Local environmental factors affecting ice formation in North Star Bugt, Greenland

TECHNICAL REPORT

LOCAL ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
AFFECTING ICE FORMATION IN
NORTH STAR BUGT, GREENLAND

RAYMOND J. McGOUGH

Applied Oceanography Branch
Division of Oceanography

JANUARY 1956

U. S. NAVY HYDROGRAPHIC OFFICE
WASHINGTON, D. C.

AGB Sf RUA

Environmental factors influencing the formation and growth of
sea ice in the area of North Star Bugt and Wolstenholme Fjord
indicate that the peculiar characteristics of the harbor are the
free water exchange with the fjord at all levels, the relatively
small importance of fresh-water runoff, and the smail annual
change in surface water temperatures during the open season.
Because of these characteristics, the harbor is well situated
for the use of long-range ice prediction techniques based on
the thermohaline structure.
The formation and growth of sea ice in 1953 was studied in
detail. Data indicated that the observed and computed ice
thicknesses were nearly identical, both for the original ice and
for the newer ice which formed after the first ice was broken up
by wind action. It is shown that in order to determine the
weather conditions over the ice, observations from a ship
anchored in the harbor are more accurate than those at a land
station because of the greater wind velocity and warmer air
temperature over the ice. Accumulation of degree days of
frost corresponded closely to the ice growth in two different

, but the el nee of degree days satin varied

MBL/WHOI

AA

FOREWORD

Successful arctic operations require a considerable amount of
preparation and plaming. To aid such planning, the Hydrographic
Office has been engaged in the development of various techniques for
the forecasting of growth, movement, and disintegration of sea ice,
especially in the harbor areas since each arctic and subarctic harbor
constitutes a special environmental problem.

This report presents a study of the environmental factors that are
peculiar to North Star Bugt and Wolstenholme Fjord, and evaluates their
effect on the formation and growth of sea ice in the harbor area. The
ice growth in the autwm of 1953 was studied in detail.

The conclusions expressed in this report are tentative and may
require revision as more data become available, Al additianal informa~
tion which might amplify or modify this report will be welcomed by the
Hydrographic Office»

Ly

Ch EES Sy, ty

fl bd Lett the
H. H. MARABLE

Captain, U.o, Navy
Vydrographer

0 0301 0040863 4

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ASTIA (5)

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NAUTISK AFDELING METEOROLOGISKE INSTITUT, Denmark
DIRECTOR, DANSKE S@KORTARKYV, Denmark
GRONLANDS STYRELSE, Denmark

dv

CONTENTS

Page
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eS Introduction . . © o 6 oe ee BO HoeF O OF HO eee ee oe
IT. Climatology. oer eee CCFC FF OCH HBT HM EH eH HO Ho oO HL
IItI. Oceanography e« e o oo ee 6 ev CFF Fe BH He ee YQ
IV. Ice Formation and Growth EN IEEE Gb OOOO OO OOOO oO SF
Wie ice~growth Computations » oe¢8e 67 eee eee woe 6 eo ew F
VI ConcilustonsS\eicmeleniel o. ale serlel ele fo) «et ele Velen lonel el feliolie 7
Bibliography oe ee 6 e FeO oH HHH HOE OH HOH Oe eo woe © e KO

FIGURES

1 © Location and Bathymatric Chart ~ North Star Bugt and

Wolstenholme Fjord. . 0. coe ec toe eo co wee cece eo we oly
2 =~ Mean Air and Surface Water Temperatures in North Ster

IER 6 010.6 605000000006 0006600600 06006 0150 00
3 @ Temperature, Salinity, and Density Profiles for Site A,

Jose ptember 1.9556 leltone bello enremmon enol cle cle) vero: teitenel cena
l = Temperature, Salinity, and Density Profiles for Site A,

GrOc tober 1953s er eivertet a tot etelr cere otro ointe; salie loltete Mah fammereniee
5 = Temperature, Salinity, and Density Profiles for Site A,

PAROS TODEr IOS Ss wliclic: ee Moments ve elieuiete ctuedioneneet ol lel oem:
6 = Temperature, Salinity, and Density Profiles fer Site A,

Oat Gea Sapo Oe en Re olny gan A Lae RE 2h

7 - Synoptic Ice Conditions, 6 October 1953 (1000 LST). . o « « « 25
8 = Synoptic Ice Conditions, 9 October 1953 (1000 IST)... . » © 26
9 = Synoptic Ice Conditions, 9 October 1953 (1200 LST). »« « « © « 27
10 - Synoptic Ice Conditions, 10 October 1953 (1100 LST) o oe « © 28
11 - Synoptic Ice Conditions, 10 October 1953 (1600 LST) . « « « o 29
12 =» Fee Conditions, 12 October 1953 20 0 &® © @ © © © & © e » 0 30
13 « Ice Conditions, 23 October 1953 oe ¢ @ e@ eo ee Oe 8 le @ © Bilt
1 = Temperature and Salinity Gradients in Ice, 11 October 1953

CLOSODUS Tees Olicitice))s. oc lonielies emetic sa) ch cine velvet

15 = Temperature and Salinity Gradlents in Ice, 23 October 1953
GIBOO=1O00 MIST = New ice) ie) ecele 6 ei os or ole) one) (6 e a 32
16 = Temperature and Salinity Gradients in Ice, 2h October 1953
CLO@OBES T= New ice) <. oo sh ete votes eves ere” el ene Cains 6.0 33)
17 = Ice Growth as a Function of Degree Days of Froabe e « » » « « 3h
18 = Accumulation of Degree Days of Frost. « « « oo ee ao © 0 o SY

19 = Ice Growth as a Function of Degree Days of Frost in 191)8- ;
MONG ANAUUGS Ruma revises let wsetuen lol ool oudtel ReMi teliienerina astro oer enue
20 = Historical Degree Days of Frost CurveSe 0 « « «© « o ee © e © 36
L ~ Computed Icesprowth Curves for Selected Snow Covers.
Computation Based on Data from Site A, 29 September 1953. « o 37

22 ~- Compited Iceegrowth Curves for Selected Snow Covers.
Computation Based on Data fron Site A, 12 October 1953.

23 = Computed and Observed Ice-growth Curves for New Ice . .

2), » Computed and Observed Iceegrowth Curves for Old Ice . .

TABLES

I. Surface Water Temperature and Salinity . « o © » « « «
II. Synoptic Weather Observations at Thule Air Force Base

and on the USS ATKA. « .2««eeseee%%0808 00
III. Monthly Snowfall in Inches 6 «se see8e680806008 0

vi

Page

I. INTRODUCTION

During the past 3 years, the Ue S. Navy Hydrographic Office has
been providing ice forecasts in support of military operations in the
Arctic. These forecasts include information on the distribution, growth,
and disintegration of sea ice, and other predictable factors which serve
as aids to such operations. The forecasts are divided into two classes
(a) shorterange (l8-hour) forecasts designed to provide detailed ice in-
formation for the field units while operating in the ice and (b) long=
range (5-day to 6-month) forecasts designed for operational planning.

Forecasts of ice conditions in open-water areas present problems
which involve oceanographic and meteorological factors that simultane-
ously influence major areas. Conditions in the open water are suffi-
ciently homogeneous so that forecasts can cover large areas. However,
the local topography influences the various oceanographic and meteorologi-=
cal factors for each harbor site. Separate ice studies are contemplated
for the various harbors in which military shipping is conducted. These
reports will describe the special local factors which affect ice fore=
casting in each harbor, so that the local sequence of freezeup and ice
growth can be delineated and a study of the particular harbor will be
available for future operations. The present report discusses the local
conditions of North Ster Bugt and Wolstenholme Fjord, Greenland.

North Star Bugt, which is approximately three square miles in area,

is situated in a protected cove opening to the west. A narrow peninsula
to the north separates this bay from Wolstenholme Fjord, into which large
glaciers discharge from the inland icecap. The peninsula terminates with
the spectacular landmark, Mount Dundes, which is over 700 feet high, Hills
about 1,000 feet high lie close to the south and east of the bay. Between
these hills, Pitufik Valley (local name) extends to the east-southeast
with a relatively gentle slope. Geographic features of the area are

shown in figure i.

The bay is normally open to shipping for three months anmually (5
July to the first week of October). These dates vary somewhat from year
to year, depending on the influencing factors. During the first half
of July, shipping is almost entirely dependent on icebreaker escort.
Obstructions to shipping are caused largely by the presence of sea ice,
since ice of land origin is not of sufficient concentration to present
a navigational problem.

If. CLIMATOLOGY

The warmest air temperatures at Thule occur during July with a
mean temperature of 2° F, The coldest air temperatures occur during
February with a mean temperature of ~159 F. The total precipitation
throughout the year averages about 2.5 inches, nearly half of this amount

occurring during July and August. January and February are the driest
months, averaging less than Q.l1 inch per month. An interesting feature,
in contrast to the low amount of precipitation, is that nearly half of
the days throughout each month record a trace or more of precipitation.
The amount of cloudiness scmewhet parallels the precipitation pattern,
the greatest mean total cloud amount being observed during the summer and
the least during winter. July observations show a mean total cloud
amount of fowr=tenths or more about 78 percent of the time, whereas

in December, the percentage drops to 5. Mean total cloud amounts of
eight tenths or more were observed 68 percent of the time in July and
39 percent of the time in December.

Surface winds are comparatively weak throughout the year, averaging
10 knots or less approximately 80 percent of the time, with considerable
monthly variation. Almost all of the stronger winds are from an easterly
direction.

Ti. OCEANOGRAPHY

The most important oceanographic factors in the formation and growth
of ice are surface water temperatures, which indicate the heat loss and
gain at the sea surface, and physical properties, which show how the
heat logs and gain will be distributed throughout the water mass. Figure
1 shows the location of the oceanographic stations (sites A and B) occupied
in the area.

Surface water temperatures in North Star Bugt vary little from year
to year. Figure 2 shows the relationship between air and sea surface
temperatures and indicates that the air temperature is higher than the
water temperature until approximately 21 August. Air temperatures reach
a peak near the end of July and decrease rapidly thereafter. Surface
water temperatures lag behind the air temperatures by about 3 weeks,
reaching a maximum near 16 August and decreasing slowly to the freezing
temperature by the first week in Octcber, At this time, however, the
air temperature is more than 10° F, colder than the water temperature.
The reversal of the heat budget (the date when the water temperature
begins to fall) can be placed at about 16 August. After that date it
may be assumed that the water is losing heat continuously.

The oceanographic structure was studied for four stations made at
site A (fig. 1) on 29 September and 6, 12, and 21 October 1953. Observa=
tions at site B, in shallow water, showed that the ice thickness was
largely independent of depth. Changes in the oceanographic structure are
show by the four station plots for site A (figs. 3, h, 5, and 6). Surface
water temperatures and salinities are listed in table I. The gradual dis-
appearance of the layer of warm water produced by the summer heating is
illustrated by the oceanographic plots. Only the upper 100 meters were
affected by this seasonal warming, while the water below 100 meters
was nearly isothermal and isohaline, water temperature being about ~0.8° C.
and salinity ranging between 33.70 and 33.90 °/oo. Cooling of the upper
layer was steady and had evidently been proceeding from the time of the
reversal of the heat budget. In the station profile of September 29 (fig.
3), 5 days after the heat budget reversal, the surface water temperature

was ~1o39 C. and the warmest temperature at 50 meters was ~0.36° GC.
The salinity curve shows the beginning of convection in the first
10 meters. The seasonal. thermocline lies between 75 and 100 meters
and is still fairly sharp.

In the second station profile (fig. h) taken a week later, the
shallow layer has cooled further, so that the warmest water now has
a temperature of ~0.5° C. The surface convection extends to 15 meters.
At this time, the ice was 1.6 inches thick. The seasonal thermocline
had weakened during the week.

In the third station profile (fig. 5) taken 6 days later on
12 October, cooling has reduced the temperature of the upper layer so
that it is less than that of the lower layer, thus eliminating the
seasonal thermocline. The nearly isothermal lower layer now is the
warmer of the two layers. Convection has produced an isohaline layer
in the upper 20 meters, while the continuing surface cooling has brought
the temperature to the freezing point. At this time, a 6-inch cover-
ing of ice at site A was the result of thermohaline convection.

Finally, 9 days later on 21 October, the station profile (fig. 6)
shows that the surface cooling has extended below 75 meters. hLittle
change in the salinity and in the depth of the mixed layer has occurred.
Since the ice thickness was nearly 12 inches, it is evident that the
loss of a moderate amount of heat through the ice produced a relatively
large amount of ice with lithle added change in the convection of the
water. At this point, the winter oceanographic structure is well ese
tablished. The precipitation of salt and the process of convection dure
ing the formation of ice are shown clearly in the four prefiles. The
surface salinity increased from 31.20 °/co on 29 September to 31.6 °/oo
on 6 October, to 32.00 °/oo on 12 October, and to 32.21 °/oo on 21
October.

IV. ICE FORMATION AND GROWTH IN 1953

Fringe ice was first noticed on 25 September along the eastern edge
of North Star Bugt where fresh water empties from Pitufik Valley. By
1 October, grease ice was forming over North Star Bugt in the area north-
east of Delong Pier; a considerable amount of slush ice formed along the
eastern shore. By 3 October, the first new ice was formed over this
area of the bay. Temporary patches of grease ice were forming in the
area of sites A and B. The first sheet of young ice formed at site B
during the morning of October and at A during the morning of 5 October.
This new ice attained a thickness of about 2 inches by 6 October, the
thicknesses being 1.6 and 2.2 inches at sites A and B, respectively.
The areal distribution of ice at this tims is illustrated in figure 7.
& polynya with some grease ice existed slightly north of site A, and a
few smaller open-water areas were present. Some rafting had occurred.
Ice continued to grow with little change in areal distribution, attain=
ing a thiclmess of l.8 inches at site B by 9 October (1000 IST). The
snow cover amounted to one-half inch. Figure 8 shows the synoptic ice
picture at this time, The polynya north of site A had decreased in size;
a small polynya had developed a short distance southwest of Delong Pier;
and a small area in the immediate vicinity of the pier had becoma ice

3

free, A point of interest here is that within 2 hours after this ice
was observed at 1000 LST by helicopter the areal distribution changed
very rapidly to that indicated in figure 9. This change occurred with
the approach of high tide and 10-knot surface winds from the east and
southeast. Average tide range during this period (9 to 10 October)
was about 6 feet.

On 10 October, westward movement of the ice was noticed at ap-
proximately 1000 LST. Easterly winds at this time had increased to
19 knots with gusts to 25 knots. At 1100 LST, aerial reconnaissance
made possible a detailed synoptic analysis of the ice as shown in
figure 10. Numerous cracks, leads, and polynyas had developed. Con=-
siderable amounts of slush ice had formed in the newly developed water
areaSe Ice thickness on this date measured 5.0 inches. By 1300 LST,
the wind speed was 32 knots with gusts to O mots. By 1600 LST, the
ice picture was radically different. The ice had moved out of the local
harber area, except along the east shore, as shown in figure 11, Com-
paratively strong easterly winds continued throughout the next day.

During the period from 1 to 12 October, the USS ATKA (AGB-3) was
anchored in North Star Bigt. Weather observations were taken regularly
aboard the ship during the time and can be compared directly with the
observations taken at Thule Air Force Base. These observations are given
in table IIe On 10 October, when the ice changed radically as shown in
figures 10 and 11, winds recorded on the ATKA were considerably stronger
than those recarded at the Air Force station. In checking the winds for
1030, 1330, and 1630 IST, it was found that the wind speeds at the land
station were only 5) percent of those at the ship. Similar conditions also
existed on nearly every day. This wind speed differential plays an im-
portant role in forecasting ice distribution during breakup as well as
during the period of freezeup. Since nearly all of the wind information
used by the Hydrographic Office in making ice forecasts in harbors is
derived or inferred from observations at neighboring land stations, it
is evident that local harbor studies are necessary to determine the
relative applicability of each land-station record to the forecasting
of sea ice conditions in the surrounding areas.

Grease ice developed on the newly formed water area during the
morning of 12 October, at which time there was about five-tenths grease
ice coverage. The distribution of the ice between the harbor and Wol-
stenholme # on this date is shown in figure 12. Ice that formed on this
newly exposed water area will be known as "new" ice hereafter, whereas
the ice that formed the first part of the month will be known as "old
ice. On this date (October 12), the old ice was 6.0 inches thick. Much
rafting had occurred in this ice southeast of Saunder § to the main-
land coast. By 21 October, the new ice attained a thickness of 8.5
inches and the old ice 11.2 inches. No polynyas, cracks, or leads were
present from Kap Athol to the dock area. On 23 October (fig. 13), the
old ice was 12.0 inches thick with 1.5 inches of snow cover. No snow
cover was evident on the new ice, even though some very light snow

had fallen between 20 and 23 October. However, there was a brine
covering of three-sixteenths of an inch, which appeared to cover the
entire area of new ice. A sample of this brine, taken 50 feet south

of the deck on 23 October, had 9 salinity value of 62.3 °/oo. Evi~
dently, this salinity value is the result of rapid ice formation on

and after 12 October. The ice was able to form with comparatively low
air temperatures, averaging about 7° F. between 12 and ll; October. Over
a large area 300 feet south of the dock, walling was found to be very
difficult owlng to the slippery brine covering.

Three ice temperature and salinity profiles, as illustrated in
figures 1), 15, and 16, were taken from ice in the immediate dock area.
The salinity values were taken at 2-inch intervals vertically; i.e.,
O-2, 2- inches, etc. Temperature readings were taken at 2-inch ine
tervals, starting at the surface. It will be seen that the temperature
gradients are nearly linear, while salinity decreases irregularly with
depth,

Several ice thickness measuremants were made from time of forma=
tion until the ice had attained a thickness of approximately 13 inches.
Only one measurement was made after this time, and that was on 18 Novem-
ber 1953. The new ice thickness at that time was 28 inches with ? inches
of snow cover. Ice growth as a function of degree days of frost (° F.)
and the accumulation of degree days of frost with time for the new and
old ice are shown in figures 17 and 18. Degree days of frost are based
on tho normal freezing point of the water at each location and may be
expressed either in ° F. or ° GC. To illustrate the use of degree days of
frost, a day with an average temperature of 25° F,. would accumulate h de-
gree days of frost when the base temperature of 29° F. is used. It is the
practice in the Hydrographic Office to use a base of 29° F. or =1.8° Ce at
sites with salinity between 25 °/oo and 35 °/oo while a base of 32° or 31° F.
for fresh or brackish water is used.»

In figure 19, the ice growth as a function of degree days of frost
is shown for two ice seasons, 1918-9 and 1953=-5h. The curves are nearly
identical for the overlapping portion. Fhysically, this identity ex=
presses the fact already noted that the water of North Star Bugt is well
mixed because of the free exchange to depths. Since the composition of
the sea water does not change greatly from year to year, the relationship
between ice growth and the heat loss expressed in degree days ef frost
is also the sane. There is, however, a wide variation in the accumla=
tion of degree days of frost. Figure 20 shows the available historical
data on degree days of frost and reveals that the extreme values ranged
from the total of 7,950 degree days of frost on 31 May 195), to the total
of 5,650 on 31 May 1917. This variation would be expscted to cause con=
Siderable differences in ice thickness, assuming the other paremeters were
unchanged.

V. ICE GROWTH COMPUTATIONS
In computing the ice growth a formula daveloped in the Hydrographic

Office (Lee and Simpson, 195) is used, which tales into account the in-
fluencing oceanographic and metecrological parameterse

t | |
is ie Nat [ Ahi + { Se + Shy, + Sear,

where Tp = temperature of freezing in © C.,
T = temperature of the water in ° C.,
k; ® heat conductivity of sea ice,

k, = heat conductivity of snow,

/; = density of sea ice,

K = latent heat of fusion,

1, = thickness of the ice in cme,

1, = thickness of the snow in cme, and

Qr = amount of sensible heat loss in kg. cal.

Using this method, ice~growth curves, figures 21 and 22, are plotted
against degree days of frost (° F.) for various snow depths that may be
covering the ice. The growth curves are based on oceanographic data

taken at site A on 29 September and 12 October. Ice grows more rapidly
during the early stages and/or with no snow cover. Greater ice thickness
and/or snow cover offer more insulation therefore resulting in 4a slower
rate of ice growth as compared to degree days. It will be noted here that
these degree days are based on 26.6° f compared to the previous 29.0° F.
However, differences are very small, less than 1 percent. The computed ice
growth curve (in inches) versus degree days of frost (° F.), using the actual
measured snow depths, is shown in figures 23 and 2h. Figure 23 and figure
2h are for the new and old ice, respectively. For comparison purposes,
the actual growth curves are plotted. In the case of the new ice, these
curves parallel very closely. she old ice curve does not verify as well.
Nevertheless, after 150 degree days (° F.) with 13 inches of ice, the
computed thickness of the old ice is only 1.5 inches less than the actual
depth. It is possible that this discrepancy may be the result of measur=
ing the ice thickness in a comparatively shallow area, whereas the oceano=-
graphic data is based on information from site A, in deeper water. The
same was not true in the case of the new ice. Im this latter case the

ice growth was the same over the entire areas; i.eo, from the pier to site
A, which is approximately 6 nautical miles to the southwest. Neverthe-
less, the actual growth curves parallel the computed values very closely,
especially in the case of the new ice, thus reflecting the accuracy of the
method in predicting ice growth.

Naturally, if one were to predict the air temperature and snow depth
values, a forecast of this natwre probably would not be so accurate as in
the case pointed out here is figures 23 and 2h, where the observed values
for snow cover and temparatures are used. Difficulty in making accurate
long-range predictions of snow depths and temperatures will vary for dif-
ferent areas. In general, the larger the monthly variation of these par=
ticular parameters, the more difficult the forecast will be. Comparatively
the variation for these two parameters is small in the area of Thule.

For instance, table III indicates that the snowfell varies very
little. Therefore, accurate predictions for this element are relatively
easy. Temperature forecasting, however, is not so easy, as is evidenced
in figure 20, which shows considerable variation. For example, on 15
November 197 there was an accumulation of about 650 (9 F.) degree days
of frost as compared to 1,200 (° Fe) degree days of frost on the same
date in 1953. In referring to figure 23 this difference would mean
approximately 10 inches more ice (19 versus 29 inches), Of course,
the comparison assumes el] other influencing factors to be the same.
This is clearly an extreme case. In other years the temperature values
are more nearly equal.

VI. CONCLUSIONS

The area of North Star Bugt and Wolstenholme Fjord constitutes an
open bay with free water exchange at all depths from surface to the
bottom. The special characteristics of this area from an oceanographic
standpoint are 1) the presence of contimal water exchange and hence
temporal continuity in thermohaline structure, 2) the relatively small
importance of runoff water, and 3) the small annual change in surface
water temperetures during the open season.

North Star Bugt, although a harbor suitable for shipping operations,
is not a closed water system but, instead, is an arm of Wolstenholme
Fjord and open at all levels. Since the water of the bay is contimally
mixed with that of the fjord, the thermchaline structure remains re-
latively constant from week to week. This continuity, in turn, is an
essential prerequisite for long-range ice forecasting, in which the
thermohaline structure must be studied in early autumn and the heat
budget utilized on the basis of the early sampling. It also makes
possible the use of an oceanographic sampling in deep water to predict
ice growth in the bay.

There is relatively little runoff into North Star Bugt, coming mostly
from the Pitufik River. This runoff stops by the first week in September,
so that there is essentially no runoff problem thereafter; the water sa=
linity remains nearly constant, increasing slightly due to evaporation.

The combination of the above characteristics makes North Star Bugt
a suitable harbor for the use of the techniques of long-range ice pre~
diction even though these techniques were developed for use in open-
water areas, The 1953 long-range ice prediction verified satisfactorily,
as shown by figures 23 and 2h).

In one aspect North Star Bugt presents obstacles to long-range ice
prediction methods. The techniques assume that the ice remains in situ
once it is formed. In North Star Bugt, however, it is normal for the ice
to break up in the area of the pier as often as three times during the
freezeup period, sometimes not permanently until the first part of November.
Similar movement of the ice will generally apply to the greater part of
Baffin Bay north of 70° Ne

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31.6 31.8 32.0 32.2 32.4 32.6 32.8 33.0 33.2 33.4 33.6 33.8 34.0 34.2 34.4 34.6 348 35.0

31.4

31.2

S%e 31.0

-0.8 0.7 -0.6 -0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0.0
% 25.00 25.20 25.40 25.60 25.80 26.00 26.20 26.40 26.60 26.80 27.00 27.20 27.40 27.60 27.80 28.00 28.20 28.40 28.60 28.80 29.00

-0.9

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=i
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LEGEND

SALINITY
DENSITY

} cocvctes |

Co)
120
130
140}
i50
160
170

°
(2)

(SYSLAW) H1Ld3d

AND DENSITY PROFILES FOR SITE A

29 SEPTEMBER 1953

9

SALINITY,

a

FIGURE 3. TEMPERATURE

21

S%o 310 31.2 31.4 316 318 32.0 32.2 324 326 328 330 332 33.4 336 338 340 342 344 346 348 35.0
TC. -20 -19 -N8 -cly -Ne 215 <4 <i3 =12 -i) =O «-09) =08 -07 ~O6 —0'5) -0:'4 503) (20201 0.0
0} 25.00 25.20 25.40 25.60 2580 26.00 2620 26.40 2660 2680 27.00 27.20 27.40 27.60 2780 28.00 2820 2840 2860 2880 2900

DEPTH (METERS)
fe)

LEGEND
—-— TEMPERATURE
—— SALINITY
sete DENSITY

220
FIGURE 4. TEMPERATURE, SALINITY, AND DENSITY PROFILES FOR SITE A, 6 OCTOBER 1953

22

322 324 326 328 40 332 34 336 338 340 342 344 346 348 350

BB 32.0)

31.4 316

31.2

S%o 310

0.0

28:20 28.40 28:60: 2880 29.00

26.80 2700 2720: 2740 2760 2780 28:00)

SALINITY
- DENSITY

oF ee 25.20 2540 25.60) 25:80! 2600 26:20 2640 2660

(SYSL5W) H1d30

FIGURE 5. TEMPERATURE, SALINITY, AND DENSITY PROFILES FORSITE A, '2 OCTOBER 1953

220

23

S %o
i eG
Ot

DEPTH (METERS)

i30

140

150

160

180

190

200

210

220

100

120

30 Sika S34 SIG eSIBTNS2OM S225 S2I4 S216) 52183350) S312 514 SS CeO BNO. ON nS 412u AO OMC TO MOD C)

=—20, 419 18) ar. HG aw 4 Hs ae Su = Om O95 0.8 O/ue— OC aa 0.5 0/4 OO 1m) 00
25.00 2520 2540 2560 2580 2600 2620 2640 2660 2680 27.00 27.20 2740 2760 2780 2800 2820 2840 2860 2880 2900
10) = ; : - :

10 |

} LEGEND
Soot TEMPERATURE

SALINITY
170 seorereeere DENSITY

FIGURE 6. TEMPERATURE, SALINITY, AND DENSITY PROFILES FOR SITE A, 2! OCTOBER 1953

24

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FIGURE 7 SYNOPTIC ICE CONDITIONS, 6 OCTOBER 1953

20’

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FIGURE 10. SYNOPTIC ICE CONDITIONS, IO OCTOBER 1953 (1100 LST)

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37

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39

BIBLICGRAPHY
LEE, O.S. and SIMPSON, L.S. A practical method of predicting sea ice
formation and growth, U.S. Hydrographic Office Technical Report 4,
9 pes 17 figs, 195k.

U.S. AIR FORCE. Daily weather records; Thule, Greenland, 1953, [iepey
Unpublished.

U.S. WEATHER BUREAU. Ice _ measurements in North Star Bugt; Thule, Green-
land, 1948-1949, /nep./ Unpublished.

- — — Climatology summary; Thule, Greenland, October, 1946 through December,
1949, 38 pe, 1950.

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