  mercy,  and  charity,  bring  this  holy  end, 
'  Amen."'"  In  another  tract  he  writes,  "  Kings 
'  and  lords  should  know,  that  they  are  ministers 
'  and  vicars  of  God,  to  avenge  sin,  and  punish 
'  misdoers,  and  to  praise  the  good,  as  Peter  and 
'  Paul  say.  Also  Paul  saith,  that  not  only  men 
'  who  do  sin  are  worthy  of  death,  but  they  who 
'  consent  to  it.  Since  lords,  then,  may  amend 
'  the  great  sins  of  pride,  covetousness,  extortion, 
'  and  simony  among  clerks,  they  are  condemned 
'  with  the  sinners  themselves  unless  they  do  it — 
'  cursed  of  God  for  breaking  of  his  laws,  and 
'  because  they  love  not  Jesus  Christ.  And  be- 
'  cause  adversities  and  wars  come  on  account  of 
'  sins  reionino-,  and  not  amended,  lords  should 
'  have  neither  respite,  nor  peace,  until  these  sins 
'  are  done  away.  For  no  man  thus  withstanding 
'  the  law  of  God  shall  have  peace  so  long  as 
'  lords  have  their  lordships  of  God,  to  destroy 
'  sin,  and  to  maintain  righteousness  and  holiness 
'  of  life.  If  then,  they  pay  not  to  God  this  rent, 
'  well  should  they  know,   that  God  must  punish 

*  them  as  he  teacheth  in  his  word.  And  if  lords 
'  do  well  this  office,  they  come  securely  to  the 
'  bliss  of  heaven."" 

20  IMS.  For  llie  Order  of  Prieslhnod.  independence  in  the  clergy,  has  been 

21  MS.  For  three  Skills  Lords  should  always  sufliciently  understood.  But 
constrain  Priests,  &c.  That  Wycliil'e  the  real  extent  of  tlie  magistrates' 
was  a  zealous  advocate  of  the  rights  obligations  with  regard  to  the  church, 
of  tlie  crown,  as  opposed  to  all  secular  and    especially    with    regard    to    the 


248  J' HE    OlMNIONS    OF     WVCLIFFE. 

CHAP.      It  was  not,   however,  the  intention  of  the  re- 

'-.  former,    that   the   rights   of  patronage   should   be 

t'im'ofpr  invaded  by  the  state,  any  more  than  by  the  court 
iroimge.  ^f  Rome ;  though  from  the  thirtieth  year  of  his 
age,  he  ceased  not  to  complain  of  the  worldly 
purposes  to  which  patrons  had  too  commonly 
applied  their  influence.  In  one  of  his  later 
treatises  he  observes,  that  an  idiot  is  often  called 
to  be  "  a  vicar,  or  parish  priest,  who  cannot  do, 
"  and  who  may  not  learn  to  do,  the  office  of  a 
"  good  curate.  Yet  the  poor  parish  provideth 
**  for  him,  and  no  tongue  in  this  world  may  tell 
*'  what  sin  and  wrong  cometh  hereby."  The 
rulers  of  the  nation,  and  the  patrons  of  livings, 
are  accordingly  exhorted,  if  they  would  perform 
their  duty  as  guardians  of  the  best  interests  of 
the  kingdom,  to  separate  all  churchmen  from 
worldly  offices,  and  from  the  snares  of  wealth. 
"  By  this  means  the  poor  commons  would  be 
'*  discharged  of  many  heavy  rents,  and  wicked 
''  customs,  brought  in  by  covetous  clerks,  and  of 
"  many  tallages  and  extortions,  by  which  they 
'*  are  now  yearly  pillaged.  And  thus  by  restoring 
"  lordships  to  secular  men,  as  is  due  by  holy 
"  writ;  and  by  reducing  the  clergy  to  meekness 
*•  and  wilful  poverty,  and  ghostly  travail,  as  lived 
"  Christ  and  his  apostles,  sin  should  be  destroyed 

patronage    or   the   correction  of    reli-  century.     Even  the  mendicants,  whose 

l^ious  opinion,  are  points  on  wliich  the  character  and  doctrine,  according  to 

.sentiments   of  the   reformer  remained  his  own   account,    could  hardly   have 

to  be  known.     It  is  evident,  that  if  his  become   worse,  were  not  to  suffer  in 

scheme  did  not  leave  all  such  opinions  "  their  persons."      His  confidence   in 

to  find  their  level  by  the  force  of  i)ure  the  force  of  truth,  evidently  rendered 

reason  and  persuasion,   it   did   more  in  him  suspicions  as  to  the  utility  of  all 

this  way,  than  the  practice  of  any  of  other  force  in  religious  matters.     Note 

the   parties  ascendant  in   ti'is   country  to  the  second  editiuii. 
before  the  latter  half  of  the  st\  ontetnth 


THE    OPINIONS     OF     M'YCLIFFE.  249 

"  in  each  degree  of  holy  church,  and  holiness  of  *^  ^Jj'Jj^'- 

*'  life  brought  in,  and  secular  laws  strengthened, 

"  and  the  poor  commons  aided,  and  good  govern- 
"  ment,  both  spiritual  and  temporal,  come  again." 
To  guard  the  mind  of  the  laity  against  those  spi- 
ritual terrors,  which  would  certainly  be  employed 
to  prevent  these  changes,  he  observes,  that  the 
more  informed  among  them  knew,  "  that  though 
*'  all  the  clergy  on  earth  should  curse  them,  yet, 
"  forasmuch  as  they  labour  with  a  clean  con- 
"  science,  to  bring  the  clergy  to  that  holy  life 
"  which  is  exampled  and  commanded  by  Christ; 
"  and  to  restore  secular  lordships  to  secular  men, 
"  as  they  should  by  the  law  of  God  ;  that  for  this 
"  righteous  doing,  God  and  all  angels  and  saints 
"  will  bless  them.  And  then  the  curse  of  man 
"  can  harm  nothing,  no,  nor  interdict,  nor  any 
''  censure  which  Satan  may  feign.  Almighty 
*'  God,  stir  our  clerks,  our  lords,  and  our  com- 
"  mons,  to  maintain  the  rightful  ordinance  of 
*'  Jesus  Christ,  and  to  fear  the  curse  of  God,  and 
''  not  the  curse  of  Antichrist  ;  and  to  desire 
"  speedily  the  honour  of  God,  and  the  bliss  of 
"  heaven,  more  than  their  own  honour  and 
"  worldly  joy.     Amen!"^' 

22  MS.  For  three  Skills  Lords  should  "  tlieir  watching  over  christian  souls, 

constrain  Priests,  &c.    The  guilt  of  spi-  "which   Christ  bought  with    his    own 

ritual  treason  is  said  to  be  incurred  by  "  precious  blood,  they  are  foul  traitors 

"  lords  and  ladies  who  hold  curates  in  "  to  Jesus  Christ,  and   to  the  people 

"  worldly   oftices   from   the    souls    of  "  whom  they  thus  destroy."     MS.  Of 

"  which  they  have  the  care.     For  God  Prelates,  chap,  iv.     The   doctrine  of 

"  giveth  them  lordship  and  presenta-  WycliflFe    with    respect   to    patronage 

"  tion    of  cliurches.    to    maintain   his  may  liave  been  inferred   from  his  work 

"  law,  and  to  help  true  priests  in  the  intitled   "  Why  poor  Priests  have  no 

"  preaching  of   the    gospel.      And   if  "  Benefices,"  and  from    a  few    other 

"they    withhold    curates,     who      are  passages;    but  if  any   elibrt   has   boen 

"  God's  treasure,  in  their  worldly  ser-  made  to  ascertain  his  general  language 

■•  vice,  or  in  their  chapels,  or  prevent  on  tliis  point,  the  result  has  never  been 


250  THE    OPINIONS    OF    WYCLIFFE. 

CHAP.      It  should  be  noticed  also,  as   a  circumstance 

VIII. 

which  has  exposed  the  name  of  the  reformer  to 

torn  ofuthes  some  reproach,  that  he  ventured  to  speak  even 
of  tithes,  as  a  mode  of  contribution  for  which  no 


and  the  cf. 
t'ect  of  eccle- 
siastical en 


a'owments"' divine  authority  could  now  be  pleaded.  That 
sanction,  it  was  acknowledged,  had  been  con- 
nected with  this  custom  under  the  Mosaic  eco- 
nomy ;  but  it  was  assumed,  that  both  the  ritual 
and  the  polity  of  that  dispensation  had  passed 
away,  leaving  "its  moral"  only,  as  binding  on 
the  church  in  these  better  times.  So  often  too 
had  his  spirit  been  grieved  on  witnessing  the  force 
employed  through  a  parish  or  a  province,  to 
enrich  a  profligate  clergy,  that  while  inculcating 
most  emphatically  the  duty  of  the  instructed  to 
provide  for  their  spiritual  teachers,  he  was  ever 
ready  to  avow  it  as  his  doctrine,  that  where  the 
priest  failed  notoriously  in  his  office,  the  obli- 
gation to  any  kind  of  contribution  on  the  part  of 
the  people  was  dissolved.  In  such  cases,  the 
clergy  might  resort  to  spiritual  censures,  or  en- 
force their  demands  by  the  aids  of  the  civil  power; 
but  in  so  doing,  they  were  said  to  follow  the 
customs  of  the  world,  more  than  the  example  of 
Christ,  or  the  maxims  of  the  gospel.  The  third 
chapter  of  his  treatise  on  "  Clerks-Possessioners," 
is  commenced  by  describing  the  persons  so  named, 
as  "  traitors  to  God,  to  lords,  and  to  the  com- 
mon people."  To  the  first,  by  deserting  his  law 
in  favour  of  human  devices  ;    to  the  second,  by 

publicly  stated.  This  was  important  notions  on  the  matter  of  clerical  reve- 
to  be  done,  not  only  because  the  re-  nue,  which,  if  they  did  not  go  to  de- 
former  abandoned  many  of  his  earlier  stroy  the  system  of  patronage,  went 
opiui"ons  at  the  close  of  life,  but  necessarily  to  efl'ect  a  serious  modifica- 
because    he    certainly   adopted    some  tionofit.     Note  to  the  second  edition. 


THE    OPINIONS    OF    WYCLIFFE.  251 

placing   them   under   an    anathema   except   they  chap. 

forego   their    duty,    and    become    the    patrons  of '- 

corruption  ;  and  to  the  third,  by  deceiving  them 
in  many  ways,  but  especially  by  ''  teaching  them 
"  openly  that  they  shall  have  God's  blessing,  and 
"  the  bliss  of  heaven,  if  they  pay  truly  their 
"  tithes  and  offerings."^*  To  destroy  this  artifice, 
which  he  knew  to  be  too  successfully  imposed 
on  the  people,  the  reformer  thus  writes  :  "  True, 
"  men  say,  that  prelates  are  more  bound  to 
"  preach  truly  the  gospel,  than  their  subjects  are 
"to  pay  them  dymes ;  for  God  chargeth  that 
"  more,  and  it  is  more  profitable  to  both  parties. 
"  Prelates,  therefore,  are  more  accursed  who 
"  cease  from  this  preaching,  than  are  their  sub- 
"  jects  who  cease  to  pay  tithes  even  while  their 
"  prelates  do  their  office  well."^*  Instead  of 
extorting  such  tribute  from  the  poor  among  the 
people,  their  influence  should  be  employed  in 
promoting  their  edification,  and  in  disposing  the 
opulent  and  the  powerful  to  befriend  them.  Such, 
it  is  stated,  was  the  manner  of  St.  Paul.  And 
those  who  "find  priests"  are  farther  exhorted 
"to  do  their  alms  for  the  love  of  God,  and  for 
"  the  help  of  their  souls,  and  for  the  help  of  chris- 
"  tian  men."  They  are  also  admonished,  that  in 
providing  for  men  averse  to  these  spiritual  ser- 
vices, they  must  become  partakers  of  their  sins."" 
Nor  need  they  fear  the  consequences  of  withhold- 
ing their  sanction  from  the  character  of  such 
teachers,  since  the  pontiff  had  himself  com- 
manded   the   people    to   separate   from    a    priest 

2J  WS.  C.C.  C.  Caml,.ia-o.  '■'^  MS,   !low  Men  should  (liid  Priests. 

-''  3iS.     Of  Prtlatcs. 


252  THE    OPINIONS     OF     WYCLIFFE. 

CHAP,  who  should  refuse  to  put  away  a  wedded  wife; 

L  and  it  surely  was  not  to  be  disputed,  that  there 

were  sins  quite  as  much  at  variance  with  the 
sanctity  of  the  priestly  calling,  as  the  contract 
of  marriage.*"  Hence  it  is  required,  ''that  the 
*'  clergy  of  our  land  be  restrained  from  pride,  and 
"  glorious  array,  and  worldly  occupation.  And 
"  particularly,  that  our  prelates  and  curates  be 
"  charged  by  the  king  and  lords  to  teach  their 
"  people  well,  both  by  the  example  of  a  good 
"  life,  and  by  a  free  and  true  preaching  of  the 
"  gospel,  and  that  they  do  this  as  busily  and 
*'  readily  as  they  seek  their  tithes."^'  It  is  pre- 
sumed, that  in  such  cases  no  difficulty  would  be 
felt  in  securing  that  portion  of  tribute.  The  times 
were  evil,  but  we  must  suppose  that  observation 
and  experience  had  led  the  reformer  to  this  con- 
clusion.^* Where  the  moral  claim  failed  through 
vice  or  negligence  on  the  part  of  the  priest,  an 
appeal  to  the  sword  of  the  magistrate,  "  and  strong 
**  curses  against  men's  good  will,"  is  said  to  have 
no  other  tendency  than  to  irritate  the  laity,  and  to 
frustrate  every  design  of  the  pastoral  relation. 
Such  measures  were  viewed  as  effacing  the  im- 

2*  MS.     How  Prayers  of  good  Men  "  highest   pope.      And   who   art   thou 

helpetli  niach,  &c.  &c.  "  lliat   wilt  not   live  thus?     Wouldst 

^  MS.    Of  good  Preaching  Priests.  "  thou   be  greater  than  Christ  who  is 

"  His  doctrine  with  respect  to   ec-  "  Lord  of  all  the  world?"   Such  ofTer- 

clesiastical  endowments  and  tithes,  is  ings,    however,    on     tile    part  of    the 

introduced   in    his    sermons     quite   as  people,   are  said    to  be  as  binding  as 

frequently  as  in  his  other  works.     See  any  other  form  of  debt.     It  is  at  the 

102,   125,   134.      "  And  therefore  say  same     time    demanded,    "  For    what 

"  many    prelates,     that   no    man   who  "  reason  should    he   have  dymes  and 

"  hath  a  cure,  should  live  but  on  God's  "  ofterings  of  the  |)eople  who  liveth  in 

"  part,  as  on  dymes    and    offerings  ;  "  lust  and  idleiress    and  profiteth  not 

"  and  so  by  pure  title  of  alms  should  "  to  his  people?      Certainly  such  law 

"  they   have    the    goods    which     they  "  must  be  of  the  liend."     Ibid.  lJ6. 
"  have.      For   thus    lived     Christ    the 


THE    OPIXIOXS    OF     WVC  LI  IFF,.  253 

portant  dift'erence  which  had  been  placed  between  c  h  a  p. 

the  authority  of  the  magistrate  and  that  pertain '- 

ing-  to  the  christian  shepherd.  According  to 
"reason  and  scripture"  the  former  might  thus 
enforce  his  decisions;  "but  by  the  gospel,  and 
"  the  life  of  Christ,  and  of  his  apostles,  priests 
"  have  no  such  power  to  constrain  men  to  pay 
"  their  dymes.  Especially,  while  they  do  not 
"  their  spiritual  office,  but  harm  men  by  false 
"  teaching  and  evil  example.  But  even  though 
"  they  did  their  office  well,  and  men  would 
"  not  pay  them  tithes,  still  they  should  not  curse 
"  men,  but  rather  suffer  meekly  as  did  Jesus 
"  Christ." '^ 

The  following  passage  presents  a  fair  specimen 
of  his  frequent  reasoning  on  this  subject.  "  Men 
"  wonder  greatly  why  curates  are  so  unfeeling 
"  to  the  people  in  taking  tithes,  since  Christ 
"  and  his  apostles  took  none,  as  men  now  take 
"  them,  neither  paid  them,  nor  spake  of  them 
"  either  in  the  gospel  or  in  the  epistles — the  per- 
"  feet  law  of  freedom  and  of  grace.  But  Christ 
"  lived  on  the  alms  of  Mary  Magdalene,  and  of 
"  other  holy  women,  as  the  gospel  telleth.  And 
"  apostles  lived  sometimes  by  the  labour  of  their 
"  hands,  and  sometimes  accepted  a  poor  live- 
"  lihood  and  clothing,  given  by  the  people  in  free 

«'  MS.     How  religious  Men  should  "  should   be    greatest,    Ciirist    of  his 

keep  certain  Articles.    In  a  MS.  of  the  "great    wisdom    declared   his  doubt, 

Bodleian    entitled    Vita    Saccrdotuni,  "  and   said    there   are    two    lordships, 

"  the  foul  indowiug  of  the  cburcli"  is  "temporal,   ai;d    spiritual.      The   first 

described  as  having  "  always  harmed  "  falls  to  the  kings  and   lords  of  this 

"  clerks  and  lords  and  commons. "     It  "  world,  and  in  no  way  to  priests,  who 

is  contended  that  the    taught   should  "  are  on  Christ's  side."     This  is  also 

minister  freely    to  every   real   need  of  the     substata>o     of     the      seventeenth 

their  instructors,  but   it    is    observed  cli.'.ptcr    in    the     fourth     book    of    his 

that  "  when  tlie  npostlis  strove  whii^h  Trialngus. 


254  TJ[E    OPINIONS    or     M'YCLIFFE. 

CHAP.  '*  will    and    devotion,   without    askino-    or    con- 
viii.  .  . 
L  "  straining.     And  to  this  end  Christ  said  to  his 

''  disciples,  that  they  should  eat  and  drink  such 

"  things  as  were  set  before  them,  and  take  nei- 

"  ther  gold  nor  silver  for  their  preaching,  or  their 

"  giving  of  sacraments.     And  Paul  giving  a  ge- 

**  neral  rule  for  priests,  saith  thus ;   '  We  having 

**  food  and    clothing,  with   these    things   be   we 

"  content   in    Christ  Jesus.'      Paul   also   proved 

"  that  priests  who  preach  the  gospel  truly,  should 

"  live    by  the    gospel,  and   of  tithes   he  said   no 

"  more.      True,    it  is,    that   tithes   were   due   to 

*'  priests   and   deacons  in   the   old   law ;    and  so 

"  bodily   circumcision   was   then    needful    to   all 

"  men,   but  it  is  not  so  now,  under  the  law  of 

"  grace.     Christ,  however,  was  circumcised,  and 

"  yet  we  read   not  where   he  took  tithes  as  we 

*'do;    nor  do  we   read  in  all   the  gospels,   that 

"  he    paid    them    to    the   high  -  priest,    or   bade 

*'  any  other  man  to  do  so.      Lord,  why  should 

"  our  worldly  clergy  claim    tithes   and   offerings 

**  and   customs  from  christian  people  more   than 

"  did  Christ  and  his  apostles,  and  even  more  than 

"  men    were    burdened   with    under    the    law  ? 

"  Then,  all  priests,  and  deacons,  and  officers  of 

"  the    temple   were    maintained    by   tithes    and 

"  offerings  alone,  having  no  other  lordship.     But 

"  now   some   worldly    priest,    who    is    more    un- 

"  able  than  others,  by  virtue  of  a  bull  of  Anti- 

*'  Christ,  shall  have   all   the   tithes  and  offerings 

"  to  himself."^" 

The  readiness  with  which  churchmen  appealed 

to  the  Old  Testament,  to  prove  the  divine  origin 

ao  M.S.   Scntenc'    nf  tlio   fHise    EM>n,.n<).a.   r.sviii, 


TOE    OPIXIOXS    OF    AVYCLIFFE.  255 

of  tithes,  was  frequently  thus  retorted  upon  them  chap. 

by  our  reformer.     If  the  authority  of  the  levitical  '- 

law  might  be  justly  pleaded,  as  vesting  them 
with  their  claim  to  a  tenth  of  whatever  the  soil 
produced ;  consistency  required,  that  the  estates 
and  the  worldly  offices  of  the  clergy  should  be 
wholly  relinquished,  since  these  were  things  that 
could  not  be  associated  with  the  priestly  cha- 
racter as  sustained  by  the  descendants  of  Levi. 
In  the  same  spirit,  it  is  remarked,  that  "they 
"  take  not  tithes  and  offerings  by  the  form  of 
"  the  Old  Testament ;  that  is,  parting  them  in 
*'  common  to  all  the  priests  and  ministers  of  the 
*'  church.  Nor  according^  to  the  form  of  the  a'os- 
"  pel ;  that  is,  taking  a  simple  livelihood,  given 
"  without  compulsion,  by  the  free  devotion  of  the 
**  people  ;  but  they  take  them  according  to  a  new 
"  law  of  sinful  men,  one  priest  challenging  to 
"  himself  all  the  tithes  of  a  great  country."^' 
The  diversity  of  customs,  also,  which  prevailed 
in  connexion  with  this  mode  of  providing  for  the 
ministers  of  religion,  was  supposed  to  imply  the 
want  of  some  definite  or  authoritative  law.  If 
tithes  were  due,  he  observes,  "  by  God's  com- 
"  mandment,  then  every  where  in  Christendom, 
"  there  should  be  one  mode  of  tithing."''     Thus 

3'  MS.     Hnw  the  Office  of  Curates  "  God,"  lie  exclaims,  "  that  all  wise 

is  ordained  of  God.  "  and  true  men  would  enquire  wliether 

32  MS.    Sentence  of  the   Curse  Ex-  "  it  were  not  better  for  to  find  priests 

pounded,   c.  xviii.      The  reader  will  "  by  the  free  alms  of  the  people,  and 

perceive   from    the  following  extract,  "in  a  reasonable  livelihood,  that  they 

that  the    change  which    the  reformer  "  may  teach  the  gospel  in  word  and 

contemplated     in     the     ecclesiastical  "  deed,  as  did  Christ  and  his  apostles, 

state,  thou<;h  affirmed  to  be  necessary,  "  than  thus  to  pay  tithes  as  men  are 

was  one  which  he  would  have  to  result  "  now  constrtiined  by  a  new  ordinance 

from  the  gravest  attention  to  the  many  "  of  priests,  to  a  worldly  priesthood, 

questions  which  it  involved.    "Would  "  ignorant  and    negligent."      He  pro- 


256 


THE    OPINIOys    OF    M'YCLIFFE. 


CHAP,  the  estates  of  the  clergy,  the  reformer  would 
^"^'  have  restored  to  the  hands  of  the  laity,  as  the 
means  of  promoting  the  general  interests  of  the 
community,  and  especially  of  providing  for  the 
poor.  The  contributions  by  the  people  to  the 
clergy,  he  would  have  limited  to  voluntary  offer- 
ings, so  restricting  that  order  in  the  use  even  of 
such  offerings,  that  whatever  might  remain  after 
their  real  wants  should  be  supplied,  might  minis- 
ter to  the  relief  of  the  necessitous  in  their  re- 
spective flocks. ^^ 


sentlj  adds,  that  "  if  this  first  ordi- 
"  nance  of  Christ  and  his  apostles 
"  come  again  to  Christendom,  then 
"  shall  Christ's  people  be  free  to  with- 
"  hold  their  tithes  and  offerings  from 
"  wayward  priests,  and  no  more  main- 
"  tain  them  in  sin."  To  be  thus  free, 
and  yet  to  provide  "  a  reasonable  live- 
"  lihood  for  good  priests,  were  much 
"  better  and  easier,  both  for  priests 
"  and  commoners,  for  this  world  and 
"  the  next."     Ibid. 

^5  Mr.  Lewis  is  evidently  much 
perplexed  with  this  part  of  Wycliffe's 
doctrine,  and  has  so  treated  it  that  it 
is  diflicult  to  learn  from  his  pages, 
what  the  reformer  really  taught  con- 
cerning church  revenue,  or  what  his 
biographer  considered  him  as  teaching. 
WyclifTe's  enemies  charge  him  with  as- 
serting, that  "  itis  not  lawful  for  priests 
"  to  have  any  ;jro;)fr/j/,"  and  that  tithes 
moreover  are  "  mere  alms,  and  ouglit 
"  to  be  paid  to  none  but  those  who 
"  teach  and  do  their  office."  Mr.  Lewis 
applies  himself  to  account  for  these 
calumnies,  and  to  refute  them.  But 
understanding  the  word  property,  as  1 
presume  we  ought  to  do,  as  meaning 
estates  possessed  by  the  clergy  as 
such  ;  and  by  the  word  alms,  voluntary 
contributions,  as  opposed  to  an  ex- 
torted revenue,  these  accusations  are 
certainly   true,    and    are    rallier   con- 


firmed than  confuted  by  the  passages 
which  his  biographer  has  adduced 
from  his  writings.  Mr.  Lewis  has 
quoted  Cowell's  Interpreter,  a  work 
founded  on  the  worst  principles  of  the 
civil  law,  as  showing  that  all  the  pro- 
perty of  the  realm  belongs  to  the  king, 
and  from  this  legal  fiction  he  has  de- 
scended to  infer  that  WyclifTe  might 
have  said  in  truth,  that  the  clergy 
ought  not  to  have  any  property  !  In 
fact,  Mr.  Lewis's  whole  manner  of 
treating  this  subject  is  unworthy  of  his 
general  candour,  and  if  it  does  not 
amount  to  a  concealment  of  the  truth, 
it  is  certainly  very  like  that  of  a  man 
who  is  coricerned  to  soften  it.  He 
certainly  does  not  state  the  true  doc- 
trine of  the  reformer.  Whether  this 
resulted  from  his  not  knowing  it,  or 
from  his  suppressing  it,  or  in  some 
degree  from  both  these  causes,  I  pre- 
sume not  to  judge.  He  concludes 
witli  aflirming,  that  WyclilVe  never 
taught  that  tithes  might  "  be  detained 
"  by  the  parishioners,  and  bestowed 
"  where  they  will  at  their  pleasure," 
adding  that  this  liberty  was  restricted 
"to  cases  limited  by  law."  But  if  by 
bestowing  tithes  according  to  their 
pleasure,  be  meant  bestowing  (hem 
according  to  their  cimscieiice,  which 
no  doubt  is  tiie  thing  intended,  the 
slatenieni  is  niitniL-.     Ami   if  by  cases 


THt:    OPIXIONS    OF     WVCLiri-E.  257 

And  novel   as  these  opinions    may  appear   on  chap. 

the  first  view  of  them,  it  was  not  in  the  strictest '- 

consistency  that  they  were  denounced  either  as  pironliT' 
erroneous  or  heretical  by  the  partisans  of  Home.  Ihem'y^e! 
For  what  were  the  maxims  which  had  conferred  from  i"/ "^ 
so  much  honour  on  the  monastic  and  mendicant  system" 
fraternities?  Were  they  not  those  which  re- 
garded seclusion  from  worldly  occupation,  and 
separation  from  luxurious  opulence,  as  a  spe- 
cies of  discipline  eminently  favourable  to  the 
increase  of  devotion  ?  The  law  of  celibacy  had 
contributed  much  to  augment  the  influence  of  the 
more  ancient  clergy,  by  exhibiting  them  as  an 
order  of  men  more  self-denying,  and  more  de- 
voted than  the  laity  ;  and  it  is  well  known,  that 
the  religious  had  long  rendered  themselves  the 
object  of  a  much  deeper  veneration,  by  connecting 
with  that  article  of  restraint,  their  vows  of  pecu- 
liar poverty,  and  of  separation  from  the  vain  and 
distracting  employments  which  relate  to  this 
world.  The  principle  involved  in  all  this,  did  not 
escape  the  reformer's  observation;  and  in  his 
case,  it  was  not  enough  to  applaud  the  sanctity 
of  such  rules,  merely  as  exemplified  in  others. 
He  ventured  to  call  on  the  members  of  that 
order  with  which  he  stood  immediately  con- 
nected, even  on  the  most  dignified  among  them, 
to  show  their  sincerity,  by  conforming  them- 
selves at  once  to  the  requirements  of  a  scheme 
which  they  professed  so  greatly  to  admire.      By 

limited  by    law   lie   meant   such  cases  with  respect  to  such  matters,  but  that 

only  as  are  limited  by  the  law  of  the  the  authority  of  that  law  was  supreme, 

church,  or  by  the  law  of  the  land,  this  He  may  not  Lave  judged  wisely  in  this, 

statement   is    equally  incorrect.      The  but  such  was  his  doctrine. — Note  to  the 

reformer  not  only  taucrht  that  there  was  second  edition, 
an  authority  in  "  the  law  of  Christ" 

VOL.    II.  S 


258  THE    OPINIONS    OF    AVYCLIFFE. 

CHAP,  associating    something-    of    the    severity   of    the 

—  cloister  with  their  own  vocation,  the  uses  of  the 

religious  in  the  ecclesiastical  state  would  be  su- 
perseded, and  all  the  reputation  which  had  been 
obtained  by  such  men,  might  be  thus  thrown 
into  the  scale  of  the  parochial  priesthood.  Such 
is  the  bold  theory  to  which  the  reformer  chal- 
lenged the  attention  of  all  churchmen,  and  of  the 
rulers  of  Christendom.  Its  language  was  simply 
this.  It  is  affirmed,  that  to  reduce  the  clergy  to 
that  state  with  respect  to  property,  which  in  the 
age  of  the  apostles  was  never  felt  as  a  disgrace ; 
and  that  to  exclude  them  from  all  secular  offices, 
though  sanctioned  by  the  same  example ;  would 
be  to  annihilate  their  influence,  and  so  to  bring 
upon  the  world  the  last  of  evils.  But  let  it  be 
remembered  by  the  persons  who  reason  thus, 
that  they  have  long  agreed  to  render  their  most 
profound  homage  to  the  men  who  are  distin- 
guished by  their  professed  adherence  to  these 
primitive  models  of  devotedness.  Nothing  is  now 
required,  save  that  the  maxims  which  these  same 
persons  have  so  variously  declared  to  have  most 
of  heaven  in  them,  and  which  they  know  to  be 
favourable  to  the  greatest  influence  on  earth,  be 
allowed  to  form  their  own  character,  and  to  regu- 
late their  own  conduct.  Let  them  connect  a 
poverty  less  equivocal  than  that  of  the  mendi- 
cant, and  a  spirituality  less  suspicious  than  that 
of  the  monk,  with  a  zealous  discharge  of  their 
proper  duties,  and  the  only  result  to  be  anti- 
cipated, is  the  exclusion  of  those  intruders  from 
the  established  system,  and  the  return  of  their 
own    order    to   that   kind    of   ascendancy,    which 


THE    OPINIONS     OF    WYCLIFFE.  259 

was  the  beauty  of  the  primitive  church,  and  was  chap. 
then  found  to  be  fraught  with  every  blessing  to L 


the  shepherd  and  the  flock. 

The  wisdom  or  the  folly  of  this  doctrine,  andmsreve. 
ofthe  reasoning  employed  to  sustain  it,  is  left  to  p^rk^Hy  *' 
the  judgment  of  the  reader;  but  integrity  re-"*^^' 
quires  that  both  should  be  here  distinctly  stated. 
It  is  certain  that  the  changes  thus  urged,  were  by 
no  means  the  consequence  of  a  defective  reve- 
rence for  the  clerical  office.  In  the  language  of 
Wycliffe,  "Good  priests,  who  live  well,  in  purity 
"  of  thought,  and  speech,  and  deed,  and  in  good 
"  example  to  the  people,  who  teach  the  law  of 
"  God  up  to  their  knowledge,  and  labour  fast, 
"  night  and  day,  to  learn  it  better,  and  teach  it 
"  openly  and  constantly,  these  are  very  prophets 
"  of  God,  and  holy  angels  of  God,  and  the  spi- 
"  ritual  lights  of  the  world  !  Thus  saith  God, 
"  by  his  prophets,  and  Jesus  Christ  in  his  gos- 
"  pel,  and  saints  declare  it  well,  by  authority 
"  and  reason.  Think  then,  ye  priests,  on  this 
"  noble  office,  and  honour  it,  and  do  it  cheer- 
"  fully,  according  to  your  knowledge,  and  your 
"  power !  "^^ 

But  in  the  place  of  such  men,  he  saw  a  mul- Hisjud;.. 
titude  who,  while  professing  to  be  the  ministers  "Jectin^ 
of  the  Saviour's  spiritual  kingdom,  possessed  half  his'time. 
the  property  of  the  realm  ;   and  who,  in   propor- 
tion to  their  wealth,  were  found  to  operate  as  the 
chief  barrier  in  the  way  of  every  attempt  to  re- 
store religion   to  its  purity.      These  persons  are 
described  as   "  more  busy  about  worldly  goods, 
"  than  about  virtues,  and  the  good  keeping  of  the 

3'  MS.  For  the  Order  of  Priestliood. 

s  2 


nieiit  re- 

the 
clergy  of 


260 


THE    OPINION'S    OF    WYCIJFFE, 


CHAP. 
VIII. 


*  souls  of  men.  For  he  who  can  best  get  the 
'  riches  of  the  world  together,  and  hold  a  great 
'  household  and  worldly  array,  is  deemed  a  wor- 
'  thy  man  of  holy  church,  though  of  the  gospel 
'  he  shall  not  know  the  least  point.  Such  a  man 
'  shall  be  full  in  favour  and  office  with  the  bishop. 

*  But  that  curate  who   giveth  himself  to  study 

*  holy  writ,  and  to  teach  his  parishioners  to  save 
'  their  souls,  and  who  liveth  in  meekness  and 
'  penance,  and  busy  travailing  in  spiritual  things, 

*  seeking   nought  of  worldly  worship  or  riches ; 

*  is  holden  a  fool,  and  a  disturber  of  holy  church, 
'  and  is  despised  and  persecuted  of  high-priests 
'  and  prelates,  and   their  officers,  and   hated  by 

*  other  curates  in  the  country.  It  is  this,  too, 
'  that  maketh  many  curates  to  be  negligent  in 
'  their  ghostly  charge,  and  to  give  themselves  to 

*  the  occupation  and  the  business  of  the  world. 
'  But  such  curates  think  full  little  how  dearly 
'  Christ  bought  man's  soul  with  his  own  pre- 
'  cious  blood  and  death,  and  how  hard  a  reckon- 

*  ing  he  shall  make  for  these  souls  at  doomsday. 
'  Certainly  it  seemeth  that  they  are  out  of  the 
'  faith  of  christian  men.  For  they  make  not 
'  themselves  ready  to  come,  and  well  to  answer 
'  how  they  came  into  their  benefices,  and  how 
'  they  have  lived  and  taught,  and  how  they  have 
'  spent  the  goods  of  poor  men.  Had  they  a 
'  christian  man's  faith  ready  in  their  mind,  they 

life,  and  therein  con- 
Thus,  while  the  guilt  of  the  laity,  in 
favouring  the  corruptions  of  the  hierarchy,  or  in 
allowing  them  to  exist,  is  described  as  exposing 

35  IMS.  How  the  Office  of  Curates  is  ord^iined  of  God. 


would   begin    a  better 
tinue."" 


THE    OPINIONS    OF     WVCLIFFE.  261 

them  to  the  displeasure  of  Heaven,  their  oftence  chap. 

IS  regarded  as  trivial,  when  compared  with  that  of 

the  clergy.  That  body  of  men,  in  submitting  to 
become  thus  estranged  from  the  spiritualities  of 
their  office,  and  in  contributing  by  their  example 
to  diffuse  impiety,  and  all  the  elements  of  poli- 
tical disorder,  through  the  nation,  are  loudly 
admonished,  that  the  alternative  immediately  be- 
fore them  is  reform  or  ruin.  The  remedy  which 
Wycliffe  proposed,  we  have  seen  ;  and  the  facts 
to  which  he  adverts,  will  serve  to  explain  the  se- 
verity that  marks  certain  of  its  features. 

Those  who  despise  the  will  of  the  dead,  are 
said  to  be  "  cursed  solemnly  of  God  and  man." 
But  Jesus  Christ,  in  his  testament,  bequeathed 
to  his  disciples,  and  their  successors,  peace  in 
"  themselves,  and  in  this  world  tribulation,  and 
"  persecution  for  his  word.  But  worldly  clerks 
"  have  foully  broken  this  good  testament  of 
"  Jesus  Christ.  For  they  seek  the  peace  and 
"  the  prosperity  of  this  world  ;  peace  with  the 
"  fiend  and  with  the  flesh,  and  will  endure  no 
"  labour  in  keeping  or  teaching  the  truth  of  God ; 
"  but  rather  persecute  good  men  who  would 
"  teach  it,  and  so  make  war  upon  Christ  in  his 
"  people  to  obtain  the  worldly  things  which 
*'  Christ  forbid  to  their  order.  In  the  life  of 
"  Christ  in  his  gospel,  which  is  his  testament,  in 
"  the  life  also  and  teaching  of  his  apostles,  our 
"  clerks  may  find  nothing  but  poverty,  meekness, 
"  ghostly  toil,  and  contempt  from  worldly  men 
"  on  account  of  reproving  their  sin,  their  reward 
"  being  in  heaven,  through  their  pure  life,  and 
"  true  teaching,  and  cheerful   suffering  of  death. 


262  THE    OPINIONS    OF    WYCLIFFE. 

CHAP.  *'  Hence   Jesus   Christ  was   so  poor  in  this  life, 

VIII 

1-  *'  that  by  worldly  title  he  had  no  house   to  rest 

"  his  head,  as  he  himself  saith  in  the  gospel. 
"  And  St.  Peter  was  so  poor  that  he  had  neither 
**  silver  nor  gold  to  give  a  poor  crippled  man,  as 
"  is  witnessed  in  the  book  of  the  apostles'  deeds. 
"  St.  Paul,  also,  was  so  poor  in  this  world's 
**  goods,  that  he  laboured  with  his  hands  for  a 
"  livelihood,  and  that  of  his  fellows,  and  suffered 
**  much  persecution,  and  watchfulness,  and  great 
*'  thought  for  all  the  churches,  as  he  himself 
**  saith  in  many  places  of  holy  writ.  And  St. 
"  Bernard  writeth  to  the  pope,  that  in  his  worldly 
"  array,  and  plenty  of  gold  and  silver,  and  lands, 
*'  he  is  a  successor  of  Constantine  the  emperor, 
**  and  not  of  Jesus  Christ,  and  his  disciples. 
*'  Jesus  also  saith,  on  confirming  this  testament, 
"  after  rising  from  the  dead,  '  As  my  Father  hath 
"  sent  me,  so  I  send  you,'  that  is,  to  labour,  and 
**  persecution,  and  poverty,  and  hunger,  and 
**  martyrdom  l"'" 

It  is  sufficiently  evident,  that  the  prominence 
thus  given  by  our  reformer  to  the  self-denial  im- 
posed on  the  pastors  of  the  primitive  church,  arose 
from  the  disgust  excited  by  the  very  opposite 
practices  of  the  contemporary  clergy.  The  fol- 
lowing extract,  will  somewhat  farther  explain  the 
process  of  reflection,  by  which  Wycliffe  passed  to 
his  stern  conclusions  on  the  important  questions 
under  review.  "  True  teaching  is  the  debt  most 
**  due  to  holy  church,  and  is  most  charged  of 
"  God,  and  most  profitable  to  christian  souls. 
"  As   much,   therefore,   as  God's  word,  and  the 

'"  MS.  Sentence  of  the  Curse  Expounded,  c  xiv. 


THE    OPINIONS    OF    WYCLIFFE.  263 

bliss  of  heaven  in  the  souls  of  men,  are  better  ^y'Jf'^^" 


"  than  earthly  goods;  so  much  are  these  worldly 
"  prelates,  who  withdraw  the  great  debt  of  holy 
"  teaching,  worse  than  thieves ;  more  accursedly 
"  sacrilegious  than  ordinary  plunderers,  who 
•*  break  into  churches,  and  steal  thence  chalices, 
"  and  vestments,  or  never  so  much  gold.""  The 
Christianity  supported  by  such  men,  he  often 
describes  as  a  libel  on  the  exalted  Being  whose 
name  is  given  to  it.  For,  he  observes,  if  it  be 
"  a  great  sin  to  witness  falsely  against  a  common 
"  man,  it  is  more  to  do  thus  against  a  holy  man, 
"  and  most  of  all  so  to  do  with  the  name  of 
"  Christ,  the  Head  of  all  saints,  and  the  Lord  of 
"  all  lords!  Also,  if  it  be  a  great  sin  to  lie,  and 
"  to  defraud  men  of  temporal  goods,  it  is  more 
"  to  deprive  them  of  spiritual  good,  as  of  virtues 
"  and  a  moral  life ;  but  most  of  all  to  deprive 
"  them  of  faith,  and  of  the  mirror  of  Christ's  life, 
"  which  is  the  ground  of  all  well-being  here- 
"  after. "^*  The  existing  clergy,  therefore,  as 
having  grossly  betrayed  the  most  important  of  all 
trusts,  are  denounced  as  the  most  guilty  portion 
of  mankind.  On  the  ground  of  this  fact,  which 
is  presumed  to  be  demonstrated  on  the  authority 
of  scripture,  and  on  that  of  the  most  illustrious 
examples,  the  magistrate  is  called  upon  to  sepa- 
rate the  sacred  order  from  those  incentives  to 
covetousness  and  ambition  which  had  mainly 
contributed  to  these  appalling  results. ^^ 

3'  Sentence  of  theCarse  Expounded,  "  open  that  it  needetli  no  more  should 

c.  ii.  "  be  declared  of  them.    But  of  lechery 

31  Ibid.  c.  ix.  "  men  say  that  prelates  are  full  thereof, 

3^  111  his  work  On   Prelates  he  re-  "  and  of  the  most  cursed  species  of  it. 

marks  "  that  many  of  their  sins  are  so  "Such,  indeed,    as  it  is  a   shame   to 


264  THE     OPINIONS    OF     WYCLIFFE. 

CHAP.       It  must  be  remembered,   that  the  doctrine  of 

L  our  reformer,  which  thus  severed  all  endowments 

from  the  ecclesiastical  establishmeiits,  is  not  only 
opposed  to  the  practice  of  the  church  of  Rome, 
and  of  the  church  of  England,  but  to  that  of 
almost  every  sect  in  protestant  Christendom.  It 
is  true,  in  describing  the  custom  of  tithing  as 
being  in  these  later  ages  merely  the  institution  of 
man,  he  would  only  utter  the  sentiment  of  multi- 
tudes, who  have  still  regarded  that  branch  of 
ecclesiastical  polity,  as  in  every  \ievv  just,  and  as 
eminently  useful.  But  in  asserting  that  whatever 
the  assessment  of  the  civil  power  might  be,  the 
voluntary  offerings  of  the  people  should  form  the 
only  revenue  of  the  christian  priesthood,  he  was 
understood,  and  will  perhaps  be  still  understood, 
as  exposing  Christianity  itself  to  the  last  degree 
of  peril.  It  is  certain,  however,  that  no  purpose 
was  farther  from  his  mind.  Had  there  existed 
a  man  in  that  age  capable  of  reasoning  on  such 
matters  with  the  calmness  and  intelligence  of 
Dr.  Paley,  it  is  not  difficult  to  conceive  what  the 
reply  of  our  reformer  would  have  been.  It  might 
have  been  urged  upon  him,  that  Christianity  is  a 
religion  which  in  its  evidences,  and  in  much  of  its 
doctrine,  has  to  do  with  languages  no  longer 
spoken,  and  with  laws  and  customs  which  have 
long  since  passed  into  oblivion.  That,  accord- 
ingly, it  should  be  the  province,  and  the  sole 
province,  of  an  order  of  men,  to  preserve  its  docu- 
ments, to  vindicate  its  claims,  and  to  enforce  its 
truths.     To  this,  it  might  have  been  added,  that  a 

"  know,  mucli   more  to  do.     And  so        "  curates,  both  wedded  men  and  sin- 
"  curates  take  example  of  llicin,  and        "  gle." — MS.  c.  ix. 
"  the    people   take    example   of  their 


THE     OPINIONS     OF     WYCLIFFE.  265 

legal  provision  for  the  support  of  such  persons  is  chap. 

strictly  necessary  to  their  existence,  as  an  order ;  "_ 

since  apart  from  such  a  provision,  the  leisure 
recpjisite  to  their  vocation  could  not  be  secured, 
nor  those  circumstances  of  independence  which 
are  so  necessary  to  a  faithful  discharge  of  clerical 
duty.*" 

In  reply  to  such  statements,  it  would  have  been  summaryof 
remarked  by  Wyclitfe,  that  the  necessity  of  the  respecting 
order  of  men  adverted  to,  and  the  necessity  of  establish. 
such  men  for  the  purposes  named,  it  had  never  cUn'stLnty 
occurred  to  him  to  doubt.  So  far  from  this,  his  revenue'.""' 
complaint  had  long  been,  that  the  clergy  were  not 
more  adequately  prepared  for  the  performance  of 
such  duties,  and  more  completely  separated  from 
all  such  employments,  as  might  prevent  their 
most  efficient  attention  to  them.  To  the  pro- 
ducing of  such  men,  schools,  like  that  in  which 
the  youth  and  vigour  of  his  days  had  passed, 
would  be  deemed  fully  competent — supposing 
them  to  possess  their  proper  liberties,  and  to  be 
suitably  encouraged  by  the  civil  power.  It 
would  have  been  at  once  conceded,  that  among 
the  persons  aspiring  to  the  office  of  churchmen, 
many  would  relinquish  their  object,  if  assured 
that  their  support  must  arise  solely  from  the  free- 
will offerings  of  the  people.  But  this  loss  the 
reformer  would  have  described  as  more  apparent 
than  real.  He  would  not  have  hesitated  to  affirm, 
that  should  this  policy  be  the  means  of  reducing 
the  clergy  to  one-third  of  their  present  number, 
the  change  must  be  fraught  with  benefits  to{j 
great  to  be  ascertained,   if  that  third  should  only 

"  Moral  Philosopli)',  ii.  305—313, 


266  THE    OPINIONS    OF    WYCLIFFE. 

CHAP,  bring  with   them  the  true  spirit  of  their  office. 

L  So  long  as  the  parish  priest  adhered  to  the  law  of 

celibacy,  it  was  but  little  he  could  really  need, 
and  that  little,  it  was  supposed,  might  in  general 
be  obtained,  by  every  devout  man,  without  the 
remotest  sacrifice  of  independence.  On  these 
principles  the  reformer  had  acted  as  rector  of 
Lutterworth ;  they  were  also  the  law  of  his  poor 
priests ;  and  it  was  accordingly  from  experiment, 
that  he  was  prepared  to  assert,  that  neither  priest 
nor  prelate  needed  to  distrust  them,  if  careful  to 
cherish  the  temper,  and  to  maintain  the  deport- 
ment, becoming  their  profession. 

His  language,  therefore,  in  brief  was,  "  let  the 
"  parochial  boundaries  in  the  ecclesiastical  state 
"  remain :  let  the  present  system  of  patronage 
*'  continue  undisturbed  :  but  let  the  men  intro- 
*'  duced  to  the  care  of  souls,  in  such  places,  re- 
**  member  how  it  was  with  their  predecessors  in 
**  the  years  before  Constantine,  with  the  Master 
"  whose  name  they  bear,  and  with  the  apostles, 
**  whom  they  esteem  it  their  honour  to  succeed. 
*'  As  thus  appointed,  let  what  they  solicit  from 
"  the  magistrate  be  simply  protection ;  and  to 
**  meet  the  evils  arising  from  the  withholding  of 
"  settled  pastors  from  the  established  cures,  and 
*'  the  many  which  must  be  inseparable  from  the 
"  appointment  of  improper  men,  let  such  priests 
**  as  may  prefer  the  labours  of  the  evangelist  to 
"  the  more  regular  duties  of  the  parochial  shep- 
"  herd,  be  allowed  to  act  upon  that  preference, 
**  regulating  their  steps,  in  all  things,  by  the 
"  necessities  of  the  people,  and  the  prospects  of 
"  usefulness." 


THE    OPINIONS    OF    WYCLIFFE.  267 

His  object,  therefore,  evidently  was,  to  preserve  chap. 

the  machinery  of  a  religious  establishment,  but  to  L 

preserve  it  subject  to  the  action  of  so  much  ex- 
ternal influence  as  might  serve  to  counteract  its 
necessary  tendencies  to  inertness  and  decay. 
Such  is  the  general  state  of  things  in  this  country 
at  the  present  hour.  And  the  reformer's  theory, 
it  will  be  seen,  is  scarcely  more  at  variance  with 
the  maxims  of  the  present  church  of  England, 
than  with  those  of  the  many  who  have  deserted 
her  pale.  The  positions,  however,  regarded  by 
either  party  as  erroneous,  if  fairly  examined,  will 
be  found  to  have  arisen,  in  most  instances,  from 
a  too  favourable  judgment  of  human  nature  ;  and 
it  is  hoped  that  the  same  charitable  feeling  will 
have  its  place  in  the  mind  of  the  reader,  when 
forming  his  estimate  of  the  character  of  Wyclifte, 
as  connected  with  these  much  disputed  questions. 

While  the  reformer  is  found  thus  assailing  the  on  simony. 
more  acknowledged  sources  of  clerical  opulence, 
it  will  be  anticipated,  that  such  modes  of  exaction 
as  had  been  discountenanced  by  synods  and 
councils,  would  call  forth  his  loudest  censure. 
Simony,  in  the  language  of  the  age,  consisted  in 
the  extorting  of  money  as  the  price  of  discharging 
any  spiritual  function,  as  well  as  in  the  purchase 
of  the  livings  of  the  church.  Against  these  evils, 
which  were  sometimes  most  oppressive,  the  clergy 
frequently  entered  their  protest  in  their  solemn 
assemblies,  but  they  generally  returned  to  their 
respective  cures,  each  to  indulge  in  the  vice 
which  the  whole  had  affected  to  renounce.  "If 
**  any  poor  man,"  the  reformer  writes,  "  shall 
'*  utter  the  truth  of  holy  writ  against  the  tyranny 


268  THE    OPINIONS    OF    WYCLIFFE. 

CHAP.  *«  of  Antichrist  and  his  officers,  nouofht  else  follows 

VIII. 

'—  "  but  to  curse  him,  to  imprison  him,  to  burn  and 

"  slay  him,  and  that  without  hearing  his  defence. 
*'  It  seemeth  that  John's  prophecy  in  the  Apoca- 
*'  lypse  is  now  fulfilled,  when  no  man  shall  be 
**  hardy  enough  to  buy  or  sell,  without  wearing 
"  the  mark  of  the  beast.  For  now  no  man  shall 
"  do  aught  in  the  church  without  these  false  bulls 
"  of  Antichrist,  none  looking  for  their  reward  to 
**  the  honouring  of  Jesus  Christ,  and  of  the  Holy 
"  Spirit,  in  the  souls  of  men."^'  Men  are  there- 
fore said  to  have  become  an  article  of  merchandise, 
in  common  with  the  brute.  But  it  is  required, 
"  that  the  cursed  heresy  of  simony  in  the  clergy 
"  be  destroyed,  both  in  benefices,  orders,  sacra- 
"  ments,  and  pardons."  It  is  also  stated,  that 
*'  whoever  doeth  most  simony,  and  maintaineth 
"  most  sin,  should  be  judged,  known,  and  treated 
"  as  most  a  heretic,  as  most  the  adversary  of 
"  Jesus  Christ,  and  as  Antichrist.""  So  gainful, 
however,  had  the  matter  of  indulgences  become 
to  certain  bishops,  that  should  their  life  extend  to 
twenty  years,  it  was  ascertained,  that  the  receipts 
of  each  from  the  sale  of  such  articles  alone,  must 
amount  to  sixty  thousand  marks.  "  And  thus,'' 
he  feelingly  exclaims,  "  these  wicked  prelates 
"  sell  the  souls  of  christian  men  to  Satan  for 
"  money,  souls  for  which  Christ  shed  his  precious 
"  heart's  blood  upon  the  cross!""  Hence,  it  is 
demanded,  "  that  the  ravening  and  extortions  of 
"  prelates,  and  of  their  officers,  which  they  do 
"  under  the  colour  of  jurisdiction  and  alms,  and 

••I  MS.  Sentence  of  the  Curse  Ex-  *''  MS.  Of  gooil  Preaching  Priests, 

pounded,  c.  x.  xvi.  *'  MS.  On  Prelates. 


THE    OPINIONS    OF    WYCLIFFE.  269 

"  their  maintaininsc  of  sin  for  the  sake  of  an  annual  chap. 

VIII. 

"  rent,  be  wisely  and  truly  stopped,  and  that  they 

"  be  well  chastised  for  thus  robbing  of  the  king's 
"  liege  men."**  But  while  the  native  clergy  are 
thus  guilty,  in  this  respect,  "  the  simony  of  the 
"  court  of  Rome  does  most  harm,  for  it  is  most 
"  common,  and  done  most  under  the  colour  of 
"  holiness,  and  robbeth  most  our  land  both  of 
"  men  and  treasure."  In  describing  the  en- 
croachments of  papal  avarice,  he  remarks,  "  when 
"  a  lord  receives  the  gold  for  presenting  to  a 
"  benefice,  the  gold  dwelleth  still  in  the  land,  but 
"  when  the  pope  hath  the  first-fruits,  the  gold 
"  goeth  out,  and  cometh  never  again.  And  as 
"  for  pardons,  if  they  be  aught  worth,  they  must 
"  be  free  ;  and  to  take  money  for  them,  is  to  sell 
"  the  goods  of  grace,  and  therefore  simony." 
The  guilty  are  then  reminded  of  the  leprosy 
which  fell  on  Gehazi,  and  of  the  anathema  pro- 
nounced by  St.  Peter  on  Simon  Magus  ;  while 
"  kings  and  lords"  are  said  to  be  "  charged  of 
"God  to  destroy  this  sin,  and  others;  and  if 
"  they  do  it  not,  they  are  consenters  and  fauters 
"  thereof."" 

But  it  will  be  remembered,  that  in  instances  on  the  .pi. 

,         ritual  power 

where  the  temporal  power  oi  the  pope  was  the  ofthe  pope. 
matter  of  debate,  and  where  many  an  exaction 


•"  MS.  Of  good  Prencbinn;  Priests.  two  >hillings  from  each  person,  (Life 

«   MS.  On    Prelates.      From    IMr.  of  Wiclif,  pp.  157, 1.58.)  But  there  was 

Lewis's  account  of  this  evil,  it  would  no  branch  ofthe  ecclesiastical  s^'steni 

seem   that    the    reformer's   complaints  free  from  this  corruption,  and  it  was 

respecting   it   referred   mainly,   if  not  important  to  know  that  Wycliffe's  op- 

entirely,    to    certain   fees  which   were  position  to  the  evil  was  as  extended  as 

extorted  from  the  junior  clergy  at  or-  the  evil  itself,  and  that  it  was  founded 

dination,  and  which  at  the  most  do  not  on  the   ni   st  rational   and  devout  prin- 

appear  to  have  amounted  to  more  than  ciplcs.  —  Note  to  the  second  edition. 


270  THE    OPINIONS    OF    WYCLIFFE. 

c^Jj^  P- proceeding  from  the  necessities  or  the  avarice  of 

the  papal  court  had  occasioned  serious  complaint, 

the  successor  of  St.  Peter  was  still  revered  as 
the  spiritual  head  of  Christendom.  From  him, 
as  from  a  fountain,  all  clerical  power,  it  was 
thought,  must  proceed  ;  and  to  him  either  alone, 
or  as  connected  with  a  general  council,  lay  the 
last  appeal  on  every  question  relating  to  the  doc- 
trine or  the  discipline  of  the  church.  The  vices 
of  this  spiritual  sovereign,  might  be  as  pre-emi- 
nent as  his  station  ;  but  it  was,  nevertheless 
true,  that  on  him,  as  the  master- link,  the  whole 
hierarchy  depended  for  its  sanctity  and  existence. 
Wycliffe  saw  that  an  important  relation  did  in- 
deed subsist  between  the  head  and  the  members 
of  that  vast  body.  But  that  this  relation  was  of 
divine  appointment,  he  explicitly  denied ;  nor 
could  he  doubt  the  corruption  of  a  fountain, 
whence  so  much  evil  had  descended. 

The  prelates  of  the  age  are  said  to  assert,  '*  that 
*'  they  ought  not  to  be  subject  to  secular  lords, 
**  so  as  to  pay  them  taxes,  and  to  aid  the  com- 
"  mons  ;  and  also  that  they  are  not  to  be 
"  amended  by  their  people  of  their  open  sins, 
"  but  by  the  pope,  who  is  their  sovereign,  and 
"  he  by  no  man  on  earth,  because  he  is  greater 
"  than  all."'"  The  reformer  observes,  in  another 
treatise,  and  with  visible  indignation,  "  that  when 
"  men  speak  against  prelates  and  the  religious, 
"  appealing  to  the  poverty,  and  meekness,  and 
"  other  virtues  of  Christ,  they  say  that  these  are 
"  the  counsels,  and  not  the  commandments  of 
"Christ;    and    that,    therefore,    the   bishop    of 

*'■  MS.   On  Prelates,  c.  xvii. 


THE     OPINIONS    OF    "VrYCLIFFE.  271 

"  Rome,    who   of   all    men    is  most   contrary  to  ^"jfj^* 

"  Christ  in  life  and  teaching,  may  dispense  with 

"  them."*^  On  the  impiety  of  this  doctrine, 
Wycliffe  thus  writes.  "  All  those  who  falsify 
"  the  pope's  bulls,  or  a  bishop's  letter,  are  cursed 
"  grievously  in  all  churches,  four  times  in  the 
"  year.  Lord,  why  was  not  the  gospel  of  Christ 
"  admitted  by  our  worldly  clerks  into  this  sen- 
"  tence  ?  Hence,  it  appeareth,  that  they  magnify 
"  the  bull  of  a  pope,  more  than  the  gospel;  and 
"  in  proof  of  this,  they  punish  men  who  trespass 
"■  against  the  bulls  of  the  pope,  more  than  those 
"  who  trespass  against  the  gospel  of  Christ. 
"■  Accordingly,  the  men  of  this  world  fear  the 
"  pope's  lead,  and  his  commandments,  more  than 
"  the  gospel  of  Christ,  or  the  commands  of  God. 
"  It  is  thus  that  the  wretched  beings  of  this 
"  world,  are  estranged  from  faith,  and  hope,  and 
"  charity ;  and  become  corrupt  in  heresy  and 
"  blasphemy,  even  worse  than  heathens.  Thus 
"  it  is,  that  a  clerk,  a  mere  collector  of  pence, 
"  who  can  neither  read  nor  understand  a  verse 
"  in  his  psalter,  nor  repeat  the  commandments 
"  of  God,  bringeth  forth  a  bull  of  lead,  testifying 
"  in  opposition  to  the  doom  of  God,  and  of  ma- 
"  nifest  experience,  that  he  is  able  to  govern 
"  many  souls.  And  to  act  upon  this  false  bull, 
"  he  will  incur  costs  and  labour,  and  often  fight, 
"  and  get  fees,  and  give  much  gold  out  of  our 
"land  to  aliens  and  enemies;  and  many  are 
"  thereby  slaughtered  by  the  hand  of  our  ene- 
"  mies,  to  their  comfort  and  our  confusion.     Also 

■•'  MS.     There    he     ei^Ut    (liings     bj'    which    simple    christian    men    be    es- 
trnn^ed,  &:c.     Bibl.  Bndl. 


272  THE     OPINIONS    OF    WYCLIFFE. 

CHAP.  "  the   proud   priest    of  Rome  getteth  images   of 


VIII 


"  Peter  and  Paul  on  his  lead,  and  would  have 
"  christian  men  believe,  that  all  which  the  bulls 
"  thus  sealed  speak,  is  done  by  their  authority, 
"  and  that  of  Christ.  And  thus  as  far  as  he  may, 
"  he  maketh  that  which  is  false  to  be  the  work 
**  of  Peter,  and  Paul,  and  Christ,  and  in  this 
"  would  make  them  false.  And  by  means  of  this 
"  blasphemy,  he  robbeth  Christendom  of  faith, 
*'  and  good  life,  and  worldly  goods.'"**  Instead 
of  bowing  to  this  authority,  the  reformer  states  it 
to  be  "  the  certain  understanding  of  some  men, 
"that  the  cruel  manslayer  of  Rome,  is  not  St. 
"Peter's  successor;  but  the  enemy  of  Christ, 
"  the  master  of  the  emperor,  and  poison,  under 
"  the  colour  of  holiness ;  and  that  he  maketh 
"  most  unable  curates. "^^  In  the  following  ex- 
tract, the  tenet  adverted  to  is  numbered  with 
those  clerical  inventions,  which  in  later  ages  had 
so  far  destroyed   the  simplicity   of  the  christian 

<8  MS.  Sentence  of  the  Curse  Ex-  all  these  corruptions,  the  clergy  are 
pounded,  c.  xvi.  Rome  he  elsewhere  said  to  maintain  their  allegiarwe  to 
describes,  as  converted  into  a  mart  for  their  chief,  "  so  that  when  Paul  asks 
the  property  of  the  church,  "  where  "  how  men  should  preach,  except  they 
"  he  who  can  bring  the  most  gold,  "  be  sent,  they  understand  this  but  of 
"  shall  soonest  be  appointed  to  great  "  such  as  are  sent  by  the  pope,  and 
"  benefices."  The  men  so  introduced  "  other  worldly  prelates."  To  this, 
are  said  to  be  examples  of  pride  and  however,  it  is  replied,  "  that  sending 
other  sins,  and  hinderances  to  other  "  of  these  worldly  prelates  is  not 
true  priests  who  would  teach  the  law  "  enough,  without  a  sending  of  God, 
of  God.  And  he  remarks  with  solem-  "as  St.  Paul  saith."  The  authority 
nity  "  that  of  all  the  vengeance  which  thus  assumed,  is  not  only  such  as 
"  God  taketh  of  sinful  men  this  is  most,  would  make  good  men  depend  on  the 
"  to  suffer  such  hypocrites  to  rule  the  sanction  of  "  fiend's  children"  that  they 
"  people,  and  by  a  withdrawnient  of  might  preach  the  gospel,  but  such  as 
"  his  word  to  draw  them  to  hell."  To  would  even  prevent  an  angel  from  deli- 
announce  such  men  "  as  able  curates,  vering  his  message  to  the  world,  should 
"  and  great  men  of  holy  church,"  is  it  please  this  haughty  priest  to  contro- 
noticed  as  a  fair  sample  of  "  Anti-  vert  "  God's  bidding."  Ibid.c.  i. 
"  Christ's  blasphemy."     In  the  face  of  ^-i  Ibid.  c.  iii. 


THE    OPINIONS     OF    M^YCLIFFE.  273 

profession.  "  Prelates  also  make  many  new  points  chap. 

"  of  belief,  and  say  it   is  not  enough  to  believe  — 

"  in  Jesus  Christ,  and  to  be  baptized — as  Christ 
"  saith  in  the  gospel  by  St.  Mark — except  a  man 
*'  also  believe  that  the  bishop  of  Rome  is  the  head 
'*  of  holy  church.  But  certainly  no  apostle  of 
"  Jesus  Christ  ever  constrained  any  man  to  be- 
"  lieve  this  of  himself.  And  yet  they  were  cer- 
"  tain  of  their  salvation  in  heaven.  How  then 
"  should  any  sinful  wretch  constrain  men  to  be- 
"  lieve  that  he  is  head  of  holy  church,  while 
"  he  knows  not  whether  he  shall  be  saved  or 
"lost?  Certainly,  when  the  bishop  of  Rome  is 
"  one  who  shall  be  coiidemned  for  his  sin,  it  is  a 
"  devil  of  hell  that  they  would  compel  men  to 
"  regard  as  the  head  of  holy  church  !"'** 

But  the  supremacy  of  the  pontiff  may  be  totally  onthe 

hierarchy. 

renounced,  and  the  forms  of  that  hierarchy,  of 
which  he  was  so  long  the  accredited  head,  be  care- 
fully retained.  And  had  WyclifFe  seen  the  members 

5"  MS.  Of  Prelates,  c.  xiv.    Advert-  "  most  proud  in  opposition  to  Christ's 

ing  to  (he, papal  schism,  he  concedes  "  meekness,    and    most    covetous    of 

the  claim  of  Urban  to  be  preferable  to  "worldly  goods  and  lordships."    To 

(liat  of  his  rival,  but   speaiis  of  any  place  the  church  under  the  control  of 

opinion    on   that  subject  as  "  beside  sucli   authority,   is   described   as   her 

"  belief,"  that  is,  as  being  no  essen-  subjection  to  the  power  of  Antichrist, 

tial  part  of  tlie  christian  faith.     It  is  in  Ibid.  c.  xxii.     Thus  also,  in  one  of  the 

the  following  manner  that  he  frequently  latest  of  his  homilies  he   states   that 

exposes  the  inconsistencies  involved  in  "  true  men  say  that  so  long  as  Christ 

the  doctrine  of  the  pope's  supremacy.  "  is  in  heaven  (he  church  hath  in  him 

"  It  is  openly  said  that  there  is  no-  "  the   best   pope  ;    and   that   distance 

"thing  lawful    among    christian   men  "  hindereth  him  not  in  doing  his  deeds, 

"  without  leave  of  the  bishop  of  Rome,  "as  he  promiselh  that  he  is  with  his 

"  though  he  should  be  Antichrist,  full  "  always   to   the    end  of  the  world." 

"  of  simony  and  heresy.      And  com-  Such  men,  it  is  farther  said,  "  dare 

"  raonly,    of    all   priests    he    is   most  "  not  put  two  heads,  lest  the  church 

"  contrary  to  Christ,  both  in  life  and  "be  monstrous."    The  "Head  above" 

"teaching;  and  he  maintaineth  most  is  therefore  commended  as  alone  wor- 

"  sin  by  his  privileges,  excommunica-  thy  of  confidence.      Horn.   Bib.  Reg. 

"  tions,    and   long  pleas  ;    and   he  is  181. 
VOL.    II.  T 


274  THE    OPINIONS    OF    WYCLIFFE. 

CHAP,  of  the  christian  aristocracy,  distinguished  by  their 

'-  piety  and  pastoral  zeal,  as  they  were  by  names 

and  jurisdiction,  it  is  probable  that  the  propriety  of 
the  distinctions  conceded  to  prelates  or  metropoli- 
tans, would  never  have  been  questioned  by  him. 
Before  his  day,  many  vigorous  efforts  had  been 
made  to  check  the  despotism  of  the  papacy,  but 
the  claims  of  the  national  hierarchies  had  been,  in 
general,  regarded  as  sacred.  To  our  reformer, 
however,  these  gradations  of  office  in  the  church 
appeared  to  be  unauthorized  and  injurious.  I  must 
presume  that  the  reader  is  familiar  with  the  sub- 
stance of  the  controversy  relating  to  this  subject, 
and  content  myself  with  simply  stating  the  judg- 
ment of  Wycliffe  concerning  it,  in  his  own  lan- 
guage. Dividing  the  church  into  three  parts, 
consisting  of  "  preachers,  defenders,  and  labour- 
**  ers,"  he  describes  the  first  as  including  the  men 
"  who  should  be  next  to  Christ,  and  next  to  hea- 
*'  ven,  and  most  full  of  charity."  Of  this  part  he 
also  states,  that  "  they  should  all  be  of  one  re- 
**  ligion,  as  priests  and  deacons,  living  the  life  of 
"  clerks.  But  the  fiend,"  he  remarks,  "  has 
"  changed  this  part  to  many  colours,  as  seculars 
"  and  religious.  And  these  have  both  many  parts, 
'*  as  popes,  and  cardinals,  and  bishops,  and  arch- 
"  deacons  :  also  monks,  and  canons,  hospitalers, 
**  and  friars."  The  writer  then  proceeds  to  ex- 
pose the  sectarian  animosities,  and  the  spirit  of 
domination,  which  these  diversities  of  pretension 
and  authority  are  said  to  have  introduced ;  and 
the  whole  is  regarded  as  the  chastisement  incurred 
by  deserting  the  laws  of  the  gospel,  which  declare 
that   "it  were  better  for  clerks  to  be  all  of  one 


THE    OPINIONS    OF    WYCLIFFE.  275 

"  state."    The  orisiii  of  the  distinctions  which  had  chap. 

obtained  among  the  secular  clergy,  is  thus  given. 

*'  By  the  ordinance  of  Christ,  priests  and  bishops 
"  were  all  one.  But  afterwards,  the  emperor 
*'  divided  them,  and  made  bishops  lords,  and 
"  priests  their  servants ;  and  this  was  the  cause 
"  of  envy,  and  quenched  much  charity.  For  the 
"  ordinances  of  Christ  are  founded  in  meekness, 
"  in  unity,  and  charity,  and  in  contempt  of  riches, 
"  and  high  estate."  This  reasoning  he  concludes 
by  observing,  "  so  if  possessioners  were  brought 
"  to  that  state  which  Christ  ordained  for  his 
"  clerks,  then  should  men  live  in  charity,  both 
"  with  seculars  and  also  with  the  religious."" 
In  his  Trialogus,  the  same  doctrine  is  more  than 
once  inculcated.  He  there  observes,  "  I  boldly 
"  assert  one  thing,  viz.  that  in  the  primitive 
"  church,  or  in  the  time  of  Paul,  two  orders  of 
**  the  clergy  were  sufficient,  that  is,  a  priest 
"  and  a  deacon.  In  like  manner  I  affirm,  that  in 
"  the  time  of  Paul,  presbyter  and  bishop  were 
*'  names  of  the  same  office.  This  appears  from 
"  the  third  chapter  of  the  first  Epistle  to  Ti- 
"  mothy,  and  in  the  first  chapter  of  the  Epistle 
"  to  Titus.  And  the  same  is  testified  by  that 
"  profound  theologian  Jerome."  He  then  re- 
marks again,  that  the  authority  of  popes  and 
cardinals,  of  patriarchs,  archbishops,  and  other 
dignitaries,  was  unknown  in  the  primitive  church; 
and  thus  concludes  :  "  From  the  faith  of  the 
"  scriptures,  it  seems  to  me  to  be  sufficient,  that 
"  there  should  be  presbyters  and  deacons  hold- 
"  ing   that    state    and   office   which    Christ    has 

51  MS.  On  the  Seven  Deadly  Sins.    Cod.  Rir.  Jamesii.  Bibl.  Bodl. 
T  2 


gimis orders 


276  THE  OPINIONS  OF  WYCLIFFE. 

CHAP.  "  imposed  on  them,  since  it  appears  certain,  that 

—  "  these  degrees  and  orders  have  their  origin  in 

"  the  pride  of  Caesar.  If,  indeed,  they  were 
**  necessary  to  the  church,  Christ  and  his  apostles 
**  would  not  have  been  silent  respecting  them,  as 
"  those  impiously  pretend  who  magnify  the  papal 
"  laws  above  those  of  Christ.  Every  catholic 
**  should  judge  of  the  office  of  the  clergy,  from 
*'  what  is  taught  in  scripture,  especially  in  the 
"  Epistles  to  Timothy  and  Titus.  Nor  ought  he 
*'  to  admit  the  new  inventions  of  Csesar."" 

But  it  will  be  perceived,  that  while  all  grada- 
tion of  authority  among  the  secular  clergy  is  thus 
rejected,  their  general  claims,  as  an  order,  are 
considered  as  legitimate.  This  concession,  how- 
ever, is  not  made  with  regard  to  the  monks,  or  the 
mendicants.  These  are  regarded  as  subject  to  laws 
which  are  in  themselves  opposed  to  scripture,  and 
in  their  tendency  only  evil ;  while  the  parochial 
clergy  have  simply  to  return  to  the  spirit  of  their 
vocation,  to  become,  indeed,  the  fathers  of  their 
people,  and  the  chief  benefactors  of  their  country. 
What  the  Pharisees,  the  Sadducees,  and  the 
Essenes  were  in  the  age  of  the  Saviour,  that  the 
friars,  the  monks,  and  the  canons,  are  said  to  have 
become  in  the  history  of  the  church, — a  mul- 
titude embracing  so  much  of  the  element  of  d\^- 

"Trialogus.Iib.iv.c.xv.  "Touching  "  troullie  is,  that  in  the  Newe  Testa- 

"  holj  orders,  he  held  that  there  were  "  mente  there  is  no  mention  made  of 

"  but  two,  viz.  of  deacons  and  priests,  "  any  degrees  or  distinctions  in  orders, 

"  so  do  we."    Dr.  James's  Apology  for  "  but  only  of  deacons  or  ministers,  and 

John  Wyclifle,  p.3I.     The  doctorpro-  "  of  priests  or  bishops.     Nor  is  there 

bably  refers  to  the  following  passage  "  any  word  spoken  of  any  other  cere- 

in    the    "  Institution    of    a   Christian  "  niony  used  in  the  conferring  of  this 

"  Man,"  a  work,  which  was  intended  "  sacrament,  but  only  of  prayer,  and 

to  express  the  doctrine  of  the  church  "  of    the   imposition   of  the   bishop's 

of  England  under  Heury  VIII.     "The  "hand."     c.  vlii. 


THE    OPINIONS     OF    WYCLIFFE.  277 

cord,  as  to  be  ag^reed  in  nothino^,  except  in  their  chap. 

.   .  ^  .  ^  ^  VIII. 

opposition  to  the  designs  of  the    gospel.      It   is 

true,  the  contemporary  prelates  are  frequently- 
compared  to  Annas  and  Caiaphas  ;  but  they  are 
still  described  as  "  less  hypocrites"  than  the  reli- 
gious, inasmuch  as  these  not  only  descend  to  the 
same  vices,  but  aggravate  their  guilt  by  claiming 
the  reputation  of  unusual  sanctity.  That,  how- 
ever, which  chiefly  offended  our  reformer,  in 
the  case  of  these  fraternities,  was  the  reflection 
which  their  very  existence  involved  with  respect 
to  the  wisdom  or  the  benevolence  of  the  Re- 
deemer. The  preference  of  human  inventions  to 
the  known  example,  or  to  the  plain  instructions 
of  the  Son  of  God,  he  viewed  as  including  the 
essence  of  blasphemy,  since  it  imputed  defect  to 
the  Godhead.  It  is  thus  he  reasons  to  show,  that 
these  pretenders  to  superior  purity  were  in  truth 
idolaters.  "  If  they  choose  to  be  ruled  more 
"  according  to  the  ordinance  of  sinful  men  and 
"  idiots,  than  according  to  the  pure  ordinance  of 
"  Christ;  and  say  that  the  ordinance  of  sinful 
"  man  is  better,  and  more  certain,  and  more  per- 
"  feet  than  is  the  pure  ordinance  of  Christ ;  herein 
"  they  treacherously  break  all  the  command- 
"  ments  of  God.  They  worship  false  gods,  and 
"  are  heretics  and  blasphemers ;  they  worship, 
"  and  love,  and  fear  sinful  men,  and,  in  some 
"  cases,  even  devils,  more  than  God  Almighty; 
"  and  Austin  saith,  that  a  man  maketh  that  to  be 
"  his  god,  which  he  feareth  most,  and  loveth 
"  most.""     While  such  were  the  reformer's  opi- 

•■5  j>IS.      Discourse    on    Luke,    c.  x.      Altendito    ;i   funnciito  Pliaiisecs,    &c. 
r.  C.  C.   Cambridge.      Sei'   c.  vii.   p.  233. 


278  THE    OPINIONS    OF    WYCLIFFE. 

CHAP,  nions  as  to  the  origin,  and  the  character,  of  the 

~  religious  orders,  it  is  not  surprising  that  in  his  plans 

for  sequestrating  the  endowments  of  the  church,  the 
wealth  of  the  monasteries  should  be  pointed  out  as 
especially  susceptible  of  a  much  wiser  application, 
onthena.  Nor  was  hc  at  all  aware  of  hazarding  any  real 
Christian  intercst  of  the  church,  by  his  proposed  exclusion 
of  all  official  precedence  from  among  her  priest- 
hood, or  by  his  unqualified  opposition  to  the 
monastic  orders.  Since  the  period  in  which 
assemblies  of  fallible  men  were  first  allowed  to 
determine  the  tenets  which  should  be  acknow- 
ledged as  christian  by  whole  provinces  and 
nations,  the  name  of  the  church  had  been 
imperceptibly  transferred  from  the  people  to  their 
spiritual  guides.  The  judgment  of  the  church 
ceased  to  be  that  of  the  body  of  the  faithful.  And 
that  modest  deference  to  general  opinion,  which 
was  observable  in  the  conduct  of  the  earlier  mi- 
nisters of  the  gospel,  was  not  enough  to  satisfy 
the  more  doubtful  claims  of  many  among  their 
successors.  Passing  by  the  customs  of  cen- 
turies,— over  which  a  melancholy  glance  was  often 
cast,  as  on  the  gloomy  space  in  which  every  thing 
evil  had  sprung  up, — the  reformer  took  his  place 
with  the  christian  brotherhood  of  the  ages  im- 
mediately following  that  of  the  apostles  ;  and 
from  the  facts  of  that  age,  and  of  some  others  fol- 
lowing, as  well  as  from  holy  writ,  he  learned  to 
discard  the  notion  of  a  church  representative — that 
is,  a  church  including  the  teachers  and  excluding 
the  taught.  A  senate  may  represent  a  nation,  but 
it  is  not  the  nation.  Hence,  whether  Wycliftes 
attention  were  directed  to  ecclesiastical  autliority, 


THE    OPINIONS     OF    WYCLIFFE.  279 

or  to  ecclesiastical  wealth,  he  contended  that  by  chap. 

1  •  r  ,  11      •  VIII. 

such  expressions,  as  tar  as  they  occur  at  all  in 

the  memorials  of  primitive  Christianity,  it  is  the 
power  and  the  property  of  the  christian  fellowship 
that  are  meant,  and  not  merely  those  of  the  clergy. 
He  speaks  accordingly  of  his  scheme,  in  relation  to 
the  endowments  of  the  church,  as  more  nearly  allied 
to  general  equity  than  to  the  guilt  of  sacrilege. 
And  when  required  to  bow  to  the  decision  of  the 
church,  the  propriety  of  such  a  demand  is  less 
the  matter  of  dispute,  than  the  claims  of  the 
christian  priesthood  to  be  considered  as  forming 
the  church ;  and  as  being,  in  consequence,  alone 
possessed  of  church  authority.  His  doctrine  on 
this  point,  is  thus  stated.  *'  When  men  speak 
"  of  holy  church,  anon,  they  understand  prelates 
"  and  priests,  with  monks,  and  canons,  and  friars, 
*'  and  all  men  who  have  tonsures,  though  they 
**  live  accursedly,  and  never  so  contrary  to  the 
"  law  of  God.  But  they  call  not  the  seculars 
"  men  of  holy  church,  though  they  live  never  so 
"  truly,  according  to  God's  law,  and  die  in  perfect 
*'  charity.  Nevertheless,  all  who  shall  be  saved  in 
**  the  bliss  of  heaven,  are  members  of  holy  church, 
"  and  no  more."  Many,  on  the  contrary,  who 
are  called  such  are  "  the  enemies  thereof,  and  the 
"  synagogue  of  Satan."'''  At  another  time,  he 
writes,  "all  those  are  cursed  solemnly,  who  spoil, 
*'  or  take  away  any  right  from  holy  church,  or 
"  defraud  holy  church  of  any  endowment ;"  and 
to  this  it  is  replied,  '*  that  christian  men,  taught 
''  in  God's  law,  call  holy  church  the  congregation 
"  of  just  men,  for  whom  Jesus  Christ  shed  his 

■'  MS.  On  Eiglit  Things  by  wliicli  Simple  Men  are  destroyed. 


280 


THE    OPINIONS    OF    WYCLIFFE. 


CHAP.  <<  blood ;    and  not  mere  stones,  and  timber,  and 
'-  "  earthly  dross,  which  the  clerks   of  Antichrist 

**  magnify  more  than  the  righteousness  of  God, 

"  and  the  souls  of  men."" 
On  spiritual      But  whilc  thus  assaiUng  what  he  believed  to 

censures.  .  .  .  ... 

be  the  great  incentives  to  avarice  and  ambition 
among  the  clergy,  he  must  have  been  aware  of 
some  means  of  protection  from  -those  spiritual 
weapons  which  were  still  in  the  hands  of  church- 
men, and  which  were  so  often  found  to  subdue 
the  courage  of  the  most  turbulent.  The  keys 
of  heaven  were  claimed  by  the  successors  of 
St.  Peter,  as  their  own,  and  to  be  employed  at 
their  pleasure.  By  each  ecclesiastic,  from  the 
pontiff  himself  to  the  humblest  parish  priest,  the 
same  mysterious  control  over  the  future  was 
assumed ;  but  by  every  member  of  the  hierarchy 
the  power  of  absolution  must  be  derived,  either 
immediately,  or  remotely,  from  the  man  raised 
to  the  apostolic  chair.  From  the  sentence  of 
every  subordinate  authority  there  remained  an 
appeal  to  the  next  in  gradation.  But  until  re- 
voked by  a  superior,  the  words  of  binding  or 
loosing,  by  whomsoever  pronounced,  were  re- 
garded as  certainly  determining  the  future 
allotment  of  the  parties  on  whom  they  were  pro- 
nounced. In  the  present  state  also,  the  sentence 
of  excommunication  cut  off  its  victim  from  the 
remotest  intercourses  of  social  life.     In  this  way 

55  MS.  Sentence  of  the  Curse  Ex-  crites."     MS.  Of  Wedded  Men,  &:c. 

ponnded,  c.  ii.      The  church,   as  de-  The  prologue  quoted  by  Mr.  Lewis  oti 

scribed  above,  tlie  reformer  calls  the  this  subject  (p.  152)   is  not  the  pro- 

"  very  body"  of  Christ  ;  but  he  speaks  duction  of  our  reformer.     See  Baber's 

also  of  the  "  mixed  or  seeming  body,"  Memoir  of  Wiclif,  p.  51      Note  to  the 

nieaningthe  professing  church  on  eartii,  second  edition, 
as  including  "  chosen  men  and  hypo- 


THE    OPINIONS    OF    WYCLIFFE.  281 

it  was  made  to  anticipate  the  horrors  of  a  final  ^y.^j^* 

separation  from  the  communion  of  the  blessed.  '- 

Thus  canonically  invested,  the  village  curate 
appeared  among  his  plebeian  worshippers,  armed 
with  every  instrument  capable  of  effecting  their 
subjection  to  his  will ;  and  while  prelates  lanced 
their  anathemas  against  the  aristocracy  of  the 
nations,  monarchs  were  gravely  taught,  that  the 
sovereign  of  the  church  could  alone  admit  them 
to  the  celestial  kingdom,  and  that  should  they 
die  under  the  frown  of  the  great  representative  of 
Deity,  hell  from  beneath  must  move  to  meet 
them  at  his  bidding !  By  this  king  of  kings, 
the  provinces  of  an  offending  monarch  were  fre- 
quently interdicted,  and  the  acts  of  christian 
worship  limited  to  the  observance  of  such  rites 
only  as  were  deemed  essential  to  salvation, — an 
event  which  threw  an  air  of  gloom  and  desolation 
over  a  country,  of  which,  from  the  altered  cus- 
toms of  more  recent  times,  a  partial  conception 
only  can  be  formed.  To  distract  the  councils  of 
such  a  prince,  the  thunders  of  the  papal  court 
were  often  so  directed,  as  to  separate  his  prin- 
cipal advisers  from  himself,  and  from  each  other ; 
and  what  this  malignant  policy  failed  to  accom- 
plish, was  not  unfrequently  effected  by  absolving 
the  whole  of  his  subjects  from  their  allegiance. 
By  the  disaffected,  in  a  kingdom  subject  to  these 
visitations  of  papal  wrath,  this  collision  of  power 
was  often  hailed  as  auspicious  ;  and  many  a  long 
meditated  treason  was  at  once  matured  into  re- 
volt. Thus  the  court  of  Rome  might  inflict  all 
the  miseries  of  invasion,  without  incurring  the 
danger  attendant  on  such  aggressions ;  and  might 


282  THE    OPINIONS    OF    WYCLIFFE, 

CHAP,  as  readily   diffuse   every    element    of   revolution 

VIII 

'-  through  a  nation,  and  be  herself  secure  from  the 

penalties  threatened  to  the  traitor.  The  doctrine, 
which,  in  the  language  of  Rome,  is  called  the 
povi^er  of  the  keys,  formed  the  basis  of  this  most 
iniquitous  of  tyrannies.  And  so  long  as  the 
maxims  of  spiritual  powder  which  the  papal  court 
had  adopted  were  acknowledged,  those  by  which 
she  sought  her  worldly  ascendancy  could  not  be 
questioned,  without  inconsistency,  and  in  con- 
sequence, with  little  prospect  of  success.  Re- 
formation in  the  faith  and  in  the  manners  of  the 
clergy  was  strictly  necessary  ;  but  it  was  no  less 
necessary  to  the  accomplishment  of  that  object, 
that  the  spell  should  be  broken,  which  had  led 
mankind  to  suppose  that  the  priest  possessed  a 
power  to  control  the  destiny  of  the  man,  or  of  the 
community,  who  should  attempt  the  renovation 
of  the  church.  Wycliffe  was  fully  apprised  of 
this  fact.  Hence,  while  the  mysteries  of  tran- 
substantiation  remained  unquestioned,  and  even 
before  he  became  known  as  concerned  to  trans- 
late the  scriptures  into  the  mother  tongue, 
he  laboured,  as  we  have  seen,  to  expose  the  fal- 
lacy and  impiety  of  these  perilous  fictions.  His 
reasonings  on  this  subject  occur,  more  or  less 
prominently,  in  nearly  the  whole  of  his  writings ; 
and  this  importance  is  evidently  assigned  to  them, 
from  their  obvious  tendency  to  recover  the  mind 
of  his  countrymen  from  that  bondage  which  this 
doctrine  had  imposed,  and  to  abolish  the  com- 
plicated evils  which  had  flown  from  it.  Had 
the  suffering  which  was  said  to  be  inflicted  by 
the  sentence   of  excommunication  been  far   less 


THE    OPINIONS    OF    WYCLIFFE. 


283 


fearful,  the  levity  with  which  it  was  resorted  to  ^yuV^" 

would  have  provoked  the  displeasure   of  our  re ■ 

former,  from  its  marked  opposition  to  a  religion 
characterized  by  the  most  tender  expressions  of 
benevolence.  But  when  the  alarming  evils,  said 
to  be  included  in  these  penalties,  were  viewed  in 
connexion  with  the  almost  ceaseless  infliction  of 
them  ;  and  when  both  were  considered  in  relation 
to  the  motives  commonly  producing  them,  motives 
evidently  derived  from  the  love  of  some  paltry 
interest,  the  indignation  of  Wycliffe  was  often  so 
far  excited  as  to  vent  itself  in  language  of  the 
sternest  mould.  At  a  moment  of  this  description, 
the  following  passage  appears  to  have  been 
written.  "  Christ  said,  as  the  gospel  of  Luke 
"  witnesseth,  that  the  Son  of  man  came  not  to 
"  lose  men's  lives,  but  to  save  them.  Why  then 
"  do  our  wayward  curates  curse  the  souls  of  so 
*'  many  men  to  hell,  and  their  bodies  to  prison, 
**  and  doom  them  to  loss  of  goods,  and  sometimes 
"  to  death,  for  the  sake  of  a  little  gain?  And 
"  this  too,  while  they  are  themselves  accursed 
"  of  God,  for  simony  done  at  their  entrance  into 
"  office,  and  for  their  failure  in  preaching,  and 
"  in  giving  the  example  of  a  holy  life !  Tithes, 
"  therefore,  are  not  due  to  them,  but  only  pain 
"  in  hell.  Often  are  they  thus  evil  tormentors, 
"  slaying  the  soul  which  is  bought  by  the  precious 
"  blood  of  Christ,  and  which  is  better  than  all 
"  the  riches  of  this  world.  Surely  they  are  not 
"  spiritual  fathers  to  christian  souls,  who  thus  by 
"  their  cursing  would  condemn  their  children  to 
"  hell  for  the  sake  of  a  little  perishing  clay  !  This 
"  is  to  do  worse  than  pagans,  for  they  tormented 


284  THE    OPINIONS    OF    WYCLIFFE. 

CHAP.  *'  the  body  only,  and  not  the  soul  for  evermore; 
^'"'  "  but  these  children  of  Satan,  devise  with  all 
'*  their  power  to  plunge  the  soul  into  everlasting 
**  pain.  Yea,  certainly  on  this  point,  these  way- 
"  ward  curates  of  Satan,  would  seern  to  be  worse 
'*  than  fiends,  since  they  torment  no  soul,  except 
"  on  account  of  infinite  sin,  while  these  clerks  of 
'*  Satan  doom  souls  to  hell  for  a  little  temporal 
"  debt,  which  they  would  pay  as  soon  as  they 
*'  are  able,  and  which  indeed  is  often  no  debt, 
**  except  as  founded  in  old  errors,  and  frauds, 
"  and  customs  brought  in  against  the  command- 
"  mentof  God.''^" 

It  is  in  the  following  language  that  he  describes 
the  impiety  of  the  doctrine  which  made  the  pardon 
of  sin  to  depend  on  the  benediction  of  a  priest, 
and  to  be  in  truth  the  act  of  a  mortal.  "  Worldly 
**  prelates  blaspheme  against  God,  the  Father  of 
"  Heaven,  by  taking  to  themselves  a  power  which 
*'  is  especially  and  only  his,  that  is,  a  power  of 
"  absolving  from  sins,  and  of  giving  a  full  re- 
**  mission  of  them.  For  they  take  on  them  prin- 
*'  cipally  the  absolving  from  sin,  and  they  make 
**  the  people  to  believe  this  of  them,  when,  in 
**  truth,  they  have  only  absolved  as  vicars  or  mes- 
**  sengers,  witnessing  to  the  people,  that  on  their 
"  contrition,  God  absolveth  them.  Without  the 
**  sinner  be  contrite,  that  is  fully  have  sorrow  for 
"  his  sins,  neither  angel,  nor  man,  nor  God  him- 
*•  self,  absolveth  him.""  The  practice  of  sepa- 
rating the  excommunicated  from  the  common 
charities  of  life,  is  thus  calmly  examined.     "  By 

^6  MS.  Sentence  of  tlie  Curse  Expuundud,  c.  xvii. 
i'  MS.  Of  Prelates,  c.  xlii. 


THE    OPINIONS    OF    WYCLIFFE.  285 

''our    prelates,    all    those    who    commune  with  chap. 

VIII 

"  cursed  men,  are  cursed,  particularly  if  they  do - 

"  it  wittingly.  But  by  this  sentence  it  would 
"  seem  that  God  himself  is  to  be  accursed,  since 
"  no  excommunicated  man  will  continue  in  this 
"  life  without  God's  communing  with  him,  and 
"  giving  him  breath  and  sustenance,  and  this 
"  whether  he  be  censured  rightfully  or  wrongfully. 
"  And  if  God  be  ready  to  give  him  grace,  and  the 
"  forgiveness  of  his  sins  if  he  worthily  ask  it,  and 
"  even  before  he  ask  it,  this  sentence  would  seem 
"■  too  broad,  since  our  good  God  may  not  be  held 
*'  accursed." ^^  These  enlightened  sentiments 
are  left  to  make  their  own  impression  on  the 
reader.  Concluding  one  of  his  most  extended  trea- 
tises, and  a  work  wholly  devoted  to  this  subject, 
he  observes,  "  Men  wonder  much  why  prelates 
*'  and  curates  curse  so  freely,  inasmuch  as  St. 
"  Paul  and  St.  Peter  commanded  men  to  bless, 
"■  and  not  to  have  a  wish  to  curse,  while  Jesus 
"  Christ  blessed  his  enemies,  and  heartily  prayed 
"  for  them,  even  while  they  nailed  him  to  the 
"  cross.  And  still  more  men  wonder  why  they 
'*  curse  so  freely  in  their  own  cause,  and  for 
"  worldly  gain,  and  not  on  account  of  injury  done 
''  to  Christ,  and  his  majesty.  For  men  should  be 
"  patient  under  their  own  wrongs,  as  were  Christ 
*'  and  his  apostles,  but  against  God's  honour  and 
"  majesty  should  they  suffer  no  words  to  be 
*'  spoken,  as  is  the  case  in  false  and  vain  oaths, 
"  and  impure  ribaldry.  But  most  of  all  men 
"  wonder  why  worldly  clerks  curse  so  freely  for 
"  breaking   their  own    statutes,    privileges,    and 

55*  MS.  Sentence  of  the  Curse  Expounded,  c.  xxv. 


286  THE    OPINIONS     OF    WYCLIFFE. 

CHAP.  **  wayward    customs,    more    than   for    an    open 

L  "  breaking-  of  the  commandments  of  God  ;  since 

"  no  man  is  cursed  of  God,  except  for  breaking 
"  of  these,  whatever  worldly  wretches  may  prate; 
*'  and  no  man  is  blessed  of  God,  or  shall  come  to 
**  heaven,  but  he  who  keepeth  the  commands  of 
"  God.  In  the  hour  of  death,  it  will  be  in  vain 
**  that  the  wicked  man  hath  never  so  many  bulls 
'*  of  indulgence  or  pardon,  or  letters  of  fraternity, 
"  or  thousands  of  masses  by  priests,  monks,  or 
"  friars.  Let  prelates  and  curates  therefore  leave 
"  these  points,  for  many  of  them  are  as  false  as 
**  Satan  ;  and  let  them  teach  the  will  of  God,  and 
"  God's  curse,  and  the  pains  of  hell  as  due  to 
"  men  unless  they  amend  in  this  life  ;  and  what 
"  bliss  men  shall  have,  if  they  teach  truly  the 
"  gospel  of  Christ,  in  word,  and  in  holiness  of 
**  life.  And  let  them  teach  the  mercy  of  God  in 
"  the  greatness  of  his  blessing  to  all  who  continue 
"  to  the  end  in  true  faith,  and  hope,  and  charity 
**  to  God  and  man.  God  grant  us  this  end. 
"  Amen.""  From  these  passages,  it  is  evident, 
that  with  Wycliffe,  the  propriety  of  spiritual  cen- 
sures, considered  as  a  branch  of  christian  disci- 
pline, was  not  a  questionable  matter.  The  abuses 
of  this  authority,  and  the  deceptions  which  were 
connected  with  it,  formed  the  matter  of  complaint. 
And  revolting  as  these  corruptions  may  now 
appear,  it  was  to  accomplish  no  small  thing,  to 
compel  our  ancestors  of  the  fourteenth  century 
to  ''wonder"  at  them,  and  especially  to  wonder 
at  them  for  the  reasons  assigned.  Through  many 
ages,   the  nations  of  Europe  had  bowed   to  this 

"  MS.  Sentence  of  tlic  Curse  Expounded,  c.  xxv. 


THE    OPINIONS    OF    WYCLIFFE.  287 

fearful  despotism  ;  and  they  had  bowed  to  it  as  to  c  h  a  p. 

one,  which  if  not  divine  in  its  origin,  had  become 1- 

so  consolidated  as  to  make  resistance  hopeless."^" 

But  churchmen  were  indebted  for  much  of  their  onthedoc. 
opulence  and  power,  to  a  doctrme  which  ex-  gatory. 
tended  their  influence  from  the  living  to  the  dead. 
Indeed,  had  the  state  of  the  departed  been  con- 
sidered as  irrevocable,  the  one  half  of  the  papal 
empire  would  not  have  been  obtained.  And  it  is 
a  circumstance  of  some  peculiarity,  that  the 
English  reformer,  whose  inquiries  respecting  the 
doctrine  of  the  church  were  so  fearlessly  con- 
ducted, was  not  allowed  to  proceed  so  far  as 
wholly  to  reject  this  lucrative  device.  The  fact, 
however,  may  be  explained.  It  must  not  be 
overlooked,  that  the  doctrine  of  an  intermediate 
state  as  adhered  to  by  Wycliff'e,  was  separated 
from  nearly  every  thing  which  had  rendered  it  so 
alluring  to  the  clergy.  The  custom  of  praying 
for  the  dead  is  certainly  of  much  earlier  origin 
than  many  of  the  corruptions  which  the  reformer 
was  called  to  oppose  ;  and  of  a  still  prior  date  was 
the  kindred  practice  of  off'ering  thanksgiving  for 
the  aid  vouchsafed  to  such  believers  as  had  closed 
their  probation  with  distinguished  honour.  In  the 
disputes  of  theologians,  it  has  been  sometimes 
deemed  important  to  treat  these  services  as  of  the 
same  import.  There  is,  however,  a  marked  differ- 
ence between  them.  They  were,  indeed,  alike 
the  offspring  of  heathenism,  and  made  their 
appearance    in    the    church,    along    with    those 

'^•''    IMr.    Lewis    treats    of   this    iin-  to  those  p'.ges,  will  see  that  passages 

poitaiit  doctrine,  pp.  1.51  — 107,    and  more    extended     and     explicit     than 

has  given  another  extract  on  the  point  any  hitherto  published,   were  greatly 

in  p.  157.    The  reader,  who  can  refer  needed. — Note  to  the  second  edition. 


28S  THE    OPINIONS     OF    WYCLIFFE. 

CHAP,  superstitious  observances  which,  as  her   gentile 

L  converts  increased,  v^ere    so   rapidly  multiplied. 

So  late,  however,  as  the  eighth  century,  to  pray  for 
a  departed  spirit,  was  not  necessarily  to  consider 
its  state  as  one  of  suffering.  But  as  the  custom 
of  thank-offerings  was  succeeded  by  petitions, 
so  the  notion  of  mere  quiescence  or  repose  was 
followed  by  that  of  a  refining  fire.  And  as  the 
degree  of  torment  endured  would  naturally  regu- 
late the  worth  of  the  services  which  were  regarded 
as  tending  to  abate  its  severity,  or  to  hasten  its 
close — the  temptation  to  assign  to  this  artifice  a 
most  prominent  place  in  the  machinery  of  papal 
superstition,  became  too  powerful  to  be  resisted."' 
In  one  of  his  early  pieces,  Wycliffe  has  cited 
St.  Augustine  as  teaching  that  "  souls  in  pur- 
"  gatory  are  helped  and  comforted,  and  brought 
"  out  thereof  by  the  fasting  of  kinsmen,  by  the 
"  alms  of  friends,  and  by  the  devout  prayers 
"  of  good  men  and  saints.""^  This  statement  is 
quoted  with  approbation,  and  this  will  not  excite 
surprise  if  it  be  remembered  that  the  writings 
of  Augustine  were  revered  by  the  reformer  as 
next  in  authority  to  those  of  inspiration.  In  a 
subsequent  treatise,  he  confesses  "  that  saying 
'*  of  masses  with  cleanness  of  holy  life,  and 
"  burning  devotion,  most  pleaseth  God  Almighty, 
"  and  profiteth  to  christian  souls  in  purgatory, 
"  and  to  men  living  on  earth,  to  withstand  temp- 
"  tations  to  sin."^*  In  the  same  page,  however, 
his  indignant  censure  is  pointed  against  the  base 


'''  See  Prelim.  \iew,  c.  i.  sect.  ii.  p.  57. 

62  MS.  Cott.  Titus,  D.  xix.  129. 

*'  MS.  Sentence  of  the  Curse  Expounded. 


THE    OPINIONS    OF    WYCLIFFE.  289 

merchandise  which  this  doctrine  had  been  made  chap. 

to  support.      '*  Ah,   Lord,"   he  exclaims,   "  how 1- 

*'  much  is  our  king  and  our  reahii  helped  by 
*'  masses  and  prayers  of  simonists,  and  heretics 
"  full  of  pride  and  covetousness,  and  envy ;  and 
"  who  so  much  hate  poor  priests,  because  they 
"'  teach  the  gospel  and  the  life  of  Christ.""  In 
his  work  On  Prelates  the  clergy  are  accused  of 
"  inventing  new  pains,  horrible  and  shameful,  to 
"  make  men  pay  a  great  ransom,""  and  to 
counteract  this  "  artifice  of  Satan,"  he  ventures 
to  describe  all  masses  "  for  which  money  is 
"  taken,"  as  the  contrivance  of  hypocrisy  and 
avarice.  It  was  with  a  view  completely  to 
abolish  these  mercenary  services,  and  to  rescue 
the  people  from  that  false  and  dangerous  confi- 
dence which  had  been  thus  produced,  that  the 
reformer  so  strenuously  inculcated  his  favourite 
maxim  respecting  the  inefficacy  of  all  intercessory 
prayer,  unless  off"ered  in  the  spirit  of  sincere 
devotion.  With  the  same  view  prayer  is  de- 
fined, as  "  consisting  principally  in  holy  life," 
and  of  this  prayer  the  Redeemer  is  said  to  speak, 
"  when  he  saith  in  the  gospel,  that  we  must  pray 
'*  evermore."  In  support  of  this  interpretation, 
St.  Augustine  and  other  saints  are  appealed  to, 
and  the  exercise  is  again  said  to  "  stand  in  holy 
"  desire,  and  also  in  word ;"  but  the  latter  is  de- 
clared "  to  be  nought  worth,  except  it  be  uttered 
"  with  devotion,  and  purity,  and  accompanied 
*'  by  holiness  of  life."  It  is,  therefore,  inquired, 
"  why  the  prayer  of  prelates  should  be  magnified 
"  so  much,  and  sold   so  dear,  while  they  know 

6*  Sentence  of  the  Curse  Eipoanded.  es  jyig,  g_  jjj^ 

VOL.   II.  U 


290  THE     OPINIONS     OF    WYCLIFFE. 

CHAP. '<  not  whether  it  shall  be  accepted  or  rejected?" 

"  The  prayer  of  the  layman  who  shall  be  saved," 

is  affirmed  to  be  "  without  measure  better  than 
"  that  of  a  prelate  who  shall  be  lost."  It  was 
pleaded,  indeed,  by  such  men,  that  if  not  heard 
*'  for  their  own  holiness,  they  were  heard  in 
"virtue  of  holy  church;"  but  this  is  treated  as 
"  a  dream,  having  no  foundation  ia  any  place 
**  of  holy  writ,  inasmuch  as  God  saith  absolutely, 
*'  that  such  prayer  is  an  abomination."'"  In 
another  of  his  pieces,  these  masses  are  described 
as  novelties,  and  are  numbered  in  this  respect 
with  the  pilgrimages,  and  the  feigned  absolutions 
of  the  period.  He  complains  also  of  the  clergy  as 
"  making  the  people  believe,  that  if  the  priest 
"  say  a  certain  mass  for  a  soul,  it  shall  anon  be 
"  out  of  purgatory;  and  this,  though  God  of  his 
*'  righteousness  ordain  that  soul  to  abide  there 
"  forty  years  or  more,  and  though  this  priest  be 
"  himself  accursed  for  his  simony  and  pride.  For, 
*'  as  they  falsely  pretend,  the  mass  may  not  be 
"  impaired."" 

In  these  extracts  there  is  no  suspicion  disclosed 
as  to  the  reality  of  the  pains  of  purgatory.  But 
the  efficacy  of  prayer  for  the  dead  is  viewed  as 
connected  with  the  devotions  of  the  laity,  no  less 
than  with  those  of  the  clergy,  and  as  attended  in 
the  case  of  both  by  so  much  uncertainty,  as  to 
demonstrate  the  weakness  of  the  confidence  so 
generally  reposed  in  that  kind  of  aid.  The  doc- 
trine was  thus  divested  of  its  chief  importance  as 
a  source  of  gain  to  the  clergy. 

But  it  was  not  enough  to  question  the  success 

ofi  MS.  On  Prelates,  c.  xi.  "7  ihij.  c.xxxviii. 


THE    OPINIONS    OF    WYCLIFFE.  291 

of  intercession   in  favour  of  the  departed  while  ^h  a  p. 

performed  by  the  more  vicious  of  the  clergy.     A - 

considerable  scepticism  is  after  a  while  expressed 
with  respect  to  its  influence  when  proceeding 
from  characters  less  objectionable,  or  even  from 
the  pontiff  himself.  In  the  work,  intitled,  "  Of 
"  the  Church  and  her  Governance,"  evidently  one 
of  his  latest  productions,  the  words  of  the  Sa- 
viour, "  let  the  dead  bury  their  dead,"  are  cited 
as  discountenancing  such  practices,  though  per- 
petuated by  the  most  devoted  men,  and  with  the 
best  intentions."'  And  when  he  states  that  ''  the 
**  pope  and  his,  are  out  of  all  charity,  if  there 
**  dwell  any  soul  in  purgatory,  since  he  may," 
according  to  the  popular  creed,  "  with  full  heart, 
"  and  without  any  cost  deliver  them,"  it  is 
beyond  doubt  that  his  faith  in  an  intermediate 
state,  regarded  it  as  an  abode  over  which  little  or 
no  influence  could  be  exerted  by  any  power  on 
earth.  For  many  years  previous  to  his  death, 
his  allusions  to  this  tenet  are  few  and  cautious, 
tending  almost  invariably  to  separate  it  from  its 
corruptions,  rather  than  to  define  its  import  or  its 
uses.  In  his  sermons  there  is  scarcely  one  in 
fifty  containing  the  least  reference  to  it,  and  the 
notices  which  occur  are  so  transient  and  obscure 
as  to  bespeak  the  general  indecision  of  his  mind 
on  this  point."'  From  his  increasing  perception 
of  the  errors  connected  with  this  doctrine,  which 

*8  MS.  Bib.  Rea;.  18,  b.  ix.  "  plex  est  Ecclesia  militans,  dormiens, 

^9  In  the  MS.  last  cited,  he  speaks  "  et  triuinphans."   iv.  22.     In  one  of 

of  the  churcli   as  consisting  of  tliree  his   later  homilies   he  describes  John 

parts,    "  the    saints    in    purgatory, "  the   Baptist  as  the  most   devout  man 

forming  one.     In  his  Trialogus,  also,  "  after  Christ,"  and  yet  speaks  of  him 

the   church  is   thus   described,   "  Tri-  as  going  to  "  purgatory"  at  death. 

u  2 


On  the 
abuse  of 
sanctuaries. 


292  THE  OPINIONS   of  wvcliffe. 

CHAP,  is  so  observable  in  his  writings,  it  may  be  doubted, 
^^^''    whether  he  considered  the  intermediate  state  as 
at  all  a  state  of  suffering,  at  the  period  of  his 
death  ;° 

By  the  doctrine  of  purgatory,  the  decisions  of 
the  invisible  tribunal,  though  regarded  as  pro- 
ceeding from  the  will  of  the  Deity,  were  supposed 
to  be  modified,  and  frequently  revoked,  in  com- 
pliance with  the  intercessions  of  the  priesthood. 
The  same  motives  also,  which  had  secured  a 
credence  to  this  supposed  interference  with  the 
allotments  of  the  spiritual  regions,  produced  a 
submission  to  many  clerical  intrusions  in  the 
administration  of  criminal  justice  in  the  present 
world.  The  cities  of  refuge  were  sanctioned  by 
the  Hebrew  polity ;  and  it  is  well  known  that  simi- 
lar immunities  were  granted  to  particular  localities 
in  gentile  nations.  In  both,  the  existence  of  such 
retreats  may  have  been  sometimes  favourable  to 
equity,  by  arresting  the  arm  of  violence,  or  of 
lawless  revenge.     But  the  evils  which  were  inse- 

'"  Dr.  Lingard  not  only  says  of  our  during  a  large  portion  of  his  life  he 
reformer  that  "  he  inculcated  the  did  so.  But  in  inquiries  of  this  nature 
"  doctrine  of  purgatory,"  but  that  "  he  nearly  every  thing  must  depend  upon 
"  slrenuou.<ly  maintained  the  efficacy  dates.  To  a  correct  acquaintance  with 
"  of  the  mass  ;"  and  the  amount  of  infor-  this  subject,  it  was  strictly  necessary 
mstioD  hitherto  possessed  on  this  point  to  know  the  frequency  or  the  variety 
may  be  inferred  from  the  circumstance  of  the  reformer's  allusions  to  it,  to 
that  this  is  said  on  the  authorities  sup-  know,  also,  something  of  the  distinct- 
plied  by  Mr.  Lewis.  But  surely  the  ness  or  obscurity  that  may  have  marked 
man  who  could  go  through  his  pulpit  those  allusions,  and  to  know,  above 
services  for  twelve  months  together  all,  that  before  his  death,  Wyclifte  had 
without  more  than  a  single  reference  to  learned  to  use  the  word  purgatory  as 
the  mass,  except  to  censure  its  imper-  referring  merely  to  an  intermediate 
fections  and  abuses,  can  hardly  be  said  state  through  which  the  most  holy  of 
to  have  been  a  strenuous  advocate  for  mankind  must  pass  to  their  final  rest, 
its  efficacy.  Mr.  Lewis  maybe  right  Lingard's  Hist.  iv.26C.  Lewis,  161. 
in  stating  that  Wyclifte  believed  in  — Note  to  the  second  edition. 
"  the    bitter   pains  of  purgatory,"  for 


THE    OPINIONS    OF    WYCLIFFE.  293 

parable  from  this  custom  in  heathen  states,  were  chap. 

too  soon   connected  with    it    as    adopted    in  the L 

christian  church.  In  the  age  of  William  the 
first,  and  so  late  as  the  reign  of  Stephen,  the 
rights  of  sanctuary,  which  protected  the  place  of 
christian  worship  from  those  deeds  of  rapine  and 
bloodshed  which  then  filled  the  land,  were  often 
a  political  benefit.  But  in  the  age  of  Edward  the 
third,  the  uses  of  these  places  of  retreat  were  not 
so  obvious.  Wycliffe  appears  to  have  seen  them 
only  through  the  medium  of  their  abuses,  and 
these  were  evidently  of  the  most  flagrant  descrip- 
tion. "  Westminster,  Beverley,  and  other  places," 
are  described  as  "  challenging  this  franchise  and 
"  privilege."  In  opposing  this  pretension,  it  is 
observed  that  the  cities  of  refuge  afforded  but 
a  temporary  shelter  to  offenders,  and  to  such 
offenders  only  as  had  slain  a  man  unwittingly ; 
whereas  modern  sanctuaries  were  both  a  retreat, 
and  a  home,  to  culprits  of  every  class.  And 
this,  while  they  were  often  known  to  be  the  most 
vicious  of  men.  Thus  he  states  indignantly,  "  that 
**  wicked  men,  open  thieves,  known  murderers, 
'*  and  such  as  have  borrowed  their  neighbours' 
"  goods,  and  are  able  to  make  restitution,  dwell 
*'  thus  in  sanctuary,  and  no  man  may  impeach 
**  them  by  process  of  law."  And  the  clergy,  it 
is  observed,  "  maintain  stifl^y  that  the  king 
"  should  confirm  this  privilege,  though  serving 
"  but  to  perpetuate  a  nest  of  thieves  in  his 
"  kingdom."'^ 

Nor  was  the  influence  of  churchmen  with  re-O"^*^*'"- 

vocation  of 

spect  to  an  mtermediate  state,  and  of  the  present  -^'"i*- 

"  3IS.  Seulence  of  the  Curse  Expounded,  c.ix.  xx. 


294  THE    OPINIONS    OF    WYCLIFFE. 

CHAP,  world,  supposed  to  terminate  with  their  removal 

to  the  celestial  kingdom.     Under  every  anxiety, 

whether  arising  from  the  immediate  necessities 
of  the  worshipper,  or  from  the  supposed  state 
of  his  departed  kindred,  the  throne  of  those  who 
had  performed  the  work  of  intercession  on  earth, 
was  believed  to  be  accessible,  and  was  regarded 
as  forming,  to  the  children  of  mortality,  the  most 
appropriate  medium  of  approach  to  the  majesty 
of  heaven.  An  apostle,  indeed,  had  emphatically 
declared,  that  "  there  is  one  Mediator  between 
*'  God  and  man,  the  man  Christ  Jesus,"  and  it 
would  seem  sufficiently  evident  that  to  render 
this  invocation  of  saints  a  rational  service,  these 
new  objects  of  religious  confidence  should  be- 
come vested  with  the  attributes  of  Deity, — at 
least  with  omnipresence,  or  omniscience.  In  the 
face,  however,  of  these,  and  of  other  difficulties, 
the  practice  became  general, — so  much  so,  that 
the  name  of  the  Saviour  was  nearly  excluded 
from  the  devotions  of  the  people  by  those  of  the 
Virgin,  and  of  the  multitude,  whose  sanctity,  or 
ambition,  had  secured  them  a  place  in  the  Roman 
calendar.  This  custom  of  praying  to  the  departed, 
like  that  of  praying  for  them,  was  opposed  by 
Wycliffe,  with  a  firmness  which  increased  as  the 
errors  connected  with  it  were  discerned.  At  an 
early  period,  he  had  learned  to  regard  many  who 
were  raised  to  the  dignity  of  saints,  as  persons 
whose  salvation  was  by  no  means  certain.  To 
confide  in  the  lost  for  spiritual  aid  must  be  worse 
than  vain.  After  a  while,  it  was  suggested  as 
important  to  limit  such  invocations  to  those 
among  the  blessed,  whose  beatified  state  could  be 


THE    OPINIONS    OF    AVYCLIFFE.  295 

ascertained  from  the  language  of  the  scriptures;  chap. 

and    at  length  the  entire  practice    is  discounte-  '~ 

nanced,    as    uncommanded,    and   as    at   variance 
with  a  due  regard  to  the  mediation  of  Christ." 

There  are  few  errors  of  the  Romish  church  more  O"  »"^ 

,..,,.,  „  ,  worship  of 

objectionable  in  the  esteem  of  protestants  than  im^ses. 
those  which  relate  to  the  adoration  of  images. 
So  striking  a  conformity  with  the  leading  feature 
of  those  superstitions,  which  Christianity  was  so 
plainly  intended  to  counteract  and  destroy,  was 
not  to  become  suddenly  prevalent.  And  if  it  has 
survived  the  shock  of  the  protestant  reformation, 
this  has  not  been  without  resisting  a  degree  of 
light  which  has  rendered  the  act  of  bowing  down 
to  any  likeness  of  invisible  realities  in  a  much 
greater  degree  criminal.  It  might  have  been 
expected,  that  customs  which  obtained  their  ascen- 
dancy amid  the  barbarism  attendant  on  the  fall 
of  the  empire,  would  have  been  gradually  dis- 
couraged, as  the  civilization  of  Christendom  ad- 
vanced. But  to  vindicate  this  semi-heathenism 
the  most  distinguished  Romanists  have  exhausted 
the  stores  of  their  erudition,   and  employed  the 

"  Horn.  Bib.  Reg.  18.  b.  xiv.  "  The  "  tbat  all  those  saint-days  ought  to  be 

"  church    of  Eogland,"  he   observes,  "  abolished,    that  thej  may  celebrate 

"  has  this  very  reasonable  custom,  that  "the  festival   of  Jesus  Christ  alone, 

"  when  a  saint  is  invoked  the  words  "  that   the    memory    of  Jesus   Christ 

"  are  addressed  immediately  to  Jesus  "  being   always   recent,   the   devotion 

"  Christ,  and    not  principally   to  the  "  of  the  people  might  be    no   longer 

"  saints  ;    nor   is   the  solemnity   of  a  "  parcelled     out    between     him    and 

"  saint-day  to  any  purpose  if  it  does  "  his  members.  "     Trialogus,  iii.  31. 

"  not   tend  to   magnify  Jesus   Christ,  The  chapter  contains  many  things  on 

"  and  to  make  souls  in  love  with  him.  the   excellence  and  sufficiency  of  the 

"  It  is  therefore  to  be  inferred,  that  Redeemer's    mediation,    and    on    the 

"when  the  observance  of  such  days  sinister  motives  from  which  the  prac- 

"  deviates  from  this  end,  the  motive  tice  of  commending  other  intercessors 

"  must  be  avarice,  or  some  other  sin  ;  liad  arisen. 
"  which  disposes   many  men  to  think 


296  THE    OPINIONS    OF    WYCLIFFE. 

CHAP,  whole  of  their  strength.      The  doctrine  of  infal- 

1  libility,  though  it  was  not  strictly  necessary  that 

it  should  operate  at  all  with  respect  to  such  a 
matter,  has  no  doubt  been  the  chief  cause  of  this 
pertinacity.  It  may  be  also,  that  to  inform  the 
understanding,  and  discipline  the  affections,  has 
been  found  a  more  laborious  enterprise,  than  to 
impress  the  senses,  and  to  raise  indefinite  emotion 
to  the  place  of  principle. 

This  custom  certainly  did  not  provoke  the  de- 
gree of  opposition  from  our  reformer,  that,  rea- 
soning from  other  points,  was  to  have  been 
expected.  It  should,  however,  be  remembered, 
that  by  declaring  the  Most  High  to  be  the  only 
object  of  religious  worship,  and  the  Son  of  God  to 
be  the  only  Mediator,  he  not  only  condemned  the 
invocation  of  saints,  but  stripped  their  images 
and  relics  of  whatever  had  rendered  them  the 
matters  of  a  superstitious  veneration.  While  such 
were  his  doctrines,  no  visible  object  of  worship 
could  be  recognized,  excepting  such  as  were  ad- 
mitted to  represent  that  Invisible  Nature,  of  whose 
compassion  to  our  race  the  cross  was  the  most 
affecting  memorial.  And  that  the  use  even  of  this 
was  at  length  discarded,  may  be  safely  inferred 
from  the  fact,  that  his  immediate  disciples  pro- 
voked the  displeasure  of  the  clergy  by  their 
undisguised  contempt  of  every  such  aid  to  devo- 
tion.'* Some  years,  also,  before  his  death,  he 
remarked,  that  a  near  connexion  existed  between 
gazing  on  an  image,  and  the  act  of  idolatry.  And 
to  those  who  were  accustomed  to  plead,  that  no 
worship  was  rendered  to  the  image,  but  to  the 

-  Wals.  358. 


THE    OPINIONS    OF    AV^YCLIFFE.  297 

Being  represented  by  it,  his  reply  was,  that  such   chap. 
was  the  reasoning  of  idolatrous  heathens,  and  the  — - — — 
men  resorting  to  it  are  described  as  the  patrons 
of  idolatry/^ 

With  these  efforts  to  counteract  the  propensities 
to  creature-worship,  the  reformer  connected  an 
exposure  of  the  doctrine  which  exhibited  the  more 
illustrious  of  the  saints  as  having  performed  cer- 
tain works  of  piety  or  mercy,  beyond  what  were 
necessary  to  their  own  salvation ;  and  which 
taught,  moreover,  that  these  works  were  left  to  be 
dispensed  by  the  clergy,  to  the  more  necessitous, 
in  the  matter  of  such  virtues.  This  scheme,  which 
bespeaks  an  ignorance  of  the  gospel  scarcely 
a  remove  from  heathenism,  was  the  faith  of 
the  populace  in  every  state  of  Europe  through 
many  centuries.  And  that  churchmen,  as  the 
almoners  of  this  spiritual  bounty,  might  be  able 
to  distribute  it  efficiently,  it  was  important  that 
the  wants  of  each  applicant  should  be  correctly 
ascertained.  Hence  the  necessity  of  that  mo- 
mentous article  in  catholic  discipline,  confession 
to  a  priest. 

The   causes  which,   in  the  earlier  ages  of  the  Auricular 
church,  had  limited  the  office  of  arbitrator  with'""^'"""' 
respect  to  such  secular  disputes  as  arose  among 
believers,  to  the  christian  pastor,"  would  tend  to 
restrict  the  duty  of  cofifession,  to  the  same  order 

''*  James's  Apology,  c.  viii.  sect.  vi.  "land   be   not   brought  to  theft   and 

MS.  Exposit.  Decal.  p.  48.     MS.  Ec-  "  lechery  under  colour  of   such   pil- 

clesiae    Regimen,     No.  10.      He    re-  "  grimages,     nor    alms    drawn    from 

commends  "  that  the  wasted  treasure  "  needy   men    who    are    boaght    with 

"  hanging  on   stocks  and   stones,   be  "  Christ's    precious    blood.      MS.  Of 

"  wisely  spent  in  defence  of  the  king-  "  good  Preaching  Priests. 
"  dom,  and  in  relieving   of  the   poor  See  Preliin.  \'iew,  c- i.  sect.  x. 

"  commons,    that  the    people    of  our 


298  THE    OPINIONS    OF    WYCLIFFE. 

CHAP,  of  men.     But  the  practice  of  confession,  as  exist- 

'..  ing  in  the  catholic  church,  resulted  in  a  greater 

measure  from  her  doctrine  respecting  the  efficacy 
of  priestly  absolution.  Wycliffe,  while  admitting 
the  propriety  of  a  form  of  absolution,  denied  that 
a  penitent  offender  could  fail  to  obtain  pardon  on 
account  of  a  withholding  of  that  ceremony.  In 
like  manner,  he  acknowledged  that  confession 
made  to  a  priest  might  be  seemly,  and  in  some 
cases  highly  commendable ;  but  it  was  at  the 
same  time  affirmed,  that  where  sanctity  and  wis- 
dom were  most  conspicuous,  whether  in  a  priest, 
or  a  layman,  there  was  most  of  the  character 
necessary  to  receive  confessions,  and  to  admi- 
nister the  aids  of  religion.  He  accordingly  re- 
marks that  "  confession  made  to  those  who  are 
"  true  priests,  and  who  understand  the  will  of 
"  God,  doth  much  good  to  sinful  men,  so  long 
''  as  contrition  for  past  sins  come  therewith." ^^ 
On  another  occasion,  he  thus  concludes  a  series 
of  enlightened  observations  on  this  practice. 
"  So  this  confession  which  is  made  to  man,  has 
"  oftentimes  been  varied  with  the  varying  of  the 
"  church.  For  first,  men  confessed  themselves 
**  to  God,  and  to  the  common  people,  and  this 
"  manner  of  confession  was  used  in  the  time  of 
"  the  apostles."''  Much  harm  is  said  to  have 
resulted  from  the  abandonment  of  this  primitive 
custom :  for  as  no  benediction  of  man  can  bring 

"6  MS.  Sentence  of  tlie  Curse   Ex-  passages  which  follow,  that  WyclifTe's 

pounded,  c.  vi.     This  passage  is  cited  sentiments  on  this  point  were  greatly 

by   Mr.  Lewis,    as   containing    a    full  more    enlightened    than    the    extract 

statement   of  the  reformer's    doctrine  given  by  my  predecessor  woald  sug- 

with  regard  to  this  important  article,  gest.     Note  to  the  second  edition. 

(  p.  171. )     But,  it  will  appear  from  the  ''  MS.  Papa  Schismae,  c.  iii. 


THE    OPINIONS    OF    WYCLIFFE.  299 

the  impenitent  to  heaven  ;    and  as  sin  generally  chap. 

bears    its   own   punishment  along   with   it  ;    the — 

canonical  regulations  with  respect  to  penance, 
are  viewed  as  superfluous  and  deceptive.  The 
matters,  indeed,  which  the  confessor  takes  be- 
neath his  cognizance,  are  stated  to  be  such  as 
must  often  elude  his  penetration,  and  accord- 
ingly leave  him  unequal  to  the  task  of  adjusting 
the  penalties  incurred.  Where  this  failure  of 
capacity  occurred,  the  defect  is  said  to  have  been 
too  commonly  supplied  by  caprice,  and  by  mo- 
tives still  more  objectionable.  His  parting  ad- 
vice, therefore  is,  "  Seeing  that  many  men  often 
**  confess  themselves  to  their  confessors  in  vain ; 
'*  confess  thyself  to  God,  with  constancy,  and 
'*  contrition,  and  he  may  not  fail,  he  will  absolve 
''  thee.'"' 

It  was  thus  the  reformer  endeavoured  to  disen- 
thral his  countrymen,  and  to  distinguish  between 
the  true  claims  of  the  christian  pastor,  and  the 
assumed  authority  of  the  existing  priesthood.  To 
deprive  churchmen  of  that  dominion  over  the 
conscience,  which  the  confessional  had  secured 
to  them,  was  a  step  strictly  necessary  to  restore 
in  the  laity  of  Christendom  the  feeling  of  re- 
sponsible beings,  and  to  confer  upon  them,  what 
no  second  tyranny  has  been  known  to  invade — 
liberty  of  thought !     So  long  as  it  was  believed 

"''  Ibid.     It  was  something  to  teach  fessing  his  sins  to  God  alone,  and  doing 

that  mere  confession,  though  made  to  it  wiih  penitence,  should  be  assuredlj^ 

the    highest    ecclesiastical    authority,  saved.        It  was   important   to    know 

was  a  useless  service.     It  was  more  to  that  our  reformer  passed   so   far   into 

assert  that  confession  to  a  priest  was  the  region  of  true  christian  liberty,  and 

not  more    a  religious   duty  than  con-  that  he  could  thus  urge  his  followers  to 

fession    to   a   layman.     But  Wycliffe  use  their  freedom. — Note  to  the  second 

learnt  to  believe  that  any   man    con-  edition. 


300  THE    OPINIONS    OF    WYCLIFFE. 

CHAP,  to  be  a  duty  to  disclose  in  the  ear  of  a  confessor 

L_  what  had  passed  in  the  secret  places  of  the  mind, 

the  most  cautious  guard  would  be  kept  against 
the  intrusion  of  thoughts  opposed  to  the  authority 
exercised  by  the  clergy,  or  to  the  superstitions 
which  that  order  of  men  had  so  long  sanctioned. 
Let  confession  be  necessary  to  absolution,  and  let 
absolution  be  an  essential  link  in  the  chain  of 
salvation,  and  the  empire  which  the  papal  priest- 
hood laboured  to  establish  and  perpetuate  is  con- 
ceded. To  the  mind  of  Wycliffe  this  connexion 
of  things  was  manifest,  and  in  the  history  of  our 
country  it  was  reserved  to  his  master  genius  to 
break  this  triple  cord. 
oa  the  doc.  With  confession  to  a  priest  the  doctrine  of  in- 
dui'gence's"."  dulgcuccs  Is  ucarly  allied.  The  sale  of  these 
commodities  was  the  abuse  which  first  roused  the 
displeasure  of  Luther  ;  and  which  contributed  so 
much  toward  that  memorable  revolution  with 
which  his  name  is  so  illustriously  associated.  It 
will  be  proper,  therefore,  to  notice  the  feeling 
with  which  they  were  regarded  by  Wycliffe, 
nearly  two  centuries  earlier.  We  have  seen  that 
according  to  the  doctrine  of  the  church  of  Rome, 
the  good  works  of  the  saints  which  were  more 
than  were  required  for  their  own  justification, 
were  deposited  with  the  merits  of  the  Saviour, 
so  as  to  form  a  sort  of  spiritual  treasury.  "  The 
*'  keys  of  this,"  it  has  been  observed,  *'  were 
**  committed  to  St.  Peter,  and  to  his  successors 
*'  the  popes,  who  may  open  it  at  pleasure,  and 
"  by  transferring  a  portion  of  this  superabun- 
*'  dant  merit  to  any  particular  person  for  a  sum 
*'  of  money,  may  convey  to  him  either  the  pardon 


THE    OPINIONS    OF    WYCLIFFE.  301 

''of  his  own  sins,  or  a  release   for  any   one   in  chap. 

.      .  .  VIII. 

"  whose  happiness  he  is  interested  from  the  pains 

"  of  purgatory.  Such  indulgences  were  first  in- 
"  vented  in  the  eleventh  century,  by  Urban  the 
"  second,  as  a  recompense  for  those  who  went 
"  in  person  upon  the  meritorious  enterprise  of 
"  conquering  the  Holy  Land.  They  were  after- 
"  wards  granted  to  those  who  hired  a  soldier 
"  for  that  purpose,  and  in  process  of  time  were 
"  bestowed  on  such  as  gave  money  for  accom- 
"  plishing  any  pious  work  enjoined  by  the  pope."'*' 
It  is,  no  doubt,  true,  that  the  embryo  of  this 
custom,  as  of  most  others  in  the  history  of  the 
papacy,  may  be  traced  to  a  period  much  more 
remote  than  the  pontificate  of  Urban  the  second. 
But  that  adjustment  of  the  penalties  of  eccle- 
siastical discipline,  which  began  at  a  compara- 
tively early  period  to  be  restricted  to  the  clergy, 
was  gradually  extended  from  what  was  to  be 
endured  in  this  world,  to  the  sufferings  awaiting 
the  offender  in  the  next ;  and  a  power  which  was 
once  exercised  with  the  tenderest  solicitude  for 
the  spiritual  welfare  of  the  delinquent,  became 
known,  ere  long,  as  a  most  effective  means  of 
storing  the  coffers  of  the  priest.  **  Prelates," 
observes  the  English  reformer,  "  foully  deceive 
"  christian  men  by  their  pretended  indulgences 
"  or  pardons,  and  rob  them  wickedly  of  their 
"  money."  In  proof  of  this  statement  he  re- 
marks, "  that  alms  after  the  will  of  sinful  men" 
may  procure  "  thousands  of  years  of  pardon,  and 
"  also  pardons  without  number,  to  man's  under- 
"  standing."     These  are  also  described  as  granted 

■9  Robertson's  Charles  V. 


302  THE    OPINIONS    OF    WYCLIFFE. 

CHAP.  **  by  virtue  of  Christ's  passion  and  martyrdom, 

VIII  I  " 

'-  "  and  by  the  holy  merits  of  saints,  which  they 

'*  did,  more  than  was  needful  for  their  own  bliss." 
Offended  by  this  strange  mixture  of  creature- 
merit  with  that  of  the  Saviour,  and  scarcely  less 
with  the  pardon  itself,  which  was  presumed  to  be 
so  conveyed,  he  affirms  that  the  doctrine  is  one 
"  never  taught  in  all  the  gospel,  and  never  used, 
*'  neither  by  Paul,  nor  Peter,  nor  any  other 
"apostle  of  Christ;  and  yet  they  might,  and 
"  could,  and  were  so  full  of  charity  as  certainly 
"  to  have  taught  and  used  this  pardon,  if  there 
'*  had  been  any  such.  For  in  Christ  was  all 
"  manner  of  good  doctrine,  and  good  life,  and 
"  charity,  and  these  were  most  abundant,  after 
"  him,  in  his  apostles.  And  since  Christ  dis- 
'*  covered  and  taught  all  that  is  needful  and 
"  profitable,  and  still  taught  not  this  pardon,  it 
*'  follows  that  this  pardon  is  neither  needful  nor 
"profitable."^" 

Adverting  to  the  departed  in  an  intermediate 
state,  he  remarks,  "  it  passeth  man's  knowing 
"  what  is  the  doom  of  such  souls.  It  seemeth 
"  then  great  pride  for  sinful  man  to  make  himself 
"  certain  and  master  of  the  judgment  of  God, 
"  which  still  he  knoweth  not. — Also  if  this  pardon 
"  be  a  spiritual  and  heavenly  gift^  it  should  be 
"  given  freely  as  Christ  teaches  in  the  gospel, 
"  and  not  for  money,  nor  worldly  goods,  nor 
"  fleshly  favour.  But  if  a  rich  man  will  dearly 
"  buy  it,  he  shall  have  a  pardon  extending  to 
"  a  thousand  years,  though  he  be  really  accursed 
"  of  God   for  his    sinful  life.     While    the    poor 

8"  iVlS.  On  Prelates. 


THE    OPIxVIONS    OF    WYCLIFFE.  303 

"  bedridden  man,  who  may  not  travel  to  Rome,  ^^j^^- 

"  nor  to  such   another  place,   he   shall   have  no  

"  pardon  of  the  pope,  though  he  be  holy  and  full 
"  of  charity.  Since  then,  this  pardon,  if-  there 
''  be  any  such,  should  be  freely  given,  it  is  theft 
**  and  robbery  to  take  thus  much  gold  for  it. 
"  Also  this  pretended  pardon  deceiveth  many 
"  men.  For  rich  men  trust  to  reach  heaven 
"  thereby  without  pain,  and  therefore  the  less 
**  fear  to  sin ;  and  of  contrition,  and  forsaking  sin, 
"  and  doing  alms,  little  is  spoken." ^^  He  then 
observes,  that  if  the  nature  of  such  pardons  were 
"  truly  told,  they  should  be  set  at  nought." 
Again,  he  remarks,  "great  falseness  it  is  so  much 
"  to  magnify  the  power  of  the  pope  in  purgatory, 
"  such  as  no  man  here  can  show  to  be  real, 
"  either  by  holy  writ,  or  reason  ;  since,  in  this 
"  world,  we  see  an  obscure  man^^  may  thus 
"  despise  the  pope,  and  oppose  his  lordship  ;  and 
"  he  doth  in  vain,  all  his  might,  all  his  wit,  and 
"  all  his  will,  to  be  avenged  upon  such  a  poor 
"  harlot.  It  seemeth,  then,  for  many  reasons, 
"  that  this  feigned  pardon  is  a  subtle  merchan- 
"  disc  of  Antichrist's  clerks,  to  magnify  their  pre- 
"  tended  power,  and  to  get  worldly  goods,  and 
*'  to  make  men  free  from  the  fear  of  sin,  and 
"  sweetly  to  wallow  therein  as  swine. "^^  If  the 
contemporaries  of  Luther  admired  the  boldness 
of  the  man,  who  could  venture,  though  very  cau- 
tiously, to  question  this  plenitude  of  the  papal 
power;  the  reader  will  judge  of  his  claim  to  the 
attribute  of  courage,  who  in  much  less  favour- 
s' Ibid.  i*^  "  Little  harlot"  in  MS.  signifying  a  bumble  or  despised  person. 
"  Ibid. 


304  THE    OPINIONS    OF    WYCLTFFE. 

CHAP,  able    times,   proceeded    to    a    greater    length   in 

'—  exposing  the  assumptions  of  the  same  appalling 

despotism, 
outheceii-      The  connexion   between    auricular  confession, 

bacy  of  the 

clergy.  and  tho  most  politic  distribution  of  these  indul- 
gences, has  been  noticed.  That  which  subsists 
between  the  business  of  the  confessional,  and  the 
celibacy  of  the  clergy,  is  equally  certain,  and 
equally  dangerous.  The  law  which  required  a 
disclosure  of  every  particular  that  might  possibly 
be  connected  with  guilt,  whether  relating  to  the 
conduct,  or  to  the  secrets  of  mental  history,  was 
one  to  be  enforced  on  the  conscience  of  every 
female,  and  by  an  unmarried  priesthood.  To 
evade  it,  would  be  to  incur  the  guilt  of  insincerity, 
self-reproach,  and,  in  no  few  instances,  the  appre- 
hensions of  every  future  evil ;  while  to  act  upon  it 
was  to  conform  to  what  could  hardly  fail  to  prove 
hostile  to  the  best  safeguard  of  female  innocence. 
Nor  is  it  easy  to  conceive,  that  confessors  would 
always  pass  this  ordeal  untainted.  To  do  so, 
they  must  be  either  more  or  less  than  human. 
That  the  morals  of  a  community  must  suffer  from 
this  sort  of  intercourse  is  manifest ;  and  whether 
the  impurities  of  the  clergy,  so  frequently  de- 
plored by  Wycliffe,  arose  from  this  source,  in 
a  greater  or  a  less  degree,  it  is  certain  that  their 
forced  celibacy  was  the  parent  of  vices  which 
frequently  roused  his  severest  indignation.  The 
guilty  conduct  of  priests,  with  respect  to  "  wives, 
*'  widows,  and  maidens,"  is  said  to  lead  to  the 
frequent  "  murder  of  children."  And  the  licen- 
tious practices  of  the  higher  clergy,  are  said  to  be 
but  too  faithfully  copied  by  their  dependants  and 


THE    OPINIONS    OF     WYCLIFFE.  305 

the  laity.     To  have  seen  these  vices  as  certainly  ^ hap. 

consequent  on  the  celibacy  of  churchmen,  would 

have  been  enough,  in  the  mind  of  Wycliffe,  to 
have  created  a  suspicion  as  to  the  real  obligation 
of  the  law  v^^hich  imposed  it.  Such  with  him  was 
the  general  effect  of  existing  disorders.  Where 
the  abuses  of  a  practice  were  more  obvious  than 
its  uses,  the  closest  examination  of  its  origin  and 
pretensions  commonly  followed. 

On  this  article  he  thus  writes.  •'  Since  forni- 
"  cation  is  so  perilous,  and  priests  are  so  frail, 
*'  God  o  dained  in  the  old  law,  that  priests  should 
"  have  wives  ;  and  in  the  new  law,  never  forbid 
"  it,  neither  by  Christ  nor  by  his  apostles ;  but 
"  rather  approved  it  But  now  through  the  hypo- 
"  crisy  of  fiends  and  of  false  men,  many  bind 
"  themselves  to  priesthood  and  chastity,  and 
"  forsake  those  who  by  God's  law  are  their  wives, 
"  and  injure  maidens  and  wives,  and  fall  into  all 
"  vices  most  foully."'*  It  required  no  little  in- 
tegrity and  firmness,  to  avow  such  opinions,   in 

8*  MS.  Of  Wedded  ftlen  and  Wives.  that  "  thongh  matrimony  be  good,  and 

While  many  are  found  assaming  the  "  greatly  commended   of  God,    clean 

office  of  "  priests  and  religious,"  but  "  virginity  is    much    better,    and    the 

to  "  live  a  lustful  life,"  it  is  concluded  "  priests  who  keep  clean  chastity  in 

that  they  must  fall  thus  "  into  lechery  "  body  and  soul  do  best.     But  many 

"  in  divers  degrees,  and  into  the  sins  "  take    this   charge   indiscreetly,    and 

"  against   nature."      Bodily  marriage  "  slander    themselves    greatly    before 

is   defined,  as    "  a    sacrament,   and   a  "  God  and  his  saints.     So  high  and  so 

"  figure    of  the  ghostly   wedlock  be-  "  noble  is  virginity,  that  Christ  com- 

"  tween  Christ  and  the  holy  church,  "  nianded  it  not  generally,  but  said  he 

"  as  St.  Paul  saith,"  and  it  is  farther  "  who  may,  let  him  take  it.     So,  also, 

described  as  approved  of  God  in  Pa-  "  St.  Paul  gave  no  command  of  vir- 

radise,  by  the  Saviour  when  on  earth,  "  ginity,    but   gave  council    to    those 

and  by  his  apostles,   one  of  whom  is  "who    were    equal    thereto."      Such 

said  to  have  numbered  the  prohibition  was   the   unity  of  sentiment  between 

of  marriage  among  the  marks   of  the  the   Apostle   of  the  Gentiles  and  the 

apostacy   which  should  appear  before  English  reformpr.     MS.  Ibid, 
the  last  day.    It  is  nevertheless  stated, 

VOL.    11.  X 


306  THE    OPINIONS     OF     WYCLIFFE. 

^\uF'  ^"^^^  ^^^  ^^^'  ^^^  y^^  ^^  must  admire  the  pru- 
dence  and  devotion,  which  prevented  the  refor- 
mer's availing  himself  of  the  full  liberty  of  which 
he  felt  himself  to  be  possessed  in  this  respect. 
Had  Wycliffe  anticipated  some  of  the  most  illus- 
trious reformers  of  the  sixteenth  century,  by 
becoming  a  married  priest,  the  event,  however 
innocent,  would  have  been  regretted  by  many 
as  a  circumstance,  necessarily  injurious  to  the 
enterprise  in  which  he  was  engaged.  By  a  more 
numerous  class,  such  an  occurrence  would  have 
been  hailed  with  delight,  as  showing  beyond 
controversy,  that  the  reformer's  disaffection  to  the 
church  had  arisen  much  less  from  her  corrup- 
tions, than  from  the  holy  severity  of  her  discipline. 
In  the  fourteenth  century,  this  arch-weapon  would 
have  made  an  impression  more  disastrous  than 
was  produced  by  it  at  a  later  period. 
On  the  sa.       "s^ q  havc  sccu  that  Wycliffe  reoarded  marriao^e 

craments.  J  n  o 

as  a  sacrament.  His  orthodoxy,  however,  on  this, 
and  some  other  formalities  so  designated,  was 
rather  apparent  than  real.  By  a  sacrament,  he 
understood  "  a  token  that  may  be  seen,  of  a  thing 
'*  which  may  not  be  seen;"*^  and  he  admitted, 
with  the  church  of  Rome,  that  these  were  seven 
in  number.*"  His  doctrine  relating  to  penance 
has  been  sufficiently  explained.  On  the  rite  of 
baptism,  Wycliffe  thought  with  his  contempo- 
raries, both  as  to  its  mode,  and  its  subjects. 
"  It  matters  not,"  he  observes,  "  whether  the 
"  persons  baptized,   are  dipped   three    times,    or 

8^  Trial,  iv.  1.  two  sacrameuts  ;  bat  his  Tiialogus  is 

8«  Ibid.      Dr.  James  suggests,  that        among    his  latest    productions.      See 
Wjcliffe  after  a  while  admitted  only        Apology  for  John  Wicklifte. 


THE    OPINIONS     OF     AV'VCLIFFE.  307 

"  have  only  water  poured  on  their  head."^^     But  chap. 

while  the  mode  of  baptism  was  regarded  as  thus L 

indifferent,  its  administration,  in  some  form,  was 
deemed  so  far  important,  that  the  reformer  ad- 
verts with  approbation  to  the  practice  of  allowing 
even  females  to  perform  that  solemnity,  rather  than 
suffer  an  expiring  infant  to  pass  from  the  world 
unblessed  by  its  influence.  On  the  future  state 
of  an  unbaptized  infant,  he  confesses  himself  un- 
able to  determine  any  thing,  but  considers  it  "  as 
*'  probable,  that  without  this  washing,  Christ  may 
"  spiritually  baptize  infants,  and  in  consequence 
"  save  them.^*  We  may  regret  the  force  of  that 
superstition  which  could  produce  hesitation  on  this 
point  even  with  such  a  mind.  But  these  facts 
place  the  doctrine  of  WyclifFe  relating  to  the  mode 
and  the  subjects  of  baptism  beyond  dispute. 

On  the  import  of  this  rite,  he  remarks,  that 
"  baptism  with  water,"  is  significant  "  of  baptism 
''  with  the  Spirit."  In  the  latter,  God  *'  christeneth 
"  the  souls  of  men,  that  is  to  say,  washeth  their 
"  souls  from  the  uncleanness  of  all  sin."  In  one 
of  his  sermons,  he  observes,  "  bodily  baptizing 
"  is  a  figure,  shewing  how  man's  soul  should  be 
"  baptized  from  sin.  For  the  wisdom  of  Christ 
"  would  not  suffer  us  to  keep  this  figure,  except 
"  for  some  good  reason.  Bodily  washing  of  a 
"  child,  is  not  the  end  of  baptizing ;  but  baptizing 
"  is  a  token  of  the  washing  of  the  soul  from  sin, 
"  both  original  and  actual,  by  virtue  taken  of 
"  Christ's  death." «^ 

On    confirmation,    he  remarks,   that   ''  the  oil  confirma- 
tion. 

«7  Trialogus,  iv.  12.  «»  Horn.  Bib.  Reg.  165, 1C6,  on  Rom. 

*'  Ibid.  chap.  vi. 

X  2 


VIII 


308  THE    OPINIONS     OF     M^YCLIFFE. 

CHAP.  "  with  which  the  prelates  anoint  children  at  such 
"  times  ;  and  the  linen  hood,  or  veil  put  over 
*'  their  head  ;  are  a  ceremony  of  little  worth,  and 
"  one  having  no  foundation  in  scripture."""  He 
farther  cautions  such  as  may  have  placed  an  un- 
due confidence  in  this  service,  that  "  the  child, 
"  or  man,  receiveth  not  the  gifts  of  the  Holy 
*'  Spirit  from  the  bishop,  but  as  the  gift  of  God." 
It  is  also  stated,  that  "  it  does  not  appear,  that 
"  this  sacrament  should  be  reserved  to  a  Cesarean 
"  prelacy ;  that  it  would  be  more  devout,  and 
*'  more  conformable  to  scripture  language,  to  deny 
"  that  the  bishops  give  the  Holy  Spirit,  or  confirm 
"  the  Sfivino:  of  it:  and  that  it  therefore  seems  to 
"  some,  that  the  brief  and  trivial  confirmation 
"  of  the  prelates,  and  the  ceremonies  added  to 
"  it  for  the  sake  of  pomp,  were  introduced  at  the 
'•  suggestion  of  Satan,  that  the  people  may  be 
"  deceived  as  to  the  faith  of  the  church,  and  that 
"  the  state  and  necessity  of  bishops  may  be  the 
**  more  acknowledged."^'  At  other  times,  he 
complains  of  the  importance  conferred  on  this 
service,  as  a  disparagement  of  "  the  more  worthy 
"  and  needful  sacraments."''^ 

Clerical  ordination,  he  has  defined  as  "  a  power 
*'  conferred  on  a  devout  clerk  by  the  ministry 
*'  of  a  bishop,  that  he  may  duly  minister  to  the 
"  church  i""^  and  the  doctrine  of  the  age  is  said 
to  be  '*  that  a  clerk  is  not  ordained,  except  as  a 
*'  bishop  shall  grant  him  the  Holy  Ghost,  and 
"  thus  imprint  a  character  on   his  mind  which  is 


3»  Trialogus,  iv.  14.  ^^  MS.  Sentence  of  the  Curse    Ex- 

31  Ibid.  pounded,  c.  vii.  ^^  ibid. 


THE    OPINIONS     OF     WYCLIIFE.  309 

"indelible,    and   accordingly,   if  a  clerk   be  de-CHAP. 

"  graded,   or  whatever  else  may  happen  to  him, 1 

"  this  character  may  not  be  lost."***  But  this 
tenet  is  regarded  as  inexplicable.  As  the  cha- 
racter so  derived  was  frequently  of  little  worth, 
the  reformer  prays,  that  the  clergy  may  receive 
some  more  efficient  grace  from  a  higher  source. 
The  power  conferred  by  the  authority  of  the  pre- 
lates, is  viewed  as  having  no  necessary  connexion 
with  that  which  the  true  priest  receives  from  the 
unseen  Bishop  of  souls.  Hence  while  the  esta- 
blished forms  of  ordination  were  acknowledged, 
the  character  said  to  be  conveyed  by  them  was 
regarded  as  subject  to  debate.  The  doctrine  of 
WyclifFe  with  respect  to  auricular  confession  has 
been  stated  :^^  and  his  opinions  on  the  supposed 
sacrament  of  extreme  unction,  were  deemed 
equally  heterodox."® 

Much,  too,  has  been  said  as  to  the  reformer's  Ti'eeuci,a- 

'  '  rist. 

sentiments  concerning  the  eucharist.  The  word 
transubstantiation,  was  introduced  to  express  the 
changing  of  the  bread  and  wine  into  the  sub- 
stance of  the  body  and  the  blood  of  Christ.  In 
the  writings  of  Wyclifte  this  doctrine  is  rejected 
in  almost  every  form  of  language.  In  his  two 
Confessions  relating  to  this  article,  and  in  a  multi- 
tude of  instances,  the  continuance  of  the  material 
elements,  after  the  words  of  consecration  were 
pronounced,  is  distinctly  asserted.  Still  it  must 
be  acknowledged,  that  he  sometimes  speaks  of  a 
presence  of  the  Saviour,   in  connexion  with  the 

9^  Trialogus,  iv.  15.  on  this  point,  ii.  268.     James's  Ape- 

x's See  p. 297—300.  logy,  c.  viii.  sect.  iv. 

^  Walden   accused    bim  of  heresj 


310  THE    OPINIONS    OF    WYCLIFFE. 

CHAP,  visible   emblems,   in   a    manner   which,   while   it 

certainly  does  not  amount  to  the  impanation  of 

Luther,  is  a  slight  remove  from  the  statements 
of  this  doctrine  which  distinguished  the  creed  of 
Zuinglius.*"  The  language  of  hesitation  and  un- 
certainty is  not  often  that  of  reformers,  but  this 
is  one  of  those  points  on  which  Wycliffe  was  free 
to  confess  his  ignorance.  The  matter,  also,  on 
which  he  found  it  impossible  himself  to  decide, 
he  regarded  as  forming  no  essential  part  of  the 
christian  faith,  and  as  that,  in  consequence,  on 
which  every  man  should  be  left  to  the  guidance 
of  his  own  perceptions.  It  is  in  one  of  his 
latest  pieces  that  he  thus  writes :  "  The  mass  is 
"  neither  better  for  one  priest  nor  another,  for  in 
*'  its  kind  it  is  bread,  nought  amended  by  the 
*'  priest,  and  inasmuch  as  it  is  God's  body,  it 
"  is  like  God,  whosoever  may  consecrate  it.  But 
*'  here  we  knov/  many  things  which  are  no  part 
*'  of  necessary  faith,  and  which  we  should  neither 
*'  grant  nor  deny,  hope  nor  doubt,  but  rather 
"  suppose  them,   or   guess  them."     To  illustrate 


9'  In  his  Conclusions,  published  at  But  he  states,  that  with  respect  to  the 

Oxford,  in  the  summer  of  1381,  it  is  eucharist,    he   had    "  adduced    many 

not  only  transubslantiation,  but  "  iu-  "  reasons  to    show  that   such   an   in- 

"  deniptification,    and     impanation, "  "  demptification   is  impossible."     He 

which   are   denounced    as    having   no  also   adds,    "  I   am    certain  that    the 

support  from  the  scriptures.     To  ex-  "  doctrine  of  impanation  is  impossible 

pose  the  contradictions,   and  the  im-  "  and  heretical."     As  the  humanity  of 

possibilities    attendant   on    the   latter  Christ  is  not  to  be  considered   apart 

doctrines,    is    the    purpose   to   which  from  his  divinity,  it  is  said  to  follow 

the  eighth   chapter   in   the  last  book  from  the  assertions  of  men  respecting 

of  his  Trialogus  is  devoted.     By  iden-  the  identification  of  the  body  of  Christ 

tification  he  professes  to   understand  with  (lie  bread,  "  that  a  mere  wafer 

the  uniting  of  two  things  previously  "  becomes  the  Deity  of  Christ,"  and 

distinct;  as  though  bj' an  act  of  Om-  it   is   indignant!}'    asked    "  what  ido- 

nipotence  Peter  and  Paul  should  cease  "  latry   can  be    more    completely  de- 

to  be  two  persons,  and  become  one.  "testable?" 


worshii 


THE    OPINIONS    OF    WYCLIFFE.  311 

his   meaning,    he    presently  observes:    "Should  chap. 

"  the  pope  ask  me  if  I  were  ordained  to  be  saved,  ~ 

"  or  predestinated,  I  would  say  that  I  hoped  so ; 
"  but  I  would  not  swear  it,  nor  affirm  it  without 
"  condition;  and  though  he  should  greatly  punish 
*'  me,  yet  would  1  neither  deny  it,  nor  do.tbt  it, 
"  in  any  way.  And  so  if  prelates  oppose  me, 
**  inquiring  what  the  sacrament  of  the  altar  is  in 
*'  its  kind,  I  would  say,  it  is  bread,  the  same  that  it 
**  was  before,  since  the  gospel  thus  teaches,  if  we 
'*  will  believe."  But  to  all  questions  beyond  this, 
his  only  answer  is  said  to  be,  **  I  neither  grant  it, 
"  nor  deny  it,  nor  doubt  it."®* 

While  such  were  the  reformer's  sentiments  con-  oupubn, 
cerning  the  recognized  sacraments,  it  will  not  be 
supposed,  that  the  established  ritual  was  in  all 
other  respects  according  to  his  views  of  propriety. 
The  reformer's  complaints,  however,  referred 
chiefly  to  the  subordinate  place  assigned  in  that 
ritual  to  the  office  of  preaching,  to  the  abuse 
of  images,  and  to  the  idle  fopperies  frequently 
obtruded  upon  religious  assemblies  by  singers  and 
musicians.  The  manner  of  conducting  the  wor- 
ship of  God,  which  tended  most  to  inform  the 
mind  of  the  worshipper,  and  to  improve  his  de- 
votional affections,  he  often  declares  to  be  best. 
This  he  considered  to  be  most  consonant  with  the 
suggestions  of  reason,  and  with  the  matured 
character  distinguishing  the  present  dispensation 
of  religion.""     Still,  to  the  period  of  his  death,  he 


9'  MS.  On  the  Seven  Deadlj  Sins.  Uie  writer  combats  the  arguments  ad- 
Cod.  Ric.  Jamesii.  duced  in  favour  of  church  music,  from 

93  MS.  Of  Contemplative  Life.     On  the    practice    of   the   Old   Testament 

Prelates,  c.  vi.     In  the  latter  treatise  church,   and   from  the  visions  of  the 


vate  judi; 
meut. 


312  THE    OPINIONS    OF    WYCLIFFE. 

CHAP,  appears  to  have  conformed  in  these  things  to  the 
'-  customs  of  the  age  ;  attending  to  the  various  ser- 
vices connected  with  the  festivals  of  the  church, 
and  rendering  the  gospels  appointed  to  be  read  on 
such  occasions  the  ground-work  of  his  address  to 
the  people.'"" 
otithesuf.  The  reader  has  frequently  seen,  that  with 
the'scrV-  Wycliffe,  something  more  than  the  decision  of 
rS'/ofpri!  the  church  was  necessary  to  determine  the  truth 
of  religious  doctrines.  And  this  was  the  case 
with  respect  to  doctrines  much  less  mysterious 
than  the  article  of  tran substantiation.  That  the 
pontiffs  were  not  raised  above  the  influence  of 
error,  was  believed  to  be  demonstrated  by  many  a 
melancholy  fact ;  and  that  ecclesiastical  councils 
had  shewn  themselves  to  be  scarcely  more  worthy 
of  confidence,  was  believed  to  be  no  less  evident. 
Indeed,  the  whole  of  the  reformer's  conduct  with 
regard  to  the  papal  power  resulted  from  his  con- 
viction as  to  the  sufficiency  of  the  sacred  scrip- 
tures, and  as  to  the  right  of  private  judgment. 
It  will  be  remembered,  also,  that  in  numerous 
extracts  from  his  writings  which  appear  in  the 
pages  of  this  work,  these  opinions  are  not  more 
clearly  assumed  than  expressed.  The  corruptions 
of  the  church  are  rarely  exposed,  without  being 

Apocalypse.      It  is  laid  down    as  an  forty    which    were    delivered   on   the 

important    maxim,    that   whatever    is  saint-days  observed  in  that  age.     One 

preferred  in  the  worship  of  God,  "  to  of  the  days  so  regarded  was  sacred  to 

"the  hearing  of  his   law,   and   of  the  St.  Thomas  of  Canterbury,  another  to 

"bliss  of  heaven,"  is  an  evil  which  the   purification   of  the   Chair   of    St. 

should  be  suppressed.     Augustine  is  Peter,  and  another  to  the  translation 

also   cited,   as  teaching  that   guilt   is  of  St.  Martin,  (MS.  C. C.C.Cambridge, 

contracted     as    often    as    the    sound  Lewis,  c.  viii.)     It  should,  however, 

becomes    more    attractive    than     the  be   remarked,    that   the    superstitions 

sense.  connected    with    such    seasons,    were 

'""Among   his   sermons   are    nearly  fearlessly  exposed  in  these  discourses. 


THE  OPINIONS  OF  WYCLIFFE.  313 

noticed,  as  showing  the  folly  and  impiety  of  sup-  ^^jfj^' 

posing  her  visible  guides  to  be  infallible.     In  the 

following  passage,  Wycliife  records  his  judgment 
respecting  the  elements  of  which  ecclesiastical 
councils  were  generally  composed.  "  Worldly 
**  prelates  make  of  themselves  a  congregation, 
"  and  of  clerks  assenting  to  them, — some  for 
"  worldly  dread  and  worldly  favours,  some  for 
"  gold,  and  the  hope  of  benefices,  and  some  for 
"  fear  of  the  curse,  or  of  the  losing  of  benefices, 
"  or  for  dread  of  slander,  imprisoning,  and  burn- 
"  ing :" — but  the  conduct  of  such  assemblies  in 
vesting  their  own  interpretations  of  holy  writ, 
with  the  authority  due  to  the  record  itself,  is 
described  as  involving  the  guilt  of  blasphemy.'"' 
*'  The  law  of  God,  and  of  reason,"  he  observes, 
"  we  should  follow  more  than  that  of  our  popes 
''  and  cardinals ;  so  much  so,  that  if  we  had  a 
''  hundred  popes,  and  if  all  the  friars  were  cardi- 
"  nals,  to  the  law  of  the  gospel  we  should  bow, 
"  more  than  to  all  this  multitude." '°* 

The  last  chapter  in  the  third  book  of  his 
Trialogus,  is  intended  to  demonstrate,  that  "  the 
"  law  of  Christ  infinitely  exceeds  all  other  laws." 
It  is  there  observed,  that  in  the  sacred  scriptures, 
*'  all  truth  is  either  expressed  or  implied,"  and  it 
is  said  to  follow,  that  *'  other  writings  can  have 
"  worth  or  authority,  only  so  far  as  their  senti- 
"  ment  is  derived  from  the  scriptures."     This  is 

i"!  MS.  How  Satan  and  his  Priests,  "  these     councils.      And    where    the 

and  his  Feigned  Religious,  &c.  &c.  "  greater  part  of  such   men  assent  to 

'"2  Cod.  Ric.  Jauieseii.     "  The  faith  "any  sentence,   then  all  holj  church 

"  which  served  the  church  a  thousand  "  shall  know  that  to  be  gospel,  and  by 

"years  while  Satan   was  bound,  will  "  this  false  principle  the  fiend  beguijeth 

"  not  serve  it  now  he  is  loosed  ;  hence  "  men."     Ibid. 


314  THE    OPINIONS     OF    WYCLIFFE. 

CHAP,  stated  as  the  doctrine  of  Auoustine,   and  as  in- 

VIII. 

1  eluding    every  thing  necessary  "  to  correct  the 

'*  edicts  of  the  papal  court,  and  of  the  prelates, 
*'  and  also  the  errors  of  the  religious  orders."  It 
is  stated,  also,  that  "  the  smooth  covering  under 
"  which  all  the  subtleties  of  Antichrist  are  con- 
**  cealed,"  consists  in  imputing  obscurity  to  the 
scriptures,  with  a  view  to  introduce  the  rival 
authority  of  the  priesthood.  The  chapter  thus 
concludes :  "  I  am  certain,  indeed,  from  the 
"  scriptures,  that  neither  Antichrist,  nor  all  his 
"  disciples,  nay  nor  all  fiends,  may  really  impugn 
"  any  part  of  that  volume,  as  it  regards  the  excel- 
"  lence  of  its  doctrine.  But  in  all  these  things, 
*'  it  appears  to  me,  that  the  believing  man  should 
**  use  this  rule — if  he  soundly  understands  the 
**  sacred  scripture,  let  him  bless  God ;  if  he  be 
"  deficient  in  such  a  perception,  let  him  labour 
"  for  soundness  of  mind.  Let  him  also  dwell 
*'  as  a  grammarian  upon  the  letter,  but  be  fully 
"  aware  of  imposing  a  sense  upon  scripture,  which 
**  he  doubts  the  Holy  Spirit  does  not  demand. 
"  For  such  a  man,  according  to  St.  Jerome,  is 
**  a  heretic ;  and  much  more  he,  who  rashly 
"  blasphemes,  by  imposing  a  meaning  on  scrip- 
"  ture,  which  the  Spirit  itself  declares  to  be  im- 
*'  possible."  •»' 

It  should  be  observed,  however,  that  the  right 
of  private  judgment,  as  asserted  by  WyclifFe,  was 

'"3  The  state  of  WyclifFe's  mind  in  me  important  that  some  direct  infor- 
reference  to  this  leading  article  of  mation  should  be  obtained  on  a  point 
Protestantism,  must  of  course  have  of  so  much  moment,  and  that  the  re- 
been  variously  implied  in  those  parts  former  should  be  allowed  to  speak  to 
of  his  writings  which  have  been  long  it  for  himself. — Note  to  the  second 
before  the  public.     But  it  appeared  to  edition. 


THE    OPINIONS    OF    WYCLIFFE.  315 

not  a  liberty  to  reject  established  opinions  without  ^yjj/'' 

examination.     On  the  contrary,  patient  inquiry, 

fervent  prayer,  and  a  disposition  to  comply  with 
the  requirements  of  scripture,  whatever  they  may 
be,  are  constantly  adverted  to,  as  necessary  quali- 
fications in  the  case  of  every  man  who  would 
study  that  volume  so  as  to  understand  it.  These 
sacred  obligations  are  considered  as  devolving  on 
every  man  discarding  the  authority  of  the  church, 
and  professing  to  make  the  scriptures  the  source 
of  his  sentiments,  and  the  guide  of  his  conduct/*** 
*'  Poor  priests,  and  true  men,"  says  the  reformer, 
*'  would  willingly  yield  obedience  to  God,  and  to 
'*  holy  church,  and  also  to  each  man  on  earth, 
**  inasmuch  as  he  teacheth  truly  the  command- 
"  inents  of  God,  and  things  which  may  profit  the 
**  souls  of  men.  And  no  more  ought  any  man  to 
*'  obey,  even  to  Christ  himself,  both  God  and 
"  man.  If  any  worldly  prelate  asketh  more  obe- 
"  dience  than  this,  he  surely  is  Antichrist,  and 
*'  Lucifer's  master.  For  Jesus  Christ  is  the  God 
"  of  righteousness   and  truth,  and  of  peace  and 

10^  To  the    exposition   of  scripture  sometimes  obscured  by  mysteries  and 

four  qualifications  are  noticed  as  im-  allegory,  it  is  his  remark,   that  "  all 

portant.     An  ability  to  collate  nianu-  "  things    necessary   in    scripture    are 

scripts — an  acquaintance  with  logic —  "  contained  in  its  proper  literal  and 

the   practice   of    comparing   scripture  "  historical  sense,"  and  some  men  are 

with  scripture — and  above  all,  a  con-  "  said  to  be  "  enlightened  from  above 

sciousness  of  dependance  on  the  pro-  "  that  they  may  so  explain  it."     Two 

mised    assistance   of    the    Spirit,    the  rules  are  noticed  as  having  aided  him 

great  Teacher.     It  is  further  said,  that  in  distinguishing  between  the  apocry- 

"  this  illumination,  so  necessary  to  a  phal  and  the  canonical  scriptures :  1st. 

"  full   understanding   of  the  word  of  To  ascertain   what  books  of  the  Old 

"  God,  is  promoted  by  sanctity  of  life.  Testament  are  cited  in  the  New.     2d. 

"This  should  theologians  be  studious  A  comparison  of  thedoctrines  contained 

"  to  preserve,  being  careful  that  they  in  any  suspicious  document  with  that 

"  invent  nothing  foreign  to  the  faith  of  inculcated  in  the  scriptures  of  acknow- 

"  the    scriptures."     And    though    his  ledged  authority.     James's   Apology, 

own    expositions    of   scripture    were  c.  i. 


316 


THE    OPINIONS    OF    WYCLIFFE. 


CHAP, 
VIII. 


charity.      He  may  not   lie,  nor  deny  himself. 
How  then,  may  any  sinful  prelate  justly  compel 
men  to  do  against  righteousness,  and  the  health 
of  their  souls,   and   a  good   conscience  ?      For 
Christ  saith  in  the  gospel  of  St.  John,  that  the 
Son  may  do  nothing  but  what  he  hath  seen  the 
Father  do,   and  Christ,  therefore,  commanded 
all  men,  that  they  should  believe  on  him,   but 
as  he  did  the  works  of  the  Father.     Why  then 
should    christian    men    be    compelled    by   the 
clerks  of  Antichrist,  to  do  after  their  command- 
ments, while  they  do  not  the  works  of  God,  but 
those  of  the  fiend  ?     And  thus  Christ  speaketh 
to  the  Jews,  and  asketh,  why  they  believe  not 
on  him,  if  he  saith  the  truth  ?     And  hence,  he 
also  saith,  who  of  you  shall  reprove  me  of  sin  ? 
And  he  would  that  any  man  had  done  so,  if  he 
might   in  truth.      Hence,  also,  at  the  time  of 
his  passion,  he  said  to  the  bishop's  servant  who 
smote  him  on  the  face,  *  If  I   have  done  evil, 
bear  thou  witness  of  the  evil.'      And  thus,   if 
prelates  are  vicars   of    Christ,    they   ought  to 
follow  him  in  their  terms  of  obedience,  and  to 
ask  no  more  of  any  man  than  he  did."     It  is 
added,  that  Christ,  who  was  "  both  God  and  man, 
'  sought  the  souls  of  men,  lost  through  sin,  thirty 
*  years  and  more,  in  great  labour  and  weariness, 
'  and  many  pains,   travelling-  on   his  feet   many 
'  thousand   miles    in   the   cold,    and   storm,   and 
'  tempest ! "     And  it  is  demanded,  whether  any 
'  sinful  idiot,"  because  vested  by  human  power 
with  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction,  may  justly  exact 
more  obedience  than  did  Christ  and  his   apo- 
stles."  In  the  same  treatise  it  is  remarked,  that 


THE    OPINIONS    OF    WYCLIFFE.  317 

"  Christ  hath  said  in  his  o^ospel,  that  if  the  blind  chap. 

VIII. 

"  lead  the  blind,    they   fall   both  into  the  lake.  — 

"  Now  these  worldly  prelates  are  blind  in  God's 
*'  law,  both  in  their  knowledge  of  it,  and  in  the 
"  life  they  live;  and  accordingly,  no  man  should 
"  be  led  by  them,  for  fear  lest  they  both  fall  into 
"  hell  from  their  ignorance  of  holy  writ."'"'  Cen- 
suring the  too  prevalent  custom,  of  putting  "  the 
"  bidding  of  God  behind,  and  the  bidding  of  sinful 
"  man  before,"  he  remarks,  "  let  prelates  study 
"  busily  and  truly  holy  writ,  and  live  openly 
"  hereafter,  and  destroy  the  open  sin  of  other 
"  men ;  and  poor  priests,  and  christian  men, 
"  without  any  summoning,  would  willingly  come 
"  to  them,  at  any  cost  or  labour,  by  land  or 
"  water,  and  would  meekly  do  them  obedience 
'*  and  reverence,  as  they  would  to  Peter  and 
"  Paul.  Let  the  world  judge  then,  whether 
"  these  dissensions  belong  to  worldly  prelates, 
"  ignorant  in  themselves,  and  cursed  in  life,  or  to 
"  poor  priests,  and  true  men,  who  desire  night 
"  and  day  to  know  the  will  of  God,  to  honour  it, 
"  and  before  all  thinos  to  do  it."'**" 


105  MS.    How    Men     should     find  "  people  may  reject  and  disobey  him." 

Priests.     "  In   reason,    the   nature  of  Barrow's  Works,  i.  744. 

"  any  spiritual  office  consisting  in  in-  los  MS.  De  Obedientia  Prelatorura. 

"  struction   in   truth,   and  guidance  in  "  Christian    men    say    truly   that   they 

"  virtue   toward   attainment  of  salva-  "  would  not  wilfully  or  wittingly  de- 

"  tion  ;  if  any  man  doth  lead  into  per-  "  serve  the  curse  of  God  for  any  good 

"  nicious  error  or  impiety,  he  thereby  "either   in  earth  or  heaven;   neither 

"  ceaseth  to  be  capable  of  such  office  ;  "  that  of  man,  in  as  far  as  it  accordeth 

"  as   a   blind  man  by  being  so,   doth  "  with  the  righteous  sentence  of  God. 

"  cease  to  he  a  guide.     No  man  can  "  But  with  great  joy  of  soul,  they  will 

"  be  bound  to  follow  any  one  into  the  "  rather  suffer  man's  wrongful  curse, 

"  ditch,   or   to   obey   any   one  to   the  "  than  wittingly  or  wilfully  break  any 

"prejudice  of  his  own  salvation.     If  "  one  commandment  of  God.    Thereby 

"  any   pastor   should  teach   bad  doc-  "  the   honours   of   this   world,    and    a 

"  trine  or  prescribe  bad  practice,  the  "  keeping  of  the  body  in  all  indulgence 


318  THE    OPINIONS    OF    WYCLIFFE. 

CHAP.       Of  WyclifFe's  theological  doctrine,  the   reader 

will  have  formed  his  judgment  from  the  passages 

hrsTeoio."^ inserted  in  the  preceding  chapters,  and  especially 
frine.*^"''  from  those  supplied  by  the  reformer's  homilies, 
and  by  his  exposition  of  the  decalogue. ""^  No 
language  can  be  more  explicit,  than  that  in  which 
he  asserts  the  dependence  of  man  for  the  remission 
of  his  sins,  on  the  satisfaction  made  for  them 
by  the  obedience  and  death  of  Christ.  It  is  de- 
clared that  to  the  "  one  offering"  presented  on 
the  cross,  every  descendant  of  Adam  must  be 
indebted, — not  in  part  merely,  but  entirely — for 
the  removal  of  his  guilt.  It  is  at  the  same  time 
affirmed,  that  this  highest  token  of  the  divine 
approbation  is  most  assuredly  awarded  to  every 
penitent  believer,  however  condemned  by  a  de- 
generate priesthood.  If  there  be  passages  in 
which  the  reformer  speaks  of  men  as  '*  deserving" 
the  blessedness  of  a  future  world,  we  have  heard 
him  explain  the  sense  in  which  he  employed  such 
language  ;  and  we  have  seen  his  protest  against 
its  being  interpreted  as  at  variance  with  the 
doctrine  which  regards  the  salvation  of  the  soul 
as  being  in  every  view  of  it  purely  the  work  of 
God.^o^ 

A  prominent  article  in  his  rehgious  creed,  and 
one  from  which  the  rest  were  all  more  or  less 
deduced,  was  the  election  of  grace.  The  true 
church,  is  accordingly  described  as  composed  of 
predestinated  persons,  and  of  such  alone.     "  We 

"  maj   be   secured.     But  they  would  "  and  burning,   than   to  forsake  thus 

"  rather  sufterslander,  and  back-biting,  "  the  example  of  Christ,  and  the  truth 

"and   imprisonment,    and   exile,   and  "  of  holy  writ."     Ibid, 
"with   the    help  and    grace   of  God,  i"'  See  Vol.  [.  Chap.  iii.  II.  Chap.  i. 

"  lianging,    drawing    and   quartering,  '"'  Ibid.  p.  33. 


THE    OPINIONS    OF    WYCLIFFE.  319 

"  are  predestinated,"  he  remarks,  **  that  we  may  chap. 

...  VIII. 

"  obtain   divine  acceptance,   and  become   holy ; 

"  having  received  that  grace  through  the  huma- 
'*  nity  of  Christ,  by  which  we  are  rendered  finally 
"  pleasing  to  God.  And  to  me  it  appears,  that 
"  this  grace,  which  is  called  the  grace  of  pre- 
"  destination,  or  the  charity  of  final  perseverance, 
**  cannot  by  any  means  fail."'"®  In  the  same 
work,  he  endeavours  to  shew  that  there  is  no  in- 
consistency in  regarding  men  as  elected  by  their 
Maker  from  before  the  foundation  of  the  world, 
though  their  existence  then  could  only  be  in  the 
mind  or  purpose  of  the  Deity.  To  the  question, 
what  is  the  real  cause  of  the  decrees  of  God,  it  is 
replied,  "  the  will  of  God,  or  even  God  himself.""" 
In  the  Trialogus,  indeed,  similar  speculations  fre- 
quently occur.  Nor  was  it  the  salvation  of  men 
only,  but  the  events  of  time  in  general,  which 
were  viewed  as  the  certain  result  of  pre-ordination. 
It  is  in  the  following  manner  that  he  reasons  on 
this  subject.  "  If  Christ  prophesied  of  certain 
"  events,  as  certainly  to  come,  such  events  have 
"  been  or  will  be.  The  antecedent,  namely  that 
"  Christ  has  thus  prophesied,  is  necessary,  and 
*'  the  consequence  is  also  necessary.  The  con- 
"  sequence  is  not  in  the  power  of  any  man,  or 
"  of  any  creature;  nor  are  the  sayings  of  Christ, 
*'  or  the  elections  of  his  mind  to  be  affected  by 
"  accident.  And  therefore  as  it  is  necessary  that 
*'  Christ  has  foretold  certain  things,  so  it  is  neces- 
*'  sary  they  should  come  to  pass.  By  arguments 
**  of  this  kind  also,  we  shew  other  events  to 
**  be  necessary,  the  coming  of  which  has  been 


320 


THE    OPINIONS     OF    M'YCLIFFE. 


^J?.^r^'  "  determined  by  God.     Nor  will  it  matter,  after 

VIII.  "^ 

"  what  manner  God   may  choose   to  inform  us, 

"  that  he  had  actually  so  determined,  before  the 
**  foundation  of  the  world.  Let  it  be  certain,  that 
"  God  has  predetermined  an  event,  and  the  result 
**  is  beyond  all  accident,  it  must  follow.  Now 
*'  what  could  hinder  this  pre-ordination  of  events 
"  on  the  part  of  God  ?  His  knowledge  is  perfect. 
"  His  will  is  unvarying.  And  all  creature-impedi- 
"  ments  opposed  to  him  are  futile.  From  these 
"  facts,  it  follows  that  whatsoever  is  future,  must 
"  necessarily  come.""'  The  sum  of  WyclifFe's 
doctrine  on  this  point,  appears  to  have  been,  that 
the  divine  nature  necessarily  purposes  what  is 
best  with  respect  to  the  universe  ;  and  as  the  vo- 
litions of  the  Eternal  Mind  must  necessarily  affect 
all  the  matters  over  which  the  Divine  prescience 
extends,  a  law  of  necessity  must  in  consequence 
descend  upon  all  things.  Acute,  however,  as 
were  the  reformer's  reasonings  on  such  topics,  1 
am  constrained  to  think  that  the  perplexities  with 
which  he  often  bewildered  his  opponents,  must 
have  been  sometimes  felt  by  himself.  In  his 
English  compositions  such  speculations  are  not  of 
frequent  occurrence,  rarely  obtaining  more  than 
a  passing  notice.  But  that  they  were  not  re- 
garded by  Wycliffe,  as  having  the  least  tendency 
to  impair  the  feeling  of  responsibility  in  men,  or 
to  efface  the  distinctions  between  vice  and  virtue, 
is  placed  beyond  doubt  by  the  facts  of  his  history, 
and  by  the  general  sentiment  of  his  writings. 

The  remaining  articles   of   his    creed  are  of  a 
more   practical  character,    and    more   frequently 

'"  Trial,  iii.  9. 


THE    OPINIONS    OF    WYCLIFFE.  321 

announced.      To  the  scheme  of   spiritual  power  chap. 

so  long  established  in  connexion  with  the  see  of L 

Rome,  and  to  the  many  delusions  which  had  faci- 
litated the  introduction  of  the  laws  of  penance, 
and  the  customs  of  pilgrimage,  he  opposed  the 
simple,  but  sublime  doctrine,  of  a  free  remission 
of  sin,  in  virtue  of  the  atonement  made  by  Jesus 
Christ.  To  guard  this  doctrine  also  from  abuse, 
he  was  equally  bold  in  declaring  that  the  penitent 
only  could  be  assured  of  pardon  ;  and  that  God 
is  more  willing  to  confer  the  grace  of  penitence, 
and  all  the  elements  of  a  heavenly  temper,  than 
we  are  to  seek  them.  "  Marvellous,"  he  observes, 
*'  it  is  that  any  sinful  being  dare  grant  any  thing 
*'  to  another  on  the  merit  of  saints.  For  without 
*'  the  grace  and  the  power  of  Christ's  passion,  all 
*'  that  any  saint  ever  did,  may  not  bring  a  soul 
"  to  heaven."  That  grace  and  passion  are,  at 
the  same  time,  described  as  including  "all  merits 
*'  which  are  needful."''''  The  last  day,  he  re- 
marks, will  show,  that  the  judgment  of  the 
Supreme  is  not  to  be  at  all  influenced  by  the 
often  mistaken  views  of  men ;  and  he  concludes 
by  praying,  that  "  the  Almighty,  of  his  endless 
"  charity,  would  destroy  the  pride,  covetousness, 
"  hypocrisy,  and  heresy,  discovered  by  these 
"  pretended  pardons,  and  make  men  earnest  to 
"  keep  his  commandments,  and  to  set  their  trust 
"  fully  in  Jesus  Christ.""^  What  the  reformer 
meant  by  thus  trusting  in  Christ,  he  frequently 
explains.  In  his  comment  on  the  passage 
respecting  the  brazen  serpent,  he  thus  writes. 
"  Here  we  must  know  the  story  of  the  old  law. 

"2  MS.  On  Prelates,  c.  xiii.  113  ibid. 

VOL.     IT.  Y 


322  THE    OPINIONS    OF    WYCLIFFE. 

CHAP.  *' How  the  people  were  hurt  by  the  stinging  of 

—  "  adders.      And   Moses  prayed  God  to  tell  him 

*'  a  medicine,  and  God  made  him  take  an  adder 
**  of  brass,  and  raising  it  high  on  a  tree  for  the 
*'  people  to  look  to,  to  tell  them  that  those  who 
"  looked  on  that  adder  should  be  healed.  And 
*'  all  this  was  a  figure  of  Christ's  hanging  on  the 
*'  cross.  He  was  in  the  form  of  the  venemous 
**  adder ;  but  in  his  own  person  was  no  venom, 
*'  even  as  the  adder  of  brass  had  no  venom  in  it. 
"  But  as  a  right  looking  on  that  adder  of  brass 
*'  saved  the  people  from  the  venom  of  serpents, 
*'  so  a  right  looking  by  full  belief  on  Christ  saveth 
*'  his  people.""*  It  follows,  therefore,  that 
*'  Christ  died  not  for  his  own  sins,  as  thieves  die 
*'  for  theirs ;  but  as  our  brother,  who  himself 
**  might  not  sin,  he  died  for  the  sins  that  others 
"  had  done.  The  righteousness  of  God,  there- 
*'  fore,  and  his  grace,  and  the  salvation  of  men, 
**  all  thus  moved  Christ  to  die.""^  Such  pas- 
sages prepare  us  for  the  reformer's  more  definite 
statements  on  this  article,  as  when  he  affirms 
that  without  faith  it  is  impossible  to  please  God  ; 
that  the  virtuous  deeds  of  the  unbelieving  are 
devoid  of  a  principle  of  righteousness  ;  that  faith 
in  the  Redeemer  is  sufficient  to  salvation,  and 
that  without  the  admixture  of  other  causes  ;  and 
that  men  are  righteous  only  by  a  participation  in 
the  Saviour's  righteousness."*^ 

Nearly  allied  to  the  doctrine  of  justification 
by  faith,  is  that  of  sanctification  by  the  agency  of 
the  Divine  Spirit;    and  in  the  writings  of  Wycliffe, 

•'*  Horn.  Bib.  Reg.  115  Ibid.  103. 

"6  De  Veritatc  Scriptura:  Expos.  Dec.       James's  Apology. 


THE    OPINIONS    OF    WYCLIFFE.  323 

they  hold  that  relation  to  each  other,  which  we  chap. 

VIII 

find   allotted   to  them  in  the    sacred    scriptures - 

The  text  which  affirms  that  with  respect  to  the 
duties  of  piety,  "  our  sufficiency  is  wholly  of 
"  God,"  is  thus  treated.  "  Since  among  the 
"  works  of  man,  thinking  would  seem  to  be  most 
*'  in  his  power;  and  yet,  even  his  thoughts  must 
"  be  received  from  God,  much  more  is  it  so  with 
**  the  other  works  of  men.  And  thus  should 
"  we  put  off  pride,  and^  wholly  trust  in  Jesus 
*'  Christ.  For  he  who  may  nought  think  of 
*'  himself,  may  do  nought  of  himself.  Thus  all 
"  our  sufficiency  is  of  God,  through  the  mediation 
"  of  Jesus  Christ."'"  It  is  afterwards  observed, 
that  "  thus  of  sinful  and  ungrateful  men,  God 
"  maketh  good  men,  and  all  the  goodness  in  this 
"  Cometh  of  God.  Nor  trouble  we  about  any 
*'  farther  cause,  since  God  himself  is  certainly 
"  the  first  cause."  "^  But  with  statements  of  this 
description,  a  multitude  of  which  might  be  se- 
lected from  his  sermons,  there  are  others  of  a 
more  modified  class,  though  by  no  means  incon- 
sistent with  them,  which  occur  with  still  greater 
frequency.  All  men,  it  is  remarked,  should  be 
admonished,  that  they  receive  not  the  grace  of 
God  in  vain  ;  since,  in  every  instance,  where 
such  conduct  is  exhibited,  "  the  default  is  not  in 
"  God,  but  all  the  default  is  in  his  servants.""^ 
Again,  it  is  said,  that  *'  God  withdraweth  not  his 
'*  grace,  except  man  shall  abuse  it;  and  then  the 
*'  righteousness  of  God  requireth  that  the  sinner 
"  should  be  punished."'""    These  passages  viewed 

"7  Horn.  Bib.  RcR.  101.  "^  Horn.  Bib.  Res-  17. 

■IS  IlmK  17.  I-"  Ibid. 

Y  2 


324  THE    OPINIONS    OF    WYCLIFFE. 

CHAP,  together,  may  remind  the  reader  of  the  apostle's 

'-  language,  "  work  out  your  own  salvation  with  fear 

"  and  trembling,  for  it  is  God  who  worketh  in 
"  you,  to  will  and  to  do  of  his  good  pleasure." '"" 
It  is  evident,  also,  that  this  supernatural  aid  was 
understood  by  the  reformer  as  extended  to  all 
men,  so  as  to  render  the  condemnation  of  the 
finally  impenitent  the  just  consequence  of  resist- 
ing the  light  from  above.  Thus  pursuing  a  com- 
parison between  the  advent  of  Christ,  and  the 
dawning  of  the  day,  he  remarks,  "It  is  now  a 
•'  great  sin  not  to  arise  and  to  throw  open  our 
*'  windows,  for  this  spiritual  light  is  ready  to 
**  shine  unto  all  men  who  will  open  to  receive 
ti  it.'''^^*  The  doctrine  of  Wycliffe,  therefore  was, 
that  the  men  who  are  saved  from  the  power  of 
their  natural  depravity,  as  well  as  from  the  burden 
of  their  guilt,  are  thus  saved  simply  according  to 
the  grace  of  God ;  and  yet  that  the  mysterious 
arrangements  of  heaven  are  such,  that  wherever 
final  ruin  happens,  the  lost  will  be  found  to 
have  been  the  agents  of  their  own  destruction. 
To  the  difficulties  of  this  creed  the  reformer  could 
not  have  been  insensible,  but  it  was  evidently 
regarded  as  that  of  the  scriptures,  and  as  exposed 
to  less  objection  than  any  other  that  might  be 
proposed  in  its  room. 

It  is  plain  from  these  extracts,  and  from  others 
in  some  preceding  chapters  of  this  work,  that 
Melancthon  could  have  known  little  of  Wycliffe 's 
theological  productions,  when  describing  him  as 
"  ignorant  of  the  righteousness  of  faith." '^'      If 

•21  Phil.  ii.  12, 13.  i"   W^-clilTe  is  further  accused  bj 

'"  Horn.  Bib.  Reg.  17.  this  writer,  of  holding  seditious  no- 


THE    OPINIONS    OF    WYCLIFFE.  325 

by   that   doctrine    he  meant   a   reliance    on   the  ^yjfj^' 

atonement  of  Christ  as  the  only  and  the  certain 1- 

medium  of  acceptance  for  the  guilty,  it  is  un- 
questionable that  this  truth  was  the  favourite,  and 
the  most  efficient  article  in  the  faith  of  the 
English,  as  well  as  in  that  of  the  German  re- 
former. It  must  be  acknowledged  that  this  tenet 
is  more  frequently  adverted  to  in  the  writings 
of  Luther,  than  in  those  of  Wycliffe  ;  and  his 
notices  respecting  it  are  frequently  more  definite, 
because  distinguishing  more  commonly  between 
the  acceptance  of  ofi'enders  in  virtue  of  the  Sa- 
viour's death,  and  the  growth  of  devout  aflfections 
in  the  heart  under  the  influence  of  the  Divine 
Spirit.  But  that  such  was  the  design  of  the 
Redeemer's  sacrifice,  was  not  more  distinctly 
apprehended  by  the  professor  of  Wittenburgh, 
than  by  the  rector  of  Lutterworth ;  nor  was  this 
truth  the  source  of  a  more  permanent  or  delightful 
confidence  with  the  one  than  with  the  other.  The 
Spirit  of  God  is  at  the  same  time  contemplated 
as  the  source  of  all  those  influences  which  lead  the 
mind  to  a  knowledge  of  the  truth,  which  nourish 
it  in  all  the  graces  of  piety,  and  by  which  men  are 
prepared  to  bear  the  cross  of  the  confessor  and 

tions  in  politics,  and  of  being  obscure  transubstantiation  of  the  papacy  :  and 

in   the  matter  of  the  eucharist.    This  we  have  seen  the  firmness  with  which 

opinion  is  stated  as  the  result  of  "  look-  both  were  rejected  bj  our  countryman. 

ing  into  Wycliffe."   It  is  obviously  the  His  views  of  civil  government  are  also 

effect  of  a  very  partial  attention  to  tl.e  before  the  reader.     But  were  it  possi- 

reformer's  statements.     On  the  princi-  ble    to   vindicate   his   name,   in   these 

pies  of  civil  government,  and  on  the  particulars,  still  more  clearly,  he  has 

sacrament  of  the  altar,   the  rector  of  opponents  who  would  not  fail  to  reite- 

Lutterworth  differed  from  Luther  and  rate  these  charges  as  those  of  Melanc- 

Melancthon,   only  as  being  more  en-  thon,  and  as  though  no  man  had  ever 

lightened.   As  a  question  of  the  reason,  dared  to  question  their  truth.    Lewis, 

the    consubstantiation  of  the  Lutheran  c.  viii. 
church  is  scarcely  a  remove  from  the 


VIII. 


326  THE    OPINIONS    OF    WYCLIFFE. 

CHAP,  the  martyr.  Frequently,  indeed,  the  word  sal- 
vation is  employed  as  comprehending  the  articles 
of  justification  and  sanctification.  This,  we  know, 
is  the  manner  of  the  sacred  writers.  But  if  to 
distinguish  between  these  essential  parts  of  the 
christian  redemption,  is  to  regard  the  first  as 
proceeding  exclusively  from  the  atonement  of 
Christ,  and  the  second  as  flowing  entirely  from 
the  grace  of  the  Spirit ;  if  it  be  also  to  view  the 
one  as  consisting  in  a  change  of  relation  to  God, 
and  the  other  as  including  an  assimilation  of 
the  spirit  of  man  to  that  of  the  Redeemer — then 
these  doctrines,  and  the  diff'erence  between  these 
doctrines,  was  far  from  being  unperceived  by 
Wycliffe. 

It  is  in  the  following  language  that  he  describes 
the  self-denial  and  devotedness  which  the  gospel 
requires  of  its  sincere  disciples.  '*  Christ  not 
"  compelling,  but  freely  counselling  every  man  to 
*'  seek  a  perfect  life  saith,  '  Let  him  deny  himself, 
"  and  take  up  his  cross  and  follow  me.'  Let  us 
**  then  deny  ourselves  in  whatever  we  have  made 
"  ourselves  by  sin ;  and  such  as  we  are  made  by 
"  grace,  let  us  continue.  If  a  proud  man  be  con- 
"  verted  to  Christ,  and  is  made  humble,  he  hath 
**  denied  himself.  If  a  covetous  man  ceaseth  to 
**  covet,  and  giveth  of  his  own  to  relieve  the 
**  needy,  he  hath  denied  himself.  If  an  impure 
"  man  changeth  his  life  and  becometh  chaste,  he 
"  hath  denied  himself,  as  St.  Gregory  saith.  He 
"  who  withstandeth  and  forsaketh  the  unreason- 
'*  able  will  of  the  flesh  denieth  himself.  The 
*'  cross  of  Christ  is  taken  when  we  shrink  not  from 
*'  contempt,  for  the  love  of  the  truth;  when  man 


THE    OPINIONS     OF    WYCLIFFE.  327 

*' is  crucified  unto  the  world,  and  the  world   is  chap. 

VIII. 

*'  crucified  unto   him,  and  he  setteth  its  joy  at  L 

•'  nought.  It  is  not  enough  to  bear  the  cross 
*'  of  a  painful  life,  except  we  follow  Christ  in  his 
*'  virtues,  in  meekness,  love,  and  heavenly  desire. 
"  He  taketh  the  cross  who  is  ready  to  meet  all 
*'  peril  for  God  ;  if  need  be  to  die  rather  than 
**  to  forsake  Christ.  And  whoso  taketh  not  thus 
"  the  cross,  and  followeth  not  Christ  thus,  is  not 
"  worthy  to  be  his  disciple. — Lord  Jesus,  turn  us 
"  to  thee,  and  we  shall  be  turned !  Heal  thou  us, 
**  and  then  we  shall  be  verily  holy ;  for  without 
*'  grace  and  help  from  thee,  may  no  man  be  truly 
*'  turned  or  healed.  For  they  are  but  scorners, 
*'  who  to-day  turn  to  God,  and  to-morrow  turn 
*'away;  who  to-day  do  their  penance,  and  to- 
*'  morrow  turn  again  to  their  former  evils.  What 
"  is  turning  to  God?  Nothing  but  turning  from 
'*  the  world,  from  sin,  and  from  the  fiend.  What 
*'  is  turning  from  God,  but  turning  to  the  changing 
"  things  of  this  world,  to  delight  in  the  creatures, 
"  the  lusts  of  the  flesh,  and  the  works  of  the  fiend  ? 
**  To  be  turned  from  the  world,  is  to  set  at  nought 
"  its  joys,  and  to  sufi'er  meekly,  all  bitterness, 
"  slanders,  and  deceits,  for  the  love  of  Christ.  To 
"  leave  all  occupations  unlawful  and  unprofitable 
"  to  the  soul,  so  that  man's  will  and  thought 
**  become  dead  to  the  things  which  the  world 
*'  loveth  and  worshipptth."  The  devices  of  Satan 
with  which  all  have  to  contend,  are  said,  in  the 
conclusion,  to  be  particularly  directed  against 
such  as  really  aspire  to  this  state  of  sanctity. 
"  He  studieth  to  bring  against  us  all  manner  of 
"  temptations   and   tribulations,  according  as  he 


328  THE    OPINIONS    OF    WYCLIFFE. 

^vni^'  "  seeth  that  by  the  mercy  of  God,  we  are  escaped 

"  out  of  his  power.     For  he  seeketh  nothing  so 

"  much  as  to  separate  men  from  the  pure  and  the 
**  everlasting  love  of  Jesus  Christ,  and  to  make 
"  them  love  perishing  things,  and  the  uncleanness 
"ofthis  world."^^^ 

I  have  ventured  to  remark,  that  had  Wycliffe 
been  a  less  devout  man  than  such  passages  shew 
him  to  have  been,  he  would  not,  perhaps,  have 
been  deserted  by  certain  of  his  political  adhe- 
rents. It  is  equally  probable,  that  had  his  zeal 
been  directed  to  devotional  topics  alone,  as  was 
the  case  with  Bradwardine,  St.  Edmund,  and 
others,  his  days  might  have  passed  in  compara- 
tive tranquillity.  But  he  extended  the  range  of 
his  theological  inquiries  much  farther  than  such 
persons  had  done,  and  applied  his  doctrine  so  as 
to  annihilate  the  papal  scheme  of  merit.  It  was 
thus  he  sought  the  religious  improvement  of  man- 
kind ;  and  it  was  in  doing  this,  that  he  wittingly 
braved  the  worst  evils  which  the  malice  of  his 
opponents  could  inflict. 

124  MS.  Of  Perfect  Life.    This  ex-  jadice  whicL  is  too  often  apparent  in 

tract,    and  all   the  extracts  breathing  the  narrative  of  these  writers.     I  am 

the  same  devotional  spirit  that  occur  disposed,  however,  to   attribute  their 

in  the  course  of  these  volumes  have  defective  and  contradictory  account  of 

been    concealed    in    manuscript  from  our  reformer,  rather  to  a  want  of  ade- 

the  fourteenth  century  to  the  present  quate  attention  to  the  information  really 

time.    So  little  indeed  has  been  pub-  before  them,  and  still  more  to  the  little 

lished    relating   immediately  to   Wy-  direct   reference   to  devoat  affections 

cliffe's   feeling  with  regard   to  piety,  in  that  portion  of  Wycliffe's  writings 

that  the  authors  of  our  most  popular  then  known  through  the  medium  of  the 

Church  History  appear  much  more  in-  press.— Note  to   the   second  edition, 

dined  to  regard  him  as  a  restless  poli-  See  Milner's  History  of  the  Church  of 

tician  than  as  a  devout  man.    This  may  Christ,  ubi  supra. 
be  attributed  in  part  to  that  kind  of  pre- 


THE    CHARACTER    OF    WTCLIFFE.  329 


CHAPTER  IX. 

Observations  on  the  Character  of  WycUffe,  and  on  the  Connexion 
of  his  Doctrine  with  the  Reformation  of  the  Sixteenth  Century. 

WYCLIFFe's    claim    to     originality. HIS    LEARNING,  AND    INTELLECTUAL 

CHARACTER. HIS  PATRIOTISM  AND  LOVE  OF  MANKIND. HIS  PIETY. 

LUTHER    AND    WYCLIFFE     COMPARED. THE    BONES    OF     WYCLIFFE    BURNT. 

STATE  OF  THE    REFORMED   DOCTRINE    IN   ENGLAND,  FROM    THE    DECEASE 

OF  WYCLIFFE    TO     THE     AGE    OF     LUTHER. ACCESSION    OF     THE    HOUSE    OF 

LANCASTER. CHARACTER   OF    THE    PERSECUTIONS    SANCTIONED  BY  HENRY 

THE     FOURTH. THE    DOCTRINE     OF    WYCLIFFE    SURVIVES    THEM. THE 

MARTYRDOM    OF    LORD    COBHAM. CONCLUSION. 

The  later  descendants  of  the  Waldenses  have  chap. 

frequently   cheered    the  gloom  of  their   poverty 1_ 

and   seclusion  by   reflectino-     that   '*  the  mother  ^'^y^''^'^'* 

''  ^  claim  to 

**  church  of  all  reformed  and  protestant  churches,"*  °f's'n»''ty- 
found  her  asylum  for  ages  in  their  native  fast- 
nesses. But  if  we  look  attentively  to  the  page 
of  history,  it  will  be  evident  that  the  Great  Pro- 
tector of  the  faithful,  depends  as  little  on  localities, 
as  on  persons,  in  preserving  his  truth,  amid  the 
convulsions  of  the  world.  Thus  it  is  in  a  very 
different  country  from  that  chiefly  occupied  by  the 
disciples  of  Peter  Waldo,  and  among  a  far  different 
peoplcy  that  Wycliffe  becomes  a  reformer.  This 
happened,  also,  long  before  any  favourable  im- 
pression could  well   have  been   made  upon   his 

'  Bresse,  Hist.  Vaudois,  c.  ii. 


330  OBSERVATIONS    ON    THE 

CHAP,  mind,  as  to  the  claims  of  the  men,  who  had  made 

IX. 

'- —  so  noble  a  stand  against  the  errors  of  the  papacy 

in  the  vallies  of  Piedmont.  Nor  does  it  appear 
even  to  the  close  of  the  reformer's  history,  that  he 
w^as  materially  aided  by  the  story  of  those  early 
advocates  of  primitive  Christianity.  A  few  im- 
perfect notices  do  indeed  occur  respecting  them, 
in  some  of  his  latest  compositions,  and  such  as 
indicate  that  he  had  learned  to  regard  them  as 
a  devout  people,  who  had  suffered  much  from  the 
tyranny  of  Rome.  But  though  constantly  refer- 
ring to  the  sources  of  his  information  with  respect 
to  religious  opinions,  and  evidently  concerned  to 
shield  his  doctrine  from  the  charge  of  novelty,  by 
giving  to  it  as  wide  a  previous  existence  as  pos- 
sible, no  acknowledgment  of  obligation  to  the 
sectaries  of  the  continent  can  be  found  in  his 
works.  We  have  seen  also,  that  in  that  kind  of 
resistance  which  he  so  vigorously  sustained,  he 
was  left  without  the  aid  of  precedent  from  the 
history  of  his  own  country.  Those  errors  of 
the  established  system  which  he  held  to  the  last, 
imply  the  independence  of  his  mind,  no  less  than 
the  particulars  in  which  he  dissented  from  it. 
His  opinions  as  to  an  intermediate  state,  the  cus- 
toms of  patronage,  and  the  authority  of  the  magis- 
trate with  respect  to  the  affairs  of  the  church, 
were  not  of  Waldensian  origin,  but  were  pre- 
cisely such,  as  from  the  nature  of  his  early  con- 
nexions and  pursuits,  might  have  been  expected 
to  survive  the  departure  of  other  opinions,  which 
we  find  him  successively  discarding.  On  the 
appearance  of  such  a  luminary  in  a  benighted 
land,  the  general  conclusion  appears  to  be,  that 


CHARACTER    OF    WYCLIFFE.  331 

its    lustre  must  have   been   attracted  from  some  ^^x"^* 


more  favoured  region.  But  is  not  this  to  think 
defectively  of  the  providence  of  God,  and  of  the 
pov^er  of  his  w^ord  and  Spirit  ?  The  writings  of 
the  more  enlightened  of  the  fathers,  and  the  pages 
of  inspiration,  vv^ere  familiar  to  Wycliffe  at  an 
early  period ;  and  to  the  end  of  his  career,  these 
were  almost  exclusively  his  guides.  Hence,  in 
opposing  the  spiritual  power  of  the  popes,  and 
certain  doctrinal  corruptions  of  the  hierarchy,  the 
reformer  evidently  regards  himself  as  associated 
with  the  devout  men  of  very  remote  times,  but  as 
standing  almost  alone  amidst  the  generations 
which  had  appeared  since  the  fatal  period  of 
Satan's  enlargement. 

In  judging  of  his  learning,  and  of  his  intellec- "'^ '«=»'""§■ 
tual  character,  whether  we  adopt  the  testimony 
of  his  friends  or  of  his  enemies,  we  must  consider 
him  as  being,  in  these  respects,  the  most  extra- 
ordinary man  of  his  day.  Compared,  indeed, 
with  the  present  state  of  scholarship,  his  attain- 
ments would  be  far  from  pre-eminent ;  but  to 
judge  correctly  of  these  they  must  be  viewed  in 
connexion  with  the  age  in  which  he  lived.  His 
election  to  the  chair  of  theology  in  the  principal 
seminary  of  this  kingdom,  bespeaks  his  pro- 
ficiency in  the  science  of  the  schoolmen ;  and 
the  reluctant  testimony  of  opponents,  in  common 
with  his  numerous  writings,  afford  additional  evi- 
dence of  the  industry  and  acuteness  which  he 
brought  to  that  department  of  study.  His  ap- 
pointment also,  as  the  representative  of  the  sove- 
reign in  the  negotiation  with  the  papal  delegates 
at  Bruges,  will   be  allowed    to    suggest  that  his 


332  OBSERVATIONS    ON    THE 

CHAP,  acquaintance  with  the  laws  of  his  country,  and  of 

L_  the  church,  was  deemed  worthy  of  confidence,  on 

the  most  difficult  and  important  of  the  questions 
then  at  issue,  between  the  English  monarchs  and 
the  see  of  Rome.  To  such  acquirements — which, 
indeed,  with  the  more  studious  of  the  clergy,  were 
in  general  the  object  of  ardent  pursuit — Wycliffe 
added  a  knowledge  of  the  sacred  scriptures  which 
was  peculiar  to  himself.  Other  schoolmen  may 
have  possessed  much  of  his  familiarity  with  the 
subtleties  of  their  boasted  philosophy,  and  with 
the  writings  of  the  fathers ;  and  others  may  have 
been  his  rivals  in  the  study  of  the  civil,  or  of 
the  canon  law ;  but  it  was  the  combination  of 
his  attainments,  on  all  these  points,  together  with 
his  sound  scriptural  knowledge,  which  rendered 
him  so  illustrious  in  the  esteem  of  his  followers, 
and  so  much  an  object  of  apprehension  to  the 
abettors  of  existing  corruptions.  It  is  not  pre- 
tended that  his  taste  was  free  from  the  barbarism 
which  pervaded  the  literature  of  the  period ;  nor 
that  his  authorities  are  always  the  most  pertinent 
that  might  have  been  adduced  ;  nor  that  they  are 
given,  in  every  instance,  with  all  the  caution  that 
was  desirable.  But  it  may  be  affirmed  that  his 
learning,  which  was  unusual  in  its  variety,  was  no 
less  so  in  the  degree  of  its  correctness,  including 
more,  perhaps,  of  truth  and  wisdom,  than  may  be 
discovered  in  the  opinions  of  any  other  man  ex- 
posed to  the  same  disadvantages. 
His  Intel.  It  is  evident,  also,  that  to  separate  in  so  great 
racter/''"  a  mcasurc  between  the  strength  and  weakness  of 
established  doctrines,  required  the  application  of 
no  common  energy,  and  the  possession  of  much 


CHARACTER    OF    WYCLIFFE.  333 

ingenuousness  and  courage.     In  the  Christianity  chap. 

which  prevailed  around  him,  the  pure  faith  of  the '■ — 

gospel  was  superseded  by  a  multitude  of  grovel- 
ling superstitions ;  its  simple  ritual  had  given 
place  to  heathen  and  childish  ceremonies  almost 
without  end  ;  and  its  ministers,  from  being  the 
shepherds  of  the  flock  of  Christ,  had  become  the 
members  of  a  worldly  hierarchy,  nearly  all  the 
tendencies  of  which,  were  to  wed  the  communities 
beneath  them  to  ignorance  and  irreligion.  So  art- 
fully, too,  had  this  scheme  been  constructed,  that 
the  delinquent  priest,  however  much  delinquent, 
was  almost  secure  from  the  approach  of  chastise- 
ment. On  this  state  of  things  centuries  had  shed 
their  influence,  only  to  render  its  continuance  the 
more  probable,  and  the  prospects  of  the  human  race 
more  foreboding.  Unawed,  however,  by  the  force 
of  popular  and  long  established  opinions,  WyclifFe 
ventured  to  publish  the  faith  of  the  scriptures, 
condemning  the  frauds  and  superstitions  by  which 
it  had  been  disfigured  or  concealed.  The  simple 
and  forgotten  modes  of  worship  which  the  same 
authority  enjoins,  he  often  ventured  to  inculcate. 
And  having  thus  restored  religion  to  its  place  in 
the  reason  and  the  aff'ections,  he  called  upon  all  the 
hierarchies  of  Christendom,  and  on  the  pontiff", 
and  his  cardinals  at  their  head,  to  relinquish  their 
worldly  occupations,  and  the  incumbrances  of 
wealth,  and  to  expect  the  preservation  of  their  in- 
fluence on  earth,  only  as  their  maxims  and  temper 
should  be  known  to  breathe  the  spirit  of  heaven ! 
Against  certain  points  in  this  bold  theory,  many 
objections  might  be  urged  ;  but  it  is,  nevertheless, 
one,  which   no   common   mind  would   have   had 


334  OBSERVATIONS    OX    THE 

CHAP,  power  to  conceive.  By  a  few,  all  its  parts  were 
— — —  hailed  as  devout  and  wise  ;  by  more,  it  was  only 
partially  approved  ;  and  by  a  greater  number  it 
was  denounced  as  the  madness  of  revolutionary 
zeal.  But  while  subject  to  the  imputation  of 
every  motive  that  might  serve  to  cover  his  name 
and  his  tenets  with  odium  ;  and  while  threatened 
with  the  heaviest  penalties  which  the  native 
clergy  or  the  papal  power  could  impose  ;  the  only 
change  in  the  conduct  of  WyclifFe,  from  the 
period  of  first  announcing  his  obnoxious  doctrines 
to  the  last  hours  of  his  life,  is  that  they  are  re- 
peated with  a  growing  constancy,  and  with  a  still 
louder  emphasis.  We  may  admire  the  courage 
by  which  the  cords  that  had  bound  so  many 
generations  were  thus  broken  ;  and  not  less  re- 
markable must  have  been  the  vigour  which  sus- 
tained the  purpose  of  the  reformer,  amid  the  storm 
which  lowered  early,  and  increased  in  darkness 
and  violence  to  the  moment  of  his  death.  It  was 
his  more  penetrating  conception  of  the  nature 
of  religion,  and  of  the  principles  involved  in  the 
papal  ascendancy,  which  led  him  to  surpass  such 
men  as  Grossteste,  and  Fitz  Ralph,  whose  attacks 
were  limited  to  the  outworks  of  the  apostacy;  and, 
at  the  same  time,  to  put  at  defiance  the  charge  of 
Manicheism,  which  had  been  generally  preferred, 
often  unjustly,  but  always  with  too  much  success, 
against  the  continental  reformers.  So  compre- 
hensive, indeed,  were  his  views  of  Christianity, 
and  of  the  claims  of  his  species,  that  the  move- 
ments which  have  been  most  favourable  to  the  dif- 
fusion of  scriptural  piety,  or  of  general  knowledge, 
in  later  times,  mi^ht  be  shewn  to  have  been  the 


CHARACTER    OF    WYCLIFFE.  335 

result,  in  no  few  instances,  of  adopting  maxims  chap. 
which  John  de  WyclifFe  laboured  to  inculcate.         '- — 


It  is  a  part  of  his  praise,  therefore,  that  he  was  »'^  p^'Wot. 

•^  ^  ism  and  his 

a  sincere  lover  of  his  country,  and  of  the  human  pi""'«n- 

TT  -IT  T  •     •  tlm>py. 

race.  He  sought,  mdeed,  to  eradicate  opmions 
which  an  extended  ancestry  had  revered  as  true, 
and  to  reform  or  abolish  institutions  which  they 
had  designated  sacred.  Nor  is  he  free  from  the 
charge  of  employing  harsh  language,  when  en- 
countering opponents  who  were  regarded  as 
the  criminal  abettors  of  erroneous  doctrine.  But 
it  is  not  less  true,  that  his  innovations,  and  the 
frequent  severity  of  his  language,  were  generally 
the  result  of  honourable  and  even  of  kindly 
motives.  Churchmen,  he  often  taught,  should  be 
the  chief  benefactors  of  the  states  of  Christendom ; 
but  he  affirms,  that  they  had  long  proved  the 
chief  obstacle  in  the  way  of  its  religious  and 
social  improvement ;  and  he  loved  his  species  too 
well,  not  to  visit  their  most  injurious  oppressors 
with  his  sharpest  rebuke.  His  invectives,  how- 
ever, were  marked  by  calmness  and  refinement, 
when  compared  with  those  which  were  sometimes 
directed  against  himself  by  his  adversaries.''    This 

2  Dr.  Lingard  more  than    once  ad-  "  spaired  like   Cain,  and  stricken  bj 

vertsto  the  "coarseness"  of  WyclinTe's  "the     horrible     judgments    of    God, 

invectives.      It    is    projier     that    the  "  breathed    forth   his   wicked  soul   to 

reader    should   know  wliat  claims   to  "  the  daik  mansion  of  the  black  devil." 

refinement   pertained  to   his   adversa-  The  opponents  of  WjclifTe,  and  of  his 

ries.      The    clerical    historian,     W.l-  followers,  frequently  taxed  their  inven- 

singham,    accompanies    his   notice    of  tion  thus ;  and  the  reformer  sometimes 

the  reformer's  death  with  the  follow-  attempted   a   vindication    of  his   own 

ing  mild  description  of  his  character.  conduct  by  appealing  to  the  irony  of 

"  The     devil's    instrument,     church's  Elijah  when  encountering  the  priests 

"  enemy,  people's  confusion,  heretic's  of  Baal.     (Hom.  Bib.  Reg.)     But  he 

"  idol,    hypocrite's    mirror,    schism's  appears  to  have  forgotten  that  where 

"  broacher,  hatred's  sore,  lies'  forger,  the  claim  to  inspiration  is  relinquished, 

"  flatteries'  sink,  who  at  his  death  de-  (he  precedent  fails. 


336  OBSERVATIONS    ON    THE 

CHAP,  manner  of  writing,  so  justly  offensive  to  us,  be- 

!_  longed  to  the  age,   more  than  to  the  man.      It 

may  be  remarked  also,  that  a  more  compromising 
temper,  and  a  more  dispassionate  mode  of  attack, 
v^^ould  perhaps  have  failed  to  arrest  any  deep 
attention,  or  to  meet  successfully,  the  yet  coarser 
modes  of  resistance  with  which  he  was  obliged 
to  contend.  The  disease  was  desperate,  and  had 
long  baffled  all  milder  treatment.  That  the  re- 
form which  he  contemplated  would  be  conducive 
in  the  highest  degree  to  the  welfare  of  his  country, 
and  of  human  nature,  was  in  his  judgment  un- 
questionable. In  his  view  it  was  a  change  which 
would  turn  the  resources  of  every  state  into  their 
proper  channel,  and  confer  on  every  christian  man 
a  freedom  of  access  to  the  fountain  of  truth,  and 
his  long  lost  right  to  deduce  his  creed  from  the 
scriptures  alone,  and  to  regulate  his  hopes  and 
fears  solely  by  that  authority.  Nor  was  it  the 
least  advantage  among  those  which  were  expected 
to  result  from  the  projected  innovation,  that  it 
would  render  the  civil  sword,  in  every  land,  the 
foe  of  the  vicious,  and  the  friend  of  the  devout. 
That  an  odious  and  destructive  vassalage  had 
been  imposed  on  the  human  mind  by  the  papal 
power,  was  believed  to  be  as  little  problematical 
as  human  existence  ;  and  with  all  the  energy  of 
such  a  conviction,  Wycliffe  called  upon  the 
enslaved  to  arise  and  be  free.  That  sentimental 
kind  of  deference  for  the  faith  of  remote  gene- 
rations, which  is  often  indulged  at  the  cost  of  the 
most  serious  obligations  with  respect  to  the  living 
and  unborn,  he  appears  not  at  all  to  have  com- 
prehended.     The  past  was  reviewed  to   imbibe 


CFIARACTER     OF    WYCLIFFE.  337 

its  truth,   and  the  future  was  anticipated  that  he  chap. 

might  become  its  benefactor.     It  should  be  no- '— 

ticed,  also,  that  almost  the  only  credible  tradition 
preserved  in  the  town  of  Lutterworth,  as  illus- 
trating the  character  of  WyclifFe,  describes  him  as 
most  exemplary  in  his  parochial  duties,  devoting 
a  portion  of  the  morning  in  each  day  to  relieving 
the  necessitous,  and  ministering  the  consolations 
of  religion  to  the  aged,  the  sick,  and  the  dying. 
It  was  thus  he  united  the  commanding  faculties 
which  anticipated  a  reform  of  Christianity  more 
complete  than  the  genius  of  protestantism  in  the 
sixteenth  century  ventured  to  contemplate,  with 
that  obscure  condescension  and  assiduity  which 
became  the  pastor  of  a  village  cure. 

This  consistency,  so  strictly  pervading  the  cha-  ms  piety. 
racter  of  our  reformer,  will  hardly  admit  of  expla- 
nation, except  as  arising  from  religious  principle. 
Under  that  influence,  he  might  learn  to  suspect 
the  purity  of  his  zeal,  if  directed  against  the 
magnificent  and  the  powerful,  to  the  neglect  of 
services  much  more  retired  and  humble  in  their 
character,  but  equally  his  duty.  An  attention  to 
social  obligation,  so  minute  as  to  fill  up  almost 
every  interstice  within  its  circle,  should  be  con- 
sidered as  bespeaking  a  consciousness  of  that 
Presence  which  is  in  every  place,  and  which 
enforces  its  claims  with  the  same  authority  in  all 
places.  Such  motives,  also,  are  alone  sufficient 
to  explain  the  constancy  of  Wycliffe,  in  adhering 
to  a  cause,  which,  long  before  his  death,  must 
have  been  seen  as  allied  to  almost  every  kind  of 
privation  and  suffering.  His  doctrines  with 
respect   to    ecclesiastical    office   and   emolument, 

VOL.    II.  7. 


338  OBSERVATIONS    ON    THE 

CHAP,  swept    away    the    possibility    of    his    acquiring 

! —  wealth,  or  of  his  possessing  any  authority  in  his 

own  order,  except  such  as  should  be  inseparable 
from  the  weight  of  his  character.  Accordingly, 
a  sentiment  which  he  frequently  reiterated  was, 
"  if  we  hope  to  be  rewarded  in  this  life,  our  hope 
"  of  heavenly  bliss  perisheth."'  In  another  dis- 
course, he  remarks,  "  Christ  came  into  the  world 
**  to  bear  witness  to  the  truth,  and  to  enlighten 
"  the  world.  And  as  Christ,  God  and  man,  came 
"  hither  with  this  intent,  should  not  the  truth 
"  keep  his  disciples,  while  standing  thus  for  its 
"defence,  labouring  even  unto  death?  Christ, 
"  and  the  Baptist,  and  many  more,  had  not  their 
"  reward  here  for  doing  this  ;  but  in  heaven  they 
"  have  bliss,  hidden  from  men."*  Of  such  force, 
indeed,  were  these  religious  convictions,  that 
through  life  they  appear  to  have  imparted  a 
melancholy  tendency  to  his  mind,  which  it  re- 
quired all  his  watchfulness  and  spirituality  to 
counteract.  In  defence  of  the  undue  importance 
attached  to  singing  as  a  part  of  public  worship, 
and  especially  to  vindicate  the  aid  of  instrumental 
music  in  such  services,  it  was  usual  to  remark, 
that,  in  the  visions  of  heaven,  such  employments 
are  exhibited  as  engaging  the  chief  attention  of 
the  blessed.  To  this  it  was  sorrowfully  answered, 
that  heaven  is  indeed  the  place  of  praise,  while 
the  earth  is,  and  ought  to  be,  "  a  valley  of  weep- 
"  ing."'  To  justify  this  gloomy  feeling,  he  adds 
at  another  time  ;  "  if  a  man  bethink  him  how  the 
'*  will  of  God  is  reversed  by  sin,  which  reigneth 

3  Horn.  Bib.  Reg.  154.  "  Tbid.  174. 

5  MS.  OfFeignedColltemplHli^c  Life. 


CflARACTER    OF     WYCLTFFE.  339 

"  in  the  world,  both  in  persons  and  communities,  cHx\p. 

"  he  shall  have  matter  enough  for  mourning,  and 11- 

"  little  reason  to  be  glad."*'  And  such  appears  to 
have  been  the  habit  of  his  mind.  During  my  long 
familiarity  with  his  writings,  he  has  often  been 
present  to  my  imagination,  as  roused  into  a  state 
of  holy  displeasure,  as  oppressed  with  grief,  or 
moved  by  compassion  ;  but  judging  of  him  by  his 
works,  it  is  difficult  to  suppose  that  his  brow  was 
often  cheered  by  a  smile,  or  that  his  heart  was 
often  the  seat  of  any  feeling  which  had  not  a 
strong  mixture  of  the  sorrowful.  Degenerate, 
however,  as  the  world  had  become,  his  bene- 
volence never  forsakes  its  people  ;  and  deeply  as 
Christianity  was  corrupted,  no  shade  of  apprehen- 
sion would  appear  to  have  crossed  his  mind  as  to 
its  native  truth  and  excellence.  Rarely  does  he 
conclude  a  composition,  however  brief,  without 
recording  a  fervent  prayer  for  the  blessing  of  God 
on  its  design ;  and  as  rarely  does  he  advert  to  his 
sufferings,  without  expressing  his  gratitude  to  the 
Author  of  the  gospel  for  the  encouragements  af- 
forded in  that  record  of  mercy.  The  impression, 
indeed,  which  must  be  made  by  a  candid  and 
adequate  attention  to  the  history  and  writings  of 
Wycliffe,  is  not  only  that  his  piety  was  that  of  the 
scriptures,  but  that  it  resulted  from  a  strength  of 
faith,  and  was  distinguished  by  an  unearthliness 
of  feeling,  which  are  of  no  frequent  occurrence  in 
the  annals  of  the  church. 

In  the  school  of  the  reformers,  the  precedence  comparison 
in  honour  has  been  generally  given  to  Martin  "nd  wy." 
Luther,    and   perhaps  there  is   not  another  indi- 

"  Of  Feigded  Contemplative  IJfe. 

z  2 


340  OBSERVATIONS    ON    THE 

<^HAP.  vidual  in  that  distinguished  class  of  men,  who  may 
— — —  be  compared  with  him  to  so  little  disadvantage 
as  John  de  Wycliffe.  Both  were  nursed  in  the 
superstitions  which  they  were  destined  to  oppose, 
and  both  passed  by  slow  and  unanticipated  steps 
to  the  adoption  of  their  final  sentiments.  They 
were  also  devout  men  from  their  youth,  and  before 
meditating  any  hostile  movement  with  respect  to 
the  hierarchy,  were  in  some  degree  aware  of  its 
abuses.  But  the  claim  to  originality  and  enter- 
prise, must  be  certainly  awarded  to  the  English- 
man. Germany  had  never  ceased  to  be  the 
asylum  of  separatists  from  the  Romish  com- 
munion, which  was  far  from  being  the  case  with 
England  ;  and  the  disputes  between  our  monarchs 
and  the  papacy  were  partial,  and  soon  terminated, 
when  compared  with  those  which  had  divided  the 
empire  and  the  church.^     There  was  an  advance 

'  Oldy's  Librarian,  a  copy  of  wliich  pride  of  Boniface  VIII.  in  asserting, 
is  in  the  British  Museum,  contains  as  Iiad  been  recentl)-  done,  his  supre- 
souie  curious  extracts  from  a  dialogue  macy  over  the  princes  and  the  states  of 
between  a  knight  and  an  ecclesiastic  the  world.  The  ministers  of  the  sanc- 
on  the  subject  of  clerical  power  and  tuarj,  it  is  contended,  should  be  pro- 
possessions.  It  is  one  of  the  many  vided  with  every  thing  really  necessary 
pieces  of  the  same  description  which  to  their  support.  BtU  that  the  men, 
appeared  under  the  sanction,  either  di-  who  in  scripture  are  compared  to  work- 
rect  or  indirect,  of  the  emperor;  and  men,  to  hired  servants,  and  even  to  the 
one  commending  itself  particularly  ox  that  treadeth  out  the  corn,  should 
to  our  notice  as  the  production  of  aspire  to  become  the  superiors  of  lords 
W.  Occam,  the  great  English  School-  and  sovereigns,  is  treated  as  a  marvel- 
man,  and  contemporary  of  Wycliffe.  loas  event.  It  is  accordingly  added  : 
The  ecclesiastic  complains  of  the  ille-  "  If  the  authority  of  the  king  were  to 
gal  burdens  imposed  on  his  order,  and  "  fail  you,  where  would  be  your  re- 
the  kniglit  inquires  as  to  "the  law"  "pose?  Would  not  the  poor  and 
which  had  been  broken  ;  and  on  hear-  "  prodigal  nobles,  if  they  should  con- 
ing that  the  law  meant  was  the  decrees  "  sume  their  own  property,  turn  to 
of  the  popes  and  the  enactments  of  the  "  yours?  The  royal  bands,  therefore, 
fathers,  it  is  remarked,  that  such  codes  "  are  your  bulwark:  the  king's  peace 
of  legislation  may  serve  the  purpose  of  "  is  your  peace  ;  the  king's  safety  is 
churchmen,  but  their  obligation  on  the  "  your  safety."  There  is  some  for- 
laity  is  said  to  be  a  dream.  Hence  the  cible  sarcasm  in  the  following  passage, 
soldier  professes  to  scorn  the  ui)starl  "  It  is  because  kings  and  princes,  at 


CHARACTER    OF    WYCLIFFE.  341 

in  the  cause  of  civil  liberty,  and  a  revival  of  learn-  ^'J^J^p- 

ing-,  observable  in  the  fourteenth  century,  which 

were  highly  favourable  to  the  formation  of  the 
character  of  Wycliffe ;  but  two  centuries  later, 
the  same  causes  did  much  more  toward  inspiring 
the  genius  of  Luther.  The  court  of  Caesar  had 
been  for  ages  the  retreat  of  men  who  had  most 
successfully  assailed  the  secular  ambition  of  the 
pontiffs  ;  and  while  the  living  admirers  of  the 
Greek  and  Roman  classics,  who  had  every  where 
multiplied,  were,  with  few  exceptions,  impatient 
to  effect  a  reformation  of  the  established  system, 
the  councils  of  Basle,  Constance,  and  Pisa,  had 
exposed  its  departing  strength.  At  the  same 
time  Huss,  and  Jerome,  and  their  followers,  had 
supplied  examples  of  resistance,  which  many  a 
good  man  must  have  been  disposed  to  emulate. 
Amid  these  foreboding  appearances,  also,  the 
maxims  of  the  papal  court  continue  to  be  charac- 
terized by  their  ancient  perfidy  and  avarice  ;  and 

"  their  own  expence  and  danger,  de-  and  the  oppressed,   be  so  applied  in 

"  fend    you,    and  expose   themselves  every  nation,  the  laity,  who  should  be 

"  gratuitously  to  death  for  your  sake,  faithful  executors  to  a  humane  ances- 

"  that  your  repose  under  your  shades,  try,  "  must  have  to  do  therewith."   The 

"  eat  splendidly,  drink  joyously,   He  shade  of  Caesar's  throne  was  Occam's 

"  down    in    ornamented    beds,    sleep  protection  while   uttering  such  senti- 

"  quietly,  and  wanton  with  soft  iostru-  ments.     And  such  sentiments  had  been 

"  ments  of  music.     You  therefore  are  for  some  years  familiar  to  the  German 

"  the  only  lords.     Kings  and  princes  people   when   Luther    appeared,    who 

"are    your    servants!"      When    the  was  well  acquainted  with  the  works  of 

wealth  of  the  church  is  said  to  be  the  Occam,   and   never   ceased   to  revere 

property  of  God,  it  is  replied,  "  We  him.     It  is  also  well  known  that  the 

"  mean  not  to  revoke  what  was  given  works  of  Huss  deeply  impressed  the 

*'  to  the  Supreme,  but  to  apply  it  to  mind  of  the  Saxon  reformer.     See  his 

"  those  uses  for  which   the   gift  was  preface  to  the  works  of  the  Bohemian, 

"  made."     Nor  does  it  avail  to  depre-  p.  27.     He  states  that  his  "  astonish- 

cate  this  interference  of  lay  authority,  "  ment  on  reading  them  was  incredi- 

with  respect  to  clerical  wealth,  for  it  "  ble,"     Lenfant.      Oldy's   Librarian, 

follows   that   unless  the  revenue  pos-  quoted  in  Turner's  Hist.  v.  107,  108. 
sessed  to  relieve  the  sick,  the  poor, 


342  OBSERVATIONS     ON     THE 

CHAP,  the  German  ecclesiastics,  whose  secular  character 

IX 

!._  had   even  surpassed    that    of    their   brethren    in 

England,  appear  to  have  judged  it  better  that  the 
loss  of  their  entire  authority  should  be  hazarded, 
than  that  any  part  of  it  should  be  surrendered 
at  the  call  of  the  people.  But,  if  in  these  circum- 
stances the  professor  of  Wittenburg  possessed 
advantages  superior  to  those  of  his  illustrious 
predecessor,  it  is  well  known  that  they  were  by 
no  means  neglected.  With  both,  the  philosophy 
of  the  schools  had  absorbed  some  of  the  most 
important  years  of  life,  and  if  the  elder  may  be 
considered  as  the  superior  of  the  younger  in  that 
branch  of  scholarship,  this  probably  arose  from 
the  fact,  that  less  had  been  said  to  impair  the 
reputation  of  that  vain  science  in  the  age  of  the 
one  than  in  that  of  the  other.  In  every  thing 
coming  within  the  province  of  taste,  Luther  is  not 
less  defective  than  Wycliffe,  though  his  oppor- 
tunities for  improvement,  in  this  respect,  were 
very  far  greater. 

They  were  agreed  in  vesting  the  sacred  scrip- 
tures with  supreme  authority,  and  in  regarding 
the  works  of  Augustine  as  next  to  them  in  the 
scale  of  importance.  But  it  appears,  that  the 
youthful  mind  of  the  German  had  been  more 
completely  subdued  by  superstition,  than  that  of 
our  countryman  ;  and  his  escape  from  its  thral- 
dom, to  the  liberty  conferred  by  the  gospel,  was 
by  means  of  a  more  painful  process.  Hence,  the 
doctrine  of  justification  by  faith  is  adverted  to 
with  a  constancy  and  fervour  in  the  writings  of 
Luther,  which  it  will  be  confessed  are  not  so 
ol^servablc   in    those   of    our   reformer.       In   the 


CHARACTER    OF     WYCLIFFE.  343 

theology  of  both,   however,  this  article,    though  chap. 

somewhat    differently  taught,    formed    the    lever — 

which  they  endeavoured  to  fix  on  the  realities 
of  a  future  world,  and  from  the  aid  of  which 
they  anticipated  their  projected  movement  of  the 
present.  On  the  doctrine  of  the  eucharist, 
Wycliffe  was  far  more  enlightened  than  his  great 
parallel,  and  his  views  of  ecclesiastical  polity 
were  more  severely  primitive ;  but  both  were 
confident,  almost  to  a  fault,  not  only  in  the  good- 
ness of  their  cause,  but  in  the  strength  of  the 
reasonings  with  which  they  attempted  to  support 
it;  discovering  through  life  a  remarkable  pro- 
pensity to  commit  their  thoughts  and  feelings  to 
writing ;  and  in  their  manner  of  sending  forth 
their  compositions,  evincing  the  same  indifference 
to  literary  fame.  From  these  causes,  it  some- 
times happened  that  their  premises  did  not  fully 
warrant  their  conclusions  ;  and  it  is  no  unusual 
thing  to  find  a  paragraph  beginning  with  con- 
ceptions of  surprising  vigour,  and  ending  with 
sentences  which,  as  they  evidently  grew  under 
the  hand  of  the  writer,  and  often  passed  without 
revision,  are  scarcely  less  characterized  by  redun- 
dance and  obscurity.  This  heedlessness  of  lite- 
rary reputation  arose  plainly  from  that  sense  of 
duty  to  which  both  had  learned  to  bow  with  the 
most  religious  submission.  In  fact,  if  the  actions 
of  men,  extending  through  a  series  of  years,  may 
ever  be  regarded  as  presenting  a  certain  develope- 
ment  of  character,  the  praise  of  disinterestedness 
must  be  allotted  in  a  high  degree  to  Luther,  and 
in  at  least  an  equal  measure  to  Wycliffe.  In 
each,   there   was    much  that  favoured   a   life   of 


344  OBSERVATIONS    ON    THE 

CHAP,  studious    retirement,    more  than   that  course   of 

IX 

_L.    boisterous  activity  into  which  they  were  drawn. 

To  such  activities  the  physical  energies  of  the 
Saxon  reformer  were  more  equal  than  were  those 
of  his  great  forerunner.  But  it  is  worthy  of  ob- 
servation, that  the  call  which  the  sale  of  indul- 
gencies  supplied  to  the  one,  arose  from  the  vices 
of  the  same  mendicant  fraternities  in  the  case 
of  the  other,  and  that  with  both  the  conviction  of 
duty  was  happily  more  powerful  than  the  passion 
for  study  and  seclusion. 

Luther,  indeed,  began  his  career  somewhat 
earlier  than  the  English  reformer ;  but  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  avoid  the  suspicion,  that  during  the  latter 
years  of  his  life,  his  mind  was  in  some  important 
respects  retrograde  rather  than  progressive  ;  while 
it  is  evident  that  the  intelligence  and  the  zeal 
of  Wycliffe  brighten  and  become  more  intense  as 
his  last  days  are  approaching.*  It  is,  however, 
in  his  contempt  for  the  terrors  of  power,  that  the 
German  has  been  considered  as  almost  without 
a  rival ;  and  if  we  credit  the  assertions  of  some 
writers,  it  is  on  this  point  that  our  countryman 
will  least  admit  of  comparison  with  him.  It 
should  be  remembered,  however,  that  the  persons 
who  have  been  most  forward  in  accusing  the 
rector  of  Lutterworth  of  having  sometimes  de- 
scended to  a  timid  and  disingenuous  policy,  have 
not  feared  to  impute  the  same  temporizing  caution 
to  the  professor  of  Wittenberg.''  If  the  proof  of 
courage  is  to  be  regulated  at  all  by  the  degree 
of  peril  which  is  encountered,  it  may  be  doubted 

8  The  reader  will  perceive  that  our        dates  of  the  reformer's  MSS. — Note  to 
knowledge  of  this  material   fact  de-       the  second  edition, 
jjcnds    entirely'    upon   the   ascertained  ^  Liugard's'Hist.  vi.Til — 140. 


CHARACTER    OF    WYCLIFFE.  345 

whether  Luther  ever  stood  in  the  jeopardy  which  chap. 
was  for  some  years  attendant  on  the  footsteps  — H— 
of  WyclifFe.  It  was  the  felicity  of  the  former 
to  be  speedily  surrounded  by  a  host  of  parti- 
sans, numbering  princes,  and  a  large  portion  of 
Christendom,  among  his  followers.  But  during 
the  two  years  immediately  preceding  his  death, 
the  Father  of  the  English  reformation  is  seen  de- 
serted by  the  most  powerful  of  his  accredited  dis- 
ciples, oppressed  by  the  strength  of  the  hierarchy, 
and  fully  anticipating  martyrdom.  It  is  at  such 
a  foreboding  crisis,  however,  that  we  find  his  in- 
dustry in  the  cause  of  reform,  and  his  courage 
in  attempting  to  promote  it,  augmented  rather 
than  diminished,  and  such  as  Luther  did  not 
surpass,  even  in  the  most  favourable  periods  of  his 
history.  Still  it  is  the  integrity  and  the  firmness 
of  our  reformer  which  his  adversaries  have  been 
chiefly  employed  in  impeaching,  and  the  degree 
of  success  attending  their  efforts  has  arisen  from 
their  assuming  that  he  had  published  obnoxious 
opinions  previous  to  1378,  which  do  not  appear 
in  the  paper  then  submitted  to  his  judges;  and 
that  his  subsequent  confessions  on  the  eucharist 
were  not  a  fair  expression  of  his  real  doctrine  on 
that  subject.  But  though  both  these  things  have 
been  so  long  and  so  often  assumed,  it  has,  I  trust, 
fully  appeared,  that  they  are  alike  and  altogether 
unwarranted.  We  know  not,  indeed,  what  the 
issue  would  have  been,  had  the  appalling  test 
been  really  applied  ;  but  it  is  certain  that  the 
language  employed  by  Wycliffe,  in  the  series 
of  his  works  appearing  subsequent  to  the  first 
V)rosecution  which   he  was  called   to    sustain,  is 


346  STATE     OF    WYCLIFFES    DOCTRINE 

CHAP,  precisely  that  of  a  man  who  has  resolved  to  set 

1_  all  danger  at  defiance,   and  to  prepare  himself  by 

every  available  motive  against  the  worst  that  may 
happen.  Sir  Thomas  More  expressed  himself 
delighted,  and  grateful  to  heaven,  because  enabled 
in  an  interview  with  his  accusers  to  act  with  an 
intrepidity  which  had  made  a  retreat  inseparable 
from  disgrace."'  Wycliffe  may  have  felt  the  im- 
portance of  such  subordinate  aids ;  and  it  must 
be  admitted  that  the  man  who  describes  himself 
as  constantly  exposed  to  the  trial  of  martyrdom, 
would  hardly  have  insisted  on  that  severe  duty 
with  frequency  and  emphasis,  as  binding  on  every 
man  who  would  not  perish  on  account  of  prefer- 
ring the  ease  of  the  present  to  the  bliss  of  the 
future,  had  he  not  studiously  prepared  his  spirit 
to  meet  even  that  conflict. 

Upon  the  whole,  therefore,  we  may  perhaps 
venture  to  conclude,  that  while  there  certainly 
were  some  points  of  dissimilarity  between  the  two 
great  leaders  of  the  English  and  the  German 
reformations ;  the  difference  between  them  is 
more  apparent  than  real,  and  such  as  will  not  be 
found  in  the  elements  of  their  character,  so  much 
as  in  the  circumstances  of  their  history.  Nor  is 
it  altogether  mysterious,  that  a  more  qualified 
estimate  should  have  so  far  prevailed  respecting 
the  character  of  Wycliffe,  than  has  generally  ob- 
tained in  reference  to  that  of  Luther.  The  bold 
antagonist  of  Tetzil  laboured,  as  we  have  seen, 
under  better  auspices,  and  with  more  success ; 
and  whatever  protestant  learning  or  genius  could 

'"  "  In  good  faith  I  rejoiced,  son,  that  "  far,  as  without  great  shame  I  could 
"  I  liad  given  the  devil  a  foul  fall,  and  "never  go  back  again."  —  Ca^-le^'s 
"  that  with  those  lords  I  have  gone  so        Life  of  Sir  Thomas  More,  i.  164,  105. 


TO    THE    SIXTEENTH    CENTURY.  347 

do,  has  been  generously  done,  toward  vindicating  chap. 

his  conduct  and  opinions   from  the  aspersions  of 11- 

his  enemies.  But  in  the  annals  of  this  country, 
there  are  hundreds  of  men,  whose  names  should 
not  be  repeated  with  that  of  WyclifFe,  to  the 
illustration  of  whose  history  a  much  larger  share 
of  industry  and  talent  has  been  applied. 

Such,  however,  was  the  character  of  John  de  Burning  of 
Wycliffe.  Thirty  winters  had  passed  over  hiswydiffe!" 
grave,  when  in  the  council  of  Constance,  more 
than  three  hundred  articles,  said  to  be  extracted 
from  his  manuscripts,  were  condemned,  and  with 
them  the  whole  of  his  writings.  Nor  was  this 
anathema  considered  as  an  adequate  expression 
of  abhorrence.  To  the  council  it  appeared,  and 
as  the  result  of  the  strictest  inquiry,  that  John 
Wycliffe  died  an  obstinate  heretic.  And  it  was 
accordingly  farther  decreed,  that  his  memory 
should  be  pronounced  infamous ;  and  that  his 
bones,  if  to  be  distinguished  from  those  of  the 
faithful,  should  be  removed  from  the  consecrated 
ground  in  which  they  were  deposited,  and  cast 
upon  a  dunghill.  Tradition  and  history  report, 
that  in  pursuance  of  this  sentence,  his  remains 
were  taken  from  their  place,  reduced  to  ashes, 
and  thrown  into  the  river  which  still  passes  the 
town  of  Lutterworth.  Thence,  in  the  language 
of  Fuller,  they  were  conducted  to  the  Severn, 
the  narrow  seas,  and  the  ocean ;  and  thus  be- 
came the  emblem  of  his  doctrine,  which  was  to 
flow  from  the  province  to  the  nation,  and  from  the 
nation,  to  the  many  kingdoms  of  the  world." 

"   Church  History,  171,172.     Fox.        tence  of  llie  council  of  ConsUince.    Len- 
Acts.     The  disinteinient  was  not  until        fant,  Hist,  ubi  supra, 
thirteen  years  subsequent  to  the  sen- 


348  STATE    OF     M^YCLIFFE  S     DOCTUINE 

CHAP.       During   the  period  which  intervened  between 
1_  the  decease  of  the  reformer,  and   the  offerino-  of 


state  of  the  this  pitiful  insult  to  his  remains,  some  important 

reformed  J^  "^ 

doctrine  i.,  chans^cs    had   taken    place    in   the   affairs  of  the 

England,  o  r 

from  the  de-^norli can  cliiirch,  and  in  the  i^overnment  of  the 

cease  of  Wy.  ^  '  o 

chffe  to  the  country.     The  wars  between  the  houses  of  York 

age   of  Lu.  *'  . 

ther.  and  Lancaster,  and  the  reformation  under  Henry 
the  eighth,  belong  to  the  most  prominent  facts 
of  English  history ;  and  it  is  not  from  our 
most  popular  historians  that  the  leading  causes 
of  either  may  be  readily  ascertained.  Under 
Richard  the  second,  and  still  more  during  the 
reign  of  his  illustrious  predecessor,  the  clergy 
had  learned  to  dread  the  consequences  of  too 
near  an  alliance  between  the  secular  nobility  and 
the  crown.  On  the  accession  of  Henry  the 
fourth,  churchmen  succeeded  to  much  of  that 
influence  which  had  been  previously  possessed 
by  the  lay  aristocracy ;  and  elated  with  the 
change,  they  were  not  satisfied  with  resisting 
every  attempt  to  lessen  that  opulence  which  had 
so  long  exposed  their  order  to  suspicion  and  com- 
plaint ;  but  to  this  powerful  cause  of  discontent, 
they  still  added  the  exhibition  of  a  character 
v/hich  tended  to  deterioration  rather  than  im- 
provement. In  the  meanwhile,  the  most  childish 
and  dangerous  fictions  in  the  superstitions  of  the 
age  were  pertinaciously  encouraged ;  and  with 
these  impolitic  proceedings,  a  system  of  perse- 
cution was  annexed,  more  relentless  than  had 
been  previously  known  in  this  kingdom.  The 
latter  expedient,  it  was  vainly  hoped,  would  be 
sufficient  to  extinguish  the  disaffection  which  the 
former    circumstances   continued    to   excite.      A 


TO  THE  SIXTEENTH  CENTURY.  349 

feelino"  of  distrust  and  wariness  was  thus  induced  chap. 

IX. 

among-  the  people,  and  it  would  not  have  been L- 

surprising  if  much  of  the  character  of  the  Spa- 
niard had  been  grafted  on  the  better  properties 
of  the  Englishman.  But  by  these  measures, 
the  opinions  of  such  as  were  impatient  of 
tyranny  were  rather  confirmed  than  shaken,  pre- 
paring them  to  become  the  abettors,  and  very 
innocently  too,  of  almost  any  movement  which 
promised  them  a  change  of  masters.  To  the  pre- 
valence of  the  disaffection  which  was  thus  pro- 
duced and  kept  alive,  we  must  not  fail  to  advert, 
if  we  would  explain  the  readiness  with  which 
the  houses  of  York  and  Lancaster  brought  the 
nation  to  join  in  their  disasterous  conflicts  ;  or  if 
we  would  account  for  the  security  of  Henry  the 
eighth,  while  separating  the  church  of  England, 
as  with  a  single  stroke,  from  the  chair  of  St. 
Peter.  Through  the  whole  of  this  disorderly  in- 
terval, the  king  and  the  clergy,  while  agreed  in 
the  exercise  of  almost  every  domestic  oppression, 
continued,  with  slight  intermissions,  to  set  the 
dangerous  example  of  resisting  certain  encroach- 
ments of  the  pontiffs  ;  and,  at  the  same  time,  not 
only  the  humbler  classes  of  the  laity,  but  many, 
both  among  the  mendicant  orders  and  among 
the  secular  clergy  themselves,  are  found  variously 
favouring  the  doctrines  of  Wycliffe.  By  some, 
the  opinions  of  that  reformer  were  embraced,  so 
far  only  as  they  related  to  what  was  most  objec- 
tionable in  the  existing  superstitions,  or  to  the 
secular  encroachments  of  the  hierarchy.  By 
others,  they  were  adopted  principally  on  account 
of  their   religious   character,   or  their  immediate 


350  STATE    OF    AVYCLIFFE  S     DOCTRINE 

CHAP,  connexion  with  piety  ;    and  if  these  parties  were 

*_  not  equally  prepared  to  become  martyrs  in  the 

cause  of  their  creed,  they  were  alike  disposed  to 
favour  any  change  which  tended  to  abridge  the 
power  of  a  depraved  and  merciless  priesthood, 
daily  goading  them  to  madness.  On  the  con- 
tinent also,  the  writings  of  Wycliffe  were  the 
means  of  reviving,  and  of  greatly  extending  the 
spirit  of  the  reformation ;  and  the  noble  conduct 
of  Huss,  and  Jerome,  and  their  followers,  while 
acknowledging  our  illustrious  countrymen  as  their 
principal  instructor,  was  not  to  be  lost  on  the 
mind  of  his  injured  disciples  in  this  kingdom. 
About  the  period  of  WyclifFe's  decease,  a  spi- 
rited intercourse  commenced  between  the  advo- 
cates of  the  protestant  doctrine  in  England,  and 
in  other  states ;  and  it  was  kept  up  in  the  face 
of  every  attempt  to  suppress  it,  until  this  nation, 
and  a  large  portion  of  Europe,  became  united  in 
rejecting  the  whole  of  that  authority  which  had 
been  so  long  conceded  to  the  pontiffs  as  their 
proper  inheritance. 

Such  is  the  outline,  which  it  was  my  intention 
to  have  filled  up  in  the  form  of  an  extended  sup- 
plementary chapter  to  the  life  of  Wycliffe,  but 
the  space  occupied  by  other  matters  forbids  the 
attempt.  A  brief  selection  of  such  facts  as  may 
serve  to  illustrate  the  spirit  with  which  the  tenets 
of  the  reformer  were  maintained,  and  the  charac- 
ter of  the  opposition  with  which  his  disciples 
were  called  to  struggle,  until  the  appearance  of 
Luther,  must  suffice. 

The  persecutions  which  shortened  the  days 
of  Wycliffe,  were  to  be   succeeded  by  others  of 


PSS    of 
utioii. 


TO    THE    SIXTEENTH    CENTURY.  351 

a  more  sanguinary  character.     In  1393,  the  sue-  chap. 

cess  of  the  weapons  hitherto   employed  against  11- 

heresy  had  proved  to  be  so  partial,  that  an  in- 
strument was  obtained  from  Richard,  empower- 
ing the  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  as  legate  of 
the  apostolic  see,  and  also  his  suffragans,  to  "  cor- 
"  rect  all  who  should  obstinately  preach  or 
"  maintain,  whether  publicly  or  privately,  any 
"  conclusion  as  from  the  sacred  scriptures,  while 
"  contrary  to  the  determinations  of  the  church." 
Such  offenders  were  to  be  committed  to  the  pri- 
son of  the  bishop,  or  of  the  sheriff,  as  the  prelates 
should  determine ;  and  so  to  be  treated,  *'  that 
"  the  sharpness  of  their  sufferings"  might  bring 
them  to  repentance.  The  "  secret  places,"  in 
which  such  preachers  were  accustomed  to  meet 
their  "  fautors  and  accomplices,"  had  enabled 
them  to  elude  the  vigilance  of  their  adversaries. 
But  that  no  such  refuge  might  serve  them  in 
future,  the  civil  authorities  are  instructed  to  give 
all  publicity  to  the  royal  proclamation ;  and  a 
penalty  is  denounced  on  all,  of  whatever  rank, 
who  may  henceforth  presume  to  shelter  the 
delinquent.'^ 

But  it  was  less  difficult  to  deliver  such  instruc-  Petition  of 
tions,  than  to  secure  their  execution.  The  lead- lards.  '" 
ing  men  among  the  disciples  of  Wycliffe,  were 
probably  aware  that  the  obnoxious  instrument 
was  less  that  of  the  sovereign  than  of  an  inter- 
ested party,  whom  it  was  considered  important  to 
please.  We  know  that  only  two  years  later,  cer- 
tain members  of  the  house  of  commons  ventured 
to    agitate   questions    relating   to    a   reformation 

1'  Fox,  i.  G58. 


352  STATE    OF    WYCLIFFE  S    DOCTRINE 

CHAP,  of  the  church,  which  were  of  a  much  bolder 
____  character  than  had  been  at  any  time  contem- 
plated in  that  assembly.  Their  petition  consisted 
of  twelve  conclusions,  and  was  to  the  following 
purport.  The  church  of  England,  from  the  age 
in  which  she  began  to  dote  on  temporalities,  after 
the  example  of  Rome,  her  stepmother,  has  de- 
clined in  faith,  hope,  and  charity,  and  has  sur- 
rendered their  place  to  pride,  and  all  deadly  sin, 
as  experience  manifests.  The  established  forms 
of  priestly  ordination,  are  human  inventions ;  and 
as  the  gifts  of  the  Holy  Spirit  cannot  exist  in 
connexion  with  deadly  sin,  it  is  impious  to  pre- 
tend that  they  always  accompany  the  performance 
of  that  rite.  The  celibacy  of  the  clergy,  and  of 
the  religious,  is  the  parent  of  the  worst  of  crimes ; 
and  imposes  a  restraint,  which  men  so  addicted 
to  intemperance  must  frequently  violate.  Re- 
form, in  this  particular,  should  commence  with 
the  monasteries  ;  in  whose  dissolution  the  con- 
vents of  females  should  participate,  and  for  the 
same  reasons.  The  doctrine  of  transubstantiation 
leads  to  idolatry ;  but  would  be  wisely  discarded, 
if  the  language  of  the  Evangelical  Doctor,  in  his 
Trialogus,  were  duly  considered.  The  practice 
of  exorcising,  and  the  customs  relating  to  con- 
secrations, savour  more  of  necromancy  than  of 
divinity ;  and  in  every  kingdom  the  worldly 
offices  of  churchmen  are  the  occasion  of  disorder, 
requirmg  them  to  attempt  that  service  of  God 
and  mammon  which  the  scriptures  declare  to  be 
impossible.  If  prayer  for  the  dead  be  offered, 
let  it  be  for  the  departed  in  general,  and  not  for 
individuals;    it  might  then  proceed  from  charity, 


TO  THE  SIXTEENTH  CENIUUY.  353 

and  be  acceptable  to  God  ;  it  is  now  the  work  of  chap. 
the  hirelijig,  and  therefore  unavaihng.  Abso-  ___1_ 
lution,  and  auricular  confession,  as  now  practised, 
are  the  great  stimulants  to  priestly  domination, 
and  often  subservient  to  the  schemes  of  impurity. 
To  be  persuaded,  indeed,  that  in  the  church  of 
England,  with  the  bishop  of  Rome  at  her  head, 
there  is  no  little  falsehood  concealed,  it  is  enough 
to  remember,  that  no  day  occurs  in  which  the 
bliss  of  heaven  might  not  be  purchased  for  the 
sum  of  a  dozen  pence.  Nearly  allied  also  to 
idolatry,  are  the  pilgrimages  performed  in  favour 
of  images  and  relics,  and  the  honours  commonly 
yielded  to  them.  The  chief  tendency  of  such 
customs  is,  assuredly,  to  continue  the  people  in 
delusion  and  ignorance,  and  to  swell  the  affluence 
of  the  indolent  among  the  clergy.  On  war,  the 
maxims  both  of  priests  and  laymen  are  at  vari- 
ance with  those  contained  in  the  gospel ;  the 
pacific  character  of  which  is  such,  that  if  they 
allow  the  slaughter  of  men  at  all,  they  certainly 
oppose  the  act  of  destroying  them,  with  a  view 
to  any  merely  temporal  gain ;  as  in  wresting  dis- 
tant provinces  from  the  people  possessing  them, 
on  the  plea  of  punishing  their  erroneous  faith, 
or  under  any  such  pretence.'^ 

Such  is  the  substance  of  the  petition  to  which 
the  disciples  of  WyclifFe  were  concerned  to  direct 
the  attention  of  the  English  parliament  in  1395. 
The  boldness  with  which  its  doctrines  were 
avowed,  and  the  rank  of  many  who  were  known 

'3  Wilkins,  Con.  iii   221.    Mr.  Lewis  the   Acts  and  IMonuments,  wliicli  was 

lias  printed   a   co])y   of  this  petition,  taken   from   the    bishops'    register,   i. 

taken  from  the  Selden  MSS.     It  diflers  CC2— 664. 
in  the  last  article  from  that  inserted  in 

VOL.11.  A    A 


354  STATE    OF    WYCLIFFE  S    DOCTRINE 

CHAP,  to  have  embraced  them,  created  no  small  alarm 

IX 

L.  among  the  clergy.      The  king  was  at  this  time 

in  Ireland.  Messengers  were  instantly  despatched 
to  lay  before  him  the  danger  to  which  the  church 
was  exposed,  and  to  urge  his  immediate  return 
to  counteract  the  machinations  of  her  enemies. 
Richard  obeyed  their  call,  and  Lewis  Clifford, 
John  Latimer,  Richard  Sturry,  and  John  Mon- 
tague, are  among  the  knights  who,  as  having 
dared  to  favour  the  prayer  of  the  obnoxious 
petition,  were  severely  reprimanded  by  the 
sovereign.'* 

Tidings  of  their  presumption  soon  reached  the 
Vatican,  and  called  forth  an  inflammatory  letter 
from  Boniface  the  ninth,  addressed  to  the  English 
monarch.  The  pontiff  commences  by  expressing 
his  deep  sorrow,  in  common  with  that  of  Chris- 
tendom, that  heresy  should  so  far  have  infected 
the  English  people ;  and  that  through  the  neg- 
ligence of  the  established  authorities  it  should 
still  be  found  increasing,  numbering  among  its 
abettors  men  of  learning,  a  multitude  of  the  com- 
mon people,  and  many  who  not  only  ventured 
to  preach  doctrines  subversive  both  of  the  civil 
and  ecclesiastical  state,  and  to  commit  them  to 
writing,  but  to  affirm  them  obstinately  in  the  pre- 
sence of  the  parliament.  The  archbishops  and 
bishops  of  England  are  accordingly  admonished, 
that  their  guilty  sloth  must  be  no  longer  indulged, 
but  that  their  utmost  efforts  must  be  made,  to 
"  root  out  and  destroy"  all  such  as  refuse  to 
abandon  the  snare  of  Satan.  The  king  is  also 
exhorted  to  employ  his  authority,  and  to  secure 

'«  Wals.  Hist.  3.31. 


TO    THE    SIXTEENTH     CENTURY.  355 

to   the  clergy  the  assistance   of  all   magistrates,  chap. 

that  every  offender  persisting  in  his  wickedness  ~ 

might  be  banished,  or  securely  imprisoned,  until 
sentenced,  in  due  form,  to  undergo  his  merited 
punishment. 

This  appeal  of  Boniface  to  his  "  sweet  son," 
would  not,  perhaps,  have  been  made  in  vain,  had 
not  the  disorders  of  the  kingdom  been  such  as  to 
prevent  the  easy  performance  of  the  services  re- 
quired. With  respect  to  the  English  clergy,  the 
reader  must  have  noticed  the  frequency  with 
which  the  pontiffs  accused  them  of  indifference 
to  the  progress  of  heresy ;  and  he  must  also  be 
aware  that  the  parties  accused  were  far  from 
deserving  the  reproach  thus  cast  upon  them. 
Thus  the  primate  Courtney,  while  Boniface  is 
complaining  of  his  sloth  in  the  hallowed  work 
of  persecution,  was  in  fact  prosecuting  it  to  the 
utmost  of  his  power.'* 

But  thus  the  affairs  of  the  church  and  of  the  Accession  of 

T11T  •  1  -11  T-iTi  the  house  of 

Lollards  contmued,  until  the  English  sceptre  was  Laucaster. 
wrested  from  the  grasp  of  Richard  of  Bordeaux, 
by  Henry  of  Lancaster.  On  the  accession  of  the 
latter,  as  Henry  the  fourth,  the  hopes  of  the 
reformers  were  considerably  raised.  But  they 
were  soon  to  learn,  that  the  son  of  John  of  Gaunt 
had  failed  to  inherit  the  sentiments  of  his  father 
in  relation  to  the  church,  or  that  he  had  imbibed 
them  so  feebly,  as  to  admit  of  their  being  easily 
sacrificed  to  political  purposes.  Thomas  Arundel, 
who  succeeded  Courtney  in  the  primacy,  had 
been  previously  translated  from  Ely  to  York,  and 
had  filled  the  office  of  chancellor.    In  a  parliament 

'5  Fox.     Acts,  &c.  i.  657—659. 
AA    2 


356  STATE    OF    WYCLIFFE's    DOCTRINE 

CHAP,  convened  about  two  years  before  the  deposing 
— ——  of  Richard,  the  new  primate  had  been  impeached 
of  treason,  and  was  sentenced  to  forfeit  his  tem- 
poralities, and  to  leave  the  kingdom  for  ever. 
But  he  returned  in  the  train  of  Henry,  and  placing 
the  crown  on  the  brow  of  the  new  monarch,  be- 
came a  party  to  the  bad  faith  through  which  his 
patron  had  passed  to  the  possession  of  his  dignity. 
The  king  was  soon  made  sensible  that  the  Lollards 
constituted  the  only  peace-offering  that  could  se- 
cure him  the  cordial  support  of  the  clergy;  and 
his  policy  appears  to  have  at  once  suggested,  that 
it  became  not  the  possessor  of  an  ascendancy  so 
doubtfully  acquired,  to  neglect  the  known  wishes 
of  a  body  having  at  command  so  large  a  portion 
of  the  wealth  and  authority  of  the  state.  Hence, 
*'  immediately  on  his  accession,  Henry  proclaimed 
*'  himself  the  protector  of  the  church  against  the 
"  assaults  of  the  Lollards.  In  the  first  convoca- 
*'  tion  held  during  his  reign,  his  intentions  were 
**  made  known  to  the  clergy  by  a  royal  mes- 
**  senger;  at  the  opening  of  the  second,  the  king's 
**  commissioners,  the  earl  of  Northumberland,  and 
"  Erpringham,  the  lord  chamberlain,  exhorted  the 
"  prelates  and  proctors  to  take  measures  for  the 
*'  suppression  of  the  errors  disseminated  by  the 
"  itinerant  preachers,  and  promised  them  the 
"  royal  favour  and  assistance  in  the  pursuit  of  so 
"  necessary  an  object."'"  A  similar  announce- 
ment was  at  the  same  time  made  to  the  parlia- 
ment; and  encouraged  by  these  favourable  ap- 
pearances, the  clergy  presented  a  petition  to  that 
assembly,    and   to   the   king,    which   led   to   the 

■e  Lingaids  Hist.iv.  443,444. 


TO    THE    SIXTEENTH     CENTURY,  357 

enactment  of  the  infamous  statute  for  the  burnina:  chap. 

IX. 

of  heretics.  _____ 


statute  he- 
ret  ico  com. 


This  instrument  commences  with  preferring  the 
usual  complaints  respecting  persons  preaching  burendo. 
without  the  licence  of  the  proper  authorities,  pos- 
sessing heretical  books,  convening  unlawful  as- 
semblies, and  diffusing,  in  many  ways,  the  most 
pestilent  opinions.  Against  these  disorders  it  is 
provided,  that  no  man  shall  hereafter  attempt 
the  work  of  religious  instruction  except  duly  au- 
thorized ;  that  within  forty  days  all  books  con- 
taining doctrines  opposed  to  the  determinations 
of  the  church  shall  be  delivered  to  the  ecclesi- 
astical officers  ;  and  that  all  persons  convicted  of 
offending  in  these  particulars,  or  of  joining  pro- 
hibited meetings,  or  of  any  way  favouring  them, 
shall  be  committed  to  the  bishop's  prison,  to  be 
there  dealt  with  at  his  pleasure,  during  a  space 
not  exceeding  three  months.  If  at  the  expiration 
of  that  period  they  shall  perform  their  purgation, 
a  fine  shall  be  levied  on  the  property  of  each 
culprit  according  to  the  nature  of  his  offence,  the 
same  to  be  paid  to  the  king's  majesty.  But  with 
respect  to  such  as  should  retain  their  errors,  or 
abjuring  them,  should  relapse,  it  was  enacted, 
that  the  local  officers,  both  civil  and  clerical,  shall 
confer  together,  "  and  the  sentence  being  duly 
"  pronounced,  the  magistrate  shall  take  into  hand 
"  the  same  persons  so  offending,  and  any  of  them, 
"  and  cause  them  openly  to  be  burned  in  the 
"  sight  of  all  the  people,  to  the  intent  that  this 
"  kind  of  punishment  maybe  a  terror  unto  others, 
"  that  the  like  wicked  doctrine,  and  heretical 
"  opinions,  or  the  authors  and  favourers  thereof, 


358 


STATE  OF  WYCLIFFES  DOCTRINE 


^^x^*    '  ^^  ^^  more  maintained  within  this  realm."     It 

is  worthy  of  notice,  also,  that  the  framers  of  this 

merciless    law    have    founded    it,    not     on     the 
common  law  of  Europe,  but  on  the  canons  of  the 
church,  a  circumstance  which  clearly  denotes  its 
clerical  origin." 
Arundel's        jf  any  doubt  could  have  existed  as  to  the  real 

constitu-  •'  _ 

tions.  parents  of  this  hateful  enactment,  a  series  of 
regulations  proposed  at  the  same  time  by  the 
archbishop  of  Canterbury,  and  adopted  by  a 
convocation  of  the  clergy,  must  have  served  to 
place  the  matter  beyond  suspicion.  These  con- 
stitutions are  attributed  to  Arundel.  In  intro- 
ducing them,  the  primate  speaks  of  the  pontiff, 
as  bearing  the  key  of  eternal  life  and  death ;  as 
filling  the  place,  not  of  mere  humanity,  but  of  the 
true  God ;  and  the  guilt  of  the  men  who  oppose 
their  own  judgments  to  his  decisions,  is  accord- 
ingly said  to  be  that  of  rebellion  and  sacrilege. 
Among  other  complicated  enormities,  the  heretics 
of  the  age  are  charged  with  the  practice  of  con- 
cealing the  evil  of  their  purposes,  under  the  ap- 
pearances of  a  regard  for  truth  and  sanctity ;  but 
notwithstanding  these  pretensions,  they  are  viewed 
as  evidently  constituting  the  tail  of  the  black 
horse,  in  the  Revelations  of  St.  John.  Wycliffe 
had  affirmed  the  religious  orders  to  be  the  tail  of 
the  apocalyptic  beast.  Arundel,  it  would  seem, 
had  determined  to  be  even  with  the  arch-heretic, 
in  this  particular.  In  hope,  therefore,  of  cleansing, 
not  merely  the  stream,  but  its  source  also,  it  is 
decreed,  that  no  man  shall  henceforth  venture  to 
preach  without  the  licence  of  his  ordinary ;  that 

'7  Rot.  Pari.  iii.  4GG.     Wilkins,  Con.  iii.  252. 


TO    THE    SIXTEENTH    CENTURY.  359 

even  such  as  are  thus  hcensed,  shall  confine  them-  chap. 
selves  to  a  statement  of  those  things  which  are      ^^' 
expressly  contained   in  the    constitution    framed 
in  aid  of  the  ignorance  of  priests,  and  beginning 
ignorantia  sacerdotum ;  and  that  any  man  persist- 
ing in  a  contempt  of  these  canons,   shall  forfeit 
all  his  possessions,  and  suffer  the  other  penalties 
awarded  by  the  statute  against  heresy.     A  sen- 
tence of  interdict  is  next  passed  on  every  church 
admitting  an  heretical  teacher  ;   and   all  school- 
masters are  required  to  abstain  from  mixing  any 
religious  opinions  with  their  province  of  instruc- 
tion, and  especially  to  prevent  their  scholars  from 
examining  the  scriptures  in  English,  and  from  in- 
dulging in  discussions  respecting  the  sacraments 
of  the  church.     All   books  written  by  John  Wy- 
cliffe,  and  others  of  his  time ;  and  all  hereafter  to 
be  written  ;  are  to  be  banished  from  schools,  halls, 
hospitals,  and   all  places  whatsoever — excepting 
such  as  may  be  approved  by  a  council  of  twelve 
persons,  to  be  chosen  by  one  or  both  of  the  uni- 
versities.    It  is  also  enacted,  that  no  man  shall 
hereafter  translate  any  text  of  scripture  into  Eng- 
lish, upon  his  own  authority;  and  all  who  shall 
be  convicted  of  attempting  such  translations,  or 
of  reading  them,  shall  be  punished  as  favouring 
error,   and   heresy.      The   scriptures   being  thus 
disposed  of,  it  is  farther  resolved,  that  men  shall 
not  presume  to  dispute   on   any  of  the  articles 
determined  by  holy  church,  and  contained  in  her 
decretals,  or  in  her  constitutions,  whether  those 
of  provincial  or  of  general  councils.     To  question 
the  authority  of  the  said   "  decretals  and  consti- 
"  tutions,"  especially  as  enjoining  pilgrimage  to 


360  STATE    OF    WYCLIFFe's    DOCTRINE 

CHAP,  the  shrines  of  saints,  and  the  whole  of  the  accus- 

IX. 

tomed   adorations    and  ceremonies  with    respect 

to  the  cross  and  images,  is  certain  heresy,  and  to 
be  punished  to  the  utmost.  In  the  eleventh  con- 
stitution the  prevalence  of  WyclifFe's  doctrine  in 
the  university  of  Oxford,  under  the  "  new  and 
damnable  name  of  Lollardie,"  is  deplored;  and  to 
cleanse  the  fountain,  once  so  pure,  but  from 
which  of  late  so  much  poison  had  proceeded,  the 
strictest  inquisition  is  required  to  be  immediately 
and  constantly  made,  that  all  persons  suspected 
of  heretical  opinions  may  be  prosecuted,  accord- 
ing to  the  canons  and  the  laws  before  named. 
Finally,  it  is  determined,  that  as  the  crime  of 
heresy  is  more  enormous  than  treason,  since  it 
is  a  revolt  from  the  authority  of  the  King  of 
kings,  all  persons  suspected  of  that  oifence,  and 
refusing  to  appear  before  the  proper  authorities 
when  duly  cited,  shall,  though  absent,  be  adjudged 
guilty.'* 

These  measures,  both  of  the  government  and 
of  the  church,  imply  the  prevalence  of  WyclifFe's 
opinions  among  his  countrymen  at  this  period. 
Our  devout  martyrologist  concludes  his  notice 
of  these  events  by  observing,  "  Who  would  have 
'*  thought  by  these  laws  and  constitutions  so  sub- 
**  stantially  founded,  so  circumspectly  provided, 
**  so  diligently  executed,  but  that  the  name  and 
**  memory  of  this  persecuted  sect  should  have 
"  been  utterly  rooted  up,  and  never  could  have 
**  stood  ?  And  yet,  such  be  the  works  of  the 
**  Lord,  passing  all  man's  admiration,  that  not- 
*'  withstanding  all  this,  so  far  was  it  off,  that  the 

'*  The  reader  inny  see  a  copy  of  these  constitutions  in  Fox,  i.  683—686. 


TO    T}IE    SIXTEENTH    CENTURY.  361 

"  number  and  couras^e  of  these  oood  men  were  chap. 

^  .      .  IX. 

"  indeed  vanquished,  that  they  rather  multiplied '— 

"  daily,  and  increased,  especially  at  London, 
"  and  Lincolnshire,  Norfolk,  and  Herefordshire, 
"  in  Shrewsbury,  in  Calais,  and  divers  other 
"  quarters  more."''-* 

When  the  English  sceptre  passed  into  the 
hands  of  Henry  the  fifth,  and  the  primacy  of  the 
Anglican  church  was  transferred  by  the  death  of 
Arundel,  to  Henry  Chichely,  the  same  measures 
were  resorted  to,  and  the  same  fate  attended 
them.'"  Many  were  brought  to  the  stake,  and 
generally  on  account  of  rejecting  the  tenet  of 
transubstantiation ;  others  were  compelled  to  re- 
cant, but  a  still  greater  number  eluded  the  search 
of  their  persecutors.  The  mendicants  also  be- 
came vociferous  in  advocating  WyclifFe's  doctrine 
with  respect  to  clerical  revenue,  though  without 
the  mention  of  his  name  ;  and  a  spirit  of  violence 
was  frequently  manifested  against  the  clergy, 
which  discovered  that  the  effect  of  the  cruelties 
in  which  they  had  indulged,  had  been  rather  to 
confirm  the  popular  aversion  to  their  order,  than 
to  extinguish  the  principles  which  favoured  eccle- 
siastical reform.^'  Thus  from  the  register  of 
Lincoln,  and  so  late  as  the  year  1521,  it  appears 
that  in  that  diocese  alone,  more  than  five  hundred 


19  Fox.    Acts,  &c.  i.  686,  687.  to   1428.     R.  Owtrede,   W.  Browne 

20  Tlie  latter  primate  claimed  the  R.  Wyche,  W.  James,  W.  Tajlour 
honour  of  seeing  the  bones  of  Wjcliffe  W.  Hatton,  Fleming,  W.  Russell 
consumed.     Wilkins,  iii.  350.  R.  Hoke,    J.  Drayton,   S.  Richmond 

21  Fox,  i.  661.  Turner's  Hist.  iii.  J.  Jourdelay,  C.  Hertford,  R.  Ruten 
123—136.  The  following  names  occur  W.Harvey,  J.  Calle,  R.  Meyngyn 
in  Wilkins,  as  those  of  persons  prose-  R.  Monk,  G.  Garentur.  Concilia,  ii 
culed   by  the  clergy  on  the  charge  of  394—499. 

heresy,  during  the  interval  from  1419 


362  STATE    OF    WYCLIFFES    DOCTRINE 

CHAP,  persons  had  been  obliged  to  appear  before  the 
__1_L  bishop,  under  the  charge  of  offences  which  be- 
spoke them  the  disciples  of  Wycliffe."  These, 
we  must  conclude,  formed  only  a  small  portion 
of  those  to  whom  the  same  delinquencies  might 
with  equal  justice  have  been  imputed.  It  was 
a  perception  of  this  state  of  things  which  led  Sir 
Thomas  More  to  predict  the  ascendancy  of  the 
protestant  cause  in  this  country,  some  time  before 
it  was  anticipated  by  other  men."  The  nation 
must  have  been  fully  ripe  for  such  a  change,  when 
it  could  be  accomplished  with  so  much  safety,  by 
a  prince  possessing  so  little  to  endear  him  to  his 
subjects  as  Henry  the  eighth.  On  many  points 
the  revolution  effected  by  his  authority  was 
merely  a  change  of  tyrannies.  But  so  far  had 
the  hatred  of  the  Roman  yoke  pervaded  the 
people,  that  they  were  many  of  them  ready  to 
submit  to  almost  any  other  in  its  place.  Much 
light,  indeed,  was  derived  at  that  crisis  from 
Germany,  but  its  efficiency  arose  from  the  fact, 
that  it  came  like  the  seed  which  falls  on  the  earth 
prepared  to  receive  it.  All  the  states  of  Europe 
were  exposed,  more  or  less,  to  the  action  of  the 
same  causes,  and  most  of  them,  from  their  con- 
nexion with  the  continent,  in  a  much  greater  de- 
gree than  England  ;  and  from  the  history  of  such 
as  did,  or  did  not  embrace  the  reformed  doctrine, 
it  is  plain  that  this  difference  is  to  be  traced  to  the 
existence,  or  the  non-existence,  of  pre-disposing 
causes — and  these,  as  existing  in  our  own  country, 
must  be  traced  to  the  labours  of  Wycliffe.  The 
council  of  Constance,  and  the  clergy  of  Christen- 

^■^  Fox,  ii.  p.  33.  ^J  Cayley's  Life  of  Tliomas  Wore,  c.  ii.  p.  77. 


TO    THE    SlXTEEiNTH     CENTURY.  363 

dom,  regarded  him  as  having  formed  the  character  chap. 

of  John  Huss,  and  Jerome  of  Prague.     Both  were 

bold  in  avowing  their  reverence  for  the  character 
of  our  reformer,  and  their  approbation  of  his 
general  doctrine,  and  both  proved  themselves  dis- 
ciples worthy  of  such  a  master.^*  By  their  in- 
strumentality, together  with  that  of  Zisca,  many 
of  the  learned  and  the  opulent,  and  a  multitude 
from  that  class  of  society  where  religion  connects 
itself  most  powerfully  with  the  conscience,  were 
taught  to  spurn  many  a  usurpation  of  th^  pontiffs. 
Maxims  which  the  church  had  declared  to  be 
true,  they  renounced  as  false  and  injurious ;  and 
practices  which  the  same  authority  had  affirmed 
to  be  most  devout  and  christian,  were  rejected  as 
heathenism  rendered  still  more  criminal. 

But  before  concluding  these  observations,  it 
will  be  proper  to  devote  a  few  pages  to  the  story 
of  Lord  Cobham.  In  this  country  he  was,  for 
some  years,  the  leading  patron  of  Wyclitfe's  dis- 
ciples, and  was  moreover  a  sincere  adherent  to 
the  religious  creed  of  our  reformer.  His  sufferings 
will  disclose  the  temper  with  which  the  contest 
was  carried  on  between  the  Lollards  and  the 
priesthood,  to  the  period  when  the  papal  power 
was  excluded  from  these  realms.  No  event  could 
have  shewn  more  decisively  the  superior  talents 
and  the  unblemished  reputation  of  Lord  Cobham, 
than  his  continuance  in  the  favour  of  Henry  the 
fourth,  notwithstanding  his  known  attachment  to 

2<  Lenfaot.     Council   of  Constance.  temporary  that  36,000  Germans  forsook 

The  university    of   Prague,    in    which  it  in  consequeuceof  the  isjue  of  certain 

Huss  inculcated  the  doctrine  of  Wy-  disputes  between  the  Nominalists  and 

elide,    must    have    been    no   ordinary  Realists.     ]Moshei:a,  iii.  409. 
establishment,  as  it  is  staled  by  aeon- 


364  STATE    OF    WYCLIFFe's    DOCTRINE 

^'^^''- principles  which  required  the  most  complete  re- 

formation  of  the  church,  or  rather  of  the  clergy." 

But  in  1413,  Henry  of  Lancaster  was  no  more; 
and  as  the  young  prince  of  Wales  had  hitherto 
passed  his  time  in  the  lowest  company,  and  in  the 
most  licentious  pursuits,  the  change  was  thought 
to  be  pregnant  with  danger  to  the  ecclesiastical 
state.  That  prince,  however,  was  no  sooner  called 
to  the  throne,  than  his  former  associates  and  his 
former  habits  were  alike  abandoned.  Well  it 
would  have  been,  had  he  possessed,  at  this  mo- 
ment, some  more  humane  counsellors,  than  were 
those  to  whom  the  royal  conscience  was  surren- 
dered. From  having  betrayed  an  unusual  con- 
tempt for  the  institutions  and  the  morals  of 
society,  he  became  the  zealous  advocate  of  the 
established  religion,  with  all  its  follies  and  cor- 
ruptions. 

At  this  period  Lord  Cobham  was  exposed  to 
the  special  resentment  of  the  clergy,  not  only  as 
having  more  than  once  abetted  the  most  obnoxious 
tenets  of  Lollardism  in  the  English  parliament,  but 
as  having  long  maintained  numerous  preachers  of 
that  sect.^"  These  are  described  as  having  made 
the  provinces  subject  to  the  jurisdiction  of  his 
grace  of  Canterbury,  and  those  owning  the  au- 
thority of  their  lordships  of  Hereford,  Rochester, 
and  London,  the  principal  scene  of  their  itinerant 
labours.  In  addition  to  which,  the  wealth  of  this 
distinguished  offender  had  been  freely  expended, 

3*  In  1407,  Henry  embarked  a  oonsi-  *8  The    steps    of   the    prosecution, 

derable  force  to  aid  the  Duke  of  Bar-  which  issued  in  Lord  Cobham's  cou- 

gundy  against   the   Duke  of  Orleans,  demnation,    may    be   learnt   from    the 

and  the  name  of  Lord  Cobham  occurs  documents  in  Fox,  in  Rymer,  and  from 

as  second  in  command.  tlie  fust  volume  of  tlie  State  Trials. 


TO    THE    SIXTEENTH    CENTURY.  365 


to  multiply  copies  of  the  writings  of  Wycliffe,  and  ch 
by  this  means  the  seeds  of  disaffection  had  not- 
only  increased  in  England,  but  were  scattered 
through  Bohemia,  and  other  states  of  the  conti- 
nent. All  this  too  had  been  done,  in  contempt 
of  those  solemn  decrees,  which  had  doomed  the 
preachers  so  encouraged,  and  the  writings  thus 
diffused,  to  become  the  fuel  of  the  same  fire. 
Nor  had  these  maxims  of  intolerance  obtained 
the  sanction  conferred  upon  them  merely  as  an 
instrument  of  terror.  The  works  of  our  reformer 
were  diligently  sought  after,  and  committed  to 
the  flames.  Sawtre,  a  clergyman  whose  sincere 
zeal  had,  perhaps,  outstripped  his  discernment; 
and  Badby,  a  mechanic,  whose  fidelity  and  hero- 
ism would  have  done  honour  to  the  man  of  any 
rank,  had  both  perished  at  the  stake,  as  the 
penalty  of  denying  the  impious  dogma  of  tran- 
substantiation. 

It  was  accordingly  determined,  in  a  convocation 
of  the  clergy,  with  the  primate  Arundel  at  its 
head,  that  a  prosecution  of  Lord  Cobham,  as  the 
leader  of  the  parties  who  were  so  obstinately 
allied  in  their  opposition  to  the  church,  should  be 
immediately  commenced.  But  it  was  prudently 
suggested,  that  the  pleasure  of  the  sovereign 
should  be  ascertained  before  proceeding  to  act 
upon  this  decision,  since  the  offender,  in  addition 
to  his  rank,  was  certainly  respected  by  the  court, 
and  near  the  person  of  the  king.  A  deputation 
was  in  consequence  appomted  to  wait  upon  the 
monarch ;  and  having  exposed  in  the  royal  pre- 
sence the  peculiar  guilt  of  the  accused,  it  was 
urged  as  strictly  necessary,   if  the  piety,  or  the 


Al> 


IX. 


366  STATE  OF  WYCLIFFE  S  DOCTRINE 

CHAP,  recognized  institutions  of  the  land  were  to  be  pre- 

'—  served,  that  some  signal  penalty  should  be  speedily 

inflicted.  Henry  expressed  his  disapprobation  of 
the  opinions,  and  of  the  conduct,  imputed  to  Lord 
Cobham;  but  requested  the  suspension  of  all  pro- 
ceedings until  he  should  have  reasoned  with  him, 
adding,  that  should  this  milder  effort  be  without 
effect,  the  punishment  of  the  culprit  must  be  left 
to  the  wisdom  of  the  church.  The  knight  listened 
to  his  sovereign  with  reverence,  and,  in  the  lan- 
guage of  Archbishop  Wake,  returned  the  following 
**  respectful  answer." — "  I  am,  as  I  have  always 
''  been,  most  willing  to  obey  your  majesty  as  the 
"  minister  of  God,  appointed  to  bear  the  sword  of 
*'  justice,  for  the  punishment  of  evil  doers,  and 
**  the  protection  of  those  who  do  well.  To  you, 
"  therefore,  next  to  my  eternal  living  Judge,  I 
"  owe  my  whole  obedience,  and  entirely  submit, 
**  as  I  have  ever  done,  to  your  pleasure,  my  life 
*'  and  all  my  fortune  in  this  world,  and  in  all 
**  affairs  of  it  whatever,  am  ready  to  perform 
*'  exactly  your  royal  commands.  But  as  to  the 
"  pope  and  the  spiritual  dominion  which  he  claims, 
'*  I  owe  him  no  services,  that  I  know  of,  nor  will 
"  I  pay  him  any ;  for  as  sure  as  God's  word  is 
*'  true,  to  me  it  is  fully  evident  that  he  is  the  great 
**  Antichrist,  the  son  of  perdition,  the  open  adver- 
**  sary  of  God,  and  the  abomination  standing  in 
"  the  holy  place.""  Henry  was  sorely  displeased 
that  neither  his  arguments  nor  his  condescension 
could  bring  his  faithful  soldier  to  avow  a  return  to 
orthodoxy ;    and   abandoned   by   the  king,    Lord 


State  of  the  Church,  ubi  supia. 


TO    THE    SIXTEENTH    CENTURY.  367 

Cobham  was  left  to  contend  alone  with  the  united  chap. 
strength  of  his  clerical  adversaries.  — 11- 

His  home  at  this  period  was  Cowley  Castle, 
once  the  residence  of  his  father-in-law,  and  situate 
about  three  miles  from  Rochester.  The  usual 
steps  were  taken  by  the  clergy  to  induce  his 
appearance  before  them,  but  in  vain ;  and  it  was 
resolved  to  solicit  the  assistance  of  the  secular 
arm  to  secure  his  apprehension,  as  "  the  seditious 
"  apostate,  schismatic,  and  heretic,  the  troubler 
"  of  the  public  peace,  the  enemy  of  the  realm, 
"  the  great  adversary  of  all  holy  church."  The 
persecuted  knight  now  made  a  second  appeal  to 
the  justice  of  his  sovereign ;  but  from  the  royal 
presence  the  ecclesiastical  officers  were  allowed 
to  conduct  him  to  the  Tower.  After  some  days, 
he  was  brought  before  the  archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury, and  the  bishops  of  London  and  Winchester, 
in  the  chapter-house  of  St.  Paul's.  Arundel  re- 
minded the  prisoner  of  the  sentence  which,  as 
primate,  he  had  been  recently  called  to  pass 
on  him  ;  at  the  same  time  informing  him  that 
the  absolution  which  had  been  hitherto  despised, 
might  still  be  obtained  on  proper  submission.  But 
it  was  requested  by  the  accused,  that  as  he  had 
no  wish  to  protract  inquiry,  and  as  his  opinions 
were  certainly  unalterable,  he  might  be  allowed 
to  read  from  a  document  in  his  hand,  the  senti- 
ments which  he  entertained  in  relation  to  the 
articles  on  which  he  presumed  himself  to  be 
suspected  of  error.  This  paper  referred  chiefly 
to  the  doctrine  of  the  eucharist,  to  the  nature  of 
penance,  the  worship  of  images,  and  the  custom 
of   pilgrimage,    and  was,    wqth   some   additional 


368  STATE  OF  WYCLIFFE  S  DOCTRINE 

CHAP,  explanations,  a  copy  of  that  which  he  had  recently 
— ——  presented  to  the  king.  On  all  the  points  named, 
both  the  sentiment  and  language  of  this  confession 
were  in  substance  those  of  Wyclifte.  By  the 
prelates  it  was  considered  .as  in  some  respects 
orthodox,  in  others  as  requiring  farther  expla- 
nation ;  and  there  were  moreover  several  points 
unnoticed  in  that  statement,  on  which  his  opinions 
must  be  known.  But  it  was  avowed  by  the  pri- 
soner as  his  determination  to  communicate  no 
more  than  the  document  before  them  contained. 
"  You  see  me  in  your  power,  and  do  with  me  as 
"  you  please,"  was  his  simple  and  decisive  lan- 
guage. Arundel  was  perplexed  by  this  conduct, 
but  presently  admonished  him  that  the  things  to 
be  believed  by  Christians  were  a  matter  which 
had  been  placed  beyond  controversy  by  the  autho- 
rity of  the  church  ;  and  that  on  the  following 
Monday  more  explicit  answers  would  be  ex- 
pected from  him.  The  archbishop  also  informed 
him,  that  to  aid  his  mind  in  the  interval  care 
should  be  taken  to  make  him  acquainted  with  the 
judgment  of  the  church  on  the  questions  at  issue. 
On  the  morrow  a  paper  was  received  by  Lord 
Cobham,  which  affirmed,  in  the  grossest  terms, 
and  in  the  name  of  the  church,  the  necessity  of 
confession  to  a  priest,  the  merit  of  pilgrimages, 
the  propriety  of  the  worship  rendered  to  images 
and  holy  relics,  also  the  supremacy  of  the  pope, 
and  the  mysteries  of  transubstantiation. 

On  the  day  appointed  he  appeared  before  a 
formidable  array  of  judges  in  the  monastery  of 
the  Dominicans,  near  Ludgate.  Beside  the  pre- 
lates,   the   doctors,    and   the    heads   of   religious 


TO     THE     SIXTEENTH     CENTURY.  369 

houses,  included  in  this  assembly,  was  "  a  great  chap. 

"  sort   more,    of  priests,    monks,    canons,    friars, '— 

"parish  clerks,  bell-ringers,  and  pardoners." 
These  are  described  as  treating  the  "  horrible 
"  heretic  with  innumerable  mocks  and  scorns. "^^ 
With  these,  also,  were  others,  who  were  addressed 
by  the  prisoner  as  the  people,  being  the  laity 
who  were  witnesses  of  the  proceedings.  The 
archbishop  commenced  by  adverting  to  the  ab- 
solution which  had  been  so  mildly  proffered  in 
several  instances,  only  to  be  contemned,  but 
which  he  was  nevertheless  prepared  even  yet  to 
bestow,  should  it  be  sought  in  "  due  form  and 
**  manner,  as  holy  church  hath  ordained."  To 
this  it  was  replied,  that  the  judgment  of  men  is 
frequently  opposed  to  that  of  their  Maker;  and 
as  the  accused  had  never  wronged  the  archbishop 
of  Canterbury,  it  was  not  from  him  that  he  was 
concerned  to  obtain  forgiveness.  While  uttering 
these  sentiments,  he  became  deeply  affected,  and 
bending  his  knee  to  the  earth,  he  raised  his  hands 
towards  heaven,  exclaiming  solemnly,  "  I  con- 
"  fess  myself  here  unto  thee,  my  eternal  living 
"  God,  that  in  my  frail  youth  I  offended  thee, 
"  O  Lord  !  most  grievously,  in  pride,  wrath,  and 
"  gluttony,  in  covetousness,  and  in  lechery. 
"  Many  men  have  I  injured  in  mine  anger,  and 
"  done  many  other  horrible  sins  ;  good  Lord,  of 
"  thee  I  ask  mercy."  Rising  from  the  posture 
suited  to  this  act  of  devotion,  he  wept  as  he 
glanced  on  the  people  who  were  spectators  of  his 
injuries,    and   with  an  impassioned   utterance  he 

«  Fox.  Acts,  &c. 
VOL.   ir.  B    B 


370  STATE    OF    WYCLIFFE  S    DOCTRINE 

CHAP,  delivered  his  prophetic  warning,  "  Lo !  good 
'^'  '*  people,  lo ! — for  the  breaking  of  God's  law  and 
"  commandments,  these  men  never  yet  cursed 
"  me.  But  for  the  sake  of  their  own  laws  and 
"  traditions,  most  cruelly  do  they  handle  both  me 
"  and  other  men.  Both  they,  therefore,  and 
"  their  laws,  according  to  the  promise  of  God, 
"  shall  be  utterly  destroyed."  It  may  be  credited, 
that  the  firmness  of  his  adversaries  was  in  some 
measure  disturbed  by  this  burst  of  feeling  and 
intrepidity.  A  lengthened  discussion  now  took 
place,  and  one  to  which  the  archbishop,  the 
doctors,  and  the  leaders  of  the  religious  brought 
all  their  learning,  their  acuteness,  and  their  pas- 
sions, each  uttering  his  pressing  questions  with 
a  view  to  ensnare  and  overpower  their  victim. 
On  being  urged  to  answer  distinctly  whether  the 
bread  remained  in  the  sacrament  of  the  altar, 
after  the  words  of  consecration  were  pronounced, 
his  reply  was  an  affirmative  ;  and  a  smile  then 
passed  over  the  countenance  of  his  opponents,  as 
they  concluded,  '*  the  people  would  now  judge 
"  him  to  be  taken  in  a  great  heresy."  Still 
pressed  with  inquiries  on  this  subject,  and  on 
the  authority  of  the  church,  he  remarks,  "  My 
*'  belief  is,  as  I  said  before,  that  all  the  scriptures 
"  of  the  sacred  book  are  true.  All  that  is  grounded 
"  upon  them  I  believe  thoroughly,  for  I  know  it 
"  is  God's  pleasure  that  I  should  do  so.  But  in 
"  your  lorldly  laws  and  idle  determinations  have 
"  I  no  belief.  For  ye  are  no  part  of  Christ's 
**  holy  church,  as  your  open  deeds  do  shew;  but 
"  ye  are  very  Antichrists,  obstinately  set  against 
"  his    holy  law  and   will.     The  laws  which    ye 


TO    THE     SIXTEENTH     CENTURY.  371 

*'  have  made  are  nothing  to  his  glory,  but  wholly  chap. 

"to  your  own  vain-glory  and  covetousness."     It '— 

is  not  surprising  that  such  assertions  should 
be  loudly  denounced  as  "  exceeding  heresy." 
Thomas  Walden,  the  Carmelite,  and  a  well- 
known  antagonist  of  WyclifFe,  observed,  that  to 
affirm  of  any  person,  and  especially  of  superiors, 
that  they  are  no  part  of  holy  church,  must  be 
presumption,  according  to  the  maxim,  "  Judge 
"  not,  that  ye  be  not  judged."  But  it  was  re- 
torted, "  Christ  said  also  in  the  self-same  chapter 
"  of  Matthew,  that  like  as  the  evil  tree  is  known 
"  by  its  fruits,  so  is  a  false  prophet  by  his  works, 
"  but  that  text  ye  left  behind  ye."  To  this  and 
similar  quotations  of  scripture,  the  same  mendi- 
cant replied,  *'  Ye  make  here  no  difference  of 
''judgments;  between  the  evil  judgments  which 
"  Christ  hath  forbidden,  and  the  good  judgments 
"  which  he  hath  commanded.  Rash  judgment 
"  and  right  judgment,  all  is  one  with  you.  Such 
"  swift  judges  ever  are  these  learned  scholars  of 
"  Wycliffe."  The  Carmelite  had  now  touched  a 
chord  to  which  the  bosom  of  the  prisoner  could 
not  but  respond.  "  Well,  indeed,"  he  said,  "  have 
"  ye  sophistered.  Preposterous  evermore  are 
''your  judgments.  For  as  the  prophet  Isaiah 
"  saith,  ye  judge  evil  good,  and  good  evil,  and 
"  therefore  the  same  prophet  concludeth  that 
"  your  ways  are  not  God's  ways.  And  as  for 
"  that  virtuous  man  Wycliffe,  before  God  and 
"  man,  I  here  profess,  that  until  I  knew  him  and 
"  his  doctrine,  that  ye  so  highly  disdain,  I  never 
"  abstained  from  sin ;  but  since  I  have  learnt 
"  from  him  to  fear  my  God,  I  trust  it  has  been 

B  B  2 


372  STATE    OF     M'YCLIFFe's     DOCTRINE 

CHAP.  <*  Otherwise  with  me.     So  much   grace  could  I 

IX  .  •  5? 

— 11-  ''  never  find  in  all  your  glorious  mstructions. 
Here  the  friar  became  indignant,  and  remarked, 
"  It  were  not  well  with  me  that  in  an  age  so 
"  supplied  with  teachers  and  examples,  I  should 
*'  find  no  grace  to  amend  my  life  until  I  heard 
"  the  devil  preach."  This,  in  return,  is  said  to 
be  precisely  the  temper  which  led  the  pharisees 
to  impute  the  doctrine  and  miracles  of  Christ  to 
the  agency  of  Beelzebub  ;  and  to  be  a  part  of  the 
evil  entailed  on  the  church  from  the  day  in  which 
she  received  the  "  venom  of  Judas."  The  arch- 
bishop inquired  what  that  venom  meant,  and  the 
answer  was,  "  Your  possessions  and  lordships." 
These  things  are  said  to  have  made  "  Rome  the 
"  very  nest  of  Antichrist,  out  of  which  come  all 
*'  the  disciples  of  Antichrist,  of  whom  prelates, 
"  priests,  and  monks,  are  the  body,  and  these 
"  friars  the  tail.  Priests  and  deacons,  for  the 
"  preaching  of  God's  word  and  the  administering 
*'  of  sacraments,  with  provision  for  the  poor,  are, 
'*  indeed,  grounded  on  God's  law,  but  these  other 
"  sects  have  no  manner  of  support  thence,  as  far 
"  as  I  have  read."  It  now  became  evident,  that 
nothing  but  evil  could  arise  from  protracting  this 
discussion ;  and  the  archbishop  hastened  to  admo- 
nish the  prisoner  that  the  day  waned ;  that  much 
forbearance  had  been  shewn  him  in  vain ;  and 
that  his  escape  from  the  most  serious  penalties 
could  only  be  secured  by  an  implicit  submission 
to  the  authority  of  the  church.  The  only  effect 
of  these  appeals  was  an  avowal  of  unaltered 
sentiment,  and  a  repetition  of  the  words,  "  Do 
"  with  me  as  you  will."     The  archbishop  then 


TO  THE  SIXTEENTH  CENTURY.  373 

rose,   the  clergy  and  the  laity   stood   uncovered,  chap. 

and   sentence   was   pronounced    on    "  Sir   John 1- 

"  Oldcastle,  knight,  and  lord  of  Cobham,  as  a 
"  most  pernicious  and  detestable  heretic;"  a  sen- 
tence which  also  prohibited  any  man  from  ren- 
dering him  either  "  counsel  or  help,"  on  pain  of 
incurring  the  censures  denounced  against  the 
favourers  of  heretics.  It  was  farther  arranged, 
that  this  decree  should  be  published  in  the  mother 
tongue  from  the  pulpits  of  every  diocese  within 
the  province  of  Canterbury,  ^yhen  the  primate 
had  pronounced  the  anathema  of  the  court.  Lord 
Cobham,  with  a  composed  aspect  and  a  firm 
utterance,  remarked,  that  he  knew  that  sentence 
could  affect  the  body  only,  adding,  that  with 
regard  to  the  soul,  he  doubted  not  but  "  He  who 
"  created  that,  would,  of  his  infinite  mercy  and 
"  promise,  save  it."  His  eyes  were  then  turned 
towards  the  people  who  had  listened  to  his  doom, 
but  it  was  to  exercise  pity,  and  not  to  implore  it. 
With  an  impassioned  voice,  he  bid  them  beware 
of  the  men  before  him,  if  they  would  avoid  the 
fate  of  the  blind  who  follow  the  footsteps  of  the 
blind  ;  and  the  few  moments  which  preceded  his 
being  re-conducted  to  the  Tower,  were  spent  in 
entreating  the  divine  forgiveness  for  his  perse- 
cutors. 

In  this  proceeding  the  passions  of  the  clergy 
appear  to  have  hurried  them  much  beyond  their 
discretion.  No  avowal  of  heretical  opinions  could 
be  more  decided  or  more  notorious,  than  was  that 
of  Lord  Cobham,  and  yet  a  considerable  interval 
passed,  and  the  sentence  of  the  law  remained 
unexecuted.     At  length,  whether  by  connivance. 


374  STATE    OF    WYCLIFFe's    DOCTRINE 

CHAP,  or  by   his  own   ingenuity,   the  prisoner  escaped 

from  the  Tower,  and  embarking  under  the  cover 

of  the  night,  found  an  asylum  on  the  shores  of  the 
principality. 

His  trial  had  taken  place  some  days  before  the 
close  of  September,  and  on  the  night  of  the 
7th  of  January,  an  event  transpired,  which  has 
proved  a  fruitful  theme  of  misrepresentation  and 
calumny.  Of  the  orthodox  writers,  who  were 
contemporaries,  or  more  nearly  contemporary  with 
the  occurrence,  there  is  no  one  who  in  describing 
it  is  not  materially  at  issue  with  himself  and  with 
his  brethren. 

Walsingham  is  noticed  by  Mr.  Sharon  Turner 
as  "  the  bitterest  enemy  of  the  reformers,"  and 
in  consequence  as  stating  this  transaction  "  most 
*'  favourably  to  the  king  and  his  party."  I  know 
not  that  I  can  do  better  than  submit  to  the  can- 
dour of  the  reader,  the  substance  of  Walsingham's 
e.r-parte  statements,  as  given  by  our  more  dis- 
passionate historian.  "  Reports,"  he  observes, 
*'  were  spread,  that  the  Lollards  were  plotting  to 
"  destroy  the  king  and  his  brothers  at  Eltham. 
«*  Informed  of  the  design,  the  king  went  to  his 
*'  palace  at  Westminster,  to  be  safer  from  its 
**  publicity.  He  was  then  told  that  they  were 
*'  assembling  from  all  quarters  into  a  field  near 
"  St.  Giles's,  to  act  under  their  leader,  Oldcastle, 
"  at  a  fixed  day  and  hour.  The  king,  at  night, 
*'  ordered  his  friends  to  arm,  and  then  Jirst 
*'  mentioned  what  he  resolved  to  do.  He  was 
**  advised  to  wait  until  day-break,  that  they  might 
"  discern  who  were  willing  to  act  with  him,  or 
"  against  him,  and  was  advised  by  others  to  wait. 


TO  THE  SIXTEENTH  CENTURY.  37£ 

''till  he  got  an  army  together,  if  a  formidable  chap. 

"  body  was  to   be   met.     He  listened  to  neither,  — '-^ 

"  because  he  had  Iieard  that  the  Lollards  intended 

"  to  burn  Westminster  Abbey,    St.   Paul's,    St. 

"  Alban's,  and  all  the   other  friaries  in  London. 

"  He  went,  therefore,  to  St.  Giles's  in  the  middle 

"  of  the  night,   anticipating  the  projected  move- 

"  ments  of  the  ensuing  day.     He  found  only  a 

"  few  persons  there,  who  being  asked  what  they 

"  wanted,  said,  the  lord  Cobham.      They  were 

"  seized  and  imprisoned.      They  were  surprised 

"  to  find  that  jio  one  came  from  London  to  join 

"  them.     The  king  had  ordered  all  the  city  gates 

"  to  be  shut  and  guarded  ;  and  if  he  had  not  taken 

"  this  precaution,  the?^e  would  have  come,  (*  prout- 

"  fertur,')  as  it  luas  reported,  fifty  thousand  servants 

"  and  apprentices  against  the  king."^'' 

Such,  reader,  is  the  clumsy  tale  supplied  by 
Walsingham,  on  this  subject,  who  is  nevertheless 

^  Hist.  ii.  452,  453.     The  credulity  to-morrow  they  beard  the  government 

of  Walsingham  did  not  die  with  him.  by  stating  that  "  if  tiie  authority  of  the 

These  disciples  of  Wyclifle  are  still  "  crown  should  be  employed  in  oppo- 

des^ribed,  as  conducted,  at  one  time,  "  sition  to  their  doctrine,  tliey  are  able 

by  iheir  notions  of  private  judgment,  "  to  assemble   100,000  men  ready  to 

into  all  that  discordant  variety  of  opi-  "  draw  the  sword  in  its  defence."     But 

nion,  which  is  said  to  be  the  common  such   is  the    thread   of  contradiction, 

punishment  of  such  presumption  ;  while  which  the  care  of  Providence  has  com- 

at  atother  they  are  so  organized,  that  monly  interwoven  with  the  stories  of 

at  some  secret  bidding  20,000  can  be  oppression.     See    Dr.  Lingard's  Hist. 

suddenly  put  in  motion,  and  all  without  iv.  319,  324,  443.  v.  3 — 6. 
knowing  why  !     Today  they   are  such  Fox  has  brought   his   learning   and 

"  a  compound  of  fanaticism  and  folly"  ingenuity  to   the   investigation  of  the 

as  to  complain  of  the  clergy  to  the  par-  charge  of  treason  as  preferred  against 

liament,  because  they  "  authorize  war  Sir    John    Oldcastle,    by  Harpsfield. 

"  and  criminal  executions,  which  are  Acts  and  Monuments,    i.  740  —  772. 

"  contrary  to  the  law  of  Christ,  a  law  Tiie  shape  which  the  controversy  be- 

"  of  mercy  and  love  ;  and  because  they  tween  the  Lollards  and  the  orthodox 

"  permi.  men  to  exercise  the  trade  of  assumed  at  a  later  period,  the  reader 

"  goldsriitb   and   sword-cutler,  which  may  learn   from   Mr.  Lewis's  Life  of 

"  are  uniecessary  and  pernicious  under  Peacocke,    a  curious   and   interesting 

"  the  disoensatioD  of  the  gospel,"  and  volume. 


376  STATE    OF    WYCLIFFe's    DOCTRINE 

CHAP. the  best  authority  to  be  adduced  on  this  point 
^^'  hj  the  enemies  of  the  Lollards.  Mr.  Turner's 
observations  on  the  passage  are  as  follows.  "On 
"  this  account  we  may  remark,  that  it  is  a  series 
♦*  of  supposition,  rumour,  private  information, 
"  apprehension,  and  anticipation.  That  the  king 
"  was  acted  upon  by  some  secret  agents  is  clear; 
'*  that  the  plots  asserted  were  really  formed, 
"  there  is  no  evidence.  The  probability  is,  that 
*'  Henry's  generous  and  lofty  mind  was  found 
"  to  start  at  the  violences  which  the  bigotry  of 
*'  the  papal  clergy  had  resolved  upon,  and  that 
**  artful  measures  were  taken  to  alarm  it  into 
*'  anger  and  cruelty  by  charges  of  treason,  rebel- 
"  lion,  and  meditated  assassination."^" 

It  was  important  to  render  the  Lollards  odious, 
both  to  the  government  and  the  nation,  before 
proceeding  to  those  desperate  measures  which 
afforded  the  only  hope  of  subduing  them ;  and  by 
this  artifice,  stale  as  it  was,  in  all  its  parts,  the 
end  proposed  was  too  nearly  obtained.  An  act 
was  now  passed,  which  identified  heresy  with 
treason  ;  and  lord  Cobham,  who  was  apprehended 
about  three  years  later,  was  sentenced  to  die, 
according  to  the  penalties  of  this  frightful  statute. 
At  the  place  of  execution,  he  renewed  his  exhor- 
tations to  the  people  to  follow  their  priests  only 
as  their  life  and  doctrine  should  be  conformable 

""  Hist.  ii.  453.      Such  also  is  tbe  still  doing,  to  put  down  the  religion  of 

judgment  of  Rapin.     It  is  to  the  men  the    gospels.      A    con)paiison   of  the 

who  have  most  corrupted  Christianity,  pages  of  David  Hume,   and  those  of 

and  to  those  who  treat  it  as  a  lie,  that  our  contemporary  Dr.  Lingard,  as  far 

the  rumours  opposed  to  the  reputation  as  they  relate  to  the  character  of  Sir 

of  the  christian  reformers  have  always  John  Oldcastle,  will  confirm  this  asser- 

been   most  acceptable.     By  this   holy  tion.    The  same  will  apply  also  to  their 

alliance  much   has  been  done,  and  is  accounts  of  VVycliffe. 


TO    THE    SIXTEENTH    CENTURY.  377 

to  the  word  of  God.  The  proffered  service  of  a  chap. 
confessor,  he  rejected,  affirming  that  the  duty  of  — 11_ 
confession  was  one  to  be  performed  to  God  only ; 
and  while  the  surrounding  clergy  warned  the 
spectators  against  praying  for  the  sufferer,  be- 
cause evidently  condemned  of  heaven,  the  object 
of  their  enmity,  in  the  spirit  of  a  better  faith,  was 
heard  interceding  aloud  for  the  salvation  of  his 
persecutors.  To  be  hung  in  chains,  as  a  traitor; 
and  at  the  same  time,  slowly  consumed  to  ashes  as 
a  heretic,  was  the  sentence  pronounced  and  ex- 
ecuted on  Sir  John  Oldcastle.'^ 

The  men  who  knew  the  innocence  and  the 
worth  of  this  illustrious  sufferer,  would  reflect  on 
this  deed  of  blood,  and  become  more  confirmed 
in  their  abhorrence  of  the  usurpation  from  which 
it  had  proceeded.  Their  children,  too,  would 
naturally  imbibe  a  deeper  and  a  holier  hatred  of 
the  power  which  such  atrocities  were  employed 
to  preserve.  We  may  remark,  also,  that  in 
England,  the  principles  of  the  reformation  had 
never  been  peculiar  to  the  mind  of  the  poor ;  and 
that  from  this  period,  to  perish  in  their  cause,  was 
to  become  allied  to  the  privileged  and  the  noble. 

It  may  be  no  more  than  just,  however,  before 
concluding  a  work  of  this  description,  to  remind 
the  reader,  that  if  the  corruption  of  Christianity 
has  proceeded  to  so  painful  an  extent  from  the 

3'  Rot.  Pail.  107— no.    State  Trials,  land.     It  is  highly  probable  that   the 

i.  50.   Stowe,  335.    Holiii.  561.    Hall,  opportaiiity  of  reiterating  his  doctrines 

58.      Godwin's   Henry  V.      Walsing-  before  that  assembly  would  not  be  nn- 

hani  states  that  his  defence  before  the  improved;   and   that   he   should  avow 

parliament  was  a  lecture  on  the  duty  himself  a  traitor,  in  the  hope  of  escap- 

of  forgiveness,  and  that  he  concluded  ing  the    penalties  of    treason,   would 

by  asserting  his  allegiance  to  Richard,  hardly    occur    as  a   difliculty   to    the 

whom  he  declared  to  be  alive  in  Scot-  genius  of  Walsingham. 


378  STATE    OF    WECLIFFe's    DOCTRINE. 

CHAP,  unfaithfulness  of  its  accredited  ministers,  it  is  to 
^'  the  same  order  of  men  that  we  are  chiefly  indebted 
for  the  restoration  of  its  purity.  Let  it  never  be 
forgotten,  that  in  its  earlier  history,  it  was  an- 
nounced to  the  world  by  men  in  whose  character 
its  better  tendencies  were  all  beautifully  exhibited ; 
and  that  if  that  apostacy,  of  which  Rome  has 
long  been  the  centre,  flowed  chiefly  from  the 
lust  and  perfidy  of  priests,  it  is  with  that  class  of 
men  that  we  must  associate  the  names  of  Wyclifl'e 
and  Latimer,  Luther  and  Melancthon,  Zuinglius 
and  Knox.  If  it  was  reserved  to  the  evil  passions 
of  that  order  to  impose  on  men  the  heaviest  yoke 
that  has  oppressed  their  nature,  it  is  to  the  genero- 
sity and  the  enterprise  of  priests  that  the  noblest 
deliverance  achieved  for  the  human  race  must  be 
mainly  attributed.  In  these  later  times  there  are 
quarters  in  which  if  priestcraft  has  slain  its  thou- 
sands, laycraft  has  slain  its  tens  of  thousands. 

From  the  eighth  century  to  the  sixteenth,  the 
principles  of  the  protestant  reformation  were  all 
really  advancing,  notwithstanding  the  retrograde 
appearance  of  things  at  certain  intervals.  The 
stand  made  by  the  Paulicians  was  surpassed  by 
that  of  the  Waldenses.  By  the  labours  of  Wyclifte, 
a  still  more  sensible  movement  toward  the  reno- 
vation of  Christendom  was  efl^ected ;  and  a  man 
needed  not  the  spirit  of  prophecy  to  anticipate 
the  rise  of  Zuinglius  and  Luther,  from  the  ashes 
of  Huss  and  Jerome.  Each  swell  in  the  coming- 
tide  retreated  apparently  quite  to  the  point  from 
which  it  had  commenced,  but  each  was  more 
powerful  than  the  former,  and  bespoke  the  certain 
influx  of  the  mighty  waters. 


THE    WRITINGS    OF    WYCLIFFE.  379 


CHAPTER  X. 


On  the  Writings  of  John  WycJ'iffc,  T).  D. 

The  writings  of  Wyclifte  are  many  of  them  well  chap. 

known   from  the  notices  which  occur  respecting  ^j 

them  in  the  numerous  documents  relating  to  the 
measures  which  were  designed  to  suppress  them. 
Where  this  kind  of  evidence  fails,  their  contents, 
and  the  freedom  with  which  certain  parts  of  any 
popular  treatise  were  repeated  in  others,  affords 
the  necessary  aid.  Such  pieces  as  have  been 
improperly  attributed  to  him,  and  such  as  rest 
on  suspicious  evidence,  will  be  assigned  a  sepa- 
rate place,  and  noticed  accordingly.  It  was 
affirmed  by  an  English  prelate,  soon  after  the 
decease  of  Wycliffe,  that  his  works  were  quite  as 
voluminous  as  those  of  Augustine.*  A  similar 
statement  was  made,  and  as  the  result  of  per- 
sonally inspecting  them,  by  the  learned  Henry 
Warton.''  Accordingly  we  find,  that  in  Bohemia, 
they  were  so  numerous,  that  more  than  two  hun- 
dred volumes,  many  of  them  richly  decorated, 
were  committed  to  the  flames  by  Subinco  Lepus, 
bishop  of  Prague.  Among  these,  was  the  re- 
former's Exposition  of  the  Decalogue,  a  copy  of  his 

•  Cochleus.  Hist.  Hiiss,  lib.  i.  2  Antlio.  Har  Speciiiieu,  &c.  IG. 


380  THE    WRITINGS    OF    WYCLIFFE. 

CHAP.  Homilies,  and  the  Trialogus.^     In  this  kingdom, 

!_  whatever  could  be  done  to  effect  the  destruction 

of  these  pestilent  productions  was  attempted  ;  and 
it  demonstrates  at  once  the  folly  of  persecution, 
and  the  hold  which  the  doctrine  of  Wycliffe  had 
acquired  on  the  mind  of  his  countrymen,  that  at 
least  three-fourths  of  his  pieces  should  be  still 
extant.  Those  also  which  are  lost,  appear  to  have 
been  chiefly  scholastic  tracts,  of  little  value  when 
compared  with  his  works  which  are  preserved. 
Hence,  when  Henry  the  eighth  meditated  reject- 
ing the  supremacy  of  the  pope,  and  wished  to  be 
informed  respecting  the  doctrine  of  our  reformer 
on  that  subject,  even  the  University  of  Oxford 
could  supply  him  with  ample  information.  It 
was  of  a  kind,  too,  which  proved  highly  grateful 
to  thf   royal  theologian. 


SECTION  I. 

HIS  PRINTED  WORKS. 

1.  Translation  of  the  Neiv  Testament,  printed  first  by  the 
Rev.  John  Lewis,  Minister  of  Margate,  in  the  county  of  Kent, 
in  the  year  1731  ;  and  again  in  the  year  1810,  by  the  Rev. 
Henry  Hervey  Baber,  Assistant  Librarian  of  the  British  Mu- 
seum. The  last  editor  remarks,  that  "  the  text  of  Mr.  Lewis's 
"  edition  was  taken  from  two  manuscripts,  one  of  which  was 
"  his  own,  and  the  other  the  property  of  Sir  Edward  Dering, 
"  Bart.,  of  Surrenden-dering,  in  Kent.  From  the  former,  he 
"  transcribed  for  the  press  the  Four  Gospels ;  from  the  latter, 
*'  the  Epistles,  the  Dedis  of  Apostlis,  and  the  Apocalips.     The 

^  Hist.  Boliem.  apud  Fasciculum,  i.  297.     Fox.  Acts,  &c.     Lewis,  c.  ix. 


THE    WRITINGS    OF    WYCLIFFE.  381 

"  transcript  was  collated  by  the  learned  Dr.  Daniel  Waterland,    CHA.P. 

"  Master   of  Magdalen  College,    Cambridge,    with   ten  inanu-   _ 

"  scripts  deposited   in   different  Libraries  at  Cambridge  ;    and 

"  afterwards    compared    by    Mr.  Lewis,    with    specimens    pur- 

"  posely  selected  of  six  of  the  most  curious  manuscripts  in  the 

"  University   of  Oxford."       Of  that  edition  Mr.  Baber's   is  a 

reprint. 

2.  Tr'ialogoruni  suorum.  This  work  was  printed  in  1525, 
with  the  following  title  :  Jo.  Wiclefi  viri  undiquaque  piissimi, 
dialogorum  libri  quatuor  quorum  primus  divinitatem  et  ideas 
tractat :  secundus  universarum  creationem  complectitur  :  tertius 
de  virtutibus  vitiisque  contrariis  copiosissime  loquitur :  quartus 
Romanae  Ecclesiae  sacramenta,  ejus  pestiferam  dotationem,  An- 
tichristi  regnum,  fratrum  fraudulentam  originem  atque  eorum 
hypocrisim  variaque  nostro  aevo  scitu  dignissima  graphice  per- 
stringit,  quae  ut  essent  inventu  facilia,  singulorum  librorum  turn 
caput,  tum  capitis  summam  indice  pernotavimus.  m.d.xxv.  4to. 
The  volume  is  without  the  name  of  the  printer  or  place.  It  is 
said  to  have  been  printed  by  Oporin  at  Bazil ;  and  on  other 
grounds,  it  has  been  attributed  to  Valentia  Kob.  See  Baber's 
Memoirs  of  Wiclif,  p.  50,  and  chap.  vii.  of  this  volume.  There 
are  copies  of  this  work  in  the  Libraries  of  Trinity  College 
Cambridge,  the  Cathedral  at  York,  and  Lambeth  palace. 
They  are  also  to  be  found,  though  very  rarely,  in  private  col- 
lections. 

The  following  statement  of  the  contents  of  the  several  chap- 
ters of  the  Trialogus,  will  farther  assist  the  reader  in  judging  of 
that  work. 

LIBRI  PRIMI. 

Dens  sit  omnium  renim  prima  caussa.  Deus  est  supra  onuie  genus. 
De  triplici  suppositione.  Quomodo  Deus  est  quicquid  melius  est  esse 
que  non  esse.  De  passionibus  et  proprietatibus  Dei.  Quod  Deus  sit 
trinus.  De  naturali  demonstratione  Trinitatis.  De  idseis.  De  inven- 
tore  idaearum,  et  quae  res  habent  idaeas.  De  intelligentia  Dei.  De  limi- 
tibus  idaearum. 

LIBRI  SECUNDI. 

De  nniversitate  creata.  De  triplici  mensura  aeternitatis.  De  com- 
positione  rerum   et  creatione.     De   materiae  primx  quidditate  et  ejus 


382  THE    WRITINGS    OF    WYCLIFFE. 

CHAP,  pluralitate,    De  animaintellectivaet suis  potentiis.   Deanathomia cerebri 

X.         et  suis  humoribus.     De  sensationibus.     Si  immortalitas  spiritus  latione 

deduci  possit.    De  potentiis  intellectus  hominis.    De  angelis.    De  diverso- 

riim  angelorum  diverse  judicio.     De  angelorum  lapsii,  et  eoriim  poena. 

De  pngna  angelorum.     De  praedestinatione  et  praescientia  Dei,  et  eorum 

causiis.     De  coelo  et  suis  partibus. 

LIBRI  TERTII. 

De  virtutibus.  Quot  virtutes  sunt  in  intellectu  et  voluntate.  De  spe. 
De  peccato.  Quoraodo  peccatuni  veniale  et  niortale  distinguunter. 
Penes  quid  attentatur  peccati  gravitas.  De  gratia.  Omnia  eveuiunt 
necessitate  absoluta.  De  septem  peccatis  mortalibus,  De  snperbia. 
De  humilitatc.  De  invidia.  De  charitate.  De  ira.  De  patientia  et 
mititate.  De  accidia,  qu£e  medium  tenet  inter  septem  peccata  niortalia. 
De  virtute  accidiae  opposita.  De  avaritia.  De  virtute  opposita  avari- 
tiae.  De  gula.  De  virtute  opposita  gulae.  De  luxuria.  De  castitate. 
De  pronitate  ad  peccandum.  De  iucarnatione  et  morte  Christi.  De 
originali  peccato.  De  incarnatione,  quomodo  Deus  potuit  incarnari. 
De  numero  salvandorum.  Quomodo  Christus  cxcedit  ordines  Angelo- 
rum, et  hominum,  Quomodo  nullus  sanctorum  est  laudandus,  nisi  quia 
Cbristem  est  imitatus.  Quomodo  lex  Christi  in  infinitum  excedit  alias 
leges. 

LIBRI  QUARTI. 

De  signis.  De  eucharistia.  Quid  demonstretur  per  ly  hoc.  Quod 
post  consecrationem  manet  panis.  Probantur  jam  dicta  superius  ra- 
tion) bus.  Quomodo  et  qua  caussa  inolevit  haeresis  circa  eucliaristiae 
sacramentum.  Quomodo  panis  est  corpus  Domini,  non  existens  identice 
corpus  ipsum.  De  identificatione  panis  cum  corpore  Christi.  Qd'  cor- 
pus Christi  non  putrefit.  Si  duo  corpora  possunt  esse  in  eodem  loco. 
De  baptismo.  De  triplici  baptismo.  De  ptenis  infantum  sine  peccato 
actuali  decedentium.  De  confirmatione.  De  sacramento  ordinis. 
Hujus  sacramenti  confirniatio.  De  avaritia  cleri.  Smculares  propter 
dotationem  sunt  puniendi.  De  matrimonio.  Quid  sit  matrimonium. 
De  caussa  libelli  repudii.  Cum  quibus  verbis  vel  signis  matrimonium 
celebrari  debet.  De  pcenitentia.  In  quo  signo  possumus  capaie  veram 
contritionem.  De  extrema  unctione.  De  speciebus  ministroruni. 
Quod  fratres  comminiscenter  hajresim  in  ecclesia.  De  mendicatione 
fratrum.  Quod  meudicatio  fratrum  est  infundabilis  in  scriptura.  De 
Uteris  fraternitatum.  Quomodo  fratres  false  vendunt  sua  merita  et  ora- 
tiones.  De  indulgentiis.  Quomodo  ordines  fratrum  sunt  introducti. 
In  quo  fratres  legi  Christi  contrarii.  De  variis  fratum  abusibus.  Quo- 
modo fratres  seducunt  regna  que  incolunt.  De  fratrum  fraude  atque 
malicia.  An  domini  temporales  debent  et  possunt  populares  inuare  et 
defendere  contra  fratres.  De  statu  hominis  quem  consequiter  post  banc 
vitam.  De  ultimo  judicio,  quare,  et  ubi,  et  quando  erit.  De  dotibus 
corporum  beatorum.  De  dotibus  anima>.  De  pcenis  damnatornm,  De 
sensibus  bonorum  interioribus  et  exterioribus. 


THE    V/RITIXGS    OF    WYCLIFFE.  383 

3.  Ostiolum    JVicleJi :  or,  Wickliffes  Wichet.     This  piece  has    CHAP, 
been  several  times  printed.     "  The  first  edition,"  observes  Mr.        ^' 
Baber,   "was   printed  at  Noremberch,  in   1546,  8vo. ;   of  the 

"  second  edition,  I  know  no  more  than  what  the  third  informs 
"  me  in  its  title,  which  is  as  follows  :  '  Wickliffe's  Wicket, 
"  faythfully  ouerseene  and  corrected  after  the  original  and  first 
"  copie.  The  lack  whereof  was  cause  of  innumerable  and 
"  shamfull  erroures  in  the  other  edicion.  As  shall  easily 
"  appear  to  them  that  lyste  to  conferre  the  one  with  the  other. 
"  Ouerseene  by  M.  C  It  is  a  16mo.  without  date,  place,  or 
"  printer's  name  ;  and  the  language  of  it  is  accommodated  to 
"  that  of  the  time  in  which  the  book  was  printed.  The  last 
"  edition  appeared  in  1612,  printed  at  Oxford,  in  8vo.,  and  was 
"  edited  by  the  learned  Henry  Jackson,  of  Corpus  Christi 
"  College,  Oxford.  A  copy  of  the  first  edition  of  this  very 
"  rare  book  is  in  the  Bodleian  Library  ;  of  the  third,  in  Lam- 
"  beth  Palace  Library  ;  and  of  the  last,  in  the  British  Mu- 
"  seum."  For  an  analysis  of  this  treatise,  see  Chap.  iii.  of 
this  volume,  pp.  64 — 68.^ 

4.  Ad  Regem  et  Parliamentum.  A  Latin  copy  of  this  tract  is 
among  the  Cotton  MSS.  in  the  British  Musevim;  a  copy  in 
English  in  preserved  in  Benet  College,  Cambridge  ;  and  another 
in  Trinity  College,  Dublin.  It  was  published  by  Dr.  James, 
and  printed  at  Oxford,  1608,  quarto.  For  an  epitome  of  this 
production,  see  Vol.  II.  Chap.  iv.  pp.  98  — 105. 

5.  Objections  of  Freres.  This  piece  was  published  by  Dr. 
James  in  the  same  volume,  with  the  treatise  last  noticed,  in- 
titled,  "  Against  the  Orders  of  the  Begging  Friars."  The 
volume  is  scarce,  but  may  be  seen  in  the  British  ^Museum,  and 
in  the  Bodleian  Library.  For  an  account  of  this  treatise,  see 
Vol.  I.  Chap,  ii.,  and  Vol.  II.  Chap.  iii.  p.  203. 

6.  Determinatio  de  Dom'm'io.  E.  Codd.  MSS.  Joh.  Seldeni, 
Arch.  B.  10.  This  paper  is  printed  in  Mr.  Lewis's  collection, 
No.  30.     For  the  substance  of  it,  see  Vol.  I.  284—289. 

7.  Ad  qucex'ita  Regis  et  ConciUi.  "  Dubium  est  utrum  reg- 
"  num    Angliae    possit    ligitime     imminente    necessitate     suae 

■•  Tliese  references  are  to  the  present  pulilication. 


384  THE    WRITINGS    OF    WYCLIFFE. 

C  HAP.  "  defencronis  tliesaurum  regni  detinere  ne  deferatur  ad  exterors 

' "  etiam  Domino  Papa  sub  pene  censurarum  et  virtute  obedientiee 

"  hoc  petente."     In  Hyperoo  Bodl.   163.     This  paper  may  be 
seen  in  Fox  i.  584.     See  Vol.  I.  361—365. 

8.  Conclusiones  suce  cum  responsione  sua.  This  document  is 
printed  in  Walsingham,  Hist.  206—208.  Ad  parliamentum 
Regis  is  another  reply  to  the  same  conclusions,  and  is  printed 
from  Lewis's  Life  of  WyclifFe,  in  the  Appendix  to  the  first 
volume  of  this  work.  This  tract  is  noticed  as  WyclifFe's,  by 
Lord  Chief  Justice  Coke,  in  the  fifth  volume  of  his  reports. 
These  papers  are  in  the  Selden  MSS.  (Archi,  B.  10.)  and 
also  a  third,  relating  to  the  same  series  of  articles.  For  the 
substance  of  each,  see  Vol.  I.  Chap.  v. 

9.  Confessio  de  Eucharistid.  This  is  printed  by  Mr.  Lewis, 
No.  21,  and  may  be  seen  in  the  Appendix  to  this  volume, 
No.  VI. 

10.  De  fide  Euchar'istice.  "  Credo  ut  Christus  et  Apostoli 
"  docuerunt."  An  English  copy  of  this  confession  is  in  the 
Appendix  to  this  volume.  No.  VII.  and  the  substance  of  it  is 
inserted  in  Chap.  iv.  114 — 117. 

11.  Excusationes  ad  Urhanum.  "  Guadeo  plane  detegere 
"  cuique  fidem."  An  English  copy  of  this  letter  is  in  the 
Cotton  Library,  and  printed  in  the  Appendix  to  this  volume, 
No.  VIII. 

12.  Pro  egentibus  Presbyteris.  Sunt  causce  quce  urgeant  pau- 
periores,  or,  "  Why  poor  priests  have  no  benefices."  This  tract 
is  in  the  Library  of  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  and  in  C.  C.  C. 
Cambridge.  It  was  first  printed  by  Mr.  Lewis.  See  Vol.  II. 
pp.  164—169. 


THE     WIUTIXGS    OF    WYCLrFFE. 


SECTION  11. 

Including  the  Wycliffe  manuscripts  eoctant  in  England  and  Ireland.  This 
series  contains  nearly  forty  MSS.  preserved  in  the  library  of  Trinity  College, 
Dublin,  the  existence  of  which  has  been  hitherto  unknown  to  the  Reformer's 
'Iters. 


385 


1.  Dc ultima  AL,tate  Ecclesice.  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  Class  C.  CHAP. 
Tab.  No.  12.     See  Vol.  I.  pp.  253-260.  ^- 

2.  Expositio  Decalogi.  This  exposition  is  in  the  British 
Museum  Cott.  MSS.  Titus  D.  xix.  For  an  analysis  of  this 
work,  see  Vol.  I.  320 — 329.  In  the  Bodleian  is  a  more  ex- 
tended Exposition  of  the  Decalogue  in  Latin.  It  was  minutely 
consulted  by  Dr.  James,  in  composing  his  Apology  for  John 
Wicliffe. 

3.  The  Pore  Caitif,  sometimes  called  Pauper  Rusticus ; 
sometimes  Confesslo  derelicti  Paujjeris,  consists  of  a  series  of 
tracts  in  English,  designed  for  the  instruction  of  the  poorer 
classes  of  the  people  in  the  elements  of  the  christian  religion. 
It  is  described  by  its  author  as  "  sufficient  to  teach  simple 
"  men  and  women,  of  good  will,  the  right  way  to  heaven."  The 
comments  on  the  Apostles'  creed,  Viwdiihe pater-nosler,  are  followed 
by  pieces  with  the  following  titles.  Srveet  sentences,  exciting 
men  and  women  to  heavenly  desire.  Virtuous  patience.  Of 
temptation.  The  charter  of  heaven.  Of  ghostly  battle.  The 
name  Jesus.  The  love  of  Jesu.  The  desire  of  Jesu.  Of  very 
meekness.  The  effect  of  mans  will.  Active  and  contemj)lative 
life.  The  mirror  of  maidens.  At  the  conclusion  of  the  last 
piece  in  this  collection  are  the  words,  "  Here  endeth  this  book, 
that  is  clepid  the  Pore  Caitif."  Copies  of  this  work  are  in 
the  British  Museum,  Lambeth  Library,  and  Trinity  College 
Dublin. 

4.  De  Veritate  Scripturce.  Bibl.  Bodl.  Archi.  A.  3021.  32. 
Trin.  Coll.  Dub.  Class.  C.  Tab.  1.  No.  24.  See  this  volume, 
pp.  7,  8. 

5.  De  Hypocritarum  Imposturis.  This  tract  is  in  English, 
beginning—"  Crist    connnandith    to   his    disciplis,    and    to  alle 

VOL.    II.  C   C 


386  THE    V>'RITINGS    OF     WYCLIFFE. 

CHAP.  "  Christen  men  to  understonde  and  flee  the  sour  dow  of  Pha- 
'        "  risees  which   is  ypocrisy."     C.C.C.  Cambridge.    Trin.   Coll. 
Dub.     See  Vol.  II.  pp.  199—202.     The  following  pieces  also, 
to  No.  1  9,  are  in  the  same  collections. 

G.  De  Ohed'ientia  Prcelatoriim.  It  begins,  "  Prelates  slan- 
"  dren  poor  priests  and  other  Cristen  men,  that  they  will 
"  not  obesthe  to  their  Sovereigns,"  &c.  &c.  See  Vol.  II. 
pp.  182  —  184. 

7.  De  Clericis  Possessionariis,  which  begins,  "  Clerkes  Pos- 
"  sessioners  fordon  priesthood,  knighthood,  and  commoners." 
See  Vol.  II.  pp.  192,  193. 

8.  Impedimenta  Evangelhant'nim.  This  is  the  same  with  the 
piece  described  as,  "  Of  Feigned  Contemplatif  Life,"  which  thus 
begins — "  First,  when  true  men  teach  by  God's  law,  wit,  and 
"  reason,  that  eche  Priest  oweth  to  do  his  wit,  and  his  will,  to 
"  preche  Christ's  gospel,"  &c.  &c.     See  Vol.  II.  pp.  32G— 328. 

9.  Pro  amplexando  Evangelio.  The  English  title  of  this 
piece  is,  "  How  religious  Men  should  kepe  certain  Articles  ;" 
beginning  thus — "  Christen  men,  preyen  meekly  and  devoutly 
"  to  Almighty  God,  that  he  grant  his  grace  for  his  endless 
"  mercy  to  our  religious,  both  possessioners  and  mendicants," 
&c.  &c.  The  articles  are  numerous,  but  the  notices  connected 
with  them  are  very  brief. 

10.  How  Satanas  and  his  Priests,  and  his  feyncd  Religions, 
casten  hij  three  cursed  Heresies  to  destroy  all  good  living  and 
meyntening  all  manner  of  sin.  It  begins  thus — "  As  Almighty 
"  God  in  Trinity  ordeineth  men  to  come  to  the  bliss  of  heaven 
"  by  three  grounds,"  &c.  &c.     See  Vol.  II.  pp.  184—186. 

11.  De  Nequitiis  ejusdcm.  This  piece,  in  English,  has  a  title 
beginning  with  the  words — "  How  Antichrist  and  his  Clerks 
"  travellen  to  destroy  holy  Writ,  and  to  make  Cristen  Men 
"  unstable  in  the  faith,"  &c.  &c.     See  Vol.  II.  pp.  205  —  209. 

12.  Super  Testamento  Francisci.  Wycliffe's  remarks  on  this 
Testament  begin  thus — "  But  here  the  Menours  sayn  that  the 
"  pope  dischargeth  them  of  this  testament."  The  comment  is 
preceded  by  a  translation  of  the  rule  of  St.  Francis,  as  given  by 
Matthew  Paris. 

13.  For  Three  Shills  Lords  shulden  constrain   Clerks  to  live  in 


THE     WRITINGS    OF     WYCLIFFE.  38/ 

vicehness,    wilfull  poverty,    and  discreet    penance    and   ghostly  CHAP 
trave/le.     It  begins  thus — "  Open    teaching  of  God's  law,  okl        " 
"  and   new,    open   ensample   of  Christ's   life,   and  his  glorious 
"  Apostles,"  8cc.  &c.     See  Vol.  II.  p.  186. 

14.  De  Prelatis,  et  corum  Officio.  This  is  the  piece  so  fre- 
quently cited  as  "  Of  Prelates  ;"  beginning  thus — "Here  it 
"  telleth  of  Prelates,  that  Prelates  leaven  preching  of  the  Gos- 
"  pel,  and  ben  gostly  manquellers  of  men's  souls."  See  Vol.  II. 
pp.  204,  205. 

15.  Speculum  de  Antichristo.  The  English  copy  of  this  tract 
professes  to  describe  "  How  Antichrist  and  his  Clerks  fercn 
"  true  Priests  fro  preching  of  Christ's  Gospel  by  four  Deceits." 
It  commences  thus — "  First,  they  seyn  that  preching  of  the 
"  Gospel  maketh  dissension  and  enmity."  See  Vol.  II.  pp.  18S 
—190. 

IG.  De  Clericorum  Ordinatione.  The  copy  of  this  preserved, 
is  also  in  English,  intitled,  "  Of  the  Order  of  Priesthood  ;"  be- 
ginning— "  For  the  order  of  priesthood  is  ordained  of  God, 
"  both  in  the  old  law,  and  in  the  new."  See  Vol.  II.  pp.  204, 
205. 

17.  De  Dominis  et  Servis.  Servi  jirirnmn  juste  ac  Uhenter,  or, 
"  Of  Servants  and  Lords,  how  eche  shull  kepe  his  Degree  ;"  be- 
ginning— "  First,  servants  shvdlen  truly  and  gladly  serve  to 
"  their  lords  or  masters."     See  Vol.  II.  pp.  186,  187. 

18.  How  Prayer  of  good  Men  helpeth  much,  and  Prayer  of 
sinfull  Men  displeaseth  God,  and  harmeth  themselves  and  other 
Men  ;  beginning — "  Our  Lord  Jesu  Christ  techeth  us  to  pray 
"  evermore  for  all  nedefull  things  both  to  body  and  soul."  -See 
Vol.  II.  pp.  190—192. 

19.  De  Ej)iscoporum  Erroribus  ;  beginning  —  "  There  bin  eight 
"  things  by  which  simple  Christen  men  ben  deceyed."  Also, 
"  De  XXXIII  erroribus  Citratorum ;"  beginning — "  For  the  office 
"  of  curates  is  ordained  of  God."  Of  these  pieces  the  reader 
may  form  his  judgment  from  that  Of  Prelates,  and  that  for  the 
Order  of  Priesthood.     See  Vol.  II.  pp.  204,  205. 

20.  Ho7v  Safanas  and  his  Children  turncn  works  of  mercy  upon 
Sodom,  and  deceyven  men  therein ;  beginning — "  First,  Christ 
"  commandeth   men  of  power   to  feed  hungry  poor  men  ;   the 

(•  c  2 


388  THE    WlUTINCiS     OF    WYCLIFFE. 

CHAP    "  fend  and  his  techen  to  make  costly  feasts,  and  waste  many 
^^ "  goods  on  lords,"  C.  C.  C.  Cambridge. 

21.  A  short  Rule  of  Life  for  eche  Man,  in  general,  and  for 
Priests,  and  Lords,  and  Labourers  in  special ;  beginning — "  First, 
"  when  thou  risest,  or  fully  wakest,  think  on  the  goodness  of 
"  thy  God,  how  for  his  own  goodness,  and  none  other  nede,  he 
"  made  all  things  of  nought,"  C.C.C.  Cambridge.  This  piece 
is  followed  by  a  brief  comment  on  The  Jve  Maria. 

22.  Of  Wedded  Men  and  Wives ;  beginning — "  Our  Lord 
"  God  Almighty  speaketh  in  his  law  of  tweie  matrimonies 
"  or  wedlocks,"  &c.  &c.  C.  C.  C.  Cambridge.  See  Vol.  I. 
p.  235. 

23.  Of  good  preching  Priests  ;  beginning  —  "  The  first 
"  o-eneral  point  of  poor  priests  that  prechen  in  England,  is 
"  this,"  &c.  &c.   C.C.C.  Cambridge.     See  Vol.  II.  pp.  187,  188. 

24.  The  great  Sentence  of  the  Curse  Expounded  ;  beginning — 
"  First,  all  heretics  against  the  faith  of  holy  writ,  ben  cursed 
"  solemnly,  four  times  in  the  year."  C,  C.  C.  Cambridge.  See 
Vol.  II.  pp.  203,  204. 

25.  De  Blasphemia  contra  Fratres  ;  beginning — "  It  is  seide 
"  that  three  things  stourblin  this  realme,  and  specially  heresie." 
Bibl.  Bodl.  Archio.  A.  83. 

26.  De  Dominio  Divino,  is  a  tract  of  four  pages  ;  beginning — 
"  Sith  false  glossiris  maken  Goddis  law  derk,  and  letten  secular 
"  men  to  susteyne,  and  kepe  it,  of  sich  false  glossis  schulde 
"  each  man  bewar." 

27.  Super  Oratione  Dominica  ;  beginning — "  When  we  seyn 
"  Our  Fader  that  art  in  heaven,  we  ben  taught." 

28.  Ad  ducem  Glocestrice  contra  Fratcrculum  ;  beginning — 
"  Most  worshipful  and  gentlest  Lord  Duke  of  Gloucester." 
Trin.  Coll.  Dub.     See  Vol.  II.  p.  129. 

29.  De  Sathance  astu  contra  Fidcm  ;  beginning  —  "  The  fend 
"  seeketh  many  ways  to  mar  men  in  belief."  This  tract  ex- 
tends to  two  pages  only. 

30.  Sermones  in  Epistolas,  and  Sermones  in  Evangelia,  are  the 
titles  of  his  homilies,  or  parochial  discourses.  Copies  of  these, 
more  or  less  perfect,  and  some  of  them  beautifully  written,  are 
in   the   manuscript   collections   of  the   British   Museum,   Cam- 


THE    WRITINGS    OF    M'YCLIFFE.  389 

bridge,    Trinity   College,  Dublin,  and  elsewhere.      See  Vol.  II.  CHAP. 
Chap.  i.  • 

31.  Transtul'it  in  AngUcum  sermonem  BihVia  tota,  &c.  Of  this 
memorable  work,  several  copies  are  extant ;  as  in  the  British 
Museum  and  Lambeth  Palace.  The  costs  of  transcribing 
obliged  our  ancestors  to  secure  parts  of  the  sacred  volume  ; 
sometimes  including  the  four  gospels,  sometimes  the  epistles 
of  St.  Paul,  and  not  unfrequently,  still  smaller  portions.  Dr. 
Whitaker  states,  (Hist,  of  Richmondshire,  Art.  WyclifFe,)  that 
the  copy  of  Wycliffe's  Bible,  in  Lambeth  Palace,  is  beautifully 
illuminated  ;  and  suggests  that  the  portrait  of  Sir  Antonio 
More  was  probably  obtained  from  such  a  source.  But  there 
is  not,  nor  has  there  ever  been,  a  manuscript  at  all  of  that 
description  in  the  Lambeth  Library.  See  Appendix,  No.  I.  and 
Vol.  II.  Chap.  ii. 

32.  Translatio  dementis  Lanthonicnsis.  "  In  the  Earl  of 
"  Oxford's  Library,"  observes  Mr.  Lewis,  "  is  a  MS.  entitled, 
"  John  Wiclif's  Translation  of  Clement  Lanthon's  Harmony  of 
"  the  Gospels,  which  begins  thus — '  Clement,  a  Preest  of  the 
"  Chirche  of  Lanthonth,' "  in  12  parts.  Lanthon  was  an  Austin 
Friar,  who  flourished  in  1154.  Leland  de  Scrip.  Brit.  226. 
There  is  a  copy  of  this  work  in  the  British  Museum,  Harl. 
MSS.  1862. 

33.  De  Stipendiis  Ministronnn.  This  tract  is  extant  in  Eng- 
lish, intitled,  "  How  men  shulden  find  Priests,"  and  beginning  — 
"  Think  wisely,  ye  men  that  finden  priestes,  that  ye  don  this 
"  alms  for  God's  love,  and  help  of  your  soules,  and  help  of 
"  Christen  men."  C.  C.  C.  Cambridge. 

34.  De  Ecclesics  Dominio ;  in  English,  "  Of  the  Chirche  of 
"  Christ,  and  of  hir  Membris,  and  of  hir  Governaunce  ;"  be- 
ginning thus — "  Christis  Chirche  is  his  spouse,  that  hath  three 
"  parts,"  &c.  &c.  Bib.  Reg.  18,  13,  ix.  It  is  also  in  Trin.  Coll. 
Dub.     It  is  frequently  cited  in  the  preceding  chapters. 

35.  In  Apocalypsin  Joannis.  The  exposition  is  introduced  by 
a  prologue,  and  the  former  begins  with  the  words  — "  The  im- 
"  doyng  of  Seynt  Joon  bitokeneth  Prelatis  of  hooli  Chirche, 
"  that  understondith  the  vois  of  the  Gospels."  Bib.  Reg.  E. 
1732,  p.  67. 


390  THE    WRITINGS    OF    M^YCLIFFE. 

CHAP.        36.  De  Vita  Sacerdotum.     "  This  peril  of  Freris  is  the  last  of 
'        "  eight   that   falles   to  men    in    this  wny."     Bibl.  Bocll.   Archi. 
A.  S072.     See  Vol.  II.  253. 

37.  Speculum  secularium  Dommorum.  Bibl.  Bodl.  Archim. 
A.  3849,  Bibl.  Reg. 

38.  De  Incarnattone  Vcrhi.  Bibl.  Reg.  E.  270  fol.  This 
piece  is  in  Latin ;  beginning,  "  Prselibato  tractatu  De  Anima," 
&c.  &c. 

39.  De  Ecclcsia  CathoUca,  sometimes  called,  De  fde  CathoUca, 
is  a  manuscript  preserved  in  the  Bodleian,  and  a  copy  taken 
from  it,  by  Dr.  James,  is  in  the  Lambeth  Library. 

40.  De  Modo  Orand'i.  On  the  twelve  lettyngis  of  prayer. 
Cott.  MSS.  Titus,  D.  xix.     Bibl.  Bodl. 

41.  Epistola  ad  shnpUces  Sacerdotes.  This  piece  does  not 
reach  beyond  a  page,  and  may  be  seen  in  the  British  Museum. 
Bibl.  Reg.  17,  B.xvii. 

42.  De  Virtidihus  et  J'itus.  This  treats  of  religious  and  moral 
obligations  after  the  fashion  of  that  age.  Cott.  MSS.  Titus, 
D.  xix.  A  production  of  the  same  kind,  but  somewhat  different 
from  the  former,  may  be  seen,  Bibl.  Reg.  7,  A,  xxvi.  Like 
the  Pore  Caitif,  it  was  evidently  designed  to  present  an  epitome 
of  religious  instruction  to  the  poorer  classes. 

43.  De  Sermone  Domini  in  Monte,  and  Octo  Beatitudines,  are 
different  names  of  the  same  discourse.  From  the  Reformer's 
exposition  of  the  Saviour's  Sermon  on  the  Mount,  seventy-four 
erroneous  opinions  were  extracted.  There  is  a  sermon  under 
this  name  in  the  British  Museum,  Cott.  MSS.  Titus,  D.  xix. 
But  it  must  have  been  his  more  extended  exposition  of  tliat 
chapter  which  supplied  his  enemies  with  such  materiel  for 
accusation.   MS.  Twini.  A.  216,     See  No.  13,  p.  391. 

44.  De  Papa  Remand,  or  iSchisma  Papce.  Mr.  Baber  states 
that  this  tract  is  in  the  Bodleian,  but  it  has  eluded  my  search. 
There  is  a  copy  in  Trin.  Coll.  Dub.     See  Vol.  II.  3—6. 

45.  De  Qucstionibzis  variis  contra  Clcrnm.  Lambeth  Library, 
Cot.  MSS.  151. 

46.  In  the  library  of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  is  a  large 
manuscript  volume,  including  the  following  pieces,  several  of 
which  are  known  to  be  those  of  Wycliffe,  as  the  lOtli  and  Ilth, 


THE    WRITINGS    OF    V/YCLIFFE.  391 

which  are  noticed  by  Huss ;   (Lewis,  c.  ix.  179,  Baber,)  and  of  CHAP. 
the  rest,  I  find  several  attributed  to   the  Reformer  in  the  hand-        "  ' 
writing  of  the  transcriber.     MS.  326.  8.  C.  5.  8. 

1.  De  cute  comrmmi.  In  primis  supponitur  ens  esse, 
pp.  1—5. 

2.  De  cnte  inimo.  Extenso  ente  secundum  ejus  maximam 
ampliationem,  pp.  5  — 9. 

3.  De  jjurgando  errores,  et  veritate  in  communi.  Consequens 
est  purgare  errores,  pp.  9—15. 

4.  De  purgando  errores,  et  un'iversaUhus  in  comimtni.  Trac- 
tatu  continentur  dicta  de  universalibus,  pp.  15—23. 

5.  De  universalibus.  Tractatus  de  universalibus  continet 
16  capitula  cujus  primum,  pp.  23 — 37. 

6.  De  tempore.  In  tractando  de  tempore  sunt,  &c.  &-c. 
pp.  37 — 47. 

7.  Dc  intcUectione  Dei.  Illorum  quae  in  sunt  Deo,  &'c.  &-c. 
pp.  47-53. 

8.  De  seienlia  Dei.  Ex  dictis  superius  satis  liquet,  &-c.  &c. 
pp.  5S — 70. 

9.  De  voUtione  Dei.  Tractando  de  volitione  Dei,  &c.  &:c. 
pp.  70—91. 

10.  De  personarum  distinctione .  Superest  investigare  de  dis- 
tinctione,  &c.  &c.  pp.  91  — 115. 

11.  De  ideis.  Tractando  de  ydeis  primo  oportet,  &c.  &c. 
pp.  115—122. 

12.  De  p)otentia  p)i'oductiva  Dei.  Veritatum  quas  Deus  non 
potest  renovare,  &c.  &c.  pp.  122 — 134. 

13.  De  sermone  Domini.  Licet  totum  Evangelium,  pp. 
134—141. 

47.  In  a  volume  preserved  in  the  library  of  Trinity  College, 
Dublin,  is  a  series  of  treatises  described  as  follows :  Class  C. 
Tab.  1.  No.  23. 

1.  Tractatus  Evangelii  de  Sermone  Domini  in  Monte,  cinn 
Expositorio  Orationis  Dominica.     Dividetur  in  tres  Libros. 

2.  Tractatus  de  Antichristo,  cum  Expositorio  in  xxiii.  xxiv. 
XXV.  cap.  Matthaei. 


392  THE    WRITINGS    OF    M^YCLIFFE. 

CHAP.       3.    Tractatus  in  Sermonem  Domini,  quern  facerat   valedicendo 
\ Discipulis  suis. 

4.  Tractatus  de  Statu  Innocentice . 

5.  Tractatus  de  sempore  in  13  capitulis. 

C.  Expositio  quorundum  locorum  Scripturce,  Tit.  ii.  cap. 
Heb.  i.  cap.  et  Isaiae  xxv.  cap.  There  is  also  an  Exposition  of 
1  Thessalonians  iv.  and  of  John  xi.  But  these  are  merely  parts 
of  his  homilies.  The  volume  extends  to  400  pages  ;  and  what 
is  peculiar  to  this  collection  of  Wycliffe's  MSS.  it  has  a  copious 
index. 

1.  Trin.  Coll.  Dub.  Class  C.  Tab.  1.  No.  24.     De  Simonia. 

2.  De  Apostasic.  The  first  piece  extends  about  forty  small 
folio  pages  ;  the  second  to  about  half  that  number  ;  the  last 
consists  of  about  eight  pages. 

3.  De  Blasj)hemia.  Another  volume  in  the  same  library 
contains  a  MS.  entitled,  "  Of  apostacy,  and  the  possessions  of 
"  clerks.''  This  volume  farther  contains  the  following  tracts. 
Of  pseudo  friars.       Of  the  eight    7voes    which    God    wished    to 

friars.  Of  Antichrist  and  his  naijs.  Of  AntichrisCs  song  in 
the  church.  A  treatise  of  pratjer.  A  treatise  on  confession.  A 
tract  of  Christian  obedience;  beginning — "  Christ  forsooth  did 
"  all  that  he  could  to  obey  to  lords."  In  the  volume,  there 
are  several  separate  homilies,  meditations  on  various  subjects, 
and  a  short  treatise,  beginning — "  How  are  questions  and 
"  answers  put  that  are  written  hereafter."  The  collection  forms 
a  duodecimo  volume  of  about  400  pages,  written  with  a  very 
small,  but  legible  character.     Class  C.  Tab.  5.  No.  6. 

48.  On  the  Seven  Deadly  Sins.  Bibl.  Bodl.  See  Vol.  II. 
pp.  20D— 213. 


THE    WRITINGS    OF    WYCLIFFE.  393 


SECTION  III. 

The  following  pieces  are  in  the  Imperial  Library  of  Vienna;    the  catalogue  of 
ivhich  may  be  seen  in  the  British  Museum. 

De  minor/bus  frotribus  se  extoUentlbus.  De  sect'is  ™o?m- (-,  j^  ^  p_ 
chorum.  De  quatuor  scctis  novellis.  De  fundatione  sectarum.  ^• 
De  sectarum  perjidld.  Dc  solutione  Sathance.  De  Dcemon'w 
meridiano.  Resjionsiones  ad  xiv  argumenta  Radidphi  Strodi. 
Litem  jjarva  ad  quendam  socium.  Speculum  miUtantis  ecclesics. 
De  oratione  et  ecclesice  jjurgat'wne.  De  gradihus  cleri.  De 
graduationibus.  De  duobus  generibus  hereticonim.  De  quatuor 
interpretationibus.  Super  imposit'is  articuUs.  Socii  argumentum 
contra  veritatem.  De  citationibus  frivoUs  et  aliis  versutiis  Anti- 
christ i.  De  juramento  Arnoldt  (de  Grannario)  collectoris 
Papce.  De  sex  jugis.  De  exhortatione  novi  doctoris.^  De 
ordine  Christiana.  De  vaticinatione.  Dialogus  inter  veritatem 
et  mendacium.  Epistola,  de  peccato  in  Spiritum  Sanctum. 
Litera  parva  ad  quendam  Socium.  Litera  ad  Episcopium  Lin- 
coln, de  amore,  sive  de  quintuplici  qucestione.  Epistola  ad 
Archiepiscopum  Cantuar.  De  eucharistid  et  ^;en7Ve«<iff.  De 
octo    qucestionibus    propositis    discipulo.       De    triplici    vinculo 


SECTION  IV. 

The  following  are  the  titles  of  pieces  which  are  known  only  by  these  names. 
Many  were  on  the  questions  of  science,  and  others  were  probably  different 
designations  of  the  same  tracts. 

Qucesiiones  logicales.  Logica  de  singulis.  Logica  de  aggre- 
gatis.  De  propositionibus  tcmporalibus.  De  insolubilibus.  De 
exclusivis  et  exceptivis.     De  causalibus.     De  comparativis.     Dc 

^  A  Treatise  upon  Relative  Duties.  exercise  performed  previous  to  obtaiii- 

*  Tliis  is  supposed  to  have  been  the       ing  his  degree  of  doctor  in  divinity. 


394  THE    WRITINGS    OF    \VYCLIFFE. 

CHAP,  conditionalibus.  De  disjunctivis.  Grammaticce  tropi.  Meta- 
'  phi/sica  vulgaris.  Metaplnjsica  novella.  De  summd  intellec- 
tualium.  De  formis  idealibus.  De  sp'iritu  quoUbet.  De 
speciebus  hjpotheticis.  De  esse  intelUgibili  creaturce.  De  esse 
in  suo  prolixo.  De  una  communis  generis  assentia.  De  essentia 
accidentium.  De  temporis  ampliatione.  De  physica  naturali. 
De  intentione  physica.  De  materia  et  forma.  De  materia 
ccelestium.  De  raritate  et  densitate.  De  motu  locali.  De 
velocitate  motus  localis.  Dialogus  de  fratribus.  Johannes  a 
rure  contra  fratres.  De  charitate  fraternd.  Dcemonum  cestus 
in  subvertendd  religione.  De  Diabolo  millenario.  De  perversa 
Antichristi  dogmafe.  Defensio  contra  impios.  Responsiones  ad 
argumenta  monachi  de  Salley.  De  unitate  Christi.  De  unico 
salutis  Agno.  Christus  alius  non  expectandus.  De  humanitate 
Christi.  De  d^fectione  a  Christo.  De  Jide  et  perjidid.  De 
fide  sacramentorum.  De  fide  EvangeUi.  Constitutiones  ec- 
clesice.  De  censuris  ecclesice.  De  sacerdotio  Levitico.  De 
sacerdotio  Christi.  De  statuendis  jiastoribus  ad  plebcm.  De 
ordine  sacerdotali.  De  non  saginandis  sacerdotibus.  De  viini- 
strorum  conjugio.  Cogendi  sacerdotes  ad  honestatem.  De 
ritibus  sacramentorum.  De  quidditate  hostice  consecratce.  Dc 
quintiiplici  Evangelio.  De  Trinitate.  De  excommunicatis 
absohendis.  Distinctiones  rerum  Theologicarum.  Dc  fonte 
errorum.  De  falsatoribus  Icgis  divince.  De  immortalitate 
animce.  Ceremoniarum  chronicon.  Dc  dilectione.  Concor- 
dantice  doctorum.  De  contrarictate  duorum  dominorum.  Dc 
lege  divind.  De  necessitate  futurorum.  De  operibus  spiri- 
tualibus.  De  operibus  corporaUbus.  De  ordinarid  laicorum. 
De  purgatorio  jiiorum.  Positiones  varice.  RepUcationes  et 
jwsitiones.  De  2J^'^scito  ad  beatitudinem.  De  quaternario  doc- 
torum. De  religiosis  privatis.  De  studio  lectionis.  De  scrvitute 
civili.  Thcologice  placita.  De  virtute  orandi.  De  canipo- 
sitione  hominis.  De  homine  misero.  Scholia  scripturarum. 
Glossce  scripturarum.  Glossce  vulgares.  Glosscv  manualcs. 
Glossce  novella.     Lectiones  in  Danielem. 


THE    WRITINGS    OF    WYCLIFFE.  395 


SECTION  V. 

The  following  works,  tvith  the  exception  of  the  last,  have  been  improperli/  attri- 
buted to  Wijcliffe. 

De  Tribus  Sagitt'/s.     Speculum  Peccatoris.      The  Confession  of  qw  ^^^ 
St.  Brandoun.      Ghostly  and  Fleshly  Love.     The  two  former  of 
these  are  attributed  on  better  evidence  to  the  Hermit  Hampole. 

Commentarii  in  Psaltermm,  et  Cantica  Sacra.  This  also  is 
evidently  the  production  of  Hampole,  (Baber,  54'.)  The  writer 
of  a  manuscript  note  to  a  copy  of  this  work  in  the  library  of 
Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  states,  that  this  commentary  be- 
came popular  with  the  disciples  of  Wycliffe,  and  tliat  the  later 
transcripts  of  it  were  accordingly  greatly  interpolated  with  the 
doctrine  of  the  Lollards.  The  correctness  of  this  statement  is 
hardly  questionable,  and  it  will  sufficiently  account  for  the 
circumstance  of  tlie  entire  work  being  ascribed  to  our  reformer. 
There  is  a  copy  in  the  British  Museum. 

Elucidar'mm  BihUorum.  Sometimes  described  as  Prologus 
ad  integrani  BihUorum  Versionem,  is  the  work  of  which  the 
reader  will  find  an  account  in  the  second  chapter  of  this 
volume.  The  MS.  is  in  the  British  Museum,  Harl.  MSS.  16G6. 
It  has  been  twice  printed  ;  first  at  the  press  of  John  Gowghe, 
in  1536,  subsequently  by  Robert  Crowley,  in  1550.  The  title 
of  the  first  edition  is.  The  Dore  of  Holy  Scriptures.  In  the 
second,  it  is  thus  described.  The  j^athway  to  perfect  knowledge, 
the  true  copye  of  a  prologue,  wrytten  about  two  hundred  yeares 
paste  by  John  Wycliffe,  (as  maye  justly  be  gathered  bi  that, 
that  John  Bale  hath  wrytten  of  him  in  his  Boke,  intitled  the 
summarie  of  the  famouse  writers  of  the  Isle  of  Great  Britaine,) 
the  original  whereof  is  found  wrytten  in  an  old  English  Bible, 
betwixt  the  Olde  Testament  and  the  Newe.  Which  Bible  re- 
maineth  now  in  the  Kyng  his  majesties  chamber.  That  this 
work  was  not  the  production  of  Wycliffe,  but  of  some  zealous 
disciple  after  his  death,  is  placed  beyond  doubt  by  its  contents. 
See  Baber,  pp.  5^2,  53,  and  Lewis,  c.  ix.,  and  Chap.  ii.  of  this 
volume. 


396  THE    AVRITiyCS     01"    WYCLIFFE. 

CHAP.  Eccles'ice  Regimen  is  a  work  consisting  of  a  series  of  articles, 
'  expressive  in  almost  every  sentence  of  the  doctrine  of  WyclifFe. 
In  the  copy  of  these  articles  in  the  British  Museum,  there 
appears  to  be  a  reference  to  Gerson,  the  celebrated  Parisian 
divine,  which,  if  so  intended,  must  prove  that  copy  of  the  work 
to  be  of  a  date  subsequent  to  the  time  of  WyclifFe.  The  piece, 
however,  is  evidently  a  compilation  from  the  writings  of  our 
reformer,  whether  made  by  himself  or  a  disciple,  as  it  not  only 
contains  a  summary  of  his  doctrine,  but  much  of  his  language. 


NOTES. 


Note  A. 

We  have  seen  that  Richard's  first  parliament  was  composed 
of  discordant  elements.'  The  system  of  taxation,  also,  had  long 
been  so  unusually  burdensome,  if  not  oppressive,  as  to  call  forth 
the  loud  and  the  almost  unceasing  murmurs  of  the  people.  It 
was  not  without  reason,  therefore,  that  the  bishop  of  Rochester 
discoursed  to  the  parties  assembled  at  the  coronation,  on  the 
importance  of  dismissing  petty  feuds,  of  encouraging  private 
virtue,  and  of  avoiding  all  needless  exaction  from  the  people.* 
In  the  parliament  of  the  following  year,  it  was  stated  by  the 
chancellor  that  Cherbourgh,  Brest,  Calais,  Bourdeaux,  and 
Bayonne,  still  acknowledged  the  sovereignty  of  England  ;  that 
these  formed  most  important  entrances  into  France  ;  and  that  a 
moderate  expenditure  would  be  sufficient  to  retain  them.  But 
the  commons,  whether  suspecting  the  sincerity  of  this  plea,  or 
really  wise  enough  to  wish  the  abandonment  of  the  meditated 
conquest  of  the  rival  country,  expressed  themselves  opposed  to 
any  grants  of  the  public  money  to  be  expended  on  garrisons 
beyond  the  limits  of  the  kingdom.  In  reply  to  this,  it  was 
urged  that  the  towns  adverted  to  were  "  the  barbicans  of  Eng- 
"  land,"  and  the  lower  house  being  compelled  to  relinquish  the 

'  Vol.  I.   Chni).  iv.   Hot.  Pail.iii.  3-7.  2  Wals.  19G. 


398  NOTES. 

above,  and  some  other  pretexts,  a  subsidy,  though  on  a  reduced 
scale,  was  reluctantly  voted.'  The  interval,  however,  to  the 
meeting  of  tlie  parliament  in  1379,  only  witnessed  the  increasing 
difficulties  of  the  government  ;  the  crown  jewels  had  been 
pledged  to  meet  the  existing  demands ;  and  the  commons 
again  uttered  the  language  of  surprise  and  displeasure— nor  did 
they  yield  their  assent  to  the  new  subsidy  proposed  until  nine 
persons  had  been  appointed  to  ascertain  the  real  cause  of  these 
alarming  exigencies.  Still  disaster  or  extravagance  attended 
the  ministers  of  the  sovereign,  and  to  a  repetition  of  the  recent 
claims  on  the  property  of  the  community  it  was  replied,  that 
had  the  king  been  well  advised  in  his  measures  and  expences, 
the  impoverished  commons  would  not  have  been  exposed  to 
this  series  of  unreasonable  demands.  It  was  in  consequence 
required,  and  as  the  condition  of  the  grant  to  be  made,  that  as 
the  king  was  now  "  of  good  discretion,"  the  council  of  twelve 
which  had  been  appointed  by  his  first  parliament  should  be 
removed  ;  that  commissioners  should  be  immediately  chosen  to 
investigate  the  expences  of  the  royal  household  ;  and  that  such 
faults  as  might  be  discovered  should  be  stated  to  the  king,  and 
corrected.  A  few  months  only  intervened  between  the  disso- 
lution of  this  parliament  and  the  convening  of  another.  The 
king  was  now  declared  to  be  "  enormously  in  debt,"  and  the 
commons  in  accepting  the  offer  of  the  crown  to  examine  the 
public  accounts,*  found  the  exchequer  involved  to  the  extent 
of  a  hundred  and  sixty  thousand  pounds.  This  was  pronounced 
to  be  "  most  outrageous  and  insupportable."*  The  debate, 
however,  which  ensued,  ended  in  the  adoption  of  a  pole  tax, — 
a  mode  of  contribution  which  fell  upon  each  person,  and  upon 
each  according  to  his  rank.'  But  even  this  grant,  probably 
from  the  ignorance  of  statistics  common  to  the  period,  failed  to 


3  Rot.  Pari.  iii.  5G,  57.  classes.     A  duke,  61.  Us.  id. ;   an  eail 

■*  This    offer  was   a  noveltj'  in    our  or  a  countess,  4/.  ;   a  baron,  banneret, 

parliamentary  history,  and  shows   the  baroness,  or  knight,  21.  ;    a  bachelor, 

extreme  necessities  of  the  court.  an  esquire,  and  the  widows  of  such,  1/. ; 

5  Rot.  Pari.  iii.  71— 90.  a  Serjeant,   21.;    a  judge,   5/.      Rut. 

8    The   following    was   the    rate    of  Pari.  iii.  57. 
contribution    imposed    on    the    higher 


xoTEs.  399 

meet  a  moiety  of  the  expence  which  had  been  incurred  within 
six  months  by  the  expedition  to  Brittany  alone.  The  tax  was 
accordingly  renewed,  and  upon  an  increased  ratio ;  but  whether 
from  timidity  or  negligence  on  the  part  of  the  collectors,  or 
from  bad  management  in  the  court,  this  imposition  failed  to 
realize  the  amount  of  the  former/  A  desperate  measure  was 
now  resorted  to,  and  the  guilt  of  the  insurrection  which  fol- 
lowed must  be  attributed,  mainly,  if  not  entirely,  to  its 
abettors. 

Four  persons  proffered  their  services  to  ascertain  the  correct- 
ness of  the  payments  made  by  Kent,  Norfolk,  and  their  neigh- 
bourhood. This  offer  was  accepted.  In  their  exactions  these 
civic  inquisitors  were  stimulated  by  the  prospect  of  a  large 
reward,  and  by  their  conviction  that  the  scrutiny  of  the  court 
would  be  but  feebly  exercised  with  respect  to  the  mode  in 
which  the  contribution  might  be  obtained,  shoidd  the  amount 
be  such  as  to  remove  its  present  embarrassment.*  The  last 
provision  of  the  parliament  in  relation  to  this  tax,  had  rendered 
each  person  liable  at  the  age  of  fifteen ;  and  we  may  conceive 
of  the  many  lesser  insults  which  were  offered  to  the  already 
irritated  feelings  of  the  people  by  these  collectors,  from  the 
circumstance  that  as  often  as  the  age  of  the  females  in  a  house- 
hold became  the  matter  of  dispute,  these  ruffians  insisted  on  a 
mode  of  ascertaining  the  fact  which  outraged  every  feeling  of 
modesty.  To  save  their  daughters  from  the  treatment  with 
which  they  were  menaced,  many  parents  submitted  to  the  im- 
position where  it  w^as  unjust.^  But  to  suppose  that  a  despotism 
of  this  kind  could  have  been  long  endured  by  our  ancestors  in 
the  fourteenth  century,  would  be  to  betray  a  very  mistaken 
estimate  of  their  character — especially  as  it  was  affected  by  the 
commerce  and  the  intercourse  of  our  towns  and  cities. 

The  men  of  Kent  were  the  first  to  deliberate  on  the  duty  of 
resistance,  but  no  leader  appeared  to  command  their  confidence. 
A  baker  of  Fobbing,  in  Essex,  either  more  courageous  than  his 
neighbours,  or  less  sensible  to  danger,  was  the  first  to  raise  the 
standiird  of  revolt.'"      The   populace  applauded    his    example, 

■   Ibid.  0  Ibid. 

'  Knin;hton,  2G32,  2033.  llud.  2C32. 


400  NOTES. 

and  the  flame  once  kindled,  fled  instantaneously  through  that 
county,  and  through  the  towns  and  villages  of  Kent.  Belknape, 
chief  justice  of  the  common  pleas,  was  dispatched  to  restore 
tranquillity  among  the  Essex  men  by  inflicting  a  signal  punish- 
ment on  the  leading  insurgents.  But  as  the  grand  jury  began 
to  find  indictments,  the  multitude  rose,  burst  into  their  apart- 
ments, and  cutting  off  their  heads,  compelled  the  judge  to 
swear  that  he  would  desist  from  all  such  proceedings.  Two 
eflfbrts  of  the  same  description  were  subsequently  made  in 
Kent,  but  in  both  instances,  as  in  the  present,  the  effect  was 
rather  to  augment  than  to  subdue  the  disaffection."  It  was  in 
the  month  of  May  that  the  men  of  Essex  assembled  to  the 
amount  of  five  thousand,  armed  with  almost  every  variety  of 
weapon.  To  these  additions  were  daily  made,  and  at  the  head 
of  this  growing  multitude  was  an  obscure  individual  known  in 
the  records  of  the  period  under  the  assumed  name  of  Jack 
Straw.  As  the  effect  of  accident,  a  person  equally  humble  in 
his  origin,  and  bearing  the  name  of  Wat  Tyler,  or  Walter  the 
Tyler,  was  raised  to  the  same  distinction  by  the  populace  of 
Kent."  Walter  was  a  tradesman  in  the  town  of  Dartford. 
During  his  absence  from  home,  a  collector  of  the  obnoxious  tax 
entered  his  house,  and  a  dispute  presently  arose  between  its 
mistress  and  the  officer,  respecting  the  age  of  a  young  female 
who  stood  in  the  apartment.  To  secure  the  sum  demanded, 
the  servant  of  the  government  proceeded  toward  that  inspection 
of  the  girl's  person  which,  as  the  shortest  mode  of  ending  such 
discussions,  had  been  attempted  in  previous  instances.  The 
indignation  of  the  mother,  and  the  terror  of  the  daughter,  were 
instantly  vented  in  loud  cries,  their  neighbours  came  running  to 
the  spot,  and  tidings  of  the  outrage  reaching  the  ear  of  Wat 
Tyler,  he  abandoned  his  work,  fled  through  the  town  with 
his  tool  in  his  hand,  and  placing  himself  before  the  incendiary, 
demanded  in  the  spirit  of  a  man  and  a  father,  on  what  authority 
lie  had  dared  so  to  conduct  himself.  But  the  knave  was  inured 
to  his  business :  his  language  became  abusive  ;  and  he  de- 
scended to  level  a  blow  at  his  opponent.     Tiiis  was  not  to   be 

"  .Sto\ve,-281.  1^  Wals.   258.      Knighton,  2G33, -203 1.     Stowe,  281. 


NOTES. 


401 


borne,  the  insulted  parent  avoided  the  weapon  raised  against 
him,  and  with  a  single  stroke  of  his  lathing  instrument — still  in 
his  hand — laid  the  agent  of  oppression  dead  at  his  feet.  ,A  new 
scene  now  opened  to  the  Tyler  of  Dartford.  He  stood  com- 
mitted against  the  government  of  his  country,  and  could  see  no 
prospect  of  safety,  but  in  exile,  or  in  the  favour  of  the  people— 
and  the  latter,  uncertain  as  its  power  or  continuance  might  be, 
would  almost  necessarily  occur  to  such  a  man  as  his  best 
security.  The  population  of  the  immediate  neiglibourhood 
gathered  instantly  around  him,  expressed  their  admiration  of 
his  conduct,  and  vowed  to  defend  him  against  any  movement  of 
his  enemies.  Within  a  few  weeks  Walter  appeared  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  capital,  as  the  leader  of  armed  men,  who,  with 
their  followers,  are  presumed  to  have  numbered  a  hundred 
thousand  persons. 

Hitherto  the  lords  of  the  aristocracy,  who  were  regarded  as 
the  counsellors  of  the  sovereign,  whether  churchmen  or  laymen, 
appear  to  have  been  the  exclusive  objects  of  resentment.  At 
Maidstone,  the  prison  of  the  archbishop  was  broken  open,  and 
one  John  Ball,  described  as  a  profligate  and  revolutionary  priest, 
was  set  at  liberty  ;  and  it  is  said  was  announced  as  the  future 
primate."  To  the  day,  however,  in  which  the  insurgents  ap- 
peared on  Blackheath,  the  oath  exacted  of  their  followers  was 
fidelity  to  Richard  and  the  commons  ;  and  also  that  no  king 
should  be  acknowledged  by  the  name  of  John — a  provision 
which  plainly  referred  to  the  duke  of  Lancaster.'^  To  the 
approaching  multitude  a  messenger  was  now  dispatched,  who, 
in  the  name  of  the  king,  required  to  know  the  cause  of  this 
tumult.  It  was  replied,  that  they  sought  an  audience  of  the 
sovereign.  Some  of  the  counsellors  of  Richard  advised  his 
compliance,  but  Sudbury,  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  and  chan- 
cellor of  the  realm,  opposed  the  measure,  and  indulged  in  the 
most  contemptuous  language  respecting  the  parties  who  had 
thus  ventured  to  claim  the  royal  notice.  Unfortunately,  his 
advice,  and  his  expressions  reached  the  ear  of  the  malcontents, 
and  they  were  not  to  be   forgotten."     The  magistrates  of  the 

'3  Knighton.  '«  Wals.  258.  Rot.  Pari.  iii.  90.  i-.  Wals.  2.59. 

V  o  T. .  1 1 .  n  i:» 


402  NOTES. 

metropolis  would  have  closed  their  gates  against  Walter,  and 
the  host  of  his  adherents,  but  the  populace  within  shared  in  the 
discontent  manifested  without,  and  passing  London  Bridge, 
the  upland  multitude  flowed  unchecked  into  the  city.'®  The 
king,  with  a  few  members  of  his  court,  and  about  two  hun- 
dred knights,  fled  to  the  protection  of  the  Tower.  Some 
days  however  passed,  and  the  insurgents,  little  as  they 
appeared  to  be  disciplined,  were  kept  from  violence.  They 
paid  for  the  whole  of  their  provisions  ;  and  continued  to  ex- 
press it  as  their  determination  to  return  to  their  home,  as 
soon  as  the  traitors  of  the  land  should  be  secured  and  pu- 
nished." But  time  was  no  longer  to  be  lost,  and  Richard 
at  length  agreed  to  confer  with  their  leaders  at  Mile  End. 
There  the  king  granted  a  charter,  which  declared  the  parties 
assembled  free,  and  abolished  all  servitude  and  villanage. 

But  while  the  main  body  of  the  disaffected  were  thus  em- 
ployed, a  rabble  which  still  lingered  near  the  Tower,  suddenly 
collected  their  strength,  and  forced  an  entrance.  Overpowering 
the  knights  within,  they  seized  the  archbishop,  the  treasurer  of 
the  realm,  and  Legg,  who  had  been  commissioner  of  the  pole- 
tax,  with  several  others.  These  they  reproached  as  traitors, 
and  having  in  the  madness  of  popular  triumph,  cut  off  their 
heads,  bore  them  on  lances  through  the  streets.'** 

Every  thing  recorded  of  the  insurgents  from  this  unhappy 
day,  is  marked  by  violence,  and  the  wildest  disorder.  Whether 
suspecting  that  no  faith  could  be  placed  in  the  promises  of  a 
court  which  had  suffered  so  greatly  from  them,  or  intoxicated 
beyond  their  power  of  resistance  by  apparent  success,  it  appears 
that  through  the  week  ensuing,  their  chief  employments  were 
pillao-e,  drunkenness,  and  murder.  Three  times  their  demands 
on  the  government  were  complied  with,  but  without  allaying  the 
tumult ;  and  in  Smithfield,  Richard  again  descended  to  confer 
with  them.  Walter,  it  appears,  was  still  the  person  of  prin- 
cipal influence  with  the  multitude,  and  it  is  probable  that  he  had 
yielded,  in  some  degree,  to  the  growing  spirit  of  insubordination. 
By  the  attendants  of  Richard,   the  freedom  of  his  conduct  was 

i<i  Wals.  259.  '7  Ibid.  260. 

•s  Knighton,  2674,  2635.    Wilkins,  iii.  153.    Wals.  260—263. 


NOTES.  403 

deemed  an  insult  to  their  sovereign ;  and  as  the  king  hesitated 
to  pronounce  the  abolition  of  the  forest  and  game  laws,  the  bold 
insurgent  approached  so  near  to  the  royal  person,  as  to  excite 
suspicion  of  some  sinister  design.  Walworth,  the  mayor  of 
London,  seized  his  spear,  and  in  a  moment  it  was  planted  in  the 
neck  of  the  rebel ;  and  from  the  indignation  of  another  atten- 
dant, the  misguided  man  received  a  second  wound  in  the  side. 
He  rose  convulsively,  once  and  again,  but  in  a  few  minutes  was 
no  more.  His  followers,  roused  by  the  deed,  instantly  grasped 
their  weapons  to  avenge  it ;  when  the  king,  in  the  confidence  of 
youth,  and  aware  perhaps  that  the  disaffection  even  yet  referred 
not  to  himself,  fled  to  their  ranks,  and  exclaimed,  "  Why,  my  liege 
"  men,  this  clamour,  will  you  kill  your  king  ?  Heed  not  the  death 
"  of  a  traitor,  I  will  be  your  leader  ;  come,  follow  me  to  the  fields, 
"  and  what  you  ask,  you  shall  have."  Charmed  with  the  spirit 
and  confidence  of  the  youthful  monarch,  they  obeyed  his  sum- 
mons ;  but  while  engaged  in  this  parley,  were  alarmed  by  the 
approach  of  an  armed  force,  under  the  command  of  Sir  Robert 
Knowles.  The  panic  was  suddenly  diffused,  and  the  followers 
of  Walter  fled  in  every  direction  to  assemble  no  more.  The 
king  humanely  forbade  pursuit,  but  the  concessions  which  had 
been  made  were  all  rescinded,  and  some  hundreds  of  the 
offenders,  in  their  various  counties,  were  doomed  to  perish  by 
the  hand  of  the  executioner."" 

The  reader  must  be  aware,  that  in  proportion  to  the  dege- 
neracy of  the  ecclesiastical  orders,  has  been  their  adherence  to 
the  maxim,  that  to  diminish  the  popular  reverence  of  the  minis- 
ters of  religion,  must  be  to  sap  the  foundation  of  the  civil  power. 
Nor  is  the  plea  strictly  devoid  of  truth.  But  it  is  one  which 
has  too  frequently  aided  unworthy  men  in  annexing  the  worst 
penalties  of  criminal  justice,  to  what  they  have  judged  as  delin- 
quencies in  religious  opinion.  It  would  have  been  singular, 
therefore,  had  no  effort  been  made  to  exhibit  the  religious 
doctrine  of  our  reformer,  so  hostile  to  the  worldly  pretensions 
of  the    existing  clergy,    as  scattering   the  seeds    of  civil  dis- 


•i*  Knighton,    2636,  2637.        Wals.   264,  265.     Rjmer,  vii.  3  16,  317.      Rot, 
Park  iii.  103,  111. 

n   D  2 


404  NOTES. 

affection.  Its  influence,  however,  as  far  as  we  can  ascertain, 
was  rather  to  restrain  the  violence  of  the  disorderly  multitude, 
in  this  instance,  than  to  produce  their  spirit  of  misrule. 

The  fact  that  various  countries  in  which  no  reformer  of 
Wycliffe's  character  was  known,  had  recently  become  the  scene 
of  similar  tumults,  and  such  as  were  peculiarly  hostile  to  many 
of  the  prevailing  superstitions,  might  be  sufficient  to  explain 
the  origin  of  the  convulsion  in  1381,  without  attributing  it,  in 
any  important  degree,  to  the  labours  of  the  rector  of  Lutter- 
worth. Nearly  thirty  years  previously,  the  disbanded  mer- 
cenaries of  France  had  fdled  the  provinces  of  that  kingdom 
with  their  depredations  ;  and  unavved  by  the  terrors  of  the 
church,  had  compelled  the  pontiff  to  redeem  himself  in  Avignon, 
at  the  cost  of  forty  thousand  crowns.^"  These  banditti,  who 
were  known  by  the  name  of  "  the  companies,"  were  no  sooner 
conducted  by  the  celebrated  du  Guesclin  to  the  war  against 
Peter  of  Castile,  than  the  peasantry  of  the  French  provinces 
rose  against  their  rulers,  and  their  insurrection,  resembling  that 
of  the  English  populace  in  1381,  both  in  its  origin,  and  in 
various  of  its  features,  was  more  extended,  of  longer  duration, 
and  marked  by  much  greater  atrocities."'  The  increase  of  tax- 
ation which  had  now  become  common  to  nearly  all  the  govern- 
ments of  Europe,  was  accompanied  by  an  increase  of  wastefulness 
on  the  part  of  sovereigns  and  their  ministers ;  and,  unfortunately 
for  such  propensities,  there  arose  at  the  same  time  a  powerful 
disposition  on  the  part  of  the  people  to  criticise  the  measures  of 
their  rulers,  as  those  of  servants  in  relation  to  the  community. 
From  these  causes  sprung  the  memorable  rebellion  of  the 
Flemings  ;  and  over  other  states,  their  example  and  successes 
shed  a  dangerous  influence.  It  was  at  this  crisis,  and  while  the 
disorders  which  we  have  noticed  as  arising  in  England  were  on 
the  eve  of  breaking  forth,  that  the  peasantry  of  France  again 
betrayed  every  sign  of  restlessness  ;  and  the  citizens  of  Paris 
became  foremost  in  resisting  the  demands  of  the  national  autho- 

'"  Froissart,  187.     These  daring  ma-  and  as  being  known  in  consequence  b)' 

lauders  were  led  by  one   Arnaud  de  the  name  of  I'Arcliipetre. 

Cervole,  a  chieftain  who  is  described  ^i  D'Achery,  Spicllegium,  iii.  114. 
as   holding  an  ecclesiastical  benefice, 


NOTES.  405 

ritles  on  their  pecuniary  resources.  It  was  believed  also,  by 
Froissart,  that  had  the  efforts  of  the  French  government  to 
quell  the  insurrection  of  the  citizens  of  Ghent,  and  their  various 
adherents,  proved  a  failure,  the  flame  of  rebellion  must  have 
been  speedily  diffused  through  the  whole  of  their  own  terri- 
tories. It  was  likewise  the  opinion  of  that  historian;  that  the 
rising  under  Wat  Tyler  would  hardly  have  occurred  in  the 
absence  of  the  stimulus  supplied  by  these  examples.  Nothing 
indeed  can  be  more  evident  than  that  such  convulsive  appear- 
ances were  less  the  result  of  any  local  peculiarities,  than  of  a 
general  movement  in  the  system  of  European  society.  From 
various  causes,  the  notions  of  a  representative  government,  and 
of  responsible  rulers,  began  to  grow  familiar  to  the  popular 
apprehension,  and  by  this  new  state  of  things,  the  authorities 
which  were  not  obviously  founded  in  public  utility,  were  every 
where  menaced  with  overthrow." 

But  there  were  powerful  ebullitions  of  popular  feeling  during 
the  middle  ages,  and  such  as  not  a  little  affected  the  preten- 
sions both  of  kings  and  churchmen,  where  no  burden  imposed 
by  the  civil  authorities,  nor  any  thing  resembling  the  spirit  of 
enlightened  reformation  in  relation  to  the  church,  can  be 
assigned  as  the  cause.  It  is  the  statement  of  an  historian  equally 
distinguished  by  his  research,  and  by  the  sobriety  of  his  views, 
that  "  no  denomination  of  christians  has  produced,  or  even 
"  sanctioned,  more  fanaticism  than  the  church  of  Rome.""  It 
is  certain  that  during  the  ages  adverted  to,  its  votaries  were 
familiarised  from  their  cradle  with  the  doctrine  of  supernatural 
agencies  in  the  government  of  the  world  ;  and  that  they  were 

22  Froissart,   c.  37.    84.   120.      Mr.  "  to   have   tbeir    parallels    and    their 

Hallam    remarks,   while    referring   to  "  analogies;  while  the  military  achieve- 

these  facts,  "  I  would  advise  the  his-  "  ments  of  distant  times  aiford,  in  ge- 

"  torical   student  to   acquaint  himself  "  neral,  no  instruction,  and  can  hardly 

"with   these    transactions,   and    with  "  occupy  too  little  of  our  time  in  his- 

"  the  corresponding  tumults  at  Paris.  "  torical  studies,"  i.    91.     Froissart's 

"  They  are  among  the  eternal  lessons  account   of   the    English   insurrection 

"  of  history  ;  for  the  unjust  encroach-  differs  in   some  important  particulars 

"  ments    of    courts,  the    intemperate  from  that  given  above,  but  1  have  fcil- 

"  passions  of  the  multitude,  the  am-  lowed  the  authorities  wliich  appeared 

"  bition  of  demagogues,  the  cruelty  of  to  me  to  be  most  correctly  informed. 
"  victorious  faclions,  will  never  cease  23  Hallam,  iii.  311. 


406  NOTES. 

as  commonly  in  total  ignorance  respecting  the  nature  of  every 
such  interposition.  The  term  miracle  was  almost  deprived  of 
its  meaning,  from  the  frequency  with  which  it  was  conferred  on 
real  or  imaginary  occurrences  ;  and  the  gifts  of  inspiration  were 
believed  to  be  scarcely  less  prevalent.  Both  were  appealed  to 
as  lending  their  sanction  to  the  crusades,  and  those  memorable 
convulsions,  which  so  materially  disturbed  the  frame-work  of 
society  in  Europe,  were  to  supply  the  elements  of  many  a 
kindred  phrensy. 

In  the  year  1211,  an  army  of  children  amounting  to  several 
myriads,  and  commanded  by  a  child,  left  Germany  in  quest  of 
the  holy  land.  At  Genoa  the  sea  presented  an  obstacle  which 
their  wisdom  appears  not  to  have  anticipated,  and  if  thirty 
thousand  of  their  number  returned  to  Marseilles,  it  was  to  be 
sold  to  the  Saracens,  or  to  perish  by  hunger  and  the  sword.^* 
The  first  remarkable  appearance  of  this  fanatical  temper,  apart 
from  the  object  of  the  crusades,  is  said  to  have  been  in  the 
reign  of  Philip- Augustus.  When  the  mercenaries  of  that  prince 
and  those  of  our  Henry  the  second  were  disbanded,  the  south 
of  France  was  selected  as  the  scene  of  their  predatory  warfare. 
To  protect  the  country  from  the  growing  outrage  of  these 
marauders,  one  Durand,  a  carpenter,  placed  himself  at  the  head 
of  the  irritated  inhabitants.  He  is  said  to  have  been  deluded 
into  this  enterprise,  by  an  artifice  which  had  announced  him  as 
the  favourite  of  the  Virgin  ;  his  followers,  from  the  covering 
they  wore,  were  called  brethren  of  the  white  caps;  and  to 
secure  the  divine  approbation  of  their  object,  they  bound  them- 
selves to  appear  in  unpretending  apparel,  to  abstain  from  taverns, 
and  to  avoid  the  guilt  of  swearing,  gaming,  and  perjury.  As 
with  the  commons  in  England,  the  partial  success  of  these  re- 
dressers  of  grievances  produced  a  mistaken  estimate  of  their 
strength,  and  presuming  to  oppose  the  usual  exactions  of 
the  feudal  aristocracy,  their  influence  was  soon  doomed  to 
disappear."  "  During  the  captivity  of  St.  Louis  in  Egypt," 
observes  Mr.  Hallam,  "  an  extensive  and  terrible  ferment  broke 


2^  Muratori,    A.  D.   1211.      Velly,  «  Hallam,  iii.  295.      Du  Cange,  v. 

Hist.  iv.  206.  Capuciati. 


NOTES.  407 

"  out  in  Flanders,  and  spread  from  thence  over  great  part  of 
"  France.  An  impostor  declared  himself  commissioned  by  the 
"  virgin  to  pi-each  a  crusade,  not  to  the  rich  and  noble,  who  for 
"  their  pride  had  been  rejected  of  God,  but  to  the  poor.  His 
"  disciples  were  called  Pastoureaux,  the  simplicity  of  shepherds 
"  having  exposed  them  more  readily  to  this  delusion.  In  a 
"  short  time  they  were  swelled  by  the  confluence  of  abundant 
"  streams  to  a  moving  mass  of  a  hundred  thousand  men, 
"  divided  into  companies,  with  banners  bearing  a  cross  and  a 
"  lamb,  and  commanded  by  the  impostor's  lieutenants.  He 
"  assumed  a  priestly  character,  preaching,  absolving,  annulling 
"  marriages.  At  Amiens,  Bourges,  Orleans,  and  Paris  itself, 
"  he  was  received  as  a  divine  prophet.  Even  the  regent 
"  Blanche,  for  a  time,  was  led  away  by  the  popular  tide.  His 
"  main  topic  was  reproach  of  the  clergy  for  their  idleness  and 
"  corruption,  a  theme  well  adapted  to  the  ears  of  the  people, 
"  who  had  long  been  uttering  similar  strains  of  complaint.  In 
"  some  towns  his  followers  massacred  the  priests  and  plundered 
"  the  monasteries.  The  government  at  length  began  to  exert 
"  itself,  and  the  public  sentiment  turning  against  the  authors  of 
"  so  much  confusion,  this  rabble  was  put  to  the  sword  or  dis- 
"  sipated.  Seventy  years  afterwards,  an  insurrection  almost 
"  exactly  parallel  to  this  burst  out  under  the  same  pretence  of 
"  a  crusade.  These  insurgents,  too,  bore  the  name  of  Pastou- 
"  reaux,  and  their  short  career  was  distinguished  by  a  general 
"  massacre  of  the  Jews."*'^ 

But  an  exhibition  of  this  kind,  which  extended  more  generally 
from  the  populace  to  the  higher  classes,  was  that  of  the  flagel- 
lants. In  Italy,  toward  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century, 
numbers  of  these  fanatics  were  seen  in  the  streets  and  public 
roads.  They  usually  passed  two  by  two,  forming  extended 
processions,  and  while  they  inflicted  on  each  other  the  torture 
of  a  leathern  scourge,  made  the  air  to  resound  with  groans,  or 
hymns  of  lamentation.  This  mania,  though  it  failed  to  obtain 
the  sanction  of  the  church,  and  was  seriously  discountenanced 
by  the  magistrates,  wore  so  much  the  appearance  of  sincerity, 

2*=  View  of  the  State  of  Europe,  iii.  387,  388. 


408  NOTES. 

that  it  spread  through  various  of  the  continental  states,  and  was 
not  unknown  to  this  country."  The  story,  also,  of  the  Italian 
Bianchi,  is  amply  recorded  by  those  who  were  witnesses  of  their 
extravagant  singularities  ;  and  while  referring  to  a  period  so 
late  as  the  opening  of  the  fifteenth  century,  is  fraught  with  the 
same  proofs  of  religious  derangement,  and  criminal  propensity — 
demonstrating  the  folly  of  regarding  the  gloom  of  the  popular 
mind,  as  affording  any  permanent  security  against  the  most  fatal 
igniting  of  its  passions." 

The  reader  will  perceive  from  these  details,  that  to  account 
for  the  insurrection  of  the  commons  under  Wat  Tyler,  it  is  by 
no  means  necessary  that  we  should  be  aware  of  such  a  mind  as 
that  of  WyclifFe  having  existence  in  thi^  country  at  the  period.*^^ 


"  Froissart,  ii.  263.     Wals.  1G9. 

2s  It  would  not  appear  to  be  correct, 
as  stated  b^-  Mr.  Hallam,  that  the  sect 
of  the  flagellants  "  soon  died  away," 
(iii  341.)  Mosheim,  iu  bis  History  of 
the  Fourteenth  Century,  (iii.  381,  382) 
describes  them  not  only  as  existing, 
but  as  become  more  extravag.int  than 
ever   in    their   speculations   and   their 


practices. 


These    flagellants,"    he 


observes,  "whose  enthusiasm  infected 
"  every  rank,  sex,  and  age,  were  much 
"  worse  than  the  old  ones.  They  not 
"  only  supposed  that  God  might  be 
"  prevailed  upon  to  show  mercy  to 
"  those  who  underwent  voluntary  pu- 
"  nishments,  but  propagated  otlier 
"  tenets  highly  injurious  to  religion. 
"  They  held,  among  other  things,  that 
"  flagellation  was  of  equal  virtue  with 
"  baptism  aud  the  other  sacraments; 
"  that  the  forgiveness  of  all  sins  was 
"  to  be  obtained  by  it  from  God  with- 
"  out  the  merits  of  Jesus  Christ ;  that 
"  the  old  law  of  Christ  was  soon  to  be 
"  abolished,  and  that  a  new  law,  en- 
"  joining  the  baptism  of  blood,  to  be 
"  administered  by  whipping,  was  to  be 
"substituted  in  its  place."  It  was  a 
century  after  the  exploits  of  this  sect 
had  made  much  noise  in  Germany,  that 
they  made  their  appearance  in  Eugland. 
In   the   latter   half   of  the   fourteenth 


century  another  sect  arose,  which,  by 
violent  dancing,  and  other  eccentrici- 
ties, announced  themselves  the  votaries 
of  mirth  rather  than  of  sadness.  These 
were  pitied  by  many  of  the  clergy,  as 
possessed  with  devils,  and  some  in- 
stances of  successful  exorcism  are  on 
record  for  the  edification  of  future 
times. — Ibid.  But  such  extravagances 
were  the  legitimate  and  constant  result 
of  the  ecclesiastical  system  which  pre- 
vailed during  the  middle  ages,  and  the 
germ  of  protestantism,  which  survived 
in  the  midst  of  them,  has  been  the 
scape-goat  to  which  catholics  impute 
the  guilt  of  every  disorder  belonging 
to  that  dreary  interval. 

2'  Froissart,  who  is  minute  in  his 
account  of  the  English  insurrections, 
repeatedly  asseits  that  John  of  Gaunt 
was  the  peculiar  object  of  the  popular 
resentment ;  but  he  does  not,  for  a 
moment,  hint  at  anv  religious  motive 
as  having  produced  any  portion  of  the 
tumult,  unless  he  may  be  said  to  do  so 
in  his  notice  of  the  declamations  of 
John  Ball.  His  humane  opinion,  in- 
deed, is,  that  it  all  arose  from  "the 
"  too  greatcomfort  of  the  commonalty," 
who,  at  the  same  time,  are  described  as 
more  oppressed  with  respect  to  the 
services  connected  with  villanage,  than 
anypet)i)le  in  Europe. — Hist,  ubi  supra. 


NOTES.  409 

Convulsions  equally  menacing  both  to  the  civil  and  the  ecclesi- 
astical authorities  of  the  age,  we  perceive  as  the  result  of  causes 
with  which  no  agency  like  that  of  our  reformer  was  connected. 
And  if  in  attempting  the  work  of  reformation,  the  remedy  proved 
in  some  instances  more  afflictive  than  the  disease,  this  inca- 
pacity on  the  part  of  the  sufferers,  must  be  numbered  among 
the  evils  introduced  by  the  advocates  of  lawless  authority  on 
the  one  hand,  and  those  of  superstition  on  the  other.  Difficult, 
indeed,  would  it  have  been  in  such  an  age,  to  have  uttered  any 
generous  sentiment  with  regard  to  the  people,  without  becoming 
numbered  by  their  various  oppressors  with  the  most  revolu- 
tionary and  dangerous  members  of  the  state.  That  the  adver- 
saries of  WyclifFe  should  impute  to  him  a  share  in  the  guilt  of 
Tyler's  atrocities,  is,  accordingly,  an  event  in  no  way  mysterious. 
But  if  there  be  certainty  in  history,  it  is  beyond  doubt,  that  the 
lessons  of  inspiration  which  formed  in  the  rector  of  Lutterworth 
so  determined  a  foe  of  the  great  antichristian  apostacy,  were 
also  an  authority  to  which  he  bowed  with  sacred  submission 
when  describing  the  legitimate  claims  of  the  magistrate,  or  the 
just  pretentions  of  the  christian  pastor. 

Even  the  pages  of  Walsingham  afford  a  complete  vindication 
of  our  reformer  on  this  point,  as  in  the  opinion  of  that  historian 
the  insurrection  arose  from  the  general  depravity  of  the  people  ; 
and  it  is  farther  stated  by  him  as  a  part  of  the  confession  made 
by  a  leader  of  the  rebels,  that  their  meditated  destruction  of  the 
hierarchy  was  to  make  way  for  the  sole  establishment  of  the 
mendicants.  Had  WyclifFe's  "  poor  priests,"  been  thus  singled 
out,  however  unjustly,  it  is  needless  to  remark  the  matter  of 
triumph  which  this  would  have  been  to  the  orthodox ;  and  from 
this  circumstance,  it  is  equally  obvious,  that  had  the  wild  scheme 
of  the  insurgents  been  realized,  the  rector  of  Lutterworth  would 
have  been  just  the  last  man  in  the  kingdom  to  have  viewed  it 
with  pleasure.^" 


3"  ]t  is  alKrmed    by  Froissart,  that  live  to  revolt.     Hence  Mr.  Lewis  ob- 

fuU  two-thirds  of  the  people  iinew  not  serves  that  archbishop  Parker's  remark 

wliy  they  had  assembled,  and  that  the  seems  very  true,  that  "  it  is  owing  to 

plunder  of  the  opulent  was  shown  by  "  pure  hatred  of  the  Wycliffites,  that 

their  conduiJt  to   he  the  principal  nio-  "  some  have  falsely  and  ignorantlv  pre- 


410  NOTES. 

But  while  the  monk  of  St.  Albans  saw  these  disorders  as  the 
chastisement  of  national  crime,  the  members  of  the  commons' 
house  of  parliament  viewed  them  as  being  especially  provoked 
by  the  burdens  which  a  prodigal  court  had  imposed  in  the 
preceding  session.  In  their  address  to  the  king,  they  do  not 
hesitate,  after  mature  deliberation,  to  affirm,  "  that  unless  the 
"  administration  of  the  kingdom  be  speedily  reformed,  it  must 
"  become  wholly  lost.  For  true  it  is,"  they  proceed,  "  that 
"  there  are  such  defects  in  the  said  administration,  as  well  about 
"  the  king's  person  and  his  household  as  in  his  courts  of 
"  justice,  and  by  grievous  oppressions  in  the  country,  through 
"  maintainers  of  suits,  who  are  as  it  were  kings  in  the  country, 
"  that  right  and  law  are  come  to  nothing,  and  the  poor  com- 
"  mons  are  from  time  to  time  so  pillaged  and  ruined,  partly  by 
"  the  king's  purveyors  of  the  household,  and  others  who  pay 
"  nothing  for  what  they  take,  partly  by  the  subsidies  and  tallages 
"  raised  upon  them,  and  besides  by  the  oppressive  behaviour  of 
"  the  king's  servants,  and  other  lords,  and  especially  of  the 
"  foresaid  maintainers  of  suits,  they  are  reduced  to  greater 
"  poverty  and  discomfort  than  ever  they  were  before.  And 
"  moreover,  though  great  sums  have  been  continually  granted 
"  by,  and  levied  upon  them  for  the  defence  of  the  kingdom,  yet 
"  they  are  not  the  better  defended  against  their  enemies,  but 
"  every  year  are  plundered  and  wasted  by  sea  and  land,  without 
"  any  relief.  Which  calamities  the  said  poor  commons,  who 
"  lately  used  to  live  in  honour  and  prosperity,  can  no  longer 
"  endure."  From  this  statement  of  grievances  it  appears,  that 
in  proportion  to  the  largeness  of  the  grants  which  had  been 
made  to  the  government,  had  been  the  diminution  of  the  pro- 
tection promised  ;  and  that  while  the  enemy  without  was 
suffered  to  menace  the  shores  of  the  kingdom,  the  host  of 
tyrants  harboured  within    were    employed  in  daily  consuming 

"  tended  that  John  Balle  was  one  of  as  to  have  been  the  tutor  of  Ball  was 
"  them."  LewiSj  c.  x.  227,  228.  Ca-  to  be  the  parent  of  sedition,  and  to  be 
tholic  writers  have  been  for  some  time  his  follower  was  to  be  the  mere  ape  of 
aware  that  it  is  useless  to  speak,  of  Ball  a  demagogue.  Ball's  disorderly  con- 
as  the  disciple  of  Wyclifle,  and  they  duct  had  attracted  the  notice  of  his  su- 
have  accordingly  agreed  to  invert  the  periors  before  the  year  1366.  Wilkins, 
relation  :    for  either  will  do,  inasmuch  iii.  64,  132. 


NOTES.  411 

the  sources  of  its  strength.  Having  advanced  thus  far,  these 
sturdy  commoners  immediately  add ;  "  and  to  speak  the  real 
"  truth,  these  injuries  lately  done  to  the  poorer  commons,  more 
"  than  they  ever  suffered  before,  caused  them  to  rise  and  to 
"  commit  the  mischief  done  in  the  late  riot ;  and  there  is  still 
"  cause  to  fear  greater  evils,  if  sufficient  remedy  be  not  timely 
"  provided  against  the  outrages  and  oppressions  aforesaid."^' 
The  lords  appear  to  have  concurred  in  these  statements ;  and 
this  testimony,  as  to  the  origin  of  this  ill-fated  resistance  of 
arbitrary  power,  is  the  most  decisive  that  could  be  supplied. 


Note  B. 

"  Many  writers  have  given  us  large  accounts  concerning  the 
sect  and  name  of  the  Lollards,  yet  none  of  them  are  to  be 
commended  for  their  fidelity,  diligence,  or  accuracy  on  this 
head.  This  I  can  confidently  assert,  because  I  have  carefully  and 
expressly  inquired  into  whatever  relates  to  the  Lollards ;  and 
from  the  most  authentic  records  concerning  them,  both  pub- 
lished and  unpublished,  have  collected  copious  materials  from 
whence  their  true  history  may  be  compiled.  Most  of  the 
German  writers,  as  well  as  those  of  other  countries,  affirm  that 
the  Lollards  were  a  particular  sect,  who  differed  from  the 
church  of  Rome  in  many  religious  points ;  and  that  Walter 
Lollard,  who  was  burnt  in  this  century  at  Cologne,  was  their 
founder.  How  so  many  learned  men  came  to  adopt  this 
opinion  is  beyond  my  comprehension.  They,  indeed,  refer  to 
Jo.  Trithemius  as  the  author  of  this  opinion ;  yet  it  is  certain 
that  no  such  account  of  these  people  is  to  be  found  in  his 
writings.  I  shall  therefore  endeavour,  with  all  possible  bre- 
vity, to  throw  all  the  light  I  can  upon  this  matter,  that  they 
who  are  fond  of  ecclesiastical  history  may  have  a  just  notion 
of  it. 

"  The  loUhard,  or  luUhard,  or,  as  the  ancient  Germans  write 
it,    lollert,   lullert,    is  compounded   of  the    old   German  word 

='  Hallani,  iii.93. 


412  \OTES. 

luUen,   lollen,    lallen,    and    the   well-known   termination,  hard, 
with  which  many  of  the  old  High  Dutch   words  end.     Lollen, 
or  liillen,  signifies  to  sing  with  a  low  voice.     See  Franc.  Junii 
Etymologicum  Anglicanmii,  ab  Edvardo  Lye,  Oxon.  1743,  fol. 
under  the  word   lollard.     The  word  is  also  used  in  the  same 
sense   among  the  Flemings,  Swedes,  and  other  nations,  as  ap- 
pears by  their  respective  dictionaries.     Among   the  Germans, 
both   the  sense   and  pronunciation  of  it  have  undergone  some 
alteration  ;   for  they  say,   lallen,   which  signifies    to  pronounce 
indistinctly,   or  stammer.     Lollhard,  therefore,  is  a   singer,    or 
one    who    frequently   sings.     For   as   the  word   beggen,  which 
universally   signifies  to  request  any  thing  fervently,  is  applied 
to  devotional  requests  or  prayers ;   and,  in  the  stricter  sense  in 
which  it  is  used  by  the  High  Dutch,  denotes  praying  fervently, 
to   God ;    in   the  same  manner   the   word  lollen,    or  lullen,    is 
transferred  from  a  common  to  a  sacred  song,   and   signifies,  in 
its  most  limited  sense,    to  sing  a   hymn.     Lollhard,  therefore, 
in  the  vulgar  tongue  of  the  ancient  Germans,  denotes  a  person 
who  is  continually  praising  God  with  a  song,  or  singing  hymns 
to  his  honour.     Hoscemius,  a  canon  of  Liege,  has  well  appre- 
hended   and    expressed    the   force   of  this  word    in  his    Gesta 
Pontificum    lungrensium    et    Leodiensium,    tom.  iii.    p.  350.   s. 
Li    the    year    (1309)    says     he,     certain     strolling    hypocrites, 
who  were   called  Lollards,  or  praisers  of  God,  deceived  some 
women  of  quality  in    Hainault    and   Brabant.     Because  those 
who  praised  God,  generally  did  it  in  verse,  therefore  in   the 
Latin  style  of  the  middle  age,  to  praise  God,  meant  to  sing  to 
him,    and   such  as  were   frequently    employed  in  acts   of  ado- 
ration,   were    called   religious    singers.      And   as    prayers    and 
hymns  are  regarded  as  a  certain  external  sign  of  piety  towards 
God,  therefore  those  who  aspired  after   a  more   than  ordinary 
degree  of  piety  and  religion,  and   for  that   purpose  were  more 
frequently  occupied   in  singing  hymns  of  praise   to   God   than 
others,   were,  in    the    common    popular   language,   called    Lol- 
hards.     Hereupon   this  word  acquired   the  same  meaning  with 
that  of  the  term  beghard,  which  denoted  a  person  remarkable 
for  piety  ;  for  in  all  the  old  records,  from  the  eleventh  century, 
these  two  words  arc  synonymous :   so   that  all  who  are  styled 


XOTES.  413 

Beghards  are  also  called  Lollards,  which  may  be  proved  to  a 
demonstration  from  many  authors,  and  particularly  from  many 
passages  in  the  writings  of  Felix  Malleolus  against  the  Beg- 
hards ;  so  that  there  are  precisely  as  many  sorts  of  Beggards  as 
of  Lollards.  Those  whom  the  monks  now  call  lay-brothers, 
were  formerly  called  Lollard  brethren,  as  is  well  observed  by 
Barthol,  Scholinger,  Ad  Joach.  Vadiadem  de  Collegiis  Monas- 
teriisque  Germania3  Veter.  lib.  i.  p.  24,  in  Goldasti  Scriptor. 
Rerum  Alemannicarum,  torn.  iii. 

"  The  brethren  of  the  Free  Spirit,  of  whom  we  have  already 
given  a  large  account,  are  by  some  styled  Beggards,  by  others, 
Lollards.  The  followers  of  Gerhard  Groote,  or  priests  of  the 
oon^munity,  are  frequently  called  Lollard  brethren.  The  good 
man  Walter,  who  was  burnt  at  Cologne,  and  whom  so  many 
learned  men  have  unadvisedly  represented  as  the  founder  of  the 
sect  of  the  Lollards,  is  by  some  called  a  Beggard,  by  others  a 
Lollard,  and  by  others  a  Minorite.  The  Franciscan  Tertiares, 
who  were  remarkable  for  their  prayers  and  other  pious  exer- 
cises, often  go  by  the  name  of  Lollards.  The  Cellite  brethren, 
or  Alexians,  whose  piety  was  very  exemplary,  did  no  sooner 
appear  in  Flanders,  about  the  beginning  of  this  century,  than 
the  people  gave  them  the  title  of  Lollards,  a  term  much  in  use 
at  that  time.  A  particular  reason,  indeed,  for  their  being  dis- 
tinguished by  this  name  was,  that  they  were  public  singers, 
who  made  it  their  business  to  inter  the  bodies  of  those  who 
died  of  the  plague,  and  sung  a  dirge  over  them  in  a  mournful 
and  indistinct  tone  as  they  carried  them  to  the  grave.  Amono- 
the  many  testimonies  that  might  be  alleged  to  prove  this,  we 
shall  confine  ourselves  to  the  words  of  Jo.  Bapt.  Gramage,  a 
man  eminently  skilled  in  the  history  of  his  country,  in  his  work, 
entitled  Antwerpia,  lib.  ii.  cap.  vi.  p.  16.  '  The  Alexians,' 
says  he,  '  who  constantly  employed  themselves  about  funerals, 
'  had  their  rise  at  Antwerp ;  at  which  place,  about  the  year 
'  1300,  some  honest  pious  laymen  formed  a  society.  On 
'  account  of  their  extraordinary  temperance  and  modesty,  they 
'  were  styled  Matemanni  (or  moderatists),  and  also  Lollards, 
'  from  their  attendance  on  funeral  obsequies.  From  their  cells, 
'  they  were  named  Cellite  brethren.'     To  the  same  purpose  is 


414  NOTES. 

the  following  passage  in  his  work  entitled  Lovanium,  p.  18, 
which  is  inserted  in  the  splendid  folio  edition  of  Belgic  Anti- 
quities, published  at  Louvain,  in  1708:  'The  Alexians,  who 
'  were  wholly  engaged  in  taking  care  of  funerals,  now  began  to 
'  appear.  They  were  laymen,  who,  having  wholly  devoted 
'  themselves  to  works  of  mercy,  were  named  Lollards  and 
'  Mantemanni  (or  moderatists).  They  made  it  their  sole  busi- 
'  ness  to  take  care  of  all  such  as  were  sick,  or  out  of  their 
'  senses.  These  they  attended  both  privately  and  publicly, 
'  and  buried  the  dead.'  The  same  learned  author  tells  us, 
that  he  transcribed  some  of  these  particulars  from  an  old  diary, 
written  in  Flemish  rhyme.  Hence  we  find  in  the  annals  of 
Holland  and  Utrecht,  in  Ant.  Matthaei  Analect.  Vet.  ^vi, 
tom.  i.  p.  431,  the  following  words:  'Die  Lollardtyes  die 
'  brochten,  dee  dooden  by  een,  i.  e.  the  Lollards  who  collected 
'  the  dead  bodies ; '  which  passage  is  thus  paraphrased  by 
Matthaeus :  '  The  managers  of  funerals,  and  carriers  of  the  dead, 
of  whom  there  was  a  fixed  company,  were  a  set  of  mean, 
worthless  creatures,  who  usually  spoke  in  a  canting  mournful 
tone,  as  if  bewailing  the  dead  ;  and  hence  it  came  to  pass, 
that  a  street  in  Utrecht,  in  which  most  of  these  people  lived, 
was  called  the  Loller  street.'  The  same  reason  that  changed 
the  word  beggard  from  its  primitive  meaning  contributed  also 
to  give,  in  process  of  time,  a  different  signification  to  that  of 
lollard,  even  its  being  assumed  by  persons  that  dishonoured  it. 
For  among  those  Lollards,  who  made  such  extraordinary  pre- 
tences to  piety  and  religion,  and  spent  the  greatest  part  of  their 
time  in  meditation,  prayer,  and  such-like  acts  of  piety,  there 
were  many  abominable  hypocrites,  who  entertained  the  most 
ridiculous  opinions,  and  concealed  the  most  enormous  vices 
under  the  specious  mask  of  this  extraordinary  profession.  But 
it  was  chiefly  after  the  rise  of  the  Alexians  or  Cellites,  that  the 
name  Lollard  became  infamous.  For  the  priests  and  monks 
being  inveterately  exasperated  against  these  good  men,  propa- 
gated injurious  suspicions  of  them,  and  endeavoured  to  per- 
suade the  people  that  innocent  and  beneficent  as  the  Lollards 
seemed  to  be,  they  were  in  reality  the  contrary,  being  tainted 
with  the  most  pernicious  sentiments  of  a  religious   kind,    and 


NOTES.  415 

secretly  addicted  to  all  sorts  of  vices.  Thus  by  degrees  it  came 
to  pass,  that  any  person  who  covered  heresies  or  crimes  under 
the  appearance  of  piety,  was  called  a  Lollard.  So  that  it  is  cer- 
tain this  was  not  a  name  to  denote  any  one  particular  sect,  but 
was  formerly  common  to  all  persons  and  all  sects  who  were 
supposed  to  be  guilty  of  impiety  towards  God  and  the  church, 
under  an  external  profession  of  extraordinary  piety." — Mosheim. 
iii.  355— S58. 


Note  C. 

Germany,  from  the  period  in  which  it  owned  the  authority  of 
its  apostle,  St.  Boniface,  liad  frequently  proved  an  asylum  to  the 
fugitive  Vaudois.  When  the  penalty  of  exile  was  imposed  on 
Peter  Waldo  and  his  followers,  the  states  to  which  our  coun- 
tryman had  been  the  first  to  announce  the  tidings  of  the  gospel, 
became  the  residence  of  the  greater  number,  and  long  con- 
tinued to  be  the  principal  scene  of  their  labours.  At  the  com- 
mencement of  the  thirteenth  century,  they  were  sufficiently 
numerous  to  provoke  a  formidable  persecution  from  the  em- 
peror, Frederic  the  second  ;  and  the  report  of  their  sufferings 
which  reached  this  country,  was  recorded  by  Matthew  Paris. 
To  the  violence  of  the  sword  that  of  the  inquisitor  succeeded. 
Conrad,  who  received  his  authority  as  chief  inspector  from  the 
pontiff,  exercised  his  office  with  the  utmost  cruelty,  nor  was 
there  any  thing  either  in  civil  rank  or  ecclesiastical  distinction 
to  protect  from  his  intolerance.  He  is  said  to  have  resorted  to 
the  ordeal  of  fire,  affirming  that  the  accused  who  suffered  from 
holding  the  heated  iron,  were  thus  shown  to  be  worthy  of 
passing  through  the  fires  of  this  world,  to  those  of  the  next. 
The  diocese  of  Treves,  appears  to  have  been  particularly  dis- 
tinguished as  the  residence  of  the  suffering  Waldenses.  In 
that  district,  schools  were  established  for  the  instruction  of  their 
youth.  These  sectaries  are  described  as  publishing  aloud  their 
dissent  from  the  hierarchy,  and  their  censures  of  the  pope  as 
Antichrist ;  as  declaring  the  prelates  to  be  simonists  and  de- 
ceivers of  the  people ;  and  as  asserting,  that  they  were  them- 
selves  the  only  preachers  of  truth,   and  that  rather   than  the 


416  NOTES. 

truth  should  fail  of  advocates  by  an  extinction  bf  their  race, 
God  would  not  fail  to  raise  up  children  to  himself  of  the  stones 
in  the  street.  This  fearless  conduct  may  have  arisen  from  the 
weakness  or  the  forbearance  of  the  local  authorities  ;  or  from 
the  more  zealous  temper  of  the  Vaudois  pastors  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  Treves  ;  it  is  certain  that  their  contest  with  the 
established  superstitions  was  of  the  most  uncompromising  cha- 
racter. Other  teachers  might  bury  the  truth,  and  raise  false- 
hood to  its  place  ;  it  was  theirs  to  proclaim  the  christian  doctrine 
free  from  the  traditions  of  men,  and  instead  of  a  feigned  remis- 
sion of  sin,  invented  by  the  pope,  to  offer  one  that  is  certain  and 
final,  being  from  God  himself.  It  is  fully  ascertained  that  the 
people  avowing  these  sentiments  existed  in  1330,  which  was 
six  years  subsequent  to  the  birth  of  Wycliffe,  and  in  1391, 
which  was  seven  years  after  his  decease.  It  was  near  the  former 
period  that  an  event  took  place,  which  served  greatly  to 
exasperate  the  clergy,  but  which  suggests  the  most  favourable 
conclusions  as  to  the  character  of  the  persecuted.  Ecliard,  a 
monk,  and  a  person  who  had  acted  with  much  severity  as  an 
inquisitor,  had  often  felt  himself  unable  to  confute  the  reason- 
ings with  which  such  as  were  accused  of  heresy  defended 
their  separation  from  the  church  of  Rome  ;  and  after  an  interval, 
the  impressions  thus  made  on  a  mind  apparently  the  most 
unpromising,  issued  in  conversion.  The  monk  not  only  pro- 
fessed to  renounce  his  former  opinions,  but  became  the  friend 
and  companion  of  the  men  whom  he  had  regarded  as  the  worst 
enemies  of  piety,  and  had  laboured  to  destroy.  It  will  be  sup- 
posed that  Echard  became  an  object  of  peculiar  enmity  with  his 
former  associates.  After  a  diligent  search,  they  succeeded  in 
securing  his  person.  At  Heidelberg,  he  was  sentenced  to  the 
flames  ;  but  his  last  moments  were  employed  in  denouncing  the 
injustice  which  doomed  so  many  good  men  to  perish  for 
maintaining  the  truth  of  God  as  opposed  to  the  devices  of 
Antichrist.' 

In  the  beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century,   the  fires  of  per- 
secution were  kindled  in  Paris,  where  a  number  of  Waldenses 

•  Perriu.  Hist.ii.  c.ix.     Matthew  Paris,  aiin.  1220. 


NOTES.  417 

was  imprisoned,  and  many  condemned  to  the  stake.  Somewhat 
later,  the  zeal  of  orthodoxy  was  extended,  after  the  same  man- 
ner, from  the  capital  to  the  provinces  :  and  twenty  years 
previous  to  the  birth  of  WyclifFe,  a  hundred  and  fourteen  per- 
sons were  apprehended  by  the  Parisians  as  of  Waldensian 
origin,  and  they  are  described  as  perishing  in  the  flames  with 
the  constancy  of  martyrs.  In  the  year  1378, — which  will  be 
remembered  as  that  in  which  the  English  reformer  was  engaged 
in  his  contest  with  the  papal  delegates, — the  clergy  of  Paris 
again  appealed  to  that  destructive  element,  on  which,  in  common 
with  their  brethren  in  other  states,  they  were  so  much  disposed 
to  rely  as  their  best  argument  against  heresy.^  How  far  their 
flocks  were  edified  by  such  spectacles,  we  are  not  informed; 
but  under  Philip  the  fair,  the  fugitive  sectaries  were  followed 
into  Flanders,  where  the  atrocities  of  one  Robert  Bougre,  who, 
from  being  a  professed  Vaudois,  became  an  inquisitor,  were 
such  as  at  length  to  excite  the  alarm  of  his  colleagues.  Mea- 
sures were  secretly  adopted,  to  deprive  him  of  his  power,  and, 
convicted  of  many  crimes,  he  was  called  to  end  his  career  of 
treachery,  depredation,  and  bloodshed,  in  a  prison.  It  should 
be  remarked,  also,  that  it  was  in  Flanders,  where  commerce 
was  diffusing  its  equalities,  and  its  various  benefits,  that  the 
adherents  of  the  protestant  doctrine  were  so  few,  and  so  hunted 
down  by  their  oppressors,  and  exiled  from  the  abodes  of  men, 
as  to  obtain  the  name  of  Turlupins,  or  the  companions  of  the 
wolf.' 

"  About  the  year  of  our  Lord  1370,"  observes  the  Vaudois 
historian,  "  the  Waldenses  of  the  valley  of  Pragela  and  Dau- 
"  phine  grew  to  so  great  a  number  in  so  small  a  country,  that 
"  they  were  obliged  to  send  away  a  certain  portion  of  their 
"  younger  people  to  seek  some  other  place  to  inhabit.  In  their 
"  travel,  they  found  in  Calabria  certain  waste  lands,  but  ill 
"  peopled,  and  yet  very  fertile,  as  they  might  well  judge  by 
"  those  parts  near  adjoining.  Finding  the  country  fit  to  bring 
"  forth  corn,  wine,  oil  of  olives,  and  chestnuts,  and  that   there 


2  Perrin,  Hist.  ii.  c.  xv. 

3  Ibid.  Hist.  ii.  c.  xiii.     Matthew  Paris,  aun. 

VOL.  ir.  E    E 


418  NOTES. 

*'  were  hills  fit  for  the  breeding  and  nourishing  of  cattle,  and 
"  also  to  furnish  them  with  fuel,  and  with  timber  fit  for  build- 
"  ing — they  came  unto  the  lords  of  the  neighbourhood,  to  treat 
"  with  them  touching  their  abode  in  those  districts.  The  said 
"  lords  received  them  kindly,  and  agreed  to  their  laws  and 
"  requests,  as  to  their  rents,  tenths,  tolls,  and  penalties  in  case 
"  there  fell  out  any  differences  between  them.  And  so,  having 
"  certain  quarters  or  parts  of  the  country  thus  assigned  to  them, 
"  many  of  them  returned  to  advertise  their  parents  of  the  good 
"  adventure  that  had  happened  unto  them,  in  a  rich  country 
'  likely  to  abound  in  all  temporal  benedictions.  Returning, 
"  they  brought  back  with  them  from  their  parents  and  friends, 
"  whatever  it  pleased  them  to  bestow  upon  them,  and  many  of 
"  them  married,  and  brought  their  wives  into  Calabria,  where 
"  they  built  certain  small  towns  and  cities,  to  which  their  own 
"  houses  were  as  walls,  as  namely,  St.  Xist,  La  Garde,  La  Vica- 
"  ricis,  les  Rousses,  Argentier,  St.  Vincent's,  and  Montolieu. 
"  The  lords  of  the  said  countries  thought  themselves  happy  in 
"  that  they  had  met  with  so  good  subjects,  who  had  peopled 
"  lands,  and  made  them  to  abound  with  all  manner  of  fruits ; 
"  but  principally  because  they  found  them  to  be  honest  men, 
"  and  of  a  good  conscience,  yielding  unto  them  all  those  duties 
"  that  they  could  expect  from  the  best  of  subjects.  Only  their 
"  pastors  and  priests  complained  that  these  people  lived  not  in 
"  the  matter  of  religion  as  others  did.  They  made  none  of 
"  their  children  priests  or  nuns,  they  were  not  fond  of  chanting, 
"  of  tapers,  of  lamps,  of  bells,  no,  nor  of  masses  for  their  dead. 
"  They  had  built  certain  temples,  but  had  not  adorned  them 
"  with  images;  and  they  went  not  on  pilgrimage;  they  caused 
"  their  children  also  to  be  instructed  by  certain  strange  and 
"  unknown  schoolmasters,  to  whom  they  yield  a  great  deal 
"  more  honour  than  to  themselves,  paying  nothing  to  them, 
"  except  their  tythes,  according  to  the  agreement  with  their 
"  lords.  They  doubted,  therefore,  that  the  said  people  had 
"  imbibed  some  particular  belief,  which  hindered  them  from 
"  mingling  themselves  and  joining  in  alliance  with  the  home-born 
"  people  of  the  land,  and  that  they  had  no  good  opinion  of  the 
"  church  of  Rome.     The  lords  of  those  places  beginning  to  fear 


NOTES.  419 

"  that  if  tlie  pope  should  take  notice,  that  so  near  his  seat,  there 
"  was  a  kind  of  people  who  contemned  the  laws  of  the  Romish 
"  church,  they  might  chance  to  lose  them,  detained  their  priests 
"  from  complaining  of  these  people,  who  in  every  thing  else  had 
"  shown  themselves  to  be  honest  men,  and  who  had  enriched 
"  the  whole  country,  even  the  priests  themselves.  Thus  were 
"  they  maintained  by  their  lords  against  all  envy  ;  and  that,  not- 
"  withstanding  the  priests,  until  the  year  1560,  at  which  time 
'  they  could  no  longer  defend  them  against  the  pope's  thunder- 
"  bolts."^ 

My  apology  for  inserting  this  extended  extract  will  be  found 
in  its  characteristic  simplicity,  and  in  the  fact  that  it  contains 
nearly  all  that  is  known  respecting  a  numerous  and  interesting 
people  through  an  interval  of  nearly  two  centuries.  Ten  years 
had  scarcely  passed,  since  this  emigration  from  the  valley  of 
Pragela  and  Dauphine,  when  the  Waldenses  of  those  districts, 
and  such  as  were  scattered  through  Ambrun,  Vienna,  Geneva, 
Savoy,  and  Avignon,  with  their  neighbouring  provinces,  were 
assailed  by  persecution.  Clement,  the  anti-pope,  whose  contest 
with  Urban  the  sixth  had  proved  so  favourable  to  the  cause  of 
the  reformed  opinions  as  promulgated  by  WyclifFe,  had  fixed 
his  residence  at  Avignon  ;  and  in  the  year  1380,  he  empowered 
the  mendicant,  Francis  Borelli,  to  make  inquisition  for  heresy 
through  the  French  territories,  and  those  of  the  allies  of  France. 
The  prelates  within  those  limits, — for  there  alone  was  the  au- 
thority of  Clement  admitted, — were  required  to  aid  the  zeal  of 
the  friar,  that  no  diocese  might  be  found  a  resting  place  to  the 
proscribed  Waldensian.  Borelli  opened  his  commission  at 
Ambrun,  by  calling  upon  the  inhabitants  of  Erassiniere,  of  Ar- 
gentier,  and  of  the  valley  Pute,  to  appear  before  him,  under 
pain  of  excommunicaton.  The  summons  was  disregarded,  and 
"  the  last,  and  most  direful  excommunication  of  offenders,"  was 
pronounced.  From  the  year  1380,  to  the  year  1393,  the  men- 
dicant continued  to  exercise  his  authority  with  the  same  pitiless 
severity.  The  goods  of  such  as  were  convicted,  were  divided  ; 
two-thirds   to  the  clergy,  and  one  to  the  magistrate  ;  and  all 


Perrin,  Hist.  c. 
E    E    2 


420  NOTES. 

persons,  as  they  would  avoid  the  penalties  denounced  against 
the  favourers  of  heretics,  were  forbidden  to  hold  the  remotest 
intercourse  with  them,  or  to  perform,  in  their  behalf,  the  hum- 
blest service  of  humanity.  The  heretic,  himself,  if  a  priest,  was 
deprived  of  his  benefice  and  of  his  office  ;  if  a  layman,  his  will 
became  invalid,  his  inheritance  lost,  and  along  with  it  every 
virtue  which  the  sacraments  were  supposed  to  convey,  together 
with  the  rights  of  sepulture.  Nor  were  these  attempts  to  crush 
the  race  which  had  so  long  protested  against  the  corruptions  of 
the  mystical  Babylon,  without  some  appearance  of  success.  In 
the  valley  Pute  alone,  tlie  names  of  a  hundred  and  fifty  men 
were  preserved  as  those  of  persons  who  had  fallen  into  the 
hands  of  the  emissaries  of  Clement,  and  who  had  sealed  their 
faith  with  their  blood ;  not  to  mention  "  divers  women,  with 
"  many  of  their  sons  and  daughters,  well  stricken  in  years."  ^ 


Note  D. 

It  was  not  until  towards  the  close  of  the  ninth  century,  that 
the  Bohemians  began  to  renounce  idolatry ;  and,  to  adopt  the 
language  of  the  historians  of  their  sufferings,  when  they  "  re- 
"  ceived  the  first  light  of  the  gospel,  the  cross  was  the  conco- 
"  mitant  of  it,  according  to  the  will  of  Christ,  who,  as  he  did 
"  establish  the  church  by  his  own  blood,  so  he  sprinkled  it  with 
"  the  blood  of  martyrs,  that  it  might  be  fruitful.  This  is  the 
"  council  of  divine  wisdom,  that  we  may  hope  in  Christ,  and  not 
"  for  the  things  of  this  life  ;  therefore  the  gospel  cost  the  Bohe- 
"  mians  some  of  their  blood.'"  This  test  of  christian  sincerity 
arose,  in  the  first  instance,  from  the  resentment  of  a  portion  of 

5  Perriii,  Hist  c.  iii.  subscribed,"  In  onr  banishment  in  the 

'  The  following  is  the   title  of  the  '■  year  1632,  N.N.N.  &c."     The  facts 

book  frora  which  the  materials  of  the  of  the  story  related,  were  designed  to 

above  sketch  are  selected.    "  The  His-  improve   an    edition   of  the   Acts  and 

"  torj  of  the  Bohemian  Persecution,  Monuments,  and  the  Bohemian  pastors 

"  from  the  beginning  of  their  Conver-  state,   that   they  were  collected  from 

"  sion  to  Christianity  in  the  year  894  their  own    writers,   or  supplied   from 

"  to   the    year   1632,    Ferdinand   the  observation.   The  work  was  separately 

"  Second,  of  Austria,  reigning."     The  printed  in  this  country  in  16.50. 
epistle  "  To  the  Godly  Reader,"  is  thus 


NOTES.  421 

their  rulers  who  still  adhered  to  the  ancient  superstitions  ;  and 
afterwards,  from  the  obtrusive  domination  of  the  pontiffs. 
Nearly  a  century  had  passed  since  the  introduction  of  the 
gospel  into  that  kingdom,  when  an  eftbrt  was  made  to  retain  the 
use  of  the  popular  language  in  the  offices  of  the  church,  and  it 
was  made  successfully.  But  the  privilege  which  one  pope  had 
conceded  in  977,  was  prohibited  in  the  most  imperative  terms 
by  another  in  1179.  So  late,  however,  as  the  year  1197,  an 
advocate  of  clerical  celibacy  among  the  Bohemians  had  nearly 
forfeited  his  life  by  his  temerity  in  publicly  abetting  that  inno- 
vation ;  nor  was  it  until  the  middle  of  the  fourteenth  century 
that  communion  in  one  kind  became  at  all  the  practice  of  that 
people.  Three  of  their  reformers  were  contemporary  with 
WyclifFe,  and  their  names  and  opinions  may  be  regarded  as 
familiar  to  Anne  of  Bohemia. 

Melice,  the  first  of  these,  was  a  native  of  Prague,  and  of 
noble  family.  His  powers  as  a  preacher  secured  him  a  large 
auditory,  and  he,  ere  long,  proceeded  "  to  exhort  the  people 
"  unto  a  frequent  communion  in  both  kinds  ;  to  complain  much 
"  of  spiritual  desolation  ;  to  rebuke  divers  abuses  and  abomi- 
"  nations,  being  much  helped  with  the  godly  endeavours  of  his 
"  faithful  colleague,  Conrade  Strickna,  a  man  eminent  for 
"  learning  and  eloquence."  By  their  joint  labours  considerable 
reformation  is  said  to  have  been  effected  in  the  morals  of  the 
city.  But  Melice  felt  himself  powerfully  urged  to  visit  Rome, 
and  to  lift  up  his  voice  of  reproof,  as  in  the  presence  of  the 
power  which  had  so  desolated  the  church  of  God.  With 
prayers,  and  tears,  and  fastings,  he  waited  to  ascertain,  if  pos- 
sible, the  real  source  of  this  propelling  influence  which  he  found 
it  so  difficult  to  resist;  and  journeying  at  length  to  the  seat  of 
Antichrist,  he  placarded  the  most  obnoxious  of  his  opinions  on 
the  houses  of  the  principal  ecclesiastics,  and  avowed  them 
publicly.  He  was,  of  course,  speedily  apprehended,  committed 
to  prison,  and  condemned  as  a  heretic.  In  1  366,  however,  his 
enemies  are  said  to  have  consulted  their  personal  safety,  by 
releasing  him ;  and  his  decease,  in  1374,  was  "  five  years  after 
"  the  happy  dissolution  of  his  colleague  Strickna." 

The  same   cause,  it  appears,  was  afterwards   sustained,  and 


422  NOTES. 

with  still  more  efficiency,  by  Matthias  Janovius,  who  was  also  a 
native  of  Prague,  but,  according  to  the  historians  before  cited, 
he  was  generally  called  the   Parisian,  from  his  having  passed 
nine  years  as  a  student  in  the  university  of  Paris.     The  same 
writers  state,  that  "  he  was  confessor  to  Charles  the  fourth,  and 
"  more  fervent  and  zealous  than  his  predecessors  in  defending 
"  communion  in  both  kinds.     He  wrote  many  things,  as.  Of  the 
"  Life  of  a  Christian,   Of  Hypocrisy,   Of  Antichrist,    Of  the 
"  Frequent  Receiving  of  the  Sacrament  of  the  Body  and  the 
**  Blood  of  Christ.     Histories  tell  us,   that   this  Parisian,  to- 
"  gether  with  some  other  learned  men,  went  to  Charles,  when 
"  promoted    unto    kingly  dignity,  and   requested  him  to    call 
"  an  oecumenical  council  for  the  church's  reformation.     But  the 
"  king  returned  unto  them  this  answer  ;   that  it  was  not  in  his 
"  power,  but  that  it  belonged  unto  the  ghostly  father,  the  pope 
"  of  Rome  ;  and  that,  therefore,  he  would  write  in  their  behalf, 
"  and  entreat  a  council  for  them  ;   which,  after  he  had  done,  the 
"  pope  was  provoked,  and  did  so  importune  him  for  the  punish- 
•'  ment  of  those  rash  and  heretical  men,   that  Charles,  being 
"  maddened  with  the  authority  of  the  pope,  although  he  loved 
"  this  Parisian  much,  commanded  him  to  depart  his  kingdom  ; 
"  and  though   indeed  he  returned  afterwards,   yet  led  he  the 
*'  remainder  of  his   life  in  private,   dying   in   the   year   1.S94, 
"  November  30th.     Now  Janovius  being  banished,  the  adver- 
"  saries  forbade  and  abolished   communion   in  both  kinds,  not 
"  only  in  the  church  of  Aix,  but  everywhere   in   Prague,  and 
"  through    the    whole   kingdom.      So  that    the    most   constant 
"  among   them  could  not  celebrate  and  receive  the  sacrament 
"  after  their  accustomed  manner,  excepting  in  private  houses, 
"  and  after  that  in  woods  and  caves,   and  there  not  without 
"  hazard  of  their  lives  and  much  persecution.     For  they  were 
"  set  upon  in  the  ways  ;  plundered,  beaten,  and   drowned  in 
"  rivers  ;   so  that  at  length  they  were  necessitated  to  go  to- 
"  gether  armed,  and  in  strong  companies,  which  from  that  time 
"  continued  until  the  days  of  Huss.     Letters  patent,  also,  were 
"  extorted    from    Charles, — though  Hajecius   saith   they  were 
*'  sent  to  the  prelates  of  his   own  accord, — wherein  an  inquisi- 
"  tion  is  ordained,  and  punishment  by  fire   determined    to  be 


NOTES.  423 

"  inflicted  upon  those  who  depart  from  the  faith  and  ceremonies 
"  of  the  church  of  Rome.  It  is  extant  in  Hajecius,  and  was 
"  proclaimed  on  the  18th  of  September,  in  the  year  1376, 
"  of  which  this  was  the  chief  effect ;  that  diligent  care  was 
"  afterwards  had  that  none  but  the  pope's  creatures  might  be 
"  admitted  into  the  places  of  magistracy  and  public  offices,  who 
"  might  serve  as  a  bridle  to  restrain  the  commonalty.  We  find 
"  it  also  recorded,  that  this  Parisian,  finding  his  death  approach- 
"  ing,  gave  this  comfort  among  others  to  his  friends  :  '  The 
"  rage  of  the  enemies  of  truth  hath  now  prevailed  against  us, 
"  but  this  shall  not  be  always,  for  an  ignoble  people  shall  arise 
"  without  sword  or  power,  over  whom  they  shall  not  be  able  to 
"  prevail.'  " 

Such  was  the  religious  character  of  the  Bohemians,  a  people 
with  whom  the  queen  of  England  had  been  principally  con- 
nected previous  to  her  appearance  in  this  island  as  the  consort 
of  Richard.  It  is  not  altogether  a  mystery,  therefore,  that  her 
■views  of  religion  should  have  been  somewhat  more  enlightened 
than  those  generally  adopted  by  persons  of  her  rank, — or  in- 
deed by  persons  of  any  rank  in  that  age.  Her  attendants, 
during  her  twelve  years'  residence  in  this  country,  were  natives 
of  Bohemia ;  and  persons,  it  appears,  who  participated  in  her 
religious  feelings.  The  mind  of  Wycliffe  was  one  with  which 
the  devout  Bohemian  could  readily  have  sympathized  ;  and  it  is 
certain  that  on  the  death  of  the  queen,  her  attendants  conveyed 
many  of  the  writings  of  the  English  reformer  to  their  home,' 
where  they  served  to  prepare  the  oppressed  for  the  struggle 
which  ensued  under  Jerome  and  Huss,  the  illustrious  successors 
of  Melice,  Strickna,  and  Janovius. 

2  Turner,  Hist.  v.  198.     Hist.  Bohem.  ^oeas  Silvius,  c.  xxw.  60. 


APPENDIX. 


No.  I. 


Gen.  i.  In  the  bigynnyng  God  made  of  nought  hevene  and  erthe, 
forsothe  the  erthe  was  idil  and  voyde,  and  derknessis  weren  on  the  face 
of  deppe  ;  and  the  Spiryt  of  the  Lord  was  borne  on  the  watris.  And 
God  sayde,  light  be  maad,  and  light  was  maad.  And  God  saw  the  light 
that  it  was  good,  and  he  departide  the  light  fro  derknessis,  and  he  clepide 
the  light  day,  and  the  derknessis  nyght;  and  the  eventid,  and  morntid 
was  maad  one  day.  And  God  seyde,  the  firmament  be  maad  in  the 
myddis  of  watris,  and  departe  watris  fro  watris  :  and  God  made  the 
firmament,  and  departed  the  watris  that  weren  undir  the  firmament,  fro 
those  watris  that  weren  on  the  firmament,  and  it  was  doon  so,  and  God 
clepide  the  firmament  hevene,  and  the  eventid  and  the  morntid  was 
maad  the  seciinde  day. 

Gen.  xlv.  Joseph  myghte  not  lengtir  absteyne  him  silf,  while  manye 
men  stooden  bifore.  Wherefore  he  comandide,  that  alle  men  sliulden 
go  out  and  that  noon  alyen  were  present  in  the  knowing  of  Joseph  and 
liise  britheren.  And  Joseph  reiside  the  vois  with  weping,  which  Egyp- 
tyans  hevden,  and  al  the  hows  of  Farao.  And  he  seyde  to  hise  britheren, 
I  am  Joseph,  ly  veth  my  fadir  yit  ?  The  britheren  myghlen  not  ansvvere, 
and  weren  a  gast  by  fiil  mych  drede  ;  to  whiche  he  seyde  mekely,  neighe 
ye  to  me,  and  whanne  they  hadden  neighid  nigh,  he  seyde,  I  am  Joseph 
youre  brotliir  whom  ye  seelden  in  to  Egypt,  nyle  ye  drede,  nether  seme 
it  to  be  hard  to  you  that  ye  seelden  me  into  these  cuntreys,  for  God 
hath  sent  me  bifore  you  in  to  Egypt  for  youre  heeltlie,  for  it  is  tweyyeer 
that  hungur  bigan  to  be  in  the  londe,  yit  fyve  yeer  suen  in  wliiih  men 
shall  not  mowe  erthe,  nether  repe,  and  God  bifore  sente  me,  that  ye  be 
reserved  in  erthe  and  mown  have  metis  to  lyve.  I  was  sent  liidur,  not 
by  youre  councel,  but  by  Goddis  wille.— MS.  Bib.  Reg. 


APPENDIX.  425 


No.   II.* 

Concluswnes  J.  Wiclefi  de  Sacramento  Altaris.  MS.  in  Hyp. 

•^  Bodl.  163. 

1.  HosTiA  consecrata  quam  videmus  in  Altari  nee  est  Cliristus  nee 
aliqiia  siii  pars,  sed  efEeax  ejus  signiim. 

2.  Nulhis  viator  sufficit  oculo  corporali,  sed  fide  Christum  videre  in 
liostia  consecrata. 

3.  Olim  fuit  fides  Ecclesie  Romane  in  prof'essione  Berengarii  quod 
panis  et  vinum  que  remanent  post  benedictionem  sunt  hostia  consecrata. 

4.  Eukaristia  habet  virtute  verborum  sacramentalium  tarn  corpus  quam 
sanguinem  Christi  vere  et  realiter  ad  "quemlibet  ejus  punctum.  »  Sic  MS. 

5.  Transubstantiacio,  ydeniptificacio  et  impanacio  quibus  utimtur 
baptiste  signorum  in  materia  de  eukaristia  non  sunt  fundabilss  in 
Scriptura. 

6.  Repugnat  Sanctorum  sentenciis  asserere  quod  sit  accidens  sine 
subjecto  in  hostia  veritatis, 

7.  Sacramentum  Eukaristie  est  in  natura  sua  panis  aut  vinum,  habens 
virtute  verborum  sacramentalium  verum  corpus  et  sanguinem  Christi  ad 
quemlibet  ejus  punctum. 

8.  Sacramentum  Eukaristie  est  in  figura  corpus  Christi  et  sanguis,  in 
que  transubstanciatur  panis  aut  vinum  cujus  remanet  post  consecracionem 
aliquitas  licet  quoad  consideracionem  fidelium  sit  sopita. 

9.  Quod  accidens  sit  sine  subjecto  non  est  fundabile,  sed  si  sic  Deus 
adnichilatur  et  perit  quilibet  articulus  fidei  Christiane. 

10.  Quecunque  persona  vei  secta  est  nimis  heretica  que  pertinaciter 
defenderit  quod  Sacramentum  Altaris  est  panis  per  se  existens  in  natura 
infinitum  abjectior  et  imperfectior  pane  equino. 

11.  Quicunque  pertinaciter  defendet  quod  dictum  Sacramentum  sit 
accidens,  quaUtas,  quantitas  ant  eariim  aggrogatio  iucidit  in  iieresim 
supradictam. 

12.  Panis  triticeus  in  quo  sohnn  licet  eonficere,  est  in  natura  infinitum 
perfectior  pane  fabino  vel  ratonis,  quorum  uterque  in  natura  est  perfec- 
tior  accidente. 


No.  III. 
Diffinitio    facia    par     Cancellarium     et    Doctores     Utnoera'datis  Spelman. 
Oxonii,  de  Sacramento  /lltaris  contra  Ojnnioncs  fVycliJfianas  :  627.    Ex. 
alias  Sententia  Willielmi  Cancellarii  Oxon.  contra  M.  J.  Wv-  ??^:,  "^P" 

y     Bodl.  16.f. 

clyff  residentem  in   Cathedra. 

WiLLiELMUs  de  "Barton  Cancellarius  Universitatis  Oxon.     Omnibus  *  Berion. 
dicte  Universitatis  filiis  ad  quos  presens  nostrum  mandatum  pervenerit, 
sahitem,  et  mandatis   nostris  firmiter  obedire.      Ad   nostrum  non   sine 

•  Several  of  the  papers  in  this  and        and  it  will  be  seen,  tliat  I  Iiave  genc- 
the    preceding   Appendix    have    been        rally  retained  bis  emendations, 
printed   from  Mr.  Lewis's  Collection. 


426  APPENDIX. 

b  omiies.       grandi    displicentia  pervenit  atiditiini,    quod    cum   ''omnium   heiesium 
«  pcrniciosis  inventores,  defensores,  seu  fantoies,  cum  eorum    '^  perniciis  dogmatibus 
sint  per  sacros  Canones  sententia  majoris   Excoinmunicationis  damna- 
biliter  involuti,  et  sic  a  cunctis  Catliolicis  racionabiliter  evitandi :    Non- 
nulli  tamen  maligni  spiritus  lepleti  concilio  in  insaniam  mentis  piodiicti, 
<•  similiter,    molientes  tunicam  Domini  ''scilicet  Sancte  Ecclesie  scindeie  unitatem, 
qnasdam  hereses  olim  ab  Ecclesia  solenniter  condemnatas  :    Hiis  diebus, 
proh  dolor!  innovant,  et  tarn  in  ista  Universitate  istaquam  extra  publico 
dogmatizant;    duo  inter  alia  sua  docunienta  pestit'era  asserentes,  primo, 
in  .Sacramento  Altaris  substantiam  panis  materialis  et  vini,  quae  prius 
fuerunt  ante  consecrationem,  post   consecrationem   rcaliter   remancre. 
Secundo,  qiiod  execrabilius  est  auditu,  in  illo  venerabili  Sacramento  non 
esse  corpus  Chiisti  et  sanguinem  essentialiter,  nee  siibstanfialiter,  nee 
etiam  corporaliter,  sed  figurative,  sen  tropice,  sic  quod  Christus  non  est 
"=  presentia.   ibi  veraciter  in  sua  propria  •■  persona  corporali.     Ex  quibus  documenlis 
fides  catholica  periclitatur,  devocio  popiili  minoratur,  et  hec  Universitas 
mater  nostra  non  mediociiter  diffamatur.     Nos  igitur  advertentes  quod 
f  partus.        assertiones  hujusmodi  "^per  ^tempus  se  deteriores  haberent  si  diiicius  in 
hac  Universitate  sic  conniventibus  oculis  tolerentur,  convocavimus  pliires 
sacrae  Theologiae  Doctores  et  Juris  Canonici  Professores  quos  periciores 
credidimus,  et  preniissis  assertionibus  in  eorum  presentia  patenter  expo- 
sitis  ac  diligenter  discussis,  tandem  finalitcr  est  compertimi,  et  eorum 
fjudicio.       s  judiciisdeclaratum  ipsas  esse  ''errores  atque  determinationibus  Ecclesiae 
li  erroneas.     repugnantes,  contradictoriasque  eanuidem  esse  veritates  Cathoiicas,  et 
ex  dictis  sanctorum,  et  determinacionibus  Ecclesie  manifeste  sequentes ; 
videlicet  quod  per  verba  Sacramentalia  a  sacerdote  rite  prolata  panis  et 
vinum  in  Altari  in  vernm  corpus  Christi  et  sanguinem  transubstantiantur 
seu  substantialiter  convertuntur,  sic  quod  post  consecrationem  non  rema- 
nent in  illo  venerabili  Sacramento,  panis  materialis  et  vinum  que  prius 
secundum,  secundum  suas  substantias  sen  naturas,   sed  '  solum  species  eorundem, 
sub  quibus  speciebus  verum  corpus  Christi  et  sanguis  realiter  continentur, 
non  solum  figurative  seu  tropice,  sed  essentialiter,  substantialiter  ac  cor- 
poraliter, sic  quod  Christus   est  ibi  veraciter  in  sua  propria  presencia 
corporali,  hoc  credendum,   hoc  docendum,  hoc  contra  omnes  contradi- 
centes  viriliter  defendendum.     Hortamur  igitur  in  Domino,  et  auctoritate 
nostra  monemus  primo,  secundo  et  tertio,  ac  districtius  inhibemus,  pro 
prima  monicione  assignando  unum  diem ;  pro  secunda  alium  diem  ;  et  pro 
tertia  monicione  Canonica  ac  peremptoria  unum  alium  diem,  ne  quis  de 
cetcro    cujuscunque   gradus,  status   aut    conditionis  existat,   premissas 
aut.  duas  assertiones  erroneas  aut  earum  alteram,  in  scolis  '  vel  extra  scolas 

"seu  in   hac  Universitate  publice   teneat,  doceat  "aut  defendat  sub  pena 

incarcerationis,  et  suspencionis  ab  omni  actu  scolastico,  ac  eciam  sub 
pena  excommunicacionis  majoris  quam  in  omnes  et  singulos  in  hac  parte 
rebelles  et  nostris  monicionibus  non  parentes,  lapsis  ipsis  tribus  diebus 
pro  monicione  canonica  assignatis,  mora,  culpa  et  offensa  precedentibus, 
et  id  fieri  merito  exigentibnsfcrimus  in  his  scriptis,  quorum  omnium  abso- 
luciones,  et  absolvendi  potestatem,  preterqnam  in  mortis  articiilo,  nobis 
et  successoribus  nostris  specialiter  reservamns. 

Insuper   ut  homines   quamvis   non   propter  timorem   late    sentcntie 


APPENDIX.  427 

"propter  defectum  audiencie  a  talibus  doctrinis  iUicilis  retrahantnr,  et  »  arfde  sal- 
eoriiin  opiniones  erroiiee  sopiaiitur,  eadem  auctoritate  qua  prius  itione-  '^'"• 
imis  primo,  secundo, "  tertio,  ac  districcius  inliibemns,  ne  quis  de  cetero  °  add.  et. 
aliqiiem  publice   docentem,  tenentem,  sen  defendentem  premissas  duas 
asserciones  erroneas  aiit  eariim  alteram  in  scolis  vtl  extra  scolas  in  liac 
Universitate  quovismodo  aiidiat  vel  anscnitet,  sed  statim  sic  docentem 
tanquam  serpentem  venennni  pestiferiim  emittentem  fugiat  et  abscedat, 
sub    pena   excomnmnicationis   majoris,  et  omnes  et  singiilos   contrave- 
nientes    non   immerito   fulminande    et   sub    penis   aliis    superins    anno- 
tatis. 

Nomina   p  Doctorum   qui    presenti   decreto   specialiter   atFuerunt,  etPt««ereau- 
eidem  unanimiter  conscnsenuit  sunt  bee.  **™- 

Magister  Johannes  Lawndreyn  sacre  pagine  professor  et  secularis. 

Magister  Henricus  ")  Cronpe  Abbas  Monachus.  q  Gromp. 

Magister  Johannes  Chessham  de  ordine  predicatoruni. 

Magister  Willielmus  "^  Bruscomhe  de  eodem  ordine.  '  Brus. 

Magister  Johannes  Schypton  de  ordine  Angustinorum.  toumbe. 

Magister  Johannes  Tyssington  de  ordine  Rlinorum. 

Magister  Johannes  Loveye  de  ordine  Carmelitarnm. 

Magister  Johannes  ^Wellys  Monachus  de  Ramesey.  *  Welles. 

Magister  Johannes  Wolverton  de  ordine  predicatorum. 

Magister  Robertus  '  Rugge  S.  pagine  professor  et  secularis.  »  Riffge. 

Magister  Joannes  Moubray  Doctor  in  utroque  Jure. 

Magister  Joannes  Gascoynge  Doctor  in  Decretis. 

Convocatis  igitnr  prefatis  Doctoribus  "  in  eorum  donium  et  plena  deli-  "  ui  est  dic- 
beratione  habita  de  premissis,  ex  omnium  nostrum  unanimi  concilio  et  '""'• 
assensu,  presens  mandatum  emanare  decrevimus.     In  quornm  omnium 
singulorum  testimonium,  sigillum  officii  "fecimus  liiis  opponi.  x  ins.  nostri. 


No.  IV. 

Litera  quam  misit  Archiepiscoirus  \_W'ilUelmus  Courtney]  Cancel-  MS.  in  Hyp. 
lario  Oxon.   ut  assisteret  Fratri  Pctro  Stokys  in  Puhlicatione  ^^\  ^.j  ^^' 
ejusdem  Commissionis  sub  hac  Forma. 

In  Christo  fili,  Miramur   non   modicum  et  tnrbamur  quod  cum  ille 
Magister  Nicholaus  Herforde  super  prjedicationibus  et  doctrina  hereti- 
carum  et  erronearum  "  concionum  notorie  reddatur  snspectus,  sicut  nos  »  Sic  MS. 
vobis  alias  retulisse  meminimus,  extunc  vos  sibi  adeo  ^  favorabilem  exhi-  procoiulu. 
...  .     .  .      IT    •  .  siomim. 

bnistis  ut  excellenciorem  et  digniorem  •=  ammi  sermonem  in  Universitate  ^  gj^  ^jg 

vestra  vobis  et  Cancellario  qui  pro  tempore  fuerit  deputatum,  ut  nostris,  c  sic  MS. 
assignaretis    eidem   Nicolao    absque   difficultate   qualibet  inibi   praedi-  for  proanni. 
candum.     Vobis  ergo  consulimus  et  hortamur  in  visceribus  Jesu  Christi 
quod  talibus  nullum  de  ct  tero  prssumatis  impartiri  favorem,  ne  ipsoriim 
secla  et  numero  unus  esse  videamini,  et  exinde  contra  vos  officii  vestri 
debitum  nos   oporteat  exercere.     Quia  adversus  liujusmodi  praesnmp-  a  s,c  ms. 
torum  aiidaciam    Dominus  noster    Rex  ot  proceres  regni  in   processus  !>">  ""^'ri^ 
nostri  subsidium  nobis  et  suffraganeis  '^  vcstris  sic  ''  premiserunt  assistere,  ^  i^"^'*"'"^'- 


428  APPENDIX. 

quod  per  Dei  gratiam  diiicius  non  regnabunt.     Et  ut  talium  praesunip- 

■^  Sic  MS.      toium  consortia  et  opiniones  erroneas  abhorrere  •■  dicamini  dilecto  filio 

pro  disca-      n,eo  fratri  Petro  Stokys  sacrje  paginae  professori  ordinis  Carmclitanim 

f  Sic  MS       '°  publicatione  literarum  nostrarum,   sibi  contra   fconciones  biijusmodi 

pro  (oiiclu-    directarum  pro  defencione  catholicfe  fidei  viriliter  adhaerere  curetis,  et 

siones.  literas  illas  in   scholis  theologicis  Universitatis  prajdictas  per  Bcdelliim 

illius   facultatis  in  proxima  lectura  inibi  facienda  absque    diniinntione 

quacunque  faciatis  effectualiter  publicari,  nobis  illico  rescribentes  quid 

feceritis  in  bac  parte.      Scriptum  in  mancrio  nostro  de  Otteforde  penul- 

timo  die  Maii.  Semper  in  Christo  valete. 


No.  VI. 
Confessio  Mag'istr'i  Johannis  Wycclyff. 

Sepe  confessus  sum  et  adhuc  confiteor  quod  idem  corpus  Cbristi  in 
nuniero,  quod  fuit  assumptnm  de  Virgine,  quod  passum  est  in  cruce, 
qnod  pro  sancto  tiifluo  Jacuit  in  sepulchro,  quod  tercia  die  resurrexit, 
quod  post  40  dies  ascendit  in  coelum,  et  quod  sedet  perpetuo  ad  dextram 
Dei  Patris ;    ipsum,  inquam,  idem  corpus  et  eadcm  substantia  est  vere 
et  realiter  panis  sacramentalis  vel  bo>tia  consecrat.i  quani  lideies  sen- 
ciunt  in  manibus  sacerdotis,  cujus  probacio  est  quia  Christus  qui  mentiri 
non  potest  sic  asseiit.     Non  tamen  audeo  dicere  quod  corpus  Cbristi  sit 
essentialiter,   substantialiter,  corporaliter  vel  ydemptice  ille  panis  sicut 
corpus  Cbristi  extensuni  est  ille  panis  :  Std  ipsum  corpus  non  est  extense 
vol  dimensionaliter  ille  panis.     Credimus  enim  quod  triplex  est  modus 
essendi  corpus  Cbristi  in  bostia  consecrata  scilicet,  viitualis,  spirituaHs, 
et  sacramentalis.     Vntiialis  quo  benefacit  jier  totum  suum  dominum,  se- 
cundum bona  nature  vel  gratie.     IModus  a  item  essendi  spiritualis  est  quo 
corpus  Cbristi  est  in  Eucbaristia  et  Sanctis  per  gratiam.     Et  tercius  est 
modus  essendi  sacramentalis  quo  corpus  Cbristi  singiilariter  in  bostia  con- 
secrata, et  sicut  secundus  modus  perexigit  primnm  ;    ita  tercius  modus 
secundum    perexigit  (juia  impossibile   est   prescituui   carentem   fide  se. 
cundum  justiciam  presenteni  conficere.      Qui  ergo  credit  >ive  conficiat 
sive  non  conficiat  manducavit,  ut  dicit  Beatus  Augustinus  super  Joan- 
neni  Omelia  25.     Et  iste  modus  essendi  spiritualis  est  verior  in  anima. 
Est  eciam  vedor  et  realior   qu-;m   prior  modus  essendi,  vel  secundum 
meiubrum  secundi   modi  essendi  in  bostia  consecrata,  cum  sit  per  se 
causa  illius  modi  vel  efficiens  vel  finalis,  et  per  se  causa  est  magis  verius 
Ens  suo  causato.     Modus  autem  essendi  quo  corpus  Cbristi  est  in  bostia 
est  modus  verus  et  realis,  cum  autorum  numerus  qui  mentiri  non  potest 
dixit,  boc  est  corpus  meum,  et  reliquit  suis  sacerdotibiis  virtiitem  simi- 
liter  faciendi.      Hoc  autem    totum   ex   fide   scriptura>  colligitur.     Ideo 
Cbristus  est  specialiori  modo  in  isto  Sacramento  quam  in  aliis.     Cum  sit 
simul  Veritas  et  figura,  non  est  autem  sic  secundum  alia  sacramenta, 
patet  iste   miraculosus  modus   essendi   sacramentalis.     Cultores    autem 
signoruni  nesciuut  fundare  quod  in  suo  sacramento  est  realiter  corpus 


APPENDIX.  429 

('liiisti.  Se.d  preter  istos  ties  modos  esscndi  sunt  alii  tres  modi  realiores 
ct  verioics  quos  corpus  Clnisti  appropriate  habet  in  coelo  sc.  modus 
essendi  substantialitcr,  corporaliter  et  dimensionaliter.  Et  groose  con- 
cipientes  non  intelligunt  alium-  modnm  essendi  naturalis  substanciae 
prapter  illos.  Illi  auteni  sunt  valde  indi'positi  ad  concipiendum  archana 
Eucharistic,  et  subtilitatem  scripturae.  Ideo  dico  illis  quod  duo  modi 
priores  in  substancia  corporali  coincidunt,  non  quod  esse  substantialitcr 
consequitur  corpus  Christi  secundum  racioncm  qua  corpus  Christi.  Mo- 
dus autcm  essendi  diniensionalis  consequitur  ad  duos  priores,  sicut  passio 
ad  subjectum.  Et  quilibet  istorum  trium  moflorum  er'.t  realior  et  causa 
prior  quam  priores.  Nullo  alio  istorum  modorum  trium  est  corpus 
Christi  in  Sacramento  sed  in  ccelo  :  Quia  turn  feret  corpus  Christi  septi- 
pedale  in  hostia.  Sicut  eriio  corpus  Christi  est  in  ilia  bostia,  sic  est 
substantialiter,  corporaliter  ibidem,  et  dimensionaliter,  attendendo  ad 
modum  hostie  secundum  naturam  suam,  et  non  attendendo  ad  corpus 
Christi,  et  ad  naturam  suam,  ut  dictum  est  superius.  Et  ita  conceditiir 
quod  corpus  Christi  est  substancia  corporalis  in  hostia  consecrata.  JSic 
isto  tercio  niodo  in  ista  hostia  secundum  racionem  qua  est  ista  hostia,  sed 
non  secundum  racioncm  qua  corpus  Christi.  Et  ita  conceditur  quod 
corpus  Christi  est  quantumcunque  varie  quaniificatam  ibicum  sitquelibet 
pars  quantitativa  iUiiis  hostie,  et  tum  non  quantificatur  aliqua  hnjusmodi 
quantitate,  et  sic  est  varie  magnum  in  diversis  partibus  illius  hostie,  sed 
lion  in  se  lormaliter  magnum,  aliqua  tali  magnitudine.  Sed  multi  nius- 
sitant  super  isto  quod  sequitur  ex  ista  sentencia  quod  corpus  Christi  non 
sit  in  Eukaristia  aliter  quam  in  signo,  sic  autem  est  in  ymagine  crucifixi. 
Hie  dicunt  fideles  quod  corpus  Cliristi  non  est  in  celo  vel  in  humanitate 
assumpta  aliter  quam  in  signo,  est  tamen  ibi  aliter  quam  ut  in  signo. 
Nam  Sacramentum  in  quantum  hujusmodi  est  signnm,  et  hnmanitas  est 
signum,  cum  Luce  2"'°  ilicitur  quod  positus  est  hie  in  ruinam  et  in  resurrec- 
tionem  tnnltorum  ct  in  sigiium  ctii  contradicetur.  Et  secunda  pars  conclu- 
sionis  patet  ex  hoc  quod  alius  est  modiis  essendi  signum  corporis  Christi, 
et  alius  modus  essendi  vere  et  realiter  virtute  verbornm  Domini  corporis 
Christi.  Conceditur  tamen  quod  isti  duo  modi  inseparabiliter  comitantur. 
Hoc  tamen  signum  infinitum  est  prestancius  quam  signa  corporis  Christi 
in  lege  veteri,  vel  ymagines  in  lege  nova,  cum  sit  siraul  Veritas  et  figura. 
Intelligo  autem  dicta  mea  in  ista  materia,  secundum  logicam  scripture, 
nee  non  secundum  logicam  sanctorum  doctorum  et  decreti  Romane 
Ecclesie.  Quos  suppono  prndenter  fnisse  locutos.  Non  enim  valet 
scandalizare  totam  Romanam  Fcclesiam  quum  dicit  panem  et  vinum  esse 
post  consecrationem,  corpus  et  sanguinem  Jesu  Christi,  et  non  obstante 
errore  glosomium  ista  fides  mansit  continue  in  Ecclesia  eciam  apud 
laicos.  Cum  ergo  fidelis  non  optaret  comedcre  corporaliter  sed  spiri- 
tualiter  corpus  Chi  isti,  patet  quod  omnis  sciens  aptavit  ilium  modum 
spiritnalem  essendi  corporis  sui  cum  hostia  que  debet  comcdi  a  fideli  : 
Alium  autem  modum  essendi  cum  foret  supcrfluus  abstrahebat.  Unde 
infideles  murmurant  cum  illis  qui  abierunt  retrorsum  dicentes,  Dinus  est 
hie  sermo,  cum  corpus  sit  corporaliter  comedendum,  vel  cum  illis  obser- 
vatoribiis  legalium  legis  veteris  qui  non  putant  esse  prestanciorem  gradum 
in  signo  Eucharistie  quam  fuit  in  signis  legis  veteris,  vel  quam  est  in 


430  APPENDIX. 

signis  hnmanitus  institntis.  Et  hii  fingunt  quod  accidens  potest  fieri 
corpus  Christi,  et  quod  melius  et  planius  dixisset  Christus  hoc  accidens 
sine  subjecto  significat  corpus  meura.  Utraquc  autem  istarum  ex  igno- 
rancia  gradiium  in  signis  est  infideli  deterior.  Teneamns  eigo  quod 
virtute  verboium  Chiisti  panis  iste  fit  et  est  miraculose  corpus  Christi 
ultra  possibilitatem  signi  ad  hoc  hunianitus  instituti.  Veruntatem  ista 
unitas  vel  uiiio  sive  accejicio  non  attingit  ail  unitatem  ydempticam 
nunieralem  vel  unionem  ypostaticam,  sed  creditor  quod  sic  immediate 
post  illam,  et  sic  accidencia  corporalia  corporis  Christi  ut  quantitatis 
corporales  corporis  Christi  videntur  non  niultiplicati  comitantur  ad 
corpus  Christi  in  hostia,  et  per  idem  nee  alia  accidencia  respectiva  que 
fundantur  in  istis  quod  omnia  ista  accidencia  perexigunt  esse  corporale 
snbjecti  sui  ubicunque  fuerint.  Ut  si  hie  sic  septipedalitas,  color,  vel 
substancia  corporalis  corporis  Christi  tunc  hie  est  quod  corpus  Christi 
est  septipedale  coloratum  et  corporaliter  glorificatum,  et  per  consequens 
Christus  habet  hie  existenciam  corporalem,  quod  cum  sit  falsum  ne 
gandum  est  talia  accidentia  secundum  conditiones  materiales  multiplican 
comitautur  ad  corpus  Christi  in  hostia  consecrata.  Partes  autem  quan- 
titative corporis  Christi  habent  esse  spirituale  in  hostia,  immo  habent 
esse  sacramentale  ibidem,  cum  sunt  quodammodo  qnelibet  pars  quantita- 
tiva  istius  hostie,  et  multo  magis  multiplicatur  anima  Christi  per  hostiam 
secundum  quoddam  esse  spirituale  quam  est  illud  esse  quod  habet  in 
corpore  Christi  in  coelo.  Et  causa  hujus  multipiicacionis  auime  Christi  est 
quod  ipsa  est  principalius  ipso  corpore  persona  verbi.  Qualitates  autem 
immateriales  quae  subjectantur  in  anima  Christi  multiplicantur  cum  ipsa 
per  hostiam,  ut  scientia,  justicia  et  alie  virtutes  animae  Christi  que  non 
requirunt  pre-cxistentiam  corporalem  Christi  ubicunque  fuerint.  Ipse 
enim  fuerunt  cum  ipso,  quia  cum  ejus  anima  in  inferno.  Sicut  ergo  per 
totani  hostiam  est  Christus  virtuosus ;  sic  est  per  illam  virtus  Christi. 
Unde  Autor  de  divinis  officiis  quod  propter  esse  spirituale  corporis 
Christi  in  hostia,  est  ibi  concomitancia  Angelorum,  quia  tamen  sophisti- 
cari  otest  ista  oblacio  ex  defectu  potestatis  fidei,  et  verborum  presbyteri 
a  Sic  MS.  ideo  "me"  rehgiosi  adorant  conditionaliter  banc  hostiam  et  in  corpore 
Christi  quod  est  substancialiter  et  ineffabiliter  quietati.  Sed  ydiote 
remnrmurant  querentes  quomodo  corpus  est  ille  panis  sanctus  cum  non 
>>  Sic  MS.  '' sint  idem  secundum  substanciam  vel  naturam?  Sed  ipsos  oportet  ad- 
discere  fidem  de  incarnacione  quomodo  due  substancie  vel  nature  valde 
differentes  sunt  idem  suppositum  et  tamen  non  sunt  eedem,  quia  utraque 
earum  est  Christus  et  tunc  possunt  a  posse  non  ascendere  ad  cognos- 
cendum  istam  miraculosam  unionem  servata  utraque  natura  non  ydemp- 
tifica  vevbo  Dei.  Sed  oportet  eos  cognoscere  gradus  in  signis,  et  deposcere 
infundabilem  blasphemiam  de  fictis  miraculis  ascendentis,  et  credere 
virtutem  verborem  Christi,  et  tunc  possunt  cognoscere  quomodo  ille  panis 
•^  Sic  MS.  est  "^^bn.  miraculose,  vere,  realiter,  spiritualiter,  virtualiter,  et  sacramen- 
pro  bene.  taliter  corpus  Christi.  Sed  grossi  non  contentantur  de  istis  modis,  sed 
exigunt  quod  panis  ille  vel  saltem  per  ipsuui  sit  substantialiter  et  corpo- 
raliter corpus  Christi.  Sic  enim  volunt  zelus  blasphemorum  Christum 
comedere  sed  nod  possunt.  Adducitur  autem  super  hoc  testimonium 
Hugonis  de  Sencto  Victore  libro  2°  de  Sacratnentis  parte  8.  cap.  7.     Quem- 


APPENDIX.  431 

admodum  species  illic  cernitiir  res  vel  substantia  ibi  esse  non  creditur  : 
Sic  res  ibi  veraciler  et  siibstantialiter  presens  creditur  cujiis  species  non 
cernitiir.  Exemplum  ad  ilium  Doctorem  patet,  quia  ille  subtiliter  inculcat 
catholicam  sententiam  supradictam,  vult  enim  quod  species  sencibiliter 
cernitiir  ibi,  et  quod  ista  species  sit  essencialiter  panis  et  vinum  quod 
eciam  cernitur  licet  per  accideus,  ideo  sepe  vocat  ipsuiu  panem  et  vinum, 
que  sunt  alimenta  solita  et  principalis  substancia  alimenti  ut  patet  in 
dicto  cap.  et  cap.  sequenti.  Ibidem  autem  dicit  panem  dicit  habere  rem 
vel  substanciam  que  creditur  non  ibi  cernitur,  cum  sit  corpus  Christi. 
Sed  pro  isto  adverbio  substancialiter  notandum  quodcunque  suniitur 
simpliciter  pro  modo  substancie  sic  quod  idem  sit  corpus  Christi  esse 
ibi  substantialiter,  et  esse  ibi  modo  substancie.  Et  sic  loquitur  Hugo. 
Quandoque  snperaddit  reduplicative  racionem  corporis  in  quantum  talis 
substancia.  Et  sic  proprie  intelligo  ego  adverbia.  Unde  eodem  cap. 
dicitur  quod  corporaliter  secundum  corporis  et  sanguinis  Christi  virtutem 
Christum  sumimus  in  altari.  Quod  oportet  sic  intelligi  quod  spiritualiter 
sumimus  carnem  Christi.  Et  iste  est  verus  modus  corporis  licet  non  sit 
modus  consequens  corpus  in  quantum  corpus.  Quia  Johannis  6.  dicit 
Christu  C'aro  non  prodest  quicquam.  Cum  nee  sentencia  carnalis,  nee 
manducacio  corporalis  corporis  Domini  quicquam  prodest.  Nam  insen- 
sibiliter  sumitur  quantum  ad  formam  corporis  sui,  ut  dicit  doctor  cap.  9, 
ejusdem  partis,  sed  visibiliter  quoad  substanciam  sacraraenti.  Unde 
talis  equivocacio  facta  est  in  adverbiis  ad  excellenciam  Eukaristie  super 
figuras  legis  veteris  declarandam.  Nostra  autem  locucio  est  propria, 
quia  aliter  oporteret  concedere  quod  esse  substancialiter  sit  esse  acci- 
dentaliter  ;  esse  corporaliter,  sit  esse  spiritualiter;  esse  carnaliter  sit  esse 
virtnaliter;  et  esse  dimensive  sit  esse  multiplicative  ;  et  periret  modo  non 
distinccio.  Sicut  ergo  conceditur  quod  corpus  Christi  cernitur  vel  tenetur 
in  symbolis,  vel  in  hostia  et  sentitur,  quod  tamen  non  sic  "^mo'  quia  non  <i  Si. 
secundum  naturam  corporis  Christi  vel  in  quantum  ipsuni  corpus.  Sic 
conceditur  qiiod  corpus  Christi  est  in  hostia  modo  accidentali  substancie 
quia  modo  spirituali  et  sacramentali  presupponente  tres  alios  modos  reali- 
oi  es  ipsius  corporis  existere  causative :  Sic  autem  non  fuit  in  figuris  legis  ve- 
teris, vel  in  figuris  legis  nostre  humanitusinstitutis.  Etsic  possunt  distingui 
modus  prior  quo  est  in  celo,  et  modus  posterior  quo  est  in  Sacramento.  Sic 
autem  in  tribus  discrepamus  a  sectis  signorum.  Primo  in  hoc  quod  ponimus 
venerabile  sacramentum  altaris  esse  naturaliter  panem  et  vinum,  sed  sacra- 
mentaliter  corpus  Christi  et  sanguinem  ;  sed  secta  contraria  fingit  ipsum 
esse  vinum  ignotum  :  Accideus  sine  substancia  subjecta.  Et  ex  ista  radice 
erroris  puUulant  nimis  multe  varietates  erroris.  Nam  secta  nostra  adorat 
sacramentum,  non  ut  panis  aut  vii;'  substanciam  :  Sed  ut  corpus  Christi 
et  sanguinem.  Sed  secta  cultoruni  accidencium,  ut  credo,  adorat  hoc 
sacramentum  non  ut  est  accidens  sine  subjecto,  sed  ut  est  signum  sacra- 
mentale  corporis  Christi  et  sanguinis.  Signa  autem  cultus  sui  ostendunt 
quod  adorant  crncem  et  alias  ymagines  Ecclesie  que  habent  niinorem 
racionem  adoracionis  quam  hoc  venerabile  sacramentum.  Nam  in  qua- 
cnnque  substantia  crcata  est  deltas  realius  et  substancialius  quam  corpus 
Christi  est  in  hostia  consecrata?  Ideo  nisi  ipsa  fuerit  virtute  verborum 
Christi  corpus  *■  sum.  non  est  racio  tantc  cxcellcncio  adorandum.     Tercio  «  Sk 


432 


APPENDIX, 


fproiiuulcat 


B  propno 
sigi.avit. 


'  Sic  MS. 
>ro  accepit. 


k  Sic  MS. 
pro  AugU! 
tinus. 


secta  nostra  per  equ'ivocacionis  cletectionein,  et  aliariim  fallacianim  toUit 
argiicias  adversancinm,  lit  alifina  locuntur  sancti  de  sacrainento  tit  panis, 
et  aliqua  dicuiit  de  isto  non  ut  ydempticc,  sed  sacranientaliter  corpus 
Christi.      Sed    secta  adversariorum   '  incnlpat   difficnltates  iniitiles,   et 
fingit  con?eqiienter  niiracnla  de  operacionibtis  accidentis.     Sunt  autem 
ex  nostra  sententia  diffinicio  summi  jiidicis  Domini  nostri  Jeslui  Christi 
qui  in  cena  noctis  sue  tradicionis  accepit  paneni  in  manibus  suis,  bene- 
dixit  et  fregit  et  manducare  ex  eo  generaliter  precepit,  Hoc,  inquit,  est 
corpus  nieum.      Cum  autem  daretur  panis  quern  tociens  rep'.icavit  pro 
nomine  dandi  et  totum  residuum  ^  ppo.  sigt.  illi  qui  mentiri  non  potest 
ipsimi  esse  corpus  suum  :  manifestum  est  ex  autoritate  et  dictis  Cliristi, 
qtiod   panis  ille  fuit  sacramentaliter  corpus  suum.     Adducantur  autem 
septem  testes  ad  testificandum  Ecclesie  jndicis  hujus  sentenciam.    Primus 
est  beatus  Ignacins  Apostolis  contemporaneus  qui  ab  illis  ct  cum  illis 
''acre  a  Domino  sensum  suum,  et  recitat  enm  Lincolniensis  super  Ecclesi- 
astica  ierarchia  cap.  3.     Sacramentum,  inquit,  vel  Eitkaristia  est  corpus 
Christi.     Secundus  testis  Beatus  Cyprianus  in  epistola  sua  de  corpore 
Christi.     Calicem,  inquit,  accipiens  in  die  passionis  benedixit,  dedit  disci- 
pulis  suis,  dicens,  Accipite  et  bibite  ex  hoc  omnes,  liic  est  sanguis  testa- 
menti  qui  pro  multis  effundetur  in  remissionem  peccatorum ;  Amen  dico 
vobis,  non  biljam  amodo  ex  ista  creatura  vitis  usque  in  diem  quo  vobis- 
cum  bibam  novum  in   regno   patris  mei.      Quam  parte,  inquit  sanctus, 
invenimus  calicem  mixtiim  fiiisse,  quern  obtulet,  et  vinum  quern  sanguinem 
suum  dixit.     Tercius  testis  est  Beatus   Ambrosius  in  lib.  suo  de  sacra- 
mentis  et  ponitur  de  consecracione  dis.  2.  cap.     Panis  est  in  Altari,     Quod 
er at  panis,  inquit,  ante  consecracionem  jam  corpus  Christi  post  consecrationem. 
Quartus  testis  est  Beatus  Augustinus  in  quodam  sermone  exponens  illud 
Luce  34.  cognoverunt  eum  in  fraccione  panis  :  Non  oninis  panis,  inquit,  sid 
accipiens  benediccionem  Christi  Jit  corpus  Christi.     Ft  ponitur  in  Canone 
ubi  supra.     Qiiintiis  testis  est  Beatus  Jeromius  in  epistola  ad  Elvideam, 
Nos,  inquit,  audiamus  panem  qucm  fregit  Dominus,  deditqve  discipulis  suis 
esse  corpus  Domini  Salvatoris,  ipso  dicente  ad  eos,  Accipite  et  comedite,  hoc 
est  corpus  meum.     Sextus  testis  est  Decretuni   Romane  Ecclesie,  que 
sub  Nicolao  2°  et  114  Epist.  'dectavit  priidentur  secundum  rectani  logi- 
cam  que  debet  capi  a  tota  Ecclesia,  quod  panis  et  vinum  que  in  altari 
ponuntur  sunt  post  consecracionem  non  solum  sacramentum,  sed  verum 
corpus  et  sanguis  Domini  nostri  Jeshu  Christi,  ut  patet  in  can.  ubi  supra. 
Septimus  testis  est  usus  Ecclesie  que  in  canone  misse  habet,  ut  hec  ob- 
lacio  fiat  nobis  corpus  et  sanguis  Domini  nostri  Jhesu  Christi.     Illam  autem 
oblacionem  vocat  Ecclesia  terrenam  substanciani,  sicut  patet  in  seereto 
medie  misse  Natalis  Domini.     Ista  autem  septem  testimonia  sic  inficiunt 
glossatores,  qui  dicunt  tacite  omnia  talia  dicta  sanctorum  debere  intelligi 
per   suum   conlraiium,   et  sic    negari   finaliter   cum   scriptura.     Penset 
itaque  fidelis  si  sanum  fuerit  hereticare  vel  in  hoc  scaiidaiizare  hos  testes 
et  multos  similes.     Penset  2"  quid  tenderet  ad  honorem  corporis  Christi 
vel  devocionem  populi  quod  ipsum  corpus  dignissinnmi  sit  unum  accidens 
sine  subjecto,  quod  Augustinus  dicit  esse  non  posse,  vel  si  est,  est  unum 
vel  aliud  abjectissimum  in  natura.     'I'unc  inquam  loret   ''Aug'*  mens  ut 
constat  hereticus  qui  in  epistola  14  ad  Bonifacium  de  fide  Ecclesie  ita 


APPENDIX.  433 

sciibit.  Si,  inqiiit,  Sacramenta  qtiaudam  similitttdinon  rcrum  earum  qiioram 
sacramenta  sunt  non  haherent,  omniiio  sacramenta  von  essent.  Ex  hac  eciam 
simiUtudine  plerumque  jam  ipsanim  rerutn  nomina  accipiunt.  Siciit  ergo 
secundum  quendam  modum  sacramentum  corporis  Christi  corpus  Christi  est,  et 
sucramentum  sanguinis  Christi,  sanguis  Christi  est,  ita  sacramentum  fidei 
fides  est.  Ubi  planum  est  quod  loquitur  de  Sacramento  'sc"tico  quod  '  Sic  MS. 
tingitur  accidens  sine  subjecto.  Sed  que  rogo  similitudo  ejus  ad  corpus 
Cliristi  ?  Revera  fructus  illius  demencie  foret  blasfemare  in  Deuni, 
scandalizare  Sanctos,  et  illudere  Ecclesie  per  mendacia  accidentis.  Ad 
tantum  quidcm  Testimonium  Sanctorum  per  glosatores  subveititur,  quod 
committo  sensui  equivoco  quodcunque  dictum  eciam  scripture  non  facit 
fidem.  Postremo  scribit  Hyllarius  ut  recitatur  inde  consecra  di  2.  Corpus 
Christi  quod  sumitur  de  altari  figura  est  dum  panis  et  vinum  extra  videtur: 
Videas  autem  cum  corpus  et  sanguis  Christi  in  veritate  interius  creditur. 
Ecce  qnam  plane  panis  et  vinum  sunt  hoc  sacramentum,  nt  dicit  de- 
cretum  Ego  Berengarius.  Unde  ad  delegendum  equivocacionem  illius 
niateiie  scribitur  ibidem  secundum  verba  Jeronimi,  De  hac  quidcm  hostia 
que  in  Christi  commemoracione  mirabiliter  fit,  edere  licet.  Ubi  planum  est 
(|uod  loquitur  de  esu  corporal!  et  distinguit  inter  has  duas  hostias  secun- 
dum sub?tancias  vel  naturas.  Licet  panis  iste  sit  secundum  racionem 
alia  quam  sacramentum  ipsum  corpus,  nt  ipse  sanctus  dicit  in  Epistola  ad 
'"Elbideam,  nt  recitatur  superius.  Et  patet  quam  spissi  cultores  signorum  "■  Helvidi. 
sunt  in  materia  ista  heretici.  Nedum  quia  imponunt  heresim  fidelibus  ""'• 
qui  elucidant  istam  fidem  ;  et  accusacio  de  hcresi  obligat  ad  pcnam 
talionis  ;  verum  quia  falsificant  et  sic  negant  Dominum  Jesum  Christum. 
Nam  nihil  debemus  secundum  fidem  Evangelii  Christo  credere,  si  non 
asseruit  panem  quem  cepit  in  manibus  ac  fregit,  esse  corpus  sntim  :  sicut 
dicit  Augustinus  super  °  p.  6G.  Si  ego  quicquam  dixero,  volite  ex  /wc  »  Sic  MS. 
credere;  sed  si  Christus  dicit,  re  qui  non  credit.  Hec  debemus  credere  P™  Psal. 
aliquem  secundum  Evangelium  si  non  istum.  Ideo  ve  generacioni  adul- 
tere  que  plus  credit  tcstimonio  Innocencii  vel  Raymundi  quam  sensui 
Evangelii  capto  a  Tcstibus  supradictis.  Idem  enim  esset  scandalizare 
illos  in  isto  et  imponere  eis  heresim  ex  perversioue  sensus  scripture, 
precipue  et  iterum  de  ore  perverso  Apostate  accumulantis  super  Eccle- 
siam  Romanum  mendacia  quibus  fingit  quod  Ecclesia  posterior  priori 
contraria  correxit  fidem  quod  sacramentum  istud  sit  accidens  sine  sub- 
jecto, et  non  verus  panis  ct  vinum,  ut  dicit  Evangelium  cum  decreto. 
Nam  teste  Augustino  tale  accidens  sine  subjecto  non  potest  sacerdos 
conficere.  Et  tamen  tantum  magnificant  sacerdotes  Baal,  niendaciter 
indubie  jnxta  scolani  patris  sui,  consecracionem  hujus  accidentis  quod 
rcputant  missas  alias  indignas  audiri,  vel  dissensientes  suis  niendaciis 
inhabiles  alicubi  graduaii ;  sed  credo  quod  finaliier  Veritas  vincet  eos. 


No.  VII.  Knighton 

"  "We  beleve  as  Crist  and  his  Apostolus  han  taugt  us,  that  the  Sacra-  Amil.apud 
ment  of  the  Auter  white  and  ronde,  and  lyk  tyl  oure  brede  or  ost  unsa-  ^-  Scnjito 
crede  is  verray  Goddus  body  in  fourme  of  brede,  and  if  it  be  bioken  in  or*',,ro.'-n 

VOL.   II.  F   F 


434  APPENDIX. 

tine  parties  as  the  Kirke  uses,  or  eiles  in  a  thousand,  everylk  one  of  these 
parties  is  the  same  Goddns  body,  and  ryth  so  as  the  persoue  of  Crist  is 
veray  God  and  verray  man,  verray  Godhede,  and  verray  manhede  rytli 
so  as  holy  Kirke  many  hnndrith  wynter  has  trowyde,  the  same  Sacra- 
ment is  verray  Goddus  body  and  verray  brede  :  as  it  is  forme  of  Goddus 
body  and  forme  of  brede  as  tecliith  Christ  and  his  Apostohis.  And  there- 
fore Seynt  Poule  nemeth  it  never  but  wlien  he  callus  it  brede,  and  he  be 
our  beleve  tok  his  wit  of  God  in  this :  and  the  argument  of  heretykus 
agayne  this  sentens,  *lyth  to  a  Cristene  man  to  assolve.  [And  right  as 
it  is  hercsie  to  belive  that  Crist  is  a  spirit  and  no  body  :]  so  it  is  heresie 
for  to  trowe  that  this  Sacrament  is  Goddus  body  and  no  brede  :  for  it  is 
both  togedur.  But  the  most  heresie  that  God  sufferyde  come  tyl  his 
Kyrke  is  to  trowe  that  this  Sacrament  is  an  accident  witliouten  a  sub- 
stance, and  may  on  no  wyse  be  Goddus  body  :  for  Crist  sayde  bewitnesse 
of  John  that  this  brede  is  my  bodij.  And  if  the  say  that  be  this  skylle  that 
holy  Kyrke  hat  bene  in  heresy  many  hundred  wynter,  sothe  it  is,  specially 
sytlien  the  fende  was  lousede  that  was  bewitnesse  of  angele  to  John  Evan- 
geliste  after  a  thousande  wynter  that  Crist  was  stenenyde  to  heven.  But 
it  is  to  suppose  that  many  seyntes  that  dyede  in  the  mene  tyme  before  her 
death  were  purede  of  this  erroure.  Owe  howe  grete  diversitie  is  betwene 
us  that  trowes  that  this  Sacrament  is  verray  brede  in  his  kynde,  and  be- 
tween heretykus  that  tell  us  that  this  is  an  accident  witliouten  a  sujet. 
For  before  that  (he  fende  fader  of  lesynguswas  iovvside,was  never  this 
gabbyng  contryvede.  And  how  grete  diversitie  is  between  us  that  trowes 
that  this  Sacrament  that  in  his  kinde  is  veray  brede  and  sacramentally 
Goddus  body,  and  between  heretykes  that  trowes  and  telles  that  this 
Sacrament  may  on  none  wyse  be  Goddus  body.  For  I  dare  surly  say 
that  yf  this  were  soth  Cryst  and  his  seynts  dyede  heretykus,  and  the 
more  partye  of  holye  Kirke  belevyth  now  heresye,  and  before  devout 
men  supposen  that  this  couusayle  of  Freres  in  London,  was  with  the 
herydene.  For  they  put  an  heresie  upon  Crist  and  seynts  in  hevyne, 
wherefore  the  erth  tremblide.'  Fay  land  niaynnus  voice  answeryde 
for  God  als  it  did  in  tyme  of  his  passione,  whan  he  was  dampnyde  to 
bodc^ly  deth.  Crist  and  his  modur  that  in  gronde  had  destroyde  all 
heresies  kep  his  Kyrke  in  right  belefe  of  this  Sacrament,  and  move  the 
King  and  his  rewme  to  aske  sharply  of  his  Clerkus  this  offis  tliat  all  his 
possessioneres  on  pain  of  lesyng  all  her  temporaltes  telle  the  King  and 
his  rewme  with  sufficient  grownding  what  is  this  Sacrament;  and  all  the 
Orders  of  Freres  on  payne  of  lesing  her  legians  telle  the  King  and  his 
rewme  with  gode  grounding  what  is  the  Sacrament ;  for  1  am  certaine 
of  the  thridde  part  of  Clergie  that  defendus  thise  doutes  that  is  here  said, 
that  they  will  defende  it  on  paine  of  her  lyfe." 


1  Ipse  Wyclift'  in  4  libro  Trialogi  A.  D.  1380.  Londoniis  vocat  Concilium 
sui  ter  dampnati  capitulo  3G.  praedic-  Terriemotus.  Gascoigna  Did,  Tlieo. 
turn  conciliain   contra  eum  celebratuui       MS. 


APPENDIX.  435 


No.  VIII. 

Br.  Widifs  Letter  of  Excuse  to  Pope  Urban  VI,  Bibi.  Bod. 

MS. 

I  HAVE  joyfully  to  telle  alie  trew  men  the  bileve  that  I  hold,  and  a  Hiways. 
"  algatis  to  the  Pope.     For  I  suppose,  that  if  any  faith  be  rightful  and 
geven  of  God,  the  Pope  will  gladly  conserve  it:    and  if  my  faith  be 
error,    the    Pope   will   wisely  amend   it.       I   suppose   over   this,    that 
the   Gospel   of   Christ  be  part  of   the  corps  of   God's  lawe.      For    I 
beleve  that  Jesu  Christ  that  gaf  in  his  own  persoun  this  Gospel  is  very 
God  and  very  mon,  and  be  this  it  passes  all  other  lawes.     I  suppose  over 
this,  that  the  Pope  be  most  oblishid  to  the  keping  of  the  Gospel  aanong 
all  men  that  liven  here.     For  the  Pope  is  highest  vicar  that  Christ  has 
here  in   erth.     For  ^  moreness  of   Christ's  vicars  is  not  measured   by  b  -reiuwMsi. 
worldly  moreness,  bot  by  this,  that  this  vicar  <=  sues  more  Christ  by  vcr-  c  foUows. 
tuous  living :    for  thus  teches  the  Gospel.    That  this  is  the  sentence  of 
Christ  and  of  his  Gospel  I  take  as  bileve ;    that  Christ  for  time  tiiat  he 
walked  here  was  most  poore  mon  of  alle  both  in  spirit  and  in  <*  liaveing ;  *  posses. 
for  Christ  says  that  he  had  noht  for  to  rest  his  hede  on.     And  over  this  *'""^- 
I  take  as  bileve,  that  no  mon  schulde  sue  the  Pope,  ne  no  saint  that  now 
is  in  hevene,  bot  in  '' alsmyche  as  he  sued  Christ:  for  James  and  John  e  as  mych. 
errid,  and  Peter  and  Fowl  sinned.     Of  this  I  take  as  holesome  counseile, 
that  the  Pope  leeve  his  worldly  lordschip  to  worldly  lords,  as  Christ  gaf 
him,  and  move  speedily  all  his  Clerks  to  do  so  :    for  thus  did  Christ,  and 
taught  thus  his  disciplis,  till  the  f(nide  had  blynded  this  world.     And  if  I 
erre  in  this  sentence  I  will  mekely  be  amendid,  hif  by  the  death,  hif  it  Le 
skilful,  for  that  I  hope  were  gode  to  me.     And  if  I  might  traveile  in  my 
own  persoun,  I  vvolde  with  God's  will  go  to  the  Pope.      Bot  [Christ]  has 
nedid  me  to  the  contrary,  and  taught  me  more  obeishe  to  God  than  to 
mon.     And  I  suppose  of  our  Pope  that  he  will  not  be  Antichrist,  and 
reverse  Christ  in  this  wirking  to  the  contrary  of  Christ's  wiile.     For  if  he 
sunmions  ageyns  resoun  by  him  or  any  of  his,  and  pursue  this  unskilful 
summoning,  he  is  an  open  Antichrist.     And  merciful  entent  excusid  not  i  i;,i|^.,i 
Petir  that  ne  Christ    ''clepid  him  Sathanas:    so  blynd  entent  and  wicked 
conseil  excuses  not  the  Pope  here,  bot  if  he  aske  of  trewe  Prestis  that 
they  traveile  more  than  they  may,  'tis  not  excused  by  resoun  of  God  that 
ne  he  is  Antichrist.     For  our  bileve  tecliis  us  that  our  blessid  God  sutfiys 
us  not  to  be  teniptyd  more  than  we  may ;    how  schuld  a  mon  aske  such 
service?     And  therefore  pray  we  to  God  for  our  Pope  Urban  the    "Sexssivtii. 
that  his  old  holy  entent  be  not  cjuenchid  by  his  euemys.     And  Christ 
that  may  not  lye  scis  that   the   oneniycs  of  a  mon   be  especially  his  ''  /amiiy. 
homelye '■  meintli,  and  this  is  'soth  of  men  and  fcndis.  '  t^'""'- 


INDEX. 


Algigenses,  origin  of  tbe  naine.i.  1  !7. 
Their  suflTerings,  150—159.  But  verj- 
imperfectly  known  to  our  ancient 
bistorians,  189. 

Amour,  St.  his  controversy  witii  the 
mendicant  orders,  ii.  144 — 146. 

Anglican  Church,  authority  of  the  Eng- 
lish nioiiarchs  in  relation  to  it,  sub- 
sequent 10  the  conquest,  i.  ICG — 1C8. 
How  impovenehed  by  the  pontifls, 
1G9— 172.  Its  corrupt  state  at  the 
commencement  of  the  fourteenth 
century,  198—203. 

Anselni,  St.  notice  of  him,  i.  193 — 195. 

Appellant  Jurisdiction,  unknown  in  the 
primitive  church,  i.  12,  13.  Its  pro- 
gress in  connexion  with  the  papacy, 
82,  83. 

Armachanus,  his  dispute  with  the  men- 
dicants, i.  265. 

Arnoldof  Brescia,  sketch  of  his  history, 
i.  138—143. 

Becket,  his  controversy  with  Henry  II. 
i.  180—184. 

Bernard,  St.  his  disputes  with  the  sec- 
taries of  his  time,  i.  131. 

Bohemia,  sketch  of  its  early  religious 
history,  ii.  159— 163. 

Bradwardine,  notice  of  him,  i.  195, 196. 

Bruges,  character  of  that  city  in  the 
fourteenth  century,  i.  339,  340.  Wy- 
clifie  and  the  Duke  of  Lancaster 
meet  there,  241. 


Celibacy  of  the  Clergy,  how  esta- 
blished, i.  38  —  42.  Enforced  by 
Hildebrand,  88. 

Census,  effect  of  ihe  demand  made  re- 
specting it  by  Urban  V.  i.  278—280. 

Chivalry,  its  defects  and  vices,  i.  29'J, 
302. 

Christianity,  doctrines  peculiar  to  it, 
i.  103 — 105.  Its  favourable  influence 
on  the  states  of  the  western  empire, 
98—103.  Defects  and  evil  tenden- 
cies of  thai,  prevalent  during  the 
middle  ages,  105 — 112. 

Christian  dispensation,  its  peculiari- 
ties, i.  2,  3. 

Church,  ancient  import  of  that  word,  i.5. 

Claude  of  Turin,  notice  of  him,  i.  129. 
His  doctrines  survive  him,  131. 

Cologne,  character  and  doctrine  of  the 
martyrs  who  suffered  there  in  the 
twelfth  century,  i.  131-138. 

Commerce,  its  state  in  England,  and 
its  influence  on  the  constitution,  and 
society,  to  the  accession  of  Edward 
III.  i.  206— 213. 

Councils,  ecclesiastical,  their  origin 
and  injurious  effects,  i.  13,  14. 

Edmund,  St.  notice  of  hiiii,  i.  191. 

Edward  111.  his  character  and  that  of 
his  court,  i.  297—302. 

English  Constitution,  cflect  of  com- 
merce upon  it,  i.  208—210,  and  of 
the  wars  with  France,  296,  297. 


INDEX. 


437 


Eii(,'lisli  [)eople,  tlieir  degraded  state 
Willi  respect  to  Christianity,  at  tbc 
commencement  of  the  fourteenth 
century,  i.    198—202. 

Feudal  system,  i.  204,  205. 

Geoflrey  Chaucer  embraced  many  of 
the  doctrines  ofWycliffe,  ii.l37— 
151.  Character  of  his  poelry,  139, 
140. 

Gerard,  account  of  him  and  his  fol- 
lowers, i.  190—192. 

Gregory  the  Great,  his  character,  i. 
74-79. 

Grossteste,  notice  of  him,  i.  177 — 
179. 

Henry  II.,  his  controversy  with  Becket, 

ii.  179—184. 
Henry  the  founder  of  (he  Henricians, 

i.  136—138. 
Hierarchy,   its  state   previous  to   the 

age  of  Constantine,  i.  15,  10,  and  in 

the  fourth  century,  10. 

Images,  the  worship  of  (hem,  how  in- 
troduced, i.58,  59. 

Investitures,  the  controversy  respeft- 
ing  them,  i.  91—94. 

Insurrection  of  the  Commons  in  1381, 
a  narrative  of  its  causes  and  ell'ects. 
— Similar  convulsions  in  other  states 
at  this  period,  397—411. 

John  of  Gaunt,  his  early  history,  and 
liis  connexion  with  Wyclifle,  i.  302 
— 305.  He  forsakes  the  reformer, 
ii.  108.  His  probable  motives  in 
patronizing  WyclifTe,  126—128. 

Jurisdiction,  ecclesiastical,  its  secular 
character,  and  how  assumed,  i.  17 — 
24. 

La  Nobla  Leyczon,  contents  of  that  in- 
teresting document,  i.  135,  130. 

Lanfranc,  notice  of  him,  i.  193. 

Learning,  its  state  in  Englarid  before 
the  conquest,  i.  210,  211.  Its  re- 
vival, 212,  213.  Its  state  during  tiie 
fourteenth  century,  211 — 222. 


Longland,  notice  of  his  poetry,  ii,  148, 
149. 

Mendicants,  their  rise  and  character, 
i.  50 — 52.  Importance  of  Wyclifl'e's 
controversy  with  them,  261 — 205. 

Monachism,  its  origin,  causes  which 
favoured  its  difl'usion,  and  the  evils 
attending  it,  i.42 — 50. 

Paganism  of  Greece  and  Rome,  i.  97, 
98,  and  of  the  Northern  Nations, 
98. 

Pagan  customs  incorporated  with  the 
papal  ritual,  i.  53 — 50. 

Papacy,  its  early  advances  and  pro- 
gress to  the  year  600,  i.  65—74. 
.Sketch  of  its  history  from  the  death 
of  Gregory  the  First,  to  the  pontifi- 
cate of  Hildebrand,  80—92.  Its 
despotic  tendencies,  102,  163.  Its 
influence  on  the  Anglo-Saxon  church, 
104.  Its  avarice,  108—173.  Its 
encroachments  variously  resisted  by 
the  English  monarchs,  the  laity,  and 
the  clergy,  before  (he  reign  of  Ed- 
ward the  Third,  173-177.  Limits 
of  that  resistance,  180—189.  Its 
influence  in  England  impaired  by  the 
residence  of  the  popes  at  Avignon, 
296,  297.  Its  policy  borrowed  from 
paganism,  50,  57. 

Parliament,  novel  measure  of  that  con- 
vened in  1371,  i.  305,  306.  Pro- 
ceedings of  the  good  parliament, 
340—352.  Wyclifte's  reply  to  the 
question  proposed  by  the  first  par- 
liament convened  under  Richard  the 
second,  301— 305.  Success  of  Wy- 
clifTe's  appeal  lo  the  parliament  as- 
sembled in  1382,  ii.  106. 

Patronage,  its  origin,  progress,  and 
abuses,  i.  8,  9.  It  rights  invaded 
by  the  pontiffs,  9—12. 

Paulicians,  their  ciiaracter  and  his- 
tory, i.  110—123.  Their  dispersion, 
and  connexions  with  the  Waldenses, 
123—120. 

Paulinus,  his  primitive  doctrine  and 
zeal,  i.  129. 

Persecution,  its  incllicacy  during  tJR 


438 


INDEX, 


middle  ages,  i.  113,  114.  Its  Lis- 
lon,  11.91—91. 

Pestilence,  melanclioly  eflects  of  tliat 
in  1348,  1.250— 253. 

Peter  Lombard,  character  of  Ills  theo- 
logy, i.  197. 

Poetry,  its  influence  on  the  reforma- 
tion of  the  church,  ii.  140—142. 

Preaching,  its  history,  ii.  20,  21 .  Wy- 
cliffe's  sentiments  concerning  it,  9— 
20. 

Purgatory,  history  of  that  doctrine,  i. 
58.  Wyclift'e's  sentiments  respect- 
ing it,  ii.  287-290. 


Religion  necessary  to  political  security, 

i.  96,  97. 
Roman  de  la  Rose,  character  of  that 

poem,  ii.  142 — 14-1. 

Sacred  Scriptures,  history  of  attempts 
towards  translating  them  into  the 
language  of  this  country  before  the 
age  of  Wyclifle,  ii.  37  —  42.  The 
whole  Bible  translated  by  him,  the 
novelty  of  that  achievement,  the 
anger  of  the  clergy,  and  his  mode  of 
defending  his  conduct,  42 — 51. 

Scholastic  Philosophy,  its  good  and 
evil  influence,  i.  217—2-22. 

Statutes  of  provisors  and  premunire, 
i.  334. 

Studies  of  youth  in  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury, i  239—240. 

Transnbstantiation,  history  of  that  doc- 
trine, i.  59-02.  Opposed  by  the 
Waldenses,  ii.  33.  Not  recognized 
by  the  Anglo  Saxon  church,  55 — 57. 
Opposed  by  Berengarius,  and  de- 
fended by  Lanfranc,  52,  57,  58.  As- 
sailed by  Wyclille,  58,  59.  Doctrine 
of  the  reformer  on  the  eucharist, 
309—311. 

Waldenses,  origin  of  the  name,  i.  146. 
The  character  of  the  Waldenses, 
and  Albigenses,  but  little  known  to 
our  ancient  writers,  190, 191. 

Waldo,  Ptlcr,  hi^  hiaiory,  his  transla- 


tion of  the  Scriptures,  its  important 
eflects,  i.  144—147. 
Wyclifle,  his  birth,  i.  229.  Enquiry 
respecting  its  place  and  his  family 
connexion,  231—237.  His  early 
history,  his  appearance  in  Oxford, 
his  removal  from  Queen's  College  to 
Merton,  his  studies  at  this  period, 
and  proficiency,  and  veneration  of 
the  sacred  Scriptures,  236  —  249, 
His  tract  on  "  The  Last  Age  of  the 
Church,"  253  —  260.  His  contro- 
versy with  the  mendicants,  its  pecu- 
liarities and  importance,  2G5 — 272. 
He  obtains  the  living  of  Fillingham, 
and  is  chosen  blaster  ofBaliol,272 — 
274.  Accepts  the  wardenship  of  Can- 
terbury Hall,  273.  Disputes  re- 
specting it,  his  appeal  to  the  pope, 
his  firmness  and  integrity  at  this 
crisis,  274  —  278.  His  defence  of 
the  English  parliament  in  abolishing 
the  papal  census,  283—289.  Pro- 
bably known  to  the  English  court  at 
this  period,  291,  292.  His  views  in 
attempting  the  reformation  of  the 
church,  307,  316.  Issue  of  the  dis- 
pute respecting  his  wardenship,  317, 
318.  Obtains  his  degree  as  doctor 
in  divinity,  318.  His  theological 
doctrine  at  this  period,  320  —  331. 
His  commission  to  treat  with  the 
papal  delegates,  338.  His  meeting 
with  the  duke  of  Lancaster  at  Bruges. 
441,  442.  Effect  of  this  embassy  on 
his  sentiments,  315.  He  is  promoted 
on  his  return  to  the  prebend  of  Aust, 
and  the  rectory  of  Lutterworth,  345. 
He  is  accused  of  holding  erroneous 
opinions,  354.  His  appearance  be- 
fore Courtney  at  St.  Paul's,  355  — 
357.  His  reply  to  the  question  pro- 
posed by  Richard  the  Second's  first 
parliament,  361—365.  His  doctrine 
as  stated  by  the  pontiff'  at  this  time, 
S67,  370,  373,  377.  His  adherents 
in  Oxford,  numerous,  376—379.  His 
appearance  before  the  papal  dele- 
gates at  Lambeth,  377.  Substance 
of  the  paper  said  to  have  been  deli- 
vered lo  liicni  sliiliiij;   his  doi^lriiu-. 


NDEX. 


439 


on  the  limits  of  llie  papal  authority  : 
on  the  power  of  the  crown  with  re- 
spect to  the  revenues  of  the  clergy  : 
on  the  hierarchy  :  and  on  the  autho- 
rity of  the  priestliood  in  binding  and 
loosing,  378—380.  He  is  assailed 
hy  an  anonymous  divine,  402.  His 
indignant  reply,  404,  40.5.  His  tract 
on  the  schism  of  the  popes,  and  other 
references  to  that  event,  ii.  4  —  6. 
His  sickness  and  recovery,  8,  9. 
Jlis  sentiments  on  preaching,  9 — 20. 
His  laborious  attention  to  that  office, 
12,  13.  Character  of  his  sermons, 
21— -23.  Extracts,  23  —  30.  His 
translation  of  the  Scriptures,  and 
defence  of  that  undertaking,  42 — 51. 
He  assails  the  doctrine  of  transub- 
stantiation,  57,  58.  His  opinions 
condemned  by  the  chancellor  of  the 
University,  GO,  CI.  His  appeal  to 
the  civil  power,  63.  Publishes  his 
"  W  icket,"  &i—68.     His  devotional 


allusions  to  the  evils  of  his  day,  96. 
His  petition  to  the  parliament,  97 — 
lOG.  He  is  forsaken  by  Lancaster, 
108.  His  purposes  unaltered  by  that 
event,  109^  His  enlightened  views 
of  the  controversy  respecting  the 
eucharist,  and  his  confidence  of  ul- 
timate success,  110,  111.  His  ap- 
pearance before  the  convocations  at 
Oxford,  and  the  substance  of  his 
confessions,  112  — 114.  His  letter 
to  the  poatifl",  121—123.  His  disci- 
ples, numerous  in  the  higher  classes, 
129-131,  163—169.  Number  and 
character  of  his  followers,  150 — l(i3. 
Character  of  his  "  Poor  Priests," 
163—173.  Notices  of  his  writings 
from  the  period  of  his  exclusion  from 
Oxford,  to  his  decease,  174—222. 
His  sickness  and  death,  224,  225. 
For  his  opinions,  see  chap.  viii.  Ob- 
servations on  his  character,  see 
ohap. ix. 


THE    END. 


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