US Army Corps
of Engineers
Waterways Experiment
Station
Miscellaneous Paper CERC-95-3
Literature Review on the Geologic
Aspects of Inner Shelf Cross-Shore
Sediment Transport
by J. Bailey Smith
on
4 DOCUMENT
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Miscellaneous Paper CERC-95-3
February 1995
Literature Review on the Geologic
Aspects of Inner Shelf Cross-Shore
Sediment Transport
by J. Bailey Smith
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
Waterways Experiment Station
3909 Halls Ferry Road
Vicksburg, MS 39180-6199
CL
Final report
Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited
Prepared for U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
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of Engineers
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Station
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Smith, J. Bailey.
Literature review on the geologic aspects of inner shelf cross-shore
sediment transport / by J. Bailey Smith ; prepared for U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers.
161 p. : ill. ; 28 cm. — (Miscellaneous paper ; CERC-95-3)
Includes bibliographic references.
1. Continental shelf — Sediment transport — Bibliography.
2. Continental shelf — Physical geography. 3. Geology, Stratigraphic.
4. Sediment transport — Bibliography. |. United States. Army. Corps of
Engineer. Il. U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station.
Ill. Coastal Engineering Research Center (U.S.) IV. Title. V. Series:
Miscellaneous paper (U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment
Station) ; CERC-95-3.
TA7 W34m no.CERC-95-3
Contents
PLeLACe es ceserees mista amen eeteienr tite Po etter lod Mu ematoist Ses carlisle ie vi
I Introductiones ace pae ene ase «apse Mnsizeteaeisivene fal iehe! Fete) 26 01s 1
IBURDOSC teers uae Coss esa cae te choi stersei lc wencomlic ane ie teaacl euteleans Jewucticline 7
Outlinerof Chapters) este even eccsticnie. stucieleeie sy sppsucness ecole st orl se 3
2=—InnerohelfConce ptsiaicarties Sick eae) ee eS see 4
Introduction eae, sete RS eed ceceh ons ates aya tohiaett ela catrepae 4
EquilibriumiProfile marge parseisi teen acu deireiacrr. (gh roy uilstetoustsss tt 4
DepthiofcClosure wake eee eae ae ee epee ead 7
Inner Shelf Geologic Framework Importance ............ 15)
3—Evidence of Cross-Shore Sediment Transport ............ 19
INtrodUCtON ete map aneraiancn emis tar etes ei tes on Stasereyicne ee naval ey eth oe 19
Mechanisms of Inner Shelf Sediment Transport ........... 19
Surf Zone Cross-Shore Sediment Transport ............. 22
Inner Shelf Cross-Shore Sediment Transport............. 24
Beach-Inner Shelf Sediment Exchange/Losses ............ 32
Storm/Fair-Weather Sediment Transport ............... 35
Storm Sedimentation Models... >. 4)... 3 6 2 a Be es ss 38
4—Sedimentary Features/Stratigraphy of the Inner Shelf ........ 40
UN CROGUCHIOM rs ten cers, oh eleuio le Neca cave re enles mits gegen abana earoner ements te 40
Examples of Inner Shelf Sedimentary Features ........... 41
Inner Shelf;Stratigraphy. #2 ye es Cet se sh cede. 3) 55
OUTIL Vier oe mec gest tees ay ok eae eyelet Ce Ragen PN tice HUES ace ee dS 65
References treh getters settee. 1S ere aes INOEp S00: Rea ee Re 68
AP PENGix7 AG GLOSSAaty fis, iaicsec vee ieee cee ee em Necie ee S BS Al
Appendix B: Bibliography with Respect to Topic ............ Bl
Appendix C: Bibliography with Respect to Topic and Location. ... Cl
SF 298
List of Figures
Figure 1.
Figure 2.
Figure 3.
Figure 4.
Figure 5.
Figure 6.
Figure 7.
Figure 8.
Figure 9.
Figure 10.
Figure 11.
Figure 12.
Figure 13.
Figure 14.
Continental shelf cross-sectional profile (site specific to
the mid-Atlantic Bight of the United States)........ 2D,
Translation of the original equilibrium profile in response
to a rising sea level (after Bruun (1962)).......... 5
Possible inner shelf types resulting from different
characteristics of underlying geology............ 8
Fluctuations of inner shelf bed form zones and initiation
of sediment motion with respect to significant wave
Height (H) and period (T) (after Boyd (1981)) ...... 11
Survey data from Duck, NC, from August 1981 to
December 1982 showing fluctuation of closure depth as
indicated by vertical arrows (after Birkemeier (1985)) .. 12
Location of the Outer Banks of North Carolina ...... 17
Geologic cross section through the Outer Banks at
Rodanthe showing the Pleistocene units cropping out on
the inner shelf forming Wimble Shoals (after Pilkey
Chal (QOS) era cm eo ReR he aise) SoA Cette I ced leh 18
Cross-shelf profile of the inner shelf off Duck, North
Carolina (after Wright et al.in press)............ 31
Relationship between rate of net sediment deposition/
erosion and rate of sea level rise/fall
(after: CurraysQI9G4))) mieten eenaia ss oa Lo ee ae ace ee 42
Morphology of the Middle Atlantic Bight
(after, Swift\(1975)) seas 2 tuna eerdee PIP as st oh eS 43
Gradation from two-dimensional to three-dimensional
bed forms and flat beds with increasing flow strength
(after: Reineckcand:Singhi (1986))i 0s este 46
Two-dimensional and three-dimensional bed forms.
Vortices and flow patterns are shown by arrows above
the dunes (after Reineck and Singh (1986)) ........ 47
Block diagrams showing (a) planar and (b) trough
cross-bedding as seen in horizontal, transverse, and
longitudinal sections (after Reineck and Singh (1986)) . 49
Classification of symmetric and reversing ripples based
on the ratio of tipple length to square root of grain
diameter (D>! ) and ratio of orbital diameter to grain
diameter (d,/D) (after Clifton (1976) based on data from
Inman.(1957) and Dingler GU974)) cos miei yes eee 52
Figure 15.
Figure 16.
Figure 17.
Stability fields for bed forms produced in very fine sand
in collinear combined-flow water tunnel (from Arnott
and’ Southardt@l990)))\ eae ces eee cess ee ee eee 54
Cross-shore sequence of structures commonly found off
the coast of southern Oregon (after Clifton (1976)) .... 55
Probable sequence of events producing hummocky cross-
stratification on the inner shelf (after Duke, Arnott, and
GREE]IGTOO MN reer iln cyan eq NUs ee ot sae ua val Re eer se 63
List of Tables
Table 1.
Table 2.
Table 3.
Table 4.
Variation in Depths of D, and Nourishment Foot for
Different Wave Conditions and Storm Return Periods
(romeStivete tialiG@9.92))\ ieee sorely om ire ainy elisa 14
Relationships Between Depth of Rippling and a Variety
of Surface Wave Conditions (after Komar, Neudeck,
andekulmi@9i2)) een ea re eee rare 34
Summary of Environmental Conditions at Duck, North
Carolina, for Different Events (after Wright et al.
CL OSI) Ee RRS Me ee REE hy) SS PE a eS 35
Hierarchy of Bed Form Formation by Increasing Energy
(aftersHarmsie tal 4G197/5)) vw arate: ouch eilsucuceeee 46
Preface
The study reported herein results from research performed by the U.S.
Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station (WES), Coastal
Engineering Research Center (CERC) under the Geologic Analysis of
Shelf/Beach Sediment Interchange Work Unit 32821, Coastal Geology and
Geotechnology Program, authorized by Headquarters, U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers (HQUSACE). Mssrs. John F. C. Sanda, John G. Housley, and
John H. Lockhart were HQUSACE Technical Monitors. Ms. Carolyn
Holmes was CERC Program Manager.
This report was prepared by Mr. J. Bailey Smith, Coastal Geology
Unit, Coastal Structures and Evaluation Branch (CSEB), Engineering
Development Division (EDD), CERC, under the general supervision of
Mr. Thomas W. Richardson, Chief, EDD, and Ms. Joan Pope, Chief,
CSEB. Director of CERC was Dr. James R. Houston, and Assistant
Director was Mr. Charles C. Calhoun, Jr. Mr. William A. Birkemeier and
Mr. Andrew Morang, EDD, provided suggestions as to the content of the
report.
At the time of publication of this report, Director of WES was
Dr. Robert W. Whalin. Commander was COL Bruce K. Howard, EN.
The contents of this report are not to be used for advertising, publication,
or promotional purposes. Citation of trade names does not constitute an
official endorsement or approval of the use of such commercial products.
Chapter 1
1 Introduction
This literature review addresses sediment transport across the inner por-
tion of the continental shelf, also referred to as the shoreface, or, as in this
report, the inner shelf (Figure 1). The inner shelf extends from the sea-
ward edge of the surf zone to the landward edge of the continental shelf.
It is affected by the strong agitation that results from sediment resuspen-
sion caused by shoaling of nonbreaking waves. The inner shelf is friction-
dominated by both bottom and sea-surface boundary layers which overlap
and frequently occupy the entire water column (Wright, in press). The
inner shelf differs from the surf zone, which is also characterized by
strong agitation of the bed by waves. The bed of the surf zone, however,
is affected by the bore-like translation of waves following wave breaking
(Komar 1976), and by wave-induced longshore currents and rip currents.
Cross-shore transport of sediment across the inner shelf has a great
effect upon short- and long-term fluctuations of beach and surf zone sand
storage as well as the morphology and stratigraphy of the inner shelf.
Although surf zone and nearshore processes and sediment transport have
been extensively addressed in the literature, inner shelf processes and sedi-
ment transport, particularly in the cross-shore direction, are not well
understood. The complexity and interdependence of the mechanisms con-
trolling transport on the inner shelf make it very difficult to comprehen-
sively understand and describe the processes affecting sediment on the
inner shelf. In response to this, Wright (1987) stated that a goal of the
scientific community should be “to devise a more universal conceptual
framework capable of better accounting for shoreface transport, erosion,
and deposition in time and space.”
Knowledge of sediment transport to and from the inner shelf region has
important implications to engineering works such as beachfill design and
dredged material placement. In computing a sediment budget for a beach-
fill project, offshore gains and losses are usually assumed to be negligible
in the sediment budget calculations. While this assumption recognizes the
difficulty in quantifying inner shelf exchanges, it is probably incorrect dur-
ing significant events. Defining limits for the active nearshore profile
under varying conditions can aid in placing dredged material so that it
will likely move onshore, offshore, or remain stable.
Introduction
Horners Surf Inner Continental Continental!
one. Zone Shelf (Shoreface) Outer Continental! Sheif Slope
Shelf Break
‘ (Average Depth
Section 130 m)
"Depth of Closure”
(Depth Fluctuates
According to
Conditions)
Seafloor Normal Strong Bed { Periodic Bed 2 4
Response Agitation By Waves Agitation By Waves :
: I
Littoral Zone Shoal Zone | Offshore Zone (Hollermeier 19810)
30 200
im m
‘ Wright 1987 Komar, Neudeck
Evidence of Sediment ae ) a Kulm 1972)
Tronsport @ Water Depth 17m (Hayes1967a,
Pearson and Riggs 1981)
Figure 1. Continental shelf cross-sectional profile (site specific to the mid-Atlantic Bight
of the United States). D, and d; (from Hallermeier (1981a)) refer to the
seaward limit of surf-related effects, and the seaward limit to sand motion by
normal waves, respectively
Most models predicting shoreline change and cross-shore profile shape
and changes are based on a profile of equilibrium which recognizes that
for a given wave condition or average wave condition there is a profile
shape (concave upward) that is in equilibrium with the wave conditions.
While useful, this concept ignores the fact that, in addition to wave action,
many other processes affect sediment transport. Moreover, cross-shore
sediment transport is also affected by the regional geological framework
and profile shape, as well as hydrodynamic conditions.
Purpose
The purpose of this report is to summarize literature which addresses
the exchange of sediment between the beach and the inner shelf through
analysis of physical processes, sediment transport, and stratigraphy. Spe-
cific topics considered include the following:
a. Depth of closure and extent of sediment transport landward and
seaward of this zone.
Chapter 1 Introduction
Chapter 1
b. Processes that cause cross-shore movement of sediment.
c. Processes that cause net offshore and net onshore movement of
sediment.
d. Amount and physical characteristics of beach material lost to the
offshore.
e. Long-term fate of sediment that has moved offshore.
f. Relationship between depositional structures and flow processes.
g. Impact of episodic storms on sedimentation.
This literature review will help to define the current state of knowledge
concerning cross-shore sediment transport on the inner shelf and sediment
exchange between the beach and the inner shelf. Discussions will revolve
around how sediment transport on the inner shelf is related to the equilib-
rium profile, depth of closure, sedimentation and stratigraphic character-
istics of the inner shelf, and differences in sedimentation/stratigraphic
patterns between fair-weather and storm conditions.
While this literature review does not comprehensively review all pub-
lished material concerning inner shelf cross-shore sediment transport, it
does provide reviews of some of the more important studies. In addition,
comprehensive lists of inner shelf cross-shore sediment transport studies
are included in the bibliography sections of the appendices.
Outline of Chapters
This literature review is divided into five chapters and three appendi-
ces. Chapter 2 discusses the equilibrium profile and depth of closure, and
the importance of the geologic framework on inner shelf changes. Chap-
ter 3 addresses several topics that verify the cross-shore transport of sedi-
ment on the inner shelf. These topics include mechanisms of inner shelf
sediment transport, surf zone and inner shelf cross-shore sediment trans-
port, beach-inner shelf sediment exchange, storm/fair-weather sediment
transport, and storm sedimentation models. Chapter 4 concerns the sedi-
mentation structures and stratigraphy of the inner shelf and includes
topics such as inner shelf sedimentary features, inner shelf stratigraphy,
cross-shore stratigraphic sequences, and storm-related stratigraphy. Chap-
ter 5 summarizes some of the more important findings of this review.
Appendix A provides a glossary of useful terms. Appendix B is a bibli-
ography of cross-shore sediment transport studies organized by topic.
Appendix C is a bibliography of cross-shore sediment transport studies
with respect to topic and region.
Introduction
2 Inner Shelf Concepts
Introduction
This chapter reviews concepts that are crucial in determining the geo-
logic aspects of inner shelf cross-shore sediment transport. These con-
cepts include the equilibrium profile, the depth of closure, and the effect
of the geological framework on the equilibrium profile and cross-shore
sediment transport processes. These concepts are of concern to the engi-
neering and scientific community primarily due to the unquantifiable
amounts of sediment that are transported onshore and offshore of the inner
shelf. Additional references concerning these topics can be found under
individual reference lists entitled “Equilibrium Profile/Profile Adjustment
References” and “Depth of Closure References” in Appendix B.
Equilibrium Profile
The equilibrium profile was first defined by Fenneman (1902), who
stated “There is a profile of equilibrium which the water would ultimately
impart, if allowed to carry its work to completion.” Additional equilib-
rium profile studies include those by Cornaglia (1889); Ippen and Eagle-
son (1955); Eagleson, Glenne, and Dracup (1961); and Zenkovich (1967),
who argued in terms of the null point hypothesis. This hypothesis states
that shoreward increases in wave orbital asymmetry should be counterbal-
anced by shoreward increases in bed slope, thus creating an equilibrium
profile.
Studies at Mission Bay, California, and the Danish North Sea Coast by
Bruun (1954) found that the average of field profiles fits the relationship:
h= Ay” (1)
where
h= water depth
Chapter 2 Inner Shelf Concepts
A= scaling parameter dependent on sediment characteristics
y = distance offshore
The findings of this study are complemented by several laboratory studies
including Rector (1954); Eagleson, Glenne, and Dracup (1963); Swart
(1974); and Vellinga (1983).
A model concerning shoreline change in response to rising sea level
(known as the Bruun Rule) was introduced by Bruun (1962). In this
study, Bruun stated that the equilibrium profile described by Equation 1
would translate landward and upward while maintaining the original shape
of the profile (Figure 2). Additional inner shelf equilibrium profile model
studies include Inman and Bagnold (1963), Bailard (1981), and Bowen
(1980). These models assume that the oscillatory motion of waves is the
most important criterion in the development of the inner shelf equilibrium
profile.
Dean (1977) stated that the equilibrium profile occurs when bed shear
stress and the energy flux dissipation rate (function of wave energy den-
sity and group velocity) become equal everywhere over the profile. Dean
(1983) further defined the equilibrium profile as “an idealization of condi-
tions which occur in nature for particular sediment characteristics and
steady wave conditions.”
In proposing a model of destructive forces acting in the surf zone that
would affect the equilibrium profile, Dean (1977) also reconsidered the
equilibrium profile relationship by analyzing 504 beach profiles along the
U.S. Atlantic and gulf shores (taken from Hayden et al. (1975)). Dean
developed the following relationship:
Figure 2. Translation of the original equilibrium profile in response to a rising sea level
(after Bruun (1962))
Chapter 2. Inner Shelf Concepts
h=Ay™ (2)
By applying the least squares fit to each of the profiles, Dean (1977)
found ranges of the values for the parameters A and n (A ranged from
0.0025 to 6.31; n ranged from 0.1 to 1.4 with an average of 0.67, thus
agreeing with Equation 1 of Bruun (1962)).
For Dean’s (1977) model, he assigned a value of n = 2/3 when the rate
of wave energy dissipation per unit volume of the water column is equal
over the profile and n = 2/5 when the rate of wave energy dissipation per
unit area of the sea bed is equal over the profile. Since the n value of 2/3
matched the average n for the 504 profiles (0.67), Dean (1977) stated that
the critical factor in developing a profile of equilibrium must be the rate
of wave energy dissipation per unit water column volume. Dean (1977)
left the sediment scale parameter A as the only free variable. This
resulted in a much smaller range of A values between 0.0 and 0.3.
Moore (1982), Dean (1987), and Kriebel, Kraus, and Larson (1991)
related A to the sediment fall velocity using a single grain size for an
entire profile.
Dean and Maurmeyer (1983) review several profile response models
including those of Bruun (1962) and Edelman (1968, 1970), as well as sev-
eral evaluations of Bruun’s model including those of Schwartz (1965,
1967), Dubois (1975, 1976, 1977) and Rosen (1978). Dean and Maur-
meyer found that:
a. Existing shore response models are useful for predicting long-term
evolution due to relative sea-level rise. Better methods and field
data are required to improve the capability of predicting depth of
effective sand motion and the associated width of this zone.
b. The Bruun rule has been validated qualitatively and, to the limit of
our knowledge of the relevant processes, quantitatively for the case
of nonbarrier island systems. Dean and Maurmeyer (1983) state
that for barrier island systems which migrate landward, their own
model is more appropriate.
c. Of the existing models of the Bruun type, the Edelman (1970) model
represents profile evolution as a continuing process and is therefore
probably more representative of long-term response.
d. There is a need for application of improved profile response models
that incorporate the effects of noncompatible sediment eroded and
gradients in longshore sediment transport.
e. There is a need for improved definition of the detailed dynamics of
beach profile response. This will probably require laboratory and
field measurements under long-term and short-term (storm) events.
Chapter 2. Inner Shelf Concepts
Larson (1991) described the profile of equilibrium as occurring when:
“A beach of specific grain size, if exposed to constant forcing conditions,
normally assumed to be short-period breaking waves, will develop a pro-
file shape that displays no net change in time.”
Dean (1991) listed four characteristics commonly associated with equi-
librium beaches:
a. They are usually concave upwards.
b. The smaller the sand diameter, the more gradual the slope.
c. The beach face is usually planar.
d. Steeper waves result in more gradual slopes.
Pilkey et al. (1993) contend that the profile of equilibrium equation is
inadequate to define the inner shelf profile shape and therefore should not
be used as a basis for predictive models of profile evolution. First,
although the equation provides an average inner shelf profile cross sec-
tion, it does not effectively describe the true profile shape as it tends to
ignore the effects of bars, and oversimplifies wave-inner shelf interac-
tions. However, the equation does provide a useful guide particularly for
long-term response of the “average profile.” Secondly, the inner shelf is
composed of various sediment grain sizes. The assignment of a value of
0.67 to the variable n in the profile equation, thus leaving a smaller range
of values of the sediment scale parameter A (of 0.0 to 0.3), implies that
beach profile shape can be calculated from sediment characteristics (parti-
cle size or fall velocity) alone.
Pilkey et al. (1993) state that the profile shape of the inner shelf is due
to many factors, including the following:
a. Wave climate (particularly the frequency of big storms).
b. Sediment supply.
c. Rate of shoreline and inner shelf retreat.
d. Surficial sediment grain size.
e. Underlying geology (Figure 3).
Depth of Closure °
The model proposed by Bruun (1962) concerning shoreline change in
response to rising sea level also introduced the concept of depth of clo-
Sure - “the point on the equilibrium profile beyond which there is no
Chapter 2. Inner Shelf Concepts
|. Non—Headland Transgressive Inner Shelf (Sand Rich)
A. Moinlanc Inner Shelf
B. Barrier tsland inner Shelf
i. Subaqueous Headland Inner Shelf (Sand Poor)
A. Muddy Inner Shelf
B. Hard Rock Inner Shetf
Possible inner shelf types resulting from different characteristics of underlying
Figure 3.
geology (after Pilkey et al. (1993))
8 Chapter 2. Inner Shelf Concepts
significant net offshore transport of sand.” Bruun examined evidence for
the capability of offshore currents to transport sediment beyond the equi-
librium profile closure depth. He chose 18 m as a “reasonable assump-
tion” for this closure depth. He based this on the depth at which there is
no measurable (within the error bars of profile measurement) change in
pre- and post-storm inner shelf profiles.
Hallermeier (1978, 1981a) presented a model to estimate the seaward
limit of sediment transport resulting from erosion (or offshore sediment
transport). He developed a simple predictive equation, based on labora-
tory studies, to estimate the annual depth of the seaward limit. He defined
two limits to an area he called the shoal zone (Figure 1). In the shoal
zone, “surface waves are likely to cause little sand transport; ...waves
have neither strong nor negligible effects on the sand bed” (Hallermeier
1981a). The seaward limit to the shoal zone (d;) is the depth limit to sedi-
ment motion initiation by normal waves. This implies that significant
onshore-offshore sediment transport is restricted to water depths less than
d. The offshore zone is seaward of the shoal zone and is characterized by
insignificant onshore-offshore transport by waves.
The landward limit of the shoal zone (d,) separates the shoal zone and
the littoral zone. The littoral zone is characterized by significant long-
shore and onshore-offshore sediment transport due to increased bed stress
and sediment transport by breaking and near-breaking waves. According
to Hallermeier (1977), d, can be described by a critical value of a sedi-
ment entrainment parameter (®.) in the form of a Froude number:
of U, /y¥’ gd = 0.03 (3)
This critical value assumes that an intensely agitated bed usually exists
seaward of the surf zone. Hallermeier (1977) suggested an analytical
approximation, using linear wave theory for shoaling waves, to predict an
annual value of d,:
2 2
d, = 2.28H, — 68.5(H,/gT.)
where
d, = annual depth of closure below mean low water
Lo
|
H, = nearshore nonbreaking wave height exceeding 12 hr/yr
%
T, = corresponding wave period
g = acceleration due to gravity
According to the above equation, d, is primarily dependent on wave
height with an adjustment for wave steepness.
Chapter 2 Inner Shelf Concepts
10
Depth d, is considered the depth of closure and is used in estimating
offshore closure limits for use in beach fill design. Hallermeier (1977)
defined depth of closure as the minimum water depth at which no measur-
able or significant change in bottom depth occurs based on profile surveys.
To emphasize the importance of differences in wave and sand charac-
teristics and wave variability on open sea coasts, Hallermeier (1978,
1981b) computed the depths d, and d for 30 sites on the Pacific, Atlantic,
and Gulf of Mexico coasts using the wave climate study of Thompson
(1977) and data from the Littoral Environmental Observation (LEO) Pro-
gram. For the Gulf of Mexico coast (seven sites), the d, and d values
were -4.2 m and -9.9 m, respectively. For the Atlantic coast (11 sites), d,
and d were -5S.7 and -22.1 m, respectively. D, and d values at the Pacific
coast (12 sites) were -6.9 and -42.9 m, respectively. Differences in d, and
d values stated above are a result of differences in significant wave
height, wave period, and mean sediment grain diameter.
Boyd (1981) documented that the maximum depth of the initiation of
sediment movement (similar to Hallermeier’s (1981a) d) at the New South
Wales, Australian continental shelf fluctuates with wave conditions (Fig-
ure 4). For instance, for wave height of 0.5 m and periods of 7 sec, this
depth is -10 m; for wave height of 2 m and periods of 12 sec, this depth is
-60 m.
Kraus and Harikai (1983) defined depth of closure as the minimum
depth at which the standard deviation in depth change decreases markedly
to a near constant value.
Birkemeier (1985) compared data from two profiles located in Duck,
North Carolina, between August 1980 and December 1982 to Haller-
meier’s equation by measuring wave conditions that existed between pro-
file surveys that exhibited offshore sand movement (Figure 5).
Birkemeier (1985) found good agreement with the form of Equation 4, but
recomputed the coefficient to better fit the data. He also found reasonable
agreement using only H, in Equation 5:
d — Neal. (5)
where
d,= nearshore limit, or closeout depth relative to mean low water
H,= peak nearshore storm wave height, which is exceeded only
12 hr/year
He stated that this equation is probably site-specific.
Kraus (1992) conceptualized that the beach profile responds to wave
action between two limits, one limit on the landward side where the wave
runup ends and the other limit in deeper water where the waves can no
Chapter 2 Inner Shelf Concepts
KY
5250
Sd) os
CX)
XO
Moximum depth
for onset of x
sheet flow ii Moximum depth
p A for initiation :
of sediment motion
RF x
S
O
Transition zone
between symmetric ff] 4 Depth(m)
and asymmetric f
bedforms
S25 252
naw Q
Zone of sheet flow—f
one of mmmetric Zone of Symmetric
zon Bester bedforms
SR
Z
ASSES,
SS
ISIS
I. OOD)
Apo)
LA
7
Sao?
+» 8,
OKS?
RLLY
Figure 4. Fluctuations of inner shelf bed form zones and initiation of sediment motion with
respect to significant wave Height (H) and period (T) (after Boyd (1981))
longer produce a measurable change in depth. He calls this latter limit,
the minimum water depth at which no change occurs (as measured by engi-
neering means) the depth of closure. The depth of closure is not the loca-
tion where sediment ceases to move, but that location of minimum depth
where profile surveys before and after a period of wave action, a storm
perhaps, lie on top of one another.
Kraus (1992) also stated that the depth of closure is time-dependent,
that is, dependent upon the transporting capacity of the particular incident
waves. For example, we expect the average depth of closure for the sum-
mer to be less than that in winter. Similarly, the “storm of the decade”
will alter the profile elevation to a much greater depth than occurs during
a typical storm season. In engineering projects, the depth of closure is
best determined through repeated accurate profile surveys, such as per-
formed with a sled.
Chapter 2 Inner Shelf Concepts i
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ji
$
ted
—!
uj
Qo
ST Se)
forfee)
(OTS)
0 OD
MA)
fa)
WO
200 400 600 0 200 400 600
DISTANCE (M)
Figure 5. Survey data from Duck, NC, from August 1981 to December 1982 showing
fluctuation of closure depth as indicated by vertical arrows (after Birkemeier
(1985))
Ue Chapter 2 Inner Shelf Concepts
Pilkey et al. (1993) state that one of the most essential assumptions that
must hold true for the concept of the equilibrium beach profile to be valid
is: “There must exist a closure depth beyond which there is no net off-
shore or onshore transportation of sediment - a depth of no net sediment
movement to and from the inner shelf even during storm-induced down-
welling events.” Pilkey et al. (1993) also defined the depth of closure as
the depth where no vertical changes to the bed take place and where grain
size distribution remains constant. Pilkey et al. (1993) state that the depth
of closure does not exist, as field evidence shows that large volumes of
sand may be moved beyond the closure depth. Such movement occurs
mostly during offshore-directed storm flows. Studies in the Gulf of
Mexico measured offshore bottom currents of up to 200 cm/sec and sedi-
ment transport to the edge of the continental shelf (Hayes 1967a,c; Mor-
ton 1981; Snedden, Nummedal, and Amos 1988). The amount of sediment.
moved offshore was large, but it was spread over such a large area that the
change in seabed elevation could not be detected by standard profiling
methods (Hayes 1967a,c) (+10 cm).
Several studies have found closure depths ranging from -5 m to -30m
for the U.S. Atlantic coast. Birkemeier (1985) stated that the measured
depth of closure at Duck, North Carolina, fluctuates between -3.9 m and
-6.4m. However, the first conspicuous inner shelf configuration change
at Duck occurs at -15 m, where sediments change from well-sorted fine
sand to muddy fine sand with the fines bound in fecal pellets (Wright, in
press). Perhaps this depth is more likely to be the maximum depth of nor-
mally occurring, shore-normal sediment exchange. This compares to Hal-
lermeier’s (1981b) seaward limit of sediment motion initiation (d) of
-22.1 m for the Atlantic coast.
Depth of closure estimates using Hallermeier’s (1977) method and the
hindcast data of Jensen (1983) include Brevard County, Florida (-7.1 m);
Walton County, Florida (-6.4 m); and Virginia Beach, Virginia (-5.5 m)
(Hansen and Lillycrop 1988). Pearson and Riggs (1981) state that the
depth of closure at Wrightsville Beach, North Carolina, was at least -16 m
based on the presence of beach sediments at this depth. Wright (1987), in
inner shelf studies including the use of bed elevation changes and sedi-
ment and profile data, shows that the depth of closure was located
between depths of -10 and -30 m depending on regional energy regimes.
An additional estimate of depth of closure for the U.S. Atlantic coast is
-9 m as presently used in engineering project design. This is the esti-
mated depth where waves first affect the bottom as they move onshore,
and there is no measurable (within the error bars of the profiling method)
change in pre- and post-storm inner shelf profiles. In addition, sand
ridges and irregular topography are typically located onshore of this clo-
sure depth while a uniform sloping shelf is located seaward.
Where Equation 4 predicts closure during the annual extreme 12-hr
event, there exists a deficit of knowledge in predicting the depth of clo-
sure as a function of time. In order to develop a predictive method to
Chapter 2 Inner Shelf Concepts
13
14
determine the time-dependent cross-shore transport of beach nourishment
material, Stive et al. (1992) extend the annual shoreward boundary d,
(Hallermeier 1981b), by replacing the significant wave height exceeded
12 hr/yr (H, in Hallermeier’s 1977 equation) with the significant wave
height exceeded 12 hr/return period (y) (H, |). Stive et al. (1992) consid-
ered an ideal model profile upon which a hypothetical beach nourishment
was placed and subjected to the nearshore wave climate synthesis (func-
tion of H ai) of Thompson and Harris (1972). They determined that d, var-
ied greatly during different wave conditions and return periods (Table 1).
In addition, by assuming that beach nourishment volume decreases as a
thinning wedge in the offshore direction, the spreading evolution and
beach nourishment foot (depth of which beach nourishment migrates) may
be approximated by applying the extension of the Hallermeier (1977)
equation.
Table 1
Variation in Depths of Dj and Nourishment Foot for Different Wave
Conditions and Storm Return Periods (from Stive et al. (1992))
Wave Seepnees (rt > (Halermeter 198 1b)
(H/L,)
Stauble et al. (1993) analyzed 3.5 years of profile data from Ocean
City, Maryland, considering both storm and normal wave conditions.
Twelve profile lines extended over 5.6 km of beach, and each consisted of
seven Or more surveys to the -9-m depth contour. Stauble et al. (1993)
found that the depth of closure ranged between -5.5 m and -7.6 m, averag-
ing -6 m. In addition, the profile at the northern end of the survey extent
(103rd Street) was found to be steeper and without bars, while that of the
southern end (37th Street) was shallow with bars. However, they suggest
that more studies are required to relate the depth of closure to bar
evolution.
Chapter 2. Inner Shelf Concepts
Inner Shelf Geologic Framework Importance
Coastlines characterized by limited sand supplies, such as much of the
U.S. Atlantic margin, are significantly influenced by the geologic frame-
work occurring underneath and in front of the inner shelf (Figure 3). Pas-
sive margin coastlines, in particular, are significantly influenced by the
geologic framework occurring underneath and in front of the inner shelf.
This underlying geological framework can act as a subaqueous headland
or hard ground that dictates the shape of the inner shelf profile and con-
trols beach dynamics and the composition of the sediment.
The Atlantic coast of North America is an example of a coast affected
by its geological framework. The advance of glaciers during the Pleisto-
cene Epoch (characterized by continental glaciations at North America
from approximately 2 million years to 10,000 years before present (ybp)
(Evernden et al. 1964, Pratt and Schlee 1969) extended as far south on the
Atlantic coast as northern New Jersey. North of the moraine terminus, gla-
cial moraines composed of till (mixture of clay, silt, sand, gravel and boul-
ders) underlie much of the land, islands (i.e. Long Island, Nantucket, and
Martha’s Vineyard), and offshore banks (i.e. Georges and Nova Scotian
Banks). Coastal erosion of some of these features provides a variety of
materials to the continental shelf. Conversely, south of the glacial mo-
raine (Mid-Atlantic coast south of New Jersey), sediments are dominated
by riverine sediments of piedmont streams that intersect the coastal plain
strata.
Along the North Carolina coast, Pilkey et al. (1993) discuss that there
exist three categories of underlying geologic framework which influence
the inner shelf profile shape:
a. Subaerial headlands, which are composed of semi-indurated to
indurated Pleistocene Epoch or older deposits incised by a wave-cut
platform with a perched sand beach on the platform.
b. Submarine headlands, composed of semi-indurated to indurated
Pleistocene Epoch or older units, which form the platform upon
which the modern barrier island is perched and either crop out on
the eroding inner shelf or occur on the inner shelf as
paleotopographic highs in front of the modern inner shelf.
c. Nonheadland-transgressive inner shelf, commonly composed of
Holocene Epoch (the Epoch from approximately 10,000 ybp to the
present, which follows the continental glaciations of the Pleistocene
Epoch) peat and mud deposits that extend from the modern
estuaries, under the modern barrier islands, to crop out in the surf
zone and inner shelf.
Chapter 2 Inner Shelf Concepts
15
16
The Pleistocene section of the entire North Carolina coastal system rep-
resents a complex record of multiple cycles of coastal deposition and ero-
sion in response to numerous glacial-eustatic, sea-level cycles (Riggs,
Cleary, and Snyder, in press). During each glacial episode, fluvial chan-
nels severely dissected previously deposited coastal systems. The sub-
sequent sea-level transgression then produced a ravinement surface that
migrated landward and further eroded large portions of previously depos-
ited coastal sediments by inner shelf erosion. This process of older units
supplying sediment to the inner shelf of barrier islands was termed shore-
face, or inner shelf, bypassing by Swift (1976). The fluvial channels were
sequentially backfilled with fluvial, estuarine, and shelf sediments. Pre-
sent day sea level has produced a modern sequence of coastal sediments
that have been deposited unconformably over the eroded remnants of Pleis-
tocene sequences composed of different lithofacies. Niedoroda, Swift,
and Hopkins (1985) stated that this seaward thinning and fining veneer of
modern inner shelf sediments over the older Pleistocene lithofacies is
ephemeral and easily removed from the inner shelf during major storms.
On a smaller scale, the Nags Head/Kitty Hawk and the Rodanthe/
Buxton areas on the Outer Banks of North Carolina, although separated by
only 40 km, have distinctly different geological settings resulting in sig-
nificantly different inner shelf profiles (Pearson 1979) (Figure 6). At the
Nags Head/Kitty Hawk area, the inner shelf profiles contain two major
sediment units including a modern inner shelf sediment wedge, composed
primarily of reworked inner shelf sediments that thin in a seaward direc-
tion. These form a thin blanket over the in situ relict sediments that will
ultimately crop out on the inner shelf. Pearson (1979) stated that this mod-
ern sediment wedge is periodically stripped away during extreme high-
energy periods; thus exposing, possibly eroding, and transporting the
relict units. By this mechanism, relict sediments are eroded and intro-
duced into the modern sediment regime. In addition, the relict sediments
underlying the thin, variable inner shelf sand sheet must also have a major
impact upon the shape of the entire inner shelf profile.
In the Rodanthe/Buxton area, the inner shelf is controlled by Pleisto-
cene hard-bottom topographic features that act as headlands and intersect
the lower beach face at acute angles. These topographic features are be-
lieved to be a result of indurated Pleistocene stratigraphic units which out-
crop in the Rodanthe area (Pilkey et al. 1993). These features include
Wimble and Kinnakeet Shoals, permanent features up to 6 m in relief (Fig-
ure 7).
According to Pilkey et al. (1993), these vastly different inner shelf fea-
tures have the following characteristics:
a. They dramatically affect the cross section of the inner shelf and
beach profile.
b. They create major changes in the orientation of the barrier island
(particularly at Rodanthe).
Chapter 2 Inner Shelf Concepts
Figure 6. Location of the Outer Banks of North Carolina
Chapter 2 Inner Shelf Concepts ly
Rodanthe
Pamlico Sound Hatteras Flats Outer Banks Wimble Shoals
i
{
t
; Modem marsh
Modern borvier
a I Modern barrier Island complex
a WWM L ETT ’ fsland sond
4° ™Borrier beoch sonds with~.* .J". +N
=¥. .-- “weathering profile on surfage. f?.-- - Pleistocene
Pleistocene with weathering profile on surface
{Plerce & Colquhoun, 1970)
e
2
o
£
£
$
e
i=)
Auger hole
kilometers (Pierce & Colquhoun, 1970)
Figure 7. Geologic cross section through the Outer Banks at Rodanthe showing the
Pleistocene units cropping out on the inner shelf forming Wimble Shoals
(after Pilkey et al. (1993))
c. They are not in equilibrium with incoming wave energy, suggesting
that these features erode.
d. They have dramatic impacts upon the energy regime affecting the
adjacent inner shelf through wave refraction and setup.
In addition, the geomorphic nature of an area must also be considered
when determining mechanisms and resulting shelf sediment transport. In
examining patterns of sedimentation on the continental shelf, Swift (1976)
examined the mechanisms by which the nearshore is penetrated (at the in-
ner shelf/oceanic process boundary and at river mouths) and how sedi-
ment is injected into the shelf system. He found that the original mode of
formation of the coast and surrounding areas had a large effect on present
day sedimentation patterns. Swift (1976) differentiated between
allochthonous and autochthonous settings. Allochthonous shelves
(shelves presently composed of sediment formed elsewhere and sub-
sequently deposited on the shelf) are typically floored by fine sands to
muds (due to the introduction of riverine sediment through river-mouth by-
passing) and are usually featureless, as these fine sediments travel in sus-
pension. In addition, there is little bed form formation, as fine sediments
have low angles of repose. Autochthonous shelves, or shelves presently
composed of sediment originally derived from previous erosion of the
shelf in its present location, are covered by coarser- grained sand of local
origin.
18
Chapter 2 Inner Shelf Concepts
3 Evidence of Cross-Shore
Sediment Transport
Introduction
This chapter examines literature concerning evidences of cross-shore
transport of sediment on the inner shelf. Patterns and mechanisms of sedi-
ment transport on the inner shelf, particularly in the cross-shore dimen-
sion, and of beach-shelf sediment interchange are poorly understood
(Wright et al. 1991). Consequently, the generation of predictive theories
which address these mechanisms and effectively recreate their effect on
the cross-shore transport of sediment across the inner shelf is very diffi-
cult. Several authors (Wright 1987, Nummedal and Snedden 1987, Pilkey
et al. 1993) concur that a model directly relating cross-shore sediment
transport to transport mechanisms/processes is needed.
Additional topics discussed in this chapter include surf zone and inner
shelf cross-shore transport of sediment, interchange of sediment between
the beach and the inner shelf, and if this interchange results in the loss of
sediment from the beach/inner shelf system to the outer shelf, storm/fair-
weather sediment transport and storm sedimentation models. The purpose
of the section concerning cross-shore sediment transport is not to provide
a comprehensive review of all the theories of cross-shore sediment trans-
port, but to discuss some of the evidences of this phenomenon and their re-
lation to the theories of cross-shore sediment transport on the inner shelf.
Mechanisms of Inner Shelf Sediment Transport
The research of Wright et al. (1991) showed that bidirectional cross-
shore sediment transport on the inner shelf is an exceedingly complex phe-
nomenon driven primarily by shoaling waves, wind- and tide-generated
currents, wave-current interactions, gravity-induced downslope transport,
mean flows, and geostrophic circulation. However, these mechanisms
have not been prioritized in terms of relative importance.
Chapter 3 Evidence of Cross-Shore Sediment Transport
19
The mechanisms of cross-shore sediment transport are listed below and
are more precisely documented in the literature by numerous authors as
best summarized in part by Boyd (1981), Nummedal and Snedden (1987),
Wright (1987), and Pilkey et al. (1993):
a. Waves and wave-driven currents, including:
(1) Powerful wave-orbital motions (Harms, Southard, and Walker
1982; Walker, Duke and Leckie 1983; Duke 1985; Duke 1987;
Duke 1990) and resulting orbital asymmetry (Gilbert 1889;
Wells 1967; Nielsen 1979; Hallermeier 1981a; Trowbridge and
Madsen 1984; Swift and Niedorada 1985; Dean and Perlin 1986).
(2) Wave-induced upwelling and downwelling currents resulting
from onshore/offshore movement of surface water and return
bottom flows (Morton 1981, Snedden 1985, Wright et al. 1991).
(3) Wave-induced rip currents (Bowen and Inman 1969; Cook and
Gorsline 1972; Reimnitz et al. 1976; Seymour 1983; Field and
Roy 1984; Wright and Short 1984; Cowell 1986; and Wright et
al. 1986).
(4) Sediment diffusion arising from gradients in wave energy
dissipation associated with incoming incident waves (Wright et
al. 1991).
(5) Sediment advection caused by wave orbital asymmetries
associated with incoming incident waves (Wright et al. 1991).
(6) Long-period oscillations, which may be a more important process
for cross-shore sediment transport in higher energy wave
environments (Wright et al. 1991).
(7) Interactions between groupy incident waves (alternating high and
low waves and forced long waves) (Shi and Larsen 1984, Dean
and Perlin 1986, Wright et al. 1991).
(8) Groupy long waves (a forced long wave of infragravity
frequency resulting in alternating high and low waves) (Shi and
Larsen 1984, Dean and Perlin 1986, Wright 1987).
b. Wind- and tide-driven currents including:
(1) Semidiurnal and diurnal tidal currents (May 1979, Wright 1981).
(2) Strong, unidirectional currents from wind forcing (Morton 1981).
20
Chapter 3 Evidence of Cross-Shore Sediment Transport
(3) Wind-induced upwelling and downwelling currents resulting
from onshore/offshore movement of surface water and return
bottom flows (Niedoroda et al. 1982; Morton 1981; Snedden
1985; Wright et al. 1986, 1991).
(4) Tidal currents.
(5) Storm surge ebb currents (Brenchley 1985).
c. Interaction of waves and currents (Butman, Noble, and Folger 1977;
Lavelle et al. 1978; Grant and Madsen 1979a, 1986; Vincent,
Young, and Swift 1982; Nielsen 1983; Shi and Larsen 1984; and
Wright et al. 1991) including:
(1) Subharmonic and infragravity wave orbital interactions with the
bottom sediment and with wave-induced longshore currents
(Wright and Short 1984).
(2) Interactions between oscillatory flow and mean flow (Lundgren
1973; Smith 1977; Bakker and Van Doorn 1978; Grant and
Madsen 1979b, 1986; Kemp and Simmons 1982; Wiberg and
Smith 1983; Christofferson and Jonsson 1985; Coffey and
Nielsen 1987).
d. Gravity-induced downslope transport often of highly concentrated
sediment (Bruun 1962, Hayes 1967a, Dean 1977, Kobayashi 1982,
Pilkey et al. 1993).
e. Forcing mean flows, which dominate and cause offshore transport
during storms and contribute significantly to cross-shore sediment
flux during fair-weather and moderate energy conditions (Wright et
EV IKE )ID).
f. Geostrophic circulation (Ekman spiral) and its superposition on wave
motions (Komar 1976; Swift et al. 1983; Vincent, Young, and Swift
1983; Cacchione et al. 1984; Allen 1982; Neshyba 1987; Nottvedt
and Kreisa 1987; Nummedal and Snedden 1987; Swift and
Nummedal 1987).
g. Small-scale boundary layer processes (Wright 1994).
h. Physical oceanographic processes including oceanic currents
(Csanady 1972; 1976; 1977 a,b; 1982; Csanady and Scott 1974;
Halpern 1976; May 1979; Schwab et al. 1984).
Additional mechanisms contributing to cross-shore sediment transport
include:
a. Storm surge-controlled breakout of coastal lagoons (Hayes 1967a, b,
c), tidal inlets, and submarine canyons.
Chapter 3 Evidence of Cross-Shore Sediment Transport
b. Turbidity currents (Bates 1953; Hayes 1967 a, b, c; Brenchley 1985;
Seymour 1986; Wright et al. 1991).
c. Beach state (e.g. the first winter storm moving much more sediment
than subsequent storms) including beach slope (Bascomb 1951,
King 1972, Komar 1976, Shore Protection Manual 1984).
d. Formation of shell lags and a wide variety of bed forms (ranging
from ripple marks to offshore bar systems)(Pilkey et al. 1993).
e. Organic scum layers (Pilkey et al.1993).
f. Variations in sediment pore pressure (Pilkey et al.1993).
g. Variations in the degree of sediment compaction and consolidation
between storms (Pilkey et al. 1993).
h. Irregular inner shelf shapes (bedrock) which affect wave refraction
patterns (Pilkey et al. 1993).
i. Coastal jets (Csanady 1972, 1977b; Csanady and Scott 1974;
Ludwick 1977).
J. Topographic gyres (Bennet 1974, Csanady 1975).
k. Kelvin waves (Munk, Snodgrass, and Gilbert 1964; Munk, Snodgrass,
and Wimbush 1970; LeBlond and Mysak 1977).
l. Vertical density stratification (Wright 1987).
Surf Zone Cross-Shore Sediment Transport
Much is known about nearshore sediment movement under shoaling
waves (Komar 1976) and the documentation of cyclic patterns of surf-
zone change (Wright et al. 1979, Nummedal and Snedden 1987). It has
been documented that the most important concepts of surf zone dynamics
and sediment transport are:
a. Orbital asymmetry (as expressed by second-and higher-order Stokes
theory and supported by Gilbert (1889), Wells (1967), Hallermeier
(1981a), Swift and Niedoroda (1985)).
b. Radiation stress theory and derived understandings
(Longuet-Higgins and Stewart 1964).
c. Standing long waves and edge waves of infragravity frequency (Guza
and Thornton 1985a).
22
Chapter 3 Evidence of Cross-Shore Sediment Transport
Two useful models include Bailard’s (1981) energetics model, which
estimates sediment flux from measured wave and current data over the
surf zone, and Guza and Thornton’s (1985a, b) model, which is concerned
with surf zone conditions where bed shear stresses and energy dissipation
are strongly dominated by waves. Equations of both models help to deter-
mine if the cross-shore component of the immersed weight sediment trans-
port within the surf zone is onshore or offshore.
A laboratory model developed by Hattori and Kawamata (1980), and its
comparison with field data, is one approach which concerns the cross-
shore transport of sediment in the surf zone. This model is based on the
concept of the balance of power extended on sand grains generated by
breaking waves, the beach slope, and the effect of gravity. Hattori and
Kawamata theorized that cross-shore transport of sediment in the surf
zone is a function of the dimensionless fall-time parameter as described
by:
where:
C = aconstant determined from laboratory and field data
when
C < 0.5 onshore transport results - accretive profile
= 0.5 no net transport results - equilibrium profile
> 0.5 offshore transport results - erosive profile
tan B = bottom slope in the surf zone
W
AY
T= wave period
fall velocity of a sand grain of diameter d.
H, = deepwater significant wave height
L, = deepwater wavelength
Hattori and Kawamata (1980) continue that net cross-shore transport in
the surf zone is a result of the stirring power P, (which is a function of
submerged weight of sand grains, maximum wave-induced velocity, bot-
tom slope in the surf zone, water depth at the breaking position, and width
of the surf zone) and the resisting power P_ (which is a function of fall
velocity of a sand grain and the submerged weight of the sand grain.
When P. > P_, sand grains keep in suspension due to breaking waves, and
Chapter 3 Evidence of Cross-Shore Sediment Transport
23
24
sand grains are transported seaward in the form of a cloud by wave-
induced currents (Sunamura 1980). When P_ > P., sand grains tend to roll
and jump as bed load and move shoreward.
Inner Shelf Cross-Shore Sediment Transport
Introduction
Understanding of surf zone processes can be applied, at least in con-
cept, to processes occurring on the inner shelf. For instance, Wright et al.
(1991) applied surf zone sediment transport equations of Bailard (1981)
and Guza and Thornton (1985 a,b) to predict inner shelf cross-shore sedi-
ment transport. Wright et al. (1991) found poor agreement between these
surf zone and inner shelf sediment transport equations. Wright et al.
(1991) state that these types of equations are needed to better predict
cross-shore sediment transport on the inner shelf.
For wind-driven current patterns, Vincent, Young, and Swift (1983)
divide the inner portion of the coastal ocean into the following three zones
based on controlling sediment transport mechanisms:
a. Geostrophic (offshore; seaward of approximately the -15-m depth).
b. Transition.
c. Friction-dominated (seaward of the surf zone to approximately -10-m
depth).
Landward of the 10-m contour in the fricfion-dominated zone, sediment
transport rates are on the order of 1 x 10 g/cm/sec and are primarily a
function of asymmetric wave orbitals while seaward of the 10-m contour
in the geostrophic zone, sediment transport rates are approximately | x
10° g/cm/sec (Vincent, Young, and Swift 1983).
Geostrophic zone
Geostrophic circulation of ocean waters and sediment transport in this
zone are controlled by the following factors:
a. Cross-shore mean bottom currents resulting from wind shear and
tide-related currents.
b. Currents generated by the Coriolis force.
c. Upwelling/downwelling conditions.
Chapter 3 Evidence of Cross-Shore Sediment Transport
The Coriolis force is defined as an apparent force resulting in the path
deflection of an object due to the earth’s rotation (Neshyba 1987). In the
Northern Hemisphere, an object or water body undergoing movement on
the earth’s surface will be deflected to the right (clockwise) of the move-
ment. The Ekman transport or drift, a function of the Coriolis force,
states that as winds exert friction drag over an ocean of uniform density, a
thin layer of surface water moves at an angle from the original wind (to
the right in the Northern Hemisphere). This rotation continues as subsur-
face parcels of water are also rotated by the Ekman transport in that same
direction. Therefore, there is a depth at which the water moves opposite to
that of the surface wind (Neshyba 1987). Nummedal and Snedden (1987)
have documented the Ekman transport in a three-layer inner shelf flow
model, which shows that if surface currents are obliquely onshore, cur-
rents at mid-depths in the water column will be alongshore. Bottom cur-
rents will be oriented obliquely offshore.
Upwelling and downwelling currents are also geostrophically control-
led currents that form due to orientation of the wind direction near a
coast. For instance, upwelling conditions occur when offshore-directed
winds transport surface waters in an offshore direction. Surface waters
are then replaced by subsurface water and sediment, which moves on-
shore. Downwelling conditions, conversely, occur as onshore-directed
winds transport the surface water onshore. Surface waters are then re-
flected by the beach, thus creating offshore-directed return flow of subsur-
face water parcels and sediment transport.
On the west coast of the United States, winds from the south will tend
to deflect surface waters in a clockwise direction, or onshore, thus result-
ing in downwelling of deeper water parcels. Winds from the north will be
deflected offshore, thus resulting in upwelling of deeper water parcels.
On the east coast of the United States, upwelling tends to occur when
winds are from the southwest, south, or northwest, while downwelling
tends to occur when winds are from the northeast (Swift 1976).
Wright et al. (1986) conclude that northeaster storms create strong,
southerly jet-like flows along the mid-Atlantic Bight. These flows affect
the floor out to depths as far as -8 m, which results in downwelling and
offshore sediment transport.
Friction-dominated zone
In the friction-dominated zone, a multitude of mechanisms affect inner
shelf cross-shore sediment transport (see previous list of mechanisms of
inner shelf cross-shore sediment transport). Overall, Wright et al. (1991)
found that incoming incident waves were of primary importance in bed
agitation (shear stress) and suspension of sediment on the inner shelf,
while near-bottom tide- and wind-induced mean flows were of primary im-
portance in the cross-shelf transport of sediment on the inner shelf.
Wright et al. (1991) state that this mean-flow-generated cross-shore
Chapter 3 Evidence of Cross-Shore Sediment Transport
25
transport of sediment was dominant or equal to that generated by incident
waves in all cases and at all times.
Pilkey and Field (1972) and Wright et al. (1991) distinguish between
the primary causes of onshore and offshore cross-shelf sediment transport.
Pilkey and Field (1972) summarize the mechanisms of onshore transport
of sediment on the inner shelf, which include wave and tidal current phe-
nomena such as:
a. Onshore component of asymmetrical wave orbitals under shoaling
conditions.
b. Onshore-oriented dominating tidal flood currents in shallow water.
c. Both the onshore and offshore components associated with
storm-induced bottom currents.
In addition, Wright et al. (1991) state that incident waves are an important
mechanism of the onshore transport of sediment.
Sediment transport mechanisms documented to cause onshore and off-
shore cross-shore sediment transport include the following:
a. Orbital asymmetry.
b. Interaction of incident waves with infragravity waves and mean
offshore flows.
c. Wave groupiness.
d. Slope of the shelf and effects of gravity.
e. Rip currents (Wright et al. 1991).
Discussion of these mechanisms of inner shelf offshore and onshore cross-
shore transport follow.
Orbital asymmetry. Findings by Cook and Gorsline (1972) during
studies at Palos Verde, California, as supported by May (1979) and Wright
et al. (1991) indicate that orbital asymmetry-created currents during wave
shoaling transport sediment in both the onshore and offshore directions.
These findings include the following:
a. Both onshore and offshore asymmetry of currents were documented
during wave shoaling. Long-period swells and offshore breezes
cause a net onshore transport of sediment, while short-period waves
and onshore winds are associated with neutral or offshore flow.
26
Chapter 3 Evidence of Cross-Shore Sediment Transport
b. Swell characteristics also affect water drift, in that long-period waves
have onshore pulses which prevail temporarily, and thus cause net
onshore transport of sediment.
c. Tidal surge asymmetry includes components of both onshore and
offshore sediment transport across the inner shelf.
d. Tidal flux does not have a significant effect on surge asymmetry.
However, May (1979) found that 35 percent of the kinetic energy of
currents above the 30-m isobath in the Northern Middle Atlantic
Bight was at a tidal frequency, thus indicating the importance of
tidal currents in affecting sediment transport on the shelf. In
macrotidal environments tidal currents probably dominate the inner
shelf transport (Wright 1981).
e. Wind affects the ratio for durations of current flow and bottom drift,
thus resulting in upwelling and downwelling flow.
Cook and Gorsline (1972) and Trowbridge and Madsen (1984) discuss
the importance of sediment transport under asymmetric waves and related
orbital asymmetry in generating both onshore and offshore components of
cross-shore sediment transport. Also, time and space variations in bed
roughness when considering orbital asymmetry can affect both magnitude
and direction of sediment transport. Oscillatory currents over rippled
beds can cause a significant phase angle between instantaneous suspended
sediment concentration and instantaneous velocity, resulting in sediment
flux in a direction opposite to the net current or wave-induced mass trans-
port (e.g. Nielsen (1979)).
Larsen (1982) also found that the net offshore transport of sediment on
the inner shelf is a function of the net offshore orbital asymmetry of
waves. Currents forced by the radiation stress of variable amplitude swell
(the higher waves suspending the sediments) are an important mechanism
in suspending sediments resulting in the cross-shore transport of sediment
on mid-continental shelves.
Smith and Hopkins (1972) found that orbital asymmetry-created cur-
rents during wave shoaling are the dominant control of net onshore trans-
port of sediment, primarily of coarse material, on the inner shelf.
Wave-current interaction. Grant and Madsen (1979a, 1986) theoreti-
cally discussed combined wave-current bottom fluid shear stress and
stated that the actual transport across the inner shelf is, in most cases, the
result of wave-current interaction. Effects of wave-current interaction on
the boundary layer include the following:
a. Increases in rate of frictional dissipation of waves.
b. Reduction in mean current speed near the bed.
Chapter 3 Evidence of Cross-Shore Sediment Transport
27
28
c. Increases in bottom shear stress due to a combination of components.
The importance of wave-current interaction in determining the magni-
tude and direction of sediment transport is also considered by Vincent,
Young, and Swift (1983). They found that when wave orbital velocities
and slowly varying bottom boundary layer velocities are combined,
stronger onshore combined flow results. Moreover, depending on bed
roughness and the horizontal angle between wave incidence and the mean
current, the vector resultant of the sediment flux may be opposite that of
the mean current.
Wave groupiness. Wave groupiness is also an important factor of net
offshore transport of sediment across the inner shelf. Wave groupiness
causes space and time variations in wave amplitude and in radiation stress
(S_,). Thus, momentum balance requires that slowly time-varying mean
water level (n,) be depressed and elevated under high and low waves, re-
spectively (where S__ is greater and less, respectively). Variances inf
cause a long-period infragravity wave. This infragravity wave has peaks
at low primary waves which result in onshore sediment transport (i.e.
shoreward values of f (or the cross-shore long wave flow constituent)) and
troughs at high primary waves, which result in offshore sediment transport
(i.e. seaward values of f). Since the large primary waves in the trough of
the long wave suspend more sand (offshore-directed) than the small pri-
mary waves of the long wave crest, there is a net seaward transport
(Wright et al. 1991).
Gravity-induced currents. Gravity-induced inner shelf offshore-
directed sediment transport (as stated by early references considering the
equilibrium profile concept (e.g. Cornaglia 1889, Ippen and Eagleson
1955, Bruun 1962, Inman and Bagnold 1963) occurs due to the slope of
the inner shelf being oriented in an offshore direction. This gravity-
induced offshore transport of sediment is accentuated where fine-grained
sediments are present, since these types of sediment can be easily sus-
pended, especially during storm events.
Seymour (1986), in studying different models of turbidity currents and
their relation to inner shelf transport, confirms that these currents trans-
port nearshore sand in an offshore direction during storms.
Wright et al. (1991) noted that gravity plays a significant role during
high-energy events when bed shear stress and suspended sediment concen-
tration were greatest. If a density current develops, and the sediment is
suspended at a greater rate than it is deposited, an autosuspending
offshore-directed turbidity current can form. Kobayashi (1982), who de-
veloped a model for net downslope sediment transport by oscillatory
flows acting on a gentle slope, found that gravity-induced offshore-
directed transport of sediment is significant.
Chapter 3 Evidence of Cross-Shore Sediment Transport
Rip currents. Rip currents are also important in transporting sediment
in an offshore direction (Field and Roy 1984). Bowen and Inman (1969)
and Cook and Gorsline (1972) report that during the winter season, cross-
shore movement of sediment by rip currents is in an offshore direction.
Once transported offshore, sediment is confined by predominant seaward
oscillations caused by steep waves and strong winds. During summer,
long-period swells transport sediment landward to replenish the beach.
Cook and Gorsline (1972) also present a sediment transport system
whereby sediment is transported offshore outside of the breaker zone by
rip currents and general diffusion, and then onshore by wave action,
which separates silt and clay from sand. Sand is then moved alongshore
to depths dependent upon wave characteristics. Silt and clay are separated
in the sorting process and move out of the coastal drift system in
suspension.
Reimnitz et al. (1976) used side-scan sonar to show seaward-trending
ripples out to depths of 30 m that are attributed to storm rip currents.
Cowell (1986) measured rip currents off headland-bounded beaches dur-
ing storms and measured velocities of greater than 1 m/sec extended to
hundreds of meters past the surf zone. However, Field and Roy (1984) be-
lieve that rip currents probably do not transport sand to a depth greater
than 45 m.
Seymour (1983), in experiments at Santa Barbara, Torrey Pines, and
Virginia Beach (as part of the Nearshore Sediment Transport Study), also
documented rip currents as a mechanism of offshore sediment transport.
During periods of intense storm waves, Seymour (1983) documented the
formation of offshore bars, particularly at Santa Barbara. The formation
of these bars is attributed to excessive longshore sediment transport and
rip current outlets during these storms.
Hyperpycnal plumes. Hyperpycnal plumes, or sediment/water flows
of dense concentration that plunge under flows of less dense concentration
associated with gravity flows (Bates 1953), may also result in seaward
transport where fine-grained sediments are present (no autosuspension is
needed). In studies by Wright et al. (1991), where bed slope was 0.6 deg,
suspended sediment concentrations were as high as 10 g/l, and underflows
were as thick as 2 m with downslope speeds of 10-40 cm/sec, Wright et al.
(1991) attributed this offshore-directed sediment flow to a rise of 0.6 m in
mean water level (during this particular storm) and a resultant strong
seaward-directed downwelling flow.
Bar formation/migration. Osborne and Greenwood (submitted, 1992)
determined that cross-shore sediment transport at a non-barred inner shelf
in Nova Scotia and a barred inner shelf at Georgian Bay are similar and a
function of the following parameters:
a. Local wind-forced low-frequency waves.
Chapter 3 Evidence of Cross-Shore Sediment Transport
29
30
b. Mean current flows (in the Nova Scotia non-barred example, these
flows were offshore-directed undertows).
Additional causes of non-barred inner shelf sediment transport include
swell, while additional causes of barred inner shelf sediment transport in-
clude high-frequency wind wave oscillatory currents.
Osborne and Greenwood (1992) also differentiate between sediment
transport at different locations on the bar. On the lakeward slope of the
bar, a net offshore sediment transport component of mean currents results
from the offshore flow of undertow and group-forced bound long waves,
and the landward flow mechanism of wind wave oscillatory currents. This
is in contrast to studies on Padre Island, Texas, by Hill and Hunter (1976)
who show that net onshore bottom currents are dominant on the seaward
side of the bars and the bar crests under normal breaking wave conditions
of 0.3 to 1.0 m. On the bar crest, Osborne and Greenwood (1992) state
that there was no net transport of sediment due to a balance between off-
shore mean transport (undertow) and onshore net oscillatory transport (in-
teraction between both high- and low-frequency waves). Landward of the
bar crest and in the trough, although the wind waves decrease due to dissi-
pation of wave energy, suspended sediment transport by low-frequency
waves is most important, thus transporting sediment in a predominantly
onshore direction (Osborne and Greenwood 1992).
Sediment trends
Wright (in press), in a study at the Field Research Facility at Duck,
North Carolina, documented that the grain size of the inner shelf over the
upper 18 m exhibits a slight tendency to fine seaward (Figure 8). Fine to
very fine sand (D5, = 0.09-0.13 mm) prevails, while silts and clays com-
prise 10-15 percent of the surficial sediment. This seaward-fining se-
quence is a result of decreases in energy in an offshore direction.
Different magnitudes and properties of offshore versus onshore flow
across the inner shelf have resulted in the differential transport of fine ver-
sus coarse sediments. Smith and Hopkins (1972) state that during storm
events fine material is transported offshore, while coarse material is trans-
ported onshore. They documented that fine sand moves as suspended load
from the nearshore and is transported offshore during severe storms. Dur-
ing non-storm periods, both fine and coarse sand move onshore by wave-
driven bottom currents, which have a net onshore component.
Basically, coarse material moves onshore due to the greater energy ex-
erted by the onshore-directed wave orbitals which are shorter, and exert
great velocities on the bed. Fine material moves offshore as suspended
load by the offshore-oriented orbitals, which are longer and of less energy.
Thus, the coarse material is moved onshore while the fine material moves
offshore (Wright et al. 1991).
Chapter 3 Evidence of Cross-Shore Sediment Transport
Very fine
sond with
20% silt
and clay Alternating coarse
and fine sediment
some gravel
4 6
Distance Seaward (km)
Figure 8. Cross-shelf profile of the inner shelf off Duck, North Carolina (after Wright
et al. (in press))
Smith and Hopkins (1972) determined in their study of Columbia River
sediments that an average particle on the shelf moves about 40 km/year in
a longshore direction and 7 km/year in an offshore direction. The major-
ity of this transport occurs only during a few storms each winter. Esti-
mates of sediment transport indicate that the sand fraction moves much
more slowly as bed load than the silt fraction as suspended load.
Seasonal effects on inner shelf cross-shore sediment transport
Seasonal cross-shore transport of sediment along the southern Califor-
nia coast has been documented by Shepard (1950), Shepard and Inman
(1950), Inman (1953), Inman and Rusnak (1956), and Aubrey (1979). Dur-
ing summer, the subaerial beach accretes, while the offshore loses sedi-
ment. In winter, the subaerial beach erodes, while the offshore accretes.
These changes are a result of variation in wave frequency and directional
properties (e.g. Pawka et al. (1976)). Small-amplitude, long-period waves
dominate in summer, while higher-energy, high-frequency storm waves
dominate in winter.
Aubrey (1979) examines temporal changes in beach/inner shelf profile
configuration using eigenfunction analysis of profile data for southern
California profiles for a 5-year period. Two seasonal pivotal points sepa-
rating eroding and accreting regions are documented at -2 m to -3 m, and
at -6 m. A simple model of depth-dependent seasonal sand movement
31
Chapter 3 Evidence of Cross-Shore Sediment Transport
32
shows that during initial winter storms, sand is eroded from both the fore-
shore and from depths of -6 m to -10 m and is deposited at the -2-m to
-6-m water depth. During less energetic periods, sediment migrates both
onshore (to the beachface) as well as offshore (to a depth of -10 m) from
its winter site of deposition (-2 m to -6 m). This depth-dependent motion
contradicts the single pivotal-point model previously suggested for near-
shore seasonal cross-shore sediment motion and emphasizes the complex-
ity of nearshore sediment transport. A sediment budget for seasonal
cross-shore transport, based on the dual pivotal point model, consists of
exchanges of 85 m?/m at the -3-m pivotal point, and 15 m?/m at the -6-m
pivotal point. On a longer (5-year) time scale, beaches showed no erosion
or accretion, suggesting that the limited coastal region is stable over this
time period.
Beach-inner Shelf Sediment Exchange/Losses
Now that evidence has been presented concerning the onshore and off-
shore components of cross-shore sediment transport, the actual exchange
of sediment between the inner shelf and the beach is considered. Boyd
(1981) emphasized that cross-shore sediment exchange represents a major
contribution to the inner shelf sediment budget.
Studies by Pearson and Riggs (1981) extensively documented the ex-
change of sediment between the beach and the inner shelf at Wrightsville
Beach, North Carolina. It is this study which has accentuated the impor-
tance of the permanent loss of sediment from the beach-inner shelf sys-
tem. Two findings associated with this study are important. First,
Pearson and Riggs (1981) observed the offshore transport of replenish-
ment sand from Wrightsville Beach to a depth of -16.6 m. This is based
on the presence of beach nourishment sand (fine to coarse-grained gray to
black sand with oyster shells) which is easily distinguishable from North
Carolina continental shelf sands, which are brown in color. This suggests
that the depth of closure at Wrightsville Beach is at least -16.6 m.
Secondly, Pearson and Riggs (1981) state that periodic renourishment
totalling 7,300,000 cu m of material placed since 1939 (which would
cover a 23.3-km? area with a 14.6-cm layer of sediment) is being effec-
tively and permanently removed from the nearshore system. This renour-
ishment sand requirement has not decreased over time, indicating that the
profile is not establishing an equilibrium profile. Pilkey et al. (1993) con-
tend that if the concept of the equilibrium profile were valid, then the vol-
ume of sand needed to nourish the profile should decrease over the years
as it accumulates above closure depth on the inner shelf.
In studies of Hurricanes Carla and Allen, and tropical storm Delia on
the Texas shelf, Nummedal and Snedden (1987) document the cross-shore
exchange of sediment as a great loss of sediment from the beach-inner
shelf. They found that sand is moved offshore during storms due to
Chapter 3 Evidence of Cross-Shore Sediment Transport
downwelling (three-layer flow) but is not returned onshore. Niedoroda,
Swift, and Hopkins (1985) also supported the loss of sediment from the
beach-inner shelf system only during storms. However, they state that
some of the sand transferred from beach to inner shelf during storms will
return.
Luternauer and Pilkey (1967) employ the use of minerals (i.e. phos-
phorite) at the North Carolina coast at Onslow Bay to document the inter-
change of sediment between the beach and the inner shelf. They found
that the shelf is an important source of beach sediments. This suggests
that the shelf is a major contributor of phosphorite to landward beaches.
Another interesting finding of this study was that a small amount of long-
shore transport occurs on the shelf as phosphorite content is limited to
Onslow Bay and does not spill over to other embayments. This indicates
that phosphorite is a useful tool for determining sediment provenance and
transportation.
Thus, several studies support the interchange of sediment between the
beach and the inner shelf. However, there are examples in the literature
where no sediment interchange occurs. For instance, Meisburger (1989)
investigated the interchange of sediment between the beach and Gilbert
Shoal, a nearshore linear shoal off Florida. He determined that the major
sediment source to the beach is from littoral processes, while a lesser
amount of sediment comes from the shoal. However, the shoal and sur-
rounding seafloor receive little, if any, sediment from the beach or nearby
St. Lucie Inlet. The shoal obtains sediment from the nearby shelf floor
and from in situ shell production.
Depth of inner shelf sediment transport
When considering sediment interchange between the shelf and the
beach, the next logical question is to what depth is sediment transported
and/or affected on the continental shelf. This topic was previously consid-
ered in the “Depth of Closure” section of Chapter 2 as discussed by
Draper (1967); Harlett (1972); Komar, Neudeck, and Kulm (1972); Smith
and Hopkins (1972); Sternberg and Larsen (1976); Channon and Hamilton
(1976); Sternberg and McManus (1972); Gadd, LaVelle, and Swift (1978);
Vincent, Swift, and Hillard (1981); Larsen et al. (1981); and Wright et al.
(1986). In addition, Grant and Madsen (1979a,b, 1986), Madsen and
Grant (1976), Larsen et al. (1981), and Niedoroda et al. (1982) compute
bed load transport at depths. Evidence of sediment transport at consider-
able depths (greater than -40 m) follows.
Direct current measurements on the central and outer continental shelf
of Washington and Oregon by Smith and Hopkins (1972) at the -50-m and
-80-m water depths showed that significant sediment transport in an off-
shore direction, most importantly by suspended load, occurs only during
storms. A storm with current speeds of up to 60 cm/sec transports on the
order of 6 m?/hr/m of sediment of shelf length, while a 70-cm/sec storm
Chapter 3 Evidence of Cross-Shore Sediment Transport
33
transports 15m?/hr/m of sediment of shelf length. Net transport of sedi-
ment is offshore. These data suggest that a single severe storm may be
more effective in transporting sediment than several small storms.
Komar, Neudeck, and Kulm (1972) discuss the production of orbitals
by surface waves, which in turn create ripples, and rework shelf sedi-
ments. Table 2 shows relationships between depth of rippling and a vari-
ety of surface wave conditions (after Komar, Neudeck and Kulm (1972)).
Table 2
Relationships Between Depth of Rippling and a Variety of Surface
Wave Conditions (after Komar, Neudeck, and Kulm (1972))
Significant
Wave Period | Wave Height | Depth of
(sec) a Rippling (m)
85
2.13
Ripple
Orbital Wavelength
Diameter (cm)| (cm)
Surface Wave
Conditions
Average Summer
Waves
12.6
Storm Waves
Average Winter 3.05 99
Waves |
Large Storm 9.14 138
Conditions |
Long-Period 9.14 204
Symmetrical (wave-generated) oscillatory shore-parallel ripple marks
(see section in Chapter 4 titled “Examples of Inner Shelf Sedimentary Fea-
tures” for additional information on ripple symmetry) exist on the Oregon
continental shelf out to water depths of -204 m, while asymmetrical rip-
ples are rare. Symmetrical ripples are covered by bottom orbital veloci-
ties (as calculated by the Airy wave theory) as well as unidirectional
currents while asymmetrical ripples are believed to be produced by inter-
nal waves (15- to 30-min period), as they are more similar to unidirec-
tional currents. It is believed that upwelling currents could not have
formed ripples (Komar, Neudeck, and Kulm 1972).
Larsen et al. (1981) determined that at the -100-m depth on the Wash-
ington shelf, for sediment sizes 0.03-0.07 mm, a bottom oscillating cur-
rent of 13 cm/sec is needed to suspend sediments. These types of currents
and waves are common during winter storms in Washington, where
100-cm/sec velocities associated with 15-sec waves have been measured.
Draper (1967) calculated that fine sand on the shelf edge of Britain would
be moved at a depth of 183 m 20 percent of the year. Sternberg and
Larsen (1976) found that relatively frequent grain motion occurs at the
-75-m depth on the Washington shelf.
In addition, computations of bed-load transport by Madsen and Grant
(1976) have shown that for conditions with 1.5-m, 13-sec waves, bed load
was entrained to a depth of -16 m.
Chapter 3 Evidence of Cross-Shore Sediment Transport
Storm/Fair-Weather Sediment Transport
Several researchers (Hayes 1967a,c; Murray 1970; Morton 1981; Green
at al. 1988; Wright et al. 1991) have documented the differences in cross-
shore inner shelf mechanisms and resulting sediment transport during fair-
weather and storm conditions (refer to “Significant (Storm) Event
References” in Appendix B for additional references concerning this
topic).
Green at al. (1988) and Wright et al. (1991) in Mid-Atlantic Bight ex-
periments measured suspended sediment movement, wave heights, and
mean current flows between the -7-m and -17-m depth contours at Duck,
NC, in 1985 and 1987 and at Sandbridge,VA, in 1988. The purpose of
this work was to identify modes, directions, rates, and causes of shore-
normal sediment flux over the inner shelf in response to different energy
conditions (Table 3). Field measurements were compared to energetics
mathematical models of sand transport (Bowen 1980; Bailard 1981; Guza
and Thornton 1985 a,b; Roelvink and Stive 1989) who compared the con-
tributions of mean and oscillatory flows, and separated cross-shore compo-
nents of immersed weight sediment transport into bed load and suspended
load.
Table 3
Summary of Environmental Conditions at Duck, North Carolina, for
Different Events (after Wright et al. (1991))
Parameter
Post-Hurricane
Fair Weather
August, 1991
Summer
Fair Weather
July, 1987
Winter
Swell-Dominated
January, 1988
Extra-Tropical
Storm
-_——
Bed roughness
Depth of
instrumentation
Current speed
Wave height
Wave period
Wave/current
angle
Large ripples,
biogenic activity
Ripples on
mounds and holes
Small ripples,
irregular
October, 1991
Highly mobile
plane bed
9.0-16.5 cm/sec 10.6-13.0 cm/sec
7m im
2.0-49.5 cm/sec
4.0-13.6 cm/sec
0.29-0.40 m 0.9-1.4m 1.0->4.0m
7.0 sec 9.7-12.9 sec 9.0-14.0 sec
45°-75° 26°-34° 29°-66° 36°-85°
Fair-weather sediment transport
In documenting fair-weather processes, Green et al. (1988) and Wright
et al. (1991) examined data collected at the -8-m and -17-m depths during
two data collection periods at Duck (1985 and 1987). Green et al. (1988)
and Wright et al. (1991) found that although tides and oscillatory wave
motion strongly influence both onshore and offshore sediment transport
Chapter 3 Evidence of Cross-Shore Sediment Transport
35
36
processes, mean cross-shore flows were of greatest importance. There ex-
isted no relation between bed stress by instantaneous cross-shore velocity
and suspended sediment concentration. The mean cross-shore flow re-
versed with the tide. During high tide, weak offshore flows occurred,
while during low tides stronger onshore flows resulted. Bed load and sus-
pended load quantities were nearly equivalent.
In fair-weather conditions, Wright et al. (1991) found that cross-shore
flows differed according to depth. Overall, flows at the -8-m depth tended
to be more energetic and had greater sediment transport rates by an order
of magnitude. At a depth of -8 m, suspended sediment transport, which
was dominated by mean cross-shore flows, was predominantly offshore.
However, these flows reversed direction more often than those at a depth
of -17 m. Conversely, at a depth of -17 m, a slight landward flow from
mean flow and oscillatory currents resulted.
Larsen (1982) stated that offshore sediment transport on the shelf is a
slow but steady seaward motion of resuspended sediments. This contra-
dicted the conclusions of other researchers (e.g. Wright et al. 1991) who
stated that offshore sediment transport on the shelf occurred during a few
events with a strong offshore component. The time required to establish
steady flow conditions is approximately a tidal cycle offshore, but de-
creases to several hours at shallower depth at the inner shelf due to
friction.
Moderate energy sediment transport
Moderate energy processes, and related sediment transport, as studied
at Sandbridge, VA, in 1988, were dominated primarily by mean flows, inci-
dent wave orbitals, and tidal currents (Wright et al. 1991). The dominant
flow was oriented onshore (which may be a function of tidal currents and
upwelling from west winds during the study period). As in fair-weather
processes, there was little relationship between suspended sediment trans-
port and bed stress during moderate energy conditions. Suspended sedi-
ment concentration, which at times equaled 1.5 kg/m?, varied considerably
over the period. Tidal variation also occurred, as it did during fair-
weather processes. However, in deference to fair-weather process peri-
ods, weak onshore currents occurred during higher tides.
Swell-dominated processes
Swell-dominated processes, as measured at Duck, North Carolina, in
1988 (during wave conditions of H, of 0.85-1.4 m and periods of
10-14 sec), resulted in overall onshore flow (Wright et al. 1991). How-
ever, many flow reversals occurred due to constant weak offshore-directed
cross-shore mean flows, which opposed high-frequency landward-directed
wave-induced oscillatory flows. These wave orbital velocities (maximum
of 0.5 m/sec) were the main source of bed shear stress.
Chapter 3 Evidence of Cross-Shore Sediment Transport
Overall, during swell-dominated conditions, the bed was strongly agi-
tated at all times (suspended sediment concentration exceeded 1.0 kg/m?).
Findings indicated that the suspended sediment load is dominant over bed
load, and was directed onshore due to the landward-oriented incident
wave orbital motion.
Storm-dominated processes
Storm-dominated processes were measured during a ‘northeaster’ storm
at Duck, North Carolina, in 1985 (storm surge of 0.6 m; wave heights of
1-1.4 m, wave periods averaging 8 sec)(Wright et al. 1991). Sediment
transport prior to the storm was bidirectional but was net offshore during
the storm and was greater than that of fair-weather and moderate proc-
esses by an order of one to two magnitudes. This net offshore transport of
sediment occurred due to onshore winds, the resulting 0.6-m rise in mean
water level, and associated downwelling and offshore-directed bottom
mean flows. However, this offshore sediment transport is much less than
alongshore transport of sediment.
During storm-dominated processes, suspended sediment concentrations
averaged above 1.0 kg/m? throughout the study and were up to 4.0 kg/m?
associated with wave orbital velocities up to 1.0 m/sec (Wright et al.
1991). During the height of the storm, suspended sediment concentrations
were 4,000 mg/l at 14 cm above the bed; 1,400 mg/l at 34 cm above the
bed; and 200mg/l at 106 cm above the bed. Although there was a relation-
ship between suspended sediment concentration and wave orbital velocity,
there was no relationship between suspended sediment concentration and
bed shear stress. The effect of the bed shear stresses on the bed (in order
of occurrence) included:
a. Negligible changes in bed level response to the initial impulses of the
storm including wind, mean and oscillatory currents, and suspended
sediment concentration maxima.
b. Gradual, but significant, scour of the bed of 5 cm during the storm
phase that followed the initial impulse.
c. Initiation of accretion of the bed during the second and stronger peak
of the storm.
d. Rapid accretion of the bed (15 cm) during the waning phases of the
storm (this accretion, the authors note, may be a migrating bed form
or offshore pulse-like migration of sediment).
These bed level changes are believed to be associated with high-energy
wind waves, which cause mixing and mobility of the upper sediment col-
umn thus causing offshore-oriented sediment exchanges (Wright et al.
1991).
Chapter 3 Evidence of Cross-Shore Sediment Transport
37
38
Hayes (1967c) studied Hurricanes Carla and Cindy in the Gulf of Mex-
ico to examine the direct effects of storm processes and sediment trans-
port. They recorded cross-shelf thicknesses and textures of Hurricane
Carla beds to a depth of -35 m off Padre Island, Texas, along 50 km of
coast. Hayes (1967c) documented that sediment was transferred between
the beach and the inner shelf in both the onshore and offshore directions.
Before and during Hurricane Carla, mollusk shells, coral blocks, and other
materials were transported onshore from water depths between 15 m and
25 m and deposited on the beach. Storm surge seaward-directed turbidity
currents carried the sediment offshore. After the storm passed, offshore-
directed currents associated with hurricane-generated channels deposited
a 1.25-cm to 3.75-cm layer of sand over preexisting mud out to depths of
-18 m. In addition, a graded layer of fine sand silt and clay (known as a
turbidite) was deposited.
Summary
Green et al. (1988) document sediment transport changes according to
different phases of the storm. During fair-weather conditions, although
the waves were asymmetric in an onshore direction, the reversing tidal cur-
rents and resulting mean flow controlled inner shelf sediment transport.
During the early phase of the storm, sediment transport was controlled by
wind-driven jet-like flow (mean flow) with an offshore component. Dur-
ing the progression and towards the end of the storm, the waves were
more organized and highly skewed in a onshore direction, thus enabling
the highly skewed wave-orbital velocities to transport sediment in an on-
shore direction against the mean flow. Storm flow was dominated by sus-
pended load, which accounted for 75 percent of the sediment volume.
In summarizing the findings of Green et al. (1988) and Wright et al.
(1991), mean flows, interpreted to be related to tides, were dominant over
incident waves in generating cross-shore sediment fluxes across the inner
shelf. Cross-shore mean flows during fair-weather conditions were negli-
gible, while these flows were greater than 20 cm/sec during storm condi-
tions. Oscillatory flows associated with waves were 10 cm/sec and
100 cm/sec during fair-weather and storm conditions, respectively. Sus-
pended sediment concentrations 10 cm above the bed were less than
0.1 kg/m? and 1-2 kg/m? during fair-weather and storm conditions,
respectively.
Storm Sedimentation Models
Modeling of storm sedimentation is limited to the models of Dott and
Bourgeois (1982); Walker (1984); Brenchley (1985); Duke (1985); and
Duke, Arnott, and Cheel (1991), who base their models on the following
parameters:
Chapter 3 Evidence of Cross-Shore Sediment Transport
a. Textures in modern storm sediments.
b. Geostrophic flow concepts.
c. Results of flume experiments.
d. Inferred storm-generated structures within ancient sandstones to
construct cross-shelf facies sequences dependent upon water depth,
sediment availability, and storm parameters such as return
frequency and strength.
Keen and Slingerland (1993a) note that while these models represent an
important conceptual advance, they are qualitative and have not been
tested against oceanographic data collected for that purpose, or compared
to results of numerical experiments.
Keen and Slingerland (1993b) have constructed a three-dimensional nu-
merical prediction model to hindcast the oceanographic and sedimen-
tologic responses of the western Gulf of Mexico to four historical tropical
cyclones.
The simulations of the numerical model by Keen and Slingerland
(1993b) indicate that:
a. Onshore flow to the right of the storm track generally transports fine
sediment landward.
b. Offshore flow to the left of the storm track transports coarser
sediments seaward.
c. A right-to-left (facing the coast) alongshore flow transports finer
sediment in deep water and coarser sediment in shallower water.
The models of Keen and Slingerland (1993a,b) suggest that coastal geome-
try is the controlling factor in determining sedimentation patterns, while
in situ sediments are the main source of sediments to the inner shelf.
Along the coast in front of each storm, the volume of sediment transported
obliquely in a cross-shore direction is a function of the shelf gradient and
coastal configuration. Steeper gradients constrain flow to a more long-
shore pattern. Concave coastlines promote greater shoreface erosion be-
cause of increased setup.
Chapter 3 Evidence of Cross-Shore Sediment Transport
39
40
4 Sedimentary Features/
Stratigraphy of the Inner
Shelf
Introduction
Mechanisms of cross-shore sediment transport on the inner shelf
greatly affect sedimentary features including morphological signatures
such as surficial bed forms, and stratigraphy (internal structure) of the in-
ner shelf. The first studies of inner shelf sedimentary features and strati-
graphy characteristics were those of Agassiz (1888), Grabau (1913), and
Johnson (1919). Johnson (1919), who developed the first model of conti-
nental shelf sedimentary characteristics, stated that:
a. The shelf is a system in dynamic equilibrium both in terms of slope
and grain parameters.
b. Given a nearshore sediment source, grain size decreases in an
offshore direction due to decreasing wave energy.
Shepard (1932) stated that the shelf was composed of a mosaic of sedi-
ment sizes and types rather than a uniform seaward-fining trend in grain
size. He suggested that these sediments were deposited during periods of
lower sea level, particularly during the Pleistocene Epoch. Emery (1952,
1968) presented a classification of shelf sediments on a genetic basis con-
sidering the following types of materials:
a. Authigenic, or formed or generated in place (e.g. glauconite or
phosphorite).
b. Organic, or relating to a compound containing carbon as an essential
component (e.g. foraminifera, shells).
c. Residual, or relating to an accumulation of rock debris formed by
weathering which remains in place (e.g. residual clay).
Chapter 4 Sedimentary Features/ Stratigraphy of the Inner Shelf
d. Relict, or remnant from an earlier environment such as a beach or
dune.
e. Detrital material, or presently supplied from rivers, coastal erosion,
and eolian or glacial activity.
Emery (1952) stated that in most coastal environments, the nearshore zone
is composed of modern detrital sediments, while the shelf is composed of
relict sands.
Curray (1964) stated that stratigraphy of the continental shelf is a func-
tion of the following:
a. Fluctuations in sea level.
b. Rate of sediment input to the continental shelf.
c. Sediment grain size and mineralogy.
d. Rate of energy input.
e. Rate of relative sea level change.
f. Continental shelf slope.
Curray (1964) found that the onshore (transgression)/offshore (regression)
migration of the shoreline, and subsequent sediment dispersal and rate of
net deposition/erosion of sediment on the continental shelf are functions
of the rate of sea level rise (subsidence of the land) or sea level fall (emer-
gence of the land) (Figure 9). Migrations of the shoreline and deposition
of sediment on the continental shelf are important in understanding the pa-
leogeography, sources, environments, and deposition mechanisms of
sediments.
Examples of Inner Shelf Sedimentary Features
There exist a wide range of sedimentary features on the inner shelf
ranging in scale from linear shoals (also known as ridge and swale topog-
raphy) (hundreds of meters) to individual bed forms (centimeters to
meters).
Large-scale sedimentary features
The large-scale sedimentary morphology of the middle Atlantic Bight
was first extensively documented during the Inner Continental Shelf Sedi-
ment and Structure Program (ICONS) undertaken by the U.S. Army Corps
Chapter 4 Sedimentary Features/Stratigraphy of the Inner Shelf
41
RELATIVE SEA LEVEL
FALLING SEA LEVEL RISING SEA LEVEL
OR EMERGENCE OR SUBSIDENCE
RAPID SLOW
EROSION
N
m
LOW RATE @&_ EROSION
z
Oo
=
w
Oo
a
i
ras)
b
Fa
u
Oo
ut
z
Zz
=)
=
je)
’2)
oO
Qa
WwW
a
HIGH RATE
Li
Figure 9. Relationship between rate of net sediment deposition/erosion and rate of sea
level rise/fall (after Curray (1964))
of Engineers in the mid-1960s. This program was undertaken to accom-
plish the following:
a. Identify continental shelf sand bodies for beach nourishment
purposes.
b. Garner a greater understanding of shelf sedimentation as it pertains
to the supply of sand for beaches.
c. Increase understanding of changes in coastal and shelf morphology,
longshore sediment transport, inlet migration and stabilization, and
navigation.
d. Increase understanding of the geologic history of the continental
shelf.
Additional studies of the Middle Atlantic Bight of North America include
Veatch and Smith (1939), Shepard (1963), Emery (1966), Uchupi (1968),
and Duane et al. (1972).
42 Chapter 4 Sedimentary Features/Stratigraphy of the Inner Shelf
ICONS helped to identify the larger framework of geomorphic sedimen-
tary features on the Middle Atlantic Bight of North America, including the
following (Figure 10):
Hudson River |
: < Long ale
Morpnolegic Elements of
the Middte Atlantic Bight
LEGEND
—— Surface Channet
ecee Subsurface
eooe Inferred Channel
mm Scarp
@eme Shoal Retreat Massifs
(zS Cuestas
@mm Sheif Edge, Mid—Sheif Deltas
== Sand Ridges
SN SSS
Se 77, Te sey 74 73 72 7
Figure 10. Morphology of the Middle Atlantic Bight (after Swift (1975))
Chapter 4 Sedimentary Features/ Stratigraphy of the Inner Shelf
43
44
a. Broad, flat plateaus.
b. Fluvial valleys and related deltas excavated during the Quaternary
Period (from approximately 2 million ybp to the Recent (present)
Period inclusive of the Pleistocene and Holocene Epochs)(Evernden
et al. 1964, Pratt and Schlee 1969).
c. Shoal and retreat massifs (landward migration of deltas during
transgression [or rising sea level]).
d. Terraces and scarps.
e. Cuestas.
f. Sand ridges.
Duane et al. (1972) summarized these studies and discussed both inner
shelf-detached and shelf-attached shoals. Linear northeast-trending inner
shelf-detached shoals trend from the shoreline at an angle between 5 deg
and 25 deg, are located in water depths of up to -30 m, measure approxi-
mately 25 to 500 m in length, have reliefs of up to 10 m, have side slopes
of a few degrees, and extend for tens of kilometers. These sand bodies are
composed of well-sorted medium- to coarse-grained sands and are similar
in lithology to adjacent beaches. In some instances, clusters of shoals
merge with the shoreline in depths as low as 3 m.
Inner shelf-attached shoals are shoals that are landward of the wave
base (about -8 m)(Duane et al. 1972)(although these features are located
in the nearshore zone, they are not similar in nature to surf zone/nearshore
bars). These shoals appear to form in response to the interaction of south-
trending, shore-parallel, wind-generated currents with wave and storm-
generated bottom currents during winter storms. Aggradation of crests
occurs during storm waves, while degradation occurs during fair-weather
waves. These shoals are believed to have formed during lower sea levels
associated with the Wisconsin stage of glaciation (the most recent and far-
thest south continental glaciation advancement approximately 21,500 ybp
to 10,000 ybp during the Pleistocene Epoch) (Evernden et al. 1964, Pratt
and Schlee 1969). The shoals are modified by present-day coastal proc-
esses, as they are in equilibrium with shelf processes. If these shoals were
not in equilibrium with present-day processes, they would erode and
disappear.
Field and Roy (1984) also document elongate, shore-parallel shoals on
the lower inner shelf in southeast Australia. These bodies are 10-30 m
thick and parallel the coast for 40 km. The upper parts of these sand bod-
ies are composed of sand transported downslope from the upper inner
shelf and surf zone. Surface sediments of ridges are well-sorted and
coarser than surrounding sediments. No seaward fining trend exists. In-
ternally, beds are parallel to the slope of the inner shelf and there is no evi-
dence of cross- bedding, thus making it difficult to determine the exact
Chapter 4 Sedimentary Features/Stratigraphy of the Inner Shelf
seaward sediment transport mechanisms responsible for the formation of
these structures. Field and Roy (1984) indicate that the most plausible
mechanism is the seaward transport of sediment during storm-induced
downwelling currents.
Cacchione et al. (1984), in a study associated with the Coastal Ocean
Dynamics Experiment, have identified three types of sedimentary features
of the Central California inner shelf up to 2 km from the coast in -65 m of
water. These included:
a. Rocky outcrops.
b. Elongate depressions of low relief on the inner shelf slightly oblique
or normal to the general trend of the isobaths. These depressions
contain ripples (heights of 0.40 m; wavelengths of 1.7 m) believed
to be formed by large-amplitude, long-period winter surface waves.
c. Smooth areas of no perceptible relief, but covered with well-defined
wave ripples (heights of 0.02-0.05 m, wavelengths of 0.20-0.30 m).
The proposed generation mechanism of these features is storm-generated
bottom currents associated with strong, storm-driven downwelling flows
during late fall and winter, steered by underwater rock ledges which scour
the surficial fine-grained sediment and expose the coarser-sand substrate
in the depressions (Cacchione et al. 1984).
Small-scale sedimentary features
Bed form classification. Harms et al. (1975) presented a classification
of bed forms in which bed form formation is a function of energy (depend-
ent upon the energy source and water depth), and grain size, where a
larger grain size effectively reduces the amount of energy affecting the
bed (Table 4). The hierarchy of bed form formation by increasing energy
includes ripples, megaripples, and sand waves. Within the ripple classifi-
cation, a gradation exists from short-crested (0- to 20-cm wavelength), to
medium-crested (20- to 40-cm wavelength), to large-crested (40- to 60-cm
wavelength) ripples (Reineck and Singh 1986). Within the megaripple
classification, a gradation exists from two-dimensional (straight-crested)
megaripples, to three-dimensional or lunate (sinuous-crested) megarip-
ples, to flat (plane) beds (Figures 11 and 12).
45
Chapter 4 Sedimentary Features/Stratigraphy of the Inner Shelf
INCREASING FLOW STRENGTH
a
“w
LINEAR UNDULATORY = CUSPATE PLANED OFF FLAT BED
RHOMBOID
TWO
DIMENSIONAL oe THREE DIMENSIONAL ——_——_——_|
Figure 11. Gradation from two-dimensional to three-dimensional bed forms and flat beds
with increasing flow strength (after Reineck and Singh (1986))
SEEUEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEE
Table 4
Hierarchy of Bed Form Formation by Increasing Energy (after
Harms et al. (1975))
Low-energy High-energy
Sandwaves Sandwaves
Parameter
Ripples Megaripples
60 cm-10m >6m >10m
Relatively large
Sinuous to highly | Straight to sinuous
three-dimensional
Spacing
Variable Relatively small Very small
Height/Spacing
Ratio
Geometry Highly variable Straight to sinuous
Characteristic Low (> 25-30 High (> 70-80 Moderate (> High (> 70-80
Flow Velocity cm/s, < 40-50 cm/s, < 100-150 | 30-40 cm/s, < cm/s, may be 150
cm/s) cm/s) 70-80 cm/s) cm/s)
Velocity Negligible to Negligible to Usually substantial | Small to
Asymmetry substantial substantial euestental
= eel
Formation and movement of inner shelf sedimentary features, primarily
the smaller scale ripples, are primary methods of inner shelf cross-shore
sediment transport. These bed forms are formed only during turbulent
flow conditions (water flow in which the flow lines are confused and het-
erogeneously mixed (Bates and Jackson 1984). These turbulent condi-
tions are created by wave and related oscillatory motion, or tide-generated
currents near the bottom which roll and creep sediment particles along the
sediment-water interface (Reineck and Singh 1986). As sediment parti-
cles continue to move from the trough to the crest on both sides, ripples
eventually form. As velocity increases and greater amounts of sediment
46
Chapter 4 Sedimentary Features/Stratigraphy of the Inner Shelf
Mean Flow Direction
Two — Dimensional, Straight—Crested Dunes
Mean Flow Direction
Three — Dimensional, Cuspate Dunes
Figure 12. Two-dimensional and three-dimensional bed forms. Vortices and flow patterns
are shown by arrows above the dunes (after Reineck and Singh (1986))
47
Chapter 4 Sedimentary Features/Stratigraphy of the Inner Shelf
are added to the ridge, ripple height continues to increase with velocity
until a point where height decreases and length increases.
Bedding theory. Bedding is defined as the signature of migration of a
surficial bed form, or a morphologic feature having various systematic pat-
terns of relief which is created by the conditions of flow at the dynamic
interface between a body of cohesionless sediment particles and a fluid
(Davis 1983). Many authors have stated that bed form migration produces
internal stratigraphic records in subsurface sediments. These records pro-
vide clues to the processes, magnitudes, and directions of sediment trans-
port that formed them (Nittrouer and Sternberg 1981, Swift et al. 1983).
In other words, a specific process with a given magnitude and direction of
energy will produce a unique subsurface stratigraphic record. The reader
is referred to Reading (1978), Allen (1982), and Reineck and Singh (1986)
for comprehensive discussions of stratigraphic signatures of migrating
sedimentary features.
Generally, there exist two classes of bedding; horizontal and cross-
bedding. Horizontal bedding is characterized by parallel beds graded at
any angle, usually resulting from flat bed sediment migration or the migra-
tion of sediment where no bed forms occur.
Cross-bedding, which is the most common type of bedding encoun-
tered on the inner shelf, is defined as a single layer, or a single sedimenta-
tion unit, consisting of laminae that are inclined in a direction similar to
the principal surface of sedimentation. This sedimentation unit is sepa-
rated from adjacent layers by a surface of erosion, nondeposition, or
abrupt changes in character.
Reineck and Singh (1986) indicate that different types of cross-bedding
result from the migration of different types and sizes of bed forms. Two
types of cross-bedding shown in Figure 13 include:
a. Planar cross-bedding - cross-bedding in which bounding surfaces
form more or less planar surfaces. These units are tabular or
wedge-shaped.
b. Trough cross-bedding - cross-bedding in which bounding surfaces
are curved surfaces and the unit is trough-shaped.
Clifton (1976) classifies internal sedimentary structures on the inner
shelf into the following three classes:
a. Planar parallel laminae (where lamina (singular) is a type of
bedding defined as the thinnest recognizable layer in a sediment
differing from other layers (commonly 0.05 to 0.10 mm thick)).
b. Medium-scale ripple-foreset bedding (a foreset is a type of bedding
thicker than lamina produced by the deposition of sediment on the
downcurrent face of a bed form (Bates and Jackson 1984).
Chapter 4 Sedimentary Features/Stratigraphy of the Inner Shelf
50
c. Small-scale ripple-foreset bedding.
These three classes of bed forms can form from either wave- or tidal-
generated currents depending on the flow characteristics.
Planar parallel laminae develop in shallow marine sands by:
a. Sheet flow caused by the consistent flow of sand over a flat bed
during high-energy conditions (Davis 1983).
b. Migration of long-crested ripple forms accompanied by a slow rate of
sediment accumulation.
Deepwater sheet flow results from the high energy oscillatory flow of
large long-period waves (Clifton 1976), and the currents usually associ-
ated with geostrophic or downwelling currents. Shallow-water sheet flow
results from intense wave activity close to the shoreline and may show evi-
dence of shear sorting of particles of different size, density, or shape (less
velocity is needed to form sheet flow in fine sand than in coarse sand).
Other sedimentary structures associated with sheet flow include mica lami-
nae, convex-up Shells, and little to no bioturbation due to wave reworking.
The second cause of planar parallel laminae is the migration of ripples
accompanied with a slow rate of sediment accumulation known as slowly
climbing ripple stratification (or the internal structure formed in noncohe-
sive material from migration and simultaneous upward growth of long-
crested ripples). Climbing ripple stratification can be produced by either
currents or waves (Reineck and Singh 1986) of all periods, but only by
medium- to long- period waves (8 to 12 sec) in deeper water. The sedi-
mentary signature of the migration of ripple forms accompanied with a
slow rate of sediment accumulation includes poorly defined climbing rip-
ple foresets, shell lag deposits, concave up shells due to their tumbling
over ripple crests, and bioturbation.
Medium-scale ripple foreset bedding is characterized by 6-cm-thick
foreset units in medium to coarse sand, which form due to the migration
of cuspate (three-dimensional) megaripples or the migration of long-
crested ripples if a rapid sedimentation rate is present. Lunate megaripple
migration produces cross-bedding, while long-crested ripple migration pro-
duces more tabular units (said of the shape of a sedimentary body whose
width/thickness ratio is greater than 50 to 1, but less than 1,000 to 1). The
foresets of medium-scale foreset bedding are oriented onshore in the direc-
tion of wave propagation suggesting the landward transport of sediment
associated with orbital asymmetry.
Small-scale ripple foreset bedding is the most common structure near
the sediment water interface, but has a low preservation potential. This
type of bedding is characterized by foreset units less than 6 cm thick and
is produced by the migration of irregular asymmetrical wave ripples (to be
described in the following section) or by the migration of small-scale
Chapter 4 Sedimentary Features/Stratigraphy of the Inner Shelf
ripples during rapid sediment accumulation. Bedding planes dip onshore
from wave-generated currents, while bedding associated with unidirec-
tional currents dips either onshore or offshore (Clifton 1976).
Ripple symmetry. Inner shelf ripples can be symmetrical or asymmet-
rical. Symmetrical ripples have similar side slopes and are usually pro-
duced by waves and associated bidirectional currents of near similar
magnitudes (Reineck and Singh 1986).
Asymmetrical ripples, or ripples with different side slopes, are formed
by bidirectional currents of different magnitudes (Reineck and Singh
1986). These bidirectional currents can be formed by both wave and tidal-
generated currents. Asymmetrical wave ripples occur especially in the
surf zone and shallow water under long period low waves, as the oscilla-
tory flow of water particles tends not to occur in a closed orbit. Net trans-
port of sediment occurs in the direction of wave propagation. Therefore,
there is significant unidirectional sediment movement associated with
asymmetrical wave ripples. Although both asymmetrical wave ripples and
current ripples have unequal side slopes, asymmetrical ripples bifurcate
while current ripples do not. Since the formation of bed forms on the
inner shelf environment is dominated by wave activity, the following dis-
cussion concerns wave ripples (ripples formed by wave-generated cur-
rents, also known as oscillation ripples) rather than current ripples
(ripples formed by tidal-generated currents).
Sediment movement in symmetrical wave ripples is a function of wave
orbitals at the water surface, which flatten towards the bottom eventually
having only horizontal, and not vertical, movement. These ripples are es-
sentially straight-crested, have pointed crests, rounded troughs and fre-
quently show bifurcation. The occasional rounding of crests is a result of
the reworking of ripples as the current field changes characteristics. The
internal structure of wave symmetrical ripples is characterized by chev-
rons indicating two directions of transport (chevron bedding slopes away
from the crest and toward the trough of a ripple at equal angles). A more
detailed discussion of internal structure characteristics of wave-ripple bed-
ding can be found in Boersma (1970) and Reineck and Singh (1986).
Clifton (1976), building on the work of Inman (1957) and Dingler
(1974), stated that the prediction of symmetrical ripple size, which is gra-
dational, is based on grain size, orbital velocity, and wave period. Three
types of symmetrical ripples include (Figure 14):
a. Orbital ripples, which form under short-period waves and have ratios
between orbital diameter/grain diameter (d,/D) which are less than
2,000 (where ripple wavelength is dependent upon the length of
orbital diameter of the oscillatory current and is independent of
grain size).
51
Chapter 4 Sedimentary Features/Stratigraphy of the Inner Shelf
SUBORGITAL
RIPPLES
ORBITAL
RIPPLES
+
AWNORBITAL RIPPLES
,089 - J25 mm
126 - 177
A78 - .250
.201 - .353
-354 - .500
603 - .7O7
.708 - 1.000
200 300 400500 | 7901900| 2000 3000 4000 5000
600 800 1/000 d,/D
Figure 14. Classification of symmetric and reversing ripples based on the ratio of ripple
length to square root of grain diameter (WD! 3) and ratio of orbital diameter to
grain diameter (d,/D) (after Clifton (1976)) based on data from Inman (1957)
and Dingler (1974))
b. Suborbital ripples, which form under longer period waves and have
d,/D ratios between 2,000 and 5,000 (wavelength increases with
larger grain size but decreases with increasing orbital diameter).
c. Anorbital ripples, which are associated with waves of very large
orbital diameter and have d,/D ratios greater than 5,000
(wavelength depends on grain size and is independent of orbital
diameter).
Reversing ripples, which are considered asymmetrical, have do/D ratios
between 6,500 and 13,000 (Inman 1957).
In comparing symmetrical and asymmetrical wave ripple size, Clifton
(1976) states that symmetrical wave ripples form where maximum bottom
orbital velocity is less than 1 cm/sec, while asymmetrical wave ripples
form when maximum bottom orbital velocity is greater than 5 cm/sec.
92 Chapter 4 Sedimentary Features/Stratigraphy of the Inner Shelf
Symmetrical wave ripples, which tend to form in deeper water, do not mi-
grate and thus produce no stratigraphic record. Asymmetrical wave rip-
ples tend to form in shallow water. In addition, symmetrical wave ripples
have a poorer preservation potential than asymmetrical ripples, as asym-
metrical wave ripples migrate. Komar (1974) indicates that ripple spacing
of symmetrical wave ripples increases landward under short-period waves
but decreases landward under longer-period waves.
Reineck and Singh (1986) discuss the formation of ripples as a function
of water depth and wave period. For wave periods of 2-4 sec, ripples
form out to a water depth of -25 m. Symmetrical suborbital ripples are
the dominant ripple type for these periods. No asymmetrical ripples form
and there exists a limited occurrence of flat beds. For wave periods of
5-8 sec, ripples form out to a water depth of -100 m and are dominated by
suborbital symmetrical ripples with some anorbital ripples forming at
higher velocities in fine- to medium-grained sand. Flat beds form under
large wave conditions except in coarse sand. For wave periods of 10 to
15 sec, ripples form to a water depth of -300 m. In deep water, symmetri-
cal suborbital ripples form in coarse sand while anorbital ripples form in
fine sand. It is possible that lunate ripples and flat beds form in medium
to coarse sand at higher velocities. Reineck and Singh (1986) also note
that maximum velocity, velocity asymmetry, and grain size increase in a
landward direction.
Wave-formed sedimentary structures. Clifton (1976) presents a
model concerning the origin and interrelationship of wave-formed sedi-
mentary structures. Data collected from southern Oregon (high energy),
southeast Spain (relatively low energy) and Willapa Bay, Washington (low
energy), and previously collected data from Komar and Miller (1973,
1974), Komar (1974) and Dingler (1974) form the basis for this concep-
tual model. The processes responsible for these structures include:
a. Wave parameters including height, period, maximum bottom orbital
velocity, and change in maximum bottom orbital velocity.
b. Fluid factors (density,viscosity).
c. Flow factors (existing mean currents).
d. Bottom configuration factors (water depth over all and local slope).
e. Sediment factors (grain size diameter, sorting, density, and shape).
f. Oscillatory currents just above the boundary layer.
g. Length of oscillatory water movement.
h. Velocity asymmetry of oscillatory currents.
Chapter 4 Sedimentary Features/Stratigraphy of the Inner Shelf
53
on
a
™~
£
~~
vv
v
vw
a
45)
o
o
~~
3
3)
7)
(e}
Arnott and Southard (1990), in a collinear oscillatory and combined
flow water tunnel with a wide range of component speeds and an oscilla-
tion period of 8.5 sec, have produced stability fields for wave-generated
bed forms in very fine sand. Figure 15 shows that different types of bed
forms and resulting internal stratigraphy are formed according to different
wave oscillatory speeds, which are greater closer to shore and reduce in
an offshore direction.
Hummocky
Ripples
10 em Scale In
== €=s Sketches
Pct Bed
Large 5D‘. Ripples
\
*
\
Low Angle \ High Angle
Tronsitional
Smail
Z 2D Rippies
Smoil SD Ripples
Current Ripples
0.08 0.12 0.16
(Measured 0.10m Above Bed)
Unidirectional Speed (m/s)
Figure 15. Stability fields for bed forms produced in very fine sand in collinear
54
combined-flow water tunnel. Velocities were measured at 0.10 m above the
bed. Note that “2D” considers a two-dimensional (straight-crested, which is
usually representative of low energy conditions) bed form, while “3D”
considers a three-dimensional (sinuous-crested, usually representative of
high energy conditions) bed form (from Arnott and Southard (1990))
Chapter 4 Sedimentary Features/Stratigraphy of the Inner Shelf
Inner Shelf Stratigraphy
Cross-shore stratigraphic sequences
Numerous authors (see Appendix B, “Sedimentary Features and Strati-
graphy References”) have identified cross-shore sequences of sedimentary
structures and resulting stratigraphy. Clifton (1976) documents the follow-
ing typical sequence of sedimentary structures for the Oregon coast inner
shelf resulting from wave-induced oscillatory flow (Figure 16), beginning
offshore and moving landward:
a. Inactive zone.
b. Active asymmetric ripples.
c. Long-crested asymmetric ripples.
d. Irregular asymmetric ripples.
e. Asymmetric cross-ripples.
f. Megaripples.
g. Flat bed.
Similar sequences were also found in Australia by Boyd (1981).
Land ——=
—=— Symmetric Asymmetric
Active Long—Crested reg! Cross—Rippies Lunate Megeripples Fist Beds
|
Figure 16. Cross-shore sequence of structures commonly found off the coast of southern
Oregon (after Clifton (1976))
Chapter 4 Sedimentary Features/ Stratigraphy of the Inner Shelf 95
56
Howard and Reineck (1972) defined a cross-shore sequence of internal
stratigraphic structures. In addition to a seaward-fining sediment grain
size trend, they found that physical sedimentary structures decrease and
biogenic structures increase in a seaward direction due to increasing depth
and position of the wave base. Howard and Reineck (1981) also examine
and describe the primary physical sedimentary structures and compare a
high-energy sequence at Port Hueneme, California, with a low energy,
tide-dominated sequence at Sapelo Island, Georgia.
Howard and Reineck (1981) describe three facies associated with the
Port Hueneme, California, beach-to-offshore depositional stratigraphic se-
quence. This sequence includes nearshore, transition, and offshore facies.
The nearshore facies (+3.0-m to -9.0-m water depth)(inclusive of the fore-
shore facies from +3.0 m to 0.0 m, and the inner shelf (shoreface) facies
from 0.0 to -9.0 m) is composed primarily of parallel and cross-bedded ho-
mogeneous sand, and small-scale wave ripple laminae, while bioturbation
is only locally significant. Rounded rock-fragment pebbles are present
both individually and as layers in the foreshore and more commonly in the
swash zone. Alternating layers of coarse and fine sand are locally present.
Heavy minerals are abundant throughout and enhance the expression of
physical sedimentary structures.
In sections of parallel laminated sand in the nearshore facies, the dip is
very low (3 deg) and therefore dip directions cannot be specified from
cores. Individual laminae pinch out at erosional contracts suggesting that
these are wedged-shaped laminae sets. Thickness of individual parallel
sets varies from | to 12 mm, with their average thickness being 1-2 mm.
Cross-bedded sand is characterized by sets 10 to 30 cm thick with individ-
ual laminae up to 2 cm thick. This sedimentary structure is found only in
the nearshore facies, and within this facies, increases with decreasing
water depth. Cross-bedding is most abundant in the vicinity of the mean
low water line and is commonly associated with coarse sand, and alternat-
ing sets of coarse and fine sand. Small-scale wave ripple laminae are re-
stricted mainly to the nearshore facies. Ripples are present on the bottom,
but were not preserved in cores. Bioturbation was practically nonexistent
out to a water depth of -6.3 m as wave activity dominated the sedimentary
sequence. Sand dollars were present in water depths from -6.5 to -8.7 m.
No shells or shell fragments were found in the nearshore facies (Howard
and Reineck 1981).
The transition facies (-9.3-m to -18.7-m water depth) is a zone of fine
sand and silty sand characterized by an increase in biogenic over physical
structures that are commonly preserved as laminated-to-burrowed beds.
This laminated- to-burrowed bed sequence is also described by Howard
(1972), Howard and Reineck (1972), Golding and Bridges (1973), and
Bourgeois (1980). Howard and Reineck (1981) state that wave-ripple bed-
ding and parallel laminae are important structures in this facies. Hum-
mocky cross-stratification laminae are defined as laminae which are both
concave up (swales) and convex up (hummocks), possess many undulating
erosion surfaces, and dip into the swales at angles of approximately
Chapter 4 Sedimentary Features/Stratigraphy of the Inner Shelf
15 deg (to be described in detail in the next section). Hummocky cross-
stratification laminae are probably the most persistent physical sedimen-
tary structure in this facies, with small-scale oscillation-ripple laminae
second in abundance. Cross-bedding, pebbles, and heavy-mineral laminae
are not present. This facies contains stratigraphic structures of both the
offshore and nearshore zones. The cross-shore transition. between bio-
genic and physical structures indicates fluctuation of wave energy. The
onshore limit of this area is most likely normal wave base, while the off-
shore limit is storm wave base. No shells or shell fragments were present
in this facies (Howard and Reineck 1981).
In the offshore facies at Port Hueneme (> -18-m water depth), the pri-
mary texture is sandy silt and bioturbation is the dominant sedimentary
structure (Howard and Reineck 1981). Energy decreases with increasing
water depth, which results in increasing amounts of biogenic activity and
a fining of grain size in an offshore direction. Biogenic processes affect
up to 90-100 percent of this facies due to the following:
a. Slow rates of sedimentation.
b. Brief storm events.
c. Long periods of relative quiescence.
Remnant parallel laminae are the only physical sedimentary structures pre-
sent. Shells and shell fragments are abundant. Direct or indirect effects
of storms are rare.
In comparing the stratigraphy of the inner shelf off Port Hueneme, Cali-
fornia, and Sapelo Island, Georgia, Howard and Reineck (1981) found sev-
eral differences in the sedimentary sequences resulting from different
wave characteristics (as the tidal range for the two areas is similar). A
major difference between sedimentary sequences at the two sites was the
water depth at which facies boundaries occur. At the Port Hueneme, Cali-
fornia, site, the foreshore-inner shelf boundary is distinct as the parallel
laminated sand of the foreshore facies is replaced by large-scale cross-
bedding, and small-scale ripple laminae of the inner shelf facies. At the
Sapelo Island, Georgia site, a distinction between the foreshore/inner shelf
boundary could not be made because the parallel laminated sand of the
foreshore facies continues as the dominant sedimentary structure well into
the upper inner shelf facies.
Thickness of the inner shelf facies was also different between the two
sites. At Sapelo Island, the inner shelf is 250 m wide and 2 m thick. The
upper inner shelf is characterized by parallel laminated sand, and the
lower inner shelf is characterized by small-scale ripple laminae. In con-
trast, the Port Hueneme inner shelf is 300 m wide and 9 m thick. Large-
scale cross- bedding as well as parallel laminated sand and small-scale
ripple laminae occur on this inner shelf.
Chapter 4 Sedimentary Features/Stratigraphy of the Inner Shelf
Sif
58
Additional differences between the two sites include the transition
zone, which is between the -2.0- and -5.0-m water depths at Sapelo Island,
and between the -9.3 and -18.7-m depths at Port Hueneme. Offshore
facies are characterized by the presence of palimpsest sediments, defined
as reworked sediments of the continental shelf, and occur seaward of
-5.0 m at the Sapelo Island site, and seaward of -18.7 m at the Port Hue-
neme site. In addition, storm units (parallel laminated to burrowed beds,
separated by erosional contacts) are more clearly developed at the Port
Hueneme site sequence.
In a study of Topsail Island, North Carolina, Schwartz, Hobson, and
Musialowski (1981) collected data supporting the subdivision of the inner
shelf into upper, middle, and lower inner shelf zones. These zones corre-
spond to the inner shelf, transition zone, and offshore facies attributed to
the Sapelo Island, Georgia, coast site by Howard and Reineck (1981).
Each zone is related to a particular set of nearshore processes and result-
ing stratigraphical characteristics. The upper inner shelf is dominated by
surf conditions (including longshore currents) and maximum wave shoal-
ing effects just prior to breaking. The approximate water depth range of
the upper inner shelf is estimated to be between 0.0 m and -2.0 m based
on sedimentary structures, sediment grain size characteristics, and
changes in profile shape). Stratigraphically, the upper inner shelf is char-
acterized by subhorizontal laminae and very low-angle, thinly laminated
units, and by local occurrences of inverse textural grading.
The middle inner shelf (approximate water depth from -2.0 to -4.0 m),
is dominated by relatively strong shoaling effects and coastal currents that
produce significant downward scour and sediment transport during storm
events. This facies is dominated by subhorizontal laminae, trough cross-
bedding, low-angle foreset laminae, and minor bioturbation structures.
The lower inner shelf, (water depth from -4.0 m to -6.5 m), is slightly to
moderately affected by fair-weather waves, is stratigraphically dominated
by subhorizontal to low-angle laminar bedding, small-scale trough or rip-
ple bedding, and has moderate to locally abundant bioturbation. Nor-
mally, graded beds, although sometimes poorly defined, occur throughout
the inner shelf.
Storm-related stratigraphy
Numerous authors have identified storms as controlling sedimentation
and stratigraphy of the inner shelf (Appendix B, “Significant (Storm)
Event References”). Smith and Hopkins (1972) state that erosion of the
continental shelf by severe storms ranges from a few millimeters to centi-
meters; sediment is transported off the continental shelf into deeper
water. Smith and Hopkins (1972) suggest that deposits are layered, and
perhaps graded by storms as sands are covered by silt that settles out in
suspension after the storms.
Chapter 4 Sedimentary Features/Stratigraphy of the Inner Shelf
Storm-influenced bedding
Types of storm-influenced bedding include the following:
a. Hummocky cross-stratification - defined as laminae which are both
concave up (swales) and convex up (hummocks), possessing many
undulating erosion surfaces, and dip into the swales at angles of
approximately 15 deg (Brenchley 1985, 1989). The laminae are
oriented 360 deg, indicating that current orientation fluctuates over
an entire 360-deg circle. The beds, which thin over hummocks and
thicken over swales, appear similar when viewed from two faces
perpendicular to one another. Therefore, three-dimensional views
are required to correctly identify hummocky cross-stratification
(Brenchley 1985, 1989).
b. Beds of laminated silt, usually only a few centimeters thick at most,
which fine upwards.
c. Beds similar in nature to turbidites (where turbidites are defined as a
bedding sequence formed by a turbidity current or a bottom-flowing
current laden with suspended sediment and possessing a density
greater than that of the water which moves slowly down a
subaqueous slope (Bates and Jackson 1984)). These beds show
graded, parallel laminae or ripple drift lamination, commonly
formed below the wave base.
Hummocky cross-stratification, also known as truncated wave ripple lami-
nae (Campbell 1966, 1971), is of utmost importance in the study of storm
deposits on inner shelf sedimentation/stratigraphy patterns. Studies con-
cerned with this subject include Campbell (1966, 1971), Harms (1975),
Hamblin and Walker (1979), Bourgeois (1980), Allen (1982), Dott and
Bourgeois (1982), Swift et al. (1983), Walker, Duke, and Leckie (1983),
Brenchley (1985, 1989), Duke (1985, 1987, 1990), Greenwood and Sher-
man (1984), Klein and Marsaglia (1987), Nottvedt and Kreisa (1987),
Swift and Nummedal (1987), Arnott and Southard (1990), Higgs (1990),
Southard and Boguchwal (1990), and Duke, Arnott, and Cheel (1991).
Hummocky cross-stratification requires an increase in seaward sedi-
ment transport, and entrainment and deposition of sand on the continental
shelf above the wave base by storm-generated currents and waves
(Brenchley 1985). This bedding is usually formed by accretion as laminae
thicken over crests. However, some hummocky cross-stratification bed-
ding is produced by erosion when sediment is eroded from the hummocks
and is deposited and thickens in the swales. Brenchley (1985) questions
whether wave oscillatory currents or a combination of wave oscillatory
and unidirectional currents are needed to produce hummocky
cross-stratification.
Chapter 4 Sedimentary Features/Stratigraphy of the Inner Shelf
59
Arnott and Southard (1990) state that meter-scale, isotropic hummocky
cross-stratification is likely formed by large three-dimensional symmetri-
cal wave ripples produced by purely oscillatory flows and very strongly
oscillatory-dominant combined flows of storm waves. They documented
that the sedimentary response of the inner shelf from pure oscillatory flow
at low speeds was small symmetrical vortex ripples. At higher current ve-
locities large, three-dimensional, round-crested bed forms with heights to
20 cm and spacings of decimeters to meters resulted.
Hummocky cross-stratification varies with distance from shore and
water depth (Arnott and Southard 1990). As energy decreases in an off-
shore direction, hummocky cross-stratification laminae tend to be less
deeply incised and dip at a lower angle. At nearshore locations, there is a
greater presence of wave ripples, and beds are lenticular (resulting from
high energy) and tend to erode at the top. At offshore locations where the
energy is less, the beds become tabular. In addition, wavelength and
height of hummocks are likely to decrease in an offshore direction.
Arnott and Southard (1990) found that superimposition of a steady cur-
rent with oscillatory motion produced significant changes in bed state.
Even a weak current caused bed forms to become asymmetric and mi-
grate; most of the combined-flow bed forms contained downstream-
dipping cross-stratification. Changes in the morphology of the ripples
were profound as currents increased. Currents of only 1-5 cm/sec, super-
imposed on oscillatory flows of 40-60 cm/sec, produced downstream-
dipping low-angle hummocky cross-stratification. For currents exceeding
13 cm/sec, hummocky cross-stratification occurred and dip angles were
formed near the angle of response (similar in morphology to high-angle
hummocky cross-stratification as described by Nottvedt and Kreisa
(1987). At higher oscillatory speeds (60-80 cm/sec), any non-negligible
current washed the ripples away, replacing them with a flat bed. How-
ever, Arnott and Southard (1990) state that a core current exceeding
95-110 cm/sec is needed to form large ripples exhibiting moderately steep
internal laminae in very fine sand.
Examples. Greenwood and Hale (1980), in a study at New Brunswick,
Canada, using depth of disturbance rods, found that the depth of activity
at a bar is proportional to storm intensity. The seaward side of the bar
crest, which had maximum values of bed-level change due to large wave
heights, asymmetric oscillatory motion, and rip currents, eroded up to
35 cm. Meanwhile, the trough at the foot of the landward slope eroded up
to 37 cm due to scour by longshore currents. Accretion of up to 12 cm oc-
curred on the upper part of the landward slope in response to a decrease in
wave height due to breaking waves and increased water depth. In addi-
tion, accretion of up to 21 cm occurred on the upper seaward slope of the
bar, thus steepening both slopes and producing a seaward displacement of
the bar crest. Overall, the bar eroded during the storm, and sediment was
transported in multiple directions through megaripple migration. How-
ever, net transport of sediment was in an offshore direction.
Chapter 4 Sedimentary Features/Stratigraphy of the Inner Shelf
Schwartz, Hobson, and Musialowski (1981) distinguished between fair-
weather and storm bedding features. They found that storm sequences are
marked by:
a. Beds with sharp lower contacts.
b. Normal textural grading (fining of sediment grain size in an upward
direction).
c. Laminae bedding throughout or upward transition from laminated
bedding at the base to bioturbation in the upper part of the sequence.
Studies by Curray (1960), Hayes (1967c), and Morton (1981) as re-
viewed by Nummedal and Snedden (1987) show that fine sand moves off-
shore from the inner shelf during storms and hurricanes. Nummedal and
Snedden (1987) summarize that once transported to the continental shelf,
little sediment is returned by post-storm flow. The primary sediment
source is the portion of the inner shelf between mlw and the break in slope
onto the more gently dipping continental shelf. These sediments are rede-
posited as thin-graded, centimeter-thick, fining-upward, sand bed se-
quences with sharp erosional bases on an otherwise muddy shelf.
Hummocky cross-stratification is present. Hayes (1967c), who studied in-
ner shelf sedimentation caused by Hurricane Carla (September 1961) docu-
mented that these beds have a sharp upper contact, suggesting that some
erosion occurred after the Hurricane Carla deposition. The beds have a
scoured sole-marked base and are floored by a coarse lag of pebbles or
shell fragments. Hummocky cross-stratification is common. This sug-
gests that little sand is returned onto the inner shelf and beach from the in-
ner shelf after a hurricane.
In measuring bed level changes during a storm, Green et al. (1988)
noted that bed changes at the -8-m depth included 6 cm of accretion over
4.5 days of low-energy flow associated with currents as measured with a
digital sonar altimeter prior to the onset of the storm. During the initial
phase of the storm, 5 cm of scour was followed by 15 cm of rapid accre-
tion. This accretion was coincident with the organization of surface
waves into long-period swell, and maximum accretion was coincident
with the most highly skewed waves. Onshore sediment transport corre-
lated strongly with erosion of the bed, and offshore transport with accre-
tion of the bed.
Gagan, Chivas, and Herczog (1990) showed that Cyclone Winifred
(1 February 1986) produced a normally graded, mixed terrigenous-
carbonate bed sequence 11 cm thick in water depths up to -43 m extending
30 km offshore. Cross-shelf distribution of organic carbon in the sedi-
ment indicated that suspended sediment transport was extensive and that
the storm layer was the result of the following three sources:
a. Landward transport of reworked, resuspended mid-shelf sediment.
Chapter 4 Sedimentary Features/Stratigraphy of the Inner Shelf 61
62
b. Resuspension and settling of inner shelf sediment.
c. Seaward transport of terrigenous sediment in freshwater plumes.
By taking 15-cm cores, Gagan, Chivas, and Herczog (1990) show that on
a shelf-wide scale, in the -20- to -40-m water depth, sediment was eroded
to a depth of 6.9 cm, and in water depth less than -20 m, sediment was
eroded to a depth of 5.1 cm. Particles finer than medium sand were
eroded and transported out of the mid shelf.
Gagan, Chivas, and Herczog (1990) found that at least 10-30 percent of
inner shelf storm sediment is composed of mid-shelf mud, thus indicating
the landward movement of fine material. In summary, Gagan, Chivas, and
Herczog (1990) support other findings that significant storms are capable
of sporadic but efficient cross-shelf transport of suspended sediment.
Wright et al. (1991) and others (Swift et al. 1983; Niedoroda, Swift,
and Hopkins 1985; Niedoroda, Swift, and Thorne 1989) concur with
Gagan, Chivas, and Herczog (1990) that the inner shelf is dominated by
storm flows, which produce a fining sequence of grain size in an offshore
direction, and storm beds including hummocky cross-stratification and
storm-graded bedding.
Wright et al. (1991), using a digital sonar altimeter, also documented
bed-level changes of 15 cm at 8 m due to a ’Northeaster’ storm. This in-
crease is inferred to be a result of offshore migration of sediment lobes
possessing abrupt leading edges, which migrate well seaward of the -8-m
depth contour. These lobes are indicative of energetic cross-shelf advec-
tion, as opposed to gradual diffusion.
Wright et al. (1991) documented the response of the bed primarily as a
result of hydraulic roughness during different weather conditions. Bed re-
sponse during fair-weather conditions was characterized by pronounced
wave-induced ripples, low sediment mobility, and high apparent hydraulic
roughness heights (up to 1 cm). During post-hurricane fair-weather condi-
tions, the bed was mantled with redeposited fine sediment and exhibited
subtle ripples surmounting irregular ridges and depressions. This mor-
phology yielded the lowest hydraulic roughness of all four cases.
During storm-dominated conditions (wave heights and periods of 3-6 m
and 10-20 sec, respectively, and near-bottom wind-driven mean currents
of 0.5 m/s) while there were no ripples, a highly mobile plane bed was pre-
sent. However, strong wave agitation and a thick wave boundary layer re-
sulted in an effective hydraulic roughness moderately larger than that of
the ripple-dominated normal fair-weather case. Skin friction and total bed
stresses during the storm exceed those of fair-weather conditions by more
than an order of magnitude.
Chapter 4 Sedimentary Features/Stratigraphy of the Inner Shelf
Swell-dominated conditions created the greatest hydraulic roughness of
all four cases. This was due to the existence of a thick wave boundary
layer with subtle ripples on a partially armored bed.
In studies of the ancient geologic rock record, Brenchley (1989) and
Duke, Arnott, and Cheel (1991) state that hummocky cross-stratification is
part of a storm bed sequence characterized by an eroded base with a grada-
tional top, which includes the following activities (from bottom to top of
the sequence) (Figure 17):
a. Waves interact with a relatively weak coast-oblique bottom current to
erode the muddy substrate. Simultaneously, shells and shell hash
carve tool marks in the mud and are deposited in swales).
b. Coastal sand, moving as bed and suspended load under combined
wave and current bottom flow, is eventually transported offshore
resulting in the formation of horizontal lamination to low-angle
dipping sand (this also results in basal erosion).
c. Formation of hummocky cross-stratification due to reworking of the
bed by storm processes.
SUBSTRATE
SHORE—NORMAL
FLOW SPEED
NEAR THE BED
INSTANTANEOUS
TIME — AVERAGED
CURRENT 9 COMBINED FLO
BED RESPONSE app he
ONSHORE © OFFSHORE
Figure 17. Probable sequence of events producing hummocky cross-stratification on the
inner shelf (after Duke, Arnott, and Cheel (1991))
Chapter 4 Sedimentary Features/Stratigraphy of the Inner Shelf 63
d. As storm processes wane, sand and mud accumulate and are
deposited as parallel laminae on top as formed under oscillatory-
dominant combined flow (much of it draping over low-relief
scours), while megaripples which slowly form and migrate on the
still-aggrading substrate may initially produce anisotropic
hummocky cross-stratification (bedding properties are different in
all directions). Much of the sand is reworked by waves as the
bottom current subsides, thus resulting in strongly oscillatory-
dominant combined flow and the formation of isotropic (properties
are similar in all directions) hummocky cross-stratification. As
storm wave motions decrease in speed, a reworked mantle of
draping lamination and vortex ripples is formed. Later, the sand is
buried by mud and often bioturbated (from Duke, Arnott, and Cheel
(1991)).
Chapter 4 Sedimentary Features/Stratigraphy of the Inner Shelf
5 Summary
Nummedal and Snedden (1987) state that during storms and post-storm
recovery, large quantities of sand move in cross-shore directions. Large
quantities of this sediment may be lost from the beach and from the active
profile, thus necessitating beach fill. Much is known about nearshore sedi-
ment movement under shoaling waves (Komar 1976); precise documenta-
tion of cyclic patterns of surf-zone change (Wright et al. 1979, Nummedal
and Snedden 1987), and the well-studied effects of rip currents (Cook and
Gorsline 1972, Wright and Short 1984).
However, despite undergoing intense study by geologists and engineers
for over a century, there are still many fundamental, unanswered questions
about patterns, mechanisms, and rates of beach-shelf sediment inter-
change. An extensive amount of field work concerning contrasting inner
shelf environments is needed (particularly data from cross-shore arrays
which provide simultaneous measurements at different depths of near-
bottom flows, sediment fluxes, and bed responses). Wright (1987)
believes that in determining cross-shore inner shelf sediment transport
processes, attention should be placed on field studies and modeling the
naturally occurring inner shelf environments. Wright (1987) believes that
no one model (or concept) effectively describes inner shelf transport.
Nummedal and Snedden (1987), Wright et al. (1991), and Pilkey (1993)
contend that existing models of equilibrium profile development and cross-
shore sediment transport are seriously inadequate.
Pilkey et al. (1993) contend that present-day assumptions of the profile
of equilibrium concept indicate the following:
a. Sediment movement on the inner shelf is an exceedingly complex
phenomenon driven by a wide range of wave, tidal, and gravity
currents.
b. The depth of closure does not exist, as evidence shows that large
volumes of sand may frequently be moved beyond the depth of
closure. These large volumes of sediment moved are often spread
over such a large area that standard profiling methods cannot detect
this movement.
Chapter5 Summary
65
66
c. The inner shelf is often not sand rich and in some areas is strongly
influenced by the geological framework.
d. The profile of equilibrium equation provides an average inner shelf
profile cross section, but does not accurately predict equilibrium
profiles at specific inner shelves.
Present-day models concerning inner shelf cross-shore sediment trans-
port and based on the profile of equilibrium equation (Pilkey et al. 1993)
do not adequately describe nearshore sediment transport as they say inner
shelves can be described and differentiated solely on the basis of sediment
grain size and a broadly defined wave climate. However, these models do
represent the most up-to-date estimation of inner shelf cross-shore sedi-
ment transport and are particularly useful in that they allow an engineer or
scientist to explore storm impact on a location using a general approxima-
tion of the profile.
Many problems must be understood before we can gain a reasonable
understanding of inner shelf and nearshore equilibria/disequilibria and the
associated rates of and directions of cross-shore sediment transport
(Wright et al. 1991). A goal for the coastal engineering community should
be “to devise a more universal conceptual framework capable of better
accounting for inner shelf transport, erosion, and deposition in time and
space” (Wright 1987). Accomplishing this goal would help to do the
following:
a. Garner a better understanding of the physical oceanography of the
inner shelf, including the vertical segregation of flows and
cross-shelf variations of these flows.
b. On a morphodynamic perspective, study the bottom boundary layer
processes that provide the connecting link between hydrodynamics
and resulting morphologic change via sediment transport.
c. Study the environmental end members (i.e. other sites) in order to
create a comprehensive inner shelf morphodynamic model.
d. Acquire more detailed time series data on near-bottom flow structure,
sediment fluxes, bedform behavior, and substrate microstratigraphy.
As their empirical base is expanded, so, too, theory and models
should be expanded.
e. More accurately predict ripple geometries and their applicability to
mixed sediment size distributions and combined waves and currents.
f. Create more realistic paradigms for shelf-nearshore equilibrium that
take explicit account of the natural suite of near-bottom flows and
of the fundamental roles played by time-varying bed
micromorphology.
Chapter5 Summary
g. Caution users of any inner shelf models that they must be aware of
the limitations of the models and of special conditions that may
exist at their project sites.
h. Commence an extensive field measurement and modelling effort not
currently underway in North America (Wright 1987, Pilkey et al.
1993):
Chapter 5 Summary
67
68
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Appendix A
Glossary
Bedding - the signature of a migration of a surficial bed form.
Bed form - a morphologic feature having various systematic patterns of
relief and created by the conditions of flow at the dynamic interface
between a body of cohesionless sediment particles and a fluid.
Climbing ripple stratification - The internal structure formed in
noncohesive material from migration and simultaneous upward growth of
long-crested ripples.
Continental shelf - The gently sloping submerged edge of a continent,
extending from the surf zone seaward to a depth of about i130 m, or the
edge of the continental slope. The continental shelf is composed of two
distinct zones, the inner and outer continental shelf. The shelf is
characterized by an average slope of 0.1 deg.
Continental shelf break - The seaward edge of the continental shelf
where the bottom begins to descend at a greater angle as part of the
continental slope. Average depth of the shelf break is 130 m.
Continental slope - The submerged edge of a continent extending
seaward of the continental shelf which is characterized by slopes of 3-6
deg.
Cross-bedding - A single layer, or a single sedimentation unit,
consisting of laminae that are inclined in a direction similar to the
principal surface of sedimentation. This sedimentation unit is separated
from adjacent layers by a surface of erosion, nondeposition, or abrupt
changes in character.
Depth of closure - The point on the equilibrium profile beyond which
there is no significant net offshore transport of sand even during storm
conditions.
Appendix A Glossary
A2
Equilibrium profile - The long-term profile which the ocean bed is
assumed to conform to based on a particular wave climate and sediment
characteristics.
Foreset - A type of bedding thicker than lamina produced by the
deposition of sediment on the downcurrent face of a bed form.
Holocene - The Epoch from approximately 10,000 years before present
(ybp) to the present, which follows the continental glaciations of the
Pleistocene Epoch.
Horizontal bedding - Bedding characterized by parallel beds graded at
any angle, usually resulting from flat bed sediment migration or the
migration of sediment where no bed forms occur.
Hummocky cross stratification - Laminae which are both concave up
(swales) and convex up (hummocks) possessing many undulating erosion
surfaces, and dip into the swales at angles of approximately 15 deg.
Inner shelf (inner continental shelf) - The inner part of the continental
shelf, also known as the shoreface, extending from the seaward edge of
the surf zone to the landward edge of outer continental shelf. This zone is
characterized by a normal, strong agitation of the seafloor bed by waves.
Slopes of this zone are on the order of 1:200.
Lamina (pl. laminae) - The thinnest recognizable layer in a sediment or
sedimentary rock differing from other layers in color, composition, or
particle size. Commonly 0.05 to 1.00 mm thick.
Outer continental shelf - The outer continental shelf, the landward limit
marking the depth of closure, is only periodically agitated by waves.
Slopes of this zone are on the order of 1:2,000.
Palimpsest sediments - Reworked sediments of the continental shelf.
Planar cross-bedding - Cross-bedding in which bounding surfaces
form more or less planar surfaces. These units are tabular or
wedge-shaped.
Pleistocene Epoch - The Epoch characterized by continental
glaciations at North America from approximately 2 million years to
10,000 ybp.
Profile envelope (active) - The range of vertical migration of the
profile due to coastal processes including waves and currents.
Quaternary Period - The Period from approximately 2 million ybp io
the recent (present) inclusive of the Pleistocene and Holocene Epochs).
Appendix A Glossary
Sheet flow - the consistent flow of sand over a flat bed during high
energy conditions.
Shoreface - See inner shelf
Surf zone - The region characterized by normal and strong agitation of
the seafloor bed by the borelike translation of waves following wave
breaking.
Trough cross-bedding - Cross-bedding in which bounding surfaces are
curved surfaces and the unit is trough-shaped.
Turbulent flow conditions - water flow in which the flow lines are
confused and heterogeneously mixed.
Wisconsinan Stage - The most recent and farthest south continental
glaciation advancement from approximately 21,500 ybp to 10,000 ybp
during the Pleistocene Epoch.
Appendix A Glossary
A3
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Appendix B
Bibliography with Respect to
Topic
This appendix is divided into 12 individual reference lists, each of
which concerns a separate piece of evidence of cross-shore sediment
transport on the inner shelf.
Individual topics demonstrating evidence of cross-shore sediment
transport on the inner shelf include Original Inner Shelf Studies (page
B1), Sedimentary Features and Stratigraphy (page B2), Significant
(Storm) Events (page B11), Sediment Transport (page B14), Shelf Coastal
Processes (page B25), Equilibrium Profile and Profile Adjustment (page
B31), Depth of Closure (page B35), Field Research Facility (page B36),
Geological Framework (page B39), Comprehensive Studies (page B42),
Organic Burrowing (page B43), and Cross-Shore Sediment Transport
Model Reference Lists ( page B44).
Original Inner Shelf Study References
Purpose
A reference list of some of the original studies concerning cross-shore
sediment transport on the inner shelf follows (subject matter of studies is
also noted):
a. Laboratory Studies
Beach Erosion Board (1947) - Laboratory study of equilibrium
beach profiles
Inman and Bowen (1963) - Sediment transport by waves and currents
Rector (1954) - Equilibrium beach profiles
b. Processes/Hydrodynamics
Arlman, Santema and Svasek (1958) - Movement of bottom
sediment by currents and waves (with radiometric tracer)
Appendix B__ Bibliography with Respect to Topic
Bi
B2
Bumpus (1965) - Residual drift along the northwestern United
States continental shelf bottom waters
Einstein and Li (1958) - Viscous sublayer along a smooth boundary
Longuet-Higgins and Stewart (1964) - Radiation stress
Manohar (1955) - Mechanisms of bottom sediment movement due to
wave action
Shepard and Inman (1950) - Nearshore water circulation related to
bottom topography and wave refraction
. Equilibrium Beach Profiles
Bascomb (1951) - Relationship between sand size and beach face
slope
Beach Erosion Board (1947) - Laboratory study of equilibrium
beach profiles
Bruun (1953) - Forms of equilibrium coasts with a littoral drift
Dietz (1963) - Wave base, marine equilibrium, and wave built
terraces
Eagleson, Glenne, and Dracup (1961) - Equilibrium profiles
offshore
Fenneman (1902) - Development of the profile of equilibrium
Johnson (1959) - Supply and loss of sand to the coast
Keulegan and Krumbein (1949) - Bottom slope configuration in
shallow water and relation to geologic processes
Rector (1954) - Equilibrium beach profiles
Tanner (1958) - The equilibrium beach
. Sediment Transport
Bruun (1962) - Sea level rise as a cause of storm erosion
Caldwell (1956) - Wave action and sand wave migration off the
California coast
Cartwright and Stride (1958) - Sand waves on the near shelf
Hall and Heron (1950) - Test of nourishment of the shore by
offshore deposition of sand
Inman (1953) - Areal and seasonal variation in beach and nearshore
sands in southern California
Inman and Risnak (1956) - Changes in sand level on beach and
shelf in southern California
Inman (1957) - Wave-generated ripples in nearshore sands
Shepard (1950) - Beach cycles in southern California
Shepard and Inman (1951) - Sand movement on the southern
California shelf
Vernon (1965) - Shelf sediment transport system
. Sediments
Gorsline (1963) - Bottom sediments of the Atlantic shelf and slope
of the southern United States
Hayes (1967) - Relation between sediment type and coastal climate
on the inner shelf
Shepard (1932) - Sediments of the continental shelves
Appendix B Bibliography with Respect to Topic
Uchupi (1963) - Sediments on the continental shelf off the eastern
U.S. coast
f. General (Comprehensive Texts)
Johnson (1919). Shore processes and shoreline development
Sverdrup, Johnson, and Fleming (1942). The oceans, their physics,
chemistry, and general biology
Sedimentary Features and Stratigraphy
References
Purpose
A reference list addressing sedimentation patterns and resulting
stratigraphic record of the inner shelf. This reference list also concerns
stratigraphic relationships preserved in the ancient rock record.
Agassiz, A. (1888). “Three cruises of the United States Coast and
Geodetic Survey Blake, Harvard Collection, Museum of Comparitive
Zoology Bulletin, 14.
Allen, J.R. L. (1976). “A model for the interpretation of wave
ripplemarks using their wavelength textural composition and shape,”
Journal of the Geological Society of America 136, 673-82.
. (1982). Sedimentary structures: Their character and
physical basis. Elsevier, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, Vols | and 2.
Allen, P. A. (1985). “Hummocky cross-stratification is not produced
purely under progressive gravity waves,” Nature 313, 562-64.
Arnott, R. W. C., and Southard, J. B. (1990). “Exploratory flow-duct
experiments on combined-flow bed configurations, and some
implications for interpreting storm-event stratification,” Journal of
Sedimentary Petrology 60, 211-19.
Ashley, G. M. (1990). “Classification of large-scale subaqueous
bedforms: A new look at an old problem,” Journal of Sedimentary
Petrology 60, 160-72.
Bernard, H. A., Le Blanc, R. J., and Major, C. F. (1962). “Recent and
Pleistocene geology of southwest Texas,” Houston Geology Society,
175-224.
Appendix B Bibliography with Respect to Topic B3
B4
Bourgeois, J. (1980). “A transgressive shelf sequence exhibiting
hummocky stratification: The Cape Sebastian sandstone (Upper
Cretaceous), southwestern Oregon,” Journal of Sedimentary Petrology
50, 681-702.
Boersma, J. R. (1970). “Distinguishing features of wave-ripple
cross-stratification and morphology,” Ph.D. diss., University of Utrecht.
Brenchley, P. J. (1985). “Storm influenced sandstone beds,” Modern
Geology 9, 369-96.
ENON . (1989). “Storm sedimentation,” Geology Today, 133-37.
Brenchley, P. J., and Newall, G. (1982). “Storm-influenced inner-shelf
sand lobes in the Caradoc (Ordovician) of Shropshire, England,”
Journal Sed. Petrology 52, 1257-69.
Brown, P. J., Ehrlich, R., and Colquhoun, D. J. (1980). “Origin of
patterns of quartz sand types on the southeastern United States
continental shelf and implications on contemporary shelf
sedimentation—Fourier grain shape analysis,” Journal of Sedimentary
Petrology, Vol 50, pp 1095-1100.
Cacchione, D. A., Drake, D. A., Grant, W. D., and Tate, G. B. (1984).
“Rippled scour depressions on the inner Continental Shelf off Central
California,” Journal of Sedimentary Petrology 54, (4), 1280-91.
Campbell, C. V. (1966). “Truncated wave-ripple laminae,” Jour. Sed.
Petrology 36, 825-28.
Carlson, P. R., Molnia, B. F., Kittelson, S. C., and Hampson, J. C., Jr.
(1977). “Distribution of bottom sediments on the continental shelf,
northern Gulf of Alaska,” U.S. Geological Survey Misc. Field Studies
Map MF-876.
Cartwright, D. E., and Stride, A. H. (1958). “Large sand waves near the
edge of the continental shelf,” Nature 181, 41.
Cheel, R. J. (1991). “Grain fabric in hummocky cross-stratified storm
beds: Genetic implications,” Journal of Sedimentary Petrology 61,
69-76.
Cheel, R. J., and Leckie, D. A. (1992). “Coarse-grained storm beds of
the Upper Cretaceous Chungo Member (Wapiabi Formation), southern
Alberta, Canada,” Journal of Sedimentary Petrology 62, (6), 933-45.
Clifton, H. E. (1969). “Beach lamination: Nature and origin,” Marine
Geology 7, 553-59.
Appendix B_ Bibliography with Respect to Topic
. (1976). “Wave-formed sedimentary structures - a
conceptual model,” SEPM Special Publication 24 - Beach and
Nearshore Processes, R. A. Davis and R. L. Ethington, eds., United
States Geological Survey, Menlo Park, CA.
Clifton, H. E., and Dingler, J. R. (1984). “Wave-formed structures and
paleoenvironmental reconstruction,” Marine Geology 60, 165-98.
Clifton, H. E., Hunter, R. E., and Phillips, R. L. (1971). “Depositional
structures and processes in the non-barred high-energy nearshore,”
Journal of Sedimentary Petrology 41, (3), 651-70.
Davidson-Arnott, R. G. D., and Greenwood, B. (1974). “Bedforms and
structures associated with bar topography in the shallow-water wave
environment, Kouchibouguac Bay, New Brunswick, Canada,” Journal
of Sedimentary Petrology 44, 698-704.
. (1976). “Facies relationships on a barred coast,
Kouchibouguac Bay, New Brunswick, Canada.” Beach and nearshore
sedimentation. Society of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists
Special Publication, R. A. Davis and R. L. Ethington, eds., 24, 149-68.
Dingler, J. R. (1974). “Wave-formed ripples in nearshore sands,” Ph.D.
diss., Univ. Calif., San Diego, 136.
Dingler, J. R., and Inman, D. L. (1977). “Wave-formed ripples in
nearshore sands.” Proceedings of the 15th Conference on Coastal
Engineering. Honolulu, HI, 2109-26.
Dott, R. H., Jr., and Bourgeois, J. (1982). “Hummocky stratification:
Significance of its variable bedding sequences,” Bulletin of the
Geological Society of America 93, 663-80.
Drake, T. G. (1992). “Discrete-particle simulations of bedload
transport.” EOS: Transactions of the American Geophysical Union.
73(43), 282.
Drake, T. G., Shreve, R. L., Dietrich, W. E., Whiting, P. J., and Leopold,
L. B. (1988). “Bedload transport of fine gravel observed by
motion-picture photography,” Journal of Fluid Mechanics 192,
193-217.
Drake, T. G., Shreve, R. L., and Nelson, J. M. (1991). “Particle and fluid
velocities in a bedload layer.” EOS: Transactions of the American
Geophysical Union. Vol 72(44), 229.
Drake, T. G., and Walton, O. R. (1992). “Comparison of experimental
and simulated grain flows,” Journal of Applied Mechanics, 1-18.
Appendix B Bibliography with Respect to Topic
B5
B6
Duane, D. B, Field, M. E., Meisburger, E. P., Swift, D. J. P., and
Williams, S. J. (1972). “Linear shoals on the Atlantic Inner
Continental Shelf, Florida to Long Island.” Shelf sediment transport.
D. J. P. Swift, D. B. Duane, and O. H. Pilkey, eds., Dowd, Hutchinson
and Ross, Stroudsburg, PA.
Duke, W. L. (1985). “Hummocky cross stratification, tropical hurricanes
and intense winter storms,” Sedimentology 32, 167-94.
. (1987). “Hummocky cross-stratification, tropical
hurricanes, and intense winter storms: Reply,” Sedimentology 34,
344-59.
Duke, W. L., Arnott, R. W. C., and Cheel, R. J. (1991). “Shelf
sandstones and hummocky cross-stratification: New insights on a
stormy debate,” Geology 19, 625-28.
Eames, G. B. (1983). “The late quaternary seismic stratigraphy,
lithostratigraphy, and geologic history of a shelf-barrier-estuarine
system, Dare County, North Carolina,” M.S. thesis, East Carolina
University.
Engstrom, W.N. (1974). “Beach foreshore sedimentology and
morphology in the Apostle Islands of northern Wisconsin,” Journal of
Sedimentary Petrology 44, (1), 190-206.
Evans, O. F. (1941). “The classification of wave-formed ripple marks,”
Journal of Sedimentary Petrology 11, 37-41.
. (1942). “The relation between the size of wave-formed
ripple marks, depth of water, and the size of generating waves,”
Journal of Sedimentary Petrology 12, 31-35.
Field, P. M. E., Nelson, C. H., Cacchione, D. A., and Drake, E. (1981).
“Sandwaves on an epicontinental shelf: Northern Bering Sea,” Marine
Geology 42, 233-58.
Field, M. E., and Roy, P. S. (1984). “Offshore transport and sand-body
formation: Evidence from a steep, high energy shoreface, Southeastern
Australia,” Journal of Sedimentary Petrology 54, 1292-1302.
Figueiredo, A. G., Swift, D. J. P., Stubblefield, W. L., and Clarke, T. L.
(1981). “Sand ridges on the inner Atlantic shelf of North America:
Morphometric comparisons with Huthnance Stability Model,”
Geomarine Letters 1, 187-91.
Flemming, B. W. (1980). “Sand transport and bedform patterns on the
continental shelf between Durban and Port Elizabeth (Southeast
African Continental Margin),” Sedimentary Geology 26, 179-205.
Appendix B_ Bibliography with Respect to Topic
Goldring, R., and Bridges, P. (1973). ‘“Sublittoral sheet sandstones,”
Journal of Sedimentary Petrology 43, 736-47.
Gorsline, D. S. (1963). “Bottom sediments of the Atlantic shelf and
slope off the southern United States,” Journal of Geology 71, 422-40.
Green, M. O. (1987). “Low energy bedload transport,” Ph.D. diss.,
Marine Science Department, College of William and Mary, VA.
Greenwood, B., and Hale, P. B. (1980). “Depth of activity, sediment
flux, and morphological change in a barred nearshore environment.”
The coastline of Canada. S.B. McCann, ed., Geological Survey of
Canada, Paper 80-10.
Greenwood, B., and Osborne, P. D. (1991). “Equilibrium slopes and
cross-shore velocity asymmetries in a storm-dominated, barred
nearshore system,” Marine Geology 96, 211-35.
Greenwood, B., and Sherman, D. J. (1986). “Hummocky cross-
stratification in the surf zone: Flow parameters and bedding genesis,”
Sedimentology 33, 33-45.
Hamblin, A. P., and Walker, R. G. (1979). “Storm-dominated shallow
marine deposits: The Fernie-Kootenay (Jurassic) transition, Southern
Rocky Mountains,” Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 16, 1673-90.
Harms, J. C. (1975). “Stratification produced by migrating bedforms,”
Depositional Environments as Interpreted from Primary Sedimentary
Structures and Stratification Sequences: Society of Economic
Paleontologists and Mineralogists Short Course No. 2, 45-61.
Harms, J. C., Southard, J. B., and Walker, R. G. (1982). “Shallow marine
environments - A comparison of some ancient and modern examples.”
Structures and sequences in clastic rocks. Lecture Notes for Short
Course No. 9, J. C. Harms, J. B. Southard, and R. G. Walker, eds.,
Society of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists.
Higgs, R. (1990). “Is there evidence for geostrophic currents preserved
in the sedimentary record of inner to middle shelf deposits? -
Discussion,” Journal of Sedimentary Petrology 60,(4), 630-32.
Howard, J. D., and Reineck, H. E. (1972). “Georgia coastal region,
Sapelo Island, USA. Sedimentology and biology; IV. Physical and
biogenic structures of the nearshore shelf,” Senckenb. Marine 4,
81-123.
_ (1981). “Depositional facies of high-energy beach-to-
offshore sequence: Comparison with low-energy sequence,” Bulletin
of American Association of Petroleum Geologists 65, 807-30.
Appendix B_ Bibliography with Respect to Topic
B7
B8
Hunter, R. E., and Clifton, H. E. (1982). “Cyclic deposits and hummocky
cross stratification of probable storm origin in upper cretaceous rocks
of the Cape Sebastian Area, Southwestern Oregon,” Journal of
Sedimentary Petrology 52, 127-43.
Hunter, R. E., Clifton, H. E., and Phillips, R. L. (1979). “Depositional
processes, sedimentary structures, and predicted vertical sequences in
barred nearshore systems, Southern Oregon Coast,” Journal of
Sedimentary Petrology 49, 711-26.
Hunter, R. E., Thor, D. R., and Swisher, M. L. (1982). “Depositional and
erosional features of the inner shelf, Northeastern Bering Sea,”
Geologie en Mijnbouw 61, 49-62.
Inman, D. L. (1957). “Wave-generated ripples in nearshore sands,”
CERC Technical Memorandum 100, U.S. Army Engineer Waterways
Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS.
Johnson, D. W. (1919). Shore processes and shoreline development.
John Wiley and Sons, New York.
Kachel, N. B. (1980). “A time-dependent model of sediment transport
and strata formation on a continental shelf,” Ph.D. diss., University of
Washington, Seattle.
Keulegan, G. H. (1945). “Depths of offshore bars,” Engineering Notes
No. 28, U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station,
Vicksburg, MS.
Klein, G. D., and Marsaglia, K. M. (1987). “Hummocky cross
stratification, tropical hurricanes and intense winter storms:
Discussion,” Sedimentology 34, 333-37.
Komar, P. D., and Milier, M. C. (1975). “The initiation of oscillatory
ripple marks and the development of plane-bed at high shear stresses
under waves,” Journal of Sedimentary Petrology 45, 697-703.
Komar, P. D., Neudeck, R. H., and Kulm, L. D. (1972). “Observations
and significance of deep-water oscillatory ripple marks on the Oregon
continental shelf.” Shelf sediment transport. D.J. P. Swift and
O. Pilkey, eds., Dowden, Hutchinson and Ross, Stroudsburg, PA.
Kuenen, P. D. (1939). “The cause of coarse deposits on the outer edge of
the shelf,” Geologie en Mijnbrow 18, 36-39.
Kulm, L. D., Rousch, R. C., Hartlett, J. C, Neudeck, R. H., Chambers,
D. M., and Runge, E. J. (1975). “Oregon continental shelf
sedimentation: Interrelationships of facies distribution and sedimentary
processes,” Journal of Geology, 145-75.
Appendix B_ Bibliography with Respect to Topic
Leckie, D. A., and Krystinik, L. F. (1989). “Is there evidence for
geostrophic currents preserved in the sedimentary record of inner to
middle-shelf deposits?” Journal of Sedimentary Petrology 59, 862-70.
Liu, J. T, and Zarillo, G. A. (1989). “Partitioning of shoreface sediment
grain-sizes.” Coastal Sediments ’87. 1533-48.
Luternauer, J. L., and Pilkey, O. H. (1967). “Phosperite grains: Their
application to the interpretation of North Carolina shelf
sedimentation,” Marine Geology 5, 315-20.
McBride, R. A., and Moslow, T. F. (1991). “Origin, evolution, and
distribution of shoreface sand ridges, Atlantic inner shelf, USA,”
Marine Geology 97, 57-85.
McBride, E. F., Shepherd, R. G., and Crawley, R. (1975). “Origin of
parallel near-horizontal laminae by migration of bedforms in a small
flume,” Journal of Sedimentary Petrology 45, 132-39.
McCave, I. N. (1971). “Wave effectiveness at the sea bed and its
relationship to bed-forms and deposition of mud,” Journal of
Sedimentary Petrology 41(1), 89-96.
Miller, M. C., and Komar, P. D. (1980). “A field investigation of the
relationship between oscillation ripple spacing and the near-bottom
water orbital motions,” Journal of Sedimentary Petrology 50, 0183-91.
Mogridge, G. R., and Kamphuis, J. W. (1972). “Experiments on bed
form generation by wave action.” Proceedings of the 13th Conference
on Coastal Engineering. American Society of Civil Engineers,
1123-42.
Moore, D. G., and Scruton, P. C. (1957). “Minor internal structures of
some recent unconsolidated sediments,” Bulletin of American
Association of Petroleum Geologists 41, 2723-51.
Morang, A., and McMaster, R. L. (1980). “Nearshore bedform patterns
along Rhode Island from side-scan sonar surveys, Journal Sed.
Petrology 50, 831-40.
Morton, R. A., and Winker, C. D. (1979). “Distribution and significance
of coarse biogenic and clastic deposits on the Texas inner shelf.” Gulf
Coast Association of Geological Societies Transactions. 29, 136-46.
Niedoroda, A. W., Swift, D. J. P., and Thorne, J. A. (1989). “Modeling
shelf storm beds: Controls of bed thickness and bedding sequence.”
Gulf Coast Section of the Society of Economic Paleontologists and
Mineralogists Foundation Seventh Annual Research Conference
Proceedings, April 1, 1989. 15-39.
Appendix B —_ Bibliography with Respect to Topic
B9
Nittrouer, C. A., and Sternberg, R. W. (1981). “The formation of
sedimentary strata in an allochthonous shelf environment: The
Washington continental shelf,” Marine Geology 42, 201-32.
Nottvedt, A., and Kreisa, R. D. (1987). “Model for the combined-flow
origin of hummocky cross-stratification,” Geology 15, 357-61.
Nummedal, D., and Snedden, J. W. (1987). “Sediment exchange between
the shoreface and continental shelf - Evidence from the modern Texas
coast and the rock record.” Coastal Sediments ’87. 2110-25.
Osborne, R. H., Yeh, C. C., and Lu, Y. (1991). “Grain-shape analysis of
littoral and shelf sands, southern California.” Proceedings of a
Specialty Conference on Quantitative Approaches to Coastal Sediment
Processes. American Society of Coastal Engineers, New York, 846-59.
Osborne, R. H., and Yeh, C. C. (1991). “Fourier grain-shape analysis of
coastal and inner continental-shelf sand samples: Oceanside littoral
cell, southern Orange and San Diego Counties, southern California,”
Sedimentary Geology 46, 51-66.
Reineck, H. E., and Singh, I. B. (1971). “Der Golf von Gaeta/
Tyrrhenisches Meer.III. Die Gefuge von Vorstand-und
Schelfsedimenten,” Senckenb. Marine 3, 185-201.
. (1972). “Genesis of laminated sand and graded rhythmites
in storm-sand layers of shelf mud,” Sedimentology 18, 123-28.
Riggs, S. R. (1979). “A geologic profile of the North Carolina coastal-
inner shelf system.” Ocean outfall wastewater disposal feasibility and
planning. Institute for Coastal and Marine Sciences, East Carolina
University, Report No. 5.
Riggs, S. R., and O’Connor, M. P. (1974). “Relict sediment deposits in a
major transgressive coastal system,” North Carolina Sea Grant
Publication No. UNC-SG-74-04, 37.
Rubin, D. M. (1987). “Cross-bedding, bedforms, and paleocurrent.”
Society of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists, Concepts in
Sedimentology and Paleontology. Volume 1.
Sallenger, A. H. (1979). “Inverse grading and hydraulic equivalence in
grain-flow deposits,” Journal of Sedimentary Petrology 49, 553-62.
Schmittle, J. M. (1982). “Depositional facies relationships on a barred,
moderately high-energy beach and shoreface zone, Duck, North
Carolina,” Senior’s thesis, Allegheny College, Meadville, PA.
B10
Appendix B__ Bibliography with Respect to Topic
Schwartz, R. K., Hobson, R., and Musialowski, F. R. (1981).
“Subsurface facies of a modern barrier island shoreface and
relationship to the active nearshore profile,” Northeastern Geology
3(3/4), 283-96.
Shepard, F. P. (1932). “Sediments on the continental shelves,”
Geological Society of America Bulletin 43, 1017-39.
Sherman, D. J., and Greenwood, B. (1984). “Boundary roughness and
bedforms in the surf zone,” Marine Geology 60, 199-218.
Shipp, C. R. (1984). “Bedforms and depositional sedimentary structures
of a barred nearshore system, eastern Long Island, New York,” Marine
Geology 60, 235-59.
Short, A. D. (1984). “Beach and nearshore facies: Southeast Australia,”
Marine Geology 60, 261-82.
Shreve, R. L., and Drake, T. G. (1990). “Particle motions during bedload
transport of binary mixtures of coarse sand and fine gravel.” EOS:
Transactions of the American Geophysical Union. Vol 71, 1344.
Southard, J. B., and Boguchwal, L. A. (1990). “Bed configurations in
steady unidirectional water flows; Part 2, Synthesis of flume data,”
Journal of Sedimentary Petrology 60, 658-79.
Southard, J. B., Lambie, J. M., Federico, D. C., Pile, H. T., and Weidman,
C.R. (1990). “Experiments on bed configurations in fine sands under
bidirectional purely oscillatory flow, and the origin of hummocky
cross-stratification,” Journal of Sedimentary Petrology 60, 1-17.
Swift, D. J. P., and Freeland, G. L. (1978). “Mesoscale current lineations
on the inner shelf middle Atlantic bight of North America,” Journal of
Sedimentary Petrology 48, 1257-66.
Swift, D. J. P., and Nummedal, D. (1987). “Hummocky cross-
stratification, tropical hurricanes, and intense winter storms:
Discussion,” Sedimentology 34, 338-44.
Swift, D. J. P., and Rice, D. P. “Sand bodies on muddy shelves: A model
for sedimentation in the Cretaceous Western Interior Seaway, North
America,” R.W. Tillman, ed., Society of Economic Paleontologists and
Mineralogists Special Publication, Ancient Shelf Sedimentary
Sequences, in press.
Swift, D. J. P., Figueiredo, A. G., Freeland, G. L., and Oertel, G. F.
(1983). “Hummocky cross-stratification and megaripples: A
geological double standard?,” Journal of Sedimentary Petrology 53,
1295-1317.
Appendix B Bibliography with Respect to Topic Bit
Swift, D. J. P., Freeland, G. L., and Young, R. A. (1979). “Time and
space distribution of megaripples and associated bedforms, middle
Atlantic Bight, North American Atlantic Shelf,” Sedimentology 26,
389-406.
Swift, D. J. P., Thorne, J. A., and Oertel, G. F. (1986). “Fluid processes
and sea-floor response on a modern storm-dominated shelf: Middle
Atlantic shelf of North America; Part II, Response of the shelf floor,”
R. J. Knight and J. R. McLean, eds., Shelf sands and sandstone
reservoirs," Canadian Society of Petroleum Geologists Memoir No. 11,
191-211.
Tillman, R. W., and Martinsen, R. S. “Shannon sandstone, Hartzog draw
field core study,” Shelf sands and sandstone reservoirs: SEPM short
course No. 13, R. D. Tillman, D. J. P. Swift, and R. G. Walker, eds.,
135-240.
Uchupi, E. (1963). “Sediments on the continental margin off eastern
United States,” United States Geological Survey Professional Paper
475-C, C132-C137.
. (1968). “Atlantic continental shelf and slope of the United
States - Physiography,” United States Geological Survey Professional
Paper 529-C, C1-C29.
. (1970). “Atlantic continental shelf and slope of the United
States - Shallow structure,” United States Geological Survey
Professional Paper 529-I, 11-144.
Walker, R. G. (1984). “Shelf and shallow marine sands.” Facies models,
R. G. Walker, ed., 141-70.
. (1985). “Geological evidence for storm transportation and
deposition on ancient shelves,” Shelf sands and sandstone reservoirs:
SEPM Short Course No. 13, R. W. Tillman, ed., 243-302.
. (1967). “Turbidite sedimentary structures and their
relationship to proximal and distal depositional environments,” Journal
of Sedimentary Petrology 37, 25-43.
Walker, R. G., Duke, W. L., and Leckie, D. A. (1983). “Hummocky
stratification: Significance of its variable bedding sequences:
Discussion and reply,” Geological Society of America Bulletin 94,
1245-51.
Whiting, P. J., Dietrich, W. E., Leopold, L. B., Drake, T. G., and Shreve,
R. L. (1988). “Bedload sheets in heterogeneous sediment,” Geology
16, 105-08.
Bi2
Appendix B_ Bibliography with Respect to Topic
Williams, S. J. (1976). “Geomorphology, shallow subbottom structure,
and sediments of the Atlantic Inner Continental Shelf off Long Island,
New York,” CERC Technical Paper No. 76-2, U.S. Army Engineer
Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS.
Wright, L. D. (1993). “Micromorphodynamics of the inner continental
shelf: A Middle Atlantic Bight case study,” Journal of Coastal
Research - Spec. Issue 15, in press.
Wright, L. D., Short, A. D., and Green, M. O. (1985). “ Short-term
changes in the morphologic states of beaches and surf zones: An
empirical model,” Marine Geology 62, 339-64.
Significant (Storm) Event References
Purpose
A reference list addressing the effect of significant events (storms) on
cross-shore sediment transport and shelf sedimentation. (References
contained in this list are also included in other reference lists included in
this bibliography.)
Brenchley, P. J. (1985). “Storm influenced sandstone beds,” Modern
Geology 9, 369-96.
. (1989). “Storm sedimentation,” Geology Today, 133-37.
Brooks, D. A. (1983). “The wake of Hurricane Allen in the western Gulf
of Mexico,” Journal of Physical Oceanography 13, 117-29.
Cacchione, D. A., and Drake, D. E. (1982). “Measurements of storm-
generated bottom stresses on the continental shelf,” Journal of
Geophysical Research 87, 1952-60.
Cacchione, D. A., Grant, W. D., Drake, D. E., and Glenn, S. M. (1987).
“Storm-dominated bottom boundary layer dynamics on the Northern
California continental shelf: Measurements and predictions,” Journal
of Geophysical Research 92, 1817-27.
Dupre, W. R. (1985). “Geologic effects of Hurricane Alicia (August 18,
1983) on the upper Texas coast.” Transactions of the Gulf Coast
Association of Geological Society. Vol 35, 353-60.
Figueiredo, A. G., Sanders, J., and Swift, D. J. P. (1981b). “Storm-
graded layers on inner continental shelves: Examples from southern
Brazil and the Atlantic coast of the central United States,” Sedimentary
Geology 31, 187-91.
Appendix B Bibliography with Respect to Topic B13
Forristall, G. Z. (1974). “Three-dimensional structure of storm-generated
currents,” Journal of Geophysical Research 79, 2721-29.
Forristall, G. Z., Hamilton, R. C., and Cardone, V. J. (1977).
“Continental shelf currents in Tropical Storm Delia: Observations and
theory,” Journal of Physical Oceanography 7, 532-34.
Gagan, M. K., Chivas, A. R., and Herczag, A. L. (1990). “Shelf-wide
erosion, deposition, and suspended sediment transport during Cyclone
Winifred, central Great Barrier Reef, Australia,” Journal of
Sedimentary Petrology 60, 456-70.
Green, M. O., Boon, J. D., List, J. H., and Wright, L. D. (1988). “Bed
response to fairweather and stormflow on the shoreface.” Proceedings
of the Twenty-First Coastal Engineering Conference. American Society
of Civil Engineers, 1508-21.
Hayes, M. O. (1967). “Hurricanes as geologic agents; case studies of
Hurricanes Carla, 1961 and Cindy, 1963,” Univ. Texas Bureau
Economic Geology Rept. Inv. No. 61, 56.
Hubbard, D. K. (1992). “Hurricane-induced sediment transport in
open-shelf tropical systems—An example from St. Croix, U.S. Virgin
Islands,” Journal of Sedimentary Petrology 62 (6) 946-60.
Keen, T. R., and Slingerland, R. L. “A numerical study of sediment
transport and event bed genesis during Tropical Storm Delia,” Journal
of Geophysical Research, in press.
. (1993). “Four storm-event beds and the tropical cyclones
that produced them: A numerical hindcast,” Journal of Sedimentary
Petrology 63, 218-32.
Lavelle, J. W., Swift, D. J. P., Gadd, P. E., Stubblefield, W. L., Case,
F. N., Brashear, H. R., and Haff, K. W. (1976). “Fair-weather and
storm transport on the Long Island New York, inner shelf,”
Sedimentology 29, 323-842.
Madsen, O. S., Wright, L. D., Boon, J. D., and Chisholm, T. A. “Wind
stress, bed roughness, and sediment suspension on the inner shelf
during an extreme storm event,” Continental Shelf Research, in press.
Morton, R. A. (1981). “Formation of storm deposits by wind-forced
currents in the Gulf of Mexico and the North Sea.” International
Association of Sedimentologists. 385-96.
. (1988). “Nearshore responses to great storms,” Geological
Society of America Special Paper No. 229, 7-22.
Bi4
Appendix B_ Bibliography with Respect to Topic
Murray, S. P. (1970). “Bottom currents near the coast during Hurricane
Camille,” Journal of Geophysical Research 75, 4579-82.
Reitneck, H. E., and Enos, P. (1968). “Hurricane Betsy in the Florida-
Bahama Area: Geological effects and comparison with Hurricane
Donna,” Journal of Geology 76, 710-17.
Rodolfo, K. S., Buss, B. A., and Pilkey, O. H. (1971). “Suspended
sediment increase due to Hurricane Gerda in continental shelf waters
off Cape Lookout, North Carolina,” Journal of Sedimentary Petrology
41, 1121-25.
Snedden, J. W., Nummedal, D., and Amos, F. A. (1988). “Storm- and
fair-weather combined flow on the central Texas continental shelf,”
Journal of Sedimentary Petrology 58, 580-95.
Swift, D. J. P., Han, G., and Vincent, C. E. (1986). “Fluid processes and
sea-floor response on a modern storm-dominated shelf: Middle
Atlantic shelf of North America; Part I, The storm-current regime.”
Shelf sands and sandstones. R. J. Knight and J. R. McLean, eds.,
Canadian Society of Petroleum Geologists Memoir 11, 99-120.
Swift, D. J. P., Thorne, J. A., and Oertel, G. F. (1986). “Fluid processes
and sea-floor response on a modern storm-dominated shelf: middle
Atlantic shelf of North America; Part II, Response of the shelf floor,
Shelf sands and sandstone reservoirs. R. J. Knight and J. R. McLean,
eds., Canadian Society of Petroleum Geologists Memoir No. 11,
191-211.
Vaughn, N. D., Johnson, T. C., Mearns, D. L., Hine, A. C., Kirby-Smith,
W., Ustach, J. F., and Riggs, S. R. (1987). “The impact of Hurricane
Diana on the North Carolina continental shelf,” Marine Geology, 76,
169-76.
Vincent, C. E. (1986). “Processes affecting sand transport on a storm-
dominated shelf.” Shelf sands and sandstones, Canadian Society of
Petroleum Geologists Memoir 11, R. J. Knight and J. R. Mclean, eds.,
121-32.
Wells, J. T., Park, Y. A., and Choi, J. H. (1985). “Storm-induced fine
sediment transport, west coast of South Korea” Geomarine Letters 4,
177-80.
Winkelmolen, A. M., and Veenstra, H. J. (1980). “The effect of a storm
surge on near-shore sediments in the Ameland-Schiermonnikoog Area
(N. Netherlands),” Geol. Mijnbouw 59,(2), 97-111.
Wright, L. D., Boon, J. D., Green, M. O., and List, J. H. (1986).
“Response of the mid shoreface of the southern Mid-Atlantic Bight to a
northeaster,” Geomarine Letters 6, 153-60.
B1
Appendix B___ Bibliography with Respect to Topic 2
Sediment Transport References
Purpose
A reference list addressing cross-shore sediment transport on the
shoreface.
Aagaard, T. (1988). “A study of nearshore bar dynamics in a low-energy
environment: Northern Zealand, Denmark,” Journal of Coastal
Research 4, 115-28.
Anders, F. J., and Clausner, J. E. (1989). “Physical monitoring of
nearshore sand feeder berms,” Coastal Engineering Technical Note
CETN II-20, U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station,
Vicksburg, MS.
Arlman, J. J., Santema, P., and Svasek, J. N. (1958). “Movement of
bottom sediment in coastal waters by currents and waves:
Measurements with the aid of radioactive tracers in The Netherlands,”
Technical Memorandum No. 105, Coastal Engineering Research
Center, U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station,
Vicksburg, MS.
Adams, C. E., and Weatherly, G. L. (1981). “Suspended sediment
transport and benthic boundary layer dynamics,” Marine Geology 42,
1-18.
Aubrey, D. G. (1979). “Seasonal patterns of onshore/offshore sediment
movement,” Journal of Geophysical Research 84, 6347-54.
Bailard, J. A. (1981). “An Energetics Total Load Sediment Transport
Model for a Plain Sloping Beach,” Journal of Geophysical Research
86, 10,938-10,954.
. (1982). “An energetics total load sediment transport model
for a plane sloping beach,” Final Technical Note NCEL-TN- 1626,
Naval Civil Engineering Lab., Port Hueneme, CA.
. (1985). “Simple models for surf zone sediment transport,”
Final Report NCEL-TN-1740, Naval Civil Engineering Lab., Port
Hueneme, CA.
Bagnold, R. A. (1947). “Sand movement by waves: Some small-scale
experiments with sand of very low density,” Journal of the Institute of
Civil Engineering, Paper 5554, 447-69.
. (1963). “Mechanics of marine sedimentation.” The sea.
Vol 3, M.N. Hill, ed., Wiley-Interscience, New York.
Bi
6 Appendix B Bibliography with Respect to Topic
_____. (1966). “An approach to the sediment transport problem
from general physics,” U.S. Geological Survey Prof. Paper 422-1, 40.
Beach, R. A., and Sternberg, R. W. (1991). “Infragravity driven
suspended sediment transport in the swash, inner and outer-surf zone.”
Proceedings of a Specialty Conference on Quantitative Conference
Location. American Society of Coastal Engineers, New York, 114-28.
Beydoun, Z. R. (1976). “Observations on geomorphology, transportation
and distribution of sediments in western Lebanon and its continental
shelf and slope regions,” Marine Geology 21(4), 311-24.
Bowen, A. J. (1980). “Simple models of nearshore sedimentation: Beach
profile and longshore bars,” The coastline of Canada. S.B. McCann,
ed., Geological Survey of Canada, Paper 80-10.
Boyd, R. (1981). “Sediment dispersal on the N.S.W. continental shelf,”
Proceedings of the 17th International Conference of Coastal
Engineering, Sydney. 1364-81.
Brooks, D. A. (1983). “The wake of Hurricane Allen in the western Gulf
of Mexico,” Journal of Physical Oceanography 13, 117-29.
Bruun, P. (1988). “Profile nourishment: its background and economic
advantages,” Journal of Coastal Research 4, 219-28.
Butman, B., Noble, M., and Folger, D. W. (1977). “Observations of
bottom current and bottom sediment movement on the mid-Atlantic
continental shelf.” Transactions of the American Geophysical Union.
58(6).
___. (1979). “Long-term observations of bottom currents and
bottom sediment movement on the middle Atlantic continental shelf,”
Journal of Geophysical Research 84, 1187-1205.
Caldwell, J. M. (1956). ‘““Wave action and sand movement near Anaheim
Bay, California,” Technical Memorandum No. 68, Coastal Engineering
Research Center, U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station,
Vicksburg, MS.
Channon, R. D., and Hamilton, D. (1976). “Wave and tidal current
sorting of shelf sediments southwest of England,” Sedimentology 23,
17-42.
Chesnutt, C. B., and Stafford, R. P. (1978). “Laboratory effects in beach
studies; Vol VI, Movable-bed experiments with H, = 0.004,”
Miscellaneous Report 77-7, Coastal Engineering Research Center, U.S.
Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS.
B17
Appendix B_ Bibliography with Respect to Topic
Christofferson, J. B., and Jonsson, I. G. (1985). “Bed friction and
dissipation in a combined current and wave motion,” Ocean
Engineering 12(5), 387-423.
Clifton, H. E. (1977). “Interpreting paleoenergy levels from sediment
deposited on ancient wave-dominated shelves.” Shelf sands and
sandstones. R. J. Knight and J. R. McLean, eds.
Cook, D. O., and Gorsline, D. S. (1972). “Field observations of sand
transport by shoaling waves,” Marine Geology 13, 31-55.
Creager, J. S., and Sternberg, R. W. (1972). “Specific problems in
understanding bottom sediment distribution and dispersal on the
continental shelf.” Shelf sediment transport. D. J. P. Swift, D. B.
Duane, and O. H. Pilkey, eds., Dowd, Hutchinson and Ross,
Stroudsburg, PA.
Dean, R. G. (1973). “Heuristic models of sand transport in the surf
zone.” Proceedings of the 1st Australian Conference of Coastal
Engineering, Sydney, Australia. 208-14.
Deigaard, R., Hedegaard, I. B., Anderson, O. H., and Presdoe, J. (1989).
“Engineering models for coastal sediments transport.” Sediment
Transport Modeling: Proceedings of the International Symposium.
172-77.
Drake, D. E., Cacchione, D. A., and Karl, H. A. (1985). “Bottom
currents and sediment transport on the San Pedro Shelf, California,”
Journal of Sedimentary Petrology 55, 15-28.
Drake, D. E., Kolpack, R. L., and Fischer, P. J. (1972). “Sediment
transport on the Santa Barbara-Oxnard shelf, Santa Barbara Channel,
California.” Shelf Sediment transport: Process and pattern. D. J. P.
Swift, D. B. Duane, and O. H. Pilkey, eds., Dowden, Hutchinson &
Ross, Stroudsburg, PA, 301-32.
Duke, W. L. (1990). “Geostrophic circulation or shallow marine
turbidity currents? The dilemma of paleoflow patterns in
storm-influenced prograding shoreline systems,” Journal of
Sedimentary Petrology 60(6), 870-83.
Dupre, W.R. (1985). “Geologic effects of Hurricane Alicia (August 18,
1983) on the upper Texas coast.” Transactions of the Gulf Coast
Association of Geological Societies. Vol 35, 353-60.
Einstein, H. A., and Li, H. (1958). “The viscous sublayer along a smooth
boundary.” American Society Civil Engineers Transactions. No. 123,
293-317.
B18 Appendix B__ Bibliography with Respect to Topic
Figueiredo, A. G., Jr., Sanders, J. E., and Swift, D. J. P. (1982).
“Storm-graded layers on inner continental shelves; Examples from
southern Brazil and the Atlantic coast of the central United States,”
Sedimentary Geology 31, 171-90.
Gadd, P. E., Lavelle, J. W., and Swift, D. J. P. (1978). “Estimate of sand
transport on the New York shelf using near bottom current meter
observations,” Journal of Sedimentary Petrology 48, 239-52.
Gagan, M. K., Chivas, A. R., and Herczag, A. L. (1990). “Shelf-wide
erosion, deposition, and suspended sediment transport during Cyclone
Winifred, central Great Barrier Reef, Australia,” Journal of
Sedimentary Petrology 60, 456-70.
Gao, S., and Collins, M. (1992). “Net sediment transport patterns
inferred from grain-size trends, based upon definition of transport
vectors,” Sedimentary Geology 80, 47-60.
Grant, W. D., and Madsen, O. S. (1979). “Combined wave and current
interaction with a rough bottom,” Journal of Geophysical Research 84,
1797-1808.
Green, M. O. (1987). “Low energy bedload transport, southern
Mid-Atlantic Bight,” Ph.D. diss., Department of Marine Science,
College of William and Mary," Gloucester Point, VA, 162.
Green, M. O., Boon, J. D., List, J. H., and Wright, L. D. (1988). “Bed
response to fairweather and stormflow on the shoreface.” Proceedings
of the Twenty-First Coastal Engineering Conference. American Society
of Civil Engineers, 1508-21.
Greenwood, B., and Mittler, G. A. (1984). “Sediment flux and
equilibrium slopes in a barred nearshore,” Marine Geology 60, 79-98.
Hails, J. R. (1974). “A review of some current trends in nearshore
research,” Earth-Science Reviews 10, 171-202.
Hall, J. V,. and Herron, W. J. (1950). “Test of nourishment of the shore
by offshore deposition of sand: Long Beach, New Jersey,” Technical
Memorandum No. 17, Coastal Engineering Research Center, U.S.
Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS.
Hallermeier, R. J. (1981). “Seaward limit of significant sand transport by
waves: An annual zonation for seasonal profiles,” Coastal Engineering
Technical Aid 81-2, Coastal Engineering Research Center, U.S. Army
Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS.
Hamblin, D. P., and Walker, R. G. (1979). “Storm-dominated shallow
marine deposits: The Fernie-Kootenay (Jurassic) transition, southern
Rocky Mountains,” Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 16, 1673-89.
Appendix B Bibliography with Respect to Topic B19
Hands, E. B. (1991). “Unprecedented migration of a submerged mound
off the Alabama Coast.” Proceedings of the Twelfth Annual Conference
of the Western Dredging Association and the Twenty-fourth Annual
Texas A&M Dredging Seminar. May 15-17, 1991, Las Vegas, NV.
Hands, E. B., and Allison, M. C. (1991). “Mound migration in deeper
water and methods of categorizing active and stable depths.” Coastal
Sediments 91. 1985-99.
Hands, E. B., and Bradley, K. P. (1990). “Results of monitoring the
disposal berm at Sand Island, Alabama; Report 1, Construction and
first year’s response,” Technical Report DRP-90-2, U.S. Army
Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS.
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suspended sand concentration in a wave dominated nearshore
environment,” Continental Shelf Research 6, 585-96.
Hansen, M., and Lillycrop, W. J. (1988). “Evaluation of closure depth
and its role in estimating beach fill volumes.” Proceedings of Beach
Preservation Technology ’88. Florida Shore and Beach Preservation
Association, 107-14.
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deposition of sand, Long Branch, New Jersey,” Technical
Memorandum No. 62, Coastal Engineering Research Center, U.S.
Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS.
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sediment type on the inner continental shelf,” Marine Geology 5,
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Japanese Conference on Coastal Engineering. 24, 254.
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of Finnmark, North Norway,” Journal of Sedimentary Petrology 42,
318-24.
B20 Appendix B__ Bibliography with Respect to Topic
Howard, J. D. (1972). “Nearshore sedimentary processes as geologic
studies.” Shelf sediment transport: Process and pattern. D. J. P. Swift,
D. Duane, and O. H. Pilkey, eds., Dowden, Hutchinson, and Ross,
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Hsaio, S. V., and Shemdin, O. H. (1980). “Interaction of ocean waves
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Hubbard, D. K. (1992). “Hurricane-induced sediment transport in
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beach and shelf at LaJolla, California,” Beach Erosion Board Tech.
Memo No. 82, Coastal Engineering Research Center, U.S. Army
Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS, 121.
Inman, D., Swift, D., and Duane, D. (1973). “Water motion and
water-sediment interaction,” Offshore Nuclear Power Siting
Workshop, Report No. Wash-1280, 1-15.
Inman, D. L., Winant, C. D., Guza, R. T., and Flick, R. E. (1981).
“Fluid-sediment interactions on beaches and shelves,” Progress Report
S10-REF-81-27, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, La Jolla, CA.
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bedforms composed of cohesionless material and produced by shearing
flow,” Bulletin of the Geological Society of America 86, 1523-33.
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wave-graded shelf, Rousillon, France,” Marine Geology 42, 279-99.
Johnson, J. W. (1977). “The supply and loss of sand to the coast.”
Proceedings of the American Society of Civil Engineers. 85(WW3).
Juhnke, L., Mitchell, T., and Piszker, M. J. (1989). “Construction and
monitoring of nearshore disposal of dredged material at Silver Strand
State Park, San Diego, California,” Proceedings of 22nd Annual
Dredging Seminar. Texas A&M University, College Station. 24-35.
Appendix B__ Bibliography with Respect to Topic
B21
Kachel, N. B., and Smith, J. D. (1989). “Sediment transport and
deposition on the Washington continental shelf,” Coastal
oceanography of Washington and Oregon. M.R. Landry and B.M
Hickey, eds., Elsevier, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 287-348.
Kana, T. W. (1979). “Suspended sediment in breaking waves,” Technical
Report TR-18-CRD, Army Research Office, Triangle Park, NC.
Keen, T. R., and Slingerland, R. L. (1993). “Four storm-event beds and
the tropical cyclones that produced them: A numericai hindcast,”
Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, 63, 218-32.
. “A numerical study of sediment transport and event bed
genesis during Tropical Storm Delia,” Journal of Geophysical
Research, in press.
Komar, P. D., and Miller, M. C. (1973). “The threshold of sediment
movement under oscillatory water waves,” Journal of Sedimentary
Petrology 43, 1101-10.
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Proceedings of the 14th Conference on Coastal Engineering. Am. Soc.
Civil Engineers, 756-75.
Kraus, N. C. (1992). “Engineering approaches to coastal sediment
transport processes.” Proceedings of the Short Course on Design and
Reliability of Coastal Structures, 23rd International Coastal
Engineering Conference. Tecnoprint snc, Bologna, Italy, 175-209.
Kraus, N. C., Farinato, R. S., and Horikawa, K. (1981). “Field
experiments on the longshore sand transport rate — on-offshore
distribution and time-dependent effects.” 27th Japanese Conference on
Coastal Engineering 24, 236.
Keulegan, G. H. (1948). “An experimental study of submarine sand
bars,” Technical Report No. 3, Beach Erosion Board, Coastal
Engineering Research Center, U.S. Army Engineer Waterways
Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS.
Kumar, N., and Sanders, J. E. (1976). “Characteristics of shoreface
storm deposits: Modern and ancient examples,” Journal of
Sedimentary Petrology 46, 145-62.
Kuo, C.-T., Hwang, C.-H., and Tseng, I-Chou. (1987). “Experimental
study on on-offshore sediment transport of accretive beach.”
Proceedings of the 20th Coastal Engineering Conference. American
Society of Coastal Engineers, New York, 2, 1311-22.
B22 ids
Appendix B Bibliography with Respect to Topic
Kuo, C.-T., Su, C.-F., and Liu, G.-Y. (1980). “An experimental study on
onshore-offshore sand drift.” 27th Japanese Conference on Coastal
Engineering 24, 235.
Larsen, L. H., Sternberg, R. W., Shi, N. C., Madsen, M. H., and Thomas,
L. (1981). “ Field investigations of the threshold of grain motions by
ocean waves and currents,” Marine Geology 42, 237-50.
Larsen, L. H. (1982). “A new mechanism for seaward dispersion of
mid-shelf sediments.” Sedimentology 29, 279-84.
Lavelle, J. W., Swift, D. J. P., Gadd, P. E., Stubblefield, W. L., Case,
F. N., Brashear, H. R., and Haff, K. W. (1976). “Fair-weather and
storm transport on the Long Island, New York, inner shelf,”
Sedimentology 29, 323-842.
Ludwick, J. C. (1977). “Jet-like coastal currents and bottom sediment
transport off Virginia Beach, Virginia.” Transactions of the American
Geophysical Union. 58, 508.
Ludwick, J.C. (1978). “Coastal currents and an associated sand stream
off Virginia Beach,” Journal of Geophysical Research 83 (C5),
2365-72.
Madsen, O. S., and Grant, W. D. (1976). “Sediment transport in the
coastal environment,” Report 209, Ralph M. Parsons Laboratory,
Department of Civil Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of
Technology.
Manohar, M. (1955). “Mechanics of bottom sediment movement due to
wave action,” Beach Erosion Board Tech. Memo. No. 75, Coastal
Engineering Research Center, U.S. Army Engineer Waterways
Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS, 121.
McCave, I. N. (1972). “Transport and escape of fine-grained sediment
from shelf areas.” “Shelf sediment transport: Process and pattern.”
D. J. P. Swift, D. B. Duane, and O. H. Pilkey, eds., Dowden,
Hutchinson, and Ross, Stroudsburg, PA, 225-48.
McLellan, T. N., Pope, M. K., and Burke, C. E. (1990). “Benefits of
nearshore placement.” Proceedings of the 3rd National Conference on
Beach Preservation Technology. Florida Shore and Beach Preservation
Association, Tallahassee, FL.
McClennen, C. F. (1973). “New Jersey continental shelf near bottom
current meter records and recent sediment activity,” Journal of
Sedimentary Petrology 43, 371-80.
B23
Appendix B__ Bibliography with Respect to Topic
Meisburger, E. P. (1989). “Possible interchange of sediments between a
beach and offlying linear shoal,” Technical Report CERC-89-6, U.S.
Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS.
Miller, M. C., McCave, I. N., and Komar, P. D. (1977). “Threshold of
sediment motion under unidirectional currents,” Sedimentology 24,
507-24.
Morton, R. A. (1981). “Formation of storm deposits by wind-forced
currents in the Gulf of Mexico and the North Sea,” International
Association of Sedimentologists, 385-96.
. (1988). “Nearshore responses to great storms,” Geological
Society of America Special Paper No. 229, 7-22.
Murray, S. P. (1966). “Effects of particle size and wave state on grain
dispersion,” Technical Report TR-7, Fluid Dynamics and Sediment
Transport Lab., Chicago University, Chicago, IIl.
Niedorada, S. W., Swift, D. J. P., Hopkins, T. S., and Ma, C. (1984).
“Shoreface morphodynamics on wave-dominated coasts,” Marine
Geology 60(1-4), 331-54.
Nielsen, P. (1983). “Entrainment and distribution of different sand sizes
under water waves,” Journal of Sedimentary Petrology 53, 423-28.
. (1984). “Field measurements of time-averaged suspended
sediment concentrations under waves,” Coastal Eng. 8, 51-72.
Oertel, G. F., and Howard, J. D. (1972). “Water circulation and
sedimentation at estuary entrances on the Georgia coast.” Shelf
sediment transport: Process and pattern. D. J. P. Swift, D. B. Duane,
and O. H. Pilkey, eds., Dowden, Hutchinson & Ross, Stroudsburg, PA,
411-27.
Osborne, P. D., and Greenwood, B. “Sediment suspension under waves
and currents: time scales and vertical structure,” Sedimentology
(submitted).
Osborne, R. H., and Cho, K. H. (1989). “Sedimentology of a composite
inner-shelf sand body resulting from the resuspension of nearshore
sediment by episodic, storm-generated currents.” Proceedings of
Coastal Zone ’89. American Society of Civil Engineers, 4391-4405.
Pearson, D. R., and Riggs, S. R. (1981). “Relationship of surface
sediments on the lower forebeach and nearshore shelf to beach
nourishment at Wrightsville Beach, North Carolina,” Shore and Beach
49, 26-31.
B24
Appendix B Bibliography with Respect to Topic
Pilkey, O. H. (1968). “Sedimentation processes on the Atlantic
Southeastern United States continental shelf,” Maritime Sediments 4,
49-51.
Pilkey, O. H., and Field, M. E. (1972). “Onshore transportation of
continental shelf sediment: Atlantic Southeastern United States,” Shelf
Sediment Transport, D. J. P. Swift, D. B. Duane, O. H. Pilkey, eds.,
Dowd, Hutchinson and Ross, Stroudsburg, PA.
Poyitt, A. D. (1982). “A preliminary study of morphodynamic aspects of
the nearshore zone,” bachelor’s thesis, University of Sydney.
Pruazak, Z. (1989). “On-offshore bed-load sediment transport in the
coastal zone,” Coastal Engineering 13, 273-92.
Reineck, H. E., and Enos, P. (1968). “Hurricane Betsy in the Florida-
Bahama Area: Geological effects and comparison with Hurricane
Donna,” Journal of Geology 76, 710-17.
Richmond, B. M., and Sallenger, A. H., Jr. (1985). “Cross-shore
transport of bimodal sands.” Proceedings of the 19th Coastal
Engineering Conference. American Society of Coastal Engineers, New
York 2, 1997-2008.
Rodolfo, K. S., Buss, B. A., and Pilkey, O. H. (1971). “Suspended
sediment increase due to Hurricane Gerda in continental shelf waters
off Cape Lookout, North Carolina,” Journal of Sedimentary Petrology
AED TE25"
Roy, P. S., and Stephens, A. W. (1980). “Responses of sediment and
morphology to nearshore processes Southeastern Australia.”
International Conference on Coastal Engineering. American Society of
Coastal Engineers, New York, 74-75.
Sawaragi, T., and Deguchi, I. (1980a). “On-offshore sediment transport
rate in the surf zone.” National Conference Publication-Institution of
Engineers. American Society of Coastal Engineers, New York,
256-57.
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zone.” Coastal Engineering- 1980, 1194-1214.
Schwartz, R. K. (1981). “Transport of sediment placed at different water
depths in the nearshore zone - Currituck sand bypass study (Phase II),”
unpublished report, U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment
Station, Vicksburg, MS.
Schwartz, R. K., and Musialowski, F. R. (1977). “Nearshore disposal:
Onshore sediment transport.” Proceedings of the Fifth Symposium on
Coastal Sediments ’77. American Society of Civil Engineers, 85-101.
Appendix B_ Bibliography with Respect to Topic
B25
”
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Report No. CERC-REPRINT-78-6, Coastal Engineering Research
Center, U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station,
Vicksburg, MS.
. (1980). “Transport of dredged sediment placed in the
nearshore zone - Ccurrituck sand-bypass study (Phase I),” Technical
Paper No. 80-1, U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station,
Vicksburg, MS.
Schweitzer, J. (1982). “Storm deposits of a modern barrier island
shoreface and upper inner shelf, ” term paper, Field Research Facility,
Coastal Engineering Research Center, U.S. Army Engineer Waterways
Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS.
Seymour, R. J. (1986). “Results of cross-shore transport experiments,”
Journal of Waterway, Port, Coastal & Ocean Engineering 112(1),
168-73.
Shepard, F. P. (1932). “Sediments of the continental shelves,” Bulletin of
the Geological Society of America 43, 1017-40.
. (1950). “Beach cycles in southern California,” Beach
Erosion Board Technical Memorandum No. 20, Coastal Engineering
Research Center, U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station,
Vicksburg, MS.
Shepard, F. P., and Inman, D. L. (1951). “Sand movement on the shallow
inter-canyon shelf at La Jolla, California,” Beach Erosion Board
Technical Memorandum No. 26, Coastal Engineering Research Center,
U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS.
Silvester, R. (1970). “Modelling of sediment motions offshore,” Journal
of Hydraulic Research 8(2), 229-59.
Smith, J. D. (1977). “Modeling of sediment transport on continental
shelves,” The sea. Vol 6, E. D. Goldberg, ed., Wiley-Interscience, New
York, 539-76.
Smith, J. D., and Hopkins, T. S. (1972). “Sediment transport on the
continental shelf off of Washington and Oregon in light of recent
current measurements.” Shelf sediment transport: Process and
pattern. D. J. P. Swift, D. B. Duane, and O. H. Pilkey, eds., Dowden,
Hutchinson and Ross, Stroudsburg, PA.
Snedden, J. W., Nummedal, D., and Amos, F. A. (1988). “Storm- and
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Journal of Sedimentary Petrology 58, 580-95.
Appendix B Bibliography with Respect to Topic
Southard, J. B., and Cacchione, D. A. (1972). “Experiments on bottom
sediment movement by breaking internal waves.” Shelf sediment
transport. D. J. P. Swift, D. B. Duane, and O. H. Pilkey, eds.,
Dowden, Hutchinson and Ross, Stroudsburg, PA.
Stanley, D. J., Fenner, P., and Kelling, G. (1972). “Currents and
sediment transport at the Wilmington canyon shelfbreak, as observed
by underwater television.” Shelf sediment transport. D. J. P. Swift and
O. Pilkey, eds., Dowden, Hutchinson and Ross, Stroudsburg, PA,
601-19.
Stauble, D. K. (1992). “Long-term profile and sediment
morphodynamics: Field Research Facility case history,” Technical
Report CERC-92-7, U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment
Station, Vicksburg, MS.
Stauble, D. K., Garcia, A. W., Kraus, N. C., Grosskopf, W. G., and Bass,
G. P. (1993). “ Beach nourishment project response and design
evaluation: Ocean City, Maryland; Report 1, 1988-1992,” Technical
Report CERC-93-13, U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment
Station, Vicksburg, MS.
Sternberg, R. W. (1967). “Measurements of sediment movement and
ripple migration in a shallow marine environment,” Marine Geology 5,
195-205.
. (1972). “Predicting initial motion and bedload transport of
sediment particles in the shallow marine environment,” Shelf sediment
transport. D. J. P. Swift, D. B. Duane, and O. H. Pilkey, eds., Dowd,
Hutchinson and Ross, Stroudsburg, PA.
Sternberg, R. W., and Larsen, L. H. (1976). “Frequency of sediment
movement on the Washington continental shelf: A note,” Marine
Geology 21, M37-M47.
Sternberg, R. W., and McManus, D. A. (1972). “Implications of sediment
dispersal from long-term bottom current measurements on the
continental shelf of Washington.” Shelf sediment transport. D.J. P.
Swift, D. B. Duane, and O. H. Pilkey, eds., Dowd, Hutchinson and
Ross, Stroudsburg, PA.
Sternberg, R. W., Creager, J. S., Glassley, W., and Johnson, J. (1977).
“Investigation of the hydraulic regime and physical nature of bottom
sedimentation: Appendix A,” Technical Report D-77-30, U.S. Army
Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS.
Stive, M. J. F., and Batties, J. A. (1984). “Model for offshore sediment
transport.” 19th International Conference on Coast Engineering,
Houston, TX, 22.
Appendix B Bibliography with Respect to Topic
B27
Stubblefield, W. L., Permenter, R. W., and Swift, D. J. P. (1977). “Time
and space variation in the surficial sediments of the New York Bight
apex.” Estuarine and Coastal Marine Science. 597-607.
Swart, D. H. (1974). “A schematization of onshore-offshore transport,”
Report No. PUBL-134, Delft Hydraulics Lab., The Netherlands.
. (1974). “A schematization of onshore-offshore transport,”
Proceedings of the 14th International Conference on Coastal
Engineering. American Society of Civil Engineers, 884-900.
Swift, D. J. P. (1972). “Implications of sediment dispersal from bottom
current measurements; some specific problems in understanding
bottom sediment distribution and dispersal on the continental shelf - A
discussion of two papers,” Shelf sediment transport. D. J. P. Swift,
D. B. Duane, and O. H. Pilkey, eds., Dowd, Hutchinson and Ross,
Stroudsburg, PA.
. (1975). “Response of the shelf floor to flow,” Shelf sands
and sandstone reservoirs: SEPM short course No. 13, R. D. Tillman,
D. J. P. Swift, and R. G. Walker, eds., 135-240.
. (1976). “Coastal sedimentation.” Marine sediment
transport and environmental management. D. J. Stanley and D. J. P.
Swift, eds., John Wiley and Sons, New York, 255-350.
Swift, D. J. P., and Niedoroda, A. W. (1985). “Fluid and sediment
dynamics on continental shelves.” Shelf sands and sandstone
reservoirs: SEPM short course No. 13, R. D. Tillman, D. J. P. Swift,
and R. G. Walker, eds., 47-132.
Swift, D. J. P., Ludwick, J. C., and Boehmer, W. R. (1972). “Shelf
sediment transport: A probability model.” Shelf sediment transport.
D. J. P. Swift, D. B. Duane, and O. H. Pilkey, eds., Dowd, Hutchinson
and Ross, Stroudsburg, PA.
Swift, D. J. P., Young, R. A., Clarke, T., Vincent, C. E., Niedoroda, A.,
and Lesht, B. (1981). “Sediment transportation in the middle Atlantic
Bight of North America: Synopsis of recent observations.” Holocene
marine sedimentation in the north sea basin. International Association
of Sedimentologists Special Publication No. 5, 361-63.
Tillman, R. W. (1985). “A spectrum of shelf sands and sandstones,”
SEPM short course notes No.13 - shelf sands and sandstone reservoirs.
R. W. Tillman, D. J. P. Swift, and R. G. Walker, eds., 1-45.
Trowbridge, J. (1989). “Sand transport by unbroken water waves under
sheet flow conditions,” Journal of Geophysical Research 94 (10)
971-91.
B28
Appendix B Bibliography with Respect to Topic
Tubman, M. W., and Suhayda, J. N. (1976). “Wave action and bottom
movements in fine sediments,” Proc. 15th Coastal Engin. Conference
ASCE, Honolulu, 1168-83.
Twichell, D. C. (1983). “Bedform distribution and inferred sand
transport on Georges Bank, United States Atlantic continental shelf,”
Sedimentology 30, 695-710.
U.S. Department of Commerce (1984). “Nearshore sediment transport
study, Torrey Pines experiment,” Tech Note NTN84-00017,
Department of Commerce, Washington, DC.
Vernon, J. W. (1965). “Shelf sediment transport system,” Final Report
USC-GEOL-65-2, University of Southern California, Los Angeles,
Dept. of Geology.
Vincent, C. E., Swift, D. J. P., and Hillard, B. (1981). “Sediment
transport in the New York Bight, North American Atlantic shelf,”
Marine Geology 42, 369-98.
Vincent, C. E., Young, R. A., and Swift, D. J. (1982). “On the relationship
between bedload and suspended sand transport on the inner shelf, Long
Island, New York,” Journal of Geophysical Research 87, 4163-70.
. (1983). “Sediment transport on the Long Island shoreface,
North American Atlantic shelf: Role of waves and currents in
shoreface maintenance,” Continental Shelf Research 2, 163-81.
Walker, R. G. (1984). “Shelf and shallow marine sands.” Facies models.
R. G. Walker, ed., Geological Association of Canada, Toronto, 141-70.
Wells, J. T., Park, Y. A., and Choi, J. H. (1985). “Storm-induced fine
sediment transport, west coast of South Korea,” Geo Marine Letters 4,
177-80.
Wiberg, P. L., and Smith, J. D. (1987). “Calculations of the critical shear
stress for motion of uniform and heterogeneous sediments,” Water
Resources Research 23, 1471-80.
Windon, H. L., and Gross, T. F. (1989). “Flux of particulate aluminum
across the southeastern U.S. continental shelf,” Estuarine Coastal Shelf
Science 28(6), 327-38.
Winkelmolen, A. M., and Veenstra, H. J. (1980). “The effect of a storm
surge on near-shore sediments in the Ameland-Shiermonnikoog area
(N. Netherlands),” Geologie en Mijnbovw 59(2), 97-111.
Williams, S. J., and Meisburger, E. P. (1987). “Sand sources for the
transgressive barrier coast of Long Island, New York: Evidence for
landward transport of shelf sediments,” Proceedings of Coastal
Appendix B Bibliography with Respect to Topic B29
Sediments ’87. American Society of Civil Engineers, New York,
1517-32.
Wright, L. D. (1987). “Shelf-surfzone coupling: Diabathic shoreface
transport.” Coastal Sediments ’87. American Society of Civil
Engineers, 85-101.
Wright, L. D., Boon, J. D., Kim, S. C., and List, J. H. (1991). “Modes of
cross-shore sediment transport on the shoreface of the Middle Atlantic
Bight,” Marine Geology 96, 19-51.
Shelf Coastal Processes References
Purpose
A reference list addressing coastal processes and associated currents
which affect cross-shore transport of sediment on the inner shelf.
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Cacchione, D. A., and Drake, D. E. (1982). “Measurements of storm-
generated bottom stresses on the continental shelf,” Journal of
Geophysical Research 87, 1952-60.
B30 = ; :
Appendix B Bibliography with Respect to Topic
Cacchione, D. A., Grant, W. D., Drake, D. E., and Glenn, S. M. (1987).
“Storm-dominated bottom boundary layer dynamics on the northern
California continental shelf: Measurements and predictions,” Journal
of Geophysical Research 92, 1817-27.
Chaung, W. S., Wang, D. P., and Boicourt, W. C. (1979). “Low
frequency current variability on the southern Mid-Atlantic Bight,”
Journal of Physical Oceanography 9, 1144-54.
Clark, T. L., Lesht, B., Young, R. A., Swift, D. J. P., and Freeland, G. L.
(1982). “Sediment resuspension by surface wave action: An
examination of possible mechanisms,” Marine Geology 49, 43-59.
Curtin, T. (1979). “Oceanographic observations in North Carolina
coastal waters.” Ocean outfall wastewater disposal feasibility and
planning. Report No. 5, Institute for Coastal and Marine Sciences,
East Carolina University, 71-89.
Davidson-Arnott, R. G. D., and McDonald, R. A. (1989). “Nearshore
water motion and mean flows in a multiple parallel bar system,”
Marine Geology 86, 321-38.
Davidson-Arnott, R. G. D., and Randall, D.C. (1984). “Spatial and
temporal variations in spectra of storm waves across a barred
nearshore,” Marine Geology 60, 15-30.
Dingler, J. R. (1979). “The threshold of grain motion under oscillatory
flow in a laboratory wave channel,” Journal of Sedimentary Petrology
49, 287-94.
Einstein, H. A., and Chien, N. (1955). “The viscous sublayer along a
smooth boundary.” ASCE Trans. 123, 293-317.
Ewing, J. A. (1973). “Wave-induced bottom currents on the outer shelf,”
Marine Geology 15, M31-M35.
Forristall, G. Z. (1974). “Three-dimensional structure of storm-generated
currents,” Journal of Geophysical Research 79, 2721-29.
Forristall, G. Z., and Reece, A. M. (1985). “Measurements of wave
attenuation due to a soft bottom: the SWAMP experiment,” Journal of
Geophysical Research 90(C2), 3367-80
Forristall, G. Z., Hamilton, R. C., and Cardone, V. J. (1977).
“Continental shelf currents in Tropical Storm Delia: Observations and
theory,” Journal of Physical Oceanography 7, 532-34.
Appendix B Bibliography with Respect to Topic Bai
Goldsmith, V. (1976). “Continental shelf wave climate models: a critical
link between shelf hydraulics and shoreline processes.” Beach and
Nearshore Sedimentation, Nearshore Process - Physical and
Biological. R..A. Davis, ed., SEPM Spec. Pub. No. 23, 39-60.
Gordon, R.L. (1982). “Coastal ocean current response to storm winds,”
Journal of Geophysical Research 87, 1939-51.
Grant, W.D., and Madsen, O.S. (1979). “Combined wave and current
interaction with a rough bottom,” Journal of Geophysical
Research 84(C4), 1797-1808.
. (1986). “The continental shelf bottom boundary layer,”
Annual Review Fluid Mechanics 18, 265-305.
Green, M.O., and Boon, J.D. “Response characteristics of a short-range,
high resolution, digital sonar altimeter,” Marine Geology, in press.
Greenwood, B., and Osborne, P.D. (1990). “Vertical and horizontal
structure in cross-shore flows: An example of undertow and wave
set-up on a barred beach,” Coastal Engineering 14, 543-80.
Greenwood, B., and Sherman, D.J. (1984). “Waves, currents, sediment
flux and morphological response in a barred nearshore system,” Marine
Geology 60, 31-61.
Gross, M.G., Morse, B.A., and Barnes, C.A. (1969). “Movement of near
bottom waters on the continental shelf off of the northwestern United
States,” Journal of Geophysical Research 74, 7044-47.
Guza, R.T., and Thornton, E.B. (1985a). “Observations of surf beat,”
Journal of Geophysical Research 90, 3161-72.
. (1985). “Velocity moments in the nearshore,” American
Society of Civil Engineers Journal of Waterways, Port, and Coastal
Ocean Engineering 111, 235-56.
Halpern, D. (1976). “Structure of a coastal upwelling event observed off
Oregon during July, 1973,” Deep Sea Research 23, 495-508.
Hattori, M., and Kawamata, R. (1980). “Onshore-offshore transport and
beach profile change.” Proceedings of the 17th Coastal Engineering
Conference. American Society of Civil Engineers, New York, 1175- 93.
Hazen, D.G., Greenwood, B., and Bowen, A.J. (1991). “Nearshore
current patterns on barred beaches.” Proc. 22nd Coastal Eng. Conf.
(Delft, The Netherlands). American Society Civil Engineers, 2061-72.
B32 sf
Appendix B Bibliography with Respect to Topic
Jensen, J.K., and Sorensen, T. (1973). “Measurements of sediment
suspension in combinations of waves and currents.” Proceedings of
the 13th Conference of Coastal Engineering. 1097-1104.
Karl, H.A. (1976). “Processes influencing transportation and deposition of
sediments on the continental shelf, southern California, Los Angeles,
unpublished Ph.D. diss., University of California.
Karl, H.A., Carlson, P.R., and Cacchione, D.A. (1983). “Factors that
influence sediment transport at the shelfbreak.” The shelfbreak:
Critical interface on continental margins. D.J. Stanley and G.T.
Moore, eds., Society of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists,
Special Publication 33, 219-31.
Komar, P.D. (1976a). “Boundary layer flow under steady unidirectional
currents.” Marine sediment transport and environmental management.
D.J. Stanley and D.J.P Swift, eds., John Wiley and Sons, New York.
____. (1976). “The transport of cohesionless sediments on
continental shelves.” Marine sediment transport and environmental
management. D.J. Stanley and D.J.P Swift, eds., John Wiley and Sons,
New York.
Korgen, B.J., Bodvarsson, G., and Kulm, L.D. (1970). “Current speeds
near the ocean floor west of Oregon,” Deep Sea Research 17, 353-57.
Larsen, L.H. (1982). “A new mechanism for seaward dispersion of
midshelf sediments,” Sedimentology 29, 279-84.
Lavelle, J.W., Young, R.A., Swift, D.J.P., and Clarke, T.L. (1978).
“Near-bottom sediment concentration and fluid velocity measurements
on the inner continental shelf, New York,” Journal of Geophysical
Research 83, 6052-62.
Leetmaa, A. (1976). “Some simple mechanisms for steady shelf
circulation,” Marine sediment transport and environmental
management. D.J. Stanley, and D.J.P. Swift, eds., Wiley, New York,
23-28.
Longuet-Higgins, M.S., and Stewart, R.W. (1964). “Radiation stresses in
water waves: A physical discussion with applications,” Deep Sea
Research 11, 529-62.
Madsen, O.S., and Grant, W.D. (1975). “The threshold of sediment
movement under oscillatory waves, a discussion,” J. Sediment. Petrol.
45, 360-61.
Madsen, O.S., Wright, L.D., Boon, J.D., and Chisholm, T.A. “Wind
stress, bed roughness, and sediment suspension on the inner shelf
during an extreme storm event,” Continental Shelf Research, in press.
Appendix B___Bibliography with Respect to Topic
B33
MacDonald, T.C. (1977). “Sediment suspension and turbulence in an
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California, Berkeley, Hydraulic Engineering Lab.
Mason, C., Sallenger, A.H., Holman, R.A., and Birkemeier, W.A. (1984).
“Duck’82 -a coastal storm processes experiment.” Proceedings of 19th
Coastal Engineering Conference. American Society of Coastal
Engineers, New York, 2, 1913-28.
Murray, S.P. (1970). “Bottom currents near the coast during Hurricane
Camille,” Journal of Geophysical Research 75, 4579-82.
Neshyba, S. (1987). Oceanography: Perspectives on a fluid earth. John
Wiley and Sons, New York.
Niedoroda, A.W., and Swift, D.J.P. (1981). “Maintenance of the
shoreface by wave orbital currents and mean flow: Observations from
the Long Island coast,” Geophysical Research Letters 8(4), 337-40.
Osborne, P.D., and Greenwood, B.(1992a). “Frequency dependent
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Schubel, J.R., and Okubo, A. (1972). “Some comments on the dispersal
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Schwing, F.B., Kjerfve, B.J., and Sneed, J.E. (1983). “Nearshore coastal
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B34 Appendix B Bibliography with Respect to Topic
Shepard, F.P., and Inman, D.L. (1950). ““Nearshore water circulation
related to bottom topography and wave refraction.” EOS - Transactions
of the American Geophysical Union 31, 196-212.
Shi, N.C., and Larsen, L.H. (1984). “Reverse sediment transport induced
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Smith, J.D., and Hopkins, T.S. (1972). “Sediment transport on the
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Stefansson, U., Atkinson, L.P., and Bumpus, D.F. (1971). “Hydrographic
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Sternberg, R.W. (1972). “Predicting initial motion and bedload transport
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Stive, M.J.F., and Wind, H.G. (1986). “‘Cross-shore mean flow in the surf
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Swift, D.J.P. “Fluid and sediment dynamics on continental shelves,”
Shelf sands and sand-stone reservoirs, Society of Economic
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Swift, D.J.P., and Niedoroda, A. (1985). “Fluid and sediment dynamics
on continental shelves.” Shelf Sands and Sandstone Reservoirs, Society
of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists, R..W. Tillman, et.al.,
eds., SEPM Short Course No. 13," 47-134.
Swift, D.J.P., Han, G., and Vincent, C.E. (1986). “Fluid processes and
sea-floor response on a modern storm-dominated shelf: Middle
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Shelf Sands and Sandstones. R.J . Knight and J.R. McLean, eds.,
Canadian Society of Petroleum Geologists Memoir 11, 99-120.
se ; B35
Appendix B_ Bibliography with Respect to Topic
Tanaka, H., and Shuto, N. (1987). “Velocity measurements of
wave-current combined motion over an asymmetric rippled bed.”
Coastal Sediments ’87. American Society of Civil Engineers, 379-92.
Vincent, C.E. (1986). “Processes affecting sand transport on a
storm-dominated shelf.” Shelf sands and sandstones. R.J. Knight and
J.R. Mclean, eds., Canadian Society of Petroleum Geologists Memoir
P11 21-32%
Vincent, C.E., Hanes, D.M., and Bowen, A.J. (1991). “Acoustic
measurements of suspended sand on the shoreface and the control of
concentration by bed roughness,” Marine Geology 96, 1-18.
Weggel, J.R. (1972). “An introduction to oceanic water motions and their
relation to sediment transport.” Shelf sediment transport. D.J.P. Swift,
D.B. Duane, and O.H. Pilkey, eds., Dowd, Hutchinson and Ross,
Stroudsburg, PA, 1-20.
Wells, J.T., and James, M.C. (1981). “Physical processes and
fine-grained sediment dynamics, coast of Surinam, South America,”
Journal of sedimentary petrology 51, 1053.
Wiberg, P., and Smith, J.D. (1983). “A comparison of field data and
theoretical models for wave-current interactions at the bed on the
continental shelf,” Continental Shelf Research 2(2/3), 147-62.
Wright, L.D., Boon, J.D., Green, M.O., and List, J.H. (1986). “Response
of the mid shoreface of the southern Mid-Atlantic Bight to a
northeaster,” Geomarine Letters 6, 153-60.
Equilibrium Profile/Profile Adjustment
References
Purpose
A reference list addressing the concept of the profile of equilibrium.
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B36
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B38 Appendix B Bibliography with Respect to Topic
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; B39
Appendix B_ Bibliography with Respect to Topic
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B40 Appendix B_ Bibliography with Respect to Topic
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Engineering 19, 27-56.
Stive, M.J.F., and DeVriend, H.J. (1993) “Shoreface profile evolution
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Stockberger, A.C., and Woods, B.D. (1990). “Applications of equilibrium
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Coastal Engineering Conference. American Society of Civil Engineers,
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Wijnberg, K.M., and Terwindt, J. H.J. (1993) “The analysis of coastal
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Behavior ’93, U.S.G.S. Open File Report 93-381, 224-27.
Appendix B Bibliography with Respect to Topic
B41
Wright, L.D., May, S.K., Short, A.D., and Green, M.O. (1985).
“Prediction of beach and surf zone morphodynamics: Equilibria, rates
of change, and frequency response.” Proceedings of the 19th Coastal
Engineering Conference. American Society of Civil Engineers, New
York, 2150-64.
Wright, L.D., Nielsen, P., Short, A.D., Coffey, F.C., and Green, M.O.
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Wright, L.D., Short, A.D., and Green, M.O. (1985). “Short-term changes
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Depth of Closure References
Purpose
A reference list addressing characteristics of the depth of closure.
Birkemeier, W.A. (1985). “Field data on seaward limit of profile change,”
Journal of Waterway, Port, Coastal, and Ocean Engineering
111, 598-602.
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Center, U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station,
Vicksburg, MS.
. (1978). “Uses for a calculated limit depth to beach erosion.”
Proceedings of the 16th Coastal Engineering Conference. American
Society of Civil Engineers, New York, 1493-1512.
. (1981a). “Critical wave conditions for sand motion
initiation,” Coastal Eng. Tech. Aid No. 81-10, Coastal Engineering
Research Center, U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station,
Vicksburg, MS.
B42 abe .
Appendix B_ Bibliography with Respect to Topic
Hallermeier, R. J. (1981b). “A profile zonation for seasonal sand beaches
from wave climate,” Coastal Engineering 4, 253-77.
aa eS . (1981c). “Seaward limit of significant sand transport by
waves: An annual zonation for seasonal profiles,’ Coastal Engineering
Technical Aid 81-2, Coastal Engineering Research Center, U.S. Army
Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS.
Hansen, M., and Lillycrop, W.J. (1988). “Evaluation of closure depth and
its role in estimating beach fill volume.” Proceedings of Beach
Preservation Technology ’88. Florida Shore and Beach Preservation
Association, 107-14.
Kraus, N. C. (1992). “Engineering approaches to coastal sediment
transport processes.” Proceedings of the Short Course on Design and
Reliability of Coastal Structures, 23rd International Coastal
Engineering Conference. Tecnoprint snc, Bologna, Italy, 175-209.
Kraus, N.C., and Harikai, S. (1983). “Numerical model of shoreline
change at Oarai Beach,” Coastal Engineering 7(1), 1-28.
Pearson, D.R., and Riggs, S.R. (1981). “Relationship of surface
sediments on the lower forebeach and nearshore shelf to beach
nourishment at Wrightsville Beach, North Carolina,” Shore and Beach
49, 26-31.
Pilkey, O. H., Young, R. S., Riggs, S. R., Smith, A. W. S., Wu, H., and
Pilkey, W. D. (1993). “The concept of shoreface profile of
equilibrium: A critical review,” Journal of Coastal Research 9,
255-70.
Poyitt, A.D. (1982). “A preliminary study of morphodynamic aspects of
the nearshore zone,” bachelor’s thesis, University of Sydney.
Stauble, D.K., Garcia, A.W., and Kraus, N.C. (1993). “ Beach
nourishment project response and design evaluation: Ocean City,
Maryland; Report 1: 1988-1992,” Technical Report CERC-93-13, U.S.
Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS.
Stive, M.J., De Vriend, H.J., Nicholls, R.J., and Capobianco, M. (1992).
“Shore nourishment and the active zone: A time scale dependent view.”
Proceedings of the 23rd Coastal Engineering Conference. American
Society of Civil Engineers, New York.
Wright, L.D. (1987). “Shelf-surfzone coupling: Diabathic shoreface
transport.” Coastal Sediments ’87. American Society of Civil
Engineers, 85-101.
Appendix B_ Bibliography with Respect to Topic
B43
Field Research Facility References
Purpose
A reference list addressing studies performed at CERC’s Field
Research Facility at Duck, NC. Emphasis is placed on studies concerning
cross-shelf sediment transport.
Birkemeier, W. A. (1984). “A user’s guide to ISRP: The interactive
survey reduction program,” Instruction Report CERC-84-1, U.S.
Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS.
. (1985). “Time scales of nearshore profile change,”
Proceedings of the 19th Coastal Engineering Conference. American
Society of Civil Engineers, 1507-21.
. (1985). “Field data on seaward limit of profile change,”
Journal of Waterway, Port, Coastal, and Ocean Engineering 111,
598-602.
Birkemeier, W. A., Baron, C. F., Leffler, M. A., Hathaway, K. K.,
Miller, H. C., and Strider, J. B., Jr. (1989). “SUPERDUCK nearshore
processes experiment: Summary of studies,CERC Field Research
Facility,” Miscellaneous Paper CERC-89-16, U.S. Army Engineer
Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS.
Birkemeier, W.A., Dewall, A.W., Gorbics, C.S., and Miller, H.C. (1981)
“A user’s guide to CERC’s Field Research Facility,” CERC
Miscellaneous Paper CERC 81-7 , U.S. Army Engineer Waterways
Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS.
Birkemeier, W. A., and Mason, C. (1984). “The CRAB: A unique
nearshore surveying vehicle,” American Society of Civil Engineers
Journal of Surveying Engineering 110(1), 1-7.
Crowson, R. A., Birkemeier, W. A., Klein, H. M., and Miller, H. C.
(1989). “SUPERDUCK nearshore processes experiment: Summary of
studies,CERC Field Research Facility,” Technical Report CERC-88-12,
U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS.
Fleming, M. V., and DeWall, T. S. (1982). “Beach profile analysis
system (bpas),” Technical Report CERC-82-1, Vol 1, U.S. Army
Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS.
Green, M.O., Boon, J.D., List, J.H., and Wright, L.D. (1988). “Bed
response to fairweather and stormflow on the shoreface.” Proceedings
of the Twenty-First Coastal Engineering Conference. American Society
of Civil Engineers, 1508-21.
B44 hes ,
Appendix B Bibliography with Respect to Topic
Howd, P. A., and Birkemeier, W. A. (1987). “Beach and nearshore
survey data: 1981-1984,CERC Field Research Facility,” Technical
Report CERC-87-9, U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment
Station, Vicksburg, MS.
Dhol UA aa . (1987). “Storm-induced morphology change during
DUCK85.” Proceedings of Coastal Sediments ’87. American Society of
Civil Engineers, 834-47.
Kraus, N. C., Gingerich, K. J., and Rosati, J. D. (1989). “DUCK85 surf
zone sand transport experiment,” Technical Report CERC-89-5, U.S.
Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS.
Larson, M., and Kraus, N.C. (1992). “Analysis of cross-shore movement
of natural longshore bars and material placed to create longshore bars,”
Technical Report DRP-92-5, U.S. Army Engineer Waterways
Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS.
Lee, G., Birkemeier, W.A., Nicholls, R.J., and Leatherman, S.P. (1983).
“Storm-induced temporal change of beach-nearshore profiles at the
FRF, Duck NC.” Proceedings of the Hilton Head Island International
Symposium, 503-08.
Leffler, M. W., Baron, C. F., Scarborough, B. L., Hathaway, K. K., and
Hayes, R. T. (1992). “Annual data summary for 1990, CERC Field
Research Facility; Volume 1, Main text and Appendixes A and B,”
Technical Report CERC-92-3, U.S. Army Engineer Waterways
Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS.
Mason, C., Birkemeier, W.A., and Howd, P.A. (1987) “Overview of
DUCK85 nearshore processes experiment,” Coastal Sediments ’ 87.
American Society of Civil Engineers, 818-33.
Mason, C., Sallenger, A.H., Holman, R.A., and Birkemeier, W.A. (1984).
‘“DUCK82 - A coastal storm processes experiment.” Proceedings of the
Conference on Coastal Engineering. American Society of Civil
Engineers, 1913-28.
Meisburger, E. P., and Judge, C. (1989). “Physiographic and geological
setting of the Coastal Engineering Research Center’s Field Research
Facility,” Miscellaneous Paper CERC-89-9, U.S. Army Engineer
Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS.
Miller, H.C., Birkemeier, W.A., and DeWall, A.E. (1983). “Effects of
CERC Research Pier on nearshore processes.” Proceedings of the
International Conference on Coastal Structures ’83. American Society
of Civil Engineers, 765-82.
Appendix B_ Bibliography with Respect to Topic
B45
Richmond, B.M., and Sallenger, A.H., Jr. (1985). “Cross-shore transport
of bimodal sands.” Proceedings of the 19th Coastal Engineering
Conference. American Society of Coastal Engineers, New York, 2,
1997-2008.
Sallenger, A. H., Holman, R. A., and Birkemeier, W. A. (1985). “Storm
induced response of a nearshore-bar system,” Journal of Marine
Geology 64, 237-57.
Schmittle, J.M. (1982). “Depositional facies relationships on a barred,
moderately high-energy beach and shoreface zone, Duck, North
Carolina,” Senior’s thesis, Allegheny College, Meadville, PA.
Stauble, D.K. (1992). “Long term profile and sediment morphodynamics:
the FRF case history,” Technical Report CERC-92-7, U.S. Army
Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS.
Wright, L.D., 1993. “Micromorphodynamics of the inner continental
shelf: a Middle Atlantic Bight case study,” Journal of Coastal
Research - Spec. Issue 15.
Wright, L.D., Boon, J.D., Green, M.O., and List, J.H. (1986). “Response
of the mid shoreface of the southern Mid-Atlantic Bight to a
northeaster,” Geomarine Letters 6, 153-60.
Geological Framework References
Purpose
A reference list addressing regional geology of the Atlantic Coast of
the United States with emphasis on the North Carolina continental shelf
region.
Beardsley, R.C., and Boicourt, W.C. (1981) “On estuarine and continental
shelf circulation in the Middle Atlantic Bight.” Evolution of physical
oceanography. B. Warren and C. Wunch, eds., Massachusetts Institute
of Technology Press, Cambridge, 198-223.
Boicourt, W.C., and Hacker, P.W. (1976). “ Circulation on the continental
shelf of the United States, Cape May to Cape Hatteras,” Memorandum
of the Society Royal Science Liege, 16th Series, 3, 187-200.
Blankenship, J.B. (1978). “A comparison of shelf width and depth to
shelfbreak: Eastern, western and gulf coasts, United States,”
unpublished report, University of Southern California.
B46 : st F
Appendix B Bibliography with Respect to Topic
Brown, P.J., Ehrlich, R., and Colquhoun, D.J. (1980). “Origin of patterns
of quartz sand types on the southeastern United States continental shelf
and implications on contemporary shelf sedimentation—Fourier grain
shape analysis,” Journal of Sedimentary Petrology 50, 1095-1100.
Bumpus, D.F. (1965). “Residual drift along the bottom on the continental
shelf in the Middle Atlantic Bight area,” Limnology and
Oceanography, Supplement 10, R50-R53.
Butman, B., Noble, M., and Folger, D.W. (1979). “Long-term
observations of bottom currents and bottom sediment movement on the
Middle Atlantic continental shelf,” Journal of Geophysical Research
84, 1187-1205.
Crowson, R.A. (1980). “Nearshore rock exposures and their
relationships to modern shelf sedimentation, Onslow Bay, North
Carolina,” M.S. thesis, East Carolina University.
Duane, D.B, Field, M.E., Meisburger, E.P., Swift, D.J.P., and Williams,
S.J. (1972). “Linear shoals on the Atlantic inner continental shelf,
Florida to Long Island.” Shelf sediment transport, D.J.P. Swift, D.B.
Duane, and O.H. Pilkey, eds., Dowd, Hutchinson, and Ross,
Stroudsburg, PA.
Eames, G.B. (1983). “The late quaternary seismic stratigraphy,
lithostratigraphy, and geologic history of a shelf-barrier-estuarine
system, Dare County, North Carolina,” M.S. thesis, East Carolina
University.
Emery, K.O., and Uchupi, E. (1972). “Western North Atlantic Ocean:
Topography, rocks, structure, water, life and sediments,” American
Association of Petroleum Geologists Memoir 17, 1-532.
Field, M.E., Carlson, P.R., and Hall, R.K. (1983). “Seismic facies of
shelfedge deposits.” U.S. Pacific continental margin, the shelfbreak:
Critical interface on continental margins. Society of Economic
Paleontologists and Mineralogists Special Publication 33, 299-313.
Gorsline, D.S. (1963). “Bottom sediments of the Atlantic shelf and slope
off the southern United States,” Journal of Geology 71, 422-40.
Hine, A.C., and Riggs, S.R. (1986). “Geological framework, cenozoic
history, and modern prcesses of sedimentation on the North Carolina
continental margin.” Society of Economic Paleontologists and
Mineralogists Southeastern U.S. Third Annual Midyear Meeting Field
Guidebook. D. A. Textoris, ed., 129-94.
Knebel, H.J., and Folger, D.W. (1976). “Large sand waves on the
Atlantic outer continental shelf around Wilmington Canyon, off eastern
United States,” Marine Geology 22, M7-M15.
Appendix B.. Bibliography with Respect to Topic
B47
Lyall, A.K., Stanley, D.J., Giles, R.H., and Fischer, A., Jr. (1971).
“Suspended sediment and transport at the shelf-break and on the slope,
Wilmington Canyon area, eastern U.S.A., Journal of Marine
Technological Society 5, 15-27.
McIntyre, I.G.,and Pilkey, O.H. (1969). “Preliminary comments on
linear sand-surface features, Onslow Bay, North Carolina continental
shelf: Problems in making detailed seafloor observation,” Maritime
Sediments, 26-19.
Meisburger, E.P., and Williams, S.J. (1987) “Late quaternary stratigraphy
and geological character of coastal and inner shelf sediments of
northern North Carolina.” Coastal Sediments ’87. 2141-56.
Moorefield, T.P. (1978). “Geologic process and history of the Fort
Fisher coastal area, North Carolina,” M.S. thesis, East Carolina
University, Greenville.
North Carolina Department of Natural Resources. (1988). “Long-term
average annual erosion rates for the coast of North Carolina,”
Division of Coastal Management Report.
Pietrafesa, L.J. (1983). “Shelfbreak circulation, fronts and physical
oceanography: East and west coast perspectives.” The shelfbreak:
Critical interface on continental margins. Society of Economic
Paleontologists and Mineralogists Special Publication 33, 233-50.
Pilkey, O.H., MacIntyre, I.A., and Uchupi, E. (1971). “Shallow
structure: Shelf edge of continental margin between Cape Hatteras and
Cape Fear, North Carolina,” American Association Petroleum
Geologist Bull. 55 110-15.
Pearson, D.K. (1979). “Surface and shallow subsurface sediment regime
of the nearshore inner continental shelf, Nags Head and Wilmington
Areas, North Carolina, M.S. thesis, East Carolina University,
Greenville.
Pierce, J.W., and Colquhoun, D.J. (1970). Holocene evolution of a
portion of the North Carolina coast," Geological Society of America
Bulletin 81, 3697-3714.
Popenoe, P., and Ward, L.W. (1983). “Description of high-resolution
seismic reflection data collection in Albemarle and Croatan sounds,
North Carolina,” U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report, 83-513.
Riggs, S.R. (1979). “A geologic profile of the North Carolina
coastal-inner shelf system.” Ocean outfall wastewater disposal
feasibility and planning Report No. 5, Institute for Coastal and Marine
Sciences, East Carolina University.
B48 Appendix B_ Bibliography with Respect to Topic
Riggs, S.R. (1991). “Upper Cenozoic geology of the Onslow and Aurora
Embayements of North Carolina,” Upper Cenozoic Geology of the
Onslow and Aurora Embayments: Compilation of published abstracts
from the literature." North Carolina Geological Survey, Information
Circular No. 28, 3-25.
Riggs, S.R., and Cleary, W.J. (1993) “Influence of inherited geologic
framework upon barrier island morphology and shoreface dynamics.”
Large scale coastal behavior ’93. U.S.G.S. Open File Report 93-381,
173-1176.
Riggs, S.R., and O’Connor, M.P. (1974). “Relict sediment deposits in a
major transgressive coastal system,” University of North Carolina Sea
Grant Publication No. UNC-SG-74-04.
Riggs, S.R., Hine, A.C., and Snyder, S.W. (1989). “Northeastern North
Carolina barrier island and associated coastal system: Complex
products of multiple glacioustatic sea-level events.” Symposium on
Barrier Islands. Geological Society of America Abstract with
Programs 21.
Riggs, S.R., Snyder, Scott W., Mearns, D., and Hine, A.C. (1986).
“Hardbottoms: Their character and distribution in Onslow Bay, North
Carolina continental shelf,” University of North Carolina Sea Grant
Publication No. UNC-SG-86-25.
Riggs, S.W., York, L.L., Wehmiller, J.F., and Snyder, S.W. “Depositional
patterns resulting from high frequency Quaternary sea-level
fluctuations in northeastern North Carolina,” Quaternary coasts of the
United States. C.H. Fletcher and J. F. Wehmiller, eds., Society of
Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists Special Publication 28, in
press.
Rona, P.A. (1970). “Submarine canyon origin on upper continental slope
off Cape Hatteras,” Journal of Geology 78, 141-152.
Snyder, S. W. (1982). “Seismic stratigraphy within the Miocene Carolina
phosphogenic province: chronostratigraphy, paleotopographic controls,
sea-level cyclicity, gulf stream dynamics, and the resulting
depositional framework,” M.S. thesis, University of North Carolina at
Chapel Hill.
Snyder, S.W., and Riggs, S.R. (1989). “Overview of the Neogene and
Quaternary geologic history, North Carolina margin (Onslow Bay),”
North Carolina Coastal Oceanography Symposium. R.Y. George and
A.W. Hulbert, eds., National Oceanographic and Atmospheric
Administration, National Undersea Research Program, University of
North Carolina: Wilmington Research Report 89-2, 131-50.
B49
Appendix B Bibliography with Respect to Topic
Snyder, S.W., Hine, A.C., and Riggs, S.R. (1982). “Miocene seismic
stratigraphy, structural framework, and sea-level cyclicity: North
Carolina continental shelf,” Southeastern Geology 23, 247-66.
Snyder, S.W., Hine, A.C., Riggs, S.R., and Snyder, S.W. (1993).
“Miocene geology of the continental shelf, Onslow Bay, North
Carolina,” North Carolina Geological Survey Map Series No. 3.
Snyder, S.W., Hoffman, C.W., and Riggs, S.R. “Seismic stratigraphic
framework of the inner continental shelf: Mason Inlet to New Inlet,
North Carolina,” North Carolina Geological Survey Bulletin No. 94-xx,
in press.
Snyder, S. W., Snyder S.W., Riggs, S.R., and Hine, A.C. (1991).
“Sequence stratigraphy of Miocene deposits, North Carolina
continental margin, The geology of the Carolinas. Carolina Geological
Society, 50th Anniversary Volume, J.W. Horton, V.A Zullo, eds.,
University of Tennessee Press, Knoxville, 263-73.
Stefansson, U., Atkinson, L.P., and Bumpus, D.F. (1971). “Hydrographic
properties and circulation of the North Carolina shelf and slope
waters,” Deep Sea Research 18, 383-420.
Swift, D.J.P, Duane, D.B., and McKinney, T.F. (1973). “Ridge and swale
topography of the Middle Atlantic Bight, North America: Secular
response to the Holocene hydraulic regime,” Marine Geology 15,
227-47.
Uchupi, E. (1963). “Sediments on the continental margin off eastern
United States,” United States Geological Survey Professional Paper
475-C, C132-C137.
Wells, J.T. (1988). “Accumulation of fine-grained sediments in a
periodically energetic clastic environment, Cape Lookout Bight, North
Carolina,” Journal of Sedimentary Petrology 58, 596-606.
Comprehensive Study References
Purpose
A reference list addressing comprehensive studies concerning
sedimentation and resulting stratigraphy, and depositional environments.
Allen, J.R.L (1982). Sedimentary structures: Their character and physical
basis. Elsevier, Amsterdam.
B50 A : A
Appendix B Bibliography with Respect to Topic
Niedoroda, A.W., Swift, D.J.P., and Hopkins, T.S. (1985). “The
shoreface.” Coastal sedimentary environments. R.A. Davis, Jr., ed.,
Springer-Verlag, New York, 533-624.
Reading, H.G. (1978). “Sedimentary environments and facies.” Blackwell
Scientific Publications, Oxford, England.
Reineck, H.E., and Singh, I.B. (1986). Depositional sedimentary
environments. 2nd ed., Springer-Verlag, New York, 97-103.
Shepard, F.P. 1932. “Sediments of the continental shelves,” Bulletin of
the Geological Society of America 43, 1017-40.
Sverdrup, H.U., Johnson, M.W., and Fleming, R.H. (1942). The oceans:
Their physics, chemistry, and general biology. Prentice-Hall, New
York, 1060.
Swift, D.J.P. (1976). “Continental shelf sedimentation,” Marine sediment
transport and environmental management. D.J. Stanley and D.J.P
Swift, eds., John Wiley and Sons, New York, 311-50.
Walker, R.G. (1984). “Shelf and shallow marine sands,” Facies models.
Geological Association of Canada, Toronto, 141-170.
Organic Burrowing References
Purpose
A reference list addressing organism burrowing and the resulting
structures, and the effect of burrowing on stratigraphy.
Bellis, V. (1979). “Benthic communities in North Carolina coastal
waters.” Ocean outfall wastewater disposal feasibility and planning.
Institute for Coastal and Marine Sciences, East Carolina University,
Report No. 5, 114-26.
Berger, W.H., and Heath, G.R. (1968). “Vertical mixing in pelagic
sediments,” Journal of Marine Research 26, 134-43.
Fager, E.W. (1964). “Marine sediments: Effects of a tube building
polychaete,” Science 143, 356-59.
Golding, R., and Bridges, P. (1973). “Sublittoral sheet sandstones,”
Journal of Sedimentary Petrology 43, 736-47.
B51
Appendix B_ Bibliography with Respect to Topic
Hill, G.W. and Hunter, R.E. (1976). “Interaction of biological and
geological processes in the beach and nearshore environments,
northern Padre Island, Texas.” Beach and nearshore sedimentation.
Society of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists Special
Publication No. 24.
Howard, J.D. (1972). “Trace fossils as criteria for recognizing shorelines
in stratigraphic record.” Recognition of ancient sedimentary
environments. Society of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists
Special Publication 16, 215-225.
Howard, J.D., and Reineck, H.E. (1972). “Georgia coastal region, Sapelo
Island, USA: Sedimentology and biology; IV, Physical and biogenic
sedimentary structures of the nearshore shelf,” Senckenb. Marine 4,
81-123.
Jumars, P.A., Nowell, A.R.M., and Self, R.F.L. (1981). “A simple model
of flow-sediment-organism interaction,” Marine Geology 42, 155-72.
Mayou, T.V., Howard, J.D., and Smith, K.L. (1969). “Techniques for
sampling tracks, trails, burrows, and bioturbate textures in
unconsolidated sediments,” Geological Society of America Special
Paper 121, 665-666.
Nichols, F.H. (1974). “Sediment turnover by a deposit feeding
polychaete,” Limnology and Oceanography 19, 945-50.
Nowell, A.R.M., Jumars, P.A., and Eckman, J.E. (1981). “Effects of
biological activity on the entrainment of marine sediments,”
Sedimentary Dynamics of Continental Shelves, Developments in
Sedimentology. Elsevier, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, Vol 32, 133-53.
Rhoads, D.C. (1963). “Rates of sediment reworking by Yoldia limatula
in Buzzards Bay, Massachusetts and Long Island Sound,” Journal of
Sedimentary Petrology 33, 723-27.
pele ge dnl . (1974). “Organism-sediment relations on the muddy sea
floor,” Oceanographical Marine Biological Annual Review 12,
263-300.
Rhoads, D.C., and Stanley, D.J. (1965). “Biogenic graded bedding,”
Journal of Sedimentary Petrology 35, 956-63.
Weimer, R.J., and Hoyt, J.H. (1964). “Burrows of Callianassa Major
Say, geologic indicators of littoral and shallow neritic environments,”
Journal of Paleontology 38, 761-67.
B52 Appendix B_ Bibliography with Respect to Topic
Cross-Shore Sediment Transport Model
References
Purpose
A reference list addressing numerical and physical models concerning
cross-shore sediment transport.
Capobianco, M., DeVriend, H.J., Nicholls, R.J., and Stive, M.J.F. (1993).
“Behavior-oriented models applied to long term profile evolution.”
Large scale coastal behavior ’93. U.S. Geological Survey Open File
Report 93-381, 21-24.
Clarke, T.L., Swift, D.J.P., and Young, R.A. (1982). “A numerical model
of fine sediment transport on the continental shelf,” Environmental
Geology 4, 117-29.
. (1983). “A stochastic modeling approach to shelf sediment
dispersal,” Journal of Geophysical Research 88, 9653-60.
Cowell, P.J., Roy, P.S., and Jones, R.A. (1992). “Shoreface translation
model: Computer simulation of coastal-sandbody response to sea level
rise,” Mathematics and Computers in Simulation 33, 603-08.
Dally, W.R. “A unified model for cross-shore and longshore sediment
transport,” Florida sea grant, (in press).
Davies, A.G., Soulsby, R.L., and King, H.L. (1988). “A numerical model
of the combined wave and current bottom boundary layer,” Journal of
Geophysical Research 93, 491-508.
Dean, R.G., and Maurmeyer, E.M. (1983). “Models for beach profile
response,” Handbook of coastal processes and erosion. P.D. Komar,
ed., CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 151-166.
Galt, J.A. (1971). “A numerical investigation of pressure induced storm
surges over the continental shelf,” Journal of Physical Oceanography
1, 82-91.
Hanson, H., and Kraus, N.C. (1989). “GENESIS: Generalized model for
simulating shoreline change,” Technical Report CERC-89-19, U.S.
Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS.
Keen, T.R., and Slingerland, R.L. “A numerical study of sediment
transport and event bed genesis during Tropical Storm Delia,” Journal
of Geophysical Research, in press.
Appendix B_—_ Bibliography with Respect to Topic BS3
Larson, M., and Kraus, N.C. (1989). “SBEACH: Numerical model for
simulating storm-induced beach change,” Technical Report
CERC-89-9, U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station,
Vicksburg, MS.
Leont’ev, I.O. (1985). “Sediment transport and beach equilibrium
profile,” Coastal Engineering 9(3), 277-91.
Nairn, R.B., and Southgate, H.N. (1993). “Deterministic profile modelling
of nearshore processes; Part I, Sediment transport and beach profile
development,” Coastal Engineering 19, 57-96.
Niedoroda, A.W., Reed, C.W., and Swift, D.J.P. (1993). Modeling
shore-normal large-scale coastal evolution.” Large scale coastal
behavior ’93. U.S.G.S. Open File Report 93-381, 141-44.
Niedoroda, A.W., Swift, D.J.P., and Thorne, J.A. (1989). “Modeling shelf
storm beds: Controls of bed thickness and bedding sequence.” Gulf
Coast Section of the Society of Economic Paleontologists and
Mineralogists Foundation Seventh Annual Research Conference
Proceedings, April 1, 1989. 15-39.
Seymour, R.J., and King, D.B. (1982). “Field comparison of cross-shore
transport models,” Journal of Waterway, Port, and Coastal Ocean
Division, American Society of Civil Engineers 108, 163-79.
Southgate, H.N., and Nairn, R.B. (1993). “Deterministic profile modelling
of nearshore processes; Part I, Waves and Currents,” Coastal
Engineering, 19, 27-56.
Smith, J.D. (1977). “Modeling of sediment transport on continental
shelves.” The sea. Vol 6, E.D. Goldberg, ed., Wiley-Interscience, New
York, 539-76.
Wright, L.D., Short, A.D., and Green, M.O. (1985). “Short-term changes
in the morphologic states of beaches and surf zones: An empirical
model,” Marine Geology 62, 339-64.
B54 Appendix B_ Bibliography with Respect to Topic
Appendix C
Bibliography with Respect to
Topic and Location
General References
References in this appendix concern studies performed along the
following coastlines:
North American Pacific
Bernard, Le Blanc, and Major (1962)
Bruun (1954) - California
Cacchione et al. (1984) - California
Cacchione (1987) - California
Cacchione et al. (1987) -- Northern California
Caldwell (1956) - California
Clifton (1976) - Oregon
Clifton, Hunter, and Phillips (1971) - Oregon
Dingler (1974) - California
Dingler and Inman (1977) - California
Drake, Kolpack, and Fischer (1972) - California
Drake, Cacchione, and Karl (1985) - California
Greenwood and Mittler (1984) - Canada
Gross, Morse, and Barnes (1969) - Washington, Oregon
Halpern (1976) - Oregon
Howard and Reineck (1981) - California
Hunter, Clifton and Phillips (1979) - Oregon
Inman (1953) - California
Inman (1957) - California
Inman and Risnak (1956) - California (La Jolla)
Inman, Swift, and Duane (1973) - Washington
Kachel (1980) - Washington
Komar, Neudeck, and Kulm (1972) - Oregon
Komar and Miller (1975) - Oregon
Korgen, Bodvarsson, and Kulm (1970) - Oregon
Appendix C Bibliography with Respect - Topic & Location
C2
Larsen (1982) - Washington
Miller and Komar (1980) - Oregon
Nittrouer and Sternberg (1981) - Washington
Pilkey et al. (1972) - Oregon
Seymour (1983) - California (Scripps, Torrey Pines, Santa Barbara)
Seymour (1986) - California (Scripps, Torrey Pines)
Shepard (1950) - California
Shepard and Inman (1951) - California (La Jolla)
Smith and Hopkins (1972) - Washington, Oregon
Sternberg (1972) - Washington
Sternberg and McManus (1972) - Washington
Sternberg and Larsen (1976) - Washington
U.S. Department of Commerce (1984) - California
Vernon (1965) - California
North American Atlantic
Beardsley, Butman (1974) - New England
Birkemeier (1985a) - North Carolina (Duck)
Birkemeier (1985b) - North Carolina (Duck)
Birkemeier et al. (1989) - North Carolina (Duck)
Birkemeier et al. (1991) - South Carolina
Bowen (1980) - Canada
Brown, Ehrlich, and Colquhoun (1980) - Southeast Atlantic Coast
Bumpus (1965)
Butman and Folger (1979) - Mid-Atlantic Coast
Butman, Noble, and Folger (1977) - Mid-Atlantic Coast
Crowson (1980) - North Carolina
Crowson et al. (1988) - North Carolina (Duck)
Davidson-Armott and Greenwood (1974) - Canada (New Brunswick)
Davidson-Armott and Greenwood (1976) - Canada (New Brunswick)
Davidson-Arnott and McDonald (1989) - Canada
Dean (1977) - Southeast Atlantic Coast
Duane et al. (1972)
Eames (1983) - North Carolina
Figueiredo et al. (1981)
Figueiredo, Sanders, and Swift (1982) - Central Atlantic Coast
Fleming and De Wall (1982)
Gadd, Lavelle, and Swift (1978) - New York
Gorsline (1963) - Atlantic Coast
Green et al. (1988) - North Carolina (Duck)
Greenwood and Mittler (1984) - Canada
Greenwood and Hale (1980) - Canada (New Brunswick)
Greenwood and Osborne (1991) - Canada (New Brunswick)
Hall and Herron (1950) - New Jersey
Hayden et al. (1975)
Hine and Riggs (1986) - North Carolina
Howard and Reineck (1972) - Georgia
Howard and Reineck (1981) - Georgia
Appendix C Bibliography with Respect - Topic & Location
Howd and Birkemeier (1987)
Kraus, Gingerich, and Rosati (1989) - North Carolina (Duck)
Lavelle et al. (1978) - New York
Leffler et al. (1992)
Liu and Zarillo (1987) - New York
Ludwick (1977) - Virginia
Luternauer and Pilkey (1967) - North Carolina
Madsen et al. (1993) - North Carolina (Duck)
Mason et al. (1984) - North Carolina (Duck)
Mason et al. (1984) - North Carolina (Duck)
McClennen (1973) - New Jersey
Meisburger and Judge (1989) - North Carolina (Duck)
Niedoroda and Swift (1981) - New York
Osborne and Greenwood (1992) - Canada (Nova Scotia)
Pearson and Riggs (1981) - North Carolina
Pilkey (1968) - Southeast Atlantic Coast
Pilkey and Field (1972) - Southeast Atlantic Coast
Reineck and Enos (1968) - Florida
Riggs (1979) - North Carolina
Riggs (1991) - North Carolina
Riggs and O’Connor (1974) - North Carolina
Riggs et al.. (1986) - North Carolina
Sallenger, Holman, and Birkemeier (1985)
Schmittle (1982)
Schwartz, Hobson and Musialowski (1981) - North Carolina (Topsail
Island)
Schwing, Kjerfve, and Sneed (1983) - South Carolina
Shipp (1984) - New York
Seymour (1983) - Virginia (Virginia Beach)
Snyder, Hine, and Riggs (1982) - North Carolina
Snyder and Riggs (1989) - North Carolina
Snyder et al. (1991) - North Carolina
Snyder et al. (1993) - North Carolina
Snyder, Hoffman, and Riggs (in press) - North Carolina
Stauble (1992) - North Carolina (Duck)
Stauble, Garcia, and Kraus (1993) - Maryland
Stefansson, Atkinson, and Bumpus (1971) - North Carolina
Stubblefield, Permenter, and Swift (1977) - New York
Swift and Freeland (1978) - Mid-Atlantic Coast
Swift, Freeland, and Young (1979) - Mid-Atlantic Coast
Swift, Thorne, and Oertel (1986) - Mid-Atlantic Coast
Swift et al. (1981) - New York, Maryland, Massachusetts (Nantucket)
Swift, Thorne, and Oertel (1986)
Swift, Han, and Vincent (1986) - Mid-Atlantic Coast
Twichell (1983) - Massachusetts (Georges Bank)
Vaughn et al. (1987) - North Carolina
Vincent (1986) - Mid-Atlantic Coast
Vincent, Swift, and Hillard (1981) - New York
Vincent, Young, and Swift (1982) - New York
Vincent, Young, and Swift (1983) - New York
C3
Appendix C Bibliography with Respect - Topic & Location
C4
Windom and Gross (1989) - Southeast Atlantic Coast
Uchupix (1963) - Mid-Atlantic Coast
Wright et al. (1986)
Wright et al. (1991) - North Carolina (Duck)
Wright (1993) - North Carolina (Duck)
United States Gulf of Mexico
Bernard, LeBlanc, and Major (1962) - Texas
Brooks (1983) - Texas
Dean (1977) - Eastern Gulf Coast
Dupre (1985) - Texas
Forristall, Hamilton, and Cardone (1977)
Gorsline (1963)
Hayes (1967a) - Texas
Hayes (1967b) - Texas
Hayes (1967c) - Texas
Hayden et al.. (1975)
Hill and Hunter (1976) - Texas
Keen and Slingerland (1993a) - Texas
Keen and Slingerland (1993b) - Texas
Morton (1981) - Texas, Louisiana
Morton (1988)
Morton and Winker (1979) - Texas
Murray (1970) - Mississippi
Nummedal and Snedden (1987) - Texas
Smith (1977)
Snedden, Nummedal, and Amos (1988) - Texas
North Sea
Aagaard (1988)
Arlman, Santema, and Svasek (1958)
Bruun (1954)
Morton (1981)
Reineck and Singh (1971)
Swift et al. (1981)
Winkelmolen and Veenstra (1980)
North American Great Lakes
Engstrom (1974) - Lake Superior
Hands (1979)
Hands (1980)
Hands (1981)
Hands (1983)
Hands (1984)
Appendix C Bibliography with Respect - Topic & Location
Greenwood and Sherman (1984) - Lake Huron
Greenwood and Osborne (1991) - Georgian Bay
Osborne and Greenwood (1992) - Lake Huron
Stockberger and Woods (1990)
Other Locations
Beydoun (1976) - Eastern Mediterranean Sea
Boon and Green (1989) - Caribbean
Boyd (1981) - Southeast Australia
Channon and Hamilton (1976) - Southwest England
Clifton (1976) - Southeast Spain
Cowell et al. (1983) - Southeast Australia
Field et al. (1981) - Bering Sea
Field and Roy (1984) - Southeast Australia
Figueiredo, Sanders, and Swift (1982) - Brazil
Flemming (1980) - South Africa
Gagan, Chivas, and Herczag (1990) - Southeast Australia
Gao and Collins (1992) - China
Hino, Yamashita, and Yoneyama (1981) - Japan
Hunter, Thor, and Swisher (1982) - Bering Sea
Jago and Borusseau (1981) - France
Kuo, Su, and Liu (1980) - Japan
Kuo et al. (1987) - Japan
Pae and Iwagaki (1985) - Japan
Roy and Stephens (1980) - Southeast Australia
Short (1984)
Wells and James (1981) - South America
Sediment Transport Mechanisms References
These references concern the inner-shelf mechanisms (processes)
which result in cross-shore sediment transport. Complete citations can be
found in the Coastal Processes reference list in Appendix B.
North American Pacific
Cacchione (1987) - California
Gross, Morse, and Barnes (1969) - Washington, Oregon
Halpern (1976) - Oregon
Korgen, Bodvarsson, and Kulm (1970) - Oregon
Seymour (1986) - California (Torrey Pines, Scripps)
Appendix C Bibliography with Respect - Topic & Location
C5
C6
North American Atlantic
Bumpus (1965) - Atlantic Coast
Butman and Folger (1979) - Mid-Atlantic Coast
Beardsley, Butman (1974) - New England
Birkemeier et al. (1989) - North Carolina (Duck)
Crowson et al. (1988 - North Carolina (Duck)
Davidson-Arnott and McDonald (1989) - Canada
Harris, R.L. (1954) - New Jersey
Lavelle et al. (1978) - New York
Madsen et al. (1993) - North Carolina (Duck)
Mason et al. (1984) - North Carolina (Duck)
Niedoroda and Swift (1981) - New York
Osborne and Greenwood (1992a) - Canada (Nova Scotia)
Schwing, Kjerfve, and Sneed (1983) - South Carolina
Seymour (1986) - Virginia (Virginia Beach)
Stefansson, Atkinson, and Bumpus (1971) - North Carolina
Swift, Han, and Vincent (1986) - Mid-Atlantic Coast
Vincent (1986) - Mid-Atlantic Coast
Williams (1976) - New York
Windom and Gross - Southern Atlantic Coast
United States Gulf of Mexico
Forristall, Hamilton, and Cardone (1977)
Hands (1983)
Hands (1991) - Alabama
Murray, 1970 - Mississippi
Smith (1977)
Snedden, Nummedal, and Amos (1988) - Texas
Williams and Meisburger (1987) -New York
North American Great Lakes
Greenwood and Sherman (1984) - Lake Huron
Osborne and Greenwood (1992b) - Lake Huron
Other Locations
Wells and James (1981) - South America
Appendix C Bibliography with Respect - Topic & Location
Cross-Shore Sediment Transport References
A reference list documenting references which give evidence of
cross-shore sediment transport on the inner shelf (shelf-beach sediment
exchange) is divided by regional area as follows: (The reference list
entitled “Sediment Transport” in Appendix B addresses additional inner
shelf sediment references.)
North American Pacific
Cacchione et al. (1987) - North Carolina
Caldwell (1956) - California (Anaheim)
Drake, Kolpack, and Fischer (1972) - California
Drake, Cacchione, and Karl (1985) - California
Inman (1953) - California (La Jolla)
Inman (1957) - California
Inman and Risnak (1956) - California (La Jolla)
Inman, Swift, and Duane (1973) - Washington
Kachel (1980) - Washington
Larsen (1982) - Washington
Osborne and Yeh (1991) - California
Osborne, Yeh, and Lu (1991) - California
Pilkey and Field (1972) - Southeast United States
Shepard (1950) - California
Shepard and Inman (1951) - California (La Jolla)
Smith and Hopkins (1972) - Washington, Oregon
Sternberg (1972) - Washington
Sternberg and McManus (1972) - Washington
Sternberg and Larsen (1976) - Washington
U.S. Department of Commerce (1984) - California; Nearshore Sediment
Transport Study
Vernon (1965) - California
North American Atlantic
Bowen (1980) - Canada
Butman, Noble, and Folger (1977) - Mid-Atlantic Coast
Figueiredo, Sanders, and Swift (1982) - Central Atlantic Coast
Gadd, Lavelle, and Swift (1978) - New York
Green et al. (1988) - North Carolina (Duck)
Greenwood and Mitiler (1984) - Canada
Hall and Herron (1950) - New Jersey
Hubbard (1992) - U.S. Virgin Islands
Kraus, Gingerich, and Rosati (1989) - North Carolina (Duck)
Ludwick (1977) - Virginia
McClennen (1973) - New Jersey
Pearson and Riggs (1981) - North Carolina
7
Appendix C Bibliography with Respect - Topic & Location C
C8
Pilkey (1968) - Southeast Atlantic United States
Pilkey and Field (1972) - Southeast Atlantic United States
Reineck and Enos (1968) - Florida
Richmond and Sallenger (1985) - North Carolina
Stauble (1992) - North Carolina (Duck)
Stauble, Garcia, and Kraus (1993) - Maryland
Stubblefield, Permenter, and Swift (1977) - New York
Swift et al. (1981) - New York, Maryland, Massachusetts (Nantucket)
Swift, Thorne, and Oertel (1986)
Twichell (1983) - Georges Bank
Wright et al. (1986)
Wright et al. (1991) - North Carolina (Duck)
Vincent, Swift, and Hillard (1981) - New York
Vincent, Young, and Swift (1982) - New York
Vincent, Young, and Swift (1983) - New York
Williams (1976) - New York
Williams and Meisburger (1987) - New York
Windo, and Gross (1989) - Southeast Atlantic Coast
United States Gulf of Mexico
Bernard, LeBlanc, and Major (1962) - Texas
Brooks (1983) - Texas
Dupre (1985) - Texas
Hayes (1967a) - Texas
Hayes (1967b) - Texas
Hayes (1967c) - Texas
Hill and Hunter (1976) - Texas
Keen, T.R., and Slingerland, R.L. (1993a) - Texas
Keen, T.R., and Slingerland, R.L. (1993b) - Texas
Morton (1981) - Texas, Louisiana
Morton (1988)
Snedden, Nummedal, Amos, (1988) - Texas
North American Great Lakes
Osborne, P.D., and Greenwood, B. 1992 - Lake Huron
North Sea
Aagaard (1988)
Arlman, Santema, and Svasek (1958)
Morton (1981)
Swift et al. (1981)
Winkelmolen and Veenstra (1980)
Appendix C Bibliography with Respect - Topic & Location
Other Locations
Beydoun (1976) - Eastern Mediterranean Sea
Boyd (1981) - Southeast Australia
Channon and Hamilton (1976) - Southwest England
Cowell et al. (1983) - Southeast Australia
Figueiredo, Sanders, and Swift (1982) - Brazil
Gagan, Chivas, and Herczag (1990) - Southeast Australia
Gao and Collins (1992) - China
Hino, Yamashita, and Yoneyama (1981) - Japan
Jago and Borusseau (1981) - France
Kuo, Su, and Liu (1980) - Japan
Kuo et al. (1987) - Japan
Pae and Iwagaki (1985) - Japan
Roy and Stephens (1980) - Southeast Austraiia
Sedimentation/Stratigraphy References
Numerous studies are concerned with stratigraphy and sedimentology
of the nearshore shelf. A lot of these studies are from coastlines with
different wave, tide, and morphologic settings. References concerning the
sedimentation/stratigraphic characteristics of onshore-offshore sediment
transport are broken down by region (The sedimentation/stratigraphy
reference list of Appendix B contains additional references related to this
subject.):
North American Pacific
Bernard, Le Blanc, and Major (1962)
Cacchione et al. (1984) - California
Clifton (1976) - Washington, Oregon
Clifton, Hunter, and Phillips (1971) - Oregon
Dingler (1974) - California
Dingler and Inman (1977) - California
Greenwood and Mittler (1984) - Canada
Harms, Southard, and Walker (1982) - California
Harms, Southard, and Walker (1982) - Oregon
Howard and Reineck (1981) - Canada
Hunter, Clifton, and Phillips (1979) - Oregon
Inman (1957) - California
Komar, Neudeck, and Kulm (1972) - Oregon
Komar and Miller (1975)
Miller and Komar (1980)
Nittrouer and Sternberg (1981) - Washington
Pilkey et al. (1972) - Oregon
Appendix C Bibliography with Respect - Topic & Location
North American Atlantic
Brown, Ehrlich, and Colquhoun (1980) - Southeast Atlantic Coast
Davidson-Arnott and Greenwood (1974) - New Brunswick, California
Davidson-Arnott and Greenwood (1976) - New Brunswick, California
Duane et al. (1972)
Eames (1983) - North Carolina
Figueiredo et al. (1981)
Figueiredo, Sanders, and Swift (1982)
Green et al. (1988) - North Carolina (Duck)
Harms, Southard, and Walker (1982) - Georgia
Howard and Reineck (1972)
Gorsline (1963) - Eastern United States
Greenwood and Hale (1980) - New Brunswick, California
Greenwood and Osborne (1991) - New Brunswick, California
Howard and Reineck (1972) - Georgia
Howard and Reineck (1981) - Georgia
Luternauer and Pilkey (1967) - North Carolina
McBride and Moslow (1991)
Mearns, Hine, and Riggs (1988) - North Carolina
Meisburger and Judge (1989) - North Carolina (Duck)
Meisburger and Williams (1987) - North Carolina
Riggs (1979) - North Carolina
Riggs and O’Connor (1974) - North Carolina
Schmittle (1982)
Schwartz, Hobson, and Musialowski (1981) - North Carolina (Topsail
Beach)
Shipp (1984) - New York
Snyder, Hoffman and Riggs (in press) - North Carolina
Snyder et al. (1993) - North Carolina
Stubblefeld, Paramenter, and Swift (1977)
Swift and Freeland (1978) - Mid-Atlantic Coast
Swift, Freeland, and Young (1979) - Mid-Atlantic Coast
Swift, Thorne, and Oertel (1986) - Mid-Atlantic Coast
Uchupi (1963) - Eastern United States
Uchupi (1968) - Eastern United States
Uchupi (1970) - Eastern United States
Wright et al. (1991) - North Carolina (Duck)
Wright (1993) - North Carolina (Duck)
United States Gulf of Mexico
Gorsline (1963) - Southern United States
Hill and Hunter (1976)
Morton and Winker (1979) - Texas
Nummedal and Snedden (1987) - Texas
C10 Appendix C Bibliography with Respect - Topic & Location
North Sea
Aagaard (1988)
Reineck and Singh (1971)
Harms, Southard, and Walker (1982)
Other Locations
Clifton (1976) - Southeast Spain
Engstrom (1974) - Lake Superior
Field et al. (1981) - Bering Sea
Field and Roy (1984) - SE Australia
Figueiredo, Sanders, and Swift (1982) - Brazil
Flemming (1980) - South Africa
Greenwood and Osborne (1991) - Georgian Bay
Harms, Southard, and Walker (1982) - South Africa
Hunter, Thor, and Swisher (1982) - Bering Sea
Short (1984) - Australia
Appendix C Bibliography with Respect - Topic & Location
C11
t iy
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. TITLE AND SUBTITLE 5. FUNDING NUMBERS
| Literature Review on the Geologic Aspects of Inner Shelf
Cross-Shore Sediment Transport
1. AGENCY USE ONLY (Leave blank) 2. REPORT DATE 3. REPORT TYPE AND DATES COVERED
February 1995 Final report
. AUTHOR(S)
J. Bailey Smith
7. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME(S) AND ADDRESS(ES) 8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION
U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station REPORT NUMBER
3909 Halls Ferry Road, Vicksburg, MS 39180-6199 Miscellaneous Paper CERC-95-3
9. SPONSORING/MONITORING AGENCY NAME(S) AND ADDRESS(ES) 10. SPONSORING/MONITORING
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers AGENCY REPORT NUMBER
Washington, DC 20314-1000
11. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
Available from National Technical Information Service, 5285 Port Royal Road, Springfield, VA 22161.
12a. DISTRIBUTION/AVAILABILITY STATEMENT 12b. DISTRIBUTION CODE
Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited.
13. ABSTRACT (Maximum 200 words)
This report reviews literature concerning the geological aspects of inner continental shelf physical processes, sediment
transport, and stratigraphy. Although surf zone and nearshore processes and sediment transport have been extensively ad-
dressed in the literature, inner shelf processes and sediment transport, particularly in the cross-shelf direction, are not well un-
derstood. Inner continental shelf processes and related cross-shore sediment transport between the beach and the inner shelf
have important implications for engineering works such as beachfill design and dredged material placement.
Specific topics considered include: depth of closure and extent of sediment transport landward and seaward of this zone;
processes that cause cross-shore movement of sediment; amount and physical characteristics of beach material lost to the off-
shore; long-term fate of sediment that has moved offshore; relationship between depositional structures and flow processes;
the impact of episodic storms on sedimentation; and the importance of the geologic framework on the inner shelf. Discus-
sions pertain to the relationships between sediment transport on the inner shelf and the concepts of equilibrium profile, depth
of closure, and sedimentation and stratigraphic characteristics of the inner shelf.
SUBJECT TERMS 15. NUMBER OF PAGES
Cross-shore Geologic framework 161
Depth of closure Inner shelf
Equilibrium profile Sediment transport pie their at
SECURITY CLASSIFICATION |18. SECURITY CLASSIFICATION |19. SECURITY CLASSIFICATION |20. LIMITATION OF ABSTRACT
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