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UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO
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1980

NEW YORK'S VICTORY ARCH IN MADISON SQUARE
The marching soldiers are the Twenty-seventh Division, composed of men
from the National Guard of New York State, who had just returned from

France

•

THE LITERARY DIGEST

History of the World

Compiled from Original and Contemporary

Sources: American, British, French,

German, and Others

FRANCIS WHITING HALSEY

Author of "Tlie Old New York Frontier," Editor of "Great Epochs in

American History/' "Seeing Europe with Famous Authors,"

"Balfour, Viviani, and Joffre, Their Speeches

in America," etc.

IN TEN VOLUMES— ILLUSTKATED

VOLUME X

THE NAVAL BATTLES OFF HELGOLAND, SOUTH AMERICA, THE DOGGER BANK
AND JUTLAND— PERSONAL SKETCHES OF WAR LEADERS— THE PEACE
CONFERENCE IN PARIS, VERSAILLES, ST. GERMAIN, AND THE SIGN-
ING OF THE TREATY— THE PEACE TREATY IN THE UNITED
STATES SENATE — CHRONOLOGY AND INDEX

Aug-ust, 1914 — May, 1920

FUNK & WAGNALLS COMPANY

NEW YORK AND LONDON

1920

FUNK & WAGNALLS COMPANY

(Printed in the United States of America)

Copyright Under the Articles of the Copyright Convention of the
Pan-American Republics and the United States, August 11, 1910

CONTENTS— VOLUME TEN

IN THE GERMAN COLONIES AND ON THE SEA—

Continued

PAET III— BATTLES BETWEEN WAESHIPS AND THE WOEK

OF COMMEECE EAIDEES

PAGE

I. BATTLES IN THE FIRST YEAR — HELGOLAND, CORONEL, FALK-
LAND ISLANDS, DOGGER BANK, AND THE AFFAIR IN THE GULF
OF EIGA (August 1, 1914 — August, 1915) . 3

II. EXPLOITS OF THE EMDEN AND OTHERS ON THE HIGH SEAS AND

ON THE ENGLISH COAST (August 1, 1914 — March 5, 1916) 41
III. THE GREAT BATTLE OFF JUTLAND (May 31, 1916) . . 51

PEESONAL SKETCHES, THE TEEATY OF PEACE AND
A CHEONOLOGY OF THE WAE

PAET I— PEESONAL SKETCHES OF WAE LEADEES
I. .MILITARY AND NAVAL LEADERS.

GENERAL SIR EDMUND ALLENBY (Viscount) . . .89
GENERAL SIR WILLIAM EIDDELL BIRDWOOD . . .92
GENERAL TASKER HOWARD BLISS . . . .92
GENERAL ALEXIS A. BRUSILOFF . . . . .93
GENERAL COUNT LUIGI CADORNA . . . . .97
GENERAL FRANCHET D'ESPEREY. . . . . 104

GENERAL ARMANDO DIAZ 106

GENERAL ERIC VON FALKENHAYN . . . .106
FERDINAND FOCH, MARSHAL OF FRANCE .... 109
FIELD-MARSHAL SIR JOHN (Now Viscount) FRENCH . 119
GENERAL JOSEPH SIMON GALLIENI . . . .123

THE GERMAN CROWN PRINCE 127

FIELD- MARSHAL VON HAESLER . . . . .131

FIELD-MARSHAL SIR DOUGLAS (Now Earl) HAIG . . 133

FIELD-MARSHAL PAUL VON HINDENBURG . . . 141

SIR SAM HUGHES, CANADIAN LIEUTENANT-GENERAL . 147

BARON FISHER, BRITISH FIRST SEA LORD . . . 147

ADMIRAL SIR JOHN (Now Viscount) JELLICOE . . 152

JOSEPH JACQUES CESAIRE JOFFRE, MARSHAL OF FRANCE 153

FIELD-MARSHAL HORATIO HERBERT, EARL KITCHENER . 160

FIELD-MARSHAL ALEXANDER VON KLUCK . 166

GENERAL ERIC LUDENDORFF . .... 168

FIELD-MARSHAL AUGUST VON MACKENSEN

GENERAL PEYTON CONWAY MARSH .... 177

GENERAL SIR STANLEY MAUDE . . . . .178

GENERAL VON MOLTKE . . .

THE GRAND DUKE NICHOLAS OF EUSSIA .

GENERAL JOHN J. PERSHING

HENRI PHILIPPE PETAIN, MARSHAL OF FRANCE

ADMIRAL WILLIAM S. SIMS

GRAND ADMIRAL ALFRED VON TIRPITZ . . . 194

CONTENTS— VOLUME TEN

II. EULERS AND STATESMEN. PAGE
ALBERT, KING OF THE BELGIANS . . . .203
HERBERT HENRY ASQUITH, BRITISH PRIME MINISTER . 206
THEOBALD VON BETHMANN-HOLLWIG, GERMAN- CHANCELLOR 209
SIB EGBERT LAIRD BORDEN, PREMIER OF CANADA 212
ARISTIDE BRIAND, PREMIER OF FRANCE . . 213
GEORGES CLEMENCEAU, PREMIER OF FRANCE . . . 215
THEOPHILE DELCASSE, FRENCH FOREIGN MINISTER . . 220
ENVER PASHA, WAR MINISTER OF TURKEY . . 223
KING FERDINAND OF BULGARIA ..... 226
FRANCIS JOSEPH, EMPEROR OF AUSTRIA .... 229
KING GEORGE V, OF GREAT BRITAIN . . . .231
SIR EDWARD (Now Viscount) GREY . . . 233
COLONEL EDWARD M. HOUSE ..... 236
GOTTLIEB VON JAGOW, GERMAN FOREIGN MINISTER . . 238
ALEXANDER F. KERENSKY, PREMIER OF BUSSIA . . 242
DAVID LLOYD GEORGE, PREMIER OF GREAT BRITAIN . 245
MARIE ADELAIDE, FORMER GRAND DUCHESS OF LUX-
EMBURG . . 253

CZAR NICHOLAS II, OF BUSSIA ..... 255

VITTORIO EMANUELE ORLANDO, ITALIAN- PREMIER . 257
KING PETER OF SERBIA ...... 259

EAYMOND POINCARE, PRESIDENT OF FRANCE . . . 262
ANTONIO SALANDRA, PRIME MINISTER OF ITALY . . 263
BARON SONNINO, FOREIGN MINISTER OF ITALY . . 263
LIEUT.-GENERAL JAN CHRISTIAAN SMUTS . . . 266
ELEUTHERIOS VENIZELOS, PREMIER OF GREECE . . 266
BEN£ VIVIANI, PREMIER OF FRANCE . . . .270

WILLIAM II, FORMER GERMAN EMPEROR . . .272
WOODROW WILSON, PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES . 282
ALFRED ZIMMERMANN, GERMAN FOREIGN MINISTER . 291

PAET II— THE CONFEEENCE AND THE SIGNING OF

THE TBEATY

I. THE CONFERENCE OF THE ENTENTE IN PARIS . . . 297

II. THE PEACE TERMS DELIVERED TO THE GERMAN DELEGATES . 305

III. GERMAN PROTESTS AGAINST THE TREATY — THE "VICTORY"

LOAN ... 317

IV. BISMARCK AND THIERS AT VERSAILLES IN 1871 . . 339
V. THE SIGNING OF THE TREATY WITH GERMANY . . 344

VI. THE SETTLEMENT WITH AUSTRIA, TURKEY AND BULGARIA . 352

VII. THE PROLONGED CONTROVERSY IN AMERICA OVER THE TREATY 360

VIII. COVENANT OF THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS AND PEACE TREATIES 396

PAET III— A CHBONOLOGY OF THE WAB

A CHRONOLOGY OF THE WAR . . . . . . .429

INDEX 485

ILLUSTRATIONS— VOLUME TEN

FULL PAGES

PAGE

NEW YORK'S VICTORY ARCH IN MADISON SQUARE . Frontispiece

VICE-ADMIRAL SIR DAVID BEATTY 2

FRANCIS WHITING HALSEY .... facing page ix
THE SINKING OF THE "MAINZ" IN THE HELGOLAND BATTLE . 11
ADMIRAL COUNT VON SPEE .... facing page 12
ADMIRAL SIR CHRISTOPHER CRADOCK . . facing page 20
THREE GERMAN VESSELS SUNK IN THE FALKLAND ISLANDS

BATTLE . . . 27

VICE-ADMIRAL SIR FREDERICK STURDEE . . facing page 28
GERMAN SHIPS IN THE DOGGER BANK BATTLE . . . .33
SCARBOROUGH, ENGLISH TOWN BOMBARDED BY GERMAN WAR-
SHIPS 55

THREE BRITISH WARSHIPS — THE "INDEFATIGABLE," THE "LION,"

THE "WARRIOR" 69

MARSHAL FOCH INSPECTING A GERMAN FORT . . . .88
THE FORMER CROWN PRINCE WITH His DUTCH PLAYMATES . 129
FIELD-MARSHAL SIR DOUGLAS HAIG AND His FAMILY . . 135
PART OF PERSHING'S ARMY HALTING ON THE MOSELLE . . 187
LLOYD GEORGE AND THD PRINCE OF WALES .... 247
KING PETER LEADING His PEOPLE IN RETREAT . . . 260
KAISER AND KAISERIN IN OTHER DAYS ..... 279
PRESIDENT AND MRS. WILSON LUNCHING WITH KING ALBERT

OF BELGIUM 283

PRESIDENT WILSON AND CARDINAL MERCIER . facing page 286
THE AMERICAN VICTORY MEDAL ...... 294

PREMIER CLEMENCEAU ADDRESSING THE GERMAN DELEGATES . 296
A BERLIN MEETING OPPOSING THE PEACE TERMS . . . 321
CHANCELLOR SCHIEDEMANN DENOUNCING THE TERMS OF PEACE 325
GOTHE AND SCHILLER IN WEIMAR . . . . . . 335.

PREMIER CLEMENCEAU IN THE HALL!

OF MIRRORS IN 1918 I ft 340 and ,„

BISMARCK IN THE HALL OF MIRRORS?

IN 1870

ILLUSTRATIONS— VOLUME TEN

PAGE

OUR PEACE DELEGATES AT VERSAILLES 347

AUSTRIAN DELEGATES LEAVING THE ST. GERMAIN

CHATEAU facing page 356

GREAT BRITAIN AND GERMANY IN PEACE TIMES . . . 428
THE CLEAN-UP OF RHEIMS 484

TEXT ILLUSTRATIONS

THE GERMAN MINE LAYER "KONIGIN LUISE" .... 5
THE GERMAN COMMERCE-RAIDER "EMDEN" . . . .17

THE CRUISER "DRESDEN" 30

THE "KONIGSBERG" 34

PART OF THE CREW OF THE RAIDER "KONIGSBERG" . . .35

THE AUSTRALIAN WARSHIP "SYDNEY" 45

THE GERMAN CRUISER "KARLSRUHE" 51

THE AUXILIARY CRUISER "PRINCE EITEL FRIEDRICH" . . 53
REMAINS OF THE ANCIENT ABBEY OF WHITBY . . . .57

THE BRITISH SHIP "APPAM" 58

THE "MOWE" AFTER REACHING KIEL 59

THE BATTLESHIP "HINDENBURG" 64

THE BATTLESHIP "HINDENBURG" AS SUNK AT SCAPA FLOW . 65
THE BLOWING UP OF THE "QUEEN MARY" . . . .67
THE "POMMERN" LOST BY THE GERMANS IN THE JUTLAND

BATTLE . .... . . . . . .72

THE "DERFLINGER" AS SUNK AT SCAPA FLOW ... .73

A GROUP OF GERMAN NAVAL OFFICERS . . . . .85

THE ECOLE DE GUERRE IN PARIS ...... 109

MARSHAL FOCH AND GENERAL MANGIN INSPECTING RHINE

FORTIFICATIONS 115

KITCHENER IN A TRENCH AT GALLIPOLI 163

"THE BIG FOUR" OF THE PEACE CONFERENCE .... 239
PREMIER ORLANDO 258

ACHILLEION, THE FORMER KAISER'S PALACE AT CORFU . . 273

THE KAISER'S SISTER, THE FORMER QUEEN OF GREECE . . 276
FORMER GERMAN EMPRESS AT AMERONGEN .... 281
BIRTHPLACE OF PRESIDENT WILSON'S MOTHER . . . .285
Two QUEEN MOTHERS ON WHOM PRESIDENT WILSON CALLED IN

1918 289

ILLUSTRATIONS— VOLUME TEN

PAGE

. 299
. 303

THE CLOCK HALL AT THE FOREIGN OFFICE IN PARIS .
THE MURAT MANSION. CALLED THE "MAISON BLANCHE" .
HOTEL DBS RESERVOIRS, WHERE THE GERMAN DELEGATES WERE

HOUSED . . . 306

THE GERMAN DELEGATES LEAVING THE GRAND TRIANON . . 315

MATHIAS ERZBERGER 318

FREDERICK EBERT 326

THE WEIMAR THEATER 329

ST. GERMAIN-EN-LAYE 359

FORMER PRESIDENT WILLIAM H. TAFT . . . . . 361

PART OF A COLORED REGIMENT BACK FROM FRANCE . . . 376

•

MAPS

HELGOLAND, DOGGER BANK, AND JUTLAND . facing page 8
THE BATTLE OF CORONEL, OFF THE COAST OF CHILE . . .19
SOUTHERN SOUTH AMERICA . . . . . . .23

THE FALKLAND ISLANDS ....... 25

THE SINKING OF THE "EMDEN" BY THE "SYDNEY" . . .43

GERMANY'S OCCUPIED TERRITORY 310

NEW BELGIAN-FRENCH-GERMAN FRONTIER . following page 404

CENTRAL EUROPE following page 404

SOUTHERN EUROPE ..... following page 404

POLAND ....... following page 404

ROUMANIA ....... following page 404

TURKEY following page 404

Vll

FRANCIS WHITING HALSEY

INTRODUCTORY

FRANCIS WHITING HALSEY, the talented editor-author of
this work, who died November 24, 1919, had practically com-
pleted the task that he had undertaken before he closed his eyes,
so that the work of bringing the tenth and concluding volume
down to date has involved very little additional labor.

His work has received a well-deserved meed of praise, which
is reflected in the words of the Editor of The New York Times:
— ' ' This admirable account of the World War, intended prim-
arily for general reading, will have its value for the historical
student and for the seeker of source material because it pre-
serves much vivid description of important scenes that might
otherwise be lost and forgotten. The general reader will find
its particular value in the fact that Mr. Halsey approached
his task with a true perspective, and justly saw and accurate-
ly described the part taken by each nation involved in its due
relation to the whole conflict and the final victory. ' '

The tenth volume will be found to contain the history of the
battles on the sea and of commerce raiders, a description of
the work of the Peace Conference, sketches of fifty of the
statesmen and military leaders, a summary of the League of
Nations, and of the treaties of peace, and a chronology of events
from the beginning of the war to the refusal of the United
States Senate to ratify the Treaty of Versailles.

Born October 15, 1851, Francis Whiting Halsey was gradu-
ated from Cornell University in 1873. Two months after his
graduation, he went to Binghamton, N. Y., where he edited
The Binghamton Times for two years, and then obtained a
position on the editorial staff of The New York Tribune, for
which he served as foreign correspondent writing letters from
the World's Fair in Paris, contributing book reviews as well
as literary notes and articles until 1880, when he joined the
staff of The New York Times. On this paper he worked for
several years as foreign editor and critical reviewer, later be-

INTRODUCTION

coming literary editor, succeeding in that post Charles DeKay
on his appointment by President Cleveland as Consul-General
to Berlin. When The New York Times Saturday Book Review
was established in 1896, Halsey was appointed its editor, and
conducted it on such a broad-minded plan that it made rapid
advancement as a power in American literary life. Assiduous
labor and painstaking care placed the Saturday Book Re-
view on so high a plane that it soon became the mentor and
guide of millions of readers, but in 1902 its editor resigned his
post to become literary adviser to D. Appleton & Company.
On the termination of this contract, he joined the staff of the
Funk & Wagnalls Company in a similar capacity, and con-
tinued in this connection until his death.

With the passing of Francis W. Halsey a highly valued mem-
ber of the editorial staff of The Literary Digest entered into
rest. Well known both as author and editor, his literary work
was supplemented by wider activities in the publishing enter-
prises of the Company of which he was literary adviser for
many years.

Mr. Halsey was the author of a number of books chief among
which may be mentioned his ' ' An Old New York Frontier ; Its
Indian Wars, Pioneers, and Land Titles," which was an ac-
count of the early history of the head waters of the Susque-
hanna from Otsego Lake to the Pennsylvania line (1901). In
1878 he published "Two Months Abroad," and in 1895 he
wrote an elaborate introduction for a volume of family history
entitled "Thomas Halsey of Hertfordshire, England and
Southampton, L. I." Other works from his pen were "Our
Literary Deluge"; "The Pioneers of Unadilla Village"; an
historical and biographical introduction to Mrs. Rowson's
"Charlotte Temple"; an introduction to Richard Smith's
"Tour of Four Great Rivers." In 1900 he wrote a memoir
of his wife, "Virginia Isabel Forbes," to whom he was married
in 1&83, and who died in January, 1899.

As an editor, Mr. Halsey produced "American Authors and
Their Homes"; "Authors of Our Day in Their Homes";
"Women Authors of Our Day in Their Homes"; "Of the

INTRODUCTION

Making of a Book"; "Great Epochs of American History
Described by Famous Writers " ; " Seeing Europe with Famous
Authors"; "Balfour, Viviani, and Joffre, Their Speeches in
America." Associated with Willam Jennings Bryan he pro-
duced "The World's Famous Orations" in ten volumes in
1906, and in the year following, in conjunction with Senator
Henry Cabot Lodge, he published "The Best of the World's
Classics."

Mr. Halsey's formative influence, his ability to steer clear
of alluring sensationalism and precocity, pedantry, and stale-
ness ; his frankness and modesty, all served to establish him in
the community long before his death as a man of sound literary
judgment with a gift of being wholesome without being prud-
ish, and well-read without being a prig — a man who loved his
fellow men, one by nature temperate and generous, honest and
faithful, who added to these attributes, wit, culture, and
scholarship of that highest order which may be fittingly char-
acterized as practical.

Of him and of the present work, George Douglas said in The
San Francisco Bulletin: — "Twenty years from now Mr. Hal-
sey's work will stand with no more needed than the addition
of some necessary foot-notes as more and more of the truth is
divulged. The main thing is to get intelligently interested in
the war, interested in something more than its butchery tho
that should be ever present in the mind. People who forget its
horrors are apt to become as warped in their judgment as those
who seem to have eliminated all consciousness of the fact that
there was a war in which millions of men lost their lives, and
who can not see that there will be other wars in the future
unless something be done to prevent them when the horrors of
the great struggle that has just passed are still fresh in the
mind. Not a question concerning the war but is dealt with in
these pages, and upon all there is the fullest information.
Halsey writes as an American and an ally. He is fair, very
fair, in dealing with the enemy; but he is just, as he under-
stands justice. Yet he is not one of those historians who write
for the purpose of maintaining national animosities."

To him it was a God-given privilege to live in those stirring

INTRODUCTION

times when men fought against the lust of dominion to vindicate
the rights of small nations against the arrogant and overbear-
ing might of perfidious powers; for, he had the faith of one
who could look with fearless eyes beyond the tragedy of a
world at war, and he gloried in the fact that he had lived to
see the powers of Darkness put to flight and the Morning of
a greater Freedom break.

F. H. V.

xii

IN THE GERMAN COLONIES
AND ON THE SEA

(Continued)

Part III

BATTLES BETWEEN WARSHIPS AND
THE WORK OF COMMERCE-RAIDERS

VICE-ADMIRAL SIR DAVID BEATTY

Commander under Jelhcoe of the British fleet in the Dogger Bank, Heligo-
land and Jutland battles. Beatty, in August, 1919, was made an Earl

BATTLES IN THE FIRST YEAR— HELIGOLAND,

CORONEL, FALKLAND ISLANDS, DOGGER

BANK, AND THE AFFAIR IN THE

GULF OF RIGA

August 4, 1914^-August, 1915

WHEN at 11 o'clock on the night of August 4, 1914,
Great Britain declared war on Germany, the Ad-
miralty flashed by wireless to the British fleet, throughout
the world, this order: " Great Britain declares war on
Germany. Capture or destroy the enemy. " Then followed
a flood of official orders and the following personal message
from King George: "I have confidence that the British
fleet will revive the old glories of the Navy. I am sure that
the Navy will again shield Britain in this hour of trial.
It will prove the bulwark of the empire." Sir John Jellicoe
assumed supreme command of the home fleet, with the acting
rank of Admiral. Daily thereafter it was expected that an
engagement would be fought with the German fleet in the
North Sea.

On August 7, Winston Churchill, First Lord of the
Admiralty, declared as yet there had been no naval losses,
except a small British cruiser, the Amphion, and the Ger-
man mine-layer, Konigin Lmse. A flotilla of torpedo-boat
destroyers accompanied by the Amphion, while patrolling
the upper reaches of the English Channel, had found the
Konigin Lmse laying mines, had pursued and sunk her,
about fifty of her crew, which probably numbered 120 or
130 men, being saved by British destroyers. The Amphion
continued to act as "scout," but in making her return jour-
ney was blown up by a mine. The use of mines in sea-
warfare was then new.

Survivors of the Amphion said they had hardly left
Harwich, when they were ordered to clear the decks for
action, having sighted the Konigin Luise, which refused to

IN THE GERMAN COLONIES AND ON THE SEA

stop after a shot was fired across her bows. Then destroyers,
after a brief bombardment, surrounded and sank her. The
German captain, revolver in hand, threatened his men when
they prepared to surrender, refused to give himself up, and
had to be taken by force. As the Amphion was returning
to Harwich, the smoke of a big ship was seen on the horizon,
and the Amphion gave chase, firing a warning shot as she
drew near. The vessel proved to be only a Harwich boat,
the St. Petersburg, which was carrying Prince Lichnowsky,
the German Ambassador to Great Britain — afterward fa-
mous for his "Memorandum" — across the North Sea to the
Hook of Holland on his way home to Germany. While con-
tinuing her journey to Harwich, the Amphion struck a
sunken mine, gave two plunging jerks, followed by an ex-
plosion, which ripped her forepart, "shot up her funnels
like arrows from a bow," lifted her guns into the air, and
then she sank. Falling material struck several boats in the
convoying flotilla and injured some of the men aboard them,
while others were burned and scalded.

By the middle of August, the North Sea was said once
more to be safe as a high-road of commerce, and Denmark
was sending supplies to England. Shipping was passing
between England and Scandinavian ports and British cruis-
ers as well as converted merchantmen were on every sea.
The ill-starred Lus'tania had arrived safely in Liverpool
from New York, and the Mauretania was about to sail from
Liverpool. All German and Austrian ships, which when the
war began were away from home ports, had come under
British attacks or been mewed up in neutral ports. More
than half the ocean greyhounds of the Hamburg-American
and Nord-Deutscher Lloyd liners were at their piers in New
York, Boston, Pernambuco, Kiaochow, Shanghai, or Yoko-
homa, and to get home would have had to elude the British
fleet. The magnitude of the German merchant marine thus
"put ou,t of business" was little understood, at least in this
country. Its North Sea section in 1913 comprised 2,047
sailing ships of 416,559 gross tonnage, and 1,587 steamers
with a gross tonnage of 4,174,186, every one of which be-
came interned abroad or at home, save such as were at the
bottom ofxthe sea. The Baltic section numbered 583 vessels

WARSHIP BATTLES AND RAIDS ON COMMERCE

of 520,000 tons gross, and 361 sailing vessels aggregating
16,811 tons. The Kiel Canal- in 1913 was used by 54,628 ves-
sels, having a total register tonnage of 10,292,153 ; after the
war began, the canal became little more than an anchorage
for warships, and a thoroughfare for a few coasting and
local steamers.1

The main German war-fleet was at Kiel, safe from attack
unless it ventured out. Because of the Canal, it could move
in either of two ways — eastward into the Baltic, or west-
ward into the North Sea. The enlarging of this great water-
way had been completed only a few months before war was
declared. Only on July 1 had Kaiser Wilhelm pronounced

THE GERMAN MINE LAYER "KONIG1N LUISE"

One of the earliest naval Incidents of the war was the sinking of this ship
by the British Amphion

formally open the enlarged canal to .which had been given
his name. It had been- made into one of the most important
artificial waterways in the world, ten miles longer than the
Panama Canal, and had been used by probably ten times
as many vessels as passed through Suez. It was constructed,
however, more for naval than for commercial purposes,
since it gave to the German fleet a short cut from the North
Sea to the Baltic, and compelled an enemy, seeking to move
between the same points, to sail two hundred miles around
Schleswig-Holstein and Denmark. Originally completed in

1 "Statistisches Jahrbuch fiir das Deutsche Reich. Herausgegeben vom
Kaiserlichen Statistischen Amte." 1915. (Berlin) Puttkammer u. Miihi-
brecht.

V. X— 4! 5

IN THE GERMAN COLONIES AND ON THE SEA

1895, the rapid increase in the size of ships had soon made
it inadequate for both mercantile and naval uses. Accord-
ingly, new tide-locks of double the strength and breadth
of the old, had been put in and the channel deepened from
twenty-eight to forty-six feet. The new locks were probably
the largest in the world; they had about 60 per cent,
more water than the locks at Gatun. The Vaterland could
be accommodated in the Kiel Canal. As to England's naval
position at the outbreak of war, Mr. Churchill on September
27, made the following statement:2

"A great battle on sea has not yet been fought, but we enjoy as
great command of the sea and as free use of sea-power as we should
have after a decisive engagement. What is there, for instance, that
we could do then that we are not doing now? German trade has
ceased. German supplies have been largely strangled, but British
trade, in all essentials, is going on uninterruptedly. Materials of
industry and food for the people are entering the country daily in
vast quantities at commercial prices. We are moving scores of men
across all the oceans of the world. We started with a substantial
naval preponderance, much more like 2 to 1 than 16 to 10. In
the next twelve months we shall have twice as many battleships
competing and three or four times as many cruisers as Germany,
if the losses were even equal. Our position this time next year
will be far stronger than it is to-day. You must remember that none
of the ships built in my tenure of office, except the small cruiser
Aretlnusa, has been commissioned, yet these are the most powerful
and most expensive ships that have ever been built. They are the
fruits of the greatest naval effort England ever made. We always
regarded the first month of war as our most difficult and critical
month from a naval point of view, and we have nothing to complain
of in the way that the month has gone. We have made up our
minds to win it if it costs the last sovereign and the last man in the
British Empire."

Except for movements in the Kiel Canal, a portion of the
Baltic, and in the estuary of the Elbe, the German main
fleet was now tied up. Britain, meanwhile, had outlying
squadrons available as follows: In China, one battleship,
four cruisers, six smaller vessels, eight destroyers, four
torpedo-boats, three submarines; in the East Indies, one

2 To a writer in The Giornale d'ltalia (Rome).

WARSHIP BATTLES AND RAIDS ON COMMERCE

battleship, two cruisers, four smaller craft; at the Cape,
three cruisers; in New Zealand, three cruisers and one
sloop; on the West Coast of Africa, three sloops; on the
West Coast of America, three sloops; on the East Coast of
South America, one cruiser; in the Australian Navy, one
battle-cruiser, three light cruisers, three destroyers and two
submarines. The Fourth Cruiser Squadron consisting of
five ships, was then on the point of returning from Mexico
and the West Atlantic. In addition the British had avail-
able for defense and the destruction of commerce, a number
of fast liners that had been put in commission under naval
commanders and so had become ships of war flying the
White Ensign. Many merchant steamers, at the request of
their owners, had also been provided with guns, mounted
astern, for defense in the event of being chased. Some eight
or nine German cruisers were believed to be at sea, all efficient
ships for commerce-destroying purposes, and several had high
speed. How many German armed liners were out was a
matter of conjecture and of much interest, inasmuch as
merchant vessels were liable to seizure. Every cruiser
became busy at once picking up prizes all over the world.
Prize courts soon had work enough cut out to last for many
weeks.

It was comparatively easy to blockade the German coast
from Borkum near the mouth of the Ems, to Cuxhaven,
where the Elbe pours its waters into the North Sea, but the
task of bringing the German navy out to battle was difficult,
chiefly because the Kiel Canal gave it a wide and deep
waterway to a hiding-place in the Baltic. The topography
of Denmark, moreover, was almost as great a safeguard to
Germany as the canal. The German North Sea coast forms
roughly a right angle. Fifty miles out from the great naval
base of Wilhelmshaven lies the fortified island of Heligoland,
formerly a British possession, and parted with in an evil
hour by a shortsighted British statesman. The coast of
which Heligoland was the vigilant sentinel has a length from
Borkum to the mouth of the Elbe of about one hundred
miles. Between the Ems and the principal naval base, Wil-
helmshaven, on Jade Bay, is a broad peninsula through
which runs the Ems-Jade Canal, navigable for destroyers.

IN THE GERMAN COLONIES AND ON THE SEA

Between Wilhelmshaven and Cuxhaven is a bay thirty miles
in width, into which the Weser flows. Almost at the Weser 's
mouth in Bremerhaven, and forty miles up the river lies
Bremen. On the Ems at Emden was a torpedo-boat station.
Forty miles due north of Cuxhaven and guarding the mouth
of the Elbe was another torpedo-base in Holstein at the
mouth of the Eider. On the south side of the canal, be-
tween Brunsbuttel and Kudensee, was a new naval station
that had cost $8,000,000 and had just been finished when
the war began. There were abundant shelters for sub-
marines and destroyers all the way from Borkum to the
Eider, besides no fewer than three interior waterways giv-
ing timely passage when necessary. At Wilhelmshaven, Cux-
haven, and Kiel, the whole German fleet could lie at anchor
in safety.

To dig out an enemy thus made secure in shelters had the
look of a forlorn hope. He could not be dug out unless he
was really ready to fight,, for he could withdraw from
North Sea waters through the Kiel Canal and so into the
Baltic. It was obvious that, if the British wished to try
fortunes in the Baltic, their fleet would have to be divided
and that would be a perilous undertaking. To get to Kiel,
British warships would have to traverse the Skagerrak, a
deep body of water sixty miles wide, and the Kattegat,
another body of water of about the same width, between
Denmark and Sweden, and would then have to find their
way through the channel of the Great Belt, which could
easily be mined by the Germans, or dominated by their
torpedo-boats. Even in the wide Kattegat, large warships
would have to move cautiously, navigation being difficult
By using mines and submarines in these waters the Germans
could obtain a tremendous, almost an insuperable, advantage.
A British fleet might get as far as the eastern entrance of
the Skagerrak without great risk, for the Skagerrak could
not be mined, but beyond those waters every mile of the
way could be made to bristle with hidden perils.

There seemed, therefore, nothing for the British Navy to
do, but patrol' the North Sea and blockade the German
coast, and so be content with bottling up the German fleet.
By this means, it could control all the Seven Seas and Ger-

British Battle Fleet

6 P.M.

SP.M^_^-;

German 1 6.151

f. /"*—,«;„--«.— *

Battle Cruisers/ 3

3.30P.M.
g,S0P,Mjr— } !
81st May 'IS/ \

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battle Cruisers

German Battle Fleet

9PM, XJft '^.52 P.M. 31st May
4.4d-p.M, 31st Sfey

Jutland Bank

ierkjobing:

The Three Battles between
Warships in the North Sea

Helgoland, Dogger Bank,
and Jutland

Track of British Battle Fleet

*» Cr

«• *« German Ships

Scale of Miles
? *P »,o 30 +o

HELGOLAND..
JBattle of the bight
of Helgoland
Aug. 88, 1914

WARSHIP BATTLES AND RAIDS ON COMMERCE

mans could get little food or supplies from the world out-
side. The fleet of Great Britain, thus controlling the fleet
of Germany, provided a support on which all British opera-
tions could depend. One of the reasons why the German
Fleet refrained from leaving its North Sea shelters, was the
fact that on Germany's right flank were the sea forces of
Russia. Measured by modern standards, Russia's ships
were not formidable, but Russia had a considerable number
of cruisers and so had to be watched in the Baltic.

Such losses as the British suffered later, on the high seas,
from the Emden in the Indian Ocean, and from the Karls-
ruhe in the Atlantic, were small when compared with the
services rendered to the Allies by British sea-power. Almost
in a day the German flag was made to disappear from
ocean waters, thousands of tons of shipping were captured and
other ships made helpless in neutral ports. Hamburg and
Bremen became as deserted as Savannah and Charleston
were in the time of our Civil War. Because the Allies had
control of the sea France was able to bring African troops
to the battle-line and England her colonials and Indians.
Because of this fact it also was possible to meet the Turkish
attack on Egypt by a concentration of Australian, Indian,
and Territorial troops brought through the Suez Canal. Some
supplies still flowed into Germany from neutral stations —
notably from Scandinavia, but in decreasing quantities.
German industry suffered more and more from the blockade,
and exports fell to the vanishing points. Meanwhile, France
and England remained open to the commerce of the world.
Purchases made in America were promptly taken to Europe
— clothing, automobiles, arms, ammunition, all in vast quan-
tities. Conditions such as these helped to bridge over the
gap between German preparedness and Allied want of it.

After four weeks of waiting for German ships to come
out of the Baltic into the North Sea, British naval com-
manders went in search of them. On August 28, a battle-
squadron of cruisers and destroyers, under command of
Rear-Admiral Sir David Beatty, found and attacked a
cruiser-squadron off Heligoland. In an eight-hour action,
two of the German cruisers, the Mainz and the Ariadne^
.were sunk, a third was set on fire, and two destroyers were

IN THE GERMAN COLONIES AND ON THE SEA

sent to the bottom. The British losses were described as
"negligible." During August and September several other
German warships in different waters were sunk, chief among
them the Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse, formerly a well-known
North-German Lloyd North Atlantic passenger-ship, which
was sunk by a British cruiser on August 27 off the west
coast of Africa. Another cruiser, the Hela, was sunk on
September 13. German ships, meanwhile, had inflicted a
good deal of damage on Russian commerce in the Baltic.
None of these conflicts was a great naval fight, but they
were sufficient to make the sea more safe for English, French
and neutral ships, thus permitting the transport of food-
supplies and troops, and practically suspending Germany's
oversea commerce, which meant the closing of many Ger-
man factories and the throwing of German people out of
regular employment. As early as August 12, the British had
announced to port authorities that Atlantic lanes were again
open. At the same time, the British Home Fleet — sixty
vessels of war, against thirty in the German High Seas
Fleet — guarded the exit of the Kiel Canal.

Thrilling stories of the engagement off Heligoland were
told by men who took part in it. The engagement lasted
about eight hours, during which time a mist hung over the
contending fleets. The fighting was described as sharp and
terrible, the British losses light. Of the destroyers only
one afterward presented outward signs of having taken part
in a battle. The official British report said five German
craft were sunk. A non-commissioned officer of the Fear-
less, which in the thick of battle picked up many German
wounded, said the whole operation "took place in a thick
haze. When we opened fire, there was not a single search-
light playing on us. The Germans all seemed to be asleep.
The action was very hot while it lasted. "

At 3.30 A.M. the' Fearless and Arethusa, the latter vessel
the pioneer-ship of a new class and then less than three
days out of the builders' hands, escorted by some twenty
destroyers, advanced in a southwesterly direction at twenty
knots, on a course that would bring them to a point about
six miles south and three miles west of Heligoland. At 8
o'clock dim shadows became visible through the mist. These

THE SINKING OF THE "MAINZ" IN THE HELIGOLAND BATTLES

The photographs from which these pictures were made, were taken on board
British warships that had a part in the battle

IN THE GERMAN COLONIES AND ON THE SEA

were soon found to come from six German destroyers, and
orders were given to engage them as soon as possible. At
8.30 A.M. fire was opened by the Arethusa and some of the
destroyers; at 8.45 A.M. the course was so altered, as to
bring the other destroyers into the fight. At the same time
were sighted three German cruisers of the same class as
what are known in the British Navy as "Town" cruisers,
of which, at the outbreak of the war, there were fifteen in
the British Navy, all light cruisers ranging from 4,800 to
5,400 tons. After these ships got into action the fight be-
came general. In the German fire, tho often well directed,
many shots fell short and exploded on striking the water.
Before 9.45 A.M. the British ship, the Arethusa came in for
severe handling, and at 10 o'clock had to haul away tem-
porarily, as only her foremost 6-inch gun was capable of
continuing the fire. The British wondered at the time why,
at this juncture, German cruisers did not close in and com-
plete her destruction. For some reason unexplained they did
not follow up what had been an undoubted success for them.
After 55 minutes of strenuous work, the British cruiser
was able to steam into action again, and several German
destroyers disappeared. The Arethusa continued to receive
most of the fire. Altho shells damaged her feed-tank, and
materially reduced her speed, she was able to continue the
fight. It was now seen that two guns on one of the German
cruisers were gone, also the mainmast, and that she was
blazing amidships, but she continued to keep up a spirited
fire from her foremast and after guns. So far the battle
had been waged on the British side by light cruisers and
destroyers. Out to seaward German submarines — the first
use this was of submarines in a sea-battle — were attacking the
squadron. The water being smooth, the submarines were
detected, and Admiral Beatty, by maneuvering at high speed,
had no difficulty in avoiding them. Meanwhile, all ears were
strained to catch more distinctly certain ominous sounds of
distant firing. Of this action Admiral Beatty said:

"At 12.15 Fearless and First Flotilla were sighted retiring west.
At the same time the light-cruiser squadron was observed to be en-
gaging an enemy ship ahead. They appeared to have her beaten.
I then steered northeast to sound of firing ahead, and at 12.30 P.M.

"*. 12

THE GERMAN ADMIRAL COUNT VON SPEB

WARSHIP BATTLES AND RAIDS ON COMMERCE

sighted Arethusa and Third Flotilla retiring to the westward engag-
ing a cruiser of the Kolberg class on our port bow. I steered to
cut her off from Heligoland, and at 12.37 opened fire. At 12.42
the enemy turned to the northeast, and we chased at 27 knots. At
12.56 P.M. sighted and engaged a two-funnelled cruiser ahead.
Lion fired two salvos at her, which took effect, and she disappeared
into the mist burning furiously and in a sinking condition."

It would appear that only the Lion among the big ships
actually fired, the remainder arriving in time only to see
the German cruiser, which was the Mainz, lying on her beam
ends with only a propeller and her starboard quarter show-
ing, while a heap of wreckage marked the spot where the
Koln had gone down. A dim ruddy glare in the haze
showed where a third cruiser was drifting away, her hull
a blazing furnace. A naval lieutenant, who took part in the
battle, said, in a letter describing this the first notable naval
battle of the war:

"We were getting nearer and nearer Heligoland. I expected
every minute to find the forts on the island bombarding us. So the
Arethusa presently drew off, after landing at least one good shell
on the enemy. The enemy gave every bit as good as he got. We
then reformed, but a strong destroyer belonging to the submarines
got chased, and the Arethusa and Fearless went back to look after
her; we presently heard a hot action astern. So the captain in com-
mand of the flotilla turned us around, and we went back to help,
but they had driven the enemy off, and on our arrival told us to
form up on the Arethusa.

"When we had partly formed and were very much bunched to-
gether, a fine target, suddenly out of the everywhere arrived five
or six shells, not 150 yards away. We gazed whence they came,
and again five or six stabs of fire pierced the mist, and we made
out a four-funnelled cruiser of the Breslau class. Those five stabs
were her guns going off. We waited fifteen seconds, and shots and
the noise of guns arrived pretty well simultaneously, fifty yards
away. Her next salvo went over us, and I personally ducked as
they whirred overhead like a covey of fast partridges. You would
suppose the captain had done this sort of thing all his life. He
went full speed ahead at once at the first salvo, to string the bunch
out and thus offer less target, and the commodore from the Arethusa
made a signal to us to attack with torpedoes.

"So we swung round at right angles and charged full speed at the

IN THE GERMAN COLONIES AND ON THE SEA

enemy, like a hussar-attack. We got away at the start magnificently
and led the field, so all the enemy's firing was aimed at us for the
next ten minutes. When we got so close that the debris of their
shells fell on board we altered our course and so threw them out in
their reckoning of our speed, and they had all their work to do over
again. Humanly speaking, the captain, by twisting and turning at
the psychological moment saved us; actually I feel that we were in
God's keeping those days.

"After ten minutes we got near enough to fire our torpedo, and
then turned back to the Arethusa. Next our follower arrived just
where we had been and fired his torpedo, and, of course, the enemy
fired at him instead of at us; what a blessed relief! After the
destroyers came the Fearless, and she stayed on the scene. Soon
we found that she was engaging a three-funneler, the Mainz; so off
we started again, now for the Mainz, the situation being that the
crippled Arethusa was too tubby to do anything but be defended by
us, her children.

"The Mainz was immensely gallant. The last I saw of her, abso-
lutely wrecked below and aloft, her whole midships a fuming inferno,
she had one gun forward and one aft still spitting forth fury and
defiance like a wildcat mad with wounds. Our own four-funnel
friend recommenced at this juncture with a couple of salvos, but

rather half-heartedly, and we really did not care a d , for there,

straight ahead of us, in lordly procession, like elephants walking
through a pack of dogs, came the Lion, Queen Mary, Invincible, and
New Zealand, our battle-cruisers, great and grim and uncouth as
some antediluvian monsters. How solid they looked ! How
utterly earthquaking: We pointed out our latest ag-gressor to them,
whom they could not see from where they were. They passed down
the field of battle, with the little destroyers at their left, and de-
stroyers on their right, and we went west, while they went east.
Just a little later we heard the thunder of their guns for a space,
and then all was silence, and we knew that was all."

Heligoland, off which this battle was fought, lies thirty
miles from the German coast, and is probably the most
strongly fortified small spot on the face of the earth. It is
an island only one-fifth of a square mile in area, equipped
with probably $10,000,000 worth of long-range guns,^ and was
believed to be capable of sending to the bottom of the sea
any hostile fleet venturing within fifteen miles of the range
of its guns. Naval and military strategists had agreed that
it was doubtful if all the navies in the world acting together

WARSHIP BATTLES AND RAIDS ON COMMERCE

could batter Heligoland into submission. In a time of peace
it was the guardian of Germany's main artery of commerce,
the way to Hamburg, the sentry that protected German fish-
ermen, but in this war it became the key to all the elaborate
German naval plans. Heligoland was a second Gibraltar. At
the time of this battle great cliffs in its sides had concrete
emplacements for hundreds of guns besides which just below
lay a German fleet. The English knew it was impossible
for their ships to pass Heligoland, the passage being de-
fended by ten rows of contact-mines sunk at various depths.
Inside these were fleets of torpedo-boats and destroyers, all
placed ahead of the battle-fleet. On the island were 364
mounted guns, of which 142 were of the 42-centimeter dis-
appearing type. Any British warship coming within sight
of Heligoland would have been speedily blown to pieces.
No ship could have withstood a salvo from a score of great
cannon, each capable of hurling a steel explosive-filled shell
weighing nearly a ton.

It was late on August 27, 1914, off the west coast of
Africa, that the Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse was sunk
by the British cruiser High Flyer. This German merchant
cruiser, which was of 14,000 tons, and armed with ten four-
inch guns, had interfered with traffic between England and
the Cape for three weeks. She was one of the few German
armed auxiliary cruisers which succeeded in getting to sea
at the beginning of the war. Before she sank her survivors
were all landed. Formerly a regular liner plying between
New York and Bremen, she was built in 1897 at a cost of
between $3,000,000 and $4,000,000, was 626 feet long, of
66 feet beam, and 14,350 gross tonnage. She had an average
speed of 23 knots and was fitted to carry an armament of
eight 5.9 guns, four 4.7 guns, and fourteen machine-guns.
She was the first vessel to have suites de luxe, consisting of
parlor, bedroom, and bath, costing $1,000 for the passage.
The innovation proved a success, so that succeeding ships
also had sumptuous accommodations, which soon ran the
passage price up as high as $2,000 until a new limit was
reached with a rate of $5,000 for an imperial suite on the
Vaterland and Imperator. Soon after the war the Kaiser
Wilhelm der Grosse had taken the record for the eastbound

IN THE GERMAN COLONIES AND ON THE SEA

passage from the Lucania, of the Cunard Line, making the
passage in five days and seventeen hours. She had a nar-
row escape from destruction in the Hoboken wharf fire of
June, 1900. By being towed out into the Hudson she
escaped serious injury. On August 9, 1910, Mayor Gaynor
of New York was shot while on board this ship, just as
he was starting for a vacation in Europe. In 1913 she was
converted into a third-class steerage ship, her luxurious
fittings being removed. She sailed on her last voyage from
New York on July 21, 1914, and arrived at Bremen on July
28, the day Austria declared war against Serbia.

On September 14 occurred a duel between the Carmania,
a British converted liner formerly a Cunarder running to
New York, and a German ship of like nature and about
equal force, named the Cap Trafalgar. The antagonists met
off the east coast of South America, and had a stubborn
fight. For an hour and three-quarters they exchanged hard
knocks. The battle was something of a reminder of the old
form of duels between ships at sea. The Carmania began
the action at 9,000 yards, fire from both ships being main-
tained at various ranges, but never within 3,000 yards.
British gunners made hits on the hull, at or near the water-
line, while the German projectiles crashed into boats and
upper works. The Carmania had nine men killed and
twenty-six wounded; the German ship probably suffered
greater losses. She was in flames before the action was half
an hour in progress, and capsized before she sank. The men
who survived got away in a collier.

On October 17, occurred the sinking by the British of
four German destroyers known as $-115, $-117, $-118, and
$-119. The official report said the British loss was one
officer and four men wounded, and that thirty-one German
survivors were made prisoners. The senior officer of the
light cruiser Undaunted was Captain Cecil H. Fox who,
on board the Amphion, had taken part in the first naval
action of the war. His next adventure came when the
Amphion was sent to the bottom by a mine. The explosion
of the first mine knocked him insensible, but he recovered
so as to be able to leave the ship three minutes before she
went down under shock of a second explosion. He was

WARSHIP BATTLES AND RAIDS ON COMMERCE

afterward appointed to a new destroyer, the Faulkner,
which had been under construction for Chile when war
was declared. Only a few days before this action off the
Dutch coast, Fox was transferred to the Undaunted, the
second light cruiser of a new class, the first having been the
Arethusa. The British destroyers were of the "L" class,
parts of the 1911-1912 output, formidable vessels of 35-knot
speed, armed, with three 4-inch guns and' four torpedo-tubes,
in pairs, discharging 21-inch torpedoes. The German de-
stroyers were older boats, carrying only two 24-pounder

THE GERMAN COMMERCE-RAIDER "EMDEN"
Sunk by the Australian warship Sydney off the Cocos Islands

guns, and not only slower, but there was no comparison
between the accuracy of their shooting and that of the
British craft. The destruction of the British cruiser Hawke
by a German submarine had taken place on October 15.
The sinking of four German destroyers two days afterward
adjusted the balance as between the two navies, at least from
the British point of view. The loss of life, being some 300
men in each ease, was about the same, but the loss of an
obsolescent cruiser like the Hawke was thought to be less
serious to England than that of four destroyers to Germany.

IN THE GERMAN COLONIES AND ON THE SEA

When the German Admiral von Spee, with the German
Pacific Squadron, left Kiaochow early in August, he had suc-
ceeded in collecting seven vessels from the China and Aus-
tralian stations. One of these, the Emden, was detached
for commerce-raiding in the Indian Ocean, while the light
cruiser Karlsruhe, noted for its speed, was to become a
privateer in the South Atlantic. Spee kept with him two
armored cruisers, the Gneisenau and the Scharnhorst, and
three light cruisers, the Dresden, Leipzig, and Nurnberg,
the first two sister-ships, both launched in 1906, with
a tonnage of 11,400 and a speed of at least 23 knots. They
carried 6-inch armor, and mounted eight 8.2-inch, six 5.9-
inch, and eighteen 21-pounder guns. The Dresden was a
sister-ship of the Emden — 3,540 tons with a speed of 24%
knots, and ten 4.1-inch guns. The Nurnberg was slightly
smaller, 3,350 tons; her armament was the same, and her
speed was about half a knot quicker. Smaller still was the
Leipzig, 3,200 tons, with the same armament as the two others,
and a speed of over 22 knots, but not shown on the map.

This squadron set itself to prey upon British commerce
routes, remembering that the British Navy was short in
cruisers of the class best fitted to patrol and guard the
great trade highways. Admiral von Spee himself sailed for
the western coast of South America, finding coaling and pro-
visioning bases on the coast of Ecuador and Colombia, and
in the Galapagos Islands. The duties of neutrals were either
imperfectly understood or slackly observed by some of the
South American States at the beginning of the war, and
so the German admiral seems to have been permitted the
use of wireless-stations which gave him valuable information
as to the enemy's movements.

Early in August, a small British squadron had set sail to
protect the southern trade routes thus menaced. It was com-
manded by Rear-Admiral Sir Christopher Cradock, a capa-
ble and popular sailor, who had served in the Soudan and
at the relief of Peking, and had distinguished himself in
the work of saving life at the wreck of the Delhi. He had
in his squadron, when formed, a twelve-year-old battleship,
the Canopus, two armored cruisers, the Good Hope and the
Monmouth, the light cruiser Glasgow, and an armed liner,

WARSHIP BATTLES AND RAIDS ON COMMERCE

the Otranto. None of his vessels was very strong either in
speed or armament. The Canopus belonged to a class which
had been long obsolete. Her tonnage was 12,960, her speed
19 knots and her armament four 12-inch, twelve 6-inch, and
ten 12-pounder guns, all of an old-fashioned pattern. Her
armor belt was only six inches thick. The Good Hope was

About 5 P.M.

\ 4 Q Otranto

\ 3 Q Glasgow
\2QMonmoath
)Good Hope

r A

<»:Arauco:

THE BATTLE OF CORONEL, OFF THE CUAST OF CHILE
19

IN THE GERMAN COLONIES AND ON THE SEA

also twelve years old ; her connage 14,100, her speed 23 knots,
and her armament two 9.2-inch, sixteen 6-inch, and twelve
12-pounder guns. The Monmouth was a smaller vessel of
9,800 tons, with the same speed, and mounting fourteen
6-inch and eight 12-pounder guns. The Glasgow, which had
been stationed on the southeast coast of America, was a much
newer vessel, and had a speed of 25 knots. Her tonnage
was 4,800 and her armament two 6-inch and ten 4-inch
guns.

Admiral Cradock's squadron, after sweeping across the
Atlantic, by the third week of October went into the Pacific,
moving up the coast of Chile, on the lookout for Admiral
von Spee. He went first to Coronel, then on to Valparaiso,
and back to Coronel to send off cables. The Glasgow, to
whose officers England owed the story of the fight, left
Coronel at 9 o'clock on the morning of November 1, sail-
ing north, and at about four o'clock in the afternoon sighted
the enemy.

That Britannia was to have trouble in "ruling the waves "
had already become evident, not only from exploits by German
submarines in the North Sea, but by the commerce-destroy-
ing activities of the Karlsruhe in the Atlantic and the
Emden in the Indian Ocean. But a still more serious blow
to British naval prestige, and an impressive demonstration
of German naval prowess now came with the defeat of Rear-
Admiral Cradock's cruiser-squadron off Coronel by the
German squadron under von Spee on the evening of that
November day. The British, however, could still point to the
fact that their real naval strength had as yet hardly been
touched ; it still remained about twice that of Germany,
and it had been reinforced by the navies of France and
Japan. But the immediate result of the Coronel engagement
was that Great Britain for the time being had been swept from
the South Pacific. Cargoes in British ships for the west
coast of South America became practically uninsurable. The
fact that the German squadron had the advantage in num-
bers, tonnage, guns, and speed, only emphasized Great
Britain's mistake in allotting to an inadequate fleet the task
of clearing the Pacific of German commerce-destroyers.

Tributes were paid to Spec's strategy in having secretly

ADMIRAL SIR CHRISTOPHER CRADOCK
Cradock commanded the British ships at the Battle of Coronel

WARSHIP BATTLES AND RAIDS ON COMMERCE

gathered widely scattered German units, in estimating the
probable movements of Admiral Cradock's fleet, and in
striking under conditions apparently of his own choosing.
According to his report, five German cruisers, the Gneisenau,
Scharnhorst, Nurnberg, Leipzig, and Dresden, met and en-
gaged four British ships, the Good Hope, Monmouth, Glas-
gow, and Otranto, "between six and seven o'clock in the
evening, during a heavy rain and rough weather off Coro-
nel." This dispatch, as telegraphed from Valparaiso, con-
tinued :

"The Monmouth was sunk and the Good Hope, after a great explo-
sion on board, took fire. Her subsequent fate is unknown, owing to
darkness having set in. The Glasgow and the Otranto also were
damaged; the darkness prevented our obtaining knowledge of the
extent of it. Our ships, the Scharnhorst and Nurnberg, were not
damaged. The Gneisenau had six men wounded. The rest of our
ships also were undamaged."

The Monmouth and the Good Hope brought the number
of vessels lost by the British Navy since the beginning of
the war to twenty. Germany's naval policy, unlike her
policy in her land campaign, in which she struck at once
with the full weight of her army, seemed to be one of slow
attrition and minor engagements. It mattered not at Coronel
that the Kaiser 's ships were in a slight numerical superiority.
The British had in their flagship, the Good Hope, a vessel
3,000 tons larger than the largest of the Germans and carry-
ing two 9.2-inch guns, while the Gneisenau and Scharnhorst
had none of heavier caliber than 8-2 inch, but sixteen guns of
the latter size gave them the advantage. The fight took
place in a hurricane, under conditions when it was supposed
that British seamanship would tell. Yet the Germans got
the range first, sank the Monmouth in thirty minutes, dis-
abled the Good Hope, and drove the other two ships in
flight into a neutral harbor. Thus a British squadron, which
at the beginning of October had quitted the Atlantic and
rounded Cape Horn in order to pick up one by one isolated
German cruisers in the Pacific, was almost wiped out.

Of greater importance than the loss of the ships, or the
plight of British trade on the west coast of South America,

v. x— 3 21

IN THE GERMAN COLONIES AND ON THE SEA

was the blow apparently given to British naval prestige.
One had to search the annals of ocean warfare to find an
exploit comparable to that of Spee. At the outbreak of
the war, his five ships were scattered all over the Pacific.
The Gneisenau and the Scharnhorst had shelled Tahiti on Sep-
tember 22, sinking a French gunboat ; the Leipzig had coaled
in San Francisco on August 17, and the Dresden was in
Honolulu about the same time. There were several British,
French, and Japanese warships in the Pacific, and yet,
altho the Leipzig, Dresden, and Nurnberg were vessels of less
than 3,600 tons, their concentration had not been prevented.
They avoided their pursuers, and, despite the lack of naval
bases, kept the seas, the Leipzig sinking rich prizes off the
Peruvian coast late in September. By the aid of the wire-
less the German ships had been brought together in time to
meet the fleet of Admiral Cradock, with some of that
superiority which it is the aim of the naval strategist to
obtain before entering a fleet action.

John Buchan3 reconstructed something of the scene off
Coronel. To the east was the land, with the snowy heights
of the southern Andes fired by that day's evening glow.
To the west ''burned one of those flaming sunsets, which the
Pacific knows, and silhouetted against its crimson and orange
were the British ships, like woodcuts in a naval hand-
book. " A high sea was running from the south, and half a
gale was blowing. At first some twelve miles separated the
two- squadrons, but the distance rapidly shrank till at 6.18
P.M. the distance was eight miles. About 7 o'clock the
squadrons were converging, and the leading German cruiser
opened fire at seven miles. By this time the sun had gone
down behind the horizon. A lemon after-glow made visible
the British ships, while the Germans were shrouded in an
inshore twilight. Presently the enemy got the range, and
shell after shell hit the Good Hope and the Monmouth,
while the bad light and the spray from the heavy seas made
good gunnery for them almost impossible.

English disquietude over the naval situation was further
deepened by the dropping of mines on steamer-lanes from
Liverpool to the United States. The landing in Liverpool

3 In "Nelson's History of the War."

WARSHIP BATTLES AND RAIDS ON COMMERCE

of 1,417 men, comprising crews of merchantmen reported
sunk in the Atlantic by the Karlsruhe further shook the early
confidence of the British in their Navy. It was true that
British cruisers had captured one and sunk two German
raiders, but they were refitted merchantmen. The war was
three months old before any itinerant German warships had
been picked up. Britannia seemed to have found a foeman
worthy of her steel. The eighteen vessels lost by her since
the outbreak of the war indicated that the German policy
of attrition had met with some success. That Great Britain's
fleet was stronger in spite of this, not to mention the
finishing and near completion of battleships, and the taking

SOUTHERN SOUTH AMERICA, SHOWING THE RELATION OF THE
FALKLAND ISLANDS TO CORONEL

over of Turkish battleships and Brazilian monitors, was not
to be overlooked. Her numerical superiority remained over-
whelming, and could hardly be altered save by an unthink-
able disaster in a great fleet action. But it could not be
denied that the honors of the war for skill, daring, and
courage in the face of great odds, appeared thus far on the
side of her adversaries.

Owing to the superior range of the guns on the Scharn-
horst and Gneisenau, the Germans had been able to open fire
when six miles away. As the ships closed and the range

IN THE GERMAN COLONIES AND ON THE SEA

came down to a distance of four miles, the British were able
to reply, but by that time they were already seriously
damaged. The Germans declared that the British fought
heroically, but that their artillery was ineffective against
the superior weight of metal that the Germans were able
to pour from more modern guns on armored cruisers. A
light German cruiser closed in on the British and gave the
Monmouth her death-blow, as, crippled and in flames, she
tried to escape.

The only satisfaction the British found in their defeat
was that their little Pacific fleet had itself chosen to give
battle to a stronger squadron and had not been overwhelmed
until the last possible shot was fired at the enemy. Rear-
Admiral Cradock lived up to his reputation as a follower
of that naval school which believes the enemy should be
engaged regardless of his superiority. It was he who
brought about the action. The German squadron at first
was disinclined to give battle. It was only when dusk
came on and the light was in their favor that they engaged
the British, who were three to their four, while the range
of guns was also in favor of the Germans. The battleship
Canopus, sent to reinforce Cradock, had not arrived in time,
however, to keep the advantage on the British side, while the
transport Otranto was of no value in a fight against armored
ships.

That the Germans were able to sink or scatter a British
squadron with only minor damage to their own ships and
a casualty list of only six wounded, caused surprize. The
Monmouth was lost with practically all her crew; the Good
Hope was severely damaged and on fire when she escaped
under cover of darkness, but she afterward went to the
bottom, while the Glasgow and Otranto took refuge in a
Chilean port. The Scharnhorst, Gneisenau, and Nurnberg
were in the harbor of Valparaiso the next day coaling and
provisioning in preparation for steaming away. They were
expected to relieve the cruisers Leipzig and Bremen, which
had the Glasgoiv and Otranto bottled up in the port of Talca-
huano, eight miles northwest of Conception.

Opposed to an overwhelming preponderance of gunfire,
both the Good Hope and the Monmouth were quickly in a

WARSHIP BATTLES AND RAIDS ON COMMERCE

blaze, and altho fighting with courage to the last, the two
vessels went down with all on board. The Glasgow alone of
the three British ships engaged escaped. At the long range at
which the action took place, the light armament on both
sides must have been all but useless. Weather conditions,
moreover, were against a full employment of the lower
batteries of the British cruisers. The marksmanship of the
German gunners was of the best. From the small losses on

TIC

o c

FALKLAND ISLANDS

(British)
%

Port-- Al
****** ^

BEAUCHENE 1.0

Scale of Miles

) 100

THE MATTHEWS-^ORtflRUP WORKS, BUFFALO, H.I.

THE FALKLAND ISLANDS

The map shows how the large warships which the British had sent against

the German fleet, were in waiting for them, screened by these islands, when

the Germans came around into the Atlantic by way of Cape Horn

their side it appeared that they could have scarcely felt the
effect of the British fire at all.

Altho the Scharnhorst and Gneisenau had been intended
for bigger work than commerce-raiding, they had been a
distinct menace to South American trade; but as far as
known, neither of these large cruisers had ever attacked a
British, merchantship. The work of preying on commerce

IN THE GERMAN COLONIES AND ON THE SEA

was left to smaller ships. The Leipzig in October sank the
Bankfields off Peru, while bound from Eten for England with
6,000 tons of sugar, and the oil-tank steamer Elsinore, and
early in November sank the Vine Branch off the Chilean
coast while outward bound to Guayaquil. The Dresden sank
the Hyades off Pernambuco on August 16, while the vessel
was bound from the Plate for Holland with grain, and the
Holmivood, on August 26, near Santa Maria, while on a
voyage from South Wales for Bahia Blanca with coal. The
Nurnberg cut the cable between Barnfield, British Columbia,
and Fanning Island early in September.

The news from Coronel woke up the Admiralty to the neces-
sity of dealing further with Spee. Lord Fisher llad succeeded
Prince Louis of Battenberg as First Sea Lord, and one of
the earliest acts of his administration was the dispatch of
Bear-Admiral Sir Frederick Doveton Sturdee, who had been
Chief of the War Staff at the Admiralty, with a squadron
to the South Atlantic, in which were included the Invincible
and the Inflexible, both battle-cruisers. Great Britain had not
long to wait for revenge.

On the morning of December 7 the British squadron ar-
rived at Port Stanley, which lies at the eastern corner of the
East Island of the Falkland group. The Falklands, with
bare brown moors shining with quartz, prevailing mists,
gray stone houses, and a population of Scotch shepherds,
look like a group of the Orkneys, or Outer Hebrides set
down in southern seas. Port Stanley is a deeply cut gulf
leading to an inner harbor on the shores of which stands
the little capital city of the group. From the lower shores
on the south side one has from the deck of a vessel almost
a sight of the outer sea. Off these islands the Scharnhorst,
Gneisenau, Nurnberg, Leipzig, and Dresden were discovered at
7.30 in the morning. In the action that followed, the
Scharnhorst, flying the flag of Admiral Spee, the Gneisenau,
and the Leipzig were sunk, while the Dresden and the Nurn-
berg made off and were pursued. Two colliers were cap-
tured. The British casualties were few. Survivors were
rescued from the Gneisnau and Leipzig.

The engagement was counted by the British a dual vic-
tory, since they not only sank three ships but outwitted the

THE ARMORED CRUISER "SCHARXHORST'

THE LIGHT CRUISER "LEIPZIG"

THE LIGHT CRUISER "NURNBERG"

THREE GERMAN VESSELS SUNK IN THE FALKLAND ISLANDS BATTLE

IN THE GERMAN COLONIES AND ON THE SEA

German intelligence department. Unknown to Spee a
British squadron of feeble cruisers in the South Atlantic
had been reinforced by two new and powerful battle-cruisers,
the Invincible and the Inflexible, and elaborate pains had
been taken, after a junction was effected, not to allow any
hint of their presence to escape. When the British fleet
arrived at Port Stanley, on December 7, the two larger
vessels immediately sought concealment in the bay. The
trap having been set, its victims were not long in sailing to
attack. On the following day the German squadron ap-
peared in the offing, accompanied by the converted merchant-
man Prinz Eitel Friedrich, afterward interned at Norfolk,
Virginia, and which came to Port Stanley probably for the
purpose of using it as a coaling station.

Seeing only the five British cruisers — none of them equal
in fighting value to the German armored cruisers — and one
old battleship on guard, the Germans promptly cleared for
action. Closing in, they opened fire, to which the British
cruisers replied. The action had become furious and ap-
parently was evenly contested when, out through the narrow
harbor entrance, came the long gray forms of the two great
battle-cruisers, each with her eight 12-inch guns swung out
for action. Spee, realizing the situation, made signal for
his squadron to scatter. It was too late, however. The
Germans had come far within British range. The Scharn-
horst and the Gneisenau at once became targets for the
British battle-cruisers, the light German ships being left to
the smaller cruisers.

The Invincible received the brunt of the German fire.
Both German cruisers fought desperately and had at least
the satisfaction of getting home several broadsides on the
Invincible, which, however, rattled vainly against her heavy
armor. The Scharnkorst had won the gold medal for target
practise in the Kaiser's navy in 1913. Her shooting in this,
her last fight, justified her reputation. But one 12-inch British
salvo after another battered the German ships to pieces,
raking them from stem to stern, tearing away their light
armor and opening up holes. It was not long before flames
were licking about the upper works, first of the Scharn-
horst, then of the Gneisenau. One after another their guns

VICE-ADMIRAL SIR FREDERICK STURDEE

Sturdee commanded the British ships which fought with the Germans at
the Falkland Islands off the South American coast in 1915

WARSHIP BATTLES AND RAIDS ON COMMERCE

became silent as the crews had been killed at their stations
behind the guns. There was no hint of surrender, however.
With their last guns still blazing defiance, the two German
cruisers heeled slowly over and went down, with Admiral
von Spec's flag on the Scharnhorst still flying.

An event of peculiar interest had already taken place at
another point. This was a death-grapple between the Leipzig
and the Glasgow, both survivors of the engagement off Coro-
nel. This fight was not as unequal as was the one between
the larger ships. On the Glasgow occurred most of the
British casualties, comprising nine killed and four wounded
in the fight. But the 6-inch guns of the Glasgow counted
more than the 4-inch guns of the Leipzig. At the end
of a two-hour action the German ship, on fire and sinking,
hoisted the white flag. The Glasgow ceased firing and, run-
ning close to the sinking German ship, lowered her boats
to save the remnants of the crew. Other British cruisers
a little later came up to the Numb erg whose captain refused
to surrender. Completely outnumbered and outweighted she
was speedily sent to the bottom. Her destruction became
the salvation of the Dresden and Prinz Eitel Friedrich, be-
cause the British cruisers stopt to pick up survivors from
the Nurnberg, giving a brief respite, which enabled them
to get away. In the London Times the German fleet's gal-
lant end was acknowledged as follows: "The battle off the
Falkland Islands was declared to have redeemed modern
warfare from a reproach. On both sides men fought with
men; not machines with invisible machines. The human
factor figured as surely as it did in the days of the Bon
Homme Richard and the Serapis.3* Finally those who still
like to see some of its ancient glory hang about war owe a
debt to Sturdee and von Spee. ' '

The German admiral fought as Cradock had fought; the
German sailors died as Cradock 's men had died. They
went down with colors flying, and the crew, at the last
lined up on the decks of the doomed ships, continued to
resist after the vessels had become shambles. One captured
officer reported that, before the end, his ship had no upper

3a A reference to the battle of John Paul Jones in the North Sea during the
American Revolution.

IN THE GERMAN COLONIES AND ON THE SEA

deck left. Every man there had been killed, and one turret
blown bodily overboard by a 12-inch lyddite shell. But
in all this slaughter, which lasted for half a day, there was
never a thought of surrender. "Spee and Cradock," said
John Buchan, "lie beneath those Southern waters in the final
concord of those who have looked unshaken upon death. ' '

The victory was made complete two days later, when it
became known that the Niirnberg, one of the two light
German cruisers that escaped destruction in the first action,
had been overtaken by Sturdee's squadron and sent to join
her fellows, and by a despatch from Buenos Ayres indicat-

THE CRUISER "DRESDEN"

The Dresden, a sister-ship of the Emden, the commerce-raider, was in the
Falkland Islands battle, but escaped from the action and was afterward

bottled up

ing that the swift Dresden, the sole survivor of Spec's
forces, had been bottled up. Sturdee in this battle had at
least nine ships under his flag, including the battleships
Albemarle and Hindustan, and the battle-cruisers Lion,
Indefatigable, and Indomitable. That three battle-cruisers
should have been detached from Admiral Beatty's division,
after the service they performed in the fight of August 28
off Heligoland in the North Sea, was of itself a sufficient
indication of the importance attached by the British Ad-
miralty to the task of avenging Cradock's squadron and
clearing the ocean of German ships. Any one of the three
battle-cruisers, on sheer weight of metal, should have been
more than a match for the German squadron.

WARSHIP BATTLES AND RAIDS ON COMMERCE

It was not until January 24 that ships of the dreadnought
class were first matched against others of the dreadnought
class. On that date the most powerful German fleet that had
ventured to sea since the war began was met and defeated
at the Dogger Bank in the North Sea, by a British battle-
cruiser squadron under Vice-Admiral Sir David Beatty, the
victor of Heligoland. Surprized into an action which they
had sought to avoid, the battle-cruisers Derfflinger, Seydlitz,
and Moltke, the armored cruiser Blucher and several light
cruisers, were hammered in a running fight of three hours
and a half by the British battle-cruisers Tiger, Lion, Prin-
cess Royal, New Zealand, and Indomitable, assisted by a
few light cruisers and destroyers. After the battle had
covered more than 100 miles, at a speed never before known
in naval warfare (a speed equal to the Mauretania's) , and
had carried the British to the fringe of mines guarding
German naval bases, the German armored cruiser Blucher,
shattered by the guns of the British Lion, went to the bot-
tom and two German battle-cruisers were badly damaged.
Other German ships regained protection from land forts,
submarines, and mines.

On the Blucher probably more than 700 lives were lost.
The casualties on the battle-cruisers that escaped may have
been larger. Only 123 of the Blucher 's complement of 885
officers and men were understood to have been rescued.
The destruction of the Blucher was the hardest blow that
had yet been suffered by the German Navy. She cost
$6,750,000. No British ship was lost or seriously damaged.
Admiral Beatty reported that only eleven men were wounded
on his flagship. The Lion led the fight, as she did at
Heligoland, when Sir David drove her at twenty-eight knots
and got up in time to save a light cruiser and destroyer.
One course only was open to the Germans when they encoun-
tered Beatty 's squadron — to make for home with all pos-
sible speed — for they were hopelessly outclassed ; the most they
could expect to do was to get away without loss. The loss of the
Blucher was a serious blow to them. She was built to offset
the first of the British battle-cruisers, the Indomitable,
which had taken part in this engagement, but had proved
herself inferior to cruisers of the class she was supposed to

IN THE GERMAN COLONIES AND ON THE SEA

rival. It was difficult to account for the circumstances that
exposed the German squadron to this reverse, except on a
supposition that a recent raid on Scarborough had created
an excess of confidence among the Germans. All the ships
that took part in the battle participated in the raid on
Scarborough, with the exception of the Blucher.

The Blucher, a powerful pre-dreadnought, well protected,
was the fifth German armored cruiser to be sent to the
bottom. Of this type Germany now had left four out of the
nine with which she began the war. Four of the five that
were sunk were the newest, having been launched between
1904 and 1908. The four included all the known effective
vessels of their class in German waters, with the exception
of the Von der Tann, which was reported to have sustained
injury. The most serious British damage was sustained by
the Lion, Beatty's flagship, which had been instrumental in
sinking the Blucher. She was hit once below the water-line
and several of her forward compartments were flooded so that
she had to take up a hawser from the Indomitable and be
towed into port. The Tiger, Princess Royal, New Zealand,
and the crippled Lion found port at Leith.

When the German fleet was overtaken in the fight, and
the Blucher had fallen behind, with the other big ships racing
to escape, the British cruisers went after the Moltke, the
Seydlitz and the Derfflinger. As the Lion passed the
Blucher she let go a salvo that shook the German boat from
stem to stern. She then steamed on and left the Princess
Mary to rake the Blucher with a broadside, while a few
minutes later the flying Tiger repeated the attack, until the
Blucher was completely disabled. "We were now closing
in," said a British officer afterward, "as the Blucher, her
speed failing, began to lag behind." Her nose "pointed
home and she was struggling hard to get into shelter of the
mine-field." But she "died game, pounding away with her
stern guns to the last." She was afire afterward and was
just struggling along when the end came. When sinking by
the head she "let fly a salvo from the aft turrets." The
Arethusa finished off the Blucher with a couple of torpedoes.
There had come a time when the Blucher "wasn't worth
any more heavy powder and shot; so word was passed to

THE "BLUCHER" SUNK IN THE DOGGER BANK ACTION

THE GERMAN ARMORED CRUISER "MOLTKE

BRITISH OFFICIAL PHOTO. (&) UNDERWOOD ft UNDERWOOD. N. Y.

THE GERMAN BATTLE CRUISER "SEYDLITZ"

The Seydlitz took part in both the Dogger Bank and the Jutland battles.

She was among the ships interned at Scapa Flow, where she was sunk by

Admiral von Reuter, along with the other German ships in June, 1919

GERMAN SHIPS IN THE DOGGER BANK BATTLE
33

IN THE GERMAN COLONIES AND ON THE SEA

us on the Arethusa to set to work with torpedoes" — so said
one of the crew, who added:

"We could not miss her, for she was almost stationery. Our
second torpedo went right into her amidships. She had a terrible

THE "KONIGSBERG"

The Kdnigsberg, which had made raids on merchant ships, was finally

bottled up at the mouth of a river in German East Africa, where escape

became impossible

list even before this, and had thrown up the sponge. Her crew were
game to the last. We saw 'em lining up at the taff-rail standing at
attention. It was a thrilling moment. No man with any feelings
could fail to admire such coolness. When we had launched our
second and last torpedo we knew that the end would come quickly.
We steamed within 200 yards. They would have met their deaths
standing rigidly at attention had not warning been sent to them.
Shipping up a megaphone one of our officers shouted to them in
German. They understood and waved their caps, and after shout-
ing a hurrah all took headers into the water. We threw overboard
some hundreds of planks and they clung to them until our boats
picked them up. To do this we had to dodge the bombs which two
aeroplanes tried to drop on us. In the meantime our torpedoes had
got home. The explosion had appalling results. Not a man of the
crew would have survived it if they had remained standing at
attention. The Blucher sank like a tin can filled with water."

In July the German cruiser Konigsberg, which in the
autumn had taken refuge from the British in the Rufiji
River in German East Africa, was totally wrecked by British
river monitors. The Konigsberg was a vessel of 3,348 tons,
and had a speed of 23 knots. She was a protected cruiser.
Using Zanzibar harbor for a base, she had preyed on British
merchantmen in the Indian Ocean since the beginning of

WARSHIP BATTLES AND RAIDS ON COMMERCE

the war. She had a complement of 296 officers and men,
and was armed with ten 4.1-inch, eight 3-pound guns and
two 17.7-inch torpedo-tubes. From August 8 until Septem-
ber 15, 1914, she had captured or sunk ten ships, mostly small
trading craft, taking her prizes into the ports of German
East Africa. On her return to Zanzibar on September 20,
she surprized the British light cruiser Pegasus, which she
disabled with a loss of twenty killed and eighty wounded.
The Pegasus had returned from destroying the wireless-
plant and floating-dock at Das-es-Salaam. The Pegasus, an
old "P "-class cruiser of 2,000 tons, carrying eight 4-inch
old-pattern guns, was no match for a German craft of 1907,
altho she finally forced the latter to retire. The disabling
of the Pegasus caused the British squadron to seek out the
Konigsberg and, on October 30, she was discovered hiding
in shoal- water about six miles up the Rufiji River.

A German fleet consisting of nine of the older battleships,
twelve cruisers, and a destroyer flotilla attempted, early in
August, 1915, to force the southern channel which leads to the

PART OF THE CREW OF THE GERMAN RAIDER "KONIGSBERG,"
AS PHOTOGRAPHED AFTER HER DESTRUCTION

Gulf of Riga, but the attempt was for a time defeated,
probably by Russian submarines and smaller craft. On
August 16 it was renewed with determination, and the
German fleet engaged the Russian at the mouths of both

IN THE GERMAN COLONIES AND ON THE SEA

channels, but their attacks were again repulsed. Next day when
a thick fog had settled over the water, the Germans were
able to sweep the mines from the entrance, and the Russian
light craft retired into the Gulf, while the larger units
remained outside. In such weather a general action was im-
possible. When the Germans moved in they were ap-
parently under an impression that the Russians had with-
drawn from the Gulf altogether, and on the 19th began
preparations for a landing at Pernau, a town in the Gulf
unfortified but connected directly with Petrograd. Four
large flat-bottomed barges laden with troops moved in shore,
and on the 20th attempted to land. Conditions for this
would be favorable only on the assumption that no Russian
craft were near, for the shoal-water forbade ships to ap-
proach the shore. Here was a fine opportunity for Russian
light craft, and quickly they seized it.

Meanwhile, the Russian fleet joined battle with the Ger-
mans, the heaviest fighting being in Mohn Sound, where
retreating German vessels were caught by Russian destroy-
ers. One old gunboat, the Sivoutch, engaged a German
cruiser while escorting torpedo-craft. The action began at a
range of about 1,200 yards. "The Sivoutch," said the Russian
Admiralty report, "wrapt in flames, and on fire fore and
aft, continued to answer shot for shot until she went down,
having previously sunk an enemy torpedo-boat." This was
the only serious Russian casualty. Eight German destroyers
and two cruisers were either sunk or put out of action;
a submarine was driven ashore and it seems probable that an
auxiliary cruiser was destroyed. The accounts were conflict-
ing, the Germans denying that they had had serious losses.

The Russian squadron maneuvered to intercept a retreat,
and were attacked by German destroyers with gunfire and
torpedoes, but none of the projectiles found their mark.
The destroyers then retired before salvoes from the Russian
guns. Half an hour from the beginning of the action, the
German light cruiser Augsburg abandoned her slower con-
sort, the Albatross, and made off to the south, the fog,
which had by this time become dense, enabling her to escape.
To save the Albatross, which was already showing signs of
distress, the destroyers poured forth thick volumes of black

WARSHIP BATTLES AND RAIDS ON COMMERCE

smoke from their funnels, thus interposing a screen between
the Russians and their quarry. About nine o'clock the
foremast of the Albatross went by the board and clouds of
steam rose from the mine-layer. At the same time, she
began to list slightly to starboard. Describing several circles
and hauling down her flag, the Albatross then made for the
coast. As she was damaged and rapidly approached neutral
waters, the Russians ceased fire, and shortly afterward she
was seen to run ashore on the coast of Gotland behind the
Ostergarn lighthouse.

The Russian squadron continued its course northward.
About ten o'clock the smoke of several approaching ships
was sighted to starboard. As the distance lessened, the
vessels which were German were seen to consist of an
armored cruiser of the Roon> class, a light cruiser of the
Augsberg class, and four destroyers. The Russians immedi-
ately joined battle, and half an hour later the German ships
began to retreat southward, after having been accompanied
by submarines which unsuccessfully attacked the Russians.
The Russian battleship Rurik, bringing up the rear of the
squadron, was ordered to attack, and in a quarter of an hour
was engaged with the two cruisers. The fire of one weakened,
as her four 8-inch guns were silenced one after the other, till
only one replied, while flames, bursting from their decks,
showed that fire had broken out on board. The two cruisers
finally withdrew from the contest and disappeared rapidly in
the fog, pursued by the Rurik. Toward the close of the action
the Rurik was again attacked by a submarine, but beat off
her assailant.

About this time, there were naval activities elsewere in
the Baltic. The German battle-cruiser Moltke, a sister-ship
of the Goeben, which took part in the raid on Scarborough,
and was damaged in the battle of January 24, was torpedoed
by a British submarine under Commander Noel Laurence.
She was struck in the bows, and, altho she succeeded in
escaping, she was put out of action for a time. The Moltke
was of 23,000 tons displacement. Completed in 1911 at a
cost of £2,200,000, she carried ten 11-inch guns, twelve 6-inch
guns, twelve 24-pounders, and four torpedo-tubes. She was
armed amidship with 11-inch Krupp steel. Her engines of

v. x— 4 37

IN THE GERMAN COLONIES AND ON THE SEA

70,000 horse-power were designed to give a speed of 27
knots. Like the Goeben, she was supposed to embrace in
her design the most recent inventions, German and others,
for securing stability, immunity from fire, and a maximum
of resistance to gunfire and torpedo attack. She was in the
action against Admiral Beatty's squadron, which resulted
in the sinking of the Blucher. The Sivoutch was a vessel of
960 tons and 12 knots. She carried a crew of 148. Her
captain was Commander Tcherkasoff, who had made a record
in the Japanese War at Port Arthur.

The purpose of the Germans in the Gulf of Riga was not
only to obtain mastery in the Gulf, but to effect a landing
at Pernau. If the plan had succeeded, the communications
of Riga with Petrograd would have been cut, and a further
advance on the capital facilitated. But it was necessary,
first, to obtain command of the waters of the gulf. It was
insufficient for the Germans to sweep a passage through
mines and fixt defenses, provided the mobile defenses could
not also be accounted for. That was where the German
scheme failed. So long as the defenders were there in force
every attempt at a disembarkation could be made only at
great peril. Russian torpedo-craft and a gunboat flotilla,
skilfully handled, made a landing of German soldiers hope-
less. The affair was regarded as an illustration of the
weakness of an attempt to carry out an invasion oversea,
before control of land-communications had been obtained.

The most severe fighting appeared to have taken place in
Mohn Sound, where the Russians lost the Sivoutch. Slow
but well-armed for her size, the Sivoutch was a useful vessel,
but the Russians had many more such gunboats. The
Germans claimed to have sunk the Koreets, a sister-ship of
the Sivoutch. The four remaining German battle-cruisers
were the Von der Tann, Seydlitz, Derfflinger, and Lutzow,
of three distinct types, the first-named being armed with
eight 11-inch guns, the second with ten 11-inch, and the
others with eight 12-inch. This news, coming to the Rus-
sians after their great retreat following the fall of Warsaw,
was of much value in raising their spirits. Had the Pernau
landing succeeded, and an advanced German base been
established there, the successful Russian defense of the

WARSHIP BATTLES AND RAIDS ON COMMERCE

Dwina would have been nullified and the retirement of their
right must have been gravely compromised.

With the Hedilleh, formerly the Breslau, reported sunk
in action off the entrance to the Dardanelles late in January
1918, and the Goeben driven into the Straits and beached
at Nagara halfway up to the Sea of Marmora, the Turkish
Navy had been so reduced that it could not even send a
squadron to sea. The German Admiral, Souchon, could
command only a flotilla of small nondescript Turkish ships
and a few destroyers and submarines. Turkey's losses at sea
had included before this the battleship Messudyeh (10,000
tons), torpedoed by the British submarine 5-11 in the
Dardanelles; the battleship Kheyr-ed-din (9,000 tons), tor-
pedoed by the British in the Sea of Marmora; the
cruiser Medjidieh (3,300 tons), sunk by a Russian mine
in the Gulf of Odessa; six small gunboats of which the
British accounted for four and the Russians for two; two
destroyers, the Yadikar Millet and the Yar Hissar, both
torpedoed by British submarines; one torpedo-boat interned
at Chios and another driven ashore on the Greek coast. In
addition seven transports had been sunk and one, the
Rodosto (6,000 tons), captured by a Russian submarine.
The last eight months had seen the sinking also of minor
warships, transports, and supply-vessels. Turkey had been
planning a modern navy in 1913. On paper her complement
was impressive, including 30,000 sailors and 9,000 marines.
But, with the exception of the small cruisers Medjidieh and
Hamidiyeh, there were no modern ships. Two dreadnoughts,
the Osman (bought of Brazil) and the Reshadieh, were
building in British yards when Germany began the war,
and a third, the Faith, had been ordered. The Goeben and
Breslau had, therefore, been a lucky acquisition for Turkey
when they steamed into the Dardanelles in 1914. They
gave the Turks the upper hand in the Black Sea.

The reported sinking of the Breslau and beaching of the
Goeben, seemed the greatest triumph for the British sea
forces for many months of weary waiting. Both were new
in 1912; both were swift, altho they had deteriorated in
Turkish waters; the Goeben's batteries of 11-inch guns had
made her supreme in the Black Sea. Escaping from close

IN THE GERMAN COLONIES AND ON THE SEA

quarters at Messina at the beginning of the war, the ships
had sped to Turkey when they were sold to that country,
but their German crews remained aboard. T^hey did much
to force Turkey into the war by attacking Russia.4

4 Principal Sources : The Review of Reviews, The Times, New York ; The
flforning Post (London), The North German Gazette, The London Times'
^'History of the War," The Evening News (London), The Berliner TageUatt,
the Wolff Bureau, The Standard (London), Renter dispatches, The Economist
(London), "Nelson's History of the War" by John Buchan ; The Sun, The
Evening Sun, New York,

EXPLOITS BY THE EMDEN AND OTHERS ON THE
HIGH SEAS AND ON THE ENGLISH COAST

August 1, 1914— March 5, 1916

RAIDS and captures by German commerce destroyers
were reported from various seas soon after the war
began. British merchant vessels had been exposed to these
attacks everywhere. The Emden, commanded by Captain
Karl von Miiller, particularly distinguished herself. Being
a vessel of only about 3,500 tons, but having a speed of 25
knots, she was quite fast enough to overhaul any British
merchant steamer she was likely to encounter, and could
easily have run away when necessary. Her exploits recalled to
Europeans those of Robert Surcouf, a famous French priva-
teersman of over a hundred years before, whose Confiance,
his swiftest and rakiest craft, was generally heard of where
least expected. After reaping a harvest of merchantmen,
Surcouf ?s. vessel unaccountably disappeared. The exploits
of the Emden also recalled those of Raphael Semmes and
the Alabama in our Civil War. A statement made by
Captain John M. Kell, the executive officer of the Alabama,
might almost have been written by the corresponding officer
of the Emden, since it dealt with the Alabama's exploits in
the same waters as those through which the Emden operated
against about seventy British, Russian, French, and Japanese
ships: "In a few weeks we had so paralyzed the enemy's
commerce that their ships were absolutely locked up in port,
and neutrals were doing all the carrying trade." The dis-
guises which the Emden assumed on entering Penang were
those which had frequently been assumed or resorted to by
Captain Semmes, of the Alabama, and in every case were
legitimate. The history of naval sailing days abounds in
instances of ships that hoisted flags other than their own,
in order to find out the nationality of another vessel, or to
approach near some prize that might otherwise escape them.

IN THE GERMAN COLONIES AND ON THE SEA

The captain of the Emden, when finally captured, had
been steadily at sea for forty-eight of ninety days; in the
South China Sea, the Indian Ocean, and the Bay of Bengal;
had nearly closed up the port of Calcutta for a couple of
weeks, had fired on Madras, captured or sunk 22 merchant
ships, and then, having been reported 200 miles south of
Ceylon near the Equator, had doubled on his tracks and
again crossed the Bay of Bengal. Several times he had
recoaled and provisioned his ship from prizes and, barring
the fouling of his ship's bottom, was in better shape when
captured than when the war began, for his successes had
greatly increased the morale of his crew. It was his in-
variable practise to sink prizes, reserving one in which to
send crews and passengers into port. Indeed nothing else
could be done, since he could not take them into any friendly
port, nor could he cumber his own ship with captured crews.
The Emden steamed one evening into Madras roads and
shelled the outskirts of the town for half an hour, oil-tanks
being set ablaze and two or three natives killed. Fort
George returned the fire, probably without effect, and the
Emden then retired. At the end of October, when in disguise
by carrying an extra dummy funnel, and flying the Japanese
colors, the Emden contrived to torpedo a small Russian
cruiser and destroyer in the British harbor of Penang, but on
November 10 she was caught at the Keeling or Cocos Islands,
south of Sumatra, by the Australian cruiser Sydney, driven
ashore and burned.

One of her greatest exploits was the one at Penang, which is
in the Straits Settlement, and where, after a few brief hours
in that busy harbor, she left death and destruction behind
her. Penang lies on the western coast of the Malay Penin-
sula, just below the Siamese border, and is the shipping
point of the Federated Malay States, where 65 per cent,
of the world's tin is produced, as well as a great amount
of rubber. The thing that made Penang a point of importance
in the war was the fact that it was the last port of call
for ships from China and Japan to Colombo and Europe,,
and it had been made more or less of a naval base by the
English Government. It was probably for the purpose of
crippling this base that the Emden made her raid on it.

WARSHIP BATTLES AND RAIDS ON COMMERCE

Had she found Penang undefended, she could, at one blow,
have embarrassed English cruisers patrolling those waters,
and at the same time have caused a terrific loss to English
commerce by sinking merchantmen at anchor in the harbor.
It was early in the morning that the Emden, with her
dummy fourth funnel, and flying the British ensign, got
past a French torpedo-boat, the Mosquet, which was on
patrol duty outside, and entered the outer harbor of Penang,
where, across the channel leading to the inner harbor, lay
the Russian cruiser Jemtchug. Inside were French torpedo-

Course of H. M. S. Sydney

Course of Emden

H.M.S.Sydney/
at 9.15 any'

Direction I.

(Cable Station)

m MATTMBWS-NOTTHHUP WOHKS. BUFFAIO. N.Y.

THE SINKING OF THE "EMDEN" BY THE "SYDNEY"
The Cocos, or Keeling, Islands, are in the Indian Ocean about 600 miles
southwest of Sumatra. The Sydney was an Australian, not a British

warship

IN THE GERMAN COLONIES AND ON THE SEA

boats and torpedo-boat destroyers, the torpedo-boats lying
beside the long Government wharf, while the D'I'berville
rode at anchor between two tramp steamers. At full speed
the Emden steamed straight ahead for the Jemtchug in
the inner harbor. In the semi-darkness the Russian ship
took her for the British cruiser Yarmouth, which had been
in and out of the harbor two or three times during the
previous week and did not even " query" her. When less
than 400 yards away, the Emden suddenly emptied her bow
guns into the Jemtchug, and prest on at a terrific pace,
with all the guns she could bring to bear in action. When
she had come to within 250 yards of the Russian ship, she
changed her course slightly, and* as she passed the Jemtchug,
poured two broadsides into her, as well as a torpedo, which
entered the engine-room, but did comparatively little damage,
however. The Russian cruiser, taken completely by surprize,
was crippled. Her captain had been spending the night ashore,
and as there was no one on board who seemed capable of acting
energetically, she was defeated before the battle began. Such
men as were on board finally manned her light guns and
brought them into action.

In the meantime the Emden had got well inside the inner
harbor among the merchant shipping. She now discovered
the presence of French torpedo-boats and realized that,
unless she got out before they could join in the action, her
fate would be sealed, for at such close quarters torpedoes
would have proved -deadly. Accordingly, she turned and
made once more for the Jemtchug, which had been bom-
barding her with shrapnel, but, owing to bad markmanship,
had succeeded only in peppering merchant ships that were
within range. As the Emden neared the Jemtchug. both
ships were actually spitting fire. At less than 150 yards
the Emden passed the Russian ship and torpedoed her amid-
ship, striking the magazine. A tremendous detonation fol-
lowed, paling into insignificance all the previous din in that
harbor. A column of heavy black smoke rose and the
Jemtchug sank in ten seconds.

The Emden then started for a point of safety, but sighted
the torpedo-boat Mosquet coming in at top speed and im-
mediately opened on her, causing her to turn. After a run-

WARSHIP BATTLES AND RAIDS ON COMMERCE

ning fight of twenty minutes the Mosquet, hit by shells,
sank rapidly. Here the chivalrous conduct of the Emden's
captain, which had been many times in evidence throughout
her career, was again shown. He stopt, regardless of danger,
lowered his boats, and picked up the survivors of the
Mosquet before steaming on his way. The English in
Penang afterward said of him admiringly that he "played
the game." Boats of all descriptions now started toward the
place where the Russian cruiser was last seen, the water
being covered with debris to which survivors were clinging.
Their blood-stained and, for the most part, naked bodies,
were enough to send shivers through the most cold-blooded
observer. Out of a crew of 334 men, 142 were picked up
wounded. Only 94 were found practically untouched, while
98 were "missing."

The French torpedo-boats and the D'Iberville, whose help
the Jemtchug had had a right to expect, lay at the time in the
harbor with fully ten minutes' warning that a hostile ship
was approaching, and yet they allowed that ship to enter
the harbor, and to turn and make her escape without so
much as firing a shot — so reports definitely said. If they
had gone into action, the Emden could hardly have escaped.
The range was everything they could have wished for. The
fact reported in explanation was that, altho it was a time
of war, a large percentage of the officers of these ships had
been allowed to remain ashore over night and not one of the

r ^ . " :r t • — — - - - •• • . : - -vi

THE AUSTRALIAN WARSHIP "SYDNEY" THAT SANK THE "EMDEN"

The Sydney shown at her arrival In the Harbor of Colombo, having on

board Captain von Mutter, and others from the Emden

IN THE GERMAN COLONIES AND ON THE SEA

ships had steam up. Their decks were not even cleared for
action. Two or three torpedoes from any one of them
would have saved the day, but none was fired.

When the Emden first arrived off the Cocos Islands the wire-
less operator there had sent out the "S 0 S" call, and it was
caught by the Australian cruiser Sydney, which soon ar-
rived and engaged the Emden. The Sydney was a larger,
faster and more modern vessel. "With her 6-inch guns she
was able to hit the Emden and keep out of range of her
4-inch guns. The Emden soon lost one of her masts and
two of her funnels, and steering to shore grounded and
was burned. The twenty-five or thirty British vessels cap-
tured by the Emden were valued, apart from their cargoes,
•at over "$10,000,000.

This ended one of the most exciting adventure-cruises
that war-history can supply. Violence and disaster had fol-
lowed in the Emden' s wake nearly every day of the three
months of her war career, but in the code of war, there had
been no cruelty, no treachery, nor any stain upon the honor
of the ship, crew, or commander. Even the British press
said Miiller had made for himself and his vessel a name
which any of his fellow wearers of the Iron Cross might
envy. While the English rejoiced in the destruction of the
Emden, no one failed to acknowledge admiration for Miiller,
or to commend the spirit of fair fighting exhibited in his
attacks on British shipping. Miiller was a native of Blacken-
berghe, Belgium, and at one time had been an officer in the
employ of the Hansa line of steamers. Fast cruisers had
been in search of the Emden for some time, British cruisers
being aided by French, Russian, and Japanese vessels. In-
cluded in this work were the Australian warships Melbourne
and Sydney.

The effect of the sinking of the Emden was better seen in
London at Lloyd's perhaps than anywhere else in the world.
She had for weeks caused deep and painful anxiety. But a
dramatic scene now took place. The business of the day was
in full swing, when suddenly above the hum the Lutine 5

5 The bell of H. M. S. Lutine, which was wrecked, with the loss of all
hands, off Vlieland, in the Netherlands, October 9-10, 1799. The bell was
recovered in salvage operations and sent to Lloyd's as a memorial.

WARSHIP BATTLES AND RAIDS ON COMMERCE

rang out. Only on momentous occasions is this bell
rung. Instantly business was now suspended as all turned
toward the rostrum, from which it was known that some
great news would be made, public. An official crier mounted
the steps and in the rolling tones for which he was famous,
began: "Gentlemen, it is officially announced that the
Emden - " That was as far as he was allowed to go.
Cheer after cheer went forth. Hats and papers were
thrown into the air. Again the Lutine bell was rung — to
enjoin silence — and at last the message was completed —
"the Emden has been destroyed. " The shipping industry
in the Indian Ocean was now relieved of the greater portion
of its peril, and underwriters slept more comfortably.

Once located, the Emden had small chance of escape. She
"had a crew of 361 men, and was completed in 1909. The
Sydney, of 5,400 tons and a speed of 24y2 knots, was
manned by 400 officers and men, and had been launched
in 1912. The broadside of the Emden was only 175 pounds ;
that of the Sydney 500 pounds. Thus the disparity between
the ships was almost as great as that between Cradock's
•squadron and Spec's in the action off the Chilean coast.
Captain Miiller had received command of the Emden two
years before his capture, and after some years of service in
the German Admiralty. He had a sense of humor, as was
shown when he offered by wireless to the Indian Government
to carry the mail from Calcutta to Rangoon, and when again
he rang up one of his first victims to ask if anything had
been seen of a German cruiser in the Bay of Bengal, only
to be answered by the innocent captain of the vessel that
such a thing did not exist. A few minutes later, and shortly
"before the Emden hove in sight, Miiller 's wireless rapped
out in reply, "Oh, yes, it does; I am it."

More than five months after the destruction of the Emden,
that is on April 29, fourteen survivors of the Emden's crew
straggled into Damascus. Of thirty who had been sent
ashore at Cocos to intercept the wireless, these fourteen
were survivors. Standing on shore at Cocos they had
seen the Emden fire on the Sydney, had witnessed the chase
that followed, and then were compelled to see the Emden
take flight while afire, only to go down on the rocks of

IN THE GERMAN COLONIES AND ON THE SEA

another island fifteen miles away. With the Emden gone,
these thirty men had no wish to be captured as their com-
panions had been. Within a short time they were able to
secrete themselves in a commandeered schooner called the
Eyashe. Their numbers were increased by some forty
others 'who managed to escape in small boats after the fight.
In all, the survivors numbered seventy-five men and seven
officers. The final, and perhaps most thrilling, stage in
their wanderings, was their journey home across the desert
where they were attacked by Bedouins and all but wiped
out. This adventure was recounted by Dr. Emil Ludwig,
a special correspondent 6 sent out to meet them when they
should emerge from the desert. The facts were given to
Dr. Ludwig by Lieutenant Captain von Miicke, the leader
of the little party. Dr. Ludwig 's narrative written at
Damascus contains the following:

"Two months after our arrival at Hodeida we again put to sea.
The Turkish Government placed at our disposal two sambuks (sail-
ing ships) of about twenty-five tons, fifteen meters long and four
meters wide. In fear of English spies, we sailed from Jebaua, ten
miles north of Hodeida, on March 14, and at a considerable distance
apart, so that both parties would not be lost if an English gun-boat
found us. After adventures in which some of the men perished,
others got to the first boat. Now we numbered, together with the
Arabs, seventy in all on this little boat. We anchored before Kon-
fida, and met Sami Bey, who was in the service of the Turkish Gov-
ernment and did good service as guide in the next two months. He
was an active man, thoroughly familiar with the country. He pro-
cured for us a larger boat, of fifty-four tons, and with his wife
sailed along-side on the little sambuk. For two days we sailed unmo-
lested to Lith, when Sami Bey announced that three English ships
were cruising about to intercept us. I now advised traveling over
land, but we could travel only at night. When we slept or camped
around a spring, we had only a tent for the sick. After two days'
march from Jeddah, the Turkish Government, receiving news about
us, sent us sixteen good camels.

"On the night of April 1, I was riding at the head of the column,
when all our shooting implements were cleared for action, because
danger existed of an attack by Bedouins, whom the English had
bribed. When it began to grow a bit dark we were all tired, having

6 Of the Berliner TageUatt.

WARSHIP BATTLES AND RAIDS ON COMMERCE

been riding eighteen hours. Suddenly I saw a line flash up before
me, and shots whizzed over our heads. The whole space around the
desert hillock was occupied. We at once formed a fighting-line and
rushed upon them with bayonets, whereupon they fled, but returned
to the attack again from all sides. Several gendarmes who had
been given to us as an escort were wounded; the machine-gun
operator fell, killed by a shot through the heart; another was
wounded; and Lieutenant Schmidt, in the rear-guard, was mortally
wounded with bullets in his chest and abdomen.

"Suddenly the Bedouins waved white cloths, and the wife of the
Sheik, to whom a part of our camels belonged, went over to negoti-
ate with them. We quickly built a sort of wagon barricade, a cir-
cular camp of camel saddles, rice and coffee sacks, all of which we
filled with sand. As we had no shovels, we had to dig with bayonets,
plates and hands. The whole barricade had a diameter of about
fifty meters. Behind it we dug trenches. As the camels inside had
to lie down, they served very well as cover for the rear of the
trenches. An inner wall was constructed, behind which we carried
the sick. In the very center we buried two jars of water, to guard
against thirst. In addition, we had ten petroleum cans full of water.
All told there was a supply of water for four days. Late in the
evening the wife came back after futile negotiations. She unveiled
for the first and only time on this day of the skirmish, distributed
cartridges, and conducted herself faultlessly. The number of the
enemy was about 300, while we numbered fifty, with twenty-nine
guns. We had to dig with our hands and bayonets a grave for one
of our men, and to eliminate every trace above it in order to pro-
tect the body. Another companion was buried immediately after the
skirmish. Both were buried silently, with all honors.

"The wounded had a hard time, as we had lost our medicine-chest
in the wreck and had only little packages of bandages ; but no prob-
ing instruments, no scissors. On the next day our men came up with
thick tongues, feverish and crying 'Water! Water!' Each received
a little cupful three times a day. Had our water supply been ex-
hausted we would have had to sally forth from camp and fight our
way through. Arabs simply cut the throats of camels that had been
wounded, and then drank the yellow water contained in their stom-
achs. Those fellows could stand anything. At night we dragged
out dead camels that had served as cover and been shot. Hyenas
then came, hunting for dead camels. I shot one of them, taking it
for an enemy.

"On the third day there were new negotiations. The Bedouins
demanded arms no longer, but only money. The negotiations took
place across the camp wall. When I declined, the Bedouin said:

IN THE GERMAN COLONIES AND ON THE SEA

'Beaucoup de combat' (Lots of fight). I replied, 'Please go to it!*"
We had only a little ammunition left, and very little water. It
really looked as if we would soon be dispatched. The mood of the
men was dismal. Suddenly, about 10 o'clock in the morning, there
bobbed up in the north two riders on camels, waving white cloths.
Then there appeared, coming from the same direction, a long row of
about one hundred camel troops, who drew rapidly nearer, singing,
in a picturesque train. They were messengers and troops from
the Emir of Mekka.

"The wife, it appeared, had in the course of the first negotiations
dispatched an Arab boy to Jeddah. From that place the Governor
had telegraphed to the Emir. The latter at once sent the camel
troops with his two sons and his personal surgeon. The whole
Bedouin band now speedily disappeared. Our first act afterward
was a rush for water. Then we cleared up camp, but had to harness
the camels ourselves, for the drivers had fled at the beginning of
the skirmish. More than thirty camels were dead. Saddles did not
fit. These German sailors knew how to rig up schooners, but not
camels. Much baggage was left lying in the sand for lack of pack-
animals. Under protection of Turkish troops we now got to Jeddah,,
where the authorities and populace received us well. From there we
proceeded in nineteen days, without mischance, by sailing boat to
Elwesh, and under abundant guard with Suleiman Pahsa, in a five-
day caravan-journey towrd El Ela, where we were seated at last
in a train and riding toward Germany. We shall get into the war
at last,"

Details of another armed cruiser's exploits, the Karlsruhe,.
in capturing British vessels during September and October,
1914, became public some weeks afterward. The Houlder liner,,
La Rosarina, and the Yeoward liner, Andorinha, arrived in
the Mersey on November 3 from Teneriffe, bringing the
masters, officers, and crews of thirteen British vessels that
had been captured in the South Atlantic Ocean by the
Karlsruhe. With the exception of three, all were sunk.
The three spared were kept for the sake of the large amount
of coal they had on board and the oil and stores. In each
case the Karlsruhe followed the same procedure. Crews of
the captured vessels were first transported to two German
merchantmen, who accompanied her on her raiding expedi-
tions, and then the doomed ships were sunk by heavy charges
of dynamite. The merchantmen carried their passengers
to Teneriffe, where they were cared for by the British

WARSHIP BATTLES AND RAIDS ON COMMERCE

Consul until ships arrived to take them to Liverpool. With
the publication in November 1916 of the war diary of
Captain Lieutenant Aust, one of the surviving officers of the
Karlsruhe, the mystery surrounding her fate was dispelled.
According to Captain Aust's account, the Karlsruhe was
blown up by an internal explosion on. the evening of Novem-
ber 4, 1914, while a short distance off the northeast coast of
South America. Her surviving officers and men, by sailing
in one of her prizes, had succeeded in slipping through the
British network of warships and reaching a Norwegian port
on November 29. The Karlsruhe was at Havana at the out-
break of the war. Prior to that she had been on duty in

THE GERMAN CRUISER "KARLSRUHE"

The Karlsruhe was described by the Hamburger Fremden'blatt as "the
terror of the Atlantic." She was reported to have been blown up by an in-
ternal explosion off the northeast coast of South America in November, 1914

Mexican waters. She took on coal and provisions at San
Juan, Porto Rico, on August 9, 1914. Captain Lubinus un-
derstood that she had sunk seventeen ships between that date
and her capture of the Fame on October. How many more
she sent to the bottom between that time and her own sink-
ing on November 4, was not known.

On January 28, 1915, the American schooner, William P.
Frye, loaded with a cargo of wheat consigned to an English
firm, was sunk by the German auxiliary cruiser Prinz Eitel
Friedrich, and in a communication to the German Govern-
ment the Government of the United States contended that
the act was unwarranted by international law, as the cargo

IN THE GERMAN COLONIES AND ON THE SEA

could be considered only conditional contraband, and there
was no evidence that it was to be used for military purposes.
The outcome was regarded as a victory for the American
contention for the safety of innocent persons on the high
seas. The agreement was reached at a time when grave
issues had risen between Germany and the United States in
consequence of the loss of many American lives in the sink-
ing of passenger ships, of which the most notable was the
Lusitania, in May 1915. The Prinz Eitel Friedrich and the
Crown Prince Wilhelm, two German commerce destroyers,
entered the harbor of Newport News in March 1915, after
extended cruises in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, during
which a number of French and English vessels were de-
stroyed. At first the commanders of both vessels indicated
their intention of making necessary repairs and putting to
sea again, but the presence of English war-vessels outside
the harbor caused them to change their plans, and both
vessels were eventually interned.

Late on the afternoon of November 2, 1914, eight warships
sailed from the Elbe base — three battle-cruisers, the Seydlitz,
the Moltke, and the Von der Tann; two armored cruisers,
the Bliicher and the Yorck; and three light cruisers, the
Kolberg, the Graudenz, and the Strassburg. Except the
Yorck, they were fast vessels, making at least 25 knots. The
battle-cruisers carried 11-inch guns. Having cleared for
action, they started for the coast of England, and early in
the morning ran through the nets of a British fishing fleet
eight miles east of Lowestoft. An old police boat, the
Halcyon, was sighted, and received a few shots. About
eight o'clock, when opposite Yarmouth, they proceeded to
bombard the wireless-station and naval air-station from a
distance of about ten miles. Their shells only plowed sands
and disturbed the water. In a quarter of an hour they
moved away, dropping many floating mines, which later in
the day caused the loss of one submarine and two fishing-
boats. The enterprise was unlucky, for on the road back the
Yorck struck a mine and went to the bottom with most of
her crew.

The cannonade caused a sensation in Yarmouth. It began
soon after 7 o'clock and went on furiously for 20 minutes.

WARSHIP BATTLES AND RAIDS ON COMMERCE

Many who were asleep were awakened by reverberations,
the clattering of windows and the shaking of houses. At
the beach there was little to be seen. The haze of an
autumn dawn hung over the sea. The ships that were firing
were not visible to the gathering crowds, who could see only
flash after flash on the horizon, followed by the dropping of
shells in the sea and the leaping of great cascades. Men
with glasses on the pier at the harbor-mouth were only
able to distinguish one ship, a large four-funneled vessel,
steaming close to the Cross Sands lightship, which lies about
10 miles off the coast, well outside the Yarmouth Roads.
Some of the shells dropt within a mile or two of the shore;
others came closer. Soon after the departure of the ships,
several destroyers and submarines put. out of Yarmouth into
the North Sea. The submarines were in company, and
during the morning's patrol work one of them came to
grief. After striking a mine a few miles from the coast,
she sank quickly. Only four survivors were picked up.

In the middle of December, while the Allies were strength-
ening their 1'nes in France and Belgium, and while, in
Poland, Germany was claiming the greatest victory of the
war, and "a complete shattering of the Russian offensive, "
and while the eastern theater witnessed the torpedoing of
the Turkish battleship Messudyeh in the Dardanelles by a
British submarine which had dived under five rows of mines,
a German cruiser flotilla eluded the British patrol fleet in

THE AUXILIARY CRUISER PRINCE EITEL FRIEDRICH

This Is the ship that sank the William P. Frye, and was afterward interned
at Newport News

v. x— 5 53

IN THE GERMAN COLONIES AND ON THE SEA

the North Sea, bombarded three English towns, and made
good its escape. While developments then taking place in
France and Poland were major events, the feat of the sub-
marine in the Dardanelles was perhaps the most daring
exploit thus far in the war, but the interest of the British
public and press was focused chiefly on the bombardment
by German cruisers on Dcember 16 of Scarborough, Hartle-
pool, and Whitby. For the first time in centuries, English
blood had been shed on English soil by a foreign foe. As
a consequence of this event Englishmen now knew from
experience that England was not immune from attacks; that
the British Navy was not an impregnable fortress floating
around the British Isles, and, that Great Britain would
require in this war all her military resources of whatsoever
kind and character.

But the event, it was thought, might be worth "a million
recruits to Kitchener's army." An immediate sequel to
the bombardments and the killing of more than a hundred
innocent persons, two-thirds of them women and children,
was a general rush to the recruiting-offices. Prince von
Billow, the former German Chancellor, was quoted as
saying this was "simply the prelude to what the German
fleet would soon undertake and which might astound the
world. " The exploit probably produced a more profound
impression on the English people than any other event of
the war up to that time. Stories of English people, with
familiar English names, dwelling in an every-day English
town that was like hundreds of other towns, now torn to pieces
by shrapnel, their homes burned, their women folk struck down
in the streets, and their babies buried in burning wreckage,
were declared to be "taking hold of the imagination of
people as no tales of atrocity, fire, and sword in Belgium;
as no shiploads of wounded soldiers and starving refugees,
had been able to approach. "

Nearly a year afterward a German naval officer7 insisted
that "before the cruisers had fired a shot the Moltke got
a 6-inch shell from the forts, which struck the battle-cruiser
and tore away officers' cabins in a lightly protected portion

T,In an interview with Karl H. von Wiegand, correspondent of the United
Press, as published in The World (New York).

IN THE GERMAN COLONIES AND ON THE SEA

of the ship." He himself saw "a number of steel-patched
holes, the result of that shell," which to him was "convinc-
ing proof that Hartlepool is not an open, undefended town,
as widely heralded by the English." Englishmen familiar
with Hartlepool still persisted that the only forts Hartlepool
had were forts of sand built by children on the beach. As
for Scarborough, it boasted only the ruins of an ancient
castle, and after this attack lamented the more ruinous
state in which that ancient relic found itself. There was
not a single fortress-gun in or near the town. The Germans
had attacked a half -awake seaside resort.

There were three attacking ships, apparently two cruisers
and a smaller vessel which some observers thought was a
destroyer. They sailed into the South Bay from the north-
east, rounding Castle Hill at eight o'clock, and opened fire.
Sailing across the bay in the direction of Cayton, they
turned about and sailed back again, still firing. The bom-
bardment lasted half an hour. It was difficult from con-
flicting estimates to decide how many shells were fired, but
probably about 100. "When they saw no danger to them
was to be feared from Castle Hill, the ships gave all their
attention to the town. People were killed in tlieir beds and
in the streets. Four were killed in one house by a shell
which, missing the railway freight-yard, brought down half
the side of a house. Four churches were struck and the
town hall. The hospital in Friar's Entry escaped, but the
building next to it was struck. One shell went through the
boundary wall of the power station of the Scarborough elec-
tric-supply conduit.

The damage mostly in evidence was done on Castle Hill,
where the old barracks — then unoccupied — had been razed.
The Castle keep and the walls facing south were also dam-
aged. Thrilling stories were told by fishermen who were
at sea at the time. They said the German ships, when they
came within two miles of the town, were flying the white
ensign. One man saw four ships, and at first thought they
were British patrol-ships. The crew of his boat were un-
deceived when they found themselves in an inferno of noise
and smoke.

The bombardment of the Hartlepools caused a loss of

WARSHIP BATTLES AND RAIDS ON COMMERCE

nearly 100 lives in the two boroughs, including 41 civilians
and eight soldiers at Hartlepool, and 41 civilians at West
Hartlepool. The old borough suffered much more severely
than the newer districts of West Hartlepool. Hartlepool
had scars, gashes and gaping wounds from one end to the
other. The Germans seemed to have vaned their fire to
cover the widest possible area of workshops and human
habitations. Hundreds of houses were seriously damaged,
and hundreds more had their windows smashed. Terrible

Vt/ uNDERWOOD 6 UNDERWOOD. N. Y.

REMAINS OF THE ANCIENT ABBEY OF WHITBY
Near Scarborough, England, after the bombardment

havoc was wrought along the sea front. The district lying
behind the lighthouse was severely battered, but the battery
on the front, that guards the entrance to the port, was not
touched. Behind and beside it houses were unroofed and
holes made in their walls. A whole terrace on the front
escaped injury. A few yards behind it a residential square
had on one side hardly a house left whole. Further in the
rear, by the Rugby football field, was a long row of houses

IN THE GERMAN COLONIES AND ON THE SEA

every one of which was extensively damaged. Half were no
longer habitable. A violent earthquake could not have
caused the same measure of ruin. Except as an example of
" f rightf ulness, " the visit to the Hartlepools was fruitless.
Work was going on next day in workshops and at docks as
usual, the port working normally, and merchant ships were
steaming home through sea fogs just as if nothing had

THE BRITISH SHIP "APPAM"

happened. The hostile cruisers did nothing but sacrifice
nearly a hundred lives of innocent non-combatants.

The cruisers steamed close into Whitby, and when about a
mile off the port discharged shots into the town, which was
undefended by artillery. It was estimated that 100 shots
were fired. After the bombardment, they steamed out to sea
and were soon lost to view. Two men were killed and
houses and other property were damaged. Whitby Abbey,
close to the signal station, was struck, as was the Abbey
Lodge. News that the venerable ruins of Whitby had been
damaged caused a feeling of anger, as deep in purpose as in
resentment, to pass through England. These ruins, bat-
tered by the storms of many generations, stood still un-
conquered, perched high above the huddled beauty of the
old port and the town near the edge of a cliff and on the
right bank of the Esk. They stood almost alone, with the
quaint old parish church of St. Mary between them and
the town, at the head of a precipitous flight of 199 steps.

This German exploit occurred in waters associated in all

WARSHIP BATTLES AND RAIDS ON COMMERCE

American minds with the famous victory of John Paul
Jones with the Bonhomme Richard. What surprized most
readers was the great daring and skill of the Germans
in piloting vessels through British mine-fields and making
off after a raid, which, as far as it went, was perfectly suc-
cessful. That it was also perfectly aimless in a military
sense seemed an inevitable conclusion. Berlin merely an-
nounced that a part of the High Seas Fleet had bombarded
certain "fortified towns" on the east coast of England, but
added that, "regarding the further course of its action, no
information can be given." It was impossible to avoid
associating these deeds with the advice of one of Germany's
popular naval writers, published the day before the raid
occurred. "We must see clearly," he wrote in the Deutsche
Tageszeitung, "that, in order to fight with success, we are
obliged to fight ruthlessly — ruthlessly in the proper meaning
of the word, that is to say, without any regard whatever
for any conceivable thing which lies outside the line leading
to our final military goal. Our sole thought is devoted to

THE MOWE AFTER REACHING KIEL
The Howe is the second vessel from the right

increasing vengeance by any and every means which can
lead to victory."

Like a fantom, gliding over the sea, in which for days
she had been supposed to be lost, the British passenger
liner Appam of the West African trade, on February 1,

- 59

IN THE GERMAN COLONIES AND ON THE SEA

1916, slipt into Hampton Roads, in the gray of early morn-
ing, and dropt anchor there under the guns of Fortress
Monroe. Over the 1 ner flew the naval ensign of the Im-
perial German Government, and on her bridge walked
Lieutenant Berge of the German Naval Reserve. A German
prize crew of twenty-two men stood guard over the
Appam's company of 429. As wonderful as any exploit of
the Emden or other raiders, was the tale which those aboard
the Appam had to tell of another strange small German
raider, which was credited with having slipt out of Kiel
through the British North Sea Fleet into the open Atlantic,
and cruised for days in the paths of British and French
vessels, six of which it captured before their prisoners were
put aboard the Appam.

On March 5 official announcement was made that the
Appam's unidentified raider had arrived home and was the
Mowe, which had on board 199 prisoners and 1,000,000
marks in gold bars. Count von Dohna, the Mowe's com-
mander, was awarded the Iron Cross of the First Class and
members of the crew the Iron Cross of the Second Class.
The Mowe had performed one of the most spectacular feats
of the war by reaching a German North Sea port in safety.
Wilhelmshaven had been patrolled with ceaseless vigilance
by British warships. Through waters which had been
blocked off in districts for patrol by different British units
the Mowe had threaded her way to safety. She had reached
the North Sea by going around Iceland.

Later in the war a disguised commerce-raider named
Crocodile and five " armed trawlers were sunk by British
destroyers in Kattegat waters. The Crocodile was a new
vessel, of nearly 1,000 tons, with a crew of 100 men, and
had been disguised as a neutral merchantman, carrying a
deck load of casks. The British destroyers rescued about
thirty men. The rest of the crew were killed in the fight.8

8 Principal Sources : The Evening Post, The Times, New York ; the Berliner
Tagellatt; The Independent, The Literary Digest, New York ; The Daily Mail
(London) ; The Sun, The Journal of Commerce, New York ; The Morning Post,
The Standard, The Times, T'.ie Manchester Guardian, London ; The World
(New York), "Nelson's History of the War" by John Buchan, the "New
International Year Book" (1914-16).

Ill

THE GREAT BATTLE OFF JUTLAND
May 31, 1916

FOR almost twenty-two months, or from the day when
the war began, the British public had looked forward
without ceasing to a pitched battle between great ships at
sea. Active command of the sea it was asserted could not
be obtained, either by Great Britain or by Germany, until
a fleet action had been fought by those powers and won by
the strongest. The conditions in which the two navies had
so long faced one another were not such, however, as had
given promise to naval men of an early conflict on a large
scale. The German flag had completely disappeared from
the ocean, while the oversea traffic of the Allies had contin-
ued unmolested, save by submarines. British naval policy
had in the main been directed to the destruction of German
commerce and trade — that is to the enforcement of what, in
all but name, was a blockade. So long as the Germans made
no attempt to take to the sea in force, it was not easy to
see how a decisive engagement could be brought about.
Nevertheless, it was hoped that, as the blockade became more
and more stringent, this condition, combined with others,
would soon operate to force the Germans to risk a battle.
For nearly two years the British Grand Fleet in the North
Sea faced German bases and so had made secure the passage
of Allied trade and troops unmolested. Campaigns for the
possession of the German colonies had meanwhile been un-
dertaken, and assistance rendered to Allied land forces in
three continents without let or hindrance. The British fleet
had also provided safeguards against an invasion of the
British Islands, and had enforced what was almost strangu-
lation of trade with Germany. Perils from mine and sub-
marine menace had, however, always been present, and the

IX THE GERMAN COLONIES AND ON THE SEA

call upon the vigilance of flotillas and fleets on patrol service
remained unremitting. The principal base of the Grand Fleet
was Scapa Flow in the Orkneys.

While a predominant position at sea had thus been main-
tained by Great Britain, there was in being, within a short
distance of her shores, the second strongest fleet in the
world, manned by courageous and competent officers and
men. The Germans believed their methods of training,
their guns and mechanical equipment, and the armament
and armor supplied them by Krupp, were superior to those
of their opponents. Given that they could choose their own
time and place for action, they believed these advantages
would more than compensate for their deficiency in numbers
of men and ships. Yet when tried in the ordeal of battle/
the higher standards of technique, according to British ex-
perts, would be found on the other side. Neither in nerve
nor in morale were the staying powers of the Germans equal
to those of their opponents, nor had they proved the better in
tactical efficiency, scientific gunnery, or the handling of ships
and machinery.

The event so anxiously expected, and which, altho not a
complete victory, was sufficient to demonstrate the superiority
of the British fleet and of British seamanship, occurred on
May 31, 1916, when, for the first time, two modern war-
fleets came into a great conflict, and the superdreadnought
was put to the test of battle. The action occurred in the
North Sea off the coast of Jutland in an engagement which
began on both sides with battle-cruisers, and ended with
battleships. The battle-cruiser was a new type of vessel
that aimed to combine the highest speed with the greatest
gun-power. Naturally something had to be sacrificed in
such ships, and so it was defensive armor that suffered.
A battleship such as the British War spite had a belt of
13yL>-inch armor, while a battle-cruiser such as the Queen
Mary, a ship almost as large, had an armor of only 9
inches. Battle-cruisers usually carried eight guns of 12-inch
caliber, as on the Invincible, and of ISy^-inch, as on the
Queen Mary, and could make 26 or more knots an hour.
Their weakness was that they could not stand punishment as
a regular battleship could. For safety the battle-cruiser

WARSHIP BATTLES AND RAIDS ON COMMERCE

depended mostly on its speed, which enabled it to keep its
distance and pound an enemy at long range.

The battle was commonly referred to, in accounts printed
afterward, as having had three phases. The first dated
from 3.45 P.M., on May 31, when Admiral Beatty 's battle-
cruisers Lion, Princess Royal, Queen Mary, Tiger, Inflexible,
Indomitable, Invincible, Indefatigable, and New Zealand,
while on a southeasterly course, followed at about two
miles distance by the four ships of the Queen Elizabeth type,
sighted enemy light cruisers and shortly afterwards the head
of a German battle-cruiser squadron, consisting of the new
Hindenburg, the Seydlitz, Derfflinger, Lutzow, Moltke, and
possibly the Salamis. Beatty at once began firing at a
range of about 20,000 yards, which was shortened to 16,000
yards as the fleets closed. The Germans could see the
British distinctly silhoueted, or outlined, against a light
yellow sky, while the Germans, covered by a haze, could be
only indistinctly made out by British gunners. The vessels
of the Queen Elizabeth type opened fire on one after another
of the German ships, as they came within range and the
German battle-cruisers turned to port drawing away to about
20,000 yards.

The second stage began at 4.40 P.M., when a destroyer
screen appeared beyond the German battle-cruisers and the
whole German High Seas Fleet could be seen approaching on
the northwestern horizon in three divisions, coming to sup-
port their battle-cruisers. The German battle-cruisers now
turned round 16 points and took station in front of the
German battleships. Beatty, with his battle-cruisers and
supporting battleships, thus had before him the whole Ger-
man battle-fleet, and Admiral Jellieoe was some distance
away. The opposing fleets were moving parallel to one
another in opposite directions, and had it not been for a
master maneuver on the part of Beatty, the British advance
ships would have been cut off from Jellicoe 's Grand Fleet.
In order to avoid that disaster and at the same time pre-
pare the way so that Jellicoe might envelop his adversary,
Beatty immediately turned round 16 points so as to bring
his ships parallel to the German battle-cruisers and facing
in the same direction. Then he increased to full speed in

IN THE GERMAN COLONIES AND ON THE SEA

order to get ahead of the Germans and take up a tactical
position in advance of their line which he was able to do,
owing to the superior speed of his battle-cruisers. Just
before the turning-point was reached, the Indefatigable
sank, probably from striking a mine, while the Queen
Mary and Invincible were lost at the turning-point, fwhere
the High Seas Fleet had concentrated fire. A little earlier,
as the German battle-cruisers were turning, the ships of
the Queen Elizabeth type had in similar manner concen-
trated their fire -on the turning-point and put out of action a
new German ship, believed at the time to be the Hindenburg.

THE BATTLESHIP "HINDENBURG"

This ship was one of the latest of German dreadnoughts. She was in the
battle of Jutland and, after the armistice, was surrendered off the Firth of
Forth and taken into Scapa Flow, where she was afterward sunk by the

Germans

Beatty had now got round and was headed away with the
loss of three ships, and was racing parallel to the German
battle-cruisers. The Queen Elizabeth followed behind, en-
gaging the main H'gh Seas Fleet.

The third phase began at 5 P.M. with the Queen Elizabeth
turning short to port 16 points in order to follow Beatty.
At this point the Warspite jammed her steering-gear, failed
to get around, and drew the fire of six of the enemy, who
closed in upon her. It was not surprizing that the Germans
claimed her as a loss, since on paper she ought to have been
lost, but as a matter of fact, altho repeatedly straddled by
shell-fire with the water boiling up all around her, she was

WARSHIP BATTLES AND RAIDS ON COMMERCE

not seriously hit and was able to sink one of her opponents.
Her captain in due course recovering control of the vessel,
brought her around, so that she followed her consorts. In
the meantime, the Barham, Valiant and Malaya had turned
short to avoid the danger spot where the Queen Mary and
Inv 'nettle were lost, and for an hour while waiting for
Jellicoe to arrive fought a delaying action against the High
Seas fleet. The War spite joined them about 5.15 o'clock.
All four ships were so successfully maneuvered that no hits
of a disabling character were received. They had a speed
over their opponents of fully four knots, and so were able

THE GERMAN BATTLESHIP "HINDENBURG" AS SUNK AT
SCAPA FLOW

to draw away from part of the long line of German battle-
ships, which almost filled up the horizon. At this time the
Queen Elizabeths were steadily firing at the flashes of Ger-
man guns at a range which varied from 12,000 to 15,000
yards, especially against those nearest them. The Germans
being enveloped in a mist only smoke and flashes were
visible.9

The visibility at 6.50 was not more than four miles.
Soon after that the German ships were temporarily lost

"From a detailed account printed in The Herald (Glasgow) and cabled to
The Times (New York).

IN THE GERMAN COLONIES AND ON THE SEA

sight of, but Beatty continued his course to the eastward
until 7 o'clock, when he gradually altered to the south and
west in order to regain touch with the Germans. He was in
action twice again, and with battleships as well as battle-
cruisers, at ranges of 15,000 to 10,000 yards. Each time
his gunners "got home" on the retreating German vessels.
On the last occasion the leading German ship, after being
repeatedly hit by the Lion, turned away eight points, emit-
ting high flames, with a heavy list to port, while the Prin-
cess Royal set fire to a three-funnelled battleship, and the
New Zealand and Indomitable reported that a third ship
hauled out of line, heeled over and was on fire. Then the
mist enveloped them, and the battle-cruiser's part in the
engagement ceased.

The concluding phase of the daylight engagement, that be-
tween the battle-squadrons, was a one-sided affair. As soon
as Admiral Scheer saw the situation he turned to the south-
ward, and, under cover of declining daylight, thickening
mist, and smoke-clouds from his small craft, withdrew
from the fight. Before he could get away, the three squad-
rons of the British battle-fleet in a single line had been
hurled across his van. Under fire from 13.5-inch guns the
German formation was shattered and the ships themselves
severely mauled. The supreme moment, leading to the
climax of the whole battle, was when Jellicoe brought his
dreadnoughts at top speed into the melee, a situation which
called for tactical skill, calm judgment, and instant decision.
Flashes of guns were visible through the haze, but no ship
could be distinguished. Even the position of the German
battleships could not always be determined. So thick was
the mist that great care was essential to prevent British
ships from being mistaken for German ones. Conditions
were unparalleled, but Jellicoe delivered a vigorous thrust
which threw the Germans into confusion, and after this,
all their tactics were of a nature to avoid further action.
How they extricated themselves was not made clear. The
fighting between big ships lasted intermittently for two
hours more, and then developed into a chase, until under
cover of darkness and the thickness of weather, Scheer
escaped. It was not until the following day, after the

•t • - »*

WARSHIP BATTLES AND RAIDS ON COMMERCE

whole large area covered by the fight had been thoroughly
searched, without a trace of the Germans being seen, that
the British Commander-in-Chief returned to his bases to
refuel and refill his magazines. It was then officially stated
that he was ready again -to put to sea.

The loss of the Indefatigable was one of those catastrophic
strokes of fortune made possible by the tremendous power
locked up in modern ships of war. The ships on both sides
had become vigorously engaged when suddenly a heavy
explosion took place on the last ship of the British line

THE BLOWING UP OF THE "QUEEN MARY"

which was the cruiser Indefatigable. A black column of
smoke shot upward 400 feet, hiding the ship, and when
it cleared away a little later the ship had disappeared. Out
of her 900 officers and men, only two survived. At 4.18,
when the third ship in the German line was seen to be on
fire, another misfortune befell the British squadron, the
battle-cruiser Queen Mary being vitally hit, and, with a
terrific explosion which appeared to blow her hull asunder,
she disappeared. She had at least 1,000 people aboard, and
only about a score were saved. In modern warfare seamen

IN THE GERMAN COLONIES AND ON THE SEA

have to face perils that were unknown to their predecessors.
In the old wars, ships were more often captured than sunk.
According to a Portsmouth correspondent,10 the manner
in which the Warspite fought the German battle-fleet, when
she went to the rescue of the Warrior, formed one of the
most thrilling stories of the battle. The Warrior lay help-
less, her engines disabled, her magazines under water, and
her crew unable to use guns. She was calmly waiting for
the end when suddenly on the horizon the crew saw a huge
ship coming, the fast and powerful Warsp'.te, which Jellicoe,
learning of the Warrior's peril, had sent ahead of the Grand
Fleet to succor her. Helpless sailors on the Warrior greeted
her with cheers as she threw herself between the imperilled
ship and the German vessel. The first salvo from the
Warspite's 15-inch batteries hit a German ship with full
force, and she reeled and sank. The Warspite circled
around the Warrior, drawing upon herself the fire of Ger-
man ships and replying with vigor. After a shell had
damaged her steering-gear, the Warspite held on, fighting
alone the German ships. Four times in this manner the
Warspite circled the Warrior, punishing the German ships
with her great guns. No episode of the fight was more
thrilling or spectacular than this. The cruiser, after putting
one or more of the German cruisers out of action, had been
battered and terribly injured, and was expecting the shells
that would finish it when the Warspite appeared. An
officer of the Warrior afterward said :

"The first shot from the Warspite lopped off the foremast of the
leading enemy cruiser. The next overturned both the fore gun-
turrets, and in five minutes the enemy vessel was ablaze from end
to end, enveloped in a cloud of dense smoke. The second battle-
cruiser, which had been concentrating her fire on the Warspite,.
turned to starboard, smoke belching from her funnels, and en-
deavored to pick up her main squadron. But it was not to be. Two
shells from the Warspite blew every funnel she had to pieces. The
third made a great rent in her stern. The fourth plowed up her deck.

10 In The Times (London).

THE "INDEFATIGABLE*

THE "LION," IN THE CENTER AS HIT, DESTROYERS ARE
ON THE LEFT

THE "WARRIOR'

V. X— 6

IN THE GERMAN COLONIES AND ON THE SEA

and burst against the foremast, bringing it down. Two minutes
afterward this vessel also was on fire and heeling over, with the
Warspite still pounding her and ripping great gashes in her star-
board side and bottom. The last we saw of her was nothing more
than a broken hulk. The Warrior was towed for ten hours and
then sank."

This, the greatest sea-battle of the war, and the most
sanguinary engagement in naval history, was commonly
described at the time in neutral circles as a draw. The
contrary was not definitely accepted until the war was over
and a confession came from Germany. With equal weight
given to German and British claims at the time of the
battle, Dutch papers, as neutral onlookers, made an esti-
mate of the result as a "Pyrrhic victory" for England.
The Amsterdam Telegraaf and the Handelsblad indorsed
this view, but both argued that the battle had to be con-
sidered a British victory because the Germans had failed to
accomplish what they set out to do, and the British blockade
remained unbroken. "Nothing will be changed in this
respect," said the Telegraaf, "even 'if the Germans make
more hunger-sorties." To Great Britain the battle, however,
was a "Pyrrhic victory" because the immense losses in
ships and men could hardly have been surpassed in defeat.
The Amsterdam Tijd said Spencer Churchill's "rats" had
finally "come out of their hole and bitten Britannia badly."

The British claim was that the German losses were as great
as, if not greater than, their own, and the claim, tho
officially denied by German authorities, was reiterated more
strongly after a German admission was made that certain
losses had been concealed by Berlin for "military reasons."
A belief was encouraged, and became generally prevalent, in
Germany that British supremacy on the sea had been
broken. The Munich Neueste Nachrichten said it was a
catastrophic defeat for England and the beginning of "a
new era in naval warfare," for it had "completely dissi-
pated the idea that the British Navy was superior to all
others." The Leipzig Neueste Nachrichten said "England's
invincibility on the seas was broken," and the German fleet
had "torn the venerable Trafalgar legend into shreds." In
the Austrian capital, the Neues Wiener Journal added that

WARSHIP BATTLES AND RAIDS ON COMMERCE

"such a crushing defeat as the English suffered would place
a doubt upon their whole supremacy on the seas and deal
a decisive blow to their desire to continue that supremacy."
The official Norddeutsche Allgemeine Zeitung was not quite
so sanguine, but was supremely satisfied with the results:

"From the beginning of the war the officers and crews of our
fleet longed for an opportunity to measure their strength against
their chief enemy. They have been able to show on a great scale
how well founded were the expectations which all Germany attached
to their efficiency, heroism, and determination. The first great sea-
battle has ably demonstrated the excellent quality of the German
naval forces."

An official statement from Berlin on June 3 gave the
total loss of the German High Sea forces as one battle-
cruiser, one ship of the line of older construction, four
small cruisers, and five torpedo-boats. The statement added
that of these losses the battleship Pom-mem was launched
in 1905. While the loss of the cruisers Wiesbaden, Elbing,
Frauenlob, and five torpedo-boats had already been reported
in official statements, "for military reasons," said the
statement further, "we refrained until now from making
public the loss of the battle-cruiser Lutzow and the cruiser
Rostock." These were declared to be all the losses sustained
by the Germans. The losses of the British were again said
in Berlin to have been heavier than had been admitted, in-
cluding the dreadnought Warspite, the battle-cruiser Princess
Royal, the cruiser Birmingham, and probably the dread-
nought Marlborough. Berlin added that many official and
semi-official reports from the British side had been spread
abroad "in order to deny the greatness of the British de-
feat, and create an impression that the battle was 3 victory
for British arms." Another Berlin statement from an
"authoritative" source, on June 8, gave the respective
strength of the two fleets at the high tide of battle, as
follows: British — At least twenty-five dreadnoughts, six
battle-cruisers, and at least four armored cruisers. German —
Sixteen dreadnoughts, five battle-cruisers, six older German
battleships, and no armored cruisers. In addition, "numer-
ous light warships were engaged."

IN THE GERMAN COLONIES AND ON THE SEA

This Berlin statement contained the first mention of the
loss of the cruiser Rostock. None of the British claims had
included it. Final admission by Berlin of the loss of the
Lutzow and Rostock brought the total admitted German
loss to twelve ships, 58,000 tons. Before the admission, it
stood at 32,515 tons, as against admitted British losses of
about 105,000 tons. The Lutzow was a battle-cruiser of the
Derfflinger type, of 28,000 tons displacement, length 718
feet and speed 30 knots. Her armament was eight 12-inch
guns and twelve 5.9-inch guns. The Rostock was a small
cruiser of the type of the famous sea-raider Karlsruhe. Her
displacement was 4,822 tons, length 456 feet and speed 27
knots. Her chief armament was twelve 4.1-inch guns. She

IWBBHBPKI rlc

THE "POMMERN"
Lost by the Germans in the Jutland battle

carried 373 officers and men. As the Germans had fought
near home, they had a greater chance than the British of
getting their damaged ships safe into home ports. They
were only about 100 miles from the shelter of Heligoland,
and probably less from the mine-fields in the ne'ghborhood
of the Bight, when the battle was finished, whereas Jellicoe's
bases were 400 miles away.

Both the jubilation in Germany and the depression in
Great Britain which greeted the first news of the sea-fight
were materially modified in the light of later and fuller
information, with the result that, while neither side ad-
mitted a defeat, neutral observers were inclined to agree

WARSHIP BATTLES AND RAIDS ON COMMERCE

that it was impossible for either side to claim a great vic-
tory. In first-class fighting ships the British admitted the
loss of three battle-cruisers, and claimed to have sunk one
German super-dreadnought and two or three battle-cruisers.
The Germans admitted the loss of one battle-cruiser and
one small battleship and claimed to have sunk two British
super-dreadnoughts and four battle-cruisers. The Kaiser,
addressing the sailors of the fleet at Wilhelmshaven nearly
a week after the battle, announced that "the English fleet
was beaten " and its "tyrannical supremacy shattered"
and that the result "will cause fear to creep into* the bones
of the enemy." Enthusiastic German editors acclaimed the
German ruler as "Admiral of the Atlantic," but the New

TONE VIEW CO.

THE "DERFFLINGER" AS SUNK AT SCAPA FLOW

York World retorted that "an Admiral of the Atlantic
Ocean who has not a single ship afloat on the Atlantic
Ocean and can not get a ship there should have hesitated
somewhat before assuming the title." If Great Britain's sea-
power had been shattered, the same paper asked, "why
were the North German-Lloyd and Hamburg- American ships
rusting at their Hoboken docks?" "The German Navy,'*
it concluded, "was still a navy in jail, which- could assault
its keeper now and then with great fury, but remained in
jail nevertheless." Popular rejoicing in Germany would be
succeeded by disillusionment, said the New York Times,
when the people found "the hateful blockade no less rigor-

IN THE GERMAN COLONIES AND ON THE SEA

ous, and food no more plentiful in Berlin/' The Evening
World summed up the results for the two nations as
"materially a minor loss for England, but a serious moral
setback; for Germany, a very costly matter, but a stimulat-
ing moral victory."

In England public opinion rallied quickly from the con-
sternation caused by the first news of the loss of fourteen
ships and thousands of brave sailors when the second re-
port from the Admiralty claimed the result as a British
victory. King George, in a message to Jellicoe, exprest re-
gret that "the German High Seas Fleet, in spite of its heavy
losses, was enabled by misty weather to evade the full con-
sequences of the encounter," thereby "robbing us of the
opportunity of gaining a decisive victory. " It was never-
theless a "British victory," declared Admiral Lord Charles
Beresford, retired, who summed up his version of the re-
sult as follows: "We lost cruisers which we can afford to
lose; the Germans lost battleships which they can not afford
to lose."

The British Admiralty, in a later statement, admitted the
loss of fourteen ships, including three battle-cruisers, three
cruisers, and eight destroyers, with a tonnage of about
114,000. As many of these went. down with virtually all on
board, the loss in personnel was admittedly heavy, available
estimates placing it at about five thousand. The casualty
list gave the names of 333 British officers killed, among them
Rear Admirals Hood and Arbuthnot. The British ships
admitted sunk were the Queen Mary, Indefatigable, and
Invincible^ battle-cruisers; the Defense, Black Prince, and
Warrior, cruisers; the Tipperary, Turbulent, Fortune, Spar-
rowhawk, Ardent, Nomad, Nestor, and Shark, destroyers.

Against these Germany admitted the loss of eleven ships —
the battle-cruiser Liitzow, the battleship Pommern, the
cruisers Wiesbaden, Elbing, Frauenlob and Rostock, and
gave unnamed torpedo-boats — representing a total of 60,720
tons. Additional German losses claimed by the British were
the super-dreadnought Hindenburg, the battle-cruisers
Derfflinger and Seydlitz, two battle-cruisers of the Kaiser
class, a light cruiser, five destroyers, and a submarine —
which would have increased the German loss in tonnage by

WARSHIP BATTLES AND RAIDS ON COMMERCE

more than 100,000. The Hindenburg, Derfflinger and Seyd-
litz may have been seriously crippled, and even put out of
action altogether, but they survived the battle, and were not
sunk until the Germans themselves sunk them at Scapa Flow
in June, 1919. An early unofficial estimate of the Ger-
man loss in personnel was as follows: 800 dead, 1,400
wounded, 4,600 missing. Each side insisted that the other
was concealing losses and each officially denied the charge.
The British Admiralty stated positively that the Warspite,
Marlborough, Princess Royal, and Birmingham were safe in
British ports, with the Acasta and Euryalus, all of which the
Germans claimed to have sunk, and that no English subma-
rines took part in the battle, so that, if the German fleet sank
a craft of this type, it must have been one of its own. What
the naval situation remained was best revealed by examining
the relative standing of the British and German fleets after-
ward, as compared with their standing at the outbreak of the
war. On this point the New York Evening Post said :

"England began the war with 215,000 tons in battle-cruisers,
against Germany's 208,000 tons. We have no data for adding any-
thing to the British tonnage, and must subtract 63,000 tons lost
last Wednesday, leaving a total of 152,000 tons. From the German
side we must subtract the Goeben, of 23,000 tons, unavailable for
North Sea fighting, and add probably four cruisers of 112,000 tons,
giving a total of about 300,000 tons; so that in battle-cruisers Ger-
many to-day is twice as strong as Great Britain.

"In older battleships Great Britain began with 556,000 tons and
has lost 115,000 tons, and Germany began with 243,000 tons and has
lost 13,000. In heavy cruisers Great Britain began with 450,000
tons and has lost 134,000 tons, and. Germany began with 94,000 tons
and has lost 64,000 tons. Thus in dreadnought strength the ratio
remains the same as at the beginning of the war. In old battle-
ships England's advantage has declined from 2*4 to 2, and in heavy
cruisers it has increased from about five times the German strength
to ten times. In battle-cruisers, on the other hand, it has apparently
fallen from an equality with Germany to one-half."

As to what was the real object of the German fleet in
going out, no definite information was obtained. The first
official German report of the battle merely stated that it
was engaged in "an enterprise directed to the northward"

IN THE GERMAN COLONIES AND ON THE SEA

when the encounter occurred. The Paris Temps made the
suggestion that this northward dash was aimed to cut off
Russian communications at Archangel, which was now free
of ice and was Russia's chief means of communication with
the outside world. Another theory was that the Germans
were deliberately seeking to join battle with Admiral Beatty's
battle-cruiser fleet. Other views were that their objective
was the British coast, or that the Germans were trying to
turn some of their fast commerce-destroyers loose in the
Atlantic. Whatever the German purpose, British com-
mentators predicted that it "would be many a long day be-
fore the German fleet showed itself again in the North Sea"
— a true prediction, as it never again came out except to
surrender in 1918. As a result of this battle, said Mr.
Balfour, first Lord of the Admiralty, "the German dream
of an invasion of England has been dissipated."

In Great Britain the public was a long time in recovering
from its astonishment at the manner in which the Admiralty
had first announced the battle, which was in terms as if it
were a complete British defeat. The London Morning Post
afterward remarked: "We are a strange people. Our
navy wins a great victory with incomparable strategic skill,
faultless tactics, and magnificent fighting, and the Admiralty
announces it a defeat." The British view that nothing had
been changed by the battle was not admitted by their oppo-
nents. The Berlin correspondent of the Budapest Az Ujsag
said:

"The old saying that the British fleet is invincible has been contra-
dicted by the battle in the Skagerrak, where the mightiest fleet in
the world suffered a terrible defeat, and with it the proud leviathans
of the sea, each of them worth $40,000,000, wounded to death by
the German torpedoes, sank to the bottom of the sea, taking- with
them the ancient glory of the British domination of the seas. The
British fleet evaded the battle with German might on the sea as long
as possible. Hiding- in their bases, they never dared to come out
whenever the German fleet went out to search for them. This time
they were trapt, and had to give battle. The greatest blow at
English prestige will open a new phase in the history of the word."

What was called "a gain in solidarity" was depicted by the

WARSHIP BATTLES AND RAIDS ON COMMERCE

Hamburger Fremdenblatt in telling how the news was re-
ceived in one of the remoter villages of northern Germany.
Describing the celebration that followed, the Fremdenblatt
said:

"There was not a man who did not have one or two glasses to
drink to the health of our boys in blue. We have celebrated many
victories, but never have I seen such unmixed joy among our
soldiers as on that day. They speak of the Russians with a laugh,
and to be transferred to the Eastern Front is regarded as a holiday.
For the French they feel pity, even tho the French artillery 'shoots
damned well/' But their eyes flash and their fists are clenched un-
consciously when somebody speaks of the Britons. And now comes
this glorious German victory on the element which the English
thought to be their eternal heritage. That is something for our
soldiers on the Verdun front. In quiet joy we welcomed the victories
of our comrades over the Italians, and the constant advance of our
infantry before Verdun was no surprize. But this -unhoped-for
victory of our sailors over haughty Albion we have celebrated like
none before."

In discussing the political effect, Count Ernst zu Revent-
low argued in the Berlin Deutsche Tageszeitung that
those who favored an understanding with Great Britain,
on the ground that Germany could never rival her in sea-
power, had been silenced. Before the war there was a small
but influential party which favored a rapprochement with
England and opposed the policy of naval expansion upon
the grounds that Germany could never equal Britain on the
sea, and that constant additions to the navy were a source
of international irritation. Count zu Reventlow said that
fallacy was now exposed :

"Great Britain's power and reputation, her political and eco-
nomic life, have been based upon her navy, or, rather, her naval
prestige. Great Britain, therefore, can not possibly acquiesce in
her defeat, either for her own sake or for that of her Allies. The
consequence is that the idea of an Anglo-German understanding is
now relegated to limbo — a fact which we greet with a feeling of
relief. The fight will now be continued with the utmost energy,
and will necessarily lead to the employment of every possible

weapon."

IN THE GERMAN COLONIES AND ON THE SEA

Notwithstanding all this bombast one fact stood out clearly
— that control of the seas remained as securely British as it
had ever been since the war began. The real questions
were whether British transports were less safe than they
were on May 30; whether the arrival of supplies and food
in Great Britain had been in any way hampered; whether
the seas were any nearer being open to German commerce;
whether the blockade against Germany had been weakened.
The answer to all was obvious, but a further question had
to be answered. Admitting that the German fleet was still
confessedly inferior to a full trial of strength for mastery
of the seas, how many such exploits as that of May 31
would be necessary to reduce the British fleet to a point
where Germans might be in a position to try-out full con-
clusions? The final evidence was that the British had not
been as badly outwitted as had appeared from the first re-
ports. Beatty's cruisers were not caught in a trap. Rather,
he chose to take a great risk in the hope of winning a
great victory. He failed in that, but he did not stumble
into defeat.

That the battle was essentially inconclusive was admitted
by Jellicoe in a later official report. He cheerfully and
generously bore witness to the courage of his foe, in ac-
cordance with the best English tradition. The enemy
"fought with the gallantry that was expected of him,"
said he. He particularly admired the conduct of a German
light cruiser which passed down the British line firing from
the only gun it was able to use. All this coming from
Jellicoe, was the handsomer, in view of what must have
been to him great disappointment that the naval part of
the war could not have been ended that day, just because
an evening mist and fading light robbed the British fleet
of the complete success it had striven for. How the fog
interfered was shown by Beatty's report which said that at
6.52 P.M. the British lost all sight of the enemy for 20 min-
utes and again at 7.45 for 35 minutes, while at 8.40 the
Germans had disappeared. During intervals when they
were sighted Beatty had to fire at a range of 15,000 yards,
which was a far cry from the old days when, at the coming
of darkness ships hauled off and watched each other as

WARSHIP BATTLES AND RAIDS ON COMMERCE

they lighted battle-lanterns before politely renewing the
action at arms' length.

In the use of new devices, the most dramatic, said Jellicoe,
was the launching of a seaplane from the British auxiliary
Engadine. To identify four enemy cruisers, the aircraft
flew at a height of only 900 feet within 3,000 yards of these
vessels which fired with every gun that they carried. Twenty-
two minutes after this plane arose the Engadine was re-
ceiving wireless reports from the observers flying above that
terrific fire. Next in interest were the attacks of the de
stroyer flotillas — raids in unison by these ''cavalry of the
seas" being attempted, without, however, producing de-
cisive results. As they sought to torpedo German battle-
cruisers, eight British destroyers ran into a flotilla of fifteen
enemy destroyers and a light cruiser, with the result that
the fiercest kind of action at close range took place. Jellicoe
gave several instances of the sighting of submarines during
the action, but their presence was denied by the Germans.
They said the speed of the fleet was so great that no sub-
marine could have kept up with it. As for Zeppelins,
Jellicoe had nothing to say that bore out the early English
reports that the Germans were helped by the presence of
several of them. The Germans themselves — one eye-witness
in particular — seemed positive that they were without this
new type of fighting craft.

The general impression made by Admiral Jellicoe in the
book he published in March, 1919,11 was one of superior,
farther-sighted preparation for a naval war on the part of
the Germans. Their fire-control was better, especially at
night ; and their armor, projectiles, and shells more effective.
Relatively, the British Navy had been unprepared. Jellicoe 's
volume showed how serious might have been the German
menace had the Germans realized their opportunity in the
earlier nine months of the war, but the book semed to be in the
main an effort to explain why Jutland was not a decisive
British victory. It aroused wonder as to why, if the British
Grand Fleet was so inferior in destroyers, range-finding ap-
pliances, armor-piercing projectiles, direct-firing gear for
secondary batteries, and searchlights, the Germans were

""The Grand Fleet, 1914-1916" (George H. Doran Co.).

IX THE GERMAN COLONIES AND ON THE SEA

worsted, and why, under such advantageous conditions, should
they have run home to their base under a rout.

Jellicoe, however, was thought to have made out a good rea-
son for his decision not to fight a night battle. Pollen and
other critics of his tactics had been contending that he should
have continued fighting until darkness fell, and that his attack
had not been sufficiently aggressive. Pollen insisted that the
British fleet was torpedo-shy at Jutland, and Admiral
Jellicoe admitted as much. A comparison of several capital
ships of the two fleets showed that German constructors had
put more faith than the British in torpedo tubes. Again,
Jellicoe made a surprizing revelation in saying that the
British were weaker than the Germans in destroyers. As
to dreadnoughts, the Germans were supposed to be at a
hopeless disadvantage, but Admiral Jellicoe presented a
catalog of misfortunes to the British fleet to prove that its
superiority on October 27, 1914, existed only on paper:

The Ajax had developed condenser defects. The Iron Duke had
similar troubles. The Orion had to be sent to Greenock for exam-
ination of her turbine supports, which appeared to be defective.
The Conqueror was at Devonport refitting, and the New Zealand
was in dock at Cromarty. The Erin and Agincourt, having been
newly commissioned, could not yet be regarded as efficient, so that
the dreadnought fleet consisted only of seventeen effective battle-
ships and five battle-cruisers. The German dreadnought fleet at the
time comprised fifteen battleships and four battle-cruisers, with the
Bliicher in addition."

The chief impression made by Jellicoe 's book was that he
exalted German strength and minimized British. It was a
fact, however, that at Jutland at least the gun-power of the
British was superior and greatly so. Jellicoe 's showing in
general seemed to be that at Jutland the Germans had had
a fine opportunity to wrest the mastery of the sea from
Great Britain and had stupidly let it slip out of their hands.

All other naval fights in this war had been comparatively
small affairs. Encounters had been exaggerated beyond
measure by inexpert observers. When the unfortunate
Cradock was defeated off Chili, the event was magnified into
a disaster. It was apparent that the Germans off Jutland

WARSHIP BATTLES AND RAIDS ON COMMERCE

avoided a general fleet action and drew off when the main
body of the British fleet came up. If there had been a victory
for Germany — even a victory that Germany believed was
hers — the action would undoubtedly have been followed up.
Instead of doing that the German ships retired to port and
stayed there. That the conduct of the German commander
in his retirement was strategically sound was not doubted,
but the act showed plainly how absurd it was for the Ger-
mans to talk of the battle as having been decisive for them
in any sense. Some newspapers emphasized the loss of
trained seamen as a most serious blow to the British navy.
The highest estimate of casualties, however, did not go above
7,000 men, and there were at least 150,000 men left in the
British service. The loss was therefore only a trifle over
4 per cent.

Compared with the force commanded by Admiral Jellicoe,
the forces commanded by Alexander, or Cassar, or Napoleon,
or Nelson were puny, and even those of Togo and Rojesven-
sky were unimportant. Compared with this force indeed the
aggregate land forces of both the Allies and the Teutons were
inconsiderable because the total offensive power of one salvo
from one of Jellicoe 's battleships was greater than that of half
a million muskets. The aggregate artillery-power of the
twenty-four modern battleships that Admiral Jellicoe had
in his main column at the battle of Jutland was greater than
that of 10,000,000 infantry soldiers — and he moved these
battleships at a speed of nearly twenty miles an hour. No
other person ever commanded a force comparable in power
with the force commanded at Jutland by Admiral Jellicoe.

The force was the concentration of at least 90 per cent,
of the naval defensive power of the British Empire. It was
opposed to the German High Seas Fleet, possessing an
offensive power which, while inferior, was not greatly so. It
was not so much inferior as to render impossible the defeat
of the British fleet, by reason of superior strategy or tactics
on the German side, or of accident, or of all combined, espe-
cially since the defensive armor of the Germans was the
better. If the battle of Jutland had been a decisive victory
for either side victory in the World War would have gone to
the side that was the victor in this battle.

IN THE GERMAN COLONIES AND ON THE SEA

More appropriate than ever before now seemed the name
Jammerbugt (Bay of Woe) which the Danes had given to
waters that wash the sand-dunes of the northwestern coast
of Jutland. With the black ribs of many ancient wrecks on
this dangerous coast were now mingled ships and sailors
from what were once two of the proudest battle-fleets that
ever sailed the seas. Jutland, the continental portion of
Denmark, comprises nearly two-thirds the area of that king-
dom, but it has considerably less than half the total popu-
lation. It compares with Vermont in size, but has a density
of population three times as great. Its most striking physical
characteristics are the fjords which cut into the sandy sea-
board, particularly on the west coast. The highest point of
land in Jutland, which is also the highest in the kingdom,
is a 564-foot "eminence" on a line of low hills near the
center of the peninsula. Jutland was the ancient home of
the warlike Cimbri, a tribe which for twelve years kept
Rome in a state of anxiety.

Two British destroyers on patrol-duty in the English Chan-
nel off Dover on the night of April 20, 1917, came upon a
flotilla of six German destroyers and an encounter which
promised to live in the history of naval engagements fol-
lowed. Every gun aboard the combatants was kept sweep-
ing the decks and tearing gaps in the sides of the opposing
craft. One incident of the fight was that a British and a
German destroyer became locked together and men fought
furiously hand to hand. The British destroyers were the
Swift and the Broke. Altho badly damaged they returned
to port. The story of the engagement was an exciting and
graphic tale of a boarding encounter with cutlasses and
bayonets, recalling the days when wooden warships came
together and men fought on the decks. The Swift and the
Broke on night-patrol had been steaming on a westerly course
when it was intensely dark but calm. The Swift sighted the
enemy at 600 yards and the Germans instantly opened fire.
The Swift replied and tried to ram the leading German de-
stroyer. She missed ramming, but shot through the German
line unscathed, and in turning torpedoed another boat.

In the meantime the Broke had launched a torpedo at the

WARSHIP BATTLES AND RAIDS ON COMMERCE

second boat in the line, which hit the mark, and then opened
fire, while the remaining German boats were stoking furiously
for full speed. The Broke 's commander swung round to port
and rammed the third boat fair and square abreast the after-
funnel. Locked together thus, the crews of the two boats
fought a desperate hand-to-hand conflict.

Two other German destroyers attacked and poured a de-
vastating fire on the Broke, whose foremost gun-crews were
reduced from eighteen to six men. Midshipman Donald Gyles,
altho wounded in the eye, kept all the foremost guns in action,
he himself assisting the depleted crews to load. While he
was thus employed a number of frenzied Germans swarmed
up over the Broke' s forecastle out of the rammed destroyer
and, finding themselves amid the blinding flashes of the fore-
castle guns, swept aft in a shouting mob. The midshipman,
amid the dead and wounded of his own gun-crews and half
blinded by blood, met the onset single-handed with an auto-
matic revolver. He was grappled by a German who tried
to wrest the revolver away. Cutlasses and bayonets being
among the British equipment in anticipation of such an event,
the German was bayonetted. The remainder of the invaders,
except two who feigned death, were driven over the side,
two being made prisoners.

Two minutes after the ramming the Broke wrenched herself
free from her sinking adversary and turned to ram the last
of the three remaining German boats. She failed in this
object, but in swinging around succeeded in hitting the boat's
consort on the stem with a torpedo. Hotly engaged with
these two fleeing destroyers, the Broke attempted to follow the
Swift in the direction where she was last seen, but a shell
struck the Broke' s boiler-room, disabling her main engine.

The enemy then disappeared in the darkness. The Broke,
altering her course, headed in. the direction of a destroyer,
which a few minutes later was seen to be heavily afire and
whose crew, on sighting the British destroyer, sent up shouts
for mercy. The Broke steered slowly toward the German
regardless of the danger from a possible explosion of the
magazines, and the German seamen redoubled their shouts
of "Save! save!" and then unexpectedly opened fire. The

IN THE GERMAN COLONIES AND ON THE SEA

Broke being out of control, was unable to maneuver or extri-
cate herself, but silenced the treachery with four rounds;
and then, to insure her own safety, torpedoed the German
amidships. Aside from the war on submarines, this was the
last naval action of notable consequence, that occurred in the
war.

Germany's naval losses as published in June, 1919, in the
Vossiche Zeitung of Berlin, were declared to be complete and
authoritative, and were so accepted in Washington. At the
close of the year 1918 the number of destroyers supposed to
have been lost by Germany was less than twenty, but the
official report, as now printed in the Berlin newspaper, made
the total forty-nine. Few of their big ships had been lost by
the Germans. Only one battleship, the Pommern of 13,200
tons, had been sunk during the war, but one battle-cruiser of
26,000 tons, the Luizow, was lost — both went down in the sea
fight off Jutland. The British had added to this list, but ap-
parently only from observations of crippled ships which
reached port afterward, having had a whole night, during
which they were not molested, in which to stagger back to
their base. In ships not of the first line of battle the Germans
sustained considerable losses — six older armored cruisers, eight
modern small cruisers of the latest design, and ten smaller
cruisers of the old type, besides twenty large and forty-one
small torpedo boats, nine auxiliary cruisers, of which the
largest were the Cap Trafalgar of 20,000 tons, and the Kaiser
Wilhelm der Grosse of 21,000 tons, twenty-eight mine-sweepers,
and one hundred and twenty-two trawlers and patrol vessels.
The number of warships of all kinds lost was 490. As Ger-
many's naval warfare was for the most part defensive, aggres-
sive only by stealth or when a raid was attempted, the conclu-
sion had to be that the British, the most active of the Allies had
been very much on the alert to attack the enemy when he
showed himself. Germany's losses of men killed in the naval
service were reported to have been 29,685, but 10,625 of these
were marines, some of whom had served on land on the Western
Front. When Great Britain announced in an Admiralty report
of November 26, 1918, that her naval casualties had been 39,-
766— officers killed or died of wounds 2,466, and men 30,895 ;

WARSHIP BATTLES AND RAIDS ON COMMERCE

officers wounded, missing, or prisoners 1,042, and men 5,363 —
it meant that these losses had all been incurred by the navy.
To this total were to be added 14,661 officers and men of
British merchant ships and fishing craft who lost their lives,
and 3,295 who were taken prisoners in the submarine warfare.

A GROUP OF GERMAN NAVAL OFFICERS

It seemed probable that the Germans killed in actual sea war-
fare were considerably less than one-half as many as the
British total.12

12 Principal Sources : The London Times' "History of the War" ; The Her-
ald, The Times, The Evening Post, The Literary Digest, The Tribune, New
York; The Times (London) ; Associated Press reports; British and German
official reports, including that of Admiral Jellicoe, and Jellicoe's book, "The
Grand Fleet, 1914-1916" (George H. Doran Co.) ; also United Press dis-
patches.

V. X— 7

PERSONAL SKETCHES
THE TREATY OF PEACE

AND A

CHRONOLOGY OF THE WAR

Part I

PERSONAL SKETCHES OP WAR
LEADERS

DERWOOD a UNDERWOOD. N. Y.

MARSHAL FOCH INSPECTING A GERMAN FORT ON THE RHINE
AT MAINZ AFTER THE ARMISTICE

Above the stonework in the picture rises the colossal statue of "Germania"

MILITARY AND NAVAL LEADERS

(Arranged alphabetically as to surname)

SIR EDMUND ALLENBY, BRITISH COMMANDER IN PALESTINE

AND SYRIA

Allenby, the conqueror of Palestine and Syria, who ended his cam-
paign at Aleppo, and then entered Constantinople, was one of those
unpretentious Englishmen with quiet voice and manners, who at a
meeting frequently fail to impress the unobservant and unthink-
ing. With a touch of gentleness, he was a man of few words and
long vision. Courteous and kindly he did not aim to shine in
small talk. Men who never see below the surfaces of things did
not recognize the tenacity and clearness of brain which marked
him out only to such as have eyes to see. He was regarded with
respect and almost reverence by Eastern peoples with whom he
had been long associated, which was an indication of his character.
He was fifty-seven when he completed his conquests in Asiatic
Turkey.

As a boy he had been sent to Haileybury College. At Hailey-
bury an important part of a boy's education consists in acquiring
manners, upright conduct, and skill in outdoor sports — in other
words, manliness. Under this system, unless a boy has great
aptitude in that direction, mere bookish pursuits sometimes suffer.
More precious than all else to the average English father and
mother is the atmosphere of these schools, carefully adapted to
turning out English gentlemen — not in the loose, but in the noble,
sense of the word. At Haileybury • Allenby was noted for high
spirits and quickness of comprehension, but left no record of dis-
tinction in scholastic attainments, altho he did manifest an interest
in literature which deepened and broadened as time went on. After
he began his soldier's life with a commission in the Dragoons, he
grew into a picture of the dashing cavalry officer, filled with zest
for the picturesque career which the position opened up, but with
a vein of seriousness not often found in young fellows from aris-
tocratic circles in the British Army. Allenby had strong stuff in
him, and meant to make good. He soon had opportunities of
showing that he was no carpet knight.

When 23, Allenby was serving in the Bechuanaland expedition.
Four years later he fought in Zululand, and became an adjutant.

IN THE GERMAN COLONIES AND ON THE SEA

In the South African war his cavalry tactics led to his being
twice mentioned in dispatches from his Commander-in-Chief, and
he was decorated. His big work began in the World War, when
he went to France with the first British army, and helped resist
the German rush on Paris. Outgunned, overwhelmed by numbers,
deluged with high explosives, Allenby with that little army of less
than two hundred thousand men, retreated stubbornly, helping to
kill Germans, and yielding an awful tribute of death as it went
back, step by step, from Mons. With cavalry acting as a screen,
he helped British infantry to sell their lives at high price. Time
and again he flung his command into positions, often deadly to
many of his men, and his own life repeatedly in danger. As
stated in the report of Sir John French, it was largely due to
Allenby that one of the remnants of the British army was saved
from destruction.

Allenby was afterward in the thick of fighting on the Western
Front, where he had opportunities for distinction. In 1917, he
commanded the right wing of the British in the battle of Arras,
one of the most successful British actions fought until the offensive
of 1918. His men carried an intricate network of trenches east of
Arras, and fought their way along the Scarpe toward Douai. He
was then transferred to Egypt, where he built up a careful plan
for an advance through Palestine. As one of the original Kitchener
generals he had been trained in the school of that organizer. In
Egypt now he gave evidence of Kitchener's influence by a keen,
long-sighted survey of the task before him. He made a request
for additional forces, and refused to move until they came. Only
when men, guns, and ammunition arrived in sufficient amount did
he strike and then with terrific force.

Never was given a better illustration of the true character of
the man than in his careful handling of the delicate situation
when he entered Jerusalem and made a declaration to that mixed
community which was a model of statesmanship on the part of a
military commander. His proclamation, prepared in Arabic,
Hebrew, English, French, Italian, Greek, and Russian, contained
the following:

"Lest any of you be alarmed by reason of your experience at the
hands of the enemy who has retired, I hereby inform you that it is my
desire that every person should pursue his lawful business without fear
of interruption. Furthermore, since your city is regarded with affection
by the adherents of three of the great religions of mankind, and its
soil has been consecrated by the prayers and pilgrimages of multitudes
of devout people of these three religions for many centuries, therefore
I make it known that every sacred building, monument, holy spot, shrine,

PERSONAL SKETCHES OF WAR LEADERS

traditional endowment, pious bequest or customary place of prayer of
whatsoever form of the three religions will be maintained according to
the existing customs and beliefs of those to whose faith they are sacred. ' '

Allenby placed guards over the holy places and gave Moslems
special charge over buildings and sites precious to Moslem senti-
ment. On the day when he was to take formal possession of the
city, he came, not on horseback in glittering display, but modestly
on foot, approaching the shrine of his own belief. His staff and
the civil officers, with attaches from America and other countries,
entered on foot with him. His careful regard for all religious
feeling, his steps to safeguard the interests of all peoples, were
at once appreciated and his fame spread to the surrounding coun-
try until a legend grew up about him among Arabs, who regarded
his conquest of Jerusalem as an inspired act because, in the name
Allenby, they found an equivalent of the words "Allah Allah,"
meaning God and Prophet. For many generations there had been
current among the Arabs and other tribes a prophesy that "He
who shall save Jerusalem and exalt her among the nations will
enter the city on foot, and his name will be God and Prophet."

The effect he produced in this proclamation undoubtedly helped
him in all his military operations from that time onward. He left
no stone unturned to fall in with the deeply seated sentiments of
Eastern peoples. One of his first actions after entering Jerusalem
was to ensure the return of the "Holy Scrolls,"' a parchment on
which are inscribed the fundamental laws and which had been
taken to Jaffa, thirty-five miles away, to prevent their falling into
the hands of the Turks. Allenby presided at the gathering where
they were formally returned. The grateful people gave him, as
a memento of the occasion, a copy of the scrolls inclosed in a
silver case.1

Allenby was the principal figure at the welcome of the Ameri-
can Red Cross Commission on July 4, when there were assembled
representatives of the Allied nations and high dignitaries of the
Roman Catholic Church, the Protestant, Moslem, Armenian, and
other churches. On this occasion Dr. John H. Finley, State Super-
intendent of Education in New York, head of the Mission in
Palestine, made a speech in which he said that America's contribu-
tion to the restoration of Palestine was only an intimation of how
the people of America and those of all nations were eager to con-
tribute their genius to the spiritual and physical encouragement
of people in the Holy City. How Allenby prest on from Jerusalem
step by step to the north, to Damascus and Beirut and thence — as

1 Adapted from an article by Frank Dilnot in The Times (New York).

SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

Foch was rounding out his victories in northern France, Pibardy,
Flanders, the Champagne, and the Argonne — how he reached
Aleppo, and no doubt thought of Othello as having once been
there, and how finally he entered Constantinople and there met
Franchet d'Esperey who a few weeks before had forced Bulgaria
to surrender — all this has been told elsewhere in this work as
part of his military campaign against the Turk.

SIR WILLIAM RIDDELL BIRDWOOD, BRITISH GENERAL

As Commander of the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps
from 1914 to 1918, Sir William Birdwood brought with him a
wide knowledge of military affairs supported by a large ex-
perience in the field.

Entering the army as a lieutenant in the Fourth Battalion of
the Royal Scotch Fusileers in 1883, he was transferred to the
Twelfth Lancers in 1885, and to the Eleventh Bengal Lancers in
1886. In 1893 he served as adjutant on the Viceroy of India's
Bodyguard. He went to Africa in 1899 as brigade major, serving
as secretary to Lord Kitchener, Commander-in-Chief in South
Africa in 1902. At the close of this campaign, Birdwood returned
to India as quartermaster-general in 1912.

In the course of his military career he was several times wounded,
and repeatedly mentioned in the dispatches. He served in command
of the detached landing of the Australian and New Zealand Army
Corps above Gaba Tepe at Gallipoli. Altho a strict disciplinarian
as a commander in the field, he was much liked by his men who felt
the magnetism of his personality and were always eager to carry out
whatever orders were issued by him.2

TASKER HOWARD BLISS, CHIEF OF STAFF, UNITED STATES ARMY

General Bliss was born at Lewisburg, Pa., December 31, 1853. He
was graduated from the United States Military Academy in 1875,
and in 1884 from the United States Artillery School with honors.
His military career began as a second lieutenant in the First Artillery,
June 16, 1875. Five years later he was promoted to first lieu-
tenant, and in 1892 became the captain in the commissary of sub-
sistence, rising to the rank of major in 1898, and of lieutenant-
colonel as Chief Commissary of Subsistence of the Volunteers,
1898-1899. In 1902 he attained the rank of brigadier-general of
the United States Army.

At the outbreak of the Spanish-American War, General Bliss
was military attache at the United States Legation at Madrid,

2 Compiled from "Who's Who, 1918-1919" (London).

PERSONAL SKETCHES OF WAR LEADERS

Spain. He served through the Porto Rican campaign in 1898, in
which year he was appointed a member of the board of officers to
select camp sites for United States troops in Cuba. From Decem-
ber, 1898, to May, 1902, he was Collector of Customs of the port
of Havana and Chief of the Cuban Custom Service. He nego-
tiated the treaty of reciprocity between Cuba and the United
States, 1902, and 1903 was Commandant of the Army War Col-
lege. During 1905 and 1906 he was in command of the Depart-
ment of Luzon, P. I., and from 1906 to 1909 of the Department
of Mindanao. From August, 1910, to June, 1911, he commanded
the Department of California, and during the Mexican insurrec-
tion, March to June, 1911, was in charge of a provisional brigade
on the Mexican border. From 1911 to 1913 he was commander of
the Department of the East, and from 1913 to 1915, of the Soutn-
ern Department Cavalry Division.

General Bliss was appointed a member of the General Staff of
the United States Army and Assistant Chief of the Staff, 1915,
and rose to the rank of Chief of the Staff, September 22, 1917.
On October 6, 1917, he was confirmed Commanding General of the
United States Army, and served as such throughout the Great
War, being appointed a member of the Allied Conference in 1917,
and also a member of the Supreme War Council in France, 1917-
1918. He served also as Military Representative of the United
States at the Peace Conference.3

ALEXIS A. BRUSILOFF, RUSSIAN GENERAL

Brusiloff, Russian commander ,from early in the war until after
the final defeat in the summer of 1917, was sixty-four years old
when the war began, but looked forty-five. He. had long served
Russia as a soldier, having taken part, as a captain and then as
a major, in the Russo-Turkish conflict of 1877. He was described
as one who lived by his nerves, and his sense of duty. Soldiers
worshiped him, altho he never courted popularity, and talked to
them seldom. When he did talk, it was with a matter-of-fact
abruptness, but in his few words lay knowledge of the soldier's
soul. He had skill in finding the direct road to a soldier's heart.
His physical endurance at sixty-four was still amazing. One
of the best cavalrymen in Europe, he could out-distance many
younger horsemen. Whenever his automobile got stuck in black
soil, he would continue his way on horseback, and when the going
was impossible for horses, as in the Pinsk swamps, he would go
on foot, jumping from clump of soil to clump of soil in places

8 Compiled from "Who's Who, 1918-1919" and The Times (New York).

SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

where water prevailed, and never showed fatigue. "How old
values have been upset!" he once remarked to M. Breshkovsky of
the Petrograd Bourse Gazette. "Take Skobeleff" — naming one of
the most distinguished generals of the war of 1877. "Is it think-
able that an ostentatious, decorative general like that, galloping
about at the front in a white uniform and on a white horse, should
exist to-day? Possibly he would last a quarter of an hour. Should
Germans fire a few volleys in that direction, nothing would have
been left of the dashing horseman. In 1877 that splendid bravado
had an object and meaning in his conduct — it was to serve as an
inspiration to his troops. But now, when everything spectacular
has disappeared from the surface, and been buried, Skobeleff
would have been seen at best by about two regiments only."

Brusiloff was born in the Russian Caucasus, in a little semi-
Oriental city named Kutais, about half-way between Poti, the
Black Sea port, and the summit of Kazbek, which is some 3,000
feet higher than Mont Blanc. His father was a soldier and a
general, trained, like so many Russians, in wars in the Caucasus.
The Brusiloffs for generations had been distinguished in Russian
military and political history. The general kept with care a
curious packet of ancient documents, each of which conveyed the
thanks of a sovereign of Russia to a member of his house. He
went to school at Tiflis, in the Caucasus, and thereafter to a
Russian military school where he distinguished himself. Back to
the Caucasus he went afterward as a lieutenant of dragoons and
entered thoroughly into the daring and adventurous life traditional
with regiments quartered in the Caucasus, a life that Lermontoff
and Tolstoy have depicted so well. Brusiloff had a heart for
every adventure; but most of all, loved perilous boar and bear
hunts in Caucasian forests. He earned a reputation as one of the
best riders in that region, whether after hounds or in regimental
steeplechase. In a sense that reputation determined his destiny.

When in the late spring of 1877 Alexander II declared war
against Turkey, and sent armies southward to deliver Bulgaria
from oppression, the Czar's brother, the Grand Duke Nicholas —
father of the Grand Duke Nicholas of this war — was put in com-
mand of armies operating in European Turkey, while another
brother, the Grand Duke Michael, commanded against the Turks in
Asia, fighting southward toward Erzerum by way of Ardahan
and Kara, While taking part in that war on a distant front,
Brusiloff saw little or no actual fighting, but, after the war ended,
when Grand Duke Nicholas the elder undertook to reorganize at
Petrograd the Cavalry School for Officers, which had been founded
by his uncle, Alexander I, he chose as head of the school Colonel

PERSONAL SKETCHES OF WAR LEADERS

Vladimir Sukhomlinoff, and Sukhomlinoff chose as his right-hand
man, Brusiloff. Thus transferred from the sunny south to the
rather forbidding climate of Petrograd, Brusiloff was brought into
close touch with the elder Grand Duke Nicholas and with his sons,
who were deeply interested in the Cavalry School, as a place both
for fine military training and for brilliant social functions.

Brusiloff rose steadily until he obtained command of a section
of the Cavalry Guard, the corps d'elite of the Russian army. He
developed the theory, then novel in Russia, that the training of an
officer in time of peace should conform as closely as possible to
the conditions of war, and so demanded from officers under him
rigorous tests in horsemanship, including long cross-country rides
at night and in bad weather. Remonstrances from the mothers of
darling sons threatened with pneumonia and broken necks, were
sometimes carried to Court and so made their way to the Emperor,
who, at a Court function, would take Brusiloff to task, and
Brusiloff would answer: "Very good, your Majesty, I will dis-
continue the rides if you will guarantee that the enemy will attack
us only in sunshine."

During the Japanese war, as the single-track Siberian railroad
could take east only one army corps a month, the bulk of the
Russian European army never became involved, and so Brusiloff
did not see service against Japan. He was one of a group of
able, trusted commanders who were held in Europe for use in case
any of Russia's neighbors to the west should take advantage of her
Manchurian difficulties, as they did, three years later, when Austria
annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina and Kaiser Wilhelm "stood be-
side his ally in shining armor." To that incident the present war
was in large part directly due, for the act of Austria in thus
turning the Berlin Treaty into a "scrap of paper" sank deep into
many Russian minds, and among others, into the mind of Brusiloff,
who thenceforth looked forward to war as inevitable.

Brusiloff learned how to execute great movements in warfare by
knowledge and experience gained while associated with the Grand
Duke Nicholas and from visits to grand maneuvers in France.
The Grand Duke and Brusiloff both knew French battlefields and
the war chiefs of France, and so understood the magnificent spirit
and sense of equality that existed in French armies. Joffre re-
turned some of these visits, and was present at a grand Russian
maneuver as late as 1913. Brusiloff married early, but was early
left a widower, and afterward married the second daughter of
Madame Jelihovski, a well-known Russian novelist. The second
Madame Brusiloff worked like a Trojan after the recent war began,
particularly in hospital and Red Cross work. In 1916, when she

SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

visited her husband and brother at the front, she took from Mos-
cow, Kieff, Odessa, and Vinnitza, four carloads of Easter gifts
for soldiers. Brusiloff was then the head of a complete army
officered by half a dozen generals.

He had done such fine work at Lublin before the war that he
was transferred to Warsaw, then an advance post of the Russian
army toward the west, where at that time, General Skalon was in
command, while Rennenkampf was in command at Vilna, further
north, facing East Prussia, Ruzsky being commander of the mili-
tary district to the south, which faces Galicia, with headquarters
at Kief. Of army centers, Warsaw was the most important.
There Brusiloff had an opportunity to think in terms of armies,
rather than corps, and to handle considerable bodies of troops.
He had two desires unsatisfied, one for an independent command,
another for a place close to the frontier. Warsaw, from a mili-
tary point of view, was badly placed and essentially weak,
threatened as it was from both East Prussia and Galicia.

Brusiloff, confident that war was coming, obtained a transfer to
Vinnitza, southeast of Warsaw, in the province of Podolia, as
Commander of the Twelfth Army Corps, his military standing
making it certain that, if war broke out, he would be placed in
command of an army which might consist of five or six corps.
He was at Vinnitza, at the end of July, 1914, when the Czar
began to mobilize his army in order to meet the already far
advanced Austrian mobilization. A decisive battle was fought
on this line in the opening days of September — before the
battle of the Marne — and was won by the Russians, being the
first great Allied success. Ruzski captured Lemberg, and Brusiloff at
the same time captured Halicz, making Russian victory com-
plete. The Austrian army alone never recovered. Only when
stiffened by German troops did it ever afterward make any real
headway against the Russians. Ruzski fought westward toward
Krakow, the capital of Poland, while Brusiloff fought on a line
running parallel, some seventy miles further south, being the
extreme left wing of the Russian forces which, on the right,
touched the Baltic. Przemysl was invested, but not assaulted, be-
cause the Russians were already suffering from lack of guns and
shells. The Russian army instead swept forward, round the
fortress, toward the Carpathians, locking up three Austrian army
corps in Przemysl. A strong Austrian force, gathered in eastern
Hungary, attempted to relieve the beleaguered garrison, but as it
made its way through Lupka Pass, Brusiloff, with his base at
Baligrad, met and smashed it, and Przemysl surrendered.

As Brusiloff was afterward fighting his way into the Carpathian

PERSONAL SKETCHES OF WAR LEADERS

passes, Maekensen gathered on the little Dunajec River, east of
Krakow, a vast weight of guns and ammunition with which to
carry out his famous drive. He did not try to push back the
whole Russian line, but simply sawed at it at a single point; and,
•by threatening to cut it through, compelled the whole line to
move backward, which it did, unbroken and undis]t»cated. Brusiloff
had to take his part in the general retreat, but never wholly re-
linquished Galicia. He remained, in fact, on enemy soil through the
first twelve months of the war. In the spring of 1916 he began
another campaign with a higher command, a far larger and more
vigorous force, vastly greater supplies of guns and ammunition,
riper experience, indomitable faith, and with the enthusiasm of a
united nation behind him. But of Brusiloff's subsequent career
details have already been given in an earlier part of this work.4

GENERAL COUNT LUIGI CADORNA, ITALIAN COMMANDER-IN-
CHIEF

Seldom has a human face been more lined than that of Cadorna,
whom the Paris Gaulois, as early as 1916, hailed as one of the
great soldiers of the Latin world — the man who, when Italy de-
clared war, went at once to the front as commander-in-chief of
her forces and long led them to success, but only to fail in 1917
at Caporetto. Cadorna was a Count, but by no means as im-
pecunious as Italian Counts sometimes have been. He was de-
scribed in Italian dailies as of the offensive, rather than the
defensive, school of strategy, with theories of the art of war in
marked antithesis to those of Joffre. Cadorna was one of the
highest living authorities on tactics, concerning which his ideas
were Frederickian rather than Napoleonic. Frederick II strove
first of all for homogeneity in his army, which was a unit before
it was anything else, artillery, cavalry, and infantry welded to-
gether like links in a chain through a series of drills that made
the whole force a simple instrument, responsive to the touch of the
master. There could be no raw levies in such a body of men —
regiments scraped together in a hurry after the fashion of some
of the Napoleonic masses. Cadorna went back to the great days
of Prussian militarism for his ideals. He could never wait
patiently as Joffre di'd for the time to fight. He was swift and
daring, a dealer of tactical blows, a contriver of strokes, to whom
war was an art rather than a science.

Cadorna belonged to one of the most distinguished families in

4 Adapted in the main from an article by Charles Johnson in The Times
(New York). Mr. Johnson's wife is a sister of Brusiloff's wife.

SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

Italy. His father, like an uncle of his, had served in the Pie"d-
montese army during the war against Austria and won renown in
those campaigns. General Raffaele Cadorna was in his day a
tactician who informed the mind of his son with his Frederickian
ideas. The son was the Italian Count in perfection. In him we had
instead of the bluff good nature of Joffre, instead of the pious
simplicity of the Grand Duke Nicholas, the slightly sophisticated
good breeding of an Italian who was at home in the two worlds
of Rome, the clerical and the political. He belonged, by right of
birth and family tradition, to a circle in which a Pope's brother
would have been distinguished. He had very little of the modern
Roman in tastes and habits, but belonged rather to the rural
aristocracy. He early won affectionate admiration by a genial
simplicity beneath fine manners, that came, or seemed to come,
from the heart. At sixty-five when the war began, he still danced
beautifully.

Strive as it might to belittle Cadorna's prestige as a tactician,
the Viennese press admitted that he had won a reputation greater
among professional soldiers than among masses of Italians. His
work on tactics had been translated into German by order of the
Berlin General Staff. The book was unique because of the im-
portance it attached to mobility in an army. He was not a soldier
who could sit down in a trench and wait. He attached infinite
importance to minute knowledge of topographical details and so
came to know the frontier between Austria and Italy so well that
he could have made a livelihood as a tourist's guide. He carried
his passion for topographical detail to such a point that he
thought Napoleon's years of success coincided with occasions when
he was in a country familiar to him; the Russian campaign be-
came a disaster because he was in an unknown land. The one
thing in modern military Germany which was commendable to
Cadorna was the insistence of her general staff on the acquisition
of maps of every region in which the Kaiser's forces were ever
likely to fight.

The seared visage of Cadorna, the slight stoop in his shoulder,
his bleached-out aspect, seemed a result of the physical strain of
a long and hard career. He had been almost everything in the
shape of an officer that a man could be in the Italian army — a
military cadet at Milan and Turin, a lieutenant through grades
until at thirty-three he was at the head of a regiment. When
little more than twenty-five he began to study German military
history, which confirmed him in admiration of Frederick II as
one of the few great captains of the world. War became for Italy
a grand rush upon the foe. There could be little doubt that what

PERSONAL SKETCHES OF WAR LEADERS

German papers said with reference to Cadorna was true — that his
initiative was so fraught with recklessness, or perhaps one should
say with daring1, as to involve tremendous risks. On the other
hand, Cadorna summed up in his nature a combination of qualities
which was Italian instead of German. Cadorna's mind did not
impel him to foresee every contingency so precisely that he arranged
in advance* just what he would do in any event. He was too
artistic, too subtle, not to leave something to the inspiration of the
emergency itself. There was much in this reasoning that imprest
the Parisian press, which gained from Cadorna a decided im-
pression of genius.

He looked like a man of genius to the Secolo, which credited
him with an amiable sympathy with anybody about anything. The
Italians called that characteristic politeness of the heart, which
all agreed that Cadorna had. He was an impressive figure at the
royal palace in Rome on great reception days. The gold and the
dark blue, red and white of the uniform of his rank brought out
his face and form impressively. He wore a mustache finely
waxed, and the Queen invariably gave him her hand to kiss, an
honor of which she was not prodigal. Cadorna never adapted
himself to the gastronomical habits of Roman society, which eats
heavily at unusual hours. He rarely dined out, except in the
years when he was stationed near Verona. He had a reputation
in the service for severity to young officers who danced and dined
to excess. He also set his face severely against the motor craze
when it broke out among mere lieutenants and poorly paid cap-
tains. He made no secret of his belief that the enemy of efficiency
in the army was social ambition, which he deemed only a shade
better than gambling. His charm of manner and his sweetness
of disposition enabled him to put down these and' many similar
weaknesses among his staff without manifesting the least brusk-
ness. He indoctrinated them with his tactical conceptions and at the
same time avoided even the appearance of being obsessed with them.

Cadorna made his home at different times in Naples, Genoa,
Verona, and Ancona, manifesting in each the easy affability of the
Italian aristocrat. Much was said in Italian character sketches of
his social gifts. A brilliant talker, with an intuitive perception of
the weak points, as well as the strong ones in people he met,
Cadorna snowed a fine hand in avoiding feuds between Clericals
and Anticlericals, which tended to divide Rome. He was credited
with the sort of faith that accompanies a temperament naturally
artistic. His recreations reflected this artistic impulse, for he was
fond of the opera, especially of Verdi's music, and admirers of
d'Annunzio insisted that he was one of them. All agreed that his

SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

face was marked with anxieties and that the eyes showed fatigue.

Just as Joffre was practically unknown outside of France before
the war began, so Italy's leader came upon the European field un-
heralded and unknown — especially to American readers. But in
Italy he was already famous. He had long been regarded there
as the army's hope, the one man who had the ability to revive its
glory. An Italian writer characterized him by two words,
"vivacity" and "calm," which described alike his career and his
temperament. His quick mind had built up a storehouse of mili-
tary knowledge; it judged keenly both inferiors and superiors,
foresaw and planned long in advance, but always beneath a calm
surface without the friction that comes of disordered haste. Main-
taining his balance in the most trying circumstances, he refused
to yield to the bludgeonings of hasty argument or prejudiced per-
suasion. He endeavored more and more to instil into the rather
sluggish blood of the old Italian army, ideas of a new era. Every
one in Italy knew in what condition the Italian army would find
itself when Cadorna became its chief.

Cadorna's spirit became to the army a moral fulcrum. His
person, bony but square of build, solid, full of vigor, that seemed
to belie his age, quickly revealed his energy and simplicity. None
of the trappings of pomp contributed to his prestige. One who
had never seen him, and who entered his office for the first
time, had had no correct conception of how w6uld appear the
old gentleman soldier who, standing erect, would receive him in
field uniform on which glistened the insignia of his rank. His
thick mustache was white, his sparse, straight hair rose from a
forehead lined by thought, his whole face marked with the wrinkles
that the cares of life print there, but a verdant youth looked from
out clear eyes. He was not, like Joffre, a silent man, but he
never wasted words; he economized words as he did ammuni-
tion, saved them up to attain an object to which they would move
straight as a cannon-shot. Often he was silent for a long time,
and seemed distraught, but he was listening; and if, in the con-
versation, there came up an error to be destroyed, or a truth to
be demonstrated, he would let go a telling sentence.

Cadorna was born in Pallanza on September 4, 1850, and
was barely fifteen years of age when he entered a military
academy, graduating as a sub-lieutenant in 1868. He was a full-
fledged lieutenant in 1870, and received his captain's commission in
an artillery regiment in 1875. Since 1892, when he got his
colonelcy, he had been identified with the Bersaglieri, the "wide-
awakes" of the Italian army. When he took command of the
Tenth Resriment of the Bersaglieri, he started to improve it after his

100

PERSONAL SKETCHES OF WAR LEADERS

own mind, and brought it out in the grand maneuvers of 1895 in
splendid form, practising in fact on the adversary forces that same
type of outflanking and surrounding movement that worked so
effectually on the Carso in 1917e The breaking out of war in 1914
found him a general waiting for command of an army in case of war.

When the terrible defeat at Caporetto occurred in October,
1917, he was the only commander in the Allied forces who had
retained his position since the war began, without even as much
as a hint of a breakdown, either in the confidence of his country,
his king, his army, or the Allies. He was a deeply religious man.
The particular characteristic of his mind was breadth of vision
and a sweeping aside of minor issues, not to speak of petty details.
He was above all practical and simple. The fundamental law of
his thought was common sense. He had remarkable clearness in
seeing things as they were, not as he might like them to be, or as
he might object to their being. Cadorna had a boyish freedom of
movement and gesture, interestingly contrasting with the white-
ness of his hair and mustache. He had a clear, forceful voice,
with a breezy sense of vitality, a distinctly attractive personality,
and in general was a gentleman warrior. As a young lieutenant
in 1870 he stood by his father in helping to secure Rome for
Italy. As a mature leader of men, fighting from 1915 to 1917 to
give Trieste to Rome, he still stood in the eyes of Italians as a
representative of the fight of Latin civilization against barbaric
German brutality. During the first three years of the war, he was
probably the least known of all the Allied war chiefs, certainly
the least photographed and least interviewed. In Italy there had
been Counts of Cadorna for hundreds of years, but Cadorna's
title became completely submerged in that of General. He was the
acknowledged master of Italian armies and his rule was absolute.
He had his critics, but he would say, "Whenever the country gets
tired of me, I will quit. I refuse to stay a second longer than
I am wanted. But while I am Generalissimo what I say goes."

Cadorna never bothered about critics. He lived a hermit's
life in the war, never saw anybody except his King, his Chief of
Staff and a few special officers. Prominent visitors to the Italian
front got only a brief glimpse of him and then with the greatest
difficulty. He lived in an old house and there did his work. He
was a strict Catholic like the French General Castelnau, and had
a private mass said every morning of his life.5

5 Adapted from a compilation by Alexander Harvey in Current Opinion;
based on articles in the Gaulois and Temps (Paris), Stampa (Turin), Mes-
saggero and Secolo (Rome), Carrier della Sera (Milan), The Eagle (Brook-
lyn), The Times and The Literary Digest and an article by Luigi Barzini in
"Current History of the War" of The Times (New York).

V. T— S 101

SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

EDOUARD, MARQUIS DE CASTELNAU,
FRENCH GENERAL. ON THE WESTERN FRONT

The Marquis de Castelnau, the aristocrat among generals in
this war, had been a great pillar of the republic. In the last days
of August and first of September, 1914, almost simultaneously
with the battle of the Marne, the Germans had made a formidable
attempt against a French army in Lorraine, when, impatient for
a decision, they threw themselves against the Grand Couronne.
Entire batteries were sacrificed in the customary German method,
but the Grand Couronne stood firm. The French, to the extreme
limit of endurance, fought until the Germans beat a retreat and
Nancy was saved. Had Nancy fallen, the Marne probably would
have been lost. The commander at the Grand Couronne, the soul
of the resistance, was the Marquis de Castelnau.

Castelnau was somewhat short in stature, but well proportioned,
with a bronzed complexion, and a frank, alert expression. The
rough soil of the tablelands of Languedoc and Gascony that had
produced Joffre and Foch, produced also Castelnau. His family
had long been settled in that country, at the foot of hills. His
father, a lawyer of ability, well known and greatly esteemed, for
many years was mayor of St. Affrique. There were three sons,
the oldest of whom entered the Polytechnic School and became an
engineer; the second followed his father's profession; the third
chose the profession of arms, Edouard de Castelnau. Born in
1851, in the same year as Joffre and Foch, he was sixty-four
years old in the second year of the war, and the father of ten
children, of whom two were killed early in the war, and a third in
the French offensive in Champagne of September, 1915. Castelnau
studied at the Jesuit College of his native town, and at the age
of eighteen had passed into the military school of St. Cyr, where
cavalry and infantry officers were trained.

When the Franco-German war broke out, young men at St. Cyr
obtained commissions as second lieutenants, and thus Castelnau
served in the whole of that campaign. Joffre and Foch also had
experience in that war, but not as much as Castelnau had. The
interval since then — a period of forty-four years — Castelnau had
devoted to one single problem — to aid in fitting the French army
for another conflict with its old enemy, which he knew to be in-
evitable. After the retreat from the Marne and the battle of the
Aisne, the first effort made by the Germans was a turning move-
ment against the French left wing, where violent engagements took
place in the neighborhood of Peronne and Amiens. Castelnau,
having led a single army in Lorraine to a brilliant success under

102

PERSONAL SKETCHES OF WAR LEADERS

conditions of the utmost difficulty, was promoted by Joffre to com-
mand groups of French armies. Later, in the French offensive in
Champagne, he added a new achievement to his record. The
heaviest fighting took place along the Souain-Sommepy road, north
of Massiges. Near Souain was a division under command of
Marchand, the French general who at Fashoda on the upper Nile
had the memorable meeting with Kitchener. To reach the valley
of Navarin, March-end's men had to fight their way through two
miles of German trenches, Castelnau's objective being the Bazan-
court-Challerange railway, which ran behind German positions and
was the main line of supply for their army. On the Butte de
Tahure his forces reached within two miles of this railway. Had
they actually reached it the Germans, under the Crown Prince and
Heeringen, would have been forced back to the Aisne7.

Not long afterward when Joffre was Commander-in-Chief of all
the armies in France, Castelnau was Chief of his General Staff
and so became the Generalissimo's right-hand man. When the
Germans attacked Verdun, in February, 1916, Joffre at nine o'clock
at night received a dispatch from the local commander recom-
mending that the fortress be given up and 'that the French retire
to the heights across the Meuse. Joffre seemed at first inclined
to agree with the suggestion — at least on military grounds — but
Castelnau argued against it, and it was agreed that Castelnau
should go to Verdun and assume command. His trip to Verdun
was a race, a sort of Sheridan's ride, and having looked the situa-
tion over, he telephoned to Joffre: "Send Petain." Petain went
at once to Verdun, quietly and alone, followed by his army, mostly
in motor-trucks. "They must not pass," said Castelnau. "They
shall not pass," returned Petain.

With the changes afterward made in the French Ministries, the
office of Chief of Staff was abolished and Castelnau was sent to
command in the southeast. When the armistice was signed it was,
known that Foch had been waiting to cut the Metz corridor and
split the German armies; Castelnau was to turn loose great forces
which he had collected around Nancy for an advance into Lorraine
and Alsace. One of Castelriau's sons had already been killed in
battle. While attending a council of war Castelnau received news
of another son's death. Pausing for a few moments and
recovering from his tears he said calmly, "Gentlemen, let us pro-
ceed." Observers agreed that no finer personality than Castelnau
had come to the front in this war. In him was seen all that had"
been best in men of the old regime.

103

SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

SIR ARTHUR WILLIAM CURRIE, CANADIAN MAJOR-GENERAL

Major-General Currie was born December 5, 1875, and com-
manded the First Canadian Division in the European War, 1914
to 1917. From 1917 to the close of the war, Currie was in com-
mand of the Canadian Corps, and entered Mons at the head of
his troops, November 11, 1918.6

FRANCHET D'ESPEREY, ALLIED COMMANDING GENERAL IN THE

BALKANS

D'Esperey, who late in the war succeeded Sarrail as Con>
mander-in-Chief of the Allied armies in the Balkans, commanded
there in the final victory over Bulgarian and Teutonic forces in the
early autumn of 1918. Fortune had often smiled on him. He had
been in the war from the beginning-. In the fighting about
Charleroi and Mons, he was the only Allied general who won what
could have been called a victory. D'Esperey was in command of
the Fifth French Army Corps, made up for the greater part of
men from Lille and Flanders. On August 21 and 22, he was hold-
ing bridges on the Meuse at no great distance above Namur, but it
was not until the evening of the 23d that his troops began to fight.

Several Allied corps, in an inferior position both as to numbers
and equipment, had been forced back. It was left to d'Esperey
to protect their right flank, and he achieved that task. Attacking
Saxons who were pressing closely upon him, he threw them into
disorder and in so furious an attack drove back to the Meuse a
division which had crossed the river, that they could not withstand
the assault. During the night of the 23d and all day on the 24th
the Germans allowed the French to pass, not moving to inter-
fere. D'Esperey had compelled Hausen, the German commander,
and one of the most famous of the German generals, to pay a
heavy price for his failure; Hausen lost his command. Had he
made better plans the crossing of the river could at once have
taken place. The delay became a contributory cause of the
failure of the German army in the beginning of September; the
German forces marching toward Paris had now to be grouped
differently.

The operation brought promotion to d'Esperey. On the Marne
he was the first to win laurels. He was holding the line north
of Provins (the most southern point reached in France). He had
the British on his left and Foch on his right. On the morning of
September 6, when Joffre gave his famous order to attack,
d'Esperey threw himself on the left wing of Kluck's army and
the right of Billow's, both of which were facing him, and forced

6 Compiled from "Who's Who, 1918-1919" (London).

104

PERSONAL SKETCHES OF WAR LEADERS

a wedge between the two, taking Esternay at the point of the
bayonet, throwing into disorder everything in his advance, and on
the 8th entered Montmirail over German dead.

On the morning of the 9th, his aviation service signalled that
Kluck and Billow were retreating. From that time all he had to
do was to push forward. He had been the first to make a real
breach in the German wall. D'Esperey now received command of
army groups, which meant that he occupied the same rank as
Foch, Castelnau, and Fayolle. His name thenceforth for three years
was associated with operations on the Somme, in the Champagne, and
on the Aisne, until June, 1918, when he received command of the
Allied armies in the Balkans. Eight weeks afterward he landed
in Saloniki, from which, as his base, he advanced to become the
victor of the Vardar, and the first Allied general to gain a notable
success in the Bal'kans, where so much blood had been shed and
where it almost seemed as if some evil genius had refused to
allow the Allies even one success.

So much good fortune was not the result of chance. D'Esperey
won his victories because he deserved them. He had learned the
secret of making the gods of war smile on him. He was a tre-
mendous worker, and knew how to make others work. The Yardar
campaign was fought on the hardest, most difficult sector in the
war. It was a front where there were practically no roads, no
depots of equipment, and no heavy artillery. The position was
said by the Bulgarians to be impregnable — so much so that they
maintained only a handful of troops there. In eight weeks
d'Esperey built roads, installed depots, caused heavy artillery to
be placed in position, and organized a system of communications.
On September 14 he threw Senegalese and Colonial battalions
against the Bulgars, just as he had thrown regiments against the
Germans at Montmirail, and again he made a breach. Through
that breach he led Allied forces that for three years had been
marking time on that front.

D'Esperey not only knew how to deal with terrain and cannon,
he knew how to deal with men. He could make soldiers do any-
thing, because he knew how to talk to them. He had the ready
word that wins the heart of a trooper, and it is with the heart,
as much as with muscle, that battles are won. For a long time
before the war d'Esperey was a commanding officer in Algeria,
that corner of Africa which gave glorious names to the French
army in this war — Gouraud, Mangin, Degoutte — and which had
been the cradle of the Foreign Legion.7

7 Stephane Lauzanne, editor of Le Matin (Paris), in an article contributed
to The Times (New York).

105

SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

GENERAL ARMANDO DIAZ, COMMANDER-IN-CHIEF OF THE
ITALIAN ARMY

General Diaz was appointed Commander-in-Chief of the Italian
armies, November 3, 1917, when General Cadorna was made
Italian Military Representative at the Supreme War Council of
the Allies. He was a Neapolitan by birth, and was fifty-six years
old at the time of his appointment. He served with distinction as
a colonel in the Libyan War.

Altho comparatively unknown outside of military circles when
appointed, General Diaz had had a distinguished career. Educated at
the Military College at Naples and at the Military Academy at
Turin, he gained in reputation during the Abyssinian campaign,
and added to it in the Libyan War, for the plan of campaign of
which he was largely responsible.

After brilliant successes achieved on the Isonzo under his leader-
ship as division commander (Twenty-third Army Corps operating
on the Carso), Diaz received that promotion which ultimately led
to his being made Commander-in-Chief. He was especially talented
as an organizer and was a man of volcanic energy. His military
experience embraced practically all branches of the service. He
was secretary to three chiefs of the staff in succession, and for a
time was in charge of a staff appointment where he achieved the
reputation of being stern but impartial in his dealings. His
character as a soldier was that of an inflexible disciplinarian who
applied to himself the same rules as he enforced on others. In
the daily routine of military life, evenly poised, and in the face
of danger characteristically calm, General Diaz, tho southern born,
had proved that self-control and calmness were not characteristics
restricted to northern Italy as is commonly believed, Physically
General Diaz was medium build, of dark complexion, with hair turn-
ing gray. He had a slight caste in the eye which among his fellow
countrymen was held as a sign of good luck.8

GENERAL ERIC VON FALKENHAYN, CHIEF OF STAFF OF
THE GERMAN ARMIES

In the early part of the war, when the Kaiser's plan for enter-
ing Paris in September, 1914, and reaching London from Paris
by the end of October, had been frustrated, and the German
armies forced to retreat, the Kaiser accepted the resignation of
Moltke, Chief of the General Staff, who thus appeared as the scape-

8 Compiled from The Times (New York).

106

PERSONAL SKETCHES OF WAR LEADERS

goat in' the German miscalculations, and appointed in his stead
General Eric von Falkenhayn, one of the cleverest of Berlin
courtier-soldiers. Cold, calculating, suave, and an intriguer, the
scion of one of the oldest German houses, Falkenhayn had begun
his career by winning the good will of the Kaiser's sons through
a brother Eugene, who had been their tutor, mentor, and military
governor in their boyhood. This, together with an intimate associa-
tion afterward with Field-marshal Count von Waldersee, on whose
staff he served in the allied march upon Pekin in 1900, and from
knowing the American-born Countess von Waldersee, a favorite
aunt of the Kaiserin, brought Falkenhayn into contact with the
Kaiserin, and it was not long before he won favor. He had a
gift for repartee, was mentally alert and resourceful. Various
accomplishments and a readiness of speech finally commended him
to the Emperor as particularly well qualified to take charge of
the Department of War, and especially to champion the cause of
the army in the Reichstag, after the public uproar created by the
sabering at Zabern of a lame and unarmed cobbler by a young
infantry officer.

As Chief of Staff, Falkenhayn reigned supreme at the Kaiser's
headquarters, and acquired an extraordinary ascendency over his
sovereign. On the profest ground of military exigencies he was
disposed to keep at a distance from Imperial Headquarters not
only the Chancellor, cabinet ministers, and various statesmen and
foreign diplomats, but even the rulers of some of the sovereign
States comprised in the German Empire. Owing much as he did
to the Crown Prince, Falkenhayn, in 1916, yielding to solicitations
such as had failed Hindenburg in the East, when he wanted
reinforcements to take Riga, sent all his available troops to the
heir apparent, and his mentor Count von Haeseler, in order that
they might attempt the capture of Verdun, a scheme to which,
however, he had become himself committed, believing it would be
possible thus to open up a road to Paris. The Kaiser was after-
ward disposed to saddle Falkenhayn with blame, both for the suc-
cessful renewal of the Russian offensive and for the Crown
Prince's failure before Verdun, so that Falkenhayn might sooner
have shared the fate of Moltke, had he not possest influence at
Court. Verdun and Riga, however, had opened the Kaiser's eyes
to the fact that Germany was confronted with ultimate defeat,
owing to the greater resources of her foes in man-power, muni-
tions, and money. The best Germany could now hope for was a
draw. Owing to the extraordinary growth about this time of Hin-
denburg in popular favor, the Kaiser removed Falkenhayn, and
put Hindenburg in his place as Chief of the General Staff.

107

SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

Falkenhayn did not wholly disappear from public view, However,
serving as he did afterward in Roumania and Asiatic Turkey.

Falkenhayn was in sharp contrast to Moltke. As age went
among commanding German officers, he was young, while Moltke
was over sixty-six. Temperament Moltke had not, but Falkenhayn
did have it, being alive and energetic, a bundle of nerves, some-
times agreeable and sometimes irascible, intuitional and venture-
some, while Moltke was placid and methodical, democratic, liberal-
minded and cautious. The two were about as far apart as two
Germans could be. Moltke, until the Marne battle, had never got
into a real embarrassment in his life, while Falkenhayn, in peace
times, had repeatedly been in situations from wThich only a
genius, or a favorite of fortune, could have been extricated.
Physically he bore a resemblance to the Japanese Chief of Staff,
Kodana. He had the same alert eye, and winning smile, the same
habit of asking' interminable questions, and the robustness of
youthful middle age. He was of middle height, and extremely
slender, which was quite unusual for a German officer past fifty.
He had been little with troops, but enough to conform to the regu-
lations which required that no one designed for staff duty could
entirely escape service in the field. He was a graduate of the War
Academy, and before succeeding Moltke had been twice a Chief
of Staff, altho never before a chief of the entire army. During
1909-10 he was Chief of Staff to the Sixteenth Army Corps, with
headquarters at Metz, and previous to his appointment as Minister
of War, was Chief of Staff to the Fourth Army Corps, with head-
quarters at Magdeburg.

Falkenhayn was an adequate representative of the German
military caste. He embodied its ideals and traditions. The re-
nascence of the German army after the failure of 1914 was com-
monly ascribed to Falkenhayn. He was a man whose ambitions
were limited only by his power to achieve them. It was he who
planned, and Mackensen who acted, in the great drive against the
Russians in the summer of 1915. He was the strategist and
Mackensen the tactician. For a Chief of Staff, he was dangerously
temperamental, rushing as he did from extremes of pessimism to
heights of optimism. In moments of anger he would raise his
voice — a good powerful voice. When pleased, his whole counte-
nance would seem to participate in the expression. While often
ungracious he had in him much real good nature. When living
at Metz he often seemed stiff and autocratic in public, but those
who called at his modest home found him willing to grant favors
and quite eager to make friends.9

9 Compiled from an article in Current Opinion, by Alexander Harvey, and
one in The Times (New York), by F. Cunliffe Owen.

108

PERSONAL SKETCHES OF WAR LEADERS

FERDINAND FOCH, MARSHAL OF FRANCE AND ALLIED
GENERALISSIMO

Some one given to aphorisms said that Joffre was made Chief
of Staff "because he seldom or never rode horseback," a remark
not so senseless as it might sound when one considered the
temperament of the French, and the fact that some man, given
to the spectacular, with elements of a conqueror in his nature,
had often exerted a tremendous influence over them, provided
that, combined with ability, he had a commanding personality,
such as Joffre did not have. Joffre did not ride on horseback —

THE fiCOLE DE GUERRE IN PARIS

Here Marshal Foch was long the director of the school. Under him were
trained many French officers prominent or active in the war

or at least seldom did — and was not an impressive figure even on
the ground, so short and stout was his build ; but there was another
general in France of such superb ability that Joffre himself had
termed him "the greatest strategist in Europe" — a man who had
real personal magnetism, and was a masterful rider of horses, in
fact "a man on horseback" of the type whom the French have
often honored — Ferdinand Foch. Foch was a soldier of equal
experience, of about the same age, and from the same part of
France as Joffre, and with Joffre had won the British Grand
Cross of the Order of the Bath. Before the war Foch's services

109

SKETCHES, PEACE, TEEATY, CHRONOLOGY

to France had been notable in the efforts he had made to de-
velop the Ecole de Guerre, of which he was long director, and
especially in the organization of the great French "Krupps," that
is, the Creusot arms and ammunition factory. Altho a strict dis-
ciplinarian, Foch was beloved of his men, whom he treated as
human beings. Severe on shirkers, he was liberal in rewarding
honest effort and real merit wherever he found them.

Like Napoleon, Foch was an artillery officer and born strategist,
and like him applied to military science speed, decision, and unity
of control. There was revived early in the war the story of
Boulanger, who some thirty, years before had held the same place
that Foch held, as Director of the Ecole de Guerre, and Boulanger
came near making himself dictator of France. Only moderately
elderly men can now remember him with his black charger, but
in 1887 it looked very much as if France might turn once
more to a "man on horseback," to lead her out of a quagmire of
party politics and opportunism into which she had fallen. If
Boulanger had been really the great man the French imagined he
was, instead of a commonplace poseur who fled the country only
to kill himself on the grave of an affinity, parliamentary govern-
ment might have fallen before his sword and that black horse.

At the end of August, 1914, when the great Allied retreat was
in progress in Belgium and Northern France, the Tenth French
Division retreating in the direction of Reims, Foch one day after
serving in Lorraine under Castelnau, was walking in front of the
Hotel de Ville in the market-place of Attigny, having just as-
sumed command of a new army expressly created for him. Only
a few days later the retreat ended and the battle of the M'arne
began. Near the end of the battle the Prussian Guard in a
colossal effort smashed through Foch's right, and, wild with joy,
began to celebrate. When Foch heard of the disaster he tele-
graphed to general headquarters a famous message: "My center
gives way; my right recedes; the situation is excellent. I shall
attack." Foch then gave his order to attack, with everything he
cared about in this world at stake — Paris, France, his own reputa-
tion. It was a desperate maneuver, an historic moment, when all
would be saved or lost. Having given the order to attack, Foch
went alone for a walk on the outskirts of the little village where
he had established his headquarters, awaiting the issue of that
famous stroke at Le Fere Champenoise which was to prove de-
cisive in the great conflict.

Foch had demanded a final and sudden effort of heroism from
sorely tried troops. He had improvised a skilful maneuver. The
Germans had driven themselves into the French as a wedge, until

110

PERSONAL SKETCHES OF WAR LEADERS

their front had the form of an elbow. Foch, having the genius
to turn to advantage a position which appeared wholly favorable
to the Germans, slipt one of his divisions abruptly from left to
right in such way as to throw it suddenly on the German flank, a
movement which took the Germans by surprize and made the
battle a French victory. On a smaller scale, it was the same kind
of maneuver that Joffre had used in throwing Maunoury's army
against the flank of Kluck on the Ourcq, and in each case the
result was a French success. The two maneuvers 'were deciding
causes of the German retreat to the Aisne.

After the Aisne battle in the early days of October, Foch, who
had been directing an army in the center of the Allied line, was
transferred to the French left wing and given a far more im-
portant command, all French armies in the north being placed
under his orders. Besides that he was accorded the delicate task
of achieving complete unity of effort between French, British,
and Belgian armies. Foch thus became virtually commander-in-
chief of the troops which resisted the German onslaught in
Flanders.

Foch was born in October, 1851, at Tarbes, in the south of
France, the son of a civil servant, and an exact contemporary of
Castelnau and Joffre — both of whom were born in the south of
France. Tarbes lies not far from Pau and Lourdes in the foot-
hills of the Pyrennes, and has long been famous for a breed of
horses suitable for cavalry. In the mid-sixties Foch's father
moved from Tarbes to Rodez, almost two hundred miles northeast
of the old home. It was quite an uprooting. Tarbes was the
ancestral country. The removal was due to the father's appoint-
ment as a paymaster at Rodez. Here the family found themselves
in a new and quite different atmosphere. Soon afterward they
went to Saint-Etienne, near Lyons, the father having been ap-
pointed a tax collector there. In 1869 Foch was sent to Metz, to
attend the Jesuit College of Saint Clement, to which students
came from many parts of Europe. He had been there only a
year, winning a grand prize, when the Franco-Prussian war be-
gan and he enlisted for the duration of the war, but of this, his
first war experience, there is little to relate. Foch was just one
of a multitude of young men who rushed to the colors when
France called for troops, and did what they could in a time of
great confusion and disaster. Just at the time when his fall
term should have begun at Saint Clement's, Metz was under siege
by the Germans, its garrison and inhabitants suffering horribly
from hunger and disease; Paris was surrounded; German head-
quarters had been established at Versailles; the imperial standard,

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dear to Foch because of the great Napoleon, was lowered and a
white flag- had been hoisted at Sedan, the Emperor with his army
in captivity. In what Foch suffered because of what he could
not do in helping- to save France were laid the foundations of
what he afterward accomplished.

In the autumn of 1871 Foch took up military studies at the
Ecole Polytechnique in the Latin Quarter of Paris. Paris was
then scarred and seared as the result of the German bombardment
and the fury of the Communards, which together destroyed nearly
two hundred and fifty public and other buildings. The govern-
ment organized at Bordeaux had avoided the capital and gone to
Versailles, recently evacuated by the Germans. Among the two
hundred and odd students at the Polytechnic besides Foch was
Joffre, his junior by three months, who had entered the school in
1869, his studies interrupted by \var, and now had come back to
resume them. After Joffre was graduated, in 1872, he went to
the School of Applied Artillery at Fontainebleau and Foch,
graduated about six months later, followed him to Fontainebleau
to get the same special training. Both were hard students, tre-
mendously in earnest, both heavy-hearted over the ruin of France,
and both hoping the day might come when they could serve her
and help restore what she had losL But no one, indulging in the
wildest fantastic extravagances oJ: youth, would ever have ven-
tured to forecast a tithe of what these two afterward did for
France. When Foch reached tho rank of lieutenant-colonel he
was appointed professor in strategy and general tactics at the
Ecole de Guerre, and ten years later, after holding commands in
various armies, was made director of the school.

In daily life Foch was a man of few words, who spoke with
mathematical conciseness, his conversations vigorous and clear.
Calm and self-possest, he was conspicuous for qualities which the
English prize. He had close knowledge of the British Army, and
keen sense of the British temperament and character, which ex-
plained the influence he came to exert over most Englishmen who
came in contact with him, as well as the cohesion which existed
between French and British almost from the beginning of the
war. To Foch, as to Castelnau, the war early brought heavy
private sorrows, a son and son-in-law both being killed. Saying
little about his own grief, he gave an example to all Frenchmen
by redoubling his efforts for success in the war. Before his ad-
vancement, he had enjoyed among military experts a solid reputa-
tion as a teacher of the art of Afar. Even the Militar-Wochen-
blatt, organ of the German General Staff, ranked him high among
strategists. To Frenchmen in general, however, he was so much

1115

PERSONAL SKETCHES OF WAR LEADERS

a stranger when lie made his fine stroke in the Marne battle, and when
he took supreme command in the north, that Paris newspapers had
to correct a serious misapprehension that prevailed as to his
origin. Foch did have a German name, but he was not Teutonic,
not even an Alsatian; his ancestors for generations had lived in
the Basque country, the name a corruption of Foix. Foch's age
in 1914 was given in an official bulletin as sixty-three, but his
litheness, leanness and horsemanship suggested a man of forty.

Foch had sometimes been regarded lightly. Wilson also had
been thought of as a mere "professor." Foch read over and over again
the campaigns of Caesar and Napoleon, and wrote books on war.
No one dreamed that he would ever lead an armed world to vic-
tory any more than Germans dreamed that Hindenburg, "the old
man of the lakes," would be their leader in a great war. As with
Hindenburg, so with Foch; his active years in service were
thought in 1914 to be over, since he as well as Hindenburg was not
only old enough to have seen service in the war of 1870, but was
troubled with rheumatism. Foch in the gun-factory at Creusot
had often been seen in a workman's blouse. While there he made a
favorable report on the "75" gun that did so much to hold the
Germans back on the Marne and the Aisne, at Soissons and
Verdun. He had been all his life out of touch with most things
except army life. He was in temperament typically a Latin of
the South. He had more qualities essentially Gallic than Joffre
had, was given to daring strategical conceptions — such as are
known in France as Napoleonic — believing that French genius lent
itself to them, as Napoleon had also thought. Not that Foch was
flamboyant, for he lived and acted simply. When a student at
the Polytechnic School he ate black bread. His parents were
thrifty in the French sense, and had brought him up simply.
Abstemious habits, acquired in youth, kept him always thin £nd
robbed him of a kind of social ease and self-confidence that
many of his subordinates possest, among them d'Urbal and
Maud'huy, who were his pupils at the War College. All Foch's
students acquired from him a dramatic conception of war — which
was to surprize an enemy by strategy and secrecy, to operate
rapidly and with suddenness. He was credited with knowing the
human element in the French army better than any man living,
and weeded out shirkers remorselessly.

Foch had lived much alone, as his face and manner indicated.
He had had no social career and little social experience except
such as came from formal calls on garrison hostesses. He gave
dinners, as he had to, about twice a year to his staff, but jesting
was rare at these gatherings. "The French officer," Foch might

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SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

remark when the soup came on, "should resolve to perish with
glory." "Find out the weak point," he would perhaps say, when
dessert was reached, "and deliver your blow there." Similar re-
marks dominated such conversation as Foch ever started at a
banquet in some provincial town. "Suppose, General," an
artillery-officer might venture to say, much to the horror of the
staff, "suppose the enemy has no weak point?" "If the enemy
has no weak point," Foch would answer, "make one," a retort
that he would deliver in crushing class-room manner, accompanied
with a flash of the eye and a characteristic cock of the chin.
There was no staff officer in the French army under forty who
was comfortable when he met Foch's piercing eye and uplifted
chin, or who would risk becoming the victim of a Foch retort.
He had been so long at the War College that almost every officer
in the French army trained for twenty years had acquired the
Foch stamp. While there he produced two notable works, "Prin-
cipes de la Guerre" and "De la Conduite de la Guerre." "La
Conduite de la Guerre" was a minute historical examination of
the battles of 1870. "Nothing can replace the experience of war,"
wrote he, "except the history of war." "Les Principes de la
Guerre" was less a speculation than a visualization of what modern
war was destined to be.

Simplicity and directness marked his teachings, and indicated a
perfection to which few could aspire. Anybody could see that
the whole secret of strategy was to place superior forces before
an enemy's weak point, but to see as Foch did on September 9
a gap between the Prussian Guard and the Saxon army on the
Marne and be ready to bring up artillery to crush the Guard
in the Saint-Gond marshes, that was an act of genius. He was
represented as perturbed by the blaze of European fame into
which he emerged after that battle. When Joffre said Foch was
"the greatest strategist in Europe," he added that he was "the
humblest." Foch had knowledge, energy, and experience, and
could set souls afire as well as trenches. No sooner did he appear
at the front than every commander received a visit from him. He
cultivated no splendid isolation. He could call any colonel by
name. Every corps commander without exception had attended his
lectures. He took to the Napoleonic habit of first-hand contact
with men in the ranks — not that of jovial comradeship, but a
quiet, comprehending contact, in which even boots were inspected
and food tested.

Clemenceau in a speech had once referred to a certain day as
an "unforgettable day." It was a day in the war when Foch was
virtually on the retired list. Foch was actually for a time without a

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PERSONAL SKETCHES OF WAR LEADERS

command, but it appeared that he was engaged on "important
duties," but during M. Painleve's tenure of the War Office on
May 15, 1917, Foch returned to service as Chief of the General
Staff. The public had heard little of Foch in the year which
preceded his appointment. The fact was he had met with a
motor-car accident in June, 1916, or a short time before the
opening of the battle of the Somme, for which he had been pre-
paring from his headquarters near Amiens. He was, however,
kept on the active list, altho about to reach the age limit of sixty-

MARSHAL FOCH AND GENERAL MANGIN (AT THE LEFT)
Inspecting fortifications on the Rhine during the Allied occupation

five, but by special decree, owing to his services in Lorraine in
August, 1914, in the Battle of the Marne in September, and in
command of the armies of the north from Compiegne to the sea
after October 4, 1914. Foch in 1916 was dealing with various
problems relating to inter- Allied action, but carried out the work
in comparative obscurity, first at Senlis, then in eastern France
where he had "important duties," which were the organization of
defenses in the Jura in anticipation of a turning movement by
the Germans through Switzerland and the framing of plans for
Italy in case of an emergency arising from an Austrian offensive.

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SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

The formula of an Allied commander-in-chief had been mooted
for a long time when Lloyd George, speaking in Paris in Novem-
ber, 1917, on his return from Italy, where Foch was helping to
hold the Austro-Germans on the Piave, made public confession of
his conversion to the idea, but national and personal susceptibili-
ties were awakened by the suggestion in London and this com-
pelled Lloyd George to defer action. President Wilson, at the
Allied conference which followed shortly thereafter, at which he
was represented by Colonel House, threw the weight of American
prestige into the scale in favor of unity of command. Then came
the supreme argument in its favor out of the mouths of German
cannon thundering past Bapaume and Noyon toward Arras and
Amiens. To that argument there was no answer, and especially
after Pershing had placed all the American resources in France
under French direction in his "all we have" message that will never
be forgotten in France. Foch was soon proclaimed Allied Com-
mander-in-Chief by agreement between Great Britain, France, and
the United States. Great democracies, free partners in an enter-
prise of self-preservation and liberation, thus made one man their
collective agent, to use supreme authority to the best of his ability,
all their war resources being at his disposal against the German
onslaught. By a happy coincidence, Foch was the man whose
indomitable spirit and infinite resourcefulness years before had
appealed so forcibly to Clemenceau during a previous premiership
that he had appointed him head of the War College, a post for
which Foch was not a candidate. Much of the brilliant work done
by the French Army in this war was directly traceable to the
spirit which Foch had instilled into it at the War College, and
later on the field at the Marne, Ypres, and elsewhere.

Two great military figures, Joffre and Foch, reached almost
simultaneously the topmost height of fame; Joffre the massive, the
reflective, in whose speech one detected more readily than in
that of Foch the accent of the mountaineer from the Spanish
border, Foch being an embodiment of lightning thought in action.
Master as he was of the theory in war, Foch was never fettered
by it. His keen perception readily discerned the exception to
the rule under right conditions. He did not play safe by avoiding
risks, but determined which was the lesser risk and boldly took it.
When asked to take command of the French offensive at the
Somme in 1916 — a command he did not take, owing to the accident
already referred to — he inquired as to the number of guns that
would be at his disposal, and when told exprest himself somewhat
thus: "We will be able to make an advance upon a limited
front and thus shall bend the German line, but can not expect

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PERSONAL SKETCHES OF WAR LEADERS

to break it." His report in writing was in the hands of the
Government before the attack began, and was confirmed to the
letter by subsequent events. Foch knew what could be done and
what could not be done. Just before the battle of Mons-
Charleroi, when Sir John French felt doubtful of the advisability
of accepting battle, the relations between the French and British
were largely undefined, and it became necessary that French
should be induced to fit the British into Joffre's plan, making his
little army a virtual part of France's army. Foch went to see
him. Never was tact in manner more perfectly combined with
firmness in purpose. He won French over completely, and then
hastened back to take his own command at the French center,
where a few days later he was to fight and win, at La Fere
Champenoise, the decisive phase of the Marne.

Foch's words were so few that he often made his meaning un-
mistakable without resort to speech by using a mere gesture, or
by the way in which he bit the cigar he was forever smoking.
At Foch's headquarters no fuss and feathers were seen. No
orderlies galloped up on smoking steeds. No mud-splashed dis-
patch-riders arrived on snorting motorcycles. A single sentry
stood at the gate. A graveled drive led to a plain oaken door in
an unornamented red brick wall. At one of his headquarters
there was an oak-paneled reception-hall about twenty feet square,
in the center a billiard-table covered with brown linen, at one side
an unpainted yellow-pine table, on which lay Kipling's "Jungle
Book" in French. Across the hall were two doors, on one of
which was pinned a piece of cardboard with the words "Le Bureau
du General." During a battle Foch would be found in a big room
before a large scale map, pencil in hand and a telephone receiver
at his ear, his staff in a semicircle behind him. There was per-
fect silence, the only movement his pencil on the map as he fol-
lowed the battle and pondered details of the district where the
fighting was in progress. One thought of Thomas at Chickamauga,
of Grant in the Wilderness. There was something in Foch that
was stedfast and something more that was relentless.

Foch was not tall, only five feet six inches in height. What
you saw first were his eyes, his large, well-shaped head, his rather
thin iron-gray hair, his broad, high forehead. Gray eyes, set
wide apart, bored through you and smiled on you all at the same
time. His nose was large, his mouth wide and straight, his chin
massive. At his headquarters in November, 1918, there was a
ceremony. General Pershing had come to present to him a deco-
ration for Distinguished Service as conferred by the United States
Government, a medal afterward presented also to Haig, Joffre, and

v. x— 9 117

SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

Petain. A small company, composed of Staff Officers, had as-
sembled on the garden side of the chateau. As the two leaders
came round the corner, the contrast between them was interesting-.
Both had marked personal distinction, but were entirely different.
Foch swung along with a sort of amble, what military men call
"cavalryman's walk," with little to mark him as a military man.
Save for his uniform he might have been taken for a lawyer or
a doctor. As the two soldiers walked to a center between men of
the staff and the guard of honor, a bugler sounded the salute
known as the "Marshal's Flourish." Then Pershing, in French,
spoke with soldierly force and dignity, his French, by diligent
study and practise in France, having been built up on a founda-
tion of West Point teaching and showing hardly a trace of ac-
cent. The Marshal in his response spoke longer than he had
been known to speak before, his remarks extemporaneous, full
of fire, driving points home with that emphasis on words and
phrases which the French know so well how to bestow. After
Pershing had pinned the medal on Foch's breast, they stood with
their hands clasped as a trumpet sounded once more. In accept-
ing the decoration Foch said:

"I will wear this medal with pleasure and pride. In days of triumph,
as well as in the dark and critical hours, I shall never forget the tragical
day last March when General Pershing put at my disposal without re-
striction all the resources of the American Army. The success won in the
hard righting by the American Army is the consequence of the excellent
conception, command and organization of the American General Staff,
and the irreducible will to win of the American troops. The name
'Meuse' may be inscribed proudly upon the American flag. I want to
say to you that I shall never forget that tragic day when, stirred by
a generous impulse, you came and placed at my disposition the entire
resources of your army. To-day we have gained the greatest battle in
history and saved the most sacred cause — the liberty of the world. An
important part is due to the action undertaken and well carried through
by the American Army upon the two banks of the Meuse. For the
last two months the American Army has fought .in a most difficult region
a fierce and ceaseless battle. The complete success of this struggle is
due to the fine qualities displayed by all. I do not forget the breadth
and clearness of conception on the part of the generals, the method and
ability on the part of the staffs, and the ceaseless energy and indomitable
courage of the men; nor do I forget that, at the moment when this
vital battle was being fought by your principal forces, American divi-
sions were reinforcing the armies of their Allies on other fighting fronts
where their conduct evoked the ardent admiration of us all. General,
I thank you with all my heart for the aid you have brought us. For
all time the words 'la Meuse' may be borne with merited pride upon
the standards of the American Army. I will keep in my heart the

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PERSONAL SKETCHES OF WAR LEADERS

recollection of those great hours, often very difficult, but now crowned
with glory, during which we fought together for liberty, justice and
civilization. ' ' 10

SIR JOHN (NOW VISCOUNT) FRENCH, BRITISH FIELD-
MARSHAL, COMMANDER OF BRITISH ARMIES IN FRANCE
AND BELGIUM

There were two outstanding British figures in active service at
the beginning of the war, Lord Kitchener and Sir John French,
their reputations high, but very dissimilar in character. That of
Kitchener was as an organizer of war, that of French as a brilliant
commander in the field. Kitchener's successes had come from the
slow and patient labor of the engineer, such as a new railway
driven through an Egyptian desert, or a system of block-houses
constructed on the veldt; French's from fine daring exploits such
as those by which he relieved Kimberley and helped to cut off
Cronje's retreat at Koodoosrand Drift, east of Paardeberg, or
the more definitely strategic skill with which for three months he
held a much superior force in check at Colesberg.

From the point of view of experience in actual war it might
have been assumed that the British started with an advantage in
generalship. Only two countries had had large and recent ac-
quaintance with war — Great Britain and Russia, but Russia's
experience had served only to disclose the incapacity of her
generals. No Russian reputations had survived the Russo-Japanese
War. The only general engaged in that war who was given a
considerable command in August, 1914, was Rennenkampf, but he
disappeared after the first year of the war. The case was otherwise
with the British, many of whose officers had seen fighting in
various fields, and had achieved victory in most of them. But it
might also have' been doubted whether their experience of war had
not been a loss rather than a gain, since it had tended to make
them shape their methods in a great European conflict according
to the teaching of their experience in colonial war, to assume that
a continental war was different only in scale from the colonial wars
in which they had learned their lessons; but it was not a difference
in scale only, or even chiefly; it was a difference in character.
Here on a colossal scale was a war that had no points of similarity
with the rounding up of dervishes in a North African desert, or of
Boer farmers on a South African veldt.

"Principal Sources: Maurice Leon in The American Review of Reviews,
Clara E. Laughlin's "Foch the Man" ; The Literary Digest, The World, The
Tribune, New York; The World (London), The Tribuna (Rome), The Satur-
day Review (London) ; The Temps, Figaro and Journal des Debats, Paris;
Associated Press dispatch.

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SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

Not without significance was the fact that, while the war in
France for three months remained in a fluid state, the British
achieved some success in it; that is to say, while the operations
in 1914 bore some resemblance to others with which the British
Army was familiar, that army proved its superior skill. Great
Britain's original army, altho small, consisted of the most seasoned
soldiers in Europe, and the demands made on generalship were
demands with which that generalship was familiar. History may
find in the part which the small British Army played in the re-
treat to the Marne one of the momentous single facts of the war.
The Kaiser there flung the spear-head of his army at the British,
and the attack virtually failed, despite its mass and impetus, not
only because of the hard stuff of which the British Army was
composed, but because in that phase of the war Sir John French,
Sir Douglas Haig, and Sir Horace Smith-Dorrien showed them-
selves masters of certain kinds of craft in war. Apprenticeship
at Colesberg in South Africa where French and Haig had served
together, the one as commander, the other as chief of staff, had
prepared them for such an emergency. It would be no extravagant
claim to say that this played a real part in saving France in
a moment of supreme crisis.

Hardly less momentous was the act of French which led him
in the nick of time to transfer his army from the Aisne to
Flanders. Here was an act of consummate daring, one which
compelled him to spread out his line so thin that, as one might
say, one could see rents in it. The risk was as great as any ever
taken up by a general in the field; but it saved Calais, and much
more than Calais. Few know how narrow that margin of safety
was, how near at the end of ten days' struggle before Ypres the
power of resistance had approached the exhaustion point; how in
that moment it was the courage of French that inspired men and
officers alike to "hold on" until aid came from Foch and the
surging tide of the German attack was forced to fall back shat-
tered and prone.

French, who had led the British Army into France in August,
1914, commanded it from Mons to the Marne, and from the Marne
to the Aisne and the Yser. He retired after the battle of Loos
in December, 1915. He was sixty-two years of age when the war
began. With two exceptions, Roberts and Kitchener, he was
probably the most striking military figure in England. An event-
ful career had led him to India, Africa, and Canada, and with
brilliant results. In the Boer War he was the one British general
who was uniformly successful. His soldiers were popularly sup-
posed to have had no sleep. During the siege of Kimberley he

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was shut up in Ladysmith, with Boer lines ever circling closer when
no retreat was possible for English troops even if they had
sought it. If Kimberley, with its treasure of diamonds, was to be
saved from the Boers, its beleaguered troops had to be relieved,
and French apparently was the only man who could accomplish
that feat. The Boers were then permitting trains to run out of
Ladysmith in order to carry women and children to safe places.
In one of these, by squeezing himself under the seat of a second-
class carriage, French managed to make his escape. Once outside
Boer lines, he made his way to the Cape when he was put in
charge of about eight thousand cavalrymen. With horses dropping
out about every mile, and stopping only long enough to annihilate
any Boer force that was sent to impede their progress, these
cavalrymen swept through the Free State, riding day and night
until they reached Kimberley, which was just in time to save the
place. Two days more would have seen its surrender.

French's family intended him for the Church but when he was
fourteen he chose the Navy instead, and joined the Britannia,
but he left the Navy for the Army in 1874. He commanded the
Nineteenth Hussars from 1889 to 1893, rising steadily in rank
until, in 1907, he was made Inspector-General of the Forces, and
in 1913 Field-marshal. His once fair hair had now become gray,
but his Irish blue eyes had not lost their sparkle. Devotion to
long tramps kept down the extra pounds which his short, stocky
figure had showed a tendency to put on. It had been said that
South Africa, where French served so conspicuously, was the
grave of military reputations, a saying older than the second Boer
war, but it was that war which gave the saying the significance
that attached to it afterward. Buller's failure, altho most con-
spicuous, was only typical of what had happened in earlier stages
of the war. In later ones Roberts and Kitchener, tho more suc-
cessful, can not be said to have added to their reputations in
that field. There was, however, one exception to a depressing
rule — one reputation which had found in South Africa not a
grave but a birthplace. That was French, who went into the
Boer war unknown, and emerged from it with the most secure
reputation as a fighting general in the British Army. This was
no reflection on Kitchener, whose success was that of an organizer
of war rather than of a general in the field.

Until the Boer War brought the British Empire to a crisis,
French had languished for lack of promotion. He was judged on
the whole an unsafe man because of an apparently reckless gift
for originality, and unsound because of the departures he had
made from traditional military methods. The War Office disliked

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certain theories lie had regarding the use of cavalry — for example,
his suggestion to his men that they learn to fight 'on foot. He
was passed over at a critical moment of his career by the Duke of
Cambridge who could understand nothing about war unless Na-
poleon had endorsed it. Even his successes discredited him with
the pedants of militarism, because those successes had been gained
by means that were new and strange, and he had taken gamblers'
chances. French's spirit, however, was not that of the gambler,
but that of adventure itself. For this reason his boldness was
never a bet on a proposition, but an intuitive perception of the
chances that were in his favor. That was the impression French
conveyed to Parisian journalists who strove afterward to explain
him to the Boulevards. Anybody could see, remarked the Figaro,
that French was essentially Irish. He had the merry Irish eye, the
merry Irish laugh, even the Irish brogue. His gestures were
quick, nervous, and eloquent. Not being a large man, French did
not show his sixty-two years conspicuously. He shared the taste
of the Duke of Wellington for cold meat, and was noted for a
sweet tooth and a fondness for fiction. His favorite authors were
French. He found satisfaction in the fact that his name itself
was French, since his favorite authors, his favorite landscapes,
and his favorite viands were all French. His success was the more
enduring because it was won in a human and unpretentious way.
He had not the grim aloofness of commanders like Wellington or
Kitchener, nor did he cultivate Napoleonic arts. But he was
hardly inferior to famous commanders in conveying one impres-
sion which is essential to all successful generals — an impression
that he had in him the secret of victory. Without that an army
goes into battle robbed of its most powerful asset. French did
not convey this impression by enveloping himself in an atmosphere
of remoteness and mystery, but by showing a sane, balanced, day-
light-mind, firm in judgments, yet open to conviction; masterful,
yet without the blemish of vanity or ambition; profoundly in-
formed, yet free from the taint of the mere doctrinaire.

Cooperation among allies has always been a delicate and diffi-
cult operation. The relations of French and Joffre were there-
fore susceptible to strain and something like strain appears at
times to have occurred. French was not only a field-marshal, and
therefore at that time Joffre's superior in rank, but he had entered
the war with a reputation established on the field of battle, while
Joffre, his chief, had had no experience of war on a great scale.
Nevertheless, the English commander gave the world an example
of loyalty, not merely in deed and word, but in spirit.11

11 Compiled from articles by A. C. Gardiner in The Daily News (London),
Alexander Harvey in Current Opinion and from The World's Work.

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PERSONAL SKETCHES OF WAR LEADERS

JOSEPH SIMON GALLIENI, FRENCH GENERAL AND MILITARY
GOVERNOR OF PARIS

Gallieni's death in the midst of the war, while not unexpected,
for he had long been seriously ill, created a deep impression in
France, where he had been idolized by the people, particularly the
poor, and was regarded as the savior of Paris in those critical
days of August and September, 1914. He died at Versailles after
a painful illness that culminated in an operation for transfusion
of the blood, which gave only momentary hope. On the morrow
of the defeat of the British and French at Mons-Charleroi,
Gallieni was made Military Governor of Paris and during the
first fortnight that he held this office a turning-point occurred in
modern history. Because of the magnitude of the issues at stake,
millions of people in those two weeks suffered anguish day after
day-r-a period crowded with private and public tragedies. No one
who was then in Paris could ever forget his sensations, nor could
he forget the slight, nervous, yet dominating figure of the man
who, well knowing that the old circle of Paris forts was unequal
to the task that seemed about to fall to them, boldly announced
that he would defend the city to the last. Following was the
proclamation Gallieni issued:

ARMY OF PARIS! INHABITANTS OF PARIS!
The members of the Government of the Republic have
left Paris, to give a new impetus to the national defense.
I have received the order to defend Paris against the
invader. This order I will carry out to the end.

GALLIENI.

The last few words of that manifesto became a popular French
war cry, "Jusqu'au bout." Later he had a conversation with M.
Millerand, the Minister of War. "I have come for your orders,
Monsieur le Ministre," said he, as he entered. "If, unfortunately,
the enemy should succeed in entering Paris, what am I to do?"
To which Millerand replied: "Defend Paris quarter by quarter,
house by house." "And if it becomes necessary to retire to the
south side of the river?" asked Gallieni. "Then you will destroy
the bridges," said the minister. "You can count on me," replied
Gallieni, and the conversation ended. A witness of the scene com-
pared Gallieni's manner to that of Rostopcbin when he decided
to burn Moscow rather than yield the city intact to Napoleon.

The French Government had removed to Bordeaux, and with it

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had gone, many foreigners, the idle rich, and a good many of the
middle class. Parisians in general, however, remained with, and
were faithful to, their Governor. Never before nor since had the
city presented an air such as it did then and in ensuing months —
an air of quiet dignity, of serene and spacious self-possession.
Paris was not in a position to defend herself against a German
flood. Modern artillery, if nothing else, had rendered her circle
of forts little more than a nominal defense. As the public had
known nothing of what was being done in preparation for a
counterstroke on the Marne, the appointment of Gallieni came as
a great relief. It meant a defense to the end. Every morning
gangs of laborers left Paris in tourist motor char-a-bancs to work
in throwing up trench-defenses. Countless indications showed
that Gallieni was preparing to defend the city inch by inch. When
finally Kluck swept down to the southeast, ignoring the capital
and exposing his flank, Maunoury's army was hurried forward by
every available means of transport until, on the Ourcq, it played
a momentous part in winning the coming victory. All the organiz-
ing an'd administrative ability of Gallieni had been displayed in
that flanking operation.

The circumstances in which Gallieni did so much to save Paris
were capable of two interpretations. All military critics admitted
that he saved the city, but some declared that if he had carried
out Joffre's orders exactly he would have done more — he would
have captured Kluck. Joffre, with "clairvoyant strategy," had
foreseen that the German right would press on until it reached
the outer fortifications of Paris and then would swing to the
southeast in an attempt to encircle the city. He knew that Ger-
man lines of communication could not at once supply the neces-
sary men, nor the heavy guns, for a siege, and that in the in-
terval he could capture Kluck's army. For this eventuality, he
had caused Gallieni to prepare a picked body of fighting men —
mostly colonials from Tunis — who at the critical moment
were to deploy east of the capital in the direction of Chalons,
thereby cutting off the Germans south of the line.

The Germans advanced exactly as Joffre had foreseen. They
reached the outer fortifications on September 3, and then swung
to the southeast, enveloping La Ferte, Sezanne, and Vitry on Sep-
tember 5. Next day Joffre sent an order to division commanders,
"Prepare to advance," intending that they should stiffen their
lines and await further orders. On that day Maunoury, who
commanded the French left north of Paris, sent word to Gallieni
that his positions were in jeopardy, and Gallieni, collecting every
available motor-car in Paris, rushed all his reserve troops to

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Maunoury's relief, and a fierce attack was made on Kluck's flank
at the Ourcq. The French front in the southeast, feeling the
pressure of the Germans weakening, not only "stiffened," but
through the stroke delivered by Foch rolled the Germans back,
and the later phase of the battle, which turned their retreat into
a rout, was fought. Paris had been saved, but Kluck's army
escaped.

During the first months of the war Gallieni, as the Military
Governor of Paris, not only reconstructed the fortifications and
prepared defenses for the city from aviation attacks, but as the
city became a great clearing-house for wounded, troops, and sup-
plies, it became his duty to facilitate all things pertaining to
movements. In November, 1915, when the French Cabinet was
reconstructed Gallieni became Minister of War, succeeding M.
Millerand. Here his ability as an organizer and administrator was
again shown. In February he took over the direction of the
Department of Aviation, but shortly afterward was taken ill and
compelled to resign on March 16. After that he remained ill in
the Military Hospital at Versailles, and there he died.

Among many dramatic episodes in Gallieni's life was his de-
fense in 1871, with Commandant Lambert, of the house called
"Les Dernieres Cartouches" — the Last Cartridges — which formed
the subject of one of De Neuville's famous paintings. Gallieni
was born, so to speak, with a knapsack in his cradle. He was
a child of the Army, his father being an officer, and was sent to
a school on a military foundation. Later he passed out of St. Cyr
to a commission in the Army just as the Empire had become in-
volved in war with Germany. The date of his appointment was
the fatal July 15, 1870. He fought with General Faidherbe in
one or two engagements in which the Colonial Infantry dis-
tinguished itself. Later, Faidherbe became his chief in the Sudan,
and he grew to be remarkably like his distinguished chief in
ways of thought and action. In Senegal and on the Niger he was
known as a great colonial soldier and administrator. In Mada-
gascar he conquered by persuasion as well as by force of arms.
There was never a greater humanitarian engaged in the business
of war. Not even Joffre, whom he resembled closely in origin
and attainments, excelled him in a fine quality of heart allied to
a fine quality of head. Like the Commander-in-Chief he was a
southerner, having been born in a small town in the Pyrenees,
and so in origin resembled Joffre, Foch, Pau, Castelnau, and Petain.
Like Joffre, Gallieni was a silent man. Summers spent in the
Sudan and on the high plains of Madagascar sat lightly on him.
Behind a "pince-nez" bridging a pointed nose in a rather gaunt

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face, he had a cold and penetrating eye. One deciphered energy
in those features.

Gallieni's figure, tall and slim, was quite destitute of that
corpulence which defined Joffre. He was "elegant," as the French
say. A touch of the courtly characterized his every gesture. He
spoke the language of the salon, liked flowers and poetry, looked
discriminatingly at pictures through eye-glasses set gracefully upon
a prominent nose. His eyes were blue, but with a suggestion of
green, his voice ingratiating. His manners made one see why the
French have so just a reputation for politeness. His was cool
politeness, not curt, and yet suggested the man who was master
of himself and others. Never was he seen unkempt, bedraggled,
or ungroomed. His physical endurance was simply incompatible
with the whiteness of. his hair, the paleness of his face —
which tropical suns had failed to tan — and the delicacy of his
frame. He wore a uniform like a beau, acting, talking, and
seeming the courtier. He looked like a carpet commander such as
graced the palace of the "Sun King" on days of grand balls and
diplomatic receptions.

The similarity between the career of Kitchener and that of
Gallieni, both of whom rendered great services early in the war
and died within a few weeks of each other, was often commented
on. Each found himself an officer at an early age, struggling
along ill-defined frontiers in Africa, coming into collision with
Mohammedan despots, asserting a dubious sovereignty over un-
charted oases, ascending mysterious rivers, attacking interior
capitals against tremendous odds. Each passed in due time from
Africa to Asia, but Kitchener emerged first in a blaze of glory
when discovery of him by Lord Cromer marked him as an "arrival."
Gallieni did not come into his own until he went to Tonkin. In
the prime of life he came into collision with the Chinese, and
acquired from the Chinese that "mandarin manner" which be-
came so marked in his gestures and deportment, an ineffable ease
of bearing in trying situations which would have left him unruffled
when the house was afire.

Nothing could have been more characteristic of him than his
refusal to go to Madagascar, unless he could be an absolute despot
over the whole island. He made Madagascar a French "posses-
sion," until the name Gallieni became a household word among
the French in that island. Functionaries from the Colonial Office
went out to investigate him, only to return with enthusiasm for
his personality. Characteristic of him was the enthusiasm he
imparted to subordinates. In this respect he was a contrast to
Kitchener who, on the whole, was not popular with the men with

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whom he had to work. Gallieni was of the accessible, smiling, in-
dulgent type, ready enough to forward anyone's ambition, taking
the day's work as an adventure. He was charming to the young
and indulgent to the inexperienced. Kitchener buried himself in
a back room, gave orders by indirection, and dined in solitary
state.

• Gallieni was fond of the theater, graceful as a dancer, read
poetry, was swift and resourceful, and a dominating figure at a
council of war, partly because of his "charm," also because of
the subtlety and plausibility he showed in defending propositions.
He thought Joffre too cautious. "You ought to be in Madagascar,
General," said the stout commander to the thin one in 1915, after
a discussion of some new conception he had outlined as the War
Minister. "No, General," said Gallieni smilingly, "by this time
I ought to be in Berlin." He had a pretty little home at La
Gabelle, in a rolling French valley near Saint Raphael, where
domestic bereavement had not escaped him. Distinguished as was
his career, the financial results had been inadequate and he died
poor. With him there passed away a fine servant of France whose
career embraced three great periods of French history — the tragic
moment of defeat in 1870, the Colonial renaissance, and the World
War. His part in the war of 1870 was modest, but in the sorrows
of that tragedy he acquired some of the patriotic fire, from which
rose into action the France of 1914. He showed the faith that
was in him in the long years of service that he gave for building
up and consolidating the French Colonial Empire in Africa.12

THE GERMAN CROWN PRINCE

Perhaps the most unattractive royal figure in Europe when the
war began was the German Crown Prince, then thirty-two years
old, his best-known intellectual accomplishment being a profound
admiration for Napoleon. He believed thoroughly in rule by
divine right for himself as well as for Napoleon. He once made
a dramatic speech before the Reichstag, dissenting from a proposal
by the Chancellor that a peaceful settlement could be made with
France about Morocco. ' This at once made him a leader of the
war-seeking element and incidentally got him into friction with
his father. He was tall, slim, and impulsive, his full name
Frederick-William-Victor-August-Ernst. Queen Victoria was not
only his great-grandmother, but his godmother. He had com-
pleted a course of instruction at Ploen, and like his father and

12 Compiled from an article by Alexander Harvey in Current Opinion, The
Times (London) and from Associated Press correspondence.

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grandfather, the Emperor Frederick, had studied at Bonn. Com-
pleting university studies in 1903, he entered upon a course of
travel in many lands, and then, in order to get training for future
responsibilities, was sent to the office of the Potsdam local adminis-
tration, to the Prussian Ministry of the Interior, to the Admiralty,
and to the Foreign Office. In 1905 he married the Duchess
Cecelia of M'ecklenburg-Schwerin. The Kaiser was quoted as
having once said of him, "Well, William is no diplomat, I will
admit; but I believe the fellow has marrow in his bones. He
will turn out to be our Moltke yet."

The adage that no man is a hero to his valet was strikingly
proved in the case of Friedrich Wilhelm of the House of Hohen-
zollern. After he fled to Holland, in November, 1918, to be in-
terned there on a lonely island, as Napoleon had been on another
island, the impressions of one Felix, a former servitor of his,
were given in an interview with Edgar M. Moore, who also had
known him from having played before him in Berlin as a pro-
fessional banjoist. "If any one had formed a regiment for him
in platoons," said Mr. Moore, "he couldn't by his own commands
have done so much as march it down a perfectly straight street,
let alone halting or turning it, had he found a stone wall at the
end. He was railroaded through Bonn and the military colleges.
He hated a uniform and wouldn't have one on when he could
avoid it. What he liked best as to clothes was to lounge in
English tweeds. At a first meeting you'd have taken him — his
English was perfect, absolutely clean of accent — for an English
squire from the countryside. He was what Americans used to
call an Anglomaniac. He never dreamed of posing as a German
warrior of blood and iron; he preferred to ape the English
'Johnny,' the kind of chap who used to hang around the stage-
door of the Gaiety Theatre. When in Berlin you could always
find him at night in one of two or three of the most expensive
night-life cafes. He never ate very much for fear of losing his
slim waist and I never knew of his taking enough to make him
drunk. He had a favorite brand of whisky — an English brand,
of course.

"After you had known him a while," Mr. Moore went on with
his report of what the servitor had told him, "you would have
realized that his mind was the mind of a rather dull boy of
fourteen. I don't mean just mere silliness. I mean that this kind
of thinking was as far as he could go. His ego, his vanity, was
exactly of that boyish kind. He was like a bragging kid in the
recess-yard. Felix, the valet, told me that what he liked to read
was Nick Carter's books in German translations. You could buy

128

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SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHEONOLOGY

them in Berlin for ten pfennigs a number, at little notion shops.
Fritz always had a stack of them on his dressing-table. Felix
used to keep accounts for him. He had an income of $50,000 and
when it gave out he would borrow where he could* Banks and
money-lenders generally were shy of him, for they knew him; but
of course the shops had to give him unlimited credit, so he would
buy expensive jewelry, furs and things on credit, and then pawn
or sell them for ready cash."

When Mr., Moore and his partners were summoned to play in
private before the Crown Prince, the Prince would take part in
the performance by playing a guitar. He could play a little and
had a fair ear. "We kept down to him and covered him on his
breaks. He could play in the keys of G, D, and F, but not in
B-flat. He was always going to learn that, but he never did.
'Ragtime/ as he called me from our first meeting-, he once said
to me, 'how am I making outf to which I said if anything ever
went wrong with him in the princing business he could have a
job with our band at any time. That tickled him to death, and
whenever he afterward had us play anywhere, or came across us in
one of the cafes, he would stand up and grin and call out to
everybody, 'Ragtime says if I'm ever out of luck I can always get
a job with the band/ And then he would guffaw.

"It wasn't long before I got to know well the Prince's valet,
Felix Makadoff, whom a Russian once called 'the perfect valet/ He
was a godsend to Fritz. About half his time was spent in cover-
ing some of Fritz's tracks, or getting him out of scrapes or raising
money for him. Felix was the highest type of his class of servant.
He had served the Grand Duke Boris of Russia and other notabili-
ties, and knew the courts of Europe so well from the backstairs
side that powerful diplomats would have given their stars for
his opportunities. He spoke four languages and had had a first-
rate education. Later Fritz quarreled with Felix and turned him
off, after nearly twenty years of service without a pension and
without so much as a letter of recommendation. That was Fritz
all over. He didn't care for his position, his future responsibilities,
his father and mother, or his wife, or his children, or anybody
or anything but himself and his hobbies, principally his sports.

"According to Felix, the Kaiser used to send for him and try
to draw him out about Fritz and what he was thinking and
planning. Once Felix was shaving the Kaiser on the morning of
the day of a race-meeting, when the Crown Prince had been en-
tered to ride his own horse in a steeplechase over a dangerous
course. The horse was young and mettlesome and the Prince's
father and mother were panic-stricken that he should have taken

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PERSONAL SKETCHES OF WAR LEADERS

such a risk. The Kaiser sent for Fritz while Felix was in the
room and said, 'Your mother and I ask that you withdraw your
entry.' 'Do you?' says Fritz. 'Well, I can't, that's all; my friends
know I'm going to ride, and a fine fool I'd look, wouldn't If
'I forbid your riding/ said the Kaiser. Fritz didn't say anything,
but just knocked the ash off his English cigaret. 'As your
Emperor/ stormed the Kaiser, 'I command you to withdraw!'
As Fritz went out he said, 'Command away!' over his shoulder.
'Emperor or no Emperor, I'm going to ride that race if I lose
the crown!' And he did it, too.

"Nobody ever was able to discipline Fritz. He may have
been sent away at times to fortresses. If he was, it made no im-
pression. It wasn't that he was spoiled; it was natural; the thing
was in him. He'd have his way, he'd do as he pleased, or die.
Naturally the army men detested him. Their name for him was
'Cockney Frite/ and they made no bones of it. He wouldn't
smoke a German-made cigaret, altho you could get them as good
as any in the world. His were made for him in London. So
were his clothes and shoes, and everything else that could be made
there. Felix came to any quantity of clothes through him. The
last time I saw Felix he told me he had enough clothes saved up
to last him the rest of his life. Fritz so loved England that he used
to slip over there incognito a lot oftener than the public ever
knew. He'd take Felix along and they'd see a big prize-fight or
attend the Henley races, or some other sporting event. Then
they'd do a show and London by lamplight and come home next
day. Fritz used to say again and again that he'd love to live in
England."

FIELD-MARSHAL VON HAESLER

When the war began the Crown Prince was entrusted with
nominal command of the army which invaded France by crossing
Luxemburg and reaching France at Long-wy. It was his command
that made the long and fruitless assault on Verdun in 1916.
Only in a titular sense was he the director of these assaults. The
operations were in reality under control of Marshal von Haesler,
one of the oldest commanders in the German army, if not the
oldest, his age variously stated at from sixty-eight to seventy-nine,
reference books not agreeing as to the date of his birth. He was
old enough, however, to have been in the war against Denmark
in 1864. Haesler's rotund form and the severity of his facial ex-
pression combined to make him one of the "figures" in militarist
Germany. "The old guardian of the Moselle," Germans often

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called him. It was Haesler's business to advise the Crown Prince.
All agreed that the Crown Prince needed him and that he took
the advice offered. Gossip said Haesler was the most abstemious
war-horse in the empire. For fifty years he had risen every
morning at five to drink a glass of milk and swallow two raw
eggs. At two in the afternoon he ate a small piece of steak and
a cup of broth. Characteristic of him was an anecdote that in-
cluded Prince Henry, the Kaiser's brother. At an annual maneuver
Prince Henry had been asked to come to Haesler at eight in the
evening. When he arrived, he had to wait until nine, and then
found that he and all Haesler's guests were to sit down to a glass of
water and an apple. "This," said the old man, "is set before you
as a practical lesson in war conditions, when absolute necessities
only can be obtained and appetites, like baggage, must be re-
stricted." "His Highness alone," added the General, "having a
special claim, may eat two apples and drink two glasses of
water."

In his capacity of inspector, Haesler for years was the terror
of German soldiers. If he was to inspect a garrison at some
place, such as Morhange, he would board a train that did not
stop there, and then, just before getting to Morhange, would have
the train halted under an emergency signal he had ordered. Fined
as he would be for having stopt a train, he would pay the con-
ductor the regular amount of a hundred marks and then rush off
to the barracks. On returning to Berlin he would insist on re-
payment of his hundred marks, turning the administration upside
down until he got the money. Haesler was known to think a long
time before spending a mark. In the war he sometimes wore a
suit of clothes that he had bought thirty years before and a hat
that his father wore in another century. Candor was his least
liked trait and Emperor William had as much reason as any one to be
aware of it.

Soldiers, according to Haesler, should eat very little. Eating he
regarded as a bad habit. "March a lot, eat a little, and shoot all
the time," was his motto. He made his own corps a model of
efficiency, knowing none of the caste distinctions common among
Prussians, and yet maintaining an admirable discipline. His
personal ascendancy was absolute, a circumstance the more re-
markable because of deformity and invalidism. Once in the saddle
he seemed a part of the horse. He was indulgent to men in the
ranks, but severe with his staff. Thus he reversed .an order
usual among Prussian military magnates, being considerate to
inferiors, grim to equals, and merciless to superiors, not excepting
the Emperor himself, whose "conceptions" he sometimes openly

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PERSONAL SKETCHES OF WAR LEADERS

laughed at in conference with the general staff. Not many years
before the war, he once ordered maneuvers near the town of
Siereck, where many lines of trenches had been dug, and a blue
corps was on the defensive theoretically for a whole week living
on dry bread. On going his rounds, Haesler saw an improvised
table, made from a plank and four sticks, around which several
officers sat on boxes, eating sausage. "Do you gentlemen think
you are in a lady's boudoir?" roared Haesler, as he forced his
horse against and over the table. "The Sixteenth Army Corps is
not a school of domestic manners," he added; "it is an institution
that teaches trench life." Not daring to offer an apology, the
offending officers, when the old man disappeared over the brow of
a hill, were said to have vented their feelings in a single untranslat-
able word: Heiligkreuzkanonenbombengranathageldonnerwetter-
elementnocheinmal I"

Between this old man and the one-time heir to the imperial
throne there long existed warm affection. Alone among marshals,
Haesler took seriously the conception attributed to the Crown
Prince that Verdun was the true German objective in 1914.
Stories were current of the fury with which he had received the
decision of the General Staff in August, 1914, to make the rush
toward Paris through Belgium. The road to Paris, he believed, lay
through Verdun. On the basis of a common purpose before
Verdun he and the young Prince were in firm alliance. The long
and futile drive of 1916 was believed to be an expression of the
very soul of Haesler. The grimness of the fray, its implacable
continuity, its steady hail of projectiles, its stern unyielding ad-
vance, its disdain of all cost as well as the enthusiasm of the
attack — these manifested the mood of Haesler in war. In great
contrast as a man to the Crown Prince who was gentle, smiling,
boyish, and gay, Haesler's devotion to the Prince illustrated the
familiar attraction of opposites. Haesler never read a book, ex-
cept the manual, and his favorite relaxation was the society of
horses.13

SIR DOUGLAS HAIG, BRITISH FIELD-MARSHAL AND COMMANDER
OF BRITISH ARMIES IN FRANCE AND BELGIUM ; Now AN EARL

For Sir Douglas Haig the utmost that could have been claimed
in 1915 was that, of the men in the running for Field-Marshal
French's place when French retired, he alone had survived among
British generals as a thinkable substitute. Sir Ian Hamilton's

"Adapted from an article by Alexander Harvey in Current Opinion;
based on others in the Gaulois, Matin and Figaro (Paris), and The Sun and
The Literary Digest (New York).

v. x— 10 • 133

SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

reputation had been eclipsed by the tragic episode of the Dar-
danelles. Sir Horace Smith-Dorrien, whose handling of the Second
Army Corps in the retreat to the Marne was a brilliant feature
of that exploit, had been removed to a home command and then
sent to German East Africa as the result of a collision of tempera-
ment, as well as of opinion, with his staff. Sir William Robertson,
Chief of the General Staff, was felt to be more adapted to the
work of initiating strategy than for executive command in the
field. Thus no one really challenged the claim of Haig. He had
been regarded as something of a favorite of fortune since his
career had been one of unusual advancement. Exceptionally late
in entering the army — he had not only taken a public-school
course, but had gone to Oxford — it was not until 1835 that he
joined the Seventh Hussars, and even then his career as a soldier
was threatened by the refusal of the medical board to admit him
to the Staff College on the ground that he was color-blind, a de-
cision overruled by the Duke of Cambridge, then commander-in-
chief.

Haig first saw active service in the Nile Expedition in which
he was present at the battles of Atbara and Khartoum. In the
South African War he was French's right-hand man, serving as
chief of staff in operations about Colesberg which prepared the
way for Lord Roberts's advance. He continued his .association
with French in the work of the cavalry division when that ad-
vance began, and became ultimately deputy-assistant adjutant-
general. After the South African War he went to the War
Office as director of military training, was then appointed chief
of the general staff in India, and in 1911, while still under fifty,
was called to take the coveted Aldershot command. There was an
undercurrent of complaint in the service at his rapid progress.
Suggestions were not wanting that court influences had been at
work in his favor, suggestions which had root in the fact that he
had married the Hon. Dorothy Vivian, who had been maid of
honor to Queen Alexandra. Personal contact with him, however,
and a study of his career disabused most candid minds of the idea
that Haig's progress had been a matter of mere social good
fortune.14

In the World War Haig was active from the outset, engaged in
what was, or might become, intensive fighting, and often of the
most desperate character. Few soldiers in history had been ex-
posed to greater strain than he endured and triumphed over dur-
ing four years and three months of war. About all that had been
known of him, however, outside France, was that his name had

14 A. G. Gardiner in The Century Magazine.

134

WESTERN NEWSPAPER UNION.

FIELD-MARSHAL SIR DOUGLAS HAIG

At home with his family at Eastcott. Surrey, England, after the war closed.
Haig, in August, 1919, was made an Earl

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SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

figured a good deal in headlines. "D. Haig" was the simple way
in which he signed his name. "We have all passed through many
dark days," he said in an address to his troops after the successful
and decisive offensive of October 8, 1918. "Please God these never
will return." One of those dark days was April 12, 1918, when
the British army was fighting for its life in the Ypres sector,
but always indomitably. That was the occasion when Haig issued
his famous "back to the wall" order, in which he also said, with
a simplicity having something of the sublime in it:

"Many among us now are tired. To those I would say that
victory will belong to the side which holds out the longest. The
French Army is moving rapidly and in great force to our support.
There is no other course open to us but to fight it out. Every
position must be held to the last man. There must be no re-
tirement."

With Sir Horace Smith-Dorrien, his fellow corps commander, Haig'
more than once saved the British Army during its retreat from
Mons. Major Ernest W. Hamilton, historian of that retreat, has
said that "one hundred Victoria Crosses were earned for every
one that was given." One-third of Britain's little army of that
time now sleep their long sleep in France. Smith-Dorrien, whose
health broke down under the strain, and Haig, the man of iron,
vied with each other in fighting rear-guard actions until flesh and
blood could endure no more. The escape of remnants of certain
British brigades bordered on the miraculous. "We shall have to
hold on here for a while if we all die for it," said Haig on one
desperate occasion. The first battle of Ypres, in 1914, was as
touch-and-go a business as anything experienced in the retreat
from Mons. The Seventh Division, wThich was 12,000 strong when
it left England, lost 336 officers out of 400, and 9,664 men. On
the darkest day, when all seemed lost, down the Menin road
galloped Haig and his small escort of the Seventeenth Lancers,
shells falling thick about them. He had gone for no other reason
than to encourage his faltering troops, a general's place being
behind the line. On the battle of the Somme, in 1916, which he
fought with tried as well as with green troops, Haig's fame will
perhaps rest most securely. No fiercer long battle was ever fought.
On the Somme the enemy had to be pried out of one Gibraltar after
another; driven from one Plevna after another, but the British,
under Haig, moved relentlessly forward; their losses some 500,000,
German losses much greater. If Haig ever showed a trace of the
tremendous strain, nobody made mention of the fact.

This Scottish gentleman, son of John Haig of Ramornie, in
Fifeshire, who in this war at one time commanded 2,000,000

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British and Colonial troops, was in the prime of life at fifty-
seven, tall, lithe, well knit, a consummate horseman, fair of com-
plexion, blue of eye, in manner gracious, reserved, and kindly.
"I have rarely seen a masculine face so handsome and yet so
strong," said one who tried to interview him. He shunned pub-
licity. He was a knight of the prized Order of the Thistle.
Modest and indifferent to fame, Haig was among the great com-
manders whom the war brought to the front. The impression he
created in an interview was unlike the traditional conception of
the man of war, and yet his bearing, gallant and soldierly, con-
veyed an impression of a man master of himself and of his task.

He was young-looking even for his years, a suggestion due, not
only to rapid movements made by a stalwart frame, but more
definitely to his smooth, untroubled face, which in profile slanted
forward from a retreating brow to the nose and a big, strong
chin. Seen in front, the face was square and massive, the mouth
broad and decisive, the blue-gray eyes calm and direct. In his
speech and manner there was no trace of the "rough-hewn" soldier.
He suggested Oxford more than the barrack-room. One felt that
he would be charming and reassuring at the bedside as a visiting
rector or physician. Mingled gravity and gentleness were the
note of his bearing and his conversation. One could not resist the
frankness and courtesy seen in his direct but kindly glance. He
won confidence by sincerity and candor, was tolerant of a con-
trary opinion, listened with respect to anything that deserved re-
spect. In the midst of his staff, his mastery was obvious without
being demonstrative. He had the art of the judge who encouraged
counsel to enlighten him, but reserves right of judgment.

In a report on the retreat from Mons, French spoke of "the
skilful manner in which Haig extricated his corps from an ex-
ceptionally difficult position in the darkness of the night," while at
the Aisne "the action of the First Corps under the direction and
command of Haig was of so skilful, bold, and decisive a character,
that he gained positions which alone* enabled me to maintain my
position for more than three weeks of very severe fighting on the
north bank of the river." In reporting on the .first battle of
Ypres, French gave the chief honors to Haig: "Throughout this
trying' period, aided by his divisional commanders and his brigade
commanders," he "held the line with marvelous tenacity and un-
daunted courage." "Words fail me," added French, "to express
the admiration I feel for their conduct, or my sense of the in-
calculable service they have rendered." When the first forward
movement was attempted at Neuve Chappelle, and the First Army
Corps went southward for the task, to Haig was committed the

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executive command in the field. It was an ill-fated venture, despite
an apparent success, but its failure was attributed mainly to an
insufficiency of artillery preparation. French declared that in this
engagement "the energy and vigor with which Haig handled his
command showed him to be a leader of great ability and power."

Haig's record revealed many of the qualities of great general-
ship, caution in preparing his stroke, ingenuity in extricating
himself from difficulties, constancy of mind, a temperament of
confidence, power of commanding the affections, as well as the
obedience, of subordinates, resolution and impetus in action.
There was no other personality in the British General Staff for
whom possession of so many essentials of command could have
been claimed. No one knew more about the hairbreadth escapes
the first seven British divisions had in the retreat to the Marne,
nor was any one better qualified to tell the story of the German
failure to destroy the British contingents in the critical battle
around Ypres in the autumn of 1914. Haig said in one of his
reports that "the margin with which the German onrush of 1914
was stemmed was so narrow, and the subsequent struggle was so
severe that the word 'miraculous' is hardly too strong a term to
describe the recovery and ultimate victory of the Allies." In this
statement he had in mind the wonderful survival of remnants of
the British army and its slender reinforcements when the Kaiser
made his drive for the sea after the Marne. Foch and Haig must
often have talked about the German failure and wondered why
the Kaiser, who went to Roulers to witness a debacle of the Allies,
could have come so close to success and then missed it. At Ypres
a division under Rawlinson was reduced to about 400 officers and
men. From Mons to the stand at Ypres, the British army lost
one-third of its complement in killed.

No soldier of recent times had paid more attention to certain
aspects of our Civil War. Haig thought the Confederate "Jeb"
Stuart the supreme cavalry genius of the nineteenth century.
When commanding at Aldershot he imprest the lesson of Stuart's
career upon his . own staff. His personality had something in
common with that of "Stonewall" Jackson. Like the Confederate
leader, he had a marked strain of evangelical piety, a serious style
of speech and a touch of the pale student. He was somber like
Jackson, rather than dashing in the fashion of Stuart. Haig
made apt citations from the Scriptures. His intellect was Scotch
and metaphysical, his favorite poet Burns.

Looking somewhat taller than he was, owing to the slimness of
his build, Haig suggested the military hero of whom young ladies
love to read. He was graceful in every movement, yet masculine

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in the strength stamped upon him by a life of activity. His com-
plexion was swarthy, tanned by African and Indian suns, yet the
bluish gray in large, limpid eyes, that flashed under gray brows,
betrayed his northern extraction. His hair was grizzled, like his
mustache, but he had an oddly youthful appearance and features
finely chiseled. The salient feature was a strong and shapely
chin. A lean, brown hand clasped that chin in moments of reflec-
tion. His voice, in which few words were spoken, was low, mocfu-
lated to the atmosphere of the drawing-room, yet commanding and
decisive. He moved quickly, but his gestures were few. His
figure was clean-cut, his cheek smooth and darkened by years of
close shaving, his bearing erect and his walk straight and rapid.

Haig's career was typical of younger sons in a wealthy and
aristocratic British family. English and Scotch were blended in
him. His early ambitions were literary and his career at Oxford
was distinguished from that point of view; but a decline in the
family fortunes made a definite career important. Skill as a
rider indicated cavalry as his goal. For a long time he was
thrown constantly with Kitchener, discussing plans of campaign
in Egypt, sharing with him the hardships of the drive through
the desert when he would take the liberty now and then of making
suggestions, always palatable to Kitchener. The relation of the
two continued delightful. The fact that Haig not only got on
with so cold and distant a man as the Si-rdar, but thawed him
into cordiality, was cited as proof of his charm. Kitchener suc-
cumbed to it and saw that the efficient Scot was mentioned in dis-
patches and rewarded with promotion.

Haig did not swear, or gamble, or dance all night at revels, or
affect the dress uniform of his rank. His asceticism was under-
stood and recognized. He had the Presbyterian temperament.
His quartermaster one day asked him during the Colesberg opera-
tions if, in a brush with the Boers, he had lost anything. "Yes,"
confest Haig solemnly, "my Bible!" Not once did his countenance
relax as he gazed at the grinning faces around him. He attended
Presbyterian services when they were held at the front, and in
a certain passion for theology suggested Gladstone. In Berlin he
profoundly imprest members of the German Staff when he studied
there several years before the war. In Paris his name was a
familiar one long before the war. He had followed French
maneuvers in the Champagne and elsewhere in the capacity of
British military attache.

Of all the Allied commanders Haig at the end of the war was
the oldest in point of service as a chief and was perhaps the
youngest in years. He came to supreme command when the new

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British Army had just begun to reach France, and the real
organization for victory was still to be made. In the great Somme
campaign of 1916 the British Army, under his direction, learned
its business in war, a costly lesson, and in learning which mis-
takes were made, but at the end of that campaign the British
Army believed itself superior to the German; really felt that it
had "learned its job." Next year at Arras a real achievement was
won for Vimy Ridge was a genuine military triumph. The blow
he dealt in Flanders in the autumn of 1917, altho it started with a
great success at Messines, began too late for final success. Men
talked of it as they had talked about Grant's campaign from the
Rapidan to Cold Harbor. It was a terribly costly campaign that
had not brought immediate success, and then within a few months
Russia collapsed.

Next spring LudendorfFs great drive went west into Picardy,
and Haig was driven back. Foch assumed command of all the
Allied armies, and some men said Haig should go home, but he
was permitted to stay, and after that came, on August 8, a
British victory which sent the Germans far back from Amiens, and
from which Ludendorff dated a German belief — even the Kaiser's
belief — that the war could no longer be won by Germany. Fol-
lowing the success of August 8, came the blow under Home, which
broke a portion of the Hindenburg line, and then Haig's success
of October 8 — one of the great achievements of the war — which
definitely smashed the Hindenburg line and began the last phase
of the war, with the rapid collapse of German resistance. The
achievement of the British Army, when it forced its way from
the outskirts of Amiens to Mons, between August 8 and Novem-
ber 11, 1918, was one of the finest things in military history.
One could not yet know how much Foch did, or how -much . Haig
did, but under Foch's supreme command the British Army, rally-
Ing from terrific losses and heavy defeat in March and April,
smashed its way forward over innumerable obstacles. It was clear
that if Haig had not loyally cooperated with Foch, victory would
not have been possible. However brilliant the strategy of Foch,
if it had not been intelligently and efficiently interpreted by Haig,
no such success could have followed.

Therefore, if the great glory was to Foch, as in our Civil War
it was to Grant, Haig deserved the praise which the North gave
to Sherman, and which France gave to Petain. That the British
might yet rank Haig with Wellington and Marlborough seemed not
unlikely. By comparison Haig's task was gigantic; he had taken
a huge British volunteer army when it was little more than a
mob and fashioned out of it an effective instrument; he suffered

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severe defeats and severer disappointments, but ultimately he led
that army to complete victory. His problems were different and
more difficult than those of Joffre or Petain, who had armies
already at their hands, organized for contemporary continental
warfare and provided with staffs trained in the tasks set for them.
Two-thirds of Haig's work was constructive work and it had to
be done in the heat of battle and under the stress of great cam-
paigns. But in the face of all obstacles he brought a victorious
British army back to Mons on November 11. His achievement
promised to grow rather than diminish with the passing of time.15

FIELD-MARSHAL PAUL VON HINDENBURG, CHIEF OF STAFF
OF THE GERMAN ARMIES

When on the night of August 29, 1914, it was announced that
German troops under the commanding general von Hindenburg, after
three days of fighting,, had defeated the Russian Narew army, con-
sisting of five army corps and three cavalry divisions, near Tan-
nenberg in East Prussia, and was pursuing the Russians across
the frontier, many persons, including Germans, were asking who
Hindenburg was, only to learn that he had formerly been a com-
manding general, but had been retired and until now had been
living a quiet life in Hanover. It was no more true of Byron
than of Hindenburg that he "awoke one morning and found him-
self famous." He had long been known favorably in higher army
circles, and among civilians in towns where he had held appoint-
ments he was remembered as an agreeable man, with a reputation
for military capacity, but the great masses throughout Germany
still asked: Who is Hindenburg ? Hindenburg himself explained
his sudden call to army service in the following statement:

"A few weeks ago I was living on my pension at Hanover. Of
course, I tendered my service immediately after the war broke out, but
since then I had heard nothing for three weeks. The waiting seemed
endless, and I had given up all hope of being reinstated, when suddenly
came a dispatch informing me that His Majesty had given me command
of the Eastern Army. I had time only to get together the most neces-
sary articles of clothing and have my old uniform put in condition for
service. ' ' '

Late that night — it was August 22 — an extra train bore Hin-
denburg out of Hanover, and on the following afternoon he ar-

15 Compiled from articles by A. G. Gardiner in The Century Magazine, by
Alexander Harvey in Current Opinion, and in The Tribune (New York) and
The Morning Post (London).

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SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

rived at the Russian front. He already knew intimately the
military features of the East Prussian country, and was not long*
in fixing upon a plan of battle; in fact, only three days after he
arrived he was engaged in battle. Germans called this battle
Tannenberg, not because the village of that name had figured in
any marked way in the fighting, for it was miles away from the
scene of it. The name was chosen for the sentimental reason that
Tannenberg was the name of another famous battle in German
annals, but fought five hundred years before and of unhappy
memory, because at Tannenberg the old Teutonic Knights had been
crushingly defeated by the Poles.

Hindenburg's victory took on unheard-of proportions. Never
had so many prisoners been taken in an open engagement; the
stroke eclipsed in one sense Sedan, for the battleground was four-
fold greater. According to first reports, the prisoners numbered
30,000, but the number rose steadily for several days and finally
exceeded 90,000. A few days later Hindenburg defeated and
drove across the frontier another Russian army and took 30,000
prisoners more; at least so said Berlin. Hindenburg was quoted
as saying that 80,000 Russians had been killed or drowned in
the Masurian Lakes. In any previous war these losses — had the
figures been correct — would have meant irreparable defeat for the
country that suffered them, a complete breakdown of its military
position. That they did not mean this in the present case was
attributed not only to German exaggeration, but to the un-
paralleled numbers that Russia had brought into the field, to the
vastness of the theater of war, and to the difficulty Germany would
have in moving troops further east in midwinter.

Hindenburg's full name was Paul Ludwig Hand, Anton von
Beneckendorff und von Hindenburg, that is, he was twice en-
nobled. The Beneekendorffs, while belonging to the lower German
aristocracy, were among the most ancient of Prussian families.
His name Hindenburg was of recent origin. His great-grandfather
was a Beneckendorff, who in order to comply with the wish of a
great-uncle had obtained in 1799 the legal right to add Hinden-
burg to his own name. The great uncle, who was the last of the
Hindenburgs, had bequeathed his landed estates to his young kins-
man, with a wish that he add the Hindenburg name to his own.
In the lapse of time the Hindenburg half became much better
known than the Beneckendorff half, until the field-marshal got the
habit of signing himself simply "Von Hindenburg."

After a few years in a private school Hindenburg was sent to
a cadet school at Wahlstatt, in Silesia, where Bliicher had his
headquarters during the battle of Katzbach. His windows at the

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PERSONAL SKETCHES OF WAR LEADERS

school looked out over the field of that battle. When the Danish
war broke out in 1864, he was a pupil at a military school in
Berlin, but not quite old enough to go into the war. His turn
did not come until two years later, with the outbreak of war with
Austria, when he was eighteen and a half years old. At the
battle of Koniggratz (Sadowa), a bullet penetrated the eagle of
his helmet, grazing his head and leaving him prostrate. That
helmet was kept ever afterward and adorned the walls of his work-
room in Hanover, having been preserved by his parents as a
sacred relic, with an appropriate Bible verse attached to the eagle.
In the Franco-Prussian war, in the fighting about Metz, he was in
the storming of St. Privat, where two German battalions were
reduced to one-fifth* of their strength, and nearly three-fourths of
the officers were killed. He also fought at Sedan and was before
Paris during the siege.

In the forty years that followed, Hindenburg pursued with
diligence his military education, rising from one post to another
and broadening his grasp of problems. In 1881-83 he was at
Konigsberg as staff-officer to a division, and there began his studies
of the Masurian Lake region. Appointments took him to widely
separated parts of the empire, and carried him through the most
varied range of military work. Besides being a staff-officer, he
rose through various grades until he reached the rank of com-
manding general in 1903 — the summit of a German general's
hopes in times of peace. In 1911, when sixty-four years old,
but still in strength and vigor, he resigned. Not the least im-
portant of his appointments had come in 1886, when he was assigned
to a post on the General Staff and made a professor in the
War Academy where he lectured for seven years on applied
tactics, and gave much attention to the Masurian Lake region where
he had worked out a theoretical battle.

Whenever one got a view of Hindenburg's inner life during
his active military career, it was that of a man absorbed in his
profession, taking a serious view of all work, and ever occupied
with the possible tasks that the future might bring. "When we
had free evenings at the Hindenburg house," said a woman friend
of the family, who had seen much of him when he was in com-
mand of a regiment in a country town, "he would often sit ponder-
ing over maps spread out before him on a table, marking move-
ments of troops, directing armies, fighting imaginary battles."
He often said it was the dream of his life to lead an army corps
against an enemy. When his only son was an infant, he once
tossed him up and said: "Boy, I am already rejoicing at the
thought of seeing you with me around the bivouac fires in a war

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SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

with Russia." It was his habit ever to keep this boy's mind oc-
cupied with military thoughts, to accustom him to military lan-
guage. In taking walks across country with his children he
would keep the boy playing at soldier, addressing him as "Herr
Lieutenant/' and ordering him to carry out evolutions with
imaginary troops.

It was Hindenburg's aim in war to keep ever on the offensive.
Grant himself did not strike an enemy with greater vehemence
and persistence. Like Grant again, he had the habit of shifting
the blow to another point once he became convinced that the
obstacles in his immediate front were too great for him. But Hin-
denburg was favored by railways as Grant was not. Never be-
fore had railways played so important a part in war. He prob-
ably employed them more extensively and with better effect than
any other commander had ever done. Railways enabled him
effectively to follow Napoleon's strategy of massing superior
forces at given points and bursting suddenly upon an unsuspecting
enemy. In planning battles he showed a marked preference for
flanking movements and boldness and skill in carrying them out.
He took care not to be outflanked himself while trying to reach
around an enemy's wings. By an unrelenting pursuit he sought
to win the greatest possible advantage. He was not satisfied with
merely defeating the enemy, but strove to crush him completely.

In early life Hindenburg painted so well in water-colors, as to
give promise of a career as an artist. On the walls of his little
home at Hanover hung reproductions of the Sistine Madonna and
an antique head of Juno, as foils to portraits of the old Emperor
William, Frederick III as Crown Prince, Bismarck, Moltke, and
the last Emperor. Other pictures — paintings, copperplate-engrav-
ings, lithographs — gave a flavor of olden times to the small rooms.
The furniture was of antique patterns, and not a few heirlooms
spoke of his love for his family. He was a religious man. Not
Cromwell or Stonewall Jackson was more firmly convinced of
being an instrument in the hands of God. The optimistic
fatalism begotten of this faith — just as with those two great
commanders — was an important element in his military success.
His creed was of a more orthodox type than that which was gen-
erally prevalent in Germany; his religion of the oldest, simplest
kind. When great crowds gathered to give him an ovation after
Tannenberg, he merely halted his automobile, rose from his seat,
pointed upward, and said, "Thank Him up there!" and rode
away.

Hindenburg made few demands upon the many servants placed
at his disposal at headquarters; his meals were of almost puri-

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PERSONAL SKETCHES OF WAR LEADERS

tanical simplicity, consisting nearly always of one meat course
cooked with vegetables, and ending with a cheap grade of cheese.
Even when princely personages were guests at headquarters, his
only indulgence was a glass of champagne. His office door was
marked only with the word "Chief," written with chalk. Hin-
denburg was six feet tall, with a commanding figure, and carried
himself with ease and dignity. He had a deep chest, broad
shoulders, and a short and thick neck. The chin and lower jaws
were massive, giving the face a squarish appearance. The mouth,
with the corners of the lips drawn sharply down, exprest firm-
ness, the effect heightened by the mustache, which was allowed to
grow out on the cheeks beyond the corners of the lips. His blue
eyes were deep-set, frank and penetrating, and had a tendency to
close when he was talking or smiling. His forehead was fairly
high and somewhat flat, still surmounted by a good shock of
hair, which was nearly white and kept close-cropped. Standing
erect it completed an expression of energy and strength given by
his countenance. His voice was a deep, rich bass. Among his
comrades he was regarded as a companionable man when off duty,
but he never learned to play cards. His sister found it im-
possible even to teach him "sixty-six," the simplest of German
games. Avoiding cards, he also never gambled, thus escaping
temptations that have proved the undoing of many a young Ger-
man officer. For hunting he had a great liking. The walls of
his cottage at Hanover were decorated with the antlers of stags
shot by his rifle.

The title of "Old Man of the Swamp" became Hindenburg's as
long ago as when he was an instructor in the War Academy in
Berlin, and was bestowed upon him by common consent of brother
officers, who had suffered from his apparently mad enthusiasm
for the Masurian swamp section. He knew every square inch of
territory from Konigsberg to Tannenberg, and he fought in-
numerable battles on paper-maps of that region before it became
his duty to fight his first great battle in the swamps themselves.
The impression he gave was one of bigness, both mental and
physical. Simply drest in field-gray, wearing only the order Pour
le Merite, bestowed upon him by the Emperor for the Russian
drive of 1914, he had the directness and simplicity of great men. He
was wholly without ostentation, and easier to engage in conversa-
tion than many a younger officer. He ate simply and worked
hard. Dinner at headquarters consisted of soup and one course,
around an undecorated table with ten officers.

In sham engagements he had fought again and again the battle
of the Masurian Lakes when he would insist upon cannon being

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SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

pulled through the muddiest parts of the district and when they
became mired fast always seemed pleased. After several days he
would bring his exhausted soldiers, horses and muddy guns back to
Konigsberg where officers would tell each other how "mad" the
old man was. Then came the war, when the Russians got into
East Prussia so much sooner than the German commanders ever
supposed they could, and the small army the Germans had there
was almost annihilated. Then the Emperor went to Moltke and
demanded another general. Moltke named one man after another
and at each name the Emperor shook his head. "Is there any one
else you can recommend?" he asked. "Von Hindenburg," replied
Moltke. "He is not to be thought of," declared the Emperor.
While the Emperor was turning the problem over in his mind,
and delay could continue no longer, he finally sent a message to
Moltke, "Appoint von Hindenburg."

His early successes gained for him among army men the reputa-
tion of being their foremost military strategist. Before the war
he had never appeared in the War Office without a portfolio of
maps of the lake region. In the Reichstag it was once proposed
that the lakes be filled up and the reclaimed ground given over
to farming. When Hindenburg heard of the proposition, he
caught the first train for Berlin and with his bundle of maps,
hastened to the Kaiser, to whom he talked strategy and defense
at the lake and for a half hour until the Kaiser, a little wearied,
stopt him. "Keep your lakes!" said he. "I promise you they
shall not be filled in."

He became in the war the most popular man in Germany. Several
degrees were conferred on him by the University of Konigsberg —
a degree of divinity, because he had taught the youth of East
Prussia that "the God of Battle still lived"; a degree of philosophy,
because he had "brilliantly demonstrated to Konigsberg Kant's
thesis of the categorical imperative"; a degree of law, because of
"prompt body execution upon the defaulting Russians"; and a
degree of medicine, because of "the successful amputation of the
Cossack canker from the vital organs of the German nation." Of
a huge wooden statue of him in Berlin and the countless number
of nails driven into it as a privilege paid for, all the world has
heard.16

16 Principal Sources: An article by William C. Dreher in The Atlantic
Monthly, one by Edward Lylle Fox in tbe Wildman Syndicate and one in
The Times (New York).

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PERSONAL SKETCHES OF WAR LEADERS

SIR SAM HUGHES, CANADIAN LIEUTENANT-GENERAL

Born in Darlington County, Durham, Ontario, January 8, 1853,
Sam Hughes was the son of John Hughes of Tyrone, Ireland, and
Caroline Laughlin, of Scotch-Irish-Huguenot descent. He was
•educated in the Toronto Model and Normal Schools and Toronto
University. He started life as an instructor, being lecturer in
the English language, literature, and history in the . Collegiate In-
stitution, Toronto, a post which he held until 1885. Then he
entered into journalism, editing The Lindsay Warder until 1897.
In 1891 the post of Deputy Minister of Militia was offered to
him but declined.

As Lieutenant-Commander of the Forty-fifth Canadian Battalion,
he participated in the Queen's Jubilee celebration in 1897, and
had long urged upon the Canadian military authorities the de-
sirability of offering military assistance to the British Empire in
imperial wars. At the outbreak of the Egyptian and Sudanese
risings, the Afghan Frontier War, and the South African War,
he personally offered to raise Canadian corps to aid the Mother-
land.

General Hughes served in the South African War, 1899 to
1900, being mentioned in the dispatches several times. He par-
ticipated in the European war in France, 1914 to 1915, having
raised Canadian contingents in support of the cause of the Allies,
1914-1916. Sir Wilfred Laurier, characterizing General Hughes,
said of him: "He has done more in his day and generation for
the upbuilding of the militia in Canada and the empire than any
other living man." 17

BARON FISHER, BRITISH FIRST SEA LORD

The recall of John Arbuthnot Fisher — Lord Fisher — from re-
tirement late in 1914, to take the place of Prince Louis of Batten-
berg as First Sea Lord of the British Admiralty, caused a sigh
of relief from the decks of British fleets, wherever they might be.
Officers and men who personally disliked Fisher, as a hard-hearted,
harder-tongued disciplinarian, had every confidence in his pro-
fessional skill and far-sighted strategy. They knew, far better
than politicians could hope to know, that it was to him Great
Britain owed the remarkable readiness for action which her Navy
•displayed when grim-visaged war burst into the midst of that

17 Compiled from ''Canadian Men and Women of the Time" and "Who's
-Who, 1918-1919" (London).

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SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

peaceful early summer of 1914. In the Navy Fisher was known
simply as "Jackie," with hatred or admiration exprest in the tone
of voice employed in enunciating the word. He had been the
First Sea Lord before — in fact, for seven years from 1904 to 1910;
before that he was Second Sea Lord for two years, and before
that had served' at the Admiralty as Director of Naval Ordnance,
as Controller of the Navy, and as a Lord of the Admiralty.

As Sir John Fisher he had been one of the principal naval
advisers of three sovereigns of England — George, Edward, and
Victoria. To him credit was largely due for the eradication of
an "old fogyism" which had been sapping the heart out of Britain's
sea-service in the latter part of the nineteenth century. One of
his most conspicuous successes was in stopping the issue of board-
ing-pikes to dreadnoughts. He was no respecter 'of persons, hav-
ing risen to the rank of Naval Commander-in-Chief and Admiral
of the Fleet by dint of sheer personal capacity, hard work, and
all-round ability.

Sir John was seventy-three years old when the war began —
another of the old men who became active in the World War —
but he was in splendid health and capable of more work than
many men his junior. He had entered the Navy as a lad of
thirteen, which was in time to have seen service in the Crimean
War. In 1860 he was made a lieutenant, and served in the
Chinese expedition, participating in the attack on the Canton and
Peiho forts. At Alexandria, as captain of the Inflexible, he took
a prominent part in the bombardment. After the Egyptians were
driven from the fortifications, he was made commander of a police
force of bluejackets organized to bring order out of anarchy, and
gave in that capacity an illustration of ruthless severity. With
an iron hand he supprest looting. He shot culprits without fear
or favor. Men and officers of the fleet, caught red-handed, even
his own friends, were placed under arrest and punished. His
great reputation in the Navy rested more on administrative ability
than accomplishments at sea, altho it would be unfair to emphasize
this to the point of seeming to indicate that he was not a blue-
water sailor. He was an able naval strategist, and had done
splendid work on fleet commands. But the great reforms he
achieved, and the accomplishments which won him a peerage and
the confidence of his countrymen, were gained in bureaus of the
Admiralty.

From 1899 to 1902 Lord Fisher, then Commander-in-Chief of
the Mediterranean fleet, conducted a campaign intended to edu-
cate bigwigs at the Admiralty as to the real needs of a modern
fleet. He threw a bomb into the midst of their peaceful con-

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claves by demanding one day to know what new ships, and how
many men, could be spared in the event of war developing with
certain European powers. Such a contingency would be met when
it arrived, said their Lordships of the Admiralty, but this did not
satisfy Fisher, who, in one sense with subtlety, in another with
brutality — which was his distinguishing characteristic, and per-
haps the real reason for his remarkable success in accomplishing
what he set out to do — drew to their attention certain existing con-
ditions which, to say the least, as he presented them, were sinister.
Fisher scared their Lordships with the statements he made. They
took his comments so much to heart that they went out to Malta
to make personal inspection of the things he complained of, and
returned to England convinced that Fisher knew what he was
talking about. At the Admiralty House in Valetta he had talked to
them bluffly, frankly, instructively1.

It was not until 1903, when he made a speech at a dinner of
the Royal Academy, that he became really known to the British
public. Few before then had any knowledge of his existence, At
this dinner St. John Brodrick, Secretary of State for War, pre-
ceded Fisher as a speaker. Fisher had come in his capacity as
Second War Lord, to answer to a toast "To the Navy !" Brodrick,
after speaking somewhat boastfully of the army, and of certain
reorganizations he had affected, casually made a slighting refer-
ence to the Navy, which gave Fisher his opportunity when he got
on his feet a few moments later. Looking straight at Brodrick
he launched at him this satire:

"The great fact which I come to is that we are all realizing — we of
the Navy and the Admiralty are realizing — that on the British Navy
rests the British Empire. Nothing else is of any use without it, not even
the Army. We are different* from Continental nations. No soldier of
ours can go anywhere unless a sailor carried him there on his back. ' '

All Britain loved Fisher after that and in 1903 he was made
Commander-in-Chief at Portsmouth, and in 1904 First Sea Lord.
The many reforms he put through were principally in the way of
concentrating the Navy's effective strength, and modernizing fire-
control, supply, and battle-tactics. Britain's whole modern system
of naval strategy and tactics was afterward remodeled or altered
aftei a plan conceived by him, and in the 1909 birthday honors
he was created first Baron Fisher of Kilverstone. Fisher became
celebrated for a definition he once gave of war:

i (

The humanizing of war! You might as well talk of humanizing
hell ! When a silly ass got up at the Hague Conference and talked about

v.x-ii 149

SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

the amenities of civilized warfare, putting your prisoners' feet in hot
water and giving them gruel, my reply, I regret to sa,y, was considered
unfit for publication. As if war could be civilized! If I am in charge
when war breaks out, I shall issue as my commands : ' The essence of war
is violence. Moderation in war is imbecility. Hit first, hit hard, hit all
the time, hit every where !' Humane warfare! When you wring the neck
of a chicken all you think about is wringing it quickly. You don't give
the chicken intervals for rest and refreshment. "

Fisher came to leadership with a definite purpose. With an
overmastering idea of making the British Navy instantly prepared
for war, he stamped with heavy sea-boots on everything and every-
body that interfered with that supreme purpose. He tore to
pieces red tape that had been accumulating for centuries. Men,
ships, guns, methods, plans, ideas fell into a dust heap at a
stroke from his strong arm. Before 1904, Great Britain, despite
deceptive appearances, had had no efficient fighting navy. It had
several huge armadas scattered all over the seven seas, but, so far
as constituting effective protection to the empire, they were huge
delusions. In this war Britain's Navy, under command 'of Fisher
and one of his favorite pupils, Sir John Jellicoe, found itself able to
strangle to death the German Empire. What Fisher had struggled
for, through five . tempestuous years, was exactly the thing that
happened in the early days of August, 1914. An overwhelming
naval force was in instant readiness for war, and was concentrated
exactly at the spot where most needed. Had it not been for
Fisher and Jellicoe, it may safely be said that this would not
have happened.

In 1904 this British admiral, then not widely known outside the
service, short of stature, with a round head, round eyes, stubby
nose, with hair like a scrubbing-brush, and a profile that, from
forehead to chin, stuck out from his face like the prow of a
ship — entered Whitehall virtually as commander-in-chief. Had any
other man than Fisher taken this post at that moment, no one
can say what might have been the position of Great Britain at
the outbreak of war. "There never was such a plucky little
beggar," said a friend, recalling Fisher as a midshipman in the
Crimean War; "quick as a monkey, keen as a needle, hard as
nails. He would do anything and go anywhere, and didn't know
what fear was." Fisher's soul, filled with the highest enthusiasm for
the Navy, constantly revolted at shiftlessness and laxity. Backward
he knew that Navy to be, but he had studied its history, he loved
its achievements, and he had his aspirations for its future. Fisher's
favorite quotation was Admiral Mahan's picturesque description of
Nelson's work in thwarting Napoleon: "Nelson's far-distant,

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PERSONAL SKETCHES OF WAR LEADERS

storm-beaten ships, upon which the Grand Army had never looked,
stood between that army and dominion of the world."

When the Government called Fisher to Whitehall as First Sea
Lord, Mr. Balfour, then Prime Minister, and one of Fisher's most
enthusiastic converts, gave him practically a free hand. When
Fisher began to upset things, many Englishmen exprest horrified
amazement. Critics shouted "autocrat!" but Fisher quietly
answered that the British Navy "was not a republic." The
organization of the Admiralty had been so changed as to give him
practically absolute control. He was placed at the head of several
important committees and most officers of importance were ordered
to report to him. A life spent in carefully thinking about plans
for the safety of the empire began now to flower into definite
acts. The system "that had stood the test of centuries" went to
pieces almost in a day. Britain's lame duck ships in foreign
waters began to limp home; many were broken up where they
stood, and dozens were sold at auction. "By one courageous stroke
of the pen," said Premier Balfour in a public speech, "150
vessels disappeared from the British fleet." This and other
changes that followed, he insisted, represented the greatest naval
reform since Napoleon's day. Crews were brought back to Eng-
land and placed on seaworthy ships that were lying tied to docks,
with the result that England, for the first time, had an efficient
reserve fleet equipped with -crews. These vessels, instead of need-
ing three months to prepare for war, could now be sent to sea
in two or three days.

At the same .time Fisher, in view of the changed political situa-
tion, abolished certain fleets that had been roaming about more
or less aimlessly for years. There had been fleets in the North
Atlantic and South Pacific. He abolished these and joined their
effective vessels to new fleets established nearer home. The North
Sea, instead of the Mediterranean, now became the headquarters
of the most powerful British squadron. A new fleet, of twelve
battleships and six armored cruisers, was stationed there based on
home ports. Then Fisher organized a Mediterranean fleet, with
eight battleships, based on Malta. He created an entirely new
battle-squadron, of eight battleships and six armored cruisers,
which he called the Atlantic fleet, based on Gibraltar. This was
known as the "pivot fleet." With the help of wireless telegraphy
it could swing at a moment's notice and join either the Channel
fleet or the fleet stationed in the Mediterranean.

For British naval preparedness, the real test came with the
sudden outbreak of war in 1914. The Kaiser did not find the
British ships scattered all over the world, many unfit for service

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of any kind. He found a huge armada stationed literally at his
front door, blocking his own egress. Fisher had made other
preparations. He had handed gunnery-work over to Sir Percy
Scott and Sir John Jellicoe, with results that became apparent in
every naval engagement of the war. He engaged in another
scrapping performance, compared with which that of 1904 was
trifling. When Fisher launched a dreadnought, in 1906, it was ap-
parent that he was a radical indeed. This vessel virtually "scrapped"
the whole British Navy. England's old-fashioned fleet had never had
such a preponderance over other navies as in 1906, when Fisher, by
his new building program, relegated it to the pigeon-hole.18 On July
10, 1920, having lived to see his beloved navy do its part in the war,
Lord Fisher died in London in his eightieth year.

SIR JOHN (NOW VISCOUNT) JELLICOE, ADMIRAL OF THE
BRITISH FLEET

Admiral Sir John Jellicoe, now Viscount Jellicoe, who com-
manded England's Home Fleet and so was responsible for the
coast-line of Great Britain and Ireland, was physically a small
man — one of the smallest in the British Navy. But his in-
trepidity was as great as his inches were few, and he was a
man of the Fisher type. In his younger days he was a famous
boxer, football-player, and all-round athlete. He had seen plenty
of fighting before battles were fought in this war in the North
Sea. As a sub-lieutenant he was present at the bombardment of
Alexandria, and afterward took part in the battle of Tel-el-Kebir
as an officer of the Naval Brigade. Jellicoe was ill in the latter
fight, suffering from Malta fever. He was on board the Victoria
when that ship was rammed by the Camperdown, and sent to the
bottom of the Mediterranean off the coast of Syria, carrying with
her Admiral Sir John Tryon and more than 600 officers and men.
Jellicoe escaped miraculously. He was forced into the water
when his temperature from fever was over 103, but was fished
out at the normal, 98, and so cured of his illness. Jellicoe was
badly wounded in the attempt to relieve the foreign legations at
Peking fourteen years before the World War began. He was then
serving on the staff of Admiral of the Fleet Sir Edward Seymour,
and received a Boxer bullet through one of his lungs but re-
covered. Jellicoe was regarded in the British and foreign navies
as more responsible than any other officer for progress made in

18 Compiled from an article in The Evening Post (New York), and one in
The World's Work by William Corbin.

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naval gunnery. He raised the percentage of hits from forty-two
a hundred rounds to over eighty while Director of -Naval Ordnance
at the Admiralty.

Immediately after the outbreak of the World War Jellicoe was
appointed commander of the Grand Fleet guarding the North Sea-.
Under his orders the battle of Jutland was fought. This put the
German battleship fleet not only to flight, but out of business for
the remainder of the war. Afterward he became First Sea Lord
of the Admiralty, and on the completion of his term was raised
to the peerage as Viscount Jellicoe. Son of a naval officer, he
had married the daughter of a rich man, Sir Charles Cayzex,
principal owner of the Clan Line of steamships. At Sir Charles's death
Lady Jellicoe inherited a fortune. She gave birth to a son, after
having two daughters already in their teens. The christening of
the youngster, for whom King George and Queen Mary acted as
sponsors, was made the occasion of a remarkable demonstration
of affectionate remembrance on the part of the officers and men
of the Grand Fleet. It took the form of an immense gold cup
with an inscription to the effect that it was given to the child with
good wishes for its future by the officers and men who had had
the privilege of serving under his father.18*

JOSEPH JACQUES C6SAIRE JOFFRE, MARSHAL OF FRANCE

When the war began, barely a year had passed since the name
of Joseph Joffre as chief of the French General Staff first became
familiar in Europe. Joffre had toiled in a long obscurity from
the rank of second lieutenant at eighteen to the post of com-
mander-in-chief at sixty without impressing his personality on the
French, but when in September, 1914, he won the battle of the
Marne, all the world outside of Germany talked of Joffre, and
when in October, 1914, he removed five generals from high com-
mands on the ground of incompetence, the sensation in Paris was
tremendous/ A man of less iron will than Joffre, one not so sure
of the technicalities of his .calling, or less capable of imparting
their significance to an astounded Minister of War, would then
and there probably have gone into collapse in an official sense,
but Joffre had won at the Marne and now won at the War Office.
Joffre's manner was the kind and unaffected manner, but his will
was comparable to tempered blades which bend exquisitely at the
swordsman's thrust, only to resume a rigidity worthy of Toledo
steel.

All personal descriptions made much of Joffre's deep blue eyes,
isa The New York Evening Post and The World's Work.

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SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

his pugnacity of chin, the bushiness of his whitened brows and
the heaviness of his ear. It was a countenance typical of the
south of France whence he came, a country in which he was never
quite liked in some circles, because of his intense republicanism,
his indifference to the old nobility, his disregard of traditional
military etiquette. He had the temperament of the Pyrenees, with an
intensity prone to assert itself beneath correctness of form and
manner. His nostril, which quivered readily betrayed a quick
temper, seemingly under control, and yet too impetuous to conceal
itself from an expert in human nature. He had bursts of epi-
grammatic frankness which won enemies and explained in some
degree the slowness of his rise.

Joffre was sixty before the world ever really heard of him. In his
late teens, in the war of 1870, he had been an officer commanding a
battery of artillery during the siege of Paris. In 1885 he was
sent to Indo-China, and later to the French Sudan. Now and again
in official dispatches from North Africa his name had emerged,
as in 1894 when he led a force that occupied Timbuktu, after Colonel
Bonnier's column had been massacred there, and again as head of
affairs in Madagascar when that island still had a Queen. He had
gone from one French possession to another, organizing native
troops, administering provinces, testing artillery, equipping fortresses,
buried in details, yet never the slave of them. He rose slowly
through military grades, was always diligent, judicious, explosive,
and burly, but remained unknown, even in France, until he had
donned a black uniform coat, with three bronze stars on his sleeve,
and a cross on his breast that marked a military magnate of the
highest rank.

Joffre was something more than a soldier of high professional
integrity; he was a first-class military scientist in whom were sus-
tained the high traditions of the French engineering corps. His
organizing genius had placed him on a level with men like Vauban,
Lazare, and Carnot. Nevertheless the monarchical element in French
society disliked Joffre, and was chagrined when he was placed in
command over General Pau, who was their favorite. Something like
a feud lay behind the circumstances that kept Joffre for years from
becoming a captain, and withheld from him the badge of the Legion
of Honor until he had gone through a Tonkin campaign. It took
Joffre nine years of hard service in the French Sudan to attain the
rank of lieutenant-colonel. In 1897 he was made colonel and it was
not until eight years later (1905) that he obtained the epaulets of
a brigadier-general.

From a grandmother Joffre derived his Gascon qualities — the fire
in his eye, the swiftness of his gestures, the sharp stamp of his

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PERSONAL SKETCHES OF WAR LEADERS

foot. A great-grandfather had come from Picardy, where handsome
men are reared. No one was ever more French, not French of the
restless, energetic kind that paces hurriedly to and fro in head-
quarters, but the kind that possesses and suggests repose. He had
a full, healthy face, a fresh, vigorous voice, teeth that showed
slightly when he talked, a mustache that moved up and down, a
chin that quivered. There was no suggestion of self-importance
about him. Subordinates came to see him and went away after
little ceremony. But his calm, slow manner could flash into rapid
and energetic action whenever a suggestion was refused; he seemed
literally to wipe it out of existence with one move of his hand. At
the same time his face could light up with a delighted, almost in-
fantile, smile when an idea was presented that found a welcome in
his brain. Then came an eager handshake, a slap on the back, and a
word of praise for any one who had suggested the right thing at
the right time. Noticeable, too, was the facility with which Joffre
could handle a dozen subordinates in as many minutes, listening to
each affably, grasping the question in a trice and meeting the situa-
tion with one quiet word. There was never a hint of hurry. He
was a general to whom supreme command was a matter of transact-
ing business and not a thing of state and ceremony.

Until the war began, Joffre dwelt in a large, airy house on a
beautiful street in a Parisian suburb, his household comprising a
wife and daughters. His private life differed little from that of
the average Parisian with a social position to maintain in the world's
gayest capital. Like the soldier born, he rose early, and was served
at breakfast by an orderly while he read dispatches. Then he went
off through the Bois, sometimes on horseback, as early as six. One
day each week he would walk ten miles to keep in condition. He
prided himself on cleaning his own sword, and saddling his own
horse, nor would he touch, when with troops on maneuvers, any
food except army-rations served in the field. He could not sleep
comfortably in a feather bed, so rigidly had he adhered to the rude
conditions prescribed for French soldiers on active duty. His chief
source of physical discontent was his burly figure ; much good-
humored banter was indulged in at his expense on account of it.

It had been remarked that Joffre was of the school of Napoleon.
Nothing, however, could have been further from methods employed
in the wars of Napoleon than those displayed in the great battles
on the Marne, the Aisne, and in the north. In themselves they pre-
sented nothing like the tactical interest of those older campaigns.
For this the aeroplane was mainly responsible, because from it
everything could be seen and from it nothing could be hidden. The
aeroplane could look behind a screen of cavalry that masked an

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SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

enemy's front; it could see troops on the march, or carried in trains,
could note the number of army corps massed on the other side of
the battle-line, the proportion of the different arms, and all other
details of a vast fighting machine. The art of war had been robbed
of that element of surprize which afforded Napoleon his best op-
portunities to display his genius. Napoleon's aim was to discover the
weak spot in an enemy's lines, and, having discovered it, to hurl
upon it all the forces at his command. Success depended upon the
speed and sureness with which a great blow was struck. A coup
of that sort was no longer possible ; a maneuver on the one side was
now met instantly by one on the other. War consisted of a series
of parallel movements. Two armies turned about each other like
boxers in the preliminary phases of a fight, and then pivoted
clumsily to catch each other at a disadvantage. In this war that was
practically all the art that was left, the rest a ding-dong of re-
sistance, of marching and counter-marching. War now was more
like playing bridge with an opponent looking over one's shoulder.
No longer was it possible to revive Napoleon's canter on a white
horse along the line on the eve of a battle. Joffre could not canter
over the hundreds of miles from Dunkirk to Belfort before break-
fast when beginning a battle that would last a week.

All conditions of warfare had changed, and with them the men-
tality and methods of the commanders. Joffre was rarely seen on
horseback. He had much the same figure as the Corsican had late
in life, was heavy, short and stout, and he gave an impression of
power. Joffre spent a part of each day in a long, low, rapid motor-
car visiting the lines. It was impossible for him to visit all points —
much had to be left to corps commanders after the general plan had
been settled. This robbed him of personal contact with his troops.
He was more or less unknown to them; he probably had to show
papers to sentries. He could wear out two chauffeurs a day in his
rush from point to point.

In the formation of the general staff Joffre brought together the
best military brains in France, and coordinated and controlled their
efforts. He exorcised politics, that bane of the French Army. A
Republican and Freemason, he was surrounded by men who were
Catholics in religion, some of them disposed to cavil at the Con-
stitution; but this made no difference in his appreciation of them.
His chief confidence was given to Foch, Petain, and Castelnau, re-
gardless of his and their school of politics. The result of his firm-
ness and singleness of purpose was that he commanded a great
fighting machine, from which every other consideration than
efficiency had been obliterated. Joffre's headquarters, the nerve-
center from which were moved more than 2,000,000 men, was for

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PERSONAL SKETCHES OF WAR LEADERS

many months in a village school-house seventy miles behind the
firing-line. Observers permitted to see it found a startling con-
trast between its tranquility and simplicity and the intense action
going on near the trenches. Neither cannon, machine-guns, nor rifles
could be seen or heard. Joffre in that school-house coordinated his
information and arrived at his decisions, not only far from the dis-
turbance of actual conflict, but in the depth of a peaceful country
district. An air of actual repose surrounded the place, but life was
intense within. A single sentinel paced in front of the school-
house. Except for a few forester guards, there were no other sol-
diers at the house or in the village. These guards were youngish
men on Joffre's staff, who had been picked for their talents from
among the 50.000 officers in the French Army. Gendarmes watched
the road of approach. It was impossible to enter except by pass,
either from the chief of Joffre's staff, or from one of the few per-
sons in the military administration who had been duly authorized to
sign a pass.

The headquarters of a commanding general used to be distinguished
by orderlies and horses in front; his rank could be reasonably well
determined by their number. Now it was the number of motor-cars
that told his rank. Long, high-powered runners were usually lined
up in the playground before Joffre's little school-house. With no
tooting of horns, cars came and went, quietly and swiftly. When
Joffre went to the headquarters of an army, he went in an auto-
mobile fitted to serve as an offi.ce. A writing-desk that could be let
down from one end had convenient devices for docketing papers. A
special map, the scale of which was 1-1,000, showed every road,
canal, railway, bridle-path, bridge, clump of trees, hill, valley, river,
creek, and swamp in the Western war-zone.

When a battle was about to begin, troops were distributed along
a 50-, or perhaps a 200-mile line, with Germans facing them. At
headquarters a bell would ring saying the Germans were attacking,
say, General Durand's division in superior numbers, and that the
general needed reinforcements. The staff officer who took this in-
formation would then hurry to where say, General Bertholet was
sleeping, the general having just dozed off for perhaps the first
sleep he had had in thirty-six hours. That general, soon wide awake,
would jump to the floor, still wearing his pajamas, the only gar-
ment he had worn in several days and, knowing his map as he did
his own face, he would locate Durand's division. Ten miles back
.of it were quartered reserves. "Order General Blanc," he would
command, "to reinforce Durand at once with 10,000 men, four
batteries of 75-millimeter artillery, ten machine-guns and three
squadrons of cavalry. Tell Blanc to transport his troops in auto-

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SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

buses." Within two minutes General Blanc would have received the
order, and within five more he would be executing it. Durand, mean-
while, had been informed that help was coming. Every time a
bridge was blown up or a pontoon was thrown across a stream or a
food convoy was shifted, Bertholet would leap from his chair, or
his bed, and change the pins. The war map at headquarters had to
be kept posted up to the minute.

After twenty-one months of responsibility in the conduct of the
war, during which he had been on duty an average of seventeen
hours a day, and had traveled more than 70,000 miles in a motor-
car, Joffre did not seem to have aged a bit; there was not the
slightest betrayal of fatigue in his countenance, his step, or his mind.
For the school-house he afterward substituted a quiet villa sur-
rounded by a pretty garden where, in a spacious room on the ground
floor, was a billiard-table covered with maps with other maps on
the walls. Each morning on sitting down at his work-table, Joffre
found a single sheet of paper on which was noted the latest news
of the situation. After a hasty glance at it, he would listen to re-
ports from his staff, rapidly comment upon them, and give concise
orders. Matters of consequence would be submitted to him by mem-
bers of his staff, or would be submitted by him to them. Questions
of organization were disposed of — the troops required at different
points, the moVements by rail, the sanitary service and the arrange-
ments for reinforcements, all of which were decided upon to the
smallest detail.

Three hours were often given to reports and orders. Joffre
would then rise from his desk and put on his cap, which was the
signal for his departure from headquarters to visit some one of the
armies at the front. Three powerful motor-cars were already stand-
ing in front of the villa. As he passed out, an officer would push
into his hand a time-table and the itinerary of the day's journey, as
arranged and approved by him the evening before and from which
no divergence was to be made. The hours he spent in speeding over
the country became hours of comparative rest, which he improved to
read in more detail long reports that had not required earlier atten-
tion, but which he wanted to understand from beginning to end.
His car was known to every one in the army from a tri-colored
fanion with gold-fringed cravat which it carried. He always ar-
rived at a place without ceremony and proceeded immediately and
simply to the business in hand. He preferred to be unnoticed on
these trips, insisting that they in no way partook of the forms and
ceremony that attached to reviews, but, instinctively, when he
passed, sentinels and soldiers presented arms and reddened with
pleasurable emotion because they had had an opportunity of honor-

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PERSONAL SKETCHES OF WAR LEADERS

ing the General-in-Chief. Of all generals who conferred decorations,
none did it with such apparent feeling as Joffre. After pinning a
cross upon a soldier's breast, whether the simplest trooper, the
blackest Senegalese rifleman, or an officer, he kissed him heartily
on both cheeks, never satisfied with a semblance of an embrace.

Joffre's tour of inspection was generally finished about five in {he
afternoon. Back to headquarters he would go for an annoying part
of the day's work — questions of displacement, promotion, retirement,
recompenses for officers, and citations of soldiers, besides questions
relating to arms, material, ammunition supplies, and the sanitary
department. The reserve supplies of shells for cannon of different
caliber was a matter of such momentous importance that Joffre left
these details to no one else; he kept the figures in his head and
could give the exact reserve stock of ammunition on hand. He was
described by some of his generals as the safety-valve of the army.
While he was the directing intelligence of the great machine, he was
at the same time a source of relief for the overcharged minds of
subordinates who, under certain contingencies, were over-concerned
with matters of secondary importance. To such men, surprized by
an unlocked for development, and imprest by a complication that
seemed decisive and perhaps irremediable, a simple observation from
Joffre would often reduce the exaggerated incident to its proper pro-
portions.

Near Perpignan, on the eastern Pyrenees border, lies Rivesaltes,
the birthplace of Joffre. It is a country in which, farther west. Foch
was born. From the south of France also came Castelnau and Pau,
and in an earlier age Henry of Navarre. The house where Joffre
first saw the light stands in an unpretentious street, the Rue des
Oranges, where women sit out of doors while children play about
their knees. Strangers could easily get permission to enter the birth-
place with its double doors and knocker that gave it an almost patri-
cian air, but all was simple within. The downstairs room was an
ante-chamber without light and contained the stairs. On mounting,
one discovered a bedroom with bed in an alcove alongside a small
window looking out upon a court. In that alcove Joffre was born.

In this small house Joffre pere had been the proud possessor of
eleven children, of whom three survived, the general, a future excise
official, and a daughter. The elder Joffre's modest circumstances as
a working cooper, owning a little land, did not enable him to raise
with ease his large family, and in consequence Joseph, the Marshal,
was confided to an uncle whose interest was stimulated by a school
report of the boy's great ability in mathematics. After a year's
preparation (instead of the habitual two), the lad was able to enter

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the Ecole Polytechnique in Paris twelve months younger than was
usual with boys.

At Rivesaltes, after 1914, people were ready enough to talk of
their illustrious son, of his goodness of heart, and his utter sim-
plicity. Whenever he had been there in later life they would tell
how in his country home on the banks of the Alps he would often
go himself and make purchases in the market. "Ah ! he was a won-
derful boy, a phenomenon!" some old inhabitant would say. "He
would fight the other lads, in order to be left at peace to work at
mathematics!" Joffre's light-colored complexion and his taciturnity
made a French Minister of War once ask questions as to his origin.
"You are from Lorraine, mon General? No! Then perhaps you are
Flemish, or Norman ?" "Non plus," Joffre would say. The Minister
would look puzzled until Joft're had said simply, "Je suis Catalan/'
a description that told volumes.19

HORATIO HERBERT, EARL KITCHENER, BRITISH FIELD

MARSHAL

"K. of K.," Kitchener of Khartoum, the most widely celebrated of
British soldiers of his period, with the single exception of his old
chief, "Bobs" (Lord Roberts), and whose tragic death off the Orkney
Islands near the end of the second year of the war all England
mourned, was born in the service in 1850, the eldest son of Lieu-
tenant-Colonel H. H. Kitchener, of the Thirteenth Dragoons. Fifty
years before the war, on the borders of Normandy and Brittany
in the quaint old town of Dinan — the birthplace of DuGuesclin,
where the warrior's heart is still kept in the little Church of St.
Sauveur — Kitchener was living as a lanky English lad, often teased
by French boys who, as they followed him, cried out "Via I'Angliche!"
an age-old taunt that fisherfolk had had a habit of flinging in the
face of the traditional enemy of France across the "Silver Streak."
Young Kitchener was wont to do battle with his enemies under the
medieval ramparts of Dinan, and as his tormentors were many, he
often reached home with his clothes torn, and the Kitcheners were
not rich in clothes.

Of pure English stock Kitchener's father, on half pay, had married
the daughter of an old Huguenot family, a Miss Chevallier of
Suffolk, and had three children, all boys, of whom the eldest, Horatio
Herbert, was born at Ballylongford, in Ireland, while his father's
regiment was stationed there. Horatio Herbert got what learning

19 Compiled from The Nouveau Larousse Illustre Supplement (Paris) ; also
from an article by Alexander Harvey in Current Opinion, and from The
Times (London) and The Evening Sun (New York).

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PERSONAL SKETCHES OF WAR LEADERS

he could in County Kerry, then attended a school at Villeneuve, in
France, and with what coaching his father could give him, managed
in 1868 to pass the entrance examinations for the Royal Military
Academy at Woolwich. He was in Dinan, waiting to learn the
result of his final examinations when, in 1870, Louis Napoleon sur-
rendered at Sedan and the French Government of National Defense
led by Gambetta called Chanzy from Algiers and gave him command
of the Army of the Loire. In the great wave of war-feeling that
ensued young Kitchener found himself swept into the ranks of the
French Mobiles, and after his British commission arrived, enlisted
as a sub-lieutenant of Royal Engineers. Despite the protests of his
father who feared the wrath- of the British War Office, young
Kitchener took the field as a French soldier to fight in the ranks
where he learned a lesson that stood him in good stead years after-
ward in the Sudan and in South Africa, which was — that in modern
warfare valor is worth nothing if not backed by a thorough organiza-
tion.

In that terrible winter campaign of 1870-71, in France, Kitchener
saw miles of freight-cars stalled when already loaded with needed
war material ; soldiers freezing for lack of overcoats that were stored
in plenty half a mile away, with no one to release them, and starving
for food that was rotting because there was lack of machinery for
its distribution. His first campaign ended rather ingloriously in a
balloon ascent, in which, his clothes getting wet, he caught cold.
Three months after he had left Dinan as a soldier of France, Kitch-
ener found himself back under his father's roof and in bed near
death with pleurisy. In 1871, with the Franco-Prussian war ended,
he joined the British Engineers and for three years worked at
Chatham and Aldershot. He was then detached to work in a semi-
civil capacity on the Palestine Survey and passed four years measur-
ing land and learning the ways and speech of the people. In Pales-
tine, as afterward in Cyrus and Egypt, he adapted himself to the
ways of natives, came to understand the secret workings of their
minds, and acquired not only their language but their intonation in
speech, until he could live among Arabs almost as safe from de-
tection as Kipling's "Kim" could live in the crowded streets of
Lahore.

When England acquired Cyprus in 1878 Kitchener was placed in
charge of its exploration. The maps and reports he sent to London
were models. In 1880 he was made British Vice-Consul at Erzerum.
After the bombardment of Alexandria in 1883, when England had
to reorganize the Egyptian army, Kitchener's professional oppor-
tunity arrived when he was one of twenty-six men chosen to raise in
Egypt a force of 6,000 men for defense of the country, and attached

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SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

to the Egyptian Intelligence Department, where he was told to "lick
the cavalry into shape/' Kitchener found the Egyptian fellah like
a bicycle — incapable of standing alone, but very useful in the hands
of a skilled master. In ten weeks after the arrival of his first raw
recruits, he had 5,600 men who could go through ceremonial parade
movements like British guards in Hyde Park, and do it with pre-
cision.

Kitchener served in Egypt for fourteen years. He was with the
Gordon Relief Expedition in 1884 and stayed in the country till the
hero of Khartoum was avenged and a cathedral raised over the spot
where he had fallen. Severely wounded at Handoub by a bullet that
shattered his jaw and buried itself in his neck, he was invalided back
to England, but in 1888 returned to head the First Brigade of
Sudanese troops at Toski, where he led the final charge. After
serving as Governor-General of the Red Sea Littoral and Com-
mandant of Suakim, he was made Chief of Police at Cairo, and, on
Lord Cromer's recommendation, in 1892 was promoted to be Sirdar,
altho he was then only Colonel. Four years later Kitchener began
the reconquest of the Sudan and in the Dongola expedition won the
rank of Major-General.

Next year he started out to avenge Gordon's death. His first step
was to plan a railroad from Cairo to Khartoum which from Haifa
to Abu Hamed would have to cross 230 miles of sand. Experts
scoffed at his idea. In that dry country the entire carrying capacity
of a train they said would have to be taken up by the water-supply
alone necessary for the locomotive. But Kitchener started his road
and as he built it he bored in the sand until, just where he needed
it, he struck water. The road was finished in 1897. In the following
year Kitchener won the battle of the Atbara, and.caught up with the
Mahdi's forces at Omdurman, which sealed .the Khalifa's doom, and
avenged Gordon. He cut off the dervishes' retreat, and as they were
huddled in a hollow around their standards, played on them with
machine-guns, killing about 15,000, and thus wiped out the last trace
of Mahdism. The Mahdi's tomb, the great shrine of the dervishes,
Kitchener demolished and so scattered the mummy contained therein
that no part of it could ever be found and used as a* focus of future
trouble. Kitchener had given peace to Egypt and was created Baron
Kitchener of Khartoum, with the Grand Cross of the Order of the
Bath, the thanks of Parliament, and $150,000 — the Kaiser telegraph-
ing his congratulations.

Only two weeks after Omdurman, Kitchener's forces, on an his-
toric occasion memorable in all stories of the World War, met at
Fashoda the French .officer, Marchand, with eight other French
officers and 120 Sudanese tirailleurs. After negotiations ending in

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PERSONAL SKETCHES OF WAR LEADERS

the final withdrawal of the French from Fashoda, the whole of the
Sudan was in the hands of England, and Kitchener began to build
it up. His powers of organization led to the creation there of a
new civilization. Within a year the Boer war broke out, witli
British disasters at Stormberg, Magersfontein, and Colenso. Lord
Koberts was sent out and Kitchener, still Sirdar of the Egyptian
Army, promoted to be Lieutenant-General and made Roberts' Chief
of Staff. He arrived in Cape Town in January, 1900, and in No-
vember, after Roberts left for England, took supreme command.
Kitchener built across the Transvaal a line of blockhouses con-

KITCHENER IN A TRENCH IN GALLIPOLI

During this visit, made late in 1915, Kitchener was frequently within a few
yards of Turkish trenches. The withdrawal from Gallipoli was a conse-
quence of Kitchener's observations. He is standing at the extreme left

nected by wires charged with electricity; put sixty mobile columns
into the field, and had all women, children and non-combatants taken
off farms and placed in concentration camps. By a slow process the
Boers were worn down, and in May, 1902, the long struggle ended.
It was Kitchener's work — not the work of a dashing soldier, or a
brilliant tactician, but the work of a plodding, methodical traffic
superintendent with an organization in which nothing was left to
chance. Kitchener had trained himself to regard war as an industry.

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SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

To him it meant raising, clothing, arming, feeding, and caring for
men, and placing them in positions where they could not lose, and
placing the enemy in positions where they could not win. An actual
battle he looked upon as a necessary, but noisy and rather vulgar,
affair. When he fought a battle, however, it was without feeling for
the safety of any one. He was personally responsible for the frontal
attack at Paardeberg, the bloodiest in the South African War. For
this new service Kitchener was made a viscount, advanced to the
rank of general "for distinguished service," and given the thanks of
Parliament with $250,000, and the Order of Merit.

No sooner was peace signed with the Boers than Kitchener was
sent as Commander-in-Chief to India where, in seven years, he revo-
lutionized the army and freed it from red tape. He put an instant
end to polo-playing and whisky-and-soda drinking in garrison life,
made every one work, and thanked no one for working. Just as in
South Africa he had sent back to England more than 400 officers as
"useless," so he weeded out incompetents in India. Failures were
treated with unbending severity, whether committed by men in high
or low places. He never played favorites and never permitted an
excuse to prevail. The rank and file loved Kitchener. Women
were greatly attracted to him but he never married. There seemed
to him an element of chance in matrimony, and no one could imagine
Kitchener leaving anything to chance. This tall, handsome man
was no woman-hater, however, and yet he did not carry his heart
upon his sleeve, being the most undemonstrative of men, unreadable,
still-faced, iron- jawed and wordless, with hard gray eyes that looked
over other men's heads, and told of a soul of steel fortified by great
physical strength. Over a six-foot two inches frame his muscles
were stretched like wire rope. At sixty-four he was lithe and wiry.
Altho his bearing was dignified and -cold, he could display at times
the agility of a cat. In an accident in India, where other men
might have lost their lives, he escaped with only a broken leg.

After leaving India with the rank of Field-Marshal, Kitchener
succeeded the Duke of Connaught as Commander-in-Chief and High
Commissioner in the Mediterranean, and made a tour of England's
colonies to organize fighting forces. On his way from Australia he
visited Japan and the United States, returning to England in 1910.
When the war began his latest service had been in Egypt, where he
went to continue Lord Cromer's work and succeeded in restoring the
fellah to the land. With a grant of $15,000,000 from the British
Government, he created a great cotton-raising industry which so
changed economic conditions along the Nile that a nationalist move-
ment which had threatened to create trouble almost died out. When
the war broke out, Kitchener was in England, having been called

164

PERSONAL SKETCHES OF WAR LEADERS

there for promotion to an earldom. The Prime Minister at once
made the new earl Secretary of State for War. His first question
when he went to the War Office was, "Is there a bed here ?"' When
told there was none, he replied, "Get one." At the War Office
Kitchener slept only five hours out of twenty-four, leaving his post
each morning at 1 o'clock and returning before 9.

Kitchener was one of the first men in Europe to forecast a long
war. His announcement, made within a fortnight of his appoint-
ment as Secretary for War, that the war would be of three years'
duration, came as a shock to people all over the world who had been
led to believe that in six months everything would be over except
the shouting. He at once set to work to recruit 5,000,000 men,
known afterward as "Kitchener's armies." As he seldom did any
talking, he was called inarticulate ; but Kitchener could talk when he
wished, his words curt in the manner of a soldier. A remark from
a cockney non-commissioned officer became current, "E's no talker;
not 'im. 'E's hall steel and hice." That was Kitchener — all steel
and ice !

The decision of the Government to entrust Kitchener with supreme
direction of the war was received in England with unanimous ap-
proval. As the war advanced, Great Britain's deficiencies, par-
ticularly in artillery ammunition, became apparent, and Kitchener
was subjected to severe criticism, led by Lord Northcliffe of the
London Times, who charged him with responsibility for failure to
foresee an extraordinary demand for heavy shells. As a result there
was formed a Ministry of Munitions with David Lloyd George at
its head, and Kitchener's responsibilities were further lessened by
the appointment of General Sir William Robertson as Chief of the
Imperial Staff. Notwithstanding criticisms his great accomplish-
ments during the war were recognized iniversally. Foremost among
them was his creation from England's untrained manhood of a
huge army. At the beginning of the war Great Britain had only a
few hundred thousand trained men. When Kitchener died more
than 5,000,000 had been enrolled in various branches of the service.

The trip in which Kitchener lost his life (he was on his way to
Russia) was not the first time he had ventured to cross the seas
during the war. He went to France at an early stage of hostilities,
and later, while British troops were hanging on to Gallipoli, went
to the Near East. Landing at Kum Kale, he visited first-line
trenches, surveyed positions, and, as the British troops were with-
drawn from the peninsula a few months afterward, was believed to
have reported back the inadvisability of attempting to press opera-
tions on the peninsula to a successful conclusion. Before he sailed
for Russia, the last heard of him in England was that he had been

V. X-12 165

SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

to Westminster Palace to be questioned by members of the House
of Commons, who were not satisfied with the conduct of the war.

In the first weeks of the war occurred a famous hoax. A body of
Russian soldiers, said to number 100,000 men or more, was reported
to have circled around from Archangel, landed in Scottish ports,
and been shipped through at night to reinforce the British in France.
The scheme of sending them in this way to the Western Front was
declared to have originated with Kitchener. .The myth spread
rapidly through the United Kingdom, with any number of witnesses
to swear they had seen and talked in England with the Russians in
their native language. For a long period the reports were not denied
and belief in them deepened. Months afterward a British officer de-
clared that the story had been given out for the purpose of impressing
German commanders in Belgium and northern France and so to
keep them in fear of a surprize either in the rear or on the western
flank. Perhaps the ruse accomplished a purpose. Dread of Russians
coming to France did become real among the German staff, and may
have accounted to some extent, at least psychologically, for the re-
treat of Kluck from Paris. Kitchener was said to have caused a
hundred transports laden with sundry goods to be sent from Scottish
ports to Archangel, and in order to give further color to the hoax,
had insured them in Holland, where the Germans would be sure to
hear of it. When British troops were moved from various points in
Scotland and the north of England to Channel ports, he had directed
that the blinds of the trains should be -lowered so as to arouse pop-
ular curiosity and speculation — in fact, to encourage the belief that
these soldiers were Russians.20

ALEXANDER VON" KLUCK, GERMAN FIELD-MARSHAL

Kluck was one of the few military men in history — Xenophon was
another — who won fame by a successful retreat. In that famous
swoop of his on Paris, in August and September, 1914, he became
for a time the foremost figure in world news — almost the only com-
mander of whom men heard — but before the year ended he was re-
lieved of his command and soon was heard of no more outside of
Germany. In 1871 Kluck was a sub-lieutenant, his regiment stationed
just outside Paris, where it waited until the first few millions of the
billion dollar indemnity were paid by France to Germany, and then,
in accordance with Bismarck's iron-bound agreement, marched with
his regiment back twenty miles toward Germany, and there waited
on French soil until another portion was paid. Months later, when

20 Compiled from an article by Henry N. Hall in The World (New York),
from Associated Press correspondence and from The Evening Post (New
York).

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PERSONAL SKETCHES OF WAR LEADERS

the second portion was paid, his regiment marched back another
twenty miles. This was Kluck's first retreat from Paris, but it took
longer than the second, for it occupied a year and a half. Kluck in
1914 had been put in the position of greatest danger, because he was
regarded by the High Command as their ablest officer in the field.

Eminent soldiers have almost always been silent men — Grant and
Lee, Kitchener and Joffre, and now Kluck. A story told in Berlin
illustrated this quality. He had just been appointed Inspector-
General of three army corps, a position which made him practically
suzerain over a quarter of a million men. Some learned society,
numbering among its members leading men, requested him to address
them on the duties of his position. Kluck replied with a courteous
declination. He had twice been a professor in military schools, and
of course had spoken before professional soldiers concerning their
duties, but that was different from speaking about his own duties
to a learned society. Soon afterward the society secured from the
Emperor himself an intimation to Kluck that he might appear be-
fore it; Kluck now had to go. His address was, perhaps, the
shortest of the kind on record. "Gentlemen," said he, "it is the duty
of a soldier to obey. That is why I have come here and am speaking
to you. Thank you." Kluck then took his seat.

He was plain Kluck without the "von" for fifty years. When
making him a colonel, the Emperor placed "von" before his name,
which if not quite befitting a man in command of a regiment, was
better adapted to one who had married a Baroness. Kluck was the
son of a minor Government official, and had entered the army in
1865, when nineteen years old. In the* war against Austria he was
a sub-lieutenant in the campaign directed against the southern Ger-
man States, Bavaria and Wiirttemberg. In 1870 he served in all the
operations about Metz, and at Colomby Neuilly gained the Iron
Cross, without which a German officer would feel that he had lived
in vain. During the year and a half he spent on French soil, fol-
lowing the treaty of peace, he had ample opportunity to become
acquainted with the topography of the country over which he so
desperately contested the French advance in the battle of the Marne.

In his own person, Kluck conveyed a sense of fatherhood to his
soldiers. He was not as formal and silent as many commanders.
He had a stout figure that inspired confidence. Because of his ability
to "get under the hide>" as it were, of the common soldier, he was
advanced in 1881 to the post of teacher in a school for non-com-
missioned officers. Here he was so successful that in the following
year he received a similar appointment at another non-commissioned
officer's school. He held these positions while only a captain in
rank. In 1887 he was made a major and taught in a school at

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SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

Neubreisach. Next year he took command of a battalion of in-
fantry, was made a lieutenant-colonel of a regiment in 1893 and
colonel in 1896. He was then stationed in Berlin, an unusual honor
for an officer who had never been to the War Academy, and who
had never served on the General Staff. His advancement was due to
sterling qualities and real ability. In 1898 Kluck was put in com-
mand ot Fusileer Regiment No. 34, and 1889 in command of the
Twenty-third Infantry Brigade. In 1902 he became a lieutenant-
general, in 1906 a general, and in the following year was placed in
command of the Fifth Army Corps. In 1913 he was made an in-
spector-general, and was still on the active list when war was de-
clared, altho then sixty-eight years old.

No hesitation was shown in placing him in command of the army
that was to advance through Belgium to the gates of Paris. It was
popularly understood that the Emperor's orders to Kluck had been
to "take Paris or die." There was, however, no sound military rea-
son for taking Paris, until the larger part of the French Army had
been destroyed or captured. Kluck made a wonderful dash, a
gigantic stab, as it were, at the French capital, but he missed his
mark. One's balance might easily have been lost in that heroic dash.
For days it was alternately hoped and feared that he might fail in
his purpose and that he might not. He got away by the simple ex-
pedient of attacking as he retreated. He struck and fell back; and
again he struck and fell back. When the French followed, they
found him fully emplaced, with his flank on the Oise and facing a
forest north of Compiegne, while his front was along the north bank
of the Aisne, a river deep and unfordable. He was now in positions
with which he had been familiar for forty-three years, in intrench-
ments previously prepared, and from which the French and British
heroically battled in vain for over a month to dislodge him. After
the Battle of the Aisne, Kluck, now sixty-nine years old, was re-
tired. He had been made a field-marshal but the world heard of him
no more.21

GENERAL ERIC LUDENDORFF, GERMAN GRAND QUARTER-

MASTER-GEXERAL

One's first impression of Ludendorff was that of a man with a
large, rounded forehead denuded of hair, with eyes of profound blue,
searching keenly. A blond mustache ran along thin lips. As a
whole his face reflected an alert intelligence. His mentality con-
trasted strongly with that of Hindenburg, who had a heavy mass
and ponderous look. Ludendorff 's corpulence was large considering

21 Adapted from an article by Richard Barry in The Times (New York).

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PERSONAL SKETCHES OF WAR LEADERS

his medium height, but he conveyed an impression of an energetic
man, who felt entirely sure of himself and was in full physical and
intellectual vigor. Henri Carre,22 who knew him, declared at the
zenith of Ludendorff's success that he was no abler man than Foch
and that he had yet to display the same artistry. By nature he was
indefatigable, endowed with a supple mind, rich in expedients de-
vised on the spur of the moment— a quality precious to the elder
Moltke. He was a real soldier because he had imagination and
ideas. All his qualities were accentuated by cool energy. He had
a tenacious will and a strong soul.

As German commanders went, he was young, not much past fifty
when the war began, and was born in the province of Posen, April 9,
1865. His rise had been so meteoric that ordinary reference-books
in Germany failed to note its steps. He had the good luck to
possess a far-seeing and wealthy parent of Prussian stock, who got
him at seventeen into the Ploen Cadet School, from which he emerged
as a sub-lieutenant in an infantry regiment at Wesel. Later he turned
up as a lieutenant of marines at Kiel and then got into the grena-
diers. From the War College he emerged at thirty with the rank of
captain. How he got into the Great General Staff at Berlin in
view of his comparatively mediocre origin, was not clear, but he
went through the grades successfully, and proved himself an officer
of the General Staff type, bred in the Moltke school and a creditable
pupil of Schlieffen. When he was forty-seven, he took command
of the Fusileers at Diisseldorf and not long after was at Strassburg
as major-general of infantry. With the latter force he went into
the grand mobilization in July and August, 1914.

In the siege of Liege, in August, 1914, Ludendorff happened to
be on the spot when a major-general at the head of the leading
brigade was struck by a bullet. Ludendorff assumed command in
his place, led the brigade forward and became the first man to break
into the fortified towns. This commended him to the Kaiser, who
bestowed upon him the Pour le Merite, founded by Frederick II,
and attached him to the Headquarters Staff. When General von
Prittwitz in the same month of August, while commanding in the
east, retreated from the advancing hosts of Russia and allowed them
to overrun East Prussia and Posen, penetrating to .Silesia and
threatening Breslau and Berlin, Ludendorff took advantage of his
presence in the immediate entourage of the Kaiser to recall to the
latter's mind the almost forgotten "Old Man of the Lakes," and his
hobby, the eastern defense against Russia, The Kaiser took up the
idea and sent Ludendorff off by special train to fetch Hindenburg
from his retirement in Hanover to assume supreme command of the

22 A writer for L'lllustration (Paris).

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SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

Eastern Front, where, in a series of battles in the lakes, he managed
to compel the Russians, hampered as they were at the time by lack
of arms and munitions, to evacuate not only Prussian territory but
the westernmost portion of Russian Poland.

Under these circumstances Ludendorff became chief of staff to
Hindenburg.23 Next year the two redeemed their native land from
other pressing perils by the conquest of Poland and Galicia. After-
ward, in consequence of the Brusiloff offensive, which for a time
caused the German defense to halt, Hindenburg, still "doubled" with
Ludendorff, received command of the Austro-Germans in the Eastern
theater, and before many days replaced, as Chief of Staff, Fal-
kenhayn — on whom was cast the blame for the Verdun check. With
Hindenburg Chief of the General Staff, Ludendorff became his
right-hand man, as general of infantry, exercising the functions of
a Chief General Quartermaster. From that time until March, 1918,
the two men "ticked like two clocks."

The whole German press was jubilant over the appointment of
Hindenburg. "An immense delight," said one paper, "reigns every-
where in the Fatherland. Our new Bliicher retains at his side our
new Gneisenau. Ludendorff remains with Hindenburg." The Kaiser
had really assented to the eclipse of his own imperial star by the
rise of the twin constellation of Hindenburg-Ludendorff. The Field-
marshal, free from jealousy or full of gratitude, permitted the per-
sonality of his right-hand man to grow constantly more decisive and
conspicuous, and the collaboration of Hindenburg and Ludendorff
became most intimate. One acted as the brain, the other as the right
hand. One represented the young and active element, the fecund
brain with "ideas," the other the mass which brought the weight to
bear. Decisions seemed to have been taken in common, but they
were for the most part inspired by Ludendorff. In the enormous
machine one was the motor, the other the source of power. Luden-
dorff had the true directing mind. Force was eminently his charac-
teristic. He was fond of saying that the strong man "does not talk
of danger, but of the way to avoid it. A strong will creates its own
destiny." He held that there was no such thing as fatality or des-
* tiny. There was only "the will of the strong man."

The character of Ludendorff was hard, cruel, and pitiless, in ac-
cordance with the dominant ideal .of Prussians in high command.
He was the most determined supporter of continued submarine war-
fare, and insisted upon constant aerial bombardments of open and
unfortified towns. "By killing the women and children," he was
quoted as saying, "we destroy future mothers and the ultimate de-
fenders of their land; the future forces upon which the enemy de-

23 F. Cunliffe Owen in The Times (New York).

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PERSONAL SKETCHES OF WAR LEADERS

pends." He was sly and affected, not above telling newspapers that
the lives of German soldiers were more precious than some blackened
ruin of a town that France had wanted preserved, and yet he was
notoriously the most sanguinary of feeders of cannon with "fodder,"
never hesitating to pile high the plains of the Somme with German
dead. He attached great importance to "morale" and no press
agent had more skill. He kept in touch with journalists night and
day, held regular receptions for his friends, the reporters, and was
often quoted. He inspired a school of military experts who could
keep on proving that Germany was invincible. He was a master of
propaganda and used fairy-tales without scruple. He invented a
system of heralding every German offensive far in advance, as "ac-
cording to plan," arguing that the effect upon enemy "morale" would
be tremendous. Ludendorff sought less a strategical surprize than a
tactical one. An organizer of experience and ability, he excelled in
preparation.

To German intellectuals of certain types Hindenburg presented a
model of material beauty, if not brute force, in conformity with the
Germanic ideal, and Ludendorff was a superior type of cerebral
beauty, or incarnated strength of thought. Compared to the Field-
Marshal, the Lieutenant-General seemed, however, of another culture
and of a more refined essence. Ludendorff was a methodical spirit
with a brain gifted with a remarkable sense of organ ization— a
quality of which Germans were proud. He possest rare faculties
of assimilation, and a prodigious power for work, and was more a
master of himself than Hindenburg, who was subject to terrible out-
bursts of anger which sometimes made those about him tremble.
Ludendorff, with greater coldness in his cruelty, was neither less
hard nor less implacable. He was supposed to have conceived and
ordered the deportation in masses of the Belgian civil population
during the winter of 1917.

Nominally the Kaiser remained "Ober Feldherr des Deutschen
Reiches" with his pompous title of Supreme War Lord, but the
effective direction passed eventually into the hands of the Hinden-
burg-Ludendorff team. More than ever closely allied as "the War
Twins," their names appeared in all mentions of the High Com-
mand. As the Emperor consented to efface himself before Hinden-
burg, so the latter slowly permitted the growth of the influence and
fame of his clever lieutenant, Ludendorff, whose personality asserted
itself more and more. Hindenburg had succeeded Falkenhayn, and so
had Ludendorff replaced Freytag-Loringhoven, who attracted atten-
tion, in September, 1917, by the publication of a volume which
created a sensation, "The Consequences of the World War," wherein
he discust the reasons for the loss of the war by Germany ; a strange

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SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

book from a man who had occupied such high posts and was familiar
with the secrets of the German General Staff. The book was sup-
prest in Germany, but published in London and New York.

Official accounts of German military operations were often
loquacious, and sometimes surpassingly false. Ludendorff, for the
sake of explaining away facts, employed arguments that were rarely
ingenious, and were mostly clumsy. Sometimes he would invent
out of whole cloth an Allied attack that had been victoriously re-
pulsed; at others he would pretend to discover that the plan of his
adversary was to. advance ten kilometers, when they had advanced
only five, the difference being put down to the account of profits and
losses for the German General Staff. When an Allied attack created
a retirement of the German line which it was not possible to dis-
simulate, Ludendorff was not embarrassed, but would declare it to
have been "a voluntary retirement to better positions, an elastic
recoil from which the counter offensive will jump with a new bound,
a feint meant to draw the enemy into a trap." With supreme skill
he could describe territory he was forced to abandon as a "zone of
subterranean dugouts, the possession of which lost its tactical value."
All that happened, whether favorable or not, was "according to
plan." Every engagement was represented as a German victory,
with comments on "German courage," "the spirit of the German
offensive," and "Prussian ardor." His masterpiece was put forth
in August, 1918, when he had been driven out of the Marne salient
and said "the enemy eluded us." Ludendorff became a master of
the art of explaining away failures. His contrivances were of un-
heard-of clumsiness, but the German brain, strictly disciplined, ac-
cepted them and pretended to be satisfied with them. Until July 18,
1918, he kept this method going -with some success. He kept trying
it during his retreat from the Marne, but few of the wise were any
longer deceived by him, even in Germany.

In the summer of 1918, in order to keep up the morale in the ranks
of the army, Ludendorff hit upon the creation of a corps of "Wohl-
fahrts Offizieren," or welfare officers, whose duty it was to answer
queries from soldiers in the barracks. All kinds of military ques-
tions were answered. His purpose was to attract attention to news
favorable to Germany and to convince fighters of the necessity of
the war going on until it achieved the complete triumph of Germany.
This propaganda was followed up, not only in the interior, but in
the trenches, by a distribution of tracts, pamphlets, booklets, and
posters proclaiming the superiority of a Hindenburg peace over a
so-called peace of the Scheidemann and Erzberger type. Forced
to busy themselves with the internal affairs of the nation, it was not
surprizing to see Hindenburg and Ludendorff playing at certain

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PERSONAL SKETCHES OF WAR LEADERS

moments an active political role, for example, in the great interior
crisis of March, 1917, when Ludendorff came out energetically against
Bethmann-Hollweg, reproaching him for lack of firmness and for
moderation in military aims.

One could understand the place which Ludendorff held in the esti-
mation of powerful German leaders when one remembered that even
Bismarck had not been beyond the reach of imperial disfavor. The
military party was incarnated in these two heads, and consolidated
itself more and more as the sovereign power in Germany. Luden-
dorff, in particular, because of extraordinary activity in military,
moral, and political domains, obtained a growing influence until his
fame rose to that of Hindenburg. While the old Field-Marshal
could wrap himself up in popular worship, the intellectual element
appreciated Ludendorff still more, but both enjoyed the unlimited
confidence of Germans. That Ludendorff should have succeeded in
handling the sword as well as the dagger; that he should have used
all the means, even the most barbarous, as well as the most criminal;
that he should have cleverly utilized all the poisoned weapons of the
German arsenal, treachery, corruption and lies, indicated a cunning
spirit, fertile in resources, but they placed an indelible blot on his
reputation as captain that could never be forgotten. If he struck
powerful blows at the Entente, he nevertheless did not accomplish
those truly great achievements which imprint on a man the mark
of genius. If he won successes for a time it was almost invariably
against weaker enemies and never by superiority of talent against
an equal.

The Western theater of operations brought to Hindenburg and
Ludendorff a series of uninterrupted checks and defeats after
August, 1916, which was the date of their supreme command in that
field of the war. If the team appeared formidable, it was not through
genius and greatness, but by force, energy, and cruelty, much more
incarnated in the vigorous maturity of Ludendorff than in the heavy
senility of Hindenburg. Without doubt the two men, as repre-
senting in German eyes good servants of the empire, would have
their place in a German Pantheon, but the battles engraved on their
monuments would recall no more than mediocre victories over weaker
foes — Belgians, Serbians, Russians, Roumanians — compared with
those shining Entente names, the Marne, Verdun, the Somme, the
Hindenburg Line, and the Argonne, which, when the war was over,
were already blazing in golden letters on the shields of Joffre, Foch,
Petain, Haig, and Pershing.24

2* Henri Carre in L1 'Illustration and La Revue (Paris) and F. Cunliffe Owen
in The Times (New York).

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SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

AUGUST VON MACKENSEN, GERMAN FIELD-MARSHAL

It was often said that this was "an old man's war." The truth of
the assertion was proved beyond doubt when only the ages of leading
commanders and some statesmen were considered. While millions of
very young men were paying the price of war with fatal illness,
wounds, and sudden death, the men who were directing the sacrifice,
who were determining just how many hundreds or thousands should
be sacrificed, were nearly all middle-aged and some were really old
men. Joffre, when the war began, was well over sixty, Kitchener
and French were also over sixty, Hindenburg was sixty-seven, and
Italy's leader, Cadorna, was seventy. Of the two German generals in
command of the Austro-German forces that swept through Galicia
in 1915, Linsingen was sixty-five and Mackensen sixty-four. Elderly
and old men performed deeds in this war that would imprint their
names indelibly on history. Oldest of them all was Clemenceau,
seventy-six.

After the battle of Tannenberg, Mackensen won a place in German
annals that for at least two years equalled Hindenburg's. He had
made his way from obscurity with no help save his own ability. His
career, as well as Hindenburg's, Joffre's, and Foch's, began in the
Franco-Prussian War when he was a plain one-year volunteer, the
son of a Saxon country squire. Ordered with a small detachment of
hussars to make a reconnaissance in the direction of Worth, where
one of the great battles of the war was fought, he found that a
bridge across a river, giving access to the village, had been destroyed.
Only the supports were standing, but he managed to crawl from
one support to another and so crept stealthily into the village and
got the information needed, but he found the village filled with
Zouaves, who opened fire on him. With great difficulty he got back
within German lines.

Recklessness in youth gave place in the mature Mackensen to an
imperturable calm. He was called "sphinx-like," because of his
aversion to unnecessary conversation. He never discust a plan until
it was distinctly outlined in his own mind. Then he was willing to
listen to comment and criticism, and would make any changes that
subordinates convinced him were necessary. Mackensen was one'
of the few German officers who had not graduated from the War
College, and yet he was recognized as one of the greatest strategists
in the army, a master of organization and concentration. Many
stories were told of his democratic demeanor. During the Lodz cam-
paign against Russia he issued strict orders to outposts to allow
nobody to pass, except with a special permit signed by himself. One

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PERSONAL SKETCHES OF WAR LEADERS

day he and several staff officers were inspecting outposts, when a
Bavarian trooper, disregarding the coat of arms on the automobile
in which Mackensen rode, stopt his party at a rifle's point because
they could not show passports. Officers with Mackensen in vain told
the sentry that he was delaying the commander-in-chief. Mackensen
said nothing, except to send for the commander of the outpost, who,
on arriving, ordered the sentry to let him pass. A few days later
the Bavarian trooper, b,y express direction of Mackensen, was made
a sergeant. These and similar actions endeared him to soldiers.
The word of the "old man" was law, his judgment infallible. During
the early stages of the fight around Lodz he was repulsed with great
losses, but his soldiers never murmured. "It's part of the old man's
plan," they said, and went cheerfully on with the battle.

After the Dunajec and the great drive into Russia that followed
in the summer of 1915, Mackensen received a monster petition from
the German people expressing their gratitude to the "Liberator of
East Prussia" — a term they had applied to Hindenburg the year
before, after Tannenberg. Mackensen had received many honors,
including degrees from two universities. With it all he remained a
simple, hard-working soldier. The hussars with whom he had served
in 1870 remained his first love. He usually wore their uniform, and
his first Iron Cross, won as a hussar scout, was pinned to it.
Mackensen as head of German and Austrian armies, in the drive of
1915, smashed through the Russian lines on the Dunajec with ex-
traordinary swiftness, crumpled them up and sent them headlong
backward with armies that had been surging over the Carpathians
threatening the Hungarian plain. He pursued them relentlessly to
the San, crossed in a tempest of artillery-fire, wrested from them the
fortress of Przemysl (two months after it had been taken from
Austria), and threatened Lemberg, which had been the first fruit of
the Russian onslaught of 1914. Looked at from any angle, Macken-
sen's achievement was tremendous. It will live alongside other
audacious and brilliantly successful military feats. Just as the
sudden rise of other men in this war had made people in 1914 ask,
"Who is Joffre?" or "Who is Hindenburg?" so they had asked,
"Who is this man Mackensen? What has he ever done befqre?"

When Hindenburg hurled his legions upon Russians covering
Lodz at the end of 1914, Mackensen was his right-hand officer. He
drove into the heart of the battlefield, got himself surrounded by
Russians, and was close to annihilation, when he rallied his men and
cut a pathway through with bayonets, not only saving his army but
seriously shattering the Russian forces. He had "escaped from the
trap and taken the trap with him," somebody said. The lion's share
of the glory went to Hindenburg; but there was plenty of it left for

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SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

Slacken sen. He was often called the hero of Lodz as well as of
Galicia.

Mackensen was born on December 6, 1849, at Haus-Leipnitz, near
Schmiedeberg, in Saxony. Before his twentieth birthday he was
serving with the colors in the Second Hussar Body-Guards, already
famous in German annals. When the Franco-German war began
he went to the front with his regiment in the humble capacity of
"Vice Wachtmeister." After marching to Paris with the German
armies and seeing William of Prussia crowned German Emperor at
Versailles, he entered upon the long years of peace that ensued by
going to the University of Halle, and did not return to the army
until 1873, when he joined his hussar regiment again. Later he was
made adjutant of the First Cavalry Brigade and stationed at Konigs-
berg. In 1892 he wrote a history of the Hussar Body-Guards for
the celebration of the 150th anniversary of the regiment, in which
he recounted their exploits in the Franco-German and other wars.

Of all the great reputations made by the war, that which had the
greatest reclame was probably the least important — Hindenburg's,
altho his victory in the Masurian Lakes was for the time one of the
few decisive incidents of the war; it was a victory in a complete
and real sense, and due entirely to superior generalship. On ground
that he knew thoroughly Hindenburg had maneuvered Samsonov's
army into swamps and achieved the most sensational victory of the
war, at once revered as the savior of his country, until in the popular
imagination he overshadowed every other figure and had the whole
nation at his feet. Great as the achievement was, it was not as
great, however, as the public estimate of it made it seem. It was
inflated in importance by the East Prussian panic that had pre-
ceded it. Those who followed campaigns with expert knowledge and
examined battles in detail held Mackensen in higher regard than
Hindenburg.

Like Hindenburg he had been ignored at the beginning of the war.
His troubles with the Crown Prince had culminated early in 1914
in a request that either he or the Prince be removed from Danzig.
The result was that Mackensen remained and the Prince was re-
called. Then the war broke out, and the Prince was placed in com-
mand of an army in the West, while Mackensen was left to cool his
heels in the East doing obscure tasks. Not until some months
passed did he emerge, as second in command to .Hindenburg on the
Russian front. His first achievement was his skilful extrication of
his army from envelopment east of Lodz. After that every task of
critical importance in the East was committed to Mackensen's hands.
His smashing blow on the Dunajec opened sensationally a new and
* *"&£midable phase of the war. The operations that followed, by

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PERSONAL SKETCHES OF WAR LEADERS

which the Russian left was forced back to the Privet marshes, re-
vealed a grim power not inferior to Hindenburg's and a constructive
subtlety which Hindenburg had never shown. His campaign in
Serbia was on a smaller scale, but here again his strategy was of a
fresh and original character that commanded the respect of students
of war.

No campaigns in the war were studied by military' experts with
more attention than those of Mackensen. Unlike Hindenburg, he
was silent, almost morose, a characteristic popularly attributed to
the loss of a much-beloved wife, but in reality his manner was the
natural habit of a singularly absorbed and self-contained man. His
brevity of speech was the expression of a ruthless temper. In the
severity of the demands he made on all who came under his will, as
well as in his cold and concentrated silence, he was reminiscent of
Kitchener. Miracles were performed by soldiers and civilians during
his advances, not because of affection for him, but because of fear.25

PEYTON CONWAY MARCH, CHIEF OF STAFF, UNITED STATES

ARMY

General March was born December 27, 1864, at Easton, Pa. He
was graduated from the United States Military Academy in 1888,
and from the Artillery School at Fort Monroe in 1898. He was in
command of the Astor Battery during the Spanish- American War,
1898, and of the American forces in action at Tilad Pass, Luzon,
P. L, December 2, 1899, during which engagement General Gregorio
del Pilar was killed. During this expedition General March re-
ceived the surrender of General Venancio Concepcion, chief of the
staff to Aguinaldo.

March was appointed Military and Civil Governor of the district
of Lepanto-Bontoc and the southern half of Hocus Sur in 1900, and
the province of Abra till February, 1901. He then served as Com-
missary-General of Prisoners until June 30, 1901. He was appointed
member of the General Staff, 1903-1907, and Military Attache with
the Japanese Army in the Russo-Japanese War, 1904. As Army
Artillery Commander of the American Expeditionary Force, he
went to France in 1917, and was appointed Acting Chief of the Staff
of the United States Army, February, 1918.

General March has been cited several times for distinguished
gallantry in action from 1898 to 1902. He was promoted to rank
of major-general January 4, 1918, and on his return from France
asked for modification of the censorship that then prevailed. He

25 Compiled from articles in The Public Ledger (Philadelphia), The Times
and The Tribune (New York) and one in The Atlantic Monthly by A. C.
Gardiner.

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SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

assumed his duties as Chief of the Staff March 4, and allayed the
alarm in the United States that followed the battle of Picardy in
March, 1918, pointing out that there was really little cause for it.
He was nominated to the rank of General May 20, 1918, and the
nomination was confirmed by the Senate May 24. On June 22, 1918,
in an interview with newspaper men, he announced that 900,000
American troops were in Europe and that 100,000 more were being
transported weekly. Whether in active service or in office, General
Peyton March had shown himself to be eminently capable as an
organizer and commanding officer.26

SIR STANLEY MAUDE, BRITISH GENERAL IN MESOPOTAMIA

More than a year after Maude recovered Kut-el-Amara, captured
Bagdad, and then suddenly died in Mesopotamia, Lloyd George rose
in the House of Commons and told how he had "died a victim of his
own inbred courtesy." Maude was visiting a plague-stricken area at
the invitation of its inhabitants who wished to thank him for many
kindnesses and he knew the peril so well that he "forbade any
soldier of his escort to eat or drink during the visit." But when the
ceremonial cup was offered to Maude, as a part of the welcoming
festivity, "he ran the risk himself rather than hurt the susceptibilities
of people who had asked him to come. There was cholera in that
cup, and he died in a few days." Maude, said Lloyd George, would
be remembered as one of "the great figures of this war." While he
did not know what destiny was in store for the land Maude had con-
quered, he was certain that "the whole course of its history will be
changed for the better as a result of his victory and rule." He
would always be cherished by its inhabitants as "the gentlest con-
queror who ever entered a city's gates." The House of Commons
then voted £25,000 to Maude's widow.

Bagdad was a long way from Belgium, and it was much easier to
form an idea of Haig or Petain, because we had seen so many
photographs of them, and read so many stories about them; but in
Maude England had a general about whom a legend soon grew up
very like the one about Kitchener. The Kitchener comparison sug-
gested itself because of the striking parallel between the Bagdad
campaign and Kitchener's Nile campaign to Omdurman and Khar-
toum. As Kitchener had been, so Maude was faced by the problem
of advancing into a desert along a river which had to furnish his line
of communication. Maude had to create transport, hospitals, housing,
sanitation, and water-supply. He was obliged to rely for munitions
and supplies on bases far overseas, with the additional menace of a

"Compiled from "Who's Who, 1918-1919" and The Times (New York).

178

PERSONAL SKETCHES OF WAR LEADERS

hostile sea-power. He had to contend with an alien climate in which
white troops could work only in the cool months of the year.

Maude's story was that of a six months' offensive campaign which
resulted in the recapture of Kut-el-Amara and the. taking of Bagdad,
the reestablishment of British prestige in the East, and the defeat
of the German threat toward India. Before he advanced a foot he had
to have every contingency provided for, and every precaution taken
against failure. He had the strength of the man who is sure of
himself, the ability to bide his time, to keep his own counsel, to
drive men unmercifully, and yet to inspire all about him with his
own indomitable spirit. The Tommies adored him. He was a silent
man with a face clean-cut and strong. He drove his staff terribly,
and when an officer made a blunder he gave punishment. At the
same time his men had implicit confidence in him.

Maude reached the British base in Mesopotamia, sixty miles up
the Shatt-el-Arab, the stream formed by the junction of the Tigris
and the Euphrates, in August, 1916. From then until December 13
he devoted himself entirely to the work of organizing the campaign
he had in mind. During his preparations Maude left only a few
troops on the fighting-line just below Kut, where the Turks held
the apparently impregnable Sunniyatt position, between the left
bank of the Tigris and a small lake. The British Army had been
reinforced until it was much larger than the army under Townshend
that had tried unsuccessfully to get to Bagdad. Including coolies,
transport, commissariat, base troops, boatmen, and other units be-
hind the line, the Mesopotamian Expeditionary Force, as it was called,
must have numbered 300,000 men. Of fighting troops he had four
complete divisions and part of three others. Townshend's force was
almost inconsiderable compared with this.

Maude did not rest with the recapture of Kut. He followed up
the Turks by land and water. The greatest fighters in his army who
had been marching up the right bank of the Tigris arrived in the
suburb of Bagdad in the early morning of March 11. Among the
troops in this division were battalions of the Black Watch, Seaf orths,
and Leicesters. The Seventh Division claimed that they entered
Bagdad first, but the Lancashire battalions of the Thirteenth Division
said they had entered at the same time or earlier from the south.
The British casualties in the whole campaign were about 30,000.
The only flag found flying in Bagdad was an American one, and the
American Consul, Oscar Heiser, was about the only check to the
lawlessness that prevailed during the evacuation. The British kept
on after reaching Bagdad, and by May 1 were fighting about 100
miles north of the city, 32 miles above Samara, Not long after this
achievement Maude came to his untimely end.

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SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

GENERAL VON MOLTKE, CHIEF OF STAFF OF THE GERMAN

ARMIES

Moltke, being chief of staff at the time, had the disposition and
direction of the German forces at the outbreak of the war, but after
several months was displaced and a little more than a year afterward
was in his grave. He was four years older than his French an-
tagonist, Joffre, and looked what he was, a typical product of Ger-
man militarism, his face like a mask, rigid, formal, official. He was
known as a "Kaiserman," that is to say, he was, and for many years
had been, a favorite, holding his position by a combination of favor
and ability — altho rumor had several times declared that his star at
court had grown dim and only the Kaiser's inability to find a suitable
successor had kept him where he was. When his uncle, the famous
Field-Marshal, died in 1891, he became aide-de-camp to the Kaiser
and had been Chief of the General Staff of the army since February,
1904.

The younger Moltke did not show himself a great military genius.
Many believed him less able than others in the German Army, among
them von der Goltz. His promotion as Chief of Staff caused a
good deal of unfavorable comment, which, however, disappeared
with time after he had given evidence of being able to do an ex-
traordinary amount of work. Probably he owed his capture of
"the blue ribbon" more to possession of a great name than to
eminent military abilities. It well might have flattered the Kaiser's
martial pride to have another Moltke at the head of his army, but
many writers felt that really able soldiers had been displaced in
order to make room for him. Altho he had Bismarckian bulk, he was
never genuinely popular with army officers because of an alleged
softness in his nature. German martinets preferred a man
with square head and bulldog physiognomy, such as Hindenburg
possest, that idol of East Prussia, who once said he had never wasted
an hour on light literature and ascribed his prowess to the fact that
his mind had never been poisoned by anything so corrosive as poetry
and romance.

The dismissal of Moltke, which was officially announced early in
November, 1914, produced a significant effect on Berlin. Nobody
believed he had left his post on account of ill-health, as the authori-
ties declared. There had been a rupture between him and the Kaiser.
His illness, perhaps, was not wholly a myth, but the true reason for
his dismissal probably lay in court intrigues and disputes, including
a desire by the Crown Prince to act on his own initiative, and to the
autocratic ways of the Kaiser. Recent failures in theaters of war
had contributed in no small degree to the Kaiser's decision. Moltke

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PERSONAL SKETCHES OF WAR LEADERS

died of heart disease or apoplexy during a service of mourning in
the Reichstag for von der Goltz.

F. W. Wile, writing in the London Daily Mail, said he could
testify to the literal accuracy of a piece of history which identified
Moltke with a military clique in Berlin which on August 1, 1914,
induced the Kaiser to abandon all his remaining doubts as to the
wisdom of declaring war. On the afternoon of that fateful Satur-
day, Moltke's wife paid a visit to a certain home in Berlin "in a state
of irrepressible excitement." "Ach! what a day I've been through,"
she said to Mr. Wile's informant. "My husband came home just
before I left, almost the first I've seen him in three days and nights.
He threw himself on a couch, a complete physical wreck, and said
he had finally accomplished the hardest task of his life. He had
helped to induce the Kaiser to sign the mobilization order."

During the fall of 1914 there had been repeated announcements
of Moltke's illness," and it was said that he had been removed. These
reports proved for the time false, but in December he actually re-
tired, failing health having prevented him from returning to the
front. Falkenhayn was appointed in his place in the following
January. Moltke was born in Mecklenburg-Schwerin, and at the
outbreak of war was in his sixty-seventh year. He had served as
adjutant to his distinguished uncle from 1881 until the old man's
death. While the Field-Marshal was being taken to his grave,
Emperor William had informed the younger Moltke that he had de-
cided to elevate him to the rank of personal aide-de-camp, and in
that position he had served for five years. Moltke also held regi-
mental and divisional commands in the Guards, and in 1914, when
the Emperor created the position of Quartermaster-General on the
General Staff, a place that formerly had been filled only in war
time, he designated Moltke for the post. Two years later he suc-
ceeded Count Von Schlieffen as Chief of the General Staff.

Moltke's career up to that time had therefore been exceptional.
As a young man during the Franco-Prussian war he had won an
Iron Cross, and in 1902 was made a Lieutenant-General. When ap-
pointed to succeed Schlieffen, men in the army and in civil life said
h*e owed the prize primarily to the Emperor's passion for the pic-
turesque, to a desire to have the magic name of Moltke at the head
of the army. Moltke was often called "Count," but that title, conferred
on his uncle in 1870, on the day Metz fell, was inherited by his elder
brother, General Count Wilhelm von Moltke, and had ceased with
his death a few years before the war began. Moltke, after his fall,
still retained the confidence of the German people. When first ap-
pointed to the post they had distrusted and ridiculed him, but the
vigorous way in which he put through revolutionary ideas about.

v. x— 13 181

SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

''preparedness" forced them to change their minds. The rapidity and
smoothness of the German mobilization at the beginning- of the war
was largely credited to him. He was held responsible, however, for
the retreat of Kluck's army from before Paris, altho many believed
the blame should have been laid elsewhere. A cloud of mystery
pervaded the question as to why the German army retired as it did.27

THE GRAND DUKE NICHOLAS, COMMANDER-IN-CHIEF OF THE
RUSSIAN ARMIES

Altho he was nearing his sixtieth year when the war began, and
suffering from a reaction against him in the mind of the Czar and
his court, the Grand Duke Nicholas was a logical necessity. Russia
really had to entrust her destinies to him and nobly did he justify
his command in those first years of the war, even after he was re-
lieved of his command and sent to the Caucasus, there to startle the
world by taking Erzerum and Trebizond. He was the one man of
genius in the Russian royal family. He manifested military genius,
not only in the boldness of his strategy and the success with which
he realized his aims, but in a subtle influence called personality. He
had the piety of genius, its reverence and mystical tendencies, its
energy, and its decision of character. Russian reserve, as reflected
in official communications, was seen in this Grand Duke, but in
spite of that he permitted journalists to follow his armies with a
freedom at which the French and British stood amazed. He was
audacious in decision and rapid in thought.

Behind the Grand Duke were years of the hardest work. He had
spent his young manhood in comparative poverty on remote fron-
tiers, where he had acquired a mastery of his profession on its
technical side such as made him the finest cavalry officer in Europe.
He had never been the slave of vodka or of ballet-dancers. His
piety was no less striking than his lofty stature. Those who studied
him at close range saw a Grand Duke tinged with that western
culture which was dear to a certain type of Russian. In tempera-
ment he Avas conspicuously a Slav, for he had the fatalism, poetic
melancholy and characteristic spirituality of his race. He always
distrusted the tendency of his countrymen to adopt western manners
and methods in society as things remote from the spirit of the
Russian race. His idea always was that Holy Russia embodied
a genius capable of developing best along lines of her own, spon-
taneously, organically, without the adventitious aid of outside culture.
This attitude explained his reputation as a reactionary.

27 Based on articles in The World's Work and The Times (New York).

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PERSONAL SKETCHES OF WAR LEADERS

Nothing could have been more humanly conspicuous than the
Grand Duke as he strode at his gigantic height among throngs of
worshippers at St. Isaac's, in Petrograd. His vein of mysticism
made his religion the most emotional thing about him. He would
stand like a man in a dream before the model of the holy sepulcher
in that vast edifice. His sternly fanatical type of faith found ex-
pression in the campaigns he directed, which was done as if he were
engaged in a crusade. The singing of hymns as troops went into
battle, the carrying of images in camp and strict observances of feasts
as well as fasts, were all due to him. He resembled Cromwell in
admiration for the soldier who prayed.

Infinite gossip was circulated in newspapers regarding the rela-
tions between him and the Czar. Obscurity and disgrace seemed at
times to threaten him. He would be missed from Tsarskoe Selo
for weeks, and then i-n a trice would return and regain favor. When
his wealthy wife died in Moscow he contracted a somewhat hasty
second union with one of the daughters of Nicholas, the King of
Montenegro, who was a Slav to. the marrow, physically big, famed
for a somewhat odalisque type of beauty, all imagination and fire,-
no thinker, but intuitive, subtle, wedded to weird superstitions, and
even given to seeing ghosts. The shadow over her life was her
failure to give birth to a child. To the influence of this new
Grand Duchess over the Czarina was ascribed the rise of Nicholas to
supremacy in the councils of Nicholas II. But for her he might have
been sent into permanent exile, and yet he was the one great man
in the Imperial family.

He was a soldier of the intellectual, executive type, capable of
infusing his personality into a whole staff until it burned with
energy. He inspired a devotion that did not shrink from death, had
the magnetism of Ney, compelled confidence by the example of
efficiency that he set, by' his knowledge of his profession and his
incorruptible nature. No financial scandal ever affected the repute of
the Grand Duke — not even in a court notorious for corruption. He
was most Russian in his comradeship with the men whom he com-
manded. This took the form of a spontaneous display of affection,
a spiritual understanding, a unity like that of primitive Christians.
Only a Slav could commune with Slavs on such a basis. The soul of
the Grand Duke was simple, like a child's, sympathetic, capable of
revealing itself without shame. In Petrograd, shortly after the
Russian-Japanese War, Sir Ian Hamilton was watching the arrivals
at a ceremonial occasion, he being there as a distinguished British
general, when suddenly he ejaculated, "By Jove, who's that?" point-
ing to a towering figure, at least six feet four in height, with close-
cropped black hair shot through with gray, short, pointed Vandyke

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SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY •

beard, keen eyes, extraordinary length of limb, but lean and graceful,
with exceptional ease and power of movement — a magnificent figure.
It was the Grand Duke.

The Grand Duke was born the year after the Crimean War and
so was fifty-seven in October, 1914. His grandfather was the son
of Czar Nicholas I. Altho his military career had attracted little at-
tention outside of Russia,, largely because he had concentrated whole-
heartedly on each task as he met it, his supreme command was the
logical result of a consistent rise through all ranks. It was not because,
but almost in spite of, his imperial blood. His rise began under
his father, also a Grand Duke Nicholas, who commanded the Russian
Army of the Danube in the Turkish War of 1877-78. The younger
Nicholas was then about twenty-one, a junior officer of a hussar
regiment, the uniform of which he took pride in wearing, when on
the staff of General Radetzky. For gallantry in action at the Shipka
Pass and the siege of Plevna, he was decorated. He was a fine horse-
man, hunted keenly, and gave the Czar instructions in military riding.
His seat was quite peculiar to himself. His legs were enormously
long and yet, whether for power or comfort, he rode with what for
him were short stirrups. He sat back in the saddle and almost
slouched, his feet stretched far forward, his knees sagging outward.
The result was not easily described, but it was distinctly individual.
In appearance he was the embodiment, on a gigantic scale, of a
certain dashing type inseparably associated in the popular mind
with heroic cavalry leaders.

None of the imperial family was assigned to high command in the
Japanese War, which was the reason given for the Grand Duke
Nicholas having stayed in Petrograd. But when the war was over,
it found in the person of the Grand Duke one of the keenest minds
in Russia as a student of its lessons. He was made President of the
Council of Defense in 1905, and next year took command of the
military district of Petrograd, which included not only the? great
garrison of the capital, but forces in Finland and in the vast stretch
of territory northeastward to Archangel, the premier military dis-
trict of Russia. Until 1906 he was known only as a cavalryman.
He had been the only member of the imperial family to adopt a
military profession as his chief purpose, with the possible exception
of the Grand Duke Sergius, who became an artillery expert.

When he relaxed none could be more charming than Nicholas.
He made it a practise to dine frequently at mess with his officers.
Like many Russians he spoke several languages, including English.
His position as the Czar's cousin and the dominant military figure
in the imperial family relieved him of the political intrigues and
jealousies which had nullified the genius of Kuropatkin in the

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PERSONAL SKETCHES OF WAR LEADERS

Japanese War. Personal and physical ascendency, coupled with
solid expert knowledge, had free play.28

GENERAL JOHN J. PERSHING, COMMANDER OF THB UNITED
STATES ARMIES IN FRANCE

In Linn County, Missouri, where he was born fifty-eight years
before 1918, John Joseph Pershing, General in command of Ameri-
can troops to France, came to be revered something as the memory
of Ulysses S. Grant has been revered in Clermont County, Ohio. No
one from Laclede, Pershing's early home, or from any part of Linn
County, so far as the Kansas City Star was able to discover, had
ever done anything suggesting world fame or even national fame,
except John Pershing. Pershing did enough in one and a half years
mightily to flatter Laclede, and to prove that a soldier, if not a
prophet, was not without honor in his own county. When Pershing
took his examination for West Point, competing with others for an
appointment by the Congressman from that district, the whole
country came near losing him as a soldier, for he was only one point
ahead of the next man, who was Higginbotham. A wrong answer
to one question would have sent the other man to West Point and
Pershing would have gone off in despair to become a lawyer, having
had, as second choice, a predisposition for the legal profession.

Firmness, discretion, dash, mastery of detail, comprehensive
breadth of vision, patience and relentless determination were among
the somewhat contradictory qualities accredited to Pershing. From
the outset he had a quiet way of acquiring distinction and saying
little or nothing about it. He won the highest honor West Point
could confer when, twenty-six years old, he was graduated in 1886
as senior cadet captain. No mere "grind" or military athlete could
have hoped to gain that honor. It betokened scholarly excellence
and soldierly distinction, a sound and well-trained mind, in a body
expert in management of arms and horses, and, above all, self-
control, suggesting ability to command others. He left the academy
for a more rigid training-school in the Southwest, where he
plunged into the campaign against Geronimo and his Apaches, as
a second lieutenant in the Sixth Cavalry, and in August, 1887, when
scarcely a year from school, won special commendation from General
Miles for "marching his troop with pack train over rough country,
140 miles in forty-six hours, and bringing in every man and animal
in good condition." While at Fort Wingate, in 1889, with ten

28 Adapted from an article compiled by Alexander Harvey for Current
Opinion, from the Oaulois and Figaro (Paris), the Tribune and Avanti
(Rome), the Carriere (Milan), Truth (London), and from an article by. Basil
Miles in The World's Work.

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SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

troopers be rescued a mixed group of cowboys and horse thieves
when besieged by a hundred Zunis, and arrested the horse thieves
after he had rescued them, all without firing a shot. By General
Carr he was "highly commended for discretion" — not a common
quality in a young man with a body as tough and powerful as his
horse's and a demonstrated liking for rough-and-tumble work. In
the Sioux wars of the early nineties, because of his knowledge of
Indian fighting, he commanded scouts, and in the Cree campaign of
1896 aa'ain won "special recommendation for judgment and discre-
tion." "

Pershing's Western training now ended, but it left him to the end
of his days a man of the southwest, silent, with frank, unprying
eyes that looked men through, a gentle voice, chary of words,
laughing but seldom, smiling a slow, quiet smile more of the eyes
than the lips, and gifted with incisive turns of speech. The sobriquet
"Black Jack" Pershing by which he was known among the rank and
file was the result of his first promotion in 1895 when he was ap-
pointed to a colored troop — the Tenth Cavalry — a crack negro com-
mand that won fame at San Juan. This nickname stuck to him
ever afterward.

Having made a thorough study of tactics, Pershing became known
as one of the best strategists in the army. After his Indian campaign
he was assigned to West Point as instructor and when war with
Spain was declared, applied for and received command of the old
Tenth Regiment which was among the first to be sent to Cuba, where
he distinguished himself in the field. At El Caney Pershing was
promoted for gallantry to the rank of captain. In 1901 he was
chosen by General Chaffee, commanding in the Philippines, to cope
with the oldest of all the difficulties Spain had left us and one she
had always shirked. In the hills of western Mindanao, some thirty
miles from the sea, lay Lanao, and around it were fierce, uncivilized
Mohammedan Malays, industrious, frugal, murderous fanatics, who
loved a fight, and "whose simple creed made the killing of Christians
a virtue. From a distance of several thousand miles the job did not
sound big, but a more difficult task had seldom been given to an
officer of the regular army. Pershing undertook the work with a
smile. He had a picked lot of regulars under him, every man of
whom he could trust.

Pershing found the Moros had mobilized in the crater of an ex-
tinct volcano called Bud Dajo, on the island of Jolo. To drive them
out had been a task which the army had long contemplated. Pershing
told his men the Moros would have to come out of the crater, if it
took ten years to accomplish the job. There were 600 of them —
every one a Mohammedan fanatic. Without Bud Dajo securely in

186

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SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

American control, the Moro problem could not be solved. With a
thousand men, half of them Pershing's trusted troopers and the
others picked Filipino scouts, the campaign began. Troops and
scouts had to proceed through miles of dense jungle, opposed at
every yard by Moros. But Pershing kept on, and finally fought his
way to the foot of the mountain. His jungle-fighters then cut a
trail around the mountain, and, fortifying themselves from attack
from above, began the siege. Having formed a cordon around the
mountain, they watched for the first sign of Moros leaving the
crater. In their retreat to the crater the Moros had been so hotly
pursued that they were unable to take with them supplies for a
long stand. Pershing knew this and so he waited. After a time small
detachments of Moros tried to gain the open by dashes through the
American cordon, but every dash was frustrated, the fanatics rush-
ing forth to certain death. On Christmas day, 1911, the 400 Moros
who still held the crater did something a Moro seldom had done;
they marched down the mountainside and surrendered. A few, how-
ever, got into the jungle, but regulars pursued them, and in the end
they paid the penalty of their daring. Pershing then set about the
task of completing the subjugation of the other Moros, and ac-
complished it when he won the battle of Bagsag, where they made a
last stand.

Pershing now returned to Washington to serve in that city for
awhile on the General Staff. He afterward went to Tokio as military
attache, first at the embassy and afterward with the army of Kuroki
during the Russo-Japanese War. On September 26, 1906, he had a
spectacular promotion which jumped him over 862 officers to the
rank of Brigadier-General, and was again sent to the Philippines to
command the department of Mindanao and Jolo. Later he served
as Governor of the Moros and after eight years went to the Presidio
in San Francisco where he took command of the Eighth Brigade.
Four months later he was transferred with his troops to the Mexican
border, where he had two years of routine patrol duty — time far
from wasted, however, as was shown when as commander of the
punitive expedition against Villa he marched into Mexico. The
story of that march told why Pershing, in inside circles, came to be
spoken of sometimes as the American Kitchener, the organizer and
administrator, and why his later success as commander of the
American forces in France gave occasion for no surprize in army
circles where he was best known. What the battle-front in France
might hold for him was at first a sealed book; but those who knew
him best said he would come back either a national hero or with his
body wrapt in the national flag.

How Pershing was recalled from Mexico soon after the United

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PERSONAL SKETCHES OF WAR LEADERS

States entered the World War, how he arrived in Washington to
seat himself unnoticed at a desk in the War Department, and how
he sailed away with a small force unknown to the public until he
landed in England, unfolds the immediate steps to Pershing's entry'
into the great conflict in northern France. Colonel Roosevelt on one
occasion when President addrest Congress on promotions in the
Army and Navy. Promotions usually went by seniority and the
army caste was jealous of the tradition. Roosevelt wanted the
seniority rule abridged, and specifically mentioned Pershing as a
gallant officer who had been held back by a tradition that worked
him harm, as it often did to men who should have been advanced.
In the gallery during the reading of this message was Frances
Warren, daughter of United States Senator Warren of Wyoming.
She followed the message closely, and when leaving the Capitol de-
clared she would like to meet the officer who had merited such com-
mendation. Less than two years afterward the soldier and the
senator's daughter were married. Grim tragedy afterward entered
into Pershing's married life when his wife and three children were
burned to death in their home. Only one, Warren, his five-year-old
son, was rescued. Lean but rugged, six feet and better, Pershing
typified the ideal cavalry officer. He had been hardened by field
service physically and broadened in executive work by service on
difficult posts. He cared little for swivel-chairs and desks, but
doted on boots and saddles.29

HENRI PHILIPPE PETAIN, MARSHAL OF FRANCE

By promoting Petain after the armistice to the rank of Marshal
of France, which had already been conferred on Joffre and Foch,
the French Government merely performed a duty which, not per-
formed, would have awakened surprize, and even criticism, in the
whole Entente world. The defender of Verdun had earned the
right to a distinction already bestowed upon the victors of the first
and second Marne. Foch, Joffre, and Petain were the French sol-
diers who became most preeminent in this war. Before Verdun, Petain
had earned a solid military reputation. His offensive in the Cham-
pagne in 1915 was the first considerable victory of the Allies after
the initiative had passed to them. It had only local results and was
in no sense decisive, but it yielded more than 25,000 prisoners, more
than a hundred guns and brought to Paris and London the first
sense of victory. Verdun, however, had been the great achievement
of Petain. A situation as critical as that which confronted Foch

29 Adapted from a compilation by Alexander Harvey in Current Opinion,
based on articles in The Star (Kansas City), The World (New York), and
The Public Ledger (Philadelphia).

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SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY •

confronted Petain in the last days of February, 1916. Within a
few days after he reached Verdun his army had accepted as their
watchword, "They shall not pass" — an old Garibaldian cry which
they had made their own. Petain 's strategy was to sell the Germans
such parcels of ground as he could spare, at tremendous cost to
them, and meanwhile to wait for the great new British Army in the
north to get ready on the Somme for its first offensive of real
magnitude. Verdun became the graveyard of German hopes. Noth-
ing in French history is finer than its story. Petain was the soul
as well as the brains of that epic.

After Verdun the politicians chose a lieutenant of Petain's in-
stead of Petain himself, to replace Joffre, who had grown old and
weary. It was an unfortunate choice, and Nivelle's failure at the
Aisne in April and May, 1917, for the moment shook the morale of
the French army as well as that of the French nation. After that
Petain was chosen to reorganize the army and restore confidence.
He transformed the situation in such fashion that, in a few months,
the army was able to win a new victory at Verdun and Petain ob-
tained a shining success at the Aisne by taking Fort Malmaison.
He suffered afterward from the rapid growth of the reputation of
Foch. That the Allied commander-in-chief was the greater soldier
will probably be the judgment of history, but that he owed much to
the loyal and competent aid of Petain was unmistakable. They
worked in complete harmony at all times and this was a tribute to
the patriotism of each. Not one of the three Marshals created in
this war could have been suspected of the smallest selfish ambition.
Magnificent as were their achievements, those of the civilian and
republican, Georges Clemenceau, probably were as great. Without
Clemenceau not even Foch could have saved France and brought
about the German capitulation in the forest near Senlis.

Petain's appointment as Marshal of France was made just as he
was marching with his army into Metz. It was characteristic of the
stern, grave way in which France entered into the war that she
should have appointed no Marshal at its outbreak. The Marshal's
baton was there waiting for some one, but it had first to be won by
some extraordinary achievement. It had not been so in other times.
Napoleon III fairly encumbered the French army with Marshals,
appointed for no great services, and there was an additional drop
of bitterness in the French cup of defeat in 1870, in the fact that the
men who were so easily surrounded, played with, and beaten by the
Germans, were all Marshals of France. It was a Marshal who
surrendered Metz, and a Marshal who commanded the army which
surrendered at Sedan. France then learned her lesson. She de-
termined in this war to make no man a Marshal unless he compelled

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PERSONAL SKETCHES 3F WAR LEADERS

her to do so, and three men had now compelled her. Joffre did not
get his baton until he had retired from leadership and his fame was
forever secure. Petain did not get . his until he had marched into
Metz at the end of the war. In Foch's case France was hurried into
giving him a Marshalship while yet there was a chance of defeat;
because he had been made Generalissimo he had to have the highest
rank. This stern rule had made the title of Marshal of France the
most glorious in the military world; there was now no other that
touched it. The three men were not merely worthy of being in a
class with the first Napoleon's Marshals, but surpassed them, for
there was some poor timber in that generally glorious list, some
names that are now almost unremembered while no Frenchman will
ever forget the names of Joffre, Foch, and Petain.

Petain was Commander-in-Chief of the French armies, as Haig
was of the British, Cadorna and Diaz of the Italian, and Pershing
of the American. Properly speaking, Foch had not been a French
General at all since he became Generalissimo. He was the com-
mander of all the Allied armies, and responsible, not to France, but
to the Allied War Council at Versailles. He was the General of the
Allies, as Petain, Haig, Pershing, Cadorna, and Diaz were the gen-
erals respectively of the French, British, American, and Italian
armies. Some time before this, ill-advised admirers of Petain had
demanded a Marshal's baton for him for his superb direction of
the French armies, but they were quietly put aside. Afterward
they were glad because now Petain had received the compliment
of getting his "Well done" at the end of a series of victorious cam-
paigns, and at the moment when he was performing the physical act
of restoring Metz to France — Metz, which had been surrendered
basely by one of the lesser Napoleon's marshals nearly fiftv years
before.30*

Petain when the war broke out was preoccupied with training
officers. Altho fifty-nine years old in 1916, his mental and physical
vigor made him appear younger. His brigade in making the long
retreat from Charleroi to the Marne in 1914 had repeatedly harassed
the enemy with savage ferocity. Just before the battle of the Marne
he was promoted to command a division and later was chosen to
command an army corps at Arras. Carency, a masterpiece of Ger-
man defensive work, considered impregnable, but taken in 1915 by
Petain, was a brilliant local victory. In September, 1915, he served
with distinction under Castelnau in Champagne. The war had found
Petain a retired colonel, noted for strategic ability. It was Joffre
who made him a brigadier-general. In September, 1914, he was a
general of division and passed rapidly on to army corps commander

30 The Times (New York).

191

SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

and army commander. The Allied offensive in Artois and the success
won in Champagne owed much to Petain.

In December, 1917, when Joffre was made a Marshal of France
and the question of his successor at the front arose, Petain seemed
destined to have the post. He was then in command of the armies
of the center, comprising- the front between Soissons and Verdun,
hut apparently Petain's adherence to the principle of having' absolute
field command, independent of political interference, stood' in the
way of his selection, and the appointment went to Nivelle. How
much power Petain insisted on wielding, and whether it included
command of all the Allied armies and the economic dictatorship of
France, was not disclosed, but his later appointment to supreme com-
mand was not looked on by those who knew* Petain as indicating
that he had made a surrender of this principle.

Petain was a soldier's soldier- who did not care for politics and
politicians. Tall, broad-shouldered, virile, and blue-eyed, he was a
man of few words, cold energy and. iron will, and his calm demeanor
covered resources of power and determination. His stoneiike expres-
sion frequently relaxed into a rather- whimsical smile, and, on oc-
casion, he could speak with a warmth of eloquence which, devoid of
all fine phrasing, nevertheless carried his every word straight to the
heart. His poilus adored him despite his uncompromising firmness;
lie was fair in his judgments and he knew just how to mingle with
his men. By his mere presence and tact he calmed all the agitation
which followed the offensive of April, 1917, the causes of which are
well known to-day and could easily be guessed then. His record as
a thorough reorganizer included much work in rebuilding the French
forces. Inexorable in discipline, going' to the length of meting out
the death sentence, he at the same time was held in the highest
esteem by the rank and file for brilliant military qualities. Soldiers
followed him devotedly and the people of France had great faith in
him. One of the finest things said by any commander in the war
was said by Petain. \Yhen a French army, in 191S, was about to
occupy German soil, he warned the poihi against reprisals. "So
aot." said he, "that the enemy will not know which to admire more,
your heroism in battle, or your conduct in victory."

WILLIAM S. SIMS, ADMIRAL OF THE UXITED STATES NAVY

It was said of Admiral Sims that, much as the quiet order of
Admiral Dewey at Manila "You may fire when you are ready,
Gridley," had gone into history, so probably would stand some words
nf Sims, who, on arrival at Queenstown in the early summer of 1917
with a fleet of American destroyers, when asked by the British com-

192

PERSONAL SKETCHES OF WAR LEADERS

mander how soon he would be ready for duty, replied calmly: "We
can start at once." The high place which Sims acquired with the
British was strikingly emphasized soon afterward when the Ad-
miralty transferred to him chief command of the Allied naval forces
in Irish waters during an absence of the ranking British Admiral.
That responsibility was an important one, for it meant protecting
the big liners that were plying between America and Great Britain.

Sims had sometimes been called "L* enfant terrible of the American
Navy." He was outspoken, had a way of breaking through red tape
and "speaking out in meeting" — at least when he thought criticism
would be of benefit to the Navy. At a formal dinner in London, in
1910, Sims declared that, if England should get into the war which
then seemed imminent, the Navy of the United States would be found
fighting beside the Navy of Great Britain, his exact words as re-
ported being: "If ever the time comes when the British Empire is
menaced by an external foe, she can count on every dollar, every
ship, and every drop of blood of her kindred across the sea !" After
this sentiment had readied the Kaiser, Germany promptly entered a
protest to Washington. The President disavowed the country's
sympathy with the statement, and Sims was reprimanded. Sims had
himself achieved his advancement in the Navy despite all the tra-
ditional handicaps. By hard work and unflagging zeal, he had dem-
onstrated his capability and his capacity for taking the initiative.
He knew fully the military value of personality and popularity.
Possessing personality in marked degree he was in that sense akin
to Admiral Sir David Beatty, of whom a British sailor exclaimed
after the battle of Jutland, "Confidence in David? Why, we'd go
to hell for David!"

Sims failed grievously when as a boy he sought admission to
Annapolis, but this did not dishearten him; it only made him de-
termined not to be refused again, and so he set to work to master
the subjects in which he had been most deficient. Once more he pre-
sented himself and was accepted. Devotion to duty, uncommon fear-
lessness and an ambition to see our Navy the best in the .world, were
leading characteristics of his. Sims had a thorough knowledge of
the service and the courage to impress his opinions upon those in
authority, even when this might be unpleasant business. He was
a Pennsylvanian, but born in Canada. His father, A. W. Sims,
had married a Canadian woman, who lived at Port Hope, Ontario,
and there William was born October 15, 1858. He spent his boy-
hood in Canada, and then his father moved back to Pennsylvania.
There were three boys in the family, and when William was seven-
teen, his father was offered a place for one of them at Annapolis.
The others did not care to go and so William had his chance for a

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SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

naval career. "It is not saying too much to credit Sims with having
pulled the Navy by its own boot-straps high out of a rut in which it
once seemed in a fair way to remain," said a writer in the New York
Sun. In that way Sims's career ran somewhat alongside of Lord
Fisher's. Improvement in gunnery had always been one of his main
hobbies. Another was efficiency, with promotion by merit and not
by years of service. He was typically cosmopolitan. Probably no
man in the American Navy had known intimately so many ranking
officers in European fleets. He was well-known in the naval circles
of London, Paris, and Petrograd, and everywhere welcomed because
of his personality and his professional attainments. 30a

ALFRED VON TIRPITZ, GRAND ADMIRAL OF THE GERMAN FLEET

' Germans had their own word for Tirpitz; he was "Tirpitz the
Eternal," which freely interpreted meant that among numerous
qualities he possest one that was rare in German cabinets; he was
the one minister who displayed tenacity in holding his job. No
German since Bismarck had held public office so long. The Kaiser
had had an endless succession of chancellors, foreign ministers, war
ministers and colonial secretaries; but "Tirpitz the Eternal," until
he was suddenly displaced early in 1916 on the submarine issue, ap-
parently had a life tenure. With the adoption of unrestricted sub-
marine warfare in February, 1917, however, he returned to power
and on him was placed the chief responsibility for the colossal
crimes with which that warfare thereafter was carried on. Things
that lay on the surface did not really produce this war — neither the
ultimatum to Serbia nor hurried mobilizations, nor the invasion of
Belgium. Back of all these stood in succession a long series of events
which as deeply affecting national interests, ambitions, and fears,
had changed national policies and popular psychology. One fact
that probably had most to do in changing the whole morale of the
German people within a few years was the German navy, and that
meant Tirpitz. He was more than a sailor, politician or adminis-
trator; he was a statesman who, for good or ill, fundamentally di-
rected the course of European history.

No longer ago than 1890 Lord Salisbury for lands in Africa had
given Heligoland back to the Kaiser — that same Heligoland which
in the World War served so effectively as a German naval base.
The explanation was simple enough; in 1890 the German Empire
had no fighting fleet. For many years afterward Great Britain still
unallied with any other Power, could glory in her "splendid
isolation." For a generation Russia, silently meditating the over-

30a Adapted from an article in The Literary Digest.

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PERSONAL SKETCHES OF WAR LEADERS

throw of British power in the East, had been playing the part in the
British outlook that Germany came to play in later years. In 1S98
England and France had been almost on the verge of war over
Fashoda. In the nineties the tie that bound Great Britain to her
colonies, and especially to Canada, Australia, and New Zealand, was
slighter than it had been in years, but within fewer than ten years
these conditions had so changed that instead of being splendidly
isolated, England found herself splendidly allied. France and
Russia, hereditary enemies, had become earnest friends and were now
England's friends and the colonies and mother country found them-
selves reunited in a happy family.

The man chiefly responsible £or this change was Tirpitz and his
famous "preamble," which as put into the naval law of 1900, formed
a new basis for the future history of Europe. "Germany must have
a fleet of such strength," the preamble read, "that a war, even
against the mightiest naval Power, would threaten the supremacy of
that Power." No nation had ever before announced a national
policy in such challenging fashion. Germany had declared her pur-
pose to build a navy so strong that it could destroy the navy of
Great Britain. Hence came a change in British foreign policy, an
abandonment of "isolation," and that series of alliances, ententes,
understandings, and good feeling, that ultimately left Germany and
her Austrian ally with no friend in Europe except the Turk. Despite
official explanations, magazine articles, and interviews, Englishmen
saw only one purpose in a steadily increasing German sea-power
which in case of war was to isolate Great Britain and ferry a Ger-
man army across the Channel. So long as Great Britain remained
the greatest naval Power and Germany the greatest military Power,
tbere had been no possibility of conflict. Germany's army and
Britain's navy both served similar national ends; each protected the
nation from obvious dangers, but neither could fight the other. As
the elder Moltke was the directing genius of German militarism, so
Tirpitz started Germany on the path of navalism which was to be-
come the Kaiser's absorbing passion. In looking for the real in-
spiration of the German fleet one had, however, to go beyond Tirpitz
and the Kaiser. The inspiring mind was not a German but an Amer-
ican ; a man who wrote a book which, soon after its appearance, be-
came the Kaiser's inseparable companion — Admiral Mahan and his
"The Influence of Sea Power in History." "I have not read your
book." said the Kaiser on meeting Mahan. "I have devoured it !"

Tirpitz's origin, altho very respectable, was comparatively
bourgeois; his father was a lawyer and judge in Frankfort-on-the-
Oder. Tirpitz was born in the Mark of Brandenburg, more than
one hundred miles from the sea. He grew up a somewhat raw-

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boned, ungainly, loutish boy, not especially marked for talent, dis-
tinguished only by a certain force of character and fixt determina-
tion. To his father he presented something of a problem and when
only sixteen was placed on board one of several frigates which com-
posed the Prussian navy and at that time served chiefly as havens
for the younger sons of impecunious Prussian noblemen. In after
years youthful aristocrats were often pained at Tirpitz's habit of
advancing sons of tradesmen over their heads and would run to the
Kaiser for consolation. "You'll have to get along with him as well
as you can," the Emperor would say, "That's what I have to do."
Once a ball-room favorite was discussing with Tirpitz his chances of
naval promotion. "You have very white hands for a man who hopes
to command a cruiser," was all the comfort he received. Another
candidate for advancement discovered that, in the eyes of Tirpitz,
he had one insuperable disqualification: he was a splendid dancer.
"The fact that you waltz so divinely," said the Grand Admiral,
"proves that you have no sea-legs. Sailors in the German navy can
not waltz their way to the bridge. Go learn the hornpipe." He
never regarded social graces as desirable attributes for men who ex-
pected to fight battles at sea, and always frowned upon the practise
of using warships in foreign ports for balls and receptions.

His talents so stood upon the surface — initiative, industry, knowl-
edge, commanding personality, the evidence which he gave, in every
act and work, of a capacious brain — that his career became one
success after another. He was a lieutenant at twenty; a lieutenant-
commander at twenty-five and twenty years after entering the navy
was flying the pennant of a rear-admiral. He first attracted the
attention of the Kaiser by reorganizing the German torpedo fleet.
He was also instrumental in establishing the German outpost of
Kiaochow which was directly under his jurisdiction as Minister of
Marine. With his forked beard, large, round face, huge bulk, he
incarnated physically the sea-god Neptune. With a genuine sailor
he could easily unbend. He could roar out a sailor's ditty with the
best of them. His business and his relaxations were all nautical and
he had one favorite topic of conversation — the disgraceful inadequacy
of the Kaiser's fleet and the necessity of placing German sea-power
on a plane with its military strength. If he had one enthusiasm, it
was the British Navy; he .admired its history, traditions and great
achievements. Nelson, Drake, Hawkins, and other great sea-rovers had
been the guiding influences of his life. When he came to the United
States with Prince Henry in 1902, American naval officers found him
a delightful and congenial comrade as well as a wide-awake observer.

The task enjoined upon him by the Kaiser was a definite one; to
create an effective German fleet. Public opinion, and public opinion

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PERSONAL SKETCHES OF WAR LEADERS

only, as he manipulated it, created the German fleet. Before he was
admiral, or a naval statesman, Tirpitz became a press-agent —
probably the most successful in the world; certainly the one who
operated on the largest scale. America never organized a press
bureau that could compare with Tirpitz's. His Navy League —
started in 1898 — was the parent of all similar organizations. We
now have a Navy League of our own, but, with some thousands of
members, a pigmy compared with the one Germany had with nearly
a million and a half members. While Tirpitz organized his Flotten-
verein Prince Henry was placed at its head, purely for the purpose
of being the main instrument in a "campaign of education." Tirpitz
sought to teach the German people why they needed a navy, what
kind they needed, and how they could get it. The league had branches
not only in every province, city, town, village, and hamlet in the
empire, but in every part of the world where Germans lived. Even
England — the country against which the German navy was aimed —
had branches of the German Navy League, and it had thousands of
loyal and contributing members in the United States. It poured
forth an unending stream of naval information, in the shape of
newspaper articles, interviews, pamphlets, and lithographs; it had
motion-picture shows and lecturers who visited the remotest villages.
It even introduced its propaganda into public schools. As a result
the most benighted Pomeranian peasant who had hardly known that
salt water existed and had never imagined what a warship was, began
to discuss glibly the relative values of destroyers and light cruisers
and to debate the possibilities of dreadnoughts and submarines. The
German navy, almost as much as the army, began to figure as a
bulwark of the empire.

Besides the Navy League, Tirpitz organized a regular press bureau.
These agencies, always active, displayed particular liveliness when
legislation was pending. He organized special excursion trips from
the interior to the seaboard, at extremely low rates, so that the every-
day German farmer and workman, with his wife and babies, might
have an opportunity to see the Kaiser's battleships, inspect big guns,
and so feel himself a part of a machine he had helped to pay for.
In our own country we have had no "accelerator" who could rank
with Tirpitz. When the Reichstag met and took under consideration
naval estimates, they found they had a new master ; back of Tirpitz
were the "folks at home." He was not only a great press agent, but
a finished wire-puller and button-holer. He did not stiffly remain
aloof and request the Reichstag to do certain things, but went among
its members with an ingratiating smile and a quiet voice, making in-
dividual appeals. He cultivated members, joked with them, told
them funny stories, made them his friends. His six feet of bulk, his

v. x— 14 197

SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

grizzled forked beard, his rotund, weather-beaten face moved among
them with the adroitness of an American lobbyist.

Clad in the full uniform of his rank as he appeared before the
budget committee there were few figures so compelling. Tirpitz
loved to answer questions, especially when they were irritating ones;
"heckling" was his meat and drink. Without a memorandum or a
navy register he could instantaneously give details of practically
everything pertaining to naval construction. He knew not only the
German navy, but every navy in the world ; could rattle off the naval
appropriations" made by other countries for a dozen years back, and
tell how they had been spent. To all inquiries he responded in a
modulated voice, never becoming excited, never attempting to bull-
doze any one, but always displaying a mild persistence that in-
variably triumphed.

A British view of his work came from Mr. Balfour in a speech that
almost stunned the people of England. "For the first time in modern
history," said Mr. Balfour, "there is bordering upon the North Sea,
upon our own waters, the waters that bathe our own shores, a great
Power that has the capacity, and looks as if it had the will, to com-
pete with us in point of actual numbers of battleships." With Eng-
land it had been no longer a matter of maintaining the two-power
standard; it was a question of maintaining a one-power standard.
This speech was made in 1909 — the year in which England awoke to
learn that the German fleet, at the existing rate of construction,
would, in a couple of years, be more powerful than Great Britain's.
Tirpitz was building so rapidly, and apparently so secretly, that
Britain's naval power was threatened with extinction. There was
something humorous in the idea of building battleships clandestinely ;
ordinarily nothing would seem more difficult to conceal ; yet this, ac-
cording to Mr. Balfour and Premier Asquith, was what Tirpitz was
doing. In 1909 a German naval law stipulated laying down four
capital ships; besides these, said Mr. Asquith, Germany was laying
down four not on the program. Never, said the London Times, had
the world witnessed such a complete, deliberate preparation for war
on a gigantic scale. There was no longer any possibility of ignoring
Germany's objective.

Prussia throughout its history had always struck in the dark, and
always aimed, by secret preparation, to take an enemy unawares.
As Frederick II had struck at Austria and ravished Silesia, as Bis-
marck had struck at France and taken Alsace-Lorraine, so Wilhelm
II was craftily preparing to make a sudden onslaught on England.
Tirpitz had labored only a little more than ten years and here was
the fruition of his work. In 1909 the wisest of living English
statesmen had warned the country that the German navy, in two

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years, would be in a position to give battle to English ships with
more than even chances of success. The thing that had so changed
the outlook was an English development — the dreadnought.

Fundamentally, dreadnought-building represented a contest of
wits between the two greatest naval minds of the day — Sir John
Fisher and Tirpitz. For several years the two had been conducting
a new kind of long-range duel, concretely exprest in new battleships,
destroyers, cruisers, and other fighting craft. Tirpitz, in his rapid
program, had already caused great changes in British naval policy.
For one thing he had forced Sir John to withdraw his big ships from
the Mediterranean and concentrate them in the North Sea, thus
making the British Empire dependent on France for its highway to
India. German money was pouring into the navy so fast, the ships
were being launched so rapidly, and popular enthusiasm in Ger-
many was increasing at such a pace, that Sir John was nonplussed.
What possible way to meet and to destroy for all time this growing
German menace? A ship, designed several years before for the
American Navy, but never built, presented itself as the solution.

This was a huge affair, displacing 18,000 tons — the biggest ships
before 1905 had displaced about 15,000 — and distinguished by the
fact that its armament consisted chiefly of big guns. Such a ship
could sail faster, shoot farther, and have greater destructive power
than any other then afloat. "If I start building a fleet of this type" —
we can imagine Sir John reasoning to himself — "Germany will have
to retire from the contest. The cost is appalling — three or four
times that of the prevailing style in battleships — and Germany, being
a much poorer country than England, will not be able to raise the
cash. Again, Germany built the Kiel Canal for strategic purposes —
as a commercial enterprise it was a failure — so that she could keep
her fleet at will either in the Baltic or the North Sea ; but this new
ship is too big to go through the canal; so Germany will not build
it. Anyway, even if she wills, she can't do it. There is not a ship-
yard in Germany that has a slip big enough to build such a vessel,
and the navy has no docks big enough to hold one. Here, therefore,
is the one way of snuffing out this presumptuous young sea power —
and this without anything resembling a war."

Such was the philosophy back of the dreadnought. Apparently it
destroyed at a stroke the strong navy that Tirpitz had laboriously
built up on conventional lines, but Tirpitz saw the situation in another
light. It really furnished him the great opportunity he had been
seeking. The dreadnought was the most colossal instance of miscalcu-
lation that naval history records. It was true that, as Sir John
had foreseen, it made obsolete the German navy, but it made obso-
lete the British Navy as well. After it was launched, the first-line

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battle strength of all navies would be measured by dreadnoughts
and by dreadnoughts alone. This meant that, in the race for naval
supremacy, every nation would start on even terms. England had
had such a great lead that, had the status quo been preserved, Ger-
many could never have caught up with her but when England volun-
tarily pigeon-holed her whole fleet, she lost this enormous handicap.

Tirpitz sprang at this opportunity with all the rapidity of genius.
The Navy League and the press bureau found a new inspiration ; the
new navy of dreadnoughts became the staple of conversation. When
the Reichstag met, huge naval estimates were presented, and Tirpitz
made another of his historic appearances before the budget com-
mittee and the Reichstag passed an amendment to the naval law,
providing for a naval program of thirty-eight dreadnoughts and
twenty cruisers. In 1908 the Reichstag amended its program so that
an ultimate German navy of fifty-eight dreadnoughts became Tir-
pitz's answer to Sir John's challenge and an appropriation of $50,-
000,000 for rebuilding the Kiel Canal, so that these ships could
pass through was promptly voted. Sir John had asserted that Ger-
many, in 1906, hadn't a single slip big enough to build a dread-
nought; three years later she had seventeen. Tirpitz had called
together all the biggest shipbuilders and told them to prepare to
build these warships.

Such an enormous spurt followed in shipping equipment as the
world had never seen before. Mr. Asquith informed a bewildered
Parliament that one firm had manufactured the complete armament of
eight battleships in a single year. Until the dreadnought period no
country had been able to build ships as rapidly as England, but in
1909 there was no question that German yards could turn out as
many ships a year as the English; the only debatable point was
whether they could not build more.

Every morning at seven Tirpitz could be found at his desk in the
Leipzigstrasse, going over plans, receiving contracts, driving bar-
gains. In the work of construction and finance he also shone. He
felt so sure of his success in the Reichstag that he virtually awarded
contracts before the money had been voted. To all English excite-
ment he turned a smiling and deprecating, face. He denied that
Germany was secretly building ships. "The purpose of the German
fleet," he said, "is to preserve peace for Germany — even against the
strongest opponent at sea."

A half century of service more strenuous than that of any sailor
since Nelson seemed to have affected Tirpitz slightly. His bony
frame and the deliberate movements of his legs and arms made the
old man seem heavier and bigger than he actually was. The hearti-
ness of his mode of salutation, even when he met a stranger, and

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the unflinching gaze of his eyes, together with a frankness of speech
bordering at times on indiscretion, received their due from British
newspapers, which confest that Tirpitz was really a fine old pirate.
His smile was irresistible. When he could carry his point in no
other way, he would smile at you. He was, however, fundamentally
a hot-tempered creature, ready with a heated retort upon occasion,
but he was capable of ineffable benignity in persuasive moods.

One saw Tirpitz at his best when the naval committee of the
Reichstag, hesitating over some huge appropriation, was listening
to him. The deputies before him might be grotesquely ignorant of
the sea, they might represent any form of radicalism and might have
no social standing whatever, but never, for that reason, would Tirpitz
abate a jot of his geniality. Nor would he crush a stupid objection
with the sarcasm of an expert. He simply would beam — beam irre-
sistibly— while elucidating with paternal benevolence the mysteries
of naval strategy to a dolt. This was all unlike the traditional
Prussian mode of handling men at popular assemblies. Tirpitz sug-
gested less the courtier and the diplomatist than the kind father
laboring over a stupid son. Many an hour had he sat with Reichstag
deputies, maps and plans spread out before him, explaining in a low,
guttural voice the significance of scout-cruisers and the importance
of torpedoes. He had the expert's knowledge of his subject; but,
unlike the average expert, he could impart what he knew lucidly, and
make the theme entrancing.

The social gifts for which Tirpitz was famous — felicity in anecdote,
hospitable spirit, eagerness to win a place in the heart of a guest —
promoted his ambition to make the fleat invincible. His capacity to
develop the submarine was not more remarkable than his aptitude
for the genial arts that make converts. His object was ever to win
over the young. A youthful deputy in the Reichstag was always
made much of when shown over a dreadnought. In dealing with
journalists, Tirpitz was no less winning. There was no haughtiness,
no official manner, no secrets with him. One could not get away from
him without a cigar, an embrace, and a pressing invitation to come
again. All this was a great change from days when journalists had
had doors slammed in their faces in Berlin. Even visiting London
journalists were welcome, Tirpitz benevolently protesting with up-
lifted hands that there could be no possible enmity between the
fleets of the Kaiser and those of the King.

The genius of Tirpitz was primarily that of the engineer. At
least such was the verdict of many well-informed journalists who
had studied the man. All agreed in high estimates of his statesman-
ship, his instinctive diplomacy, masterful disposition, and tempera-
mental geniality. Beyond these traits, or underlying them, was a

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genius for engineering that had made his extraordinary career
possible. He had the highest form of imaginative constructiveness —
that of the mathematician. His was the Euclidian mind which went
in a straight line to his object, never losing sight of it. He did not
lose himself in unbounded vistas after the manner of many Germans.
His characteristics were not those of the sailor in the British sense.
He thought in terms of the torpedo; how that projectile could be
aimed, its range, its possibilities, and its limitation. Such details
absorbed him and hence his concentration upon the submarine.31

8J Principal Sources : Largely an article by James Middleton in The World's
Work, but in part based on a compilation by Alexander Harvey in Current
Opinion, and on articles in The Spectator and The Daily Mail (London),
Vossische Zeitung (Berlin), Neue Freie Presse (Vienna) and Figaro and
Gaulois (Paris).

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RULERS AND STATESMEN

ALBERT, KING OF THE BELGIANS

The world at large had known little about Albert when, on
August 4, he sent to King George of Great Britain his "supreme
appeal to the diplomatic intervention of your Majesty's Government
to safeguard the integrity of Belgium." Albert's appeal was the
factor which finally impelled Great Britain to cast her lot with
France and Russia, but he had already refused to permit German
troops to take a short cut through his country on their way to
France. "Blood and iron" made much history in Belgium after the
"scrap of paper" was torn up. The Belgians suffered as no other
people had suffered in modern times. They fought a good fight
against overwhelming odds. Their country was overrun, their fields
were laid waste, towns and cities were destroyed, and thousands
of humble peasants made destitute and hungry. Albert himself
was driven from three capitals — Brussels, Antwerp, Ostend — to seek
refuge in France with the remnant of his shattered army.

Albert, a king without a kingdom, was then thirty-nine years old.
When he ascended the throne, on December 23, 1909, in succession
to his uncle, King Leopold II, of unsavory memory, he looked for
prosperous and peaceful days for his people. He had no military
aim to achieve; he believed his country was secure because of the
Treaty of London. His individual tastes ran to peaceful pursuits;
his chief desire being to help the Belgians, an industrious people, to
achieve greater prosperity. He had already trained himself in state-
craft, and by doing so had won confidence. Not until the death of
his elder brother, Prince Baodoin, in 1891, did he realize that he
might some day be called upon to rule over the Belgians. He was then
sixteen years old. In 1898 he came to the United States to see its
engineering and electrical wonders, and to study educational methods,
particularly those relating to industrial training. He traveled over
the country, saw the oil fields of Pennsylvania, the steel works of
Pittsburgh, visited large manufacturing cities in Massachusetts, and
made a tour of the railroad centers of the West with James J. Hill
as his guide. He dodged social events as much as possible, altho he
met many men responsible for American industrial development, and
dined at the White House.

One day he spent at Harvard, where he watched crew squads and

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SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

inspected dormitories and historic buildings. A Harvard graduate
recalled how one day the Prince was ushered into his room in old
Stoughton Hall by President Eliot, who said to him and his room-
mate: "Young gentlemen, this is the Crown Prince of Belgium."
"I saw," said the Harvard man afterward, "a tall, pale-faced,
angular, and rather awkward youth — he was only, about twenty-
three then. An army officer in uniform and a court physician trailed
along behind. The Prince held his silk hat stiffly in hand and stept
forward. His hand-shake was hearty and vigorous. 'I am glad to
meet you/ he said. 'It is a pleasure to see your quarters, and it is
very good of you to admit us.' He spoke good English, with scarcely
a trace of accent. The Prince spied a group picture of some college
girls, and examined it carefully. 'You have some very beautiful
women in America/ h» said, with a smile. 'I have often heard them
praised, and now I am learning that it is all justified.' "

When he became king, Albert was the only European monarch
who had been in personal contact with the industrial life of America.
One of the problems that King Albert had to tackle was the Kongo,
the rich and extensive African colony which Leopold controlled and
exploited personally as a business venture. ' The Kongo atrocities
had long been a blot on the white man's civilization, and the whole
world demanded better treatment for the negroes in Belgium's pos-
sessions. King Albert was well equipped to formulate a humane
policy. Some years before, contrary to the wishes of King Leopold,
ID had visited the Kongo country and observed the condition of the
natives. He thus applied first-hand knowledge in working out re-
forms, and if all the abuses were not remedied, a more intelligent
and humane policy was enforced under his guidance.

Albert maintained a reputation for clean living. He kept himself
apart from his uncle. His married life had been a happy one with
his consort, Queen Elizabeth, daughter of Duke Charles Theodore
of Bavaria. Queen Elizabeth was an accomplished woman, a regis-
tered physician, a graduate of Leipzig, and had a sound knowledge of
art, literature, and music. The King admitted that she taught him to
appreciate art and literature, two things that were banished from the
Belgian court during the reign of Leopold. After the marriage of
Albert and Elizabeth in 1900, they made a tour of Europe and the
Far East, traveling only with one maid and courier. Three children
have been born to them — Phillip, the Crown Prince; Prince Charles,
and Princess Marie. Both the King, whose mother was a Hohen-
zollern, and the Queen severed many blood ties in defying the Ger-
man Kaiser.

War did not have to reveal the true King Albert to the Belgians,
but it did reveal him to the outside world. Long before the war

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PERSONAL SKETCHES OF WAR LEADERS

crisis the people of Belgium had seen their king in mines with a
pick and shovel, on railroads driving an engine, and in factories,
in which he exploited a mechanical gift for which he was remarkable
from boyhood. He afforded the anomalous spectacle of an in-
tellectual sovereign ruling a not particularly thoughtful people, a
grave monarch in a normally gay realm. His stern devotion to
sociology, his dreams of a paradise on earth for workers in mine
and mart, brought upon him some criticism. Even his genius,
mathematical and mechanical, seemed alien to his environment, for
Brussels before her tragedy was the gayest of capitals, and her
sovereign in his splendid palace was sometimes a riddle to his people.
They were more accustomed to Leopold.

One had to go back to the Homeric age for an ideal illustration of
all that Albert, in the capacity of King, came to signify to the Bel-
gians. He was the comrade as well as the sovereign of his soldiers.
The Homeric virtues of courage, endurance, and strength equipped
him for the Homeric life he was to lead, charging the foe in the
forefront of battle, lying by night in a circle of his soldiers, listening
to tales of war. He was the commander-in-chief of his people, their
judge and their representative before the world. Like an Homeric
prince he helped in the building of trenches and acted as his own
charioteer, or chauffeur. His sway was absolute because founded
on the example of heroism that he set. His people loved him because
he lived their life. Glimpses of King Albert in the trenches revealed
him in a soiled uniform, eating warmed-up soup, sharing his match
with a soldier from whom he received a cigaret, or affording first
aid to the injured.

Albert's cheek-bones tended to prominence, and his voice was
rough and heavy. The tall figure lost flesh during the war and his
complexion was no longer ruddy. Early in the war there was a
slight limp in his walk, for a wound in the foot received at Antwerp
was slow to heal. His presence with his men was so much a matter
of course that he expected no attention after a swift salute from a
soldier to whom he spoke. The etiquette of peace was gone. Bel-
gians no longer stood when in the King's presence. His rank was
quite forgotten as he held a torch while engineers repaired a break
in a gun-carriage, or lathered his face for him to shave himself with-
out a mirror. Albert was knocked down by a wounded horse during
the retreat from Antwerp, and, as his car had been commandeered
for ambulance purposes, he walked into France surrounded by thou-
sands of troops as ragged and hungry as himself.

King Albert before the war ran over to London frequently,
walking up the Strand in London with no evidence of his rank about
him. He and his consort woul'd put up at a plain little hotel of an

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SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

exclusive kind and visit the theater as ordinary persons. Albert
was often fortunate enough to pass through throngs unnoticed ex-
cept for his height. It was related of a dealer in motor-cars in
London that he had dealt personally with King Albert, selling him
two automobiles, and even going with him to luncheon without sus-
pecting that his customer was a European sovereign. One day in
making a purchase in London, in reply to the usual question, he
stated that his name was Albert. "Albert what?" queried the sales-
person. "King," said his Majesty. In due time the purchase ar-
rived, addrest to "Albert King, Esquire."

The courage of Leopold defied the public opinion of Europe in
Kongo affairs, but the courage of Albert enabled him to lead a
national forlorn hope to a high consummation. The tragedy in
which Leopold played the conspicuous part was that of the Kongo;
the tragedy of which Albert was the central figure glorified him in
the eyes of mankind. His personality was a lesson since it taught
that men become great, not through possessing great qualities, but
through the use to which those qualities are put.32

HERBERT HENRY ASQUITH, PRIME MINISTER OF GREAT BRITAIN

While reasonably approachable, Mr. Asquith was sometimes a
hard person to see. He was an exceptional public man in that,
while far from courting publicity, he by nature and habit shunned
the limelight. His most implacable enemy would never have sug-
gested that he was anything of an actor. Even when he entered a
room he did not feel called upon to act the part of Prime Minister.
He was strong, healthy, and British, his hair almost white, but his
face youthful, discounting his age by ten years. He was a reserved
man, and might have been taken for a shy professor of Greek as
he bowed, not without geniality, and walked quietly to a place in a
room. But he was a different person in the House of Commons,
where he never made a bad speech, altho at times he had "tough
cases." Whenever he spoke he disclosed his feeling for good English
by a rare choice of words, and a style that easily and clearly made
its points. Nothing but thorough scholarship and long training in
public speaking could have produced addresses so eloquent. His
career at school and at Oxford had been strewn with classical prizes.
In debate he overshadowed at Oxford all others of his day. He
would talk with such simplicity of some British disaster as to make
the event all the more dramatic. In that way he talked in 1914 of the

32 Adapted from an article by Alexander Harvey in Current Opinion and
based on articles in The Tribune (New York), Figaro (Paris), The Standard
(London), and from an article by "W. B. H." in The Evening Post (New
York).

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PERSONAL SKETCHES OF WAR LEADERS

loss of three warships — the cruisers Aboukir, Cressy, and Hogue —
12,000-ton boats. As he made that announcement of the first dis-
aster to the British Navy in this war one thought primarily of his
serenity. Not in the slightest degree was he flustered, and yet he
was not indifferent. One knew intuitively how deeply he was moved,
but he did not unmask his emotion. His poise was admirable —
nothing about revenge, and no boasting.

Mr. Asquith was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn in June, 1876.
After success before the Parnell Commission, he became Queen's
Counsel and gradually concentrated on appellate work before the
House of Lords and the Privy Council. He was earning, perhaps,
£15,000 a year when he became Prime Minister. When the English
bar celebrated in him the elevation of one of its members to the
premiership, Sir Edward Clarke said that "for thirty years he had
preserved an untarnished shield." Mr. Asquith was born in York-
shire of Puritan stock sixty-two years before the war began. He
never took his business home with him, notwithstanding his home as
Premier was also his place of business. The Chief Executive of the
British Government was both officially and privately domiciled in a
house of dull-brown brick which, from the outside at least, would be
considered unworthy any Cabinet officer's dignity in the United
States. Within doors, however, it was delightful.

Even on great occasions Mr. Asquith seldom allowed himself more
than half an hour for a speech. Twenty minutes would usually
suffice him even when he had something historic to reveal, but every-
thing essential had been said. Serenity of temper, reserve of lan-
guage, an absence of everything that was personal, made him the
ideal spokesman of a government. One would search in vain through-
out his speeches for a word that was violent and provocative. Slowly,
steadily, without passion as without haste, he conducted debates day
after day, week after week. Tories might yell and fume, even break
out in riotous disorder, but Mr. Asquith would proceed on his way
with deadly precision and relentlessness, tranquil, self-contained,
and unmoved.

With his rise to supremacy not so much of station as of intellectual
mastery, there came a subtle change in his personality. No man
had been more misunderstood. No man lent himself so much to mis-
understanding. He was an Englishman to his finger-tips, and a
Yorkshireman, and had more than the usual reserve of his country-
men, but reserve has often been the mask for shyness and shyness
lends itself to misunderstanding. Even if he wanted to, Mr. Asquith
was incapable of making advances — especially to those who misun-
derstood him. He was of the type to whom power gravitates. In
a crowd he would sit in silence, but his personality would impress

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all with his distinction even tho no one knew who he was. No living
statesman eschewed the trappings of greatness more sedulously.
Even his clothes lacked suggestion of distinction ; he affected the quiet
black sack coat and the gray trousers that were the vogue in his
youth. He had not modified the habits of a lifetime to the extent
of keeping a valet. Unlike the modern man, he used the telephone
very little and his motor-car rides were never for pleasure. His
taste in literature reflected his mind. He read philosophy and eco-
nomics rather than poetry and fiction. The deeds of great explorers
always interested him. He never concealed his lack of sympathy
for "feminism" in its extreme contemporary form. His Utopia
would be a man's world; but the men would be high-minded,
chivalrous, and above all efficient.

His was a quiet and sheltered youth giving no indication of future
renown. There remained in him much of the English middle-class
mind. His soul was shadowed by Yorkshire hard common sense.
While he had a wide acquaintance with literature he seemed to be-
long distinctly to the Victorians. This left him at times discon-
certingly old-fashioned, not only as to literary likings but as to
political ideals. He preferred the Victorian novelists, Charles Reade
and Wilkie Collins, to writers of contemporary fiction. Few Eng-
lish politicians had read so much American literature, but what he
read had the Victorian flavor — Poe, Hawthorne, Lowell, Longfellow,
and Emerson. He came from a rather long line of Yorkshire non-
conformist ancestors, men and women who were dissenters from the
established church and lived by the Scriptures, but he was devoted
to the theater and made no concealment of his fondness for cards.
He was prejudiced against peers and claims of noble birth, resenting
superiority not founded on natural gifts. His aristocracy would be
one of talent.

"Asquith is the one pupil of mine," said Jowett who was proud of
him, "for whom I most confidently predict success in life." Jowett
made another remark which showed how well he understood his
pupil : "Asquith will get on — he is so direct." His capacity to get
at facts and to state them with lucidity was equalled only by his in-
tegrity in disclosing them. He made his big hit when he appeared
before the Parnell Commission. The prestige of that effect had not
worn away when Gladstone, delighted with his first speech before
the Commons, offered to make Asquith Home Secretary, which was
then a great post. Those historic trouble-makers, Home Rule for
Ireland and Welsh Church Disestablishment, both under him re-
ceived the royal assent — Home Rule after twenty-eight years of
effort, and Disestablishment first introduced by Mr. Asquith under
Gladstone, now after twenty years of waiting. These two momentous

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reforms could not have been made law but for the Parliamentary
Act, Asquith's own measure, that abolished the veto of the House of
Lords, and thus freed the democratic institutions of England of the.
last strain of feudalism. He was the first Minister of Great Britain
to recognize the right of every man and woman in the country to
live in comfort when too infirm to earn a living, for he secured old-
age pensions for the poor.

Eminent fairness, or a desire to be eminently fair, characterized all
his comments on the war. Not only in public remarks was this true,
but in private conversation. Everything he said was in the best of
temper and marked by unvarying moderation. There was no note of
infallibility in his statements, or his arguments, nothing to the effect
that England could do no wrong. In his view Great Britain was at
war, in 1914, to vindicate the sanctity of treaty obligations and of
what was properly called the public law of Europe; to assert and to
enforce the independence of free states, relatively small and weak,
against the violence of the strong; and to withstand, in the interests
not only of their own empire, but of civilization at large, the arrogant
claim of a single Power to dominate the development of Europe.33

THEOBALD VON BETHMANN-HOLLWEG, CHANCELLOR OF THE
GERMAN EMPIRE

Strolling with his hands behind his back along the unpretentious
Wilhelmstrasse in Berlin, and pausing in a characteristic manner
as if he had suddenly remembered something, Bethmann-Hollweg,
Chancellor when the war began, and destined to his principal place
in history as the author of the "scrap of paper" phrase, remained
for more than two years as impressively unimpressive to journalists
in Berlin as he had seemed to be to the German people when Em-
peror William suddenly made him Chancellor, in succession to
Prince von Billow. He was a lonely, as well as a distinguished,
figure, whose gigantic height was accentuated by a black overcoat
and high silk hat. His bowed head, with its Saxon nose, was seldom
lifted up toward the unassuming fronts of the buildings he passed
in his daily walk to the imperial palace. On his way he would some-
times drcvp into a bookstore to finger the latest issues from the press,
paying most attention to works of philosophy — not commentaries on
Nietzsche and Schopenhauer, but studies in the manner of Hermann
Turck, the latest thinker under discussion in Germany. Bethmann-
Hollweg was essentially a Christian in his outlook upon life, a man
remote from materialism, a simple nature in a complex age.

83 Adapted from an article by Alexander Harvey in Current Opinion and
from one by H. B. Needham in The Saturday Evening Post (Philadelphia).

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SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

What especially amazed a journalist in conversing with him was
the recklessness of candor with which he would discuss anything.
Continental Europeans in high office were as a rule discreet — over-
whelmingly discreet — but the Chancellor would discuss anything with
no reserve at all — the war, the Emperor William, the future of the
Pope, Gothe, Belgium, or what you like. This was no mere policy.
It was just his way. A certain artlessness of manner and slowness of
utterance that suggested one who thinks aloud, heightened the effect
of his uncalculated indiscretions. Now and then when he would
forget a detail he did not summon a lackey in uniform, as Prince von
Billow would have done, but went himself in search of a paper he
wished to lay before the visitor. Everything he said and did was
done with characteristic gravity. There were no sweet smiles after
the Billow manner, no epigrams, no airs.

Prussian in origin, Prussian by birth, and most Prussian of all by
education, a classmate of the Kaiser at Bonn, Bethmann-Hollweg
revealed, neither in manner nor in mode of life, qualities best known
to men as Prussian. He represented a survival from an age that
glorified Gothe and Schiller and imbibed Kant and Fichte. His
simplicity in eating and drinking — his favorite beverage being light
beer and his favorite edible cold sausage — suggested the humble pro-
fessor. He loomed above most men when afoot in Berlin streets,
carrying a parcel of books in his hand, instead of riding in the
vehicle of his office. For luncheon a table was reserved for him in
a quiet little restaurant that never was fashionable and, despite his
regular coming, never would be. When accosted he seemed to come
out of a brown study into a world he had altogether forgotten. His
simplicity was that of one who never considered his own personality,
his own interests, or the effect upon his fortunes of whatever he
did or said.

Never in his career had he exemplified this trait so completely as
in the course of his famous speech in the Reichstag on the invasion of
Belgium. When he spoke of "a wrong" his country would be doing,
he gave no thought at all to what his enemies might make of the
admission. One trait only was shared by him with his brilliant
predecessor Billow — a love of the arts. He surrounded himself with
books, pictures, and musical instruments, and had a preference for
Verdi over Wagner. Apparently if he had any favorite composer it
was Beethoven. He delighted, too, in Brahms. His discriminating
taste in pictures revealed itself in a preference for Jan Vermeer,
at a time when that Dutch artist had not been recognized except by
a few. His supreme resource was his private library, a great sunny
room lined from floor to ceiling with well-stocked shelves. The
place showed at once that it was the working library of a scholar.

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His taste was not for the elegant in literature. One encountered no
such author as Merimee, in whom Billow delighted, nor Carducci,
whom the Prince deemed Europe's first modern poet. Bethmann-
Hollweg read Kant, whose "Critique of Pure Reason" he placed
beside anything from Aristotle or Plato. He was like Gladstone in
devotion to theology, and, like the British statesman, gave much
attention to classical literature.

In a remote village of Brandenburg he was born nearly sixty years
before the war began, and he had the melancholy temperament of
Brandenburgers, the characteristic grave eye and the fervent Chris-
tian piety. The Kaiser himself was sometimes called a Branden-
burger by which it was implied that he was more prayerful more
addicted to theology than the average Prussian. Bethmann-Hollweg
was given to the economies of his type, which carefully saves pieces
of string for future use, and eats sparingly. He was likewise careful
of his clothes, which he wore long after they had ceased to be fashion-
able. Such thrift was ascribed in part to his comparative poverty
for one in his class; but, had he been very rich, he could not have
thrown off the habits of a lifetime. These tendencies were inherited
from a Frankfort merchant who founded the family early in the
last century and was noted for ability to accumulate money.

A more eminently respectable figure than Bethmann-Hollweg on
his way to church — which he never missed on Sunday — it would have
been hard to conceive. He had a pleasing voice and never shrank
from the sound of it when hymns were sung. Members of the little
congregation had known him for years. Nothing was thought of the
fact that, in flat defiance of all precedent, he slipt into a rear seat
and made way readily for any one who afterward came in. Now
and then in leaving church he would forget his umbrella, whereupon
some little boy would run after him with it. Sometimes he would
accept an invitation from the pastor to lunch, and off the pair would
go on foot side by side, immersed in theology or philosophy, to
some humble street in Berlin, from which the Chancellor would re-
turn, still afoot, swinging his long arms, stretching his long legs, a
highly respectable gentleman, colliding occasionally with a pedestrian,
or menaced by the whip of an impatient driver, or yelled at by a
chauffeur. The compelling and original fact about the German
Imperial Chancellor of 1914 was his unimportant and inconsequential
aspect. The nation which "aroused the world to arms and filled the
ears of men with strange new cries, as it revived Napoleonisms and
Caesarisms, confronted the world with a simple-minded Herr Doctor,
carrying a shabby umbrella, when you expected to see a Bismarck."

That unassuming personality did not reflect insignificance. He
was essentially a man strong in principle and action, unable to be a

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SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

mere instrument in the hands of others. Those who knew the court
of Berlin at first hand were sure of his moral ascendency over the
Kaiser. There existed between them, not only a strong tie of affec-
tion dating from Bonn, but a bond based on a perception by the
younger man of the heroic moral traits of the elder. There was no
sycophancy in the Imperial Chancellor, no yielding of conviction to
expediency. The fact that so strong a nature was chosen for so
exalted a dignity refuted the charge that William II would endure
no criticism. Bethmann-Hollweg was succeeded in his office by a
succession of brief -tenured men — Michaelis, Hertling, Prince Max —
but none of these are names that will survive in histories of this war,
as will Bethmann-Hollweg's and his "scrap of paper." 34

SIR ROBERT LAIRD BORDEN, PREMIER OF CANADA

A descendant of Samuel Borden, surveyor, who went to Falmouth,
Nova Scotia, from the American colonies in 1760, Sir Robert Borden
was styled the ablest parliamentarian in Canadian public life, one
whose whole attitude stood for everything that was best in the life of
the Dominion. The Canadian Law Journal described him as having
"a wide and accurate knowledge, fertile of resource, firm of purpose,
and a manner that has won for him the friendship and the con-
fidence of all men well posted on public affairs." Such was the man
who was elected leader of the Conservative Party in the Canadian
House of Commons upon the resignation of Sir Charles Tupper in
February, 1901.

Before entering into politics Sir Robert Borden was an extensive
practitioner in law, both in the Supreme Court of Nova Scotia and
the Supreme Court of the Dominion. As a master of the political
situation in Canada, and as one best qualified to speak of its re-
sources, Sir Robert Borden was summoned by the Government of
Great Britain to attend a meeting of the British Cabinet held July
14, 1915. He was the first overseas minister to receive such a sum-
mons and represented the Canadian Dominion at the Imperial War
Cabinet in 1917 and at the Imperial War Conference in 1918. He
was born at Grand Pre, June 26, 1854, and has been Premier of
the Dominion of Canada since 1911. As a representative of one of
the larger Dominions beyond the seas, Sir Robert Borden proved an
able representative of his country, and a man of whom Canada had
good reason to be .proud.35

34 Adapted from an article compiled by Alexander Harvey for Current Opinion
from the Figaro, Temps, and Oaulois (Paris).

88 Compiled from "Canadian Men and Women o:? the Time" and "Who's
Who, 1918-1919" (London).

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PERSONAL SKETCHES OF WAR LEADERS

LOUIS BOTHA, PREMIER OF. THE UNION OF SOUTH AFRICA

Louis Botha was born at Greytown, Natal, in 1863. He was a
member of the first Volksraad of the South African Republic, and
served as field cornet at the beginning of the Anglo-Boer War.

As Commander-in-Chief of the Boer forces he succeeded General
Joubert, being in command at the battle of Colenso, and during the
remainder of the war. In the interests of his country he visited
England in 1902, 1907, and 1911.

He was elected Premier of the Transvaal 1907-1910, and as Honor-
ary General of the British Army commanded the Union forces in
Southwest Africa from 1914 to 1915, during which time he succeeded
in defeating the Germans and received their surrender, as already
stated in the body of this work.36

ARISTIDE BRIAND, PREMIER OF FRANCE

A resemblance to Lloyd George was discernible in Briand, who
during the war was at the head of the French Cabinet briefly, but for
the third time. The resemblance did not include similarity in tactics
as used by the British Minister in his labor difficulties and by Briand
when faced with a great railway strike. Briand's method of calling
all railway employees to the colors, and thus exposing a persistent
striker to charges of insubordination and breach of military dis-
cipline if he refused, became instantly efficacious; but it earned for
him adverse criticism and suspicion that did much to limit his
official career afterward.

Briand had spent fifteen years in a sort of nomadic life, as
barrister, journalist,, trade-unionist orator, political organizer, and
general secretary to the French Socialist party. The clients he cared
for most were proletarian victims ^of economic conditions, whose
gratitude was his reward. "Gentlemen of the jury," he was once
heard to exclaim, "in defending my client I am defending myself."
His popularity with the common people was widespread. They re-
garded him in France, as fellow workers in England regarded Lloyd
George — not as a proud and unsympathetic political officer, but as
one of them. They called him "notre Aristide" When he spoke
they listened, for he spoke directly to them.

To oratorical gifts Briand owed much of his rapid, tho long-
delayed, rise to public prominence. As a boy he delighted in attend-
ing public meetings for the purpose of hearing speakers. With a
school-fellow — afterward a bootmaker at Saint-Nazaire, proud of a

36 Compiled from "Who's Who, 1918-1919" (London).

v. x— 15 213

SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

Premier's friendship — he used to go assiduously to a Catholic church
to profit by the eloquence of the preacher. On his entry into Clemen-
ceau's first Cabinet, an Englishman wrote of Briand's voice: "A
penetrating voice, audible in its lowest tones at the remotest corner
of the chamber. It is what Carlyle would have called a 'downy
voice, a caressing voice, a coaxy voice;' since Gambetta's, the most
seductive heard in the Palais Bourbon."

Briand was somewhat tall for a Frenchman and had a slight stoop.
His black, straight hair was brushed straight back from a square,
massive forehead. His face had usually a somewhat melancholy ex-
pression from which dark eyes looked out with a tranquil, searching
gaze. Workmen of Saint-Etienne knew his genial, frank, unassum-
ing manner, and would say "Our Aristide is like ourselves." No
living statesman had such genius in disclosing himself intimately to
his countrymen. That accounted for the swiftness of his rise, his
unexampled success in life. He long dwelt in a cheap flat on one of
the back streets of Montmartre. No one was ever more human.
Some writers attributed this to a peasant origin; but he was of the
bourgeoisie. His father had become comfortably situated after success
in business at Nantes, and no difficulty was found in educating
Aristide for the bar. He had from his early youth what the French
call flux of words. He thought of becoming a novelist, of the school
of Balzac, whose works he devoured when young. He had the
literary gift, but he was without the literary temperament. A man
of words, he was likewise a man of action, a combination unusual in
France.

Rare ability and exceptional opportunities did not alone account
for Briand. He acted always on the theory of "nothing venture,
nothing gain." He would risk his whole career upon a single throw,
as every one noticed when he faced trade-unions in the railway strike
and terminated a great political crisis. It was essentially characteris-
tic of him that he employed reckless chauffeurs. He was in many
collisions. The French like that sort of thing. Oratory alone did
not make him politically, altho he was perhaps the most daring
orator in France. With more imagination than Viviani, and more
earnestness than Clemenceau, he had besides inexpressibly graceful
gestures. He never pounded the tribune, but walked toward it
naturally. This detail meant much to French deputies. Many a
speech in France has been wrecked by an epigram, launched in
malice as a speaker proceeded from his seat to the fatal tribune.
Briand took the trip naturally. Altho his speeches were compelling,
because his voice sent them home, they read like a poet's prose.

He was noted for capacity to sleep like Napoleon, anywhere. It
was a survival from his journalist days, when he wrote about eco-

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PERSONAL SKETCHES OF WAR LEADERS

nomic crimes for the more radical papers, and exposed the financial
irregularities of deputies. He nibbled rather than ate, and looked
over a newspaper while doing so. His luncheon was often brought
in to him at the ministry from neighboring restaurants. A waiter
once returned to find his food untouched. "I declare," said Briand,
looking up with astonishment, "I thought I had eaten it." 37

GEORGES CLEMENCEAU, PREMIER OF FRANCE

Little was left unsaid during the war of the public and private life
of Clemenceau, his energy, notwithstanding his age, his good humor,
animated rejoinders, and general "tiger" characteristics. , He was
much praised for his admirable spirit, his nervy and solid good sense
during the most critical months of the war as head of the French
Government. Beyond all the sympathetic traits that made him so
popular, he remained one of the greatest characters in contempo-
raneous Europe, and one of the greatest leaders of men. He be-
longed to a line that had come down from the Revolution. Philoso-
pher, writer, man of science, orator, author, he testified through his
entire public career to the fact that ideas guide the world, drawing
men and their interests in their train. The war had been an immense
economic conflict, since it was in the name of democracy, justice, and
liberty that the world rose to win it. It was for these three magic
words, democracy, justice and liberty, that Clemenceau had fought
all his life, in untiring opposition to everything that could limit their
sway or dull their glow. Of all political heads of the Third Re-
public he was the one who had exercised the greatest influence on the
present generation and had most vigorously directed the people of
his country toward democracy.

Impartial history will some day perhaps tell what struggles
Clemenceau had to undergo in the Inter-Allied Councils, as well as
at the head of the French Government, in order to make certain
ideas an'd solutions prevail — such as unity of command in the ap-
pointment of Foch as Generalissimo. It will relate what fatiguing
physical effort was exacted from him in uninterrupted visits to the
front, questioning soldiers and exhorting commanders, exposing him-
self to first-line fire; doing this in spite of all advice to spare himself;
simply to fill his role as a chief, and knowing the immense power of
personal example — the embodiment to all eyes of the spirit of duty.
For half a century he had battled in the van of democracy, when
in 1917 he assumed the reins of political power resolved to make an

37 Adapted from an article in The Evening Public Ledger (Philadelphia).,
and from a compilation by Alexander Harvey in Current Opinion, based on
articles in The Daily News a»d The Daily Chronicle (London), and the Matin,
Humanite, Gaulote, and the Journal des Dcltats (Paris).

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SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

end of the war and recover the lost provinces. No public man ever
realized a like destiny — none ever knew such consecration to a life-
time of effort. All his former life had predestined Clemenceau to
the great role he played in the war. He seemed ordained by fate to
meet Wilson. The two were worthy of standing face to face and
deliberating as to democracy's future.

When Clemenceau in 1917 was again called to be Prime Minister,
France turned to "a wrecker of Cabinets" in her hour of need, to
a man once described as having "torn, clawed and bitten his way to
power." His enemies had been legion, but now the nation chose
Clemenceau to lead her Government. No one had ever doubted his
patriotism. His every act of construction, or destruction, had been
in the interest of what he considered the welfare of France. He
had wielded his power with a fearless pen in his newspaper,
L'Homme Libre (The Free Man). His paper was suspended once
early in the war because he refused to suppress certain passages in
an article. He met the condition by changing the name of the paper
to L'Homme Enchaine (The Chained Man}. Afterward the paper
reappeared under its old title. While Clemenceau was in office as
Prime Minister his name appeared on his newspaper only as
"founder," instead of as "political director" as before. He would
not write for it while in office.

Clemenceau was no longer a young man — he was seventy-six in
1917, but his powers were unimpaired. A friend once asked him
how many ministries he had overturned, and he replied pleasantly
that he was quite unable to recall the number. Some of the titles
he won during his long career besides "wrecker of Cabinets" was
the "Stormy Petrel of French Politics," the "Red Indian," the "King-
Maker" and the "Tiger," the latter of which clung to him. Having
married an American girl, at one time his pupil during his exile in
America, an epithet applied to him by his opponents was the "Yankee
School-teacher."

The storms that attended his career began early. His father was
imprisoned by Napoleon III, at the time of the coup d'etat that
destroyed the Second Republic. The son was thus a child of Revo-
lution. It was characteristic of him that he supported General
Boulanger, as long as he believed him to be working in the interests
of the Republic, but when the "Man on Horseback" began to scheme
for the return of the Bourbons, Clemenceau rose up and drove him
from power. Before he was twenty he was arrested for shouting on
the streets of Paris, in the midst of a celebration of one of the
imperial anniversaries, "Vive la Republique!" Having served his
term in jail be became practically an exile and came to America.
Between 1865 and 1869 he lived in New York near Washington

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PERSONAL SKETCHES OF WAR LEADERS

Square, and in Stamford, Conn. Having been educated as a
physician he started in practise on West Twelfth Street, New York,
Before he left France he had made the acquaintance of Marshall,
the artist, who made famous portraits of Washington and Lincoln.
By invitation from Marshall he had come to New York.

His father had been a physician before him. Generations of his
family had followed the medical profession, but he was not suc-
cessful like the others of his line as a doctor of medicine. The chief
reason was said to be that he was not deeply interested in that
calling. Even as a student in Paris he had found time to inform
himself on political questions and to contribute controversial papers
to reviews. In New York he gravitated naturally toward the study
of social and political conditions and drew his income, not so much
from the practise of his profession, as from letters about things in
America which he sent to papers at home. His first impression of
Americans was that they had "no general ideas and no good coffee."
Failing to build up a medical practise, and his funds running low,
Clemenceau obtained a position as teacher of French language and
literature in a young ladies' seminary in Stamford, Conn. The future
celebrity appears in after years to have looked back on Stamford
with real pleasure. He once told how he had "accompanied young
ladies on walks and pleasant and easy rides along charming wooded
roads that lined the smiling shores of Long Island Sound." He
added that in those "happy and light-hearted years" at Stamford his
temperament "became strengthened and refined." It was during one
of his "charming horseback rides" that he ventured to propose to one
of the young American "misses" — Mary Plummer, of Springfield,
Mass., whom he afterward married. Returning to France in 1870,
Clemenceau's natural inclinations led him into politics.

During the Franco-Prussian War and the siege of Paris, Clemen-
ceau was Mayor of Montmartre. One of his duties during the siege
was to see that 150,000 men were properly fed, and another to look
after thousands of refugees. In this work he became responsible
for large amounts of money. Foreseeing that accusations against
any one's honesty might be made in such trying times, he engaged an
expert accountant to "check-up" and make public his use of every
sou of public funds. Next year he was elected to the General
Assembly, and opposed the treaty of peace with Germany. From
1871 to 1875 he was a member of the Paris Municipal Council, of
which he became President, and in 1876 was elected member from
Montmartre in the Chamber of Deputies, where he became leader of
the Radicals. From the outset of his career in the French Parlia-
ment he was the bitter opponent of the Royalists, and soon became
known for eloquence and independence of action. He was inde-

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SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

pendent even in his radicalism, and followed no leader but himself.
Some men called him "an undisciplined vandal" who was making a
reputation as an upsetter of other men's careers. His political
power was increased by his journalistic activities. In 1880 he founded
La Justice, a daily paper with which he destroyed the Broglie ad-
ministration, overthrew Boulanger, caused the fall of Jules Grevy
and Jules Ferry and wrecked the position of M. de Freycinet at
least three times.

Clemenceau's policy was a consistent but radical Republicanism;
he stood for a realization of what the Revolution had hoped for and
dreamed of. He was opposed to the alliance with Russia, determined
that his country should not be joined in close friendship with a
despotic power, unceasingly upheld the complete separation of
Church and State, and urged the development of French resources.
In 1S93 Clemenceau's career apparently was wrecked when, during
the Panama scandals, he was accused of dishonesty, but he met
every charge and beat down attacks in the Chamber. His con-
stituents, however, deserted him, and so he dropt out of politics. It
was nine years before he was again officially in public life. For
that period he was a man of. letters, instead of a politician, a reck-
less duelist, and a hounder of his foes. As a philosopher and
litterateur, who wrote exquisite prose, a lover of nature and a
friend of humankind, he flourished again. Among his writings were
a book on the philosophy of nature, "Great Pan"; a novel of social
life, "The Strongest"; a play of which the scene was laid in China,
and some notable criticisms. He returned afterward to journalism,
his old paper having gone down in the wreck of his political career.
"When the Dreyfus affair was stirring all France, a new journal
called L'Aurore, edited by Clemenceau, made its appearance. It was
devoted to proving Dreyfus innocent. Clemenceau thus got back into
the active world of French affairs. Because of Clemenceau's tireless
defense of Dreyfus, Zola published in his paper his scathing de-
nunciation of conditions, "J> Accuse."

In 1902 the same constituency that had forsaken Clemenceau in
his hour of trial returned him to the Senate, and in the spring of
1906 he was appointed to public office as Minister of the Interior.
In November of the same year he became Premier. Three years
later his old enemy, Delcasse, overthrew his ministry, but his power
was not broken, for he kept his place in the Senate. In 1912 he
overthrew Caillaux's Ministry and 1913 wrecked Briand's Cabinet.
When the war began he was in the Viviani Ministry. Clemenceau's
patriotism was widely recognized. He never hesitated in the midst
of the stress of war to argue, criticize, and actually to attack where
he believed a need for opposition existed.

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PERSONAL SKETCHES OF WAR LEADERS

In the late autumn of 1918, after Clemenceau had been Prime
Minister a little more than a year and the war had been won, it was
possible to measure his achievement. He came to office when the
army had failed on the Aisne and for the first and only time was
shaken in morale. A monstrous defeatist campaign had begun in
France. A break on the home-front and then on the firing-line was
forecast. Not willingly did France turn to Clemenceau. His strength
all men recognized, but his strength and his weakness alike terrified
his contemporaries. If his eloquence in his newspaper had again
and again roused the nation, his long political struggles had made
enemies and his destructive course over half a century had left him
with few political friends and a host of enemies. "Briand will fail
and go," Caillaux had said in Rome in 1917. "There may be another,
and then will come Clemenceau, who will try and fail, and then —
then I will come." The whole game had been set for Caillaux to
come and make peace with Germany<; then Clemenceau came and
Caillaux languished behind the bars. Ere long the armies of France
were in Strasbourg and Metz.

The first task of Clemenceau was to restore the home-front. After
terrible sacrifices for more than three years, with the Russian revo-
lution destroying the Entente's Eastern Ally, and a new invasion
in sight, France faced a crisis which had only two solutions — col-
lapse, or the discovery of a great leader. Without leadership noth-
ing more was possible. Then almost in an hour the atmosphere
cleared. Backed by Clemenceau, Petain reorganized the army ; single-
handed, Clemenceau wrestled with weaklings. To every protest,
every feeble whine, he responded: "Je fais la guerre." Did men
ask him questions, did they make motions in the Chamber, did they
seek to trap and entangle him, his answer, ever clearer and clearer,
was the same, "I make war," and he would add, "Victory is to the
side which endures to the last quarter of an hour."

Clemenceau faced hostile critics in the Chamber with the dust ancl
mud of battlefields on his clothes; left the tribune to reappear at the
front, as scornful of personal danger as he was impatient of intrigue.
Armies knew him better than did the politicians. When the German
line broke before Amiens, in 1918, he was promptly on the scene
and took back to Paris the first authentic news that the German
flood had been checked. So, too, in Flanders when Haig's army
stood with its "back to the wall." As he returned from Bethune, he
announced in Paris, "The skies are already brightening." "There
was a time," Clemenceau once said, "when I despaired of my coun-
trymen. I believed France was finished, but now — now, look about
for yourself. I have not one word to say." That was in the Verdun
time of 1916 when Clemenceau had been daily thundering forth that,

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SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

"The Germans are at Noyon," His confidence in his countrymen was
immeasurable ; but his impatience at mistakes, at lack of courage, at
blindness beyond restraint for three years, grew more and rn^re
vocal.

When ruin was in sight France had turned to Clemenceau, as the
Allies, spurred by his urgings, afterward turned to Foch. France
once more became the corner-stone of the Alliance, the foundation
on which victory could be built, and Clemenceau was the embodiment
of France. Before the end those who had opposed him shrank from
challenging a man whose voice had become the voice of their country.
In defeat he made the nation believe victory was possible, and when
victory came it seemed only the logical conclusion of his leadership.
This war produced more great generals than brilliant statesmen,
and the achievement of one general, Ferdinand Foch, was a far-
shining triumph, which would endure through all history; yet with-
out Clemenceau, Foch might have failed, and when France came to
decide to whom she most owed her "lost provinces" she might name
this man of seventy-seven who, in the national legislation of 1871
had forbade the cession, and now had redeemed the loss. It had
been a wonderful career and a wonderful old man was Cleruenceau.37*

THEOPHILE DELCASSE, FOREIGN MINISTER OP FRANCE

Altho Delcasse during the war was still living but not in the public
eye, his career in the French Foreign Office before the war had an
intimate relation to the world conflict. Writers like Morton Fuller-
ton went so far as to say that, while various reasons were found for
the failure of the German advance through Belgium and northern
France to the Marne, and while the first stumbling-block to the Ger-
mans was the resistance of Belgium, that was not so real a thing,
counting all the late years, as the remarkable personality, the shrewd
and agile brain, of Delcasse. He it was who undid the work of Bis-
marck by making possible an alliance between Great Britain and
France.

One morning in France the work of Delcasse was particularly
brought to Mr. Fullerton's attention. He had spent that morning
with the French Minister to Belgium, and in leaving was suddenly
arrested by a musical note alien to French music. It was the sound
of a bagpipe accompanying the march of invisible men. Soon there
swung round, out of a side street into an avenue skirting the sea,
a column of the new khaki-clad army of Great Britain, followed by
an officer on horseback, with a score of terriers, fox and Scotch,

37a principal Sources: The Tribune, The Times (New York), Alexander Har-
vey in Current Opinion, and Henri-Martin Barzun in The Review of Reviews.

220

PERSONAL SKETCHES OF WAR LEADERS

yelping up and down the line. Regiments soon filled the avenues.
Seaward were seen brown French battleships riding at anchor.
From marching men came forth the song, "It's a long, long way to
Tipperary." Five thousand British lads had just landed on French
soil, and were going to trenches in Flanders. At Mr. Fullerton's
elbow, there in Havre, stood a Belgian deputy and a French Foreign
official. Turning to the Frenchman the Belgian said, "That's the
work of your Delcasse." Later in the day Mr. Fullerton had an
audience with a Belgian Minister, when the talk associated itself
instantly with that landing scene. "Your Excellency," said Mr.
Fullerton, "Belgium has saved Europe, to which the Minister re-
plied: "It is not Belgium that has saved Europe. The savior of
Europe is M. Delcasse."

For many months, if not a full year, before war actually began,
. Delcasse had been one of the quietest of 580 members of the French
Chamber of Deputies. No one knew what he thought of the situa-
tion, and no one took much trouble to find out. Meanwhile events
continued to take the road that led directly to the cataclysm. This
alert little statesman, no taller than Napoleon, was always seen in his
seat, playing an almost silent part in the Parliamentary game, a
model of party discipline. Men heard his staccato step in the lobby,
noted the directness of his glance through eye-glasses, his frank and
unembarrassed mariner, his readiness to listen and his reticence in
reply. All signs betokened the same energy, straightforwardness
of purpose, absence of academic priggishness, but the presence of
diplomatic and statesmanlike composure that had enabled him to se-
cure for France those far-reaching diplomatic victories that altered
the balance of power in the European system. But now with grim
resolution he held his peace. Not even in the press were seen words of
his counseling his countrymen. No interview restored him to the
limelight. Some thought him dead. Beyond the Vosges, the Alps,
and the Pyrenees, and across the Channel, his figure, however, was
still to close observers' one of few still visible to the naked eye. To
foreigners Delcasse personified a regenerated France. All com-
petent observers knew that his apparent political burial was only
an optical illusion, that before long he or his work would rise again,
to incarnate a new national hope.

This confidence was well founded. It is not every man who earns
the reputation of being "the man who undid the work of Bismarck"
and "encircled" the Germans. Bismarck's plan had been remarkably
simple; to involve France with Italy in Tunis, and with England on
the Kongo, in Madagascar, and elsewhere, and so to keep all -three
nations in a fractious state, unfriendly toward one another and de-
pendent on Germany's sympathy for strength. He made his plan

221

SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

work well and stood by watching his neighbors weakening them-
selves for his ultimate benefit. All things had gone on well, up to the
very point where France and Great Britain would fall out and come
to blows, and then, in the person of Delcasse, the stumbling-block
appeared.

Great Britain and France had been fatef ully and logically brought
to an issue in an African desert, where the swords of Kitchener and
Marchand had been upraised. It was Delcasse who dared to give
the French commander at Fashoda an order to stay his blow and
return the weapon to its scabbard. Delcasse had himself, as Minister
for the Colonies in an earlier time, been among the most responsible
of French statesmen who directed a policy against British colonial
ambitions. With Hanotaux, who as Foreign Minister had the re-
sponsibility, he pursued a policy of colonial expansion originally
conceived years before by Jules Ferry, and helped to wrest from
Great Britain coveted strips of African soil, and Pacific islands.
When the event of Fashoda occurred, no one better than he under-
stood the full extent of French humiliation. As Hanotaux's useful-
ness ended, Delcasse was chosen to succeed him and direct the des-
tinies of France.

Two roads then lay before France. One led to Berlin and was the
road that had been followed for more than twenty years — but it car-
ried the French people further and further away from Alsace and
Lorraine, and had now brought them face to face with disaster at
Fashoda. The other road, utterly untried, a strange new path through
an undiscovered country, led to London. It was now seen that one
furthen step on the road to Berlin would lead to war with Great
Britain, and Delcasse did not hesitate but chose the path of peace
with Great Britain. It had suddenly 'dawned on him that France and
Great Britain had long been playing into Germany's hands. Fashoda
was their Damascus road. With this knowledge came a quick deci-
sion. France and Great Britain should compose their differences. So
believed Delcasse, and he proceeded to make overtures for a settle-
ment of all Franco-British difficulties.

The Fashoda incident of 1898 threatened actual war, and Ger-
many with open arms was ready to make friends with France, but
Delcasse, instead, humiliated himself before Great Britain. The
English Ambassador who had called to present to France an ulti-
matum fumbled in Delcasse's presence at his frock-coat pocket pre-
liminary to getting a piece of paper. "Do not undo that button,"
said Delcasse — so at least the story ran. "I must not see that paper.
It is a threat, and if I see it France must fight. Matters will arrange
themselves." So was sown the first seed for the entente cordiale, an
indispensable seed for France in the World War. The entente cordiale

222

PERSONAL SKETCHES OF WAR LEADERS

was afterward built up through private informal conferences in
Paris and elsewhere between King Edward VII and Delcasse. The
French Ambassador in London and Sir Edward Grey, the Foreign
Minister, meanwhile practically stept aside.

Had there been in 1914 no formal declaration of war between
France and Germany, the appointment by Viviani of Delcasse, as
Minister of War, would have been sufficient, for Delcasse had been
like a flare of scarlet to the Teutonic bull. As recently as January,
1913, Germany had virtually ordered his dismissal from the French
Cabinet. Delcasse was a little man, of stocky peasant build, whose
hair seemed always in disarray, whose brilliant neckties served only to
emphasize a muddy complexion, and whose ill-fitting clothes looked
as if they might have been bought at the Shop of the Three Balls.
He h?d a face as hard and as strong as marble. Pity, compassion,
even the emotion of hatred, seemed unknown to it. He was a French-
man who had nothing of French volubility. He was a peasant who
had the exquisite manners of a prince — when he wished to employ
them. When standing beside his wife he was overshadowed by a
tall lady of ample proportions, splendidly gowned as befitting the
widow of a millionaire, who looked down upon her second spouse
with pride, effacing herself before him so completely that the little
man seemed to stand alone and to fill the room.38

ENVER PASHA, THE WAR-MINISTER OF TURKEY

For his connection with the Armenian massacres, of which he was
everywhere accepted as the chief instigator, Enver's name became
probably the most execrated of all names familiar in men's minds
during the war. However men might differ about the judicial ar-
raignment of the Kaiser for war-crimes, there was little difference
of opinion as to the propriety of trying the chief personages con-
nected with Turkish atrocities. These, besides Enver, were Talaat
Bey and Djemel Pasha, but it was Enver who was most responsible,
not only for the Armenian massacres but for a proposal that Allied
civilians, in 1915, be sent to the bombardment area in Gallipoli as
a "reprisal." The apportionment of blame among Talaat, Enver,
and the Germans, called for thorough and exact inquiry. For noth-
ing did the world demand a more rigorous meting out of just punish-
ment. Enver was the real head of the Turkish Government, actual
control being in his hands and those of Talaat and Djemel. To-
gether they had caused the massacre of perhaps a million Armenians,
Syrians, and Greeks — Enver the brains of the crime, the others the
brutal directors of its execution. Henry Morgenthau, American

38 Adapted from articles in The World's Work and The World (New York).

223

SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

Ambassador to Turkey during a part of the war, described Enver
thus: "His nature had a remorselessness, a lack of pity, a cold-
blooded determination, of which his clean-cut, handsome face, his
small but sturdy figure, and his pleasing manners gave no indica-
tion." When defeat and disgrace came he and Talaat fled, after
having first robbed the Turkish treasury of a hundred and more
millions of dollars.

Advices in May, 1919, that Talaat had been found among Caucasian
Tatars added a new and satisfactory page to the life-history of a
man who first saw the light in the household of a Stamboul "layer-
out" of corpses. Embezzlement was the least crime with which
Enver could have been charged because Turkish authorities could
have indicted him for assassinations of public men and army
officers. Not long afterward the Turks, by court-martial, condemned
him to death. He was then supposed to be in Germany. The same
sentence was passed on Talaat and Djemel. Concerning "the 1,800,-
000 Armenians who were in the Ottoman Empire two years ago,"
said Mr. Balfour in a message to America in February, 1917, "1,200,-
000 have been either massacred or deported." Enver was a forceful
man and for a magnetic personality stood alone among the Turks.
In any other country besides Turkey — in England, Germany, or the
United States — he could scarcely have failed to have a career of some
kind, good or bad.

Enver was the evil genius who, by conspiring with the German
Ambassador, had brought Turkey into the war at a time when her
people were opposed to intervention. He was a tool of Germany
and betrayed his country. From the time when Great Britain and
France allowed Italy to move in Tripoli, Enver had stood definitely
committed to cooperation with Germany, in Turkey's domestic and
international affairs. Having received his military training in Ber-
lin, he admired the German military system, and in all ways pro-
moted German interests. His capacity for leadership had made him
at thirty a military dictator. At that age most Europeans would not
attain to captaincies. He had deep faith in the soundness of the
things for which he stood. His early plans and dreams were all to
one end — the regeneration of Turkey. Of his swordsmanship, his
fluency as a linguist, the almost ascetic simplicity of his life, his
strange compound of the mystic and criminal in action; his way of
exercising influence and authority, often at the expense of discipline,
and quite out of proportion to his official or military rank — much
has been written by those who knew him well.

Before the war Lewis R. Freeman discerned that he was small in
stature, but remarkably well set up, strikingly handsome, and with
an indefinable, but compelling, magnetism, which made itself felt

224

PERSONAL SKETCHES OF WAR LEADERS

through a curtain of dignified reserve. At a casual meeting this
reserve, with a" certain detachment of manner, would impress one
as a dominating trait, and such was Mr. Freeman's feeling until a
chance remark regarding the way in which the Arabs of Mesopotamia
and Syria had clamored to be led to Tripoli against Italy and how
several had even worked their way to Aleppo, brought a warm flush
of color to his cheeks and a glint of moisture to his eyes. "Ah, my
brave Arabs !" he cried affectionately. "If I could only gather them
in from all their desert ways, and arm them properly."

"The plans of all the Powers," said Enver to Mr. Freeman, in that
interview before the World War began, "have always been entirely
selfish as far as Turkey was concerned. For years Russia coveted Con-
stantinople, to say nothing of the rest of Turkey along the Black Sea
and south of the Caucasus, and the British endeavored to keep us
just strong enough to prevent Russia from realizing these ambitions.
Finally came the Kaiser with his scheme of a chain of German-con-
trolled States from the Baltic to the Persian Gulf, and for the success
of this plan a strong, not a weak, Turkey was sine qua non. Russia
would wipe us off the map, England would keep us weak, but Ger-
many would make us strong. All selfish motives on face of them, no
doubt, but — can you wonder what alternative was the least repugnant
to us Turks, especially to us Young Turks who have done our best
to avoid being enmeshed in the nets of British and Russian diplomacy
and intrigue which have held helpless our predecessors'? I think I
will not need to say more to answer your question as to why it was
that Germany obtained the Bagdad railway concession, why the
Hedjaz line was built by Germans, and why the Germans are recast-
ing our military establishment." 39

"Do you care to speak of your so-called Turkish reform pro-
gram f Mr. Freeman asked him in a final question, warned by Sheiks
and officers gathering under the flap of a reception tent that a con-
ference with Enver was about to be held. Enver hesitated for a
moment, and then, his eyes lighting with the enthusiasm kindled by
a project which in those days was the one nearest his heart, rose to
his feet and spoke briefly and to the point, meanwhile grasping Mr.
Freeman's hand in a grip of farewell :

"Keal Turkish unification is my dearest wish, and any international
political arrangement which will leave me a free hand to work for that,
I will subscribe to. Turkey contains a great many Christians, as well
as Mohammedans. The latter I would regenerate from within, not from
without. The West has little that we need, save battleships and. shrap-
nels, and if it would leave us alone we would not need even these. Nor
can the Occident give us anything better to follow than the precepts of

39 In a Review of Reviews article.

225

SKETCHES. PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

tho Koran. For us Mohammedans, ] would purify the old faith, not
bring in a new one, — there are close to a score of them, as you know.
But for our Christian peoples, I would let them follow their own faith
in peace and security, something they have not always been able to do
in the past. I would offer them everything that England, or Greece, or
France could, — more than Russia ever would, — and by this means I
would make them Turkish subjects in fact as well as in name. Great
Britain, a Christian power, has made good subjects of the Mohammedans
in India; why shall not Turkey, a Mohammedan power, make good sub-
jects of the Christians in the Ottoman Empire? A real Turkish nation
is my dream — a nation able at last to stand upon its own legs."

Envor was only thirty-two years old when the World War began.
He was of Ottoman descent, by which was meant that he was one of
the eight or nine million Mussulmans in whom the blood of the
original Turkish conquerors had received, in the course of centuries,
a strong Albanian, Slav, and Greek tincture. Thus he was not a
pure Turk such as was Osman Pasha, the hero of Plevna. He justified
the proverb "as strong as a Turk." and was as healthy and tough
as he was vigorous, and extremely handsome. An illustration of
his powers of endurance was found when he headed the expedition
for the recapture, in 1013, of Adrianople, riding fifteen hours on
end and fighting a couple of hours after that for possession of the
town, all the while suffering from a severe attack of appendicitis.
Operated upon for this complaint a month later, he was up and
doing again in a week. Born strong and healthy, he had always led
a hygienic life — active, regular, and free from indulgences, so much
so that he had never touched alcohol, following in this one of the
prescriptions of Islamism. Neither did he smoke or drink coffee.40

KING FERDINAND OF BULGARIA

Only the German Emperor was more often sketched from an in-
timate point of view late in the war, than Ferdinand of Bulgaria.
Cartoonists familiarized frequenters of cafes and beer-halls with a
gigantic nose, a portly frame, an impressive height and statuesque
repose. There were studies of him from the psychological stand-
point also and estimates of his moral nature. And yet this so-called
superman of the Balkans remained something of a mystery. His
enemies seemed all in the Allied camp. He was said to be at once an
artist and a grand-seigneur, consummately skilled in knowledge of
human nature, especially on its weaker side, with gifts of ingratia-
tion, but which he rarely deigned to exercise, a man of many moods
and many stratagems, a botanist and a bird-stuffer, a disciple of

40 Compiled from an article by Lewis R. Freeman in ti>e Review of Reviews
and one by A. Rustem P.ey in The World'* Work.

22G

PERSONAL SKETCHES OF WAR LEADERS

Machiavelli, the incarnation of a hero for a moving-picture melo-
drama. Power came to him because of his personal sway over men.
It was said of the Bulgarian Czar that he ruled men, bending them
to his will subtly, by the exercise of something beyond and above
charm. He cast spells.

All that was mysterious in Ferdinand could be understood by
reference to his dream of being crowned in Constantinople. He
was a man of genius fretting and fuming behind the iron bars of
a parochial cage. His traits and tendencies were what might be
expected from one who must work with and conciliate and manage
intellectual inferiors. He was the lion who assumed, now the man-
ners of the lamb, now the hide of the ass. He was a man to whom
modern science had unfolded its mysteries. He had been a fre-
quenter in the recent past of the laboratories of the Sorbonne, an
admirer of Berthelot, a diligent reader of the mathematician Pom-
care. He had his superstitions, too. When still in his cradle his
mother received an assurance from some gypsy that he would sit on
the throne of a CaBsar. He still studied signs in the heavens and did
not disdain the lore of those who cast horoscopes. At his birth
major constellations were in the ascendant, above the horizon. The
English explained his career by his genius for intrigue and the wind-
ings of a devious nature.

The mother of Ferdinand was Clementine, daughter of the French
King, Louis Philippe, one of the ablest women of her day, in whom
his own fascination was foreshadowed. She had the same imperial
"pose" — a majestic wave of the right hand and arm — which delighted
cartoonists who used it to make much capital out of her son. He
had her voice, which was loud and pleasing, "flexible as that of a
Bernhardt," and he had as well that genius of hers for conversation
of which much was made by writers of memoirs of the period. Ferdi-
nand was rated one of the best talkers in Europe ; a witty raconteur,
an exhilarating companion. All these things came to him from his
mother, together, it was hinted, with a capacity for concealing his
true self, which was feminine rather than masculine. Ferdinand got
shrewdness as well as charm from his mother. She it was who re-
vealed to him the mysteries of a statecraft such as he learned to prac-
tise. She was determined that her best-beloved boy should be some-
thing more than "one of the hapless group of unemployed High-
nesses," that he should not lead a futile life as a mere officer in the
Austro-Hungarian army. She meant that he should be a king, and
gave him one bit of advice to which he adhered — to conceal rather
than to reveal the extent of his powers.

Nothing, however, could have seemed more extravagant in the last
quarter of the nineteenth century than that Ferdinand should be

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SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

summoned to rule a State. There were no thrones unoccupied and
the old world was tranquil. Then suddenly Alexander, Prince of
Bulgaria, was kidnapped, the land was without a head, and Ferdinand
had the audacity to offer himself for the place. He took a secret
trip down the Danube and on one occasion slept in a farmer's wagon
to escape the knife of an assassin. Chaotic Bulgaria was under the
sway of Stambouloff, a rude, rough man, reared in the inn his father
had kept and who roared with laughter at the cultivation, fine man-
ners, perfumes and pedigree in which Ferdinand delighted; but in
no long time Stambouloff fell completely under his spell, despife
all their quarrels. Ferdinand began as a figurehead and ended as
an absolute ruler.

His success was attributed to the essentially constructive activities
of his mind. He built things up, organized and brought them to-
gether, always knew what he wanted, was positive, affirmative and
ready with a plan. Relatively to other Balkan States, the school
system of Bulgaria was efficient, and Ferdinand stood behind it at
every stage. His scientific interests were reflected in it. He was
remarkably receptive to new ideas, recognized ability wherever he
saw it and never hesitated to advance a man of merit however humble
in origin. Bulgaria came to have a long list of men whom Ferdinand
had "discovered.'* If some farmer's boy showed an intelligent in-
terest in the stars, he might be singled out as a possible Tycho Brahe,
destined to shed luster on science in Bulgaria. Should a country
bumpkin reveal oratorical gifts of an unusual order, he was wel-
comed at court, complimented by the sovereign and listened to with
profound respect. Nobody, in short, in Bulgaria could manifest
capacity without attracting Ferdinand. The somewhat ostentatious
catholicity of his culture was partly calculated for effect upon the
Bulgarians, whom he sought to civilize, refine, and educate, and so
he popularized chemistry as- well as the dinner-fork. Nor was he
above saying a good word from time to time in behalf of wearing
gloves, against which plain Bulgarians were inclined to protest.

The most serious charge against Ferdinand in his sovereign capac-
ity concerned finance. If what some of the French and British
dailies said was true, he had accumulated great wealth by methods
likely to land an ordinary capitalist in the penitentiary. He never
profest morality in the conventional sense. The life of Ferdinand
was once described as a combination of the industry of Faraday, the
energy of Bluebeard and the activities of Gil Bias, traits and
tendencies of all being blended in the mosaic of his character.41

41 Adapted from an article by Alexander Harvey in Current Opinion, based
on articles in the Journal des Dfoatx, Temps, and Ganlo' ; (Paris). Tho Da Hi/
Mail (London), the Neue Freie Pre-s.se (Vienna), and the Vosslsche Zeltung
(Berlin).

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PERSONAL SKETCHES OF WAR LEADERS

FRANCIS JOSEPH, EMPEROR OF AUSTRIA

It was the Government of Francis Joseph of the house of Haps-
burg, backed by the Government of William of the house of Hohen-
zollern, which launched in July, 1914, that fatal and brutal document,
the ultimatum to Serbia, which precipitated the World War. Francis
Joseph died at 86, two and a half years afterward, having had the
longest active reign known to the history of kings and emperors. A
likable man was Francis Joseph — very likable personally — in spite
of the gross anachronism that his form of government presented to
the modern world — a purely medieval autocracy, of which he was
the soul and head.

The end of his long reign recalled a curse which the Countess
Karolyi, nearly seventy years before, had passed upon him. The
Countess had a son who was executed by Austria-Hungary for com-
plicity in the Kossuth revolt in 1848. In her grief she called on
heaven to blast the young emperor's happiness, "to exterminate Ris
family, to strike him through those whom he loved, to wreck his life
and ruin his children." Signally complete was the fulfilment of
this curse, or prophecy. Almost from first to last, the reign of
Francis Joseph was marked by political disasters, domestic mis-
fortunes, and acute tragedies such as recalled the doom that fell
upon the ancient and legendary house of Atreus, of which Homer
sang and tragedians spoke their lines. There was the execution of
his brother Maximilian, whom Louis Napoleon tried to maintain on
the throne of Mexico; then came the assassination, in broad day
light in Geneva, of his wife, the Empress Elizabeth, and the myster-
ious suicide, in circumstances pointing clearly to a great scandal, of
his only son and heir, Rudolph. A brother disappeared from
.Vienna suddenly, and wandered to many distant parts of the earth
under the name of John Orth. A sister-in-law was burned so badly
that she died from her injuries. Three attempts were made on his
own life. Last of all came the assassination of his nephew and heir,
with his consort, at Serajevo, in June, 1914.

Francis Joseph's reign, in spite of a few notable successes, had
been marked by political ill-fortune quite as tragic. As it had
opened with revolution and civil war, so in the years before he
reached middle life, Austria lost her Italian provinces, including
states ruled by members of the Emperor's own family — Venice, Lom-
bardy, Parma, Modena, and Tuskany. Austria had also lost to Prus-
sia her supremacy among the German states. His reign finally closed
amid the appalling ruin foreshadowed for Austria, as a result of the
World War. Since his accession to the throne as a boy of eighteen,
when he found his country in the throes of revolution, he had lived
V.x— 16 229

SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

on full of years and sorrows, until he saw it in a crisis destined to
end in its extinction as a Great Power.

When it was said that his reign had been the longest active reign
in history, account, was taken of the fact that, while Louis XIV was
King of France for seventy-two years, the early part of his reign
took place in years when he was a minor, so that, as an active
monarch, Francis Joseph exceeded the record left by Louis XIV.
The reign of George III came within eight years of being as long
as Francis Joseph's, but George III, near the end of his life, was
virtually insane, and a regency ha,d been necessary. Queen Victoria
came closer than did her grandfather, but her reign was four years
shorter than Francis Joseph's. Born August 18, 1830, Francis
Joseph was a son of Archduke Francis, and a grandson of the
Emperor Francis, who was then reigning. The Empejor Francis, as
the father of Marie Louise, was Napoleon's father-in-law. From
1835 to 1848 Francis Joseph's uncle, Ferdinand, occupied the
Austrian throne, but was exiled from his capital during the revolu-
tion of 1848, and then abdicated. Ferdinand being childless, a
brother would have succeeded him, but the brother was unwilling to
take the responsibility of being Emperor in a time of revolution,
and thus Francis Joseph, as the next heir, ascended the throne, after
having been thoroughly and religiously trained by his mother, and
having had five months of military training in the Italian War.
Much respect for the kingly prerogative and little for popular rights
or constitutional government had been acquired in his youth.

Before Francis Joseph became Emperor Vienna had been prac-
tically pacified, but the revolt in Hungary under Kossuth and Gorgei
was not crusht until afterward, when help was obtained from a
Russian army that descended into Hungary through the Carpathian
passes. Francis Joseph, in spite of all his errors, due to the auto-
cratic principles fundamental in his political faith, was no mere
figurehead. His hand had been the deciding factor in everything
that could have been called a crisis in Austria. He had ability as a
conciliator, a faculty for which he had much need in an empire so
polyglot as his own. Of the thirty million people over whom he
ruled, less than one-third were Germans. Of the twenty-one millions
in Hungary, of which country he was king, fewer than one-half
were Magyars. Austria-Hungary, unlike most States in every part
of the world, had not grown organically through expansion under
natural racial laws, but was a collection of discordant, unrelated
States, which, through financial and matrimonial arrangements, mili-
tary aggression and other compelling occurrences, had gradually
come into the hands of the Hapsburgs. Some one had wisely said
that "if Austria-Hungary had not existed as a State, it would have

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PERSONAL SKETCHES OF WAR LEADERS

been necessary to create her." Francis Joseph bore the title of
Emperor of Austria, Apostolic King of Hungary, King of Bohemia,
Dalmatia, Croatia, Slavonia, Galicia, Lodo, Meria, and Ellyria.
He was also an archduke of Austria, a grand duke of Tuskany,
Krakow, and Lorraine.

But with all these distinctions the greatest — on paper at least —
that had elsewhere existed since Napoleon's time, his reign, as already
seen, was marked by a succession of disasters, public and private.
Last and most tragic of all was the outcome of the World War.
Before the promulgation of the ultimatum to Serbia, the kingdom
of Francis Joseph had embraced 240,900 square miles; it was terri-
torially the second largest in Europe, Russia being the largest, and
had over 50,000,000 inhabitants. After peace was signed with the
Entente Allies, all that remained of Francis Joseph's Austro-Hun-
garian empire was its kernel — that is, Teutonic Austria, whose area
was something under 50,000 square miles, and whose population was
under 10,000,000. In other words, an empire that had been terri-
torially larger than France or Germany, and that had contained
10,000,000 more people than France, was left with a territory about
equal to that of New York State, and a population somewhat less
than New York's.42

KING GEORGE V, OF GREAT BRITAIN

King George, whose title is King of Great Britain and Ireland and
of Dominions Beyond the Seas, Emperor of India, was the sec-
ond son of King Edward VII, born at Marlborough House, in Lon-
don, June 3, 1865. He entered the Navy in 1877, studied at Green-
wich, became a lieutenant in 1885, a captain in 1893, a rear-admiral
in 1901, and vice-admiral in 1903. After the death of his elder
brother, Albert Victor, Duke of Clarence, in 1892, he was made
Duke of York, and in 1893 married Princess Victoria Mary of Teck,
who had previously been engaged to Albert Victor. Four sons and
one daughter were born to him and Queen Mary, the eldest, Edward,
Prince of Wales, in 1894. Upon the accession to the throne of his
father, Edward VII, in 1901, Prince George received the title of
Prince of Wales and Duke of Cornwall, and made a journey around
the world, in the course of which he visited the British colonies. On
his return to England in November he was formally created Prince
of Wales and in 1905-06 made a tour of India. His father dying
in 1910, he succeeded to the throne as George V, his wife having the
name of Queen Mary. They were crowned in Westminster Abbey

42 Compiled from articles in The New York Tribune, The Literary Digest,
and the "Encyclopedia Britannica."

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SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

June 22, 1911. In December of that year they visited India and in
February, 1912, returned to England.

In the glare of war King George was revealed as a truly demo-
cratic and human personality. In camps and hospitals "over there"
as well as in England he was often seen and always had a kind word
of cheer for every one. He spent his days in "doing his bit" like
a soldier. If Thackeray had been alive his pen might have added
to his "Four Georges" a new chapter, in which he would have told
how the Fifth George with his Queen ate buckwheat-cakes in an
American canteen in London. Brief and tactful was the way of their
coming to that canteen. "The King and Queen," said a message one
day, "desire to call at the Eagle Hut and will be there in a few min-
utes." Unannounced they drove up, King George in a snug uniform,
carrying his familiar stick; Queen Mary, a size larger, motherly,
wholesome, simple in dress and manner, and looking as might almost
any Englishwoman who was the mother of four well-brought-up
boys and one girl. From the entrance they climbed a flight of steps
into a hall where soldiers and sailprs, British, Canadians, and Amer-
icans, were playing games, writing letters, singing camp-songs and
feeling quite at home in a congenial atmosphere; a free-and-easy
place of many sounds and much laughter, of liberty and equality.
King George and Queen Mary went in as ordinary visitors who
wished to disturb no one, but to mingle with others and be friendly
without ceremony. They exprest a wish to eat an American dish and
then sat down at one of the big* tables covered with oilcloth. "Buck-
wheat-cakes is the best thing we have," said the host, a little flustered
by the visit. And buckwheat-cakes it was, with New England maple-
syrup. King George and Queen Mary voted the unfamiliar griddle-
cakes delicious, went the rounds of kitchens and dormitories, and
departed like people who had had a good time.

The King liked to talk with Tommy Atkins, and so acquired the
habit of being simple and hospitable to plain fighting men. He was
heart and soul in the war all day long. While he had a preference
for the Navy, in which he had been brought up, he was careful never
to show it. In the Navy he had learned equality and how to be a
plain man. Probably he never felt quite like a traditional king
after he assumed the crown. "Pat" O'Brien, the aviator who escaped
from German captivity and wrote a popular book about it, found
King George, to whom by request he told the story of his adventures,
one of the most democratic men he had ever met. O'Brien talked
with him for an hour and a quarter and after the first few minutes
said he never felt more at ease in his life.42a King George was fifty-
one years old in 1916. He was one of the best wing-shots in Eng-

42»The Times (New York).

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PERSONAL SKETCHES OF WAR LEADERS

land, an expert navigator, an authority on men-of-war, and domestic
in his tastes, but he disliked classical music, preferring instead
sprightly melodies. He had a large collection of babies' photographs
and had made a collection of postage stamps. He often went to see
people in humble neighborhoods and carried sincere messages of good-
will to them. He was in such close contact with the English people
that he had destroyed an old belief that a king lives in an atmosphere
of exclusion and mystery. He had visited scores of hospitals, fac-
tories, schools, homes for the aged, industrial hom'es, and labor
forums, going about like an ordinary citizen. The feeling of friend-
ship for him was everywhere so deep that it was not thought neces-
sary to keep a close guard over him. He missed no opportunity of
making official visits to American soldiers and sailors and of saying
pleasant things to them.

By simplicity and sincerity King George won his way to the
hearts of his countrymen just as effectively as did his father in a
more diplomatic way. Admittedly he had not the social gifts of his
father, the fluency of language, or the marvelous memory for faces,
but he had the same happy knack of saying the right thing at the
right time and in the right place, and thereby made a multitude of
friends. No nation ever had a more popular king. Bred a sailor,
he is as much at home on the quarter-deck of a dreadnought as in a
royal drawing-room; there was nothing about a man-of-war that he
did not know. The King and Queen were both domestic in their
tastes, their family life distinguished by simplicity no less than by
happiness, until the war came to disturb its peace. Early rising
prevailed. Pipes were blown by a royal piper at Buckingham Palace
or Windsor Castle at 8 A.M. to waken all sleepers and be a signal that
every one must be ready for 9 o'clock breakfast. After breakfast
business for the day began. When at home the King devoted most
of his time to affairs of state. Much depended upon the program,
as arranged, the day's time carefully mapped out. While the King
was engaged with state affairs, the Queen was busy elsewhere. She
was an indefatigable worker, with never an idle moment, and dis-
tinguished for wanting to know the why and wherefore of everything
in which she was interested.43

SIR EDWARD (NOW VISCOUNT) GREY, BRITISH FOREIGN

MINISTER

That hatred of England, to which Germany during the war gave
expression through song and scornful phrases, was vented with most
fury in early days on the personality of Sir Edward Grey, afterward

43 Compiled from "Who's Who" ; The Times and The Herald (New York).

233

SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

Viscount Grey, whose untiring efforts to avoid war, through a con-
ference of the Powers, gave him fame that will last while men read
of the war's origins. And yet this British Foreign Minister, who
was evolved in the radical conditions which for ten years governed
Great Britain under Asquith, incarnated to all Berlin certain quali-
ties of greed, duplicity, and lust for world dominion, that made
Albion perfidious in German eyes. To the Kreuz-Zeitung Sir Edward
seemed subtle and sly. He had plotted for years the desolation of
the world. This war, according to the Vossiche Zeitung ("Auntie
Voss") became the hour of his triumph. He was a far more sinister
figure in diplomacy than Macchiavelli had been, if we were to be-
lieve the Norddeutsche Allgemeine Zeitung. He had a genius for
duplicity, lived aloof from the world, and was a cold and calculating
instrument of that British policy which had made the destruction
of Germany a cult, if not a religion. Sir Edward found his eulogists,
however, and they were not confined to newspapers printed in Lon-
don. As a "guardian angel of peace," the Milan Corriere della Sera
lauded him. If the late King Edward VII had made himself "the
peace-maker," he might well have thanked Sir Edward for it, but
Sir Edward was the world's most self-effacing diplomatist. Sir
Edward's bright fame among the diplomats concerned in the war
seems secure enough. Moreover, it is likely to grow as time passes
and men still study the causes of the great catastrophe in human
affairs, which he strove so whole-heartedly, and yet vainly, to avoid.

Few members of the Commons rose to speak so seldom as Grey.
Political foes suspected him of a purpose to keep back from Parlia-
ment all control of foreign relations. In the radical camp, hostile
voices were raised against what they regarded as his peculiarly per-
sonal mode of conducting diplomatic world affairs. It was affirmed
that he was by temperament too aristocratic to be a Cabinet Minister
in a democratic State. He was in fact far from that ideal type of
Cabinet official dreamed of by the doctrinaries of radicalism. , No
irresponsible sentimentalist was he, and never a dangerous visionary.
Radicals generally contemplated with dismay his supremacy at the
Foreign Office. They objected to him because he was not romantic,
because he never dramatized in a speech, or shed tears for Balkan
woes. He would not spend his time in retailing to the Commons —
especially to young and inexperienced members — the contents of
ciphered dispatches that had come in. He declined to transform
Parliament into a Jacobin club for the betrayal of the secrets of a
great empire. Journalists grew horrified at his discretion.

Refusing to listen to extreme radicals, Sir Edward often heard
them yelling at his heels. He simply smiled and ignored them. In
truth it was only by a sort of political accident that so great a man

234

PERSONAL SKETCHES OF WAR LEADERS

found himself in such insignificant company. He was the most con-
servative of the combination of Social Revolutionists who, in 1914,
made up the ministry in London, and certainly the least democratic.
He came from a magnificent stock of Whig nobility, now almost
barren, and so was one of the few active survivors of a splendid
class the essential characteristics of which he embodied in urbanity
of manner, clearness of vision, poise, moderation in tone and temper.
It was a stroke of good fortune for the Liberal party when it re-
turned to power in 1906 that it was able to entrust the direction of
Great Britain's foreign policy to this young member, then only forty-
two, who, during the South African war, had separated himself from
his party and avowed himself an Imperialist. He had Liberalism,
however, but it was enlightened, tempered by knowledge of life and
respect for the British spirit.

Sir Edward had been in the British public service thirty years.
He was Under Secretary of State in Gladstone's last cabinet. The
striking fact about him was that Englishmen 'of both parties had
placed in his hands the fate of the nation with implicit confidence
in the honesty and frankness of his public actions. He was not a
diplomat in the old sense of the word. He had no tricks or wiles.
He was straightforward. With all the cards on the table he con-
ducted foreign affairs in much the same way as ordinary business is
conducted. He could have had the least possible hand in the in-
trigues, compacts, plots, and stratagems of an old-time diplomatic
game. As far as the situation would permit, he endeavored to
realize for Great Britain the American policy of "friendship with
all, entangling alliances with none." In the House of Commons, be-
fore war actually began, he made it clear that Great Britain was
under no agreement or contract to fight for France or Russia.
Sir Edward's policy of not meddling with other nations and pro-
voking their hostility seemed well repaid when the long expected
war arrived and found Great Britain with many allies and Germany
almost isolated.

He had from the beginning disbelieved a notion, common In
European chancellories, that lying for the good of his country was a
necessary gift for a diplomatist. He could no more lie in public
affairs than lie in private ones. When he did not wish to speak,
no amount of House of Commons questioning or pressure could
make him do so, but when he did speak he spoke the truth. Cold
and reserved, with a low and restrained speech, he was a typical
Englishman, a pure Anglo-Saxon. When it fell to his lot to an-
nounce war with Germany to the House of Commons he did it in
the same even tones that he would have employed in opening a
bazaar. There was no passion in his voice, there were no declamatory

235

SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

gestures, no attempt to play for a theatrical climax. He was simply
doing that which belonged necessarily to his office, and, however ex-
traordinary the occasion, he remained calm and even complacent,
as if the act were part of a routine that had to be gone through.44

COLONEL EDWARD M. HOUSE, ONE OF THE AMERICAN DELE-
GATES TO THE PEACE CONFERENCE

If the average American citizen had been asked in 1917 what he
knew about Colonel House he would have been apt to reply : "House ?
E. M. House? Why he's— he's President Wilson's friend and ad-
viser," but after saying that much it is doubtful if many could have
told whether Colonel House came from New York or Texas ; whether
he was a lawyer, a business man, a man of leisure, or a plain
politician. Without intending it, Colonel House, who during the
war was the President's personal observer of affairs in Europe, his
representative on the War-Mission, and afterward a member of the
American peace delegation, had been very much a man of mystery
in his own country. He did not represent the Government by virtue
of any office; he was seeking neither place, power, nor political
preferment. While he was acting almost as an ambassador or a
minister, he had neither a portfolio nor credentials. The Boston
Transcript called him the President's alter ego; the St. Louis Dis-
patch described him as "rather an amazing person, a sort of embodied
Intelligence, uninfluenced by traceable motives, and undisturbed by
discoverable prejudices." Curiously enough, the American people as
a whole seemed to share from the first the President's confidence in
him.

As far back as 1912, when Woodrow Wilson was Governor of
New Jersey, some letters passed between him and this mysterious
Texan. Whether Colonel House or Mr. Wilson wrote the first letter
is not recorded, but the fact stands out above all else that in 1912
Colonel House was scarcely known outside the Lone Star State, but
by February, 1913, his name had appeared in practically every news-
paper in the country and he had not held any political office; nor was
he talked of for one. Colonel House had become celebrated because
he was the closest political friend of Woodrow Wilson. He had
probably been asked to make suggestions in regard to Mr. Wilson's
Cabinet and as to scores of other matters we know not of, nor will
ever know, but he had got nothing for himself out of all this service,
except the satisfaction of honestly believing that he was serving his
country and his party.

44 Adapted from a compilation by Alexander Harvey in Current Opinion
from German and Italian newspapers, and from articles in The World's Work
and The World (New York).

236

PERSONAL SKETCHES OF WAR LEADERS

Colonel House was sixty years old on the 26th of July, 1918, the
son of a successful Texas banker and born in Houston, but he had
made his home in Austin before he came to New York. His father
had sent him to the Hopkins Grammar School, in New Haven, and
then to Cornell University, where he was graduated in 1881. In the
same year he married Miss Loulie Hunter, of Austin. He has two
daughters, both of whom are married. He inherited some money,
but made the larger part of his fortune himself through investments,
agricultural and others, and had been a director in banks and rail-
roads, but only in those in which he could take an active part. Aside
from banking and railroad investments he made money from farms
and ranches. No one knew the extent of his wealth, but it was not
great as fortunes go. All sorts of guesses had been made about it, a
favorite guess being $2,000,000. In any case he had reached a point
where he did not care to make any more money, having already more
than he could use. There was enough for his children and he saw
no reason to struggle for more. He kept a business office in Austin
in one small room, with an old-fashioned, flat-topped desk that had
seen better days, a few filing-cases, some chairs and a small, old-
fashioned safe. His reticence amounted almost to bashfulness.
When he was working successfully for the nomination of Mr. Wilson
in 1912, newspaper men flocked to see him and he made the following-
statement :

"To a man such as I am, publicity is not only annoying, but in-
jurious. I am not seeking anything for myself, and I am not seeking
anything for anybody else ; I am simply trying to do the best I can for
the measures I favor. I am for measures, not men. To say that I
"have been able to accomplish anything, would only be to draw upon
me attention which would be most distasteful. I am not working for
any influence that might be obtained, or favors that might be granted;
I am just a plain citizen, and am determined to remain one. "

Naturally it was something of a jolt to a great many veteran
politicians to find that this unknown Texan had suddenly got into
President Wilson's confidence. To Democratic leaders it was in
fact a rude jolt. Hardly a hundred politicians in Texas knew
House well enough to speak to him, but in 1916 there was not a
politician of any weight, influence, or importance but knew who he
was and what he could do. Without question he could have been a
member of President Wilson's cabinet — but he wouldn't accept any
such place. If Colonel House has achieved nothing else in national
politics, he has purified the conduct of campaigns and set an example
.of clever strategy and resourceful leadership rather than blind ex-
penditure of millions. He has demonstrated that a party can win in

237

SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

national elections without wholesale debauchery simply by placing
issues squarely before the voters. He illustrated, with sensational
success, the shift in the political center of the country from east to
west and the increasing weight which must be attached to the march
of progressive doctrines in the West. Best of all, he had taken the
Democratic party out of the solid South and made a really repre-
sentative party, controlling States in every section of the Union.
Some of his political maxims were these :

' ' What is bad morally is bad politically. Politics ought to be as
honest as business. I haven 't any use for bribery in politics. I have
never paid a cent to a newspaper or a man in any of my campaigns.
Personally, I never handle a cent of money. I have always made that
the first stipulation in consenting to participate in any campaign. I
will not collect funds or account for them, but I insist on knowing what
is done with the money. Even when I went to Europe with the War
Mission, I asked the State Department to send along an expert ac-
countant to keep track of disbursements. I will not bother with money
in connection with public work. It is bad enough having to manage
your own pecuniary affairs.

"I wouldn't promise a man an office in return for his political sup-
port, no matter what might be the exigency of the situation. It is bad
business, practically as well as morally. It is likely to create ill-feeling
in other men when it becomes known. Politics, when you come right
down to it, is largely a question of organization. ' ' 45

GOTTLIEB VON" JAGOW, GERMAN FOREIGN MINISTER

Journalists, familiar with the traits and temperaments of heads
of the German Foreign Office, were disposed to cite Jagow as of the
type most representative of the Emperor William. He had had the
good luck to be one of his Majesty's college-mates and William II
had never been disillusioned on the subject of college chums, but loved
them still. He could take them out of poverty and obscuritv into
high offices. Each of those whom he so favored was a sort of ro-
mantic person; each had charm, perfection of manners, intimacy
with current ideas. Jagow was the sweetest of dilettantes, a maker
of compelling conversation, an impeccable waltzer, felicitous in
quotations. No one could help loving him, dilettante tho he was.
In him the fine flower of the Prussian species was in bloom, but one
hardly expected to find him at the head of a great imperial foreign
office.

Jagow was once the German Ambassador in Rome. Italian dailies
applied to him their most complimentary word, "sympathetic." He

45 Principal Sources : The Literary Divest and Arthur D. Howden Smith's
"The Real Colonel House" (George H. Doran Company).

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PERSONAL SKETCHES OF WAR LEADERS

was not tall, nor in manner commanding, but he conveyed an im-
pression of power. He knew how to dress, could carry a lady's train
and could send flowers and bonbons impartially. For a bachelor he
managed difficulties of etiquette with nicety, offending no one. It
was characteristic of him that the very flower in his buttonhole had
symbolical significance. He never sported the Austrian color among
Garibaldians, or carried a yellow bloom into the Quirinal when a
quarrel with the Vatican had become acute. He was among the first
in Germany to take to the fashion of having creases in the trousers,
but he did not follow the example of the Crown Prince in affecting
English sartorial styles. Italians greatly admired his well-kept hands
and nails and the expressiveness of his eyes. The moment he entered

STATESMEN WHO WERE SOMETIMES KNOWN DURING THE PEACE

CONFERENCE AS "THE BIG FOUR"

Left to right — Premier Lloyd George, Premier Orlando, Premier Cle"menceau,

President Wilson. The picture represents the four men standing at the

doorway of President Wilson's house in Paris

239

SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

a ballroom, or a conference, he darted swift glances everywhere, as
if to take in the general situation.

His dispatches from Rome were so intimate and personal, that each
had to be laid personally before Emperor William, who was curious
about Italy. Jagow displayed rare genius in characterizations of
men who swayed the destinies of Italy and in estimates of national
and international situations. He could read Giolitti like a book and
took the measure of Sonnino, Salandra and San Giuliano ac-
curately. This was Jagow's strong point. He never showed much
grasp of principles, but human nature could not elude him. He had
the reputation of understanding women — a most important thing in
a diplomatist at the court of Victor Emmanuel III.

Jagow was not of the blood and iron breed, nor was he a hearty
drinker and eater like Bismarck, nor dour and ilnplacable like the
older Moltke. He was the poetical, Hamlet-like Prussian, sweet of
manner, and could conceal incredible sophistication beneath an aspect
of ineffable simplicity. The English might say that the dreaming
and soulful Prussian passed away when William II became a war-
lord, but it was not so. That type survived in Jagow, who might
have stept out of Gotlie's "Wilhelm Meister," so romantic was
lie, so susceptible to beauty. Jagow, unlike Bethmann-Hollweg, had
not read the philosophers. His mind had the bent of Billow's, who
loved Meriniee, Carducci, Dante, and the art of Siena. While Billow
was epigrammatic and witty, Jagow was a good listener. He made
no epigrams and his enemies denied that he could make them, whereas
Billow scarcely opened his mouth "without there flew a trope." Jagow
understood you. His smile was not that of amusement, but that of
comprehension, and he let you lead. One could not grow intimate
with him without thinking of the warning that the Prussian' is a
''fau.r bonliommc" — a sophisticated person, that is to say, knowing
things well while manifesting all the artlessness of a child.

Generations of Jagows had served Kings of Prussia. They hailed
from that Mark of Brandenburg of which William II always made
so much in his orations. The family was aristocratic to the finger-
tips, but no consciousness of that was apparent in the manner of
Jagow in his relations to the lower-born Helferichs and Dernburgs,
or even with Socialists. He knew that a modern period had come
in German annals and the aristocracy of finance, boasting Ballins and
Gwinners, had to be tolerated, side by side with the aristocracy of
the sword and old paternal acres. For popular opinion, such as the
Reichstag gave a voice and all that sort of thing, he had disdainful
shrugs of the shoulders. Not even Bismarck attached more im-
portance to the work of journalists. He was accused in Paris papers
of being the organizer of a German press campaign. He deemed

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PERSONAL SKETCHES OF WAR LEADERS

it a perfectly legitimate thing to feed the public as from a spoon
with ready-made views of imperial policy, or things that people
"must think officially."

Imagine a quiet, well-contained little man, well groomed, carry-
ing a cane, wearing spats, arriving at the Wilhelmstrasse at ten in
the morning. Jagow, the foreign minister of the German Empire,
was that man. He had a small, carefully groomed mustache on a
long upper lip. In winter he wore a long overcoat carefully brushed.
Patent leather boots shone resplendently below. Once inside, valets
helped him off with his hat and overcoat, and secretaries placed
documents on his desk. He was accustomed to the world's ways and
to the ways of lackeys, could be sympathetic to former German
ministers, former German secretaries of embassy, former German
attaches who came to pour into his receptive ear their several com-
plaints and disillusions. They formed a melancholy procession to
his office, those whilom diplomatists whom Emperor William had
told to seek other careers. Their faces were long and their tales
dolorous, but Jagow had smiles for them, and the flower at his button-
hole was not fresher than his face. Every complaining caller de-
parted from him soothed and sustained.

Recreation in the ordinary sense seemed to have been denied him,
his constitution never having been sufficiently robust. His four
years as ambassador in Italy built him up wonderfully and Rome
saw him go with real regret. Never was a diner out, at least in
the German diplomatic corps, so abstemious. His principal exercise
was walking. Like Billow, he took an occasional fancy to animal
pets, but he was not followed everywhere by a little dog after the
fashion of at least one former Imperial chancellor. Jagow took to
flowers, music, poetry, and pictures. He was too good a courtier
to run counter to Emperor William's well-known taste in art. For
that reason it was hinted with some malice that one never found the
Foreign Minister at an exhibition of secessionists in art, but he
would halt in ecstasy before some battle-picture of a school dear to
William II. Had he not sprung from a long line of Prussian Junkers
he might have become an artist of distinction, or at any rate a bril-
liant student of the arts.46

46 Adapted from a compilation by Alexander Harvey in Current Opinion,
based on Irving S. Wile's "Men About, the Kaiser" and articles in the
Figaro and Gaulois (Paris) and the Tribune and Oiornale (Rome).

241

SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

ALEXANDER FEODOROVITCH KERENSKY, PREMIER OF

RUSSIA

Kerensky was born in 1882. He was a Socialist of the moderate
type and in the Provincial Government set up the revolution of
March, 1917, he first served as Minister of Justice and later as Min-
ister of War. Kerensky, in the crisis that followed within a few
months, seemed to some observers destined to become Russia's Wash-
ington rather than its Napoleon — guiding it through stormy seas into
a haven of peaceful democracy, rather than distorting its democracy
into an ultimate imperialism. In a sense Kerensky's voice had been
the first resounding voice of the revolution. After listening to the
Czar's edict dissolving the Duma, it was he who rose in his place and
said : "We wiU not j*o, we will stay here," and they stayed. So staying,
the Duma accomplished the first act of the revolution — it was an act
destined to be as historic as the refusal of the States General of
France to disperse at the command of Louis XVI. Kerensky again
gave evidence of possessing the instinct of leadership when, on the
first day of July, 1917, having gone to the front, he called on his
soldiers to charge the German trenches, declaring that if they failed
to do so he would, make the assault alone. In that act he sounded
the note of personal appeal, the cry of individual valor that was
needed by an army that had been disintegrated by German intrigue
and had become hesitant and vacillating in its conception of duty.
With a roar and a rush his troops responded and Russia once more
seemed a factor in the war. It was a stroke such as Napoleon in
his youth more than once used with revolutionary soldiers, notably
at the bridge of Lodi.

Physically frail — a fine soul in a sorely racked body — Kerensky
became the most interesting figure in the war drama at that time.
Kerensky was born in Tashkend, Turkestan, in Asiatic Russia, of pure
Russian blood, his parents not rich. He studied in Moscow and was
educated to be a lawyer. In childhood he had seen the sufferings of
Siberian exiles which ever afterward affected his views of political
questions. He began his work as a lawyer by defending "political
criminals," men who had now become the real revolutionists of Russia.
During the uprising of 1905 he became a speaker among the working
classes and continued to defend Jews and political criminals against
the old regime, often without taking money for his work. Elected
to the Fourth Duma from Saratoff on the Vol^a, he became a leader
of the Trudoviki, or Labor group, winning wider popularity. When
at the beginning of the war Grand Duke Nicholas Nikolaivitch —
not the warrior Grand Duke Nicholas, but another — accused the

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PERSONAL SKETCHES OF WAR LEADERS

Jews of being traitors, Kerensky made a fearless speech against
him in the Duma. Two weeks before the revolution Minister
Protopopoff had been planning to send him to Siberia; papers re-
vealing the plan afterward came into his hands. He had often been
pursued by spies of the old regime.

A young man in the early thirties, neither tall nor short, his
figure characterized by a stoop that came from much poring over
books, brown hair brushed straight up, the forehead lined and
seamed, a sharp nose and chin, quick, restless, steel-gray eyes, lips
comprest with a very obvious decision — such was the personal im-
pression Kerensky gave. He wore a black or gray sack-suit even on
formal occasions. In his face was a peering expression that in-
dicated near-sightedness. His hands often wandered restlessly to
a pencil in his waistcoat pocket as he talked. It was not easy for
him to sit. still. In the middle of a conversation he would leap out
of his chair and pace restlessly to and fro. As he talked, nervously
and in a low tone, it was not easy to understand upon what his
great reputation as an orator was based. One had to hear him in
the Duma, or when he confronted a Labor group, to comprehend
that. In his earnestness he would sometimes advance close to an
interlocutor and seize the lapel of his coat while talking. Anything
but a dandy in his dress, his boots often sadly needed polish.

Kerensky's pleadings in local courts were made in a theatrical
manner. He would fold his arms and glare in disconcerting fashion
at an opposing witness, or at a judge who ventured to correct him,
or at a lawyer with whom he was battling. That stare in the Duma
had prodigious effects. He would swiftly launch a torrent of words,
and yet each was distinct and telling. He would fold his arms and
gaze about in a tense, strained, alert fashion when a pin could be
heard to fall and then he would fire a shot — an epigram it might be,
or a charge of turpitude, or a crushing citation of what Peter the
Great had said, or what Pushkin said, and a sensation would ensue.
Kerensky was most at home at a workingmen's meeting in Petro-
grad or Moscow. One thought of Marat. He had the same passion
for the mob, the unfed sons of toil. His perfect sincerity made
him the idol of labor-unions. He risked imprisonment by scorning
openly a favorite device of the old bureaucracy — drafting men and
exiling them to remote places upon a plea of administrative neces-
sity. Protopopoff, the incarnation of bureaucracy, who once secured
a decree against Kerensky, did not dare thus to banish him.

Kerensky had striking resourcefulness in denunciation. He had
called his predecessor at the Ministry of Justice "a crocodile without
tears," had said Sturmer spoke Russian "with a Hohenzollern ac-
cent," and coined the phrase that there are two kinds of democracy —

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SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

"the kind the people want and the kind the people get." Interrupted
in the Duma by a remark that socialism was a dream, Kerensky re-
torted: "Yes, and capitalism is a nightmare." This readiness of
tongue helped him to hold his own in that most turbulent of organi-
zations in Petrograd, the Soviet or Council of Workers' and Sol-
diers' delegates. It was his influence at the Council that led to the
adoption of the red flag as an emblem of the triumph of the people
over autocracy. Others had favored a modification of the old Mus-
covite standard, but Kerensky would hear only of a red flag, use of
which had been forbidden in many a bureaucratic rescript.

Kerensky had an intuitive realization of crowd psychology. He
could leap on a table at a moment's notice and gain attention when
he made some happy remark that put every one in a good humor.
He knew how to bring forward a practical suggestion at the right
time, or how to wave his arm dramatically in a crisis and then shout
"Follow me!" He loved an uproar, but could quiet crowds with a
word. There was a touch in him of Camille Desmoulins, the
journalist leader of the French Revolution. There were times when
by great effort he could shout almost with the lung power of Danton.
And yet his influence was in the main 'on the side of moderation.
He kept a restraining hand on radical leaders in the Workers' and
Soldier's Council.

In his waiting-room in Petrograd might sometimes have been seen
a dozen dingy civilians and some soldiers sitting on rickety chairs
around the wall, the room quiet, the visitors wearing that distant,
meditative expression that seemed to have settled like a common
mask upon the people of Petrograd since they had caught a glimpse
of primitive Russia at the outbreak of the revolution. The double
doors that led into his inner office would open suddenly, and then
one would see "a man of middle height, with close-dipt brown hair,
flashing eyes and a sullen mouth," who surveyed his callers, and when
he saw the soldiers, cried out abruptly in a rough voice, "Come on,
comrades/' whereupon they arose, shook hands, and went inside.
Fifteen minutes later the doors would open again, and the soldiers
would emerge smiling.

K^erensky had learned revolutionary enthusiasm from France and
stability from Great Britain, but he was a Russian first and last,
and left no doubt in the minds of French and British that Russia
"would henceforth endeavor to manage her own destiny." He had
apparently "swung Russia away from license toward restraint; from
oratory toward action; from a temporary autocracy of workmen
and soldiers toward general tolerance." He once said that an
autocracy of workmen or an autocracy of soldiers "is as bad as an
autocracy of aristocrats," and Russia "should have no aristocracies.

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PERSONAL SKETCHES OF WAR LEADERS

Each man should be a free citizen, with as much respect for his
neighbor's rights and prerogatives as for his own." As compromise
was the essence of government in England, so compromise became
the essence of Kerensky's method and it was compromise that event-
ually led to his fall and flight.

Kerensky's proclamation of a republic in Russia, on September
17, without waiting for a Constitutional Convention, showed once
more how at that time he was the genius, as well as the leader, of
the Revolution. The restraint he had exercised upon violence, the
success with which he had met the intrigues of domestic reactionaries
and foreign foes, the ability with which he had inspired and led a
demoralized army, the comparative ease with which he had put down
the Korniloff rebellion, and the boldness with which he presented to
his countrymen the vision of a Russian republic, filled the world with
a new hope that, so far as it was ever possible for one man to shape
the destiny of a nation, Kerensky had been raised up for that task.
Such Kerensky seemed, for many weeks, to all the world, none dream-
ing of his precipitate fall, the rise of the Bolsheviki and the frightful
excesses that ensued under its dominance.47

DAVID LLOYD GEORGE, PREMIER OF GREAT BRITAIN

Of Lloyd George's birth in Manchester, England, and his boyhood
in Llanystymdwy, Wales; of his early loss of his father; of the uncle
who, in humble circumstances, nobly promoted his education; of
his rise as a lawyer and his activities as a member of Parliament in
promoting the uplift of the common people, readers had read much
before the war. Early in the war, as Chancellor of the Exchequer,
wider fame came to him and then fame still wider as Minister of
Munitions. Finally he reached the topmost round of the politicians'
ladder as Prime Minister of Great Britain, and dauntlessly saw the
war through to victory and peace. " 'E's the bloke wot they gets to
do wot no other bloke can't, or else is 'fraid to," was the way Lewis
R. Freeman48 said he once heard a Cockney "publicist," in an in-
formal debate in Hyde Park, London, characterize Lloyd George.

Lloyd George had fine ability and high courage. His were tasks
that lack of "grasp" or of nerve has made other British statesmen
unfit to perform. The salient facts of the "shell muddle" after
Neuve Chapelle, and of how a special "Ministry of Munitions" was
created to cope with the difficulties arising out of it, formed early in

47 Adapted from an article compiled by Alexander Harvey for Current
Opinion from The Daily Chronicle (London), Temps and Humanite (Paris),
and from articles in The Evening Post, The Sun and The World (New York).

48 In an article in The Review of Reviews (London).

V. x— 17 245

SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

1915 a notable incident of the war. That fatal shortage of high-
explosive shells which caused the British such frightful loss in their
attempted offensive, and which became responsible for great changes
in the war on both the Eastern and the Western Fronts, had been
clearly foreseen by Lloyd George, as a consequence of a visit he made
to the fighting-line in October, 1914. He was then Chancellor of the
Exchequer. Army officials, impatient of civilian interference, turned
a deaf ear to his earnest warnings. Pinning their faith to shrapnel,
they had laid the train that led to disaster. Repulsed by those who
should have been vitally interested in what he had to reveal, Lloyd
George then resolved to bend every effort to bring the truth home
to the British Government and the British people. The alarm note
rang clear through a speech he made at Bangor, Wales, in February,
1915, the keynote of which was thus exprest :

"This is an engineer's war, and it will be won or lost by the efforts
or shortcomings of engineers. We need men, but we need arms more
than men, and delay in producing them is full of peril to the country.
We must appeal for the cooperation of employers, workmen, and the
general public; the three must act and endure together, or we delay
and may imperil victory. We ought to requisition the aid of every
man who can handle metal."

Lloyd George already had great prestige in England, but the
grave import of his utterance did not at once strike home in any
quarter where it could take effect. While the Ordnance Department
was striving to increase the munition output, it made the fatal error
of placing full dependence on a time-hallowed system of obtaining
supplies from armament firms and sub-contractors who, even under
normal conditions, could not turn out anything approaching an
adequate supply. With railways and ports congested with transport
work, and with trans-oceanic shipping facilities greatly reduced —
at times raw material was two months in going from New York to
Birmingham, and six weeks from Liverpool to London — a breakdown
became almost complete. One firm that had contracted to deliver
1,000,000 shells had ready only a pitiful 10,000; another that con-
tracted for 500,000 delivered 45,000. To make matters worse, many
of the shells that became available were not of a character best
suited to the work in hand. Tenders from responsible American
firms were ignored.

As a consequence the long-heralded "spring drive" of 1915 got no
farther than a few lines of German trenches, and these were won at
a cost in lives unparalleled in previous warfare. A really con-
siderable French advance, the ultimate success of which was largely
dependent on British cooperation, was almost stultified by a British

246

LLOYD GEORGE AND THE PRINCE OF WALES
After a luncheon at the House of Commons

247

SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

failure, and the Germans, now made safe for an indefinite period
against an offensive on the Western Front, turned on the Russians,
who at that time were almost ready to go through the Carpathian
passes to the plains of Hungary — and so started their great eastward
drive under Mackensen after the Dunajec battle. With McKenna
amply equipped to fill Lloyd George's portfolio as Chancellor
of the Exchequer, it was natural that the head of the new depart-
ment, the Minister of Munitions, should be the Cabinet Minister who
had foreseen the necessity of its formation almost since the outbreak
of war. So it came about that the little Welshman with the sunniest
of smiles, kindliest of eyes, warmest of hand-clasps, and love of his
fellow men in his heart, bent his energy and his talent for organiza-
tion to the task of building up for England a war-supply machine
which, in the fulness of time, would rival that of Germany.

How this miracle was accomplished the public at the time did
not know. The machine for it was a compact of units assembled from
the ends of the United Kingdom. It started with a minimum of
"lost motion," because its parts were selected with judgment and it
ran true as day followed day as a consequence of being "oiled" by
the tact and persuasiveness of the chief engineer, who set to work
laying out the whole country into districts, each under its own com-
mittee of management. This body in each case consisted of heads
of local manufacturing firms, assisted by a technical expert. In
each district a bureau was established for giving advice and direction
to factories in its own area. The engineers of this bureau decided
such questions as the kind of work the existing machinery of any
given factory was best fitted to perform with a minimum of altera-
tion; the character and quantity of the new machinery needed; the
competency of any factory to handle adequately a given order; and
such advances of money as any factory was justified in demanding
for war-work extensions. Through the reports of committees in
each district the Ministry had an intelligence system which enabled
it to anticipate and prevent congestion of orders in one district, or
a shortage of orders in another. England, through its Ministry of
Munitions, was now applying ordinary business methods to war-
supply.

By a system of district control, a heterogeneous lot of labor was
kept track of and sent where it would do the most good. Indeed,
the handling of the laborer — both as a man and as a workman — as
Lloyd George realized at the outset, was the crux of the whole
problem. The most unskilled and unschooled of volunteers — every-
body from noble dames and university professors to costermongers
and girls from the sweatshops of Houndsditch and Petticoat Lane —
were included among the thousands who took up this work of

248

PERSONAL SKETCHES OF WAR LEADERS

patriotism. They had to work side by side with the most highly
trained machinists. In inducing trades unions to concede this and
other of their bitterly-fought-for privileges, Lloyd George was
credited with one of the cleverest strokes in his career. Concessions
from the unions included an agreement not to strike while on war
work, and to suspend restrictive regulations limiting outputs for a
given time. Nothing approaching so amicable an understanding be-
tween capital and labor, or between government and labor, ever be-
fore occurred in British industrial history.

But discontent broke out, and the deliberate charge was made that
the Government was doing little or nothing to limit the abnormal
"war profits" of the employers, and that these were, therefore, wax-
ing fat at the expense of the working-man. Men were being robbed,
these malcontents declared, and they challenged Lloyd George or
any one else in the Government, to prove the contrary. The Minister
of Munitions, recognizing the threat as well as the tactical possibili-
ties of the occasion, snatched the gauntlet with eager hand. There
was no time to prepare a set speech. But here was a chance to re-
lieve himself of a burden of facts. He took a train to Bristol where
was assembled a Labor Congress and at once addrest representatives
of British labor as one man 'addresses another, words straight from
his heart. He began his speech by telling delegates to that congress
that they represented the most powerful force in the life of the coun-
try. "With you," said he, "victory is assured; without you, our
cause is lost." Recalling to their minds a resolution they had passed
a few days previously, pledging themselves to assist the Government
in carrying on the war, he told them that he was there to take them
at their word. To the charge that the Government had not kept its
promise to intercept "war profits," he replied by showing how the
state had taken control of practically all the engineering* works of
the country and was appropriating profits and employing them in
the prosecution of the war. Simply but convincingly he showed
that the Government was carrying out completely both the letter
and the spirit of its promises:

"We have set up sixteen national arsenals and are constructing eleven
more. We require, in order to run those — the old and the new — and to
equip works which are at present engaged on turning out the equip-
ment of war, 80,000 more skilled men, but we require in addition to
that 200,000 unskilled men and women. At present you have only got
15 per cent, of the machines which you could use for the turning out.
of rifles, cannon and shells working night-shifts. If you could get
plenty of labor to make these machines go night and day — ah, just
think of the lives that could be saved ! We are not trying to displace
skilled workmen by unskilled. We have not enough skilled workmen to

249

SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

go round. There is a good deal of work being done by skilled work-
men now, highly skilled men of years' training, which can just as
easily be done by those who have only a few days' training. We want
to turn the unskilled on to work which these can do just as well as
the highly skilled, so as to reserve the highly skilled for work which
they alone can do. Take shell-making, for instance. Instead of put-
ting skilled people to that work, what we would like to do would be
to put on, say, len or eleven unskilled men or women to one skilled
man to look after them."

The speaker then went from the explanatory, and the defensive,
to a swift offensive that swept his hearers off their feet :

' ' The reports we get from our own offices, the War Office and the '
Munitions Department, show that if we had a suspension during the
war of those customs which keep down the output, we could increase it
in some places 30 per cent., in other places 200 per cent. Between 30
and 200 per cent. — well, I will hardly need to tell you that makes the
difference between victory and defeat in the quantity you could turn
out and place at the disposal of our armies."

Adding instance to instance, piling proof on proof, he went on to
show how persistence in these very trades-union practises which the
men had undertaken to suspend had been hampering- the munitions
supply at every turn. He rose to a dramatic climax in pointing
out the shame of their having interfered with Belgian workmen:

"The Belgian workman has several reasons for putting his back into
his work. But whenever he has worked his best he has always been
warned that he was breaking some trades-union custom. He has been
invited to desist, and he does not understand it. His home has been
destroyed, his native land has been ravaged, Belgian women have been
dishonored, Belgian liberties have been trampled under foot; and Bel-
gian workmen can not understand entering into any conspiracy to keep
down the output of rifles and guns and shells to drive the oppressor
from the land which he is trampling under foot. I do say that if there
is any man who wants to dawdle while his country is in need of him,
do let him have the decency at least not to appeal to Belgian workmen
not to avenge the dishonor of their country."

The head of many a British workman was bowed in shame after
these words had been spoken ; not one but lifted up cheers when the
Minister of Munitions, with a fervent appeal for help and coopera-
tion, brought his speech to a close and rushed off to board the train
waiting to take him back to London. From Belfast to Birmingham,
from the Clyde to the Thames, British labor writhed under the lash
that had been laid along its back. Then fine manliness asserted
itself. British labor began to put its house in order. Delegations

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PERSONAL SKETCHES OF WAR LEADERS

from all classes hurried to London and sundry conferences were held
at the Ministry of Munitions. Finally, on the 18th of September,
1915, a fresh undertaking on the part of labor was announced, by
which the workmen agreed to "cut out the frills and get down to
brass tacks." There have been more finished oratorical efforts in
English history than Lloyd George's speech, but there is serious doubt
if one was ever fraught with greater import.

Lloyd George could usually be seen — often on a few moments'
notice — by any one whom his secretary deemed warranted in having
the privilege. But he would not be interviewed for publication, nor
send a "message to the public," or undertake to answer any written
questions summitted. Mr. Freeman, whose article 48a is summarized
here, related how on the day 'after that famous Bristol speech, he
chanced to be lunching at a political club near the Houses of Parlia-
ment, with a technical expert of the Munitions Department, when
Lloyd George, another Cabinet Minister, and a couple of M.P.'s were
at a near-by table. "Lloyd George doesn't know me from Adam," said
Mr. Freeman's friend, "but I can not miss the chance of congratulat-
ing him on his great speech." Stepping to the other table, he ex-
tended his hand, with a word of explanation as to who he was.
Lloyd George, who had been accepting without rising a running fire
of felicitations, was on his feet in an instant.

"You're C of the B — — E Company, I know," said he.

"You came from South Africa at your own expense and have been
working in the Munitions Department at a fraction of your regular
salary. You have been in the hospital for a month with chronic
dysentery, and have only been back at your desk for a week. It's a
shame I haven't even sent word to tell you and the other chaps with
you who have come from the ends of the earth to help us, how
deeply we appreciate your sacrifices and services. I don't know
what we should have done without you all. By the way, isn't there
a young American explosive expert from Johannesburg working with

you — a chemical engineer named Q , I think it is? Please tell

him how especially fine I think it is that he should have joined us
to 'do his bit.' I'm going to get around to see you all before long."
"By Jove!" ejaculated Mr. Freeman's friend, as he rejoined him at
the table ; "I was so taken aback that I quite forgot to congratulate
him on his labor speech. Think of his having such a line as that
on our work !"

As Chancellor of the Exchequer Lloyd George saw his country
through the chaos of the first months of the war when the pillars
of the financial world were shaking to their foundations. As Minis-
ter of Munitions he found the way out of another chaos no less

isa jn Tjie Review of Reviews.

251

SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

"baffling and then came his splendid career as Prime Minister, of
which the record is writ large in histories of this war.

Before the war ended a sort of leg-end had grown np around the
name and fame of Lloyd George, who was described by Isaac K.
Marcosson, in the World's Work, as "the most picturesque and
challenging figure of the English-speaking race." Only one man —
Theodore Roosevelt — rivaled him for this plural distinction. Reduc-
ing the wizard to a formula, Mr. Marcosson described him as "50
per cent. Roosevelt," in the virility and forcefnlness of his character,
"15 per cent. Bryan," in the purely oratorical phase of his make-up,
the rest "canny Celt opportunism." It was with Roosevelt that the
happiest comparison could be made. Lloyd George was the British
Roosevelt, the Imperial Rough Rider, the minor distinction between
them being that the head of the British Government, instead of
flourishing a "big stick," employed a compelling voice. Each was
more of an institution than a mere man : each dramatized himself
in everything he did; each had a genius for the benevolent assimila-
tion of idea with fact. One could trust Lloyd George as one could
Roosevelt to know all about the man who came to see him, whether
he were statesman, author, explorer, or plain captain of industry.
That was one of the reasons why he maintained his political hold.
He also had Roosevelt's striking gift of phrase-making, altho he
did not share the American's love of letter-writing. There was a
tradition that the way in which to get a written reply out of him
was to enclose two addrest and stamped postal cards, one bearing
the word "Yes." and the other "No." Like Roosevelt. Lloyd George
was past master in the art of effective publicity. Each projected
upon the public the fire and magnetism of a dynamic personality and
each had been the terror of the corporate evil-doer.49 Roosevelt had
one distinct advantage over him in that he was a deeper student and
had wider learning. On the other hand, Roosevelt was no match for
the eloquent Welshman in oratory. The stage "lost a star when
Lloyd George went into politics."

So wrote Mr. Marcosson, but the Rev. Charles F. Aked went
further and maintained that Lloyd George was one of the foremost
orators of all time. Dr. Aked once spoke from the same London
platform with him, when he was not and never had been a member
of the British Government. Five thousand persons had gathered at
what was to be a Liberal demonstration. Dr. Aked described the
meeting, Lloyd George being then a comparatively obscure member
of Parliament :

"He was suffering from a bad attack of stage-fright — or thought he
49 In Ei'criibodii'tt Magazine.

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PERSONAL SKETCHES OF WAR LEADERS

-was. He profest the utmost misery when waiting for the meeting to
begin. He asked if I ever suffered the same unutterable wretchedness
before facing an audience, and added, 'I feel as if I were in the con-
demned cell waiting to be led out to be hanged. There (pointing to the
Chairman) is the Governor of the jail, and (to me) there is the Chaplain.
And I don 't know whether I would not sooner be led out to the gallows. '
I really think his speech that night was the greatest of his amazing
career. He was not eloquent, but eloquence, not passionate but pure and
living passion. When he reached the 'grand style' as he often did — or
•did in those years — there was something weirdly coercive in the physical
qualities of his voice, something uncanny, defying analysis, indescribable.
It seemed to us as we came away that nothing finer could ever have fallen
from human lips than his peroration about the streams gathering in his
•own Welsh mountains until a torrent swept through the valleys, and, of
course, he meant this to illustrate the gathering floods of righteous senti-
ment which were to sweep privilege and obstruction and all the rest of it
into oblivion. Commonplace? Familiar stuff for perorations? Quite so;
but the thrill and the leap and the gladness and the glory in it were —
superhuman. ' '

MARIE ADELAIDE, THE FORMER GRAND DUCHESS OF LUXEMBURG

Marie Adelaide in a military sense was not an ally of Germany,
"but in a moral sense she was commonly so regarded in Entente
councils. Journalists were baffled again and again in their efforts
to see her inside her palace in Luxemburg where she was the most in-
teresting of all German prisoners of war, for such, as a matter of fact,
she was. Germany, however, denied that she was a prisoner. She was
an independent and reigning sovereign of a neutral nation, they said,
rather than a prisoner or an ally of the King of Prussia. She was,
however, to all appearance devoted to the cause of the Fatherland.
Only twenty years of age, she was for four years surrounded in her
capital by guards of honor, virtually her jailers, against whom she
sometimes fumed. London and Paris dailies described an interview
during the war between her and Emperor William, in which she
declined to be seated during the conference, and so forced the Em-
peror to stand, for even a Hohenzollern might not take a chair in
the palace of an independent sovereign until he had been invited
to do so.

So profound was the mystery that surrounded her destiny before
the war that for months she could have been called maid, wife, or
widow — which she was none could tell. For months her betrothal to
Prince Henry of Bavaria had delighted the Pontifical Court, since
both were fervently Roman Catholic and Luxemburg had been
ravaged by Anticlerical queries. As to what had become of the sup-
posed Bavarian consort inspired fantastic rumors. The German

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SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

Emperor figured in one story as the heavy villain of the piece. He
had menaced the Grand Duchess with his displeasure unless she
espoused one of his own sons. A secret marriage, a compulsory
divorce, a solemn betrothal and partings in grief and tears, all had
their place in stories of this the most sentimental matrimonial com-
plication of the war. She could not, as a Catholic, secure a divorce,
and a new marriage into which she might have entered would have
been void from the start. There were many eligible royal bridegrooms
among German princes, many among Balkan princes, while in Russia
the Grand Duke Con stan tine was twenty-six, to say nothing of six
other Grand Dukes* on the list, all wealthy. The Grand Duchess of
Luxemburg would not have lacked suitors could they have gained
access to her presence and had she been really marriageable.

The Grand Duchess and her five younger sisters were of a much
more ancient branch of the house of Orange-Nassau than that to
which the Queen of the Netherlands belonged. She had been received
with much enthusiasm in Luxemburg when, on the attainment of her
legal majority, she headed a glittering procession to the legislative
palace and there vowed fidelity to the national constitution. She
was accompanied by her august Portuguese mother, the Infanta
Marie Anne of Braganza, from whom the Grand Duchess inherited
her piety ; by her sisters, by Her venerable grandmother, by the
Grand Duke and Grand Duchess of Baden, devoted relatives always,
and by the Prince Alois of Loewenstein, to say nothing of a brilliant
suite. Majesty was in every gesture with which the Grand Duchess
ascended the steps of the throne and announced to the brave as-
semblage that she had assumed her proper rank among the sovereigns
of the world, ruling a nation free and independent.

A diplomatist on a mission in Luxemburg edified the Parisian press
with impressions of her spirit in what he called her "captivity."
Her trim young figure was shrouded in black and her eyes showed
traces of weeping. She had given up horseback-riding, but occasional
glimpses obtained of her in the park by the curious who passed
sentries suggested that she was in fairly good health and able to
enjoy the fresh air; but the smiles were gone from her face. Her
own functionaries had been removed by the German officers during
the war, and their places given to Prussians, with whom she would
hold no communications.

She had the long oval face characteristic of the princesses of the
house of Orange in the elder branch, and blushed with almost no
provocation at all. Her hair was the fine silky sort, not over-
abundant, and rebellious to the brush. Her full red lips mani-
fested a wealth of temperament. Her figure was slender and girlish,
with a gait that revealed a proficient dancer. In addition to being

254

PERSONAL SKETCHES OF WAR LEADERS

born royal she was born "chic." One evidence of this was the ease
with which she had her hair done without regard to fashion, the re-
sult being harmonious with her type. She was of the sanguine and
statuesque type, conventional and inclined to seriousness. This made
her seem every inch a queen along traditional lines. She exacted
perfect deference from every personage in her suite, both official and
personal, being especially sensitive if her independent sovereignty
was not clearly apprehended. "I am a reigning Queen!" she would
say. The fact that she was "chic" in aspect imparted to her de-
portment on occasions of disputed etiquette the majesty that she
asserted. But Marie lost her grand ducal throne soon after the war
— after she and Pershing, side by side, 'had reviewed the American
Army that passed through Luxemburg on its way to the Rhine at
Coblenz. That was perhaps the last day on which she. felt that her
tiny throne was really hers.50

CZAR NICHOLAS II, OF RUSSIA

When Nicholas II came to the Russian throne he showed himself
an idealist, and made passionate efforts for universal peace. Strange
indeed was it that he should have lost his throne in a revolution, and
lost his life ignominiously at the hands of his own people. For a
time the cause of peace had been associated largely with his name.
An absolute monarch had been the champion of a cause that was
dearest of all to democrats and liberals. He had become the colleague
of men like Stead and Carnegie. Despite all that seemed to militate
against him, many people kept their faith in Nicholas as a man who
was sincere in his peace endeavors. The most touching example was
perhaps W. T. Stead who, with many others, saw in the Czar, ttie
granter of .the Duma, a new Peter the Great, or a God-chosen
monarch, leading his nation through the most difficult and hazardous
ways of national evolution. They held that it had been comparatively
easy for Alexander II to give liberty to the serfs, but that it needed
a determined and sincere man of genius to cope with the difficulties
which liberalism would lead to in Russia. But it was always to be re-
membered that no Russian monarch previous to Nicholas II had ever
had to face one hundred millions of peasants and working-men
recently made free.

Nicholas had survived his indulgence of his passions for peace,
his unfortunate war with Japan and the wild revolutionary era that
followed, but was sometimes almost laughed at behind his face.

50 Adapted from an article by Alexander Harvey in Current Opinion, based
on articles in the Journal des Debats, Croia, Libre Parole, and Matin (Paris),
The Times (London) and the Vossische Zeitung (Berlin).

255

SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

Moreover, thousands of soldiers had to be lined up on a railway-
track whenever he made a journey to Petrograd because he did not
dare to stir from his palace except with an army to guard him.
Before going to the third city of his empire, he had first to have
several thousand people arrested as suspicious characters. In many
parts of Russia he did not dare show himself even under such pre-
cautions. One remembered how at Kief a Jewish police agent once
managed to get into a theater and only at the last moment changed
his mind and shot Stolypin instead of Nicholas. Some revo-
lutionaries said the Czar did not count; he was not a commanding
figure, and his survival would help their cause more than could his.
death. They meant that by his folly he had shown more clearly than,
they could show by propaganda that the day of Czars was over and
that it was better for mankind to dispense with Czars altogether.

Nicholas had outlived an earlier accusation of insincerity and an
early unpopularity. He had given the lie to much that had been
said against him. His character was shown in a courageous attack
he made on a corrupt police system which had sold itself in part to
the revolutionary party. The police system in Russia was in ' some
respects more powerful than the Czar. It could almost always pro-
cure the assassination of its persecutors.

Later in his reign Nicholas entered upon a more peaceful, but less,
easy, problem of giving land to peasants, of settling them on small
holdings, and finally by issuing his extraordinary manifesto against
drunkenness in 1914, when several hundred thousand vodka shops
were closed. He also gave amnesty to revolutionary exiles, per-
mitting Maxim Gorky, among others, to return to Russia unharmed,
and next came his proclamation extending a brother's hand toward
Poland, and another permitting religious pilgrimages to Russian
shrines in order to pray for Russia, and still another for com-
plete abolition by Imperial Ukase of the sale of vodka, first for a
month, then for the duration of the war, and then by promise, for
ever.

When hostilities began in 1914 great crowds in Moscow and
Petrograd carried his portrait while singing "God save the Czar,"
and cheering with indescribable enthusiasm. After that Nicholas went
about his kingdom unguarded and without hesitation, and to the
front to become an inspiration to his soldiers. He visited Roman
Catholic and Polish Vilna where he saluted emblems of Catholicism
and Polish nationalism. That he might appear in the uniform worn
in Russia by a common soldier, he asked that a complete soldiers
suit be sent to him, with boots, rifle, and full kit, and so put off his
royal clotRes, shouldered kit and gun and walked in them on his
estate in Livadia. He was photographed thus attired and allowed

256

PERSONAL SKETCHES OF WAR LEADERS

the photograph to be reproduced for common sale and distribution
among soldiers. 9

Nicholas was a simple man. Inheriting the awful power of his
ancestors, and coming to a tragic end in 1917, he thus liked to spend
a day as a common soldier in the trenches. Such action resounded
through Russia and won hearts all over the non-German world. But
necessarily he remained to peasants something unearthly, a giant, a
demigod. They were not influenced by his democratic acts, and
probably did not understand them. Strange indeed was the fate
that overwhelmed him, recalling in more ways than one the fate of
Louis XVI of France.

Nicholas II was born on May 18, 1868, and succeeded his father,
Alexander III, on November 1, 1894. He was married to Princess
Alix of Hesse-Darmstadt November 26, 1894, the betrothal having
been announced by the German Emperor.51

VITTORIO EMANUELE ORLANDO, ITALIAN PREMIER

The effect of the Italian defeat in October, 1917, brought about
the consolidation of the national spirit and the appointment of
Vittorio Orlando, an energetic representative of the Italian people,
as Premier. As a statesman he was acknowledged to be the most
subtle in Italy, and during his term of office as Minister of the
Interior in earlier Cabinets, he was the cause of three crises, the last
of which placed him in the premiership. Orlando's career as a
publicist began as a Sicilian lawyer and as a deputy from Palermo.
From 1903 to 1905 he served as Minister of Education and became
known to Americans through negotiations concerning the excava-
tions at Herculaneum. From 1907 to 1909 he served as Minister of
Justice, and from 1914 to 1917 was a member of the War Cabinet
under Salandra. Perhaps no statesman in any country had been as
bitterly assailed as Orlando, yet he long survived criticism. In De-
cember, 1917, he sent a message to the American people welcoming
them in the fight against the common foe, and at the opening of Par-
liament in April, 1918, announced that the right wing of the Allied
armies in France was in charge of Italian troops.

As representative of Italy, he attended the Supreme War Council
at Versailles, and in an interview given at that time announced the
Italian check to the German offensive. He was always enthusiastic in
his praise of the work of the American Red Cross in Italy and at
the adjournment of Parliament eulogized King Victor Emanuel and
the Italian army. In June he received congratulations from Lloyd

"Adapted from an article by Stephen Graham in The Morning Post
(London), with additions.

257

SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

George on the success of the Italian Piave drive, and told the Italian
Lower Chamber that the battle was won. He was among those who
refused to consider the Austrian peace terms, which caused the sub-
ject to be brought up in the Chamber of Deputies, and a few days
later announced to the Italian people the news of the retreat of the
Austrians across the Piave.

He was a stern advocate of the strict policy of arrest and intern-
ment of enemy aliens, and the confiscation of their property. He was

among the first to welcome the
Czecho-Slavs unit on the Italian
front, and to congratulate it for the
valor it displayed. Late in Novem-
ber, 1918, he attended a plenary
peace conference in London, and a
few days later conferred with Presi-
dent Wilson in Paris over- the Ital-
ian peace claims. He was appointed
member of the commission to draft
the complete plan for the League of
Nations in January, 1919, having
indorsed this plan as set forth by
President Wilson at the plenary
session where he spoke on the
League of Nations' constitution. He
was one of the opponents of the
article for the abolition of conscrip-
tion, but subsequently cabled Presi-
dent Wilson that the Italian people
acclaimed the League of Nations.

Before the Italian Chamber in March he stated that Italy had agreed
to a policy of compromise in conjunction with Italian and Jugo-Slav
claims on the eastern coast of the Adriatic. Before the peace treaty
was signed, however, his position became insecure and he resigned
his office. Orlando had been a leading figure in the Peace Confer-
ence, ranking next after Clemenceau, President Wilson and Lloyd
George, who with Orlando made up what was called the "big four."
Italian discontent over the proposed giving of Fiume to the Jugo-
slavs then undermined his former great popularity.52

52 Compiled from an article in the New York Times.

PREMIER ORLANDO

258

PERSONAL SKETCHES OF WAR LEADERS

KING PETER OF SERBIA

King Peter was the second man in this war to become a "king
without a country." Serbia was as clean swept as Belgium was,
altho the sweeping took place more than a year later. Peter at that
time was seventy-one years old and physically infirm. As men read
of his wanderings about his doomed country, of his flight from it,
followed by a nation of fugitives, his condition attained something
of a Lear-like majesty. He said he was no longer a king, he was
"only a soldier," but it was as an indomitable soldier and an inspired
figure that he still ruled Serbia. All through his career, from gaining
the Cross of the Legion of Honor in the Foreign Legion against the
Prussians in 1871, through service in the Bosnian outbreak against
Turkey, down to the World War, the soldier predominated in Peter.

When late in December, 1914, a second Austrian invasion swept
over his country, an old man might have been seen with a remnant
o'f the Serbian army hobbling along on a stick. It was Peter
Karageorgevitch, who five months before had surrendered his throne
to a Regent, because he was himself too old and infirm to discharge
royal duties, even in time of peace. But now, after making an
electrifying speech, he had dropt his stick, caught up a rifle, and
fired at the advancing Austrians, after which his troops fired also and
with enthusiasm until twelve days later there was no Austrian left
on Serbian soil, and Peter entered his recaptured capital at the head
of his army.

With the aid of Germans and Bulgarians, Austria nearly a year
later made a third invasion of Serbia when the three powers con-
quered the little country. Peter, in this invasion, fought in the uni-
form of a private soldier, and so feeble was he at times that he had
to be supported on his horse by two men alongside him. But he was
still able to inspire troops with fiery speeches and a dauntless
courage. The end of the struggle soon came with his army dispersed
and his enemies storming across Serbian soil to Montenegro. With
his army the old man fled across the mountains and finally across
the sea. He was still King of Serbia, but there was no Serbia to be
king of. He found his way to Greece, sad but ever dauntless, still
wearing his gray-brown Serbian uniform with blue cavalry collar,
cavalry breeches, and a general's red stripe. Aided by a cane he
could walk with something of jauntiness in his figure. Peter had "an
eagle face, with hooked nose, a bristling white mustache and white
imperial, short dipt iron-gray hair, and brown, almost unseeing
eyes." Peasants, when he passed, reverently bared their heads, which
both pleased and saddened him. "They have great hearts, sir, these

259 10

260

PERSONAL SKETCHES OF WAR LEADERS

people," he would say. "They are like the people of America — plain
people, as I, too, am a plain man." 53

RAYMOND POINCARE, PRESIDENT OF THE FRENCH REPUBLIC

Raymond Poincare was called a strong man and all Europe
was pleased with his election as President of France not long be-
fore the war began. His general aims were to discourage Cabinet
disruptions, fifty-two of which had taken place in forty-eight years.
He had been Minister of Public Instruction in M. Dupuy's first
Cabinet, and was so much of a scholar and so charming a speaker
that his Government had often asked him to deliver ceremonial ora-
tions. These were sure to contain a fund of knowledge and a de-
lightful delicacy of touch that would charm an audience. Poincare
was a sturdily built man, a little over middle height, with closely cut
beard and eyes that scrutinized even a stranger with interest. When
the war began he had to talk to Europe, and even Asia and America,
instead of delivering panegyrics at monuments to dead celebrities.
He had done well in a democracy where to raise one's head above the
shoulders of a dead level was often to invite the hurling of half a
brick. Altho well-known in France for nearly a quarter of a cen-
tury he had entered upon a larger fame a short tim3 before the war.

M. Poincare was born in 1860. His father was an inspector of
roads and bridges — a modest civil appointment — but he was able to
send Raymond to a public school from which he passed to the Col-
lege at Nancy. He was called to the bar in 1880, and two years
later took his degree as Doctor of Laws. Making a specialty of
pleading in commercial affairs, he was doing well in the courts when
his aspirations turned to politics, and he joined the staff of political
writers, first on Le Voltaire, and afterward on La Republique
Frangaise. In 1886 he became principal clerk at the Ministry of
Agriculture. The following year saw him elected deputy at the early
age of twenty-seven, which made him the "baby" of the Chamber.
He proved himself a hard worker, and was appointed secretary of
several important commissions. Not until he had made a forceful
declaration on the Morocco Treaty had he secured a reputation which,
with ability to back it up, secured his election to the presidency.

His election was regarded as the choice not only of the College of
Electors, made up of the Senate and the Chamber, and known as the
National Assembly, an old revolutionary title, but the choice of the
whole people. It was soon predicted that he would become the
greatest President since Gambetta. His versatility as an author and

53 Based on an article in The Literary Digest.

v.x-u 261

SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

art connoisseur placed him high in the esteem of his countrymen.
His clear-sightedness was only equalled by the fearless energy with
which he carried out his views.^ His devotion to the public service
was proved by the fact that he had abandoned a lucrative practise
at the bar for public life. It was with cordial approbation that the
press generally received his acceptance of the highest office in the
Republic. Perhaps the most striking feature of the election was
the fact that the only two candidates who did not retire in the course
of the ballotings — M. Poincare and M. Ribot — were on the same side
in politics; both were Republicans, that is, Conservatives, as regards
the form of the French government, or what Gambetta had repre-
sented. They were neither Socialist-Radical nor Radical-Socialist.
So well did their ideas agree that before the election they met and
exchanged political views with the utmost accord. Such were Poin-
care's intellectual gifts that he had already become one of the "Im-
mortals" at the French Academy.

It used to be said that the King of England reigns, but does not
govern, that the President of the United States rules but does not
reign, and that a French President neither rules nor reigns. The
interest generally taken in the election when Poincare was chosen
President showed that the French were not content with that kind of
President, and that through representatives in the National Assembly,
they had put at the head of the State a strong man able to employ
the great prerogatives with which he was entrusted. Poincare, as
President of the Council, was called "the strongest Prime Minister
in Europe," and such appeared to be the unanimous opinion of the
Paris press. "It seems," said the Matin, "that democracy, if often
forgetful, has now found its memory." Calmette, the editor of the
Figaro, who was killed by Madame Caillaux because of his criticism
of her husband, exclaimed in glowing terms of eulogy that "another
era will begin with him. He will preside over the difficult destinies
of our country with an authority and experience which none save
Ribot could have equalled." Calmette especially emphasized the view
that the foreign and colonial policy of France would now keep
"the high standard of success of which patriotic Frenchmen have
felt so proud." All this was said before the war. That Poincare
justified the prophets all through the war and at the Peace Con-
ference, none would afterward have questioned. Americans found
in his address at the opening of the Conference an example of that
finished ceremonial discourse for which he had been famous in
France long before he was made President.54

54 Adapted from an article by Ernest "W. JLmith in The Daily News (London)
and one in The Literary Digest.

262

PERSONAL SKETCHES OF WAR LEADERS

ANTONIO SALANDRA, PRIME MINISTER, AND BARON
SONNINO, FOREIGN MINISTER, OF ITALY

Salandra, the man who had to act, and Sonnino, the man who thought
— thus did the newspapers of Continental Europe explain the political
leaders who in 1915, emerging from the wreck of Giolitti's cabinet
and his career, took Italy into the war. Not so many months before
Giolitti had seemed unassailable in his post as Prime Minister, sup-
ported as he was by the great majority evoked from an election in
the previous autumn. It had been the practise of the Piedmont
statesmen to find relaxation every three years from office by a
voluntary retirement, while, as the London Morning Post explained,
"a caretaker looked after the affairs of the nation until such time
as it might please the master to order his faithful majority to pre-
pare the way for his return to the Palazzo Bpaschi." Accordingly,
after having obtained confirmation of his Libyan policy by a tre-
mendous vote of confidence, he made the defection of a handful of
radicals anxious for democratic legislation an excuse for resigning,
at the same time seeming certain that he could come back. As Baron
Sonnino refused to form a cabinet in the face of the almost un-
broken Giolittian majority, Signor Salandra, a former lieutenant of
the Baron's — the latter being leader of the constitutional opposition
— had accepted the post of Premier in March, 1914. For thirteen
years and a month the Italian kingdom had been ruled by Giolitti.
Yet it would be safe to say, as the London Times actually did say,
that outside of his own country his personality was almost unknown.

Salandra was called by the Secolo of Rome the most plausible, as
well as the most persuasive, talker in Italy, while to Sonnino it re-
ferred as the austerely reticent financier, the grim economist.
Salandra said things, Sonnino thought them out. Salandra wielded a
pen, having for years held responsible posts on important organs of
Italian opinion. Sonnino studied facts and figures, digested statistics,
framed his ideas elliptically, and was an expert on themes so dry
and recondite in themselves, like the tax rate, for instance, that one
had to be a specialist to appreciate him. Salandra gave himself
freely with that exquisite courtesy which belongs to the well-bred
Italian. Sonnino was reserved, unsmiling, hard to know. Salandra
was afire with enthusiasm, but Sonnino — whose Utopia was a land
wherein everybody's expenditure and income exactly balanced — was
an effective extinguisher of ardors, zeals, and crusades.

Baron Sonnino — who had become foreign minister when San
Giuliano died — was affirmed in the Paris Temps to be a complete
stranger to the petty arts of the corridor or of the "pharmacy," as
Roman slang denominated the corridor as contrasted with the actual

263

SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

chambers of debate wherein majorities were made or marred. His
very high principles, added the London Post, long his admirer, in-
volved a lack of flexibility; he could not be all things to all men,
especially if those men were deputies or influential constituents,
"grand electors," as the Italians say. When in office — and Sonnino
had held all manner of posts, including that of Premier, the latter
briefly — Sonnino once refused a place to a man who was recommended
by his mother because he did not wish to be suspected of favoritism.
His non-Italian blood — his father was an Italian Jew and his mother
of Scottish origin — might account for the fact that he was no orator.
His speeches, which he had the disconcerting habit of reading from
a manuscript, were admirable as specimens of form and logic, but
they sent younger deputies out into the corridor while the more
elderly went unabashedly to sleep. On such occasions the Foreign
Minister would look unexpectedly up and coldly ask that the
slumberers be aroused by the proper officer. Now and then he had
sergeants-at-arms posted at doors to prevent the egress of deputies
while he was speaking. "I propose," he once said severely to his
colleagues in the chamber, "to put a little knowledge of the state of
the revenue into your heads, whether you feel interested or not."

Everybody had the profoundest respect for Sidney Sonnino and
even the strongest Giolittian organ, like the Tribuna, exprest satis-
faction that so British a type should have had so long and so suc-
cessful a career in Italian politics. Nevertheless there was general
regret that so strong a character should be such a slave of facts,
to which he was addicted, said the Stampa, "like a mandarin to
opium." He inspired no personal animosity at all, a rare thing in
Rome, and except at the time when, outside the Cabinet, he sup-
ported the second reactionary ministry of General Pelloux, the mass
of Italians trusted him absolutely. He had no propensity to in-
trigue, no talent for what the Romans call combinations. His iron-
gray hair, large, mild, steel-blue eyes and rounded build rendered
him, in the plain cutaway coat he affected, genial in aspect. He
had a remarkably good voice, as the Tribuna observed, for such a
remarkably bad speaker. Despite his intimate connection with na-
tional projects of finance, he remained a poor man. To Sonnino
credit was due, as finance minister in the last century, for having laid
the foundation of his country's stability from the revenue stand-
point. He inaugurated the era of budget surpluses. He lived
abstemiously himself. When not in Rome he vegetated in a villa not
far from Florence, listened to Verdi's music and studied statistics.
Grand opera and tables of figures engrossed him. Social problems,
such as the condition of southern Italy and old-age pensions, formed
the themes of his occasional contributions to contemporary literature.

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PERSONAL SKETCHES OF WAR LEADERS

Not that he was without experience in diplomacy, for he spent some
years as secretary of Italian legations at Madrid, Vienna, Berlin,
and Paris.

Salandra was in one respect, said a journalist who knew him well
— the Roman correspondent of the London Post — unique among
Italian Prime Ministers; he alone of the unified kingdom's twenty
heads of past ministries was a native of the continental south. "There
has been until lately a Piedmontese prejudice that only Piedmontese,
or at least northerners, should hold the first place in Italian politics."
Cavour and Signer Giolitti — "who, tho not a Cavour, lived at a
place of that name" — were born in Piedmont. It was not until 1887
that the insular south had its first Premier in the Sicilian Crispi, an
example followed in 1891 by the Sicilian Marchese Di Rudini; but
not until 1914 did the continental south see one of her sons at the
head of a ministry in the person of the Apulian Salandra. Like the
poet Horace, adds this authority, Salandra hailed from the land of
plains and noble churches. There ran in his veins the blood of
those strong-armed Norman adventurers who captured the last
Byzantine possession in the Italian peninsula. But Salandra, altho
bold like the Norman, was cool and without hauteur. He was born
at Troja, "the hottest town in Italy," six years after the birth of
Sonnino in Florence. He was bald, with "wings" of hair on each
side of his head turned gray, but he was an Italian of the emotional
type, ready in gesture without going to the length of mere gesticula-
tion. He looked the beau, just as Sonnino looked the "grave and
reverend signor." His was the romantic attitude to life, just as
Sonnino shrank from adventure. As a student Salandra sat at the
feet of Francesco de Sanctis and had lectured first in the University
of Naples and then in that of Rome, his subject being the law. He
revealed very early his rare aptitude for handling his native tongue
poetically, musically, without rioting in an excess of metaphor and
declamation.

On becoming Prime Minister, Salandra had to sever his connection
with the Giornale d'ltalia, the "leaders" in which often reflected his
shining gifts as a master of Italian prose and his insight into the
subtler phases of finance. Salandra loved to handle topics like a
tariff schedule from the intimate point of view, bringing out the
number of new hats a young woman could buy in the spring if one
rate prevailed, and what canes a man must deny himself should the
exigencies of revenue extinguish a favored class of importers. He
discovered all sorts of victims of unjust fiscal measures, from the
young lady in overtaxed flounces to the disconsolate widower whose
mourning made a mockery of the dead by turning brown through
the use of substitute dyes. Everywhere and always he manifested

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SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

this poetizing tendency, said the Tribuna, this fondness for shadows
by moonlight, this aversion to the broad light of day.

The world found Salandra, in 1914, declaring first for neutrality
and then proclaiming, as he put it, a "sacred egoism." In the end the
forthrightness of Sonnino prevailed and Giolitti was left discredited
in his private library, musing over his favorite dramatic authors.
The authors loved by Salandra were dramatic, too, and he read much
poetry, besides assisting his wife, Donna Maria Salandra, in prom-
inent philanthropies. She and he were conspicuous in relief work
when the earthquake ravaged Calabria and both rejoiced in the fact
that their sons were old enough to go to the front. Sonnino was re-
sponsible for the entry of Italy into the struggle, according to Roman
newspapers, for Salandra, unless impelled by a stronger will, would
still have been hesitating, still poetizing, still making fine phrases
and perfect gestures. On an eventful day long afterward Salandra
lost his majority, and Orlando came to the helm. But Sonnino re-
mained.55

GENERAL JAN CHRISTIAAN SMUTS, MINISTER OF DEFENSE
IN THE UNION OF SOUTH AFRICA

Born in 1870, the son of J. A. Smuts, educated at Victoria Col-
lege, Stellenbosch, General Smuts began public life as a lawyer. He
practised at the Cape Town bar at Johannesburg in 1896, was
State Attorney of the South African Republic in 1898, and served
during the Boer War, being given supreme command of the Re-
publican forces in Cape Colony in 1901. In 1907 General Smuts
was elected Colonial Secretary of the Transvaal, and shortly after
the outbreak of the World War was placed in command of the
British East African expedition against the Germans, which he con-
ducted with complete success during 1916-1917, when he was sum-
moned to serve on the Imperial War Cabinet as special South
African representative, a post which he held until the close of the
war.56

ELEUTHERIOS VENIZELOS, PREMIER OF GREECE

An astonishing national revival had taken place in Greece between
1909 and 1912. Observers agreed that Venizelos was primarily re-
sponsible for it, all of which and much more was necessary to an
understanding of him. The Turkish war of 1897 had apparently

55 From an article by Alexander Harvey in Current Opinion, based on articles
in The Morning Post and The Times (London), the Temps (Paris), Tribuna
and the Giornale d'ltalia (Rome).

56 Compiled from "Who's Who, 1918-1919" (London).

266

PERSONAL SKETCHES OF WAR LEADERS

done nothing completely to rouse the Greek nation. Meaningless
squabbles by corrupt politicians had grown fierce, party life more
and more a sordid struggle for place, until every branch of the ad-
ministration was honeycombed with corruption, the army degenerat-
ing, if not disintegrating. The foreign policy was conducted with a
combination of bombast and inaptitude which had drawn from
Turkey a stinging rebuff to which Hellas had f to bow. Popular
fury over this humiliation, led to an uprising in the army which,
under the title of the "Military League," ousted the Government and
took control.

To the Western world an army revolt meant jingo militarism, and
the gloomiest prophecies prevailed. .Greece was -likened to a Central
American republic and mourned as past redemption. Hellas was
facing the supreme crisis of her destiny, in such an inextricable
tangle that it seemed as if the sword alone could cut the Gordian
knot. The remedy was an heroic one, which would either kill or cure,
and wpuld certainly kill if the cure were long delayed. Fortunately
the head of the Military League was the man for the hour. This was
Venizelos, born on the island of Crete, in 1864, of an ancient family,
which according to rumor, came from the medieval Dukes of Athens,
but really came from Sparta. Equipped with a good education gained
in Greece and Switzerland, Venizelos plunged into the maelstrom
of Cretan politics and became recognized as the strong man of the
island both in peace and war. It was with a high reputation that
he arrived in Athens toward the close of 1909 after being invited,
not only by the Military League, but by the veteran politician
Dragoumis, the least compromised figure in Greek parliamentary life
at that time.

Most significant was the hold soon acquired by Venizelos over the
Greek people. Athenians found themselves confronted with an iron
will unshaken by the shoutings of mobs. He told them the truth,
told it in fewest possible words and frequently with unpalatability.
They had. their choice of bowing to his decisions or getting rid of him.
He was the incarnation of all that Young Greece had longed to be.
Cretan deputies, Venizelos* own folk, tried by actual force to make
their way into the National Assembly. It had been the dream of
every Hellene, notably of Venizelos himself, that Cretans should
sit there. But at the moment it meant a Turkish war and defiance
of the will of Europe. Venizelos, therefore, drew up a cordon of
troops about the House, repulsed the Cretans and deported them,
and Athens applauded him. For nearly three years thereafter
Greece dropt out of sight, the great world engrossed in international
crises and local turmoils.

In the autumn of 1912 the Balkan tempest broke. That Bulgaria

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SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

would do well everybody agreed, but concerning Greece many had
serious doubts. A few weeks later forebodings were dispelled. Three
short years of Venizelos had resulted in a new Greece. French and
English experts had done their work there well. Hellenic forces
had been transformed alike in spirit and performance. In both
Balkan wars the Greek armies showed workmanlike efficiency and
reaped successes. .Astonished at these events, the world asked an
explanation, and when Greece answered, "Venizelos," all eyes were
turned on this new man. At the London Conference of 1913 his dip-
lomatic insight won golden opinions from all observers, while, at the
Bucharest Conference at the close of the Second Balkan War, he
displayed a statesmanlike moderation which, if acted upon, might
have resulted in better Greco-Bulgarian relations. During the Greco-
Turkish crisis which threatened the Near East with a fresh conflagra-
tion during the early part of 1914, Venizelos showed a happy com-
bination of tact and firmness which ended by averting a clash.
Scarcely had this storm-cloud been dissipated than the tempest of
the World War broke over Europe and presently spread to the Near
East, with Turkey's entrance into the struggle at the beginning of
November, 1914. Problems which Venizelos had fondly believed to
have been adjusted rose quivering again for solution. The little
Balkan peoples, exhausted as they were by their recent conflicts, saw
their destinies flung into this new and far greater boiling caldron.

A great Anglo-French fleet, the mightiest armada of modern times,
attacked the Dardanelles, which was touching the very heart of the
Eastern question. If the Straits were forced and Constantinople should
fall, the whole vast Ottoman heritage would lie at the feet of the
Allies, to be disposed of at their good will and pleasure. Things
looked well for the Allies during those February days, when the
Dardanelles forts seemed to crumble beneath dreadnought shells,
with Russia's hosts breasting the Carpathian crests and looking down
upon the plains of Hungary. However menacing Russia might be
to a realization of Hellenic aspirations, fear of the Muscovite and
anxiety over Constantinople were in most Greek hearts counteracted
by sympathy from the other Allied Powers. To France and Great
Britain Greece was bound by many ties of sympathy and gratitude.
These two nations had been the prime architects of Greek national
existence and had always shown themselves her friends. Germany
had proved herself well disposed to Greece, but Austria had long
coveted as the goal of her eastern "Drang," Saloniki, which was the
apple of a Greek's eye, while Turkey, their hereditary foe, menaced
Hellenism all through Asia Minor. Bulgaria, burning for revenge
since the Balkan wars, and inconsolable over loss of Macedonia, stood
in close relations to the Teutonic Powers and to the Ottoman Empire.

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PERSONAL SKETCHES OF WAR LEADERS

As February went by, it became increasingly clear that the Allied
armada could not batter a way through the Dardanelles; that an
army was needed to supplement the work of the dreadnoughts and
to consolidate their gains. Allied troops, however, were none too
plenty in the Levant and could ill be spared from the battlefields of
western Europe. Accordingly, Allied diplomacy cast about to remedy
this defect by bringing new recruits to their banner. Greece seemed
the most likely possibility. Next door to the scene of action, bitterly
hostile to Turkey and well disposed toward England and France, her
sympathies were primed by self-interest. The whole ^Egean shore of
Asia Minor was thickly peopled by Greeks eager to follow their
island neighbors into union with the Hellenic Kingdom. Such was
the bait held out to Greece by Allied diplomacy, and Venizelos
promptly accepted it on principle, offering Greek armies for the
Dardanelles campaign, in return for an Allied promise of a broad
slice of Asia Minor stretching from a point just south of the Dar-
danelles athwart Asia Minor to the southern coast on the Mediter-
ranean. This area would have doubled the size of the existing King-
dom of Greece. Under good government it could ultimately support
several million inhabitants.

The prospect for Greek patriots was intoxicating, but open to
two serious objections. The first was the attitude of Bulgaria, As
a result of the Second Balkan War, Greece and Serbia had seized
Macedonia and divided it between them, and Macedonia was to Bul-
garia the sum of all her hopes. For it she fought in the Balkan
Wars. Deprived of it she nursed an unappeasable grief. Venizelos
approached Bulgaria and was informed that Bulgaria would remain
neutral if Serbia would cede most of her Macedonian conquests and
Greece certain rich ^Egean coast districts, Kavala, Drama, and
Serres, which stretched eastward and cut off the Bulgarian hinterland
from the sea. This was a price far above what Greece was willing
to pay, and Venizelos attempted a compromise, but Bulgaria abso-
lutely refused to consider his terms. Greece itself pronounced em-
phatically against any Macedonian cessions to Bulgaria. Faced
later by sharp differences of opinion as to Asia Minor, King Con-
stantine summoned a Royal Council, and the council decided against
Venizelos, who thereupon resigned. Events in Greece under
Venizelos from this time forward have been already set forth in
Volume VIII of this work in chapters on Greece and the Balkan
States in the World War.

An English correspondent in Greece said Venizelos looked more
like an Italian of Piedmont than a Greek islander. In fact, many
foreign journalists doubted his Greek descent. His blue eyes, his
surprizing coolness, his absolute self-control, his ability to overcome

SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

and conceal emotions, his extraordinary will-power, his stedfast-
ness of purpose, and his unswerving adherence to the object attained,
were not generally characteristic of the Greeks of to-day, and yet
Venizelos was a genuine Greek. His ancestors were living in Hellas
when the Venetian Admiral Francesco Morosini bombarded and de-
stroyed the Parthenon (about the middle of the seventeenth century).
The name was originally Byzantine. The family had gone to Pylos,
on the fertile western coast of the Peloponnesus, having been com-
pensated by the Venetian Republic with a generous gift of land for
the part they took in the efforts of Athens to cooperate against the
Turks. From Pylos they moved to Crevatas, near Sparta, and then
to the island of Crete, whence Venizelos in 1910 was invited by the
Military League to assume the leadership in the revolution. Venizelos
had himself in Crete taken an active part in uprisings against the
Turk. He was a dreamer of dreams, his optimism as boundless as
was his ability to transform dreams into realities. His hopes and
his dreams were, however, interwoven with pure calculation. He
was a kind of prophet and never had believed a Balkan confederacy
was a hopeless impossibility.57

RENE VIVIANI, PREMIER OF FRANCE

In America it is sometimes as difficult to dislodge a Cabinet officer
as it is in France to retain one. The French form of government
makes the Cabinet, as to its members, responsible to Parliament for
official acts performed by the President of France. This for a new
Premier makes the problems of forming a Cabinet and getting a
Parliament to indorse it, a task sufficient to daunt many aspirants for
that great political honor. Rene Viviani for a second time had the
task, his first having been a failure; but his successor's Cabinet soon
failed, and Viviani took up the task. Parliament then approved
his selection by a generous majority vote, in spite of the fact that
the list was practically identical with a list M. Ribot had just before
submitted. The personality of Viviani, rather than the men
whom he chose, brought him success where others had failed. What
that personality was America had an opportunity to learn, in 1917,
when Viviani came to this country with Joffre. A fine thing it was
seen to be.

When the war began Viviani was Premier, and in his fifty-second
year, or about the age of most active leaders in French politics. He
was born in Algiers, where a new France of mixed race had sprung
up since Algiers became a French colony. After law studies in

87 Adapted, in the main, from articles by T. Lothrop Stoddard and Miltiades
Christophides in The Review of Reviews (New York).

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PERSONAL SKETCHES OF WAR LEADERS

Paris, he was enrolled in the Algerian bar, but with his great ability
he soon gravitated toward Paris, where in 1889 he was made sec-
retary of the Paris bar, an honorable position from which other chiefs
of the Republic, including Gambetta, had made their start in public
life. Four years later he was elected to Parliament, and he had held
his seat ever afterward, with the exception of a four-year term in
another office. In 1906, when he made his reappearance in Parlia-
ment, Clemenceau, then Premier, made him Minister of Labor. He
held over in the later Briand Government until the end of 1910,
when he was made Minister of Public Instruction.

Viviani, therefore, had had ample experience in public life when
the war began and found him Premier. Unlike Briand and
Millerand, who like him were Independent Socialists, he had not
been a group leader. Perhaps his kind of independence had some-
times stood in the way of his success. He had never bent to the dis-
cipline of the United Socialists under Jaures, whom he did not
follow otherwise than to give recognition to him as leader. He was
equally his own man under Briand and Clemenceau. Personally and
professionally he was an old friend of President Poincare, tho stand-
ing at the other end in politics. This became an advantage to him
in a political crisis, for it eased the personal relations which existed
between him and the President.

As a speaker Viviani ranked high. Joffre when here told us he
was the best orator in France. But he was a little too academic to
have the same popularity as Jaures. Viviani as Premier made
answer for France to the German ultimatum in August, 1914.
"France must consult her own interests," said he. He was essentially
an artist ; he knew the work of almost every living French painter of
any prominence. No poet gained renown in France without some
gracious word from him, uttered when the poet was striving for
recognition. He was essentially a man of taste, a discerning critic,
and a perfect magician in the use of words. He had attracted, per-
haps, more attention than any recent statesman in France because of
his intellectual gifts. He had a fine presence, flashing eyes and a
voice that was described as "a kaleidoscope of sound, changing effects
in every new combination." At one moment it was soft with pathos,
at another poetic and musical, and it could flow with martial energy.58

68 Compiled from articles in The Literary Digest, The Evening Post, The
Tribune, The Times and The Review of Reviews (New York).

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SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

WILLIAM II, THE FORMER GERMAN EMPEROR

At the outbreak of the war friends of William of Hohenzollern, who
when the war ended had become the most humiliated, if not the most
hated man, of his generation, insisted that he was naturally a peace-
ful man, altho he had grown up in a tradition of war. His avoca-
tions, such as yachting at Kiel, digging for antiquities at Corfu, and
building museums, clearly were not the occupations of a man wholly
given over to martial deeds. The development of his country, his
gifts to universities, his courtesy to American and other yachtsmen
at Kiel, all seemed to show a recognition of the high value of peace-
ful pursuits. Germany had had other rulers wrho were, perhaps, as
energetic as he, but none with such varied interests. Every one
who had been at a regatta at Kiel recalled his cordial way, and how
he took defeats like a sportsman and victories like a gentleman.
Yachting was not a passing fad with him. Year after year he had
built boats and induced his subjects to do likewise. Men who had
been on his yacht noted how little "style" he put on, how he enjoyed
the sudden excitement and accidents due to wet .decks and gusty
breezes.

It was, perhaps; at Forfu that he showed most clearly how well he
liked the pursuits of peace. There, week after week, each spring for
several years, he had lived above the town in a villa built for the
Empress Elizabeth of Austria, or in his private steamship, the
Hohenzollern. The usual sleepiness of Corfu suffered a change
when the Kaiser got there. He was accompanied by no pomp, only
the necessary staff and one or more famous scholars. Of the latter
one was Dr. Dorpfeld, architect and excavator, with whom he en-
joyed getting up in the morning by six and going to the site of a
Greek temple, where excavations were made. He not only went early
but often stayed till the workmen went home, his excitement when
anything was turned up delightful to see.

Miss Anna Topham, an English woman, serving some years as
governess to the Kaiser's only daughter, who afterward became the
Duchess of Brunswick, and thus had had an opportunity for observ-
ing the Kaiser under pleasant circumstances, wrote a book about
him, "Memoirs of the Kaiser's Court," which was published before
there had been any threat of war. She had not been long in the im-
perial family when she discovered that the Emperor was not always
"playing the part of the frowning imperial personage of fierce mus-
taches, corrugated brow, and continually clenched mailed fist" — that
he frequently "receded from this warlike attitude and became an
ordinary, humorous, domestic 'papa.' "

The presence of the Emperor at some of his numerous residences,

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PERSONAL SKETCHES OF WAR LEADERS

however, would make a great difference in the atmosphere of the
place. "A certain vitality, and still more a certain amount of strain,
became visible," said Miss Topham. "Everybody was to be ready
to do anything and go anywhere at a moment's notice — to be always
in the appropriate costume for walking, riding, or driving. It was
altogether a strenuous existence for the entourage, that had always,
so to speak, to be mobilized for active service, which was probably
just what the Emperor wished. From early morning till night there
was hardly a moment of respite from duty."

The Kaiser's six sons and his favorite child, his daughter, were
always in his mind. He had a chivalrous way in making his wife

ACHILLEION, THE FORMER KAISER'S PALACE AT CORFU

the leading personage on State occasions. He led a simple household
life, in spite of the splendor of his surroundings. Professor Miinsten-
berg of Harvard recalled having seen the Empress in a magnificent
evening-gown, wearing long chains of superb pearls, sitting down
at the Emperor's side after dinner to do. crochet work for a Christmas
bazar, while talk between the two and their guests flitted hither and
thither. The Kaiser was fond of long walks, rode horseback often
and went hunting. Whenever State affairs permitted it, he took an
outing. A multitude of topics were familiar to him, in science and
art, branches of technique and practical life, movements in social
reform, and religion. He had one of the rarest of qualities, the

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SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

ability to meet every one in his own field, such as Theodore Roose-
velt had. After a Congress of Arts and Sciences during the St.
Louis World's Fair, which was attended by more than a hundred
leading European scholars of all scientific denominations, the in-
ternational party went to Washington, where Professor Miinsten-
berg had the honor of introducing each to the President, who received
them in the East Room, where he talked with philologists about
philology, with naturalists about natural science, with historians
about history, with geographers about geography, and with lawyers
about law.

Six years later Professor Miinstenberg came to believe that the
Kaiser in that art could outdo Roosevelt. It was at the hundredth
anniversary of Berlin University to which the scholarly master-
spirits of the world had come as delegates. After a great banquet
in the gala halls of the Berlin castle, the Emperor received the for-
eign scholars personally, and Professor Miinstenberg happened to
stand quite close to him. He found it an intellectual delight to
watch the versatility with which he met every man with a mention of
his particular subject. The feat became the more fascinating be-
cause he addrest every one in his own language, speaking especially
French and English with almost the same ease as German.

Caricatures made him appear a pompous man, who talked in a
medieval and mystical way about divine rights which had lifted him
above mankind. In reality, according to Professor Miinstenberg, he
was genial and thoroughly human. He would never stoop to un-
dignified behavior, would never play the Emperor in shirt-sleeves;
and in informal talk would stick to a certain formality when he
spoke about royal persons. He did not in friendly anterooms appear
to think himself a human being above others, but it was different
with the office which had come to him by inheritance. That was
treated as if it had been God-given. The crown to him was of divine
grace, just as the wedding ring was of divine grace. A king was
more than a citizen ; he became the bearer of an office. This exprest
the view which not only the Emperor had of himself, but which prac-
tically every German had of the meaning of royalty.

After the war had been some months in progress, observers noticed
that the Kaiser's hair had become quite white, his face drawn and
care-worn, his manner abrupt and lacking the ceremonial calm that
once was shown. He was trying to carry the weight of the war upon
his own shoulders; no detail was too trifling to escape his attention,
and he was working twenty hours a day. The Kaiser was constantly
at the front with his sons. He was in Berlin seldom. As the German
troops moved forward in the west he made his camp in deserted
French chateaux or in a portable house. Each day he was in his

274

PERSONAL SKETCHES OF WAR LEADERS

automobile at daybreak and it was common for him to do 200 miles
a day along trenches. Always he had with him tobacco and cigarets
for his "children," as he frequently called his soldiers in little talks
when the machine halted. His interest in their comfort, his presence
on the field, his devotion to the fatherland, early in the war inspired
in soldiers something that approached veneration. His face in those
days never lost gravity of expression. He never indulged in humorous
sallies.

William II was fifty-nine years old on January 27, 1918. Altho
one of his arms was withered, he had been a great out-of-doors man,
and after a weak childhood grew into a strong and rugged man.
What was called a typical day at the front was thus described by
an eye-witness early in October, 1914 : 59

"Kid yourself, first of all, of the idea that the Emperor is a heroic
figure. He is a man not exactly of small stature, but he is distinctly
below the average height and rather fat, so that he is more like a
typical German beer drinker and sausage eater than a knightly cavalier.
Moreover, his left arm is about ten inches shorter than the right arm
and partially paralyzed. This deformity strikes the eye unpleasantly,
tho one can not withhold a certain admiration for the energy which
enabled the Kaiser to become a good shot and a passable rider in spite
of this tremendous handicap.

"On this particular occasion the Kaiser had been sleeping in a
French chateau, but not without elaborate precautions against a sur-
prize attack. The chateau was fortified against aerial attacks. Sacks were
piled on the roof and a protective shield of metal network was erected.
Whenever the Kaiser moves his quarters a small army of military engi-
neers precedes him to carry out these defensive measures before his
arrival. Around the chateau were men of his special body-guard, a detach-
ment was outside of his bedroom door, another in the hall, another at the
front door, and two more detachments were in the rooms immediately
above and beneath his own room. Three unbroken lines of sentries sur-
rounded the house, a whole battalion of infantry and several squadrons of
cavalry were encamped in the parks. This was some twenty miles from
the front, and the chateau was connected by field-telegraph with the head-
quarters of the nearest army, so that any sudden retreat of the German
legions should not place the Supreme War Lord in danger.

"Soon after sunrise the Kaiser emerged from the chateau and greeted
his soldiers with his customary 'Good morning, soldiers,' to which all
of them in the immediate vicinity replied in unison: 'Good morning,
Your Majesty. ' A motor-car was in readiness and he was whirled swiftly
toward the front, while the troops which had guarded him stood
rigidly at attention. Ten drummers of the body-guard beat their drums

69 The account was printed in The Herald (New York).

275

SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

by way of salute. The imperial standard was conveyed in the second
motor-car and the officers of the imperial suite followed in others. The
cavalry of the body-guard preceded the monarch to the place where he
left the motor-car to mount his horse.

' ' Then followed a spectacular progress from point to point in the
rear of the fighting. line — at a safe distance to
the rear, I may add, because the Supreme War
Lord must not be exposed to stray bullets or
shrapnel. Large bodies of reserves had bi-
vouacked in those parts and fsesh troops were
marching up from the direction of the frontier.
The Kaiser halted and addrest a fervently pa-
triotic oration to one regiment and another to
the second regiment as he rode from place to
place. During the morning he delivered no less
than nine speeches, all bombastic and exces-
sively martial in tone. Lunch was taken in the
open air at a table in front of a certain Gen-
eral's tent. Wine and food commandeered
from the residence of a French country gentle-
man supplied the Kaiser with a splendidly lux-
urious meal prepared by his own cook and
served by his flunkeys in gorgeously striped
uniforms. None of the pomp of the imperial
court was abandoned at the front. More visits
to the troops and more speeches in the after-
noon and back by automobile to the chateau for
dinner. At no moment during the day had the
Kaiser been within range of the enemy 's fire. ' '

The Kaiser had as a war talisman — it
availed him little, however, as events proved
— a four-leafed sprig of clover, prest, dried
and tucked away in a pocketbook under his
gray great-coat. Long after the beginning
of the war he had carried it next his breast,
where hope of victory beat. About this talis-
man had been woven a pretty story which
formed a new romance in the life of the
Hohenzollerns. It had been plucked by child-
ish hands in 1870. Tho it had become in 1914
a mere wisp of memories, Empress, war-lords,
soldiers and people all said it would bring victory to the Kaiser, just
as it had brought victory to his grandfather at Sedan. It appeared
that the little daughter of an old court official, named Louis Schneider,
during the campaign of July, 1870, had plucked in a garden this piet?e
of clover and been allowed to present it to the old King Wilhelm, who

THE KAISER'S SISTER,
THE FORMER QUEEN
SOPHIA OP GREECE, IN
A PRUSSIAN GRENADIER
UNIFORM

276

PERSONAL SKETCHES OF WAR LEADERS

thereafter kept it in his note-book. After months had passed, when
German troops were marching back in triumph to Berlin, one day
along the route little Miss Schneider and her father were summoned
into the presence of the newly made Emperor. "Here is your piece
of clover," said Kaiser Wilhelm, as he opened the leaves of his note-
book. "It has won me victory ; it has brought me luck. I give it back
to you, my child, and I hope it will bring you luck, too." The aged
monarch then walked to a mirror, cut off one of his white locks of
hair, and handed it with the clover leaf to Miss Schneider.

Years passed and Miss Schneider presented the precious clover
leaf to the daughter of a Countess as a baptismal gift. Again years
passed until it was August, 1914, and the German Empress in Berlin
one day received in audience the Countess, now a widow, and her
daughter, who carried in her hand the talisman of 1870, and asked
if she might give it to the Emperor. "His Majesty is very busy,"
said the Empress, "but I will take your talisman and will give it to
His Majesty with your best wishes," adding that she hoped it would
be as powerful now in bringing victory as it had been for the Em-
peror's grandfather forty-four years before.

Late in the war the Kaiser one day after tea in Berlin, when the
Empress and her ladies had retired, spoke in turn to the men present
commonplace phrases enough, about the weather, new books, and the
efficiency of the German railway system, and seemed to be making
an effort to keep off the delicate topic of the war, when one of the
party exprest admiration for the discipline and unanimity of the
German people, and he said:

"That is the impression most foreigners should get, even hostile
foreigners. I suppose for one thing the contrast between Germany as
depicted by our enemies — Germany restive, war-tired, and half -famished
— and the united, enthusiastic, still prosperous country when actually
seen, would cause them a great deal of astonishment. The British theory
that I am responsible for the war has got a great hold on the English
people. It is curious how this theory seems to fascinate all my enemies.
Yet the people who accuse me of having caused the war are the very
people who previously testified to my earnestness for peace. I do not
envy the man who had the responsibility for this war upon his con-
science. I at least am not that man. I think history will clear me of
that charge, altho I do not suppose that history will hold me faultless.
In a sense every civilized man in Europe must have a share in the
responsibility for this war, and the higher his position the larger his
responsibility. I admit that, and yet claim that I acted throughout
in good faith, and strove hard for peace, even tho war was inevitable.
Why do neutrals always talk about German militarism and never about
Kussian despotism, the French craving for revenge, English treachery?

v.x-19 277

SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

I think the next generation will strike a juster balance in apportioning
blame. " ™

Men who read this statement at that time recalled after the war
a remark made by Dr. Muehlon, the Krupp director, that in July,
1914, the Kaiser could have prevented the war, if only he had raised
his hand once to Austria — that is, if he had simply said "No" to the
Austrian proposal to make war on Serbia. It was recalled, also, that,
in the barbarous conduct of the war, by submarines, Zeppelins,
poison-gas, devastation and deportations, the responsibility had in
the main been the Kaiser's, for they were unlawful war processes
which he might have stopt, but so far as known, never attempted
to stop.

One respect in which the war modified his character was that, late
in the conflict, he did not assert his authority or his position in the
old-time autocratic way. This was revealed plainly in his treatment of
members of the Great General Staff. An occasional interference with
a general plan was ventured, but only after due deliberation with the
Imperial Chancellor, and members of the Bundesrath. In council
he had become a listener rather than a talker, prone to defer to the
judgment of others, but conscious at all times, perhaps, that his
knowledge of the art of war was intuitive rather than scientific.
Berlin inclined at times to a suspicion that the ordeal of war had
tinged his disposition with meekness and humility, altho by no means
with a diminished sense of his importance as the divinely appointed
leader of the German people.

Until the war began the Kaiser had kept his consort somewhat in
the background. In the course of his long reign she had been almost
a cipher except for her sovereignty in the domestic sphere. There
she reigned supreme, prescribing, it was said, even the thickness of
the socks worn by the Emperor, forbidding strong cigars and con-
cocting a peculiar broth, or beef soup, which was his diet when his
throat became sensitive. During the war for the first time he was
seen thrusting the Empress forward, as if he had revised his theory
that she was unlucky. In this sorrowful period, the Empress, said
an Italian journalist who saw her at Vienna, had the same wonderful
blue eyes that had captivated William when, as a girl of twenty-two,
he first saw her in a hammock at Primkenau, her father's castle in
Silesia, and called her "a rosebud." Her eyes were very large, rather
dark for so pronounced a blonde, stedfast and clear, with a full
pupil. It ftad been said that she was able "to speak all the languages
of Europe just with her eyes." She cast the spell of her fascina-
tion upon the young Austro-Hungarian Empress-Queen Zita, despite
the difference in their ages, and was emphatically a woman's woman,

60 Berlin letter to The Daily News (London).

278

KAISER AND KAISERIN IN OTHER DAYS

Their carriage has halted on their way to a reception in the

Guildhall in London

279

SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

feminine, gracious in her smile, low-voiced, using two pretty hands in
effective gestures as she conversed earnestly on topics of a personal
nature.

She was not an "intellectual," altho she delighted in some such
scholar as John P. Mahaffy with his inexhaustible fund of Irish
anecdotes. Mahaffy told stories with inimitable drollery to an ad-
miring circle at the palace, after which the Empress herself would
serve him with tea. Her conception of entertaining was to supply
guests with food and drink; nor did she disdain explanations of the
merits of her kitchen. She was reported the best cook in Germany,
and a very good nurse. Nor was she above such cares as the heat of
her consort's morning bath, which she prepared for him at the palace
as well as at a country seat, where she had her own particular brood
of chickens, milked a cow and pursued other vocations upon which
are based claims to being a farmer's wife. She had a passion for
needlework, which she could gratify, however, only when she was
living in the country. She was a great stickler for church at-
tendance. No tenant on her country estate would risk her displeasure
by not appearing in his place for divine worship. With a chapel on
the estate the Kaiserin was as likely as not to appear early in the
village church to look about her as worshipers trooped in and make
pointed inquiries after the services about the health of the absentees.;

These essentially feminine traits in his consort were not always
palatable to William. She was not sufficiently imperial. He would
have liked her to be more of a spectacle, to assume something of the,
grandeur of a Theodora, the majesty of a Zenobia, and the inspiring
deportment of a Maria Theresa. His idea of feminine royalty was
the famous Queen Louise of Prussia, whose career he knew by heart.j
The Kaiserin had been brought up in a German country mansion, the*
seat of the house of Schleswig-Holstein-Augustenburg, leading there,
the simple life of a German Marguerite, visiting the sick on her
father's estate, doing a little needlework, watering flowers and read-
ing books prescribed by the chaplain. She never in her life wore a
pair of silk stockings until the day of her wedding. She was a wife
and mother before she knew anything about lawn-tennis. Her diver-
sions were horseback-riding, croquet, and archery, but she never was
a good dancer. Sfte had the indiscretion, not long after her mar-
riage, to be caught asleep while the Emperor's mother was reading
from a philosophical book aloud to the circle at Potsdam.

In the first years of this union, William soon thrust his wife into
the background and she was long absorbed in the cares of a prolific
maternity. At the time of the birth of her seventh child, the Princess
Victoria Louise, her one daughter, afterward Duchess of Brunswick,
she seemed to have become old. Her hair was already gray, altho she

280

PERSONAL SKETCHES OF WAR LEADERS

was only thirty-four. Her only official recognition in the military
life of her husband's empire was comprised in her rank as colonel
of a hussar regiment with the black eagle, which was conspicuously
worn when she went on horseback at the head of her troops in a
uniform that was not in the least becoming to her Gretchen type of
beauty. If the worst came to the worst she could have lived well on
her own fortune. It was quite large, and, according to the Paris
Temps, very wisely invested in securities of dividend-paying Ameri-
can railroads. The silk industry of the United States also yielded her
a comfortable revenue as she had put money into large American
mills.61

61 Adapted from an article by Alexander Harvey in Current Opinion, one by
Herbert Bayard Swope in The Herald (New York), and a Berlin letter to The
Daily News (London).

TIMES WIDE WORLD PHOTO

THE FORMER GERMAN EMPRESS ENTERING THE GATEWAY

OF AMERONGEN, IN 1919

In the distance is seen the Castle. At the gate stands one of the
military guards of the grounds

281

SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY
WOODROW WILSON, PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES

Perhaps the Entente Allies could in time have defeated Germany
with the United States remaining neutral. After the signing of the
armistice it was revealed as a certainty that British sea-power was
slowly strangling Germany to death, that Germany was starving as
the Confederacy starved under the resistless pressure of the Northern
blockade; that the battle of Jutland, proclaimed to the German
people as a great German victory, was in reality the death blow to
German hopes. So it was possible that the Entente might have won
alone, provided it could have held out long enough, but without the
material assistance of the United States, her men and money and
abundant resources, her inventive genius and adaptability, the task
would have been far longer and far harder and the ruin of Europe
would have been in every sense greater. Moreover, without the co-
operation of the United States Army and Navy, the ships that rose
from American shipyards, the food that America denied herself so
that the Entente nations might be fed, Europe would not have been
able to end the war in 1918. Then the problem would have been,
could the Entente hold out for a 1919 campaign ?

The chief work performed by President Wilson probably was not
seen in concentrating the strength of his country on the common
cause, so much as in finally investing the war with a wider scope of
moral grandeur. The United States might still have coined the
ultimate victory into profit, by territorial or other gains, but these
were not her motives. The long record of history affords few samples
of a nation going into a great war, knowing that it would be com-
pelled to make great sacrifices in lives and fortunes and asking no
reward except the privilege of doing service for a cause vital to her
national life, the cause of freedom. In history there is nothing quite
parallel to the action of this country when, on April 6, 1917, it took
up the challenge Germany had flung down. Almost from the first
day of the war President Wilson had preached from the text of duty
and service, for the high privilege of championing the rights of man-
kind. When war first broke out, however, he had tried to play the
part of mediator, and his offer was declined. Many Americans con-
demned him for counseling neutrality and continuing in that state.

But, looking back afterward, many could see how, in some sense, it
was fortunate that the United States did not take up arms in 1914,
but that more than two years and a half elapsed before she began to
play her part. Had the United States declared war in 1914, or in the
early months of 1915, when the costly and tragic experiences of Eng-
land and France had still to be learned, it seems more than doubtful
if Congress could have been induced to impose on the country the

282

283

SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

selective draft ; but even if Congress had done so, America, like Eng-
land and France, would have had to pay the dear price of ignorance.
American armies, insufficiently trained, insufficiently equipped, know-
ing little or nothing of the art of modern war, would have been
thrown into that furnace of death to be slaughtered as the British
and French were slaughtered; bravely they would have had to face
machine-guns, their bravery futile.

But in 1918, when America had marshaled her legions, the technical
superiority of Germany was no longer feared. The advantage Ger-
many had at the beginning, because she alone of all nations was pre-
pared, had definitely passed. Even more than that gain was the
spiritual strength gained by the delay. What Mr. Wilson said in his
appeal for neutrality in August, 1914, and what he said in his address
to Congress on April 2, 1917, he had said scores of times in the in-
tervening months, and was to say again and again between the time
when America declared war and Germany, broken and defeated,
signed the armistice. On all these occasions he had preached the
moral side of the war. The duty imposed upon the United States
was to uphold democracy against autocracy, to champion small and
weak nations, to be the means whereby justice should be done to
the weak as well as the strong.

The great purpose Mr. Wilson had in view was not always under-
stood in his own country. Nor was this surprizing. Men's blood
boiled in the Eastern States in 1915 (but not yet in the Western)
when they heard of the crime of the Lusitania, and in their leaping
passion were ready to fight to avenge the crime; but to fight for a
thing so abstract as international morality, to be the champion of
peoples with whom they had no intimate relations, of whose existence
almost they were unaware, simply to spread the gospel of altruism,
stirred no great emotion in 1914, 1915, or even in 1916. And yet in
time Mr. Wilson stirred emotion as no man had done in our day, and
as few mep had in the long struggle between liberty and absolutism.
Men will always fight with the gallantry of their blood in defense of
their country, or to avenge old and deep-seated wrongs, but they will
fight more desperately and die more gladly for a great and vital
principle, once they fully understand it. That extraordinary trait in
human nature is due, perhaps, to the fact that in every man there is
planted some divine spark; in every man, even the most material,
there is a touch of the mystic, to which some great spiritual cause,
the meaning of which may be only dimly revealed, makes a powerful
appeal. Americans of learning and men illiterate, from great cities
and remote rural communities, even from isolated mountain homes,
became in this war thrilled and uplifted at the thought of being

284

PERSONAL SKETCHES OF WAR LEADERS

crusaders to carry the banner of freedom three thousand miles across
great waters.

Across those waters there flowed in 1917 and 1918 not only the
2,000,000 troops that were to complete the final undoing of Germany,
but an invisible force of bright and great thoughts spreading and
gathering force until they engulfed the continent. In places and
lands where democracy had had no meaning, men asked what that
force was which had induced a great nation to take up arms; what
that new religion which had so inspired Americans to great sac-

THE BIRTHPLACE OF PRESIDENT WILSON'S MOTHER,
IN CARLISLE, ENGLANP

rifice and complete devotion. Once that spiritual force was unloosed,
the example became infectious.62

It was in 1807 that a County Down Scotch-Irish youth named
James Wilson landed in Philadelphia, got work there as a printer,
that old craft of adventurers and wanderers, with small purses stuffed
with hope — the craft of Horace Greeley and Ben Franklin. He
married an Ulster girl, who had "come over" in the same emigrant
ship, thrived as a printer and become an editor in Pittsburgh, whence
his sonr after learning the same trade, went to college and became a
Presbyterian minister, after the fashion of many Ulsterites, and in
1855 was pastor of a church in Staunton, Virginia, where, sixty-two
years before the day on which that son was staying at Buckingham
Palace with the King of England, that 'son was born, one who, by
whatever gifts of will, of genius, of destiny, of energy, of industry,
of ambition, of fortune's smiles, had become, in 1917-1919 the pillar

«2A. Maurice Low in The Review of Reviews (New York).

285

SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

of the hopes of many peoples and perhaps "the foremost man of
all this world."

Woodrow Wilson was born a professor. His early academic en-
vironment seemed to have bespoken for him not more than the sub-
dued but far-spreading influence of a teacher, or the head of a college
or university. It was like a story from fairyland, his sudden rise and
his fitness for high posts and duties. Not till he had led a peaceful
people to war and filled them with the ardor of his own conviction,
not until his long patience, unyielding courage, large perception of
essentials and general principles, the passion and power of his
speech, had filled the world with his fame, did any one begin to take
Wilson's proper measure. There were flaws enough to pick in him,
and the bitterness of censure, not infrequently well founded, had
been equal to the fervor of the praise bestowed on him. But this, at
least, no one denied him, that before he reached man's grand
climacteric, he had reached that of world fame. More applauded,
more illustrious, more powerful, he could never be ; nor could he in-
spire any more sympathetic interest, or kindle any wider attention
in the world, than on that birthday anniversary in Buckingham
Palace, or that day two weeks afterward when he was made a citizen
of Rome on the Capitoline hill-top. His position among leaders of
democracy was unique; the plenitude of his fame startled all
observers. This grandson of an emigrant had returned, in 1918, the
"pillar of a people's hope, the center of a world's desire," and on Sun-
day, December 29, went to Carlisle, there to receive the freedom of the
city and worship in his grandfather's church.63

Tardy as they had been in recognition of Mr. Wilson as a man of
genius, European papers in Allied countries, after his re-election in
1916, more than made amends for earlier criticism by now ascribing
to him rare gifts. From the liberal Daily News, in London, which
saw in him a supreme master of statecraft, to the Tribuna in Rome,
which had to go back to Cavour for his parallel, there came an ad-
miring chorus. Extreme ideas prevailed as to the seclusion in which
he loved to live. The Paris Eappel compared his solitude to that of
a monk. Others made comparisons with great ecclesiastical states-
men of the Middle Ages. German dailies conceded his ability, but
inclined to present him as artful, crafty, and hypocritical. The
Berlin Kreuz-Zeitung deemed him an altogether sinister figurer
devious in methods, subtle in policy, and lacking scruple. He had
not hesitated, in the opinion of the Frankfurter Zeitung, to play the
part of tool for the British. He was bom a trickster, who had suc-
ceeded Sir Edward Grey as the world's arch-demon.

The complete revolution that took place in Entente estimates after

63 The Times (New York).

286

PRESIDENT WILSON AND CARDINAL MERCIER
The two are standing at the entrance to the Cardinal's house in Malines

PERSONAL SKETCHES OF WAR LEADERS

1916 was based on considerations set forth elaborately in the London
Daily News. His ability to lead struck that journal as amazing.
There had been no one in Europe to tompare with him since Glad-
stone, altho the traits and temperaments of the two were as the poles
asunder. Mr. Wilson showed in his acts a comprehension of politics
on the scientific side which living statesmen of the European coun-
tries had conspicuously lacked. In him, said the Tribuna of Rome,
Germans in the Wilhelmstrasse had met their match ; they found they
now had a scholarly recluse to overreach. This man of fine phrase,
this dealer in terms so spontaneous and unforced that he seemed to
do his thinking aloud, this idealist and democrat, could understand
an Austria ruled by the Metternich method as easily as he could
divine a Prussian Junker. No American before him, no American
at any rate in a place of power, had comprehended Europe as any-
thing but a great and remote generality, but Wilson made distinc-
tions, differentiated essences, penetrated combinations, moved with
the art of some class diplomatist working with Bourbons. He was
Florentine in the tactfulness of his approach, Roman in his scope,
French in his politeness, British in his forthrightness and yet Ameri-
can in his daring, his freedom from the trammels of traditions. He
mingled with intellectual inferiors without despising them and he
could be sarcastic without cruelty. If Europe had been slow in
getting the measure of him, she saw him now more accurately than
did many of his countrymen.

•irope's first impressions in 1915 and 1916 were based on
criticisms of Wilson emanating to a great extent from his own
countrymen. Involved in a struggle for world-power, Europe did
not distinguish at first the voice of mere partizan detraction from that
of the competent critL. There had spread over the old world the
legend of a mincing pedant, writing meaningless notes. -He had the
old Roman suaviter in modo coming a long way before the fortiter
in re. The Jagows, Bethmann-Hollwegs, and Zimmermanns failed to
realize the determination of character that was following them up,
step by step, until they found themselves suddenly caught in a trap
and baffled. European statesmen who had criticized him might have
imitated him with advantage to themselves — his coolness under ex-
treme provocation, his self-restraint, his ability to control events,
his self-effacement, a man who had not taken the center of the world's
stage like a man rushing up on horseback. Germans strove to make
it appear that he was consumed by his own vanity and sought to
thrust himself forward as a peacemaker, but not once had a trace
of egotism shown itself in his attitude.

In histories of this war, affirmed the Hamburger Nachrichten,
its sinister figure, its evil genius, would be discerned in the grandson

9,87

SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

of an emigrant, Woodrow Wilson. Germany was convinced that he
was doublefaced — and she said so.64 The change in later German
views, say in the early winter of 1918-1919, was surprizing. When he
was on his way to France the German press commented frequently on
his journey, and the probable influence he would have on the peace
terms. At one time slandered and maligned as hypocritical, he was
looked upon now by the German newspapers as a peace apostle and the
one person from whom the Germans could expect justice. His "fourteen
points" were discust as meaning something for Germany and he was
going to Europe in order to insist that his principles there set forth,
and as Germany interpreted them, should be carried out. The Lokal
Anzeiger, however, remarked that if he wished to put his demands
through, he would have to act energetically and with all his personal
force at the preliminary conference, "for his ideals had already
been thrown in the dust by the armistice conditions and continued to
be thrown in the dust at Spa." The Cologne Volkszeitung had
learned, from an authoritative source, that "in spite of many diffi-
culties which the Allies had imposed, Wilson intended to insist that
Germany should have colonies in Africa." Like many others, that
paper tried to prove that, while he would not play a leading role in
the Peace Conference, he and the other American delegates, if they
had an honest desire to do so, "could put through many of his ideas
for a just peace." His idea of a league of nations, however, "would
be poisoned, if the German nation were treated as an object of ex-
ploitation." As for Germany having "guilt for the war on her con-
science," the whole German nation, said that paper, "denies the ac-
cusation."

Congress during the war bestowed upon President Wilson powers
and functions wider than those possest by any ruling monarch —
wider even than those Lincoln had. He was empowered to commandeer
ships and shipyards, take over industrial establishments and operate
them, construct a great merchant marine, send millions of Americans
to the trenches in France, provide officers for an aviation service
that was to expend $640,000,000, and administer the food-supply of
an entire nation. He had to shut himself in and allow many matters
which might engage him in times of peace to be handled by assistants.

For the first time in the country's history the exterior of the White
House indicated the seclusion in which the President lived. In the
daytime a policeman stood guard at every gate. When night came,
soldiers with loaded guns and bayonets took places about fifty paces
apart on the sidewalks surrounding the grounds. Soldiers had strict
orders to make every one move on. There was no loitering about the
White House after sundown. The police guard about the President

84 Adapted from an article by Alexander Harvey in Current Opinion.

288

PERSONAL SKETCHES OF WAR LEADERS

when out riding was doubled. Two motor-cycle policemen clad in
khaki joined his automobile the moment it swung- out of the grounds
and followed within five feet to and from the golf links or wherever
else it might go, while in a large automobile twenty to thirty feet to the
rear were half a dozen secret-service men. After international affairs
began to absorb the President's attention, there was little direct com-
munication with newspaper correspondents. Their former semi-
weekly conferences with him had to be abandoned after the submarine
crisis became acute, because the President could not have answered
half the questions that would have been asked, and Tumulty became
the source of White House news. Night and day he was asked about

ALEXANDRA, DOWAGER QUEEN OP

GREAT BRITAIN
Two Queen mothers on whom President Wilson called while in Europe in 1918

MARGHERITA, DOWAGER QUEEN
OF ITALY

matters of international and domestic moment. Sometimes he was
privileged to talk, but at other times he could impart no information.65
Mr. Wilson included promptness among the highest of minor
virtues. He once scolded a delegation from the New Jersey legisla-
ture for being two minutes late for an appointment with him when
he was Governor. One of his secretaries in Washington declared
there never had been in Washington a man who was "so marvelously
punctual day in and day out." He was not only punctual himself,
but required punctuality from others. When he first went to Wash-
ington, senators and members of the House began to follow the old

o5 The Sun (New York).

289

SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

system of taking as much of a President's time as they cared to, but
were soon astonished to find that the thing could not be done with
Mr. Wilson. Unless the matters on which they called under appoint-
ment were of unusual importance, each conference was expected
to last not more than three to five minutes. At the end of the
allotted time the President would rise to his feet and say : "Now you
may be sure that this will be looked into." After each caller departed
the President — who was so expert a stenographer that a page from
his note-book was as clean-cut as a piece of engraving — made a
shorthand note of the call and the business. At the end of each day
he went through the note-book, gave directions or dictated letters,
and thus ended the work for that day.

Breakfast was strictly a fixt feast at the White House, beginning
at eight o'clock promptly. He did not scorn the saving of minutes
and so was never five minutes late to breakfast. At 8.55 — not "about
nine" or "when I finish breakfast," but at 8.55 his personal secretary
was expected to be ready to take down answers to important letters
received the day before. At ten he was at his desk in his private
office and for half an hour such routine as could be was disposed of.
Then came the appointments, each cut down to a minimum. After
luncheon he was ready to meet tourists — this was the case before the
war — or to hold a conference with some member .of the Cabinet, or
with a foreign diplomat. After that came his recreation. Dinner was
at seven, "and so to bed" — invariably between ten and midnight. He
had on his desk four accurately arranged piles of documents and
could say to a secretary: "Go over to my study desk. The paper
we want you will find in the pile nearest my seat on the right-hand
end. It is the fifth from the top." Always when he went after it,
the secretary would find the paper exactly where the President said
it was. He did things for himself, such as filing important papers
with his own hands in a filing-case back of his chair. When he had
finished using a pen, he would take a piece of chamois-skin from a
drawer, wipe his pen clean and return the chamois-skin and pen to
their places. He was so exact that he could tell whether anybody
had moved anything on his desk during his absence.66

In his troubled days at Princeton, when he was President, one
charge against him was that he so shut himself up in his home-life
that he did not know men and the ways of men. In this charge there
was truth, to the extent that Mr. Wilson's own fireside was always
dearer to him than the thronged marts of casual contacts. He never
felt so completely himself as when he had gathered with wife and
daughters and a few chosen friends around the fireside, and allowed
his spirit to move whither it listeth. He was no superman, but

66 James Hay, Jr., in The American Magazine.

290

PERSONAL SKETCHES OF WAR LEADERS

human to the core. One of his most obvious qualities in his home
life was an incorrigible playfulness. Graver people sometimes
thought he was too much that way, for he would joke in the midst of
serious discussions. His fund of anecdote, his gleeful delight in
nonsense rimes, his atrocities in punmaking (an inheritance from
his father, from whom he derived many traits), all these things were
pronounced in him, together with character-humor, the knack of giv-
ing word-portrayals of people in incongruous settings. Altho the
tenderest of men, he was the least sentimental. When the war began
the foundations of his own life were crumbling under him. It was
just as the war opened that his first wife died. "I can not help
thinking/' he said, "that perhaps she was taken so that she might be
spared the spectacle of this awful calamity." His relatives knew after
her death that he was the loneliest man in the world. One of them
wrote afterward of "the lonely figure walking down the long hallway
at the White House, his hair much whitened in a few months."67

ALFRED ZIMMERMANN, GERMAN FOREIGN MINISTER

Not because he was a great figure during the World War does
Zimmernaann have a place among these sketches, but because he,
more than any other, in a brief term of office, dealt the last stroke
that was needed to consolidate American sentiment in favor of de-
claring war on Germany. When the sinking of the Lusitania and
its civilian passengers aroused widespread sentiment for war among
American people in the East, the Middle and Far West were in-
different. If rich Easterners chose to sail on British ships, it was
their risk, said many in the West, and not the risk of all the American
people. But when Zimmermann's note proposing to Mexico the in-
vasion of the Southwest, with a view to conquering American States
formerly Mexican territory, and asking Mexico to secure aid from
Japan, the cost to be paid by Germany, people beyond the Allegheny
'.and the Mississippi began really to see red.

No photograph had ever done justice to the strong, scarred face
of Alfred Zimmermann, because, as the Paris Figaro said, the
countenance of the Chief of the Foreign Office in Berlin, after
Jagow left it, had an expressiveness too baffling for the camera.
The blue eyes, the somewhat carroty hue of hair and mustache, the
pallor of face, the traces of sword-slashes on his cheek, left over
from university days, gave no more clue to the soul of the man
within than did photographs in Berlin shop-windows. In an almost
literal sense of the phrase, Zimmermann talked with his face. His
features reflected every conceivable change. With ease he could look

67 Stockton Axson in The Public Ledger (Philadelphia).

291

SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

gay, yet in another second his eyes could flash an exquisite anger and
the lines upon his brow could show an embarrassing accentuation,
but a smile would arrive at the climax of his fury. His laugh was a
masterpiece — ringing, clear, hearty, and revealing well-kept teeth,
notwithstanding his fifty-seven years, and conveying an impression
of spontaneity, of true mirth. His real vocation would have been
histrionic cinematography. There was no artist in the "movies"
whose countenance lent itself to the purposes of the film with a
versatility so irresistible. Ordinary photographs in illustrated
papers robbed him of his due, for his soul was that of a chameleon.

The lack of the particle "von" should not have led one to an in-
ference that Zimmermann was not wrell born. On his mother's side
he had relatives among the nobility of Bavaria, and the hereditary
w?ealth of the family went back five generations. So far was he from
being self-made that he went to the University at Breslau and to
Berlin for the prosecution of severe studies in history, economics,
law and literature. But to the diplomatic service he was a rank out-
sider. He had climbed the ladder of promotion by way of the con-
sular service, having been a commercial expert. He was alien to
the exquisite school of Jagow, his knowledge being not primarily of
waltzing, or of dining, or of that human nature to which the
Machiavellis and Metternichs had appealed. Zimmermann knew all
about the importation of hides from Argentina, and could make a
happy guess of the number of tons of tea there were in warehouses
in Moscow. This afforded a hint of the avenue along which he had
traveled, said the Rome Tribuna, a correspondent of which, like many
other journalists, knew him well. He was an economist rather than
a business man, one of the creators of practical economics in the
new and German sense of that term. To him more than to any other
living individual was the Berlin exporter indebted for the "science"
behind his invasion of world markets. Zimmermann's exhaustive
and learned works on the relations between commerce and diplomacy
were German classics. Yet he was neither a pedant, a cosmopolite, a
mere business man, nor a bureaucrat.

Ever since his first connection with the Foreign Department, of
which he was for a time head, he had studied the characteristics of
people among whom he was thrown — Chinese, Russians, Finns, Bui-
gars. Long scrutiny of human nature accounted for the ease with
which he got acquainted with others. He was not long a stranger
to any one, and no one remained long a stranger to him. He could
meet no living human being without discovering mutual acquaintances.
He had a positive genius for the discovery, at a first encounter, of
intimate themes which gave to the talk a personal touch of the
friendliest kind. He would go out of his way to be amiable to young

292

PROLONGED CONTROVERSY OVER THE TREATY

Contemporary with the report of the treaty to the Senate was
the home-coming of General John J. Pershing. There are some
occasions which can be compared to no others, in ancient history or
in modern, and the arrival in New York> on September 8th, of the
Commander-in-Chief of the American Expeditionary Forces, was one
of them. No other American Commander-in-Chief had ever before
come home after leading troops to victory on battlefields in Europe,
and the fine, full ceremonies were events without precedent. There
seemed some excuse, in fact, for that impulsive woman who broke
the closely guarded ranks of tip-toeing watchers in City Hall Park
and planted one firm kiss upon the conquering General's sun-
browned cheek as he was stepping forward toward Mayor Hylan
for his greetings. Pershing was going the way all heroes go on
arriving in New York — up the City Hall steps — but never had just
this kind of hero gone that way before or been received in that way.
The General only shrugged a shoulder at the so truly personal tribute.

Pershing took his home-coming simply and quietly, altho it was
plain to see that he was moved and had deep joy at being home
again. Only once did he seem really perturbed. That was when
Warren, his thirteen-year-old son, to whom he had entrusted his
commission as full General, got lost in the crowd around City Hall
Park and Pershing looked around in sudden dismay. When he
spied his son again he was heard to call out, "Have you got that
commission? Well — hang on to it!" Never had a General of the
United States Army been created under more impressive circum-
stances. Secretary Baker, when Pershing reached the foot of the
gang-plank, stood ready with the commission as authorized by Con-
gress. He held it in his hand in welcoming Pershing, and after
greetings in behalf of President Wilson presented it in the Presi-
dent's name. The General turned it over immediately to Warren,
who had been the first to break the news to him of his elevation to
full generalship, waking him that morning in order to give him a
tireless message. Pershing was the fourth of our army men to be
mde a full general, the others being Grant, Sherman, and Sheridan.

Pershing's arrival signalized and symbolized the end of an epic
American adventure. Of the two million of armed men whom
we had sent across the seas, only an inconsiderable number re-
mained waiting in France for homeward ships; a still smaller frac-
tion were in permanent quarters on the Rhine. The country had
seen men of the drafted National Army, men of the National Guard,
and men of the Regular Army come home ship-load after ship-load,
and had seen great parades in great cities in honor of them. Now
it welcomed the leader who, in May, 1917, had set sail for Europe

SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

with a mere corporal's guard. Pershing returned in the anniversary
week of the battle of St. Mihiel and came on the Leviathan, once
the Hamburg- American ship Vaterland. The conjunction vividly
recalled the nature and history of our effort in a great cause.

Our battle history, except for a few preliminary experiences in
Lorraine and at Cantigny, extended only from June 1, 1918, when
we challenged the Germans around Chateau-Thierry, to November
11, or fewer than five and a half months. In a war of fifty-one and
a half months this seemed only an episode, or a "splendid fragment,"
as the London Times called it, but it brought the climax and decision
of the war. Concerning that there was no longer any notable differ-
ence of opinion. The few doubters could be referred to Ludendorff's
own memoirs then in course of publication. Our armies, however,
had had the benefit of nearly three years of Allied error and educa-
tion and thus our effort came into play with a minimum of wastage.
Our difficulty was the fact of our fresh and enormous strength. At
the end of the war we were fully equal in battle strength to France
or Great Britain. The temptation to start in and show Foch and
Haig how to win the war might have presented itself to a commander-
in-chief less sane than Pershing, who had behind him a virtually
limitless store of men and boundless material resources. That temp-
tation either never asserted itself, or was loyally overcome by
Pershing. Legend, to be sure, spoke of how he had gone to Foch
and protested violently against a continuance of the latter's Fabian
policy, but against that picturesque incident we had Foch's moving
acknowledgment of how Pershing went to him in the darkest mo-
ment of the campaign of 1918 and put the American Army and
resources into his hands — in fact, "all that we have." With this
offer probably came an intimation from Pershing that perhaps the
American divisions were readier for use than Foch had thought.
In any case, the lesson of Cantigny and Chateau-Thierry was not
lost on Foch.

It was a smiling Pershing who leaned far out over a bandstand
and railing and threw kisses into the rapturous faces of schoo7-
girls who, on September 8, after the formalities at the City HaTl,
gathered to welcome him in Central Park. The stern disciplinarian,
the reticent commander of armies, seemed to have quite vanished
before the waving of fifty thousand tiny American flags and the
lusty cheers that came from leather-lunged schoolboys. Pershing
for five minutes became a laughing, hat-swinging, hand-waving hero,
just the kind of hero youngsters remember with a warm gk-w in
their hearts for the rest of their lives. Pershing listened to a
•chorus of children producing a mingled accent of Italian, Russian,

374

PROLONGED CONTROVERSY OVER THE TREATY

Polish, Irish and all other nationalities that had sent their children
to be trained in American citizenship in our schools. As he listened
his lips tightened and his eyes grew soft, and he bent over and
kissed the flag which stood beside him.

The more formal Victory Parade in Pershing's honor, on Sep-
tember 10, when the First Division with full equipment was led
by him down Fifth Avenue, was the climax of processional shows
celebrating the achievements of the American Army in France.
There would be other parades in which Pershing would take part —
welcomes to him soon followed in Philadelphia and Washington —
but there would be no parade to match this one, because Pershing
had then landed straight from the scene of his successes, with
laurels fresh upon him, and the division that he led was his favorite
division, of whose record in the war he was exceedingly proud. New
York saw in this welcome the last chapter in its history of great
military spectacles growing out of the war.

Altogether, more than 25,000 fighting men were in line. It was a
vast throng that turned out, many deep, from 107th Street south to
Washington Square. The applause was continuous, hearty and mani-
festly genuine. Here and there the chimes of church bells put an edge
of sweetness on the shouting. Bells less musical, wooden "crickets,"
and improvised instruments of discord, converted the plaudits into
a great popular demonstration. Now and then, from great office
buildings, showers of confetti, long trailing paper streamers and
clouds of paper snow helped forward the general gaiety. A group
of army airplanes came to Manhattan as a special aerial escort, and
flew low over the park and up and down the avenue, at times dis-
appearing from the ken of watchers, only to come roaring back
again over their heads. The whole route was gay and colorful with
flags and bunting.

Most picturesque of all was the way in which Pershing, members
of his staff, officers and men of lesser rank and the long line of
marchers, were pelted with flowers. At times Pershing rode and
men marched over stretches of asphalt carpeted with laurel. At
others, roses and simpler flowers rained down about Pershing and
were marched over by his men. Some enthusiast, high above
Pershing, would toss down a single blossom at him; perhaps to fall
almost at his feet, perhaps to drop far behind him. Even where
crowds were least dense, Pershing was kept at almost continual
salute by tributes volleyed from both sides of the avenue. His
23,000 men in line were cheered by 1,600,000, or perhaps 2,000,000,
spectators in a four-hour parade. Cardinal Mercier of Belgium,
who had just landed in New York, viewed the parade from a seat

375

SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

in front of a Knights of Columbus stand at St. Patrick's Cathedral
at Fifth Avenue and Fifty-first Street. When Pershing reached the
Cathedral he dismounted from his horse to shake hands with the
famous Belgian priest. More than 1,600 guests gathered that night
at the Waldorf for a dinner given in honor of Pershing. The guests
crowded the big main ballroom, overflowed into the Astor Galleries,
the Myrtle Room, the Waldorf Apartments, and the Rose Room, and
even filled the Green Room and main foyer. So great was the throng
that the hotel management had to detail large numbers of men to
guide guests to proper places.

General Pershing, in receiving in person the thanks of Congress
a few days later, presented a manly and attractive figure, seem-
ingly unconscious of the eminence he had won as a soldier. His
manner was so simple that it should have disarmed any critics
who affected to see in him a champion of militarism. With his
work well done in the field, he seemed now an average American
in his point of view; a man of the people, and as much a democrat
as Champ Clark who in a speech claimed him as a sample of the
''sort of man Missouri grows when in her most prodigal moods."

PART OF A COLORED REGIMENT BACK FROM FRANCE

These men were of the former Fifteenth New York, and are shown aboard

ship on their return home in February, 1919. In September, 1918, this

regiment captured 250 machine-guns and 400 prisoners

376

PROLONGED CONTROVERSY OVER THE TREATY

Pershing's genial good nature and sense of humor came to the
surface when he stood there the cynosure of all eyes at a joint
session of Congress, the galleries crowded. The remarks he made,
while they had a certain eloquence because of their sincerity, were
generous in giving credit to Americans of all classes and conditions
who had played their part in the war, at home as well as "over
there." In what he said of the army he had led there was a touch-
ing spirit of affection and loyalty. Vainglory and boastfulness
were foreign to this stalwart soldier. It had no doubt been an
ordeal greater than a battle for Pershing, while standing before
Congress, to hear his praises sounded and afterward to express
his thanks, but the occasion resulted in another victory for him.16

Cardinal Mercier was formally welcomed to New York on Sep-
tember 17th. After a day spent in receiving an almost continuous
ovation from the public, he stood at night in the grand ballroom
of the Waldorf Hotel with head bowed and hands clasped as
tho in prayer, his shoulders draped with an American flag,
while from 700 men and women of different creeds he received one
of the most remarkable demonstrations ever accorded to a guest in
that room. Representatives of the Catholic, Protestant and of
other faiths were there, one in their desire to express their apprecia-
tion of his heroism. Later, in other cities enthusiastic welcomes
were accorded him. Universities in several states conferred de-
grees on him) in fact, every possible honor was bestowed by the
American people on the hero-priest, one of the outstanding figures
of the war.

On October 4th, Albert, King of the Belgians, and Queen Eliza-
beth his wife arrived in New York. Laying aside their incognito
and appearing as sovereigns, they became the guests of the city,
and New York took them to its heart. The tribute began when
the royal party in the morning, after making a cruise through the
harbor stept ashore at the Battery, and reached its climax in the
afternoon when 30,000 children gave them a great welcome in
Central Park. It continued elsewhere as they were whirled in mo-
tors through avenues and side streets. After a day of unceasing
receptions, and the King had learned of the seriousness of the
President's condition, he announced that he would cancel all en-
gagements for the next day, except those in Boston, and one on
Monday, the 6th, in Buffalo, whence he would proceed to the Pa-
cific Coast.

While the whole Entente world was waiting with ill-concealed im-
patience for the American ratification of the treaty, a League of
Nations had actually been showing how it could operate, the Paris

"The Times (New York).

377

SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

Conference having intervened to bring about peace between Prague
and Warsaw, that is, between Bohemia and Poland, and again had
intervened to bring Roumania to her senses as to aggressions com-
mitted against coveted territory in Hungary. The disciplining
process had taken some time but the essential thing was that the
Peace Conference had been able to call Bucharest to order. In so
doing Paris had virtually put the machinery of the League of
Nations into motion. A truculent government, even if the govern-
ment of an Allied people, had been warned that it must not endanger
the uncompleted structure of peace.

Another example of what the League might do was shown when
Gabriele D'Annunzio, the Italian poet, on September 15th, sup-
ported by a force of Arditti, went to Fiume and proclaimed a
union of the city with Italy. Fiume thus became plunged into a
state of anarchy. British and French troops left the city, lowering
their flags at D'Annunzio's request. The touch of the swashbuck-
ling days of long ago was what appealed most to American ob-
servers in this "conquest" of Fiume by D'Annunzio; this, rather
than any possible political consequences that might follow upon so
unauthorized a raid. At first news of the success of his coup
D'Annunzio was variously classed with d'Artagnan, Coeur de Lion,
and Garibaldi. Second thoughts made it evident to many that the
exploit was a conclusive argument either for or against a League
of Nations, as best suited the views of this or that person, re-
vealing to some that the League had proved itself futile and to others
that it was a necessity. D'Annunzio's personality and record
as a patriot aroused very general sympathy. He had been aroused
from a state of lethargy by the outbreak of the war and from the
first had devoted himself whole-heartedly to bringing Italy into the
conflict. Time and again he had led an air squadron in long raids
over the Austrian base at Pola and over other Austrian cities, while
during a terrible hand-to-hand struggle with the Austrian s on the
Carso, he had rushed among his comrades, inspiring them with fiery
words. He had been wounded several times and once was report-
ed dead.

There had been no real justification, however, for including
Fiume, or any part of the Adriatic coast south of Fiume, within
the boundries of the Italian Kingdom. Fiume, by situation and by
all the circumstances of its development, was not an Italian, but
an international port, serving countries to the east and north of
the gulf of the same name and so it had been declared to be by
the Peace Treaty. By the application of the principle of self-
determination Fiume might be Italian provided the unit which
should be allowed to decide its fate were regarded as simply the

378

PROLONGED CONTROVERSY OVER THE TREATY

town and district of Fiume which, since 1868, had enjoyed auto-
nomy under Budapest, and in which, according to the last census,
there were 24,200 Italians and 15,600 Jugo-Slavs. But Fiume could
not be separated (for international and economic, as distinct from
purely administrative purposes) from its large Croat suburb of
Sussak; and, if the two were treated as a whole, the 24,800 Italians
would be found in a minority, against 27,000 Jugo-Slavs. More-
over, in order to establish a continuous land connection between
Fiume and Italy, it would be necessary for the latter to annex
at least 100,000 Slavs in excess of those who would fall to her under
the treaty and, of course, incidentally to ignore self-determination
for a Slav majority. With these facts before him President Wil-
son had insisted that Fiume should be an international part and
could not with justice be subordinate to any one sovereignty.17

It was not necessary in the case of D'Annunzio to consider how
much in his exploit was pure passion and how much a desire, un-
conscious perhaps, to supply a parallel to Garibaldi's conquest of
Sicily on his own initiative in behalf of unredeemed Italy, because
the parallel could be prolonged to his disadvantage, for, when Gari-
baldi, in 1862, with a volunteer army, marched on Rome, Victor
Emanuel, fearful of foreign intervention, actually sent an Italian
army against him and the old lion was defeated and taken prisoner.
Patriotism, even in Garibaldi's case, had to be tamed. Premier
Nitti by September 17th denounced D'Annunzio's coup d'etat, and
the adoption of a firm policy in dealing with the situation was en-
dorsed by King Victor Emmanuel who exprest a wish, however,
that there be no bloodshed.

By September 19th D'Annunzio's army had increased to over
11,000, including 1,600 volunteers from Trieste, and Fiume was
ablaze with flags, her streets filled with marching soldiers and her
air vibrant with the confidence felt by men who, under the command
of D'Annunzio, had marched into the city and were able firmly to
hold it. Soldiers were to be seen everywhere. Motor-trucks lurched
through the streets carrying armed men from one point to another,
and hundreds of troops could be seen at any hour marching with
the greatest precision and the strictest military discipline. To the
detached observer, Italy had made great gains from the war. Her
inveterate enemy, Austria-Hungary, to which, through fear, she
had been bound by the Triple Alliance, had passed away, and her
land boundries had been so arranged as to guarantee the almost
absolute military security of Italy. The Adriatic had become vir-
tually an Italian lake and practically all her terra irredenta had
been recovered. But these gains appeared, to Italy, relatively
small when compared with the territorial rewards of Great Britain

17 The Journal of Commerce (New York).

379

SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

and France. The Italians had not secured any great territorial
gains ; they were not to have a favored position in the division of
the German indemnity, and they had no mandates in any of the
former German colonies.

Fiume has a splendid harbor upon the development of which the
Hungarian Government had spent millions. The docking facilities
are of the most modern kind. Ships -can tie up at the docks of
Fiume and their cargoes can be stored in warehouses at terminals
equal to those controlled by the Bush Terminal Company in Brook-
lyn. The city had every reason to look forward with confidence to
a great commercial future. It is well built, with notable streets and
some imposing public buildings. It has always been truly Italian
in its atmosphere; its architecture is Italian; its mode of outdoor
life has been such as one finds in Italy; most of its stores and
banks are Italian, tho the best and largest before the war were
kept by Austrian Jews, and most hotel-keepers and tradesmen
spoke German. But it was absurd to attempt to separate Fiume
from the neighboring Slavonic city, Sussak, for administrative pur-
poses. The stream that divided them is scarcely wider than the
Bronx river. A great number of the population of Sussak simply
reside there and work in Fiume; Sussak bears the same relation to
Fiume that Brooklyn bears to Manhattan. Surrounding hills hem
in the two communities as a unit apart from the hinterland.18

D'Annunzio's dash was represented by some defenders of it as
merely an idealistic demonstration of Italian brotherhood; that is,
there was nothing imperialistic about it; no desire to entrench Italy
militarily on the eastern shore of the Adriatic. It was just "a
dramatic clasping of an Italian population to the heart of Italy."
But if this were true as far as the seizure of Fiume was concerned,
it obviously could not be true of the reported seizures by Italians
of other towns that were unquestionably under Jugo-Slavic con-
trol, nor of incursions into Dalmatia and a threatened restoration
to the throne of the King of Montenegro. The bad impression made
on the outside world by these exploits was unmistakable. Italy
obviously could not afford to place herself in the position of defying
the authority of the Peace Conference, or of risking the bringing on
of another war. It was clear, therefore, that eventually she would
have to give heed to decisions come to in Paris. Italian brother-
hood, and the unredeemed soil of Italy were stirring words with
which to make an appeal, but they could not be utilized to camou-
flage grasping designs and a wanton attempt to hazard the peace
of Europe.19

One of the Dalmatian towns involved in the incursion was

18 Stephen P. Duggan in the Times (New York).

19 The Evening Post (New York).

380

PROLONGED CONTROVERSY OVER THE TREATY

Trau, a seaport, inhabited partly by Italians and partly by Jugo-
Slavs in a region which had belonged to Austria, but had been lost
to her by the Peace Treaty, and which the Conference was ex-
pected to allot to Jugo-Slavia. Under the armistice terms, Entente
forces had for months been patrolling the Adriatic, acting as trustees,
until definite disposition could be made of Dalmatia. Trau hap-
pened to be in a neighborhood which was assigned to the American
Navy for the maintenance of order. A group of Italians of the
D'Annunzio faction having seized the town, Serbian troops from
Spalato, Diocletian's old town, and only a few miles distant, which
D'Annunzio had threatened to capture, had undertaken to drive
the Italians out. If they had succeeded in doing this, a war which
had been impending ever since the exploit at Fiume probably would
have been precipitated. American sailors and marines were landed
there. They persuaded the Italians to withdraw and induced the
Serbs to return to Spalato, so that instead of making war the
Americans averted it.20

By the end of September the Italian Chamber of Deputies, by a
unanimous vote, passed a resolution demanding the annexation of
Fiume, so that the Government at Rome in effect seemed to have
indorsed D'Annunzio's enterprise. Italy's action thus brought the
protracted dispute to a head. It was a dispute which had been
active ever since President Wilspn on April 23rd issued a state-
ment opposing the assignment of Fiume to Italy. Orlando, at
that time had quitted Paris and gone home to ask for a national
mandate on the annexation question, which he got at once; but he
failed to move the Council of Three in Paris and, because of this
failure, his Cabinet fell and Nitti replaced him. Tittoni, the Foreign
Minister, then without success took up the task of winning over the
Council to a recognition of Italy's contention. As a sequel, D'An-
nunzio occupied Fiume with his Italian volunteers and so played
Garibaldi's role in the Liberation period.21

Information reached Washington on October 10th that the Ital-
ian Government had agreed to the creation of a buffer state, com-
prising Fiume and the adjacent coastal territory southward to
Breccia, as a solution of the Adriatic problem. The approval of
the plan was conditional on the protection of Italian interests in
the proposed state by the adoption of Italian methods of legal pro-
cedure, and the confirmation of Italy's title to the former dis-
trict of Fiume in the interior and along the coast to the westward.
This was regarded by the Italians as absolutely necessary, as a
strategic measure to insure the safety of Pola and other Italian
Adriatic cities. Probably no nation was more surprized than the

20 The Times (New York).

21 The Tribune (New York).

381

SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

Italians themselves when D'Annunzio, in the course of the war,
had displayed such military aptitude. His skill and heroism had
made him one of the most popular figures among soldiers. Early
in October he was showing ability in another field, that of diplo-
macy, as evidenced in a message to the Croats. His message, writ-
ten in Creation, said:

Adriatic is a Latin sea, on which the Slavs have full right
to a free economic outlet for their commerce. Italy is glad not only
to concede, but to assure and protect with her military and civil
forces, the liberty of such an outlet for all races in the hinterland.
Therefore, Italians and Slavs have an urgent common interest to
prevent other nations from controlling a sea which does not belong
to them, thus disturbing prosperity and concord. Italy is resolved
to defend her annexation of Fiume against any one, but at the same
time is ready to assure you sincere and ample guaranties of free
transit and the development of your commercial traffic through the
port. Kecognize the rights of Italy, so that Italy can recognize yours,
and all misunderstandings will be dissipated. Long live Italian Fiume!
Long live the Adriatic really free! Long live Italo-Slav peace, her-
ald of common prosperity!"

Still another example of such work as a league might perform
was given when the Supreme Council on September 27th decided
to send to the German Government, through Marshal Foch, a note
demanding under drastic penalties for non-compliance, the evacua-
tion of Lithuania by German troops a considerable force of whom
still remained there. Germany was told that her provisioning at
home would be stopt and the financial arrangement she had re-
quested would be held up if Lithuania were not evacuated. After
having tried, without success, other methods to secure compliance
from Germany with the terms laid down in the armistice, which
had been signed more than ten months before, the Peace Conference
was about to try with Germany the "American way" — that is, to
use the economic weapons which had long been favored by the
American delegation. It was said that with 100,000 troops, of various
nationalities, General von der Goltz had become the real lord of
the Baltic and that he might within a few days declare himself in-
dependent of the German Government. His immediate purpose
seemed to be, first to overthrow the Russian Bolshevist Government,
and then to establish cordial relations between the new Russia and
Germany, and so lead to German domination of the Baltic provinces.

Weeks passed, however, and Germany failed to secure an evacua-
tion by her troops. On the contrary, Riga by October llth, had
been attacked by Germans acting with anti-Red Russians, and the
Letts under this pressure had abandoned their city.

An advance guard of German troops soon took possession of

382

PROLONGED CONTROVERSY OVER THE TREATY

Eiga, and others, under von der Goltz with Russians, attacked the
Letts thirty kilometers from Eiga and occupied Shlotsk, the at-
tack being repulsed. This German aggression was regarded in
some quarters as the beginning of a new German attempt for su-
premacy in Europe by that Prussian landholding aristocracy which
was still dominated by medieval ideas of aristocratic militarism.
Von der Goltz's army was officered by the sort of men who had
made Germany hated the world over, and was fighting in the interest
chiefly of the land-owning nobility of the Baltic coast. Von der
Goltz was cooperating with an organization calling itself "the West
Eussian Government," which appeared to represent nothing more
than Baltic German Barons, the most reactionary class in old Rus-
sia, men who had furnished or inspired most of the traitors who
had betrayed the Eussian armies to Germany in the early years of
the war. Von der Goltz, a few days after the attack on Eiga, trans-
ferred his command in the Baltic region to General von Eberhardt,
and was expected to arrive in Berlin soon after. The German
Government had been deliberating on the latest note of the En-
tente with regard to the Baltic situation under which complete
stoppage of provisions to the insubordinate troops in the Baltic
lands had been ordered. All passenger traffic to the Baltic was to
be stopt and only empty trains permitted to go there to fetch troops
home.

Early in September was begun, so to speak, "an appeal to
Cassar," by President Wilson and by the chief opponents of the
League covenant, through speaking trips across the continent and
back. The appeal was made chiefly to the West and far West, the
President's route being through the Middle West, the Eocky Moun-
tain States, and the Pacific Coast States. The fact that Mr. Wilson
was to speak in three different California cities — San Francisco, Los
Angeles, and San Diego — seemed proof of his anxiety to relieve any
misunderstanding that may have been created in California as to
the effect of the Shantung grant on the Japanese problem along the
Pacific coast. When he reached Spokane President Wilson made a
notable statement in declaring that he was not averse to reservations
of interpretation, but objected strongly to putting them in the
ratification clause which would mean resubmission of the treaty,
because, if textual changes were made in it, or if the resolution of
ratification was qualified, the document would have to be resub-
mitted to the German Assembly; "that," he remarked, "goes against
my digestion." He said further on this point:

1 ' We can not honorably put anything in that treaty which Germany has
signed and ratified without Germany's consent, whereas it is perfectly
feasible, my fellow countrymen, if we put interpretations upon that

383

SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

treaty, which its language clearly warrants, to notify the other Govern-
ments of the world that we do understand the treaty in that sense. It is
perfectly feasible to do so and perfectly honorable to do that, because,
mark you, nothing can be done under this treaty through the instrumen-
tality of the Council of the League of Nations except by unanimous vote.
The vote of the United States will always be necessary, and it is perfectly
legitimate for the United States to notify the other Governments before-
hand that its vote in the Council of the League of Nations will be based
upon such and such understanding of the provisions of the treaty."

Two days after the President made this speech a written appeal
for ratification without delay and without amendments to the treaty
with Germany was submitted to every member of the Senate by 250
leading Americans, Republicans as well as Democrats, in a non-
partizan effort to bring about prompt action by the Senate. The
address was signed by former President Taft, former Attorney-
General Wickersham, President Lowell of Harvard, Judge George
Gray of Delaware, President Gompers of the American Federation
of Labor, Luther Burbank, Lyman Abbott, John Burroughs, Alton
B. Parker, Oscar S. Straus, Jacob H. Schiff, Henry P. Davison,
and others including Governors, former Governors and Se»ators.
Men signing this petition lived in forty States of the Union, some of
them of national reputation. The appeal declared 'that the "world
is being put in imminent peril of new wars by the lapse of each
day." Delay in the Senate by postponing ratification "in this un-
certain period of neither peace nor war, has resulted in indecision
and doubt, has bred strife, and quickened the cupidity of those who
sell the daily necessities of life and the fears of those whose daily
wage no longer fills the daily market basket." "The American peo-
ple," the Senate was told, "can not after a victorious war, permit
its Government to petition Germany for its consent to changes in
the treaty."

Opinion in the country was much divided as to the proper steps
to be taken by the Senate. On the one hand many saw, in the
refusal to accept the Treaty without reservations, merely a vindic-
tive desire to embarrass the President, while by others it was
pointed out that from the entry of the United States into the
war, the President had received the whole-hearted support of
the Republican party and that the same patriotic feeling was
governing the Senate.

Another impetus, leading perhaps to an earlier ratification than
had seemed likely, was given early in September by Herbert C.
Hoover, in an interview with the press on his arrival from Europe
where he had been continuing his notable and beneficent labors as
the American Food Administrator. Mr. Hoover in effect reminded

384

PROLONGED CONTROVERSY OVER THE TREATY

Senators of the ruined cities and villages of France and Belgium
which, under the terms of the treaty Germany was to restore, but
neither the gold nor the labor for this work could be had until the
treaty was ratified. While Senators were disputing over the future
world attitude of America, the bodies of dead Europeans still lay
unburied in the cellars of their homes, and survivors in the devastated
regions were eating the bread of charity. Some 35,000,000 people
were spread over a devastated, famine-stricken country, persecuted
on one side by a German army in Silesia, and on the other by Bol-
sheviki over a front of 1,500 miles. Germans by terrorism were
trying to force a vote for German government in Silesia, where lay
the coal field of Central Europe. Coal mining in consequence was
disorganized and railways, at least in eastern and southern Poland,
were obliged to suspend service for want of fuel. Since rolling
stock could not be divided between the Central European States as
the Peace Treaty provided, traffic in Poland, Czecho-Slovakia and
Lithuania continued to be greatly impeded. Poland was still without
a port, except through German territory, and part of East Prussia
was being stript of its harvest by the Germans, who were anticipating
the annexation of that section under the treaty. Entente interven-
tion was not possible until the Peace Treaty was signed. With the
existence of all these conditions it was impossible for Poland to
arrange foreign loans. Unable to provide raw material, her textile
mills remained idle and her people were in rags. There was no hope
in Poland of rehabilitating economic life and assuring the political
independence of Poland and other states until peace was formally
declared. This condition was typical of fifteen States in Europe,
whose whole economic and political life was in a state of suspension
that in many particulars was more disastrous than war itself had
been. Seventy-five million people were living on Government un-
employment doles.

At a dinner given in New York in his honor, Mr. Hoover said
the war's end found Europe facing a famine the like of which had
not been known since the ending of the Thirty Years' War. Through-
out everything it seemed as if chaos had taken the reins, and over
it all hung the menace of Bolshevism and anarchy. There was only
one hope for Europe : that was the American people. , It was in re-
sponse to this appeal that President Wilson had intervened a
second time in Europe; this time to rehabilitate her economic life.
This service had been accomplished at no mean national sacrifice.
From the armistice to the harvest of 1919, there had been furnished
to Europe over $2,250,000,000 worth of supplies, the majority of
which had been given freely upon the undertaking of the assisted

385

SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

Governments of repayment at some future date. There had been
no demand of special security ; no political or economic privileges
had been sought. The American people, by this second interven-
tion, "had saved civilization."

On September 26 the President was stricken with illness at Wichita,
Kassas, and was compelled to abandon his tour. For sometime he
had shown by an increasing irritability the effect of the severe strain
that he had been subjected to, yet he persisted in his effort to convert
the country to his views concerning the Peace Treaty. Finally, how-
ever, the collapse came and, at the order of Doctor Grayson, the
President's personal physician, all engagements for the future were
cancelled and Mr. Wilson returned to Washington, arriving at the
White House on September 29.

Dr. Grayson announced that the President was suffering from
nervous exhaustion and that while his condition was "not alarming"
"he would be obliged to rest for a considerable time."

This sudden collapse gave rise to many alarming rumors, which
the guarded bulletins from the sick-room did not tend to quell, and
called forth from friend and foe alike genuine expressions of sym-
pathy. So disturbing were the reports that the suggestion was made
in Congress that the Vice-President should assume the duties of the
President, as provided in Section One, Article Two of the Constitu-
tion. In face of the assurances from the physicians of the ultimate
recovery of the President, however, this step was not taken.

Consequently, for several months the country was to all intents
and purposes devoid of an executive head, and many matters of
extreme importance were necessarily held in abeyance. It is true
that the members of the Cabinet met on several occasions at the
request of the Secretary of State, Mr. Lansing, but these meetings
were necessarily of an informal nature and the government of the
country was, none the less, at a standstill.

An unfortunate result of the President's illness was the inability
of Viscount Grey, the newly appointed Ambassador from Great
Britain, to present his credentials. Viscount Grey, who arrived in
this country on September 26, returned to England on December 30
without having had an interview with President Wilson.

The utterances of the President in Cheyenne, Denver, and Pueblo,
generally accepted as threats to withdraw the Treaty of Peace in
case of the adoption by the Senate of specific amendments, gave the
debate a stimulus too strong to allow of any actual truce between
contending factions. In fact, it was generally recognized that the
President's positive stand had brought the differences between himself
and the Republican Senators to an unmistakable issue. This issue

386

PROLONGED CONTROVERSY OVER THE TREATY

was crystallized by the chairman of the Republican National Com-
mittee into the phrase "Internationalism vs. Nationalism."

In Denver and again at Pueblo the President stated that he would
declare the Peace Treaty rejected if the Senate adopted, in its present
form, the proposed reservation of the majority of the Foreign Rela-
tions Committee to Article X of the League Covenant. He was vari-
ously quoted as saying :

"The negotiation of treaties rests with the Executive of the United
States. When the Senate has acted, it will be for me to determine
whether its action constitutes an adoption or a rejection. . . .

' ' Qualified adoption is not adoption. It is perfectly legitimate by a
multiplicity of words to make the obvious more obvious, but qualifying
means asking special privileges for the United States. We can not
ask that. We must go in or stay out.

' ' We go in on equal terms or we don 7t go in at all. ' '

White House officials in the Presidential party "permitted it to
become known" that the proposed reservation which the President
would regard as rejecting the Treaty, if adopted, was that quoted by
him at Salt Lake City as one that he had been informed had been
agreed on by several Republican leaders in the Senate. This "pro-
posed form of reservation," which the President intimated would
"cut out the heart of this Covenant," he cited as follows :

"The United States assumes no obligation under the provisions of
Article X to preserve the territorial integrity or political independence
of any other country or to interfere in controversies between other
nations, whether members of the League or not, or to employ military
and naval forces of the United States under any article for any purpose
unless in any particular case that Congress, which under the Constitution
has the sole power to declare war or authorize the employment of
military and naval forces of the United States, shall by act or joint
resolution so declare.

On November 19 the Senate rejected, by an overwhelming vote,
the peace treaty. This had been presented by Senator Lodge,
coupled with the following resolutions of ratification :

Eesolved (two-thirds of the Senators present concurring therein),
That the Senate advice and consent to the ratification of the treaty
of peace with Germany concluded at Versailles on the twenty-eighth
day of June, 1919, subject to the following reservations and under-
standings, which are hereby made a part and condition of this
resolution of ratification, which ratification is not to take effect or
bind the United States until the said reservations and understand-
ings adopted by the Senate have been accepted by an exchange
of notes as a part and a condition of this resolution of ratification

387

SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

by at least three of the four principal allied and associated powers,
to wit, Great Britain, France, Italy, and Japan:

1. The United States so understands and construes Article 1 that
in case of notice of withdrawal from the League of Nations, as
provided in said article, the United States shall be the sole judge
as to whether all its international obligations and all its obligations
under the said covenant have been fulfilled, and notice of withdrawal
by the United States may be given by a concurrent resolution of
the Congress of the United States.

2. The United States assumes no obligation to preserve the ter-
ritorial integrity or political independence of any other country or
to interfere in controversies between nations — whether members of
the League or not — under the provisions of Article 10, or to employ
the military or naval forces of the United States under any article
of the treaty for any purpose, unless in any particular case the Con-
gress, which, under the Constitution has the sole power to declare war
or authorize the employment of the military or naval forces of the
United States, shall by act or joint resolution so provide.

3. No mandate shall be accepted by the United States under Article
22, Part 1, or any other provision of the treaty of peace with Ger-
many, except by action of the Congress of the United States.

4. The United States reserves to itself exclusively the right to
decide what questions are within its domestic jurisdiction and
declares that all domestic and political questions relating wholly
or in part to its internal affairs, including immigration, labor,
coastwise traffic, the tariff, commerce, the suppression of traffic in
women and children, and in opium and other dangerous drugs, and
all other domestic questions, are solely within the jurisdiction of the
United States and are not under this treaty to be submitted in any
way either to arbitration or to the consideration of the Council or of
the Assembly of the League of Nations, or any agency thereof, or
to the decision or recommendation of any other power.

5. The United States will not submit to arbitration or to inquiry
by the Assembly or by the Council of the League of Nations,
provided for in said treaty of peace, any questions which in the
judgment of the United States depend upon or relate to its long-
established policy, commonly known as the Monroe Doctrine; said
doctrine is to be interpreted by the United States alone and is hereby
declared to be wholly outside the jurisdiction of said League of
Nations and entirely unaffected by any provision contained in the
said treaty of peace with Germany.

6. The United States withholds its assent to Articles 156, 157, and
158, and reserves full liberty of action with respect to any contro-
versy which may arise under said articles between the Eepublic of
China and the Empire of Japan.

7. The Congress of the United States will provide by law for the
appointment of the representatives of the United States in the
Assembly and the Council of the League of Nations, and may in
its discretion provide for the participation of the United States in

388

PROLONGED CONTROVERSY OVER THE TREATY

any commission, committee, tribunal, court, council, or conference, or
in the selection of any members thereof and for the appointment
of members of said commisions, committees, tribunals, courts, coun-
cils, or conferences, or any other representatives under the treaty
of peace, or in carrying out its provisions, and until such participa-
tion and appointment have been so provided for and the powers
and duties of such representatives have been defined by law, no person
shall represent the United States under either said League of Nations-
or the treaty of peace wth Germany, or be authorized to perform any
act for or on behalf of the United States thereunder, and no citizen
of the United States shall be selected or appointed as a member of
said commisions, committees, tribunals, courts, councils, or confer-
ences except with the approval of the Senate of the United States.

8. The United States understands that the Reparation Commission
will regulate or interfere with exports from the United States to
Germany, or from Germany to the United States, only when the
United States by act or joint resolution of Congress approves such
regulation or interference.

9. The United States shall not be obligated to contribute to any
expenses of the League of Nations or of the secretariat, or of any
commission, or committee, or conference or other agency, organized
under the League of Nations or under the treaty or for the purpose of
carrying out the treaty provisions, unless and until an appropriation
of funds available for such expenses shall have been made by the
Congress of the United States.

10. If the United States shall at any time adopt any plan for the
limitation of armaments proposed by the Council of the League of
Nations, under the provisions of Article 8, it reserves the right to
increase such armaments without the consent of the Council whenever
the United States is threatened with invasion or engaged in war.

11. The United States reserves the right to permit, in its discretion,
the nationals of a covenant-breaking State, as defined in Article 16
of the covenant of the League of Nations, residing within the United
States or in countries other than that violating said Article 16, to
continue their commercial, financial, and personal relations with the
nationals of the United States.

12. Nothing in Articles 296, 297, or in any of the annexes thereto
or in any other article, section, or annex of the treaty of peace with
Germany shall, as against citizens of the United States, be taken to
mean any confirmation, ratification, or approval of any act otherwise
illegal or in contravention of the right of citizens of the United States.

13. The United States withholds its assent to Part XIII (Articles
387 to 427, inclusive) unless Congress by act or joint resolution shall
hereafter make provision for representation in the organization estab-
lished by said Part XIII, and in such event the participation of the
United States will be governed and conditioned by the provisions of
such act or joint resolution.

14. The United States assumes no obligation to be bound by any-

V.X— 26 389

SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

election, decision, report, or finding of the council or assembly in which
any member of the League and its self-governing dominions, colonies,
or parts of empire, in the aggregate have cast more than one vote,
and assumes no obligation to be bound by any decision, report, or
finding of the council or assembly arising out of any dispute between
the United States and any member of the League if such member,
or any self-governing dominion, colony, empire, or part of the empire
united with it politically has voted.

Jubilation reigned in some quarters- when this emphatic reject-
ion came as a sensational climax to one of the most bitterly fought
political battles in our history. By the opponents of the Admin-
istration and its peace-making policy it was hailed as an "American
victory."

The attitude of those "mild reservationists" who had been looked
upon to effect a compromise "ratification with reservations," but
who finally voted for the Lodge program and against straight ratifica-
tion, was indicated by these words of Senator Kellogg (Rep., Minn.) :

' ' The people of the United States are generous. We are willing to
join a League of Nations to insure a world peace, but we are not willing
to give up the control of our domestic questions; we are not willing
to pledge this nation to go to war and to send its sons abroad without
the judgment of the American people, which must be exprest through
their Congress. ' '

But those who had expected much from the League were saddened
at "the end of a dream," and by the conviction that our allies were
left without the directing hand of America to keep them out of the
maze of intrigue in which Europe was at war's edge for centuries.22

Now that the Treaty, if not dead, was in a state of suspended
animation, as far as this country was concerned, until the opening
of the next session of Congress, there was at once evinced by the
spokesmen of both sides a desire to shift the responsibility for its
rejection. On the one side such expressions as "assassinated by
Republican Senators," "the United States Senate under the bankrupt
leadership of Senator Henry Cabot Lodge has killed the Peace
Treaty," were heard, and the statement was made that it was a work
of blind partizan recklessness done in callous disregard of the need
and the suffering of nations.23

But Republican papers, including dailies of all shades of friend-
liness and hostility to the League of Nations joined in laying the
responsibility for the failure of the Treaty at the President's own
door, in effect charging him with "infanticide." It was said that
this country and the world are familiar with the record of how the

22 The Commercial (New York).

23 The Times (New York).

390 '

PROLONGED CONTROVERSY OVER THE TREATY

President refused to take counsel; of how he arrived in Europe
without a plan; of how he adopted the theory, now an admitted
blunder, of uniting in one instrument the distinct problems of settling
one war and of creating safeguards for future peace; of how he
boasted he had so cunningly arranged matters that the covenant
could not have separate consideration and that the Senate must
accept a covenant secretly written or not have peace at all; of how
he revealed his ambition to be the sole treaty-making power, whereas
the Constitution provides he shall have partners; of how in one
breath he has conceded the just basis of the demand for reservations
and in the next has said he would not accept them.24

Apart from the foregoing partizan expression it was felt by many
that statesmanship had been lacking on both sides, and the conviction
was hopefully exprest that the Senate's rejection was not final
or that the ratification would not be very long delayed. It was
hoped that before Congress met again in December the basis might
be reached.

That the Allies intended to go on without American coopera-
tion was shown by the fact that the day after the United States
Senate rejected the Treaty, the Supreme Council at Paris decided
that the nations which have already accepted the Treaty would
exchange formal ratifications in time for the pact to become effective
on December 1.

The Prince of Wales, who had been making an extended tour
through Canada, arrived in Washington on November 11 as a guest
of the nation. The royal special train was received by a guard of
honor of Marines, and the Prince was welcomed by Vice-President
Marshall, General Pershing, Viscount Grey, General March, and
other prominent men. During his stay in Washington the Prince
visited President Wilson at the White House and exprest his
gratification at Mr. Wilson's improvement in health. On November
19 he went to New York, landed at the Battery and proceeded up
Broadway to the City Hall where he was welcomed by Secretary of
State Hugo and the Mayor. During his stay in New York he visited
West Point and was a guest at a dinner given by the Pilgrims of
the United States. He was most cordially received by the public
wherever he went and it was remarked after his departure on H.M.S.
Renown on November 22 that "he was the most successful ambassa-
dor that Great Britain had ever sent to this country."

The practical dismissal of Mr. Lansing the Secretary of State, by
President Wilson on February 13, 1920, startled the United States
and Europe.

The correspondence which culminated in the President's acceptance
24 The Tribune (New York).

391

SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

of Secretary Lansing's resignation "to take effect at once" began with
a note from the President dated February 7, asking if it was true
"that during my illness you have frequently called the heads of the
executive departments of the Government into conference," and
affirming that "under our constitutional law and practise, as developed
hitherto, no one but the President has the right to summon the heads
of the executive departments into conference, and no one but the
President and the Congress has the right to ask their views or the
views of any one of them on any public question." Mr. Lansing
replied that, being denied communication with the President, he had
frequently "requested the heads of the executive departments to meet
for informal conference." His note continued:

"I can assure you that it never for a moment entered my mind that
1 was acting unconstitutionally or contrary to your wishes, and there
certainly was no intention on my part to assume powers and exercise
the functions which under the Constitution are exclusively confided to
the President.

' ' During these troublous times, when many difficult and vexatious
questions have arisen and when in the circumstances I have been
deprived of your guidance and direction, it has been my constant
endeavor to carry out your policies as I understood them and to act in
all matters as I believed you would wish me to act.

"If, however, you think that I have failed in my loyalty to you, and
if you no longer have confidence in me and prefer to have another
conduct our foreign affairs, I am, of course, ready, Mr. President, to
relieve you of any embarrassment by placing my resignation in your
hands."

The President replied that Mr. Lansing's explanations did not
justify his "assumption of Presidential authority," and that the
Secretary's resignation would relieve him of embarrassment, adding :

"While we were still in Paris, I felt, and have felt increasingly
ever since that you accepted my guidance and direction on questions
with regard to which I had to instruct you only with increasing
reluctance, and since my return to Washington I have been struck
by the number of matters in which you have apparently tried to fore-
stall my judgment by formulating action and merely asking my ap-
proval when it was impossible for me to form an independent judgment
because I had not had an opportunity to examine the circumstances
with any degree of independence."

Mr. Lansing, denying that he "sought to usurp Presidential author-
ity," and expressing the belief that he would have been derelict in his
duty if he had failed to act as he did, handed in his resignation
"with a sense of profound relief."

President Wilson issued on January 12, 1920, a call for the first

392

PROLONGED CONTROVERSY OVER THE TREATY

meeting of the Council of the League of Nations to convene at
Paris on January 16. In accordance with this summons the League
was formally launched on that date with representatives of Great
Britain, France, Italy, Japan, Belgium, Spain, Greece, Portugal
and Brazil in attendance.

On March 19, after more than eight months of discussion, the
Senate returned unratified to the President the Treaty that the
Peace Conference had worked nearly half a year to frame. While
some papers joined in frank rejoicing over the Treaty's rejection, a
majority of the press, like a majority of the Senate (but not the
necessary two-thirds majority), seemed to desire ratification with
reservations that would interpret but not stultify. The question
arose as to who was to blame for thwarting the will of the public.
Some regarded President Wilson himself as responsible, others
declared that the Republican Senators were the real culprits, while
some divided the blame.

In reply to criticism of the Senate for failure to ratify the Treaty
Senator Lodge replied:

1 ' Reservations were placed upon the Treaty which a decisive majority
of the Senate felt were necessary for the protection of the independence,
the sovereignty, and the peace of the United States. The President's
followers in the Senate under his direction refused to ratify the Treaty
with those reservations.

' ' The Treaty can be ratified with those reservations, but not without
them, and it is for the President to determine whether he is ready to
accept them in order that the Treaty may be ratified. ' '

On the other hand it was said that heretofore Senators had ratified
and rejected treaties, but that the grave offense that the Senate under
the leadership of Henry Cabot Lodge had committed was in making
a treaty of peace a partizan issue.25

More important than the assessment of the blame, however, was
the consideration of what was next to be done. Some of the solutions
proposed and discust were: A separate peace with Germany by
Congressional resolution; a new treaty; a temporary modus vivendi
to be arranged with Germany by the President; or a return of the
Treaty to the Senate with the understanding that President Wilson
would accept ratification with a single reservation holding over the
League of Nations issue until after the elections.

On May 27, 1920, President Wilson vetoed the Knox peace resolu-
tion which had been recently passed by both Houses of Congress.
This resolution repealed the declarations of war with Germany and
Austria and provided for a resumption of commercial and diplomatic
relations with those countries. The President, in taking this action,

26 The World (New York).

393

SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

deliberately placed upon his own shoulders for the third time the
weight of responsibility for keeping the nation in a technical state
of war. He declared in his message to the House that the Knox
resolution was "a complete surrender of the rights of the United States
so far as the German Government is concerned" and "an ineffaceable
stain upon the gallantry and honor of the United States."

An attempt was made on May 28, in the House, to pass this
resolution over the President's veto, but this failed, the vote being
219 to 152, thus lacking twenty-nine votes of the necessary two-thirds
to override the veto.

President Wilson sent to Congress on May 24, a request to be
given the power to accept, on behalf of the United States, a mandate
for Armenia. The Supreme Council in Paris had asked the President
to fix the boundaries of the State of Armenia and had at the same
time offered the mandate for that State to the United States. In
reply to the President's request, the Senate Foreign Relations Com-
mittee approved three days later the following resolution :

"Resolved, That the Congress hereby respectfully declines to grant
to the Executive the power to accept a mandate over Armenia as
requested in the message of the President of May 24, 1920," which
was adopted by the Senate on June 1 by a vote of 52 to 23.

On the debit side in accounts of this war, the world found that
it had to set down in dead from all causes, battle and disease, a few
tens of millions ; in crippled, perhaps 20,000,000 ; in homes destroyed,
1,000,000 ; in money loss, $120,000,000,000 ; besides anarchic conditions
with disrupted industries over the most of Europe and parts of Asia
and Africa. The war, besides the inevitable halting of the producing
capabilities of the nations, had left behind it a universal disinclin-
ation, apparently, on the part of Labor to take up again the tools
compulsorily laid aside in the hour of danger. It had left, as well
to already overtaxed statesmen the dangerous task of preserving dur-
ing the adjustment of new boundaries and the imposing of penalties,
the friendly relations aroused among the Allied nations in the heat of
the conflict. The menace of Bolshevism, the most embarrassing legacy
of the World War, primed with all the accessories of a renewed
universal struggle, was also to> be placed on the debit side.

On the credit side, however, it had vivid and lasting demon-
stration that liberty is so prized among men that no sacrifices are
regarded as too great to save it, new proof that man is a moral
being and that he reacts to moral ideals. There had also sprung
up a greater sense of fraternity among different races — brothers of
the soul who had fought together for the same ideal. The losses,
therefore, were in material things; the gains in spiritualities. While
the world had been impoverished in temporal goods, it had grown

394

PROLONGED CONTROVERSY OVER THE TREATY

richer in others; a jewel had been found in the mire of war. A
generation capable of performing such prodigies of genius and
valor as this war had brought into the light of day, had proclaimed
to distant generations that man was master of his fate ; that not far
distant was the day when the work of the military beast in human
government would have disappeared and men would sit lost in won-
der that it had survived so late.26

» Principal Sources: The Outlook, The Evening Post, The Times, The
Tribune, The Literary Digest, New York ; Associated Press dispatches.

395

VIII

THE COVENANT OF THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS
AND THE PEACE TREATIES

The story of the labors of the Peace Conference, and of
the signing of the several Treaties, has been fully told in the
preceding pages of this volume. The following list of the
names of the plenipotentiaries who signed the Treaty with
Germany, it is believed, will lend an additional interest to this
"work:

UNITED STATES. President Wilson, Secretary of State Eobert Lansing,

Mr. Henry White (Ambassador to France), Colonel E. M. House

and General Tasker H. Bliss;
GREAT BRITAIN. Premier Lloyd George, Mr. Bonar Law, Viscount

Milner, Mr. A. J. Balfour;

CANADA. Sir. George E. Foster, Mr. C. J. Doherty;
AUSTRALIA. Mr. W. H. Hughes and Sir Joseph Coo':;
SOUTH AFRICA. General Louis Botha and Lieut.-General J. C. Smuts;
NEW ZEALAND. Mr. W. F. Massey;

INDIA. Mr. E. S. Montagu and the Maharaja of Bikaner;
PRANCE. Mr. Georges Clemenceau, M. Pichon, M. L. L. Klotz, Mr.

Andre Tardieu, and Mr. Jules Cambon;
ITALY. Mr. Tittoni, Mr. Scialoja Marconi, Mr. Maggiorino, Mr. Fer-

rario, and The Marquis Imperial!;
JAPAN. Marquis Saionji, Baron Makino, Viscount Chinda, Mr. K.

Matsui, and Mr. H. Ijuin;

BELGIUM. Mr. Hymans, Mr. Van der Henvel, and Mr. Vandervelde;
BOLIVIA. Mr. Ismael Moetes;
BRAZIL. Mr. Epitacio Pessoa, Mr. Pandia Calogeras, and Mr. Kaul

Fernandes;

CUBA. Mr. A. S. de Bustamante;

CZECHO-SLOVAKIA. Mr. Charles Kramar and Mr. E. Benes;
ECUADOR. Mr. Dorn y De Alsua;
GREECE. Mr. E. Venizelos and Mr. N. Politis;
GUATEMALA. Mr. Joaquin Mendez;
HAITI. Mr. Tertullien Guilbaud;

HEDJAZ. Mr. Eustem Haidar and Mr. Abdul Hadi Aouni;
HONDRAS. Dr. Policarpo Bonilla;
LIBERIA. Mr. C. D. B. King;
NICARAGUA. Mr. Salvador Chamorro;

396

PROLONGED CONTROVERSY OVER THE TREATY

PANAMA. Mr. Antonio Burgas;

PERU. Mr. Carlos G. Candamo;

POLAND. Mr. E. Dmowski and Mr. Ignace Paderewski;

PORTGAL. Dr. Alfonso Costa and Mr. Augusto Soares;

EUMANIA. Mr. J. J. C. Bratiano and General C. Coanda;

SIAM. Prince Charoon and Prince T. Prabando;

URUGUAY. Mr. Juan A. Buero;

YUGOSLAVIA. Mr. N. P. Pachitch, Mr. A. Trumbitch, and Mr. M. E.

Vesnich;
GERMANY. Herr Herman Muller (Foreign Minister), and Herr

Bell, Minister of Communications and Chief of the Colonial Office.

China refused to sign with the allies as she was dissatisfied
with the arrangement made for the future of Shantung.

The Treaty was ratified by Germany on July 9th ; by Italy
on October 7th; by Great Britain on October 10th; by New
Zealand on September 2d ; by Canada on September llth ; by
South Africa, September 12th; by Australia, October 2d; by
France, October 13th; by Japan, October 30th; by Belgium,
October 13th ; by Uruguay, October 24th ; by Czecho-Slovakia,
November 10th ; and by Poland, October 30th, all in the year
1919.

397

SUMMARY OF THE COVENANT OF
THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS

The HIGH CONTRACTING PARTIES, in order to promote international
cooperation and to achieve international peace and security by the
acceptance of obligations not to resort to war, by the prescription
of open, just, and honorable relations between nations, by the firm
establishment of the understandings of international law as the
actual rule of conduct among Governments, and by the maintenance
of justice and a scrupulous respect for all treaty obligations in the
dealings of organized peoples "with one another, agree to this
Covenant of the League of Nations.

Article I. The original members of the League shall be those of
the signatories which are named in the annex to this Covenant and
also such of those other States named in the annex as shall accede
without reservation to this Covenant. Such accession shall be
effected by a declaration deposited with the secretariat within two
months of the coming into force of the Covenant. Notice thereof
shall be sent to all other members of the League. Any fully self-
governing State, Dominion, or Colony not named in the annex may
become a member of the League if its admission is agreed to by
two-thirds of the Assembly, provided that it shall give effective
guaranties of its sincere intention to observe its international obli-
gations, and shall accept such regulations as may be prescribed by
the League in regard to its military, naval, and air forces and arma-
ments. Any member of the League may, after two years' notice of
its intention so to do, withdraw from the League, provided that all
its international obligations and all its obligations under this
Covenant shall have been fulfilled at the time of its withdrawal.

Article II. The action of the League under this Covenant shall
be effected through the instrumentality of an Assembly and of a
Council, with a permanent secretariat.

Article III. The Assembly shall consist of representatives of
the members of the League. The Assembly shall meet at stated
intervals and from time to time as occasion may require, at the
seat of the League or at such other place as may be decided upon.
The Assembly may deal at its meetings with any matter within the
sphere of action of the League or affecting the peace of the world.
At meetings of the Assembly each member of the League shall have
one vote, and may have not more than three representatives.

Article IV. The Council shall consist of representatives of the
principal Allied and Associated Powers, together with representatives
of four other members of the League. These four members of the
League shall be selected by the Assembly from time to time in its

398

LEAGUE OF NATIONS AND TREATIES

discretion. Until the appointment of the representatives of the
four members of the League first selected by the Assembly, repre-
sentatives of Belgium, Brazil, Greece, and Spain shall be members
of the Council. With the approval of the majority of the Assembly,
the Council may name additional members of the League whose
representatives shall always be members of the Council; the Council
with like approval may increase the number of members of the
League to be selected by the Assembly for representation on the
Council. The Council shall meet from time to time as occasion may
require, and at least once a year, at the seat of the League, or at
such other place as may be decided upon. The Council may deal at
its meetings with any matter within the sphere of action of the
League, or affecting the peace of the world. Any member of the
League not represented on the Council shall be invited to send a
representative to sit as a member at any meeting of the Council
during the consideration of matters specially affecting the interests
of that member of the League. At meetings of the Council each
member of the League represented on the Council shall have one
vote, and may have not more than one representative..

Article V. Except where otherwise expressly provided in this
Covenant or by the terms of the present Treaty, decisions at any
meeting of the Assembly or of the Council shall require the agree-
ment of all the members of the League represented at the meeting.
All matters of procedure at meetings of the Assembly or of the
Council, including the appointment of committees to investigate
particular matters, shall be regulated by the Assembly or by the
Council, and may be decided by a majority of the members of the
League represented at the 'meeting. The firstj meeting of the
Assembly and the first meeting of the Council shall be summoned
by the President of the United States of America.

Article VI. The permanent secretariat shall be established at
the seat of the League.

Article VII. The seat of the League is established at Geneva.
The Council may at any time decide that the seat of the League
shall be established elsewhere. All positions under or in connection
with the League, including the secretariat, shall be open equally to
men and women.

Article VIII. The members of the League recognize that the
maintenance of peace requires the reduction of national armaments
to the lowest point consistent with national safety and the enforce-
ment by common action of international obligations. The Council,
taking account of the geographical situation and circumstances of
each State, shall formulate plans for such reduction for the con-
sideration and action of the several Governments. Such plans shall
be subject to reconsideration and revision at least every ten years.
After these plans shall have been adopted by the several Govern-
ments, the limits of armaments therein fixt shall not be exceeded
without the concurrence of the Council. The members of the
League undertake to interchange full and frank information as to

399

SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

the scale of their armaments, their military, naval, and air pro-
grams, and the condition of such of their industries as are
adaptable to warlike purposes.

Article IX. A permanent Commission shall be constituted to
advise the Council on the execution of the provisions of Articles I
and VIII, and on military, naval, and air questions generally.

Article X. The members of the League undertake to respect and
preserve as against external aggression the territorial integrity
and existing political independence of all members of the League.
In case of any such aggression or in case of any threat or danger
of such aggression, the Council shall advise upon the means by
which this obligation shall be fulfilled.

Article XI. Any war or threat of war, whether immediately
affecting any of the members of the League or not, is hereby declared
a matter of concern to the whole League, and the League shall take
any action that may be deemed wise and effectual to safeguard
the peace of nations. In case any such emergency should arise,
the Secretary-General shall on the request of any member of the
League forthwith summon a meeting of the Council. It is also
declared to be the friendly right of each member of the League to
bring to the attention of the Assembly or of the Council any cir-
cumstance whatever affecting international relations which threatens
to disturb international peace or the good understanding between
nations upon which peace depends.

Article XII. The members of the League agree that if there
should arise between them any dispute likely to lead to a rupture,
they will submit the matter either to arbitration or to inquiry by
the Council, and they agree in no case to resort to war until three
months after the award by the arbitrators or the report by the
Council.

Article XIII. The members of the League agree that whenever
any dispute shall arise between them which they recognize to be
suitable for submission to arbitration and which can not be satis-
factorily settled by diplomacy, they will submit the whole subject-
matter to arbitration. Disputes as to the interpretation of a treaty,
as to any question of international law, as to the existence of any
fact which if established would constitute a breach of any inter-
national obligation, or as to the extent and nature of the reparation
to be made for any such breach, are declared to be among those
which are generally suitable for submission to arbitration. For
the consideration of any such dispute the court of arbitration to
which the case is referred shall be the court agreed on by the
parties to the dispute or stipulated in any convention existing
between them. The members of the League agree that they will
carry out in full good faith any award that may be rendered and
that they will not resort to war against a member of the League
which complies therewith. In the event of any failure to carry
out such an award, the Council shall propose what steps should be
taken to give effect thereto.

400

LEAGUE OF NATIONS AND TREATIES

Article XIV. The Council shall formulate and submit to the
members of the League for adoption plans for the establishment of
a Permanent Court of International Justice. The Court shall be
competent to hear and determine any dispute of an international
character which the parties thereto submit to it.

Article XV. If there should arise between members of the League
any dispute likely to lead to a rupture, which is not submitted to
arbitration as above, the members of the League agree that they
will submit the matter to the Council. Any party "to the dispute
may effect such submission by giving notice of the existence of the
dispute to the Secretary-General, who will make all necessary
arrangements for a full investigation and consideration thereof.
For this purpose the parties to the dispute will communicate to the
Secretary- General, as promptly as possible, statements of their case
with all the relevant facts and papers, and the Council may forth-
with direct the publication thereof. The Council shall endeavor to
effect a settlement of the dispute, and if such efforts are successful,
a statement shall be made public giving such facts and explanations
regarding the dispute and the terms of settlement thereof as the
Council may deem appropriate. If the dispute is not thus settled,
the Council, either unanimously or by a majority vote, shall make
and publish a report containing a statement of the facts of the
dispute and the recommendations which are deemed just and proper
in regard thereto. Any member of the League represented on the
Council may make public a statement of the facts of the dispute and
of its conclusions regarding the same. If a report by the Council
is unanimously agreed to by the members thereof other than the
representatives of one or more of the parties to the dispute, the
members of the League agree that they will not go to war with
any party to' the dispute which complies with the recommendations
of the report. If the Council fails to reach a report which is
unanimously agreed to by the members thereof, other than the
representatives of one or more of the parties to the dispute, the
members of the League reserve to themselves the right to take
such action as they shall consider necessary for the maintenance
of right and justice. If the dispute between the parties is claimed
by one of them, and is found by the Council to arise out of a
matter which by international law is solely within the domestic
jurisdiction of that party, the Council shall so report, and shall
make no recommendation as to its settlement. The Council may
in any case under this Article refer the dispute to the Assembly.
The dispute shall be so referred at the request of either party to the dis-
pute, provided that such request be made within fourteen days after
the submission of the dispute to the Council. In any case referred
to the Assembly, all the provisions of this article and of Article XII
relating to the action and powers of the Council shall apply to
the action and powers of the Assembly, provided that a report
made by the Assembly, if concurred in by the representatives of
those members of the League represented on the Council and of

401

SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

a majority of the other members of the League, exclusive in each
case of the representatives of the parties to the dispute, shall
have the same force as a report by the Council concurred in by all
the members thereof other than the representatives of one or
more of the parties to the dispute.

Article XVI. Should any member of the League resort to war
in disregard of its covenants under Articles XII, XIII, or XV, it
shall ipso facto be deemed to have committed an act of war against
all other members of the League, which hereby undertake imme-
diately to subject it to the severance of all trade or financial rela-
tions, the prohibition of all intercourse between their nationals and
the nationals of the covenant-breaking State, and the prevention
of all financial, commercial, or personal intercourse between the
nationals of the covenant-breaking State and the nationals of any
other State, whether a member of the League or not. It shall be
the duty of the Council in such case to recommend to the several
Governments concerned what effective military, naval, or air force
the members of the League shall severally contribute to the armed
forces to be used to protect the covenants of the League. The
members of the League agree, further, that they will mutually
support one another in the financial and economic measures which
are taken under this article, in order to minimize the loss and incon-
venience resulting from the above measures, and that they will
mutually support one another in resisting any special measures
aimed at one of their number by the covenant-breaking State, and
that they will take the necessary steps to afford passage through
their territory to the forces of any of the members of the League
which are cooperating to protect the covenants of the League.
Any member of the League which has violated any covenant of
the League may be declared to be no longer a member of the
League by a vote of the Council concurred in by the representatives
of all the other members of the League represented thereon.

Article XVII. In the event of a dispute between a member of
the League and a State which is not a member of the League, or
between States not members of the League, the State or States
not members of the League shall be invited to accept the obligations
of membership in the League for the purposes of such dispute upon
such conditions as the Council may deem just. If such invitation
is accepted, the provisions of Articles XII to XVI inclusive shall
be applied with such modifications as may be deemed necessary by
the Council. Upon such invitation being given, the Council shall
immediately institute an inquiry into the circumstances of the
dispute and recommend such action as may seem best and most
effectual in the circumstances. If a State so invited shall refuse to
accept the obligations of membership in the League for the purposes
of such dispute, and shall resort to war against a member of the
League, the provisions of Article XVI shall be applicable as against
the State taking such action. If both parties to the dispute when
so invited refuse to accept the obligations of membership in the

402

LEAGUE OF NATIONS AND TREATIES

League for the purposes of such dispute, the Council may take
such measures and make such recommendations as will prevent
hostilities and will result in the settlement of the dispute.

Article XVIII. Every treaty or international engagement entered
into hereafter by any member of the League shall be forthwith
registered with the secretariat and shall as soon as possible be
published by it. No such treaty or international engagement shall
be binding until so registered.

Article XIX. The Assembly may from time to time advise the
reconsideration by members of the League of treaties which have
become inapplicable and the consideration of international condi-
tions whose continuance might endanger the peace of the world.

Article XX. The members of the League severally agree that
this Covenant is accepted as abrogating all obligations or under-
standings inter se which are inconsistent with the terms thereof,
and solemnly undertake that they will not hereafter enter into any
engagements inconsistent with the terms thereof. In case any
member of the League shall, before becoming a member of the
League, have undertaken any obligations inconsistent with the
terms of this Covenant, it shall be the duty of such member to
take immediate steps to procure its release from such obligations.

Article XXI. Nothing in this Covenant shall be deemed to affect
the validity of international engagements such as treaties of arbi-
tration or regional understandings like the Monroe Doctrine, for
securing the maintenance of peace.

Article XXII. To those colonies and territories which as
a consequence of the late war have ceased to be under the sov-
ereignty of the States which formerly governed them and which are
inhabited by peoples not yet able to stand by themselves under
the strenuous conditions of the modern world, there should be
applied the principle that the well-being and development of such
peoples form a sacred trust of civilization, and that securities for
the performance of this trust should be embodied in this Covenant.
The best method of giving practical effect to this principle is that
the tutelage of such peoples should be entrusted to advanced nations
who by reason of their resources, their experience, or their geo-
graphical position can best undertake this responsibility, and who
are willing to accept it, and that this tutelage should be exercised
by them as Mandatories on behalf of the League. The character
of the mandate must differ according to the stage of the develop-
ment of the people, the geographical situation of the territory,
its economic conditions, and other similar circumstances. Certain
communities formerly belonging to the Turkish Empire have reached
a stage of development where their existence as independent nations
can be provisionally recognized subject to the rendering of adminis-
trative advice and assistance by a Mandatory until such time as
they are able to stand alone. The wishes of these communities
must be a principal consideration in the selection of the Mandatory.
Other peoples, especially those of Central Africa, are at such a

403

SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

stage that the Mandatory must be responsible for the administration
of the territory under conditions which will guarantee freedom of
conscience or religion, subject only to the maintenance of public
order and morals, the prohibition of abuses such as the slave trade,
the arms traffic and the liquor traffic, and the prevention of the
establishment of fortifications or military and naval bases and of
military training of the natives for other than police purposes and
the defense of territory, and will also secure equal opportunities
for the trade and commerce of other members of the League. There
are territories, such as Southwest Africa and certain of the South
Pacific Islands, which, owing to the sparseness of their population,
or their small size, or their remoteness from the centers of civiliza-
tion, or their geographical contiguity to the territory of the
Mandatory, and other circumstances, can be best administered under
the laws of the Mandatory as integral portions of its territory,
subject to the safeguards above mentioned in the interests of the
indigenous population. In every case of mandate, the Mandatory
shall render to the Council an annual report in reference to the terri-
tory committed to its charge. The degree of authority, control, or
administration to be exercised by the Mandatory shall, if not
previously agreed upon by the members of the League, be explicitly
defined in each case by the Council. A permanent Commission shall
be constituted to receive and examine the annual reports of the
Mandatories and to advise the Council on all matters relating to
the observance of the mandates.

Article XXIII. Subject to and in accordance with the provisions
of international conventions existing or hereafter to be agreed
upon, the members of the League —

(a) will endeavor to secure and maintain fair and humane condi-
tions of labor for men, women and children, both in their
own countries and in all countries to which their commercial
and industrial relations extend, and for that purpose will
establish and maintain the necessary international
organizations;

(6) undertake to secure just treatment of the native inhabitants
of territories under their control;

(c) will entrust the League with the general supervision over
the execution of agreements with regard to the traffic in
women and children, and the traffic in opium and other
dangerous drugs;

(d) will entrust the League with the general supervision of the
trade in arms and ammunition with the countries in which
the control of this traffic is necessary in the common interest;

(e) will make provision to secure and maintain freedom of com-
munications and of transit and equitable treatment for the
commerce of all members of the League. In this connection,
the special necessities of the regions devastated during the
war of 1914-18 shall be borne in mind;

404

SECTIONAL MAPS SHOWING

PARTITION OF EUROPE

ACCORDING TO PEACE TREATIES

NEW BELGIAN-FRENCH
GERMAN FRONTIER

International Territory )
Subject to Plebiscite . . ) ' '

Former International Boundaries

®Moresnet and the circles of Eupen and
Malmedy ceded by Germany to Belgium.
©Sarre Basin internationalized, after 15
years subject to plebiscite as between
Germany, France and League of Nations.

©Alsace-Lorraine ceded by Germany
to France.

Longitude East 6° from

Sea

r'ntfr

lita

>»

ublm

Przemysl
I • Sanok

Budapest

Siuhlweissenburg

CENTRAL EUROPE

Showing Germany, Austria,
Czecho-Slovakia and Hungary

Boundaries J^MBM^™™
Territory subject toPIebisciteT
International Territory
Former International Boundaries
Former Subdivision Boundaries.

1. Moresnet and the circles of Eupen
and Malmedy ceded by Germany

to Belgium.

2 . Alsace-Lorraine ceded by Germany
to France.

3. Sarre Basin internationalized,
after 15 years subject to plebiscite

as between Germany, France and
League of Nations Commission.

4. Part of Silesia subject to plebiscite
as between Germany and Poland.

5. Parts of East and West Prussia,
parts of Posen and Silesia ceded

by Germany to Poland.

6. Free City of Danzig, international
territory.

7. Parts of East and West Prussia,
subject to plebiscite as between

Germany or Poland.

8. Memel with part of East Prussia,
north of the Niemen ceded by Ger-
many to Allied and Associated Powers.

9. Part of Schlcswig (Slesvig) to
Denmark.

10. Czecho-Slovakia.

11. Plebiscite to be decided as between
Czecho-Slovakia, Poland and Ger-
many.

12. Teschen, plebiscite as between
Poland and Czecho-Slovakia.

13. Austria.

14. Klagenfurt, territory subject to
plebiscite as between Austria and
J ugo-Slavia.

15. Hungary.

1(5^ Orawa and Spisz. part of

Hungary subject to settle-
•ment as between Poland

and Czecho-Slovakia.

O Scale of Miles

<\ ? , . . . y 1?°

461

s*P

*T*EN},NO

Mila*nJ

/ Ve

TN^ x,
e-a / £ F— *

VvT / Bol0grna.

)Bel/uno

&vg^

\G"//o/
Venice

u^S^p^ x
)' ^\t. y

.Rome

SOUTHERN EUROPE

SHOWING

ITALY, JUGO-SLAVIA, ALBANIA,
BULGARIA AND GREECE

Boundaries P****

Territory subject to Plebiscite . •
International Territory ...... F

Former International Boundaries
Former Subdivision Boundaries .

DECISIONS BY TREATY

1. Trentino (Southern part of Tyrol) from

Austria to Italy. 8. Northern Epirus (Southern part of Alba-

2. Gorizia, Istria and part of Dalmatia, from nia)' claimed *>y Greece.

Austria to Italy. 9. South part of Bulgaria (Thrace), to

3. Fiume, undecided. Greece.

4. Klasenfurt, territory subject to plebiscite „ ^ °f Eur°P€an Turker to Greece'

as between Austria and Jugo-Slavia. *!• Dodekanese Islands, to Greece., except

5. Jugo-Slavia. Rhodes (subject to plebiscite] and Kastel-

orizo I. occupied by Italy.

6. Parts of Bulgaria to Jugo-Slavia. 12. Smyrna, Greek Protectorate.

7* nrnrther?T?ni? CS?tr^1 part °£ Albar«ia- 13. Zone of the Straits, governed by an
proposed Italian Mandate. Interallied CommissioA.

POLAND

Decided Undecided

boundaries ••^••^^^ •

Territory subject to Plebiscite . .
International Territory
Former International Boundar
Former Subdivision Boundaries

Scnle of I;liluo

I A

c i

• Sanok
kla Pass

•Briinn

1. Former Duchy of Polant

2. Parts of East and West

Prussia, parts of Posen and tween Poland and Czecho-Slo-

Silcsia ceded by Germany to vakia.

Poland. 7. Orawa and Spisz, part of

3. Parts of East and West Hungary subject to settlement
Prussia subject to plebiscite as as between Poland and Czecho-
between Germany and Poland. Slovakia.

4. Part of Silesia subject to 8. Part of Russia under pro-
plebiscite as between Germany posal to Poland. rTTMPARV
and Poland. 9. North part of Suwalki to 1

5. Part of Galicia from Aus- Lithuania.

tria-Hungary to Poland. 1O. Free City of Danzig, inter-

6. Teschen. Plebiscite as be- national territory.

THE MATTHEWS-

NOHTHRUP WORK

BUFFALO, N.Y.

° Longitude East 20° from Greenwich 22 c

ROUMANIA

Decided Undecided

Boundaries

International Territory
Former International Boundaries
Former Subdivision Boundaries

1. Part of Hungary with Tran-

sylvania to Roumania.

3. Bukowina and part of
Galicia, from Austria-Hun-
gary to Roumania.

4. Bessarabia by agreement
with Ukraine from Russia,

now occupied by Roumania.

miniets-PodoIsk

™

Chotin

BANAJT (teST*

Slatina ^

0 Bucharest

Tirnova .X?

G A/k I A

ulfofBurgaa

Scale of Milej

Adriano

Consta

Longitflde East 26° f

EOUMANU

Bucharest

Me ditcrranea n Beirut/^ -* ^\^

Ilfl

TURKEY

1. Turkey.

2. Zone of the Straits, governed by an
Interallied Commission.

3. Smyrna, Greek Protectorate.

4. Armenia. Comprising part of Turkey
and part of Russia. Independence recog-
nized, boundaries to be determined.

5. Syria, French Mandate.

6. Palestine, British Mandate.

7. Mesopotamia, British Mandate.

8. Hejaz. Independence recognized,
boundaries to be determined.

9. Egypt, British Protectorate.

0 Longitude East from Greenwich 4C

LEAGUE OF NATIONS AND TREATIES

(f) will endeavor to take steps in matters of international con-
cern for the prevention and control of disease.

Article XXIV. There shall be placed under the direction of the
League all international bureaus already established by general
treaties if the parties to such treaties consent. All such interna-
tional bureaus and all commissions for the regulation of matters
of international interest hereafter constituted shall be placed under
the direction of the League. In all matters of international interest
which are regulated by general conventions but which are not
placed under the control of international bureaus or commissions,
the secretariat of the League shall, subject to the consent of the
Council and if desired by the parties, collect and distribute all
relevant information and shall render any other assistance which
may be necessary or desirable. The Council may include as part
of the expenses of the secretariat the expenses of any bureau or
commission which is placed under the direction of the League.

Article XXV. The members of the League agree to encourage
and promote the establishment and cooperation of duly authorized
voluntary national Bed Cross organizations having as purposes the
improvement of health, the prevention of disease, and the mitigation
of suffering throughout the world.

Article XXVI. Amendments to this Covenant will take effect
when ratified by the members of the League whose representatives
compose the Council and by a majority of the members of the
League whose representatives compose the Assembly. No such
amendment shall bind any member of the League which signifies
its dissent therefrom, but in that case it shall cease to be a member
of the League.

THE TREATY WITH GERMANY

The Treaty is in fifteen parts of 440 articles, in French and English
texts and opens with the Covenant of the League of Nations (Part I).

Part II is devoted to the new geographical frontiers of Germany.

Part III, in 14 sections, binds Germany to accept the political
changes brought about by the Treaty; establishes the two new States
of Czecho-Slovakia and Poland; revises the basis of Belgian sov-
ereignty, and alters the boundaries of Belgium; establishes new sys-
tem of government in Luxemburg and the Saar basin, and restores
Alsace-Lorraine to France; provides for possible additions of territory
to Denmark; and binds Germany to recognize the independence of
German Austria, and to accept conditions to be laid down as to States
created since the Russian revolution.

By Parts II and III Germany recognizes the full sovereignty of
Belgium over the contested territory of Moresnet and over part of
Prussian Moresnet; she also renounces all rights over Eupen and
Malmedy, the inhabitants of which are to settle the future sov-
ereignty by plebiscite.

Luxemburg passes from the sphere of German influence.

V. X— 27 405

SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

Germany is forbidden to maintain or construct any fortifications
within a distance of less than 50 kilometres from the right bank of
the Ehine.

As compensation for the destruction of the coal-mines in Northern
France, and as part payment toward the total reparation due for war
damage, Germany cedes to France in full and absolute possession the
coal-mines in the Saar basin; the government of this territory is re-
nounced in favor of the League of Nations as trustee for fifteen years,
at the end of which time the inhabitants will decide the question of
sovereignty by a plebiscite.

Alsace and Lorraine are returned to France in full sovereignty and
free of all public debts by the restoration of the eastern frontier of
France to its full limits as it ran before the war of 1870; citizenship
is regulated by detailed provisions distinguishing those who are im-
mediately restored to full French citizenship, those who have to make
formal application, and those to whom nationalization is open after
three years. France is substituted for Germany as regards ownership
of the railroads and rights over tramways concessions, the Rhine
bridges pass to France with the obligation for their upkeep. Manu-
factured products of Alsace-Lorraine to a total annual amount of not
more than that of the average of the preceding three years are to be
admitted to Germany free of duty. For seven years (possibly ten)
the port of Kehl on the right bank is to be administered with Stras-
burg as a single unit by a French administrator appointed and super-
vised by the Central Ehine Commission.

Germany acknowledges and will strictly respect the independency
of Austria.

Germany recognizes the entire independence of the Czecho-Slovak
State, including the autonomous territory of the Euthenians, south
of the Carpathians, and accepts the frontiers of this State as they
may be determined. These in the case of the German frontier follow
the old Bohemian frontier of 1914. The southwestern extremity of
Upper Silesia immediately eastward of Troppau is renounced by Ger-
many in favor of Czecho-Slovakia. Within a period of two years
habitual residents over eighteen years of age will be entitled to vote
for other than Czecho-Slovakian nationality. A similar option is
provided for Czechs living in foreign States and desirous of gaining
Czech nationality.

Germany cedes to Poland the greater part of Upper Silesia, Posen,
and the province of West Prussia on the west bank of the Vistula. In
the portion of Upper Silesia about Oppelin, and in the upper reaches
of the Eiver Oder as far as the old German and Austro-Silesian
frontier, the inhabitants are to decide by plebiscite either for Ger-
many or Poland. German troops and officers to be withdrawn within
ten days. Workmen's and Soldiers' Councils within the area are to
be dissolved, and the interim Government, except in respect of leg-
islation and taxation, is entrusted to an International Commission
of four members, one to be nominated by each of the four Powers, the
United States, Great Britain, France, and Italy.

406

LEAGUE OF NATIONS AND TREATIES

The southern and the eastern frontiers of East Prussia facing Po-
land are to be fixt by plebiscites. Similar provisions in respect to
the plebiscite areas in Upper Silesia concern the withdrawal of Ger-
man troops and authorities, bnt the interim Government of the areas
is placed under an International Commission of five members, appoint-
ed by the five Allied and Associated Powers with the particular duty
of arranging for a fair, free, and secret vote. Prussia is assured full
and equitable access to the Vistula, and provision is made for a
subsequent Convention to be signed within one year between Po-
land, Germany, and Danzig; to assure suitable railroad, telegraphic,
and telephonic communication across German territory on the right
bank of the Vistula between Poland and Danzig, while Poland shall
grant free passage from East Prussia into Germany.

The northeastern corner of East Prussia, about Memel, is ceded
to the Associated Powers by Germany, who undertakes to accept their
settlement particularly in so far as concerns the nationality of the
inhabitants.

Danzig and the district immediately about it are constituted the
Free City of Danzig under guarantee of the League of Nations. The
actual area is to be delimited on the spot by a commission of three
members, one (the President) appointed by the principal Allied Pow-
ers, one by Germany, and one by Poland. The principal Allied Pow-
ers undertake to negotiate a treaty between Poland and the Free*City
to effect its inclusion within the Polish customs frontier, tho with
a free area in its port, and to ensure to Poland the unrestricted use
of all the City's waterways, docks, and other port facilities, the con-
trol and administration of the Vistula, and the whole through railway
system within the city, and postal, telegraphic, and telephonic com-
munication between Poland and Danzig; provide against discrimina-
tion against Poles within the city; and place its foreign relations in
charge of Poland.

The frontier between Germany and Denmark is to be fixt in con-
formity with the wishes of the population, who will vote in Northern
Schleswig as a whole, and in portions of Central Schleswig by com-
mission within ten days from the coming into force of the Treaty.
The Commission is to take all steps which it thinks proper to en-
sure the freedom and fairness and secrecy of the vote; German and
Danish technical advisers are to be chosen from the local population.
Half the cost of the plebiscite ia to be borne by Germany. The re-
sult of the plebiscite, which is to be decided by a majority among all
adults over twenty years of age, will be immediately communicated
by the Commission to the principal Allies and Associated Governments
and proclaimed. If the vote result in favor of the reincorporation of
this territory in the Kingdom of Denmark, the Danish Government in
agreement with the Commission will be entitled to effect its occupa-
tion with their military and administrative authorities immediately
after the proclamation. The plebiscite by communes in the southern
section of the zone will be taken within five weeks of that in the
northern parts.

407

SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

The fortifications, military establishments, and harbors of the is-
lands of Heligoland and Dune are to be destroyed, under supervision
of the Allies, by German labor and at Germany's expense. They are
not to be reconstructed, nor are any similar works to be constructed
in the future.

Germany acknowledges, and agrees to respect as permanent and
inalienable, the independence of all the territories which were part
of the former Eussian Empire on Aug. 1, 1914. She accepts definitely
the abrogation of the Brest-Litovsk Treaties and of all Treaties, con-
ventions and agreements entered into by her with the Maximalist Gov-
ernment in Eussia. The Allies formally reserve the rights of Eussia
to obtain from Germany restitution and reparation based on the prin-
ciple of the present Treaty. Germany undertakes to recognize all
Treaties or agreements which may be entered into by the Allies
with States now existing or coming into existence in the whole or
part of the former Empire of Eussia, and to recognize the frontiers as
they may be determined therein.

Part IV. German Eights and Interests outside Germany (in 8 sec-
tions and 40 articles.) Outside Europe Germany renounces all rights,
titles, and privileges as to her own or her allies' territories, and un-
dertakes to accept whatever measures are taken by the principal Al-
lied Powers in relation thereto.

Germany renounces in favor of the Allied Powers all her rights and
titles over her overseas possessions. All movable and immovable pro-
perty belonging to the German Empire or any German State pass to
the Allied Government exercising authority therein. Germany un-
dertakes to pay reparation for damage suffered by French nationals
in the Cameroons or its frontier zone through the acts of German civil
and military authorities and of German private individuals during the
period from January 1, 1900, to August 1, 1914. Germany renounces all
rights under the conventions with France of November 4, 1911, and
September 28, 1912, relating to Equatorial Africa.

Germany renounces in favor of -China all privileges and indemnities
resulting from the Boxer protocol of 1901, all her public property other
than diplomatic or consular buildings in the German concessions of
Tientsin and Hankow (which China is to open to international trade)
and in other Chinese territory except Shantung; agrees to restore all
the astronomical instruments seized in 1900-1; renounces all claims
against China or any of the Allies for the internment or repatriation
of her citizens in China or for the liquidation of German interests
there since Aug. 14, 1917; renounces in favor of Great Britain her
state property in the British concession at Canton and of France and
China jointly in the German school in the French concession at Shang-
hai.

China having declined to sign the Treaty, a mandate declaring the
state of war with Germany to be ended was issued at Peking on Sept.
15.

All Treaties, conventions, and agreements between Germany and
Siam, and all German rights in Siam, including that of extra-territor-

408

LEAGUE OF NATIONS AND TREATIES

iality, ceased as from July 22, 1917; all German public property other
than diplomatic and consular buildings is confiscated; and all German
claims arising out of the seizure of German ships, the liquidation of
German property, or the internment of German national are waived.

German rights in Liberia under the international arrangement of
1911-12 are abrogated, especially that to nominate a German receiver
of customs in Liberia, and all Treaties and arrangements between
Germany and Liberia are abrogated as from August 4, 1917.

In Morocco Germany, having recognized the French protectorate, re-
nounces all her rights under the Act of Algeciras of April 6, 1906, and
the Franco-German agreements of 1909 and 1911, and in all Treaties
and arrangements with the Sherifian Empire.

In Egypt Germany recognizes the British protectorate proclaimed
on December 18, 1914. Temporary provision for the exercise of juris-
diction by the British Consular Tribunals over German Nationals and
property is made by means of decrees by the Sultan. The Egyptian
Government obtains complete liberty of action in regulating the status
of German nationals and the conditions under which they may estab-
lish themselves in Egypt. All German State property, including the
private property of the ex-German Emperor, passes to the Egyptian
Government.

Germany undertakes to recognize all arrangements which the Al-
lied and Associated Governments may make with Turkey and Bul-
garia.

German rights in Shantung, especially in respect of the territory of
Kiaochow, are renounced in favor of Japan.

Part V. Military, Naval, and Aerial Clauses. Before March 31,
1920, the German Army must be reduced to not more than seven di-
visions of infantry and three divisions of cavalry with total effectives
of 100,000 men, including officers and depot establishment. Officers
are not to exceed 4,000. The army is to be devoted exclusively to
maintenance of order in Germany and the control of frontiers. The
divisions must not be grouped under more than two army corps head-
quarters staffs. The Great German General Staff and all similar organ-
izations must be finally dissolved. The total administration strength of
the war ministry must not exceed 300, to be included in the maximum
number of 4,000 officers. Customs officers, forest guards, and coast
guards are not to exceed the number functioning in 1913 and the
gendarmerie and police may only be increased to an extent corres-
ponding to the increase of population since 1913.

Until Germany is admitted a member of tie League of Nations, her
armament may not exceed 84,000 rifles, 18,000 carbines, 792 heavy
machine guns, 1,134 light machine guns, 63 medium trench mortars,
189 light trench mortars, 204 7.7-cm. guns, 84 10.5-cm. howitzers, 40,-
800,000 rounds of rifle ammunition, 15,408,000 rounds of machine gun
ammunition, 176,400 rounds for trench mortars, and 271,200 rounds for
field artillery. After she enters the League of Nations Germany
agrees to observe the decisions of its Council in the strength of arma-
ments. The stock of munitions is to be stored only at points notified

409

SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

to the Governments of the principal Allies. Notification must be made
of the armament of the fortified works of land and coast forts at the
coming into force of the Treaty, and these must remain the maximum
number of pieces; their stock of ammunition must be reduced within
two months to 1,500 rounds per piece of 10.5-cm. or under, and 500
rounds per piece of higher calibre. The manufacture of war material
is to take place only at factories and arsenals approved by the prin-
cipal Allies; all others to be closed down within three months of the
coming into force of the Treaty. Arms, munitions, and material in
excess of the permitted amount to be surrendered to the Allies within
two months. Importation of arms of any sort into Germany is for-
bidden. The use of asphyxiating and poison gases and all analogous
liquids being forbidden, their manufacture within or importation in-
to Germany is forbidden. The manufacture or import of tanks and
armoured cars is also forbidden. Germany is to disclose within three
months the nature and mode of manufacture of all explosives and
chemicals used by her during the war.

Conscription is to be abolished in Germany. The number of military
schools is to be reduced to a minimum and all institutions in excess
are to be abolished. Schools, universities, societies of discharged sol-
diers, shooting or touring clubs must not occupy themselves with mil-
itary matters or have any connection with the ministries of war.
Germany is to send no military, naval, or air mission to foreign coun-
tries, and the Allies agree not to enrol any Germans in any of their
war services.

All fortified w&rks within fifty kilometers of the east bank of the
Khine are to be dismantled.

German naval forces in commission are to be reduced within two
months to six battleships (Deutschland or Lothringen type), six light
cruisers, 12 destroyers, and 12 torpedo boats. No submarines are to
be included, and the further building of submarines even for com-
merce is forbidden. All existing submarines and docks are to be
handed over to the Allies, and those not able to proceed to Allied
ports are to be destroyed. Other warships must be placed in reserve
or devoted to commerce. The total personnel of the German navy,
including administration and land defense, must not exceed 1,500.

All surface warships not in German ports at the signing of the
Treaty cease to belong to Germany, who finally surrenders the ves-
sels interned in compliance with the armistice. The breaking-up of
all German surface warships under construction must begin immedi-
ately. German auxiliary cruisers and fleet auxiliaries will be disarm-
ed and treated as merchant ships.

The personnel of the German navy is to be entirely voluntarily re-
cruited, officers, and warrant officers to engage for a minimum of
twenty-five years and petty officers and men for twelve years. No
officer or man in the mercantile marine is to receive any training in
the navy.

To ensure free passage into the Baltic, Germany undertakes to erect
no fortification in the area between lat. 55° 27' N. and 54° N., and

410

LEAGUE OF NATIONS AND TREATIES

long. 9° E. and 16° E. Existing fortifications in this area are to be
destroyed. Germany will place at the disposal of the Allies all hydro-
graphical information concerning the channels between the Baltic and
the North Sea. Other coast defenses except Heligoland may be re-
tained, but no new fortification constructed, and the present arma-
ments are not to be exceeded. The stock of ammunition for the guns
is to be reduced to a maximum of 1,500 rounds per piece for calibres
of 4.1 in. and under, and 500 rounds per piece of higher calibres. Dur-
ing three months after the peace Germany can use the wireless teleg-
raphy stations, at Nauen, Hanover, and Berlin under supervision of
the Allies, but for commercial purposes only; she may not during that
period build big-powered stations in her own territory or that of Aus-
tria, Hungary, Bulgaria, or Turkey.

No military or naval air forces are to be retained by Germany; no
dirigible may be kept; all military and naval aircraft and material is
to be handed over to the principal Allies within three months.

Part VI. Prisoners of War and Graves. Repatriation of prisoners
of war and interned civilians to take place as soon and as rapidly
as possible after the Treaty. It will be carried out by a commission
composed of representatives of the Allies and of the German Govern-
ment, with sub-commissions composed of representatives of the in-
dividual Powers and Germany to regulate the details. The cost of re-
patriation of German prisoners is to be borne by the German Gov-
ernment. Those under sentence for offenses against discipline com-
mitted before May 1, 1919, are to be repatriated without regard to the
completion of their sentence, but this does not apply in the case of
offenses other than those against discipline. Prisoners who do not de-
sire to be repatriated may be excluded, but the Allies reserve the
right to repatriate them, to take them to a neutral country, or to al-
low»them to remain. All repatriation of Germans is conditioned on the
immediate release of any allied subjects remaining in Germany. Fa-
cility is to be accorded to Commissions of Inquiry to collect informa-
tion as to missing prisoners of war. Germany also undertakes to im-
pose penalties upon any official or private person who have concealed
the presence of any Allied nationals. The German Government is to
restore all property belonging to Allied prisoners.

The Allies and the German Government are to respect and maintain
the graves of all soldiers and sailors buried in their territories.

Part VII. Penalties. The Allied and Associated Powers publicly
arraign William II of Hohenzollern, formerly German Emperor, for a
supreme offense against international morality and the sanctity of
treaties. A special tribunal will be constituted to try the accused,
thereby assuring him the guaranties essential to the right of defense.
It will be composed of five judges, one appointed by each of the fol-
lowing Powers; namely, the United States of America, Great Britain,
France, Italy, and Japan.

Military tribunals are to be set up by the Allies to try persons ac-
cused of acts of violation of the laws and customs of war,, and the
German Government is to hand over all persons so accused. Similar

411

SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

tribunals are to be set up by any particular Allied Power against
whose nationals criminal acts have been committed. The accused
are to be entitled to name their own counsel, and the German Govern-
ment is to undertake to furnish all documents and information the
production of which may be necessary.

Part VIII. Reparation. Germany accepts responsibility of herself
and her Allies for causing all the loss to which the Allies and their
nationals were subjected ' i as a consequence of the war imposed upon
them by the aggression of Germany and her Allies. ' '

The total obligation of Germany to pay is to be determined and
notified to her after a fair hearing, and not later than May 1, 1921, by
an Inter-Allied Eeparation Commission, which will concurrently draw
up a schedule for securing the payment of the entire obligation with-
in a period of thirty years from May 1, 1921. If Germany has failed
to discharge the debt within the period, any unpaid balance may, at
the discretion of the Commission, be postponed for settlement to sub-
sequent years or otherwise handled.

The commission shall consist of five voting members, one of whom
shall be appointed each by the United States, Great Britain, France,
and Italy. The fifth delegate will be appointed by Belgium, except
(1) when questions affecting Japanese interests are concerned, when
he shall be a delegate appointed by Japan; or (2) when questions
relating to Austria, Hungary, or Bulgaria are under consideration,
when the delegate of the Serb-Croat-Slovene State will be the fifth.
The permanent bureau of the Commission will be in Paris and the
first meeting held as soon as practicable after the coming into force
of the Treaty. It will meet thereafter at such places and times
as are convenient.

Pending the full determination of Allied claims, Germany shall
pay the equivalent of 20,000,000,000 gold marks, out of which shall
first be met the expenses of the armies of occupation and such sup-
plies of food and raw material as the Allies may judge essential to
enable Germany to meet her obligations.

To facilitate the immediate restoration of the economic life of
the allied and associated countries, the Commission will take from
Germany by way of security a first instalment of gold bearer bonds
free of all taxes and interest. In addition to bonds for 20,000,000,000
marks payable not later than May 1, 1921, for the purpose of Article
235, there will also be issued forthwith a further 40,000,000,000 marks
gold bearer bonds bearing 21/4 per cent, interest between 1921 and
1926, and thereafter 5 per cent, with a 1 per cent, sinking fund
payment beginning in 1926, and an undertaking to deliver 40,000,-
000,000 marks gold bearing interest at 5 per cent, under terms to be
fixt by the Commission.

Interest on Germany's debt shall be 5 per cent, unless otherwise
determined by the Commission.

Germany agrees to the direct application of her economic resources
to reparation. She recognizes the right of the Allies to the replace-
ment ton for ton and class for class of all merchant ships and fishing

412

LEAGUE OF NATIONS AND TREATIES

boats lost or damaged in the war. She will deliver within two
months of the coming into operation of the Treaty all German
merchant ships of 1,600 tons gross and upwards; one half (in
tonnage) of ships between 1,000 and 1,600 tons gross; and one
quarter (in tonnage) of her steam trawlers and other fishing boats.
The obligation includes ships building in Germany or on German
Government or private account in foreign shipyards; also shipping
transferred to neutral flags during the war, and not more than
20 per cent of her river fleet. Germany agrees "as an additional part
of reparation " to build merchant ships for the account of the
Allies to the amount not exceeding 200,000 tons gross annually
during the next five years.

Germany undertakes in part satisfaction of her obligations to
devote her economic resources directly to the physical restoration
of the invaded areas. The Allies may file lists of animals, machinery,
equipment, tools, and like articles of a commercial character, which
have been seized, consumed, or destroyed by Germany, and which
they desire to have replaced by similar animals and articles from
Germany; also reconstruction materials, bricks, tiles, wood, window-
glass, lime, cement, etc., machinery, heating apparatus, furniture,
and like articles which it is desired to have produced and manu-
factured in Germany and delivered, to permit of the restoration
of the invaded areas. The Commission will consider Germany's
ability to meet the demands after hearing evidence of her domestic
needs.

Germany accords to the delivery of coal and its derivatives:

To France: 7,000,000 tons of coal per year for ten years.

To Belgium: 8,000,000 tons per year for ten years.

To Italy: 77,000,000 tons in ten years by varying instalments.

To Luxemburg (if directed) a quantity equal to the pre-war
consumption of German coal in the State.

France is also to receive for ten years, on account of her destroyed
mines, an amount (not exceeding 20,000,000 tons in any of the
first five years or 8,000,000 tons in any of the later five years)
representing the difference between the production of her minefields
before the war and during the restoration period. It is understood
that all due diligence will be exercised in restoring the destroyed
mines.

Germany is also to deliver to France during each of these years
35,000 tons of benzol, 50,000 tons of coal tar, and 30,000 tons of
sulphate of ammonia.

Germany accords to the Reparation Commission an option on 50
per cent, of her dyestuffs and chemical drugs, to be executed within
sixty days of the coming into force of the Treaty.

Germany renounces her own right and that of her nation in her
submarine cables, but the value of those privately owned will be
credited in the reparation account.

Germany undertakes to hand over and restore:

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SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

To the French Government: the trophies, archives, historical
souvenirs or works of art carried away in 1870-71, and in the last
war, especially flags and political papers.

To the King of the Hedjaz, the original Koran of the Caliph
Othman, removed from Medina by the Turks and stated to have
been presented to the ex-Emperor William II.

To Great Britain: the skull of the Sultan Mkwawa taken from
German East Africa to Germany.

To the University of Louvain: manuscripts, incunabula, printed
books, maps, and objects of collection corresponding to those
destroyed in the Library of Louvain.

To Belgium: the leaves of the triptych of the Mystic Lamb
painted by the Van Eyck brothers, formerly in the church of St.
Bavon at Ghent (from Berlin Museum) ; and the leaves of the
triptych of the Last Supper painted by Dierick Bouts, formerly in
the church of St. Peter at Louvain (two from Berlin Museum, and
two in the old Pinokothek at Munich).

Part IX. The cost of reparation and other costs arising under
the Treaty will be a first charge on the assets of the German Empire
and States. Until May 21, 1921, Germany may not export or dispose
of any gold without the assent of the Separation Commission.

The total cost of the Allied armies of occupation is to be paid
by Germany.

Germany is to deliver to the Allies all sums deposited in Germany
by Turkey and Austria-Hungary as financial support, extended by
her to them during the war, and to transfer to the Allies all claims
against Austria-Hungary, Turkey, or Bulgaria, in connection with
agreements made during the war. She confirms the renunciation of
the Treaties of Bucharest and Brest-Litovsk.

Part X. Customs Regulations, Duties, and Restrictions. Germany
generally undertakes not to discriminate directly or indirectly against
or between the trade of the Allies.

Postal and telegraphic conventions are renewed, Germany under-
taking not to refuse her consent to special arrangements concluded
by the new States.

Part XL Aircraft of the Allies is to have full liberty of passage
over and landing in German territory; equal treatment with Ger-
man planes as to use of German aerodromes; and most-favored-na-
tion treatment as to internal commercial air traffic. Germany ac-
cepts Allied certificates of nationality.

Part XII. Germany is required to grant freedom of transit and
full national treatment to persons, goods, vessels, building stock, etc.,
to or from Allied States passing through German territory. Goods in
transit are to be free of customs duties and rates of transport are
to be reasonable. International transport is to be expedited particu-
larly for perishable goods.

The following rivers are declared international:

The Elbe from its confluence with the Vltava (Moldau), and the
Vltava from Prague.

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LEAGUE OF NATIONS AND TREATIES

The Oder from its confluence with the Oppa.

The Niemen from Grodno.

The Danube from Ulm.

And all navigable parts of these river-systems which naturally pro-
vide more than one State with access to the sea.

Lateral canals and channels are also declared international, and
the same condition will apply to a Ehine-Danube navigable water-
way should it be hereafter constructed within twenty-five years.

On the international waterways, the nationals' property and flags
of all Powers shall be treated on a footing of perfect equality; never-
theless, German vessels shall not be entitled to carry passengers or
goods by regular services between the ports of any Allied Power
without special authority.

Within three months from the date notified to her, Germany is to
cede a proportion of her tugs and vessels remaining after the de-
duction of those surrendered by way of restitution; she is also to
«ede materials, of all kinds necessary, for the allied utilization of
the river-systems, the amount to be determined by an arbitrator
nominated by the United States of America.

The Kiel Canal is to remain free and open to vessels of commerce
and of war of all nations at peace with Germany, on terms of en-
tire equality. Subjects, goods, and ships of all States are to be
treated on terms of equality; charges are to be limited to those
necessary to the upkeep of the canal, which is to be maintained by
Germany, who may not undertake any works of a nature to im-
pede navigation on the canal or its approaches. In case of vio-
lation of these conditions or disputes as to their interpretation,
any interested Power can appeal to the jurisdiction established
"by the League of Nations.

Part XIII is devoted to Labor's Charter under the League of
Nations.

Part XIV. As a guaranty for the execution of the present Treaty
by Germany, the German territory situated to the west of the Rhine
together with the bridgeheads will be occupied by Allied and As-
sociated troops for a period of fifteen years from the coming into
force of the present Treaty. If the conditions of the Treaty are
faithfully carried out by Germany, the occupation will be suc-
cessively withdrawn:

(1) At the end of five years, from the bridgehead of Cologne;

(2) At the end of ten years from the bridgehead of Coblenz;

(3) At the end of fifteen years from the bridgeheads of Mainz
and Kehl, with the surrounding territory.

If the guaranties against unprovoked aggression by Germany are
not considered sufficient, the evacuations may be delayed to the ex-
tent regarded as necessary for the purpose of obtaining the re-
quired guaranties. If before the expiration of fifteen years Germany
complies with all the undertakings of the Treaty, the occupying
forces will be withdrawn immediately.

As a guaranty for the abrogation of all Treaties entered into by

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Germany with the Maximalist Government in Eussia and in order
to ensure the restoration of peace and good government in the Baltic
Provinces and Lithuania, all German troops at present in these ter-
ritories shall return within the frontiers of Germany as soon as the
five principal Allies shall think the moment suitable, having re-
gard to the internal situation of these territories.

Part XV. Miscellaneous. — Germany agrees to recognize the full
validity of any Treaties of peace and additional conventions to be
concluded by the Allies with the Powers allied with Germany, to
agree to the decisions to be taken as to the territories formerly
parts of Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, and Turkey, and to recognize
the new States in the frontiers fixt for them.

THE TREATY WITH AUSTRIA

Large portions of this Treaty are identical with that signed with
Germany, and other portions vary only to meet the necessary al-
terations of circumstances. There is an introduction which notes
that the war originated in the declaration made against Serbia by
the former Austro-Hungarian Government, that the former Austro-
Hungarian Government has ceased to exist, and that the Czecho-
slovak and the Serb-Croat-Slovene States have been recognized.

Part I. The League of Nations Covenant, as in the German Treaty.

Part IT. The future Austrian Frontiers, summarized as follows:

(1) Northern Frontiers. The existing administrative boundaries
formerly separating the provinces of Bohemia and Moravia from
those of Upper and Lower Austria. These boundaries will be sub-
jected to certain minor rectifications.

(2) Western and Northwestern Frontiers. The existing frontier
to be maintained.

(3) Western Frontiers. No change in these frontiers.

(4) Southern Frontiers. With Italy a line starting from the Col
de Eeschen, and following in general the watershed between the
basins of the Inn and the Drave to the north and the Adige, Piave,
and the Tagliamento to the south.

In tfie eastern part the line, passing just east of Bleiburg, crosses
the Drave just above its confluence with the Lavant, and thence
will pass north of the Drave so as to leave to the Serb-Croat-Slovene
State Marburg and Eadkersburg, just to the north of which latter
place it will join the Hungarian frontier.

(5) Eastern Frontier. No alteration is made in the Treaty of
Peace with regard to the former frontier between Austria and
Hungary.

Part III. The High Contracting Parties recognize and accept the
frontiers of Bulgaria, Greece, Hungary, Poland, Eumania, the Serb-
Croat-Slovene State, and the Czecho-Slovak State, as at present de-
termined, or as they may be ultimately determined, and Austria re-
nounces in favor of the principal Allied and Associated Powers all

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her rights and titles over territories formerly belonging to her which,
tho outside the new frontiers of Austria, have not at present
been assigned to any State undertaking to accept the settlement to
be made in regard to these territories.

Italy. A special convention will determine the terms of repay-
ment, in Austrian currency, of the special war expenditure advanced
by the territory transferred to Italy to the former Austro-Hungarian
.Monarchy during the war. The Italian Government is substituted
in all the rights which the Austrian State possest over all the rail-
ways in the territories transferred to Italy. Italy is to have free use
of the waters of Lake Eaibl.

Serb -Croat -Slovene State. A commission consisting of seven mem-
bers, of whom five shall be nominated by the principal Allied Powers
and one each by the Serb-Croat-Slovene State and Austria, shall
be constituted within fifteen days from the coming into force of
the Treaty to trace the new frontier line.

The inhabitants of the Klagenfurt area will be called upon to in-
dicate by plebiscite the State to which they wish to belong. For
the purpose of the vote the area will be divided into two zones, one
to be occupied by Serb troops and officials, the other by Austrians.
If the vote in the Senate administered area, which will be taken first,
is in favor of the Serb State, a plebiscite will follow in the second
area; if, however, the first zone votes for Austria, no vote will be
taken in the second zone and the whole area will remain Austrian.

The Serb-Croat-Slovene State accepts all those provisions that may
be deemed necessary by the principal Allies to protect the interests of
racial, linguistic or religious minorities within its borders.

Czedio-SlovaTc State. The new boundaries with Austria are to be
delimited by a field commission of seven members constituted as in
the case of the Serb State, and Czecho-Slovakia also agrees to pro-
visions for the protection of minorities within her borders.

Rumania. The Roumanian article similar to that applied to the
Serb-Croat-Slovene State and Czecho-Slovakia is inserted here. It
was to this that Eumania also desired to make reservations, and in
consequence declined in the first instance to sign the Treaty.

Part IV. Austria renounces all rights, titles, and privileges, as
to her own or Allies' territories outside Europe, and undertakes to
accept whatever measures are taken by the principal Allies in re-
lation thereto. She recognizes the British Protectorate over Egypt,
undertakes not to interfere in Morocco, renounces her Boxer in-
demnities and other concessions in China, and recognizes that all
agreements between herself and Siam, including the right of extra-
territoriality, are abrogated.

Part V. Conscription is abolished in Austria, whose total military
forces are not to exceed 30,000 men, including officers and depot
troops. Demobilization to this extent must be completed by three
months after the Treaty.

All Austro-Hungarian warships, including submarines and all

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SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

vessels of the Danube Flotilla, are declared to be finally surrendered
to the principal Allied and Associated Powers. Auxiliary cruisers,
etc., to the number of twenty-one, are to be disarmed and treated
as merchant ships.

All warships (including submarines) now under construction in
ports which belong or have belonged to Austria-Hungary to be
broken up. Articles and materials arising therefrom may not be
used except for industrial purposes, and may not be sold to foreign
countries.

The construction or acquisition of any submarine, even for com-
mercial purposes, is forbidden.

All naval arms, ammunition, and other war material belonging to
Austria-Hungary at the date of the armistice are to be surrendered
to the Allies.

The armed forces of Austria must not include any military or
naval air forces. The entire personnel of the air forces in Austria
is to be demobilized within two months.

The manufacture of aircraft and parts of aircraft is forbidden
for six months.

All military and naval aircraft (including dirigible and aero-
nautical material) are to be delivered to the Allied and Associated
Governments within three months/

Part VI. Prisoners of War and Graves. Conditions as in German
Treaty.

Part ~VTI.X Penalties. There is no article in the Austrian Treaty
corresponding to that of the German Treaty, which arraigns the
ex-Kaiser William II. Austria, however, is required to hand over
for trial, before military tribunals to be set up by the Allies,
persons accused of acts of violation of the laws and customs of
war; and the other provisions of this part of the German Treaty
also apply.

Part VIII. The responsibility of Austria and her allies for the
war is affirmed; and the Allies recognize that the resources of
Austria are not adequate to make complete reparation for the loss
and damage caused to them. The Allies, however, require Austria
to make compensation up to a point determined by the Inter-Allied
Eeparation Commission, which is set up under the Treaty with
Germany. Modifications to meet the case of Austria are provided.
Austria is required to pay in the course of 1919-1920 and the
first four months of 1921 a "reasonable" sum, out of which the
expenses of the armies of occupation subsequent to the armistice of
Nov. 3, 1918, shall first be met and payment made for supplies of
food and raw material judged by the principal Allies to be essential
to enable Austria to meet her obligations for reparation.

Austria is also required to make restitution of cash, animals,
objects of every nature and securities, seized in the war.

Austria undertakes to surrender to the respective Allies all
records, documents, objects of antiquity and of art, and all scientific
and bibliographical material taken away from the invaded territories.

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LEAGUE OF NATIONS AND TREATIES

She will also cede all records, documents, and historical material
possest by public institutions bearing on the history of her ceded
territories which have been removed during the last ten years. So
far as concerns Italy, the period affected shall be extended to the
date of the proclamation of the Kingdom in 1861. The new States
arising out of the former Austro-Hungarian Monarchy undertake
on their part to hand over documents, dating from a period not
exceeding twenty years, which have a direct bearing on the history
of Austria.

Part IX. Financial Clauses. In general these clauses follow
the similar provisions of the German Treaty, as to priority of
charges on the assets and revenues of Austria, payment of the costs
of the armies of occupation, and of reparation.

Austria is to have free access to the Adriatic with rights to free-
dom of transit over territories and in ports severed from former
Austro-Hungary. Austria is to allow Czecho-Slovakia to run its own
trains over sections of railway leading to Fiume and Trieste through
Austrian territory. The rights of Czecho-Slovakia in this connection
are specified, and limited. The conditions are to be determined by
a convention, and any points of difference are to be decided by an
arbitrator nominated by Great Britain.

THE TREATY WITH BULGARIA

Part I contains the Covenant of the League of Nations.

Part II. The future frontiers of Bulgaria.

On the north the frontier with Eumania remains unchanged.

On the west, the frontier with the Serb-Croat-Slovene State for
the most part follows the line of the old frontier with Serbia. Small
^portions of territory are ceded to the Serb-Croat-Slovene State, of
which the most important is the town of Strumnitza and the sur-
rounding district.

A modification is introduced into the southern frontier with terri-
tories to be subsequently attributed by the Principal Allied and
Associated Powers, and the new boundary follows a line which may
be drawn roughly from a point about eight miles southwest of
Bashmakli to Kilkik, passing close to Ardabashi and Daridere,
which remain in Bulgarian territory and crossing the Kartal Dagh
and the Tokatjik Dagh.

On the southeast line a slight modification, taking in a small
piece of Turkish territory northwest of Mustafa Pasha, is introduced.
The Black Sea forms, as before, the eastern frontier.

Bulgaria thus loses her Thracian seaboard as well as her portion
of territory in the Strumnitza district.

Part III. Bulgaria recognizes the Serb-Croat-Slovene State, in
whose favor she renounces the territories situated outside the
frontiers of Bulgaria as constituted by the Treaty. The new frontier
is to be delimited by a commission of seven to be nominated within
fifteen days of the coming into force of the Treaty.

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SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

Bulgaria renounces in favor of Greece the territories recognized
by the present Treaty as forming part of Greece.

Territories in Thrace formerly belonging to Bulgaria and at present
not assigned to any State are delivered by Bulgaria to the principal
Allies with the undertaking to accept their settlement in regard to
them; the principal Allies undertake, on the other hand, to ensure
economic outlets for Bulgaria to the ^Egean Sea under conditions to
be fixt later.

Part IV. The military terms fix the total number of Bulgarian
army effectives at 20,000, including officers; their sole function is
to maintain internal order and control frontiers, and no military
forces other than these are to be raised. The army is to be recruited
on a voluntary basis. The number of Customs, forestry, or police
officials armed with rifles are not to exceed 10,000, so that the total
number of rifles in use in Bulgaria shall not exceed 30,000. The
proportion of officers of all kinds is not to exceed one-twentieth
and of non-commissioned officers one-fifteenth of the total effectives.
Only one military school for the recruitment of officers may be
maintained in Bulgaria. ^Vithin three months of the coming into
force of the Treaty, Bulgaria must hand over to the Allies any
surplus of armaments and munitions beyond those fixt in the
Treaty. The number and calibre of guns constituting the fixt
normal armament of fortified places existing at present in Bulgaria
will constitute the maximum allowed. Ammunition for these guns
will be reduced to the rate of 15,000 rounds per gun of tlje caliber
of 105 mm., and 500 rounds for a gun of higher caliber. No new
fortifications may be constructed, no poison gas or liquid fire manu-
factured or imported, nor any tanks or armored cars. The manu-
facture of war munitions may only be carried on in one factory,
controlled by and belonging to the State, with strictly limited output.

Inter-Allied Commissions of Control will be appointed by the
'principal Allies to secure the execution of the military, naval, and
air clauses. The Bulgarian Government must furnish these com-
missions of control with all information and documents required.

Part V. Prisoners of War and Graves. This section, which other-
wise corresponds with that of the Austrian Treaty, provides for an
Inter-Allied Commission of Inquiry into offenses against the laws
of war committed by the Bulgarian authorities, and to search for
non-repatriated nationals of the Allies and their Associates.

Part VI. Penalties. As in the Austrian Treaty.

Part VTI. Reparation. The . Allies recognize that the resources
of Bulgaria are insufficient to provide adequate reparation and fix
the amount to be paid at 2,250,000,000 francs in gold to be discharged
by a series of half-yearly payments beginning on July 1, 1920. The
first two payments will represent interest at the rate of 2 per cent,
per annum on the total sum; subsequent payments will include in-
terest at 5 per cent, on the total capital sum outstanding and the
provision of sinking fund to extinguish the total amount on January
1, 1958. Bulgaria has power at any time to make immediate pay-

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ments in reduction of the total sum due over and above the half-
yearly payments; she recognizes the transfer to the Allies of any
financial claims her late Allies may have against her, and the Allies
agree not to require any payment in respect to those claims which
have been taken into account in fixing the amount of the financial
reparation to be made.

Bulgaria will return to Greece, Rumania, and the Serb-Croat-
Slovene State all the records, archives, and articles of archaeological,
historical, or artistic interest taken away during the war, and live-
stock in restitution for the animals taken away during the war.
In special compensation for the destruction of coal-mines on Serbian
territory, Bulgaria will deliver to the Serb-Croat-Slovene State
during five years from the coming into force of the Treaty 50,000.
tons of coal a year from the State mines at Pernik, provided these
deliveries are sanctioned by an Inter-Allied Commission. This
commission must be satisfied that the economic life of Bulgaria is
not unduly interfered with~ it will be established at Sofia as soon
as possible, and will consist of three members, one each to be nomi-
nated by Great Britain, France and Italy. Bulgaria will be repre-
sented by a commissioner without the right to vote. The commission
will lay down a list of the taxes, revenues^, concessions, and
monopolies by which the sums required can be raised in Bulgaria.
In case of default by Bulgaria, the commission will be entitled to
assume full control of the collection of taxes.

Part VIII. Financial Clauses. Bulgaria is required to make the
following payments in the following order of priority:

(i) Cost of military ocupation.

(ii) The service of such part of the external Ottoman public debt
as a commission appointed for the purpose may attribute to Bulgaria.

(iii) The cost of reparation as prescribed by the present Treaty.

Part X. Aerial Navigation. This section is identical with that
of the Austrian Treaty.

Part XI. Ports, Waterways, and Railways. Almost exactly as in
the Austrian Treaty.

THE TREATY WITH TURKEY

Part I contains the Covenant of the League of Nations.

Part II. The boundaries of Turkey. The frontier of Turkey in
Europe is approximately that of the Chatalja lines, the northern half
of these lines being, however, advanced in a northwesterly direc-
tion so as to include within the boundries of Turkey the whole area
of Lake Derkos, which is a reservoir for the supply of water to Con-
stantinople. The boundaries of Turkey in Asia remain the same, ex-
cept as regards the southern frontier, which, together with the new
frontier in Europe and the boundary of the Greek administrative zone
round Smyrna, is shown approximately on the attached map.

Provision is also made in the Treaty for a possible modification of

V. X— 28 421

SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

the present frontier between Turkey and the independent State of
Armenia — viz. the former Eusso-Turkish frontier in this region — by
reference to the arbitration of the President of the United States
regarding the new boundary for Armenia in the vilayets of Trebizond,
Erzerum, Van, and Bitlis.

Part III. Political clauses. Subject to the provisions of the Treaty
the parties agree to the maintenance of Turkish sovereignty over
Constantinople, but a reservation is made that if Turkey fails to ob-
serve the provisions of the Treaty or of supplementary Treaties or
conventions, particularly as regards the protection of minorities, the
Allied Powers may modify the above provisions, and Turkey agrees
to accept any dispositions which may be made in this connection.

The navigation of the Straits, including the Dardanelles, the Sea
ef Marmora, and the Bosporus, is to be open in future both in peace
and war to every vessel of commerce or of war, and to military and
commercial aircraft without distinction of flag. These waters are not
to be subject to blockade, and no belligerent right is to be exercised
nor any act of hostility committed within them unless in pursuance of
a decision of the Council of the League of Nations.

The Commission of the Straits is composed of representatives ap-
pointed respectively by the United States of America (if and when
that Government is willing to participate), the British Empire,
France, Italy, Japan, Eussia (if and when Eussia becomes a member
of the League of Nations), Greece, Eumania, and Bulgaria (if and
when Bulgaria becomes a member of the League of Nations).

Each power is to appoint one representative, but the representa-
tives of the United States, the British Empire, France, Italy, Japan,
and Eussia have two votes each, and the representatives of the other
Powers one vote each.

The Commission is charged with the execution and control of any
works, etc. necessary for navigation. In the case of threats to the
freedom of passage of the Straits special provision is made for appeal
by the Commission to the representatives at Constantinople of Great
Britain, France, and Italy, which Powers under the military provisions
of the Treaty provide forces for the occupation of the zone of the
Straits. The representatives will concert with the naval and military
commanders of the Allied forces the necessary measures, whether the
threat comes from within or without the zone of the Straits.

Turkey accepts in advance a scheme of local autonomy for the pre-
dominantly Kurdish areas east of the Euphrates, south of the southern
frontier of Armenia as eventually fixt, and north of the southern
frontier of Turkey to be drafted by a Commission composed of British,
French, and Italian representatives sitting at Constantinople. This
scheme is to protect the rights of Assyro-Chaldeans and other racial or
religious minorities within the above area, and with this object pro-
vision is also made for a possible rectification of the Turkish frontier
where that frontier coincides with that of Persia.

Secondly, the Treaty provides for an appeal for complete indepen-
dence within a stated time to the Council of the League of Nations by

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LEAGUE OF NATIONS AND TREATIES

the Kurdish peoples within the above area, and for the grant of such
independence by Turkey if recommended by the Council. In that
event the Kurds inhabiting that part of Kurdistan which has hitherto
been included in the Mosul Vilayet are to be allowed, if they so de-
sire, to adhere to the independent Kurdish State.

The Turkish Government agrees to transfer to the Greek Govern-
ment the exercise of her rights of sovereignty over a special area
extending a certain distance round the city of Smyrna. In witness
of Turkish sovereignty the Turkish flag is to be flown on one of the
forts outside Smyrna.

The Greek Government is to be responsible for the administration
of the area, may keep troops there to maintain order, may include the
area in the Greek Customs system, and is to establish a local Parlia-
ment on the basis of a scheme of proportional representation of mi-
norities, which is to be submitted to the Council of the League of Na-
tions, and only to come into force after approval by a majority of
the Council. The elections may be postponed for a limited period to
allow the return of inhabitants banished or deported* by the Turkish
authorities.

Special provisions are included regarding the protection of minori-
ties, the suspension of compulsory military service, freedom of com-
merce and transit, the use of the Port of Smyrna by Turkey, and the
salt mines of Phocrea. After five years the local Parliament may ask
the Council of the League of Nations for the incorporation of the
area in the kingdom of Greece, and the Council may impose a plebis-
cite.

Turkey renounces in favor of Greece practically all of her rights
and titles over Turkish territory in Europe, as well as over Imbros,
Tenedos, Lemnos, Samothrace, Mitylene, Samos, Nikaria, and Chios,
and certain other islands in the JEgean.

In the zone of the Straits the Greek Government accept practically
the same obligations as are imposed in Turkey. Provision is made
for a separate Treaty to be signed by Greece protecting racial,
linguistic, and religious minorities in her new territories, particularly
at Adrianople, and safeguarding freedom of transit and equitable
treatment of the commerce of other nations. Greece also assumes
certain financial obligations.

Turkey recognizes Armenia as a free and independent State, and
agrees to accept the arbitration of the President of the United States
of America upon the question of the frontier between Turkey and Ar-
menia in the vilayets of Erzerum, Trebizond, Van, and Bitlis, and
upon Armenia's access to the sea.

Provision is made for the obligations and rights which may pass
to Armenia as the result of the award of the President, giving former
Turkish territory to her; for the eventual delimitation of the Arme-
nian frontiers in Turkey as a result of the arbitration and of the Ar-
menian frontiers with Georgia and Azerbaijan, failing direct agree-
ment on the subject by the three States; and for a separate Treaty to
be signed by Armenia protecting racial, linguistic, and religious mi-

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SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

norities and safeguarding freedom of transit and equitable treatment
for the commerce of other nations.

Syria and Mesopotamia are provisionally recognized by the high
contracting parties as independent States, in accordance with article
22 of the Covenant of the League of Nations, subject to the tendering
of administrative advice and assistance by a mandatory until they
are able to stand alone. The boundaries of the States and the selec-
tion of mandatories will be fixt by the principal Allied Powers. By
the application of the provisions of article 22 of the Covenant the
administration of Palestine is also entrusted to a mandatory. The
selection of the mandatory and the determination of the frontiers of
Palestine will be made by the principal Allied Powers.

The declaration originally made on November 2, 1917, by the
British Government and adopted by the other Allied Governments in
favor of a national home for the Jewish people in Palestine is re-
affirmed, and its terms cited in the Treaty.

Turkey, in accordance with the action already taken by the Al-
lied Powers, recognize the Hedjaz as a free and Independent State
and transfers to the Hedjaz her sovereign rights over territory out-
side the boundaries of the former Turkish Empire and within the
boundaries of the Hedjaz as ultimately fixt.

In view of the sacred character of the cities and holy places of
Mecca and Medina in the eyes of all Moslems, the King of the Hedjaz
undertakes to ensure free and easy access thereto of Moslems of every
country desiring to go there on pilgrimages and for other religious
objects, and respect for pious foundations.

Turkey renounces all rights and titles over Egypt and Cyprus as
from November, 1914, and recognizes the Protectorate proclaimed by
Great Britain over Egypt on December 18, 1914.

Turkey recognizes the French Protectorate in Morocco and over
Tunis.

Turkey also renounces in favor of Italy all rights and titles over
the Dodecanese now in the occupation of Italy and also over the
Island of Castellorizzo.

Special provision is made for Turkey's acceptance of a scheme of
judicial reform (on the lines either of a mixed or unified system)
to be drafted by the principal Allied Powers with the assistance of
technical experts of the other capitulatory Powers, Allied or neutral.
This scheme shall replace the present capitulatory system in judicial
matters in Turkey.

Part IV. Turkey is to assure full and complete protection of life
and liberty to all inhabitants of Turkey without distinction of birth,
nationality, language, race, or religion. Special provision is made for
the annulment of forcible conversions to Islam during the war and for
the search and delivery under the protection of mixed commissions
appointed by the League of Nations of all persons in Turkey, of
whatever race or religion, carried off, interned, or placed in captivity
during the war.

Turkey agrees to certain measures of restitution and reparation con-

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LEAGUE OF NATIONS AND TREATIES

trolled by mixed arbitral commissions appointed by the League of Na-
tions in favor of subjects of non-Turkish race who have suffered
during the war. These commissions will have power generally to
arrange for carrying out works of reconstruction, the removal of un-
desirable persons from different localities, the disposal of property
belonging to members of a community who have died or disappeared
during the war without leaving heirs, and for the cancellation of
forced sales of property during the war. The measures necessary to
guarantee the execution of this chapter of the Treaty are to be de-
cided upon by the principal Allied Powevs in consultation with the
Council of the League of Nations.

Part V. Military Classes. Recruiting on a voluntary and non-
racial, non-religious long-service basis is to be established. Turkey
will be allowed to maintain the following armed land force: —

1. Gendarmerie, 35,000 men.

2. Special elements intended for the reinforcement of the gendar-
merie in case of serious trouble, 15,000 men.

3. The Sultan's bodyguard, 700 men.

An Inter-Allied commission which will be responsible for the con-
trol and organization of the Turkish armed forces.

Armament and material of war are limited to the amount considered
necessary for the new armed force.

For the purpose of guaranteeing the freedom of the Straits all
works, fortifications, and batteries are to be demolished within a zone
extending 20 kilos, inland from the coasts of the Sea of Marmora and
the Straits, and comprising the islands of the Sea of Marmora, also
the islands of Lemnos, Imbros, Tenedos, and Mitylene.

The naval clauses provide for the surrender of all Turkish war-
ships with the exception of a few small lightly armed vessels, which
may be retained for police and fishery duties. Turkey is forbidden to
construct or acquire any surface warships other than those required
to replace the units allowed for police and fishery duties, and also for-
bidden to [construct] or1 acquire any submarine even for commercial
purposes. No military or naval air forces are to be maintained by
Turkey.

Part VI. Turkish prisoners of war and interned civilians are to be
repatriated without delay at the cost of the Turkish Government. All
repatriation is conditional upon the immediate release of any Allied
subjects still in Turkey. The Turkish Government is to afford fa-
cilities to commissions of inquiry in collecting information in re-
gard to missing prisoners of war, in imposing penalties on Turkish
officials who have concealed Allied nationals, and in establishing crim-
inal acts committed by Turks against Allied nationals.

The Turkish Government is to restore all property belonging to Al-
lied prisoners.

The Turkish Government is to transfer to the British, French, and
Italian Governments respectively right of ownership over the ground
in Turkey in which are situated the graves of their soldiers and sailors
and over the land required for cemeteries or for providing access to

425

SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

cemeteries. The Greek Government undertakes to fulfil the same
obligation so far as concerns the portion of the zone of the Straits
placed under its sovereignty.

The land will include in particular certain areas in the Gallipoli
peninsula.

Part VII. Penalties. Military tribunals are to be set up by the
Allies to try persons accused of acts orf violation of the laws and
customs of war, and the Turkish Government is to hand over all per-
sons so accused. The Turkish Government is to undertake to furnish
all documents and information the production of which may be
necessary.

The Turkish Government undertakes to surrender to the Allies
persons responsible for the massacres committed during the war on
the territory of the former Turkish empire, the Allies reserving the
right to designate the tribunal to try such persons or to bring the
accused before a tribunal of the League of Nations competent to deal
with the said massacres if such a tribunal has been created by the
League in sufficient time.

All the resources of Turkey except revenues ceded or hypothecated
to the services of the Ottoman Public Debt are to be employed as
need arises effecting the following payments set forth in order of
priority: —

(1) Ordinary expenses of the Allied forces of occupation after the
entry into force of the Treaty.

(2) Expenses of the Allied forces of occupation since the 30th
October in the territories remaining Turkish, and expenses of occu-
pation in the territories detached from Turkey to the advantage of
a Power other than that which has supported such expenses of oc-
cupation.

(3) Indemnities due on account of claims of the Allied Powers for
reparation for damages suffered by their nationals.

The Turkish Government agrees to the financial indemnification of
all the losses or damages suffered by the civilian nationals of the
Allied Powers during the war and up to the entry into force of the
Treaty.

426

PERSONAL SKETCHES
THE TREATY OF PEACE

AND A

CHRONOLOGY OF THE WAR

Part III
A CHEONOLOGY OF THE WAE

(Based on The Literary Digest's Weekly Record of Current Events)
june 28, 1914— May 27, 1920

427

GREAT BRITAIN AND GERMANY IN PEACE TIMES

In the upper picture are shown Edward VII and the Kaiser riding in
Berlin ; in the lower George V and the Kaiser riding in London

423

A CHRONOLOGY OF THE WAR

(Based on The Literary Digest's Weekly Record of Current Events)
June 28, 1914 — May 21, 1020

THE EVENTS OF 1914

JUNE AND JULY

OUTBREAK OF THE AUSTRO-SERBIAN WAR

FUTILE EFFORTS BY THE GUEAT

POWERS TO AVEKT FURTHER WAR

Jane 28. The Archduke Francis Fer-
dinand, heir to the throne of Austria-
Hungary, and his morganatic wife, the
Duchess of Hohenberg, assassinated
in Serajevo, Bosnia, by a Serbian Stu-
dent named Gavrio Prinzip.

July 23. Austria sends an ultimatum
to Serbia.

July 24. Serbia's request for an ex-
tension of time to consider ultimatum
refused.

July 25. Serbia concedes all Austria's
demands save Austrian participation
in investigation of Archduke's mur-
der, and asks for Hague mediation on
that point.

July 26. Efforts for peace begun by
London, Paris, and St. Petersburg; Sir
Edward Grey aiming to secure non-
interference by other Powers.

July 28. Austria declares war on
Serbia.

July 29. Austrian force attacks Bel-
grade; mobilization begins in Russia,
Germany, and France; British First
Fleet leaves Portland under sealed
orders.

July 3O. Germany sends ultimatum
to Russia, demanding mobilization
cease within twenty-four hours.

July 31. Negotiations by telegraph
with Kaiser, by Czar and King George,
fail to get a peaceful solution of
quarrel; Germany, with the exception
of Bavaria, declares martial law;
stock markets all over world, includ-
ing New York, close doors.

AUGUST

INVASION OP BELGIUM — BATTLE OF

TANXENBTRG ALSACE-LORRAINE

INVADED BY THE FRENCH

AUK. 1. Emperor Francis Joseph
orders general mobilization; Germany
declares war on Russia; French Cab-
inet orders general mobilization.

Aiijt. 2. German troops enter Luxem-
burg and demand free passage across
Belgium, which is refused; German
troops invade Belgium from Aix-la-
Chapelle.

Aug. 3. Belgium appeals to England
for aid.

AUK- 4. Great Britain demands that
Germany observe Belgian neutrality;
Berlin refuses and Great Britain de-
clares war on Germany; France de-
clares that state of war exists with
Germany; German troops attack Liege.

Aujf. 5. Austria declares war on
Russia; Montenegro declares war on
Austria; Belgium declares war oh
Germany; one German army crosses

Alsatian border near Belfort, another
enters France east of Nancy ; Kitchener
goes into British Cabinet as Secre-
tary of State for War.

Aug. 6. Italy notifies Great Britain
she will remain neutral; Serbia de-
clares war on Germany; Austrians re-
pulsed by Serbians; French troops en-
ter Alsace; British light cruiser
Amphion sunk by a mine.

Aug. 7. Liege falls into German
hands; French troops enter Altkirch
in Alsace.

Aii«. 8. French troops enter Mul-
hausen; next day German forces oblige
French to evacuate town and re-
turn to Altkirch.

Aug. 11. Germans under Kluck ad-
vance toward Brussels; army of Mo-
selle faces French near Longwy;
French invasion of Alsace checked
beyond Mulhausen; Russians occupy
border towns in East Prussia; Ser-
bians take Serajevo.

Aug. 12. Great Britain declares war
on Austria-Hungary; Germans seize
Belgian town of Huy between Liege
and Namur and overcome Belgians at
Haelen.

Aug. 15. Japan sends ultimatum to
Germany; French gain passes in Vos-
ges; Russian proclamation issued of
self-government for Poland.

Aug. 16. British Expeditionary Force
lands on Continent.

Auk. 17. Belgian Government moves
from Brussels to Antwerp; German
artillery overcomes Tirlemont.

AMK- 2O. Van of the German army
reaches Brussels; Belgian army re-
treats on Antwerp; Louvain entered
by Germans; hostilities begin in Ger-
man Southwest Africa.

An jar. 21. Germans enter Brussels; at-
tack on Namur begins.

Aug. 23. Namur falls, and Germans
move on toward Mons; French and
British move northward in Belgium
against right wing of Germans- Ger-
mans occupy Luneville in Lorraine.

Aug. 24. Zeppelin bombs fall on Ant-
werp; second day of battle of Mons;
retreat of British begins.

AUK. 25. Russians within eighty
miles of Lemberg.

AUK. 26. Germans burn Louvain;
battle of Le Cateau between British
and Germans.

Vusr. 27. Japan blockades Kiaochow.

A us;. 28. Allies in retreat toward
Paris; Longwy surrenders to Crown
Prince: Russians advance on Lem-
berg; Germans lose three cruisers in
battle off Heligoland. Mainz, Koln and
Ariadne: first day of battle of Nancy
or Grand Couronne.

An sr. 3O. Amiens taken by Germans;
Laon and La Fere surrender to Ger-
mans.

429

SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

Aug. 31. Hindenburg defeats Rus-
sians in Masurian Lakes in battle call-
ed Tannenberg.

SEPTEMBER

BATTLES OP MARNE AND AISNE

RUSSIANS TAKE LEMBERG

Sept. 1. Germans under Kluck reach
Compiegne, forty miles from Paris.

Sept. 2. Kluck when north of Chan-
tilly, turns abruptly southeast, toward
center of Allied line; Malines bom-
barded.

Sept. 3. French Government trans-
ferred to Bordeaux; British cross the
Marne near Lagny; Germans reach
Marne; Lemberg occupied by Russians.

Sept. 4. Germans cross Marne;
Kluck's right at Senlis.

Sept. 5. End of the Allied re-
treat; Great Britain, France1 and Rus-
sia sig-n agreement that none of three
shall make peace without concurrence
of others.

Sept. 6. First day of the battle of
the Marne.

Sept. 7. Germans take Maubeugei
German retreat across Marne begins;
Maunoury forces back Kluck; end of
battle of Nancy.

Sept. 8. German forces driven across
Marne.

Sept. 9. Critical day of the Marne;
Foch makes successful thrust at La
Fere Champenoise.

Sept. 1O. Germans driven back by
Foch and battle of Marne ends; Rus-
sians victorious at Rawa Ruska.

Sept. 12. Germans occupy positions
on Aisne.

Sept. 13. French regain Soissons;
battle of the Aisne begins.

Sept. 19. Reims bombarded and ca-
thedral takes fire.

Sept. 2O. French occupy a line
through Roye and Peronne; Hinden-
burg follows Russians.

Sept. 21. Jaroslaw taken by Russians.

Sept. 22. Germans gain heights of
Craonne and take Betheny, near
Reims; Russians invest Przemysl;
German submarine £7-9 sinks British
cruisers. Hogue, Cressy, and Aboukir
in North Sea.

Sept. 23. Hindenburg forces Rus-
sians across Niemen; Saint Mihiel with
bridge-head taken by Germans.

Sept. 24. Allies take Peronne; Rus-
sians take Soldau in East Prussia.

Sept. 26. Germans capture Saint-
Quentin; Malines bombarded for the
third time.

Sept. 27. Allied attack eastward
from Peronne forced back on Albert.

Sept. 28. Siege of Antwern begins.

Sept. 3O. Japanese begin bombard-
ment of Kiaochow.

OCTOBER

RACE TO THE SEA THE BATTLE OP

FLANDERS ANTWERP PALLS

LODZ, WARSAW, AND PRZEMYSL

Oet. 1. Forts at Antwerp fall.
Oet. 2. Fighting- about Augustovo

ends in German defeat.
Oct. 3. Russians take Tarnow.

Oct. 5. Belgian seat of government
removed from Antwerp to Ostend.

Oct. 6. Germans capture Camp-de-
Romains, near Saint-Mihiel.

Oct. 7. Inner fortifications of Ant-
werp under bombardment; Germans
take Douai; German reinforcements
check advances of Russians; Japanese
seize Caroline Islands.

Oct. 8. British aeroplanes visit Dus-
seldorf and Cologne.

Oct. 9. Antwerp falls.

Oct. 12. Boers in Cape Province
mutiny and martial law proclaimed in
Union of South Africa

Oct. 13. Belgian Government removes
from Ostend to Havre.

Oct. 15. Formal entry of Germans
into Antwerp and Ostefld.

Oct. 16. Allied north wing retakes
Armentieres; Japanese cruiser sunk in
Kiaochow Bay; British cruiser Hawke
sunk by German submarine U-9.

Oct. 18. Belgians join Allied north
wing; Yser battle begun; in battle of
Vistula, Russian reinforcements out-
flank German left; another force at-
tacks German right and turns tide.

Oct. 19. British gunboats bombard
Germans on Belgian shore driving them
back from .Nieuport; Serbian army
surrounds Serajevo.

Oct. 2O. Belgian army forms tip of
Allied north wing, extended northwest
from Ypres through Dixmude to Chan-
nel at Nieuport.

Oct. 24. (Rebel Boers under Maritz
crusht in South Africa.

Oct. 25. Tip of the Allied north wing-
pushed back north of Dunkirk by
Germans crossing Yser; in east, Lodz
and Radom retaken by Russians.

Oct. 27. British Superdreadnought
Audacious torpedoed.

Oct. 29. Turkish cruiser bombards
Theodosia, in Crimea; Odessa also
bombarded and vessels sunk in harbor.

Oct. 3O. Belgian army destroys dikes,
flooding lower Yser, and driving out
Germans.

Oct. 31. Allies gain west bank of
Yser and all crossings; begins land
bombardment of Tsing-tau, Kiaochow.

NOVEMBER

BATTLE OF FLANDERS CONTINUED

THORN AND THE CARPATHIANS
CORONEL NAVAL BATTLE

Nov. 1. Russian army east of Vistu-
la; Turks bombard Sebastopol; naval
engagement occurs off Coronel on
Chile coast; British lose crusiers Mon-
mouth and Good Hope; cruisers Glas-
gow and Otrantq severely damaged; of
five German cruisers attacking Scharn-
horst, Gneisenau, and Nurnberg ar-
rive at Valparaiso.

Nov. 5. England and France declare
war on Turkey.

Nov. 7. Tsing-tau capitulates.

Nov. 1O. German cruiser Emden
caught and destroyed by Australian
cruiser Sydney off Cocos, or Keeling-
Islands.

Nov. 11. Germans cross Yser and
capture Dixmude: Przemysl reinvested
by Russians; British torpe Jo-boat
Niger, in harbor at Deal, sunk by

430

A CHRONOLOGY OF THE WAR

raiding1 submarine; Botha defeats rebels
in South Africa in decisive engage-
ment; British engage Turks near
Bassora at head of Persian Gulf.

Nov. 12. Russians capture Johannis-
burg; Germans advance into Poland;
Turks capture El Arish, Egypt.

Nov. 19. German advan.ce blocked
within 40 miles of Warsaw.

IVov. 2O. Russians occupy Koprikeni.

Nov. 21. Russians capture Gumbin-
nen; Austrians evacuate Sandec;
Turks evacuate Bassora.

Nov. 23. German line at Kalisz and
Thorn falls into Russian trap.

Nov. 24. British warships bombard
German naval base at Zeebrugge.

Nov. 25. Russian forces attempt in-
vasion of Hungary over Carpathians.

Nov. 26. Austrians defending Kra-
kow defeated at Brzesko; British pre-
dreadnought Bulwark blows up and
sinks in Thames.

Nov. 29. Russians seize Czernowitz.

Nov. 3O. Belgrade taken by Aus-
trians.

DECEMBER

MOLTKE STPERSEDED BATTLES OP

VISTULA AND FALKLAND ISLANDS

l>ec. 1. De Wet captured in South
Africa.

Dee. 5. German attack at Ypres re-
sisted; Germans take Lodz.

Dec. 7. British squadron arrives at
Falkland Islands.

Dee. 8. Serbians after a six-day battle
regain Valjevo and Ushitza; British

gain control of junction of Tigris and
Euphrates; Beyers, rebel Boer leader,
killed; British squadron under Sturdee
defeats German squadron under Von
Spee in 'South Atlantic off Falkland
Islands and sinks German vessels all
but the Dresden.

Dec. 9. French Government return to
Paris from Bordeaux.

Dec. 1O. Falkenhayn succeeds Moltke
as head of German General Staff.

Dee. 13. Turkish battleship Messu-
dic/t sunk in Dardanelles by British
submarine; Allies blockade Dar-
danelles.

Dec. 14. Serbians recapture Bel-
grade.

Dec. 16. Scarborough, Hartlepool, and
Whitby, English towns, bombarded by
German squadron, 48 killed, 85
wounded.

Dec. 17. 'Britain declares protector-
ate over Egypt.

Dec. 18. Germans capture Lowicz;
France acknowledges Britain's pro-
tectorate over Egypt; Prince Hussein
Kemal. uncle of deposed Khedive, ap-
pointed Sultan.

Dec. 21. German invaders of Poland
driven across border.

Dee. 24. German air-raid on Eng-
land.

Dec. 25. Eight British ships, with
hydro-aeroplanes, raid Cuxhaven.

Dec. 3O. Germans withdraw from
Bzura.

Dec. 31. Turks invade Russian Cau-
casus, advancing on Kars and Ardahan.

THE EVENTS OF 1915

JANUARY

SECOND BATTLE OF SOISSONS

Jan. 1. British warship Formidable
torpedoed and sunk in English Chan-
nel with 500 men.

Jan. 3, 4. French capture Steinbach
in Alsace.

Jan. 14. North of Soissons, Germans
capture heights of Vregny.

Jan. 15. Russians take Kirlibaba
Pass in Carpathians.

Jan. 17-18. French advance to
within ten miles of Metz.

Jan. 19. German aircraft raid Nor-
folk coast towns in England, killing
four persons.

Jan. 24. In an attempt to raid
English coast, German squadron
routed by coast patrol; German cruiser
Blilcher sunk with 762 men; twelve
hundred Boer rebels under Maritz in
Bechuanaland repulsed; Turks beaten
back near El Kantara when on road
to Suez Canal.

Jan. 3O. Russians overwhelm Turks
at Tabriz in Caucasus.

FEBRUARY

DARDANELLE FORTS STORMED WAR-
ZONE DECREES BY GERMANY
AND ENGLAND

Feb. 2. Turks attempting to cross
Suez Canal repulsed; four outer forts
of Dardanelles shelled by Anglo-
French fleet.

Feb. 3. Austrians evacuate Tarnow.

Feb. 4. Germany proclaims a war-
zone around British Isles.

Feb. 8. Turks in flight from Suez
Canal; Cyprus formally annexed to
British Empire.

Feb. 1O. United States Government
protests to Germany against decree of
a marine war-zone.

Feb. 12. Thirty-four British aircraft
raid Belgian coast.

Feb. 18. Germany's reply to our
protest against marine war-zone de-
cree states original plan must be en-
forced .

Feb. 24. Germans storm and take
Przasnysz with 10.000 prisoners.

Feb. 25. Allied fleet silences all forts
at entrance to Dardanelles.

Feb. 26. Russians enter fortress of
Przasnysz.

MARCH

NEUVE CHAPELLE — RUSSIANS NEAR
HUNGARIAN PLAIN

March 3. Stanislau in Austrian

hands.
March 1O. British troops take Neuve

Chapelle.
March 14. German cruiser Dresden

sunk by British off Juan Fernandez

Island.
March 18. In Dardanelles British

battleships Irresistible and Ocean and

French battleship Bouvet sunk by

mines: British Inflexible and French

Gaulois disabled.

431

SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

March 22. Przemysl falls.
March 23. Russians gain Lupkow

Pass.
March 25. Turks defeated at Arada-

bil in Caucasus by Russians; Kurds

massacre Christian residents at Urmia.
March 2O. French occupy Hart-

mannsweilerkopf. in Alsace.
March 28. British ship Falaba sunk

by German submarine.

APRIL

ZEPPELIN RAIDS SECOND BATTLE OF

iPRES

April 12. Russians reach Szolyva,
20 miles within Hungarian border.

April 14. Zeppelin raid on England.

April 17. Second battle of Ypres
begins; Germans use poison-gas.

April IS. British gain three miles
near Ypres; Russians evacuate Tar-
now.

April 19. Fighting toward Ypres
continues; Germans gain by use of as-
phyxiating- gases; Hindenburg takes
command of Austro-German forces.

April 2O. Surrender of Keetman-
shoop in German Southwest Africa.

April 25. Allied troops landed on
Gallipoli.

April 26. Germans gain Hartmanns-
weilerkopf, in Alsace; French cruiser
Leon Gambetta sunk in Ionian Sea by
Austrian submarine.

April 28. Russian Black Sea squad-
ron bombards Turkish forces within
the Bosporus. ;

April 29. Germans advance east from:
Tilsit, seventy miles into Russian ter-
ritory, beyond Schaul.

.April 3O. A Zeppelin raids Ipswich ;;
Bernstorff warns Americans, in news-'
paper advertisement, to avoid entering
war-zone on ships of Allies.

MAY

BATTLE OP THE DUNA.TEC SINKING OP

"LUSITANIA" — ITALIANS CROSS
THE ISONZO

May 1. American oil-steamer Gut
flight torpedoed off Scilly Isles, no
warning given.

May 2. Austro-Germans gain a victory
near Tarnow.

May 3. Germans gain in onslaughts
near Ypres. asphyxiating gases used.

May 5. Austro-Germans recapture
Tarnow.

May 7. Cunard liner Lusitania tor-
pedoed without warning off Kinsale,
Ireland, and sinks in fifteen minutes,
with loss of 1.152 lives.

May 9. Germans break through
Allied line on Poelcappelle road.

May 1O. Note to United States from.
German Foreign Office expresses re-
gret for losses on Lusitania, but di-
rects attention to Germany's warning,
and places blame on Great Britain.

May 13. Bucharest reports Russians
in occupation of Czernowitz, Buko-
wina.

May 16. Allies shatter two miles of
German lines north of Arras; Athens
reports Allies silenced Turkish forti-
fications at Kilhid-Bahr, on European
side of Dardanelles.

May 2O. Italian Chamber of Deputies
confers full war-powers on Govern-
ment, by a vote of 407 to 74.

May 22. Mobilization orders issued
in Italy.

May 23. War declared on Austria by
Italy.

May 24. Hostilities along Adriatic
begin.

May 25. Coalition Cabinet formed in
Great (Britain; Balfour First Lord of
Admiralty.

May 26. American steamship Xe-
braskan, flying- American flag, blown
up off Irish coast.

May 27. Italians cross Isonzo near
Gorizia; British battleship Majestic
torpedoed and sunk in Dardanelles.

May 28. Italians occupy Grado, on
Gulf of Trieste.

31 ay 3O. • Germany says England's
violations of international procedure
compelled Germany to consider Lus-
itania hostile craft.

May 31. Italian advance through
Trentino reaches Mt. Zugno; Zeppe-
lins make raid on London, dropping
bombs on suburbs, killing- four.

JUNE

PRZEMYSL AND LEMBERO RECOVERED
BY TEUTONIC FORCES

June 2. Przemysl retaken by Ger-
mans; English gunboat flotilla on
Tigris secures surrender Kut-el-Amara.

June 4. Italians take Monte Nero, on
upper Isonzo; Austro-German forces
advance from Przemysl on Lemberg.

Jane 6. Russian warship and three
German transports reported torpedoed
or mined in Baltic, near Riga.

June 7. British aviator destroys Zep-
pelin in a duel 6,000 feet above the
ground.

June 8. Austro German advance in
Galicia crosses Dniester taking Stanis-
lau.

June 9. Allies capture Neuville-St.
Vaast. near Arras; Italians take Mon-
falcone; Germans in Poland forced
back along Baltic from above Libau.

June 1O. Germans in Galicia driven
across Dniester; Russians occupy
Caucasus between Lake Van and
Ourza.

June 12. In Trentino Italians reach
Rovereto and Mori; Italian aviators
destroy arsenal at Pola.

June 14. Throughout Greece, save
in Macedonia, election results return
Venizelos. strengthening war party.

June 15. French aircraft bombard
Karlsruhe killing and wounding over
200.

June 16. Zeppelins raid British coast,
killing 16 and injuring 40; twenty-
five lost in raid of June 6.

June 2O. In Trieste region Italians
capture heights of Pliava; Germans cut
Lemberg's railroad communications.

June 21. French win "labyrinth"
trenches north of Neuville-St. Vaast.

June 22. Austro-Germans enter Lem-
berg.

June 26. Halicz taken by Austro-
Germans.

June 27. Zeppelin hangars at Fried-
richshafen shelled by French aviators.

432

A CHRONOLOGY OF THE WAR

June 29. Ngaundere, in Kamerun,
occupied by British.

JULY

GREAT GERMAN DRIVE INTO RUSSIA

TOWARD BREST-LITOVSK BEGINS

AND VISTULA CROSSED

July 1. Mackensen advances north-
ward between Bug' and Vistula; forces
concentrated in this advance number
2,000,000 men.

July 8. Italians gain ten miles in
three days in Carnic Alps.

July 8. German forces in German
Southwest Africa surrender uncon-
ditionally to Botha.

July 11. German cruiser Konigsberg
destroyed by British monitors in Ger-
man East Africa.

July 12. Italians execute cavalry
raid to within three miles of Trieste.

July 14. Germans capture Przasnysz,
50 miles from Warsaw.

July 15. Russians decide to abandon
Warsaw.

July 16. Germans advance on Riga,
occupying- Courland; from Przasnysz
descend Narew toward Warsaw.

July 17. Italian Alpini capture
Venerdolol and Brizce Passes, 10,000
feet high.

July 18. Italian cruiser Guise ppe
Garibaldi sunk by Austrian subma-
rine.

July 19. Fifty-nine Turkish sail-
ing- vessels, laden with war-munitions
sunk by Russian destroyers.

July 2O. Germany claims total oc-
cupation of Courland.

July 21. Germans invest Ivang-orod.

July 24. Germans cross Vistula
toward the Bug.

July 25. British occupy Kut-el-
Amara on Tigris.

July 28. Pope Benedict issues appeal
for peace.

July 31. Below's forces capture
Mitau, south of Riga.

AUGUST

IVANGOROD AND WARSAW FALL EDITH

CAVELL ARRESTED ACHI BABA

ATTACKED

Aug. 4. Ivangorod falls.

Aug. 5. German forces storm last
barriers of Warsaw and enter city;
Edith Cavell arrested in Brussels.

Aug. 6. Russians evacuate whole line
of Vistula, with single exception of
Novogeorgievsk ; British land at Suvla
Bay and attack Achi Baba, Galli-
poli.

Aug. 8. Italians retire from Gorizia.

Aug. 1O. Air-raid on east coast of
Ens-land; Teutonic advance beyond the
Vistula begins.

Aug. 13. More Allied troops land at
Suvla Burnu. on Gallipoli, and take
up positions five miles inland; des-
perate two-days' battle follows.

Aug. 16. Eichorn takes outer fortifi-
rgtions of Kovno; Royal Edmund,
British transport from Dardanelles,
sunk in .ffigean Sea, nearly 1.000 sol-
diers lost.

Aug. 17. Kovno falls, threatening
all railway-lines between Grodno,

Vilna, Brest-Litovsk, Dvinsk, and
Petrograd.

Aug. 19. Novogeorgievsk, great Rus-
sian fortress at confluence of Narew
and Vistula, taken by Germans;
White Star-liner Arabic sunk in eleven
minutes by torpedo.

Aug. 21. Great Britain declares cot-
ton absolute contraband; Bulgaria
mobilizing 150,000 troops on Turkish
frontier.

Aug. 22. Germans take Ossowiec
southwest of Grodno.

Aug. 25. Half-mile gain for Allies on
Gaiiipoli; fleet of 62 aviators drop
bombs on German munition factories
north of Lorraine border; Brest-
Litovsk taken by Mackensen's army;
Russians evacuate fortress of Olita, 30
miles south of Kovno.

Aug. 26. Russian War Office orders
call up 2,000,000 more men.

Aug. 28. Lipsk, 20 miles west 9f
Grodno, captured by Germans; in
Galicia Russians retreating along 125-
mile front.

Aug. 31. James Archibald, an
American, discovered at Faimouth
transporting- official dispatches from
Bernstorff, German Ambassador in
United States, to German Government;
dispatches seized and Archibald re-
leased; Pegoud, French airman who
first looped the loop in a flying-ma-
chine, killed in action.

SEPTE3IBER

AUTUMN ALLIED OFFENSIVE IN

FRANCE VILNA AND KIEF

EVACl ATED

Sept. 2. Russian army evacuates
Grodno.

Sept. 6. Forty French aeroplanes
bombard Saarbrucken, in Rheinish
Prussia; Czar takes command of the
Russian army in place of the Grand
Duke Nicholas; Joft're visits Italian
front.

Sept. 7. Zeppelins raid towns on east
coast of England, killing 13 and
wounding 43.

Sept. 8. Grand Duke Nicholas trans-
ferred from chief command of Rus-
sian army to viceroyalty of Caucasus;
Zeppelins drop bombs over center of
London, 26 persons killed and 86 in-
jured; Austro-Germans take fortress of
Dubno.

Se*pt. 9. Lansing requests Austro-
Hungarian Government to recall Am-
bassador Dumba, because of his inter-
ference with munition industries in
United States.

Sept. 11. Belgian Relief Committee
reports expenditure of $80,000,000
since its organization.

Sept. 15. Official statements in Brit-
ish Parliament place army enlist-
ments at 3.000.000 since beginning,
with 800.000 engaged in making muni-
tions; Hindenburg threatens Jacob-
stadt; Mackensen captures Pinsk.
completing advance of nearly 100
miles since fall of Brest-Litovsk.

Sept. 16. Hindenburg flanks Vilna
and Dvinsk.

Sept. 17. Vilna invested on three
sides; Allies present joint note to Bui-

433

SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

garia demanding- to know her inten-
tions.

Sept. 19. Evacuation of Vilna com-
pleted and Kiel being- evacuated.

Sept. 20. Utilization of all mili-
tary forces of Bulgaria ordered for
the purpose of "armed neutrality";
reports reach Washing-ton that 500,000
Armenians have been slaughtered by
Turks and Kurds.

Sept. 21. Russians retreating from
Vilna.

Sept. 22. 'French aeroplane squadron
flies from Nancy to Stuttgart where
bombs are dropt.

Sept. 24. British warships bombard
Zeebrugge; Russians retake Lutsk,

Sept. 25. Allied offensive on 15-
mile front in Champagne, gains of
two and three miles made by French;
similar gains by British in Artois re-
gion including capture of Souchez.

Sept. 2G. Turks recapture part of
positions at Anafarta, on Gallipoli.

Sept. 28. British concentrate about
Loos, northeast of Lens, take German
trenches and bomb-proof shelters with
second-line trenches and attack third
line; Germans under Linsingen recap-
ture Lutsk; Falkenhayn visits Eastern
front; Turks driven from Tigris back
on Bagdad.

OCTOBER

CONQUEST OF SERBIA BULGARIA IN

THE WAR EDITH CAVELL

EXECUTED

Oct. 1. Austrians enter Montenegro;
Bulgarian troops move on Serbian
frontier.

Oct. 3. Allied troops land at Saloniki.

Oct. 4. Russia sends ultimatum to
Bulgaria.

Oct. 5. Artillery heavily engaged
north and east of Arras and in Cham-
pagne and Argonne; German Am-
bassador sends note to Lansing ex-
pressing German regret for sinking
Arabic and disavowal of act of sub-
marine commander.

Oct. 6. French capture Champagne
village of Tahure and hills north of
town; Bulgaria sends ultimatum to
Serbia, demanding territory ceded
after Balkan war; Allied envoys at
Sofia request passports; Greeks evince
popular enthusiasm for Allies, greet-
ing with cheers 70,000 French troops
landed at Saloniki; Austro-German
force of 400,000 attacks Serbia from
north and west; Allied troops at
Saloniki hurried northward to assist
Serbia; two Russian cruisers bom-
board Varna, Bulgarian Black Sea port.

Oct. 8. Bulgarian Minister at Nish
receives passports.

Oct. 9. Berlin reports occupation of
Belgrade; Se'rbian capital removed to
Ishtib.

Oct. 1O. Germans in occupation of
Belgrade.

Oct. 13. Zeppelins bombard London,
killing 8 and wounding 34 civilians;
London reports capture of main
trench of "Hohenzollern Redoubt."

Oct. 14. Germans take Pozarevac
and advance down Morava Valley.

Oct. 15. Great Britain declares war

on Bulgaria; Hartmannsweilerkopf, in
Vosges. retaken by French; French
aeroplanes bombard Metz; official fig-
ures show British casualties at Dar-
danelles up to October 9 to be 96,899.
of whpm 1,185 officers, Australian
casualties amounting to '29,121; Edith
Cavell, English nurse, put to death
by Germans in Brussels.

Oct. 18. General Sir Ian Hamilton,
in command at Dardanelles, relieved
by Major-General Monro who won dis-
tinction at Marne and Aisne; Italian
offensive develops near Gorizia.

Oct. 20. Allied warships bombard
Bulgarian coast.

Oct. 22. Combining land and sea at-
tacks, Russians begin flank move-
ment from west on Germans before
Riga.

Oct. 24. Aeroplane attack on Venice.

Oct. 2G. On Serbo-Roumanian front,
Austro-Germans and Bulgars only 20
miles apart; brigade of British troops
leave Saloniki for Doiran to prepare
advance on Strumitsa, in concert
with French troops.

Oct. 27. Union of Bulgarian and Ger-
man forces announced.

Oct. 31. Berlin announces capture of
Kragujevatz in Serbia with heights
south of town; end of German offen-
sive against Dvinsk and Riga.

NOVEMBER

BRITISH TAKE AND LOSE CTESIPHON

SERBIANS RETREAT TO SKUTARI

Nov. 1. Germans occupy Chachak, in
Morava Valley. Serbia.

Nov. 4. Germans and Bulgars advance
upon Nish from Kragujevatz ; French
and Italian vessels sunk off Algerian
coast by German submarines.

Nov. 8. Italian liner Ancona, carrying
422 passengers and crew of 60, sunk
in Mediterranean by submarine flying-
Austrian flag; American indictments
involving heavy penalties found
against six Germans, of whom Lieu-
tenant Fay is one.

Nov. 9. (London reports two {/-boats
in Mediterranean sunk and third cap-
tured.

Nov. 1O. More British troops landed
at Saloniki.

Nov. 15. Kitchener reported arrived
in ^]gean.

Nov. 1 7. Austrian aeroplanes bom-
bard Verona, Vicenza, and Grado.

Nov. 18. Monro, in command at
Dardanelles, advises withdrawal of
Allied forces.

Nov. 19. Serbians driven from last
strip of Old Serbian territory.

Nov. 22. British forces in Meso-
potamia capture Ctesiphon.

Nov. 24. Serbian Government retires
to Skutari; Germans evacuating
Mitau; heavy assault by Turks on
Gallipoli.

Nov. 25. Bulgarians push on to
Monastir. while German forces descend
Vardar; Townshend's British force at-
tacking within ten miles of Bagdad.

Nov. 27. Berlin declares last of
Serbian army in western Serbia driven
into Albania and Montenegro.

Nov. 28. Turkish War Office claims

434

A CHRONOLOGY OF THE WAR

retreat of Townshend's forces from
Ctesiphon down Tigris.

DECEMBER

BOY-ED AND VON PAPEN RECALLED

FIELD-MARSHAL FRENCH
RETIRES

Dec. 1. Russians capture Czernowitz:
Monastir surrenders to Bulgarians.

Dec. 2. Verdict guilty rendered
agrainst Karl Buenz and three other
Hamburg'- American officials in United
States District Court, on charge pf
conspiring to defraud United States:
sentenced to one and one-half years'
imprisonment; siege of Kut-el-Amara
begun by Turks.

Dec. 3. Immediate recall of Captain
Boy-Ed and Captain von Papen, of
German Embassy, demanded by United
States Government.

Dec. 4. Steamship Oscar II char-
tered by Henry Ford, sails for Europe
with 83 peace missionaries.

Dec. 8. Part of Serbian army reaches
Epirus in Greece.

Dec. 11. At Kut-el-Amara British re-
pulse fierce attacks; Russians drive
Persian rebels out of Hamadan.

Dec. 12. Retreating Allies pass into
Greece.

Dec. 15. Field-marshal Sir John
French resigns as commander of Brit-
ish forces in France, and Sir Douglas
Haig appointed to succeed him.

Dec. 17. Paul Konig of Hamburg--
American line, and two alleged con-
federates arrested by United States
Government, charged with having
started a plot to wreck Welland Canal.

Dec. 19. French air-raiders drop fifty
bombs on Metz.

Dec. 21. British troops in Suvla Bay
and Anzac regions of Gallipoli with-
draw.

Dec. 28. First trip made from
Tromso, Norway, to Alexandrovsk,
new Arctic Russian port, just com-
pleted; this harbor being open entire
year, solves Russian transportation
problem.

Dec. 3O. P. and O. liner Persia sunk
in Mediterranean.

THE EVENTS OF 1916

JANUARY

GALLIPOLI EVACUATED ZEPPELIN

RAIDS TOWNSHEND IN

RETREAT

Jan. 1. New Russian drive from
Pripet to Roumanian frontier;
heights above Czernowitz taken and a
German counter-drive at Tarnopol re-
pulsed.

Jan. 2. Main part Townshend's forces
retreats down Tigris after repulse from
Ctesiphon.

Jan. 5. British casualties September
25 to October 8, during battle of
Loos, officially announced as 59.666.

Jan. 8. Allies report effective bom-
bardment at Arras. Berry-au-Bac. and
rear Saint-Mihiel; Constantinople
claims 10.000 British in Ktft com-
pletely surrounded.

Jan. 9. Gallipoli completely evac-
uated by Allies.

Jan. 1O. King Edward VII, finest of
England's predreadnoughts, strikes a
mine and sinks; Bernstorff forwards to
his Government terms settlement for
Lusitania case, as agreed by President
and Lansing and indorced by German
Ambassador.

Jan. 13. French occupy Corfu:
Vienna announces capture of Cetinje,
and first occupation of the capital by
an enemy in history of Montenegro.

Jan. 2O. Kaiser Wilhelm arrives in
Belgrade; Turks driven to forts of
Erzerum.

Jan. 22. Austrians seize Moatehegrin
norts of Antivari and Dulcigno.

Jan. 23. Skutari, capital of Albania,
captured by Austrians; two raids on
Kentish coast of England by German
aeroplanes; twenty-four French aero-
planes raid Metz and 130 bombs dropt
on barracks and railway stations.

Jan. 25. Germans shell and destroy
Nieuport cathedral; President rejects
note from Germany with proposals
toward settlement of Lusitania con-
troversy.

Jan. 29. Turks driven out of hills
north of Erzerum; Paris raided by
Zeppelins, 24 killed and 30 injured.

Jan. 31. Zeppelins raid English dis-
tricts in Suffolk, Norfolk, Derby-
shire. Leicestershire, Lincolnshire, and
Staffordshire, over 200 bombs dropt,
resulting in 54 deaths and 67 injuries.

FEBRUARY

PALL OF ERZERUM BATTLE OF

VERDUN BEGUN

Feb. 1. General Smith-Dorrien an-
nounces gradual extension Uganda rail-
way through British East Africa
entire coast-line of Kamerun clear of
German control; Appam, British pas-
senger-liner in West African trade,
given up as lost, enters Hampton
Roads under German prize-crew of 22

Feb. 3. Proposal by Germany in set-
tlement of Lusitania received by
President.

Feb. 9. Two German airplanes fly
over Kent, England, dropping bombs
near Ramsgate and Broadstairs; re-
newal of Russian offensive on Volhy-
nia, and Eastern Galicia.

Feb. 15. Ezerum, great Armenian
fortress falls into hands of Russians

Feb. 1 6. Russians in possession of
Erzerum.

Feb. 17. Reports froth Erzerum de-
clare Turks left all heavy artillery be-
hind, amounting to over 200 big guns;
Russian warships bombarding coast-
line west of Trebizond, next Russian
objective.

435

SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

Feb. 21. Zeppelin brought down in
flames, a Fokker airplane and three
other German airplanes shot down;
beginning of great battle for Verdun.

Feb. 23. Crown Prince declared in
possession six and a quarter miles
of French trenches to a depth ol a
mile and seven-eighths north of Ver-
dun.

Feb. 25. Petain arrives at Verdun;
Germany claims 10,000 prisoners:
Paris estimates German Verdun losses
at 150.000;; Petrograd reports Ker-
manshah, on road to Bagdad, suc-
cessfully stormed and captured.

Feb. 26. Berlin reports capture Fort
Douaumont, northeastern corner of
Verdun defense, four miles from Ver-
dun proper; French auxiliary cruiser
La Provence, formerly passenger-ship
of French line for New York, sunk in
Mediterranean.

Feb. 27. Persia's sister ship, Maloja,
strikes mine midway between Dover
and Folkestone and sinks in thirty
minutes with loss of 155 lives.

Feb. 28. German attack at Verdun
shifts to southeast and west; Cote de
Talu and whole of "Meuse peninsula"
cleared of French, Berlin claims:
thirty miles west of Verdun, in Cham-
pagne, new German attack gains mile
of French trenches; Petrograd declares
Turks evacuating Trebizond.

MARCH

PETAIN CHECKS THE GERMANS AT

VERDUN THE SINKING OF

THE "SUSSEX"

March 1. Turks continue retreat
west of Erzerum and toward Bitlis.

March. 2. German assault on Verdun
revived in fierce drive on Fresnes in
Woevre district and about Le Mort
Homme (Dead (Man's Hill), and C'ote
dei 1'Oie (Goose Hill); Aix-la-Chapelle
reports arrival of 220 hospital-trains
of German wounded from Verdun:
Bitlis, 110 miles south of Erzerum,
taken by Russians.

March 3. Germans take village of
Douaumont; French Ministry of Ma-

. rine announces 4,000 aboard trans-
port La Provence, sunk in Mediterran-
ean on February 26, number of sur-
vivors about 700.

March 5. Zeppelin raid over east
coast England results in 12 killed and
33 injured; Berlin announces arrival
of Moire safe "in a home-port." with
$250,000 in gold and 199 prisoners
taken from fifteen allied vessels.

March 6. At close of fourteenth day
at Verdun, Crown Prince launches
first attack from northwest, on front
between Bethincourt and Forges; For-
ges taken.

March 7. Germans take Fresnes.
west of Meuse, gaining footholds on
both sides of Goose Hill, penetrating
Crows' Wood (Bbis des Corbeaux) to
west, and capturing "Hill 265";
French still hold summit of Goose
Hill; "Hill 265" gained by attack in
force with 12.000 men; Russians
continue advance toward Trebizond.

March 9. East and southeast of
Douaumont plateau French, report

Germans apparently unable to follow
up successes.

March 1O. Douaumont attack con-
tinued with an assault to west; Rus-
sian fleet bombarding Varna, Bulgaria,
and have sunk eight Turkish steamers
in Black Sea.

March 11. Again attacking Vaux,
Germans secure foothold in village,
and ad'/ance upon slopes of fortress;
northwest of Reims Germans take
nearly a mile of French trenches.

March 12. Paris declares Germans
already lost 200,000 men at Verdun.

March 15. Italian airmen drop
bombs on Trieste.

March 1C. Dutch passenger-liner
Tubantia, of Holland-Lloyd, sunk by
mine or torpedo when only a few
hours out from Amsterdam; Tirpitz,
German Minister of Marine, resigns;
Admiral -von Cappele made Minister
in his place.

March 17. Liverpool reports Bra-
zilian Government seized 42 German
ships interned in Brazilian ports.

March 18. Dutch Rotterdam-Lloyd
liner Palembang sunk near Galloper
Light, off coast of Essex, England.

March 19. Russian troops enter Is-
pahan, ancient capital of Persia, 250
miles southeast of Kermanshah; four
German seaplanes raid coast of Eng-
land from Dover to Margate, killing
nine persons and wounding thirty-one.

March 2O. Sixty-five Allied airplanes
bombard German seaplane and sub-
marine base at Zeebrugge returning
safely; violent offensive launched
against Germans and Austrians at
three points on Russian front in Riga-
Dvinsk sector.

March 21. Germans gain possession
of Avocourt Wood, supported by
heavy artillery and liquid-fire.

March 22. Germans gain another
foothold on Malancourt-Avocourt line;
Germans gain foothold on Haucourt
Hill, southwest of Malancourt; Rus-
sians penetrate German line at Jacob-
stadt; new Russian offensive extends
from Riga front to Roumanian border,
distance of 800 miles; bombardment
of Gorizia continues.

31arch 23. German blows at Verdun
extended westward into Argonne
sector; Petrograd reports steady ad-
vance of Russians in Dvinsk region.

March 24. Channel steamship Sus-
sex struck by torpedo, or mine, as
she approaches Dieppe from Folke-
stone; ship makes port with assistance.

March 2«. Five British seaplanes
convoyed by light cruisers and des-
troyers, cross North Sea and raid
German coast.

3Iarch 28. North of Pinsk. Rus-
sians drive Germans across Oginsky
Canal; President requests Ambassador
Gerard. Berlin, call attention of Ger-
man Foreign Office to cases of Sussex
and Englishman.

March 29. British now hold 80
miles of Western Front, or about
one-fourth of whole.

March SO. Following 12-day lull at
Douaumont activities recommenced;
French claim seven German aeroplanes
brought down by anti-aircraft guns;

436

A CHRONOLOGY OF THE WAR

Russians in Caucasus defeat Turks in
region of Kara Malachkan, on direct
road to Bag-dad; Captain Hans
Tauscher, husband of opera star, Mme.
Johanna Gadski, arrested charged with
having- set on foot military enterprise
to blow up Welland Canal.
March 31. Malancourt, on west
bank of Meuse, evacuated by French;
British War Office announces raid by
five Zeppelins, during which about
ninety bombs dropt in eastern counties
and along northeast coast; one air-
ship, the L-15, mortally hit, falls
into Thames estuary, off Kentish
coast; seventeen survivors of crew of
forty surrender.

APRIL

BATTLES FOR VAUX AND DOUAUMONT

FALL OF TKEBIZOND IRISH REBEL-
LION— TOWNSHEND'S SURRENDER

April 1. German attack at Verdun
shifted to village of Vaux where
French troops driven out; vigorous
protest forwarded to Germany by
Spanish Government over torpedoing
of Sussex.

April 2. Two more Zeppelin at-
tacks on England.

April 3. Battle of Vaux still rages;
French claim part of village and
most of Caillette Wood.

April 4. German attempts to break
through at Douaumont frustrated;
Germans hurl wave-attacks south of
village; in East Africa, Smuts re-
ports Allied forces capture German
mountain stronghold.

April 5. German attack at Verdun
again shifted to west of Meuse ; vil-
lage of Haucourt taken, but Bethin-
court remains in French hands; to
west French advance, taking large
part of woods north of Avocourt;
British relief force, with Gorringe
in command, seeking rescue of
Townshend at Kut-el-Amara, ascends
Tigris and captures Felahie. driving
Turks back; Canadian Finance Min-
ister announces that force raised in
the Dominion for overseas service
now equals 300,000.

April 9. Russians reported at Trebi-
zond in force and attack on port
begun.

April 1O. On southern frontier of
German Ea«t Africa. Portuguese
troops occupy Kionga, taken from
Portugal by Germany in 1894.

April 17. Trebizond taken by Rus-
sians in combined land and sea at-
tack; on German submarine sunk
by the French, of which captain
and crew are captured, is found docu-
mentary evidence of torpedoing of the
Sussex; Captain Franz von Papen,
former military attache to German
Embassy indicted by Federal grand
jury on charge of having engaged in
a military enterprise to destroy Well-
and Canal.

April 18. Russian army pushing-
westward from Erzerum captures
high mountain range at Ashkala;

Wolf von Igle, assistant of von
Papen, arrested in New York.

April 19. President dispatches note
to Germany firmly stating conviction
of United States that Germany has
been culpable in f/-boat violations of
international law; declaring that, un-
less Germany will immediately aban-
don her submarine campaign United
States must! sever diplomatic relations.

April 2O. Large flotilla of trans-
ports, arriving at Marseilles, brings
Russian soldiers to support of French;
transports understood to have made
10,2oO-mile journey from Vladivostok.

April 21. Sir Roger Casement's ar-
rest near an Irish port announced.

April 22. Paris declares Chat, up to
date, Germans made use of 30 di-
visions of troops, amounting roughly
to 450,000 men, in Verdun struggle.

April 24. Revolution in Ireland be-
gan in Dublin.

April 27. Dublin revolution spreads,
and all Ireland placed under military
law; in Mesopotamia, daring attempt
made to send relief-ship up Tigris to
British at Kut-el-Amara, but vessel
runs aground and is destroyed.

April 28. Third contingent of, Rus-
sian troops arrives at Marseilles; fire
rages in Dublin, while Post Office.
Stephen's Green, and other parts of
city in hands of members of Sinn
Fein, with sniping prevalent; after
holding out against Turks for 143
days, Townshend compelled, through
exhaustion of supplies, to surrender
his force of 9,000 officers and men
at Kut-el Amara.

April 3O. "Irish Republic," after
an existence of 120 hours, over-
thrown, with unconditional surrender
of leaders; Gerard leaves Berlin to con-
fer with Kaiser at front on subma-
rine situation.

MAY

SECOND PHASE OF BATTLE OF VERDUN
THE NAVAL BATTLE OFF JUT-
LAND ITALIANS BEFORE GORIZIA

May 1. French offensive, launched
southeast of Fort Douaumont; rem-
nants of Sinn Fein organization in
Ireland surrender unconditionally,
making over 1.000 prisoners taken.

May 2. Five Zeppelins raid northeast
coast of England.

May 3. Four leaders in Dublin
uprising court-martialed, convicted of
treason, and shot in Tower of London.

May 4. Another contingent of Rus-
sian troops disembarks at Marseilles.

May 7. Petain. . hero of Verdun,
promoted to command of armies be-
tween Soissons and Verdun.

May 8. Russian operations against
Turks reported successful at Erzingan
and Diabekr.

May 1O. Lansing- announces receipt
of nete from Germany admitting U-
boat commander sank Sussex, and
promising indemnity and punishment
of commander.

V. X— 29

437

SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

May 1 5. Trial of Casement for high
treason begins in London.

Mny 16. British compulsion bill, pro-
viding- military service for all males,
married or single, between ages of 18
and 41, passes final reading in House
of Commons, vote "50 to 35; at trial
of Casement for treason, shown that
Germany sent Russian rifles and other
supplies into Ireland.

May IS. Three Germans ships,
Kolga, Hera, and Bianco,, sunk in
Baltic by British submarines.

May 19. Germans west of Meuse oc-
cupy French positions along Haucourt-
Esnes road.

May 22. French recapture all but
northern part of Fort Douaumont,
held ninety days by Germans; Town-
shend and staff deported to Prinkipo,
Prince's Island, in sea of Marmora.

May 25. Fort Douaumont retaken by
Germans through aid of Bavarian di-
visions.

May 26. Three more towns in Ger-
man East Africa captured.

May 27. Gallieni, who helped check
advance of Kluck on Paris at begin-
ning of war, dies in Paris.

May 28. German losses before Ver-
dun reckoned by French at 300,000;
remnant of Serbian army between1 80,-
000 and 100.000, men recuperating at
Corfu, transferred to Saloniki.

May 31. British squadron cruising
in North Sea, off Jutland, west coast
of Denmark, encounters German fleet
and enga-ges in great naval battle last-
ing twelve hours; German navy never
again came out to fight.

JUNE

RUSSIA'S NEW OFFENSIVE KITCH-
ENER'S DEATH SECOND BATTLE OF

YPRES REVOLT OF ARABIA

June 4. Allies take over control
Saloniki, replacing Greek police and
establish martial law.

June 5. Russia begins long-awaited
offensive; Kitchener lost with en-
tire staff on cruiser Hampshire which
struck by mine or torpedo sank off
West Orkney Islands, while Kitchener
was on way to Russia.

Jnne 7. Berlin reports Fort Vaux
taken; in midst of heavy artillery-
fighting about Ypres, Germans pene-
trate Hoosre.

Jnne S. Russians capture Lutsk.

Jnne 1O. Brusiloff occupies Buczacz,
on west bank of Styrpa. strategical
gateway to Bukowina; official an-
nouncement states cruiser Hampshire,
in sinking of which Kitchener and
staff were lost, was destroyed by a
mine, and sank in ten minutes.

Jnne 11. Town and fortress of Dubno
fall before Russian advance, which
gives Russia complete possession of
Volhynian triangle.

Jnne 12. In Trentino important
units of Austrian force withdrawn to
meet Russians on Eastern Front.

Jnne 17. Two German armies go to
aid of Austrians in region of Stochod
and Styr rivers.

Jnne IS. Czernowitz. capital of
Bukowina. falls to Russians; Moltke,

formerly German Chief of Staff, dies
suddenly of heart-disease while at-
tending a memorial service for von
der Golz in Reichstag.

Jnne 19. Between Lutzk and Vladi-
mir-Volynski, Austrians break through
Russian sector.

Tune 22. French report aviators
bombed German cities, Treves. Kar s-
ruhe, and Mulheim, in reprisal for
raids on Bar-le-Duc and Luneville;
Radautz, in southern Bukowina, falls
to Russians, giving control of about
one-half of Roumania's western fron-
tier; revolt of Arabs against Turkish
rule, Arabs taking Mekka, Jedda and
Taif; Sherif of Mekka besieging
Medina.

June 23. Germans take Thiaumont
field-work; whole of Crownland of
Bukowina passes to Russians; Aus-
trians retreating into foothills of Car-
pathians.

June 24. Sergeant Victor Chap-
man, son John Jay Chapman, New
York, member American flying corps
in service of France on Western
Front, killed in air-battle over Verdun.

Jnne 26. Italians begin recover
ground lost to Austrian invaders;
Asiago retaken and troops penetrate to
outskirts of Arsiero.

Jnne 27. Total of prisoners captured
by Russians since advance began
199.354; Austrian army in flight in
Italy.

Jnne 2S. German forces under Lin-
gingen occupy Limewka.

June 29. Russians battle toward
Kolomea, taking 10,506 prisoners and
three lines of trenches: Casement
found guilty and condemned to hang.

JULY

BATTLE OF SOMME BEGUN BRUSIL-

OFF'S SUCCESSES AGAINST AUSTRIA

July 1. British and French offensive
started on both sides Somme in
Picardy along front 25 miles near
Mpntauban advance made of five
miles: Mametz. Serre. Contalmaison,
Dompierre, and Fay taken, while Brit-
ish close in about Fricourt: Austrian
troops fall back on Stanislau.

July 2. British take Fricourt and
Curlu village with nearly 10 000
prisoners; on Yser, British monitors
shell Germans between Lombaertzyde
and Nieuport; west of Kolomea Rus-
sians advance, taking 2.000 prisoners:
in Africa Belgians advance along
Kagera River and take Biaramulo,
southwest of Victoria Nyanza.

July 3. Allies advance on Somme:
French lines reach within three miles
of Peronne; British take La Boisselle.
with 4,300 prisoners.

July 4. French offensive captured
Estrees. Barleux and Belloy-en-San-
terre; Germans take Thiaumont again
after six assaults.

July 6. Brusiloff s army advances
toward Kovel; Austrian force west of
Folomea driven back five miles; Lloyd
George appointed Secretary for War,
to succeed Kitchener.

Jnly 8. Hardecourt falls to French

438

A CHRONOLOGY OF THE WAR

while British occupy position in Trones
Wood; Russians twenty-five miles from
Kovel.

July 9. As sequel to Jutland battle,
two hundred British vessels from
Petrograd and Cronstadt came through
Baltic for British trade.

July 1O. British under Smuts occupy
Taanga, port in East Africa; Arab
rebels take Kinfuda on Red Sea.

July 11. British take German line
on Somme on eight-mile front with
7,500 prisoners.

July 14. Aircraft raid Padua in
Italy, dropping bombs and killing two
persons

July 15. Arabian province of Hejas
declares its independence.

July 16. Anglo-French advance
brings troops to mile from Combles:
High Wood taken, as well as outskirts
of Martinpuich, Pozieres, and other
points close to German third line.

July 18. Belgian troops reach Vic-
toria Nyanza, and defeat German

JulyeS21. In Lemberg drive Czar's
forces cross Styr and advance to gates
of Berestetchko ; Russian thirteen-
mile advance reported from Caucasus.

July 23. British infantry capture
outworks of Pozieres, and make gain
on Bapaume road; Russians held at
the Stokhod.

July 24. British gain ground in
High Wood, and occupy part of
Pozieres; Italians take Monte Cimone
and summit of Mount Stradone; Rus-
sians rout Turks in Caucasus, closing
in on three sides of Erzingan.

July 25. Erzingan falls to Russian
attack- Grand Duke Nicholas thus
clears whole of Armenia of TurKS.%

July 26. Occupation of Pozieres
completed by Allies.

July 28. Longueval passes into Brit-
ish control, along with rest of Del-
ville Wood; Capt. Charles Fryatt, re-
cently honored for exploits in war
against submarines, and later captured
by Germans, shot by them for at-
tempting to ram a German submarine.

July 29. Three Zeppelins raid east
coast of England, dropping thirty-two
bombs in Norfolk. Yorkshire, and
Lincolnshire.

July 3O. Heavy engagement between
Delville Wood and Somme resulting
in advance of British; in Caucasus
Russians pushing on toward Sivas and
Kharput ^ General Kaledine obtains
full control Stokhod River, and Rus-
sians reach Graberki and Sereth; Arab
force takes town and fort at Yembo,

AUGUST

ITALIANS TAKE GORIZIA RUSSIANS

ADVANCE FURTHER ROUMANIA

IN THE WAR

Aug. 3. All German and Austrian
armies on Eastern Front put under
supreme command Hindenburg; Case-
ment hanged in Pentonville Prison,
London; at Verdun. French troops re-
occupy Fleury, taking trenches at
Thiaumont and slopes of Hill 320.

Aug. 4. Loss of two Italian sub-
marines officially announced.

Aug. 5. More than mile German sec-
ond-line tranches near Pozieres taken
by British.

Aug. 6. Russians take west bank

• Sereth; British forces, by a counter-
attack, put to flight Turks who threat-
ened them from Romani.

Aug. 7. Italians take Austrian posi-
tions in Tofana sector; on lower isonzo
take nearly whole of Hill 85; Botha
arrives in German East Africa to see
close of Allied campaign against Ger-
mans.

Aug. 8. Italy takes bridge-head at
Gorizia and two mountain defenses.

Aug. 9. At Verdun Germans drive
French from greater part of Thiau-
mont, in addition making progress in
Fleury; Russian forces within eight
miles of Stanislau; Italians take Gori-
zia, with 10,000 prisoners; assisted by
bombardment from fleet in sector of
Monfalcone, also capture Monte Sabo-
tino and Podgora; on easit bank of
Isonzo, take Monte San Michele; from
seven to ten Zeppelins take part in air-
raids on east coast counties of Great
Britain.

Aug. 1O. Fourth contingent Russian
troops landed at Brest for servfce on
Western Front.

Aug. 11. Russians take Stanislau;
Austrians in retreat toward Halicz;
Italians drive toward Trieste proceeds
with capture of Doberdo plateau.

Aug. 12. Cadorna's troops take Op-
pacchiesella; army now six miles south
of Gorizia.

Aug. 15. Russians take Jablonitza
at pass into Carpathians; Italians reach
suburbs of Tolmino.

Aug. 16. Allied army nearer Combles
and Berny; in Carpathians Russians
capture Vorokhta and, Ardzemoy.

Aug. 18. Submarine DeutscMand ar-
rives from America at Bremen.

Aug. 19. Thiepval ridge taken and
important hill near Pozieres. with
half a mile of trenches beyond Mar.-
tinpuich; last defender forced out of
Maurepas; French take Fleury; Aus-
trian admiralty announces aero-bom-
bardment of Venice.

Aug. 21. Terrific battle in progress in
Balkans along 150 mile front.

Aug. 22. First contingent of 80.000
Russians disembarks at Saloniki to join
reorganized Serbian army.

Aug. 23. British victory reported
south of Thiepval in Somme district;
on right bank of Meuse.

Aug. 24. In Zeppelin raid, London
outskirts reached; eight .killed and
thirty-three injured.

Aug. 25. British advance on Somme,
pushing beyond Delville Wood; Rus-
sians resume advance in Caucasus;
Turks evacuating Bitlis; Mush recap-
tured and west of Lake Van Russians
pursue Moslems toward Mosul; in
German East Africa. Kilossa reported
fallen into British hands.
Aug. 26. British aviators raid German
airship sheds near Namur; Roumania

439

SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

declares war on Austria-Hungary;
Germany declares war on Roumania:
first fighting- between Austrians and
Roumanians reported; Bulgars take all
but one of Greek forts surrounding:
Kavala; occupation this port gives
Bulgaria opening on JEgean; thirty
million dollars worth of interned Ger-
man ships seized by Italians.
Aug. 31. Roumanians, invading- Bul-
garia, capture Rustchuk.

SEPTEMBER

ALLIED SUCCESSES OX SOMME

ROl'MANIAXS CHECKED

GUEECE IX THE WAR

Sept. 1. Allied fleet arrives at Piraeus.

Sept. 2. Allied fleet seizes seven Teu-
tonic ships at Piraeus; Hermannstadt.
in Hungary, falls to Roumanian in-
vaders; German Zeppelins visit Eng-
land, dropping many bombs over east
coast cities; one raider over London
brought down in flames in open coun-
try.

Sept. 3. In sudden drive toward
Combles British and French take three
towns, parts of ttfo more, and about
3,000 prisoners; Bulgarian forces in-
vade Dobrudja.

Sept. 5. Bulgarian forces press into
Roumania; bridge-head of Turtukai
taken, as well as important railroad
town of Dobric; Constanza, Rou-
mania's only important seaport, bom-
barded by German naval aeroplanes.

Sept. 7. Tutrakan, considered gate to
Bucharest, taken by German and
Bulgar forces.

Sept. 8. Roumanians take Orsova at
Iron Gates of Danube.

Sept. 9. Roumanians take Olah Top-
litza and five other towns, indicating
advance of thirty miles; Roumanians
cross Danube near Orsova and take
Negotin.

Sept. 1O. Germans take Silistria,
second Roumanian fortress in Dob-
rudja.

Sept. 11. Roumanians driving ahead
into Transylvania following retreat-
ing Austrians; Bulgar troops in Dob-
rudja retake practically all territory
Roumania forced Bulgaria to cede
after second Balkan War.

Sept. 12. French now located on
Peronne-Bapaume-Bethune road.

Sept. IS. French take Bouchavesnes,
all of 1'Abbe Wood, and German
trench-system north of village; group
of seaplanes bombard Venice.

Sept. 14. Nearly all approaches to
Combles in hands of Allies; squadron
of aeroplanes raid Trieste, dropping
five tons of explosives on shipyards.

Sept. 15. British take Flers, Martin-
puich. High Wood, Courcelette. and
almost all of Bouleaux Wood/
Bucharest admits Roumanian retreat
in Dobrudja; in Transylvania, Rou-
manian advance continues with occupa-
tion of Bogata, Barscaolt, and Octerna,
on middle Aluta, forty miles from

frontier; Sarrail's Allied offensive in
Macedonia pushes Bulgars back to
within fifteen miles of border- Italian
troops resume drive on Trieste.
Sept. Iti. Berlin gets report of great
victory in which Roumanian army in
Dobrudja smashed; Serbians, French,
and Russian forces drive back Bul-
garian right wing further into Mace-
donia, approaching Fiorina.
Sept. 18. French push to within 200
yards of Combles; Italian advances
pass Oppachiasella; German East Afri-
can forecs reported routed.

Sept. 19. Serbian troops in pursuit of
retreating Bulgars cross frontier- in
Transylvania Teutons repulse Rou-
manians south of Hatzog.

Sept. 2O. Russian troops within few
hundred yards of railway-station of
Halicz; Roumanians win over Bulgars
and Teutons near Enigea. in Dobrudja.

Sept. 21. Italians take up new posi-
tion east of Gorizia; London reports
Russo-Roumanian forces win Dobrudja
battle over Mackensen; for six! days
fighting rages from ten miles south of
Constanza to Cernavoda, on Danube-
revolution in Crete reported from
Athens; revolutionists said to have
established provisional government.

Sept. 22. French enter outskirts of
Combles; pro-Ally revolt in Greece
spreads to Epirus and Macedonia.

Sept. 24. Kiffin Y. Rockwell, Amer-
ican aviator with French flying corps
killed in air-battle with German ma-
chine on Alsace frontier; French avia-
tors, in flights of 500 miles, drop
bombs on Krupp works at Essen.

Sept. 25. Combles completely cut
off; along six-mile front between
Combles and Martinpuich, more than
mile of German trenches fall into Brit-
ish hands; Allied forces advance nearer
Monastir; another success for Arab
rebels announced from Cairo.

Sept. 26. Combles taken by British
and French troops entering from op-
posite sides; British also take Thiepval
and Gueudecourt, three miles from
Bapaume; Vulcan Pass and Szurduk
Pass, in Transylvanian Alps, evacuated
by Teutons; German aeroplane squad-
ron bombards Bucharest; former Pre-
mier Venizelos arrives in Crete and an-
nounces plan of a provisional govern-
ment.

Sept. 27. Berlin reports capture of
Vulcan Pass in Transylvania; Macken-
sen s forces in counter-attack win vic-
tory over Roumanians; London says
Greece decided to enter Entente.

Sept. 28. Since beginning of Somme
drive, French have recaptured 78
miles of territory, with approximately
40,000 German prisoners; British
reach top of Thiepval Ridge, dom-
inating Ancre Valley.

Sept. 29. Roumanians defeated in bat-
tle around Hermannstadt.

Sept. 3O. Allies report gains along
Somme, German trenches south of
Eaucourt 1'Abbaye occupied; Falken-
hayn drives Roumanians back near
Hermannstadt.

440

A CHRONOLOGY OF THE WAR

OCTOBER

DOUAUMONT RECOVERED - SOMME SUC-
CESSES AND ITALIAN GAINS -

ROUMANIAN REVERSES
Oct. 1. British take Eaucourt 1'Ab-
baye; tanks used to great advantage;
Russians resume advance on Lemberir.
Oct. 2. Roumanian army crosses
Danube and invades Bulgaria; Zep-
pelins raid London; one of aircraft
brought down in flames.
Oct. 3. Austrian monitors in Danube
cut pontoon-bridge by which Rouman-
ians entered Bulgaria; Berlin admits
withdrawal in Transylvania.
Oct. 4. Austro-German troops under
Mackensen cut off attempted Rou-
manian invasion of Bulgaria; in
Dobrudja, Russo-Roumanian forces
take Amzacea.

Oct. 5. Russians beat back Turkish
forces from west of Trebizond into in-
terior; Cunard liner Franconia, sunk
in Mediterranean by submarine.
Oct. 7. Le Sars taken, and British
and French within two and one-half
miles of Bapaume; Italians take a
peak 6.187 feet high northwest of
Trent; British capture five villages in
drive on Seres; German war-submarine
U-53 arrives at Newport, R. I.
Oct. 8. British complete occupa-
tion of Le Sars; German submarine
£7-53, which visited Newport. R. I.,
and another torpedoed six steamships
off Nantucket.
Oct. 9. Bucharest admits evacuating

Kronstadt.
Oct. 1O. London admits Roumanian

defeat been turned into rout.
Oct. 12. Foch continues encircling of
Sailly-Saillisel, north of Somme;
Italian forces push nearer Trieste; in
western Macedonia Allied forces con-
tinue push toward Monastir.
Oct. 15. Norman Prince, American
aviator, flying in service of France
dies as result of injuries.
Oct. 1 7. Allied forces seize remaining
three ships of Greek fleet, as well as
railway-station at Pira?us, landing
1,000 marines.

Oct. 18. Sailly-Saillisel falls to
French; with 300 French marines sur-
rounding Royal Palace, and populace
in uproar, Athens reported in worst
situation since beginning of dis-

. . French at outskirts of

P£ronne; great 300-mile battle con-
tinues unabated from Pinsk marshes
to Roumanian frontier.
Oct. 2O. Mob riots reported from

Oct. 21. Mackensen smashe? Rou-
manian left wing in Dobrudja of-
fensive and reaches coast, advancing
on Black Sea port of Constanza;
Italian forces in Dolomites rout Aus-

Oct. 23. Constanza, Roumania's chief
port on the Black Sea. captured by
Bulgaro-Teuton invaders ; Teuton
troops approaching Cernavoda

Oct. 24. At Verdun French retake
village and fort of Douaumont. Thiau-
mont, Haudromont quarries La Cail-
lette Wood, Damloup battery, and

trenches along four-mile front to
depth of two miles; forces under Mac-
kensen drive Roumanians back from
Constanza to Tzara Murat.

Oct. 25. Cernavoda falls to Macken-
sen's army; Falkenhayn's army storms
Vulcan Pass.

Oct. 26. Roumanian forces in retreat
in Dobrudja destroy bridge over
Danube at Cernavoda.

Oct. 28. Captain Boelke, Germany's
greatest aviator, killed during a battle
on Western Front.

Oct. 3O. German C7-boat attacks and
sinks two British vessels with Amer-
icans among crews.

Oct. 31. Under French commander,
Berthelot. Roumanians win a victory
over Falkenhayn, driving Teutons
back across Roumanian border.

NOVEMBER

FURTHER ROUMANIAN REVERSES

VAUX AND MONASTIR RECOVERED

GREAT AIR-BATTLES

Nov. 1. South of Red Tower Pass-
Teutons penetrate twelve miles into
Roumania.

Nov. 2. Berlin admits evacuating Fort
Vaux; Roumanians push Teutons
back.

Nov. 5. French drive Germans from
positions on Bapaume road; almost
all of Saillisel, which adjoins Sailly,
taken by Allies; at Verdun Allies add
all of Vaux and all of Damloup vil-
lages to gains; near Somme, high
grovind near Butte de Warlecourt oc-
cupied by Allies; in joint mani-
festo by Emperors of Germany and
Austria, ancient Kingdom of Poland
revived and Polish autonomy re-
established.

Nov. 9. Roumanian forces operating
in Dobrudja, with new Russian rein-
forcements, retake Hirsova, on Danube,
driving back Mackensen.
Nov. 1O. First general air-battle of
war by large squadrons of airplanes;
forty-two British, French and German
aircraft reported brought down; Al-
lied airmen disposed of twenty-five
German machines and lost seventeen;
German casualties from beginning of
war compiled by London from Ger-
man official lists, set at 3,755.693; of
this total 910,234 killed; 30,000 Bel-
gians deported by Germans; all males
between seventeen and thirty sent away
in cflt tie-oars: Pone protests and State
Department, Washington, makes rep-
resentations to Berlin.
Nov. 12. British and French aviators
raid steel-works at Volkingen, in
Rhine Province, northwest of Saar-
bruok.

Nov. 13. After two days of fighting,
Serbians and French push Bulgars
back seven miles southeast of Mon-
astir.

Nov. 15. Berlin admits Teutonic lines
outflanked by Serbians and French on
way to Monastir.

Nov. 16. Roumanians reported re-
treating along Transylvania front, pur-
sued by Falkenhayn; Allied army un-
der Sarrail reported only four miles
from Monastir.

441

SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

Nov. 17. Guynemer brings down
twenty-first machine; inner forts of
Monastir fall to Serbians and French;
German invaders of Roumania push
into Wallachian plain; French aviator
bombarded Munich, went over Alps,
•and landed near Venice, 435 miles
from his starting-place on Western
Front.

Nov. 18. Allies take Monastir.

Nov. 21. Francis Joseph, Emperor of
Austria and King of Hungary, dies at
Schb'nbrunn, near Vienna, at eighty-
six; had ruled for sixty-eight years-
succeeded by his grand-nephew, Arch-
duke Charles.

Nov 22. Teutonic envoys to Greece
leave Athens for Kavala, in accordance
with Allied demand; White Star Steam-
ship Britannic in use as a hospital
ship, sunk by mine in /Egean, with
loss of fifty lives.

Nov. 23. Roumanian army retires to
Alt Valley, 90 miles from Bucharest,
leaving 10,000 square miles in Teu-
tonic hands; Allied troops advance
north of Monastir, taking Dobromir.

Nov. 24. Orsova and Turnu-Severin
taken from Roumanians; all Wallachia
believed lost.

Nov. 25. British naval planes in-
vade Bavaria, dropping 2,000 pounds
of bombs on blast-furnaces at Dil-
lingen; Falkenhayn defeats Roumanian
army in Alt Valley while Mackensen
closes in at the rear; Greek provisional
government, headed by Venizelos, de-
clares war on Germany and Bulgaria.

Nov. 27. Roumanians driven from
Alt Valley; Alexandria falls to Teu-
tons with grain-supplies and entire
Roumanian bank of the Danube.

Nov. 28. Roumanian Government
leaves Bucharest for Jassy.

DECEMBER

BUCHAREST TAKEN PEACE PROPOSALS

FROM GERMANY

Dec. 2. Fifty miles to north of
Bucharest Falkenhayn cuts through
first Roumanian army, capturing head-

quarters; truce arranged in Athens
between troops of Allies and Royalists.

Dec. 3. Premier Trepoff informs Rus-
sian Duma that by official agreement
of Allies, made in 1915, Russia is to
have Dardanelles and Constantinople
at end of war.

Dec. 5. British Cabinet crisis brought
to head by resignation of Premier
Asquith; Unionist leader, Bonar Law,
summoned by King and asked to form
Cabinet, but declines.

Dec. 6. Central Powers take Buch-
arest; Lloyd George announced as
new British Premier.

Dec. 7. Roumanians retreat along
125-mile front through Wallachia.

Dec. 1O. Berlin reports arrival of
merchant-submarine DeutscMand at
Bremen, after a nineteen-day trip to
United States carrying a $2,000,000
cargo.

Dec. 12. Central Ppwers present note
for Entente containing peace pro-
posals.

Dec. 13. Nivelle, commander of
French at Verdun, appointed com-
mander of French armies of the north
and northeast.

Dec. 15. French at Verdun drive Ger-
mans back for two miles along seven-
mile front; Vacherauville, Louvemont.
Chambrettes Farm, and forts of
Hardaumont and Bezonvaux taken;
Greek king grants latest Entente de-
mands; Russian Duma unanimously
votes categorical refusal to entertain
any German peace proposals at pres-
ent time.

Dec. 2O. Wilson sends notes to all
belligerents, asking them present terms
on which they will consider peace.

Dec. 21. Wilson'-s peace-note wel-
comed by Centra] Powers.

Dec. 24. Pope Benedict praises Wil-
son peace-npte, as do Scandinavian
countries; King of England states war
must be fought out.,

Dec. 2(>. German reply to Wilson's
peace-note proposes an immediate
peace-conference, but does not state
Germany's terms.

THE EVENTS OF 1917

JANUARY

BRITISH SUCCESSES ON THE TIGRIS
AND IN PALESTINE

Jan. 1. Total losses British since
start Somme offensive given as 520,-
017.

Jan. 2. Prisoners captured by Allies
on all fronts in 1916 total 58^.7-23.

Jan. 4. Haig now commands largest
army Great Britain ever levied —
nearly 2,000,000 trained and officeTed
men.

Jan. 8. Russians lose battle of
Sereth; Focsani falls into Teutonic
hands.

Jan. 11. British cmesed border
from Egypt and take Raffa in Pales-
tine; Turkish trenches northeast of
Kut-el-Amara taken.

Jan. 17. Definite announcement

Greek Government accepted Allies'
ultimatum unconditionally.

Jan. 21. British take over part of
French front in Somme sector; Brit-
ish drive Turks out of positions on
right bank of Tigris, near Kut.

Jan. 22. Dispatches from Ottawa
state Canada has sent, to date, 43-i.-
539 men to the front; in message to
Senate. Wilson outlines peace plans.

Jan. 26. Turkish first-line trenches
southwest of Kut-el-Amara, with por-
tions of second line, taken by British.

Jan. 27. Paris reports Guynemer
brought down five enemy aeros in
three days, bringing his total to
thirty; seven hundred thousand in-
habitants of invaded regions of north-
ern France reported under enforced
labor for Germans.

.442

A CHRONOLOGY OF THE WAR

FEBRUARY

UNRESTRICTED SUBMARINE WARFARE

BEGUN KUT-EL-AMAUA RECOVERED

ZIMMERMAN N'S NOTE AND

BERNSTORFF'S PASSPORTS

GIVEN

Feb. 1. Port of New York closed
to all outgoing1 vessels upon Wash-
ington's receipt of German note, an-
nouncing intensified submarine war-
fare.

Feb. 2. Number of transatlantic
liners, including- American liner St.
Louis held up in New York in face
of German warning; Wilson addresses
joint session of Congress, and an-
nounces Bernstorff given passport, and
recall of Gerard from Germany as re-
sult of Teutonic submarine warfare.
Fell. 4. Daniels orders reserve force
of Atlantic fleet ready for immediate
service.

Feb. 5. Naval authorities at Manila
seize twenty-three German vessels in
harbor, taking crews ashore; customs
officials, examining captured boats, re-
port every one received extensive dam-
age, apparently at hands of crews.
Feb. 6. Tonnage of vessels sunk by
German L'-boats from February 1 to
date reported to exceed 86,344 tons;
forty-five vessels sunk since greater
submarine warfare inaugurated, in-
cluding number of neutral boats.
Feb. 11. Gerard reaches Zurich,

Switzerland.

Feb. 13. Largest naval appropriation
in history of country passes Congress:
calls for the expenditure of more tnan
$368.000. 000 and is passed by vote
of 353 to 23.

Feb. 17. British tighten hold on Kut-
el-Amara. taking fortifications on
Tigris, with 2,000 prisoners, and
much war-material.

Feb. IS. Warning1 from German
Government reaches Washington to
effect that arming of American mer-
chantmen will be regarded as a war-
like move.

Feb. 24. German line gives way on
both sides of Ancre before British
artillery; seven Dutch vessels which
left Falmouth with a German "rea-
sonable assurance of safety," reported
torpedoed almost immediately after
leaving harbor; three sunk, four badly
damaged; Dutch Government and peo-
ple reported aroused to highest pitch.
Feb. 2,">. In fog Teutons effect what
was said to be greatest retirement on
Western Front in two years; yield
about three miles in the Ancre sector
to the Allies; British cross Tigris and
take four lines of Turkish trenches.
Feb. 2O. Germans still falling back
on Ancre. giving up to British nearly
twenty-five square miles of ground:
British only two miles from Bapaume:
Kut-el-Amara falls before British ad-
vance, opening again road to Bagdad:
Cunard liner Laconia sunk; three
. Americans lose lives; Wilson asks Con-
gress for authority to arm outgoing
American liners.
Feb. 27. British met Turks in bat-

tle about fifteen miles northwest of
Kut-el-Amara.

Feb. 28. Gommecourt, Tilloy, and
Puisieux-au-Mont taken by Allies;
fleeing Turkish army in Mesopotamia
reported hemmed in by British thirty
miles from Kut-el-Amara; Washington
hears Germany through Zimmermann,
Foreign Minister, suggested to Mexico
and Japan an alliance by which war
was to be made on the United States,
if it did not remain neutral.

MARCH

GREAT GERMAN RETREAT IN WEST

FALL OF BAGDAD REVOLUTION

IN RUSSIA

March 1. Bill to empower Wilson
to arm merchant ships passed by
House, 403 to 13.

March 2. German army retires on a
front of fourteen miles to depth of
from two to three miles and British
push forward; German Admiralty an-
nounces no warning will be given by
submarines to any ship bound for-
bidden area of Atlantic.
March 3. Russians capture Hamadan.
Persian city near Turkish border;
Zimmermann admits he attempted to
ally Mexico and Japan against the
United States.

March 4. British army takes over
French lines for twenty-five miles
southward on Somme; continued fili-
buster, led by Senator La Fpllette.
prevents vote on Armed Ship Bill and
Congress adjourns without passing
measure; Wilson tells country Senate
has "tied his hands" and made de-
fense of American rights on sea im-
possible.

March 7. Percentage of submarine
destruction for week dropt from 1.04
per cent, of ships entering British
ports in first two weeks of February
to 0.46 per cent, in week ending
March 4.

March 8. British cavalry within
fourteen miles of Bagdad; Russian
center now forty miles beyond Ham-
adan; Turks in general retreat all
along line; Count von Zeppelin, in-
ventor of dirigible balloon, dies at
Charlottenburg, aged seventy-eight.
March 9. Wilson decides to arm
American merchantmen at once and
to supply them with naval gunners,
without waiting for authority from
Congress: issues call for extra session
of Congress April 16 "to consider all
matters collateral to defense of our
merchant marine."

March 11. Bagdad falls; Turkish
army defending city completely out-
maneuvered and out-fought by British
in three days' battle; cavalry advanc-
ing1 beyond Bagdad; tabulation of au-
thenticated records of men killed,
wounded, and missing1 in European
war received Washington show, among
military proper, 4,441,200 dead,
2.598.500 wounded, and 2.564.500
missing; civilian dead and wounded,
especially on Russian and Balkan
fronts, estimated at 400.000 more,
bringing total war loss to over ten

443

SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

million; Entente's losses 6.318,400,
those of Central Powers 3,384,800.

March 12. British campaign against
German forces in German East Africa
virtually ended; Wilson formally an-
nounces to all nations except Germany
his decision to arm American mer-
chantmen against illegal assault.

March 14. British advance thirty
miles beyond Bagdad; China severs
diplomatic relations with Germany.

March 15. Revolution in Russia re-
ported and declared a complete suc-
cess; members of Duma, led by Pres-
ident Rozdianko, refused to dissolve
session when ordered to do so by Czar's
ukase; Czar abdicated for himself and
his son; new revolutionary Provision-
al Government pledges itself to con-
duct war vigorously.

March 1C. Government Russia vested
in Council of Minister's, chosen from
Duma; Great Britain, France, and
Russia recognize Provisional Govern-
ment.

March 17. Extended German retreat
to Hindenburg line begins on West
Front; French and British armies ad-
vance without resistance from two to
four miles on front of thirty-five;
Zeppelin L-39 shot down near Com-
piegne, forty-five miles from Paris;
Captain Guynemer brings down three
German aeroplanes, raising his total
to thirty-four.

March 18. Peronne occupied by
Allies; German retreat continues on
front of hundred miles, to depth of
twelve; French take Noyon and Nesle;
Germans evacuate entire Noyon salient
and fall back to Hindenburg line,
twenty-five miles to rear of former
positions; three American steamships,
City of Memphis, Illinois, and Vigi-
lancia sunk by German submarines;
vessels manned entirely by Americans
and twenty-two men missing; Vigilanda
sunk unwarned.

March 19. British and French con-
tinue to advance on a one-hundred-
mile front; two hundred and fifty
towns and villages occupied; 1.300
square miles rewon by Entente since
retreat begun.

March 2O. German armies in retreat
devastated whole country on line of
retreat; Washington officials of
opinion that state of war exists be-
tween Germany and United States in
spite of technicality of armed neutral-
<tv.

March 21. Wilson calls special ses-
sion Congress for April 2, two weeks
in advance of date originally set.

March 22. American 'oil-tanker
Healdton, unarmed and bound to Hol-
land through safety zone prescribed
by Berlin, sunk unwarned with loss
of twenty American lives; German Ad-
miralty announces return of com-
merce-raider Moire to German port
after second cruise in Atlantic; Moire

captured thirty-five steamers and five
sailing-ships, aggregating more than
123.100 tons.

March 23. Germans flood city of La

Fere; Czar reaches palace at Tsarkoe

'^plo. where kpnt imd^r guard.
March 24. United States withdraws
from Belgium; Brand Whitlock,

American Minister, recalled to Havre,
and American members of Belgium
Relief Commission turn work over to
Dutch; naval officers, inspecting Ger-
man ships seized in our ports, find
machinery so damaged it will be im-
possible to send them to sea without
extensive repairs which may take
from three to nine months; Cardinal
Mercier awarded Grand Prize for
"the greatest and finest acts of de-
motion."

March 26. Liner St. Louis, first
armed American ship to pass through
barred zone, arrives safely in British
port.

March 28. Nivelle begins offensive
south of Laon, drives wedge into Ger-
man lines between Oise and Aisne.

March 29. In a speech before Reichs-
tag, Bethmann-Holweg places responsi-
bility for war upon United States;
British troops near Gaza rout Turkish
army of 20.000 in two-days' battle,
and continue advance toward Jeru-
salem.

March 3O. The entire force of
Federal Government's civilian em-
ployees, approximately 500.000, sum-
moned to aid Secret Service in de-
tection of persons engaged in plots
against United States.

APRIL

CONGRESS DECLARES WAR ARRAS AND

AISNE BATTLES BALFOt'R, VIVI-

ANI, AND JOPFRE IN AMERICA

April 1. British gain two miles in
drive at St. Quentin on front five
miles long.

April 2. Wilson asks Congress to de-
clare state of war with Germany
owing to ruthless and unrestricted sub-
marine campaign; recommends utmost
practical cooperation in counsel and
action with the Entente, extension of
liberal financial credit to them, mobili-
zation all material resources of Amer-
ica for purpose of supplying Entente
and United States with adequate
munitions war, full equipment of
navy, and immediate enrolmenf of
army of 500.000 men. preferably by
means of universal service, to be in-
creased later by an additional army
of equal size; announced armed
American freighter Aztec sunk by
German Z7-boat; Senator Lodge, Massa-
chusetts, knocks down a pacifist wHo
assaulted him in Senate corridor

April 3. Roosevelt calls upon Wilson
to congratulate him upon speech, and
exhorts entire country to support
President.

April 3. All American members of
the Relief Commission leave Belgium.

April 4. Senate passes war resolu-
tion by a vote of 82 to 6.

April 5. House of Representatives
passes war resolution by vote of 373
to 50; unarmed American ship Mis-
sourian, when returning to the United
States in ballast, sunk in Mediter-
ranean by a submarine; British and
Russian armies in Mesopotamia effect
junction; Russians drive the last
Turkish soldier* from Persia.

April 6. Wilson signs resolution
formally declaring state of war with

444

A CHRONOLOGY OF THE WAR

Germany; sixty alleged ringleaders in
German plots this country arrested im-
mediately alter declaration war;
ninety-one German vessels interned in
American harbors taken over by
United States; seizure amounts to ap-
proximately 629,000 tons, with a
value of $148,000,000.
April 7. Greatest air-battle of war
over and behind German, lines during:
last 48 hours; Haig- sent out full Brit-
ish air forces to scout and secure
photographs behind German positions;
operation was successfully performed;
Germans lost 4(3 planes and 10 bal-
loons, British and French 44 ma-
chines; more than eight tons of bombs
dropt on German communications and
supply-depots; Cuba declares war on
Germany and seizes four ships in-
terned in harbors.

April 9. Fourteen Austrian ships in-
terned in American harbors taken
over by Government; Wilson formally
approves plan building a fleet of
1,000 wooden ships of from 3,000 to
3.500 tons each to meet loss of tonnage
due to submarine warfare; British
offensive on a twelve-mile front nprth
ard south of Arras; German positions
penetrated two and three miles deep,
and many important fortified points
captured, including "field fortress" of
Vimy Ridge.

April 1O. British and Canadian
troops advance two miles on entire
twelve-mile front, and take 11,000
prisoners; official figures from the
United States State Department report
686 neutral vessels, 19 of them Amer-
ican, been sunk during unrestricted
submarine campaign; Brazil severs dip-
lomatic negotiations with Germany;
all estates and investments belonging
to former Czar transferred to Russian
Government; Roosevelt confers with
Wilson and pledges support to "select-
ive draft" measure and other features
of Administration program.
April 11. Great Britain to send
Commission of Foreign Secretary Bal-
four, Admiral de Chair, General
Bridges, and Governor Bank til Eng-
land to United States for conference
on the war; French Commission to be
headed by former Premier Viviani and
Marshal Joffre, also coming; reve-
nue bill authorizing a bond issue
of $5, 000, 000. 000 and $2,000.000,-
000 in certificates of indebtedness in-
troduced in House; Herbert C. Hoover
accepts chairmanship new Food Board
in United States; Argentina in-
dorses stand taken by United States
against Germany.

April 12. British pierce German
lines between Vimy Ridge and Given-
chy; British continue successes in vi-
cinity of Gaza.

April 13. London cables two hos-
pital-ships sunk in war-zone; Haig re-
ports British "astride Hindenburg
line" north of Arras.
April 14. British announce great
push forward at Arras and St. Quen-
tin; in Arras sector invest Lens on
three sides; French artillery active all
along front; England issues call to
citizens and Allies, warning them of
possible food shortage and requesting
them economize on food; London

cables Maude routs Turks northeast
of Bagdad; House of Representatives
passes seven-billion war-loan without
dissenting vote.

April 15. Nivelle launches great of-
fensive on front twenty-five miles be-
tween Soissons and Reims; 10,000
German prisoners taken.
April 17. United States Senate unani-
mously passes seven-billion bond issue;
House Military Committee votes 13 to
8 against selective-draft feature of
Army Bill; Senate Committee ap-
proves selective-draft by vote of
10 to 7.

April 18. French resume attack on
Aisne, capturing heights overlooking
river on north; Germans driven out of
six villages between Soissons and
Reims; South of Aisne, Nivelle seizes
and holds Vailly; French increase to-
tal Bumber prisoners to 17.000.
April 19. Military authorities take
over piers of North German Lloyd and
Hamburg-American lines in Hoboken,
New Jersey, to be used as shipping-
base; Germans throw 240,000 fresh
troops against Nivelle without check-
ing advance; French troops gain in
Champagne and take three villages on
Aisne.

April 2O. Entry of United States
into war marked by religious cere-
monies in London, attended by King
and Queen.

April 21. Balfpur and British Com-
mission arrive in the United States.
April 23. Maude occupies Samara;
Turkish forces in Palestine defeated
in battle near Gaza.
April 24. Haig reports forty Ger-
man airplanes brought down with loss
of only two English machines; Wilson
signs $7,000 000.000 Bond Bill, and
United States will lend Great Britain
$200,000,000 at once; French War
Commission, Viviani, Joffre, and mili-
tary and financial attaches, arrive in
Washington.,

April 25. Wilson appoints Elihu
Root head of American Commission to
Russia; Joffre and Viviani given im-
mense ovation by Washington crowds;
U-boat activity in week greatest since
opening of submarine compaign.
April 27. In speech at Guildhall.
Lloyd George says submarines can
make England feel pinch, but can
never starve* her out, owing to fact
that 3,000,000 acres of new land
have been brought under cultivation
for 1918; House votes down Roosevelt
plan of raising a volunteer force for
France by 170 to 106.
April 28. Both House and Senate
pass Army Bill for raising army by
selective draft; Senate, 81 to 8; House,
397 to 24; volunteer amendment is
rejected by large majorities; Senate
bill provides for conscription of men
between ages of 21 and 27, while
House fixes the limits as 21 and 40;
Secretary McAdoo announces $5,000,-
000,000 bond issue be known as
"Liberty Loan of '1917"; British ad-
vance at every point on seven-mile
front north of Scarpe; more of Cham-
indes-Dames plateau captured.
April 29. Petain, defender of Ver-
dun, appointed Chief of Staff of

'445

SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

French armies; French and British
Commissions decorate tomb of Wash-
ington at Mount Vernon.

MAY

ANGLO-FIIENCH OFFENSIVES IN THE

WEST THE SELECTIVE DUAFT

1'EUSIIING SAILS ITALIANS

DRIVE TOWARD TRIESTE

May 2. Comparison of report of War
Oftkes of tne nations on Western
Front shows total of 714 airplanes
lost in April — 366 of these German,
1-17 British and 201 French and Bel-
gian; of German machines lost, 263
brought down by British airmen, t>
by anti-aircraft guns, 95 by French
pilots, and 2 by Belgians.

31ay 3. Wilson and Balfour reach
agreement on main features of Allied
submarine campaign ab9ut to be
launched; Hoover arrives from
Europe, says submarine menace grow-
ing and that food conditions in
Europe grave; Joftre and Viyiani
leave Washington for tour in Middle
West; French sailors who escorted
Vivdaii and Joffre to this country feted
by 22,000 New Yorkers in Madison
Square Garden.

May 4. Craonne stormed, giving
French control of Craonne plateau;
French capture 23,000 prisoners and
176 heavy guns since April 18.

May 5. French cut salient of four
miles from Hindenburg line, near
Laon, taking 4,300 prisoners; Joffre
makes first set speech in Chicago.

May 7. Balfour cables London that
French, British, and American plans
for cooperation in war are completed
on all essential matters; medical force
of 240 about to start for England,
first uniformed American troops to
carry flag to West Front; Junker party
in Reichstag demands Bethmann-Holl-
weg's resignation.

May 9. War Revenue Bill, reported to
House, means $3.800.000.000 yearly in
taxes in addition to recent bond issue:
million people line Fifth Avenue to
cheer Joffre and Viviani in New York;
British, chiefly Canadians, attack
Bavarians holding Fresnoy and retake
all lost ground west of village.

May 1 0. Joffre given enthusiastic re-
ception at special gala performance at
the Metropolitan Opera House, New
York; during day he unveils statue
Lafayette in Brooklyn and is presented
with gold replica of Statue of liberty
in Central Park.

May 11. British troops on south-
western outskirts Lens meet three
terrific counter-attacks, in two of
which liquid fire used to prepare the
way for German advance; Balfour and
British Commission received with en-
thusiasm by people New York City;
Joffre f*>ends day at West Point.

May 14. Kerensky, Russian Minister
of Justice, declares "as affairs are
going now. it will be impossible to
save the country."

May 1 6. On two-mile front, from
Gavrelle to Scarpe, Hindenburg hurls
massed attack against French and
British with troops fresh from Rus-
sian front; attack repelled after fierce

battle; squadron American torpedo-
boat destroyers reached Queenstown
May 4, and at once began patrol duty
on seas; announced that after first of
month no unm.turalized German may
go within half a mile of any State
armory without a special permit; Rus-
sian Government and Radicals reach
agreement, and reconstruction of
Cabinet begun; Miliukoff, Foreign Min-
ister, resigns from Cabinet.

May 17. United States Senate passes
the Army Draft Bill, 65 to 8; Buile-
court in hands of British.

May 18. Sea-battle in Adriatic on
May 14, in which cruisers, destroyers,
submarines, and airplanes representing
five nations engaged; British, French,
and Italian craft drove off Austrian
squadron; Wilson signs the Army Bill
calling upon 10,000,000 Americans to
register on June 5. from which number
the first increment of 500,000 men
to be chosen for the army; Presi-
dent rejects Roosevelt's offer to raise
volunteer force; Wilson' directs expedi-
tonary force of 25,000 regular troops,
under Pershing, to proceed to France
"at as early a date as practicable."

May 2O. Pershing and staff sail for
France unknown to public.

May 23 First detachment United
States engineers, under Maj. William
Barclay Parsons, engineer of first New
York subway, reaches London; King
George and Queen Mary welcome sur-
geons and nurses at Buckingham
Palace; War Revenue Bill passes the
House by a vote of 329 to 76.

May 24. Italian forces on Carso take
9.000 prisoners in drive toward
Trieste.

May 29. Italian drive toward Trieste
continues successfully; since May 14
more than -23,000 Austrian prisoners
and 36 guns captured.

May 31. Emperor Charles of Austria,
at the opening of Reichsrath, gives a
pledge of reform and conciliation
toward "all who abandon intention to
threaten us."

JUNE

MESSINES RIDGE CAPTURED AMER-
ICAN MISSION TO RUSSIA

LIBERTY LOAN OVER-
SUBSCRIBED

Jnne 4. Alexieff, commander-in-chief
of Russian armies, resigns and Brusi-
loff appointed to succeed him.

June 5. Armed merchantman Mon-
golia engages in second fight with sub-
marines off Irish coast.

Jnne 7. British carry Messines Ridge
in Wytschaete salient overlooking
Ypres which was held for two years
by Germans; offensive preceded by
terrific mine-explosions heard in Lon-
don; territory five miles long and
three miles deep captured.

.Jnne 8. Pershing with 57 aids. 50
privates, and a large clerical force
reach London; one hundred American
aviators, first of American fighting
forces, reach France; British troops
strengthen position on captured ridge;
two hundred girl-students of Petrograd
Technical Institute enrolled in regi-

446

A CHRONOLOGY OF THE WAR

ment of women that will fight under
same conditions as men

June 9. Baliour reaches London and
enthusiastically declares visit to United
States will remain "epoch in history
of two great English-speaking na-
tions."

June 12. Senate approves Espionage
Bill, giving Government control of
all exports, to prevent supplies reach-
ing Germany through neutral coun-
tries; British extend gains east and
northeast Messines, capturing Gaspard;
King Constantine I of Greece abdicates
in favor of second son, Prince Alexan-
der; Americm Mission, headed by
Elihu Root, reaches Petrograd.

June 13. Pershing reaches Paris
where is met and enthusiastically wel-
comed by Joffre, Ambassador Sharp,
and vast crowds; American troops as-
signed to position on battle-front un-
der Petain.

June 1 5. Wilson signs War Budget
and Espionage Bills, thus making im-
mediately available $3.340,000,000 for
war-machinery; British troops at
Arras and south of Ypres victorious
on seven-mile front, completing oc-
cupation of old first-line trrfhches of
Germans near the Lys; first Liberty
Loan subscription closed; $2,000,000.-
000 asked for, $3,035,000,000 sub-
scribed. (See June 22.)

June 2O. Canadian troops capture a
nest of trenches which been Germans
chief place shelter between the Cana-
dian lines and Lens.

June 22. Total amount subscribed to
Liberty Loan is $3,035,226,850. more
than 4.000,000 persons participated;
Elihu Root makes first public appear-
ance in Russia at large gathering in
Petrograd, and outlining causes which
induced America enter the war. de-
clares she will fight "until world is
made safe for democracy."

June 26. First American troops
reach France; Canadian troops occupy
La Coulotte, south of Lens.

June 27. British Admiralty report
shows falling off in submarine sink-

Jnne 28. Debate in lower Austrian
House discloses strong- peace senti-
ment; Brazil revokes decree of neutral-
ity, which is tantamount declaration

Junea29. Greek Government breaks
off diplomatic relations with Ger-
many. Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, and
Turkey.

JULY

BETHMANN-HOLLWEG RESIGNS RUS-
SIA'S LAST OFFENSIVE FAILS

KERENSKY PREMIER ENTENTE

GAINS IN THE WEST

July 2. French recapture all ground
lost to Germans on Chemin-des-Dames.
east of Cerny; Minister 9f War
Kerensky, in person, leads victorious
Russian advance; conspiracy to de-
stroy shipping on Great Lakes, there-
by delaying organization of American
armies, disclosed.

July 3. Major-General Scott reaches
southwestern battle-front in time to
witness beginning of Russian offensive:

American destroyers, convoying trans-
ports with troops to France, fight off
a fleet of submarines, sinking one.

July 4. France celebrates Fourth of
July and gives ovation to American
troops in Paris about to leave for
training behind battle-front; London
joins in observing day and American
flag flies over House of Parliament.

July 9. "No-annexation, no-indem-
nity" speech made by Erzberger in
Reichstag; Wilson issues a procla-
mation drafting State troops into
United States Army on August 5,
and declaring them discharged from
old militia status on that date.

July 1O. Russian army captures
Halicz, considered key to Lemberg.

July 11. Germans drive back British
on Belgian coast to Yser, capturing
1,250 prisoners.

July 12. Russian troops under Korni-
loff capture Kalusz.

July 14. House passes Aviation Bill
which provides $640,000,000 for con-
struction aerial fleet; Kaiser appoints
Dr. Georg Michaelis. Prussian Under-
secretary, to succeed Bethmann-Holl-
weg as Chancellor.

July 16. Richstag party-leaders,
after conference with Hindenburg and
Ludendorff, declare they stand for
peace without indemnities or terri-
torial, acquisition.

July 17. French, in a sweeping at-
tack, regain positions captured by
the Germans in their drive of June 29
on left bank of Meuse, in Verdun re-
gion; King George announces name of
royal house of England hereafter be
House of Windsor, instead of House of
Saxe-Coburg Gotha.

July 2O. Russian regiments throw
down arms and leave trenches, with
result Germans pierce wide front east
of -Lemberg; Premier Lvoff resigns
and Kerensky appointed Premier in
place; Pershing leaves Paris for a long
tour British battlefront with Haig;
draft day in the United States results
in registry of 9,700.000 for service
in first army of conscription to be
sent to Europe.

July 23. Disorganization and de-
moralization among Russian troops ad-
mitted in official dispatches from
Petrograd; Tarnopol reported in hands
Germans.

July 24. Petrograd reports entire
units Provisional army return to
trenches and absolutely decline to
obey orders.

July 26. Austro-German troops press
victory in Galicia over demoralized
Russian forces; Petrograd concedes
most of heavy Russian artillery been
lost.

July 27. Reports from Vienna state
Russians evacuating Czernowitz, capi-
tal of Bukowina.

July 28. German aircraft raid Paris
for first time in year and half; only
two bombs are dropt: Ruzsky arfd
Gurko summoned to Petrograd take
charge of troops in Galicia for pur-
pose of making stand against Ger-
mans.

July 29. Kerensky goes to front, to
endeavor to reorganize Russian armies
with aid of old leaders.

447

SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

July 31. In greatest offensive of
war British and French tear out Ger-
man first line, and a portion of sec-
ond and third over front more than
twenty miles in Flanders; ten towns
and 3,500 men are taken; German
forces still pressing- forward in Ga-
licia.

AUGUST

PASSCHENDAELE RIDGE ITALIAN

DIUVE ON ISONZO AMERICANS

IN TRAINING IN FRANCE

Aug. 1. In Flanders battle 5,000
German prisoners taken; Emperor Wil-
liam issues address to German peo-
ple declaring- he is not animated by
spirit of conquest, but fighting "in
defense of K. strong, free empire."

AUK- 2. Brusiloff resigns as Cotn-
mander-in-Chief of Russian armies
and Korniloff appointed to supreme
command; Kaiser summons practically
every leader of prominence in army
and navy to war conference at
Brussels.

Aug. 3. Czernowitz, capital of Bu-
kowina, which has changed hands ten
times during- war, ag-ain in possession
Archduke Joseph.

Aug. 5. Canadian troops in new
drive on Lens.

Aug. 9. Roosevelt issues vigorous
statement in which demands German-
American press be muzzled at once,
that laws be framed forbidding print-
ing- of newspapers here in German, or
lang-uagres of other hostile countries.

Aug. 1O. Renewal great battle in
Flanders; Haig captures practically all
German positions east and southeast
of Ypres.

Aug. 12. Battle on larg-e scale rag--
ing along Roumanian front.

Aug. 15. Secret removal of former
Emperor Nicholas and family from
palace of Tsarskoe Selo; royal pris-
oners on way to Tobolsk, in Siberia;
London issues text of Pope's appeal
to bellig-erent nations.

Aug. 1O. Germans report successful
bombardment of the cathedral of St.
Quentin.

Aug. 19. Deposed Czar (Nichofas
with wife and children, arrive at
Tobolsk, 1,500 miles from Petrograd.

Aug. 2O. French overwhelm Germans
on eleven-mile front north of Verdun,
while Italians take 7,600 prisoners fn
big- drive for Trieste.

Aug. 21. Pershing and several of
staff officers witness battle of Verdun;
3,000 more prisoners taken by Italians
in drive along- Isonzo.

Aug. 22. British penetrate German
lines for third of a mile in Ypres
sector, taking- positions for mile along
Ypres-Menin road.

Aug. 23. Germans reported to have
launched fierce campaign to reach Pet-
rograd and force Russian peace; fa-
mous Chasseurs Alpins. known as
"Blue Devils of France," assigned
as companions-in-arms of American
troops whom they will instruct in art
of modern war; Canadian troops now

on edge of city of Lens; Italians cap-
ture Monte Santo and continue drive
along- Isonzo; Austrians removing
everything of value from Trieste;
American airmen taking- part in bat-
tle Verdun.

Aug. 28. Austrian high command
orders civilian population to evacuate
Trieste; fugitives1 seek refuge in in-
terior Austria; Wilson replies to
Pope's peace message, declaring his
terms are impossible, and stating that
object of America is to "free world
of the menace of Kaiser, without de-
sire for reprisal on German people."

Aug. 3O. Pershing moves from Paris
headquarters to region in eastern
France turned over by French Gov-
ernment for mobilization and train-
ing- American troops.

SEPTEMBER

RIGA FALLS LFXBURG'S DISPATCHES

PUBLISHED CIVIL WAR

IN RUSSIA

Sept. 1. French strike hard blow on
Aisne front.

Sept. 3. Riga falls to German troops;
Austrian losses in Italian thrust to-
ward Trieste estimated at 135,000
men.

Sept. 6. House passes War Bond Bill,
totaling $11,538.94-5,460; includes $4.-
000,000 000 in new loans to Allies and
$2.000.000,000 for War-Savings Cer-
tificates; amount of second Liberty
Loan $3,000.000.000.

Sept. 8. Luxburg's Argentina dis-
patches, "spurlos versenkt" (sink
without trace), published.

Sept. 1O. Kerensky deposes Kdfniloff
as rebel, and establishes martial law
in Petrograd; Senate passes War Tax
Bill by a vote 69 to 4.

Sept. 11. Civil war begins in Rus-
sia.

Sept. 12. Steamship Minnehaha. of
Atlantic Transport Line, sunk by sub-
marine, fifty lives lost.

Sept. 13. Petrograd announces col-
lapse of revolt of Korniloff.

Sept. 14. London announces success
British navy jn engagements in which
eight German submarines stink in
open battles; Italian forces again
take summit San Gabriele after three
weeks' fighting.

Sept. 13. Russian revolt ends with
arrest Korniloff, with Lokomski his
chief aid, and two subordinate com-
manders.

Sept. 16 Kerensky. as President, de-
clares Russia a republic.

Sept. 2O. British in Flanders cut a
mile into German line on front of
eight miles and take 2.000 prisoners.

Sept. 25. Captain George Guynemer,
French aviator, killed.

Sept. 26. Report of British Admiralty
shows smallest f/-boat toll since Feb-
ruary last; Soukhomlinoff, former
Russian Minister of War, found guilty
of high treason and sentenced to hard
labor for life.

Sept. 3O. Italians capture heights
south of Podlaca in Isonzo sector.

448

A CHRONOLOGY OF THE WAR

OCTOBER

BATTLE OP CAPORETTO H.ERTLING

MADE CHANCELLOR ANGLO-FRENCH

PROGRESS IN THE WEST

Oct. 1. Greatest attack on London

by German airplanes since war be-

g-an; battle lasted two hours and a half.

Oct. 3. Week's record of submarine

sinking's again lowered.
Oct. 6. Russia approaching- civil war.
Oct. 9. Lansing- makes public series
cipher telegrams between German Gov-
ernment and Bernstorff, in 1916, which
shows Germany used United States as
base for military operations against
Canada in 1916, and plotted whole-
sale sabotage in munitions factories
throug-hout United States; British
capture Poelcapelle, while French take
St. Jean de Mangelare and Veldhoek.
Oct. 1O. Dr. Michaelis, German Chan-
cellor, announces at sitting- of Reichs-
tag- that peace is impossible "so long-
as Germany's enemies demand any
German soil or endeavor drive wedge
between people and Emperor"; mutiny
in German navy occurred at Wilhelms-
haven, involving- four battleships.
Oct. 11. Franz von Papen, formerly
German military attache, with sixteen
other men indicted by New York
grand jury for complicity in bomb
plots.

Oct. 12. Capelle, German Minister of
Marine, resig-ns as result recent mutiny
in German fleet.

Oct. 13. German forces landed on
Oesel and Dag-o islands, thus com-
pleting; conquest of Gulf of Rig-a, and
menacing- Petrograd.

Oct. IS. Naval battle, during- which
Russian battleship Slavd is sunk in
Gulf of Riga.

Oct. 2O. Eleven Zeppelins attacked
London, killing- 27 and injuring- 53;
met by French planes, result four
Zeppelins driven to earth; nine neu-
tral merchantmen and a convoy of
two destroyers sunk in North Sea by
German raiders.
Oct. 22. German force landed on

mainland of Esthonia.
Oct. 24. British Admiralty reports in-
crease in losses by mine and sub-
marine; French forces on Aisne deal
heavy blow to enemy. inflicting
serious casualties and capturing- 8,000
prisoners; fresh German forces, operat-
ing- with Austrians, launch big- of-
fensive against Italy.
Oct. 25. Decisive victory of French
north of Aisne secured td Allies high
plateau dominating- Fort Malmaison,
real key of ridg-e between Aisne and
Ailette, while capture of village
Chavignon brings French within six
miles of Laon; German-Austrian Car-
poretto drive begun; tremendous
character of the blow "German;* aim-
ing at Italy becoming apparent:
twenty full divisions, numbering 320,-
000 men, together with a large force
artillery, engaged; Berlin reports that
10,000 prisoners taken, including
divisional and brigade staffs; German
drive extends on twenty-five-mile front
from Tolmino to Carso.
Oct. 26. Italian disaster increasing;
Germans captured 30,000 prisoners

and 300 guns; Italians reported evac-
uating Bainsizza plateau; Cadorna's
gains lost.

Oct. 27. French section Flanders line
drives forward on front almost three
miles to a depth of one and a third
miles; reports from Berlin place num-
ber of Italian prisoners- taken by Ger-
mans at 65 000, and guns captured
at more than 500; second Liberty
Loan overwhelming success; subscrip-
tions more than $5,000,000.000, and
subscribers more than 10,000',000;
more American troops reach trenches.

Oct. 28. Belgians, attacking in con-
junction with French, capture whole
Merckem peninsula, a few miles from
Dixmude.

Oct. 29. Tremendous German-Austro
drive into Italy continues over sixty-
five-mile front; Cadorna falling back
toward Tagliamento; extent of defeat
grows; three enormous wedges driven
into Italian lines and enemy reported
bringing up more troops; Italian
forces preparing to make a stand on
Tagliamento.

Oct. SO. British under Haig drive
forward half a mile into outskirts of
Passchendaele, near end of last ridge
that separates British from plain of
Flanders; Berlin reports French ar-
tillery - fire on Chemin - des - Dames
"reaches powerful proportions; Hert-
ling appointed Chancellor to succeed
Michaelis; Austro-German forces oc-
cupy Udine.

Oct. 31. Italian armies in retreat
with German forces well within gun
range of the Tagliamento; foe now
holds 1,000 square miles of Italian
territory and a total of 120,000
Italian prisoners and 1,000 guns;
Allies rushing plans to aid Italy.

NOVEMBER

BOLSHEVIKI IN POWER CL^MENCEAU

MADE PREMIER OF FRANCE

THE CAMBRIA AND MAL-
MAISON BATTLES

Nov. 1. British and French rein-
forcements arrive on Italian front,
30,000 available within four or five
days; main part Cadorna's armies
crossed Tagliamento in good order;
British forces in Palestine occupy
Beersheba and capture 1,800 prisoners.

Nov. 2. Germans begin retreat from
Chemin-des-Dames east . of Soissons;
German forces rushed to Trentino.

Nov. 3. Three Americans killed, five
wounded, and eleven captured during
a German raid on a trench held by
American infantry; in sharp battle in
Kattegat British destroyers sink Ger-
man auxiliary cruiser Marie and ten
armed patrol vessels; Germans evac-
uate whole section on Aisne on front
of thirteen miles; during battle of
Malmaison French aviators fought 611
aerial engagements, bringing down
sixteen airplanes and destroying three
captive balloons.

Nov. 4. Lloyd George arrives Paris on
way to Italy; Craonne, Ailles, Cerny,
and Courtecon now occupied by French.

Nov. 5. Austro-German forces cross
Tagliamento and proceed westward.

449

SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

Nov. G. Passchendaele, dominating
plain of Flanders, taken by Canadian
forces in brilliant dash; Italians forced
to abandon entire line along- Taglia-
mento.

Nov. 7. New revolutionary movement
begun in Russia; U-boat toll for week
lowest since announcement of unre-
stricted warfare; Secretary McAdoo an-
nounces subscriptions to second Lib-
erty Loan amounted to $4,617,532,-
300, in which 9,400,000 men and
women participated.

Nov. 8. Capture Gaza by British; Pet-
rograd dispatches announce city in
complete control of Bolshevik (Maxi-
malist) forces; Kerensky denounced as
traitor and his arrest ordered; in of-
ficial proclamation Council of Work-
men's and Soldiers' Delegates consti-
tutes itself Government of Russia.

Nov. 9. Cadorna removed as Comman-
der-in-Chief and assigned as Italian
representative in inter-Allied Commis-
sion; Diaz succeeds Cadorna; Revolu-
tionary Committee takes over all
Government offices in Moscow; Nikolai
Lenine, Bolshevik leader, announces
plan to offer an immediate armistice of
three months, during which "elected
delegates of all nations will settle
question of peace"; army is appealed
to, to protect 'the revolution against
"imperialistic attempts until the new
Government obtains a democratic
peace"; all Cabinet Ministers are ar-
rested at Winter Palace after its sur-
render and confined in fortress of St.
Peter and Paul; entire Turkish army
in Palestine retreating to north.

Nov. 1O. Italians, with British and
French allies, establish themselves in
new positions on lower Piave; Brit-
ish in Palestine occupy Ascalon.

Nov. 11. Italian resistance to Ger-
man invasion stiffens all along front;
Kerensky reported marching on cap-
ital with 200,000 men.

Nov. 12. British forces operating
against Turks reach point , thirty
miles Jerusalem; American forces on
Eastern Front in France have first ex-
perience with gas-shells.

Nov. 13. Clemenceau succeeds Ribot
as French Premier; American aviators
take part in bombing- expeditions over
German lines.

Nov. 14. Korniloffs capture Krem-
lin, in Moscow; British Government
faces crisis as result of CLloyd George's
Paris speech; Premier meets situation
by a statement in House Commons;
Washington reports Wilson will sup-
port plans for perfect coordination be-
tween nations; [/-boat losses for past
week lowest yet reported; British
army in Palestine advances seven
miles, threatening Jaffa and railway
to Jerusalem; Turkish forces in Meso-
potamia driven from thirty to fifty
miles north of Tekrit by Maude's
troons; British now 100 miles south
of Mosul ; forces of Crown Prince Rup-
precht defeated in desperate attempt to
recapture Passchendaele.
Nov. 15. Georges Clemenceau ac-
cepts invitation from President Poin-
car6 to form a new French Cabinet.

Nov. 1G. Venice being evacuated,
population having been reduced from
160,000 to 20,000; Kerensky said to
have tied in disguise; loss of life since
beginning of Russian insurrection
estimated from 2,000 to 5,000;
Kerensky's fprces, which advanced
thirty-five miles from Gatchina to
Tsarskoe Selo are defeated; driving
the Turks before them, British reach
point on railroad thirty-five miles
northwest of Jerusalem.

Nov. 1 7. Large area lower Piave
flooded by engineers to prevent a Teu-
tonic advance on Venice.

Nov. IS. British occupy, Jaffe.

Nov. 19. Nine more Americans dead
at the front, two killed in the fight-
ing, two accidentally, four by illness,
and one by suicide; on Asiago plateau
Italians start an offensive; at Zenson
and Figare attempts to cross Piave
repulsed in battle during which enemy
lose 3.000 men in killed and captured;
Maude, in command of British forces
Mesopotamia, dies after brief illness.

Nov. 2O. In St. Quentin region smash-
ing blow delivered against enemy on
a thirty-five-mile front; Lloyd George
asking United States to rush troops
and shipping; Fayolle, noted French
general, placed in command French
forces in Italy and leaves Paris for
front; the exodus of enemy aliens
from Washington begins.

Nov. 21. Council of the People's Com-
missaries in Russia has offered an
armistice on all fronts in order to
treat for immediate peace; American
troops are proceeding to Europe in
stream which promises that by July
Pershing will have at command the
million Americans for whom Lloyd
George has appealed; Clemenceau
scores a notable victory House of
Deputies, when he appeals for prosecu-
tion of war with all the resources and
power of France; British troops within
five miles of Jerusalem and rapidly
closing in; British drive smashes Hin-
denburg line in an attack extending
over thirty-two miles with Cambrai
the objective; surprize attack led by
tanks opened way for advance of in-
fantry and cavalry through wire en-
tanglements; at one point German line
was penetrated more than five miles;
cavalry charged batteries, sabered gun-
ners, and held positions until relieved
by infantry; operations led by Byng.
in command of Third Army.

Nov. 22. Kerensky's troops surren-
der; Ukrainian Government has sent
an army of 150.000 against Kaledine
and Cossacks: Byng's troops holding
all positions captured and consolidates
them.

Nov. 23. For first time since war be-
gan, England celebrates Byng's victory
in old-fashioned way by ringing bells;
Secretary Baker states "there are more
American troops now actually in
Europe than wo expected to have
there at this time," and that the rate
at which troops are being sent over is
being constantly accelerated; Luden-
dorff starts for Eastern Front with a
large staff in connection with peace
offer of Russian Bolsheviki.

450

A CHRONOLOGY OF THE WAR

Nov. 25. Italians holding- line on
Asiago plateau against furious Austro-
German attacks; French ana British
troops in considerable numbers in
Italy tho not on battle-lines.

Nov. 26. French War Cross conferred
upon fifteen Americans for g-ailantry
in the German raid of November 2

Nov. 27. Within twenty-four hours
Italians smashed German's first and
second defense Imes between ±5renta
and Piave.

Nov. 28. Italians definitely defeat
enemy's efforts to break line on upper
Piave.

DECEMBER

BYNG REPULSED BEFORE CAMBRAI

JERUSALEM FALLS RUSSIA

SIGNS ARMISTICE WITH
CENTRAL POWERS

Dec. 1. By fierce fighting British suc-
ceed in regaining- nearly a mile of
front lost near Gouzeaucourt ; captured
orders and maps show enemy's inten-
tion was to deliver an encircling- at-
tack; German commander-in-chief on
Russian front notifies Bolshevik! of
readiness to open peace negotiations.

Dec. 2. Germans in most desperate
fignting endeavor to recapture ground
taken by British west and south of
Cambrai; British had had no chance
to dig in and struggle reported to
have been fierce hand-to-hand conflict
in the open; Berlin claims capture of
100 cannon with 6.000 prisoners.

Dec. 3. Many American engineers and
workmen caught in German encircling
movement at Cambrai dropt their
shovels to fight the Germans and
some killed; an actual armistice goes
into operation in sections of Russo-
German front, and fraternizing begins.

Dec. 4. German counter-offensive in
West ends.

Dec. 6. London reports retirement of
British from untenable positions in
Cambrai sector was not discovered by
Germans until following day; Berlin
War Office announces suspension of
hostilities along the entire Russian
front for a period of ten days, during
which negotiations for armistice be
concluded; Paris dispatches state large
force of Austro-Germans attacking
Italians on a ten-mile front from Monte
Sisemol north and east; Berlin reports
capture of 11,000 prisoners and 60
guns.

Dec. 7. United States declares war
on Austria, Senate passing resolution
74 to 0, and House 361 to 1. negative
vote being cast by Socialist.

Dec. 1O. Japanese troops have landed
at Vladivpstok to protect valuable
supplies: city of Jerusalem surrendered
to British; for first time since days of
Crusaders city in hands of Christian
troops.

Dec. 13. Negotiations to conclude
armistice to replace existing truce of
Germany with Russia begins at head-
quarters of Prince Leopold.

Dec. 14. Trotzky, Bolshevik Foreign
Minister, declares that if armistice is
signed for Eastern Front at Brest-
Litovsk Russian delegates are em-
powered to enter into peace negotia-
tions.

Dec. 16. Formal announcement made
by Berlin that armistice between
Russia and Germany is signed; Russia
thus violates her pledge to Allies not
to make seperate peace.
Dec. 18. London dispatch tells of air-
raid over city in which sixteen to
twenty large German Gothas took
part.

Dec. 2O. Counter-revolution in South
Russia spreading northward and
struggle increasing in intensity;
Ukraine Rada. which opposes Lenine
and his followers, declares Ukraine a
democratic republic and rejects ulti-
matum from the Bolshevik Govern-
ment.

Dec. 21. Ukraine has joined Cossacks
and Bolshevik Government has given
Rada forty-eight hours in which to
reconsider; mobs in Petrograd said to
be sacking homes of rich; in desperate
attacks Italians win back much of
ground lost in region of Monte
Asolone.

Dec. 23. At Brest-Litovsk peace dele-
gates begin session; Emperor William
informs his Government he contem-
plates going to Brest-Litovsk if agree-
ment is reached, in which case he will
endeavor to "assemble all the
sovereigns of Europe in a peace con-
ference similar to that which followed
the Napoleonic wars"; in a succession
of brilliant attacks Italians dislodge
enemy from great part of Monte
Asolone.

Dec. 24. German forces which crossed
Piave driven back with severe losses;
in Christmas message to troops Kaiser
declares battles of 1917 prove that
"the Lord is the avowed ally of the
German people, and that for those
who do not want peace it must be
compelled with the iron fist."
Dec. 26. Wilson, by proclamation,
takes possession all nation's railroads
with auxiliary water-lines, elevators,
warehouses, and all other equipment.
Dec. 27. One of largest air-raids at-
tempted on Italian front defeated and
nearly half of German fleet of twenty-
five aeroplanes destroyed; British and
Italian machines engaged enemy at
close quarters.

Dec. 28. Trotzky says if Allies re-
fuse join in negotiations within ten
days, Russia be forced to conclude a
separate peace.

Dec. 2f). Thirteen persons kired ann
sixty injured when open city of Padua
in northern Italy bombarded by enemy.
Dec. 31. Ukrainian and Cossack
forces in battle on southwestern front
defeat Bolshevik tro9ps, taking 400
prisoners and capturing 8 big guns
and 328 machine-guns.

451

SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY
THE EVENTS OF 1918

JANUARY

WILSON'S FOURTEEN POINTS SPEECH

PEACE NEGOTIATIONS AT BREST-
L1TOVSK

Jan. 2. Germany demands Russia turn
over to her Poland, Courland, Esthonia,
and Lithuania.

Jan. 3. Trotzky declares Russian
workers will not consent to German
terms.

Jan. 4. Growing- disposition among
Russians to recognize Lenine.

Jan. 5. Trotzky, accompanied by Rus-
sian delegates, on way to Brest-Litovsk
to resume peace negotiations with Ger-
many.

Jan. 7. Serious quarrel in Crown
Council of Germany, internal situa-
tion is acute, due to Russian peace
fiasco.

Jan. 8. Before Congress in joint
session Wilson in famous Fourteen
Points speech enunciates war plans
and peace program of United States
and tenders to Russia assistance and
sympathy.

Jan. 9. Spirited artillery battle on
banks of Brenta, and a heavy bom-
bardment along- Piave; French in a
raid penetrate German defenses east
of St. Mihiel for nearly a mile; air-
craft during December put out of
commission 76 German machines, 23
of which fell within French lines, and
18 were destroyed over enemy terri-
tory; French losses, 19 planes.

Jan. 1O. Secret service agents dis-
cover extensive movement to or-
ganize German sabotage in United
States; thirty Germans and some
Scandinavians arrested; owing to losses
by sinking of ships and crop failures
United States plans to release for ex-
port an additional 90.000,000 bushels
of wheat to aid Allies.

Jan. 11. Full text Wilson's address
to Congress reaches Paris; Germans
withdraw general peace terms, made
public at Brest-Litovsk conference on
Christmas.

Jan. 12. Chamber of Deputies places
stamp of approval on war aims of
Allies a? stated by Lloyd George and
Wilson by indorsing them by a vote
of 395 to 145.

Jan. 17. In mutiny among subma-
rine crews at German naval base at
Kiel, thirty-eight officers are killed.

Jan. 2O. Strikes spreading through-
out Austria: Rome reports heavy
losses of Austrian airplanes on Italian
front, 42 having been destroyed during
last fortnight; British naval forces
bombard Ostend; in an action at en-
trance of Dardanelles between British
and Turkish forces Turkish cruiser
Midullu, formerly German Breslau,
sunk, and the Sultan Yawuz Selim,
formerly the German Goeben. beached;
British lost monitor Raglan and a
small monitor.

Jan. 22. Because of desertion of
160 000 Turkish troops between Con-
stantinople and Palestine, Falkenhayn
abandons plan to reorganize Turkish

army for offensive against British in
Palestine; two British steamships sunk
in Mediterranean by which 718 lives
lost; submarine sinkings held at a
low point during week.

Jan. 2G. Wilson, in a proclamation,
calls for a more intensive eifort to
save food to supply Allies.

Jan. 29. Italian forces renew of-
fensive east of Asiago; Clemen-
ceau presides at first meeting of
Supreme War Council at Versailles;
Great Britain, France, Italy, and the
United States represented.

Jan. 3O. Monte di Val Bella and Col
del Rosso fall to the Italians; opera-
tions on the Asiago resulted in cap-
ture of 2.60O prisoners, six guns, and
one hundred machine-guns; Secretary
Baker announces American troops in
action in France.

Jan. 31. Paris reports systematic
German air-raid on city during which
twenty were killed and fifty injured;
four squadrons of Germans dropt
28,000 pounds of bombs; thirty French
planes rose to meet them and for two
hours a spectacular battle raged; two
hospitals struck and several buildings
burned.

FEBRUARY

AFTER PEACE WITH RUSSIA GERMAN

MILITARY AGGRESSIONS ARE

RESUMED

Feb. 1. Bolshevik forces capture
Odessa, with a population of 450,000,
and Orenburg, the headquarters of
Cossacks.

Feb. 2. Italians report enemy losses
reaching as high as 50 per cent, of
men engaged during a week west of
Brenta, where Allies won notable suc-
cesses; result is ascribed to unity of
action of Italian, French, and British
batteries.

Feb. *». British transport Tiucania,
with 2,179 United States troops on
board, torpedoed and sunk oif north
coast of Ireland; 1,912 survivors
landed in Ireland; 159 American sol-
diers lost.

Feb. 6. Two American aviators ac-
companying a French escadrille on a
bombing expedition encounter enemy
squadron of eight planes; general en-
gagement ensues above clouds and one
American sends German plane to
ground; Bonar Law announces German
U-boats have slain 14.120 non-com-
batant British men, women and chil-
dren.

Feb. 8. Jellicoe declares he believes
by August the submarine menace will
have ended.

Feb. 9. Text of Kaiser's birthday
message pleads for home unity and
urges all other issues be put aside
for triumph on battlefield ; peace
treaty between Central Powers and
Ukraine has been signed.

Feb. 1 1 . Bolshevik Government
withdraws from war with the Cen-
tral Empires, and orders demobiliza-
tion; no formal treaty of peace is
signed, however: Roumania's situation

452

A CHRONOLOGY OF THE WAK

now critical; Wilson appears unex-
pectedly before Congress and reads a
message in reply to speech of Chan-
cellor Hertling-.

Feb. 12. American dead as the result
sinking- of Tuscania reported to num-
ber 159; bodies of 145 have been
buried along coast; British Govern-
ment refuses to recognize treaty of
peace between Ukraine and Central
Powers.

Feb. 13. Roumania has defied Cen-
tral Powers and will "survive or perish
with the Entente cause."

Feb. 14. American artillery take an
important part in French raid between
Tahure and Butte du Mesnil.

Feb. 15. Trotzky declares Russia has
withdrawn from war.

Feb. 19. Lloyd George in House of
Commons, asks for immediate continu-
ation of supreme control over every
other issue of war.

Feb. 2O. Heavy firing reported in
Champagne, where American infantry
recently took part in French advance;
Germans are driven back in a raid on
American lines.

Feb. 21. British Government in-
structed agent at Kief to make decla-
ration that Great Britain will not
recognize any peace in the East which
involves Poland without consultation
with Poland; German troops advancing
on a front extending from shores of
Esthonia to southern border of Vol-
hynia; Minsk, most eastern point at-
tained, been entered, and in south
fortress of Rovno taken.

Feb. 22. Peace treaty between
Ukraine and Germany ratified; peace
negotiations with Roumania begun at
Castle Buff tea, near Bucharest; Jericho
occupied by British forces with little
opposition.

Feb. 23. German vanguard reaches
Walk, in Livonia, 90 miles northeast
of Riga; Wilson issues proclamation
that fixes price of 1918 wheat — which
must be sold in the market before
June 1, 1919 — at from $2 to $2.28.

Feb. 24. Bolshevik leaders accept
German peace conditions, which in-
clude relinquishment of all claim to
160,000 square miles of Russian terri-
tory, payment of $1,500,000.000 in-
demnity, and occupation of Petrograd
by Germans.

Feb. 26. Details of raid of American
and French troops in Chemin-des-
Dames sector tell of hand-to-hand
fighting in a German dugout where
the entire enemy party was captured;
Americans chased Germans out of
other shelters and pursued them be-
yond the objectives, their rash en-
thusiasm causing some French criti-
cism; German Chancellor in "peace"
address before Reichstag defended
campaign against Russia as merely to
enable Germany to obtain fruits of
peace with Ukraine.

Feb. 27. Hoffman, in command of
German invading army, Russia, an-
nounces advance will continue until a
peace treaty is signed and carried out
on lines laid down by Germany.

MARCH

LUDENDORFF BEGINS GREAT DRI\&-
AMERICAN TROOPS IN RAIDS ON

EASTERN FRENCH FRONT

PERSHING OFF TO FOCH

Mar£1V,1/ Manv American casualties
resulted from an enemy raid in salient
north of Toul; raid successfully re-
pulsed; dispatch from Venice states
5 fir-attacks been made on Venice
up to February 26, when in a night
raid^ pasting three hours 300 bombs

March 2. Berlin announces occupa-
tion of Kief; German raid on line in
Chemm-des-Dames sector repulsed
so™6 , Americans killed and several
slightly wounded.

March 3. Petrograd dispatch an-
nounces signing of peace treaty with
Germany, Bolshevik delegates accep-
ting all terms fearing new demands

March 5. German attack on the
trenches held by American forces in
Lorraine repulsed; Germans continue
to advance in Russia; Narva one hun-
dred miles southwest of Petrograd, cap-
tured and troops advancing on capital.

March 6. Preliminary peace treaty
been signed by Roumania and the
Central Powers under terms of which
Koumania cedes province of Dobrudja
as far as Danube to Central Powers,
and undertakes to further transport
°* German troops through Moldavia
and Bessarabia to Odessa; Petrograd
being abandoned by Bolshevik Gov-
ernment and Moscow proclaimed cap-
ital of Russia.

Sp??1 7* United States will sell
all German property in this coun-
try beginning with Hamburg-American
and the North German iLloyd steam-
ship piers in Hoboken; American
troops now holding more than eight
miles of trenches on battle-front in
France.

March 8. First complete unit of
American air-service appeared in field
and for the first time in war Ameri-
can observation balloon, fully manned
and protected by Americans, was
sent up.

March 1O. Secretary of War Baker
arrives in France and proceeds to
Paris; American troops on Lor-
raine front resist heavy concentrated
bombardment, enemy firing almost a
hundred gas-shells into American bat-
tery position; more than fifty French
war-crosses distributed among Ameri-
can troops along Chemin-des-Dames
for gallant part men played in eleven
engagements.

March 11. First wholly American
raid made in sector north of Toul,
and surprize of Germans complete;
Americans penetrated enemy's first
and second lines, inflicting casualties
in killed and wounded and returning
to their own lines safely with booty
in supplies and munitions.

March 12. American detachment
successfully carried out surprize at-
tack on German trenches south of
Richecourt; Americans east of Lune-
ville again raid German positions;
going- far beyond their objective they

V. X— 30

453

SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

engage in hand-to-hand fighting, using
automatic! pistols and rifles; American
forces made important raid on German
lines in Toul sector; enemy fled upon
approach of Americans; American ar-
tillery completely destroyed 200 Ger-
man gas-projectors discovered through
a photograph taken over German lines.

March 15. Moscow conference votes
to support the Lenine treaty with Ger-
many and her allies by 453 to 30.

March 1<*. Senate passes without
division Daylight-Saving Bill as
amended by House.

March 17. Washington states Amer-
ican troops being sent to France
faster than any previous time since
war began; Secretary Baker's promi.se
of half a million men in Europe early
this year being fulfilled; British aerial
attacks on German towns causing
panics and many persons leaving Rhine
cities for Central Germany or Switzer-

3Iarch 18. Seven more Americans
been cited by French commander for
Croix de Guerre in recognition of brav-
ery while under fire in Luneville sec-
tor; Supreme War Council of Allies is-
sued a statement condemning German
political crimes against Russian and
Roumanian peoples and refusing to
recognize Germany's peace treatiea
with those countries.

March 19. War Department an-
nounces casualties among American
Expeditionary Forces as l,92o, di-
vided as follows: Killed in action.
154; killed or prisoner, 1; killed by
accident, 145; died of disease, 683:
lost at sea, 237; suicide, 11; unknown
cause, 14; died of wounds, 37; exe-
cuted, 1; civilians. 7; gassed. 6; total
deaths, 1,296; wounded, 594; cap-
tured, 21; missing, 14.

March 21. Long-heralded grand of-
fensive of Germans launched soon
after dawn by enormous masses of
Kaiser's troops against British front
in France- at nightfall greatest battle
of the war, in its scope and number
of men engaged, was raging with
unabated fury; after an intense bom-
bardment, a powerful infantry-attack
was launched on a front of more than
fifty miles, extending from the Oise.
near La Fere, to Sensee, abput
Croisilles; captured maps, indicating
intentions of Germans, show that on
no part of long front did they attain
their objectives.

March 22. Great drive continued
along nearly the entirely fifty-mile
front, British slowly withdrawing;
Kaiser at front with Hindenburg and
Ludendorff and directing operations:
casualties among Germans, who are
attacking in huge masses, declared to
be appalling, entire ground at points
of attack being covered with enemy
dead.

March 23. First stage of great battle
finished with Germans claiming ad-
vantage all along the line from
Monchy, near Arras, to La Fere; cas-
ualties in the three day's fiatitins: esti-
mated at 150,000 German and 100,000
British; British retiring to prepared
positions in the region from which Ger-

mans retreated previous spring; tre-
mendous artillery-fire was heard in
London, 180 miles away; Haig reports
British taken up new positions and
"are heavily engaged with the enemy."
March 24. One-half of territory in
France wrested from Germans in 1916
again in their hands, as result of four
days' fighting.

March 25. Battle continued all day
on wide fronts south of Peronne and
south and north of Bapaume; the en-
emy occupying Bapaume and Nesle;
south of Peronne German troops were
driven back; heavy loses* inflicted on
enemy by artillery and low-flying air-
planes.

March 26. Force of German offen-
sive not yet checked; fighting continued
with undiminished violence along the
front comprising Braysur-Somme.
Chauainet, Roye, and Noyon; Pershing
reported two American regiments of
railway-engineers in battle with British
on March 25 and 26.
March 27. Germans take Albert
and British forces are prest back on
both banks of Somme, but holding
their line; in counter-attack British
recapture Moriancourt and Chinilly;
Germans attacking in great strength
gain a fpothold in Ablainville; at all
other points infantry are beaten off
with great loss; Amsterdam reports
enormously long ambulance-trains
passing through Belgium with Ger-
man wounded.

March 28. Eighth day of German
offensive results in tremendous attacks
being stopt, while French win a bril-
liant victory in south; fierce fighting
reported south of Soarpe, and south
of Somme; British maintain positions;
French troops in counter-attack with
bayonet driving Germans out of
Courtemanche, Mesnil-St. Georges, and
Assainvillers; long-range gun bombard-
ing Paris a product of Krupp works
at Essen.

March 29. On ninth day of great
battle German drive brought to prac-
tical halt; captured documents reveal
that objective of German attack astride
the Scarpe was capture of Vimy Ridge
and Arras; battle at Montdidier con-
tinued, Germans. notwithstanding
fierce counter-attacks, unable to eject
French from village; 75 persons
killed 'and 90 wounded, mostly
women and children, when a shell fired
by German long-range gun fell on a
church in Paris on Good Friday;
Clemenceau, on return from front,
tells a gathering of Deputies that
"come what may, the foe will not
break through"; Pershing calls on
Foch and in his own name and that
of the United States asks that Amer-
ican troops be engaged in present
battle, and offers "all that we have."
March 3O. Sharp fighting resumed
on seventy miles of front during day.
but Haig reports British position re-
mains intact; citing the great battle
as main reason for it. Lloyd George
announces Foch been placed in com-
mand of Allied armies on Western
Front.
March 3 It French Government ac-

454

A CHRONOLOGY OF THE WAR

ceded to request Pershing and Ameri-
can troops will figrht side by side with
British and French in Picardy; in
brilliant operations Canadian cav-
alry and British infantry recapture
Moreuil.

APRIL

FOCH MADE GENERALISSIMO ARMEN-
TIERES, KEMMEL HILL AND
THE ZEEBRUGGE EXPLOIT

April 1. Battle maintained on whole
front north of Montdidier with new
attacks against Grivesnes repulsed;
by brilliant counter-attacks Hangard-
en-Santerre recaptured; French esti-
mates place foe's losses during- eleven-
day offensive at between 275 000 and
300.000 men.

April 2. Offensive still further slack-
ened.

April 4. American forces now oc-
cupy a sector on Meuse Heigiits south
of Verdun- fifteen more Americans
cited by French for gallantry in
action; during: last Allied raid on
Coblenz 26 persons killed and 100
wounded; in last raid on Treyes 60
killed and hundreds injured; in raid
on Cologne a troop-train struck and
caused 248 deaths, half 9f which were
of soldiers bound for Picardy front.

April 5. Battle on a thirty-mile
front from Grivesnes, north of Albert,
continued through night.

April 6. Bombardment Paris by long-
range guns resumed; three persons
wounded; before large and enthusiastic
audience in Baltimore, Wilson de-
clares nation stands united for a war
to victory and use of "force to the
utmost".

April £>. On eleven-mile front from
Givenchy to La Bassee Germans drive
in line held by British and Portuguese
to a depth of four miles at one or
two points; Richebourg-St. Vaast ana
Laventie taken by enemy.

April 1O. British reports first Amer-
ican troops arrive on British line and
greeted enthusiastically; dispatch from
Amsterdam states German troops at
Limburg, Prussia, mutiny as they are
about to start for France; under
terms of peace treaty Russia loses
780,000 square kilometers of territory
and 56.000,000 inhabitants, 32 per
cent, of the population of the coun-
try; German attacks now extend tor
more than 150 miles; north of Armen-
tieres enemy presses on to Wytschaete-
Messines Ridge and Ploegsteert; south
of Armentieres German force is es-
tablished on left bank of Lys, east
of Estaires, and in neighborhood of
Bac St. Maur; British maintain posi-
tion between Estaires and Givenchy.

April 11. Romanof family suffering
want on allowance of $200 a month;
letter of Emperor Charles of Austria,
written to brother-in-law. Prince Sixtus
de Bourbon, made public, in which
Emperor acknowledges just claims of
France to Alsace-Lorraine, and offers
to support France's claim, as well as
declaring that Belgium should be re-
established; heavy fighting in pro-
gress on northern end battle-front;
north of Armentieres determined at-

tack develops and British withdraw
from Armentieres, which is full of
gas.

April 12. French and American
troops drive enemy out of foothold
gained in Apremont Forest; Americans
take 22 prisoners belonging to six
different units; Haig, in order to Brit-
ish troops states that "Every position
must be held to the last man. There
must be no retirement. With our backs
tp the wall, and believing in the jus-
tice of our cause, each one of us
must fight to the end."

April 13. German advance checked
on ten-mile front. British holding line
of railroad from Armentieres to Haze-
brouck,

April 14. British and French agreed
in conferring upon Foch title of Com-
mander-in-Chief of Allied Armies in
France; violent attack by four Ger-
man companies on American position
on Meuse north of St. Mihiel repulsed
successfully in fierce hand-to-hand
fighting.

April 15, Neuve-Eglise lost by
British; fierce fighting north of Mer-
ville, Germans being driven back with
great loss.

April 16. Germans make important
gains in drive for Channel ports;
Bailleul taken and drive extended two
miles beyond that point; Wytschaete
and Spanbroekmolen also occupied: at
nearest point Germans now only
thirty miles from coast; situation con-
sidered most critical since war began;
enemy attack renewed in strength on
front from Meteren to Wytschaete;
approaching under cover of a mist Ger-
man forces took both positions after
prolonged struggle; Meteren recap-
tured by British; heavy artillery
action reported south of Montdidier;
French make progress in Noyon sector;
heights of Wytschaete stprmed and
Bailleul taken by Germans'; situation
extremely critical.

April 17. Greek and British troops
crossed Struma River on eastern flank
of Macedonian front and occupied
seven towns; British withdraw Irom
east of Ypres to new line.

April 18. Checked on northern side
of salient below Ypres, Germans
shift attack, west of La Bassee and
Givenchy ten divisions hurled against
British on a ten-mile front; at end of
day British line remained intact; at-
tacks against British position south
of Kemmel repulsed.

April 19. American and French
troops raid German line on Meuse;
hostile movement south of Kemmel
•successfully repulsed; French posi-
tion greatly improved through en-
gagements in Hangard district; Italian
regiments in France form right wing
of Allied armies; Reims now nothing
but pile smoking ruins; during the
week Germans fired more than 100,-
000 shells into the heart of city.

April 21. In sharp fighting in Amer-
ican sector northwest of Toul Ger-
mans, with picked troops, penetrated
as far as Seicheprey, a mile and a
quarter behind the front; driven out
by a counter-attack of the Americans
with no gain; American loss placed at

455

SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

more than 200; enemy loss estimated
at from 300 to 500; Americans
armed with short shot-guns, which
sprayed buckshot over advancing
troops, seriously breaking- down Ger-
man morale; Paris reports bombard-
ment by the long-range gun continues;
since March 23, 118 persons killed
and 230 injured; attempt by enemy
to advance northeast of Ypres stopt
by British artillery.

April 22. Baron von Richthofen,
leader of German fliers with eighty
air victories to credit in Berlin,
brought down behind British lines
and buried with military honors.

April 23. In a daring effort to block
channel at Zeebrugge, German sub-
marine base, two old cruisers loaded
with cement sunk, operations carried
on under concentrated fire of enemy;
British cruiser Vindictive ran gauntlet
of mines and submarines and a heavy
gunfire and landed sailors and ma-
chine-guns; an old British submarine,
filled with explosives, ran up along-
side mole and blown up; t\vo de-
stroyers made their way inside mole
where they blew up lock-gates; sim-
ilar enterprise at Ostend not so suc-
cessful.

April 23. British and French forced
to withdraw from positions between
Bailleul and Wytschaete.

April 2CJ. German forces capture
summit of Mount Kemmel which dom-
inates entire northern side of salient;
isolated and surrounded, French troops
on summit fought until overwhelmed
by force of numbers.

April 27. British press state the
crisis in 'Flanders is more perilous
than any that has hitherto arisen;
Paris dispatch states eleven American
ambulance men won War Cross by
gallant services during battle now in
progress.

April 28. Ypres still held by Brit-
ish, but foe gained a footing in out-
skirts of Locre; serious anti-German
demonstrations occurred in Austria.

April SO. Total American casualty list
in France to date: Killed in action,
588; died of wounds, disease or ac-
cident, 1,311; from other causes, 95;
missing in action, 93; severely
wounded number 555; British official
report states that successful counter-
attacks drove enemy from ground
gained in neighborhood of Locre,
whole village now being in hands of
the Allies.

MAY

THE GERMAN DRIVE SOUTH TO THE
MARNE AMERICANS AT CANTIGNY

Miy 1. German attack hurled against
Americans who occupy a short sector
west of Villers-Bretonneux; attack re-
pulsed, the Germans leaving many
dead; American loss reported "rather
severe"; Gavril Prinzip, assassin of
Archduke Francis Ferdinand and his
wife, died in fortress near Prague of
tuberculosis.

May 2. Germans establish military
rule in Kief.

May 4. Washington reports "over-
whelming success" of third Liberty

Loan campaign at midnight, when it
was indicated that the subscriptions
will amount to more than $3,867,-
000,000.

May o. Emperor Charles, the Aus-
trian Chief of Staff, and several high
German and Austrian officials, reach-
ed Italian front.

May 7. Clemenceau, returning from
the front, declares American troops
are continuing to arrive in force; be-
lieves Entente forces invincible.

May 9. Large German patrol at-
tempted to rush American positions
on Picardy front, but frustrated; total
losses of Allied and neutral ships due
to submarine warfare during April
approximately one-half those during
April of last year; last year figures
were 634.685 tons, while in April,
1918, tonnage lost was 381.631.

May 1O. Operations designed to close
ports of Ostend and Zeebrugge com-
pleted when obsolete cruiser Vin-
dictive, filled with concrete, sunk be-
tween piers at entrance of Ostend
harbor.

May 13. Big ammunition-dump in
Cantigny fired by American artillery
and at same time two fires started in
Montdidier followed by numerous ex-
plosions; enemy activity reported
increasing along Italian front.

May 16. Opening of offensive on
Italian front developed with Italian
troops taking lead; troops of new
American army arriving within zone
of British forces in northern France;
air- fighting on tremendous scale on
Western Front with American avia-
tors participating; Wilson arrives in
New York and reviews Her! Cross
parade which inaugurated $100,000,-
000 drive; Washington announces sub-
scriptions to third Liberty Loan
reached $4,170,019.650.

May 18. In an address at Metro-
politan Opera House, New York Wil-
son announces no limit will be placed
on number of men that will be sent
to France to "win the war worthily."

May 23. Unprecedented aerial activ-
ity on battle-front and behind German
lines; Mannheim again attacked, a
chlorine factory being set on fire;
on May 31 bombs dropt on four
of enemy's large airdromes near
Ghent and Tournai, and billets near
Armentieres, Bapaume, and Bray;
enemy aircraft been particularly active
in Picardy, ' on American front, bomb-
ing villages in the rear of the lines
and killing number of women and
children.

May 27. Italians launched im-
portant offensive northwest of Trent,
capturing 870 prisoners and 12 guns,
and taking summit of Monte Zignolon
and spur east of pass; Great German
offensive resumed on practically entire
front; terrific blows struck in Flan-
ders and on Aisne; attack began 3.30
in morning at Berry-an-Bac, and same
time attacks made on French on right
and left along high ground traversed
by Chemin-des-iDames; in British sec-
tor attack supported by tanks; on left
enemy pushed back British to second
line of defense; in neighborhood pf
Dickebusch Lake enemy succeeded in

456

A CHRONOLOGY OF THE "WAR

penetrating* for short distance into
French positions; battle continued
throughout day with extreme violence
on front of forty miles.

May 28. Offensive made rapid prog-
ress during- day in Aisne sector and at
night continued apparently unchecked;
numerous towns taken by storm and
Berlin claims capture of 15,000 pris-
oners; French and British retiring
steadily; continuous pressure main-
tained all day against British troops
on Aisne front and severe fighting
continues on entire British sector, and
second-line positions maintained until
late hour; at end of day weight of
enemy troops carried them across
Aisne to west of British sector; west
of Montdidier Americans, supported by
British tanks, brilliantly occupied sali-
ent along front of two kilometers and
strongly fortified village of Cantigny,
capturing 170 prisoners and material;
in an attack on village of Cantigny
Americans gained all objectives, cap-
turing 145 Germans, including two
officers; American losses slight and
only two men reported missing.

May 29. Enormous number of fresh
troops thrown into German lines ex-
tends and widens drive on Aisne front,
pushing point of new salient five
miles farther south, making maximum
penetration of enemy for the three
days seventeen and one-half miles;
Soissons, after stubborn resistance and
fighting in streets, evacuted by French;
southeast of city battle extended to
Belleu, Septmonts, Ambrief, and
Charcise; troops covering Reims with-
drawn behind Aisne Canal; German
attack made over front approximately
thirty miles wide and at least 240,-
000 men employed.

May 3O. In center, about seven miles
north of Marne. French reserves, aided
by American troops, check German
thrust toward Chateau-Thierry; an-
other attack on American positions at
Cantigny hurled back by artillery-fire

May 31. Enemy pushing forward
with strongly augmented forces, reach-
es Marne; despite vigorous counter-
attacks enemy passed Oulchy-la-yille
and Oulchy-le-Chateau ; United States
transport President Lincoln sunk by
German t/-boat on her way to this
country; vessel was struck by three
torpedoes and remained afloat only
eighteen minutes; twenty-three of
crew, including three officers, missing;
German £7-boats been operating o«
coast of United States: northwest
of Toul American troops raid German
lines on 500-yard front, penetrating
positions for 500 yards; defensive
works and dugouts destroyed.

JUNE

AUSTUIANS DEFEATED ON THE PIAVE

AMERICAN MARINES TAKE BELLEAU
WOOD BEAURICHES AND VAUX

June 1. Germans occupy front on
Marne thirteen miles wide, forming
apex of V-shaped salient between
Chateau-Thierry and Verneuil; situa-
tion admitted critical.

June 2. Thirty-eight officers and men

of American Expeditionary Force cited
for gallantry in action; enemy reached

outskirts of forest of Retz, surrounding
Villers-Cotterets, forming one of prin-
cipal defenses of approach to Paris by
Ourcq Valley; Germans again bomb
group of hospitals, that were attack-
ed on May 19.

June 3. Foch brought his reserve
force into field; to north of Aisne,
Mont Choisy was recaptured for fifth
time by French.

June 5. Marines finally beat off
desperate attacks of enemy at Belleau
Wood; wiped out enemy patrol, and
charged and captured enemy posi-
tions, taking machine-guns and many
prisoners; other American troops pene-
trated enemy positions in Picardy and
Lorraine.

June 6. French official report on
American operations at Chateau-Thierry
stated "courage of Americans beyond
all praise"; attack by French and
American troops on point of German
salient nearest to Paris, west of
Chateau-Thierry, drove back invaders
nearly mile on front of two miles; at-
tack between Ourcq and Marne carried
out by French and Americans ad-
vanced French line in region of Veuil-
ly-le-Poterie and Bouresches.

June 7. French and Americans cap-
ture villages of Veuilly-la-Poterie and
Bouresches, both points of great stra-
tegical value which fought over most
bitterly for several days; Bligny, be-
tween Marne and Reims, captured;
American troops gained ground on
front of Torcy, Belleau, and Boures-
ches, west of Chateau-Thierry; fur-
ther advances by American troops
near Chateau-Thierry.

June 8. First mention of American
forces in official German reports.

Jnne 9. Unsuccessful attacks by
enemy northwest of Chateau-Thierry.

Jnne 1O. Marines at daybreak
again attack German lines, pene-
trating two-thirds of mile on 600-yard
front in Belleau Wood northwest of
Chateau-Thierry ; French Government
issues statement in which it says that
"with strong will and irresistible
activity American troops continue ab-
solutely to dominate adversaries they
oppose''; German offensive between
Montdidier and Noyon marked by
aerial operations on tremendous scale.

Jnne 13. German advance practically
ceased.

Jnne 15. German drive f9r Paris
effectively checked; enemy driven out
of Coeuvres-et-Valsery, south of Aisne;
Austrians opened great offensive on
front from Asiago Plateau to sea, dis-
tance of 90 miles.

Jnne 16. On long battle-line in Italy
terrific fisrhting still in progress, all
ground yielded under weight of first

frand rush by French, British, and
talians recovered with exception of
few places on Piaye River; enemy in-
fantry passed to right bank of Piave;
end of six days desperate fighting
marked by complete arrest of German
offensive.
June 7. Proof that Austrian offensive

457

SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

broken down shown by fact that
Italians with British and French
Allies aggressive along- 100-mile
battle-front from southeast of Trent
to Adriatic Sea.

Jnne 18. Violence of great Italian
battle diminished in vital mountain
sectors but increased along Piave.

June 19. An assault by large units
of German shock-troops been con-
centrated on western side of Reims be-
tween Vrigny and Ormes met by
heavy French fire and unable to make
progress; Turkish troops sack Amer-
ican hospital at Tabriz and seize
American and British consulates;
American patrols crossed Marne east
of Chateau-Thierry establishing con-
tact with enemy; American artillery
east and west of Chateau-Thierry
deluged enemy with shells for several
hours; Austrian troops had to cross
Piave in perilous position; river
swollen to flood, many bridges swept
away, cutting- off supplies of food and
ammunition, troops penned on flat
ground terribly cut up by Italian
artillery and Allied airplanes.

June 21. For first time Italian air-
men had as companions "daring Amer-
ican pilots"; American forces rushed
enemy's positions without artillery
preparation; midnight American artil-
lery poured an avalanche of projectiles
into wood east of Chateau-Thierry
where host of German troops and
material had been located by aerial
photographs; American troops forming
Rainbow division, cited by French Gen-
eral for fine military qualities and ser-

June 22. More than 900.000 Ameri-
can troops have left for Europe;
record five months ahead of program.

June 23. Greatest of Austria's
armies falling back across Piave in
confusion- losses in one week's fight-
ing estimated at 200,000.

Jnne 24. American troops capture
northwestern part Belleau Wood; Aus-
trian rout appears complete ; an official
message announces evacuation by
enemy of Montello Plateau and right
bank of Piave.

June 25. Further advances were
made by American troops in Chateau-
Thierry region.

June 2G. Complete recapture of all
Italian arms, artillery and material
reported: one Austrian report admits
loss of 20,000 by drowning in Piave;
Americans extend their line northwest
of Belleau Wood; new positions give
United States Marines possession of
virtually all of Belleau Wood domin-
ating ridge beyond.

Jnne 27. Reports of murder of Em-
peror Nicholas in Ekaterinburg persist
in Moskow; Clemenceau visits Amer-
ican unit that fought at Belleau Wood
and expresses warm appreciation.

June 28. British in north and French
in south deliver smashing blows
against surprized Germans, winning
large area of ground.

Jnne 29. First American troops
landed in Italy; British report states
that since June 1. 1.040 airplanes
and 71 observation-balloons reported

downed on all battle-fronts and in
Allied raids on Germany; on Western
Front 781 airplanes reported downed-

JULY

FOCH'S GREAT COUNTER-OFFENSIVE IN

THE MAUXE SALIENT, AMERICANS

MAKING 30 PER CENT. OF

HIS FORCE

July 2. American units in night at-
tack capture village of Vaux, close to
Chateau-Thierry; production of snips
in the United States during oune broke
all records, steel and wooden ships de-
livered to Shipping Board totaling
280,140 deadweight tons; steel snips
totaled 262,900 tons; up to and in-
cluding June 30, 1,019,115 American
troops left for France; during the
month cf June an average of 9,212
American soldiers left for France every
day.

July 4. Australian troops, assisted
by American infantry and some tanks
drove against enemy lines east oi
Amiens over four-mile front, captur-
ing villages of Hamel and Vaire and
Hamel Woods, together with 1,500
prisoners; as fitting celebration of In-
dependence Day 54 steel and 41
wooden vessels launched in United
States shipyards; before gathering
of diplomats and representatives of
foreign nations at tomb of Wash-
ington at Mount Vernon. Wilson de-
clares there can be but one issue to
war — a final settlement; five Amer-
ican aviators attached to Italian
army decorated with Italian War
Cross by King Victor Emmanuel.

July 5. Czecho-SIovaks win in great
battle with Bolsheviki 250 miles west
of Irkutsk; Czecho-SIovaks now said
to be in control of 3,000 miles of
Siberia.

July 6. General Count von Mirbach,
German Ambassador to Russia, as-
sassinated in Moscow.

July 7. Italians occupy right bank
of new Piave and fortify themselves
on vast tract of land recaptured.

July 8. French forces launch attack
southwest of Soissons.

July 9. Reports that Kuhlmann, Ger-
man Foreign Minister, resigned are
confirmed.

July 1O. In fight north of Chateau-
Thierry Lieut. Quentin Roosevelt
brought down his first German air-
plane; rapid strides being made by
French, British, and Italian forces in
Albania, offensive being pushed on
front of sixty miles; town of Berat
occupied by Italian forces and French
allies; British monitors reported assis-
ted French and Italian troops in reach-
ing Fiere.

July 13. British statement on aerial
operations announces that in one
year on Western Front Royal Air
Force has accounted for 3.233 enemy
airplanes, while naval airmen shot
down 623, a total of 3,856.

July 15. American and British troops
occupy whole of Murman coast in
northern Russia; German Marne of-
fensive resumed after violent artillery
preparation at 4.30 A.M., striking on

458

A CHRONOLOGY OF THE WAR

both sides of Reims; American forces
holding- western side of Marne salient
meet onslaught gallantly; just east jof
Chateau-Thierry German advance
checked by Americans who, in counter-
attack alter Germans crossed river,
took 1,500 prisoners, including- com-
plete brigade staff; Germans driven
back to original positions; German
long-range guns resume bombardment
of Paris.

July 17. Quentin Roosevelt, killed
when his airplane was brought down
in flames during fight south of
Reims on July 14.

July 18. Foch strikes Crown
Prince's right flank vital blow; French
and Americans, closely cooperating,
fight their way six miles along Aisne,
reaching outskirts of Soissons; south
of Soissons Allied troops reach
Rozieres, driving Germans back eight
miles from their starting point; ad-
vance so rapid that cavalry thrown
into action; French report French and
American forces taking more than
twenty villages, several thousand
prisoners, and quantity of war ma-
terial; Pershing's report states that,
in American sector on Marne enemy
entirely driven from south bank;
Americans in Marne salient comprise
30 per cent, of Entente force.

July 19. In great Allied counter-
offensive French and American troops
push on about two miles and hold
advanced positions despite counter-
attack; Paris reports 17,000 prisoners
and 360 guns taken; Scottish troops
capture village of Meteren, taking 300
prisoners and number of machine-guns;
Australians push forward south of
Meteren; American troops cooperating
with French between Aisne and Marne,
penetrate enemy's lines to depth of
several miles.

July 2O. Germans begin retreat
across Marne: 20.000 prisoners and
400 guns captured; whole south bank
of the Marne held by Allied forces;
as a result of operations in Meteren.
sector British line been advanced on
front of about 4.000 yards and
Meteren and Le Waton are now held
by British troops; between Aisne and
Ourcq; French in conjunction with
Greek and Italian troops make further
advance in Albania, capturing- Meran
and Mount Tizee; Nicholas Romanof,
former Czar of Russia, declared exe-
cuted on July 16.

July 21. Entire property of Nicholas
Romanof, his wife, and mother, as
well as all other members of royal
house, including deposits in foreign
banks, been forfeited to Russian Re-
public; Pershing states prisoners cap-
tured by American troops during bat-
tle on Marne total 17,000, with 560
guns; Americans continue advance.

July 22. Powerful counter-attacks by
Germans between Marne and Ourcq
met by Franco-American troops, who
increased their gains, advancing nprth-
east and taking village of Epieds;
Pershing reports fresh successes be-
tween Aisne and Marne.

July 23. Violent engagements re-
ported between Marne and Reims; in

local engagement north of Montdidier
French captured Mailly-Raineval
Sauvillers, and Aubvillers.

July 25. French report capture of
Oulchy-la-Ville, Hill 141 village of '
Coincy, and most of Tournelle Wood;
Pershing reports continued American
advance with capture of southern half
of Forest of Fere.

July 27. Arrival of force of Ameri-
can troops reported on Italian front.

July 28. French have crossed Ourcq
and penetrated into Fere-en-Tardenois.

July 3O. Americans beat Germans
back nearly two miles north of Fere-
en-Tardenois in terrific fighting ;
Franco-American advance captured tre-
mendous stores of German ammunition
abandoned in hasty retreat; Field-
Marshal von Eichhorn and his adju-
tant. Captain von Dressier, killed by
bomb in Kief.

July 31. Czecho-Slovaks, in a sur-.
prize attack, capture large railway-
bridge at Syzran in the Volga region.

AUGUST

GERMAN DEFEAT IN ALBERT-MONT-

DIDIER SALIENT SOISSONS

AND FISMES TAKEN

Aug. 1. Mangin's French-American
army advances on twelve-mile front on
west side of Champagne salient, tak-
ing Cramoiselle, Meuniere Wood, and
Cierges.

Aug. 2. French reports note fall of
Soissons, crossing of the Crise, and
taking of Coulonges, Goussancourt
Villers - Agron, Ville-en - Tardenois.
Gueux, and Thillois.

Aug. 3. Pershing awarded Grand
Cross of Legion of Honor by French
Government; First Army Corps, com-
manded by Major-General Hunter
Liggett, occupied center of Allied
forces which drove in the German
salient on Marne.

Aug. 4. German retreat of six miles
on ten-mile front between Montdidier
and Moreuil near Amiens; Fismes
taken by Allies, whose forces reach
Vesle to east and cross river in several
places; Aisne crossed between Soissons
and Benizel. and French make further
gains northwest of Rheims; Pershing
reports Germans driven in confusion
beyond the Vesle, 8,400 prisoners and
133 guns taken by American troops
alone.

Aug. 6. Premier C16menceau an-
nounces Allied counter-offensive wiped
out German salient between Soissons
and Reims and resulted in capture of
more than 35,000 prisoners and 700
guns: Fqch made Marshal of France
and Petain receives Military Medal.

Aug. 7. Franco-American troops cross
Vesle.

Aug. 8. Submarine sinkings for July
officially stated to be less than for
June; in new offensive in Picardy. be-
tween Braches and Morlancourt. Brit-
ish troops, assisted on south by French
forces, sweep forward for an arerage
gain of five miles; ten thousand
prisoners and 100 guns reported cap-
tured.

459

SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

Aug. 9. Fresh blows bring- Allied ex-
treme penetration in Picardy to four-
teen miles; number of prisoners
officially reported 17,000, and between
200 and 300 guns taken; in Lys
Valley British troops advance on ten-
mile front on maximum depth of
four miles; on Vesle, American troops
capture Fismette; Rome reports
squadron of Italian airplanes, com-
manded by Capt. Gabriele d'Annunzio,
has flown over Vienna and dropt
manifestoes.

Aug. 1O. Picardy offensive gains
maximum of six miles, Montdidier,
Lihons, and Proyart falling- to Allies;
American troops participate in cap-
ture of Chipilly "the most serious re-
verse of the war," is pan-German
Deutsche Zeitung's description of first
day of Picardy AlHed offensive.

Aug. 15. Canadian troops take
Damery and Parvillers, northwest of
Roye; total number of prisoners cap-
tured by British Fourth Army since
morning- of August 8, 21,844; in same
period prisoners taken by French First
Army amount to 8,500, making total
of 30,344 German prisoners captured
in the operations of Allied armies on
Montdidier-Albert front; first contin-
gent of American troops "is now ar-
riving at Vladivostok"; the unit con-
sists of the Twenty-seventh Regular
Infantry Regiment.

Aug. 17. General March, Chief of
Staff, announces overseas shipments
of men total more than 1,450,000.

Aug. 21. Czecho-Slovak forces com-
pletely in control of railway from
Baku to Ural Mountains; northwest
of Soissons French take Lassigny and
advance over front of 15 miles,
piercing German lines to maximum
depth of five miles; British capture
villages of Beaucourt, Bucquoy, Ab-
lainzeville, Moyenneville, Achiet-le-
Petit, and Courcelles.

Aug. 22. French forces advance
seven miles between Aisne and region
north of Soissons; Albert captured
by British troops.

Aug. 23. British take nine towns on
front of more than thirty miles;
several thousand prisoners taken;
cross Oise River, eight miles east of
Noyon.

Aug. 24. Bray, Thiepval, and four
other villages captured by British;
American troops west of Fismes
sector advance as far as Reims-
Soissons road.

Aug. 25. Against fresh German
troops British forces capture fourteen
villages, including Contalmaison, Mar-
tinpuicn, Le Sars, and Mametz; Brit-
ish airplanes bombed Karlsruhe on
August 23; nine persons killed and
six injured.

Aug. 27. French troops capture Roye
and advance two miles beyond.

Aug. 29. Noyon falls in new French
advance; French troops cross Ailette
at several points near Campagne:
British troops take Bapaume and close
in on Peronne; north of Soissons
American forces drive Germans out
of Juvigny.

Aug. 31. Fierce fighting east of

Arras brings British again into
Bullecourt; south of Bapaume Gueude-
court is captured; American forces
with Mangin's army north of Soissons
advance eastward in vicinity of
Juvigny and Bois de Beaumont.

SEPTEMBER

SWITCH LINE TAKEN, ST. MIHIEL RE-
COVERED, HINDENBURG LINE BROKEN
AT TUNNEL BULGARIA SURREN-
DERS PALESTINE RECOVERED

Sept. 1. Australian troops take
Peronne with 2,000 prisoners; other
English forces capture Bouchavesne,
four miles north of Peronne, and Ran-
court, five miles north; American
troops fight for first time on Belgian
soil, capturing Voormezeele.

Sept. 2. British forces break through
Queant-Drocourt line, or "switch
line"; \Neuve-Eglise captured; Ameri-
can troops who captured Voormezeele
advance eastward in pursuit of Ger-
man rear-guard; north of Soissona
United 'States troops reach Terney-
Sorny and cross St. Quentin-Soissons
road.

Sept. ' 3. Czecho-Slovaks recognized
by United States as belligerent nation;
driving on toward Cambrai, British
forces capture fourteen villages and
10,000 iprisoners; Queant, point of
juncture between Drocourt-Queant
switch and Hindenburg line, taken.

Sept. 4. German forces retreat on
front of twenty miles north of Vesle,
followed by French and American
troops; north of Peronne British
troops make progress on front of fif-
teen miles, forcing passage of Canal
du Nord.

Sept. 5. French win thirty towns
along Ailette; with cooperation of
Americans ground gained to east of
Coucy-le-Chateau; London reports to-
tal of 465 German airplanes destroy-
ed and 200 disabled since start of of-
fensive on August 8.

Sept. 6. Ham and CTiauny, on road
to southern part of Hindenburg line
at La Fere, captured by French;
heights dominating Aisne captured and
held by French and Americans.

Sept. 12. Registration-day for United
States new selective draft passes with-
out disorder, with indications that 13,-
000.000 mark set will be surpassed;
first American army under own com-
mand, assisted by French, attacks
salient of St. Mihiel; an extreme gain
of five miles and capture of 8,000
prisoners and of half a dozen towns
at end of first day's operations.

Sept. 13. American troops wipe out
St. Mihiel salient, reaching line of
Norroy. Jaulny, Xammes, St. Benoit,
Hattonville, Hannonville, and Herbeu-
ville.

Sept. 14. American troops gain mile
on new front east of St. Mihiel; to-
tal prisoners officially reported 20,-
000.

Sept. 15. American forces advance
two to three miles on thirty-three-mile
front; fortress-guns of Metz come
into action against them; American
patrols approaching Pagny on west

460

A CHRONOLOGY OF THE WAR

bank of Moselle; Maissemy, north-
west of St. Quentin, falls to British,
together with trench-system to east
and southeast.

Sept. 16. Renewal of German U-
boat activities in American waters
by attack on steamship ninety miles
from coast, in-bound in ballast, with
ninety-six wounded Canadian officers
on board.

Sept. 17. Serbian and French troops
continue offensive in Macedonia, pro-
gressing- more than five miles; three
thousand prisoners and twenty-four
guns captured.

Sept. 18. Clemenceau declares in an
address to French Senate: "We will
fight until the hour when the enemy
comes to understand that bargaining
between crime and right is no longer
possible" ; British and French advance
on twenty-two-mile front north and
south of St. Quentin; British cross
Hindenburg- line at Villeret and
Gouzeaucourt ; French tr9ops reach
western outskirts of Francilly-Selency,
three miles west of St. Quentin; 6,000
prisoners are captured by British;
American First Army completes occu-
pation of line in St. Mihiel sector run-
ning parallel with Hindenburg line;
Serbian, French, and Greek troops ad-
vance an average of ten miles on a
front of twenty miles in Macedonia.

Sept. 19. Bulgarian troops, driven
back through mountains region of
Rojden and Balettes Massif, reported
in flight across Cerna River; forty-five
villages fallen to Serbian troops, oper-
ating with French and Greek detach-
ments; British and French forces in
Palestine attack on front of sixteen
miles between Rafat and sea and push
forward twelve miles; more than 3.000
prisoners, many guns, and large
quantities of material among booty.

Sept. 2O. Moeuvres. seven miles
west of Cambrai, recaptured by Brit-
ish; northwest of St. Quentin, Haig's
troops advance line more than mile;
bombardment of American hospitals,
with loss of eight American wounded;
Metz forts and batteries under fire
from American guns.

Sept. 22. Serbian troops, pressing
Bulgarian and German troops in cen-
tral Macedonia; Turkish army opera-
ting in Palestine between Jordan and
Mediterranean virtually wiped out by
British and Allied forces, 18,000
prisoners, 120 guns, four airplanes,
and large quantity of transport in
hands of pursuing forces; Arab forces
of King of Hejaz cooperated to east-
ward by destroying bridges and tear-
ing up railroad lines near Derat.

Sept. 23. French hold west bank
of the Oise for more than half dis-
tance from La Fere to Moy; Italian
troops in Macedonia advance more
than seven miles and take sixteen
villages; British and Greek airmen
bomb Constantinople and drop thou-
sands of leaflets; British freighter ar-
riving in ballast at "an Atlantic port"
reports attack by torpedo and shell-
fire while 800 miles from United
States coast, September 13; tf-boat
continued firing for one hour and

twenty-four minutes; another steam-
ship, belonging to United States
Shipping Board, reports an encounter
with U-boat on September 19, 500
miles off American coast; London
reports 25,000 Turkish prisoners and
260 guns captured in advance of
British armies northward through
Palestine; having seized passages of
the Jordan at Jisred-Dameer, last ave-
nue of escape open to enemy west of
the river closed by British troops;
Seventh and Eighth Turkish armies
virtually ceased to exist, entire trans-
port captured

Sept. 24. British cavalry capture
port of Haifa, together with Acre and
Es-Salt; British and French attacking
on adjacent fronts, totaling about
seven miles west of St. Quentin, cap-
ture 1,300 prisoners and four towns;
Allied lines now less than three miles
from St. Quentin; French cavalry
operating with Serbians capture
Prilep, northeast of Monastir; Greek
and French troops operating on Brit-
ish left reported at Gurinchet. few
miles west of the Vardar; thus far
more than 11,000 prisoners and 140
guns been counted, in addition to im-
mense stores of material.

Sept. 25. Admiral von Hintze assures
Reichstag that, despite repeated re-
jection of peace offers from Central
Powers, Germany maintains readiness
for peace; Bulgarians retreating on
total front of 130 miles; more than
45,000 prisoners and 265 guns been
taken by British in Palestine.

Sept. 2G. First American Army
delivered an attack in Argonne between
Meuse and Aisne rivers on front of
twenty miles smashing through Hin-
denburg line for average gain of seven
miles and capturing 5.000 prisoners;
two divisions take German trenches:
and strong points northwest of St.
Quentin and 1,500 prisoners; British
extending occupation about Sea of
Galilee and Fourth Turkish Army vir-
tually surrounded; British and Greek
troops invade Bulgaria from Doiran
region, forcing way over Belashitza
mountain range.

Sept. 27. Wilson opens fourth Lib-
erty Loan campaign with a speech in
Metropolitan Opera House in New York
in which outlines plan for League of
Nations to be formed at Peace Con-
ference; British pierce Hindenburg line
at several points; Haig carries Cam-
brai defenses. Americans aiding, and
takes 6,000 prisoners; American troops
capture outer defenses of Hinden-
burg system southwest of Le Catelet;
proposal from Bulgarian Govern-
ment for armistice Of forty-eight
hours, with view making peace; offer
causes intense excitement in Germany;
British forces on Macedonian front
capture Strumitza.

Sept. 28. Replying to Bulgarian re-
quest for armistice. Great Britain in-
sists upon unequivocal submission;
Americans reached Kreimhilde line in
Argonne at .Brieulles and advance to
Exermount; French and Americans
push onward in Champagne and
take German railway base; Belgian,

461

SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

and British capture Poelcappelle and
4,000 prisoners; capture of Fort
Malmaison, one of strongholds south-
east of ILaon; Haig reports capture
of more than 10,000 prisoners, 200
guns, and ten villages; Allenby takes
5,000 more Turkish prisoners and cap-
tures 350 guns; up to date 50,000
prisoners been taken by British; Bul-
garian crisis produces panic on Ber-
lin Stock Exchange.

Sept. 29. Haig reports air-force co-
operated in every phase of opera-
tions; enemy troops bombed and ma-
chine-gunned from extremely low
heights and heavy casualties inflicted;
Pershing's army in Argonne sweep-
ing all barriers aside; in three days
United States troops cut through de-
fenses that had stood four years;
capture of Dixmude by Belgians, over
5,500 prisoners and 100 guns cap-
tured; forces under Haig, including
Americans, make notable advance and
are now at edge of Cambrai: Ameri-
can troops capture Bellicourt and
Nauroy on St. Quentiii Canal at
tunnel; Americans on Champagne
captured Brieulles-sur-Meuse and
Romagne on Kreimhilde line.

Sept. SO. Outskirts of Cambrai and
two villages near St. Quentin won by
British; Belgians entered Roulers, and
British to south close to Menin; 30,-
000 Czechs, Poles, and Silesians gath-
ered near Troppau, Austria, and de-
clarerd in favor of foundation of a
Czecho-Slovak State and Czecho-Polish
solidarity; force of 10,000 Turks sur-
render to British in Palestine; Bul-
garia surrendered unconditionally to
Allies, hostilities ceasing officially
at noon; armistice signed with full
consent of King Ferdinand.

OCTOBER

DAMASCUS FALLS THE MEUSE-

ARGONNE BATTLE GERMANS

ASK FOR AN ARMISTICE

Oct. 2. Allenby's forces occupy Da-
mascus, taking over 7,000 prisoners;
Germans evacuating Lille; St. Quentin
in hands of French; two thousand
prisoners taken between Vesle and
Aisne; whole Hindenburg system be-
low Bellicourt tunnel now in British
and American hands.

Oct. 3. American, British, and Italian
warships destroy Austrian naval base
and warships at Durazzo; appoint-
ment of Prince Maximilian of Baden
as Chancellor announced ; Rome reports
Italians have occupied Fieri and Berat;
from September 18, Allenby has taken
71,000 men and 350 guns, and King
Hussein's Arabs report 8,000 additional
pris9ners; gains made by French
armies operating from St. Quentin to
the Argonne closed only avenue of
escape for Germans on the west side
of Argonne Forest; Germans evacuate
Armentieres and Lens; British and
Belgian troops capture villages in
neighborhood of Roulers.

Oct. 4. 1,800,000 American troops
now abroad; American troops join
Gouraud's army in strong thrust north

pf Somme-Py in Argonne; Amer-
icans are astride Kriemhilde line, last
organised defense-system between them
and Belgian border; British now well
to east of Lens.

Oct. 5. Austro-Hungarian minister at
Stockholm charged to request Swedish
Government to transmit to Wilson pro-
posal to conclude general armistice
with him and his Allies; immediate
suspension of hostilities proposed in
Reichstag by Prince Maximilian, new
Chancellor; German retreat before
Gouraud perceptibly quickening; Fort
Brimont captured by French troops;
French and Americans make gains of
two or three miles during attack on a
30-mile front between Meuse and
Champagne; Berthelot's army crosses
Aisne Canal at new points; preceding
v their withdrawal, Germans set fire to
Douai and many villages near Cambrai;
in Belgian offensive 10,500 prisoners
and 350 guns taken; entire Flanders
ridge won in first forty-eight hours.

Oct. 6. Indescribable panic on Berlin
Stock Exchange October 5; Amster-
dam forwards text of Germany's peace
note to Wilson; Franco-Americans un-4
der Gouraud make eight-mile gain near
Reims.

Oct. 7. Franco-American troops take
St. Istienne on Arnes; three tre-
mendous blows dealt foe in France;
British, French, and Americans tear
away last defenses of Hindenburg line
on twenty-mile front between Cam-
brai and St. Quentin, advancing an
average distance of three miles, with
maximum penetration of five miles;
Pershing's army, including French
units, assaults on seven-mile frpnt
east of Meuse above Verdun, gaining
two miles; Gouraud's army, in which
many Americans are incorporated, at-
tack on a front of four or five miles
from Machault, north of St. fitienne.
and advance two miles; Haig, with
American aid, captures Brancourt and
Fremont; Allies still moving forward
everywhere; American "lost" battalion
in Argonne Forest rescued virtually
intact; last shells fall upon Reims on
October 4.

Oct. 9. Haig reports Hindenburg sys-
tem cleared on a thirty-five-mile front
between Scarpe and Oise; American
First Army make victorious attack on
the whole twenty-five-mile front from
center of the Argonne Forest to several
miles east of Meuse; First British
Army captures Ramillies and Cambrai
and crosses Scheldt Canal.

Oct. 1O. Dublin mail-boat Leinster
torpedoed while making trip to Holy-
head; report says 400 persons per-
ished; French and British warships
enter Beirut, chief seaport of Syria:
Ludendorff suffers a physical collapse
and relinquishes command of German
army; Haig announces capture of Le
Cateau, fifteen miles southeast of Cam-
brai.

Oct. 11. Austria- Hungary and Turkey
inform Germany they will accept Wil-
son's peace terms; Kaiser summons
sovereigns of all German federal
states for consultation before answer-

462

A CHRONOLOGY OF THE WAR

ing- Wilson's note; American First
Army advances five miles, clearing Ar-
gonne Forest and taking 1,000 more
prisoners, making total capture since
October 8, about 7,000; Germans aban-
don positions north of Suippe and
Arnes on a forty-mile front; Grandpre
occupied, bringing Allies about two
miles from railroad center of Vouziers;
additional reports show Chemin-des-
Dames being evacuated under blows
from Italian and French units;
Craonne and La Fere, on the Oise,
half surrounded; American "Wildcat"
Division on front of Haig's offensive,
captures Vaux-Andigny and St. Soup-
let

Oct. 12. Germany's reply to Wilson,
offering to accept peace terms, pub-
lished in Berlin; rumors of Kaiser's
abdication also published; British
within one mile of Douai; Gouraud
captures Vouziers.

Oct. 13. Foch's forces wrests Laon,
La Fere, and major part of the St.
Gobain Massif from enemy.

Oct. 14. Enemy driven back five
miles on twenty-mile front east of
Ypres by new Allied blow in Flanders;
French, British, and Belgian troops
drive wedge deeper in enemy's posi-
tions, covering naval bases of Zee-
brugge and Ostend; the armies sweep
forward to within four miles of Cour-
trai; Roulers captured; in Champagne
enemy continues flight north and east;
Gouraud's army crosses Alsne along
wide front and is within twenty-five
miles of Mezieres, on Franco-Belgian
frontier; Germany's peace note de-
livered at State Department in Wash-
ington; in a prompt reply Wilson
leaves all questions of armistice td
military advisers of Powers arrayed
against Germany; United States Senate
breaks all precedents by vigorously
applauding Wilson's reply to Ger-
many's peace note.

Oct. 15. Durazzo, Austrian naval
base in Albania, taken, by Italian for-
ces; British warships reported enter-
ing Ostend; Allied forces drive six
miles deeper into enemy's Flanders
line; over 10,000 men and 100 guns
taken in this drive; Allies sweep for-
ward on whole 200-mile line; British
within three miles of Lille and cap-
ture four villages; on Picardy-Cham-
pagne line more than dozen villages
and additional thousands of prisoners
taken by Petain's men; Americans re-
double attacks and widen breach in
Brunhilde line, capturing four villages
northwest of Argonne Forest Gouraud
resumes attacks, crossing Aisne and
taking Olizy and Fermes, west of
Grandpre.

Oct. 16. Wilson's reply caused panic
in Berlin banking circles; Hungarian
independence declared by Magyar Par-
liament; Americana capture Grandpre,
base of German operations in Cham-
pagne; British army patrols enter

Oct. 17. Ostend taken by Allied naval
and land forces and King Albert and
Queen Elizabeth enter city; 'Bruges
entered by Belgian patrols; Zeebrugge

abandoned and Belgian coast prac-
tically cleared of enemy; Haig an-
nounces occupation of Douai; on
three-mile front from Le Cateau to
Bohain British and American troops
hurl Germans back two miles and
take 3,000 prisoners; on Argonne
front, Pershing's men advance another
mile in region of Grandpre; on ar-
riving at Atlantic port army-transport
Amp/lion reported two-hours" running-
fight with submarine 800 miles off
Atlantic coast; steps for organization
of Austria on federalized basis pro-
claimed by Emperor Karl.

Oct. 18. French capture Thielt, west
of Ghent; Zeebrugge and Bruges oc-
cupied by Allied troops; British take
Tourcoing and Roubaix; new Anglo-
American thrust southeast of Cam-
brai causes Germans to retreat rapidly ;
British now astride Douai-Denain road,
four miles southeast of Douai; on
Champagne front Americans and
French strengthen grip on west end
of Kriemhilde line at Grandpre;
Pershing's men advance about mile
beyond Romagne and capture Banthe-
ville.

Oct. 19. Wilson rejects Austrian
peace plea; German ne\*$spapers sug-
gest abdication of Kaiser and Crown
Prince; German evacuation of Brussels
begins.

Oct. 21. Revolution in Sofia; more
than 3,000 killed in street fights be-
tween Bolshevik laborers and troops
and police.

Oct. 22. British enter western sub-
urbs of Valenciennes.

Oct. 25. French patrols cross Danube
into Roumania on northwestern fron-
tier; east of Meuse Americans drive
enemy from eastern ridge of Bois
d'Ormont; west of the Meuse, in re-
gion of Grandpre, straighten out lines
and capture important ridges; since
October 23, 8,400 prisoners and over
100 cannon captured in section.

Oct. 28. British and Italian forces
advance four miles beyond Piave and
take 7,000 Austro-Hungarians; in
four days armies taken more than
16,000.

Oct. 29. Allies drive forward west
of Piave, taking heights of Alano;
over 21,000 prisoners taken in five
days; American troops held in re-
serve fighting zone.

Oct. 3O. Diaz's men advance six
miles, reaching foe's great base of
Vittorio, twelve miles beyond Piave.

Oct. 31. American troops advance
north of Grandpre and occupy Belle-
joyeuse Farm and southern edges 6f
Bois des Loges; capture of entire
Turkish force opposing Briti'sh on
Tigris announced in London; prison-
ers estimated at 7,000; Turkey sur-
renders, armistice taking effect at
noon; conditions include free passage
of Dardanelles; Italian troops sweep
northward fifteen miles through Vene-
tian Alps and reach Ponte nell' Alpj:
through capture of mountain pass of
Vadal retreat of fifteen Austrian di-
visions operating between Brenta and
Piave cut off; east of Piave enemy
completely routed.

463

SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

NOVEMBER

SEDAN, MAUBEUGE AND MONS TAKEN

ARMISTICE SIGNED, KAISER ABDI-
CATES, AND REVOLUTION IN

GERMANY

Nov. 1. Austria-Hungary splits up
into a group of independent States;
Emperor Charles said to have left
Vienna and Count Tisza shot dead by
soldier; Austrians in utter rout on
east half of battle-line; seventy-three
divisions said to have mutinied and
quit battlefield; American troops land
at Pola; conference of Allied repre-
sentatives at Versailles agrees on
armistice terms.

Nov. a. French and Americans sweep
ahead on fifty-mile front-line above
Verdun; Argonne region cleared and
additional prisoners and stores cap-
tured; Belgians advance and reach ap-
proaches to Ghent; since offensive be-
gan on July 15, Allied armies cap-
tured 362,355 men. including 7,990
officers, 6,217 cannon, 38,622 ma-
chine-guns, and 3.907 mine-throwers;
in offensive on Sedan front, American
aviators bring down 124 enemy air-
planes, losing 20 machines; Emperor
William addresses to German Chan-
cellor decree avowing firm determina-
tion to cooperate in full development
of new laws which deprive him of
autocratic power; Rome announces
capture of Trent and Trieste, whole
regiments of Austrians surrendering;
Italian cavalry enter Udine, fifty
miles beyond Piave.

Nov. 4. Befpre November 3 some
300,000 Austrians and not less than
5,000 guns captured by Italian armies;
Americans start new attack against
enemy's line east Meuse; Pershing's
flank and Gourand's army force Ger-
mans to fall back behind Ardennes
Canal to Le Chesne; American First
Army passes beyond Stenay and now
striking for Sedan; advance within a
mile and quarter of Beaumont; fur-
ther west troops reach Vernieres,
about ten miles northeast of Vouziers;
Pershing has occupied about forty
villages in territory reconquered from
Germans.

Nov. 5. Germans retreating on
seventy-five-mile front from Scheldt to
Aisne; Allies cross Franco-Belgian
frontier between Valenciennes and
Bavay, eight miles west of Maubeuge;
Americans take Liny-devant-Dun and
Milly-devant-Dun, east of Meuse, and
occupy hills on east bank of river;
American fliers bomb Mouzon and
Raucourt on Verdun front; German
Government informed by Secretary
Lansing that Foch authorized by
United States and Allies to communi-
cate terms of armistice to its official
representatives.

Nov. 6. Americans push forward three
miles; now engaged within sight of
Sedan; German armistice delegation
reaches Allies lines.

Nov. 7. General revolt of German
navy, men becoming complete masters
at Kiel, Wilhelm shaven, Heligoland,
Borkam, and Cuxhaven; great part of
Schleswig in hands of revolutionists:
20,000 deserters from army march

through streets of Berlin; serious
riots break out in Hamburg and
Loibeck; red flag hoisted at Warne-
munde, seaport of northern Germany,
and Rostock on Baltic; chaos in Aus-
tria; Pershing reports Rainbow Divis-
ion and units of First Division enter-
ing- suburbs of Sedan; entire re-
gion between Meuse and the Bar
liberated by First American Army in
cooperation with French.

Nov. 8. German delegates reach
Foch's headquarters near Senlis; text
of Allies conditions read and delivered
to them; they asked cessation of fight-
ing, which is refused, and given
seventy-two hours in which to accept
or reject terms; Munich Diet pass-
ed decree deposing Wittelsbach dy-
nasty and republic proclaimed in
Bavaria; Hamburg completely in
hands of revolutionists; Bremen,
Schwerin, and Tilsit join in move-
ment and form Soldiers' Councils,
which have already control of Bremer-
haven and Cuxhaven; red flags hoisted
on ships in several ports; German
Socialists demand abdication of Em-
peror William and renunciation of
throne by Crown Prince.

Nov. 9. Berlin messages report abdi-
cation of Kaiser and renunciation of
throne by Crown Prince; Emperor's
son-in-law. Duke of Brunswick, and
heir abdicates; rebellions in Hanover,
Cologne, Brunswick, and Magdeburg
announced; French troops cross
Meuse between Mezieres and Se-
dan; Petain's cavalry sweep over
Belgian boundary near Chimay-Guise
road; railroad center of Hirson cap-
tured and Mezieres and Mohon sur-
rounded; Haig announces capture of
Maubeuge, last important French
fortress in hands of Germans; Amer-
icans hold both banks of river from
Verdun to Sedan.

Nov. 1O. Pershing reports consider-
able gains by First and Second Ameri-
can Armies along line between Meuse
and Moselle: on American left
Gouraud's men cross Meuse on wide
front between Mezieres and Sedan and
pursue retreating Germans, while
French astride Belgian boundary cap-
ture Charleville and continue rout of
enemy; British and Canadians advance
on Mons; people's government insti-
tuted in Berlin; Friedrich Ebert takes
Chancellorship; similar revolutions in
all parts of Germany; severe fighting
in Berlin; many persons killed and
wounded before officers of garrison sur-
rendered; Hohenzollern dynasty over-
thrown and Herr Ebert charged with
formation of new government; crews
of dreadnoughts in Kiel Harbor join
revolutionists.

Nov. 11. Day of the signing of armis-
tice near Senlis; on Sedan front thou-
sands of American heavy guns fired
parting shot to Germans at exactly 11
o'clock; Germans hurled few shells
into Verdun just before the hour;
Haig reports capture of Mons: at ces-
sation of hostilities British had reached
general line of Franco-Belgian frontier,
east of Avesnes, Jeumont. and Sivry,
and four miles east of Mons, Chievres,
Lessines, and Grammant; revolution

464

A CHRONOLOGY OF THE WAR

progressing- steadily throughout Ger-
many; Hindeaburg placed himself and
German army at disposition of new
government "in order to avoid chaos";
garrisons along- Dutch frontier in re-
volt; Potsdam and Doeberitz garri-
sons in hands of new authorises;
fourteen of twenty-six states, includ-
ing four kingdoms, reported securely
in hands of Reds; Wurttemburg de-
clared republic, king- stating he will
not oppose will of people; Hamburg,
Bremen, and Liibeck ruled by
Socialists, and power of rulers gone
from Grand Duchies of Oldenburg,
Baden, Hesse. Meeklenburg-Schwerin,
and Mecklenburg-Strelitz; Kaiser de-
parts from Spa for Holland and held
up near Eysden awaiting decision of
Dutch Government; 2.45 A.M. Wash-
ington announces armistice signed and
hostilities will cease at eleven o'clock,
November 11; sirens and bells started
peace celebrations in all parts of
United States and Canada; at 10 A.M.
President issues proclamation announc-
ing signing of armistice; duration of
armistice shall be thirty days, with
option to extend.

Nov. 13. Holland decides to permit
Kaiser to remain on Dutch soil on
same terms of internment as other
high officers of German army: he
takes name of Count William Hohen-
zollern; Emperor Charles of Austria
issues proclamation declaring that,
"with unalterable love of my peoples, "
he will not be hindrance to their free
development.

Nov. 14. Former Crown Prince is
interned in Holland.

Nov. 15. New German Government
appeals to Wilson to hurry peace
negotiations; American Third Army,
designated "Army of Occupation,"
is marching to occupy position on
Rhine.

Nov. 18. Entrance of American
troops into Briey, heart of Lorraine
iron-fields.

Nov. 2O. French troops reach left
bank of the Rhine and American
troops, cooperating with Petain, push-
ing forward into Luxemburg and
Germany; entrance of Petain into
Metz; King Albert makes entry into
Antwerp amid great popular rejoicing;
twenty German submarines surrender
to Rear-Admiral Tyrwhitt thirty miles
oft Harwich.

Nov. 21. Surrender of nine German
battleships, five battle-cruisers, seven
light cruisers, and fifty destroyers of
German High Seas Fleet takes place;
nineteen more submarines surrender to
British squadron.

Nov. 22. Twenty more German sub-
marines surrender, making total thus
far handed over 59; King Albert
makes triumphant entry into Brussels
accompanied by Queen Elizabeth and
their children.

Nov. 23. Allied warships enter
Black Sea and visit various ports.

Nov. 26. More than 1.500,000 prison-
ers of various nationalities released by
Germans.

Nov. 27. Cardinal Mercier, Primate
of Belgium, declares that forty-nine
Belgian priests were tortured and put

to death by Germans during the oc-
cupation.

Nov. 28. Official announcement made
in London that during the war Great
Britain actually lost nearly 1,000 000
men, killed or dead through other

Nov. 29. Approximately 200 Ger-
man submarines destroyed during the
war; Premier Lloyd George states that
British Government has been ad-
vised by greatest jurists in kingdom
that former German Emperor was
guilty of an indictable offense for
which he ought to be held responsible.

DECEMBER

WILSOX GOES TO EUROPE ENTENTE

FORCES OCCUPY THE RHINE

Dec. 2. Wilson declares he is go-
ing to Europe because Allies hav-
ing accepted his Fourteen Points as
peace principles, desire his person-
al counsel in their interpretation and
application.

Deo. 3. Senator Knox, former Sec-
retary of State, introduces resolution
declaring Peace Conference should de-
fer to some future time project for
general League of Nations.

Dec. 4. Count William Hohenzollern
refuses to be interviewed by an Asso-
ciated Press correspondent; Wils-on
and party sail for France on the
George Washington.

Dec. 6. Crown Prince formally re-
nounced all his rights of succession; an
official statement in London gives Brit-
ish merchant tonnage losses from be-
ginning of war to October 31 as 9.031,-
828; new construction in the United
Kingdom during same period was
4,342,296 tons and 530,000 tons pur-
chased abroad; enemy tonnage cap-
tured was 716,520, making net loss
3,443,012 tons.

Dec. 11. Lloyd George tells a meet-
ing at Bristol Allied war-bill against
Germany is $120,000,000,000 and
Germany "should pay to utmost of
her capacity."

Dec. 12. British troops hold all
great bridges across Rhine at Cologne;
conditions in Petrograd "beyond hu-
man power to grasp."

Dec. 13. Mackensen and staff in-
terned in Hungary; Wilson arrives at
Brest and starts for Paris; Pershing
reports American army marching into
Germany has come to stand an Rhine

Dec. 14. President and Mrs. Wilson
enter Paris, received by Poincare,
Clemenceau, and othfer eminent French-
men.

Dec. 15. Wilson lays a wreath on
tomb of Lafayette; three great Rhine
bridge-heads provided by armistice oc-
cupied by advanced Allied forces —
British at Cologne, Americans at
Coblenz, and French at Mainz
(Mayence).

Dec. 1«. American Third Army, which
now occupies more than 4.500 square
miles in Germany, takes possession of
fortress of Ehrenbreitstein, opposite
Coblenz.

Dec. 2O. To October 25 total Ger-

465

SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

man casualties were 6,066,679, of
whom 4,750,000 were Prussians.

Dec. 22. Russian war casualties
totaled 9,150,000 men, according to
telegram from Petrograd; of these
1,700,000 killed; disabled men num-
bered 1,450,000, while 3.500,000
other soldiers wounded; Russians taken
prisoner totaled 2,500,000.

Dec. 26. Spartacan forces, under
leadership Liebknecht,. seize Prussian
War Ministry; ten dreadnoughts re-
turning- from duty overseas enter

New York Harbor and are reviewed
by Secretary Daniels.
Dec. 27. British general elections
give Lloyd George a majority of 237
or 329, counting 46 Unionists/ 72
Sinn-Feiners. none of whom are ex-
pected to take seats, were returned
from Ireland; Wilson, in London stay-
ing at Buckingham Palace, replying
to welcoming address of King George
at State Banquet, says that substantial
agreements on question of peace terms
have been reached by Allied leaders.

THE EVENTS OF 1919

JANUARY

PEACE CONFERENCE ASSEMBLES IN
PARIS LEAGUE OF NATIONS COVE-
NANT ADOPTED

Jan. 8. Theodore Roosevelt buried
on hillside in Oyster Bay cemetery in
presence of nation's leaders.

Jan. 1O. Government forces in com-
plete control of inner section of Ber-
lin.

Jan. 12. Luxemburg proclaimed re-
public; Grand Duchess goes to near-
by chateau.

Jan. 17. Dr. Liebknecht and Rosa
Luxemburg, Spartacan leaders, killed
in Berlin.

Jan. 18. Paris Peace Conference
opened on Quai d'Orsay in ClocK Hall.

Jan. 24. By vote of 52 to 18 Senate
passes bill appropriating $100,000,000
for famine relief in Europe; House
passed measure short time before vote
of 272 to 43.

Jan. 25. Peace Conference unani-
mously adopts a resolution to create
League of Nations.

Jan. SO. Great colonial Powers,
notably Great Britain and France,
have accepted in principle American
proposal that League of Nations exer-
cise supervision over German colonies
and allot their administration to
mandatary Powers; Republican leaders
in United States Senate continue at-
tacks on attitude of President regard-
ing colony question; Knox and Lodge
look upon internationalization plan as
"a stupendous and preposterous un-
dertaking-."

FEBRUARY

STRIKES AND RIOTS IN BERLIN

EISNt'R ASSASSINATED WILSON

COMES HOME

Feb. 11. German National Assembly
elects Friedrich Ebert President of
German State by vote of 277 out of
379 votes.

Feb. 12. Ebert in speech accepting-
Presidency, denounces Allied armistice
terms and declares that "we shall
combat domination by force to the
utmost from whatever direction it may
come."

Feb. 13. Twenty thousand store em-
ployees in Berlin strike for higher
wages; everywhere throughout empire
strikes of the workers are being met
by counter-strikes of doctors and

other professional classes; state of
siege declared at Hamburg, until peo-
ple of city surrender all arms.

Feb. 14. League of Nations plan
read to plenary session of Peace Con-
ference by Wilson.

Feb. 15. Wilson sails from Brest for
Boston; in a cable message to Con-
gress, requests that debate on League
of Nations plan be postponed until
after his arrival.

Feb. 18. Senator Borah, a leading
opponent of League, declines to meet
President to discuss League; Italian
delegates notify Peace Conference they
will not accept proposal that con-
flicting claims of Italians and Jugo-
slavs in Dalmatia be arbitrated; un-
der Jugo-Slavs proposal Wilson was
to have been arbitrator.

Feb. 19. Senator Miles Poindexter,
of Washington, opens attack on
World League in United States Sen-
ate; Representative Fess, of Ohio, de-
livers a, speech in opposition to
League in House of Representatives;
peace parleys in Paris temporarily
hampered by attempt on life of
Clemenceau, head of the Conference.

Feb. 21. Kurt Eisner, Premier of
Bavaria, shot dead in Munich by
Count Arco Valley, a member of the
nobility; Herr Auer, Bavarian Minister
of the Interior, shot from public gal-
lery Diet Building at Munich; Deputy
Osel killed and two other officials
seriously wounded in general firing
that accompanied assassination of
Auer.

Feb. 23. Wilson arrives in Boston
aboard George Washington.

Feb. 26. Wilson speaks in defense
of League of Nations before members
.of Senate and House Foreign Affairs
Committees at after-dinner conference
in White House; London watching
"with intense interest" Wilson's Cam-
paign to win support for the League.

Feb. 27. Former German Kaiser has
appealed to German revolutionary
government for money and was ad-
vanced $150,000; proportion of wealth
to which he is still entitled personally
is said to be $18,750.000.

Feb. 28. Lodge, of Massachusetts, at-
tacking constitution of League of Na-
tions in the Senate, demands a "bind-
ing and shackling peace" with enemy
as the first move; draft of the League
of Nations received in Germany as

466

A CHRONOLOGY OF THE WAR

meaning- little less than ruin for Ger-

MARCH

REPARATION TERMS AND THE TRIAL OF
THE KAISER

March 3. Peace Conference Commit-
tee on Reparation estimates that $120,-
000 000 000 is amount which enemy
countries ought to pay Allied and
Associated Powers; France asks an
immediate payment of $5,000,000.000.

3Iarch 5. At meeting of German
Cabinet, attended by party leaders and
delegates of ship-owners, was unani-
mously agreed that Germany will not
submit to coercion by the Entente
Powers.

March 1O. Supreme Council has
unanimously agreed that Germany s
military force shall be limited to 100,-
000 volunteers serving twelve years.

March 12. Peace Conference's Com-
mission on Waterways recommends
that Rhine and Kiel Canal be thrown
open to all nations in peace times;
War Council agrees to limit German
navy to six battleships, five cruisers,
twelve 800-ton destroyers, and twenty-
six smaller destroyers.

March 14. Wilson arrives in Paris
shortly after noon and confers with
Premiers Lloyd George and Clemen-

Mifrch 2O. Virtually all Ukraine
now in hands of Bolsheviki.

March 21. Italian delegation to
Peace Conference unanimously decides
to withdraw unless Fiume is assigned
to Italy contemporaneously with con-
clusion of peace; Ukrainian troops
besieging Lemberg entered that city
after five days of hard fighting.

March 25. Greatest crowd in history
of New York City, estimated at
2 000,000 lines Fifth Avenue to wel-
come home Twenty-seventh Division,
formerly New York National Guards
Division.

March 28. Allied troops in Russia,
on both Siberian and Archangel
fronts, now number 369,465.

APRIL,

GERMAN PROTESTS AS TO PEACE TERMS
THE CASE OF FIUME

April -1O. League of Nations com-
mission adopts section excepting Mon-
roe Doctrine from any of provisions
of document; League of Nations is to
have supervision over Saar Valley for
fifteen years, after which plebiscite
will be taken to determine wishes of
inhabitants regarding future form of
government.

April 14. Peace Conference decides
that Germany must pay 100.000,000,-
000 gold marks (about $25, 000,000,-
000) for losses and damage caused by
war- 20,000.000,000 marks of which
must be paid in two years, 40.000,-
000.000 in thirty years, and 40.000,-
000.000 when a commission shall de-
termine; about 55 per cent, goes to
France, between 20 and 30 per cent,
to Great Britain, and between 2 and
5 per cent, to United States.

April 15. Indisputable evidence of

massacre by Bolsheviki of more than
2,000 civilians in and near town of
Osa been obtained by representatives
of Red Cross, who have just returned
from section, according to report from
Omsk.

April 16. Conditions laid down in
Treaty of Peace denounced by German
press; complete anarchy reigns in
Munich.

April 17. First German ship to en-
ter New York Harbor since United
States went into the war comes into
port; she is Hamburg-American liner
Kaiserin Augusta Victoria, which has
been turned over to United States to
bring back American troops.

April 22. Allies will not consent that
peace conditions be submitted to a
plebiscite.

April 23. Ural Cossack troops, act-
ing with Siberian forces under Ad-
miral Kolchak begins offensive in
southeastern Russia.

April 27. A revised text of League
of Nations covenant was made public.

April 28. Council of Four provides
in Peace Treaty for prosecution and
trial of former Emperor William; re-
vised form of covenant of League of
Nations is adopted by Conference
without a dissenting voice.

April 29. Main German Peace Dele-
gation arrives at Versailles.

MAY

GERMAN DELEGATES GET PEACE TERMS
AT VERSAILLES KOLCHAK'S SUC-
CESSES AGAINST THE
BOLSHEVIKI

May 1. First meeting between Peace
Conference and German plenipoten-
tiaries takes place at Versailles.

May 7. Allied and Associated Powers
and German plenipotentaries meet at
Versailles and Germans hear Entente
peace terms and make protest.

May 9. Omsk Russian Government
issues a statement indicating that all
details of its establishment are com-
pleted.

May 11. Six members of German
Peace Mission leave for Berlin to dis-
cuss peace situation with Government
where violent opposition to treaty
exists.

May 13. Philipp Scheidemann, Ger-
man Chancellor, in a speech before
National Assembly in Berlin, urges
Germans reject Peace Treaty.

May 14. Austrian Peace Delegates
reach Paris.

May 15. Body of Edith Cavell, Eng-
lish nurse executed by Germans at
Brussels, interred in Norwich, after
an impressive memorial service in
Westminster Abbey : Brockdorff-
Rantzau. head German peace delega-
tion, reported by Berlin as saying
Peace Treaty can not be signed be-
cause impossible to fulfil terms;
Samara, an important city on Volga,
captured by troops of Kolchak.

May 16. German Government states
Government unalterably opposed to
signing the Peace Treaty in present
form.

May 18. German war losses given as
2,050,460 dead. 4,207,028 wounded.

467

SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

and 615,922 prisoners, in figures pub-
lished in Berlin.

May 19. General Denikine, conducting
operations of an anti-Bolshevik army
on Volga, announces capture of 10,-
000 prisoners and 28 guns.

May 23. Allied and Associated Coun-
cil rejects Germany's plea for clemency,
declaring her share of burdens grow-
ing out of war based on her ability
to carry it and not on her deserts;
Bolshevik! begin evacuation of Mos-
cow.

May 26. Council of Four decide to
recognize any non-Bolshevik govern-
ment in Russia that agrees to convene
National Assembly and respect the
frontiers determined by League of
Nations.

May 27. Council of Four and Japan
offer Kolchak money and supplies to
maintain ail-Russian Government, on
condition he will hold elections for a
constituent assembly.

May 28. Secretary Glass reports fifth
war loan total was $5,249,908.300,
loan being oversubscribed $749,908,-
300; total number of subscribers given
as 12,000,000; all arrangements com-
pleted for blockading Germany in case
German delegates refuse to sign Peace
Treaty; if Germany does not sign,
will be given seventy-two hours' notice
of termination of armistice, on expira-
tion of which period British, French,
and Americans will advance into Ger-
many.

May 29. German delegation's counter-
proposals to the Peace Treaty de-
livered to the secretariat of Peace
Conference.

May SO. Bolsheviki before quitting
Riga shot thirty persons in central
prison.

May 31. German delegation been
notified by Allies that no more notes
regarding terms will be received by
Peace Conference.

JUNE

KXOX'S ANTI-LEAGUE RESOLUTION

SINKING OP THE GERMAN
WARSHIPS

June 2. Austria's peace terms handed
to her delegates.

.In ne 1O. Resolution is introduced in
United States Senate by Senator Knox,
which, if adopted, would place that
body on record as in favor of imme-
diate peace with Germany, as con-
sidering that war-aims of United
States exprest in war-declaration had
been accomplished, and as deferring
consideration of League of Nations
until later, when American people
shall have had time to pass on it.

Jane 21. The Germans scuttle their
fleet interned at Scapa Plow.

.In ne 24. Allies advance on North
Dwina.

June 25. President Ebert issues a
proclamation to the German pe"bple
announcing the completion of peace
and urging- them to bend their ef-
forts to the fulfillment of its terms.

June 27. President Wilson announ-
ces before leaving Paris that he pro-
poses to submit to the United States
Senate a treaty carrying out arrange-

ments whereby the United States and
Great Britain will come to the as-
sistance of France in case she is
menaced by Germany.

June 28. War with Germany ends
with the signing of the Treaty of
Peace by plenipotentiaries represent-
ing Germany and the delegates of
twenty-six of Allied and Associated
Governments.

June 29. President Wilson sails for
home on the George Washington.

JULY

RATIFICATION OF PEACE TREATY BY
GERMANY AND GREAT BRITAIN

July 9. The German National As-
sembly adopts resolution ratifying
Peace Treaty.

July 1O. President Ebert signs bill
ratifying Peace Treaty and document
is dispatched to Versailles.

July 12. Premier Clemenceau of-
ficially notifies German Peace delega-
tion of the raising of the German
blockade.

July 14. Great peace celebrations in
France.

July 18. General Pershing receives
the freedom of the City and a sword
of honor at the Guildhall, London.

July 19. Great Britain celebrates
the coming of peace with the greatest
procession in her history in London;
the parade headed by Pershing.

July 2O. The peace conditions of
Allied and Associated Powers are
placed in the hands of the Austrians.

July 21. The British House of Com-
mons ratifies the Peace Treaty with
Germany.

July 23. Mutiny of Russian troops
on Onega front. No. Russia.

July 26. Mutiny of Russian iroops
on Waga front. No. Russia.

July 3O. Marshal Foch created a
Field Marshal by King George V. and
receives freedom of City and a sword
of honor at the Guildhall, London.

AUGUST

KNOX'S DEMAND FOR A SEPARATE

PEACE WITH GERMANY
AUK. 1. German National Assembly

approves new German constitution.
Aus;- 2. Bela Kun overthrown at
Buda Pest.

AUK. 8. Belgian Chamber of Depu-
ties unanimously ratifies Peace Treaty.
AUK. 29. Senator Knox, of Penn-
sylvania, declares in Senate that the
only safe way to deal with the Peace
Treaty is to reject it altogether and
negotiate a separate pact with Ger-
many.

SEPTEMBER

PERSHING MADE A FULL GENERAL

HIS WELCOME HOME D'ANNUNZIO

AT FIUME

Sept. 2. Supreme Council of Peace
Conference decides to send note to
German Government demanding sup-

gression of article in new German
onstitution providing for the repre-
sentation of Austria in the German
Reichstag; Senate passes a bill, giv-
ing General Pershing permanent rank
of General.

468

A CHRONOLOGY OF THE WAR

Sept. 1O. Peace Treaty is reported
to the United States Senate with four
reservations and forty-five amend-
ments; Dr. Karl Renner, head of Aus-
trian delegation to the Peace Confer-
ence, signs the Treaty of Peace; great
parade takes place in New York of
the First Division, headed by General
Pershing, Cardinal Mercier witnessing
the parade.

Sept. 11. The Bratiano cabinet in
Roumania falls.

Sept. 12. Turkey, in reply to Pres-
ident Wilson's demand, declares that
measures will be taken for the main-
tenance of order.

Sept. 13. Denikine's forces win im-
portant victory over Bolsheviki; nine
thousand Bolsheviki taken prisoners
and many guns captured; President
Wilson reviews the Pacific Fleet at
Seattle.

Sept. 14. Acc9rding to official in-
formation reaching Lond9n, Admiral
Kolchak in pursuing- his offensive
against the Bolsheviki has broken
their front in three places; the League
to Enforce Peace makes public an ap-
peal to the Senate to ratify the
Treaty of Peace "without amendment
and without delay."

Sept. 1J>. Gabriele d'Annunzio, sup-
ported by an armed force, occupies
Fiume and proclaims its union with
Italy; the Serbian Ministry, headed
by Premier Davidovitch, resigns, as a
protest against certain terms in the
Peace Treaty.

Sept. 17. A report from Budapest
says the Roumanian Army has be-
gun to withdraw from that city.

Sept. 18. Communists of Westphalia,
the Prussian province lying between
Hanover and the Rhine region, plan-
ning revolution under the leadership
of the Russian Bolsheviki; on the
Ukrainian front the Bolsheviki forced
General Petlura out of Dadomysl; Gen-
eral Pershing, in the Chamber of the
House of Representatives with the
members of both Houses of Congress
assembled, receives formal thanks on
behalf of the nation for the services
he and his officers and men rendered
in France; Roland Rohlfs, in a Cur-
tiss Wasp tri-plane, equipped with a
400 horse-power motor, breaks all
altitude records by ascending to a
height of 34.610 feet, from Roosevelt
field at Mineola, New York.

Sept. 19. Peace Treaty handed to
Bulgarian plenipotentiaries in Paris;
a Smnet Government proclamation
published at Petrograd declares a stats
of siege in Moscow in consequence of
the operations of Cossack troops south
of that city.

Sept. 2O. The Soviet of Petrograd
has empowered the people's commis-
sary to begin peace negotiations with
the Allies on the basis of conditions
fixt by the Allied Powers.

Sept. 21. The Polish Army achieved
a complete victory over the Bolshe-
viki after a ten-day battle on the
Dvina River; Gabriele d'Annunzio,
holding the city 9f Fiume with 20.-
000 men. according to a dispatch
from Fiume, refuses to surrender;

the Belgian Ambassador at The
Hague has been withdrawn and
the Dutch Ambassador at Brussels
has also been recalled. The rupture
is said to have been caused over the
demand for a revision of the Scheldt
River treaty.

Sept. 22. King Albert and Queen
Elizabeth of Belgium board the trans-
port George Washington for the United
States; Germany agrees to annul Arti-
cle 61 of her Constitution, providing-
for Austrian representation in the
German Reichstag.

Sept. 23. Premier Paderewski of
Poland appears before the Supreme
Council in Paris and demands that
Galicia be assigned to Poland; Rus-
sian Soviet 'Government makes a
peace offer to Ukraine, on the basis
of recognition of the independence pf
Ukraine if that nation will maintain
neutrality in the Soviet struggle
against Admiral Kolchak and General
Denikine; Tpmmaso Tittoni, Italian
Foreign Minister, resigns because of
the Fiume incident; in the first test in
the Peace Treaty fight the Senate by a
vote of 43 to 40 decides that its pro-
gram shall be directed by Senator
Lodge, chairman of the Foreign Re-
lations Committee and leader of the
reservationists.

Sept. 24. Red troops are reported
to have captured Tomsk, 500 miles
east of Omsk, the seat of the all-
Russian Government; an encounter
takes place in Saarbriick between
German bourgeoisie and French sol-
diers, many persons on both sides be-
ing wounded.

Sept. 25. "Reservationist" Senators
serve notice on President Wilson that
Peace Treaty will be defeated unless
a reservation to Article X is adopted;
Secretary Daniels announces the re-
ceipt of a cablegram from Admiral
Knapp, commanding the naval forces
in foreign waters, to the effect that
American saitors have been landed in
the Fiume region and have seized Trau
on the lower Dalmatian coast; cables
from Rome relating to the Fiume sit-
uation include reports that civil war
in Italy seems imminent.

Sept. 26. Viscount Grey, successor
of Lord Reading as British Ambassa-
dor to the United States, arrives in
New York from England; eight Ger-
man liners, including the former Ham-
burg-American steamer Imperator,
second largest ship in the world, are
assigned to the United States by the
Inter-Allied Shipping Commission;
President Wilson abandons his speak-
ing tour and returns to Washington,
owing to illness, brought on by
nervous and physical exhaustion.

Sept. 27. London announces that the
British evacuation of Archangel haa
been completed; the Supreme Council
decides to send Germany a note de-
manding the evacuation of Lithuania
by German troops under drastic pen-
alties for non-compliance; the Su-
preme Council of the Peace Conference
decides on the appointment of a com-
mission to study the question of the
repatriation of the German and Aus-
trian prisoners in Siberia.

V. X— 31

469

SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

Sept. 28. A plebiscite held to deter-
mine the future government and the
economical policy of the Duchy of
Luxemburg-, returned a majority in
favor of the retention of Grand
Duchess Charlotte as ruler and for a
customs union with France; President
Wilson reaches Washing-ton and will
devote most of the week to complete
rest.

Sept. 29. A resolution demanding
that Fiume be made an Italian city
is passed by the Italian Chamber of
Deputies.

Sept. 3O. Troops from the British
Fleet of the Black Sea have been
landed in Odessa.

OCTOBER

PEACE PRELIMINARIES VISIT OF KING

AND QUEEN OF BELGIUM — COAST
TO COAST AIR RACE

Oct. 2. The French Chamber of De-
puties ratifies the German Peace
Treaty by a vote of 372 to 53; King
Albert and Queen Elizabeth of Belgium
land in New York for their American
visit; dispatch from Rome says that
the Italian steamship Epiro, with 200
Italian troops and some American of-
ficers on board, was fired upon by
Jug-o-Slav regular troops; the Turk-
ish cabinet, headed by Gamad Ferid
Pacha. Grand Vizier and Minister of
Foreig-n Affairs, resigns, says a report
from Constantinople.

Oct. 3. The National Legislative As-
sembly of Guatemala ratifies the treaty
with Germany; leaders in the Peace
Treaty fight have decided that as a
"last ditch" defense they will require
that the reservations adopted must be
submitted to the Allies and approved
by them before American ratification
of the Treaty becomes effective.

Oct. 5. The German Government is-
sues an order suppressing all public
meetings of strikers in order to block
any designs of the radicals to carry
out their revolutionary plans.

Oct. 6. United States ships at Spa-
lato have been withdrawn, and Amer-
ican food supplies are being removed
from the city; a new Cabinet is form-
ed in Turkey, according to reports
from Paris, headed by Ali Hiza Pacha,
as Grand Vizier.

Oct. 7. King Victor Emanuel of
Italy ratifies the German and Austri-
an treaties by royal decree.

Oct. 8. Forty-seven airplanes start
from Roosevelt Field, Mineola, New
York, in a coast to coast air race.
Simultaneously a number of contest-
ants start from San Francisco.

Oct. 1O. King George completes
Great Britain's ratification by signing
the Peace Treaty; the Supreme Coun-
cil at Paris grants the Bulgarian
plenipotentiaries an extension of ten
days in which to comment on the draft
of the Peace Treaty; the Italian Gov-
ernment has agreed to the creation
of a buffer state, comprising Fiume
and the adjacent coast territory south-
ward, as a solution of the Adriatic
problem.

Oct. 11. The French Senate ratifies
the Peace Treaty with Germany and

also the Franco-American and Franco-
British Defense Treaties; report from
Rio de Janeiro says that though Bra-
zil has not yet ratified the Peace
Treaty, its ports have been reopened
to German shipping; Lieutenant Mel-
ville W. Maynard first to cross con-
tinent in the transcontinental air race,
flying 2,701 miles in less than 25 fly-
ing hours. His total elapsed time was
three days, three hours and 37 min-
utes.

Oct. 12. The state of war in France
and Algiers is declared ended and the
censorship lifted, by two Presidential
decrees; Kijuro Shadehara, former
vice-Foreign Minister, is appointed
Japanese Ambassador to the United
States.

Oct. 13. A nation-wide campaign in
favor of the League of Nations opens
in the city of London under the
Presidency of Sir Horace B. Marshal,
Lord Mayor; wireless message from
General Denikine claims further vic-
tories against the Bolshevik! in the
Orel and Kief regions.

Oct. 14. The Allies ask Germany to
join in a blockade of Soviet Russia.
President Poincare of France signs a
decree of general demobilization, ef-
fective upon "the cessation of hostili-
ties"; Leon Bourgeois has been ap-
pointed to represent France in the
League of Nations Council.

Oct. 15. The Clemenceau ministry is
sustained in the French Chamber of
Deputies by a vote of 324 to 132; con-
tingent of 2.200 regular troops leave
Camp Dix for Silesia, where they will
do police duty during the plebiscite to
determine whether the province will
join Poland or remain under German
sovereignty; formal custody of five of
the eight former German passenger
ships, title to which is now a subject
of diplomatic discussion between the
United States and Great Britain, is
transferred from the War Department
to the United States Shipping Board;
Capture of the important city of Orel
by General Denikine's army is claim-
ed by Denikine and admitted in an
official statement of the Russian Sov-
iet; the Northwestern Russian Army
of General Yudenitch has pushed 35
miles beyond Yamburg, which was re-
cently captured, and is within 50 miles
of Petrograd.

Oct. 16. The Shantung amendment,
giving the German concessions to
China instead of Japan, is defeated in
the Senate by a vote of 55 to 35; the
House of Representatives of Uruguay
approves the Peace Treaty; the text
of the note of the Supreme Council
inviting Germany to participate in the
blockade of Russia, is published in
Berlin, and shows that Sweden. Nor-
way, Denmark, Holland, Finland,
Spain. Switzerland Mexico, Chili. Ar-
gentina. Colombia and Venezuela have
plso been invited to take part in the
blockade; American participation in
northern Russian hostilities and around
Archangel has resulted in a total of
553 casualties, according to a com-
plete record given out by the War De-
partment; the House passes the bill
urged by the State Department, ex-

470

A CHRONOLOGY OF THE WAR

tending- for one year after the declar-
ation of peace, the war-time control
over the issuance of passports to
aliens desiring' to enter the United
States; the German authorities begin
carrying- out the evacuation of first
and second zones of Schleswigr, com-
plying- with the Peace Treaty condi-
tions; the Supreme Council decides to
send a representative to Budapest to
deal with new complications in the
situation there growing- out of com-
plaints as to the military tactics of the
Roumanians; General Ludendorff is
reported to have refused to appear be-
fore the parliamentary Commission in-
vestigating- the responsibility of Ger-
man leaders in the war; German gov-
ernment hands to Marshal Foch its
reply to the demands of the Allies
concerning- the evacuation of the Bal-
tic Provinces; Captain d'Annunzio,
whose forces are now holding- the
city of Piume, sends a message to
Premier Clemenceau asking- that the
latter take the initiative in securing
a declaration from the Allied Govern-
ments making- Fiume a free port; the
army of General Yudenitch is 25 miles
from Petrogra'd, which is being evacu-
ated by the Bolsheviki; a wireless re-
port announces that the Don Cossack
troops have captured 9,000 Bolsheviki
in the vicinity of Veroneza, recently
occupied by General Denikine after
hard fig-hting-.

Oct. 17. The Austrian National As-
sembly ratifies the Peace Treaty of
St. Germain, by a vote without de-
bate; the last two of the four amend-
ments to the Peace Treaty are voted
down in the Senate, and ratification
of the Peace Treaty without textual
amendments, is now conceded to be
certain. It is, however, considered
equally certain ,that reservations will
be adopted.

Oct. 18. The Peace Conference de-
cides to leave the settlement of the
Fiume question to direct negotiations
between Italy and Jugo-Slavia; the
City Council of Vienna adopts reso-
lutions asking- American assistance for
that city so it may be able to exist
throug-h the winter; Lieutenant Mel-
ville W. Maynard lands at Roosevelt
Field. Long- Island, being- the first to
complete the round trip transcontinent-
al flisrht.

Oct. 2O. Greek troops are advancing
to occupy western Thrace, says a Sal-
onica dispatch, in harmony with the
terms of the Allies; the Bolsheviki
forces in Petrograd, assailed by the
Russian Northwestern Army under
General Yudenitch and isolated from
the world, are said to be preparing
for a seige; the troops of General
Denikine drive the Bolsheviki from
Kief, which they had temporarily oc-
cupied.

Oct. 21. French ratification of the
Peace Treaty is completed when the
State seal is affixed to the document;
the committee appointed by the Ger-
man Government to investigate the
responsibility of the German officials
for the war, holds its first session in
Berlin.

Oct. 22. The Senate passes the bill

extending- war-time restrictions on
passports for one year so as to ex-
clude radicals and other undesirable
aliens from the country; ten reser-
vations to the Peace Treaty are adopt-
ed by the Senate Foreign Relations
Committee. They provide that the
United States shall assume no obliga-
tion to preserve the territorial in-
tegrity of other countries without
the action of Congress.

Oct. 23. By a vote of 185 to 113
the British Government's alien bill is
defeated in the House of Commons;
Arthur J. Balfour has resigned as
Foreign Secretary and Lord Curzon
has been appointed to succeed him;
Bela Kun, former dictator in Hungary
during- the Communist regime escapes
from the internment camp at Vienna
and goes to Italy, where he is report-
ed to be promoting- a revolutionary
movement; four additional reserva-
tions to the Peace Treaty are adopted
by the foreign Relations Committee,
making- the total so far adopted four-
teen; the Supreme Council of the
Peace Conference sends a note to
Bucharest stating- that the Council is
ready to consider a modification of the
clauses of the St. Germain treaty with
Austria, guaranteeing; protection to
racial and religious minorities, as soon
as the Roumanian Government is
ready to sign the Treaty.

Oct. 26. President Carl Seitz of the
Austrian Republic signs the Treaty
of Peace, which completes its ac-
ceptance by Austria.

Oct. 27. By a vote of 40 to 38 the
United States Senate rejects the
Johnson amendment to the Peace
Treaty which would have given the
United States an equal voice with the
British Empire in the League As-
sembly; Tokio dispatch says that the
Japanese Privy Council, which advises
the Emperor on important matters of
state, approves the Peace Treaty; it is
announced in the House of Commons
that a reorganization of the British
War Cabinet has been effected, by
which the body has been converted
into a Peace Cabinet- the British
Chancellor of the Exchequer presents
to the House of Commons revised es-
timates showing that the British na-
tional deficit is approximately two and
one half billion dollars.

Oct. 28. According to dispatches
from Paris, the recent elections to the
new Communal Council for Fiume re-
sulted in an overwhelming victory for
the party that desires Fiume annexed
to Italy.

Oct. 29. The Supreme Council takes
up the consideration of reported vio-
lations of the Peace Treaty by the
Germans; the International Labor Con-
ference of the League of Nations be-
gins its session at Washington. Dele-
gates from more than 30 countries,
representing all of the world's major
nationalities, are in attendance; up-
risings are said to have occurred
throughout the Ukraine against the
forces of General Denikine and large
bodies of troops of General Petlura
and General Makhno are joining the
Red army. The insurgents are said

471

SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

to have taken many towns south of the
Dnieper.

Oct. 3O. Peace Treaty ratified by
Japan, which country thus becomes the
fourth of the principal Allied and as-
sociate powers to take official action
on the Treaty. The other countries
that have ratified are Italy on Octo-
ber 7, Great Britain on October 10,
and France on October 21; the Brit-
ish Government's financial policy is
sustained by the House of Commons
by the overwhelming- majority of 3f>.~>;
Germany in her reply to the Entente
declines to participate in a blockade
of Soviet Russia, stating- that she
does not believe the blockade would
achieve the desired purpose; General
Denikine has recaptured Orel from
the Bolsheviki.

Oct. 31. The transport President
Grant arrives in Brest with 5,000
American troops for the Army of Oc-
cupation, who will be assig-ned to duty
at Coblenz.

NOVEMBER ,

PEACE PRELIMINARIES — CLEMEN-

CEAU'S FAREWELL — SENATE

REJECTS PEACE TREATY

Nov. 2. The town of Krasnaia Gor-
ka, a strong- Bolshevik position on the
Gulf of Finland, has capitulated to
General Yudenitch.

Nov. 4. Premier Clemenceau gives
France his farewell message in a
speech for ihe Government party at
Strasbourg-, Alsace, on the eve of his
contemplated retirement from politi-
cal life; Japan, in reply to & note
from the American Government sent
last September regarding- conditions
in Siberia, expresses a willingness to
cooperate with the American author-
ities; the Finnish Government informs
General Yudenitch that it is unable
to grant his request to cooperate with
him for the deliverance of Petrograd.

Nov. 6. Senator Knox of Pennsyl-
vania offers a treaty reservation in
the Senate giving- the United States
"complete liberty of action in carry-
ing- out the recommendations and ob-
ligations resulting- from membership
in the League"; according- to revised
figures announced by the French Bud-
g-et Committee, France's war expenses
amount to $31,800.000,000, exclusive
of pensions and losses in the devas-
tated regions.

Nov. 7. The Senate adopts the "Pre-
amble" to the Lodge slate of reserva-
tions, now known as reservation num-
ber one. This requires the assent of
three of the four principal Allied
Powers to the Senate's reservations be-
fore American ratification becomes ef-
fective.

Nov. 8. A semi-official message reach-
ing Copenhagen from Prague announces
that the Czecho-Slovak National As-
sembly adopts both the Versailles and
the St. Germain treaties; the Brazil-
ian Chamber of Deputies approves the
Versailles Peace Treaty without dis-
cussion or amendment.

Nov. 1 1 . The Brazilian Senate rat-
ifies the Peace Treaty, and President
Pessoa affixes his signature.

Nov. 12. The members of American
Deligation to the Peace Conference
notify the Supreme Council that
tlicy will depart from France during
the first days of December; reports
from Upper Silesia indicate that the
results of the municipal elections
there were most favorable to the
Poles, who secured a majority of the
votes throughout the province; the
Entente has granted a credit of 60,-
000,000 to Austria which will be
utilized principally for the purchase
of raw materials.

Nov. 13. The United States Senate
by a vote of 40 to 33 adopts the
Foreign Relation Committee's reserva-
tion on Article 10. Under this the
United States assumes no obligation
to preserve the territorial integrity or
political independence of any wther
country or to interfere in controver-
sies between nations; the return of
American dead buried in the outlying-
cemeteries of France has been author-
ized by the French Government and
the work of disinterment has been
ordered by the War Department;
Franklin D'Olier, of Pennsylvania, for-
mer Lieutenant Colonel' in the Ameri-
can Expeditionary Forces, is chosen
to be the first national commander
of the American Legion; the Senate
of Paraguay approves the adhesion of
that country to the League of Nations
and to the International Labor Or-
ganization; the Rumanian troops be-
gin evacuating Budapest; a message
.from Omsk says that the evacuation
of that city by the Allied missions is
carried out according to the program
that had been adopted; between Nov.
6 and 10 the Reds captured four en-
tire regiments of Admiral Kolchak's
troops and two divisional staffs.

Nov. 14. Finland has decided to aid
General Yudenitch with 30,000 vol-
unteers in a new attempt to take Pet-
rograd within the next few weeks;
the Bolsheviki have captured Yam-
burg, 68 miles southwest of Petro-
grad.

Nov. 15. Gabriel D'Annunzio heads
a new expedition to Zara on the Dal-
matian coast, receiving an enthusi-
astic welcome from the Italians there
who had been awaiting his coming;
the United States Senate for the
first time in its history, applies clo-
ture rule, the measure being- adopted
in connection with its action on the
Peace Treaty.

Nov. 16. General Yudenitch has re-
signed the command of the Russian
Northwest Army. General Laidoner,
Commander in Chief of the Esthonian
Army, has succeeded him.

Nov. 1 7. The Belgian Cabinet under
Premier Telacroix tenders its resig-
nation; the latest returns from tho
recent 'election in Italy indicate that
Premier Nitti has doubtless been re-
elected by a large majority; D'Annun-
zio's latest exploit in the capture of
Zara appears to have made him mas-
ter of the entire Dalmatian coast;
President Wilson states that he will
pigeon-hole the treaty if the Lodge
prom-am of reservations goes through
unchanged; a message from Omsk

472

A CHRONOLOGY OF THE WAR

says that that city is evacuated by
the ministers, the military staff and
the missions which still remained
there. Admiral Kolchak, head of the
government, remains with his armies.
The Bolsheviki occupy points on both
the railway lines, approximately 100
miles west of Omsk.

Nov. 18. By a vote of 53 to 38
the Senate adopts a reservation pro-
viding- that the United States shall
not be bound by any action of the
League of Nations in which any
nation or its dependencies cast more
than one vote; the Prince of Wales
reaches New York City for several
days' visit as the guest of the city;
official dispatches received at the
State Department confirm Bolsheviki
claims, recently made, of the capture
of Omsk by Bolsheviks on November
15.

Nov. 19. The Senate rejects the
Peace Treaty, with or without the
Lodge reservations, on three over-
whelming votes, and then adjourns
the present session; 20,000 troops of
General Yudenitch's northwestern army
have gone over to the Bolsheviki.

Nov. 21. The Supreme Council de-
cides to give Poland a mandate over
Eastern Galicia. under the League of
Nations for 25 years; the Supreme
Council approves the text of an agree-
ment granting political suzerainty over
the Spitzbergen archipelago to Nor-
way; the Bolsheviki bombarded
Omsk for several hours. Between
the periods of the bombardment, fire
broke out in the town which is re-
ported to have been half destroyed.

Nov. 22. The Prince of Wales ends
his American visit and sails for home;
the State Department renews its re-
quest to the French Government for
the return of bodies of American sol-
diers buried in France; General Deni-
kine claims to have broken through
the Red lines between Orel and Tam-
bov, southeast of Moscow, and to have
annihilated 50.000 Bolshevik troops.

Nov. 23. A Serbian division 12,000
strong has been concentrated at Spa-
lato on the Dalmatian coast, ready to
oppose Gabriele d'Annunzio if he ap-
proaches that city.

Nov. 24. Tomasso Tittoni, Italian
Foreign Minister, resigns, and Vitario
Scialoia. Minister without portfolio,
is named to succeed him; France de-
clines to permit the United States to
return the American dead until Janu-
ary 1, 1922.

Nov. 25. The Supreme Council sends
Germany a note asking an explanation
of the delay in the signing of the
protocol, relative to the carrying- out
of the terms of the Armistice.

Nov. 27. The Peace Treaty with
Bulgaria is signed in Paris.

Nov. 28. The Supreme Council adopts
the British suggestion for partition of
the German war-fleet, under which
Great Britain receives 70 per cent of
the total tonnage; France, 10 per
cent; Italy, 10 per cent; Japan 8 per
cent, and the United States, 2 per
cent. Lady Astor, the American wife
of Viscount Astpr, is elected to Par-
liament from the Button Division of

Plymouth in the balloting- of Novem-
ber 15. She is the first woman to
hold a seat in the British Parliament.

Nov. 29. The Supreme Council decides
that France is to have ten of the Ger-
man submarines because durrng the
war she was unable to build to the
extent of the other Allies; the Omsk
army continues to retreat on a wide
front.

Nov. 3O. An armistice providing for
the immediate evacuation of Lithu-
ania by thje Germans has been signed by
Germany and Lithuania; eleven generals
and a thousand other officers of the
army of Admiral Kolchak, and 39,000
troops, were captured by the Bolshe-
viki at Omsk; the Council of Ministers
of the Kolchak Government have re-
signed at Irkutsk; a dispatcn from
Warsaw to Paris confirms the news
that the Polish Army has formed a
junction with the army of General
Denikin.

DECE31BER

PEACE PRELIMINARIES SIXTY-SIXTH

CONGRESS ENGLAND TO

AUSTRALIA FLIGHT

Dec. 1. The Sixty-sixth Congress con-
venes and prepares for the immediate
consideration of pressing international
and domestic problems.

Dec. 2. According to advices from
Berlin, Germany's opposition to sign-
ing the protocol is due to the attitude
of the United States Senate toward
the Treaty of Peace; President Wilson
presents his annual message to Con-
gress; twelve million dollars from the
United States Treasury was contrib-
uted this year for relief of tne under-
nourished children of Europe, prin-
cipally in Poland and Czecho-Slovakia.

Dec. 3. The Supreme Council extends
to December 8 the time allowed Rou-
mania in which to reply to the latest
Allied note. This is in the nature
of an ultimatum to Roumama, so far
as signing the Treaty is concerned:
the head of the German delegation in
Paris states that Germany is wriling to
sign the agreement putting the Peace
Treaty into effect if certain clauses
objectionable to her are eliminated;
the Supreme Council addresses a note
to Germany, protesting agarnst an
increase of Germany's armament con-
trary to the provisions of the Peace
Treaty.

Dec. 4. The Supreme Council extends
an invitation to Hungary to send
Hungarian plenipotentiaries to Neuilly
to conclude peace between the Allied
nations and Hungary; all war-claims
against our Government in France are
to be settled for the maximum sum
of $3,600.000. under an agreement be-
tween the War Department and the
French Government.

Dec. 5. The plenipotentiaries of Jugo-
slavia sign the Bulgarian Treaty and
also the financial annexes to the
Austrian Treaty; the Supreme Council
approves treaty provisions regulating
the frontier between Poland and
Czecho-S^vakia. which places western
Galicia within the boundaries of Po-
land; the Supreme Council tafces UD
the consideration of immediate meas-

473

SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

ures to remedy the financial difficulties
of various countries; the countries to
be aided include former enemy nations,
particularly Austria.

Dec. <». The Supreme Council drafts
a note demanding that Germany sign
the protocol providing- for the carrying
out of the peace terms: the Bolshevik
forces continue to g-ain against the
Siberians. Their latest success is the
occupation of Barabinsk, not far from
Omsk, the Siberians offering- no re-
sistance.

Deo. 7. The Supreme Council notifies
Dr. Carl llenner, Austrian Chancellor,
that it is willing- to receive him
personally and hear his appeal for aid
for his country; Gustav Noske, Ger-
man Minister of Defense, states that
he will recommend to his Government
a refusal to sign the protocol; the
pctual war-cost of the United States
Navy was $2,982.000.000, according
to the annual report of the Secretary
of the Navy.

Dec. 8. The Supreme Council delivers
to the German delegation notes which
contain certain modifications of the
terms of the protocol to which Ger-
many objects. Among other things it
is agreed to consider the economic
effects on Germany of indemnities re-
quired for the sinking- of the war-
ships in the Scapa Flow; a peace-time
Regular Army of 300.000 men and
18,000 officers is decided on by the
House military sub-committee.

Dec. 9. A new all-Russian Govern-
ment is formed at Irkutsk by Admiral
Kolchak under the Premiership of V.
Pepelia.rev; the chief members of the
American peace delegation leave Paris
to return to the United States; the
'Supreme Council decides on the prin-
ciples on which light German warships
will be divided among- the smaller
Powers for coast-defense purposes. It
has also -been decided that the de-
struction? of ^such German ships as
shall be destroyed is to be carried out
by the Powers to which they are al-
lotted; Turkey's gold reserves, now in
Berlin, shall be transferred to (Paris,
the Sufreme Council decides.

Dec. 1O. General Cpnada, former
Roumanian Premier, signs the Aus-
trian and Bulgarian treaties lor Rou-
mania; Capt. Ross Smith, Australian
aviator, arrives in Port Darwin, Aus-
tralia, by airplane from England, thus
winning a prize of 10.000 pounds
sterling offered for the first aviator to
make the flight* the Norwegian Par-
liamentary Nobel Committee decides
not to award the Nobel peace prizes
for 1918 and 1919; two Jugo-Slav
army corps are reported to be moving
toward Dalmatia and northern Al-
bania. The Servian Government ex-
plains that this movement is a
precautionary measure against any
Italian attempt to occupy these sec-
tipns; the Bolsheviki begin a new
offensive on the Narva front. AH
attacks are said to have been repulsed
with heavy losses to the Bolsheviki.

Dec 1 1 . The German reply to the
Supreme Council's note demanding the
signing of the peace protocol is re-
ceived in Paris.

Dec. 12. A Moscow official dispatch

announces the capture by the Bolshe-
viki, of Kharkov, in southern Russia,
one of the bases of General Denikin.

Dec. 13. General Denikin captures
2,850 Bolsheviki and a number of
cannon and machine guns in cavalry
raids near Kamyshin; the city of Pol-
tava, about seventy-five miles south-
west of Kharkof, is captured by the
Bolsheviki.

Dec. 14. Germany in her node reply-
ing to the Allied demand that she
sign the protocol expresses a willing-
ness, to make reparation for the sink-
ing of the German warships at Scapa
Flow; in a statement issued at the
White House, it is made clear that
the President will make no compro-
mise, and does not intend to witndraw
the Treaty and resubmit, it, but in-
tends to let the responsibility "rest on
the Republican Senators"; a report
from Fiume says Gabrielle d'Annunzio
has decided to hand over the com-
mand of that city to regular troops
under General Caviglia, former Min-
ister of War.

Dec. IS. The Siberian Army con-
tinues to retreat before the Bolsheviki.
The Bolsheviki are said to have ad-
vanced about 217 miles from Omsk.

Dec. 16. The capture by the Bolshe-
viki of Novo Nikolavesk on the Trans-
Siberian Railroad, 390 miles east of
Omsk, is reported in Moscow, it is
said that more than five thousand
prisoners, many guns, and several gen-
erals of the Kolchak army were taken
by the Soviet troops.

Dec. 17. The Supreme Council decides
that it will be necessary to furnish
relief to Austria in the amount of
$70,000.000 for the purchase of food;
a message by wireless received in Lon-
don from Moscow reports the alleged
capture of Kief and the occupation of
Kupiansk, southeast of Kharkof. by
the Bolsheviki.

Dec. 18. Premier Lloyd George states
in the House of Commons that the
Allies have decided to make peace
with Turkey at the earliest possible
moment, without the participation of
the United States; a new turn in the
Fiume situation is brought about by
opposition to the withdrawal of Cap-
tain d'Annunzio's forces which may
block acceptance of proposals or Gen-
eral Badoglio, Italian Chief of Staff.
to assume command at Fiume;
Amanullah Khan, reigning Amir of
Afghanistan, issues a manifesto of
independence.

Deo. If). An unsuccessful attempt is
made in Dublin to assassinate Viscount
French, Lord Lieutenant of Ireland.
One of the attacking party is killed,
and a detective in Viscount French's
car is wounded; General Denikin has
gained an important victory in the
Volga Valley, according to information
from Helsingfors, and is said to have
taken 10.250 prisoners and consider-
able equipment.

Dec. 2O. The first section 01 the
German Commission entrusted with
preparations for putting the Peace
Treaty into effect arrives in Paris.

Dec. 21. The second section of the
German mission reaches Paris; the

474

A CHRONOLOGY OF THE WAR

Italian Chamber of Deputies adopts an
order expressing- confidence in the
Government and upholding- Premier
Nitti's Cabinet.

Dec. 2ft. The Supreme Council an-
swers the German note of December
15 and suggests that if it is discovered
that errors had been made in the
estimate of floating-dock material in-
the possession of Germany, upon which
demands had been based for repara-
tion for the sinking- of the Scapa
Flow fleet, such demands will be pro-
portionately reduced; law officers of
the Crown at a recent conference with
French and Belgian law officers have
made out a case against the former
German Emperor and framed an in-
(Uctment; the French Chamber of
Deputies votes* confidence in the Gov-
ernment, 458 to 75. The vote also
carried approval of Premier Clemen-
ceau's program.

Dec. 24. Japan's representative in the
Supreme Council objects to the lorm
of mandates under which that country
is to have charge of the former Ger-
man colonies in the Pacific: owing to
doubts regarding- the first plebiscite at

Fiume, another has been taken, which
resulted in 75 per cent of the votes
being cast in favor of the Italian
Government's proposals relative to the
future occupation of the city, under
which Fiume is to decide its own fate.

Dec. 27. Removal and shipment home
of bodies of American soldiers buried
in those parts of France not included
in the battlefields and advance areas
have been approved by the French
Minister of the Interior.

Dec. 29. Sir William Osier, world-
famous physician, dies at his home in
Oxford, England, at the age of seventy.

Dec. 3O. All points in connection with
the signature of the protocol have
been settled, except that relating to
naval material; Count Apponyi, head-
ing the Hungarian Peace delegation,
indicates that the Hungarian Govern-
ment will make a fight for restoration
of some of the territory taken away
from it, when the delegation goes to
Paris; Viscount Grey, after three
months of service in Washington as
British Ambassador, leaves the capital
for England to report to his Gov-
ernment.

THE EVENTS OF 1920

JANUARY

PEACE PRELIMINARIES THE LEAGUE

OF NATIONS ADMIRAL SIMS AND

THE NAVY DEPARTMENT

Jan. 1. According- to estimates by the
British War Office, Germany's armed
forces total nearly a million men,
which, under the terms of the Peace
Treaty, must be reduced to 100,000
men by March 31; dispatches received
in Vienna from Sofia state that Bul-
garia has been declared under martial

Jani 2. The possibility of a Bolshevik
move upon the East is causing alarm
in Great Britain. The collapse of
Admiral Kolchak and the precarious
position of General Denikin leaves the
door to India open to the "Red" army;
Turkey appoints a delegation to make
peace with the Allies.

Jan. 3. The French Government
grants permission for the removal to
the United States of the bodies of
20,000 American soldiers buried in
France.

Jan. 4. Budapest advices state that
the high court which has been trying
Bela Kun, former Communist dic-
tator of Hungary, found evidence to
show him guilty of 236 murders,
nineteen robberies, and the use of
1P7.000.000 crowns for Communist
propaganda in Vienna alone.

Jan. 7. It is decided that representa-
tives of the United States will not be
present during the exchange of rati-
fications of the Peace Treaty; the
Hungarian peace delegation, number-
ing about sixty, and headed by Count
Apponyi, arrives in Paris.

Jan. 8. President Wilson in a letter
to the chairman of the Jackson-day
banquet indicates his opposition to
Peace-Treaty reservations and advo-

cates that the question of ratification
be submitted to a vote of the people
at the next election; William J. Bryan
in his address at the Jackson-day ban-
quet opposes President Wilson's pro-
posal to submit the question of rati-
fication to a referendum, and urges a
compromise; the Supreme Council has
refused a request of the German
Government to modify the German
frontier lines as they are stipulated in
the Peace Treaty.

Jan. 8. Cero de San Miguel, a small
volcano near Cordoba, Mexico, breaks
into violent eruption, resulting in two
hundred deaths; Great Britain, France,
and the United States propose to grant
complete sovereignty to Fiume under
the League of Nations.

Jan. f). The Bolsheviki have captured
Krasnoyarsk, eastern Siberia

Jan. 1O. Ratifications of the Treaty
of Versailles are exchanged in Paris,
and Peace between Germany, France,
Great Britain, and the other Allied
and associated Powers with the ex-
ception of the United States, becomes
effective; formal notice is served on
Germany by the United States, in con-
nection with the exchange of ratifica-
tions in Paris, that the conditions of

. the armistice still govern relations be-
tween the United States and Germany;
a Bolshevik Moscow wireless dispatch
to London says Admiral Kolchak has
been arrested in Irkutsk by Colonel
Pepeliayev, who has ordered him to
hand over control of all affairs.

Jan. 11. A resolution is passed at a
public meeting of the new Fatherland
League in Berlin, urging the Germans
to turn the former Kaiser over to
the Allies for trial; Raymond Poincar<§,
President of the French Republic, is
elected Senator for the Department
of the Meuse by a vote of 742 out

475

SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

of 772 votes cast; the Democrats in
the Senate decide to disregard Presi-
dent Wilson's plea to the Democratic
leaders at the Jackson-day dinner to
make the Peace Treaty the issue at
the Presidential election.

Jan. 12. President Wilson issues a
call for the first meeting of the Coun-
cil of the League of Nations 10 con-
vene at Paris, January 16; the Bol-
sheviki claim the capture of 25,400
prisoners on the southern front be-
tween December 21 and January Jt.

Jan. 18. Representatives of twenty-
six national organizations appeal to
President Wilson, Senator Lodge, and
Senator Hitchcock for immediate rat-
ification of the Peace Treaty; the
blockade against Germany in the Baltic
is lifted as a result of the signing- of
the Peace Treaty; the Allies complete
the list of persons they will ask
Germany to surrender as guilty of
crimes against the rules of warfare.
It includes 880 persons; the United
States Government refuses to accept
any part of the indemnity to be paid
by Germany for the destruction of the
German Fleet at Scapa Flow, oecause
it objects in principle to the settlement
made by the Supreme Council; with-
drawal of the American forces from
Siberia vis authorized by President
Wilson, and the movement ot troops
will begin at once; the House by a
vote of 183 to 123 adopts* a resolu-
tion calling upon Secretary of War
Baker to furnish complete information
regarding the awards of the Distin-
guished Service Medals.

Jan. 1 4. Italy accepts the project
for an agreement on the Adriatic ques-
tion. It has also been handed to the
Jugo-Slavs; eminent citizens of nine
nations address memorials to their
governments directing attention to im-
pending bankruptcy and anarchy in
Europe. They urge the calling of an
economic conference of the leading
nations of the world, including Ger-
many and Austria.

Jan. 15. The Supreme Council drafts
a note to the Dutch Government ask-
ing for the extradition of the former
German Emperor; Sir Oliver Lodge
arrives in New York for a lecture
tour in America.

Jan. 1 6. The League of Nations is
formally launched by the Executive
Council of the League in Paris. Rep-
resentatives of France, Great Britain,
Italy, Japan, Belgium, Spain, Greece,
Portugal and Brazil are present: Paul
Deschanel, President of the French
Chamber of Deputies, is nominated for
the Presidency, thus defeating Premier
Clemenceau; according to dispatches
received in Basle, Odessa, the chief
port of Russia on the Black Sea. has
been occupied by the Bolsheviki.

Jan. 17. Rear-Admiral Sims, testify-
ing before the Senate Committee in-
vestigating naval awards, charges that
the fighting forces of the United States
Navy were seriously handicapped in
doing their share toward defeating
Germany, through inefficiency in the
Navy Department that prolonged the
war; Paul Deschanel is elected Presi-
dent of the French RemibMc by 734 of
the 889 members of the National As-

sembly voting. His majority was the
largest since the election of Louis
Adolphe Thiers. the first President
alter the fall of the Empire, who was
chosen unanimously.

Jan. 18. Premier Clemenceau and
members of his Cabinet resign.

Jan. 19. Dr. Karl Renner, Austrian
Chancellor, informs the Foreign Affairs
Committee of the Assembly that an
offensive and defensive alliance has
been concluded at. Prague between
Austria and Czecho-Slovakia; at a
mass-meeting in Constantinople pro-
tests are voiced against the reported
intention of the Peace Conference to
dismember the Turkish Empire and
to internationalize Constantinople: the
Senate Naval Affairs Committee orders
an inquiry into the charges made by
Admiral Sims regarding the inefficiency
of the Navy Department during the
war.

Jan. 21. Assistant. Commissioner of
Police Redmond, of Dublin, is shot
by an assassin and instantly killed in
Harcourt Street, one of Dublin's main
thoroughfares.

Jan. 22. The recently formed cabinet
of Premier Millerand receives a vote
of confidence by the Deputies. The
vote is considered a moral defeat
for the Government, however, as more
than three hundred deputies abstained
from voting.

Jan. 23. The Dutch Government
delivers a note to the Peace Con-
ference unqualifiedly refusing to sur-
render William Hohenzqllern, former
German Emperor, for trial.

Jan. 24. Former British Premier H.
H. Asquith formally accepts the in-
vitation of the Liberals of Paisley to
stand as their candidate for Parlia-
ment; this is considered as an event
of the first importance in England.

Jan. 25. German troops begin the
evacuation of Upper Silesia, in ac-
cordance with the terms of the Peace
Treaty which require that the move-
ment begin fifteen days aiier its
ratification.

Jan. 2G. Hungary submits a mem-
orandum to the Entente plenipoten-
tiaries, declaring that the military
clauses in the Treaty drawn up for
Hungary are not acceptable. It is
asserted that the army of 35,000 men
allowed by the Treaty is not sufficient
to maintain order; the movement of
the American Expeditionary Forces
out of Siberia began January 17.

Jan. 27. The second meeting of the
Council of the League of Nations will
take place in London, probably on
February 10; General Denikin and his
staff have taken refuge on board a
British vessel at Constantinople.

Jan. 2f>. Germany sends a note to
the Allies asking the revision of the
extradition clauses of the Versailles
Treaty; Premier Millerand of France
calls upon General Janin, commanding
the Czecho-Slovak forces in Siberia,
to explain his action in handing over
Admiral Kolchak to the Siberian rev-
olutionary forces and to take measures
for his release: General Yudenich.
commander of the Russian Northwest
Army, has been placed under arre«t.

Jan. SO. The Cabinet of Premier

476

A CHRONOLOGY OF THE WAR

Millerand of France is given a vote
of confidence in the Chamber of Depu-
ties, 510 to 70; Georges Gaston Quien,
accused of betraying- Edith Cavell to
the Germans, is sentenced to twenty
years' imprisonment: advices from
Montreal say that since the armistice
more than a thousand enemy aliens
have been deported from Canada: a
demonstration participated in by five
thousand persons takes place at Han-
over, Germany, in protest against tne
extradition of former Emperor William.
Jan. 31. A committee of counselors
has been named in Great Britain to
decide the official date of the ending
of the war. It is declared that thou-
sands of pounds are involved in legal
proceedings which have been held up
pending an authoritative decision on
the point; the Japanese Embassy at
Washington is officially informed that
the Japanese Government has invited
China to enter upon negotiations for
the return of German rights in Shan-
tung to China.

FEBRUARY

PEACE PRELIMINARIES OPENING

SESSION OF THE LEAGUE
OF NATIONS

Feb. 1. Viscount Grey. British Am-
bassador to the United States, writes
a letter to the London Times favorable
to the Treaty reservations, now under
consideration in the United States
Senate; a bill backed by sixty-five
members is introduced in the French
Chamber of Deputies which would give
women civil, political, and economic
equality with men.

Feb. 2. The Council of Ambassadors
in Paris issues a formal denial of
rumors that the Allies will promote
or recognize the restoration of the
Hapsburg dynasty in Hungary.

Feb. 3. The Allies hand the list of
Germans accused of war-crimes to the
German representative in Parrs, with
a demand for their extradition. The
list contains eight hundred names,
headed by former Crown Prince Fred-
erick William; the American dollar
rises to the greatest premium in his-
tory. Sterling falls to about $3.33.
francs to about seven cents, lire to a
little over five cents, and the German
mark to 1.09 cents.

Feb. 4. Kurt von Lersner. head of
the German Peace Delegation in Paris,
resigns rather than transmit to his
Government the list of 896 Germans
whose extradition is demanded by the
Allies.

Feb. 5. President Wilson virtually
serves informal notice on the British
Government of his displeasure over
the letter of Viscount Grey published
in the London Tim.es declaring Britain
favorable to the Lodge reservations:
at the conclusion of a session of the
German cabinet, correspondents are
informed thaf the Ministers are unani-
mous in declaring that the surrender
of the men demanded by the Allies is
an utter physical impossibility; the
completion of the record of casualties
of the American Expeditionary Forces
in the war shows that 34.844 men
were killed in action, including 382

at sea; 13,960 died of wounds; 23,-
738 died of disease; and 5,102 died
from accident or other causes. The
wounded in action numbered 215,423.

Feb. 7. President Wilson instructs
the Democratic Senators to oppose
Republican proposals for a reservation
on Article X. The President, how-
ever, announced that he would favor
certain specific reservations.

Feb. 9. The treaty by which Norway
is given sovereignty over Spitzbergen
is signed at Paris, Hugh C. Wallace,
the American Ambassador at Paris,
signing for the United States.

Feb. 1O. A majority of the Repub-
licans assure Senator Lodge they will
support any modifications of tne orig-
inal reservations he will accept: Fred-
erick Wilhelm, former Crown Prince
of Germany, cables President Wilson
that he will surrender to the Allies,
suggesting that he be made the victim
rather than the men whose extradition
is demanded.

Feb. 11. Senator Hitchcock, leader of
the Administration forces, rejects com-
promise overtures from the Repub-
licans on the Peace Treaty. Involving
a compromise reservation to Article
X retaining the principle of the Lodge
reservation; Admiral Kolchak has been
executed by his own troops to prevent
his rescue by White troops moving in
the direction of Irkutsk for that pur-
pose; the latest information received
in Constantinople from Odessa says
the Bolshevik army is now in control
of the latter city; the opening session
of the Council of the League of Na-
tions meets at St. James's Palace,
London. No American representative
was present.

Feb. 12. The Hungarian peace dele-
gation hands the secretary of the
Peace Conference a memorandum out-
lining the desires of Hungary. It
insists upon maintenance of historical
Hungary and asks for a plebiscite in
the disputed districts; the German
Army is still 400.000 strong, accord-
ing to a report reaching Paris. In
addition there are 100. 000 policing
forces, officers and non-commissioned
officers. Germany is also reported
well supplied with tanks, machine
guns, and airplanes.

Feb. 1 3. The Democrats in the Senate
formally present to the Republicans a
written pledge, signed by twenty-eight
Senators, to vote for the bipartizan
conference reservation on Article X. as
a compromise to obtain ratification of
the Treaty; the League of Nations
Council at its meeting in St. James's
Palace, London, decides to call an in-
ternational financial conference ar, the
earliest possible moment to study the
financial crisis and look for means of
remedying it: Switzerland is admitted
to membership in the League: werman
doctors at Brunsbuettel on the Baltic
Canal vote not to go on board ships
flying flags of nations which were
parties to the demand for the extradi-
tion of Germans accused of war-
crimes; Robert Lansing resigns as
Secretary of State at the request of
President Wilson. The resignation
takes place "at once"; the Bolshevik
commander at Odessa threatens to

V. X — 32

477

SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

open fire on the British warships if
they remain in the harbor there for
more than three days; Admiral Kol-
chak and one of his ministers. Pepe-
liayev, were shot at Irkutsk on Feb-
ruary 7.

Feb. 14. Germany reopens her Em-
bassy in London, which has been
closed since 1914; the Norwegian
Cabinet decides to ask the consent of
Parliament for Norwegian participa-
tion in the League of Nations: dis-
cussion of the question of Holland's
entrance into the League of Nations
is opened in the Dutch Parliament. .

Feb. 15. N. W. Rowell, Acting Sec-
retary of State for External Affairs in
Canada, declares that his country will
never consent to ratification of the
Peace Treaty by the United States if
the Lenroot reservation is adopted
which would deprive Canada of her
independent voting power in the
League of Nations; agreement is
reached by the Supreme Allied Council
to permit the Sultan to maintain his
court in Constantinople; Hugh C.
Wallace, the American Amoassador,
delivers to the French Foreign Office
a memorandum from President Wilson
in which the President said he could
not approve of Premier Lloyd George's
proposed settlement of the Adriatic
question; a Moscow communication
reaching Warsaw announces mat Bol-
shevik detachments have passed the
Bessarabian frontier, and crossed the
Dneister River, taking many prisoners.

Feb. 16. An official decree is issued
by the Italian Government ratifying
the Peace Treaty with Bulgaria.

Feb. 1 7. Joseph Caillaux, form-
er French Premier, is placed on trial
before the Senate, charged witn con-
spiracy against his country in time of
war; Senator Hitchcock. Administra-
tion leader, declares the Democrats
have abandoned completely their ef-
forts to obtain ratification, and that
rather than permit the Treaty to be
ratified with reservations dictated by
Senator Lodge they are prepared to
join with the "irreconcilables" and
vote against ratification; though both
the White House and the State De-
partment denied that President Wil-
son's note on the Adriatic question
contained a threat to "withdraw from
European affairs," it is now said to
be admitted in official circles that the
President had served notice he would
consider withdrawing the German
Treaty from the Senate and had also
intimated that he would withdraw the
French Treaty if the Lloyd George
settlement of the Adriatic question
were adopted: the reply of the Allied
Supreme Council to President Wilson's
Adriatic note is handed to Ambassador
Davis in London.

Feb. 18. Paul Deschanel becomes the
tenth President of the French Repub-
lic, succeeding Raymond Poincare;
President Wilson receives the reply of
the Allied Premiers to his note
threatening withdrawal from Euro-
pean affairs unless the Adriatic ques-
tion is settled as agreed among the
Powers last December.

Feb. 1J>. An international tinancial
conference under the auspices of the

League of Nations will be held in
March either at Brussels or at The
Hague; martial law is proclaimed in
the Sarre region on account of dis-
turbances taking place there: the na-
tional debt of Germany is expected to
reach $51,000,000 by the end of
March; President Wilson sends to the
State Department a replly to the
Entente Premier's note on the Adri-
atic question.

Feb. 2O. The Second Chamber of the
Dutch Parliament approves Holland's
entrance into the (League of Nations;
Rear-Admiral Robert E. Peary, dis-
coverer of the North Pole, dies in
Washington at the age of sixty-four;
universal military training as a part
of the future military policy of the
United States is approved in principle
by the House Military Committee;
the Bolsheviki capture Archangel.

Feb. 21. In the course of three test
votes in the Senate, four additional
Democratic Senators break from the
Administration leadership on the Peace
Treaty and vote to adopt the original
Lodge Reservation on withdrawal from
the League of Nations: Admiral
Nicholas Horthy, Commander-in-Chief
of the Hungarian Army, is reported to
have been made Regent of Hungary
by the National Assembly.

Feb. 22. The Republic of France pre-
sents 6,000 "certificates of gratitude"
to relatives and friends ot soldiers
who died in defense of France's
frontiers.

Feb. 23. - Final settlement of the
Adriatic question is to be placed in
the form of a boundary treaty for
ultimate submission to the American
Senate for ratification; the final doc-
uments of the Hungarian reply to the
Allied peace terms are presented to
the Secretary of the Peace Conference
in Paris.

Feb. 25. Bainbridge Colby, former
Republican and Progressive, is ap-
pointed Secretary of State by Presi-
dent Wilson to succeed Robert Lansing;
Mr. Herbert H. Asquith, former Brit-
ish Premier, is reelected to Parliament
from Paisley; President Wilson's sec-
ond note of the month on the Adriatic
problem is received and delivered to
the Allied Peace Council in London.

Feb. 26. The United States Senate
readopts the Lodge reservation on
mandates by a vote of 68 to 4. This
is the first time since the Treaty was
submitted to the Senate that a reser-
vation has received more than the
two-thirds votes necessary for the
ratification: President Wilsons last
note on the Adriatic question is made
public. In it the President stands
firm on his "threat" to consider tak-
ing America out of European affairs
and refusing to join the League of
Nations.

Feb. 27. The Entente Premiers ac-
cept the President's proposal that the
Adriatic question be settled by nego-
tiations between the Italian and Jugo-
slav Governments: Major R. W.
Shroeder makes a new altitude record
in an airplane at Dayton. Ohio, reach-
ing an elevation of 36.020 feet.

Feb. 28. President Wilson signs the
transportation act providing lor the

478

A CHRONOLOGY OF THE WAR

return of the railroads to private con-
trol March 1.

Feb. 29. Premier Nitti of Italy and
Antpn Trumbitch, Jugo-Slav Foreign
Minister, hold a conference in London
to discuss the Adriatic problem. This
follows the proposal of the Allied
Premiers to President Wilson; a siege
of Fiume has begun with a stringent
blockade against commodities, includ-
ing foodstuffs. Its purpose is to
compel the surrender of D'Annunzio.

MARCH f

PEACE PRELIMINARIES COUP D'ETAT

IN GERMANY SENATE AND .THE

PEACE TREATY

March 1. Private operation of the
country's railroads is resumed one
minute after midnight after twenty-six
months of government operation.

March 2. The Senate readopis the
original Lodge reservations on do-
mestic questions and the Monroe Doc-
trine by l^rge majorities: the Supreme
Council decides that Turkey shall have
no navy; Germany is to be permitted
to float an international loan in neu-
tral European countries and South
America, and, if possible, in the United
States, according to a decision of the
Supreme Council.

March 4. The Senate by a vote of
48 to 21 readopts the original Lodge
reservation on Shantung amended to
eliminate mention of China or Japan;
the Senate also by a vote of 55 to 14
adopts a reservation providing that
no person not appointed by Congress
shall represent the United States in
any body established by the Peace
Treaty. A final proposal for a com-
promise on a reservation to Article X
is submitted to President Wilson by
the Democratic leaders; it becomes
known that by the Treaty now being
completed by the Conference of foreign
Ministers and Ambassadors, Turkey
has virtually been stript of all terri-
tory in Europe.

March 5. President Wilson is form-
ally asked by the Democratic Senators
to decide whether the Peace Treaty
shall be ratified with the reservations
that are now being adopted by the
Senate or whether the Administration
followers shall again defeat ratifica-
tion: the Dutch Government for the
second time refuses to -deliver the
former German Emperor to the Allies
for trial.

March 6. A report reaching ix>ndon
from Helsingfors says the Bolsheviki
have begun a new attack on Finland.

March 7. President Wilson in his
latest note to the British and French
Premiers on the Adriatic question re-
iterates hjs willingness to approve "a
mutual agreement between the Italian
and Jugo-Slav governments reached
without prejudice to the territorial or
other interests of any third nation."
but insists that such agreement must
be in harmony wtih the principles laid
down in the Anglo-French-American
memorandum of December 9: a report
from Berlin to London says large
forces of Bolsheviki open an offensive
against the Poles on both sides of the
Pripet region.

March 8. President Wilson refuses
to discuss with Democratic Senators
reservations to Article X on which
they hoped a compromise was possible;
stubborn fighting is reported from the
Polish front, where the Bolsheviki
have just launched a new drive.

March 9._ The Senate approves the
Lenroot reservation providing mat the
United States, except in cases where
Congress has consented, assumes no
obligation resulting from any decision
of the League of Nations unless such
decision is reached by a vote in which
the United States is represented
equally with any other member of
the League.

March 1O. The Republicans in the
Senate withdraw their offer or a com-
promise on the Article X reservation
submitted to the Democrats. More
than one-half of the Democratic Sen-
ators announce that they will ratify
the Treaty with the Lodge reserva-
tions: the chief training-school t
cadets at Grosslichterfelde, Prussia,
through which most of the officers 01
the Germany Army passed, is closed
in accordance with the terms of the
Peace Treaty; Jugo-Slav officials re-
joice at the attitude taken by Presi-
dent Wilson in his latest note on the
Adriatic.

March 12. Senator Lodge makes a
final offer of compromise on a reser-
vation to Article X in the Senate.
It is immediately opposed t>y .Demo-
cratic Senators; a new Hungarian
peace treaty is definitely agreed upon
by the Peace Conference.

March II. The Syrian Congress at
Damascus declares Syria to be an irir
dependent state; the moderate forces
in British labor win a decisive and
highly important victory when the
Trades Union Congress decides by a
vote of 3.870.000 to 1.050.000 against
the use of direct action or a general
strike to force the nationalization of
the coal-mines; Hjalmar Branting is
named Premier in Sweden. He is the
first Socialist to hold this office in
that country.

March 13. The Government of
Friedrich Ebert. the Socialist President
of the German Republic, is over-
thrown by a military coup d'etat. The
National Assembly is dissolved, and
Dr. Wolfgang Kapp, one of the
founders of the Fatherlana party,
ousts Gustav Bauer, the Chancellor
and himself takes that office. Gen-
eral Baron von Leuttwitz is appointed
Commander-in-Chief of the Army: the
Allied Supreme Council is called in
extraordinary session to consider pro-
tective measures as the result of the
overthrow 9f the Ebert Government
by monarchist leaders in Berlin.

March 14. President Ebert, of the
old Government, calls upon the Social-
ists and working classes generally to
stand by the old Government and to
use the strike weapon so that the
counter-revolution may be promptly

Ma^ch8 15. Emir Feisal. the eldest
son of King Hussein of Hedjaz. is de-
clared king of Syria .with Palestine, as
a part of the kingdom. Mesopotamia
is also reported to have declared its

479

SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

independence, wtih Emir Abysmal,
third son of King- Hussein, as King-;
the counter-revolution in Germany ap-
pears to have reached an end: the
Senate adopts the Lodge compromise
reservation to Article X. The reser-
vation as adopted provides, in effect,
that the United States shall assume no
obligation to preserve the territorial
integrity or political independence of
any other country by the employment
of its military or naval forces unless
Congress shall so provide by act or
joint resolution.

March 1 <>. Republican Senate
leaders are making- tentative plans for
a separate peace with Germany, in
case the Peace Treaty fails of
ratification.

March 17. Chancellor Kapp, head
of the new Government at Benin, has
resigned in favor of President Ebert;
a report from Constantinonle says
the Allied forces under Gen. Sir George
F. Milne, of the British Army, occupy
the Turkish capital. The Allies issue
a proclamation saying- that the occu-
pation is provisional and for the
purpose of compelling- the Ottoman
Empire to fulfill treaty terms and
end the reig-n of disorder; according
to a report from Berlin. Dr. Kann h."s
fled Berlin; a royal decree is issued in
Holland, saying- the place to be al-
lotted to former Emperor William of
Germany as his residence will form
part of the Province of Utrecht and
that it will be fixt later uy the
Government.

March 18. The Senate adopts the
fourteen Lodg-e reservations to the
Peace Treaty, and in addition a reserva-
tion approving- self-determination for
Ireland; a peace-time Army of 299,000
enlisted men and 17.800 officers is
approved by the House in passing- the
Army Reorganization Bill by a vote
of 246 to 92.

March 19. The Senate by a vote of
49 to 35 refuses to ratify the Peace
Treaty and sends it back to President
Wilson; the Lord Mayor of Cork is
shot dead by an assassin who entered
his residence and escaped in an
automobile.

March 2O. According- to official dis-
patches received at the Finnisn Lega-
tion in Washing-ton, the Bolshevik!
have started an offensive against Fin-
land, using- the Murman Railroad as a
base.

March 21. The London Air Ministry
announces that the 5.300-mile airplane
race across Africa from Cairo to the
Cape i« won by Colonel Van Rybzvo'd
in a Vozrtrekker machine; a Bolshe-
vik communication received in Lon-
don claims that in the direction of
Novorossisk the "Reds" have captured
6,000 prisoners and 20 guns and in
the reg-ion of Ekaterinodar they have
taken 15.000 prisoners, a larg-e num-
ber of g-uns, and much booty.

March 22. A Warsaw dispatch says
the Bolsheviki have launched repeated
attacks along- various parts of the
Polish front, considered by the mili-
tary authorities to be preliminary f~<
the long--heralded general spring-
offensive.

March 23. The Supreme Council de-
cides to offer the protection of the

League of Nations to an independent
Armenia, which would comprise Rus-
sian Armenia and certain territories
taken from Turkey; the Dutch Premier
reads to Parliament a royal qecree by
which the island of Wieringen is
granted to the former German Crown
Prince as a place of residence "with-
out prejudice to future arrange-
ments"; the House passes the Naval
Appropriation Bill, carrying- approxi-
mately $425,000,000, and it now gxies
to the Senate; the Polish Army lakes
the offensive against the Bolsheviki in
the Baltic region and captures sev-
eral thousand prisoners.

3Iarch 24. Democratic Senators sug-
gest to President Wilson the ratifica-
tion of the Peace Treaty with a single
reservation providing for the Decision
of the United States on the League of
Nations Covenant after the Presi-
dential election, as a basis on which
he may resubmit the Treaty to the
Senate; dispatches from Beirut to
Constantinople announce that Emir
Feisal, the recently proclaimed King
of Syria, has given the French until
April 6 to leave Syria and the Arabs
have ordered the British out of Pal-
estine; Mrs. Humphrey Ward, the
noted English author, dies in a London
hospital. She was born in Tasmania,
June 11, 1851.

March 25. The Bolsheviki have
commenced the long-planned spring
attack by launching a drive against
the Polish line at scattered points
along a front of approximately four
hundred miles.

March 26. It is reported from Con-
stantinople that the south Russian
anti-"Red" volunteer army has vir-
tually disappeared. General Denikin.
the anti-Bolshevik leader in southern
Russia, and his general staff have been
at Novorossisk since March 14 with
an army of about six thousand.

March 27. 3,500 three-inch field
guns have been found by the Inter-
Allied Commission in the vicinity of
Berlin and altogether 12.000 of
these guns have been discovered
throughout Germany, as well as 6.000
airplanes intact; Odessa, the great Rus-
sian port on the Black Sea, is occupied
by Ukrainians, according to informa-
tion received by the Ukrainian mis-
sion in Paris; Novorossisk, the last
base in southern Russia under control
of General Denikin. is captured by the
Russian Bolsheviki.

March 29. German army troops to
the number of 10,000 have invaded
the Ruhr valley. France called the
attention of the Allies to what is de-
scribed as a gross violation 01 the
Peace Treaty, and urged that action
be taken.

March SO. Allied powers have
accepted Holland's last note re-
garding the former Kaiser, in which
the Dutch refuse to surrender him,
but promise to guard him carefully:
President Wilson in his latest note to
the Allies demands the expulsion of
the Turk from Constantinople and
from Europe.

March 31. A resolution declaring-
the war with Germany at an end is
reported to the House by the Com-

480

A CHRONOLOGY OF THE WAR

mittee on Foreign Affairs. The resolu-
tion gives Germany forty-five days in
which to notify the United States that
she also considers peace established:
by a vote of 348 to 94 the Govern-
ment's Irish Home Rule Bill passes
the second reading in the House of
Commons. The bill now goes to the
committee stage before the third and
final reading.

APRIL,

PEACE PRELIMINARIES - FRENCH

OCCUPY GERMAN TOWNS

April 1. The Supreme Council asks

the League of Nations to accept a

mandate for Armenia; a special meet-

ing has been called to consider the

Anril 3. The American Commission.
headed by Major-General HarDord ap-
pointed by President Wilson to study
conditions in the former Turkisn Em-
pire report that it would require
from 25,000 to 200.000 1 American
troops the first year to hold the man-
date for Armenia, that it would be
five vears before the mandate would
be self-supporting, and that the cost
to this Government would be $757,-
350,000; the German Government
makes a formal demand upon France
for permission to take up arms against
the Ruhr Communists.

April 4. Advices that German troops
aVe pouring- into the Ruhr district with
full government authority and m vio-
lation of the Treaty cause the French
Government to issue orders for troops
to cross the Rhine and occupy Darm-
stadt, Frankfort, Hamburg. and

Aril. Some detachments of the
French troops have already begun an
advance for the occupation of Frank-
fort The French Government issues
a note defining its position in the
present crisis; administration Leader
Hitchcock says President Wilson will
send the Peace Treaty back 10 the
Senate for a second time when he
vetoes the Peace resolution or when
Congress fails, to pass a resolution

A°prrilh6.VeAn" official communication
islued in Paris says the military op-
eration contemplated by the French
against Frankfort and Darmstadt has
blen completed, as has also that of
Hanau previously evacuated by the

. a ,„,, discussion of
the Franco-German incident by the
Cabinet Council in I/ondon, an au-
thoritative statement is issued to the
effect that France acted entirely on
her own initiative in deciding to oc-
cupy German towns; that Great
Britain, the United States Italy, and
Belgium were all opposed to the plan
and that France's action has caused
a delicate situation; at a council of
Belgian Ministers in Brussels, held
under the presidency of the King, it
was decided to inform the French
Government that the Belgian <*pvern-
ment is ready to associate itself with
France and to send a detachment to
cooperate with the French in the oc-
cupation of the Ruhr region.

April 9. The German Government
hands Premier MilJerand a note de-
claring that Germany will hold France
responsible for all damages and cas-
ualties growing out of the occupation
of the Rhine cities; the House passes
the Knox Resolution, declaring a state
of peace with Germany and repealing
all the special war-legislation. Twenty-
two Democrats join the Republicans in
voting for the resolution.

April 11. Great Britain replies to
the French note on the Ruhr occu-
pation reaffirming the determination
to enforce the Versailles Treaty, but
in cooperation with the other Allies;
the withdrawal of all German troops
no longer needed in the Ruhr district
is begun.

April 13. A Warsaw dispatch re-
ports a victory for the Poles over the
Bolsheviki on the southeastern front.

April 14. President Wilson presides
over the first Cabinet meeting held
at his call since September 2. 1919;
Ludwig C. A. K. Martens, self-styled
Ambassador of the Russian Soviet
Government to the United States, is
found by the Senate Foreign Relations
Committee to be an alien enemy.

April 19. Sir Auckland Geddes.
recently appointed British Ambassador
to the United States to succeed Vis-
count Grey, arrives in New York from
Southampton; the House Appropria-
tions Committee estimates the total
loss to the Government growing out
of Federal control of the railroads at
about $1,375.000.000.

April 2O. Russia and Germany sign
a treaty in Berlin for the exchange of
war prisoners, of whom 200,000 are
still in Germany. The treaty is prac-
tically the same as that signed by
Great Britain and Russia.

April 22. President Wilson, in a
letter read to the Democratic 6tate
convention at Wiohita, Kan., declares
the issue to be put forward must be
the duty of America to follow up
victory by establishing a League of
'Nations; Joseph Caillaux. former Pre-
mier of France and twice Minister of
Finance is convicted of "commerce
and correspondence with the enemy" :
sentenced to three years' imprisonment,
five years' forced residence to be
selected by the Minister of the Inte-
rior, and ten years' loss of political
rights, the latter clause carrying with
it the inability to vote or to hold

April 24. Premier Nitti, of Italy,
and Anton Trumbitch, the Jugo-Slav
Foreign Minister, accept President
Wilson's settlement of the Adriatic
problem, making Fiume a buffer state,
with no continuity of territory be-
tween Fiume and Italy. Plebiscites
will decide the disposition of the
islands in dispute.

April 25. The Supreme Council asks
President Wilson to fix the boundaries
of the new state of Armenia, and
officially offers the mandate for Ar-
menia to the United States Govern-
ment; France is given a mandate for
Syria, and Great Britain is made man-
datary .for Palestine, which is estab-

481

SKETCHES, PEACE TREATY, CHRONOLOGY

lished as the homeland of the Jews;
the indemnity to be paid by Germany
is tentatively fixed at an annual pay-
ment of 3,000,000,000 marks, figured
at the pre-war exchange-rate, for thirty
years. This will make a total of
about $22,000,000,000.
April 3O. A new peace resolution
providing for a separate peace with
Germany and Austria is reponed to
the Senate by Senator Lodge, cnair-
man of the Foreign Relations Com-
mittee. The measure requests President
Wilson to negotiate peace treaties with
Germany and Austria and also repeals
the declarations of war against Ger-
many and Austria, repeals war-time
legislation, and retains to the United
States all former German and Aus-
trian property taken over by the Alien
Property Custodian or other govern-
ment agencies until all claims of
American nationals against Germany
and Austria shall be satisfied.

MAY

TURKS RECEIVE PEACE TREATY PRESIDENT

WILSON VETOES KNOX RESOLUTION

SENATE FAILS TO RATIFY PEACE
TREATY

May 11. The Turkish Peace, delega-
tion receives the Peace Treaty at Paris;
the Treaty, among other things, pro-
vides for permanent occupation of Con-
stantinople by Allied troops, awards
Thrace to Greece, and stipulates that
the Turks shall recognize Armenia's
independence and accept the arbitra-
tion of the President* of the United
States as to the frontier.

May 12. News is received in Paris
that a settlement of the Adriatic ques-
tion has been reached between Jugo-
slav and Italian delegates at Pallanza.
It is said the Italian delegates agreed
that Italy should recqgnize the "Wil-
son line" as the frontier between Italy
and Jugo-Slavia; also that Fiume be
placed under Italian sovereignty, but
that the League of Nations should con-
troll the port.

May 15. The Senate by a vote of 43

to 38 passes the Knox resolution re-
pealing the declarations of war with
Germany and Austria and providing
for a resumption of commercial and
diplomatic relations with those coun-
tries.

May 19. German war-criminals on
the list recently presented the Govern-
ment by the Allies are summoned by
the chief imperial public prosecutor to
appear before the Supreme Court at
Leipzig between June 7 and June 20,
says a report from Berlin; Ac-
cording to what is perhaps the
first concise statement of trance's
war-losses, 1,400,000 of that coun-
try's soldiers were killed, &00.000
maimed, and 300,000 wounded, out of
the 8,000.000 mobilized. Of material
losses 600,000 houses were destroyed,
75,000,000 acres of arable land laid
waste and 3,000 miles of railroad
and 25,000 miles of highways were
completely destroyed.

May 21. The House by a vote of 228
to 139 adopts the Knox peace resolu-
tion as a substitute for the original
peace mesure passed by the House;
eighteen Democrats broke away from
the Administration leadership and
voted for the resolution.

May 24. President Wilson in a spe-
cial message to Congress urges Ameri-
can acceptance of a mandate over
Armenia.

May 27. The Senate Foreign Rela-
tions Committee by a vote of 11 to 4
adopts a resolution refusing the re-
quest of President Wilson that he be
authorized to accept for the United
States a mandate over Armenia; Presi-
dent Wilson vetoes the Knox Peace
resolution recently passed by Congress;
the President in his veto message de-
clared that if peace were established
through the resolution the purpose for
which the United States entered the
war would not be attained; the Senate
by a vote of 62 to 12 opposes the
Armenian mandate and by a vote of
52 to 23 adopts the Foreign Relations
Committee's resolution refusing the
consent of Congress for President Wil-
son to accept the mandate.

482

INDEX

484

INDEX

(Roman numerals indicate volumes. Arabic numbers indicate pages.)

Aboukir, sinking- of the, IX, 212-215.
Achi Baba, VIII, 94, 99.

Entente attempt to take, VIII, 109-

110, 114, 116.
further attempt to take, VIII, 126-

128.

Adriatic, character of its shores, IX,
8-11.

closed to navigation, IX, 35.
profound changes in, IX, 149.
Aeroplanes, aircraft, IV. 265-292.
American, at Darmans, V, 225.
at Charleroi and Mons, II, 323.
attack by, near Venice, IX, 118.
early use, II, 343-376.
in Cuxhaven, II, 354.
in the Albert-Montdidier Salient, V,

308.

in Ludendorff offensive. V, 57.
in the Marne Salient, V, 268-269.
in Reims offensive, V, 170-172.
on Norfolk coast, II, 354.
over Karlsruhe, II. 356-358.
raids by, V, 354.
raids on Colog-ne, II, 352.
Dusseldorf, II, 352.
Metz, II, 353.
Warsaw, II, 353.
raids in Paris, II, 350-351.
recog-nition of, in war in 1911, I,

134.
supremacy of action in Ludendorff

drive, V, 26-27.
work of. V, 109.
work of Allied. V, 116.
Aerschot, atrocities in, I. 320.
Africa, partitioning- of, by European

Powers 1 123-136.
Aisne, battle of, II, 119-158.

country, the, Caesar's visit, I, 249.
French offensive on. III. 368.
Germans driven from, HI, 374-392.
progress on. III, 22.
Aix-la-Chapelle, Belgians occupy Rhine
at, VI, 371.

the railroad from, to Paris, I, 248.
Albania, as a kingdom, IX, 3.

Entente success in, VIII, 368-375.
Albert, King of the Belgians, his de-
fiance of the Germans, I, 258-259.
clears Belgium of Germans, VI, 113-

121, 126, 148; VI, 30.
enters Bruges, VI, 133-134.
enters Ghent. VI, 141-142.
enters Liege, VI, 148.
launches an offensive. VI, 22-25.
military doings at the front. II, 2o8.
sketch of, X, 203-209,
Albert, battle of, II. 180-183.
Albert-Montdidier Salient, the, wiped

out, V. 296-337.
Aleppo, fall of, VIII, 232.
Algeciras Conference, The, I, 129.

Allen, H. Warner, I, XI.

Allenby, Gen. Sir Edmund, conquers

Palestine, VIII, 213-226.

envelopes Turkey's main army, VIII,
224-226.

sketch of, X, 89-92.

takes Jerusalem, VIII, 215-221.

takes Aleppo and forces Bulgaria's

surrender, VIII, 234-235.
Allies, the entente form a new bond

of reunion, I, 189-191.
Alpini, the, IX, 22-25.
Alsace Lorraine, American offensive in,

is planned, V, 380-381.

an offensive in 1915, in,

failure of the French invasion of,
I, 287-289.

French advance into. I, 272-280.

'French invasion of, I, 278-280.

occupied by French. VI, 344-346,
Americans in France, in Somme battle,

III, 268.

At Vimy Ridge, III, 358-359.
Amerongen, former Kaiser interned in,

VI, 307-326.
Amiens, attack east of, V, 301-302.

ceremony in cathedral, V, 311-312.

shelled by Germans. V: 110-112.
Amp/iion, sinking of the, X, 3-4.
Anafarta Bay, landing at, VIII, 128.
Ancona. sinking of the, IX, 321-324.
Ancre the battle on the, III, 291-294,

303-304; 317-318.
Anglia, sinking of the. IX, 300.
Anglo French Loan, obtained in the

United 'States, IX, 285-287.
Ani, the Armenian pompeii, VIII, 36-

38.

Antilles, sinking of the, IX, 355.
Antwerp, Zeppelin bombs in, I, 326-

330.

British help for, I, 334-336.

extent of the bombardment, I, 339-
341.

fall of the city, I, 341-345.

Forts of, I. 330-332.

refugees from, I, 345-349.

relief measures, I, 350.

siege and fall of, I, 332-350.

when the bombardment began, I,

336 339.
Appam, arrival of the, at Hampton

Roads, X, 59-60.
Atiuileia, IX, 43-44.
Arabia successfull revolt in, with, a

new 'kingdom, VIII, 174-186.
Arabic, sinking of the, IX, 278-280.
Archangel, entente forces at, VII, 384.

supplies at, VII, 175.
Argentine, her attitude in the war, I,

225 226

Luxburg- disclosure in, I, 227-230.

485

HISTORY OF THE WORLD WAR

Arg-onne drinre, Americans in, VI, 38-

67.

American divisions in, VI. 197-201.

French masters in southern, II, 295.
Armenia, senate refuses to grant Pres-
ident mandate over, X, 394.

massacre of, VIII, 44-45.
Armentieres, battle of, V, 61-94.
Armistice asked for by Germany, VI,

218.

as Germany's last hope, VI, 119.

beginning- of, VI, 190-191.

Entente considers terms of, VI 167-
168.

Prince Max asks for one, VI. 159.

premature celebration of signing
of, VI, 241-243.

Russia makes an, with Germany,
IV, 324-327.

second celebration; of signing of,
VI, 247-249.

signed by Bulgaria, VI, 215-216.

signed by Turkey, VI,

signing of with Germany, VI, 239-
245.

Wilson reads terms of, to Congress,

VI, 245-246.

Arnim, Gen'l Sixt yon, III, 309-310.
Arras, British offensive of 1915 around,

III, 25-29.

aeroplanes at battle of III, 347-349.

battle of, first phase. III, 344-373.

battle of, second phase. III, 393-400.

first battle of, II, 170-177.

German withdrawal from. Ill, 322.

importance of. Ill, 366-367.

CLudendorff's drive on, V, 37-60.

results of. III, 393.

ruins of, III, 40-42.

winter fighting around, II, 269.
Artois, battle of, II, 327-372.

British offensive in 1915, III, 5- 25-

42.
Ashmead, Bartlett, Ellis, quoted, VHI,

101-137.
Asquith, H. H., sketch of, X, 206-209.

Prime Minister and Guildhall speech,

II, 80-81.
Atterbury, Gen. W. W., railway head

in France, IV, 354.
Audacious, sinking of the, IX 220.
Augusta Victoria, former empress ar-
rived at Amerongen, VI, 312-313.
Augustowo, battle of, VH, 31-33
Augustowo Wald, battle of, VII, 107-

108.
Australians at Hindenburg line, VI, 3-

37.
Austria, attacked in the Trentino and

on the Isonzo, IX, 18-49.

checked by the Russians, VII, 190-
192.

conquers Montenegro, VIII, 281-286.

debacle of, on the Piave, IX, 120-
150.

defeated by Russia in Galicia, VII,
42-63.

effect of Austria's debacle on the
Piave, IX, 120-150.

Emperor Charles abdicates, VI, 303-
304.

her defeat of Italy at Caporetto with
German help, IX, 93-120.

her need of peace, IV. 310-318, 321.
Austria-Hungary, her attitude toward

Serbia in 1914, I, 81-82, 84.

loses Carpathian passes, VII, 116-
124.

loses Monte Santo and Monte San
Gabriele, IX, 79-92.

on Brusiloffs offensive, VIII, 199-

254.
Austria, plans of, for federal state,

VI, 223-224.

armistice terms for, 233-234.

her retreat after Rawa-Ruska, VII,
55-57.

her losses and needs of peace, VII,
236-238.

republic proclaimed, VI, 230-233.

repulsed in the Trentino- and lose
Gorizia. IX, 50-78.

resources of at the beginning of
the war. I, 139-151.

with German help attempt to re-
cover Galicia, VII, 101-102.
Austrian peace delegation at St. Ger-

main-en-Laye, X, 352-355.
Bagdad, fall of, VIII • 187-195,

railway, the, VIII, 3-14.

Townshend's advance toward, VIII,

64-74.
Baker, Secretary of War, at the taking

of the St. Mihiel salient, V, 370.

cited, IV, 370.
Balfour, Arthur J., his visit as British

at Mt. Vernon, IV. 68-69.

Commissioner, IV, 60-100.

in the House of Representatives, IV,
70-71.

in iNew York. IV, 82-87.

in Richmond, IV, 95.

in Washington, IV, 61-62, 95.
Balkan Wars of 1912-1913, I, 76-80,

102-103.

problems in the, VIII, 239-254.
Ballin, Alfred, asked to tell the Kaiser

the truth, VI, 264-266.
'Balsley, Clyde, aviator, fight of, with

Germans,.. IV, 274-275.
Bapaume, abandoned, V, 326.

evacuation of, by the Germans, III,
328.

taken by the Germans, V, 20.
Bassara, evacuation by the Turks, VIII,

63.
Bastile day, observed in America, V,

204-208.

Battle of the Ridges, I, 89-90.
Bavaria, advances from, into Lorraine,

I, 279.
Beatty, Sir David, and the battle of

Jutland, X, 61-84.
Beersheba, taken by the British, VIII.

213-214.

Beirut, fall of, VIII, 231.
Belfort, the barrier fast at, I, 245, 274.

conditions at, II, 292-294.
Belgium, as the cockpit 'of Europe, I,

248-254.

Antwerp, siege and fall, I, 326-350.

atrocities in, 353-362.

atrocities in Aerschot, I, 320.

[battle of Dinant, I, 317-319.

bombardment of Malines, I, 320.

Brussels entered, I, 298-302.

coast of, cleared, VI, 113-121.

commission from, visit the United
States, IV, 94.

crossing the Scheldt in, VI, 170.

deportation of children from, I, 370-
372.

deportation of civilians from I, 370-
372.

destitute in. and relief measures, I.
373-374.

486

INDEX

Belgium

destruction of Termonde, I, 321-324.
devastation of, I, 351-353.
Edith Cavell's death, 363-371.
flight for Ostend. I, 302-304.
German advance in, I, 2661267.
Germany's declaration of war

ag-ainst I, 169-173.
German departure from. II, 3*.
Haelen battle, I, 290-292.
liouvain, destruction of, I, 293-297.
Namur's siege and fall, I, 302-314.
refugees in, VI, 137-140.
relief work in, I. 373-374.
roads through, from Germany to

France, I, 245-248.
stories of atrocities, I, 353-362.
strength of her army, I, 309-310.
the German crossing of its frontiers,

I. 256-2-57.

the fall of iLiege, I, 257-264.
the massacre »at Tamines, I, 319-320.
Tirlemont bombarded, I, 292-297.
visit of king and queen to United

States, X, 377.
Zeebrugge and other cities occupied,

VI, 126-145.

Belgrade, bombardment of, I, 87-88;

VIII, 263-266.

Belleau Wood, marines at, V, 132-135,
167.

Belloc, Hilaire, I, XV; II, 94; 103.
as to the battle of Marne, II, 66-68.

Berlin, welcome of, to returning sol-
diers, VI, 375-376.

Bernhardi, Gen. Fredk. Von, at the
first Marne battle II, 112-113.
in defense, V. 222.
on the western front, V, 75.
on world power or downfall, I, 16.

Bernstorff, Count J. Von, German am-
bassador to the United States, I, 220.
German note on Arabic case deliv-
ered by, IX', 281.
on the sinking of the Lusitania, IX,

251.

passport sent to, by United States,
IV, 10.

Berthelot, Gen'l, west of Reims, V, 214;
VI, 33.

Bethmann-Hollweg, Theodore, German
Chancellor, author of, "scrap of pa-
per" phrase, I, 177-181.
as to peace.IV, 313.
his military necessity speech, I 255.
his fall, IV, 194-197.
his "Woe to the Statesmen" speech,

VII, 272-274.

proposes plan to Reichstag, IV, 314-

316.

sketch of, X, 209-212.
Beyers, and the Transvaal rebellion,

IX, 184-186.

Birdwood, Gen. Sir. W. R., sketch of,

X, 92.

Bismarck Archipelago taken by the
British, IX, 180.

Bismarck, the yoke he placed on
France in 1870; X, 327

Bissing, Gen. von, his command in Bel-
gium and his death, I, 375.

Bliss, Gen. T. H., X, 92.

Blucher, sinking of the, in the Dogger
•Banks battle, X, 31-33.

Boehm, Gen'l, in the Marne salient, V,
261.

Boelke, Capt., aviator, IV, 282

his exploits, IV, 278.
Boer rebellion, the, suppressed by Gen.

Botha, IX, 181-186.
Boillot, Georges, aviator, exploits IV,

273-274.
Bolsheviki. make peace for Russia with

Germany, IV, 323-351.

rise of the, in central Russia, VII,
310, 320-*330.

Russia's frightful sufferings under

the, VII; 378-384.
Bordeaux, French government returns

from, II. 274.
Borden, Sir Robert L., sketch of, X,

212.
Bosnia and Herzegovina, annexation of,

as cause of the war, I, 118-122.
Botha, Gen. Louis, conquers German

southeast Africa, IX, 186-193.

in German East Africa. IX, 197.

sketch of, X, 212.

suppressed the Boer Rebellion, IX,

181-186.
Boulogne, as a German goal, II, 195

201.

airplanes efforts to take, from, II,

199-201.

Bouresches, marines at, V, 132-133.
Bovoeric Gen., IX,' 130-132.

sent home, IX, 292-293.
Boy-ed. Capt., and the sinking of the

Lusitania, IX, 252.
Brazil declares war on Germany, I,

223-224.

in ihe peace conference, X, 298.
Bremen,, a submarine, fate of, IX, 313-

314.
Breshkovskaya, Catherine, her release

from Siberia, VII, 283-284.
Breslau, the warship, VIII, 11-12.

the, made over to Turkey, I, 198.

the, reported sunk, X 39.
Brest-Litovsk, fall of, VII, 161.

peace of, between Germany and Rus-
sia.

the treaty of, with Russia VII, 332-
353.

with Roumania, VII, 349.

with Ukraine, VII, 335-339.
Briand, Aristide, sketch of. X, 213-214.
Brindisi, IX, 10.
British, and the Battle of Jutland, X,

61-84.

•aids in clearing Belgium, VI, 126-148.

at the battle of Armentieres, V, 61-
94.

at Kemmel Hill, V, 106-109.

at Passchenda«le Ridge, IV, 199-220.

Bismarck Archipelago IX, 180.

defeated by Germans off Coronel, X,
18-26.

defeat the Germans at Falkland
Islands, X 26-30,

in the Albert Montdidier salient, V,
296-333.

in Itudendorff-Arras drive, V, 36-60.

issues war zone decree, IX, 235-247.

occupy Rhine at Cologne, VI, 366-
370.

reinforce the Italians, IX, 113.

strike of in Picardy, VI, 46-47.

submarine activity of in the Bal-
tic, IX, 298.

submarines of, in the Baltic, IX,
231-233.

487

HISTORY OF THE WORLD WAR

British

take Le Catelet, VI, 71.

take Mons and Maubeug-e, VI, 184-
190.

take St. Quentin, VI, 3-37.

take Samoa. IX, 177-180.

take the switch line, V, 336-342.

take Valenciennes VI, 168-170.

their battles in west, V, 8-9.

the, their navy when the war be-
gan, X, 3.

victory at Valenciennes. VI, 156.

victory of, near Le Quesnoy, VI,
174-175.

with Portugese conquer German

East Africa, IX, 196-206.
Brook, exploits of the, X, 82
Brown, Cyril, cited III, 244.
Bruges, entered VI, 132-137.
Brusiloff, Gen., sketch of, X, 93-97.

his offensive of 1916, VII, 199-2-54.

in Galicia, VII. 42-63.

preparing for a new offensive, VII,

292.
Brussels, entry of the Germans into,

I. 298-302.

King- Albert entered, VI, 142-147.

occupied by the Germans, I, 265.
Bucharest, drive on, and fall of, VIII,

354-358.
Buchan, John, his history of .the war,

I, XIV.
Bryan, William J.. resigns as Secretary

of State, on the Lusltania issue, IX,

264-266.
Bryce, Lord, his commission's report on

Belgian atrocities, I, 357-362.
Buelow. Prince von, his Italian mis-
sion, I, 184.

Buenz, Karl, arrest of, IX, 291.
Bukowina, the battle in, VII. 108-109.
Bulgaria, aid of, to the conquest of

Serbia, VIII, 255-281.

army defeated by English forces
reaches D'Esperey and surrenders,
VIII, 376-384.

her declaration of war against Ser-
bia, I, 195.

in ithe war against Serbia, VIII, 279-
281.

Peace Treaty with, VIII, 279-281.
Bulgarian Plenipotentiaries, Peace

Treaty handed to, X. 358.
Bulgarians, surrender of, VI, 34-36.
Bulgars, in the war. III, 50.
Bullard, Gen. Robert L.. VI, 202.
Byng, Gen. Sir J., his thrust at Cam-

brai. IV, 221-233.

halted by German counter-thrust.

nted by Gei
IV, 233-249.

penetrates Hindenburg line. VI, 20.
Cadorna, Gen. Count Luigi, commander

of the Italians, IX, 42-57.

his army record, IX, 93.

his defeat at Caporetto, IX, 93-120.

his drive on the Carso, IX, 75-78.

his responsibility for Caporetto, IX,
100-108.

his strategy, IX, 80.

suspended by Gen. Diaz, IX,

sketch of, X. 97-101.
Caesar, Julius, his campaign in an-
cient Gaul, I. 248-249.
Cambon, Jules, French ambassador to

Germany, his report on the changed

attitude of Germany, I, 100-102.
Cambrai, battle for, VI, 72.

as Germans devastated it, VI, 95-96.

Byng's thrust at, IV 221-223.

Germany's counter-thrust at, IV,
233-249.

in Ludendorff's drive again, V, 3-36

taking of, VI 79-98.

the third battle at, VI, 82.

the British objective. Ill, 232.
Camp des Remains, battle for the,

II, 184-191.
Canadians, in the second battle of

Ypres, II, 310-323.

achievements of, III, 357.

at Vimy Ridge, III, 349-356.

at the Somme battle. III. 268.

at the Switch Line, V 336-337.

at the third battle of Ypres, III, 176-
185.

enter Mons, VI, 180-181; see 186.

hold Chaulnes, V, 307.

send submarines *D Europe, IX, 230-
231.

strike of, near Amiens, V, 110.

take Fresnay, III, 394.
Canal du tford, the, British take. VI,

10-12.
Cantigny. first Americans at, I, 41.

Americans at, V, 127-128.

again stormed by Americans, V, 166-

167.
Cape Cod, German submarine off, IX,

384.
Caporetto, IV, 188.

Italian defeat at battle of, IX, 93-

120.

Cap Trafalgar, sinking of the, X, 16.
Carey, Gen'l Sandeman, saves Gough's

army, V, 10-14.
Carpathians passes in, taken by the

Russians, VII, 116-124.

a pass in, retaken, VII, 236-241.
Carrel, Mme. Alexis, cited, III, 338.
Carso, attack on the, IX, 32-36.
Casement. Sir Roger, his arrest and

execution. III, 165-171.
Castelnau, Gen'l Marquis de, at the

Grand 'Couronne, II, 68-76.

in the east, VI, 42; V, 343.

his invasion of Lorraine, I, 279.

in his Champagne offensive of 1915,
III, 12-24.

sketch of, X, 102-104.

visits Verdun, III, 87.
Catlin, General, describes fight at

Chateau Thierry, V, 133-134.
Caucasus, the war in the, VIII, 34-35.
Cavell. Edith, English nurse shot by

the Germans, I, 363-370.
Cephalonia, occupied by the Entente,

VIII, 282-283.

Chalons, Plains of, II, 94-9'5.
Champagne. French offensive in 1915,

VII, 12^24.
Champagne-Meuse-Argonne, drive, the,

VI, 38-67.
Champagne, winter activity, II, 265-

266.
Channel ports, race to the sea for, II,

160-183.
Chapman. Victor E., his exploits and

death, IV, 276.

Charmes, Trouee de, battle of, I, 285,
Charleroi, road to, II, 3.

battle of, II, 4-8.
Chateau, Hooge, battle at the, II, 332-

333.

488

INDEX

Chateau Thierry, American troops at,
V, 129-141.

Americans at, V, 228-231.
Americans drive Germans back from,

V, 220-224.

First American division at, I, 41.
German purpose at, V, 215.
Chemin des Dames, Lorraine, American
raids from, 357-360.
(Britain's counter thrust at, IV, 189-

192.

German attempts at, IV, 175-178.
CTiile, her attitude in the war, I, 225-

226.
China, declares war orr Germany, I,

230.
Christmas, the first at the front, II,

258-262.
Churchill, Winston, statement of, as to

the British navy, X. 3-6.
Clancy, William, at Vimy Ridge, III,

358-359.

Clemenceau, Premier as to Luden-
dorff, V, 31.

made premier, IV. 260-261.
sketch of, X, 215 220.
visits London. VI, 379.
wounded, X, 302.

Coblenz, Americans at. VI, 363-365.
Colored troops with Gouraud east of

Reims, V, 218.

Columbian, sinking- of, IX, 316-317.
Compeigne, battle near. II 38.

Ludendorffs drive for, V, 150-163.
Zeppelin shot down at, IV, 304.
Conference, The Peace, opening of, X,
297.

representatives at, X 297-298.
Congress Of Berlin, the. I, 66; 119-120.
Constantine. king of Greece, his pro-
German attitude in Greece, I, 196-
198.

his fall, VIII, 322-324.
Constantinople. Allies in, VI, 255-256.
railroad from, to Bagdad, VIII, 3-

to 'go to Russia, VII, 248-249.
Corfu, island of, taken by the Entente,

Coronei, "battle of, X, 18-26.
Cossacks, in the defense of Warsaw,

VII, 81-82.

Coucy Castle blown up by the Ger-
mans, III. 341-342.
Couronne, The Grand, Castlenau at, I,

281.

battle of, I, 283-285; II, 65-76.
Courtrai, entered. VI, 129.
Cradock, Admiral Sir Christopher, at

the battle off Coronei, X, 18-26.
Cressv. sinking of the, IX, 212-215.
Crown Prince armies of, flanked, VI,

74.

an offensive by the, in the Argonne,
III, 8-10.

defeat in the Marne salient. V, 289.

his flight to Holland VI. 304-310.

interview with, VI, 316-319.

of Germany, retreat of, II, 101-103.

plight of army of, V, 266.

siege of Verdun by army of. III, 71-

153.
Ctessiphon, British retreat from, VIII,

67-72.
Cuba, declares war on Germany, I, 221-

ooo

Cyprus', annexed by Great Britain, VIII,
32^33.

Czecho-Slovaks, rise in Siberia to aid

the Entente, VII, 362-363.

operation of, in Siberia, VII, 375-

378.

Czernin, Count, as to Germany's des-
perate condition in 1917, IV, 316-

318.

on Brest-Litovsk peace treaty IV
340-341.

opportunity for peace, IV, 349-350.
C'zernowitz, taken by the Russians VII

214-215; 221-'222.
Dacia, case of the, IX, 301-303.
Damascus, fall of, VIII, 228.
D'Annunzio. Gabriele, IX, 140

his coup 4t Fiume, X, 378-382.
Dardanelles, Allies submarines in, IX,

304-305.

the allied navies attempt to force

.them, VIII, 76-93.
Darfu, war in, VIII, 30-32.
Davis^ Richard Harding, cited, I, 300-

Dead Men's Hill, Americans at, VI,

54-55.
Declaration of war by, Germany against

Russia, I, 157-166.

Allies against Turkey, I, «198-204.

between Germany and France. I, 167-

Brazil against Germany, I 223 225.
Bulgaria against Serbia, I, 195.
China against Germany, I, 230.
Cuba and Panama against Germany,

I, 221-222.
Germany against Belgium, I, 169-

Germany against Portugal, I, 209-

Great Britain against Germany, I,

173*181 .

Greece against Germany, I, 229.
Haiti against Germany, I, 233.
Indians, New York against Germany,

Italy against Germany, I, 215-217.

Italy against Austria, I, 205 20!».

Japan against Germany. I. 185-187.

Liberia against Germany, I 231.

Roumania against Austria, I, 213-
215.

Russia against (Bulgaria, I, 192-195.

Siam against Germany, I. 230.

The United States against Germany,
I. 217-221.

United States against Austria, I,

231.

Degoutte, Gen'l, at battle of Marne, V,
234-260.

on Americans in the Marne salient,

V, 294.
Delcasse, Theophile, French foreign

minister, Fashoda, I. 129.

sketch of, X, 220.

Denikin, General, leader of Don Cos-
sacks, comes to aid of Russia against

the Bolsheviki, VII, 388-392.
Dernburg, Dr. Bernhard, and the sink-
ing of the Lusitania, IX, 3-52.
D'Esperey Gen. Franchet, at the first

Marne battle. II, 95.

defeats Bulgarians, VI. 34-36.

sketch of, X, 104-105.
DeutscMand, German submarine, her

arrival in America, IX, 307-310.

second arrival of, in America. IX.
319.

HISTORY OF THE WORLD WAR

De Wet, and rebellion in the Trans-
vaal, IX, 184-186.
Diaz, Gen. Armande, sketch of. X, 106.

his advice to Italians, IX, 137-139.

supersedes Cadorna, IX, 104.
Dickson, G. Lowes, on causes of the

war, I, 15.
Dickman, Gen'l, J. T., at Chateau

Thierry, V, 223.
Diest, battle at, I, 290-292.
Dilman, Russian victory at. VIII, 43.
Dinant, battle of, I, 317-319.
Dixmude, winter at, II. 256-258.
Dobroudja. operations in the, VIII, 331-

342; 351 353.
Dogger Bank, battle, the, IX, 222-223;

X, 31-36

Dolomites, war in the, IX. 70-72.
Douai, capture oi, VI, 25; 109.

devastation in, VI. 123.
Douaumont and Vaux recovered, III,

141-148.

French progress at, III, 119.
recovered by Nivelle, III, 141-148.
Douaumont, Fort of, in first phase

of siege of Verdun, III, 88-114.

second phase, III, 115-116.
Dresden, the, bottled up after the

Falkland Islands battle, X, 30.
Dmmmond, Sir Eric, made first Secre-
tary-General League of Nations, X,

304.

Dumba, Dr. Constantin, Austrian Am-
bassador to the United S'tates, IX,

290.

Dunajec, battle of, I, XI; VII, 129-137.
Durazzo, as a Roman port, IX, 11.

Austrian naval base at, destroyed,
VIII, 388-389.

combat at, with £7-boa>t, IX, 388.
Dvinsk, German efforts to take, VII,

182^185.
East Prussia, invasion of, by Russia,

VII, 3-40.

operations in, VII. 109-111.
Eaucort 1'Abbaye, taken. III, 291.
Ebert, Friedrich, as German Chan-
cellor, VI, 269.

chosen president, VI. 287.
Echmiadzin. VIII, 38-39.
Egypt, British protectorate of, declar-
ed, VIII. 18-20.
Eichhorn, Gen'l von his assassination

in Kief, VII, 367-369.
Eightieth Division at Sedan, VI, 180.
Eisner, Kurt, killed, VI, 295.
Emden. exploits of, X, -11-45.

her crew and their escape. X, 47-60.

sinking- of, X, 46-47.
Enver Pasha, sketch of, X, 223-226.
Erzberger, Mathias, protest of, against

peace terms, X, 317-319.
Erzerum, Turkish forces at, VIII, 36.

taken by the Russians, VIII, 138-

14S.

Erzingan, fall of, VIII 155-456.
Essad Pasha, VIII, 369-370.
Eyre. Lincoln, cited, III. 212.
Falaba, sinking- of the, IX, 248.
Falkenhayn, Gen'l Eric von, his aims

against Russia, VII, 143.

and the conquest of floumanra, VIII,
325-367

his dismissal. III, 250-253.

removed as chief of staff, III, 133-
134.

sketch of, X, 106-108.

Falkland Islands, battle off the, X, 26-

30.

Fashoda, the affair of, I, 9.

meeting- of French and English, I,

Fay, Robert,' plot by, in the United
States, 'IX, 287-288.

Ferdinand. King of Bulgaria, VIII, 248.
abdicates VIII, 390.
.sketch of, X, 226-228.

Fere-en-Tardenois American troops en-
ter, V. 267.

Festubert, battle of, II, 325-326; 332-
333.

Fifth Division at Sedan, VI 180.

Finland, war in, VII 351.

Firenze, sinking of the, IX, 325-326.

First American Division at Cantigny,

ait Chaumont-en-Vezin, I, 41.
at Sedan, VI, 180.
goes to Chateau Thierry, V, 128-129.
work of, VI, 192-193.
Fisher, John, Lord, sketch of X, 147-

152.

Fiske, Amos K., I, XV.
Fiume, Wilson's attitude toward, X,
304.

D'Annunzio's coup at X, 378-382.
Flanders, first battle of", II, 202-257.
first phase of, II, 20-2-227.
in the first winter of the war II,

255-258.

second phase of, II, 230-251.
Foch, Ferdinand, Marshal of France,
his Lorraine command, I, 280.
and Joffre, V, 350.
as to the armistice, VI, 258.
at La-Fere-Champenoise, II, 94-116.
•at the Somme battle. III, 268-269.
at Verdun, III, 105-106.
at Versailles. X, 346.
commands the ninth army, II, 77.
continues pressure on Germans I,

237.

decides on his counter-thrust, V, 231.
fighting five battles, VI, 26-28.
gets terms for the armistice, VI, 167-

168.
help to the British at .the first

battle of Ypres, II, 240.
his defense by the Marne, V, 155-

162.

his demoniac energy VI, 87-88.
his genius recognized, V. 257-259.
his great temptation, VI, 211-212.
his hundred days of war, Vl, 157-

158.

his line in 1914 Til, 162.
his Lorraine .preparations, VI, 238-

239.

his strategy, VI, 80-82.
his reserve army, V, 56.
his return to active command, III,

390.
his" victory in the Marne salient, V,

-261-295--

in battle- of Arras III. 370-371.
in battle, Artois, II. 328.
in Lorraine. V. 42-52.
made Generalissimo, 'V, 33.
made a marshal, V, 290-291.
on Ludendorff drive, V, 60.
praised by military critics, V, 251,

252, 257-258.
reaches Chaulnes, III. 259
reaches the Hindenburg line, east of

Arras, V, 358-359.

490

INDEX

Foch, Ferdinand, Marshal of France

retires from active service, III, 365.

sketch of X, 109-119.

speech by, in London, VI, 380.

speech to American troops, VI, 63-
64.

stops Germans on Marne, V, 211-
231.

takes Lens and Reims, VI, 68-78.

takes the1 Switch Line, V. 336-342.

testing the German line, V, 214.

visits London, VI, 379-380.

wins second battle of the M<arne, V,

232-260.

iFokker, the coming of the, III, 65-67.
Ford, Henry, his efforts for peace, IV,

312.
iFarges, siege of Verdun around. III,

94.
.Formidable, sinking- of the, IX, 221-

FomTs't, Wilbur S., cited, III, 227.
Forty-second Division men with Gou-

raud west of Reims V, 218.

near Sedan VI, 178-180.

record of, VI, 194.
Fourteen Points of President Wilson,

"V *^^*7 ^°*^

.France," help 'to her allies. III, 311.
her African colonies, I, 123-131.
resources of at beginning of the

war, I, 139-151.

:roads to, from Germany, I, 245-248.
.ships of, in the Dardanelles battles,

VIII, 76-93.

towns in, lost by July 1916, III, 161.
war began with Germany, I, 167-

169.

Francis Joseph, Emperor of Austria, I,
66.

his death, VII 253-256.
sketch of, X, 229-231.
(Francis Ferdinand, Archduke, assassina-
tion of, I, 3.
his ambitions, I. 67-68.
Frederick 'the Great, his conquest of

Silesia, I, 4.

French, Gen. Sir John, commands the
British, II, 8-15.

at first battle of Ypres, II. 232-240.
his report on Niew Chapelle, II, 284.
his retirement. III, 54-57.
in battle of Artois, III, 2'5-42.
moves British force north, II, 160-

165.

(now Lord), sketch of, X, 119-127.
on use of aeroplanes. II, 343.
; French, at the Belgian border, VI, 181.
at the Chemin des Dames, IV, 175-

178.

at Verdun, IV, 178-183.
defeat, Germans in Oise, V, 150-163.
drive Germans back on Hirson, VI,

175.
drive Germans from Aisne country,

III, 374-392.
enter Sedan, VI, 164-183.
in Champagne drive to Sedan, VI,

36-67.

in taking of St. Quentin, VI, 3-35.
in the Albert Montdidier salient, V,

296-333.
in the Ludendorff Montdidier drive,

V, 36-60.

liberates civilians, VI, 117.
occupy Rhine at Mainz, VI, 37J.-372.
on the Oise VI, 102.
reach Aubefive, VI, 57.

reinforce the British at Armentieres,
V, 84-85.

reinforce the Italians, IX, 113.

success of, on the Aisne, V, 347-
348.

take Ham, V 355.
Fricourt taken, III, 204.
Prohman, Charles, lost on the Lusi-

tania, IX, 254.

Fryatt, Capt., case of, IX. 310-312.
Fyfe, Hamilton, cited, VII, 167-169.
Galicia, Russian invasion of, VII 42-

63.
Gallipoli, Allied operations at, VIII,

94-137.

British withdrawal from, VIII, 133-

136.

occupation of, III. 3.
Gallieni, Gen., at the battle of the

Ourcq, II, 77-83-85.
Garibaldi, sinking of the. IX, 225.
Garden of Eden, battle in the, VIII,

73-74.

Gardiner, Alfred S., cited, I, 38.
Gardiner, J. de B., military expert, I,

Gaza, 'British defeat Turks, near, VIII,

208-213.

Genet, E. C. C. American aviator, kill-
ed near Ham. Ill, 359-360.
Geneva, selected as seat of League of

Nations, X, 304.
George V, sketch of, X, 231-233.

visits American fleet at surrender of
German ships, VI, 330-338.

visits Paris. VI, 378.

visit to the front, II, 258.
George, David Lloyd, sketch of X,

245-252.

on the battle of Messines Ridge, IV,

163.

onj Foch as Generalissimo, V, 43-45.

on peace with Germany, IV, 333.
German, armies in the west, V, 114-

115.

airmen, bombard hospitals, V, 120.

Crown Prince, the sketch of, X, 127-
131.

East Africa, conquest of, IX, 193-
206.

East Africa, IX, 156.

effect on neutral ships, IV, 57-58.

espionage law, IV, 64-56.

note to Russia, I, 25.

restrictions on iood, IV, 66.

revolution, outbreak of, VI. 256.

shipping seized, IV. 46-52.

state of war declared by, I, vft.

Southwest Africa, IX, 155-157.

southwest "Africa, conquest of, IX,

186-193.
Sermans ask for an armistice, VI, 218.

accepti armistice conditions, VI, 226.

at the battle of Caporetta, IX, 93-
120.

another attempt by, to take Warsaw.
VII, 99-111.

bombard Amiens, V, 98.

Colonies they had, IX, 153-163.

defeat British off Coronel, X, 18-26.

defeated at Falkland Islands, X, 26-
30.

defeated at Gumbinnen, VII 16-18.

destruction of villages by, V, 364.

defeated in the Albert Montdidier
salient, V, 296-533.

491

HISTORY OF THE WORLD WAR

Germans

enter Odessa, VII, 344.

evacuate France and Belgium, VI,
351-355.

g-overnment, Harden on lying- by the,
I, 14.

held up Marne, V 211-231.

her condition, VI. 90-93.

in a great retreat, VI, 100.

in retreat, VI, 181-183.

Jose Hindenburg line, VI, 3-37.

lose Laon, iLa Fere, Lille, and the Bel-
gian coast, VI, 99-125.

lose Lens and Reims, VI, 68-78.

lose the St. Mihil salient, V, 366-
392.

lose Samoa, IX 177-180.

lose Tsingtau, IX 164-176.

lose their East African colony, IX,
193 <20'6.

lose their Southwest African colony,
IX, 186-193.

lose Togoland, IX, 190.

lose Kamerun, IX, 191-192.

new and violent phase of revolution,

VI, 290-296.

new g-overnment set up, VI, 274-279.
occupy Oesel. VII, 314-315.
overrun .Russian territory, VII, 334-

336.
painful news announced to. VI, 19-

prpgress of, VI, 281-286.
raid by, on Americans, V, 70.
ready to get out of Belgium, VI,

88-89.

retreat of, VI, 21.
retreating- into two bottle-necks, VI.

149-152.
receive Versailles peace terms, X,

305-317.

protest of. against, X. 318-339.
signing- of the treaty by, X, 344.
sinking- of, VI, 338-340.
sinking- of their ships at Scapa

Flow, X, 338.
staking- everything-, VI, 99.
surrender their big- ships, VI, 327-

338.

surrender their submarines, 338-340.
take Kovno, VII, 157-160.
take Brest-Litovsk, VII, 161.
take Novog-eorgievsk, VII, 161-162.
take Grodno, VII, 165.
take Vilna, VII, 166-171.
take Warsaw. VII, 142-L56.
take Riga,, VII, 310-313.
taken to Scapa Flow. VI, 335-336.
territory of, occupied under the arm-
istice, VI, 343-377.
the wreck around them, VI. 154-156.
their armistice with Russia and the

treaty of Brest-Litovsk, VII, 331-

357.

use of Arg-onne by, VI. 61-62.
when Ludendorff resigned, VI, 140-

142.
win the battle of the Dunajec and

recover Przemysl and Lemberg-,

VII, 127-141.

Germany, at war with Italy, IX, 64.

attacks the English coast from war-
ships, X, 52-53.

attempts of, in Chemin des Dames,
IV. 175-178.

at Nieuwport, IV, 173.

armies of. in flight, VI 97-98.

alarm of, on Somme battle, III, 225-

and the battle of Jutland, X, 61-84.
and the_ battle of the Gulf of Riga,

X. 35-38.
an embargo on exports to, IV, 127-

128.
a grand council of kings of, VI,

100; 261; 296.
Bethmann-Hollweg's offer of peace

IV, 3-7.

blindness of, to American effort, V,

247.
blunders of, in submarine war IX

348.
charged attitude of in 1913 I, 100-

102.

chaos in the country, VI 286-287
check to, in Russia. VII, 179-196.
collapse of. I. 235-237.
conquers Roumania with help from.

her allies, VIII, 325-367.
conditions in, III, 312 314.
conquest of Serbia planned by, VIII,

255-281.

crumbling of, VI, 36.
dawning failure of her submarins

war, IX, 360-364.
declares for unrestricted submarine

war, IV. 7-12.
declare intensified submarine war,

IX, 335.

devastation effected by. Ill, 328-343.
desperate condition of, IV, 252-256.
despair of, V, 286.
drive by, on the Marne checked, V,

122-147.

early "Peace Kites", IV, 309-322.
finally checked Brusiloff's offensive,

VII, 199-254.
first year of submarine war, IX, 339-

366.
forces peace with the Bolsheviki, IV,

322-351.

her advance on Paris, II, 24-47.
her colonial expansion, I. 13.
1 er colonial interests in Africa, I,

127-135.
her defeat in the Marne salient, V,

261-295.
her desperate condition in 1917, IV,

310-318. 321.
her dead, IV, 353.
her fleet tied up, X, 6-9.
her trench system, III. 269-270.
her humiliation in the Agadir af-
fair, I. 135.
her knowledge of Austria's plans, I,

82-84.

her last great drive V, 3-208.
her retreat in the west. III, 317-

343

her second year of unrestricted sub-
marine war. IX. 367-391.
her ships seized by the United

States. IV. 46-52.

her unfulfilled task. II. 267-299.
her defense of the sinking of the

Lusitanicn IX, 255.
her wish for peace, March, 1918,

V, 6-7.

issues war zone decree,

increased submarine activity of, IX,

298-320.

in peril, II, 286-289.
iri battle of the Vistula, VII, 65-98.
loses the offensive on the Somme,

III. 210.

492

INDEX

Germany

loses the Switch Line, V, 336-342.
loss of, in the second Marne battle,

V, 249-250.
losses of, IV, 239-245.
losses of, V, 249-250.
many bids for peace, IV. 309-340.
necessity of, to make sacrifices, IV,

204.

on the defensive, III. 239-240.
peace bids of, with a new offensive

as the alternative IV, 352-368.
plans of, in Asia Minor, VIII. 3-14.
preliminary activity in 1918, IV, 356-

370.
price of peace in Russia, IV, 26-39;

323-351.

President Wilson's speech asking-
Congress to declare war on, IV,

27-32.
preparations of United States for

war with, IV, 40-59.
realizing- her defeat VI, 116.
resources of, at beginning- of the

war, I 139-151.
responsibility of, for forcing- the

war, I, 104.
retirement from the Marne, II, 98-

103.
retreat from Chemin des Dames, IV,

192.

rejected by senate, X. 393.
seeks peace, V, 388. 389, 392.
sends troops from 'Russia to France,

VII, 359.

send® forces into Galicia, VII. 61.
sinks three more American ships,

IV, 21-22.

spies of, in United States IV, 8-59.
the armistice with (Russia, IV, 248.
treaty with prolonged controversy

over. X, 360-394.

Ghent, King Albert enters, VI, 141-
142.

Gibbon, Percival, cited, IX, 81.
its liberation, VI. 140-142.
Gibbs, Philip, cited, II, 28-31. 50, 224,
225: III, 47, 328. 329. 335, 336,
351, 353; IV, 208; VI, 94, 187-
189; 370-371.

Gioletti Sig-nor, Italian Prime Minister,
statement of, as to war in 1913, I,
79-80.

Givenchy, attacks near, V. 86-87.
Gneisenau, sinking of the, at Falkland
Islands, X, 26-30.

the at the battle off Coronel, X, 18-
26.'

Goeben, the, driven on a beach,- X, 39.'
made over to Turkey, I. 198.
the, warship, VIII. 11-12.
Gommecourt taken. III, 318.
Good Hope, sinking of the, X, 21-24.
Goltz Von der, his work in Turkey,
VIII, 5, 18.

his death, VIII, 152-153.
Gorizia, effects of attack on, IX. 47-
49.

fall of, IX, 64-70.

Goschen, Sir Edward, British Am-
bassador to Germany, his account,
the "scrap of paper" episode, I, 176-
181.
Gough, Gen'l Sir H., his failure in the

Amiens drive. V, 9-14.
Gouraud, advancing, VI, 57-59.
captures Berry-au-Bac. VI, 102.

east of Reims, V, 214, 216-220.

enters Sedan, VI, 184.

his advance, VI, 105-107.

in Champagne, drive to Sedan, VL

42-67.

>Gouzeau court, gains at, VI, 4.
Graham. Stephen, cited, VII, 170-172,
Grandpre in ruins, VI, 172.
Great Britain, at first battle of Ypres.

II. 232-240.

achievements of, IV, 250-259.

at the Marne battle, II, 88-89.

annexes Cyprus, VIII, 32-33.

and the Turks on the Suez Canal,
15-27.

at battle of Messines Ridge, IV, 163-
174.

bombards the Bulgarian coast, VIII,
271.

conquers Palestine, VIII, 204-226.

forces moved north. II. 160-165.

forced into the war, I, 103.

Gen. Byng's Cambrai thrust IV, 221-
233.

her colonial forces, II, 168.

her declaration of war against Ger-
many, I, 175-181.

her effort to prevent war between
Germany and Russia, I, 158-165.

her fleet sails under sealed orders,
I, 75.

her operations at Gallipoli, VIII, 94-
137.

her attempt to force the Dardanelles,
VIII. 76-93.

her reply to German peace propos-
als, IV, 5-6.

inactivity of. III, 158-160; 163-164.

loses Kut, VIII, 157-167.

position on the Persian Gulf IV,
56-64.

resources of, at the beginning of the
war, I, 139-151.

sailing and arrival of her expedi-
tionary force. II, 8 15.

takes Bagdad, VIII. 187-195.

takes Jersualem, VIII, 215-221.

work done by navy of, I. 53-55.

withdrawal of, from Gallipoli, VIII,

133-137.
Greece, declares war on Germany, I,

229.

her early attitude in the war, I,
196-198.

invasion of, by Bulgaria gets into

the war, VIII. 300, 301, 313.
Greene, Maj-Gen.. F. V., I, 8.

cited, I, 28; XIV

Grey, Sir Edward (now Viscount), an-
nouncement by, I, 74.

Ambassador from Great Britain, X,
386.

his effort to avert war I, 174-175.

on the ultimatum to Serbia, I, 72.

protesting to Germany against vio-
lation Belgian neutrality, I, 171-
173.

sketch of, X, 234-236.
Grb'ener. General, succeeds Ludendorff,

VI, 162-163.

Gulflight, sinking of the, IX, 248.
Gumbinnen, battle of, VII, 16-18.
Guynemer Geoi^e, airman, at Verdun,

III, 105.

his exploits. IV. 265-268.
his death, IV, 288-290.
Haelen, battle of, I, 2-90-293.

V. X— 33

493

HISTORY OF THE WORLD WAR

Haig- and Byng, the Cambrai thrust,

IV, 221-233.

Haig-, Gen. Sir Douglas (now Earl), ad-
vance by, V, 324-325.
at battle of Loos, III 32, 157.
at Messines Ridge IV, 163-179.
at Passchendaele (Ridge, IV, 199-

220.
Gen. Sir Douglas, in retreat from

Mons at St. Omer, II, 164.
his "backs to the wall" order of the

day, V, 107.

his Cambrai battles, VI. 79-98.
his lines intact, V, 95.
in the Ancre. V, 320.
secures Douai, VI, 103.
sketch of, X, 133-141.
strikes in Picardy, VI, 46.
succeeds Gen. French, III, 57-58.
takes Lens, VI, 69-71.
takes St. Quentin, VI, 13-37.
takes the Switch Line, V, 336-342.
under Foch and the French wiped
out the Albert-Montdidier salient,
V, 296-333.

watching Lille, VI 21-22.
Haisler, 'Field Marshall von, sketch of.

X, 131-133.
Haiti, declares war on Germany, I,

233.
Halicz, in a critical position, VII, 245.

taken by Korniloff, VII, 304-306.
Ham, blown up by the Germans, III,
337.

taken by 'French, V. 355. i

Hamilton, Gen. Sir Ian at Gallipoli,
VIII, 94-137.
called home, VIII, 131.
Hampton Roads, arrival of the Appam

at, X, 59-60.

Harboard, Gen. Jas. G., VI, 202.
Hart, Albert B., I, XV.
Hartlepqpl, bombardment of, X, 53-

59.

Hartmansweilerkopf, battle at. Ill, 23.
Hawke, sinking of the, IX, 218.
Hedjaz, Kingdom set up in, VIII, 174-

186.

Heligoland, battle off, X, 10-15.
Herring-en, Gen. Von, at the Grand

Couronne, II, 68.

Hertling, Count Von, hia reply to
Wilson's fourteen point speech, IV,
340-343.

his reply to Wilson. V, 179-180.
•statement of, as to Germany's de-
feat, V. 255.

Hindenburg, as head of army in the
revolution, VI, 270.
and Ludendorff's offensive, V, 68.
Austrian forces placed under, VII,

63.

checked by the Russians, VII, 29-40.
confidence of, on the Somme, III,

302-303.
fails again to take Warsaw. VII,

99-111.
Field-Marshal Von, hia battle of

Tannenberg, II, 168.
his first effort to take Warsaw, VII,

68-98.

his opportunity in 1918, IV, 366.
his retreat in the west. III, 317-343.
his second attempt to take Warsaw,

VII, 87-91.

in general retreat, 362-363.
in the invasion of Russia in August,
1915, VII, 127-141.

made chief of staff, III, 133.

promise _ to be in Paris by April.
IV, «3o2.

sketch of, X, 141-146.

succeeds Falkenhayn, III, 250-253.

summoned to defend East Prussia,
VII, 19.

takes Kovna, Brest-tiLitovsk, and Vil-
na, VII, 157-160.

tells Germans to be hard, VI, 8.

under him, Mackensen takes War-
saw, VII, 142-156.

wins battle of Tannenberg, VII, 20-

30.
Hindenburg line, the, III, 339-344.

described, VI, 10.

taken, VI, 3-37.
Hines, Gen. John L., VI, 203.
Hintze, Admiral Von, becomes German

Foreign Minister, V, 178-179.
Hoffman, General, at Brest-Litvosk, IV,

346-347.

Hogue sinking- of the, IX, 212-215.
Hohenzollern Redoubt, battle at, I,

43-50.
Holland, her attitude in the war, I,

235-237.
Hoover, Herbert C., food controller.

IV, 56-57.

food economies urged by, IV, 125

head of the relief commission in
Belgium, I, 373-375.

on food economy, report by, IV, 125-

126.
House, Col., at the Entente Allied

Council, IV, 5.

on causes of the war, I, 23.

sketch of, X, 236-238.
Hughes, Sir Sam, sketch of, X, 147.
Iceland, her independence asserted, I,

238-239.

Immelman, aviator exploits, IV, 273.
Indefatigable, sinking of the, X, 64-

67.

Inflexible, the, in the battle of Falk-
land Islands, X, 28-30.
Insterburg, defeat of Germans at, VII.

Inter-Allied Council, on making Foch

Generalissimo. V, 45-47.
Invincible, in the battle of Falkland

Islands, X, 28-30.

sinking of the, X, 64-65.
Ireland, rebellion in, III 165-171.
Isonzo, Italian advance 'on, IX. 18-49.
Italians, entry of, into the war, IX,

12-13, 17.

holding firm on the Piave, IX, 110-

like the French at Verdun, IX, 114--

117.
repulse Austrians in Trentino, IX,

50-63.

take Gorizia IX 64-70.
takes Gorizia, IX, 64-70.
take Monte Santo and Monte San

Gabriele, IX, 79-92.
the, seizure by, of Valona. IX, 3-8.
their defeat at Oaporetto. IX. 93-120.
their task in the war, IX, 18-20.
their ambition in the Adriatic, IX,

4-5.

Italy, declares her neutrality, I, 181-
185.
commission from, to the United

States, IV, 64-65.
declares war on Germany, I, 215.

494

INDEX

Italy

declaration of, war against Austria,
I, 205-209.

in Philadelphia, IV, 74-75.

in New York, IV, 90-94.
Jacoby, Maclear, his combat at Dtt-

razzo with a submarine, IX, 389.
Jag-ow, Gottlieb von and Sir Edward

Goschen. I, 177-179.

German ' Foreign Minister as to Eng-
lish peaceful attitude, I, 106-108.

sketch of, X, 238-241.
Japan declares w«ar on Germany, I, 185-

187.

Commissioners for,, visit United

States, IV, 71-72.

Japanese take Tsingtau, IX, 164-176.
Jastrow, Prof. Morris, on causes of the

war, I, 24.

Jellicoe, Admiral Sir John (now Vis-
count), takes command the British

home fleet, X, 3. •

and the battle of Jutland, X, 61-84.

on the battle of Jutland, X, 78-81.

sketch of. X, 152-153.
Jemtchug, sinking of, at Penang, X,

43-45.

Jerusalem, fall of, VIII, 215-221.
ooffre. Marshal, order as to invading-

Belgium. II, 4.

and Foch, V, 350.

as to the British, III, 159.

at his headquarters. III, 260-261.

at Mount Vernon, IV, 68.

at West Point, IV, 87-90.

conducts Gen. Pershing to Napoleon's
tomb, IV, 148 149.

departure of. IV, 96.

his first Aisne battle, II, 112-151.

his first Marne battle, II, 77-116.

his tour of the west, IV, 72-74.

his visit to the United States, IV,
60-100.

in Washington, IV, 62.

in Congress, IV. 69-70.

in New York, IV, 75-82.

in the battle of Artois, 324-342.

made a Marshal of France, III, ISO-
IS?.

on his race to the sea, II, 159-183.

reorganizes his armies, II, 2-64.

sketch of, X, 153-160.

visit of, to London. Ill, 161.
Jones, Jefferson, cited, IX, 172-175.
Jugo-Slavia, her flag in Washington

saluted. V, 194-195.
July, Fourth of, celebration of, in

America, England. France, V, 196-

204
Jutland, battle of. III, 164; X, 61-84.

various views of, X, 70-83.
Justicia, sinking of the IX, 384.
Kahn, Otto H., describes marines at

Belleau Wood, V, 137-138.
Kaiser, his visit to Asiatic Turkey,

VIII, 6.
Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse, sinking of,

X. 10, 15-16.
Kaledine Helman of the Cossacks, VII.

326-330

commits suicide, VII, 341-342.
Kamerun. IX, 153-182.

conquest of IX, 191-192.
Karlsruhe, exploits of and ultimate

fate of, X, 50-51.
Kauffman, 'Reginald Wright, quoted, I,

302-304.
Kennan, George, I, XV.

Kemmel Hill, Americans at, V. 334

capture of, by Germans, V, 85-87.

drive at, V, 95-121.
Kerensky. his conflict with the Bolshe-

viki and his overthrow, VII, 322-325

Alexander, his rise to power, VII,
290-292.

his appeal to the army at the front
VII, 300-302.

made commander in chief, VII, 317.

sketch of, X 242-245.
Kermanshah, operations at, VIII 167-

168.
Keyserling, Count Herman, on causes

of the war, I, 20.
Kiaochow IX, 166-168.

future of, IX, 176-177.
Kief, scenes at, in the 'Russian retreat,

VII, 170-172.
Kiel Canal, the, German warships at,

X, 5-6.
Kiel, recovered by the British, VIII,

187-188.
Kiffin Rockwell, aviator, exploits and

death, IV, 278.
Kielce, battle of, in a graveyard. VII,

77-78.

Kilmer, Joyce, his death, V, 241-242.
Kitchener, Viscount (later Earl), field-
marshal at Fashoda, I, 125.

has 750,000 men in field, II, 264.

his call for help, his last words to
the expeditionary force, II 13.

his death. III, 185-188.

his Russians crossing England, III,
113.

sketch of, X, 160-166.
Kluck, Gen. A. Von, his advance on

Paris, II, 24-47.

at La Cateau II, 27.

on the Aisne, II, 119-129.

sketch of, X, 166-168.
Knights of Columbus, work done by,

IV, 124-12o.
Koenigin. Louise, the sinking of the,

X. 3-4.
Kola Peninsula, revolt in, VII, 363-

364, 369.
Kolchak, Admiral, advance of his army

from Siberia, VII. 386.
Kolomea, taken by the Russians, VII,

228-230.
Korniloff, saves Russian armies from

disaster, VII, 299.

conducts the new offensive, VII, 300-
308.

seeks greater power, VII. 316-319.
Kavel, threatened by Brusiloff's army,

VII, 234-235, 238-239, 245.
Kovno, fall of. VII. 157-160.
Krakow, it's importance to Russia, VII,

63.
Kriemhilde 'Line, Americans get

through, VI, 62.

Krupps, factory bombed, IV, 285-286.
Kuhlman, Richard Von, Brest (Litovsk

German foreign Minister, his fall

VII, 366.

his Reichstag speech, V, 172-175,

177.
Kut-el-Amara, British success at, VIII,

64-67.

surrender of Townshend at, VIII,

157-167.
La Bassee, battle of, II, 241.

winter frontier at, II, 275-276.
Labyrinth, the battle at, II, 337-340.
Laconia, sinking of; IV, 13; IX, 340.

495

HISTORY OF THE WORLD WAR

Lafayette, Marquis de, birthday cele-
brated, V, 357-358.
LT, Fere, taken, VI, 111.
Le Fere-Champenoise, battle of, II, 94-

116.
Langemarck, taken by the iBritish, IV,

204-206.

Lansing:, Mr. (Secretary of State), re-
signation of, X, 391-392.
Laon, plateau of II, 121.

relief of VI, 120.

taken, VI, 111-112.
Leag-ue of Nations, Geneva selected as

seat of, X, 304.

introduced by President Wilson at
Peace Conference, X, 301-302.

Sir Eric Drummond made first Sec-
retary-General, X. 304.
Le Cateau, battle of, II. 27-28.
Lerchenfeld, Count von, report by,

showing- Germany's responsibility for

the war, I. 114-115.
Le Creusot, French artillery works at,

I. 315-316; III. 210-211.

French works "at. III, 210-211.
Leipsig, defeated and sunk in the Falk-
land Islands, X, 29-30.
Leinster, sinking- of the, IX, 387-388.
Lemberg- taken by the Russians, VII,

45-51.

recovered by the Teutons, VII, 137.
Lemnos, island of Entente head-
quarters at, VIII, 96.
Le Mort Homme, in siege of Verdun,

III, 102.

made safe. III, 115.
Lenine, Nicholai, makes peace with

Germany for Russia, IV. 323-351.

heads the Bolsheviki. VII. 320.

his arrival in Moscow VII. 346-347.

his previous career, VII 356.
Locre, battle of, V, 80-81.

lost by Germans. V, 104.
Lodge, Senator, condemns Leag-ue of

Nations, X, 360.

his reservations to the treaty, X, 387.

speech in Senate. X. 370.
Lombartzyde, in the battle of Flan-
ders. II. 213-221.
[London bombed by aeroplanes, IV,

284-287, 290-291.

•air raid in, V, 121.

Zeppelin raid® on, IV, 293-298, 297-

302, 304-305.
Longrwy, Crown Prince's advance and

sieg-e of, I, 268-270.
Loos, battle of. III. 29-34.
Louvain occupied by the Germans, I,

265.

German denial of atrocities at, I, 297.

its destruction by Germans, I 293-

296.
Ludendorff, Gen. Eric, attempts to take

Reims, V, 163-171.

confession of, as to his drive, V, 31.

checked in the Marne, V, 122-147.

defeated in the Albert-Montdidier
salient, V, 296-333.

drive for the Oise, V, 150-163.

held up in Marne, V. 211-231.

his drive on Montdidier V, 37-60.

his drives in 1918, V, 3-208.

his gloomy report, VI, 224.

his report on Kemmel Hill, V, 100-
101.

his retreat from the Marne salient,
V, 261-295.

loses Hindenburg- line, VI, 3-37.

loses the Argonne, VI, 36-67.

loses Laon, Le Fere, Douai. Lille,
and Belgian coast, VI 99-125

loses Lens and Reims, VI, 68-78.

loses second battle of the Marne, V,
232-260.

on his Brest-Litovsk peace, IV, 346.

on the enemy having evaded him V
283-284.

resigns, VI, 159.

sends Ballin to Kaiser, VI, 264-266.

sketch of, X, 169-173.
Lufbery, IRaoul American airman, his

death, V, 118-120.

Luneville, Germans occupy, I, 282-284.
Lusitania, her arrival in Liverpool, X. 4

American protest against, IX, 241-
247.

American press views of sinking of,
IX, 258-260.

American notes on, IX. 261-271, 277.

sinking of the, IX, 248-276.
Lutsk, taken by the Russians, VII, 211-

212.

Liitttau, sinking of the, X. 74.
Luxemburg, her position in the war, I,
237.

abdication of Grand Duchess demand-
ed, VI, 277-279.

German entry into, I, 267-268.

invasion of, I, 255-256.

the road through, from Germany to

France, I, 245-246.
Lens, battle around. III, 30-35.

attack on, III, 369.

destruction of, V, 346.

fate of, sealed, IV. 205.
Leon Gambetta sinking of the, IX, 224.
Leonardo da Vinci, sinking of, at Tar-

antp, IX, 312-313.
Liberia, declares war on Germany, I,

231.
Liberty Loan, the third, V. 92-93.

Parade. New York, VI, 108-109.
Lichnowsky, Prince, his memorandum

as to origin of the war, I, 106-110.

his memorandum, V, 22.
Liebknecht. Karl, killed. VI. 294.
Liege, German siege of, I, 257-265.
Liggett, Gen. Hunter, VI, 202.
Lille, battle of, II, 178-179.

deportation from. Ill, 237.

fall of, VI, 121-123.
Lion, the, at the Heligoland battle, X,

13.

at the Dogger Banks battle. X. 31-33.
Llandovery Castle, sinking of the, IX,

382.

Loan, Second Liberty, IV, 129-130.
Luxemburg, Rosa, killed. VI. 294.
McPherson, William L., Military Expert,

I. XV.
Mackensen, Field-Marshal von, and the

conquest of Serbia, VIII. 255-281.

attempts again to take Warsaw, VII,
102-105.

his battle of the Dunajec and recap-
ture of Przemysl and Lemberg
VII, 127-141.

interned, VI, 288.

sketch of, 174-177.

summoned to help in the second at-
tempt to take Warsaw. VII, 87-92.

takes Warsaw, VII, 142-150.
Mahan. Rear-Admiral Alfred T., quoted,

I, 140.

Mainz, as the key to Germany, I, 277.
Mainz, The, sinking- of, X, 13-14.

496

INDEX

Majestic, sinking- of the, VIII, 114.
Malines, bombardment of, I, 320.
Malmaison fort, French success at, IV,

185-188.
Mandate over Armenia, senate refuses

to grant to the president, X, 394.
Mangin, Gen'l Chas., advance of, in the

Aisne, VI, 5-6.

at Mainz. VI, 372.

at Verdun, III. 128-129.

on the Aisne, V, 316, 317, 318, 319,
323.

on the battle of Marne, V, 334-366.

on the Chemin-des-Dames, VI, 104-
105.

pursuing- the Germans, V, 351.

takes Malmaison, VI. 29.
Maunoury, Gen., commands at the

Ourcq, II. 77-93.

on the Aisne, II, 125-127.
March, Gen. Peyton C., sketch of, X,

177.
Marcharez, Madam, as Mayor of Sois-

sons, 273.
Marchel, French aviator, exploits of,

IV, 277-278.

Marie, Adelaide, sketch of, X 253-255.
Marina, attacked by submarine without

warning, IX. 315-316.
Marines, at Belleau Wood, V, 12W-135.

the, of the Second Division, VI, 192.
Marne, first battle of, I, XI.

Germans checked at, V, 122-147.

Germans held up on, V, 211-231.

second battle of, V, 232-260.
Maubege. Caesar's battle near, I, 249.

siege and fall of, I, 324-325.
Maude, Gen. Sir. F. S., captures Bagdad,

III. 187-195.

his advance beyond Bagdad, VIII,
197-202.

his death, VIII. 202.

sketch of. X, 178-179.
Maurice, Gen'l, on Ludendorff drive, V,

31.
Maximilian, Prince, bids for peace as

chancellor. VI, 158-159.

made German chancellor, VI, 216-217.

statement by. VI. 312.
Medilleh, sinking of the. 39.
Medina, siege of. VIII, 180.
Mercier. Cardinal, statement of. as to

atrocities in Belgium, I, 355-357.

visit of. to U. S.. X, 377.
Messines Ridge battle, IV. 163-174.

importance of, IV, 167.

taken by the Germans, V, 77-78.
Meteren, British success at, V, 252.
Metz, Americans in sight of, V, 382-

383.

entered by Petain, VI, 346-349.

one of the German's frontier fort-
resses. I. 276.

pulling down German statues in, VI,
250-251.

the Gap of, I, 245.
Meuse, the, a battleground in all ages,

I, 252-253.
Michaelis, Dr. George, as to peace, IV,

319.

made German chancellor, IV, 197.
Miller, Chas. R., I. XIX.
Millioud, Prof. Maurice, on causes of

the war. I, 15.
Mirbach, Count von, assassinated in

Moscow, VII, 360-362.
Moldavia, sinking of the, IX, 378-379.
Moltke, Gen. von, sketch of, X, 180-182.

Moltke, torpedoing of the. X, 37.
Monastir, taken by Entente troops,

VIII, 320-321.

Monchy-le-Preux, taken. III, 361; 372.

Mongolia, encounter of with a sub-
marine, IX, 349-350.

Monmouth, sinking of the, X, 21-24.

Monroe, Gen. Sir C. C., succeeds Hamil-
ton at Gallipoli, VIII, 131-132.

Mons, battle of, II, 5, 15-21.
fortress at. I, 254.
road to, II, 3.

Montdidier Ludendorff's drive on, V, 37.
60.
taken ty Foch, V, 303-306.

Montenegro, Austria's war against, I,
94-95.

conquest of, by Austria, VIII, 281-
286.

Montello, fighting on, IX, 126-129.

Monte San Gabriele, fall of, IX, 79-92.

Monte Santo, fall of, IX, 79-92.

Morgan, J. P., attack on, IX, 284.

Morgenthau, Henry, American Ambassa-
dor to Turkey, on the Potsdam con-
spiracy, I, 111-113.
on the allied attempt to force the
Dardanelles, VIII, 90-93.

Moreau. Emilienne, heroine of Loos,
III. 35.

Morhange, battle, I, XI; 282.

Moritz. Col., revolt of, in South Africa

IX, 181-186.

Morocco, the crisis in, I, 10.
the French in. I, 126-134.

Moronvilliers, French offensive, III,
379-381.

Moronvilliers Heights, Gouraud aban-
dons, V, 216.

Moscow, Russian government trans-
ferred to, VII, 346-349.

Mosul, a British objective. VIII, 195.

Mount Ararat, VIII, 39-40.

Mount Athos the war at. VIII, 281.

Mount Kilimanjaro. IX, 198.

iMuehlan. Dr. William, his revelation,
V, 22-23.

on the Kaiser's responsibility for the
war. I, 110-111.

Mulhausen, occupied by the French, I,
279.

Murray, Col. A. M., I. XIX.

Mussudieh, sinking of the, by British
i!7-boat, IX, 220-221.

Namur, Caesar's battle at. I. 250.
siege of, and fall. I, 305-314.

Nancy, battle of, II. 65-76.

battle of, (see Couronne, the
Grande) .

Napoleon his retreat from Russia, VII,
179-180.

Nations, League of, introduced by
President Wilson at Peace Confer-
ence, X, 301-302.

condemned by Senator Lodge, X, 360.
supported by ex-President Taft, X.
361.

Navarre, aviator, exploits of, IV, 268-
272.

Nebraskan, submarine attack on, IX,
275.

Nervii, the, Cassar among, I, 249.

New Zealanders at Gallipoli, VIII, 98.
take Samoa, IX, 177.

(Nicholas, Grand Duke, armies of, in-
vade East Prussia, VII, 3-40.
his long front, VIII, 168-170.
invade Galicia, VII, 42-63.

497

HISTORY OF THE WORLD WAR

Nicholas, Grand Duke

in the battle of the Dunajec, VII,
127-145.

loses Warsaw, VII, 142-156.

saves Warsaw from the first German
attempt, VII, 68-90.

sent to the Caucasus, VII, 176-178.

takes Erzingan, VIII, 155-156.

takes Erzerum, VIII. 138-148.

sketch of, X, 182-185.
Nicholas II, at the theater of war. VII,

68.

and the Russian revolution, VII, 265-
267.

his arrest, VII, 269-271.

his imprisonment, VH. 276.

his estate confiscated, VII, 279-280.

put to death VII, 364-566.

sketch of, X, 255-257.

taken to Tobolsk. VII, 284.
Nieuport, attack on. III, 72.

battle of Flanders, II, 210-225.

guns attack at IV. 173.
Neuve Chappelle, battle of, II. 277-285.
Nieuville-St. Vaast, battle at, II, 324.
Niger sinking- of the, IX. 218.
Ninetieth Division at Sedan, VI, 180.
Nivelle, Gen'l, recovers Douaumont and

Vaux, III, 141-148.

change in command of. III, 390.

forces Germans from the Aisne, III,
374-392.

made field commander. Ill, 148-150.
Norway, her attitude in the war, I, 235-

236.

Nova Alexandrovsk. Russian new arc-
tic port at, VII, 195-196.
Novogeorgievsk, fall of VII, 161-162.
Noyon occupied by the French, III. 322.

taken by the French, V. 228-230.
^iirnburg. sunk in the Falkland Is-
lands battle. X. 27-30.
Orlando, Vittoria E.. sketch of, X, 257-

258.

Ortler-Spitz, the, IX, 21-22.
Orvillers, captured. III, 224.
Osowiec. fortress of, under siege, VII,

33-35.
Ostend, entered. VI, 127-128.

flig-ht of Belgians from, I, 302-304.

occupied by Allies, VI, 120-121.

the British exploit at, IX, 375-378.
Ourcq, battle of, II. 77-93.
Orlando, leaves Peace Conference, X,

304.

visits London, VI, 379.
Odessa, taken by the Germans, VII, 344-

352.

Oesel, Germans occupy, VII, 314-315.
Ogden, Rollo, I. XIV.

quoted on cause of the war, I, 105-

121; I. 125.
Oise, Ludendorff's drive for the, V, 150-

163.
Onandaga Indians of New York, declare

war on Germany. I, 233-234.
Oneida Indians declare war on Ger-
many, I. 233-234.
Orduna, submarine attack on the, IX,

277.
Peace Treaty (with Germany), the

conference in Paris, X. 297-305.

German protest against the terms, X,
318-339.

German signing- of the. X. 344-351

prolonged controversy over, X, 360-
394.

ratified by German National Assem-
bly, X, 350.

the Entente reply, X. 329-333.

terms of, delivered to German dele-
gates, X, 305-317.
Peace, early •German effort for, IV, 309-

German overtures III. 76.
Palestine, conquest of, VIII, 204-226
Palmer, Col. Frederick, I. XI.

at the Grand Couronne battle, II.

7X).
cited. III, 271-272; 280-281- VI

202.
on Americans in Marne salient, V

292-294.
on Pershing's "all that we have"

offer to Foch, V, 44
on Pershing in battle of Marne, V.

232-234.
Panama, declares war on Germany, I,

Papen, Captain Von, captured corre-
spondence of. I, 114.

sent home, IX, 292 293.
Paris, air raid on, IV, 291.

celebrates the fourth of July, IV.

152-154.

during the Marne drive. V, 144-146

German advance on, II, 24-47.

her great shock and preparations to
meet it, II. 53-59.

last big gun attack on, V. 115.

menace to, abolished, V, 314.

modification of terms of, X 333-
334.

peace conferences of, X, 297-305.

terms of -the treaty with Germany. X
312-316.

shelled by long range gun, V, 15 19.

when Ludendorff starts for Chateau
Thierry. V, 215-216.

when Verdun was attacked. III. 8~>.
Parsons, Col. William Barclay, at Cam-
brai. IV, 241-242.

engineering work of. VI, 60.

in Europe, IV, 140.

railway engineer in France. IV, 354.
Paschendaele Ridge, battle of IV 199-

220.
Patrick, George T., on causes of the

war, I, 19.
Pau, General his invasion of Alsace.

I. 279.

his purpose in Alsace, I, 285-286.

in the retreat from Cambrai, II, 26
Peace Conference, the, opening of, X

297.

representatives at, X 297-298.1
Pegoud, Adolph, his early death. III.

63-65.

the aviator, his early exploits. II.

346,

Pellegrini, Lieut. Commander, his ex-
ploit at Pola. IX, 121.
Pernau:. purpose of the Germans at.

X. 38.
Peronne occupied. III. 322.

surrounded by allies, V 327.

taken, V, 334.

taken by the Germans, V, 14.
Feris. Geo. H.. cited, II, 147; III, 334-

335; IV. 176.

Pershing-, Gen'l John J., advances north-
east of Verdun, V. 381.

at Byng's Cambrai thrust. IV, 221.

going to Europe, IV, 130-138.

his departure, and arrival, 72-160.

498

INDEX

Pershing-, Gen'l John J.

his "all we have" offer to Foch V

43.

his arrival in England, IV, 170.
his report on our military operations

in France, IV, 155-160.
his share in Foch's deciding- on his

Marne counter-thrust, V, 232-234.
home-coming- of, X, 373 377.
in battle of Marne, V 232-234.
in Luxemburg, VI, 359-361.
occupies 'German territory in Rhine

Valley, VI, 355-366.
receives thanks of Congress, X, 376.
report of, on war operations, I, 40-

sketch of, X, 185-189.

'takes the Argonne, VI, 38-67.

takes St. Mihiel salient, V, 366-392.
Persia, sinking- of the, IX. 324.
Persian Gulf, British operations on,

VIII, 56-64.

Persius, Captain, revelations of, as to

German fleet, VI. 330-332.
Peru, breaks off relations with Ger-
many and Austria, VII, 250-253.
Peter, Kin?, sketch of, X, 259-260.
Petain, Henri Phillipe, Marshal, gets

control of Verdun, III, 107.

his fine * words to his victorious
armies, VI. 212.

made chief of staff. III, 388-389.

made commander in chief. III. 390.

restores the morale of the French,
IV, 190.

sent to command at Verdun, III, 87-
88.

sketch of, X, 189-192.

strikes near Soisson, IV, 184-192.
Piave, Italians make «a stand on the,

IX, 105-107.

Italian victory at the, V, 172.
Plumer, Gen'l Sir H., in Flanders, V,

356.

plans battle of Messines Ridge, IV,

165-170.
Poincare, Raymond, President of France,

at Peace Conference, X 297.

in Russia, I, 69.

sketch of, X 261-262.
Poison gas, at the second battle of

Ypres, II. 314-317.
Pola, Italian bombs dropped on, IX,

89-90.

an Austrian memory, IX. 146.

Italian naval raid on, IX, 121-123.
Poland, a new proclamation as to, by

ancient kingdom of, revived by Ger-
many and Austria, VII, 250-253.

devastation in, VII 94-08.

German efforts to reduce, VII, 65-98.

rebirth of, V, 192-194.

the Teutonic powers. VII, 313-314.
Pommern, sinking of the, X, 74.
Portugal, Germany's declaration of

war, I, 209-213.
Portuguese, in conquest of German

East Africa, IX 198-206.
Potsdam conference of July. 1914, at,
Powell, E. A., cited, in, 19-21.
Pozieres, III. 234.
President Lincoln, sinking of the, IX,

379.
Prince of Wales, visit to United States,

X, 391.

Prince, Norman, aviator, fight of, with
Germans, IV 274-275.
his death, IV, 281-282.

"Princess Pats" at the second battle

of Ypres, II, 312-314.
Prinzip, Gavrilo, assassin of the arch-
duke, I, 1, 62.
Pratopopov, Russian minister of the

Interior, his spies, VII, 264.

imprisoned VII 285.
Provence, sinking 'of the, IX, 305-306.
Provins, Kluck at, when the trap was

sprung, II, 80.

evacuation of, by the Russians, VII,

133.

Przemysl, fortress of, invested by Rus-
sians and taken, VII, 56-62* 112-116
Przasnysz. taken by the Germans, VII,

111-112.

Quai d'Orsay, Paris, Turkish Peace Mis-
sion at, X, 355-357.

Turks receive Peace Treaty, X, 357.
Quatre-Bras. battle of, I, 252.
Queen Mary, sinking of the, X, 64-67.
Ramscapelle, ruins of, II, 257-258.
Rasputin, Gregory, his assassination as

a false priest VII, 260-263.

his grave, VII, 277.
Raynol, Major, at Fort Vaux, III, 122-

123.

Rawa-Ruska, battle of, VII, 54-<55
Red Cross, activities of,, IV, 121-124.

units of, arrive in Europe, IV, 135-

136.
Redmond, John E. his declaration of

Irish loyalty, I, 176.
Reims, bombardment of, II, 132.

Caesar among its ancient people, I,
249.

cathedral of, II, 138-144, 146-149.

Ludendorffs attempt to take, V,
163-171.

Ludendorff held up at, V, 211-231.

redeemed. VI. 73-76.
Rennenkampf, Gen'l, defeated at Tan-

nenberg, VII, 20-30.

defeats Germans at Insterburg, VII,

12.

iRenwick, George, cited, VI, 308-310.
Reuter, Admiral von, his protest at

surrender of German ships, VI, 334.
Rhine, the. to the Germans, VI. 155.

in German history, VI, 373-375.
Rhine Valley occupied by Entente

armies, VI, 343-377.
Richtofen, Baron Von, aviator, his ex-
ploits, IV, 282-284.

killed, V, 117-118. *

Riga, battle in Gulf of. X, 35-37.

fall of, VII. 310-313.

Germans attempt capture of. VII,
163-165.

Germans effort to capture, VII, 186-

188.

Fiver Clyde, VIII, 104-107.
Rizzo, Luigi, his exploit, IX, 121-123.
Roberts, Field Marshal Lord, hia

death, II, 250-257.
Rockwell Kiffin, aviator, fight of. with

Germans. IV, 274-l275.
Rodman, Hugh, Admiral, statement of,

as to American ships in the war, VI,

341-342.
Roon, Count von, his ideas of peace

terms, X, 324.

Romagne, cemetery at, VI 64-67.
Roosevelt, Col. Theodore, his army ser-
vice declined, IV. 138-139.

his son Quentin's death, V, 241.

receives Mr. Balfour at Oyster Bay,
IV, 87.

499

HISTORY OF THE WORLD WAR

Roosevelt, Colonel Theodore

speech of. at Saratoga, V, 240.
thunders on the sinking- of the

Lusitania. IX, 258.
Root, Elihu, his mission to Russia, VII,

294-299.

Roumania conquest of, by Teuton,
Bulgarian and Turkish forces, VIII,
323-367.

declares war on Austria, I, 213-215.
driven back by the Germans, VIII,

346-347.
her invasion of Transylvania, VIII,

326-331.
her problem in the war, VIII, 253-

258.

her promising- revival and later de-
feat, VIII, 361-365.
makes peace with Germany, VII,

349-350.

Roubaix, made free, VI, 123-125.
Royal Edward, sinking- of the, IX, 226.
R-oye, battle of, II, 182.

entered by the French, III, 323.
taking- of, V, 313-314.
Russia, Commission from, to the United
States, IV, 65.
anti -Bolshevik forces come to aid of,

VII. 385-391.
an armistice between, and Germany,

and the Brest-Litovsk treaty, VII,

331-357.

Brest-Litovsk, peace of, with Ger-
many, IV, 323-351.
demands for a new offensive, VII,

296-297.

defeated at Tannenberg-, VII, 20-30.
Ententes effort to aid. VII, 370-373.
Germany in danger in, V. 56.
her efforts to right herself. VII, 358-

393.

her declaration of war against Bul-
garia, I, 192-195.
her invasion of East Prussia, VII,

3-40.
her new offensive under Brusiloff,

VII, 199-251.

her successes in the East. II, 169-170.
her willingness to preserve peace in

1914, I. 159-162.
mobilization, VII, 4-10.
eperations of, in the Caucasus, VIII,

34, 44.
preparing for a new offensive. VII,

193-195.
resources of, at the beginning of the

war, I, 139-151.
reverses of in Galicia, II. 340.
sends help to France, III. 110-114.
signs an armistice with Germany, IV,

324-327. •

taking Erzerum, VIII. 138-148.
taking Erzingen, 155-156.
taking Tribizond, VIII. 149-154.
their revolution, VII. 259-285.
winter fighting, II, 286-287.
Russians abandon Warsaw. 142-156.
at the battle in the Gulf of Riga, X,

35-38.
check the German advance, VII, 179-

196.
civil arnarchy ensues among, VII,

287-294.
in the battle of the Vistula, VII, 65-

98.

invades Galicia, VII, 42-63.
invest and take Przemysl, VII, 57-61.

lose battle of Dunajec and Przemysl
and Lemberg, VII. 127-141.

lose Kovno, VII, 157-160.

lose Brest-Litovsk, VII, 161.

lose Novogeorgievsk, VII, 161-162.

lose Grodno, VII, 165

lose Vilna, VII, 166-171.

lose effect of retreat on, VII, 173-175

Jose Oesel, VII, 314-316.

lose Riga, VII, 310-313.

meet the British on the Tigris, VIII,
170-171.

take Carpathian passes, VII. 116-124.

take Przemysl. VII, 112-116
Ruzsky. Gen'l, in Galicia, VII, 45-63.
Saghir Dere Ravine, battle of the, VIII,

120-125.

St. Bobain Massif, taken. VI, 114.
St. Eloi, battle of, II, 286.
St. Germain-en-Laye. Austrian peace

delegation at, X, 352-355
St. Gond, Marshes of, II, 96.
St. Mihiel, taken by the Germans. II,

187-191.

French attack at, II, 300-304.

German graves at, V. 382.

salient, taking of by Americans, V,

366-392.
St. Quentin, battle at, II, 32-33.

devastation at. and population of tak-
en away, VI, 30-32.

fall of, VI. 3-37.

siege of, under Phillip. II. VI-9.

the French objective, III. 232-233.
St. Petersburg, name changed to Petro-

grad, VII, 35-36.
St. Remi, church of, destroyed, V, 281-

282.
Salandra, Antonio, sketch of, X, 263-

266.
Saloniki, allied force operate from to

aid Serbia. VIII. 272.

drive from, launched by Sarrail, VIII,
314-320.

entente forces at, VIII, 289-304.
Salva_tion Army, worke done by, IV,

1135.
Samoa, New Zealandera take. IX, 177-

180.
Samsonoff, Gen'l., defeated at Tanen-

berg, VII, 20-30.
Sanders, Gen. Simon von, his work in

Turkey. VIII. 10.

San Diego, sinking of the, IX, 383-384.
San Stefano, treaty of, I, 119-120.
Sarajevo, assasination at, I, 59-63.
Sarrail, Gen., in command at Saloniki,

VIII, 275.

launches a drive from Saloniki, VIII,

304. 314. 322.

Saxony. King of, dethroned, VI, 270.
Scapa Flow, sinking of German ships

at, X, 338.
Scarborough, bombardment of, X, 53-

59.
Scharnhorst, the, at the battle off Coro-

nel. X. 18-26.

sinking of. off the Falkland Islands,

X, 26-30.
Schwink, Capt. von. on the (Ludendorff

offensive, V, 58-60.
Seaman. Major Louis L.. his account of

zeppelin raid on Antwerp, I. 328-329.
Second Division. VI. 192-194.

at Chateau Thierry, V, 136.

at Sedan, VI, 180.

500

INDEX

Sedan, Americans moving- in, VI, 149-

163.

first battle of. VI, 149-150.

MacMahon's surrender at, I, 279.

taken by French and Americans, VI,

164-183.
Sedan Day, allied victories on, V, 336-

339.

Seeger, Allan, his death, V, 242-243.
Seicheprey, Americans at, V, 88-92.
Senator Lodge condemns League of Na-
tions, X, 360.

his reservations to the treaty, X,
387.

speech in Senate, X. 370.
Senlis, armistice sig-ned near, VI, 239-

246.
Senussi, war of, against the British in

Egypt, VIII, 27-30.
Serbia, the archdukes assassination in

I, 59-85.

a port for, acquired on the Adriatic,
IX, 159.

Austria's war against. I, 86-95.

character of the country, I, 72-73.

her army reconstituted, VII, 209.

medical aid for. I, 92-94.

retreat of its army and people, VIII,
277-281.

the Teutonic-Bulgarian conquest,

VIII. 255-281.

Sergy, Americans at, 269-270.
Seringes. Americans at. V, 274.
Seventy-seventh Division, at Sedan,

VI, 180.

Shantung, given to Japan, X, 304.
Shipbuilding, preparations of U. S. in

war. IV. 41-46.

Siam. declares war on Germany. I, 230.
Siberia, prisoners in, released, VII, 278-

279.

creation of a new State in, VII, 362.
Sidd-El-Bahr, destruction of, VIII, 104-

107.
Silesia, endangered by Russia's success,

VII, 62.

Simms, W. P.. cited. III. 19; 329.
Sims Admiral, his arrival in Europe,

IV, 131-135.

arrival of. in Europe with destroyers,

IX. 3 '6.

Simonds. Frank H.. I, XXI.

Smith-Dorrien, Gen. Sir. W., at Le
Cateau. II. 27-28.
in German East Africa. IX, 194-195.

Smuts, Gen. Jan. C.. conquest of Ger-
man East Africa by. IX, 196-206.
sketch of, X. 260-266.

Soissons, a German success at, II, 270-

f all 'of, V, 276-279.

first battle. II. 130-158.

Petain strikes at, IV, 184-192.
Solesmes, feat of arms at. II, 40.
Somme. the, battle of. English launch

at Combles, III. 262-266. 272-274.

at Le Transloy. Ill, 294.

at Pozieres. Ill, 229-230: 234-236.

beginning- of the battle. Ill, 200-209.

British gains on, 221-224.

destruction of, III, 296-298.

Eaucort 1'Abbaye taken. III. 291.

French strike at Noyon salient. III,

g-afns8on, III. 256-257.
German anxiety about. III. 225-230.
German defense at. Ill, 198-200.
Germans alarmed by, 214-216.

Guillemont taken. III. 257-258.

halt in the fighting, III. 242-243.

length of the battle. III, 307-309.

near Bapaume, III, 271.

near Thiepval, III- 247-249.

offensive on III, 191-314.

preparation for. III, 192-196.

progress made by the French, III,
213.

tanks in the battle, 279-287.

Thiepval taken, III, 275-278,
Spain, her attitude in the war, I, 234-

235.
Spee. Admiral von. commands in the

battle off Coronel, X. 18-26.
Stanislau, taken by the Russians, VII,

240
Steinbach, a French success, II, 270;

297-298.

Stelvia Pass, the, IX, 20-22.
Stowell, Prof. Ellery C., on causes of

the war, I, 104.
Strassburg or Strasbourg, entered by

Petain, Vi, 349-351.

Poincare enters,, VI, 351.

Stiirmer, Russian Premier, his fall,

VII, 247-248.

Submarines, at the Dardanelles, VIII

111-113.

activities of, ending, IX, 386.

early history of, IX, 209,

in Eastern Mediterranean, IX, 224

results of work done by, IX, 389-391

the North Atlantic, IX, 379-382

unrestricted war by, declared IV 7-
12: IX, 339-360.

War by, in the first year, IX, 209-234.

warfare, Germany's second year of

intensified, IX, 367-371.
Suez Canal, the war on, VIII, 15-27.
Summerall, Gen. Charles P., VI, 202.
Supreme War Council, decision of, to

prosecute the war, V, 3-5; 50-51.
Surmelin River, American regiments win

at. V, 223-229.

Sussex, submarine attack on, IX,

328-332.

Swift, exploit of the. X, 82.
Swinton, Col. E., I, XI.
Switch Line, taking of the, V, 336-342.
Sydney, the, sinks the Emden, X, 46-47.
Taft, ex-President, supports League of

Nations, X, 361.
Tagliamento, Italians retreat from, IX,

101-102.
Tahure, French attack against. III, 18-

22.

Tamines, a massacre at, I. 319-320.
Taurus Mountains, tunnel through,

VIII, 9.

Tanks, the Whippets, V, 32.

American origin of. Ill, 282-286.

at St. Mihiel, V. 384.

at the battle of Arras, III, 361-362.

Byng's, at Cambrai thrust, IV, 222-
225

in the Albert-Montdidier salient, V.
308-309

in the Somme battle. III, 279-287.

work of, V. 321.
Termonde. destruction of. I, 317.
Thiaumont, French recapture. Ill, 126.
Thiers, at Versailles in 1871, X, 339-

343
Thuin, battle at, II, 22.

501

HISTORY OF THE WORLD WAR

Third American Division, at Chateau
Thierry, I, 41; V, 136.
at Sedan, VI, 180.
at the Surmelin River. V, 223-224.
Thirtieth Division, at Cambrai, VI, 85.
help to take the St. Quentin tunnel,

VI, 12-16.

the American, V, 64.
with Haig-, V, 299.
Thirty-second Division, at Sedan, VI,

180.

The Marne, battle at, II, 91.
The race to the sea, II, 159-183.
Ticonderoga, sinking- of the, IX, 387.
Tigris, the, VIII, 74-75.

British and Russians meet on the,
VIII. 170-171.
Times, The London, history of the war,

I, XIX.

Tirlemont, bombarded and taken, I, 292-
293.

occupied by the Germans, I, 265.
Tirpitz, Admiral von, sketch of, X, 194-
202.
his threat of savage submarine war,

IX, 235-237.
resignation of, IX, 327.
Togoland, IX, 153-181.
conquest of, IX, 190.
Toscanini, Arthur, IX, 89.
Toul. one of the Eastern fortresses, I,

275.

Townshend. Gen. Sir. C., surrender of,
at Kut, VIII, 151, 161-162.
his advance to Ctesephon and retreat

to Kut, VIII. 64-74.
Transvaal, rebellion in, IX. 184-186.
Transylvania, sinking of the, IX, 300;

345.

Tribizond, Russians take, VIII. 149-154.
Trentino. Italian advance on, IX, 18-32.

Austrians repulsed in, IX, 50, 63.
Hreaty, Peace,

German protest against the terms, X,

318-339.

signing of the, X, 344-351.
the conference in Paris, X, 297-305.
terms of. delivered to German dele-
gates. X, 305-317.
Triple Alliance, the, I, 12.

danger in the, I. 73-74.
Triple Entente, the, I, 12.

unpreparedness of. for war, I, 74.
Trieste, as an Italian objective, IX, 64-
67.

drive toward. IX, 74-75.
Italian occupation of, IX, 148.
its importance, IX, 90;
the town of, IX, 80.
Trotzky, Leon, on the Bolsheviki, VII,
320-323.

commands a large army, VII, 384.
his resignation. VII, 344.
makes peace for Russia with Ger-
many, IV, 323-351.
Tsingtau, fall of, IX 164-176.
Turcoing, made free VI, 123-125.
Turkey, allied operations against, at
Gallipoli, VIII. 94-137.
as Germany's ally. VIII, 3-14.
attacks from Western Egypt. VIII,

27-30
attacked on the Persian Gulf, VIII,

56-64.

checks Russia, VIII, 172-173.
getting out of the war, VI, 85.
her main army enveloped in Palestine,
VIII, 224-226.

her success in the Dardanelles, VIII,

76-93.
loses Aleppo and surrenders. VIII,

loses Bagdad, VIII. 187-195

loses Erzerum, VIII, 138-148

loses Jerusalem, VIII, 215-221

loses Palestine, VIII, 204-226.

loses Trebizond, VIII, 149-154.

massacre of the Armenians, VIII, 44-
55.

navy of, in 1918, X, 39.

peace terms to, VI, 228.

recovers Kut, VIII, 157-167.

war against the Caucasus, VIII, 34-
oo«

war against Egypt, VIII, 15-33.

war declared against, by the Entente,

I, 198-205.
Turkish Peace Mission, at the Quai d'

Orsay, X, 355-357.

Turner, Canadian General, the, II, 312.
Tuscania, sinking of, IX, 367.
Twenty-sixth Division, at Sedan, VI,

180.
Twenty-seventh Division, helps to take

St. Quentin tunnel, VI, 12-16; V, 64.

with Haig, V, 300.
Twenty-ninth Division, at Sedan, VI,

180.
Udine, Teutonic advance through, IX,

96-98.
Ukraine, peace of, with Germany VII,

335-339.

grain in, VII 345.

revolt in, VII, 359.
Usiezko, taken by the Russians, VII,

201-203.

Usher, Roland G.. quoted I, 139-140.
Uskeep, fall of. VIII. 269.
U-53, her arrival in Newport, and sink-
ing by off Nantucket, IX, 313-315.
United States, in the war. actual fight-
ing by soldiers of, I, 38-44.

aeroplanes to be built. IV, 111-114.

aid of, in clearing Belgium, VI, 126-
128.

airmen of, V, 117.

airmen of, raid Conflans, V, 354.

American ships sunk, IV, 21-65.

Americans already serving in Allied
armies, IV, 106-108.

and the sinking of the Sussex, IX,
328-332.

Anglo-French loan in,

arms and munitions from, IV 172-

173; VI, 115.

army draft bill. IV, 108-110.

armed neutrality declared. IV, 21.

army engineers arrive. IV, 140-141.

at Cantigny V, 127-128.

•at Chateau Thierry, V, 129-140.

at Chateau-Thierry again, V, 218-
224.

at Kemmel Hill, V, 334-335; 301.

lat Kremhilde line, VI, 116-117.

attack Cantigny, V, 166-167.

aviators from, IV, 274, 281, 291.

capture of Dun,

captures Buzancy. VI, 171-173.

declaration of war by, on Germany,
I, 217-221.

driving toward Sed^.n. VI. 149-163.

fighting in Belgium, VI. 170.

first men of, on a battlefield, IV,
183.

first liberty loan, IV, 114-116.

502

INDEX

United States.

first troops arrive in Europe, IV,
136-138.

first war loan, IV, 105-106.

flotillas of destroyers arrive in Eu-
rope, IV, 131-135.

force of, in the Marne sector, V, 292-
294.

force of, enters German territory. VI,
355-366.

force in Lorraine, IV, 353-357.

General Pershing's departure and ar-
rival, IV, 147-160.

German attack on, V, 105-106.

graves of, in Prance. V, 243-245.

Lave one million soldiers in France,
V, 181-187.

Indians on the Champagne front, VI,
77^78.

in second battle of the Marne, V, 232-
260.

in the Argonne, VI, 100.

in the war, hail the severed relations
with energy, IV, 3-25.

losses of, VI, 203-206.

losses of various divisions, 47-49.

medical units arrive, IV, 135, 136-
139.

men sent overseas, 43.

merchant fleet of V. 186-187.

munition plant explosions in, IX, 283-
297.

notes from, to Germany on the sink-
ing- of the Lusitania, IX, 261, 271;
277.

on the Vesle, V, 286, 288, 295.

passport given to Bernstorff, IV, 10.

Peace Sunday in, IV, 311-312.

Pershing's report on military condi-
tions of, I, 40-43.

protest against war zone decree, IX,
241-247.

Red Cross unit arrives in Europe,
IV, 135.

raid of Germans on, V. 70-71.

recognizes the Czecho-Slovaks, VII,
374-375.

sends destroyers under Sims to Eu-
rope, IX. 346.

ships in the war. VI, 341-342.

soldiers in action. IV, 359-370.

summary of work done, VI, 207.

summary of war work of, VI, 192-
212.

the senatorial filibuster. IV, 18-21.

the Zimmermann Mexico note, IV, 13-
18.

tnaining corps, IV, 111.

troops attacked by Germans, IV, 192-
194.

troops of, in Argonne. VI, 51-.53.

troops in Argonne, VI, 33.

troops of, in Italy, IX, 144.

troops of, in Ludendorff drive, V, 30.

troops of, praised, V, 289-290.

take St. Mihiel salient, V, 366-392.

troops take St. Quentin tunnel, VI,
12-19.

take the Argonne, VI, 36-67.

take Vaux, V, 187-189.

the Marne salient, V, 261-295.

troops at Cambrai, IV, 241-242.

tribute of Haig to troops of, VI, 37.

with Gouroud at Reims, V, 214, 215.
219.

with Haig, V. 299.

with the British, V, 64.

with the French, V. 98.

Valmy, battle of, VI, 38-41.
Valona, seized by Italy, IX, 3-8.
Vanderbilt, Alfred G., lost on the Lus-
itania, IX, 254.

Van Lake, Russian march on, VIII, 44.
Vaux, fort of. bambardment of III,

121.

taking of, by Americans, V, 187-189.

village of, captured. III, 118.
Venice, aeroplane attack on, IX, 42.

almost deserted, IX, 106.

serious situation, IX, 140-143.
Venizelos, and Greece, VIII, 301-313,

322.

Premier of Greece, his difficulties
early in the war, I, 196-198.

sketch of, X, 266-270.
Verdun, I. 275.

aeroplanes in the autumn offensive
of 1915, III, 59-68.

Americans in autumn offensive. III,
61.

at Hill 304, III. 116.

battle for II, 184-191.

beginning of attack on, III, 82-84.

condition of. Ill, 128.

cost of, to the French, III, 132-135.

couriers of, III, 130-132.

first phase III, 71-114.

German attitude at, IV, 178-180.

German preparations for the attack
on. III, 78-81.

German seige of, III, 71-153.

Germans feinting before the seige b«-
gan III, 157.

homage to. III, 152.

later phase. Ill, 141-153.

one-hundredth day of battle at, III,
120.

second phase. III, 115-140.

the barrier fort at, I, 295.

third episode — second phase of, III,
115.

winter fighting around, II, 289-304.
Vermilles. battle of, II. 335.
Verona, bombs dropped on. IX, 30-31.
Versailles, peace terms delivered to

Germans at, X. 305-317.

(Signing of the treaty with the Ger-
mans at, X, 344.
Vesle, allies reach, V, 282.
Vilna, fall of, and retreat from, VII,

166-171.
Vimy Ridge, advance on. III, 174.

in Ludendorff drive, V, 37-38.

taken. Ill, 349.

importance of. III. 356.
Viscount Grey, Ambassador from Great

Britain, X, 386.
Vise, Germans in, I, 256.
Vistula, battle of, VII, 65-98.
Viviani, Rene, his visit to the United

States, IV, 60-100.

departure of, IV, 96.

in New York, IV, 62.

in Mt. Vernon, IV 68.

in Congress IV, 69-70.

his tour of the country, IV, 72-75.

in New York, IV, 75-82.

Premier of France,, in Russia, I, 69.

sketch of, X, 270-271.
Vizetelly, Dr. Frank H., I, XIV.
Vladivostok, supplies for Russia at,

VII. 139-140.
Von Kluck, at the Marne battle, II, 77-

116.
Wales, Prince of, visit to United States,

X, 391.

503

HISTORY OF THE WORLD WAR

War, the worlit, causes of, I, 8-26.
aeroplanes in, 1, 33-35.
causes of, in 1870, 1866, 1864, I,

136.
changes made by war methods, I. 28-

31.

compared with other wars, I. 6-8.
control of the sea in, I 32-33.
German ig-norance of real causes, I,

14-15.

German's preparation for, 36-37.
how Germany lost her diplomatic

ease, I, 25-29.
many causes cited, I, 8-10.
military masters who caused it, I, 22-

23.

Morocco as a cause, I, 10-12.
motives for, I, 99 100.
old men as leaders, I, 31-32.
resources of belligerents at outbreak

of, I, 139-151.
states involved, I, 26.
various costs of, I, 45-53.
Warnefcwd, Lieut., destroys Zeppelin,

II, 356, 364-365.
Warren. Whitney, on the bombardment

of Reims cathedral, II, 138-148.
Warsaw first German attack to take,
VII, 68-98.

fall of. VII. 142-156.
Hindenburg fails again to take, VII,

99-111.
Warspite, the, in the battle of Jutland,

X, 68-69.
Wangenheim, Baron von. his account of

the Potsdam conference, I, 111-113.
Washburn, .Stanley, I XV.

cited, VII. 172-177.
Waterloo, battle of, I, 250.
War zone decrees British and Ger-
man, IX, 235-247.
Weddigen, Otto, his submarine exploit,

IX, 215-216.
Welland Canal German plot to blow up

the IX, 296.
West Point, Marshall Joffre's visit to,

IV, 87-90.

Wharton, Mrs. Edith, cited, III, 339-
341.

cited, II, 322.

Wheeler, Dr. Edward J., I, XIV.
Whitby. bombardment of, X. 53-59.
Whitlock, Brand. American Minister to
Belgium, I, 350.
his effort to save Edith Cavell, I,

363-367.
Wiegand. Karl H. Von. cited. Ill, 233-

234; IV, 313; IX, 235-237.
Wilgus, Col. William J., engineering-
work of, VI, 60.
in Europe. IV, 141.
railroad engineer in France, IV, 354.
William II, at Soissons II. 272.

and the shooting of Edith Cavell, I,

376.
at the first battle of Ypres, II, 239-

240.
at the second Marne battle, V, 227-

228

at "Tangier. I, 128: VI. 303.
flight to Holland, VI. 229.
his first Christmas at the front, II,

262.
his formal abdication, VI. 310, 316-

316.
his lamentations for France, V, 21-

22
his" life at Amerongen, VI, 319-326.

in Norway when war was declared,

I, 157.
responsibility of, for the war, VI,

313-315.
rumors of his abdication, VI, 267-

269.

seen at the front. III, 233.
signs the declaration of war against

Russia, I, 164-165.
sketch of, X, 272-281.
the German Kaiser changed attitude

of, 1, 100-102.

trial of. demanded in Berlin. I, 116.
Wilson, Woodrow, at the peace confer-
ence, X. 299-302.
and Poland's rebirth, V. 192-194.
at Liberty Loan parade in New York,

VI, 108-109.

at tomb of Lafayette, VI, 387.
bridge named after him in Lyons,

V, 208.

coming home, VI, 405-406.
final reply to Germany, VI, 227.
guest of the French Senate, VI, 304-

305.
his appeal to country to take up

war work, IV 101-104.
his arrival in France, VI, 383 387.
his attitude toward Fiume, X. 304.
his attitude toward (Russia, VII, 370.
his Baltimore speech, IV, 349.
his fourteen point speech, IV, 336-

338.

his fourteen points, X, 322-323.
his reply to the Pope, IV, 339.
his Mount Vernon speech, V, 175-

177.

his proclamation of neutrality, I, 187.
in England VI, 391-399.
in Italy, VI, 399-404.
his reply to Austria's peace propos-
al, VI, 224-226.

his speech asking Congress to de-
clare war IV, 27-32, 39.
issues call for first meeting of League

of Nations, X, 393.
offer to promote peace, IV. 310.
on 'making Foch commander, V, 45.
on the German peace proposals, V,

391-332.
reply to German request for an

armistice, VI, 220-223.
speaks in the senate on peace, IV,

6-7.

sketch of, X, 282-291.
spends Christmas at the front, VI,

390-391

stricken with illness, X, 386.
tells Congress of his going to Paris,

VI 381-384.

visits Belgium, VI, 406-407.
visits of, to European cities, VI, 378-

407.
vetoes • Knox peace resolution, X,

393.

Wirballen. battle of, VII. 36-38.
Woevre plain of, in siege of Verdun,

III. 93.

Wood, Henry, cited. III,. 336.
Yarmouth, attacked by German war-
ships, X, 52-53.

Y. M. C. A., work done by, IV, 124.
Ypres, fighting around, III, 157.
first battle, II, 202.
first battle of, II. 230-249.
second battle of, II 305-323.
third battle of, 111/172-185.

504

INDEX

Yser, battle of, II, 202-229. Zeppelin

flooding- country from, II, 220-221. raids eastern countries, II, 375-376.

Zabern, the affair at, I, 288-289. raids on Dover, II, 363.

Zeebrug^e, British bombardment of, IX, raids on Folkestone, 11, 374.

350 351. raids on Lowestoft, II, 374.

German fortifications at, VI. 129. raids on London, II, 365-366.

submarine sailors at VI, 134-136. raids on Nancy, II, 360-361.

the explosion at, with the Vindictive, raids on Paris, II, 361-363; 371.

IX, 371-375. raids on Staffordshire. II, 367-370.

Zeppelin, Count von, his aircraft, II, raids the Midlands, II, 371.

3G9-360. raids in England, IV, 265.

his death, IV, 300-304. Saloniki, bombarded by, VIII, 295-

Zeppelin raids, purpose of, II, 345. 298.

failure IV, 305. Zimmermann, Alfred, his Mexican note,

last raids in England IV, 293-306. IV, 13-18.

one dropped down off Holland, 11, sketch of, X, 291-293.

371-373. Zonnabeke, taking- of, IV, 199-214.

505

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