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LONDON  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


VOL.  XVIII. 

POTASH  TO  ROME. 


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J.  HwMmi,  l*riiitor,  Caick  fitffMi,  Lomitm, 


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THE 


LONDON  ENCYCLOPAEDIA, 


UNIVERSAL   DICTIONARY 


SCIENCE,  ART,  LITERATURE,  AND  PRACTICAL  MECHANICS, 

COMPRISING  A 

POPULAl  VIEW  OF  THE  PRESENT  STATE  OF  KNOWLEDGE. 

f 
ILLUSTRATED  BY 

IJMEROUS   ENGRAVINGS,  A  GENERAL  ATLAS. 

AND  APPROPRIATE  DIAGRAMS. 


Sk  aporle«  «^  Hbni%i«KrtlB  nlKvlltMl  frenoii,  leffeadan  aceedeK  leetoram,  «i  Mrfct  ad  eoavivliiiii  eoDffiv»  dvilb. 
CoMHaur  wamM^f^  ^nlWiiraceR;  et  tuMo  A  qald  •ppoaitnr,  qvod  hi^w  Ml  lUtw  ptlMo  noa  reqwodett,  el  hic  et  tUe 
imoS»B(»  ct  slim  ^lla  prohaDl,  oc  quid  cootrkieoMonfliratoreiD.  Sratiiwi. 

A  ranAer  »1mi«U  ilt  d<Nb  •  book,  MpeetaUy  of  the  aindlaoeow  kind,  m  •  vell-bckavod  Haiior  does  lo  •  buqML  The 
■M-oTlhefipMt  cicrtiHir  toMlliiyhknerti;  but  If,  after  ail  hli  cm«  and  point,  Mmedilaf  ■hoaM  apuear  on  the  table 
at  Aoea  aoc  orfttMi  er  ttMboa^  bwlo,  they  poUtely  poM  It  over  wlthoiit  nolk«,  and  conoMod  other  dkbeo,  thai  they  may  not 


\  BY  THE  ORIGINALOITOR  OF  THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  METROPOLITANA, 

ASSISTby  eminent   PROPESSIONAL   and   OTHER   6BNTLRMBN. 


IN  TWENTY-TWO  VOLUMES. 
VOL.  XVIII. 


>L 


LONDON : 

PRINTED  ^  THOMAS  TBGG,  73,  CHEAPSIDE; 

SOLD   BT    !€.  HAII-RS,   HCCADILIb.  WILSON,   ROTAL   BXCHANOE  ;     1.  MASON,   CITY    ROAD; 
BOWD   ^   KERBT,   OXFORD   STREET: 
GEimV  *  CO-  OLASOOW:  J.  CUI^^j^  DUBLIK  :    M.  BAUDRY,  PARIS:    P.   FLEISCHER,  LEIP91C  : 
ABD  WHIPPI  LAWBEBCB,  SAL^M,  NORTH  AMERICA.  j 

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5 


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THE 


LONDON    ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 


V   POT, »,  f .  ^      Fr.  and  Belg.  pqi,  in  all 

^    Po  TABLE,  oc^'.       the  senses ;    Islandic  and 
^    Pota'tion,ii.s.     Dan.  jHrfite ;  Goth.  jw«.    A 
PorH£RB,  vessel    in  which  meat   is 

PornooK,  >>boiled ;  any  vessel  to  hold 

PoT'LiD,  liquids;  a  cup :   <  to  go  to 

PoT'sHEan,  pot,'    to  be  destroyed  or 

Poi^TAGE,  devoured :  to  pot  is  to  pre- 

Poi'teb,  J  serve  in  pots :  potable  is 

drinkable:  potation,  a  draught:  potherb  is  a 
lierb  fit  for  boiling :  pot-hook  and  pot-lid  ex- 
plain themselves  :  potsnerd  (pot.  and  sherd,  from 
Belg.'  tehaerde  ;  properly  potshard),  a  fragment  of 
a  broken  pot :  pottage,  any  thing  boiled  for  food. 
Jacob  sod  pattagfe,  and  Emlu  came  from  the  fie^a 
faint.  Oenesii, 

The  woman  left  her  water-pof,  and  went  her  way. 

Jokn. 
He  on  the  ashes  sits,  his  fate  deplores ; 
And  with  a  pttskerd  scrapes  the  swelling  sores. 

Sandys. 
Toad  that  under  the  cold  stone 
Sweltered,  Tenom  sleeping  got ; 
Boil  thou  first  i'  th'  cnarmed  pot,    Shakspeare, 
Bat  that  I  think  his  father  loves  him  not, 
I'd  have  him  poisoned  with  a  pot  of  ale.         Id. 
My  thoughts  are  whirled  like  a  potter**  wheel. 

Id. 
I  leaint  it  in  England,  where  they  are  most  potent 
in  poUmg.  Id.  Otmto. 

Thou  best  of  gold  art  worst  of  gold, 
Other  less  fine  in  carat  is  more  precious, 
Preserving  life  in  medicine  potabU.  Sha/ttpeare. 
If  I  had  a  thousand  sons,  the  first  human  princi- 
ple I  would  teach  them,  should  be  to  forswear  thin 
potaHatu,  and  to  addict  themselves  to  sack. 

Id.  Henry  IV, 
At  this  day  at  Gaza,  they  couch  pottherds  of  ves- 
tth  of  earth  in  their  walls  to  gather  the  wind  from 
the  top,  and  pass  it  in  spouts  into  rooms. 

Baeon'e  Natural  H'uiery. 
Dig  a  pit  upon  the  sea  shore,  somewhat  above  the 
bigk-water  nark ;  and  sink  it  as  deep  as  the  low- 
water  mark ;  and,  as  the  tide  cometh  m,  it  will  fill 
with  water  fresh  and  potable.  Bacon, 

The  wiid  potable  gold  should  be  endued  with  a  ca- 
pacity of  bang  agglatinated  and  assimilated  to  the 
maaie  heat.  Hartey. 

Rivers  run  potable  gold.     MiUen*8  ParadUe  Lost. 

Gigantic  minds,  as  soon  as  work  was  done. 
To  their  huge  pott  of  boiling  pulse  would  run. 
Fell  to  with  eaeer  joy.  Bryien. 

Potted  fowl  and  fish  come  in  so  fast. 
That  ere  the  first  is  out  the  second  stinks. 
And  mouldy  mother  gathers  on  the  brinks.  Id. 
Whence  come  broken  ]^)t3kerds  tumbling  down. 
And  letky  ware  from  garret  windows  thrown  : 
Wdi  may  they  break  our  heads.  Id. 

SooK  press  the  plants  with  sherds  of  patterns  dsy. 

Id. 
Egypt  baser  than  the  beasu  they  worship ; 
Mow  their  potherb  gods  that  grow  in  gardens. 


Let  me  see  her  Arabian  pothooht. .  Id. 

The  sheep  went  first  to  pot,  the  goats  next,  and 
after  them  the  oxen,  and  all  little  enough  to  keep 
^ifetogether.  •  vls^trange. 

Whenever  potten  meet  with  any  chalk  or  marl 
mixed  with  their  clay,  though  it  will  with  the  clay 
hold  burning,  yet,  whenever  any  water  comes  near 
any  such  pott  after  they  are  burnt,  both  the  chalk 
and  marl  will  slack  and  spoil  their  ware* 

Mortimer. 

Acorns,  mast,  and  other  seeds  may  be  kept  well, 
by  being  barrelled  or  potted  up  with  moist  sand. 

A  '^' 

A  potter  will  not  have  any  chalk  or  marl  mixed 

with  the  clay.  id.  Huebandry. 

Pot  them  in  natural,  not  forced  earth  ;  a  layer  of 
ncn  mould  beneath  and  about  this  natural  earth  to 
nourish  the  fibres,  but  not  so  as  to  touch  the  bulbs. 

Enelyn. 
Where  solar  beams 
Parch  thirsty  human  veins,  the  damasked  meads 
Unforced  display  ten  thousand  painted  flowers 
Useful  in  potai^.  PhUips. 

Sir  Tristram  telling  us  tobacco  was  a  potherb,  bid 
the  drawer  bring  in  t*  other  half  pint.  Tatler. 

Suppose  your  eyes  sent  equal  rays 
Upon  two  distant  pou  of  ale", 
^  Not  knowing  which  was  mild  or  stale.        Prior. 
He  like  the  potter  in  a  mould  has  cast 
The  world's  great  fame.  Id. 

John's  ready  money  went  into  the  lawyers'  pockets ; 
then  John  began  to  borrow  money  upon  the  bank 
stock,  now  and  then  a  farm  went  to  pot. 

Arbuthnot's  History  of  John  Bull. 
Of  alimentary  leaves,  the  olera  or  potherbs  afford 
an  excellent  nourishment;  amongst  those  are  the 
cole  or  cabbage  kind.  Arbuthnot. 

The  columella  is  a  fine,  thin,  light,  bony  tube,  the 
bottom  of  which  spreads  about,  and  gives  it  the  le- 
semblance  of  a  wooden  pollid  in  country  houses. 

Derham. 
A  soldier  drinks  his  pot,  and  then  offers  payment. 

Swifi. 
Leaves  eaten  raw  are  termed  sallad ;  if  boiled,   , 
they  become  potherbs :  and  some  of .  those  plants 
which  are  pot-herbs  in  one  family,  are  sallads  in  an- 
other. Watts. 

For  great  the  man,  and  useful,  without  doubt, 
Who  seasons  pottage,  or  expels  the  gout ; 
Whose  science  keeps  life  in,  and  keeps  death  out. 

Harte. 


Vol.  XVIII.— PabtI. 


Id. 


POTAGER,  n.  s.  From  Pottage.  A  por- 
ringer. 

An  Indian  dish  or  potager,  made  of  the  bark  of 
a  tree,  with  the  sides  and  rim  sewed  together  after 
the  manner  of  twiggen-work.  Grew*s  Museum. 

POTAMOGETON,  pond  weed,  a  genus  of 
the  tetragynia  order,  and  tetrandria  class  of  plants; 
natural  order  fifteenth,  inundatae:  gal.  none; 
petals  four ;  no  style,  and  four  seeds.  There 
are  twelve  species,  all  of  them  vegetables  floating 
on  the  surface  of  stagnant  waters,  affording 
agreeable  shade  to  fish,  and  food  to  cattle. 

Digitized  by  N^OOQIC 


POTASH. 


POTAMON,  or  Potamo,  a  philosopher  of 
Alexandria.  He  attached  himselt  to  none  of  the 
schools  of  philosophy  of  his  time ;  but  kept  a 
middle  course  between  the  scepticism  of  the 
Pyrrhonians  and  the  presumption  of  the  dog- 
matists. He  was  the  first  projector  of  the  £clec> 
tic  sect ;  for,  though  their  mode  of  philosophising 
had  been  common  before,  he  was  the  first  that 
attempted  to  institute  a  new  sect  on  this  prin- 
ciple. *  Diogenes  Laertius  relates  that,  not  long 
before  he  wrote  his  Lives  of  the  Philosophers, 
an  Eclectic  sect,  ecXccrtca  tiq  mpcnc,  had  been 
introduced  by  Potamo  of  Alexandria,  who  se- 
lected tenets  from  every  former  sect.  Suidas 
and  Porphyry  also  mention  him.  The  time 
when  Potamo  flourished  is  uncertain.  Suidas 
places  him  under  Augustus :  but  it  is  more  pro- 
bable, from  the  account  of  Laertius,  that  he  flou- 
rished about  the  close  of  the  second  century.' 

POTAR'GO,  n.  s.  Ital.  potarge,  A  West 
Indian  pickle. 

What  lord  of  old  would  bid  his  cook  prepare 
Mangos,  potargo,  champignons,  cavarre  f        King, 
POTASH,  n.  a.    Fr.  potusse.    The  vegetable 
alkali.    See  below. 

Cheshire  rock>salt,  with  a  little  nitre,  allum,  and 
pottuh,  is  the  flux  used  for  the  running  of  the  plate- 
glass.  Woodward, 
Potash,  or  Potassa,  in  chemistry  and  the 
manufactures,  more  commonly  known  as  the  vege- 
table alkali,  is  a  fixed  alkaline  salt  obtained  from 
the  ashes  of  burnt  vegetables  of  various  kinds. 
The  method  of  making  potash  is  described  by 
Dr.  Shaw  as  follows : — Burn  a  quantity  of  billet 
wood  to  gray  ashes ;  and,  taking  several  pounds 
of  these  ashes,  boil  them  in  water,  so  as  to  make 
a  very  strong  lixivium  or  lie.  Let  this  lie  be 
strained  through  a  coarse  linen  cloth,  to  keep  out 
any  parts  of  half-burnt  wood  that  might  happen 
to  remain  in  the  ashes;  then  evaporate  this 
strained  lie  in  an  iron  pan,  over  a. quick  fire, 
almost  to  dryness:  then,  taking  out  the  matter 
remaining  at  the  bottom,  and  putting  it  into  an 
iron  crucible,  set  it  in  a  strong  fire  till  the  matter 
is  melted,  and  then  immediately  pour  it  out 
upon  an  iron  plate,  where  it  soon  cools,  and  ap- 
pears in  the  form  of  a  solid  lump  of  potash,  in 
this  manner  potash  is  made  in  the  large  way  of 
business,  for  the  service  of  the  soap-boiler,  glass- 
maker,  fuller,  &c. ;  but,  according  to  the  differ- 
ence of  the  wood,  or  combustible  matter  em- 
ployed, with  the  manner,  of  turning  it,  and 
conducting  the  process,  different  kinds  of  potash 
are  prepared.  There  are  certain  saline  plants 
that  yield  this  potash  to  great  advantage,  as  par- 
ticularly the  plant  kali;  there  are  others  that  af- 
ford it  in  less  plenty,  and  of  an  inferior  quality, 
as  bean-stalks,  &c.;  but,  in  general,  all  vegetable 
subjects  afibrd  it  of  one  kind  or  other,  and.  may 
most  of  them  be  made  to  yield  it  tolerably  per- 
fect after  the  manner  of  the  process  already  laid 
down,  even  the  loppings,  roots,  and  refuse  parts 
of  ordinary  trees,  vine-dippings,  &c. 

It  was  announced  in  tne  philosophical  Jour- 
nals that,  in  France,  potash  had  been  obtained 
in  great  quantities  froQi  potato  stalks.  In  order 
to  put  this  to  the  test  of  experiment.  Sir  John 
Hay  and  Dr.  M'Culloch  made  a  trial  on  a  large 
scale,  and  found  that  the  quantity  of  potash  was 


so  small  that  no  person  could  be  remunerated  by 
it  for  the  trouble  of  the  process.  Messrs.  Tay- 
lors of  Queensferry,  by  desire  of  Sir  John  Hay, 
made  an  experiment  on  the  produce  of  two  acres 
of  potato  s^ks,  which  yielded  two  casks  of 
ashes,  weighing  2  cwi.  23  Ibs^  which  produced 
of  soluble  substance  only  36  lbs.,  containing  a 
great  deal  of  muriate  of  potash  and  sulphate  of 
potash.  The  value  of  this  produce  vras  not 
more  than  2d.  per  lb.,  or  6<.  in  all;  and  on 
twelve  acres  of  their  own  they  had  a  similar 
result. 

The  following  is  a  table  of  the  saline  product 
of  1000  lbs.  of  ashes  of  the  following  vegetables  :— 

Saline  products. 
Stalks  of  Turkey  wheat, )  .^.^  „ 
or  maize,  J  198  lbs. 


Stalks  of  sunflower    . 

349 

Vine  branches        .    . 

162-6 

Kim 

166 

Box          ,        .        . 

78 

Sallow       . 

102 

Oak          .        .        . 

111 

Aspen 

61 

Beech 

219 

Fir            .        .        . 

132 

Fern  cut  in  August 

,^-5  or  125  according 
"®  i  to  Wildenheim. 

Wormwood 

748 

Fumitory 

360 

Heath 

115  Wildenheim. 

On  these  tables  Kirwan  makes  the  following 
remarks:— 1.  That  in  general  weeds  yield  more 
ashes,  and  their  ashes  much  more  salt,  than 
woods ;  and  that  consequently,  as  to  salts  of  the 
vegetable  alkali  kind,  as  potash,  pearl-ash,  cashup, 
&c.,  neither  America,  Trieste,  nor  the  northern 
countries,  have  any  advantage  over  Ireland.  2. 
That  of  all  weeds  fumitory  produces  most  salt,  and 
next  to  it  wormwood.  But,  if  we  attend  only  to 
the  quantity  of  salt  in  a  given  weight  of  ashes, 
the  ashes  of  wormwood  contain  most.  Tirifblium 
fibrinum  also  produces  more  ashes  and  salt  than 
fern.  Dr.  John  of  Berlin  observes  that  uncom- 
bined  potash  does  not  occur  in  living  vegetables, 
it  being  always  combined  with  an  acid,  and  is 
only  found  in  them  when  they  are  in  a  state  of 
putridity  or  decomposition.  Plants  that  feel 
rough  and  sharp,  imrticularly  equiseti,  contain 
much  siliceous  earth ;  in  the  latter  fiill  thirteen 
per  cent.  Lichens  that  grow  on  the  summits  of 
fir  trees  contain  an  uncommon  proportion  of 
oxide  of  iron,  which.  Dr.  John  remarks,  may  be 
viewed  as  illustraitive  of  the  formation  of  iron  by 
the  vegetable  process.  Dr.  John  recommends 
the  use  of  decaying  and  diseased  wood  to  those 
who  wish  to  obtain  potash  from  it  by  burnings 
as  he  maintaius  that  the  quantity  of  potash  is 
much  increased  by  the  putrefactive  process. 
This  remark  is  not  new ;  for  we  find  it  mentioned 
in  the  second  volume  of  Schreber*s  Sammlung 
verschiedener  Schriften,  pxiblished  in  1763,  that 
putrid  wood  was  recommended  for  obtaining 
ashes  in  preference  to  fresh  vrood.  Plants, 
which  were  allowed  to  grow  in  a  solution  of 
natron,  absorbed  by  their  rbots  a  considerable 
portion  of  the  alkali ;  but  none  of  this  appeared 
when  the  ashes  of  the  plant  were  examined :  in 


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POTASH. 


pboe  qI  it  appealed  potash ;  and  hence  ft  is  con- 
jectaied  that  yegetables  have  the  power  of  con- 
voting  nation  into  potash. 

The  process  for  obtaining  pot  and  peari-ash  is 
l^fen  bv  Kirwan  as  follows : — 

1.  The  weeds  should  be  cut  just  before  they 
seedy  then  spread,  well  dried,  and  gathered  clean. 

).  Ihe^  should  be  burned  within  doors  on  a 
gxate,  and  the  ashes  laid  in  a  chest  as  fast  as  they 
are  moduced.  If  any  charcoal  be  visible,  it 
ahoQid  he  pidLed  out,  and  thrown  back  into  the 
fire.  If  the  weeds  be  moist,  much  coal  will  be 
fcond.  A  close  smothered  fire,  which  has  been 
recommended  by  some,  is  very  prejudiciaL 

3.  They  shouM  be  lixiviated  widi  twelve^imes 
dieir  weight  of  boiling  water.  A  drop  of  the  'sO' 
lotion  of  corrosive  sublimate  will  immediately 
dixover  when  the  water  ceases  to  take  up  any 
more  alkali.  The  earthy  matter  that  remains  is 
said  to  be  a  good  manure  for  clayey  soils. 

4.  The  lie  thus  formed  should  be  evaporated 
to  dryness  in  iron  pans.  Two  or  three  at  least 
of  these  should  be  used,  and  the  lie,  as  last  as  it 
is  oonoeted,  passed  from  the  one  to  the  other. 
Thos^  much  time  is  saved,  as  weak  lies  evapo- 
rate more  quickly  than  the  stronger.  The  salt 
thus  produced  is  of  a  dark  color,  and  contains 
much  extractive  matter;  and,  being  formed  in 
iron  pots,  is  called  potash. 

5.  This  salt  should  then  be  carried  to  a  rever- 
beratory  furnace,  in  which  the  extractive  matter 
is  burnt  off,  and  much  of  the  water  dissipated : 
heaoe  it  generally  loses  from  ten  to  fifteen  per 
cent  of  its  weif^t  Particular  care  should  be 
taken  to  prevent  its  melting,  as  the  extractive 
matter  would  not  dien  be  perfectly  consumed, 
and  the  alkali  would  form  such  a  union  withtfae 
earthy  parts  as  could  not  easily  be  dissolved. 
Rirwan  adds  this  caution,  because  Br.  Lewis 
and  Mr.  Dossie  have  inadvertently  directed  the 
eootiarv.  This  salt,  thus  refined,  is  called  peari- 
ash,  and  must  be  the  same  as  the  Dantzic  pearl-ash« 

To  obtain  this  alkali  pure,  Berthollet  recom- 
mends to  evaporate  a  solution  of  potash,  made 
caustic  by  boiling  with  quicklime,  till  it  becomes 
of  a  thickish  consistence ;  to  add  about  an  equal 
%e%fat  of  alcohol,  and  let  the  mixture  stand  some 
time  in  a  close  vessel.  Some  solid  matter,  partly 
clystdlised,  will  collect  at  the  bottom;  above 
this  will  be  a  small  quantity  of  a  dark-colored 
ihiid;  and  on  the  top  another  lighter.  The  latter, 
separated  by  decantation,  is  to  be  evaporated 
quickly  in  a  silver  basin  in  a  sand-heat.  Glass, 
or  almost  any  other  metal,  would  be  corroded  by 
the  potash.  Before  the  evaporation  has  been 
carried  &r,  the  solution  is  to  be  removed  from 
the  fire,  and  suffered  to  stand  at  rest;  when  it 
will  again  separate  into  two  fluids.  The  lighter, 
NMoed  off,  is  again  to  be  evaporated  with 
a  iniick  heat ;  and,  on  standing  a  day  or  two  in 
a  dose  vessel,  it  will  deposit  transparent  crystals 
of  pQie  potash.  If  the  liquor  be  evaporated  to 
apdlicle,  the  potash  will  concrete  vrithout  regu- 
lar oystallisation.  In  both  cases  a  high-colored 
liquor  if  separated,  which  is  to  be  poured  off; 
and  Ifae  poiash  must  be  kept  carefiilly  secluded 
fiomair 

Its  tasfe  is  i:emarkably  acrid,  and  it  is  so  ex- 
Cttdti^  eorroaive  that,  when  applied  to  any 


part  of  the  body,  it  destroys  it  almost  instan- 
taneously. On  account  of  this  property  it  has 
been  called  caustic,  and  is  often  used  by  sur- 
geons to  open  abscesses,  and  destroy  useless  or 
hurtful  excrements.  When  heated  it  melts.  At 
a  red  heat  it  swells,  and  evaporates  slowly  in  a 
white  acrid  smoke.  When  exposed  to  the  air  it 
soon  attracts  moisture,  and  is  converted  into  a 
liquid ;  and  combines  with  carbonic  acid,  for 
which  it  has  a  great  affinity.  It  has  a  very 
strong  affinitv  for  water.  At  the  common  tem- 
perature of  the  air,  one  part  of  water  dissolves 
two  parts  of  potassa.  The  solution  is  transpa^ 
rent,  very  dense,  and  almost  of  the  consistence 
of  oil.  In  this  state  it  is  usually  employed  by 
chemists.  When  four  parts  of  potash  in  powder, 
and  one  of  snow  are  mixed  together,  the  mixture 
becomes  liquid,  and  absorbs  a  quantity  of  ca- 
loric. This  mixture  was  employed  by  Lowitz  to 
produce  artificial  cold.  When  the  aqueous  so- 
lution of  potash  is  evaporated  to  a  proper  con- 
sistency, the  potash  crystallises.  The  shape  of 
its  crystals  is  very  different,  according  to  the 
way  in  which  they  have  been  produced.  When 
allowed  to  form  in  the  cold,  they  are  octahedrons  ' 
in  groups,  and  contain  0*43  of  water:  when 
formed  by  evaporation  on  the  fire,  they  assume 
the  figure  of  very  thin  transparent  blades  of  ex- 
traordinary magnitude,  whicn,  by  an  assemblage 
of  lines  crossing  tech  other  in  prodigious  num- 
bers, pr^ent  an  aggregate  of  cells  or  cavities, 
commonly  so  very  close  that  the  vessel  may  be 
inverted  without  losing  one  drop  of  the  liquid 
it  contains.  Potash  is  not  altered  by  exposure 
to  the  light. 

A  perfectly  pure  solution  of  potash  will  re- 
main transparent  on  the  addition  of  lime-water, 
show  no  effervescence  with  dilute  sulphuric  acid, 
and  not  give  any  precipitate  on  blowing  air 
from  the  lungs  through  it  by  means  of  a  tube. 

Pure  potash  for  experimental  purposes  may 
most  easily  be  obtained  by  igniting  cream  of 
tartar  in  a  crucible,  dissolving  the  residue  in 
water,  filtering,  boiling  with  a  quantity  of  quick- 
,  lime,  and,  after  subsidence,  decanting  the  clear 
liquid,  and  evaporating  in  a  loosely  covered  sil- 
ver .capsule,  till  it  flows  like  oil,  and  then  pour- 
ing it  out  on  a  clean  iron  plate.  A  solid  white 
cake  of  pure  hydrate  of  potash  is  thus  obtained, 
without  the  agency  of  alcohol.  It  must  be  im- 
mediately broken  mto  fragments,  and  kept  in  a 
well-stoppered  phial. 

As  100  parts  of  subcarbonate  of  potash  alte 
equivalent  to  about  seventy  of  pure  concentrated 
oil  of  vitriol,  if  into  a  measure  tube,  graduated 
into  100  equal  parts,  we  introduce  ^e  seventy 
grains  of  acid,  and  fill  up  the  remaining  space 
with  water,  then  we  have  an  alkalimeter  for  esti- 
mating the  value  of  commercial  pearl-ashes, 
which,  if  pure,  will  require  for  100  grains  100 
divisions  of  the  liquid  to  neutralise  them.  If 
they  contain  only  sixty  per  cent,  of  prenuine  sub- 
carbonate,  then  100  grains  will  require  only  sixty 
divisions,  and  so  on.  When  the  alkalimeter  in- 
dications are  required  in  pure  or  absolute  potash, 
such  as  constitutes  the  basis  of  nitre,  then  we 
must  use  102  grains  of  pure  oil  of  vitriol,  along 
with  the  requisite  bulk  of  water  to  fill  up  the 
volume  of  the  graduated  tube. 

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The  hydrate  of  potash,  as  ohtained  by  the  pre- 
ceding process,  is  solid,  white,  and  extremely 
caustic  ;  in  minute  quantities,  changing  the  pur- 
ple of  violets  and  cabbage  to  a  green,  reddened 
litmus  to  purple,  and  yellow  turmeric  to  a  red- 
dish-brown. It  rapidly  attracts  humidity  from 
the  air,  passing  into  the  oil  of  tartar  per  deliquium 
of  the  chemists ;  a  name,  however,  also  given  to 
the  deliquesced  subcarbonate.  •Charcoal  applied 
to  the  hydrate  of  potash  at  a  cherry-red  heat 
gives  birth  to  carburetted  hydrogen,  and  an  al- 
kaline subcarbonate ;  but,  at  a  heat  bordering  on 
whiteness,  carburetted  hydrogen,  carbonous 
oxide,  and  potassium  are  formed.  Several  me- 
tals decompose  the  hydrate. of  potash,  by  the  aid 
of  heat;  particularly  potassium,  sodium,  and 
iron.  The  fused  hydrate  of  potash  consists  of 
6  protoxide  of  potassium  -f-  1*125  waters 
7*125,  which  number  represents  the  compound 
prime  equivalent.  It  is  used  in  surgery  as  the 
potential  cautery  for  forming  eschars ;  and  it  was 
formerly  employed  in  m^icine  diluted  with 
broths  as  a  lithontriptic.  In  chemistry  it  is  very 
extensively  employed,  both  in  manufactures  and 
as  a  reagent  in  analyses.  It  is  the  basis  of  all 
the  common  soft  soaps. 

Dr.  Wollaston  has  recently  ascertained  the 
existence  of  potash  in  sea-water.  He  estimates 
the  proportion  of  this  alkali,  which  he  supposes 
to  exist  in  the  state  of  sulphate,  at  something 
less  th^n  ,gigth  part  of  the  water,  at  its  average 
density.  lie. has  also  detected  traces  of  potash 
in  the  water  of  the  lake  of  Ourmia  or  Arumea, 
which  is  unconnected  vnth  the  ocean.  The 
water  of  this  lake  (which  is  situated  on  the  pro- 
vince of  Azerbijan  in  Persia)  is  said  to  be  salter 
than  that  of  the  sea,  so  that  no  fish  can  live 
in  it. 

Potash,  until  Sir  Humphry  Davy's  memorable 
discovery  of  its  chemical  nature,  was  considered 
as  a  simple  body,  though  strong  suspicions  were 
entertained  of  its  being  of  a  compound  nature. 
From  that  philosopher's  researches,  however, 
potash  appears  to  consist  of  a  metallic  ba<)is, 
which  he  called  potassium,  united  with  oxygen, . 
in  the  following  proportions : — 

Potassium     .        .         .83 
Oxygen         .        .        .17 

100 

POTASSIUM,  in  chemistry,  the  name  given 
by  Sir  H.  Davy  to  the  metallic  base  of  potash, 
discovered  by  him  in  180?.  Till  this  period 
potash  and  soda  were  necessarily  regaroed  as 
simple  from  the  impossibility  of  decomposing 
them  by  any  known  methods.  Yet  they  were 
generally  suspected  to  be.  compounds,  though  no 
chemist  was  able  to  detect  their  elements.  By 
many  the  alkalescent  principle  was  supposed  to 
be  nitrogen,  as  the  acidifiable  was  oxygen.  Mor- 
veau  and  Desormes  published  an  ingenious  set 
of  experiments,  in  which  they  endeavoured  to 
prove  that  potash  was  a  compound  of  hydrogen 
and  lime.  Darracq,  however,  with  that  accuracy 
which  has  characterised  most  of  his  enquiries, 
soon  disproved  this  theory,  and  evinced  that  the 
results  ODtained  by  Desormes  and  Morveau  were 
owing,  in  most  cases,  to  the  impurity  of  the 


potash  with  which  they  had  made  their  experi- 
ments ;  while  in  others  they  had  drawn  wrong 
infereuces  from  mistaken  resemblances. 

As  soon  as  voltaic  electricity  was  so  far  ren- 
dered manageable  as  to  be  applied  with  very 
great  power  to  chemical  analyses,  Mr.  Davy 
conceived  the  idea  of  enlisting  this  wonderful 
agency  into  bis  service,  with  a  view  of  endea- 
vouring to  obtain  a  decomposition  of  the  alka- 
lies; and  he  was  the  more  fully  induced  to  give 
a  full  scope  and  latitude  to  a  series  of  experiments 
of  this  kind  from  observing  that  if  a  neutral 
substance,  or  a  compound  of  an  acid  and  an 
alkali,  constituted  a  part  of  the  voltaic  circle,  a 
decomposition  of  sucii  substance  was  the  result, 
the  acid  alone  always  travelling  to  the  positive 
side  of  the  chain  and  the  alkali  to  the  negative. 

In  the  first  attempts  which  Sir  H.  Davy  made 
for  the  decomposition  of  the  fixed  alkalies,  he 
entirely  failed,  in  consequence  of  his  having 
acted  upon  their  aqueous  solutions  only.  He 
aflerwaids  used  potash  in  the  state  of  igneous 
fusion,  and  acted  upon  it  by  an  electrical  power, 
which  was  produced  from  a  galvanic  battery  of 
100  plates  of  six  inches  square,  highly  charged. 
Here  s6me  brilliant  phenomena  were  produced. 
A  most  intense  light  and  a  column  of  flame  were 
exhibited,  which  seemed  to  be  owing  to  the  deve- 
lopment of  combustible  matter ;  and  when  the 
Older  was  changed,  so  that  the  alkali  was  brought 
in  contact  with  the  negative  side  of  the  battery, 
aeriform  globules,  which  inflamed  in  the  atmos- 
phere, rose  through  the  potash.  Being,  however, 
unable  to  collect  the  products  of  decomposition 
by  this  means,  he  had  then  recourse  to  pure 
potash  in  its  usual  state,  and  depended  on  elec- 
tricity alone  for  its  fusion,  as  well  as  its  decom- 
position. 

A  small  piece  of  pure  potash,  moistened  a 
little  by  the  oreath,  was  placed  upon  an  insulated 
disc  of  platinum,  connected  with  the  negative 
side  of  a  battery  consisting  of  100  plates  of  six 
inches  and  150  of  four  inches  square,  in  a- state 
of  intense  activity,  and  a  platinum  wire,  com- 
municating with  the  positive  side,  was  brought 
in  coi^tact  with  the  upper  sur&ce  of  the  alkali. 
Under  these  circumstances,  a  vivid  action  soon 
commenced.  The  potash  began  to  fuse  at  both  its 
points  of  electrisation,  and  small  globules,  having 
a  high  metallic  lustre  and  precisely  similar  in 
visible  characters  to  quicksilver,  appeared,  some 
of  which  burnt  with  explosion  ana  bright  flame. 
These  globules,  which  appeared  to  be  metallic, 
were  the  basis  of  potash. 

If  iron  turnings  be  heated  to  whiteness  in  a 
curved  gun-barrel,  and  potash  be  melted  and 
made  slowly  to  come  in  contact  with  the  turn- 
ings, air  being  excluded,  potassium  will  be 
formed,  and  will  collect  in  the  cool  part  of  the 
tube.  This  method  of  procuring  it  was  disco- 
vered by  M.  M.  Gay  Lussac  and  Thenard  in 
1808.     It  may  likewise  be  produced  by  igniting 

S>tash  with  charcoal,  as  M.  Curaudau  showed 
e  same  year. 

M.  Brunner,  by  acting  on  calcined  tartar  in  a 
bottle  of  wrought  iron,  has  succeeded  in  obtain- 
ing potassium  at  a  comparatively  moderate  heat 
The  bottle  is  spheroidal,  about  half  an  inch  in 
thickness,  and  capable  of  holding  about  a  pint 


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POTASSIUM. 


of  water ;  a  bent   gun-barrel  of  ten  or  twelve 
iodies  in  lengtb  screws  into  the  mouth  of  the 
bottle.  The  bottle,  well  luted  over  with  fire-clay, 
is  set  in  a  strong  air  furnace,  so  that  the  tube 
Toxf  dip  down  externally  beneath  the  surface  of 
naphtha  contained  in  a  cylindric  copper  vessel, 
sundiug  in  a  tub  containing  ice  and  water.  The 
top  of  the  naphtha  vessel  has  a  cover  fixed  on 
it,  pierced  with  a  hole  to  receive  the  end  of  the 
gun-barrel ;  and,  from  the  side  of  the  upper  part 
of  the  vessel,  a  small  tube  goes  off  at  right  an- 
gles to  let  the  air  and  vapors  escape.    It  is  ad- 
vantageous to  mix  a  little  ground  charcoal  with 
the  tartar  previously  calcined  in  a  covered  vessel, 
in  the  same  iron  bottle  for.  example.     Nearly 
300  grains  of  .potassium  have  been  procured  by 
this  apparatus  from  twenty^four  ounces  of  crude 
tartar. — BlbUotheque  VniveneUe,  xxii.  36. 

Potassium  is  possessed  of  very  extraordinary 
properties.  It  is  lighter  than  water,  its  specific 
gravity  being  0*865  to  water  I'O.  At  common 
temperatures  it  is  solid,  soft,  and  easily  moulded 
by  ttie  fingers.  At  150^  Fahrenheit  it  fuses, 
and  in  a  heat  a  little  below  redness  it  rises  in 
vapor.  It  is  perfectly  opaqua  When  newly 
cut,  its  color  is  splendent  white,  like  that  of  sil- 
ver, but  it  rapidly  tarnishes  in  the  air.  To  pre- 
serve it  unchanged,  we  roust  enclose  it  m  a 
small  phial,  with  pure  naphtha.  .  It  conducts 
dectriaty  like  the  common  metals.  When 
thrown  upon  water,  it  acts  with  great  violence, 
and  swims  upon  the  surface,  burning  with  a 
beantifuj  light  of  a  red  color,  mixed  with  violet. 
The  water  becomes  a  solution  of  pure  potash. 
When  moderately  heated  in  the  air,  it  inflames, 
boms  with  a  red  light,  and  throws  o£f  alkaline 
fumes.  Placed  in  chlorine,  it  spontaneously 
bums  with  great  brilliancy. 

On  all  fluid  bodies  which  contain  water,  or 
much  oxygen  or  chlorine,  it  readily  acts ;  and  in 
its  general  powers  of  chemical  combination,  says 
its  fllnstrioos  discoverer,  potassium  may  be  com- 
pared to  the  alkahest,  or  universal  solvent,  ima- 
gined by  the  alchemists. 

Potassium  combines  with  oxygen  in  different 
proportions.  When  potassium  is  gently  heated 
m  common  air,  or  in  oxygen,  the  result  of  jts 
combustion  is  an  orange-colored  fusible  sub- 
stance. For  every  grain  of  the  metal  consumed, 
about  one  cubic  inch  and  seven-tenths  of  oxygen 
are  condensed.  To  make  the  experiment  accu- 
rately, the  metal  should  be  burned  in  a  tray  of 
pkttina  covered  with  a  coating  of  fused  muriate 
of  potash. 

the  substance  procured  by  the  combustion  of 
potassium  at  a  low  temperature,  was  first  ob- 
served in  October  1807,  by  Sir  Humphry  Davy, 
who  supposed  it  to  be  the  protoxide ;  but  M.M. 
Gay  Lnssac  and  Thenard,  m  18  tO,  showed  thslt 
it  was  in  reality  the  deutoxide,  or  peroxide. 
^^'hen  it  is  thrown  into  the  water,  oxygen  is 
evolved,  and  a  solution  of  the  protoxide  results, 
constituting  common  ai^ueous  potash.  When  it 
is  fused,  and  brought  in  contact  with  combusti- 
hle  bodies,  they  bum  vividly,  by  the  excess  of 
its  oxygen.  If  it  be  heated  in  carbonic  acid, 
oxygen  is  disengaged,  and  common  subcarbonate 
of  Dotash  is  formed. 
When  it  is  heated  very  strongly  upon  \  latina, 


oxygen  gas  is  expelled  from  it,  and  there  remains 
a  difficultly  fusible  substance  of  a  gray  color,  vi- 
treous fracture,  soluble  in  water  without  efierve- 
scence,  but  with  much  heat.  Aqueous  potash  is 
produced.  The  above  ignited  solid  is  protoxide 
of  potassium,  which  becomes  pure  potash  by 
combination  with  the  equivalent  quantity  of  wa- 
ter. When  we  produce  potassium  with  ignited 
iron  turnings  and  potash,  touch  hydrogen  is  dis- 
engaged from  the  water  of  the  hydrate,  while  the 
iron  becomes  oxidised  from  the  residuary  oxygen. 
By  heating,  together  pure  hydrate  of  potash  and 
boracic  acid,  Sir  H.  Davy  obtained  from  seven- 
teen to  eighteen  of  water  from  100  parts  of  the- 
solid  alkali. 

By  acting  on  potassium  with  a  very  small 
quantity  of  water,  or  by  heating  potassium  with 
fused  potash  j  the  protoxide  may  also  be  obtained. 
The  proportion  or  oxygen'  in  the  protoxide  is  de- 
termined by  the  action  of  potassium  upon  water. 
Eight  grains  of  potassium  produce  from  water 
about  nine  cubic  inches  and  a  half  of  hydrogen ; 
and  for  these  the  metal  must  have  fixed  four 
cubic  inches  and  three  quarters  of  oxygen.  But 
as  too  cubic  inches  of  oxygen  weigh  33*9  gr. 
4  J  will  weigh  1*61.  Thus,  9-61  gr.  of  the  pro- 
toxide will  contain  eight  of  metal;  and  100  will 
contain  83-25  metal  -f-  16-75  oxygen.  From 
these  data,  the  prime  of  potassium  comes  out 
4*969 ;  and'  that  of  the  protoxide  5-969.  Sir  H. 
Davy  adopts  the  number  75  for  potassium,  cor- 
respoiiding  to  50  on  the  oxygen  scale. 

When  potassium  is  heated  strongly  in  a  small 
quantity  of  common  air,  the  oxygen  of  which  is 
not  sufiicient  for  its  conversion  into  potash,  a 
substance  is  formed  of  a  grayish  color,  which, 
when  thrown  into  water,  effervesces  without 
taking  fire.  It  is  doubtful  whether  it  be  a  mix- 
ture of  the  protoxide  and  potassium,  or  a  com- 
bination of  potassium  with  a  smaller  proportion 
of  oxygen  than  exists  in  the  protoxide.  In  this 
case  it  would  be  a  suboxide,  consisting  of  2 
primes  of  potassium  =  10. -f-  1  of  oxygen 
=  11. 

When  thin  pieces  of  potassium  are  introduced 
into  chlorine,  the  inflammation  is  very  vivid ; 
and,  when  potassium  is  made  to  act  on  chloride 
of  sulphur,  there  is  an  explosion.  The  attraction 
of  chlorine  for  potassium  is  much  stronger  than 
the  attraction  ot  oxygen  for  the  metal.  Both  of 
the  oxides  of  potassium  are  immediately  decom- 
posed by  chlorine,  with  the  formation  of  a  fixed 
chloride,  and  the  extrication  of  oxygen. 

The  combination  of  potassium  and  chlorine  is 
the  substance  which  has  been  improperly  called 
muriate  of  potash,  and  which  in  common  cases, 
is  formed  by  causing  liquid  muriatic  acid  to 
saturate  solution  of  potash,  and  then  evaporating 
the  liquid  to  dryness  and  igniting  the  solid  resi- 
duum. The  hydrogen  of  the  acid  here  unites 
to  the  oxygen  of  the  alkali,  forming  water,  which 
is  exhaled;  while  the  remaining  chlorine  and 
potassium  combine.  It  consists  of  5  potassium 
+  4-5  chlorine. 

Potassium  combines  with  hydrogen,  to  form 
potassureted  hydrogen,  a  spontaneously  inflam- 
mable gas,  which  comes  over  occasionally  in  the 
proiluction  of  potassium  by  the  gun-barrel  expe- 
riment. MM.  Gay  Lussac  and  Thenard  describe 


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POT 

also  a  solid  compound  of  the  same  two  ingre- 
dientSy  which  they  call  a  hydniret  of  potassium. 
It  is  formed  by  heating  the  metal  a  long  while 
in  the  gas,  at  a  temperature  just  under  ignition. 
They  describe  it  as  a  grayish  solid,  giving  out 
its  hvdrogen  on  contact  with  mercury. 

When  potassium  and  sulphur  are  heated  tomt- 
ther,  they  combine  with  great  energy,  with  dis- 
engagement of  heat  and  light  even  in  vacuo. 
The  resulting  sulphuret  of  potassium  is  of  a 
dark  gray  color.  It  acts  with  great  energy  on 
water,  producing  sulphureted  hydrogen,  and 
burns  brilliantly  when  heated  in  the  air,  becom- 
ing sulphate  of  potash.  It  consists  of  2  sulphur 
4-  5  potassium,  by  Sir  H.  Davy's  experiments. 
Potassium  has  so  strong  an  attraction  for  sul- 
phur that  it  rapidly  separates  it  from  hydrogen. 
If  the  potassium  be  heated  in  the  sulphureted 
gas,  it  takes  fire  and  bums  with  gr^t  brilliancy ; 
sulphuret  of  potassium  is  formed,  and  pure  hy- 
drogen is  set  free. 

Potassium  and  phosphorus  enter  into  union 
with  the  evolution  of  lignt ;  but  the  mutual  ac- 
tion is  feebler  than  in  3ie  preceding  compound. 
The  phosphuret  of  potassium^  in  its  common 
form,  is  a  substance  of  a  dark  chocolate  color, 
but  when  heated  with  potassium  in  ereat  excess 
it  becomes  of  a  deep  gray  color,  with  consider- 
able lustre.  Hence  it  is  probable  that  phpspho- 
nis  and  potassium  are  capable  of  combining  in 
two  proportions.  The  phosphuret  of  potassium 
bums  with  great  brilliancy  when  exposed  to 
air,  and  when  thrown  into  water  proauces  an 
explosion,  in  consequence  of  the  inmiediate  dis- 
engagement of  phosphureted  hydrogen. 

Charcoal  which  has  been  strongly  heated  in 
contact  with  potassium  effervesces  in  water, 
rendermg  it  alkaline,  though  the  charcoal  may 
be  previously  exposed  to  a  temperature  at  which 
potassium  is  volatilised.  Hence  there  is  pro- 
bably a  compound  of  the  two  formed  by  a  feeble 
attraction. 

Of  all  known  substances,  potassium  is  that 
which  has  the  stronsest  attraction  for  oxygen ; 
and  it  produces  such  a  condensation  of  it,  that 
the  oxides  of  potassium  are  denser  than  the 
metal  itself.  Potassium  has  been  skilfully  used 
by  Sir  H.  Davy  and  MM.  Gay  Lussac  and  The- 
nard,  for  detecting  the  presence  of  oxygen  in 
bodies.  A  number  of  substances,  undecom- 
posable  by  other  chemical  agents,  are  readily 
aecomposed  by  this  substance. 

When  a  globule  is  placed  upon  ice,  not  even 
the  solid  form  of  both  the  substances  can  pre- 
vent their  union;  for  the  metalloid  instantly 
bums  with  a  bright  flame,  and  a  deep  hole  is 
made  in  the  ice,  which  is  found  to  contain  a  so- 
lution of  potash.  When  a  globule  is  dropped 
upon  moistened  turmeric  paper,  it  instantly 
bums,  and  moves  rapidly  upon  the  paper,  as  if 
in  search  of  moisture,  leaving  behind  it  a  deep 
reddish  brown  trace.  So  strong  is  the  attraction 
of  the  basis  of  potash  for  oxygen,  that  it  disco- 
vers and  decomposes  the  small  quantities  of 
water  contained  in  alcohol  and  ether,  even  when 
they  are  carefully  purified. 

POTATO,  n. «.  An  American  word,  battata 
originally.     See  below.    An  esculent  root. 


6  POT 

On  choicest  melons  and  sweet  grapes  they  dine. 
And  with  potatom  fat  their  wanton  swine.    WaUtr, 

Leek  to  the  Welch,  to  Dutchmen  buttei^s  dear. 
Of  Irish  swains  potatoe  is  the  chear ; 
Oats  for  their  feasts  the  Scottish  shepherds  grind. 
Sweet  turnips  are  the-  food  of  Blouzalind ; 
While  she  loves  turnips  batter  I'll  despise. 
Nor  leeki,  nor  oatmeal,  nor  pataioe  prise.         Chy  • 

The  families  of  farmers  live  in  filth  and  nastineie 
upon  buttermilk  and  potatou.  Swift. 

The  red  and  white  potaioet  are  the  most  common 
esculent  roots  now  in  use,  aod  were  originally 
brought  from  Virginia  into  Europe.  MUUr. 

Potato,  in  botanv.  See  Sclav uic.  Pota- 
toes came  originally  ux>m  !^orth  Americ%  where 
they  were  not  reckoned  good  for  food.  They 
were  first  introduced  into  Iveland  in  1565,  and 
thence  into  England  by  a  vessel  wrecked  on  the 
westem  coast,  at  North  Meols,  in  Lancashire, 
a  place  and  soil  still  famous  for  producing  this 
vegetable  in  great  perfection.  It  was  forty  years 
after  their  introduction,  however,  before  diey 
were  much  cultivated  about  London ;  and  then 
they  were  considered  as  rarities,  without  any  con- 
ception of  the  utility  that  might  arise  firom  bring- 
ing them  into  common  nse.  At  this  time  they 
were  distinguished  from  the  Spanish  by  tfale 
name  of  Virginia  potatoes,  or  battatas,  wluch  is 
the  Indian  name  of  the  Spanish  sort.  At  a 
meeting  of  the  Royal  Society,  March  18th, 
1662-3,  a  letter  was  read  from  Mr.  Buckland,  a 
Somerset  gentleman,  recommending  the  planting 
of  potatoes  in  all  parts  of  the  kingdom  to  pre- 
vent famine.  This  was  referred  to  a  committee ; 
and,  in  consequence  of  their  report,  Mr.  Buck- 
land  had  the  thanks  of  the  society;  such  mem- 
bers as  had  lands  were  entreated  to  plant  them, 
and  Mr.  Evelyn  was  desired  to  mention  die  pro- 
posals at  the  close  of  his  S^va.  In  Sweden, 
notwithstanding  the  indefiitigable  industry  of 
Linneiis,.lhe  culture  of  potatoes  was  only  intro- 
duced in  1764,  when  a  royal  edict  was  pub- 
lished to  encourage  their  general  cultivation. 
They  were  known  there,  however,  at  an  earlier 
period ;  for,  in  the  Memoirs  of  the  Royal  Acaide- 
my  of  Sciences  in  Sweden^  1747,  M.  Charies 
Skvtse  proposed  to  distil  brandy  from  them,  is 
order  to  save  com,  which  in  that  country  is  veir 
d^.  He  found  that  an  acre  of  land  set  with 
potatoes  will  yield  a  much  greater  ouantity  of 
brandy  than  when  sown  with  barley.  The  utility 
of  potatoes  is  well  known,  and  this  utility  haa 
brought  them  into  general  use,  and  has  extended 
them  over  every  part  of  this  kingdom.  To  pro- 
mote this  utility,  and  to  make  their  cultivation 
more  easy,  a  variety  of  experiments  and  in- 
quiries have  been  made.   See  Rural  Ecokomt. 

POTCH,  V.  0.  Fr.  poeher.  To  thrust  out  the 
eyes  as  vrith  a  thumb.    To  thrust ;  push. 

Where 
I  thought  to  crush  him  in  an  equal  force, 
True  sword  to  swoid ;  I'll  potch  at  him  some  way. 
Or  wrath  or  craft  may  get  him.  SiuJttpeore, 

PoTCH,  V.  a.  Fr.  pocker.  To  poach;  to 
boil  slightly.  Commonly  written  Poach,  which 
see. 

In  great  wounds,  it  is  necessary  to  observe  a  ipare 
diet,  as  panadoes  or  a  poteked  egK ;  this  moch.  avail- 
ing to  prevent  inflammation.       Wutman*s  Surgtry* 


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POT 

POTEMKIN  (Geoige,  Prince),  a' descendant 
of  a  Polish  family,  who  entered  into  the  service 
of  Russia,  and  distingnished  himself  so  much  as 
to  be  ajypointed  to  the  chief  command  by  Catha- 
rine II.  On  the  17th  December,  1788,  he  took 
the  important  fortress  of  Oczakow  from  the 
Turks,  and  obtained  several  other  victories  over 
them.  The  empress  rewarded  his  services  by 
loading  him  with  riches  and  honors :  and  it  is 
said  thsd  she  intended  to  have  made  him  sove- 
reign of  that  part  of  his.  native  countiy  which 
she  had  dismembered,  when  he  died  in  1791, 
aged  fifty-two. 
POTENCY,  ».f.  -J  Lat.  poientia^  potent,^ 
Po'teht,  adj,  f  Power ;,  efficacy ;  autho-» 

Po'tentate,  i  rity :  potent  is  powerful ; 

Po't£Kti*y.  J  forcible;  strong;  effica- 

cioiis :  potentate,  a  possessor  of  sovereign  power : 
potently  follows  the  senses  of  potent. 

Theie  is  nothing  moie  contagions  than  some  kinds 
of  baraiony ;  than  tome  nothing  more  strong  and 
potmU  ante  good.  Hooktr. 

Now  arriving 

At  place  of  potency  and  sway  o'  the  state, 

If  he  should  still  malignantly  remain 

Fast  ^  to  the  plebeians,  your  voices  might 

Be  curses  to  youraelves.    Shakspeare.  Coriokmus, 

Use  can  master  the  devil,  or  throw  him  out 
With  wonderotts  potetwy.  Shak^teare,  Hamlet. 

I  do  believe, 

ladaced  by  potent  circumstances,  that 

You  are  mine  enemy.  Id,  Henry  VIII. 

Why  stand  these  royal  fronts  amazed  tbvs  1 
Qy  faavock,  kings  \  back  to  the  stained  field, 
Yon  equal  paUnm,  fiecy  kindled  spirits !  ShaA^tearp, 

Yon  are  iMteKt^  opposed ;  and  with  a  malice 
Of  as  great  siae.  Sbahpeare.  Henry  VIIL 

Kings  and  mightiest  potmUatei  must  die. 

Shakspeare. 

By  what  name  shall  we  call  such  an  one,  as  ex- 
ceeiteth  God  in  potency?  Raleigh. 

Metals  are  hardened  by  often  heating  and  quench- 
ing ;  for  cold  worketh  most  potentlgf  upon  heat  pre- 
cedent. Bacon. 

One  would  wonder  how,  from  so  differing  pre- 
Btses,  th^  should  infer  the  nme  conclusion,  were 
it  not  that  the  conspiration  of  interest  were  too  po- 
tnrt  for  the  diveisity  of  judgmenL    Decoy  of  Piety. 
There  defimoes  are  but  complimenU, 

To  dally  with  confining  potentatef.  Dauiri, 

TVhen  by  command 

Moses  once  more  his  potent  rod  eitends 

Over  the  sea  ;  the  sea  his  rod  obeys.         3iiUon, 
All  obeyed  the  superior  voice 

Of  their  great  potentate  ;  for  great  indeed 

His  name,  and  high  was  his  degree  in  heaven. 

Ja. 

We  acknowled^  all  power  derived  from  him,  and 
depending  on  his  pleasure  :  we  ascribe  to  him.  an 
anthori^  paramonnt  above  all  earthly  poUntatee. 

Borrow. 
Venes  are  the  potent  diaims  we  use. 

Heroic  thoughts  and  virtue  to  infuse.        WaUer. 

Exalting  him  not  only  above  earthly  princes  and 
peuntatee,  but  above  the  hi^estof  the  celestial  hier- 
archy. Boyle. 

Oil  of  vitriol,  though  a  potentiy  acid  menstruum, 
will  tet  precipitate  many  bodies  mineral,  and  others 
dinolved  not  only  in  aquafortis,  but  in  spirit  of 
Tiugar.  Id' 

Each  potetUaU,  as  weary  fear,  or  strength. 

Or  emulation  vigedt  his  neighbour's  bounds 

lavades.  PhiUps. 


7  POT 

The  magistrate  cannot  ur^  obedience  upon  such 
potent  grounds  as  the  minister  can  urge  disobe- 
dience. Soutfi. 

How  the  effluvia  of  a  magnet  can  be  so  rare  and 
subtile,  as  to  pass  through  a  plate  of  glass  without 
any  resistance  or  diminution  of  their  force,  and  yet 
so  potent  as  to  turn  a  magnetick  needle  through  the 
glass.  Newton*8  Optiekt. 

Cyclop,  since  human  flesh  has  been  thy  feast. 
Now  drain  this  goblet  potent  to  digest.  Pope. 

The  chemical  preparations  are  more  vigorous  and 
potent  in  their  effects  than  the  galenical.        Baker. 

With  fond  delight  we  feel  the  potent  charm, 
when  Zephyrs  cool  us,  or  when  sun-beams  warm , 
With  fond  delight  inhale  the  fragrant  flowers. 
Taste  the  sweet  fruits  which   bend  the  blushing 

bowers. 
Admire  the  music  of  the  vernal  grove, 
Or  drink  the  raptures  of  delirious  love.        Darwin. 
Thus  did  the  uncircumcised  potentates 

Of  earth,  debase  religion  in  the  sight 

Of  those  they  ruled,  who  looking  up  beheld 

The  fair  celestial  gih  despised,  enslaved ; 

And  mimiakine  the  folly  of  the  great. 

With  prompt  docility  despised  t^r  too.      PoUok. 

POTENGER  (John),  an  English  author,  bom 
at  Winchester  in  1647.  He  took  the  degree  of 
B.A.  in  Corpus  Christi  College,  Oxford;  and, 
entering  the  Temple^  was  called  to  the  bar.  He 
is  chiefly  known  by  his  Life  of  Agricola,  from 
Tacitus;  and  his  Pastoral  Reflection  on  Death, 
a  poem.    He  died  at  Dorchester,  in  1733. 

Potent,  or  Potencf,  in  he- 
raldry, a  term  for  a  kind  of  cross, 
whose  ends  all  terminate  like 
the  head  of  a  crutch.  It  is 
otherwise  called  the  Jerusalem 
cross.    See  diagram. 

POTENTIAL,  adj.  ^      Fr.  potenciel;  Lat. 

Potential'ity,  n.s.  ypotentiaiis.  Existing  in 

Poten'tially.  j  possibility  only :  hav- 

ing efiect  as  distinct  from  an  actual  property ; 
eflScacious:  potentiality  is  possibility:  poten- 
tially corresponds  with  potential. 

They  should  tell  us,  whether  only  that  be  taken 
out  of  scripture  which  is  actually  and  particularly 
there  set  down,  or  else  that  also  which  the  general 
principles  and  rules  of  scripture  potentiddly  contain. 

Hooker. 
The  magnifico  is  much  beloved. 

And  hath  in  his  efiect  a  voice  potentiai. 

As  double  as  the  duke's.        &taktpeare.  Othello. 

This  potential  and  imaginary  materia  prima  cannot 
exist  without  form.    Raleigh's  History  of  the  World. 

Manna  represented  to  every  man  tiie  taste  himself 
did  like ;  but  it  had  in  its  own  potentiality  all  those 
tastes  and  dispositions  eminently.  Taylor. 

The  cautery  is  either  actual  or  potfnttal. 

Markkam. 

Ice  doth  not  only  submit  unto  actual  heat,  but  in- 
dureth  not  the  potenUoL  calidity  of  many  waters. 

Browne. 

Blackness  is  produced  upon  the  blade  of  a  knife 
that  has  cut  four  apples,  if  the  juice,  though  both 
actually  and  potentiaUy  cold,  be  not  quickly  wiped 
off.  Bfiyle  on  Colon. 

God  is  an  eternal  substance  and  act,  without  po- 
tentiality and  matter,  the  principle  of  motion,  the 
cause  of  nature.  Stillin^fleet. 

The  true  notion  of  a  soul's  eternity  is  thu,  that 
the  future  moments  of  its  duration  can  never  be  all 


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POT  t 

past  and  present ;  but  still  there  will  be  futurity  and 
potentiality  of  more  for  ever  and  ever.  Bentley. 

This  duration  of  human  souls  is  only  potentially 
infinite.  -W. 

Potential,  in  grammar,  is  an  epithet  applied 
to  one  of  the  moods  of  verbs.  The  potential  is 
the  same  in  form  with  the  subjunctive,  and  is, 
according  to  Ruddiman,  implied  in  that  mood; 
for  which  reason  that  grammarian  rejects  it :  but 
others  observe  that  it  differs  from  the  subjitnctive  , 
in  this  that  it  always  carries  with  it  the  signifi- 
cation of  power,  will,  or  duty.  It  is  sometimes 
called  the  permissive  mood,  because  it  often  im- 
plies a  permission  or  concession  to  do  a  thing. 

Potential  Cautery,  in  medicine,  denotes 
the  consuming,  or  reducing  to  an  eschar,  any 
part  of  the  human  body  by  a  caustic  alkaline  or 
metallic  salt,  &c.,  instead  of  a  red-hot  iron, 
which  last  is  called  the  actual  cautery. 

POTENTILLA,  silver-weed,  wild  tansey,  or 
cinquefoil,  a  genus  of  the  pentagynia  order,  and 
icosandria  class  of  plants;  natural  order  thirty- 
fifth,  senticoss:  cal.  decemfid:  theie  are  five 
petals :  SEEDS  roundish,  naked,  and  affixed  to  a 
small  dry  receptacle.    The  species  are  six : 

1.  P.  areentea,  silvery  upright  potentilla,  has 
upright  stalks,  branching  a  foot  high ;  and  five- 
lobed  leaves,  having  the  lobes  wedge-shaped, 
cut  on  the  edges,  hoary,  and  white  underneath, 
and  the  branches  terminated  by  small  yellow 
flowers. 

2.  P.  fragaroidesj  the  strawberry-like  potentilla, 
has  a  somewhat  tuberous  root,  furnished  with 
many  long  fibres,' long  trailing  shoots,  rooting  at 
the  joints;  pinnated,  mostly  three-lobed  leaves, 
having  oval  lobes,  with  the  extreme  lobe  the 
largest,  and  clusters  of  small  white  flowers. 
This  species  bears  a  great  resemblance  to  the 
small  sterile  strawberry  plants. 

3.  P.  fruticosa,  the  shrubby  potentilla,  common- 
ly called  shrub  cinquefoil.  This  rises  with  a  short 
shrubby  stem,  dividing  into  a  branchy  full  head, 
three  or  four  feet  high;  closely  garnished  with 
pinnated  leaves  of  five  oblong,  narrow,  acute- 
pointed  folioles,  pale  green  above,  and  whitish 
underneath;  and  the  branches  terminated  by 
clusters  of  large,  spreading,  yellow  flowers. 
This  is  a  beautiful  deciduous  flowering  shnib, 
worthy  of  a  place  in  every  curious  collection.  It 
grows  wild  in  Yorkshire,  and  other  northern 
parts  of  England,  &c.,  but  has  been  long  culti- 
vated in  gardens  as  an  ornamental  shrub. 

These  plants  flower  in  June  and  July;  the 
flowers  are  composed  each  of  five  roundish  pe- 
tals, and  about  twenty  stamina.  They  are  all 
very  hardy,  and  may  be  employed  in  the  diflerent 
compartments  of  the  pleasure  ground.  Their 
propagation  is  very  easy.  The  shrubby  poten- 
tilla may  be  propagated  abundantly  by  suckers, 
layers,  and  cuttings ;  all  of  which  will  readily 
grow,  and  make  plants  in  one  year,  which,  after 
having  two  or  three  years  growth  in  the  nursery, 
will  be  fit  for  any  of  the  shrubbery  compart- 
ments. The  herbaceous  kinds  may  be  propagated 
by  parting  the  roots  in  autumn  or  spnng,  or  by 
seed  in  any  of  those  seasons. 

POTERIUM,  garden  bumet,  a  genus  of  the 
polyandria  order,  and  monoecia  class  of  plants ; 
natural  order   fifty-fourth,  miscellanes:   male 


1  POT 

cal.  tetraphyllous :  con.  quadripartite :  there  are 
from  thirty  to  forty  stamina.  Female  cal.  tetra- 
phyllous :  coR.  qiuidripartite :  there  are  two  pis- 
tils :  the  berry  is  formed  of  the  indurated  tube 
of  the  corolla.    The  species  are  three : 

1.  P.  hybridum,  hybrid  agrimony-leaved  bur- 
net,  rises  with  upright,  taper,  closely  gathered 
stalks,  two  feet  high ;  pinnated  odoriferous  leaves ' 
of  three  or  four  pairs  of  sawed  lobes,  terminated 
hy  an  odd  one ;  and  the  stalks  terminated  by 
long  foot-stalks,  dividing  into  smaller,  each  sup- 
porting a  small  roundish  spike  of  flowers.  This 
species  often  proves  biennial;  but,  by  cuttii^^ 
oown  some  of  the  stalks  before  they  flower,  it 
will  cause  it  to  multiply  at  bottom,  and  become 
abiding. 

2.  PI  sanguisorba,  the  common  garden  bumet, 
has  fibry  perennial  roots,  crowned  by  a  large 
tuft  of  pinnated  leaves,  or  six  or  seven  pair  of 
sawed  lobes,  terminated  by  an  odd  one ;  upright 
angular  stalks,  dividing,  and  branching  a  foot 
and  a  half  high,  terminated  by  oblong  spikes  of 
purplish  red  flowers.  This  species  grows  wild 
m  England,  in  chalky  soils;  but  has  been  long 
cultivated  as  a  choice  sallad  herb  for  winter  and 
spring  use,  it  being  of  a  warm  nature :  the  young 
leaves  are  the  useful  parts.  It  is  perennial  in 
root,  and  retains  its  radical  leaves  all  the  year; 
but  the  stalks  are  annual. 

3.  P.  spinosum,  shrubby  spinous  bumet  of 
Crete,  has  a  shrubby  stem  and  branches,  rising 
about  a  yard  high,  armed  with  spines;  small 
pinnated  ever-green  leaves,  of  six  or  seven  pairs 
of  lobes,  terminated  by  an  odd  one,  and  the 
branches  terminated  by  small  heads  of  greenish 
flowers.  All  these  species  flower  in  June  and 
July,  succeeded  by  ripe  seeds  in  autumn.  They 
are  naturally  perennial ;  but  the  two  herbaceous 
ones  are  abiding  in  root  only ;  the  other  in  root, 
stem,  and  branches :  the  two  former  are  hardy, 
and  the  third  requires  shelter  in  winter.  The 
second  sort  merits  culture  in  every  kitchen-gar- 
den for  winter  and  spring  salads.  The  third 
sort  must  be  kept  always  in  pots,  to  have  shelter 
in  winter.  They  are  all  easily  propagated,  the 
second  sort  by  seed  and  by  parting  the  roots. 
The  first  sort  may  also  be  increased  by  seeds  and 
slips  ofi*  the  root,  as  for  the  former  sort :  and  the 
propagation  of  the  third  is  by  slips  or  cuttings  of 
the  oranches  in  spring  and  summer,  planted  in 
pots,  and  placed  under  glasses,  giving  shade  and 
water;  or  it  might  be  forwarded  more  by  plung- 
ing them  in  a  hot-bed.  Burnet  is  of  a  heating, 
drying  nature,  cordial  and  alexipharmic. 

POTGUN,  fi.  «.     A  corruption  of  popgun. 

A  gun  which  makes  a  small  smart  noise. 

An  author  thus  who  pants  for  fame. 

Begins  the  world  with  tear  and  shame, 

When  first  in  print,  you  see  him  dread 

Each  potgwi  levelled  at  his  head. 

Bwift't  MiMcellanies. 

POTH'ECARY,  n.  *.  A  cormption  of  apo- 
thecary. Lat.  apothecarius.  One  who  com- 
pounds and  sells  physic. 

Modem  'pothecaries,  taught  the  art 
By  doctors'  bills  to  play  the  doctor's  part. 
Bold  in  the  practice  of  mistaken  rules, 
Prescribe,  apply,  and  call  their  masters  fools. 

Pope. 


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P  O  T  O  S  I. 


POTH'ER,  n.  s.  This  word  is  lomedmes 
vntteo  podder,  aometimes  pudder,  and  is  de- 
lired  by- Junius  from  lev.  foudrcy  thunder,  by 
Skinner  from  Dut  peuteren  er  peteren^  to  shake 
•or  dig;  and  more  probably,  by  a  second  thought, 
from  Fr.  poudrty  dust  See  Bother.  Bustle ; 
tomuU  ;  flutter.    A  low  word. 

Sach  a  pother. 
As  if  that  whatioever  god,  who  leads  him. 
Were  crept  into  his  human  powers. 
And  gave  him  graceful  posture. 

Shakspeart,  Coriolamu. 
He  suddenly  unties  the  poke. 
Which  from  it  sent  out  such  a  smoke, 
As  ready  was  them  all  to  choke. 

So  mevous  was  the  pother.      •       Drayton, 
Some  hold  the  oae,  and  some  the  other. 
Bat  howaoe'er  they  make  a  pother,        Hudibrat. 
He  that  loves  reading  and  writing,  yet  finds  cer 
tain  seasons  wherein  those  things  have  no  relish, 
9n\jpothen  and  wearies  him^lf  to  no  purpose. 

Locke, 
I  always  speak  well  of  thee, 
Thou  always  speak'st  ill  of  me ; 
Yet  after  all  our  noise  and  pother. 
The  world  believes  nor  one  nor  t'other. 

Gvardian. 
Tis  yet  in  vain  to  kee^  a  pother 
About  one  vice,  and  fall  into  the  other.       Pope. 
What  a  pother  has  been  here  with  Wood  and  his 
brass, 
MTho  would  modestly  make  a  few  half-pennies  pasi ! 

Swift, 

POTHOS,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  polyandria 
order,  and  gynandria  class  of  plants.  The  spatha 
or  sheath  is  a  simple  spadix  covered :  cal.  none : 
petals  four,  and  as  many  stamina;  the  berries  are 
dispermous.    Species  four,  American  plants. 

POnD.£A,  a  town  of  Macedonia,  in  the 
peninsula  of  Pallene.  It  was  founded  by  a 
colony  of  Corinthians,  and  became  tributary  to 
the  Athenians,  from  whom  Philip  II.  of  Macedon 
took  it,  and  gave  it  to  the  Olynthians,  whom  he 
afterwards  extirpated.  Cassander  repaired  and 
eohuged  it,  and  named  it  Cassandria. 

POTION,  n.  J.  Fr.  potifm;  Lat.  potio,  A 
draught ;  commonly  a  physical  draught. 

For  tastes  in  the  taking  of  a  potion  or  pills,  the 
bead  and  neck  shake.         Baeon'e  Natural  ttittory. 

The  earl  was  by  nature  of  so  indifierent  a  taste* 
that  he  would  stop  in  the  midst  of  any  physical  po- 
tiom,  and,  alter  he  had  lidted  his  lips,  would  drink  off 
the  rest.  Wotton, 

Most  do  taste  through  fond  intemperate  thirst ; 
Soon  as  the  potion  wons,  their  human  countenance. 
The'  express  resemblance  of  the  g6ds,  is  changed 
Into  some  bratiah  form  of  wolf  or  bear.  ''     Milton. 

POTNI^,  a  town  of  Boeotia,  where  Bacchus 
bad  a  temple.  The  Potnians,  having  murdered 
the  priest  of  Bacchus,  were  ordered  by  the  ora- 
cle to  sacrifice  a  young  man  annually.  This  hor- 
rible sacrifice  laving  continued  some  years, 
Bacchus  interposed  and  substituted  a  goat. 
Pans.  9.  c.  8. 

P0TOMAC,ariverof  the  United  Sutes,'which 
rises  in  two  branches,  the  north  and  south,  on- 
ginatiag  in  and  near  the  Alleghany  mountains, 
and  formings  through  its  whole  course,  part  of 
the  boundary  between  Virginia  and.  Maryland. 
It  passes  by  Shepberdstown,  Georgetovra,  Wash- 
ington city,  Alexaodria,  Port  Tobacco,  &c.,  and 


flows  into  Chesapeake  Bay,  between  Point  Look- 
out and  Smith's  Point.  It  is  seven  miles  and  a 
half  wide  at  its  mouth,  and  one  mile  and  a  quarter 
at  Alexandria,  290  miles  from  the  Ocean.  The 
termination  of  the  tide  water  is  above  300  miles 
from  the  sea,  and  the  river  is  navigable  for  ships 
of  the  greatest  burden  through  nearly  that  dis- 
tance. Above  the  tide  water  the  river  has  three 
considerable  falls,  those  above  Georgetown  are 
now  passable  in  boats.  Its  length  above  the 
tide  js  upwards  of  300  miles  through  an  inhabited 
country.  Its  junction  with  the  Shenando  at 
Harper's  Ferry  is  regarded. as  a  great  curiosity. 
The  river  has  seven  fkthoms  of  vrater  at  its 
mouth,  five  at  St.  George's  island,  four  and  a 
half  at  Lower  Matchodic,  and  three  at  Sviran's 
Point,  and  thence  to  Alexandria. 

Potomac  Academy,  in  Prince  George  county,* 
Valencia,  near  the  Potomac ;  twenty-three  miles 
east  of  Fredericksburg. 

Potomac  Creek,  a  river  of  Virginia,  which 
runs  into  the  Potomac.  Long.  77°  22'  W.,  lat. 
as*'  24'  N. 

POTOSI,  a  government  once  belonging  to 
Peru,  but  added*  by  the  Spanish  government  to 
the  videroyalty  of  Buenos  Ayres,  and  one  of  the 
most  valuable  of  its  territories.  It  is  bounded 
on  the  north  by  the  Cordillera  of  VUcanota, 
which  separates  it  from  the  Peruvian  provinces, 
and  by  countries  inhabited  by  wandering  tribes ; 
on  the  east  by  the  mountains  of  Arequipa,  the 
Pacific  Ocean,  and  the  Chilian  Andes ;  on  the 
west  by  the  governments  of  Paraguay  and  Buenos 
Ayres ;  and  on  the  south  by  that  of  Buenos  Ayres. 
Great  part  of  it  is  fiill  of  mountains,  ravines,  and 
chasms,  of  a  very  cold  temperature,  and  almost 
barren  of  vegetable  productions ;  in  other  parts 
the  country  is  covered  with  deserts,  forests,  rast 
plains,  and  mountain  streams  expanding  into 
rivers.  The  Provincias  de  la  Sierra,  which  lie 
near  the  Andes,  are  the  most  populous. 

PoTosi,  a  city  of  the  above  province  and  dis- 
trict of  Porco,  is  situated  in  a  narrow  glen  on 
the  river  of  this  name,  and  on  the  south  side  of 
the  mountain  which  contains  the  Potosi  mines. 
The  environs  are  barren,  and  the  tslimate  cold ; 
the  valleys  beine  destitute  of  wood,  the  sides  d 
the  hills  covered  only  with  moss,  and  dieir  sum- 
mits with  eternal  snows.  A  few  vicunas  are  the 
only  animals  now  and  then  seen  grazing  in  this 
elevated  region. 

The  tUver  wine  of  Potosi  is  by  far  the  most 
productive  of  the  whole  of  those  in  this  govern- 
ment. The  mountain  from  which  the  metal  is 
extracted  is  of  a  conical  form,  about  six  leagues 
in  circumference,  and  4182  feet  above  the  neigh- 
bouring plains.  The  discovery  of  its  treasure 
was  owing  entirely  to  the  accident  we  have  ad- 
verted to  in  our  article  America,  Soitth,  which 
see:  a  Peruvian,  named  Diego  Haalpa,  while 
chasing  some  chamois  among  the  rocks,  in  hb 
ascent  laid  hold  of  a  small  shrub,  whose  roots 
giving  way  disclosed  to  his  view  an  immense 
vein  of  silver,  which  has  been  since  distinguished 
by  the  name  of  La  Rica,  or  the  Rich.  The  In- 
dian concealed  the  circumstance  for  a  time  from 
all  his  friends,  and  only  had  recourse  to  this 
treasure  to  supply  his  occasional  wants ;  but  the 
obvious  change  in  his  fortune  had  excited  the 


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10                                           P  O  T  O  8  I. 

suipicioof  of  one  of  his  oompaniom,  who,  br  71,818,6861  marks    of  silver,  which,  fbr  157 

vrgent  entreaties,  drew  from  him  the  secret,  and,  years  and  a  half,  is  at  an  annual  average  pro- 

upon  some  slight  quarrel,  he  soon  after  revealed  duce  of  nearly  455,091 1  marks, 

it  to  his  master,  a  Spaniard.    The  information  4.  Between  the*  20th  of  July  1736  and  the 

was  no  sooner  receiveq  than  the  mine  was  opened ;  31  st  of  December  1 789,  during  which  die  one 

^d  it  was  formally  re^;istered  2l8t  of  April,  and  a  half  per  cent  de  covos  and  the  half  of  the 

1545.    Since  that  time  it  has  been  constantly  fifth  only  were  paid,  the  ro^  duties  amounted 

wrought,  and  the  silver,  which   has  paid  the  to  14,542,684  piastres,  making  a  total  produce 

royal  duties   from  this  mine,  has  been  valued  of  128,129,374]^  piastres,  or  15,074,044  marks 

at  5750,000,000   of  livres   toumois,  ecjual  to  of  silver,  which,  for  fifty-three  years  and  a  half, 

4^234,693,840  sterling.    The  mountain  is  now  makes  an  annual  produce   of  nearly  281,758 

almost  completely  excavated,  and  is  perforated  marks. 

with  above  300  pits,  few  of  which,  however,  are  5.  From  1789  to  1803  we  have  no  account  of 

more  than  seventy  yards  deep.    It  is  opened  at  the   royal  duties ;   but  during  that  period  the 

the  base;  and  vanlts,  dug  horizontally,  penetrate  total  produce^ of  Potosi,  according  to  the  records 

into  its  bowels,  and  meet  the  veins  of  silver.  In  of  the  mint,'  was  46,000,000  of   piastres,    or 

these  vaults,  which  ave  called  by  the  miners  sa-  5,411,764  marks,  making  a  yearly  •  average  of  . 

cabouas,  and  are  about  six  feet  high  and  eight  386,554|  marks. 

feet  broad,  the  air  is  cold  and  unwholesome,  and  It  appears,  therefore,  that  the  annual  produce 
the  Indians  work  there  alternately  night  and  of  the  last  period  is  little  more  than  a  fourth  of 
day,  entirely  naked,  lest  &ey  should  embezzle  that  of  the  nrst ;  but,  in  giving  the  average  pro- 
the  ore.  duce  for  such  long  periods,  the  gradual  dimmu- 
On  the  first  discovery  of  the  mine  of  Potosi,  tion  or  increase  oi  the  quantity  of  silver  ex- 
the  metal  was  much  purer  than  at  present,  being  tracted  from  these  mines  could  not  be  distinctly 
now  inferior  to  many  of  the  othto  mines.  It  is  marked.  We  may  therefore  observe  that,  during 
the  abundance  of  the  ore  alone  which  renders  it  the  second  period,  when  the  royal  duties  were 
worth  working.  According  to  Acosta,  the  aver-  first  correctly  registered,  the  king's  fifth  varied 
age  contents  of  silver  in  me  crude  ove  were,  in  from  500,000  to  300,000  piastres ;  and  that, 
1574,  from  eight  to  nine  marks  per  quintal;  and  during  the  first  fifty  years  of  the  third  period, 
the  minerals  which  vidded  fifty  marks  perquin-  the  duties  varied  from  1,000,000  to  1,500,000 
tal  were  copsiderea  as  extremely  rich.  Since  piastres;  and  then  gradually  diminished  until 
the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century,  how-  1735,  when  they  only  amounted  to  271,621 
ever,  they  reckon  only  from  three  to  four  marks  piastres,  6  reals.  From  1737  to  1789,  the  in- 
per  caxon,  or  from  A  to  41^  per  <juiotal.  Acaxon  crease  was  equally  gradual  from  183,704  to 
contains  about  50  ewt.  From  this  it  app^urs  that  335,468  piastres.  We  may  also  remark  that,  in 
the  mean  riches  of  the  minerals  have  diminished  these  calculations,  we  have  uniformly  valued  the 
in  the  proportion  of  170  to  one;  but,  what  is  sur-  piastre  at  only  eight  reals  de  plata,  although, 
prising,  the  quantity  of  silver  extracted  from  the  until  near  the  close  of  the  sixteenth  century, 
mines  of  Potosi  has  only  diminished  in  the  pro-  the  Spaniards  reckoned  by  piastres  of  480  ma- 
portion  of  finir  to  one,  according  to  the  follow-  ravedis,  or  nearly  13|  reals  de  plata.  In  esti* 
ing  calculations,  which  are  from  Humboldt.  mating,  therdbre,  the  total  pnxiuoe  of  these 

1.  From  the  opening  of  the  mines  of  Potosi  mines  from  1545  to  1803,  allowance  must  he 
in  1545  to  tM  year  1556,  when  the  royal  duties  made  for  this  low  valuation. 

were  first  recorded  with  accuracy,  Ulloa,  upon  The  quantity   of  silver  extracted  firom  the 

the  authori^  of  Don '  Sebastiani  Sandoval  y  mines  of^Potosi  during  the 

Guzman,  who.  published  an  account  of  these  Marks, 

mines  in  1634.  entiUed  Pretensiones  del  Potosi,  ^^  petiody  was     ...        .    15,000,(XX) 

makes  the  total  produce  which  paid  duty  to  be  2nd                      ....      5  765,827 

613,000,000  of  piastres,  making  a  yearly  aver-  Zrd      [..'..        .    7l!818'686 

age  of  55,726,000  piastres,  or  6,556,000  marks    4^ 15,074,044 

of  silver.    This  immense  s^m,  however,  Hum-  5th      !        !        !        !        .        .      5*4 11*764 

boldt,  upon  unquestionable  duta,  has  reduced  . 

to  127,500,000  iMastres,  or  15,000,000  of  marks,  1^3  q^q  321 

pialring  an  annual  produce  of  nearly  1,363,636*  Allowance  for  the  value  of  the         '      ' 

^T^           ,  J    .         .J         u      .,  piastre  before  1600                    .    15,000,000 

2.  The  rojral  duties  pjiid  on  the  sdver  ex-       '^ 

tracted  from  the  mines  of  Potosi,  between  the  1st  128  070  32 1 

of  Januay  1556,  and  31st  of  D«»mber  1578,  rp^  ^^is  may  be  added  one-fourth         ' .    ' 

during  which  the  fifth  only  was  p«d,  amounted  ^        ^  account  of  the  enor- 

to  9,801,906  piastres,  makmg  a  total  produce  of  ^^^  contraband  at  former  pe- 

49,009,530  piastres :  or  5,765,827  marks  of  sil-  pj^^                                  /^     ^    32,017,580 

ver,  which,  for  twenty-three  years,   makes  the  ' 

average  annual  produce  of  256,688  marks.  j^^tal  produce    .        .  160,087,901 

3.  The  duties  paid  from  the  1st  of  January  '^ 

1579,  to  the  19th  of  July  1736^  during  which  See  a  more  detailed  statement  of  the  produce  of 

one  and  a  half  per  cent,  de  covos  was  first  paid,  late  years  in  the  article  already  referred  to. 

and  then  the  fifth  of  the  remaining  98|  piastres.  Nothing,  according  to  Helms,  can  equal  the 

amounted    to  129,417,273  piastres^  making  a  ignorance  with  which  the  mining  is  here  carried 

total  produce  of  nearly  610,458,835  piastres,  or  on.    The  mines,  many  of  them,  are  filled  with 


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POT  11 

iralery  wUch,  by  th«  appUcnlicm  of  pioper  ma- 
diiiieiy,  nugbt  be  easily  diaiaed  off.  The  me- 
tbo<b>  employed  for  this  parpoM  are,  however, 
31  ODDtriTed  and  ineffectual.  Mr.  Helms  'saw 
one  diain  which  had  been  begun,  in  1779,  and 
had,  at  an  incredible  expense,  been  carried  two 
niles.  This  drain,  even  at  its  mouth,  was  too 
hi^  and  it  bad  been  made  to  slope  one  yard  in 
erery  133;  ao  that  it  could  not  possibly  free 
vany  of  the  pits  from  the  water  with  which  they 
weie  overwhelmed.  *  Still  greater  ignorance,' 
Bjs  Mr.  Helms, '  was,  if  possible,  displayed  by 
the  directors  of  the  smelting  bouses  and  refining 
wodu  at  Potosi.  By  their  method  of  amalgama- 
oon,  they  were  scarcely  able  to  gain  two-thirds 
of  the  silver  contained  in  the  paco-ore;  and,  for 
eveiy  mark  of  pure  silver  gained,  they  destroyed 
one,  and  frequently  two,  marks  of  quicksilver. 
hideed  all  the  operations  at  the  mines  of  Potosi, 
the  stamping,  sitting,  washing,  (|uickenii^,  and 
roasting  the  ore,  are  conducted  m  so  slovenly, 
wastefoU  and  unscientific  a  manner,  that  to  com- 
pare the  excellent  method  of  amalgamation  in- 
vented by  baron  Bom,  and  practised  in  Europe, 
with  the  barbarous  process  used  by  these  In- 
dians and  Spaniards,  would  be  an  insult  to  the 
ondentanding  of  my  readers.  The  tools  of  the 
Indian  miner  are  very  badly  contrived  and  un- 
wieldy. The  hammer,  which  is  a  square  piece 
of  lead  of  twenty  pounds  weight,  exhausts  his 
strength.  The  iron,  a  foot  and  a  half  long,  is  a 
great  deal  too  incommodious,  and  in  some  nar- 
row (daces  cannot  be  made  use  of.  The  thick 
taOow  candles  wound  round  with  wool,  vitiate 
the  air.  In  the  royal  mint  at  Potosi,  where  from 
550,000  to  600,000  marks  of  silver,  and  about 
2000  marks  of  gold,  are  annually  coined,  affairs 
were  not  better  conducted.  Every  hundredweight 
of  refined  copper  used  for  alloy  in  the  gold  and 
silver  coin  cost  the  king  £35,  through  the  gross 
ignorance  of  the  overseers  of  the  work,  who  spent 
a  whole  month  in  roasting  and  calcining  it,  and 
frequently  rendered  it  quite  unfit  for  the  pur- 
pose.' These  various  evils  the  German  com- 
nisaionen,  sent  over  by  the  king  of  Spain  to 
inspect  the  mines,  endeavoured  to  remove. 
They  constructed  a  new  laboratory,  according  to 
the  most  improved  model,  by  which  the  copper 
ores  used  for  alloy  could  be  refined  in  four  hours 
and  a  half,  and  for  one-twentieth  part  of  the 
ezptaise  incurred  by  the  former  process:  they 
also  erected  machinery  for  the  draining  of  the 
mines.  New  amaleaination  works  were  also 
erected,  and  suitabW  instructions  given  to  the 
persons  employed.  '  As  soon  as  toe  water  in 
the  pits,'  Helms  observes,  *  can  be  sot^nder, 
the  mines  of  PotoA  will  be  in  a  more  flourishing 
condition  than  ever.  The  total  want  of  timber, 
however,  on  the  naked  ridge  of.,  mountains  on 
vhich  Polod  is  situated,  very  much  retards  the 
woik.' 

Pofiosi,  formerly  Mine-au-Burton,  a  post 
(own  and  capital  of  Washington  county.  Mis- 
won  territory ;  forty-five  miles  west  of  St  Ge- 
oerieve^  and  svLty  S.  S.W.  of  St.  Louis. 

PaiosJ  Saw  Louis,  an  extensive  intendencv 
ofMaico  or  New  Spain,  under  the  Spanish 
Eovemment,  whose  temtorial  limits  it  is  scarcely 
ponibie  accurately  to  ascertain,  it  being  sur- 


POT 

rounded  by  deserts,  or  countries  inhabited  by 
wandering  and  independent  tribes  of  Indians. 
On  the  south  it  is  bounded  by  the  intendancies 
of  Vem-Cruz,  Mexico,  and  Guanaxuato ;  on  the 
east  by  the  gulf  of  Mexico,  and  on  the  west  by 
Zacatecas  and  Durango.  This  immense  district 
includes,  therefore,  a  greater  surface  than  Europe 
or  Spain ;  but  though  gifted  by  nature  with  the 
most  precious  productions,  and  situated  under 
a  serene  sky,  it  is  quite  wild  as  to  cultivation 
in  most  parts,  and  more  thinly  peopled  than 
Asiatic  Russia.  Its  position  on  the  eastern  limits 
of  New  Spain,  the  proximity  of  the  United 
States,  the  easy  communication  with  the  colo- 
nists of  Louisiana,  and  various  other  circum- 
stances, concur,  however,  to  favor  its  progress 
towards  civilisation  and  prosperity. 

On  the  coast,  which  is  230  leagues  in  extent, 
are  a  number  of  lagunas,  or  salt  water  lakes. 
The  capital  is  of  this  name,  and  contained  in 
Humboldt's  time  12,000  inhabitants.  It  is  si- 
tuated on  the  eastern  side  of  this  table-land 
west  of  the  sources  of  the  Rio  de  Panuca. 

POTSCHINKI,  a  town  of  European  Russia, 
in  the  government  of  Nischnei-Novgorod.  It 
has  a  traiffic  in  cattle,  and  4000  inhabitants,  and 
here  is  kept  by  government  a  stud  of  horses, 
which  supplies  a  regiment  of  life-guards.  117 
miles  S.S.E.  of  Nischnei-Novgorod, 

POTSDAM,  a  province  of  Brandenberg, 
Prussia,  comprehending  the  former  districts  of 
the  Ucker  Mark,  the  Mark  of  Prieniitz,  and  the 
greatest  part  of  the  Middle  Mark,  it  is  situated 
between  Poroerania  and  West  Prussia  on  the 
north,  and  the  province  of  Saxony  on  the  south 
and  west:  Berlin,  with  a  small  district  around, 
forms  a  distinct  government.  Towards  the 
north-west  this  province  is  bounded  by  the  Elbe 
and  the  Uavel,  and  on  the  north-east  by  the 
Oder.  Its  area  is  about  8000  square  miles,  di- 
vided into  the  following  thirteen  circles  ;*- 

Lower  Barnim,  West  Havelland, 

Upper  Barnim,  East  Priegnitz, 

Teltow-Storkow,  West  Priegnitz, 

Zauch-Bekig,  Ruppin, 

Juterbeck-Lucken-  Prenilow, 

walde, .  Templin, 

East  Havelland,  New  Angermunde. 

This  track  is  one  extensive  low  plain,  varied 
only  occasionally  by  hills  of  slight  elevation. 
The  soil,  though  for  the  most  part  a  light  sand, 
sometimes  barren  and  even  drifting,  contains 
spots,  particularly  Qp  the  rivers,  remarkable  for 
their  fertilitv.  The  climate  is  not  cold,  and^  since 
a  number  of  the  lakes  have  been  drained,  it  is 
reckoned  healthy.  The  cbief  mineral  here  is 
marsh  iron  ore,  which  affords  about  twenty  per 
cent  of  meUl.  The  inhabitants,  about  500,000, 
are  in  generiEd  industrious,  and  cany  on  manu- 
factures of  woollens,  cotton,  and  linen.  The 
towns  are  small,  the  principal,  afler  Potsdam, 
being  Brandenburg,  Prenzlow,  Spandau,  and- 
Ruppin. 

Potsdam,  the  chief  town  of  the  above  govern- 
ment, is  of  a  square  form  and  situated  on  the 
north  bank  of  the  Havel,  which  here  spreads  its 
waters  into  a  succession  of  small  lakes.  Pots- 
dam*  since  the  elose  of  the  seventeenth  century, 


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has  beeo  the  frequent  residence  of  the  court  of 
Berlin,  but  is  indebted  for  its. chief  improve- 
ments to  Frederic  II.  The  new  town  Was  either 
built  or  repaired  entirely  by  that  prince :  the 
fronts  of  several  of  the  streets  are  all  of  stone, 
but  the  rest  of  the  houses  are  finished  in  a  far 
inferior  style.  The  streets  are  not  as  yet  all 
paved.  On  the  whole,  however,  Potsdam  may 
vie  in  beauty  with  Manheim,  or  any  German 
town.  It  is  surrounded  by  a  wall  and  ditch,  and 
has  four  gates  toward  the  land,  and  four  toward 
.  the  river;  on  the  banks  of  which  is  the  Havel, 
a  magnificent  structure,  begun  in  1660,  and  ex- 
tendi progressively  during  the  subsequent 
reigns.  Its  finest  ornaments  are  a  colonnade,  a 
cupola,  and  a  marble  staircase.  In  the  front  is 
a  square  for  mancBuvring  troops;  and  along  the 
river  extensive  gardens.  Connected  with  it  also 
are  a  theaU'e,  menagerie,  and  noble  stables.  The 
town-house  was  built  in  1754,  on  the  plan  of 
that  of  Amsterdam.  There  are  in  Potsdam  ex- 
tensive barracks ;  a  great  hall  for  exercising  the 
troops  in  bad  weather;  and  in  the  garrison 
church  statues  of  Mars  and  Bellona.  Here  also  is 
the  tomb  of  Frederick  II.  There  are  in  the  town 
six  other  churches  and  a  Jewish  synagogue. 
The  market-place  is  ornamented  by  statues  of 
the  kings  of  Prussia  and  an  obelisk.  The  ly- 
ceum,  two  public  schools  of  inferior  extent,  and 
one  belonging  to  the  garrison;  the  infirmary 
itself,  a  poor-house,  and  an  orphan-house  on  a 
large  scale,  for  the  children  of  soldiers,  are  other 
public  establishments  worth  notice. 

The  population  of  Potsdam,  exclusive  of  mi- 
litary, IS  about  17,000;  the  former  amount  in 
general  to  the  number  of  6000  or  8000.  In  the 
absence  of  the  court,  Potsdam  seems  deserted. 
Its  numerous  manufactures  are  all  on  a  small 
scale :  but  brewing  is  here,  as  in  other  German 
towns,  a  business  of  ereat  extent ;  and  the  culti- 
vation of  gardens  in  the  neighbourhood  supplies 
no  small  employment.  The  palace  of  Sans 
Souci,  the  &vonte  retreat  of  '  tne  great  Frede- 
rick,' is  three-quarters  of  a  mile  to  the  north- 
west, and  stands  on  the  ascent  of  an  eminence. 
It  is  only  one  story  in  height,  with  a  circular 
pavilion  at  each  end :  in  one  is  the  library  of 
Frederick,  exactly  in  the  state  it  was  left  at  his 
death.  Sans  Souci  has  two  appended  buildings 
for  a  collection  of  paintings,  and  for  other  court 
entertainments.  In  the  garden  is  a  cabinet  of 
statues,  gems,  and  medals.  Two  miles  to  the 
west  is  a  palace  begun  towards  Ihe  close  of  the 
eighteenth  century  on  a  magnificent  scale,  but 
not  likely  to  be  soon  finished.  The  structure 
called  the  marble  palace  is  in  the  midst  of  a 
garden  at  some  distance  from  Sans  Souci.  Fif- 
teen miles  W.S.W.  of  Berlin,  and  sixty-one 
E.N.E.  of  Dresden. 

PoTsoAM,  a  post  town  of  St.  Lawrence 
county.  New  York ;  ninety  miles  west  of  Platts- 
burg,  and  150  N.N.  W.  of  Albany.  It  is  a  flou- 
rishing town.  The  principal  village  is  situated 
on  the  Racket,  where  there  are  fine  fiaills,  which 
afford  excellent  seats  for  mills  and  manufacto- 
ries.   A  weekly  newspaper  is  published  here. 

POTT  (Percival),  F.R.S.,  was  bom  in  Lon- 
don in  1713.  He  received  the  rudiments  of  his 
education  at  a  private  school  at  Darne  in  Kent ; 


and  became  an  apprentice  to  Mr.  Ncttirse,  one  of 
the  surgeons  of  St.  Bartholomew's  Hospital ;  of 
which  hospital,  in  1744-5,  he  was  elected  an  as- 
sistant; and,  in  1749,  appointed  one  of  the  prin- 
cipal surgeons.  In  1746  he  married  the  daughter 
of^Robert  Cruttenden,  Esq.  His  first  publication 
is  said  to  have  been  planned  in  1756,  during  his 
confinement,  in  -consequence  of  a  compound 
fracture  of  the  leg:  from  that  time  his  pen  was 
seldom  long  unemployed.  His  practice  and 
his  reputation  were  now  rapidly  increasing:  in 
1764  he  was  elected  F.  R.  S. ;  and  afterwards  was 
complimented  with  honorary  diplomas  from  the 
Royal  Colleges  of  Surgeons  in  Edinburgh  and 
Dublin.  In  1787  he  designed  the  office  of  sur- 
geon to  St.  Bartholomew's  Hospital,  *  after  having 
served  it,'  as  he  used  to  say,  <  man  and  boy, 
half  a  century ;'  and  on  the  22d  of  December, 
1788,  after  an  illness  of  eight  days,  he  expired. 
He  published  a  great  number  of  treatises  on 
various  branches  in  surgery;  particularly.  On 
Tumors  which  soften  the  Bones;  On  Ruptures; 
On  Uie  Hydrocele;  On  Fistula  Lachrymalis; 
On  Hernia  of  the  Bladder  and  Stone ;  On  Fis- 
tula in  Ano;  On  Fractures  and  Dislocations; 
On  Wounds  of  the  Head ;  On  the  Cataract, 
Polypus  of  the  Nose,  Cancer  of  the  Scrotum, 
Ruptures,  and  fortification  of  the  Toes.  All 
these  have  been  collected  and  published  in  1  vol. 
4to. 

POTTER  (Christopher),  a  learned  English 
divine,  bom  in  1591,  and  educated  at  Oxford. 
In  1633  he  published  his  Answer  to  a  late  Po- 
pish Plot,  entitled  Charity  Mistaken,  which  he 
vn-ote  by  special  order  of  king  Charles  I.,  whose 
chaplain  he  then  was.  In  1 634  he  was  appointed 
dean  of  Worcester;  and  in  1640  vice-chancellor 
of  the  university  of  Oxford ;  in  the  execution  of 
which  office  he  met  with  considerable  hindrance 
from  the  members  of  the  long  parliament.  Upon 
the  breaking  out  of  the  civil  wars,  he  sent  all  his 
plate  to  the  king,  declaring  'that  he  would 
rather,  like  Diogenes,  drink  in  the  hollow  of  his 
hand,  than  that  his  majesty  should  want ;'  and 
he  afterwards  suffered  much  for  the  royal  cause. 
He  was  accordingly  nominated  dean  of  Durham 
in  1646,  but  was  prevented  from  being  installed 
by  his  death,  whicn  happened  about  two  months 
after.  '  He  vras  a  person  learned  and  religious, 
exemplary  in  his  conversation,  courteous  in  his 
carriage,  of  a  sweet  and  obliging  nature,  and  of 
a  comely  presence.'  He  was  remarkable  for  his 
charity  to  the  poor. 

.  Potter  (John),  D.D.,  archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury, was  the  son  of  a  linep-draper  at  Wakefield, 
in  Yorkshire,  where  he  was  born  about  1674. 
He  studied  at  University  College,  Oxford ;  and 
ai  the  age  of  nineteen  published  Variantes  Lec- 
tiones  et  Not»  ad  Plutarchi  Librum  de  Audien- 
dis  Poetis;  et  ad  BasUii  magni  orationem  ad 
Juvenes,  quomodo  cum  fructu  legere  possint 
Grttcorum  Libros,  8vo.,  1693.  In  1697  came 
out  his  Lycophron,  in  folio;  which  is  reckoned 
the  best  edition  of  that  obscure  writer:  soon 
after  he  published  his  Antiquities  of  Greece,  2 
vols.  8vo.  These  works  established  his  literary 
reputation,  and  engaged  him  in  a  correspondence 
with  Gravius  and  other  learned  foreigners.  In 
1706  he  was  made  chaplain  to  the  queen ;  in 


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1715  bishop  of  Oxford;  and  in  1737  he  suc- 
owded  ardibishop  Wake  in  the  see  of  Canter- 
bury; which  high  station  he  supported  with 
much  dignity  until  his  death  in  1747.  He  was 
a  learned  and  exemplary  churchman ;  but  strongly 
tinctured  with  the  pride  of  oflBce ;  and  disinherited 
his  eldest  son  for  marrying  below  his  rank.  His 
Theological  works,  containing  Sermons,  Charges, 
Discourses  on  Church  Government,  and  Di- 
vinity Lectures,  were  printed  at  Oxford,  in  3 
ToU.  8vo.,  1753. 

Potter  (Robert)^  a  divine  of  the  church  of 
England,  was  bom  in  Norfolk  in  1721,  and  edu- 
cated at  Emanuel  College,  Cambridge,  where  he 
took  hb  bachelor's  degree  in  1741.  His  first 
preferment  was  the  vicarage  of  Seaming  in  Nor- 
folk, where  he  wrote  poems  in  imitation  of  Pope, 
which  were  published  in  1  vol.  8vo.,  in  1774. 
In  1777  appeared  his  translation  of  ^cbylus, 
with  notes,  4to. ;  reprinted  in  1779  in  2  vols.  8vo. 
In  1781  came  out  the  first  volume  of  his-  trans- 
lation of  Euripides,  and  the  second  in  the  year 
following.  In  1788  he  printed  his  Sophocles, 
and  his  school-fellow,  lord  Thurlow,  gave  him  a 
prebend  in  the  church  of  Norwich :  bishop  Ba- 
got  presented  him,  about  the  same  time,  to  the 
vicarages  of  Lowestoft  and  Kessingland.  He 
died  at  Lowestoft  in  1804.  Besides  the  above, 
Mr.  Potter  wrote  Observations  on  the  Poor 
Laws ;  an  Answer  to  Dr.  Johnson's  Lives  of  the 
Poets ;  A  Translation  of  the  Oracle  concerning 
Babylon,  &c. 

POTTERY,  the  manu&cture  of  earthen-ware, 
or  the  art  of  makingearthen  vessels.  See  Delft, 
PoacELAiN,  &c.  The  wheel  and  lathe  are  the 
usual  instruments  in  pottery ;  the  first  for  large 
works,  and  the  last  for  small,  llie  potter's 
wheel  consists  principally  in  the  nut,  which  is  a 
beam  or  axis,  whose  foot  or  pivot  plays  perpen- 
dicularly on  a  free-stone  sole  or  bottom.  From 
the  four  comers  of  this  beam,  which  does  not 
exceed  two  feet  in  height,  arise  four  iron  bars, 
called  the  spokes  of  the  wheel,  which,  forming 
diagonal  lines  with  the  beam,  descend,  and  are 
fiotened  at  bottom  to  the  ed^  of  a  strong 
wooden  circle,  four  feet  in  diameter,  perfectly 
like  the  felloe  of  a  coach  wheel,  except  that  it 
has  neither  axis  nor  radii,  and  is  only  joined  to 
the  beam,  which  serves  it  as  an  axis,  by  the  iron 
bars.  The  top  of  the  nut  is  flat,  of  a  circular 
figure,  and  a  foot  in  diameter;  and  on  this  is 
laid  the  clay  which  is  to  be  turned  and  fashioned. 
The  wheel  thus  disposed  is  encompassed  with 
four  sides  of  four  different  pieces  of  wood 
fastened  on  a  wooden  frame;  the  hind  piece, 
which  is  that  on  which  the  workman  sits,  is 
made  a  little  inclining  towards  the  wheel ;  on 
the  fore  pieces  are  placed  the  prepared  earth ; 
on  the  side  piece  he  rests  his  feet,  and  these  are 
made  inclining  to  give  him  more  or  less  room. 
Having  prepared  the  earth,  the  potter  lays  a 
round  piece  of  it  on  the  circular  head  of. the 
nut,  and,  sitting  down,  turns  the  wheel  with  his 
feet  till  it  moves  with  the  proper  velocity ;  then, 
wetting  his  bands  with  water,  he  presses  his 
hand  or  his  finger^s  end  into  die  middle  of  the 
lump,  and  thus  forms  the  cavity  of  the  vessel, 
continuing  to  widen  it  from  the  middle;  thus 
tunuBg  &e  inside  into  form  with  one  hand. 


while  he  proportions  the  outside  with  the  other, 
the  wheel  constantly  turning  all  the  while,  and 
he  wetting  his  hands  from  time  to  time.  When 
the  vessel  is  too  thick,  he  uses  a  flat  piece  of 
iron,  somewhat  sharp  on  the  edge,  to  pare  off 
what  is  redundant;  and,  when  it  is  finished,  it 
is  taken  off  from  the  circular  head  by  a  wire 
passed  under  the  vessel.  The  potter's  lathe  is 
also  a  kind  of  wheel,  but  more  simple  and  slight 
.than  the  former :  its  three  chief  members  are  an 
iron  beam  or  axis  three  feet  and  a  half  high,  and 
two  feet  and  a  half  diameter,  placed  horizontally 
at  the  top  of  the  beam,  and  serving  to  form  the 
vessel  upon :  and  another  larger  wooden  wheel, 
all  of  a  piece,  three  inches  thick,  and  two  or 
three  feet  broad,. fiistened  to  the  same  beam  at 
the  bottom,  and  parallel  to  the  horizon.  The 
beam  or  axis  turns  by  a  pivot  at  the  bottom  in 
an  iron  stand.  The  workman  gives  the  motion 
of  the.  lathe  with  his  feet,  by  pushing  Uie  great 
wheel  alternately  with  each  foot,  still  giving  it  a 
greater  or  less  degree  of  motion  as  his  work  re- 
quires. They  work  with  the  lathe  with  the  same 
instruments,  and  after  the  same  manner,  as  vridi 
the  wheel.  The  mouldip^  are  formed  by  hold* 
ing  a  piece  of  wood  or  iron  cut  in  the  form  of 
the  moulding  to  the  vessel,  while  the  wheel  is 
turning  round;  but  the  feet  and  handles  are 
made  by  themselves,  and  set  on  with  the  hand; 
and,  if  there  be  any  sculpture  in  the  work,  it  is 
usually  done  in  wooden  moulds,  and  stuck  on 
piece  by  piece  on  the  outside  of  the  vessel.  The 
art  of  making  pottery  is  intimately  connected 
with  chemistry.  For  Mr.  Wedgewood's  re^ 
markable  improvements  in  this,  art  see  Staf- 
fordshire. 

The  process  of  manufecturing  stoneware  is 
described  by  Dr.  Watson  as  follows: — 

Tobacco-pipe  clay  from  Dorsetshire  is  beaten 
much  in  water.  By  this  process,  the  finer  parts 
of  the  clay  remain  suspended  in  the  water,  while 
the  coarser  sand  and  other  impurities  fid  I  to  the 
bottom.  The  thick  liquid,  consisting  of  water 
and  the  finer  parts  of  the  clay,  is  ferther  purified 
by  passing  it  through  hair  and  lawn  sieves,  of 
different  degrees  of  fineness.  After  this,  the 
liquid  is  mixed  (in  various  proportions  for 
various  i^ares)  with  another  liquor,  of  as  nearly 
as  may  be  the  same  density,  and  consisting  of 
flints  calcined,  ground,  and  suspended  in  water. 
The  mixture  is  then  dried  in  a  kiln ;  and,  being 
afterwards  beaten  to  a  proper  temper,  it  becomes 
fit  for  being  formed  at  the  wheel  into  dishes, 
■  plates,  bowls,  &c.  When  this  v^ar^  is  to  be  put 
*into  the  furnace  to  be  baked,  the  several  pieces 
of  it  are  placed  in  the  cases  made  of  clay,  called 
seggars,  which  are  piled  one  upon  another  in  the 
dome  of  the  furnace.  A  fire  is  Uien  lighted; 
and  when  the  ware  is  brought  to  a  proper  tem- 
per, which  happens  in  about  forty-eight  hours, 
It  is  glazed  by  common  salt.  The  salt  is  thrown 
into  the  suriace,  through  holes  in  the  upper  part 
of  it,'  bjr  the  heat  of  which  it  is  instantly  con- 
verted mto  a  thick  vapor;  which,  circulating 
through  the  furnace,  enters  the  seggar  through 
holes  made  in  its  side  (the  top  being  covered  to 
prevent  the  salt  from  falling  on  the  ware),  and, 
attaching  itself  to  the  surfeoe  of  the  ware,  it 
forms  that  vitreous  coat  upon  the  surfece  which 


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18  oalled  its  glaze.  The  yellow  or  queenVware 
is  made  of  the  same  initsriab  as  the  flint-ware ; 
Imt  die  proportioD  in  which  the  materials  are 
Iftixed  is  not  the  same,  nor  is  the  ware  daied  in 
«}ie  same  way.  The  flint-waie  is  generally  made 
df  Aiur  aieasiifes  of  liquid  flint,  and  of  eighteen 
of  liquid  clay.  The  yellow  ware  has  a  greater 
proportion  at  nUsf  in  it.  In  some  mann&ctories 
they  mix  twenty,  and  in  others  twenty-four^ 
measures  of  clay,  with  four  of  flint.  These  pro* 
pottibnsy  if  estutated  by  the  weight  of  the  ma- 
terials, would  probably  give  for  the  flint-ware 
abottt  3  cwt.  of  clay  to  1  cwt.  of  flint,  and  fot 
the  yellow  ware  somewhat  more  clay.  The  pn>- 
portion,  however,, for  both  sorts  of  ware  depends 
Very  much  upon  1^  nature  of  the  day,  which 
is  very  variable  even  in  the  same  piL  Hence  a 
ptevioiii  trial  must  be  made  of  the  quality  of  the 
otay,  by  burning  a  kiln  of  the' ware.  If  there  be 
too  much  flint  mixed  with  the  clay,  the  ware, 
when  exposed  to  the  air  after  burning,  is  apt  to 
crack;  and,  if  there  be  too  little,  the  ware  wiU 
not  receive  the  proper  glaze  from  tbe  circulation 
of  the  sah  mor.  This  glaze,  even  when  it  is 
mostperfeet,  isins^peaiance  less  beautifol  than 
the  glafce  on  the  yellow  ware. 

l^e  yellow  gtaze  is  made  b^  mixing  together 
in  water,  till  it  becomes  as  thick  as  cream,  113 
lbs.  of  white  lead,  24  lbs.  of  giooad  flint,  and  6 
lbs.  of  ground  flint-glass.  Some  manu&ctories 
leave  out  the  glass,  and  mix  only  80  lbs.  of 
white  lead  wim  20  lbs.  of  grOund  flint;  and 
others,  doubtless,  observe  different  rules,  of 
which  it  is  very  difficult  to  obtain  an  account. 

The  ware. before  it  is  glazed  is  baked  in  the 
fire.  By- this  means  it  acquires  the  property  of 
strongly  imbibing  moisture.  It  is  therefore 
dipp^  in  the  liquid  glaze,  and  suddenly  taken 
out:  tbe  glaze  is  imbibed  into  its  pores,  and  the 
ware  presently  becomes  dry.  It  is  then  exposed 
a  second  time  to  the  fiie,  by  which  means  the 
glaze  it  has  imbibed  is  melted,  and  a  thin  glassy 
coat  is  formed  upon  its  sur&ce.  The  color  of 
this  coat  is  more  or  less  yellow,  according  as  a 
greater  or  less  proportion  of  lead  has  been  used. 
The  lead  is  prineipallv  instrumental  in  pro- 
ducing the  glaze,  as  wefi  as  in  giving  it  the  yel- 
low color;  for  lead,  of  all  ^  substances  hidietto 
loiown,  has  the  greatest  power  of  promoting  the 
vitrification  ef  the  substances  with  which  it  Ls 
mixed.  The  flint  serves  to  give  a  consistence  to 
the  lead  during  the  time  of  its  vitrification,  and 
to  hinder  it  from  becoming  too  fluid,  and  running 
down  the  sides  of  the  ware,  and  thereby  leaving 
them  uaglazed. 

The  yellowish  color  which  lead  gives  when 
vitrified  with  flints,  may  be  wholly  changed  by 
▼ery  small  additions  of  other  mineral  substances. 
Thus,  to  give  one  instance,  the  beautiful  black 
^laze,  which  is  fixed  on  one  sort  of  the  ware 
made  at  Nottingham,  is  composed  of  twenty-one 
parts  by  weight  of  white  lead,  of  five  of  powdered 
fiints,  aud  of  three  of  manganese.  The  queen  V 
ware  at  present  is  much  whiter  than  formerly. 

The  coarse  stoneware  made  at  Bristol  consists 
of  tobaoeo-pipe  clay  and  sand,  and  is  glazed  by 
the  vapor  of  salt^  like  Staflbrdshire  fliht-ware; 
but  it  IS  flir  inferior  to  it  in  beauty. 
POTTLE^  n.  t.    From  pot    A  liquid 


POV 


sure  oontamitig  four  pints.    SometimeB  used  for 
a  tankard,  or  pot  out  of  which  glasses  are  filled. 
Roderigo  hath  to*^night  caroused 
Fotatiom  pottU  deep.  SuUupmn, 

The  oracle  of  Apollo 
Here  speaks  out  of  his  pottU, 
Or  the  Tripos  his  tower  bottle. 

Ben  Jmuon, 
POUCH,  n,$.    Fr.  foche.     Sax.  i»ora.    A 
small  bag;  a  pocket. 

In  January  husband  that  pwehtth  the  grotes, 
WiU  break  up  his  lay»  or  be  sowing  of  otes. 

Tuner, 
Tetter  Pll  have  in  pouch,  when  thou  nhalt  lack. 

■  Shaktpeare. 
The  spot  of  the  vessel,  where  the  disease  begins, 
'  gives  way  to  the  force  of  the  blood  pushing  outwards, 
as  to  form  a  pouch  or  cyst.  Sharp'M  Surgery. 

The  common  heron  bath  long  legs  for  wading,  a 
long  neck  to  reach  prey,  and  a  wide  extensive  throat 
to  pouch  it.  Ikrham, 

From  a  girdle  about  his  waist,  a  hag  or  poudi  di- 
vided into  two  cells.  GuUmer^e  Travels* 

PoucB,  Fr.  gibeme,  a  case  of  black  stout 
leather  with  a  flap  over  it,  which  is  generally  or- 
namented by  a  brass  crown,  &c.,  for  the  battalion- 
men;  a  fuse  for  the  grenadiers;  and  a  bugle-hom 
for  the  light  infantry.  The  pouch  hangs  from -a 
cross  belt,  over  the  left  shoulder,  and  is  worn  in 
that  manner,  by  the  in&ntry,  for  the  purpose  of 
canying  their  ammunition.  The  pouches  in  use 
among  the  cavalry  are  smaller,  which  the  French 
call  demie  gibeme. 

POUCHARD  (Julian),  a  learned  French 
critic,  was  bom  near  Domftont,  in  Normandy, 
and  educated  at  Mans,  and  at  Paris,  where  he 
rendered  assbtance  to  M.  Ibevenot,  in  his  edi- 
tion of  the  Ancient  Mathematicians.  After  this 
he  was  engaged  some  years  in  arrangmg  the 
MSS.  of  the  royal  librae.  In  1701  he  became 
an  associate  of  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions,  t6 
whose  memoirs  he  contributed  some  valuable 
papers  on  the  learning  of  the  Egyptians.  He 
next  became  editor  of  the  Journal  des  Spavans; 
and  in  1704  was  appointed  professor  of  Greek, 
but  died  the  year  following,  aged  forty-nine. 
Besides  the  above  works,  he  wrote  a  Universal 
History  from  the  Creation  to  the  Death  of  Cleo- 
patra. 

POUGHKEEPSIE,  a  township  of  the  United 
States,  the  capital  of  Dutchess  county.  New 
York,  situated  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Hudson, 
about  a  mile  east  of  the  river,  contains  a  court- 
house, jail,  bank,  academy,  five  houses  of  pub- 
lic worship ;  and  had,  in  1812,  422  dwelling- 
houses,  and  forty-nine  stores,  shops,  &c.  Many 
of  the  old  houses  are  mostly  of  stone,  but  those 
recently  erected  are  of  brick  and  wood.  Pough- 
keepsie  is  a  flourishing  town,  in  one  pf  the  most 
wealthy  and  best  agricultural  counties  in  tbe 
state,  and  has  an  extensive  trade.  Here  are 
three  printing-offices,  from  each  of  which  is  is- 
sued |a  weekly  newspaper.  Seventy-five  miles 
north  of  New  York.    Population  4670. 

POV'ERTY,  n.  f.  Fr.  pauvrttc;  Lat  pau- 
pertoi.    Indigence ;  neoessi^ ;  want  of  riches. 

My  men  are  ttat  poorest. 
But  poterty  could  never  draw  them  from  me. 

Skakeptart. 


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POU  15 

TImr  fo  in  all  «zaeUeiicies  in  eompostUon  a  kind 
o£  jwiwtji,  or  a  canialty  of  jeopardy.  Bacon, 

Sach  madness,  as  for  fsar  of  death  to  die, 

b  to  be  poor  lor  fear  of  pavirty.  D0»ham, 

These  bj  tbeir  atrict  examples  taoght, 
Hoir  onicli  more  splendid  virtne  was  than  gold ; 
Yet  icarae  their  twellinff  thint  of  fame  Goald  bide, 
And  boasted  poMrfy  wim  too  much  pride.      Ptiar, 

Then  is  aoch  a  state  as  absolute  jxneriy,  when  a 
nan  is  destitato  not  only  of  the  convenienoes,  bat 
the  simple  necessaries  of  life,  being  disabled  from 
aeqoiring  them»  and  depending  entirely  on  chanty.  . 

Bagen. 

PovBKTT  Bat,  a  bay  on  the  east  coast  of 
New  Zealand,  in  the  South  PaciAc  Ocean,  called 
by  the  natives  Taoneroa,  of  Long  Sand,  disco- 
vered by  Cook  in  the  year  1769.  This  bay,  in 
the  form  of  a  horse-shoe,  is  known  by  an 
island  lying  dose  under  the  north-east  point.  It 
obtained  its  name  from  the  inhospitable  beha- 
viour of  the   natives.     Long.  181^  36'  W.,  hit. 

sap  48r  s. 

PocL-xaaLt.    5y^^"»^^^«°- 
If  thou  doat  it  half  so  gravely,  so  majesticaily, 
hang  me  up  by  the  heels  for  a  potdterer's  hare. 

ShaMtpean, 
Several  nasty  trades,  as  bntcben,  poulterert,  and 
fi^mongers,  are  great  occasions  of  plagues. 

ITarvtff, 
What  louder  cries,  when  IKum  was  in  flames, 
Than  for  the  cock  the  widow'd  pouftiy  made. 

Dryden. 
The  cock  knew  the  fox  to  be  a  common  enemy  of 
allaMfrry.  VEitran^e, 

One  would  have  all  things  little,  hence  has  tried 
Turkey  jmrfts,  fresh  from  mb  egg,  in  batter  fried. 

King. 
^  Soldiers  robbed  a  burner  of  his  poultry,  and  made 
Um  wait  at  table,  without  giving  him  a  morsel. 

Swift. 

PouLTEY  comprehends  all  birds  brought  up 
in  yards,  as  cocks,  hens,  capons,  ducks,  turkeys, 
&c.  Under  this  class  we  may,  therefore,  reckon 
the  common  cock,  the  peacock,  the  turkey,  the  pin- 
tada  or  Guinea  hen,  &c.  They  all  bear  a  strong 
similitude  to  each  other,  being  equally  granivo- 
rous,  flieshy,  and  delicate  to  the  palate.  Many 
of  the  wild  species  of  birds,  when  cooped  up  or 
caged,  pine  away,  grow  gloomy,  and  some  refuse 
all  sustenance  whatever ;  none  except  those  of 
the  poultry  kind  grow  fat,  who  seem  to  lose  all 
remembrance  of  their  former  liberty,  satbfied 
with  indolence  and  plenty. 

POULTICE,  n.  i.  ¥T,pulie ;  lat .  piMit.  A 
catafriasm ;  a  soft  or  mollifying  application. 

Famldee  relaxeth  the  poies,  and  maketb  the  humour 
apt  to  exhale.  Baeon'i  Natural  Hisiory. 

PomUieta  allayed  pains,  but  drew  down  the  hu- 
BKMirs,  making  the  passages  wider,  and  apter  to  re- 
cdfethem.  Tample. 

U  yoor  little  finger  be  sore,  and  you  think  a  poul' 
(m  made  of  our  vitals  will  give  it  ease,  speak,  and 
itikanbedone.  Swifu 

POUNCEy  fi.  s.  &  9.  o.  -^      Italian    ponxone- 

PouvcED%  4idf.  ^Skinner.       Spanish 

Poc v'crrBOX,  is.  s.  3  punien ;  Lat.  puac^w. 
The  daw  ot  takm  of  a  bird  of  prey ;  a  pow- 
der thfown  throogfa  %  perforated  box :  to  pierce 


POU 

or  perforate;  pour  or  sprinkle  thronsh  {Mrfom- 
tions :  pounoet-box,  a  small  perforated  box. 

As  haggard  hawk,  presuming  to  contend 
With  hardy  fowl,  about  his  able  might, 

His  weary  poancn,  all  in  vain  doth  spend 
To  truss  the  prey  too  heavy  for  his  flight. 

SpOMtTm 

He  was  perfrimed  like  a  milliner. 
And,  'twixt  his  fineer  and  his  thumb,  he  held 
A  pouncotbox,  which  ever  and  anon 
He  eave  his  nose.  Shaktpeare*  Henry  IV. 

Barbarous  people,  that  go  naked,  do  not  only 
paint,  but  pounce  and  raise  tneir  skin,  that  the  paint- 
ing may  not  be  taken  forth,  and  make  it  into  Works. 
Boeon't  Nalufral  HtOory. 
It  may  be  tried  by  incorporating  copper-dust,  by 
pouncing  into  the  quicksilver.  Bacon. 

TIm  new  dissembled  eagle,  now  endned 
With  beak  and  pouncu,  Hercules  pursued. 

Drydm. 
Twas  a  mean  prey  for  a  bird  of  his  pcmneet. 

Atierfniry. 
From  a  craggv  cliff. 
The  royal  eagle  draws  his  vis^rous  young 
Strong  pounced*  TKomMnCe  Spring.' 

POUND,  n.s.  &v.a.'^     Sax.  )«nd,  )mniah 
PouNi/AGE,  n.  s.  >  (whence     in      some 

Pound'er,  n.  *.  3  places  they   use  the 

word  pun) ;  Goth.  Swed.  and  Dan.  pund ;  Belg. 
pond ;  Lat.  and  Ital.  pond ;  Lat.  pondd.  A  cer- 
tain weight,  certain  sum  of  money  (money  being 
first  we^ed);  to  beat  or  pind  by  a  weight  or 
pestle  *.  poundage  is,  a  certam  sum  deducted  ftom 
or  paid  upon  a  pound  of  money :  a  pounder  is 
a  heavy  large  p^ ;  also  a  person  or  thing  de- 
nominated from  a  certain  number  of  pounds  : 
as,  a  ten  pounder,  a  gun  that  carries  a  oullet  of 
ten  pounds  weight ;  or  in  ludicrous  knguege  a 
man  with  ten  pounds  a  year;  in  like  manner,  a 
note  or  bill  has  been  called  a  twenty  pounder  or 
tea  pounder,  from  the  sum  it  bean. 

A  pound  doth  consist  of  ounces,  drams,  scruples. 

Wmnt. 
Tonnaee  and  poundaget  and  other  duties  upon 
merchandizes,  were  collected  by  order  of  the  board. 

Cforwidon. 
His  month  and  nostrils  poured  a  purple  flood. 
And  poimded  teeth  came  rushing  with  his  blood. 

Should  their  axle  break,  its  overthrow 
Would  crush,  and  pound  to  dust  the  crowd  below. 
Nor  friends  their  friends,  nor  sires  their  sons  could 
know.  Dryden^s  Juvenal, 

Great  Hannibal  within  the  balance  lay. 
And  tell  how  many  poundf  his  ashes  weigh. 

.    Aldnous'  orchard  various  apples  bears. 
Unlike  are  bergamots  and  pounder  pairs.         Id, 
She  describes 
How  uiider  eround  the  rude  Kipbean  race 
Mimick  brisk  cyder,  widi  the  brake's  product  wild 
Sloes  pounded.  PAi%. 

He  that  said  that  he  had  rather  have  a  grain  of 
•  fortune  than  a  potMd  df  wisdom,  as  to  the  things  of 
this  IHe,  spoke  nothing  but  the  voice  of  wisdom. 

South'e  Sormona* 
•I/ifred  pestles  blandished  in  the  air. 
Loud  strokes  with  poutidti^  spice  the  fribrick  rend. 
And  aromatick  clouds  in  spires  ascend.  Oarth, 

Opaque  white  powder  of  glass,  seen  throueh  a 
icroacope,  exhibits  fragments  peiludd  and  ooiour- 


microscope, 


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POU 

Itta.  at  Un  whole  appetred  to  Uio  naked  eye  before 
it  was  poundsd.  Bentley, 

None  of  these  forty  or  fifty  pounden  may  be  suf- 
fered to  marry  under  the  penalty  of  deprivation. 

Sunft. 

That  excbeauer  of  medals  in  the  cabinets  of  the 
great  duke  of  Tuscany  is  not  worth  so  little  as  an 
hundred  thousand  pound.     P$aeham  ef  AniiquitUi, 

He  save,  whilst  ought  he  had,  and  knew  no 
bounds ; 
The  poor  man*s  drachma  stood  for  rich  men's  ooimdi* 

Harte. 

Pound,  n.  $.  &  v.  a.  From  Sax.  pindan. 
A  pinfold ;  an  enclosure:  to  enclose  in  a  pound. 

Rather  than  they  should  pound  us  up. 

SuUltptOTtt 

I  ordered  John  to  let  out  the  good  man's  sheep 
that  wi  "     -  - 


Spoetator. 


by  night, 
1  hurry, 
Not  thinking  it  is  levee-day. 
And  find  his  honour  in  a  pound, 
Hemm'd  by  a  triple  circle  round. 

Smfi't  MuceUanies,  . 
To  POUR,  V.  «.  &  V.  n.  JFrom  the  Welsh 
hwrw.  Lat.  ruo  1  To  let  or  drive  some  liquid 
out  of  a  vessel,  or  froo)  one  place  or  recepta- 
cle to  another;  to  emit;  send  forth :  as  a  verb 
neuter,  to  stream ;  flow ;  rush  violently. 

If  they  will  not  4)elieve' those  signs,  take  of  the 
water  of  the  river,  and  pour  it  upon  the  dry  land. 

Esodut  iv.  9. 
A  Samaritan  bound  up  his  wounds,  pouring  in  oil 
and  wine,  and  brought  hmi  to  an  inn.        Luke  10. 
Iiondon  doth  pour  out  her  citizens  ; 
The  mayor  and  all  his  brethren  in  best  sort, 
AVith  the  pleb^ans  swarming. 

Skahpean,  Henry  -', 
As  thick  as  hail. 
Came  post  on  post ;  and  eveiy  one  did  bear 
Thy  praises  in  his  kingdom's  great  defence, . 
And  pound  them  down  before  him.  Id.  Macbeth. 
The  devotion  of  the  heart  is  the  tongue  of  the 
aoul ;  actuated  and  heated  with  love,  it  poun  itself 
forth  in  supplications  and  prayers.  Duppa. 

Your  fury  then  boiled  upward  to  a  fome ; 
But,  since  this  message  came,  you  sink  and  settle. 
As  if  cold  water  had  been  poured  upon  you. 

Dry  den. 
If  we  had  eroats  or  sixpences  current  bylaw,  that 
wanted  one-third  of  the  silver  by  the  standard,  who 
can  imagine  that  our  neighbours  would  not  pour  in 
quantities  of  such  money  upon  us,  to  the  great  loss 
of  the  kingdom  ?  Ijoeke. 

If  the  rude  throng  pour  on  with  furious  pace. 
And  hap  to  break  thee  from  a  friend's  embrace- 
Stop  short.  Gay. 
All  his  fleecy  flock 
Before  him  march,  and  pour  into  the  rock, 
Not  one  or  male  or  female  stayed  behind. 

Pope. 
Is  it  for  thee  the  linnet  pourg  his  throat  1 
Loves  of  his  own  and  raptures  swell  the  note.    Id. 

A  ghastly  band  of  giants, 
All  pouring  down  the  mountains,  crowd  the  shore. 

Id. 
POUSSE,  11.  *.    The  old  word  for  pease ; 
corrupted,  as  may  seem,  from  pulse. — Spenser. 

But  who  shall  judfie  the  wager  won  or  lost  1 
— ^That  shall  yonder  herd  groom  and  none  other. 
Which  over  thepousit  hitherward  doth  post. 

Spenter., 

POUSSIN  (Nicholas),  an  eminent   French 
painter,  bom  in  1594,  at  Andel,  in  Normandy, 


16  POW 

He  was  instructed  for  a  few  months  \^y  one  Fer- 
dinand £lle,  a  portrait  painter,  and  spent  a 
month  with  L'Altemant;  after  which  he  went  to 
Italy  to  study  the  antique  and  bas  relief,  but  ne- 
glected coloring.  He  was  invited  back* to  Paris 
by  Louis  XIII.  who  assi^ed  him  a  pension 
with  lodgings  in  the  ThuiUeries,  Piqued  by 
some  insists  from  the  foction  of  Vouet's  school, 
be  returned  to  Rome,,  where  he  died  in  1665. 
He  had  during  the  whole  of  his  life  a  perpetual 
demand  for  easel-pieces,  for  whicji  he  obtained 
laxKe  prioesi 

PoussiN,  or  DuGHET  (Gaspar).  This  painter, 
whose  real  name  was  Dughet,  was  bom  in  Paris 
in  1660.  He  went  to  Rome  to  see  his  sister, 
who  was  married  to  Nicholas  Pqussin;  under 
whose  instruction  he  became  one  of  Uie  best 
landscape  painters  that  ever  appeared.  While 
he  contmued  at  Rome  he  assumed  the  name  of 
hisbrotheivin-law  and  bene&ctor,  by  which  only 
be  is  now  known.    He  died  in  1 662. 

POUT,  n,  t.  From  pouth.  A  kind  of  fish ; 
a  cod-fish;  also  a  kind  of  bird,  or  heath  fowl. 

Of  wild  birds,  Cornwall  hath  quail,  wood-dove, 
heath-cock,  and  pout.     Carew's  Survey  of  ComwaU. 

PoDT,  V.  ft.  Sax.  botan :  Fr.  bouter.  To  look 
sullen ;  push  out  the  lips. 

Like  a  misbehaved  and  sullen  wench. 
Thou  pout*$t  upon  thy  fortune  and  thy  Jove. 

Skaktpeare. 
Satyrus  wasonade  up  betwixt  man  and  eoat,  with 
a  human  head,  hooked  nose,  and  pouting  lips. 

I  would  advise  my  gentle  readers,  as  they  consult 
the  good  of  their  faces,  to  forbear  frowning  upon  loy- 
albta,  and  pouting  at  the  government. 

Addison*s  Freeholder. 
The  nurse  remained  potoing,  nor  would  she  touch 
a  bit  during  the  whole  dinner. 

Arbuthnot  and  Pope. 
The  ends  of  the  wounds  must  come  over  one  ano- 
ther, with  a  compress  to  press  the  Ups  equally  down, 
which  would  otherwise  become  crude,  and  pout  out 
with  great  lips.  Wieeman. 

POWDER,  n.  f.,  V.  a.,  v.  n.^       French  pou- 
PoVDEa-BOX,  dre ;    Ital.  pul- 

Pow'der-chest,  vere ;  Lat.  pul- 

Pow^DER-BORN,  .  I  vw.  Dust;any 

Pow'der-mill,  rbody    commi- 

Pow'der-room,  nuted  ;    parti- 

Pow'derino-tub,  cularly  powder 

Pow'deby,  ati^.  J  prepared      for 

the  hair,  and  gunpowder :  to  powder  is  to  re- 
duce to  dust;  to  sprinkle  as  with  dust:  the 
compounds  are  explained  by  the  extracts. 

The  calf  which  they  had  made,,  he  burnt  in  the 
fire,  and  ground  it  to  powder.         Exodut  zxxii.  20. 

If  you  embowel  me  to-day,  I'll  give  you  leave  to 
voider  me  and  eat  me  to-morrow.  Shakepeart. 

To  the  Spital  go. 
And  from  the  powdering'tub  of  infamy 
Fetch  forth  the  lazar  kite  Doll  Tearsheet.  Id. 
Salting  of  oysters,  and  powdering  of  meat,  keepeth 
them  from  putrefaction.  Bacon*s  Nat.  History. 

The  seditious,  being  furnished  with  artillery  pou>d«T 
and  shot,  battered  Bishopsgate.  Uayward. 

Powder  thy  radiant  hair. 
Which  if  without  such  ashes  thou  would'st  wear, 
Thou  who,  to  all  which  come  to  look  upon, 
Wert  meant  for  Phoebus,  would'st  be  Phaeton. 

Dewne. 


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POWDERS. 


17 


Wlok  the'  liair  U  sweet  through  pride  or  lust, 
The  r»witr  doth  forget  the  dust.  Herbert. 

Imaodent^  feeding  upon  powdend  beef,  pickled 
neats,a]icho?y,  and  debauching  with  brandj,  do  in- 
Hame  and  acoale  the  blood. 

Hare9y  on  CoiuuMpftOfi* 
My  hair  I  never  potedsr,  but  my  chief 
Invention  is  to  get  me  powdered  beef. 

CUttveiand. 
In  the  galaxy,  that  milky  way 
Which  nightly,  as  a  circling  zone,  thou  aeest 
Pwdtnd  with  stars.  Milton't  Paradise  Lott. 

The  fiame  invades  the  powder-rooms^  and  then 
Their  gons  shoot  bullets,  and  their  vessels  men. 

WaiUr, 

When  we  view  those  large  bodies  of  oxen,  what 

can  wB  better  conceit  them  to  be,  than  so  many 

hringand  vralking  powdering-tube,  and  that  they 

have  animam  salis  1  More. 

Whilst  two  companions  were   disputing    it   at 


d's  point,  down  comes  a  kite  povodering  upon 
them  ana  gobbets  up  both.  VEttrange, 

As  to  the  taking  of  a  town,  there  were  few  con- 
ooerors  could  signalise  themselves  that  way,  before 
the  invention  of  powder  and  fortifications.  Ad^son. 

A  brown  powdery  spar^  vrhich  holds  iron,  is  found 
SBoagtt  the  iron  ore.  Woodward  on  FouUs, 

The  powdend  footman 
Beneath  his  flapping  hat  secures  his  hair. 

Gay. 
There  stands  the  toilette, ' 
The  patch,  the  powder-box,  pHlville,  perfumes. 

Id, 
Upon  the  blowing  up  of  a  powdermillf  the  win- 
dows of  adjacent  houses  are  bent  and  blown  out- 
wards, by  the  elaatidc  force  of  the  air  within  exerting 
itMlL  Arbuthnot. 

Our  humbler  province  is  to  tend  the  fur. 
To  save  the  powder  from  too  rude  a  gale.    Pope, 
Yon  may  stick  your  candle  in  a  bottle  or  a  potD- 
<Mr-eon«  onoyt, 

PowDEE  Chests,  in  the  marine,  wooden  trian- 
gular chests,  filled  with  eunpowder,  nails,  and 
old  iron,  to  set  on  fire  when  a  vessel  is  boarded 
by  an  enemy.  These  cases  are  usually  from 
twelve  to  ei^teen  inches  in  length,  and  about 
eigfat  or  ten  in  breadth,  having  their  outer  or  up- 
per part  tenninating  in  an  edge.  They  are  nailed 
to  several  places  of  the  quarter-deck  and  bulk- 
head of  the  wust,  hairing  atrain  of  powder  which 
eommunicates  vrith  the  inner  apartments  of  the 
ship,  so  as  to  be  fired  at  pleasure  to  annoy  the 
enemy.  They  are  particularly  used  in  merchant- 
dkips  which  are  fiimished  with  close-quarters  to 
oppose  the  boarders. 

Powders,  Fulminating,  in  chemistry,  are' 
eoDpositions  which  explode  upon  the  applica- 
tion either  of  certain  degrees  or  heat,  trituration, 
or  coDcussioD.  Under  this  title,  therefore,  are 
include  several  veiy  distinct  chemical  combi- 
nations, the  principal  of  which  are  those  of 
aiote,  with  the  metals  and  alkalis.  The  common 
fhliftinating  powder  is  thus  made  : — Triturate 
in  a  warm  mortar  three  parts  ^by  weight  of 
nitre,  two  of  carbonate  of  potass,  and  one  of 
flowers  of  sulphur.  A  few  grains  of  this  laid 
upon  a  knife,  and  held  over  tl^  candle,  first  fiise, 
and  then  explode  with  a  loud  report.  A  drachm 
of  it  put  into  a  shovel,  and  held  over  the  fire, 
makes  a  noise  as  loud  as  a  cannon,  and  indents 
(he  shovel  as  if  it  had  received  a  violent  blow. 
If  the  mass  be  lemo^  from  the  fire  as  soon  as 
Vol.  XVIII. 


it  is  fused,  and  kept  in  a  dry,  well  closed  phial,  it 
may  at  any  time  be  exploded  by  a  spark,  and  will 
bum  like  gunpowder,  but  more  rapidly  and  with  a 
greater  report;  but  this  effect^will  not  be  pro- 
duced by  unroelted  powder.  Whilst  the  powder 
is  in  fusion,  but  not  sufficiently  heated  to  pro- 
duce the.  blue  flame,  a  particle  of  ignited  cnar- 
coal  thrown  upon  it  will  immediately  occasion 
a  very  loud  explosion.  The  fulminating  property 
of  this  powder  is  acquired  by  fusiol),  or  when 
the  potass  and  sulphur  fprm  sulphuret  of  potass. 
It  may  therefore  be  prepared  by  mixing  sulphu- 
ret of  potass  with  nitre,  instead  of  adding  the 
sulphur  and  alkali  separate.  If  a  solution  of 
gold  be  precipitated  by  ammonia,  the  product 
will  be  fulminating  gold.  This  precipitate, 
when  separated  by  filtration,  and  washed,  must 
be  dried  vrithout  heat,  as  it  is  liable  to  explodes 
with  no  great  increase  of  temperature ;  and  it 
must  not  be  put  into  a  bottle  closed  with  a.  glass 
stopper,  as  the  friction  of  this  would  expose  the 
operator  to  the  same  danger.  Less  than  a  grain . 
of  this,  held  over  the  flame  of  .a  caxidle,.explodes 
with  a  very  sharp  and  loud  noise. 

Fulminating  silver  may  be  n^de  by  precipi- 
tating a  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver  by  Ume-Wa-i 
ter,  drying  the  precipitate  by  exposure  to  the  air. 
for  two  or  three  days,  and  pounng  on  it  liquid 
ammonia.  When  it  is  thus  converted  into  a 
black  powder,  the  liquid  must  be  poured  off,  and 
the  powder  left  to  dry  in  the  air.  It  detonates 
with  the  gentlest  beat,  or  even  with  the  slightest 
friction,  so  that  it  must  not  be  removed  from  the 
vessel  in  which  it  is  made.  If  a  drop  of  water 
fiiU  upon  it,  the  percussion  will  cause  it  to  ex- 
plode.   It  was  discovered  by  Berthollet. 

Brugoatelli  made  a  fulminating  silver  by  pow- 
derine  a  hundred  grains  of  nitre  of  silver,  fnit- 
ting  the  powder  into  a  beer-^lass,  .and  pouring 
on  it,  first  an  ounce  of  alcohol,  then  as  much 
concentrated  nitrous  acid.  The  mixture  grows 
hot,  boils,  and  an  ether  is  visibly  formed,  that 
changes  into  gas.  By  degrees  the  liquor  becomes 
milky  and  opaque,  and  is  filled  with  small  white 
clouds.  When  all  the  eray  powder-  has  taken 
this  form,  and  the  liquor  has  acquired  a  consist- 
ency, distilled  water  must  be  added  immediately 
to  suspend  the  ebullition,  and  prevent  the  matter 
from  beinff  redissolved,  and  becoming  a  mere 
solution  of  silver.  The  white  precipitate  is  then 
to  be  collected  on  a  filter,  and  dried.  The  force 
of  this  powder  gready  exceeds  that  of  fulminat- 
ing mercury.  It  detonates  in  a  tremendous 
manner,  on  being  scarcely  touched  with  a  glass 
tube,  the  extremity  of  which  has  been  dipped  in 
concentrated  sulphuric  acid.  A  single  grain, 
placed  on  a  lignted  coal,  makes  a  deafening 
report.  The  same  thing  happens  if  it  be  placed 
on  a  bit  of  paper  on  an  electric  pile,  and  a  spark 
drawn  from  it. 

M.Chenevix  has  invented  a  fulminating  silver 
not  so  dangerous  as  that  just  mentioned.  It  ex- 
plodes only  by  a  slight  friction  in  contact  with 
combustible  bodies.  It  is  thus  prepared : — ^Dif- 
fuse a  quantity  of  alumina  through  water,  and 
let  a  current  of  oxygenated  muriatic  acid  gas 
pass  through  it  for  sometime.  Then  digest  some 
phosphate  of  silver  on  the  solution  of  the  oxyge- 
nated muriate  of  alumina,  and    evaporate   it 

C 


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18 


POWDERS. 


slowly.  The  product  obtained  will  be  a  hyper- 
oxygenated  muriate  of  silvery  a  single  grain  of 
which,  in  contact  with  two  or  three  of  sulphar, 
will  explode  violently  with  the  slightest  friction. 

Fulminating  mercury  was  discovered  by  Mr. 
Howard.  A  hundred  grains  are  to  be  dissolved 
with  heat  in  an  ounce  and  a  half  by  measure  of 
nitric  acid.  The  solution,  when  cold,  is  to  be 
poured  on  two  ounce  measures  of  alcohol,  and 
neat  applied  till  an  effervescence  is  excited.  As 
soon  as  the  precipitate  is  thrown  down,  it  must  be 
collected  on  a  filter,  that  the  acid  may  not  react 
on  it,  and  washed  and  dried  by  a  very  gentle  heat. 
It  detonates  with  a  very  little  neat  or  friction. 

Of  some  experiments  on  the  powers  of  this  pow- 
der, the  inventor  gives  the  following  account : — 
*  Desirous  of  comparing  the  strength  of  the  mercu- 
rial compound  with  that  of  gunpowder,'  says  Mr. 
Howard,  *1  made  the  following  experiment  in 
the  presence  of  my  friend  Mr.  Abemethy : — 
Finding  that  the  powder  could  be  fired  by  flint 
and  steel,  without  a  disagreeable  noise,  a  common 
gunpowder  proof,  capable  of  containing  eleven 
grains  of  fine  gunpowder,  was  filled  with  it,  and 
fired  in  the  usual  way :  the  report  was  sharp,  but 
not  loud.  The  person  who  held  the  instrument 
in  his  hand  felt  no  recoil  *.  but  the  explosion  laid 
open  the  upper  part  of  the  barrel,  nearly  from 
the  toudi-hoie  to  the  muzzle,  and  struck  off  the 
hand  of  the  register,  the  sux^ce  of  which  was 
evenly  indented  to  the  depth  of  0*1  of  an  inch, 
as  if  it  had  received  the  impression  of  a  punch. 

*  The  instrument  used  in  this  experiment  be- 
ing familiarly  known,  it  is  therefore  scarcely 
necessary  to  describe  it ;  suffice  it  to  say  that  it 
was  of  brass,  mounted  with  a  spring  register,  the 
moveable  hand  of  which  closed  up  the  muzzle, 
to  receive  and  graduate  the  violence  of  the  ex- 
plosion. The  barrel  was  half  an  inch  in  calibre, 
and  nearly  half  an  inch  thick,  except  where  a 
spring  of  the  lock  impaired  half  its  thickness. 

*  A  "gun  belonging  to  Mr.  Keir,  an  ingenious 
artist  o^  Camden  Town,  was  next  charged  with 
seventeen  grains  of  the  mercurial  powder,  and  a 
leaden  bullet.  A  block  of  wood  was  placed  at 
about  eieht  yards  fh>m  the  muzzle  to  receive  the 
ball,  and  the  gun  was  fired  by  a  (use.  No  recoil 
seemed  to  have  taken  place,  as  the  barrel  was  not 
moved  from  its  position,  although  it  was  in  no 
ways  confined.  The  report  was  feeble :  the  bul- 
let, Mr.  Keir  conceived,  from  the  impression 
made  on  the  wood,  had  been  projected  wiui  about 
half  the  force  it  would  have  been  by  an  ordinary 
charee,  or  sixty-eight  grains  of  the  best  gun- 
powder. We  therefore  re-charged  the  gun  with 
thirty-four  grains  of  the  mercurial  powder ;  and, 
as  the  great  strength  of  the  piece  removed  any 
apprehension  of  danger,  Mr.  Keir  fired  it  from 
his  shoulder,  aiming  at  Uie  same  block  of  wood. 
The  report  was  like  the  first,  sharp,  but  not 
louder  than  might  have  been  expected  from  a 
charge  of  gunpowder.  Fortunately  Mr.  Keir 
was  not  hurt ;  but  the  gun  was  burst  in  an  ex- 
traordinary maimer.  The  breech  was  what  is 
called  a  patent  one,  of  the  best  foiged  iron,  con- 
sisting of  a  chamber  0*4  of  an  inch  thick  all 
round,  and  0*4  of  an  inch  in  calibre ;  it  was  torn 
open  and  flawed  in  many  directions^  and  the 
gold  toiicb-hole  driven  out.    The  barrel  into 


which  the  breech  was  screwed  was  0*5  of  an 
inch  thick;  it  was  split  by  a  single  crack 
three  inches  long,  but  this  did  not  appear  to 
me  to  be  the  immediate  effect  of  the  explosion. 
I  think  the  screw  of  the  breech,  being  suddenly 
enlarged,  acted  as  a  wedge  upon  the  barrel.  The 
balled  missed  the  block  of  wood,  and  struck 
against  a  wall,  which  had  silready  been  the  recep- 
tacle of  so  many  bullets  that  we  could  not  satisfy 
ourselves  about  the  impression  made  by  thts 
last. 

<  As  it  was  pretty  plain  that  no  gun  could  con- 
fine a  quantity  of  Ibe  mercurial  powder  sufficient 
to  project  a  bullet  with  a  greater  force  than  an 
ordinary  charge  of  gunpowder,  I  determined  to 
try  its  comparative  strength  in  another  v^ay.  I 
procured  two  blocks  of  wood,  very  nearly  of  the 
same  size  and  strength,  and  bored  them  with  the 
same  instrument  to  the  same  depth.  The  one 
was  charged  with  half  an  ounce  of  the  best 
Dartford  gunpowder,  and  the  other  with  half  an 
ounce  of  the  mercurial  powder ;  both  were  alike 
buried  in  sand,  and  fired  by  a  train  communi- 
cating with  the  powders  by  a  small  touch-hole. 
The  block  containing  the  gunpowder  was  simply 
split  into  three  pieces;  that  charged  with  the 
mercurial  powder  was  burst  in  every  direction, 
and  the  parts  immediately  contiguous  to  the 
powder  were  absolutely  pounded,  yet  the  whole 
hung  toj^dier,  whereas  the  block  split  by  the 
gunpowder  had  its  parts  fairly  separated.  The 
sand  surround  ing  the  gunpowder  was  undoubt- 
edly most  disturbed;  in  short,  the  mercurial 
powder  appeared  to  have  a  great  superiority. 

During  a  lecture  in  the  laboratory  of  Yale 
College,  about  100  or  150  grains  of  fulminating 
mercury  lay  on  a  stool,  and  were  covered  with  a 
glass  receiver  of  about  five  or  six  quarts  capacity. 
A  small  quantity  of  the  same  powder,  at  the  dis- 
tance of  a  few  feet,  was  merely  flashed  by  a  coal 
of  fire,  but  without  explosion.  In  a  manner  not 
easily  understood,  the  whole  powder  under  the 
glass  receiver  instantly  exploded  with  a  dreadful 
report ;  but,  what  was  particularly  remarkable, 
the  glass  was  merely  lifted  up  a  little,  and  was 
shattered  by  its  fisdl,  while  the  stool,  made  of  fir 
plank,  an  inch  and  a  half  thick,  on  which  the 
powder  lay,  had  a  hole  blown  quite  through  it, 
almost  as  large  as  the  palm  of  the  .hand.  The 
whole  effect  of  the  explosion  was  confined  to  the 
stool,  every  thing  around  having  remained  imin- 
jured. 

An  effect  almost  equally  singular  took  place 
lately  in  the  same  laboratory,  with  some  fulmi- 
nating silver  upon  the  point  of  a  knife,  which  was 
about  to  be  put  upon  a  plate  of  copper,  connected 
with  one  pole  of  a  galvanic  battery  in  active 
operation.  The  other  pole  was  not  touched  by 
the  experimenter,  but,  probably  by  the  influence 
conveyed  through  the  floor  of  the  room,  *  the 
powder  exploded  the  moment  the  knife  touched 
the  plate  of  copper.  The  knife  blade  was  broken 
in  two,  and  one-half  of  it  thrown  to  a  distance 
among  the  audience. 

Three  parts  of  chlorate  of  potassa,  and  .one  of 
sulphur,  triturated  in  a  metal  mortar,  cause  nut 
merous  successive  detonations,  like  the  cracks  of 
a  whip,  the  reports  of  a  pistol,  or  the  fire  o' 
musketry^  according  to  the  rapidity  and  force  of 


Digitized  by  ^^JiJU*^lt:. 


POW 


19 


the  pieasore  employed.  A  few  gntiui,  struck 
wtfhaHammer  on  an  anvU,  explode  with  a  noise 
tike  thai  of  a  motiket,  and  torrents  of  purple 
light  appear  round  it.  Thrown  into  concentrated 
solpfaiinc  acid,  it  takes  fire  and  bums  with  a 
white  flame,  but  without  noise. 

Six  parts  of  the  chlorate,  one  of  sulphur,  and 
one  of  charcoal,  detonate  by  the  same  means,  but 
more  strongly,  and  with  a  redder  flame. 

Sugar,  gum,  or  charcoal,  mixed  with  the  chlo- 
rate, and  fixed  or  volatile  oils,  alcohol,  or  ether, 
made  into  a  paste  with  it,  detonate  very  strongly 
by  the  stroke,  but  aoC  by  trituration.  Some  of 
4hem  take  fire,  but  slowly,  and  by  degrees,  in  the 
sulphuric  acid. 

An  those  mixtures  that  detonate  by  the  stroke, 
explode  much  more  loudly  if  previouily  wrapped 
up  in  double  paper. 

Fulminations  of  the  most  violent  kind  require 
the  agency  of  axote  or  nitrogen;  as  we  see  not 
only  in  its  compounds  with  8ie  oxides  of  sold, 
silver,  and  platina ;  but  still  more  remarkably  in 
its  diloride  and  iodide. 

A  fulminating  antimonic  powder  has  been 
pirepared  by  M.  Serullas  in  the  following  man- 
ner :— Grind  carefully  together  100  parts  of  tartar 
em^ic  and  three  parts  of  lamp-black,  or  ordi- 
nary  charcoal  powder.    Crucibles  capable  of 
holding  about  three  ounces  of  water,  to  be  only 
three-fourths  filled,  are  to  be  ground  smooth  on 
their  edges,  and  rubbed  tnsjde  with  powdered 
charcoal,  so  as  to  dust  lightly  their  surrace,  and 
prevent  the  subseouent  adherence  of  the  carbo- 
naceous cone  whioi  remains  after  the  calcination. 
The  above  mixture,  being  introduced  into  the 
crucible,  is  to  be  covered  with  a  layer  of  pow- 
dered charcoal ;  and  the  joinings  of  the  cover 
must  be  luted.    After  exposure  for  three  hours 
to  a  good  heat  in  a  reverbemtory  furnace,  the 
crudUe  must  be  removed,  and  left  to  cool  for 
six  or  seven  hours.    This  interval  of  time  is  ne- 
cessary to  allow  the  air,  which  always  penetrates 
a  little  way  into  the  crucibles^  to  bum  the  eiXe* 
riorcoat  of  the  fulminating  mass;  otherwise,  if 
it  be  taken  out  too  recently,  there  is  always  an 
explosioti.     We  must  then  hastily  enclose  it, 
withottt  breaking,  into  a  glass  with  a  wide  opening. 
After  some  time,  it  spontaneously  breaks  down 
into  fragments  of  different  sizes,  retaining  all  its 
properties  for  velars.    When  the  calcination  has 
been  conducted  as  above,  the  product  is  exces- 
sively fulminating,  so  that,  without  the  least 
compression,  it  gives  rise  to  a  violent  detpnation 
on  contact  widr  water.    100  parts  of  antimony, 
seventy-five  of  carbureted  cream  of  tartar,  and 
twelve  of  lamp  black,  triturated  together,  form 
also  an  excellent  mixture.    A  piece  of  the  size  of 
apea  of  this  fulminating  compound  introduced 
into  a  mass  of  gunpowder  explodes  it  when 
thrown  into  water,    it  is  to  the  presence  of  po- 
tassium that  the  above  explosive  property  is  due. 
Sixtv  parts  of  carbureted  cream  of  tartar,  120 
of  bismuth,  and  one  of  nitre,  treated  as  above, 
yM  an  alloy  ^ery  rich  iif  potassium,  of  which 
the  smallest  portion  cut  with  scissars  sparkles. 
WIkd  bruiseoit  melts  and  bums. — An.de.  Chim. 
Oct  1822. 
FowDEB,  Jaues's.    See  James's  Powder. 


POW 

Powder  ISLaoazxnb,  a  bomb-proof  arched 
building,  to  contain  powder  in  fortined  places. 

POWEL  (David),  D.  D.,  a  Welsh  divine 
and  antiouaiy,  bom  in  Denbighshire,  about 
1552,  ana  educated  at  Oxford,  where  he  gradu- 
ated. He  became  vicar  of  Ruabon,  in  Denbigh* 
shire.  He  published  Caradoe's  History  of 
Wales,  with  annotations,  in  1584;  and  several 
other  works.    He  died  at  Ruabon  in  1590. 

POWELL  (Sir  John),  a  judge  of  the  common 
pleas  and  kings  bench,  was  bom  at  Gloucester, 
which  city  he  represented  in  parliament  in  1685. 
In  1687  he  was  made  one  of  the  justices  of 
common  pleas,  from  which  he  was  removed  to 
the  king's  bench  the  following  year,  when  he  dis- 
tinguished himself  on  the  trial  of  the  seven  bishops, 
and  was  in  consequence  deprived  of  office ;  but 
he  was  restored  to  it  at  the  revolution.  He  was  a 
sound  lawyer,  and  a  man  of  humor.  An  old 
woman  being  tried  before  him  on  the  charge  of 
witchcraft,  among  other  things  it  was  stated  that 
she  could  fly.  *  Prisoner,'  said  the  judge,  *  is  it 
troe  that  you  can  fly?'  <  Yes,  my  lord.  <Well, 
then,  you  may ;  for  there  is  no  law  against  fly* 
ing ;  *  and  he  directed  the  jury  to  acquit  her.  He 
died  a  judge  in  171 3. 


POW'ER,  n. «.         ^ 
Power'able,  at^. 
Power'pcl, 
Power'fully,  ado, 
Power'fulness,  n.  $. 
Power'less,  adj. 


Fr.  pounoir;  Span. 
poder.  Conmiand ;  do- 
minion ;  authority ;  in- 
*'fluence  arising  from 
greatness  ;  ability  ; 
strength  ;      motive  ; 


force :  hence  motion  of  the  mind;  faculty;  one 
invested  with  power;  host;  army;  divinity: 
powerable  is  an  obsolete  adjective  for  capable 
of  performinflr :  powerful,  forcible;  mighty;  in- 
fluential: the  adverb  and  noun-substantive 
corresponding:  powerless,  weak;  impotent. 

After  the  tribulation  of  those  davs  shall  the  sun 
be  darkened,  and  the  powen  of  the  heavens  shall  be 
shaken.  Matthew, 

Care,  not  fear ;  or  fear  not  for  themselves,  altered 
something  the  countenances  of  the  two  lovers :  but 
so  as  any  man  might  perceive,  was  rather  an  assem- 
bling otpowen  than  a  dismayedness  of  courage. 

SUn^m 
He,  to  work  him  the  more  mischief,  sent  over  his 
biuther  Edward  with  a  power  of  ScoU  and  Redshanks 
into  Ireland,  where  they  got  footing. 

Spmter't  StaU  of  Ireland. 
That  which  moveth  God  to  work  is  goodness, 
and  that  which  ordereth  his  work  is  wisdom,  and 
that  which  perfecteth  his  work  is  power.      Hooker, 

Gazellus,  upon  the  coming  of  the  bassa,  valiantly 
.issued  forth  with  all  his  power  and  gave  him  battle. 

KnoUtt. 
If  law,  authority,  and  pomer  deny  not. 
It  will  go  hard  with  poor  Anthonio. 

Shahpeare, 
.If  over 
You  meet  in  some  fresh  cheek  the  po^  of  fancy. 
Then  you  shall  know  the  wounds  invisible, 
That  love's  keen  arrows  make.  fd, 

I  was  in  the  thought,  they  were  not  £siries,  and 
yet  the  guiltiness  of  my  mind,  the  sadden  surjirise 
of  my  jHtwen,  drove  the  grossness  of  the  foppery  into 
a  received  belief.  W« 

Merciful  powers  I 
Hestrain  in  me  the  cursed  thoughts,  that  nature 
Gives  way  to  in  repose.  Id.  MeebeA. 

C2 


Digitized  by 


Googk 


POW  20 

Who  leads  his  poioer  1 
Under  whose  goTersment  come  they  along  t 

Shakspeare, 
My  heart,  dear  ^any, 
Threw  many  a  northward  look  to  nee  his  father 
Bring  up  his  powen,  but  he  did  lonfi:  in  vain.       Id, 
I  give  you  welcome  with  a  powerleu  hand, 
But  with  a  heart  full  of  unstained  love.         Id. 
This  man  had  power  with  him,  to  draw  him  forth 
to  his  death.  Baeon*$  KsMy*- 

He  died  of  great  years,  but  of  strong  health  and 
powers.  Bacon, 

That  you  may  see  how  powerful  time  is  in  altering 
tongues,  I  will  set  down  the  Lord's  piayer,  as  it  was 
translated  in  sundry  sees.  Camden, 

Cast  down  thvself,  and  only  strive  to  raise 
The  glorv  of  thy  Maker's  sacred  name  ; 

Use  all  thy  poeo'r*,  that  blessed  power  to  praise. 
Which  gives  theejpowV  to  be  and  use  the  same. 

So  much  he  stands  upon  the  powerfidnets  of  the 
Christian  religion,  that  he  makes  it  beyond  all  the 
rules  of  moial  philosophy,  strongly  eflectual  to  ex- 
pel vice,  and  plant  in  men  all  kind  of  virtue. 

Haketcill  on  Promdenee. 
What  beast,  what  worm,  wherein  we  may  not  see 
the  footsteps  of  Deity?    Wherein  we  may  not  read 
infiniteness  of  power  and  skill  ?  np,  Ha^. 

By  understanding  the  true  difierence  betwixt  the 
weight  and  the  pmiwr,  a  man  may  add  such  a  fittine 
supplement  to  the  strength  of  the  power,  that  it  shall 
move  any  conceivable  weight,  though  it  should  never 
so  much  exceed  that  force  which  the  power  is  natu- 
rally endowed  with.  Wilkms. 

My  labour 
Honest  and  lawful,  to  deserve  my  food 
Of  those  who  have  me  in  their  civil  power.    Vif'on. 

We  have  sustained  one  day  in  doubtful  fight. 
What  heaven's  Lord  hath  powerfuUest  to  send 
Aeainst  us  from  about  his  throne.  Id, 

The  sun  and  other  powerfidijf  lucid  bodies  dazzle 
our  eyes.  Boyle, 

Before  the  revelation  of  the  gospel,  the  widedness 
and  impenitency  of  the  heathen  world  was  a  much 
more  excusable  thing,  because  they  had  but.  very  ob- 
scure apprehensions  of  those  thiuj^  which  urge  men 
most  powerJiUly  to  forsake  their  sms.         TiUoteon, 
Dejected !  no,  it  never  shall  be  said, 
Ti^at  fate  had  power  upon  a  Spartan  soul ; 
My  mind  on  its  own  centre  stands  unmov'd 
And  stable  as  the  fabric  of  the  world. 

Dryden, 
With  indignation  thus  he  broke 
His  awful  silence,  and  the  power*  bespoke.     Id, 
It  is  not  in  the  po%oer  of  the  most  enlarged  under- 
standing to  invent  one  new  simple  idea  in  the  mind, 
not  taken  in  by  the  ways  aforementioned.      Locke. 

Observing  in  ourselves  that  we  can  at  pleasure 
move  several  parts  of  our  bodies,  which  were  at 
rest  'f  the  efiects  also  that  natural  bodies  are  able  to 
produce  in  one  another  occurring  eveiy  moment  to 
our  senses,  we  both  these  ways  get  the  idea  of  power. 

Id. 
By  assuming  a  privilege  belonging  to  riper  years, 
to  wnich  a  child  must  not  aspire,  you  do  but  add 
new  force  to  your  example,  ana  recommend  the  ac- 
tion more  powerfuUg,  Id, 

If  there's  a  power  above  us. 
And  that  there  is  all  nature  cries  aloud 
Through  all  her  woiks,  he  must  delight  in  virtue. 

Addison, 
Tis  surprising  to  consider  vrith  what  heats  these 
two  pcwers  have  contested  their  title  to  the  kingdom 
of  Cyprus,  that  is  in  the  hands  of  the  Turk. 

id.  on  Italy, 


PRA 


Tis  not  in  the  power  of  want  or  ilaveiy  to  mtke 
them  miserable.  Addieom. 

Henry  II.,  endeavouring  to  establish  his  grand- 
Other's  laws,  met  with  powerful  oppositiop  from 
archbishop  Becket.  Ayliffe, 

The  grain-gold  upon  all  the  ffolden  coast  of  Gui- 
nea, is  dbplayed  by  the  rains  falling  there  with  in- 
credible force,  powerfully  beating  off  the  earth. 

Woodward. 

Though  it  be  not  in  our  power  to  make  affliction 
no  affliction  ;  yet  it  is  in  our  power  to  take  off  the 
edge  of  it,  by  a  steady  view  of  those  divine  joys  pre- 
pared for  us  in  another  state.  AUerhury, 

Maintain  the  empire  of  the  mind  over  the  body, 
and  keep  the  appetites  of  the  one  in  due  subjeciioop 
to  the  reasoning  powers  of  the  other.  Id, 

Power  is  no  blessing  in  itself,  but  when  it  is  em- 
ployed to  prptect  the  innocent.  Swifi, 

The  desiffn  of  this  science  is  to  rescue  our  reason- 
ing powers  m>m  their  unhappy  slaveiy  and  darkness. 

WatU, 

POWNALL  (Thomas),  F.R.S.  and  F.S.A., 
an  ingenious  writer,  was  born  at  Lincoln  in  1722, 
and  became  secretary  to  the  commissioners  for 
trade  and  plantations  m  1745.  In  1753  he  went 
to  America,  where  he  prevented  the  formation  of 
a  congress  in  the  seven  years'  war.  For  this  he 
was  made  governor  of  Massachusetts,  whence  he 
removed  to  New  Jersey,  and  next  to  South  Ca- 
rolina, where  he  continued  till  1761,  when  he 
was  recalled,  and  made  director-general  of  the 
office  of  control  ivith  the  rank  of  colonel^  He 
died  at  Bath  in  1805.  His  works  are:  1.  On 
the  Administration  of  the  Colonies.  2.  Descrip- 
tion of  Dart  of  North  America,  folio.  3.  Treatise 
on  the  dtudy  of  Antiquities,  8vo.  4.  Memorials 
addressed  to  the  Sovereigns  of  Europe  and  the 
Atlantic.  5.  On  the  Antiquities  of  the  Provin- 
cia  Roinana  of  Gaul,  4to.  6.  Descriptions  of 
Roman  Antiquities  dug  up  at  Bath,  4to.  7.  In- 
tellectual Physics,  4to. 

POX,  n.  f.  Sax.  poccap  See  Pock.  Pro- 
perly pocks,  which  originally  signified  small 
bags  or  pustules ;  pustules ;  efflorescences.  It 
is  used  of  many  eruptive  distempers. 

O  !  if  to  dance  all  night  and  dress  all  day 

Charm'd  the  small  pes,  or  chac'd  old  age  away. 

Milum. 
Wilt  thou  still  sparkle  in  the  box. 
Canst  thou  forget  tnjr  age  and  pox  f      Dorset. 
Though  brought  to  their  ends  by  some  other  ap- 
parent disease,  yet  the  pos  had  been  judged  the 
foundation.  Wiseman, 

Pox,  Small.    See  Medicike,  Index. 

POZE,  V.  a.    To  puzzle.    See  Pose. 

And  say  you  so  t  then  I  shall  pou  you  quickly. 

Shakspeare, 

Of  human  infirmities  -I  shall  give  instances,  not 
that  I  design  to  pou  them  with  those  common  enig- 
mas of  magnetism,  fluxes  and  refluies.      Okawille, 

•  PRACHIN,  one  of  the  sixteen  circles  of  Bo- 
hemia, occupies  the  south-west  comer  of  the 
kingdom.  Its  area  is  1820  square  miles ;  and 
on  the  borders  of  Bavaria  it  has  a  number  of 
lofty  mountains,  covered  with  forests ;  the  inte- 
rior is  more  level  and  fertile.  The  Moldau  has 
i  s  source  here,  but  the  Wottawa  is  the  larger 
stream.  In  the  mountains  are  found  precious 
stones,  and  in  the  sands  of  the  Wottawa  some 
gold  dust  and  pearls.     The  Bohemian  is  the 

Digitized  by  VjUU^  IC 


PRA 


21 


PRA 


prevailing  langnag**     Population  210,000. 
cbkf  town  is  riseck. 


The 


Vt.  pratique  :lai, 
practka  ;  Gr.  frpcue- 
rucff.  Habit;  cus- 
tom ;  use ;  method  ; 
dexterity ;  perform- 
<  ance :  practicable  is 
*'performable ;  feasi- 
ble ;  assailable :  the 
adverb  and  noun- 
substantive  corres- 
ponding: practical 
and   practiclc    (the 


PRACTICE,  n.*. 
Prac'ticable,  adj. 
Peac'ticably,  adv, 
Pbac'ticableness,  tls. 

PbaC  TICAL,  IU0. 

Piac'tically,  adv. 

Pbac'tICA  LKESSy  n.  f. 

Prac'tic,  m{^'. 
Prac'tise,  t;.  a.  &  v*  n. 

PaAC'TISANT,n.#. 

P&AC'TISERy 

PRAC'TfTIONER. 

latter  obsolete),  relating  to  action ;  not  merely 
speculative:  the  adverb  and  noun-substantive 
th^  follow  corresponding :  to  practise,  to  do  ha- 
bitoally  or  constantly :  as  a  verb  neuter,  to  form 
a  habit  of  acting;  transact;  use;  a  profession; 
use  bad  or  decei&l  arts:  practiser  and  practitio- 
ner, be  who  practises. 

Incline  not  my  heart  to  praetim  wicked  works  with 
men  that  work  iniquity.  Pubn  cxli.  4. 

Will  truth  return  unto  them  that  prmctite  in  her  ? 
•  Eeclus. 

He  sought  to  have  that  by  praetus§  which  he 
cottM  not  by  prayer ;  and,  being  allowed  to  visit  us, 
he  used  the  opportunity  of  a  fit  time  thus  to  deliver 
OS.  Sidney* 

Thereto  his  subtile  engines  he  doth  bend. 

His  jfnetiek  wit,  and  his  fair  filed  tongue. 

With  thousand  other  sleights.  i^miMr. 

There  are  some  papistical  practUioMn  among  you. 

This  disease  is  beyond  my  practice  ;  yet  I  nave 
InowQ  those  which  have  walked  in  their  sleep,  who 
have  died  hoUly  in  their  beds.  Shahtpeare, 

Shall  we  thus  permit 
A  blasting  and  a  scandalous  breath  to  fall 
On  him  so  near  us  ?  this  needs  must  be  praetice ; 
Who  knew  of  your  intent  and  coming  hither  t 

Id. 
When  he  speaks, 
The  air,  a  chartered  libertine,  is  still ; 
And  the  mote  wonder  lurketh  in  men's  ears. 
To  sted  his  sweet  and  honied  sentences ; 
So  that  the  act  and  praetick  part  of  life 
Must  be  the  mistress  to  this  theorick.  Id, 

If  thou  do'st  him  any  slight  disgrace,  he  will  prae- 
tm  against  thee  by  poison.        Id.  At  You  Like  It. 
Hae  entered  Pnoelle  and  her  praetieantt. 

SiaJupeare. 
Sweet  praetittr,  thy  physick  I  will  try. 
That  ministers  thine  own  death  if  1  die.      Id. 
Wise  states  prevent  purposes 
Before  they  come  to  jnaetice,  and  foul  praetiee$ 
Be&re  tbey  grow  to  act.  DejUum's  Sophjf. 

True  piety  without  cessation  tost 
By  theories  the  praoiieh  part  is  lost.        Denham. 
At  praatiied  distances  to  cringe,  not  fight. 

Milton. 
They  shall  praetiM  how  to  live  secure.  Id. 

Oft  have  we  wondered 
How  such  a  niling  spirit  you  could  restrain. 
And  praetim  first  over  yourself  to  reign.    Waller. 
Religion  comprehends  the  knowledge  of  its  prin- 
ciples, and  a  suUable  life  and  practice  ;  the  first,  be- 
ing tpeeolative,  may  be  called  knowledge ;  and  the 
latter,  because  it  is  praetieable,  wisdom.     TiUoteon. 
I  never  thought  I  should  try  a  new  experiment, 
heing  little  inclined  to  practite  upon  others,  and  as 
little  that  others  should  practite  upon  me. 

Temple't  Mieedlaniet. 
I  had  reasoned  myself  into  an  opinion  that  the 


use  of  physicians,  unless  in  some  acute  disease,  was 
a  venture,  and  that  their  greatest  praetitert  practiMcd 
least  upon  themselves.  Temple. 

An  neroick  poem  should  be  more  like  a  glass  of 
nature,  figuring^  niore  practicable  virtue  to  us,  than 
was  done  by  the  ancients.  Dryden. 

Obsolete  words  may  be  laudably  revived,  when 
they  are  more  soundmg,  or  more  significant  than 
those  in  practice.  Id, 

This  falls  out  for  want  of  examining  what  is  prac- 
ticable and  what  not,  and  for  want  again  of  measur- 
ing our  force  and  capacity  with  our  design. 

VEttrange. 
Of  such  a  practice  when  Ulysses  told, 
Shall  we,  cries  one,  permit 
This  lewd  romancer  and  his  bantering  wit  t 

TaU. 

There  are  two  functions  of  the  soul,  contemplation 
and  praetice,  according  to  that  general  division  of  ob« 
jects,  some  of  which  only  entertain  our  speculations, 
others  also  employ  our  actions ;  so  the  understanding, 
with  relation  to  these,  is  divided  into  speculative  and 
praetick.  South. 

He  must  be  first  an  exercised,  thorough-paced 
practitioner  of  these  vices  himself.  Id. 

Wo  will,  in  the  principles  of  the  politician,  shew 
how  little  efficacy  they  have  to  advance  the  praetiter 
of  them  to  the  thmgs  they  aspire  to.  Id. 

Few  practical  errors  in  tne  world  are  embraced 
upon  the  stock  of  conviction,  but  inclination.     Id. 

Whilst  they  contend  for  speculative  truth,  they, 
by  mutual  calumnies,  forfeit  the  praclid:. 

Cheemmeat  of  the  Tongue. 
rvejmiotiffti  with  him,    ■ 

And  found  a  means  to  let  the  victor  know. 

That  Syphax  and  Sempronius  are  his  friends. 

Additon. 

The  meanest  capacity,  when  he  sees  a  rule  proeti- 
caUy  applied  before  his  eyes,  can  no  longer  be  at  a 
loss  how  it  is  to  be  performed.  A^^^* 

Tooth-drawers  are  practical  philosophers,  that  go 

Xn  a  very  rational  hypothesis,  not  to  cure,  but  to 
I  away  the  part  affected.  Steele. 

After  one  or  more  ulcers  formed  in  the  lungs,  I 
never,  as  I  remember,  in  the  course  of  above  forty 
years'  praetice,  saw  more  than  two  recover. 

Blaekmore* 

This  is  a  practicable  degree  of  christian  magnani- 
mity. Atterhury. 

llie  author  exhorts  all  gentlemen  praetitionen  to 
exercise  themselves  in  the  translatory.     Arbuthnot 
Others  by  guilty  artifice  and  artSr 

Of  promised  kindness  praetice  on  our  hearts ; 

With  expectation  blow  the  passion  up. 

She  fans  the  fire  without  one  gale  of  hope. 

Granville. 

Unreasonable  it  is  to  expect,  that  those  who  lived 
before  the  rise  and  condemnation  of  heresies,  should 
come  up  to  every  accurate  form  of  expression  which 
long  experience  afterwards  found  necessary,  to  guard 
the  faith,  against  the  subtle  praetioet,  orprovoking 
insults  of  its  adversaries.  WaUrUmd. 

Some  physicians  have  thoug'ht,  that  if  it  were  prac- 
ticable to  keep  the  humours  of  the  body  in  an  exact 
balance  of  each  with  its  opposite,  it  might  be  immor- 
tal ;  but  this  is  impossible  m  the  practice.      Swift. 

I  do  not  know  a  more  univers^  and  unnecessary 
mistake  among  the  clergy,  but  especially  the  younger 
practitioineri.  Id. 

Practice,  in  military  education,  or  gun- 
practice.  In  the  spring,  as  soon  as  the  weather 
permits,  the  exercise  of  the  great  guns  begins, 
with  an  intention  to  show  the  gentlemen  cadets, 
at  the  royal  military  academy  at  Woolwich,  and 
private  men,  the  manner  of  laying,  loadioo'. 


Digitized  by 


vjQOgle 


22 


PRAEMUNIRE. 


pointing,  and  flripg  the  guns.  Sometimes  in- 
struments are  used  to  find  the  centre  line,  or  two 
points,  one  at  the  breach,  the  other  at  the  muz- 
zle, which  are  marked  with  chalk,  and  whereby 
the  piece  is  directed  to  the  target :  then  a  quad- 
rant is  put  into  the  mouth  to  give  the  gun  the 
required  elevation,  which  at  first  is  guessed  at, 
according  to  the  distance  the  taiget  is  from  the 
piece.  When  the  piece  has  b^n  fired,  it  is 
sponffed  to  clear  it  trom  any  dust  or  sparks  of 
fire  tnat  might  remain  in  the  bore,  and  loaded ; 
then  the  centre  line  is  found  as  before ;  and  if 
the  shot  went  too  high  or  too  low,  to  the  right  or 
to  the  left,  the  elevation  and  trail  are  altered  ac- 
cordingly. This  practice  continues  morning  and 
evening  for  about  six  weeks,  more  or  less,  ac- 
cording as  there  are  a  greater  or  less  number  of 
recruits.  In  the  mean  time  others  are  shown 
the  motions  of  quick-firing  with  field-pieces. 
Mortar-practice  is  generally  acqifired  thus  :  a 
line  of  1500  or  2000  yards  is  measured  in  an 
open  spot  of  ground  from  the  place  where  the 
mortars  stand,  and  a  fiaff  fixed  at  about  300  or 
500  yards :  this  being  aone,  the  ground  where 
the  mortars  are  to  be  placed  is  prepared  and  le- 
velled with  sand,  so  that  they  may  lie  at  an  ele- 
vation of  forty-five  degrees;  then  they  are  loaded 
with  a  small  quantity  of  powder  at  first,  which 
is  increased  afterwards  by  an  ounce  every  time, 
till  tbey  are  loaded  with  a  full  charge ;  the  times 
of  the  flights  of  the  shells  are  observed  to  deter- 
mine the  length  of  the  fuzes.  The  intention  of 
this  practice  is  when  a  mortar  battery  is  raised 
ia  a  siege,  to  know  what  quantity  of  powder  is 
required  to  throw  the  shells  into  the  works  at  a 
given  distance,  and  to  cut  the  fuzes  of  a  just 
length,  that  the  shell  may  burst  as  soon  as  it 
touches  the  spround. 

PRADON  (Nicholas),  a  French  dramatic 
poet,  bom  at  Rouen  in  the  seventeenth  century. 
lie  affected  to  be  the  rival  of  Racine;  and, 
through  the  support  of  a  party,  his  tragedy  of 
Phaedra  and  Ilippolytus  appeared  for  some  time 
to  balance  the  reputation  of  Racine's  tragedy  of 
the  same  title.    He  died  at  Paris  in  1698. 

PR^COG'NITA,  n. «.  Latin  pracognita. 
Things  previously  known  in  order  to  understand 
something  else. 

Either  tJl  knowledge  does  not  depend  on  certain 
jfreecognita  or  general  maxims,  called  principles,  or 
else  these  are  principles.  LoefcB, 

PR^MUNIRE,  in  law,  is  taken  either  for  a 
writ  so  called,  or  for  the  offence  whereon  the 
writ  is  granted;  the  one  may>e  understood  by 
the  other.  It  is  named,  from  the  first  words  of 
the  writ,  <  Prsmunire  facias,  A.  B. — Cause  A.  B. 
to  be  forewarned — ^that  he  appear  before  us  to 
answer  the  contempt  wherewith  he  stands 
chaiged ;'  which  contempt  is  particularly  recited 
in  the  preamble  to  the  writ.  It  derived  its  ori- 
gin from  the  exorbitant  power  claimed  and  ex- 
ercised in  £ngland  by  the  pope ;  and  was  ori- 
ginally ranked  as  an  offence  immediately  agidnst 
the  king ;  because  it  consisted  in  introducing  a 
foreign  power  into  this  land,  and  creating  impe- 
rium  in  imperio,  bv  paying  that  obedience  to 
papal  process  which  constitutionally  belonged 
to  the  king  alone,  long  before  the  Reformation 
in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.     The  church  of 


Rome,  under  pretence  of  her  supremacy  and  the 
dignity  of  St.  Peter's  chair,  toox  on  her  to  be- 
stow most  of  the  ecclesiastical  livings  of  any 
worth  in  England,  by  mandates,  before  they  were 
void.  These  provisions  were  so  common  that 
at  last  Edward  I.,  in  the  thirty-fifth  year  of  his 
reign,  made  a  statute  against  papal  provisions, 
wluch.  Coke  says,  is  the  foun'dation  of  aU  the 
subsequent  statutes  of  prcmunire.  In  the  reign 
'  of  Edward  II.  the  pope  again  endeavoured  to 
encroach,  but  the  parbament  withstood  him;  and 
it  was  one  of  the  articles  charged  against  that  un- 
fortunate prince  that  he  had  given  allowance  to 
the  pope's  bulls.  But  Edward  III.  to  remedy 
these  grievances,  in  conjunction  with  his  nobi- 
lity, wrote  an  expostulatory  letter  to  the  pope ; 
but  receiving  a  menacing  answer,  acouamting 
him  that  the  emperor  and  the  king  of  France 
had  lately  submitted  to  the  holy  see,  Edward 
replied,  that  if  both  the  emperor  and  the  French 

S  should  undertake  the  pope's  cause,  he  was 
y  to  give  battle  to  them  both,  in  defence  of 
the  liberties  of  the  crown.  Hereupon  more 
sharp  and  penal  laws  were  devised  against  pro- 
visors,  which  enact,  that  Jie  court  of  Rome  snail 
present  or  collate  to  no  bishopric  or  living  in 
England ;  and  that  whoever  disturbs  any  patron 
in  me  presentation  to  a  living  by  virtue  ot  a  pa- 
pal provision,  such  provisor  shall  pay  fine  and 
ransom  to  the  king,  and  be  imprisoned  till  he 
renounces  such  provisioii ;  and  tl^  same  punish- 
ment is  inflicted  on  such  as  cite  the  king,  or  any 
of  his  subjects,  to  answer  in  the  court  of  Rome. 
And,  when  pope  Urban  V.  attempted  to  revive 
the  vassalage  and  annual  rent  to  which  king 
John  had  subjected  his  kingdom,  it  was  unani- 
mously agreed  by  all  the  estates,  40  Edw.  III., 
that  lung  John's  donation  was  null  and  void, 
being  without  the  concurrence  of  parliament, 
and  contrary  to  his  coronation  oath;  and  all  the 
nobility  and  commons  enga^  that,  if  the  pope 
should  endeavour  to  maintam  these  usurpations, 
they  would  resist  him  with  all  their  power.  In 
the  reign  of  Richard  II.  it  was  found  necessary 
to  strengthen  these  laws ;  and  therefore  it  was 
enacted  by  statutes  3  Ric.  II.  c.  3,  and  7  c.  12, 
that  no  alien  shall  be  capable  of  letting  his  bene- 
fice to  farm ;  or  of  being  presented  to  any  eccle- 
siastical preferment,  under  the  penalty  of  the 
statutes  of  provisors.  By  stat.  1 2  Ric.  II .  c.  1 5,  all 
liegemen  of  *the  king  accepting  of  a  living  by  any 
foreign  provision  are  put  out  of  the  king's  pro- 
tection, and  the  benefice  made  void.  To  which 
the  statute  13  Ric.  II.  st.  2,  c.  2,  adds  banish- 
ment, and  forfeiture  of  lands  and  goods :  and,  by 
c.  3,  any  person  bringing  over  any  citation  or 
excommunication  from  beyond  sea,  on  account 
of  the  execution  of  the  foregoing  statutes  of  pro- 
visors, slmll  be  imprisoned,  forfeit  his  goods  and 
lands,  and  suffer  pain  of  life  and  member.  The 
next  statute,  which  is  referred  to  by  all  subsequent 
statutes,  is  called  the  statute  of  prcmunire.  It 
is  the  statute  16  Ric.  II.  c.  5,  which  enacts  that 
whoever  procures,  at  Rome  or  elsewhere,  any 
translations,  processes,  excommunications,  bulls, 
instruments,  or  other  things  which  touch  the 
king,  against  him,  his  crown  and  realm,  and  all 
persons  aiding  and  assisting  therein,  shall  be  put 
oiit  of  the  king's  protection,  and  their  lands  and 


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goods  foifeited  to  the  king'si  nae,  and  they  shall 
be  attached  by  their  bodies  to  answer  to  the  king 
and  his  council;  or  process  of  prsmunire  &cias 
shall  be  mode  out  against  them,  as  in  other  cases 
of  proWsors.  By  stat,  2  Henry  IV.  c.  3,  all 
persons  who  accept  any  proTision  from  the  pope, 
to  be  exempt  from  canonical  obedience  to  their 
proper  ordinary,  are  also  subjected  to  the  penal- 
ties of  pnemunire.  In  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII. 
the  penalties  of  prsmunire  were  extended  to* 
moie  equal  abuses ;  as  the  kingdom  then  entirely 
deQOttnced  the  authority  of  the  see  of  Rome. 
And  therefore,  by  the  several  statutes  of  34  Hen. 
VUI.  c.  12,  and  25  Hen.  VIII.  c.  19  and  21,  to 
appeal  to  Rome  from  any  of  the  king's  courts, 
to  sue  to  Rome  for  any  license  or  dispensation, 
or  to  obc^  any  process  from  thence,  are  made 
liable  to  the  pains  of  prsmunire.  To  restore  to 
the  king  the  nomination  of  vacant  bishoprics, 
and  yet  keep  up  the  established  forms,  it  is  en- 
acted by  Stat.  25  Henij  VIII.  c.  20,  that  if  the 
dean  and  chapter  reuise  to  elect  the  person 
named  by  the  King,  or  any  archbishop  or  bishop 
to  confirm  or  consecrate  him,  tbey  shall  fall  within 
the  penalties  of  the  statutes  of  praemunire.  By 
staL  5  Eliz.  c.  1,  to  refuse  thS  oath  of  supremacy 
will  incur  the  penalties  of  praemunire;  and  to 
defend  the  pope's  jurisdiction  in  this  realm  is 
a  premunire  for  the  first  oflence,  and  high  trea- 
ion  fix*  the  second.  By  stat.  13  Eliz.  c.  2,  to 
import  any  agni  Dei,, crosses,  beads,  or  other 
sapentitious  things  pretended  to  be  hallowed  by 
the  bishop  of  Rome,  and  tender  the  same  to  be 
used ;  or  to  receive  the  same  with  such  intent, 
and  not  discover  the  offender ;  or  if  a  justice  of 
the  peace,  knowing  thereof,  shall  not  within  four- 
teen days  declare  it  to  a  privy  counsellor,  they 
ail  incur  a  praemunire.  But  importing  or  selling 
loass  books,  or  other  popish  books,  is  by  stat. 
3  Jac.  I.  c  5,  sec.  25,  only  liable  to  a  penalty  of 
40t.  Lastly,  to  contribute  to  the  maintenance 
of  a  Jesuirs  college,  or  any  popish  seminary 
beyond  sea,  or  any  person  in  the  same,  or  to  con- 
tribute to  the  maintenance  of  any  Jesuit  or 
Popish  priest  in  England,  is  by  stat.  27  Eliz. 
c.  2,  roaae  liable  to  the  penalties  of  praemunire. 
Thus  far  the  penalties  of  praemunire  kept  within 
the  bounds  oftheir  original  institution,  depressing 
the  power  of  the  pope ;  but  they  have  since 
been  extended  to  other  heinous  offences.  Thus 
1.  By  the  stat.  1  and  2  Ph.  &  M.  c.  8,  to  mo^ 
lest  the  possessors  of  abbey  lands  granted  by 
parliament  to  Henry  VIII.  and  Edward  VI.  is  a 
praemunire.  2.  So  likewise  is  the  offence  of  act- 
ing as  a  broker  or  agent  in  any  usurious  contract, 
where  above  ten  per  cent,  interest  is  taken,  by 
»Ut  13  Eliz.  c.  10.  3.  To  obtain  any  stay  of 
proceedings,  other  than  bv  arrest  of  judgment  or 
writ  of  error,  in  any  suit  for  a  monopoly,  is  like- 
wise a  pnenranire,  by  stat.  21  Jac.  I.  c.  3.  4.  To 
obtain  an  exclusive  patent  for  the  sole  making  or 
importation  of  gun-powder  or  arms,  or  to  hinder 
others  from  importing  them,  is  also  a  praemunire, 
by  statutes  16  Car.  I.  c.  21,  and  1  Jac.  II.  c.  8. 
5.  To  assert,  maliciously  and  advisedly,  by 
speaking  or  writing,  that  pariiament  has  a  legis- 
lative authority  without  the  king,  is  declar^  a 
pnemnnire  by  stat.  13  Car.  II.  c.  1.  7.  By  the 
habeas  corpus  act,  also,  31  Car.  II.  c.  2,  it  is  a 


praemunire,  and  incapable  of  the  king's  pardon, 
to  send  any  subject  of  this  realm  a  prisoner  into 

rs  beyond  the  seas.  8.  By  stat.  1  W.  & 
stat.  1,  c.  8,  persons  of  eighteen  years  of 
age,  refusing  to  take  the  oaths  of  all^iance  and 
supremacy,  upon  tender  by  a  magistrate,  are 
subject  to  the  penalties  of  a  praemunire ;  and  by 
stat.  8  and  9  W.  III.  c.  24,  Serjeants,  counsellors, 
proctors,  attorneys,  and  all  officers  of  courts, 
practising  without  having  taken  these  oaths,  and 
subscribed  the  declaration  against  popery,  are 
guilty  of  a  praemunire,  whether  the  oaths  be  ten- 
dered or  not.  2.  By  stat.  6  Ann.  c.  7,  to  assert 
maliciously  and  directly,  by  preaching,  teaching, 
or  advised  speaking,  that  the  then  pretended 
-prince  of  Wales,  or  any  person  other  than  ac- 
cording to  the  acts  of  settlement  and  union,  has 
any  right  to  the  throne  of  these  kingdoms,  or  that 
the  king  and  parliament  cannot  make  hiws  to 
limit  the  descent  of  the  crown ;  such  preaching, 
teaching,  or  advised  speaking,  is  a  praemunire : 
as  writing,  printing,  orpublbhing  the  same  doc- 
trines, amounted  to  high  treason.  10.  By  stat. 
6  Ann.  c,  23,  if  the  assembly  of  peers  of  Scot- 
land, convened  to  elect  their  ten  representatives 
in  the  British  parliament,  shall  presume  to  treat 
of  any  other  matter  save  only  the  election,  they 
incur  the  penalties  of  a  praemunire.  11.  The 
stat.  6  Geo.  I.  c.  18  (enacted  after  the  infamous 
South  Sea  project),  makes  all  unwarrantable  un- 
dertakings oy  unlawful  subscriptions,  then  com- 
monly known  by  the  name  of  bubbles,  subject  io 
the  penalties  of  praemunire.  12.  The  stat.  1 2  Geo. 
III.  c.  11,  subjects  to  the  penalties  of  praemu- 
nire all  such  as  knowingly  and  wilfully  solem- 
nise, assist,  or  are  present  at,  any.  forbidden 
marriage  of  such  of  the  descendants  of  Jthe  body 
of  king  George  II.  as  are  by  that  act  prohibited 
to  contract  matrimony  without  the  consent  of  the 
crown.  The  punishment  of  praemunire  may  be 
gathered  from  the  foregoing  statutes,  which  are 
Sius  summed  up  by  Coke :  *  That,  from  the  con» 
viction,  the  defendant  shall  be  out  of  the  king's 
protection,  and  his  lands  and  tenements,  goods 
and  chattels,  forfeited  to  the  king ;  his  body  shall 
remain  in  prison  at  the  king's  pleasure  or  during 
life.  These  forfeitures  do  tiot  bring  this  offence 
withhi  felony;  being  inflicted  by  particular 
s?latutes,  and  not  by  the  common  law.^  But  so 
odious,  Sir  Edward  Coke  adds,  was  this  offence 
of  praemunire,  that  a  man  that  was  attainted  of 
it  might  have  been  slain  by  any  other  man  with- 
out danger  of  law ;  but  this  was  soon  held  un- 
tenable,' and  explained  that  it  is  only  lawful  to 
kill  him  in  the  heat  of  battle,  or  for  necessary 
self-defence.  And,  to  obviate  such  savage  notions, 
the  stat.  5  Eliz.  c.  1,  expressly  provides  that  it 
shall  not  be  lawful  to  kUl  any  person  attainted 
in  a  praemunire.  But  still  such  delinquent, 
though  protected  as  a  part  of  the  public  from 
public  wrongs,  can  bring  no  action  for  any  pri- 
vate injury,  how  atrocious  soever ;  being  so  far 
out  of  the  protection  of  the  law  that  it  will  not 
guard  his  civil  rights,  nor  remedy  any  grievance 
which  he  as  an  individual  may  suffer.  And  no 
man,  knowing  him  to  be  guilty,  can  with  safety 
give  him  comfort,  aid,  or  relief. 

PRiE-NESTE,  in  ancient  geography,  a  town  of 
Latium,  south-east  of  Rome,  towards  the  terri- 


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1017  of  the  i£qm;  a  place  of  great  strength; 
famous  for  the  temple  and  oracle  of  Fortune, 
called  Sortes  Prcnestinte,  which  Tiberius  wished 
to  destroy,  but  was  deterred  by  the  majestic  ap- 
pearance of  the  place.  From  a  colony  it  was 
afterward^  raised  to  a  municipium  by  Tiberius, 
on  his  recovery  from  a  dangerous  illi^  near  it. 
It  was  a  very  ancient  city,  with  a  territory  of 
large  extent.  The  temple  of  Fortune  was  built 
in  the  most  sumptuous  manner  by  Sylla,  and  the 
pavement  was  Mosaic  work.  Concerning  the 
Dortes,  Cicero  hims^f  says  that  it  was  a  mere 
contrivance  to  deceive,  either  for  gain  or  super- 
stition. 

PR^NOMEN,  among  the  ancient  Romans, 
signified  the  name  prefixed  to  the  hmily  name, 
answering  to  our  Christian  name:  such  as 
Caius,  Lucius,  Marcus,  Quintus,  &c. 

PRi£T£XTA  Toga,  amons;  the  ancient  Ro- 
mans, a  long  white  gown,  with  a  border  of  pur- 
ple round  Sie  edees,  and  worn  by  the  children 
of  patricians  till  we  age  of  puberty,  viz.  by  the 
boys  till  seventeen,  when  they  chahged  it  for  the 
toga  virilis :  and  by  the  girls  till  marriage.  It 
was  the  habit  which  the  magistrates,  augurs,  and 
priests,  as  well  as  senators,  assumed  on  all 
solemn  occasions,  and  therefore,  being  looked 
upon  as  sacred,  it  is  supposed  to  have  been 
chosen  for  youth  at  that  age  to  guard  them  in  a 
peculiar  manner  against  the  temptations  incident 
to  that  period  of  life. 

PR^T£XTATi£,  a  name  given  to  tragedies 
among  the  Romans,  in  which  the  actors  per- 
sonated people  of  quality  who  had  the  particular 
privilege  of  wearing  the  pnetexta. 

PR^TEXTATUS,  one  clothed  in  the  prse- 
texta,  applied  in  a  particular  manner  to  the 
noble  youth  by  whom  it  was  worn  to  denote 
their  age  and  condition,  as  may  be  learned  from 
different  medals. 

PRiETIUM  Sepulchri,  in  old  law  books, 
&c.,  those  goods  accruing  to  the  church  wherein 
a  corpse  is  buried. 

*  PR^TOR,  a  magistrate  among  the  ancient 
Romans,  not  unlike  our  lord*  chief  justices ;  as 
being  vested  with  the  power  of  distnbuting  jus- 
tice among  the  citizens.  At  first  there  was  only 
one  pTstor;  but  afterwards,  another  being 
created,  the  first  or  chief  one  had  the  title  of 
praetor  urbai^us,  or  the  city  praetor;  the  other 
was  caltd  peregrinus,  as  being  judge  in  all  mat- 
ters relating  to  foreigners.  But,  besides  these, 
there  were  aiberwards  created  many  provincial 
praetors ;  who  were  not  only  judges,  but  also 
assisted  the  consuls  in  the  government  of  the 
provinces,  and  even  were  invested  vrith  the 
government  of  provinoes  themselves. 

PRETORIA  Augusta,  a  town  of  Italy,  be- 
longing to  the  Salassii,  near  the  two  gates  or  de- 
files of  the  Alps,  the  Grajae  and  Penninte ;  a 
Roman  colony,  settled  by  Augustus  after  the 
defeat  of  the  Salassii  by  Terentius  Varro,  on  the 
spot  where  he  encamped,  situated  on  the  river 
JJuria  Major.    It  is  now  called  Aosta. 

.  PR^TORIAN  Camp,  the  place  designed  for 
the  purpose  of  assembling  within  the  same  en- 
closure all  the  troops  subjected  to  the  power  of 
•the  pnstors.  Sejanus,  minister  of  Tiberius, 
.(>cci^pyii)g  the  station  of  prefect,  desired  that  all 


the  soldiers  of  the  praetorian  cohorts,  whose 

Suarters  were  dispersed  about,  should  be  ga- 
lered  together  and  lodged  in  one  vast  edifice, 
which  he  caused  to  be  built,  and  entitled  castrum 
praetonum  or  rather  castra  praetoriana.  Anti- 
cjuarians  are  not  agreed  as  to  the  precise  situa- 
tion of  this  magnificent  structure,  but  it  is  pretty 
evident  that  it  stood  at  the  eastern  side  of  Rome, 
between  the  Nomentane  and  Tibertine  ways, 
'behind  the  baths  of  Dioclesian,  and  near  the 
vralb  of  the  city.  This  camp  or  rather  barrack 
was  constructed  of  brick,  of  reticular  workman- 
ship, covered  with  stucco,  and  enriched  with 
superb  porticoes  in  columns.  Constantine  de- 
molishea  it:  but  it  appears  to  have  been  restored 
by  the  care  of  Ligorio.  In  the  centre  of  the 
camp  was  the  praetorium  or  tribunal,  at  which 
the  prefect  distributed  justice.  This  had  the 
exterior  form  of  a  temple,  but  was  very  plain 
within,  the  most  conspicuous  object  being  a 
table  covered  with  a  purple  cloth  embroidered 
with  gold. 

The  camp  v^as  surrounded  by  an  enclosure  in 
some  places  double,  and  more  or  less  extensive, 
within  which  were  erected,  on  a  quadrangular 
plan,  two  stories  ifl  height,  the  quarters  of  the 
soldiers,  between  the  different  divisions  of  which 
vast  colonnades  established  an  easy  communica- 
tion. The  towers  placed  on  the  outside  gave  to  / 
the  whole  the  appearance  of  a  fortress,  and  the 
great  space  wittimside  ensured  health  to  the 
troops,  while  it  afforded  them  the  requisite  room 
for  going  through  their  various  exercises. 

Pr£torian  Guards,  in  Roman  antiquity, 
were  the  emperor's  guards,  who  at  length  were 
increased  to  10,000 :  they  had  this  denomina- 
tion, according  to  some,  from  their  being  sta- 
tioned at  a  place  called  Praetorium :  their  com- 
mander was  styled  praefectus  praetorii. 

PR^TORIUM,  or  Pretorium,  among  the 
Romans,  denoted  the  hall  or  court  wherein  the 
praetor  lived,  and  wherein  he  administered  jus- 
tice. It  likewise  denoted  the  tent  of  the  Roman 
general,  wherein  councils  of  war,  &c.,  were  held : 
also  a  place  in  Rome  where  the  praetorian  guards 
were  lodged. 

Pr£torium,  in  ancient  geography,  a  town 
of  South  Britain,  belonging  to  the  Brigantes ; 
now  called  Patrington,  according  to  Camden, 
near  the  mouth  of  the  Humber  in  Yorkshire. 

PR^:TUTIANI,  an  ancient  people  of  Italy, 
who  inhabited  that  part  of  Picenum  which  was 
anciently  called  Interamna,  from  its  lying  be- 
tween two  rivers,  and  is  now.  named  Teramo. 

PRAGA,  a  town  of  Poland,  on  the  Vistula, 
opposite  Warsaw,  with  which  it  communicates 
by  a  bridge  of  boats.  It  has  never  recovered 
the  catastrophe  of  1794,  when  it  was  taken  by 
storm,  by  the  Russians  under  Suwaxrow,  and  a 
general  massacre  ensued.  The  town  was  on  this 
memorable  occasion  set  on  fire  in  several  jilaces, 
and  almost  reduced  to  ashes.  The  number  of 
lives  lost  has  been  calculated  at  20,000. 

PRAGMATICAL,  04;.  )      Yr.pragmatique; 

Pragma^ ic.  S    Greek  xpayfua-a. 

Meddling ;  impertinently  busy. 

No  sham  so  gross,  but  it  will  p|ss  upon  a  weak 
man  that  is  pragmatical  and  inquisitive. 


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ettiittatioQ'  pats  u  ill  character  upon 
fngmadck  neddling  people. 

Ginemmad  of  the  Tongue, 

Lacquejs  were  never  to  laaey  and  ffragmatical  as 
thej  are  no«-a-days.  Addison^i  Spectator. 

lie  andenUnds  no  more  of  his  own  afiairs  than 
m  child  ;  he  has  got  a  sort  of  a.pra^maticoi  silly  jade 
of  a  wife,  that  pretends  to  take  him  out  of  my  hands. 

Arbuthnot. 

Sodk  a  backwardness  there  was  among  good  men 
to  engage  with  an  usurping  people,  and  pragmatietU 
sad  ambitioiu  orators.  Swift. 

Peagmatic  Sanction,  in  the  civil  law,  is  de- 
fined by  Hottoman  to  be  a  rescript  or  answer 
of  the  soYereign,  delivered  by  advice  of  his 
council,  to  some  college,  order,  or  body  of  peo- 
ple. A  similar  answer  given  to  any  particular 
person  is  called  simply  rescript  The  term 
pragmatic  sanction  is  chiefly  applied  to  a  settle- 
ment of  Charles  VI.  emperor  of  Germany,  who 
in  1722,  having  no  sons,  settled  his  hereditary 
dominions  on  his  eldest  daughter  the  archduchess 
Maria  Theresa,  which  was  confirmed  by  the 
diet  of  the  empire,  and  guaranteed  by  Great 
Britain,  Fiance,  the  States  General,  and  most  of 
the  powers  in  Europe.  The  word  pragmatic  is 
derived  from  the  Greek  irpay/ia,  negotium, 
lusiness. 

PRAGUE  an  important  city  of  Europe,  the 
capital  of  Bohemia,  is  situated  on  both  sides  of 
the  Moldau,  at  about  an  equal  distance  from  the 
east  and  west  frontiers  of  that  kingdom ;  but  it 
occupies  a  laieer  space  of  ground  on  the  right 
than  on  the  1^  bank  of  the  river.  The  streets 
are  well  paved,  with  raised  footpaths,  and  the 
town  contains  several  squares.  It  is  divided 
nito  the  Old  Town,  extending  in  an  oblong  form 
along  the  right  bank  of  the  Moldau ;  the  New 
Town  outside  of  the  old,  and  consequently  far- 
ther from  the  river;  and  lastly,  the  Radschin  or 
Hradschin,  a  detached  quarter,  built  on  a  high 
precipitous  hill,  on  the  left  bank.  The  whole  is 
surrounded  by  a  moat  and  earthen  mound,  the 
circuit  of  whidi  if  not  less  than  ten  miles.  The 
Old  Town  has  in  one  part  a  separate  quarter 
for  the  Jews.  The  Radschin  contains  a  number 
of  houses  belonging  to  the  nobility  and  gentry, 
the  cathedral,  and  the  archbishop's  palace.  In  a 
low  track,  to  the  north  and  east  of  this,  is  the 
quarter  called  Klein-seite,  or  Little  Prague,  said 
to  be  the  oldest  part  of  the  town ;  and  on  the 
river  side  the  suburb  called  Smichow.  •  The 
Moldau  is  here  of  great  width,  but  too  shallow  to 
be  navigable.  Its  course  is  from  north  to  south, 
and  it  IS  crossed  by  a  bridge  of  sixteen  arches, 
and  1850  feet  in  length.  ' 

Prague  contains  the  ruins  of  what  was  the  re- 
sidence of  the  sovereign  of  Bohemia  before  the 
iooorpoiation  with  the  Austrian  dominions. 
This  Duilding  stood  at  the  southern  extremity  of 
the  town,  in  the  citadel,  which  is  still  well  forti- 
fied. At  the  other  end  of  the  town,  a  building, 
also  called  a  palace,  used  for  public  offices.  It 
ii  solaige  as  to  contain  150  rooms,  with  a  noble 
hafl.  The  cathedral  is  a  fine  GoUiic  structure, 
litDated  on  the  sfeep  side  of  the  bill  of  the  Rad- 
scbio,  overlooking  a  great  part  of  the  city.  It 
suffered  greatly  in  the  thirty  years'  war.  The 
theade  is  Uige;   and  the  churches,  convents. 


schools,  family  mansions,  &c.,  are,  though  great 
in  number,  little  distinguished  as  edifices.  The 
houses  are  built  in  general  of  stone.  Prague  is  , 
the  rendezvous  of  the  families  of  the  Austrian 
nobility  and  gentry,  whose  incomes  exempt  them 
from  the  necessity  of  liviug  in  retirement,  with- 
out enabling  them  to  figure  among  the  grandees 
of  the  imperial  court.  The  society  is  conse- 
quently genleel,  and  balls,  theatrical  exhibitions, 
and  masquerades,  are  of 'frequent  occurrence. 
Of  the  population,  about  85,000,  nearly  7000 
are  Jews,  and  about  5000  strangers,  attracted 
hither  by  the  pleasures  or  advantages  of  the  place. 
The  Protestants  have  here  two  churches:  the 
great  majority  being  Catholics;  and  Prague  is 
the  see  of  an  archbishop.  The  favorite  saint  is 
John  Nepomuck  (Nepomucenus),  who  lived  in 
the  fourteenth  centuiy,  and  allowed  himself  to 
be  cast  into  the  Moldau,  rather  than  reveal  to  the 
einperor  an  important  secret. 

The  university  is  the  olde^  in  Germany, 
bavins  been  founded  in  1 348.  About  forty  years 
after  ue  well  known  John  Huss  and  Jerome  of 
Prague  appeared,  and  the  spirit  of  free  enquiry, 
aided  by  an  intercourse  witn  England,  has  never 
since  been  wholly  extinct  The  interference  of 
the  Bohemian  government  with  the  new  sectaries 
caused  a  reduction  of  the  number  of  pupils  at 
the  university,  and  in  1409  that  of  Leipsic  was 
founded  by  a  body  of  them  removing.  The 
present  number  of  the  professors  at  Prague  is 
about  forty ;  that  of  students  900.  It  has  classes 
of  theology,  law,  medicine,  philosophy,  and 
classics.  1lie  public  library  contains  above 
100,000  volumes.  Here  is  also  an  observatory, 
a  cabinet  of  natural  history,  a  seminary  for  train- 
ing schoolmasters,  three  gymnasia,  an  academy 
for  drawing  and  painting,  riding  and  fencing 
schools,  and  a  number  of  pnvate  boarding 
houses.  To  these  may  be  add^  the  academy  of 
sciences,  the  societies  of  economics  and  of  the 
friends  of  the  asts.  There  are  likewise  some 
good  private  ealleries  of  paintings.  Tycho 
Brahe  was  a  refugee  in  this  city ;  the  site  of  his 
observatory  is  now  occupied  by  a  mansion  of  a 
nobleman.  Of  the  charitable  institutions,  the 
principal  are  three  hospitals,  two  orphan-hcnises, 
and  a  lying-in-hospital. 

The  manufisu^tures  in»  linen,  cotton,  silk,  and 
hats,  are  extensive ;  there  are  also,  on  a  smaller 
scale,  those  of  paper,  brass-ware,  trinkeiy ^nlated 
goods,  glass,  tobacqp  (on  the  government  acRunt), 
mathematical  and  musical  instruments.  Here  is 
also  some  transit  trade,  and  brewing  is  carried 
on  extensively.  Of  the  mercantile  houses, 
nearly  the  half  are  Jewish.  The  shops  are  in 
general  ill  furnished,  and  the  lower  orders  in 
wretched  poverty. 

Prague  has  often  been  exposed  to  the  cala- 
mities of  war,  particularly  in  the  fifteenth  century, 
by  the  persecution  of  the  Hussites.  In  1620  a 
battle  was  fought  on  the  White  Mountain,  about 
two  miles  from  this  city,  between  the  Imperial- 
ists and  Bohemians,  in  which  the  latter  were  de- 
feated, and  compelled  to  relinquish  their 
sovereign.  In  1741  a  French  corps  blockaded 
in  Prague,  and  in  1757,  the  Austrians  being  de- 
feated near  this  place  by  die  Prussians,' Prague 
underwent  a  siege  and  heavy  bombardment.  Tfift 


Digitized  by 


Googk 


/ 


PRA 


26 


PRA 


Unm  would  require  almost  an  army  to  defend  it ; 
for,  though  fortified,  it  is  far  too  extensive  for 
strength,  and  is  commanded  by  several  adjacent 
heights.  144  miles  N.  N.  W.  of  Vienna,  and 
seventy-five  S.  S.  £  of  Dresden.  Long,  (of  the 
observatory)  14°  25'  KT  E.,  lat.  50P  5'  23*  N. 
PRAISE,  n.  1.  &  v.  a.-\  Belg.  vnjs  ;  Swed. 
Pra iseful,-  adj,  I  Dan.  and  Teut.  pryt ; 

Prais'er,  n.  s.  ^  of  Goth,  nroic.    fie- 

Praise'wortht,  flijf.  J  nown ;  fame ;  com- 
mendation; honor;  tribute  of  gratitude:  to 
commend ;  applaud ;  celebrate ;  glorify :  praise- 
fiil  and  praiser  explain  themselves :  praiseworthy 
is  commendable ;  worthy  of  praise. 

One  eeneratioQ  shall  praise  thy  works  to  another, 
and  declare  thy  mighty  works.  Paalm  cxlv.  4. 

The  shepherds  returned,  glorifying  and  pratMing 
God  for  all  the  things  that  t^  had  heard  and  seen. 

Luke  ii.  20. 
Of  whose  high  praue,  and  pnmsrful  bliss. 
Goodness  the  pen,  heaven  the  paper  is.    Sidntif, 
We  men  and  prauen  of  men  should  remember, 
.  that,  if  we  have  such  excellencies,  it  is  reason  to 
think  them  excellent  creatures,  of  whom  we  are. 

Sidney. 
The  Tritonian  goddess  having  heard 
Her  blazed  fame,  which  all  the  world  had  filled. 
Came  down  to  prove  the  truth,  and  due  reward 
For  her  prtdtewortf^  workmanship  to  yield. 

Spetiter* 
Tom  to  God,  who  knows  I  think  this  tiue. 
And  useth  oft,  when  such  a  heart  miasays. 
To  make  it  good ;  for  such  a  prad«r  prays. 

JUnne, 
He  ordain'd  a  lady  for  his  prise, 
Generally  praisef'iU,  fair  and  young,  and  skilled  in 
hoosewiteries.  Chapman's  lUad. 

Forgive  me,  if  mv  verse  bat  say  you  are 
A  Sidney  :  but  in  that  extend  as  far 
As  loudest  praisers.  Ben  Jonson*s  Epigrams. 

Since  men  have  left  to  do  praiseworthsf  things, 
Most  think  all  praises  flatteries ;  but  truth  brings 
That  sound,  and  that  authority  with  her  name, 
As  to  be  raised  by  her  is  only  fame.      Ben  Janson. 

Then  is  bur  fortitude  worthy  of  pndae,  when  we 
can  endure  to  be  miserable. 

Bp.  Hall,  Contempiaiums, 
Will  God  incense  his  ire 
For  such  a  petty  trespass,  and  not  pratttf 
Rather  your  dauntless  virtue  1  MUUm, 

They  touched  their  golden  harps,  and  hymning 
praised 
God  and  his  works.  «  Id, 

Lttcan,  content  with  pndte,  may  lie  at  ease 
In  costly  grotts  and  marble  palaces ; 
But  to  poor  Bassus  what  avails  a  name, 
To  starve  on  compliments  and  empty  fame  1 


We  praise  not  Hector,  though  his  name  we  know 
Is  great  in  arms  ;  'tis  hard  to  pnttst  a  foe.  Id. 

Firmus,  who  seized  upon  Egypt,  was  so  hi  praise 
worthy,  that  he  encouraged  trMe.  Arhahn  U 

A  soul  redeemed  demands  a  life  of  praise ; 
Hence  the  complexion  of  his  future  days  ; 
Hence  a  demeanour  holy  and  unspecked. 
And  the  world's  hatred,  as  its  sure  effect. 

Covoper. 

PRAM,  or  Prame,  a  kind  of  lighter  used  in 
Holland  and  the  ports  of  the  Baltic  Sea,  to  carry 
the  cargo  of  a  merchant  ship  along-side  in  order 
to  lade,  or  to  bring  it  to  shore  to  be  lodged  in 
the  store-houses  after  being  discharged  out  of 
the  vessel. 


Prams,  in  military  affairs,  a  kind  of  floating 
battery,  being  a  flat-bottomed  vessel,  which' 
draws  little  water,  mounts  several  guns,  and  is 
very  useful  in  covering  the  disembarkation  of 
trooM. 

Prance,  v.n.  Belg.  nronAcen;  Dan.  pran- 
go,  to  set  one's  self  to  snow;  to  move  pom- 
pously or  ostentatiously ;  to  spring  and  bound 
in  high  mettle. 

The  horses'  hoofs  were  broken  by  means  of  the 
prancings,  the  prandngs  of  their  mighty  ones. 

Judges  v.  22. 
Here's  no  fantastick  mask,  nor  dance. 
But  of  our  kids  that  frisk  and  prance; 
Nor  wars  are  seen, 
Unless  upon  ,the  green 
Two  harmless  laAbs  are  butting  one  the  other. 

Wotton, 
Isee 
The'  insulting  Urant  prancing  o'er  the  field. 
Strewed  with  Home's   citizens,  and  drenched  in 

slaughter, 
His  horses'  hoofs  wet  with  Patrician  blood.  Addison. 
With  mud  filled  high,  the  rumbling .  cart  draws 
near, 
Now  rule  thy  prancing  steeds,  laced  charioteer. 

Gag. 
We  should  neither  have  meat  to  eat,  nor  manufac- 
ture to  clothe  us,  unless  9a  could  prance  about  in 
coats  of  mail,  or  eat  brass.  fiwt^. 

Far  be  the  spirit  of  the  chase  from  them. 
To  spring  the  fence,  to  rein. the  prancing  steed. 

Thonsonm 
PRANK,  v.  a.  &  ft.  f.     Be]g.  pronken.    See 
Prance.    To  decorate ;  dress  or  adjust  to  os- 
tentation :  a  frolic. 

Some  prank  their  rufis,  and  others  timely  dight 
Their  gay  attire.  Spmser. 

These  are  tribunes  of  the  people. 
The  tongues  o'  the  common  mouth  :  I  despise  them ; 
For  they  do  prank  them  in  authority 
Against  all  noble  sufferance.  Shaktpeare. 

Your  hiffh  self, 
The  gracious  mark  o'  ue  land,  you  have  obscured 
With  a  swain's  wearing ;  and  roe,  poor  lowly  maid. 
Most  goddess-like  pranked  up.     Id,  Winter^s  Tale. 

Lay  home  to  him  ; 
Tell  him,  his  pranks  have  beien  too  broad  to  hear 
with.  Skakepeare. 

Thejr  caused  the  table  to  be  covered  and  meat  set 
on,  which  was  no  sooner  set  down,  than  in  came  the 
harpies,  and  played  their  accustomed  pranks. 

Raleigh. 
Ye  gallants,  whom  a  little  yellow  earth  and  the 
webs  of  that  curious  worm  have  made  gorgeous 
without  and  perhaps  proud  within,  remember  that 
ere  lone,  as  one  worm  decks  you  without,  so  another 
worm  shall  consume  you  within  ;  and  that  both  the 
earth  that  you  prank  up,  and  that  earth  wherewith 
you  prank  it,  is  running  back  into  dust.    Bp,  Hall. 

I  had  not  unu)cked  my  lips 
In  this  unhallowed  air,  but  that  this  juggler 
Would  think  to  charm  my  judgment  as  mine  eyes. 
Obtruding  false  roles,  piinkt  in  reason's  garb. 

Milton. 
They  put  on  their  clothes,  and  played  ail  those 
pranks  you  haVe  taken  notice  of. 

Addison's  Gvardian. 
As  in  unequal  association  it  always  happens,  what- 
ever unlucky  prank  was  played  was  imputed  to  Cave. 

Johnson. 

PRASIUM,  in  botany,  shrubby  hedee-nettlc; 
a  genus  of  the  gymnospermia  order  and  didyna- 


Digitized  by  ^^JiJU*^lt: 


PRA 


27 


PEA 


mia  ch«  of  plants;  natuxEl  order  forty-seoond, 
Tertktilate.  There  are  four  monospermoos 
tierries. 

PRASLINy  a  bigh  idaixl,  one  of  the  Sechel- 
les  ia  die  Indian  Seas,  and  next  in  size  to 
Mab^  from  which  it  is  eight  leagues  distant;  it 
has  a  good  road  on  the  north,  sheltered  by  the 
litde  island  Curieuse.  It  has  some  French 
familiet.    Long.  S^""  AT  £.,  lat.  4''  19*  S. 

PRATE,  o.it.  &  11.1.  -}     Dan.  vr^te ;  Belg. 

Peai'ti.b,  17.  n.  &  n.  f.  ypraten.  To  talk  care- 

Prai^tler,  n. «.  J  lessly ;  chatter ;  tattle ; 

be  loqoacioQs :  prattle  is  a  diminutive  of  prate, 
and  as  a  substantive  is  idle,  empty  talk :  prat- 
tler, a  trifling  talker. 

His  knowledge  or  skill  is  in  proline  too  much. 

TMuer. 
Bdiold  me,  which  owe 
A  moiety  oC  the  throne,  here  standrng 
To  frmts  and  talk  for  life  and  honour,  'fore 
Who  please  to  hear.    Shmktpmre.  WmUr'tTaU. 

IpnttU 
8oinftbing  too  wildly,  and  my  fitther**  precepts 
I  therein  do  forget.  Id,  Tm^peti. 

The  booUsh  theorick, 
Wherein  the  toaed  conaub  can  propose 
As  nMterly  as  he ;  mere  prattle,  without  practice, 
It  all  his  soldiership.  Id,  OtheMo, 

Poor  proMfer !  how  thou  talkest.     Shaktpeare. 
After  flammodL  and  the  blacksmith  had,  by  joint 
aid  aeferal  mtma§,  found  tokens  of  consent  in  the 
■sltitade,  th^  ofeed  themselves  to  lead  them. 

Baeon'9  Henry  VII, 
Prattler,  no  more,  I  say ; 
My  thoaghts  must  work,  but  like  a  noiseless  sphere, 

Hamonions  peace  must  rock  them  all  the  day ; 

No  mom  for  jnatiUr*  there.  Heriert* 

Oh  li»ten  with  attentive  naht 

To  what  my  prating  eyes  inmte !    Cletneland, 

Would  her  innocent  prate  could  overcome  me; 

Ok  !  what  a  conflict  do  I  feel.       Denlum*t  Sophy, 

The  insignificant  prattle  and  endless  garrulity  of 
thephilosophy  of  the  schools.  GianvUle. 

What  nonsense  would  the  fool  thy  master  prate. 
When  thou*  his  knave,  canst  talk  at  such  a  rate  t 

Dryden, 
A  Fiench  woman  teaches  an  English  girl  to 
ipeak  and  read  French,  by  only  prattUng  to  her. 

Loeke. 
Then  is  not  so  much  pleasure  to  have  a  child 
pnttle  agreeably,  as  to  reason  well. 

Id,  On  Education, 
His  ton^[ue,  his  prattling  tongue,  bad  changed  him 
quite 
To  tooty  blackness,  from  the  purest  white.  Adduon, 
I  must  prattU  oo,  as  afore, 
And  beg  your  pardon,  yet  this  half  hour. 

Prior, 
Let  oedlous  boys  and  prattling  noises  tell. 
How,  if  the  festival  of  Paul  be  clear, 
Pkaty  from  liberal  horn  shall  strow  the  year. 

Oay. 
When  expectation  rages  in  my  blood. 
Is  this  a  time,  thou  prater  7  hence,  b^ne. 

Somthem, 
TVs  is  the  way  of  the  world ;  the  deaf  will  prate 
sf  discords  in  muslck.  WatU, 

When  children  first  begin  to  spell,      , 
And  stammer  out  a  syllable, 

We  think  them  tedious  creatures ; 
But  dificnlties  soon  abate. 
When  birds  are  to  be  taught  to  prote. 
And  women  aie  the  teachers.        Cmper. 


PRATINAS,  a  Greek  poet,  eontemporaiy 
with  £schylus,  bom  at  Phsius.  >  He  was  the 
first  among  the  Greeks  who  composed  satires, 
which  were  represented  as  farces.  Of  these 
thirty-two  were  acted,  and  eighteen  of  his 
tragedies,  one  of  which  only  obtained  the  poeti- 
cal prize.  Some  of  his  verses  are  extant, 
quoted  by  Athenseus. 

PRATO,  a  considerable  and  well  built  town 
of  the  grand  duchy  of  Tuscany,  district  of 
Florence,  Italy,  is  situated  in  a  pleasant  district, 
on  the  Bisenno,  and  surrounded  with  a  wall  and 
ditch.  It  has  several  squares,  of  which  the  best 
is  the  Piazza  Mercantile ;  but  the  great  ornament 
of  the  place  is  its  fine  white  marble  cathedral. 
There  are  twelve  other  churches,  two  poor- 
houses,  a  foundling,  and  four  other  hospitals ; 
manuffictures  of  silk,  woollen,  soap,  ana  hat9. 
The  vicinity  is  fertile  and  contains  several  stone 
quarries.  Six  miles  south-east  of  Pistoja,  and 
nine  N.N.  W.  of  Florence. 

PRATT  (Charles),  eari  of  Camden,  was  the 
third  son  of  Sir  John  Pratt,  knight,  chief  justice 
of  the  court  of  king*s  bench  under  George  I., 
and  was  bom  in  1713,  the  year  before  his  fether 
was  called  to  ttie  bench.  He  received  the  mdi- 
ments  of  his  education  at  Eton,  and  afterwards 
removed  to  King's  College,  Cambridge'.  He 
took  his  degree  of  M.  A.,  attended  the  Inner 
Temple,  and  was  in  due  time'admitted  a  barrister 
at  law.  Notwithstanding  the  great  abilities  he 
afterwards  displayed,  he  passed  nine  years 
almost  unknown  and  unnoticed,  and  was  think- 
ing of  riving  up  the  law  and  turning  to  divinity, 
when  he  was  raised  from  obscurity  by  Mr. 
Henley  (afterwards  lord  chancellor)  employing 
him  in  a  cause  he  himself  was  engaged  in,  on  a 
circuit,  and  thus  affording  him  the  opportunity 
of  displaying  his  professional  knowledge  and 
eloquence.  He  bcKUime  now  one  of  the  most 
successfiil  pleaders  at  the  bar,  and  was  chosen  to 
represent  tne  borough  of  Downton,  Wilts,  after 
the  general  election  in  1756;  appointed  recorder 
of  Bath  and  attorney-general  in  1756;  in  Ja- 
nuary, 1762,  he  was  made  seijeant  at  law,  ap- 
pointed chief  justice  of  the  common  pleas,  and 
knighted.  He  presided  in  that  court  with  a  dig- 
nity and  impartiality  never  exceeded  by  any  of 
his  predecessors;  and,  when  John  Wilkes  was 
committed  to  the  Tower  on  an  illegal  general 
warranf,  his  lordship,  with  the  intrepidity  of  a 
British  magistrate,  granted  him  an  habeas  cor- 
pus ;  and,  on  his  being  brought  before  the  court 
of  common  pleas,  discharge  him  from  his  con- 
finement. His  spirited  behaviour  on  this  occa- 
sion, and  in  the  consequent  judicial  proceedings 
between  the  printers  of  the  North  Briton  and 
the  messengers  and  others,  was  so  acceptable 
that  the  city  of  London  presented  him  with  their 
freedom  in  a  gold  box,  and, put  up  his  picture 
painted  by  Reynolds  in  the  Guildhall.  The 
corporations  of  Dublin,  Bath,  Exeter,  and  Nor- 
wicn,  paid  him  the  like  compliment.  On  the 
16th  of  July,  1765,  he  was  created  a  peer  oi 
^  Great  Britain,  by  the  title  of  lord  Cfamden, 
baron  Camden,  in  Kent;  and  July  30th  1766 
on  the  resignation  of  Robert,  earl  of  Northing- 
ton,  he  was  appointed  lord  hieh  chancellor  of 
Great  Britain.    In  this  station  be  gave  his  most 


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d^ided  opinion  against  the  legality  of  general 
warrants.  He  conducted  himself  in  this  high 
office  ao  as  to  obtain  the  esteem  of  all  parties ; 
but,  when  the  taxation  of  America  was  in  agita- 
tion, he  declared  himself  so  stiongly  against  it, 
that  he  was  obliged  to  resign.  Upon  the  fall  of 
lord  North  he  was  again  taken  into  the  adminis- 
tration, and  on  the  27th  of  March,  1782,  ap- 
pointed president  of  the  council;  an  office 
which  he  resigned  in  March  1783.  On  the  13th 
of  May  1786  he  was  created  viscount  Bayham^ 
of  Bayham  abbey,  Kent,  and  earl  Camden. 
He  died  on  the  18th  of  April,  1794,  at  his 
house  in  Hill  Street,  Berkley  Square,  being  at 
that  time  president  of  the  privy  council,  a  gover- 
nor of  the  charter-house,  recorder  of  the  city  of 
Bath,  and  F.  R.  S.  He  married  Elizabeth, 
daughter  of  Nicholas  Jeffries,  esq.,  by  whom  he 
had  issue  John  Jeffries  Pratt  (second  earl  of 
Camden),  and  four  daughters. 

Pratt  (S.  J.),  a  miscellaneous  writer,  was 
bom  at  St.  Ives,  Hunts,  in  1749,  and  was  succes- 
sively an  itinerant  corrector,  bookseller,  and 
author,  at  first  using  the  name  of  Courtney  Mel- 
moth.  His  principal  works  were  The  Zion  of 
Genius;  Sympathy,  a  poem;  and  Landscapes 
in  verse;  Liberal  Opinions,  5  vols.;  Emma 
Corbett,  3  vols.;  The  Pupil  of  Pleasure,  2  vols.; 
and  Family  Secrets, '5  vols,  novels :  also  Glean- 
ings abroad  and  in  England,  3  vols.  8vo.,  once 
very  popular  vob.  of  Travels :  The  Fair  Circas- 
sian, a  tragedy,  &c.  He  died  at  Birmingham  in 
1814. 

PRAVITY,  «, «.  iMi. pravitai.  Corruption; 
malignity;  vice. 

Doubt  not  but  that  sin 

Will  reign  among  them,  as  of  thee  begot ; 

And  therefore  was  law  given  them,  to  evince 

Their  natural  pfooitjr.        MiUon*»  Pandiu  Lett. 

More  people  go  to  the  gihbet  for  want  of  timely 
connection,  than  upon  any  incurable  pramty  of  na- 
ture. V  Estrange. 

I  will  show  how  the  pranitjf  of  the  will  could  in- 
fluence the  understanding  to  a  disbelief  of  Christi- 
anity. SatUh. 

PRAWN,  n.s,  ItaXvan  parnocche,  A  small 
crustaceous  fish. 

I  had  prawm,  and  borrowed  a  mess  of  vinegar. 

Shaktpeare, 

Prawn.    See  Cancer. 

PRAXAGORAS,  a  native  of  Athens,  who  at 
nineteen  years  of  age  composed  the  History  of 
the  Kings  of  Athens,  in  two  books;  and  at 
twenty-two  the  Life  of  Constantino  the  Great, 
in  which,  though  a  Pbgan,  he  speaks  very  highly  ^ 
of  that  prince.  He  also  wrote  the  History  of 
Alexander  the  Great.  He  lived  under  Constan- 
tius  about  A.  D.  345. 

PRAXIPHANES,  a  Rhodian,  who  wrote  a 
learned  commentary  on  the  obscure  passages  of 
Sophocles.    Diog. 

PRAXITELES,  a  very  celebrated  Greek 
sculptor,  who  lived  A.  A.  C.  330,  in  the  reign  of 
Alexander  the  Great.  All  the  ancient  writers 
mention  his  statues  with  high  commendation, 
especially  a  Venus  executed  by  him  for  the  city 
of  Cnidos,  which  was  so  admirable  a  piece,  that 
king  Nicomedes  offered  to  release  the  inhabitants 
from  their  tribute  as  the  purchase  of  it;  but  they 


refused  to  part  with  it.  The  inhabitants  of  Cos 
requested  him  to  make  a  statue  of  Venus.  He 
gave  them  a  choice  of  two,  one  naked,  the  other 
clothed ;  they  preferred  the  latter.  He  was  one 
of  the  spdlants  of  Phryne. 
PRAY,  V.  n.  &  v.  a.  ^  Fr.  prier  ;  Ital.  pre^ 
Pray'er,  ?gore ;  L&t.precor.    To 

Pray'er-book.  )  make  petitions  to  a  di- 
vine being;  entreat;  ask;  supnlicate;  im- 
plore :  prayer  is  petition  to  a  divine  oeing ;  mode 
Or  practice  of  supplicating ;  entreaty :  prayer- 
book,  book  of  devotional  forms  or  prayers. 

Therefore  bretberen  I  beseche  ghou  be  oure  Lord 
lesus  Crist,  and  be  charite  of  the  hoolr  goost,  that 
me  in  youre  pnisrit  to  the  Lord,  that  I  be 


ghe  belpe  me 
aelyuend  fro 


Wiciif  Romaytu  15. 
And  the  develis  prieden  him»  and  seiden,  if  thou 
castist  us  from  hennes  sende  us  in  to  the  drove  of 
swvn.  Id.  Matt.  3. 

My  heart's  desire  and  proifer  to  God  for  Israel  is, 
that  they  might  be  saved.  Bamatu  x.  1. 

Is  any  sick  ?  let  him  call  for  the  elders  of  the 
church,  and  let  them  yit^  over  him.     Jamet  v.  14. 

I  will  buy  widi  you,  sell  with  you,  but  I  will  not 
eat  with  you,  drink  with  you,  nor  pray  with  you. 

Shahqtearm^ 
You  shall  find 
A  conqu'ror  that  will  pray  in  aid  for  kindness. 
Where  he  for  eraoe  is  kneeled  to.  ItL 

They  did  say  Uieir  prayer*,  and  addressed  them 
Again  to  sleep.  Id.  Macbeth, 

Were  he  as  famous  and  as  bold  in  war. 
As  he  is  famed  for  mildness,  peace,  and  prayer. 

Shak^ewn. 
Get  a  prayerhoeh  in  your  hand. 
And  stand  between  two  churchmen ; 
For  on  that  ground  I'll  build  a  holy  descant,  /d. 
Pray  my  colleague  Antonius  I  may  speak  with 
him; 
And  as  you  go,  call  on  my  brother  Quintus, 
And  pray  him  with  the  tnbunes  to  come  to  me. 

Ben  Jcmonm 
The  solemn  worship  of  God  and  Christ  is  neglected 
in  many  congregations  ;  and  instead  thereof,  an  in- 
digested form  and  conception  of  extemporal  prayer 
is  used.  W^s. 

He  that  praye,  despairs  not ;  but  sad  is  the  con- 
dition of  him  that  cannot  pray ;  happy  are  they  that 
can,  and  do,  and  love  to  do  it.  Taylor. 

No  man  can  always  have  the  same  spiritual  plea- 
sure in  his  prayert ;  for  ^e  greatest  saints  have  some- 
times suffered  the  banishment  of  the  heart,  some- 
times are  fervent,  sometimes  they  feel  a  barren- 
ness of  devotion ;  for  this  spirit  comes  and  goes. 

Taylor, 
Unskilful  with  what  words  to  pray,  let  roe 
Interpret  for  him.  MUtotu 

Sighs  now  breathed 
Inutterable,  which  the  spirit  of  prayer 
Inspired.  Id. 

He  fell  to  his  devotions  on  that  behalf,  and  made 
those  two  excellent  prayers  which  were  published 
immediately  after  his  death.  FelL 

Prayer  among  men  b  supposed  a  means  to  change 
the  person  to  whom  we  pray ;  but  prayer  to  God  doth 
not  change  him,  but  fits  us  to  receive  the  things 
prayed  for.  Stillinsfieet. 

He  praised  my  courage,  prayed  for  my  success  ; 
He  was  so  true  a  father  of  his  country. 
To  thank  me  for  defending  even  his  foes.     Drydi*. 

He  that  will  have  the  benefit  of  this  act,  mustpnqr 
a  prohibition  before  a  sentence  in  the  ecclesiastic^ 
court.  Aylifk, 


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Sbc«)dytm  pniy  to  God  for  a  reooTeiy,  how  raah 
would  ii  be  to  accuse  God  of  not  hearing  yoor 
prayrnvhecansie  you  found  your  diiease  still  to  con- 
Uaoe.  Wake. 

Bm  I  pray,  in  this  mechanical  fonnation,  when 
the  fiennent  was  expanded  to  the  extremities  of  the 
utenes,  why  did  it  not  break  the  receptacle  ? 

Benttey*»  Sernumt, 

Banaid  in  spirit,  sense  and  truth  abounds ; 
iVay  then  what    wants    he?   fourscore  thousand 
pounds.  Pope, 

I  know  not  the  names  or  number  of  the  family 
which  now  reigns,  farther  than  the  prayerbook  in> 
Ibrms  me.  Swift, 

If  men  would  consider  pmyer  not  only  as  it 
is  an  invocation  of  God,  but  also  as  it  is  an  exercise 
of  holy  thoughts,  as  it  is  an  endeavour  to  feel 
and  to  be  afiected  with  the  great  truths  of  religion, 
they  wooUl  soon  lee  that,  though  God  is  so  gowl  as 
not  to  need  much  calling  upon,  yet  that  man  is  so 
wesk  as  to  need  much  assistance,  and  to  be  under  a 
cooslant  necessity  of  that  help,  and  light,  and  im- 
protement,  which  arises  from  prtnfing  much.    low. 

Let  cottagers  and  unenlightened  swains 
Revere  the  laws  they  droun  that  Heaven  ordains ; 
Besort  on  Sundays  to  the  house  of  praifer. 
And  ask,  and  fancy  they  find,  blessings  there. 

Cowper. 

PRAY  A,  a  sea-port  town,  the  capital  of  Ter- 
cera,  one  of  the  Azores ;  it  stands  in  a  beautiful 
plaiD,  and  has  a  church,  four  convents,  three 
iKMpJtals,  and  about  3000  inhabitants. 

Prat  A  Porte,  the  capital  of  St.  Jago,  one  of 
the  Cape  de  Verd  Isles,  is  the  residence  of  the 
Portuguese  governor  general;  but  its  trade  is 
limited  to  the  supply  of  provisions  and  refresh- 
ments to  outward  bound  Guinea  and  East  India 
ships.    A  fort  commands  the  harbour. 

Prater  is  a  solemn  address  to  God,  which, 
when  it  is  of  any  considerable  length,  has  been 
said  to  consist  of  adoration,  cotifession,  suppli- 
cation, intercession,  and  thanksgiving.  By 
adoration  we  express  our  sense  of  God'»  infinite 
perfections,  bis  power,  wisdom,  goodness,  and 
mercy ;  and  acknowledge  that  our  constant  de- 
pendence is  upon  Him  by  whom  the  universe 
was  created,  and  has  been  hitherto  preserved. 
By  confession  is  meant  our  acknowledgment  of 
our  manifold  transgressions  of  the  divine  laws, 
and  our  consequent  unworthiness  of  all  the  good 
things  which  we  enjoy  at  present,  or  expect  to 
be  conferred  upon  us  hereafter.  In  supplication 
we  intreat  our  omnipotent  Creator  and  merciful 
Judge  not  to  deal  with  us  aAer  our  iniquities, 
but  to  pardon  our  transgressions,  and  by  his 
grace  to  enable  us  to  live  henceforth  righteously, 
soberiy,  and  godly,  in  this  present  world ;  and 
by  Christians  this  intreaty  is  always  made  in  the 
name  and  through  the  mediation  of  Jesus 
Christ,  because  to  them  it  is  known  that  there  is 
none  other  name  under  heaven  given  unto  men 
whereby  they  may  be  saved.  To  these  supplica- 
tions for  mercy,  we  may  likewise  add  our 
prayers  for  the  necessaries  of  life ;  because,  if 
we  seek  first  the  kingdom  of  God  and  his  righte- 
ousness, we  are  assured  that  such  things  shall 
he  added  unto  us.  Intercession  signifies  those 
petitions  which  we  ofier  up  for  others,  for 
fiieods,  for  enemies,  for  all  men,  especially  for 
oar  lawful  governors,  whether  supreme  or  subor- 
dinate.   And  thanksgiving  is  the  expression  of 


our  gratitude  to  God,  the  giver  of  every  good 
and  perfect  gift,  for  all  the  benefits  enjoyed  by 
us  and  others,  for  the  means  of  grace,  and  for 
the  hope  of  glory.  Such  are  the  component 
parts*  of  a  regular  and  solemn  prayer,  adapted 
either  for  tlie  church  or  for  the  closet.  But  an 
ejaculation  to 'God,  conceived  on  any  emergency, 
is  likewise  a  prayer,  whether  it  be  uttered  by 
the  voice  or  suffered  to  remain  a  mere  afiection 
of  the  mind ;  because  the  Being  to  whom  it  is 
addressed  discemeth  the  thoughts  of  the  heart. 
In  this  article  we  have  treated  of  prayer  in  ge- 
neral, as  the  private  duty  of  every  individual ; 
but  there  ougnt  to  be  public  as  well  as  private 
prayer.  The  prayers  of  every  Christian  ought 
to  be  offered  in  the  name  and  through  the  media- 
tion of  Jesus  Christ.  We  conclude  our  reflec- 
tions on  the  general  duty,  vrith  observing,  that 
nothine  so  forcibly  restrains  from  ill  as  the 
remembrance  of  a  recent  address  to  heaven  for 
protection  and  assistance.  After  having  peti- 
tioned for  power  to  resist  temptation,  there  is  so 
great  an  incongruity  in  not  continuing  the 
struggle,  that  we  blush  at  the  thought,  and  per- 
severe, lest  we  lose  all  reverence  for  ourselves. 
After  fervently  devoting  our  souls  to  God,  we 
start  with  horror  at  immediate  apostasy ;  every 
act  of  deliberate  wickedness  is  then  complicated 
with  hypocrisy  and  ingratitude ;  it  is  a  mockery 
of  the  Father  of  Mercies,  .the  forfeiture  of  that 
peace  in  which  we  closed  our  address,  and  a  re- 
nunciation of  the  hope  which  that  address  in- 
spired. But  if  prayer  and  immorality  be  thus 
incompatible,  surely  the  former  should  not  be 
neglected  by  those  who  contend  that  moral  virtue 
is  the  summit  of  human  perfection. 

Dr.  Paley  has  so  well  met  the  question,'  What 
virtue  is  there  in  prayer  which  should  make  it 
consistent  with,  wisdom  to  grant  a  &vor  to  the 
supplicant,  which  would  not  be  consistent  to 
grant  without  it  V  that  we  shall  transcribe  his 
observations. 

M.  A  favor  granted  to  prayer  may  be  more 
apt,  on  that  very  account,  to  produce  eood 
effects  upon  the  person  obliged.  It  may  hold 
in  the  divine  bounty,  what  experience  has  raised 
into  a  proverb  in  the  collation  of  human  bene- 
fits, that  which  is  obtained  without  asking  is 
oftentimes  received  without  gratitude. 

'  2.  It  may  be  consistent  with  the  wisdom  of 
the  Deity  to  withhold  his  favors  till  they  be 
asked  for,  as  an  expedient  to  encourage  devotion 
in  his  rational  creation,  in  order  thereby  to  keep 
up  and  circulate  a  knowledge  and  sense  of  their 
dependency  upon  him. 

*  3.  Prayer  has  a  natural  tendency  to  amend 
the-  petitioner  himself,  and  thus  to  bring  him 
withm  the  rules  which  the  vrisdom  of  the  Deity 
has  prescribed  to  the  dispensation  of  his  favors. 
If  these,  or  any  other  assignable  suppositions, 
serve  to  remove  the  apparent  repugnancy  be- 
tween the  success  of  prayer  and  the  character  of 
the  Deity,  it  is  enough ;  for  the  question  with 
the  petitioner  is  not  from  which,  out  of  many 
motives,  God  may  grant  his  petition,  or  in  what 
particular  manner  he  is  moved  by  the  supplica- 
tions of  his  creatures ;  but  whether  it  be  con- 
sistent with  his  nature  to  be  moved  at  all,  and 
whether  there  be  any  conceivable  motives  which 

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may  dispose  tho  divine  will  to  gmnt  the  peH* 
tioner  what  he  wanU^  in  consequence  ot  his 
praying  for  it/ — Mortd  FKdotophy,  yoI.  2. 

PREACH,  «.  n.,  t;.  a.  &  n.  f .  ^     Fr.  yretcher  ; 

Prbach'er,  «.  f .  >  Latin  pradko. 

Preach'ment.  3  To   deliver   a 

public  discourte  upon  sacred  subieets ;  to  pro- 
claim ;  publish ;  inculcate :  used  by  Hooker  for 
a  discourse :  a  preacher  is  one  who  discourses 
publicly  on  religion:  preachment,  a  religious 
discourse  mentioned  in  contempt 

Prophets  preach  of  thee  ai  Jerosalem.  N$hemiah, 
The  Lord  gave  the  word ;  great  was  the  company 
of  the  preoi^iert.  PMokn  Izviii.  il. 

From  that  time  Jesus  began  to  preach. 

Matthmo, 
The  Jews  of  Tbessalonica  had  knowledge  that 
the  word  of  God  was  preaehfd  of  Paul.  AeU, 

This  oversight  occasioned  the  French  spitefuUv  to 
term  religion  w  that  sort  ezerciied,  a  mere  prea4^. 

Hooker. 
There  is  not  any  thing  pnblickly  notified,  but  we 
may  properly  say  it  is  preached.  Id. 

W as't  you^  that  revell'd  in  our  [)arliament. 
And  made  a  prm^mneni  of  your  high  descent  1 

Shaktpeart, 
Yoa  may  hear  the  sound  of  a  preaeher'e  voice, 
when  yon  cannot  distinguish  what  he  saith. 

Bmoon, 
Divinity  would  not  pass  the  yard  and  loom,  the 
forge  or  anvil,  nor  preaehiug  be  taken  in  as  an  easier 
supplementary  trade,  by  those  that  disliked  the  pains 
of  their  own.  Decay  ef  Fietg. 

Here  lies  a  truly  honest  man. 
One  of  those  few  that  in  this  town 
Honour  all  preachers;  hear  their  own. 

Crathaw. 
He  decreed  to  commissionate  messengers  to  preach 
this  covenant  to  all  mankind.  Hammond. 

It  is  evident  in  the  apostles*  preaching  at  Jerusalem 
and  elsewhere,  that  at  the  first  proposal  of  the  truth 
of  Christ  to  them,  and  the  doctrine  of  repentance, 
whole  mnltitttdes  received  the  faith,  and  came  in. 

Hanttnond. 
Surely  that  preaching  which  comes  from  the  soul, 
most  works  on  the  soul.  FtiUer. 

He  oft  to  them  preached 
Conversion  and  repentance.  MUton.. 

The  shape  of  our  cathedral  is  not  proper  for  our 
preaching  auditories,  but  rather  the  figure  of  an  am- 
pitheatre  with  galleries.  Graunt. 

Can  they  preach*  up  equality  of  birth. 
And  tell  us  liow  we  all  began  from  earth  t 

Drjfden. 
All  this  is  but  a  preachment  upon  the  text. 

VEttrange. 
No  preacher  is  listened  to  but  Time,  which  gives 
us  the  same  train  of  thought  that  elder  people 
have  tried  in  vain  to  put  into  our  heads  before.    > 

Swift. 
Live  whileyou  live  the  sacred  preacher ciidB, 
And  give  to  uod  each  moment  as  it  flies. 

Doddridge. 

PREADAMITES,  a  denomination  given  to 
inhabitants  of  the  earth,  conceived  by  some  to 
have  lived  before  Adam.  Isaac  de  la  Pereyra,  in 
1655,  published  a  book  to  evince  the  reality  <^ 
preadamites,  by  which  he  gained  many  prose- 
lytes ;  but  the  answer  of  Demarets,  professor  of 
dieology  at  Groningen,  published  in  1656,  put  a 
stop  to  its  progress;  though  Per^ra  made  a 
reply-    His  system  was  this :  the  Jews  he  calb 


Adamites,  and  supposes  them  to  have  hsoed 
from  Adam ;  and  gives  the  title  Preadamites  to 
the  Gentiles,  whom  he  supposes  to  have  been  a 
long  time  before  Adam.  But,  this  being  ex- 
pressly contrary  to  the  Mosaic  account,  Pereyra 
nad  recourse  to  the  fabulous  antiquities  of  the 
Egyptians  and  Chaldeans,  and  to  some  idle 
rabbins,  who  imagined  there  had  been  another 
world  before  that  described  by  Motes.  He  was 
apprehended  by  the  inquisition  in  Flanders; 
but  he  appeal^  from  their  sentence  to  Eome ; 
whither  he  went  in  the  time  of  Alexander  VIL, 
and  where  he  printed  a  retraction.    See  Pre- 

SXISTEVCX. 

PREAM'BLE,  n.  f .  (     Ft.  preamhule ;  Lat. 
Prbah'bulous,  cu^'.  S  preamlndo.      Introduc- 
tion; preface;  something  previous:  preambu- 
lous  is  preparatory. 

Truth  as  in  this  we  do  not  violate,  so  neither  is 
the  same  gainsayed  or  crossed,  no  not  in  those  very 
preambUt  placed  before  certain  readmes,  wherein  the 
steps  of  the  Latin  service  book  have  been  somewhat 
too  nearly  followed.  Hooker. 

Doors  shut,  visits  forbidden,  and  divers  contesta- 
tions with  the  queen,  all  preambles  of  ruin,  though 
now  and  then  he  did  wring  out  some  petty  content- 
ments. Wattan. 

This  preatftble  to  that  history  was  not  improper  for 
this  relation.  Clarmdon. 

With  preambles  sweet 
Of  channine  symphony  they  introduce 
Their  sacred  sone,  and  waken  raptures  high. 

MiUan. 
He  not  only  undermineth  the  base  of  religion,  but 
destroyeth  the  principal  preambuUms  unto  all  belief, 
and  puts  upon  lis  the  remotest  error  from  truth. 

Browne. 
I  will  not  detain  you  with  a  long  preamble. 

Druden. 
PREAPPREHEN'SION,  n.  i .    Pre  an<J  ap- 
prehend.   An  opinion  formed  before  examina- 
tion. 

A  conceit  not  to  be  made  out  by  ordinary  eyes, 
but  such  as  regarding  the  clouds,  behold  them  in 
shapes  conformable  to  preapprehensiont.       Browne. 
PREASE,  n.  s.    Press ;  crowd.    See  Press. 
Obsolete. 

A  ship  into  the  sacred  seas, 
New-built,  now  launch  we ;  and  from  outourpraoM 
Chuse  two  and  fifty  youths.  Chajmtass. 

PREFEND,  n.  i.  J     Fr.  prebende ;  low  Lat. 
Preb'endary,  ».  I.  S  pr^benda.      A    stipend 
granted  in  cathedral  churches ;  the  stipendiary. 

To  lords,  to  principals,  to  prebendaries. 

Hi/Mard. 

Deans  and  canons,  or  prebends  of  cathedral 
churches,  in  their  first  instituaon,  were  of  great  uie, 
to  be  of  counsel  with  the  bishop.  Bacon. 

His  excellency  gave  the  doctor  a  prebend  in  St. 
Patrick's  cathedrJ.  Smjt^s  Mitodtanies. 

A  Prebend  is  the  maintenance  a  prebendary 
receives  out  of  the  estate  of  a  cathedral  or  colle- 
giate church  Prebends  are  distinguished  into 
simple  and  dignitary ;  u  simple  prebend  has  no 
more  than  the  revenue  for  its  support;  but  a 
prebend  with  Qi|fnity  has  always  a  jurisdiction 
annexed  to  it. 

Prebendary.  The  difference  between  a 
prebendary  and  a  canon  is,  that  the  former  re- 
ceives his  prebend  in  consideration  of  his  offi- 


Digitized  by  VjUUy  It: 


PRB 


31 


PRE 


dating  in  the  church,  bat  the  latter  merely  by 
his  beinz  received  into  the  cathedral  or  colleee^ 

PRECA'RIOUS,  at^.  ^     Fr.  precaire ;  Lat. 

Pr£Ca'riously,  adv.     >precQrius.       Depen- 

Pbbca'aiousness,  n.  s. )  dent ;  uncertain,  be- 
cause depending  on  the  will  of  another;  held- by 
conrtefty.  Dr.  Johnson  remarks,  '  No  word  is 
more  unskilfully  used  than  this  with  its  deriva- 
tiTes.  It  is  used  for  uncertain  in  all  its  senses ; 
but  it  only  means  uncertain,  as  dependent  on 
others:'  the  adverb  and  noun  substantive  follow 
the  senses  of  the  adjective. 

What  subjecu  will  prteariout  kings  regard  ? 

A  heggar  speaks  too  aofUy  to  be  heaid.  Dryden. 

Those  who  live  under  an  arbitrary  ^rannick 
power,  have  no  other  law  but  the  will  of  their  prioce* 
sad  consequently  no  privileges  but  what  are  preeo- 
rsMU.  Addison. 

U  one  society  cannot  meet  or  convene  together, 
without  the  leave  or  licence  of  the  other  society ; 
nor  treat  or  enact  any  thing  relative  to  their  own 
tocie^  without  the  leave  and  authority  of  the  other ; 
then  IS  that  society  in  a  manner  dissolved,  and  sub- 
ssts  preeariauily  upon  the  mere  will  and  pleasure 
of  the  other.  Im%. 

He  who  rejoices  in  the  strength  and  beauty  of 
vomh,  should  consider  by  how  pr^earunu  a  tenure 
ke  holds  these  advantages,  that  a  thousand  accidents 
nay  before  the  next  dawn  lay  all  these  glories  in  the 
dnit.  Rogtn*f  Sermmu. 

Host  consumptive  oeople  die  of  the  discharge  they 
spit  up,  which,  with  the  prtcartoutneu  of  the  symp- 
toms of  an  oppressed  diaphragm,  from  a  mere  lodg- 
ment of  extravasated  matter,  render  the  operation 
but  little  adviseable.  8harp*i  Sbrgery. 

Our  scene  prtcarumtly  subsists  too  long 

On  French  translation  and  Italian  song : 

Dare  to  have  sense  yourselves ;  assert  the  stage, 

Be  justly  vrurmed  with  your  own  native  rage. 

Pope. 

Heaven,  earth,  and  hell,  and  worlds  unknown, 
Depend  prsecrioifj  on  thy  throne.  Watts. 

PRECAUTION,  n.  f.  &  v.  a.  Fr.  prtcautum^ 
from  Lat.  praamtuz.  Preservative  caution-;  pre- 
ventive measures;  to  warn  beforehand. 

By  the  disgraces,  diseases  and  beegary  of  hopeful 
young  men  brought  to  ruin,  he  may  m  pneauiwMd. 

LockB. 

Unless  oor  ministers  have  strong  assurances  of  his 
foiling  in  with  the  grand  alliance,  or  not  opjwsing  it» 
dwy  cannot  be  too  circumspect  and  speedy  in  taking 
their  freemuiimu  against  any  contrary  resolution. 

Addison  on  the  War, 

'PREC£DA'N£OUS,  adj.  Mistaken  by  the 
author,  as  Dr.  JohnA>n  says,  for  pnecidaneous; 
lat.  pr4tcidaneu$f  cut  or  slain  before.  Previous, 
antecedent. 

That  priority  of  particles  of  simple  matter,  influx 
tf  the  heavens  and  preparation  of  matter  might  be 
aateoedent  and  preeeda$ieouit  not  only  in  order,  but 
in  time,  to  their  ordinaiy  productions.  Hals. 

PRECEDE',  r.  c  >v    Fr.prececter;  Lat. 

PascE'DEKCE,  II.  s.         I  praccdo.  To  go  be- 

PsEcc'nEVCY,  Wore    in    order    of 

Pacca'DEjiT,  at§.  &  n.  f.i  time,  place,  or  rank: 

Pbcc'edemt,  ft.  t.  J  precedence  and  pre- 

eedeney  is,  superiority;  adjustment  of  place; 

tod,  in  an  obsolete  sense,  something  going  before 

^  past ;  precedent  is,  former ;  going  before ;  and, 

B  a  noon  substantive,  any  thing  of  the  same  kind 

(Woebefone;  a  rule  or  example. 


Examples  for  cases  can  but  direct  «•  pnetdetoi 
only.  JJoeker^ 

I  do  not  like,  but  yet  it  does  allay 
The  good  precedence. 

^hakspeare.  Antony  and  Cleopatrtu 
Our  own  precedent  passions  do  instruct  us 
What  levity's  in  youth.  Id,  Timam 

No  power  in  Venice 
Cfan  alter  a  decree  established : 
Twill  be  recorded  for  a  precedent ; 
4nd  many  an  errour,  by  the  same  example, 
Will  rush  into  the  state. 

Id.  Merekant  of  Venice, 
When  you  work  by  the  imagination  of  another,  it 
is  necessary  that  he,  by  whom  you  work,  haveapre- 
eedent  opinion  ofyou,  that  you  can  do  strange  things. 


Among  the  laws  touching  precedence  in  Justinian, 
divers  are  that  have  not  yet  been  so  received  every 
where  by  custom.  Selden. 

The  royal  olive  accompanied  him  with  all  his 
court,  and  always  gave  him  the  precedmug.  Bowel, 
How  are  we  happy,  still  in  fear  of  harm  ? 
But  harm  precedes  not  sin.  MUum, 

None  sure  will  claim  in  hell 
Preeedence ;  none,  whose  portion  is  small 
Of  present  pain,  that  with  ambitious  mind 
Will  covet  more.  Id,  Paradise  last. 

The  constable  and  manhal  had  cognizance 
touching  the  rights  of  place  and  precedence.  Hale. 
"  The  world,  or  any  part  thereof,  could  not  be  pre- 
ceded to  the  creation  of  man.  Id. 
^  God,  in  the  administration  of  his  justice,  is  not 
tied  to  preeedemUs,  and  we  cannot  ar^e,  that  the 
providences  of  God  towards  other  naUons,  shall  be 
conformable  to  his  dealings  with  the  people  of  Israel. 

TiUotton,    ' 
Arius  and  Pilagius  durst  provoke  - 
To  what  the  centuries  preceding  spoke.    Dryden, 

That  person  hardly  will  be  found. 
With  gracious  form  and  equal  virtue  crowned ; 
Yet  if  another  could  preeedence  claim. 
My  fixt  desires  could  find  no  fairer  aim.         Id, 
Being  distracted  with  different  desires,  the  next 
inquiry  will  be,  which  of  them  has  the  precedency, 
in  determining  the  will  to  the  next  action  ?    Locke. 

Truths,  absolutely  necessary  to  salvation,  are  so 
clearly  revealed  that  we  cannot  err  in  them,  unless 
we  be  notoriously  wanting  to  ourselves ;  herein  the 
fault  of  the  judgment  is' reduced  into  a  precedent  de- 
fault in  the  will.  South. 
Such  precedents  are  numberless ;  we  draw 
Our  rights  from  custom ;  custom  is  a  law. 

ChanwilU, 
The  ruin  of. a  state  is  generally  preced«<i  by  an 
univereal  degeneracy  of  mannen  and  contempt  of 
religion.  Swi/l. 

The  contempt  with  which .  the  whole  army  heard 
of  the  manner  of  your  retreat  assures  me  that,  as 
your  conduct  was  not  justified  by  precedeni,  it  will 
never  be  thought  an  example  for  imitation.  Junius. 

PR£0EDEMC£,  PRECEDENCY,  ajplaCC   Of  hoUOr 

to  which  a  person  is  entitled.  Tnis  is  either  of 
courtesy  or  of  right.  The  former  is  that  which 
is  due  to  age,  estate,  &c.,  which  is  regulated  by 
custom  and  civility;  the  latter  is  settled  by 
authority,  and,  when  broken  in  upon,  gives  an 
action  at  law.  A  table  of  precedency  is  given 
in  our  article  Heraldry. 

PRECE'NTOR,  n.s.  Fr.  ;?r«ccii/etir ;  Latin 
pracentor.    He  that  leads  a  choir. 

Follow  this  ptecentor  of  ours,  in  blessing  and 
magnifying  that  God  of  all  grace,  and  never  yield- 


Digitized  by  VjUU*^ 


le 


33 


PRECESSION   OF   THE   EQUINOXES. 


ing  to  those  enemies,  which  he  died  to  give  ut  power 
to  resist  and  oTeroome.  Hammend, 

PRFCEPT,  n-f.-j  Fr.  precepU ;  Lat.  pnt- 
PaECEPjiAL,a<^'.  f  ciptiffji.  A  rule  authori- 
Precep'tive,  i  tatively  gilbn ;  a  mandate ; 
Precep'tor,  n.  i.  j  divection :  preceptial  and 
preceptive  mean,  consisting  of  or  giving  pre- 
cepts :  preceptor  is  a  teacher ;  tutor. 

The  custom  of  lessons  furnishes  the  very  simplest 
and  nidest  sort  with  infallible  axioms  and  pnfcepCi  of 
sacred  truth,  delivered  even  in  the  very  letter  of  the 
law  of  God.  Hooker, 

Men 
Can  counsel,  and  give  comfort  to  that  grief 
Which  they  themselves  not  feel ;  but  tasting  it, 
Their  counsel  turns  to  psssion,  which  before 
Would  give  pmontiai  medicioe  to  rage  ; 
Fetter  strong  madness  in  a  silken  thxead. 
Charm  ach  with  air,  and  agony  wi^  words. 

As  the  puMepiitw  part  enjoys  the  most  exact  virtue 
so  is  ft  most  advantageously  enforced  by  the  pro- 
missory, which,  in  respect  of  the  rewards,  and  the 
manner  of  proposing  them,  is  adapted  to  the  same 
end.  Iheaff  of  Pietjf. 

A  good  schoolmaster  minces  his  prettpu  for  chil- 


dren to  swallow,  han^ng  dMt  on  the  nimbleness  oi 
his  own  soul,  that  his  schouirs  may  go  along  with 
him.  Fuller, 

Tis  sufficient,  that  painting  be  acknowledged  for 
an  art ;  for  it  follows,  that  no  arte  are  without  their 
prteepU.  Dryden. 

Passionate  chiding  carries  rough  language  with  it, 
and  the  names  that  parente  and  ynctepton  give  chil- 
dren, they  will  not  be  ashamed  to  bestow  on  others. 

Locke, 
The  lesson  given  us  here  is  fireceptwt  to  us  not  to 
do  any  thing  but  upon  due  consideration. 

VEttrange, 
The  ritual,  the  prvcipf  im,   the  prophetick,  and  all 
other  parts  of  sacred  writ,  were  most  sedulously, 
most  religiously  guarded  by  them. 

GowmmetU  of  the  Tongue, 
A  pneepi  or  commandment  consiste  in,  ana  has 
respect  to,  some  moral  point  of  doctrine,  vis.  such 
as  concerns  our  manners,  and  our  inward  and  out- 
ward good  behaviour.  Aylifft, 
It  was  to  .thee,  great  Stagyrite,  unknown, 
And  thy  prteeptcr  of  divine  renown.    Blackmofe. 
It  is  by  imitetion,  far  more  than  by  freeept,  that 
we  learn  every  thing ;  and,  what  we  learn  thus,   we 
acquire  not  only  more  eflfectually,  but  more  pleasant- 
ly.                                           Burke  on  the  Sublime, 


PRECESSION   OF  THE   EQUINOXES. 


Precession  of  the  Equinoxes.  One  of  the 
most  obvious  and  at  the  same  time  most  important 
of  the  celestial  motions  is  the  diurnal  revolution  of 
the  starry  heavens.  The  whole  appears  to  turn 
round  an  imaginary  axis,  which  passes  through 
two  opposite  pointeof  the  heavens,  called  the  poles. 
One  of  these  is  in  our  sight,  being  reiy  near  the 
ster,  and  in  the  tail  of  the  little  bear.  The  great 
circle  which  is  equidistant  from  both  poles  di- 
vides the  heavens  into  the  north  and  south  he- 
mispheres, which  are  equal.  It  is  called  the 
equator,  and  it  cuts  the  horizon  in  the  east  and 
west  pointe,  and  every  star  in  it  is  twelve  siderial 
hours  above,  and  as  many  below  the  horizon,  in 
each  revolution. 

The  motion  of  the  sun  determines  the  length 
of  day  and  night,  and  the  vicissitudes  of  the  sea- 
sons. By  a  long  series  of  observations  the  shep- 
herds of  Asia  were  able  to  mark  out  the  sun*8 
path  in  the  heavens ;  he  being  always  in  the  op- 
posite point  to  that  which  comes  to  the  meridian 
at  midnight,  with  equal  but  opposite  declination. 
Thus  they  could  tell  the  stars  among  which  the 
sun  then  was,  although  they  could  not  see  them. 
They  discovered,  that  his  path  was  a  great  circle 
of  the  heavens,  afterwaras  called  the  ecliptic; 
which  cute  the  equator  in  two  opposite  pointe, 
dividing  it,  and  being  divided  by  it,  into  two 
equal  parte :  that  when  the  sun  was  in  either  of 
these  pointe  of  intersection,  his  circle  of  diurnal 
revolution  coincided  with  the  equator,  and  there- 
fore the  days  and  nighte  were  equal.  Hence  the 
equator  came  to  be  called  the  equinoctial  line, 
and  the  pointe  in  which  it  cute  the  ecliptjc  were 
called  the  equinoctial  pointe,  and  the  sun  was 
then  said  to  be  in  the  equinoxes.  One  of  these 
was  called  the  vernal  and  the  other  the  autum- 
nal equinox. 


It  was  a  most  imporUnt  problem  in  practical 
astronomy  to  determine  the  exact  moment  of  the 
sun's  occupying  these  stations ;  for  it  was  natural 
to  compute  the  course  of  the  year  from  that  mo- 
ment. Accordingly,  this  has  been  the  leading 
problem  in  the  astronomy  of  all  nations.  It  is 
susceptible  of  considerable  precision,  virithout 
any  apparatus  of  instrumente.  It  is  only  neces- 
sary to  observe  the  sun's  declination  on  Oie  noon 
of  two  or  three  days  before  and  after  the  equi- 
noctial day.  On  two  consecutive  days  of  this 
number,  his  declination  must  have  changed  from 
north  to  south  or  from  south  to  north.  If  his 
declination  on  one  day  was  observed  to  be  21' 
N.,  and  on  the  next  5'  S.,  it  follows,  that  his  de 
clination  was  nothing,  or  that  he  was  in  the  equi- 
noctial point  about  twenty-three  minutes  after 
seven  in  the  morning  of  the  second  day.  Know- 
ing the- precise  momente,  and  knowing  the  rate 
of  the  sun*s  motion  in  the  ecliptic,  it  is  easy  to 
BscerUin  the  precise  point  of  the  ecliptic  in  which 
the  equator  intersected  it 

By  a  series  of  such  observations  made  at 
Alexandria,  between  the  years  161  and  127  be- 
before  Christ,  Hipparchuty  the  father  of  our  aa- 
tronomy,  found  that  the  point  of  the  autumnal 
equinox  was  about  6^  £.  of  the  ster  called  Spica 
virginis.  Eager  to  determine ,  every  thing  by 
multiplied  observations,  he  ransacked  all.  the 
Chalaean,  Egyptian,  and  other  records,  to  which 
his  travels  could  procure  him  access,  for  obser- 
vations of  the  same  kind  ;  but  only  found  some 
observations  of  Aristillos  and  Timochares  made 
about  150  years  before.  From  these  it  appeared 
evident  that  the  point  of  the  autumnal  equinox 
was  then  about  8^  E.  of  the  same  ster.  He  dis- 
cusses these  observations  with  great  sagacity  and 
rigor ;  and,  on  their  authority,  asserts  that  the 


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PRECESSION   OF   THE   EQUINOXES. 


33 


points  are  DOt  fixed  io  the  heavens, 
bat  move  to  the  west  about  1^  in  seventy-five 
jrvaisor  less. 

This  motion  is  called  the  precesnon  of  the 
€gmmojeSf  because  by  it  the  time  and  place  of 
the  suit's  equinoctial  station  precedes  the  usual 
calculations :  it  is  fiilly  confinned  by  all  subse- 
quent observations.  In  1750  the  autumnal 
equinox  was  observed  to  be  20®  21'  W.  of  spica 
virginis.  Supposing  the  motion  to  have  been 
uniform  daring  this  period  of  jBige^  it  follows, 
that  the  annual  precession  is  about  50'i ;  that  is, 
if  the  celestial  equator  cuts  the  ecliptic  in  a  par- 
ticular point  on  any  day  of  this  year,  it  will  on 
the  same  day  of  the  following  year  cut  it  in  a 
point  50'^  to  the  west  of  it,  and  the  sun  will 
come  to  the  equinox  20'  23**  before  he  has  com- 
pleted bis  round  of  the  heavens.  Thus  the  equi- 
noctial or  tropical  year,  or  true  year  of  seasons, 
is  so  much  shorter  than  the  revolution  of  the  sun 
or  the  sidereal  year.  Vba  discoveiy  has  immor- 
talised the  name  of  Hipparchus,  It  must  be  ac- 
knowledged, indeed,  to  be  one  of  the  most  sin- 
gular that  has  been  made,  that  the  revolution  of 
the  whole  heavens  should  not  be  stable,  but  its 
•axis  ooDtiniially  changing.  For  since  the  equa- 
tor chan^  its  position,  and  the  equator  is  only 
an  imagmaxy  circle,  eauidistant  tram  the  two 
poles  or  extremities  of  ihe  axis^  these  poles  and 
this  axis  must  equally  change  their  positions. 
The  equinoctial  pomts  make  acomplete  revolution 
in  aboat  25745  years,  the  equator  being  all  the 
while  inclined  to  the  ecliptic  in  nearly  the  same 
.an^  Therefore  the  poles  of  this  diurnal  revo- 
lution must  describe  a  circle  round  the  poles  of 
the  ecUptic,  at  the  distance  of  About  23®  SO'  in 
35745  years;  4md,in  thetimeof  Timochares,the 
noith  pole  of  the  heavens  must  have  been  30^ 
east  of  where  it  now  is. 

The  precession  of  the  equinoxes,  however^  was 
•known  to  the  astronomers  of  India,  manv  ages 
bdbre  the  time  of  Hipparchus.  The  Chaldeans 
had  also  a  pret^  accurate  knowledge  of  the  year 
of  seasons.  From  their  saios,  we  deduce  their 
measure  of  diis  year  to  be  365d.  5h.  49m.  and 
lis,  excee^g  the  truth  only  by  268.,  and 
much  more  exact  than  the  year  of  Hipparchus. 
They  had  also  a  sidereal  year  of  365d.  6h.  11m. 
The  Egyptians  also  had  a  knowledge  of  some- 
thing equivalent  to  this:  for  they  had  discovered 
that  the  dog  star  was  no  longer  the  faithful  fore- 
wamer  of  the  overflowing  of  the  Nile.  This 
knowledge  is  also  involved  in- the  precepts  of  the 
Chinese  astronomjc,  of  much  older  date  than  the 
tnneof  Hipparchus.  But  all  these  facts  do  not 
deprive  H^iparchus  of  the  honor  of  the  disco- 
ve^,  or  fix  on  him  the  charge  of  plagiarism. 
This  moCioB  was  clearly  unknown  to  tne  astrono- 
mers of  the  Alexandrian  school,  and  it  was  point- 
ed out  to  them  by  Hipparchus  in  the  way  in 
which  he  ascertained  every  other  ftosition  in  as- 
tronomy, namely,  as  the  mathematical  result  of 
actual  observations,  and  not  as  a  thing  deducible 
from  any  opinions  on  other  subjects  related  to  it. 

As  a  thing  for  which  no  physical  reason  could 
be  assttned,  the  precession  of  the  equinoxes  was 
long  disputed.  But  the  establishment  of  the 
Copcmican  system  reduced  it  to  a  very  dear 
a%ir;  the  motion,  which  was  thought  to  affect 
Vol.  XVIII. 


all  the  heavenly  bodies,  is  now  seen  to  be  only 
an  effect  of  the  earth's  motion.  The  earth  turns 
round  its  own  axis  while  it  revolves  round  the 
sun,  in  the  sfune  manner  as  we  may  cause  a 
child's  top  to  spin  on  the  brim  of  a  mill-stone, 
while  the  stone  is  turning  slowly  round  its  axis. 
If  the  top  spin  steadily  its  axis  will  always  point 
to  the  zenith  of  the  heavens ;  but  we  frequently 
see  that,  while  it  spins  briskly  round  its  axis,  the 
axis  itself  has  a  slow  conical  motion  round  the 
vertical  line,  so  that,  if  produced,  it  would  slowlv 
describe  a  circle  in  the  heavens  round  the  zenith 
point  The  flat  surface  of  the  top  may  represent 
the  tenestrial  equator,  gradually  turning  itself 
round  on  all  sides.  If  this  top  were  formed  like 
a  ball,  with  an  equatorial  Circle  on  it,  it  would 
represent  the  whole  motion ;  the  only  difference 
being,  that  the  spinning  motion  and  this  waver- 
ing motion  are  in  the  same  direction ;  whereas 
the  diurnal  rotation  and  the  motion  of  the  equi- 
noctial ^nts  are  in  contrary  directions.  £ven 
this  dissimilarity  may  be  removed,  by  making 
the  tap  turn  on  a  cap^  like  the  card  of  a  mariner's 
compass.  It  is  now  fully  established  that,  while 
the  earth  revolves  round  the  sun  from  west  to 
«ist  in  the  plane  of  the  ecliptic,  in  the  course  of  a 
year  it  turns  round  its  own  axis  from  west  to 
est  in  23h.  56'  4",  whidh  axis  is  inclined  to  this 
plane  in  an  angle  of  nearly  23°  28';  and  that 
this  axis  turns  round  a  line  perpendicular  to  the 
ecliptic  in  25,745  years  from  east  to  west,  keep- 
ing nearly  the  same  inclination  to  the  ecliptic. — 
%^  these  means  its  pole  in  the  sphere  of  the 
starry  heavens  describees  a  circle  round  the  pole 
of  the  ecliptic  at  the  distance  of  23°  28'  nearly. 
The  consequence  of  this  must  be,  that  the  terres- 
trial equator,  when  produced  to  the  sphere  of  the 
starry  heavens,  will  cut  the  ecliptic  in  two  oppo- 
site points,  through  which  the  sun  must  pass 
when  he  mfikes  the  day  and  night  equal :  and 
that  these  points  must  shift  to  the  west  at  the 
rate  of  5"i  annually,  which  is  the  precession  of 
the  equinoxes.  Accordingly,  this  has  been  the 
received  doctrine  among  astronomers  for  nearly 
three  centuries,  and  it  was  thought  perfectly  con- 
formable to  appearances. 

Dr.  Bradley  hoped  to  discover  the  parallax  of 
the  earth's  orbit  oy  observations  of  the  actual 
position  of  the  pole  of  the  celestial  revolution, 
if  the  earth's  axis  keeps  parallel  to  itself,  its  ex- 
tremity must  describe,  in  the  sphere  of  the  starry 
heavens,  a  figure  equal  and  parallel  to  its  orbit 
round  the  sun ;  and,  if  the  stars  be  so  near  that 
this  figure  b  a  visible  obiect,  the  pole  of  diurnal 
revolution  will  be  in  different  distinguishable 
points  of  the  figure.  Consequently,  if  the  axis 
describe  this  cone  already  mentioned,  the  pole 
will  not  describe  a  circle  round  the  pole  of  the 
ecliptic,  but  will  have  a  looped  motion  along  this 
circumference,  sitaiilar  to  the  absolute  motion  of 
one  of  Jupiter^s  satellites,  describing  an  epicycle 
whose  centre  describes  the  circle  round  the  pole 
of  the  ecliptic. 

This  sagacious  astronomer  observed  such  an 
epicyclioumotion,  and  thought  that  he  had  now 
overcome  the  only  difficulty  in  the  Copemican 
system ;  but,  on  considering  his  observations,  he 
found  this  epicycle  quite  inconsistent  with  the 
consequences  of  the  annual  parallax,  and  it  puz- 


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34 


PRECESSION    OF   THE    EQUINOXES. 


zled  him  exceedingly.  One  day,  while  sailing 
on  the  Thames,  he  observed  that,  every  time  the 
boat  tacked,  the  direction  of  the  wind,  esti- 
mated by  the  direction  of  the  vane,  seemed  to 
change.  This  suggested  to  him  the  case  of  his 
observed  epicycle,  and  he 'found  it  an  optical  il- 
lusion, occasioned  by  a  combination  of  the  mo- 
tion of  light  with  the  motion  of  his  telescope 
while  observing  the  polar  stars.  Thus  he  estab- 
lished an  incontrovertible  argument  for  the  Co- 
pemican  system,  and  immortalised  his  name  by 
nis  discovery  of  tiie  aberration  of  .the  stars.  The 
doctor  now  engaged  in  a  series  of  observations 
for  ascertaining  all  the  phenomena  of  this  disco- 
very. In  the  course  or  these,  which  were  conti- 
nued for  twenty-eight  years,  he  discovered  ano- 
ther epicvclical  motion  of  the  pole  of  the  heavens. 
He  found  that  the  pole  described  an  epicycle 
whose  diameter  was  about  18",  having  for  its 
centre  that  point  of  the  circle  round  the  pole  of 
the  ecliptic  m  which  the  pole  would  have  been 
found  independent  of  this  new  motion  :  and  that 
the  period  of  this  epicyclical  motion  was  eighteen 
years  and  seven  months.  It  struck  him  that 
this  was  precisely  the  period  of  the  revolution  of 
the  nodes  of  the  moon  s  orbit.  Of  these  results 
he  gave  a  brief  account  iq  lord  Macclesfield, 
then  president  of  the  Royal  Society.  Ur. 
Machin,  to  whom  he  also  communicated  the  ob- 
servations, gave  him  in  return  a  very  neat  ma- 
thematical hypothesis,  by  which  the  motion  might 
be  calculated. 
Let  £  (fig.  1.)  be  the  pole  of  the  ecliptic,  and 

t^.  1. 


F        ^ 

a 

S\^ 

/         M'          1      Q 

i            ME 

r~*~--— ..,.,.^^ 

^ 

S  P  Q  a  circle  distant  from  it  23°  28',  represent- 
ing the  circle  described  by  the  pole  of  the  equator 
during  one  revolution  of  the  equinoctial  points. 
Let  P  be  the  place  of  this  last  mentioned  pole  at 
some  given  time.  Round  P  describe  a  cifcle, 
A  B  C  D,  whose  diameter  A  C  is  18'.  The  real 
situation  of  the  pole  will  be  in  the  circumference 


of  this  circle  ;  and  its  place,  in  tliis  circumfer- 
ence, depends  on  the  place  of  the  moon's  ascend- 
ing node.  Draw  E  P  F  and  GPL  perpendicular 
to  it ;  let  G  L  be  the  colure  of  the  equinoxes, 
and  £  F  the  colore  of  tlic  solstices.  Dr.  Brad- 
ley's observations  showed  that  the  pole  was  in  A 
when  the  node  was  in  L,  the  vernal  equinox.  If 
the  node  recede  to  H,  the  winter  solstice,  the 
node  is  in  B.  When  the  node  is  in  the  autumnal 
equinox,  at  G,  the  pole  is  at  C ;  and  when  the 
pole  is  in  F,  the  sumfner  solstice,  the  pole  is  in 
I).  In  all  intermediate  situations  of  the  moon^s 
ascending  node  the  pole  is  in  a  point  of  the  cir- 
cumference A  BCD,  three  signs  or  9®  more 
advanced.  By  comparing  together  a  great  num- 
ber of  observations.  Dr.  Bradley  found  that  the 
mathematical  theory,  and  the  calculation  de- 
pending on  it,  would  correspond  much  better 
with  the  observations,  if  an  ellipse  were  substi- 
tuted for  the  circle  AB  C  D,  nudcing  the  longer 
axis  A  C  18^,  and  the  shorter,  B  D,  16^.  D'Alem- 
bert' determined,  by  the  physical  theory  of  gravi- 
tation, the  axes  to  be  18^  and  12^*,  4.  These 
observations,  and  this  mathematical  theory,  must 
be  considered  as  so  many  astronomical  facts, 
and  the  methods  of  computing  the  places  of  all 
celestial  phenomena  must  be  drawn  from  them, 
agreeably  to  the  universal  practice  of  deterinin- 
ing  every  point  of  the  heavens  by  its  longitude, 
latitude,  right  ascension,  and  declination. 

This  equation  of  the  pole's  motion  makes  a 
change  in  the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic.  The  in- 
clination of  the  equator  to  the  ecliptic  is  measar-> 
ed  by  the  arch  ot  a  great  circle  intercepted  be- 
tween their  poles.  If  the  pole  be  in  O,  instead 
of  P,  it  is  plain  that  the  obliquity  is  measured 
by  £  O  instead  of  E  P.  If  £  P  be  considered 
as  the  mean  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic,  it  is  aug- 
mented by  9"  when  the  moon's  ascending  node 
is  in  the  vernal  equinox,  and  consequently  the 
pole  in  A.  It  is,  on  the  contrary,  diminished 
9^  when  the  node  is  in  the  autumnal  equinox, 
and  the  pole  in  C ;  and  it  is  equal  to  the  mean 
when  the  node  is  in  the  colure  of  the  solstices. 
This  change  of  the  inclination  of  the  earUi*s  axis 
to  the  plane  of  the  ecliptic  was  called  the  nuta- 
tion of  the  axis  by  Sir  Isaac  Newton;  who 
showed  that  a  change  of  nearly  a  second  must 
obtain  in  a  year  by  the  action  of  the  sun  on  the 
prominent  parts  of  the  terrestrial  spheroid.  But 
he  did  not  attend  to  the  change  which  would  be 
made  in  this  motion  by  the  variation  which  ob- 
tains in  the  disturbing  force  of  the  moon,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  different  obliquity  of  her  action 
on  the  equator,  arising  froiA  the  motion  of  her 
own  oblique  orbit.  It  is  this  change  which  now 
goes  by  Uie  name  of  nutation,  and  we  owe  its 
discovery  entirely  to  Dr.  Bradley.  The  general 
change  of  the  position  of  the  earth's  axis  has  been 
termed  deviation  by  modem  astronomers. 

It  i^  easy  to  ascertain  the  quantity  of  this 
change  of  obliquity.  When  the  pole  is  in  0, 
the  arch  A  D  C  O  is  equal  to  the  node's  longitude 
from  the  vernal  equinox,  and  that  P  M  is  its  co- 
sine ;  and  (on  account  of  the  small ness  of  A  P 
in  comparison  of  E  P)  P  M  may  be  taken  for 
the  change  of  the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic.  This 
is  therefore  =z  9'  x  cos.  long,  node,  and  is  ad- 
ditive to  the  mean  obliquity,  while  O  is  in  tlie 
semicircle  BAD,  that  is,  while  the  longitude  of 

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PRECESSION    OF   THE   EQUINOXES. 


35 


«be  node  is  from  nine  signs  to  three  signs  ;  but 
sabtnctive  while  the  longitude  of  the  node 
efaaoges  from  three  to  nine  signs.  But  the  nu- 
tation changes  also  the  longitudes  and  right  as- 
CBomoQS  of  the  stan  and  planets  by  changing  the 
equinoctial  points,  and  thus  occasioning  an  equa- 
tion in  the  precession  of  the  equinoctial  points. 
The  great  circle  or  meridian  whidi  passes  through 
the  poles  of  the  ecliptic  and  equator  is  always 
the  sobtitial  coture,  and  the  equinoctial  colore  is 
at  right  angles  to  it:  therefore  when  the  pole  is  in 
P  or  in  P,  £  P  or  £  Q  is  the  solstitial  colure. 
Let  S  be  any  fixed  star  or  planet,  and  let  S  £  be 
a  meridian  or  circle  of  longitude ;  draw  the  cir- 
cles of  declination  PS,  OS,  and  the  circles 
M'EM%  mEm\  perpendicular  to  P£,  0£. 
If  the  pole  were  in  its  mean  place  P,  the  equi- 
noctial points  would  be  in  the  ecliptic  meridian 
M'  £  M  ,  or  that  meridian  would  pass  through 
the  intersections  of  the  equator  and  eclipdc,  and 
the  angle  M'  £  S  would  measure  the  longitude  of 
the  star  S.  But,  when  the  pole  is  in  O,  &e  eclip- 
tic meridian  m  £fii'  will  pass  through  the  equi- 
noctial points.  The  equinoctial  points  must  there- 
fore he  to  the  west  of  their  mean  place,  and  the 
equation  of  the  precession  must  be  additive  to 
tint  precession ;  and  the  longitude  of  the  star  S 
will  now  be  measured  by  the  angle  m  £  S,  which, 
in  the  case  here  represented,  is  greater  than  its 
mean  kmgitude.  The  d  ifference,  or  the  equation 
of  longitude,  arising  from  the  nutation  of  the 

"    OM 

earth's  axis,  is  the  angle  0£P,  or  ^-^  OM  is 

the  sine  of  the  angle  CPO,  which,  by  what 

has  been  already  observed,  is    equal    to  the 

longitode  of  the  node :  Theorem  O  M  is  equal 

OM  . 

IS  equal  to 


This  equation  is  additive 


to  9*  X  longitude  node,  and      ^ 

y  X  sin,  long,  node 

sin.  obliq.  eclip. 
to  the  mean  longitude  of  the  star  when  0  is  in 
the  semicircle  C  B  A,  or  while  the  ascending 
node  is  passing  backwards  from  the  vernal  to  the 
antnmnal  equinox ;  but  it  is  subtractive  from  it 
while  O  is  in  the  semicircle  A  D  C,  or  while  the 
node  is  passing  backwards  from  the  autumnal  to 
the  vernal  equinox ;  or,  to  express  it  more  briefly, 
the  equation  is  subtractive  from  the  mean  longi- 
tude of  the  star  while  the  ascending  node  is  in 
the  first  six  signs,  and  additive  to  it  while  the 
node  is  in  the  last  six  signs. 

This  equation  of  longitude  is  the  same  for  all 
the  stars ;  for  their  longitude  is  reckoned  on  the 
eclipticy  and  therefore  is  affected  onlv  by  the 
variation  of  the  point  from  which  the  longitude 
is  computed.  Tne  right  ascension,  being  com- 
puted on  the  equator,  suffers  a  double  change. 
It  is  computed  from,  or  begins  at,  a  different 
point  of  the  eqjiator,  and  it  terminates  at  a  dif- 
tereot  point ;  because,  the  equator  having  chang- 
ed its  position,  the  circles  of  declination  also 
change  theirs.  When  the  pole  is  at  P  the  right 
ascension  of  S  from  the  solstitial  colure  is  mea- 
tared  by  the  angle  S  P  E,  contained  between 
that  colure  and  the  star's  circle  of  declination. 
But,  when  the  pole  is  at  O,  the  right  ascension  is 
measured  by  the  an^le  S  O  £,  and  the  difference 
of  S  P  £  and  S  O  £  is  ^he  equation  of  right  as- 


cension. The  angle  S  O  £  consists  of  two  parts, 
G0£  and  GOS;  GO£  remains  the  same 
wherever  the  star  S  is  placed,  but  G  O  S  varies 
with  the  ph&ce  of  the  star. — We  jnust  first  find 
the  variation  by  which  G  P  £  becomes  G  O  E, 
which  variation  is  common  to  all  the  stars.  The 
triangles  GP£,  G0£,  have  a  constant  side 
G  £,  and  a  constant  angle  G ;  the  variation  P  O 
of  the  side  G  P  is  extremely  small,  and  therefore 
the  variation  of  the  angles  may  be  computed  by 
Mr.  CotesVFluxionary  Theorems.  See  Simp- 
son's Fluxions,  sect.  253,  &c.  As  the  tangent 
of  the  side  £  P,  opposite  to  the  constant  angle 
G,  is  to  the  sine  of  the  angle  G  P  £,  opposite  to 
the  constant  side  £  G,  so  is  P  O  the  variation  of 
the  side  G  P,  adjacent  to  the  constant  angle,  to  the 
variation  x  of  the  angle  G  P  O,  opposite  to  the  con- 
stant side  E  G.  This  gives  x  =  ?1?^.?*5:^^ 
tang.  obi.  ecIip. 

This  is  subtractive  from  the  mean  right  ascen- 
sion for  the  first  six  signs  of  tlie  node's  longitude, 
and  additive  for  the  last  six  signs.  This  equa- 
tion is  common  to  all  the  stars. 

We  may  discover  the  variation  of  the  other 
part  S  O  G  of  the  angle,  which  depends  on  die 
different  position  of  the  hour  circles  P  S  and 
O  S,  which  causes  them  to  cut  the  equation  in 
different  points,  where  the  arches  of  right  ascen- 
sion terminate,  as  follows : — ^The  triangles  SPG, 
S  O  G,  hate  a  constant  side  S  G,  and  a  constant 
angle  G.  Therefore,  by  the  same  Cotesian 
theorem,  tan.  S  P  :  sin.  S  P  G  =  P  O  :  y,  and 
y,  or  the  second  part  of  the  nutation  in  right  as- 

9'  X  sin.  diff.  R.  A.  of  star  and  node 

cension,  ^  ■    , — -, 

cotan.  declm.  star. 

The  nutation  also  affects  the  declination  of  the 
stars :  For  S  P,  the  mean  codeclination,  is  changed 
into  S  O. — Suppose  a  circle  described  round  S, 
with  the  distance  S  O  cutting  S  P  in/;  then  it  is  evi- 
dent  that  the  equation  of  declin.  is  P/=:  P  O  x  cos. 
O  P/=  9'  X  sign  R.  A.  of  stei^-long.  of  node. 
'  These  are  the  calculations  constantly  used  in 
our  astronomical  researches,  founded  on  Machines 
Theory.  When  still  greater  accuracy  is  required, 
the  elliptical  theory  must  be  substituted,  by 
taking  (as  is  expressed  by  the  dotted  lines)  O  in 
that  point  of  the  ellipse  described  on  the  trans- 
verse axis  A  C,  where  it  is  cut  by  O  M,  drawn 
according  to  Machines  theory.  All  the  change 
made  here  is  the  diminution  of  O  M  in  the  ratio 
of  18  to  13*4,  and  a  corresponding  diminution 
of  the  angle  C  P  O.  The  detail  of  it  may  be 
seen  in  De  la  Laude's  Astronomy,  art.  2874.  The 
calculations  being  in  every  case  tedious,  and 
liable  to  mistakes,  on  account  of  the  changes  of  the 
signs  of  the  different  equations,  the  zealous  pro- 
moters of  astronomy  have  calculated  and  pub- 
lished tables  of  these  equations.- 

We  may  now  consider  the  precession  of  the 
equinoctid  points,  with  its  equations,  arising 
from  the  nutation  of  the  earth's  axis,  as  a  physi- 
cal phenomenon,  and  endeavour  to  account  for 
it  upon  those  mechanical  principles  which  have 
so  happily  explained  all  the  other  phenomena  of 
the  celestial  motions.  Sir  Isaac  Newton  quickly 
found  it  to  be  a  consequence,  and  the  roost 
beautiful  proof,  of  the  universal  gravitation  of 
matter.     There  is  no  part  of  his  immortal  work 

D2 


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36 


PRECESSION    OP  THE   EQUINOXES. 


where  bis  sagacity  and  fertility  of  resource  shine 
more  conspicuouslT  than  in  this  inyestigation. 
His  investigation,  however,  was  only  a  shrewd 
guess,  founded  on  assumptions,  of  which  it 
would  be  extremely  difficult  to  demonstrate 
either  the  truth  or  falsity,  and  which  required  the 
genius  of  a  Newton  to  select  in  such  a  compli- 
cation of  abstruse  circumstances.  The  subject 
has  occupied  the  attention  of  the  first  mathema- 
ticians of  Europe  since. his  time;  and  is  still 
considered  as  the  most  curious  and  difficult  of 
mechanical  problems.  The  most  elaborate  and 
accurate  dissertations  on  the  precession  of  the 
equinoxes  are  those  of  SylvabeUaand  Walmesly, 
in  the  Philosophical  Transactions,  published 
about  1754;  that  of  Thomas  Simpson,  in  his 
Miscellaneous  Tracts ;  that  of  Frisius,  in  the 
Mem.  of  the  Berlin  Academy,  and  afterwards 
in  his  Cosmographia ;  that  of  £uler  in  the  Me- 
moirs of  Berlin ;  that  of  D'Alembert  in  a  sepa- 
rate dissertation ;  and  that  of  de  la  Grange  on 
the  liibration  of  the  Moon,  which  obtained  the 

Srize  in  the  Academy  of  Paris  in  1769.  The 
issertation  of  Frisius  is  thought  the  most  per- 
spicuous of  them  all,  being  conducted  in  the  me- 
thod of  geometrical  analysis ;  whereas  most  of 
the  others  proceed  in  the  fluxionary  and  symbolic 
method,  wnich  does  not  give  the  same  perspicu- 
ous conviction  of  the  truth  of  the  results. 

We  shall  here  give  a  short  sketch  of  Newton's 
investigation.     Let  S  (fig.  2)  be  the  sun,  £  the 


eartn,  and  M  the  moon,  moving  in  the  orbit  N  M 
C  D  fi,  which  cuts  the  plane  of  the  ecliptic,  in 
the  line  of.  the  nodes  Nn,  and  has  one-half  raised 
above  it,  as  represented  in-  the  figure,  the  other 
half  beine  hid  below  the  ecliptic.  Suppose  this 
orbit  folded  down;  it  will  coincide  with  the 
ecliptic  in  the  circle  litncdn.  Let  £  X  repre- 
sent the  axis  of'  this  orbit,  perpendicular  to  its 
plane,  and  therefore  inclined  to  the  ecliptic. 
Since  the  moon  gravitates  to  the  sun  in  the  di- 
rection MS,  which  is  all  above  the  ecliptic,  it  is 
Slain  that  this  gravitation  has  a  tendency  to 
raw  the  moon  towards  the  ecliptic.  Suppose 
this  force  to  be  such  that  it  would  draw  th6 
moon  down  firom  M  to  t  in  the  time  that  she 
would  have  moved  from  M  to  t,  in  the  tangent 
to  her  orbit.  By  the  combination  of  these  mo- 
tions the  moon  will  desert  her  orbit,  and  describe 
.  the  line  M  r,  which  makes  the  diagonal  of  the 


parallelogram ;  and,  if  no  fiirther  action  of  the 
sun  be  supposed,  she  will  describe  another  orbit 
M  B  n\  lying  between  the  orbit  M  C  D  n  and  the 
ecliptic,  and  she  will  come  to  the  ecliptic,  and 
pass  through  it  in- a  point  n'  nearer  to  M  thann 
IS,  which  was  the  former  place  of  her  descending 
node.  By  this  change  of  orbit,  the  line  £  X  will 
no  longer  be  perpendicular  to  it ;  but  there  will 
be  another  tine  £  x  which  will  now  be  perpen- 
dicular to  the  new  orbit.  Also  the  moon,  moving 
from  M  to  r,  does  not  move  as  if  she  had  come 
.from  the  ascending  node  N,  but  from  .a  point  N 
lying  beyond  it;  and  the  line  of  the  orbit  in  this 
new  position  is  N'n'.  Also  the  angle  M  N'  m  is 
less  tnan  the  angle  M  N  m.  Thus  the  nodes  shift 
their  places  in  a  direction  opposite  to  that  of  her 
motion,  or  move  to  the  west;  the  axis  of  the 
orbit  changes  its  position,  and  the  orbit  itself 
changes  its  inclination  to  the  ecliptic.  These 
momentaiy  changes  are  different  in  different  parts 
of  the  orbit,  according  to  the  position  of  the  line 
of  the  nodes.  Sometimes  the  inclination  of  the 
orbit  is  increased,  and  sometimes  the  nodes  move 
to  the  east.  But,  in  general,  the  inclination  in- 
creases from  the  time  that  the  nodes  are  in  the 
line  of  syzigee,  till  th^  get  into  quadrature,  after 
which  it  diminishes  till  the  nodes  are  again  in 
syzigee.  The  nodes  advance  only  while  they 
are  in  the  octants  after  the  quadrature,  and 
while  the  moon  passes  from  the  quadrature  to 
the  node,  and  they  recede  in  all  other  situations. 
Therefore  the  recess  exceeds  the  advance  in 
every  revolution  of  the  moon  round  the  earth, 
and,  on  the  whole,  they  recede. 

What  has  been  said  of  one  moon  would  be 
true  of  each  of  a  continued  ring  of  moons  sur- 
rounding the  earth,  and  they  would  thus  com- 
pose a  flexible  ring,  which  would  never  be  flat, 
out  waved,  according  to  the  difference  (both  in 
kind  and  degree),  of  the  disturbing  forces  acting 
on  its  different  parts.  But  suppose  these  moons 
to  cohere,  and  {o  form  a  rigid  and  flat  ring,  no- 
thing would  remain  in  this  ring  but  the  excess 
of  the  contrary  tendencies  of  its  different  parts. 
Its  axis  would  be  perpendicular  to  its  plane,  and 
its  position  in  any  moment  will  be  the  mean  po- 
sition of  all  die  axes  of  the  orbits  of  each  part  of 
the  flexible  ring.  Suppose  this  ring  to  contract 
in  dimensions,  uie  disturbing  forces  will  diminish 
in  the  same  proportion,  and  in  this  proportion, 
will  all  their  effects  diminish.  Suppose  its  mo- 
tion of  revolution  to  accelerate,  or  the  time  of  a 
revolution  to  diminish ;  the  linear  effects  of  the 
disturbing  forces  being  as  the  square  of  the 
times  of  Uieir  action,  and  their  angular  effects  as 
the  times,  those  errors  must  diminish  also  on 
this  account ;  and  we  can  compute  what  those 
errors  will  be  for  any  diameter  of  the  ring,  and 
for  any  period  of  its  revolution.  We  can  tell, 
therefore,  what  would  be  the  motion  of  the 
nodes,  the  change  of  inclination,  and  deviation 
of  the  axis,  of  a  ring  which  would  touch  the  sur- 
face of  the  earth,  and  revolve  in  twenty-four 
hours;  nay,  we  can  tell  what  these  motions 
would  be,  should  this  ring  adhere  to  the  earth. 
They  must  be  much  less  than  if  the  ring  were 
detached.  For  the  disturbing  foi:ces  of  the  ring 
must  drag  along  with  it  the  whole  globe  of  the 
i^rth!  "Die  quantity  of  motion  which  the  dis- 
turhing  forces  would  have  oroduced  in  the  ring 

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37 


iboe,  will  DOWy  says  Newton,  be  produced  in 
the  wMe  mass ;  and  therefore  the  velocity  must 
be  as  much  less  as  the  quantity  of  matter  is 
gieata :  hut  still  all  this  can  be  computed. 

Thai  there  is  such  a  ring  on  the  earth  is  cer- 
taia ;  for  the  earth  is  not  a  sphere,  but  an  ellip- 
tical spheroid.  Sir  Isaac  Newton,  therefore, 
BBide  a  computation  of  the  effects  of  the  disturb- 
ing fence,  and  has  exhibited  a  most  beautiful  ex- 
ample of  mathematical  investigation.  He  first 
averts  that  the  earth  m\ist  be  an  elliptical  sphe- 
roid, whose  polar  axis  is  to  its  equatonal  diameter 
as  229  to  230,  Then  he  demonstrates  that  if 
the  sine  of  the  inclination  of  the  equator  be  called 
w,  and  if  <  be  the  number  of  days  (sidereal)  in  a 
year,  the  annual  motion  of  a  detached  ring  will 


le  360"  X 


3>/l-w« 
At 


He  then  shows  that 


the  eflect  of  the  disturbing  force  on  this  ring  is 
to  its  effect  on  the  matter  of  the  same  ring,  dis- 
tributed in  the  form  of  an  elliptical  stratum  (but 
ftiU  detached)  as  5  to  2 ;  therefore  the  motion 

of  the  nodes  will  be  360*  X  -  "^      ^  ,  or  16' 

16^  14^  annually.  He  then  proceeds  to  show 
that  the  quantity  of  motion  in  the  sphere  is  to 
tint  in  the  equatorial  ring  revolving  in  the  same 
time,  as  the  matter  in  the  sphere  to  the  matter 
in  the  ring,  and  as  three  times  the  square  of  a 
qoadrantid  arch  to  two  squares  of  a  diameter, 
jointly :  then  he  shows  that  the  quantity  of  mat- 
ter in  the  tevestrial  sphere  is  to  that  in  the  pro- 
tnberant  matter  of  tlie  spheroid  as  52900  to 
461  ^supposing  all  homogeneous).  From  these 
premises  it  follows  that  the  motion  of  16'  16* 
24^  must  be  diminished  in  the  ratio  of  10717  to 
100,  which  reduces  it  to  9'  07^  annually.  And 
this,  he  savs,  is  the  precession  of  the  equinoxes, 
occasioDed  by  the  action  of  the  sun ;  and  the 
rest  of  die  50|',  which  is  the  observed  preces- 
sion, is  owing  to  the  action  of  the  moon  nearly 
five  times  greater  than  that  of  the  sun.  This  ap- 
peared a  great  difficulty ;  for  the  phenomena  of 
the  tides  show  that  it  cannot  much  exceed  twice 
the  sun's  force. 

Tlie  ingenuity  of  this  process  is  justly  celebrated 
by  Danid  Bemouilli,  who  (in  his  Dissertation 
OD  the  Tides,  which  shared  the  prize  of  the  French 
Academy  with  M'Laurin  and  Euler)  says  that 
NewUm  saw  through  a  veil  what  others  could 
hardly  discQver  with  a  microscope  in  the  light  of 
the  meridian  sun.  His  determination  of  the 
form  and  dimensions  of  the  earth,  which  is  the 
foundation  of  the  whole  process,  is  not  offered  as 
any  thing  better  than  a  probable  guess,  in  re  dif- 
ficiOimli;  and  it  has  been  since  demonstrated 
with  geometrical  rigor  by  M'Laurin.     His  next 


principle,  that  the  motion  of  the  nodes  of  the 
rigid  ring  is  equal  to  the  mean  motion  of  the 
nodes  of  the  moon,  has  been  most  critically  dis^ 
cussed  by  the  first  mathematicians,  as  a  thing 
which  could  neither  be  proved  nor  refuted. 
Frisius  has  at  last  shown  it  to  be  a  mistake,  and 
that  the  motion  of  the  nodes  of  the  ring  is  double 
the  mean  motion  of  the  nodes  of  a  single  moon ; 
and  that  Newton's  own  principles  should  have 
produced  a  precession  ot  eighteen  seconds  and 
a  quarter  annually ;  which  remoyes  the  difficulty 
formerly  mentioned. 

Sir  Isaac  Newton's  third  assumption,  that  the 
quantity  of  motion  of  the  ring  must  be  shared 
with  the  included  sphere,  was  acquiesced  in  by 
all  his  commentators,  till  D'Alembert  and  Euler^ 
in  1749,  showed  that  it  was  not  the  quantity  of 
motion  round  an  axis  of  rotation  which  remained . 
the  same,  but  the  quantity  of  momentum  or  ro- 
tatory effort.  The  quantity  of  motion  is  the 
product  of  every  particle  by  its  velocity ;  that  is, 
by  its  distance  from  the  axis ;  while  its  momen- 
tum, or  power  of  producing  rotation,  is  as  the 
square  of  that  distance,  and  is  to  be  had  by 
taking  the  sum  of  each  particle  multiplied  by  the 
square  of  its  distance  from  the  axis.  Since  the 
earth  differs  so  little  from  a  perfect  sphere,  this 
makes  no  sensible  difference  in  the  result  It 
will  increase  Newton's  precession  about  three- 
fourths  of  a  second. 

The  source  of  Newton's  mistake  in  the  solution 
of  this  intricate  problem  was  first  detected  by 
Mr.  Landen,  in  the  first  volume  of  his  Memoirs. 
That  superior  mathematician  discovered'  tiiat 
when  a  rigid  annulus  revolves  with  two  motions^ 
one  in  its  own  plane,  and  the  other  round  one 
of  its  diameters,  half  the  motive  force  acting 
upon  the  ring  is  counteracted  by  the  centrifugal 
force  arising  firom  the  compound  motion,  md 
half  only  is  efficacious  or  accelerating  the  plane 
of  the  annulus  round  its  diameter.  Mr.  Landen 
did  not  expressly  demonstrate  this ;  but  it  has 
been  done  very  completely  by  Dr.  Brinklev,  iu 
the  seventh  volume  of  the  Memoirs  of  the  Irish 
Academy.  We  cannot  here  pursue  this  subject ; 
but  beg  to  refer  the  reader  to  Dr.  Milner*s  paper 
in  the  rhilosophical  Transactions;  toDr.  Abram 
Robertson's  paper  in  the  Philosophical  Trans- 
actions for  1807;  to  the  Dissertation  of  Frisius 
already  specified ;  and  to  the  popular  view  of 
this  problem  by  M.  Laplace  in  his  Exposition, 
book  iv.  ch.  13. 

To  find  the  precession  in  right  ascendon  and 
declination. — Put  d:=:the  declination  of  a  star, 
and  a  =  its  right  ascension ;  then  their  annual 
variations  of  precessions  will  be  neariy  as  follow, 
viz.  20"  -084  X  COS.  a=  the  annual  precession 
in  declinat,  and  46"  '0619  +  20'  -084  x  ain.  a 
X  tang,  d  zz  that  of  right  ascension. 


PRECIS,  precius,  early,  the  twenty-first 
Older  in  Dnnsnis's  fragments  of  a  natural  me- 
thod ;  consisting  of  primrose,  an  early  flowering 
plant,  aind  a  few  genera  which  agree  with  it  in 
taint  and  stnictore.     See  Botamy. 

PRE'CINCT,  «.  «.  Lat.  pracinctus.  Out- 
ward limit ;  boundary. 


The  main  body  of  the  sea  being  one,  yet  within 
divers  precinc^,  hath  divers  names ;  so  the  catholick 
church  is  in  like  sort  divided  into  a  number  of  dis- 
tinct aocielies.  Hooker, 

This  is  the  manner  of  GodVdcaling  with  those  that 
have  lived  within  the  prtemets  of  the  church  ;  they 
shall  be  condemned  for  the  very  want  of  true  faith 
and  repentance.  Ptrkinu 


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Through  all  restraint  broke  looaeu  he  wings  his 
way 
Nor  far  off  heaven,  in  the  precincts  of  light. 
Directly  towards  the  new  created  world.      Milton, 

To  find  our  hearthstone  turned  into  a  tomb, 
And  round  its  once  warm  precincts  palely  lying 
The  ashes  of  our  hopes,  is  a  deep  gnef. 
Beyond  a  single  gentleman's  belief.  Bjfron, 

PRE'CIOUS,iiǤ.     -%     Vt.preckiM;  Latin 
Pre'ciously,  adv,      yprttiosus.      Vaduable ; 
Pre'ciousness,  n.  f .  j  of  great  worth ;  costly ; 
often  used  in  irony :  the  adverb  and  noun-sub- 
stantive follow  the  senses  of  the  adjective. 

A  womman  that  hadde  aboxe  of  alabastre  of  pre- 
cious oynement  cam  to  him  and  schedde  out  on  the 
heed  of  him  restynge.  Wiclif,  Matt.  26. 

The  lips  of  knowledge  are  a  precious  jewd. 

Prov.  zz.  15. 
Many  things  which  are  most  pneiom,  are  neglected 
only  because  the  value  of  them  lieth  hid.     Hooker. 

I  never  saw 
Such  precious  deeds  in  one  that  promised  nought 
But  begg'ry  and  poor  luck.  ShaJcspeare.  CymbeUne-. 
Its  preciousness  equalled  the  price  of  pearls. 

Wilkins. 
Let  none  admire 
That  riches  grow  in  hell ;  that  soil  may  best 
Deserve  the  precious  bane.  Milton. 

The  index  or  forefinger  was  too  naked  whereto  to 
commit  their  preeiosUies,  and  hath  the  tuition  of  the 
thumb  scarce  unto  the  second  ioint..  Browne. 

Barbarians  seem  to  exceed  them  in  the  curiosity  of 
their  application  of  these  preewniies.  More, 

Fortune,  conscious  of  your  destiny, 
Ev'n  then  iook  care  to  lay  you  softly  by  ; 
And  wrapp'd  your  fate  among  her  precious  things. 
Kept  fresn  to  be  unfolded  with  your  king's. 

Dryden. 
More  of  the  same  kind,  concerning  these  precious 
saints  amongst  the  Turks,  may  be  seen  in  Pietro 
della  Valle.  Locke. 

These  virtues  are  the  hidden  beauties  of  a  soul 
which  make  it  lovely  and  precious  m  his  sight,  from 
whom  no  secrets  are  concealed.  Addison's  ^tectator. 

PRE'CIPICE,  n.  I.  Fr.  precipice ;  Lat.  pra- 
cipitium.    A  headlong  or  perpendicular  steep. 

I  ere  long  that  precipice  must  tread. 
Whence  none  return  that  leads  unto  the  dead. 

Sandys. 
You  take  a  precijnce  for  no  leap  of  danger. 
And  woo  your  own  destruction.  Shakspeare. 

Where  the  water  dasheth  more  against  the  bottom, 
there  it  moveth  m6re  swiftly  and  more  in  precipioe  ; 
for  in  the  breaking  of  the  waves  there  is  ever  a  prs- 
cipice.  Bacon. 

No  stupendous  precipice  denies 
Access,  no  horror  turns  away  our  eyes. 

Denham. 
Swift  down  the  pre«iipice  of  time  it  goes. 
And  sinks  in  minutes,  which  in  ages  rose. 

Dryden. 
Drink  as  much  as  you  can  get;  because  a  good- 
coachman  never  drives  so  well  as  when  he  is  drunk; 
and  then  shew  your  skill,  by  driving  to  an  inch  by  a 
precipice.  ■  Swifi. 

PRECIPITANCE,  or  ^       Latin 

PRECIP'ITANCY,  71.  S.  pTCcipi- 

Precip'itant,  adj.  tans. 

Precip'itaktly,  adv.  1  Haste; 

Precip'itate,  V,  a.,  t.  n-^^dj.  &  n.  s.  Trash 
Precip'itately,  adv.  haste ; 

Precipita'tion,  n.  5.  hurry: 

PRECip'iToys.  J  precipi- 


tant is,  Bsdliog  or  rushing  heodlong ;  hasty;  Imr- 
ried :  the  adverb  correspondii^ :  precipitate^  to 
urge  or  throw  headlong ;  urge  on  with  violeaoe; 
hasten ;  hurry  blindly ;  throw  to  the  bottom  by 
a  chemical  process:  as  a  verb  neuter,  to  fall 
headlong ;  mil  to  the  bottom :  precipitate  aa  an 
adjective  is  synonymoos  with  precipitant :  as  a 
noun  substantive,  it  is  a  medical  term  for  the 
red  oxide  of  mercuij :  precipitately  and  precipi- 
tation correspond  with  the  adjectiye:  precipitous 
is,  steep ;  hradiong ;  hasty ;  nsAi. 

Hadst  thou  been  aught  but  goss*mer  featheis. 

So  many  fathom  down  procipieating, 

Thou'dst  shiver  like  an  egg. 

Suikipeare.  King  Lear. 
Let  them  pile  ten  lulls  on  the  Tarp^an  nek, 

That  the  precipitation  might  down-stretch 

Below  the  beam  of  sight,  jiet  will  I  still 

Be  this  to  them.  Id.  Coriolanut.    - 

Barcephas  saith,  it  was  necessary  this  paradise 
should  be  set  at  such  a  height,  because  the  four 
rivers,  had  they  not  fallen  so  precipitate,  could  not 
have  had  sufficient  force  to  thrust  themselves  under 
the  great  ocean.  Raleigh. 

She  had  a  king  to  her  son-in-law,  yet  was,  upon 
dark  and  unknown  reasons,  precipitated  and  banished 
the  world  into  a  nunnery.  Bacon, 

As  for  having  them  obnoxious  to  ruin,  if  they  be 
of  feaiiiil  natures,  it  may  do  wdl ;  hot,  if  they  be 
daring,  it  may  predpitaie  their  dengns,  and  pto9% 
dangerous.  ld» 

By  strong  water  every  metal  will  precipitate.  Id. 

Separation  is  wrought  by  precipitation  or  sublimaf- 
tion ;  that  is,  a  calling  of  the  parts  up  or  down, 
which  is  a  kind  of  attraction.  ^  /cL 

The  conmiotions  in  Ireland  were  so  sudden  and 
so  violent,  that  it  was  hard  to  discern  the  rise,  or 
apply  a  remedy  to  that  predpitani  rebellion. 

Kiny  Charles. 

Monarchy,  together  with  me,  could  not  but  be 
dashed  in  pieces  by  such  a  precipitous  fall  as  they 
intended.  Id, 

Short'  intennittent  and  swifi  lecarrmt  pains  do 
precipitate  patients  into  consumptions.         narvey. 

They  were  wont,  upon  a  superstition,  to  pr«r^'- 
tate  a  man  from  some  high  cliff  into  the  sea,  tyini^ 
about  him  with  strings  many  great  fowls.  Tfi/Anu. 

Dear  Erythrea,  let  not  such  blind  fury 
Precipitate  your  thoughts,  nor  set  them  working. 
Till  time  shall  lend  uem  better  means 
Than  lost  complaints.  •    Benham's  Sophy, 

The  archbishop,  too  prec^ritate  in  pressing  the  re- 
ception of  that  wnich  be  thought  a  reformauon,  paid 
dearly  for  it.  CUuren£m, 

Thither  they  haste  v^th  glad  pr«eip{lanc». 

JMUton, 
Without  longer  pause. 

Downright  into  the  world's  first  region  throws 

His  flight  precipitant.  Id.  Paradise  Lett. 

As  the  chjrmist,  by  catching  at  it  too  soon,  lost 
the  philosophical  elixir,  so  precipitancy  of  our  under- 
standing is  an  occasion  of  error.  GlanmUe. 

Though  the  attempts  of  some  have  been  precipitous, 
and  their  enquiries  so  audacious  as  to  have  lost 
themselves  in  attempts  above  humanity,  yet  have 
the  enquiries  of  most  defected  by  the  way. 

Browne's  Vulgar  Errours. 

The  goddess  guides  her  son,  and  turns  him  front 
the  light. 
Herself  involved  in  clouds,  preoipitates  her  flight. 

Ihyden. 

Thus  framed  for  ill,  he  loosed  our  triple  hold. 

Advice  unsafe,  precipitous,  and  bold.  Id. 

How  precious  the  time  is,  how  precipitous  the  oc- 

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CMioD,  how  many  things  to  be  done  in  their  just 
aaisoB,  tfter  once  a  ground  is  in  order.      Evelyn. 

The  birds  heedless  while  they  strain 
Their  tnnefal  throats,  the  towering  heavy  lead 
0*ertakes  their  speed ;  they  leave  their  little  lives 
Above  the  clouds,  jfreeipitant  to  earth.         Phiiips, 
Gold  endures  a  vehement  fire  long  without  any 
change,  aivd,  after  it  has  been  divided  by  corrosive 
liqiiofs  into  invisible  parts,  yet  majr  presently  be  pre- 
dpUmud,  so  as  to  appear  again  in  its  own  form. 

Grew* 8  Cosmoiogia. 
When  the  full  stores  their  ancient  bounds  disdain, 
Freapitatt  the  furious  torrent  flows ; 
In  vain  would  speed  avoid,  or  strength  oppose. 

Prior, 
That  could  never  happen  from  any  other  cause 
than  the  huny,  prvctptarfion,  and  rapid  motion  of  the 
water,  letonung  at  the  end  of  the  deluge  towards 
the  sea.  Woodward, 

Mr.  Gay  died  of  a  mortification  of  the  bowels ;  it 
was  the  most  pndpUaie  case  I  ever  knew,  having 
cat  him  olT  in  three  days.  Arbuthnot, 

As  the  escar  separated,  I  rubbed  the  supej- 
eioescence  with  the  vitriol  stone,  or  sprinkled  it 
with  proeipitat§,  Wiseman. 

Should  he  return,  that  troop  so  blithe  and  bold, 
PredfitaiU  in  fear,  would  wins  their  flight. 
And  cune  their  cumbrous  pride's  unwieldy  weight. 

Pope, 
Not  so  bold  Amall ;  with  a  weight  of  skull 
Furious  be  sinks,  preeipUaUly  dull. 

Id.  Duneiad, 
Honied  on  by  the  pr§eipUan^  of  youth,  I  took 
this  oppprtunity  to  send  a  letter  to  the  secretary. 

Sirift, 
A  rashness  and  prodpUanm  of  judgment,  and  has- 
tiness to  believe  something  oq  one  side  or  the  other, 
phuges  us  into  many  errors.  WtUU^s  Logick, 

We  are  complicated  machines;  and  though  we 
have  one  main  spring,  that  nves  motion  to  the  whole, 
we  have  an  infinity  of  littfe  wheeb,  which,  in  their 
toras,  retard,  jmcipUate,  and  sometimes  stop,  the 
BMHion.  ChuUrfiM. 

Pkecipitatiok,  in  chemistry,  the  process  of 
deoomposition  by  whidi  any  body  separates 
from  others  in  a  solution  and  ialls  to  the  bottom : 
thus,  if  to  an  acid  and  an  oxide  a  third  body  as 
an  alkali  be  added,  then  the  alkali  having  a 
greater  affinity  to  the  acid  than  the  metsdlic 
oxide  has,  combines  with  it,  and  the  oxide  in 
consequence  precipitates,  or  appears  in  a  sepa- 
rate state  at  the  bottom.  The  substance  thus 
sinking  is  called  the  precipitate,  and  that,  by  the 
addition  of  which  this  effect  is  produced  is  called 
the  precipitant.  Sir  Humphry  Davy  found  that 
whenever  one  metal  precipitates  another  from  its 
acid  solution,  the  boay  that  fadls  down  is  usually 
fteeboth  from  acid  and  oxygen;  and  that  the 
whole  of  the  oxygen  and  the  acid,  is  transferred 
from  one  metal  to  the  other. 
PRECISE',  <M«.  N  Tt.  precis;  LaX.  pre- 
Precise'ly,  adv.  I  citut.  Exact ;  strict ; 
Precis e'n ESS,  It. f.V nice;  having  definite  li- 
Pbeci'siav,  Tmiis;  formal:  precisely 

pREci'siOK,  1  and  preciseness     corre- 

Peeci'stve,  adf.  -^  spona  with  this,  and  pre- 
cision is  synonymous  with  the  latter :  a  precisian 
is  one  who  limits  or  restrains  with  exactness  or 
ifor:  precisive,  exactly  limited. 

In  his  track  my  waiy  feet  have  stept. 
His  nndeclined  ways  precisely  kept.      .Sandys. 
Mfans  more  durable  to  preserve  the  laws  of  God 


from  oblivion  and  corruption  grew  in  use,  not  with  • 
out  precise  direction  from  God  himself.        Hooker, 

Doth  it  follow  that  all  things  in  the  church,  from 
the  greatest  to  the  least,  are  unholy,  which  the  Lord 
hath  not  himself  precisely  instituted  1  Id. 

You'll  not  bear  a  letter  for  me ;  you  stand  upon 
your  honour ;  why,  thou  unoonfinable  baseness,  it  is 
as  much  as  I  can  do  to  keep  the  term  of  mine  honour 
preeiee.  Bhakspeare. 

He  knows. 
He  cannot  so  preetMly  weed  this  land 
As  his  misdoubts  present  occasion, 
His  foes  are  so  enrooted  vrith  his  friends:    Id. 

Though  love  use  reason  for  his  preeinan,  he  admits 
him  not  for  his  counsellor.  Id. 

The  state  hath  given  you  licence  to  etay  on  land 
six  weeks,  and  let  it  not  trouble  you  if  your  occa- 
sions ask  farther  time ;  for  the  law  in  this  point  is  not 
precise.  Bacon, 

I  will  distinguish  the  cases ;  though  give  me  leave, 
in  the  handling  of  them,  not  to  sever  them'  with  too 
much  preciseness.  Id. 

These  men,  for  all  the  world,  like  our  predeiani 
be, 
Who  for  some  cross  or  saint  they  in  the  window  see 
Will  pluck  down  all  the  church.  .Drayton. 

Where  more  of  these  orders  than  one  shall  be  set 
in  several  stories,  there  must  be  an  exquisite  care  to 
place  the  columns  precisely  one  over  another. 

Wetton*s  Architecture, 

In  human  actions  there  are  no  degrees  and  precise 
natural  limits  described,  but  a  latitude  is  indulged. 

Taylor. 
Let  us  descend  from  this  top 
Of  speculation  ;  for  the  hour  precise 
Exacts  our  parting.     Milton's  Paradise  Lost. 

The  rule,  to  find  the  age  of  the  moon,  cannot  shew 
precisely  an  exact  account  of  the  moon,  because  of 
the  inequality  of  tfie  motions  of  the  sun  and  of  the 
moon.  Holder. 

He  that  thinks  of  being  tn  general,  thinks  never 
of  any  particular  species  of  being :  unless  he  can 
think  of  it  with  and  without  precision  at  the  same 
time.  Locke. 

The  raillery  of  the  wits  in  king  Gharies  the  Se- 
cond's reign,  upon  every  thing  which  they  called 
precise,  was  carried  to  so  ^at  an  extravagance  that 
it  almost  put  all  Christianity  out  of  countenance. 

Addison. 

Measuriag  the  diameter  of  the  fifth  dark  circle, 
I  found  it  the  fifth  part  of  an  inch  precisely, 

Newton's  Optiehs. 

The  reasonings  must  be  precise,  though  the  prac- 
tice may  admit  of  great  latitude.  Arbttthnot. 

I  was  unable  to  treat  this  part  more  in  detail, 
without  sacrificing  perspicuity  to  ornament,  without 
wandering  from  ue  precinon  or  breaking  the  chain 
of  reasoning.  Pope. 

The  prwise  difference  between  a  compound  and 
collective  idea  is  this,  that  a  compound  idea  unites 
things  of  a  diflerent  kind,  but  a  collective,  things  of 
the  same  kind.  Watts. 

A  profane  person  calls  a  man  of  piety  a  precisian. 

Id. 

Precisive  abstraction  is  when  we  consider  those 
things  apart  which  cannot  really  exist  apart;  as 
when  we  conuder  mode,  without  considering  its  sub- 
stance or  subject.  Id 

What  is  the  world?  a  term  which  men  have  got 
To  signify  riot  one  in  ten  knows  what 
A  term  which  with  no  more  precision  passes, 
To  point  out  herds  of  men  than  heads  of  asses ! 
In  common  use  no  more  it  means,  we  find, 
Than  many  fools  in  same  opinions  joir.ed. 

Churchill.    . 


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PRECLUDE',  V.  c.  Lat.  pnecbido.  To  shut 
oat  or  hinder  by  anticipation. 

Thitmvch  will  obviate  and  pnelvdt  the  obiee* 
tions  of  oar  adversaries,  that  we  do  not  detennine 
the  final  cause  of  the  systematical  parts  of  the  world, 
merely  as  they  have  respect  to  the  exigencies  or  con- 
veniences of  fife.  BentUy, 

If  you  once  allow  them  snch  an  acceptation  of 
chance,  you  have  precluded  yourself  from  any  mors 
reasoning  against  them.  Id, 

I  fear  there  will  be  no  way  left  to  tell  you,  that  I 
entirely  esteem  you  ;  none  but  tliat  which  no  bills 
can  jniduds,  and  no  king  can  prevent.        .  Pepe, 

PRECCCIOUS,  adj,  I     Fr.  precote;  Latin 

pRECoc'iTY.  )  praami.  Ripe  before 

the  time :  too  early  ripeness. 

I  may  say  of  the  younglinn  of  our  time,  that  prv* 
•ocUjf  of  understan<&ng  supplieth  age  and  stature. 

Bp.  Hail. 

Some  impute  the  cause  of  his  fall  to  a  precocUy  of 
spirit  and  valour  in  him ;  and  that  therefoie  some 
infectious  southern  air  did  blast  him.  Howel. 

Many  precoeiamt  trees,  and  such  as  have  their 
spring  m  the  winter,  may  be  found  in  most  parts. 

JBrotpne. 

And  eveiy  body  but  his  mother  deemed 
Him  almost  man ;  but  she  flew  in  a  rage 

And  bit  her  lips  (for  else  she  might  have  screamed) 
If  any  said  so,  tor  to  be  preeoeumt 
Was  in  her  eyes  a  thing  the  most  atrocious.  Bjfron, 

PRECONCEIT,  n.  $.  Pra  and  conceit.  An 
opinion  previously  formed. 

A  thing  in  reason  impossible,  which  notwithstand- 
ing through  their  misfashioned  preeanceU  appeared 
unto  them  no  less  certain  than  if  nature  had  written 
it  in  the  very  foreheads  of  all  the  creatures. 

Hooker. 

In  a  dead  plain  the  way  aeemeth  the  longer  be- 
cause the  eye  hath  preeonceked  it ,  shorter  than  the 
truth ;  and  the  frustration  of  that  maketh  it  seem  so. 

Bacon, 

Custom  with  most  men  prevails  more  than  truth ; 
according  to  the  notions  and  preooneeptionj  which  it 
hath  formed  in  our  minds,  we  shape  the  discoune  of 
reason  itself.  HakeviU, 

Fondness  of  preeoneeived  opbions  is  not  like  to 
render  your  reports  suspect,  nor  for  want  of  care, 
defective.  OlatwUU. 

The  reason  why  men  are  so  weak  in  governing  is, 
because  most  things  fall  out  accidentally,  and  come 
not  into  any  compliance  with  their  preconeeimd 
ends,  but  th^  are  torced  to  comply  subsequently. 

PRECONTRACT,  n.  i.  Pra  and  contract- 
As  a  yerb,  accented  on  the  last  syllable.  A  con- 
tract previous  to  another. 

Ue  is  your  husband  on  a  precontract ; 
To  bring  you  thus  together,  'tis  no  sin. 

Shahpeare, 
Some  are  such  as  a  man  cannot  make  his  wife, 
though  he  himself  be  unmarried,  because  they  are 
already  precontracted  to  some  other ;  or  else  are  in 
too  near  a  degree  of  affinity  or  consanguinity. 

Ayliffe, 
PRE'CURSE,  «.f.    Lat  pneatrro.    Fore- 
running. 

The  like  precune  of  fierce  events. 
As  harbingers  preceding  still  the  fates, 
And  prologue  to  the  omen  comine  on 
Have  heaven  and  earth  together  demonstrated. 

Shaksoeare, 


Jove's  lightninn,  the  prMurs^rf 
Of  dreadful  thundiar  claps,  more  momentify 
Were  not.  id.  Tempirt, 

This  contagion  might  have  been  presaged  apos 
consideration  of  its  preeureon,  viz.  a  ra£  winter, 
and  a  dose,  sulphurous  and  fieiy  air.  ffarvet/. 

Thomas  Burnet  played  the  preeunor  to  the  coming 
of  Homer  in  his  Homerides.  Pope. 

PREDA'CEOUS^  ad},  ^     Lat  prmb.     Lir- 
Paf^DALy  Mng  by  prey;  plun 

Pred'itory.  )  dering. 

The  king  called  his  partiament,  where  he  exagge- 
rated the  malice  and  the  cruel  piMdatory  war  made  I 
Scotland. 


As  those  aie  endowed  with  poison,  because  they 
Knpredaceom:  so  these  need  it  not,  because  their 
food  is  near  at  hand,  and  may  be  obtained  without 
contest.  Derham, 

Sarmat'a,  laid  by  pmfol  rapine  low. 
Mourned  the  hard  yoke,  and  sought  relief  in  vain. 

Boyte, 

PREDECEA'SED,  o^'.  Pr«  and  deceased. 
Dead  before. 

Will  you  mock  at  an  andent  tradition,  begun  upon 
an  honourable  respect,  and  worn  as  a  memorable 
trophy  of  predeceased  valour?  Shaktpeare. 

PREDECES'SOR,  n.  *.  Fr.  pr>edece9$eur ; 
Lat.  pra  and  decedo.  One  that  was  in  any  state 
or  place  before  another ;  an  ancestor. 

In  these  pastoral  pastimes  a  great  many  days 
were  qpent  to  follow  their  flying  prsJbcmors. 

5idiwy. 
There  is  cause  why  we  should  be  slow  and  un- 
willing to  change,  without  veir  urgent  neceesity,  the 
ancient  ordinances,  rites,  and  approved  customs  of 
our  venerable  predeoeaore.  Hooker. 

If  I  seem  partial  to  my  predeeeetar  in  the  laurel, 
the  friends  of  antiquity  are  not  few.  Drvden, 

The  present  pope,  who  is  well  aomtainted  vrith  the 
secret  history,  and  the  weakness  or  his  predeemor, 
seems  resolved  to  bring  the  project  to  its  perfection. 

Addiaon^ 
The  more  beauteous  Chloe  sat  to  thee. 
Good  Howard,  emulous  of  Apelles'  art ; 

But  happy  thou  from  Cupid's  arrow  free. 
And  flames  that  pierced  Uty  predwmmr'*  heart 

Prior. 

PREDESTINATE,  v.  a,  &  v.  n.^     Fr.  pre- 
pREDBSTiNA'aiAMy  n.  s.  I  destmer ; 

Predesttna'tion,  %  Latin  pra 

Predes'tinator,  land  di$ti- 

Predes'tine,  v.  a.  J  no.  To  ap- 

point beforehand  :  in  ludicrous  language,  to  hold 
predestination:  predestinarian,  one  who  holds 
that  doctrine ;  see  .below.  Predestinator  is  used 
out  of  all  analogy  by  Cowley  as  synonymous 
with  predestinarian  :  to  predestine  is  to  decree 
beforehand. 

Whom  he  did  foreknow,  he  also  did  predeetinaU 
to  be  conformed  to  the  image  of  his  son.  ^  Ronuim. 

Havine  predettinated  us  unto  the  adoption  of  chil- 
dren by  Jesus  Christ  to  himself.        Bphedans  i.  5. 

Some  gentleman  or  other  shall  'scape  a  predetthMte 
scratcbt  noe.  Skahpeare. 

Predettinatum  we  can  difierenee  no  otherwise  from 
providence  and  presdence,  than  this,  that  preadence 
onlv  foreseeth,  providence  foreseeth  and  carcth  for, 
and  hath  respect  to  all  creatures,  and  predestvMtion 
is  only  of  men  ;  and  yet  not  of  all  to  men  belong- 
ing, but  of  their  salvation  properly  in  the  common 
use  of  divines ;  or  perdition,  as  some  have  used  it. 
Rateigh*t  Hutorp  of  l/ie  World 


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PREDESTINATION* 


41 


Whydoii  AejiwaiiieiiKiiMn  lo  adventuroiisly  dimb 
lato  faMvcB,  to  minck  Um  oekatial  aicbives,  read 
God's  kkUea  dscren,  when  with  len  labour  be  may 
weaie  aa  antfaentick  tranicript  within  himself  1 

Daoojf  of  PUt^, 
Me,  mine  example  let  the  Stoicks  use. 
Their  sad  and  cniel  doctrine  to  maintain ; 
Lei  all  pnitUinaton  me  |iroduoe. 
Who  straggle  with  eternal  fate  in  Tain.  CamUy. 
Nor  can  they  justly  accuse 
Tb«r  flsaker,  or  their  making;  or  their  fate ; 
Am  if  produtmBtion  overrnlMl 
Tbdr  will,  disposed  by  absolute  decree. 
Or  high  fore-lukowledge. 

mttoiCt  PorodMS  XmI. 
Ilia  ruff  crest  he  rears. 
And  pricks  up  hia  predMtiiMtiii^  ears. 

Drydm, 
Ye  caiefol  angels,  whom  eternal  (ate 
Ordaina  on  earth  and  human  acts  to  wait. 
Who  tarn  with  secret  power  this  restless  ball, 
And  bid  yndmUmtd  empires  rise  and  fidl.  Prior, 

PnEDBSTTVATiON  is,  accordiag  to  the  Cal- 
▼hiistic  writers,  the  decree  of  Gm,  whereby  he 
hidi  fiom  idl  eternity  nnchanceably  appointed 
whatsoever  comes  to  pass ;  ancf  hath  more  espe- 
cially fore-ordained  certain  individuals  of  the 
human  race  to  everlasting  happiness,  and  hath 
passed  by  the  rest,  or  fbre-ordained  them  to  ever- 
lasting misery.  The  former  of  these  are  called 
the  dect,  and  the  latter  the  reprobate.  This 
doctrine  is  ^  subject  of  one  of  the  most  per- 
plezing  coDtroversies  that  have  occurred  among 
imnkind.  But  it  is  not  peculiar  to  the  Christian 
frith.  It  has  always  been  in  some  degree  a  po- 
pular opinion,  and  has  been  believed  by  many 
specalative  men.  The  ancient  Stoics,  Zeno  and 
Chiysippfns,  whom  the  Jewish  Essenes  seem  to 
have  foltowed,  asserted  the  existence  of  a  Deity 
that,  acting  wisely,  but  necessarily,  contrived  the 
general  system  oif  the  world ;  from  which,  by  a 
series  of  causes^  whatever  is  now  done  in  it 
unavoidably  results.  This  series  or  concatena- 
tion of  causes,  they  held  to  be  necessary  in 
eveiy  part;  and  tluit  God  himself  is  so  much 
the  servant  of  necessity,  and  of  his  own  decrees, 
that  he  could  not  have  made  the  smallest  object 
in  the  world  otherwise  thaiv  it  now  is,  much  less 
is  he  able  to  alter  any  thing.  Seneca  gives  a 
similar  account  of  the  doctrine  of  &te.  See 
NECESsrrr.  The  Stoical  fiite  differs,  however, 
from  die  Christian  predestination  in  several 
points.  They  regard  the  divine  nature  and  will 
as  a  necessary  part  of  a  chain  of  causes;  whereas 
all  Christians  consider  the  Deity  as  the  Lord 
and  Ruler  of  the  universe,  omnipotent  and  free^ 

Eting  all  things  according  to  his  pleasure, 
doubtful  of  the  immortali^r  of  the  soul, 
tics  could  have  no  idea  of  the  doctrine  of 
dection  and  reprobation;    nor  did  diey  ever 
doubt  their  own  freedom  of  will,  or  power  of 
dou^  good  as  well  as  evil,  as  the  Christian  pre- 
desunariaos  have  done.    Mahomet  int^uoed 
inio  his  Koran  the  doctrine  of  an  absolute  pre- 
destination  in    the  strongest   terms.     In    ^e 
Cliristian  Church  the  controversy  concerning  pte- 
^esUxoadcn  first  made  its  appearance  about  the  be- 
ginning oi  the  ^Kd  century,  in  consequence  of  the 
iieretical  opinions  advanced  by  Pelagius  and  C«- 
]«stiiif.     See  PeI'AGiars.   Titese  were  zealously 


opposed  by  the  celebrated  St  Augustine,  bishop 
of  Hippo,  who  first  asserted  the  leading  tenets 
of  the  Predestinarians.  The  dispute  wa«  carried 
on  with  great  seal.  2^imus,  bishop  of  Rmne, 
decided  at  first  in  fiivor  of  Pelagius,  but  after- 
wards altered  his  opinion.  The  council  of 
Ephesus  approved  of  St.  Augustine's  doctrine, 
and  condemned  that  of  lus  opponents.  Hiese 
opinions  soon  after  assumed  vanous  modifications. 
A  party  called  predestinarians  carried  Augus- 
tine's doctrine  mrther  than  he  had  done,  and 
said  that  God  had  decreed  the  sins  as  well  as 

Snnishment  of  the  wicked.  Another  party  mo- 
erated  Pelagius's  doctrine,  and '  were  called 
Semi-Pelaoiahs.  (See  that  article.)  But  the 
doctrine  of  St.  Augustine,  who  wrote  several 
treatises  on  the  subject,  became  gencaral.  He 
was  the  oracle  of  the  school-men.  They  only 
disputed  about  the  true  sense  of  his  writings. 

The  whole  of  the  earliest  reformers  maintained 
these  opinions  of  Augustine.  Under  Luther 
they  only  assumed  a  more  regular  and  systema- 
tic form  than  they  had  before  exhibited.  But,  as 
the  Lutherans  aflierwards  abandoned  diem,  they 
are  now  known  by  the  name  of  Calvinistic  doc- 
trines, from  John  Calvin  of  Geneva.  The  op* 
ponents  of  the  doctrine  of  predestination  among 
the  Protestants  usually  receive  the  appellation  of 
Arminians  or  Remonstrants.  They  derive  the 
first  of  these  appellations  from  James  Arminius, 
professor  of  theology  at  Leyden,  and  the  second 
Irom  the  Arminians  who  remonstrated  against 
the  synod  of  Dort.  (See  Akminius.)  A  coun- 
ter remonstrance  was  presented,  containing  the 
opinions  of  the  Calvinists,  which  was  approved 
of  by  the  synod.  The  substance  of  it  was  after- 
wards adopted  in  nearly  the  same  expressions 
into  the  Confession  of  Faith,  compiled  by  the 
assembly  of  divines  at  Westminster  in  1643; 
which  every  clergyman  of  the  church  of  Scot- 
land subscribes  previous  to  his  admission.  It 
runs  thus : — ^  God  from  aU  eternity  did,  by  the 
most  wise  and  holy  counsel  of  his  own  will, 
freely  and  unchangeably  ordain  whatsoever 
comes  to  pass:  yet  so, as  thereby  neither  is  God 
the  author  of  sin,  nor  is  violence  offered  to  the 
will  of  the  creatures,  nor  is  the  liberty  or  con- 
tingency of  second  causes  taken  away,  but  ra- 
ther established.  Although  God  knows  whatso- 
ever may  or  can  come  to  pass  upon  all  supposed 
conditions ;  yet  hath  he  not  decreed  any  thiiM^ 
because  he  foresaw  it  as  future,  or  that  which 
would  come  to  pass  upon  such  conditions.  By 
the  decree  of  God,  for  the  manifestation  of  his 
glory,  some  men  and  angels  are  predestinated 
unto  everlasting  life,  and  others  are  fore-ordained 
to  everlasting  death.  These  angels  and  men, 
thus  predestinated  and  fore^ordained,  are  parti- 
cularly and  unchangeably  designed ;  and  their 
number  is  so  certain  and  definite  that  it  cannot 
be  either  increased  or  diminished.  Those  of 
mankind  that  are  predestinated  unto  life,  God, 
before  the  foundation  of  the  world  was  laid,  ac- 
cording to  his  eternal  and  immutable  purpose, 
and  the  secret  council  and  good  pleasure  of  his 
will,  hadi  chosen, '  in  Christ,  unto  everiasting 
glory,  out  of  his  mere  free  grace  and  love,  with- 
out any  foresight  of  &ith,  good  works,  or  persever- 
ance in  either  of  them,  or  ady  other  thing  in  the 


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PREDESTINATION, 


cieatttre,  as  conditions  or  causes  moving  htm 
hereunto ;  and  all  to  the  praise  of  his  glorious 
grace.  As  God  hath  appointed  the  elect  onto 
glory,  so  hath  he,  by  the  eternal  and  most  free 
purpose  of  his  will,  foreordained  all  the  means 
thereunto.  Wherefore,  they  who  are  elected^ 
being  fallen  in  Adam,  are  redeemed  by  Chiial» 
are  effectually  called  unto  iaith  in  Christ,  by  his 
Spirit  working  in  due  season;  are  justified^ 
adopted,  sanctified,  and  kept,  by  his  power 
through  faith  unto  salvation.  Neither  are  any 
other  redeemed  by  Christ,  effectually  called, 
justified,  adopted,  sanctified,  and  saved,  but  the 
elect  only.  The  rest  of  mankind  God  was 
pleased,  according  to  the  unsearchable  counsel 
of  his  own  will,  whereby  he  extended  or  with- 
holdeth  mercy  as  he  pleaseth,  for  the  glory  of 
his  sovereign  power  over  his  creatures,  to  pass 
by,  and  to  oroain  them  to  dishonor  and  wrath 
for  Uieir  sin,  to  the'  praise  of  his  glorious  jus- 
tice.' 

There  are  two  kinds  of  modem  Calvinists  or 
Predestinarians,  viz.  the  Supralapsarians,  who 
maintain  that  God  did  originally  and  expressly 
decree  the  fall  of  Adam,  as  a  foundation  for  the 
display  of  his  justice  and  mercy ;  while  those 
who  maintain  that  God  only  permitted  the  fall 
of  Adam  are  called  Sublapsanans ;  their  system 
of  decrees  concerning  election  and  reprobation 
being,  as  it  were,  sulwequent  to  that  event.  But, 
as  Dr.  Priestley  justly  remarks,  if  we  admit  the 
divine  prescience,  there  is  not,  in  fact,  -any  dif- 
ference between  the  two  schemes ;  and,  accord- 
ingly, that  distinction  is  now  seldom  mentioned. 
Nor  was  the  church  of  Rome  less  i^tated  by 
tiie  contest  about  predestination  tiian  the  first 
Protestants  were.  The  council  of  Trent  was 
much  perplexed  how  to  setde  the  matter  vrithout 
giving  offence  to  the  Dominicans,  who  were 
much  attached  to  the  doctrine  of  Augustine,  and 
possessed  great  influence  in  the  council.  After 
much  dispute,  the  great  object  came  to  be,  how 
to  contrive  such  a  decree  as  might  give  offence 
to  nobody,  and  decide  nothing.  Upon  the  whole, 
however,  they  seem  to  have  favored  the  Semi- 
pelagian  scheme.  Among  other  things,  it  was 
determined  that  good  works  are  of  themselves 
meritorious  to  eternal  life ;  but  it  is  added,  by 
way  of  softening,  that  it  is  throup;h  the  goodness 
of  God  that  he  makes  his  own  gifts  to  be  merits 
in  us,  Catarin  revived  at  that  council  an  opi- 
nion of  some  of  the  schoolmen,  that  God 
chose  a  small  number  of  persons,  such  as  the 
blessed  virgin,  the  apostles,  &c.,  whom  he  was 
determined  to  safve  without  any  foresight  of  their 
good  works ;  and  that  he  also  wiUs  that  all  the 
rest  should  be  saved,  providing  for  them  all 
necessary  means,  but  they  are  at  liberty  to  use 
them  or  not.  This  is  called  in  £ng;land  the 
Baxterian  scheme.  The  Jesuits  at  first  followed 
the  opinion  of  Augustine ;  but  afterwards  fw> 
sook  It.  Molina,  one  of  theb  order,  was  the 
author  of  what  is  called  the  middle  scheme,  or 
the  doctrine  of  a  grace  sufficient,  for  all  men,  but 
subject  to  the  freedom  of  the  human  will.  Jan- 
senius,  a  doctor  of  Louvain,  opposed  the  Jesuits 
with  great  vigor,  and  supporM  the  doctrine  of 
Augustine.  (See  Jansevists.)  But  the  Jesuits 
hs(4  sufficient  interest  at  Rome  to  procure  the 


opinions  of  Jansenius  to  be  eondemned.  These 
disputes  have  never  been  fully  settled,  and  still 
divide  even  the  Roman  Catholic  churdi.  Some 
of  the  ablest  supporters  of  Predestination  have 
appeared  among  the  Jansenists,  and  particularly 
among  the  gentlemen  of  Port-Royal.  With  re- 
gard to  Great  Britain,  the  earliest  English  re- 
formers were  in  general  Sublapsarians,  although 
some  of  them  were  Supralapsarians.  But  the 
rigid  Predestinarians  have  been  gradually  declin- 
ing in  number  in  that  church,  although  they  still 
subscribe  the  thirty-nine  articles.  The  celebrated 
Scottish.  Reformer,  John  Knox,  having  been 
educsyted  at  Geneva,  established  in  his  own 
country  the  doctrine  of  predestination  in  its 
strictest  form :  and  it  has  probably  been  adhered 
to  more  strictly  in  Scotland  than  in  any  part  of 
Europe.  Of  late  ^ears,  however,  the  dispute 
concerning  predestination  has  assumed  a  form 
considerably  different  from  that  which  it  formerly 
possessed.  Instead  of  being  considered  as  a 
point  to  be  determined  almost  entirely  by  the 
Sacred  Scriptures,  it  has,  in  the  hands  of  a  num- 
ber of  able  writers,  in  a  great  measure  resolved 
itself  into  a  ouestion  of  natural  religion,  under 
the  head  of  tne  philosophical  liberty  or  neces- 
sity of  the  will.  (See  Metaphysics  and  Ne- 
cessity.) Readers  who  wish  for  farther  infor- 
mation on  this  subject  may  consult  the  writings 
of  lord  Kames,  Jonathan  Edwards,  and  Dr, 
Priesdey,  one  of  the  most  celebrated  Necessita- 
rians of  his  age.  To  give  even  a  sketch  of  the 
arguments  on  both  sides  would  far  exceed  our 
bounds.  Milton,  an  eminent  philosopher  and 
divine,  as  well  as  the  first  of  poets,  when  be 
wished  to  exhibit  the  fallen  angels  themselves  as 
perplexed  by  questions  above  their  comprehen- 
sion, set  them  to  dispute  about  predestination:— 
They  veasoaed  high,  of  knowledge,  will,  and  iiite. 
Fixed  fate,  free-will,  fore-knowledge  absolute  i 
And  found  no  end,  in  wand'ring  mazes  lost. 

PREDETER'MINE,  v.  a.    Pra  and  deter- 
mine.   To  doom  or  confine  by  previous  decree. 
We  see  in  brutes  certain  sensible  instincts  antece- 
dent to  their  imaeinatlTe  faculty,  whereby  they  are 
mndetermtMd  to  £e  convenience  of  the  sensible  life. 

HaU, 
This  pndeUmdnatian  of  God*s  own  will  is  to  far 
irom  being  the  determining  of  ours,  that  it  ii  dis- 
tinctly the  contrary;  for  supposing  God  to  predeter- 
mine that  I  shall  act  freely ;  tis  certain  from  theoce, 
that  uy  will  is  free  in  respect  of  God,  and  not  pre- 
dsUrmmed.  bammond't  Fmtdamentals. 

'  The  truth  of  the  ottholic  doctrine  of  all  ages,  in 
points  of  predBtermmatim  and  irresistibility,  stands 
in  opposition  to  the  Calvinists.  Hammond. 

FKB'DIAL,  adj.    laLpradium.    Consisting 
of  farms. 

By  the  civil  law,  their  predial  estates  are  liable  to 

fiscal  payments  and  taxes,  as  not  being  appropriated 

for  the  service  of  divine  worship,  but  for  profane 

uses.  Ajfliffe. 

PREmCABLE,  «.  s.  &  adj.\     Lat.  pradi- 

PaBDic  AMEUT,  /  cabUc.    A  lo- 

Pred'icant,  >  gical  term,  de- 

Pred'icate,  v.a^  v.  n.  &  n.  s.  i  noting  one  of 

Pbeoxca'xion,  n.  s,  J  the  five  thJMs 

which  can  be  affirmed :  such  as  may  be  affirmed : 

predicament  is  a  class  or  arrangement  of  beings 


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ordogi:  Imdm class  case  or  coDdition  of  aoy 
kind :  pradicant,  one  who  affirms :  to  predicate, 
to  affiim  any  thing  of  another :  to  comprise  an- 
affifinatioQ;  affirm  in  any  way;  or  that  which 
is  affirmed  or  denied  of  the  subject :  predication, 
iffirmatioD. 

The  oflender't  life  lies  in  the  meicy 
f  the  dnke  only,  Against  adl  other  voice ; 
In  which  fndkeHmma  I  say  thou  gtand'st 

I  shew  the  line  and  the  ffredieammt, 
Wbeiein  ytn  range  under  this  suhtile  king.     Id, 
God  then  is  l^hi  in  himself;  so  in  relation  to  us  : 
tiid  this  yrt^jcaiUm  of  light  serves  to  confirm  our 
cenfennity  to  God  in  hb  behalf.    •  Bp.  HaU, 

if  thoe  were  nothing  but  bodies  to  be  ranked  by 
them  in  the  prmtiwsnirt  of  place,  then  that  descrip- 
tioB  woald  be  allowed  by  them  as  su£5cient. 

I)fgbjfcn  Bodm, 
It  were  a  presnmption  to  think  that  any  thing  in 
say  created  nature  can  bear  any  perfect  resemblance 
of  the  incomprehensive  perfection  of  the  divine  na- 
ture, verv  Done  itself  not  prtdicating  univocally 
toeduBg  him  and  any  created  being.  HaU. 

All  propositions,  wherein  a  part  of  the  complex 
idea,  whidi  any  term  stands  lor,  is  predieaUd  of  that 
temi,  are  osdy  verbal ;  t.  g.  to  say  that  gold  is  a 
■Mt«l.  Loeke. 

Let  US  laaaoB  Irom  them  as  well  as  we  can ;  they 
a«  only  ahoat  identical  pndimtiont  and  influence. 

Id. 
These  they  call  the  Av9  pr&dicablet ;  because  every 
thing  that  is  affirmed  concerning*  any  being,  must  be 
the  genus,  species,  difierenoe,  some  property,  or  acci- 
^U  Watti, 

The  predicaU  is  that  which  is  affirmed  or  denied  of 
the  subject.  Id.  Logick, 

PREDICT,  v,a.  -%  Fr.  predire:  Lat.  pra- 
pREDic'Tioiry  U.S.  >i2ic/tts.  To  foretell;  to 
Psedic'tob.  J  foreshow:    prediction    is 

declaration  or  revelation  of  something  future ; 
prophecy :  predictor  is  a  foreteller. 
These  prediction* 
Are  to  the  world  in  general,  as  to  Caesar. 

ahaktpeare. 
The  prtdieHam  of  cold  and  long  winters,  hot  and 
^  sommere,  are  good  to  be  known.  Bacon, 

Hem  soon  katti  thy  prodkHon,  seer  blest ! 
BIcasared  this  transient  world  the  race  of  time. 
Tin  time  stand  fixed.         MUUm's  Paradue  LoH. 
In  Christ  they  all  meet  with  an  invincible  evi- 
dence, as  if  they  were  not  prtdietiom,  but  after-rela- 
tiona;  and  the  penmen  of  them  not  prophets  but 
«»angelist».  Sotoh. 

He  is  always  inveighing  against  such  unequal  dis- 
tributions ',  nor  does  he  ever  cease  to  predict  publick 
ruins,  till  his  private  are  repaired. 

Oovemmcni  of  the  Tongue, 
Me,  who  prophesyed  the  best. 
Approves  the  judgment  to  the  rest; 
HeM  rather  choose  that  I  should  die. 
Than  his  predieUon  prove  a  lie. 

Sbt/I's  MiteeUtmitM. 
Whether  he  has  not  been  the  cause  of  this  poor 
nan's  death,  as  well  as  the  pndieior,  may  be  dis- 
pttted.  Swifi, 

PREDIGESTION,  n.s.  Pnt  and  digestion. 
I^igssUoD  too  soon  performed. 

PrfOgmtiom,  or  hasty  digestion,  fills  the  body 
^I  of  cndities  aikl  seeds  of  diseases. 

Baeon't  Stmyt. 
PREDISPOSE',  t>.  a.    Pr«  and  dispose.  To 
tdapt  previously  to  aoy  certain  purpose. 


Tunes  and  airs  have  in  themseWes  some  affinity 
with  the  afiections ;  so  as  it  is  no  manrel  if  they 
alter  the  spirits,  considering  that  tunes  have  a  prs- 
dupotition  to  the  morion  of  the  spirits.  Bamnu 

Vegetable  productions  require  heat  of  the  sun,  to 
pndvpotc,  and  excite  the  earth  and  the  seeds. 

Bumet, 

Unless  nature  be  predisposed  to  friendship  by  its 
own  propensity,  no  arts  of  obligation  shall  be  able 
to  abate  the  secret  hatred  of  some  persons  towards 
others.  So^th, 

External' accidents  are  often  the  occasional  cause 
of  the  king's  evil ;  but  they  suppo«  a  predispoeituin 
of  the  body.  Wimman, 

PREDOM'INATE,  v.n.*)     Yt,predonwner ; 

Predom'inance,  n.»,        >Lat.  pra  and  do- 

PaEDOM'f NANT,  odj.  J  mtnoT.  To  pre- 
vail; be  ascendant;  be  supreme:  predominance 
is  prevalence ;  superiority;  ascendancy:  predo- 
mmanty  prevalent;  ascendant. 

Miserable  were  the  condition  of  that  church,  the 
weighty  afiairs  whereof  should  be  ordered  by  those  . 
deliberations,  wherein  such  an  humour  as  this  were 
predominant.  Hooker. 

We  make  guilty  of  our  disasters,  the  sun,  the 
moon,  and  the  stars,  as  we  if  were  knaves,  thieves, 
and  treacherous  by  spherical  predomnanoe, 

Shabtpeare, 
Foul  subordination  is  predominant, 
And  equity  exiled  ^our  highness'  land.        Id, 

Those  helps  were  ovenveighed  by  things  that 
made  against  him,  and  were  predominant  in  the 
king's  mind.  Boeon. 

So  much  did  love  t'  hei  executed  lord 
Preponderate  in  this  fair  lady's  heart. 

Dania. 

In  human  bodies  there  is  an  incessant  warfare 
amongst  the  humours  for  predamisiancif,        Howel, 
Whether  the  sun,  predominant  in  heaven, 

Rise  on'the  earth ;  or  earth  riM  on  the  sun. 

Milton, 

An  inflammarion  consists  only  of  a  sanguineous 
effluxion,  or  else  is  denominable  from  other  humours, 
according  to  the  predomxnancjf  of  melancholy,  phlegm, 
or  choler. '  Browne. 

The  true  cause  of  the  Pharisees'  disbelief  of 
Christ's  doctrine  was,  the  predominanee  of  their  oo- 
vetousness  and  ambition  over  their  will.        South, 
^  The  gods  formed  women's  souls  out  of  these  prin- 
ciples which  compose  several  kinds  of  animals ;  and 
their  good  or  b«i  disposition  arises,   according  as  ' 
such  and  such  principles  predominate  in  their  consti-  . 
tutions.  Addison. 

The  several  rays  in  white  light  do  retain  their  co- 
lorific qualities,  by  which  those  of  any  sort,  when- 
ever they  become  more  copious  than  the  rest,  do,  by 
their  excess  and  predominanee,  cause  their  proper  co- ' 
lour  to  appear.  Newton. 

The  rejs,  reflected  least  obliquely,  may  predomi- 
nate over  the  rest,  so  much  as  to  cause  a  heap  of  such 
particles  to  appear  very  intensely  of  their  colour. 

id.  Opticks. 

1  could  shew  you  several  pieces,  where  the  beauties 
of  this  kind  are  so  predominant,  that  you  could  never 
be  able  to  read  or  understand  them.  Sunft. 

Where  judgment  is  at  a  loss  to  determine  the 
choice  of  a  laidv  who  has  several  lovers,  fancy  may ' 
the  more  allowably  predominate,  Clarissa, 

If  ever  he  fell  into  a  fit  of  the  gout,  or  if  any  other 
cause  withdrew  him  from  public  cares,  principles  di- 
rectly contrary  were  sure  to  predominate. 

■  Burke.  Charaetcr  of  Lord  Chatham. 

It  is  the  prevalence  or  prsdoMiaaiiM  of  any  parti- 
cular passion  which  gives  the  tun  or  tincture  to  a 


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ntii*t  temper,  by  which  he  U  distinflruished,  and  for 
which  he  is  loM  or  esteemed,  or  shaniied  ud  de- 
spised  by  others. 


PREEMINENCE,  n. i .  >     TT.pmemnerux ; 

Preem'inent,  (u^*.  )  Lat.  wm  and  emi- 

nence. It  has  been  written,  to  ayoid  the  junction 
of  ee,  pieheminence.  Exoellenoe;  superiority 
of  merit  or  station:  pre-eminent  is  excellent; 
superior. 

His  lanoe  broaght  him  captives  to  the  triumph  of 
Artesta's  beauty,  such  as,  though  Artesiabe  amount 
the  fairest,  yet  ill  that  company  were  to  have  Uie 
pvtMiniMiicijf.  Sidkney, 

.  That  which  standeth  on  record  hath  presmtiimct 
above  that  which  ptsseth  from  hand  to  hand,  and 
hath  no  pens  but  tne  tongues,  no  book  but  the  eais 
of  men.  Hooker. 

I  do  invest  you  jointly  with  my  power, 

Preeminenoe,  and  all  the  large  efiects 

That  troop  with  majesty.  Shaktpean,  King  Lear, 

The  English  desired  no  jmemineiiee,  bntofiered 
equality  both  in  liberty  and  privilege,  and  in  capa- 
<;ity  of  oflkes  and  empkymenti.  Hayward. 

It  is  a  greater  preeminenee  to  have  life,  than  to  be 
Vfithout  it ;  to  have  life  and  sense,  than  to  have  life 
only ;  to  have  life,  sense,  and  reason,  than  to  have  only 
life  and  sense.  WWdtu. 

Tell  how  came  I  herel  by  some  great  maker 
In  goodness  -and  in  power  mteminent.  MUUm, 

Beyond  the  equator,  the  southern  point  of  the 
needle  is  sovereign,  and  the  north  submits  his  prMm- 


I  plead  for  the  preeminmwe  of  epick  poetry. 

Dryden. 
WjB  claim  a  proper  interest  above  others,  in  the 
preeminent  rights  of  the  household  of  faith.     Sprat, 
Am  I  distinguished  from  you  but  by  toils, 
Superior  toils,  and  heavier  weight  of  cares  t 
Painful  preeminenee  !  Addimm't  Caio, 


PREEMPTION,  n.  t.  lAtpraen^Ho,  The 
right  of  purchasing  before  another. 

Certain  perMns,  in  the  reigns  of  king  Edward 
,VI.  and  queen  Maiy,  sought  to  make  use  of  tins 
memption;  but,  croued  in  the  prosecution,  or  de- 
teated  in  their  expectation,  gave  it  over.       Carew. 

PREENGAGETyV.a.    )     Pra  and  engage. 

Preenoioe'hent,  n.  i .  S  To  engage  by  pre- 
cedent ties  or  contracts :  the  noun  substantive 
corresponding. 

Men  are  apt  to  think  that  those  obediences  they 
pay  to  God  shall,  Vke  a  preengtufement,  disannul  all 
after-contracts  made  by  guilt.         Deoajf  of  Piety, 

The  opinions,  suited  to  their  respective  tempers, 
will  make  way  to  their  assent,  in  spite  of  accidental 
preengogeeMnts,  OlammUe, 

My  preengagementt  to  other  themes  were  not  un- 
known to  those  for  whom  I  was  to  write.       Boyle. 

To  Cipsens  by  his  friends  his  suit  he  moved, 
But  he  was  pnengaged  by  fomjer  ties.         Dryden,  ^ 

As  far  as  opportunity  and  former  preengagementt 
mil  give  leave.  Collier  if  Friendship, 

Tne  world  has  the  unhappy  advantaee  of  proen- 
geging  our  passions  at  a  time  when  we  nave  not  re- 
lection  enough  to  look  berond  the  instrument  to  the 
hand  whose  direction  it  obeys.      Rogen*t  Sermom, 

PREEXIST,  V.  a.     f     Lat  pre  and  eruto. 

Preexis'tehce,  1I.S.  >To  exist  beforehand: 

Preexis'tent,  at§,    J  the     noun-substantive 
and  adjective  corresponding. 
If  thy  prtexiuing  soul. 

Was  formed  at  first  wiSi  myriads  more 

It  did  through  all  the  mighty  poets  roll.  Dryden. 


Wisdom  dedares  her  antiqaity  and  preektttemee  i» 
all  the  works  of  this  earth.  Btunet. 

Artificial  things  could  not  be  from  eternity,  be- 
cause they  suppose  man,  by  whose  art  they  were  naade, 
peeesietent  to  them  i  the  workman  must  be  before  the 
woric.  li. 

As  Simonides  has  exposed  the  vicious  part  of  wo- 
man from  the  doctrine  of  prtexiatence ;  some  of  the 
ancient  philosophers  have  satiriied  the  vicious  part 
of  the  human  species,  from  a  notion  of  the  soul's 
postexistence.  AdJ&unu 

If  this  preestMtent  eternity  is  not  compatible  with  a 
successive  duration,  dien  some  being,  though  inii . 
nitely  above  our  finite  comprehensions,  must  have 
had  an  identical,  invariable  continuance  finwn  all 
eternity,  which  b^ng  is  no  other  than  God. 

Blind  to  former,  as  to  future  fiite. 
What  mortal  knows  his  preexuieni  state  * 

Pope, 

PRc-ExtSTEKCE  19  a  pnority  of  being,  or  the 
being  of  one  thing  before  another.  Thus  a  canse 
is  in  nature  pre-«xistent  to  its  effect  The  Peri- 
patetics, though  they  maintained  the  eternity  of 
the  world,  were  likewise  dogmatical  in  their 
opinion  that  the  universe  was  formed,  actuated, 
'and  governed,  by  a  sovereign  intelligence.  Mr. 
Hume's  speculations  also,  on  this  abstruse  and 
arduous  subject,  had  a  creater  tendency  to  dissi- 
pate  its  gloom  than  that  philosopher  himself 
could  imagine.  The  pre-existence  of  the  human 
soul  to  its  corporeal  vehicle  had  been  from  time 
immemorial  a  prevailing  opinion  among  the 
Asiatic  sages,  and  from  them  was  perhaps  trans- 
ferred by  Pythagoras  to  the  philosophy  of  the 
Greeks;  but  his  metempsychosis  is  too  trivial 
either  to  be  seriously  proposed  or  refuted.  Ne- 
vertheless, from  the  sentiments  of  Socrates  con- 
cerning the  immortality  of  the  soul,  delivered  in 
his  last  interview  with  his  friends,  it  is  obvious 
that  the  tenet  of  pre-existence  was  a  doctrine  of 
the  Platonic  school.  But  their  hypothesis  was 
totally  tmsupported  by  &ct,  except  the  solitary 
pretence  of  Pythagoras,  that  his  soul  had  for- 
merly animated  the  body  of  Euphorbus ;  a  fable 
evidently  invented  to  support  his  doctrine  of 
transmigration.  After  the  Christian  religion  bad 
been  considerably  difiused,  and  warmly  com- 
bated by  its  phiWsophical  antagonists,  the  same 
doctrine  was  resumed  and  taught  at  Alexandria, 
by  Platonic  proselytes,  not  only  as  a  topic  con- 
stituent of  their  master's  philosophy,  but  as  an 
answer  to  those  formidable  objections  which  bad 
been  deduced  from  the  doctrine  of  original  sin, 
and  from  the  vices  which  stain,  and  the  calami- 
ties which  disturb  human  life.  For  the  human 
beings  introduced  by  them  to  the  theatre  of  pro- 
bation had  already  attained  the  CKpexitf  ai  moral 
agents ;  as  their  crime  therefore  was  voluntary, 
their  punishment  might  be  just 

The  word  has  also  been  used  vrilb  regard  to 
the  divinity  of  our  Saviour.  The  Arians,  who 
allowed  the  subordinate  divinity  of  our  Saviour, 
believed  him  pre-extstent  to  all  time,  and  before 
all  worlds ;  but  the  Socinians,  who  esteemed  his 
nature,  as  well  as  his  person,  roerelv  human,  in- 
sisted that  before  his  incarnation  be  was  only 
pre-existent  in  the  divine  idea,  not  in  nature  or 
person. 


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PRETACE;  ».  s.,  v.  n.  &  )     French  pn/ace ; 
Pft£i^ACER,  [w.  a.  >  Latin       prafatio, 

Pk£f  ATOET,  o^'.  3  Something   intro- 

ductoiy  to  the  main  design;  introduction;  to 
ny  or  introduce  something  proemial :  a  pre&cer 
is  the  author  of  a  preface:  pie&tory^  introduc- 
toiy;  preparatiTe. 

This  superficial  tale 
Is  but  a  pnr/bM  to  her  worthy  praise. 


Sir  Thomas  More  betrayed  his  depth  of  judgment 

ia  state  a&irs  in  his  Utopia,  than  which,  in  the  opi- 

moa  of  Budms,  in  a  prtfMee  before  it,  our  age  hath 

BAseen  a  thing  more  deep.  Peaeham. 

I  lo¥e  to  wear  clothes  that  are  flush. 

Not - 


militarv  departments,  the  title  being  reserved  io 
him  who  was  invested  with  the  civil  authority, 
and  that  of  comes  belli  given  him  who  com- 
manded the  cohorts. 

PREFER',  V,  a. 

Pref'erable,  at^. 

Pref'erableness,  n.  s. 

Pbef'erably,  adv, 

Pref'erence,  n.  s. 

Prefer'msmt. 


Fr.  preferer ;  Span. 
prefenr;  Ital.  pre- 
Jervre  ;  Lat.  prajero. 
'To  regard  with  su- 
perior esteem  or  at- 
tention ;  taking  above^ 


bHbre,  and  to,  before  the  object  postponed ;  to 
advance;  exalt;  raise;  exhibit;  offer  or  propose 
solemnly:  preferable  is  eligible  before  some> 
other  thing  or  person;  the  adverb  and  noun 
substantive  corresponding :  preference  is,  the  act 


prrfoein^  old  rags  with  plush.  CUavri^.      suosianuve  correspondmg :  prtference  is,  tbe 
Heairea*s  high  behest  no  pivfoM  needs.    MUkm,      ^.P^^rernng ;  electmg ;  esteemmg  or  raismg  one 
Wherene'er  he  gave  an  admonition,  he  prv/Msd    ^^^  before  another :  preferment,  advancement ; 


it  ahnys  with  such  demonstrations  of  tenderness. 

FeU, 
If  there  be  not  a  tolerable  line  in  all  these  six, 
the  prrfaeer  gave  me  no  occasion  to  write  better. 

Dryden, 
If  Am  proposition,  whosoever  will  be  saved,  be 
festrained^  only  to  those  to  whom  it  was  intended, 
the  Christians,  then  the  anathema  reaches  not  the 
heathens,  who  had  never  heard  of  Christ :  after  all, 
I  am  &r  from  blaming  even  that  pnfaUnry  addition 
to  the  creed.  id, 

*  Bdiue  I  enter  upon  the  particular  parts  of  her 
character*  it  is  necessary  to  prrfaee  that  she  is  the 
obIt  child  of  a  decrepid  father.  SpeetaUn: 

It  is  lamentable  to  behold  with  what  lazy  scorn 
many  of  the  yawning  readers  in  our  age,  now-a-days, 
trarel  over  Ibrty  or  fifty  pages  of  j^rrfau  and  dedica^ 
tion  (the  usual  modem  stint)  as  if  it  were  so  much 
**«»•  Swift. 

Thou  art  rash, 
And  must  be  prwfaeed  into  government. 

SotUham, 

PRETECT,  ».  I.  >     Lat.prtf/ec<ai.   Gover- 
Prb'fecture.        I  nor; commander: 
tore  is  his  office  or  sphere  of  government 

He  is  much 
The  better  soldier,  having  been  a  tribune, 
PftfiKt,  lieutenant,  prstor  in  the  war. 

BmJoMon. 
It  was  the  custom  in  the  Roman  empire  for  the 
ffrftot  and  viceroys  of  distant  provinces  to  transmit 
aidation  of  cveiy  thing  remarkable  in  their  admi- 
sistretion.  Addison. 

The  Prefect,  in  ancient  Rome,  was  one  of 
the  chief  magistrates  who  governed  in  the  ab- 
sence of  the  kings,  consuls,  and  emperors.  This 
power  was  greatest  under  *the  emperors.  His 
chief  care  was  the  government  of  the  city,  takins 
•cognizance  of  all  crimes  committed  therein,  and 
within  100  miles.  He  judged  capitally  and 
finallv,  and  even  presided  in  the  senate.  He 
hsd  the  snpermtendaBoe  of  the  provisions,  build- 
ing, and  navigation. 

The  Prefect  of  the  Prjetorium  was  the 
Mer  of  the  pretorian  bands  destined  for  the  em- 
pcfor's  guards,  c<»isisting,  according  to  Dion,  of 
KXyxX)  men.  lliis  officer,  according  to  Sue- 
tcnitts,  was  instituted  by  Augustus,  and  usually 
taken  from  among  the  knights.  By  the  &vor  of 
ibe  emperors  his  power  grew  very  considerable; 
10  ledDce  whii^  Constantino  divided  the  prefec- 
ture of  the  prsetorium  into  four  prefectures,  and 
eKfa  of  these  agam  be  subdivided  into  civil  and 


]>romotion ;  place  of  honor  or  advantage ;  par- 
ticukirly  a  church  living. 

If  I  do  not  resoember  thee,  let  my  tongue  cleave 
to  the  roof  of  my  mouth ;  if  I  pnfer  not  Jerusalem 
above  my  chief  joy.  Ftakm. 

He  that  cometh  after  me  is  prefonod  hefon  me ; 
for  he  was  before  me.  John  i.  16. 

In  honour  preferring  one  another.  Romant. 
I,  when  my  loul  began  to  iaint. 
Myvows  and  prayers  to  thee  preferred : 

The  Lord  my  passionate  complaint. 
Even  from  his  holy  temple,  heaid.       Sandtfe. 
It  may  worthily  seem  unto  you  a  most  shameful 
thing,  to  have  pr^erred  an  in&mons  peace  before  a 
most  just  war.  KnoUes, 

I'll  move  the  fing 
To  any  shape  of  thy  preferment,  such 
As  thou'lt  desire.  Siakepeare.  CyaAeline.' 

They  flatly  disavouch 
To  yield  him  more  obedience  or  support. 
And  as  t'  a  perjured  duke  of  Lancaster, 
Their  cartel  of  defiance  they  prefer.      Daniel. 
The  greater  good  is  to  be  pre/imil  Wore  the  less, 
and  the  lesser  evil  to  be  endured  rather  than  the 
greater.  Wilkine. 

By  the  recommendation  of  the  earl  of  Dunbar,  he 
was  preferred  to  the  bishoprick  of  Coventry  and 
Litchfield.  Oirendm. 

O  spirit,  that  dost  prefer 
Before  all  temples  the'  upright  heart.    MfUton, 
I  shall  give  an  account  of  some  of  those  apprO^ 
priate  and  discriminating  notices  wherein  the  humah 
body  dififers,  and  hath  preference  above  the  most  per- 
fect brutal  nature.  Hale. 

All  which  declare  a  natural  preferment  of  the  one 
unto  the  motion  before  the  other.  Broume. 

Leave  the  criticks  on  either  side  to  contend  about 
the  preference  due  to  this  or  that  sort  of  poetry. 

hryden 
All  prefeimentt  should  be  placed  upon  fit  men. 

L'Eetrange/ 
•  The  stronger  ties  we  have  to  an  unalterable  pur- 
suit of  happiness,  which  is  greatest  eood,  the  more 
are  we  free  from  any  necessary  compliance  with  our  . 
desire,  set  upon  any  particular,  ana  then  appearing 
preferable  good,  till  we  have  duly  examined  it. 

Loeke. 
We  find  in  Ourselves  a  power  to  begin  or  forbear 
several  actions  of  our  minos  and  motions  of  our  bo- 
dies, barely  by  a  thought  or  prefmnce  of  the  mind, 
ordering  the  ooing,  or  not  doing  such  a  particular 
action.  '  Id.- 

It  gives  as  much  due  to  good  works  as  is  con- 
sistent with  the  grace  of  the  gospel ;  it  gives  as  much 
preference  to  divine  grace  as  is  consistent  with  the 
precepts  of  the  gospel.  Sprat:  ^ 

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Tbe  meroenaiy  and  incontuat  crew  of  the  bunten 
after  jrrefennent,  whose  designs  are  always  seen 
through.  DoMnant* 

Almost  every  man  in  our  nation  is  a  politiciaii, 
and  hath  a  sclieme  of  his  own,  which  he  thinks  prv- 
feritbU  to  that  of  anj  other.  Jtddittm. 

The  several  musical  instruments  in  the  hands  of 
the  ApoUos,  Muses,  and  Fauns,  might  give  light  to 
the  dispute  for  pfv/ersnc*  between  the  ancient  and 
modern  musick.  Id, 

Every  person  within  the  choich  or  commonwealth 
may  ffif&r  an  accusation,  that  the  delinquent  may 
snmr  condign  punishment.  Ayiiffe, 

Take  caie, 
Lest  thou  prefer  so  rash  a  prayer. 
Nor  vainly  hope  the  queen  of  love 
Will  e'er  thy  iav*rite*s  channs  improve. 

Prior. 

Prefer  a  bill  against  all  kings  and  parliaments 
since  the  conauest ;  and,  if  that  won't  do,  challenge 
the  crown  ana  the  two  houses.  Collier. 

£ven  in  such  a  stat^  as  this,  the  pleasoies  of  virtue 
would  be  superior  to  those  of  vice,  a^d  justly  jnt- 
ferohk,  Aiterhury. 

How  came  he  to  chuse  a  comkk  prefmMjf  io  the 
tragick  poets ;  or  how  comes  he  to  chuse  Plautus 
pr^fjerabty  to  Terence?  Dennu, 

The  Romanists  were  used  to  value  the  latter 
equally  with  tbe  fonner,  or  eren  to  give  them  the 
preference,  Waierland, 

A  secret  pleasure  touched  Athena's  soul. 

To  see  the  pref'renee  due  to  sacred  age 

Regarded.  Pvpe't  Odymeg. 

He  spake,  and  to  her  hvid  preferred  the  bowl. 

•  Pop*. 

Princes  most,  by  a  vigorous  ezereise  oC  that  law, 
make  it  eveiy  man  s  interest  and  honour  to  cultivate 
religion  and  virtue,  by  rendering  vice  a  disgrace, 
and  the  certain  ruin  to  preferment  or  pretensions. 


We  know  your  prudence.  Sir  William^  and  I  should 
.be  sorry  to  stop  your  prefifment,  Jvnitu. 

PREFIG'URATE,  or*)    Lat.pr^and  j^o. 

Prefig'urb,  V.  a.         >To  show  by  antece- 

Prefigura'tion,  n.  f.  3  dent  representation : 
antecedent  representation. 

What  the  Old  Testament  hath»  the  very  same  the 
New  contatneth ;  but  that  which  lieth  there,  asunder 
a  shadow,  is  here  brought  forth  into  the  open  sun ; 
things  there  pr^fy[Uf9d  are  here  performed. 

Hooker, 
•  Such  piety,  so  chaste  use  of  God's  day> 
■    That  what  we  turn  to  feast;  she  turned  to  pray, 

And  did  prefigure  here  in  devout  taste. 

The  rest  of  her  high  sabbath,  which  shall  last. 

Donne* 

If  shame  superadded  to  loss,  and  both  met  together, 
as  the  sinner's  portion  here,  perfectly  pnfi^ring  the 
two  saddest  ingredients  in  nell,  deprivation  of  the 
blissful  vision,  and  confusion. of  face,  cannot  pfove 
efficacious  to  tlie  mortifying  of  vice,  ^  church  doth 
give  over  the  patient.  Hammond, 

The  variety  of  prophecies  and  prefiguirationt  had 
their  punctual  accomplishment  in  the  author  of  this 
institution.  Norris, 

The  same  provideooe  that  hath  wrought  the  one 
will  work  the  other ;  the  former  being  pledges,  as 
well  as  prefiguratiom,  of  the  latter.  Burnet, 

PREFINE',  17.  a,  Pr.  prefimir:  Lat.  prafinio. 
To  limit  beforehand. 

He,  in  his  immoderate  desires,  prefined  unto  him- 
self three  years,  which  the  great  monarchs  of  Rome 
could  not  perform  in  so  many  hundreds.      Knollet. 


PREFIX',  V.  a.  &n.<.  Ui.prafigo.  To  ap- 
point before  hand;  settle;  put  before  another 
thine;  a  thing  so  fixed :  a  particle  put  before  a 
word  to  very  its  signification. 

A  time  prefix,  and  think  of  me  at  last.      Sand^ 
At  the  prefixed  hour  of  her  awaking, 

Came  I  to  take  her  from  her  kindred's  vault. 

Suihxpeara* 
Whose  sins 
Full  weight  must  be  transferred  upon  my  head ; 
Yet  neither  thus  disheartened  or  dismayed. 
The  time  prefixed  I  waited.  Milton. 

Because  I  would  prefix  some  certain  boundary  be- 
tween them ;  the  old  statutes  end  with  king  Edward 
II.,  the  new  or  later  statutes  begin  with  king  Edward 
III.  HaUs  Law  of  England, 

It  is  a  prefix  of  augmentation  to  many  words  in 
that  language.  Brownest  Vulgar  Emmrs, 

Booth's  forward  valour  only  served  to  show. 
He  durst  that  duty  pay  we  all  did  owe : 
The'  attempt  was  feir ;  but  heaven's  prefixed  hour 
Not  come.  Bryden, 

These  boundaries  of  species  are  as  men,  and  not  as 
nature  makes  them,  if  there  are  in  nature  any  such 
prefixed  bounds.  Lofke, 

in  the  Hebrew  language  the  noun  has  its  prtfixa 
and  affixa,  the  former  to  signiry  some  few  relations, 
apd  the  latter  to  denote  the  pronouns  possessive  and 
relative.  ^  Clarke, 

PREFORM',  V,  a,  Pra  and.fonn.  To  forn# 
beforehand.    Not  in  use. 

If  you  consider  the  true  cause 
Why  all  these  things  change  from  their  ordinance. 
Their  natures  and  preformed  faculties, 
To  monstrous  quality ;  why  you  shall  find 
That  heaven  made  them  instruments  of  fear 
Unto  some  monstrous  state. 

ShaJupeare,  Julim  C^eear. 

PRECNANTjfl^^.i       Fr.   pregnant;     Lat. 
Preg'nantly,  adv.  S  pragnxsM,      Teeming ; 
breeding;  fertile;  full  of  meaning;   evident; 
free :  the  adverb  corresponding. 

Pregnane^  is  made  a  tapster,  and  hath  his  quick 
wit  wasted  m  eiving  reckonings.  ShakKpeare, 

This  granted,  as  it  is  a  most  pregnant  and  unforced 
position,  who  stands  so  eminent  in  the  degree  of  this 
fortune  as  Cassio,  a  kna?e  very  voluble. 

Id,  Othello. 
Were  't  not  that  vre  stand  up  against  them  all, 
Twere  pr^nant,  they  should  square  between  them- 
selves. Shakepeatne, 
A  most  poor  man  made  tame  to  fortune's  blows. 
Who  by  the  art  of  known  and  feeling  sorrows. 
Am  pregnant  to  good  pity.                  Id.  King  Lear, 

A  thousand  moral  paintings  I  can  shew, 
That  shall  demonstrate  these  quick  blows  of  fortune 
More  pr0s^aniJ|y  than  words.  Id,  Timon. 

He  was  sent  to  school,  where  his  pregnanoy  was 
advantaged  bj  more  than  paternal  care  and  industry. 

FeU, 
These  knew  not  the  just  motives  and  pr^noHt 
grounds  with  which  I  thought  myself  furnished. 

Xing  Ckofiee. 
Thou 
Dove-like  satest  brooding  on  the  vast  abyss. 
And  madest  it  pregnant,  Milton. 

His  town,  as  fame  reports,  was  built  of  old 
By  Danae,  pregnant  with  almighty  gold. 

Bryden, 
The  breast  is  encompassed  with  ribs,  and  the  belly 
left  free  for  respiration  j  and,  in  females,  for  that  ex- 
traordinary extension  in  the  time  of  their  pregnancy. 
Bay  on  the  Creation* 


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TliB  dignity  of  this  office  among  the  Jews  ia  so 
yrit,  £at  it  is  unques* 


set  forth  in  holy  writ, 
tioBafaie ;  kings  and  priests  are  mentioned  together, 

South. 
Throogh  either  ocean,  foolish  man  I 
That  ]fregnmi  word  sent  forth  again, . 
Might  to  u  world  extend  each  atom  there. 
For  erery  drop  call  forth  a  sea,  a  heaven  for  every 
star.  Prior, 

An  egregious  and  prtgnant  instance  how  far  virtue 
smpasses  ingenuity.     Woodioard't  Natural  Hittory. 

O  detestable  passive  obedience !  did  I  ever  imagine 
1  should  beoome  thy  votary  in  so  pregnant  an  in- 
stance? Arbmthnot. 
This  writer,  out  of  the  pregnatwjf  of  his  invention, 
hath  fflttnd  out  an  oM  way  of  insinuating  the  grossest 
seflectieiiB  under  the  appearance  of  admonitions. 

Sufifi't  Miteellaniei. 

Pkjegkancy.    See  Midwifery. 

PREUNITE,  or  Prismatic  Prehnite,  a 
mineral  of  which  there  are  two  sub-epecies,  the 
foliated  and  the  fibrous. 

1.  Foliated.  Color  apple-green.  Massive, 
in  dtstinct  concretions,  and  sometimes  crystal- 
lised. Primitive  form  an  oblique  four-sided 
prism  of  103^  and  77^.  Secondary  forms,  an 
oblique  four-sided  table,  an  irregular  eight-sided 
table,  an  irregular  six-sided  table,  and  a  broad 

,  rectangular  four-sided  prism.  Shining.  Frac- 
ture &e  grained  uneyen.  Translucent.  Hard- 
ness from  felspar  to  quartz.  Easily  frangible. 
Specific  gravity  2*8  to  3*0.  It  melts  with  intu- 
mescence into  a  pale-green  or  yellow  glass.  It 
does  not  gelatinize  with  acids.  Its  constituents, 
according  to  the  analysis  of  Klaproth,  are,  silica 
43-83^  alumina  30-33,  lime  18*33,  oxide  of  iron 
5-66,  water  1*83.  It  occurs  in  France,  in  the 
Alps  of  Savoy,  and  in  the  Tyrol.  It  is  said  to 
become  electric  by  heating.  Beautiful  varieties 
are  ftond  in  the  interior  m  Southern  Africa. 

2.  Fibrous  prehnite.  Color  light-green.  Mas- 
sive, in  distinct  concretions,  and  crystallised  in 
acicular  four-sided  prisms.  Glistening,  pearly. 
Translucent.  Easily  fran^le.  Specific  gravity 
2*89.  It  melts  into  a  vesicular  enamel.  It  be- 
comes electric  by  heating.  Its  constituents,  ac- 
cording to  Laugier,  are,  silica  42*5,  alumina  28*5, 
lime  *20'44,  natron  and  potash  0-75,  oxide  of  iron 
3,  water  2.  It  occurs  in  veins  and  cavities  in 
trap-rocks  near  Beith  in  Ayrshire,  Bishoptown 
ia  Renfrewshire,  at  Hartfield  near  Paisley,  and 
near  Frisky  Hall,  Old  Kilpatrick;  in  the  trap- 
vocks  round  Edinburgh,  &c. 

PREJUDGE',  v.  a.  Fr.  vr^er;  Lat.  pra 
and  jhAco.  To  determine  betordiuid;  geneially 
to  ooademn  beforehand. 

If  he  stood  npon  his  own  title  of  the  house  of 
Uocaster,  he  knew  it  was  condemned  in  parliament, 
aod  yr^mdged  in  the  common  opinion  of  the  realm, 
and  that  it  tended  to  the  disinherison  of  the  line  of 
York.  fiooon'f  Hntry  VII. 

ThediiJd  was  strona  and  able,  though  bom  in  the 
og^  month,  which  &e  phyncians  do  fr^dp. 

Baton, 

The  caose  is  not  to  be  defended,  or  patronised  by 
taaiei,  but  arguments,  much  less  to  be  pr^udged,  or 
bJaated  by  them.  '  HniRmond. 

Some  action  ought  to  be  entered,  lest  a  greater 
cnae  iboold  be  injured  and  pr^udged  thereby. 

A^ffe. 


The  committee  of  council  hath  pntfvdgtd  the  whole 
case,  by  calling  the  united  sense  of  both  houses  of 
parliament  an  imiversal  clamour.  Swi/t, 

PREJU'DICATE,t7.fl.&fl4;.  I     Also  of  Lat, 
Prejudica'tion,  n.  «. .  Spramdjudko, 

To  determine  beforehand  to  disadvantage :  preju- 
diced :  the  art  of  prejudging. 

Are  you,  in  favour  of  his  person,  bent 
Thus  to  pr^udicate  the  innocent*!  Sandys, 

Our  dearest  friend 
Pr^udieatu  the  business,  and  would  seem 
To  have  us  make  denial.    *  Shaktpeare. 

Their  works  will  be  embraced  by  most  that  under- 
stand them,  and  their  reasons  enforce  belief  from 
pr^tulieate  readers.    •  Browne. 

This  rule,  of  casting  away  all  our  former  pr^wiicat§ 
opinions,  is  not  propped  to  any  of  us  to  be  practised 
at  once  as  subjecU  or  Christians,  but  merely  as  phi- 
losophers. Wattt, 

PREJ'UDICE,  n.  t.  &  v.  a.  >      Fr.  prtfucUco ; 

Pbejudi'cial,  ad^.  J  lAtprejudicium. 

Prepossession ;  judgment  formed  witnout  exami- 
nation ;  used  for  prepossession  either  in  favor  of 
any  thing  or  against  it ;  and  sometimes  (but  not 
properly)  with  to  before  that  which  the  preju- 
dice is  against ;  mischief;  hurt ;  detriment :  to 
prejudice  is  to  fill  with  unexamined  notions  or 
opinions;  to  obstruct;  injure;  hurt:  prejudi- 
cial, obstructed ;  or  possessed  by  opposite  opi- 
nions; contrary;  opposite;  hurdiil. 

The  strength  of  that  law  is  such,  that  no  particu- 
lar nation  can  lawfully  jn^fvdieo  the  same  by  any 
their^  several  laws  and  ordinances,  more  than  a  man, 
by  his  private  resolutions,  the  law  of  the  whole  com- 
monwealth wherein  he  liveth.  Hooker. 

What  one  syllable  is  there,  in  all  this,  prejtuftctal 
anv  vray  to  that  we  hold  ?  Id. 

Neither  must  his  example,  done  without  the  book, 
pr^udice  that  which  is  well  appointed  in  the  book. 

Whitgifte. 
I  have  not  spoke  one  the  least  word. 

That  might  be  prtijtidice  of  her  present  state. 

Or  touch  of  her  good  person. 

Shahpeare,  Aewry  VIIL 

Factions  carried  too  high  and  too  violently,  is  a 
sign  of  weakness  in  princes,  and  much  to  the  pnyiK 
dtSe  of  their  authority  and  business.  Boeon, 

Tis  a  sad  irreverence,  without  due  consideration, 
to  look  upon  the  actions  of  princes  vrith  a  ptijvdieitA 
eye.  Hoiydoff, . 

The  king  himself  frequently  considered  more  the 
person  who  spoke,  as  he  was  in  his  prejudice,  than 
the  council  itself  that  was  given.  dfltendcn. 

His  going  away  the  next  morning  with  all  his 
troops  was  most  pf^udiatd  and  most  ruinous  to  the 
king's  afiairs.  ^  id. 

My  comfort  is,  that  their  manifest  pr^udice  to  my 
cause  will  render  their  judgment  of  less  authority. 

lyvyden. 

How  plain  this  abuse  is,  and  what  prejuMoe  it 
does  to  tiie  understanding  of  the  sacred  scriptures. 


A  prince  of  this  character  will  instruct  us  by  his 
example,  to  fix  the  unsteadiness  of  our  politicks  ;  or 
by  his  conduct  hinder  it  from  doing  us  any  pr^udiee. 

Addiion, 

One  of  the  young  ladies  reads  while  the  others 
ar^  at  work ;  so  that  the  learning  of  the  family  is 
not  at  all  prQttdieial  to  its  manufactures.  Id. 

Half  pillars  wanted  their  expected  height. 

And  roo&  imperfect  prtjudioed  the  sight.    Prior, 

A  state  of  great  prosperity,  as  it  exposes  us  to  va- 


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nous  temptatioDB,  to  it  is  often  pngtdieial  to  iu»  ia 
that  it  ttwells  the  mind  with  undue  Uioughts. 

AtttHmry. 
Suffer  not  nny  beloved  study  to  pr^fudia  your 
viind,  10  far  as  40  despise  all  other  learning. 

WaUt. 
To  this  is  added  a  vinous  bitter,  warmer  in  the 
composition  of  its  ingredients  than  the  watery  infu- 
sion ;  and,  as  gentian  and  lemon-peel  make  a  bitter 
of  to  grateful  a  flavour,  the  only  care  rec^uired  in  this 
composition  was  to  chute  such  an  addition  at  might 
not  jn^udiee  it.  Lmdan  DupmmUnjf. 

By  thete  a  man't  judgment  it  eatilv  perverted, 
and  a  wrong  bias  hung  upon  his  mind ;  tneae  are  the 
inlets  of  prejudice ;  ue  unguarded  avenues  of  the 
mind.  Maton. 

The  truth  is,  if  the  truth  may  suit  your  ear, 
And  pr^jMdiee  have  left  a  pasiage  clear, 
Pride  hat  attained  itt  most  luxuriant  growth. 
And  poisoned  every  virtue  in  them  b<Hh. 

COttptTt 

PREL'ATE,  fi.  $.  l     Ft.  prelat ;  Lat.  pr^U^ 

PaELAi'tCAL.  Stm,  An  ecclesiastic  of 
the  highest  order :  relating  to  prelacy. 

Divers  of  the  reverend  prdaey,  and  other  most 
judicious  men,  ha?e  especially  bMtowed  their  pains 
about  the  matter  of  junsdtction. 

HooktrU  Dedication. 

It  beieemednotthe  pertonof  to  grave  a'pf«<a«t,  to 
be  either  utterly  without  countel,  at  the  rett  were,  or 
in  a  common  perplexity  to  thew  himtelf  alone  te^ 
«cure.  Hookar, 

Hear  him  but  reason  in  divinity. 
And,  all-admiring,  with  an  inward  with 
You  would  deure  the  king  were  made  a  pniUiU. 


The  archbishop  oi  Vienna^  a  reverend  prdCale»said 
one  day  to  king  Lewis  XI.  of  France :  Sir,  your 
mortal  enemy  is  dead,  what  time  duke  Charles  of 
Buivundy  was  slain.  .   Booow. 

'rte  presbyter,  puff 'd  up  with  spiritual  pridiB» 
Shall  on  the  necks^of  the  lewd  nobles  ride, 
His  brethren  damn,  the"  civil  power  defy, 
And  parcel  out  republic  prelacy.  Drydm, 

Yet  Munstsr  e  fntlaie  ever  be  aocnrtt. 

In  whom  we  teek  the  German  faith  in  vain.    Id. 

Prdaeiet  may  be  termed  the  gieater  beneflces ;  as 
that  of  the  nontificate,  a  patriarchship,  an  arch* 
bishoprick  ana  bishopricJu  AyUffe^i  Partrgan, 

How  many  are  there,  that  call  themsdves  protes- 
tants,  who  put  prtUunf  and  popeiy  together  as  terms 
convertible  1  Swift, 

The  king  then  a  wrote  a  letter  to  tlie  bithop,  in 
which  he  complained  of  the  violation  of  his  rights, 
and  the  contempt  of  his  authority,  charsed  the  prv- 
laia  with  countenancing  the  late  act  of  disobedience, 
and  required  an  answer  in  two  days.  Johmam, 

PRELATION,  n.  t.  Lat.  pralatta.  Prefer- 
ence :  setting  of  one  above  the  other. 

In  case  the  fiuher  left  only  daughters,  they  equally 
auoceeded  as  in  co-partnerthip,  without  any  priUHion 
or  prefierence  of  the  eldest  daughter  to  a  double  por- 
tion. HaU, 

PRELECTION,  11.1.  L^.praleeHo,  Bead- 
ing; lecture ;  discourse. 

He  that  is  desirous  to  prosecute  thete  ssystata,  or 
infinitude,  let  him  nsort  to  the  prelselioiij  of  Faber. 

HaU, 

PRELIBATION,«.«.  Ux,pramo.  Taste 
beforehand ;  effusion  previous  to  tasting. 

The  firm  belief  of  this,  in  an  innocent  soul,  is  a 
liigh  prtUbatim  of  those  eternal  joys.  Mfort, 


PREUM^INARY,  adi.  &  n.  i.  Fr.  preUmi- 
noire ;  Lat.  prtB  limine.  Previous ;  introductory ; 
proemiai  :  something  introductory ;  previous 
condition  or  stipulation. 

My  master  needed  not  the  asnstanoe  of  that  pre- 
liminartf  poet  to  prove  his  claim;  his  own  majestic 
mien  discovers  him  to  be  the  king.  Dryden. 

The  third  contists  of  the  ceremonies  of  the  oath 
on  both  sides,  and  the  pnlinunan$9  to  the  combat 

Natat  on  Iliad. 
PRE'LUDE,  n.  «.  &  V.  a,-!   French  prelude  ; 
Pbelu'dious,  adj.  >  Latin  praludium. 

Pbelu'dium ,  fi.  s.  J  A  short  piece  of 

music  played  before  a  fiiU  concert;  anything  in- 
troductory ;  to  serve  as  an  introduction :  preludi- 
ous  is  previous ;  introductory :  preludium,  a  pre- 
lude. 

That's  but  a  prMliout  blits, 
Two  toult  pickeering  in  a  kits.    Cleaneland, 
To  his  infant  armt  oppose 
Hit  father's  rebels  and  his  brother^  foes ; 
Those  were  the  prdadst  of  hit  fate. 
That  formed  hit  manhood,  to  tubdue 
-The  hydra  of  the  many-headed  hissing  crew. 

Dryden. 
Either  songster  holding  out  their  throats, 
And  folding  up  their  wings,  renew'd  their  notes. 
As  if  all  day,  preMing  to  the  fight, 
They  only  had  rehearrd,  to  sing  by  night         Id. 
Thit  Menelaui  knows,  expoteid  to  there 
With  me  the  rough  prehidium  of  the  war.       Id. 
Tbe  lattGeoigick  wat  a  good  prahda  to  the 
^neit,  and  vei^  well  thewed  what  the  poet  could 
do  in  tiie  description  of  what  was  really  great 

Jddimm. 
One  concetsion  to  a  man  is  but  a  prduda  to  ano- 
ther. Clamsa. 
My  weaketsajjr 
But  sounds  a  prduda,  and  points  out  their  prey. 

Young. 

PRELU'SIVE,  «if.  From  prelude.  Previous; 
introductory;  proemiai. 

The  clouds 
Softly  shaking  on  the  dimpled  pond 
Prduiioa  drops,  let  ail  their  moisture  flow. 

Thorn  tm. 
PREMATU'RE,  a^\      Fr.  premature;  Lat. 
pratnatutms^    Precocious ;  ripe  too  soon ;  formed 
oefcMre  the  time;  too  early. 

Tit  hard  to  imagine,  what  possible  consideiatioo 
should  persuade  him  to  repent,  till  he  deposited  that 
pHmature  persuasion  of  his  being  in  Chnst 

Hammond't  Fundamentak. 
PREMED'ITATE,  v.  a.  .&  v.  n.  )     Fr.  pre- 
Prbm edita'tion,  n.  s.  S  mediler ; 

Lat.  pr^tmcdUvr.  To  contrivte ;  form  or  conceive 
beforehand:  to  think  beforehand:  premeditation, 
forethought ;  act  of  meditating  betorehand. 

Of  themselves  they  were  rude,  and  knew  not  so 
much  as  how  to  prsmadttate ;  the  spirit  gave  them 
speech  and  eloquent  utterance.  Hooker, 

Wheie  I  have  come,  great  cleiks  have  pur^  osed 
To  greet  me  with  pmnsatiotW  welcomes. 


Are  all  th'  unlooked-for  issue  of  their  bodies 
To  take  their  rooms  ere  I  can  place  myself  t 
A  cold  pramed&tation  fix  my  purpose !  Id. 

Hope  it  a  pleatant  promtiiiaiion  of  enjoyment,  ts 
when  a  dog  expectt,  tUl  hit  matter  has  done  picking 
of  the  bone.  Hart. 

He,  amidst  the  disadvantage  of  extempore  agaioH 
premeditation,  ditpelled  with  ease  and  peHect  dear- 


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Brti  ill  th«  topUsms  that  had  been  brought  against 
hiis.  FeU. 

With  words  premeditated  thus  he  said.      Dryden, 

Verse  is  not  the  effect  of  sudden  thought ;  but  this 
kindecs  not  that  sudden  thought  may  be  represented 
ia  vers^  since  those  thoughts  muA  be  higher  than 
sature  can  raise  without  premeditation . 

Id,  on  Dramatic  Poetry, 

PREMERTT,  v.  a.  Lat.  pramereor.  To  de- 
senre  before. 

They  did  not  forgive  Sir  John  Hotham,  who  had 
so  ffloch  premerited  p(  them.  King  Charleg, 

PREM'ICES,  fi.  f.  Fr.  premices  ;  lAUprimi- 
tig.    First  fruits. 

A  charger,  yearly  filled  with  fruits,  was  offered  to 
the  gods  at  their  festivals,  as  the  premiaes  or  first  ga-^ 
t&erings.  Dry  den. 

PREMIER,  «Jf.&n.«.  Vr.  premier.  First; 
chief:  a  chief  minister  of  state. 

The  Spaniard  challengeth  the  premier  place,  in  re- 
gard of  his  dominions.  Camden  s  Remains, 

l1iBs  families,  like  realms,  with  equal  fate, 
Are  sank  by  premier  ministers  of  state.  Swift, 

PREMISE',  V.  a.^     Lat.  pramissus.    To  ex 


Pbem'ises,  n.  s. 


lay 


Species  three,  fVne  East  India 
To 


>  plain     previously ;     _ 
Pbem'iss.  3 down    premises:    which 

are  propositions  antecedently  supposed  or 
proved :  premiss  is  the  singular,  and  rarely  used ; 
premises  or  premisses,  in  hw,  properly  signifies 
the  land,  &c.,  mentioned  in  the  beginning  of  a 
deed ;  hence  it  came  to  mean  in  law  language, 
house  and  lands. 

They  infer  upon  the  premisa,  that  as  great  differ- 
eoct  as  commodiously  may  be,  there  should  be  in  all 
outward  ceremonies  between  the  people  of  God,  and 
them  which  are  not  his  people.  Hooker. 

O  let  the  vile  world  end. 
And  the  premised  flames  of  the  last  day 
Knit  earth  and  heaven  together.      Shakspean. 
This  is  so  regular  an  inference,  that,  whilst  the 
premtes  stand  finn,  it  is  impossible  to  shake  the  con- 
clTision.  Decay  of  Piety. 

The  apostle's  discourse  here  is  an  answer  upon 
a  groand  taken  ;  he  premisefh,  and  then  infers.   . 

Burnet, 
I  premise  these  particulars,  that  the  reader  may 
know  I  enter  upon  it  as  a  very  ungrateful  task. 

Addison. 
She  studied  well  the  point,  and  found 
Her  foes'  conclusions  were  not  sound. 
From  premises  erroneous  brought. 
And  therefore  the  daiuctions  nought. 

Swift^s  MisceUanies. 
They  know  the  major  or  minor,  which  is  implied, 
when  you  pronounce  the  other  premiss  and  the  con- 
clnsion.  Watts. 

PRE'M  1 U  M,  n.s.  lai.  pramium.  Something 
given  to  invite  a  loan  or  a  bargain. 

No  body  cares  to  make  loans  upon  a  new  project ; 
whereas  men  never  fail  to  bring  in  their  money  upon 
a  land  Ux,  when  the  premium  or  interest  allowed 
them  is  suited  to  the  hazard  they  run. 

Addison*s  Freeholder, 
People  were  tempted  to  lend,  by  peat  premitmu 
aad  large  interest ;  and  it  concerned  them  to  preserve 
thatigovemment,  which  they  had  trusted  with  their 
DDDcy.  Smft*s  MisoeUamee, 

PREMNA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  angio- 
spermia  order,  and  didynamia  class  of  plants : 
C4I.  hflobed :  cob.  quadrifid  :berry  quadrilocular : 
Vol.  XVill. 


SEEDS  solitary, 
trees. 

PREMON'ISH,  V.  a.     Lat.  pngnumeo. 
warn  or  admonish  beforehand. 

What  friendly  premonitions  have  been  spent 
On  your  forbearance,  and  their  vain  event. 

Chapman. 

After  these  premonishmentSf  I  will  come  to  the 
compartition  itself.  Wotton^sArdutecture. 

How  great  the  force  of  such  an  erroneous  persua- 
sion is,  we  may  collect  from  our  Saviour's  premonition 
to  his  disciples,  when  he  tells  them  that  those  who 
killed  them  should  think  they  did  God  service. 

Decay  of  Piety. 

It  is  no  small  mercy  of  God,  that  he  gives  us 
warning  of  our  end.  We  shall  make  an  ill  use  of 
so  gracious  a  premomtiont  if  we  make  not  a  meet 
preparation  for  our  passage.  Bp.  Hall. 

PREMONSTRANTS,  or  Pbjemonstratenses, 
a  religious  order  of  regular  canons,  instituted  in 
1120,  by  St.  Norbert;  and  thence  abo  called 
Norbertines.    The  first  monastery  of  this  order 
was  built  by  Norbert  in  the  Isle  of  France, 
which  he  called  Premonstre,  Prsemonstratum ; 
and  hence  the  order  derived  its  name;  though, 
as  to  the  occasion  of  that  name,  the  writers  of 
that  order  are  divided.    At  first  the  religious  of 
this  order  were  so  very  poor  that  they  had  only 
a  single  ass,  which  servea  to  carry  the  wood  they 
cut  down  every  morning,  and  sent  to  Laon  in 
order  to  purchase  bread.    But  they  soon  re- 
ceived so  many  donations,  and  built  so  many 
monasteries,  that  in  thirty  years  after  the  founda- 
tion of  the  order  they  had  above  100  abbeys  in 
France  and  Germany ;  and,  in  process  of  time, 
the  order  so  increased  that  it  had  monasteries  in 
all  parts  of  Christendom,  amounting  to  1000  ab- 
beys, 300  provostships,  a  vast  number  of  priories, 
and  500  nunneries.    The  rule  they  followed  was 
that  of  St.  Augustine,  with  some  slight  altera- 
tions, and  an  addition  of  certain  severe  laws, 
whose  authority  did  not  long  survive  their  founder. 
The  order  was  approved  by  Honorius  IL  in  1126, 
and  afterwards  by  several  succeeding  popes. 
At  first  the  abstinence  from  flesh  was  rigidly  ob- 
served.    In  1245  Innocent  IV.  complained  to  a 
general  chapter  of  its  being  neglected.    In  1288 
their  general,  William,  procured  leave  of  pope 
Nicholas  IV.  for  those  of  the  order  to  eat  flesh 
on  journeys.    In  1460  Pius  II.  granted  them  a 
general  permission  to  eat  meat,  excepting  from 
Septuagesima  to  Easter.    The  dress  of  the  re- 
ligious of  this  order  is  white,  with  a  scapulary 
before  the  cassock.    Out  of  doors. they  wear  a 
white  cloak  abd  white  hat ;  within,  a  little  ca- 
mail ;  and  at  church  a  surplice,  &c.    In  the  first 
monasteries  built  by  Norbert  there  was  one  for 
men  and  another  for  women,  only  separated  by  a 
wall.   In  1137,  by  a  decree  of  a  general  chapter, 
this  practice  was  prohibited,  and  the  nuns  re- 
moved out  of  those  already  built  to  a  greater 
distance  from  those  of  the  monks.    The  Prae- 
monstratenses,  or  monks  of  Premontre,  vulgarly 
called  white  canons,   came  first  into  England 
A.D.  1146.    Their  first  monastery,  called  New 
House,  was  erected  in  Lincolnshire  by  Peter  de 
Saulia,  and  dedicated  to  St.  Martial.    In  the 
reign  of  Edward  I.  this  order  had  twenty-seven 
monasteries  in  England. 

E 


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PREMONTVAL  (Peter  Le  Guay  de),  an 
eminent  French  writer,  born  at  Charenton  in 
1716.  He  became  a  member  of  Che  academy  of 
Berlin.  He  wrote  several  works,  of  which  the 
most  noted  is  his  Antidote  to  the  Corruption  of 
the  French  Language,  written  in  German.  He 
died  at  Berlin  in  1767,  aged  fifty-one. 

PREMUNrRE,  n.  s,  Lat.  premtmtre.  A 
writ  in  common  law,  whereby  a  penalty  is  in- 
currable,  as  infringing  some  statute.  See  below. 
Premunire  is  now  grown  a  good  word  in  our 
English  laws,  by  tract  of  time  ;  and  yet  at  first  it 
was  merely  mistaken  for  premonire. 

BramhaU  t^aintt  Hobbe*. 
Wolsey  incurred  a  premntitrg,  forfeited  his  honour, 
estate,  and  life,  which  he  ended  in  great  calamity. 

South. 
Premunire.  See  Pr£munire. 
PRENANTHES,  in  botany,  wild  lettuce,  a 
genus  of  the  pol  vgamia  equalis  order,  and  synge- 
nesia  class  or  pumts;  natural  order  forty-m'nth, 
compositae :  receptacle  naked :  gal.  calyculated : 
pappus  simple,  and  almost  sessile:  the  florets 
are  placed  in  a  single  series.  Species  thirty-three ; 
one,  P.  mutfdis,  common  to  our  own  groves. 

PRENOM'INATE,  v.  a,  Latin  prsMmmo. 
To  forename. 

He  yoQ  would  sound. 
Having  ever  seen,  in  the  prenaminate  crimes, 
The  youth,  you  breathe  of,  guilty.      Shaktpeare, 
The  watery  productions  should  have  the  puMomi- 
natUm;  and  they  of  the  land  rather  derive  their 
names,  than  nominate  those  of  the  sea.      Brmmg, 
PRENOTION,  n.  s.     Fr.  prenotion;   Lat 
pra  and  nosco.    Foreknowledge ;  prescience. 

The  hedgehog's  presension  of  winds  is  so  exact, 
that  it  stoppeth  the  north  or  southern  hole  of  its 
nest,  according  unto  prenotion  of  these  winds  en- 
suing. Browne, 
PRENTICE,  n.  «.  ^  Contracted  from  Ap- 
Pren'ticeship.  )  PRENTICE.  One  bound 
to  a  master,  in  order  to  instruction  in  a  trade : 
state  or  servitude  of  an  apprentice. 

My  accuser  is  my  prentice,  and,  when  I  did  correct 
him  for  his  fault,  he  did  .vow  upon  his  knees  he  would 
be  even  with  me.  Skakepeare. 

He  served  a  prentieeMp,  who  sets  up  shop. 
Ward  tried  on  puppies,  and  the  poor,  nis  drop. 

Pope. 
.  PRENZLOW,  the  chief  town  of  the  district 
of  Brandenburgh,  called  the  Ucker  Mark,  Prussia. 
It  is  situated  in  a  plain  on  the  lake  and  river 
Ucker,  and  is  divided  into  the  Old  and  New 
Town ;  both  of  which  are  tolerably  built.  Here 
are  four  Lutheran,  two  Calvinist,  and  one  Catho- 
lic church ;  a  pleasant  square,  a  beautiful  public 
walk,  several  schools  and  hospitals,  and  8000 
inhabitants.  The  town  has  also  severed  breweries, 
and  a  considerable  trade  in  com.  The  woollen 
manufactures,  and  still  more  those  of  tobacco, 
occupy  a  large  portion  of  the  inhabitants,  many 
of  whom  are  descended  from  French  Protestant 
refugees.  It  was  near  this  place,  on  24th  Oc- 
tober 1806,  that  the  remains  of  the  Prussian 
army,  about  20,000,  defeated  at  Jena  on  the  . 
14tn,  were  obliged  to'  surrender  to  the  French. 
Seventy-three  miles  N.N.W.  of  Frankfort  on  the 
Oder,  and  fifty-six  N.N.E.  of  Beriin. 
PREOC'CUPATE,  v.  a. )  Fr.  preoccuper ; 
Preoccupa'tion,  n.  *.       >  Lat.  praocct^.  To 


PREOC'CUPY,  V.  a. 


J  anticipate;  prepos- 


sess; fill  with  prejudice:  preoccupation  corre- 
sponds with  these  senses :  to  preoccupy  is  the 
more  modem  synonyme  of  preoccupate. 

Honour  aspireth  to  death ;  grief  flieth  to  it ;  and 
fear  preoccupSeth  it.  Bacon, 

That  the  model  be  plain  without  colours,  lest  the 
eye  preoccupate  the  judgment.  Wotton, 

As  if,  by  way  of  preoeeupationt  he  should  have 
said ;  well,  here  you  see  your  commission,  this  is 
your  duty,  these  are  your,  discoura^ments ;  never 
seek  for  evasions  from  worldly  afflictions ;  this  is 
your  reward,  if  you  perform  it;  this  is  your  doom, 
if  you  decline  it.  South. 

I  think  it  more  respectful  to  the  reader  to  leave 
something  to  reflections,  than  preoccupy  his  judg- 
ment. Arhuthnot. 

PREOMTNATE,  v.  a.  Lat  pra  and  ommor. 
To  prognosticate ;  to  show  by  omens  any  future 
event. 

Because  many  ravens  were  seen  when  Alexander 
entered  Babylon,  they  were  thought  to  preominate 
his  death.  Browne. 

PREOPINION,  n. «.  Lat.  pra  and  opinio. 
Opinion  antecedently  formed ;  prepossession. 

Diet  holds  no  solid  rule  of  selection ;  some,  in 
indistinct  voracity,  eating  almost  any ;  others,  out 
of  a  timorous  preopvwm,  refraining  from  very  many 
things.  Browne. 

PREORDAIN',  V.  a.  )      Lat.  pra  and  ordain. 

Preor'dinance,  n.  s.  )  To  ordain  beforehand : 
antecedent  decree. 

These  lowly  courtesies 
Might  stir  the  blood  of  ordinary  men. 
And  turn  preordinanee  and  first  decree 
Into  the  law  of  children. 

Shaktpeare,  Juliue  Cesear.  * 

Sin  is  the  contrariety  to  the  will  of  God,  and  if 
all  things  be  preordained  by  God,  and  so  demon- 
strated to  be  willed  by  him,  it  remains  there  is  no 
such  thing  as  sin.  Hammond, 

Few  souls  preordained  by  fate. 

The  race  of  gods,  have  reached  that  envied  state. 

Roteommon, 

PREPARE',  V.  a.y  v.  n.  &  n.  8.'\    Fr.  prepartr ; 

Prepara'tion,  n.  «.  It  preparare; 

Prepar'ative,  adj.  &  n.  t.         Lat.  praparo. 

Prepar'ativelt,  adv.  i  To  fit,  qualify, 

Prepar'atory,  adj.  |  or  make  ready 

Prepa'redlt,  adv.  for  any   pur- 

Prepa'redness,  II.  f.  pose ;     make 

Prepa'rer.  J  ready  before- 

hand; form;  adjust;  compound:  as  a  verb 
neuter,  to  take  previews  or  preparatory  mea- 
sures ;  make  eveiy  Uiing  ready :  Snakspeare  uses 
prepare  for  preparation ;  which  signifies  the  act 
of  preparing  or  previously  fitting  or  ordering 
things ;  previous  measures ;  introduction ;  com- 
position ;  and,  in  an  obsolete  sens^  accomplish- 
ments ;  qualification :  preparative  is,  having  the 
power  or  quality  of  preparing :  and,  as  a  noun 
substantive,  that  which  has  this  power;  that 
which  is  done  as  introductory  to  something  else ; 
the  adverb  corresponding  with  the  adjective : 
preparratory  is,  introductory ;  antecedent ;  neces* 
sary;  previous:  preparedly  is,  advisedly;  or- 
derly ;  by  proper  precedent  measures :  the  noun 
substantive  corresponding :  preparer,  he  or  that 
which  fits  or  prepares. 

There  he  maketh  the  hungry  to  dwell,  that  they 
may  prepare  a  city  for  habitation.     PtaSm  cviii.  36. 


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Whea  Wt  prepmrd  the  hearens  I  was  there,  when 
be  «t  a  «niin|ia]w  upon  the  face  of  the  depth. 

Prao.  viii.  27. 
The  iang  snfiering  of  God  waited  in  the  days  of 
Noah,  while  the  vk  was  a  preparing,  1  Peter. 

They  tell  as  the  profit  of  reading  is  singular,  in 
that  it  aenreth  for  a  prtpwrative  unto  sermons. 

Hooker. 
I  make  bold  to  press,  with  so  little  preparation, 
upon  YOU. 
— YoaYe  welcome. 

Shakapeare.  Merry  Wives  of  Windsor, 
Stir  John,  you  are  a  gentleman  of  excellent  breed- 
ing, aathentick  in  your  place  and  person,  generally 
albwed  for  your  many  warlike,  courtlike,  and  learn- 
ed pnperations.  Shakspeare. 
Patient  Octavia,  plough  thy  visage  up 
With  her  prepared  nails. 

Id,  Antonjf  and  Cleopatra. 
Go  in,  sirrah,  bid  them  prtpare  for  dinner. 


In  our  behalf 
Go  levy  men,  and  make  prepare  for  war.     Id. 
She  preparedly  may  frame  herself 
T'  the  way  she's  forced  to. 

Id,  Antony  ar^  Cleopatra. 
My  book  of  advancement  of  learning  may  be  some 
preparatioe  or  key  for  the  better  opemng  of  the  in- 
staundon.  Bacon. 

The  bishop  of  Ely,  the  fittest  preparer  of  her  mind 
to  receive  such  a  doleful  accident,  came  to  visit  her. 

Wotton. 
Efficacy  is  a  power  of  speech,  which  represents  to 
oor  minds  the  lively  ideas  of  thines  so  trul^,  as  if  we 
saw  them  with  our  eyes  ;  as  Dido  preparing  to  kill 
henelf.  Peacham. 

The  miseries,  which  have  ensued,  may  be  yet, 
throDgfa  thy  mercy,  preparatives  to  us  of  future  bles- 
sii^.  King  Charle*. 

nesolvedness  in  sin  can,  with  no  reason,  be  ima- 
fiaed  a  preparatiee  to  remission.       Decay  of  Piety. 

Prepare  men's  hearts  by  giving  them  the  grace 
•f  humility,  repentance,  and  probity  of  heart. 

Hammond, 
He  took  the  golden  compasses,  prepared 
In  God's  etem^  store,  to  circumscribe 
This  universe.  Milton. 

It  is  preparatieely  necessary  to  many  useful  things 
in  this  life,  as  to  make  a  man  a  good  physician. 

Hale. 
Freparutory^  limited,  and  formal  interro^tories  in 
writing  precfiMfe  this  way  of  occasional  interroga- 
tories. Id. 

I  wish  the  ehymists  had  been  more  sparing,  who 
■agnify  their  preparatums,  inveigle  the  curiosity  of 
many,  and  delude  the  security  of  most. 

Brovme*8  Vulgar  Err ourt. 
Though  he  judged  the  time  of  sickness  an  impro- 
per season  for  the  great  work  of  repentance ;  yet  he 
esteemed  it  a  most  useful  preparative,  the  voice  of 
God  himself  exhorting  to  it.  PeU, 

The  practice  of  all  these  is  proper  to  our  condition 
is  this  world,  and  preparatory  to  our  happiness  in  the 
next  TiOotson. 

What  avails  it  to  make  all  the  necessary  prepara- 
tim  for  our  royage,  if  we  do  not  actually  begin  the 
journey  ?  Dryden. 

Confound  the  peace  established,  and  prepare 
Tbeir  souls  to  hatred,  and  their  hands  to  war.    Id. 
Codded  grains  are  an  improver  of  land,  and  pre- 
parer  of  it  for  other  crops.     Morttmer^s  HvAandry. 

I  trill  shew  what  preparatknt  there  were  in  nature 
for  tfais  dissolution,  and  after  what  manner  it  came 
to  Dafl&.  ^ktmet. 

^ias  weie  b«t  preparatory,  the  violence  of  the 


deluge  depended  topon  the  disruption  of  the  great 
abyss.  id. 

Such  a  temper  is  a  contradiction  to  repentance, 
as  beiii^  founded  in  the  destruction  of  those  quali- 
ties which  are  the  only  dispositions  and  preparatives 
to  it.  South. 

Some  preachers,  being  prepared  only  upon  two  or 
'  three  points  of  doctrine,  run  the  same  round.' 

Addison. 

The  beams  of  fight  had  been  in  vain  displayed. 
Had  not'  the  eye  been  fit  for  vision  made ; 
In  vain  the  author  bad  the  eye  prepared 
With  so  much  skill,  had  not  the  light  appeared. 


In  the  preparations  of  cookery,  the  most  volatile 
parts  of  vegetables  are  destroyed.  Arbuthnot. 

Nothing  hath  proved  more  fatal  to  that  due  prepa- 
ration  for  another  life,  than  our  unhappy  mistake  of 
the  nature  and  end  of  this.  Wake. 

PBEPAB^Tioy  OF  DissoN AVCES,  ID  muslc.  See 
Music. 

Preparations,  in  anatomy,  the  parts  of  ani- 
mal bodies  prepared  and  presenred  for  anatomi- 
cal uses.  Though  several  parts  prepared  dry 
are  useful,  j^et  others  must  be  so  managed  as  to 
be  always  flexible,  asd  nearer  a  natural  state. 
According  to  Dr.  Monro,  the  best'  liquor  for  this 
purpose  is  a  well  rectified  colorless  spirit  of 
wine,  to  which  is  added  a  small  quantity  of 
nitric  or  sulphuric  acids.  When  Uiese  are  pro- 
perly mixed,  th^  neither  change  the  color  nor 
the  consistence  of  their  parts,  except  where  there 
are  serous  or  mucous  liquors  contained  in  them. 
The  brain,  even  of  a  young  child,  in  this  mixture 
grows  so  firm  as  to  admit  of  gentle  handling,  as 
do  also  the  vitreous  and  crystalline  humors  of 
the  eye.  The  liquor  of  the  sebaceous  glands 
is  coagulated  by  this  spirituous  mixture;  and  it 
heightens  the  red  color  of  the  injection  of  the 
blood-vessels,  so  that,  after  the  part  has  been  in 
it  a  little  time,  several  vessels  appear  which  were 
before  invisible.  The  glasses  which  contain  the 
preparations  should  be  of  the  finest  sort,  and 
pretty  thick ;  for  through  such  the  parts  may  be 
seen  very  distinctly,  and  of  a  true  color^and  the 
object  will  be  so  magnified  as  to  show  vessels  in 
the  glass  which  out  of  it  were  not  to  be  seen. 
As  the  glass  when  filled  with  the  liquor  has  a 
certain  focus,  it  is  necessary  to  keep  the  prepara- 
tion at  a  proper  distance  from  the  sides  of  it, 
which  is  easily  done  by  little  sticks  suitably 
placed,  or  by  suspending  it  by  a  thread  in  a 
proper  situation.  Mr.  Sheldon  describes  a  sim- 
ple method  of  stopping  the  mouths  of  the  prepa- 
ration glasses,  by  which  means  the  stopper  is 
rendered  nearly  as  durable  as  the  glass  itself. 
'To  execute  it,  let  the  anatomist  tdee  care  to 
have  the  upper  surface  of  his  bottles  made  plane, 
by  desiring  the  workmen  at  the  glass-house  to 
flatten  them  in  the  making.  This  they  will 
easily  do  in  forming  the  round  ones,  but  the  flat 
bottles  are  attended  with  considerable  difficulty. 
The  right  way  to  make  them,  would  be  to  blow 
them  in  moulds  of  various  sizes;  the  workmen 
should  likewise  form  the  bottoms  of  the  bottles 
perfectly  flat,  that  they  may  stand  upright  and 
steady.  Bottles  of  this  form  being  provided  for 
the  larger  preparations,  we  grind  3ie  upper  sui^ 
face  of  them  on  a  plain  plate  of  lead,  about  a 
quarter  of  an  inch  thick,  and  two  feet  in  diame* 

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ter;  flht  with. fine  emery  and  water,  then  witl^ 
powdered  rotten  stone,  or  nutty  first  wet  with 
water  and  at  last  dry;  so  that  the  surface  may 
he  reduced  to  an  exact  horizontalplane,  and  of 
as  fine  a  polish  as  plate  glass.  The  manoeuvre 
requires  hut  little  dexterity;  and  the  anatomist 
should  he  provided  with  a  considerahle  numher 
of  these  glasses  thus  prepared.  To  the  top  of 
each  hottle  a  piece  of  plate  glass,  cut  hv  a  dia- 
mond, is  to  be  adapted  so  as  completely  to 
cover,  but  not  project  over,  the  edge  of  the 
bottle.  When  these  two  smooth  .surfaces  are  put 
upon  each  other,  with  a  drop  of  solution  of  gum 
between,  the  attraction  of  cohesion  is  so  con- 
siderable that  it  requires  great  force  to  separate 
them.  A  piece  of  wet  ox  bladder,  freed  from  fat, 
and  soakea  in  water  till  it  becomes  mucilaginous, 
is  then  to  be  placed  over  the  top,  the  air  pressed 
out  from  between  it  and  the  glass ;  after  which  it 
must  be  tied  with  a  pack-thread  dipped  in  the 
solution  of  gum  arable.  The  bladder,  being  cut 
off  neatly  under  the  last  turn  of  the  thread,  is 
then  to  he  dried,  the  string  taken  cautiously  off, 
and  the  top  and  neck  painted  with  a  composition 
of  lamp-black  mixed  with  japanner's  gold  size : 
this  soon  dries,  and  leaves  a  fine  smooth  glossy 
surface,  from  which  the  dirt  can  at  any  time  b« 
as  readily  wiped  off  as  from  a  mirror.  By  this 
method  large  bottles  are  as  easily  aqd  effectually 
secured  as  small  ones ;  and  it  is  found  to  answer 
as  well  as  the  hermetical  sealing  of  glasses, 
which  in  large  vessels  is  altogether  imprac- 
ticable. With  respect  to  the  stopper  bottles, 
which  are  very  convenient  for  holding  small 
preparations,  Mr.  S.  advises  the  stoppers  to  be 
perfectly  well  grouijjd ;  that  they  pass  rather 
lower  down  than  the  neck  of  the  bottle,  for  the 
convenience  of  drilling  two  holes  obliquely 
through  the  inferior  edge  of  the  substance  of  the 
stopper,  opposite  to  each  other,  for  the  conve- 
nience of  fixing  threads  to  hold  the  sybject ;  for, 
if  the  threads  pass  between  the  neck  and  stopper, 
a  space  will  be  left ;  or,  if  the  stopper  be  well 
ground^  the  neck  of  the  bottle  will  be  broken  in 
endeavouring  to  press  it  down.  On  the  other 
hand,  if  any  space  be  left,  the  thread,  by  its  ca- 
l>illary  attraction,  will  act  from  capillary  attrac- 
tion, raise  the  spirits  from  the  bottle,  and  cause 
.evaporation,  which  will  likewise  take  place  from 
the  chink  between  the  stopper  and  neck.  Mr. 
W.  Cooke  has  found  that  all  preparations  of 
animal  bodies  may  be  preserved  by  a  solution  of 
common  salt.  He  finds  that  if  used  a  little  be- 
low saturation,  it  will  preserve  animal  sub- 
stances for  an  indefinite  period,  at  all  the  tem- 
peratures of  our  atmosphere. — ^Transactions  of 
.the  Society  of  Arts,  vol.  xxxvii.  p.  43. 

PREPARIS,  the  most  northern  of  the  Anda- 
tnan  Islands,  in  the  eastern  entrance  of  the  Bay 
of  Bengal,  about  a  degree  south  of  the  Pegue 
shore,  is  four  miles  long,  by  one  and  a  half 
broad.  It  rises  gradually  towards  the  middle, 
and  is  covered  entirely  with  wood.  In  clfear 
weather  it  may  seen  at  the  distance  of  twenty- 
five  miles,  but  can  only  be  approached  on  the 
east  side,  on  account  of  rocks;  on  that  side, 
within  half  a  mile  of  the  shore,  there  is  seven 
fathoms  water.  It  is  only  inhabited  by  birds, 
squirrels,  and  monkies.    Long.  93°  Aff  £.,  lat. 


Lat.  firapondero. 
To  outweigh;  over- 
power by  weight  or 
influence:  the  noun 
substantive  corre- 


PREPON'DER, ».  fl. 

Prepon'deravce,  or 

Prepon'derancy,  n.  t. 

Prepon'oerate, 

Prepokdera'tion. 
sponding. 

Though  pillars  by  channelling  be  seemingly  in- 
grossed  to  oar  sight,  yet  they  are  truly  weakened ; 
and  therefore  ought  not  to  be  the  more  slender,  but 
the  more  corpulent  unless  appearances  fttjpmder 
truths.  Woiiaiit  Arekitectun,    . 

A  solid  verity  in  one  monih,  is  worthy  to  pre- 
ponderate  light  falsehood  in  a  thousand.     Bp,  Hall. 

That  is  no  just  balance,  wherein  the  heaviest  side 
will  not  preponderaU,  WiOdns. 

An  inconsiderable  weight,  by  distance  from  the 
centre  of  the  balance,  will  prepontUraU  greater  mag- 
nitudes. GlanvUle. 

As  to  addition  of  ponderosity  in  dead  bodies, 
comparing  them  unto  blocks,  this  occasional  prepon- 
dermey  is  rather  an  ^ipearance  than  reality. 

Brownest  Vtdgar  Emmn. 

He  that  would  make  the  lighter  scale  preponderaU, 
will  not  so  soon  do  it,  by  adaing  new  weight  to  the 
emptier,  as  if  he  took  out  of  the  heavier,  what  he 
adds  to  the  lighter.  Lodte. 

The  mind  should  examine  all  the  ffrouods  of  pro- 
bability, and.  upon  a  due  balancing  the  whole,  reject 
or  receive  prooortionably  to  the  preponderance  of  the 
greater  grounos  of  probability.  Id, 

Little  light  boats  were  the  ships  which  people 
used,  to  the  sides  whereof  this  fish  remora  msten- 
ing,  might  make  it  swag,  as  the  least  preponde- 
rance on  either  side  will  do,  and  so  retard  its  course. 

Grew. 

The  triyiallest  thing,  when  a  passion  is  cast  into 
the  scale  with  it,  preponderatei  substantial  blessings. 
Government  rf  the  Tonpie, 

Unless  the  very  mathematical  centre  of  gravity  of 
everv  system  be  fixed  in  the  very  mathematical  centre 
of  tne  attractive  power  of  all  the  rest,  they  cannot 
be  evenly  attracted  on  all  sides,  but  must  preponde- 
rate some  way  or  other.  BenUey, 

In  matters,  which  require  present  practice,  we  must 
content  ourselves  with  a  mere  prtponderatUm  of  pro- 
bable reasons.  Watts. 

PREPOSITION,  n.  i.  Fr.  preposUian ;  Lat. 
prapoiUio.  In  grammar,  a  particle  governing  a 
case. 

A  prepoeition  signifies  some  relation,  which  the 
thing  signified  by  the  word  following  it,  has  to  some- 
thing going  before  in  the  discourse ;  as,  Cesar  came 
to  Rome.  CiorJke's  Latin  Grammar. 

PREPOSSESS',  V.  a.  P^-tf  and  possess.  To 
possess  with  an  opinion  unexamined ;  to  preju- 
dice. 

God  hath  taken  care  to  anticipate  and  prevent 

every  man  to  give  piety  the  prspostenum,  before  other 

competitors  should  be  able  to  pretend  to  him  ;  and 

so  lo  engage  him  in  holiness  first,  and  then  in  bliss. 

Hammond's  Fundamentale, 

Had  the  poor  vulgar  rout  only,  who  were  held 
under  the  prejudices  and  prepossessione  of  education, 
been  abused  into  such  idolatrous  superstitions,  it 
might  have  been  pitied,  but  not  so  much  wondered  at. 

South. 

With  thought,  from  prepaeeesion  free,  reflect 
On  solar  rays,  as  they  the  Si^ht  respect.  Blaekmore. 

She  was  preposteseed  with  the  scandal  of  salivating 

Wieeman, 

PREPOSTEROUS,  a^.-^     LaUn  prapoeU' 

Prepos'terously,  adv.     >  rus.      St^ictlv, 

Pbekm'terousness,  n.  s.^haTiog  that   finl 


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PREROGATIVE. 


irfiidi  ought  to  be  last :  hence,  absurdly  wrong ; 
perverted ;  the  adverb  and  noun-substantiye  cor- 
lesponding. 

Prqmtmmtass!  that  never  read  so  far 
To  know  the  cauie  why  musick  was  ordained. 

r™         , .         ,  Shakspean, 

Thoie  things  do  best  please  me. 
That  befal  preposterously. 

Id,  Midsummer  Night's  Dream, 
Pot  a  case  of  a  land  of  Amazons,  where  the  whole 
government,  public  and  private,  is  in  the  hands  of 
woinen:  u  not  such  a  preposterous  government 
•gainst  the  first  order  of  nature,  for  women  to  rule 
wer  men,  and  in  itself  void  ?  Bacon. 

Death  from  a  father's  hand,  from  whom  I  first 
Beoeived  a  beio^  !  'tis  a  preposterous  gift. 
An  act  at  which  inverted  nature  starts. 
And  blushes  to  behold  herself  so  cruel.      Denksm, 
The  Roman  missionaries  gave  theb  liberal  contri- 
bution, aflfording  their  preposterous  charity  to  make 
them  proeelytes,  who  had  no  mind  to  be  confessois 
or  martyrs.  p^n 

The  meehod  I  take  may  be  censured  as  preposterous, 
bemuse  I  thus  treat  last  of  the  antediluvian  earth, 
which  was  first  in  order  of  nature. 

Woodward's  Natural  History, 
Upon  this  supposition,  one  animal  would  have  its 
lungs  wnere  another  hath  its  liver,  and  all  the  other 
jnembcrs  preposterously  placed  ;  there  could  not  be  a 
like  configuration  of  parts  in  any  two  individuals. 
Benttey's  Sermons, 
The  shapeless  pair. 
As  they  designed  to  mock  me,  at  my  side 
Take  step  for  step ;  and,  as  I  near  approach 
The  cottage,  walk  along  the  plastered  wall, 
PrepeeUrous  sight  I  the  legs  without  the  man. 

Cowper. 
PREPOTENCY,  n.  i,     Lat.   prapotentia. 
rredominance;  superior  power. 

If  there  were  a  determinate  prepoteney  in  the  right, 
and  such  as  ariseth  from  a  constant  root  in  nature, 
we  might  expect  the  same  in  other  animals. 

Browns. 
PRE'PUCE,  n.  s.    Fr.  prepuce;  Lat.  pr*. 
gmiium.    That  which  covers  the  glans ;  foreskin. 
The  prepuce  was  much  inflamed  and  swelled. 

Wiseman, 
Pbepuce.    See  Anatomy. 
PRERAU,  a  circle  comprising  the  north-east 
portion  of  Moravia,  bordering  on  Austrian  Sile- 
aia.    Its  area  is  1210  square  miles.    The  smaller 
port  lying  on  the  rivers  March  and  Uanna,  b 
fertile;  the  rest  is  mountainous  and  containing 
only  here  and  there  fruitful  spots.    The  pastures 
are  good,  and  the  number  of  sheep  considerable. 
The  chief  rivers  are  the  March,  Hanna,  Becswa, 
and  Oder,  which  has  here  the  commencement  of 
its  course.    Population  215,000.  The  chief  town 
of  the  same  name  is  situated  thirteen  miles  south- 
east of  Almutz  and  contains  2300  inhabitants. 
PREREQUIRE',  v.  a.  I     Pra  and  require. 
Peebeq'uisite,  o^*.       J  To     demand     pre- 
viously: prsB  and   requisite.     Something  pre- 
viously necessary. 

Some  primary  literal  signification  is  prerequired  to 
tbt  other  of  figurative.  Hammond. 

Before  the  existence  of  compounded  body,  there 
must  be  a   pre-existence  of  active  principles,  neces- 
sariJfy  prtreqmaUe  to  the  mixing  these  particles  of  bo- 
dies. HaU, 
The  conformation  of  parts  is  necessary,  not  only 


63 

unto  the  prereqmdU  and  previous  condidons  of  birth 
out  also  unto  the  parturition.  Browne 

PREROGATIVE,  «.,.>      Fr.    preragatU^; 
Prerogatived,  adj.      .  \  low  Lat.  praroga- 
tiva.    An  exclusive  or  peculiar  privilege :  hav- 
ing exclusive  privilege. 

My  daughters  and  the  fair  Parthenia  might  far 
better  put  in  their  claim  for  that  prerogative. 
,  Sidney, 

rhe  great  caUph  hath  an  old  prerogative  in  the 
choice  and  confirmation  of  the  kings  of  Assyria. 

KnoUes, 
How  could  communities. 
The  primogeniture,  and  due  of  birth, 
^^rerogatifje  of  age,  sceptres,  and  crowns. 
But  by  degree,  stand  in  authentick  place  1 

Kp.   ^v      ,  ,  Bhaktpeare, 

1  IS  ttie  plague  of  great  ones, 
Prerogatieed  are  they  less  than  the  base  : 
'Tis  destiny  unshunable.  Jd, 

Had  any  of  these  second  causes  despoiled  God  of 
ias  prerogative,  or  had  God  himself  constrained  the 
mind  and  will  of  man  to  impious  acU  by  any  celes- 
tial inforcements  ?  ^  ^  £^^ 
They  are  the  best  laws,  by  which  the  king  hath  the 
yaltfAt  prerogative,  and  the  people  the  best  liberty. 

Baoen, 
They   obtained  another    royal    prerogative    and 
power,  to  make  war  and  place  at  their  pleasure. 
rnt     y  Davits, 

The  house  of  commons,  to  these  their  prerogatives 
over  the  lords,  sent  an  order  to  the  lieutenant  of  the 
Towar,  that  he  should  cause  him  to  be  executed  thai 

''^'^^^V   ^  .„       .  Clarendmi. 

J?  or  freedom  still  maintained  alive. 
Freedom  an  English  subject's  solo  prerogative. 
Accept  our  pious  praise.  Dryden, 

It  seems  to  be  the  prerogative  of  human  under- 
standing, when  it  has  distinguished  any  ideas,  so  as 
to  perceive  them  to  be  difierent,  to  consider  in  what 
cuicumstances  they  are  capable  to  be  compared. 

T    Ml  Locke, 

1  will  not  consider  only  the  prerogatives  of  man 
,  above  other  animals,  but  the  endowments  which  na- 
ture hath  conferred  on  his  body  in  common  with  them. 
Ray  on  the  Creaiion, 

Prerogative  Court,  an  English  court  es- 
tablished for  the  trial  of  all  testamentary  causes, 
where  the  deceased  has  left  bona  notabilia  within 
two  different  dioceses.  In  which  case  the  pro- 
bate of  wills  belongs  to  the  archbishop  of  the 
province,  by  way  of  special  prerogative.  And  all 
caus^  relating  to  the  wills,  administrations,  or 
l^cies  of  such  persons,  are  originally  cogniza- 
ble herein,  before  a  judge  appointed  by  the 
archbishop,  called  the  judge  of  the  prerogative- 
court;  from  whom  an  appeal  lies,  by  stat.  25 
Hen.  VIII.  c:  19,  to.  the  king  in  chancery,  in- 
stead of  the  pope  as  formeriy. 

Prerogative,  Royal,  that  special  pre-emi- 
nence which  the  king  hath  over  and  above  all 
other  persons,  and  out  of  the  ordinary  course  of 
the  common  law,  in  right  of  his  regal  dignity.  It 
signifies  in  .iu  etymology  (from  prae  and  rogo) 
something  that  is  required  or  demanded  before, 
or  in  preference  to  aU  others.  And  therefore 
Finch  lays  it  down  as  a  maxim,  that  the  prero- 
gative is  that  law  in  case  of  the  king,  which  is 
law  in  no  case  of  the  subject.  Prerogatives  are 
either  direct  or  incidental.  The  direct  are  such 
positive  substantial  parts  of  the  royal  character 
and  authority,  as  are  rooted  in,  and  spring  irom> 


Digitized  by  VjiUUy  IC 


64 


PREROGATIVE. 


the  king's  political  penon^  considered  merely  by 
itself^  without  reference  to  any  other  extrinsic 
circumstancs ;  as,  the  right  of  sending  ambassa- 
dors, of  creating  peers,  and  of  making  war  or 
peace.  But  such  prerogatives  as  are  incidental 
bear  aTways  a  relation  to  something  else,  distinct 
from  the  king's  person;  and  are,  indeed>  only 
exceptions,  in  favor  of  the  crown,  to  those  generad 
rules  that  are  established  for  the  rest  of  the  com- 

.  munity :  such  as,  that  no  costs  shall  be  recovered 
against  the  king ;  and  that  the  king  can  never  be 
a  joint  tenant;  and  that  his  debt  shall  be  pre- 
ferred before  a  debt  to  any  of  his  subjects. 

1.  The  law  ascribes  to  the  king  the  attribute  of 
sovereignty,  or  pre-eminency.  See  Sovereignty. 
2. '  The  law  also,'  says  Sir  William  Blackstone, 
*  ascribes  to  the  king,  in  his  political  capacity, 
absolute  perfection ;  *  The  king  can  do  no 
wrong.'  which  ancient  and  fundamental  maxim 
is  not  to  be  understood  as  if  every  thing  transr 
acted  by  the  government  was  of  course  just  and 
lawful ;  but  means  only  that  whatever  is  excep- 
tionable in  the  conduct  of  public  affairs  is  not 
to  be  imputed  to  the  king,  nor  is  he  answerable 
for  it  personally  to  his  people  :•  for  this  doctrine 
would  totally  destroy  that  constitutional  inde- 
pendence, of  the  crown  which  is  necessary  for 
the  balance  of  power  in  our  free  and  active, 
and  therefore  compounded,  constitution.  And 
therefore,  if  the  crown  should  be  induced  to 
grant  any  franchise  or  privilege  to  a  subject  con- 
trary to  reason,  or  in  any  wise  prejudicial  to  the 
commonwealth  or  a  private  person,  the  law  will 
not  suppose  the  king  to  have  meant  either  an 
unwise  or  an  injurious  action,  but  declares  that 
the  king  was  deceived  in  his  grant ;  and  there- 
upon such  grant  is  rendered  void,  merely  upon 
the  foundation  of  fraud  and  deception,  either 
by  or  upon  those  agents  whom  the  crown  has 
thought  proper  to  employ.^  The  law  determines 
that  in  the  king  can  be  no  negliffence  or  laches;, 
and  therefore  no  delay]  vrill  bar  his  right.  Nul- 
lum tempus  occurrit  regi  is  the  standing  maxim 
upon  all  occasions :  for  the  law  intends  that  the 
kmg  is  always  busied  for  the  public  good,  and 
therefore  has  not  leisure  to  assert  his  right  within 
the  times  limited  to  subjects.  In  the  king  also 
can  be  no  stain  or  corruption  of  blood ;  for  if  the 
heir  to  the  crown  were  attainted  of  treason  or 
felony,  and  afterwards  the  crown  should  descend 
to  him,  this  would  purge  the  attainder  ipso  facto. 
This  happened  in  the  case  of  Henry  VII.  who, 
as  earl  of  Richmond,  stood  attainted,  but  his 
assumption  of  the  crovni  cleared  the  attainders. 
Neither  can  the  king,  in  judgment  of  law,  as 
king,  ever  be  a  minor  or  under  9:ge ;  and  there- 
fore his  royal  grants  and  assents  to  acts  of  par- 
liament are  gocwi,  though  he  has  not  in  his  natu- 
ral capacity  attained  the  legal  age  of  twenty-one. 
By  a  statute,  indeed,  28  Hen.  VlII.  c.  17,  power 
was  given  to  future  kings  to  rescind  all  acts 
of  parliament  that  should  be  made  while  they 
were  under  the  age  of  twenty-four :  but  this  was 
repealed  by  the  stat.  1  £dw.  VI.  c.  11,  so  far  as 

-  related  to  that  prince,  and  both  statutes  are  de- 
clared to  be  determined  by  24  Geo.  II.  c.  24. 
It  has  aldo  been  usually  thought  prudent,  when 
the  heir  apparent  has  been  very  young,  to  ap- 
point a  protector,  guardian,  or  regent,  for  a 


limited  time :  but  the  very  neeessity  of  such  ex- 
traordinary provision  is  sufficient  to  demonstrale 
the  truth  of  that  maxim  of  common  law,  that  in 
the  king  is  no  minority ;  and  therefore  he  has  no 
legal  guardian.  3.  A  third  aliribute  of  the  king's 
majesty  is  his  perpetuity.  The  law  ascribes  to 
him,  in  his  political  capacity,  an  absolute  im- 
moitality.  The  king  never  dies;  Henry,  Ed- 
ward, or  George,  may  die ;  but  the  king  survive* 
them  all.  For,  immediately  upon  the  decease 
of  the  reigning  prince  in  his  natural  capacity, 
his  kingship  or  imperial  dignity,  by  act  of  law* 
without  any  interregnum  or  interval,  is  vested  at 
once  in  his  heir ;  who  is,  eo-instanti,  king  to  all 
intents  and  purposes.  The  royal  prerogative  in- 
vests the  king  with  a  number  of  authorities  and 
powers;  in  the  exertion  whereof  consists  the  ex- 
ecutive part-  of  government.  This  is  wisely 
placed  in  a  single  hand  by  the  British  constitti- 
tion,  for  the  sake  of  unanimity,  strength,  and  de- 
spatch. Were  it  placed  in  many  hands,  it  would 
be  subject  to  many  wills :  which,  if  disunited 
and  drawing  different  ways,  create  weakness  in 
a  government ;  and  to  unite  these  and  reduce 
them  to  one  is  a  work  of  more  time  and  delay 
than  the  exigencies  of  state  will  afford.  The 
king  of  England  is  therefore  not  only  the  chief, 
but  properly  the  sole  magistrate  of  the  nation ;  all 
others  acting  by  commission  from,  and  in  due 
subordination  to  him.  In  the  exertion  of  lavfful 
prerogative  the  king  is  held  to  be  absolute ;  that  is 
so  fu  absolute  that  there  is  no  legal  authority  that 
can  either  delay  or  resist  him.  He  may  reject 
what  bills,  may  make  what  treaties,  may  coin 
what  money,  may  create  what  peers,  may  pardon 
what  offences  he  pleases :  unless  where  the  con- 
stitution has  expressly,  or  by  evident  conse- 
auence,  laid  down  some  exception  or  boundary; 
eclarinff,  that  thus  far  the  prerogatiye  shall  so 
and  no  farther.  For  otherwise  the  power  of  the 
crown  would  indeed  be  but  a  name  and  a  sha- 
dow, insufficient  for  the  ends  of  government,  if, 
where  its  jurisdiction  is  clearly  established  and 
allowed,  any  man  or  body  of  men  were  per- 
mitted to  disobey  it,  in  the  ordinary  course  of 
law :  we  do  not  now  speak  of  those  extraordi- 
nary recouroes  to  the  first  principles  which  are 
necessary  when  the  contracts  of  society  are  in 
danger  of  dissolution,  and  the  law  proves  too 
weak  a  defence  against  the  violence  of  fraud  or 
oppression.  And  yet  'the  want  of  attending  to 
this  obvious  distinction  has  occasioned  these 
doctrines  of  absolute  power  in  the  prince  and  of 
national  resistance  by  the  people,  to  be  mudi 
misunderstood  and  perverted  by  the  advocate* 
for  slavery  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  demagogues 
of  fikction  on  the  other.  In  the  exertion,  tl^ie- 
fore,  of  these  prerogatives  which  the  law  hai 
given  him,  the  king  is  irresistible  and  absolute, 
according  to  the  forms  of  the  constitution.  And 
yet,  if  the  consequence  of  that  exertion  be  mani- 
festly to  the  grievance  or  dishonor  of  the  kingt- 
dom,  the  parliament  will  call  his  advisers  to  a 
just  and  severe  account.  For  prerocative  con- 
sisting (as  Mr.  Locke  has  well  defined  it)  in  the 
discretionary  power  of  acting  for  the  public  good 
where  the  positive  laws  are  silent,  if  that  discre- 
tionary power  be  abused  to  the  public  detriment, 
such  prerogative  is  exerted  in  an  unconstitutional 


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PREROGATIVE. 


55 


The  king^s  ministers  in  all  such  cases 
aie  amenable  to  p^iament.  Thus  the  king  may 
make  a  trea^  with  a  foreign  state,  which  shall 
inerocably  bind  the  nation ;  and  ^et,  when  such 
treaties  have  been  judged  pemiaous,  impeach- 
ments have  pursued  Uiose  ministers  by  whose 
agency  or  advice  they  were  concluded. 

With  regard  to  all  foreign  concerns,  the  king 
is  the  delegate  or  representative  of  his  people. 
What  is  done  by  the  royal  authority,  with  regard 
to  {(tfeign  powers,  is  the  act  of  the  whole  nation : 
what  is  done  without  the  king's  concurrence  is  the 
act  only  of  private  men.  And,  by  the  statute  2 
Hen.  V.  c  6,  any  subject  committing  acts  of 
hostility  upon  any  nation  in  league  with  the 
kii^,  was  declared  to  be  guilty  of  high-treason : 
and,  though  that  act  was  repealed  by  the  stat.  20 
Hen.  VI.  c.  1 1,  so  far  as  relates  to  the  making 
this  offence  higb-treason,  yet  it  still  remains  a 
very  great  offence  against  the  law  of  nations,  and 
poni^Bble  by  our  laws,  either  capitally  or  other- 
wise, according  to  the  circumstances  of  the  case. 
1.  The  king,  ^erefore,  considered  as  the  repre- 
sentative en  his  people,  has  the  sole  power  of 
sending  ambassadors  to  foreign  states,  and  re- 
ceiving ambassadors  at  home.  2.  It  is  also  the 
king's  prerogative  to  make  treaties,  leagues,  and 
alliances,  with  foreign  states  and  princes ;  though 
in  this,  as  in  all  other  cases,  ministers  are  amen- 
ahk  to  parliamentary  impeachment  for  advising 
the  king  to  conclude  any  such  treaties  that  are 
found  to  be  derogatory  from  the  honor  and  in- 
terest of  the  nation.  3.  The  king  has  also  the 
sole  prerc^tive  of  making  war  and  peace.  And 
therefore,  to  make  a  war  completely  legal  and 
constitutional,  it  must  be  publicly  proclaimed  by 
the  king^s  authority.  In  pursuance  of  which 
principle,  it  is  with  us  declared  by  the  statute  4 
Hen.  V.  c.  7,  that,  if  any  subjects  of  the  realm 
are  oppressed  in  the  time  of'  truce  by  any 
fore^ers,  the  king  will  grant  letters  of  marque 
in  due  form  to  all  that  feel  themselves  aggrieved. 
5.  Upon  exactly  the  same  reason  stands  the  pre- 
rogative of  granting  safe  conducts ;  without  which, 
by  the  law  of  nations,  no  member  of  one  society 
has  a  right  to  intrude  into  another.  Great  ten- 
derness is  shown  by  our  laws,  not  only  to 
foreigners  in  distress  (see  Wreck),  but  with  re- 
gard also  to  the  admission  of  strangrers  who 
come  spontaneously :  for  so  long  as  their  nation 
continues  at  peace  with  ours,  and  they  themselves 
behave  peaceably,  they  are  under  the  king's  pro- 
tection, though  liable  to  be  sent  home  whenever 
the  king  sees  occasion.  But  no  subject  of  a  na- 
tion at  war  with  us  can,  by  the  law  of  nations, 
come  into  the  realm,  or  can  travel  himself  upon 
the  high  seas,  or  send  his  goods  and  merchandise 
finom  one  place  to  another,  without  danger  of  be- 
ing seized  by  our  subjects,  unless  he  has  letters 
of  safe  conduct ;  which,  by  divers  ancient  sta- 
tutes, most  be  granted  under  the  king's  great 
seal,  and  enrolled  in  chancery,  or  else  they  are 
of  no  eflect;  the  kii^  being  supposed  the  best 
judge  of  such  emergencies  as  may  deserve  excep- 
tion firom  the  general  law  of  arms.  But  pass- 
C  under  the  king's  sign-manual,  or  licenses 
his  ambassadors  abroad,  are  now  more 
osoally  obtained,  and  are  allowed  to  be  of  equal 
validity.     These  are  the  principal  prerogatives 


of  the  king  respecting  this  nation's  intercourse 
with  foreign  nations. 

In  domestic  affairs  the  king  is  considered  in 
a  great  variety  of  characters;  and  thence  there 
arises  a  number  of  other  prerogatives.  1.  He 
is  a  constituent  part  of  the  supreme  legislative 
power;  and,  as  such,  has  the  prerogative  of 
rejecting  such  provisions  in  parliament  as  he 
judges  improper  to  be  passed.  2.  The  king  has 
the  sole  power  of  raising  and  regulating  fleets 
and  armies.  The  sole  prerogative,  also,  of  erect- 
ing, manning,  and  governing  of  castles  and  forts, 
belongs  to  the  king  in  his  dkpacity  of  general  of 
the  kingdom ;  and  all  lands  were  formerly  sub- 
ject to  9  tax,  for  building  castles  wherever  the 
king  thought  proper :  in  consequence  of  which 
their  number  was  increased  most  enormously. 
The  greater  part  of  them  being  demolished  in  the 
wars  with  the  barons,  succeeding  kings  were 
cautious  of  suffering  them  to  be  rebuilt:  and 
Sir  Edward  Coke  lays  it  down,  that  no  subject 
can  build  a  castle,  or  house  of  strength  embat- 
tled, or  other  fortress  defensible,  without  the 
license  of  the  king ;  for  the  danger  which  might 
ensue,  if  every  man  at  his  pleasure  might  do  it. 

The  king  has  also  the  prerogative  of  appoint- 
ing ports  and  havens,  for  persons  and  merchan- 
dise to  pass  into  and  out  of  the  realm,  as  he  in 
his  wisdom  sees  proper.  By  the  feudal  law,  all 
navigable  rivers  and  havens  were  computed 
among  the  regalia,  and  were  subject  to  the  sove- 
reign of  the  state.  And  in  England  it  has  al- 
ways been  held  that  the  kin^  is  lord  of  the 
whole  shore,  and  particularly  is  the  guardian  of 
the  ports  and  havens,  which  are  the  inlets  and 
gates  of  the  realm :  and  therefore,  so  early  as  the 
reign  of  John,  we  find  ships  seized  by  the  king's 
officers  for  putting  in  at  a  place  that  was  not  a 
legal  port.  These  legal  ports  were  undoubtedly 
at  first  assigned  by  the  crown ;  since  to  each  of 
them  a  court  of  portmote  is  incident,  the  juris- 
diction of  which  must  flow  from  the  royal  autho- 
rity :  the  great  ports  of  the  sea  are  also  referred 
to  as  well-known  and  established,  by  stat  4  Hen. 
IV.  c.  20,  which  prohibits  the  landing  elsewhere, 
under  pain  of  confiscation ;  and  the  stat.  1  Eliz. 
c.  11,  recites,  that  the  franchise  of  lading  and 
discharging  had  been  frequently  granted  by  the 
crown.  But,  though  the  king  had  a  power  of 
granting  the  francbose  of  havens  and  ports,  yet 
he  had  not  the  power  of  resumption,  or  of  nar- 
rowing and  connning  their  lii&its  when  once  es- 
tablished ;  but  any  pierson  had  a  right  to  load  or 
dischaige  his  mercbmdise  in  any  part  of  the 
haven ;  whereby  the  revenue  of  the  custom  was 
much  impaired  and  diminished,  by  fraudulent 
landings  in  obscure  and  priv^  comers.  This 
occasioned  the  statutes  of  1  Eli2.  c.  11,  and  13 
and  14  Car.  II.  c.  11,  sec.  14,  which  enable  the 
crown,  by  commission,  to  ascertain  the  limits  of 
all  ports,  and  to  assign  proper  wharfs  and  quays 
in  each  port,  for  the  exclusive  landing  and  load- 
ing of  merchandise.  3.  Another  capacity  in  which 
the  king  is  considered  in  domestic  afiairs  is  as 
the  fountain  of  justice,  and  general  conservator  of 
the  peace  of  the  kingdom.  4.  The  king  b  like- 
wise the  fountain  of  honor,  ofiice,  and  privilege ; 
and  this  in  a  different  sense  from  that  wherein  he 
is  styled  the  fountain  of  justice ;  for  here  he  is 


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re&ll^  tbd  parent  of  them.  The  king  is,  lastly, 
considered  by  the  laws  of  England  as  the  hetui 
and  supreme  governor  of  the  national  church. 
This  prerogative  was  fixed  by  stat.  26  Hen.  VIII. 
c.  1  and  1  £Iiz.  c.  1.  In  virtue  of  this  authority, 
the  king  convenes,  prorogues,  restrains,  re^- 
lates,  and  dissolves,  all  ecclesiastical  synods  or 
convocations.  From  this  prerogative,  also,  of 
being  the  head  of  the  church,  arises  the  king's 
right  of  nomination  to  vacant  bishoprics,  and 
other  ecclesiastical  preferments.  As  bead  of  the 
church  the  king  is  likewise  the  dernier  resort  in 
all  ecclesiastical  causes;  an  appeal  lyiog  ulti- 
mately to  him  in  chancery  from  the  sentence  of 
every  ecclesiastical  judge :  which  right  was  re- 
stored to  the  crown  by  stat.  25  Hen.  Vlll.  C.  9. 

PRES'AGE,  n.  s.  &  v.  a.  )         Fr.     presage  ; 

Presage'hemt.  S  Latin   prasagium. 

Prognostic;  presension  of  futurity;  to  fore- 
bode ;  foretell :  presagement  is  synonymous  with 
presage  noun-substantive. 

Henry's  late  pnsagmg  prophecy 
Did  glad  my  heart  with  hope. 

Shakspeare,  Henry  VI, 
if  I  may  trust  the  flattering  ruth  of  sleep. 

My  dreams  pruage  some  joyful  news  at  hand. 

Shahpeare, 

I  have  spent  much  inquiry,  whether  he  bad  any 
ominous  pretagement  before  his  end.  Wottoru 

This  contagion  might  have  been  presaged  open 
consideration  of  its  precursors. 

Harvey  on  Consumption, 

That  cloud,  that  hangs  upon  thy  brow,  presages 
A  greater  storm  than  all  the  Turkish  power 
Can  throw  upon  us.  Dewtam's  Sophy, 

What  power  of  mind 
Foreseeing,  or  presaging  from  the  depth 
Of  knowledge  past  or  present,  could  have  feared 
How  such  united  force  of  gods,  how  such 
As  stood  like  these,  could  ever  know  repulse. 

Milton, 

The  falling  of  salt  is  an  authentick  presagement  of 
ill  luck,  from  whence  notwithstanding  nothing  can 
be  naturally  feared.  Broume, 

When  others  fell,  this  standing  did  presage 
The  ciown  should  triumph  over  popular  rage. 

Waller, 

Wished  freedom  I  presage  you  soon  will  6nd, 
If  heaven  be  jiist,  and  if  to  virtue  kind.      Dryden, 

That  by  certain  signs  we  may  presage 
Of*  heats  and  rains,  and  wind's  impetuous  rage, 
The  sovereign  of  the  heavens  has  set  on  high 
The  moon  to  mark  the  changes  of  the  sky.         fd. 

Dreams  have  generallv  been  considered  by  authors 
only  as  revelations  of  what  has  already  happened,  or 
8S  presages  of  what  is  to  happen.  Addison^ 

PRESBURGjOrPosoNYi-VARMEGYE,  an  im- 
portant palatinate  of  Hungary,  lying  in  an  angle 
formed  by  the  March  and  Danube.  Its  area  is 
1740  square  miles.  The  Carpathians  traverse 
the  whole  length  of  this  district ;  but  in  general 
the  elevations  are  not  great,  and  they  are  com- 
monly covered  with  vineyards.  Of  the  wine 
produced,  that  called  the  Szent  George  Ausbnick 
IS  inferior  only  to  Tokay.  Com  and  fruit  are 
produced  in  the  south-east  part,  particularly  in 
the  district  called  the  isle  of  Schutt.  The  chief 
towns  are  Presburg  and  Tyrnau  ;  the  latter  the 
seat  of  the  court  of  appeal  for  the  circle  to  the 
north  of  the  Danube.  Population  of  the  palati- 
nate 200,000,  a  mixture  of  Hungarians,  Ger- 
mans, Bohemians,  Croats,  and  Jews. 


PRE 


Presburo,  or  Posont,  a  large  town  of  Hun- 
gary,  on  the  north  bank  of  the  I^ube,  declared, 
by  a  royal  decree  of  1536,  the  capital  of  Hun- 
gary. The  kings  are  still  crowned  here,  but  the 
viceroy  and  the  higher  officers  of  government 
reside  at  Buda;  and  the  diets  and.vipreme 
courts  of  justice  meet  at  Pesth.  Pzesburg  con- 
tains at  present  little  that  is  interesting.  Its  castle, 
which  lately  served  as  a  barrack,  was  burned  down 
in  the  early  part  of  the  present  century;  and  its 
walls  form  only  a  ruinous  square  pile,  with  a 
tower  at  each  comer.  This  town  stands  on  a  hill 
of  moderate  elevation,  overlooking  a  vast  plain ; 
and  the  horizon  is  open  in  all  directions  except 
in  the  north-west,  where,  for  nearly  a  third  of  ita 
circumference,  it  is  intercepted  by  the  distant 
mountains.  The  Danube,  here  nearly  half  a 
mile  wide,  is  crossed  by  a  flying  bridge.  The 
fortifications  have  been  demolished ;  and  no  dis- 
tinction is  now  made  between  the  town  and 
suburbs.  The  suburbs  bear  marks  of  imnrove^ 
ment :  there  are  here  two  squares,  adoraea  with 
statues.  The  principal  church  of  Presburg  is  an 
old  Gothic  edifice,  said  to  have  been  built  in 
1090;  the  other  public  buildings  are  the  palace 
of  the  palatine,  the  barrabks,  corn-market,  and 
town-house.  Presburg  has  an  academy,  a  school 
for  the  children  of  nobility,  two  or  three  monas- 
teries, a  Catholic  and  a  Lutheran  gymnasium. 
The  manufoctures,  though  on  a  small  scale,  com- 
prise woollens,  silk,  oil,  tobacco,  and  snuff.  The 
trade  in  com  and  linen  is  considerable.  It 
was  here  that  a  treaty  was  concluded  between 
France  and  Austria,  after  the  campaign  of  1805. 
Thirty-eight  miles  east  by  south  of  Vienna,  and 
107  W.N.  W.  of  Pesth. 

PRES'BYTER,  n.  s,         •\     Lat.  prtsbyter ; 

Presbyte'rial,  A^'.  CGr.    irpc<y0vrfpoc. 

Presb  yte'ri  AN,  (ug.  &  n.  s.  A  A  priest ;  an  elaer : 

Pres'byterv,  n.  s.  J  both  ^e  adjec- 

tives mean  consisting  of  elders  or  presbyters ; 
or  according  to  the  presbyterian  form  of  church 
government :  presbyterian,  as  a  noun  substantive, 
one  who  holds  with  that  form :  presbytery,  a  body 
of  elders  or  priests.    See  below. 

Thev  cannot  delegate  the  episcopal  ^wer,  properly 
so  called,  to  presbytertf  witnout  giving  them  epis- 
copal consecration.  l*sley, 

rresbyters  absent  through  infirmity  from  their 
churches,  might  be  said  to  preach  by  tnose  deputies 
who  in  their  stead  did  but  read  homUies.     Hooker, 

Those  which  stood  for  the  presbytery,  thought  their 
cause  bad  more  sympathy  with  the  discipline  of 
Scotland  than  the  hierarchy  of  England.        Bacon, 

Chiefly  was  ureed  the  almlition  of  episcopal,  and 
the  establishing  ot  presbyterian  government. 

King  Charles. 
Flea-bitten  synod,  an  assembly  brewed 

Of  clerks  and  eiders  ana,  like  the  rude 

Chaos  of  preAytery,  where  laymen  guide 

With  the  tame  woolpack  clergy  by  tneir  side. 

CieaveUmd. 

Who  should  exclude  him  from  an  interest,  and  so 
unhap^ly  a  more  unavoidable  sway  in  presbyterial 
determinations'!  Holydag, 

And  preAyters  ^ave  their  jackpuddings  too. 

Hudihrm* 

One  of  the  more  rigid  presbyterians.  Swift, 

Presbyter,  or  elder,  is  a  word  borrowed  from 
the  Greek  translation  of  the  Old  Testament^ 


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67 


whiere  it  coinm<Siily  signifies  ruler  or  governor ; 
It  bang  a  note  of  office  and  dignity,  not  of  age : 
and  in  this  sense  bishops  are  sometimes  called 
presbyters  in  the  New  Testament.  The  grand 
dbpute  between  the  followers  of  the  Geneva  and 
Roman  discipline  is  about  the  sameness  or 
difference  of  presbyters  and  bishops  in  the  time 
of  the  apostles. 

PassBYTERiAVS,  Protestant,  SO  called  from 
their  maintaining  that  the  government  of  the 
church  appointed  in  the  New  Testament  was  by 
presbyteries,  that  is,  by  associations  of  ministers 
and  ruling  elders,  possessed  all  of  equal  p6wers, 
without  any  superiority  among  them  either  in 
office  or  in  order. 

The  Presbyterians  believe  that  the  authority 
of  their  ministers  to  preach  the  gospel,  to  admi- 
nister the  sacraments  of  baptism  and  the  Lord's 
sapper,  and  to  feed  the  flock  of  Christ,  is  de- 
rived fh>m  the  Holy  Ghost  by  the  imposition  of 
the  bands  of  the  presbytery.  They  affirm  that 
there  is  no  order  in  the  church  as  established  by 
Christ  and  his  apostles  superior  to  that  of  the 
presbyters ;  that  all  ministers^  being  ambassadors 
of  Christ,  are  equal  by  their  commission ;  that 
presbyter  and  bishop,  though  different  words,  are 
of  the  same  import ;  and  that  prelacy  was  gra- 
dually established  upon  the  primitive  practice  of 
making  the  moderator  or  speaker  of  the  presby- 
tenr  a  permanent  officer.    See  Bishop. 

in  the  Scottish  church,  every  regulation  of 
public  worship,  every  act  of  discipline,  and 
every  ecclesiastical  censure,  which  in  other 
churches  flows  from  the  authority  of  a  diocesan 
bishop,  or  from  a  convocation  of  the  clergy,  is 
the  joint  work  of  a  certain  number  of  clergymen 
and  laymen  acting  together  with  equal  authority, 
and  deciding  every  question  by  a  plurality  of 
voices.  The  laymen,  who  thus  form  an  essential 
part  of  the  ecclesiastical  courts  of  Scotland,  are 
called  ruling  elders.  Every  parish  has  two  or 
three  of  these  lay-elders,  who  are  grave  and 
serious  persons  chosen  from  among  the  heads  of 
£unilies,  of  known  orthodoxy,  and  steady  adhe- 
rence to  the  worship,  discipline,  and  government 
of  the  church.-  •  Being  solemnly  engaged  to  use 
their  utmost  endeavours  for  the  suppression  of 
vice,  and  the  cherishing  of  piety  and  virtue,  and 
to  exercise  discipline  faithfully  and  diligently, 
the  minister,  in  the  presence  of  the  congregation, 
sets  them  apart  to  their  office  by  solemn  prayer; 
and  concludes  the  ceremony,  whiclf  is  sometimes 
called  ordination,  with  exhorting  both  elders  and 
people  to  their  respective  duties.  The  kirk- 
session,  which  is  the  lowest  ecclesiastical  judica- 
toiy,  consists  of  the  minister  and  those  elders  of 
the  congregation.  The  minister  is  ex  officio  mo- 
derator, but  has  no  negative  voice  over  the  de- 
cision of  the  session ;  nor  indeed  has  he  a  right 
to  vote  at  all,  unless  when  the  voices  of  the 
elders  are  equal  and  opposite.  He  may  indeed 
enter  his  protest  against  their  sentence,  if  he 
think  it  improper,  and  appeal  to  the  judgment  of 
the  presbytery ;  but  this  privilege  belongs  equally 
to  every  elder,  as  well  as  to  every  person  who 
may  believe  himself  agrieved  by  the  proceedings 
of  the  session.  The  deacons,  whose  proper 
office  it  is  to  take  care  of  the  poor,  may  be  pre- 
sent in  every  session^  and  offer  their  counsel  on 


all  questions  that  come  before  it;  but,  except  in 
what  relates  to  the  distribution  of  alms,  they  navs 
no  decisive  vote  with  the  minister  and  elders. 

The  next  iudicator^  is  the  presbytery,  properly 
so  called,  which  consists  of  all  the  pastors  within 
a  certain  district,  and  one  ruling  elder  from  each 
parish,  commissioned  by  his  brethren  to  repre- 
sent, in  conjunction  with  the  minister,  the  ses- 
sion of  that  parish.  The  presbytery  treats  of 
such  matters  as  concern  the  particular  churches 
within  its  limits;  as  the  exammation,  admission, 
ordination,  and  censuring  of  ministers;  the 
licensing  of  probationers,  rebuking  of  gross  or 
contumacious  sinners,  the  directing  of  the  sen- 
tence of  excommunication,  the'  deciding  upon 
references  and  appeals  from  kirk-sessions,  re- 
solving cases  of  conscience,  explaining  difficul- 
ties in  doctrine  or  discipline,  and  censuring, 
according  to  the  word  of  God,  any  heresy  or 
erroneous  doctrine  which  hath  been  either  pub- 
licly or  privately  maintained  within  the  bounds 
of  its  jurisdiction.  In  presbyteries,  the  only  pre- 
rogatives which  the  pastors  have  over  the  ruling 
elders,  are,  the  power  of  ordination  by  imposi- 
tion of  hands,  and  the  privilege  of  having  the 
moderator  chosen  from  their  body.  From  the 
judgment  of  the  presfovtery  there  lies  an  appeal 
to  the  provincial  synod,  which  ordinarily  meets 
twice  in  the  year,  and  exercises  over  the  presby- 
teries within  the  province  a  jurisdiction  similar 
to  that  which  is  vested  in  each  presbytery  over 
the  several  kirk-sessions  within  its  bounds. 
These  synods  are  composed  of  the  members  of 
the  several  presbyteries  within  the  respective 
provinces  which  give  names  to  the  synods.  The 
highest  authority  in  the  church  of  Scotland  is 
the  general  assembly,  which  consists  of  a  certain 
number  of  ministers  and  ruling  elders,  delegated 
from  each  presbytery,  and  of  commissioners  from 
the  universities  and  royal  boroughs.  A  presby- 
tery in  which  there  are  fewer  than  twelve 
parishes  sends  to  the  general  assembly  two 
ministers  and  one  ruling  elder :  if  it  contains 
between  twelve  and  eighteen  ministers,  it  sends 
three  of  these,  and  one  ruling  elder :  if  it  con- 
tains between  eighteen  and  twenty-four  ministers, 
it  sends  four  ministers  and  two  ruling  elders ; 
and  of  twenty-four  ministers,  when  it  contains  so 
many,  it  sends  five  with  two  ruling  elders. 
Every  royal  borough  sends' one  ruling  elder, 
whose  election  must  be  attested  by  the  kirk- 
sessions  of  their  respective  boroughs.  Every 
university  sends  one  commissioner  from  its  own 
body.  The  commissioners  are  chosen  annually, 
six  weeks  before  the  meeting  of  the  assembly; 
and  the  ruling  elders  are  often  men  of  the  first 
eminence  in  the  kingdom  for  rank  and  talents. 
In  this  assembly,  which  meets  once  a  year,  the 
king  presides  by  his  commissioner,  who  is  alwa};^  a 
nobleman ;  but  he  has  no  voice  in  their  delibera- 
tions, unless  he  be  a  member  of  assembly,  which 
is  sometimes  the  case.  Appeals  are  brought  from 
all  the  other  ecclesiastical  courts  in  Scotland  to 
the  general  asseinbly ;  and,  in  questions  purely 
religious,  no  appeal  lies  from  its  determinations. 
In  the  subordmation  of  these  assemblies,  paro- 
chial, presbyterial,  provincial,  and  national,  the 
less  unto  the  greats,  consists  the  external  order 
of  the  church  of  Scotland. 


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signification :  prescienceis  foreknowledge ;  know- 
ledge of  the  future. 

They  tax  oar  policy,  and  call  it  cowardtce» 
Forestall  our  prt$eience,  and  esteem  no  act 
But  that  of  hand. 

^uJttpeare,  TroUus  and  Creuida. 

Pre8eiene€,  or  foreknowledge,  considered  in  order 
and  nature,  if  we  may  speak  of  God  after  the  man- 
ner of  men,  goeth  before  providence  ;  for  God  fore- 
knew all  things  before  he  had  created  them,  or  before 
they  had  bein^  to  be  cared  for ;  and  preteience'is  no 
other  than  an  infallible  foreknowledge.  RaUigk. 
^  Henry,  upon  the  deliberation  concerning  the  mar- 
riage of  his  eldest  daughter  into  Scotland,  had 
shewed  himself  sensible  and  almost  ffreseitnt  of  thb 
event.  -  Baeon, 

God's  prmetmut,  from  all  eternity,  being  but  the 
feeing  evety  thing  that  ever  exists  as  it  is,  contin- 
gents as  contingents*  necessary  es  necessaiy,  can 
neither  work  any  change  in  the  object,  by  thus  seeing 
it,  nor  itself  be  deceivra  in  what  it  sees.  Hammond. 

If  certain  prwcMnot  of  uncertain  events  imply  a 
contradiction,  it  seems  it  may  be  struck  out  ot  the 
omnisciency  of  God,  and  leave  no  blemish  behind. 

Man, 

Freedom  vras  first  bestowed  on  human  race. 
And  preaeienoe  only  held  the  second  place. 

Dryden. 

Thrice  happy  thou,  dear  partner  of  my  bed, 
Whose  holy  soul  the  stroke  of  fortune  £ied  -, 
Pre$eumi  of  ills,  and  leaving  me  behind. 
To  drink  the  drees  of  life.  Id,  ACmeis. 

Of  things  of  the  most  accidental  and  mutable  na- 
ture God's  prascience  is  certain.  South. 

Who  taught  the  nations  of  the  field  and  wood, 
Pretcient,  the  tides  or  tempests  to  withstand  ? 

Pope. 

Prescience,  in  theology,  prevision,  or  fore- 
knowledge; that  knowledge  which  God  has  of 
things  to  come.  The  doctrine  of  predestination 
is  found^  on  the  prescience  of  God,  and  on  the 
supposition  of  all  futurity  being  present  to  him. 
The  apostle  Peter,  in  his  celebrated  sermon  at 
Jerusalem,  asserts  both  doctrines,  of  prescience 
and  accountability,  in  one  sentence,  Acts  ii.  23. 
*  Him,  being  delivered  by  the  determinate  coun- 
sel and  foreknowledge  of  God,  ye  have  •  taken, 
and  by  wicked  hands  have  crucified  and  slain.' 

PRESCIND',  ir.  a.)      Lat.   pratcindo.     To 

Prescind'eht, cu^'.  )  cut  off;  to  abstract:  ab- 
stracting. 

A  bare  act  of  obliquity  does  not  only  pre$eind 
from,  but  positively  deny  such  a  special  dependence. 

Norris. 

We  may,  for  one  sinsle  act,  abstract  from  a  re- 
ward, which  nobody  who \nows  the  praeindent  facul- 
ties of  the  soul  can  deny.  Chgyne. 

PRESCOT,  a  market  town  of  Lancashire, 
with  a  market  on  Tuesday  for  com,  provisions, 
aiyl  cattle.  It  has  considerable  manufactures  of 
sail-cloth,  watches,  &c.  .  The  church  is  a  hand- 
some building,  having  a  steeple  fifty-two  yards 
high,  allowed  to  be  the  most  complete  in  the 
county.  There  is  also  a  dissenters  meeting- 
house, a  free-school,  and  several  alms-houses. 
At  St.  Helen's,  near  this  town,  is  an  extensive 
plate  glass  manufactory,  in  which  300  persons 
are  employed  ;  and  near  it  is  another  for  smelt- 
ing and  refining,  copper  ore.     Near  this  town  lies 


Knowlesl^,  the  seat  of  the  earl  of  Derby.     Pres- 
cot  lies  eight  miles  east  of  Liverpool,  and  198 
N.N.W.  of  London. 
PRESCRIBE',  V.  a.  &v.n.^     Lat.  prascribo. 
pREscRi'pT,  adj.  &  ms,      >To  set  down  au- 
Prescrip'tioit,  n.  s.  j  thoritattvely ;  or- 

der ;  direct ;  influence :  prescript  is  directed ;  laid 
down  formally:  prescript,  noun  substantive,  and 
prescription,  direction;  model;  medical  recipe; 
long  used  custom. 

Doth  the  strength  of  some  negative  arguments 
prove  this  kind  of  negative  argument  strong,  by  force 
whereof  all  thines  are  denied  which  scripture  aflSrm- 
e^  not,  or  all  things  which  scripture  preteribeih  not 
condemned  1  Hooker. 

Those  very  laws  so  added,  they  themselves  do  not 
judge  unlawful ;  as  thay  plainly  confess  both  in  mat- 
ter of  protcript  attire,  and  of  rites  appertaining  to 
burial.  Id. 

You  tell  a  pedigree 
Of  threescore  and  two  years,  a  silly  time 
To  make  prescription  for  a  kingdom's  worth. 

Shakspeare. 
My  father  left  roe  some  preteriptions 
Of  rare  and  proved  effects ;  such  as  his  reading 
And  manifest  experience  had  collected 
For  general  sovereignty.  Id. 

Use  such  as  have  prevailed  before  in  things  yon 
have  employed  them  ;  for  that  breeds  confidence,  and 
they  will  strive  to  maintain  their  pri$eriptum. 

Bacon'e  Ena^. 
To  the  blanc  moon  her  office  they  preacribed. 

MUtm. 
By  his  prescript,  a  sanctuary  is  framed 
Of  cedar,  overlaid  with  gold.  Id. 

A  reserve  of  puerility  we  have  not  shaken  off  from 
school,  where,  being  seasoned  with  minor  sentences, 
they  prescribe  upon  our  riper  years,  and  never  are 
worn  out  but  with  our  memories.  Browne. 

Nor  did  he  ever  with  so  much  regret  submit  unto 
any  prescript.  Felt. 

Approving  of  my  obstinacy  agaiuRt  all  common 
preseriptionM,  he  asked  me  whether  I  had  never  heard 
of  the  Indian  way  of  curing  the  gout  by  moza. 

Temple. 
There's  joy,  when  to  wild  will  yon  laws  preeeribe. 
When  you  bid  fortune  carry  back  her  bribe. 

Dr^dm. 
The  extremest  ways  they  first  ordain. 
Prescribing  such  intolerable  pain, 
As  none  but  Caesar  could  sustain.  /d. 

Our  poet  bade  us  hope  this  grace  to  find. 
To  whom  by  long  prescription  you  are  kind.    Id. 
The  assuming  an  authority  of  dictating  to  others, 
and  a  forwardness  to  prescribe  to  their  opinions,  is  a 
constant  concomitant  of  this  bias  of  our  judgments. 

Lodk, 
It  will  be  found  a  work  of  no  small  difficulty  to 
dispossess  a  vice  from  that  heart  where  long  posses- 
sion begins  to  plead  prescription.  South. 

TheLucqnese  plead  prescription  for  hunting  in  one 
of  the  duke's  forests  that  lies  upon  their  frontiers. 

Addison. 
That  obligation  upon  the  lands  did  not  preeeribe 
or  come  into  dviuae,  but  by  fifty  consecutive  years  of 
exemption.  Arbuthtiot. 

Modern  'pothecaries  taught  the  art 
By  doctors'  bills  to  play  the  doctor's  part. 
Bold  in  the  practice  of  mistaken  rules, 
Prescribe,  apply,  and  call  their  masters  fools. 

Pope. 
Should  any  man  argue  that  a  physician  under- 
stands his  own  art  best ;  and  theretors,  although  ha 

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shoold  preaertte  pobon  to  all  hit  patients,  he  caanot 
be  jostly  punished,  bat  is  anewerable  only  to  God  1 

Smift, 
So  long  a  pttauiptitm  supposes  an  acquiescence  in 
tbe  other  claimants ;  and  that  acquiescence  supposes 
also  some  reason,  perhaps  now  unknown,  for  which 
the  claim  was  forborne.  Johnaon, 

Yet  half  mankind  maintain  a  churlish  strife 
With  Him,  the  Donor  of  eternal  life. 
Because  tlve  deed,  bj  which  his  love  coufirms 
The  largess  he  bestows,  jtrueribtt  the  terms.  Cowper, 
PREscaiPTiOH,  in  English  law,  is  a  title  ac- 
quired by  use  and  time,  and  allowed  by  law ;  as 
when  a  mam  claims  any  thing,  because  he,  his 
ancestors,  or  they  whose  estate  he  hath,  have  had 
or  used  it  all  the  time  whereof  no  memory  is  to 
the  contrary :  or  it  is  where  for  continuance  of 
time,  ultra  memoriam  hommis,  a  particular  per- 
son hath   a  particular  nght   against    anotner. 
There  is  a  diflerence  between  prescription,  cus- 
tom, and  usage.      Prescription  hath  respect  to  a 
certain  person,  who  by  mtendment  may  have 
continuance  for  ever;  but  custom  is  loeal,  and 
always  applied  to  a  certain  place ;  as  time  out 
of  mind  there  has  been  such  a  custom  in  such  a 
place,  &c.     And  prescription  belongeth  to  one  or 
a  lew   only;  but  custom  is  common   to,  all. 
Usage  differs  from  both,  for  it  may  be  either  to 
persoiks  or  places :  as  to  inhabitants  of  a  town 
to  hav  e  a  way,  &c    A  custom  and  prescription 
are  in  the  right ;  usage  is  in  the  possession;  and  a 
prescription,  that  is  good  for  the  matter  and  sub- 
stance, may  be  bad  by  the  manner  of  setting  it 
forth :  but  where  that  which  is  claimed  as  a  cus- 
tom, in  or  for  many,  will  be  good,  that  regularly 
will  be  so  when  claimed  by  prescription  for  one. 
Prescription  is  to  be  time  out  of  mind  ;  though 
it  is  not  the  length  of  time  that  begets  tbe  right 
of  prescription,  nothing  being  done  by  time, 
althoDgh  every  thing  is  done  in  time;  but  it  is  a 
^iresomption  in  law  that  a  thing  cannot  continue 
so  long  quiet,  if  it  was  against  right  or  injurious 
toam^her. 

PRE'SEANCE,«.».  Ft.  vreteance.  Priority 
of  place  in  sitting.    Not  usea. 

The  ghests,  though  rode  in  their  other  fashions, 
may,  for  their  discieet  judgment  in  precedence  and 
prueamee,  read  a  lesson  to  our  civilest  gentry. 

CaTw'i  Survey  of  Comwali, 
PRESEWSION,  fi.  «.    Lat.  prasemio.    Per- 
ception beforehand. 
The  hedghog'sprewfuion  of  winds  is  exact.  Browne. 


PRES'ENT,  tkg.yv.  a.,  &  n.  «.^ 

PRES'SNCE,  n.S. 

Pees'ekce^haicber, 
Pees'ekce-boom, 
Peesevta'neous,  adj. 
,  Presen'table, 
Presekta'tiow,  n.  t. 
Preses'tative,  (U^. 
Presentee',  n.  $. 
Presen'teb, 

pRESEN'TfALjflrf;. 

Presen'tiality,  n.S. 

pRESES'TlATE,t%  U. 

Presektif'ic,  adj. 
Presektif'icallt,  adv. 
Pres'ebttlv,  adv. 

PSESEKt'Mf.KT,  ft.  S. 
PRES'SJITKESS. 


Fr.  preterU; 
Latin  pra$ent. 
In  company ; 
face  to  face; 
at  hand;  rea- 
dy ;  quick  in 
emergencies ; 
attention ;  now 
existent  or  now 
^specified  ;  not 
past  or  future : 
*  at  present '  is 
used  for  now, 
or,  at  the  pre- 
sent time:  to 
present,  is  to 
place,  ih  pre- 
J  sence,  particu- 


larly of  a  superior;  hitroduce ;  exhibit;  oflbr  ; 
give,  or  put  into  the  hands  ceremoniously ;  dis- 
tinffuish  with  gifts ;  lay  formally  before  a  court, 
or  high  authority :  a  present,  something  offered  ; 
something  given ;  something  given  ceremonious- 
ly;  a  letter  or  mandate,  per  prssentes :  presence 
is,  state  of  being  present  or  together  ;  approadk 
face  to  &ce,  or  into  view,  particularly  of  a  supe- 
rior; a  number  assembled  before  a  superior; 
room  in  which  a  superior  shows  himself;  the 
superior  so  shown ;  port;  air;  mien;  readiness; 
aptitude :  the  two  compounds  that  follow  are 
obvious  in  their  meaning:*  presentaneous  is, 
quick ;  immediate :  presentable,  what  may  be 
presented  :  presentation,  the  act  of  presenting ; 
exhibition ;  particularly  the  act  of  givmg  any  one 
an  ecclesiastical  benefice :  presentative,  presenta- 
ble in  an  ecclesiastical  sense  :  presentee,  one  pre- 
sented to  a  benefice :  presenter,  one  who  pre- 
sents: presential,  supposing  actual  or  real 
presence  :  the  noun-substantive  corresponding : 
presentiate,  to  make  present:  presentific  (ob- 
solete), making  present :  presently,  soon  after ; 
and  (obsolete)  at  this  time;  now:  present 
ment,  the  act  of  presenting  or  thing  presented ; 
representation  in  law:  presentment  is  a  de 
nunciation  of  the  jurors,  or  some  other  officer,, 
as  justice,  constable,  searcher,  surveyor,  of  an 
offence  enquirable  in  the  court  to  which  it  is  pre- 
sented.— Cowell.  Presentness  is  quickness  at 
emergencies ;  readiness  of  mind>  arising  from  for- 
titude. 

The  shepherd  Doms  answered  with  such  a  tremb- 
ling voice  and  abashed  countenance,  and  oftentimes 
so  far  from  the  matter,  that  it  was  some  sport  to  the 
young  ladies,  thinking  it  want  of  education,  which 
made  him  so  discountenanced  with  unwonted  prt- 
sence.  Sidney. 

The  towns  and  forts  you  presently  have  are  still 
left  unto  you  to  be  kept  either  with  or  without  gar- 
risons, so  as  you  alter  not  the  laws  of  the  country. 

id. 
By  them  Ihey  pass,  all  gazing  on  them  round. 
And  to  th^  preserue  mount,  whose  glorious  view 
Their  frail  amazed  senses  did  confounfl.       Sjpenser^ 
Tell  on,  ouoth  she,  the  woeful  tragedy. 
The  which  tneMO  reliqnes  sad  present  unto.      Id. 
Prayers  are  sometimes  a  preseniatien  of  mere  de- 
sires, as  a  mean  of  procuring  desired  efiiBCts  at  the- 
hand  of  God.  Hooker. 

To  speak  of  it  as  re^uireth,  would  require  very 
long  discourse ;  all  I  will  presently  say  is  Uiis.    Id. 

He  sent  part  of  the  rich  spoil  with  the  admiral's 
ensign,  as  a  present  unto  Solyman.  Knoties. 

To-night  we  hold  a  solemn  supper. 
And  I'll  request  your  presence.         ShaJupeare. 
I  know  not  by  what  power  I  am  made  bold. 
In  such  a  presence  here,  to  plead  my  thoughts. 

Id* 
A  n't  please  your  grace,  the  two  great  cardinals 
Wait  in  tbe  presence.  Id,  Henry  VIII. 

Plain  Clarence ! 
I  will  send  thy  soul  to  heaven, 
Ifheav'n  will  take  the  present  at  our  hands. 

Sliakspeare. 
Be  it  known  to  all  men  by  these  presents.      Id. 
He  knows  not  what  he  says ;  and  vain  is  it, 
That  we  present  us  to  him.  Id.  King  Lear. 

When  comes  your  book  forth  ? 
— Upon  the  heels  of  my  presentment. 

^tah]Ha  r. 


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CoYOtous  ambidoB,  thinking  all  too  little  which 
presently  it  hath,  mppQwtb  itself  to  stand  in  need  of 
all  which  it  hath  not.  Raleigh. 

Viitae  is  best  in  a  body  that  is  comely,  and  that 
hath  rather  dignity  of  pretence  than  beauty  of  as- 
pect. Bacon. 

If  a  man  write  little,  he  had  need  have  a  great  me- 
moiy  ;  if  he  confer  little,  he  had  need  have  a  present 
wit ;  and  if  he  read  little,  he  had  need  have  much 
cunning.  Id. 

He  was  appointed  admiral,  and  presented  battle  to 
the  French  navy,  which  they  refused.       Hatfward. 
Be  present  to  her  now,  as  then 
And  let  not  proud  and  factious  men 
Against  your  wills  oppose  their  mights. 

Ben  Jonsan, 
The  Lady  Anne  of  Bretagne,  passing  through  the 
presence  ia  the  court  of  France,  and  espying  Chartier, 
a  famous  poet,  leania|  upon  his  elbow  fast  asleep, 
openly  Idssing.him,  said.  We  must  honour  with  our 
kiss  the  mouth  firom  whence  so  many  sweet  verses 
have  proceeded.  Peacham. 

Mre.  Gulston,  possessed  of  the  impropriate  par- 
sonage of  Bardwell,  did  procure  from  the  King  leave 
to  annex  the  same  to  the  vicarage,  and  to  make  it 
presentative,  and  give  them  both  to  St.  John's  College 
in  Ozon.  Spelman. 

Men  that  very  presence  fear, 
Which  once  they  knew  authority  did  bear. 

Daniel. 
Some  plagues  partake   of  such  malignity,  that, 
like  a  presentaneous  poison,  they  euecate  in  two  hours. 

Harvejf. 
Be  not  often  present  at  feasts,  not  at  all  in  disso- 
lute company  ;  pleasing  objects  steal  away  the  heart. 

Taylor. 
Now  every  leaf;  and  every  moving  breath 
Presents  a  foe,  and  every  foe  a  death.      Denham, 
A  present  good  may  reasonably  be  parted  with, 
upon  a  probable  expectation  of  a  future  good,  which 
is  more  excellent.  Wilkins. 

Goring  had  a  much  better  understanding,  a  much 
Jteener  courage,  and  presentness  of  mind  in  danger. 

Clarendon. 
Thou  with  eternal  Wisdom  didst  converse. 
Wisdom  thy  sister,  and  with  her  did'st  play 
In  presence  of  the'  Almighty  Father,  pleas'd 
With  thy  celestial  song.  Milton. 

To  her  the  sovereign  presence  thus  leplied.        Id. 
Thou  future  things  canst  represent 
As  presetU.  Id. 

,  When  he  saw  descend 
The  Son  of  God  to  judge  them,  terrified 
He  Bed ;  not  hoping  to  escape,  but  shun 
The  present ;  fearing,  guilty,  what  his  wrath 
Might  suddenly  inflict.  Id. 

Say,  heav'nly  muse,  shall  not  thy  sacred  vein 
AfTora  a  present  to  the  infant  God  1  Id. 

On  to  the  sacred  hill 
They  led  him  high  applauded,  and  present 
Before  the  seat  supreme.       Id.  Paradise  Lost. 
Thou  therefore  -now  advise, " 
Or  hear  what  to  my  mind  first  thoughts  present. 

Milton. 
Thus  I  hurl 
.  My  dazzling  spells  into  the  spungy  air. 
Of  power  to  cheat  the  eye  with  blear  illusion, 
And  give  it  false  presentments,  lest  the  place 
And  my  quaint  habits  breed  astonishment.      Id. 
But  neither  of  these  are  any  impediment,  because 
the  regent  thereof  is  of  an  infinite  immensity  more 
than  commensurate  to  the  extenX  of  the  world,  and 
such  as  13  most  intimately  present  with  all  the  beings 
of  the  world.     *  Hale. 


}  PRE 

He  made  eflhctoal  provision  for  recoveiy  of  id- 
vowsons  and  presentations  to  churches.  Id. 

Perhaps  I  have  not  so  well  consulted  the  repute  of 
my  intellectuals,  in  bringing  their  imperfections  into 
such  discerning  presmcM.  OUmvUle's  Secpm* 

Errors,  not  to  be  recalled,  do  find 
Their  best  redress  from  presence  of  the  mind*; 
.    Courage  our  greatest  failings  does  supply. 

WalUr. 
They  that  are  to  love  inclined. 
Swayed  by  chance,  not  choice  or  art. 

To  the  first  that's  fair  or  kind. 
Make  a  present  of  their  heart.  Id. 

The  whole  evolution  of  times  and  ages,  from  ever- 
lasting to  everlasting,  is  collectedly  and  presentijiehly 
represented  to  God  at  once,  as  if  all  things  and  ac- 
tions were,  at  this  very  instant,  really  present  and 
existent  before  him«  More. 

Since  clinging  cares  and  trains  of  inbred  fears. 

Not  awed  by  arms,  but  in  the  presence  bold, 

Without  respect  to  purple  or  to  gold.  Dryden, 

Nor  could  I  hope  in  any  place  bnt  there. 

To  find  a  g^od  so  present  to  my  prayer.  /i. 

Somevrhat  is  sure  designed  by  fraud  or  force  ; 

Trust  not  their  presence,  nor  admit  the  horse.       Id. 

He  now  presents,  as  ancient  ladies  do. 
That  courted  long,  at  length  are  forced  to  woo.  Id. 

Octavia  presented  the  poet,  for  his  admirable  elegy 
on  her  son  Marcellus.  Id. 

Should  I  present  thee  with  rare  figured  plate, 
O  how  thy  rising  heart  would  throb  and  beat.    Id, 

These  presentations  of  fightioff  on  the  staee  are 
necessary  to  produce  theeffects  of  an  heroick  play. 

Id. 
A  good  bodily  strength  is  a  felicity  of  nature,  but 
nothing  comparable  to  a  large  understanding  and 
ready  presence  of  mind.  L* Estrange: 

'Tis  a  high  point  of  philosophy  and  virtue  for  a 
man  to  be  so  present  to  himself  as  to  be  always  pro- 
vided against  all  accidents.  Id. 

Men  that  set  their  hearts  only  upon  the  present, 
without  looking  forward  into  the  end  of  things,  'ara 
struck  at.  Id. 

The  thing  was  acceptable,  but  not  the  presenter. 

Id. 
If  these  nerves,  which  are  the  conduits  to  convey 
them  from  without  to  their  audience  in  the  brain, 
the  mind's  presence-room,  are  so  disordered  as  not  to 
perform  their  functions,  they  have  no  postern  to  be 
admitted  by.  Locke. 

How  great  his  presence^  how  erect  .his  look, 
Howev'ry  ^race,  how  all  his  virtuous  mother 
Shines  in  his  face,  and  charms  me  from  his  eyes ! 

Smith. 
The  fancy  may  be  so  strong  as  to  presentiate,  upon 
one  theatre,  all  that  ever  it  took  notice  of  in  times 
past.  Grew. 

By  union,  I  do  not  understand  that  which  is  local 
or  presential,  because  I  consider  God  as  omnipresenU 

Norris. 
Thou  spendest  thy  time  in  waiting  upon  such  a 
great  one,  and  thy  estate  in  presenting  him ;  and, 
after  all,  hast  no  other  reward,  but  sometimes  to  be  • 
smiled  upon,  and  always  to  be  smiled  at.        SotUh. 

This  eternal,  indivisible  act  of  his  existence  makes, 
all  futures  actually  present  to  him ;  and  it  is  the 
presentialittj  of  the  object  which  founds  the  unerring 
certainty  of  his  knowledge.  Id.  Sermons. 

Tell  him  that  no  history  can  match  his  policies, 
and  presently  the  sot  shall  measure  himself  by  himself. 

South. 
.    Who,  since  their  own  short  understandings  reach 
No  further  than  the  present,  think  e'en  the  wise 
Speak  what  they  think,  and  tell  tales  of  themselves. 


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XaeUer,  with  nlenoe  aod  lorpriM, 
We  we  BriUnnk's  monarch  rise, 
And  aw*dby  thy  delusive  hand. 
As  in  Xhn  pratnei^diamber  stand.    .Addisoa» 
The  itate  is  at  prawnt  very  sensible  of  the  decay 
in  their  trade.  Id. 

Oar  faiws  make  the  ordinary  a  disturber,  if  he 
does  not  give  institution  upon  the  fitness  of  a  person 
presented  to  him,  or  at  feast  to  give  notice  to  the 
patron  of  the  disability  of  his^mentoe.        Aylifft, 

Incumbents  of  churches  presentabU  cannot,  by 
their  sole  act,  grant  their  incumbencies  to  others ; 
but  may  make  leases  of  the  profits  thereof.  Id. 

The  moments  past,  if  thou  art  wise,  retrieve 
With  pleasant  mem*ry  of  the  bliss  they  gave  ; 
The  fntent  hours  \npre$ent  mirth  employ, 
Aad  bribe  the  future  with  the  hopes  of  joy.    Prior. 
Folks  in  mudwall  tenement. 
Affording  peppercorn  for  rent, 
Freaent  a  turkey  or  a  hen. 
To  those  might  better  spare  them  ten.      Id, 
A  graceful  preaenei  bespeaks  acceptance,  gives  a 
iNce  to  language*  uid  helps  to  convince  by  look  and 
postme.  CoUisr. 

The  prmnl  age  hath  not  been  leas  inquisitive 
than  the  focmer  ages  were. 

Woodtoard't  Natural  Hittary, 
What,  shall  the  curate  controul'me?  have  not.  I 
the  prvamfatum  1  Gcnf, 

'  lliat  he  put  these  bishops  in  the  places  of  the  de- 
oeaied  by  nis  own  authority  is  iMtoriously  false  -, 
for  the  duke  of  Saxony  always  jrreaented, 

Atterhury. 
So  ladiea  in  romance  assist  their  knight, 
PnmiU  the  spear,  and  arm  him  for  the  fight. 

Popt, 
The  grand   iuriea  were  practised  with,  to  jtment 
the  said  pamphlet  with  all  aignavating  epithets,  and 
their  fnwtttmenU  published  for  several  weeks  in  all 
the  newspapers.  Smifi, 

The  ample  mind  keeps  the  several  objects  all 
within  sight,  and  prtaent  to  the  soul.  WatU, 

Leclondes's  memory  is  ever  ready  to  oflfer  to  his 
iciad  aomething  out  of  other  men's  writings  or  con- 
vcnitions,  and  is  presenting  him  with  the  tboaghts  o( 
edier  persons  perpetually.  Id* 

'  We  have  always  the  same  natures,  and  are  every 
where  the  servants  of  the  same  God,  as  every  place 
is  eoaally  full  of  his  pretence,  and  every  thing  is 
equally  his  sift.  Law. 

This  nradi  I  believe  may  be  said,  that  the  much  * 
gnaier  part  of  them  are  not  brought  up  so  well,  or 
aocostomed  to  so  much  religion,  as  in  the  preaeni  in- 
ttuice.  Id. 

Thid  prtaent  moment  like  a  wife  we  shun. 
And  ne'er  enjoy,  because  it  is  our  own.-  Young, 
The  ideas  of  pain,  and  above  all  of  death,  are  so 
^  aflecting,  that  whilst  we  remain  in  the  preaenee 
efwhatever  is  supposed  to  have  the  power  of  inflict- 
iag  either,  it  is  impoaabk  to  be  perfectly  free  from 
^wror.  Burke, 

Peesbhtatiom,  in  ecclesiastic  law.  See  Ad- 
vow8o»,  and  Patbokage. 

Pbesevtation  of  our  Lady,  the  title  of  two 
orders  of  nuns.  The  first  was  established  in 
^Tance,  about  1627,  by  Nicholas  Sanguin,  bishop 
of  Senlis;  it  was  approved  by  Urban  VIIl. 
This  order  never  made  any  great  progress.  The 
Kcond  was  established  in  1664,  when  Frederick 
Borromeo,  being  apostolical  visitor,  in  the  Valte- 
line,  was  intreatea  by  some  devout  maids  at 
Morfoegiio  to  allow  them  to  live  in  community  in 
a  retired  jplace;  which  he  granted,  «nd  erected 


PRE 

them  into  a  congregation,  under  the  title  of  con- 
gregation of  our  Lady.  They  lived  under  the  rule 
of  St.  Augustine. 

Presentation  Of  the  Virgin,  a  feast  ef  the 
Romish  church,  celebrated  on  the  ^Ist  of  No- 
vember, in  memory  of  the  Holy  Virgin's  being 
presented  by  her  parents  in  the  temple,  to  be 
there  educated.  Emanuel  Comnenus,  who 
began  to  reign  in  1143,  makes  mention  of  this 
feast  in  his  constitution.  Some  imagine  it  to 
have  been  established  among  the  Greeks  in  t^e 
eleventh  century;  and  think  they  see  evident 
proofs  of  it  in  some  homilies  of  George  of  Ni- 
comedia,  who  lived  in  the  time  of  Photius.  Its 
institution  in  the  west  is  ascribed  to  Gregory  XI. 
in  1372.  Some  think  it  was  instituted  in  me- 
mory of  the  ceremony  practised  among  the 
Jews  for  their  new-bom  females ;  corresponding 
to  the  circumcision  on  the  eighth  day  for  males. 

Presentment,  in  law.  A  presentment,  pro- 
perly speaking,  is  the  notice  taken  by  a  grand 
jury  of  any  o&nce  from  their  own  knowledge  or 
observation,  without  any  bill  of  indictment  laid 
before  them  at  the  suit  of  the  king ;  as  the  pre- 
sentment of  a  nuisance,  a  libel,  and  the  like ; 
upon  which  the  officer  of  the  court  must  after- 
wards frame  an  indictment,  before  the  party 
presented  can  be  put  to  answer  it.  An  inquisi- 
tion of  office  is  the  act  of  a  jury,  summoned  by 
the  proper  officer  to  enquire  of  matters  relating 
to  the  crown,  upon  evidence  laid  before  them. 
t)ome  of  these  are  in  themselves  convictions, 
and  cannot  afterwards  be  traversed  or  denied ; 
and  therefore  the  inquest,  or  jury,  ought  to  hear 
all  that  can  be  alleged  on  both  sides.  Of  this 
nature  are  all  inquisitions  of  felo  de  se ;  of  flight 
in  persons  accused  of  felony ;  of  deodands,  and 
the  like ;  and  presentments  of  petty  offences  in  the 
sheriff's  toum  or  court-leet,  whereupon  the  presid- 
ing officer  may  set  a  fine.  Other  inquisitions  may 
be  afterwards  traversed  and  examined ;  as  par- 
ticularly the  coroner's  inquisition  of  the  deatn  of 
a  man,  when  it  finds  any  one  guilty  of  homicide ; 
for  in  such  cases  the  offender  so  p.resented  must 
be  arraigned  upon  this  inquisition,  and  may  dis- 
pute the  truth  of  it ;  whicti  brings  it  to  a  kind  of 
indictment,  the  ^most  usual  and  effectual  means 
of  prosecution. 

PRESERVE',  17.  a.  &n.  s.-\     Fr.  preserver  ; 

Preserva'tion,  n.  s.  f  low  Lat.  praser- 

Preservative,  (ug.  ^n,s.t  vo.     To    keep ; 

Preser'ver.  J  save ;      defend ; 

protect  from  decay :  as  a  noun  substantive,  some- 
thing so  protected,  as  '  preserved  fruit' :  preser- 
vation is,  the  art  or  care  of  preserving :  preser- 
vative, preventive ;  having  the  power  of  preserv- 
ing ;  that  which  has  this  power :  preserver,  a  defen- 
der or  protector;  one  who  keeps  from  ruin  or 
mischief;  he  who  makes  artificial  preserves. 

God  sent  me  to  preserve  you  a  posterity,  and  save 
your  lives.  Geneaia  zlv.  7. 

The  Lord  shall  deliver  me  from  every  evil  work» 
and  preaerve  me  unto  his  heavenly  kingdom. 

2  Timothy. 
Of  all  wild  beasts  preaerve  me  from  a  tyrant ; 
And  of  all  tame,  a  flatterer.  Sir  P.  Sidney, 

If  we  think  that  the  church  needeth  not  those  an- 
cient preaervativea,  which  ages  before  us  were  glad  ta 
use,  we  deceive  ourselves.  Hooter. 


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Nftture  does  require 
Her  times  of  preaervatian,  which,  peHbice, 
I  give  my  tendance  to. 

Shahptare.  Henry  VIII. 
Sit,  my  praerver,  by  thy  patient's  side. 

Shahipean. 
It  hath  been  anciently  in  use  to  wear  tablets  of 
arsenick,  as  ftreaetvatwet  against  the  plague ;  for  that, 
being  poisons  themselves,  they  draw  the  venom  from 
the  spirits.  Baecn, 

Every  senseless  thing,  by  nature's  light, 
Doth  prt$9rvation  seek,  destruction  shun. 

Dttviet. 
Bodies  kept  clean,  which  use  pretgrvatives,  are  likely 
to  escape  infection.  Harvey, 

He  did  too  frequently  gratify  their  unjustifiaSble 
designs,  a  guilt  all  men,  who  are  obnoxious,  are 
liable  to,  and  can  hardly  preurot  themselves  from. 

Clarendon, 
We  can  preterve  unhurt  our  minds.    Milton. 
Were  there  truth  herein,  it  were  the  best  preaerva- 
tiee  for  princes,  and  persons  exalted  unto  such  fears. 

Browne, 
All  this  is  easily  discerned  in  those  fruits  which 
are  brought  in  prttervet  unto  us.  Id. 

Our  allwise  Maker  has  put  into  man  the  uneasi- 
ness of  hunger,  thirst,  and  other  natural  desires,  to 
determinjB  their  wills  for  the  preienation  of  them- 
selves, ajid  the  continuation  of  their  species. 

Locke. 
To  be  indifferent  which  of  two  opinions  is  true 
is  the  right  temper  of  the  mind,  that  preterve»  it  from 
being  imposed  on,  till  it  has  done  its  best  to  find  the 
troth.  Id, 

To  be  always  thinking,  perhaps,  is  the  privilege 
of  the  infinite  Author  anU  preterver  of  things,  who 
never  slumbers  nor  sleeps ;  but  is  not  competent  to 
«nv  finite  being.  Id. 

The  fruit  with  the  husk,  when  tender  and  young, 
makes  a  good  preterve.  Mortimer» 

Andrew  Doria  has  a  statue  erected  to  him,  with 
the  glorious  title  of  deliverer  of  the  commonwealth  ; 
and  one  of  his  family  another,  that  calls  him  its 
pruerver.  Addi$on. 

The  most  effectual  pretenative  of  our  virtue  is  to 
avoid  the  conversation  of  wicked  men.         Rogert. 

Every  petty  prince  in  Germany  must  be  intreated 
Co  premrve  the.  queen  of  Great  Britain  upon  her 
throne.  8mft. 

Molly  is  an  Egyptian  plant,  and  was  really  made 
use  of  as  a  pretervatiiee  against  enchantment. 

Preserver.  Macintosh's  Patent  Water- 
Proof  Life  Preserver.  This  is  a  simple  but 
ingenious  adaptation  of  air-bags,  made  of^water- 
proof  cloth  or  canvas,  to  the  support  of  the 
body  in  water.  It  consists  of  two  strips  of 
waterproof  cloth,  each  about  four  inches  broad 
and  a  yard  long,  or  just  what  will  easily  sur- 
round the  body,  festened  together  at  the  edges  in 
the  form  of  a  narrow  bag  without  any  opening, 
save  a  small  aperture  at  the  side,  into  whidi  a 
cock  is  inserted  for  the  admission  of  air.  To 
render  it  perfectly  air  tight,  the  cloth  is  water- 
proofed wnile  the  bag  is  making,  and  it  is  com- 
pletely fastened  by  folding  the  stripes  over  each 
other  at  their  junction.  The  air  is  simply  intro- 
duced by  blowing  with  the  mouth  through  the 
cock,  which  is  to  be  turned  as  soon  as  a  sufficient 
quantity  has  been  admitted,  and  it  may  then  be 
applied  round  the  body  for  use.  The  proper 
place  to  fasten  it  is  immediately  under  the  arms 
and  across  the  breast,  for  which  purpose  it  is 


furnished  with  a  piece  of  strong  tape,  the  two 
ends  of  which  are  sewed  to  the  edge  of  the  bag 
where  it  is  Joined,  about  two  or  three  inches  on 
each  side  of  the  middle,  where  the  cock  is  firmly 
fastened  and  made  perfectly  air-tight;  this  piece 
of  tape  is  just  sufiiciently  wide  to  admit  the  head 
easily  between  it  and  the  bag,  and,  when  put  oo, 
it  causes  the  latter  to  bang  down  from  the  neck 
a*little  below  the  breast,  and  to  pass  immediately 
under  the  arms  round  to  the  back,  where  it  is 
festened  by  two  other  pieces  of  tape  sewed  to 
the  two  ends  of  the  bag  ;  these  pieces  may  be 
made  long  enough  to  allow  them  to  be  brought 
round  and  fastened  in  front  to  prevent  accidents 
in  the  event  of  their  loosing  behind.  A  small 
piece  of  tape  about  two  inches  long  is  likewise 
rastened  across  the  bag  at  the  middle,  to  allow 
the  other  tyine  pieces  to  pass  through  and  to 
prevent  them  from  slipping  below  the  bag,  and 
occasioning  the  slightest  apprehension  of  danger, 
in  the  management  of  the  apparatus.  The  air 
may  be  introMduced  into  the  bag  either  before  or 
after  it  is  placed  round  the  body  and  fastened  ; 
if  it  hold  more  air  than  what  is  necessary  to  sup- 
port the  individual  using  it  in  water,  he  will  be 
the  best  judge  of  the  proper  quantity  by  inflating 
it  before  he  puts  it  on ;  out  if  it  just  bold  the 
exact  quantity,  or  very  little  more,  it  is  quite  im- 
material whether  it  be  inflated  before  or  not; 
though  we  are  of  opinion  it  is  always  better  to 
follow  the  former  plan.  There  is  not  the  smallest 
fear  of  bursting  the  bag  in  any  case,  because,  as 
soon  as  it  is  fml,  any  individual  will  find  that  he 
can  blow  no  longer,  and  will  be  obliged  to  desist. 
With  an  apparatus  of  this  kind,  which  may  be 
had  ai  a  very  trifling  expense,  a  man  may  throw 
himself  into  the  sea  with  perfect  safety,  and  he 
may  float  100  or  1000  miles  with  his  head  and 
shoulders  above  water,  without  the  least  inconve- 
nience, save  what  he  would  suffer  from  hunger  or 
cold.  He  will  not- find  it  necessary  to  make  the 
smallest  exertion  to  keep  himself  in  a  proper  po- 
sition ;  for  owinff  to  the  manner  in  which  the  ap- 
paratus is  placed,  and  to  the  equal  distribution 
of  the  air  all  round  his  body,  he  will  preserve 
nearly  an  erect  posture  as  long  as  he  pleases;  by 
making  the  smallest  exertion,  however,  he  may 
take  any  other  position  he  may  find  most  agree- 
able :  he  may  lie  at  his  ease  on  his  back,  or  on. 
one  side,  or  lean  forward  just  as  he  has  a  mind ; 
do  what  he  may  he  cannot  sink,  unless  he  chooses 
to  open  the  cock,  and  then  he  must  go  to  the 
bottom  unless  he  can  swim. 

PRESIDE',  V.  n.  ^  Fr.  presider ;  LaU  pr«- 
Pres'idency,  n.  s.  (sideo.  To  have  authority 
Pres'ident,  4  over;  be  set  over :  presi- 

Pres'identship.  Jdencyis  superintending: 
president  is,  one  placed  in  chief  autnoritv ;  a  go- 
vernor; prefect;  tutelary  power :  presidentship, 
an  office  or  station. 

When  things  came  to  trial  of  practice,  their  pas- 
tors' learning  would  be  at  all  times  of  force  to  over- 
persuade  simple  men,  who,  knowing  the  time  of  their 
own  presidentAip  to  be  but  short,  would  always  stand 
in  fear  of  their  ministers*  perpetual  authority. 

Hooker, 
How  might  those  captive  Israelites,   under  the 
oversight  and  government  of  Assyrian  preeidentt,  be 
able  to  leave  the  places  they  were  to  inhabit  1 

Breretcood  on  Langiiogcs. 


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At  the  prmdemi  of  my  kingdom,  will  I 
*«  A]ipear  there  for  a  man. 

Shakgpean,   Anien^  and  CUopatra, 
This  faMt  complaint  the'  indo^nt  ears  did  pieroe 
Of  jott  ApoUo,  yrmdau  of  ▼ene.  WaUm: 

Some  o*er  the  publick  magazines  fnwtU, 
AjmI  ume  are  aent  new  fonge  to  provide. 

Dryden. 
What  aooount  can  be  nven  of  the  growth  of  plants 
from  mechanical  principles,  moved  wiUiout  the  pr«- 
uJtmof  and  gnidance  ot  some  superior* agent? 

itay  on  the  Creation. 
The  tntor  ats  in  the  chair  as  pretident  or  mode- 
rator, to  aee  that  the  roles  of  dispntation  be  ob- 
served. WatU. 
O'er  the  plans 
Of  thriving  peace,  thy  thoughtfol  sires /iroMfe. 

Thomion, 

PRESS,  o.  a.,v.  ii.&^      Fr.    prester;    Lat. 
Press'er,  [n.s.    preuo.     To  squeeze; 

Press'gahc,  compress;  constrain; 

Pbess'ingly,  adv.  crusii ;  drive  with  vio- 

Prsss'iov,  n.  s.  I  lence ;  compel ;  urge ; 

P^BSs'iTAVTy  adj,        [make  earnest;    force 
PuasVAN,  n.  s.  into  naval  or  military 

PiESs'MoirETy  service :  as  a  verb  nea- 

pKESs'uREy  ter,  to  act  with  or  un- 

Prest,  m^,  &  n.  s.  J  der  compulsive  vio- 
lence; go  foTwaid  widi  violence  or  energy; 
crowd ;  come  or  eo  importunately  or  vehement^ 
\j ;  urge  with  vehemence ;  influence  strongly  ; 
invade :  a  press  is,  an  instrument  used  for  squeez- 
ing, crushing^  or  compressing ;  particularly  the 
machine  for  printing  books ;  a  crowd ;  tumult ; 
violent  tendency;  commission  for  impressing 
men  in  a  military  sense :  a  presser  and  pressman, 
one  iriw  works  a  press ;  also  one  woo  forces 
a«a^  another :  pressgang,  a  crew  of  men  aiding 
a  miiitaiy  press-officer :  pression  and  pressure 
mean,  the  act  of  pressing,  or  force  witn  which 
aay  ^ing  is  pressed ;  impression ;  stamp ;  op- 
pKssion ;  distress :  pressitant,  gravitating ;  heavy : 
piessmooey,  money  given  to  bind  to  military 
aerrioe :  prest  is,  ready ;  not  dilatory ;  '  this  is 
sad  to  have  been  the  original  sense  of  the  word 
pRtt  men ;  men,  not  forced  into  the  service,  as 


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Hie  eiperienoe  of  his  goodness  in  her  own  deli- 
verance, might  cause  her  mereifol  disposition  to  take 
so  much  the  more  delight  in  saving  others,  whom  the 
like  necessity  should  pruf.  Hooker. 

Giittus  daired  nothing  more  than  to  have  con- 
firmed the  opinion*  of  his  authority  in  the  minds  of 
the  vulgar  people*  by  the  pr«ft  and  ready  attendance 
of  the  Vayoud.  KnolUi't  HUtory  of  the  Turks. 

The  Turks  gave  a  great  shout,  and  jireised  in  on 
all  sides,  to  have  entered  the  breach.  KnoUst, 

Once  or  twice  she  heaved  the  name  of  father  * 
Pantingly  forth,  as  if  it  prest  her  heart.  Shakspeart. 
Come  with  words  as  medical  as  true. 
Honest  as  either,  to  purge  him  of  that  humour 
That  presses  him  from  sleep.  Id. 

For  every  man  .that  Bolingbroke  hath  pressed 
To  lift  sharp  steel  against  our  golden  crown. 
Heaven  for  his  Richard  hath  in  store 
A  glorious  angel.  Id.  Biehaird  II. 

From  London  by  the  king  I  was  pmt  forth. 

Shakspeare. 
I  make  bold  to  press 
With  so  little  preparation.  Id. 

These  letters  are  of  the  second  edition  ;  he  will 
print  them  out  of  doubt,  for  he  cares  not  what  he 
puts  into  the  press,  when  he  would  put  us  two  in. 

Id. 
Who  is  it  in  the  press  that  calls  on  roe? 

Id.  Jtdius  Ceesar. 
Creep  into  the  kiln  hole.-^Neither  prou,  cofier, 
chest,  trunk;  but  he  hath  an  abstract  for  the  remem- 
brance of  such  places.  Shaiupeare. 

If  I  be  not  ashamed  of  my  soldiers,  X  am  a 
sowced  gurnet ;  I  have  misused  the  kind's  preu. 

Id. 
From  my  memory 
I'll  wipe  away  all  trivial  fond  records, 
All  saws  of  books,  all  forms,  all  pressures  past, 
That  youth  and  obaervaition  copied  there.        Id. 
Concerning,  the  musters  aud  presses  for  sufficient 
mariners  to  serve  in  his  majesty's  ships,  either  the    . 
care  is  very  little,  or  the  bribery  very  gr^it.  Ralmgh. 

Let  them  be  pressed,  and  ready  to  give  succoun 
to  their  confederates,  as  it  ever  was  with  the 
Romans ;  for,  if  the  confederete  had  leagues  defen- 
sive, the  Romans  would  ever  be  the  foremost. 

Bacon. 
The  less  blood  he  drew,  the  more  he  took  of  trea-   • 
sure ;  and,  as  some  construed  it,  he  was  the  more 


BOW  we  understand  it,  but  men,  for  a  certam    gpanng  in  the  one,  that  he  might  be  the  more  press- 


mm  received,  prest,  or  rtody  to  march  at  com* 
OttDd.'  Johnson :  also,  neat ;  tight :  as  a  noun 
substantive,  a  loan. 

The  grapes  I  pnsstd  into  Pharaoh's  cup.  Oensm. 

He  pnaatf  upon  them  greatly ;  and  they  turned  in. 

Tke  posts  that  rode  upon  mules  and  camels,  went 
oat,  being  hastened  and  pressed  on  by  the  king's 
comaads.  Esther. 

The  prm  is  full,  the  fats  overflow.     Joel  iii.  13. 
For  he  had  healed  many,  insomuch  that  they 
rwerfupon  him  for  to  touch  him.       Mark  iii.  10. 
Good  measure  pressed  down,  shaken  together,  and 
munng  orer,  shall  men  give  into  your  bosom. 

UUm  vi.  38. 
I  press  toward  the  mark  for  the  prise. 

PhXHppiam^ 
More  wealth  any  where,  to  be  breefe. 
More  people,  more  handsome  and  pr«it 
'    Where  find  ye?  Tusser's  Hwitandry. 

She  bdd  a  great  gold  chsdn  ylinked  well. 
Whore  upper  end  to  highest  heaven  was  Init, 
And  lower  part  did  readi  to  lowest  hell. 
And  all  that  press  did  round  about  her  swell, 
To  cstcben  hold  of  that  long  chain.        Spenser. 


ing  in  the  other.  Id, 

A  wise  father  ingenuously  confessed,  ihat  those, 
which  persuaded  pressure  of  consciences,  were  com- 
monly mterested  therun.  Id. 

He  required  of  the  city  a  prest  of  six  thousand 
marks;  but  he  could  obtain  but  two  thousand 
pounds.  Id. 

Each  mind  is  prest,  and  open  every  ear, 
To  hear  new  tidings,  though  they  no  way  join  us. 

Faiifas. 

Mine  own  and  my  people's  prtssmes  are  grievous, 
and  peace  would  be  very  pleasing.      jEm^  ChetUs. 

Only  one  path  to  all ;  by  which  the  priMmm  came. 

Chapman. 

The  one  contracts  his  words^  speaking  pttsangly 
and  short ;  the  other  delights  in  long-lweathed  ac- 
cents. HowtL 

The  endeavour  to  raise  new  men  for  the  recruit  of 
the  army  by  pressing,  found  opposition  in  many  places. 

CidTMiaon. 
He  pressed  her  matron  lips 
With  kisses  pure.  Milton. 

His  obligation  to  read  not  only  classick  authors, 
but  the  more  recent  abortions  of  tlie  press,  wherein  he 
proved  frequently  concerned.  FelL 


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His  nodnty  mifht  bo  secured  from  prmurt  by  the 
concealing  of  bim  to  be  author.  Id, 

The  genuine  price  of  lands  in  England  would  be 
twenty  years'  purchase,  were  it  not  for  accidental 
jnwiMne  under  which  it  labours.        ChUd  on  Trade. 

Neither  the  celestial  matter  of  the  vortices,  not  the 
air,  nor  water,  are  ffrestitant  in  their  proper  places. 

More. 

Chymists  I  might  pren  with  arguments,  drawn 
from  some  of  the  eminentest  writers  of  their  sect. 

If  there  be  fair  proofs  on  the  one  side,  and  none  at 
ail  on  the  other,  and  if  the  most  preuing  difficulties 
be  on  that  side  on  which  there  are  no  proofs,  thia 
is  sufficient  to  render  one  opinion  very  credible,  and 
the  other  incredible.  •  TUlotton. 

I  was  prett  by  his  majesty's  commands,  to  assist  at 
the  trejiity.  Temple's  MUceUajuet, 

Their  morning  milk  the  peasants  preu  at  night. 
Their  evening  milk  before  tne  rising  light.   Dryden, 

He  gapes ;  and  straight 
With  hunger  ;»reit,  devoure  the  pleasing  bait.     Id. 

He  preued  a  letter  upon  me,  within  this  hour,  to 
deliver  to  you.  Id,  Spanith  Fryar. 

She  took  her  son,  and  pre$§*d 

The  illustrious  infant  to  her  fragrant  breast 

Dryden, 

The  peaceful  peasant  to  the  wan  isprsst,  • 
The  fields  lie  fallow  in  inglorious  rest.  Id. 

The  insulting  victor  presiei  on  the  more 
And  treads  the  steps  the  vanquished  trod  before. 

Id. 

Thronging^  crowds  preu  on  you  as  you  pass, 
And  with  their  eager  ioy  may  triumpn  slow. 
A  new  express  all  Agra  does  affright, 

Darah  and  Aurengfebe  are  joined  in  fight ; 

The  presi  of  people  thickens  to  the  court, 

The  impatient  crowd  devouring  the  report. 

A  great  many  uneaninesses  always  soliciting  the 
will,  it  is  natural  that  the  greatest  and  most  pren- 
ing  should  determine  it  to  the  next  action.     iMcke. 

After  pressing  out  of  the  coleseed  for  oil,  in  Lin- 
colnshire, they  Durn  the  cakes  to  heat  their  ovens. 

Mortimer, 

His  easy  heart  received  the  guilty  flame, 
And  from  that  time  he  prest  hn  with  his  passioo. 

Smith, 

Whv  has  there  been  now  and  then  a  kind  of  a 
press  issued  out  for  ministers,  so  that  as  it  were 
the  vagabonds  and  loiterere  were  taken  in  1 

Daeenant.  ^ 
Be  sure  to  prest  upon  him  every  motire. 

Addison. 

She  is  always  drawn  in  a  posture  of  walking,  it 
being  as  natural  for  Hope  to  press  forward  to  her 
proper  objects  as  for  Fear  to  fly  from  them.        Id. 

If  light  consisted  only  in  presnon,  propagated 
without  actual  motion,  it  would  not  be  able  to  agitate 
and  heat  the  bodies  which  refract  and  reflect  it ;  if  it 
consisted  in  motion  propagated  to  all  distances  in  an 
instant,  it  would  require  an  infinite  force  every 
moment,  in  every  shining  particle,  to  generate  that 
motion :  and  if  it  consisted  in  pression  or  motion, 
propap;ated  either  in  an  instant  or  in  time,  it  would 
bend  into  the  shadow.  NewUnCs  Optitia. 

Let  us  not  therefore  faint,  or  be  weary  in  our  jour- 
ney, much  less  turn  back  or  sit  down  in  despair ;  but 
preu  chearfully  forward  to  the  high  mark  of  our  call- 
ing. Rogers. 

Here,  Peascod,  take  my  nouch,  'tis  all  I  own, 
'Tis  my  presemoney. — Can  this  silver  fail  7         Gay. 

Excellent  was  the  advice  of  Eliphaz  to  Job,  in 
the  midst  of  his  great  troubles  and  pressures :  ac- 
quaint thyself  now  with  God,  and  be  at  peace. 

AUerbury. 


Id. 


Id. 


They  kept  their  cloaths,  when  they  were  not  ^rn. 
constantly  in  a  press  to  give  them  a  lustre. 

JirosMtftot. 

The  blood  flows  through  the  vessels  by  the  excess 
of  the  force  of  the  heart  above  the  incumbent  prts^ 
eure,  which  in  fat  people  is  excessive.  Id. 

I  put  pledgets  oflintprssiKi  out  on  the  excoriation. 

Wiseman. 

I  am  the  more  bold  to  press  it  upon  you,  because 
these  accompIishmeDts  sit  more  handsomely  on  per- 
sons of  quality  than  any  other.  Felion, 
On  superior  powers 

Were  we  to  preu,  inferiour  might  on  ours.  Pope. 
Leucothoe  shook. 
And  pressed  Palemon  closer  in  her  arms.     Id. 

Through  the  preu  enraged  Thalestris  flies. 
And  scatters  death  around  from  bodi  her  eyes.    /cf. 

Those  who  negotiated  took  care  to  make  demands 
impossible  to  be  complied  with  *,  and  therefore  might 
securely  preu  every  article,  as  if  they  were  in  earnesL 

Swift. 

You  were  pressed  for  the  sea-service,  and  got  oflT 
with  much  a-do.  Id. 

Of  the  Ktufit  I  give  the  profits  to  dyers  and 
pressors.  Id. 

While  Mist  and  Wilkins  rise  in  weekly  might. 
Make  presses  groan,  lead  senatora  to  fight.     Youny. 

An  Englishman  fears  contempt  more  than  death  ; 
he  often  flies  to  death  as  a  refuge  from  its  pretnro, 
and  dies  when  he  fancies  the  world  has  ceased  to 
esteem  him.  Goldsmith. 

This  treatise  he  completed  but  did  not  publish ; 
'  for  that  poverty  which  m  our  day  drives  anthon  as 
hastily  in  such  numbers  to  the  preu,  in  the  time  of 
Ascham,  I  believe,  debarred  thcan  from  it.  Johnson. 

If,  by  tlie  liberty  of  the  preu,  we  underetand 
merely  the  liberty  of  discussing  the  propriety  of  pub- 
lic measures  and  political  opinions,  let  us  have  so 
much  of  it  as  you  please  ^  but  if  it  means  the  liberty 
of  affronting,  calumniating,  and  defaming  one  ano- 
ther, I,  for  my  part,  own  myself  willing  to  pert  with 
my  share  of  it  whenever  our  legislators  shall  please 
to  alter  the  law.  FrankUn, 

Press,  in  the  mechanic  arts,  is  a  machine 
made  of  iron  or  wood,  serving  to  squeeze  or 
compress  any  body  very  close.  The  ordinary 
presses  consist  of  six  members,  or  pieces ;  viz. 
two  fat  smooth  planks,  between  which  the 
things  to  be  pressed  are  laid;  two  screws,  or 
worms,  fastened  to  the  lower  plank,  and  passing 
through  two  holes  in  the  upper ;  and  two  nuts, 
in  form  of  an  S,  serving  to  drive  the  upper 
plank,  which  is  moveable,  s^pst  the  lower, 
which  is  stable,  and  without  motion.  Presses  for 
expressing  liquors  are  of  various  kinds ;  some 
in  most  respects  the  same  with  the  common 
presses,  excepting  that  the  under  plank  is  perfo- 
rated  with  a  great  number  of  holes,  to  let  the 
juice  expressed  nin  through  into  the  tub,  or  re- 
ceiver, underneath. 

Press,  CuTTisiG,  or  Book-bikdsr*s  Cutting- 
Press,  is  a  machine  used  equally  by  book- 
binders, stationers,  and  pasteboard  makers ;  con- 
sisting of  two  large  pieces  of  wood,  in  form  of 
cheeks,  connected  by  two  strong  wooden  screws ; 
which,  being  turned  by  an  iron  bar,  draw  toge- 
ther, or  set  asunder,  the  cheeks,  as  much  as  b 
necessary  for  the  putting  in  the  books  or  paper 
to  be  cut.  The  cheeks  are  placed  lengthwise  on 
a  wooden  stand,  in  the  form  of  a  chest,  into 
which  the  cuttings  fall.  The  cheeks  are  two 
pieces  of  wood,  of  the  same  length  with  the 


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scicwsy  serving  to  direct  the  cheeks,  and  prevent 
their  opening  unequally.  Upon  the  cheeks  the 
plough  moves,  to  which  the  cutting  knife  is  lis- 
tened by  a  screw.  The  plough  consists  of 
several  parts ;  a  wooden  screw  or  worm,  catch- 
ing within  the  nuts  of  the  two  feet  that  sustain  it 
on  the  cheeks,  brings  the  knife  to  the  book  or 
paper,  which  is  fastened  in  the  press  between 
two  boards.  This  screw,  which  is  pretty  long, 
has  two  directories,  which  resemble  those  of  the 
screws  of  the  pres^.  To  make  the  plough  slide 
square  and  even  on  the  cheeks,  so  that  the  knife 
may  make  an  equal  paring,  that  foot  of  the 
plough  where  the  knife  is  not  fixed  slides  in  a 
kind  of  groove,  fastened  along  one  of  the  cheeks. 
Lastly,  the  knife  is  a  piece  of  steel,  six  or  seven 
inches  long,  fiat,  thin,  and  sharp,  terminating  at 
one  end  in  a  point,  like  that  of  a  sword,  and  at 
the  other  in  a  square  form,  which  serves  to  fasten 
it  to  the  plough.  See  Book-Binding.  As  the 
long  knives -used  by  us  in  the  cutting  of  books 
or  papers  are  apt  to  jump  in  the  cutting  thick 
books,  the  Dutch  are  said  to  use  circular  knives, 
with  an  edge  all  round ;  which  not  only  cut 
more  steadily,  but  last  longer  without  grinding. 

PRESSING,  in  the  manu&ctures,  is  applied 
to  cloth,  stufi*,  &c.,  to  render  it  smooth  and  glossy. 
There  are  two  methods  of  pressing,  viz.  cold  and 
hot  Cold-pressing  is  thus  performed: — After 
the  stuff  has  been  scoured,  fulled,  and  shorn,  it  is 
folded  square  in  equal  plaits,  and  a  skin  of  vellum 
or  pasteboard  put  between  each  plait.  Over  the 
whole  is  laid  a  square  wooden  plank,  and  so  put 
into  the  press,  which  is  screwed  down  tight  by 
means  of  a  lever.  After  it  has  lain  a  sufficient 
time  in  the  press  they  take  it  out,  removing  the 
pasteboards,  and  lay  it  up  to  keep.  Some  only 
ny  the  stuff  on  a  firm  table,  after  plaiting  and 
posteboarding,  cover  the  whole  with  a  wooden 
plank,  and  load  it  with  a  proper  weight.  Uot- 
pressing  is  performed  thus : — When  the  stuff  has 
received  the  above  preparations  it  is  sprinkled  a 
little  with  water,  sometimes  gum-water:  then 
plaited  equally,  and  between  each  two  plaits  are 
put  leaves  of  pasteboard,  and  between  every 
sixth  and  seventh  plait,  as  well  as  over  the 
whole,  an  iron  or  brass  plate  well  heated  in  a 
kind  of  furnace.  This  done,  it  is  laid  upon  the 
press,  and  forcibly  screwed  down.  Under  this 
press  are  laid  five,  six,  &c.,  pieces  at  the  same 
time,  all  furnished  with  their  pasteboards  and 
iron  plates.  When  the  plates  are  well  cooled 
the  stuffs  are  taken  out,  and  stitched  a  little  to- 
gether to  keep  them  in  the  plaits.  This  manner 
of  pressing  was  only  invented  to  cover  the  defects 
of  the  stuffs ;  and,  accordingly,  it  has  been  fre- 
quently prohibited. 

PRESTEIGN,  a  market  town  of  Radnorshire, 
149  miles  W.  N.  W.  of  London,  in  the  direct 
road  to  Aberystwith.  It  is  a  neat  well-built 
town,  with  clean  and  regular  streets,  and  is  the 
residence  of  many  genteel  families.  It  is  seated 
on  a  gravelly  soil  on  the  banks  of  the  Lug,  at  the 
head  of  a  very  fertile  vale :  the  mountains  on  the 
west  and  noith-west  forming  a  kind  of  amphi- 
tbeatie  round  it.  The  name  in  Welsh  is  Slan- 
Andras,  from  the  church,  which  is  dedicated  to 
St  Andrew.  The  town  is  divided  into  four 
wards,  which  have  each  separate  jurisdictions, 
Vol.  XVIII. 


officers,  levies,  &c.  It  is  a  borough  by  prescrip- 
tion, and  is  governed  by  a  bailiff,  annually  elect- 
ed and  sworn  in  by  a  steward  appointed  by  the 
crown.  The  living  is  a.  rectory  and  vicarage 
united,  worth  from  £500  to  £600  a  year:  the 
parish  lying  in  two  counties.  It  has  an  excellent 
tree  school,  well  endowed.  The  county  hall, 
gaol,  bridewell,  and  correction-house,  are  kept  in 
It.  It  has  a  market  on  Saturday,  and  two 
fairs.  Presleign  is  thirty  miles  W.  N.  W.  of  Wor- 
cester. 

PRESTER,  a  meteor  consisting  of  an  exhala- 
tion thrown  from  the  clouds  downwards  with  such 
violence  that  it  is  set  on  fire  by  the  collision.  The 
word  is  Greek,  irpqcrriip,  the  name  of  a  kind  of 
serpent;  called  also  dipsas,  to  which  this  me- 
teor is  supposed  to  bear  a  resemblance.  The 
prester  differs  from  the  thunderbolt  in  the  man- 
ner of  its  inflammation,  and  in  its  burning  and 
breaking  every  thing  it  touches  with  greater  vio- 
lence. 

Prester  John,  an  appellation  formerly  given 
to  an  emperor  of  the  Tartars,  who  was  overcome 
by  Jenghiz  Khan  A.  D.  1201. 

PRESTIMONY,  in  canon  law,  is  derived  a 
prsestatione  quotidiana ;  and  is,  by  some,  defined 
to  be  a  kind  of  benefice,  served  by  a  single 
priest.  Others  say  it  is  the  incumbency  of  a 
chapel  without  any  title  or  collation ;  such  as  are 
most  of  those  in  castles,  where  prayers  or  masses 
are  said,  and  which  are  mere  endowed  oratories. 
Whence  the  term  is  also  applied,  in  the  Rombh 
church,  to  certain  perpetual  offices  bestowed  on 
canons,  religious,  or  others,  for  the  saying  of 
masses,  by  way  of  augmentation  of  their  livings. 
Du  Moulin  calls  it  a  profane  benefice,  which 
however,  has  a  perpetual  title,  and  an  ecclesias- 
tical office,  with  certain  revenues  attached  to  it ; 
which  the  incumbent  is  allowed  to  sell,  and 
which  may  be  possessed  without  tonsure;  such 
as  the  lay  church-wardens  of  Notre  Dame.  He 
adds  that,  in  propriety,  the  canonries  of  chapels 
are  benefices  of  this  nature. 

PRESTO,  n.  *.  Ital.  presto;  Lat.  pretto. 
Quick ;  at  once.  A  word  used  by  those  that 
show  legerdemain. 

Presto !  begoae !  'tis  here  again ; 
There's  every  piece  as  big  as  ten.  Swift. 

PRESTON  (Thomas),  LL.  D.,  a  dramatic 
writer  and  actor  who  flourished  in  the  beginning 
of  queen  Elizabeth's  reign.  He  was  first  admitted 
M.  A.  and  fellow  of  King's  College,  Cambridge, 
and  afterwards  created  LL.  D.  and  elected  master 
of  Trinity  Hall.  In  1564,  when  the  queen  was 
entertained  at  Cambridge,  Preston  acted  so  well 
in  the  tragedy  of  Dido,  a  Latin  piece  written  by 
John  Ritwise,  another  fellow  of  the  same  college, 
that  queen  Elizabeth  settled  a  pension  of  twenty 
pounds  a  year  on  him;  a  circumstance  which 
Shakspeare  is  supposed  to  allude  to,  in  his 
Midsummer  Night's  dream,  Act  4th.  He  like- 
wise attended  and  exhibited  at  Oxford,  on  the  6th 
of  September  1566,  with  other  eight  Cantabrigi- 
s»ns,  whpn  the  queen  visited  that  university.  He 
also  wrote  a  dramatic  piece,  in  the  ancient  metre, 
entitled  Cambyses  King  of  Persia. 

Preston,  a  borough  and  market  town  of  Eng-< 
land,  in  Lancashire,  seated  on  the  Ribble,  over 
which  there  is  a  handsome  stone  bridge.    Tho 


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town  is  well  built,  and  lighted  with  gas ;  having 
a  handsome  and  convenient  town  hall.  The 
church  is  spacious  and  handsome :  there  are  two 
Roman  Catholic  chapels,  and  meeting-houses  for 
all  classes  of  dissenters.  The  new  prison,  built 
according  to  the  plan  of  John  Howard,  is  a' large 
and  commodious  building.  Here  is  also  a  dis- 
pen&  uy,  a  free  grammar  school,  and  several  pub- 
lic charity  schools.  It  is  governed  by  a  mayor, 
recorder,  aldermen,  four  subaldermen,  seventeen 
common-council-lnen,  and  a  town  clerk.  '  It  re- 
turns two  members  to  parliament,  the  right  of 
election  being  in  the  inhabitants  at  large,  be-ng 
the  only^  place  in  England  where  the  members 
are  retiuned  by  universal  sufirage.  The  retum- 
.  ing  officers  are  the  mayor  and  two  bailiffs.  The 
river  here  b  navi^ble  for  small  vessels  only; 
and  by  canal  navigation  it  has  communication 
with  most  of  the  principal  rivers  in  England. 
The  cotton  manu&ctories  are  carried  on  here  ex- 
tensively. Here  is  held  a  court  of  Chancery, 
and  other  offices  of  justice  for  the  county  pala- 
tine of  Lancaster.  It  is  noted  for  the  defeat  of 
the  Scotch  royalists  under  the  duke  of«  Hamilton 
in  the  reign  of  Charles  I.,  as  well  as  for  that  of 
the  rebels  in  1715,  when  they  were  all  made  pri- 
soners, and  sent  up  to  London.  It  has  a  good 
market-place,  large  open  streets,  and  markets  on 
Wednesday  and  Friday.  From  Preston  a  Roman 
road,  still  distinctly  visible  in  places,  con- 
ducts to  Ribchester,  once  a  military  station  of  that 
people.  Its  original  designation  has  been  a  matter 
of  much  contention  among  antiquaries.  Camden 
supposes  it  to  have  been  the  Coccium  of  Anto- 
ninus, and  the  Rigodunum  of  Ptolemy.  Hors- 
ley  was  of  the  same  opinion  as  to  Coccium,  but 
inclined  to  fix  Rigodunum  at  Warrington.  Mr. 
Whitaker,  the  hbtorian  of  Manchester,  contend- 
ed that  it  was  Rerigonium  of  Richard  of  Ciren- 
cester ;  but  Dr.  Whitaker,  who  last  investigated 
the  subject,  appears  to  have  clearly  identified  it 
with  Coccium ;  and  assigns  its  original  establish- 
ment to  Agricola.  From  the  boldness  and  ex- 
tent of  its  ramparts,  and  also  from  the  number  of 
altars,  inscribed  stones,  earthen  vessels,  plates  of 
copper,  coins,  and  other  relics  found  here,  Rib- 
chester is  presumed  to  have  been  a  station  of 
mote  tlum  ordinary  magnitude  and  importance. 
That  the  Ribble  vras  anciently  navigable  as  high 
•  as  this  place  is  proved  by  the  fiict  of  many  an- 
chors having  been  dug  up  in  the  vicinity,  as  well 
as  the  hull  of  a  ship  lai^r  than  any  that  could 
now  be  floated  above  Preston.  Preston  lies 
twenty-one  miles  south  of  Lancaster,  and  216 
N.N.W.  of  London. 

Preston,  a  town  of  Scotland,  in  Haddington- 
shire, in  the  parish  of  Preston-Pans,  seven  miles 
west  of  Hadaington ;  formerly  noted  for  its  fadr, 
held  on  the  secopd  Thursday  of  October,  called 
St.  Jerome's  fair,  at  which  the  travelling  chap- 
men made  their  annual  election. 

PRESTON-PANS,  a  parish  of  Scotland,  in 
East  Lotliian,  so  named  from  the  above  town  and 
the  salt-pans  near  it,  on  the  east  coast  of  the  frith 
of  Fortli.  The  soil  is  loam,  partly  on  day  and 
partly  on  a  sandy  bottom  ;  and  produces  good 
crops  of  all  the  usual  grain.  There  are  ten  salt- 
pans, of  which  six  are  wrought.  The  average 
quantity  of  salt  made  annually  is  10,750  bushels 


and  four  gallons*  The  total  quantity  delivered 
in  five  years,  firom  1787  to  1792,  was  417,354 
bushels  five  gallons. 

Preston-Paks,  a  town  in  the  above  parish, 
built  after  the  erection  of  the  salt-pans,  and  nam- 
ed from  them. '  It  is  a  quarter  of  a  mUe  north  of 
Preston.  It  is  a  burgh  of  barony,  and  a  port  of 
the  custom-bpuse,  eight  miles  east  of  Edinburgh, 
and  nine  and  three-quarters  north-west  of  Had- 
dington. It  received  its  charter  of  erection  in 
1617,  by  which  Preston  is  ipduded  in  its  privi- 
leges. It  is  noted  for  its  extensive  manu&ctures 
particularly  of  salt,  stone,  and  earthen-ware,  and 
brick. and  tile.  A  manufocture  of  oil  of  vitriol, 
aqua-fortis,  and  spirit  of  salt  is  also  carried  on  to 
a  great  extent ;  and  the  same  company  manufac- 
tures great  quantities  of  Glauber's  salts.  On  the 
east  of  the  enclosures  of  Preston-Pans,  on  the 
21st  of  September  1745,  the  forces  under  prince 
Charles  Stuart  obtained  a  victory  over  the  royal 
forces  under  Sir  John  Cope.  See  Great  Bri- 
tain. 

PRESUME',  «.n.  'I       Fr.  pretumer; 

Presumably,  <uiv.  IaL  prtuttmo.    To 

Presu'bier,  n. «.  suppose;  assume; 

,     Presump'tion,  I  believe  or    afiirm 

Presump'tive,  adj.  j  vrithout  proof;  in- 

.  Pr  es  u  biptu'ous,  trade ;    attempt 

Presump'tuously,  adv.       vainly,  or  arrogant- 

Presump'tuousness,  n.s.J  ly;  taking  cm,  looir, 
and  of  before  the  object  (the  last  improperly) : 
presumably  is  without  examination:  presumer 
and  presumption  follow  these  senses :  presump- 
tive is,  taken  by  supposition ;  confident ;  arro- 
gant; also  in  law  applied  to  the  person  who,  if 
the  ancestor  should  die  immediately,  would  be 
his  heir,  but  vrhose  right  of  inheritance  may  be 
defeated  by  some  nearer  heir  being  bom :  pre- 
sumptuous is  arrogant ;  confident ;  irreverent  to- 
wani  sacred  things :  the  adverb  and  noun 
substantive  corresponding. 

Keep  hack  thy  servant  from  jpresumptttout  sins. 

Psalms. 

In  this  we  fail  to  perform  the  thing,  which  God 
seeth  meet,  convenient,  and  good ;  in  that  we  jtre- 
none  to  see  what  is  meet  and  convenient,  better  than 
God  himself.  Hcoker. 

The  sins  whereinto  he  falleth  are  not  presumptU' 
oui ;  bat  are  ordinarily  of  weakness  and  infirmity. 

Perkint. 
1  prcMMw, 
That  as  my  hand  has  opened  bounty  to  you, 
My  heart  dropped  love ;  my  power  rained  honour, 

more 
On  you,  than  any.  Skaktpeare.  Henry  VIII, 

Let  my  presmnptim  not  provoke  thy  wrath  -, 

For  I  am  sorry,  that  with  reverence 

I  did  not  entertain  thee  as  thou  art.   Shaktpeare, 

PrewmptuouM  priest,  this  place  commands  my  pa- 
tience. Id. 

There,  was  a  matter  we  were  no  less  desirous  to 
know,  than  fearful  to  ask,  lest  we  might  prenme  too 
far.  Bacon. 

The  boldness  of  advocates  prevails  with  judges ; 
whereas  they  should  imitate  God,  who  represseth  the 
pretumptwnu,  and  giveth  grace  to  the  modest. 

Id.  Estaift. 

Heavy  with  some  high  minds  is  an  overweight  of 
obligation ;  otherwise  great  deservers  do  grow  into- 
lerable presumen,  Wttton, 


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Tho«  hast  shewed  us  how  unsale  it  is  to  offend 
Uiee,  ufou  pttumptim  afterwards  to  please  thee. 

King  Charles, 
A  tower  whose  top  ought  reach  to  heaven,  was  a 
shamefal  arrogance,  an  impious  pntumpiion, 

Bp.HaU. 
It  warns  a  warier  carriage  in  the  thing. 
Lest  blind  prttmmptUm  won  their  ruining. 

Daniel. 
I  entrear  your  prayen»  that  Ood  will  keep  me 
fiom  all  preaaatnre  persuasion  of  my  being- in  Christ, 
and  not  suffer  me  to  go  on  presumptuotuly  or  des- 
perately  in  any  course.  Hammond, 

hmntmptum  t^wn  this  aid  was  the  principal  mo- 
tire  for  the  nndet^king.  Clarendan, 

O  much  deceived,  much  failing,  hapless  Eve ! 
Of  thy  p>  siMiwd  return !  -event  perverse !  Milton, 
I  to  tbe  hesv'nly  vision  thus  presumod.  Id, 

God.  to  remove  his  ways  from  human  sense, 
Plaeed  heaven  from  earth  so  far,  that  earthly  sight. 
If  It  presttsM,  might  err  in  things  too  high. 
And  no  advantage  gain.  Id.  Paradiu  lau. 

Their  minds  somewhat  raised 
By  fidae  prif«mp(timtf  hope.  Miiton. 

Authors  |»«tiMnaMjr  writing  by  common  places, 
wherein,  for  manjr  years,  promiscuously  amassing  all 
thai  make  for  their  subject,  break  forth  at  last  into 


\  rbapsodiea.  Broipm. 

Although  in  the  relation  of  Moses  there  be  very 

few  persons  mentioned,  yet  are  there  many  more  to 

beprmunscf.  Id, 

There  being  two  opinions  repugnant  to  each  other, 

it  may  not  be  pramupdw  or  sceptical  to  doubt  of  both. 

Id, 
It  bein^  not  the  part  of  a  prsfuanpftNms,  but  of  a 
trely  hanu>le  man  to  do  what  he  is  bidden,  and  to 
pleKie  those  whom  he  is  bound  in  duty  to  obey. 

KtXtitwW, 
I  had  the  pmtimpCiM  to  dedicate  to  you  a  very 
uafinished  piece.  Drydm. 

The  powers  incensed 
Punished  his  presumptuous  pride, 
That  for  bis  daring  enterprise  she  died.       Id. 
Presuming  of  his  force,  with  sparkling  eyes, 
Already  he  devours  the  promised  prize.  Id, 

We  commonly  take  snape  and  colour  for  so  pre- 
ifi 


r  ideas  of  several  species,  that,  in  a  good  pic- 
tore,  we  readily  say  this  is  a  lion,  and  that  a  rose. 

Locke, 
He  that  would  not  deceive  himself,  ought  to  build 
his  hypothesis  on  matter  of  fact,  and  not  presmne  on 
matter  of  lact,  because  of  his  hypothesis.  Id, 

Eiperienoe  supplants  the  use  of  conjecture  in 
the  point ;  we  do  not  only  presmne  it  may  be  so, 
bat  actually  ifind  it  is  so. 

Oovemment  ef  the  Tongue, 
Do  yon,  who  study  nature's  works,  decide,     ' 
Whibt  I  the  dark  mysterious  cause  admire ;  - 
Nor  into  what  the  gods  conceal,  pretmnptuomly  en- 
quire. Addison*s  Remarks  on  Itafy. 
Hioueh  men  in  general  believed  a  future  state,  yet 
they  had  but  confined  presumptions  of  the  nature  and 
condition  of  it.  Rogers. 
Luther  presumes  upon  the  gift  of  continency. 

Atterbm^. 
,  Canst  thou  love 
frtsamptmesu  Cniie,  that  boastt  the  tomb  of  Jo?e  ? 

Pope, 
Those  at  home  held  their  immoderate  engrossments 
of  power  bv  no  other  tenure  than  their  own  preswmp- 
Um  upon  the  necessity  of  affairs.  Swift. 

Mtik  these,  she  says  ;  these,  summoned  from  afar, 
Begin  their  march  to  meet  thee  at  the  bar ; 
Tbeie  find  a  jadge,  inexorably  just, 
And  perish  there,  as  all  presumption  must  Cosoper, 


The  same  estate  may  be  frequently  devested  by 
0  the  subsequent  birth  of  nearer  presumptive  heirs,  be- 
fore it  fixes  upon  an  heir  apparent  As  if  an  estate 
is  given  to  an  only  child,  who  dies  -,  it  may  descend 
to  an  aunt,  who  may  be  stripped  of  it  by  an  after- 
bom  uncle  ;  on  whom  a  subsequent  sister  may  enter, 
and  who  will  again  be  deprived  of  the  estate  by  the 
birth  of  a  brother,  the  heir  apparent. 

Judge  Christian, 

PRESUPPOSE',  V,  a,  Fr.  presupposer,  pra 
and  suppose.  To  suppose  as  previous ;  imply 
as  antecedent. 

In  as  much  as  righteous  life  presupposeth  life,  in  as 
much  as  to  live  virtuously  it  is  impossible  except  we 
live ;  the  first  impediment,  which  we  endeavour  to 
remove,  is  penury  and  want  of  things  without 
which  we  cannot  live.  Hooker, 

All  kinds  of  knowledge  have  their  certain  bounds ; 
each  of  them  presupposeth  many  necessary  things 
learned  in  other  sciences,  and  known  beforehand. 

Id, 

All  things  necessary  to  be  known  that  we  may  be 
saved,  but  known  vrith  presuppoul  of  knowledge  con- 
cerning certain  principles,  whereof  it  receiveth  us 
already  persuaded.  Id. 

PRESURMISE',  n.  s,  Fra  and  surmise. 
Surmise  previously  formed. 

It  was  your  jnvjurmtM, 
That,  in  the  dole  of  blows,  your  son  might  drop. 

Skakspeare, 
PRETEND'w.a.&v.n.N       Fr.  pretendre; 
Pretence',  n.s.  I  Latin,    pratendo. 

Preten'der,  >Used  by  Diyden 

Pretend'ingly,  t  literally  for  to  hold 

Preten'sjok,  n.  s.  J  out ;  to  simulate ; 

claim,  taking  to  before  the  object:  as  a  verb 
neuter,  to  put  in  a  claim,  true  or  false ;  presume 
an  ability  to  a  thing;  profess  presumptuously :  a 
pretender  is  one  who  claims,  and  more  com- 
monly one  who  cannot  prove  or  sustain  a  right : 
pretendingly  is  presumptuously;  arrogantly: 
pretension,  claim,  false  or  trae;  fictitious  appear- 
ance. 

With  flying  speed  and  seeming  great  pretence 
Came  running  in  a  messeneer.  Spenser, 

In  the  great  hand  of  Goa  I  stand,  and  thence 
Aeainat  the  undivulged  pretence  I  fight 
Of  treasonous  malice.  Skakspeare,  Maebeth, 

This  was  but  an  invention  tmd  pretension  given  out 
by  the  Spaniards.  Bacon. 

Tis  tbeir  interest  to  guard  themselves  from  those 
riotous  efifects  of  preteiML  zeal,  nor  is  it  less  their 
duty.  Decay  of  Pietg. 

But  if  to  unjust  things  thou  dost  prstend. 
Ere  they  begin  let  thy  pretensions  end.    Denham, 
So  strong  his  appetite  was  to  those  executions  he 
had  been  accustomed  to  in  Ireland,  without  any 
kind  of  commission  or  pretence  of  authori^. 

Clarendon. 
Spirits  on  our  just  pretences  armed 
Fell  with  us.  Milton, 

I1iis  let  him  know. 
Lest  wilfully  transgressing  he  pretend 
Surprisal.  Id, 

Warn  all  creatures  from  thee 
Henceforth ;  lest  that  too  heavenly  form,  pretended 
To  hellish  fidsehood,  snare  them.  Id, 

There  is  no  security  which  men  can  yield  compa- 
rable to  that  of  an  oath  ;  the  obligation  whereof  nc 
man  wilfully  can  infringe,  without  renouncing  the 
fear  of  God,  and  any  pretence  to  his  favour. 


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Of  the  ground  of  redness  in  this  sea  are  we  not 
fully  satisfied  T  For  there  is  another  red  sea  whosei 
name  we  prtUnd  not  to  make  out  from  these  princi- 
ples. Browne, 

He  so  much  abhorred  artito  and  cunning,  that  he 
had  pr^udioe  to  all  concealments  and  pretensions. 

FeU, 

This  pretence  against  religion  will  not  only  be 
baffled,  but  we  shall  gain  a  new  argument  to  per- 
suade men  over.  TiUatson, 
Lucagus,  to  lash  his  horses,  bends 

Prone  to  the  wheels,  and  his  left  foot  pretends, 

Dryden, 
Let  not  Trojans,  with  a  feigned  pretence 

Of  proffered  peace,  delude  the  Latian  prince.  Id. 

The  prize  was  disputed  only  till  you  were  seen ; 
now  all  pretenders  have  withdrawn  their  claims.  Id. 

Men  indulged  those  opinions  and  practices  that 
favour  their  pretermtrnj.  L*  Estrange, 

Primo^niture  cannot  have  any  pretence  to  a  nght 
of  solely  inheriting  property  or  power.  Looke. 

Despise  not  these  few  ensuing  pages ;  for  nevei 
was  any  thing  of  this  pretence  more  ingenuously  im- 
parted. Evelyn, 

Whatever  victories  the  several  pretenders  to  the 
empire  obtained  over  one  another,  they  are  recorded 
on  coins  without  the  least  reflection.  Addison. 

I  have  a  particular  reason  to  look  a  little  pretend" 
inglff  at  present.  ColUer  on  Pride, 

I  should  have  dressed  the  whole  with  greater  care ; 
but  I  had  little  time,  which  I  am  sure  you  know  to  be 
more  than  pretence.  Wake, 

Are  they  not  rich  ?  what  more  can  they  pretend? 

Pope, 
To  just  contempt  ye  vain  pretenders  fall, 

The  people's  fable  and  the  scorn  of  all.  Id, 

In  those  countries  that  pretend  to  freedom,  princes 
are  subject  to  those  laws  which  their  people  have 
chosen.  Swift. 

The  numerous  pretenders  to  places  would  never 
have  been  kept  in  order,  if  expectation  had  been  cut 
off.  Id, 

Pretenders  to  philosophy  or  good  sense  grow  fond 
of  this  sort  of  learning.  Watu. 

PRETERITION,  n,  t.  >  Fr.  pretention ; 
•  Pre'teritness.  sljBX.preteritm,   The 

act  of  going  past :  the  state  of  being  past. 

Had  pot  he  been  a  wise  disciple,  that  should  have 
envied  the  ^^eat  favour  done  to  Judas,  and  have 
stomached  his  own  preterition  ?  So  foolish  are  they, 
who,  measuring  God's  affection  bjp  temporal  benefits, 
are  ready  to  applaud  prospering  wickedness ;  and  to 
grudge  outwaid  blessings  to  them  which  are  incapable 
of  any  better.  Bp,  Hall. 

We  cannot  conceive  a  preteritness  still  backwards, 
in  infinitum,  that  never  was  present,  as  we  can  an 
endless  futurity  that  never  will  be  present ;  so  that 
though  one  is  potentially  infinite,  yet  nevertheless  the 
other  is  positively  finite ;  and  this  reasonine  doth  not 
at  all  affect  the  eternal  existence  of  the  adorable  di- 
vinity, in  whose  invariable  nature  there  is  no  past 
nor  future.  Bentley*s  Sermons. 

Preterition,  or  Pretermission,  in  rhetoric, 
a  figure  whereby,  in  pretending  to  pass  over  a 
thing  untouched,  we  make  a  summary  mention 
thereof.  I  will  not  say  he  is  valiant,  he  is 
learned,  he  is  just,  &c. 

PRETERLAPSED,  adj.  Lat.  praterhpsus. 
Past  and  gone. 

We  look  with  a  su|)erstitious  reverence  upon  the 
arcounts  of  preterlapted  ages.        Glanville's  Scepsis. 

Never  was  there  so  much  of  either,  in  any  preter- 
iapsed  age,  as  in  this.  Walker, 


PRETERLEGAL,  fl^r.  Preter  and  legal. 
Not  agreeable  to  law. 

I  expected  some  evil  customs  preteriegalt  and  abuses 
personal,  had  been  to  be  removed.       King  Charles, 

PRETERMIT,  v.  a.  Lat  pratermitto.  To 
pass  by. 

The  fees,  that  are  termly  given  to  these  deputies, 
for  recompense  of  their  pains,  I  do  purposely  preter- 
mit ;  because  they  be  not  certain.  Bacon, 

PRETERNATURAL,  adj.  ^     Preter      and 
Preterhat^urally,  adv,     ^  natural.   Differ- 
Preternat  URALNESS,  u.Ssj  eut  from  what  is 
natural ;  irregular :  the  adverb  and  noun  substan- 
tive correspond. 

Simple  air,  pretematuraUy  attenuated  by  heat, 
will  make  itself  room,  and  break  and  blow  up  all 
that  which  resisteth  it.  Baeom. 

That  form  which  the  earth  is  under  at  present  is 
pretematmal,  like  a  statue  made  and  broken  again. 

Bmmet, 

Vie  will  enquire  into  the  cause  of  this  vile  and 
preternatural  temper  of  mind,  that  should  make  a 
man  please  himself  with  that  which  can  no  ways 
reach  those  fiuulfies  which  nature  has  made  the 
proper  seat  of  pleasure.  South*s  Sermons, 

Anger  and  the  thirst  of  revenge  are  a  kind  of  fever ; 
fighting  and  law-suits  bleeding ;  at  least  an  evacua- 
tion. The  latter  occasions  a  dissipation  of  money ; 
the  former  of  those  fiery  spirits  which  cause  a  preter- 
natural fermentation.  Shenstone, 

PRETERPERTECT,  adj.  Lat.  prateritum 
perfectum.  A  grammatical  term  applied  to  the 
tense  which  denotes  time  absolutely  past. 

The  same  natural  aversion  to  loquacity  has  of  late 
made  a  considerable  alteration  in  oar  language,  by 
closing  in  one  syllable  the  termination  of  our  preter- 
perfect  tense,  as  drown'd,  walk'd,  for  drowned, 
walked.  Addison's  Spectator, 

PRETEXT,  n. «.     Fr.  pretexU  ;  Lat.  pratex- 
tttt.    Pretence ;  false  appearance,  or  allegation. 
My  pretext  to  strike  at  him  admits 
A  good  construction.     Shakspeare,  Coriolantts, 

He  made  pretext,  that  I  should  only  go 
And  helpe  convey  his  freight ;  but  thought  not  so. 

Chapman. 

I  shall  not  say  with  how  much  or  how  little  pre- 
text of  reason  they  managed  those  disputes. 

Deatsf  rf  P»^y» 
Under  this  pretext,  the  means  he  sought 

To  ruin  such  whose  might  did  much  exceed 

His  power  to  wrong.  DanieVs  CioU  War. 

As  cnymists  gold  from  brass  by  fire  would  draw, 
PretexU  are  into  treason  forged  by  law.      Denham, 

They  suck  the  blood  of  those  they  depend  upon, 
under  a  pretext  of  service  and  kindness. 

VEHnmge, 

PRETEXTA  Toga.  See  Pr^texta.- 
PRETI  (Chevalier  Matthias),  a  celebrated 
Italian  painter,  bom  at  Calabria  in  1613.  His 
picture  of  the  triumph  of  Osiris,  the  Egyptian 
conqueror,  obtained  the  prize  from  the  Academy 
of  St.  Luke  at  Rome.    He  died  in  1699. 

PRETOR,  »i.  t,  >      Fr.  preleur ;  Lat.  pretlor, 
Preto'rian,  adj.  ]  The  Roman  judge ;  some- 
times taken  for  a  mayor :  judicial. 

Good  Cinna,  take  this  paper  ; 
And  look  you  lay  it  in  the  pretors  chair. 

Siaktpeare. 
The  chancery  had  the  pretorian  power  for  equity  ; 
the  star-chamber  had  the  censorian  power  for  of- 
fences. Bacon. 


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Porph|niis,  whom  vou  Egypt's  pnurr  made, 
Is  come  nom  Alezancbia  to  your  aid.  Drydtn, 

An  advocate,  pleading  the  cause  of  his  client  be- 
fore one  of  the  jrreityn,  could  only  produce  a  single 
vitness,  in  a  point  where  the  law  required  two. 

Spectator, 

Pe£tor.    See  Prjetor.   , 

PRETSCHINSTANSKOE  Krepost,  a  fort- 
ress in  the  government  of  Orenbourg,  Europe- 
an Russia,  on  the  Sacmara,  and  the  principal  of 
the  line  of  forts  on  that  river.  The  town  is  in- 
habited by  Tartars.  The  preparation  of  birch 
tar  is  here  a  considerable  employment. 

PRETTY,««.&adt;.^     Sax.  pn««e;  Belg. 

Pret'ti ly,  atfv.  \fi^  *  i-  «•  Goth.  Jridoy 

PREt'TTK'ESS,  h.  «.  Jpiyda.  Neat ;  pleas- 
ing; degant ;  beautiful  or  elegant  without  gran- 
deur: used  as  a  diminutive,  contemptuously,  and 
for  a  small,  but  not  extremely  small,  number : 
as  an  adverb,  in  some  degree :  prettily  is  neatly ; 
elc^tly :  prettiness  follows  Uie  senses  of  the 
adjective  and  adverb. 

How  prettily  the  young  swain  seems  to  wash 
The  band  was  £ur  before. 

Shaktpeare.  WinterU  Taie. 
Of  these  the  idle  Greeks  have  many  pretty  tales. 

Raleigh. 
Cat  off  the  stalks  of  cucumbers,  immediately  after 
their  bearing,  dose  by  the  earth,  and  then  cast  a 
freitii  quantity  of  earth  upon  the  plant,  and  they 
will  bear  next  year  before  the  ordinary  time. 

Bacon. 
One  saxth  pretiiiy ;  in  the  quenching  of  the  flame 
of  a  pestilent  ague,  nature  is  like  people  that  come 
to  queoch  the  fire  of  a  house  -,  so  busy,  as  one  letteth 
aoodier.  Id, 

A  knight  of  Wales,  with  shipping  and  some 
fretty  company,  did  go  to  discover  tnose  parts. 

Abbot. 
There  is  goodliness  in  the  bodies  of  animals,  as  in 
the  ox,  greyhound,  and  stag ;  or  majesty  and  stateli- 
ness,  as  in  the  lion,  horse,  eagle,  and  cock;  ^ve 
avfiilness,  as  in  mastiflfs ;  or  elegancy  and  prettinett, 
u  in  lesser  dogs  and  most  sort  of  birds ;  all  which 
are  several  modes  of  beauty.  More, 

Of  this  mixture  we  put  a  parcel  into  a  crucible, 
and  softred  it  for  a  preUy  while  to  continue  red  hot. 

Boyle, 
Those  drops  of  prettinest,  scatteriuglv  sprinkled 
amongst  the  creatures,  were  designed  to  defecate  and 
exah  our  conceptions,  not  to  inveigle  or  detain  our 
passions.  Id, 

A  pretty  task ;  and  so  I  told  the  fool. 
Who  needs  must  undertake  to  please  by  rule. 

Dryden 
A  weazk,  a  pretty  way  off,  stood  leering  at  him. 

L'Ettrange. 
Giildien,  kept  out  of  ill  company,  take  a  pride  to 
behave  themselves  prettily,  after  the  fashion  ot  others. 

Locke. 
The  world  began  to  be  pretty  well  stocked  vtith 
people,  and  human  industry  drained  those  unhabit- 
aUe  places.  Burriet. 

Toe  pretty  gentleman  is  the  most  complaisant 
cnatsre  in  the  world,  and  is  always  of  my  mmd. 

Spectatcr. 
Hell  make  a  pretty  figure  in  a  triumph,' 
And  serve  to  trip  before  the  victor's  chariot. 

Addiion, 
I  ihali  not  enquire  how  far  this  lofty  method  may 
adrsnce  the  reputation  of  learning  ;  but  I  am  pretty 
nie  'tis  no  creat  addition  to  theire  who  use  it. 

Collier, 


)  PRE 

These  colours  were  faint  and  dilute,  unless  the 
light  was  trajected  obliquely ;  for  by  that  means  they 
became  preUy  vivid.  ^  Newton. 

This  vmter  every  where  insinuates,  and,  in  one 
place,  pretty  plainly  professes  himself  a  sincere 
Christian.  Atterbury. 

The  copper  halfpence  are  coined  by  the  publick, 
and  every  piece  worth  pretty  near  the  value  of  the 
copper.  Sw^t, 

1  hey  found  themselves  involved  in  a  train  of  mis- 
takes, by  taking  up  some  pretty  hypothesis  in  phi- 
losophy. '  JVattt. 

The  first  attempts  of  this  kind  were  pretty  modest. 

Baker. 
Fr.  previdoir;  Lat, 


PREVAIL',  t^.n. 
Prevail'ing,  adj. 
Prevail'memt,  n. «. 
Prev'alence,  or 
Prev'alency,  n.  $. 
Previa  LENT,  adj. 
Prevalently,  adv. 


prewdere.  To  have 
power  or  effect ;  over- 
^come ;  gain  superi- 
ority ;  persuade ;  in- 
duce; gain  influence: 
prevailing    is,    domi- 


nant; efficacion!^;  having  most  influence:  pre- 
vailment,  prevalence,  and  prevalency,  predomi- 
nance; influence;  power;  superiority;  eflBcacy  : 
prevalent  and  prevalently  correspond. 

Willi  minds  obdurate- nothing  prevaiUth;  as  well 
thev  that  preach,  as  they  that  read  unto  such,  shall 
still  have  cause  to  complain  with  the  prophets  of 
old.  Who  will  give  credit  unto  our  teaching  7 

Hooker. 
They  that  were  your  enemies,  are  his, 

And  have  prevailed  as  much  on  him  as  jou. 

Shakepeare. 
Messengers 

Of  strong  prevailment  in  unhardened  youth.    Id. 

Brennus  told  the  Roman  ambassadors  that  prevo' 
lent  anus  were  as  good  as  any  title,  and  that  valiant 
men  might  account  to  be  their  own  as  much  as  they 
could  get.  Raleigh. 

Nor  is  it  hard  for  thee  to  preserve  me  amidst  the 
unjust  hatred  and  jealousness  of  too  many,  which 
thou  hast  suflered  to  prevail  upon  me.  King  Charles. 

The  millennium  prevailed  long  against  the  truth 
upon  the  strength  of  authority.        Decay  of  Piety. 

I  do  not  pretend  that  these  arguments  are  demon- 
strations of  which  the  nature  of  this  thing  is  not 
capable  :  but  they  are  such  strong  probabilities,  as 
ought  to  prevail  with  all  those  who  are  not  able  to 
produce  greater  probabilities  to  the  contrary. 

WiUmu. 

He  was  prevailed  with  to  restrain  the  earl  of 
Bristol  upon  his  first  arrival.  Clarendon. 

The  duke  better  knew  what  kind  of  arguments 
were  of  prewdenee  with  him.  Id. 

Animals,  whose  foreleg  supply  the  use  of  arms, 
hold,  if  not  an  equality  m  botn,  a  prewUeney  oh- 
tunes  in  the  other.  Browne. 

The  serpent  with  me 
Persuasively  has  so  prevailed,  that  I 
Have  also  tasted.  Milton. 

On  tlie  foughten  field, 

Michael  and  his  angels  preoatent  encamping.  Id. 

This  custom  makes  the  short-sighted  bigots,  and 
the  warier  scepticks,  as  far  as  it  preeaUi.        Locke. 

They  are  more  in  danger  to  go  out  of  the  way, 
who  are  marching  under  the  conduct  of  a  guide,  that 
it  is  an  hundred  to  one  vrill  mislead  them,  than  he 
that  has  not  yet  taken  a  step,  and  is  likelier  to  be 
prevailed  on  to  enquire  after  the  right  way.         Id. 

Probabilities,  which  cress  men's  appetites  andprv- 
vailing  passions,  run  the  same  fate :  let  never  so  much 
probability  hang  on  one  side  of  a  covetous  man's  rea- 
soning, and  money  on  the  other,  it  is  easy  to  foresee 
which  will  outweigh.  Id. 


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Upon  iMuiances  of  revolt,  the  queen  wti  pntmied    prerenlent  is,  preceding;  going  before ;  Wnder 


South. 


with  to  «end  her  forces  upon  that  expedilioo. 


The  conduct  of  a  peculiar  providence  made  the  in- 
struments of  that  great  desi^  pmufent  and  victo- 
rious, and  all  those  mountains  of  opposition  to  be- 
come plains.  ^*'« 

Save  the  friendless  infants  from  oppression ; 
Saints  shall  assist  thee  with  ftrwmling  prayers. 
And  warring  angels  combat  on  thy  side.        Rowe. 

The  gods  pray 
He  would  resume  the  conduct  of  the  dav,     . 
Nor  let  the  world  be  lost  in  endless  night ; 
PrewiUd  upon  at  last,  again  he  took 
The  hamesaed  steeds,  that  still  with  horror  shook. 

Addi$on. 
Why,  fair  one,  would  you  not  rely 
On  reason's  force  with  beauty's  joined  1 

Could  I  their  jfrevaknee  deny, 
I  must  at  once  bo  deaf  and  blind.  Prior. 

The  evening  star  so  falls  in  the  main. 
To  rise  at  mom  more  prevalently  bright.    ^  Id. 
This  was  the  most  received  and  prevalent  opinion, 
when  I  first  brought  my  collection  up  to  London. 

Woodward. 
Least  of  all  does  this  oTeccpt  imply,  that  we  should 
comply  with  any  thing  that  the  prevalence  of  corrupt 
fashion  has  made  reputable.  Rogers. 

While  Marlbro's  cannon  thus  prevaUs  by  land, 
Britain's  sea  chiefs  by  Anna's  high  command, 
Resistless  o'er  the  Tuscan  billows  rise. 

Blaehmore. 
Thus  song  could  prevail 
O'er  death  and  o'er  hell, 
A  conquest  how  hard  and  how  glorious  I    Pope. 
This  kingdom  could  never  prevail  against  the  united 
power  of  England.  Swift. 

Prevail  upon  some  judicious  friend  to  be  your  con- 
stant hearer,  and  allow  him  the  utmost  freedom. 

Id, 


ing :  prevent  as  a  verb  neuter  is'  used  by  Bacon 
for  to  come  after  the  time :  preventer  is  either 
one  who  goes  before  or  one  who  hinders :  pre- 
vention, the  act  of  preceding  or  hindering ;  an- 
ticipation; preoccupation;  obstruction:  pre- 
ventive, hiudering  ill  or  good,  taking  of  before 
the  object :  the  adverb  corresponds  in  sense. 
Prevent  him  with  the  blessings  of  goodness. 

Psalms. 
Mine  eyes  prevent  the  night-watches,  that  I  might 
be  occupied  in  thy  words.  Id.  cxix.  4. 

Let  thy  grace,  O  Lord,  al#ays  prevent  and  follow 
us.  OoBunon  Prayer. 

Are  we  to  forsake  any  true  opinion,  or  to  shun 
any  requisite  action,  only  because  we  have  in  the 
practice  Uiereof  been  prtienied  by  idolaters  1 

Hooker. 
I  do  find  it  cowardly  and  vile. 
For  fear  of  what  might  fall,  so  to  prevent 
The  time  of  life.       SuUupeare.  JvSivM  Ceeear. 
Atohievemen^s,  plots,  orders,  prenen^ons. 
Success  or  loss.  Shahpeare. 

The  same  oflScer  told  us  he  came  to  conduct  us, 
and  that  he  had  prevented  the  hour,  because  we  might 
have  the  whole  day  before  us  for  our  business. 


i,  V.  n.  )      Fr.  prevariquer ; 
n.  s.      5  Lat.  pravarico.  To 


PREVARICATE,  v. 

PrEVARICa'TIOK,!!. 

cavil;  quibble;  shuflle:  quibbling;  shuffling; 
cavil. 

Laws  are  either  dbannulled  or  tjuite  prevaricated 
through  change  and  alteration  of  times,  yet  they  are 
good  m  themselves.  Spenser. 

,  Whoever  helped  him  to  this  citation,  I  desire  he 
will  never  trust  him  more ;  for  I  would  think  better 
of  himself,  than  that  he  would  wilfully  prevaricate. 

StiUingfleet. 


Strawberries  watered  with  water,  wher^  hath  been 
steeped  sheep's  dung,  vrill  prevent  and  come  early. 
Id,  NatwnU  Hut&ry. 
The  arehduke  was  the  assailant  and  the  pre- 
senter, and  had  the  fruit  of  his  diUgenoe  and  celerity. 

Baeon. 
The  greater  the  distance,  the  greater  the.  preven- 
<ton ;  as  in  thunder,  where  the  bghtning  precedeth 
the  crack  a  good  space.  Id. 

Wars  preoentioe  upon  just  fears  are  true  defen- 
sives, as  well  as  upon  actual  invasions.  Id* 
Thou  bast  prevented  us  with  overtures  of  love, 
even  when  we  were  thine  enemies.      King  Chariot. 
Nothing  engendered  doth  prMmt  his  meat : 
Flics  have  their  tables  spread  ere  they  appear; 
Some  creatures  have  in  winter  what  to  eat ; 
Others  do  sleep. 

Herbert's  Temple  of  Sacred  Poems. 
God's  preventions,  cultivating   our    nature,  and 
fitting  us  with  capacities  of  his  high  donatives. 

Hammondm 
From  the  mercy  seat  above 
Prevenient  grace,  descending,  had  removed 


StiUingfleet.      ^he  stony  from  their  hearts,  and  made  new  flesh 
He  prevaricates  with  his  own  understandm|,  and     jtegencrete  grow  instead.      MiUon's  Paradise  Lett. 
'      ^      ^"^  "  This  your  sincCTCSt  care  could  not  prwwn*, 


cannot  seriously  consider  the  strength,  and  discern 
the  evidence  of  argumentations  against  his  desires. 

SoiUh. 

Several  Romans,  taken  prisoners  by  Hannibal, 
were  released  upon  obliging  themselves  by  an  oath  to 
return  again  to  his  camp  ;  among  these  was  one,  who, 
thinking  to  elude  the  oath,  went  the  same  day  back 
to  the  camp,  on  pretence  of  having  forgot  something ; 
but  this  prevaricatioi^  was  so  shocking  to  the  Roman 
senate,  that  they  ordered  him  to  be  delivered  up  to 
Hannibal.  Addison. 

Prevakication,  in  the  civil  law,  is  where  the 
informer  colludes  vnth  the  defendants,  and  so 
makes  only  a  sham  prosecution. 


PREVENE',  t;.  a. 
Preve'nient,  a^. 
Prevent  ,  v.  a.  8c  v.  n. 
Preven'ter,  ».  s. 
Preven'tion, 
Preven'tive,  adj.  &  n. 
Preven'tively,  adv. 


IjBLi.pravenio.To 
go  before;  hinder; 
be  before ;  antici- 
>pate;preoccup»y : 
the  two  active 
verbs  are  both  of 
thi9  signification : 


Foretold  so  lately  what  would  come  to  pass. 

MiUon. 
Half  way  he  met 
.  His  daring  foe,  at  this  prevention  more 
Incensed.  Id. 

Physick  is  curaHve  or  preventive  of  diseases ;  pre^ 
ventke  is  that  which,  by  purging  noxious  humours 
prevenUth  sickness.  Browne. 

In  reading  what  I  have  written,  let  them  bring  no 
particular  gusto,  or  any  prevention  of  mind,  and  that 
whatsoever  judgment  they  make,  it  may  be  purely 
their  own.  Dryden. 

If  thy  indulgent  care 
Had  not  prevened,  among  unbodied  shades 
I  now  had  wandered.  Philips. 

Prevention  qf  sin  is  one  of  the  greatest  mercies 
God  can  vouchsafe.  South. 

Too  great  confidence  in  success  is  the  likeliest 
to  prevent  it ;  because  it  hinders  us  from  making  the 
best  use  of  tiie  advantaires  which  we  enjoy. 

Atterbury 


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Pracwing  a  due  degree  of  sweat  and  perspiration, 
b  the  best  prevnUwe  of  the  gout.  Arbuthnat, 

Soon  thea  ihalt  find,  if  thou  but  arm  their  hands. 
Their  ready  guilt  jtreceniing  thy  commands  ; 
Coold'st   thou  some  great    proportioned   mischief 

frame. 
They'd  prove  the  father  Irom  whose  loins  they  came. 

Pope. 

PREVESA,  a  sea-port  of  Albania,  situated  at 
the  eotraDce  of  the  gulf  of  Arta.  It  has  to  the 
north  a  fine  plain,  tx>ntaining  a  number  of  olive 
planUtions,  studded  with  well-built  houses.  To 
the  west  the  ground  rises,  ard  renders  the  shore 
difficult  of  access.  The  inhabitants,  chiefly 
Greeks,  enjoy  certain  privileges,  in  consequence 
of  stipulations  between  Great  Britain  and  the 
Pofte.  Prevesa  is  built  out  of  the  ruins  of  the 
ancient  Nicopolis,  situated  at  a  small  'distance 
to  the  north.  It  has  a  small  harbour  called 
Vatfai,  and  carries  on  a  good  trafiic  in  wood,  oil, 
.  and  fruit.  Long  one  of  the  colonial  possessions 
of  Venice,  this  place  was  ceded  to  the  Turks  at 
the  peace  of  Passarowitz  in  1718,  and  remained 
in  their  hands  until  1798,  when  it  was  occupied 
by  the  French.  The  following  year  it  was  taken 
by  Ali  Pacha,  and  a  part  of  the  inhabitants 
cruelly  massacred.  Population  about  8000. 
Forty-five  miles  south  by  west  of  Joannina. 

PRE'VIOUS,  adj.  )      Lat.  pravius,    Antece- 

PreViously,  adv.  ]  dent;  going  before;  prior: 
antecedently. 

By  this  prmdotu  intimation  we  may  gather  some 
hopes,  that  the  matter  is  not  desperate.        BunuU 
Darting  their  stings,  they  prevumdy  declare 

Designed  revenge,  and  fierce  intent  of  war. 

Prwr. 

It  cannot  be  reconciled  with  perfect  sincerity,  as 
frtrkmhf  supposing  some  neglect  of  better  informa- 
tion. Fiddet. 

Sound  from  the  mountain,  prevumt  to  the  storm, 
Rolls  o*er  the  muttering  earth.  Ihmuon, 

PREVOT  P'ExiLES  (Anthony  Francis),  a 
learned  French  writer,  bom  at  Hesdin  in  Artois, 
in  1697.  While  he  was  in  the  convent  of  St. 
Germains  be  wrote  the  greatest  part  of  the 
Memoires  d*un  Homme  de  Qualite.  In  1745 
be  composed  his  Ilistoire  Generale  des  Voyages. 
Besides  writing  many  other  original  pieces,  he 
translated  Richardson's  Clarissa  Harlowe,  and 
Sir  Charles  Grandison,  into  French.  In  1763 
heint;  attacked  with  an  apoplectic  fit  in  the  forest 
of  Chantilly,  and  being  supposed  dead,  the 
fjDiate  of  the  parish  ordered  a  surgeon  to  open 
his  body,  when  the  unfortunate  victim  of  this 
lash  operation  cried  out ;  but  the  wound  vi%s 
mortal.  He  only  opened  his  eyes  to  behold  his 
executioners,  and  to  close  them  for  ever. 

PREY,  n.  8.  &  V.  a.  Fr.  proie ;  Lat.  prada. 
Something  to  be  devoured  or  seized ;  food  or 
wealth  gotten  by  violence ;  plunder :  to  prey  is, 
to  feed  or  live  by  violence ;  rob ;  waste. 

Hog  in  alotb,  fox  in  stealth ;  lion  in  prey, 

Shakspeare. 
They  pray  continually  unto  their  saint  the  com- 
iooimealto,  or  rather  not  nray  to  her,  but  preif  on 
her :  for  they  ride  up  and  aown  on  her,  and  make 
her  deir  boots.  -Id. 

Jofe  venom  first  infused  in  serpents  fell, 
Tugfat  wolves  to  pr«y>  and  stormy  seas  to  swell. 

May, 


A  nrrison  supported  itself,  by  the  prey  it  took 
%>m  tiie  neighbonrhood  of  Aylesbury.     Ctarmtdon. 
The  whole  included  race  his  purposed  prey, 

Milam, 
Sne  sees  herself  the  monster's  pny. 
And  feels  her  heart  and  entrails  torn  away. 

Dryden, 
There  are  men  of  prey,  as  well  as  beasts  and 
birds  of  prey,  that  live  upon,  and  delight  in  blood. 

UEitrttnge. 
Language  is  too  faint  to  show 
His  rage  of  love ;  it  preys  upon  his  life ; 
He  pines,  he  sickens,  he  despairs,  he  dies. 

Additon, 
Pindar,  that  eagle,  mounts  the  skies. 
While  virtue  leads  the  noble  way ; 
Too  like  a  vulture  Boileau  flies, 
Where  sordid  interest  shews  the  prey.    Prior. 
Their  impious  folly  dared  to  prey 
On  herds  devoted  to  the  god  of  day.    Pope. 
Who  stung  by  gloiy,  rave,  and  bound  away  ; 
rhe  world  th^r  field,  and  human-kind  their  prey, 

YotMg, 
Poor  England  !  thou  art  a  devoted  deer. 
Beset  with  every  ill  but  that  of  fear. 
Thee  nations  hunt ;  all  mark  thee  for  a  prey  ;. 
They  swarm  around  thee,  and  thou  stand'st  at  bay. 

Cowper. 

PRIAM,  the  last  kin^  of  Troy,  the  son  of 
Laomedon.  He  was  carried  into  Greece  after  the 
taking  of  that  city  by  Hercules ;  but  was  after- 
wards ransomed,  on  which  he  obtained  the  name 
of  Priam,  UputfioQf  Greek,  signifying  ransomed ; 
his  former  name  being  Poidarces.  At  his  return 
he  rebuilt  Ilium,  and  extended  the  bounds  of 
the  kingdom  of  Troy,  which  became  very 
flourishing  under  his  reign.  He  married  Hecu- 
ba, the  daughter  of  Cisseus,  king  of  Thrace,  by 
whom  he  had  nineteen  children;  and  among  the 
rest  Paris,  who  carried  off  Helen,  and  occasioned 
the  ruin  of  Troy,  which  is  supposed  to  have 
been  sacked  by  the  Greeks  about  1184  B.C., 
when  Priam  was  killed  by  Pyrrhus  the  son  of 
Achilles  at  the  foot  of  an  altar  where  he  had 
taken  reftige,  after  a  reign  of  fifty-two  years. 

PRI'APISM,  n.  s,  Fr.  priapisme  ;  Lat.  pna- 
piifttui.    A  preternatural  tension. ' 

Lust  causeth  a  flagrancy  in  the  eyes  and  priapUm. 

Bacon. 

The  person  every  night  has  a  priapiem  in  his  sleep. 

Floyer, 

PRIAPUS.  [Gr.  Uoiairocy  item  membrum 
virile;  propter  magnituainem  cujus  cognomina- 
tus  est  rriapus.]  In  mythological  painting  and 
sculpture.  The  representations  or  this  deity, 
held  among  the  ancients  to  preside  over  gardens 
as  well  as  over  the  genital  parts  of  the  sexes,  are 
very  numerous  upon  antique  monuments,  and 
are  often  found  m  situations  which  seem  very 
inappropriate;  whence  it  appears  that  the 
Greeas  more  particularly  were  apt  to  introduce 
and  familiarise  themselves  with  it.  It  is  pro- 
bable that  they  regarded  the  Priapus  merely 
as  an  emblem  of  fecundity,  and  attached  not  to 
it  (at  least  deemed  it  unnecessary  to  attach  to  it) 
any  indecent  or  lascivious  meaning.  See  Phal- 
lus. The  original  worshippers  of  this  god, 
however  (the  people  of  Lampsacus),  have  been 
much  belied  if;  in  the  festivals  they  held  in  his 
honor,  they  did  not  indulge  in  a  good  deal  of 
licentiousness  and  impurity. 


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The  representations  of  this  nature  which  have 
a  religious  object  are  extremely  numerous,  and, 
as  well  as  the  worship  of  Priapus,  have  been 
treated  of  at  a  considerable  length,  and  depicted 
in  the  rare  work  of  Mr.  Knight,  entitled  an 
Account  of  the  Remains  of  the  Worship  of 
Priapus,  to  which  is  added  a  Discourse  thereon, 
as  connected  with  the  Mystic  Theology  of  the 
Ancients,  London,  1786,  4to. 

PRICE,  n.  «-  &  t;.  a.  Fr.  prU;  Lat.  pratium. 
Equivalent  paid  for  any  thing ;  value ;  rate  of 
sale ;  reward :  to  pay  for  or  estimate. 

I  will  buy  it  of  thee  at  a  price ;  neither  will  I 
offer  burnt  offerings  unto  the  Lord  my  God,  of  that 
which  cost  me  nommg.  2  Samml  xxiv.  24. 

Some  shall  pay  the  price  of  others  guilt ; 
And  he  the  man  that  made  sans  foy  to  fall, 
Shall  with  his  own  blood  price  that  he  hath  spilt. 

Spetiser. 

We  stand  in  some  jealousy,  lest  by  thus  over- 
valuing their  sermons  ;  they  make  the  price  and  esti- 
mation of  scripture,  otherwise  notified,  to  fall. 

Hooker, 

From  that  which  hath  iU  price  in  composition,  if 
you  take  away  any  thing,  or  any  part  do  fail,  all  is 
disgrace.  Baoon. 

If  fortune  has  a  niggard  been  to  thee. 
Devote  thyself  to  thrift,  not  luxury  ; 
And  wisely  make  that  kind  of  food  thy  choice, 
To  which  necessity  confines  thy  price.        Dryden. 

Supposing  the  quantity  of  wheat,  in  respect  to  its 
vent,  be  the  same,  that  makes  the  change  in  the 
price  of  wheat.  Lo<^, 

Sometimes  virtue  starves,  while  vice  is  fed  ; 
What  then  1  is  the  reward  of  virtue  bread  1 
That,  vice  may  merit ;  'tis  the  price  of  toil ; 
The  knave  deserves  it,  when  he  tills  the  soil.  Pope. 

Price  (John),  an  English  writer  of  great 
learning,  who  flourished  in  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury. He  resided  several  years  at  Paris,  where 
he  published  some  works,  but  returned  to  Eng- 
land in  1646.  After  travelling  through  various 
places,  he  settled  at  Florence,  where  he  became 
a  lioman  Catholic,  and  the  grand  duke  of  Tus- 
cany made  him  keeper  of  his  medals,  and  pro- 
fessor of  Greek.  He  published  several  works, 
in  which  he  displayed  great  erudition ;  and  died 
at  Rome  in  1676,  or,  as  Dr.  Watkins  has  it,  in 
1686. 

Price  (Rev.  Richard),  D.  D.,  LL.  D.,  and 
F.  R.  S.  of  London,  was  bom  at  Tynton  -  in 
Glamorganshire,  Februaiy  22d,  1723.  His 
father  was  a  dissenting  minister  at  Bridgend  in 
that  county,  and  died  in  1739.  His  mother 
dying  in  1740,  became  to  London  and  attended 
Mr.  Earnests  academy,  under  the  patronage  of 
his  uncle,  the  Rev.  S.  Price,  who  was  a  colleague 
of  Dr.  Watts  for  forty  years.  In  1744  he  went 
to  reside  with  Mr.  Streatfield  of  Stoke  Newing- 
ton  as  his  domestic  chaplain,  while  he  also  regu- 
larly assisted  Dr.  Chandler  at  the  Old  Jewry. 
Having  lived  with  Mr.  Streatfield  nearly  thirteen 
years,  on  his  death  he  in  1757  married  Miss  S. 
Blundell  of  Leicestershire.  He  then  settled  at 
Hackney,  but,  being  soon  after  chosen  minister 
at  Newington  Green,  he  lived  there  until  the 
death  of  his  wife  in  1786,  when  he  returned  to 
Hackney.  He  was  next  chosen  afternoon 
preacher  at  the  meeting  house  in  Jewry  Street, 
but  this  he  resigned  on  being  elected  pastor  of 
the  gravel-pit  meeting  at  Hackney.    In  Febru- 


ary, 1791,  he  was  attacked  with  a  nerrous  fever, 
and  the  stone,  and  died  the  19th  of  April,  1791. 
He  left  his  property  to  a  sister  and  two  nephews. 
His  universal  acquaintance  with  the  sciences, 
and  his  usual  application  of  them  to  the  best 
purposes,  are  well  known.    Dr.  Kippis,  in  hij 
address  at  his  funeral,  observes,  that  *  In  conse- 
quence of  his  profound  knowledge   in  mathe^ 
matical  calculations,  he  was  qualified  at  a  parti- 
cular crisis  for  being  of  singular  utility  to  his 
fellow    citizens.     A  number  of  schemes    for 
insurance  for  lives,  and  the  benefit  of  survivor- 
ship, promising  mighty  advantages^  were*  risin<r 
up  in  London.    These  ruinous  schemes  would 
have  been  carried  to  great  excess  had  not  Dr. 
Price  stepped  forward  and  dispelled  the  delu- 
sion.'     With  him   Mr.  Pitt's   scheme   of  the 
sinking  fund   originated.     When  the   earl  of 
Shelbume  was  prime  minister,   he  sought  the 
assistance  of  Dr.  Price  in  forming  a  scheme  for 
paying  off  the  national  debt,  and  moved  an  in- 
troductory resolution  on  that  subject  in  the  house 
of  lords ;  but  upon  his  being  driven  from  office 
the  scheme  was  abandoned.    It  was,  however, 
communicated  to  the  public  by  Dr.  Price  in  a 
treatise,  entitled  The  State  of  the  Public  Debts 
and  Finances,  at  signing  the  preliminary  Articles 
of  Peace  in  January    1783;  with  a   Plan  for 
raising  Money  by  Public  Loans,  and  for  redeem- 
ing the  Public  Debts.    After  this,  when  Mr. 
Pitt  determined  to  introduce  a  bill  into  parlia- 
ment for  liquidating  the  national  debt,  he  applied 
to  Dr.  Price  for  his  advice,  and  received  from 
him  three  separate  plans ;  one  of  which,  said  by 
the  Dr.  to  be  the  least  efficient  in  its  operation, 
was  adopted  by  the  minister,  though  without  the 
slightest  acknowledgment  of  his    obligations. 
See  Sinking  Fund.    In  1763  or  1764  he  was 
chosen  F.  R.S.  and  contributed  largely  to  the 
transactions  of  that  learned  body;  in  1769  he 
received  from  Aberdeen  a  diploma  creating  him 
D.  D. ;  and  in  1783  the  degree  of  LL.  D.  was 
conferred  upon  him  by  the  college  of  Yale  in 
Connecticut.     His  works  are,  A  Review  of  the 
Principal  Question  and  Difficulties  in  Morals, 
8vo.,  1 758 ;  Dissertations  on  Providence,  &c., 
8vo.,  1767;  Observations  on  Reversionary  Pay- 
ments, &c.,  8vo.,  1771 ;  Appeal  on  the  National 
Debt,  ficc.,  8vo.,   1773;   Observations  on  the 
Nature  of  Civil  Liberty,  1776  ;  on  Materialism 
and  Necessity,  in  a  Correspondence  between  Dr. 
Price  and  Dr.  Priestley,  1779 ;  on  Annuities, 
Assurances,  Population,  &c.,  8vo.,  1779;  on  the 
Population  of  England,  1780;  on  the  Public 
Debts,,  Finances,  Loans,  &c.,   8vo.,  1783;  on 
Reversionary  Payments,  2  vols.,  1783;  on  the 
Importance  of  the  American  Revolution,  1784; 
besides  Sermons,  and  a  variety  of  papers  in  the 
Philosophical  Transactions,  on  astronomical  and 
other  philosophical  subjects. 


PRICK,  t;.a.,t;.  n.&^ 
PRICK'ER,n.«.     [n.s. 

Prick'et, 

Prick'le, 

Prick'likess, 

Prick'louse, 

Prick'song, 

Price'ly,  adj. 

Prick'punch,  n.s. 


Sax.  ppicran ;  Belg. 
priken;  Dan.  prikke; 
Swed.  prkka.  To 
puncture;  pierce; 
^spur ;  goad  ;.form  with 
a  point ;  fix  by  or  hang 
on  a  point ;  nominate 
by  a  mark  or  punc- 
ture ;  note  down  with 


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1  Style;  maik  a  tune;  to  pain;  pierce  with 
angiush  or  remorse ;  make  acid :  as  a  verb 
neuter,  come  on  the  spur;  dress  or  adorn  for 
show :  a  prick  is  a  sharp  pointed  instrument  of 
any  kind ;  the  puncture,  spot,  or  mark,  made 
with  such  an  instrument ;  a  point  ;•  fixed  place  or 
point  of  time  or  attainment ;  print  of  a  hare's 
foot ;  a  painful  or  remorseful  thought :  pricker, 
synonymous  with  prick,  an  instrument;  also 
(not  in  us^)  a  light  horseman :  a  pricket  is  a 
buck  of  the  second  year :  prickle,  a  small  sharp 
or  thorny  point :  pricklouse,  a  foolish  word  of 
contempt  for  a  tailor :  pricksong,  a  song  set  to 
music:  pnckly,  full  of  sharp  points  (prickliness 
corresponding) :  prickpunch  is  explained  in  the 
extract. 

There  shall  be  no  more  a  pricking  brier  unto  the 
bofoae  of  Israel,  nor  any  grieving  thorn. 

Ezekiel  xzviii.  24. 
When  they  heard  this,  they  were  pricked  in  their 
hearts,  and  said,  Men  and  brethren,  what  shall  we 
dol  Acti  ii.  37. 

It  is  hard  for  thee  to  kick  against  the  prickt. 

Id,  ix.  5. 
The  cooks  slice  it  into  little  gobbets,  prick  it  on  a 
prong  of  iron,  and  hang  it  in  a  furnace.       Sandys, 

They  had  not  ridden  far,  when  they  might  see 
Odc  jnieUng  towards  them  with  hasty  heat. 


Now  grins  this  goodly  frame  of  temperance 
Fairly  to  rise,  and  her  adorned  head 
To  prick  of  highest  praise  forth  to  advance.      Id, 

Leave  her  to  heaven. 
And  to  those  thorns  that  in  her  bosom  lodge. 
To  prick  and  sting  her.  Shaktpeare,  Hamlet. 

These  many  then  shall  die,  their  names  are  prickt. 

Shakipeare, 
Well,  'tis  no  matter,  honour  prick*  me  on ; 
Bat  how  if  honour  pricks  me  off,  when 
I  cone  on.  Id.  Henry  IV, 

The  country  gives  me  proof 
Of  bedlam  beg^rs,  who,  with  roaring  voices. 

Strike  in  their  numbed  and  mortifi^  bare  arms 
Pios,  wooden  pridss,  nails,  sprigs  of  rosemary. 

Shakgpeare. 
My  conscience  first  received  a  tenderness, 
Scruple,  and  prick,  on  certain  speeches  uttered 
By  the  bishop  of  Bayon.  Id,  Henry  VIII. 

Phaeton  hath  tumbled  from  his  car. 
And  made  an  evening  at  the  noon- tide  prick. 


I've  called  the  deer,  the  princess  killed  a  pricket. 

Id, 

He  fights  as  you  sing  prieksongs,  keeps  time,  dis- 
tance, and  proportion.  Id.  Romeo  and  Juliet. 

The  poets  make  Fame  a  monster  ;  they  say,  look 
how  many  feathers  she  hath,  so  many  eyes  she  hath 
aodemeath,  so  many  tongues,  so  many  voices,  she 
prieis  up  so  many  ears.  Bacon, 

Some  who  are  pricked  for  sherifis,  and  are  fit,  set 
out  of  the  bill.  Id. 

The  prkUe*  of  trees  are  a  kind  of  excrescence ;  the 
plants  that  have  pricUet  are  black  and  white,  those 
uve  it  in  the  bough ;  the  plants  that  have  prickles 
is  tbe  leaf  are  holly  and  juniper ;  nettles  also  have 
a  small  venomous  prickle.  Id. 

Artkfaoaks  will  be  less  prickly  and  more  tender, 
if  tbe  seeds  have  their  tops  grated  off  upon  a  stone. 

Id. 

If  the  English  would  not  in  peace  govern  them  bv 
the  law,  nor  could  in  war  root  tnemout  by  the  sword, 
most  they  not  be  pricks  in  their  eyes,  and  thorns  in 
ther  sides  ?  Oavies. 


They  had  horsemen,  prickers  as  they  are  termed, 
fitter  to  make  excursions  and  to  chase,  than  to  sus- 
tain any  strong  charge.  Hayward. 
For  long  shooting,  their  shaft  was  a  cloth  yard, 
their  pricks  twenty-four  score;  for. strength,  th^ 
would  pierce  any  ordinary  armour.  Carew. 

If  God  would  have  had  men  live  like  wild  beasts, 
he  would  have  armed  them  with  horns,  tusks,  talons, 
or  pricks,  Bramkall, 

Before  each  van 
Prick  forth  the  airy  knights.  Milton, 

They  their  late  attacks  decline. 
And  turn  as  eager  as  pricked  wine. 

«  Hudibras. 

No  asps  were  discovered  in  the  place  of  her  death, 

only  two  small  insensible  pricks  were  found  in  her 

arm.  Browne, . 

His  rough  crest  he  rears, 

And  pricks  up  his  predestinating  e,ars.    Dryden, 

In  this  king  Arthur's  reign, 
A  lusty  knight  was  pridcing  o'er  the  plain.      Id, 

I  no  more 
Shall  see  you  browzing,  on  the  mountain's  brow, 
The  prickly  shrubs.  Id. 

The  man  who  laughed  but  once  to  see  an  ass 
Mumbling  to  make  the  cross-grained  thistles  pass. 
Might  laugh  again,  to  see  a  jury  chaw 
The  prickles  of  unpalatable  law.  Id. 

A  fox  catching  hold  of  a  bramble  to  break  his  fall, 
the  prickles  ran  into  his  feet.  L*Estrange. 

A  taylor  and  his  wife  quarrelling,  the  woman  in 
contempt  called  her  husband  pricklouse.  Id. 

Pricker  is  vulgarly  called  an  awl ;  yet,  for  joiners' 
use,  it  hath  most  commonly  a  square  blade. 

Moxon's  Mechanical  Exercises. 
Pridcpunch  is  a  piece  of  tempered  steel,  with  a 
round  point  at  one  end,  to  prick  a  round  mark  in 
cold  iron.  Moxon. 

A  greyhound  hath  pricked  ears,  but  those  of  a 
hound  hang  down ;  for  that  the  former  hunts  with 
his  ears,  the  latter  only  with  his  nose.  Orew. 

I  caused  the  edges  of  two  knives  to  be  ground 
truly  strait,  and  prideing  their  points  into  a  board, 
so  that  their  edges  mi^ht  look  towards  one  another, 
and,  meeting  near  their  points,  contain  a  rectilinear 
angle,  I  fastened  their  handles  together  with  pitch, 
to  make  this  angle  invariable.  Newton. 

The  tuneful  noise  the  sprightly  courser  hears. 
Paws  the  green  turf,  and  prida  his  trembling  ears. 

Gay. 
If  she  pricked  her  finger.  Jack  laid  the  pin  in  the 
way.  Arlnithnot's  John  Bull. 

Keep  close  to  ears,  and  those  let  asses  prick  ; 
'Tis  nothing,  nothing  ;  if  they  bite  and  kick.  Pope. 
His  high  courage  prifiked  him  forth  to  wed.     Id. 
How  did  the  humble  swain  detest 
His  prickly  beard,  and  hairy  breast ! 

SmfVs  Miscdlanies. 
The  buck  is  called  the  first  year  a  fawn,  the  se- 
cond year  a  pricket.  Manwood. 
The  flower's  divine,  where'er  it  grows  ; 
Neglect  the  prickles,  and  assume  the  rose.  Watts, 
PRIDE,  n.  8.  &  V.  a.     Sax.  pju«  or  ppyb ; 
Swed.   pryd;    Goth,   pried.      Inordinate  self- 
esteem  ;    ostentation ;     splendor ;    exultation ; 
insolence;   elevation;   dignity  of  manner:    to 
make  proud ;  rate  oneVself  high.  . 

Whose  lofty  trees,  yclad  with  summer's  pride, 
Did  spread  so  broad,  that  heaven's  light  did  hide. 


Pride  hath  no  other  dass 
To  shew  itself,  but  pride ;  for  supple  knees 
Feed  arrogance,  and  are  the  proud  man's  fees. 

Shakspeare. 


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That  which 
Uath  wroaghi  this  hellish  mischief  unawares  -, 
That  hardly  we  escaped  the  pritU  of  Fiance.  Id. 
God  hath  a  special  indignation  at  pride  above  all 
sins.  Bp,  Ball. 

Vain  aims,  inordinate  desires, 
Blown  up  with  high  conceits  engend'ring  prid*. 

Milton, 
Smallest  lineaments  exact, 
In  all  the  liveries  decked  of  summer's  pride.   Id, 

In  thia  array  the  war  of  either  side. 
Through  Athens  passed  with  military  pride. 

Drfden. 
The  honest  pride  of  conscious  virtue.         Smith. 
He  could  have  made  the  most  deformed  beggar  as 
rich  as  thQ||B  who  most  pride  themselves  in  their 
wealth.  Chroernment  of  the  Tongue. 

Be  his  this  sword. 
Whose  ivory  sheath,  inwrought  with  curious  pride. 
Adds  graceful  terror  to  the  wearer's  side.        Pope, 
This  little  impudent  hardwareman  turns  into  ri- 
dicule the  direful  apprehensions  of  the  whole  king- 
dom, priding  himself  as  the  cause  of  them. 

Stotf('«  MisoeUamet. 
Though  various  foes  affainst  the  truth  combine. 
Pride  above  all  opposes  her  design  ; 
Pride  of  a  growth  superior  to  the  rest, 
The  subtlest  serpent  with  the  loftiest  crest» 
Swells  at  the  thought,  and,  kindling  into  rage. 
Would  hiss  the  cb^b  Mercy  from  the  stage. 

Cowper, 
Earthly  things 
Are  out  the  transient  pageants  of  an  hour ; 
And  earthly  pride  is  like  the  passing  flower, 
That  springs  to  fall,  and  blossoms  but  to  die. 

Kirhe  White, 
PRIDEAUX  (Humphry),  D.  D.,  a  learned 
divine,  bom  at  Padstow  in  Cornwall  in  li648. 
Three  years  he  studied  at  Westminster  under 
Dr.  Busby;  and  then  was  remoTed  to  Christ 
Church,  Oxford.  Here  he  published,  in  1676, 
his  Marmora  Oxoniensia  ex  Aurundelianis,  Sel- 
denianis,  aliisque  conflata,  cum  perpetuo  Com- 
mentario.  This  introduced  him  to  the  lord 
chaDcellor  Finch,  afterwards  earl  of  Nottingham, 
who,  in  1679,  presented  him  to  the  rectory  of 
St  Clements,  near  Oxford,  and  in  1681  bestowed 
on  him  a  prebend  of  Norwich.  Some  years 
after  he  was  engaged  in  a  controversy  with  the 
Papists,  at  Norwich,  concerning  the  validity  of 
the  orders  of  the  church  of  England,  which 

Produced  his  book  upon  that  subject.  In  1688 
e  was  installed  in  the  archdeaconry  of  Suffolk ; 
to  which  he  was  collated  ^y  Dr.  Lloyd,  then 
bishop  of  Norwich.  In  1691,  upon  the  death  of 
Dr.  Edward  Pococke,  the  Hebrew  professorship 
at  Oxford,  being  vacant,  was  offered  to  Dr. 
Prideaux,  but  he  declined  it.  In  1697  he  pub- 
lished his  Life  of  Mahomet,  and  in  1702  was 
installed  dean  of  Norwich.  In  1710  he  under- 
went the  operation  of  lithotomy,  which  inter- 
rupted his  studies  for  more  tlian  a  year.  Some 
time  after  his  return  to  London  lie  proceeded 
with  his  connexion  of  the  History  of  the  Old 
and  New  Testament.    He  died  in  1724. 

PaiDEAOX  (John),  D.D.,  a  learned  English 
prelate,  bom  at  Stowford  in  Devonshire  in  1578. 
His  father  had  a  numerous  family,  and  John 
applied  for  the  oflSce  of  parish-clerk  at  Ugborow 
and  lost  it :  yet,  by  the  generosity  of  a  friend,  he 
was  sent  to  ue  university  of  Oxford ;  where  he 
succeeded  Dr.  Holland  as  master  of  Exeter 


College,  in  which  he  took  his  degrees.  He  was 
also  regius  professor  of  divinity,  and  vice-chan* 
cellor.  In  1641  he  waa  made  bishop  of  Wor- 
cester, but  was  plundered  soon  after,  during  the 
troubles  that  followed,  for  having  excommuni- 
cated those  who  had  taken  up  arms  against  the  king. 
He  died  in  1650.  His  principal  works  are,  1.  Ora- 
tiones  inaugurales.  2.  Lectiones  decern  de  tQtidem 
Religionis  Capitibus.  2.  Fasciculus  Controver- 
siaram.  3.  Theologis  Scholastice  Syntagma 
Mnemonicum.  5.  Sermons,  4to.  6.  A  Synop- 
sis of  the  Councils.  His  son  Matthias  was  bom 
in  1622,  and  died  in  1646.  After  his  death  was 
published,  with  his  name,  though  supposed  to 
be  his  father's,  a  work  entitled  An  ^sy  and 
compendious  Introduction  for  reading  all  sorts 
of  Histories,  4to. 

PRIE,  n.  s.  An  old  name  of  privet — ^John- 
son. 

Lop  poplar  and  sallow,  elme,  maple,  and  prie, 
"Well  saved  from  cattle,  till  summer  to  lie.    Tmter. 

PRIEST,  n.  «.     ^    Sax.  Jmeopr ;  Tr.prestre  ; 

Priest'craft,         a  corruption  of  Gr.  wpc^- 

PaiESt'ESS,  I /Svrepoc ;  the  Span,  retains 

Priesthood,        fpresiytero,    A  minister  of 

Pricst^ly,  adj.        religion  offering  sacrifices 

Priest-ridden,  J  or  prayers;  one  of  the 
second  order  of  ^e  English  hierarchy :  priest- 
craft is  religious  fraud ;  art  of  wicked  priests  : 
priestess,  a  female  who  officiated  in  the  heathen 
rites :  priesthood,  the  office  or  order  of  priests : 
priestly,  pertaining  to,  or  becoming  a  priest: 
priest-ridden,  managed  or  governed  by  priests. 

The  high  priert  shall  not  cover  his  head. 

Levitictu, 

There  were  no  prietu  and  anti-pnests  in  ppposition 
to  one  another,  and  therefore  there  could  be  no  schism. 

Leslejf. 

Jeroboam  is  reproved  because  he  took  the  prieet- 
hood  from  the  tribe  of  Levi.  Whitgifu. 

I'll  to  the  vicar ; 

Bring  you  the  maid,  you  shall  not  lack  a  priest. 

Shakrpearem 

Our  practice  of  singing  differs  from  tlie  practice 
of  David,  the  priests,  and  Levites.  Peaeham„ 

These  prayers  I  thy  priest  before  thee  bring. 

MiUon. 

He  pretends  that  I  have  fallen  foul  on  priesthood. 

Dryden. 
How  can  incest  suit  with  holiness. 

Or  priestljf  orders  with  a  princely  state  ?  Id. 

Puzzle  has  half  a  dozen  common-place  topicks ; 
though  the  debate  be  about  Douay,  his  discourse 
runs  upon  bigotry  and  priestcraft.  Spectator. 

These  two,  being  the  sons  of  a  lady  who  was 
priestess  to  Juno,  drew  their  mother's  chariot  to  the 
temple.  Id. 

When  too,  our  mighty  sire,  then  stood'st  disarmed. 
When  thy  rapt  soul  the  lovely  priestess  charmed 
That  Rome's  high  founder  bore.  Addison. 

In  the  Jewish  church  none  that  was  blind  or 
lame  was  capable  of  the  priestly  oflSce. 

South's  Semums. 

No  neighbours,  but  a  few  poor  simple  clowns. 
Honest  and  true,  with  a  well-meaning  priest. 

Aowe. 

The  priesthood  hath  in  all  nations,  and  all  religions, 
been  held  highly  venerable.-  AtterSatry, 

Vrom  priestcraft  happily  set  free, 
Lo !  ev'ry  finished  son  returns  to  thee.    Pope. 
The  infenor  priestess,  at  her  altar's  side, 

Trembling,  begins  the  sacred  rites  of  pride.     Id. 


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S«dL  acant  of  Ugh-chutch  «nd  penecatidn,  tad 
beiogyrMtnAiM.  S»^. 

Cunniiis  is  a  holy  prim,  fiill  of  the  ipirit  of  the 
gospel,  watching,  Ud>oarukg,  and  praying  for  a  poor 
coantiy  village.  Low. 

The  state  of  parents  is  a  holy  state,  in  some  de- 
gtee  like  that  of  the  priesthood,  and  calls  upon  them 
to  blew  their  children  with  their  prayers  and  sacri- 
iiees  to  God.  id, 

A  Priest,  in  aotiquity,  was  a  person  set 
apart  for  the  perfbrmance  of  sacrifice,  and  other 
offices  and  ceremonies  of  religion.  Before  the 
promulgation  of  the  law  of  Moses,  the  first  bom 
of  erery  fiimily,  the  fathers,  the  princes,  and  the 
kings,  were  priests.  Thus  Cain  and  Abel,  Noah, 
Abiahami  Melchizedec,  Job,  Isaac,  and  Jacob, 
ofeed  their  own  sacrifices.  Among  the  Israel- 
ites, after  their  exodus  from  £gypt,  the  priestly 
office  was  confined  to  one  tribe;  and  it  consisted 
^  three  orders,  the  high-priests,  priests,  and 
Lerites.  The  priesthood  was  made  her^itary 
in  the  fiunily  of  Aaron;  and  the  first-bom  of 
the  oldest  branch  of  that  fiimily,  if  he  had  no 
h^  blemish,  was  always  the  hieh-priest  This 
divine  appointment  was  observed  with  consider- 
able accuracy  till  the  Jews  fell  under  the  domi- 
nion of  the  Romans.  Then,  indeed,  the  high- 
piesthood  was  sometimes  set  up  to  sale;  and 
mstead  of  continuing  for  life,  as  it  ought  to  have 
done,  it  seems  to  have  been  nothing  more  than  a 
tonporary  office.  There  is  sufficient  reason, 
however,  to  believe  that  it  was  never  disposed 
of  but  to  some  descendant  of  Aaron,  capable  of 
filling  it  had  the  older  branches  been  extinct. 
In  the  time  of  David  the  inferior  priests  were 
divided  into  twenty-four  companies,  who  were 
u>  serve  in  rotation,  each  company  by  itself,  for 
a  week.  The  order  in  which  tne  several  courses 
were  to  serve  was  determined  by  lot ;  and  each 
course  was  in  all  succeeding  ages  called  by  the 
name  of  its  original  chief. 

All  nations  have  had  their  priests.  The 
Pagans  had  priests  of  Jupiter,  Mars,  Bacchus, 
Hercules,  Osiris  and  Isis,  occ. ;  and  some  deities 
had  priestesses.  The  Mahometans  have  priests 
of  different  orders,  called  moUah  and  mufti; 
and  the  Indians  and  Chinese  have  their  brahmins 
and  bonzes.  The  church  of  Rome,  which  holds 
the  propitiatory  sacrifice  of  the  mass,  has,  of 
course,  her  proper  priesthood.  In  the  church  of 
England,  the  worn  priest  is  retained  to  denote 
the  second  order  in  the  hierarchy.  Some  few  of 
her  most  eminent  divines  have  maintained  that 
the  Lord's  Supper  is  a  commemorative  and 
eucharistical  sacrifice.  These  consider  all  who 
are  aathorised  to  administer  that  sacrament  as  in 
the  strictest  sense  priests.  Great  numbers, 
however,  of  the  English  clergy,  jperhaps  the 
nuyority,  anee  with  &e  church  of  Scotland  and 
with  tbe  Dissenters,  in  maintaining  that  the 
Lord  s  Supper  is  a  rite  of  no  other  moral  import 
than  the  commemoration  of  the  death  of  Christ. 
Thew  cannot  consider  themselves  as  priests  in 
the  rigid  sense  of  the  vroid,  but  only  as  pres- 
bjten,  of  which  the  word  priest  is  a  contraction 
of  tiie  same  import  with  elder. 

PRIESTI-EY  (Joseph),  LL.D.  F.R.S.  and 
oember  of  manv  foreign  literary  societies,  was 
bora  March  13th,  1733,  at  Field-head,  in  Birs- 
tall  parish,  in   the  West  Riding  of  Yorkshire. 


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His  (ather  was  a  manufrcturer  of  cloth,  and  both 
his  parents  were  persons  of  respectability  among 
the  Calvinistic  Dissenters.  Joseph  was  brought 
up,  from  an  early  period,  in  the  house  of  Mr. 
Joseph  Keighly,  vrho  had  married  his  aunt- 
Shovring  an  early  fondness  for  reading,  he  was 
sent  to  a  school  at  Batley,  where  he  acquired  a 
knowledge  of  the  Latin,  Greek,  and  Hebrew  lan- 
guages. In  his  nineteenth  year  he  went  to  the 
academy  at  Daventry,  where  he  became  the  first 
pupil  of  Dr.  AshworUi,  under  whom  he  studied 
divinity.  In  1755,  his  twenty-second  year,  he 
was  chosen  assistant  minister  to  the  Independent 
congregation  of  Needham  Market,  Suffolk;  and 
at  this  time  began  to  entertain  Unitarian  opi- 
nions. He  also  became  a  student  and  admirer 
of  the  metaphysical  philosophy  of  Mr.  Hartley, 
of  which,  during  life,  he  continued  the  elucida- 
tor  and  advocate.  In  1758  he  was  invited  to 
be  pastor  of  a  congregation  at  Namptwich,  in 
Cheshire ;  where  he  opened  a  school,  exhibited 
philosophical  experiments,  and  drew  up  an 
Englbh  Grammar,  which  was  his  first  puolica- 
tion.  Upon  the  death  of  the  Rev.  Dr.  Taylor, 
tutor  in  divinity  at  Warrington  Academy,  Dr. 
Aikin  being  chosen  to  supply  his  place,  Mr. 
Priestley  was  appointed  to  that  of  belles  lettres 
in  the  doctor's  room  in  1761.  He  soon  after 
married  Mary,  daughter  of  Mr.  Wil^nson  of 
Bersham,  near  Wrexham.  Among  the  first  of 
his  publications  at  Warrington,  were  his  Chart 
of  Biography,  and  his  Chart  of  Hbtory.  He 
also  published  the  substance  of  his  Lectures  on 
General  History  and  Politics.  He  next  pub- 
lished Lectures  on  the  Theory  and  History  of 
Language;  and  on  the . Principles  of  Oratory 
and  Criticism.  He  next  published  his  great 
work,  the  History  of  Electricity,  wherein  he 
gave  an  account  of  many  of  his  own  experi- 
ments. The  first  edition  appeared  at  Warring- 
ton in  1767,  4to.,  and  the  fifth  in  4to.  in  1794. 
In  1768  he  accepted  of  an  invitation  firom  a  nu- 
merous and  respectable  congregation  at  Leeds. 
Here  he  publbhed  many  tracts  upon  polemical 
theolofl;y,  particularly,  Institutes  of  Natural  and 
Revealed  Religion :  and  a  View  of  the  Princi- 
ples and  Conduct  of  the  Protestant  Dissenters. 
In  these  works  he  showed  himself  an  open 
enemy  to  all  unions  of  ecclesiastical  with  poli- 
tical systems.  Hb  next  publication  at  Leeds 
was  The  Hbtory  and  Present  State  of  Dbco- 
veries  relating  to  Vision,  Light,  and  Colors,  2 
vols.  4to.  1772.  About  this  period  he  hegeai  his 
celebrated  experiments  upon  the  atmospheric  air. 
In  1770,  through  the  recommendation  of  Dr. 
Price,  the  earl  of  Shelbume  invited  him  to  re- 
side with  him,  as  his  librarian.  At  thb  time  his 
family  resided  at  Calne  in  Wilts,  near  Bow- 
wood,  lord  Shelbume*s  seat  In  1775  he  pub- 
lished  hb  Examination  of  Dr.  Reid's  Enquiry 
into  the  Human  Mind,  of  Dr.  Beattie's  Essay 
on  Truth,  and  Dr.  Oswald^s  Appeal  .to  Common 
Sense.  Hb  object  was  to  prepare  the  wav  for 
the  Hartleian  Theory  of  the  Human  Mind, 
which  he  next  publbhed,  wherein  he  expressed 
his  doubts  of  the  immateriality  of  the  soul :  and 
in  1777,  notwithstanding  the  obloquy  occasioned 
by  thb  work,  he  published  Disaubitions  relating 
to  Matter  and  Spirit,  in  which  he  supported  the 


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same  doctrine.  At  this  time  also  he  stood  forth 
as  the  champion  of  the  philosophical  doctrine  of 
Necessity.  As  his  friend,  Dr.  Price,  differed 
from  him  on  these  two  last  mentioned  points  (as 
^ell  as  respecting  the  divinity  of  our  Saviour), 
a  correspondence  relative  to  them  took  place, 
which  was  published  in  one  volume.  In  the 
midst  of  these  speculations,  he  carried  on  his 
experiments  upon  air  with  success,  and  enriched 
the  science  of  chemistry  with  various  disco- 
veries. 

About  this  period  his  Institutes  of  Religion 
were  continuea ;  his  Letters  to  a  Philosophical 
Unbeliever,  and  his  Harmony  of  the  Evan^lists, 
and  various  similar  tracts  were  published.  The 
term  of  his  engagement  with  lord  Shelbume 
being  concluded,  and  his  lordship  allowing 
him  an  annuity  of  £l50,  he  took  up  his  resi- 
dence near  Birmingham,  not  only  on  account  of 
the  advantage  its  manufactures  afforded  to  his 
chemical  pursuits,  but  also  because  of  its  being 
the  residence  of  Messrs  Watt,  Bolton,  Keir, 
Withering,  and  other  eminent  men  of  science. 
He  was  soon  after  invited  to  be  pastor  to  a  con- 
gregation of  Dissenters  at  Birmingham,  whom 
be  found  cordially  attached  to  him.  From  the 
Birmingham  press  issued  his  Letters  to  Bishop 
Newcome  on  the  Duration  of  Christ's  Ministry; 
his  History  of  the  Corruptions  of  Christianity ; 
and  his  History  of  Early  Opinions  Respecting 
Jesus  Christ.  Controversies  now  multiplied 
upon  his  hand.  The  disputes  which  took  place 
upon  the  Dissenters'  bill  for  relief  from  the  test 
act  furnished  a  new  subject  of  contest ;  and  he 
appealed  to  the  people  in  his  Familiar  Letters  to 
the  Inhabitants  of  Birmingham.  Previously  to 
this  Dr.  Priestley  had  shown  his  attachment  to 
freedom,  by  his  Essay  on  the  First  Principles  of 
Government,  and  by  a  pamphlet  on  the  State  of 
Public  Liberty  in  this  Country;  and  he  had 
displayed  a  warm  interest  in  the  cause  of  Ame- 
rica, when  the  disputes  between  Britain  and  her 
colonies  broke  out.  The  French  Revolution 
was  also  viewed  by  him  with  satisfaction.  His 
aanguine  hopes,  as  well  as  those  of  many  others, 
prognosticated  from  it  the  dawn  of  light  and 
liberty  throughout  Europe ;  and  he  particularly 
expected  from  it  the  downlkll  of  all  ecclesiasti- 
cal establbhments.  In  this  state  of  party  exas- 
peration, the  celebration  of  the  14th  of  July, 
1791,  by  a  public  dinner,  at  which  Dr.  Priestley 
was  not  present,  afforded  the  signal  for  those 
savage  riots  which  disgraced  the  town  of  Bir- 
mingham. Amidst  the  burning  of  chapels  and 
private  houses,  Dr.  Priestley  was  hunted  like  a 

S reclaimed  criminal;  and  his  house,  library, 
ISS.  and  chemical  apparatus,  were  destroyed. 
Driven  from  his  favorite  residence,  his  losses 
were  but  poorly  compensated.  After  passing 
some  time  as  a  wanderer,  an  invitation  to  suc- 
ceed Dr.  Price  afforded  him  ^  new  settlement  at 
Hackney,  where  he  expected  to  have  ended  his 
days  in  quiet ;  but  he  received  an  intimation  of 
high  authority  that  if  he  did  not  voluntarily 
leave  the  country  the  executive  government 
would  proceed  against  him.  He  therefore  re- 
solved to  embark  for  America,  and,  accordingly, 
in  1794  arrived  with  his  family  at  Northumber- 
land, an  inland  town  of  Pennsylvania.    In  the 


United  States  he  was  received  with  general  re- 
spect ;  and  was  offered  the  place  of  Chemical 
Professor  at  Philadelphia,  but  declined  it.  Hav- 
ing collected  a  new  apparatus  and  library,  he 
resumed  his  experiments,  and  published  the  re- 
sults in  the  American  Philosophical  Transac- 
tions, wherein  he  continuerl  to  defend  the 
doctrine  of  Phlogiston  to  the  last.  He  also 
published  a  comparison  of  the  Jewish  with  Ma- 
hometan and  Hindoo  religions.  He  even  com- 
menced the  printing  of  two  extensive  works ;  viz. 
a  Church  History,  and  an  Exposition  of  the 
Scriptures ;  but  did  uoU  live  to  finish  them ; 
though  he  urged  it  upon  his  surviving  friends. 
He  also  composed,  transcribed,  and  left  in  MS. 
ready  for  the  press,  A  Comparison  of  the  dif- 
ferent Systems  of  Grecian  Philosophy  with 
Christianity.  His  health  began  to  aecline  in 
1801 ;  but  his  intellectual  powers  continued  un-* 
impaired  to  the  last ;  in  so  much  that  he  dictated 
some  corrections  of  his  unfinished  works  the 
last  day  of  his  life.  He  died  on  the  9th  of 
February,  1804,  between  eight  and  nine  P.M. 
with  much  calmness.  Dr.  Aikin  thus  sums  up 
his  character : — *  He  was  naturally  disposed  to 
cheerfulness.  In  large  and  mixed  companies  he 
usually  spoke  little. '  In  his  domestic  relations 
he  was  uniformly  kind  and  affectionate,  and  not 
malice  itself  could  ever  fix  a  stain  on  his  private 
conduct,  or  impeach  his  integrity.' 

PRIG,  n. «.  A  cant  word  derived  from  prick ; 
as,  he  pricks  up,  he  is  pert ;  or  from  prickeared, 
an  epitnet  of  reproach  bestowed  upon  the  pres- 
byterian  teachers  of  the  commonwealth.  A  pert, 
conceited,  pragmatical  fellow. 

The  little  man  concluded,  with  calling  monsieiir 
Mesnager  an  InsigDificant  prig.  Spectator, 

There  have  I  seen  some  active  prig. 

To  shew  his  parts,  bestride  a  twig. 

Swift*8  MiMceUaniet. 
PRILUKI,  a  town  of  European  Russia,  in 
the  government  of  Poltava.  It  stands  on  the 
river  Udai,  and  has  2500  inhabitants,  who  carry 
on  a  traffic  in  com,  cattle,  horses,  and  silk. 
Eighty  miles  S.  S.  E.  of  Czernigov,  and  128 
W.N.W.  of  Poltava. 

PRIM,  adj.  By  xiontraction  from  primitive. 
Formal;  precise;  affectedly  nice. 

A  ball  of  new-dropt  horse's  dung 

MingUnff  with  apples  in  the  throng. 

Said  to  the  pippm,  plump  and  prim, 

See,  brother,  how  we  apples  swim. 

Swift's  MiiceUanies. 

PRIMiE  ViiE,  in  medicine,  a  name  some" 
times  given  to  the  whole  alimentary  canal. 

PRI'MATE,  n. «.  )      Fr.  primat ;  Lat.  primus. 

Pri'mary.  ]  A  chief  ecclesiastic :   the 

station  of  a  primate. 

We  may  learn  ,from  the  prudent  pen  of  our  most 
reverend  prunat$l  eminent  as  well  for  promoting 
unanimity  as  learning.  Holyday. 

When  he  had  now  the  primacjf  in  his  own  hand, 
he  thought  he  should  be  to  blame  if  he  did  not  apply 
remedies.  Clarendm, 

When  the  power  of  the  church  was  first  esta- 
blished, the  archbishops  of  Canterbury  and  York 
had  then  no  pre-eminence  one  over  the  other ;  the 
former  being  primate  over  the  southern,  as  the  latter 
was  over  the  northern  parts.  AyUffe, 


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The  hie  end  pieMnt  primau,  and  the  lord  aich- 


PRI 


btihop  of  Dnblm, 
boan^. 

PRI'MAKY,  adj. 
Pei'mai, 
Pki'marily,  ado. 

Pftl'HAAINBSSy  n.  t. 

Prims,  n.  «^  atig.,  &  v.  a. 

pRiMf'LTy  adv. 

Prime'ness,  n.  s. 

Primer. 
noim  sabstaatiYe 
fint  part  of  the  day;  the 


have  left  memorials  of   their 
Swift. 
Lat.  primarm. 
First ;  chief;  prin- 
cipal: primal  is  a 
poetical  word    of 
^the  tame  significa- 
tion :      primarily, 
originally;  in  the 
first    place :    the 
ending:  prime  is  the 
'  ining;  best  or  chief 


part;  spring  or  height  of  life  or  health;  spring 
of  the  year;  height  of  perfection :  as  an  adverb, 
eviy ;  principal ;  first  rate ;  blooming ;  original : 
to  prime  is,  apply  the  first  coat  of  paint ;  put  in 
first  powder,  or  the  powder  into  the  pan  of  a 
gon:  primely  and  primeness  correspond  with 
prime,  as  an  adjective:  primer  is  an  obsolete 
word  for  first ;  original. 

His  larom  hell  might  loud  and  widd  be  heard 
When  cause  rn^aiied,  but  never  out  of  time ; 
£aily  and  late  it  rung  at  evening  and  at  prim^. 

Spenier, 
Make  haste,  sweet  love,  while  it  is  prime. 
For  none  can  call  again  the  passed  time.         Id. 
Quickly  sundnr  arts  mechamcal  were  found  out  in 
the  veiT  prime  of  the  world.  Uooktr, 

Will  she  yet  debase  her  eyes  on  me, 
That  cxopt  the  golden  prime  of  this  sweet  prince, 
And  made  her  widow  to  a  wofiil  bed?    8hak$pean. 
We  smothered 
The  most  replenished  sweet  work  of  nature, 
That  from  the  prime  creatioo  e*er  she  framed.  Id. 
We  are  contented  with 
Catharine  our  queen,  before  the  priimett  creature 
That's  paragoned  i'  the'  world.  Id. 

It  hath  been  taught  us  from  the  primal  state, 
That  he,  which  is,  was  wished,  until  he  were.    Id. 

Before  that  banning,  there  was  neither  primarily 
matter  to  be  informed,  nor  form  to  inform,  nor  any 
beiog  bat  the  eternal.  Raieigh. 

Km  when  the  primer  church  her  councils  pleased 
to  call. 
Great  Britain's  bishops  there  were  not  the  least  of 
all.  Drajfton. 

The  %urarive  notation  of  this  word,  and  not  the 
primary  or  literal,  belongs  to  this  place.  Hammond. 

Dnen  of  prime  quality,  in  several  counties,  were, 
for  refusing  to  pay  the  same,  committed  to  prison. 

Clarendon, 
Sure  pledge  of  day  that  crown'st  the  smiling 


^'ith  thjr  bright  circlet,  praise  him  in  thy  sphere 
While  day  anses,  that  sweet  hour  of  prime.  Milton. 
Nor  can  I  think  that  God  will  so  destroy 
Vi  his  prime  creatures  dignified  so  high.         Id. 
Nature  here  wantoned  as  in  her  prime.  Id. 

In  iever»,  where  the  heart  primarily  sufiereth,  we 
apply  medicines  unto  thi  wrists. 

Broume't  Vulgar  Erroun. 
•  The  church  of  Christ,  in  its  prifhary  institution, 
w  made  to  be  of  a  diffusive  nature,  to  spread  and 
««end  itself.  Pearson. 

}'  Hope  waits  upon  a  flowery  primf, 
And  summer,  though  it  be  less  gay, 

Yet  is  not  looked  on  as  a  time 
Of  declination  or  decay.  Waller. 

A  pistol  of  about  a  foot  m  length,  we  prtm^d  with 
weJl  dried  gunpowder.  Beyle. 

Short  were  her  marriage  joys ;  for,  in  the  prime 
Of  jouth,  her  lord  expir»i  oefore  his  time.  Dryden. 


Humility  and  resignation  are  our  prime  virtues. 

Id. 

Moses  being  chosen  by  God  to  be  the  ruler  of  his 
people,  will  not  prove  that  priesthood  belonged  to 
Adam's  heir,  or  the  prime  fathers.  Loehe. 

These  I  call  original  or  primary  qualities  of  body, 
which  produce  simple  ideas  in  us,  viz.  solidity,  ex* 
tension,  figure  and  motion.  Id. 

That  which  is  peculiar  must  be  taken  from  the 
primariness  and  secondariness  of  the  perception. 

Narris, 
When  the  ruins  both  primary  and  secondary  were 
settled,  the  waters  of  the  abyss  began  to  settle  too. 

Burnet. 
Words  signify  not  immediately  and  primely  things 
themselves,  but  the  conceptions  of  the  mind  about 
them  South. 

These  considerations  so  exactly  suiting  the  parable 
of  the  wedding  supper  to  this  spiritual  banquet  of  the 
p^ospel,  if  it  does  not  primarily,  and  in  its  first  design, 
intend  it ;  yet  certainly  it  may,  with  greater  advan- 
tage of  resemblance,  be  applied  to  it,  than  to  any 
other  duty.  Soutk^t  Sermons. 

The  plants  which  now  appear  in  the  most  different 
seasons,  would  have  been  ail  in  prime,  and  flourish- 
ing together  at  the  same  time.  Woodward. 
Frime  all  your  firelocks,  fasten  well  the  stake. 

Oay. 
The  poet  and  his  theme  in  spite  of  time. 
For  ever  young  enjoys  an  endless  prime.  ChanvUle. 

As  the  six  primary  planets  revolve  about  him,  so 
the  secondary  ones  are  moved  about  them  in  the  same 
sequilateral  propoAion  of  their  periodical  motions  to 
their  orbs.  Beniley. 

Give  no  more  to  every  guest, 
Than  he's  able  to  digest ; 
Give  him  always  of  the  prime. 
And  but  little  at  a  time.  Swijt. 

His  friendship  was  exactly  timed. 
He  shot  before  your  foes  were  primed.         Id. 
Nought  tieads  so  silent  as  the  foot  of  time : 
Hence  we  mutake  our  autumn  for  our  prime.  Young. 
Look  not  alone  on  youthful  prime    . 

Or  manhood's  active  might ; 
Man  then  is  useful  to  his  kind» 
Supported  is  his  right.  Bums. 

That  little  orb  in  days  remote  of  old. 
When  aneels  yet  were  young,  was  made  for  man. 
And  titled  earth,  her  primal  virgin  name.  .   PoUok. 

Prime,  in  fencing,  is  the  first  of  the  chief 
guards.    See  Fencimg. 

Prime  Figure,  in  geometry,  one  which  can- 
not be  divided  into  any  other  figures  more  sim- 
ple than  itself,  as  a  triangle  among  planes,  and 
the  pyramid  among  solids. 

Prime  Vertical  is  that  vertical  circle  which 
passes  through  the  poles  of  the  meridian,  or  the 
east  and  west  points  of  the  horizon ;  whence 
dials  projected  on  the  plane  of  this  circle  are 
called  prime  vertical  or  north  and  south  dials. 

Prim'er,  n.  t.  A  small  prayer-book  in  which 
children  were  taught  to  reaa,  so  named  from  the 
Romish  bo6k  of  devotions ;  an  elementary  book ; 
an  office  of  the  Virgin  Mary. 

Another  prayer  to  her  is  not  only  in  the  manual, 
but  in  the  primer  or  office  of  the  blessed  Virgin. 

Stilliiisifleet. 
The  Lord's  prayer,  the  creed,  and  ten  command- 
ments he  should  learn  by  heart,  not  by  reading  them 
himself  in  his  primer,  but  by  somebody's  repeating 
them  before  he  can  read.  Locke. 

Primer  Sbasin,  in  feudal  law,  was  a  feudal 
burden,  only  incident  to  the  king's  tenants  in 


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capite,  and  not  to  those  who  held  of  inferior  or 
mesne  lords.— It  was  a  right  which  the  king  had 
when  any  of  his  tenants  in  capite  died,  seized  of 
a  knight  8  fee,  to  receive  of  ue  heir  (provided 
he  were  of  full  age),  one  whole  year*s  profits  of 
the  lands  if  thev  were  in  immediate  possession, 
and  half  a  years  profits  if  the  lands  were  in  re- 
version expectant  on  an  estate  for  life.  This 
seems  to  be  little  more  than  an  additional  relief, 
but  grounded  upon  this  feudal  reason,  that,  by 
the  ancient  law  of  feods,  immediately  upon  the 
death  of  a  vassal,  the  superior  was  entitled  to 
enter  and  take  seisin  or  possession  of  the  land, 
by  way  of  protection  against  intruders,  till  the 
heir  appeared  to  claim  it,  and  receive  investiture ; 
and,  tor  the  time  the  lord  so  held  it,  he  was  en- 
titled to  take  the  profits ;  and,  unless  the  heir 
claimed  within,  a  year  and  day,  it  was  by  the 
strict  law  a  forfeiture.  This  practice,  however, 
seems  not  to  have  long  obtained  in  England, 
if  ever,  with  regard  to  tenures  under  inferior 
lords ;  but,  as  to  the  king's  tenures  in  capite, 
this  prima  seisina  was  expressly  declared  under 
Henry  III.  and  Edward  II.  to  belong  to  the 
king  by  prerogative,  in  contradistinction  to  other 
lords.  And  Uie  king  was  entitled  to  enter  and 
receive  the  whole  profits  of  the  land,  till  livery 
was  sued ;  which  suit  being  commonly  within  a 
year  and  day  next  after  the  death  of  the  tenant, 
therefore  Uie  king  used  to  take,  at  an  average  the 
first-fruits,  that  is  to  say,  one  year*s  profits  of  the 
land.  And  this  afterwards  gave  a  handle  to  the 
popes,  who  claimed  to  be  feudal  lords  of  the 
church,  to  claim  in  like  manner  from  every 
clerayman  in  England  the  first  year's  profits  of 
his  benefice,  by  way  of  primitis,  or  first  fruits. 
— All  the  charges  arising  by  primer  seisin  were 
abolished  by  12  Car.  II.  c.  34. 

PRIME'RO,  n.  $,  Span,  primero.  A  game 
at  cards. 

I  left  bim  at  prmtro 
With  the  duke  of  Suffolk. 

Skaktpeam.  Henry  VEIL 
PRIME'VAL,  a^.  >      Lat.  primavta.     Ori- 
Pr  im e'vous.  S  ginal ;  such  as  was  at  first. 

All  the-parts  of  thb  great  fabric  change, 
Quit  their  old  stations  and  primeoal  frame, 
And  lose  their  shape,  their  essenoe,  and  their  name. 

Prior. 
Immortal  dove. 
Thou  with  almighty  energy  didst  move. 
On  the  wild  waves  incumbent  didst  din>lay 
Thy  genial  wings,  and  hatch  primeval  aay. 

Blaekmore, 
Thou,  who  didst  put  to  flight 
PrimenU  silence,  when  the  morning  stars, 
Exulting,  shouted  o'er  the  rising  ball.       Young, 

PRIMING,  among  painters,  signifies  the  lay- 
ing on  of  the  first  color. 

Priming,  in  gunnery,  the  train  of  powder 
that  is  laid,  from  the  opening  of  the  vent,  along 
the  gutter  or  channel  on  the  upper  part  of  the 
breech  of  the  gun :  which,  when  fired,  conveys 
the  flame  to  the  vent,  by  which  it  is  farther  com- 
municated to  the  charge,  in  order  to  fire  the 
piece.  This  is  only  used  on  shipboard  at  the 
proof,  and  sometimes  in  garrison;  for,  on  all 
other  occasions,  tubes  are  used  for  that  purpose. 

Primino  Wire,  in  gunnery,  a  sort  of  iron 
needle  employed  to  penetrate  we  vent  or  touch- 


hole  of  a  piece  of  ordinance  when  it  is  loaded, 
in  order  to  discover  whether  the  powder  con- 
tained therein  is  thoroughly  dry  and  fit  for  ino- 
mediate  service ;  as  likewise  to  search  the  vent, 
and  penetrate  the  cartridge,  when  the  guns  axe 
not  loaded  with  loose  powder. 

PRIMIPILUS,  in  antiquity,  the  centurion  of 
the  first  cohort  of  a  legion,  who  had  the  charge 
of  the  Roman  eagle.  This  officer  also  went  un- 
der the  several  titles  of  dux  legionis,  prefectus 
legionis,  primus  centurionum,  and  primus  oen- 
turio ;  and  was  the  first  oenturion  of  the  triaxti 
in  every  legion.  He  presided  over  all  the  other 
centurions,  and  generally  gave  the  word  of  com- 
mand by  order  of  the  tribunes.  Having  the  care 
of  the  eagle,  or  chief  standard  of  the  legion, 
aquile  prsesse  was  used  for  the  dignity  of  pri- 
mipilus ;  and  hence  aqnila  is  used  by  rliny  for 
that  office.  Nor  was  this  station  honorable  only, 
but  also  very  profitable ;  for  he  had  a  special 
stipend  allowea  *him,  and,  when  he  left  that  • 
charge,  was  reputed  equal  to  the  members  of  the 
equestrian  order,  bearing  the  title  of  primipi- 
larius,  as  those  who  had  discharged  the  greater 
civil  oflSices  were  styled  ever  after  consulares, 
censorii,  &c. 

PRIMITI^,  the  first-fruits  gathered  of  the 
earth,  whereof  the  ancients  made  presents  to  the 
gods. 

PRIMTTIVE,  adj,     "j     Fr.  primUif;  Lat. 

Prim'ttively,  adv.      yprwnitivut.    Ancient; 

Prim'itiveness,  n.  t.  j  original ;  from  the 
beginning :  formal ;  precisely  grave:  the  adverb 
and  noun  substantive  correspond. 

Their  superstition  pretends,  they  cannot  do  God 
greater  service  than  utterly  to  destroy  the  prtrntttae 
apostolic  government  of  the  church  by  bishops. 

KiHg  Charles. 

The  scripture  is  of  sovereign  authority,  and  for  it- 
self worthy  of  all  acceptation.  The  latter,  namely 
the  voice  and  testimony  of  the  primiitoe  church,  is  a 
ministerial,  and  subordinate  rule  and  guide,  to  pre- 
serve and  direct  us  in  the  right  understandinff  of  the 
scriptures.  White. 

Our  primitioe  great  sire  to  mee^ 
His  godlike  guest,  walks  forth.  MiUotu 

'Solemnities  and  ceremonies,  primt/iveiy  enjoined, 
were  afterward  omitted,  the  occasion  ceasing. 

Browne. 

The  doctrine  of  purgatoiy,  by  which  they  mean  an 
estate  of  temporary  punishments  after  this  life,  was 
not  known  in  (he  primtttM  church,  nor  can  be  proved 
from  scripture.  TiUotstm. 

Darid  reflects  sometimes  upon  the  present  form  of 
the  world,  and  sometimes  upon  the  frimUiM  form 
of  it.  Burnet. 

The  purest  and  most  primitively  reformed  church 
in  the  world  was  laid  in  the  dust.  South, 

His  memoiy  was  large  and  tenacious,  vet,  h^  a 
curious  felicity,  chiefly  susceptible  of  the  finest  im- 


pressions it  received  m>m  the  best  authors  he  read^ 
which  it  always  preserved  in  their  primitiee  strength 
and  amiable  order.  Johnamu 

PRIMOGE'NIAL,ad;. )     Lat.  primigenUa. 

Priuogen'iture,  n.  s.  ). Firstborn ;  original ; 
primary ;  constituent :  primogeniture  is  seniority ; 
eldership. 

Are  we  so  foolish,  that,  while  we  may  sweetly  en- 
joy the  settled  estate  of  our  primegemture,  we  will 
needs  bring  upon  ourselves  the  curse  of  Reuben  1 

Bp.Haa. 


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The  priwyial  light  at  6nt  was  diffased  over  the 
free  of  tbe  un&shioned  chaos.  OlanmUs. 

Bectiise  the  scripture  affordeth  the  prioriw  of  order 
oto  Shenif  we  cannot  from  hence  infer  his  jnimo' 


It  is  not  ea^  to  discern,  among  many  differing 
■nhsriiiicCT  obtained  from  the  same  matter,  what  pri- 
magoM  and  ample  bodies  convened  together  com- 
pose iL  BojfU. 

The  fint  or  j»  imo^enial  earth,  which  rose  oat  of 
the  chaos,  was  not  like  the  present  earth.    Burnet, 

The  fint  provoker  has  by  nis  seniority  and  primo- 
gtnitun  a  doable  portion  of  the  gailt. 

Qovernment  of  the  Tongue, 

Primogeniture,  the  right  of  the  first  bom, 
has  among  most  nations  been  very  considerable. 
The  first-born  son  in  the  patriarchal  ages  had  a 
superiority  over  his  brethren,  and  in  the  absence 
of  his  fiither  was  priest  to  die  fiunily.  Among 
the  Jews  be  was  consecrated  to  the  Lord,  had  a 
double  portion  of  the  inheritance,  and  succeeded 
in  the  government  of  the  fiunily  or  kingdom. 
But  if  a  woman's  first  child  was  a  girl,  neither 
she,  nor  the  children  that  came  after  her,  were 
consecrated.  In  every  nation  of  Europe,  the 
right  of  primogeniture  prevails  in  some  degree  at 
present,  but  it  did  not  prevail  always.  The  law 
whidi  alls  the  first-bom  to  the  crown,  preferably 
to  the  others,  was  unknown  to  the  first  race  of 
French  kings,  and  even  to  the  second.  It  was 
not  till  the  end  of  the  tenth  century,  under  the 
race  of  Hugh  Capet,  that  the  prerogative  of  suc- 
cession to  the  crown  was  appropriated  to  the 
first-bom.  By  the  ancient  customof  gavel-kind, 
still  preserved  in  some  parts  of  our  island,  pri- 
mogeniture is  of  no  account ;  the  paternal  estate 
being  equally  shared  by  all  the  sons.  And  it  has 
been  a  matter  of  yiolent  and  learned  dispute, 
whether,  at  the  death  of  Alexander  III.  Baliol 
Of  Bruce  was,  by  the  law  as  it  then  stood,  heir 
to  the  crovm  of  Scotland.  The  former  had  un- 
doubtedly the  right  of  primogeniture,  but  the 
btter  stood  in  one  degree  of  nearer  relation  to 
the  deceased  sovereign ;  and  the  Scottish  barons, 
not  bong  able  to  determine  whose  claim  was 
best  fiwmded,  referred  the  quesion  to  Edward  I. 
of  England,  and  thereby  involved  their  country 
in  a  long  and  ruinous  war. 

PRIMOR'DIAL,  adj.  Fr.  primordial;  Lat. 
primordium.  Original;  existing  from  the  begin- 
ning. 

1^  priwMTdiab  of  the  world  are  not  mechanical, 
bat  spermatical  and  vital.  More, 

Stiu  may  be  either  transmuted  or  otherwise  pro- 
duced, and  so  may  not  be  primordial  and  immutable 
beings.  Boyle, 

Not  every  thing  chvmists  will  call  salt,  sulphur, 
or  spirit,  that  needs  always  be  a  priaurdiate  and  in- 
geooable  body.  id. 

PRIMORIE,  a  hilly  district  of  Austrian  Dal- 
naiia,  between  the  Cettina  and  I*iarenta.  It 
oroduces  wine,  oil,  and  figs.  The  chief  town  is 
Macaisca.  This  district  was  called  Dalmatia 
by  the  Romans,  and  by  the  Greeks  Parathalassia. 
Inhabitants  15,000. 

PRIM'ROSE,  n.  i.  &  adj.  Lat.  primula  veris. 
A  flower  that  appears  early  in  the  year:  gay; 
floweiy. 

I  had  thought  to  have  let  in  some  of  all  profes- 
aou,  that  go  the  primnte  way  to  the  everlasting 
bonfire.  Shakspeare. 


Pale  primnnei, 
That  die  unmarried  ere  they  can  behold 
Bright  Phoebas  in  his  strength. 

SuUupeare.  Winier^iTale. 
There  foUoweth,  for  the  Utter  part  of  January, 
primroiet,  anemonies,  the  early  tulip. 

Bacon'i  JBnojff . 
How  pleasant  thy  banks  and  green  valleys  below. 
Where  wild  in  the  woodlands  the  primmes  blow; 
There,  oft  as  mild  evening  weeps  over  the  lea. 
The  sweet-scented  birk  shades  my  Mazy  and  me. 

Burnt, 
Primrose,  in  botany.  See  Priuula. 
PRIMULA,  the  primrose,  a  genus  of  the 
monogynia  order,  ana  pentandria  class  of  plants ; 
natural  order  twenty-first,  precis.  The  invo- 
lucrum  lies  under  a  simple  umbel ;  the  tube  of 
the  corolla  is  cylindriod;  with  die  mouth  or 
limb  patulous.  This  genus,  including  also  the 
polyanthus  and  auricuhi,  furnishes  an  excellent 
collection  of  low,  herbaceous,  flowery  perennials. 

1.  P.  aurieula  has  a  thick  fibrous  root,  crowned 
by  a  cluster  of  oblong,  fleshy,  broad,  serrated, 
smooth  leaves,  resembling  the  shape  of  a  bear's 
ear ;  and  amidst  them  upright  flower  stalks  from 
about  three  or  four,  to  six  or  eight,  inches  high, 
terminated  by  an  umbellate  cluster  of  beautifiil 
flowers,  of  many  difierent  colors  in  the  varieties. 
All  of  these  have  a  circular  eye  in  the  middle  of 
each  flower,  and  of  which  there  are  difiierent 
colors ;  whence  the  auriculas  are  distinguished 
into  yellow-eyed,  white-eyed,  &c.  The  petals  of 
most  of  the  lunds  are  powdered  with  an  exceed- 
ingly fine  fiirina,  which  contributes  greatly  to  the 
b^uty  of  the  flower.  They  all  flower  in  April 
or  May,  continuing  a  month  or  six  weeks  in 
beauty,  and  ripening  plenty  of  seeds  in  June. 

2.  P.  polyanthus  has  thick  fibrous  roots,  in- 
creasing into  large  bunches,  crowned  with  a 
cluster  of  large  oblong,  indented,  rough  leaves ; 
amidst  them  upright  flower-stalks  six  or,  eight 
inches  high,  terminated  mosUy  by  a  cluster  of 
several  spreading  flowers  of  many  different  colors 
in  the  varieties.  They  all  flower  beautifrilly  in 
April  and  May,  and  frequently  again  in  autumn ; 
and  sometimes  even  in  winter,  if  the  season  is 
mild.  The  polyanthus  is  one  of  the  noted  prize 
flowers  among  the  florists ;  many  of  whom  are 
remarkably  industrious  in  raising  a  considerable 
variety  of  different  sorts,  as  well  as  in  using 
every  art  to  make'  them  blow  with  all  reouisite 

Serfection.  The  chief  properties  required  in  a 
orist*s  polyanthus  are — 1.  The  stem  or  flower- 
stalk  should  be  upright,  moderately  tall,  with 
strength  in  proportion,  and  crowned  by  a  good 
regular  bundi  of  flowers  on  short  pedicles, 
strong  enough  to  support  them  nearly  in  an  up- 
right position.  2.  The  florets  of  each  branch 
should  be  equally  large,  spreading  open  flat, 
with  the  colors  exquisite,  and  the  stripes  and 
variegations  lively  and  regular.  3.  The  eye  in 
the  centre  of  each  floret  should  be  large,  regular, 
and  bright;  and  the  anthers,  by  the  florists 
called  the  thrum,  should  rise  high  enough  to 
cover  the  mouth  of  the  tube  or  hollow  part  in 
the  middle  of  the  florets,  and  render  them  what  ' 
they  call  thrum-eyed ;  but,  when  the  style  ele- 
vates the  stigma'  above  the  anthene,  the  eye  of 
the  tube  generally  appears  hollow,  showing  the 
stigma  in  the  middle,,  like  the  head  of  a  pin,  and 

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is  rejected  as  an  incomplete  flower,  though  its 
other  properties  should  be  ever  so  perfect.  This 
pin-eyed  polyanthus,  however,  though  rejected 
Dy  the  florists,  is  the  flower  in  its  most  perfect 
^tate,  and  great  numbers  of  them  are  of  as  beau- 
tiful forms  and  colors  as  the  thrum-eyed  varie- 
ties. 

3.  P.  veris,  the  spring  primrose,  has  thick 
and  very  fibrous  roots,  crowned  by  a  cluster  of 
large  oblong  indented  rough  leaves,  and  numer- 
ous flower-stalks,  from  about  three  or  four,  to 
five  or  six,  inches  high  ;  each  terminated  com- 
monly by  one  flower.  All  the  varieties  flower 
abundantly  in  March  and  April,  and  continue 
for  a  monUi  or  six  weeks.  The  cowslip  primrose, 
or  cowslip,  or  oxlip,  has  very  thick  fibrous  roots, 
crowned  by  a  cluster  of  oblong,  indented,  round, 
leaves,  and  upright,  firm,  flower-stalks  five  or 
six  inches  high,  terminated  each  by  a  cluster  of 
fimall  flowers.  They  flower  in  April  or  May, 
continuing  in  succession  a  month  or  six  weeks. 
All  the  varieties  of  the  common  spring  primrose 
multiply  so  fast  by  the  roots  that  it  is  scarcely 
worth  while  to  raise  them  from  seeds.  However, 
though  many  single  kinds  may  be  raised  from 
seed,  yet  parting  Uie  roots  is  the  only  method  by 
which  the  double  kind  can  be  preserved;  and  the 
same  thing  is  to  be  observed  of  all  the  rest 
PRINC E,  n.  s.  &  v.  n. ^  Fr. prince ;  Lat.  prin- 
Prince'dov, n.  s.  weeps.  A  sovereign {  a 
Prikce'like,  od;.  J>  chief  ruler  of  either 
Prince'ly,  I  sex ;  the  son  of  a  king : 

Prin'cess,  n.  «.  J  to    play    the    prince: 

princedom  is  the  rank  or  state  of  a  prince; 
Wicliff  uses  '  prynshood,'  see  the  extract :  prince- 
like, becoming  a  prince:  princely,  "having  the 
rank  of  princes ;  befitting  that  rank ;  roval ;  grand ; 
sumptuous:  princess,  the  feminine  of  prince. 

He  reseruyde  undir  derknesse  aungelis  that  kepten 
not  her  prynthoodt  bat  forsoolLen  their  hous  into  the 
doom  ^f  the  gret  God,  into  euerlastinge  boondis. 

Wielif,  Judas  i, 
A  prince  of  great  courage  and  beauty,  but  fostered 
up  in  blood  by  his  haughty  father.  Sidnfy. 

Meaning  only  to  do  honour  to  their  prineely  birth, 
they  fiew  among  them  all.  Id, 

Next  Archigald^  who,  for  his  proud  disdain, 
Deposed  was  from  princedom  sovereign.       Spenur, 

Heaven  forbid  that  such  a  scratch  should  drive 
The. prince  of  Wales  from  such  a  field  as  this. 

Skakspeare, 
Nature  prompts  them, 
In  simple  and  low  things,  to  prince  it,  much 
Beyond  the  trick  of  others.  Id.  Ctmbeline. 

Here  the  bracelet  of  the  truest  princess 
That  ever  swore  her  faith.  Id. 

The  wrongs  he  did  me  were  nothing  princelike. 

Shakspeare. 
fie  opposite  all  planeU  of  good  luck 
To  mv  proceeding ;  if  with  pure  heart's  love 
I  tender  not  thy  beauteous  princely  daughter. 

Queen  Elizabeth,  a  prince  admirable  above  her  sex 
for  her  princely  virtues.  Camden, 

Many  townes  of  prineely  youths  he  leveled  with 
the  ground.  Chapman. 

To  use  the  words  of  the  prince  of  learning  here- 
upon, only  in  shallow  and  small  boats  they  glide 
over  the  face  of  the  Virgilian  sea.  Peacham. 

Coelestial !  whether  among  the  thrones,  or  named 
Of  them  the  highest ;  for  such  of  shape  may  seem 
Prince  above  princes.  Milton's  Paradise  Lost. 


Under  thee,  as  head  supreme, 
Thrones,  princedoms,  powers,  dominions,  I  reduce. 

UiUon. 
Princely  counsel  in  his  face  yet  shone.  Id. 

I  expressed  her  commands 
To  migfoty  lords  and  prineely  dames.     Waller. 
Forces  come  to  be  used  by  good  prinoest  only  upon 
necessity  of  providing  for  their  defence.        TempU. 
Ask  why  God's  anointed  he  reviled ; 
A  king  and  princeu  dead.  Dryden. 

Esau  founded  a  distinct  people  and  government, 
and  was  himself  a  distinct  prince  over  them.  Locke. 

Had  we  no  histories  of  the  Roman  emperors,  but 
on  their  money,  we  should  take  them  for  most  virtuous 
princei,  Addi»on. 

God  put  it  into  the  heart  of  one  of  our  princes, 
towards  the  close  of  her  reign,  to  give  a  check  to  that 
sacrilege.  Atterbury, 

Princess  adored  and  loved,  if  verse  can  give 
A  deathless  name,  thine  shall  for  ever  live. 

CrranviUe. 
Our  tottering  state  still  distracted  stands. 
While  Uiat  prince  threatens,  and  while  this  com- 
mands. Pope. 
Under  so  excellent  a  princess  as  the  present  queen, 
we  suppose  a  family  strictly  regulated.            Swi/i. 

Uappy  those  princes,  who  are  educated  by  men 
who  are  at  once  virtuous  and  wise,  and  have  been 
for  some  time  in  the  school  of  affliction ;  who  wei^h 
happiness  against  glory,  and  teach  their  royal  pupils 
the  real  value  of  fame.  Goldsmith, 

Prince  also  denotes  a  person  who  is  a  sove- 
reign in  his  own  territories,  yet  holds  of  some 
other  as  his  superior.  Also  the  issue  of  princes,  or 
those  of  any  royal  family.  In  England  the  king's 
children  are  <^led  sons  and  daughters  of  Eng- 
land ;  the  eldest  son  is  created  prince  of  W^ales ; 
the  cadets  are  created  dukes  or  earls  as  the  king 

{)leases ;  and  the  title  of  all  the  children  is  roysd 
lighness;  all  subjects  are  to  kneel  when  ad- 
mitted to  kiss  their  hand,  and  at  table  out  of 
the  king's  presence  they  are  to  be  served  on  the 
knee.    See  Royal  Family. 

Prince  Frederick's  Sound,  an  inlet  of  the 
North  Pacific  Ocean,  on  the  west  coast  of  North 
America ;  so  named  by  Vancouver  in  honor  of 
the  late  duke  of  York.  Ix)ng.  225°  42'  to  227** 
20',  lat  56°  52^  to  57°  12'  N. 

Prince  of  the  Senate,  in  ancient  Rome, 
the  person  who  was  called  over  first  in  the  roll 
of  senators,  whenever  it  was  renewed  by  the 
censors :  he  was  always  of  consular  and  censo- 
rian  dignity. 

Prince  op  Wales's  Archipelago,  a  large 
island  of  the  North  Pacific  Ocean,  surrounded 
by  a  number  of  smaller  ones,  chiefly  in  the  bays 
on  its  coast.  They  lie  in  long.  226°  20'  to  22'3° 
26',  and  lat.  54°  42'  to  56°  2l'  N.,  and  were  so 
called  by  Vancouver. 

Prince  of  Wales's,  Pulo  Pinako,  or  Be- 
tel Nut,  Island,  an  island  off  the  west  coast 
of  the  Malay  peninsula,  from  which  it  is  sepa- 
rated by  a  narrow  strait,  about  two  miles  broad, 
which  forms  the  harbour,  and  affords  excellent 
anchorage  for  the  largest  ships.  There  is  also 
an  inner  harbour,  where  ships  may  receive  all 
repairs  that  can  be  performed  without  going 
into  dock.  The  principal  entrance  into  the 
harbour  is  from  the  north-west;  but  there  is 
also  a  fine  channel  to  the  southward.  Here  is 
always  at  least  four  fathoms,  or  four  fathoms  and 


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^btlf  ofivater,  but  it  deepens  within  to  fourteen 
flitlioiiis.  The  louth  channel  is  obstructed  by 
mud  banks,  but  which  are  buoyed,  and  leave  a 
nfe  diannel  with  three  ikthoms  and  a  half. 

The  island  is  five  leagues  long,  and  two  to 
three  broad.  On  the  north-west  it  rises  in  high 
hills,  covered  with  large  trees ;  on  the  east  side 
is  an  extent  of  level  ground  wdl-H^ultivated.  The 
ishnd  has  two  rivers  considerable  for  its  size 
That  called  Paz  winds  through  the  level  part  of 
die  island  for  twenty  miles;  its  tpouth  is  crossed 
by  a  mud  bank  with  twelve  feet  in  the  springs, 
but  boats  can  ascend  it  a  considerable  iw;piy.  liie 
second  river,  called  Taloo  Moodoo,  is  a  rapid 
torrent  stream  that  often  overflows ;  its  mouth  b 
crossed  by  a  sand  bank. 

Fort  Comwallis  is  situated  on  the  north-east 
point  of  the  island,  and,  thoujgfh  considerable 
sums  have  been  expended  on  it,  is  little  more 
than  a  sufficient  defence  againt  the  Malays,  and 
is  incapable  of  any  resistance  to  a  regular  attack 
b^  European  tactics.  The  town,  named  George 
Town  by  the  English,  and  Panjang  Panaique  by 
the  Malays,  is  of  considerable  extent ;  the  streets 
wide  and  straight,  with  many  good  houses.  A 
river  runs  close  past  it,  and  it  has  a  good  wharf 
for  loaded  boats,  to  which  water  is  conveyed  by 
pipes.  A  government  house,  a  jail,  a  church* 
and  several  bridges  have  been  latterly  built,  and 
other  improvements  executed* 

Pulo  Phiang  was  granted  by  the  king  of 
Queda,  1787,  to  captain  Light,  wno  married  his 
daughter,  and  who  transferred  it  to  the  East  In* 
dia  Company.  Its  situation  rendering  it  an  eli- 
gible rendezvous  for  the  British  China  trade,  as 
well  as  a  retreat  for  the  king's  ships  when 
obliged  to  quit  the  Cororaandel  coast  in  the 
monsoon,  a  small  detachment  of  troops  was  sent 
from  Bengal  to  ocQupy  it;  and  several  English 
merdiants,  engaged  in  the  Malay  trade,  maS^ing 
it  their  depot,  it  rapidly  increased  in  popu- 
lation, particularly  by  the  arrival  of  Chinese 
and  Malays.  In  1805  it  was  erected  into  a  se- 
parate government,  and  a  large  establishment 
appointed  to  it.  In  1801  the  population  was 
lOvOOO,  exclusive  of  Europeans  and  military; 
of  those  2000  are  Chinese,  who  chiefly  follow 
the  mechanical  trades  and  ahopkeeping,  while 
the  Malays,  who  constitute  the  mass  o»  the  re- 
maining population,  cultivate  the  soil,  and 
chiefly  pepper,  rice,  areca,  and  cocoa  palms. 

Thoo^  situated  within  five  degrees  of  the 
equator,  the  climate  of  Prince  of  Wales's  X3land 
is  remarkably  temperate:  the  sea  breeze  that 
blows  regularly  throughout  the  day  moderates 
die  beat,'  and  the  vapors  collected  by  the 
woody  mountains  condense  in  the  night  in  heavy 
dews,  that  perpetuate  a  verdant  herbage,  un- 
known in  soutliem  India.  One  of  the  moun- 
tains rises  with  a  steep  ascent  to  a  considerable 
elevation,  and  on  its  summit,  which  forms  a 
pktform  of  forty  yards  in  diameter,  is  a  signal- 
ooose.  Hie  thermometer  at  this  elevation  seldom 
rises  above  75^  and  in  the  night  falls  to  60°. 
At  the  town  the  extremes  are  85°  and  75°. 
Among  several  waterfalls  which  this  beautiful 
isiaiid  possesses,  one  in  particular  attracts  the 
notice  of  travellers,  by  its  wildly  picturesque  ef- 
fect :  it  precipitates  itself  down  a  rocky  precipice 
Vol.  XVIII. 


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into  a  natural  basin,  surrounded  by  perpendicu- 
lar walls  of  rock,  whose  craggy  projections  are 
covered  with  lofty  trees  and  evergreen  shrubs^ 
^d  forming  a  fit  retreat  for  Diana  and  her 
nymphs,  or  for  Thomson's  more  interesting  Mu- 
sidora, 

To  taste  the  lacid  coolness  of  the  flood. 

Pinang  has  no  beasts  of  prey,  nor  any  wild 
quadrupeds  but  wild  hogs,  the  little  animal 
named  hog-deer,  and  the  bandicoot,  a  species 
of  rat.  Alligators  are  very  numerous,  and  the 
termites,  or  white  ants,  are  here  peculiarly 
destructive.  Pinang  is  abundantly  supplied 
with  poultry  from  the  opposite  coast,  whence 
are  also  broueht  buffaloes  for  draft,  and  horses 
are  procured  from  Sumatra.  The  sheep  for  the 
tables  of  the  English  come  from  Bengal.  Fruits 
are  in  extreme  plenty,  particularly  pine-apples, 
whici)  grow  wild,  shaddocks,  oranges,  limes,  &c. 

The  harbour  abounds  in  fish,  principally  of 
the  flat  kind.  The  rocks  are  covered  with  a  de- 
licate small  oyster,  and  on  the  banks,  before  the 
entrance  of  the  rivers,  common  oysters  are  found. 
In  short  there  is  nodiing  wanting  to  render  this 
island  the  most  pleasant  residence  in  India.  A 
buildinff-yard  has  been  established  at  Pinang, 
and  a  ship  of  war  and  Indiaman  of  1000  tons 
have  been  built  here,  the  principal  part  of  the 
timber  being  brought  from  Pegu.  The  rise  of 
tide  is  nine  feet.  The  value  of  the  goods  im- 
ported hither  in  1807  from  England  amounted 
to  £76,000;  in  1810  to  £38,253.  Large  quan- 
titles  of  Bengal  and  Madras  piece-goods  are  im- 
ported for  the  Malay  trade,  and  the  consumption 
of   European    residents.     Other    imports    are 

r'  im,  grain,  tobacco,  red  wood,  sandal-wood, 
k-fins,  myrrh,  pepper,  rice,  betel-nut,  ben- 
zoin, camphor,  gola  dust,  elephants'  teeth,  &c. 
A  great  many  of  these  commodities  are  re-ex- 
poited  to  Sumatra,  Junk  Ceylon,  and  the  other 
Indian  island?;  also  to  China,  to  Bengal,  and 
Coromandel.  Long,  of  the  north-east  point 
100°  19'  E.,  lat.  5°  25'  N. 

Pbikce*s  Island,  a  low  woody  island  in  the 
Eastern  Seas,  off  the  north-western  extremity  of 
Java,  at  the  distance  of  about  two  leagues,  and 
six  from  Sumatra.  On  the  south-west  side  is  a 
bay,  into  which  two  small  fresh-water  rivulets 
flow.  There  has  of  late  been  a  town  erected  here, 
called  Samadang,  consistiQg  of  about  400  houses, 
and  this  island  was  formerly  much  frequented 
by  the  Indian  ships  of  many  nations.  Here  may 
be  had  some  excellent  turtle  and  fowls,  and 
deer,  besides  all  the  usual  vegetable  productioir 
of  the  neighbourhood.  Long  105°  15'  E.,  lat. 
6°  25'  S. 

Prince's  Island,  an  island  in  the  gulf  of 
Benin,  and  Bight  of  Biafara,  about  100  miles  off 
the  coast  of  West  Africa.  It  is  ninety  miles  in 
circumference,  *and  is  fertile  in  rice,  tobacco, 
millet,  manioc,  sugar-canes,  and  fruits.  It  was 
discovered  and  settled  by  the  Portuguese  in 
1471.  On  the  north  coast  there  is  a  town  with 
a  good  harbour,  containing  about  200  houses. 
Long.  7°  10*  E.,  lat.  1°  50*  N. 

Prince's  Islands,  four  small  islands  inha- 
bited by  ihe  Greeks,  in  the  sea  of  Marmora, 
nea**  the  straits  of  Constantinople,  being  only 

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about  twenty  miles  from  that  capital,  called 
Prinkipo,  Prote,  Kalke,  and  Antigone.  They  are 
situated  neai  the  entrance  of  the  gulf  of  Nico- 
media,  and  are  frequently  resorted  to  from  Cob- 
stantinople. 

Pkimce  William  Henrt's  Tsland,  an 
island  in  the  East  Indian  Ocean,  W.  N.  W.  of 
Tench's  Island,  about  seventy  miles  in  circum- 
ference ;  discovered  by  Ball  and  Philip  in  1790. 
It  is  fertile,  and  inhabited  by  naked  savages, 
who,  however,  have  houses,  canoes,  &c.  There 
is  a  high  mountain  in  the  centre,  called  St. 
Philip.    Long.  149**  30'  E.,  lat  !*»  32'  S. 

Prince  William  HfiNav's  Island,  an 
island  in  the  South  Pacific  Ocean,  discovered  in 
1767,  by  Captain  Wallis. 

Prince  William's  Sound,  a  name  given  by 
captain  Cook,  in  1778,  to  an  inlet  of  the  sea  on 
the  north-west  coast  of  America ;  which  occu- 
pies at  least  two  degrees  of  longitude  and  one  and 
a  half  of  latitude,  exclusive  of  its  arm^  and 
branches,  the  extent  of  which  is  unknown. 

From  this  sound  or  bay  the  name  has  been 
extended  to  a  considerable  territory  on  the  coast. 
The  pien,  women,  and  children,  are  all  clothed 
in  a  so(t  of  close  frock,  or  robe,  which  some- 
times reaches  only  to  the  knees,  but  generally 
down  to  the  ancles.  These  frocks  are  composed 
of  the  skins  of  various  animals,  and  commonly 
worn  with  the  hairy  side  outwards.  The  men 
often  paint  their  foces  of  a  black  color,  and  of  a 
bright  red,  and  sometimes  of  a  bluish  or  leaden 
hue ;  but  not  in  any  regular  figure.  The  women 
puncture  and  stain  the  chin  with  black,  that 
comes  to  a  point  in  each  cheek.  Their  canoes 
are  of  two  sorts ;  the  one  large  and  open,  the 
other  small  and  covered.  The  framing  consists 
of  slender  pieces  of  wood,  and  the  outside  is 
composed  of  the  skins  of  seals,  or  sea  animals, 
stretched  over  the  wood.  Their  weapons,  and 
implements  for  hunting  and  fishing,  are  the  same 
as  those  used  by  the  Greenlanders  and  Esqui- 
maux. Many  of  their  spears  are  headed  with 
iron,  and  their  arrows  are  generally  pointed  with 
bone.  The  food  they  were  seen  to  eat  was  the 
flesh  of  some  animal,  either  roasted  or  broiled, 
and  dried  fish.  Some  of  the  former  that  was  pur- 
chased had  the  appearance  of  bear's  flesh.  'They 
also  eat  a  larger  sort  of  fern-root,  either  baked, 
or  dressed  in  some  other  method.  Their  drink 
is  water ;  in  their  canoes,  they  brought  snow  in 
wooden  vessels,  which  (hey  swallowed  by  mouth- 
fuls.  The  skins,  that  were  brought  by  the  na- 
tives for  sale,  were  principally  of  bears,  common 
and  pine  martins,  sea  otters,  seals,  racoons,  er- 
mines, foxes,  and  whitish  cats  or  lynxes.  The 
birds  were  the  halcyon,  or  great  king's  fisher, 
which  had  fine  bright  colors ;  the  white  headed 
eagle,  aind  the  humming  bird.  The  fish  brought 
to  market  for  sale  were  chiefly  torsk  and  halibut. 
The  rocks  were  almost  destitute  of  shell-fish ;  and 
the  only  other  animal  of  this  tribe  that  was  ob- 
served was  a  reddish  crab,  covered  with  very 
large  spines.  Few  vegetables  of  any  kind  were 
observed ;  and  the  trees  that  chiefly  grew  about 
this  sound  were  the  Canadian  spmce  pine,  some 
of  which  were  of  a  considerable  size.  Vancouver 
visited  this  sound  in  1794,  and  says  *  after  a 
minute    examination  we   were    empowered  to 


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make  of  Prince  William's  Sound,  we  were  not 
only  made  acquainted  with  its  utmost  limits  in 
every  direction,  but  proved  it  to  be  a  branch  of 
the  ocean  that  requires  the  greatest  circumspec- 
tion to  navigate;  and,  although  it  diverges  into 
many  extensive  arms,  yet  none  of  them  can  be 
considered  as  commodious  harbours,  on  acoount 
of  the  rocks  and  shoals  that  obstruct  the  approach 
to  them,  or  of  the  very  great  depth  of  water  at 
or  about  their  entrances :  of  the  former,  innu- 
merable have  been  discovered,  and  there  is 
ereat  reason  to*  suppose  that  many  others  may 
have  existence,  of^  which  we  gained  no  know- 
ledge. *  By  what  may  be  collected  from  our  en- 
quiries. Snug-comer  Cove,  and  the  passage  to  it 
from  the  ocean,  seem  to  be  the  least  liable  to 
these  objections  of  all  places  of  shelter  which  • 
the  sound  afibrds.'  Long.  147^  W.,  lat.  20°  lo 
61°  N.  ^ 

PmNCE?s  HoYAL  Islands,  a  considerable 
group  of  islands  on  the  western  coast  of  North 
America,  east  of  Queen  Charlotte's  Islands,  be- 
tween Pitt's  Archipelago  and  Fitzhugh's  Soand. 
They  were  first  viaitMl  by  Mr.  Duncan  who 
found  a  navigable  channel  between  them,  and 
afterwards  more  fully  explored  by  Vancouver. 

PRIN'CIPAL,  adj.  kn.4,\  Fr.  prineipal ; 
•  pRiNciPAL'iTy,  J  Lat,    principaiis. 

Principally,  adv,  j Chief;  princely  ; 

first ;  important :  a  head  or  chief;  one  prima- 
rily enp;aged ;  a  capital  sum  of  money :  princi- 
pality IS  sovereignty ;  superiority ;  one  invested 
with  sovereigiity  or  great  power ;  predominance ; 
the  country  giving  title  to  a  prince :  principally, 
chiefly ;  above  the  rest ;  above  all  the  rest. 

I  am  certeyn  that  neithir  deeth,  neither  lyf,  nei- 
thir    aun^lu,   neithir  priMipaiit,   neithir    vertues 

mai  departe  us  fro  the  charite  of  God  that  is 

ia  lesu  Crist  oure  Lord.  Wielif'.  Rom.  8. 

Divine  lady,  who  have  wrought  such  miracles  in 
me,  as  to  make  a  prince  none  of  the  basest,  to  think 
all  principalities  base  in  respect  of  the  sheep- hook. 

Sidney. 

Suspicion  of  friend,  nor  fear  of  foe, 
That  haaarded  his  health,  bad  he  at  all ; 
But  walked  at  will,  and  wandered  to  and  fio. 
In  the  pride  of  hit  freedom  principal.  S^temtr. 

Nothing  was  given  to  Henry  but  the  name  of  king^; 
all  other  absolute  power  of  principality  he  bad.  Id, 

This  latter  is  ordered,  partly  and  as  touching  prin- 
cipal matters  by  none  but  precepts  divine  only  ;  partly 
aad  as  concerning  things  of  an  inferior  regard  by  or* 
dinances,  as  well  human  as  divine.  Hoofier. 

Can  you  remember  any  of  the  primnpal  evils  that 
he  laid,  to  the  charge  of  women  1  Shaktpeare. 

Thou  wilt  not  only  lose  the  forfeiture,' 

But,  touched  with  human  gentleness  and  love, 

Forffive  a  moiety  of  the  principal.  Id. 

I  et  let  her  be  a  prinrtpa/ity. 

Sovereign  to  all  the  creatures  on  the  earth.      Id. 

Seconds  in  factions,  do  many  tunes,  when  the  fac- 
tion subdivideth.  prove  principals.  Bacon. 

In  the  chief  work  of  elements,  water  hath  the 
principalitjf  and  excess  over  earth. 

Digby  an  Bodies. 

If  any  mystery  be  effective  of  spiritual  blessings, 
then  this  much  more,  as  having  the  prerogative  and 
principality  above  any  thing  else.  Taylor, 

If  the  minister  of  divine  offices  shall  take  upon 
him  that  holy  oalline  for  covetous  or  ambifious  ends, 
or  shall  not  design  &e  gloiy  of  God  wrinoipaUy,  be 
polltttath  his  heart.  U^ 


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HmiA  of  ffincipetUtim  tb«  prima.        MUUm, 
Tbe  little  jfrim^prntky  of  ISfitt  wis  Uhrtncibie  by 
tKe  «Mtt*po«per  of  tlie  Turks. 

Tent's  ^ruotUanUs, 
wholly  mistake  the  natare  of  criticism  who 
business  is  prmtipa%  to  find  fault. 

In  judgment,  sotate  persons  are  present  as  prmei" 
pmU,  tjid  others  only  as  aotiessaries;  Aykffe, 

The  lesistanee  of  water  ^aaiaiuiprimApally  from  the 
vis  iaertis  of  iu  matter,  and  by  consequence,  if  the 
hea:«eos  were  as  dense  as  water,  they  would  not  have 
much  leu  resistanoe  than  water.  Newton, 

We  woe  not  prmeipaU,  but  auxiliaries  In  the  war. 

Swift, 

Tans  most  be  contth^ied.  because  we  have  no 
other  means  lor  paying  off  th^  prineipal.  Id, 

What  I  prineifmUy  insist  on  is  due  execution. 

m. 

PkiKcipal,  in  English  law,  is 'Either  the  actor 
or  absolute  perpetrator  of  the  criine,  who  is 
cdM  a  principal,  in  the  first  degree ;  or  he  who 
is  presept,  aiding  and  abettitig  the  feet  tp  be  done, 
who  isdenomiVi^Sted  a  priticip&l  in  the  second  dfrr 
grae.  tlie  t)teMnoe  of  a  pnncipal  need  not  al- 
ways be  an  actual  immediate  standing  by,  within 
sight  or  hearing  of  the  fkct ;  but  there  may  be 
also  a  constructiTe  presence,  as  white  one  oom- 
mits  a  Tobbery  or  itaurder,  and  another  keeps 
watch  or  gdara  at  some  convenient  dis\^ti6e.  In 
case  of  murder,  by  poisoning,  a  tnan  tnay  be  a 
princi^  l(6lon  by  preparing  and  laying  the  poi- 
ten,  or  giving  it  to  another  (who  is  ignorant  of 
its  poisonous  c[uality)  for  tl^t  purpo^,  and  yet 
not  administer  it  bimflelf,  nor  be  present  whfen 
the  very  deed  of  poisoning  is^  committed.  The 
same  feasontiig  holds,  with  tegard  to  other  mur- 
deis  oommitt^  in  the  absence  of  the  mtrrderer, 
by  means  prepared  befbre-liand,  atod  which  coold 
hardly  ftul  of  their  mischietous  effect.  As  by 
laying  a  trap  or  pit-&ll  for  another,  whereby  he 
is  klHed ;  fefetting  out  a  wild  beAst,  with  an  intent 
to  do  misdiief ;  or  exciting  a  meidman  to  com- 
mit murder ;  in  erenr  one  of  these  cases  the  party 
offending  is  guihy  of  mntder  as  a  principal,  mthe 
fint  (iegree.  For  he  eannot  be-called  an  accessary, 
that  nec»sarily  pie-dupposing  a  principal ;  ahd 
the  poison,  the  pitrfall,  the  beast,  or  the  mad- 
man, canaOt  be  held  principals,  being  only  the 
instruments  of  death.  He  must  dierefore  be  held 
certainly  guilty  in  the  first  degree. 

PRINCIPATO  CiTKA,  or  Citeriore,  a  pro- 
rince  in  .the  central  part  of  Naples,  on  the  Mediter- 
ranean.   It  is  of  an  irregular  form,  about  ninety 
miles  in  length  from  north-west  to  south-east, 
and  forty-fire  at  its  gttetfest  breadth.    Its  terri- 
torial extent  is  2400  square  miles ;  for  (he  most 
part  mountainous,  biit  ttaversed  by  a  plain,  Ex- 
tending from  Salerno  to  Agropoli,  knd  watered 
br  flie  rivers  Silaro,  Sarno,  Calore,  and  Negro. 
I^  mountains  are  in  general  well  wooded,  and 
a  nomber  of  thetn  corered  with  chestnut-trees. 
He  plains  ate  rich  in  com  and  rice ;  but  the 
too  extended  eultitittion  of  the  latter 'has  in  seve- 
lal  places  Hiade  the  c^hAaXe  ittihi^Uhy.     the 
other  ptodncts  are  witte,  olive-oil,  and  frilit. 
Hoo are  reared  ih  ftrtat  ntimbfen;  and  on  the 
coa^  are  conaiderabfe  fisheries.    The  priiicipal 
Alports  «»  diertnuts,  timber,  rice,  dned  fruit, 


partioularly  figs;  wine,  hides,  and  pork.  Tlie 
capital  is  Salerno.    Population  about  245,000. 

Pbincipato  Ultra,  or  Ulteriore,  a  pro* 
vince  of  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  south  of  the 
above,  with  a  superficial  extent  of  1800  square 
miles,  and  traversed  by  the  Apennines.  It  con- 
sists of  an  intermixture  of  mountains  and  well- 
cultivated  valleys,  and  is  watered  bv  the  Sabalo, 
Tammaro,  Calore,  and  Ofanto.  Its  climate  h 
pure  and  salubrious,  and  the  products  are  com, 
wiue,  fruitj  chestnuts,  olive  oil,  and  timber  for 
export.  Tlie  breeding  of  cattle  and  sheep  is 
carried  on  exttnsively  in  the  mountainous  parts ; 
in  warmer  situations  silk  worms  are  reared.  Tl^e 
only  exports  consist  of  raw  products.  The  chief 
town  is  Avellino.    Population  358,000. 

PRINCIPIATION,  n.  «.  Lat.  principtum. 
Analysis  into  constituent  or  elemental  parts.  A 
word  not  received. 

The  Mparating  of  any  metal  into  its  original  or 
element,  we  will  call  pfinetpHatum.  Bacon* 

PRITVCIPLE,  n.  t,  &  v.  a,  Fr.  ^ncipe; 
Lat.  principtum.  Element;  constituent  part; 
primordial  substance,  or  cause;  fundamental 
truth;  motive;  to  fix  in  any  tenet  or  principle. 

Toaching  the  law  of  reason,  there  are  in  it  some 
things  which  stand  as  prindpiet  universally  agreed 
upon ;  and  oat  of  those  principleif  which  are  in  them- 
selves evident,  the  greatest  moral  duties  we  owe  tow- 
ards God  or  man,  may,  without  any  great  difficuliy, 
be  concluded.  Booker, 

Farewel,  young  Idrds ;  these  warlike  priricipUt 
Do  not  throw  from  you.  ShaAspeare, 

Such  kind  of  notions  as  are  general  to  mankind, 
and  not  confined  to  any  particular  sect,  or  nation,  or 
time,  are  usually  styled  common  notions,  aeminal 
prineipUt;  and  lex  nata,  by  the  Roman  orator. 

WiUUns, 
Wisest  and  best  men  full  oft  he^iled. 
With  goodness  ;n^'}isip20d  not  to  reject 
The  oenitent,  but  ever  to  forgive, 
Are  drawn  to  wear  oiit  miserable  days. 

Mikan. 
The  soul  of  man  is  an  active  principle,  and  will 
be  employed  one  way  or  other.       ^  Tillotsm, 

Some  few,  whose  lamp  shone  brighter,  have  been 
led, 
From  cause  to  cause  to  nature's  secret  head, 
Ahd  found  that  one  first  principle  must  be. 

Drifdcn, 
Gorernors  Should  be  well  prinmpbd  and  good-na-> 
tured.  VEstrange, 

Let  an  enthusiast  be  principled,  that  he  or  his 
tether  is  inspired,  and  you  in  vain  bring  the 
evidence  of  clear  reasons  against  his  doctrine. 

Lock?, 
The  promiscuous  reading  of  the  bible  is  far  from 
being  of  any  advantage  to.  children,  either  for  the 
peHectiUg  their  reading,  or  prinmpling  their  religion. 

Id, 
For  the  performance  of  this,  a  vital  or  directive 
principle  seemeth  to  be  assistant  to  the  corporeal. 

Grew*8  Cosmctogia, 
It  is  the  concern  of  his  majesty,  and  the  peace  d 
his  government,  that  the  yonth  be  principled  with  a 
thorough  persuasion  of  the  justness  of  the  old  king's 
cause.  South. 

There  are  so  many  young  persons,  up6n  the  well 
and  ill  prindpiing  of  whpm  neict  tinder  God,  de* 
poinds  tlie  happiness  or  jniieiy  of  this  charch  and 
state.  Idr . 

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PRINTING. 


riltry 
If  yet  M.  can  pniaue  those  stubborn  prineiples 
Of  £uth,  of  honour.  AddUon't  Omto. 

Plato  layti  it  down  as  a  prineipUf  that  whatever  is 
{>ermitted  to  befal  a  just  man,  whether  poverty  or 
sickness,  shall,  either  in  life  or  death,  conduce  to  his 
good.  AddUon, 

As  no  principle  of  vanity  led  ne  first  to  write  it,  so 
much  less  does  any  such  motive  induce  me  now  to 
publish  it.  Wake. 

A  feather  shooting  from  another*8  head. 
Extracts  his  brain,  and  principle  is  fled.  Pepe. 

He  seems  a  settled  and  principled  philosopher, 
thanking  fortune  for  the  tranquillity  he  has  by  her 
aversion.  id. 

All  of  them  may  be  called  prmcipUt,  when  com- 
pared with  a  thousand  other  iudgments,  which  we 
form  under  the  regulation  of  these  primary  proposi- 
tions. Watt$*t  Logiek. 

All  kinds  of  dishonesty  destroy  our  pretences  to 
an  honest  principle  of  mind,  so  all  kinds  of  pride 
destroy  our  pretences  to  an  humble  spirit*        Law. 
Man's  obligations  infinite  of  course, 
His  life  should  prove  that  he  perceives  their  force, 
His  utmost  he  can  render  is  but  small, 
The  principle  and  motive  all  in  all.  Cowper, 

PRIN'COCK,  n.  $.  >     From  prink  or  prim- 
pRiNcox.  )  cock.     A  coxcomb;  a 

conceited  person.    A  ludicrous  word.     Obso- 
lete. 

You  are  a  saucy  boy  ; 
This  trick  may  chance  to  scathe  yon  I  know  what ; 
You  must  contrary  me !  you  are  a  princov,  go. 


PRINGLE  (Sir  John),  an  eminent  physician 
and  younger  son  of  Sir  John  Pringle  of  Rox* 
burgh;  who  took  the  degree  of  M.  D.  at  Leyden, 
1730 ;  and  published  there  Dissertatio  Inaugu- 
Talis  de  Maicore  Senili,  4to.  After  having  been 
some  years  professor  of  moral  philosophy  at 
Edinburgh,  he  was,  in  June  1745,  appointed 
physician  to  the  duke  of  Cumberland,  and  phy- 
sician to  the  hospital  of  the  forces  in  Flanaers, 
where  the  earl  of  Stair  appears  to  have  been  his 
patron.  In  February  1746  Dr.  Pringle,  Dr. 
Armstrong,  and  Dr.  Barker,  were  nominated 
physicians  to  the  hospital  for  lame,  maimed,  and 
sicic  soldiers,  behind  Buckingham  House ;  and 
in  April  1749  Dr.  Pringle  was  appointed  phy- 
sician in  ordinary  to  the  king.  In  1750  and 
1755  be  published  Observations  on  the  Nature 
and  Cure  of  Hospital  and  Gaol  Fevers,  in  a 
Letter  to  Dr.  Mead^  8vo.;  and  in  1753  Obser- 


vations on  the  Disorders  of  the  Army  in  Camp 
and  Garrison,  8vo.  On  the  14th  of  April,  1752, 
he  married  Charlotte,  daughter  of  Dr.  Oliver,  an 
eminent  physician  at  Bath.  In  1756  he  was 
appointed,  jointly  with  Dr.  Wintringham,  physi- 
cian to  his  majesty's  hospital  for  the  forces  of 
Great  Britain.  After  the  accession  of  king 
George  III.  Dr.  Prinrie  was  appointed  physician 
to  the  queen's  household  in  1761 ;  physician  in 
ordinary  to  the  queen  in  1763,  when  he  was  ad- 
mitted of  the  College  of  Physicians  in  London; 
and',  on  the  5th  of  June  1766,  he  was  created  a 
baronet  of  Great  Britain.  In  1772  he  was 
elected  president  of  the  Royal  Society,  where  his 
speeches  for  five  successive  years,  on  delivering 
the  prize  medal  of  Sir  Godfrey  Copley,  gave 
great  satis&ction.  In  1777  he  was  appointed 
physician  extraordiijary  to  the  king.  He  was 
also  a  fellow  of  the  College  of  Physicians  at 
Edinburgh,  and  of  the  Royal  Medical  Society  at 
Paris;  member  of  the  Royal  Academies  at 
Paris,  Stockholm,  Gottingen,  and  of  the  Philo- 
sophical Societies  at  Edinburgh  and  Haerlem ; 
and  continued  president  of  the  Royal  Society  till 
November  1778 ;  after  which  period  he  gradually 
withdrew  from  public  life.  He  died  January 
18th,  1782. 

PRINK,  o.n.  Belg.  pronken.  To  prank; 
deck  for  show.    The  ditninutive  of  prank. 

Hold  a  good  wager  she  was  eveiy  day  longer  pTink" 
ing  in  the  glass  than  you  was.   Art  of  Tormenting. 

PRINkIPO,  the  most  eastern  and  considera- 
ble of  the  Prince's  Islands,  in  the  bay  of  Mar- 
mora, about  a  league  distant  from  the  coast  of 
Asia  Minor.  It  is  about  a  mile  in  length,  and  half 
a  mile  in  breadth,  containing  a  town,  now  in  a 
ruinous  condition.  The  French  merchants  used 
formerly  to  have  country  houses  on  this  island, 
but  they  have  abandoned  them,  on  account  of 
the  badness  of  the  water,  and  other  inconve- 
niences ;  it  is  at  present  inhabited  only  hy  a  few 
Greeks,  who  support  themselves  by  selling  wine 
and  provisions  to  Uie  pleasure  parties  which  come 
from  Constantinople.  Long.  28^  56'  £.,  lat.  40^ 
61'  N. 

PRINOS,  winter  berry,  a  genus  of  the  mo- 
nogyni^  order,  and  hexandria  class  of  plants; 
natural  order  forty-third,  dumoss  :  cal.  sexfid : 
COR.  monopetalous,androtaceous ;  the  belly  exas- 
permous.  Species  ten,  all  native  shrubs  of  North 
America  and  the  West  Indi^. 


PRINTING. 


PRINT,  y. «.,  V.  n.  &  n.  i.  ^     Fr.  empreint ; 
f  ItaL    vrnprenUk 


PaiNt'Ea,  n.  s< 

PRiNyiNo, 

Prxnt'less^  ady 
by  pressure ;  impress  a  thing  so  as  to  leave  its 
form;  to  form  by  impression;  impress  the  form 
of  type,  &c.,  on  paper,  so  as  to  make  a  book ; 
the  term  is  likewise  applied  to  taking  off  copper- 
plates by  a  press,  and  the  figures  of  blocks,  &c., 
used  in  calico,  silk,  and  other  printing:  as  a 
neuter  verb,  to  use  the  typographic  art ;  publish 
a  book :'  a  print  is  a  mark  or  form  impressed ; 
a  feature  made  by  impression;  the  form,  ar- 


rangement or  size,  of  printing  types;  mould  or 
^  p^tem  cut  in  wood,  copper,  &c. ;  single  sheet, 

4  B^g.pnn/e.  "to    printed  for  sale;  a  newspaper :  a  printer  is, '  par 
J  indent  or  mark    excellence,'  one  wha  prints  books ;  but  also  ap- 
plied to  similar  operators  on  linen,  calico,  silk, 
&c. :   printing,  the  art  or  business  of  a  printer : 
printless,  that  which  leaves  no  impression. 

Ye  shall  not  make  any  cuttings  in  your  flesh  for 
the  dkbd,  nmprimt  any  marks  upon  von.  Laoitictu. 
Oh.  that  mv  words  were  now  wnitAn !  Oh.  th: 


Oh,  that  my  words  were  now  wntten !  Oh,  that 
they  were  printed  in  a  book.  Job  ziz.  23. 

My  soul  is  but  a  wind. 
Which  passeth  by,  and  leaves  no  p^ini  behind. 

Sandys, 


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P  R  I  N  T  I  Jf  G. 


85 


Yov  motbtf  was  niMt  true  to  wedlock,  princ«, 
for  she  did  print  your  royal  father  off, 
CoBCciTiDg  yov.  Stakqmm,  WmUr't  TaU. 

Thou  hut  caused  jtrmthig  to  be  used;  and,  con- 

tiaxy  to  the  king,  hit  crown,  and  dignity,  built  a 

{H^-inill.  Shaktpmre, 

Attend  the  foot. 

That  leaves  the  print  of  blood  where'Ser  i^  walks. 

id. 
I  lore  a  ballad  in  mint,  or  a  life.  Id. 

Ye  elves. 
And  ye,  that  on  the  sands  with  printU$s  foot 
Do  chase  the  ebbing  Neptune.         Id.  Tempett. 

Our  life  so  hsi  away  doth  slide, 
As  doth  an  hungry  eagle  through  the  wind ; 

Or  as  a  ship  transported  with  the  tide, 
Which  in  their  passage  leave  no  priiU  behind.      ' 

Up  they  tost  the  sand. 
No  wheel  seen,  nor  wheels  print  was  in  the  mould 

imprest 
Behind  him.  Chapman't  Iliad. ', 

It  is  GO  rare  to  see 
Ought  that  belongs  to  young  nobility 
In  print,  that  we  must  praise.  BuMing. 

I  ind,  at  reading  all  over,  to  deliver  to  the 
pnater,  in  that  which  I  ought  to  have  done  to 
comply  with  my  design,  I  am  ftdlen  very  short. 

WhDe  the  heaven,  by  the  sun's  team  untrod,    ^ 
Hath  took  no  print  of  the  approaching  light. 
And  all  the  mangled  host  keep  watch.      MUUm. 
Whilst  from  off  the  waters  fleet,' 
Thus  I  set  my  printima  feet. 
O'er  the  cowslip's  velvet  head. 
That  bends  not  as  I  tread.  Id. 

Perhaps  some  footsteps  printed  in  the  clay, 
Will  to  my  love  direct  your  wand'ring  viray.    JRom. 
From  toy  breast  I  cannot  tear 
The  passion,  which  from  thence  did  g^row ; 
Nor  yet  out  of  my  fancy  raze 
The  priitU  of  that  supposed  face.  Walltr. 

On  his  flery  steed  betimes  he  rode. 
That  scarcely  prvntt  the  turf  on  which  he  trod. 

Dryden. 
Winds,  bear  me  to  some  barren  island, 
Where  prient  of  human  feet  was  never  seen.     Id. 
The  prnda,  which  we  see  of  antiquities,  may  con- 
txibute  to  form  oar  genius,  and  to  give  iis  great  ideas. 

Id, 
To  refresh  the  former  hint ; 
She  read  her  maker  in  a  fairer  print.  Id. 

Is  it  probable  that  a  promiscuous  jumble  of 
ftnumg  letter  should  often  fall  into  a  method, 
which  should  stamp  on  paper  a  coherent  discourse  1 

Locke. 
Ss  soon  as  he  b^ns  to  spell,  pictures  of  animals 
should  be  got  him,  with  the  printed  names  to  them. 

Id. 
If  they  be  not  sometimes  renewed  by  rejpeated 
eiereiae  of  the  senses  or  reflection,  tiie  print  wears 
out.  Id. 

Before  the  lion's  den  appeared  the  footsteps  of 
many  that  had  gone  in,  but  no  printt  of  any  that 
e%er  came  out.  South. 

His  nataral  antipathy  to  a  man  who  endeavours 
to  signalise  his  parts  m  the  world,  has  hindered 
nany  persons  from  making  their  appearance  in  print. 

Additon. 
Tha  prints,  about  three  days  after,  were  filled  vrith 
ibe  same  terms.  Id. 

I  puUishiBd  some  tables,  which  were  out  of  print. 

ArhuthnoU 
Inform  us,  will  the  emperor  treat,  | 
Or  do  the  prints  and  papers  lie  t  Pope, 


.This  nonsense  got  in  by  a  mistake  of  the  stage 
editors,  who  printed  from  the  piecemeal  written  parts. 

Pope. 

To  bu^  books,  only  because  they  were  published 
by  an  eminent  printer,  is  much  as  if  a  i^an  should 
buy  clothes  that  did  not  fit  him,  only  because  made 
by  some  famous  taylor.  •  Id. 

See,  the  prtnt«r'«  boy  below ; 
Ye  hawkers  all,  your  voices  lift.  Bwift. 

He  vras  sent  without  any  superintendant  to-  con- 
duct a  printing-house  at  Norwich,  and  publish  a 
weekly  paper.  Johnton, 

Satires  and  lampoons  on  particular  people  circu- 
late more  by  giving  copies  in  coofidence  to  the  friends, 
of  the  parties,  than  by  printing  them.       Sheridan. 

Printing^  the  art  of  talung  impressions  from 
characters  or  figures,  moveable  and  immoveable, 
on  paper,  linen,  silk,  &c.  There  are  three  kinds 
of  printing;  the  one  from  moveable  letters'  for 
booKs ;  another  from  copper-plates  for  pictures ; 
and  the  last  from  blocks,  in  which  the  represen- 
tation of  birds,  flowers,  &c.,  are  cut  for  printing 
calicoes,  linen,  &c.  The  first  is  called  common 
or  letter-press  printing ;  the  second  rolling-press 
printing ;  and  the  hist  oilico,  &g.,  printing.  The 
principal  difference  between  the  three  consists  in 
this,  that  the  first  is  cast  in  relievo,  in  distinct 
pieces;  the  second  engraven  in  creux;  and  the 
third  cut  in  relievo,  and  generally  stamped,  by 
placing  the  block  upon  the  materials  to  be 
printed,  and  striking  upon  the  back  of  it. 

Of  the  above  branches,  letterpress  printing  Is 
the  most  curious,  and  deserves  the  most  particu- 
lar notice ;  for  to  it  are  owing  chiefly  our  de- 
X  liverance  from  ignorance  and  error,  the  progress 
of  learning,  the  revival  of  the  sciences,  and 
numberless  improvements  in  arts,  which,  without 
this  noble  invention,  would  have  been  either  lost 
to  mankind,  or  confined  to  the  knowledge  of  a 
few. 

History.-— It  has  been  a  matter  of  considera- 
ble surprise  that  some  method  of  printinj^  was 
not  invented  at  a  mudi  earlier  epoch  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  world.  The  arts  of  statuary  and 
sculpture  arrived  at  very  great  perfection  among 
the  Romans ;  the  cutting  of  their  seals  and  dies 
may  be  considered  as  a  kind  of  printing  on 
metals ;  and  their  impressing  these  seals,  cut  in 
cornelians,  agates,  &c.,  on  wax,  was  another 
species  of  printing  on  this  substance.  This  was 
the  very  gerUiof  the  art;  and  it  is  perfectly  as- 
tonishing that  no  should  have  thought  of  printing 
two  words  together  as  well  as  one;  and  then 
have  multiplied  them  into  a  page.  They  set 
their  foot  on  the  very  peari,  witnout  stopping  to 
notice  or  pick  it  up. 

The  origin  of  pnnting  is  completely  enveloped 
in  mystery;  and  an  art  which  commemorates 
aU  other  inventions — ^which  hands  down  to  pos- 
terity every  important  event — which  immortalises 
the  discoveries  of  genius  and  the  exploits  of 
•greatness— which  hM  been  the  only  effectual  in- 
strument that  coula  banish  the  darkness,  and 
overturn  the  superstitions  of  a  bigoted  age ;  and 
which,  above  all,  extends  and  diffuses  the  word 
of  God  to  all  mankind ;  this  very  art  has  left  its 
own  origin  in  obscurity,  and  has  given  employ- 
ment to  the  studies  and  researches  of  the  most 
learned  men  in  Europe  to  determine  to  whom 
the  honor  of  its  inventio.^w.jy|sf|^-^,j^^j^ 


86 


F  R  I  NnT  I  N  G. 


The  art  of  priating  combiD;e9  luch  a  number 
ftnd  variety  of  branches  that  it  would  be  absurd 
to  suppose  any  one  person  could  have  invented 
the  whole.  In  its  present  sC^  of  perfection,  it 
is  divided  into  eisht  or  ten  difilsrent  kind^  of 
manuiactures ;  and  even  in  iu  rudest  state  must, 
have  required  such  an  extensive  acquaintaiice 
with  mechanics,  chemistry,  and  other  branches 
of  science,  as  could  not  be  supposed  to  fall  to 
the  lot  of  any  one  or  two  men.  It  is  this  cir^ 
cumstance,  doubtless,  which  has  given  plausibility 
to  the  claims  of  the  numerous  persons  handed  down 
to  us  as  the  original  inventors  of  the  art.  The 
simple  idea  may  have  originated  with  a  single 
individual,  but  a  second  person  may  have  made 
such  an  important  improvement  as  almost  to 
eclipse  the  value  of  what  his  predecessor  had  ac- 
complished. A  third  person  may  be  supposed 
t^  have  rendered  a  still  greater  addition  to  the 
art,  and,  either  in  reality  or  in  idea,  to  attract  to 
himself  the  merit  of  the  whole  :  and  indeed  these 
^pear.to  be  the  real  merits  of  the  case,  and  the 
only  possible  mode  of  reconciling  the  di  verified 
and  clashing  statements  winch  nave  been  pro* 
mulgated.  The  taking  impressions  from  pages 
cut  on  block*  of  wood,  and  from  separate  metal 
tyiaes  cast  io^  the  pujrposet  are  operations  so  en- 
tirely diffe^nty  ana  the  one  is  an  art  so  diecidedly 
inferior  to  the  other,  that  they  ought  never  to 
have  been  confounded  under  the  same  name :  in 
the  sequel  we  shuU  find  that  the  merit  of  the 
two  is  not  confined  eith^  to  one  pemon,  or  the 
honor  to  one  place. 

The  honor  of  this  invention  has  been  appro- 
priated to  several  places ;  to  Mentz,  to  Strasborg, 
to  Harlem,  to  Dordrecht,  to  Venice^  to  Home,  to 
Florence,,  to  Basle,  to  Augsburg,  &€.  Three 
only  of  these  places,  hpwever,  deserve  any  seri- 
ous consideration:  vis.  Harlem,  Mentz,  and 
Strasburg.  At  the  last  mentioned  place  many 
attempts  appear  to  hav^  been  made  towards  tfaie 
discovery  and  completion  of  the  art  by  John  Gutr 
tenberg;  but,  as  there  is  no  evidence  that  he  actu- 
ally brought  his  experiments  to  bear  in  the  pub^ 
lication  of  any  work  at  Strasburg,  nothing  mqre 
need  be  said  of  this  city,  though  we  shall  hav« 
frequent  occasion  to  introduce  the  namti  of  tins 
ingenious  artist. 

The  most  consistent  account  of  the  origin  of 
th^  art  o£  printing  is  that  which  is  eiv^n  by  Ha^ 
dri^n, Junius,  and  which  favors  the  claims  of 
Laurence  Coster,  of  the  city  of  Harlem.  This 
account  is  contained  in  his  Batavia,  published 
af^er  his  death  at  Leyden,  more  than  a  century 
afler  the  supposed  invention  of  the  art,  ai^  is  the 
only  paper  or  testimony  upon  which  the  parti- 
sans of  the  city  of  Harlem  found  their  typogra- 
phical pretensions.  Junius  had  the  relation  from 
two  respectable  men,  Nicholaus  Galius,  his  in- 
timate iriend  and  correspondent  and  the  pupil  of 
Galius,  Quirinius  Talesius,  both  of  whom  had 
informed  him,  that  they  had  in  their  youth  heard 
this  same  story  related  more  than  once,  by  a  cer- 
tain bookbinder,  nearly  eighty  years  of  age, 
named  Cornelius,  who  professed  to  have  been 
one  of  Coster's  domestics.  The  substance  of  the 
narration  of  Junius  is  as  follows  : — '  It.  is  now 
about  128  years,*  he  says, '  since  Laurence,  the 
fon  of  John,  a  citizen  of  Harlem,  and  sumamed 


Coster  (tttat.  isy  sacristy  or.  churph;:wmd^  at 
that  time  an  honojrable  oflEiipe^  and  which,  his  A* 
mily  had  long  held  by  hereditary  right),  amused 
hiioself}  during  his  walks  in  the  wood  near  that 
city,  witU  formir^  letters  of  the  bark  of  the  beecb 
tree,  by  means  of  which  he  printed  upon  paper 
some  verses  and  short  sentenoes,  for  the  instruc- 
tion of  his  grand-children.  With  the  assistance 
of  his  son-in-law  Thomas,  the  son  of  Peter,  he 
afterwards  invented  ah  ink,  more  viscous  and 
tenacious  than  common  ink,  which  was  found 
to  blot  and  fill  the  letters;  with  this  new 
ink  he  printed,  in  the  Flemish  language,  the  Spe- 
culum nostras  Satutis,  a  wprk  composed  of  images 
and  letters.  The  leaves  of  this  book  being  print- 
ed on  one  side  only,  the  pages,  which  .were  left 
blank,  were  afterwards  pasted  together.  After 
this.  Coster  abandoned  the  use  of  wooden  letters, 
and  adc^ted.  metal  ones;  forming  them  at  first 
of  lead,  and  latterly  of  tin,  which  metal  is  rather 
harder  than  the  former:  some  metal  wine  cups, 
made  from  the  remains  of  these  letters,  may  yet 
be  5een  in  thedwAling-houseof  his  descendants. 
The  great  profits  which  the  inventor  derived 
from  this  new  art  induced  him*  to  increase 
his  establishment,  and  with  this  view  he  took 
some  workmen  into  his  fiunily.  One  of  these, 
who  was  called  John,  sumamed  Fust,  as  is  sus- 
pected, or  some  other  person,  bearing  the  name 
of  John  (it  is  of  no  great  consequence  w^hich), 
after  having  learnt  the  art  of  arran^^g  and  cast- 
ing types,  as  well  as,  all  other  matters,  relating  to 
the  art  of  printing,  in  the  knowledge  of  which  he 
had  been  initiated  under  the  obligation  of  an 
oath,  seized  the  opportunity  of  his  master  being 
engaged  at  mass,  on  the  night  of  Christmas  eve, 
to  carry  off  all  the  types  and  implements  used 
in  the  printing  office.  He  went  with  his  plunder 
to  Amsterdam,  in  the  first  instance,  then  to  Co- 
logne, and  finally  settled  at  Mentz,  wb^re  he 
established  a  printing  office,  in  which  A'ere  print- 
ed, in  the  year  1442,  with  the  types  stolen  from 
Harlem,  the  Doctrinal^  Alezandri  GaJiliy.aiyi  the 
Tractatus  Petri  Hispani.' 

The  narrative  of  Junius  has.  been  questieaed, 
and  indeed  violently  opposed,  by  writers  of  the 
first  literary  eminence :  and  it  certainly  appears 
a  remarkable  circumstance  that  no  Dutch  writer, 
nor  any  work  ot  the  fifteenth  "^r  of  the  beginning 
of  the  sixteenth  century,  has  made  the  least  men- 
tion of  these  fiicts — not  even  Erasmus,  who,  from 
having  been  bom  at  Rotteraam  in  the  year  1467, 
could  hardly  have  been  ignorant  of  events  at 
once  so  singular  and  so  creditable  to  his  native 
country.  Tnere  are  several  other  objections  to 
the  above  narrative,  which  we  cannot  here  notice : 
but,  without  relying  implicitly  on  all  the  state* 
ments  of  this  narrative,  it  seems  to  us  pretty 
evident  that  Coster  carried  the  art  of  printing 
from  impressions  cut  upon  blocks  to  a  greater 
extent,  and  applied  it  to  a  greater  variety  of  pur- 
poses, than  any  person  in  Europe  who  had  pre- 
ceded him :  though  the  merit  of  even  this  part  of 
the  art  is  not  wholly  due  to  himself;  it  had  been 
practised  in  many  countri^  for  centuries,  and  es- 
pecially in  China,  where  it  continues  to  the  present 
.  day,  with  scarcely  any  variation  or  improvement* 

It  may  be  advisable  to  divide  the  history  of 
the  art  into  four  parts ; — the  first  embracing  the 


Digitized  by  VjUU^  IC 


PRINTING. 


87 


I  cf-trttikiR^-iBipvosMonf  ft<iMn  signets,  seals, 
Slid  odier  emblems  cut  on  weod;  or  other  sub- 
stanoss  tbe  ongin  of  which  is  totally  lost.  The 
second  stase  is  tb^t  which  intioduoes  us  to  the 
name  and  laboTs  of  Luarence  Coster;  who  applied ' 
block  pffinting^  to  the  production  of  booJcs,  of 
whcfa  his  SpMukiitt  hamame  Salvationis  is  said 
to  be  the  fifst  instanoe.  This  work  consists  of 
pktiiics  out  of  the  BtUe^  with  someof  tl»  verses 
nndeimaih  each  page,  the  whole  being  printed - 
frentoa  bloek  of  wood^  like  a  wood^mt  He 
seems  alio  to  have  had  the>  merit  of  printing  from 
sepaiate  w«oden  lettets,  cut  so  as  to  fit  each 
other  wtai  composed  together,  and  perhaps  with 
the  small  words  of  most  fluent  use  cut  upon 
one  block,  to  save  the  time  and  labor  of  the  com- 
positor. This  occurred  between  the  years  1431 
and  1448.  The  third  stage  of  the  art  wastheadop- 
tioo  of  cat  metal  instead  of  wooden  letters^  which 
is  doubtless  to  be  traced  to  the  labors  of  John 
Geinstoh,  jun.,  distinguished  by  the  name  of 
Gntteubeig.  This  person,  with  the  assistance 
of  his  Mier,  Geinsflesh  the  elder,  invented  cut 
netal  types,  and  used  them  in  printing  the  ear- 
liest edition  of  the  Bible.  This  edition  appear- 
ed in  1450,  and  the  completing  of  it  took  up 
seven  or  ei|^t  years.  "Die  fourth  and: last  stag^ 
of  the  art,  and  which  brought  it  to  almost  as  high 
a  state  of  pcrfectioii  as  it  attained  for  two  cen- 
tories  af^enratds,  was  the 'mode  of  casting  types 
hi  mattrioes,  which  was  invented  by  a  servant  of 
Gttttcnberg's,  of  the  name  of  Peter  Soboefl^r. 
For  this  valuable  service  he  was  admitted' into 
the  fimily  of  his  master,  Fust  or  Fanstus^  and 
was  rewanled  with  the  hand  of  one  of  hisdanghlers. 
The  first  work  printed  on  these  improved  types 
«» the  Durandi  Rationale,  in  1459.  Most  per^ 
sons  are  acquainted  with  the  legend  of  the  Devil 
and  Dr.  Faustns.  llie  origin  of  the  tale  is,  that 
Faust  canying  a  paroel  &f  his  bibles  to  Paris, 
and  oflering  t&m  for  sale  as  MSS.,  the  French, 
apea  oornddering  the  number  of  lx>oks,  and  their 
exact  QOBfbrmaty  with  each  other,  even  to  a  point, 
coQcloded  that  there  was  witchcraft  in  the  case, 
aad,  it  is  said,  that  by  either  .actually  indicting 
him  as  a  conjuror,  or  threatening  to  do  so,  they 
extorted  the  secret.  This  perhaps,  however^^  is 
but  a  new  editior  of  a  &buloos  tale ;  as  a  Dr. 
Fanstus  who  had  correspondence  with  his  Satanic 
majesty  lived  at  a  much  earlier  period. 

In  the  year  1462  the  city  of  Mentz,  where 
Fanst  had  settled,  was  taken  and  plundered ;  and 
the  art  of  printing,  in  the  general  ruin,  was  made 
puUic,  and  quickly  sprcsd  itself  over  a  great 
paxt  of  Europe.  Harlem  and  Strasburg  prac- 
tised it  very  early ;  and.  whence  it  appears  to 
Ittve  prooeeded  to  Komcj  to  Paris,  to  Constanti- 
nople, aqd  to  most  of  the  principal  towns  on  the 
cootinent. 

The  dsle  and  mode  of  its  introduction  into 
Eogland  is  a  subject  involved  almost  in  as  much 
mystery^  as  the  original  invention  of  the  art. 
It  was  an  opinion  regulariy  delivered  down  by 
our  historians,  that  the  art  of  printing  was  intro- 
duced and  first  practised  in  England  by  William 
Caxton,  a  roeroer  and  citizen  of  London,  who 
by  his  travels  abroad,  and  a  residence  of  many 
years  in  MolJand;  Flanders,  and  Germany,  in  the 
a&irs  of  trade,  had  an  opportunity  of  informing 


himself  of  the  whole  method  and  progress  of  the 
art,  and  by  the  encouragement  of  the  great,  and 
particularly  of  the  abbot  of  Westminster,  first  set 
up  a  press  in  that  abbey,  and  began  to  print 
books  soon  after  the  year  1471.  This  was  tlie 
tradition  of  our  writers,  till  a  printed  book  or 
chronicle,  which  had  scarcely  been  observed  by  the 
curious,  was  discovered,  as  it  is  said,  in  the 
archbishop  of  Canterbury's  Palace,  with  a  date 
of  its*  impression  from  Oxford,  anno  1468 ;  and' 
was  considered  immediately  as  a  clear  proof  and 
monument  of  the  exercise  of  printing  in  that 
university,  several  years  before  Caxton  returned 
from  the  continent. 

The  discovery  of  this  boon  seemed  at  once  to 
deprive  Caxton  of  the  glory  he  had  long  enjoyed 
— as  the  author  of  printing  in  this  kingdom.  Its 
authenticity,  however,  has  been  warmly  disputed 
by  Mr.  Palmer,  in  his  History  of  Printing ;  by 
Dr.  Ducarvel,  in  his  Letters  to  Meerman ;  and 
especially  by  Dr.  Conyers  Middleton,  who 
maintains  that  there  was  no  printing  in  England 
till  the  introduction  of  it  by  Caxton.  Ind^,  if 
the  fact  were  as  stated  by  the  alleeed  Chronicle 
in  the  archbishop's  palace,  it  would  derogate  but 
little  from  the  honor  of  Caxton,  who  was  certain- 
ly the  first  person  in  England  who  practised  the 
art  of  printmg  with  fosile  types,  and  consequently 
the  first  who  brought  it  to  periectioi) :  whereas 
Corsellis,  the  other  claimant,  printed  from  sepa- 
rate cut  types  in  wood,  that  being  the  only  me- 
thod he  had  learnt  at  Harlem.  Great  opposition 
was-  frequently  manifested  by  magistrates  and 
others,  when  this  useful  art  was  first  introduced 
intO'a  new  city  or  town.  We  are  told,  in  an 
old  pamphlet  in  the  collection  of  the  earl  of  Or- 
ford,  that,  when  it  was  introduced  into  Norwich, 
a  general  petition  was  presented  to  the  magis- 
tmcy  against  this  unnecessary  innovation. 

Caxton  had  been  bred  very  reputably  in  the 
way  of  trade,  and  served  ah  apprenticeship  to  one 
Robert  Large  a  mercer ;  who,  after  having  been 
sheriff  and  lord  maiFor  of  London,  died  in  the 
vear  1441.  From  the  time  of  his  master's  deadi 
he  spent  the  following  thirty  years  beyond  sea  in 
the  business  of  me|chandise.  There  is  no  clear 
account  left  of  his  age :  but  he  was  certainly 
very  old,  and  probably  above  fourscore  at  the 
time  of  his  death.  In  the  year  1471  he  com- 
plained of  the  infirmities  of  age  creeping  upon 
nim,  and  enfeebling  his  body:  yet  he  lived 
twenty-three  years  after,  and  pursued  his  busi- 
ness, with  extraordinary  diligence,  in  the  abbey 
of  Westminster,  till  the  year  1494,  in  ^ich  he 
died ;  not  in  the  year  following  as.  all  who  write 
of  him  affirm.  This  appears  from  some  verses 
at  the  end  of  a  book,  called  Hilton's  Scale  of 
Perfection,  printed  in  the  same  year. 

Before  1465  the  uniform  character  was  the  old 
Gothic  or  German ;  whence  our  black  was  after* 
wards,  formed.  But  in  that  year  an  edition  of 
Lactantius  was  printid  in  a  kind  of  Semi-Gothic, 
of  great  elegance,  and  approaching  nearly  to  the 
pres^nt  Roman  type ;  wnich  last  was  first  used 
at  Rome  in  1467,  and  soon  after  brought  to 
great  perfection  in  Italy,  particulariy  by  Jenson. 

Towards  the  end  of  the  fifth  century,  Aldus 
invented  the  Italic  character  which  is  now  in  use, 
called,  from  his  name,  Aldine  or  eursivus.    This 

^oogle 


Digitized  by 


'gl 


88 


PRINTING. 


sort  of  letter  he  contrived  to  prevent  the  great 
aumber  of  abbreviations  that  were  then  in  use. 

The  first  essays  in  Greek  that  can  be  discover- 
ed are  a  few  sentences  which  occur  in  the  edition 
of  Tulle's  Offices,  1465,  at  Mentz;  but  these 
were  miserably  incorrect  and  barbarous.  In  the 
the  same  jear,  1465,  was  published  an  edition  of 
I^actantius's  Institutes,  printed  in  monasterio 
Sublacensi,  in  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  in  which 
the  quotations  from  the  Greek  authors  are  print- 
ed in  a  very  neat  Greek  letter.  They  seem  to 
have  had  but  a  very  small  quantity  of  Greek 
tmes  in  the  monasteiy ;  for,  m  the  first  part  of 
the  work,  whenever  a  long  sentence  occurred,  a 
blank  was  left,  that  it  mi^t  be  written  in  with  a 
pen :  after  the  middle  of  the  work,  however,  all 
the  Greek  that  occurs  is  printed. 

In  1488,  however,  all  former  publicaUons  in 
this  language  were  eclipsed  by  a  fine  edition  of 
Homer's  works  at  Florence,  in  folio,  printed  by 
Demetrius,  a  native  of  Crete.  Thus  printing 
(sajTS  Mr.  Mattaire,  p.  185)  seems  to  have  attain- 
ed it^  acme  of  perfection,  after  having  exhibited 
most  beautiful  specimens  of  Latin,  Greek,  and 
Hebrew.  The  earliest  edition  of  the  whole  bible 
was,  strictly  speaking,  the  Complutensian  Poly- 
gott  of  cardinal  Ximenes ;  but  as  that  edition, 
3iough  finished  in  1517,  was  not  published  till 
1522,  the  Venetian  Septuagint  of  1518  may  pro- 
perly be  called  the  nrst  edition  of  the  whole 
Greek  Bible;  Erasmus  having  published  th^ 
New  Testament  only  at  Basil  in  1516. 

A  very  satisfactory  account  of  Hebrew  print- 
ing is  thus  given  by  Dr.  Kennicott  in  his  Annual 
Accounts  of  the  Collation  of  Hebrew  MSS.,  p. 
112.  *The  method  which  seems  to  have  been 
originally  observed  in  printing  the  Hebrew  Bible 
was  just  what  might  have  been  expected:  1.  The 
Pentateuch,  in  1482.  2.  The  Prior  Prophets,  in 
1484.  3.  The  Posterior  PropheU,  in  1486.  4. 
The  Hagiographia,  in  1487.  And,  after  the  four 
great  parts  had  been  thus  printed  separately 
(each  with  a  comment),  the  whole  text  (without 
a  comment)  was  printed  in  one  volume  in  1488; 
and  the  text  contmued  to  be  printed,  as  in  these 
first  editions,  so  in  several  others  for  twenty  or 
thirty  years,  without  marginal  Keri  or  Masora, 
and  wi&  greater  arguments  to  the  more  ancient 
MSS.  till  about  the  year  1520  some  of  the  Jews 
adopted  later  MSS.  and  the  Masora ;  which  ab- 
surd preference  has  obtained  ever  since/ 

In  1642  a  Hebrew  bible  was  printed  at  Man- 
tua under  the  care  of  the  most  learned  Jews  in 
Italy.  This  bible  had  not  been  heard  of  among 
the  Christians  in  this  country,  nor  perhaps  in 
any  other ;  though  the  nature  of  it  is  very  extra- 
ordinary. The  text  indeed  is  nearly  the  same 
with  that  in  other  modem  editions^  but  at  the 
bottom  of  each  page  are  various  readings, 
amounting  in  the  whole  to  above  2000,  and  many 
of  them  of  great  consequence,  collected  from 
MSS.,  printed  editions,  copiel  of  the  Talmud,  and 
the  works  of  the  most  renowned  rabbies.  And 
in  one  of  the  notes  is  this  remark :  '  That  in  se- 
veral passages  of  the  Hebrew  bible  the  difierences , 
are  so  many  and  so  great,  that  they  know  not 
which  to  fix  upon  as  the  true  readings.' 

We  cannot  quit  this  Subject  without  observing, 
on  Dr.  Kennicolt*s  authority,  that  as  the  first 


printed  bibles  axe  more  correct  than  the  latter 
ones ;  so  the  variations  between  the  fint  edition, 
printed  in  1488,  and  the  edition  of  Vander 
Hoogbt,  in  1705^  at  Amsterdam,  in  2  vols.  Svo 
amount  upon  the  whole,  to  above  1200 1 

When  the  art  of  printing  was  first  diaooreied, 
th^  only  made  use  of  one  side  of  a  page ;  they 
had  not  yet  found  out  the  expedient  of  impress- 
ing the  other.  When  their  editions  were  intended 
to  be  curious,  they  omitted  to  print  the  first  let- 
ter of  a  chapter,  for  which  they  left  a  blank  space, 
that  it  might  be  painted  or  illuminated  at  the  op- 
tion of  the  purchaser.  Several  ancient  volumes 
of  these  early  times  have  been  found,  where  these 
letters  are  wanting,  as  they  neglected  to  have 
them  painted. 

In  the  productions  of  eariy  printing  may  be 
distinguished  the  various  splendid  editions  they 
made  x)f  prim  to  or  praver  books.  They  were 
embellished  with  cuts  nnished  in  a  most  ele- 
gant taste:  many  of  them  were  ludicrous,  and 
several  were  obscene.  In  one  of  them  an  angel 
is  represented  crowning  the  Virgin  Mary,  and 
God  the  Father  himseu  assisting  at  the  cere- 
mony. In  a  book  of  natural  history  the  Su<p 
preme  Being  is  represented  as  reading  on 
the  seventh  day,  when  he  rested  from  all  his 
works. 

Practicb  of  the  akt.— The  workmen  em- 
ployed in  the  art  of  printing  are  of  two  kinds  t 
compositors,  who  range  and  dispose  the  letters 
into  woids,  lines,  pages,  &c.,  according  to  the 
copy  delivered  to  them  by  an  author;  and  press- 
men, who  apply  ink  upon  the  same  and  taice  off 
.the  impression.  In  London,  and  other  large 
cities  and  towns,  these  two  branches  aw  usually 
kept  so  distinct  that  few  workmen  ar6  able  to 
engage  in  both  of  them ;  and  in  small  printing- 
offices,  where  of  necessity  they  are  alternately 
followed,  very  few  men  are  able  to  attain  either 
facility  or  beauty  in  their  workmanship.  The  pro- 
cess of  printing  is  now  so  common,  but  at  the  same 
time  so  diversified  and  peculiar,  that  any  minute- 
ness of  description  would  be  at  once  incompre- 
hensible to  those  w}io  have  not  seen  it,  and  quite 
unnecessary  to  those  who  have.  In  place  of  any 
detyl  of  this  kind,  we  shall  give  some  informa- 
tion which  may  be  valuable  to  persons  not  im- 
mediately connected  with  the  art;  and  then 
enumerate  some  of  those  improvements  wlilch 
the  art  of  printing  has  received  within  the  hist 
few  years. 

As  it  is  impossible  but  that  in  every  page, 
almost  every  letter  of  which  consists  of  a  separ- 
ate piece  of  metal,  a  number  of  mistakes  must 
have  been  made,  a  sheet  is  first  printed  off,  which 
is  called  a  proof,  and  given  to  a  person  employed 
as  a  corrector ;  who  having  react  and  nuvlwd  the 
errors,  after  these  are  corrected,  another  proof- 
sheet  is  pulled,  and  is  usually  sent  to  the  author 
tot  his  revision  and  correction. 

Wiien  the  art  of  printing  was  first  est^lished 
it  was  the  glory  of  the  learned  to  be  correctors  of 
the  press  to  the  eminent  printers.  Physicians, 
lawyers,  and  bishops  themselves,  occupied  thb 
department.  The  printers  then  added  frequently 
to  their  names  those  of  the  correctors  of  the  press ; 
and  editions  were  then  valned  "according  to  the  ' 
abilities  of  the  corrector.    As,  however,  authors 


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89 


and  edilon  an  now  to  numeioas  a  raoe,  we  thall 
subjoiiimthe  margin  a  fiimiliar  illustiation  of 

Tkt  marks  toed  m  correcting  a  proof-sheet. 

To  strike  out  superfluous  words  in  a  sentence  a 
line  is  dnwn  through  them ;  and,  should  it  after- 
mrds  be  iound  advisable  to  retain  the  word,  dots 
are  placed  beneath,  and  itet  written  in  the  mar- 
gin. An  illustration  is  also  afforded  in  the 
followiDg  line  of  the  mode  of  maricing  those 
words  the  distance  between  which  is  to  be 
diminished. 


The  men 


;\gocfd 


Mf^tetJ 


=/ 


To  cause  words  to  be  changed  from  one  charac- 
ter to  anoUier.     ^ 
From  Roman  type  into  Italic  was  <MS^'/ 
Italic  into  Roman  xoas  TO^./ 

Romaatnto  small  capitals  was  ,^//ft   ^ 
Roman  into  large  capitals  was 

To  introduce  the  proper  stops  in  a  sentence. 

The  punctuation  may  be  cor- 
rected by  employing  either  of      ©  ©  O 
the  annexed  corrections  in  the 
naigin. 

To  transpose  tf  word  tr  is  written  in  the  margin. 
The  people  ^^i^^^  ^ 

To  strike  out  superfluous  W 
tes  or  words  the  pen  is  drawn      n  //  ^ 
duoog^  them,  and  the  annexed     ^//<^ 
characters  introduced    in    the       '' 

lo  canse  a  letter  that  is  turn- 
ed to  be  placed  aright,  a  line  is 
dnun  through  it  and  this  cha- 
lader  introduced  in  the  margin. 

To  make  two  words  into  one. 
Any  thing  you  please. 

>•  >-^ 

The  annexed  marks  denote 
the  omission  of  an  apostrophe,    - 
and  also  flie  manner  m  which  a     />0/*// 
letter  of  a  different  fount  should     ^  ^^f/ 
be  noticed,  when  improperly 
used ;  being  the  initials  of  the 
words  icroii^  ybiifi^. 

Where  a  word  b  omitted. 
We  went  into  the  yesterday.         a^Cu/ 

STEREOTYPE  PRINTING. 

Among  the  improvements  which  have  been 
iatroduced  into  the  art  of  printing  within  the  last 
oentoiy,  the  first  in  point  of  time,  and  perhaps  in 
point  of  utility,  was  stereotype  or  block  print- 
ing. This  is  in  &ct  something  like  a  revival  of 
the  first  essays  of  the  art ;  for  a  complete  plat^ 
is  made  for  every  ps^  of  a  work,  and  can  only 
be  appropriated  to  that  single  page.  The  ad- 
▼anti^  of  this  are,  that  oi^y  a  very  small  im- 
pression need  be  taken  at  any  one  time,  and,  as 
long  as  the  plate  continues,  subsequent  editions 
can  be  procured  at  a  very  small  charge. 

The  nonor  of  thb  invention  has  b^  claimed 
by  ihe  Frtach ;  and  so  far  as  the  mere  idea  goes. 


without  the  eaecution, perhaps  the  claim  maybe 
substantiated,  but  no  further.  It  is  said  that  a 
Frenchman  of  the  name  of  Valleyre,  before  the 
year  1735,  printed  the  calendars  at  the  beginning 
of  some  church  books  from  a  set  of  stereotype 
plates ;  but  his  method  of  proceeding  was  so  clumsy 
and  unprofitable  as  to  die  with  the  man  whu 
had  invented  it.  The  real  individual  to  whom  the 
honor  belongs  of  first  brining  stereotype  plates 
into  actual  service  was  an  ingenious  Scotchman, 
of  the  name  of  William  Ged,  of  Edinburgh.  Of 
his  proceedings  and  misfortunes,  in  attempting 
to  carry  his  invention  into  practical  effect,  an 
account  was  published  about  fifty  years  ago. 
It  appears  firom  this  narrative  that  in  the  year 
1725,  in  consequence  of  a  conversation  he  had 
with  a  printer,  his  attention  was  strongly  drawn 
towards  the  practicability  of  forming  plates  from 
types  when  formed  into  i«ges.  Having  been 
furnished  with  a  page,  he  instituted  a  series  of 
experiments,  and  at  last,  after  two  years  labor, 
he  succeeded  in  producing  impressions  from  his 
plates  which  could  not  be  distinguished  from 
those  taken  ^m  types.  By  what  method  he 
obtained  these  plates  it  is  now  impossible  to  say, 
as  his  apparatus  and  the  knowledge  of  his  mode 
3f  using  them  was  not  communictUed  to  any  one 
at  his  death ;  indeed  the  tale  of  his  sufferings 
and  disappointments,  and  the  selfish  and  dis- 
honest hands  into  which  it  was  his  lot  to  fall, 
furnish  the  materials  of  an  interesting  ana 
almost  tragical  nanative 

That  part  of  his  narrative  which  relates  his  first 
visit  to  London  is  possessed  of  sufiicient  interest 
to  be  placed  upon  durable  record.  Not  finding 
any  body  in  SoAland  willing  to  patronise  his  ex- 
ertions, he  met  with  a  London  citiien  in  Edin- 
burgh of  the  name  of  Fenner,  who,  while  at  a  dis- 
tance from  home,  could  talk  largely  of  his 
thousands  of  pounds,  but  who,  in  feet,  was  not 
worth  as  many  shillings.  With  this  man  Ged 
entered  into  partnership,  and  Imd  the  deed  le* 
gaily  signed  Wore  he  left  Scotland:  coming, 
however,  to  London,  he  discovered  to  his  sorrow 
that  his  pompous  po^rtner  could  scarcely  give  him 
a  night's  lodging.  Disappointed  in  his  expec^ 
tation,  h6  found  his  way  into  the  company  of 
Mr.  Basket,  the  king's  printer.  He  heard  his 
proposals,  and  as  Mr.  Caslon  the  letter  founder 
was  present  at  the  same  time  in  the  house,  Mr. 
Baskiet  proposed  that  they  both  should  make 
plates  from  a  page  of  type,  by  that  day  se'nnight, 
and  that  the  overseer  of^  the  office  should  be  tlie 
judge  of  the  quality  of  each  when  producM. 
The.  condition  of  this  engagement  was,  that  the 
person  who  failed  should  give  the  other,  and  all 
the  company  present,  a  handsome  dinner  and 
entertainment  at  his  own  sole  cost  and  charge. 
To  the  utter  astonishment  of  Mr.  Basket,  the 
very  afternoon  in  which  Ged  received  the  page,  he 
obtained  three  separate  plates  with  impressions 
from  them  equal  to  those  from  the  orinnal  type. 
But  alas  1  poor  man,  he  made  more  haste  than 
good  speed ;  for  the  circumstance  of  his  instant 
success  reached  the  ear  of  the  other  competitor, 
and  sooner  than  encounter  a  certain  defeat,  he 
evaded  the  bargain  and  made  no  attempt.  See  a 
History  of  the  origin  and  Progress  of  Stereotype 
Printing  by  Mr.  F.  Hodgson,  Newcastle. 


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90 


R  RI  Ni  T  II  BT  G. 


Xbe  ii)g0fitouft  indindual  to  «ihoai  isto  Im 
attributed  the  houQi  of  the  present  mode  of 
casting  stereotype  plates  is  Alexsmder  Tillocl^ 
esq,,  I^L.  D^  the  editor  of  the  Philosophical 
Magazine,  who  some  time  prior  to  the  year  1780, 
without  aay  knowledge  of  Ged's  ioYention,  sag*- 

Sisted  the  practicability  of.  founding  whole  pages. 
Qt^as  hisaocount  of  his  invention  is  very  short, 
we  will. give  it  in  his  own  words.:— 'AAermen*- 
tioning  some  of  the  expected  advantages/  he 
says,'  I  communicated  my  ideas  upon  this  subject 
to. Mr.  Foulis»  printer  to  the  University  of  Glas- 
gow, my  native  city,  and  where  I  then  resided, 
who  furnished  me  with  a  page  of  types  ready  set 
up,  or  composed,  for  my  first  experiment,  made  in 
1779,  which. had  sufficient  success  to  induce  me 
to  ti7  others,  anU  convinced  Mr.  Foulis  of  the 
possibility  of  producing  plates,  which  would 
yield  impressions  not  to  be  distinguished  from 
those  taken  from  types. 

'If  I  had  seen  some  of  the  advantages  which 
s«ch  a  plan  promised,  Mr.  Foulis  saw  and  ooint- 
ed  out  many  more,  of  such  a  nature  as  could  only 
present  themselves  to  a  regular  ^red  praetical 
printer. — We  agreed  to  prosecute  the  business 
together,  and,  if  possible,  to  bring  it  to  perfection, 
and  in  pursuance  of  this  resolution  performed,  I 
may  say,  innumenible  experiments,  till  we  at 
last  overcame  every  difficulty,  and  were  able  to 
produce  plates,  the  impressions  from  which 
could  not  oe  distinguished  fromihose  taken  from 
the  types  from  which  they  were  cast 

'  In  the  mean  time  we  learnt  that  our  art,  or  one 
extremely  similar,  had  been  practised  many 
years  before  by  Mc  Oed,  and  soon  after  the 
world  was  favored  by  Mr.  Nichols  with  an  inte- 
resting pamphlet,  entitled  Biographical  Memoirs 
of  William  Ued,  including  a  particular  account 
of  his  progress  in  the  art  of  Block-Printing* 
Though  we  had  reason  to  fear,  from  what  we 
found  Ged  had  met  with,  that  our  eOnrts  would 
experience  a  similar  opposition  from  prejudice 
and  ignorance,  we  persevered  in  our  obiect  for  a 
considerable  time,  and  at  last  resolved  to  take 
out  patents  for  England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland, 
to  secure  to  ourselves,  for  the  usual  term,  the 
benefits  of  our  invention ;  for  the  discovery  was 
still  as  much  our  own  as  if  nothing  similar  had 
been  practised  before ;  Ged's  knowledge  of  the 
art  having  died  with  his  son.  Hke  patents  were 
accordingly  obtained.  As  to  benefits,  however, 
I  have  as  yet  reaped  none,  and  Mr.  Foulis,  I  be- 
lieve, has  reaped  as  few,  for  owing  to  circumstances 
of  a  private  nature,  an  *  which  no  way  concern 
the  public  to  know,  the  business  was  laid  aside 
for  a  time,  and  having  afterwards  quitted  Glas- 
gow, and  removed  to  London,  I  soon  found  my<« 
self  so  much  occupied  with  other  concerns  that 
I  have  hardly  had  time  to  think  upon  it  since. 
I  ought,  however,  to  observe  here,  that  its  being 
suspended  was  not  on  account  of  any  imperfec- 
tion attending  the  ait,  or  objections  against  its 
being  a  fit  subject  to  be* prosecuted.  On  the 
contrary,  several  small  volumes  were  printed 
firom  phtes  made  by  myself  and  Mr.  Foulis,  and 
the  editions  were  sold  to  the  trade  without  any 
intimation  of  their  beine  printed  out  of  the  com- 
mon way!    We  had  heard  whispers  that  our 


woifc  could'  not  poasibly  be  sneh  as  wonld  pass 
for  oommon  printing !  The  tnule  knew  what  we 
were  at,  and  would  take  care  of  any  thing  done 
in  the  new-fangled  way.  The  first  essays,  there- 
fi>ie,  were  in  the  lowest  sense  of  the  word  com- 
mon: one  or  two  histories,  and  a  cheap  edition 
of  The  Economy  of  Human  Life.  We  stiso 
printed  a  Greek  volume,  Xenophon's  Anabans, 
1783,  and  had  plates  foi  several  small  volumes 
of  the  English  poets  almost  finished,  but  the 
latter  were  never  put  to  press.'— ^-Philosophical 
Magazine,  vol.  x.  pages  272 — 275. 

Stereotype  printing  is  now  practised  in  almost 
every  country  in  Europe,  but  the  mode  of  _per- 
forming  it  differs  almost  in  each  of  them.  That 
adopted  in  this  country  generally  is  to  make  a 
mould  in  plaster  of  Paris  taken  from  a  page  of 
.  types,  to  confine  this  mould  in  a  box  or  pan 
made  for  the  purpose,  after  the  air  and  mois^ 
ture  are  properly  extracted,  which  is  in  about 
five  minutes,  and  then  to  dip  it  into  a  pot  of 
metal:  the  pan  is  lifted  out  by  a  crane  or 
pulley,  and  tne  operation  b  completed.  This 
department  of  the  art  of  printine,  though  carried 
to  an  amazing  extent  within  the  last  few  years,  is 
yet  far  from  having  obtained  its  maturity.  The 
plan  used  by  lord  Stanhope,  Mr.  Wilson,  and 
others,  was  so  expensive  as  to  deprive  the  pub- 
lisher of  almost  all  its  advantages ;  it  is  now, 
however,  executed  on  such  an  economical  plan, 
and  with  such  certainty  and  expedition^  as  to 
tempt  its  adoption  for  all  standard  works  in  the 
language,  and  indeed  for  e/ery  •  work  where  a 
second  edition  will  be  required. 

PRESSED 

Iron-preuet. — T)ie  art  of  priotiog  has  of  late  re« 
ceived  very  important  improvements  by  the  substi"- 
tution  of  iron  for  wooden-presses.  The  advan- 
tages of  the  iron  presses  in  working  are  very 
considerable,  both  m  saving  labor  and  time.  The 
first  arises  from  the  beautiful  contrivance  of  the 
levers,  the  power  of  the  press  being  almost  in- 
calculable at  the  moment  of  producing  the  im- 
pression ;  and  this  is  not  attended  with  a  corres- 
pondent loss  of  time,  as  is  the  case  in  all  other 
mechanical  powers,  because  the  power  is  only 
exerted  at  the  moment  of  pre^ure^  being  before 
that  adapted  to  bring  down  the  platten  as  quickly 
as  possible.  This  great  power  of  the  press  admits 
of  a  saving  of  time,  by  printing  the  whole  sheet  of 
paper  at  one  pull,  th  platten  being  made  suffi- 
ciently large  foi  the  purpose ;  whereas,  in  the 
old  press,  the  platten  is  only  half  the  size  qf  the 
sheet. 

For  this  change  of  the  material  of  which  presses 
are  mtlde,  the  trade  are  principally  indited 
to  the  late  ingenious  earl  Stanhope.  These 
presses,  which  still  bear  his  name,  havecontributed 
very  materially  to  the  ease  and  beauty  of  the 
workmanship.  There  are  likewise  many  other 
descriptions  of  iron  presses,  professing  to  be 
improvements  upon,  the  one  suggested  by  lord 
Stanhope,  but  only  one  of  them  has  obtained  any 
celebrity,  or  possesses  any  superior  advantages. 
This  is  the  Columbian  press,  invented  by  Mr. 
Cl3nner;  and  firom  the  amazing  power  of  the 


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P/'/.  JH.  fa./r  i*I. 


FRII^TIj!^  (^c 


JPLATif  2 


J^147.   I. 


J^'tr.: 


/»/.  ^. 


fitr.  J. 


.1 .  Klna^  Sralp. 

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PRINTING. 


9a> 


wbi^  it  if  next  to  impossibli^  to  break|  as  well 
as.for  other  lesser. ad vaotage^y  perhaps  willidever 
U  excelled.  These^.  two  pfes^es  beiiig  now  most, 
in  repute,  we  shall  cqofine  any,  minute  descnp^ 
tioDs  to  tbem  a}one^  giviQg,OB^,a  brief  notice  of 
several  others,  which-  have,  vai^iotts,  degrf^^of 
merit 

TbeJmprovQd  'StanAope  j»:e«^;is  ,exKftbit«d'  in 
plftte  L  (Privti^c):  fig^  i  is-  a.side^  el^va- 
tion;  and  fig.  2  a. front  view.  A  A.  shows,  a 
siioog  cast  iron  t'rai]Be,pf  the  fo^in  r^piretieritQdm 
%.  2.  This  frame  is  screwed  down  upoi\-  a 
piece  of  timber  B>  which  has  anptber  tin^r  C 
morticed  inlo  it  at  right  angles  formiog  a  fr^ine., 
iik.ihe  shape  of  the  letter  H ,  to^rvoas  a  basis  for 
tbe  whole  press.  D  D  represent  two  ho^iaoqtal 
nils,  having  channels  formed  along  their  upper, 
sur&oesy  into  which  the  two  rails  or  ribs  upon 
tbe  underside  of  the  carriage  or  table  E  £*  are 
adapted  to  slide.  The  carriage  is  put  io.motiOD> 
bj  the  action  of  the  liandle  F  and  barrel  VV, 
which  has  three  strong  straps  or  belts  passing 
roond  its  circumfty^ncc^  as  seen,  in  fig.  2,  the 
ends  of  the  said  belts  being  attached  to  the.  op- 
posite ends  of  the  carriage,  in  the  menner  of 
ordinaiy  printing  presses.  The  table  £  £  is  made 
perfectly  flat  uppn  its  upper,surface)  in  order  to 
receive  the  form  of  the  types :  tf\  represents  the 
tympan,  which, is  jointed  to  the.  end  of  the  table; 
ii  ii  composed  of  a  light  frame  of  wjrought  tron^ 
and  fitted  up  in. th^ usual  manner. 

The  rails  D>  D,  upon  which  the  carriage  runs, 
ve  secured  to  the  main  fra^me  A  A,  by.  screw,  boits 
4,a;  the  outer  extremities  of  the  niils  D  are 
united  together  by  cross  bars,  and  supported. by 
an  arched  frame  v  and  upright  pillar  G,  the  foot 
t)f  which  is  bolted  down  to  tbe  timber  C.  H  U 
represent  the  platen,  which,  is  guided  in  its  per- 
peQ4icular.  motion  by  a  slide  I,  moving  between 
angular  ribs  formed  within  the  opening  of  the 
main  frame,  as  seen  in  fig,  2<  The  upper  part  d 
of  the  frame  is  considerably  enlarged,  and  is 
perjorsted  in  tbe  centre  to  receive  a  brass  nut  or 
fenuie  screw,  tl^ouf^  which  tUe  main  screw  of 
the  pressi  w/ocke.  M  shows  an  upright  .spindle, 
the  lower  end  of  which  is  fon^edi  with. a  pivot 
adapted  to  turn  in  a  hole  at  the  top  of  the.  arch 
of  the  main  frame;  the  upper  part, of  the.spindle 
M  works  through  a  colUr  c,  formed  in  a  piece  of 
metal,  which  projects  from  the  main  frame,  and 
is  secured  bj.  a, screw.  N  re^rei^ents  th«  handle 
vf  the  press :  it  is  firmly  attached  ^to  th?  iowes 
*)arts  of  the  spindle  M>  and  has.  a  nut.^n  the 
opposite  side  to  keep  it  in  it9  .n^ace.  Thus,. 
^h«n  the  handle  is  moved  backiyards  or  forwards^ 
it  toms  the  spindle  M  roui^d,  and^by  the  opera- 
tioD  of  the  lever  O,  and  connecting  link  P.  the - 
motion  is  communicated  to  .the  main  sciiewf  by. 
the  ioiervention  of  the  arm  or  le^ev  K  fixed  upon 
the  top«  The  platen  is  raised  up,,  and  kept  in 
contact  with  the  end  of  the  screw,  by  the  operar 
tion  of  the  balance  weight  S<  The  degree  of 
pressure,  may  be  increased  or  diminibhed  by  the 
operation  of  the  screw  p  at  the  end ..  of  the  con- 
necting link,  being  disposed*  so  as.  to  admit  of 
varying  the  effective  lei:^  of  the  link, 

.  CoHmbiaM  prea. — ^A  correct  front  view  of  this 


piesa  is  regi^eseiited.  in  fig.  3,  andia.cide.  eleva* 
tion  .in  fig.  4.  AA  ^ws  the  cheeks^  or^  main 
frame  of  cast  iron;  they  are  uni^  together  at 
tbe  .bottom^  but.  seuaxate  at  the  top;  the  <  main 
frfupo  is  supported. upon  four  legs,  X  jr.  B,B> 
represent  the  ribs  or  guides,  upon  which  tbe  car- 
riage and  table  CC,  with  its  appendages,  is 
adapted,  to  run,  being  moved  backwards  and  for- 
wards by.  the  rounce  £,  and  banel  F,  round 
which  .strong  linen  belts  are  passed,  and  affixed 
at  each  end  of  the  carriage,  as  in  ordinary  print* 
ing  pre&es.  D  shows  the  platen,  which  is 
guided  in  its  motion,  up  and  down  by  its  square 
stem  or  pillar  d^  being  placed  angleways,.  and 
sliding  between  pieces  of  metal  a,  a ;  whioh  pro- 
ject^from  the  main  frame  A  A.  The  pieces  a,  a, 
ate.furnished  with  adjusting  screws  and  wedges, 
for  the  purpose  of  tightening  them  up,  and  pre- 
venting any  looseness  .in  the  platen*  The  stem 
d  has. a^square. plate, e,  upon  it  at  the  part  where 
it  Joins  to  tlie  plataa^  Ttie  pressure  is  produced 
by  a  combination  of  levers  situated  lit  the  upper- 
p^  of  the  frame.  G,  I,  show  the  main  lever, 
moving  on  a  strong  centre  bolt  at  H,  between  a 
forked  or  divided  part  of  tbe  main  firame ;  the 
end  I  of  this  lever  also  passes  through  an  oblong 
opening  formed  between  the  bars  h,  and  projects 
some  distance  beyond:  the. outside  of  the  fmme. 
The  central  part  G  of  the  main  levee  has  a  strong 
pivot  or  trunnion  cast  upon  it,  which  projects 
out  sufficiently  on  each  side  to. enter  into  collars 
formed  at  the  top  of  the  stem  d,  of  the  platen, 
being  retained  in  their  places  by  four  screw 
boltSk  two  of  which  are  seen  at  G  m  figure  3. 
m,  91, 0,  show  tlie  seoond  lever,  moving  on  a  fixed 
centre  pin  in  the  main  frame  at  m ;  it  ha^  the 
links  n,  I,  jointed  to  it  at  the  point  n;  the  .upper- 
most ends  of  these  links  are  also  jointed  on  each 
side  of  the  main  lever  at  I.  The  point  o  of  the 
second  lever  has  the  link  or  connectiog-rod  p 
jointed  to  it,  whilst  the  opposite  extremity  of  the 
connecting-*rod  is  jointed  to  the'  lever  or  handle 
N,  by  which  the  pressman  puts  the  system  of 
levers  into  .action..  Tbe  hanole  N  turne  upon  a 
fixed  centre  pin  passing  through  projecting  pieces 
of  the  main  frame,  as  seen  at  t»;  and  the  con- 
necting-rod p  is  ftoiiehed  with  a  double  or  uni- 
versal joint,  where  it  unites^  with  the  lever  o,  to 
admit  of  the  oblique  motion  of  the  handle  N, 
when  it  is  pulled  forwards  to  prodnce  the  pre»* 
sure. 

A  counteiylever,  r  t  £,  is  applied  at  tbe  top  of  the 
ptess,  moving  upon  a  fulcrum  ats ;  this  lever  has  % 
a  balanceiveight  in  ihe  form  of  an  es^le  clamped 
upon  it  by  a  screw  at  r,  whilst  the  short  end  t 
ot  the.  levels  is  attached  by  a  link  to .  the  end  of 
the  main  tlever  at  the  end  I.    By  this  means  the 
weight  of  the  levers  and  platen  is  counterbalanced 
sufij^ienUy  to  raise  them  up,  when- the  handle  N 
is  leit  at.  liberty*    Thit  different  levere  in  this 
press  aro  so  arranged  that  the  fiist  motion  whieh< 
IS  communicated  ta  the.  handle  N  brines  the  - 
plal«A<down  quickly;  but,  by  tbe  time  that  its . 
under  surface  arrives  upen  the  tympan,  the.  se- 
cond lever,  mn,  is  brought  nearly  in  a  line»with-. 
the  direction  of  the  links  »yl,wmcb  causes  them- 
to  draw, down  the  end. I  of  the  main  lever. with > 
great  power ;  at  the  same  time,  that  the  pmnt  o 


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of  the  second  lever  1$  in  the  most  fttvourable 
position  to  be  operated  upon  powerfully  by  the 
connecting-rod  proceeding  from  the  handle  N. 
When  the  impression  is  produced,  two  balance 
weights  act  in  concert  to  return  the  handle  N, 
and  raise  up  the  platen. 

The  testimonies  in  fevor  of  this  press,  by  al- 
most every  master-printer  who  hasiued  it,  prove 
it  to  be  the  most  complete  press  now  in  use ;  and 
at  present  appears  scarcely  susceptible  of  much 
improvement. 

Several  other  presses  are  noyr  in  use,  particu* 
larly  the  Albion  press ;  but  as  they  are  somewhat 
similar  in  construction  to  the  Columbian,  though 
not  so  well  approved,  a  particular  specification 
need  not  be  given.  The  Ruthven  or  horizontal 
press,  invented  by  Mr.  John  Ruthven  of  Edin- 
burgh, differs  materially  from  all  others,  in  the 
platen  being  moveable,  and  the  types  stationary. 
But,  as  it  requires  that  a  workman  should  almost 
learn  his  business  over  again  to  work  at  it,  it  is 
now  seldom  tbed.  A  beautiful  and  well-made 
press  has  lately  been  introduced  into  use  by  Messrs. 
Newman  and  Gillson,  of  Newark.  Its  power  is 
produced  by  the  use  of  inclined  planes,  and, 
these  being  fixed  in  a  box  which  is  well  supplied 
with  oil,  the  usua!  inconveniences  experienced 
in  that  mode  of  obtaining  pressure  are  m  a  great 
measure  obviated.  For  all  light  work  this  press 
perhaps  equals  any  press  in  use;  but  it  is  not 
adapted  for  large  and  heavy  forms. 

Several  attempts  have  been  made  to  apply  a 
self-inking  apparatus  to  the  common  press, 
and  numerous  patents  have  been  obtained  to  this 
purpose;  but  as  nothing  has  to  this  day  been 
produced  at  all  likely  to  succeed,  however  lauda- 
ole  and  ingenious  the  attempts,  we  shall  not  8up-> 
ply  any  description  of  them. 

Of  machine  |7rifi<tii^.<^  Previous  to  the  intro- 
duction of  machines  mto  the  business  of  printr 
ing,  the  press  department  was  one  of  groit  labor 
and  difficulty,  and  the  number  of  copies  of  a 
newspaper,  which  could  be  printed  within  the 
hour,  seldom  exceeded  750,  even  with  extraor- 
dinary' exertion.  The  consequence  was,  that  in 
newspaper  offices,  where  the  circulation  was  ex- 
tensive, it  was  found  necessary,  in  order  to  get 
the  paper  published  in  time,  to  compose  two  or 
more  copies,  so  that  by  going  to  press  at  the 
same  time,  the  demands  of  the  public  might  be 
complied  with;  thus  occasioning  an  enormous 
increase  of  expenditure  both  in  the  compositors' 
and  press  departments.  In  a  newspaper  circu- 
lating 7000  or  8000  copies,  this  expense,  annu- 
ally could  not  have  been  less  than  £2000 ;  all 
of  which  has  been  saved  bv  the  introduction  of 
machines,  which  are  worked  by  steam  or  hand. 

The  cylindrical  mode  of  printiiig,  which,  in  con- 
tradistmction  to  the  old  process,  is  called  machine 
printing,  was  invented  by  the  late  Mr.  Nicholson, 
well  known  in  tfie  scientific  and  literary  world, 
who  took  out  a  patent  in  the  year  1790,  though 
it  does  not  appear  that  his  plans  and  experhnents 
ended  in  any  actually  practical  result.  Whether 
M.  Kbnig,  who  at  a  Wr  period  more  success- 
fully attempted  to  print  by  machinery,  was  in- 
debted to  Mrv  Nicholson  for  his  elementary 
principles,  or  whether  almost  the  same  ideas 


spontaneously  occurred  to  each  individual,  is  a 
question  that  can  only  be  satis^torily  solved  r 
by  the  former.  Thus  much  is  certain,  that  Mr. 
Kbnig^s  labors  were  the  first  which  produced 
any  fruit;  and,  surely,  more  is  due  to  nim  who, 
after  years  of  persevering  toil,  succeeds  in  the 
application  of  hitherto  unapplied  principles,  than 
to  one  of  whom  we  can  only  say  tnat  he  was  sim- 
ply the  first  to  suggest  ideas,  since  no  evidence 
IS  offered  of  their  ever  having  been  acted  upon. 

M.  Kbnig,  by  birth  a  Saxon,  and  by  occupa-  . 
tioQ  a  printer,  many  years  ago  conceived  it  pes- 
sible  to  print  by  steam,  though  he  then  expected 
no  more  than  to  be  able  to  give  accelerated 
speed  to  the  common  press;  to  which  end  his 
first  efforts  were  bent     As  from  the  nature  of 
such  an  undertaking,  considering  the  state  of 
scientific  pursuits  in  his  native  land,  he  could 
calculate  on  little  success  unaided  by  others, 
and  failing  in  his  application  for  encouragement 
and  support  at  the  hands  of  the  most  eminent 
printers  m  several  ok  the  continental  capitals,  he 
turned  his  eyes  towards  England.    Arriving  in 
London,  about  1804,  he  submitted  his  scheme  to 
several  printers  of  repute,  who,  not  being  dis- 
posed to  incur  the  risk  of  property  which  a  series 
of  experiments  were  sure  to  entail,  and  perhaps, 
placing  little  confidence  in  a  successful  issue^ 
reoeivel  his  overtures  very  coolly ;  and  it  is  pro- 
bable his  applications  in  tnis  country  would  have 
shared  the  late  of  similar  attempts  abroad,  had 
he  not  finally  been  introduced  to  Mr.  Bensley, 
senior,  who,  attracted  by  M.  K.'s  plans,  speedily 
entered  into  an  arran^ment  with  him.     After  a 
short  course  of  experiments  on  the  fabrication  of 
a  press  which  should  have  accelerated  motion, 
and  at  the  same  time  render  the  work  of  the 
man  who  inks  the  type  unnecessary,  the  above 
ffentlemen  were  joined  by  Mr.  G.  Wood&ll  and 
Mr.  R.  Taylor,  the  former  of  whom,  however,  soon 
retired ;  the  remaining  three,  in  no  wise  discou- 
faged  by  the  tediousness  and  expense  which  all 
who  are  conversant  with  the  progress  of  any  in- 
vention in  machinery  well  know  to  be  unavoid- 
able, persevered  anudst  unforeseen  perplexities, 
which  were  doubtless  not  diminished  by  the  par- 
ty's deficiency  in  practical  mechanical  knowledge, 
it  was  at  length  discovered  that  the  intended 
improvement  of  the  commai  press  could  not  be 
brought  to  bear,  and  that  much  labor  and  prodi- 
gious expense  would  be  thrown  away,  unless 
some  radical  alterations  were  invented.    Cylin- 
drical printing  was  now  thought  of,  and,  after 
some  two  or  three  years  of  renewed  exertion,  a 
small  machine  ina  brought  forth,  the  character- 
istic of  which  was,  tliat  instead  of  the  printing 
being  produced  by  a  flat  impression  (similar  to 
the  press),  the  sheet  passed  between  a  large  roller 
and  uie  types  still  flat ;  and,  in  lieu  of  the  old- 
fashioned  baUs^  used  by  hand  to  beat  over  the 
types,  and  to  communicate  the  ink  to  their  sur- 
face, skins  were  strained  round  smaller  rollers  on 
which  it  was  contrived  to  spread  the  ink,  and 
under  which  the  form,  i.  e.  the  frame  in  which 
the  types  are  fixed,  passed  in  its  way  to  the 
printing  cylinder.    Considerable  promise  of  suo- 
cess  attended  this  production ;  and,  after  conti- 
nued experiments,  it  was  deemed  practicable  to 


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eiteod  the  genetal  principles  to  a  more  powerfii) 
machine.  To  prmt  a  newspaper  was  considered 
hi^y  desirable;  and  on  exhibiting  to  Mr. 
Walters,  proprietor  of  the  Times  newspaper,  the 
machine  already  erected,  and  showing  wnat  further 
improTements  were  contemplated,  an  agreement 
was  entered  into  with  that  gentleman  for  the 
erecticm  of  two  large  machines  for  printing  his 
joonial.  So  secret  had  been  the  operations  of 
the  patentees  that  the  first  public  intimation  of 
their  invention  was  given  to  the  reader  of  The 
Times  on  Monday,  the  28th  of  November,  1814, 
who  was  told  that  he  then  held  in  his  hand  one 
of  many  thousand  impressions  thrown  off  by 
steam.  At  this  time  but  few  persons  knew  of 
any  attempt  going  on  for  Uie  attainment  of  the 
above  object ;  whilst,  among  those  connected 
with  printing,  it  had  been  often  talked  of,  but 
treated  as  chimerical. 

The  machines  at  the  Times  Office,  cumbrous 
and  complicated  as  subsequent  improvements 
have  made  them  appear,  were  yet  in  many  respects 
admirably  adaptea  to  the  purpose  for  which  they 
were  erected. 

The  next  advance  in  improvement  was  the 
maoulactare  of  a  machine  for  Messrs.  Bensley, 
distinguished  from  those  before  mentioned  bv 
the  irode  of  perfecting  (or  printing  on  both 
sides),  so  that  the  sheet  of  white  paper  is  placed 
in  the  feeder  and  delivered  from  the  machine 
printed  oo  both  sides !  In  addition  to  the  essen- 
tial diflercnce  between  this  machine  and  those 
previously  made,  it  came  forth  with  many  obvi- 
eos  improvements,  though  still  unquestionably 
complex : — and  for  the  first  attempt  at  effecting 
register  (causing  the  pages  to  fall  precisely  on 
the  back  of  one  another),  a  greater  degree  of  suc- 
cess than  might  have  been  expected  was  attained, 
subsequent  experience  showmg  the  many  diffi- 
culties to  be  surmounted  in  the  accomplishment 
of  this  object.  Deficiencies  were  now  detected 
is  the  inking :  the  strained  skins  were  found  un- 
even in  their  surface ;  and  attempts  were  made 
to  clothe  the  rollers  with  an  elastic  preparation 
of  glu^  treacle,  &c.,  which  has  at  length  attained 
perfection. 

By  this  time  the  invention  had  attracted  the 
attention  of  various  individuals,  who  thought 
the  mana£ftcture  of  printing  machines  an  easier 
task  than  they  afterwards  found  it  to  be ;  and 
fir  the  greater  number  of  attempts,  we  believe, 
fidled  almost  as  soon  as  undertaken.  A  machine, 
however,  similar  in  its  capacities  to  that  last 
mentioned,  but  much  more  simple  in  its  con- 
straction,  has  been  brought  out,  under  the  direc- 
tion of  some  eminent  English  engineers.  It  was 
not  loi^  before  thes^  gent^men  were  requested  to 
apply  their  inking  apparatus  to  Messrs.  Bens- 
leys'  machine,  and  at  one  stroke,  as  it  were, 
for^r  wheels  were  removed — so  great  was  the  sim- 
plification :  and  at  the  same  time  the  defects  of 
the  former  system,  of  communicating  the  ink  to 
the  types,  were  most  effectually  rem^ied.  Mas- 
sive and  complicated  as  it  was,  yet  as  an  im- 
mense expense  had  been  incurred  in  its  erection, 
Messrs.  Bensley  went  on  using  their  machine 
until  the  destruction  of  their  establishment  by 
fire  in  1819.  And,  even  after  the  rebuilding  of 
the  premises,  the  machinery,  which  had  been 


only  nartially  damaged,  was  reinstated,  and 
workea"  for  some  time  :  it  has  now,  however, 
given  place  to  two  large  and  admirable|machines 
built  on  the  improved  plan,  which,  when  in- 
spected by  a  judicious  eye,  can  create  only 
wonder  at  the  heretofore  circuitous  manner 
adopted  to  attain  ends  so  apparently  within  easy 
reach.  The  original  machine  contahied  upwardls 
of  100  wheels ;  whereas  the  new  machine,  with 
about  ten  wheels,  accomplishes,  in  point  of 
quantity,  exactly  the  same  object,  with  a 
marked  advantage  in  regard  to  the  quality  of 
the  printing.  Another  important  point  respect- 
ing the  new  machine  is,  that  it  occupies  scarcely 
half  the  space  of  the  original  one. 

This  machine,  notwiUistanding  the  improve- 
ments which  had  been  made  upon  it,  has  lately 
been  replaced  by  one  made  by  Augustus  Apple- 
garth,  esq.,  several  of  whose  machines  are  at 
present  in  use  in  the  metropolis ;  and  recently 
several  have  been  exported  to  the  continent.  All 
the  machines  of  his  construction  are  worked  by 
steam;  but  there  are  others  which  have  for  some 
years  been  brought  into  use  which  are  turned  by 
a  fiy  wheel ;  and  of  course  have  the  advantage 
of  being  far  less  cumbersome,  and  more  appli- 
cable to  the  general  purposes  of  the  trade.  One 
was  invented  by  Mr.  W.  Nicholson,  of  London, 
for  which  a  patent  was  obtained  29th  April, 
1790 ;  a  second  by  Mr.  Bacon  of  Norwich,  and 
made  by  Bryan  Donkin,  esq.,  of«London ;  ano- 
ther was  the  invention  of  the  late  Charles 
Brightly,  esq.,  of  Bungay,  and  executed  by  the 
same  engineer;  none  of  them,  however,  have 
been  brought  into  practical  adoption,  though 
they  each  possessed  a  considerable  share  of 
merit,  and  were  constructed  at  a  very  great  ex- 
pense. 

The  adoption  of  printing  machines  rendered 
necessary  a  new  mode  of  distributing  the  ink 
upon  the  type,  and  which  is  now  transferred  to 
the  common  press.  The  original  mode  was  to 
moisten  sheep-skins  in  liquor,  to  fasten  them 
round  a  ball  of  w6ol,  and  then,  having  procured 
two  of  them,  the  ink  was  distributed  on  the  sur- 
face of  each  by  working  them  together.  This 
is  now  entirely  superseded  by  the  use  of  rollers. 
These  rollers  are  a  'composition  of  glue  and 
treacle,  which,  when  heat^  into  a  liquid  state, 
are  cast  in  a  mould,  round  a  cone  of  bard  wood ; 
and,  when  cold,  are  extracted  from  the  mould, 
and  are  soon  fit  for  use.  This  method  of  inking 
forms  one  of  the  most  valuable  improvements 
in  modem  printing ;  as  it  not  only  affords  con- 
siderable ease  to  the  workmen,  but  is  calculated 
to  perform  the  operation  with  much  greater  regu- 
lar!^ and  certainty. 

The  machines  worked  by  hand  ndw  most  in 
repute  are  those  manufactured  by  Mr.  D.  Napier. 
They  print  both  sides  the  dheet  at  oneoperaUon; 
and  are  calculated  to  do  the  work*  of  about  six 
or  seven  presses.  This  ingenious  mechanist  is 
now  contriving  one  for  printing  newspapers, 
which  is  estimated  to  take  off  300  impressions 
per  minute, — a  speed  almost  incredible.  As  this 
with  some  other  machines  for  printing  by  the 
same  engineer,  are  not  yet  completed,  we  must 
refer  a  minute  description  of  them  to  the  article 
Typography,  which  see. 


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P  R  I  N  T  I  N  G. 


VttivrtmOf  Cdw^ER^i^AfE,  inquires  aoitt^ 
Aoti^e,  'though  we  hardly  ftnoW  a  tiK^em  iirt  6t 
'trade  tKdt  has  been  Iso  little  -imprbved  in  (be 
mode  of  conducting  it.  It  is  peifonned  by  a 
machine  called  the  rolling-press,  %hich  may  be 
divided  into  two  parts,  the  body  and  earriutev 

The  body  conisists  of  two  cheeks  of  diffei^ttt 
'dimensions,  ordinarily  about  fiMir^t  and  a  half 
(high,  a  foot  thick,  and  two  and  a  half  apart, 
(Joined  at  top  and 'bottom  by  crow  ^vftoes.  The 
che^  are  placed  perpendicularly  on  a  wooden 
^tand  or  foot,  hdrlMntaHyiplaced,  and  sustaining 
the  whole  press.  From  the  foot  likewise  rise 
four  other  perpendicular  pieces,  joined  by  cross 
or  horizontal  ones.  Which  >may  be  considered  as 
the  carriage  of  the  pKSs,  and  as  serving  to  sus- 
tain a  smooth,  even  plank,  about  four  feet  and  a 
'half  long,  two  feet  and  a  half  broad,  and  an  inch 
•and  a  half  thick;  upon  which  the  engraven  plate 
•Is  to  be  placed,  into  the  cheeks  go  two  wooden 
^cylinders  or  rollers,  about  six  inches  in  diameter, 
borne  up  at  each  end  by  the  cheeks,  whose  ends, 
which  axe  lessened  -to  about  two  inches  diameter, 
and  called  trunnions,  turn  in  the  cheeks  between 
^wo.'pieoes  of  wood,  in  form  of  half  moods,  lifted 
^ith  polished  iron  to  iisKiilitate  the  motion.  The 
^pace  in  the  half  moons  left  vacant  by  the  trun- 
nion is  iiUed  with  paper,  pasteboard,  &o.,  that 
they  may  be  raised  and  lowered  at  discretioa^ 
so  as  only  to  leave  the  space  between  them  ne- 
cessary for  th^  passage  of  the  plank  charged  with 
the  plate,  paper,  and  blankets.  Lastly,  to  one  of 
the  trunnions  of  the  upper  roller  is  fastened  a 
cross,  consisting  of  two  levers  or  pieces  of  wood 
traversing  each  other.  The  arms  of  this  cross 
serve  in  lieu  of  the  handle  of  the  conimon  press; 
giving  a  motion  to  the  upper  roller,  and  ttiat  to 
the  under  one;  by  which  means  the  plank  is 
protruded,  or  passed  between  them. 

The  printing  is  performed  nearly  as  follows  :-^ 
The  workmen  take  a  small  quantity  of  the  ink 
on  a  rubber  made  of  linen  rags,  strongly  bound 
about  each  other,  and  with  this  smear  the  whole 
face  of  the  plate  as  it  lies  on  a  grate  over  a 
charcoal  fire.  The  plate  being  sufficiently  inked, 
they  first  wipe  it  over  with  a  foul  rag,  then  wiih 
the  palm  of  their  left  hand,  and  then  with  that 
of  the  right ;  and,  to  dry  ihe  hand  and  forward 
the  wiping,  they  rub  it  from  time  to  time  in 
whitening.  In  wiping  the  plate  perfectly  clean, 
yet  without  taking  the  ink  out  of  the  engraving, 
the  address  of  the  Workman  consists.  '  The  plate 
thus  prepared  is  laid  on  the  plank  of  the  press ; 
oVer  the  plate  is  laid  the  paper,  first  well  moist- 
ened, to  receive  the  impression,  and  over  the 
paper  tWo  or  three  folds  of  flannel.  Things  thus 
disposed,  the  arms  of  the  cross  are  pulled,  and 
by  that  m^ans  the  plate  with  its  ftimitu^e  pasded 
through  between  the  rollers,  which,  pinchhig 
vei^  strongly,  yet  e<iually,  press  the  moistened 
paper  into  the  strbkfes  of  the  engravings,  whence 
it  licks  out  the  ink. 

PfttNTiNo  OP  Calico.  The  art  of  printing 
iti  colors  is  intimately  connected  With  many  of 
the  chemical  procisses  we  have  already  described 
Under  the  attiele  Dyeiwo  ;  We  shall  therefore 
avt)ld  any  unUedessaty  repetition  of  those  de- 
tails by  occasional  teferentes  to  the  various 
Ǥtttidns  of  that  treatiie.     This  hig^nfbus  art 


consists  in' dy^ng  cloth  with  certain '!6blots  6r 
figures  upon  a  grbuhd  of  a  different  hue.  The 
colors  are  usually  fixed  by  mordants  that  Mive 
various  degrees  6f  chemical  affinity  for  the  body 
to  be' employed. 

The  art  of  calioo  printing  >is  of  considei^ble 
tmtiquity,  and  we  have  seen'^ome  Egyptian  cot- 
ton dyed  by  figured  blocks  many  hundred  years 
old.  A  similar  process  has  long  been  resorted 
'to  in  the  Sandwicn  Islands,  though  they  usually 
•employ  a  large  leaf  as  a  substitute  for  the  bliock. 

A  popular  view  of  the  process  of  printing 
calicoes  may,  however,  be  furnished  prior  to  a 
more  scientific  analysis  of  the  various  processes. 
Some  calicoes  are  only  printed  of  one  color, 
others  have  two,  others  three  or  more,  even  to 
the  number  of  eight,  ten,  or  twelve.  The  smaller 
the  number  of  colors,  the  fewer  in  general  are 
the  processes. 

One  of  the  most  common  colon  on  cotton 
prints  is  a  kind  of  nankeen  yellow,  of  varioua 
shades,  down  to  a  deep  yellowish  brown,  or 
drab.  It  is  usually  in  stripes  or  apots.  To 
produce  it,  the  pnnters  slightly  coat  a  block, 
cut  out  into  the  fi^re  of  the  print,  with  acetate 
of  iron,  thickened  with  gum  or  flour;  and  apply 
it  to  the  cotton,  whicl^  after  being  dried  and 
cleansed  in  the  usual  manner,  is  plunged  into  a 
potash  ley.  The  quantity  of  acetate  of  iron  is 
always  proportioned  to  the  depth  of  the  shade. 
For  yellow  the  block  is  coated  in  a  similar  way 
with  acetate  of  alumina.  The  cloth,  after  receiv- 
ing this  mordant,  is  dyed  with  quercitron  bark, 
and  then  bleached.  Red  is  communicated  by 
the  same  ptocess;  only  madder  is  substituted 
for  the  bark.  The  fine  light  blues  which  appear 
so  often  on  printed  cottons  are  produced  by  ap- 
plyii^  to  the  cloth  a  block  covered  with  a  com- 
position, consisting  partly  of  wax,  which  covers 
all  those  parts  of  the  cloth  which  are  to  remain 
white.  The  cloth  is  then  dyed  in  a  cold  indigo 
vat;  and  after  it  is  dry  the  wax  composition  is 
removed  by  hot  water.  lilac,  flea  brown,  and 
blackish  brown,  are  given  by  means  of  acQtate 
of  iron;  the  quantity  of  which  is  always  pro^ 
portioned  to  the  depth  of  the  shade.  For  very 
deep  colors,  a  little  sumach  is  added.  The 
cotton  is  afterwards  dyed  in  the  usual  manner 
with  madder,  and  then  bleached.  Dove-color 
and  drab,  by  acetate  of  iron  and  quercitron  bark. 
When  difierent  colors  are  to  appear  in  the  same 
print,  a  greater  number  of  operations  are  neces- 
sary. Two  or  more  blocks  are  employed,  upon 
each  6f  which  that  part  of  the  print  only  is  cut, 
which  is  to  be  of  some  particular  color.  These 
are  coated  with  different  mordants,  and  applied 
to  the  cloth.  Which  is  afterwards  dyed  as  usual. 

Dr.  Ure  furnishes  the  following  important 
observations  on  calico  printing,  for  which  he 
states  that  he  is  indebted  to  a  much  esteemed 
friend,  who  unites  scientific  knowledge  to  prac- 
tical skill.  It  occdrs  in  the  second  volume  of 
Benhollet's  Art  6f  Dyeing. 

To  bleach  cloth  for  printing,  it  is  first  of  all 
to  be  singed,,  and  then  steeped  in  ivarm  i^aler 
(somctitiles  with  to  addition  of  spent  ley)  for  a 
day  or  two.  It  is  then  ^ell  Washed  and  boiled 
in  pota^  ley,  five  different  times. 

Fer  90ef0  lbs.  (original  weight)  of  cloth,  1000 


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gpdloos  of  water,  and  forty  to  fortv-five  lbs.  of 
potuh  are  employed  eaeh  time.  The  boiling  is 
coQthiiwd  eight  or  ten  hours. 

Betwiit  earii  operation  the  oloth  mutt  be  well 
washed,  and  after  the  third  and  fimrth  boil  it 
most  be  spread  upon  the  grass,  or  steeped  for  a 
nkht  in  a  weak  solution  of  ehloride  of  lime. 
After  this  it  is  winced  a  few  minutes  in  a  warm 
diiute  sulphuric  acid,  well  washed,  and  dried. 

The  pnnctpal  processes,  or  rather  styles  of 
^ork,  as  they  are  called,  are  the  following  :^- 

1.  Single  colored  plates. 

2.  Ditto  ditto  grounded. 

3.  Light  or  dark  chintses. 

4.  Dvk  grounds,  with  a  white  discharge. 

5.  Slue  grounds  with  a  white  resist. 

6.  Blue  grounds,  with  a  red  and  white  resist 
together. 

7.  Chemical  or  spirit  colors. 

1.  Singie  colon  are  called  plates  from  their 
bemg  generally  printed  with  the  copper  plate. 
This  process  consists  generally  in  printmg  a 
miordant  upon  the  cloth;  which  mordant  attracts 
a  coloring  matter  when  the  cloth  is  dyed.  The 
mordant  is  different,  according  to  the  color  ihat 
is  wanted. 

For  Uaek.  An  acetate  of  iron  is  used  of  the 
specific  gravity  1*040. 

For  pSfple.  An  acetate  Of  iron,  specific  gra- 
vity 1'I2,  with  six,  eight,  or  twelve  times  its 
voiame  of  water,  according  to  the  shade  of  color 
reonired,  and  the  mass  to  be  printed. 

For  red.  A  solution  of  three  pounds  alum  in 
a  gallon  of  water,  one  half  of  which  is  decOm- 
p«€d  by  acetate  of  lifne  or  lead. 

For  chocolate.  Mixtures  of  acetate  df  'ht5n, 
specific  gravity  1*12,  with  red  mordant,  in  the 
proportions  of  one  to  two,  four,  six,  according  to 
the  shade. 

Each  of  these  mordants  is  thickened  With 
flour,  or  in  some  cases  with  gum,  aod  printed 
opoD  the  bleached  clodi.  After  being  exposed 
to  the  air  for  a  few  days,  in  a  warm  room,  the 
goods  are  taken  down  and  passed  through  the 
dong  copper  at  a  heat  of  from  150^  to  that  of 
boiling  water.  They  are  then  washed,  and 
winced  in  another  dean  dung  copper,  at  a  lower 
degree  of  heat  than  before,  and  then  washed 
again.    They  are  now  ready  to  be  dyed. 

All  the  colors  last  mentioned,  viz.  black,  pur- 
ple, red,  and  chocolate,  are  dyed  with  madder 
and  sumach,  except  purple,  in  which  the  sumach 
is  omitted.  Different  quantities  of  madder  are 
used,  according  to  the  quantity  of  color  on  the 
dotb,  from  one  pound  per  piece  of  twenty -one 
square  yards,  to  three  and  even  three  and  a  half 
poands;  the  sumach  about  one-eighth  of  the 
madder.  The  goods  are  entered  when  the  cop- 
per is  cool,  and  the  heat  is  brought  up  gradually 
daring  two  or  three  hours,  and  sometimes  the 
ebullition  is  kept  up  for  a  qoart^  of  an  hour; 
the  pieces  all  the  while  being  turned  over  a 
wince,  firofli  the  one  side  of  the  copper  vessel  to 
fbe  other.  They  are  then  washed,  and  boiled  in 
inan  and  water  ten  or  fifteen  minutes.  If  they 
here  mudi  white,  they  mtistbe  branned  a  seoond 
aod  a  thiid  time,  washing  between  each  opera- 
tion. To  complete  the  whitening,  they  are 
ipind  vpon  the  grass  ^r  a  few  days;  or  what  is 


more  expeditious,  and  more  generally  practised 
now,  they  are  winced  a  abort  time  in  a  warm 
but  weak  solution  df  chloride  of  lime. 

For  inSgo  blue.  A  strong  solution  of  caustit 
potash  is  made,  in  every  gallon  of  which,  by  the 
aid  of  as  much  orpiment,  twelve  or  sixteen 
ounces  of  good  indigo  is  dissolved.  This  solu- 
tion, when  clear,  is  thickened  with  gum.  This 
being  printed  upon  the,  cloth,  nothing  more  is 
necessary  than  to  wash  it  when  dry. 

For  Prtutian  blue.  The  same  mordant  is 
used  as  for  black ;  but,  after  cleansing,  the  piece 
is  winced  in  a  solution  of  pnissiate  of  potash, 
in  which  the  prussic  acid  has  been  set  nee  by 
means  of  sulphuric  acid. 

For  gold.  Five  oounds  Sulphate  of  iron  and 
one  pound  and  a  naif  acetate  of  lead  are  dis- 
solved in  a  gallon  of  water ;  the  solution,  thick- 
ened with  gum,  is  printed  on  the  cloth;  and, 
oftei  eight  or  ten  days'  age,  is  winced  in  a  solu- 
tion of  potash  made  thick  with  lime.  As  soon 
as  the  black  oxide  of  iron,  >vhich  is  precipitated, 
commences  to  redden,  the  piece  is  removed  to  a 
vessel  of  water,  and  then  washed. 

2.  A  second,  and  sometimes  third  <color,  is 
grounded  or  printed  in  with  a  small  block,  ge- 
nerally after  the 'first  has  been  dyed. 

Bark  yellow.  A  mordant  is  used,  the  same  as 
for  red.  The  piece,  when  slightly  dunged,  is . 
dyed  about  an  nour  with  one  pound  of  quercitron 
bark,  the  infusion  being  gradually  heated  during 
that  time  to  130**  or  160*. 

'Berry  yellow.  A  decoction  of  French,  or 
Turkey,  or  Persian  berries,  with  h^f  a  pound  of 
alum  per  gallon,  is  thickened  with  flour  or  gum ; 
and  tne  piece,  wben  dry,  is  passed  through  a 
weak  alkaline  carbonate,  or  lime-water. 

Verdigris  green,  A  solution  of  sulphate  and 
acetate  ot  copper  is  put  on  cloth,  which  is  then 
passed  througnastrongsolution  of  potash,  in  which 
some  protoxide  of  arsenic  has  been  dissolved. 

Drab.  The  same  mordant  as  is  used  for  pur- 
ine.   Bark,  the  dye  stuif. 

Olive.  The  chocolate  mordant  dyed  in  bark. 
Both  these  very  much  diluted,  and  thickened 
with  gum. 

Bt^  A  weak  acetate  of  iron  is  applied,  and 
washed  In  water. 

3.  Chintzes.—A  number  of  different  colors 
printed  upon  cloth  together,  viz.  black,  red,  one 
or  two'pale  reds,  purple,  blue,  green,  and  yellow. 
The  black,  red,  and  blue,  are  die  same  as  in  No. 
1 ;  the  purple  as  No.  1  thickened  with  gum ; 
die  two  pale  reds  are  weaker  solutions  of  alum 
and  acetate  of  alumina,  thickened  with  gum; 
the  yellow  is  betty  yellow,  applied  after  the  other 
colors  are  finishea ;  the  green  is  formed  by  the 
yellow  falling  upon  the  blue ;  and  all  the  varie- 
ties of  orange,  olive,  &c.,  by  its  ^ling  upon  the 
pale  reds  and  purple.  The  dyeing  and  subse- 
quent bleaching  are  the  same  as  nas  been  de- 
scribed in  No.  1,  with  madder  only. 

4.  A  ikark  ground  discharged. — When  the 
discharge  is  printed  before  the  mordant,  it 
consists  of  concentrated  lime  juice  alone,  thiek- 
ened  with  gum.  The  mordant,  which  is  also 
thickened,  is  blotched  over. the  whole  piece, 
and  dried  off  it  as  quickly  as  possible.  vVhen 
the  mordant  is  applied  first  it  is  not  thickened, 


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and  the  acid  has  an  addition  of  one  pound  bi- 
gulphate  of  potash  in  each  gallon.  They  are 
dunged  and  dyed  like  other  single  colors. 
Blacks,  instead  of  madder,  are  generally  dyed 
with  logwood  and  galls. 

5.  Blue  grounds.^To  make  a  blue  paste  for 
dark  blues,  three  or  four  pounds  sulphate  of 
copper  are  dissolved  in  a  gallon  of  water,  with 
a  pound  or  a  pound  and  a  faalf  of  acetate  of  lead. 
The  dear  solution  is  thickened  with  pipe-clay 


added.  The  mixture  ■  to  be  careftiUy  adtred 
for  some  time,  and,  when  tlie  liquor  -begins  to 
clarify,  the  potash  is  put  in,  then  the  cbalk,  in 
small  portions  at  a  time,  to  avoid  too  great  an 
effervescence.  The  whole  must  now  be  stirred 
for  an  hour  and  left  to  settle.  The  clear  liquor 
is  used  as  occasion  requires. 

For  strong  reds  (fall  reds)  the  above  mordant 
is  thickened  with  starch.    This  is  called  first  red. 

If  reds  of  a  weaker  tone  be  wanted,  the  mor- 


and  gum.    The  pieces  printed  with  this  paste    <lant  is  thickened  with  gum. 


are  hooked  upon  a  frame,  and  dipped  in  a  weak 
blue  vat  five  or  six  tiroes ;  then  taken  out  and 
kept  in  the  air  till  they  become  blue.  Alternate 
immersions  and  airings  are  thus  continued  till 
the  requisite  shade  has  been  obtained.     The 


For  the  second  red,  three  pints  of  the  mordant 
are  thickened  with  two  pounds  and  a  half  of 
gum  dissolved  inr  a  pint  of  cold  water.  The 
whole  is  well  mixed  by  due  agitation. 

For  the  third  redy  two  litres  (a  pot)  of  mordant 


goods  are  then  vrashed  and  dipped  in  a  weak    are  mixed  with  the  solution  of  five  pounds  of 
sulphuric  acid,  to  dissolve  the  oxide  of  copper,    gum,  dissolved  in  three  pots  of  cold  water 


The  blue  vat,  as  is  weU  known,  is  made  by  one 
part  of  indigo,  with  two  parts  sulphate  of  iron,  and 
about  two  and  a  hal(  parts  hydnte  of  lime. 
6.  A  mordant  for  red,  to  resist  the  blue  vat,  is 


made  by  dissolving  about  four  ounces  acetate  of   copperas. 


The  above  red  mordant  serves  also  for  weld  fus- 
tic and  quercitron  yellows,  with  all  their  shades. 

Mdrdant  for  blacks.  Twelve  pints  of  iron 
liquor  (pyroUgnate  of  iron).    Four  ounces  of 


copper  in  a  red  mordant,  made  fxom  four  pounds 
of  alum,  and  two  oounds  and  a  half  acetate  of 
lead  per  gallon,  and  thickening  the  solution  vnth 
pipe-clay  and  gum.  When  this  is  printed  upon 
the  cloth,  and  dipped  in  the  blue  vat,  it  resists  the 
blue,  and  a  white  is  left,  which,  when  dunged  and 
dyed  in  madder,  becomes  red. 


Dissolve  the  copperas  m  the  liquor;  and, afier 
having  decanted  the  clear,  mix  in  gradually  four 
pounds  of  starch.  Heat  in  a  trailer,  stirring 
continually,  and  take  it  out  when  the  starch  is 
well  boiled. 

Another  black  mordant.  For  eight  pounds  of 
iron  liquor,  take  about  two  pounds  and  a  half  of 


A  white  called  neiUnd  is  made  by  dissolving    superfine  wheat  flour,  which  is  to  be  gradually 


sulphate  of  copper  in  concentrated  lime  juice, 
and  is  used  along  with  this  red.  It  must  possess 
the  three  following  properties : — t .  Resisting  the 
blue ;  2.  Remaimng  white  after  dyeing,  when 
the  red  happens  to  go  over  it ;  3.  To  leave  no 
oxide  of  copper  upon  the  cloth. 

A  berry  yellow  is  grounded  in  after  the  blue, 
white,  and  red,  in  this  sWle,  are  finished. 

7.  Chemical  colors — This  name  has  been  given 
to  those  colors  which  are  applied  topically; 
most  of  them  are  ftigitive* 

Black,  A  decoction  of  logwood  and  galls, 
thickened  with  flour,  and,  when  cold,  nitrate  of 
iron  mixed  with  it. 

Red.  A  decoction  of  Brasil  or  peach  wood, 
with  the  protomuriate  or  permuriate  of  tin. 

Fwple,  A  decoction  of  logwood  with  muri- 
ate of  tin.  ' 

Blue»  Ground  Prussian  blue  is  soaked  in 
muriatic  acid  for  a  day  9r  two,  and  then  as  much 
of  it  mixed  with  gum  ttagacanth  water  as  is  suf- 
ficient to  give  it  Sie  desired  shade. 

Yellow,  A  decoction  of  fustic  with  muriate 
of  tin. 

Green,    A  mixture  of  the  blue  and  yellow. 

All  these  colors  are  *nply  washed  off*  in  v^lfer. 

M.  Vitalis  gives  the  followii]^  prescriptions  in 
calico-printing : — 

Mordant  for  reds,  240  litres  of  boiling  water ; 
150  pounds  of  pure  alum;  fifty  pound  ji  of  acetate 
of  lc»d ;  six  pounds  of  commercial  potash  or 
soda;  six  pounds  of  chalk;  three  pounds  of 
ground  Brasil  wood. 

Into  a  vat  capable  of  holding  400  litres,  and 
partly  filled  with  the  240  litres  of  boiling  water. 


mixed  up  with  a  portion  of  the  liquor;  then  add 
the  remainder  of  this,  and  leave  at  rest  for  twelve 
or  twenty-four  hours,  or  even  longer.  Then  boil 
for  half  an  hour,  or  till  the  mixture  has  acquired 
the  consistence  of  a  paste.  The  boiler  is  ^en  to 
be  removed  from  the  fire,  and  the  mordant  is  to 
be  stirred  till  it  becomes  cold.  It  is  now  to  be 
passed  through  a  sieve,  and  used  in  printing. 

These  mordants  give  a  beautiful  black  with 
logwood,  and  especially  madder. 

Under  the  Chemical  Black,  in  Rees's  Cyclo- 
pedia (article  Color),  we  lave  the  following 
recipes : — 

To  a  decoction  of  Aleppo  galls,  in  five  times 
their  weight  of  water,  made  into  a  paste  with 
flour,  add  a  solution  of  iron  in  nitrous  acid,  of 
specific  gravity  1*25,  in  the  proportion  of  one 
measure  of  nitrate  of  iron  to  eighteen  or  twenty 
of  the  decoption,  and  a  black  will  be  formed  fit 
for  almost  all  the  purposes  of  calico  printing, 
and  possessing  the  cnier  requisites  of  this  color, 
namely,  tolerable  fixity,  and  a  disposition  to 
work  well  with  the  block. 

When  a  nitric  solution  of  iron  is  added  to  a 
decoction  of  the  galls,  the  solution  is  decomposed, 
the  oxide  of  iron  unites  with  gallic  acid  and  tan- 
ning principle,  while  the  nitrous  acid  is  disen- 
gaged. This  appears  from  the  blackness  which 
Uie  solutions  iissume  immediately  on  being 
mixed.'  The  disengaged  acid,  however,  re-acts 
in  a  short  time'on  ue  new  compound,  the  black- 
ness gradually  disappears,  and,  if  the  nitrate  of 
iron  has  been  added  in  proper  quantity,  the 
paste  in  a  few  days  becomes,  from  a  black,  of  a 
dirty  olive  green.     When  the  proportion  of  ni- 


Uie  alum  in  powder  is  put,  and  then  the  decoction  trate  of  iron  is  greater  than  one-eighteenth,  this 
of  Brasil  wood.  After  stirring  till  the  alum  is  change  takes  place  sooner;  and,  if  it  amounts  to 
dissolved,   the  acetate  of  lead  in  powder  is    one-tenth,  the  paste,  when  applied  to  the  dfoth. 


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will  be  ^  lifig^^t  oraQge,  like  the  acetate  of  iroo. 
By  ej^posqjt  to  heat  and  airtl^is  color  generally 
deepest,  bepoming  gray,  and  at'last  ami  black. 
Id  this  9tate  it  b  permanent,  and  adheres  pofrec^ 
fuUy  to.the  doth. 

'Htese  flanges  of  color  depend  on  the  solution 
of  the  taoBateand  galiate  of  iron  in  the  disen- 
gaged nitrous  acid^  and  the  dissipation  of  the 
acid  froip  the  cloth,  ^hea  it  is  exposed  to  heat 
and  air.  This  solution  of  the  tannate  and  gallate 
of  iron  is  indeed  to  essential  csqulsite  to  the 
goodness  of  the  chemical  black.  If  the  disen- 
gaged acid  is  not  sufficient  to  effect  this,  or  if  it 
is  in  a  state  of  too  great  dilution,  the  color  has 
bnt  a  feeble  adherence  to  the  clotb.  It  is  not 
piesenled  in  a  state  favorable  to  its  union  with 
It,  aince  the  combination  into  which  the  iron  has 
Altered  ii  insoluble  in  water.  It  lies  merely  on 
tl^  surihce,  bat  does  not  penetrate  its  fibres,  and 
gtfres  way  readily  in  the  Tatious  operations  to  which 
it  is  subjected.  This  chemical  hlaick,  therefore, 
is  a  sohition  of  the  tadnate  aud  gallate  of  iron  in 
nitric  acid. 

MordanU  for  violets  (from  Vitalis).  First 
vio2e<.— Sixteen  pints  of  iron  liquor ;  eight  pints 
of  water ;  four  ouncei  of  Roman  ritriol  (sul- 
pha^ of  copper).  This  mixture  is  to  be  thick- 
ened  with  powdered  gum,  in  the  propratioti  of  a 
pound  to  tne  pint. 

Second  vioirt. — Mix  three  parts  of  the  pre- 
ening with  one  of  water,  and  thicken  as  above. 

TkirU  irio/e/.-^Dilate  two  parts  of  the  first 
mordant  with  three  of  water. 

Coffee  cohr.-^Ten  pints  of  iron  liquor ;  two 
pints  of  the  mordant  oi  the  first  red ;  four  pints 
of  water.    Thicken  with  starch. 

Piicej  or  carmelUe  color, — ^Three  pints  of 
BfoidaDt  of  the  first  red ;  half  pint  of  iron  liquor. 

De^  brown. — ^Two  pints  of  red  mordant; 
Mf  pint  of  iron  liquor. 

Marroon  color  (ckestnut-brotm). — Two  pints 
of  violet  mordant ;  one  pint  of  red  moiaant ; 
eight  ounces  of  green  copperas,  to  be  dissolved 
ia  the  mixed  mordants. 

Mordori^ — Eight  pints  of  violet  mordant; 
twelve  pints  of  red  mordant.* 

Deep  IH0C. — One  pint  of  violet  mordant;  one 
pint  of  mordant  for  thcj  second  red. 

U^  Ulac. — One  pint  of  violet  mordant; 
three  pints  of  mordant  of  the  second  red. 

Mutk  cofer.— One  pint  of  red  mordant ;  three 
pmts  of  black  moidant. 

IneanuUe  (flesh)  color;  color  betioeen  cherry 
and  rose^— Ten  pints  of  red  mordant ;  one  pii|t 
of  black  mordant 

Olxoe  00/or.^-^Welding  on  the  moidant  of  the 
first,  second,  or  Uiird  violet. 

fUdda  co^.-^Weldiiig  on  puoe  mordant. 

We  ;aiay  now  select  from  Vitalis  some  eSc- 
ample?  of  the  jnode  of  managing  the  difierent 
styles  of  calico  printing.  We  shall  place  them 
in  the  order  in  which  they  occur  under  each 
bead.    We  may  commence  with 

CaUeoes  of  one  block, — ^Fi rst  example.  Violet 
00  a  white  ground,  t.  Impression  of  violet 
mordant;  2.  JDunging  and  washing;. 3.  Mad- 
<^iog;  4.  Branning  and  exposure  on  the  grass 
ibr  a  few  days,  to  clear  the  grounds. 

.Second  example.  Black  on  a  yellow  ground. 
Vol.  XV7II. 


1.  Qa&  of  yellow  monjant;  2.  Welding;  3. 
Topical  black. 

Ctdkoesbf  two  btocks.-^Smt  example.  First 
olive  and  second  olive  on  a  white  ground.  1. 
Impression  of  the  first  olive  mordant ;  2.  Im- 
pression of  the  second  olive  mordant;  3.  Weld- 
ing. 

Second  example.  Red  and  btue  on  a  white 
ground.    .1.  Impression  of  the  red  mordant: 

2.  Maddering;  3.  Impression  by  the  block  of 
topical  blue.  When  the  calico  is  to  have  several 
colors,  says  M.  Vitalis,  for  example,  black, 
several  reds,  sieveral  violets,  &c.,  as  many  mor- 
dants must  be  given  as  there  are  different  colors, 
which  must  be  inserted  (rentr^s)  into  the  first 
plate  (figure),  called  the  plate  of  impression 
(printing  block,  planche  d'impression).  The  in- 
jsection^^roitiage)  of  the  mordants  is  executed  by 
means  of  blocks  (planches),  whidi  take  the  ndme 
of  rentreures.  These  bloicks  are  engraved  with 
the  same  patterns  as  the  printing  Uocks,  but  so 
as  dmt  they  apply  the  new  mordants  only  to  the 

fflaoes  of  Uie  inttern  reserved  in  the  first  blocks, 
t  may  be  ceaddy  conceived  how  necessary  it  is 
for  these  blocks  to  have  an  ei^act  correspondence 
with  one  another,  otherwise  the  colors  would  not 
be  comprised  within  the  limits  of  their  outlines. 
'This  nnlt  is  too  often  met  with  in  common 
prints,  on  account  of  the  rapidity  with  which 
they  are  worked  off,  and  the  httle/care  taken  in 
their'&brication.  In  order  that  evety  color  may 
occupy  the  place  assigned  to  it  in  the  drawn 
pattern  <le  aessein  enlumin6),  adjusting  bmss 
points  (picots  de  rapports)  are  made  use  o^ 
which  guide  die  printing  on  of  the  successive 
mordants,  at  precisely  that  place  of  the  figure 
where  the  color  to  be  produced  from  each  mor> 
dant  ought  to  frill. 

Third  example.  Yellow  end  black  on  a  white 
ground.  U  llmpressibn  of  the  yellow  mordant, 
weldiiig ;  2.  Impnessioti  of  topical  black. 

>  Calicoes  of  thfee  bMts, — ^Example.  First  olive, 
second  olive,  and  yellorw  on  a  white  ground.  1. 
Impression  of  Ihe  firstolive  mordant ;  2.  Impres- 
ftion  of  the  second  olive  mordant ;  3.  Impnsssion 
of  the  y^ow  mordant;  4.  Welding. 

iThe  ithifd  blook  (tnain)  might  also  be  performed 
by  the  impression  of  the  topical  yellow. 

CaUooes  o/yMiri/ocfts.*^  Example.  Black,  red, 
violet,  and  ji^low  on  white.  1 .  Impiession  of 
the  black  mordant;  2^ Impression  of  the  red 
mordant; -3.. Madding;  4.  Impression  of  to- 
pical yellow,  or  of  the  yellow  mordant,  and 
welding. 

CaUcoes  offivt  6/asc/».— Example.  Black,  red, 
violet,  yellow,  and  blue.  1 .  Impression  of  the 
black  mordant;.  2.  .Impression  of  .the  red  mor- 
dant; 9.  Impression  of  the  violet  mordant;  4. 
Maddeiing,  mseition.of  the  blue^and  afterwards 
of  the  yellpw. 

Calicoes  (f  sis  6Zac^s.— Example.  First  olive, 
second  olive,,  black,  first  red,  tiecond  red,  and 
yellow  on  white  ground.  1.  Impression  of  the 
black  mordant ;  2.  Impression  of  the  first  red- 
mordant  ;  3.  Impression  of  the  second  red  mor- 
dant ;  4.  Maddering ;  5.  Impression  of  the  se- 
cond olive  mordant ;  6.  Impiession  of  the  yel- 
low mordant;  7.  Welding.  * 

It  is  now  very  seldom,  however,  that  the  num- 

H 


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ber  q(  three  blocks  (courses)  is  exceeded,  on 
account  of  the  high  price  to  which  the  labor 
would  necessarily  raise  the  calico.  The  follow- 
ing ift  an  example  of  printing  in  fugitive  colors : 
violet,  black,  red,  ana  yellow,  on  white  ground. 
These  four  topical  colors  are  successively  applied, 
in  the  order  above  mentioned. 

Calicoes  with  fast  colors,  after  receiving  the 
impressions,  are  dried,  and  washed,  from  the 
mordants,  when  they  are  ready  for  the  maddering. 

Goods  printed  by  reserve  are  so  called,  be- 
cause the  color  does  not  strike  the  whole  surface, 
but  only  certain  unprotected  portions  of  it.  The 
reserve  is  composed  of  the  reserve  bath,  and  the 
thickening. 

A  merve  bath  is  thus  formed :  dissolve  in  a 
pint  of  water  six  ounces  of  sulphate  of  copper, 
three  ounces  of  verdigris,  two  ounces  of  alum, 
and  four  ounces  of  gum  arabic. 

Another  reserve  bath  may  be  noticed :  dissolve 
m  two  litres  of  water  four  ounces  of  iloman 
vitriol  (sulphate  of  copper),  and  six  ounces  of 
verdigris,  to  which  add  one  pound  of  gum  arable ; 
and,  when  it  is  dissolved,  pass  through  a  fine 
sieve,  or  let  it  settle,  and  decant. 

To  thicken  the  bath,  knead  a  pound  of  pipe- 
clay, well  ground  and  sifted,  with  three  or  four 
ounces  of  water :  with  this  thick  dough  carefully 
mix  the  reserve  bath,  and  triturate  well  before 
making  use  of  it.  The  reserve  is  printed  on 
the  goods  like  the  mordants.  Twenty-four  hours 
after  the  impression  the  goods  are  to  be  passed 
through  the  dyeing  vat.  This  style  is  much  used 
in  blue  dipping. 

The  theory  of  the  reserve  is  very  simple.  The 
oxide  of  copper,  which  forms  the  basis  of  the 
reserve,  restores  to  the  indigo  the  oxygen  which 
it  had  been  deprived  of  by  the  sulphate  of  iron. 
The  reoxygenated  indigo  loses  its  solubility,  and 
consequently  cannot  fix  on  the  stuC  Since  the 
reserve,  intended  to  nullify  the  action  of  the 
indigo  essentially,  acts  merely  by  the  oxide  of 
copper  which  it  contains,  it  follows  that  the 
proportions  of  this  oxide  are  not  indifferent,  and 
that  the  measure  will  not  perfectly  accomplish 
its  end,  unless  the  dose  of  oxide  of  copper, 
which  the  sulphate,  &c.,  can  furnish,  be  adequate 
to  neutralize  the  action  of  the  indigo.  A  similar 
result  would  ensue,  if  the  reserve  be  not  suitably 
thickened.  Some  object  to  the  introduction  of 
alum. 

The  proportions  of  the  cupreous  salts  ought, 
however,  to  be  as  little  as  can  effect  the  pur- 
pose ;  if  their  quantity  be  too  great,  their  opera- 
tion would  be  extended  to  the  indigo  diffused 
through  the  bath.  Sometimes  the  sulphate  of 
copper  is  made  to  predominate,  and  sometimes 
the  acetate. 

The  following  recipes  for  reserves  are  given  by 
M.  Vitalis  :— 

1.  Sulphate  of  copper 
Acetate  of  copper 
Gum  . 
Alum 
Water 

2.  Sulphate  of  copper 
Acetate 
Alum 
Gum 
Water 


.  20  pounds 

.  12 

.  16 

.    5 

.  32  litres 

.  16  pounds 

.  24 

.     4 

.  15  lb.  8  oz 

.    8  litres. 

The  thickening  is  always  made  with  pipe  daj. 

To  make  a  ski^-blue  nn  a  dark  6lue.— 1.  Dye 
the  cloth  of  a  sky-blue;  2.  Apply  the  usual  re- 
serve ;  3.  Pass  the  cloth  through  a  strong  bine 
vat.  Brighten  in  a  bath,  feebly  acidulat^  with 
oil  of  vitriol  (or  muriatic  acid),  to  carry  off  the 
particles  of  lime  suspended  in  the  vat  Wash 
and  dry. 

Slj^bhtey  darh4fluey  and  wAite.— 1.  Apply  the 
reserve ;  2.  Dye  sky-blue ;  3.  Apply  the  resctre 
anew ;  4.  Pass  through  a  blue  vat  of  sufficient 
strength. 

Deep btuCt  tf^-hUuy  greeny  yeUowiond  white. — 

1.  Print  on  the  reserve;  2.  Pass  through  a 
weak  vat,  giving  two  or  three  dips ;  dry,  bri^ten 
with  very  dilute  sulphuric  acid,  wash,  dry  again ; 
3.  Print  on  once  more  the  common  reserve 
paste ;  4.  Dye  in  a  stronger  vat  than  the  above, 
till  the  blue  be  sufficiently  deep ;  dry,  brig'hten 
as  before,  wash  and  dry ;  5^  Print  on  the  red 
mordant,  and  dry ;  6.  Give  the  weld  or  quer- 
citron. The  mordant  applied  to  the  white  spots, 
and  to  the  pale  blue  (petit  blanc),  affords  yellow 
and  green.  The  white  portions  that  have  not 
been  touched  with  the  mordant  remain  white,  in 
like  manner  as  the  pale  blue  spaces,  not  covered 
by  this  mordant,  furnish  the  pale  blue.  Reserves 
are  also  applied  to  silks.  For  example,  on  the 
handkerchiefs  called  foulards,  the'  reserve  is 
styled  waxing.  A  mixture  of  tallow  and  resin  is 
melted,  and  applied  to  the  silk  with  the  block ; 
this  reserve  being  given,  the  silk  is  dipped  in  the 
blue  vaL  The  reserved  portions,  being  defended 
from  the  action  of  the  indigo,  remain  white, 
while  the  rest  of  the  surface  takes  a  fiist  blue. 

Sky-blue^  red,  and  white.^^\.  Apply  the  usual 
reserve;  2.  Apply  the  red  mordant,  thickened 
with  pipe-clay,  and  dry ;  pass  through  a  weak 
blue  vat,  to  obtain  sky-blue ;  wash  at  the  river, 
madder,  wash,  and  spread  out  on  the  grass  to 
clear  the  white. 

Printing  with  ditcharget  (par  rongeant)  on  a 
mordant.'^Tihis  process  serves  to  form  mourning 
garments,  composed  of  a  white  figure  on  a  black 
ground.  The  piece  of  goods  is  first  passed 
through  the  black  mordant  by  means  of  the  pad- 
ding or  blotching  machine.  When  this  mordant 
is  very  dry  (by  passing,  for  example,  over  steam 
cylinders),  the  white  discharge  is  applied,  pre- 
pared with  nitric,  oxalic,  tartaric,  or  citric  acid, 
or  bisulphate  of  potash,  thickened  with  roasted 
starch  (British  gum).  It  is  dried,  washed,  and 
maddered.  On  quitting  the  madder  bath,  the 
goods  must  be  well  washed,  and  exposed  on  the 
grass  till  the  whites  be  very  clear. 

The  portions  of  the  cloth  where  the  mordant 
has  not  oeen  acted  on  by  the  dischaiige  will  take 
a  black  of  a  greater  or  less  depth  from  the  mad- 
der, while,  on  those  places  where  the  discharge 
has  been  applied,  the  mordant  will  be  removed, 
and  the  madder  color  will  not  combine  with  the 
stuff.  Exposure  on  the  grass  will  cany  off  the 
loose  madaer.  In  like  manner,  by  this  process, 
white  figures  may  readily  be  obthinea  on  a 
^und  of  red,  carmelite,  violet,  puce,  &c. ;  since 
It  will  be  necessary  merely  to  pass  through  the 
mordant  of  one  of  these  colors,  then  to  apply  the 
white  discharge,  and  finally  to  madder.  To  have 
white  figures  on  an  olive  ground,  weld  or  quer- 
citron must  be  used  instead  of  madder. 

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PriiUmg  with  a  discharge  on  eohr  (dyed 
mdb^— Suppose  that  the  <^ico  has  been  dyed 
u  a  logwooa  baih,  mixed  with  iron  liquor,  the 
doth  will  take  a  black  color.  If^  after  dyeing, 
it  be  impressed  with  a  solution  of  tin,  properly 
thickened,  the  ferruginous  portions  of  tbe  cloth 
touched  with  the  discharge  will  be  removed,  and 
they  will  pass  from  a  deep  black  to  a  very  bril^ 
liant  crimson. 

By  subjecting  to  the  same  treatment  calicoes 
dyed  of  di^rent  colors  and  shades,  determined 
by  the  different  degrees  of  oxidizement  of  the 
iron,  a  multitude  oi  varieties  will  be  produced, 
either  in  the  colors  or  in  their  shades. 

By  a  similar  operation,  we  may  make  figures 
of  a  beautiful  green  on  goods,  by  dyeing  them 
first  of  a  pale  blue  in  the  indigo  vat,  passing 
them  then  through  a  bath  of  sumach  and  sulphate 
of  iron,  and  finishing  in  a  bath  of  quercitron 
with  alum. 

Here  the  green  color  produced  by  the  indigo 
and  the  quercitron  remains  masked,  as  well  as 
the  other  colors,  by  the  oxide  of  iron  in  the  sul- 
phate, till  the  solution  of  tin  be  applied,  which 
causes  the  other  colors  to  disappear,  and  gives  to 
choae  that  remain  a  lustre  wnich  they  would 
not  otherwise  have  had ;  because  the  solution  of 
bD  renders  the  quercitron  yellow  more  vivid, 
and  because  from  this  vivid  yellow,  associated 
with  the  blue,  results  a  more  brilliant  green. 

A  %ure  of  aurora  color  on  an  olive  ground 
may  be  made^  by  passing  the  cloth  first  throu|^ 
a  bath  of  sumach  and  sulphate  of  iron,  then 
washing  in  an  alkaline  decoction  of  fiistet,  and 
priming  on  at  last  the  solution  of  tin. 

Let.us  give  for  an  example  the  mode  of  making 
jdlow  figures  on  olive.  The  problem  is  reduced 
to  find  a  discharge,  which,  in  destroying  the 
color  communicated  by  iron,  can  at  the  same 
time  dmoge  the  color  to  yellow.  This  discharge 
is  the  thickened  solution  of  tin.  To  the  solution 
of  salt  of  tin  (muriate)  a  little  muriatic  acid  is 
added.  This  is  tbickened  with  starch  previously 
boiled,  in  a  very  thick  and  cold  state,  observing 
to  pour  in  the  solution  in  small  portions,  in 
order  to  ensure  the  thorough  union  of  the  ingre- 
dients. As  soon  as  the  piece  has  been  impre^ed 
with  this  discharge,  it  is  carried  to  the  river  to 
be  washed,  and  to  prevent  the  discharge  from 
acting  too  long  on  the  color.  If  the  pattern  re- 
q^iin^  black,  it  would  be  necessary  to  apply  it 
before  the  yellow  discharge. 

CaUeo  printing  by  the  combined  methode  qfdit- 
r^orge*  an  the  mordant  and  on  the  df^.-^First  ex- 
ample. Olive,  yellow,  and  white.  1.  Pass  through 
the  olive  moitiant.  2.  Print  on  the  white  dis- 
chaige ;  wash  and  dry.  3.  Weld.  4.  Print  on 
the  yellow  discharge. 

Second  example^ — Bright  red,  and  dull  red ; 
white,  yellow,  and  black,  on  an  olive  ground. 
1.  Print  on  Uie  red  mordant.  2.  Madder.  3. 
Pass  through  the  olive  mordant.  4.  Print  oU 
tlte  white  disdiarge.  5.  Weld.  6.  Print  on  the 
)ellow  discharge  and  the  topical  black,  and  wash. 

Tbe  colors  by  discharges,  though  bright,  are 
not  so  fast  as  thocie  given  by  the  dye-baths.  If, 
instead  of.  applying  the  yellow .  discharge, 
tiiickened  as  usual  with  starch,  one-third  more 
surcb  be  employed,  and  a  coloring  of  decoction 


of  Turkey,  berries,  or  Bmsil  wood,  be  added,  we 
shall  obtain,  in  the  first  case,  a  richer  yellow, 
and,  in  the  secoAd,  an  orange  yellow. 

Tlie  name  of  lapi$  UuntU  is  given  to  calicoes, 
which,  after  having  been  printed  with  reserve 
discharges,  and  different  mordants,  are  passed  in 
succession,  first  through  the  blue  vat,  and  then 
through  a  madder  bath.  If  a  yellow  or  a  green 
be  wanted,  there  is  given,  in  the  sequel  o?  the 
madder  washing,  a  yellow  mordant,  and  the 
goods  are  turned  through  a  bath  of  weld  or  quer- 
citron. 

Suppose  that  we  are  to  print  on  cloth  a  pattern 
into  which  there  enter  white,  red,  black,  blue, 
green,  and  yellow.  The  goods  being  previously 
Uioroughly  whitened,  we  proceed  as  follow  :— 

1.  Apply  the  reserve  discharge.  2.  Print  on 
the  red  mordant,  thickened  with  pipe-clay.  3. 
Print  on  the  black  mordant,  thickened  in  the 
same  manner.  4.  Pass  the  goods  through  a 
strong  vat  in  forty-eight  hours  at  fiirthest  after 
the  printiujg  has  been  given.  The  dipping  ought 
to  be  for  six  mmutes  at  most  at  two  times :  be- 
tween each  dip,  the  goods  must  be  aired  for  five 
minutes.  They  are  then  carried  to  the  river, 
allowed  to  steep  in  it  for  an  hour,  and  washed. 
5.  Thev  are  dunged.  6.  Passed  through  bran. 
7.  Maddered.  8.  Beetled  very  carefully  and 
dried.  9.  The  red  mordant  is  applied,  which 
serves  also  as  a  yeHow  mordant.  The  pieces  are 
now  to  be  well  cleaned.  10.  They  are  passed 
through  the  quercitron  bath,  after  which  they  are 
wash^  and  finally  dtied.  It  may  be  proper  to 
add  that  the  reserve  discharge  is  prepared  by 
melting  together  hog's-lard  aiul  resin  (arcanson), 
and,  when  the  mixture  is  cool,  diluting  it  yvi^ 
oil  of  turpentine ;  adding  afterwards  binarseoiate 
of  potash,  and  a  little  corrosive  sublimate  in 
powder.  The  whole,  being  well  blended,  or 
ground  together,  is  to  be  then  printed  on. 

The  lapis  pattern  may  be  put  on  a  blue 
ground^  a  red,  green,  puce,  &c. ;  whence  result 
a  great  many  varieties.  The  pattern  was  origi- 
nally called  lapis,  firom  its  resemblance  to  lapis 
lazuli.  A  slight  reflection  on  the  above  process 
will  show  us  how  the  different  colors  are  pro- 
duced. 

'  The  blue  is  the  immediate  effect  of  the  blue 
vat;  the  red  and  black  axe  developed  by  the 
maddering  on  the  respective  mordants  of  these 
colors.  The  combination  of  blue  with  yellow 
on  the  yellow  mordant  gives  green.  The  yellow 
results  from  the  coloring  matter  of  the  quercitron 
bark  fixed  by  the  red  mordant,  which  is,  at  the 
same  time,  the  mordant  for  yellow.  Finally,  the 
white  is  occasioned  by  the  white  discharge  of  the 
reserve  discharge. 

The  calico  printer  should  be  well  acquainted 
with  the  nature  of  topical  colors,  or  '  colors  of 
application,^  as  they  are  sometimes  called.  The 
following  are  from  Vitalis  :-^ 

Topical  or  pencil  blue. — Boil  in  sixty  pints  of 
water,  for  half  an  hour,  fifteen  pounds  of  potash, 
and  six  pounds  of  quicklime,  ra  order  to  render 
the  potash  caustic.  Then  add  six  pounds  of  or«- 
piment  (sulphuret  of  arsenic)  reduced  to  fine 
power,  and  continue  the  boiling  for  a  quarter  of 
an  hour,  taking  care  to  stir,  continually  with  a 
rod.  When  the  boiler  is  a  little  cooled,  pour  into 

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it  from  six  to  eight  pounds  of  indigo  well  ground 
at  the  mill,  and  stir  again  till  the  indigo  be  well 
dissolved,  which  is  discovered  by  a  drop  of  the 
liquor,  when  placed  on  a  bit  of  glass,  appearing 
yellow.  The  bath,  while  still  hot,  is  to  be  thick- 
ened with  a  pound  of  gum  for  every  pot  (two 
litres)  of  liquor,  or  with  eight  ounces  of  starch. 
This  operation  must  be  carefully  preserved  from 
contact  of  air,  and  only  employed  when  its  color 
is  yellow,  or  at  least  yellowish-green.  If  it  be- 
come blue,  the  liquor  is  to  be  treated  anew  with 
some  pounds  of  caustic  potash  and  orpiment. 

This  blue  application,  says  M*  Vitalis,  much 
used  formerly,  is  seldom  employed  at  the  pre- 
sent day.  Another  blue,  of  less  permanence, 
but  more  brilliant,  is  now  preferred.  It  is  made 
with  Prussian  blue,  in  the  following  manner : — 
Into  an  earthen  pot,  four  ounces  of  nnely  ground 
and  sifted  Prussian  blue  are  to  be  put.  Over 
this  must  be  slowly  poured,  stirrinf^  all  the  while 
sufficient  muriatic  acid,  to  bring  k  to  the  con- 
sistence of  syrup.  The  mixture  is  to  be  stirred 
every  hour  for  a  day,  and  afterwards  thickened 
with  from  four  to  eight  pots  (of  tiyo  litres  each) 
of  ffum-water,  according  to  the  shade  wanted. 

lopUal  red. — ^A  pound  of  Brasil.  wood  is  to 
be  boiled  in  four  litres  of  \yater  for  two  hours ; 
the  decoction  is  then  to  be  decanted  and  boiled 
down  to  two  litres.  As  much  red  oiordant  must 
now  be  added  as  is  necessary  to  form  a  fine  red ; 
and  it  is  to  be  finally  thickened  with  eight  ounces 
of  starch.  The  color  will  be  more  beautiful  the 
older  the  decoction  of  Brasil  wood  is. 

Instead  of  Brasii  wood,  wood  of  Japan,  Saint 
Martha,  or  Nicart^a  (peach  wood),  may  be  used, 
provided  their  color  has  been  refined  from  the 
dun  which  they  contain,  by  the  usual  process 
with  milk. 

Topical  yellow. — This  is  prepared  by  boiling 
four  pounds  of  Turkey  or  Avignon  berries  in 
twenty-four  litres  of  water,  which  is  boiled  down 
to  one-half.  The  clear  liquor  is  drawn  off,  and 
a  pound  and  a  half  of  alum  is  dissolved  in 
it.  For  the  light  yellows,  it  is  thickened  with 
gum ;  for  the  deep,  with  stazch.  This  topical 
yellow  does  not  resist  soap.  The  following,  is 
equall)r  ^t  and  agreeable : — 

In  eight  pints  of  water,  boil  four  pounds  of 
^quercitron  bark  in  powder,  down  to  one*balf  of 
the  bulk.  Pass  through  the  scarce,  thicken  with 
three  pounds  of  gum,  and  mix  in  gradually,  suf- 
ficiency of  solution  of  tin  to  render  the  color  of  a 
brilliant  yellow.  This  y^low  resists  regetable 
acids  and  soap  very  well.  When  placed  an ,  a 
blue  ground,  it  forms  a  fine  green ;  ^nd  it  may 
be  applied  by  the  plate  or  thd. pencil. 

Tne  best  solution  of  tin  which  can  be  em- 
ployed for  this  topical  yellow  is  that  made  with 
a  mixture  of  three  ounces  of  muriatic  acid,  four 
ounces  of  nitric,  and  four  ounces  of  pure  water. 
Two  ounces  of  grain  tin  are  to  be  dissolved  bit 
by  bit  in  this  liquor.  When  the  solution  is  com- 
pleted, half  an  ounce  of  sugar  of  lead  is  to  be 
added.  The  mixture  must  then  be  well  stirred ; 
left  to  settle,  and 'decanted.  Half  an  ounce  of 
the  clear,  solution. is  to  be  taken  for  every  pint  of 
the  yellow  bath.  On  mixing  with  the  yellow 
bath  a  little  of  the  annotto  bath,  we  have  orange 
yellows. 


Must  yellow. — This  is  made  with  acetate  of 
iron,  or  the  black  cask.  It  ie  thickened  with 
gum  for  the  light  yellows,  and  with  starch  for  the 
deeper  shades.  Rust  yellow,  when  applied  on 
blue,  gives  a  deep  gxeen^  which  seFves  for  the 
stems  of  certain  flowers. 

Topical  green, — ^This  preparation  is  formed  l^ 
a  mixture  of  topical  blue  and  yellow,  in  which 
the  yellow  predominates  considend>ly.  The 
mixture  must  be  made  by  little  and  little  with  the 
utmost  care,  so  as  to  hit  the  wished-for  sBade. 

Topical  aurora. — ^A  sufiicient  quantity  of  alum 
in  solution  must  be  «dded  to  the  anotto  bath ; 
and  the  mixture  is  to  be  thickened  with  gum. 

Topical  UacL-^To  twelve  ptiMffof  the  black 
ciisk,  or  of  pyroligoate  of  iron,  at  4°  Baam^  (for 
saHs),  add  four  .ouno^  of  Roman  yitriol  dis- 
solved in  water,  end  a  suflScient  quanti^  of  de- 
coction of  galls  to  form  a  good  black.  Thicken 
with  three  pounds  and  a  hsdf  of  starch,  which,  is 
to  be  gradually  worked  up  with  a  pomon  of  the 
liquor.  Boil,  withdraw  from  the  fire,  and  keep 
stirring)  till  the  liquor  be  cool ;  it  must  then  be 
passed  through  a  searce  or  a  linen  cloth. 

Another  topical  Uack.'^iTX  twenty-four  pints 
of  water,  boil  two  pounds  of  logyrood,  two  poands 
of  sumach,  and  e^t  ounces  of  galls,  till  the  li- 
quor be  reduced  to  half  its  Yolume.  Add  then  a 
pint  of  the  black  cask  (or  pyrolignate  of  iron)  ; 
boil  awf^  six  pints ;  take  off  tiie  dear  bath,  dis- 
solve in  it  two  ounces  of  Roman  vitriol,  and  one 
ounce  of  sal-ammoniac;  after  which  thicken 
with  starch,  and  pass  through  a  searce  before 
making  use  of  the  composition. 

Topical  violet  and  mac. — In  thirty  pints  of 
vrater  boil  six  pounds  of  idgwood,  ground  or  in 
chips,  till  ten  pints  be  evaporated ;  decant  the 
clear,  and  dissolve  in  it.  one  ounce  of  alum  for 
every  pint  of  liquor.  The  deep  Ti<^ts  are 
thickened  with  starch,,  and  the  light  violets  with 
gum,  which  is  to  be  dissolved  in  the  cold.  This 
color  changes  readily,  for  which  reason  it  filu>uld 
be  prepared  only  as  wanted ;  and  be  immediately 
put  to  use. 

In  the  manufiictuve  of  printed  calicoes,  colors 
are  obtained  from  madder,  which  result  from  the 
mixture  of  red  and  black.  For  mordants,  mix- 
tures in  different. proportions,  of  acetate  of  kon 
and  acetate  of  alumina,  are  employed. 

By  printing  on  a  mordant,  composed  of  equal 
parts  of  oxidned  acetate  of  iron  (black  bouillon) 
and  acetate  of  alumina,  both  concenlpted,  a 
deep  mosdor^  is  obtained  with  madder.  One 
part  [of  acetate  of  iron,  and  two  of  aoelate  of 
alumina,  afford  a  less  sombre  mordor^,  inclining 
towards  puoe-colored.  On  ^ongm^ing  the 
^quantity  .of  acetate  .of  alumina,  &e  shade  ap- 
proaches more  and  more  to  Ted ;  and,  on  intro- 
ducing, at  last,  only  one-twelfkh  of  acetate  of 
iron,  an  amaranth  color  is  obtained.  I(  ^on  the 
contrary,  the  proportion  of  acetate  of  iron  be  in- 
creased, browns  are  produced. 

This  color  is  that  which  requites  most  madder. 
It  may  be  boiled  longer  than  for  the  reds,  but 
not  so  long  as  for  the  violeU,  because,  as  the 
portion  of  the  coloring  matter  which  is  combined 
.with '  the  alumina  dote  not  stand  a  prolonged 
•ebullition  so  well  as  that  whidi  has  the  oxide  of 
•iron  for  a  mordant,  the  shade  is  degraded,  and 


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I »  obtained  only  a  poo?  and  unequal  color, 
ad  of  a  sttb^tantial  and  well  raised  one. 
Great  oere  ^ould  also  be  taken  to  put  into  the 
baiii  a  soAcient  quantity  of  madder,  8o  as  to  sa- 
turate all  the  mordant;  otherwise  a  uniform 
eolor  can  never  be  obtained,  fbr  the  bath  beeomes 
dhaastedy  and  some  pavts  of  the  cloth  would  be 
Mtmated  before  ocher  parts  had  been  able  to  aa^ 
saoDe  the  proper  shaae.  For  conducting  the 
opeiation  properly,  and  for  completely  saturatii^ 
the  raordsmt,  tlw  maddering  should  be  given  at 
t«9  times.  The  bath  is  scarcely  suffered  to  boil 
the  fifsttime^  and,  from  the  hue  that  the  cloth  has 
taken,  iK  cfoanti^  of  madder  to  be  employed  at 
Ae  seooDQ  madderiiig  maiy  be  determined. 
When  4ie  cloth  is  to  have,  besides  the  mordor^, 
Winter  colors,  they  should  not  be  piinied  on  till 
^ker  the  first  maddering,  beeaase  tne  heal  of  the 
bath  in  the  doubte  nuLddering  wouid  degrade 
them.  The  mordor^  have  a  more  agreeable 
hue,  utei,  previous  to  maddering,  they  have 
been  dyed  with  nearly  half  the  quantity  of  weld 
or  quercitMtt  which  would  have  been  used  had 
they  been  dyed  with  these  substances  alone. 
Ibe  iDoidants  for  mordor^  and  puce  afford,  with 
both  these  sidistanees,  the  shades  of  olive,  bronze, 
terre  d'Egypte,  &c  In  this  eate,  it  is  sufficient 
far  restoring  the  white,  to  pan  through  bitin  on 
their  quitttnff  the  boiler,  and  to  expose  them  for 
aboat  eight  days  on  the  grass,  lifting  them  once 
in  this  interval  in  order  to  wash  and  beetle  them. 
The  color  has  more  Instie  when,  before  drying 
the  cloth,  we  pass  it  tfaiouflih  water  acidulated  so 
thgfatly  wiA  sulpburic  acid  as  to  be  haidly  per- 
ctptifale  to  Ibe  taste. 

The  Ibikiwing  eocaunple  of  a  spirit  red  diMctly 
apfiiied  m  calico  phntmg  is  vahmble  :^ Prepare 
an  aqua  regia,  by  dissolving  two  oonoes  of  ssd 
ammonaie  in  one  pound  of  nitiova  acid,  specific 
giavity  1-25.  To  tbis  add  two  ouooes  it  fine 
grain  tin ;  decant  it  carefolly  off  tlie  sediment, 
and  dihite  it  wi&  one-fourth  its  weight  of  pure 
or  distilled  water. 

To  one  gaflon  of  water  add  one  pound  of 
cochineal,  ground  as  fine  as  flour ;  boil  half  an 
hoar;  then  add  two  ounces  of  finely  pulverised 
gum  dragon  (tragacaoth),  and  two  ounces  of 
cram  of  tartar;  and  stir  the  whole  till  it  is 
dissolved.  When  the  liquor  is  cool,  add  one 
meanue  of  the  preceding  solution  of  tin  to  two 
of  the  cochineal  liquor,  and  incorporate  well  by 
stirring.  Apply  this  with  the  pencil  or  block ; 
safier  it  to  remain  on  the  cloth  six  or  eight  hours; 
then  rinse  off  in  spring  water.  This  color  will 
he  a  bright  and  beautiful  scarlet 

Boil  twefve  pounds  of  Biasil  chips  during  an 
boor,  ID  as  much  water  as  will  cover  them. 
Dttwoff  the  decoetion,  pour  on.  fresh  water,  and 
boil  as  before.  Add  the  two  liquors  together, 
and  evaporate  slof^ly  down  to  one  gallon.  To 
the  deooecioB,  while  warm,  add  four  ounces  of 
al  ammoniac,  and  as  much  gum  dragon  or 
Mnegal  as  will  thicken  it  for  the  work  required. 
When  cool,  add  one  of  the  solutions  of  tin  above 
dewibed  to  four,  six,  or  eight,  of  the  Brasil 
liquor,  according  to  the  color  wanted.  Suffer  it 
to  remain  for  eigbteea  or  twenty  hours  on  the 
doth;  then  nive  off  in  spring  water  as  before. 
The  color  will  be  a  pale  and  delicate  pink.    If 


it  be  required  deeper,  die  decoction  must  bo 
made  stronger,  and  used  in  the  proportion  of 
three  or  four  to  one  of  the  solution  of  tin.  Ni- 
caragua or  peach  wood,  though  not  so  rich  in 
coloring  matter  as  Brasil,  yields  a  color,  how- 
ever, which  is,  if  possible,  more  delicate  and 
beautifol. 

A  process  in  calico  printings  of  peculiar 
elegance,  with  an  alkaline  solution  of  alumina, 
was  invented  by  James  Thomson,  esq.,  of 
Primrose  Hill,  near  Clithero.  Its  effect  was  to 
produce  a  fttst  green,  by  the  mixture  of  a  yellow 
mordant  with'  the  common  solution  of  indigo  in 
caustic  potash,  through  the  intervention  of  orpi- 
ment.  This,  as  is  obvious,  could  not  be  done 
Irith  any  acid  solution  of  alumina.  Mr.  Thom- 
son first  formed  a  solution  of  that  earth  in 
potash,  mixed  this  with  the  solujtion  of  indigo, 
and  applied  the  mixture,  properly  thickened,  to 
die  cloth.  But  as,  in  the  ordinary  dunging 
operation,  the  alkali  would  naturally  wash  away 
with  it  the  greater  part  of  the  alumina,  the 
goods  before  being  dunged  were  passed  through 
a  solution  of  sal  ammoniac.  It  is  easy  to  per- 
ceivte  the  lationale  of  what  takes  place,  llie 
potash  on  the  doth  combines  with  Ine  muriatic 
acid  of  the  sal  ammonia,  and,  as  the  two  sub- 
stances set  free  (the  alumina  aad  amraonia)  have 
no  tendency  to  combine,  die  focmer  remains 
precipitated  od  the  cloth  at  its  poivfts  of  appUca- 
tioo.  It  obtained  currently,  nut  very  impro- 
perly, the  name  of  Warwick^s  green,  because 
Dr.  Warwick  made  and  sold  the  solution  of 
akm^inated  potash  to  the  printers. 

Acetate  of  alumina  is  now  most  frequently 
made  for  the  calico  pvinten,  by  dissolving  ahim 
in  a  solution  of  eruae  acetate  of  lime  (pyiolig- 
nite} ;  a  gallon  of  the  acetate,  of  specific  gravity 
lOoO,  or  1060,  being  used  with  two  pounds 
and  three  quarters  of  alum.  A  sulpfaata  of  lime 
is  formed,  which  precipitates,  while  an  acetate  of 
alumina  mixed  with  some  alum  floats  above. 
The  specific  gravity  of  this  liquid  is  usually 
about  1*080.  The  acetate  oi  alumina  employea 
as  a  mordant  fbr  chintzes  is  still  commonly 
made  by  the  mutual  decomposition  of  alum  and 
acetate  of  lead.  Fifteen  parts  of  alum  are 
equivalent  to  about  ewenty-fou^  of  acetate. 

The  maddering  of  pnnted  goods  requires 
pains  and  precautions,  which  long  practice  alone 
can  teach.  The  causes  which  make  their  effects 
to  vary  are  too  numerous  for  us  to  point  them 
all  out  here.  The  quantity  of  madder  employed, 
the  duration  of  the  maddering,  the  manner  of 
managing  the  fire,  are,  along  with  the  dunging, 
the  circumstances  which  have  most  influence; 
and  they  cannot  be  subjected  to  any  rule,  be- 
cause they  must  differ  more  or  less  in  almost 
every  process. 

It  is  plain  that  all  these  operations  have  for 
their  objects,  1st,  to  remove  the  mordant  uneom- 
bined  with  the  cloth ;  3dly,  to  fix  the  coloring 
matter ;  3dly,  to  carry  off,  by  the  action  of  the 
air  and  bran,  the  dun  coloring  matter  which  is 
mixed  with  the  madder,  as  well  as  the  color 
which  covers  the  parts  of  the  cloth  not  impreg^ 
nated  with'  mordant 

The  cbths  intended  for  printing  ought  to  he 
very  careAilly  bleached.    The  more  perfect  the 


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white  is,  the  more  lustre  do  the  colon  take,  and 
the  more  easy  is  the  anmadderipg.  The  fine 
whites  on  sale  are  not  even  sufficient ;  and  it  is 
right  to  give  there  at  least  one  ley,  one  exposure 
on  the  grass,  or  one  immersion  in  oxygenated 
muriatic  acid,  and  to  let  them  also  sos3l  some 
hours  in  water  acidulated  with  sulphuric  acid. 
Very  frequently,  several  leys  and  several  immer- 
sions must  be  given.  Thus  the  dressing  (paste) 
is  completely  removed,  the  remaining  coloring 
matter  of  the  cloth  is  destroyed,  which,  by  fix- 
ing in  a  very  durable  manner,  that  of  the  mad- 
der, might  render  the  unmaddering  a  diffi- 
cult operation ;  and  thus  also  the  greater  number 
of  the  stains  formed  during  the  maddering,  to 
which  the  name  of  madder  spots  are  given,  are 
prevented.  # 

These  stains,  almost  indelible,  very  common  on 
certain  kinds  of  cotton  cloth,  and  of  a  color  per- 
fectly similar  to  what  madder  gives  to  those 
parts  of  the  cloth  impregnated  with  oil,  seem  to 
arise  from  a  combination  with  grease  or  oil, 
analogous  to  what  takes  place  in  the  prepara- 
tions of  Turkey  red.  It  is  very  probable  that 
they  are  produced  by  the  grease  employed  in 
the  parou,  or  by  the  soap  which  must  be  em- 
ployed in  bleaching.  The  combination  which 
m  &at  case  may  be  formed  on  the  stuff,  resists 
the  subsequent  operations  well ;  and  it  will  be 
seen,  in  the  process  for  the  Adrianople  red,  that 
the  action  of  alkaline  solutions,  ev^  pretty  con- 
centrated, is  insufficient  to  destroy  the  combina- 
tion of  the  oil  with  the  cotton.  A  strong  ley, 
run  off  very  hot,  does  not  afibrd  a  complete 
guarantee  against  these  spots,  although  it  may 
be  the  surest  means  of  avoiding  them.  It  would 
be  of  great  consequence  for  calico  printers  to  be 
able  to  exclude  from  weaving  and  bleaching  both 
grease  and  soap. 

The  Adrianople  red  has»  a  lustre,  which  it  is 
difficult  to  imitate  by  all  the  processes  hitherto 
described .  It  has,  besides,  the  property  of  resist- 
ing more  completely  the  action  of  the  different 
le-agents,  as  alkalies,  soap,  alum,  acids.  Vogler 
acknowledges  that  by  his  numerous  processes 
he  has  not  been  able  to  obtain  a  red  possessing  a 
durability  equal  to  that  of  Adrianople,  although 
he  formed  one  much  more  permanent  than  the 
false  Adrianople  reds,  which  are  often  used*  for 
the  siamoises  and  other  red  goods. 

Aquafortis  (dilute  nitric  acid)  is,  according  to 
the  same  author,  the  surest  and  most  expeditious 
means  for  distinguishing  the  true  red  ot  Adrian- 
ople from  the  spurious.  It  is  sufficient  to  plunge 
a  thread  of  the  latter  into  it.  It  is  soon  seen  to 
grow  pale,  and  in  less  than  a  quarter  of  an  hour 
it  becomes  white,  whilst  the  true  Adrianople  red 
remains  an  hour  without  being  affected,  and  it 
never  loses  the  color  entirely,  which  only  turns 
orange. 

The  Adriaiiople  red,  which  for  a  long  time  came 
to  us  through  our  Levant  trade  only,  stimulated 
the  industry  of  our  artisans ;  but  the  attempts 
were  for  a  long  time  fruitless,  or  success  was 
confined  to  a  small  number  of  dyehouses.  Abb^ 
Mazeas  published  experiments  which  threw  much 
light  on  this  dye ;  and  the  government  promul- 
gated in  1765,  from  information  that  it  had  pro- 
cured, an  instruction  under  the  title  of  Memoir, 


c(mtaining  the  process  for  the  incarnate  cotton  red 
dye  of  Adrianople  on  cotton  yam.  The  same 
description  is  found  in  the  treatise  of  Le  Pileur 
d'Apligny ;  but  this  process  has  not  completely 
succeeded. 

Three  processes  are  employed  for  giving  blue 
in  the  art  of  calico-printing.  The  fint  of  these 
processes  is  used  for  dyeing  cloth  whose  ground 
IS  to  be  blue  or  green ;  and,  whenever  they  bear 
eolbrs  which  are  to  be  kept  from  varying  in  the 
vat,  these  are  covered  with  the  white  reserve. 

If  the  cloth  is  to  retain  a  white  ground,  and 
bear  blue  figures,  of  one  shade,  or  of  several, 
the  second  of  these  processes  is  had  recourse  to. 
Sometimes  one  or  two  colors  are  joined  to  the 
blue  thus  made ;  but,  in  this  case,  they  must  be 
applied  after  the  blue  dyeing,  because  there  is 
net  a  color  which  may  not  be  either  destroyed, 
or  powerfully  altered,  in  the  operations  which  it 
requires. 

Lastly,  in  other  circumstances,  a  blue  is  to  be 
put  on  cloth  covered  with  a  pattern,  all  (^  whose 
parts  are  already  colored,  and  which  leav^ 
merely  small  spaces  to  color  blue.  For  this 
purpose,  the  blue  u  used  which  is  applied  with 
the  pencil  (small  brush).  This  blue  of  applica- 
tion is  thickened  with  gum,  and  put  upon  the 
pencil.  It  may  be  printed  on,  by  covering  with 
canvas  the  frame  which  contains  the  thickoied 
color,  and  removing  the  regenerated  indigo  with 
a  scraper  before  applying  the  plate;  but  onlT 
small  objects  of  a  slightly  intense  blue,  whidh 
rarely  succeeds,  can  be  thus  applied. 

Bancroft  says,  that  he  has  substituted  sugar 
for  the  sulphuret  of  arsenic  with  success; 
which  would  be  advantageous,  on  account  of  the 
price  and  poisonous  quauties  of  this  substance. 
The  experiment  did  not  succeed  with  us.  The 
blue  of  application  has  been  attempted  to  be 

Srepared  by  means  of  the  oxide  c^  tin ;  but  the 
egiee  of  concentration  of  the  alloline  solution 
adecjuate  to  the  solution  of  the  oxide  and  the 
indigo  has  not  been  hitherto  ascertained,  so  as  to 
be  susceptible  of  thickening  with  ^e  gums<  This 
point  once  determined,  a  pencil  blue  will  be 
had,  which  will  possess  the  very  great  advantage 
of  not  occasioning  a  bulky  depositee  which  al- 
ways embarrasses  the  vessels  where  this  blue  is 
made  in  the  ordinary  processes,  and  which,  how- 
ever well  washed,  causes  a  considerable  waste  of 
the  indiffo. 

In  pnnting  on  cloth,  ground  indigo  with  oxide 
of  tin,  and  passing  the  cloth  throu^  a  solution 
of  oxide  of  tin  in  potash,  delft-ware  blues  may 
be  made  in  a  single  vat.  We  have  l^een  able  to 
make  in  this  vray  only  ligjht  blues.  Were  this 
process  brought  to  the  point  of  producing  more 
substantial  blues,  it  would  afford  great  advan- 


The  application  of  the  chromate  of  lead  on 
Turkey  tea  cloth,  forms  a  brilliant  style  of  calico 
printing,  now  carried  to  high  perfection  at  the 
establishment  of  Messrs.  Monteith  at  Glasgow. 
Nitrate  of  lead  is  dissolved  in  liquid  tartaric 
acid,  of  a  specific  gravity  about  1-250 :  this  so- 
lution is  thickened  with  gum,  and  applied  with 
the  block  to  cloth  previously  dyed  Turkey  red. 
Whenever  the  paste  is  dried,  the  cloth  is  slowly 
passed  through  an  aqueous  solution,  nearly  sa« 


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*Bntei,  of  dilOTide  of  lime,  kept  at  the  ^™$|^ 
ntnie  of  about  tOO^  in  a  stone  trough.  The 
tsrtaric  acid,  disengaging  the  chlorine* discharges 
the  color  of  the  Turkey  red  at  the  points  of  ap- 
plication; while  the  nitrate  of  lead,  or  rather 
pofaaps  the  oxide  of  lead,  remains  attached  to 
tbe  cloth.  This  is  immediately  washed,  and 
then  pasKd  through  a  solution  of  bichromate  of 
potasb,  by  means  of  the  padding  machine. 

An  oiange  color  was  a  few  years  ago  given  to 
goods  in  c^ico  printing,  by  means  of  the  crys- 
tals of  hydrosulphufet  of  soda  and  antimony, 
which  aie  hence  called  orange  crystals.  But  the 
ose  of  the  alkaline  solution  of  sulphuret  of  anti- 
mony had*  been  loi^  known  and  practised  by  the 
Lancashire  printers. 

To  produce  violets  on  printed  calicoes,  the 
acetate  of  iron  diluted  with  water  is  impressed, 
and  they  are  maddered.  This  color  is  less  easily 
degraded  in  the  dyeing  bath  than  the  reds.  It 
may  also  be  kf  pt  boiling  for  a  looser  time,  so  as 
to  raise  the  deep  shades.  The  bath  becomes 
Teiy  ibul ;  the  color  comes  out  of  it  very  dull, 
and  assumes  lustre  only  by  exposure  on  the  grass, 
and  ebullition  with  bran  water ;  it  is  even  rare 
for  the  white  to  become  beautiful  again.  But 
th»e  inconveniences  are  obviated  by  dunging 
with  a  strong  heat,  which  acts  less  upon  this 
mordant  than  upon  that  employed  for  the  reds. 
For  lilac,  a  mordant  is  printed  on,  composed 
of  very  dilute  acetate  of  iron,  mixed  with  a 
small  quantity  of  acetate  of  alumina. 

Few  of  the  yellows  produced  from  vegetable 
snbstanoes  can  acquire  upon  cotton  permanence 
comparable  to  that  of  the  colors  producible  from 
macider;  and  they  never  acouire  this  quality 
without  losing  their  Instre.  When  a  color  rather 
hA  than  brilliant  is  wanted  the  cotton  is  colored 
with  oxide  of  iron,  by  impregnating  it  with  any 
of  tbe  various  solutions  of  this  metiJ.  The  pro- 
cenes  employed  for  this  dye  are  very  numerous, 
and  their  shaoes  may  obviously  be  greatly  muU 
txplied,  by  varying  the  state  of  oxidation  of  the 
metal,  or  the  nature  of  the  acid  which  holds  it 
in  solution;  as  also  by  slight  changes  in  the 
proportions  of  the  materials,  and  in  the  mani- 
pulations. '^*f, 

In  order  to  obtain  a  deep  color,  Chaptal  treads 
the  cotton  in  a  solution  of  sulphate  of  iron,  mark- 
ing 6om  12^  to  15^  Baum^.  He  squeezes  it 
veiy  slightly  but  equably.  As  soon  as  the  whole 
portion  (lot)  is  dipped,  it  is  repassed,  hank  by 
tank,  through  the  same  solution,  and  immedi- 
ately afierwards  through  a  solution  of  potash, 
ma^ng  the  same  number  of  degrees.  The 
color  of  the  cotton  becomes  of  a  dirty  blu0-green, 
which  changes  in  a  few  minutes  to  an  agreeable 
golden  yellow.  At  each  dipping  the  vessel  into 
which  ttie  cottons  are  plunged  must  be  emptied, 
in  order  that  the  color  may  be  equal  and  uni- 
form. 

For  a  pale  and  very  soft  yellow,  he  treads  the 
cotton  in  a  solution  of  sulplnte  of  iron,  mark- 
ing three  degrees,  and  repasses  it  as  in  the  pre- 
ceding process.  On  the  other  hand,  he  prepares 
a  liquor  with  solution  of  potash,  marking  from 
two  to  three  degrees,  to  which  he  adds  solution 
of  ahim  till  he  observes  that  the  flocks  are  no 
longer  dissolyed.     He  impr^nates  the  cotton 


with  this  liquid,  and  renews  it  for  each  dip* 
The  cotton  is  dyed  of  a  very  agreeable  yellow. 
When  the  colors  are  not  su£Eiciently  deep,  the 
cotton  may  be  repassed  through  stronger  solu- 
tions. 

Chaptal  recommends,  for  making  the  colors 
evenly,  to  pass  at  once  no  more  than  one-fourth 
kilogramme  of  cotton,  to  employ  weak  solutions 
of  sulphate  of  iron,  to  dip  the  cotton  first  in  a 
solution  of  potash,  then  in  one  of  sulphate  of 
iron,  repeating  these  alternate  dips  as  often  as 
shall  be  requisite  to  arrive  at  the  desired  shade, 
and  to  use  the  greatest  care  in  impregnating  and 
squeezing  the  cotton  equably. 

A  fresh-butter  yellow  is  produced,  by  passing 
the  cotton  through  slightly  oxidised  acetate  of 
iron,  mixed  with  nitrate  of  iron,  which  may  be 
made  to  incline  more  to  red,  the  greater  the  pro- 
portion of  the  latter  salt. 

With  nitrate  of  iron  alone,  diluted  with  water, 
a  pretty  clear  yellow  may  be  had,  which  rises 
quickly.  If  the  cotton  be  impregnated  with  ni- 
trate of  iron  little  diluted,  allowed  to  dry,  and 
then  washed,  it  retains  a  very  deep  tint,  similar 
to  that  of  rust. 

The  rust-yellow,  which  is  printed  on  cloth,  is 
made  with  two  parts  of  sulphate  of  iron,  and 
one  part  of  acetate  of  lead.  By  mixing  with 
this,  different  proportions  of  highly  oxidised 
oxide  of  iron,  snades  bordering  on  red  may  be 
procured. 

Cotton  dyed  by  these  processes  takes  very 
different  colors  in  the  dye-baths.  That  which 
received  a  faint  yellow  color  by  the  process  of 
Chaptal,  becomes  of  a  walnut  hue  in  the  decoc- 
tion of  galls.  When  the  color  is  deeper  it  be- 
comes mouse-gray ;  with  tan,  or  quercitron,  it 
affords  a  yellow.  When  passed  through  a  de- 
coction of  equal  parts  of  nut^ls,  sumach,  log- 
wood, and  weld,  the  cotton  becomes  of  a  dirty 
gray-white.  When  dried,  and  passed  through  a 
strong  solution  of  sulphate  of  iron,  it  assumes 
the  bluish-gray  color,  which  is  called  oeil  de  roi. 
Bancroft  describes  a  topical  color  (conleur 
d*application),  which  is  obtained  from  querci- 
tron. A  strong  decoction  of  quercitron  is  made, 
filtered,  and  evaporated  at  a  gentle  heat,  and, 
when  it  is  reduced  to  less  than  one-half,  it  is 
allowed  to  cool  to  the  temperature  of  the  living 
body.  After  this,  one-fourth  of  acetate  of  alu- 
mina is  mixed  with  this  liquid.  The  mixture  is 
thickened  with  as  much  gum  as  is  necessary  to 
prevent  its  running  during  the  impression,  but 
not  so  much  as  to  obstruct  its  penetrating  the 
stuff.  The  color  obtained  by  this  application 
has  neither  as  much  intensity,  nor  as  much  per- 
manence, as  that  procured  by  previously  impreg- 
nating the  stuff  with  the  mordant.  Both  quali- 
ties may,  however,  be  increased  by  a  mixture  of 
nitrate  of  copper  and  nitrate  of  lime. 

Quercitron  ought  undoubtedly  to  be  considered 
as  a  very  useful  substance  in  dyeing ;  yet  the 
attempts  which  we  know  to  have  been  made, 
with  the  precautions  prescribed  by  Bancroft, 
especially  m  reference  to  the  temperature  of  the 
bath,  seem  to  us  to  prove-  that  the  color  derived 
from  it  is  inferior  in  permanence  to  that  produ- 
cible from  weld.  A  purer  and  more  lively  color 
may  be  obtained  from  quercitron,  by  adopting 


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the  process  >ffhich  Chaptal  'has  given  for  fustic 
(yellow  wood). 

For  dyeing  cotton  yellow,  preparetoty  to 
printing,  the  lint  thing  is  to  scour  it  in  A  badi 
prepared  with  a  lixivium  of  the  ashes  of  green 
wodd,  then  to  wash  and  dry  it.  It  is  aluraed 
with  the  fourth  of  its  weight  of  alum.  After 
twenty-four  hours  it  is  taken  out  of  the  aluming 
and  dried,  without  washing.  A  weld  bath  is 
thereafter  prepared,  at  the  rate  of  one  part  and  a 
quarter  of  weld  for  one  of  cotton.  In  this  the 
cotton  is  dyed,  by  tnniittg  it  round  the  sticks, 
and  working  it  with  the  hands,  till  it  has  acduired 
the  wished-for  shade.  It  is  taiken  out  of  this 
bath  to  be  macerated  for  an  boat  and  a  half  in 
a  solution  of  anlphate  of  copper  or  blae  vitriol, 
in  the  proportion  of  one-fourth  of  this  salt  to  one 
part  of  cotton.  It  is  next  thrown^  without  wash- 
ing it,  into  s  boiling  solution  of  white  toapj  made 
in  the  sakne  proportions.  Alter  bein^  well  stirred, 
it  is  to  be  boiled  for  nearly  an  hour,  after  which 
it  must  be  well  washed  and  dried. 

If  a  deeper  yellow,  borderii^  on  jonqutUe,  be 
wanted,  the  cotton  is  not  piwsed  through  the 
aluming,  but  two  parts  and  a  half  of  weld  are 
employed  to  one  of  dotloii,  with  the  addition  of 
a  little  verdigris  dissolved  in  a  portion  of  the 
bath.  The  cotton  is  plunged  into  it,  and  worked, 
till  it  has  taken  a  uniform  color.  It  is  lifted 
out  of  the  bath  that  a  little  soda  ley  may  be 
poured  in,  when  it  is  again  immersed  and  turned 
through  the  bath  for  a  full  quarter  of  an  hour. 
It  is  then  withdrawn,  wrung,  and  dried. 

Lemon  yellow  is  made  by  the  same  process, 
except  «that  only  one  part  of  weld  is  used 
(for  one  of  cotton),  while  the  quantity  of  verdi- 
gris can  be  diminished  in  proportion,  or  even 
entirely  omitted,  and  ahiming  put  in  its  place. 
Thus  the  shades  of  yellow  may  be  varied  in 
many  ways.  The  operations  on  linen  yam  are 
the  same. 

For  the  yellow  colors,  on  printed  c6tt6n  goods, 
these  are  impregnated,  by  means  of  engraved 
plates,  with  the  mordant  described  in  treating  of 
madder,  formed  by  the  mixture  of  acetate  of 
lead  and  alum :  the  yellow  color  induced  on  the 
parts  not  impregnated  with  the  acetate  of  alu- 
mina is  to  be  afterwards  destroyed  by  &e  action 
of  bran,  and  exposure  on  the  grass.  The  same 
mordant  may  be  successfolly  employed  for  cot- 
ton and  linen  which  is  to  be  dyed  yellow. 

In  order  to  obtain  from  weld  the  whcde  color 
that  it  can  yield,  it  must  be  boiled  for  three- 
quarters  of  an  hour;  the  bundles  of  weld  are 
now  taken  out  of  the  bath,  afterwhieh  the  cloths 
are  passed  through-  it,  at  a  temperature  a  liule 
below  ebullition.  They  should  not  remain  in  it 
more  than  twenty  minutes. 

When  the  same  piece  of  cloth  is  to  exhibit  the 
colors  produced  by  both  madder  and  weld,  it  is 
necessary  to  begin  with  the  maddering,  and  not 
to  print  on  the  mordant  intended  for  the  weld 
till  the  operations  of  the  madder  are  finished. 
This  rule  is  founded  on  the  property  which 
madder  possesses  of  fixing  itself  in  the  Wxim  of 
the  yellow  of  weld ;  ao  that  if  the  maddering  be 
long  continued,  after  dyeing  with  weld,  the  color 
of  the  latter  entirely  disappears.  Weld,  on  the 
contrary,  does  not  affect  tne  color  produced  by 


madder,  provided  the  morditat  has  B)en  satu- 
rated with  ^e  latter,  forbtherwis^  a  misdd  color 
would  be  produced. 

The  operations  requh«d  for  restoring  the  while 
at«  much  longer,  and  demand  much  liicer  niSb- 
D^ment,  after  welding^  than  after  maddering. 
See  Dteimo,  par.  203. 

Bf  the  following  method  we  ptocure  red  co- 
lors, beautiful  and  permanent,  without  employ- 
ing ley,  oils,  or  gatls  i^IAme  slaked  in  the  air 
is  t6  be  dissolved  in  cold  acetic  acid.  The  ito- 
ktion  nSaiks  flrom  5^  to  6^ ;  and  it  is  reduced  to  2^ 
by  the  addition  of  water .  Equal  paiis  tff  this  solu- 
tion and  acetate  of  alumina  are  mixed.  The  latter  is 
prepared  by  pouring  five  kilogtammes  of  acetate 
of  l«id  into  a  solution  of  twenty  kilogfammes  of 
aluln  for  1 75  kilogrammes  of  water.  The  above 
mixture  is  made  tepid,  and  the  cottons,  merely 
scoured  with  care,  are  pas^  thi^ugh  it  Tbey 
are  dried,  thoroughly  washed,  dri^  and  mad- 
dered  with  three-fourths  of  a  kilogramme  of 
madder  for  one  kilogramtne  of  Lofton.  They 
are  brightened  with  ley  and  ^n,  then  passed 
through  a  solution  of  tin,  and  revived  with  soa|> 
alone,  in  the  proportion  of  twelve  kilbgrammes 
of  soap  for  lOO  kilogrammes  of  cotton. 

Very  duxible  reds  may  be  ttad  by  pad^lhg  the 
cotton  through  this  mordatit,  after  having  sub- 
mitted it  to  oiling  without  galling.  They  are 
even  very  deeji.  But  on  passing  the  cotton 
which  has  received  a  single  oil  and  four  leys 
through  a  mixture  of  acetate  of  alumiiiai,  with 
one-fourth,  oiie-twefth,  ot  one-eighteenth  of 
lime,  various  very  lively  shades  fire  obfaitied. 

For  making  a  dead  red  without  Histhe,  termed 
in  some  places  bumed  red,  or  liidiiEin  red,  on 
account  of  its  resemblahcte  to  llftit  6f  Indian 
handkerchief^,  the  cobon  ii  scouted,  boiled  for 
half  an  hour  in  lime  water,  p4sied  through  an  oil 
mixed  with  some  intestinil  liquor,  and  through 
three  leys.  It  is  washed  well  and  turned  through 
a  mordant  composed  of  4  tepid  solotipn  of 
twelve  kilogrammes  4ud  a  h&if  6f  ftluiii.  to 
which  four  kilogrammes  of  acetate  of  lead  have 
been  added ;  and*  a  boment  afterwaitf^,  hfilf  a 
kilogramme  of  soda  in  powder,  and  0*244  Idlo- 
grammes  of  sal-ammoniac.  It  is  washed  wi  h 
oBie,  and  maddered  With  its  owiti  weight  of 
madder.  If  the  color  be  poor,  it  is  jiassea  once 
more  through  an  oil,  two  leys,  the  same  mordant, 
and  a  maddering.  It  may  be  brightened  with 
soda  and  soap.  The  Irme  alone  produces  the 
difierence  between  this  color  and  the  preceding. 
It  renders  the  colors  more  peribanent,  but 
duller. 

The  durable  rose  "(color)  is  produced  by  taking 
cotton  passed  through  the  oils,  and  which  has 
received  more  numerous  but  weaker  leys.  It  is 
galled  with  a  ley  of  sumach  (lessive  de  sumac  ?) 
in  which  two  kilogrammes  and  a  half  of  gall- 
nuts  have  been  boiled ;  and  alumed  with  seven- 
teen kilogrammes  and  k  half  of  alu\m.  It  is  now 
washed,  dyed  with  madder  of  the  best  (quality, 
the  madder  bath  hertit  whifened  (blandii)  with 
two  kilogrammes  of  me  oxide  o(  tin,  thaft  pre- 
eipitates  from  the  solution  of  this  metal  in  nitric 
acid.  It  is  brightened  with  weak  tey  and  soap, 
dried,  and  paswd  through  a  liquor  formed  of  a 
solution  of  tin  (in  nitric  acid  at  32*',  diluted  with 


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an  equal  volume  of  water),  i^uced  to  4^.  It  is 
now  washed  and  brightened  in  a  solution  of  fif- 
teen kilograimmes  of  soap^  till  the  color  be  rosed 
in  mrffection. 

On  passing  the  cotton  through  ^p  of  wool 
made  with  sod^  taking  th^  saWe  ptitis  as  with 
the  soapy  liquor ^prepiared  for  the  red,  and  using 
tery  wes^  leys  in  the  interval,  tKeh  ^frajhing  the 
cotton,  and  treating  it  by  the  same  process  as  for 
dyeing  witfol  sc^et,  it  asstrmeS  a  scar]<^  tint, 
paler  than  that  of  wool,  but  pretty  briltlarit. 

Cotton  dyed  reel  itia^,  tnb'neover,  be  tiMid^  to 
pass  throu^  all  the  Shades,  d^^wh  fo  the  palest 
orange.  Fot  this  purpose,  pute  tfltric  acid  i9 
diluted  wiOi  two-finds  (three-afths?)  6f  Wat^r; 
chips  df  tin  ai^  oxidised  !h  it  till  the  liquor 
gnms  opal,  iind  the  solution  is  ekplo^ed  ftt  dif- 
ferent s&engdis,  Mia  ^  to  2(P. 

PoeAier  tn^e  a  great  mttfiy  reseifrche^  im  the 
inethods  wNlbh  may  be  ^m{^6^ed  to  dye  cotton 
by  means  of  brasil,  employing  diffeKtit  ttdp- 
dants,  as  abiih,  solution  of  tin,  sal  ammoniac, 
polish,  &c.,  in  die  bath,  or  in  the  preparation  of 
the  stnff;  but  he  did  not  obtain  colors  which 
cooM  Insist  the  action  of  ^ap,  although  some  of 
them  stood  pretty  well  the  actioti  of  the  air  imd 
washing  widi  Wslter.  He  rfecouiftnends  lis  to  dry 
ia  the  shade  the  cottons  Which  haffe  i«cei^ 
these  colors. 

To  Brown,  who  is  ensag^  with  mtch  zehl  ih 
the  aits,  we  are  indebted  fbt  A  process  Which  is 
used  for  lai  critiison  on  cokoti  iti  sohie  Manufac- 
tories* 

A  solutioik  of  tin  is  {^repttred  Ifi  th^  following 
proportions  :— Nittlb  acid  fbur  pbrts ;  nmriatic 
acid  two  parts ;  titi  otie  part ;  ^ai^  tWo  paurts. 
The  liquids  )ihe  td  be  mixed,  and  the  tin  dis- 
solved ih  them,  by  adding  it  iti  smkll  bits  at  a 
time. 

As  the  best  colors  that  csb  be  givett  to  bneik 
and  cOtUm  are  derived  from  madder,  attention 
most  he  paid  to  the  toiethods  described^  in  treat- 
ing of  madder,  lor  rendering  this  dye  more  duia- 
Ue,  and  its  color  may  be  cteepened  by  diflbisut 
black  baths.  For  tome  hazels  and  snuff  colors, 
a  biowitiug  is  given,  after  the  welding  and  the 
aiadder  bath,  ttrith  hoot,  to  which  gaii  nuts  and 
ibstic  are  joined.  Soot  is  sometimes  mixed  with 
this  bath,  and  a  bro^^hiing  is  moreover  given  with 
sohition  of  sulphate  of  iron. 

WSihmt  peels  are  occasionally  sabstitated  tbr 
sohttibns  of  iroa  h.  browning  colors.  Ihey  have 
a  great  advantage  for  the  woob  intended  for 
(tapifiserief)  tapestry.  The  color  dbes  not  be* 
come  yellow  by  lonp;  exposure  to  the  air,  as 
faappetts  to  tt»  brownings  from  iron ;  but  it  keeps 
ksag  withont  alteiation.  It  has  iiideed  a  dull 
taoe,  suitable  for  shadows^  and  for  representing 
Ae  flesh  in  old  figures,  which  wouhl  produce 
■KPefy  gloomy  odors,  without  lustre^  on  cloths. 
The  goodness  of  diis  color,  however,  and  its 
cheapness,  ought  to  extend  its  use  for  the  sombre 
eolots  whidi  ute  sometimes  in  fiishion,  at  least  on 
coittmoo  stUsEi. 

A  great  number  of  shades  are  made  at  the 
Gobelins  by  means  Of  this  browoiag.  To  pro- 
cne  an  assortment  of  them,  a  bouillon  is  first 
given  to  the  woollen  yarns  with  taitkar  and  alum 
of  different  degrees  of  strength,  according  to  the 


shades  le^juiwd ;  tbeyare  then  sadbeasifsly  dyed 
red,  yeHow,  or  some  other  color,  recurring  to  the 
bath  from  which  most  efieet  b  wished  to  be  olv- 
tained.  When  the  color  is  found  to  be  of  the 
desifaed  sltades  it  is  passed,  for  a  shorter  or  longer 
time,  through  the  bath  of  wahrat  pttels,  of  a 
stret^  adjusted  to  its  pmpose.  Tfa&s  hMihmg 
is  likewise  had  reoonrse  to  for  silk^  but  the  bath 
must  be  hardly,  tepid^  in  order  to  avoid  the  ine- 
qualities to  which  it  is  so  liable. 

For  the  different  ^ades  of  marrone  the  ootton 
is  galled,  passed  with  the  Ordinary  manipulatioa 
through  water,  into  which  a  greater  or  less  quan^ 
tity  of  the  black  cask  (tOnne  an  noir)  has  been 
poufed:  It  is  next  worked  ia  a  bath  in  which 
verdigris  has  been  dissolved ;  and  a  welding  Is 
gnka  a.  it  is  dyed  in  a  bath  of  fustic,  to  v^hich 
asoltition  of  soda  aibd  alum  is  sometimes  added. 
When  the  cottbn  which  has  received  these  pre- 
parations has  been  well  Washed,  a  good  madder- 
ing  is  given  it.  It  is  then  passed  through  a  weak 
solution  of  sdlpbate  of  copp^,  and  lasdy  thhiugb 
soap  water.  « 

Th^  cionamoti  and  mordor^  colors  are  given 
to  linen  and  cotton  by  cofomeociog  the  dyeihg 
with  verdigris  and  weld ;  they  are  next  passed 
through  a  solution  of  sulpltate  of  iron,  which  is 
esdled  the  security  bath  (bain  d*assurance),  and 
they  are  wrung  out  and  dried.  When  dry  they 
are  galUd  in  the  proportion  of  122  grammes  of 
^all-rtuts  per  kilogramme ;  they  are  once  iuoM 
dried,  alumed  as  for  red^  and  maddered.  When 
they  are  dyed  and  washed,  tH^  are  passed 
through  very  hot  soap  water,  in  which  they  ate 
turned  round  the  stidks  till  they  are  sufficiently 
brightened.  Decoction  of  fustic  is  sometimes 
added  to  the  aloming. 

By  taking  cotton  which  had  received  the  re- 
quisite preparations  for  the  Adrianople  red,  and 
bad  been  gallM,  theti  passing  it  through  nittate 
of  iron,  gallinh  It  adew^  and  alnmlng,  Chaptiil 
obtmned  a  pretty  iiacar^t.  He  prepares  the  ui- 
tratb  of  iroii  widi  the  aquafortis  of  oominerce, 
diluted  with  half  its  weight  of  water,  into  which 
he  plunges  fragments  of  iron,  which  he  removes 
whenever  he  perceives  the  Solution  slackening. 
The  liquor  is  now  of  a  yellowish  red,  strongly 
acid,  and  marks  froin  40^  to  50®  on  the  alirome- 
terof  Baum6.    See  Dyeino,  180. 

If  after  galling  the  obUmi  that  has  passed 
through  the  oib  it  is  ahifaaed  irf  a  bath,  to  which 
one-eighth' of  this  solutibn  Of  iroti,  fisr  one  bf  cot« 
ton,  is  added,  the  cotton  conus  out  bUck,  and 
takes  a  violet  sloe  color  by  die  ifaaddering  and 
brightening. 

James  Thomson,  esq.,  of  PrimiiaBe  Hill,  F.R£. 
bbhiised,  in  the  years  1813  a^d  1615,  two  pa- 
tents for  certain  improvements  in  calieo  printing. 
His  probes!fes,  whidi  are  very  dbgant,  have  since 
been  extensively  and  advantageously  employed. 
The  foHowing  is  an  outline  of  his  specificaiiMis. 
That  for  1818  is  tfaossteted  :— 

First,  Mix  or  combine  with  die  acid  called  ox- 
ymuriatic  acid  (or  dephlogisticated  acid  of  sea 
salt)  and  water,  some  of  the  alkaline  salts  or  earths 
bereinafler-named,  which  shall  weaken  or  suspend 
the  power  of  the  said  acid  in  such  proportion  that 
it  shall  not,  in  such  mixed  or  combined  state,  of 
itself,  and  witbcmt  any  (arther  operation^  be  able 


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to  rerooTt  the  Turicey  red  color  from  the  cloth, 
or  materially  to  impair  it,  vrithin  the  moderate 
space  of  time  taken  up  in  the  performance  of 
the  process  hereinafter  described. 

Secondly,  Print,  stamp,  pencil,  or  otherwise 
apply  to  those  parts  of  the  said  cloth,  which  are 
intended  to  be  either  wholly,  or  in  a  greater  or 
less  degree,  deprived  of  their  red  color,  some  other 
acid,  or  metallic  oxide,  or  calx,  which  has  a 
greater  affinity  or  attraction  for  the  alkaline  salt 
or  earth  with  which  the  oxymuriatic  acid  is 
mixed  or  combined,  than  that  acid  itself  pos- 
sesses :  ^d  if  any  one  of  the  stronger  or  more 
powerful  acids  be  employed,  which  is  either  of 
a  corrosive  nature  and  cannot  be  safely  used,  or 
of  a  volatile  nature  and  cannot  be  used  conve- 
niently, such  acid  must  be  combined  with  alka- 
lies, earths,  metals,  or  metallic  oxides  or  calces, 
so  as  to  form  neutral  salts,  acid  salts,  or  metallic 
salts,  which  shall  not  be  too  corrosive  or  too 
volatile;  and  such  alkalies,  earths,  metals,  or 
metallic  oxides,  or  calces  only,  must  be  employed, 
as  have  a  weaker  jiffinity  or  attraction  for  dke 
same  add  than  that  acid  has  for  the  alkaline 
salt  or  earth  with  which  the  oxymuriatic  acid  has 
been  mixed  or  combined. 

Thirdly,  After  the  said  acid,  oxides,  neutral 
.salts,  acid  salts,  or  metallic  salts,  so  directed  to 
be  printed,  stamped,  pencilled,  or  otherwise  ap- 

Slied  to  the  cloth  as  aforesaid,  are  sufficiently 
ry,  immerse  the  cloth  in  the  solution  of  the  said 
oxymuriatic  acid,  so  mixed  or  combined  with 
some  of  the  alkaline  salts  or  earths  hereinafter- 
named  as  aforesaid.  When  the  acid  or  oxide, 
either  in  its  simple  or  combined  state,  has  been 
applied  to  parts  of  the  cloth,  it  immediately 
seizes  upon  and  combines  with  the  alkaline  salt 
or  earth  with  which  the  oxymuriatic  acid  has 
been  mixed  or  combined,  and  disengages  that 
acid,  which  almost  instantaneously  deprives  of 
their  color  those  parts  of  the  cloth  to  which  the 
said  acids  or  oxides,  in  their  simple  or  combined 
state,  have  been  so  printed,  stamped,  pencilled, 
or  otherwise  applied  as  aforesaid. 

Lastly,  Wash  or  otherwise  remove  all  the  said 
acids,  oxides,  or  salts,  by  tlie  usual  processes. 
For  the  more  fully  explaining  and  illustrating 
the  invention  herein  before  described,  I  add  the 
following  remarks :-— The  alkaline  salts  or  earths 
which  I  mix  or  combine  with  the  oxymuriatic 
acid,  in  order  to  sbspend  or  prevent  its  action  on 
those  parts  of  the  red  cloth  which  are  intended 
to  retain  their  color,  are  the  alkaline  salts  of  po- 
tassa  and  soda,  or  the  calcareous,  magnesian, 
barytic,  or  strontitic  earths,  of  which  I  prefer  the 
calcareous«earth. 

The  acids  which  I  apply  to  the  parts  intended 
to  be  made  white,  or  to  those  places  on  the  cloth 
intended  to  be  deprived  of  their  red  color,  in  a 
greater  or  less  degree,  are  any  of  the  vegetable, 
mineral,  or  animal  acids,  which  have  a  stronger 
attraction  for  the  alkaline  salt  or  earth  with  which 
the  oxymuriatic  acid  has  been  mixed  or  com- 
bined, than  that  acid  itself  has ;  such,  for  in- 
stance, are  the  citric,  oxalic,  tartaric,  malic,  ben- 
zoic, sulphuric,  sulphurous,  phosphoric,  fluoric, 
boracic,  nitric^,  muriatic,  arsenic,  tungstic,  succi- 
nic, and  carbonic  acids. 
The  stronger  acids,  or  such  as  might  corrode 


the  cloth,  I  saturate  more  or  less  with  some  al- 
kaline salt,  earth,  or  metallic  oxide  or  calx,  for 
which  they  have  a  weaker  affinity  or  attraction 
than  they  have  for  the  alkali  or  earth  with  which 
I  have  combined  the  oxymuriatic  acid  :  for  in- 
stance, I  unite  the  sulphuric  acid  with  potassa, 
so  as  to  form  the  acid  sulphate  of  potassa  (or 
acid  y^triolated  tartar),  or  with  aluminous  earth, 
to  form  alum.  The  muriatic  acid  J  combine 
with  tin,  or  copper,  or  zinc,  forming  muriate  of 
tin,  muriate  or  copper,  or  muriate  of  zinc  In 
like  manner,  the  nitric  acid  maybe  combined  with 
the  aluminous  earth,  or  with  the  volatile  alkali, 
or  with  the  metals,  or  oxides  of  copper,  or  zinc, 
or  iron,  or  mereury ;  and  I  take  care,  when  I 
use  acidulous  compounds  of  such  corrosive 
acids,  not  to  suffer  toe  acid  so  far  to  predominate 
as  to  render  the  compound  injurious.  In  like 
manner  I  combine  the  volatile  acids,  or  such  as 
might  evaporate  too  speedily,  with  some  alkaline 
salt  or  earth,  or  metallic  oxide  or  calx,  for  which 
they  have  a  weaker  affinity*  or  attraction  than 
they  have  for  the  alkali  or  earth  with  which  I 
have  combined  the  oxymuriatic  acid :  for  in- 
stance, I  combine  the  acetic  acid  with  the  earth 
of  alum,  so  as  to  form  acetate  of  alumina, — or 
with  copper,  forming  acetate  of  copper, — or  with 
zinc,  forming  acetate  of  zinc.  The  carbonic  acid 
may  also  be  fixed  and  combined  with  an  alkali, 
as  with  soda,  for  example,  forming  carbonate  of 
soda,  which  may  be  used,  though  with  less  ad- 
vantage than  the  preceding  combinations.  Those 
acids  which  are  not  corrosive  nor  volatile,  and 
which  consequently  are  used  with  most  advan- 
tage in  their  simple  or  combined  state,  may, 
however,  be  united  like  the  preceding  to  the  al- 
kalies, earths,  metals,  or  metallic  oxides  or  calces, 
for  which  they  have  a  weaker  affinity  or  attraction 
than  they  have  for  the  alkali  or  earth  with  which 
the  oxymuriatic  acid  has  been  united.  Thus  the 
tartaric  acid  may  be  combined  with  potassa,  to 
form  cream  of  tartar,— -and  the  oxalic  acid  with 
potassa,  to  form  salt  of  sorrel,— and  these  two  salts 
may  be  employed  in  the  process,  though  it  is 
not  necessary  so  to  combine  the  two  acids ;  but, 
on  the  contrary,  the  acids  mav  be  used  alone. 

The  combinations  which  I  prefer,  as  uniting 
the  greatest  number  of  advantages  upon  the 
whole,  are,  the  supersulphate  of  potassa  (or  acid 
vitriolated  tartar),  the  sulphate  of  copper  or  blue 
vitriol,  the  muriate  of  lin  or  sal  jovis,  the  nitrate 
of  copper,  and  the  muriate  of  copper.  But  I 
prefer  to  any  single  combination  a  mixture  of 
the  supersulphate  of  potassa,  with  the  tartaric  or 
citric  acids. 

Lastly,  I  employ,  uncombined,  such  metallic 
oxides  or  calces  as  approach  in  their  properties 
to  the  nature  of  acids,  and  are  capable  of  com- 
bining either  with  the  alkaline  salts  of  potassa 
or  soda,  or  with  the  calcareous,  ma^esmn,  or 
strontitic  earths,  or  of  disengaging  them,  or  any 
of  them,  from  their  combination  with  oxymuri- 
atic acid  :  such,  for  instance,  is  the  oxide  of  ar- 
senic, or  common  white  arsenic,  and  the  oxides 
of  tin  and  tungsten. 

It  is  evident,  from  what  I  have  set  forth  in  the 
preceding  part  of  this  specification,  that  thb 
process  admits  of  great  variety  in  its  application, 
according  to  the  combinations  I  make  use  of; 


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siooe  not  only  the  various  acids,  oxides,  and 
salts  I  hafe  enumerated,  may  be  employed,  but 
•bo  ?anous  mixtures  of  them,  and  in  various 
proportioos  ;  but  I  prefer  and  generally  use  the 
following  process : — 

Fiist,  I  take  one  gallon  of  good  vinegar,  or 
rectified  pyrolignous  acid,  which  I  thicken  with 
starch  or  flour  in  the  way  practised  by  calico 
printers,  in  preparing  the  mordants  or  colors  for 
printing,  whilst  boiling  hot  I  add  to  it  five 
poaods  of  crystallised  tartaric  acid,  and  incor- 
ponte  the  whole  very  well  by  stirring. 

Or,  I  take  one  gallon  of  strong  concentrated 
lime  joice  or  lemon  juice,  or  one  gallon  of  water, 
in  which  1  have  dissolved  two  pounds  and  a 
half  of  ciTStallised  citric  acid,  which  I  thicken 
with  starch  or  flour  in  the  manner  directed  above, 
and  to  which,  whilst  hot,  I  add  two  pounds  of 
supersulphate  of  potassa,  and  incorporate  the 
whole  very  well  by  stirring.  I  prefer  starch  to 
any  other  thickening,  though  others  may  be  uscM 
with  more  or  less  advantage. 

Secondly,  the  paste  so  prepared  I  print, 
stamp,  pencil,  or  otherwise  apply  to  the  cloth 
previously  dyed  turkey  red,  in  the  mode  and 
with  the  precaations  generally  used  in  the  print- 
ing or  stamping  of  linens  or  cottons. 

Thirdlv,  I  prepare  a  solution  of  oxymuriate  of 
hme,  either  by  dissolving  the  dry  oxymuriate 
of  lime  (commonly  called  bleaching  powder,  or 
Ueschiog  salts)  in  water,  or  by  passing  the  oxy- 
moriatic  acid  gas  into  a  vat,  vessel,  or  cistern, 
in  which,  by  Station  or  otherwise,  I  keep  sus- 
pended such  Quantity  of  quicklime  as  will  more 
than  saturate  fully  and  completely  the  said  oxy- 
mariatic  acid  gas.  In  either  way,  I  obtain  a 
solation  of  oxymuriate  of  lime,  with  excess  of 
lime.  That  which  I  use  and  prefer  is  of  the  spe- 
cific gravity  lO50,and  I  seldom  employ  it  lower 
than  1030  (water  being  considered  as  1000).  The 
▼atfVesael,  or. cistern,  which  contains  the  solu- 
tion of  oxymuriate  of  lime,  in  which  I  immerse 
the  doths,  may  be  of  any  size  or  form  best 
adapted  to  the  purpose  or  situation.  I  use  and 
preur  vessels^oi  stone  of  from  six  to  eight  feet 
deep,  six  to  seven  feet  long,  and  three  and  a  half 
to  four  feet  broad  ;  but  larger  or  smaller  vessels 
will  answer  very  well. 

Fourthly,  When  the  cloths  are  ready  for  im- 
mersion, which  they  are  as  soon  as  the  paste  is 
diy,  I  book  them  on  a  freroe,  such  as  is  used  in 
dyeing  indigo  or  China  blues,  commonly  called 
>  dipping  frame,  on  which  the  cloth  should  be  so 
dbposed  that  no  two  folds  can  touch  each  other. 
1  then  plunge  the  frame  witl^the  cloth  so  attached 
mto  the  vat  containing  the  solution  of  oxymuriate 
of  lime,  and  keep  it  gently  in  motion  during  the 
time  of  immersion,  which  should  not  be  prolonged 
more  than  ten  minntes,  and  which  rarely  need 
exceed  five  minutes.  The  object  being  either 
wholly  or  partially  to  remove  the  Turkey  red  dye 
from  certain  parts  or  places,  as  soon  as  that  is 
done  the  cloth  should  be  withdrawn  from  the  so- 
lution of  the  oxymuriate  of  lime,  and  plunged 
or  rinsed  in  clean  water.  I  practise  and  approve 
the  aforesaid  plan  of  immersion  ;  but  any  other 
plan  or  plans  by  which  the  cloth  can  be  exposed 
2  greater  or  less  time  to  the  action  of  the  oxymu- 
nate  of  lime,  without  bringing  one  part  of  the 


said  cloth  into  contact  widi  anodier,  will  answer 
nery  well. 

Lastly,  After  having,  as  before  directed,  rinsed 
or  washed  the  cloths  m  clean  water,  I  free  them 
from  all  renuiins  of  the  different  agents  or  sub- 
stances employed,  by  the  ordinary  means  of 
washing,  branning,  or  soaping,  as  practised  by 
calico  printers ;  and  if  those  parts  of  the  cloth 
that  are  intended  to  be  made  white  should  still 
retain  any  red,  or  other  tinge  or  stain  injurious 
to  the  effect,  in  order  to  render  the  white  com- 
plete I  clear  it  by  the 'usual  process  of  exposure 
to  the  air,  or  by  passing  the  cloth  through  hot 
water,  to  which  I  nave  added  as  much  of  the  so- 
lution of  oxymuriate  of  lime  as  will  remove  the 
•aid  stains  or  tinge,  without  material  injury  to 
those  parts  from  which  the  red  dye  is  not  intend- 
ed to  oe  removed. 

I  then  proceed,  if  other  colors  are  to  be  applied 
to  finish  the  cloths,  by  the  ordinary  ana  well 
known  methods  of  calico  printers;  but  these  not 
being  necessarily  connected  with,  nor  forming 
any  part  of  the  peculiar  process  or  invention 
herein  intended  to  be  described,  I  purposely 
make  no  mention  of  here. 

The  above  particulars  and  examples  are  given 
for  the  more  rail  explanation  of  the  said  inven- 
tion, and  the  manner  in  which  the  same  is  to  be 
performed.  But  the  invention,  whereof  I  claim 
the  sole  and  exclusive  use,  consists  in  printing, 
stamping,  pencilling,  or  otherwise  applying  to 
those  parts  of  tlie  cloth  which  are  intended  to  be 
either  wholly,  or  in  a  greater  or  less  degree,  de- 
prived of  their  red  color,  an  acid,  oxide,  neutral 
salt,  acid  salt,  or  metallic  salt,  such  as  is  herein 
before  for  that  purpose  directed,  and  immersing 
the  whole  cloth  in  such  mixture  or  combination 
of  oxymuriatic  acid  and  water,  with  some  of  the 
alkaline  salts  or  earths,  as  is  herein  directed  for 
that  purpose. 

Mr.  Thomson's  patent  for  1815  is  specified 
as  follows :— llie  ordinary  practice  or  calico 
printers  is  to  apply,  with  the  block  or  pencil, 
what  are  termed  after-colors,  to  certain  spaces, 
originally  left  in  their  patterns,  and  intended  to 
receive  tde  said  after-colors ;  or  to  certain  spaces 
on  the  cloth,  firom  which  parts  of  the  original 
pattern  have  been  discharged,  in  order  to  admit, 
oy  a  subsequent  operation,  the  application  of  the 
said  after*colors.  Now  the  object  of  my  inven- 
tion is,  by  one  application  of  the  block,  cylinder, 
roller,  plate,  pencil,  or  other  mode,  to  remove 
parts  01  the  original  pattern  or  color  from  the 
cloth,  and  at  the  same  time  to  deposit  a  metallic 
oxide,  or  earthy  base,  which  shall  of  itself  be  a 
color,  or  shall  serve  as  a  mordant  to  some  color 
to  be  produced,  as  hereinafter  described. 
-  First,  mix  or  combine  with  the  acid  called 
oxymuriatic  acid  (or  dephlogisticated  acid  of  sea 
salt)  and  water,  the  alkaline  salts  of  potash  or 
soda,  or,  which  is  still  better,  calcareous  earth 
or  quicklime,  in  such  proportion  as  will  weaken 
or  suspend  the  power  of  the  said  airid,  so  that  it 
shall  not  in  sucn  mixed  or  combined  state,  of  it- 
self, and  without  any  further  operation,  be  able 
to  remove,  or  materially  to  improve  the  colors, 
within  the  moderate  space  of  time  taken  up  in 
the  performance  of  the  process. 
Secondly,  Print,  stamp,  pencil,  or  otherwise 


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P  R  I  N  T  I  If  a 


apply  to  thorn  parts  <»f  the  dotb  which  are.' in- 
tended to  be  deprived  of  one  color  and  to  receive 
another,  a  aolutioa  of  some  earthy  or  metallic 
salt;  th«  acid  of  which,  having  a  greater  aflSoity 
or  attraction  for  thie  aUcaline  salt  or  earth  witft 
which  the  ozymuiiate  add  is  mtaced  or  combined 
^n  that  acid  itself  possesses,  will  disetigage  it, 
and  the  metallic  or  eartby  base  of  which,  being 
deposited  in  the  dotfv  viU  either  of  itself  be  a: 
color,  or  secve  as  a  motdamt  to  some  other  cobry 
to  be  produced  as  hereinafter  described. 

Thirdly,  After  the  metallic  or  earthy  sotutiott 
aforesaid  has  been  orinted,  stamped,  pencilled, 
or  otherwise  appliea  to  the  doth,  as  before  di- 
rected, and  is  sufficiently  dry,  inptflierse  the  cloUi 
in  the  solution  of  oxymuriattc  acid,  combineda 
with  the  alkatine  salt  of  potash  or  soda,  or,  whkh- 
I  greatly  prefer,  with  calcareoils  earth  or  Hme,- 
when  the  acid  of  the  metallic  Or  earthy  sohition 
which  has  been  applied  to  parts  of  the  cloth  will 
immediately  seize  upon  and  combiae  with  the 
alkaline  salt  or  earth  with  which  the  oxymuriatie 
acid  has  been  mixed  or  combined,  and  disen- 
gage that  acid  which  will  almost  instanHaneously 
deprive  of  their  color  those  parts  of  the  oloth  ta 
which  the  stfid  earthy  or  metallic  salt  has  been 
applied. 

jfourthly,  Wash  or  otherwise  remove  the  said 
acids  or  salts  by  the  usual  processes,  and  when 
the  earthy  or  metallic  base,  deposited  in  the  cloth, 
is  intended  to  receive  another  Color,  proceed  to 
raise  it  by  the  usual  operations  of  dyeing,  as  will 
be  further  illustrated  in  the  examples  hereafter 
given  of  particular  applications  of  this  invention. 
The  eilrthy  solutions  which  I  apply  to  the  parts 
intended  to  be  deprived  of  their  color,  and  to  te- 
ceive  another,  are  the  solutions  of  alumina,  or 
earth  of  alum  in  acids ;  such,  fox  example,  as  the 
sulphate  of  alumina,  or  coD:[mon  alum,  the  aofe« 
tate  of  alumina,  or  the  nitrate  or  muriate  of 
alutfniina.  The  ftfttallic  solutions  which  I  0hi- 
ploy  are^  the  sulphate  of  iron  or  copperas ;  the 
nitrate,  or  roUriate,  or  acetate  of  iron ;  the  mu* 
riate  ot  tin,  or  nitto-muriate  of  tin  ;  the  sulphate 
of  copper  or  blue  vitriol,  or  ,the  nitrate,  muriate, 
or  acetate  of  copper.  All  acids  that  form  soluble 
compounds  witn  the  before-named  metals,  or  the 
earth  of  alum,  may  be  employed ;  but  those  only 
which  form  the  most  soluble  compounds,  such, 
for  example,  as  those  enumerated  above,  can  be 
employed  With  advantage.  For  the  more  full 
ana  complete  Understanding  of  the  principle  laid 
doWn  in  the  preceding  part  Of  this  spebtiitaition, 
I  subjoin  the  following  practical  illustrntion  of 
its  application  to  various  kinds  of  work.  If  I 
desire  to  have  a  yellow  figure  or  ttripe  on  the 
cloth,  u|y»n  which  a  madder^red  gnmild  or  pa^ 
t^m  has  been  printed,  after  having,  by  the  ordi- 
nary prbcesses  of  calico  printing,  produced  the 
Ted  ground  or  pattern,  I  first  print,  stamp,  peti- 
cil^  or  otherwise  apply  to  those  paHs  intended  to 
be  yellow,  a  stit>ng.ahuninouS  mordant,  composed 
of  thnse  pounds  of  sugar  of  lead,  and  six  pounds 
of  alum,  dissolve  in  a  gallon  of  water^  ttod 
thickened  with  a  due  proportion  of  bakined 
starch,  in  the  manner  usuilly  practised  by  calico 
printers. 

Secondly,  I  prepare  a  solotiDn  of  oxyinnriatb 
of  lime,  either  by  dissolving  the  dry  oxymuriate 


6f  lime  (comoKmly  called  bleaching  powder,  or 
bleaching  sahs)  in  water,  or  by  passing  the  oxjt- 
muriaiic  gas  into  a  vat,  vessel,  or  eistem,  in 
which,  by  agitation  or  otherwise,  I  keep  suspend- 
ed such  a  cftiantity  of  quicklisae  as  will  more 
than  saturate  fully  and  completely  the  said  oxy- 
muriatic  gas.  In  either  way  I  obtain  a  solution 
of  oxymuriate  of  lime,  with  excess  of  lime.  Tbat 
which  I  use  and  prefer  is  of  the  specific  gravity 
1050,  and  I  seldosi  employ  it  lower  than  1030 
(water  being  considered  as  1000).  The  vat^  ves- 
sel, .or  cistern,  which  contains  the  sohttion  of 
oxymuriate  of  lime  in  which  I  iBimerse  the  doth, 
may  be  of  any  siae  of  form  best  adapted  to  tiie 
purpose  or  situation,  i  use  and  prefes  vessels 
of  Slone,  of  from  six  to  eight  feet  deep,  six  to 
9even  feet  long,  and  three  and  a  haif  to  four  feet 
broad ;  but  larger  or  smaller  vessels  wii)  answer 
very  wdl. 

Thirdiy,  When  the  doth  is  ready  for  imoker- 
s^n,  which  it  is  as  soon  as  the  paste  is  dry,  I 
hook  it  on  a  frame,  such  as  is  used  in  dyeing  in- 
digo or  China  blues,  oommoaly  called  a  dipping 
frame,  on  which  the  eloth  siiould  be  so  disposed 
that  no  two  folds  can  touch  each  other.  I  then 
plunge  the  frame,  with  the  dotb  so  aAtsched, 
mto  the  vat  contKiniiq;  the  solution  of  oxymuriate 
of  lime,  and  keep  h  gently  in  motion  during  the 
tim^  of  immersion^' which  rarely  need  exceed  fire 
minutes.  The  ob^eot  being  to  remove  the  red 
dye  from  certain  parts  or  places,  as  soon  as  tbat 
is  done  the  cloth  should  be  withdrawn  from  the 
solution  of  the  oxymuriate  of  lime,  and  plunged 
into,  or  rinsed  in  cold  water.  I  practise  'and 
approve  the  aforesaid  plan  of  immersion;  bnt 
any  other  plan,  or  plans,  by  which  the  cloth  cam 
be  sxpcBed  a  gi  ealer  or  leas  time  to  the  action  of 
the  oxymuriate  of  lime,  without  bringing  one 
part  df  the  said  cfoth  into  contact  with  another, 
will  answer  very  well. 

Lastly,  After  havings  as  before  directed,  rinsed 
or  washed  the  cloth  in  clean  water,  I  free  it  from 
all  superfluous  remains  of  the  different  substances 
em.p!Qyed,  by  the  ordinafy  means  of  .washing, 
dung  (rig,  and  cleaning,  as  practised  by  calico 
ptinters ;  afker  whieh  I  dye  the  cloth  and  raise 
the  yellow  in  the  usual  way,  if^ith  quercitron  bark, 
or  any  other  yellow  dye. 

If,  instead  of  yellow,  it  is  proposed  to  have  a 
buff  pattern  or  figure,  I  add  to  the  aluminous 
mordant,  prepared  and  thickened  as  above,  one- 
fouHhor  one-sixth,  or  some  intermediate  propor- 
tion,  bf  a  soludori  of  nitrate  of  iron,  and  proceed  ' 
to  print  and  inmterse  in  oxymuriate  of  liibe  as  in 
the  former  case. 

The  red  dye  will  be  removed  as  before,  aad  its 
pluce  be  occupied  by  a  buff.  If  the  buff  be 
rhised  in  quereitton  baric,  an  olive  will  be  ob- 
tained. By  printing  at  separate  times^  and  on 
difibrent  parts  of  Uie  cloth,  each  of  the  above- 
mehtionea  mordants,  both  yellow  and  olive 
figures  on  a  red  ground  may  be  obtained.  Si- 
milar eiEects,  with  trifling  variations,  take  phice, 
^hen,  instead  of  red  grounds,  purple  or  choco- 
late grounds  are  empbyed ;  but  it  must  be  ob- 
served, that  these  colore  being  produced  from 
ihordants,  consisting  wholly,  or  in  part,  of  solu- 
tions of  iron,  and  the  oxide  of  th^t  metal  not 
being  removeable  by  the  process  detailed  in  tliis 


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PRINTING, 


109 


specification,  the  after  colors  produced  will  be 
modified  more  or  less  by  the  Mid  oxide  of  irpa. 
The  fofe^oiog  examples  are  ^veo  for  the  more 
full  explanation  of  the  said  iaventioo,  and  the 
maoner  in  which  the  same  is'  to  be  performed; 
bat  the  invention,  whereof  I  claim  the  sole  and 
exdnsiTe  use,  consists  in  printing,  stamping, 
peociiling,  or  otherwise  applying  to  cloth,  pre- 
viously printed  and  dye^,  or  dyed  any  other  bo-  , 
lor  thsQ  turkey  red,  any  of  the  earthy  or  metallic 
solations  herein  belore  for  thai  purpose  directed, 
and  immersing  the  whole  cloth  in  such  mixture 
or  combination  of  oj^mnriatic  acid  and  water, 
vith  some  of  the  alkaline  salts  or  earths,  as  is 
beieio  directed  for  that  purpose,  so  as  to  remove 
the  color  or  pattern  from  the  part  so  priiited, 
stamped,  pencilled,  or  receiving  such  application, 
and,  by  the  same  process,  fix  on  such  parts 
aiher  anew  color  or  a  mordant  for  a  new  colon 
In  onr  treatise  on  the  manufacture  ofcotton.it 
was  found  necessary  to  describe  the  admirable 
printing  apparatus  employed  at  the  Bandana 
works  in  Glasgow,  and  we  now  propose  to  fur- 
nish oar  readers  with  an  account  of  Mr.  Mauds- 
Uy*$  press  for  a  nearly  similar  purpose.  Figs.  1 . 
and 2,  plate  Puinting,  Calico,  represent  an  end 
and  front  view  of  the  machine.  A,  A,  are  frames 
of  cast-iron,  wood,  or  other  strong  materials. 
BjB^  are  swinging  frames  of  iron  or  wood ;  the 
upper  surfaces  of  which  are  made  flat,  to  receive 
eugraved  copperplates,  fastened  on  and  regulat- 
ed by  screws  at  ,<z  a.  The  screws  at  6  6  are  to 
Stop  and  regulate  the  swinging  frames  against 
pieces  which  prqject  on  the  insides  of  the  frames 
A,  A,  at  (2  d.  C,  C>  are  slings  or  connecting  rods 
of  iron  or  other  metal  which  h^ve  round  holes  ^t 
D,  in  the  bottom  eud,  to  receive  the  ends  of  the 
strong  bolt  D,  which  is  copnected  to  the  frame 
B  B.  The  upper  part  of  the  connecting  rods  C 
are  forked,  to  p9ss  the  pivots  of  wheels,  &c.,  on 
the  ends  of  the  frames,  A,  A*  and  are  screwed  in 
the  usual  way,  have  two  metal  nuts  to  Q^ch,  to 
keep  down  and  regulate  the  cross  pieces  of  iron 
or  other  metal  c,  which  fit  on  and  mto  the  ec-: 
centric  wheeb  or  cranks  £.  These  are  ipade  of 
iron  or  other  metal,  £or  the  purpose  of  lifting  the 
swiograg  frame  B,  by  means  of  the  connecting 
rods  C».Cy.aQd  pressing  the  copper  plates  forcibly 
against  the  unoer  part  of  the  cylinder  or  press- 
head  F,  which. is  better  seen  in  figs.  3  or  5t 
Thmogh  the  eccentric  wheels,  &c.,  are  made 
tQoare.oc  other  formed  holes,  which  are  weU  fitt- 
ed on  the  spindle  G,  close  on  the  outsides  or  in- 
<ides  of  the  names  A,  A ;  on  the  outsides  of  which 
are  fitted  the  toothed  wbeelH,  which  works  into 
and  turns  the  wheel  X,  which  is  twice  the  dia^ 
meter  of  H,  and^  has  on  the  rim  a  piece  of  metal 
of  the  proper  curve  with  three  whole  teeth  and 
.  one  bait  tooth,  which  in  their  revolution  fall  into 
the  teeth  of  the  wheel  H,  fixed  on  the  axis  of  the 
roller  L;  which  wheel  will  be  regulated  as  to  its 
muubei  of  teeth  by  the^  circumference;  of  the  rol- 
ler h,  which  m»»t  be  tvi[ice  or  three  times  the 


len^  of  the  ei^favings  on  the  plate  to  be  print- 
ed from ;  if  twice  it  must  have  eight  teeth,  if 
three  tioaes  twelve  teeth ;  or  in  ibat. proportion. 
The  half  of  every  fourth  tooth  must  be  taken 
away  to  let  the  tootli  of  the  segment  on  I. pass; 
that  it  may  strike  fairly  on  the  pitith  line  of  the 
next  tooth.  The  stnall^roller  M  may  be  used  or 
not  as  occasion  may  requine^  as  it  is  only  to  ease 
the  motion  of  the  blanlb^t  whidb  passes  over  the 
roller  I^,  which  «  to  tighten  the  blanket  (by 
means  of  the  screws  and  sockets  O.  At  the  op? 
posite  end  of  the  spindle  G  is  well  fitted  a  Isige 
wheel  P,  vihich  is  turned  by  the  pinion  Q  on  the 
spindle  of  the  fly-wheel  R,  and  supported  by  thi§ 
frame  S,  of  iron  or  wood.  This  spindle  ma^  be 
turned  by  band  or  by  any  other  power  given. 
The  wheel  and  pinion  may  be  varied  to  any 
power,  by  altering  the  siies'of  them  in  the  usual 
way.  The  plates  m«y  be  cleaned  by  a  scraper 
or  doctor. 

Fig.  3  is  a  transverse  section  of  the  machine, 
showing  a  different  mode  of  using  it.  Thefinme 
A  A  is  the  same  as  in  fig.  1  and  2,  with  the  ad- 
dition of  two  arms  and  brackets  T,  T,  which  sup* 
port  a  frame  of  iron  or  wood,  on  which  are  fixed 
one,  two,  or  more,  copper  plates.  To  print  se- 
veral colors  they  move  to  stops,  and  are  xegulat- 
ed'i»  in  figs.  1  and  2.  The  cylinder  £  is  made 
boUow,  for  -the  purpose  of  admitting  steam, 
which  will  heat  it  to  any  temperature,  to  dry  the 
color  as  t^uidk  is  printed.  Thie  manner  of  letting 
in  the  steam  is  described  in  fig.  5.  The  lifting 
frame  B  acts  ^e  same^es  in  figs.  1  and  J2.  Fig. 
4  is  a  lifting  frame,  whioh  has  a^linder  similar 
to  F,  and  may  be  used  in  the  ^place  of  B,  whicii 
makes  it  a  hot-press  for  various,  purposes,  by 
letXing  steam  into  the  bottom  as  well  as  the  top 
cylinder;  and  in  case  the  color  should  dry  in 
the  plates,  o»visg  to  the  heat,  cold  water  may  be 
made  to  pass  through  the  cylinder,  which  will 
always  Jeeep  it  cool.  Fig.  5  is  a  longitudinal 
section  of  the  cylinder,  eoceatric  wheel,  &c., 
wiUi  the  .manner  of  admitting  steam  by  a  small 
pipe  at/,  which  may  be  connected  with  the 
boiler  of  .a  steam-engine,  or  a  small  boiler  on 
purpose,  which  will  serve  one,  two,  or  more 
presses,  each  having  atop-cocks  at  convenient 
places,  g  is  a  pipe  in  the  bottom  of  the  cylinder 
to  let  out  the  condensed  water. 

Figs.  6  and  7  represent  a  side  view  of  the  up- 
per part  of  the  machine,  with  the  roller  L  placed 
above  the  cylinder,  by  which  means  the  blanket 
is  closer^ai^d  may  if  riequired  receive  .more  heat 
from  the  cylinder.  The  roller  istmoved  by  the 
same  .wheels  as  in  figs.  .1  and  2,  only  differently 
placed. 

We  must  not  close  our  account  of  the  theory 
iand  practice  of  calico  printing  without  adverting 
to  the  great  use  we  have  made  of  Dr.  Ure's  edition 
of  Berthollet's  Elements  of  the  Art  of  Pyeing, 
which  is  decidedly  the  J)est' work  on. the  subject 
that  has  yet  appeared. 


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PRI 


110 


PRI 


PRIOLQ,  or  Prjolvs  (BeDJantn),  an  emi- 
sent  Italian  historian,  born  in  Venice,  in  16(M2, 
and  descended  from  the  illustrious  family  of 
Prioli,  some  of  whom  had  been  doges  of  Venice. 
He  studied  at  Orthez,  Montauban,  and  at  last  at 
Leyden,  under  Heinsius  and  Vossius.  He  went 
to  Paris  to  visit  Giotius,  and  studied  Aristotle 
at  Padua,  under  Cremonius  and  Licetus.  He 
became  a  confident  of  the  duke  of  Rohan ;  after- 
wards married  and  retired  to  Geneva;  became 
intimate  with  the  duke  of  Longueville,  cardinal 
Chigi  (afterwards  Alexander  Vll.)»  and  cardinal 
F.  Barberini,  and  became  a  Roman  Catholic. 
The  civil  war  breaking  out  in  France,  he  joined 
the  malecontents,  and  his  estate  was  confiscated. 
He  ftien  retired  to  Flanders,  where  he  wrote  his 
History  of  France,  in  Latin.  He  died  at  Lyons, 
in  1667,  aged  sixty-five. 

PRIOR  (MaUhew),  an  eminent  Enriish  poet, 
bom  in  London  in  1664.  His  father  dying 
while  he  was  very  young,  an  uncle,  a  vintner, 
having  given  him  some  education  at  Westmin- 
ster school,  took  him  home  to  bring  him  up  to  his 
own  trade.  However,  at  his  leisure  hours,  he  pro- 
secuted his  study  of  the  classics,  and  especially 
of  his  fiivorite  Horace.  This  introduced  him  to 
some  polite  company,  who  frequented  his  uncle's 
house;  amonff  whom  the  earl  of  Dorset  took 
particular  notice  of  him,  and  procured  him  to  be 
sent  to  St.  John's  College  in  Cambridge,  where, 
in  1680,  he  took  the  degree  of  A.  B.  and  after- 
wards became  fellow  of  that  college.  Upon  the 
revolution,  Mr.  Prior  was  brought  to  court  by 
the  earl  of  Dorset;  and  in  1690  he  was  made 
secretary  to  the  earl  of  Berkeley,  plenipotentiary 
at  the  Hague;  as  he  was  afterwards  to  the  am- 
bassador and  the  plenipotentiaries  at  die  treaty 
of  Ryswickin  1697;  and  in  1698  to  the  earl  of 
Portland,  ambassador  to  the  court  of  France. 
He  was  in  1697  made  secretary  of  state  for 
Ireland ;  and  in  1700  was  appointed  one  of  the 
lords  commissioners  of  tr^ae  and  plantations. 
In  1710  be  was  supposed  to  have  had  a  share  in 
writing  the  Examiner.  In  1711  he  was  made 
one  of  the  commissioners  of  the  customs ;  and 
was  sent  minister  plenipotentiary  to  France,  for 
the  negociating  a  peace  with  that  kingdom. 
Soon  after  the  accession  of  George  I.  to  the  throne 
in  1714  he  presented  a  memorul  to  the  court  of 
France,  requiring  the  demolition  of  the  canal  and 
new  works  at  Mardyke.  In  1715  he  was  re- 
called ;  and  upon  his  arrival  being  taken  up  by  a 
warrant  from  the  house  of  commons,  and  strictly 
examined  by  a  committee  of  the  privy  council, 
Robert  Walpole,  Esq.,  moved  the  douse  of  com- 
mons for  an  impeachment  against  him ;  and  Mr. 
Prior  was  ordered  into  close  custody.  In  1717 
he  was  excepted  out  of  the  act  of  grace ;  at  the 
close  of  that  year,  however,  he  was  set  at  liberty. 
The  remainder  of  his  days  he  spent  in  tran- 
quillity; and  died  in  1721.  His  poems  are  well 
known  and  justly  admired. 

Prior,  a^'.        )    Lat. prior.   Former;  being 
Prior'ity,  n.  s. )  before  something  else ;  ante- 
rior ;  state  of  being  antecedent. 

Follow,  Cominus,  we  mast  follow  you. 
Right  worthy  your  priority.  Shakspeart, 

From  SOD  to  son  of  the  kiidy,  as  they  should  be  in 
prioritif  of  birth.  Hayward. 


Men  still  afihm  that  it  killeth  at  a  dislaoce^  that 
it  poisooeth  by  the  eye,  and  by  priority  of  vision. 


Whenever  tempted  to  do  or  approve  any  thing 
contrary  to  the  duties  we  are  enjoined,  let  us  reflect 
that  we  have  a  prior  and  superior  obligation  to  the 
commandit  of  Christ.  Roger*. 

Though  he  oft  renewed  the  fight. 
And  almost  got  priority  of  sight. 
He  ne'er  could  overcome  her  quite.  ^    Swift. 
This  observation  may  assist  in  determining  the 
dispute  concerning  the  prioritg  of  Homer  and  Hesiod. 

Broome. 

Pei'or,  n.i.^     Fr.  prictir.    The  head  of  a 

Pri'oress,     >  convent  of  monks,   inferior  in 

Pri'ory.      i  dignity  to  an  abbot :  prioress, 

the  feminine  of  this  noun :  priory  is,  the  convent 

or  establishment  over  which  a  prior  is  placed  : 

prior,  says  Aylifie,  is  such  a  person,  as,  in  some 

churches,    presides  over  others    in    Uie  same 

churches. 

Our  abbies  and  our  prioriet  shall  pay 
This  expedition's  charge. 

Shaktptere.  King  John, 
When  you  have  vowed,  you  must  not  speak  with 
men 
But  in  the  presence  of  the  priorett.         ShaJupeare. 
The  reeve,  miller,  and  cook,  are  distinguished  from 
each  other,  as  much  as  the  mincing  lady  prioren  and 
the  broad  speaking  wife  of  Bath.  Dryden. 

Neither  she,  nor  any  other,  besides  the  prior  of 
the  convent,  knew  any  thing  of  his  name. 

AddiaonU  fi^wctetor. 

Priory,  Aliew .    These  priories  were  celb  of 
the  religious  houses  in  England  which  belonged 
to  foreign  monasteries :  for,  when  manors  or  tithes 
were  given  to  foreign  convents,  the  monks,  either 
to  increase  their  own  rule,  or  rather  to  have  faith- 
fill  stewards  of  their  revenues,  built  a  small  con- 
vent here  for  the  reception  of  such  a  number  as 
they  thousht  proper,  and  constituted  priors  over 
them.    Withm  these  cells  there  was  the  same 
distinction  as  in  those  priories  which  were  cells 
subordinate  to  some  great  abbey ;  some  of  these 
were  conventual,  and,  having  priors  of  their  own 
choosing,  diereby  became  entire  societies  within 
themselves,  and  received  the  revienues  belonging 
to  their  several  houses  for  their  ovm  use  and 
benefit,  paying  only  the  ancient  anport,  acknov^ 
ledgment,  or  obvention,  at  first  tne  surplusage, 
to  the  foreign  house ;  but  others  depended  en- 
tirely on  the  foreign  honses,  who  appointed  and 
removed  their  priors  at  pleasure.    These  trans- 
mitted all  their  revenues  to  the  foreign  head 
houses ;  for  which  reason  their  estates  were  ge- 
nerally seized  to  carry   on  the  wars  between 
England  and  France,  and  restored  to  them  again 
on  return  of  peace.    These  alien  priories  were 
most  of  them  founded  by  such  as  had  foreign 
abbeys,  founded  by  themselves  or  by  some  of 
their  family.    The  whole  number  is  not  exactly 
ascertained ;  the  Monasticon  has  given  a  list  of 
100.   Weever  says  110.     Some  of  these  cells 
were  made  indigenous  or  denizon.    The  alien 
priories  were  first  seized  by  Edvrard  1. 1285  on 
the  breaking  out  of  the  war  between  France  and 
England ;  and  it  appears  from  a  roll  that  Ed- 
ward n.  also  seizea  them,  though  this  is  not 
mentioned  by  our  historians :  and  to  these  the 
act  of  restitution  1  Edw.  Ill-,  seems  to  refer.  In 
1337  Edward  III.  confiscated  their  estates  and 


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let  (HU  the  priories  themselves  with  all  their 
lands  and  tenesieots,  at  his  pleasure,  for  twenty- 
tluee years;  at  the  end  of  which  term,  peace 
being  concluded  between  the  two  nations,  he 
restored  their  e;»tates  in  1361,  as  appears  by  his 
letters  patent  to  thai  of  MonUcut^  county  of 
Somerset,  printed  at  lane  in  Rymer,  vol.  vi.  p. 
31 1;  and  translated  in  Weever's  Funeral  Monu- 
meats,  p.  339.  At  other  times  he  granted  their 
hods,  or  lay  pensions  out  of  them,  to  divers 
noblemen.  Thepr  were  also  sequestered  during 
lUchard  II/s  reign,  and  the  head  monasteries 
abroad  had  the  king's  licence  to  sell. their  lands 
to  other  religious  houses  here,  or  to  any  particu- 
lar persons  who  wanted  to  endow  others.  Henry 
IV.  began  his  reign  with  showing  some  favor  to 
the  alien  priories,  restoring  all  the  conventual 
ooes,  only  reserving  to  himself  in  time  of  war 
what  they  paid  in  time  of  peace  to  the  foreign 
abbeys.  They  were  all  dissolved  by  act  2, 
Henry  V.,  and  all  their  estates  vested  in  the 
crown,  except  some  lands  granted  to  the  college 
of  Fotheringay.  The  act  of  dissolution  is  not 
printed  in  the  statute  books,  but  it  is  be  found 
entire  in  Rymer's  Fsedera,  and  in  the  Parliament 
Rolls,  vol.  iv.  p.  22.  In  general,  these  lands 
were  appropriated  to  religious  uses.  Heniy  VI. 
eodowea  his  foundations  at  Eton  and  Cambridge 
with  the  lands  of  the  alien  priories.  Others 
were  granted  in  fee  to  the  prelates,  nobility,  or 
prirate  persons.  'Such  as  remained  in  the  crown 
were  granted  by  Henry  VI.,  1440,  to  archbishop 
Chicheley,  &c.,  and  they  became  part  of  his  and 
the  royal  foundations.  • 

PIU'SAGE,  n.  f.  From  prise.  See  the  ex- 
tract.- 

Prkoge,  now  called  batlerage,  is  a  custom  whereby 
the  piince  challenges  out  of  every  bark  loaden  witn 
vioe,  tnro  tans  of  wine  at  his  price.  Cowell, 

PRISCIANUS,  an  eminent  grammarian,  bom 
^  Cssarea,  who  taught  at  Constantinople  with 
great  reputation  about  the  year  625.  He  com- 
p<kied  a  work  De  Arte  Grammatica,  which  was 
fim  printed  by  Aldus  at  Venice  in  1476  ;  and 
uiother,  De  NaturalibusQuestionibiis,  which  he 
dedicated  to  Chosroes  king  of  Persia;  besides 
which  he  translated  Dionysius's  description '  of 
the  world  into  Latin  verse. 

PRISM,  n.  s.  J     Frenchpmm^;  Or. 

PaiSMAt'ic,  adj.  >  ^p«r/ia.     See   Sir   I. 

Pbisiiat'icallt,  adv.  j  Newton's  definition 
below :  the  adjective  and  adverb  correspond. 

Take  notioe  of  the  pleasing  variety  of  colours  ex- 
hibited by  the  triangular  glass,  and  demand  what 
addition  or  decrement  of  either  salt,  sulphur,  or 
meicnjy  belalls  the  ^lass,  by  being  prUmatically 
figured ;  and  yet  it  is  known  that,  without  that 
uape.  it  would  not  afford  those  colours  as  it  does. 

Boyle, 

A  jrriam  of  glass  is  a  glass  bounded  with  two  equal 
^parallel  triangular  ends,  and  three  plain  and 
well  poUfhed  sides/ which  meet  in  three  parallel 
lisas.  rannine  from  the  three  angles  of  one  end  to 
the  thiee  an^ee  of  the  other  end.  Netcton. 

If  the  mass  of  the  earth  was  cubick,  jnrumatiek^  or 
say  other  anguUr  figure,  it  would  follow  that  one 
too  vast  a  part  would  be  drowned,  and  another  be 
diy.  Derkam. 

False  eloquence*  like  the  prismatick  gla%8. 

Its  gaudy  colours  spreads  on  every  place ; 


The  hce  of  nature  we  no  more  survey. 

All  glares  alike,  without  distinction  gay.    Pope. 

Here,  awful  Newton,  the  dissolving  clouds 
Form,  fronting  on  the  sun,  thy  showeiy  jfrim. 

Thornton, 
If  oyster-shells  were  thrown  into  a  common  fira 
and  calcined  for  about  half  an  hour,  and  then  brought 
to  a  person  who  had  previously  been  some  minutes 
in  a  dark  room,  that  many  of  them  would  exhibit 
beautiful  irises  o(pn$matic  colours.  Darwin, 

A  Prism  is  an  oblong  solid,  contained  under 
more  than  four  planes,  whose  bases  are  equal, 
parallel,  and  alike  situated.    See  Optics. 
PRIS'ON,  n.  s.  &  v.  o.^    Fr.  prison.  A  strong 
PrisWbase,  /hold  in  which  per 

Pris'oner,  n  sons  are  confinecl ;  a 

Pris'onhouse,  igaol:  to  confine  or 

Pris  ONMENT.  J  captivatc  :      prison- 

house  is  synonymous  with  prison  :  prison-base 
is  a  kind  of  rural  olay,  described  in  the  extract : 
prisoner,  one  connned  in  a  prison;  a  captive: 
prisonment,  confinement;  captivity. 

The  spachies  of  the  court  play  every  Friday  at 

giocho  di  canni,  which  is  no  other  than  pritonbtM 

upon  horseback,  hitting  one  another  with  darts,  as 

the  others  do  with  their  hands.  Sandyt, 

So  oft  as  homeward  I  from  her  depart, 

I  go  like  one  that,  having  lost  the  field, 

Is  prisoner  led  away  with  heavy  heart. 

Spenter, 
He  hath  commission 
To  hang  Cordelia  in  the  priaon,  Shaktpeare. 
Universal  plod<ling  prieont  up 
The  nimble  spirits  in  the  artenes.        Id. 
Caesar  s  ill-erected  tower, 
To  whose  flint  bosom  my  condemed  lord  . 
Is  doomed  a  prisoner.  Id,  Richard  II, 

I  am  forbid  to  tell  the  secrets  of  my  prisonhause. 

Shaktpeare. 
May  be  he  will  not  touch  young  Arthur's  life, 
But  hold  himself  safe  in  his  prisonment.  Id, 

^  There  succeeded  an  absolute  victory  for  the  £ng- 
lish,  the  takinff  of  the  Spanish  general  d'Ocampo 
prisoner,  with  me  loss  of  few  of  the  English. 

Bacon. 
Then  'did  the  king  enlarge 
The  spleen  he  prisoned.        Chapman*s  Iliad. 
A  prisoner  is  an  impatient  patient,  lingering  under 
the  rough  hands  of  a  cruele  physitian ;  his  creditor 
knowes  his  disease,  and  hath  power  to  cure  him, 
but  takes  more  pleasure  to  kill  him. 

Essayes  and  Characters,  1638. 
He  that  is  tied  with  one  slender  string,  such  as 
one  resolute  struggle  would  break,  he  is  prisoner  only 
at  his  own  sloth,  and  who  will  phy  his  thraldom  ) 
t  Decay  of  Piety. 

For  those  rebellious  here  their  prison  ordained. 

MiUon. 
Culling  their  potent  heibs  and  baleful  drugs, 
They,  as  they  sun^,  would  take  the  prisoned  soul. 
And.  lap  it  in  Elysium.  Id, 

The  tyrant  uEolus, 
With  power  imperial  curbs  the  struggling  winds. 
And  sounding  tempests  in  dark  prisons  binds. 

Drydess. 
He  yielded  on  my  wx>rd, 
And,  as  my  prisoner,  I  restore  his  sword.     Id. 
A  prisoner  is  troubled,  that  he  cannot  go  whither 
he  would ;  and  he  that  is  at  large  is  troubled  that 
he  does  not  know  whither  to  go.  V Estrange, 

He,  that  has  his  chains  knocked  off,  and  the 
prison  doors  set  open  to  him,  is  presently  at  liberty. 

Locke. 


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112 


PRISON    DISCIPLINE. 


At  His  first  eonijig  to  his  titUe  village,  it  wan  as 
disagreeable  to  hioi  as  a  prison,  and  every  day 
seemed  too  tedious  to  be  endured  in  so>  xeQred  a 
plac^.  iMB, 

A  Prison,  lord  Coke  observes,  is  only  a  place 
of  safe  custody,  salva  custodia,  not  a  place  of 
punishment.  Any  place  where  a  person  is  con- 
.nned  may  be  said  to  be  a  prison ;  and^  when  a 
process  is  issued  against  one,  he  must,  when  fu*- 
rested  thereon,  either  be  committed  to  prison,  or 
be  bound  in  a  recognizance  with  sureties,  or  else 
give  bail  according  to  the  nature  of  the  case,  to 
appear  at  a  certain  day  in  court,  there  to  make 
answer  to  what  is  alleged  against  him.  Where 
a  person  is  taken  and  sent  to  prison  in  a  civil 
case,  he  may  be  released  by  the  plaintiff  in  the 
suit ;  but,  if  it  be  for  treason  or  felony,  he  may 
not  regularly  be  discharged,  until  he  is  indicted 
of  the  feet  and  acquitted.    See  Law. 

Prison  Discipline.  This  is  a  topic  upon 
which  every  patriotic  feeling  of  the  Christian 
moralist  will  be  exercised ;  and  has  been  exer- 
cised in  this  country,  very  salutarily,  jwexnay 
add,  for  the  last  ten  years.  If  no  second  Howard 
has  arisen,  investigations  into  the  state  of  prisons 
more  extensive  than  his  have  been  successfully 
carried  on  in  every  part  of  Great  Britain  during 
this  period,  and,  in  the  Society  for  the  improve- 
ment of  Prison  Discipline,  an  important  centre 
of  communicaftiom  has  been  established  for  the 
bene^t  of  the  civilised  world.  In  the  retrospect 
of  their  pvoceedingx  much  that  is  humiliating  to 
our  national  pride  will  appear  ;  but  as  the  expo- 
sure of  the  evils  in  question  has  led  to  a  very 
important  diminution  of  them  by  legislative  enact- 
^  ments,  and  to  the  full  understanding  of  the 
'  chief  causes  of  the  rest,  they  may  be  adverted  to 
with  considerable  satisfaction. 

Mr.  Buxton's  ^Inquiry  whether  Crime  ^nd 
Misery  are  produced  or  prevented  by  our  present 
System  of  rrison  Discipline,  and  his  personal 
exertions  in  this  cause  both  in  and  out  of  parliar 
ment,  were  the  first  great  means  of  arousing  the 
late  attention  of  the  benevolent  to  the  subject. 
There  is  a  singular  honesty  in  the  fabrication  of 
his  book ;  and  it  is  one  of  those  rare  cases  in 
which  no  victory  has  been  gained  over  the  can- 
dor and  veracity  of  the  writer,  by  the  strong 
persuasions  of  a  mind  under  the  fullest  convic- 
tion and  m<;»st  glowing  impres«ions  upon  the  sub- 
ject of  his  publication.  Por  the  truth  q(  jihe 
fects,.as  they  stand  in  his  statements,  Mr.  Bux- 
ton declares  himself  to  require  no  indulgences 
*  Nothing  is  stated,'  says  he,  *  (with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  account  of  the  Philadelphia  gaol), 
which  has  not  come  within  my  own  otservation, 
and  which  has  not  been  confirmed  by  the  con- 
current testimony  of  the  gentlemen  who  have 
been  mv  companions.  The  description  of  t))e 
Borough  Compter,  Tothill  Fields,  the  Peniten- 
tiary, the  gaols  at  St.  Alban's,  at  Bury,  at  Ghent, 
and  at  Bristol,  have  been  read  to  their  respective 
gaolers;  and  that. of  Gnildford  was  banded  to  a 
magistrate  of  the  county  of  Surrey,  with  a  re- 
quest that  he  would  point  out  any  mistakes.* 
Mr.  Buxton  adds, '  I  have  generally  mentioned 
the*d&ys  on  which  I  visited  the  gaols,  the  per- 
sons with  whom  I  went,  and,  where  I  could  do  it 
with  propriety,  the  names  of  any  prisoners  whose 


case  attracted  my  particular  atteption.  I  have 
done  this  as  inviting  enquiry,  as  placiag  my 
statements  in  a  more  tangible  shape,  and  as  for- 
nishing  a  facility  for  the  detection  of  errors.'  For 
the  honor  of  the  writer  of  the  severe  censares  on 
our  past  proceedings  which  thiii  book  cotttahis, 
sudi  proofs  of  authenticity  ^f>^  very  forcibly ; 
but,  tor  the  honor  of  the  British  character,  we 
have  only  to  regret  that  they  carry  so  higli  his 
pretensions  to  be  believed.  Of  the  reasoning  in 
the  introdnctoty  chapter,  we  do  not  hesitate  to 
say  that  it  is  in  a  high  degree  moral,  acute,  and 
manly.  We  are  not  of  opinion  that  prisoners 
should  be  indulged  with  Turkey  carpets ;  and  we 
agree  in  the  positions  of  the  committee  of  alder- 
men, that  debtors  should  not  be  placed  within 
the  walls  of  a  prison,  with  greater  comparative 
comforts  than  the  families  of  the  citizens  whom 
they  have  wronged,  or  perhaps  ruined ;  neither 
do  we  feel  any  of  that  contumacious  compassion 
for  prisoners  because  authority  and  the  law  have 
maae  them  such,  which,  we  are  persuaded,  many 
do ;  but  we  cordially  join  with  Mr.  Buxton  in 
opinion,  that,  where  imprisonment  is  the  legal 
consequence  of  debt,  it  should  be  only  impri- 
sonment, without  any  aggravations,  or  super- 
added sufferings ;  for  it  is  not  %o  be  disputed 
that  all  beyond  mere  confinement  is  beyond  the 
^law,  which  has  nowhere  authorised  any  infliction 
for  this  cause  beyond  the  evil  necessarily  implied 
in  the  suspension  of  personal  liberty.  It  is  still 
more  plainly  evident,  that  persons  under  con- 
finement for  imputed  offences  ought  not  to  be 
sifbjected  to  any  rigors  beyond  what  may  be 
necessary  to  secure  their  detention.  Even  on 
convicted  delinquents,  where  safe  custody  is  all 
that  the  law  has  in  contemplation,  any  annexa- 
tion of  unnecessary  hardship  carries  the  punish- 
ment beyond  the  law ;  and,  where  imprisonment 
is  part  or  the  whole  of  the  punishment,  all  that 
is  inflicted  of  suffering  or  privation,  beyond  what 
the  sentence  has  defined,  or  the  common  refla- 
tions of  the  prison  require,  is  excess  and  abuse, 
so  much  the  more  to  be  dreaded,  because  it 
takes  place  where  the  eye  of  the  public  does  not 
often  pierce. 

It  IS  quite  evident  that  as  little  as  possible  of 
judicial  punishment  should  be  submitted  to  the 
discretion  or  disposition  of  the  gaoler,  however 
necessary  it  may  he  to  invest  him  with  some  de- 
gree of  coercive  authority  to  preserve  the  order 
and  peace  of  the  prison.  A  system  of  general 
rules  only  may  and  ought  to  be  maintahned,  in 
which  at  least  ordinary  humanity  sufferis  nothing 
suppliciary  beyond  the  sentence  of  (he  court,  in 
which  respect  should  be  had,  as  fur  as.  justice 
towards  all  will  allow,  to  the  comjuon  presumable 
differences  of  sentiment  arising  from  previous 
habits,  and  in  which  all  mischief^  that  may  affect 
the  prisoner  consequentially  and  permanently, 
after  the  law  is  satisfied,  may,  as  far  as  possible, 
be.  prevented. 

No  language  can  better  state  the  rights  of  a 
prisoner  accused  even  of  serious  crimes  than  the 
following : — ^  You  have  no  right  to  abridge  him 
of  pure  air,  wholesome  and  sufficient  food,  and 
opportunities  of  exercise.  You  have  no  right  to 
debar  him  from  the  craft  on  which  his  family  de- 
pends, if  it  can  be  exercised  in  prison.     You 


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lave  no  riglit  to  subject  him  to  mflbring  from 
oMf  by  wmot  of  bed-«lotfaing  hy  night,  or  firing 
by  dof;  and  the  reason  is  plain, — ^jrou  have 
t^en  bim  from  his  home,  and  ba^e  deprived 
faiBi  of  the  means  of  providing  himself  with  the 
neoeamies  or  comforts  of  life,  and  therefore  yon 
are  bobnd  to  frumish  him  with  moderate  indeed, 
bat  suitable  aooommodation. 

*  Yoa  have  for  the  same  reason  no  right  to 
rain  his  habits  by  oompeliing  him  to  be  idle, 
his  morals  by  compelling  him  to  mix  with  a  pro- 
miscnons  assembls^ge  of  hardened  and  convicted 
criminals,  o    his  health  by  forcing  him  at  night 
into  a  damp  nnventilated  cell,  with  such  crowds 
of  companions  as  very  speedily  render  the  air 
fool  ana  putrid,  or  make  him  sleep  in  close  con- 
tact with  the  victims  of  contagious  and  loath- 
some disease,  or  amidst  the  noxious  effluvia  of 
dirt  and  corruption.    In  short,  attention  to  his 
feelings  mental  and  bodily,  a  supply  of  every 
necessary,  abstraction  from  evil  society,  the  con- 
servation of  his  health  and  industrious  habits, 
are  the  clear, evident,  undeniable  rights  of  an  un> 
coDvicted  prisoner.    He  should  be  brought  to 
his  trial  as  speedily  as  powible ;  for  every  hour 
of  unnecessary  delay,  in  furnishing  him  with  the 
opportunity  of  proving  his  innocence,  is,  or  at 
least  may  be,  an  hour  of  unjust  imprisonment. 

*  At  bis  trial,  either  he  is  acquitted,--in  which 
case  the  least  you  can  do  is  to  replace  him  in 
the  situation  you  found  him,  to  pay  his  expenses 
home,  and  to  lumish  him  with  sufficient  to  sup- 
port bim  till  he  has  had  an  opportunity  of  Iook- 
log  out  for  work :  or  he  is  convicted, — and  then 
it  is  for  the  law  to  appoint  the  punishment  which 
is  to  follow  his  oflence.  That  punishment  must 
he  inflicted ;  but  you  roust  careniUy  guard  that  it 
be  not  aggravated,  and  that  circumstances  of 
severity  are  not  found  in  his  treatment  which  are 
not  found  in  his  sentence.  Now  no  indge  ever 
coodemned  a  man  to  be  half  starved  with  cold 
by  day,  or  half  suffocated  with  heat  by  night. 
Who  ever  heard  of  a  criminal  being  sentenced 
to  catch  tiw  rhenraatism,  or  the  typhus  fever  ? 
Corruption  of  morals  and  contamination  of 
mind,  are  not  the  remedies  which  the  law  in  its 
wisdom  has  thought  proper  to  adopt.  We 
should  remember,  to  use  the  words  of  a  former 
writer  on  the  subject,  *  that  disease,  cold,  famine, 
nakedness,  a  contagious  and  polluted  air,  are  not 
lawfol  punishments  in  the  hands  of  the  civil  ma- 
gistrate ;  nor  has  he  a  right  to  poison  or  starve 
bis  fellow  creature,  though  the  greatest  of  cri- 
miaals.'  The  convicted  delinquent  then  has  his 
rights.  All  measures  and  practices  in  prison, 
which  may  injure  him'  in  any  vray,  are  illegal, 
because  thev  are  not  specified  in  his  sentence : — 
be  is  therefore  entitled  to  a  wholesome  atmo- 
sphere, decent  clothing  and  bedding,  and  a  diet 
sniBcient  to  support  him. 

<Bnt  besides  the  rights  of  the  individual, 
there  are  duties  to  the  community  ;— •Parum  est 
impmboe  coercere  pen&,  nisi  probos  efficias 
disdpUnft.  One  of  the  most  important  of  these 
datics  is,  that  yoa  should  not  send  forth  the  man 
committed  to  your  tuition  in  any  respect  a  worse 
msn^  a  less  industrious,  a  less  sober,  or  a  less 
compefeot  man,  than  when  he  entered  your 
Vol.  XVII. 


walls.    Good  policy  requires  that,  if  possible, 
you  dismiss  him  improved. 

*'For  the  improvement  of  the  unconvicted  pri- 
soner you  should  labor,  as  a  recompense  for  his 
confinement  before  trial — that  thus  you  may 
eonvert  the  suspicion  of  crime  into  its  preven- 
tion in  foture— inat  thus  you  may  addict  him  to 
such  habits,  and  instil  such  principles,  and  im- 
part such  instruction,  as  may  repair  the  damage 
you  have  done  him  ;  and  that  he,  being  amerced 
of  one  period  of  his  Hfo,  may  be  enabled  to 
spend  the  remainder  more  respectably. 

*  For  the  improvement  or  the  debtor  you 
should  labor,  because  the  grand  causes  of  aebt 
are  sickness,  idleness,  or  intemperance: — ^you 
must,  therefore,  provide  against  its  recurrence 
by  those  measures  which  may  secure  the  health, 
the  industry,  and  the  sobriety  of  your  prisoners. 
The  convicted  criminal  is  also  entitleo  to  your 
care.  Our  law  is  not,  in  its  true  spirit,  what- 
ever it  may  be  in  its  modem  enactments,  a 
system  of  bloody  vengeance ;  it  does  not  say,  so 
much  evil  is  repaired  by  so  mpch  misery  inflicted. 
A  merciful .  and  enlightened  jurisprudence,  like 
the  Author  of  all  that  is  mercifol  and  wise,  does 
not  rejoice  in  the  death  of  a  sinner;  but  rather 
that  he  should  turn  from  his  wickedness,  and 
live.  Punishments  are  inflicted  that  crime  may 
be  prevented,  and  crime  is  prevented  by  the  re- 
formation of  the  criminal.  This  may  be  accom- 
plished. The  prisoner,  being  separated  from  his 
former  associates,  ceases  to  think  as  they  think ; 
he  has  time  for  recollection  and  repetitance;  and 
seclusion  will  humble  the  most  haughty,  and 
often*  reform  the  most  abandoned. 

*  It  is  then  necessary  that  he  sleep  aloue,  and 
that  he  be  alone  during  a  great  portion  of  the 
day. 

*  But,  as  idleness  is  one  great  cause  of  sin,  in. 
dustry  is  one  great  means  of  reformation.  Mea 
sures  must  therefore  be  taken  for  his  constan 
employment,  and  for  making  that  employment 
agreeable,  by  allowing  him  to  share  largely  in  its 
profits. 

'  The  use  of  stimulating  liquors  is  often  the 
cause,  and  always  the  concomitant  of  crime. 
These,  therefore,  must  be  forbidden.  The  want 
of  education  is  found  to  be  a  great  source  of 
crime ;  for  this,  therefore,  a  provision  must  be 
made.  The  neglect  of  religious  duties  is  the 
grand  cSuse  of  crime.  Ministers  of  religion 
must,  therefore,  be  induced  to  give  their  active 
and  zealous  labors  to  the  prisoners  daily,  reading 

?rayers  in  public,  and  giving  private  instruction, 
he  aissiduoi^  services  of  sucn  men  will  not  be 
fruitless.  Mr.  Robinson  of  Leicester  declared 
that  no  part  of  his  ministry  had  been  so  signally 
successful  as  that  in  the  gaols ;  and  the  Indies' 
Committee  of  Newgate  have  many  proofs  that 
reformation  may  be  accomplished,  even  amongst 
the  most  dissoluie  and  abandoned.' — Buxton,  p. 
11—15. 

Mr.  Buxton  maintains,  that,  as  our  prison 
discipline  stood  in  1815,  the  prisoner,  imme- 
diately on  his  commitment,  was  made  to  experi- 
ence the  yiolation  of  all  these  rights.  In  lan- 
guage still  hut  too  applicable  in  various  parts  of 
the  country,  *  You  give  him,'  says  he  *  (the  pri- 


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PRISON    DISCIPLINE. 


soner)  leisure,  and  for  the  employment  of  that 
leisure  you  give  him  tutors  iu  every  branch  of 
iniquity.  You  hare  taken  no  pious  pains  to  turn 
him  from  the  error  of  his  ways,  and  to  save  bis 
soul  alive.  You  have  not  cherished  the  latent 
seeds  of  virtue ;  you  have  not  profited  by  the 
opportunity  of  avrakening  remorse  for  his  past 
misconduct.  His  Saviour's  awiiil  name  becomes, 
indeed,  familiar  to  his  lips,  because  he  learns  to 
use  it  to  give  zest  to  his  conversation,  and  vigor 
to  his  execrations ;  but  all  that  Saviour's  office, 
his  tendersess,  and  compassion,  and  mercy  to  the 
returning  sinner,  are  topics  of  which  he  learns  no 
more  than  the  beasts  that  perish.' 

That  the  reader  may  have  before  him  a  sort  of 
specimen  of  some  modern  British  prisons,  we 
will  exhibit  a  few  particulars  of  the  former  con- 
dition of  the  Borough  Compter.  Of  thiiteen 
persons  confined  on  crumoal  charges,  there  were 
live  cases  of  iiever.  Jjk  a  room,  seven  feet  by 
sine,  three  persons  had  slept  the  night  before  his 
first  visit,  one  of  whom  was  ill  with  fever,  with 
which  the  other  two  were  infected,  and  so  found 
on  his  second  visit.  Till  lately  no  surgeon  or 
apothecary ;  no  infirmarv ;  no  separation  of  a 
sick  criminal,  however  mfectious  his  disorder. 
The  apartments  of  the  male  debtors  on  the  same 
floor  witli  the  female  prisoners,  and  separated 
only  by  doors  seven  feet  asunder,  which  are 
always  open  in  the  day  time,  and  in  hot  wea- 
ther at  night.  One  yard  only  for  male  and  female 
debtors;  no  cooking  utensils — no  soap — no 
work  or  employment  provided — ^no  school.  We 
are  not  to  wonder  at  tne  gaoler's  declaration  that, 
in  an  experience  of  nine  years,  he  had  never 
known  an  instance  of  reformation.  In  Guild- 
ford gaol  at  this  period,  there  was  no  infirmary 
—no  cliapel — ^no  work — no  classification. 

So  (ar  back  as  1815  we  find  firom  Mr.  Buxton 
that  a  committee  of  aldermen  of  London  was 
appointed  to  visit  several  gaols  in  England,  and 
directed  to  compare  the  allowances,  and  the  rules 
and  orders,  then  existing  in  the  prisons  of  the 
metropolis,  with  those  of  Gloucester,  and  else- 
where, and  to  draw  out  such  new  system  of  al- 
lowances, and  such  new  code  of  laws,  as  should 
appear  to  them  to  be  salutary,  and  adapted  to 
the  prisons  in  question.  That  such  of  our  readers 
as  have  not  yet  acquired  any  knowledge  of  this 
subject  may  have  their  attention  drawn  towards 
it,  we  offer  to  their  notice  the  following  improve- 
ments which  their  reports  suggested, 

'  1.  That  the  gaol  should  be  divided  into  day- 
rooms,  and  distinct  yards,  having  arcades  in  each. 

*  2.  That  warm  and  cold  baths  should  be  pro- 
vided, as  also  ovens,  for  fumigating  clothes. 

*  3.  Circular  apertures  of  open  iron  work,  for 
the  purpose  of  a  thorough  ventilation,  should  be 
made. 

*  4.  Such  shutters  and  windows  shall  be  con- 
structed as  shall  exclude  the  possibility  of  the 
prisoners*  looking  into  any  other  apartment  or 
yard. 

^  5.  That  day  cells  for  labor  should  be  distinct 
from  the  sleeping  cells,  as  also  exclusive  cells 
for  refractory  prisoners. 

'  6.  Ring  s  evidence  should  be  precluded  from 
a  possibility  of  communication  with  the  other 
prisoners. 


'  7.  That  gratings  should  be  fitted  up  in  the 
apartments  where  the  visitors  of  felons  are  ad- 
mitted; and  so  constructed  as  not  to  admit  of 
any  dangerous  instrument  being  passed  through. 

'  8.  Apartments  for  the  reception  of  friends  of 
the  debtors  should  be  constructed. 

^  9.  The  chapel  should  be  so  constructed  that 
one  class  of  prisoners  should  not  be  seen  by 
another  class. 

<  With  respect  to  the  classification  of  pri- 
soners, according  to  their  several  degrees  of  of- 
fence :— 

*  10.  That  those  before  trial  should  never  be 
mixed  with  those  convicted;  and  that  the  re- 
spective classes  should  be  arranged  as  nearly  ar 
plossible  in  the  following  order : — 

1.  Capital  felons. 

2.  Simple  felony,  and  first  offence. 

3.  Criminals  under  sentence  of  death. 

4.  Misdeameanors   and    persons   wanting 
sureties. 

5.  Misdemeanors  of  the  grossest  kind. 

6.  Children. 

'  With  respect  to  the  internal  regulations  of 
the  prison : — 

Ml.  That  all  prisoners  on  coming  in  should 
be  examined  by  the  surgeon,  and  should  be  im- 
mediately washed,  and  their  clothes  purified ;  and 
proper  apparel  should  be  provided  for  their  use 
in  the  mean  time. 

'  12.  That  the  prisoners  should  be  required  to 
wash  themselves,  at  least  once  every  day,  at 
places  appropriated  for  that  purpose ;  and  that 
clean  towels  of  open  network  be  supplied  for 
their  use,  twice  a  week. 

'  13.  'That  no  beer  should  be  admitted  ;  nor 
wine,  nor  other  strong  liquors,  except  to  the  in- 
firmaries, by  direction  of  the  surgeon,  or  to  the 
debtors.  No  debtor  to  be  allowed  to  have  to 
himself  more  than  one  pint  of  wine,  or  one  quart 
of  strong  beer  per  day. 

*  14.  The  friends  of  criminals  to  be  admitted 
between  the  hours  of  nine  in  the  morning,  and 
two  in  the  afternoon;  and  not  to  be  allowed  to 
converse  with  the  prisoners,  but  in  the  presence 
of  the  keeper  or  turnkey,  except  solicitors  for  the 
purpose  ot  preparing  defences. 

*  15.  The  visitors  of  debtors  to  be  admitted 
only  at  stated  hours,  into  the  rooms  allotted  for 
their  teception,  and  not  into  th^  interior  of  the 
gaol,  unless  by  •rder  of  a  magistrate. 

*  16.  Not  any  description  of  prisoners  should 
be  permitted  to  enter  into  the  sleeping-rooms 
during  the  day. 

'  17.  The  transports,  and  those  sentenced  to 
hard  labor  or  solitaiy  confinement,  to  be  kept  in 
constant  work  suitable  to  their  ability  and 
strength;  such  prisoners  not  be  excused  from 
work,  unless  on  account  of  total  inability,  ill 
health,  or  other  sufficient  cause  certified  by  the 
surgeon. 

*  18.  Prisoners  to  be  discharged  in  the  morn- 
ing, and.  if  they  have  acquired  any  trade  in  the 
prison,  proper  tools  to  be  given  to  them. 

'  19.  That  gaming  of  every  kind  should  be 

strictly  prohibited. 

'  With  respect  to  the  allowances  of  food : — 
'  20.  That  one  pound  and  a  half  of  bread,  at 

least  one  day  old,  shoulf*  be  allowed  to  each  pri- 


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soncr  duijf  and  one  pint  of  good  gruel  for 
bieak&st« — and  upon  good  behavioiir  half  a 
pound  of  meat  on  a  Sunday. 

'  21 .  That  proper  scales,  weights,  and  measures 
should  be  provided  in  the  gaol. 

*  S2.  A  messenger  to  be  appqinted^for  the  ac- 
commodation of  Uie  debtors. 

*  23.  A  laundry,  and  a  matron  under  whose 
directions  the  female  prisoners  should  do  all  the 
washing. 

'  24.  A  bell  to  be  fixed  for  sounding  alarms  in 
cases  of  escape. 

'  25.  The  chaplain  to  keep  a  diary  of  observa- 
tions, subject  to  the  inspection  of  the  visiting 
magistrates.  He  should  read  prayers,  and  preach 
a  sermon  every  Sunday  morniug,  and  read 
piayers  in  the  evening,  and  also  read  prayers 
every  Wednesday  and  Friday.  He  should  visit 
the  sick,  instruct  prisoners  in  their  moral  duties, 
give  spiritual  advice,  and  religious  consolation  to 
such  as  may  desire  it.  He  should  distribute 
amongst  them  religious  books,  and  form  a  sort  of - 
school  for  the  instruction  of  the  children.' — Bux- 
ton, p.  61—64. 

Among  the  creditable  exceptions  to  the  neg- 
lected state  of  OUT  prisons  at  this  period  stood 
the  gaol  of  Bury ;  where  the  benefits  of  a  simple 
medianical,  as  well  as  moral  arrangement,  have 
been  practically  and  decisively  displayed  for 
many  years;  and,  connected  vrith  which,  the 
name  of  Mr.  Orridge,  thegovemor,  will  long  be 
mentioned  with  honor.  Tie  facts,  as  Mr.  Box- 
ton  observes,  will  speak  for  themselves : — and 
the  writer  of  this  paper  has  verified  them.  No 
prisoner,  at  the  time  of  Mr.  B's  visit,  was  ill ;  in 
eighteen  years  but  one  prisoner  had  escaped;  in 
every  100  of  the  prisoners  not  five  were  found 
who  bad  been  there  before ;  never  any  riots,  or 
<)uarening,  or  swearing.  Yet,  for  twenty  yeti^, 
Mr.  Orridge  informed  us  he  had  never  used  irons 
in  this  prison. 

The  researches  of  the  modem  advocates  of 
prison  reform  have  not,  as  we  have  intimated, 
been  confined  to  their  own  country. — At  the 
Haison  de  Force,  at  Ghent,  the  same  practice 
testimony  is  borne  to  the  good  effects  of  a  sound 
system  of  gaol  discipline.  Here  was  observed 
by  Mr.  Buxton  an  entire  separation  of  men  from 
women,  the  sickly  from  the  healthy,  the  untried 
from  thie  convicted,  and  the  misdemeanants  from 
the  felona.  '  The  building,  bein^r  ^et  unfinished, 
does  not  admit  of  more  subdivisions  of  classes, 
which  certainly  might  be  carried  farther,  and 
probably  will  when  the  capacity  of  the  structure 
will  admit  of  it'  A  very  important  feature  of 
the  system  of  dassification  is  that  of  children 
from  men  and  women ;  and  in  general  it  may  be 
observed  that  the  division  into  classes  should 
have  refierence  to  moral  as  v^ell  as  technical  dis- 
tinctioDS.  The  utmost  order  and  regularity  were 
foond  to  prevail  in  this  prison.  While  at  work, 
00  prisoner  vras  allowed  to  speak ;  and  so  strictly 
was  the  rule  observed  that  tne  questions  put  to 
tliem  by  Mr.  Buxton  were  not  answered.  No 
noise  but  the  noise  of  the  shuttle.  Corporal 
paoishmait,  Ibrmeriy  allowed,was  dien  dispensed 
with,  because,  as  the  governor  stated,  it  was.found 
to  be  unnecessary-  The  penalty  was  privation 
of  work.    The  behaviour  of  the  prisoners  was 


subdued,  civil,  submissive,  and  decent  through- 
out— their  persons  cleanly,  and  their  looks 
cheerfiil — all  the  rooms  clean  and  sweet.  '  By 
this  excellent  system,'  says  Mr.  Buxton,  <  the 
prisoner  gains  luibits  of  order,  self-restraint,  and 
subjection  of  mind. — ^The  most  boisterous  tem- 
pest is  not  more  distinct  from  the  serenity  of  a 
summer's  evening  ;  the  wildest  beast  of  prey  is 
not  more  different  from  our  domesticated  animals, 
than  are  the  noise,  contention,  licentiousness,  and 
tumult  of  Newgate,  from  the  quietness,  industry, 
and  regularity  of  the  Maison  de  Force. 

In  the  prison  of  Philadelphia,  where  the  great 
features  of  discipline  are  distribution,  employ- 
ment, and  religious  instruction,  the  effects  are 
still  more  impressive.  Mr.  Tumbull,  speaking 
of  the  various  trades  carried  on  in  the  prison, 
of  blacksmith,  carpenter,  turner,  shoemaker, 
tailor,  weavers  of  cloth,  linen,  and  carpeting, 
grinding  of  com,  sawing  and  polishing  mar- 
ble, cutting  stone,  and  rasping  logwood,  observes, 
*  that  there  veas  such  a  spirit  of  industry  on 
every  side,  and  such  contentment  pervaded  the 
countenances  of  all,  that  it  was  with  difficulty 
he  divested  himself  of  the  idea  that  these  men 
surely  were  not  convicts,  but  accustomed  to 
labor  firom  their  infancy.'  *  An  account  is  opened 
with  every  prisoner;  he  is  debited  witn  the 
amount  of  the  sum  stolen,  or  embezzled,  with 
the  expenses  of  his  prosecution,  with  the  fine 
imposed  by  the  court,  with  the  cost  of  his  board 
ana  clothes ;  and  he  is  credited  with  the  produce 
of  his  labor.'  All  the  dress,  every  mattress, 
sheet,  ruff,  and  coverlid,  is  woven  by  the  male, 
and  made  up  by  the  female  prisoners.  All 
laughing,  singing,  and  conversation,  during  the 
hours  of  vrork,  are  prohibited ;  and  the  silence 
which  is  observed  is  the  first  and  most  striking 
circumstance  which  arrests  the  attention  of  a 
stranger.  Great  attention  is  paid  to  the  promo- 
tion of  moral  and  religious  improvement  by  a 
supply  of  useful  books,  and  by  the  regular  per- 
formance of  divine  service.  No  keeper  is  permitr- 
ted  to  carry  a  stick,  or  any  offensive  weapon. 
No  fetters  or  irons  are  seen  in  the  prison,  the 
punishment  is  solitude,  and  no  instance  has  oc-' 
curred  of  its  being  necessary  to  inflict  it  upon 
the  same  person  twice.  In  the  four  years  pre- 
ceding the  commencement  of  the  new  system 
104  prisoners  escaped  :  in  the  four  succeeding 
(except  on  the  day  of  its  establishment)  not  one 


Under  the  old  system  the  number  of  the  most 
heinous  crimes  committed  in  the  city  and  county 
from  January,  1787,  to  June,  1791,  was  129. 
Under  the  new  system  in  the  whole  state,  during 
the  same  period,  twenty-four.  *  At  the  time  of 
the  yellow  fever,  in  1793,  great  difficulty  was 
found  in  obtaining  nurses  and  attendants  ror  the 
sick  at  Bush-hill  hospital.  Recourse  was  had 
to  the  prison.  The  request  was  made,  Vmd  the 
apparent  danger  stated  to  the  convicts.  As 
many  offered  as  were  v?anted.  They  continued 
faithfiil  till  the  dreadful  scene  was  closed— none 
of  them  making  a  demand  for  their  services  till 
aU  were  discharged. 

'  One  man  committed  for  a  burglary,  who  had 
seven  years  to  serve,  observed,  when  the  request 
was  made  to  him,  that  having  offended  society 

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PRISON    DISCIPLINE. 


he  should  be  happy  to  render  it  some  serrtces 
for  the  injury ;  and,  if  they  could  only  place  a 
conGdence  in  him,  he  would  go  with  cheerful- 
ness.    He  went — he  never  left  it  but  once,  and 
then  by  permission  to  obtain  some  articles  in  the 
city.    His  conduct  was  so  remarkable  as  to  en- 
gage the  attention  of  the  managers,  who  made 
him  a  deputy-steward ;  gave  him  the  charge  of 
the  doors,  to  prevent  improper  persons  from 
going  into  the  hospital,  to  presenre  order  in  and 
about  the  house,  and  to  see  that  nothing  came 
to  or  went  from  it  improperly.     He  was  paid, 
and  after  receiving  an  extra  compensation,  at  his 
discharge  married  one  of  the  nurses.     Another 
man,  convicted  of  a  robbery,  was  aken  out  for 
the  purpose  of  attending  a  horse  and  cart,  to 
bring  such  provisions  from  the  vicinity  of  the 
city  as  were  there  deposited  for  the  use  of  the 
poor,  by  those  who  were  afraid  to  come  in.    He 
had  the  sole  charge  of  the  cart  and  conveying 
the  articles  for  the  whole  period.    He  had  many 
years  to  serve,  and  might  at  any  time  have  de- 
parted with  the  horse,  cart,  and  provisions.    He 
despised,  however,  such  a  breach  of  trust,  and 
returned  to  the  prison.    He  was  soon  after  pai^ 
doned,  with  the  thanks  of  the  inspectors.    Ano- 
ther instance  of  the  good  conduct  of  the  prisoners 
during  the  sickness  happened  among  the  women. 
When  request  was  made  to  them  to  give  up 
their  bedsteads,  for  the  use  of  the  sick  at  the 
hospital,  they  cheerfully  offered  even  their  bed- 
ding, &c.    When  a  similar  request  was  made  to 
the  debtors,  the}  all  refused.     A  criminal,  one 
of  the  desperate  gangs  that  had  so  long  infested 
the  vicinity  of  Philadelphia,  for  several  years 
before  the  alteration   of  the  system,  on  being 
discharged,  called  upon  one  of  the  inspectors,  and 
addressed  him  in  the  following  manner : — *  Mr. 
— — ,  I  have  called  to  return  you  my  thanks 
for  your  kindness  to  me  while  under  sentence, 
and  to  perform  a  duty  which  I  think  I  owe  to 
society,  it  being  all  in  my  power  at  this  time  to 
afford.  You  know  my  conduct  and  my  character 
have  been  once  bad  and  lost,  and  therefore  what- 
ever I  miglit  say  would  have  but  little  weight 
were  I  not  now  at  liberty.    Pursue  your  present 
plan  and  you  will  have  neither  burglaries  nor 
robberies  in  this  place.' 

Of  the  very  deplorable  state  of  the  females  in 
Newgate  before  Mrs.  Fry's  welUknown  visits  no 
one  can  be  ignorant ;  of  the  change  produced 
by  the  Bible,  a  school,  and  constant  employment, 
among  these  desolate  and  vicious  beings  in  a 
short  compass  of  time,  it  is  difficult  to  form  an 
adequate  conception.  At  the  first  visit,  says  a 
young  lady  who  accompanied  Mrs.  Fiy,  and 
who  related  the  circumstances  to  Mr.  Buxton, 
'  the  railing  was  crowded  with  half-naked  women, 
struggling  together  for  the  front  situations  with 
the  most  boisterous  violence,  and  begging 
with  the  utmost  vociferation.  She  felt  as  if  she 
was  going  into  a  den  of  wild  beasts,  and  she  well 
recollects  quite  shuddering  when  the  door  closed 
upon  her,  and  she  was  locked  in,  with  such  a 
herd  of  novel  and  desperate  companions.  This 
day,  however,  the  school  surpassed  their  utmost 
expectations;  their  only  pain  arose  from  the 
numerous  and  pressing  applications  made  by 
young  women,  who  longed  to  be  taught  and  em- 


ployed. The  narrowness  of  the  room  iren^tered 
It  impossible  to  yield  to  these  requests,  whilst  a 
denial  seemed  a  sentence  of  destruction,  exclud- 
ing eveiy  hope,  and  almost  every  possibility  of 
reformation.' — p.  122. 

The  visits  of  these  ladies  were  incessant.  They 
often  spent  the  whole  day  in  the  condutn  of  this 
extraordinary  school,  joining  in  the  employment, 
sharing  the  meals,  and  eng^^  in  tfie  inspection 
of  their  pupils.    The  first  experiment  was  upon 
the  untried  part  of  the  prisoners,  and  the  success 
with  which  it  was  attended  encouraged  an  ex- 
tension of  the  scheme  to  those  who  had  under- 
gone their  trials,  and  the  inauguration  of  this 
great  undertaking  is  thus  set  forth  by  Mr.  Bux- 
ton :  — *  Nothing  now  remained  but  to  prepare 
the  room ;  and  this  difficulty  was  obviatea  by  the 
sheriffs  sending  their  carpenters.    The  former 
laundry  speedily  underwent  the  necessary  altera- 
tions— was  cleaned  and  vrhite-washed — and  in  a 
Tery  few  days  the  Ladies'  Committee  assembled 
in  it  all  the  tried  female  prisoners.    One  of  the 
ladies  began  by  telling  them  the  comforts  derived 
from  industry  and  sobriety,  the  pleasure  and  the 
profit  of  doing  right,  and  contrasted  the  happi- 
ness and  the  peace  of  those  who  are  dedicated  to  a 
course  of  virtue  and  religion,  with  that  experi- 
enced in  their  former  lite,  and  its  present  conse- 
quences ;  and,  describing  their  awful  guilt  in  the 
sight  of  God,  appealed  to  themselves,  whether 
its  wages,  even  here,  were  not  utter  misery  and 
ruin.     She  then  dwelt  upon  the  motives  which 
had  brought  the  ladies  into  Newgate ;  they  had 
left  their  homes  and  their  families,  to  mingle 
amongst   those   from  whom  all    others    fl^ ; 
animated  by  an  ardent  and  affectionate  desire 
to  rescue  their  fellow -creatures  from  evil,  and  to 
impart  to  them  that  knowledge  which  they,  from 
their  education  and  circumstances,  had  been  so 
happy  as  to  receive.    She  then  told  them  that 
the  ladies  did  not  come  with  any  absolute  and 
authoritative  pretensions ;  that  it  was  not  intend- 
ed they  should  command,  and  the  prisoners  obey ; 
but  that  it  was  to  be  understood,  all  were  to  act 
in  concert;  that  not  a  rule  sfaoidd  be  made,  or 
a  monitor  appointed,  without  their  full  and  una- 
nimous concurrence ;  that  for  this  purpose  each 
of  the  rules  should  be  read,  and  put  to  the  vote ; 
and  she  invited  those  who  might  feel  any  disin- 
clination to  any  particular  freely  to  state  their 
opinion  '—Buxton,  p.  127, 128.  The  rules  were 
then  read,  and  every  hand  was  held  up  in  testi- 
mony of  approbation.. 

At  the  date  of  Mr.  Boston's  book  a  year  had 
elapsed  since  this  labor  of  love  had  been  in  ope- 
ration, and  it  is  surely  enough  to  state  that  *  only 
one  lady  had  in  all  that  time  heard  an  oath ;  that 
though  card-playing  had  in  some  instances  been 
resumed,  ^nd  about  half  a  dozen  instances  of  in- 
toxication had  occurred,  the  rules  had  been  gene- 
rally observed ;  that  the  ladies  had  been  treated 
with  uniform  respea  and  gratitude;  that  they 
had  reason  to  rejoice  in  the  improved  conduct, 
and,  as  they  trust,  in  the  confirmed  moral  habits 
of  the  prisoners ;  several  had  received  the  rudi- 
ments of  education,  and  had  learned  for  the  first 
time  the  truth  of  the  Christian  religion ;  many 
had  left  the  prison  >ho  were  them  filling  their 
stations  in  life  uprightly  and  rebpeciably.    Only 

Digitized  by  VjUUyiC 


PRISON    DISCIPLINE. 


U7 


one  dischamd  from  the  prison  had  been  again 
committedl  tor  a  transgrea^ioQ  of  the  law/ 

The  five  golden  rules  of  which  the  plan  of  this 
proceeding  was  composed  were : — 

'  1st  '  Rriigious  instruction/ — perusal  of  the 
Scriptures  morning  and  evening.  They  have 
finind  the  prisoners  remarkably  ignorant  of  the 
first  principles  of  Christianity,  and  they  have 
reason  to  think  that  a  prison,  in  excluding  many 
objects  of  worldly  interest,  occupation,  and  plea- 
sure, and  in  the  pause  which  it  produces  in  the 
career  of  life,  and  in  the  apprehensions  it  some- 
times excites,  is  well  calculated  for  the  inculca- 
tion of  religious  impressions. 

2dly,  Constant  employment  is  a  grand  and  an 
indispensable  requisite  in  the  reformation  of  a 
prison.  They  would  feel  themselves  totally  in* 
competent  to  restrain  the  passions  of  this  unruly 
race,  if  their  minds  were  not  engaged  in  useful 
and  active  objects. 

adWy  Rules  simple  and  lenient,  but  rigidly  en- 
forced, and,  if  possible,  the  concurrence  of  the 
prisoners  in  their  formation. 

4thly,  Classification  and  separation  to  the 
greatest  possible  extent. 

5thly,  They  recommend  that  prisoners  should 
be  treated  as  human  beings,  with  human  feel- 
ings ;  with  that  disinterested  kindness  which  will 
engage  their  affections;  yet  as  human  beings 
degraded  by  crime — ^with  that  degree  of  restraint, 
and  with  those  symbob  of  degradation,  which 
may  recal  a  sense  of  their  guUt,  and  humble 
their  pride.' — Buxton,  p.  139. 

Of  the  success  of  Mrs.  Fry  and  her  associates 
it  was  well  said  at  the  time :  '  Let  us  hear  no 
more  of  the  difficulty  of  regulating  provincial 
prisons,  wben  the  prostitute  felons  of  Jx>ndon 
have  been  thus  easily  reformed  and  converted. 
Let  ns  never  again  be  told  of  the  impossibility 
of  repressing  orunkenness  and  profligacy,  or  in- 
tioduciac  haJiits  of  industry  in  small  establishr 
menis,  when  this  great  crater  of  vice  and  corrup- 
tion has  been  thus  stilled  and  purified.  And 
above  ail  let  there  be  an  end  of  the  pitiful  apo- 
logy of  the  want  of  funds,  or  means,  or  agents, 
to  effect  those  easier  improvements,  when  women 
from  the  middle  ranks  of  life — when  (juiet  unas- 
suming matrons,  unaccustomed  to  business,  or  to 
any  but  domestic  exertion,  have,  without  funds, 
withoot  agents,  without  aid  or  eucouragement 
of  any  description,  trusted  themselves  within  the 
very  centre  of  infection  and  despair,  and,  by  open- 
ing their  hearts  only,  and  not  their  purses,  have 
effected,  by  the  mere  force  of  kindness,  gentle- 
ness, and  compassion,  a  labor,  the  like  to  which 
does  not  remain  to  be  performed,  and  which  has 
smoothed  the  way,  and  ensured  success,  to 
all  similar  labors.  We  cannot  envy  the  happi- 
ness which  Mrs.  Fry  must  enjoy  from  the  con- 
sciousness of  her  owu  great  achievements  ;^- 
bot  there  is  no  happiness  or  honor  of  which  we 
should  be  so  proud  to  be  partakers :  And  we 
seem  to  relieve  our  own  hearts  of  their  share  of 
national  gratitude  in  thus  placing  on  her  simple 
and  modest  brow  that  truly  civic  crown,  which 
&r  outshines  the  laurels  of  conquest,  or  the  coro- 
nals of  power — and  can  only  be  outshone  itself 
bjr  those  wreaths  of  imperishable  glory  which 
await  the  champions  of  iaidi  and  charity  in  a 


higher  state  of  existence.' — Edinburgh  Review, 
Septembei^  1818, 

We  have  been  detained  longer  than  we  ani- 
cipated  by  the  topics  of  Mr.  Buxton's  admirable 
volume ;  but  they  have  enabled  u^  to  bring  the 
great  facts  and  elements  of  the  subject  before  the 
reader. 

Looking  more  at  large  into  the  subject,  we  shall 
find  our  English  law  to  recognise  from  tlie  ear- 
liest periods  three  great  classes  of  prisoners-^ 
the  debtor,  the  accused  ciriminal,  and  the  con- 
victed criminal.  It  is  clear  that  the  imprisonment 
of  each  proceeds  upon  totally  different  principles, 
and  there  are  even  subdivisions  of  these  classes  of 
some  importance*  We  imprison  the  man  suspected 
of  crime,for  instance  solely  to  secure  his  appearance 
on  the  day  appointed  for  trial ;  it  is  matter  of  ne- 
cessity, and  the  law  has  therefore  only  recourse 
to  it  where  no  adequate  substitute  by  way  of  se- 
curity can  be  provided ;  for,  under  the  imputa- 
tion of  the  heaviest  crimes,  it  lodges  a  power 
with  its  higher  officers  of  estimating  and  accept- 
ing such  substitute.  It  is  agreed,  says  Black- 
stone,  that  the  Court  of  King's  Bench,  or  any 
judge  thereof  in  time  of  vacation,  may  bail  for  any 
crime  whatsoever,  be  it  treason,  murder,  or  any 
other  offence,  according  to  the  circumstances  oif 
the  case.  4  Com.  p.  299.  We  imprison  the 
convict  for  punishment ;  and  the  debtor  in  exe- 
cution partly  for  punishment  of  the  fraud  which 
he  is  presumed  or  proved  to  have  committed  on 
his  ereditpr,  and  partly  as  a  mode  of  compelling 
him  to  produce  or  render  available  for  the  dis- 
charge of  his  debts  that  property  which  cannot 
be  directly  reached.  Tho^gti,  however,  the  oIk 
jects  which  the  law  has  in  view,  in  these  three 
cases  of  imprisonment,  are  thus  various,  and 
though  tlie  duties  which  are  incurred  in  conse^ 
quence  toward  the  unhappy  subjects  of  it  will 
naturally  have  proportionate  varieties,  yet  in 
some  respects  tney  will  be  entirely  the  same ; 
certain  things  are  proper,  certain  things  ne* 
cessary  in  every  prison,  and  for  every  prisoner. 

In  the  first  place  a  nniveisal  requisite  is  se- 
curity ;  an  insecure  prison  is  a  solecism  in  terms ; 
on  this  point  it  would  not  be  necessary  to  say  a 
word,  if  all  people  were  as  well  agreed  in 
respect  of  the  means  as  of  the  end.  The  ancient 
practice  was  to  rely  more  upon  fetters  and  ma* 
nacles,  than  the  walls  of  the  prison  or  the  vigi- 
lance of  the  gaoler ;  but  the  new  prison  bill 
enacts  that  *  no  prisoner  shall  be  put  in  irons  by 
the  keeper  of  any  prison  except  in  cases  of  ur* 
gent  and  absolute  necessity,  and  the  particulars 
of  every  such  case  shall  be  forthwith  entered  in 
tlie  keeper's  journal,  and  notice  forthwith  given 
thereof  to  one  of  the  visiting  justices;  and  the 
keeper  shall  not  continue  the  use  of  irons  on  any 
prisoner  longer  than  four  days,  without  an  order 
in  writing  from  a  visiting  justice  specifying  the 
cause  tl)ereof.' — s.  x.  reg.  12.  No  one  can  doubt 
the  propriety  of  such  a  reflation — ^we  are  satis* 
fied  that  fettering  the  debtor  or  the  accused 
criminal  as  a  matter  of  course  was  always  illegal ; 
bow  far  it  stood  within  the  protection  of  tlie  law 
in  the  case  of  the  convict  seems  not  so  clear. 
The  common  argument,  that  it  is  unlawful  to  ex* 
ceed  the  terms  of  a  sentence,  and  that  a  sentence 
of  imprisonment  says  nothing  of  fetters,  proves 


Digitized  by  ^^UU*^ 


le 


118 


PRISON    DISCIPLINE. 


nothing;  the  sentence  says  nothing  of  many 
other  prison  privations,  the  legality  of  which 
cannot  be  doubted ;  it  is  general  in  its  terms, 
and  includes  every  circumstance  which  goes  to 
make  up  the  idea  of  legal  imprisonment,  so  that 
the  question  always  comes  round  to  what  is  legal 
imp-isonment.  Waiving,  however,  a  legal  dis- 
cussion, which  the  statute  just  cited  renders  unne- 
cessary, we  agree  with  the  warmest  opposers  of 
the  practice  that  it  was  always  inexpedient  to 
iron  even  the  convict,  unless  his  own  refractori- 
ness or  desperation  made  it  necessary.  Obser- 
vation too  will  warrant  us  in  going  a  step  farther, 
and  expressing  an  opinion  that  the  frequent  ne- 
cessity for  the  use  of  fetters  almost  amounts  to 
proof  of  some  mismanagement  in  the  prison  in 
which  it  shall  exist.  It  is  not  the  least  merit  in 
the  prison  bill  that,  by  the  restrictions  imposed 
on  tne  use  of  them,  greater  care  and  more  skil- 
ful management  become  necessary  on  the  part  of 
governors  of  prisons. 

The  next  requisite  of  all  prisons  clearly  is  that 
they  should  be  healthy  and  clean.  Air  and 
exercise,  food  and  clotlies  such  as  are  necessary 
for  the  sustentation  of  health,  together  with  me- 
dicine and  attendance  whep  sick,  stand  upon  the 
same  principle ;  except  in  that  short  and  awful 
interval  which  precedes  execution,  and  which  is 
spent  in  preparation  for  it,  there  can  be  no  time 
or  circumstance  under  which  any  prisoner  may 
not  demand  all  those  things  which  are  ordinarily 
necessary  for  the  preservation  of  life.  We  are 
aware  that,  in  some  of  these  last  particulars,  we 
may  be  thought  to  push  the  claims  of  the  pri- 
soner farther  than  lustice  requires;  there  are 
those  who  deny  in  Ute  whole  any  claim  of  right 
which  he  can  set  up  to  food,  clothing  or  lodging, 
and  others  who,  admitting  the  abstract  right, 
would  yet  practically  reduce  the  quantity  and 
quality  below  the  scale  implied  in  our  remarks. 
It  is  more  difficult  to  decide,  whether,  in  parti- 
cular instances,  the  introduction  of  more  generous 
food  or  greater  comforts  should  be  allowed  ac- 
cording to  other  considerations  than  those  of 
health ;  in  other  Words,  whether  the  ability  of  the 
party  to  purchase,  or  his  industry  and  good 
oehaviour,  should  procure  him  luxuries  denied  to 
his  fellow-prisoners  in  general.  There  is  long 
practice,  and  high  authority  in  the  fevor  of  the 
affirmative ;  witii  regard  to  debtors,  it  is,  we  be^ 
lieve,  universally  allowed  to  them  to  procure 
from  without  any  food  or  liquor,  subject  only  to 
certain  prohibitions  and  regulations ;  and  as  to 
prisoners  who  labor,  it  has  long  been  the  custom, 
in  some  of  our  best  regulated  prisons,  to  stimu- 
late industry  by  allovring  a  portion  of  the 
profits  earned  by  the  prisoner  to  oe  spent  by  him 
in  this  wajk 

The  prison  bill  steers  a  middle  course,  allow- 
ing the  introduction  of  food,  not  extravagant  or 
luxurious,  to  debtors,  or  accused  criminals,  who 
receive  no  allowance  from  the  county ;  and  pro- 
hibiting it  in  the  case  of  convicts,  except 
under  the  permission  of  the  visiting  jus- 
tices, or  the  regulations  of  the  quarter-sessions. 
— s.  X.  reg.  14  and  15.  Mr.  Holford  asserts 
that, '  the  prisoners  whose  labor  is  most  produc- 
tive in  the  Penitentiary  at  Millbank,  are  not  those 
whose  behaviour  entitles  them  to  most  conside- 


ration, or  of  whose  eventual  restoration  with 
credit  to  society  the  chaplain  entertains  the  most 
favorable  expectation.'  p.  63.  It  is  obvioos, 
indeed,  that  tne  system  ot  allowing  them  in  di 
cases  a  participation  in  the  fruit  of  their  labors, 
must  be  unfavorable  in  many  respects  to  the  re- 
formation of  prisoners;  its  tendency  being  to 
confirm  in  the  habit  of  looking  to  immediate 
self-indulgence,  as  the  motive  for  action,  men  who 
have  already  found  that  motive  too  strong  for 
dieir  prudence  or  their  conscience.  Such  a  sys- 
tem seems  to  us  to  be  founded  upon  a  mistaken 
view  of  many  of  the  objects  of  imprisonment. 
Howard  found  one  great  evil  of  our  prisons  to  be 
a  total  want  of  employment,  and  he  described  in 
very  fascinating  colors  the  appearance  which 
those  presented  in  which  the  prisoners  were  fuUy 
employed.  Undoubtedly  a  salutary  change  was 
produced— the  giving  all  prisoners  an  opportu- 
nity of  working,  and  compelling  some  to  work, 
were  among  the  most  efficient  causes  of  the  great 
improvement  which  has  taken  place  in  oar  pri- 
sons ;  but  it  is  to  mistake  the  means  for  the  end, 
when  prisons  are  estimated  by  the  cheerful  ac- 
tivity of  the  laborers,  and  the  quantity  of  pro- 
ductive labor  within  their  walls.  A  prison  ought 
still  to  be  a  place  of  terror  to  those  without,  of 
punishment  to  those  within ;  let  us  reform  crl> 
minals  if  we  can— it  is  a  great  and  glorious  ob- 
ject, uncertain  in  the  result,  but  imperative  in  the 
obligation.  Punishment,  however,  is  certain ; 
and  it  is  one  mode  of  punishment,  severely  felt 
by  those  who  have  led  a  life  of  self-indulgence, 
but  unattended  with  any  cruelty,  to  tie  them 
down  to  a  coarse,  uniform  diet.  Two  excep- 
tions may  be  urged :  we  may  be  asked  whether 
we  would  extend  the  rule  to  persons  of  the 
higher  ranks  of  life,  and  convicted  of  offences 
such  as  libel,  provocations  to  duel,  &c.,  which 
ordinarily  are  understood  to  carry  with  them  leas 
of  moral  turpitude.  We  confess  that  Wie  can  see 
no  reason  for  not  carrying  the  rule  so  fiair ;  the 
health  of  the  party  must  of  course  always  he  the 
first  object,  and  it  would  be  for  the  medical 
attendant  to  see  that  no  change  of  habit  was 
made  so  violent  in  its  nature  as  to  affect  it ;  but 
rank  or  education  ought  not  to  lighten  punish- 
ment ;  if  they  make  the  feelings  more  susceptible 
to  an  equal  infliction,  it  must  be  remembered 
also  that  the  moral  restraint  and  social  obligation 
were  stronger,  and  that  the  violation  of  thepi 
merits  a  severer  suffering.  The  case  of  debtors.also 
may  be  here  pressed ;  but,  health  being  secured, 
we  cannot  say  that  there  appears  to  us  any  injustice 
in  subjecting  them  also  to  the  mortification  of  their 
appetite.  Every  debtor  in  execution  either  can  or 
cannot  pay  his  creditor ;  if  he  can,  and  will  not, 
preferring  to  spend  in  self-indulgence  the  sub- 
stance which  in  truth  belongs  to  his  creditor,  it 
is  well  that  he  should  be  prevented  from  gratify- 
ing so  unjust  a  desire ;  if  he  cannot,  then  he  is 
supposed  to  be  in  a  state  of  destitution,  and  the 
prison  allowance  must  be  a  relief  to  him. 

We  have  been  induced,  from  the  importance 
of  the  subject,  to  hazard  some  repetition,  after 
our  extract  from  Mr.  Buxton  with  regard  to 
these  rights  of  prisoners.  But,  waiving  many 
minor,  yet  important  considerations,  such  as  the 
difficult**  of  preserving  uniform  discipline,  oc 

Digitized  by  VjOUyiC     " 


PRISON    DISCI  P  LINE. 


119 


consistent  deteils  in  a  prisooy  in  which  the  pri- 
sooen  aie  allowed  a  different  scale  of  diet, 
vaiyiDg  accofding  to  their  own  fancies,  we  come 
to  these  conclusions — that  all  have  a  right  to  be 
fed,  and  that  all  should  be  confined  to  the  same 
prison  allowance,  qualifying  tlie  rule  in  indi- 
vidnal  cases  according  to  the  directions  of  the 
medical  officer  of  the  prison ;  and,  if  any  other 
variation  be  allowed,  we  should  prefer  the  indul- 
gence being  granted  as  the  reward  of  orderly  be- 
havioar,  to  the  r^;ulating  it  by  the  amount  of  the 
pfisonei^s  earning. 

The  prisoner,  of  whaterer  description,  has 
firther  claims  Id  be  protected  from  the  corrup- 
tion of  bad  society,  and  to  be  afforded  an  op- 
poitnnibr  of  performing  uninterruptedly  his  re- 
ligions duties. 

Upon  this  head,  of  religious  instruction  and  at- 
tendance, the  prison  bill  has  made  a  most  import- 
ant improvement  in  our^  criminal  law.     The 
duties  of  the  chaplain  are  marked  out  with  ful- 
ness   and    precision;    the  inmates  of  a  gaol 
require,  and  they  will  henceforward  receive,  even 
more  minute  and  constant  attendance  than  the 
poor  of  the  most  fevored  parishes.    He  is  made 
one  of  the  most   responsible   and  important 
officers  of  the  prison ;  his  salary  is  regulated, 
not  extravagantly  and  yet  liberally,  with  refer- 
ence to  the  number  of  prisoners ;  a  pension  is 
provided  for  him  in  case  of  sickness,  age,  or  in- 
finnity;  and  the  situation  may  be  now  made  to 
present,  if  the  magistracy  are  disposed  to  act  in 
hearty  accordance  with  the  legislature,  which  we 
do  not  doubt,  an  ample,  and  not  undesirable 
field  for  the  exertion  of  zeal  and  talent  in  the 
Christian  ministry.   We  have  now  stated,  though 
act  so  concisely  as  we  could  have  wished,  the 
dtims  which  we  conceive  prisoners  of  every 
description  seem  to  us  to  have  on  the  country : 
on  the  other  hand,  the  rights  which  the  country 
has  over  the  inmates  of  its  prisons  will  vary 
with  the  causes  which  place  them  there;  but 
there  are  certain  general  powers  which  it  may 
justly  exercise  in  dl  cases. 

It  has  a  fight  to  general  order  and  decency 
within  the  prison ;  and  for  this  purpose  it  may 
enforce  proper  discipline  on  every  individual, 
and  reasonably  punish  the  breach  of  it.  For 
the  same  purpose,  it  may  regulate  the  prison 
hoars,  and  the  mode  of  employment  of  all  the 
prisoners,  even  of  those  whom  it  has  no  power 
of  compiling  to  labor,  restricting  it  to  such  kinds 
of  won  as  may  be  fittingly  and  wholesomely  car- 
ried on  within  the  walls,  directing  the  sale  of  the 
produce,  and  apportioning  the  earnings  in  such 
manner  as  may  best  accord  with  the  regulations 
of  the  place ;  it  has  a  right  to  restrain  ue  inter- 
oonrK  of  the  prisoners  with  each  other,  and  to 
exercise  an  entire  control  over  the  visits  of 
friends  from  without. 

This  last  is  a  matter  of  importance,  and  of  some 
difficulty ;  on  the  one  hand,  to  deny  even  to  the  con- 
victed prisoner  all  intercourse^with  his  femily  and 
friends  is  not  merely  a  measure  of  great  severity, 
requiring  some  clear  advantage  as  its  justifica- 
tion, but,  in  our  opinion,  is  to  throw  away  a 
powerful  mean,  under  proper  regulations,  of  en- 
couragement and  moral  improvement  ;•— on  the 
other  hand,  it  cannot  be  doubted  that  great  in- 
jury is  done  to  the  discipline  of  tlie  prison,  and 


to  the  public,  by  an  indiscriminate  admission  of 
visitors.  A  prison  whose  gates  are  perpetually 
admitting  idle  spectators  will  necessarily  lose 
half  its  terrors.  Those  salutary  ideas  of  loath- 
someness and  misery  which  men  associate  with 
a  gaol,  and  which  naturally  tend  to  the  preven- 
tion of  crime,  cannot  &il  to  be  much  weakened 
by  a  sight  of  the  cleanliness  and  order,  the  de- 
cent apparel  and  seeming  comfort,  which  are 
found  within  the  walls;  men  commonly  judge 
from  what  they  see,  and  make  little  account  of 
what  they  do  not  see,  the  solitude  and  wearisome- 
ness,  the  hard  fare  and  hard  labor  of  the  pri- 
soners. They  will  therefore  leave  the  prison, 
believing  that  the  sufferings  of  confinement  have 
been  exaggerated;  and  what  they  believe  they 
may  act  upon ;  or  at  least  they  will  eagerly  cir- 
culate the  statement. 

The  notion  of  a  fee  on  admission  is  rather 
strange  to  our  feelings,  but  we  take  for  granted 
that  uiat  is  not  the  only  requisite:  The  regula- 
tions of  the  Prison  Bill,  as  we  understand  them, 
put  the  matter  on  the  right  footing;  prisoners 
only  committed  for  trial  are  to  receive  visits  at 
proper  times  and  under  proper  restrictions,  set- 
tled by  the  governor,  or  visiting  justices;  and 
convicts  only  under  such  rules  and  regulations 
as  may  be  determined  on  at  the  quarter-ses- 
sions. 

In  this  part  of  our  subject  one  more  topic  re- 
mains to  be  discusKd,  but  of  great  importance, 
the  employment  of  the  prisoners.  It  is  obvious 
that  this  can  have  reference  only  to  those  who 
are  confined  jupon  suspicion,  or  for  punishment 
of  crimes;  but  with  regard  to  each  of  these 
classes  great  difference  of  opinion  prevails  as  to 
the  principle  and  the  mode  of  enforcing  it.  The 
law  and  common  sense  agree  in  making  a  wide 
distinction  between  prison  employment  and  hard 
labor.  The  former  is  undoubtedly  desirable  for 
all  prisoners,  and  every  proper  and  rational  in- 
ducement should  be  held  out  to  them  to  engage 
in  it— inducements  which  experience  warrants  us 
in  saying  will  scarcely  ever  mil  of  success.  It  is 
a  question,  however,  to  which  late  circumstances 
have  attached  some  consequence,  whether  there 
is  any  legal  power,  directly  or  indirectly,  to  com- 
pel persons,  either  untried  or  sentenced  simply  to 
imprisonment,  to  labor.  The  general  practice,  we 
believe,  varies  much  in  this  respect  between  these 
two  classes ;  in  a  great,  perhaps  the  greater  num- 
ber of  prisons,  in  which  the  reformation  of  the 
prisoner  is  attempted,  a  convict  sentenced  to  im- 
prisonment only  is  directly  or  indirectly  compelled 
to  work  as  a  part  of  prison  discipline ;  but  in 
scarcely  any  is  the  same  rule  observed  with  re- 
gard to  persons  only  committed  for  trial.  It 
would  be  as  difficult,  perhaps,  to  find  a  direct 
authority  in  law  for  compelling  the  convict  to 
work  as  the  untried  prisoner ;  but  many  of  the 
reasons  which  apply  with  great  cogency  against 
compulsion  on  the  latter  certainly  do  not  exist 
in  respect  of  the  former.  Where  a  man  has  been 
proved  guilty  of  a  crime  against  society,  for  which 
It  ip  thought  necessary  to  punish  him  by  seclu- 
sion, society  has  a  right  to  subject  him  to  such 
discipUne  as  may  be  thought  likely  to  make  him 
harmless  to  her  interests  when  he  shall  be  restored 
to  liberty:  this  would  warrant  direct  compulsion. 
And,  as  to  the  indirect  compulsion  of  withholding 
Digitized  by  VjUUy  It: 


Ii30 


PRISON    DISCIPLINB. 


sttstenaiice  from  him  if  he  refuses  to  earn  it  by 
labor,  there  can  be  no  injustice  in  this,  for  he  can 
have  no  positive  ckuw  to  maintenance ;  it  b  true 
that  he  has  been  withdrawn  from  his  trade  or 
occupation,  but  that  is  a  necessary  part  of  the 
punishment  of  his  crime, ,  the  forfeiture  of  the 
neans  of  resorting  to  his  former  mode  of  earning 
a  livelihood.  But  with  a  man  committed  only 
on  suspicion,  whom  the  law  still  presumea  to  be 
innocent,  and  deprives  of  liberty  only  because  it 
sees  no  other  mode  of  securing  his  appearance  at 
the  day  of  trial,  all  the  reason  is  in  mvor  of  his 
immunity  from  every  other  privation  or  inter* 
ference.  Direct  compukioo,  we  believe,  has  not 
been  attempted;  the  only  grouoi  on  which  it 
could  be  put  would  be  the  enforcement  of  dia- 
cipline ;  and  undoubtedly  that  must  be  preserved, 
if  necessary,  over  every  prisoner.  We  are  not, 
therefore,  disposed  to  deny,  that  for  riot  or  dis- 
orderly behaviour  an  unconvicted  criminal  may, 
from  the  necessity  of  the  case,  be  treated  as  a  con- 
vict; in  whatever  character  he.  comes,  he  is 
bound  so  far  to  submit  to  the  laws  of  the  place, 
as  not  to  interfere  with  tlie  peace  and  good  order 
of  others.  But  this  is  an  argument  which  will 
never  justify  the  compulsory  labor  of  a  peaceabie 
and  orderly,  but  slothful  or  even  obstinate  pri- 
soner. 

Witn  respect  to  hard  labor  as  a  useful  mode 
of  punishment  and  correction  there  cannot  well 
be  much  difference  of  opinion.  When,  however, 
this  subject  first  attracted  the  public  attention, 
the  benevolent  individuals  in  different  counties 
who  took  the  largest  share  in  direc\jQg  the  mea- 
sure, *  seldom  ventured  (as  Sir  George  I'aul  says) 
to  turn  their  eyes  from  income  and  profit  to  a 
county  rate;  every  house  of  correction  was  to 
become  a  busy  manufactoiy,  and  to  maintain 
itself.'  Much  as  we  are  advocates  for  industry 
in  prisonerai,  and  economy  of  public  money,  we 
think  both  may  be  purchased  too  dearly ;  and  we 
are  not  sorry,  we  confess,  that  in  almost  every 
place  in  which  the  manufactory-system  has  been 
tried  it  has  proved,  if  not  a  foiling  concern  on 
the  whole,  yet  certainly  far  less  profitable  than 
was  expected.  We  do  not,  of  course,  mean  to 
condemn  all  profitable  labor  of  the  prisoners,  but 
we  are  anxious  that  it  should  never  be  the  pri- 
mary object ;  in  truth  the  best  economy  is  in  that 
system  which  nroduces  the  fewest  recommittals, 
and  prevents  the  most  crimes. 

The  tread-wheel  is  an  invention  which  has  oet- 
tainly  been  exposed  to  most  unfounded  attacks, 
and  perhaps  been  praised  far  beyond  its  real 
merits,  but  which  we  do  not  hesitate  to  pronounce 
an  important  instrument  of  prison  discipline.  The 
fifth  Report  of  the  Society  for  the  Improvement 
of  Prison  Discipline  is  before  us,  and  it  is  in  no 
part  more  sensible  or  instructive  than  in  what  it 
communicates  on  this  subject;  on  which,  as 
might  be  expected,  a  great  deal  of  ignorance 
prevails :  ana  although  almost  every  tread-wheel 
varies  practically  in  the  quantity  of  labor  which 
it  imposes,  and  consequently  in  a  great  measure  in 
the  effect  which  it  is  calculated  to  produce,  the 
machine  is  praised  or  blamed  as  if  it  were  one 
thing,  the  same  in  every  prison.  The  labor  of 
the  wheel  it  should  be  remembered  is  by  ascend- 
ing steps,  and  the  amount  of  ascent  made  must 


depend  on  the  number  of  bouxt  emfplc^ed,  the 
yelocity  of  the  wheel  (which,,  when  tbere  is  no 
fly-regulator,  will  also  vary  with  the  number  of 
men  on  it  at  the  same  time),  the  distaoce  from 
step  to  step,  a»d  the  pioportioo  of  those  out  of 
each  gang  who  are  on  the  wheel  at  one  time,  to 
those  who  are  off.  It  is  obvious,,  thefefiore,  that 
what  may  be  very  true  of  one  wheel  may  be  en- 
tirely false  of  another.  Thus,  to  sdect  a  fenr  in<> 
stances  out  of  many,  at  Lewes  each  prisoaer 
works  at  the  rate  of  6600  feet  ia  ascent  per  day ; 
at  Ipswich,  7450 ;  at  St.  Albans,  8000 ;  at  Bury, 
8950 ;  at  Cambridge,  10,175 ;  at  Ducbam,  12,000 ; 
at  Brixton,  Guild^rd,  and  Beading  the  summef 
rate  exceeds  13,000 ;  while  at  Warwick  the  sum- 
mer  rate  will  be  17,000  feet  in  ten  hours,  if  the 
present  resolution  be  adhered  to;  which, upon 
tefl«ictk>n,  we  are  quite  suce  it  never  will,  as  no 
strength  coukl  long  endure  such  labor.  In  ad- 
dition to  these  immense  diffeiences,  those  of  the 
dietaries  must  also  be  taken  into  the  account. 
Our  remarks  shaU  be  confined  to  the  pnndple 
of  this  machine  considered  generally. 

Assuming  then  that  it  wUl  be  used  with  dis- 
eietion  and  humanity,  we, will  state  what  we 
conceive  to  be  its  disadvantages  and  advantages. 
In  the  fiist  place,  it  is  inapplicable  to  prisoners 
under  long  confinements;  tnere  is  in  it  at  once 
so  much  irksomeness,  sameness,  and  real  fiuigue, 
that,  after  subduing  a  stubborn  spirit,  we  should 
be  afraid,  with  long  continuance,  it  might  go  on 
almost  to  stupify  the  intellect ;  for,  while  the 
body  labors,  the  mind  is  wholly  unen^loyed. 
But,  even  if  this  be  thought  an  extreme  apprebeo- 
sion,  it  must  be  admitted  that  it  not  onljr  teadies 
no  trade  of  occupation  by  which  a  livelihood 
may  afterwards  be  earned,  but  must  in  some 
measure  render  the  parlies  less  fit  for  manual 
labor  by  disuse  of  those  parts  and  muscles  of  the 
body  which  are  employed  in  haodierait  trades. 
Making  these  deductions*  of  which  the  latter  is 
capable  of  an  answer  what  we  limit  the  use  of 
the  tread-wheel  to  confinements  of  a  short  dnx»» 
tion,  in  which  a  trade  could  not  be  learned,  nor 
the  body  lose  its  aptness  for  one  to  which  it  had 
been  accustomed,  the  advantages  seem  to  be,  that 
the  tread-wheel  is  labor  iqdeed,  dreaded  in  the 
prospect,  irksome  in  eodmance,  and  remembered 
with  disgust;  that  it  has  never  fiuled  to  subdue 
the  most  turbulent  spirit ;  that,  requiring  no  in* 
struction,  every  man  who  can  walk  may  be  set 
upon  it  from  the  moment  that  his  sentence  is  pro* 
nounced ;  Uiat  he  cannot  a?oid  his  portion  of 
labor,  the  wheel  turning  by  weight  and  not  by 
exertion;  that  the  occupation  is  so  unceasing 
that  conversation  between  the  prisoners  is  much 
restrained ;  that  it  may  without  injury  be  em« 
ployed  for  many  hours  in  the  day,  and  with  a 
very  little  expense  in  the  open  air;,  that  it  affords 
great  advantages  for  inspection,  and  thereby 
much  fiicilitatea  the  duties  of  the  governor.  Un- 
der these  impressions,  and  with  these  restrictions, 
we  cannot  Init  say  that  we  shall  be  glad  to  hear 
of  the  erection  of  a  tread-wheel  in  every  con- 
siderable prison  in  the  country. 

We  conclude  in  the  words  of  the  Fifth  Re- 
port : — <  Of  the  progress  of  information  and  of 
public  feeling,  within  these  few  years,  on  the 
subject  of  prison  discipline,  the  former  Reports 


Digitized  by  ^^JiJU*^lt: 


PR! 


121 


PRI 


of  this  SocJoty  bfiu  ample  tcetimoay*  Parlia- 
meatarf  intecferenoey  the  exertions  of  the  magis- 
incy,  and  diligence  of  enqairyy  have  combined 
to  bring  the  aobject  proimnently  before  the  pub- 
lie  mhid.  The  princmles  on  which  pnnishments 
are  etffcroed  have  ttttdergone  the  deliberate  in- 
vestigation of  the  legislature.  It  is  the  general 
feeling  that  the  unconvicted  should  be  treated 
with  as  much  lenity  as  is  compatible  with  the 
safe  custody  of  his  person,  and  the  good  order  of 
the  prison  ;  whilst,  upon  those  on  whom  the  law 
inflicts  punishment,  a  salutary  system .  of  disci- 
pUoe  ought  to  be  enforoed ;  that,  in  the  treatment 
of  the  convicted,  no  severity  should  be  allowed 
that  is  not  wavranted  by  the  laws,  nor  consistent 
vutin  jostice ;  that  the  prevention  of  crime  is  the 
ultimate  object  of  imprisonment,  and  that  to  at- 
tain this  end  it  is  necessary  to  insure  the  reibr- 
manon,  asvrell  as  the  punishment  of  the  prisoner. 
Uniform  severity,  it  is  generally  admitted,  har- 
dens the  offender,  and  prepares  him  for  the  per- 
petration of  further  crimes.  It  is  necessary  not 
only  to  inspire  terror,  but  to  kindle  hope— to  im- 
press upon  the  mind  not  only  a  sense  of  guilt,  but 
thefove  of  virtue;  and  to  implant  those  prin- 
dplesy  and  cherish  those  feelings,  which  religion 
only  catt  impart.' 

The  separate  discipline  of  the  oommon  gaol, 
the  House  of  Correction,  and  the  Hulk  or  Peni- 
tentiary, might  here  be  adverted  to;  but  on 
this  subject  we  can  only  refer  to  the  Quarterly 
Review,  No.  LX.,  and  the  Reports  of  the  Society 
for  the  Improvement  of  Prison  Discipline. 

PRISITNE,  adj.  Lat  pmtiniu.  First ;  an- 
cient; originaL 

Now  their  f^riaim  worth 
The  Britons  recollect.  PhiHpi. 

This  light  being  trajeeted  only  dirough  the  parallel 
•aperiidcs  of  the  two  prison,  if  it  suffered  any  change 
by  the  refraction  of  one  superficies,  it  lost  that  im- 
picnon  by  the  contraiy  refraction  of  the  other 
Mpedkics.  and  so,  being  restored  to  its  pritUiu 
coeatiiution,  became  of  the  same  nature  and  condi- 
tioa  as  at  first.  Newton. 

PRISTIS,  in  ichthyology,  the  sawfish,  is  ge- 
nerally ooDsideied  as  a  species  of  the  squalus, 
or  ahuk  genus,  comprehending  under  it  several 
varieties.  Mr.  Latham,  however,  is  of  opinion 
that  it  ought  to  be  considered  as  a  distinct  genus 
itself  and  that  the  characteristics  of  the  several 
varieties  are  sufficient  to  constitute  them  distinct 
species.  He  ranks  it  as  a  genus  belonging  to 
the  order  of  amphibia  nantes.  Its  characters  are 
these :  a  plain  long  snout,  with  spines  growing  like 
tecih  out  of  both  edges ;  four  or  five  spiracula, 
or  breathing  apertures,  in  the  sides  of  the  neck : 
he  body  is  oblong  and  almost  round,  with  a 
va^  coriaceous  skin ;  the  mouth  is  situated  in 
te  lower  part  of  the  head;  and  the  nostrils, 
6efore  the  mouth,  are  half  covered  widi  a  mem- 
bntoaoeoos  lobe ;  behind  the  eyes  are  two  oval 
Mes;  the  ventral  fins  approach  one  another, 
aod  in  the  male  are  placed  about  the  organs 
of  generation ;  there  are  no  fins  at  the  anus. 
Of  this  genus  our  author  enumerates  five  species : 
1.  P.  antiquorum.  The  head  is  rather  flat  at 
top;  ibe  eyes  laree,  with  yellow  irides;  behind 
each  is  a  hole,  which  some  have  supposed  may 
lead  to  an  oiigan  of  hearing.    The  mouth  is  well 


faraished  with  te^thy  but  they  are  tiunt^  serving 
rather  to  bruise  its  prey  than  to  divide  it  bj 
cutting.  Before  the  moutk  are  two  foramina, 
supposed  to  be  the  nostrils.  The  rostrum,  beak, 
or  snout,  is  ia  general  about  one-third  of  the 
total  length  of  the  fish,  and  contains  in  some 
eighteen,  in  others  as  &r  as  twenty-three  or 
twenty-four  spines  oa  each  side ;  these  are  very 
stout,  nuich  thicker  at  the  back  part,  and  chan- 
nelled, iacliniog  tt>  an  edge  forwards.  The  fiyns 
are  seven  in  nuiaber — ^viz.  two  dorsal,  placed  at 
some  distance,  from  each  other — two  pectoral, 
taking  rise  just  behind  the  breathing-holes,  which 
are  five  in  number — two  ventral,  situated  almost 
underneath  the  first  dorsal — and,  lastly,  the  cau- 
dal, occupying  the  tail  both  above  and  beneath, 
hot  longest  on  the  upper  part.  The  general 
color  of  the  body  is  a  dull  gray,  or  brovmish, 
growing  paler  as  it  approaches  the  belly,  where 
it  is  nearly  white. 

2.  P.  cirratuB,  of  which,  continues  sur  author, 
we  have  only  met  with  one  specimen,  which  was 
biought  from  Port  Jackson  in  New  Holland.  It 
is  a  Biale,  md  the  total  length  about  forty  inches : 
the  snout,  from  die  tip  of  it  to  the  eye,  eleven : 
the  spines  widely  difibrent  from  any  of  the  others; 
they  are  indeed  placed,  as  usual,  on  the  edge, 
hot  are  continued  on  each  side  even  beyond  Sie 
eyes.  The  longer  ones  are  slender,  sharp,  some- 
vrhat bent,  and  about  twenlv  in  number;  and  be- 
tween these  are  others  not  half  the  length  of  the 
primal  ones,  between  some  three  or  lour,  between 
others  as  far  as  six ;  and  in  general  the  middle  one 
of  these  smaller  series  is  the  longest :  besides  these 
a  series  of  minute  ones  may  be  perceived  be- 
neath, at  the  ver^  edge.  In  the  snout,  likewise, 
another  singnlanty  occurs : — about  the  middle 
of  it  on  each  side^  near  the  edge,  arises  a  flexible 
ligamentous  cord,  about  three  inches  long,  like 
i&  beards  at  the  mouth  of  some  of  the  gadus  or 
cod  genus,  and  as  pliant  in  the  recent  state.  The 
color  of  the  fish  is  a  pale  brown :  the  breathing 
apertures  lour :  the  mouth  Aimished  with  five 
rows  of  minute,  but  very  sharp  teeth. 

a.  P.  cuspidatits.  Of  this  our  author  has 
seen  ooly  two  specimens*  the  one  about  a  foot 
and  a  half  in  length,  and  the  other  more  than 
two  feet  and  a  half.  In  both  of  these  were 
twenty-eight  spines  on  each  side ;  but  the  dis- 
tinguishing feature  is  the  spines  themselves, 
being  particularly  flat  and  broad,  and  shaped  at 
the  point  more  like  the  lancet  used  by  surgeons 
in  bleeding,  than  any  other  figure. 

4.  P.  microdon.  Of  this  species  the  total 
length  is  twenty-eigbt  inches,  the  snout  occupy- 
ing ten ;  from  the  base  of  this  to  that  of  the 
pectoral  fins  four  inches ;  between  the  pectoral 
and  ventral  fins  six.  The  two  dorsal  fins  occupy 
nearly  the  same  |)roportions  in  respect  to  each 
other ;  but  the  hinder  one  is  the  smallest,  and 
all  of  them  are  greatly  hollowed  out  at  the  back 
part,  muoh  more  so  than  in  the  two  first  species. 
The  snout  diffars  from  that  of  every  other  in 
several  particulars ;  it  is  longer  in  proportion, 
being  more  than  one-third  of  the  whole  fish. 
The  spines  do  not  stand  out  from  the  sides  more 
than  a  quarter  of  an  inch,  and  from  this  circum- 
stance seem  fax  less  capable  of  doing  injury  than 
any  other  species  yet  known. 


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y  P.  (>eetinatus.  This,  with  the  first  species, 
grows  to  the  largest  site  of  anv  that  have  vet 
come  under  the  inspection  of  the  naturalist, 
some  specimens  measuring  fifteen  feet  in  length. 
The  pectinatus  difiers  from  the  P.  antiquorum 
in  having  the  snout  more  narrow  in  proportion 
at  the  base,  and  the  whole  of  it  more  slender  in 
all  its  parts ;  whereas  the  first  is  very  broad  at 
the  base,  and  tapers  considerably  thence  to  the 
point.  The  spines  on  each  side  also  are  longer 
and  more  slender,  and  vary  from  twenty-five  to 
thirty-four  in  the  different  specimens. 

PRITH'EE.  A  comipUon  of  pray  tfaee,  or 
I  pray  thee. 

Well,  what  was  that  scream  for,  I  prithee  f 

VEgtrang€. 
Alas  I  why  coniest  thou  at  this  dreadful  moment, 
To  shoclL  the  peace  of  my  departing  soul  ? 
Away !  I  frithu  leave  me !         Aoim's  Jant  8hon. 

PRIVASET,  a  small  town  in  the  department 
of  the  Dordogne,  France,  remarkable  for  the 
grotto  of  Miremont,  which  is  at  a  little  distance 
from  it,  and  which  is  considered  as  the  finest  in 
the  kingdom.  It  is  situated  about  two-thirds  up 
an  extremely  barren  hill;  its  depth  from  the 
entrance  to  the  extremity  of  the  largest  branch 
is  545  iathoiDS,  and  the  extent  of  all  its  ramifica- 
tions 2170  lathoms.  If  the  different  windings 
of  the  grotto  and  those  which  the  traveller  usually 
makes  in  order  to  observe  the  objects  attached 
to  the  sides,  were  reckoned,  they  would  amount 
to  more  than  six  miles ;  and  it  would  be  dan- 
gerous to  adventure  fu  into  it,  without  the 
assistance  of  a  guide  ^iccustomed  to  the  place. 
PRI'VATE,  arfj.  &  n.  f .N  laX,  privatui.  Se- 
pRi'v  AC  Y,  n.  f .  I  cret ;  reserved ;  con  - 

Priv a'oo,  V  cealed ;  alone ;  par- 

Privateer',  n.  s .  9cv.a.C  ticular :  Shakspeare 
Pri'vatbly,  adv.  i  uses  the  noun  sub- 

PRfvATENESs,  n.  f.  -^  stautivo  for  a,  pri- 
vate message:  privacy  and  privateness  mean 
secresy;  retirement;  state  of  being  concealed 
or  unexposed ;  it  is  used,  by  Arbuthnot  im- 
properly, for  privity:  prii^ado  is  adopted  from 
the  Spanish  by  Bacon  for  a  private,  friend :  a 

Srivateer  is  a  vessel  fitted  out  by  private  indivi- 
uals  against  a  public  enemy  :  to  privateer  is  to 
fit  out  or  conduct  such  a  vessel :  privately  fol- 
lows the  senses  of  private,  adj. 

And,  as  he  sat  upon  the  Mount  of  Olives,  the  dis- 
ciples came  unto  him  privatdy.  Matthew  xxiv.  3. 
To  correct  the  particular  faults  of  privaie  men, 
would  be  a  work  too  infinite ;  yet  some  there  be  of 
that  nature,  that  though  they  be  in  private  men,  yet 
their  evil  reacheth  to  a  general  hurt,  as  the  extortion 
of  sheriffs,  and  their  sub-sheriffii  and  bailiffs,  the 
corruption  of  victuallers,  &c.  Speneer. 

When  publick  consent  of  the  whole  hath  esta- 
blished any  thing,  every  man's  judgment,  being 
thereunto  compared,  were  prwate,  howsoever  his 
calling  be  to  some  kind  of  public  charge ;  so  that  of 
peace  and  quietness  there  is  not  any  way  possible, 
unless  the  probable  voice  of  every  entire  society  or 
body  politick  overrule  all  private  of  like  nature  in  the 
same  body.  Hookei't  Prtface, 

Yon  shall  go  with  me ; 
have  some  private  scbooling  for  you  both. 

ShaMtpeare, 
What  infinite  heartease  must  kino  neglect. 
That  private  men  enjoy  t  and  what  have  kings, 
That  private  have  not  too,  save  ceremony  ?     Id, 


His  private  with  me  of  the  dauphin's  love. 
Is  much  more  general  than  these  lines  impart   li. 
There,  this  night. 
We'll  pass  the  business  privately  and  well.    Id, 
AmbaMadors  attending  the  court  in  ereat  num- 
ber, he  did  content  with  courtesy,  reward,  and  pri- 
vatenett.  Bacon, 

The  lady  Brampton,  an  English  lady,  embarked 
for  Portugal  at  that  time,  with  some  pnmdo  of  her 
own.  Id, 

He  drew  him  into  the  fatal  circle  from  a  resolved 
privateneu,  where  he  bent  his  mind  to  a  retired 
course.  Wetton, 

Peter  was  but  a  private  man,  and  not  to  be  any 
way  compared  with  the  dukes  of  his  house. 

Peaekam  of  Antiquitiee, 
Even  the  prieatett  person  may  shine  forth  in  good 
counsel.  Bp,  HaXU 

My  end  being  priwUe,  I  have  not  expressed  my 
conceptions  in  uie  language  of  the  schools.  Dighg. 
Fancy  retires 
Into  her  private  cell,  where  nature  rests.  Jftlton. 
Clamours  our  privaeiet  uneasy  make. 
Birds  leave  their  nests  disturbed,  and  beasts  thmr 
haunts  forsake.  JDrydnu 

Dare  you, 
A  prttNite  man,  presume  to  love  a  queen  1    Id. 
Private,  or  secret  prayer,  is  that  which  b  used  by 
a  man  alone  apart  from  all  others.     Duty  ef  Man. 
Her  sacred  privaeiet  all  open  lie. 
To  eadh  profane  enquiring  vulgar  eye*    Bawe. 
Vott  see  Frog  is  religiously  true  to  his  bargain, 
scorns  to  hearken  to  any  composition,  without  your 
privacy.  Arbuthiot. 

In  private  grieve,  but  with  a  careless  scorn  ; 
In  publick  seem  to  triumph,  not  to  mourn. 

GramUU. 
The  first  principles  of  Christian'  religion  should 
not  be  f&rood  with  school  points  and  private  tenets. 

8a9a%aerton. 
He  is  at  no  charge  for  a  fleet,  further  than  pro- 
viding privateers,  wherewith  his  subjects  cany  on 
a  piratical  war  at  their  own  expense. 

Swat's  MitoeUanies. 
Fame,  not  contented  veith  her  broad  highway. 
Delights,  for  change,  through  privaU  paths  to  stray. 

Harta. 

Privateers  are  a  kind  of  private  men  of 
war,  the  persons  concerned  wherein  administer 
at  their  own  costs  a  part  of  a  war,  by  fitting  out 
these  ships  of  force,  and  providing  them  with  all 
military  stores ;  and  they  have,  instead  of  pay, 
leave  to  keep  what  they  take  from  the  enemy, 
allowing  the  admiral  his  share,  &c.  Privateers 
may  not  attempt  any  thing  against  the  laws  of 
nations;  as  to  assault  an  enemy  in  a  port  or 
haven,  under  the  protection  of  any  pnnce  or 
republic,  whether  he  be  friend,  ally,  or  neutral ; 
for  the  peace  of  such  places  must  be  inviolably 
kept;  therefore,  before  a  commission  shall  be 
granted  to  any  privateer,  the  commander  is  to 
give  security,  if  the  ship  be  not  above  150  tons, 
in  £1500,  and,  if  the  snip  exceeds  that  burden, 
in  £3000,  that  they  will  make  satisfaction  for  all 
damages  which  they  shall  commit  in  their 
courses  at  sea  contrary  to  the  treaties  with  any 
state,  on  pain  of  forfeiting  their  commissions ; 
and  the  ship  is  made  Uable.  Besides  these 
private  commissions,  there  are  special  commis- 
sions for  privateers,  granted  to  commanders  of 
ships,  &c.,  who  receive  pay,  are  under  marine 
discipline,  and,  if  they  do  not  obey  their  orders,. 


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my  be  ponished  with  death.  In  case  we  are  at 
war  wita  more  potentates  than  one,  privateen 
most  haye  commissions  for  acting  against  each 
of  them ;  otherwise,  if  a  captain,  carrying  only 
one  against  the  Danes,  should  in  his  course 
meet  with  and  take  a  Frenchman,  this  prize  is 
not  good,  but  would  be  taken  from  him  by  any 
man  of  war  he  met,  and  could  not  be  condemned 
(for  him)  in  die  admiralty.  Ships  taken  by 
privateers  were  to  be  divided  into  five  parts; 
roor  parts  whereof  go  to  the  persons  interested 
m  the  privateer,  and  the  fiftn  to  his  majesty. 
By  statute  the  lord  admiral,  or  commissioners  of 
the  admiralty,  may  grant  commissions  to  com- 
manden  of  privateers  for  taking  ships,  &c., 
which  being  adjudged  prizes,  and  the  tendi  part 
paid  to  the  admiral,  &c.,  wholly  belong  to  the 
owners  of  the  privateers  and  the  captors,  in  pro- 
portions agreed  on  between  themselves. 
PRIVATION,  n.  s.  j  Fr.  pritwfkm ;  Lat. 
Pai v'ative, tt^'.  &n.f .  yprivatto.  Removal  or 
Pmiv'ATivELT,  ado.  J  destruction  of  any 
thing  or  quality;  removal  from  office :  privative 
is  causing  removal,  obstruction,  or  absence  of 
something;  that  of  which  the  absence  of  some 
other  thing  forms  the  chief  idea:  privatively  is 


If  jMrt  of  the  people  or  estate  be  somewhat  in  the 
ekctum,  yoa  cannot  make  diem  nulls  or  cyphets  in 
die  frhiatkn  ot  translation.  Baeon. 

Harmonical  sounds  and  discordant  sounds  are  both 

active  and  positive,  but  blackness  and  darkness  are 

indeed  but  frinatvan,  and  therefore  have  little  or  no 

activity  ^  somewhat  tb^  do  contristate,  but  very  little. 

Id,  Natmral  H'utory, 

For,  what  is  this  contagious  sin  of  kind. 

But  a  privatum  of  that  grace  withta  f         Dmiet. 

The  duty  of  the  new  covenant  is  set  down,  first 
pneatiMtjf,  not  like  that  of  Mosaical  observances  ex- 
ternal, Imt  positively,  laws  given  into  the  minds  and 
factits.  Hammond. 

The  very  jmvatim  blessings,  the  blessings  of  im- 
amoity,  safeguard,  liberty,  and  integrity,  which  we 
esjoy,  deserve  the  thanksgiving  of  a  whole  life. 

Taylor. 
So  bounded  are  our  natural  desires. 

That  wanting  all,  and  setting  pain  aside, 

With  bare  prtmHon  sense  is  satisfied.     Dryden. 

After  some  account  of  good,  evil  will  be  known  by 
conseqoenoe,  as  being  only  a  frkaHon  or  absence  of 
good.  South. 

A  jfrioaHan  is  the  absence  of  what  does  naturally 
bebo^  to  the  thing,  or  which  ought  to  be  present 
vith  It ;  as  when  a  man  or  hone  is  deaf  or  dead, 
or  a  physician  or  divine  unlearned ;  these  are  priva- 
(am.  WalU*»  IcgicJk. 

PRIVERNUM,  a  town  of  the  Volsci,  in 
Latium,  east  of  Setia.  Having  revolted  from 
the  Romans,  their  ambassadors  were  asked,  what 
pQuishment  they  themselves  thought  they  deserv- 
ed ?  They  answered  what  those  deserve  who  deem 
themselves  worthy  of  liberty.  Being  asked, 
should  the  punishment  be  remitted,  what  peace 
was  to  be  expected  with  them  ?  they  replied.  If 
you  grant  a  &vorable  peace,  you  may  hope  to 
have  it  sincere  and  lasting ;  but,  if  a  bad  one, 
yoo  may  expect  it  of  short  continuance.  The 
Rooans  were  so  £ai  from  being  displeased,  that 
hy  a  vote  of  the  people  th^  had  the  freedom 
of  the  city  granted  them.  The  town  is  now 
called  PiPEBVo.     See  that  article. 


Privet,  is  botany.    Se^  Lioijstkvm. 
Privet,  Evergreen.    See  llfiAMMUS. 
PRIVILEGE,  n.s.&t;ui.    Fr.  priri/^e;  Lat. 
privUegium.    Peculiar  advantage  or  rigpfit;  im- 
munity :  to  invest  with  peculiar  rights  or  immu- 
nities. 

The  court  is  rather  deemed  as  a  pnvii^ed  place  of 
unbridled  licentiousness,  than  as  the  abiding  of  him 
who,  as  a  father,  should  give  a  fatherly  example. 

Sidney, 
Here's  mv  sword. 
Behold  it  is  the  privilege  of  mine  honours, 
My  oath,  and  my  profession.  Sha/tapeare, 

He  took  this  place  for  sanctuary. 
And  it  shall  privilege  him  from  your  hands.    Id. 
This  place 
Doth  privilege  me,  speak  what  reason  will. 

Daniel. 
He  claims  his  privilege,  and  sa^  'tis  fit. 
Nothing  should  be  the  judge  of  wit,  but  wit. 

Denham. 
He  went 
Invisible,  yet  stayed,  such  privilege 
Hath  oomipresence.  Milton. 

Many  things  are  by  our  laws  privileged  fromtythes, 
which  by  the  canon  law  are  chargeable-  Hale. 

When  the  chief  captain  ordered  him  to  be  scoureed 
uneondemned,  he  pleads  the  legal  pritnlege  of  a  Ro- 
man, who  ought  not  to  be  treated  so.      KettleweU. 
Smiles,  not  allowed  to  beasts,  from  reason  move. 
And  are  the  privilege  of  human  love.  Dryden. 

The  ^at  are  privileged  alone. 
To  punish  all  injustice  but  their  own.         Id, 
The  privilege  of  birth-right  was  a  doable  portion.' 

Locke. 
He  happier  yet,  who  privileged  b]r  fate 
To  shorter  labour,  and  a  lighter  weight. 
Received  but  yesterday  the  gift  of  breath. 
Ordained  to-morrow  to  return  to  death.  Prior. 
As  infallibility  is  no  privilege  of  the  human  nature, 
H  is  no  diminution  to  a  man's  good  sense  or  judg- 
ment to  be  found  in  an  error,  provided  he  is  willing 
to  retract  it.  Maaon. 

PRIVY, «§.&«.#.■>  Fr.  nrit^.  Private; 
Priv'ilt,  a(A;  Sassignea  to  secret  uses; 
Priv'ity,  n.  f .  J  admitted  to  secrets ;  made 
conscious  of:  place  of  retirement,  or  for  secret 
use :  privily  is,  secretly ;  privately :  privity,  pri- 
vate communication ;  consciousness;  joint  know- 
ledge; a  secret  part. 

The  sword  of  the  snneat  men  that  are  slain  entereth 
into  their  privy  chamber.  Eukid  xzi.  14. 

They  have  the  profits  of  their  lands  by  pretence  of 
conveyances  thereof  unto  their  privy  mends,  who 
primly  send  them  the  revenues. 

Speneer^i  StaU  of  Ireland. 
I  will  unto  you  in  privity  discover  the  drift  of  my 
purpose ;  I  mean  thereby  to  settle  an  eternal  peace 
in  tnat  country,  and  also  to  make  it  very  profitable  to 
her  majesty.  Spenser. 

The  authority  of  higher  powers  hath  force  even  in 
these  thmgs  which  are  done  without  their  privity, 
and  are  of  mean  reckoning.  Hooker, 

Upon  this  French  going  out,  tpok  he  upon  him, 
y  the*  king,  t'  appoint 


'Without  the  pnmty  o 
Who  should  attend  him. 


Shahepeare.  Henry  VIIL 


The  party,  'ninst  the  which  he  doth  contrive, 
Shall  seise  on  half  his  goods ;  the  other  half 
Comes  to  the  privy  co&t  of  the  state. 

Sir  Valentine 
This  night  intends  to  steal  away  your  daughter ; 
Myself  am  one  made  privy  to  the  plot  Id. 


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Fewof  UMBkavo  any  tUng  to  cant  ihi&u  frimtkt. 


llany  being  yrwy  to  the  lact. 
How  hard  is  u  to  keisp  it  anbetrayed  1 

Damsl. 

One,  having  let  hisbeardgrow  from  the  mar^rdom 
of  king  Charlei  I.  till  the  Hestoration,  desired  to  be 
made  a  vrhp  coonsellor.  AMctefor. 

All  Oe  doors  vera  laid  open  for  his  departnra, 
not  without  the  jfrwity  of  the  prince  of  Orange,  eon- 
doding  that  the  kingdom  might  better  be  settled  in 
his  absence.  Swift. 

He  would  rather  lose  half  of  his  kingdom,  than  be 
prtvy  to  sach  a  secret,  which  he  commanded  me  never 
to  mention.  i^* 

Your  fuicy 
Would  still  the  same  ideas  give  ye, 
As  when  you  ^ied  her  on  the  prwy.        /d. 

Peivy  Coukcil,  See  Couwcil.  The  king's 
will  is  the  sole  constituent  of  a  privy  counsellor; 
smd  it  also  regulates  their  number,  which  in 
ancient  times  was  about  twelve.  Afterwards  it 
was  increased  to  so  laige  a  number  that  it  was 
found  inconvenient  for  secresy  and  despatch; 
and  therefore  Charles  II.  in  1679  limited  it  to 
thirty,  whereof  fifteen  were  prinoipal  officers  of 
state,  and  to  be  counsellors  ex  officio ;  and  the 
other  fifteen  were  composed  of  ten  lords,  and 
five  commoners  of  the  king*s  choosing.  Since 
that  time,  however,  the  number  has  been  much 
augmented,  and  now  continues  indefinite.  At 
the  same  time  also  the  ancient  office  of  lord  pre- 
sident of  the  council  was  revived,  in  the  person 
of  Anthony  earl  of  Shaftesbury.  Privy  coun- 
sellors are  made  by  the  king*s  nomination,  with- 
out either  patent  or  grant.  Any  natural  bom 
subject  of  Great  Britain  is  capable  of  being  a 
member  of  the  privy  council,  taking  the  proper 
oaths  lor  security  of  the  government.  By  the 
act  of  settlement,  12  and  13  W.  III.  c.  2,  it  is 
enacted  that  no  person  bom  out  of  the  domi- 
nions of  the  crown  of  England,  unless  bom  of 
English  parenU,  even  though  naturalised  by 
parliament,  shall  be  capable  of  being  of  the 
privy  council.  The  duty  of  a  privy  counsellor 
appears  fiwn  the  oath  of  office,  which  consists 
of  seven  articles.  1.  Jo  advise  the  king  accord- 
ing to  the  best  of  his  cunning  and  discretion. 
2.  To  advise  for  the  king  s ,  honor  and  good  of 
the  public,  without  partiality,  through  affection, 
loTc,  meed,  doubt,  or  dread.  3.  To  keep  the 
king's  council  secret.  4.  To  avoid  corruption. 
5.  To  help  and  strengthen  the  execution  ot  what 
.  shall  be  there  resolved.  6.  To  withstand  all 
persons  who  would  attempt  the  contrary.  And, 
lastly,  in  general,  7.  To  observe,  keep,  and  do 
all  that  a  good  and  .true  counsellor  ought  to  do 
to  his  sovereign  lord.  The  privy  council  is  the 
primum  mobile  of  the  state,  and  that  which 
gives  the  motion  and  direction  to  all  the  inferior 
parts.  It  is  likewise  a  court  of  justice  of  great 
antiquity  :  the  primitive  and  ordinary  way  of 
government  m  England  being  by  the  king  and 
privy  council.  It  has  been  frequently  used  by 
all  our  kings  for  determining  controversies  of 
great  importance;  the  ordinary  judges  have 
sometimes  decliiied  giving  judgment,  tiU  they 
had  consulted  the  king  and  privy  council ;  and 
the  pariiament  have  nequently  referred  matters 
of  high  moment  to  the  same,  as  being>  by  long 
experience,  better  able  to  judge  of,  and  by  their 


secrasy  and  expedition  to  tnasaet  ^vant  iteto 
a&irsy  than  the  lords  and  oommons.  At  present 
the  privy  council  takes  cogniianc^  of  few  or  no 
matters  except  such  as  cannot  be  well  detemined 
by  the  known  laws  and  ordinaiv  oourts;  such  as 
matters  of  complaint  and  sudcleB  emergencies: 
their  constant  business  being  to  ooosult  for  the 
public  good  in  affiurs  of  state.  This  power  of 
the  privy  council  is  to  eocpiire  into  all  offences 
against  the  government,  and  to  commit  the 
offenders  to  wfe  custody,  in  order  to  take  their 
trial  in  some  of  the  courts  of  law.  But  their 
jurisdiction  herein  is  only  to  enquire,  and  not  to 
punish ;  and  the  persons  committed  by  them  are 
entitled  to  their  habeas  corpus  by  staL  16  Car.  I. 
c.  lOy  as  much  as  if  committed  by  an  ordinary 
justice  of  the  peace.  In  plantation  or  admiralty 
causes,  which  arise  out  of  the  jurisdiction  of 
this  kingdom,  and  in  matters  of  lunacy  and 
idiocy,  the  privy  oouncil  has  cognizance*  even  in 
questions  or  extensive  property,  being  the  court 
of  appeal  in  such  cases ;  or  lather  the  appeal 
lies  to  the  king's  mi^jesty  himself  in  counciL 
From  all  the  dominions  of  the  crown,  excepting 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  an  appellate  jurtsdio- 
tion  (in  the  last  resort)  is  v^ted  in  this  tribunal ; 
which  usually  exercises  its  judicial  audiority  in 
a  committee  of  the  whole  privy  council,  who 
hear  the  allegations  and  proois,  and  make  their 
report  to  his  majesty  in  council,  by  whom  the 
judgment  is  finally  given.  Anciently,  to  strike 
in  the  house  of  a  privy  counsellor,  or  elsewhere 
in  his  presence,  was  grievously  punished :  by  3 
Hen.  VII.  c.  14,  if  any  of  the  kmg's  servants  of 
his  household  conspire  or  imagine  to  take  away 
the  life  of  a  privy  counsellor,  it  is  felony,  &ough 
nothing  shall  be  done  upon  it ;  and  by  9  Ann. 
c.  16,  it  is  enacted  that  any  person  who  shall 
unlawfully  attempt  to  kill,  or  shall  unlawfully 
assault,  and  strike  or  wound  any  privy  counsellor 
in  the  execution  of  his  office,  shall  be  felons,  and 
suffer  death  as  such.  With  advice  of  this  coun- 
cil, the  king  issues  proclamations  that  bind  the 
subject,  provided  they  "be  not  contrary  to  law. 
In  debates,  the  lowest  delivers  his  opinion  first, 
the  king  last,  and  thereby  determines  the  matter. 
A  council  is  never  held  without  the  presence  of 
a  minister  of  state.  The  dissolution  of  the 
privy  council  depends  upon  the  king's  pleasure ; 
and  he  may,  whenever  he  thinks  proper,  dis- 
cbarge any  particular  member,  or  the  whole  of 
it,  and  appoint  another.  By  the  common  law 
also  it  was  dissolved  ipso  iacto  by  the  kings 
demise,  as  deriving  all  its  authority  from  him. 
But  now,  to  prevent  the  inconveniences  of 
having  no  council  in  being  at  the  accession  of  a 
new  prince,  it  is  enacted  by  6  Ana.  c.  7,  that  the 
privy  council  shall  continue  fi>r  six  months  after 
the  demise  of  the  crown,  unless  sooner  deter- 
mined by  the  successor.  Blackstone's  Com- 
mentaries, book.  i.  p.  220,  &c.  The  officers  of 
the  privy  council  are  four  c\etks  of  the  council 
in  ordinary,  three  clerks  extraordinary,  a  keeper 
of  the  records,  and  two  keepers  of  the  council 
chamber.    See  President. 

PaivY  CouNSELLOBy  a  monber  of  the  privy 
council. 

Privy  Seal,  a  seal  which  the  king  uses  pre- 
viously to  such  grants.  Ice,  as  arc  afterwards  to 
pass  the  great  s^     Tlie  privy  ^eal  is  also  some- 

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times  used  in  matters  of  less  consequence^  which 
do  not  require  the  great  seal. 
PRIZE,  s.  s.  &  o.  41.  -^     Fr.  prix ;  Teut.  preiss  ; 
Pri'zeb,  \1aU  prtt'aun.    Reward; 

Peue -FIGHTER.      J  something  gained  in  con- 
test or  adventure ;  value ;  price :  to  rate ;  value ; 
esteem:  priser  is  he  who  values:  prize^ghter, 
he  who  publicly  fights  for  hire  or  reward. 
A  goodly  price  that  I  was  jtrited  at  of  them. 

Zediariah  xi.  13. 
The  king  of  ScoU  she  did  send  to  France, 
To  fill  king  Edward's  fame  with  prisoner  kings, 
And  make  bis  chronicle  as  rich  with  prtu. 
As  is  the  ouzy  bottom  of  the  sea 
With  aanken  wreck.  Shalupear:  Heniy  V, 

Life  I  prixe  not  a  straw ;  but  for  mine  honour 
Which  I  would  free.  Shakspeare. 

It  holds  its  estimate  and  dignity, 
As  well  wherein  *tis  precious  of  itself. 
As  in  the  priser.         Id.  Trmlus  and  Cratida. 
Age,  that  all  men  overcomes,  has  made  his  prun 
on  thee.  Ofurpman. 

True  poets  empty  fame  and  praise  despise ; 
Fame  is  the  trumpet,  hut  your  smile  the  piw. 

Drydetu 
I  go  to  free  us  both  of  pain ; 
I  priui  your  person,  but  your  crown  disdain. 

In. 

The  raising  such  silly  competitions  among  the  ig- 
norant, proposing  prizes  for  such  useless  accomplish- 
Dents,  and  inspiring  them  with  such  absurd  ideas  of 
saperiority,  has  in  it  something  immoral  as  well  as 
nmcalooB.  Addiaon. 

He  acquitted  himself  like  a  valiant,  but  not  like  an 
honest  man ;  for  he  converted  the  prkes  to  his  own 
sse.  Arbutknot. 

Martin  and  Ciamhe  engaged  like  pria^ghten. 

Id.  and  Pope. 

Then  prostrate  fiaUs,  and  begs  with  ardent  mres 

Soon  to  obtain  and  long  possess  the  pns#.       Pope. 

Some  the  French  writers,  some  our  own  despise ; 

The  ancients  only,  or  the  modems  prtM.  Id. 

They  are  not  indeed  soflfered  to  dispute  with  us 
the  proud  prtsct  of  arts  and  sciences,  of  learning  and 
ekganoe,  in  which  I  have  much  suspicion  they  would 
often  prove  our  supeiionrs.  Law. 

So  strong  the  anl  to>  immortalize  htmseK 
Beats  in  tiM  breast  of  man,  that  e'en  a  few. 
Few  transient  years,  won  from  the*  abyss  abhorred 
Of  blank  oblivion,  seem  a  glorious  prne. 
And  even  to  a  clown.  Cowper, 

Prize  [prise,  French,  i.  e.  taken],  in  maritime 
ai&ira,  a  vessel  taken  at  sea  from  the  enemies  of 
a  state,  or  from  pirates ;  and  that  either  by  a 
nan  of  war,  or  privateer,  he ,  having  a  commis- 
sion for  that  purpose.  Vessels  are  loofted  on  as 
prizes  if  they  fight  under  any  other  standard  than 
that  of  the  state  from  which  they  have  tlieir  com- 
mission ;  if  they  have  no  charter  party,  invoice, 
or  bill  of  lading  aboard ;  if  laden  with  effects 
belonging  to  the  kins^'s  enemies,  or  with  contra- 
band goods.  In  ships  of  war  the  prizes  are  to 
be  divided  among  the  officers,  seamen,  &c.,  as 
bis  majesty  shall  appoint  by  proclamation ;  but, 
anoog  privateers,  the  division  is  according  to 
the  agreement  between  the  owners.  By  stat.  13 
Geo.  II.  c.  4,  judges  and  officers  filing  of  their 
dQty  in  respect  to  the  condemnation  of  prizes, 
forfeit  £500  with  full  costs  of  suit;  one  moiety 
to  the  king,  and  the  other  to  the  informer. 

PRO.  Lai.  pro.  For;  in  defence  of;  i)ro  and 
coo,  for /}ro  and  controy  for  and  against. 


Doctrinal  points  in  cotatreverev  had  been  agitated 
in  the  pulpits  with  more  warmth  than  had  osed  to 
be ;  and  thence  the  animosity  increased  in  books  pr& 
and  con.  Clarendon,' 

Matthew  met  Richard,  when 
Of  many  knotty  points  they  spoke, 
And  pro  and  eon  by  turns  they  took.  Prior. 
PROA,  flying,  in  navigation,  a  vessel  used  in 
the  South  Seas,  so  named  because,  with  a  brisk 
trade  wind,  it  sails  nearly  twenty  miles  an  hour. 
In  the  construction  of  the  proa,  the  head  and 
stem  are  exactly  alike,  but  the  sides  are  very 
different ;  the  side  intended  to  be  always  the  lee- 
side  being  flat;  and  the  windward  side  made 
rounding,  in  the  manner  of  other  vessels ;  and  to 
prevent  her  oversetting,  which  from  her  small 
breadth,  and  the  straight  run  of  her  leevrard 
side,  would  without  this  precaution  infallibly 
happen,  there  is  a  frame  laid  out  to  her  fVom 
windward,  to  the  end  of  which  is  fastened  a  log, 
feshioned  into  the  shape  of  a  small  boat,  and 
made  hollow.  The  weight  of  the  frame  is  in- 
tended to  balance  the  proa,  and  the  small  boat  is 
hy  its  buoyancy  (as  it  is  always  in  the  water)  to 
prevent  her  oversetting  to  windward ;  and  Ibis 
frame  is  usually  called  an  outrigger.  The  body 
of  the  vessel  is  made  of  two  pieces  joined  end- 
wise, and  sewed  together  with  bark,  for  there  is 
no  iron  used  about  her ;  she  Ls  about  two  inches 
thick  at  the  bottom,  which  at  the  gunwale  is 
reduced  to  less  than  one.  The  sail  is  made  of 
matting,  and  the  mast,  yard,  boom,  and  outrig- 
gers, are  all  made  of  bamboo. 

Their  rigging  consists  of  two  stays  that  set  up 
at  the  ends  of  the  prosi,  and  four  shrouds  that 
set  up  at  the  four  comers  of  the  frame.  The  sail 
is  shaped  like  a  settee<eail ;  and  the  lower  end 
of  the  yard  is  confined  forward  in  a  shoe-block, 
in  going  about  they  keep  her  way,  so  that  the 
stern  becomes  the  head ;  and,  to  shift  the  sail, 
the  yard  is  raised,  and  the  lower  end  taken  along 
the  gunwale,  and  fixed  in  a  shoe-block  as  before; 
the  boom  is  shifted  at  the  same,  by  slackening 
the  sheet,  and  peaking  the  boom  up  along  the 
mast ;  then,  by  hauling  upon  another  sheM,  the 
end  of  the  boom  is  brougnt  to  the  place  where 
the  lower  yard-arm  was  before,  and  is  hauled  aft 
at  the  other  end.  They  are  steered  by  paddles 
at  each  end. 

PROB'ABLE, adj.  j     Fr.  probabU ;  Lat.  pro- 
Probabil'ity,  n. I.  >6a&i/is.    Likely;  having 
Prob'ably,  eu/v.     3  more  evidence  than  the 
contrary :  the  noun  substantive  and  adve  b  cor- 
responding. 

As  fbi  profffbUHiM,  what  thing  was  there  ever  set 
down  so  agreeable  with  sound  reason,  but  some  proba- 
ble shew  against  it  might  be  made  T  Hooker. 

The  public  approbation,  given  by  the  body  of  this 
whole  cnurch  unto  those  things  which  are  established, 
doth  make  it  but  probable  that  they  ai«  good,  and 
therefore  unto  a  necessary  proof  that  they  are  not 
good  it  must  give  place.  Id. 

The  only  seasonable  inquiry  is,  which  is  of  pn*6a- 
bles  the  most,  or  of  improbables  the  least  such. 

Havfunond. 

The  reason  why  men  are  moved  to  believe  a  proba. 
biUt^f  of  gain  by  adventuring  their  stock  into  such 
foreiffu  countries  as  they  have  never  seen,  and  of 
whicn  they  have  made  no  trial,  is  from  the  testimony 
of  other  credible  persons,  TfifiUns. 


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PRO 

I  do  not  my  that  the  piincipies  of  teligion  are 
maerly  probdbU;  I  have  before  asserted  them  to  be 
morally  certain :  and  that  to  a  man  who  is  careful  to 
preserve  his  mind  free  from  prejudice,  and  to  con- 
sider, thev  will  appear  unquestionable,  and  the  de- 
ductions 6om  them  demonstrable.  Id, 

Though  morel  certainty  be  sometimes  taken  for  a 
high  denee  of  probahility,  which  can  only  prodace  a 
doubtful  assent  \  yet  it  is  also  frequently  used  for  a 
firm  assent  to  a  thing  upon  such  grounds  as  fully 
satisfy  a  prudent  man.  TiUot9m. 

If  you  like  not  my  poem,  the  fault  may  possibly 
be  in  my  writing;  but  more  probabijf  'tis  in  your 
morals,  which  cannot  bear  the  truth  of  it.   Dryden. 

Distinguish  betwixt  what  may  possibly,  and  what 
will  probabi^,  be  done.  'I/Estrange's  FabUi. 

ProbaHlUp  is  the  ajteearanoe  of  the  s^^reement  or 
disagreement  of  two  loeas,  by  the  intervention  of 
proofs,  whose  connection  is  not  constant ;  but  ap- 
pears for  the  most  part  to  be  so.  Lodte. 

If  a  truth  be  certain,  and  thwart  interest,  it  will 
luickly  fetch  it  down  to  but  a  probahiUty ;  nay,  if  it 
toes  not  carry  with  it  an  impregnable  evidence,  it 
will  go  near  to  debase  it  to  a  downright  falsiW. 

They  assented  to  things  that  were  neither  evident 
nor  certain,  but  only  probabU ;  for  they  conversed, 
they  meichandiied,  upon  a  probable  persuasion  of  the . 
honesty  and  truth  of  those  whom  they  corresponded 
with.  Id. 

Our  constitution  in  church  or  state  could  not 
pmhably  have  been  long  preserved  without  such 
methods.  Siot^. 

Which  tempers,  if  they  were  duly  improvea  by 
proper  studies,  and  sober  methods  of  education, 
would  in  all  probabitity  carry  them  to  greater  heights 
of  piety  than  are  to  be  found  amongst  the  generality 
of  men.  Zaio. 

PROBAT,  or  Phobate,  of  a  will  or  testament, 
in  lawy  is  the  exhibiting  and  proving  of  last  wills 
and  testaments  before  the  ecclesiastical  judge 
delegated  by  the  bishop,  who  is  ordinary  of  the 
place  where  the  party  died. 

PROBATION,  n.  I.N     Fr.  |ro6fl/i<m;    Lat 

Phoba'tiov AKYy  adj,  I  probatio,  from  Lat.  pro- 

Proba'tiover,  n. I.  S-bo.    Proof;  testimony; 

Proba'tionership,  i  act  or  time  of  proving, 

Prob' ATORY,  adj.      J  or  of  trial :  probationary 
and  probatory  mean  serving  for  trial :  probationer, 
one  who  is  on  his  trial;  hence,  a  novice:  proba- 
tionership,  his  state  or  time  of  trial;  noviciate. 
Of  the  truth  herein. 
This  present  object  made  probation. 

Skaktptare,  Handtt, 

In  the  practical  part  of  knowledge,  much  will  be 
left  to  experience  and  pnbatum,  whereunto  indication 
cannot  so  fully  reach.        Bacon's  Natural  History, 

This  root  of  bitterness  was  but  a  prebationtr  in  the 
soil ;  and,  though  it  set  forth  some  oflbets  to  preserve 
its  kind,  yet  Satan  was  fain  to  cherish  them. 

Docapo/Piet^. 

Job's  afflictions  were  no  vindicatory  punishments, 
but  probatory  chastisements  to  make  trial  of  his 
graces.  BramhaU. 

The  kinds  of  probation  for  several  things  being  as 
much  disproportbned  as  the  objects  of  the  several 
senses  are  to  one  another.  JVUkins, 

Hear  a  mortal  muse  thy  praise  rehearse. 

In  no  ignoble  verse ; 

But  such  as  thy  own  verse  did  practise  here, 
When  thy  first  fruits  of  poesy  were  given. 

To  make  thyself  a  welcome  inmate  there; 

While  yet  a^oung  probaHoner, , 
And  candidate  of  heaven.  Dryden. 


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When  these  principles,  what  is,  is,  and  it  is  im- 
possible for  the  same  thing  to  be  and  not  to  be,  are 
made  use  of  in  the  probation  of  propositions,  wherein 
are  words  standing  for  complex  ideas,  as  man  or 
horse,  there  they  make  men  receive  and  retain  fisdse- 
bood  for  manifest  truth.  Loefe. 

He  has  aflforded  us  only  the  twilight  of  probability^ 
suitable  to  that  state  of  mediocrity  and  probationer^ 
•hip  he  has  been  pleased  to  place  us  in  here,  wherein 
to  check  our  over-confidence.  Id, 

At  the  end  of  the  world,  wheb  the  state  of  our 
trial  and  probation  shall  be  finished,  it  will  be  a  pro- 
per season  for  the  distribution  of  publick  justice. 

NtU&n. 

I  sufiRer  many  things  as  an  author  militant,  whereof, 
in  your  days  oi  probation,  you  have  been  a  sharer. 

Popo  to  SiBi^i. 

Build  a  thousand  churches,  where  these  probatiwien 
may  read  their  wall  lectures.  Swi/t, 

Probation,  in  the  universities,  is  the  exami- 
nation and  trial  of  a  student  who  is  about  to  take 
his  degrees. 

Probation,  in  the  monastic  sense,  signifies 
the  year  of  a  noviciate,  which  a  religieux  must 
I>ass  in  a  convent  to  prove  his  virtue  and  voca- 
tion, and  whether  he  can  bear. the  severities  of 
the  rule. 

Probationer,  in  the  church  of  Scotland,  a 
student  in  divinity,  who,  bringing  a  certificate 
from  a  professor  in  a  university  of  his  good 
morals,  and  his  having  performed  his  exercises 
to  approbation,  is  admitted  to  undergo  several 
trials ;  and,  upon  his  acquitting  himii^lf  properly 
in  these,  receives  a  license  to  preach. 

PROBATUM  EST.  Lat.  probatum  est.  A 
phrase  added  to  the  end  of  a  receipt,  siguiiyiDg 
It  is  tried  or  proved. 

Vain  the  concern  that  you  express. 

That  uncalled  Alard  will  possess 
Your  bouse  and  coach  both  day  and  night. 

And  that  Macbeth  was  haunted  ksa 
Bv  Banquo's  restless  sprite  : 

Lend  him  but  fifty  louis  d'or. 

And  vou  shall  never  see  him  more ; 
Take  my  advice,  probation  e%t. 

Why  do  the  gods  indulge  our  store, 
But  to  secure  oi|r  rest) 

PROBE,  n.  I.     )     Lat.  proho.    A  slender 

Probe-scissors.  J  wire  by  'which  surgeons 
search  the  depth  of  wounds :  probe-scissors,  are 
scissors  attached  to  a  probe. 

A  round  white  stone  was  lodged,  which  was  so  fas- 
tened in  that  part,  that  the  physician  with  his  probe 
could  not  stir  it.  FelL 

He'd  raise  a  blush  where  secret  vice  he  found  ; 
And  tickle  while  he  gently  probod  the  wound. 

Dryden, 

Nothing  can  be  more  painful,  than  to  probe  anc* 
search  a  purulent  old  sore  to  the  bottom.       South, 
1  made  search  with  a  probe. 

Wi$eman*s  Surgery, 
The  sinus  was  snipt  up  with  probe-ecitmn. 

IrtJMUm. 

PROBTFY,  n.  #.  Fr.  probUi;  Lat  probitat 
Honesty;  sincerity;  veracity. 

The  truth  of  our  Lord's  ascension  might  be  de- 
duced from  the  probity  of  $he  apostles.  Fiddes, 
So  near  approach  we  their  celestial  kind. 

By  justice,  truth,  and  probity  of  mind.        Pope. 

PROB'LEM,n.f.  ^    French  proWcffic; 

Problehat  iCAL,  cKJf.      ^  Gr.  TpopKn^.    A 

Problem  AT  iCALLY,  adv.  )  question  proposed  i 


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pniblematlcal  is,  uncertain;  questionable^  the 
adverb  corresponding. 

The  proUan  is,  whether  a  man  constantly  and 
stnongiy  beliering  that  such  a  thiaz  shall  be,  it 
doth  help  any  thing  to  the  effecting  of  the  thing. 

Bacojim 

It  is  a  question  frotiematicai  and  dubious,  whe- 
ther the  obtenration  of  the  sabbath  was  imposed 
vpon  Adam,  and  his  posterity  in  paradise  ?    White. 

Deeming  that  abundantly  confirmed  to  advance  it 
above  a  dispnUble  yrobUm,  I  proceed  to  the  next 
proposition.  Hammond. 

Althovgh  in  general  one  understood  colours,  yet 
veie  it  not  an  easy  frobUm  to  resolve,  why  grass  is 
greenl  Sroume. 

I  promised  no  better  arguments  than  might  be  ex- 
pected in  a  point  jnrohUmatieal*  Boyle. 

This  proUtm  let  philosophers  resolve. 
What  makes  the  globe  from  West  to  East  revolve  V 

Blaekmore, 

Diligent  enquiries  into  remote  and  problomatieal 
guilt,  leave  a  gate  wide  open  to  the  whole  tribe  of 
ialbrmers.  fiv^. 

Pboblem,  in  geometry,  is  a  proposition, 
wherein  some  operation  or  construction  is  re- 
qtiired ;  as  to  divide  a  line  or  angle,  erect  or  let 
&11  perpendiculars,  &c.    See  Geohetry. 

Probleh,  in  logic,  is  a  proposition  that  neither 
appears  absolutely  true  nor  false ;  and  conse- 
quently may  be  asserted  either  in  the  affirmative 
or  negative. 

PROBOS'CIS,  n.  #.  Latin  probotds.  A 
snoot ;  particularly  the  trunk  of  an  elephant. 

The  elephant  wrouhed,  to  make  them  sport* 
His  Uthe  prvdwctf .  MOton. 

PROBUS  (Marcus  Aurelius),  from  the  son  of 
a  gardener,  became,  by  his  great  valor  as  i  sol- 
dier, and  his  eminent  virtues,  emperor  of  Rome, 
to  which  dignity  he  was  raised  by  the  army, 
After  having  subdued  the  barbarous  nations  that 
bad  made  incursions  into  different  parts  of  the 
empire,  and  governed  with  great  wisdom  and 
clemency,  he  was  massacred  in  the  seventh  year 
cf  his  reign,  by  some  soldiers  weary  of  the 
public  works  at  which  he  made  them  labor,  in 
282.    See  Rove. 

PROG  AS,  a  king  of  Alba,  one  of  the  descend- 
smts  of  JEneaSf  the  son  and  successor  of  Aven- 
tinus,  fiither  of  Amulius  and  Numitor,  and 
great-grand&ther  to  Romulus. 

PROGATARCTIGK,  adj.  Gr.  irpocoropie- 
nuf.    Forerunning ;  remotely  antecedent. 

PROCATAR'XiS,  it.  #.  An  antecedent  or 
preexisteot  caOse. 

The  physician  encpmes  into  the  freeataretieh 
casiei.  Hmveg. 

PncaUrxu  b  the  pre-exiatent  cause  of  a  disease, 
which  co-operales  with  othera  that  are  subsequent, 
whether  internal  or  external ;  as  an^  or  heat  of  cli- 
aute,  which  brings  such  an  ill  disposition  of  the 
jaicea,  as  occasions  a  fever :  the  ill  disposition  bdng 
the  immediate  cause,  and  the  bad  afr  the  proeataretick 
tnae.  Quiney. 

.  PROCEEiy,  v.  n.  &  n.  s.-j     Fr.    proceder  ; 

Peoceed'er,  n.  I.  .  fLat.  procedo.    To 

Pkoceed'ing,  i^pass    from     one 

Pkoce'dube.  ■  J  thing  or  place  to 

another;  advance;  go  forth  in  form  or  state; 
Bsoe;  be  propagated;  transact;  carry  on  an 
^^T  methodically ;  prosecute  a  legal  suit ;  take 
effect ;  have  its  course :  a  proceeder  b,  he  who 


proceeds  in  any  way ;  proceeding,  and  proced- 
ure, process;  issue;  transaction;  manner  of 
proceeding ;  course  of  conduct :  l^al  method  of 
process. 

I  pneeeded  forth  and  came  from  God;  neither 
came  I  of  myself,  but  he  sent  me.       Ji^n  viii.  42. 
Temperately  proemd  to  what  you  would 
Thus  violently  redress.       Shakspeare,  Coriolanw, 

A  dagger  of  the  mind,  a  false  creation 
Proeeeding  from  the  heat  oppressed  brain. 

Shakspeare. 
He  will  after  his  sour  fashion,  tell  you 
What  hath  proceeded  worthy  note  to-day.        Id. 

I'll  acquaint  our  duteous  citizens 
With  all  your  just  proceedings  in  this  case.      Id, 
No  known  substance*  but  earth  and  the  procedures 
of  earth,  as  tile  and  stone,  yieldeth  any  moss  or 
herby  substance.  Bacon. 

He  that  seeketh  victory  over  his  nature,  let  him  not 
set  himself  too  enaX  nor  too  small  tasks ;  for  the  fiist 
will  make  him  dejected  bv  often  failing ;  and  the  se- 
cond will  make  him  a  small  prpceeder,  &ough  by  often 
prevailings.  Id. 

Those  things,  when  they  proomd  not,  (hey  go  back- 
ward. Ben  Jomon*s  (^tUme, 
Adam 
Ptoeeeded  thus  to  ask  his  heavenly  guest. 

Milton. 
To  judgment  he  proceeded  on  the  accused.      Id. 

O  Adam,  one  Almighty  is,  from  whom 
All  things  proceed,  and  up  to  him  return.        Id. 
Although  the  distinction  of  these  several  procedures 
of  the  soul  do  not  always  appear  distinct,  especially 
in  sudden  actions,  yet  in  actiona  of  weight  all  these 
have  their  distinct  order  and  procedure. 

Hale'e  Oripn  of  Mankind. 
Instead  of  a  ahip  to  levy  upon  his  county  such  a 
sum  of  money  for  his  majesty  s  use,  with  direction  in 
what  manner  he  should  proceed  against  such  as  re- 
fused. Clarendon. 
Then  to  the  prelude  of  a  war  proceeds; 
His  horns,  yet  sore,  he  tries  against  a  tree. 

Ihyden. 
AU  this  proceeded  not  from  any  want  of  knowledge. 

id. 
I  shall  proceed  to  mors  complex  ideas. 

Loeke. 
The  understanding  brought  to  knowledge  by  de- 
grees, and  in  such  a  general  proceodmg,  nothing  is 
hard.  Id. 

Clear  the  justice  of  God's  proceedings,  it  seems  rea- 
sonable there  should  be  a  future  judgment  for  a  suit- 
able distribution  of  rewards  and  punishments. 

NeUm. 
This  is  the  true  promimre  of  conscience,  always 
supposing  a  law  from  God,  before  it  lays  obligation 
upon  man.  South, 

Since  husbandry  is  of  large  extent,  the  poet  singles 
out  such  precepts  to  proceed  on  as  are  capable  of  or- 
nament. Addison. 

This  rule  only  proceeds  and  takes  place,  when  a 
neraon  cannot  of  common  law  condemn  another  by 
hia  sentence.  AyUffe. 

It  is  a  ver|r  unusual  proceeding,  and  I  would  not 
have  been  guilty  of  it  for  the  world.       JrtnUhnot. 

How  severely  with  themselves  proceed. 
The  men  who  write  such  verse  as  who  can  read  t 
Their  own  strict  judges,  not  a  word  they  spare. 
That  wants  or  force,  or  light,  or  weight,  or  care. 

Pope. 
From  the  earliest  ages  of  Christianity  there  never 
was  a  precedent  of  such  a  proceeding.  Smfi. 

Parts  of  the  judicial  procedure,  which  were  at  first 
only  accidental,  become  in  time  essential.  Jchnstm. 


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A  chMk  and  Up— bat  wiiy  puMwd? 

I  toved  her  tben — I  love  her  ttill ; 
And  inch  as  I  am  lore  indeed 

In  fierce  extremes — in  good  and  ill.  Bifnm. 

PROCELEUSMATICUS,  in  the  ancient 
poetry,  a  foot  consisting  of  four  short  syllables, 
or  two  Pyrrhics,  as  hfimlnlbtts. 

PROCELLARIA,  in  ornithology,  a  genns  of 
birds,  belonging  to  the  order  of  anseres.  The 
beak  is  somewhat  compressed,  and  without  teeth ; 
the  mandibles  are  equal,  the  superior  one  being 
crooked  at  the  point ;  the  feet  are  palmated,  the 
hind  claw  being  sessile,  without  any  toe.  La- 
tham enumerates  twenty-four  species,  chiefly 
distinguished  by  their  colors.  The  most  remark- 
able are  the  following : — 

1.  P.  SDquinoctialis.  It  is  nearly  of  the  size 
of  a  raven ;  its  color  is  a  deep  sooty  brown  or 
blackish ;  on  the  chin  there  is  a  small  patch  of 
white  running  down  a  little  on  each  side  Arom 
the  lower  mandible :  the  beak  is  of  yellowish 
white. 

2.  P.  cinerea,  the  petrel.  The  siie  of  this 
bird  is  rather  superior  to  that  of  the  common 
gull :  the  bill  very  strong,  much  hooked  at  the 
end,  and  of  a  yellow  color.  The  nostrils  are 
composed  of  two  large  tubes,  lodged  in  one 
sheath ;  the  head,  necl^  whole  under  side  of  the 
body  and  tail  are  wh|te ;  the  back  and  coverts 
of  the  wings  ash-colored;  the  ouilUfeathers 
dusky ;  and  the  legs  yellowish.  In  lieu  of  a 
back  toe,  it  has  only  a  sort  of  spur,  or  sharp 
straight  nail.  These  birds  feed  on  the  fat  of  whales, 
&c.,  and  are  likewise  said  to  eat  sorrel,  to  qua- 
lify the  unctuous  diet  thev  live  on.  lliis  species 
inhabit  the  isle  of  St.  Kilda;  appear  there  in 
November,  and  continue  the  whole  year,  except 
September  and  October ;  lay  a  large,  white,  and 
very  brittle  egg ;  and  the  young  are  hatched  in 
the  ipiddle  of  June.  No  bird  is  of  such  use  to 
the  islanders  as  this;  it  supplies  them. with  oil 
for  their  lamps,  down  for  their  beds,  a  delicacy 
for  their  tables,  a  balm  for  their  wounds,  and  a 
medicine  for  their  distempers.  It  is  also  a  certain 
prognosticator  of  the  change  of  the  wind :  if  it 
comes  to  land,  no  west  wind  is  erpected  for 
some  time;  and  the  contrary  when  it  returns  and 
keeps  the  sea.  The  whole  genus  of  petrels  have 
a  peculiar  faculty  of  spouting  from  their  bills,  to 
a  considerable  distance,  a  large  quantity  of  pure 
oil ;  which  they  do  by  way  of  defence,  into  the 
face  of  any  one  that  attempts  to  take  them ;  so  that 
they  are,  for  the  sake  of  this  panacea,  seized  by 
surprise,  as  this  oil  has  been  applied  to  medicsd 
purposes.  Frederick  Martetis,  who  had  an  op- 
portunity of  seeing  vast  numbers  of  these  birds 
at  Spitzbergen,  says  they  are  very  bold,  and  re- 
sort after  the  whale  fishers  in  great  flocks ;  and 
that,  when  a  whale  is  taken,  they  light  on  it,  and 
pick  out  large  lumps  of  fat,  even  while  the  ani- 
mal is  alive ;  that  Uie  whales  are  often  discovered 
at  sea  by  the  multitudes  of  them  flying;  and 
that,  when  one  is  wounded,  they  immediately 
follow  its  bloody  track. 

3.  P.  pelagica,  the  stormy  petrel,  is  about  the 
bulk  of  the  house  swallow :  the  length  six  inches, 
the  extent  of  wings  thirteen.  The  whole  bmi  is 
black,  except  the  coverts  of  the  tail  and  vent-fea- 
thers, whicn  are  white ;  the  bill  is  hooked  at  the 


end;  the  nostrils  tubular;  the  legs  slender  and 
long.  It  has  the  same  faculty  of  spouting  oil 
from  its  bill  as  the  other  species.  Excepting  in 
breeding  tim^,  they  are  always  at  sea ;  and  are 
seen  all  over  the  vast  Atlantic  Ocean,  at  the 
greatest  distance  from  land ;  often  following  the 
vessels  in  great  flocks,  to  pick  up  any  thing  that 
falls  from  on  board.  They  presage  bad  weather, 
and  caution  the  seamen  of  the  a(>pn)ach  of  a 
tempest,  by  collecting  under  the  stem  of  the 
ships ;  they  brave  the  utmost  fory  of  the  storm, 
sometimes  skimming  with  incredible  velocity 
along  the  hollows  of  the  waves,  sometimes  on  the 
summits.  These  birds  are  the  cypselli  of  Pliny, 
which  he  places  among  the  apods  of  Aristotle ; 
not  because  they  wanted  feet,  but  were  1/iaxoiroBa, 
or  had  bad  or  useless  ones ;  an  attribute  he  gives 
to  these  species,  on  the  supposition  that  they  are 
almoat  alw^s  on  the  wing.  In  August,  1772, 
Pemumt'  found  lh«m  en  the  nodu  called  Macdo- 
nald's  Table,  off  the  north  end  of  the  isle  of  Skye ; 
and  conjectures  ^^  bieed  there.  They  luxked 
under  the  loose  stones,  but  their  twittering  noise 
.betrayed  them. 

4.  P.  pufiiBus,  the  shear-water,  is  fifteen  inches 
long,  and  thurty-one  broad ;  the  weight  seventeen 
ounces ;  the  bill  is  an  inch  and  three-qiiarters 
•long;  nostrils  tubular^  but  not  veiy  prominent ; 
the  head,  and  whole  upper  side  ot  the  body, 
wings,  taU,  and  tfiighs,  are  of  a  soo^  blackness ; 
the  under  side  from  chin  to  tail,  and  inner  coverts 
of  the  wings,  white ;  the  legs  weak,  and  com- 
pressed sidewise ;  dusky  behind,  whitish  before. 
These  birds  are  found  in  the  Calf  of  Man ;  and, 
■as  Mr.  Ray  supposes,  in  the  Sciliy  Isles.  They 
resort  to  Um  former  in  Febzuary ;  take  possession 
of  the  rabbit  burrows,  and  disappear  till  April. 
They  lay  one  egg,'  white  and  blunt  at  each  end; 
and  the  young  are  fit  to  be  taken  in  the  begin- 
ning of  August ;  when  great  numbers  axe  killed 
by  the  person  who  farms  the  isle ;  thev  are  aalted 
and  baneUed ;  and,  when  they  are  boiled,  an 
eaten  with  potatoes.  Duiing  the  day,  they  keep 
at  sea  fishing ;  and  toward  evening  return  to  their 
young ;  jwfaom  they  foed,  by  discharging  the  con- 
tents of  their  stomachs  into  their  mouths,  which 
by  that  time  is  turned  into  oil.  They  quit  the 
isle  about  the  end  of  August;  and  are  dispersed 
over  die  Atlantic.  This  species  inhabits  also  the 
Orimey  Isles,  where  it  makes  its  nest  in  holes  on 
tiie  earth  near  the  shelves  of  the  rocks  and  head- 
lands ;  it  is  called  there  the  lyie;  and  is  much 
valued  both  as  food,  and  for  its  feathers.  The 
inhabitants  salt  them  in  August  for  winter  nrovi- 
sions.  They  also  take  the  old  ones  in  March ; 
but  they  ar^  then  poor,  and  not  so  well  tasted  as 
the  young :  they  nrst  appear  in  those  islands  in 
Februaiy. 

PROCEPTION,  n.  i.  Lat  pro  and  capio. 
Preoccupation ;  act  of  taking  something  sooner 
than  another.    A  word  not  in  use. 

Having  so  little  power  to  ofiend  others  that  I  have 
none  to  preserve  what  is  mine  dwft  f^m  Aeir  proeep- 
tkm,  King  CharUa, 

PROCERITY,  n,f.  Lat  proccrw.  Tallness; 
height  of  stature. 

We  shall  make  attempts  to  lengthen  out  the  hu- 
man figure,  and  restore  it  to  its  ancient  procerity. 

Addiim. 


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When  he  met  a  tall  woman  he  immediatdy  com- 
Buded  one  of  his  Titanian  Tetiaue  to  marry  her, 
that  he  might  proj^ajgate  proetritff,  and  produce  heirs 
to  the  Other's  oabUiments.  Johnvnu 

Mr.  Higgins  savs  he  has  observed  that  procerity 
b  much  promoted  by  the  equal  leneth  of  the  legs, 
more  especially  when  they  are  long  fegs.    Conning. 

PROCESS,  A.  s,  Fr.  ftrocet ;  Lat.  processus. 
Teodeocy ;  progressive  course ;  progress ;  flux ; 
method!^  arrao^ment  or  management;  legal 
course  or  proceeding. 

That  there  is  somewhat  hieher  than  either  of  these 
tvo,  DO  other  proof  doth  need,  than  the  very  proeeu 
of  man's  desire,  which  being  natural  should  be  frus- 
trate, if  there  were  not  some  farther  thing  wherein  it 
might  rest  at  the  length  contented,  which  in  the 
hnuet  it  cannot  do.  Hooker, 

They  declared  unto  him  the  whole  prooett  of  that 
war,  sad  with  what  snooess  they  had  endured. 

JCnoUst. 
Comssend  me  to  your  honourable  wife ; 

Tell  her  the  proeeit  of  Antonio's  end  ; 

Say  how  I  lov'd  yon ;  speak  me  fair  in  death. 

ominipeafv. 


Proceed  by  wocett. 
Lest  partieSp  as  he  is  beloved,  break  out. 


Id. 


All  ^neesaet  ecclesiastical  should  be  made  in  the 
ting's  name,  as  in  writs  at  the  common  law. 

Htiywmrd. 
Tmniediate  are  the  acts  of  God,  more  swift 
Than  time  or  motion ;  but  to  human  ears 
Cannot  without  proeeu  of  speech  be  told. 

Milton* 
Many  acts  of  parliament  have,  in  long  proeeu  of 
tuse,  been  lost,  luid  the  things  forgotten.        Hale. 

Eiperiments.  familiar  to  chymists,  are  unknown 
to  the  leained  who  never  read  chymical  proeeuee, 

Boyle, 
That  a  suit  of  law,  and  all  judicial  prooeut  is  not 
is  ittelf  a  sin,  appears  from  courts  being  erected  by 
coQient  in  the  apostle*s  days,  for  the  management  and 
conduct  of  tiiem.  Kettleivell, 

Satunian  Juno 
Attends  the  fatal  proceis  of  the  war.    Dryden, 
The  proofSi  of  that  great  day,  with  several  of  the 
particular  ciicomstanoes  of  it,  are  fully  deicribed  by 
<m  Saviour.  Nelton. 

An  age  they  live  released 
Fmrn  ail  the  labour,  proeeu^  clamour,  woe. 
Which  our  sad  scenes  of  daily  sction  know. 

Prior, 
la  the  parable  of  the  waateful  steward,  we  have  a 
My  ima^  of  the  force  and  proeeu  of  this  tempta- 
tion. Rogen, 
The  patricians  they  chose  for  their  patrons,  to  an- 
swer for  their  appearance,  and  defend  them  in  any 

PROCESSION,  n,  #.  •)     French  procession ; 
Pboces'sional,  (U^*.      >  Lat.  procestio.      Pro- 
Pkoces'sionary.         Jgress;  a  train  march- 
ing in  ceremonious  solemnity :  the  adjective  cor- 


^  there  be  canse  for  the  church  to  go  forth  in 
oia  praenaon,  his  whole  family  have  such  busi- 
ne«  eoaae  upon  them  that  no  one  can  be  spared. 

Hooker. 
legations  or  litanies  were  then  the  very  strength 
•od  oonCofft  of  God's  church,  whereupon,  in  the 
r^  506,  it  was  by  the  council  of  Aurelia  decreed, 
^  the  whole  church  should  bestow  yearly,  at  the 
"ttt  of  Pentecost,  three  days  in  that  prooeeeianary 
•▼ice.  Jd. 

Him  all  his  train 
Followed  in  bright  prooemon.         MUum. 
Vol.  XVlIT. 


The  priests,  Pontitius  at  their  head, 
In  skina  of  beasts  involved,  the  long  proceuion  led. 

Dr^fden. 

When  this  vast  congregation  was  formed  into  a 
regular  proeessiont  to  attend  the  ark  of  the  covenant, 
the  king  marched  at  the  head  of  his  people,  with 
hymns  and  dances.  Addison, 

The  Ethiopians  held  an  annual  sacrifice  of  twelve 
days 'to  the  gods;  all  that  time  they  carried  their 
images  in  proocinon,  and  placed  them  at  their  fes- 
tivals. Brootue. 

Process  in  law.    See  Law. 

PROCHEIN  Amy,  in  law,  the  person  next 
akin  to  a  child  in  non-age,  and  who,  in  that  re- 
spect, is  allowed  to  act  for  him,  and  be  his  guar- 
dian, &c.,  if  he  hold  land  in  soccage.  To  sue, 
an  in^t  is  not  allowed  to  make  an  attorney : 
but  the  court  will  admit  his  next  friend  as  plain- 
tiff, or  his  euardian  as  defendant. 

PROCIDA,  an  island,  with  a  sea-port  of  the 
same  name,  on  the  coast  of  Naples,  between  the 
island  of  Ischia  and  the  promontory  of  Misenum. 
Though  containing  only  seven  square  miles,  the 
popuSition  of  this  island  exceeds  12,000,  of 
whom  a  large  proportion  lives  in  the  chief  town, 
carrying  on  a  brisk  trade.  Others  derive  their 
support  from  fisliing,  and  a  few  from  rearing 
vines  and  silk.  Game  is  uncommonly  abundant 
here.  This  inland  was  taken  by  the  English  in 
1809,  but  soon  after  evacuated.  It  is  twenty-two 
miles  west  of  Naples. 

PROCINCT',  n.s.  Lat.  procinctus.  Com- 
plete preparation;  preparation  to  the  point  of 
Lction. 

When  all  the  plain 

Covered  with  thick  imbattled  squadrons  bright, 

Chariots,  and  flaming  arms,  and  fier^  steeds. 

Reflecting  blaze  on  blaze,  first  met  lu:i  view. 

War  he  perceived,  war  in  procinct,  Milton. 

PROCKIA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  mono  • 
gynia  order,  and  polyandria  class  of  plants ;  na- 
tural order  doubtful :  cal.  triphyllous,  besides 
two  leafets  at  the  base :  cor.  berry  quinqu^angu- 
lar,  and  jpolyspermous. 

PROCLAIM',  t;.  a.  J     Tt.  prockmer  ;    Lat 

Proclai'her,  n,  s.  S  proclamo.     To  promul- 

Proclama'tion.  igate  or  denounce  so- 
lemnly :  openly  tell ;  outlaw :  proclamation  is 
publication  by  authority;  declaration  of  the 
King's  will  openly  published. 

When  thou  comest  nigh  unto  a  city  to  fight 
against  it,  proclaim  peace  unto  it.        Deut,  xx.  10. 

I  proclaim  a  liberty  for  you,  saith  the  Lord,  to  the 
sword  and  to  the  pestilence.  Jer,  xxxiv.  17. 

I  heard  myself  proclaimed,  Skakspeare. 

If  the  king  sent  a  proclamation  for  their  repair  to 
their  houses,  some  nobleman  published  a  protestation 
against  those  prodamationt.  >  Clarendon, 

Heralds, 
With  trumpet's  sound,  throughout  the  host  proclaim 
A  solemn  council.  Milton. 

The  great  pradaMMT,  with  a  voice 
More  awful  than  the  sound  of  trumpet,  ciyed 
Repentance,  and  heaven's  kingdom  nigh  at  hand 
To  all  baptised.  Id.  Paradiu  Regained, 

She  to  the  palace  led  her  guest. 

Then  o^red  mcense,  and  pntdaimed  a  feast. 

Dryden, 

Some  profligate'wretches,  were  the  apprehensions 
of  punishments  of  shame  taken  away,  would  as 
openly  proclaim  their  atheism  as  their  lives  do. 

Locke. 

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While  the  deathless  muae 
Shall  sing  the  just,  shall  o*er  their  head  diffuse 
Perfumes  with  lavish  hand,  she  shall  proclaim 
Thy  crimes  alone.  Prior, 

Then  view  him  seU-proclaimed  in  a  gazette 
Chief  monster  that  has  plagued  the  nations  yet : 
The  globe  and  sceptre  in  such  hands  misplaced, 
Those  ensigns  of  dominion  how  disgracea! 

Cowper.. 
Proclamations  are  a  branch  of  the  king*s 
prerogative  (see  Prerogative)  ;  and  have  then 
a  binding  force,  '  when/  as  Sir  Edward  Coke 
observes,  *  they  are  grounded  upon  and  enforce 
the  laws  of  the  realm.  For,  though  the  making 
of  laws  is  entirely  the  work  of  a  distinct  part,  the 
legislative  branch  of  the  sovereign  power,  yet  the 
manner,  time,  and  circumstances  or  putting  those 
laws  into  execution,  must  frequently  be  left  to 
the  discretion  of  the  executive  magistrate.  And 
therefore  his  constitutions  or  edicts,  concerning 
those  points  which  we  call  proclamations,  are 
binding  upon  the  subject,  where  they  do  not 
either  contradict  the  old  laws,  or  tend  to  establish 
new  ones,  but  only  enforce  the  execution  of  such 
laws  as  are  already  in  being,  in  such  manner  as 
the  king  shall  judge  necessary.' 

PROCLES,  a  king  of  Sparta,  the  son  of  Aris- 
todemus  and  Argia,  and  the  twin  brother  of  Eu- 
lyslhenes,  who  reigned  jointly  with  him,  and 
gave  rise  to  the  two  royal  families  of  Proclidae 
and  Eurysthenidae,  who  governed  Sparta  for  se- 
veral centuries,  exhibiting  the  singular  political 
phenomena  of  a  binarchy,  or  two  hereditary 
kinffs  governing  with  equal,  but  limited  power. 

pRocLES,  the  son  of  Eucrates,  a  Carthaginian 
historian,  who  wrote  some  historical  treatises, 
which  are  lost,  except  a  few  fragments  preserved 
in  the  works  of  Pausanias. — Pans.  iv.  c.  35. 

PROCLIVITY,  n.  s.  Lat.  proclivitas,  pro- 
clivi$.  Tendency :  natural  inclination  ;'  propen- 
sion. 

He  had  such  a  dextrous  proclivity  as  his  teachers 
were  fain  to  restrain  his  forwardness,  that  his  bro- 
thers might  keep  pace  with  hi|n.  Wottot^. 

The  sensitive  appetite  may  engender  u^pnclimty  to 
steal,  but  not  a  necessity  to  steal.  Bramhall, 

PROCLUS,  sumamed  Diadocus,  a  Greek 
philosopher  and  mathematician,  was  born  at  Ly- 
sia,  and  lived  about  the  year  500.  He  was  the 
disciple  of  Syrianus.  It  is  said  that,  when  Vita- 
lian  laid  siege  to  Constantinople,  Proclus  burnt 
his  ships  with  large  brazen  specula.  This  philo- 
sopher was  a  Pagan,  and  wrote  against  the 
Christian  religion.  There  are  still  extant  his 
Commentaries  on  some  of  Plato*s  books,  and 
others  of  his  works  written  in  Greek. 

PROCON'SUL,  n.  s.  Latin  proamnd,  A 
Roman  officer  who  governed  a  province  with 
consular  authority. 

Every  child  knoweth  how  dear  the  works  of  Homer 
were  to  Alexander,  Virgil  to  Augustus,  Ansonius  to 
Gratian,  who  made  him  proconnU,  Chaucer  to  Richard 
IL,  and  Gower  to  Henry  IV.  Peacham. 

Proconsuls  were  appointed  out  of  the  body 
of  the  senate ;  and  usually  as  the  year  of  any 
one's  consulate  expired,  he  was  sent  proconsul 
into  some  province.  Tlie  proconsuls  decided 
cases  of  equity  and  justice,  either  privately  in 
thair  pretorium  or  palace,  where  they  received 
petitions,  heard  complaints,  granted  writs  under 


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their  seal,  and  the  like;  or  else  publicly  in  the 
common  hall,  with  the  usual  formalities  observed 
in  the  court  of  judicature  at  Rome.  They  had 
besides,  by  virtue  of  their  edicts,  the  power  of 
ordering  all  things  relating  to  the  tribunes,  taxes, 
contributions,  and  provisions  of  corn  and  money, 
&c.  Their  office  lasted  only  a  year.  See  Con- 
sul. 

PROCOPIUS,  a  celebrated  Greek  historian, 
born  in  Ciesarea,  who  acquired  great  reputation 
by  his  works  in  the  reien  of  Justinian,  and  was 
secretary  to  Belisarius  during  all  the  wars  carried 
on  by  that  general,  in  Persia,  Africa,  and  Italy. 
He  at  length  became  senator,  obtained  the  title 
of  illustrious,  and  was  made  prstor  of  Constan- 
tinople. 

PROCRASTINATE,  v.  a.  &  n. ».  J        Latin 

Procrastina'tion,  n.  #.  J  procrasii- 

nor.  To  defer;  delay;  be  dilatory:  the  noun 
substantive  corresponds. 

Hopeless  and  helpless  doth  £geon  wind. 

But  to  procrastinate  his  lifeless  end.     Shakfteore. 

Let  men  seriously  and  attentively  listen  to  that 
voice  within  them,  and  they  will  certainly  need  no 
other  medium  to  convince  them,  either  of  the  error 
or  danger  of  thus  proerattinating  their  repentance. 

Daaiy  of  Pietp. 

How  desperate  the  hazard  of  such  proerattinaiion 
is,  hath  been  convincingly  demonstrated  by  better 
pens.  Id. 

Set  out  early  and  resolutely  without  procnstinaiing 
or  looking  back.  Hammond, 

I  proenutinate  more  than  I  did  twenty  years  ago. 
and  have  several  things  to  finish,  which  I  put  off  to 
twenW  years  hence.  Swift  to  Pope, 

Procrastination  is  the  thief  of  time, 

Year  after  year  it  steals,  till  all  are  ffed. 

And  to  the  mercies  of  a  moment  leaves 

The  vast  concerns  of  an  eternal  scene,      yotutg. 

PROCREATE, «>.a.>v     Fr.  procreer;    Lat. 


Pru'cbeant,  adj, 
Procrea'tion,  n.  s. 
Procrea'tive,  adj, 
Procrea'tiveness. 


SprocreOf  procreans.  To 
generate ;    produce : 
procreant  and  procrea- 
tive  mean  producing; 


pregnant:  procreation  and  procreativeness  cor- 
responding. 

The  temple-haunting  martlet  does  approve. 
By  his  loved  mansionry,  that  heaven's  oreath 
Smells  wooingly  heie :  no  jutting  frieze, 
But  this  bird 

Hath  made  his  pendant  Ixd,  and  procreant  cradle. 

Shakspeart, 

I1ie  inclosed  warmth,  which  the  earth  hath  stirred 
up  by  the  heat  of  the  sun,  assisteth  nature  in  the 
speemer  proerwtion  of  those  varieties  which  the  earth 
brineeth  forth.  Raleigh, 

These  have  the  accurst  privilege  of  propagating 
and  not  expiring,  and  have  reconciled  the  procreathe- 
nes$  of  corporal,  with  the  duration  of  incorporeal 
substances.  Deoag  of  Pieti/. 

Neither  her  outside  formed  so  fair,  nor  aaght 

In  procreation  common  to  all  kinds.  Milton, 

The  ordinary  period  of  the  human  proereative  fa- 
culty in  males  is  sixty-five,  in  females  forty-five. 

Hale, 

Uncleanness  is  an  unlawful  gratification  of  the  ap- 
petite of  procreation*  South, 
Since  the  earth  retains  her  fruitful  power, 

To  procreate  plants  the  forest  to  restore ; 

Say,  why  to  nobler  animals  alone 

Should  she  be  feeble,  and  unfruitful  grown  1 

Btackmort. 


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Fliet  cntthed  and  corrupt^,  when  inclosed  in 
nch  veueis,  did  never  procreate  a  new  fly. 

BemtUy. 

PROCRIS9  a  daughter  of  Fandion,  or,  ac- 
cording to  others,  of  Erechtheus,  king  of  Athens, 
and  wtfe  of  Cephalus.    See  Cephalus. 

PROCRUSTES,  in  fabulous  history,  a  fa- 
mous robber  of  Attica,  who  was  killed  b^  The- 
seus, near  the  Cephisus.  He  \ised  to  tie  tra- 
vellers upon  a  bed  ;  and,  if  their  length  exceeded 
that  of  his  bed,  he  cut  off  their  feet  and  as  much 
of  their  legs  as  exceeded;  but  if  they  were 
shorter,  he  racked  and  stretched  them  till  their 
length  was  equal  to  his  own : — an  emphatic  em- 
blem of  bigotry.  He  is  called  by  some  Da- 
aaastes. 

PROCTOR,  n.  «.  Contracted  of  Lat.  pro- 
aavior.  A  manager  of  another  man's  affidrs: 
ad  ecclesiastical  and  university  officer. 

The  most  clamorous  for  this  pretended  reforma- 
tioa  are  either  atheists,  or  else  proetore  suborned  by 
atheists.  Hooker, 

I  cannot  proctor  mine  own  cause  so  w6ll 
To  make  it  clear. 

Skakspeare.  Antony  and  Cleopatra. 
From  a  scholar  he  became  a  fellow,  and  the  pre- 
udent  of  the  college,  after  he  had  received  all  the 
graces  and  degrees,  the  proetorttup  and  the  doctor- 
ship.  Clarendon. 
The  proetor  sent  his  servitor  to  call  him.  Walter. 
I  find  him  charging  the  inconveniences  in  the 
ptymeot  of  tythes  upon  the  clergy  and  procton. 

Swift.  * 
PROCULEIUS,  a  Roman  knight,  who  was 
very  intimate  with  Augustus.  He  is  justly  famed 
for  his  fraternal  affection  to  his  brothers,  Mu- 
rxna  and  Scipio,  with  whom  he  divided,  his  pos- 
sessions, after  they  had  forfeited  their  estates, 
and  offended  Augustus,  by  joining  with  Pompey 
the  younger.  He  was  sent  by  Augustus  to  queen 
Cleonatra,  to  persuade  her  to  surrender  to  him, 
but  failed. 


PROCURE',©,  a.  &».n.^ 
Procu'bable,  adj. 
Peocu'racy,  n.  f . 
Procura'tion, 
Procura'tob, 
Pbocurato'rial,  ad) 
Procure'mekt,  fl.  s. 
Procu'rer, 
Procu'ress. 


Fr.   procurer ; 
Lat.  procuro.     To 
manage ;    transact 
for  anodier  ;    ob- 

>•  tain ;    forward ; 
contrive ;  persuade; 
prevail    on ;    to 
pimp  :  procurable 

I  is  obtainable;    to 


be  acquired :  procuracy  and  procuration,  man- 
agement or  transaction  of  a  thing,  particularly 
for  another :  procurator,  he  who  so  manages  or 
transacts  affairs :  procuratorial,  made  by,  or  per- 
taming  to  a  proctor :  procurement  is  the  act  of 
procuring:  procurer, one  who  gains;  obtains,  (tr 
acquires,  particularly  for  others;  a  pander:  pro^ 
coress,  a  oawd. 

They  shall  fiear  and  tremble,  for  all  the  prosperity 
tbat  I  proewre  unto  it.  Jereniah  xzxiii.  9. 

I  had  in  diarge  at  my  depart  from  France, 
As  proeuTotor  for  your  exccUence, 
To  many  princess  Marg'ret  for  your  grace. 

Shaktpeare. 
Is  it  my  lady  mother  ? 
What  oaaccnstomed  cause  procum  her  hither  1  Id. 

Proceed,  Salinns,  to  procure  my  fall, 
And  by  the  doom  of  death  end  woes  and  all.  Id. 


Whom  nothing  can  procure, 
When  the  wide  world  runs  bias,  from  his  will 
To  writhe  his  limbs,  and  share,  not  mend  the  ill. 

Herbert. 
They  confirm  and  seal  • 
Their  undertaking  with  their  dearest  blood. 
As  procurotori  for  the  commonweal.  Danid. 

Happy,  though  but  ill. 
If  we  procure  not  to  ourselves  more  woe.  Milton. 
Angling  was,  after  tedious  study,  a  moderator 
of  passions,  and  a  proevarer  of  contentedness. 

Walton. 
Though  it  he  a  far  more  conunon  and  procurable 
liquor  than  the  yifusion  of  lignum  nephriticum,  it 
may  yet  be  easily  substituted  in  its  room.       Bosfle. 
We  no  other  pains  endure. 
Than  those  that  we  ourselves  procure.  Dryden. 

Our  author  calls  colouring,  lena  sororis,  in  plain 
English,  the  bawd  of  her  sister,  the  design  or  draw- 
ing :  she  clothes,  she  dresses  her  up,  she  paints  her, 
she  makes  her  appear  more  lovely  than  naturally  she 
is,  she  proettfiM  for  the  deugn,  and  makes  lovers  for 
her.  Id. 

With  what  impatience  must  the  muse  behold 

The  wife  by  her  procuring  husband  sold  ?        Id. 
They  mourn  your  ruin  as  ,their  proper  fate, 

Cursing  the  empress ;  for  they  think  it  done 

By  her  procurement.  Id.  Aurengzebe. 

i  saw  the  most  artful  procmtn  in  tcfwn  seducing  a 
young  girl.  Spectator. 

Strumpets  in  their  youth  turn  procurer^  in  their 
age.  South. 

All  pTocunUorial  exceptions  ought  to  be  made  be- 
fore contestation  of  suit,  and  not  literwards,  as  bein^ 
dilatory  exceptions,  if  a  proctor  was  then  made  and 
constituted.  Ayliffe. 

Those,  who  formerly  were  doubtful  in  this  matter, 
upon  strict  and  repeated  inspection  of  these  bodies, 
and  procuration  of  plain  shells  from  this  island,  are 
now  convinced  that  these  are  the  remains  of  sea- 
animals.  Woodumrd's  I^atural  HUtory. 

PRO  C YON,  in  ancient  astronomy,  a  star  near 
the  dog-star,  before  which  it  generally  rises  in 
July.  Cicero  calls  it  Anticanis,  which  signifies 
the  same  with  irpoKvov. 

PRODANO  (the  ancient  Prote),  a  small  island 
of  Greece,  on  the  west  coast  of  the  Morea,  dud 
separated  from  it  only  by  a  narrow  channel.  It 
forms  a  small  but  secure  bay,  sixteen  miles  north 
by  west  of  Navarin.    Lat.  37°  10'  N. 

PRODICUS,  a  celebrated  sophist  and  rheto- 
rician of  Cos,  who  flourished  about  A.  A.  C 
396.  He  was  sent  ambassador  by  the  Coans  to 
Athens,  where  he  taught  publicly,  and  had  among 
his  pupils  Socrates,  Euripides,  Theramenes,  and 
Isocrates.  He  travelled  through  most  towns  of 
Greece,  and  made  his  auditors  pay  to  hear  his 
lectures.  His  writings  were  numerous;  and 
among  them  was  the  well  known  beautiful  epi- 
sode of  Hercules's  Choice,  when  addressed  by 
Pleasure  and  Virtue,  when  the  hero  became  the 
votary  of  the  latter  goddess.  Prodicus  expe- 
rienced the  fete  of  his  excellent  pupil,  Socrates, 
being  at  last  put  to  death  by  the  Athenians,  on 
pretence  that  he  corrupted  the  monds  of  their 
youth.  Xenoph.  Mem. 

PROP'IGAL,  a<^'.  ^       Fr.   prodigut;    Lat. 

Prodigal'ity,  n.  9.  >  prodigia.       Profuse ; 

Prod'igally,  adv.  J  waste%il ;    expensive; 
lavish ;  with  of  before  the  object,  and  the  noon 
substantive  and  adverb  corresponding. 

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Be  now  as  prodigal  of  all  dear  grace, 
Ai  nature  was  in  making  graces  dear. 
When  she  did  Starve  the  general  world  beside. 
And  prpdigaUy  gave  them  all  to  you.  Shahpeare, 
A  sweeter  and  lovelier  gentJeman, 
Framed  in  the  prodigality  of  nature. 
The  spacious  world  cannot  again  afford.      Id. 
Diogenes  did  beg  more  of  a  prodtgal  man  than  the 
rest ;  whereupon  one  said,  see  your  baseness,  that 
when  you  find  a  liberal  mind,  you  will  take  most  of 
him ;  no,  said  Diogenes,  but  I  mean  to  beg  of  the- 
rest  again.  Bacon. 

Lest  I  should  seem  over  prodigal  in  the  praise  of 
my  countrymen,  I  will  only  present  you  with  some 
few  verses.  Camden. 

We  are  not  yet  so  wretched  in  our  fortunes, 
Nor  in  our  wills  so  lost,  as  to  abandon 
A  friendship  prodigally,  of  that  price 
As  is  the  senate  and  the  people  of  Rome. 

Bm  Jonson, 
A  begg^ar  grows  rich,  becomes  a  prodigal ;    for  to 
obscure  his  former  obscurity,  he  puts  on  riot  andex^ 
cess.  Id. 

Lucian  has  well  described  the  fate  of  prodigaU  in 
his  picture  of  Opulentia,  whose  residence  he  repre- 
sents to  be  on  a  lofty  mountain,  the  summit  of  which 
her  fond  votaries  are  eagerly  endeavouring  to  reach. 

Burton. 
I  cannot  well  be  thought  so  prodigaily  thirsty  of 
my  subject's  blood  as  to  venture  my  own  life. 

King  Charki. 
As  a  hero,  whom  his  bas^r  foes 
In  troops  surround  ;  now  these  assail*  now  those. 
Though  prodigal  of  life,  disdains  to  (Ue 
By  common  bands.  Denham. 

He  that  decries  covetousness,  should  not  be  held 
an  adversaiy  to  him  that  opposeth  prodigality. 

Oianville, 
The  prodigal  of  soul  rushed  on  the  stroke 
Of  lifted  weapons,  and  did  wounds  provoke. 

Dryden. 
Let  the  wasteful  prodigal  be  sliun.  Id. 

The  most  severe  censor  cannot  but  be  pleased 
with  the  prodigality  of  his  wit,  though  at  the  same 
time  he  could  have  wished,  that  the  master  of  it  had 
been  a  better  manager.  Id. 

Nature  not  bounteous  now,  but  lavish  grows. 
Our  paths  with  flow'rs  she  prodigally  strows. 

Id. 
O!  beware, 
Great  warrior,  nor,  too  prodigal  of  life. 
Expose  the  British  safety.  PhiUp$. 

It  is  not  always  so  obvious  to  distinguish  be- 
tween an  act  of  liberality  and  act  of  prodigality. 

South, 
PRODIG'IOUS,  flij;.  -J       Fr.  prodigieux ; 
Prodig'iously,  adv.     I   Lat.     prwUgiotm. 
Prodig'iousness,  n. <.  |  Amazing;    astonish- 
Prod'igy.  }   ing;    portentous; 

enonnous ;    monstrous :   the  advero  and  noun 
substantive  corresponding :  prodigy  is,  any  thing 
out  of  the  ordinary  process  of  nature ;  portent. 
Be  no  more  an  exhaled  meteor, 
A  prodigu  of  fear,  and  a  portent 
Of  broached  mischief  to  the  unborn  times. 

Shakspeart, 
If  e'er  he  have  a  child,  abortive  be  it, 
Prodigiout  and  untimely  brought  to  light !    Id. 
An  emission  of   immateriate  virtues  we  are  a 
little  doubtful  to  propound,  it  being  so  prodigious; 
but  that  it  is  constantly  avouched  by  many.  &tcon. 

Most  of  mankind,  through  their  own  sluggish- 
ness, become  nature's  prodigitt,  not  her  children. 

BenJanson, 


It  is  prodigious  to  h^ve  thunder  in  a  clear  sky. 

BrownBu 
Then  ent'ring  at  the  gate. 
Concealed  in  clouds,  prodigious  to  relate. 
He  mixed,  unmarked,  amongst  the  busy  throng. 

Dryden, 
I  do  not  mean  absolutely  according  to  philoso- 
phic exactness  infinite,  but  only  infinite  or  innume- 
rable as  to  us,  or  their  number  prodigioudy  great. 

Ray  on  the  Creatum. 
They  would  seem  prodigies  of  learning. 

Spectator. 
The  party  opposite  to  our  settlement  seem  to  be 
driven  out  of  all  human  methods,  and  are  reduced 
to  the  poor  comfort  of  prodigies  and  old  woman's 
fables.  -  Addison. 

The  Rhone  enters  the  lake,  and  brings  along  with 
it  a  prodigious  quantity  of  water.  Id. 

I  am  prodigiaudy  pleased  with  this  joint  volume. 

Pope. 
It  is  a  scandal  to  Christianity  that  in  towis,  where 
there  is  a  prodigious  increase  in  the  number  of  houses 
and  inhabitants,  so  little  care  should  be  taken'  for 
churches.  Su:ift. 

PRODITOR,  n.  ».  Latprorfitor.  A  traitor. 
Not  in  use. 

Fieled  priest,  dost  thou  command  me  be  shut  outt 
— I  do,  thou  most  usurping  proditor.       Shakspeare. 

Solid  and  conclusive  characters  are  emergent  from 
the  mind,  and  start  out  of  children  when  themselves 
least  think  of  it ;  for  nature  is  proditorious. 

-    Wotton  on  Education, 

Now  proditorimis  wretch !  what  hast  thou  done. 
To  make  this  barb'rous  base  assassinate  ?    Daniel. 


PRODUCE',  V.  a.  &  n.  s.^ 
Produ'cent,  n. «. 
Produ'cer, 
Prodt'cible,  adj. 
Prod u'ciBLEN  ESS,  n. 
Prod'uct,  n.  s. 
Produc'tion, 
Produc'tive,  adj. 


Fr.  prodtdre ; 
Lat.  produco.  To 
exhibit  or  offer  fo 
notice ;  bring  for- 
ward;  bear ;  bring 
forth ;  cause ;  be- 
get; generate; 
effect :  as  a  noun 


substantive,  that  which  is  produced;  amount; 
profit:  producent  and  producer  mean,  one  that 
offers  or  exhibits;  one  that  generates  or  brings 
forth:  producible,  such  as  may  be  exhibited; 
may  be  made  or  generated  :  product,  something 
yielded  by  nature ;  composition ;  work ;  effect ; 
result ;  sum :  production,  the  act  of  producing, 
or  thing  produced  :  productive,  having  efficient 
or  generative  power;  fruitful. 

Produce  your  cause,  saith  tlft  Lord ;  brin^  forth 
your  strong  reasons.  Isaiah  xli.  21. 

This  soil  produces  all  sorts  of  palm  trees. 

Sandys. 

It  seems  not  meet,  nor  wholesome  to  my  place. 
To  be  produced  against  the  Moor.  Aakspeore. 

Somewhat  is  produced  of  nothing ;   for  lyes  are  * 
sufficient  to  breed  opinion,  and  opinion  brings  on 
substance.  B<uon. 

By  examining  how  I,  that  could  contribute  no- 
thing to  mine  own  being,  should  be  here,  I  came 
to  ask  the  same  question  for  my  father,  and  so  am 
led  in  a  direct  line  to  a  first  producer  that  must  be 
more  than  man.  SudtUng. 

Many,  warm  expressions  of  the  fathers  are  pro- 
dueible  in  this  case.  Decay  of  Piety. 

There  is  no  reason  produdUe  to  free  the  Christian 
children  and  idiots  from  the  blame  of  not  believing, 
which  will  not  with  equal  force  be  produdble  for 
those  heather. s  to  whom  the  gospel  was  never  re- 
vealed. Hammond. 


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They  by  imprudence  mixed 
Pniute  prodigious  births  of  body  or  mind. 

MUton. 
Thou  all  this  good  of  evil  shalt  jmxiuM.      Id, 
These  are  the  product 
Of  those  ill-mated  marriages.  Id.  Paradise  Loit, 
In  thee, 
Not  in  themselves,  all  their  known  virtue  appears 
Produeine  as  in  herb'  and  plant.  JUiUon, 

The  best  of  queens  and  best  of  herbs  we  owe 
To  that  bold  nation,  which  the  way  did  show 
To  the  fidr  region,  where  the  sun  does  rise, 
WhoK  rich  produetimt  we  so  justly  prize. 

Waller. 
The  salts  predueiUe,  are  the  alcalis  or  fixed  salts, 
which  seem  to  have  an  antipathy  with  acid  ones. 

Boyle. 
To  confirm  our  doctrine  of  the  produeibleneu  of 
salts,  Helmont  assures  us  that,  by  Paracelsus's  sal 
ciiCttlatnm,  solid  bodies,  particularly  stones,  may 
be  transmuted  into  actual  salt  equiponderant.     Id. 

You  hoerd  not  health  for  your  own  private  use, 
But  on  the  publick  spend  the  rich  produce. 

Ihyden. 
A  painter  should  foresee  the  harmony  of  the  lights 
and  shadows,  taking  from  each  of  them  that  which 
will  most  conduce  to  the  prodwtum  of  a  beautiful 
efiect.  Id. 

Be  thou  my  aid,  my  tuneful  song  inspire. 
And  kindle  with  thy  own  productive  fire.  Id, 
Observing  in  ourselves,  that  we  can  at  pleasure 
move  several  parts  of  our  bodies ;  the  effects  also, 
that  natural  bodies  are  able  to  produce  in  one  ano- 
ther, occurring  ever^  moment  to  our  senses,  we  both 
these  ways^get  the  idea  of  power.  Locke. 

Whenever  want  of  money,  or  want  of  desire  in  the 
ooDsomer,  n^kkes  the  price  low,  that  immediately 
leaches  the  first  producer.  Id, 

The  landholder,  having  nothing  but  what  the 
fndud  of  his  land  will  yimd,  must  take  the  market- 
rate.  Id. 

In  Staflwdshire,  after  their  lands  are  marled,  they 
sow  it  with  barley,  allowing  three  bashels  to  en 
acre.    Its  common  produce  is  thirty  bushels. 

Mortimer*i  Hutbandry. 
If  the  productw  Ux  of  the  marl  be  spent,  it  is 
not  capahie  of  being  mended  with  new.     Mortimer. 

Range  in  Qie  same  quarter  the  products  of  the 
same  season.  Spectator. 

This  is  turning  nobility  into  a  principle  of  virtue, 
and  noaking  it  productive  of  merit,  as  it  is  understood 
to  have  been  originally  a  reward  of  it.  Id. 

That  is  accounted  probable  which  has  better  ar- 
guments prodwkcibU  for  it,  than  can  be  brought  against 
iL  South. 

This  wonder  of  the  sculptor's  hand 
ProdHecd,  his  art  was  at  a  stand.         Addison, 
This  tax  has  already  been  so  often  tried,  that  we 
Uow  the  exact  produce  of  it.  Id.  Freelalder. 

Oqt  British  products  are  of  such  kinds  and  quanti- 
ties, as  can  turn  the  balance  of  trade  to  oar  advan- 
tage. Addison. 

If  an  instrument  be  produced  with  a  protestation 
io  faroar  of  the  produeent,  and  the  adverse  party  does 
Dot  contradict,  it  shall  be  construed  to  the  advantage 
of  the  predueekf.  Ayliffe. 

See  thy  bright  altars 
Heaped  with  the  produeU  of  Sabean  springs.  Pope. 
Hymen's  flames  like  stars  unite. 
And  bum  for  ever  one ; 

Chaste  as  cold  Cynthia's  virgin  light 
Prodmctkae  as  the  sun.  Id. 

Your  parents  did  not  produce  you  much  into  the 
*orhi,  whereby  you  avoided  many  wrong  steps. 

Swift. 


We  have  bad  our  names  prefixed  at  length  to 
whole  volumes  of  mean  productions.  Id. 

Numbers  of  Scots  are  glad  to  exchange  their  barren 
hills  for  our  fruitful  vales  so  productioe  of  that  grain. ' 

Id. 
'  Plutarch  in  his  life  of  Theseus,  says,  that  that 
age  was  prodtutive  of  men  of  prodigious  stature. 

Broome. 

Most  of  those  books  which  have  obtained  great 
reputation  in  the  world  are  the  products  of  great  and 
wise  men.  WatU. 

It  is  generally  known  that  he  who  expects  much 
will  be  often  disappointed ;  yet  disappointment  sel- 
dom cures  us  of  expectation,  or  has  any  other  efilect 
than  that  of  producing  a  moral  sentence  or  peevish 
exclamation.  Johnson. 

PUO'KM,  n.  s.  Old  Tr.proeme;  Lat.  pro- 
amium ;  Gr.  xpooc/iiov.     Preface ;  introduction. 

One  and  the  same  proems  containing  a  general 
motive,  to  provoke  people  to  obedience  of  sdl  and 
every  one  of  these  precepts,  was  prefixed  bdbre  the 
decalogue.  Whiu. 

So  glozed  the  tempter,  and  his  proem  tuned. 

MiUon. 

Justinian  has,  in  the  proem  to  the  digests,  only 
prefixed  the  terin  of  five  years  for  studying  the  laws. 

AyUffe. 
Thus  much  may  serve  by  way  oi  proem. 
Proceed  we  therefore  to  our  poem. 

Swiff s  Miscellanies, 

PROETIDES,  in  fabulous  histoiy,  thedau^h- 
ters  of  Proetus,  king  of  Ai^os ;  who,  preferring 
themselves  to  JunO|  were  struck  with  insanity^ 
and  believed  themselves  to  be  turned  into  cows. 
They  soon  infected  the  rest  of  the  Argian  women, 
but  were  cured  by  Melampus,  who  received  one 
of  these  princesses,  and  two-thirds  of  Argos,  for 
hia  rewara.  See  Melampus.  Their  names  were 
Lysippe,  Iphinoe  or  Ipponoe,  and  Iphiauassa, 
or  Cyrianassa. 

PROETUS,  in  fabulous  history,  a  king  of 
Argos ;  the  son  of  Abas  and  Ocalea,  and  twin 
brotlier  of  Acrisius,  with  whom  he  is  said  to  have 
quarrelled  even  in  the  womb.  Their  dissensions 
increased  with  their  years,  and,  on  Abas*s  death, 
they  contended  for  the  kingdom ;  but,  Acrisius 
prevailing,  Proetus  retired  to  lobates,  king  of 
Lycia,  whose  daughter,  Sthenoboea,  he  married, 
by  whom  he  had  Megapenthes,  and  the  Proe- 
tides.  By  lobates's  assistance,  he  took  Tiryii- 
thus.    Homer.  Iliad,  vi. 

PROFANE',  adj.  hv.a.^    Fr. profane;  Lat. 

Profana'tion,  fprofmut.     Irreve- 

Propane'ly,  >'®'^     ^      sacred 

Profa'nbr,  n.  g.  i  things ;    polluted ; 

Profame'ness,  n.  5.  J  impure;  not  sa- 
cred :  to  pollute ;  violate ;  wrongly  use :  profana- 
tion, the  act  or  habit  of  violating  or  treating 
irreverently  things  sacred :  the  adverb  and  other 
noun  substantives  corresponding. 

Pity  the  temple  profaned  of  ungodly  men. 

2  Maccabees. 

He  knew  how  bold  men  are  to  take  even  from  God 
himself;  how  hardly  that  house  would  be  kept  from 
impious  profanationhe  knew.  JUooker. 

The  argument  which  our  Saviour  naeth  against 
pnfanert  of  the  temple,   he  taketh  from  the  use 
whereunto  it  was  with  solemnity  coltBeeiated.    Id. 
Profane  fellow ! 

Were  thou  the  son  of  Jupiter^  and  no  more 

But  what  thou  art  besides,  thou  wert  too  base 

To  be  bis  groom.  Shahspeare,  Cymbekne, 


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He  then,  that  is  not  furnished  in  tliis  sort, 
Doth  but  usurp  the  sacred  name  of  knight, 
Profaning  this  most  honourable  order. 

ShakipMn. 
I  feel  me  much  to  blame, 
So  idly  to  profane  the  precious  lime.         Id, 
Great  men  may  jest  with  saints,  'tis  wit  in  them : 
But,  in  the  less,  foul  profanrntim,  W« 

Rebellious  subjects,  enemies  to  peace, 
Profaners  of  this  neighbour-stained  steel.     Id, 

Apollo,  pardon 
My  great  profaneness  'gainst  thy  oracle !      Id, 
Nothing  is  profane  that  serveth  to  holy  things. 
*  -^  Raleigh. 

Twere  profanation  of  our  joys, 
To  tell  the  laity  our  love.  Donne. 

Let  none  of  things  serious,  much  less  of  divine. 
When  belly  and  head's  full,  profanely  dispute. 

Ben  Joruon. 
Profanation  of  the  Lord's  day,  and  of  other  solemn 
festival  days,  which  are  devoted  to  divine  and  reli- 
gious offices,  is  impious.  White. 
Foretasted  fruit 
Profaned  first  by  the  serpent,  by  him  first 
Made  common  and  unhallowed.            MiUon. 

Far  hence  be  souls  profanet 
The  Sibyl  cried,  and  from  the  grove  abstain. 

Dryden. 
'  How  far  have  we 
Profaned  thy  heavenly  gift  of  poesy ! 
Made  prostitute  and  profligate  the  muse. 
Debased.  Id, 

You  can  banish  from  thence  scurrility  end  pro- 
faneness, and  restrain  the  licentious  insolence  of 
poets  and  their  actors.  Id. 

Others  think  I  ought  not  to  have  translated 
Chaucer :  they  su]^pose  a  veneration  due  to  his  old 
language,  and  that  it  is  little  less  than  profanation  and 
sacrilege  to  alter  it.  Id. 

How  are  festivals  profaned  7  When  they  are  not 
regarded,  nor  distinguished  from  common  dap ; 
when  they  are  made  instruments  of  vice  and  vanity ; 
when  they  are  spent  in  luxury  and  debauchery ;  when 
our  joy  degenerates  into  senstiality,  and  we  express 
it  by  intemperance  and  excess.  NeUon. 

The  universality  of  the  deluge  is  attested  by  pro- 
fane history ;  for  the  fame  of  it  is  |fone  through  the 
earth,  and  there  are  records  or  traditions  concerning 
it  in  all  parts  of  this  and  the  new  found  world. 

Burnetii  Theory. 
These  have  caused  the  weak  to  stumble,  and  the 
profane  to  blaspheme,  ofiending  the  one,  and  harden- 
ing the  other.  South. 

All  profanation  and  invasion  of  things  sacred  is 
an  offence  against  the  eternal  law  of  nature.        Id. 

There  are  a  lighter  ludicrous  sort  of  profamen,  who 
use  the  scripture  to  furnish  out  their  jests. 

Gooemment  of  the  Tongue. 
Edicts  against  immorality  and  gnrofanenets,  laws 
against  oaths  and  execrations,  we  trample  upon. 

Alterlmry. 
That  proud  scholar,  intending  to  erect  altars  to 
Virgil,  speaks  of  Homer  too  profanely.        Broome. 
PROFECTION,  «.  «.    Lat.  pro/ectio.    Ad- 
vance; progression. 

This,  with  profection  of  the  horoscope  unto  the 
seventh  house  or  opposite  signs,  every  seventh  year 
oppresseth  living  creatures.  Browne. 

PROFESS',  V.  fl.  &  t?.  n,^      Fr.     mvfesser; 


Profess'edly,  adv. 

PROFES'SION,n.  8, 

Profes'sional,  ad/. 
Profess'or,  n.  «. 

P&OFESS'OR'SHIP. 


I  JjaX,  prqfessus.  To 
!  declare  or  make  an 
[open      show      of 

J  opinion  respecting 
any   thing;    assert 


one's  skill  in  any  art  or  science;  to  declare 
openly ;  enter  on  a  stote  of  life  by  a  public  pro- 
fession; declare  friendship:  professedly  is, 
declaratively ;  according  to  one's  own  decUura- 
tion :  profession,  declaration ;  act  of  declaring 
one's  own  party  or  opinion;  calling;  known 
pursuit;  tecnnically  distinguished  from  a  trade, 
and  applied  to  divinity,  physic,  and  law,  as  vo- 
cations :  professional,  relating  to,  or  befitting  a 
profession :  professor,  one  who  publicly  declares 
himself  of  a  particular  party  or  opinion ;  or  pub- 
licly teaches  an  art  or  science :  professorship,  his 
station  or  office. 

Prrfess  unto  the  Lord,  that  I  am  come  unto  the 
country  which  the  Lord  Iwaie  unto  our  fathers. 

Deut.  xxvi.  3. 
They  profess  that  they  know  God,  but  in  works 
the^  deny  him.  Titus  i.  16. 

The  professions  of  princes,  when  a  crown  is  the 
bait,  are  a  lender  security.  Lcrigr. 

Love  well  your  father ; 
To  your  prrfessing  bosoms  I  commit  him. 

Shahspeare. 
The  day  almost  itself  professes  yours, 
And  little  is  to  do.  Id.  Ma^Aeth. 

Would  you  have  me  speak  after  my  custom, 
As  being  a  professed  tyrant  to  their  sex  1 

Shuktpeare, 
As  he  does  conceive. 
He  is  dishonoured  by  a  man,  which  ever 
Professed  to  him  ;  why,  his  revenges  must 
In  that  be  made  more  bitter.  Id. 

I  must  tell  you 
You  tender  more  your  person's  honour,  than 
Your  high  profession  spiritual.  Id. 

If  we  confound  arts  with  the  abuse  of  thetn,  we 
shall  condemn  all  honest  trades ;  for  there  are  that 
deceive  in  ail  professions,  and  buzy  in  foigetfulness  all 
knowledge.  Raleigh.^ 

When  the  holiness  of  the  professors  of  religion  is 
decayed,  you  may  doubt  the  springing  up  of  a  new 
sect.  Bacon's  Essays. 

But  Purbeck,  BSprofest  a  huntress  and  a  nun. 
The  wide  and  wealthy  sea,  nor  all  his  pow'r  respects, 

Drayton. 
I  could  not  grant  too  much  to  men,  that,  being 
professedly  my  subjecU,  pretended  religious  strictness. 

King  Charles. 
An  ill  Christian  is  the  worst  of  all  men  ;  an  ill 
professor  the  worst  of  all  Christians ;  an  ill  minister 
the  worst  of  all  professors,  Bp.  Hall. 

The  whole  church  ol  professors  atPhilippi  to  whom 
he  writes  was  not  made  up  wholly  of  the  elect,  sin- 
cere, and  persevering  Christians,  but  like  the  net,  in 
Christ's  parable,  that  caught  both  good  and  bad,  and 
had  no  doubt  some  insincere  persons,  hypocrites,  and 
temporaries  in  it.  Hammond, 

Pretending  first 
Wise  to  fly  pain,  professing  next  the  spy. 

Milton. 
A  naked  profession  may  have  credit,  where  no 
other  evidence  can  be  given.        GlanviUe's  Seepns. 

Dr.  Prideaux  succeeded  him  in  the  professorship ; 
being  then  elected  bishop  of  Worcester  ;  Sanderson 
succeeded  him  in  the  regius  professorship.     Wotton. 

For  by  oil  in  their  lamps,  and  the  first  lighting 
of  them  which  was  common  to  them  both,  is 
meant  that  solemn  profession  of  faith  and  repent- 
ance, which  all  christians  make  in  baptism. 

TUlotMm. 
A  servant  to  thy  sex,  a  slave  to  thee, 
A  foe  profest  to  barren  chastity.  Dryden. 

YirgU,  whom  he  professedly  imitated,  has  surpassed 
him  among  the  Romans.  Id» 

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Ordinary  illiteiate  people,  who  were  profeis^n,  that 
shewed  a  conoem  for  religion,  seemed  much  conver- 
sant in  St.  Paul's  epistles.  Locke, 

Let  no  man  that  jTru/esies  himself  a  christian,  keep 
so  heathenish  a  family/ as  not  to  see  God  be  daily 
wonhipped  in  It.  IhUff  of  Man. 

No  other  one  race,  not  the  sons  of  any  one  other 
jtrofettum,  not  perhaps  altogether,  are  so  much  scat- 
tered amongst  all  pnfet$ient,  as  the  sons  of  clergy- 
men. 8prat*i  Sermoiu. 

England  I  travelled  over,  profetiedfy  searching  all 
places  as  I  passed  along.  Woodward, 

Some  of  our  frofesnon  keep  wounds  tented. 

Witeman. 

Most  |>roflieately  false,  with  the  strongest  pro/«- 
«oiu  of  sincenty.  Sw^, 

Proftwm  in  most  sciences  are  generally  the  worst 
qualified  to  explain  their  meanings  to  those  who  are 
not  of  their  tribes.  Id, 

This  is  a  practice  in  which  multitudeli,  besides 
those  of  the  learned  profestioru,  may  be  engaged. 

Watt$. 

Pnfeuional,  as  well  as  national,  reflections  are  to 
be  avoided.  Clarisaa. 

A  Professor,  in  the  universities,  is  a  person 
who  teaches  or  reads  public  lectures  in  s6me  art 
or  science  from  a  chair  for  the  purpose. 
PROFFER,  v.  a.  &  n.  «.  )       Fr.    jtroferer; 
Prof'fcrer,  n.  t.  S  Lat.  profero.    X^ 

propose;  offer  to  acceptance;  attempt:  essay; 
offer  or  attempt  made :  ne  who  offers. 

He  seide  ban  ye  here  ony  thing  that  schai  be  etun  T 
And  they  prrfriden  to  him  a  part  of  a  fisch  roostyd, 
aod  a  honeycomb.  WicUf,  Luke  24. 

Basilius,  content  to  take  that,  since  he  could  have 
no  more,  allowed  her  reasons,  and  took  her  proffer 
thankfully .  Sidney, 

To  th«m  that  covet  such  eye-glutting  gain. 
Proffer  ihy  gifts,  and  fitter  servants  entertain. 

Spenser, 
Proffers,  not  took,  reap  thanks  for  their  reward. 

Shaktpeare, 
Maids,  in  modesty,  say  no,  to  that 
Which  they  would  have  the  profferer  construe  ay. 

Id, 
It  is  done  with  time,  and  by  little  and  little,  and 
with  many  essays  and  proffen,         Bacon*»  Euays, 

The  king 
Great  proffers  sends  of  oardon  and  of  grace ; 
If  they  would  yield,  ana  quietness  embrace.  Danid, 

He  made  a  proffer  to  lay  down  his  commission  of 
command  in  the  army.  Clarendon, 

None,  among  the  choice  and  prime 
Of  those  heaven-warring  cliampions,  could  be  found 
So  hardy  as  to  pr<\ffer,  or  accept. 
Alone,  the  dreadful  voyage. 

MiHon's  Paradise  Lost. 
But  these,  nor  all  the  proffers  you  can  make. 
Are  worth  the  heifer  which  I  set  to  stake. 

Vrydm, 
Does  Cato  send  this  answer  back  to  Caesar, 
For  all  his  generous  cares  and  proffered  friendship  1 

Addison, 
He  who  always  refuses,  taxes  the  profferer  with  in- 
discretion, and  declares  his  assistance  needless. 

Collier, 
The  parent  pair  their  secret  homage  pay. 

And  proffer  up  to  heaven  the  warm  request — 
That  He  who  stills  the  raven's  clamorous  nest. 

And  decks  the  lily  fair  in  flowery  pride, 
Would,  in  the  way  his  wisdom  sees  the  best. 
For  them  and  for  their  little  ones  provide  ; 
But  chiefly  in  their  hearts  with  grace  divine  preside: 

Bums, 


A  weel-stocked  mailen,  hirosel  for  the  laird, 
And  marriage  aff-hand,  were  his  proffers : 
I  never  loot  on  that  I  kenn'd  it,  or  car  a. 
But  thought  I  might  hae  waur  offers,  waur 

offers, 
.  But  thought  I  might  hae  waur  offers.  Id, 

For  when  one  near  displayed  the  absolving  cross, 
And  proffered  to  his  touch  the  holy  bead,' 
Of  which  his  parting  soul  might  own  the  need. 
He  looked  upon  it  with  an  eye  profane, 
And  smiled — Heaven  pardon  !  if  'twere  with  disdain. 

Byron. 

PROFI'CIENCE,  n.  s.  -%    Lat.  proficio.  Pro- 

Profi'ciency,  >fit;     advancement; 

Profi'cient.  3       improvement 

gained  :  a  proficient  is,  he  who  progresses  or  ad- 
vances in  any  study  or  pursuit. 

I  am  so  good  a  proficient  in  one  quarter  of  an  hour, 
that  I'cscn  drink  with  any  tinker  in  bis  own  language. 

Shakspeare. 

I  am  disposed  to  receive  further  light  in  this 
matter,  from  those  whom  it  will  be  no  disparage- 
ment for  much  greater  proficients  than  I  to  learn. 

BoyU. 

Persons  of  riper  years,  who  flocked  into  the  church 
during  the  three  first  centuries,  were  obliged  to  pass 
throi^h  instructions,  and  give  account  of  their  pro- 
ficiency. Addison. 

Some  reflecting  with  too  much  satisfaction  on  their 
own  proficiencies,  or  presuming  on  tlieir  election  by 
God,  persuade  themselves  into  a  careless  security. 

Rogfrs's  Sermons. 
Young  deathlings  were,  by  practice  made 

Proficienti  in  their  fathers*  trade.  Smift, 

PROFIC'UOUS,  adj.     Lat.  proficuvM.     Ad- 
vantageous; useful. 
It  is  very  proficuous  to  take  a  good  large  dose. 

Harvey. 
To  future  times 
Proficuous,  such  a  race  of  men  produce. 
As  in  the  cause  of  virtue  firm,  may  fix 
Her  throne  inviolate.  Philips. 

PROTILE,  n.  I.  Tt.  profile.  The  side  face; 
half  face. 

The  painter  will  not  take  that  side  of  the  face 
which  has  some  notorious  blemish  in  it ;  but  either 
draw  it  in  profile,  or  else  shadow  the  more  imperfect 
side.  Dryden, 

Till  the  end  of  the  third  century,  I  have  not  seen 
a  Roman  emperor  drawn  with  a  full  face  :  they 
always  appear  in  profile,  which  gives  us  the- view  of 
a  head  very  majestic.  Addison, 

Profile,  in  architecture,  is  the  draught  of  a 
building,  fortification,  &c.,  wherein  are  expressed 
the  several  heights,  widths,  and  thicknesses,  such 
as  they  would  appear  were-  the  building  cut 
down  perpendicularly  from  the  roof  to  the  foun- 
dation. Whence  the  profile  is  also*  called  the 
section,  sometimes  ortnographical  section. 

Profi  le,  in  sculpture  and  painting.  A  head,  a 
portrait,  &C.,  are  said  to  be  in* profile,  when  they 
are  represented  sidewise,  or  in  a  side  view ;  as, 
when  m  a  portrait  there  is  but  one  side  of  tlie 
face,  one  eye,  one  cheek,  &c.,  shown,  and  nothing 
of  the  other.  On  almost  all  medals,  the  faces 
are  represented  in  profile. 

PROFIT,  ?i.  I.,  V.  fl.,  &  v.  «.' 

PRO/ITABLE,  adj. 

Prof'itably,  adv. 
Prof'itableness,  n.  t. 
Prop'itless,  adj. 


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tage ;  profideitcy  :  to  benefit,  improve,  or  ad- 
Tance  ;  to  gain  advantage  or  improvement ;  be 
of  use  or  advantage :  profitable  is,  gainful,  ad- 
vantageous, lucrative ;  the  adverb  and  noun  sub- 
stantive corresponding:  profitless,  worthless; 
without  advantage  or  recompense. 

Whereto  might  the  strength  of  their  hands  jtrofit 
mel  Job. 

Wisdom  that  is  hid,  and  treasure  that  is  hoarded 
up,  what  profit  is  in  them  both  1       Bocltu,  zz.  30. 

Meditate  upon  these  things,  give  thyself  wholly 
to  them,  that  thy  profiting  may  appear  to  all. . 

1  Tim. 
Then  Jud^s,  thinking  indeed  that  they  would  be 
profitable  in  many  things,  granted  them  peace. 

2  Mae.  zii. 
Thou  must  know 
Tis  not  my  profit  that  does  lead  mine  honour. 

Shakxpfiare. 
A  pound  of  man's  flesh,  taken  from  a  man. 
Is  not  so  estimable  or  profitable, 
As  flesh  of  muttons,  beefs,  or  goats.  Id. 

We  must  not  think  the  Turk  is  so  unskilful, 
To  leave  that  latest,  which  concerns  him  first ; 
Neglecting  an  attempt  of  ease  and  gain, 
To  wake  and  wage  a  danger  profitUn.  Id.  \ 

The  king  did  not  love  the  barren  wars  with  Scot- 
land, though  he  made  his  profi  of  the  noise  of  them. 

Bacon. 
The  planting  of  hop-yards,  sowing  of  wheat  and 
rape-seed,  are  found  very  profitable  for  the  planters, 
in  places  apt  for  them,  and  consequently  profitabletat 
the  kingdom.  Id. 

Let  it  profit  thee  to  have  heard, 
By  terrible  example,  the  reward 
Of  disobedience.        MiUon*»  Paradue  Loet. 
We  will  now  briefly  take  notice  of  the  profitabU- 
nets  of  plants  for  physic  and  food.  More. 

Tis  a  great  means  of  profiting  youneH,  to  copy 
diligently  ezc^ent  pieces  and  beautiful  designs. 

Uryden. 

What  profited  thy  thoughts,  and  toils,  and  cares, 

In  vimur  more  confirmed,  and  riper  years  t  Prior. 

What  shall  be  the  just  portion  of  those,  whom 
neither  the  condescension  or  kindness,  nor  wounds 
and  sufferings  of  the  Son  of  God  could  persuade,  nor 
yet  the  excellency,  easiness  and  profitablenest  of  his 
commands  invite  ?  Calamsf't  Sermons. 

The  Romans,  thoagh  possessed  of  their  ports,  did 
not  profit  much  by  trade.  Arbulhnot  on  Coins. 

What  was  so  profitable  to  the  empire,  became  fatal 
to  the  emperor.  Id. 

You  have  had  many  opportunities  to  settle  this 
reflection,  and  have  profitabtgf  employed  them. 

Wake. 
He  thinks  it  highly  just,  that  all  rewards  of  trust, 
profit,  or  dignity,  should  be  given  onlv  to  thone  whose 
principles  £rect  them  to  preserve  the  constitution. 

Swiji. 

PROF'LIGATE,aA\,n.«.-J  Lat.  projligaius. 
Prof'ligately,  [ocv. a.  > Abandoned;  lost 
Prof'ligateness,  n.  s.  J  to  virtue  and  de- 
cency ;  shameless :  a  rake ;  an  abandoned  wretch : 
Harvey  uses  the  verb  afler  the  Lat.  profligOy  but 
has  not  been  followed:  the  adverb  and  noun 
substantive  porrespond  with  the  adjective  in 


Lavatories,  to  wash  the  temples,  hands,  wrists, » 
and  jugulars,  do  potently  profligate  and  keep  ofi*  the 
venom.  Harvey 

Time  sensibly  all  things  impairv ; 
Our  fathers  have  been  worse  than  theirs, 
And  we  than  ours;  next  age  will  see 


A  race  more  pre^kgate  than  we. 
With  all  the  pains  we  take,  have  still  enough  to  be. 

Bascommon. 
How  far  have  we 
Prophaned  thy  heavenly  gift  of  poesy  Y 
Made  prostitute  and  profligate  the  muse. 
Debased  to  each  obscene  and  impious  use, 
Whose  harmony  was  first  ordained  above 
For  tongues  of  angels,  and  for.  hymns  of  love. 

Drgdeu. 
Though  Phalaris  his  braaen  bull  were  there, 
And  he  would  dictate  what  he'd  have  you  swear^ 
Be  not  so  profligate,  but  rather  chuse 
To  guard  vour  honour,  and  your  life  to  lose.      Id. 
It  is  pleasant  to  see  a  notorious  vrefligate  seized 
with  a  concern  for  his  religion,  and  converting  his 
spleen  into  seal.  Addison. 

I  have  heard  a  profligate  o&sr  much  strongar  argu- 
ments against  paying  his  debts,  than  ever  he  was 
known  to  do  against  Christianity ;  because  he  hap- 
pened to  be  closer  pressed  by  the  bailiff  than  the 
P^unon,  Swifft  Mtsoellames. 

Most  profligaUly  false,  with  the  strongest  profes- 
sions of  sincerity.  /<<. 

How  could  such  a  ptrofiigaU  as  Antony,  or  a  boy  of 
eighteen  like  Octavius,  ever  dare  to  dream  of  giving 
the  law  to  such  an  empire  and  people  1  Sieifi. 

Melancholy  objects  and  subjectt  will,  at  times, 
impress  the  most  profligate  spirits.  Ctorissa. 

PROFLUENCE,«.s.  >     Latprq/fw-M.  Pro- 
Prof'luent,  a(^'.  )gress;  course:  flow- 

ing forward. 

In  the  profluence  or  proceedings  of  their  fortunes 
there  was  much  diffisrence  between  them.     Wottm. 

Teach  all  nations  what  of  him  they  learned. 
And  his  salvation;  them  who  shall  believe 
Baptizing  in  the  profluent  stream,  the  sig^ 
Ofwashiog  them  from  guilt  of  sin.  Miltoiu 

PROFOUND'ra^-.,n.«.&r.n.^    Fr.pro/onrf; 
Profound'ly,  arfw.  flat,   prof  tin- 

Profound'nbss,  n.  f.  ^dus.     Deep; 

Propun'ditt.  J  for  below  Ae 

surface;  intellectually  deep;  learned;  skilful; 
cunning ;  lowly ;  humble :  the  deep  or  main  sea ; 
the  abyss :  as  a  verb,  a  barbarism,  meaning  to 
dive  or  penetrate:  the  advert)  corresponds  witii 
the  adjective:  profoundness  and  profundity 
mean  depth  of  place,  knowledge,  or  thought. 

The  revolters  are  profound  to  make  slaughter, 
though  I  have  been  a  rebuker  of  them.   Hosea  v.  2. 
God,  in  the  fathomless  profound. 
Hath  all  his  choice  commanders  drowned. 

Sandifs. 
Their  wits,  which  did  every  where  else  conquer 
hardness,  were  with  profoundness  here  overmatched. 

Hooker. 
Not  orators  only  with  the  people,  but  even  the 
very   profoundest  disputers  in   all    faculties,    have 
hereby  often,  with  the  best  learned,  prevailed  most. 

Id, 
Upon  the  corner  of  the  moon. 
There  hangs  a  vapourous  drop  profmnd. 

Skakepeare. 
The  most  profoundly  wise.  DrayUm, 

What  words  wilt  thou  use  to  move  thy  God  to 
hear  theel  what  humble  gestures?  what  profound 
reverence?  Ihtppa. 

All  else  deep  snow  and  ice, 
A  gulf  prcfound,  as  that  Serbonian  bog 
Betwixt  Damiata  and  mount  Casius  old.  Mitten, 
If  some  other  place  the'  ethereal  king 
Possesses  lately,  thither  to  arrive, 
.    I  travel  this  profound.  Id,  Paradise  Lost. 


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The  other  toned 
Round,  through  the  vait  profimdity  obievie. 

MUtan. 
We  cannot  prafbmid  into  the  hidden  thingi  of  na- 
tere,  nor  Me  the  fint  sprinn  that  set  the  rest  a-going* 

Now  I  die  abnnt  in  the  Tast  profinm/i^; 
And  me  without  myielf  the  teas  have  drowned. 

x/rydni> 

The  virgin  ttaited.at  her  father's  naoie. 
And  sighM  profoundly,  conscious  of  the  shame.  Id. 

Domeoichino  Was  profimndly  skilled  in  all  the 
parts  of  painting;  but,  wanting  genius',  he  had  less 
of  nobleness.  Id, 

Deep  learned  in  the  philosophy  of  heaven. 

He  searched  the  causes  out  of  good  and  ill, 

ProfamuUy  calculating  their  effects 

Far  pest  the  bounds  of  time.  PoWik, 

PROFUSE',  oA*.  -J     laX.profims.  Lavish; 

pBOFusEfLY,  adv,   f  prodigal ;  liberal  to  licen- 

pROFusE'MESSyn.5.  |tiousness;  exuberant:  the 

Profi/sion.  }  adverb     correspotiding : 

profuseness  is  lavishness ;  prodigality ;  extrava- 
gance: profusion,  abundance;  exuberant  plenty; 
alflo  lavish  or  extravagant  expense. 
'  He  was  desirous  to  avoid  not  only  prq/htum,  but 
the  least  effusion  of  Chrbtian  aiood.         Haytoard, 
The  great  yrofitsUm  and  ezpence 

Of  his  revenues  bred  him  much  offence.    Danid. 
On  a  green  shady  bank,  proflue  of  flowers, 

Pensive  1  sat.  Milton  t  Paradise  Lott, 


Profuaeneti  of  doing  good,  a  soul  unsatisfied  with 
all  it  has  done,  and  an  unextinguished  deure  of 
ci.  -Dg  more.  Drydtn, 

Id  proftue  governments  it  has  been  ever  observed 
that  the  peoj>leu  from  bad  example,  have  grown  lazy 
and  expensive,  the  court  has  become  luxurious  and 
mercenaiy,  and  the  camp  insolent  and  seditious. 

Davettani, 
What  meant  thy  pompous  progress  through  the 
empire? 
Thy  vast  ynfuAm  to  the  factious  nobles  1       Hows. 
Oh  liberty,  thou  eoddess  heavenly  bright, 
Pnfi$m  of  bliss,  and  pregnant  with  delight. 

iiddiiim. 
Trade  is  fitted  to  the  nature  of  our  country,  as  it 
abounds  with  a  great  propuion  of  commodities  of  its 
own  growth,  very  convenient  for  other  countries. 

Id, 
Hospitality  sometimes  degenerates  into  profiuenea, 
and  ends  in  madness  and  folly.  AtUvhmy. 

Then  spring  the  living  herbs  profusely  wild. 

Thonuon. 
The  raptured  eye, 
The  hir  profusion,  yellow  Autumn  spies.     Id, 
The  prince  of  poets,  who  before  us  went. 
Had  a  vast  income,  and  prt^tHely  spent.    Harte. 
PROG,  or  Prig,  v.  «.  &  n.  «.    Goth,   trigda. 
To  rob;  steal;  pilfer;  shift  meanly  for  provi- 
sions; victuals ;  food.    A  low  word. 
She  went  out  proggmg  for  victuals  as  before. 

VEstranye. 
Spouse  tuckt  up  doth  in  pattens  trudge  it. 
With  handkerchief  of  prog,  like  trull  with  budget ; 
And  eat  by  turns  plumcake  and  iudge  it.  Congreve. 
O  nephew !  your  grief  is  but  folly. 
In  town  you  may  find  better  prog. 

Swift's  Miteellaniet, 

PROGENITOR,  n.<.>     lax.  progemtus.  A 

Prog'evy.  J  forefather;    ancestor 

in  a  direct  line:   progeny  is  offspring;  race; 


Although  these  things  be  alraadv  past  away  br 
her  progenitor's  former  grants  unto  these  lords,  yet  I 
could  find  a  way  to  renw<b  a  great  part  thereof. 

Speiuer^s  State  of  Irehnd. 
The  sons  of  God  have  God's  own  natural  Son: 
as  a  second  Adam  from  heaven,  whose  race  and  pro- 
geny they  are  ^y  spiritual  and  heavenly  birth. 
,     .  Hoofer; 

Like  true  subjects,  sons  of  your  progenitors. 
Go  cbearfully  together.  Skakspeare, 

Not  me  b^^tten  of  a  shepherd's  swain. 
But  issued  from  the  progeny  of  kings.  Id. 

Oh  I  admirable  temperance,  worthy  the  progenitor 
of  him,  in  whose  lips  or  heart  was  no  guile. 

Bp.  HaU. 
All  generations  then  had  hither  come» 
From  all  the  ends  of  the  earth,  to  oelelmite 
And  reverence  t)iee,  their  great  progenitor, 

Milton. 
By  promise  he  receives 
Gift  to  his  pn^eny  of  all  that  land.  Id. 

Thus  shall  we  live  in  perfect  bliss,  and  see* 
Deathless  ourselves,  a  nnm'rous  progeny. 

Dryden. 
Power  bv  right  of  fatherhood  is  not  possible  in 
any  one,  otherwise  than  as  Adam's  heir,  or  as  pro- 
genitor over  his  own  descendants.  Locke. 

The  principal  actois  in  MiIton*fe  poems*  are  not 
only  our  progenitors,  but  representatives.     Addison* 
We  are  the  more  pleased  to  ^behold  the  throne  sur- 
rounded by  a  numerous  progeny,  when  vre  consider 
the  virtues  of  those  from  whom  they  descend.. 

Id.  Freeholdir. 
PROGNOSTIC,  a^.  &  «.  «.n     Fr.  progno$- 
'    Proonos'ticable,  adj.  I   tique ;     Gr. 

Prognos'ticatz,  t;.  a.  >  wpoyvMorueoc. 

Progvostica'tion,  n.  s.        i  Foretelling    or 
ProohoS'ticator.  J  foreshowing; 

appli^  particularljr  to  foreshowing  health  or 
disease:  a  prediction  or  token,  and  (galli- 
cism)  the  skill  of  foretelling  diseases :  prognos- 
ticable  is  such  as  may  be  foreshown  or  fore- 
known :  prognosticate,  to  foretel ;  foreshow : 
prognostication,  the  act  of  doing  so,  or  the  token, 
sentence,  or  detennination  given :  prognosticator, 
he  who  gives  it  forth. 

He  bid  him  farewell,  arming  himself  in  a  black 
armour,  as  a  badge  or  prognottioatum  of  his  mind* 

Sidney. 

If  an  oily  palm  be  not  a  fruitful  pregnottioation, 
I  cannot  scratch  mine  ear. 

Skakspeare.  4^tony  and  Cleopatra. 

He  hsd  now  outlived  the  day  which  his  tutor 
Sandford  had  prognostieated  upon  his  nativity  he 
would  not  outlive.  Clarendon. 

The  causes  of  this  inundation  cannot  be  regular, 
and  therefore  their  eflects  not  prognostieabU  like 
eclipses.  Broume*s  Vulgar  Erroun. 

Unskilled  in  schemes  by  planets  to  foreshow, 

I  neither  will,  nor  can  pro^iuwtaotte. 

To  the  young  gaping  heir,  his  father's  fate. 

DryJen. 

litis  theoiy  of  the  earth  besins  to  be  a  kind  of 
prophecy  or  prognostietoion  of  uiin^  to  come,  as  it 
hath  been  hitherto  an  history  of  things  past. 

Burmst. 

Whatsoever  you  are  or  shall  be,  has  been  but  an 
easy  prognostic  from  what  you  were.  Soutii, 

There  is  nothing  so  inconsiderable,  which  mpynot 
appear  dreadful  to  imagination,  tliat  is  filled  with 
omens  and  prognostics.  Addison. 

That  astrologer  made  his  almanack  give  a  tolera- 
ble account  of  the  weather  by  a  direct  invenion  of 


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die  common  prognettieaton,  to  let  bis  belief  run 
counter  to  reports.  Oovtmrntnt  of  tlu  Tongtts, 

Hippocrates's  prognottie  is  eene'raHy  true,  tbat 
it  is  very  hard  to  lesolve  a  small  apoplexy. 

Arbuihnat. 
Careful  obaerrera 
By  sure  prognottia  may  foretel  a.  shower. 

Swift. 

PROG'RESS,  n- «.  &  v.  n.  ^    Fr.  progrU ;  Ia- 

pROGREs'siON,  ft.  <.  tiD  progrcstus, 

pRooREs'siONAL,  ttjf.         I  CouFse;  passRge; 

pROOREs'sivE,  I  procession  ;    ad- 

Progres'sively^  adv.  Tancement ;    im- 

PROGREs'sivENESSy  ti.  «.  J  provement :  to 
pass ;  move  forward :  progression  and  prog;ress- 
iveness  are  synonymous  with  progress  as  a  noun 
substantive :  progressional,  in  a  state  of  increase 
or  advance :  progressive,  advancing ;  going  for- 
ward ;  the  adverb  corresponding. 

I  cannot,  by  the  progrets  of  the  stars. 
Give  guess  how  near  to  day. 

Shak^eare,  JWItta  Ceur. 
Let  me  wipe  off  this  honourable  dew, 
That  silverly  doth  pngreu  on  thy  cheeks. 

Sh4ik$pear$. 
He  hath  framed  a  letter,  which  accidentally,  or 
by  the  way  of  prcgreuion,  hath  miscarried.         Id, 

Out  of  Ethiopia  beyond  Egypt  has  beeu  a  strange 
pngrem  for  ten  hundred  thousand  men.        Raleigh. 

Princes,  if  they  use  ambitious  men,  should  handle 
it  so  as  they  may  be  still  progra$me,  and  not  retro- 
gade.  Baeon, 

He  gave  order  that  thei^  should  be  nothing  in  his 
joumev  like  unto  a  warlike  march,  but  rather  like 
unto  tne  progret$  of  a  king  in  full  peace.  Id, 

Solon  the  wise  his  progreu  never  ceased, 
But  still  his  learning  with  his  days  increased. 

Denham. 
Fron^  Egypt  arts  their  progress  made  to  Greece, 
Wrapt  in  the  fable  of  the  golden  fleece.  Id, 

The  mom  begins 
Her  rosy  progress  smiling.  MUton, 

Their  course 
Frogretnne,  retrograde,  or  standing  still.     Id, 
Those  worthies,  who  endeavour  the  advancement  of 
learning  are  likely  to  fiod  a  clearer  progrusimt  when 
so  many  rubs  are  levelled.  Browne. 

TTius  J  ,^'  ^  ^  ?'  ^2'  ^'  i°<^««"!"8  \  by  the  difference  2. 
1 10,  8,  6,  4,    2,  8cc.  decreasing  J    '' 

Progression,  Geometrical,  or  Continued  Geometric  Proportion,  is  when  the  terms  do  in- 
crease or  decrease  by  equal  ratios :  thus, 

2,    4,    8,  16,  32,  64,  increasing  J  ^^^^^„ti^^^<  multiplication  K 
64, 32, 16,    8,    4,    2,  decreasing  S  X  division  S    ^ 

Fr.    prohiher;    Lat.  He  bestowed  the  liberal  choice  of  all   things, 

tnvkibeo.      To    forbid ;    with  one  only  prohibition,  to  try  his  obedience. 


They  maintain  their  iccompUshed  ends,  and  le- 
lap.  not  .gain  iou,  their  p,^^i»p.rf«=a^. 

In  progresnoe  motion,  the  arms  and  legs  mors 
successively ;  but,  in  natation,  both  together. 

Id.  Vu^r  Erroun. 
The  reason  why  they  fall  in  that  order,  from  the 
greatest  epacts  progressivelg  to  the  least,  is,  because 
tne  greatest  «pacts  denote  a  greater  distance  of  the 
moon  before  the  sun,  and  consequently  a  nnrer  ap- 
proach to  her  conjunction.  Holder. 
'  It  is  impossible  the  mind  should  ever  be  stopped 
in  its  progrees  in  this  space.  Locke. 

In  philosophical  enquiries,  the  order  of  nature 
should  govern,  which  in  all  progression  is  to  go  from 
the  place  one  is  then  in,  to  that  which  lies  next  to  it. 

Id. 
The  progresMe  motion  of  this  animal  is  made  not 
by  walking,  but  by  leaping.  Ray  on  ike  Creatum. 
Whosoever  understands  the  progress  and  revolu- 
tions of  nature,  will  see  that  neither  the  present 
form  of  the  earth,  nor  its  first  form,  were  permanent 
and  immutable.  Burnet. 

O  may  I  live  to  hail  the  day, 
When  the  glad  nation  shall  survey 
Their  sovereign,  through  his  wise  command. 
Passing  in  progress  o'er  the  land.  Addison. 

Ere  the  progressive  course  of  restless  age 
Perform  three  thousand  times  its  annual  stage. 
May  not  our  power  and  learning  be  supprest. 
And  arts  and  empire  learn  to  travel  west  f      Prior. 
The  squares  or  the  diameters  of  these  rings,  made 
by  any  prismatic  color,  were  in  arithmetical pro^rvf- 
sion,  Newton. 

The  Sylphs  behold  it  kindling  as  it  flies, 
And  pleased  pursue  its  progress  through  the  skies. 

Pope. 
Perhaps  I  jud?e  hastily,  there  being  several,  in 
whose  writings  I  nave  made  very  little  progrrse. 

Swift's  Miscellanies. 
You  perhaps  hsve  made  no  progress  in  the  most 
important  Christian  virtues  \  you  have  scarce  gone 
half  way  in  humility  and  chanty.  Law. 

Progression,  in  mathematics,  is  either  arith- 
metical or  geometrical. 

Progression,  Arithmetical,  or  Continued 
Arithmetic  Proportion,  is,  where  the  terms 
do  increase  and  decrease  by  equal  differences, 
and  is  odled  arithmetical  progression  : 


PROHIBIT,  V.  a. -J 
Prohibition,  n.  s.  >  i 


PROH  ib'itort,  adj.  i  interdict ;  hinder ;  de 
bar :  the  noun  substantive  and  adjective  corre- 
sponding. 

She  would  not  let  them  know  of  his  close  lying  in 
that  prohibited  place,  because  they  would  be  oflended. 

Sidney. 
The  weightiest,  which  it  did  command  them,  are 
to  us  in  the  gospel  prolubited.  Hooker. 

Might  there  not  be  some  other  mystery  in  this 
prohibitiant  tnan  they  think  of?  Id, 

.'Gainst  self-slaughter 
There  is  a  prohibition  so  divine, 
That  cravens  my  weak  hand. 

Skakepeare,  Cgmbeline,  . 


Raleigh. 

Moral  law  is  two-fold ;  simply  moral,  or  moral 
only  by  some  external  constitution,  or  imposition  of 
God.  Divine  law,  simply  moral,  commandeth  or 
prohibiteth  actions,  good  or  evil,  in  respect  of  their 
inward  nature  and  quality.  White. 

Let  us  not  think  hard 
One  easy  prohibition,  who  enjoy 
Free  leave  so  large  to  all  things  else.    Hilton, 
Gates  of  burning  adamant 
Barred  over  us,  prohibit  all  egress.  Id. 

The  law  of  God  in  the  ten  commandments  con- 
sists mostly  of  prohibitiom  $  thou  shalt  not  do  such  a 
things.  TUlottm, 


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PROJECTILES. 


139 


A  prohAiiion  will  lie  on  thii  statute,  notwith- 
ttanding  the  penalty  annexed ;  becayae  it  has  words 
prokibitoty,  as  well  as  a  penalty  annexed.    AyUffe. 

PROJECT,  r.  a., «.  n.  &  n. ».  •%    Fr.  prqfeter  ; 

pRQfEC'TiLEy  n.  5.&  o^^*.  fLat.   prqjkioy 

Projection,  n.t.  Iprojecttu,    To 

Projec'tor,  n.  <.  j  throw  or  cast 

out ;  cast  forward ;  exhibit  as  in  the  manner  of 
an  image  on  a. mirror;  form  in  the  mind;  con- 
triTe ;  scheme :  a  scheme ;  design ;  contrivance : 
a  projectile  is  a  body  put  into  motion  :  as  an 
adjective  it  means  impelled  forward :  projection 
is  the  act  of  shooting  forwards;  plan;  scheme; 
crisis  of  a  chemical  operation :  projector,  one 
who  forms  schemes  or  designs;  a  mere  schemer. 

A  little  quantity  of  the  medicine  in  the  projection 
will  turn  a  sea  of  the  baser  metal  into  gold  by  mul- 
tiplying. Bactm. 

It  ceases  to  be  counsel,  to  compel  men  to  assent 
to  whaterer  tamultaaiy  patrons  shall  project. 

King  Charlet, 

What  sit  we  then  projecting  peace  and  war  ? 

Jfi/ton. 

If  the  electric  be  held  unto  the  light,  many  par- 
ticles will  be  discharged  from  it,  which  motion  is 
performed  by  the  breath  of  the  effluvium  issuing  with 
agility ;  for,  as  the  electric  cooleth,  the  projection  of 
the  atoms  ceaseth.  Browne. 

Difiusive  of  themselves  where  e'er  they  pass, 

They  make  that  warmth  in  others  they  expect ; 
Their  valour  works  like  bodies  on  a  glass. 

And  does  its  image  on  their  men  project, 

Dryden, 
,  Chymists,  and  other  prtfjectors,  propose  to  them- 
selves things  utterly  impracticable.        L'Ettrange. 


What  desire,  by  which  natoie  pnyeets  its  own 
pleasure  or  preservation,  can  be  gratified  by  another 
man's  personal  pursuit  of  his  own  vice  t         South, 

It  is  a  discovering  the  longitude,  and  deserves  a 
much  higher  name  than  that  of  a  project,   Addison. 

The  following  comes  from  a  projector,  a  corre- 
spondent as  diverting  as  a  traveller;  his  subject 
having  the  same  grace  of  novelty  to  recommend  it. 

Id, 

In  the  various  projects  of  happiness,  devised  by 
human  reason,  there  appeared  inconsistencies  not  to 
be  reconciled.  Rogere. 

Among  all  the  projeeUm  in  this  attempt,  none 
have  met  with  so  general  a  success  as  they  who  ap- 
ply themselves  to  soften  the  rigour  of  the  precept. 

U. 

Good  blood,  and  a  due  pr(§eetil/it  motion  or  circQ- 
latioD,  are  necessary  to  convert  the  aliment  into 
laudable  juices.  Arhuthnoi, 

Projectiles  would  for  ever  move  on  in  the  same 
right  line,  did  not  the  air,  their  own  ^vity,  or  the 
ruggedness  of  the  plane  stop  their  motion; 

Cheyne*9  Philosophical  PrmeipUe. 
The  ascending  villas 
Project  long  shadows  o'er  the  crystal  tide. 

Pop0. 

Astrologers  that  future  fates  foreshow. 
Projector*,  quacks,  and  lawyers  not  a  few.       Id. 
If  we  had  a  plan  of  the  naked  lines  of  longitude 
and  latitude,  projected  on  the  meridian,  a  learner 
might  more  speedily  advance  himself  in  the  ^cnow- 
ledge  of  geography.  Watts, 

For  the  bulk  of  the  learners  of  astronomy,  that 
projection  of  the  stars  is  best,  which  includes  in  it  all 
the  stars  in  our  horizon,  reaching  to  the  38^  degree 
of  the  southern  latitude.  Id. 


PROJECTILES. 


Pbojectilbs  is  a  term  under  which  has  been 
comprehended  that  branch  of  mechanical  philo- 
sophy which  treats  of  the  motion  of  bodies  pro- 
jected in  any  way  from  the  surfoce  of  the  earth, 
and  influenced  hy  the  action  of  gravity.  The 
principal  application  of  this  scienoe  in  modern 
times,  particularly  in  Europe,  has  been  to  gun- 
nery, an  art  totally  unknown  to  the  ancients ; 
yet  they  were  far  n-om  being  ignorant  of  other 
branches  of  this  science.  Machines  were  known 
among  the  Greeks  and  Romans  by  the  names  of 
Ballista,  Catapulta,  &c.,  which  produced  effects 
by  the  elastic  action  of  a  strongly  twisted 
cordage,  and  formed  of  tough  animal  sub- 
stances, hardly  less  terrible  than  the  artillery  of 
the  modems;  and  the  various  tremendous  en- 
gines of  this  kind,  invented  by  the  celebrated 
Archimedes,  show  to  what  considerable  perfec- 
tion the  direction  of  projectiles  had  then  been 
brought.  .See  Abchtiiedes  and  Artillery.  Such 
inslraments  continued  in  use  down  to  the  twelfth 
and  thirteenth  centuries,  and  the  use  of  bows 
still  longer ;  nor  were  they  totally  laid  aside  till 
they  were  superseded  by  the  use  of  gunpowder , 
and  the  modem  ordnance. 

The  first  application  of  gunpowder  to  military 
affairs  was  made,  as  we  have  shown  in  the  ar- 
ticle just  referred  to,  early  in  the  fourteenth  cen- 
Uiiy:  the  first  pieces  of  artillery  being  charged 
Hith  gunpowder  and  stone  bullets  of  a  prodi- 


gious size.  Thus,  when  Mahomet  II.  besieged 
Constantinople  in  1543,  he  battered  the  walls 
with  stones  of  this  kind,  and  with  pieces  of  the 
calibre  of  1200 lbs.;  which  could  not  be  fired 
more  than  four  times  a  dav.  It  was,  however, 
soon  discovered  that  iron  bullets,  of  much  less 
weight,  would  be  more  efficacious  if  impelled 
by  quantities  of  stronger  powder.  This  oc- 
casioned an  alteration  in  the  matter  and  form  of 
the  cannon,  which  were  now  cast  of  brass.  These 
were  lighter  and  more  manageable  than  the  for- 
mer, and  at  the  same  time  stronger  in  proportion 
to  their  bort. 

By  these  means  powder  compounded  in  the 
manner  now  practised  over  all  Europe  came 
first  in  use.  But  the  change  of  the  proportion 
of  materials  was  not  the  only  improvement. 
The  method  of  graining  was  of  great  advantage. 
The  additional  strength  which  the  grained  pow- 
der was  found  to  acquire,  from  the  free  passage 
of  the  air  between  the  grains,  occasioned  the 
meal  powder  to  be  entirely  laid  aside. 

For  the  last  250  years  the  formation  of  can- 
non has  been  little  improved ;  the  best  pieces  of 
modern  artillery  differing  little  in  their  propor- 
tions from  those  used  in  the  time  of  Charles  V. 
Indeed  lighter  and  shorter  pieces  have  been  often 
proposed  and  essayed;  but,  t^^ough  they  have 
advantages  in  particular  cases,  yet  it  seems  now 
to  be  agreed  Uiat  they  are  altogether  insufficient 


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140 


PROJECTILES. 


for  seneral  aenrice.  On  the  whole,  however, 
•mall  pieces  of  artillery  have  been  brought  into 
use:  tnua  the  battering  pieces  now  approved 
are  the  demi-cannon  of  former  times ;  it  being 
found  that  their  stroke,  though  less  violent  than 
that  of  a  larger  piece,  is  yet  sufficientlv  adapted 
to  the  strength  of  the  usual  profiles  of  fortifica- 
tion ;  and  that  the  fiicility  of  their  carriage  and 
management,  and  the  ammunition  tbcfy  spare, 
give  Uiem  great  advantages  beyond  the  whole 
cannon  formerly  employed.  The  method  of 
making  a  breach,  by  first  cutting  off  the  whole 
'wall  as  low  as  possible  before  its  upper  part  is 
attempted  to  be  beaten  dovm,  seems  also  to  be  a 
considerable  modem  improvement.  But  the 
most  important  advance  in  this  art  is  the  method 
of  firing  with  small  quantities  of  powder,  and 
elevating  the  piece  so  that  the  bullet  may  just  go 
clear  of  the  parapet  of  the  enemy,  and  drop  into 
his  works.  By  these  means  the  bullet,  comine 
to  the  ground  at  a  small  ande,  and  with  a  small 
velocity,  does  not  bury  itself,  but  bounds  or  rolls 
alon{?  in  the  direction  in  which  it  was  fired :  and 
therefore,  if  the  piece  be  placed  in  a  line  with 
the  battery  it  is  intended  to  silence,  or  the  front 
it  is  to  sweep,  each  shot  rakes  the  whole  length 
of  that  battery  or  fit»nt ;  and  has  thereby  a  much 
ffreater  chai^ce  of  disabling  the  defendants,  and 
dismounting  their  cannon.  This  method  was  in- 
vented by  Vauban,  and  was  by  him  styled  Bat- 
terie  4  Ricochet  It  was  first  practised  in  1692 
at  the  siege  of  Aeth.  Something  similar  was  prac- 
tised by  the  king  of  Prussia  at  the  battle  of  Kos- 
bach,  in  1757. 

PART  I. 
THEORY  OF  PROJECTILES. 

Sect.  I. — Op  the  Effects  of  Geavity  on  Peo- 
JECTED  Bodies. 
It  has  been  demonstrated  that  a  body  pro- 
jected in  the  usual  way  from  the  surface  of  the 
earth  in  the  atmosphere,  must  describe  a  conic 
section,  having  the  centre  of  the  earth  in  one 
focus,  and  that  it  will  describe  round  that  focus 
areas  proportional  to  the  times  :  it  follows  that, 
if  the  Telocity  of  projection  exceeds  36,700  feet 
in  a  sucond,  the  body  (if  not  resisted  by  the  air) 
would  describe  a  hyperbola  ;  if  it  be  just  36,700 
it  would  describe  a  parabola ;  and,  if  it  be  less, 
it  would  describe  an  ellipsis.  If  projected  di- 
rectly upwards,  in  the  first  case,  it  would  never 
return,  but  proceed  for  ever ;  its  velocity  con- 
tinually diminishing,  but  never  becoming  less 
than  an  assignable  portion  of  the  excess  of  the 
initial  velocity  above  36,700  feet  in  a  second ;  in 
the  second  case  it  would  never  return,  its  velo- 
city would  diminish  without  end,  hut  never  be 
extinguished.  In  the  third  case,  it  would  proceed 
till  its  velocity  was  reduced  loan  assignable  por- 
tion of  the  difierence  between  36700  and  its 
initial  velocity ;  and  would  then  return,  regain- 
ing its  velocity  by  the  same  degrees,  and  in  the 
same  places  as  it  lost  it  These  are  necessary 
consequences  of  a  gravity  directed  to  the  centre 
of  the  earth,  and  inversely  proportional  to  the 
square  of  the  distance.  But,  in  the  greatest  pro- 
jections that  we  are  able  to  make,  the  gravita- 
tions are  so  nearly  equal,  and  in  directions  to 


nearly  parallel,  that  it  would  be  ridiculous  affec- 
tation to  pay  any  regard  to  the  deyiations  from 
equality  and  parallelism.  A  bullet  rising  a  mile 
above  the  surfiice  of  the  earth  loses  only  ^  of 
its  weight,  arid  a  horizontal  range  of  four  miles 
only  four  of  deviation  from  parallelism.  Gravi- 
tation may  be  therefore  assumed  as  equal  and 
parallel.  The  errors  arising  from  this  assump- 
tion are  quite  insensible  in  all. the  uses  which 
can  be  made  of  this  theory ;  which  was  the  first 
fruits  of  mathematical  philosophy,  and  the  effort 
of  the  genius  of  the  great  Galileo. 

Gravity  is  a  constant  or  uniform  acceleratiiig 
or  retardmg  force,  according  as  it  produces  the 
descent,  or  retards  the  ascent,  of  a  body :  and, 
all  other  forces  being  ascertained  by  ^e  accele- 
rations which  they  produce,  they  are  convenient- 
ly measured  by  comparing  their  accelerations 
with  the  acceleration  of  gravity.  This  therefore 
has  been  assumed  by  all  the  latest  and  b^t 
writers  on  mechanical  philosophy,  as  the  unit  by 
which  ever^  other  force  is  measured.  It  gives  a 
perfectly  distinct  notion  of  the  force  which  re- 
tains the  moon  in  its  orbit,  to  say  it  is  the  3600th 
part  6f  the  weight  of  the  moon  at  the  surface  of 
the  earth  :  i.  e.  if  a  bullet  were  here  weighed  by 
a  spring  steel-yard,  and  pulled  it  out  to  the  mark 
3600,  if  it  were  then  taken  to  the  distance  of  the 
moon,  it  would  pull  it  out  only  to  the  mark  1 . 
This  assertion  is  made  from  observibg  that  a 
body  at  the  distance  of  the  moon  fells  from  that 
distance  ^  part  of  sixteen  feet  in  a  second. 
Forces  therefore  which  are  imperceptible  are  not 
compared,  but  the  accelerations,  which  are  tlieir 
indications,  effects,  and  measures.  For  this  rea- 
son philosophers  have  been  anxious  to  determine 
with  precision  the  &U  of  heavy  bodies,  to  have 
an  exact  value  of  the  accelerating  power  of  ter- 
restrial gravity.  This  measure  may  be  taken  in 
two  ways ;  bv  taking  the  space  through  which 
the  heavy  body  falls  in  a  second ;  ortiie  velocity 
which  it  acquires  in  consequence  of  gravity 
having  acted  on  it  during  a  second.  The  last  is 
the  proper  measure;  for  the  last  is  the  imme- 
diate effect  on  the  body.  The  action  of  gravity 
has  changed  the  state  of  the  body,  by  giving  it  a 
determination  to  motion  downward :  this  both 
points  out  the  kind  and  tiie  degree  or  intensity 
of  the  force  of  gravity.  The  space  described 
in  a  second  by  falling  is  not  an  mvariable  mea- 
sure; for,  in  the  successive  seconds,  the  body 
falU  through  16,  48,  80, 112,  &c.,  feet,  but  the 
changes  of  the  body's  state  in  each  second  is  the 
same.  At  the  beginning  it  had  no  determina- 
tion to  move  with  any  appreciable  velocity  ;  at 
the  end  of  tlie  first  second  it  had  a  determination 
by  which  it  would  have  gone  on  for  ever  (had  no 
subsequent  fprce  acted  on  it)  at  the  rate  of 
thirty-two  feet  per  second.  At  the  end  of  the 
second  second,  it  had  a  determination  by  which 
it  would  have  moved  for  ever,  at  the  rate  of 
sixty-four  feet  per  second.  At  the  end  of  the 
third  second,  it  had  a  determination  by  which 
it  would  have  moved  for  'ever,  at  the  rate  of 
ninety-six  feet  per  second,  &c.  &c.  The  differ- 
ence of  these  determinations  is  a  determination 
to  the  rate  of  thirty-two  feet  per  second.  This 
is  therefore  constant,  and  the  indication  and 
proper   measure  of  the  constant  or  invariable 


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PROJECTILES. 


141 


ftfce  of  gravitv.  The  space  fallen  through  m 
the  first  second  is  of  use  only  as  it  is  one-half  of 
the  measure  of  this  determination ;  and,  as  halves 
have  the  proportion  of  their  wholes,  different 
accelerating  forces  may  be  ^ely  aflBrmed  to  be 
in  the  proportion  of  the  spaces  through  which 
they  uniformly  impel  bodies  in  the  same  time. 
But  we  must  always  irecollect  that  this  is  but 
one-half  of  the  true  measure  of  the  accelerating 
force.  Mathematicians  of  the  first  rank  have  com- 
mitted great  mistakes  by  not  attending  to  this ;  and 
it  is  necessary  to  notice  it  here,  because  cases  will 
occur,  in  the  prosecution  of  this  subject,  whete 
we  shall  be  very  apt  to  confound  our  reasonings 
by  a  confusion  in  the  use  of  those  measures. 

Sect.  II. — Of  the  Measure  of  the  accele- 
RATivE  Power  op  Oravitt. 
The  accurate  measure  of  the  accelerative  power 
of  gravity  is  the  fall  16^  feet,  if  measured  by 
the  space,  or  the  velocity  of  32}  feet  per  second, 
if  the  velocity  be  taken.  It  will  greatly  facilitate 
ealcalation,  and  will  be  sufficiently  exact  for 
every  purpose,  to  take  16  and  32,  supposing 
that  a  body  falls  sixteen  feet  in  a  secona,  and 
acquires  the  Telocity  of  thirty^-two  feet  per  second. 
Then,  because  the  heights  are  as  the  squares  of 
the  times,  and  as  the  squares  of  the  acquired  ve- 
locities, a  body  will  fall  ^^^  ^^^  ^°  <>°6  fourth  of 
a  second,  and  will  acquire  the  velocity  of  eight 
feet  per  second.  Let  k  express  the  height  in 
feet,  and  call  it  the  producing  height;  v  the  ve- 
locity in  feet  per  second,  and  call  it  the  produced 
velocity,  the  velocity  due;  and  t  the  time  in 
seconds. — ^The  following  formuls,  which  are  of 
easy  recollection,  will  serve,  without  tables,  to 
answer  all  questions  relative  to  projectiles. 
I.    »  =  8  V  ^  =  8  X  4  r,  =  32  * 


II     i-^-L 
iA-    «-     4  '-32 


III. 


V^A=:5,  =  4* 


IV.A=^,=  16^« 

To  give  some  examples  of  their  use,  let  it  be 
leqoired, 

1.  To  find  the  time  of  falling  through  256  feet. 

Here A:=  256,  ^  256 z=  16, and  -j-  =4.  An- 
swer 4'. 

2.  To  find  the  velocity  acquired  by  falling  four 
seconds.    «  a=  4 '  32  X  4  ==  128  feet  per  second. 

3.  To  find  the  velocity  acquired  by  falling  625 
feet.  A=625is/A  =  25'8  V*  =  200feet 
per  second. 

4.  To  find  the  height  to  which  a  body  will  rise 
when  projected  vnth  the  velocity  of  fifty-six  feet 
per  second,  or  the  height  through  which  a  body 
must  fidl  to  adijuire  this  velocity. 

«  =  56- ^  =  7,  =  >/ A  •  r  =  A,  =  49  feet. 


8 
or  56«  =  3136 


3136 
64 


=  49  feet. 


5.  Suppose  a  body  projected  directly  down- 
wards with  the  veloci^  of  ten  feet  per  second ; 
what  will  be  its  velocity  after  four  seconds?  In 
four  seconds  it  will  have  acquired,  by  the  action 
of  gravity,  the  velocity  of  4  x  32,  or  t28  feet, 


and  therefore  its  whole  velocity  will  be  138  feet 
per  second. 

6.  To  find  how  far  it  will  have  moved,  com- 
pound its  motion  of  projection,  which  will  be 
rorty  feet  in  four  seconds,  vnth  the  motion  which 
gravity  alone  would  have  given  it  in  that  time, 
which  is  256  feet;  and  the  whole  motion  will  be 
296  feet. 

7.  Suppose  the  body  projected  as  already 
mentionea,  and  that  it  is  required  to  detenbine 
the  time  it  will  take  to'  go  296  feet  downwards, 
and  the  velocity  it  will  have  acquired.  Find  the 
height  X,  through  which  it  must  fall  to  acquire 
the  velocity  of  projection,  ten  feet,  and  the  .time 
y  of  falling  from  this  height.  Then  find  the  time 
z  of  falling  through  the  height  296  +  x,  and  the 
velocity  v  acquired  by  this  fall.  The  time  of 
describing  the  296  feet  will  he  z  ^y,  andn;  is 
the  velocity  required.  From  such  examples  it 
is  easy  to  see  the  way  of  answering  every  ques- 
tion of  the  kind. 

Writers  on  the  higher  parts  of  mechanics  al- 
ways compute  the  actions  of  other  accelerating 
and  retarding  forces,  by  comparing  them  with 
the  acceleration  of  gravity ;  and,  to  render  their 
expressions  more  general,  use  a  symbol,  such  as 
f  for  gravity,  leaving  the  reader  to  convert  it 
into  numbers.  Agreeably  to  this  view,  the  ge- 
neral formulae  will  stand  thus : 

I.     t;  =  v'  2  gAj.e.  >/  2  ^  >/  A,  =  gjf, 

III.A=H^«iJ! 
2^  2 

Gravity,  or  its  acc^erating  power,  is  estimated 
in  all  these  equations,  as  it  ought  to  be,  by  the 
ch^ge  of  velocity  vrhich  it  generates  in  a  par- 
ticle of  matter  in  a  unit  of  time.  But  many 
mathematicians,  in  their  investigations  of  curvi- 
lineal  and  other  varied  motions,  measure  it  by 
the  deflection  which  it  produces  in  this  time  from 
the  tangent  of  the  curve,  or  by  the  increment  by 
which  the  space  described  in  a  unit  of  time  ex- 
ceeds the  space  described  in  the  preceding*  unit, 
Hiis  is  but  one-half  of  the  increment  which  gra- 
vity would  have  produced,  had  the  body  moved 
through  the  whole  moment  with  the  acquired 
addition  of  velocity.  In  this  sense  of  the  symbol 
g,  the  equations  stand  thus : 
I.    v^2^  i^,^2gi 

'lV.A=^^,  =  g^»,andVA=^ 

It  is  likewise  very  common  to  consider  the 
acoeleratmg  force  of  gravity  as  the  unit  of  com- 
parison. This  renders  the  expressions  much 
more  simple.  In  this  way  v  expresses  not  the 
velocity,  but  the  height  necessaiy  for  acquiring 
it,  and  the  velocity  itself  is  expressed  by  ^  v. 
To  reduce  such  an  expression  of  a  veloci^  to 
numbers,  multiply  it  by  >/  2g,  or  by  2  >/g. 
according  as  g  is  the  generated  velocity,  or  the 
space  fallen  Sirough  in  the  unit  of  time.  This 
will  suffice  for  the  perpendicular  ascents  or  d^ 
scents  of  heavy  bodies ;  and  we  proceed  to  con* 

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142 


PROJEGTILES. 


aider  their  motions  when  projected  obliquely. 
The  circumstance  which  renders  this  an  interest- 
ing subject  Ls  that  the  flight  of  cannon  shot  and 
shells  are  instances  of  such  motion,  and  the  art 
of  gunnery  must  in  a  great  measure  depend  on 
this  doctrine*  Let  a  body  '  Fig.  1. 

B  (fig.  1)  be  projected 
in  any  direction,  B  C,  not 
perpendicular  to  the  ho- 
rizon, and  with  any  Te- 
locity. Let  A  B  be  the 
height  producing  this 
Telocity ;  that  is,  let  the 
Telocity  be  that  which 
a  heavy  body  would  ac- 

auire  by  falling  freely 
trough  A  B.  it  is  re- 
quired to  determine  the 
path  of  the  body,  and 
all  the  circumstances  of 
its  motion  in  this  path  ? 

1.  By  the  continual 
action  of  gravity,  the 
body  will  be  contimiaUy 
deflected  from  the  line 
BC,  and,  will  describe 
a  curve  line  B  V  G,  con- 
cave towards  the  earth. 

2.  This  curve  line  is 
a  parabola,  of  which  the  Tertioal  line  ABE  is 
diameter,  B  the  vertex  of  this  diameter,  and  B  C 
a  tangent  in  B.  Through  any  two  points,  V  G, 
of  the  curve  draw  VC,  GH,  parallel  to  AB, 
meeting  BCin  C  and  H,  and  draw  V£,  GK, 
parallel  to  BC,  meeting  AB  in  £,  K.  It  fol- 
lows, from  the  composition  of  motions,  that  the 
body  would  arrive  at  the  points  V,  G,  of  the  curve 
in  the  same  time  that  it  would  have  uniformly 
described  BC,  BH,  with  the  velocity  of  projec- 
tion ;  or  that  it  would  have  fallen  througn  B  £, 
BK,  with  a  motion  uniformly  accelerated  by 
gravity i  therefore  the  times  of  describing  BC, 
BU,  uniformly,  are  the  same  with  the  time  of 
falling  tlirough  BE,  BK.  But,  because  the  mo- 
tion Edong  BH  is  uniform,  BC  is  to  BH  as  the 
time  of  describing  B  C  to  the  time  oi  describing 
BH,  which  we  may  express  thus,  BC  :  BH  = 
T,  BC:T,BH,  =  T,BE:T,  BK.  But,  be- 
cause the  motion  along  B  K  is  uniformly  acce- 
lerated, we  have  BE:  BK  ==  T*,  BE  :  T*,  BK, 
=  BC»  :  BH«,  =  EV» :  KG«;  therefore  the 
curve  B  VG  is  such,  that  the  abscisss  BE,  BK, 
are  as  the  squares  of  the  corresponding  ordinates 
EV,  KG;  that  is,  the  curve  BVG  is  a  para- 
bola, and  BC,  parallel  to  the  ordinates,  is  a  tan- 
gent in  the  point  B. 

3.  If  the  horizontal  line  AD<2  be  drawn 
through  the  point  A,  it  is  the  directrix  of  the 
|>arabola.  Let  B  E  be  taken  equal  to  A  B.  The 
time  of  falling  through  B  E  is  equal  to  the  time 
of  falling  through  AB;  but  BC  is  described 
with  the  velocity  acquired  by  falling  through 
AB :  and  therefore  by  number  4  of  perpendicu- 
lar descents,  BC  is  double  of  AB,  and  E  V  is 
double  of  B E;  therefore,  E V«  =  4  BE»,  =  4 
BE  X  AB,=zB£  X  4AB,  and4AB  is  the 
parameter  orlatus  rectum  of  the  parabola  BVG, 
and,  A  B  being  one  fourth  of  the  parameter,  A  D 

..is  the  directrix. 


4.  The  times  of  describing  the  different  arches 
B  V,  V  G,  of  the  parabola  are  as  the  portions  B  C, 
BH,  of  the  tangent,  or  as  the  portions  AD,  Ady 
of  the  directrix,  intercepted  by  the  same  vertical 
lines  AB,  C  V,  HG;  for  die  times  of  describing 
B  V,  B  V  G,  are  the  same  with  those  of  describing 
the  corresponding  parts  B  C,  B  H,  of  the  tangent, 
and  are  proportional  to  these  parts,  because  the 
motion  along  BH  is  uniform;  and  BC,  BH,  are 
proportional  to  AD,  A  ^.  Therefore  the  motion 
estimated  horizontally  is  uniform. 

5.  The  velocity  in  any  point  G  of  the  curve  is 
the  same  with  that  which  a  heavy  body  would 
acquire  by  ^ling  from  the  directrix  along  d  G. 
Draw  the  tangent  GT,  cutting  the  vertical  AB 
in  T ;  take  the  points  a,  /,  equidistant  from  A 
and  a,  and  extremely  near  them,  and  draw  the 
verticles  a  b,fg;  let  the  points  a^f,  continually 
approach  A  and  d,  and  ultimately  coincide  with 
them.  B  b  will  therefore  ultimately  be  to  g  G 
ia  the  ratio  of  the  velocity  at  B  to  the  velocity  at 
G  (for  the  portions  of  the  tangent  ultimately 
coincide  with  the  portions  of  the  curves  and  are 
described  in  equal  times) ;  but  B  6  is  to  G  g  as 
BH  to  TG :  therefore  the  velocity  at  B  is  to  that 
at  G  as  BH  to  TG.  But,  by  the  properties  of 
the  parabola,  BH*  is  to  TG*  as  AB  to  <2G;  and 
A  B  is  to  dG  as  the  square  of  the  velocity  ac- 

auired  by  falling  through  A  B  to  the  square  of 
le  velocity  acquired  by  falling  through  dG; 
and  the  velocity  in  BH,  or  in  the  point  B  of  the 
parabola,  is  the  velocity  acquired  by  falling  along 
AB;  therefore  the  velocity  in  TG,  or  in  tlie 
point  G  of  the  parabola,  is  the  velocity  acquired 
by  falling  along  d  G. 

The  preceding  propositions  contain  all  the 
theory  of  the  motion  of  projectiles  in  vacuo,  or 
independent  on  the  resistance  of  the  air;  and 
being  a  very  easy  and  neat  exhibition  of  mathe- 
matical philosophy,  «nd  connected  with  a  veiy 
interesting  practice,  they  have  been  much  com- 
mented on,  and  have  furnished  matter  for  many 
splendid  volumes.  But  the  resistance  of  the  air 
occasions  such  a  prodigious  diminution  of  mo- 
tion in  the  great  velocities  of  military  projectiles, 
that  this  parabolic  theory,  as  it  is  call^,  is  of 
little  practical  use.  A  musket  ball,  discharged 
with  the  ordinary  allotment  of  powder,  issues 
firom  the  piece  with  the  velocity  of  1670  feet  per 
second :  this  velocity  would  be  acquired  by  fall- 
ing from  the  height  of  eight  miles.  If  the  piece 
be  elevated  to  an  angle  of  45°,  the  parabola 
should  be  of  such  extent  that  it  would  reach  six- 
teen miles  on  the  horizontal  plain;  whereas  it 
does  not  reach  much  above  half  a  mile%  Simi- 
lar deficiencies  are  observed  in  the  ranges  of 
cannon  shot.  It  is  unnecessary,  therefore,  to 
enlarge  upon  this  theory.  '. 

Facts  prove,  beyond  all  doubt,  how  deficient 
the  parabolic  theory  is,  and  how  unfit  for  direct- 
ing the  practice  of  the  artillerist.  A  very  simple 
consideration  is  sufficient  for  rendering  this  ob- 
vious to  the  most  uninstructed.  The  resistance 
of  the  air  to  a  very  light  body  may  greatly  exceed 
its  weight.-  Any  one  will  feel  Uiis  in  trying  to 
move  a  fan  very  rapidly  through  the  air ;  there- 
fore this  resistance  would  occasion  a  greater  de- 
viation from  uniform  motion  than  gravity  would 
in  that  body.    Its  path,  therefore,  through  the 


Digitized  by 


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.PROJECTILES. 


143 


ur  ia»y  differ  more  from  a  parabola  than  a  para- 
bola itself  deviates  from  the  straight  line.  For 
these  reasons,  we  affirm  that  the  voluminous 
treatises  which  have  been  published  on  this  sub- 
ject are  nothing  but  ingenious  amusements  for 
young  mathematicians.  All  that  seems  possible 
to  do  for  the  practical  artillerist  is,  to  multiply 
jadicioos  experiments  on  real  pieces  of  ordnance, 
with  the  charges  that  are  used  in  actual  service, 
and  to  furnish  him  with  tables  calculated  from 
soch  experiments. 

Sect.  III.^-Of  the  Causes  of  the  Deficiency 
OF  THE  Parabolic  Theory. 

It  is,  however,  the  business  of  the  philosopher 
to  encjuire  into  the  causes  of  such  a  prodigious 
deviauon  from  a  well  founded  theory ;  and,  hav- 
ing discovered  them,  to  ascertain  precisely  the 
delations  they  occasion.  Thus  we  shall  obtain 
another  theory,  either  in  the  form  of  the  parabo- 
lic theory  corrected,  or  as  a  subject  of  independ- 
ent discussion. 

The  motion  of  projectiles  being  performed  in 
the  atmosphere,  tne  air  is  displaced,  or  put  in 
motion.  Whatever  motion  it  acquires  must  be 
taken  from  the  bullet.  The  motion  communi- 
cated to  the  air  must  be  in  the  proportion  of  the 
quantity  of  air  put  in  motion,  and  of  the  velocity 
communicated  to  it;  If,  therefore,  the  displaced 
air  be  always  similarly  displaced,  whatever  be 
the  velocity  of  the  buUet,  tne  motion  communi- 
cated to  it,  and  lost  by  the  bullet,  must  be  pro- 
portional to  the  square  of  the  velocity  of  the 
Dullet  and  to  the  density  of  the  air  jointly. 
Therefore  the  diminution  of  its  motion  must  be 
greater  when  the  motion  itself  is  greater;  and  in 
the  very  great  velocity  of  shot  and  shells  it  must 
be  prodigious.  From  Mr.  Hobins's  experiment:) 
it  is  plain  that  a  globe  of  four  inches  and  a  half 
in  diameter,  moving  with  the  velocity  of  twenty- 
five  feet  in  a  second,  sustained  a  resistance  of 
315  grains,  nearly  three-quarters  of  an  ounce. 
Suppose  this  ball  to  move  800  feet  in  a  second, 
that  is,  thirty-two  times  faster,  its  resistance 
would  be  32  X  32  times  three-quarters  of  an 
ounce,  or  768  ounces,  or  forty -eight  pounds. 
Tliis  is  four  times  the  weight  of  a  ball  of  cast 
iron  of  this  diameter ;  and,  if  the  initial  velocity 
had  been  1600  feet  per  second,  the  resistance 
would  be  at  least  sixteen  times  the  weight  of  the 
baU.    It  is  indeed  much  greater. 

So  great  a  resistance,  operating  constantly  and 
uniformly  on  the  ball,  must  take  away  four  times 
as  much  from  its  velocity  as  its  gravity  would  do 
in  the  same  time.  In  one  second  gravity  would 
reduce  the  velocity  800  to  768,  if  the  ball  were 
V  projected  straight  upwards.  This  resistance  of 
the  air  would  therefore  reduce  it  in  one  second 
to  672,  if  it  operated  uniformly ;  but  as  tbe  ve- 
locity diminisnes  continually  by  the  resistance, 
and  the  resistance  diminishes  along  with  tlie  ve- 
locity, the  real  diminution  will  be  somewhat  less 
than  128  fipet  We  shall,  however,  find,  that  in 
one  second  its  velocity  will  be  reduced  from 
800  to  687.  From  this  instance  it  is  clear  that 
the  resistance  of  the  air  must  occasion  great  de- 
viation from  parabolic  motion. 

To  judge  accurately  of  its  effect,  we  must 
consider  it  as  a  retarding  force,  as  we  consider 


gravity.    Tbe  weight  W  of  a  bodv  is  the  aggre^ 

gate  of  the  action  of  the  force  of  gravity  g  on 

each  particle  of  the  body.    Suppose  the  number 

of  equal  particles,  or  the  quantity  of  matter,  of  a 

body,  to  be  M,  then  W  is  equivalent  to  g  M.  In 

like  manner,  the  resistance  R,  observed  in  any 

experiment,  is  the  aggregate  of  the  action  of  a 

retarding  force  R'  on  each  particle,  and  is  equi- 

W 
valent  to  R'  M :  and  as  g  is  equal  to  -rr,  so  R' 

R  ^ 

is  equal  to  :j-r.    Let  us  keep  this  distinction  in 

view,  by  adding  tbe  differential  mark  '  to  the  let- 
ter R  or  r,  which  expresses  the  aggregate  resist- 
ance. 

If  we  thus  consider  resistance  as  a  retarding 
force,  we  can  compare  it  with  any  other  such 
force  by  means  of  the  retardation  which  it  pro- 
duces in  similar  circumstances.  We  would 
compare  it  with  gravity  by  comparing  the  dimi- 
nution of  velocity  which  its  uniform  action  pro- 
duces in  a  given  time  with  the  diminution  pro- 
duced in  the  same  time  by  gravity.  But  we 
have  no  opportunity  of  doing  this  directly ;  for, 
when  the  resistance  of  the  air  diminishes  the  ve- 
locity of  a  body,  it  diminishes  it  gradually, 
which  occasions  a  gradual  diminution  of  its  own 
intensity.  Thb  is  not  the  case  with  gravity, 
which  has  the  same  action  on  a  body  in  motion 
or  at  rest.  We  cannot,  therefore,  observe  th? 
uniform  action  of  the  resistance  of  the  air  as  a 
retarding  force.  We  must  make  the  comparison 
in  some  other  way.  We  can  state  them  ooth  as 
dead  pressures.  A  ball  may  be  fitted  to  the  rod 
of  a  spring  steelyard,  and  exposed  to  tbe  impulse 
of  the  wind.  This  will  compress  the  steelyard  to 
the  mark  3,  for  instance.  Perhaps  the  weight  of 
this  ball  will  compress  it  to  the  mark  6.  Half 
this  weight  would  compress  it  to  3.  We  reckon 
this  equal  to  the  pressure  of  the  air,  because 
they  balance  the  same  elasticity  of  the  spring. 
In  this  way  we  can  estimate  the  resistance  by 
weights  whose  pressures  are  equal  to  its  pres- 
sure; and  we  can  thus  compare  it  with  other 
resistances,  weighs,  or  any  other  pressures.  In 
fact,  we  are  measuring  them  by  all  the  elasticity 
of  the  spring.  This  ekisticity  in  its  different 
positions  is  supposed  to  have  tbe  proportions  of 
the  weights  wnicb  keep  it  in  these  positions. 
Thus  we  reason  from  the  nature  of  giavity,  no 
longer  considered  as  a  dead  pressure,  but  as  a 
retarding  force ;  and  we  apply  our  conclusions 
to  resistances  which  exhibit  the  same  pressures, 
but  which  we  cannot  make  to  act  uniformly. 
This  sense  of  the  words  must  be  remembered 
whenever  we  speak  of  resistances  in  pounds  and 
ounces. 

The  most  convenient  and  direct  way  of  stating 
the  comparison  between  the  resistance  of  the  air 
and  the  accelerating  force  of  gravity,  is  to  take  a 
case  in  which  we  know  that  they  are  equal. 
Since  the  resistance  is  here  assumed  as  propor- 
tional to  the  square  of  the  velocity,  it  is  evident 
that  the  velocity  may  be  so  increased  that  the  re- 
sistance shall  equal  or  exceed  the  weight  of  the 
body.  If  a  body  be  already  moving  downwards 
with  this  velocity,  it  cannot  accelerate ;  because 
the  accelerating  force  of  navity  is  balanced  by 
an  equal  retarding  force  of  resistance.  It  follows 


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144 


PROJECTILES. 


from  this  remftric  that  this  velocity  is  the  greatest 
that  a  body  can  acquire  by  the  force  of  gravity 
only.  Nay,  we  shall  see  that  it  never  can  com- 
pletely attain  it ;  because,  as  it  aproaches  to  this 
velocity,  the  remaining  accelerating  force  de- 
creases faster  than  the  velocity  increases.  It 
may  therefore  be  called  the  limiting  or  terminal 
velocity  by  gravity. 

Let  a  be  the  height  through  which  a  heavy 
oody  must  (all,  in  vacuo,  to  acquire  its  terminal 
velocity  in  air.  If  projected  directly  upwards 
with  this  velocity,  it  will  rise  again  toUiis  neight, 
and  the  height  is  half  the  space  which  it  would 
describe  uniformly,  with  this  velocity,  in  the  time 
of  its  ascent.  Therefore,  the  resistance  to  this 
velocity  being  equal  to  tlie  weight  of  the  body, 
it  would  extinguish  this  velocity,  by  its  uniform 
action,  in  the  same  time,  and  after  the  same  dis- 
tance, that  gravity  would.  Now  let  ^  be  the 
velocity  which  gravity  generates  or  extinguishes 
during  an  unit  of  time,  and  let «  be  the  terminal 
velocity  of  any  particular  body.    The  theorems 

for  perpendicular  ascents  give  us  g  =  --^  » 

and  a  being  both  numbers  representing  units  of 
space ;  therefore,  in  the  present  case,  we  have 

K  s=  --'.     For  the  whole  resistance  r,  or  KM, 

is  supposed  equal  to  the  weight,  or  to  gM; 

and  therefore  r  is  equal  to  f,  =  -r-  and  2  a= 

— .    There  is  a  consideration  which  ought  to 

have  place  here.  A  body  descends  in  air,  not 
by  the  whole  of  its  weight,  but  by  the  excess  of 
its  weight  above  that  of  the  air  which  it  displaces. 
It  descends  by  its  specific  gravity  only  as  a  stone 
does  in  water.  Suppose  a  body  thirty-two  times 
heavier  than  air,  it  will  be  buoyed  up  by  a  force 

«qual  to  x^  of  its  weight ;  and,  instead  of  acquir- 
ing the  velocity  of  thirty-two  feet  in  a  second,  it 
wSl  only  acquire  a  velocity  of  thirty-one,  even 
though  it  sustained  no  resistance  from  the  inertia 
of  the  air.  Let  p  be  the  weight  of  the  body,  and 
w  that  of  an  equal  bulk  of  air  :  the  accelerative 
force  of  relative  gravity  on  each  particle  will  be 

g  X  1  -^  -;  and  this  relative  accelerating  force 

P 
might  be  distinguished  by  another  symbol  y. 
But  in  all  cases  in  which  we  have  any  interest, 

and  particularly  in  military  projectiles,  —  is   so 

small  a  quantity  that  it  would  be  pedantic  af- 
fectation to  attend  to  it  It  is  much  more  than 
compensated  when  we  make  g  =  32  feet,  in- 
stead of  32^,  which  it  should  be. 

Let  e  be  the  time  of  this  ascent  in  opposition 
to  gravity.  The  same  theorems  give  us  e  u  =  2 
a;  and,  since  the  resistance  competent  to  this 
termimd  velocity  is  equal  to  gravity,  e  will  also 
be  the  time  in  which  it  would  be  extinguished 
by  the  uniform  action  of  the  resistance;  for 
which  reason  we  may  call  it  the  extinguishing 
time  for  thb  velocity.  Let  R  and  £  mark  the 
resistance  and  extinguishing  time  for  the  same 
body  moving  with  the  velocity  1. 

As  the  resistances  are  as  the  squares  of  the  ve- 


locities, and  the  resistance  (o  the  velocity  u  is 

a*  1 

^— ,  R  will  be  =i=  ^r-.    Moreover,  the  times  in 

which  the  same  velocity  will  be  extinguished  by 
different  forces,  acting  uniformly,  are  inversely 
as  the  forces,  and  gravity  would  extinguish  the 

velocity  1  in  the  time  -  =  (in  these  measures) 

1  2a     _^ 

to  -5,  n  -;p.    Therefore  we  have  the  following 

2  a  ^  s  A 
proportion,  — (=  R)  :  ii-  (=  g)  =  -^:  2  a, 

and  2  a  is  equal  to  E,  the  time  in  which  the  ve- 
locity 1  will  be  extinguished  by  the  uniform  ac- 
tion of  the  resistance  competent  to  thii  velocity. 
The  velocity  1  would  in  tnis  case  be  extinguish- 
ed after  a  motion  uniformly  retarded,  in  which 
the  space  described  is  one-lmlf  of  what  would  be 
uniformly  described  during  the  same  time  with 
the  constant  velocity  1.  Therefore  the  space 
thus  described  by  a  motion  which  begins  ¥nth 
the  velocity  1,  and  is  uniformly  retarded  by  the 
resistance  competent  to  this  velocity,  is  equal 
to  the  height  through  which  this  body  roust  fall 
in  vacuo  in  order  to  acquire  its  terminal  velocity 
in  air. 

The  following  description  may  render  all  these 
circumstances  more  easily  conceived  by  some 
readers.  The  terminal  velocity  is  that  where  the 
resistance  of  the  air  balances  and  is  equal  to  the 
weight  ot  the  body.  The  resistance  of  the  air  to 
any  particular  body  is  as  the  square  of  the  velo- 
city ;  therefore  let  R  be  the  whole  resistance  to 
the  bddy  moving  with  the  velocity  1,  and  r  the 
resistance  to  its  motion  with  the  terminal  velocity 
tt ;  we  must  have  r  =:  R  x  u^y  and  this  must  be 
z:  W,  the  weight.  Therefbre,  to  obtain  the  ter- 
minal velocity,  divide  the  weight  by  the  resist- 
ance to  the  velocity  1,  and  the  quotient  is  the 

W 
square  of  the  terminal  velocity,  or  tt-  zi  «* :  and 

this  is  a  very  expeditious  method  of  determining 
it,  if  R  be  previously  known.  Then  the  com- 
mon theorems  give  a,  the  bXi  necessary  for  pco- 

ducing  this  velocity  in  vacuo  =:  — ,  and  the  time 

of  the  fall  HZ  ^  =.  e,  and  eu  zz:  2  a,  =z  the 

g 
space  uniformly  described  with  the  velocity  u 
during  the  time  of  the  fall,  or  its  equal,  the  time 
of  the  extinction  by  the  uniform  action  of  the  re- 
sistance r;  and,  since  r  extinguishes  it  in  the 
time  e,  R  which  is  u*  times  smaller  will  extin- 
guish it  in  the  time  u*e,  and  R  will  extinguish 
die  velocity  1,  which  is  u  times  less  than  ti,  in 
the  time  u  e,  that  is,  in  the  time  2  a ;  and  the 
body  moving  uniformly  during  the  time  2  a  =z 
£,  with  the  velocity  1,  will  describe  the  space 
2  a ;  and  if  the  body  begin  to  move  with  the  ve- 
locity 1,  and  be  uniformly  opposed  by  the  re- 
sistance R,  it  will  be  brought  to  rest  when  it  has 
described  the  space  a ;  and  the  space  in  which 
the  resistance  to  the  velocity  1  will  extinguish 
that  veloci^  by  its  uniform  action  is  equal  to 
the  height  through  which  that  body  most  fall  in 
vacuo  in  order  to  acquire  its  terminal  velocity  in 
air.    And  thus  every  thing  is  regulated  by  the 

Digitized  by  VjUUy  IC 


PROJECTILES. 


146 


tinoe  £  in  which  the  velocity  1  is  extinguished 
by  the  unifoim  action  of  the  corresponding  re- 
sistaDce,  or  by  2  a,  which  is  the  space  uniformly 
described  during  thb  time,  with  the  yetocity  1. 
And  £  and  2a  must  be  expressed  by  the  same 
number.    It  is  a  number  ot  units,  of  time,  or  of 

length.  

ThoSy  having  ascertained  these  leading  circum^    y/2  gad^. 
stances  for  a  unit  of  velocity,  weight,  and  bulk,  *       n ' 

we  proceed  to  deduce  the  similar  circumstances 
for  any  other  magnitude ;  and,  to  avoid  unneces- 
sary complications,  we  shall  always  suppose  the 
bodies  to  be  spheres,  differing  only  in  diameter 
and  density.  First,  then,  let  the  velocity  be  in- 
creased in  the  ratio  of  1  to  v. 


creased  in  the  proportion  of  i  to  n,  the  retarding 
force  of  the  resistance  increases  in  the  same  pro- 
portion :  hence  we  easily  deduce  these  general 
expressions. 

The  terminal   velocity  =:  a  \/^d^  —  =z 


The  producing  fall  in  vacuo  =:  a  </  -. 
The  retarding  power  of  resistance  to  any  velo- 
city =r    ss:- — J— 
'  2adm 


The  resistance  will  now  be  --,  :=  r 
2a 

The  extinguishing  time  will  be— ,  =  e,  =:  — 

and  evuz  2  a;  so  that  the  rule  is  general,  that 
tlie  space*  along  which  any  velocity  will  be  ex- 
tinguished by  the  uniform  action  of  the  corre- 
sponding resistance  is  equal  to  the  height  neces- 
sary for  communicating  the  terminal  velocity  to 
that  body  by  gravity.  Fore  v  is  twice  the  space 
through  which  the  body  moves  while  the  ve- 
locity vis  extinguisbedby  the  uniform  resistance 
2dly,  Let  the  diameter  increase  in  the  propor- 
tion of  1  to  J.  The  aggregate  of  the  resistance 
changes  in  the  proportion  of  the  sur&ce  similarly 
resisted,  that  is,  in  the  proportion  of  1  to  d^.  But 
the  quantity  of  matter,  or  number  of  particles 
among  which  this  resistance  is  to  be  distributed, 
changes  in  the  proportion  of  1  to  eP.  Therefore 
the  retarding  power  of  the  resistance  changes  in 

the  proportion  of  1  to  -r-     When  the  diameter 
was  1  the  resistance  to  a  velocity  1  was  -— .  It 


most  now  be 


2  ad' 


The  time  in  which  this 


diminished  resistance  will  extinguish  the  velocity 
1  must  increase  in  the  proportion  of  the  diminu- 
tion offeree,  and  must  now  be  £</,  or  2  ad, 
and  the  space  uniformly  described  during  this 
time  with  the  initial  velocity  1  roust  be  2 ad; 
and  this  must  still  be  twice  the  height  necessary 
for  communicating  the  terminal  velocity  w  to 

this  body.    We  must  still  have  g  rr  r — -j ;   and 

^  d  d 


therefore  w*  r:  2gady  and  wr^  »J  ^g^d,  rz 

^y  2ga  »y  d.     But  tt  =:  s/  2ga,     Therefore 

the  terminal  velocity  \d  for  this  body  is  zz.  u  ^/IT; 

and  the  height  necessary  for  communicating  it  is 

ad.    Therefore  the  terminal  velocity  varies  in 

the  subduplicate  ratio  of  the  diameter  of  the  ball, 

and  the  £dl  necessary  for  producing  it  varies  in 

the  simple  ratio  of  the  diameter.    The  extin- 

Ed. 
guishing  time  for  the  velocity  v  must  now  be  — ' 

3dly,  If  the  density  of  the  ball  be  iicreased  in 
the  proportion  of  1  to  m,  the  number  v  *  niclps 
among  which  the  resistance  is  to  be  distnbuted 
is  increased  in  the  same  proportion,  and  there- 
fore the  retarding  force  of  tne  resistance  is  equally 
diminished ;  and,  if  the  density  of  the  air  is  in« 
Vol.  XVIU. 


The  extinguishing  time  for  any  velocity  v  = 
Edfif 
vn 

Thus  we  see  tliat  the  chief  circumit-nces  are 
regulated  by  the  terminal  velocity,  or  are  oonf  <f- 
niently  referred  to  it. 

To  communicate  distinct  ideas,  and  render  the 
deductions  from  these  premises  perspicuous,  it 
will  be  proper  to  assume  some  convenient  units, 
by  which  all  these  qualities  may  be  measured ; 
and,  as  this  subject  is  chiefly  interesting  in  the 
case  of  military  projectiles,  we  shall  adapt  our 
units  to  this  purpose.  Therefore  let  a  second  be 
the  unit  of  time,  a  foot  the  unit  of  space  and  ve- 
locity., an  inch  the  unit  of  diameter  of  a  ball  or 
shell,  and  a  pound  avoirdupois  the  unit  of  pres- 
sure, whether  of  weight  or  of  resistance :  there- 
fore g  is  thirty-two  feet  The  great  difficulty  is 
to  procure  an  absolute  measure  of  r,  or  u,  or  a ; 
any  one  of  these  will  determine  the  others. 

Sir  Isaac  Newton  attempted  to  determine  r  by 
theory,  and  employed  a  great  part  of  the  second 
book  of  the  Pnncipia  in  demonstrating,  that  the 
resistance  to  a  sphere  moving  with  any  velocity 
is  to  the  force  which  would  generate  or  destroy 
its  whole  motion  in  the  time  that  it  would  uni- 
formly move  over  eight-thirds  of  its  diameter 
with  this  velocity  as  the  density  of  the  air  is  to 
the  density  of  the  sphere.  This  is  equivalent  to 
demonstrating,  that  the  resistance  of  the  air  to  a 
sphere,  moving  through  it  with  a  velocity,  is 
equal  to  half  the  weight  of  a  column  of  air  hav- 
ing a  great  circle  of  the  sphere  for  its  base,  and 
for  its  altitude  the  height  from  which  a  body 
must  fall  in  vacuo  to  acquire  this  velocity.  This 
appears  firom  Newton's  demonstratiob ;  for,  let 
the  specific  gravity  of  the  air  be  to  that  of  the  ball 
as  1  to  m ;  then,  because  the  times  in  which  the 
same  velocity  will  be  extinguished  by  the  uniform 
action  of  different  forces  are  inversely  as  the 
forces,  the  resistance  to  this  velocity  would  ex- 
tinguish it  in  the  time  of  describing  eight- thirds 
md,  d  being  the  diameter  of  the  ball.  Now  1  is 
to  m  as  the  weight  of  the  displaced  air  to  the 
weight  of  the  ball,  or  as  two-thirds  of  the  diame- 
ter of  the  ball  to  the  length  of  a  column  of  air 
of  equal  weight.  Call  this  length  a ;  a  is  there- 
fore equal  to  two-thirds  m  d.  Suppose  the  ball 
to  fall  from  the  height  a  in  the  time  /,  and  ac- 
quire the  velocity  ti.  If  it  moved  uniformly  with 
this  velocity,  during  this  time,  it  would  describe 
a  space  =  2  a,  or  four-thirds  m  d.  Now  its 
weight  would  extinguish  tliis  velocity,  or  destroy 

Digitized  by  VjiUUy  IC 


146 


PROJECTILES. 


this  rootioii,  in  the  tame  time,  that  is,  in  the  time 
of  describing  fouMhirds  md;  but  the  resistance 
of  the  air  would  do  this  in  the  time  of  describing 
eight-thirds  m  d ;  that  is,  in  twice  the  time*  The 
resistance  therefore  is  equal  to  half  the  weight  of 
the  ball,  or  to  half  the  weight  of  the  column  of 
air  whose  height  is  the  height  producing  the  Te- 
locity. But  ?be  resistance  to  different  velocities 
are  as  the  squares  of  the  velocities ;  and  there- 
fore as  their  producing  heights,  and,  in  general, 
the  resistance  of  the  air  to  a  sphere  movinz  with 
any  velocity,  is  equal  to  the  half  weight  of  a  co> 
lumn  of  air  of  equal  section,  and  whose  altitude 
is  the  height  producing  the  velocity. 

The  result  of  this  investigation  has  been  ac- 
quiesced in  by  all  Sir  Isaac  Newton's  commen- 
tators. Many  faults  have  indeed  been  found 
with  his  reasoning,  and  even  with  his  principles ; 
and  it  must  be  acknowledged  that  although  this 
investigation  is  by  far  the  most  ingenious  of  any 
in  the  Principia,  and  sets  his  acuteness  and  ad- 
dress in  the  most  conspicuous  light,  his  reasoning 
is  liable  to  serious  objections,  which  his  most 
ingenious  commentators  have  not  completely  re<- 
moved.  Yet  the  conclusion  has  been  acquiesced 
in,  but  as  if  derived  from  other  principles,  or  by 
more  logical  reasoning^.  Tlie  reasonings  or  as- 
sumptions, however,  of  these  mathematicians  are 
no  better  than  Newton's ;  and  all  the  causes  of 
deviation  from  the  duplicate  ratio  of  the  veloci- 
ties, and  the  causes  of  increased  resistance,  which 
the  latter  authors  have  valued  themselves  for  dis- 
covering and  introducing  into  their  investigations, 
were  actually  pointed  out  by  Sir  Isaac  Newton, 
but  purposely  omitted  by  him  to  facilitate  the 
discussion  in  re  difficilUroa  (See  Schol.  prop. 
37.  b.  2). 

The  weight  of  a  cubic  foot  of  water  is  62^  lbs. 
and  the  medium  density  of  the  air  is  ^  of  water; 
therefore' let  a  be  the  height  producing  the  velo- 
city (in  feet),  and  d  the  diameter  of  the  ball  (in 
inches),  and  ir  the  periphery  of  a  circle  whose 
diameter  is  1 ;  the  resistance  of  the  air  will  be  = 
62i        ir  1  a       ^        ad*  . 

very  nearly,  =  i^~^^,  A  =  ^ 
pounds. 

£ramp^.— A  ball  of  cast  iron  weighing  twelve 
pounds  IS  four  inches  and  a  half  in  diameter.  Sup- 
pose this  ball  to  move  at  the  rate'of  25^  feet  in  a  se- 
cond. The  height  which  will  produce  this  velocity 
in  a  foiling  body  is  9)  feet.  The  area  of  its  great 
circle  is  0*11044  feet,  or^gn^  of  one  foot  Sup- 
pose water  to  be  840  times  heavier  than  air,  the 
weight  of  the  air  incumbent  on  this  great  circle, 
and  9{  feet  high,  is  0081151  lbs.  half  of  this  is 
0  0405755  or  '^JSIkv*  o^  nearly  A  o^  ^  pound. 
This  should  be  the  resistance  of  the  air  to  this 
motion  of  the  ball. 

It  is  proper,  in  all  matters  of  physical  discus- 
sion, to  confront  every  theoretical  conclusion 
with  experiment.  This  is  particularly  necessary 
in  the  present  instance,  because  the  theory  on 
which  this  proposition  is  founded  is  extremely 
uncertain.  Newton  speaks  of  it  with  the  most 
cautious  diffidence,  and  secures  the  justness  of 
the  conclusions  by  the  conditions  which  he  as- 


tttines  in  his  investigation.  He  describes  with 
the  greatest  precision  the  state  of  the  fluid  in 
whic£  the  body  must  move,  so  as  that  the  de- 
monstrations may  be  strict,  and  leaves  it  to  others 
to.  pronoqnce  whether  this  is  the  real  constitution 
of  our  atmosphere  It  must  be  granted  that  it  is 
not;  and  that  many  other  suppositions  have 
been  introduced  by  his  commentators  and  fol- 
lowers to  suit  his  investigation  (for  little  or 
nothing  has  been  added  to  it)  to  the  dicum- 
stanoes  of  the  case. 

Sir  Isaac  Newton  himself,  therefore,  attempt- 
ed to  compare  his  proportions  with  experiment. 
Some  were  made  by  dropping  balls  from  the 
dome  of  St.  Paul's  cathedral;  and  all  these 
showed  as  great  a  coincidence  with  his  theory  as 
th^y  did  with  each  other :  but  the  irregularities 
were  too  great  to  allo^  him  to  say  with  precision 
what  was  the  resistance.  It  appeared*  to  follow 
the  proportion  of  the  squares  of  the  velocities 
with  sufficient  exactness ;  and,  though  he  could 
not  say  that  the  resistance  was  equal  to  the  weight 
of  the  column  of  air  having  the  height  necessary 
for  communicating  the  velocity,  it  was  always 
equal  to  a  determinate  part  of  it ;  and  might  be 
stated=  na,  n  being  a  number  to  be  fixed  by 
numerous  experiments.  One  great  source  of 
uncertainty  in  his  experiments  seems  to  have 
escaped  his  observation :  the  air  in  that  dome  is 
almost  always  in  a  state  of  modon.  In  summer 
there  is  a  very  sensible  current  of  air  downwards, 
and  frequently  in  winter  it  is  upwards:  and  this 
current  bears  a  Very  great  proportion  to  the  ve- 
locity of  the  descents.  Sir  Isaac  takes  no  no- 
tice of  this.  He  made  another  set  of  experiments 
with  pendulums;  and  pointed  out  some  very 
curious  and  unexpected  circumstances  of  their 
motions  in  a  resisting  medium.  There  is  hardly 
any  part  of  his  noble  work  in  which  his  address, 
his  patience,  and  his  astonishing  penetration,  ap- 
pear in  greater  lustre.  It  requires  the  utmost 
intenseness  of  thought  to  follow  him  in  these 
disGuisitions.  Their  results  were  much  more 
unirorm,  and  confirmed  his  general  theory ;  and 
it  has  been  acquiesced  in  by  the  first  mathemati- 
cians of  Europe. 

But  the  deductions  from  this  theory  were  so 
inconsistent  with  the  observed  motions  of  mili- 
tary projectiles,  when  the  velocities  are  prodi- 
gious, that  no  application  could  be  made  which 
could  be  of  any  service  for  determining  the  path 
and  motion  of  cannon  shot  and  bombs ;  ana  al- 
though John  Bemouilli  gave,  in  1718,  a  most 
elegant  determination  of  the  trajectory  and  mo- 
tion of  a  body  projected  in  a  fluid  which  resists 
in  the  duplicate  ratio  of  the  velocities  (a  problem 
which  even  Newton  did  not  attempt),  it  has  re- 
mained a  dead  letter.  Mr.  Benjamin  Robins 
was  the  first  who  suspected  the  tn;e  cause  of  the 
imperfection  of  the  usually  received  theories ; 
and  in  1737  he  published  a  small  tract,  in  which 
he  showed  clearly  that  even  the  Newtonian 
theory  of  resistance  must  cause  a  cannon  ball, 
discharged  wi^  a  full  allotment  of  powder,  to 
deviate  farther  from  the  parabola,  in  which  it 
would  move  in  vacuo,  than  the  parabola  deviates 
from  a  straight  line.  But  he  farther  asserted, 
from  good  reasoning,  that  in  such  great  velocities 
the  resistance  must  be  much  greater  than  this 


Digitized  by  VjiUU^  IC 


PROJECTIL  E  S.  147 

theory  assigns ;  because,  besides  the  resisunce  resulting  from  Mr.  Robins*s  experiments  nearly 

arising  from  the  inertia  of  the  air  which  is  put  in  in  the  proportion  of  seven  to  ten.    Cher,  de 

motion  by  the  ball,  there  must  be  a  resistance  Borda  made  experiments  similar  to  those  of  Mr. 

arising  from  a  condensation  of  the  air  on  the  an-  Robins,  and  his  resulu  exceeded  those  of  Robins 

tenor  surface  of  the  ball,  and  a  rarefaction  be-  in  the  proportion  of  five  to  six. 
hind  it :  and  there  must  be  a  third  resisUnce,        We  must  content  ourselves,  however,  at  pre- 

arising  from  the  statical  pressure  of  the  air  on  sent  with  the  experimental  measure  mentioned 

its  anterior  part,  when  the  motion  is  so  swift  that  above.    To  apply  to  our  formula,  therefore,  we 

there  is  a  vacuum  behind.   Even  these  causes  of  reduce  this  experiment,  which  was  made  on  a 

disagreement  with  the  theory  had  been  foreseen  ball  of  four  inches  and  a  half  diameter,  moving 

and  mentioned  by  Newton  (see  the  Scholium  to  with  the  velocity  of  twenty-five  feet  and  one-fifth 

prop.  37,  Book  II.  Princip.) ;  but  the  subject  per  second,  to  what  would  be  the  resistance  to  a 

seems  to  have  been  little  attended  to.    Some  ball  of  one  inch,  having  the  velocity  a  foot, 
authors,  however,  such  as  "St.  Remy,  Antonini,  .  00491 9       , 

and  Le  Blond,  have  given  most  valuable  collec-  "'*  ^"^  S>^^  ^  =  4.5* x  25  2^*        "^      ™*"' 

lions  of  experiments,  ready  for  the  use  of  the  ished  in  the  duplicate  ratio  of  the  diameter  and 

profound  mathematician.  velocity.  This  gives  R  =: 000000381973 pound, 

Two  or  three  years  after  the  appearance  of  his  4'58204.  The  resistance  here  determined  is  the 
first  publication,  Mr.  Robins  discovered  that  in-  same  whatever  substance  the  bal  be  of;  but  the 
genious  method  of  measuring  the  velocities  of  retardation  occasioned  by  it  will  depend  on  the 
military  projectiles  which  has  handed  down  his  proportion  of  the  resistance  to  the  vis  insitaof 
name  to  posterity  with  great  honor :  and,  havine  f^*  ?*H'  ^*^  "'  *^  ^^  quantity  of  motion.  This 
ascertained  these  velocities,  he  discovered  the  '?  "°V^"  velocities  and  diameters  is  as  the  den- 
prodigious  resistance  of  the  air,  by  observingtbe  ".^^  ^^  ^^%  ^^^' .  The  balls  used  m  military  ser- 
diminution  of  velocity  which  it  occasioned,  vice  are  of  cast  iron,  or  of  lead,  whose  specific 
This  made  hip  anxious  to  exan^ine  what  was  the  P^i\!^  *^?  7207  and  11-37  nearly,  water  being 
real  resisunce  to  any  velocity  whatever,  in  order  ^'  ^  ^^.®^*  **  considerable  variety  in  cast  iron, 
to  ascertain  what  was  the  law  of  its  variation;  f^  *'^!f,  ^?n"'>  »  ^^"^^  ^^  medium.  These 
and  he  was  equally  fortunate  in  this  attempt  °^^  ^"^  ^^^  ^'  »  t  r.  x  j 
likewise.  From  his  Mathematical  Works,  vol.  ^  •  u*  r  u  n 
i.  p.  206,  it  appears  that  a  sphere  of  four  inches  W»  or  weight  of  a  ball  one 
an^  a  hilf  in  diameter,  moving  at  the  rate  of  .  «ch  in  diameter  .  .lbs.  013648  0-21533 
twenty.fivefeetone.fiftbinas^ond,susuined  Log.  of  W       ....  913509    9-33310 

a  resistance  of  004914  lb.  or  ,«S|fc  of  a  pound,  j      '' 1}a^£,    oI.L'? 

niis  is  a  greater  resistance  thaXt  of  the  New-  I^of^.-  •  •  .;  •  3-04790  3-24591 
toniantheory,whichgave,«BJfcintheproportion  jj^or  terminal  velocity  .  189,03  237^43 
of  1000  to  1211,  or  very  nearly  in  the  proportion  ^^- **  ,,  *  *  v  •  w  '  «oo  J^^l 
of  five  to  six  in  small  numben.  And  we  may  «>  ^'  producing  height  .  558,3  880,8 
adopt  as  a  rule,  in  all  moderate  velocities,  that  These  numbers  are  of  firequent  use  in  all  ques- 
the  resistance  to  a  sphere  is  equal  to  ^  of  the  tions  on  this  subject.  Mr.  Robins  gives  an  ex- 
weight  of  a  column  of  air  having  the  great  circle  peditious  rule  for  readily  finding  a,  which  he 
of  the  sphere  for  its  base,  and  for  its  altitude  the  calls  F,  by  which  it  is  made  900  feet  for  a  cast- 
height  through  which  a  heavy  body  must  fall  in  iron  ball  of  an  inch  diameter.  But  no  theory  of 
vacuo  to  acquire  the  velocity  of  projection.  The  resistance  which  he  professes  to  use  will  make 
importance  of  this  experiment  is  great,  because  this  height  necessary  for  producing  the  terminal 
the  ball  is  precisely  the  size  of  a  twelve  pound  velocity.  His  F,  therefore,  is  an  empirical  quan- 
shot  of  cast  iron ;  and  its  accuracy  may  oe  de-  tity,  analogous  indeed  to  the  producing  height^ 
pended  on.  There  is  but  one  source  of  error,  but  accommodated  to  his  theory  of  the  trajectory 
Tb<e  whirling  motion  must  have  occasioned  some  ,  of  cannon-shot,  which  he  promised  to  publish, 
whirl  in  the  air,  which  would  continue  till  the  but  did  not  live  to  execute.  We  need  not  be 
ball  again  passed  through  the  same  point  of  its  very  anxious  about  this ;  for  all  our  quantities 
revolution.  The  resistance  observed  is  therefore  change  in  the  same  proportion  with  R,  and  need 
probably  somewhat  less  than  the  true  resistance  only  a  correction  by  a  multiplier  or  divisor,  wheh 
to  the  velocity  of  twenty-five  feet  one-fifth,  be^  R  shall  be  accurately  established, 
cause  it  was  exerted  in  a  relative  velocity  which  The  use  of  these  formulae  may  be  illustrated 
was  less  than  this,  and  is,  in  fact,  the  resistance  by  an  example  or  two. 

competent  to  this  relative  and  smaller  velocity.        £x.  1.  To  find  the  resistance  to  a  twenty-four 

Accordingly,   Mr.  Smeaton  places  great  conn-  pound  ball  moving  with  the  velocity  of  1670 

dence  in  the  observations  of  Mr.  Rouse  of  Lei-  feet  in  a  second,  which  is  nearly  the  velocity  com- 

-  oestershire,  who  measured  the  resistance  py  the  municated  by  sixteen  pounds  of  powder.    The 

e&ot  of  the  wind  on  a  pla^ne  properiy  exposed  diameter  is  5603  inches. 
to  it    He  docs  not  tell  us  how  the  velocity  of        Log.  R        .        .        .        .      +  4*58204 
the  wind  was  ascertained :  but  our  opinion  of        Log.  <2*        .        .        .        .      +  1*49674 
his  penetration  and  experience  leads  us  to  be-        Log.  1670*  •      -|-  6-44548 

lieve  that  this  point  was  well  determined.    The  -' 

resifltaiice  observed  by  Mr.  Rouse  exceeds  that        Log.  3344  lbs.  =  r     .  2*52426 

L2 

Digitized  by  V^UU^lC 


148 


PROJECTILES. 


But  it  is  foand,  by  unequiTOcal  experiments  on 
Che  retardation  of  such  a  motion,  that  it  is  504 
lbs.  This  is  owing  to  the  above  causes,  the  ad- 
ditional resistance  to  great  Telocittes,  arising  from 
the  condensation  of  the  air,  and  from  its  pressure 
into  the  yacuum  left  by  the  ball. 

£x.  2.  Required  the  terminal  velocity  of  this 
ball? 


Log.R 
Log.  ^ 


-f  4-58204 
+  1-49674 


Log.  resist  to veloc.1  607878  =  a 

Log.  W  ....        1-38021  =  6 

Diif.  of  a  and  6,  =  log.  «*  5*30143 

Log.  4474  =tt  2-65071 

We  proceed  to  consider  these  motions  through 
their  whole  course :  and  we  shall  first  consider 
them  as  affected  by  the  resistance  only ;  then  we 
shall  consider  the  perpendicular  ascents  and  de- 
scents of  heavy  bodies  through  the  air;  and, 
lastly,  their  motion  in  a  curvilineal  trajectory, 
when  projected  obliquely.  This  must  be  done 
by  the  help  of  the  abstmser  parts  of  fluxionary 
mathematics.  To  make  it  more  perspicuous,  we 
shall  con^der  the  simply  resisted  rectilineal  mo- 


tions geometrically,  in  the  manner  of  Sir  Isaste 
Newton.  As  we  advance,  we  shall  quit  this 
tracic,  and  prosecute  it  algebraically,  havii^  by 
this  time  acquired  distinct  ideas  of  the  algebraic 
quantities. 

We  must  remember  the  fundamental  theorems 
of  varied  motions. 

1.  The  momentary  variation  of  the  velocity  is 
proportional  to  tfie  force  and  the  moment  of  time 
jointly,  and  may  therefore  be  represented  by 
±  vzzftf  where  « is  the  momentary  increment 
or  decrement  of  the  velocity  v,/  the  accelerating 
or  retarding  force,  and  t  the  moment  or  incre- 
ment of  the  time  U 

2.  The  momentary  variation  of  the  square  of 
the  velocity  is  as  the  force,  and  as  the  increment 
or  decrement  of  the  space  jointly ;  and  may  be 
represented  by±i;v=/s.  The  first  propo- 
sition is  familiarly  known.  The  second  is  the 
39th  of  Newton's  Principia,  B.  I.  It  is  de- 
monstrated in  the  article  Optics,  and  is  the 
most  extensivel;|r  useful  proposition  in  mechanics. 

Having  premised  these  things,  let  the  straight 
line  AC  (fig.  2)  represent  the  initial  velocity  V, 
and  let  C  0,  perpendicular  to  A  C,  be  the  time 


in  which  this  velocity  would  be  extinguished  by 
the  uniform  action  of  the  resistance.  Draw 
through  the  point  A  an  eouilateral  hyperbola 
A  6  B  having  O  F,  O  C  D,  Atr  its  assymptotes ; 
then  let  the  tiv^of  the  resisted  motion  be  rep- 
resented by  theltne  C  B,  C  being  the  first  instaht 
of  the  motion.  If  there  be  drawn  perpendicu- 
lar ordinates  ce,/g,  DB,  &c.,  to  the  hyperbola, 
they  will  be  proportional  to  4^  velocities  of  the 
body  at  the  mstant ;  k^,  D,  fltc.,and  the  hyper- 
bolic areas  A  C  c «,  A  C, /g,  A  C  D  B,  &c.,  will 
be  proportional  to  the  spaces  described  during 
the  times  Cc,  Cg,  €  B,  &c.  For  suppose  the 
time  divided  into  an  indefinite  number  of  small 
and  equal  moments,  C  c,  Dd^  &c.,  draw  the  or- 
dinates a  c,  6  d,  and  the  perpendiculars  bfijUa. 
Then,  by  the  nature  of  the  hyperbola,  A  C  :  a  c 
=  Oc:OC.and  AC  — ac:ac=Oc  — OC 
:0C,  that  is,  A  o  :  ac  =  Cc  :  OC,  and  Aa: 
Cc  =  oc  :OC,  =  AC-ac:  AC-OC;  in  like 
manner,  B j3  :  D d  =  BD-ft  D  :  BDO D.  Now 
D  d  =  C  c,  because  the  moments  of  time  were 


taken  equal,  and  the  rectangles  AC-CO,  BD-DO, 
are  equal  by  the  nature  of  the  hyperbola ;  there- 
fore Aa  :  B/3=  AC- ac  :  BD-6/i:  but  as  the 
points  c,d,  continually  approach,  and  ultimately 
coincide  with  C,D,  the  ultimate  ratio  of  AC- 
ac  toBD-6d  is  that  of  ACMoBD*;  there- 
fore the  momentary  decrements  of  A  C  and  BD 
are  as  A  C*  and  B  D*.  Now,  because  the  resis- 
tance is  measured  by  the  momentary  diminution 
of  velocity,  these  diminutions  are  as  the  squares 
of  the  velocities ;  therefore  the  ordinates  of  the 
hyperbola  and  the  velocities  diminish  by  the  same 
law ;  and  the  initial  velocity  was  represented  by 
AC;  therefore  the  velocities  at  all  the  other 
instants  Kjgf  D,  are  properly  represented  by  the 
corresponoing  ordinates.    Hence, 

1.  As  the  abscissa  of  the  hyperbola  are  as  the 
times,  and  the  ordinates  are  as  the  velocities,  the 
areas  will  be  as  the  spaces  described,  and  A  C 
ce  is  to  A  eg/  as  the  space  described  in  the 
time  C  K  to  the  space  described  in  the  time  Cg 
(first  theorem  on  varied  motions). 
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PROJECTILES. 


149 


2.  The  rectangle  A  C  O  F  is  to  the  area  ACJ3B 
as  the  space  fbmierlY  expressed  by  2  a,  or  £  to 
the  space  described  in  the  resisting  medium 
doring  the  time  C  D ;  for  AC  being  the  velocity 
V,  and  O  C  the  extinguishing  time  e,  this  rectp- 
angle  is  =i  e  V,  or  £,  or  2  a,  of  bur  'former  dis- 
quisitions ;  and  because  all  Uie  rectangles  such  as 
AC  OF,  BDOO,  &c.,  are  equal,  this  corre- 
sponds with  our  former  obsenration,  that  the  space 
uniformly  described  with  any  velocity  during  the 
time  in  which  it  would  be  uniformly  extinguished 
by  the  corresponding  resistance  is  a  constant 
quantity,  viz.  toat  in  which  we  always  bad  «=:£, 
or  2  a. 

3.  Draw  the  tangent  Ac;  then,  by  the  hyper- 
bola C  K=  C  O  :  now  C  k  is  the  time  in  wnicR 
the  resistance  to  the  velocity  A  C  would  extin- 
gui^  it ;  for  the  tangent  coinciding  with  the  ele- 
mental arc  A  a  of  the  curve,  the  fiist  impulse  of 
the, uniform  action  of  the  resistance  is  the  same 
with  its  first  impulse  of  its  varied  action.  By 
Uiislhe  velocity  AC  is  reduced  to  ac.  If  this 
opeiaied  uniformly,  like  gravity,  the  velocities 
would  diminish  uniformly,  and  the  space  de- 
scribed would  be  represented  by  the  triangle 
AC  c.  This  triangle,  therefore,  represents  the 
height  through  which  a  heavy  body  must  M\ 
in  vacuo,  in  order  to  acquire  the  terminal  ve- 
locity. 

4.  The  motion  of  a  body  resisted  in  the  du- 
plicate ratio  of  the  velocity  will  continue  with- 
out end»  and  a  space  will  be  described  which  is 
greater  than  any  assignable  space,  and  the  ve- 
locity will  grow  less  Uian  any  that  can  be  as- 
signed ;  for  the  hyperbola  approaches  continually 
to  the  assymptote,  but  never  coincides  with  it. 
There  is  no  velocity  B  D  so  small,  but  a  smaller 
Z  P  will  be  found  beyond  it ;  and  the  hyper- 
bolic space  may  be  continued  till  it  exceeds  any 
sur&ee  that  can  be  assigned. 

5.  The  initial  velocity  A  C  is  to  the  final  ve- 
locity B  D  as  the  sum  of  the  extinguishing  time 
and  the  time  of  the  retarded  motion  is  to  the 
extinguishing  time  alone ;  forAC:BDr=OD 
(orOC  X  C  D)  :  OC:  or  V  ;!;  =  «:«  X  ^ 

6.  The  extinguishing  time  is  to  the  time  of 
the  retarded  motion  as  the  final  velocity  is  to  the 
velocity  lost  during  the  retarded  motion :  for  the 
rectangles  AFOC,  BDOG,  are  equal;  and 
therefore  AVGF  and  BVCD  are  equal  and 

VC  :  VA  =  VG  :  VB;  therefore  *=:  i!Lll^ 

V 

V — V 

7.  Any  velocity  is  reduced  in  the  proportion 

of  »  to  » in  the  time  e  -"^    .    For,  let  AC  : 
ft 

BDzzm  :  n;   then  DO  :  CO=:m:  n,  and 
DC  :  CO=m— n  :  n,  and  DC  =  ^LZL? 


CO,  or^sse- 


Therefore  any  velocity  is 


reduced  to  one-half  in  the  time  in  which  the 
initial  resistance  woifld  have  extinguished  it  by 
its  uniform  action. 

The  chief  circumstances  of  this  motion  may 
dius  be  determined  by  the  hyperbola,  the  ordi- 
oafes  and  abscisss  exhibiting  the  relations  of  the 


times  and  velocities,  and  the  areas  exhibiting  the 
relations  of  both  to  the  spaces  described. ,  But 
we  may  render  the  conception  of  these  circum- 
stances much  more  easy  and  rimple,  by  expres- 
sing theVn  all  by  lines,  instead  or  this  combina- 
tion of  lines  and  surfaces.  We  shall  accomplish 
this  purpose  by  constructing  another  curve  LKP, 
having  the  tine  M  L  ^,  parallel  to  OD  for  its 
abscissa,  and  of  such  a  nature  that  if  the  ordi- 
nates  to  the  hyperbola  A  C  e  c,  /^,  B  D,  &c. 
be  produced  till  they  cut  this  curve  in  I^  j),  n, 
K,  &c.,  and  the  abscissa  in  L,  i ,  A,  i,  &c.,  the 
ordinates  c,  p,  A,  n,  d,  K,  &c.,  may  be  propor- 
tional to  the  hyperbolic  areas  e  Ac KyfAcg^B 
A  c  K.  Let  us  examine  what  kind  of  curve 
this  will  be.  Make  OC  :  Oicr=0  ic  :  Og; 
then  (Hamilton's  Conies,  IV.  14.  Cor.)  the  areas 
A  C  ff  e,  e  Kg/are  equal :  tlierefore  drawing  pt^ 
n  t,  perpendicular  to  O  M,  we  shall  have  (by  the 
assumed  nature  of  the  curve  L n K),  Ms  =  tt; 
and  if  the  abscissa  O  D  be  divided  into  any  num- 
ber of  small  parts  in  geometrical  progression, 
(reckoning  the  commencement  of  them  all  from 
O),  the  axis  V  i  of  this  curve  will  be  divided  by 
its  ordinates  into  the  same  number  of  equal 
parts;  and  this  curve  will  have  its  ordinates 
LM,  ps,ntf  &C.,  in  geometrical  progression, 
and  its  abscissae  in  geometrical  progression. 
Also,  let  K  N,  M  V,  touch  the  curve  in  K  and  L, 
and  let  O  C  be  supposed  to  be  to  O  c,  as  O  D  to 
0<2,and  thereforeCc  to  Ddas  OC  to  OD; 
and  let  these  lines  Cc,  Dc2,  be  indefinitely 
small ;  then  (bv  the  nature  of  the  curve)  L  o  is 
equal  to  Kr;  for  the  areas  a  AC  CybBDd  are 
in  this  case  equal.  Also  /oistoftr,  asLM  to 
KI,  because  cC  :  (2D=  C  O  1 D  O  : 
Therefore  IN  :  IK=:rK  :rJk 
IK:ML  =  r£:o/ 
ML:MV  =  o/:oL 
andIN:MN=rK;oL. 
That  is  the  subtangent  I N,  or  M  V,  is  of  the 
same  magnitude,  or  is  a  constant  quantity  in 
every  part  of  the  curve. 

Lastly,  the  subtangent  I N,  corresponding  to 
the  point  K  of  the  curve,  is  to  the  ordinate  K  i 
as  the  rectangle  BDOG  or  ACOF  to  the 
parabolic  area  B  D  C  A.  For  let  fghn  be  an 
ordinate  very  near  to  B  D  9  K ;  and  let  h  n  cut 
the  curve  in  n,  and  the  -ordinate  Klinq;  thea 
we  have 

Kg  :qn=:Kl  :  IN, or 


D*:9n  =  D0:IN; 
BD:AC  =  CO:DO; 


but  Bl 
therefore  BD.Dg:  AC  .qn^CO  rTNi 
Therefore  the  sum  of  all  the  rectangles  B  D.Dg 
is  to  the  sum  of  all  the  rectangles  A  C  .  9  n,  as 
CO  to  IN;  but  the  sum  of  the  rectangles 
B  D  *  D^  is  the  space  A C  D  B;  and,  because 
A  C  is  given,  the  sum  of  the  rectangles  A  C  *  9  n 
is  the  rectangle  of  AC,  and  the  sum  of  all  the 
lines  on  /  that  is,  the  rectangle  of  A  C  and  R  L; 
therefore  the  space  ACDB  :  AC  .  RLizCO 
:IN,and  ACDB  X  INnAC  .  CO  •  RL; 
and  therefore  IN  :  RL21  AC  . CO  :  ACD B. 
Hence  it  follows  that  Q  L  expresses  the  area 
B  V  A,  and,  in  general,  that  the  part  of  the  line 
parallel  to  OM,  which  lies  between  the  tangent 
k  N  and  the  curve  Lp  K,  expresses  the  corre- 
sponding area  of  the  hyperbola  which  lies  witlw 


Digitized  by  VjUU*^ 


le 


160 


PROJECTILES. 


out  the  rectangle  B  D  O  G.  And  now,  by  the  called  logarithms  are  jast  the  lengths  of  the  di^ 
help  of  this  curve,  we  have  an  easy  way  of  con-  ferent  parts  of  this  line  measured  on  a  scale  of 
ceiving  and  computing  the  motion  of  a  body    equal  parts. 

through  the  air.  For  the  subtangent  of  our  curve  Reasons  of  convenience  have  given  rise  to 
now  presents  twice  the  height  through  which  the  another  set  of  logarithms  :  these  are  suited  to  a 
ball  must  fall  in  vacuo,  in  order  to  acquire  the  logistic  curve  whose  subtangent  is  only  ,|J^  of 
terminal  velocity ;  and  therefore  serves  for  a  scale  the  ordinate  r  v,  which  is  equal  to  the  side  of  the 
on  which  to  measure  all  the  other  representatives  hyperbolic  square,  and  which  is  assumed  for  the 
of  the  motion.  ^mt  of  number.    We  shall  suit  our  applications 

It  remains  to  make  another  obseivation  on  the  of  the  preceding  investigation  to  both  these^  and 
curve  L  p  K,  which  will  save  us  all  the  trouble  of  shall  first  use  the  common  logarithms  whose  sub- 
geographical  operations,  and  reduce  the  whole  to  tangent  is  0-43429.  The  whole  subject  will  be 
a  very  simple  arithmetical  computation.  In  con-  best  illustrated  by  taking  an  example  of  the  dif- 
structing  this  curve  we  were  limited  to  no  par- 
ticular length  of  the  line  LR,  which  represented 
the  space  A  C  D  B ;  and  all  that  we  had  to  take 
care  of  was,  that  when  O  C,  O  k,  O  g,  were  taken 
in  geometrical  progression,  Ms,  M  f,  should  be 
in  arithmetical  progression.  The  abscissE  having 
ordinates  equal  to  p8,nt,  &c.,  might  have  been 
twice  as  long  as  is  shown  in  the  dotted  curve 
which  is  drawn  through  L.  All  the  lines  which 
serve  to  measure  the  hyperbolic  spaces  would 
then  have  been  doubled.  But  NI  would  also 
have  been  doubled,  and  our  proportions  would 
Tiave  still  held  good ;  because  this  sub-tangent 
is  the  scale  of  measurement  of  our  figure,  as  E 
or  2  a  is  the  scale  of  measutement  for  the 
motions.  •  .  . 

Since  then  we  have  tables  of  logarithms  calcu- 

la\ed  for  every  number,  we  may  make  use  of   q, ^  q,  ^^^    Therefore  by  common  loga- 

them  instead  of  this  geometrical  figure,  which  * 

still  requires  considerable  trouble  to  suit  it  to 

every  case.    There  are  two  sets  of  logarithmic 

tables  in  common  use.    One  is  called  a  table  of 

hyperbolic  or  natural  logarithms.    It  is  suited 

to  such  a  ,curve  as  is  drawn  in  the  figure,  where 

the  subUngent  is  equal  to  that  ordinate  rw  which 

corresponds  to  the  side  «•  O  of  the  square  x  9  X  O  ^,  ^  ^ 


ferent  questions  which  may  be  proposed :  Recoi- 
ls 
lect  that  the  lectangle  AC O  F  is  »  2a,  or  — , 

or  £,  for  a. ball  of  cast  iron  one  inch  diameter, 

and,  if  it  has  the  diameter  d,  it  is ,  or  %  a  d, 

or  £(i. 

I.  It  jnay  be  required  to  determine  what  will 
be  the  space  described  in  a  given  time  t  by  a 
ball  settmg  out  with  a  given  velocity  V,  and 
what  will  be  its  velocity  o  at  the  end  of  that  time. 
Here  we  have  NI :  MI=:i  ACOF  :  6DC  A; 
now  N I  is  the  subtangent  of  the  logistic  curve ; 
M I  is  the  difference  between  the  logarithms  of 
O  D  and  O  C  ;  that  is,  the  difference  between 
the  logarithms  of  e  -h  ^  s^nd  e;  ACO¥  is  2  ad, 
M 

S  

rilhms 0-43429  ;  log.  e-h<— log.c  =  2ad:S,= 
space  described, 

or  0'43429  :  log.  ^-^  =  2  a  d  :  S, 


and  S.=: 


2ad 
0-43429 


log.  -^, 


inserted  between  the  hyperbola  and  its  assymp-    by  hyperbolic  logarithms  S  =  2  a  rf  X  log.  — - 
totes.    This  square  is  the  unit  of  surface,  by 


which  the  hyp'erbolic  areas  arc  expressed;  its 
side  is  the  unit  of  length,  by  which  the  lines  be- 
longing to  the  hyperbola  are  expressed ;  r  v  is= 
1 ,  or  the  unit  of  numbers  to  which  the  logarithms 
are  suited,  and  then  IN  is  also  1.  Now  the 
square  OirOX  being  unity,  the  area  BA.CD 
will  be  some  number ;  v  O  being  also  unity,  O  D 
is  some  number :  call  it  x.  Then,  by  the  nature 
of  the  hyperbola,  O B  :  O  v  =^0:  DB  ;  that 

is,  :r  :  1  =  1  :  -i  >  so  that  D  B  is  — .      Now, 

calling  D  di  the  area,  B  D  d  6,  which  is  the 

fluxion  (ultimately)  of  the  hyperbolic  area,  is  -^. 

Now  in  the  curve  Lp  K,  M I  has  the  same  ratio 
to  N  I  that  BACD  has  to  exOw  .  Therefore, 
if  there  be  a  scale  of  which  N  I  is  the  unit,  the 
number  on  this  scale  corresponding  to  M I  has 
tiie  same  ratio  to  1  which  the  number  measuring 
B  A  C  D  has  to  1 ;  and  I  »,  which  cotresponds 
to  BD  rf^  is  the  fluxion  (ultimately)  of  M I ; 

Therefore,  if  M I  be  called  the  logarithm  of  j:,~ 

is  property  represented  by  the  fluxion  of  MI. 
In  short,  the  line  M  I  is  divided  precisely  as  the 
line  of  numbers  on  a  Guntefs  scale,  which  is 
therefore  a  line  of  logarithms ;  and  the  numbers 


Let  the  ball  be  a  twelve  pounder  ;  the  initial 
vekcity  1600  feet,  and  the  time  twenty  seconds. 

2  ad. 
We  must  first  find  e,  which  is  -tt-. 


Therefore,  log.  2  a    . 
log.  d  (4,  5) 
log.  V.  (1600) 


.  +3-03236 
.  -h  0-65321 
.     —3-20412 


0-48145 


Log.  of3",03,=;e 
And  e'{'t  is  23'',o3,  of  which  the  log.  is  1-36229 
from  which  take  the  log.  of  e  0-48145 


remains  the  log.  of 

e 


0-88084 


This  must  be  considered  as  a  common  number 
2ad 
by  which  we  are  to  multiply  5:53525. 

add  tiie  logarithms  of  2  ad    . 

log.  -^ 


log.  0-43429   . 

Log.  S.  9833  feet 

For  the  final  vcocity, 
OD:OC  =  AC:BD,ore+<: 


Therefore 
+  3-68557 
-h  9-94490 
—  9-63778 

3.99269 
c=V:w. 


23",03  :  3^,03  =  1600  :  210J,  =  r. 


Digitized  by  ^^JiJU)ZlC 


gk 


PROJECTILES. 


161 


The  boll  has  therefore  gone  3278  yards,  and 
its  vdocity  is  reduced  from  1600  to  210. 

The  gradual  progress  of  the  ball,  during  some 
seconds  of  its  motion,  is  as  follows  : — 
T.        S.        Diff.       V.      Diff. 


1'  1383 

2  2456 

3  3336 

4  4080 

5  4725 

6  5294 


1073 
880 
744 
645 
569 


1203 
964 
804 
690 
6Q4 
537 


397 
239 
160 
114 
86 
67 


The  first  column  shows  the  time  of  the  motion ; 
the  second  the  space  described ;  the  third  the 
differences  of  the  spaces,  showing  the  motion 
during  each  successive  seconds ;  the  fourth  the 
velocity  at  the  end  of  the  time  / ;  and  the  last 
the  differences  of  velocity,  showing  its  diminution 
in  each  successive  second.  At  the  distance  of 
1000  yards  the  velocity  is  recluced  to  one-half,  and 
at  the  distance  of  less  tnan  a  mile  it  is  reduced 
to  one-third.  . 

II.  Required  to  determine  the  distance  at 
which  the  initial  velocity  V  is  reduced  to  any 
Other  quantity  v.  This  question  is  solved  in  the 
veiy  same  manner  by  substituting  the  logarithms 
of  V  and  v  for  those  of  e-f^  and  e;  for  A  C  : 

BD=  OD  :  OC,  and  therefore  log.  ^  = 

log.  rr-g,  or  log.  — r=log. .    Required   to 

determine  the  distance  which  in  the  velocity  of 
1780  of  a  twenty-four  pound  ball  (which  is  the 
medium  velocity  of  such  a  ball  discharged  with 
sixteen  pounds  of  powder),  will  be  reduced  to 
1500.  Here  d  is  5*68,  and  therefore 
the  logarithm  of  2  ad  is  .     +  3-78671 

Log.— =  007433,  of  which  the  log.  is  -|-8-871 16 

Log.  0-434?9         ....     —9-63778 


Log.  1047-3,  feet  or  349  yards  3-02009 

This  reduction  will  be  produced  in  about  seven- 
eighths  of  a  second. 

III.  To  determine  the  time  which  a  ball,  be- 
ginning 16  move  with  a  certain  velocity,  employs 
in  passing  over  a  given  space,  and  the  diminu- 
tion of  velocity  which  it  sustains  from  the  resist- 
ance of  the  air;  proceed  thus*. — 

2arf:  S  =  0-43429:  log —=^   Then  to  log. 

-^  add  log.  e,  and  we  obtain  log.  e-|-f,  and 

f -1-^ ;  ftom  which  if  we  take  e  we  have  t  Then, 
to  find  v,  say  «+<  :  c  =  V  :  17. 

These  examples  may  be  concluded  by  apply- 
ing this  last  rule  to  Mr.  Robins's  experiments 
on  a  musket  bullet  of  three-fourths  of  an  inch 
in  diameter,  which  had  its  velocity  reduced  from 
1670  to  1425  by  passing  through  100  feet  of  air. 
This  we  do  to  discover  the  resistance  which  it 
sustained,  and  compare  it  with  the  resistance  to 
a  velocity  of  one  loot  per  second.  We  must 
firrt  ascertain  the  first  term  of  our  analogy.  The 
ball  was  of  lead,  and  therefore  2  a  must  be  mul- 
tiplied by  d  and  by  m,  which  expresses  the  ratio 
or  the  density  of  lead  to  that  of  cast  iron,  d  is 


11-37 
0-75,  and  wi  is  ——=1-577. 

3*03236 

9-87506 

m    0-19782 


Therefore  log.  2  a 
d 


hog.  2a  dm  3*10524 
and  2  a  <2  ffi  i=  1274-2.  Now  1274-2 
0-43429  :  003408 


100s 


,       e+t*    -J  ^         2adm 
log.-^.    Bute=— — 


=  0-763,  and  iu  logarithm  =  9-88252,  which, 
added  to  0-03408,  gives  9*91660,  which  is  the 
log,  o(  e-^-tfZx  0-825,  from  which  take  e,  and 

62 
there  remains  t  =  0''062,  or  --— -  of  a  second, 
1000  ' 

for  the  time  of  passage.  Now,  to  find  the  re- 
maining velocity,  say  825  :  -763  =  1670  :  1544, 
=  V.  But  in  Mr.  Robins's  experiment  the  re- 
maining velocity  was  only  1425,  the  ball  having 
lost  245 ;  whereas  by  this  computation  it  should 
have  lost  only  126.  It  appears,  therefore,  that 
the  resistance  is  double  of  what  it  would  have 
been  if  the  resistance  increased  in  the  duplicate 
proportion  of  the  velocity.  Mr.  Robins  says  it 
is  nearly  triple.  But  he  supposes  the  resistance 
to  slow  motions  much  smaller  than  his  own  ex- 
periment, so  often  mentioned,  fully  warrants. 

The  time  e  in  which  the  resistance  of  the  air 
would  extinguish  the  velocity  is  0"-763.  Gravity, 
or  the  weight  of  the  bullet,  would  have  done  it 

.     1670      ^^     ^     ^       ^  .52' 

in  -^T-  or  52r ;  therefore  the  resistance  is  -— - 

times,  or  nearly  sixty-eight  times  its  weight,  by 
this  theory,  or  5'97  pounds.  If  we  calculate 
from  Mr.  Robins's  experiment,  we  must  say  log. 

—  -.  0-43429=  100  :  cV, which  will  be  630-23, 


and  €' 


=  0'-3774,  and  • 


gives 


1670  '  0-3774 

138  for  the  proportion  of  the  resistance  to  the 
weight,  and  makes  the  resistance  12-07  pounds, 
fully  double  of  the  other. 

With  this  velocity,  which  greatly  exceeds 
that  widi  which  the  air  can  rush  into  a  void, 
there  must  be  a  statical  pressure  of  the  atmo- 
sphere equal  to  six  pounds  and  a  half.  This  will 
make  up  the  difference ;  and  allows  us  to  con- 
clude that  the  resistance,  arising  solely  from  the 
motion  communicated  to  the  air,  follows  very 
neariy  the  duplicate  proportion  of  the  velocity. 

The  next  experiment,  with  a  velocity  of  1690 
feet,  gives  a  resistance  equal  to  157  times  the 
weight  of  the  bullet,  and  this  bears  a  much 
greater  proportion  to  the  former  than  1690  does 
to  1670' ;  which  shows  that,  although  these  ex- 
periments clearly  demonstrate  a  pnnligious  aug- 
mentation of  resistance,  yet  tney  are  by  no 
means  susceptible  of  the  precision  which  is 
necessary  for  discovering  the  law  of  this  aug- 
mentation, or  for  a  good  foundation  of  practidtd 
rules ;  and  it  is  still  greatly  to  be  wished  that  a 
more  accurate  mode  of  investigation  could  be 
discovered. 

We  have  thus  explained,  in  detail,  the  princi- 
ples and  the  process  of  calculation  for  the  simple 
case  of  the  motion  of  proiectiles  through  the  air. 
The  learned  reader  will  think  that  we  have  been 

Digitized  by  VjUU^  IC 


152  PROJECTILES. 

unreasooably  prolix,  and  that  the  whole  might  the  hyperbolic  logarithm  of  the  quantity  annezea 

have  been  comprised  in  less  room,  by  taking  the  to  it,  and  X  may  be  used  as  to  express  its  com- 

algebraic  method.  We  acknowledge  that  it  might  mon  logarithm.    See  article  Fluxions. 

have  been  done  even  in  a  few  lines.  But  we  have  .     The  constant  quantity  C  for  completing  the 

observed,  and  our  observation  has  been  confirmed  fluent  is  determine^  from  this  consideration,  that 

by  persons  well  versed  in  such  subjects,  that  in  the  space  described  is  o,  when  the  velocity  is  o  : 

all  cases  where  the  fluxipnaiy  process  introduces  ,|»  .—  «•  

the  fluxion  of  a  logarithm,  thon*  is  a  mat  want  C  —  —  x  L^w*  =  o,  and  C  s  —  x  L^/tt^ 

of  distinct  ideas  to  accompany  the  hand  and  eye.  ^                                   .        ^ 

The  solution  comes  out  by  a  sort  of  magic  or  and  the  complete  fluent  S  =  -  X 

legerdemain,  we  cannot  tell  eitlier  how  or  why.  g      ._^__ 

We  therefore  thought  it  necessary  to  furnish  the  ? — —  w —          ,    ii»    -w     /      ^ 

reader  with  distinct  conceptions  of  the  things  ^sj^^—^sj^—^ "T^ LV^  u^^-v^'    ^ 

and  quantities  treated  of.    For  this  reasop,  after  ^                     yjT' 

showing,  in  Sir  Isaac  Newton's  manner,  how  the  "          ^  \\r               or  (putting  M  for 

spaces  described  in  the  retarded  motion  of  a  pro-  0*43429  g                i^— v» 

jectile  followed  the  proportion  of  the  hyperbolic  0-43429,  the  modulus  or  subtangent  of  the  com- 

areas,  we  showed  the  nature  of  another  curve*  u*              y    ^ 

where  lines  could  be  found  which  increase  in  the  ™on  logistic  curve)  =r  -jj-  x  X  v^  "^^ZI^ 

Tery  same  manner  as  the  path  of  the  projectile  ^ 

increases;  so  that  a  point  describirig  the  abscissa  This  equation  establishes  the  relation  between 

M I  of  this  curve  moves  precisely  as  the  projeo-  the  space  mllen  through  and  the  velocity  acquired 

tile  does.    Then,  discovering  that  this  line  is  the  •                                           /?  S      t     y^    »* 

same  with  the  line  of  logarithms  on  a  Gunter**  by  the  fell.  We  obtain  by  "t^=  Lv  ^Ci:;^' 

scale,  we  showed  how  the  logarithm  of  a  number  »  ^  &             ,.9 

really  represents  the  path  or  space  described  by  and  -4~~=  lin — 7»  ^^  ^^ich  is  still  more 

Sect^  V. — Of  THE  Pebpendicular  Ascents    convenient  for  us, .        z=X     ^  that  is, 

AND  Descents  of  Heavy  Projectiles.  i  *     *u    i       -^x.       e      ^-!^~^'^     u 

equal  to  the  loganthm  of  a  certain  number: 

Having  thus  enabled  the  reader  to  conceive  therefore  having  found  the  natural  number  cor-' 

distinctly  the  quantities  employed,  we  shall  leave  M  x  2f  S 

the  geometrical  method,  and  prosecute  the  rest    responding  to  the  fraction ^  °   >  consider 

of  the  subject  in  a  more  compendious  manner.  ..  ^„  ^  i*»^^*k«,  ««j  ♦*i,^  ^„*  a^  ^^mK^i  «/^r 

We  are  next  to  consider  the  ^rpendicular  as-  **  ^  a  loganthm,  and  taJce  out  Ae  number  cor- 

Tc  oic  ucAi  w  vvuai^^^ci  Mi«:  pcipcuuivuiiu  i»-  resDondmjr  to  It :  call  this  n.    Then,  smce  n  is 

cents  and  descents  of  heavy  projectiles,  where  "»F""""'6^        **"*  *"«  '••     *•«'"»  •"  *•        « 

the  resistance  of  the  air  is  comoined  with  the  ac-  equal  to  -j— •«  we  have  ntc' — n  v^t^,  and  ntt*— 

tion  of  gravity :  and  we  shall  begin  with  the  ir— tr  

descents.  ,__      ,  ^_  ,  ,   ,     tt"xn — 1 

Let  tt,  as  before,  be  the  terminal  velocity,  and    •'^'»  ^ '  ^"^  *  t>»=tt«x n— v,  and  t;* = jj— . 

g  the  accelerating  power  of  gravity :  when  the  Xo  exi)edite  all  the  computations  on  this  sub- 
body  moves  with  the  velocity  ti,  the  resistance  is  jgct,  it  will  be  convenient  to  have  multipliers 
equal  to  g;  and  in  every  other  velocity  v,  we  ^ady  computed  for  M  x  2g,  and  its  half, 

ance  to  that  velc^ty.  In  the  descent  the  body  But  v  may  be  found  much  more  expeditiously  by 
is  urged  by  gravity  g^  and  opposed  by  the  resist-  7     ^i" 

a^^  ^  ,       .  observing  that  y/  -t — 5  is  the  secant  of  an 

ance  ^—  :  therefore  the  remaining  acceleratmg  t«" — tr 

tt  ^  arch  of  a  circle  whose  radius  is  a,  and  whose 

force,  which  we  shall  call  /,  is  g  —  -^j^  or    jj^g  j,  ^^  ^^  ^^.^  nyjiu,  j,  ^nity  and  sine  =:  -; 

g  tt»— g  t?*  ^^  g(tt*--^)  _.  ^  therefore,  considering  the  above  fraction  as  a  lo- 

II*      '            tt*      '     -^^  garithmic  secant,  look  for  it  in  the  tables,  and 

The  fundamental  theorem  for  varied  motion  is  Sien  take  the  sine  of  the  arc  of  which  this  is  the 

•-.         .       ,.        via       u          vv         , secant,  and  multiply  it  by  tt ;  the  product  is  the 

/,=«!,,  and,  =_^=--X;^;:^,and*-  velocity  required." 

tt«j?vt;           •'o                        ^^  An  example  may  be  given  of  a  ball  whose  ter- 

—  xJ^—jt-S-  +  C.  Now  the  fluent  of  -r^^  minal  velocity  is  689*  feet,  and  ascertain  its  ve- 

?           C^,        r    .-T— i    „     .X.  n'  locity  after  a  fall  of  1848  feet.    Here, 

IS  =  — hyper,  log.  of  Jfj?-^.  For  the  fluxion  ^ 

Z              —vv  tt*  =  475200,  and  its  log.          .    =  5-67688 

of  ^tt*—©»  is  —-7===^,  and  this  divided  by        tt  =  689i 2*83844 

Vtt— «^  /r=32 1-50515 

the  quantity^tt*—o*,  of  which  it  is  the  fluxion,        §=1848 3-26670 

gi.e.p«ci5ely -^ which  isthe«fo«d.eflux-  •">- l^. f ''^  .  •.  •.  X'^% 
ion  of  iti  hyperbolical  logarithm.     Therefore  log.  u" .  .        — 5-67688 

S=-|  X lus/^^^^  +  C.    Where  L  «neans  ^og.  of  010809  =  lo  . n    ..        .    903378 

Digitized  by  VjOOQlt: 


PROJECTILES. 


153 


0- 10809  is  the  logarithm  of  1-2826  =  n,  and  n— 

1  =  0-2826,  and  =  323-6«    =  ©» : 

» 

and  v=z  323*6. 

In  like  manner,  0*054045  (which  is  half  of 

0*10809)  will  be  found  to  be  the  logarithmic 

secant  of  28°,  whose  sine  0*46947  multiplied  by 

689}  gives  324  for  the  velocity.    The  process  of 

this  solution  suggests  a  very  perspicuous  manner 

of  conceiving  the  law  of  descent ;  and  it  may  be 

thus  expres^ :  M  is  to  the  logarithm  of  the 

secant  of  an  arch  whose  sine  is  —  and  radius  1 

tt 

as  2  a  is  to  the  height  through  which  the  body 

must  &11  to  acquire  the  velocity  v.  Thus,  to  take 

the  same  example : — 

1.  Let  the  height  k  be  sought  which  will  pro- 
duce the  velocity  323-62,  the  terminal  velocity  of 

the  ball  being  689-34.    Here  2  a,  or  —.is  14850, 

e 

S23*62 
and  rl^*—  0-46947  which  is  the  sine  of  28*». 

689*35  * 

Tlie  logarithmic  secant  of  this  arch  is  0-05407. 
Now  M  or  0-43429  :  005407  =  14850  :  1848, 
the  height  wanted. 

2.  Required  the  velocity  acquired  by  the  body 
by  filing  1848  feet.  Say  14850  :  1848  =: 
043429  :  0*05407.  Look  for  this  number  among 
the  logarithmic  secants.  It  will  be  found  at  28°, 
of  which  the  logarithmic  sine  is  .    9*67161 

Add  to  this  the  log.  of  tt        .        .    2*83844 

The  sum  ....  2-51005 
is  the  logarithm  of  323*62,  the  velocity  required. 

From  these  solutions  we  see  that  the  acquired 
vdocity  continually  approaches  to,  but  never 
equals,  the  terminal  velocity.  For  it  is  always 
expressed  by  the  sine  of  an  arch  of  which  the 
terminal  velocity  is  the  radius. 

The  motion  of  a  body  projected  downwards 
next  merits  consideration.  While  the  velocity 
of  projection  is  less  than  the  terminal  velocity, 
the  motion  is  determined  by  what  we  have 
already  s^id ;  for  we  must  compute  the  height 
necessary  for  acquiring  this  velocity  in  the  air, 
and  suppose  the  motion  to  have  begun  diere. 
But,  if  the  velocity  of  projection  be  greater,  this 
method  fails.  We  pass  it  over  (though  not  in 
the  least  more  difficult  than  what  has  gone  be- 
fore) because  it  is  of  mere  curiosity,  and  never 
occurs  in  any  interesting  case.  We  may  just  ob- 
serve that,  since  the  motion  is  swifter  than  the 
termiinl  velocity,  the  resistance  must  be  greater 
than  the  weight,  and  the  motion  will  be  retarded. 
The  very  same  process  will  give  us  for  the  space 


and  the  space  described,  or  the  velocity  acquired, 
must  now  be  ascertained.  For  this  purpose  we 
may  use  the  other  fundamental  proposition  of 
•varied  motions /*;rrv,  which,  in  the  present 
g  t4» — ^  .       ,  .       «« 

case,  becomes-^ — r —  t  =:  i 
ir 


therefore  /  =s  — 

e 


V  U  U   V  j^  M  /»ttt) 


X  X 


This  fluent  needs  no  constant  quantity  to  com- 
plete it,  or  rather  Czzo;{oxt  must  be  r=  o  when 
V  =  0.  This  will  evidently  be  the  case ;  for  then 


This  rule  may  be  illustriaited  by  the  same  ex- 
ample. In  what  time  will  the  body  acquire  the 
velocity  323*62  ?  Here  ttH-w=l 012*96,  tt— «  = 

365-72;  therefore  X  \/^ii^=:  0*22122, and- 
^     tt— t;  g 

(in  feet  and  seconds)  is  21"  *542.     Now,  for 

greater  perspicuity,  convert  the  equation  t  = 


Mg 


XX 


«-}-» 


into  a  proportion :  thus  M  :  X 


-i-  =:  —  It,  and  we  have  0*43429 : 
tt— w  g 

0*22122  =  21*'  -542  :  10" -973,  the  time  required. 
We  should  remember  that  the  numbers  or  sym- 
bols which  we  call  logarithms  are  really  parts  of 
the  line  M I  in  the  figure  of  the  logistic  curve,  and 
that  the  motion  of  a  point  in  this  line  is  precisely 
similar  to  that  of  tlie  body.  The  marquis  Poleni, 
in  a  dissertation  published  at  Padua  in  1725, 
has  with  great  ingenuity  constructed  logarithmics 
suited  to  all  the  cases  which  can  occur. 

It  is  easy  to  see  that  v^^^--^  is  the  cotangent 
of  the  I  complement  of  an  arch  whose  radius  is 
1,  and  whose  sine  is  — :  For  let  KC  (see  dia- 
gram)  be  n:  «y  and  BE=:  v;  thenKD=:«+v, 


d«cribedS=  ±x  Ll/S,Vbeingth«    ^^  •' »™«n^ 


velocity  of  projection  greater  than  tt.  Now  as 
this  space  evidently  increases  continually  (because 
the  body  always  falls,  but  does  not  become  in- 

finite  in  any  finite  time),  the  fraction  •         , 

does  not  become  infinite ;  that  is,  v*  does  not  be- 
come equal  to  tt* :  therefore,  although  the  velo- 
city V  is  continually  diminished,  it  never  be- 
comes so  small  as  tt.  Therefore  tt  is  a  limit  of 
diminution  as  well  as  of  augmentation. 
The  relation  between  the  time  of  the  desce "it 


and  D  A=:  tt — v.  Join  K  B  and  B  A,  and  draw 
C  G  parallel  to  K  B.  Now  G  A  is  the  tangent 
of  i  B  A,  =:  i  complement  of  H  B.  Then,  by 
similarity  of  triangles,  G  A  :  A  C=:  AB  :  B  ft, 

AC 
GA 


=  ^A  D  :  n/D  K  =  is/u-^v  :  >/tt-|-«  and 


(=  cotan.  1  BA)=:  V -^;  therefore  look 
^  *  '        '^     tt — V 

for —among  the  natural  sines,  or  for  log.  —among 

the  logarithmic  sines,  and  take  the  logarithmic 
cotangent  of  the  half  complement  of  the  cor- 
responding arch.  This,  considered  as  a  common 
number,  will  be  the  second  term  of  our  propor- 
tion. This  is  a  shorter  process  than  the  former. 
Digitized  by  N^UUV  It: 


164  PROJECTILES. 

By  rereMingthw proportion  we  gctthe  Telocity  /^+V*\     2Mgs      Therefbre  let  u  h^  A^ 

corresponding  to  a  given  time.     To  compare  VJ^+^y         u«     *      ^'^^"''^  *®*  «  oe  tae 

this  descent  of  1848  feet  in  the  air  with  the  fall  .        .   2Mgs 

of  the  body  in  vacuo  during  the  same  time,  say  number  whose  common  logarithm  is     ^     ;  we 

21"  •542«  :  10"  '973=:  1848  t  1926-6,  which  tt»-|-V«                 11*+ V» 

makes  a  difference  of  seventy-niner feet.  w»W  have n  =  ^    ^,  and  v  =— j^- ^  p 

CoR.  1.  The  time  in  which  the  body  acquires  and  thus  we  obtain  the  relation  of  s  and  v,  as  in 

the  velocity  u  by  foiling  through  the  air  is,  to  the  the  case  of  descents ;  but  we  obtain  it  still  easier 

time  of  acquiring  the  same  velocity  by  falling  by  observing  that  >/tt'+V*  is  the  secant  of  an 

w      /tt+v              f      '.         ij  *rch  whose  radius  is  u,  and  whose  tangent  is  V- 

m  vacuo,  as  u  Lv    -— ^ —  to  v  ;  for  it  would  ,  .   ^     .  ,  .    , .     .             ^     -       \,           J 

'         -^^    ti— V  and  that  v^tt«+v*  is  the  secant  of  another  arch 

...              J    .      .1.    .•      '^  of  ^**e  same  circle  whose  tangent  is  v. 

acquire  this  velocity  in  vacuo  during  the  time^,  Le^  ^^^  ^^^  j,^^  ^^  projected  upwards  with 

ft  the  velocity  411*05  feet  per  second.     Required 

and  it  acquires  it  in  the  air  in  the  time  -  L  ,.       u  1    u  •  u. .      u-  u  *     -n   •     »  u         V 
J                                                   g  the  whole  height  to  which  it  will  nse  ?  Here  — 

.*/  !1±?.  will  be  found  the  tangent  of  30-48i,  the  logarith- 

«*— 1>"                                                .       ,  mic  secant  of  which  is  006606.    This,  multi- 

2.  The  velocity  which  the  body  acquires  by  ^1 

«  T     /tH^  P^*®**  ^y  m7'  Sri^cs  2259  feet  for  the  height.    It 

felling  through  the  air  in  the  time  -^LiX^ ,  j  .    ^  •       «-^^  x-  .  •           j 

^          *                                 5            « — ^  would  have  risen  2640  feet  in  a  void. 

is,  to  the  velocity  which  it  would  acquire  in  vacuo  Suppose  this  body  to  fall  down  again.    We 

•'J7+V  ^*^  compare  the  velocity  of  projection  with  the 

during  the  same  time  as  v  to  «  ij\r    ;  velocity  with  which  it  again  reaches  the  ground. 

for  the  velocity  wouWacquire  in  racuo  durinR  "^^^^  *""*  ^"^^  "*  •^"'^ '   **'*^'"* 

the  time  JLjj^'^  „««  be  u  Ia/'^  v/-^',  which  multiplies  the  constant  factor 

g                U — V                                        U — V  y     '^f~ 

,.                       .•       V)   ^.       .    .^       .  in  the  ascent,  is  equal  to  VT   — i — it  the  multi- 

(because  in  any  tune  —  the  relocity  10  is  ac-  ^       ^                 u* — \r 

.^,                         *  plier  in  the  descent     The  first  is  the  secant  of 

^"Ir    r  1  .     t  J      1.      .           1     1    •».  ■  w>  arch  whose  tangent  is  V ;  the  other  is  the  se- 

Next,  let  a  body  whose  terminal  velocity  is  u  ^^^  „f  ^  ^^  ^g^  ^i^^  J,  „.    These  secanU 

be  projected  perpendicularly  upwards  with  any  ^        ,  „,  ^^  ^^^  ^^  ^.e  same ;  therefore 

velocity  V   It  is  required  to  determine  the  height  ^^  ^^locity  of  projection  is  to  the  final  returning 

to  which  It  ascends,  so  as  to  have  any  renwining  velocity  as  theVngent  to  the  sine,  or  as  tbi 

velocity  «  and  the  ttme  of  ite  ascent;  as  also  the  ^^j^/j^  ^^  ^^^^^  ^^  3^_    ^^ 

height  and  time  m  which  its  whole  m«ion  will  ^^  ^^^  projected  with  the  terminal  veloa't>,  or 

be  extinguished.    We  have  now  Ci___i  for  v==u;  then»= -^.    If  V=  689,17=487. 

the  expression  of/";  for  both  gravity  and  resist-  ,     ,      ,       ,    V '  -•  ,                  j  i     . 

ance  art  now  in  tlie  same  direcUon  and  retard  the  ^"^^^  *«  ^la"""  o^  ^  "J^^^^*  **  *""* 

motion  of  the  ascending  body;  therefore  ^^"'j^"^  "»«'  "^^  ascertained.    Here  ^  ^"^  "     t=-i 

*=-.i,«.d* |-xj^andi=-  -<»*  =  - 7X5q:;?'=-f^i^-'' 


C  (see  art.  Fluxions).    This  must  be  =  o  at    /    "_^  ^,  is  an  arch 
the  beginning  of  the  motion,  that  is,  when  t;=V,  -^    «*  H-v 


17 

whose  tangent  s=:  -.^  and 
tt 


thatis,-JLxLN/^i^Tv"'+C  =  o,orC=  ^^ius  1 ;    therefore    *  =  -  j x  arc.  tan. 

-X  LV^?+V«,  and  the  complete  fluent  will  \^^'    ^h"  "^"'^  ^«  =  ^'  ^^^^'^  t^  =  V,  or 

lKs.==!ix(L>/«?+V''-L>/i?H^')==  C-^xarc.tan.^=o,andC=^xaro. 

1^        f     /tt*H-V*  _  ***       X      /ttM-V*  tan.  — and  the  complete  fluent  is  *  =  —  x 

•  Let  A  be  the  greatest  height  to  w;iich  the  body  V^  **"•  T-^"=-  **"•  t)'    ^^  '»"'""•''*» 

...   .        n^.      .  „i,^  J  I      «^  within  the  brackets  express  a  portion  of  the  arch 

will  ru«.  Jh«  »  =  A  when  i>=o;andA=-  ^^^^^  ^^  ^^ i,  ^gy.  „„i  ,«  tf,ere- 

^  T  .^/"*+^'  =  —  X  X  y/"**^  ^*.    We  ^"^'^  abstract  numbers,  multiplying  — ,  which  we 

y   a  .  ya  ^sivc  shown  to  be  the  number  of  units  of  time  in 

have  X  v^-^a      a  =  * -~f- J    therefore    X  which  a  heavy  body  falls  in  vacuo  from  the 

^  ^"^  w^  height  a,  or  in  which  it  acquires  the  velocity  u. 

Digitized  by  VjUUyiC 


PROJECTILES. 


186 


From  this  expreflsion  of  the  time  we  learn  that 
however  great  the  velocity  of  projection,  and 
the  height  to  which  this  body  will  rise,  may  be, 
the  time  of  its  ascent  is  limited.  It  never  can 
exceed  the  time  of  falling  from  the  height  a  in 
vacuo  in  a  greater  proportion  than  that  or  a  qua- 
drantal  arch  to  the  radius,  nearly  the  proportion 
of  eight  to  five.  A  twenty-four  pound  iron  ball 
cannot  continue  rising  above  fourteen  seconds, 
jven  if  the  resistance  to  quick  motions  did  not 
increase  faster  than  the  square  of  the  velocity. 
It  .probably  will  attain  its  greatest  height  in  less 
thaua  twelve  seconds,  let  its  velocity  be  ever  so 
great.    In  the  preceding  example  of  the  whole 

u  V 

ascent  v^o,  and  the  time  ^  i=  —  X  arc.  tan.  — 

S  « 

or  — arc.  30^48'.  Now  30**  48*  =  1848',  and  the 

1848 
radios  1  contains  3483 :  therefore  the  arch =77rr 

3438 

=  0-5376;  and  — 2r-54.  Therefore  t  =  21''-54 

g 
X  0-5376,  H-  11'''58,  or  neaiiy  11 1  seconds. 
The  bodr  would  have  risen  to  the  same  height 
in  a  void  in  10}  seconds. 

Cor.  1.  The  time  in  which  a  body,  projected 
in  the  air  with  any  velocity  V,  will  attain  its 
greatest  height,  is  to  that  in  which  it  would  at- 
tain its  greatest  height  in  vacuo  as  the  arch  whose 
tangent  expresses  the  velocity  is  to  the  tangent ; 

for  the  time  of  the  ascent  in  the  air  is  — x  arch ; 

V     *       V 
the  time  of  the  ascent  in  vacuo  is  — .  Now  —  is 

V       tt 
=:  tan.  andVzzttX  tan.  and — = — x  tan. 

U  tt 

From  inspecting  the  diagram  p.  153,  it  is  evi- 
dent that  the  arch  A I  is  to  the  tangent  A  G  as  the 
sector  I C  A  to  the  triangle  C  G  A ;  therefore  the 
time  of  attaining  the  greatest  height  in  the  air  is 
to  that  of  attaining  the  greatest  height  in  vacuo 
(the  velocities  of  projection  being  the  same)  as 
tlie  circular  sector  to  the  corresponding  triangle. 
If  therefore  a  body  be  projected  upwards  with 
^e  terminal  velocity,  the  time  of  its  ascent  will 
be  to  the  time  of  acquiring  this  velocity  in  vacuo 
as  the  area  of  a  cirele  to  the  area  of  the  cireum- 
scribed  square. 

2.  The  height  H  to  which  a  body  will  rise  in  a 
▼oid  is  to  the  height  h  to  which  it  would  rise 
through  the  air  when  projected  with  the  same 

velocity  V  as  M-V«  to ««  x  X       ,     ;    for    the 

V* 

height  to  which  it  will  rise  in  vacuo  is  -r — ,  and 

Ae  height  which  it  rises  in  the  air  is  -*:—    X 
Mg 

■^;  thorefore  H  :  *  =^:^X 


y/' 


M^^ 


tt*-|-V» 


=  MV:tt*x  X 


tt«+V» 


If  the  body,  therefore,  be  projected  with  its 
terminal  velocity,  so  that  V  s=  u,  the  height  to 


which  it  will  rise  in  the  air  is  -t-t-t  of  the  height 
43429 
5 
to  which  it  will  rise  in  vacuo,  or  ---   in   ronnd 

numbers. 

We  thought  it  necessary  to  treat  of  the  per- 
pendicular ascents  and  descents  of  heavy  bodies 
through  the  air  thus  particularly,  that  the  reader 
may  conceive  distinctly  the  quantities  which  he 
is  thus  combining  in  his  algebraic  operations,  and 
may  see  their  connexion  in  nature  with  each 
other.  We  shall  also  find  that,  in  the  present 
state  of  our  mathematical  knowledge,  this  simple 
state  of  the  case  contains  almost  sdl  that  we  can 
determine  with  any  confidence. 

Sect.  VI. — Op  the  Oblique  Projection. 

We  wonld  now  proceed  to  the  general  problem 
to  determine  the  motion  of  a  body  projected  in 
any  direction,  and  with  any  velocity.  But  our 
readers  will  believe  that  this  must  be  a  difficult 
subject,  when  they  see  the  simplest  cases  of  rec- 
tilineal motion  abundantly  abstruse :  it  is  indeed 
so  difficult  that  Sir  Isaac  Newton  has  not  siven 
a  solution  of  it,  and  has  thought  himself  well  em- 
ployed in  making  several  approximations,  in 
which  the  fertility  of  his  genius  appears  in  i^eat 
lustre.  In  the  tenth  and  subsequent  propositions 
of  the  second  book  of  his  Principia  he  shows 
what  state  of  density  in  the  air  will  comport 
vnth  the  motion  of  a  bodj  in  any  curve  what- 
ever ;  and  then,  by  applymg  this  discovery  to 
several  curves  which  have  some  similarity  to  the 
path  of  a  projectile,  he  finds  one  which  is  not 
very  different  from  what  we  may  suppose  to  ob- 
tain in  our  atmosphere.  But  even  this  approx- 
imation was  involved  in  snch  intricate  calcula- 
tions that  it  seemed  impossible  to  make  any  use 
of  it. 

In  the  second  edition  of  the  Principia,  pub- 
lished in  1713,  Newton  corrects  some  mistakes 
in  the  first,  and  carries  his  approximations  much 
farther,  but  still  does  not  attempt  a  direct  inves- 
tigation of  the  path  which  a  body  will  describe 
in  our  atmosphere.  This  is  somewhat  surprising. 
In  prop.  14,  &c.,  he  shows  how  a  body,  actu- 
ated by  a  centripetal  force,  in  a  medium  of  den- 
sity varying  according  to  certain  law,  will  de- 
scribe an  eccentric  Spiral,  of  which  he  assigns 
the  properties,  and  the  law  of  description.  Ilad 
he  supposed  the  density  constant,  and  the  differ- 
ence between  the  greatest  and  least  distances 
from  the  centre  of  centripetal  force  exceedingly 
small  in  comparison  with  the  distances  them- 
selves, his  spiral  would  have  coincided  with  the 
path  of  a  projectile  in  the  air  of  uniform  density, 
and  the  steps  of  his  investigation  would  have  led 
him  immediately  to  the  complete  solution  of  the 
problem.  For  this  is  the  real  state  of  the  case. 
A  heavy  body  is  not  acted  on  by  equal  and  pa- 
rallel gravity,  but  by  a  gravity  inversely  propor- 
tional to  the  square  of  the  distance  from  die 
centre  of  the  earth,  and  in  lines  tendins  to  that 
centre  nearly ;  and  it  veas  with  the  view  of  simpli- 
fying the  investigation  that  mathematicians  have 
adopted  the  other  hypothesis. 

Not  long  after  the  publication  of  this  second 
edition  of  the  Principia,  the  dispute  about  the  xdi' 

Digitized  by  VjiUUyit: 


156 


PROJECTILES. 


vention  of  the  flmionary  calculus  became  very 
violent,  tod  the  cpreat  promoters  of  that  calculus 
upon  the  continent  proposed  difficult  problems 
to  the  mathematicians.  Challenges  of  this  kind 
frequently  passed  between  the  British  and 
foreigners.  Dr.  Keill  of  Oxford  had  Iceenly 
espoused  the  claim  of  Sir  Isaac  Newton  to  this 
inyention,  and  had  engaged  in  a  very  acrimonious 
altercation  with  the  celebrated  John  fiemouilli  of 
Basle.  Bemouilli  had  published  in  the  Acta 
Eruditorum  Lipsi«,  an  investigation  of  the  law 
of  forces,  by  which  a  body,  moving  in  a  resisting 
medium,  might  describe  any  proposed  curve,  re- 
ducing the  whole  to  the  simplest  geometry.  This 
is  perhaps  the  most  elegant  specimen  which  he 
has  given  of  his  great  talents.  Dr.  Keill  proposed 
to  him  the  particular  problem  of  the  trajectory 
and  motion  of  a  body  moving  through  the  air,  as 
•  one  of  the  most  difficult.  Bemouilli  very  soon 
solved  the  problem  in  a  way  much  more  general 
than  it  had  been  proposed,  viz.  without  any  limit- 
ation either  of  the  law  of  resistance,  the  law  of 
the  centripetal  force,  or  the  law  of  density,  pro- 
vided only  that  they  were  regular,  and  capable 
of  being  expressed  algebraically.  Dr.  Brooke 
Taylor,  the  celebrated  author  of  the  Method  of 
Increments,  solved  it  at  the  same  time,  in  the 
limited  form  in  which  it  was  proposed.  Other 
authors  since  that. time  have  given  other  solu- 
tions ;  but  they  are  all  (as  indeed  they  must  be) 
the  same  in  substance  with  Bemouilli^s.  Indeed 
they  are  all  (Bernouilli's  not  excepted)  the  same 
with  Newton's  first  approximations,  modified  by 
the  steps  introduced  into  the  investigation  of  the 
spiral  motions  mentioned  above ;  and  we  still 
think  it  most  strange  that  Sir  Isaac  did  not  per- 
ceive that  the  variation  of  curvature,  which  he 
introduced  in  that  investigation,  made  the  whole 
diffiirence  between  his  approximations  and  the 
complete  solution. 

All  the  solutions  given  of  this  problem  depend 
upon  a  particular  law  of  resistance  assumed, 
without  proving  that  to  be  the  law  by  which  a 
body  is  resisted  in  its  motion  through  the  air. 
This  resistance  is  supposed  to  be  in  the  duplicate 
ratio  of  the  velocity ;  but  even  theory  points  out 
many  causes  of  deviation  from  this  law,  such  as 
the  pressure  and  condensation  of  the  air,  in  the 
case  of  very  swift  motions :  and  Mr.  Robins's 
experiments  are  sufficient  to  prove  that  the  devi- 
ations must  be  exceedingly  great  in  such  cases. 
Euler  and  all  subsequent  writers  have  allowed 
that  it  may  be  three  times  greater,  even  in  cases 
which  frequently  occur ;  and  Euler  gives  a  rule 
for  ascertaining  with  tolerable  accuracy  what  this 
increase  and  &e  whole  resistance  may  amount 
to.  Let  H  be  the  height  of  a  column  of  air 
whose  weight  is  equivalent  to  the  resistance 
taken  in  the  duplicate  ratio  of  the  velocity.  The 
whole  resistance  will  be  expr^sed  by  H  -f- 

"^QQAK  '    '^^ number  28845  is  the  height  in  feet 

of  a  column  of  air  whose  weight  balances  its 
elasticity.  We  shall  not  at  present  call  in  ques- 
tion his  reasons  for  assigning  this  precise  addi- 
tion. They  are  rather  reasons  of  arithmetical 
conveniency.  than  of  physicad  import.  It  is 
enough  to  observe  that,  if  this  measure  of  the 
resistance  is  introduced  into  the  process  of  inves- 


tigation,  it  is  totally  changed :  and  it  is  not  U>) 
much  to  say  that  with  this  complication  it  re- 
quires the  knowledge  and  address  of  a  Euler  to 
make  even  a  partial  and  very  limited  approxima- 
tion to  a  solution. 

Any  law  of  the  resistance,  therefore,  which  is 
more  complicated  than  what  Bemouilli  has  as- 
sumed, namely,  that  of  *a  simple  power  of  the 
velocity,  is  abandoned  by  all  the  mathematicians, 
as  exceeding  their  data :  and  they  have  attempted 
to  avoid  the  error  arising  from  the  assumption  of 
the  duplicate  ratio  of  the  velocity  either  by  sup- 
posing the  resistance  throughout  the  whole  tra- 
jectory to  be  greater  than  what  it  is  in  general, 
or  they  have  divided  the  trajectory  into  different 
portions,  and  assigned  different  resistances  to 
each,  which  vary,  throng^  the  whole  of  that  por- 
tion, in  the  duplicate  ratio  of  the  velocities.  Thus 
they  make  up  a  trajectory  and  motion  which  cor- 
responds, in  some  tolerable  degree,  with  what? 
With  an  accurate  theory?  No ;  but  with  a  se- 
ries of  experiments.  For,  in  the  .fim  place, 
every  theoretical  computation  which  we  make 
proceeds  on  a  supposed  initial  velocity;  and 
this  cannot  be  ascertained  with  any  thing  ap- 
proaching  to  precision  by  any  theory  of  the 
action  of  gunpowder  that  we  are  yet  possessed 
of.  In  the  next  place,  our  theories  of  the  resistr- 
ing  power  of  the  air  are  entirely  established  on 
the  experiments  on  the  flight  of  shot  and  she  Is, 
and  are  corrected  and  amended  till  they  tally 
with  the  most  approved  experiments  we  can 
find.  We  do  not  learn  the  ranges  of  a  gun  by 
theory,  but  the  theory  by  the  range  of  the  gun. 

After  all,  therefore,  the  practical  artillerist 
must  rely  chiefly  on  the  records  of  experiments 
contained  in  the  books  of  practice  at  the  acade- 
mies, or  those  made  in  a  more  public  manner. 
Even  a  perfect  theory  of  the  air's  resistance  can 
do  him  little  service,  unless  the  force  of  gimpow- 
der  were  uniform.  But  this  is  far  from  being  the 
case. 

The  experiments  of  Mr.  Robins  and  Dr.  Hut- 
ton  show,  in  the  most  incontrovertible  manner, 
that  the  resistance  to  a  motion  exceeding  1100 
f^t  in  a  second  is  almost  three  times  greater  than 
in  the  duplicate  ratio  to  the  resistance  to  mode- 
rate velocities.  Euler's  translator,  in  his  com- 
parison of  the  author's  trajectories  with  experi- 
ment, supposes  it  to  be  no  greater.  Yet  the  co- 
incidence is  very  great  The  same  may  be  said 
of  the  Chevalier  de  Bofda's.  Nay,  the  same 
may  be  said  of  Mr.  Robins's  own  practical  rules; 
and  yet  his  mles  are  confirmed  by  experience. 

But  we  must  not  infer,  from  all  this,  that  the 
physical  theory  is  of  no  use  to  the  practical  ar- 
tillerist It  plainly  shows  him  the  impropriety 
of  giving  the  projectile  an  enormous  velocity. 
This  velodtv  is  of  no  effect  after  200  or  300 
yards  at  fiirtliest,  because  it  is  so  rapidly  reduced 
by  the  prodigious  resistance  of  the  air.  Mr.  Ro- 
bins has  deduced  several  practical  maxims  of  the 
greatest  importance  from  what  we  already  know 
of  this  subject^  and  which  could  hardly  have  been 
even  conjectured  without  this  knowledge.  And 
we  must  still  acknowledge  that  this  branch  ot 
physical  science  is  highly  interesting  to  the  phi- 
losopher; nor  should  we  despair  of  carrying  it 
to  greater  perfection. 


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PROJECTILES. 


167 


Ceitunly  the  most  complete  aet  of  expeii- 
nents  made  with  a  view  of  obtaiDing  a  rational 
tbeoijr  of  projectiles  are  those  of  Dr.  Hatton, 
which  were  carried  on  at  Woolwich  during  the 
yean  1775, 1783, 1784, 1785, 1787, 1788, 1789, 
and  1791y  the  oUects  of  which  were  very  ¥ari- 
OQSy  and  some  of  the  results  highly  important. 
The  latter  are  thus  enumerated  by  the  author  in 
the  second  volume  of  his  Tracts : — 

*  1.  It  is  made  erident,  by  these  experiments, 
iiat  powder  fires  almost  instantaneously,  seeing 
iial  nearly  the  whole  of  the  charge;fires,  though  the 
time  b«  much  diminished. 

'  2.  Hie  velocities  communicated  to  the  shot 
of  the  same  weight,  with  different  quantities  of 
powder,  are  nearly  in  the  subduplicate  ratio  of 
those  quantities ;  a  very  small  variation,  in  de- 
fect, taking  place  when  the  quantities  of  powder 
become  great. 

<3.  And  when  shot  of  different  weights  are 
fired  with  die  same  quantities  of  powder  the  ve- 
locities communicated  to  them  are  nearly  in  the 
redpiocal  subduplicate  ratio  of  their  weights. 

*4.  So  that,  universally,  shots  which  are  of 
difierent  weights,  and  impelled  by  the  firing  of 
difiereat  quantities  of  powder,  acquire  velocities 
which  are  directly  as  the  square  roots  of  the 
quantitv  of  powder,  and  inversely  as  the  square 
roots  of  the  weight  of  die  shot,  nearly. 

*5.  It  would  therefore  be  a  great  improve- 
ment in  artillery  to  make  use  of  shot  of  a  long 
form,  or  of  heavier  matter ;  for  thus  the  momen- 
tnm  of  the  shot,  when  fired  with  the  same  weight 
of  powder,  would  be  increased  in  the  ratio  of 
the  sqaaie  root  of  the  weight  of  the  shot. 

'6.  It  would  also  be  an  improvement  to  di- 
Bimsh  die  windage;  for,  by  so  doing,  one-third 
^r  more  of  the  quanti^  of  powder  might  be 
laved.'  (This,  however,  must  be  understood 
only  to  be  true  within  certain  limits.) 

'7.  When  the  improvements  mentioned  in  the 
two  last  cases  are  considered  as  both  taking  place 
it  is  evident  that  about  half  the  quantity  of 
powder  might  be  saved,  which  is  a  very  consider- 
able object.  But,  important  as  this  saving  may 
be,  it  seems  still  to  be  exceeded  by  that  of  the 

Sins:  for  thus  a  small  gun  may  be  made  to 
ve  the  effect  of  one  of  two  or  diree  times  its 
siie,  in  the  present  way,  by  discharging  a  long 
shot  of  two  or  three  times  the  weight  of  its  na- 
tural ball,  or  round  shot :  and  thus  a  small  ship 
might  discharge  shot  as  heavy  as  those  of  the 
greatest  now  made  use  of.' 

The  objects  of  the  latter  courses  of  experiments 
are  thus  detailed :  viz.  to  ascertain, 

'1.  The  velocities  widi  which  balls  are  pro- 
jected by  equal  charges  of  powder,  from  pieces 
of  the  same  weight  and  caliore,  but  of  different 
lengtbff- 

<  2.  The  greatest  velocities  due  to  die  different 
charges  of  powder,  the  weight  and  length  of  the 
gun  being  the  same. 

*  3.  The  greatest  velocity  due  to  the  different 
tengdis  of  guns ;  to  be  obtained  W  increasing 
the  charge  as  iar  as  the  resistance  of  the  piece  is 
capsble  of  sustaining. 

'4.  The  effect  of  varying  the  weight  of  the 
piece;  every  thing  else  being  the  same. 

'5.  The  penetration  of  balb  into  blocks  of 
wood. 


*  6.  The  ranges  -and  times  of  flight  of  balls, 
with  th^  velocities,  by  striking  the  pendulum  at 
various  distances,  to  compare  them  with  initial 
velocities,  for  determining  the  resistance  of  the 
medium. 

^  7.  The  effects  of  Wads,  of  ramming,  of  wind- 
age, &c.' 

We  shall  now  quote  this  author's  expression 
for  the  resistance  of  the  air,  deduced  firom  these 
experiments,  and  thence  determine  the  ranges, 
times  of  flight,  &c.,  of  projectiles  according  to 
that  hypothesis. 

Theorem. — ^The  resistance  of  the  ait,  to  a  ball 
projected  into  it  with  any  considerable  velocity, 
IS  expressed  by  the  formula  r  =:  ('000007565  v* 
—  00175  v)  ^.  But^  for  the  smaller  velocities, 
r  zz  '0000044  d*  v*  will  be  a  sofficienUy  near  ap- 
proximation, where  r  reoresents  the  resistance  in 
avoirdupois  pounds,  d  the  diameter  of  the  ball 
in  inches,  v  the  velocity  in  English  feet  See 
Hutton's  Tracts,  vol.  iii.  p.  232. 

Prob.  I. — ^To  determine  the  height  to  which 
A  ball,  projected  perpendicularly  upwards,  will 
ascend,  being  resisted  by  the  atmosphere. 

Putting  X  to  denote  any  variable  and  increas- 
ing height  ascended  by  the  ball ;  v  its  variable 
and  decreasing  velocity  there ;  d  the  diameter  of 
the  ball,  its  weight  being  w;  m  i=  *000007565, 
and  nzz  *00175,  the  co-efficients  of  the  two  terms 
in  the  above  theorem.  Then  (mt^'-^nv)  d* 
will  be  the  resistance  of  the  air  against  the  ball  i*. 
avoirdupois  pounds,  to  which,  if  die  weight  of  the 
ball  be  added,  then  (mti'  —  n  t?)  d*  -f  to  will  be 
the  whole  resistance  to  the  ball's  motion,  and 

consequenUy  ^ • —  =  ^ ^ 

w  .w 

d^  +  1  =/,  the  retarding  force.    Hence  the  ge- 
neral formula  vv  =  2gfi  becomes  —  v  v  s=  2 


(ifitj*  —  nv)d^  -f-10 


making  v  negative,  be- 


cause the  velocity  is  decreasing,  where  g  =16^ 
feet,  or  sixteen  feet,  the  descent  of  a  bodv  in  one 
second  by  gravity. 

Hencex^ ,^^  X  ^^^^J^^  ^  ^   = 

""^    X  ^ The   fldent  ef 


m  wd" 

which  being  taken,  and  corrected  for  the  instant 
of  the  first  velocity  V,  when  a:  =  0,  gives  j  = 

^x   {jlog.(V.-lv  +  Ji,)-4 

10  p 

log.  — -  -f  S  (arc.  tan.  (V — p)  — arc.  tan.  — 
^  f»d*       9"^  ^        *^' 

p  to  rad.  q)  \  where  p  =  -— ,  and  j^  +  f '  = 

w 
md^' 

But  as  part  of  Uiis  fluent,  denoted  by  ^-f  die 

difference  of  die  two  arcs  to  tan.  (V — p)  and  — 
p,  is  always  very  small  in  comparison  with  the 
other  preceding  terms,  it  may  be  omitted  witheut 
any  material  error  in  practical  cases;  in  which 
case  we  have, 


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156 


PROJECTILES. 


AgmtP 


X  bjrp.  log. 


m  m  tP 


mtP 


for  the  greatest  height  to  which  the  ball  will  as- 
cend in  air ;  supposing  its  density  uniformly  the 
same  as  at  the  earth's  sur&ce.  Now  for  the  nu- 
merical value  of  the  general  coefficient  -7 1=-, 

^  4gmd* 

to 
and  the  term  — s-:  because  the  mass  of  the 

ball  to  the  diameter  d  is  '5236  d*,  if  its  specific 
gravity  be  s,  its  weight  will  be  -5236  i  d*  =  w ; 

therefore  ^,  =  -5236  s  i^  and  -—==  69259 td; 

tc 
this  divided  by  4  g  or  64,  gives -^   = 

1082 1  d  for  the  value  of  the  general  coefficient, 
to  any  diameter  (2,  and  specific  gravity  s.  And 
if  we  farther  suppose  the  ball  to  be  cast  iron,  the 
specific  gravity  of  which,  or  the  weight  of  a  cubic 
inch,  is    26855  lbs.,  it  becomes  290*  s  d  for  that 

co-efficient;  also  69259  «  d=  18600  rf=  -^, 

mar 

and  -  —  231-5, 
m 
Hence  the  preceding  fluent  becomes 

«n/.i5       w       I       V«  — 231-5  V-f- 18600  d 
X  =  290-6  X  hyp.log.  ,^^ 

^^f.^              1^  V»  — 231-5  V-f  18600  rf 
'  =  669d  X  com. log. jggg^t 

which  is  in  general  expression  for  the  altitude  in 
feet  ascended  by  an  iron  bullet  whose  diameter 
is  </,  and  projectile  velocity  V. 

Example  1. — Suppose  a  ball  of  cast  iron, 
whose  diameter  is  two  inches,  and,  therefore,  its 
weight  1(  lb.,  to  be  projected  upwwds  with  a  ve- 
locity of  2000  feet  per  second,  to  find  the  greatest 
height  to  which  it  will  ascend. 

Here,  substituting  for  d,  Wy  and  V  their  respec- 
tive values,  we  have 

^^f^  J  I       V«  —  231-5  V  +  18600(i 

jr  =  669<2x  com.  log.  —  ^ 


:  2653  feet. 


18600(2 


Example  2. — ^Again,  let  the  ball  weigh  twenty- 
four  pounds,  and,  therefore,  its  diameter  56,  and 
velocity  2000  feet  per  second,  as  before ;  then 

««nj               1       V«  — 231-5  V -I- 18600  rf 
X  =  6691/  X  com.log. ,^^ 

=s  5782  feet,  the  height  required. 

In  the  first  of  these  examples,  where  the  height 
is  found  to  be  only  about  half  a  mile,  the  ball 
would  ascend  to  nearly  twelve  miles  in  a  non- 
resisting  medium ;  and  hence  we  may  see  the 
immense  efiiect  of  atmospheric  resistance  to  the 
motion  of  projectiles. 

Prob.  II. — ^To  determine  the  time  in  which  a 
ball  will  have  acquired  its  greatest  height,  using 
the  same  formula  of  resistance  as  in  the  last  case. 

Here  the  general  value  of  t,  determined  on 

principles  similar  to  those  above  employed,  gives 

V)  /  V — »  V — p\ 

■  X I  arc. tan. i-arc.  tan. i- ), 

'      \  q  q    J 

V  — p 
X  arc.  tan. -,   rejecting 


the  latter  arc  as  inconsiderable ;  p  and  q  repre- 
tenting  the  same  as  before. 

Example  1. — Let  it  be  proposed  to  find  the 
time  in  which  an  iron  ball,  two  inches  in  diame- 
ter, will  acquire  its  greatest  height,  when  project- 
ed with  a  velocity  of  2000  feet  per  second! 


#  = 


or  ^ 


w 


2gmqd^ 


Here  r^  =  115|  = 
2  m 


p,  and— r=- 
^  mdr 


P"  + 


9*,  gives  q  =  ^/3n53— p*=:  I54J;  whence /  = 

■    ^    ^,  X  (arc  tan.  X-ZI^'S  =  11-81   se- 

conds. 

If  we  take  the  second  example  above  to  find 
the  time,  we  shdl  havep  =  11^^  as  before,  and 

q  =  299-4  ;  therefore  t  =  ^ ^  x  arc.  tan. 


V-P- 


2  gmqd^ 


=  16-89  seconds. 

y 

After  the  investigation  of  these  problems,  and 
some  others  of  a  similar  nature.  Dr.  Hutton 
proceeds  to  the  investigation  of  his  principal  one, 
viz.  to  determine  the  circumstances  of  ranges  at 
different  degrees  of  elevation;  which  we  tran- 
scribe. 

<  Rules  for  the  general  solution  of  this  problem 
would  be  best  derived  from  experiments ;  and 
these  should  be  made  at  all' elevations,  and  with 
all  charges,  and  with  various  sizes  of  balls,  ob- 
serving both  the  ranges  and  times  of  flight  in 
every  experiment.  Such  experiments  would 
give  us  the  relations  existing,  in  all  cases, 
amongst  these  four  terms,  viz.  the  ranges,  the 
times  of  flight,  the  veloci^  or  charges,  and  the 
size  of  the  balls.  Numerous  and  various  as  are 
our  experiments,  as  before  related,  and  firuitfnlas 
they  are  in  useful  consequences,  we  have  obtain- 
ed but  a  small  portion  of  those  alluded  to ;  nor 
do  I  know  of  any  proper  set  of  such  experiments 
any  where  to  be  round.  Sacb  must,  therefore, 
still  remain  a  valuable  desideratum ;  die  fow  that 
we  have  been  able  to  make  a£ford  us  but  very 
few  and  imperfect  rules,'being  chiefly  as  follows : 
— ^1.  Tliat  the  ranges  with  the  one-pound  balls, 
at  an  elevation  of  15%  are  nearly  proportional  to 
the  times  of  flight.  2.  That  the  ranges  with  the 
three-pound  balls,  at  45°  of  elevation,  are  nearly 
as  the  times  of  flight,  and  also  as  the  projectile 
velocities.  Besides  these  inferences,  it  does  not 
appear  that  the  experiments  are  extensive  enough 
to  afford  any  more  usefial  oonclnsion. 

'  By  trials,  however,  amongst  many  of  the  num- 
bers in  art.  24,  it  appears  that  in  most  of  them 
at  an  elevation  between  45**  and  30**,  the  time  of 
flight  is  neariy  equal  to  one-fourth  of  the  square 
root  of  the  range  in  feet,  in  which  respect  it 
nearly  agrees  with  the  similar  rule  for  the  time 
of  flight  in  the  parabolic  theory,  at  the  angle  of 
45^  for  the  greatest  range,  whicn  time,  it  is  well 
known,  is  equal  to  one-fourth  of  the  square  root 
of  the  said  range  in  feet.  Whence  it  is  probable 
that,  with  the  help  of  a  few  other  ranges  at  seve- 
ral elevations,  some  general  relations  might  be 
evinced  between  the  ranees  and  the  times  of 
flight,  with  the  tangents  of  the  elevation. 

'  But  such  experiments  and  enquiries  as  these, 
unfortunately,  it  is  no  longer  in  my  power  either 
to  procure,  or  by  any  means  to  promote;  and 


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169 


wt  can,  thoefofe,  only  endeavour  to  render, 
without  theoDy  what  senrioe  we  oan  to  the  state, 
and  to  philosophy,  by  such  means  as  are  in  our 


'There  are  some  few  theoretical  principles 
which  it  may  be  useful  to  notice  here^  as  first 
mentioned  by  professor  Robison.  Thus  balls 
of  equal  density,  discharged  at  the  same  elevation 
with  velocities  which  are  proportional  to  the 
square  roots  of  their  diameters,  will  describe  si- 
milar curves ;  because  then  the  resistances  will 
be  in  proportion  as  the  momentum  or  quantity 
of  motion.  For  the  resistance  r  istP  v^  nearly ; 
d  being  the  diameter,  and  v  the  velocity.  But  v 
being  9s\y  d^r^  will  be  as  d ;  consequently  <P 
v*  will  be  as^ ;  that  is,  r  is  as  J*.  But  the  mo- 
mentum is  as  the  magnitude  or  mass,  which  is  as 
^  also,  the  cube  of  the  diameter.  Therefore  the 
resistance  is  proportional  to  the  momentum, 
when  the  velocity  is  as  ^/</,  or  the  square  root  of 
the  diameter  of  the  ball.  In  this  case,  then,  the 
horizontal  velocity  at  the  vertex  of  the  curve  will 
be  proportional  to  the  terminal  velocity ;  also  the 
ranges,  and  heights,  and  all  other  similar  lines 
in  Uie  curve,  will  be  proportional  to  d,  the  dia- 
meter of  the  ball.  And  this  principle  may  be  of 
considerable  use ;  for  thus,  by  means  of  a  proper 
series  of  experiments  on  one  ball,  projected  with 
different  velocities  and  elevations,  tables  may  be 
constructed,  by  which  may  be  ascertained  the 
motions  in  all  similar  cases.' 

We  shall  have  occasion  to  ad  vert  again  to  these 
valuable  contributions  of  Dr.  Hutton. 

PART  II. 

OP  THE  PRACTICE  OF  GUNNERY.  0^1 
MILITARY  PROJECTILES. 

HaTing  laid  before  our  readers  the  substance 
of  the  latest  and  most  inproved  theories  of  pro- 
jectiles, we  proceed  to  give  them  a  brief  sketch 
of  the  most  improved  modem  practice. 

Mr.  Robihs,  in  his  preface  to  his  Ne^  Princi- 
ples of  Gunnery,  states  that  he  had  met  with 
only  four  authors  who  had  treated  experimental- 
ly on  this  subject.  The  first  of  these  is  Collado 
in  164S2,  who  has  given  the  mnges  of  a  falconet, 
carrying  a  three-pound  shot,  to  every  point  of 
the  ffunner's  quadrant,  each  point  being  the 
twelnh  part,  or  7^  3</.  But  from  his  numbers 
it  is  manifest  that  the  piece  was  not  charged  with 
its  usual  allotment  of  powder.  The  result  of  his 
trials  shows  the  ranges  at  .the  point-blanc,  and 
the  several  points  of  elevations  as  below. 


Elevation  at 

Range  in 

Poinu. 

0eg. 

paces. 

0      or 

0     . 

.     268 

74  . 

.     594 

15     . 

.     794 

22i  .         . 

.     954 

30     . 

.  1010 

37J  . 

.  1040 

45     . 

,  1053 

52i  . 

between  the  3d  and  4th 

60    . 

between  the  2d  and  3d 

67*  . 

.  between  the  Ist  and  2d 

10 

75     . 

.  between  the  0  and  Ist 

11 

821  • 

.  fell  very  near  the  piece. 

The  next  was  by  Wm,  Bourne,  in  1643,  in 
his  Art  of  Shooting  in  great  Ordnance.  His 
elevations  were  not  regulated  by  the  points  of 
the  gunner's  quadrant,  but  by  degrees ;  and  be 
gives  the  proportions  between  the  ranges  at  dif- 
ferent elevations  and  the  extent  of  the  point-blanc 
shot,  thus :  if  the  extent  of  the  point-blanc  shot 
be  represented  by  one,  then  the  proportions  of 
the  ranges  at  several  elevations  will  be  as  below, 
viz. — 

BouRKE*s  Proportion  of  ranges. 
Elevation.  Range. 

0°        ....    1 
5  .        .        .         .     2J 

10  .         .        .        .     3i 

15  .         .         .         .     4i 

20  .         .         .         '.     4| 

and  the  greatest  random      5^  ; 

which  greatest  random,  he  says,  in  a  calm  day  is 
at  42°  elevation ;  but  according  to  the  streiifrth 
of  the  wind,  and  as  it  favors  or  opposes  the 
flight  of  the  shot,  the  elevation  may  be  from  43^ 
to  36*.  He  does  not  say  with  what  piece  he 
made  his  trials,  though  from  his  proportion  it 
seems  to  have  been  a  small  one.  This  however 
ought  to  have  been  mentioned,  as  the  relation 
between  the  extent  of  different  ranges  varies  ex- 
tremely according  to  the  Telocity  and  density  of 
the  bullet. 

Af^er  him  Eldred  and  Anderson,  both  English- 
men, also  published  treatises  on  this  subject. 
The  fonner  of  these  was  many  years  gunner  of 
Dover  Castle,  where  most  of  his  experiments 
were  made,  the  earliest  of  which  are  dated  1611, 
though  his  book  was  not  published  till  1646, 
and  was  entitled  The  Gunner's  Glass.  His  prin- 
ciples were  simple,  and  within  certain  limits  \ery 
near  the  truth,  though  they  were  not  rigorously 
so.  He  has  given  the  actual  rangjes  of  different 
pieces  of  artillery  at  small  elevations,  all  under 
10°.  His  experiments  are  numerous,  and  appear 
to  be  made  with  great  care  and  caution ;  and  he 
has  honestly  set  down  some  which  were  not  re- 
conoileable  to  his  method :  upon  the  whoie  he 
seems  to  have  taken  more  pams,  and  to  have 
had  a  juster  knowledge  of  his  business  than  is  to 
be  found  in  most  of  his  practical  brethren. 

Galileo  printed  his  Dialogues  on  Motion  iii 
the  year  1646.  In  these  he  pointed  out  the  ge- 
nersd  laws  observed  by  nature  in  the  production 
and  composition  of  motion,  and  was  the  first  who 
described  the  actions  and  efiects  of  gravity  on 
falling  bodies :  on  these  principles  he  determined 
that  the  flight  of  a  cannon-shot,  or  of  any  other 
projectile,  would  be  in  the  curve  of  a  parabola, 
unless  so  Car  as  it  should  be  diverted  from  that 
track  by  the  resistance  of  the  air.  He  also  pro« 
posed  the  means  of  examining  the  inequalities 
which  arise  thence,  and  of  discovering  what 
sensible  efi*ects  that  resistance  would  produce  in 
the  motion  of  a  bullet  at  some  given  distance 
from  the  piece.  Notwithstanding  these  determi- 
nations and  hints  it  seems,  however,  that  those 
who  came  after  Galileo  never  imagined  that  it 
was  necessary  to  consider  how  far  the  operations 
of  gunnery  were  afiected  by  this  resistance.  In-> 
stead  of  this,  they  boldly  asserted,  without  mak- 
ing the  experiment,  that  no  great  variation  could 


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PROJECTILES. 


rise  from  the  resistance  of  the  air  in  the  flight  of 
shells  t>r  cannon-shot.  In  this  persuasion  they 
supported  themseWes  chiefly  by  considering  the 
extreme  rarity  of  the  air,  compared  witli- those 
dense  and  ponderous  bodies ;  and  at  last  it  be- 
came an  almost  generally  established  maxim  that 
the  flight  of  these  bodies  was  nearly  in  the  curre 
of  a  parabola. 

After  the  publication  of  Newton's  Principia  it 
might  have  been  expected  that  the  defects  of  the 
theory  would  be  ascribed  to  their  true  cause,  the 
great  resistance  of  the  air  to  such  swift  motions; 
as  in  that  work  he  particularly  considered  the 
subject  of  such  motions,  and  related  the  result  of 
experiments  made  on  slow  motions  at  least ;  by 
which  it  appeared  that  in  such  motions  the  resist- 
ance increases  as  the  square  of  the  yelocities,  and 
he  even  hints  a  suspicion  that  it  will  increase 
above  that  law  in  swifter  motions,  as  is  now 
known  to  be  the  case.  So  hr,  however,  were 
those  who  treated  this  subject  scientifically  from 
making  a  proper  allowance  for  the  resistance  of 
the  atmosphere  that  they  still  neglected  it,  or 
rather  opposed  it,  and  their  theories  accordingly 
differed  most  egregiously  from  the  truth.  Huy- 
gens  alone  seems  to  have  attended  to  this  princi- 
ple; for  in  the  year  1590  he  published  a  treatise 
on  gravity,  in  which  he  gave  an  account  of  some 
experiments  tendinj^  to  prove  that  the  track  of 
all  projectiles,  moving  with  very  swift  motions, 
vras  widely  difierent  from  that  of  a  parabola. 
The  rest  or  the  learned  generally  acquiesced  in 
the  justness  and  sufficiency  of  Galileo  s  doctrine. 
Nor  was  any  £uther  notice  taken  of  these  errors 
till  the  year  1716,  at  which  time  Mr.  R^sons,  a 
French  officer  of  artillery,  of  great  merit  and  ex- 
perience, gave  in  a  memoir  to  the  Royal  Acade- 
my, importing  that,  'although  it  was  agreed  that 
theory  joined  with,  practice  did  constitute  the 
perfection  of  every  art,  yet  experience  had  taught 
nim  that  theory  was  of  very  little  service  in  the 
use  of  mortars :  that  the  works  of  M.  Blonddl 
had  justly  enough  described  the  several  parabolic 
lines  according  to  the  difierent  degrees  of  die  ele- 
vation of  the  piece:  but  that  practice  had  con- 
vinced him  there  was  no  theory  in  the  efiect 
of  gunpowder;  for  havinfl^  endeavoured,  with 
the  greatest  precision,  to  pomt  a  mortar  according 
to  these  calcuhitioos,  he  had  never  been  able  to 
establish  any  solid  foundation  upon  them. '  One 
instance  only  occurs,  in  which  D.  Bemouill 
applies  the  doctrine  of  Newton  to  the  motions  of 
projectiles,  in  the  Com.  Acad.  Petrop.  tom.  ii. 

5.  338,  &c.  Besides  which  nothing  mrther  was 
one  in  this  business  till  the  time  of  Robins,  who 
published  a  treatise  in  1742,  intitled  New  Prin- 
ciples of  Gunnery,  in  which  be  treated  particu- 
larly not  only  of  the  resistance  of  the  atmosphere, 
but  also  of  the  force  of  gunpowder,  the  nature 
and  effects  of  different  guns^  and  almost  every 
thing  else  relating  to  the  flight  of  military  pro- 
jectiles; and  indeed  he  carried  the  theory  of 
gunnery  nearly  to  its  utmost  perfection. 

The  first  thing  considered  Dy  Mr.  Robins,  and 
which  is  indeed  the  foundation  of  all  other  parti- 
culars relating  to  gunnery,  is  the  explosive  force 
of  gunpowder.  M.  de  la  Hire,  in  his  History  of 
the  Academy  of  Sciences  for  the  year  1702,  sup- 
posed that  Uiis  force  may  be  owing  to  the  in- 


creased elasticity  of  the  air  contained  in  and  be- 
tween the  grains,  in  consequence  of  the  heat  and 
fire  produced  at  the  time  of  the  explosion :  a 
cause  not  adequate  to  the  200th  part  of  the  ef- 
fect On  the  other'hand,  Mr.  Robins  determin- 
ed, by  irrefragable  experiments,  that  this  force 
was  owing  to  an  elastic  fluid  similar  to  our 
atmosphere,  existing  in  the  powder  in  an 
extremely  condensed  state,  which  being  suddenly 
freed  from  the  powder,  by  the  combustion, 
expanded  with  an  amazing  force,  and  violently 
impelled  the  bullet,  or  whatever  might  oppose  its 
expansion. 

The  intensity  of  this  force  of  explotded  gun- 
powder Mr.  Robins  ascertained  in  different 
ways,  after  the  example  of  Mr.  Ilawkesbee,  re- 
lated in  the  Philosophical  Transactions,  No.  295, 
and  in  his  Physico-Mechanical  Experiments,  p. 
81.  One  of  these  is  by  firing  the  powder  in  tne 
air  thus :— A  small  quantity  of  the  powder  is 
placed  in  the  upper  part  of  a  glass  tube,  and  the 
lower  part  of  the  tube  is  immerged  in  water,  the 
water  oeing  made  to  rise  so  near  the  top  that 
only  a  small  portion  of  air  is  left  in  that  part 
where  the  powder  is  placed ;  then  in  this  situa- 
tion, the  communication  between  the  upper  part 
of  the  tube  and  the  external  air  being  closed,  the 
powder  is  fired  by  means  of  a  burning  glass,  or 
otherwise ;  the  water  descends  upon  the  explo- 
sion, and  stands  lower  in  the  tube  than  before, 
by  a  space  proportioned  to  the  Quantity  of  pow^ 
der  fired.  Another  way  was  by  firing  tlie  powder 
in  vacuo,  viz.  in  an  exhausted  receiver,  by 
dropping  the  grains  of  powder  upon  a  hot  iron 
included  in  the  receiver.  By  this  means  a  per- 
manent elastic  fluid  was  generated  from  the  nred 
powder,  and  the  quantity  of  it  was  always  in 
proportion  to  the  quantity  of  powder  that  was 
used,  as  was  found  by  the  proportional  sinking 
of  the  mercurial  gauge  annexed  to  the  air-putop. 
The  result  of  these  experiments  was,  that  the 
weight  of  the  elastic  air  Uius  generated  was  equal, 
to  three-tenths  of  the  compound  mas^  of  the  gun- 
powder which  yielded  it,  and  that  its  bulk  when 
cold,  and  expanded  to  the  rarity  of  the  common 
air,  was  about  240  times  the  bulk  of  the  powder; 
and  consequently  in  the  same  proportion  would 
such  fluid  at  first,  if  it  were  cold,  exceed  the 
force  or  elasticity  of  the  atmosphere.  But  as  Mr. 
Robins  found,  by  another  ingenious  experiment, 
that  air  heated  to  the  extreme  degree  of  the  white 
heat  of  iron  has  its  elasticity  quadrupled,  or  is 
four  times  as  strong,  he  thence  inferred  that  the 
force  of  the  elastic  air  generated  as  above,  at  the 
moment  of  the  explosion,  is  at  least  four  times 
240,  or  960,  or,  in  round  numbers,  about  1000 
times  as  strong  as  the  elasticity  or  pressure  of  the 
atmosphere  on  the  same  space. 

Having  thus  determined  the  force  of  the  gun- 
powder, or  intensity  of  the  agent  by  which  the 
projectile  is  to  be  urged,  Mr.  Robins  proceeded 
to  determine  the  effects  it  will  produce,  or  the 
velocity  with  which  it  vrill  impel  a  shot  of  a 
given  weight  from  a  piece  of  ordnance  of  given 
dimensions ;  which  is  a  problem  strictly  limited 
and  perfectly  soluble  by  mathematical  rales,  and 
is  in  general  this :— Given  the  first  force,  and  the 
law  of  its  variation,  to  detfcrroine  the  velocity 
with  which  it  will  impel  a  given  body,  in  passing 


Digitized  by  N^UUy  It: 


PROJECTILES. 


161 


tbroai^  a  given  space,  which  is  the  length  of  the 
bote  of  the  gun.  In  the  aoiution  of  this  problem 
Mr.  Robins  assnmes  these  two  postulates,  viz.  1. 
That  the  action  of  the  powder  on  the  bullet 
ceases  as  soon  as  the  bullet  is  out  of  the  piece ; 
and  2d.  That  all  the  powder  of  the  charge  is 
fired  and  eonverted  into  elastic  fluid  before  the 
ballet  is  sensibly  moved  from  its  place:  assump- 
tions which  for  good  reasons  are  found  to  be  in 
man  J  cases  very  near  the  truths  It  is  to  be  noted 
also,  that  the  law  by  which  the  force  of  the  elastic 
fluid  varies  is  this,  vis.  that  its  intensity  is  di-^ 
rectly  as  its  density,  or  reciprocally  proportional 
to  the  space  it  occupies^  being  so  much  the 
stronger  as  the  ftpaee  is  less :  a  principle  well 
known,  and  common  to  all  elastic  fluids.  Upon 
these  principles,  then,  Mr.  Robins  resolves  this 
problem,  by  means  of  thethirty*ninth  proposition 
of  Newton's  Principiai  in  a  direct  way,  and  the 
result  is  equivalent  to  this  theorem,  when  the 
<piaDtities  are  expressed  by  algebraic  symbols ; 
VB.  the  velocity  of  the  ball. 

•  =2n30%/i?j?xk,g.^         • 
cd         °    a 


or=   ,OOA/^!i--^xrog.    i; 
19  a 

where  v  is  the  velocity  of  the  ball,  a  the  length  of 
(he  charge  of  powder,  b  the  whole  length  of  the 
bore,  c  the  speciflc  gravity  of  the  ball,  or  weight 
of  a  cubic  foot  of  the  same  matter  in  ounces,  d 
the  diameter  of  the  bore,  to  the  weight  of  the  ball 
in  ounces. 

For  example,  suppose  a  =2f  inches,  6  =  45 
inches,  c=  11345  ozs.  for  a  l»ll  of  lead,  and 

ifniinch;  then  v=  27130V  -~-X log.  ^ 

«=  1674  feet  per  second,  the  velocity  of  the  ball. 

Or,  if  the  weight  of  the  bnllet  be  w  = 
1    I,      ols.   =   8     ozs.       Then     t;    =    100 

^y/lll5Xl89     ,       m"    ^^.     -  , 

V      29^32    Xlog.  —  =1674  feet,  as  be- 

fore. 

*  Having  in  this  proposition,'  says  Mr.  Robins, 
'shown  how  the  velocity  which  any  bullet  ac- 
quires from  the  force  of  powder  may  be  com- 
puted upon  the  principles  of  the  theory  laid  down 
in  the  preceding  propositions,  we  shall  next 
show  that  the  actual  velocities  with  which  bul- 
lets of  difierent  magnitudes  are  impelled  from 
different  pieces,  with  different  quantities  of 
powder,  are  really  the  same  with  the  velocities 
assigned  by  these  computations,  and  conse- 
quently that  this  theory  of  the  force  of  powder, 
here  delivered,  does  unquestionably  ascertain  the 
true  action  and  modification  of  this  enormous 
power. 

'  But,  in  order  to  compare  the  velocities  com- 
manicated  to  bullets  by  the  explosion  with  the 
velocities  resulting  from  the  theory  by  computa- 
tion, it  is  necessary  that  the  actual  velocities  with 
which  bullets  move  should  be  capable  of  being 
discovered,  which  yet  is  impossible  to  be  done  by 
any  mefhods  hitherto  made  public.  The  only 
means  hitherto  practised  by  others  for  that  pur- 
pose have  been  either  by  observing  the  time  of 
Vol.  XVIII. 


the  flght  of  the  shot  through  a  given  space,  or 
by  measuring  the  range  of  the  shot  at  a  given 
elevation,  and  thence  computing  on  the  parabolic 
hypothesis  what  velocity  would  produce  this  range. 
The  first  method  labors  under  this  insurmount- 
able difficulty,  that  the  velocities  of  these  bodies 
are  often  so  swift,  and  consequently  the  time  ob- 
served is  so  shor^  that  an  imperceptible  error  in 
that  time  mav  occasion  an  error  in  the  velocity 
thus  found  of  200,  300, 400, 500,  or  600  feet  in  a 
second.  The  other  method  is  so  fallacious,  by 
reason  of  the  resistance  of  the  air  (to  which  in- 
equality the  first  is  also  liable),  that  the  velocities 
thus  assigned  may  not  be  perhaps  the  tenth  part 
of  the  actual  velccitie**  sought. 

'  To  remedy  then  these  inconveiliences,  I  have 
invented  a  new  method  of  finding  the  real  velo- 
cities of  bullets  of  all  kinds ;  and  this  to  such  a 
degree  of  exactness  (wh*oh  may  be  augmented 
too  at  pleasure)  tliat  in  a  bullet  moving  with  the 
velocity  of  1700  feet  in  a  second,  the  error  in 
the  estimation  of  it  need  never  amount  to  its 
500th  part ;  and  this  without  any  extraordinary 
nicety  m  the  construction  of  the  machine.' 
.  Mr.  Robins  then  gives  an  account  of  the  ma- 
chine by  which  he  measures  the  velocities  of  the 
balls,  which  machine  is  simply  this :  viz.  a  pen- 
dulous block  of  wood  suspended  freely  by  a 
horizontal  axis,  against  which  block  are  to  be 
fired  the  balls  whose  velocities  are  to  be  deter- 
mined. 

*This  instrument  thus  fitted,  if  the  weight  of 
the  pendulum  be  known,  and  likewise  the  re- 
spective distances  of  its  centre  of  gravity  and  of 
its  centre  of  oscillauon  from  its  axis  of  suspension, 
it  will  thence  be  known  what  motion  will  be 
communicated  to  this  pendulum  by  the  percussion 
of  a  body  of  a  known  weight  moving  with  a 
known  degree  of  celerity,  and  striking  it  in  a 
given  point ;  that  is,'  if  the  pendulum  be  sup- 
posed at  rest  before  the  percussion  it  will  be 
known  what  vibration  it  ought  to  make  in  con- 
sequence of  such  a  determined  blow ;  and,  on 
the  contrary,  if  the  pendulum,  being  at  rest,  is 
struck  by  a  body  ot  a  known  weight,  and  the 
vibration  which  the  pendulum  makes  after  the 
blow  is  known,  the  velocity  of  the  striking  body 
may  thence  be  determined. 

'  Hence  then,  if  a  bullet  of  a  known  weighi 
strikes  the  pendulum,  and  the  vibration  which 
the  pendulum  makes  in  consequence  of  the  stroke 
be  ascertained,  the  velocity  with  which  the  ball 
n^oved  is  thence  to  be  known.' 

Our  author  then  explains  his  method  of  com- 
puting velocities  from  experiments  with  this 
machine;  which  method  is  rathei  troublesome 
and  perplexed,  as  well  as  the  rules  of  Euler  and 
Antoni,  who  followed  him  in  this  business ;  but 
a  much  plainer  rule  is  given  in  Button's  Tracts, 
vol.  i.  p.  119,  where  such  experiments  are  ex- 
plainea  at  full  length,  and  this  rule  is  expressed 
oy  either  of  the  two  following  formulas, 

f»  =  5'6727c^  X  ?^     =614-58f^  X^, 
bw  wm 

the  velocity;  where  v  denotes  the  velocity  of  the 
ball  when  it  strikes  the  pendulum,  p  the  weight 
of  th(>  pendulum,  b  the  weight  of  the  ball,  c  the 
chord  of  the  arc  described  by  the  vibration  to  the 

^      T 

Digitized  by  VjUU^^IC 


162 


PROJECTILE 


fidiufl,  rg  the  distance  below  Uie  axis  of  motion 
to  the  centre  of  gianty,  o  the  distance  to  the  cen- 
tre of  oscillation,  t  the  distance  to  the  point  of 
impact,  and  n  the  number  <yf  oscillations  the 
pendulum  will  perform  in  one  minute,  when 
made  to  oscillate  in  small  arcs.  The  latter  of 
these  two  theorems  is  much  the  easiest,  both  be- 
cause it  is  free  of  radicals,  and  because  the  value 
of  the  radical  >/o,  in  the  former,  is  to  be  first 
computed  from  the  number  n,  or  number  of  os- 
cillations the  pendulum  is  observed  to  make. 
With  «uch  machines  Mr.  Robins  made  a  great 
number  of  experiments  with  musket  barrels  of 
different  lengths,  with  balls  of  various  weights, 
and  with  different  charges  or  quantities  of  pow- 
der. He  has*  set  down  the  results  of  sixty-one 
of  these  experiments,  which  nearly  agree  with 
the  corresponding  velocities  as  computed  by  his 
theory  of  the  force  of  powder,  and  which  there- 
fore establish  that  theory  on  a  sure  foundation. 

From  these  experiments,  as  well  as  from  the 
preceding  theory,  many  important  conclusions 
were  deduced  by  Mr.  Robins ;  and  indeed,  by 
means  of  these,  it  is  obvious  that  every  thing 
may  be  determined  relative  both  to  the  true  the- 
ory of  projectiles,  and  to  the  practice  of  artillery; 
for,  by  iinng  a  piece  of  ordnance  charged  in  a 
similar  manner  against  such  a  ballistic  pendulum 
from  different  distances,  the  velocity  lost  by 
passing  through  such  spaces  of  air  will  be  foundf, 
and  consequently  the  resistance  of  the  air,  the 
only  circumstance  that  was  wanting  to  complete 
the  theory  of  gunnery  or  military  projectiles ;  and 
of  this  kind  Dr.  Hutton  made  a  great  number  of 
experiments  with  cannon  balls,  and  has  thereby 
obtained  the  whole  series  of  resistances  to  such  a 
ball  when  moving  with  every  degree  of  velocity, 
from  0  up  to  2000  feet  per  second  of  time.  In  the 
structure  of  artillery  they  may  likewise  be  of  the 
neatest  use ;  for  hence  may  be  determined  tlie 
best  lengths  of  guns ;  the  proportions  of  the  shot 
and  powder  to  the  several  lengths ;  die  thickness 
of  a  piece,  so  as  it  may  be  able  to  confine,  with- 
out bursting,  any  given  charge  of  powder ;  as 
also  the  effect  of  wads,  chambers,  placing  of  the 
Tent,  ramming  the  powder,  &c.  ror  the  many 
other  curious  circumstances  relating  to  this  sub- 
ject, and  the  various  other  improvements  in  the 
theory  and  practise  of  gunnery  made  by  Mr.  Ro- 
bins, consult  the  first  volume  of  his  Tracts,  col- 
lected *and  published  by  Dr.  Wilson  in  the  year 
1761,  where  ample  information  may  be  found. 

In  the  year  1755,  says  Dr.  Hutton,  in  con- 
junction with  several  able  officers  of  the  royal 
artilleiy  and  other  ingenious  gentlemen,  I  under- 
took a  course  of  experiments  with  the  ballistic 
pendulum,  in  which  we  ventured  to  extend  the 
machinery  to  cannon  shot  of  one,  two,  and  three 
pounds  weight.  An  account  of  these  experiments 
was  published  in  the  Philosophical  Transactions 
for  1778;  and  for  which  the  Royal  Society 
honored  me  with  the  prize  of  the  gold  medal. 
These  were  the  only  experiments  that  I  know  of 
which  had  been  made  with  cannon  balb  for  this 
purpose,  although  the  condusions  to  be  deduced 
from  such  are  of  the  greatest  importance  to  those 
parts  of  natural  philosophy  which  are  dependent 
on  the  effects  of  nred  gunpowder :  nor  do  I  know 
of  any  other  practical  method  of  ascertaining  the 


initial  velocities  within  any  tolerable  degree  of 
truth.  The  knowledge  of  this  velocity  is  of  Ae 
utmost  comsequence  in  gunnery ;  by  means  of 
ii,  together  with  the  law  of  the  resistance  of  Che 
medium,  every  thing  is  determinable  relative  to 
that  business ;  for,  besides  its  being  an  excellent 
method  of  trying  the  strength  of  different  sorts 
of  powder,  it  gives  us  the  law  relative  to  the 
different  quantities  of  powder,  to  the  differeot 
weights  of  shot,  and  to  the  different  lengths  and 
sizes  of  guns.  Besides  these,  there  does  not 
seem  to  be  any  thing  wanting  to  answer  any  en- 
quiry that  can  be  made  concerning  the  flight  and 
ranges  of  shots  except  the  effecu  arising  from  the 
resistance  of  the  medium.  In  these  experiments 
the  weights  of  the  pendulums  employed  were 
from  300  to  neariy  600  pounds.  In  that  paper 
is  described  the  method  of  constructing  the  ma- 
chines, of  finding  the  centres  of  gravity  and 
oscillation  of  the  oendulum,  and  of  making  the 
experiments,  which  are  all  set  down  in  the  form 
of  a  journal,  with  all  the  minute  and  concomi- 
tant circumstances ;  also  the  investigation  of  the 
new  and  easy  rule  set  down  just  above,  for 
computing  the  velocity  of  the  ball  from  the  ex- 
periments. The  charges  of  powder  were  varied 
from  two  to  eight  ounces,  and  the  shot  from  one 
to  nearly  three  pounds.  And  from  the  whole 
were  clearly  deduced  the  inferences  we  have  al- 
ready given. 

In  the  year  1786  was  published  the  first  vo- 
lume of  Dr.  Hutton's  Tracts,  in  which  is  detail- 
ed,  at  great  length,  another  very  extensive  course 
of  experiments  which  were  carried  on  at  Wool- 
wich in  the  years  1783,  1784,  and  1785,  by 
order  of  -the  ouke  of  Richmond,  master  general 
of  the  ordnance.  The  objects  of  this  course  we 
have  also  enumerated  in  the  theoretic  part  of  this 
treatise. 

These  objects  were  obtained  in  a  very  perfect 
and  accurate  manner;  excepting  only  the  article 
of  ranges,  which  were  not  quite  so  regular  and 
uniform  as  might  be  wished.  The  balls  too  were 
most  of  them  of  one  pound  weight ;  but  the  pow- 
der was  increased  from  one  ounoe  up  till  the  bore 
was  quite  full,  and  the  pendulum  was  from  600 
to  800  lbs.  weight  The  conclusions  frum  the 
whole  were  as  follow  :— 

M.  That  the  former  law,  between  the  charge 
and  velocity  of  ball,  is  again  confirmed,  viz.  that 
the  velocity  is  directly  as  the  square  root  of  the 
weight  of  powder,  as  far  as  to  about  the.  charge 
of  eight  ounces :  and  so  it  would  continue  for  all 
charges,  were  the  guns  of  an  indefinite  length. 
But  as  the  length  of  the  charge  is  increased,  and 
bears  a  more  considerable  proportion  to  the  length 
of  the  bore,  the  velocity  mils  the  more  short  of 
that  proportion. 

'  2.  That  the  velocity  of  the  ball  increases  with 
the  charge  to  a  certain  point,  which  is  peculiar 
to  each  ^un,  where  it  is  greatest ;  and  that,  by 
ferther  mcreasing  the  charge,  the  veloci^  gra- 
dually diminishes  till  the  bore  is  quite  mil  of 
powder.  That  this  charge  for  the  greatest  velo- 
city is  greater  as  the  gun  is  longer,  but  not  greater 
however  in  ho  high  a  proportion  as  the  length  of 
the  gun  is;  so  that  the  part  of  the  bore  filled 
with  powder  bears  a  less  proportion  to  the  whole 
in  the  long  guns,  than  it  does  in  the  short  ones ; 

Digitized  by  VjiUUy  IC 


PROJECTILES. 


163 


the  mtt  of  Uwiwbole  yiAkkh  is  fitted  being  indeed 
neuny  in  the  Teciprocal  sabduplicate  ratio  of  the 
length  of  the  empty  pan.  And  the  other  circum- 
stances axe  as  in  this  table. 

Table  of  Charges  producing  the  greatest  Velocity. 


Gun. 

Length  of 

Length 

Part  of  the 

Weight  of 

aiun. 

the  boie. 

filled. 

whole. 

the  powder 

inches. 

inches. 

oz. 

1 

28-2 

8-2 

it 

12 

2 

381 

9-5 

14 

3 

57-4 

10-7 

ft 

16 

4 

79-9 

121 

A 

18 

^  3.  It  appears  that  the  velocity  continually  in- 
oreases  as  the  gun  is  longer,  though  the  increase 
in  Telocity  is  but  very  small  in  respect  of  the  in- 
crease in  length,  the  velocities  being  in  a  ratio 
somewhat  less  than  that  of  the  square  roots  of  the 
length  of  the  bore,  but  somewhat  greater  than  that 
of  the  cube  roots  of  the  length,  and  is  indeed 
nearly  in  the  middle  ratio  between  the  two. 

'4.  The  ran^  increases  in  a  much  less  ratio 
than  the  veloaty,  and  indeed  is  nearly  as  the 
square  rdbt  of  the  velocity,  the  gun  and  elevation 
being  the  same.  And,  when  this  is  compared 
with  the  property  of  the  velocity  and  length  of 
gun  in  the  foregoing  paragraph,  we  perceive  that 
very  little  is  gained  in  the  range  by  a  great  in- 
ccease  in  the  length  of  the  gun,  the  charge  being 
the  same.  And  indeed  the  range  is  nearly  as  the 
fifth  root  of  the  length  of  the  bore,  which  is  so 
small  an  increase  as  to  amount  only  to  about 
one-seventh  part  more  range  for  a  double  length 
of  gun. 

*  5.  It  also  appears  that  the  time  of  the  ball's 
iight  is  nearly  as  the>range ;  the  gun  and  eleva- 
tiott  being  the  same. 

*  6.  It  ap|>ean  that  there  is  no  sensible  differ- 
ence cansed  in  the  velocity  or  range,  by  varying 
the  weight  of  the  gun,  nor  by  the  use  of  wads, 
nor  by  different  degrees  of  ramming,  nor  by 
firing  the  chaige  of  powder  in  different  parts  of  it. 

*  7.  But  a  great  difference  in  the  velocity  arises 
ffom  a  small  degree  of  windage.  Indeed  with  the 
usual  established  windage  only,  namely,  about 
one-twentieth  of  the  oalil^,  no  less  than  between 
OBe»thiTd  and  one-fourth  of  the  powder  escapes 
and  is  lost  And,  as  the  balls  are  often  smaller 
than  that  sixe,  it  frequently  happens  that  half  the 
powder  is  lost  by  unnecessary  windage. 

*  8.  It  appears  that  the  resisting  force  of  wood 
to  halls  firea  into  it  is  not  constant. .  And  that 
the  depths  penetrated  by  different  velocities  or 
charges  are  neariy  as  the  logarithms  of  the  charges ; 
tnstfiid  of  being  as  the  charges  themselves,  or, 
which  is  the  same  thing,  as  the  square  of  the 
velodrf. 

*9.  These  and  most  other  experiments  show 
that  bells  are  greedy  deflected  from  the  direction 
they  are  projected  in ;  and  that  so  much  as  300 
or  400  yards  in  a  range  of  a  mile,  or  klmost  one- 
fourth  of  the  ranee,  which  is  nearly  a  deflection 
of  an  angle  of  15  . 

'10.  r  iually,  these  experiments  furnish  us  with 
the  following  concomitant  data,  to  a  tolerable  de- 
gree of  accuracy,  namely,  the  dimensions  and 


elevation  of  the  gun,  the  weight  and  dimensions 
of  the  powder  and  shot,  with  the  range  and  time 
of  flight,  and  the  firat  velocity  of  the  ball.  From 
which  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  measure  of  die 
resistance  of  the  air  to  projectiles  may  be  deter- 
mined, and  thereby  lay  the  foundation  for  a  true 
and  practical  system  of  gunnery,  which  may  be 
as  well  useful  in  service  as  in  theory.' 

*  Since  the  publication  of  those  Tracts,'  says 
Dr.  Button,  *  we  have  prosecuted  the  experiments 
still  farther  from  year  to  year,  gradually  extend- 
ing our  aim  to  more  objects,  and  enlarging  the 
guns  And  machinery,  till  we  have  arriv^  at  ex- 
periments with  the  six-pounder  guns,  and  pen- 
dulums of  1800  lbs.  weight.  One  of  the  new 
obiects  of  enquiry  was  the  resistance  the  atmo- 
sphere makes  to  military  projectiles;  to  obtain 
which  the  guns  have  been  p&ced  at  many  dif- 
fierent  distances  from  the  pendulum,  against  which 
they  are  fired,  to  get  the  velocity  lost  in  passing 
through  those  spaces  of  air ;  by  which,  and  the 
use  of  the  whirling  machine,  described  near  the 
end  of  the  first  volume  of  Robins's  Tracts,  for 
the  slower  motions,  I  have  investigated  the  resist- 
ance of  the  air  to  given  balls  moving  with  all 
degrees  of  velocity  from  0  up  to  2000  feet  per 
second ;  as  well  as  the  resistance  for  many  de- 
grees of  velocity  to  planes  and  figures  of  other 
shapes,  and  inclined  to  their  path  in  all  varieties 
of  angles;  from  which  I  have  deduced  general 
laws  and  formulas  for  all  such  motions. 

'  Mr.  Robins  made  also  similar  experiments  on 
the  resistance  of  the  air,  but  being  only  with 
musket  bullets,  on  account  of  their  smallness  and 
of  their  change  of  figure  by  the  explosion  of  the 
powder,  I  find  they  are  very  inaccurate,  and  con-' 
siderably  different  from  those  above  mentioned, 
which  were  accurately  made  with  pretty  con- 
siderable cannon  balb  of  iron.  For  this  reason 
we  may  omit  here  the  rules  and  theory  deduced 
from  them  by  Mr.  Robins,  till  others  more  cor** 
rect  shall  have  been  established.  All  these  ex- 
periments indeed  agree  in  evincing  the  Yerv 
enormous  resistance  the  air  makes  to  the  swift 
motions  of  military  projectiles,  amounting  in 
some  cases  to  twenty  or  thirty  times  the  weight 
of  the  ball  itself;  on  which  account  the  common 
rules  for  projectiles  deduced  from  the  parabolic 
theory  are  of  little  or  no  use  in  real  practice ;  for 
from  these  experiments  it  is  clearly  proved  that 
the  track  described  by  the  flight  even  of  the 
heaviest  shot  is  neither  a  parabola,  nor  yet  ap- 
proaching any  thing  near  it,  except  when  they 
are  projected  with  very  small  velocities ;  inso- 
mucn  that  some  balls,  which  in  the  air  range  only 
to  the  distance  of  one  mile,  would  in  vacuo, 
when  projected  wiUi  the  same  velocity,  range 
above  ten  or  twenty  times  as  far.' 

Mr.  Benjamin  lliompson^the  late  count  Rum- 
ford)  instimted  a  very  considerable  course  of 
experiments  of  the  saihe  kind  as  those  of  Mr. 
Robins,  with  musket  barrels,  which  was  pub- 
lished in  the  Philosophical  Transactions,  vol.71, 
for  the  year  1781 .  In  these  experiments  the  con- 
clusions of  Mr.  Robins  are  generally  confirmed, 
and  several  other  curious  circumstances  in  this 
business  are  remarked  by  Mr.  Thompson.  This 
gentleman  also  pursues  a  hint  thrown  out  by  Mr. 
Robins,  relative  to  the  determining  the  velocity  of 

M  2 
Digitized  by  VjUUV  IC 


164 


PROJECTILES. 


a  ball  from  the  recoil  of  the  pendulous  gun  itself. 
IVIr.  Robins,  in  the  eleventh  proposition,  remarks, 
that  the  effect  of  the  exploded  powder  upon  the 
recoil  of  a  gun  is  the  same  whether  the  gun  is 
charged  wiUi  or  without  a  ball ;  and  that  the  chord 
or  velocity  of  recoil  with  the  powder  alone,  being 
sabstracted  from  that  of  the  recoil  when  charged 
with  both  powder  and  ball,  leaves  the  velocity 
which  is  Que  to  the  ball  alone.  Thence  Mr. 
Thompson  observes  that  the  inference  is  obvious, 
viz.  that  the  momentum  thus  communicated  to 
the  gun  by  the  ball  alone,  being  equal  to  the  mo- 
mentum of  the  ball,  this  becomes  known ;  and 
therefore,  being  divided  by  the  known  weight  of 
the  ball,  the  quotient  will  be  its  velocity.  Mr. 
Thompson  sets  a  great  value  on  this  new  rule, 
the  velocities  by  means  of  which  he  found  to 
agree  nearly  with  several  of  those  deduced  from 
the  motion  of  the  pendulum;  and  ii|  the  other 
cases,  in  which  they  differed  greatly  from  these, 
he  very  inconsistently  supposes  that  these  latter 
ones  are  erroneous.  In  ue  experiments,  how- 
ever, contained  in  Dr.  Button's  Tracts,  a  great 
multitude  of  those  cases  are  compared  together, 
and  the  inaccuracy  of  that  new  rule  is  iiilly  proved. 
Having  in  the  ninth  proposition  compared  to- 
gether a  number  of  computed  and  experimented 
velocities  of  balls  to  verify  his  theory;  Mr. 
Robins,  in  the  tenth  proposition,  assigns  the 
changes  in  the  force  of  powder,  which  arise  from 
the  different  state  of  the  atmosphere,  as  to  heat 
and  moisture,  both  which  he  finds  have  some  ef- 
fect on  it,  but  especially  the  latter.  In  the 
eleventh  proposition  he  investigates  the  velocity 
which  the  flame  of  gunpowder  acquires  by  ex- 
panding itself,  supposing  it  6red  in  a  given  piece 
of  artillery,  without  either  a  bullet  or  any  other 
body  before  it.  This  velocity  he  finds  is  upward* 
of  7000  feet  per  second.  But  the  celebrated 
Euler,  in  bis  commentary  on  thb  part  of  Mr. 
Robins's  book,  thinks  it  may  be  still  much 
greater,  and  in  this  propositioa  too  it  is  that  Mr. 
Robins  declares  his  opinion  above  alluded  to, 
viz.  that  the  effect  of  the  powder  upon  the  recoil 
of  the  gun  is  the  same  in  all  cases  whether  fired 
with  a  ball  or  without  one.  In  the  twelfth  pro- 
position he  ascertains  the  manner  in  which  the 
flame  of  powder  impels  a  ball  which  is  laid  at  a 
considerable  distance  from  the  charge ;  showing 
here  that  the  sudden  accumulation  and  density 
of  the  fluid  against  the  ball  is  the  reason  that  the 
barrel  is  so  oAen  burst  in  those  cases.  In  the 
thirteenth  proposition  he  enumerates  the  various 
kinds  of  powder,  and  describes  the  properest 
methods  of  examining  its  goodness.  He  here 
shows  that  the  best  proportion  of  the  ingredients 
is  when  the  saltpetre  is  three-fourths  of  the  whole 
compound  mass  of  the  powder,  and  the  sulphur 
and  charcoal  the  other  one-fourth  between  them, 
in  equal  quantities.  In  this  proposition  Mr. 
Robins  takes  occasion  to  remark  upon  the  use  of 
tprouvetUt,  or  methods  of  trying  powder ;  con- 
oemning  the  practice  of  the  English  in  using 
what  is  called  the  vertical  eprouvette ;  as  well  as 
that  of  the  French,  in  using  a  small  mortar  with 
a  very  large  ball,  and  a  small  charge  of  powder, 
and  insteiul  of  these  he  strongly  recommends  the 
use  of  his  ballistic  pendulum  for  its  great  accu- 
racy. But  for  still  more  despatch,  he  says,  he 
should  use  another  method,  which  however  he 


reserves  to  himself  without  giving  any  partionitr 
description  of  it 

Hie  other,  or  second  chapter  of  Mr.  Robins's 
work,  in  eight  propositions,  treats '  of  the  resist- 
ance of  the  air,  and  of  the  track  described  by  the 
flight  of  shot  and  shells.'  And  of  these,  the  first 
proposition  describes  the  general  principles  of 
the  resistance  of  fluids  to  solid  bodies  moving  in 
them.  Here  Mr.  Robins  discriminates  between 
continued  and  compressed  fluids,  which  imme- 
diately rush  into  the  space  Quitted  by  a  body  in 
them,  and  whose  parts  yield  to  the  impulse  of 
the  body  without  condensing  and  accumulating 
before  it;  and  such  fluids  as  are  imperfectly 
compressed,  rushing  into  a  void  spac^  with  a 
limited  velocity,  as  in  the  case  of  our  atmosphere, 
which  condenses  more  and  more  before  the  ball 
as  this  moves  quicker,  and  also  presses  the  less 
behind  it,  by  following  it  always  with  only  a 
given  velocity :  hence  it  happens  Chat  the  fonner 
fluid  will  resist  moving  bodies  in-  proportion  to 
the  square  of  the  velocity,  while  the  latter  resists 
in  a  hiffher  proportion.  The  second  proposition 
is  '  to  determine  the  resistance  of  the  air  to  pro- 
jectiles by  experiments.'  One  of  the  methods 
for  this  purpose  is  by  the  ballbtic  pendulun^ 
placing  the  gun  at  different  distances  from  it,  by 
which  he  finds  the  velodty  lost  in  passing 
through  certain  spaces  of  air,  and  consequently 
the  force  of  resistance  to  such  velocities  as  the 
body  moves  with  in  the  several  parts  of  its  path. 
And  another  way  was  by  firing  balls  with  a 
known  given  velocity,  over  a  large  piece  of 
water,  in  which  the  fell  and  plunge  of  the  ball 
could  be  seen,  and  consequently  the  space  it 
passed  over  in  a  gi?en  time.  By  these  means 
Mr.  Robins  determined  the  resistance  of  the  air 
to  several  different  velocities,  all  which  showed 
that  there  was  a  gradual  increase  of  the  resist- 
ance, over  the  law  of  the  square  of  the  velocity, 
as  the  body  moved  quicker.  In  the  remaining 
propositions  of  this  chapter  he  proceeds  a  littk 
nrtner  in  this  subject  of  the  resistance  of  the  air; 
in  which  he  lays  down  a  rule  for  the  proportiMi 
of  the  resistance  between  two  assigned  velocities ; 
and  he  shows  that  when  a  twenty-four  pound  ball, 
fired  with  its  foil  charge  of  powder,  first  issues 
from  the  piece,  the  resistance  it  meets  vrith  from 
the  air  is  more  than  twenty  times  ^t^  weight.  He 
farther  shows  that  the  track  described  by  the 
flight  of  shot  or  shells  is  neither  a  parabola,  nor 
nearly  a  parabola,  unless  they  are  projected  with 
small  velocities ;  and  that '  bullets  in  their  flight 
are  not  only  depressed  beneath  their  original 
direction,  by  the  action  of  gravity,  but  are  also 
frequently  driven  to  the  right  or  left  of  that  di- 
rection by  the  action  of  some  other  foree  e'  and, 
in  the  eighth  or  last  proposition^  he  pretends  to 
show  that  the  depths  of  penelratioa  of  balb 
into  firm  substances  are  as  the  squares  of  the  ve- 
locities. But  this  is  a  mistake ;  for  neither  does 
it  appear  that  his  trials  were  sufficiendy  name- 
rous  or  various,  nor  were  his  small  leaden  balk 
fit  for  this  purpose ;  and  it  has  appeared^  from  a 
number  of  trials  with  iron  cannon  balls,  that  the 
penetrations  are  in  a  much  lower  proportion,  and 
that  the  resisting  force  of  wood  it  not  uniform. 
See  Dr.  Hutton^s  Tracts. 

In  the  small  tracts  appended  to  the  principles, 
in  this  volume,  Mr.  IO>bins  prosecutes  the  sub- 
Digitized  by  Vjuuy  It: 


PROJECTILES. 


166 


iect  of  the  re0istaQC«  of  tbe  air  much  ftrther,  and 
lays  down  rales  far  compatins^  ranges  made  in 
the  air.  fiat  tliese  must  be  for  from  accurate, 
as  they  are  founded  on  the  two  |[>Uowing  princi- 
ples, which  ate  known,  from  numeious  ezperi- 
ments*  to  be  erroneous:  viz.  1st,  'thai till  the 
Telocity  of  the  projectile  surpasses  that  of  1100 
feet  in  a  second,  the  resistance  may  be  esteemed 
to  be  in  the  duplicate  proportion  of  the  f  docity. 
2d,  That  if  the  velocity  be  greater  than  that  of  1 100 
or  1200  feet  in  a  second,  thentheabsohite  quan- 
tity of  that  resistance  in  these  greater  velocities 
will  be  near  three  times  as  great  as  it  should  be 
br  a  comparison  with  the  smaller  velocities.* 
For  instead  of  leaping  at  once  firom  the  law  of 
the  square  of  the  vdocities,  and  ever  after  being 
about  three  times  as  much,  experiments  prove 
that  the  increase  of  the  resistance  above  the  law 
of  the  square  of  the  velocity  takes  place  at  first  in 
tbe  smallest  motions,  and  increases  gradually 
more  and  more,  to  a  certain  point,  but  never 
rises  so  high  as  to  be  three  times  that  quantity, 
after  which  it  decreases  again.  To  render  this 
evident.  Dr.  Hutton  has  inserted  tbe  following 
table  cdT  the  actual  quantities  of  resistances, 
which  are  deduced  from  accurate  experiments, 
and  which  show  also  the  nature  of  the  law  of  the 
variations  by  means  of  the  columns  of  difierences 
aonezed,  reserving  the  detail  of  the  experiments 
themsdves  to  another  occasion.  These  resistances 
are,  upon  a  ball  of  19*05  inches  in  diameter,  in 
arotrdupois  ounces,  and  are  for  all  velocities 
from  0  up  to  that  of  2000  feet  per  second  of  time. 

The  quantitv  of  the  resistance  of  the  air  to  a  ball 
ot  1*965  inches  in  diameter. 


Veloc.  in 

Resist,  in 

Ist.  Dif- 

2d.  Dif. 

feet. 

ounces. 

ferences. 

0 

QOOO 

5 

0-^6 

10 

0-025 

15 

0*054 

20 

0-100 

25 

0*155 

30 

0-23 

40 

0*42 

50 

0*67 

100 

2t 

8J 

5| 

200 

11 

14 

6 

300 

25 

20 

7 

400 

45 

27 

8 

500 

72 

35 

9 

600 

107 

44 

10 

TOO 

151 

54 

12 

800 

205 

66 

13 

900 

271 

79 

13 

lOOO 

350 

92 

12 

1100 

442 

104 

11 

1200 

546 

115 

9 

1300 

661 

124 

7 

1400 

785 

131 

4. 

1500 

916 

135 

0 

1600 

1051 

135 

2 

ITOO 

1186 

133 

5 

1800 

1319 

128 

6 

1960 

1447 

122 

i    '^    1 

1569 

If  the  terms  of  any  arithmetical  series  be 
squared,  the  second  (ufferences  will  be  equal : 
hence  this  table  proves  the  truth  of  the  former 
part  of  Dr.  Huttou's  assertion.  The  additional 
tracts  of  Mr.  Robins,  in  the  latter  part  of  this  vo- 
lume, which  contain  many  useful  and  important 
matters,  are  numbered  and  titled  as  follows,  viz. 
Number  1, '  Of  the  renstance  of  the  air.  Num- 
ber 2,  Ofihe  resistance  of  the  air ;  together  with 
the  method  of  computing  the  motions  of  bodies 
projected  in  that  medium.  Ntimber  3,  An  Ac- 
count of  the  experiments  relating  to  the  resistance 
of  the  air ;  exhibited  at  different  times  before  the 
Royal  Society,  in  the  year  1746.  Number  4, 
Of  the  force  of  fired  gunpowder,  together'  with 
the  computation  of  the  velocities  thereby  com- 
municated to  military  projectiles.  Number  5, 
A  comparison  of  the  experimental  ranges  of  can- 
non and  mortars^  with  the  theory  contained  in 
the  preceding  papers.  Practical  maxims  relating 
to  the  effects  ana  management  of  artillery,  and 
the  flight  of  shells  and  shot.  A  proposal  for  in- 
creasing the  strength  of  the  BritisK  navy,  by 
changing  all  the  guns,  from  the  eighteen -pounders 
downwards,  into  others  of  equal  weight,  but  of 
a  greater  bore.'  With  several  letters,  and  other 
papers, '  On  pointing,  or  the  directing  of  the  can- 
non to  strike  distant  objects ;  Of  the  nature  and 
advantage  of  rifled  barrel  pieces,'  &c. 

'  I  have,'  continues  Dr.  Hutton, '  dwelt  thus 
long  on  Mt,  Robins*s  New  Principles  of  Gun- 
nery, because  it  is  tbe  first  work  that  can  be  con- 
sidered as  attempting  to  establish  a  practical 
system  of  gunnery,  and  projectiles,  on  good  ex- 
periments, on  the  force  of  eun powder,  on  the 
resistance  of  the  air,  and  on  the  effects  of  differ* 
ent  pieces  of  artillery.  Those  experiments  are 
not  However  sufficiently  perfect,  both  on  account 
of  the  smallness  of  the  bullets,  and  for  want  of 
good  ranges  to  form  a  proper  theory  upon.  I 
have  supplied  some  of  the  necessary  desiderata 
for  this  purpose,  viz.  the  resistance  of  the  air  to 
cannon  balls  moving  with  all  degrees  of  velocity, 
and  the  velocities  communicated  by  given  charges 
of  powder,  to  different  balls,  and  from  different 
pieces  of  artillery.  But  there  are  still  wanting 
good  experiments  with  different  pieces  of  ord- 
nance, giving  the  ranges  and  times  of  flight,  with 
all  varieties  of  charges,  and  at  all  different  an- 
gles of  elevation.  A  few,  however,  of  tliose  I 
have  obtained,  as  in  the  following  small  table, 
which  are  derived  from  experiments  made  with 
a  medium  one-pounder  gun,  the  iron  ball  being 
nearly  two  inches  in  diameter: — 


Powder. 

Elevation 
of  gun. 

Velocity  of 
ball. 

Range. 

Time  of 
flight. 

oz. 
2 
4 
8 

12 
2 

o 

15 
1> 
15 
15 
45 

feet. 

860 
1230 
1640 
1680 

860 

feet.. 
4100 
5100 
6600 
6700 
5100 

4* 

9 
12 
14J 
15i 
21 

Dr.  Hutton's  second  set  of  experiments  weK 
made  with  four  brass  guns  very  nicely  bored  and 
cast  on  purpose,  of  different  lengths,  but  regular 
in  all  other  respects,  viz.  of  weight  and  bore.  . 

Digitized  by  VjUU^^IC 


166 


PROJECTILES. 


The  lengths  of  the  bores  of  the  guns  were. 

No.  1,  15  calibres,  length  of  bore  28*5  inches. 

2,  20  calibres  38-4 

3,  30  calibres  .        57T 

4,  40  calibres  80*2 

the  calibre  of  each  being  2^  inches,  and  the  me- 
dium weight  of  the  balls  16  oz.  13  dr. 

The  mediums  of  all  the  experimental  velocities 
of  the  balls,  with  which  they  struck  the  pendul- 
ous block  of  wood,  placed  at  the  distance  of 
thirty-two  feet  from  the  muzzle  of  the  gun,  for 
several  charges  of  powder,  were  as  in  the  follow- 
ing table. 

Table  of  Ihitial  Velocities. 


increase  with  tfaeehaifes  of  powder  for  each  gun, 
and  also  how  they  mcrease  as  the  guns  are  longer, 
with  the  same  charge,  in  every  instance. 

By  increasing  the  quantity  ot  the  charges  con- 
tinually, for  each  gun,  it  was  found  that  the  ve- 
locities continued  to  increase  till  they  arrived  at 
a  certain  degree,  different  in  each  gun;  after 
which  they  constantly  decreased  again,  till  the 
bore  was  quite  filled  with  the  charge.  The 
charges  of  powder  when  the  velocities  arrived  at 
their  maximum  or  greatest  state  were  various, 
as  might  be  expected,  according  to  the  len|;ths  of 
the  guns ;  ana  (he  weight  of  powder,  with  the 
lengU)  it  extended  in  the  bore,  and  the  fractional 
part  of  the  bore  it  occupied,  are  shown  in  the 
following  table,  of  the  cnaiges  for  the  greatest 
effect :— 


Powder. 

The  guns. 

oz. 

No.  1.' 

No.  2. 

No.  3 

No.  4 

2 

780 

835 

920 

970 

4 

1100 

1180 

1300 

1370 

6 

1340 

1445 

UdO 

1680 

8 

1430 

1580 

1790 

1940 

12 

1436 

1640 

14 

1660 

16 

, 

, 

2000 

18 

• 

• 

• 

2200 

Gun, 
No. 

Length 
of&e 
bore. 

Thechacrge 

Weight, 
oz. 

Length. 

Inches. 

Part  of 
whale 

1 
2 
3 

4 

28-5 
38-4 
57-7 
80-2 

12 
14 
16 
18 

8-2 

9*5 

10-7 

121 

* 

placed  in  the  first  column,  for  all  the  four  guns, 
the  numbers  denoting  so  many  feet  per  second. 
Whence  in  general  it  appears  how  the  velocities 


Of  the  few  experimento  in  this  course  made  to 
obtain  the  ranges  and  times  of  flight,  the  me- 
diums are  exhibited  in  the  following  table: — 


Guns. 

Pow- 
der. 

Balls. 

Elevat. 
gun. 

Time  of 
flight. 

Range. 

First  velo- 
city. 

Weight. 

Diam. 

No.  2. 

ditto. 

ditto. 

ditto. 

ditto. 

No.  3. 

oz. 
2 
2 
4 
8 

12 
8 

oz.     dr. 
16     10 
16       5 
16       8 
16     12 
16     12 
15      8 

inch. 
1*96 
1-96 
1*96 
1*96 
1-95 
1-96 

o 

45 
15 
15 
15 
15 
15 

sees. 

21-2 
9-2 
9-2 
14*4 
15-5 
10*1 

feet. 

5109 

4130 

4660 

6066 

6700 

5610 

feeL 
863 
868 
1234 
1644 
1676 
1938 

In  this  table  are  contained  the  following  con- 
comitant data,  determined  with  a  tolerable  de- 
gree of  precision ;  viz.  the  weight  of  the  powder, 
Sie  weight  and  diameter  of  the  ball,  the  initial  or 
projectile  velocity,  the  angle  of  elevation  of  the 
gun,  the  time  in  seconds  of  the  ball's  flight 
uirough  the  air,  and  its  raoge,  or  the  distance 
where  it  fell  on  the  horizontal  plane.  From 
which  it  is  hoped  that  some  aid  may  be  derived 
towards  ascertaining  the  resistance  of  the  me- 
dium, and  its  effects  on  other  elevations,  &c., 
and  so  affonl  some  means  of  obtaining  easy  rules 
for  the  cases  of  practical  gunnery ;  Siough  the 
completion  of  this  enquiry,  for  want  of  time  at 
present,  must  be  referred  to  another  work. 

AnoUier  subject  of  enquiry,  in  the  foregoing 
experiments,  was,  how  far  the  balls  would  pene- 
tmte  into  solid  blocks  of  elm  wood,  fired  in  the 
direction  of  the  fibres.  The  following  tablet 
shows  the  results  of  a  few  of  the  trials  that  were 
made  with  the  gun  No.  2,  with  the  most  frequent 


charges  of  two,  four,  and  eight  ounces  of  powder ; 
and  the  mediums  of  the  penetrations,  as  placed 
in  the  last  line,  are  found  to  be  seven,  fifteen, 
and  twenty  inches,  with  those  charges.  These 
penetrations  are  nearly  as  the  numbers  2,  4,  6, 
or  1,  2,  3;  but  the  charges  of  powder  are  as  2, 
4,  8,  or  1,  2,  4;  so  that  the  penetrations  are  pro- 
portional to  the  charges  as  far  as  to  four  ounces, 
out  in  a  less  ratio  at  three  ounces ;  whereas,  by 
the  theory  of  penetrations,  the  depths  ought  to  be 
proportional  to  the  charges,  or,  which  is  uie  same 
thing,  as  the  squares  of  the  velocities.  So  that 
it  seems  the  resisting  force  of  the  wood  is  not 
uniformly  or  constantly  the  same,  but  that  it  in- 
creases a  little  with  the  increased  velociw  of  the 
ball.  This  may  probably  be  occasioned  bv  the 
greater  quantity  of  fibres  driven  before  the  ball ; 
which  may  thus  increase  the  spring  and  resist- 
ance of  the  wood,  and  prevent  tne  ball  firom  pe- 
netrating so  deep  as  it  otherwise  might  do. 


Digitized  by 


Google 


PROJECTILES. 


>67 


Pcnotntioni  of  ImUs  into  solid 
elm  wood. 

Powder  3 

4. 

8  02. 

7 

16-6 
13-5 

18-9 
21-2 
181 
20-8 
20-5 

Means   7 

15 

20 

Tlie  dedactions  and  observations  made  on  the 
former  course  are  here  corroborated  respecting  the 
Telocities  and  weights  of  the  balls,  &c.  The 
Telocity  of  the  ball,  however,  increases  with  the 
increase  of  the  charge  only  to  a  certain  point 
pecoliar  to  each  gun,  beyond  which  increase  of 
the  charge,  &e  vdocity  of  the  ball  diminishes  till 
the  bore  is  foil  of  powder.  That  is  to  say,  the 
velocity  increases  with  the  length  of  the  gun,  but 
not  in  equal  proportion.  The  part  filled  with 
powder  bean  a  less  proportion  to  the  whole  bore 
m  the  long  guns  than  in  the  shorter  ones ;  it  is 
nearly  in  the  inverse  ratio  of  the  square  root  of 
the  empty  part 

It  appears  that  the  velocity,  with  equal  charges, 
always- increases  as  the  sun  is  longer;  though 
the  increase  in  velocity  is  out  very  small  in  com- 
parison to  the  increase  in  length ;  the  velocities 
being  in  a  ratio  somewhat  less  than  that  of  the 
square  roots  of  the  length  of  the  bore,  but  greater 
than  that  of  the  cube  roots  of  the  same,  and  is 
indeed  nearly  in  the  middle  ratio  between  the  two. 

It  appears,  from  the  table  of  ranges,  that  the 
range  increases  in  a  much  lower  ratio  than  the 
velocity,  the  gun  and  elevation  being  the  same. 
And,  when  this  is  compared  with  the  proportion 
of  the  velocity  and  length  of  gun  in  tne  last  pa- 


ragraph, it  is  evident  that  we  gain  extremely  little 
in  the  range  by  a  great  increase  in  the  length  of 
the  gun,  with  the  same  charge  of  powder.  In 
fact,  the  range  is  nearly  as  the  fifth  root  of  the 
length  of  the  bore ;  which  is  so  small  an  increase, 
as  to  amount  only  to  about  a  seventh  part  more 
range  for  a  double  length  of  gun.  From  the  same 
table  it  also  appears  that  the  time  of  the  ball's 
flight  is  nearly  as  the  range ;  the  gun  and  ele- 
vation being  the  same. 

It  has  been  found,  by  these  experiments,  that 
no  difference  is  caused  in  the  velocity,  or  range, 
by  varying  the  weight  of  the  gun,  nor  by  the  use 
of  wads,  not  by  different  degrees  of  ramming, 
nor  by  firing  the  charge  of  powder  in  different 
parts  of  it.  But  that  a  very  great  difference  in  the 
velocity  arises  from  a  small  degree  in  the  wind- 
age ;  indeed  with  the  usual  established  windage 
only,  viz.  about  one-twentieth  of  the  calibre,  no 
less  than  between  one-third  and  one-fourth  of  the 
powder  escapes  and  is  lost:  and,  as  the  balls  are 
often  smaller  than  the  regulated  size,  it  frequent- 
ly happens  that  half  the  powder  is  lost  by  un- 
necessary windage. 

It  appears  too  that  the  resisting  force  of  wood, 
to  balls  fired  into  it,  is  not  constant :  and  that 
the  depths  penetrated  by  balls,  with  different  ve- 
locities or  charges,  are  nearly  as  the  logarithms 
of  the  charges,  instead  of  being  as  the  charges 
themselves,  or,  which  is  the  same  thing,  as  the 
square  of  the  velocity.  Lastly,  these  and  most 
other  experiments  show,  that  balls  are  greatly 
deflected  from  the  direction  in  which  they  are 
projected ;  and  that  as  much  as  300  or  400  yards 
m  a  range  of  a  mile,  or  almost  one-fourth  of  the 
range. 

A  third  series  of  experiments  enabled  this  ex- 
cellent mathematician  to  furnish. the  three  fol- 
lowing tables  of  resistances,  for  three  different 
sizes  of  balls,  and  for  velocities  between  100  feet 
and  2000  feet  per  second  of  time. 


TABLE  I. 


Resistances  to  a  ball  of  1*965  inches 
diameter,  and  16  oz.  13  dr.  weight. 


Resistances  to  a  hall'2' 
inches  diameter,  and  3  lb. 
weight. 


Veloc.      Resistances.     Ut.  Dif.  2d.  Dif. 


feet. 

lbs. 

ozs. 

100 

017 

2f 

200 

0-69 

11 

300 

1-56 

25 

400 

2-81 

45 

500 

4-J50 

72 

600 

6-69 

107 

700 

9'M 

151 

800 

12-81 

205 

900 

16-94 

271 

1000 

21-88 

350 

1100 

27-63 

442 

1200 

34-13 

546 

1300 

4131 

661 

1400 

4906 

785 

1500 

57-25 

916 

1600 

65-69 

1051 

1700 

7413 

1186 

1800 

82-44 

1319 

1900 

90-44 

1447 

2000 

9806 

1569 

8i 

14 

20 

27 

35 

44 

54 

66 

79 

92 

104 

115 

124 

131 

135 

135 

133 

128 

122 


5| 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

12 

13 

13 

12 

11 

9 

7 

4 

0 

—2 

—5 

—6 


TABLE  n. 


78  Resistances  t 


to  a  ball  3-55 
inches  diameter,  and  6  lb. 
I  02.  8  dr.  weight. 


Veloc.     Res.      Difs. 


feet. 
900 
950 
1000 
1050 
100 
1150 
1200 
1250 
1300 
1350 
1400 
1450 
1500 
1550 
1600 
1650 
1700 
1750 
1800 


lbs. 

35 

41 

47 

53 

60 

67 

74 

82 

91 
101 
112 
122i 
132i 
14U 
150 
158 
165 
171 
176 


6 

6 

6 

7 

7 

7 

8 

9 
10 
11 
lOi 
10 

9 

8| 

8 

7 

6 

5 


TABLE  III. 


Veloc     Res.      Difs. 


feet 
1200 
1250 
1300 
1350 
1400 
1450 
1500 
1550 
1600 
1650 
1700 
1750 
1800 


lbs. 
115 
124 
133 
142 
152 
162 
172J 
184 
197 
211 
226 
242 
259 


9 

9 

9 
10 
10 
101 

lU 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 


DigfizedbyipOOgle 


168 


PROJECTILES. 


It  is  remarkable  that,  notwithstanding  the 
decisive  manner  in  which  Dr.  Hutton  recom- 
mended the  diminution  of  windage,  it  should 
not  have  been  adopted  in  practice  till  verv  lately ; 
and  that  in  consequence  principally  of  the  re- 
presentations of  Sir  Howard  Douglas.  This 
able  officer,  in  part  second  of  his  Naval  Gun- 
nery, points  out  the  extraordinary  anomalies  in 
the  previously  received  system  of  windage,  and 
expatiates  with  great  good  sense  upon  their  pre- 
judicial effects.  He  satisfactorily  refutes  the 
popular  objections  to  any  change,  and  then 
proceeds  thus : — *  The  preceding  remarks  on 
windage  having  been  brought  under  the  consi- 
deration of  the  master  general  of  the  ordnance 
in  1817,  his  lordship  referred  the  paper  to  the 
consideration  of  a  select  committee  of  artillery 
officers,  who  stated  in  their  report  *  that  they 
were  very  desirous  that  experiments  should  be 
made  with  a  view  to  ascertain  to  what  extent  the 
benefits  which  I  had  anticipated  could  be  reali- 
sed/ The  committee,  therefore,  proposed  to  the 
master  general  to  be  permitted  to  make  a  course 
of  experiments  on  this  subject,  commencing 
with  field-artillery,  and  for  that  purpose  recom- 
mended that  a  proportion  of  shot  of  various  in- 
creased magnitudes  should  be  provided.  These 
measures  having  been  approved,  a  course  of 
experiments  was  instituted  accordingly, '  found- 
ed upon  the  suggestions  communicated  by'  me. 

*  Having  first  adopted  an  opinicm  (asserted  in 
my  Observations,  articles  49,  53),  that  the  pre- 
sent mode  of  apportioning  a  part  of  the  calibre 
is  not  so  distinct  and  advantageous  as  a  fixed 
quantum  expressed  in  parts  of  inches  for  all 
natures  (of  ordnance),  the  committee  proceeded 
to  determine  what  that  quantum  should  be. 
After  repeated  trials  with  a  six-pounder,  a  nine- 
pounder,  and  a  twelve-pounder,  at  300, 600,  and 
1 200  yards,  it  was  proved, '  that  with  chaiges  of 
powder  one-sixth  less  than  usual,  the  larger  shot 
and  smaller  windage  produced  rather  the  longest 
range.'  '  Recourse  was  also  had  to  the  ballistic 
pendulum,  to  discover  the  proportional  excess  of 
momentum  of  the  larger  balls  over  the  smaller ; 
and  the  result,  after  a  veiy  satisfactoir  course  of 
experiments,  assisted  by  the  scientific  research 
and  well  known  mathematical  abilities  of  Dr. 
Gregory  of  the  Royal  Military  Academy,  coi> 
roborated  the  trials  by  ranges,  leaving  no  doubt 


of  their  accuracy,  In  ponsec|ueno^  of  these 
trials  the  committee  fixed  &e  quantity  of  wind- 
age for  field-guns  at  one-tenth  of  an  inch;  the 
same  which  I  had  suggested. 

*  Now  it  is  clear  that  this  improvement  may 
either  be  applied  to  save  one-sixth  part  of  the 
quantity  of  powder  provided  for  fidd-service, 
without  diminishing  the  power  of  range,  and 
consequently  to  economise,  without  detriment, 
the  means  of  transport  for  ammunition :  or  the 
alteration  may  be  applied  to  produce  longer 
ranges,  if  this  be  preferred  to  the  economical 
consideration.  This  preference  has  very  properly 
been  given,  and  the  established  charges  adhered 
to  accordingly.  A  great  collateral  advantage 
has  followed  from  this  correction  of  vrindage. 
It  was  at  first  apprehended  that  the  inerea^ 
effects  arising  from  the  additional  weight  of  shot 
and  dimini^ed  windage  would  bjure  brass 
guns;  but  it  is  quite  the  reverse.^  With  Uie 
reduced  quantum  of  windage  guns  are  much  less 
injured,  and  will  last  much  longer  than  formerly; 
and  this  has  been  so  well  aseertained,  that  in 
consequence  of  this  correction,  it  is  now  pro- 
posed to  abandon  the  wooden  bottoms  to  which 
shot  were  fixed  hr  the  purpose  of  saving  the 
cylinder,  siubstituting  (br  them  the  ^per  cap 
taken  off  the  end  of  the  cartridge.  This  being 
put  over  the  ball  is  quite  sufficient  to  keep  it 
nom  rolling  or  shifting,  whilst,  by  supporting  or 
fixing  it  thus,  the  centre  of  the  ball  coincides 
with  the  axis  of  the  cylinder,  and  the  space  lor 
windage  is  reduced  to  a  complete  annulus,  which 
admits  of  the  percussion  from  the  charge  being 
equally  received,  and  which  prevents^  or  verr 
much  reduces,  that  injury  or  mdentation  whicm 
the  cylinder  receives  when  the  ball  touches  it  on 
the  lower  part  only.' — Naval  Gtameryy  p.  82. 

An  abridged  account  of  the  experiments  with 
the  ballistic  pendulum,  to  which  Sir  Howard 
Douglas  refers,  is  given  in  Annales  de  Cfaimie 
etde  Physique,  tome  ix.  p.  289,  &c.  We  shall 
transcribe  the  results  of  one  day.  May  19th,  1818. 

The  day  was  dry,  but  cloudy ;  the  thermome- 
ter stood  at  IS-S®  centigrade  (56®  Fahrenheit), 
the  barometer  at  29*9°  inches.  The  pendulum 
weighed  7008  pounds  avoirdupois.  The  gun 
was  a  twelve-pounder;  its  weight  2025  pounds; 
its  length  74*25  English  inches;  its  calibre  4*62 
inches. 


Number  of  the 

Weight  of  the 

Diameter  of 

Windage. 

Charge  of 
Powder. 

Velocities 

Experiments. 

IJall. 

the  Ball. 

obtained. 

Ibt.    oz. 

drs. 

inches. 

inch. 

Ihs.  oz.  drs. 

leet 

1 

12     12 

0 

4-545 

0075 

3     5     6 

1548 

2 

12     12 

7 

4-54 

0080 

3     5     6 

1537 

3 

12     11 

0 

4-545 

0075 

3     5     6. 

1588 

4 

12     10 

1 

4-54 

0-080 

3    5     6 

1507 

5 

11     11 

8 

4-42 

0*200 

4    0    0 

isn 

6 

11     10 

4 

4*418 

0*202 

4    0    0 

153? 

7 

11     12 

1 

4*418 

0-202 

4    0    0 

1563 

8 

11     12 

1 

4*418 

0-202 

4    0    0 

1529 

Here  it  is  evident  that  the  velocity  corre-  though  in  the  former  case  the  charge  ^ms  less 

spending  to  a  windage  of  0-75,  or  ^ths  of  an  inch,  by  Jth  part  than  the  latter, 

is  at  a  mean  1568  feet,  rather  exceeding  1550  Assuming  the  conectness  of  the  results,  as 

feet,  obtained  when  the  windage  was  *20,  or  jb^>  tabulated  above,  we  are  by  no  means  inclined  lo 


Digitized  by  VaUUy  IC 


PR0JBCTILB6 


ISO 


9p9t  witA  Sir  Hoiwudy  howerwy  in  foconinoiKi* 
inganwihefence  to  die  established  charges,  yiz.  of 
a  tiiiid  of  the  weight  of  the  hall,  after  tli^  new  rate 
of  windage  is  completdy  adopted.  Supposing 
thaty  ceteris  paribus,  the  initial  velocity  varies  as 
the  aquaie  root  of  the  oharge,  a  four-pound 
charge  with  the  new  windage  would  propel  a 
twelT»-poand  ball  with  an  initial  velocity  of 
about  1720  feet,  a  velocity  which  would  be  very 
efieetire  indeed  if  the  ball  were  moving  through 
a  mm-resistingnedinm,  but  which  experiences  a 
most  mpid  retardation  as  the  projectile  passes 
thnragh  the  air.  The  experiments  of  Dr.  Hut- 
Ion  prove,  not  only  that  ttie  resistance  of  the  air 
beoomes  very  enormous  when  the  velocities  ex- 
ceed 1300  feet,  but  that  the  law  of  the  resistance 
no  longer  aooords  neariy  with  the  square  of  the 
velocity,  but,  to  be  correctly  exhibited,  re<juires 
a  higher  exponent  The  reason  is  very  evident. 
Atraospherio  air  rushes  into  a  vacuum  with  a 
velocity  of  about  1346  feet  per  second,  and  it 
manifestly  cannot  make  way  for  a  ball  moving 
with  a  greater  velocity  than  this  without  being 
condeiaed  before  it.  In  such  cases,  the  air  thus 
condensed  in  Iront  of  the  ball,  opposes  its 
motion  not  only  by  a  simple  resistance,  but  by  a 
force  of  elastidtv. proportional  to  the  compres- 
sion, and  thererare  rapidly  increasing  as  the 
velocity  of  the  projectile  exoeeds  1346  feet. 
Tliis  repulsion  soon  reduces  the  higher  velocities 
of  1600  or  1700  feet  to  the  limit  of  from  1350 
to  1400)  and  consequently  renders  them  of 
acaroety  any  use  in  either  increasing  the  hori- 
zontal range,  or  the  effective  impetus  of  the  ball, 
except  at  comparatively  small  distances  from  the 
mouth  of  the  piece.  Tliis  accords  with  the  ex- 
perience of  our  artillery  officers  when  employed 
m  Spain ;  they  found  that  balls  fired  with  velo- 
cities of  1600  feet  had  scarcely  any  advantage 
over  those  propelled  with  velocities  of  1400  in 
the  destruction  of  distant  objects. 

llMorists  have  long  known  that  the  dastic 
force  exerted  by  the  air  against  small  bodies, 
moving  with  considerable  velocities,  may  become 
so  great  in  proportion  to  the  weight  as  not 
merely  to  destroy  the  motion  communicated,  but 
even  to  repel  the  bodies ;  and  this,  indeed,  is 
frequency  experienced  when'  smadl  shot  are 
thrown  from  a  musket  by  laige  charges  of  pow- 
der, ih^  shot  being  driven  l^k  in  the  contratr 
direction  to  that  in  which  they  were  propellea. 
The  same  ^ing  of  course  does  not  precisely 
happen  in  the  practice  of  artillery ;  but  it  is  a 
feet  strictly  coincident  with  theory,  that  a  smaller 
charge  of  powder,  by  giving  the  shot  less  initial 
velocity,  will  cause  it  to  fly  fiirther  than  a  greater 
charge,  which  would  propel  the  ball  with  a 
velocity  that  exceeds  a  certain  limit. 

A  nilitarv  officer  of  some  eminence,  hut  de- 
fective, as  we  should  conjecture,  in  mathemati- 
cal knowledge,  hsa  recently  proposed  the  use  of 
short  guns,  especially  in  the  service  of  the  navy, 
stiangelT  foncymg  that  the  loss  of  velocity  and 
range,  that  would  attend  the  shortening  of  the 
gun,  would  be  more  than  compensated  by  some 
soggorted  peculiarities  in  the  external  configura- 
tion of  the  pieoe.  This  is  utterly  repugnant  to 
coned  theory,  and  we  believe  to  correct  practice 
also.    The  question  was  put  to  the  lest  in  the 


Woolwich  experiments  of  18  IT,  and  the  result 
was  uniformly  and  decidedly  against  the  short 
guns.  That  additions  to  the  length  of  the  pieco 
should  occasion  increased  velocity  of  projection 
is  obviousl}r  the  joint  effect  of  two  causes.  1st, 
The  expansive  foree  of  the  inflamed  gunpowder 
acts  longer  upon  the  ball  in  a  long  than  in  a 
short  gun,  and  therefore  communicates  a  greater 
velocity,  fidly^  In  short  guns  no  small  portion 
of  the  gun-powder  is  carried  out  of  the  muzzle 
without  bemg  at  all  inflamed.  The  I^neths, 
however,  must  be  limited  by  practical  considera- 
tionsj  as  well  as  by  the  theoretical  ones  deduci- 
ble  from  our  quotation  a  few  pages  back  from 
Dr.  Hutton. 
Sir  Howard  Douglas,  who  has  the 


feculty  of  confirming  his  theoretical  positions  bv 
reference  to  historical  facts,  adduces  some  with 
a  view  to  this  question,  which  we  make  no  apo* 
logy  for  citing.— *  Viewing  the  matter  purely 
as  an  artillery  ouestion,  ttiere  is  no  doubt  that 
preference  should  be  given  to  long  guns.  As  to 
Its  application  to  navd  matters,  I  do  not  hesitato 
to  recommend  that  a  frigate  which  cannot  carry 
eight  feet  twenty^-four  pounders,  had  better  be 
fitted  with  long  eighteen  pounders,  than  with  six 
feet  or  six  feet  aud  a  half  twenty-four  pounders, 
or  with  any  nature  of  carronade,  exclusively.  The 
very  mortifying  situation  in  which  the  gallant 
Sir  James  Yeo  found  himself  in  September, 
1813,  on  Lake  Ontario,  shows  the  danger  df  the 
carronade  system  of  armament.  Sir  James 
states,  in  his  letter  of  the  12th  of  September, 
*  the  enemy's  fleet  of  eleven  sail,  having  a  partial 
wind,  succeeded  in  eetting  within  range  of  their 
long  twenty-four  ana  thirty-two  pounders ;  and, 
having  obtained  the  wind  of  us,  T  found  it  im- 
possible to  bring  them  to  close  action.  We 
remained  in  this  mortifying  situation  five  hours, 
having  only  nx  guns  in  the  fleet  that  would 
reach  the  enemy.  Not  a  carronade  was  fired. 
At  sun-set  a  breeze  sprang  up  from  the  westward, 
when  I  manffiuvred  to  oblige  the  enemy  to  meet 
us  on  equal  terms.  Tliis,  however,  he  carefollj 
avoided?' 

'  Captain  Barclay  states,  in  his  letter  of  the 
12th  of  September,  1813 :— «  The  other  brig  of 
the  enemy,  apparently  destined  to  engage  tho 
Queen  Chariotte,  supported  in  like  manner  by 
two  schooners,  kept  so  far  to  windward  as  to 
render  the  Queen  Charlotte's  twenty-four  pound- 
er corronades  useless,  whilst  she  apd  the  Lady 
Prevost  were  exposed  to  a  heavy  and  destruct- 
ive fire  fh>m  the  Caledonian  and  four  other 
schooners,  armed  with  long  and  heavy  guns.' ' 

Sir  Howard  next  describes  the  action  of  the 
Phobe  widi  the  American  frigate  Essex,  as  coq- 
firmine  the  theoretical  view  cf  die  business ; 
and  adds: — *This  brilliant  afikur,  together  with 
the  preceding  foots,  caimot  fhil  to  dictate  the 
necessity  of  abandoning  a  princ^e  of  arma- 
ment exposed  to  such  perils,  and  to  teach  the 
importance  of  adapting  the  tactics  of  an  opera- 
tion to  the  compantive  natures  and  powers  of 
arms.' — ^aval  Qtamen/y  p.  1 16. 

On  the  whole,  we  trust  we  shaH  not  be  ac- 
cused of  any  unworthy  fbeling,  if  we  remark  that 
all,  or  nearly  all,  which  is  truly  valuable  in  this 
department  of  research  has  been  die  produce  ti 

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PROJECTILES 


Britain.  We  have  no  wish  to  depxedate  the  labors 
of  Bemouilli,  Euler,  and  others,  of  whom  we  have 
already  spoken  in  terms  of  commendation; 
and  upon  whose  genius  and  attainments  we  often 
reflect  with  pleasure.  Yet  had  it  not  been  for 
the'  practical  turn  given  to  the  investigation  by 
Robms,  and  so  incessantly  kept  in  mind,  and  so 
ekilfiilly  and  elaborately  carried  out  to  its  pro- 
fessional applications  by  Dr.  Hutton,  the  prin- 
ciples of  gunnery  would  at  this  moment  have 
been  little  better  than  a  collection  of  barren 
speculative  rules,  calculated  to  mislead,  rather 
than  direct,  the  intelligent  engineer. 

In  the  notice  we  have  taken  of  Robins*s  ex- 
periments, we  do  not  perceive  that  we  have 
described  his  celebrated  ballistic  pendulum.  It 
consists  of  a  large  block  of  wood,  annexed  to  the 
end  of  an  iron  stem,  strongly  framed,  and  capa- 
ble of  oscillating  freely  upon  a  horizontal  axis. 
This  machine  being  at  rest,  a  piece  of  ordnance 
is  pointed  directly  towards  the  face  of  the  block, 
at  any  assigned  distance,  as  twenty,  thirty,  forty, 
sixty,  &c.,.  feet,  and  then  fired;  the  Iraill  dis- 
charged flrom  the  gun  strikes  and  enters  the 
block,  communicating  to  it  a  velocity,  which  is 
to  the  velocity  with  which  the  ball  was  moving 
at  the  moment  ofl  impact  as  the  weight  of  the 
ball  to  the  sum  of  the  weights  of  ball  and  pen- 
dulum. Referring'  this  velocity  to  the  centre  of 
oscillation  of  the  pendulum,  it  will  rise  through 
an  appreciable  arc  of  vibration  till  such  velocity 
is  extinguished.  The  measure  of  that  arc  will 
lead  to  the  determination  of  the  velocity,  be- 
cause it  is  evidently  equal  to  the  velocity  which 
a  body  would  acquire  by  falling  freely  through 
the  versed  sine  of  the  arc  shown  by  the  experi- 
ment. 

Robins*s  largest  ballistic  pendulum  weighed 
only  ninety-seven  pounds;  oeing  employ^  to 
ascertain  the  velocities  of  balls  weighmg  about 
an  ounce  each.  The  smallest  pendulum  con- 
structed by  Dr.  Hutton  weighed  600  pounds; 
and,  as  he  pursued  his  experiments,  the  new 
pendulums  were  made  successively  larger  and 
larger,  till  at  last  they  reabhed  the  weight  of 
about  2600  pounds.  He  also  made  several  im- 
provements in  their  construction,  especially  in 
their  manner  of  suspension,  and  m  that  of 
measuring  the  semi-arc  of  vibration;  employing 
this  curious  apparatus  in  ascertaining  the  velo- 
cities of  balls  varying  in  weight  from  one  pound 
to  six,  and  propelled  with  nearly  all  possible 
modifications  ot  charge.  It  appears  farther, 
from  Annales  de  Cbimie  et  de  rhysique,  tome 
5,  that  in  recent  experiments  at  Woolwich,  con- 
ducted by  Dr.  Gregory  and  the  select  committee 
of  artillery  officers,  a  ballistic  pendulum,  weigh- 
ing 7400  pounds,  was  employed  in  determimng 
the  velocities  of  six,  twelve,  eighteen,  and  twenty- 
four  pounders. 

Of  RifleMarrelkd  Gtou.— The  greatest  irre- 
gularities in  the  motion  of  bullets  are  owing  to 
&e  whirling  motion  on  their  axis,  acquired  by 
the  friction  against  the  sides  of  the  piece.  The 
best  method  hitherto  known  of  preventing  these 
is  by  the  use  of  pieces  with  rifled  barrels.  These 
pieces  have  the  insides  of  their  cylinders  cut 
with  spiral  channels,  as  a  female  screw,  varying 


from  the  common  screws  only  in  diis,  that  tt» 
threads  or  rifles  are  less  deflected,  and  approach 
more  to  a  right  line ;  it  being  usual  for  the 
threads  with  which  the  rifled  barrel  is  indented 
to  take  little  more  than  one  turn  in  its  whole- 
length.  The  numbers  of  these  threads  are  not 
determinate. 

The  usual  method  of  charging  these  pieces  is 
this :— The  proper  quantity  of  powder  being  put 
down,  a  l^en  bullet  rather  larger  than  the  bore 
or  the  piece  is  forcibly  driven  home  to  the  pow> 
der ;  and  in  its  passa^  acquires  the  shape  of  the 
inside  of  the  barrel,  so  that  it  becomes  part  of 
a  male  screw,  exactly  answering  to  the  indents 
of  the  rifle.  The  rifled  barrels  made  in  Britain 
are  often  contrived  to  admit  the  charge  and  shot 
at  the  breech;  and  the  ball  acquires  the  same 
shape  in  its  expulsion  that  is  given  to  it  by  the 
more  laborious  operation  of  driving  it  in  at  the 
muzzle.  From  the  whirling  motion  communi- 
cated by  the  rifles,  it  happens  that,  when  the 
{>ieoe  is  fired,  that  indented  zone  of  the  bullet 
bllows  the  sweep  of  the  rifles,  and  thereby,  be- 
sides its  progressive  motion,  acquires  a  circular 
motion  round  the  axis  of  the  piece ;  which  cir- 
cuUff  motion  will  be  continued  to  the  bullet  after 
its  separation  from  the  piece ;  and  thus  a  bullet 
discharged  from  a  rifled  barrel  is  constantly  made 
to  whirl  round  an  axis  which  is  coincident  with 
the  line  of  its  flight.  By  this  whirling  on  its 
axis,  the  aberration  of  the  bullet,  which  proves 
so  prejudicial  to  all  operations  in  gimnery,  is 
almost  totally  preventea :  and  accordingly  such 
pieces  are  mucn  more  to  be  depended  on,  and 
will  do  execution  at  a  much  greater  distance, 
than  the  other.  But  as  it  is  in  a  manner  impos- 
sible entirely  to  correct  the  aberrations  arising 
from  the  resistance  of  the  atmosphere,  even  the 
rifled  barrelled  pieces  cannot  be  depended  upon 
for  more  than  one-half  of  their  actual  range  at 
any  considerable  elevation.  It  becomes  therefore 
a  problem  very  difficult  of  solution,  to  know, 
even  within  a  very  considerable  distance,  how 
&r  a  piece  will  carry  its  ball  with  any  probabi- 
lity of  hitting  its  mark,  or  doing  any  execution. 
The  best  rules  hitherto  laid  down  on  this  subject 
are  those  of  Robins. 

Of  Carrcmttdei, — Mr.  Gascoigne*s  improved 
gun,  called  a  carronade,  was,  in  June  1779,  by 
the  king  in  council  instituted  a  standard  navy- 
gun,  and  ten  of  them  appointed  to  be  added 
to  each  «hip  of  war,  from  a  first-rate  to  a  sloop. 

The  carronade  is  mounted  upon  a  carriage  with 
a  perfectly  smooth  bottom  of  strong  plan^  with- 
out trucks ;  instead  of  which  there  is  fixed  on 
the  bottomr  of  the  carriage,  perpendicular  from 
the  trunnions,  a  gudceon  of  proper  strength, 
with  an  iron  washer  and  pin  at  the  lower  end. 
This  gudgeon  is  let  into  a  corresponding  groove 
cut  in  a  second  carriage, called  a  slide-carriage; 
the  washer  supported  by  the  pin  overreaching 
the  under  edges  of  the  groove.  This  slide  car- 
riage is  made  with  a  smooth  upper  sur&ce,  upon 
which  the  gun-carriage  is  moved,  and  by  the 
gudgeon  always  kept  in  its  right  station  to  the 
port ;  the  groove  in  the  slide-carriage  being  of  a 
sufficient  length  to  allow  the  gun  to  recoil  sund  be 
loaded  within  board.  The  slide-carriage,  the 
groove  included^  is  equally  broad  with  the  fore- 


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PROJECTION    OF    THE    SPHERE. 


171 


pait  of  the  ffun-carriage,  and  about  four  times 
the  length ;  Sie  fore  pan  of  the  slide-carriage  is 
fixed  by  famge-bolts  to  the  quick-work  of  the 
ship  b^ow  i&  i)ort,  the  end  lying  over  the  fill, 
doae  to  the  outside  plank,  and  the  groove  reach- 
ing to  the  fore  end ;  the  gudgeon  of  the  gun- 
carriage,  and  consequently  the  trunnions  of  the 
gun,  are  over  the  fill  of  the  port  when  the  ffun 
is  ran  out ;  and  the  port  is  made  of  such  breadth, 
with  its  sides  bevelled  off  within  board,  that  the 
gun  and  carriage  may  lange  £rom  bow  to  quarter. 
The  slide-carriage  is  supported  from  the  deck  at 
the  hinder  end,  by  a  wedge  or  step-stool ;  which 
being  altered  at  pleasure,  and  the  fore  end  turn- 
ing upon  the  hmge-bolts,  the  carriage  can  be 
constantly  kept  upon  an  horizontal  pla^e,  for  the 
more  easy  and  quick  working  of  tne  gun  when 
the  ship  Ues  along.  But  see  Sir  Howard  Dou- 
glas's remarks  on  this  piece,  already  given. 

Of  R^Ud  Ordnance.— In  1774  Dr.  Lind,  and 
captain  Alexender  Blair  of  the  sixty-ninth  regi- 
ment of  foot,  invented  a  species  of  rifled  field- 


pieces.  They  are  made  of  cast-iron ;  and  are  not 
Dored  like  the  common  pieces,  but  have  the 
rifles  moulded  on  the  core,  after  which  they  are 
cleaned  out  and  finished  with  proper  instruments. 
Guns  of  this  construction,  which  are  intended 
for  the  field,  ought  not  to  be  made  to  carry  a 
ball  of  above  one  or  two  pounds  weight  at  most; 
a  leaden  bullet  of  that  weight  bemg  sufiicient  to 
destroy  either  man  or  horse.  A  pound-gun,  of 
this  construction,  of  {;ood  metal,  need  not  wei^ 
above  100  lbs.,  nor  its.  carriage  above  100  lbs. 
more.  It  can  therefore  be  easily  transported 
from  place  to  place,  by  a  few  men ;  and  a  couple 
of  gcKKi  horses  may  transport  six  of  these  guns 
and  their  carriages,  if  put  into  a  cart.  But  this 
kind  of  ordnance  has  never  been  extensively 
tised,  we  believe,  in  the  British  service.  See 
our  article  Abtillery,  for  the  latest  official  re- 
gulations for  the  proportion  and  disposition  of 
the  ammunition  attached  to  the  field  pieces  of 
our  army :  as  also  for  the  guns  attached  to  the 
brigades  of  artillery.    See  ^so  Camhoh. 


Tke  Pbojbctiok  9f  the  Sphebb  is  a  perspec- 
tive repiesentation  of  the  circles  on  the  surfiice  of 
the  ^obe;  and  is  variously  denominated,  accord- 
ing to  the  difieient  positions  of  the  eye  and  plane 
of  projection.  There  are  three  principal  kinds  of 
projection ;  the  stereographic,  the  orthographic, 
and  gnomonic.  In  the  stereographic  projection, 
the  eye  is  supposed  to  be  placed  on  ue  surface 
of  the  sphere ;  in  the  orthographic  it  is  supposed 
to  be  at  an  infinite  distance ;  and  in  the  gnomo- 
nic projection  the  ^e  is  placed  at  the  centre  of 
the  sphere.  Other  lunds  of  projection  are,  the 
globular.  If  ercator^s  developement,  &c. 

The  chief  application  of  the  doctrine  of  these 
prajections  is  to  the  constructing  of  maps  and 
diau.  In  our  article  Maps  we  have,  therefore, 
entered  at  length  into  the  principal  projections ; 
i.  e.  I.  By  development;  2.  The  orthognphic; 
3.  The  stereographic;  4.  The  globular;  and  5. 
Mercator's. 

In  that  of  DxALUNO  the  gnomonie  is  involved. 
See  that  article.  It  may,  however,  be  thus  ex- 
h3>ited  more  formally. 

The  eye,  in  this  projection,  is  in  the  centre  of 
the  sphere,  and  the  pUme  of  projection  touches 
the  sphere  in  a  given  point  parallel  to  a  given 
cirde:  the  plane  of  projection  will  represent 
the  plane  of  a  dial,  whose  centre  being  toe  pro- 
jected pole,  the  semi-axis  of  the  sphere  will  be  the 
stile  or  gnomon  of  the  dial. 

Pbop.  I.  Theoby  I. — Every  great  cbde  is 
iTojected  into  a  straight  line  perpendicular  to  the 
ine  of  measures ;  and  whose  aistance  from  the 
centre  is  equal  to  the  cotangent  of  its  inclination, 
or  to  the  tangent  of  its  nearest  distance  from  the 
pole  of  the  projection. 

Let  BAD,  fig.  1,  be  the  given  circle,  and  let 
die  circle  C  B  £ D  be  perpendicular  to  B  AD, 
and  to  the  plane  of  projection :  whose  intersection 
C  F  with  tnis  last  plane  will  be  the  line  of  mea- 
sures. Now,  since  the  circle  C  B  E  D  is  per- 
pendicular both  to  the  given  circle  BAD  and  to 
the  plane  of  projection,  the  common  section  of 
the  two  last  planes  produced  will  therefore  be 
perpendicalar  to  the  plane  of  the  circle  C  B  £  D 


Fig.l. 


produced,  and  consequently  to  the  line  of  mea- 
sures :  hence  the  given  circle  will  be  projected 
into  that  section;  that  is,  into  a  straight  line 
passing  through  d,  perpendicular  to  C  d.  Now 
C  <{  is  the  cotangent  of  the  angle  C  d  A,  the  in- 
clination of  the  given  circle,  or  the  tangent  of  the 
arch  C D  to  the  radius  AC. 

CoBOL.  1.  A  great  circle  perpendicular  to  the 
plane  of  projection  is  projected  into  a  straight 
line  passing  through  the  centre  of  projection; 
and  any  ardi  is  projected  into  its  correspondent 
tangent. 

2.  Any  point,  as  D,  or  the  pole  of  any  circle, 
is  projectea  into  a  point  </,  whose  distance  from 
the  pole  of  projection  is  equal  to  the  tangent  of 
that  distance. 

3.  If  two  great  circles  be  perpendicular  to 
each  other,  and  one  of  them  passes  throueh  the 
pole  of  projection,  they  will  be  projected  into 
two  straight  lines  perpendicular  to  each  other. 

4.  Hence  if  a  great  circle  be  perpendicular  to 
several  other  great  circles,  and  its  representation 
pass  through  the  centre  of  projection ;  then  all 
these  circles  will  be  represented  by  lines  parallel 
to  one  another  and  perpendicular  to  the  line  of 
measures,  for  representation  of  that  first  circle. 

Prop.  II.  Tueob.  II.  If  two  great  circles 
intersect  in  the  pole  of  projection,  their  repre- 
sentations will  make  an  angle  at  the  centre  or  the 

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PROJECTION    OF    THB    SPHERE, 


plans  of  orpjeetian,  equal  to  tha  angle  made  by 
these  circles  on  the  sphere. 

For,  since  both  these  circles  are  perpendicular 
to  the  plane  of  projection,  the  angle  made  by 
their  intersections  with  this  plane  ia  the  same  as 
the  angle  made  by  these  circles. 

Paop.  III.  TnEoit.  III.  Any  less  oirale 
parallel  to  the  plane  of  projection  is  projected 
into  a  circle  whose  centre  is  the  pole  of  projeo* 
tion,  and  its  radius  is  equal  to  the  tangent  of  the 
distance  of  the  circle  from  the  pole  of  projeo* 
tion. 

Let  the  circle  P I  (fig.  1)  be  panllel  to  the 
plane  OF,  then  the  equal  arches  PC,  C I,  are 
projected  into  the  equal  tangents  GC,  CH; 
and  therefore  C,  the  point  of  contact  and  pole  of 
the  circle  P I  and  of  the  projection,  ia  the  Gentie 
of  the  representation  G,  li. 

CoBOL.  If  a  cirde  be  parallel  to  the  plane  of 
projection,  and  45^  from  the  pole,  it  is  projected 
into  a  circle  equal  to  a  great  circle  pf  the  sphere; 
and  therefore  may  be  oontidered  aa  the  primitiTe 
circle,  and  its  radius  the  radius  of  projection. 

Prop.  IV.  Theor.  IV.  A  less  circle  not 
parallel  to  the  plane  of  projection  is  projected 
into  a  conic  section,  whose  transverse  axis  is  in 
the  line  of  measures;  and  the  distance  of  its 
nearest  vertex  from  the  centre  of  the  plane  of 
projection  is  equal  to  the  tangent  of  its  nearest 
distance  from  the' pole  of  projection;  and  the 
distance 'of  the  other  vertex  is  equal  to  the  tan- 
gent of  the  great  distance. 

Any  less  circle  is  the  base  of  a  cone  whose 
yertex  is  at  A,  6g.  2 ;  and  this  cone  being  pro- 


i_* 


ing  as  the  distance  of  its  most  fooiote  point  is 
less,  equal  to,  or  greater  than,  90^. 

S.  If  U  be  the  centre,  and  K,  iic,  (,  the  focus  of 
the  ellipse,  hyperbola,  or  parabola;  then  UK  as 

^^yVfor  the  ellipse;  Hifc=M±^for 

the  hyperbola ;  and  fn  being  drawn  perpendi- 

,_.n^4-F/ 


Qular  to  Kl^fl-- 


for  the  parabola. 


duced,  its  intersection  with  the  plane  of  pioj^ 
tion  will  be  a  conic  section.  Thus  the  cone 
BAF,  having  the  circle  DF  for  iu  base,  being 
produced,  will  be  cut  by  the  plane  of  projection 
m  an  ellipse  whose  transverse  diameter  is  dfi 
and  Crf  is  the  tangent  of  the  angle  CAD,  and 
C/  the  tangent  of  C  A  F.  In  hke  manner,  the 
cone  AF£,  having  the  side  A  £  parallel  to  the 
line  of  measures  a/,  being  cut  by  the  phine  of 
projection,  the  section  will  be  a  parabola,  of 
which  f  is  the  nearest  vertex,  and  the  point  into 
which  E  is  projected  is  at  an  infinite  distance. 
Also  tiie  cone  AFG,  whose  base  is  the  circle 
F  G,  being  cut  by-  the  plane  of  projection,  the 
section  will  be  a  hyperbola;  of  which/ is  the 
nearest  vertex;  and  G A  being  produced  gives 
4  the  other  vertex. 

CoROL.    %.  A  less  circle  will  be  projected 
into  an  ellipse,  a  parabola,  or  hyperbola,  accord- 


Prop.  V.  Theor.  V.  Let  the  plane  TW, 
fig.  1,  Plate  Projection  of  the  Sphere,  be 
perpendicular  to  the  p.ane  of  projection  T  V,  and 
B  C  D  a  great  circle  of  the  sphere  in  the  plane 
T  W.  Let  the  great  circle  B  ED  be  projected 
into  the  straight  line  bek,  C  Q  S  perpendicular 
to  6X;,  and  Cm  parallel  to  it  and  equal  to  C  A, 
and  make  QS  equal  to  Qm;  then  anv  angle 
Q  Sr  is  the  measure  of  the  arch  Q,t  of  the  pro- 
jected circle. 

Join  AQ:  then, because  Cm  is  equal  to  CA, 
the  angle  QCm  equal  to  QCA,  each  being  a 
right  angle,  and  the  side  Q  C  common  to  both 
triangles;  therefore  Qm,  or  its  equal  QS,  is 
equal  Q  A.  Again,  since  the  plane  A  C  Q  is 
perpendicular  to  the  plane  TV,  and  ^Q  to  the 
mtersection  C  Q ;  therefore  6  Q  is  perpendicular 
both  to  AQ  and  QS :  hence,  since  AQ  and  QS 
are  equal,  all  the  angia  ait  S  cut  the  line  6  Q  in 
the  same  points  as  the  equal  angles  at  A.  But 
by  the  angles  at  A  the  circle  B  £  D  is  projected 
into  ^  line  h  Q.  Therefore  the  angles  at  S  are 
the  measures  of  the  parts  of  the  pro^ted  circle 
h  Q ;  and  S  is  the  dividing  centre  thereof. 

CoROL.  1.  Any  great  circle  ^  Q  /  is  projected 
into  a  line  of  tangents  to  the  radius  S  Q. 

fi.  If  the  circle  b  C  pass  lihrough  the  centre  of 
projection,  then  the  projecting  pomt  A  is  the 
dividing  centre  Ihereor,  and  C  6  is  the  tangent  of 
its  correspondent  arch  C  B  to  C  A,  the  radius  of 
proiection. 

Prop.  VI.  Theor.  VL  Let  the  paialle)  cir- 
cle  GLH,  fig.  1,  be  as  far  from  the  pole  of  pro- 
jection C  as  tfie  circle  FN  I  is  from  its  pole;  and 
let  the  distance  of  the  poles  C  P  be  bisected  by 
the  radios  AG;  and  draw  6AD  perpendicdar 
to  AG;  then  any  straight  line  h^t  diawn 
through  b  will  cut  off  the  arches  ik,  /,  F,  n,  eqaal 
to  ea^  other  in  the  representations  <rf  these  equal 
eireles  in  the  plane  of  projection. 

Let  the  promotions  of  the  less  circles  be  de- 
scribed. Then,  because  B  D  is  perpendicular  to 
AQ,  the  arches  BO,  DO,  are  equal ;  but,  since 
the  less  circles  are  equally  dista&t  each  from  its 
respective  pole,  therefore  the  aiches  F O,  OH, 
are  equal;  and  hence  the  ardi  BF  is  equal  to 
the  arch  DH.  For  the  same  reason  the  arches 
BN,  DL,  are  equid;  and  the  angle  FBN  is 
equal  to  the  aiig^e  LDH ;  thevefovs^  on  the 
s|Miere,  die  arches  FN,  H  L,  aie  eqvai.  And 
since  the  great  circle  BN  LD  is  psojected  into 
the  straight  Kae  AQu/,  &c.,  theiefon  a  is  the 
projection  of  N,  and  /  diat  of  .L :  hence/«>  ^4 
the  projectiotts  of  FN,  II L,  pespectrfdy,  are 
equiu. 

Prop.  VH.  Theor.  VIL  I#  Fit  ft,  hlg,  fig- 
2,  be  the  projections  of  two  equal  cinsles,  whercef 
one  is  as  ihr  from  its  pole  P  as  the  other  fro» 
its  pole  C,  which  is  the  centre  of  projection;  and 
if  the  distanced  the  projected  poles  C,  p,  be  di  • 

Digitized  by  VjUUy  IC 


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F38.^0JECTI©I^  (OF  THE   SFMUjREo 

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Zondmt.fkNuked  h^IhamasSfffi.  13/CkmpMde  MrtuayJJ8t9.  VjOOQlfiSlnny sni^ 


PROJECTION    OP    THE    SPHERE. 


173 


tided  in  d»  so  that  the  demes  Id  C  o,  op,  h% 
eqaa]^  and  die  perpendicuutr  o  S  be  erected  to 
the  lioe  of  measures  g  h.  Then  the  line  pn,  C  /, 
drawn  from  the  poles  C,  p,  through  an>:  point  Q 
in  the  line  o  S,  will  cut  off  the  arches  F  i^  A  ^ 
equal  to  each  other,  and  to  the  angle  Q  Cp. 

The  great  circle  AO  perpendicular  to  the 
plane  of  the  primitiTe  is  projected  into  the 
straight  line  oS  peqiendiculiEur  togA,  by  Prop, 
i.  Cor.  3.  Let  Q  he  the  projection  of  g ;  and 
since  9  Q,  C  Q,  are  straight  lines,  they  are  there- 
fore the  representations  of  the  arches  P  g,  C^,  of 
great  drclee.  Now,  since  P  9  C  is  an  isosceles 
spherical  triani^le,  the  angles  PCQ,  CPQ,are 
therefore  equal ;  and  hence  the  arches  P  9,  C  f , 
produced  will  cut  off  equal  arches  from  the  given 
circles  F  I,  G  H,  whose  representations  F  n,  A  /^ 
are  therefore  equal :  and,  since  the  angle  QC  p  is 
the  measure  of  the  arch  A(,  it  is  also  the  measure 
of  its  equal  Ffi. 

CoROL.  Hence,  if  ftoro  the  projected  pole  of 
any  ciicle  a  perpendicular  be  erected  to  tne  line 
of  measures,  it  will  cut  off  a  quadrant  from  the 
representation  of  that  circle. 

Peop.  VIII.  Tbeor.  VIII.  Let  Fn*,  fig.  8, 
be  the  projection  of  any  circle  F  I,  and  p  the 
prelection  of  its  pole  P.  If  Cg  be  the  cotan- 
gent of  C  A  P,  and  g  B  perpendicular  to  the  line 
c£  measures  g  C,  let  C  A  P  be  bisected  by  AO, 
and  the  line  o  B  drawn  to  any  point  B,  and  also 
pB,  cutting  Tnk  in  d;  then  the  angle  go  B  is 
the  measure  of  the  arch  F  <L 

The  arch  P  G  is  a  quadrant,  and  the  angle  g  0 
A-=gPA4.oAP=sgAC-foAP  =  gAC 
+  CAo  =  gAi9;  therefore  gAssgo;  conse^ 
quently  o  is  the  diTiding  centre  of  g  B,  the  re^ 
presentation  of  G  A;  and  hence  by  Prop.  V.  the 
angle  go  B  is  Che  measure  of  g  B.  But,  since  pg 
represents  a  quadrant,  therefore  p  is  tihe  pole  S[. 
§d;  and  hence  the  great  circle  pdB,  passing 
throngfa  the  pole  of  the  circles  g  B  and  F  n,  will 
cut  off  equal  arches  in  b^tb,  that  is^  Yd^g  B 
^^BglegoB. 

CoacM.  TheaoaglegoBb  the  measure  of  the 
angle  gp  B.  For  the  triangle  fp  B  represents  a 
triangfe  on  the  sphere,  wherein  the  wch  whic& 
gB  represents  is  equal  to  tho  angle  whidi  the 
angle  p  represents ;  because  gp  is  a  quadrant; 
therefore  r  0  B  is  the  measure  of  both. 

Paop.  IX.  Prob.  I.  To  draw  a  great  circle 
through  a  given  point,  and  whose  distance-  front 
the  pole  of  projection  is  equal  to  a  giren  quan- 
tity 

Let  ADB,  fig.  3,  be  the  projection,  C  its 
pole  or  eentre,  and  P  the  point  through  which  a 
great  circle  is  to  be  drawn :  through  the  points 
P,C,ilraw  the  straight  hne  PC  A,  and  draw 
C  £  perpendicolar  to  it :  make  the  angle  C  A  £ 
equal  to  the  given  distance  of  the  circle  frt>m  the 
pole  of  projection  C;  and  from  the  centre  C, 
with  the  radius  C  E,  describe  the  circle  £FG: 
thmogh  P  draw  the  straight  line  P I K,  toudnag 
the  circle  £ FG  in  I,  and  il  will  be  the  projec- 
tion of  the  great  circle  required. 

Prop.  X.  Prob.  II.  To  draw  a  great  circle 
perpenificalar  to  a  great  circle  which  passes 
(hroogh  the  pole  of  projection,  and  at  a  given 
distance  from  that  pole. 

Let  AD  B,  fiff.  a,  be  the  primitive,  and  C I 
thegiven  circle :  draw  C  L  perpendicular  to  C  I, 


and  make  the.  angle  C  LI  eaual  to  the  given 
distance:  then  the  straight  line  CP,  drawn 
through  I  parallel  to  C  L»  will  be  the  required 
pro;|ection. 

Prop.  XL  Pros.  III.  At  a  given  point  hi  a 
projected  great  circle,  to  draw  another  great  cir* 
cle  to  make  a  given  angle  with  the  former ;  and, 
eonversely,  to  measure  the  angle  contained  be- 
tween two  great  circles. 

Let  P,  fig.  4,  be  the  given  point  in  the  given 
great  circle  P  B,  imd  C  the  centre  of  the  primi- 
tive: through  the  points  P,  C,  draw  the  straight 
line  P  O  G,  and  draw  the  radius  of  the  ^imi- 
tive  CA  perpendicular  thereto ;  join  PA;  to 
which  draw  A  G  perpendicular  e  thtough  G 
draw  BGD  at  right  angles  to  GP,  meeUng  PB 
in  B;  bisect  the  angle  CAP  by  the  straight 
line  AO ;  join  BO,  and  make  the  angle  BOD 
equal  to  that  given ;  then,  D  P  being  joined,  the 
angle  BP  D  will  be  that  required. 

If  the  measure  of  the  angle  B  P  D  be  required, 
from  the  points  B,  D,  draw  the  lines  BO,  D  O, 
and  theanele  B  O  D  is  the  measure  of  B  P  D. 

Prop.  Xll.  Prob.  IV.  To  describe  the  pro- 
jection of  a  less  circle  parallel  to  tl^  plane  of 
projection,  and  at  a  aiven  distance  from  its  pole. 

Let  ADB,  fig.  3,be  the  primitive,  and  C  its 
centre :  set  the  distance  of  the  circle  fit>m  its 
pole,  from  B  to  H,  and  from  H  to  D;  and  draw 
the  straight  line  A  £  D,  intenecting  C  £  per* 
pendicular  to  BC,  in  the  point  £:  with  the 
radius  C  £  describe  the  circle  £  F  G,  and  it  is 
the  projection  required. 

Prop.  XIIL  Prob.  V.  To  draw  a  less  circle 
perpendicular  to  the  plane  of  projection. 

Let  C,  fig.  5,  be  the  centre  of  projection,  and 
TI  a  great  circle  parallel  to  the  proposed  less 
circle :  at  C  make  the  angles  ICN,  TC  O,  each 
equal  to  the  distance  of  the  less  circle  from  its 
parallel  great  circle  T I ;  let  C  L  be  the  radius  of 
projection,  and  from  the  extremity  L  draw  L  M 
perpendicular  thereto;  make  C  V  equal  to  L  M, 
or  C  F  equal  to  C  M;  then,  with  the  vertex  V 
and  asymptotes  C N,  CO,  describe  the  hyper- 
bola WVK;  or,  with  the  focus  F  and  CV,de- 
soibe  the  hyperbola^  and  it  will  be  the  perpen- 
dicular chrclie  described. 

Prop.  XIV.  Pnea.  VL  To  describe  the  pro- 
jection of  a  less  circle  inclined  to  the  plane  of 
projection. 

Draw  the  line  ef  measures  dp,  fig.  6,  and  at 
C,  the  centre  of  projection,  draw  C  A  perpendi- 
cular \odpy  and  equal  to  the  radius  of  projec- 
tion :  with  the  centre  A,  and  the  radius  A  C, 
describe  the  citfcle  D  C  F  G ;  and  draw  R  A  £ 
parallel  to  dp :  then  take  the  greatest  and  least 
distances  of  the  circle  from  the  pole  of  projec- 
tion, and  set  tiiem  from  C  to  D  and  F  respec- 
tively;  for  the  circle  D  F;  and  firom  A,  the  pro> 
jectiag  point,  draw  the  straig^  lines  A  F/,  and 
ADd;  then  df  will  be  the  transverse  axis  of 
the  ellipse :  but  if  D  fidl  beyond  the  hne  R  £, 
as  at  G,  then  from  O  draw  the  line  GAD  d, 
and  df  is  the  tsansverse  aids  <^  an  hyperbola: 
and  if  the  point  D  fell  in  the  line  R  ^  as  at  £, 
then  the  line  A  £  will  not  meet  the  line  of  mea- 
sures and  the  circle  will  be  projected  into  a  p»- 
rabola  whose  vertex  is  /:  bisect  d/  in  H,  the 
centre,  and  for  the  ellfpse  t^e  half  the  difference 
of  the  lines  Ad,  A/,  which  laid  from  H  will  give 


Digitized  by  VjUU^  iC 


174 


PROJECTION    OF    THE    SPHERE. 


K  the  focus ;  for  the  hyperbola,  half  the  sum  of 
Adf  A^ being  laid  from  H,  will  give  k  its  focus: 
thea  with  the  transverse  axis  dfy  and  focus  K,  or 
k,  describe  the  ellipse  dM^or  hyperbola  y*!!?, 
which  will  be  the  projection  of  the  inclmed 
circle :  for  the  parabola,  make  £  Q  equal  to  F /*, 
and  draw  fn  perpendicular  to  A  Q,  and  make 
fk  equal  to  one  half  of  n  Q :  then  with  the  ver- 
tex j^  and  focus  k,  describe  the  parabola/m,  for 
the  projection  of  the  given  circle  F  £. 

Peop.  XV.  Prob.  VII.  To  find  the  pole  of 
a  gi?en  projected  circle. 

Let  D  M  F,  fig.  7,  be  the  given  projected  cir- 
cle; whose  line  of  measures  is  D  F,  and  C  the 
centre  of  projection ;  from  C  draw  the  radius  of 
projection  CA,  perpendicular  to  the  line  of 
measures,  and  A  will  be  the  projecting  point : 
join  AD,  A  F,  and  bisect  the  angle  D  AF  by 
the  straight  line  A  P ;  hence  P  is  the  pole.  If 
the  given  projection  be  an  h^erbola,  the  angle 
/AG,  fig.  6,  bisected,  will  give  its  pole  in  the 
line  oif  measures;  and,  in  a  parabola,  the  angle 
/A  E  bisected  will  give  its  pole. 

Prop.  XVI.  Prob.  VIII.  To  measure  any 
portion  of  a  projected  great  circle,  or  to  lay  off 
any  number  of  degrees  thereon. 

Let  £P,  fig.  8,  be  the  great  circle,  and  IP  a 
portion  thereof  to  be  measured :  draw  I C  D 
perpendicular  to  I P ;  let  C  be  the  centre,  and 
C  B  the  radius  of  projection,  with  which  describe 
the  circle  EBD;  make  lAequaltoIB;  then 
A  is  the  dividing  centre  of  £  P ;  hence,  A  P  be- 
ing joined,  the  angle  I A  P  is  the  measure  of  the 
arch  IP.  Or,  if  I AP  be  made  equal  to  any 
given  angle,  then  I P  is  the  correspondent  arch 
of  the  projection. 

Prop.  XVII.  Prob.  IX.  To  measure  any 
arch  of  a  projected  less  circle,  or  to  lay  off  any 
number  of  degrees  on  a  given  projected  less 
circle. 

Let  F  n,  fig.  9,  be  the  given  less  circle,  and 
P  its  pole :  from  the  centre  of  projection  C  draw 
C  A  perpendicular  to  the  line  of  measures  G  H, 
and  equal  to  the  radius  of  projection ;  join  A  P, 
and  bisect  the  angle  C  A  P  by  the  straight  line 
AG,  to  which  draw  AD  perpendicular:  describe 
the  circle  G  /H,  as  far  distant  fin>m  the  pole  of 
projection  C  as  the  given  circle  is  from  its  pole 
P;  and  through  any  given  point  n,  in  the  pro- 
jected circle  Fn,  draw  Dn/,  then  H/  is  the 
measure  of  the  arch  F  n.  Or  let  the  measure  be 
laid  firom  H  to  /,  and  the  line  D  /  joined  will  cut 
off  F  n  equal  thereto. 

Prop.  XVIII.  Prob.  X.  To  describe  the 
gnomonic  projection  of  a  spherical  triangle, 
when  three  sides  are  given;  and  to  find  the  mea- 
sures of  either  of  its  angles. 

Let  ABC,  fig.  10,  be  a  spherical  triangle 
whose  three  sides  are  given :  draw  the  radius 
C  D,  fig.  11,  perpendicular  to  the  diameter  of  the 
primitive  £F;  and  at  the  point  D  make  the 
angles  CDA,CDG,  ADI,  equal  respectively 
to  the  sides  AC,  B  C,  A  B,  of  the  spherical  tri- 
angle ABC,  fig.  10,  the  lines  D  A,  £> G,  inter- 
secting the  diameter  E  F,  produced  if  necessary 
in  the  points  A  and  G ;  maJce  D I  equal  to  D  G ; 
then  firom  the  centre  C,  with  the  radius  C  G, 
describe  an  arch ;  and  from  A,  with  the  distance 
A  I,  describe  another  arch,  intersecting  the  for- 


mer in  B ;  join  A  B,  C  B,  and  AC  B  will  be 
the  projection  of  the  spherical  triangle,  and  the 
reculineal  angle  ACB  is  the  measure  of  the 


spherical ansle  ACB,  fig.  10. 

Prop.  XIX.  Prob.  XL  The  three  angles  of 
a  spherical  triangle  being  given,  to  project  it, 
and  to  find  the  measures  of  the  sides. 

Let  A  BC,  fig.  12,  be  the  spherical  triangle  of 
which  the  angles  are  given:  construct  another 
spherical  triangle  EFu,  whose  sides  are  the 
supplements  of  the  given  angles  of  the  triangle 
ABC ;  and  with  the  sides  of  this  supplemental 
triangle  describe  the  gnomonic  projection,  &c.y 
as  bdbre.  The  supplemental  triangle  £  F  G  has 
abo  a  supplemental  part  £  Fg ;  and  when  the 
sides  G  £,  G  F,  whichr  are  substituted  in  place 
of  the  angles  A,  B,  are  obtuse,  their  supplements 
g  £,  g  F,  are  to  be  used  in  the  gnomonic  projec- 
tion m  the  triangle. 

Prop.  XX.  Prob.  XII.  Given  two  sides,  and 
the  included  angle  of  a  spherical  triangle,  to  de- 
scribe the  raomonic  projection  of  that  triangle, 
and  to  find  the  measures  of  the  other  parts. 

Let  the  sides  AC,  C  B,  and  the  angle  A C  B, 
fig.  10,  be  given :  make  the  angles  C  DA,  C  DG, 
fig*  13>  eauad  respectively  to  me  sides  A  C,  C  B, 
fig.  10 ;  also  make  the  angle  AC  B,  fig.  13,  equal 
to  the  spherical  angle  ACB,  fig.  10,  and  C B 
equal  to  CG,  and  ABC  will  be  the  projection 
of  the  spherical  triangle. 

To  find  the  measure  of  the  side  A  B :  from  C 
draw  C  L  perpendicular  to  A  B,  and  C  M  paral- 
lel thereto,  meeting  the  circumference  of  the  pri- 
mitive in  M;  msJce  LN  eoual  to  LM;  join 
AN,  BN,  and  the  angle  ABN  will  be  the  mea- 
sure of  the  side  A  B.  To  find  the  measure  of 
either  of  the  spherical  angles,  as  BAG :  from 
D  draw  D  K  perpendicuUur  to  A  D,  and  make 
K  H  equal  to  K  D :  firom  K  draw  K I  perpendi- 
cular to  C  K,  and  let  A  B  produced  meet  K  I 
in  I,  and  join  H I :  then  the  rectilineal  angle 
KHI  is  the  measure  of  the  spherical  angle 
B  AC.  By  proceeding  in  a  similar  manner,  the 
measure  of  the  other  angle  will  be  found. 

Prop.  XXI.  Prob.  XIIL  Two  angles  and 
the  intermediate  side  given,  to  describe  the  gno- 
monic projection  of  the  triangle ;  and  to  find  the 
measures  of  the  remaining  parts. 

Let  the  angles  CAB,  AC  B,  and  the  side  AC 
of  thespheriisl  triangle  CDA,  fig.  10,  be  given: 
make  the  angle  C  D  A,  fig.  13,  equal  to  the  mea- 
sure of  the  given  side  A  C,  fig.  10 ;  and  the 
angle  ACB,  fig.  13,  equal  to  the  angle  AC B, 
fig.  10,  produce  Ap  to  H,  draw  D  K  perpendi- 
cular to  C  K,  and  make  the  angle  KHI  equal 
to  the  spherical  angle  CAB:  from  I,  the  inter- 
section of  K  I,  H  I,  to  A  draw  I  A,  and  let  it  in- 
tersect C  B  in  B,  and  AC  B,  fig.  10.  The  un- 
known parts  of  this  triangle  may  be  measured 
by  last  problem. 

Prop.  XXII.  Prob.  XIV.  Two  sides  of  a 
spherical  triangle,  and  an  angle  opposite  to  one 
of  them  given,  to  describe  the  projection  of  the 
triangle;  and  to  find  the  measure  of  the  remain- 
ing parts. 

Let  the  sides  AC,  C  B,  and  the  angle  B  AC 
of  the  spherical  triangle  ABC,  fig.  10,  be  given : 
make  the  angles  CDA,  CD G,  fig.  13,  equal 
respectively  to  the  measures  of  the  given  sides 


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AC,  BG:  draw  DK  perpendicular  to  AD, 
make  KH  etjual  to  DK,  and  the  angle  KH I 
eqnal  to  the  given  spherical  angle  B  AC  :  draw 
the  perpendicular  K I,  meeting  HI  in  I ;  join 
AI;  and  from  the  centre  C,  with  the  distance 
CG,  describe  the  arch  GB,  meeting  AI  in  B; 
join  C  B,  and  A  B  C  will  be  the  rectilineal  pro- 
jection of  the  spherical  triangle  ABC,  fig.  10; 
and  the  measures  of  the  unknown  parts  of  the 
triangle  may  be  found  as  before. 

Pnop.  XXIII.  Prob.  XV.  Given  two  angles 
and  a*  side  opposite  to  one  of  them,  to  describe 
the  gnomonic  projection  of  the  triangle,  and  to 
find  the  measures  of  the  other  parts. 

Let  the  aivles  A,  B,  and  the  side  B  C  of  the 
triangle  ABC,  fig.  12,  be  given:  let  the  sup- 
plemental  triangle  £  F  £  be  formed,  in  which 
the  angles  £,  F,  G,  are  the  supplements  of  the 
sides  EC,  C  A,  A  B,  respectively,  and  the  sides 
£F,  FG,  GE,  the  supplemente  of  the  angles 
C,  A,  B.  Now,  at  the  centre  C,  fig.  13,  make 
the  angles  CD  A,  C  D  K,  equal  to  the  measures 
of  the  sides  G  £,  G  F,  respectively,  being  the 
supplements  of  the  angles  B  and  A;  and  let  the 
lines  DA,  D K,  intersect  the  diameter  of  the 
primitive  £F,  in  the  points  A  and  K:  draw 
D  G  perpendicular  to  A  D,  make  G  H  equal  to 
DG,  and  at  the  point  H  make  the  angle  G  H I 
equal  to  the  angle  £,  or  to  its  supplement ;  and 
let  E  I,  perpendicular  to  C  H,  meet  H I  in  I, 
and  join  A  I:  then  from  the  centre  C,  with  the 
distance  C  G,  describe  an  arch  intersecting  A I 
in  B ;  join  C  B,  and  ABC  will  be  the  gnomo- 
nic projection  of  the  given  triangle  ABC,  fig. 
12:  the  supplement  of  the  angle  AC  B,  fig.  13, 
is.  the  measure  of  the  side  A  B,  fig.  12 ;  the 
measures  of  the  other  parts  are  fi)und  as  before. 

Although  this  method  of  projection  has,  for  the 
most  part,  been  applied  to  dialling  only,  yet, 
from  tne  preceding  propositions,  it  appears  that 
all  the  common  problems  of  the  sphere  may  be 
more  easily  resolved  by  this  than  by  the  ordinary 
methods  of  projection. 

PROIN,  V.  a.  A  corruption  of  prune.  To 
lop;  cut;  trim. 

I  Kit  and  prom  my  wings 
After  flight,  and  put  new  strings 
To  my  shafts.  Ben  Jonton, 

The  country  husbandman  will  not  give  the  proining 
knife  to  a  young  plant.  Id» 

PROLAPSUS,  in  surgery,  a  term  used  to  de- 
note the  fidling  of  peculiar  parts  of  the  body 
out  of  their  natural  situation,  more  particularly 
applied  to  the  uterus,  vagina,  and  rectum.  See 
SuRGcar. 

PROLAT£'.  Lai.  privatum.  To  pronounce; 
to  utter. 

The  pressures  of  war  have  somewhat  cowed  their 
spiriu,  as  may  be  gathered  from  the  accent  of  their 
words,  which  they  prolate  in  a  whining  querulous 
tone,  as  if  still  complaining  and  crest  iyien. 

Howel, 

Panots,  having  been  used  to  be  iied  at  the  prola- 
tim  of  certain  wms,  may  afterwards  pronounce  the 
ame.  Ray, 

Am  to  the  prolau  spheroidical  figure,  though  it  he 
the  neoesaary  result  of  the  earth's  rotation  about  its 
own  axe,  yet  it  is  also  very  convenient  for  us. 

Ckgynet  PhiUnoplfueal  PrhicipU»* 


Lat. 


PROLATE,  in  geometry,  is  applied  to  a 
spheroid  produced  1)y  the  revolution  of  a  semi- 
ellipsis  alwujt  its  larger  diameter.     See  Sphb- 

ROXD. 

PROLEGOMENA,  in  philology,  preparatory 
discourses  fixed  to  a  book,  &c.,  containing  some- 
thing necessary  to  enable  the  reader  the  better  to 
understand  the  book  or  science,  &c. 

PROLEPSIS,  n.  #.  >       Fr.   prolepte  ;    Gr. 

Prolep'txcal.  )  TTfMhi^tC'    A  fip;ure  of 

rhetoric,  in  which  objections   are  anticipated: 
in  the  manner  of  a  prolepsis. 

This  was  contained  in  my  proUptis  or  prevention 
of  his  answer.  BramhaU  agairut  Hobbet, 

The  proUpiioal  notions  of  religion  cannot  be  so  well 
defended  by  the  professed  servants  of  the  altar. 

Glawitte. 
This  is  a  prclepm  or  anachronism.      TheoftoiJ. 

PROLETA'RIAN,  (ui;.  Mean;  wretched; 
vile;  vulgar.  A  mean  word  whose  etymology 
we  do  not  find. 

Like  speculators  should  foresee, 
From  pharos  of  authority. 
Portended  mischiefs  farther  than 
Low  prokUaian  tything-men. 

PROLIFIC,  flrf;.  >       Fr.   proJUiqm 
Prolif'ical.         )  jpro2ei  and  ficio. 
Every  dispute  in  religion  grew  froLifiad,  and  in 
ventilating  one  question,  many  new  ones  were  started. 

Decay  of  Piety, 
Main  ocean  flowed ;  not  idle,  but  with  warm 
Proli/ie  humour  soft'ning  all  her  globe. 
Fermented  the  great  mother  to  conceive, 
Satiate  with  gemal  moisture. 

MiUon*$  Paradiae  Lott, 
Their  fruits,  proceeding  from  simpler  rooU,  are 
not  80  distinffuishable  as  the  ofin>nng  of  sensible 
creatures,  ana  proUfieatien*  deaoenoing  from  double 
origins.  Browne, 

His  vital  power  air,  earth,  and  seas  supplies. 
And  breeds  whatever  is  hied  beneath  the  slues ; 
For  every  kind,  by  thy  prolijic  might, 
Springs. 

All  dogs  are  of  one  species,  they  ming 
ther  in  generation,  and  the  breed  of  su  * 
being  pro^i/Sc. 

From  the  middle  of  the  worid, 
The  sun's  prolific  rays  are  hurled ; 
Tis  from  that  seat  he  darts  those  beams. 
Which  quicken  earth  with  genial  flames. 

Prior. 
PRO'LIX,  adj.  '\  Fr.  proTue ;  Lat  proHjmt. 
Prolix lous,  fLong;  tedious;  verbose: 
Prolix'ity,  i^prolixious  is  a  synonymc 
Prolix'ly,  adv.  j  coined  by  Shakspeare :  pro- 
lixity and  prolixness,  tediousness;  tiresome  aila* 
tion. 
Lay  by  all  nicety  vad  prolutunie  blushes. 

Shakepeare, 
It  is  true,  without  any  slips  of  pnlisitjf,  or  crossing 
the  plain  hirhvray  of  talk,  that  the  good  Anthonio 
hath  lost  a  ship.  Id, 

According  to  the  caution  we  have  been  so  prolix  in 
giving,  if  we  aim  at  right  understanding  the  true  na- 
ture of  it,  we  must  examine  what  apprehension  man- 
kind make  of  it.  •  Digbg, 

In  some  other  passajges  I  may  have,  to  shun  prv- 
Uxity,  unawares  slipt  into  the  contrary  extreme. 

Boyle. 
On  these  prolixly  thankful  she  enlarged.     Dryden. 

If  the  appellant  appoints  a  term  too  prolix,  the 
judge  may  then  assign  a  competent  tenn.     Ayliffe, 


Dryden. 
toge- 
mixtures 
Ray. 


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Should  I  at  Uif^  npwt 
The  bead-roil  of  her  vidout  tncks. 
My  poem  would  be  too  jtrolix.  Prior, 

Elaborate  and  studied  froUsUy  in  proving  such 
points  as  nobody  calls  in  question.         Wattrland* 

PROLOCUTOR,  II. «.  h^prolocuior.  The 
foreman;  the  speaker  of  a  convocatioo. 

The  convocattoa  the  qaeen  pratogned,  though  at 
the  expeooe  of  Dr.  Atterbaigr's  oispleatiiie,  who  was 
designed  their  proioeutor,  Swifl. 

PROL'OGUi; n. i*Uv.u.  Fr. prologue ;  Or. 
irp^Xo^oc ;  Lat.  proiogHt,  Pre&ce ;  itttt^nctioil 
to  a  discourse  or  peitoraumcei  to  inttodtioe  with 
aprefiice. 

Come,  sit,  and  a  song. 

•^hall  we  clap  into  *t  roundly,  irithoiit  hawking, 

or  ^pitting,  or  saying  we  are  hoarse,  which  are  the 

only  prologutt  to  a  t>ad  voice  1  Shakspeare. 

If  my  death  might  make  this  island  happy, 

And  prove  the  period  of  thek  tyranny, 

I  would  expend  it  with  all  wilungness; 

But  mine  is  made  the  preUfgm  to  theit  play.   Id. 

He  his  special  nothing  ever  prokgmtt.  Id, 

Itt  her  fiioe  exiise 

Came  prologut,  and  apology  too  prompt.  MiUm, 

From  him  who  rears  a  poem  lank  ana  long. 
To  him  iirho  strains  his  all  into  a  seng ; 
Perhajw  some  bonny  Caledonian  air, 
All  birks  and  braes«  though  he  was  never  there ; 
Or,  having  whelped  a  ffolagtu  with  efeat  paini. 
Feels  himself  spent,  and  fumbles  for  his  brains; 
A  pvlogmt  interdashed  with  many  a  stroke — 
An  art  contrived  to  advertise  a  joke. 
So  that  the  jest  is  clearly  to  be  seen, 
Not  in  the  words^but  &  the  np  between : 
Manner  is  all  in  all,  whate'er  is  writ, 
The  substitute  for  genlos,  sense,  and  ^t.    C&uspit, 

PROLONG',  v.  a.     )     Fr.  proLmgerf  Lat 

PR0L0NGA'TX0N,n.t.  $pro  and  la^gus.  To 
lengthen  out;  continue;  diswont:  hence,  cor- 
ruptly, to  put  off  a  long  time:  proloDgation  is 
the  act  of  lengthening  or  delaying. 

To*morrow  in  my  judgmept  is  too  sodden ; 

For  I  myself  am  not  so  Well  nrotided, 

As  die  I  would  be  were  the  day  fmJtmgid. 

OAaJbjMsrv. 

Nourishment  in  living  creatures  is  for  the  proUmga- 
tJM  of  life.  Bacon*i  Natmtd  BiUory. 

This  ambassage  concerned  only  the  proUmgatian  of 
davs  for  payment  of  monies.  Id.  Henry  VII. 

Henceforth  I  fly  not  death,  nor  would  prdong 
life  maeh«  MUtom. 

The'  unhappy  qoeen  with  Ulk  prsfM^ed  the  night« 

Dtydtn, 

PROLU'SiON,  ft.  «.  Lat.  pro^ajia.  Enter- 
tainment; perfonMnoe  of  diversion. 

It  is  memorable,  which  Famianus  Strada,  in  the 
first  book  tff  his  academical  prvMtms,  relates  of 

PRQME,  or  PaoNE,  a  dty  of  the  Birman  em- 
pire, is  situated  on  the  eastern  bank  of  the  Ir»- 
waddy^  in  a  fine  fertile  plain,  and  was  formerly 
surrounded  by  two  walls,  the  exterior  of  timber, 
and  the  interior  of  brick.  It  is  larger  than 
Rangoon,  and  carries  on  a  considerable  trade  in 
timber,  grain,  oil,  wax,  ivory,  iron,  lead,  and 
flag^ones.  It  is  said  to  live  been  once  the 
capital  of  a  dynasty.  At  present,  with  the  ad- 
joining territory,  it  forms  the  estate  or  appanage 
of  one  of  the  king's  sons,  called  the  pnnce  of 


Prome;  and  there  is  here  a  n^al  menagerie  of 
elephants.  The  ruins  of  the  ancient  oitj  extend 
beyond  the  modem  town,  and  contain  a  number 
of  temples  dedicated  to  Boodh.  Long.  95^  £., 
latie^SCN. 

PROMETHEUS,  the  son  of  Japetus,  sup- 
posed to  have  been  the  first  discoverer  of  the  art 
of  striking  fire  by  flint  and  steel ;  which  gave 
rise  to  the  fiible  of  his  stealing  fire  from  heaven. 
Thn  &ble  is  variously  reUUed  by  different  au- 
thors. Prometheus,  as  most  say,  being  a  man 
of  subtle  and  crafty  genius^  in  Order  to  find  out 
whether  Jupiter  was  really  worthy  to  be  reckoned 
a  god,  slew  two  oxen,  and  stuffed  one  of  the  skins 
with  the  flesh,  and  the  othet  with  the  bones  of  the 
victims,  the  latter  of  which  was  chosen  by  Jnpiterl 
The  god,  resolved  to  be  reveqged  upon  all  man- 
kind for  Uiis  insult,  deprived  them  of  tne  use  of  fire ; 
but  Prometheus,  with  the  assistance  of  MinerVa, 
who  had  already  aided  him  by  her  advice  in 
forming  the  body  of  a  nmn  ot  tempered  clay, 
contrived  to  ascend  up  to  heaven,  ancf,  approach- 
ing the  chariot  of  the  sun,  stole  from  thence  the 
saored  fire,  which  he  brought  dovm  to  earth'  in  a 
ferula.  Jupiter,  incensed  at  this  strange  and 
audacious  enterprise,  ordered  Mercury  to  carry 
him  to  Mount  Caucasus,  and  chain  him  to  a 
rock,  where  an  eagle  vras  eternally  to  pr^  upon 
his  liver.  This  part  of  the  hist<^  of  Prome^ 
theus  and  his  suosequent  deliverance  either  by 
tiercules  or  Jupiter  himself,  abounds  with  li<>- 
lions,  which  are  supposed  to  contain  some  ancient 
facts  under  this  disguise.  M.  Bannier  supposes 
that  this  is  merely  a  continuation  of  the  history  of 
the  Titans.  Prometheus,  as  he  conjectures,  was 
not  exempt  from  the  persecutions  which  harassed 
the  other  Titans.  As  he  returned  into  Scythia, 
which  he  durst  not  quit  so  long  as  Jupiter  lived, 
that  god  is  said  to  have  bound  him  to  Caucasus. 
This  prince,  addicted  to  astrology,  frequently  re- 
tired to  Mount  Caucasus,  as  to  a  kind  of  obser- 
vatory, where  he  contemplated  the  stars,  and 
was,  as  it  were,  preyed  upon  by  continual  pining^ 
or  lather  by  vexation,  on  account  of  the  solitary 
and  melancholjT  life  which  he  led.  This  is  sup- 
posed to  have  given  rise  to  the  fid)le  of  the  eagle 
or  vulture  that  incessantly  preyed  upon  his  liver. 
Herodotus,  however,  alleges,  that  Prometheus 
viras  put  in  prison  for  not  being  able  to  stop  the 
overfiovrit^  of  a  river,  whidi  from  its  rapidity 
was  called  the  eagle,  or  at  least  that  he  was 
obliged  to  fly  with  a  part  of  his  subjects  to  the 
mountains  to  escape  the  inundation,  till  a  trave- 
ler, represented  by  Hercules,  undertook  to  dam 
it  up  br  a  mount,  and  to  kill  the  eagle^  as  it  may 
be  said,  by  making  its  course  re^lar  and  uni- 
form ;  thus  Prometheos  was  delivered  by  this 
hero  from  his  prison,  or  retreat 

Diodorus  Siculus  says  that  Prometheus  first 
discovered  combustible  maleiials  fit  for  kindling 
and  maintaining  fire.  Bannier  is  of  opinion, 
that  the  origin  of  this  fiction  jwas^  that  Jupiter, 
havinff  ordered  all  the  shops  where  iron  vvas 
forged  to  be  shut  up,  lest  the  Titans  should 
make  uste  of  it  against  him,  Prometh^s,  who 
had  retired  into  Scythia,  there  established  good 
forges ;  hence  came  the  '  Calybes,'  those  excel- 
lent blacksmiths ;  and,  perha(>s  Prometheus  also, 
not  thinking  to  find  ^re  in  that  country,  brought 


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some  tfaither  in  the  ftalk  of  the  ferala,  in  which 
it  may  be  easily  preserved  for  several  days. 
As  for  the  two  oxen  which  Prometheus  is  said  to 
have  slaio,  that  he  might  impose  upon  Jupiter, 
this  part  of  the  lahle  is  said  to  be  founded  upon 
his  baving  been  the  first  who  opened  victims 
with  a  view  of  drawing  omens  from  the  inspec- 
tion of  their  entrails.  According  to  Le  Clerc, 
Prometheus  is  the  same  with  Magog,  the  former 
being  the  son  of  Japetus,  and  the  hitter  the  son 
of  Japbety  and  grandson  of  Noah.  Both  Pro- 
metheus and  Magog  settled  in  S<^ia ;  the  latter 
invented  or  improved  the  art  of  founding  metals, 
and  of  forging  iron,  which  the  poets  attributed 
to  Prometheus ;  and  Diodorus  too  says,  that  he 
invented  several  instruments  for  making  fire. 
The  appellation  Magog  signifies  vexation,  as 
Prometheus  was  gnawed  by  a  vulture. 

PaoMETHEusandDAMASiCHTHow,  two  sons  of 
Codnib,  king  of  Athens,  who  conducted  colonies* 
into  Asia  Minor. — Pans.  i.  c.  3. 

PROMINENT,  odj.  ^       Lat.      prominent. 

P&om'inence,  or       >  Standing   out    beyond 

Prom'in£kcy,  n.  t.  j  another  part ;  protuber- 
ant :  the  noun  substantives  both  corresponding. 

Whales  are  described  with  two  prtminmi  spouts 
OQ  their  heads,  whereas  they  have  but  one  in  the 
forehead,  tenninating  over  the  windpipe. 

Browne* i  Vulgar  JEVrmirs. 
She  has  her  eyes  so  prominent,  and  placed  to  that 
she  can  see  better  behind  her  than  before  her. 

Mart. 
Two  goodly  bowls  of  massy  silver. 
With  figures  ]pnmuMnt  and  nchly  wrought. 

Dryden* 
Some  have  their  eyes  stand  so  frcmtMnt^  as  the 
hare,  that  they  can  see  as  well  behind  as  before  them. 

Ray. 
It  shows  the  nose  and  eyebrows,  with  the  promt- 
iMnaei  and  fallings  in  of  the  features.         Additon, 
His  evidence,  if  he  were  called  by  law 
To  swear  to  some  enormity  he  saw. 
For  want  of  jnvminenee  and  just  relief, 
Weald  hang  an  honest  man,  and  save  a  thief. 

Covper, 

PROMIS'CU0US,<HJj.  I     Lat.     promitcuia. 
Pbomis'cuouslt,  adv.    )  Mingled ;  confused ; 
undistinguished :  the  adverb  corresponding. 

We  beheld  where  once  stood  Ilium,  called  Troy 
yiomuiuoutly  of  Tros.  8andyt*s  Journey. 

No  man,  that  considers  the  pronuteuoiu  dispensa- 
tioBS  of  God's  providence  in  this  world,  can  think  it 
unreasonable  to  conclude,  that  after  this  life  good 
men  shall  be  rewarded,  and  sinners  punished. 

TiUotton, 
Glory  he  requires,  and  glory  he  receives, 
Promiieiipiii  from  all  nations. 

3fUt4m*t  Paradiu  Logl. 
Pnmueuam  love  by  marriage  was  restrained. 

Roteomnum, 
In  rushed  at  once  a  mde  promiMCuout  crowd ; 
The  ^ards,  and  then  each  other  overbear. 
And  m  a  moment  throng  the  theatre.  Dryden. 

Here  might  you  see 
Barons  and  peasants  on  the'  embattled  field, 
Id  one  huge  heap  promi$euouMfy  amast.     Phiiipt. 
rhe  earth  was  formed  out  of  ihdXpnmuewmt  mass 
of  sand,  earth,  shells,  subsiding  fiom  the  water. 

'    Woodward. 
That  generation,  as  the  sacred  writer  modestly  ex- 
presses it,  married  and  gave  in  marriage  without  dis- 
Vol..  XVIII. 


cretion  or  decency,  hut  promueuoutfy,  and  with  no 
better  a  guide  than  the  impulses  of  a  brutal  appetite. 

Id, 
Clubs,  diamonds,  hearts,  in  wild  disorder  seen. 
With  throngs  promiMcuous  strow  the  level  green. 

Pope. 
A   wild,   where  weeds  and  flowers  pronuecuout 

shoot.  Id. 

Unawed  by  precepts  human  or  divine. 
Like  birds  and  beasts  promiscuously  they  join.     Id, 


PROMISE, n.s.,t;. a.  &t;.n.^      Fr.    pramUe., 
pROM'iss-BaEACH,  pTomesse ;    Lat. 

Prom'ise-breaker,  \promissum.  £n- 

Prom'iser,  \  gagement     to 

Promis'sort,  acf^.  benefit:  decla- 

Promis'sorily,  adv.  j  ration  of  bene- 

fit to  be  conferred:  hence  grant,  or  hope  of 
something  promised ;  to  make  such  declaration 
or  engagement ;  assure  by  promise :  the  two  com- 
pounds are  sufficiently  plain :  a  promiser  is  he 
who  makes  the  engagement  to  benefit:  promis* 
sory,  of  the  nature  of  a  promise. 

0  Lord,  let  \hypromiH  unto  David  be  established. 

1  Ckronielee. 

Now  are  they  ready,  looking  for  a  proniiw  from 
thee.  Acts. 

While  they  promise  them  liberty,  they  themselves 
are  the  servants  of  corruption.  2  Peter  ii.  13. 

Aa  he  promised  in  the  law,  he' will  shortly  have 
mercy,  and  gather  us  together.  2  J/oc.  li.  18.' 

1  eat  the  air,  promise  crammed ;  you  cannot  feeS 
capons  so.  Skakspeare. 

His  promises  were,  as  he  then  was,  mighty ; 
But  his  performance,  ss  he  now  is,  nothing.    Id, 
Your  young  prince  Mamillius  is  a  eeotleman  of 
the  greatest  promise.  Id.   Winter's  TaU. 

Prominng  is  the  very  air  o'  the'  time :  it  opens  the 
eyes  of  expectation :  performance  is  ever  the  duller 
for  his  act.  Shakspeare. 

Will  not  the  ladies  be  afraid  of  the  lion  ? 
— ^I  fear  it,  I  promise  jrou.  Id, 

Criminal  in  double  violation 
Of  sacred  chastity,  and  of  promisebreaah.      Id. 
He*s  an  hourly  promsebreakett  the  owner  of  no  one 
good  quality  worthy  your  entertainment.  Id. 

Who  let  this  promiser  in  I  did  you,  good  Dili- 
gence? 
Give  him  his  bribe  again.  Ben  Jonson. 

As  the  preceptive  part  enjoins  the  most  exact  vir- 
tue, so  is  it  most  advantageously  enforced  by  the 
promissory,  which  is  most  exquisitely  adapted  to  the 
same  end.  Decay  of  Piety. 

What  God  commands  is  good ;  what  he  promises  is 
infallible.  Bp.  Hall. 

Whoever  seeks  the  land  of  promise,  shall  find  many 
leu.  Id. 

He  that  brought  us  into  this  field,  hath  promised 
us  victory.  Id.  Contemplations, 

If  he  receded  from  what  he  had  promised,  it  would 
be  such  a  disobligation  to  the  prbce  that  he  would 
never  forget  it  Clarendon. 

Nor  was  he  obliged  by  oath  to  a  strict  observation 
of  that  which  promissorily  was  unlawful.     Browne. 

Duty  still  preceded  promise,  and  strict  endeavour 
only  founded  comfort.  Fell. 

1  could  not  expect  such  an  efiect  as  1  found, 
which  ^seldom  rescues  to  the  degree  that  is  promised 
by  the'prescribers  of  any  remedies. 

X«mpU*i  Miscellanies,  • 
Behold,  she  said,  performed  in  every  part 
My  promise  made ;  and  Vulcan's  laboured  art. 

Dryden. 
I  dare  pronuse  for  this  play,  that  in  the  roughness 
of  the  numbers,  which  was  so  designed,  you  will  see 

"^    le 


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somewhat  more  masterly  than  any  of  my  former 
tragedies.  I^' 

Fear's  a  large  promiter ;  who  subject  live 
To  that  base  passion,  know  not  what  they  give.  Id. 

More  than  wise  men,  when  the  war  began,  could 
promue  to  themselves  in  their  most  sanguine  hopes. 

Davenant. 
The  fmmistorp  lyes  of  great  men  are  known  by 
shouldering,  hugging,  squeezing,  smiling,  and  bow- 
ing, Arhahnot. 

Let  any  man  consider  how  many  sorrows  he  would 
have  escaped  had  God  called  him  to  his  rest,  and 
then  say  whether  the  promiH  to  deliver  the  just  from 
the  evils  to  come,^  ought  not  to  be  made  our  daily 
prayen  '  Wake. 

All  the  pleasure  we  can  take,  when  we  met  these 
promiting  sparks,  is  in  the  disappointment.    FeUon. 

She  bribed  my  stay,  with  more  than  human  charms ; 
Nay  promisgd,  vainly  promued,  to  bestow 
Immortal  life.  Pope*s  Odyisey. 

Thy  maidens,  grieved  themselves  at  my  concern. 
Oft  gave  me  prwrnse  of  a  quick  return ; 
What  ardently  I  wbhed,  I  long  believed. 
And,  disappomted  still,  was  still  deceived.  Cmoper. 
And  round  the  new  discoverer  quick  they  flocked 
In  multitudes,  and  plucked,  and  with  great  haste 
Devoured ;  and  sometimes  in  the  lips  'twas  sweet. 
And  prmmd  well ;  but,  in  the  belly,  gall.   PoUok. 

Promissory  Notes  are  entirely  on  a  par  with 
bills,  equally  negotiable,  and  subject  to  the  same 
duties. 

PRCKMONT,  n.  s.  )      Fr.  promontoire ;  Lat. 
Prom'ontory.        )  promontorium.  *  Promont, 
I  have  observed,'  says  Johnson,  *  only  in  Suck- 
ling.'   A  headland;  cape;  high  peninsula;   or 
part  of  a  peninsula. 

Like  one  that  stands  upon  a  promMtary, 
And  spies  a  far  off  shore  where  he  would  tread. 

Shak$peare. 
The  land  did  shoot  out  with  a  great  promcntory. 

Abbot. 
The  waving  sea  can  wiUi  each  flood 
Bathe  some  Ugh  promont,  Sueklmg. 

They,  on  their  heads. 
Main  promontoriu  flung,  which  in  the  air 
Came  shadowincr.  and  opprest  whole  legions  armed. 
*  Milton. 

Every  gust  of  rugged  winds, 
That  blows  from  off  each  beaked  pnmoniory.  Id. 
If  you  drink  tea  upon  a  promontory  that  overhangs 
the  sea,  it  is  preferable  to  an  assembly.  Popo. 

PROMOTE',  V.  a.^  Fr.  promouvohr;  Lat. 
Promo'ter,  n.  s.  Ipromoveo,  promottu.  To 
Promo'tion,  ^forward;    to    advance; 

Promove',  v.  a.  y  elevate ;  prefer  :  pro- 
moter is  used  in  an  obsolete  sense  for  informer ; 
approver:  promotion  is  advancement;  prefer- 
ment :  promove,  an  obsolete  synonyme  of  pro- 
mote. 

I  will  promoU  thee  unto  very  great  honour. 

Numbers. 
Shall  I  leave  my  fatness  wherewith  they  honour 
Cod  and"  man,  and  go  to  be  promoted  over  the  trees  ] 

Judge*  ix.  9. 
Many  fair  promotions 
Are  daily  given  to  ennoble  those, 
That  scarce,  some  two  days  since,  were  worth  a  noble. 

Shakspeare, 
The  high  promotion  of  his  grace  of  Canterbury 
Who  holds  his  sUte  at  door  'mongst  pursuivants.  Id. 
His  eies  be  promoters^  some  tresspass  to  spie. 

Tusaer. 
Next  to  religion,  let  your  care  be  to  promote  jus- 
tice. Bacon 


Informers  and  promoters  oppress  and  ruin  the  es- 
tates of  many  of  his  best  subjects.         Drummond. 
,  Never  yet  was  honest  man. 
That  ever  drove  the  tale  of  love ; 

It  is  impossible,  nor  can 
Integrity  our  ends  promove,  SuddiiUf, 

Nothing  lovelier  can  be  found. 
Than  good  works  in  her  husband  to  promote. 

Milum. 
Did  I  solicit  thee 
From  darkness  to  promote  me  ?  Id. 

My  rising  is  thy  fall. 
And  my  promotion  wul  be  thy  destruction.       Id. 
Knowledge  hath  received  little  improvement  from 
the  endeavours  of  many  pretended  promoters. 

Qlanville. 
Makin?  useless  offers,  but  promomng  nothing. 

FeU. 
Thou  youngest  virgin-daughter  of  the  skies, 
Made  in  the  list  promotion  of  the  blest ; 
Whose  palms,  new  plucked  from  paradise. 
In  spreading  branches  more  sublimely  rise. 

Dryden. 
He  that  talks  deceitfully  for  truth,  must  hurt  it 
more  by  his  example  than  he  promotes  it  by  his  argu- 
ments. Atterbury. 

Our  Saviour  makes  this  return,  fit  to  be  engraven 
in  the  hearts  of  all  promoters  of  charity  :  Verily,  I 
say  unto  you,  inasmuch  as  you  have  done  it  nnto  one 
of  the  least  of  these  my  brethren,  ye  have  done  it 
unto  me.  ^d. 

Frictions  of  the  extreme  parts  promote  the  flux  of 
the  juices  in  the  joints.  Arbuthnot. 

PROMPT,  «<§.  &  V.  a."j      Fr.  pronq)t ;   Ital. 

Promp'ter,  n. i.  ^  j     pronto;    Latin, 

Promp'titude,  I  promptus.    Quick ; 

Promptly,  adv.  j  ready ;  acute ;  easy ; 

PROiiPT'NESS,n.  t.  [unobstructed;  pert: 

Prompt'ure.  j  to      assist;      make 

ready  or  perfect;  instigate;  incite:  a  prompter 
is  a  suggester;  admonisher;  reminder:  promp* 
titude  and  prompter,  readiness ;  quickness ;  ap- 
titude ;  prompture,  suggestion ;  obsolete. 

Sitting  in  some  place,  where  no  man  shall  prompt 
him,  let  the  child  translate  his  lesson.        Asdiam. 
Tell  him,  I'm  prompt 

To  lay  my  crown  at's  feet,  and  there  to  kneel. 

Shakqteart, 

My  voice  shall  sound  as  you  do  prompt  mine  ear. 
And  I  will  stoop  and  humble  my  intents 
To  your  well  practised  wise  directions.  Id. 

Were  it  my  cue  to  fight,  I  should  have  known  it 
Without  ?i  prompe^r.  Id.  Othello. 

Though  he  hath  fallen  by  promptvte  of  the  blood ; 
Yet  hath  he  in  him  such  a  mind  of  honour, 
That  had  he  twenty  heads  to  tender  down 
On  twenty  bloody  blocks  he'd  yield  them  up. 

Shakspeare. 

None  could  hold  the  book  so  well  to  prompt  and 
instruct  this  stage  play,  as  she  could.  Bacon. 

The  reception  of  light  into  the  body  of  the  building 
was  very  prompt,  both  from  without  and  from  within. 

Wottou. 

If  they  prompt  us  to  anger,  their  desi^  makes  use 
of  it  to  a  further  end,  that  the  mind,  being  thus  dis- 
quieted, may  not  be  easily  composed  to  prayer. 

Jhqfpa. 

He  that  does  his  merchandise  chearfully,  prompt- 
lyt  and  readily,  and  the  works  of  religion  slowly,  it 
is  a  sign  that  his  heart  is  not  right  with  God. 

Tayh' . 

Very  disceminr  and  prompt  in  giving  orders,  35 
occasions  required.  Clorendon. 

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Prompt  eloqaenoe 
Flowed  liom  their  lips  in  prose  or  numerous  verse. 

Milton. 
Rage  prompttd  them  at  length  and  found  them 

arms.  Id, 

The  inroocealable  imperfections  of  ourselves  will 
hourly  jtrompt  us  of  our  corruption,  and  loudly  tell 
us  vre  are  sons  of  earth.  Browne, 

He  needed  not  one  to  prompt  him,  because  he 
c^nld  say  the  .prayers  by  heart.  StiUinsJIeit, 

I  was  too  hasty  to  condemn  unheard ; 
And  you,  perhaps,  too  ynrnpt  in  your  lepUes. 

^ryden. 
We  understand  our  duty  without  a  teacher,  and 
acquit  ourselves  as  we  ought  to  do  without  a  prompter, 

VEttrange, 
Had  not  this  stop  been  given  him  by  that  acci- 
dental sickness,  his  great  coura^  and  promptneu  of 
mind  would  have  carried  him  directly  forward  to  the 
enemy,  till  he  had  met  him  m  the  open  plains  of 
Penia.  South, 

Every  one  some  time  or  other  dreams  he  is  read- 
ing books,  in  which  case  the  invention  prompte  so 
xeadilv  that  the  mind  is  imposed  on.  Additom. 

Still  arose  some  rebel  slave. 
Prompter  to  sink  the  state  than  he  to  save.    Prior. 

Firm  and  rigid  muscles,  strong  pulse,  activity,  and 
promptness  in  animal  actions,  are  signs  of  strong 
fibres.  ArbiUknot. 

To  the  stem  sanction  of  the  offended  sky. 
My  prompt  obedience  bows.  Pope, 

Kind  occasion  prompts  their  vrarm  desires.      Id, 

The  piiestly  brotherhood,  devout,  sincere. 
From  mean  self-interest,  and  ambition  clear. 
Their  hope  in  heaven,  servility  their  scorn, 
Promipi  to  persuade,  expostulate,  and  warn. 

Comper. 
PROMPTUARY,  ».  s.     Fr.  promptuaire; 
Lat.  promptuariwn,     A  storehouse ;  repository ; 
magatzine. 

This  stratum  is  still  expanded  at  top,  servinr  as 
the  seminary  or  promptuary,  Uiat  furnisheth  forth 
matter  for  the  formadon  of  animal  and  vegetable  bo- 
£es.    .  Woodward, 

PROMUL'GATE,  orx  Lat.  pnwwiii^o.  To 
Pkomulge',  v.  a.  f  publish ;  make  known 
Pkomulg&'tion,  n.  t.\hy  open  declaration: 
Promvlca  TOR,  i  promulgation,  the  de- 

Promul'ger.  Jclaration  made;  pro- 

mulgator and  promulger,  he  who  makes  it. 

Those  albeit  I  know  he  nothing  so  much  hateth 
as  to  promsdgate,  ^t  I  hope  that  this  will  occasion 
him  to  pot  forth  divers  other  goodly  works. 

Spenser, 
The  stream  and  current  of  this  rule  hath  gone  as 
£v.  it  hath  continued  as  long  as  the  very  promulga- 
tien  of  the  gospel.  Hocfter, 

Those  to  whom  he  entrusted  the  promatigating  of 
the  gospel,  had  far  di£ferent  instructions. 

Decay  of  Piety, 
External  promulgation,  or  speaking  thereof,  did  not 
alter  the  same,  in  respect  of  the  inimd  form  or  qua- 
lity. WhiU, 

It  it  certain  laws,  by  virtue  of  any  sanction  they 
nceive  from  the  promulgated  will  of  the  legislature, 
reach  not  a  stranger,  if  by  the  law  of  nature  every 
nan  hath  not  a  power  to  punish  offences  against  it 

Locke, 
The  very  promulgation  of  the  punishment  will  be 
part  of  the  punishment,  and  antiapate  the  execution. 

South, 
The  chief  design  of  them  is,  to  establish  the  truth 
of  a  new  revelation  in  those  countries,  where  it  is  first 
prmuiged  and  propagated.  Atterbmry, 


The  promutgere  of  our  religion,  Jesus  Christ  and 
his  apostles,  raised  men  and  women  from  the  dead, 
not  once  only,  but  often.  Id, 

PRONAOS,  in  the  ancient  architecture,  a 
porch  to  a  church,  a  palace,  or  other  spacious 
.building.    See  Porch. 

PRONAPIDES,  an  ancient  Greek  poet  of 
Athens,  who  was  preceptor  to  Homer.  He  also, 
it  is  said,  first  taught  the  Greeks  to  write  from 
the  left  to  the  right ;  as  they  formerly  wrote  in 
the  Oriental  manner  from  right  to  left. 

PRONATION,  among  anatomists.  The  ra- 
dius of  the  arm  has  two  kinds  of  motion,  the 
one  called  pronation,  the  other  supination.  Pro- 
nation is  ^hat  whereby  the  palm  of  the  hand  is 
turned  downwards ;  and  supination,  the  opposite 
motion  thereto,  is  that  whereby  the  back  of  the 
hand  is  turned  downwards. 

PRONE',  adj.     -\     Lat  pronus.      Bending 

Prone'ness,  n.  «.  J  downwards ;    not     erect ; 

Pron'ity.  j  precipitous ;       headlong ; 

propense ;    inclined :    proneness    and    pronity, 
state  of  being  prone. 

The  Holy  Spirit  saw  that  mankind  is  unto  virtue 
hardly  drawn,  and  that  righteousness  is  the  less  ac- 
counted of  by  reason  of  the  proneness  of  our  affec- 
tions to  that  which  delighteth.  ''Hooker. 

The  soul  being  first  trom  nothing  brought. 
When  God's  grace  fails  her,  doth  to  nothing  fiadl ; 

And  this  declining  proneness  unto  nought, 
Is  e*en  that  sin  that  we  are  bom  withal.       Dames, 

Of  this  mechanic  pronity,  I  do  not  see  any  good 
tendency.  Move's  Divine  Dialogues, 

There  wanted  yet  a  creature  not  prone^ 

And  brute  as  other  creatures,  but  endued 

With  sanctity  of  reason,  might  erect 

His  stature,  and  upright,  with  front  serene 

Govern  the  rest.  Milton  s  Paradise  Lost, 

Down  thither  prone  in  flight 
He  speeds.  Id, 

Upon  these  three  positions  in  man.  wherein  the 
spine  can  only  be  at  right  lines  with  the  thigh, 
arise  those  postures,  prone,  supine,  and  erect. 

Browne. 

He  instituted  this  worship,  because  of  the  carnality 
of  their  hearts,  and  the  proneness  of  the  people  to 
idolatry.  Tillotson, 

Those  who  are  ready  to  confess  him  in  judgment 
and  profession,  are  very  prone  to  deny  him  in  their 
doings.  South, 

If  we  are  prone  to  sedition,  and  delight  in  change, 
there  is  no  cure  more  proper  than  trade,  which  sup- 
plies business  to  the  active,  and  wealth  to  the  in£- 
gent.  Addison, 

How  great  is  the  proneness  of  our  nature  to  com- 
ply with  this  temptation  !  Rogers, 
Since  the  floods  demand. 
For  their  descent  a  prone  and  sinking  land  t 
Does  not  this  due  defclivity  declare, 
A  wise  director's  providential  care  1 

Blackmore. 

The  proneness  of  good  men  to  commiserate  want  in 
whatsoever  shape  it  appears.  Atterbury, 

Still  prone  to  change,  though  still  the  slaves  of 
state.  Pope. 

While  storms  remote  but  murmur  on  thv  ear. 

Nor  waves  in  ruinous  uproar  round  thee  roll. 
Yet,  yet  a  moment  check  thy  ptone  career, 

And  curb  the  keen  resolve  that  prompts  thy  soul. 

Beattie. 
All  else  was  prone,  irrational,  and  mute, 
And  unaccountable,  by  intitinct  Its!.  PoUofu 

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PRONUNCIATION- 


PRONG,  n.  «.  Belg.  pronMhcn,  to  iqueeze. 
Minsheu.— -Goth,  prionn,    A  rork. 

The  cooks  make  no  more  ado,  but,  sliciog  it  into 
little  gobbets,  prick  it  on  a  protig  of  iron,  and  hang 
it  in  a  furnace.  Sandy; 

Whacum  his  sea-coal  pron^  threw  by, 
And  basely  turned  his  back  to  fly.  Hudihnu, 

Be  mindful, 

With  iron  teeth  of  rakes  and  yrtmgt  to  move 

The  crusted  earth.    *  Dryden't  VirgWi  Oeorgickt, 

PRCNOUN,  «.  s.  Fr.  pronom ;  Lat.  pro- 
nomen,    A  part  of  speech ;  see  the  extract 

I,  thou,  he  ;  we,  ye,  they,  are  names  given  to  per- 
sons, and  used  instead  of  their  proper  names,  from 
whence  they  had  the  name  of  pronounSf  as  though 
they  were  not  nouns  themselves,  bat  used  instead  of 
nouns.  Clarkf**  Latin  Grammar. 

PRONOUNCF;,  ».  a,  &  V.  n.  ^     French  pro- 
Pkonoun'cer,  n.  i.  S  noncer ;  Latin 

Pronuncia'tion.  ypronuncio.  To 

si^eak;  utter;   utter  solemnly  or  confidently; 

speak  with  confidence  or  authority :  proauncia- 

tion  is  the  act,  art,  or  mode  of  utterance. 
He  prmwuneed  all  these  words  unto  me  with  his 

mouth.  Jer.  xxxv'i,  18. 

I  have  prxmauneed  the  word,  saith  the  Lord. 

She 
So  good  a  lady,  that  no  tongue  could  ever 
Pronounce  disnonour  of  her. 

Shakspeare.  Henry  VIIL 
How  confidently  soever  men  pronounce  of  them- 
selves, and  believe  that  they  are  then  most  pious, 
when  they  are  most  eager  and  unquiet ;  yet  'tis  sura 
this  is  fiair  removed  from  the  true  genius  of  religion. 

Dtcay  of  Piety, 
Language  of  man  pnmouTwed 
By  tongue  of  orute,  and  human  sense  expressed. 

Milton, 
Sternly  he  pronounced  the  rigid  interdiction.   Id, 
The  design  of  speaking  being  to  communicate  our 
thou|[hts  by  ready,  easy,  and  graceful  pronuneiaiion, 
all  kind  of  letters  have  been  searched  out,  that  were 
serviceable  for  the  purpose.  Holder. 

Though  diversity  of  tongues  continue,  this  would 
render  the  pronouncing  them  easier.  Id. 

It  were  easy  to  proiduce  thousands  of  his  verses, 
which  are  lame  for  want  of  half  a  foot,  sometimes  a 
vhole  one,  and  which  no  pronunciation  can  make 
otherwise.  Dryden, 

Absalom  pronounced  a  sentence  of  death  against 
his  brother.  Locke, 

Every  fool  maj  believe  and  pronounce  confidently : 
but  wise  men  will,  in  matters  of  discourse,  conclude 
firmly,  and  in  matters  of  fact,  act  surety. 

SoutWi  Sermoni. 
The  pronouncer  thereof  shall  be  condemned  in  ex- 
penses. AyUffe. 
'  We  do  not  believe  the  character  which  a  roan 
gives  us  of  another,  unless  we  have  a  good  opinion 
of  his  own :  so  neither  should  we  believe  the  verdict 
which  the  mind  pronounces,  till  we  first  examine 
whether  it  be  impartial  and  unbiassed.  Mason, 

And  God,  beholding,  saw 
The  fair  design,  that  from  eternity 
His  mind  conceived,  accomplished ;  and,  well  pleased, 
His  six  days  finished  work  most  good  pronounced. 
And  man  declared  the  sovereign  prince  of  all. 

Pollok. 
PROKUNCIATION.     Interweaviog  an  English 
Lexicon  with  the  other  portions  of  our  alphabet, 
we  may  be  expected  to  say  something  on  this 


important  part  of  a  living  langus^.  It  is  that 
part  of  it,  however,  we  apprehend,  upon  which 
mstruction  is  least  communicable  by  lx>oks ;  and 
what  constitutes  elegant  or  even  correct  pronun- 
ciation is  so  much  matter  of  fashion,  and  ever- 
changing  modifications,  that  *■  Pronouncing  Dic- 
tionaries^ have,  we  confess,  long  given  place  in 
our  library  to  many  less  laborious  performances. 
Dr.  Watts  is  said  to  have  proposed  in  badinage, 
as  a  rule  of  English  spelling  and  pronunciation, 
that  the  one  should  be  as  unlike  the  other  as  pos- 
sible. 

Mr.  Walker,  however,  is  clearly  entitled  to 
praise  for  his  researches  into  this  subject :  yet  be 
confesses  that  he  was  afraid  to  attempt  all  that 
he  considered  necessary,  and  in  general  contented 
himself  with  ascertaining,  and  exhibiting,  ex- 
isting, and  what  has  been  called  polite  osage. 
Nothing  more  than  this,  perhaps,  can  ever  be 
accomplished ;  and  in  this  ne  was  certainly  suc- 
cessful; so  that  his  Dictionary  is  regarded  as 
the  standard  of  English  pronunciation.  But  he 
has  evidently,  after  all^  attempted  too  much. 
For  it  cannot  surely  be  necessary  to  mark  the 
sound  of  every  woiti  in  the  English  language: 
it  must  be  quite  sufficient  to  mark  those  in  which 
pronunciation  is  likely  to  err.  Such  word^  only 
should  be  marked  by  a  different  spelling,  which 
deviate  in  any  respect  from  the  analogv  of  tlie 
language:  the  pronunciation  of  all  the  rest 
may  be  sufficiently  indicated  by  the  accent,  with 
the  assistance,  occasionally,  of  the  marks  ~  and  ", 
tiie  first  denoting  that  a  vowel  is  long — ^the  se- 
cond, that  it  is  short :  as,  contemplite,  ftlb.  The 
reader  will  find  the  following  particulars  respect- 
ing English  pronunciation  and  its  marks  worth 
consideration. 

1.  The  accent  should  be  understood  as  fidling 
on  the  letter  immediately  preceding  the  mark 
or  sign :  as,  ac'cent,  n.  accen't,  v.  a. ;  faVor,  en- 
deav  or. 

2.  When  the  letter  immediately  preceding  the 
accentual  mark  is  a  vowel,  it  is  long ;  but,  if  a 
consonant  immediately  precede  the  marl^  the 
preceding  vowel  is  short :  thus,  %'vor,  fisLb'ric, 
which  is  equivalent  to  favor,  fabric. 

3.  Final  e  renders  the  preceding  vowel  long, 
except  when  it  is  followed  by  a  double  conso- 
nant :  2Sf  mate,  mete,  mite,  mote,  mute,  na'turc, 
remo'te,  &c.,  pronounced  as  if  marked,  mate, 
mete,  mite,  m5te,  mute,  na'ture,  remo'te.  But, 
when  two  or  more  consonants  come  between  the 
final  e  and  the  preceding  vowel,  it  is  short :  as, 
battle,  babble,  badge,  &c..  pronounced  as  if 
marked  b&ttle,  b&bble,  bftdge.  In  such  words 
as  intes'tine,  fu'tile,  &c.,  the  vowel  preceding  the 
final  e  is  made  short  by  Mr.  Walker;  but  in  the 
opmion  of  the  writer  it  is  better  to  make  all  such 
instances  conform  to  the  rule ;  and  the  long 
vowel  sound  is  an  improvement,  in  all  such  con- 
nexions to  the  English  language ;  for  it  is,  in 
general,  both  harsh  to  the  ear  and  hard  to  the 
mouth,  from  having  too  few  open  and  too  many 
shut  vowel  sounds. 

4.  When  the  accent  is  not  placed  on  a  vowel, 
and  when  it  is  not  followed  by  a  final  e  in  the 
same  syllable,  the  vowel  is  to  be  always  con- 
sidered short :  as,  fatt'en,  hab'it,  &c.,  pronourced 
as  if  marked  f&ttjfn,  hftblt. 


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PRONUNCIATION. 


181 


5.  In  moaoByllables  terminaUng  with  all,  a 
has  the  same  sound  as  oto  or  au :  as,  all,  ball, 
call,  kc^  pronounced  awl,  bawl,  caul.  In  all 
cases,  when  the  accent  is  placed  before  the  /,  a 
is  to  be  pronounced  aw;  when  the  accent  is  put 
after  4  o  is  to  be  pronounced  short :  as,  &'lse, 
malt,  fei'lter;  al'b,  altitude,  carumny,  cal'let; 
pronounced  as  if  marked — ^fowls,  mawlt,  fawl- 
ter ;  &lb,  ftl'titude,  &c. 

6.  The  following  diphthongs  have  uniformly 
the  long  sound  of  a  (except  when  one  of  the 
▼owels  is  in  the  italic  character),  ay,  ai,  et,  ey : 
as.  Maid,  pail,  say,  rein,  they,  &c.,  pronounced 
Uke  made,  pale,  &c.  Bat,  when  one  of  the 
Towels  is  silent,  the  other  vowel  is  short:  as, 
plaid,  raillery,  mountain,  &c.,  pronounced  plad', 
rallery,  mountin. 

7.  Au,  aw,  are  to  be  uniformly  considered  as 
sounding  the  same  as  in  caul,  awl,  except  when 
the  pronunciation  of  the  words  containing  them 
is  particularly  indicated.  For  au  before  n  is 
pronounced  like  a  in  far,  and  in  the  colloquial, 
words  ca'nt  and  sha'nt,  except  when  a  different 
sound  is  particularly  indicated :  thus,  aunt, 
askaunce,  askaunt,  haunt,  Sec,  are  pronounced 
like  t  an%  t  can't. 

8.  Etty  ee,  are  generally  pronounced  like  e 
long :  as,  anneal,  peel,  fear,  feed.  The  excep- 
tions, however,  are  num^ous,  and  are  thus 
marked  in  some  pronouncing  dictionaries :  bread', 
head',  earl,  pronounced  bred,  bed,  erl. 

9.  Ewy  eu,  ue,  are  always  pronounced  like  u 
long,  except  when  a  difference  is  particularly 
indicated :  as,  few,  feud,  due.  But  after  r,  tee, 
ewj  are  generally  pronounced  like  oo :  as,  true, 
screw,  pronouncea  troo,  scroo. 

10.  Oa  and  oe  always  sound  like  long  o,  ex- 
cept when  a  difference  is  particularly  indicated 
in  the  dictionary;  as,  moat,  sloe,  pronounced 
mote,  sld. 

11.  (hf,  oi,  have  uniformly  the  compound 
sound  of  o  and  i,  except  where  a  departure  from 
rule  is  indicated  :  thus,  joy,  spoil,  kc. 

12.  Uo  has  generally  the  same  sound  as  in 
food,  soon,  fool,  &c. 

13.  Before  /,  u  has  uniformly  the  sound  of  oo 
shortened,  except  when  a  difference  is  particularly 
indicated :  as,  bull,  full,  handful ;  the  sole  dif- 
ference between  full  and  fool  is,  that  the  diph- 
thong in  the  last  is  longer  than  in  the  first. 

14.  Owj  ouy  uniformly  sound  as  in  our,  now^ 
except  when  to  or  u  is  marked  as  silent,  in  which 
ca:$e  the  pronunciation  is  the  same  as  long  o; 
thus,  flou7,  source,  mould,  pronounced,  mdld, 
sdrce,  flo.  When  ow  terminates  a  word  of  more 
than  one  syllable,  it  is  uniformly  pronounced  like 
loni;^  o :  as  in  hollow,  sorrow,  &c.,  pronounced 
hollo,  soi^ro. 

15.  In  monosyllables  y  zxid  ie  are  always  pro- 
nounced like  long  i ;  but  in  words  of  more  than 
one  syllable  they  are  pronounced  like  short  e : 
as,  try,  tries,  pronounced  tri,  tries,  &c. ;  carry, 
carries,  pronouncec*  carry,  carries,  &c. 

16.  Before  nd,  i  has  uniformly  the  long  sound ; 
as  in  mind,  kind,  &c. :  but  every  other  vowel 
before  nd  is  uniformly  short;  as  in  hand,  end,' 
fond,  fund. 

17.  Before  Iky  a  sounds  ow,  and  /  is  silent; 
as  in  balky  talk,  pronounced  hawk,  tawk. 


18.  Before  /m,  a  has  the  broad  German 
sound,  and  I  is  silent ;  as  in  calm,  balm,  &c. 

19.  Before  U  and  Id,  o  is  always  long :  as, 
poll,  old,  fold,  cold,  &c.,  pronounced  pole,  5ld, 
fold,  &c. 

20.  Before  single  r,  a  has  uniformly  what  is 
termed  the  broad  German  sound,  except  in  un- 
accented syllables,  where  it  Jias  the  common  short, 
sound  :  as,  far,  part,  partial ;  ram'p&rt,  &c. ;  and 
before  double  r,  a  has  uniformly  the  short  sound ; 
as  in  carry,  tarry,  &c. 

21.  Before  a,  o,  u,  C  is  always  pronounced 
like  K ;  but  before  e,  t,  y,  it  is  pronounced  like 
S  :  as,  card,  cord,  curd,  pronounced  kard,  kord, 
kurd ;  cement,  city,  cynic,  pronounced  sement,. 
sitty,  cinnic.  When  c  ends  a  word  or  syllable, 
it  always  sounds  the  same  as  ^;  as,  mu'sic, 
flaccid,  siccity,  pronounced  mu'sik,  flak'sed, 
sik'sity  :  k  after  c  is  now  very  properly  dis- 
carded, except  in  such  words  as  back,  pack :  as, 
music,  physic,  &c.,  not  musick,  physick.  It 
would  be  well  to  discontinue  the  k  in  every  case, 
(i.  e.  in  connexion  with  c),  or  to  substitute  it  for 
c,  which  last  letter  is  wholly  superfluous  in  the 
English  alphabet ;  and,  if  k  and  s  were  made  to 
supers^e  this  double-sounding  character,  much 
inconvenience  would  be  obviated. 

22.  CA  has  three  sounds,  viz.  tth,  as  in  chair, 
child,  chin,  &c. ;  lA,  as  in  chaise,  chagrin,  ma- 
chine, &c. ;  ^,  as  in  chaos,  character,  chorus, 
anchor,  mechanic,  epoch,  &c.  When  d,  ti,  si, 
come  before  a,  e,  o,  they  are  to  be  considered 
as  sounding  like  th,  ^ith  some  exceptions,  as, 
special,  occasion,  diction,  petition, 'captious,  &c. 
pronounced  speshal,  okazhun,  petishun,  capshus  : 
tious,  cious,  are  always  pronounced  shus;  cion, 
sion,  tion — ^shun;  but  short,  as  if  put  shn. 

23.  G,  like  C,  has  two  sounds ;  before  a,  o,  k, 
/,  r,  or  when  terminating  a  syllable,  it  is  hard ; 
as  in  game,  go,  gun,  fig,  fag,  &c. ;  before  e,  i,  y, 
G  is  pronounced  like  J  ;  as  in  gem,  genus,  gin, 
gibe  or  gybe,  gymnastic,  age,  eulogy,  &c. ;  ex- 
ceptions, however,  occur,  such  as  get,  geld,  &c. 
Such  words  as  the  following  are  not  exceptions, 
because  the  g  is  properly  the  last  letter  of  a  syl- 
lable, and  SiereiFore  has  the  hard  sound,  viz. 
shaggy,  shagged,  ragged,  rugged,  dagger,  anger, 
finger,  &c.  The  intention  in  doubling  the  g  in 
shaggy,  beggar,  &c.,  was  to  indicate  the  hard 
sound.  When  gn  begins  or  terminates  a  word, 
g  is  silent;  as  gnaw, gnat,  condign,  malign,  feign, 
deign,  sign — pronounced  naw,  na^  condioe,  ma- 
line,  fein,  dain,  sine.  The  vowel  preceding  the 
silent  g  or  gh  is  uniformly  long ;  as  impugn, 
right,  blight,  &c. — pionounced  impune  rite, 
blite.  Except  in  ghost,  ghast,  and  their  deriva- 
tives (pronounced  gost,  gast),  gh  is  to  be  consi- 
dered as  uniformly  silent :  there  are  a  few  in- 
stances in  which  it  is  pronounced  y,  as  in  cough, 

^&c.-*and  /c,  as  in  lough— and  g  hard,  as  in 
'  burgh. 

24.  When  kn  begins  a  word,  k  is  silent ;  as, 
knab,  knack,  knee,  know,  &c. — ^pronounced  nab, 
nak,  nee,  no. 

25.  H  is  always  sounded  at  the  beginning 
of  words,  except  in  heir,  heiress,  honest,  ho- 
nesty, honor,  honorable,  hospital,  hostler,  hour, 
humble,  humor,  humorous,  Immorsome.  It  is 
always  silent  afler  r;   as  in  rhetoric,  rhubarb, 


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182 


PRONUNCIATION. 


myrrh.  When  the  final  letter,  and  preceded  by 
a  vowel,  it  is  always  silent ;  as  in  an !  oh  1  sir- 
rah !  When  wh  begins  words,  it  is  pronounced 
hoo ;  as  in  whale,  wheel — pronounced  hooale, 
hooeei,  in  one  syllable.  In  the  Saxon  vocabu- 
lary, such  words  are  more  properly  spelled  hu  or 
hw. 

26.  The  affix  or,  our,  is  uniformly  pronounced 
ur  ;  as  in  candor  or  candour,  favor  or  favour — 
pronounced  candur,  favur.  The  shut  or  short 
vowel  sounds  in  unaccented  syllables  cannot  be 
distinguished  as  having  any  difference;  and 
therefore  it  seems  unnecessary  to  mark  «r  as  if  it 
were  pronounced  vr  in  such  words  as  lover,  mo- 
ther, mther,  &c. 

27.  The  affix  some  i9  uniformly  pronounced 
sum ;  as  inhan'dsome,deli'gfatsome — pronounced 
han'sum,  deli'ghtsum.  This  affix  is  spelled  in 
Saxon,  som,  sam,  sum :  and  it  would  be  well  to 
return  to  sum,  or  at  least  to  discard  the  final  e  ; 
for,  as  we  have  so  frequently  intimated,  spelling 
and  pronunciation  should  coincide. 

28.  The  affix  ou$  is  uniformly  pronounced  us ; 
as  in  covetous,  righteous — pronounced  cuv'etus, 
ri'ghtyus;  out  (like  our  for  or)  is  the  French 
mode  of  expressing  the  Latin  affix  ot.      , 

29.  When  w  begins  the  word,  it  has  the  sound 
of  00 ;  as  in  ware,  wet,  wile,  &c. — ^pronounced 
ooare,  ooet^  ooile,  in  one  syllable :  «  before  e, »,  o, 
has  generally  the  same  sound ;  as,  languish,  ban- 
quet, languor,  language ;  pronounced  lan'gwish, 
or  laiigooish,  ban'kwet,  langwur,  langwage. 

30.  S  has  two  sounds,  the  one  sharp  and  his- 
sing, as  in  us,  this ;  the  other  precisely  like  z ; 
as  in  his,  was,  as,  &c.  Double  s  has  uniformly 
the  sharp  hissing  sound. 

31.  TA  has  two  sounds ;  the  one  as  in  thin, 
&c. ;  the  other  as  in  thine.  When  not  particu- 
larly indicated,  th  is  always  to  be  consiaered  as 
having  the  first  sound ;  but,  when  followed  by  final 
e  in  the  same  syllable,  th  has  uniformly  the  second 
sound  ;  as  in  breathe,  writhe,  &c.  When  th  is 
pronounced  as  f,  the  A  is  marked  as  silent ;  thus, 
tAyme,  astAma,  pronounced  time,  ast'ma. 

32.  F  and  ph  have  the  same  sound;  and/ 
sometimes  that  of  v  ;  double/ has  uniformly  the 
sound  of/,  OTphy  as  in  off,  sUiff,  &c. 

33.  Before  on  and  out,  %  generally  sounds  like 
T/,  at  the  beginning  of  a  wonl  or  syllable ;  as  in 
minion,  million,  tedious,  &c.,  pronounced  mi- 
nyun,  milyun,  tedeyus. 

34.  When  final  e  comes  after  /  and  r,  it  is  to 
be  pronounced  as  if  put  before  them ;  as  in  fickle, 
mingle,  theatre,  nitre,  pronounced  fikkel,  mingul, 
theater,  niter.  This  pronttnciation  is  quite  fiamii- 
liar  to  the  French  (from  whom  the  mode  ot 
spelling  and  pronouncing  such  words  was 
adopted),  and  other  foreigners  must  remember 
that  final  e  is  never  pronounced  as  a  distinct  syl- 
lable in  the  English  language. 

35.  T  is  always  silent  between  s  and  en  or  le; 
as  in  hasten,  listen,  castle,  &c.,  pronounced  hay- 
sen,  lissen,  kassel. 

36.  X  has  two  sounds,  viz.  ki  and  gt,  except 
when  particularly  marked,  it  is  to  be  understood 
as  having  the  first  sound. 

37.  Qu  has  always  the  sound  of  koo. 

38.  The  verbal  affix  ed,  is  seldom  pronounced 
as  a  distinct  syllable  except  after  <f ;  as  feared, 


confessed,  pronounced  feard,  confessd;  but  in 
such  words  as  branded,  commanded^  &c.,  it  is  a 
distinct  syllable. 

The  irregular  character  of  English  pronuncia- 
tion has  b^n  (like  that  of  English  spelling),  too 
often  noticed,  and  is  too  manifest  to  requfare  any 
comment :  whether  it  be  more  or  less  anomalous 
*han  that  of  other  languages  is  a  question  of  no 
importance ;  but  there  is  evidently  nrach  import- 
ance, i.  e.  utility,  in  rendering  it  as  simple  and 
regular  as  possible.  Influentud  speakers  (who 
have  always  least  reason  to  dread  petty  criticism) 
should  set  the  example  of  bringing  English  pro- 
nunciation to  Englisti  spelling.  The  latter  might 
be  materially  reformed  (see  our  article  Gram- 
mak)  without  much  trouble ;  and  the  great  desi- 
deratum is  coincidence  between  the  one  and  the 
other.  It  is  in  general,  however,  safier  to  make 
the  pronunciation  conform  to  the  spelling,  than 
to  make  the  spelling  conform  to  the  pronuncia- 
tion ;  and  to  make  the  one  correspond  to  the  ' 
other  ought  evidently  to  be  a  rule  with  every 
sensible  speaker  and  vmter. 

In  all  those  words  which  are  differently  pro- 
nounced by  respectable  speakers,  that  mode  is 
worthy  of  preference  which  is  most  agreeable  to 
analogy  ana  most  conformable  to  orthography ;  as, 
yea,  pronounced  ye  and  yay ;  wound,  pronounced 
like  found  and  woond  ;  break,  pronounced  breek 
and  brake;  oblige,  pronounced  oblige  and 
obleege ;  knowledge,  pronounced  noledge  and 
n611edge,  &c.,  &cc.  The  first  of  these  modes  of 
pronunciation  is  evidently  that  which  should  be 
universally  adopted.  Influential  speakers  should 
endeavour  to  bring  the  general  practice  to  ana- 
logy in  all  cases.  It  is  unworthy  of  persons 
who  have  any  respect  for  utility,  to  follow  the 
blind  guidance  of  mere  custom,  or  to  comply 
with  the  anomalous  caprices  of  feshion.  The 
only  chance  for  simplicity,  uniformity,  and  im- 
mutable stability  to  a  living  language,  is  to  fol- 
low the  guidance  of  reason.  When  learned  or 
foreign  words  are  adopted,  they  should  be  made 
to  conform  to  the  English  idiom  or  manner  of 
spelling  and  pronouncing.  This  plain  sensible 
rule  is  surely  better  than  pedantry  or  affectation : 
and  in  this  we  might  pront  by  the  example  of  the 
French,  in  imitating  whose  language  we  have 
given  such  a  motley  character  to  our  own. 

PROOF,  n.  t.  &  adj.  >      From  Prove,  which 

Proofless.  )    see.      Experiment; 

evidence;  testimony;  hence  firm  temper ;  im- 
penetrability; armour  hardened  in  a  high  de- 
gree ;  the  rough  draught,  or  copy  of  a  printed 
sheet :  as  an  adjective,  impenetrable ;  capable  of 
firm  resistance ;  taking  to  or  against  before  the 
object :  proofless  is,  not  to  be  proved,  or  desti- 
tute of  proof. 

Though  the  manner  of  their  trial  should  be  al- 
tered,  yet  the  ftroof  of  every  thing  must  needs  be  by 
the  testimony  of  such  persons  as  the  parties  shall 
produce.  Spenser. 

This  has  neither  evidence  of  troth,  nor  proof  suffi- 
cient to  give  it  warrant.  Hooker, 

That  which  I  shall  report  will  bear  no  credit. 
Were  not  the  proof  so  high.  Shakspeart. 

He  Bellona's  bridegroom,  lapt  in  proof. 
Confronted  him.  Id.  Macbeth. 

Nothing  can  be  more  irrational  than  for  a  roan  to 


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Id. 


Id. 


Pope, 


doabt  of,  or  deny  the  truth  of  any  thing,  becaase  it 
cannot  be  made  oat  by  such  kind  of  ftooft  of  which 
tbe  natnre  of  such  a  thing  is  not  capable.  They 
ought  not  to  expect  either  sensible  proof  ^  or  demon- 
stration of  such  matters  as  are  not  capable  of  such 
proofs,  supposing  them  to  be  true.  WWnm. 

One  soul  in  both,  whereof  good  proof 
This  day  affords.  Miiton, 

Opportunity  I  here  have  had 
To  try  thee,  sift  thee,  and  confess  have  found  thee 
Proof  against  all  temptation,  as  a  ruck 
Of  adamant.  ld»  Paradim  Regainod. 

Some  were  so  manifestly  weak  and  proofless,  that 
he  must  be  a  very  courteous  adversary,  that  can 
grant  them.  BoyU, 

Those  intervening  ideas,  which  serve  to  shew  the 
agreement  of  any  two  others,  are  called  proofs. 

thyden. 
To  me  the  cries  of  fighting  holds  are  charms, 
Keen  be  thy  sabre,  and  of  proof  my  arms  \ 
I  ask  no  other  blessing  of  my  stars. 
He  jnst  expression  loved, 
Proof  to  disdain,  and  not  to  be  removed. 
Guiltless  of  hate,  and  proof  against  desire  ; 
That  all  things  weighs,  and  nothing  can  admire. 

Id. 
My  paper  gives  a  timorous  writer  an  opportunity 
of  putting  his  abilities  to  the  proof.  Addison. 

Deep  in  the  snowy  alps,  a  lump  of  ice 
By  frost  was  hardened  to  a  mighty  price ; 
Proof  to  the  sun  it  now  securely  lies, 
And  the  warm  dog-star's  hottest  rage  defies.   Id, 
When  the  mind  b  thoroughly  tinctured,  the  man 
will  be  proof  against  all  opposition.  Collier, 

Here  for  ever  must  I  stay. 
Sad  proof  how  vrell  a  lover  can  obey. 
I*ve  seen  yon  weary  wmter-sun 

Twice  forty  times  return ; 
And  ev'ry  time  has  added  proofs, 
lliat  man  was  made  to  mourn.       Bums, 

Proof,  in  law  and  logic,  is  that  degree  of  evi- 
dence which  carries  conviction  to  the  mind.  It 
differs  from  demonstration,  which  is  applicable 
only  to  those  truths  of  which  the  contrary  is  in- 
conceivable. It  differs  likewise  from  probability, 
which  produces  for  the  most  part  nothing  more 
than  opinion,  while  proof  produces  belief. 

PjtooF,  in  printing.    See  Primting. 

Proof,  in  spirituous  liquors,  is  a  little  white 
lather  which  appears  on  the  top  of  the  liquor 
when  poured  into  a  glass.  This  lather,  as  it  di- 
minishes, forms  itself  into  a  circle  called  by  the 
French  the  chaplet,  and  by  the  English  the  head 
or  bubble. 

Proof  of  Artillery  and  small  Arms,  is  a 
trial  whether  they  stand  the  quantity  of  powder 
allotted  for  that  purpose.  Uovemment  allows 
eleven  bullets  of  lead  in  the  pound  for  the  proof 
of  muskets,  and  twenty-nine  in  two  pounds,  for 
service ;  seventeen  in  the  pound  for  the  proof  of 
carabines,  and  twenty  for  service ;  twenty-eight 
in  the  pound  for  the  proof  of  pistols,  and  thirty- 
four  for  service.  When  guns  of  a  new  metal,  or 
of  lighter  construction,  are  proved,  besides  the 
common  proof,  they  are  fired  200  or  300  times, 
as  quick  as  they  can  be,  loaded  with  the  common 
charge  given  in  actual  service.  Proof  of  cannon 
is  made  to  ascertain  their  being  well  cast,  th^ir 
having  no  cavities  in  their  metal,  and,  in  a  word, 
their  being  fit  to  resist  the  effort  of  their  charge 
of  powder.  In  making  this  proof,  the  piece  is  laid 


upon  the  ground,  supported  only  by  a  piece  of 
wood  in  the  middle,  of  about  five  or  six  inches 
thick,  to  raise  the  muzzle  a  little ;  and  then  the 
piece  is  fired  against  a  solid  butt  of  earth.  The 
tools  used  ia  the  proof  of  cannon  are  these : — 
The  searcher,  an  iron  socket  with  branches,  from 
four  to  eight  in  number,  bending  outwsurds  a 
little,  with  small  points  at  their  ends :  to  this 
socket  is  fixed  a  wooden  handle,  from  eight  to 
twelve  feet  long,  and  one  inch  and  a  half  in  dia- 
meter. This  searcher  is  introduced  into  the  gun 
af^er  each  firing,  and  turned  gefatly  round  to  dis- 
cover the  cavities  within ;  if  any  are  found  they 
are  marked  on  the  outside  with  chalk ;  and  then 
the  searcher  with  one  point  is  introduced :  about 
which  point  a  mixture  of  wax  and  tallow  is  put, 
to  take  the  impression  of  the  holes ;  and  if  they 
are  found  of  one-fourth  of  an  inch  deep,  or  of  any 
considerable  length,  the  gun  is  rejected  as  un- 
serviceable. The  reliever  is  an  iron  ring  fixed  to 
a  handle,  by  means  of  a  socket,  so  as  to  be  at 
right  angles ;  it  serves  to  disengage  the  first 
searcher,  when  any  of  its  points  are  retained  in 
a  hole,  and  cannot  otherwise  be  got  out. 

A  curious  instrument  for  finding  the  princip  il 
defects  in  pieces  of  artillery  was  invented  by 
lieutenant-general  Desaguliers.  This  instrument 
discovers  more  particularly  the  defect  of  the 
piece  not  being  truly  bored ;  which  is  a  very  im- 
portant one ;  for,  when  a  gun  is  not  properly 
bored,  the  most  expert  artillerist  will  not  be  able 
to  make  a  good  shot. 

Every  species  of  ordnance  undergoes  different 
kinds  of  proof  before  it  is  received  into  his  ma- 
jesty's service.  They  are  gauged  as  to  their  se- 
veral dimensions,  internal  and  external,  as  to  the 
accuracy  of  the  position  of  the  bore,  tiie  cham- 
ber, the  vent,  the  trunnions,  &c.  They  arc  fired 
with  a  regular  charge  of  powder  and  shot,  and 
af^rwards  searched  to  discover  irregularities  or 
holes  produced  by  the  firing.  By  means  of  en- 
gines, an  endeavour  is  made  to  force  water  through 
them.  They  are  examined  internally,  by  means 
of  light  reflected  from  a  mirror. 

Proof  of  Mortars  and  Howitzers  is  per- 
formed by  placing  them  on  the  ground  on  wooi 
or  bullets,  of  an  elevation  of  70°.  The  mirror 
is  the  only  instrument  to  discover  their  defects. 
To  use  it,  the  sun  must  shine ;  the  breech  must 
be  placed  towards  the  sun,  and  the  glass  ove; 
against  the  mouth  of  the  piece;  it  illuminate i 
the  bore  and  chamber  sufiiciently  to  discover  the 
flaws  in  it. 

Proofs  in  Engraving.  Proofs  of  prints  were 
formerly  a  few  impressions  taken  off  in  different 
stages  of  the  engraver's  process,  that  he  might 
ascertain  how  far  his  labors  had  been  successful, 
and  when  they  were  complete.  The  excellence 
of  such  impressions,  worked  with  care  under  the 
artist's  eye,  occasioning  them  to  be  sought  ailer, 
and  liberally  paid  for,  it  has  been  customary, 
among  our  modem  printsellers,  to  take  off  a 
number  under  this  name,  from  every  plate  of 
considerable  value.  On  retouching  a  plate,  it 
has  been  also  usual,  among  the  same  conscientious 
fraternity,  to  cover  the  inscription,  which  was 
immediately  added  after  the  first  proofs  were 
obtained,  with  slips  of  paper,  that  a  nunber  of 
secondary  proofs  might  also  be  created. 


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PROP,  V.  a.  &  n.  $.  Belg.  proppty  proppen. 
To  sustain ;  support ;  uphold :  a  stay ;  support ; 
pillar. 

Yoa  take  my  hoase,  when  you  do  take  the  prop 
That  doth  sustain  my  house ;  yon  take  my  life. 
When  you  do  take  the  means  whereby  I  live. 


Some  plants  creep  along  the  ground,  or  wind  about 
other  trees  or  props,  and  cannot  support  themselves. 

Bacon, 
Again,  if  by  the  body's  prop  we  stand. 
If  on  the  body's  life,  her  life  depend. 

As  Meleager's  on  the  fatal  brand. 
The  body's  good  she  only  would  intend. 

Damtt. 
That  he  might  on  many  propi  repose. 
He  strengths  his  uwn,  and  who  his  part  did  take. 

DanUl, 
Like  these,  earth  unsupported  keeps  its  place. 
Though  no  fixt  bottom  propt  the  weighty  mass. 

Crtteh. 
Fairest  unsupported  flower 
From  her  best  prop  so  far.  J^lton, 

The  current  of  his  vict'ries  found  no  stop. 
Till  Cromwell  came,  his  party's  chiefest  prop. 

WalUr* 
The  prop$  return 
Into  thy  house,  that  bore  the  burdened  vines. 

Diydicn. 
Twas  a  considerable  time  before  the  great  frag- 
ments that  fell  rested  in  a  firm  posture ;  for  the  propi 
and  stays,  whereby  they  leaned  one  upon  another, 
ofUn  failed.  Burnet, 

Had  it  been  possible  to  find  out  any  real  and  firm 
foundation  for  Arianism  to  rest  uj^on,  it  would 
never  have  been  left  to  stand  upon  artificial  props,  or 
to  subsist  by  subtlety  and  management. 

Waterland, 
Eternal  snows  the  growing  mass  supply. 
Till  the  bright  mountains  prop  th'  incumbent  sky ; 
As  Atlas  fixed  each  hoaiy  pile  appears.  Popi, 

ROFAGATE,  v.  a.  &  n.  s,'\     Lat  propago. 
Prop' AG  ABLE,  adj.  /  To  continue  by 

Propaoa'tion,  n.  s.  i  generation  or 

Prop'agator.  J  production;  to 

diffuse;  extend;  promote ;  transport ;  increase; 
to  have  offspring:  propagable  is,  that  may  be 
propagated  :  propagation,  the  act  of  continuing 
or  diffusing  by  successive  production :  propaga- 
tor corresponaing  in  sense. 

Men  have  souls  rather  by  creation  than  propaga- 
twn,  Hookgr, 

I  have  upon  a  high  and  pleasant  hill 
Feigned  fortune  to  be  throned:    the  base  o*  die 

mount 
Is  ranked  with  all  deserts,  all  kind  of  natures. 
That  labour  on  the  bosom  of  this  sphere 
To  propagate  their  states.  Shakspeare,  Timon, 

Some  have  thought  the  propagating  of  religion  by 
arms  not  only  lawful,  but  meritorious. 

Decay  of  Piety. 
All  that  I  eat,  or  drink,  or  shall  beget. 
Is  propagated  curse !  MiHon*t  Paradiso  Lost, 

No  need  that  thou 
Should'st  propagate,  already  infinite. 
And  through  all  numbers  absolute,  though  one. 

Milton, 
Is  it  an  elder  brother's  duty  so 
To  propagate  his  family  and  name  ; 
You  would  not  have  yours  die  and  buried  with  you  1 

Otway, 
Such  creatures  as  are  produced  each  by  its  peculiar 
seed  constitute  a  distinct  propagable  sort  of  creatures. 

Boyle, 


From  hills  and  dales  the  cheerfyU  cries  rebound  • 
For  echo  hunts  along,  and  propagateg  the  sound. 

Old  stakes  of  olive  trees  in  plants  revive ; 
But  nobler  veins  by  propagation  thrive.  Id. 

Those  who  seek  troth  only,  and  desire  to  propayate 
nothing  else,  freely  expose  their  principles  to  the 
^}'        .         .      ,  Locke, 

There  is  not  m  all  nature  any  spontaneous  gene- 
Tation,  but  all  come  by  propagation,  wherein  chanco 
hath  not  the  least  part.  fiay. 

Socrates,  the  greatest  propagator  of  morality,  and 
a  martvT  for  the  unity  of  the  Godhead,  was  so  fa- 
mous for  this  talent,  that  he  gained  the  name  of  the 
^~l«-         ,  Addim, 

Because  dense  bodies  conserve  their  heat  a  long 
time,  and  the  densest  bodies  conserve  their  heat  the 
longest,  the  vibrations  of  their  parts  are  of  a  lasting 
nature ;  and  therefore  may  be  propagated  along  solid 
fibres  of  uniform  dense  matter  to  a  great  distance, 
for  conveying  into  the  brain  the  impressbns  made 
upon  all  the  organs  of  sense.  Newton. 

There  are  other  secondary  ways  of  the  propagation 
of  it,  as  lying  in  the  same  bed.  Witeman. 

SupersUtious  notions,  propagated  in  fancy,  are 
hardly  ever  totally  eradicated.  Clarism, 

The  same  disposition  she  endeavoured  to  diffuse 
among  all  those  whom  nature  or  fortune  gave  her  any 
influence,  and  indeed  succeeded  too  well  in  her  de- 
si^  ;  but  could  not  always  propagate  her  effrontery 
with  her  cruelty.  Johnson, 

PROPEL',  V.  a.  LaL  propeUe.  To  drive 
forward. 

Avicen  witnesses  the  blood  to  be  frothy,  that  is 
propelled  out  of  a  vein  of  the  breast.  Harvey. 

This  motion,  in  some  human  creatures,  may  be 
weak  in  respect  to  the  viscidity  of  what  is  taken,  so 
as  not  to  be  able  to  propel  it 

Arbuthnot  onAUmenU. 
That  overplus  of  motion  would  be  too  feeble  and 
languid  to  propel  so  vast  and  ponderous  a  body,  with 
that  prodigious  velocity.  Bentley. 

PROPENiy,t;.n.      J       Ui.  propendeo,  xo 
Propen'dency.  n.  s.  j  hang    forwards.      To 
incline  to  any  part;  be  disposed  in  favor  of  any 
thing.    Not  used. 

My  sprightly  brethren,  I  propend  to  you, 
In  resolution  to  keep  Helen  still.        Shaktpeore, 
An  act  above  the  animal  actings,  which  are  tran- 
sient, and  admit  not  of  all  that  attention,  and  pro- 
pendency  of  actions.  Hale, 


propensity  is  tendency ;  particularly  moral  di 
position;  natural  tenden<^. 


Women,  propenae  and  inclinable  to  holiness,  be 
edified  in  good  things,  rather  than  carried  away  as 
capUves.  Hooker. 

Some  miscarriages  might  escape,  rather  through 
necessities  of  state,  than  znj  propentUjf  of  myself  to 
injuriousness.  King  dharies. 

Bodies,  that  of  themselves  have  no  propeneion*  to 
any  determinate  place,  do  nevertheless  move  con- 
stantly and  perpetually  one  way.  2>^fiy. 
I  have  brought  scandal 
In  feeble  hearts,  prepense  enongh  before 
To  waver,  or  fall  off,  and  join  with  idols. 

Milton. 
The  naturU  propenrion,  and  the  inevitable  occa- 
sions of  complaint,  accidents  of  fortune.     Temple, 

It  requires  a  critical  nicety  to  find  out  the  genius 
or  the  propensions  of  a  child.  L' Estrange. 


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Let  there  08  but  pnpnuUii,  and  bent  of  will  to 
religion,  and  there  will  be  seilulity  and  indefatigable 
indwtiy.  South, 

So  forcible  are  our  prapensiota  to  mutiny,  that  we 
equally  take  oocaiions  from  benefits  or  iojuries. 

Chvemment  of  the  Tongm* 
He  asiisti  us  with  a  measure  of  grace,  suflScient  to 
over-balance  the  cornet  propentily  of  the  will. 

Rogtn. 
This  great  attrition  must  produce  a  great  propen- 
ntjf  to  &  putrescent  alkaline  condition  of  the  fluids. 

Arbuihnot, 
It  is,  however,  not  to  be  omitted,  that  he  appears 
always  propente  towards  the  side  of  mercy.  Johnaon. 

PROPER,  a4f.  •%     Fr.  propre ;  Lat. 

Pkop'ekly,  aav.  tprapriut.    Peculiar ; 

Prop'erness,  n.  9.         i  natural ;  fit ;  adapt- 

Pkof'ektt,  n.  s.  &  v.  a.  y  ed ;  belonging  to  an 
individoal ;  one's  own ;  literal ;  mere ;  pure ; 
pretty  or  beautiful ;  and,  in  *a  low  sense,  tall ; 
stout ;  the  adverb  and  noun  substantive  corres- 
ponding :  property  is,peculiar  quality;  disposition, 
or  right ;  possession  held  in  one's  own  right ;  any 
thing  promised ;  an  appendage ;  any  tbing  pe- 
culiarly new  or  adapted :  to  property  is,  to  seize 
or  retain  as  a  right ;  to  invest  with  qualities  or 
possessions ;  but  neither  sense  is  now  in  use. 

^oses  vras  a  proper  child.  Hebrews  xi.  23. 

Men  of  learning  hold  it  for  a  slip  in  judgment, 
when  offer  is  made  to  demonstrate  that  as  proper  to 
one  thing,  which  reason  findeth  common  unto  many. 

Hooker. 
What  special  property  or  quality  is  that,  which, 
being  no  where  found  but  in  sermons,  maketh  them 
efiectoal  to  save  souls  1  Id. 

The  bloody  book  of  law 
You  shall  yourself  read  in  the  bitter  letter. 
After  your  own  sense ;  yea,  though  our  proper  son 
Stood  m  your  action.  Sfuitpeare.  OtheUo. 

Proper  deformity  seems  not  in  the  fiend 
So  horrid  as  in  woman.  Id.  King  Lear. 

At  last  she  concluded  with  a  sigh,  thou  wast  the 
prvperest  man  in  Ital^.  Shakepeare. 

Here  I  disclaim  all  my  paternal  care, 
Propinquity,  and  propertff  of  blood, 
Ana,  as  a  stranger  to  my  heart  and  me. 
Hold  thee.  Jd.  King  Lear. 

I  will  draw  a  bill  of  propertiet,  such  as  our  play 
*vants.  Shakepeare. 

His  reared  arm 
Crested  the  world  ;  his  voice  was  propertied 
As  all  the  tuned  spheres. 

Id.  Antony' and  Cleopatra. 
I  am  too  highborn  to  be  propertied. 
To  be  a  secondary  at  controul.        Shakepeare, 
Our  poets  excel  in  grandity  and  eravity,  smooth- 
nea  and  property,  in  quickness  and  briefness. 

Camdm. 
Of  nought  no  creature  ever  formed  ought. 
For  that  is  proper  to  the  Almighty^s  hand. 

Daeiet. 
Tis  conviction,  not  force,  that  must  induce  as- 
sent ;  and  sure  the  logic  of  a  conquering  sword  has 
no  great  property  that  way ;  silence  it  may,  but  con- 
vince it  cannot.  Decay  of  Piety. 
In  our  proper  motion  we  ascend 
Up  to  our  native  teat.  UUUm. 
What  dies  but  what  has  life 
And  sin  ?  the  body  properly  hath  neither.        Id, 
If  we  might  determine  it,  our  proper  conceptions 
woald  be  all  voted  axioms.           Gl4nmUe'e  Sceptis. 
Court  the  age 
With  somewhat  of  your  proper  rage.      WaUer. 


Now  learn  the  diff*renoe  at  your  prap^r  cost. 

Betwixt  true  valour  and  an  empty  boast. 

Dr^dmu 

In  Athens  all  was  pleasure,  mirth,  and  play, 
All  prcper  to  the  spring,  and  sprightly  May.       U^ 
For  numerous  blessings  yearly  sfaow'r'd. 
And  property  with  plenty  crowned. 
Accept  our  pious  praise.  Id, 

The  purple  garments  raise  the  lawyer's  fees^ 
High  pomp  and  state  are  useful  properties  Id. 

A  proper  goodly  fox  was  carrying  to  execution. 

VEetrange, 

Outward  objects,  that  are  extrinsecal  to  the  mind 
and  its  own  operations,  proceeding  from  powers  in- 
trinsecal  and  proper  to  itself,  which  become  also  ob- 
jectt  of  its  contemplation,  are  Uie  original  of  all 
knowledge.  ■  Locke. 

Property,  whose  original  is  from  the  right  a  roan 
has  to  use  any  of  the  inferior  creatures,  for  subsis- 
tence and  comfort,  is  for  the  sole  advantage  of  the 
proprietor,  so  that  he  may  even  destroy  the  very 
thine  that  he  has  property  in.  Id. 

Thev  professed  themselves  servants  of  Jehovah, 
their  God,  in  a  relation  and  respect  peculiar  and  pnh- 
per  to  themselves.  Nelton. 

Those  parts  of  nature,  into  which  the  chaos  was 
divided,  tney  signified  by  dark  names,  which  we  have 
expressed  in  their  plain  and  proper  terms. 

Bumet*s  Theory  of  the  Sarth. 

There  is  a  sense  in  which  the  works  of  every 
man,  good  as  vrall  as  bad,  are  properly  his  own. 

Rogers. 

In  debility,  from  great  loss  of  blood,  wine,  and 
all  aliment  that  is  easily  assimilated  or  turned  into 
blood,  are  proper;  for  blood  is  required  to  make 
blood.  ArhtUhnot. 

Greenfield  was  the  name  of  the  property  man  in 
that  time,  who  furnished  implements  for  the  actors. 

Pope. 

The  miseries  of  life  are  not  properly  owing  to  the 
unequal  distribution  of  things.  Stoift. 

No  wonder  such  men  are  true  to  a  government, 
where  liberty  runs  so  high,  where  property  is  so  well 
secured.  M 

A  proper  name  may  become  common,  when  given 
to  several  beings  of  the  same  kind ;  as  Cesar. 

Watte. 

A  secoiidary  essential  mode  is  an^  attribute  of  a 
thing,  which  is  not  of  primary  consideration,  and  is 
called  a  property.  Id. 

PROPERTIUS  (Sextus  Aurelius),  a  cele- 
brated Latin  poet,  bom  at  Mevania,  a  city  of 
Umbria.  He  went  to  Rome  afler  the  death  of 
his  father,  a  Roman  knight,  who  had  been  put  to 
death  by  order  of  Augustus,  for  haying  followed 
Antony  8  party.  Propertius  acquired  great  re- 
putation by  his  abilities,  and  was  patronised  by 
Msecenas  and  Cornelius  Gallus.  He  had  also 
Oyid,  Tibullus,  and  other  literati  of  his  time,  for 
his  friends.  He  died  in  Rome  19  B.  C.  His 
four  books  of  elegies  are  printed  with  almost  all 
the  editions  of  Tibullus  and  Catullus  ;  the  best 
is  the  separate  edition  by  J.  Brouckhusius  at 
Amsterdam,  1702  and  1714,  4to. 

Property.    See  Law. 


PROPHE'CY,  n.  s. 
Proph'et, 
Proph'esy,  v.  a. k,v.n. 

PrOPH  ETESS,  n.  s. 

Pbophet'ic,  cuj^'. 
Prophet'ical, 
Prophet'ically,  adv. 

pROPH'ETIZE,t;.fl. 


Fr.propkete;  Ital. 
profeta;  Span.  Port, 
and  Lat.  prophetai 
Or.  irpo^ffTfig.  One 
who  predicts  or  fore- 
tels  future  events ; 
one  who  teaches  or 
preaches :  a  prophecy 


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11  a  prediction ;  declaration  of  something  future : 
to  prophesy, to  foretel;  prognosticate;  foreshow; 
utter  predictions ;  preach :  prophetize,  an  obso- 
lete synonyme :  prophetess,  the  feminine  of  pro- 
phet :  prophetic  and  prophetical,  of  the  nature 
of  propnecy ;  the  adverb  corresponding. 

I  hate  him,  for  he  doth  not  ftrophusf  good,  but 
evi*.  1  Kings. 

The  elders  of  the  Jews  bailded,   and  prospered 
through  the  prvphaying  of  Haggai.  .      Esra  vi.  14. 
He  hearkens  after  prophecies  and  dreams. 

Shakspean, 
Miserable  England, 
I  prophesy  the  fearful'st  time  to  thee, 
That  ever  wretched  age  hath  looked  upon.   Id, 
Methought  thy  very  gait  did  prophesy 
A  royal  nobleness.  id.  King  Lear. 

His  champions  are  the  prophets  and  apostles. 

Shahspeare. 
He  shall  split  thy  very  heart  with  sorrow. 
And  say  poor  Marg'ret  was  a  prophetess.  *        Id. 
He  is  so  prophetieallif  proud  of  an  heroical  cndeeU 
liug,  that  he  raves  in  saying  nothing.  Id. 

Some  perfumes  procure  propfieticai  dreams. 

Baean. 
The  counsel  of  a  wise  and  then  prophetical  friend 
was  forgotten.  Wotton. 

That  it  is  consonant  to  the  word  of  God»  so  in 
singing  to  answer,  the  practice  of  Minam  the  pro- 
phetess, when  she  answered  the  men  in  her  song,  will 
approve.  Peacham. 

It  buildeth  her  faith  and  religion  upon  the  sacred 
and  canonical  scriptures  of  the  holy  prophets  and 
apostles,  as  upon  her  main  and  prime  foundation. 

White. 
Nature  else  hath  conference 
With  profound  sleep,  and  so  doth  warning  send 
By  prophetiiing  dreams.  DanieVs  Civil  War. 

This  great  success  among  Jews  atid  Gentiles,  part 
of  it  historically  true  at  the  compiling  of  these  arti- 
cles, and  part  ot  it  prophetically  true  then,  and  ful- 
filled afterward,  was  a  most  eflfectual  argument  to 
give  authority  to  this  faith.  Hammond. 

O  prophet  of  glad  tidings !  finisher 
Of  utmost  hope  1  Milton. 

Till  old  experience  do  attain 
To  something  like  prophetic  strain.  Id, 

Poets  may  boast 
Their  work  shall  «yith  the  world  remain ; 
Both  bound  together,  live  or  die. 
The  verses  and  the  pophesjf  Waller, 

Some  famous  proithetic  pictures  represent  the  fate  of 
England  by  a  mole,   a  creature  blind  and  busy, 
smooth   and  deceitful,   continually  working  under 
eround,  but  now  and  then  to  be  discerned  in  the  sur- 
face. Stillingjieet. 
Pie  loved  so  fast, 
'As  if  he  feared  each  day  would  be  her  last ; 
Too  true  a  prophet  to  foresee  the  fate. 
That  should  so  soon  divide  their  happy  state. 

Dryden, 

The  more  I  know,  the  more  my  fears  augment. 

And  ^ears  are  oft  prophetic  of  the  event.  Id. 

She  sighed,  and  thus  prophetically  spoke.  Id. 

God,  when  he  makes  the  prophett  does  not  unmake 

the  man.  Locke. 

No  arguments  made  a  stronger  impression  on  these 
Pagan  converts,  than  the  predictions  relating  to  our 
Saviour  in  those  old  prophetic  writings  deposited 
among  the  hands  of  the  greatest  enemies  to  Christ- 
ianity, and  owned  by  them  to  have  been  extant  many 
ages  before  his  appearance.  Addison, 

If  my  love  at  once  were  crowned. 
Fair  proplutess,  my  grief  would  cease.     Prior. 


It  was  attested  by  the  visible  centering  of  all  the 
old  projAeeies  in  the  person  of  Christ,  and  by  the 
completion  of  these  prophecies  since,  which  he  himself 
uttered.  Atterbury. 

Received  by  thee,  I  prophesy,  my  rhimes, 
.Mixed  with  thy  works,  their  life  no  bounds  shall  see. 

Tiekel. 
Pleasure  is  deaf  when  told  of  future  pain. 

And  sounds  prophetic  are  too  rough  to  suit 

£ars  long  accustomed  to  the  pleasing  lute. 

Covper. 

False  prophetess!  the  day  of  change  was  come ; 
Behind  the  shadow  of  eternity, 
He  saw  his  visions  set  of  earthly  fame. 
For  ever  set.  PoUok. 

Prophecy.  The  prophecies  in  the  Scriptures, 
upon  which,  if  room  permitted,  we  mignt  en- 
large, ahord  the  most  decisive  evidence  of  the 
truth  of  Christianity,  being  in  fact  a  kind  of 
standing  miracles, -that  have  existed  forages,  and 
still  exist,  in  proof  of  the  veracity  of  Scripture. 
We  may  specify,  I.  The  prophecy  of  Noah  (Gen. 
ix.  25,  26),  respecting  tjie  degraded  and  enslaved 
state  of  the  posterity  of  Ilam ;  fulfilled,  first  by 
the  Jews  in  the  slavery  of  the  Canaanites ;  af- 
terwards by  the  Greeks  ip  the  destruction  of 
Tyre,  and  by  the  Romans  in  that  of  Carthage ; 
and,  in  modern  times,  in  the  oppression  of 
their  posterity  by  the  Saracens  and  Turks,  and 
even  to  the  present  age  by  the  slave  trade.  II. 
The  prophecy  of  the  innumerable  posterity  of 
Abraham ;  but  more  particularly  of  the  wild, 
predatory,  free,  and  independent  state  of  his  pos- 
terity by  Ishmael  (Gen.  xvi.  10—12.),  fulfilled  in 
all  ages,  as  well  as  in  the  present,  by  the  uncon- 
quered  state  of  the  Arabs.  III.  The  remarkable 
prophecy  of  Moses  (Deut.  xxviii.  64 — 66)  and 
of  Hosea  (iii.  4)  against  the  Jews,  which  have 
been  so  literally  fulfilled  for  upwards  of  1800 
years  past ;  notwithstanding  which,  while  they 
have  been  scattered  among  all  the  nations  on  the 
globe,  they  continue  still  a  distinct  people,  firmly 
and  .rrevocably  attached  to  their  peculiar  customs, 
though  persecuted  every  where  on  that  account. 
This  is  a  phenomenon  unparalleled  in  the  history 
of  mankind,  and  totally  unaccountable  upon  the 
ordinary  principles  of  human  action ;  ana  there- 
fore only  accountable  upon  the  principle  of  their 
being  still  preserved  a  distinct  people,  till  the 
period  when  they  shall  fulfil  the  remaining  part 
of  Hosea's  prediction  (iii.  26).  IV.  To  these 
remarkable  prophecies,  we  might  add  those  of 
Daniel,  respecting  the  four  universal  monarchies ; 
and  those  of  St.  Paul  and  St.  John,  which  so 
clearly  foretel  the  various  fortunes  of  the  Chris- 
tian church ;  with  its  progress  from  the  age  of 
apostolic  purity,  to  that  state  of  universal  cor- 
ruption under  which  it  sunk  for  about  1000 
years,  together  with  its  gradual  restoration  to  puri- 
ty. But,  for  fiirtlier  information  on  all  these  sub- 
jects, we  must  refer  the  reader  to  bishop  Newton's 
Dissertations  on  the  Prophecies ;  bishop  Chand- 
ler's Vindication  of  Chnstianity  ;  bishop  Hurd*s 
V\  arburtonian  Lecture ;  bishop  Sherlock's  Dis- 
courses on  Prophecy,  &c.    See  Theology. 

Prophets,  among  the  Jews,  were  persons 
commissioned  and  inspired  by  God  to  declare 
his  will  and  purposes  to  that  people.  Previous 
to  the  existence  of  that  nation,  there  were  other 
inspired  prophets,  particularly  Enoch,  Lamech, 


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and  Noah.  After  the  deluge,  and  before  the  gir- 
iog  of  the  law,  we  find  Melchizedek,  Abraham, 
Ifaac,  Jacob,  Joseph,  Job,  Elihu,  and  Moses. 
Under  the  law,  we  find  several  eminent  prophets ; 
paiticalaily  Joshua,  Samuel,  Gad,  Nathan,  Ahi- 
Jah,  Elijah,  Elisha,  M icaiah,  and  some  others 
whose  names  are  not  recorded ;  and,  among  the 
canonical  books  of  the  Old  Testament,  are  pie- 
served  the  writings  of  sixteen  prophets,  who  are 
commonly  styled  the  greater  and  lesser. 

The  Greater  Prophets,  so  called  from  the 
length  and  extent  of  their  writings,  are  four,  viz. 
IsAiAHy  Jeremiah,  Ezekiel,  and  Daniel. 

The  Lesser  Prophets,  so  named  from  the 
brevity  of  their  prophecies,  are  twelve ;  viz. 
Hosea,  Joel,  Amos,  Obadiah,  Jonah,  Micab, 
Nahum,  Habakkuk,  Zephaniah,  Uaggai,  Ze- 
(HARiAH^and  Malachi.  See  these  articles  in 
their  order. 

Prophets,  Soks  of  the,  in  Scripture  history, 
an  appellation  given  to  young  men  who  were 
educated  under  a  proper  master,  (who  was  com- 
monly, if  not  always,  an  inspired  prophet,)  in  the 
knowledge  of  religion  and  m  sacred  music,  and 
thus  were  qualified  to  be  public  teachers.  This 
seems  to  have  been  part  of  the  business  of  the 
prophets  on  the  Sabbath  days  and  festivals. 

PROPHYLACTIC,  adj.  Gr  irpo^vXajfrucoc, 
of  irpotpyXaaauf.    Preventive ;  preservative. 

Medicine  is  distributed  into  prophy lactic,  or  the  art 
of  preserving  health ;  and  therapeutic,  or  the  art  of 
restoring  health.  WatU* 

PROPI'NQUITY,  n.  i.  Lat.  propinquitat. 
Nearness;  proximity  of  station,  kind,  time,  or 
blood. 

Here  I  disclaim  all  my  paternal  care, 
Propinquitti,  and  property  of  blood, 
And,  as  a  stranger  to  my  heart  and  me. 
Hold  thee.  Shakspeare.  King  Lear, 

Thereby  was  declared  the  propinquity  of  their  de- 
solations, and  that  their  tranquillity  was  of  no  longer 
duration,  than  those  soon  decayed  fruits  of  summer. 

Browne, 

They  draw  the  retina  nearer  to  the  crystalline  hu- 
mour, and  by  their  relaxation  su  flTer  it  to  return  to 
its  natural  oistance  according  to  the  exigency  of 
the  object,  in  respect  of  distance  or  propinquiiy, 

Ray. 

PROPITIATE,  17.  a.        ^      Lat.   propUio. 

Pbopi'tiable,  a(/^'.  To    conciliate; 

Propitia'tion,  n.  f.  gain;   induce  to 

Propiti'ator,  I  favor ;  appease ; 

Propi'tiatory,  adj.  &  n.  s.  [make    gracious  : 

Propi'tioub,  propitiable,    ap- 

Propi'tiously,  adv.  peasable  ;    such 

Propi'tiousmess,  n.  t,  J  as  may  be  induc- 
ed to  favor :  propitiation  b,  the  act  or  means  of 
propitiation;  atonement  made:  propitiator,  he 
who  makes  it :  propitiatory,  having  the  power  to 
conciliate ;  as  a  noun  substantive,  a  mercy-seat, 
or  throne  of  mercy :  propitious,  favorable ;  kind ; 
gracious ;  partial :  the  adverb  and  noun  sub- 
stantive corresponding. 

He  is  the  propitiatum  for  the  sins  of  the  whole 
world.  I  John. 

T'  assuage  the  force  of  this  new  flame. 

And  make  thee  more  propitiom  in  my  need, 
I  mean  to  sing  the  praises  of  thy  name. 

Spetuer. 
Let  not  mv  words  offend  thee. 
My  Maker,  be  propitiota,  while  I  speak ! 

Milton. 


So  when  a  mnse  propithu$ly  invites, 
Improve  her  favours,  and  indulge  her  flights. 


You,  her  priest,  declare 
What  oflTrings  may  propitiate  the  fair. 
Rich  orient  pearl,  bright  stones  that  ne*er  decay. 
Or  polished  lines  which  longer  last  than  they. 

Waller. 
Is  not  this  more  than  giving  God  thanks  for  their 
virtues,  when  a  propitiatory  sacrifice  is  offered  for 
their  honour  1  StUlingJleet. 

All  these  joined  with  the  propitiousness  of  climate 
to  that  sort  of  tree  and  the  length  of  age  it  shall 
stand  and  grow,  may  produce  an  oak  Temple.  • 

Vengeance  shall  pursue  the  inhuman  coast. 
Till  they  propitiate  thy  offended  ghost         Diyden. 
Would  but  thy  sister  Marcia  be  propitunu 
To  thy  friend's  vows.  AdditmCa  Cate, 

Ere  Phoebus  rose  he  had  implored 
Propitious  Heaven.  Pope's  Rape  of  the  Lock. 

Let  fierce  Achilles,  dreadful  in  his  rage. 
The  god  propitiate,  and  the  pest  assuage.     Pope. 
In  allusion  to  the  ancient  worship,  the  apostle  re- 
presents Christ  as  a  propitiatory  or  mercy -seat,  set 
forth  by  God  for  receiving  the  worship  of  men,  and 
dispensing  pardon  to  them.  Machnight. 

Propitiation.  Among  the  Jews  there  were 
both  ordinary  and  public  sacrifices,  as  holocausts, 
&c.,  offered  by  way  of  thanksgiving;  and  ex- 
traordinary ones,  offered  by  particular  persons 
guilty  of  any  crime,  by  way  of  propitiation. 
The  Roman  Catholics  believe  the  mass  to  be  a 
sacrifice  of  propitiation  for  the  living  and  the 
dead.  The  reformed  churches  allow  of  no  propi- 
tiation but  that  one  offered  by  Jesus  Christ  on 
the  cross. 

Propitiatory,  any  thing  rendering  God  pro- 
pitious ;  as  propitiatory  sacrifices,  in  contradis- 
tinction to  eucnaristical.  Among  the  Jews  the 
propitiatory  was  the  cover  or  lid  of  the  ark  of 
the  covenant ;  which  was  lined  both  within  and 
without  with  plates  of  gold,  insomuch  that  there 
was  no  wood  to  be  seen.  This  propitiatory  was 
a  type  or  figure  of  Christ,  whom  St.  Paul  calls 
the  propitiatory  ordained  firom  all  ages. 

PRO'PLASM,  n.  i.  Gr.  irpo  and  wXwrfui. 
Mould;  matrix. 

Those  shells  serving  as  proplaem  or  moulds  to  the 
matter  which  so  filled  them,  limited  and  determined 
its  dimensions  and  figure.  Woodward. 

PliOPOTIENT,  n.  i.    Let.  prapanens.    One 
that  makes  a  proposal,  or  lays  down  a  position. 
For  mysterious  things  of  faiih  rely 
On  the  proponent,  heaven's  authority.  J)ryden. 

PROPONTIS,  or  the  Sea  of  Marmora,  a  part  of 
the  Mediterranean,  dividing  Europe  from  Asia ; 
it  has  the  Hellespont  or  canal  of  the  Dardanelles 
on  the  south-west,  whereby  it  communicates 
with  the  Archipelago,  and  the  ancient  Bosphorus 
of  Thrace,  or  Straits  of  Constantinople,  on  an 
north-east,  communicating  with  the  Black  or 
Euxine  Sea.  It  has  two  castles ;  that  on  the 
side  of  Asia  is  on  a  cape,  where  formerly  stood 
a  temple  of  Jupiter;  that  of  Europe  is  on  the 
opposite  cape,  and  had  anciently  a  temple  of  Se- 
rapis.  It  is  120  miles  long,  and  in  some  places 
upwards  of  forty  miles  broad.  Lempriere  says, 
*  It  is  175  miles  long,  and  sixty-two  broad ; '  and 
that  '  it  received  its  name  from  its  vicinity  to 
Pontus.'— Class.  Diet. 

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PROPORTION,  n,  $.  &  v.  a.  ^      Fr.  proptMr- 
Propor'tionable,  ad^,  turn ;    Latin, 

Propor'tionably,  adv.  proportio. 

Propor'tionaL)  ofj^'.  [Ratio:  com- 

Proportion  al'ity,  n.  i.  [  parative  rela- 

Propor'tionallt,  adv.  tion ;  settled 

Propor'tionate,  <kjj.  &  V.  a.  relation  or 
Propor'tionateness,  n.  i.  J  graduation; 
symmetry ;  harmonic  agreement ;  form ;  size  : 
to  adjust ;  form  symmetrically :  proportionable, 
proportional,  and  proportionate,  mean,  having  a 
settled  comparative  relation;  suitable;  the  ad- 
verbs corresponding:  proportionality  and  pro- 
portionateness,  the  state  or  being  proportionate, 
or  comparatively  adjusted. 

Nature  had  proportioned  her  without  any  fault, 
quickly  to  be  discovered  by  the  senses ;  yetalto^ther 
seeinea  not  to  make  up  that  harmony  that  Cupid  de- 
lights in.  Sidney. 
Measure  is  that  which  perfecteth  all  things,  be- 
cause every  thing  is  for  some  end ;  neither  can  that 
thing  be  available  to  any  end  which  is  not  propor- 
tiotiMle  thereunto  :  and  to  propartien  as  well  excesses 
as  defects  are  opposite.                                Hooker, 

Let  any  man's  wisdom  determine  by  lessening  the 
territory,  and  increasing^  the  number  of  inhabitants, 
what  proportion  is  requisite  to  the  peopling  of  a  re- 
gion in  such  a  manner  that  the  land  shall  he  neither 
too  narrow  for  those  whom  it  feedeth,  nor  capable  of 
a  greater  multitude.  Raleigh, 

It  is  good  discretion  not  to  make  too  much  of  any 
man  at  the  first ;  because  one  cannot  hold  out  that 
vroportion.  Lord  Bacon, 

All  things  received,  do  such  proportions  take. 
As  those  things  have,  wherein  they  are  received ; 

So  little  glasses  little  faces  make. 
And  narrow  webs  on  narrow  frames  are  weaved. 

Dttviet. 
By  proportion  to  these  rules,  we  may  judge  of  the 
obligation  that  lies  upon  all  sorts  of  injunous  persons. 

Taylor, 
His  volant  touch 
Instinct  through  all  proportiom,  low  and  hiffh, 
Fled,  and  pursued  transverse  the  resonant  fugue. 

Ml/ton. 
It  must  be  mutual  in  proportion  due 
Given  and  received.  Id. 

The  serpent  lives. 
Lives,  as  thou  said'st,  and  gains  to  live  as  man 
Higher  degree  ot  life,  inducement  strong 
To  us,  as  fikely  tastine  to  attain 
Proportional  assent,  which  cannot  be 
But  to  be  gods  or  angels.         Id,  Paradue  Lost, 
By  this  congruity  of  those  faculties  to  their  proper 
objects,  and  by  the  fitness  and  proporHonatenest  of 
these   objective  impressioiis  upon  their  respective 
faculties  accommodated  to  their  reception,  the  sensible 
nature  hath  so  much  of  perception,  as  is  necessary 
for  its  sensible  being.  Hale. 

Four  numbers  are  said  to  be  proportional,  when  the 
first  containeth,  or  is  contained  by  the  second,  as 
often  as  the  third  containeth,  or  is  contained  by  the 
fourth.  Cocfcer. 

The  parallelism  and  due  proportionated  inclination 
of  the  axis  of  the  earth.       More*$  Divine  Difdogtiet. 

His  commandments  are  not  gnevous,  because  he 
ofiers  us  an  assistance  proportionable  to  the  difficulty. 

Tillotton, 
No  man  of  the  present  aee  is  equal  in  the  strength, 
proportion,  and  knitting  of  his  limbs,  to  the  Hercules 
of  Farnese.  Dryden, 

Greater  visible  good  does  not  always  raise  men's 
desires,  in  proportion  to  the  greatness  it  is  acknow- 


ledged to  have,  though  every  little  trouble  sets  us  on 
won  to  get  rid  of  it.  LeekB. 

The  mind  ought  to  examine  all  the  grounds  of 
probability,  and,  upon  a  due  balancing  the  whole, 
reject  or  receive  it  proportionably  to  the  preponder-  • 
ancy  of  the  greater  grounds  of  probability,  on  one 
side  or  the  other.  Id. 

The  connection  between  the  end  and  any  means  is 
adequate,  but  between  the  end  and  means  propor- 
tionate.  Greto, 

All  sense,  as  grateful,  dependeth  upon  the  equa- 
lity or  the  proportimahitity  of  the  motion  or  impres- 
sion made.  Id. 

In  proportion  as  this  resolution  grew,  the  terrors 
before  us  seemed  to  vanish.  Taller, 

The  proportions  are  so  well  observed  that  nothing 
appears  to  an  advantage,  or  distinguishes  itself  above 
the  rest.  Addison, 

In  the  loss  of  an  object,  we  do  not  proportion  our 
spief  to  the  real  value  it  bears,  but  to  the  value  our 
fancies  set  upon  it.  Id, 

It  was  enlivened  with  an  hundred  and  twenty 
trumpets,  assisted  with  a  proportionable  number  of 
other  instruments.  Id. 

Things  nigh  equivalent  and  neighbouring  value 
By  lot  are  parted ;  but  high  heaven  thy  share. 
In  equal  balance  weighed  'gainiit  earth  and  hell. 
Flings  up  the  adverse  scale,  and  shuns  proportion. 

Prior. 

If  light  be  swifter  in  bodies  than  in  vacuo,  in  the 
proportion  the  sines  of  which  measure  the  refraction 
of  the  bodies,  tbe  forces  of  the  bodies  to  reflect 
and  refract  light,  are  very  nearly  proportional  to  Uie 
densities  of  the  same  bodies.  Newton, 

The  parts  of  a  great  thin^  are  great,  and  there  are 
proportionably  large  estates  m  a  large  country. 

Arbutknot, 

Since  eveiy  single  particle  hath  an  innate  gravita- 
tion toward  all  others,  proportionated  by  matter  and 
distance,  it  evidently  appears  tliat  the  outward 
atoms  of  the  chaos  would  necessarily  tend  inwards, 
and  descend  from  all  quarters  towaros  the  middle  of 
the  whole  space.  Bentley*s  Sermons, 

Harmony,  with  every  grace. 

Plays  in  the  fair  proportions  of  her  face. 

Mrs,  Carter* 
Hast  thou  incurred 

His  anger,  who  can  waste  thee  with  a  word. 

Who  poises  and  proportion*  sea  and  land. 

Weighing  them  hi  the  hollow  of  his  hand. 

And  in  whose  sight  all  nations  seem 

As  grasshoppers,  as  dust,  a  drop,  a  daiun  ^ 

Cowptr, 

Proportion,  the  identity  or  sinubtude  of  two 
ratios.  Hence  quantities  that  have  the  same  ' 
ratio  between  tliem  are  said  to  be  proportional ; 
e.  gr.  if  A  be  to  B  as  C  to  D,  or  8  be  to  4  as  30 
to  15 ;  A,  B,  C,  D,  and  8,  4,  30,  and  15,  are  said 
to  be  in  proportion,  or  are  simply  called  propor- 
tionals. Proportion  is  frequently  confounded 
with  ratio,  yet  the  two  convey  in  reality  very  dif- 
ferent ideas,  which  ought  by  all  means  to  be  dis- 
tinguished. Ratio  is  properly  that  relation  or 
habitude  of  two  things  which  determines  the 
quantity  of  one  from  the  quantity  of  another, 
without  the  intervention  of  any  third ;  thus  we 
say  the  ratio  of  5  and  10  is  2,  the  ratio  of  12 
and  24  is  2.  Proportion  is  the  sameness  or  like- 
ness of  two  such  relations ;  thus  the  relations 
between  5  and  10  and  12  and  24  being  the  same, 
or  equal,  the  four  terms  are  said  to  be  in  propor- 
tion. Hence  ratio  exists  between  two  numbers, 
but  proportion  requires  at  least  three. 


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Pbofortiov  is  also  used  for  the  relation  be- 
tween unequal  things  of  the  same  kind,  iwhereby 
their  several  parts  correspond  to  each  other  with 
an  equal  augmentation  or  diminution. 

Proportion,  in  architecture,  denotes  the  just 
ms^itude  of  the  members  of  each  part  of  a 
building,  and  the  relation  of  the  several  parts  to 
the  whole ;  e.  gr.  of  the  dimensions  of  a  column, 
&C.,  with  regsffd  to  the  ordonnance  of  a  whole 
building. 

PROPOSE',  «.«.&».  n.'v      Ital.   proporre ; 

Propo'sal,  n.5.  fSpan.     proponer ; 

Propo'ser,  \  Fr.  proposer ;  Lat. 

Proposi'tion,  kpropono.    To  sub- 

Proposi'tional,  adj.  J  mit  to  considera- 
tion ;  offer :  as  a  verb  neuter,  lay  schemes :  a 
proposal  is  the  scheme  laid ;  desigpi  proposed ; 
offer  to  the  mind  :  the  proposer,  he  who  forms 
or  offers  a  proposal  or  scneme :  proposition,  one 
of  the  three  logical  parts  of  an  aigument;  a  sen- 
tence which  a&rms  or  denies  any  thing;  offer: 
the  adjective  corresponding. 

Run  thee  into  the  parlour. 

There  shalt  thou  find  my  cousin  Beatrice, 

Propanng  with  the  pnnce  and  Claudio. 

Shakspeare, 

The  fint  propotition  of  the  precedent  argument  is 
not  necessary.  White. 

Chiysippus,  labouring  how  to  reconcile  these  two 
proportions,  that  all  things  are  done  by  fate,  and  yet 
that  something  is  in  our  own  power,  cannot  extricate 
fainnelf.  Hammond. 

The  enemy  sent  propotitums,  such  as  upon  delivery 
of  a  strong  fortified  town,  after  a  handsome  defence, 
are  usually  inranted.  Clarendon, 

Raphael  to  Adam's  doubt  proposed. 
Benevolent  and  facile  thus  replied.        Milton. 

The  compounding  the  representation  of  things, 
with  an  affirmation  or  negation,  makes  a  proposition. 

Hale. 

Faith  is  the  assent  to  any  proporition,  not  made 
out  by  the  deductions  of  reason,  but  upon  the  credit 
of  the  proposer,  as  coming  from  God.  Locke. 

My  design  is  to  treat  only  of  those  who  have 
chiefly  ptoposed  to  themselves  the  principal  reward  of 
their  labours.  Toiler. 

Upon  the  proposal  of  an  agreeable  object,  a  man's 
choice  will  rather  incline  him  to  accept  than  refuse 
it.  South. 

The  work  vou  mention  will  sufficiently  recom- 
mend itself,  when  your  name  appears  with  the  pro- 
jiosals.  Addison  to  Pope. 

This  truth  is  not  likely  to  be  entertained  readily 
upon  the  fini  proposnl.  Atterhwry. 

He  provided  a  statute,  that,  whoever  proposed  any 
alteration  to  be  made,  should  do  it  with  a  rope  about 
his  neck  :  if  the  matter  proposed  were  generally  ap- 
proved, then  it  should  pass  into  a  law ;  if  it  went  m 
the  negative,  the  proposer  to  be  immediately  hanged. 

In  learning  any  thing  there  should  be  as  little  as 
possible  first  proposed  to  the  mind  at  once,  and,  that 
being  understood,  proceed  then  to  tlie  next  adjoining 
part.  WatU. 

If  it  has  a  singular  subject  in  its  propositional 
sense,  it  is  always  ranked  with  universals.  Id. 

Proposition,  in  logic,  part  of  an  argument 
wherein  some  quality,  either  negative  or  positive, 
is  attributed  to  a  subject. 

Proposition,  in  mathematics,  is  either  some 
truth  advanced  and  shown  to  be  such  by  demon- 
stration, or  some  operation  proposed  and  its  so- 


lution shown.  If  the  proposition  be  deduced 
from  several  theoretical  dennitions  compared  to- 
gether, it  is  called  a  theorem ;  if  from  a  praxis, 
or  series  of  operations,  it  is  called  a  problem. 
PROPOUND',  w. «.  I  Lat.  propono.  To 
Propound'er.  )  offer  to  consideration ; 

propose :  he  who  proposes  any  thing. 

A  spirit  raised  from  depth  of  under-ground. 
That  shall  make  answer  to  such  questions, 
As  by  your  grace  shall  be  propounded  him. 

Shdkspeare. 
A  king,  when  he  presides  in  eouncil,  let  him  be- 
ware how  hs  opens  his  own  inclinatioh  too  much  in 
that  which  he  propoundeth ;  for  else  counsellors  will 
but  take  the  wind  of  him,  and,  instead  of  giving  free 
counsel,  will  sing  him  a  song  of  placebo.       Bacon. 

To  leave  as  little  as  I  may  unto  fancy,  which  is 
wild  and  irregular,  I  will  propound  a  rule.  Wotton, 
The  parliament,  which  now  is  held,  decreed 
Whatever  pleased  the  king  but  to  propound. 

Daniel, 
Dar'st  thou  to  the  Son  of  God  propound 
To  worship  thee  ?  Milton, 

The  existence  of  the  church  hath  been  propounded 
as  an  object  of  our  faith  in  every  age  of  Christianity. 

Pearson, 
The  arguments  which  Christianity  propounds  to  us 
are  reasonable  encouragements  to  bear  sufferings  pa- 
tiently. TiUotson, 

PROPRETOR,  a  Roman  magistrate,  who, 
having  discharged  the  office  of  pretor  at  home, 
was  sent  into  a  province  to  command  there  with 
his  former  pretorial  authority.  It  was  also  an 
appellation  given  to  those  who,  without  having 
been  pretors  at  Rome,  were  sent  extraordinarily 
into  the  provinces  to  administer  justice„with  the 
authority  of  pretors. 

PROPRI'ETY,  n.  5.  -j     Fr.  propriety 

Propri'etart,  n.  5.  &  adj.  f  proprietcure ; 

Pkopri'etor,  n.  5.  &Lat.   proprietat. 

Propri'ltress.  J  Peculiar  posses- 

sion or  right ;  hence  accuracy ;  justness ;  correct- 
ness of  behaviour :  a  proprietary  is  a  possessor 
in  his  own  right ;  the  adjective  means  belonging 
of  right  to  a  certain  owner :  proprietor,  an 
owner ;  possessor  in  his  own  right:  proprietress, 
the  feminine  of  that  noun. 

You  must  have  promised  to  yourselves  propriety  in 
love. 
Know  women's  hearts  like  straws  do  move. 

Suckling, 

Benefit  of  peace,  and  vacation  for  piety,  render  it 
necessary  by  laws  to  secure  propriety.      Hammond, 

Hail,  wedded  love !  mysterious  law,  true  source 
Of  human  ofllsprinff,  sole  propriety 
In  Paradise  !  of  all  things  common  else.        Milton. 

They  secure  propriety  and  peace.  Dryden. 

A  big-bellied  biteh  borrowed  another  bitoh's  ken- 
nel to  lay  her  burden  in ;  the  proprietress  demanded 
possession,  but  the  other  begged  her  excuse. 

VEetrange, 

Man,  by  being  master  of  himself,  and  proprietor 
of  his  own  person,  and  the  actions  or  labour  of  it, 
had  still  in  himself  the  great  foundation  of  property. 

Locke, 

Common  use,  that  is  the  rule  of  propriety,  affords 
some  aid  to  settle  the  signification  of  language.  Id, 

Though  sheep,  which  are  proprietary,  are  seldom 
marked,  yet  they  are  not  apt  to  straggle.        Chew, 

'Tis  a  mistake  to  think  ourselves  stewards  in  some 
of  God's  gifts,  and  proprietaries  in  others :  they  are 


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all  equally  to  be  amployed,  according  to  the  desig- 
nation of  the  donor.         Oovemment  of  the  Tongue, 

Though  they  are  scattered  on  the  wings  of  the 
morning,  and  remain  in  the  uttermost  parts  of  the 
sea,  even  there  shall  his  right  hand  fetcn  them  out, 
and  lead  them  home  to  their  ancient  proprietor. 

Rogers, 

To  that  we  not  only  owe  the  safety  of  oar  persons 
and  the  propriety  of  our 'possessions,  but  our  improye- 
ment  in  the  several  arts.  Attenurjf. 

PROPUGN',  17.  a.      -J     Lat.  propu^.  To 

Propdcna'tion,  n.  5.  >  defend;     vindicate: 

Propugn'er.  '  J  defence:  he  who  de- 

fends. 

What  propugnatim  is  in  one  Qi^n's  valour, 

To  stand  the  push  and  enmity  of  those 

I'his  quarrel  would  excite  1  .  Shakapeare. 

Thankfulness  is  our  meet  tribute  to  those  sacred 
champions  for  propugning  of  our  faith.      Hammond. 

So  zealous  propugnerM  are  they  of  their  native 
creed,  that  they  are  importunately  ailigent  to  instruct 
men  in  it,  and  in  all  the  little  sophistries  for  defend- 
ing it.  Government  of  the  Tongue. 

PROPUL'SION,n.f.  IaU  propuUui.  The 
act  of  driving  forward. 

Joy  worketh  by  propulsion  of  the  moisture  of  the 
brain,  when  the  spiriu  dilate  and  occupy  more  room. 

Bacon, 

The  evanescent  solid  and  fluid  will  scarce  difier, 
and  the  extremities  of  those  smal^  canals  will  by  pro- 
pulsion  be  carried  off  with  the  fluid  continually. 

Arbulknot  on  Attments. 

PRORE',  n.5.  Lat.  prora.  The  prow;  the 
forepart  of  the  ship.  A  poetical  word,  used  for 
a  rhyme. 

There  no  vessel  with  vermilion  prore. 

Or  bark  of  traffic,  glides  from  shore  to  shore. 

Pope. 

PROROGUE',  V.  a. )      Fr.  proroger;  Latin 

ProrogaVion,  n. 5.  \prorogo.  To  protract; 
prolong;  put  off;  in  aparticukr  sense  withhold 
the  sitting  of  parliament :  the  noun  lubstantive 
corresponding. 

My  life  was  better  ended  by  their  hate, 

Than  death  prorogmdf  wanting  of  thy  bve. 

Shakspeare. 

By  the  king's  authority  alone  they  are  assembled, 
and  by  him  alone  are  they  prorogtied  and  dissolved  ; 
but  each  house  may  adjourn  itself.  Baron. 

He  prorogued  his  government,  still  threatening  to 
dismiss  himself  from  publick  cares.  Dryden. 

The  fulness  and  effluence  of  man's  enjoyments,  in 
the  state  of  innocence,  might  seem  to  leave  no  place 
for  hope,  in  respect  of  any  farther  addition,  but  only 
of  the  prorogation  and  future  continuance  of  what 
already  he  possessed.  South. 

It  would  seem  extraordinary,  if  an  inferior  court 
should  take  a  matter  out  of  the  hands  of  the  high 
court  of  parliament,  during  a  prorogation,      Smft. 

But  Savage  easily  reconciled  himself  to  mankind 
without  imputing  any  defect  to  his  woik,  by  observ- 
ing that  his  poem  was  unluckily  published  two  days 
after  the  prorogation  of  parliament.  Johnson. 

Prorogation  differs  from  an  adjournment  of 
parliament  in  this,  that  by  prorogation  the  ses- 
sion is  ended,  and  such  bills  as  passed  in  either 
house,  or  both  houses,  and  had  not  the  royal  as- 
sent, must  at  the  next  assembly  begin  again. 

PRORUPTION,  ».  5.  Lat  proruptuM,  pro- 
rumpo.    The  act  of  bursting  out. 

Others  ground  -this  disruption  upon  their  continued 
or  protracted  time  of  delivery,  whereat,  excluding 


but  one  a  day,  the  latter  brood,  impatient,  by  a  forcible 
proruption,  anticipate  their  perioa  of  exclusion. 

Aroume's  Vulgar  Errowt. 

PROSCRIBE',  ti.  a. -J     Latin  pnwmfto.    To 
Proscri'ber,  n.5.      > censure  capitally;  de- 
Pro'scrip'tion.        3cree  to  death   or   de- 
struction: the  proscriber  is  he  who  makes  or 
issues  such  a  decree:  proscription,  the  decree 
issued. 

Robert  Vere,  earl  of  Oxford,  through  the  malice 
of  the  peers,  was  banished  the  realm,  and  proscribed, 

Spenser. 
You  took  his  voice  who  should  be  prickt  to  die. 
In  our  black  sentence  and  proscription.    Shakspotsre. 

For  the  title  of  proscriptioi»  or  forfeituro,  the  em- 
peror hath  been  judge  and  party,  and  justiced  him- 
self. .  Bacon, 
I  hid  for  thee 
Thy  murder  of  thy  brother,  being  so  bribed, 
And  writ  him  in  tne  list  of  my  proseribod 
After  thy  fact.                                    Ben  Jonson, 
Sylla's  old  troops 
Are  needy  and  poor ;  and  have  but  left  t'  expect 
From  Catiline  new  bills  and  new  proteriptums.    Id, 
Followed  and  pointed  at  by  fools  and  boys. 
But  dreaded  and  proscribed  by  men  of  sense. 


He  shall  be  found. 
And  taken  or  proscribed  this  happy  ground. 

Dryden, 
The  triumvir  and  proscriber  had  descended  to  us 
in  a  more  hideous  form,  if  the  emperor  had  not 
taken  care  to  make  friends  of  Virgil  and  Horace. 

Id. 
Some  utterly  proscribe  the  name  of  chance,  as  a 
word  of  impious  and  profane  signification ;  and,  in- 
deed, if  taken  by  us  in  that  sense  in  which  it  was 
used  by  the  heathens,  so  as  to  make  any  thing  casual, 
in  respect  of  God  himself,  their  exception  ought 
justly  to  be  admitted.  Sewtk. 

In  the  year  325,  as  is  well  known,  the  Arian  doc- 
trines were  proscribed  and  anathematized  in  the  &- 
mous  council  of  Nice,  consisting  of  318  bishojps, 
ve^  unanimous  in  their  resolutions,  excepting  a  vsw 
reclaimants.  WatcrUtind, 

That  he  who  dares,  when  she  forbids,  be  grave. 
Shall  stand  proseribsdf  a  madman  or  a  knave, 
A  close  designer  pot  to  be  believed, 
Or,  if  excused  that  charge,  at  least  deceived. 

Cowpor, 

PROSE,  n.  5. 1     Fr.  prose ;  Lat.  prosa.  Lan- 
Prosa  ic,  adj.  \  guage  not  restrained  to  haiw 
monic  sounds  or  numbers ;  discourse  not  metri- 
cal :  prosaic,  the  corresponding  adiective. 
Things  unattempted  yet  in  prosie  or  rhyme. 

mUon, 
The  reformation  of  prow  was  owing  to  Boocace, 
who  is  the  standard  of  purity  in  the  Italian  tongue, 
though  many  of  his  phrases  are  become  obsolete. 

Dryden, 
A  poet  lets  you  into  the  knowledge  of  a  device 
better  than  a  prose  writer,,  as  his  aescriptioDs  an 
often  more  diffuse.  Addison, 

Prose  men  alone  for  private  ends, 
I  thought,  forsook  their  ancient  friends. 

Prior, 
My  head  and  heart  thus  flowing  through  my 
quill, 
Verse  man  and  prose  man,  term  me  which  you  wUl. 

Pope, 
I  will  be  still  your  friend  in  prose : 
Esteem  and  friendship  to  express. 
Will  not  require  poetic  diess.  Suift. 


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PROSISCUTE,  V.  a. )  Lat.  prasequor,  pny- 
Pkobecv'tioii,  n. f.  >«eciiftif.  To  pursue; 
Peos'ecutor.  I  persevere  io  endeavors 

titer  any  thing ;  continue ;  proceed ;  particu- 
larly»  to  proceed  by  legal  measures :  prosecution 
is,  pursuit;  continuance  of  design  or  effort; 
l^F^  suit :  prosecutor,  he  who  pursues  or  prose- 
cutes legally  or  otherwise. 

An  infinile  labour  to  pras«eitfe  those  things,  so  far 
as  they  might  be  exemplified  in  religious  and  civil 
actions.  Hocktr. 

I  am  beloved  of  beauteous  Hennia ; 
Why  should  not  I  then  protecuie  my  right  1 

Siakapeart, 
The  same  reasons,  which  induced  you  to  entertain 
this  war,  will  induce  you  also  to  yro$e€ute  the  same. 

HayuHird, 
All  resolute  to  froucuU  their  ire, 
Seeking  their  own  and  country's  cause  to  free. 

DanUL 
That  which  is  morally  good  is  to  be  desired  and 
nvMCMtc^  ;  that  which  is  evil  is  to  be  avoided. 

WUkiM. 

He  infested  Oxford,  which  gave  them  the  more 
reason  to  jmnecute  the  fortifications.         Clartndon. 
I  must  not  omit  a  father's  timely  care, 
To  froseeuu  the  means  of  thy  deliverance 
By  ransom.  MUton'i  Agotdttes. 

AVith  louder  cries 
She  proteeutti  her  griefs,  and  thus  replies. 

Dtyden, 
He  proteeuted  this  |>urpo5e  with  strength  of  argu- 
ment and  close  reasoning,  without  incoherent  sallies. 

Locke. 
Many  offer  at  the  effects  of  friendship,  but  they 
do  not  last ;  they  are  promising  in  the  beginning, 
but  they  fail,  jade,  and  tire  in  the  protecutitm. 

Smith. 
Their  jealousy  of  the  British  power,  as  well  as 
thev  pnutcutunu  of  commerce  and  pursuits  of  uni- 
versal monarchy,  will  fix  them  in  their  aversions  to- 
wards us.  Additon. 
Prosecution.    See  Law. 
PROS'ELYTE,  n.«.  &  v.  a,    Fr.  prouUte; 
Gr.  ir|MMn|Xvroc'    A  convert ;  one  brought  over 
to  a  new  opinion :  to  convert. 
Ye  compass  sea  and  land  to  make  one  protelyte, 

Matthew, 
Never  any  Pharisee  was  so  eager  to  make  a  proae- 
lft$,  as  our  late  factors  of  Rome.  HaU, 

He  that  saw  hell  in's  melancholy  dream, 
Seated  from  his  sins,  repented  in  a  fright. 
Had  he  viewed  Scotland,  and  turned  protelyte. 

CLeaneland. 
Where'er  you  tread, 
Millions  of  proselgte$  behind  are  led, 
Through  crowds  of  new-made  converts  still  you  go. 

OranviUe, 
Men  become  professors  and  combatants  for  those 
opinions  they  were  never  convinced  of,  nor  proulyin 
to.  Loehe, 

What  numbers  of  protelytet  may  vre  not  expect  1 

Additon, 
Men  of  this  temper  cut  themselves  off  from  the. 
opportiftiities  of  pratelyting  others,  by  averting  them 
nom  their  company.  Ootenment  of  the  Tongue, 
Proselyte,  in  theology,  is  used  to  denote  any 
new  conyert.  The  term  was  frequent  in  the  jpri- 
mitiye  church ;  and  the  Jews  likewise  had  their 
proselytes,  who  from  Gentiles  be(»me  Jews,  fol- 
lovring  the  precepts  of  the  Mosaic  law.  It  is 
generally  believea  that  among  the  Hebrews  there 
were  two  kinds  of  proselytes ;  one  called  prose^ 


lytes  of  righteousness,  or  proselytes  of  the  cove- 
nant, who  became  complete  Jews,  by  submitting 
to  the  rite  of  circumcision,  and  were  in  all  re- 
spects united  to  the  Jewish  church  and  nation. 
The  other  called  proselytes  of  the  gate,  who  did 
not  embrace  the  Jewish  religion,  so  as  to  be 
obliged  to  receive  or  observe  the  ceremonial  law, 
and  yet  were  suffered  to  live  among  the  Jews 
under  certain  restrictions ;  as  that  they  should 
not  practice  idolatry,  nor  worship  any  other  god 
bes*de  the  God  of  Israel ;  that  they  should  not 
blaspheme  the  God  of  Israel ;  that  they  should 
keep  the  Jewish  sabbath,  so  fhr  at  least  as  to  re- 
frain from  working  on  that  day.  Besides  for- 
saking idolatry,  they  were  under  an  obligation  to 
observe  the  seven  precepts,  which,  as  the  Tal- 
mudists  pretend,  God  gave  to  Adam,  and  after- 
wards to  Noah,  who  transmitted  them  to  posterity. 
The  first  of  these  precepts  forbids  idolatry,  and 
the  worship  of  the  stars  m  particular ;  the  second 
recommends  the  fear  of  God ;  the  third  forbids 
murder ;  the  fourth  adultery ;  the  fifth  theft ;  the 
sixth  enjoins  respect  and  veneration  for  magis- 
trates ;  and  the  seventh  condemns  eating  of  flesh 
with  the  blood. 

Dr.  Lardner,  with  whom  Dr.  Doddridge  and 
others  also  agree,  is  of  opinion  that  there  was 
but  one  sort  of  proselytes  among  the  Jews.  They 
were  circumcised,  and  thus  they  became  Jews 
by  religion,  and  were  permitted  to  eat  the  pass- 
over,  and  to  partake  of  all  religious  privileges, 
as  the  Jews  by  descent  did.  They  were  called 
<  strangers,  oi  proselytes  within  the  gates,  and 
sojourners,'  as  they  were  allowed  to  dwell  or 
sojourn  among  the  people  of  Israel.  And  they 
were  so  called,  because,  according  to  the  law 
of  Moses,  they  could  not  possess  land.  This  is 
the  sense  of  the  word  in  all  the  texts  of  the  New 
Testament  where  it  is  used.  Dr.  Lardner  thinks 
that  the  notion  of  two  kinds  of  Jewish  proselytes, 
cannot  be  found  in  any  Christian  writer  before 
the  fourteenth  century  or  later.  This  learned 
writer  pays  no  regard  to  what  the  later  Jewish 
rabbins  say  of  the  method  of  initiating  proselytes 
by  circumcision,  baptism,  and  sacrifice.  See 
I^otlner's  works,  and  Doddridge  on  the  Acts. 

Proselyte  Baptism.  The  Jews  (see  our  ar- 
ticle Baptism)  are  said  from*  an  early  period  to 
have  practised  the  baptism  of  all  their  proselytes 
from  the  heathen.  We  have  given  the  ingenious 
parallelism  that  has  been  drawn  by  some  writers 
oetween  that  supposed  custom  and  Christian 
baptism :  the  most  modem  and  respectable  au- 
thors, we  may  add,  continue  to  auote  the  con- 
stant practice,  as  it  has  been  called,  of  the  Jews 
in  this  matter  <  before  our  Saviour's  time,  as  the 
foundation  of  infrint  baptism.'  The  editor  of  the 
last  edition  of  Dr.  Gale's  Reply  to  Dr.  Wall 
wholly  disputes,  however,  the  validity  of  this 
argument,  and  insists  that  no  foundation  can  be 
found  for  it  in  authentic  history.  As  we  have 
not  met  elsewhere  with  so  detailed  an  examina- 
tion of  the  authorities  commonly  referred  to,  we 
subjoin  his  remarks  on  those  of  Dr.  Wall's  In- 
troduction. 

Dr.  Wall,  as  this  writer  concedes,  has  rested 
on  the  authority  of  some  considerable  names. 
That  is,  he  has  transferred  frt>m  the  pages  of 
Ainsworth,  Hammond,  Lightfoot,  &c.,  what  they 


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PROSELYTE    BAPTISM. 


State  to  be  found  in  *  the  books  of  the  Jews/ 
without  appearing  to  have  consulted  the  original 
authorities ;  '  partly/  as  he  states,  <  because  the 
quotations  for  that  purpose  are  to  be  searched 
for  in  books  with  which  I  am  not  so  well  ac- 

?uainted ;  and  partly  because  those  few  which 
shall  produce  will  make  it  clear  enough  that 
there  was  such  a  custom/  He  repeatedly  presses 
the  importance  of  establishing  this  custom  in  the 
controversy  with  Antipcdobaptists.  '  The  apos- 
tles must  know  that  baptism  was  usually  given 
to  in&nts.'  They  would  conceive  the  command 
to  proselyte  and  baptize  all  nations  to  include 
infimts  as  a  matter  or  course;  Christ  *  took  into 
his  hands  baptism/  says  he,  after  Lightfoot, 
<  such  as  he  found  it,  adding  with  this,  that  he 
exalted  it  to  a  nobler  purpose  and  to  a  larger 
use/ — ^and  after  Hammond,  that  'The  whole 
nation  knew  well  enough  that  infants  were  wont 
to  be  baptized.  There  was  np  need  of  a  pre- 
cept for  that  which  was  always  settled  by  com- 
mon use.  Suppose  there  should  at  this  time 
come  out  a  proclamation  in  these  words.  Every 
one  on  the  Lord's  Day  shall  repair  to  the  public 
assembly  in  the  church :  that  man  would  reason 
weakly  who  should  conclude  that  there  were  no 
prayers,  sermons,  psalms,  &c.,  in  the  public 
assemblies  on  the  Lord's  Day,  for  this  reason, 
because  there  was  no  mention  of  them  in  this 
proclamation ;  for  the  proclamation  ordered  the 
Keeping  of  the  Lord's  Day  in  the  public  assem- 
blies in  general;  and  there  was  no  need  that 
mention  should  be  made  of  the  particular  kinds 
of  divine  worship  there  to  be  used,  since  they 
were,  both  before  and  at  the  time  of  the  said 
proclamation,  known  to  every  body,  and  in  com- 
mon use.  Just  so  the  case  stood  as  to  baptism. 
Christ  ordered  it  to  be  for  a  sacrament  of  the 
New  Testament,  by  which  all  should  be  ad- 
mitted to  the  profession  of  the  gospel,  as  they 
wore  formerly  to  proselytism  in  the  Jews'  reli- 
gion. The  particular  circumstances  of  it,  as  the 
manner  of  baptizing,  the  age  of  receiving  it, 
which  sex  was  capable  of  it,  &c.,  had  no  need  of 
being  regulated  or  set  down,  because  they  were 
known  to  every  body  by  common  usage.  It 
was,  therefore,  necessary,  on  the  other  side,  that 
there  should  have  been  an  express  and  plain 
order  that  infiints  and  little  children  should  not 
be  baptized,  if  our  Saviour  had  meant  that  they 
should  not ;  for,  since  it  was  ordinary  in  all  ages 
before  to  have  infants  baptized,  if  Christ  would 
have  had  that  usage  to  be  abolished,  he  would 
have  expressly  forbidden  it;  so  that  his  and  the 
Scriptures'  silence  in  this  matter  does  confirm 
and  establish  infant  baptism  for  ever.' 

I.  Dr.  Wall's  first  position  is,  that  it  is  evident 
*  the  custom  of  the  Jews  before  our  Saviour's 
time  (and  as  they  themselues  affirm  from  the 
beginning  of  their  law)  was  to  baptize  as  well 
as  circumcise  any  proselyte  that  came  over 
to  them  from  the  nations.'  '  This  custom  of 
theirs,  he  says,  *  is  fully  and  largely  set  forth 
by  Maimonides,  Isura  Bia,  cap.  xiii.  and  xiv;' 
uom  whom  a  long  quotation  states  that  the  an- 
cient Israelites  entered  into  covenant  with  Je- 
hovah by  circumcision,  dipping,  and  sacrifice ; 
that  in  all  ages  when  an  EUmic  is  desirous  of 
joining  himself  to  Israel, '  and  take  upon  him  the 


yoke  of  the  law,  he  roust  be  circumcised,  and 
baptized,  and  bring  a  sacrifice ;  or,  if  it  be  a  wo- 
man, be  baptized  and  bring  a  sacrifice,'  with 
several  particulars  respecting  the  nature  of  the 
offering  that  was  to  be  brought,  the  time  of  per- 
forming the  baptism,  the  number  of  witnesses 
necessary,  &c.  Maimonides  further  asserts  that 
the  judges  received  no  proselytes  in  David's 
days,  lest  they  should  have  cothe  of  fear;  nor 
in  Solomon's,  lest  they  should  have  come  be- 
cause of  the  great  prosperity  of  Israel.  *  Not- 
withstanding there  were  many  proselytes,'  he 
adds, '  that  in  David's  and  Solomon's  time  joined 
themselves  in  the  presence  of  private  persons ; 
and  the  judges  of  the  great  sanhedrim  had  a 
care  of  them.  They  drove  them  not  away  after 
they  were  baptized  out  of  any  place;  neither 
took  they  them  near  to  them  until  their  after- 
fruits  appeared.' 

The  Babylonian  Talmud  says  the  same  thing 
with  regard  to  receiving  proselytes  by  baptism, 
according  to  Dr.  Wall,  and  only  differs  with  the 
Talmud  Hiersosol.  Jevamoth  as  to  the  number 
of  witnesses  that  should  be  present ;  and  here 
follow  three  quotations,  which  the  doctor  says 
are  taken  from  the  latter  (published  about  A.  £>. 
230),  but  which  in  point  of  fact  are  all  from  the 
former  (compiled  not  earlier  than  A.D.  500),  as 
Dr.  Gill  has  long  ago  remarked.  They  are  all 
from  T.  Bab  Yebamot,  fol.  xlvi.  2,  et  Gloss.  So 
that  we  have  not,  as  yet,  any  authority  earlier 
than  the  Babylonian  Talmud,  or  a  Collection  of 
Jewish  Traditions  and  Comments  on  the  Law, 
published  at  the  beginning  of  the  sixth  century 
of  the  Christian  era.  Leo  M odena  is  then  quoted 
to  show  that  the  modem  Jews  continue  this 
practice. 

The  Gemara  Babyloji.  tit.  Cherithoth,  and  tit. 
Jabimoth  (portions  of  this  Talmud)  are  after- 
wards brought  forward  to  prove  that  <  the  books 
do  speak  of  this  washing  or  baptism  as  abso* 
lutely  necessary ;'  that '  he  is  no  proselyte  unless 
he  be  circumcised  and  baptized ;'  the  Talmud 
Tract  Repudii  (also  a  part  of  the  Babylonian 
Talmud),  as  quoted  by  Godwin  in  his  Moses  and 
Aaron,  states  that  Jethro,  the  father-in-law  of 
Moses,  was  <  made  a  proselyte  by  circumcision 
and  immersion  in  waters ;'  the  comment  of  Moset 
Kotsensis,  a  Jewish  writer  of  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury, that '  a  purification  by  water*  was  neces- 
sary ;  and  Drusius,  a  learned  Fleming  of  the 
sixteenth  century,  that  <  of  a  woman  proselyte 
were  required  only  purification  by  water  and 
oblation.  It  is  on  this  collection  of  authorities 
(and  we  have  mentioned  them  all)  that  Dr.  Wall 
remarks,  *  This  custom  of  the  Jews  continued 
after  Christ's  time,  and  after  their  expulsion  from 
the  Holy  Land;  and  continues,  as  I  showed 
from  Leo  Modena,  to  this  day.' 

He  now  cites  the  testimony  of  Arrian,  who 
(A.  D.  147)  calls  the  Jews  fttPa/ifUimQ,  the 
dipped ;  and  proceeds  to  show  how  the  Jewish 
doctors  *  prove  the  necessity  of  this  washing  and 
baptism  from  Moses'  law ;'  he  says  that  many  of 
them  understand  the  command,  Exod.  xix.  10, 
for  the  people  to  sanctify  themselves,  as  meaning 
to  wash  or  baptize  themselves;  that  Aben  Ezra, 
who  died  A.D.  1174,  understands  Jacob's  in- 
junction to  his  family  on  the  subject  of  meeting 


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God  at  Betliel,  Genesis  xxxv.  2,  to  refer  to  '  a 
washing  of  their  whole  bodies;'  he  mentions 
Selden  as  showinf^  from  several  Jewish  commen- 
tators that  when  the  washing  of  garments  is  men- 
tionedy  Lev.  xi.  xiv.,  and  in  various  other  places, 
the  washing  of  the  whole  body  is  intended ;  and 
i^ain  adverts  to  M aimonides  and  the  Babylonian 
Talmud  on  the  subject  of  the  *  three  things*  re- 
quired of  a  proselyte,  because  they  were  origi- 
nally requir^  of  the  Jews.  Of  these,  says  Mai- 
monides,  '  Baptism  was  in  the  wilderness,  just 
before  the  giving  of  the  law,  as  it  b  written, 
Sanctify  them  to-day  and  to-morrow  and  let 
them  wash  their  clothes/  Dr.  W.  concludes 
his  list  of  Jevrish  authorities  with  the  words  of 
R.  Solomon,  who  lived  in  the  twelfth  century, 
*  Our  rabbins  teach  that  our  fathers  entered  into 
covenant  by  circumcision  and  baptism,  and 
sprinkling  of  blood.' 

St.  Gregory  Nazianzen,  Cyprian,  Basil,  and 
Tertullian,  are  then  brought  as  early  Christian 
witnesses  of  this  baptism  amongst  the  Jews.  St. 
Gregory  speaks  of  Moses  giving  a  baptism  or 
washing  with  water  only,  and  wat  *  before  that 
they  were  baptized  with  the  cloud  and  the  sea, 
as  St.  Paul  reasons ;'  Cyprian  of  *  the  baptism 
of  *  the  law  and  of  Moses ;'  which  Basil  com- 
pares with  that  of  John  and  Christ.  '  Before 
them  all,  however,'  observes  Dr.  Wall,  *  Tertul- 
lian complains  of  the  devil  aping  or  imitating 
tlie  things  of  God,'  in  tiie  rites  of  Ceres  and 
Apollo,  which  were  accompanied  with  baptism ; 
and  which  *  divine  baptism,'  so  imitated.  Dr.  Wall 
says,  must  intend  the  Jewish  baptism. 

Such  are  the  entire  authorities  of  Dr.  Wall 
^rhis  first  and  most  iiQportant  position,  that 
Jewish  proselyte  baptism  was  not  only  in  exist- 
€nce  before  our  Saviour's  time,  but  even  from 
the  bmnning  of  the  Mosaic  dispensation. 

II.  Dr.  W  all  secondly  proposes  to  show,  that 
the  infants  of  proselytes  lx)m  previous  to  their 
conversion  to  Judaism  were  baptized  with  their 
prents,  and  admitted  as  proselytes.  The  Ba- 
oylonian  Talmud  is  here  again  his  first  autho- 
rity; then  follows  a  passage  from  the  text  of  the 
Mishna. 

This  is  a  compendium  of  Jewish  traditions 
collected  by  R.  Jehuda  Hakkodesh,  in  the 
middle  of  the  second  century  of  the  Christian 
era,  and  the  most  authentic  depository  of  the 
oral  law  said  to  be  delivered  oy  Jehovah  to 
Moses,  together  with  the  written  law,  during  the 
forty  days  he  was  in  Sinai.  When  Moses  re- 
turned to  his  tent,  according  to  Maimonides,  he 
was  attended  by  Aaron,  to  whom  he  recited  the 
text  (which  alone  was  written)  and  taught  the 
interpretation  which  he  thus  received;  £leazar 
and  Ithamar  then  entered,  to  whom  he  repeated 
the  sacred  communications;  then  the  seventy 
elders,  to  whom  he  again  repeated  the  whole ; 
afterwards  entered  the  congregation  at  large,  to 
whom  it  was  once  more  repeated;  and  being 
thus  heard  by  Aaron  four  times,  by  his  sons  three 
times,  by  the  seventy  elders  twice,  and  by  the 
congregation  once,  it  became  firmly  and  proper- 
tiocially  fixed  in  their  memories.  Rabbi  Moses 
Kotsensis,  quoted  by  Dr.  Wall  in  a  former  page, 
says, '  If  the  oral  law  had  not  been  added  to  the 
written  law,  the  whole  law  would  have  been  ob- 
VoL.  XVIII. 


scure  and  unintelligible.  For  in  the  first  place 
there  are  Scriptures  contrary  to  each  other ;  and, 
in  the  next  place,  the  written  law  is  imperfect, 
and  comprenends  not  all  that  is  necessary  to  be 
known.'  '  He  that  has  learned  the  Scripture  and 
not  the  Mishna  is  a  blockhead,'  according  to  one 
of  the  maxims  of  *he  Gemara. 

According  to  the  Mishna,  on  which  the  Tal- 
muds  contain  Glosses  or  Comments,  a  girl  bom 
of  heathen  parents  and  made  a  proselyte  after  she 
is  three  years  and  a  day  old,  shall   not  have 

*  such  and  such  privileges,'  as  Dr.  Wall  quotes 
it.  That  is,  as  the  whole  passage  runs,  a  cer- 
tain matrimonial  dowry.  The  iSibylonian  Tal- 
mud says,  that  if  she  be  made  a  proselyte  before 
that  age  she  shall-  have  it ;  and  the  Gemara  or 
Comment  of  this  Talmud  that  ^  they  are  wont  to 
baptize  such  a  proselyte  in  infancy  upon  the 
profession  of  the  nouse  of  judgment;  for  this  is 
for  its  good.'  The  Mishna  itself,  as  quoted  by 
Dr.  Wall,  has  not  a  word  respecting  baptism 
or  dipping,  or  how  the  proselyte  was  to  be  made 
such,  nor  the  Jerusalem  Talmud  on  the  place. 

*  But  they  are  wont  to  baptize,'  says  the  above 
Gloss  of  the  sixth  centuiy,  '  because  none  is 
made  a  proselyte  without  circumcision  or  bap- 
tism.' It  then  speaks  of  the  appointment  of 
three  men  as  a  kind  of  sponsors  for  the  educa- 
tion of  the  child. 

Maimonides  quotes  this  passage,  therefore  Dr. 
Wall  quotes  him  again  here ;  and  from  Selden 
the  rule,  originally  found  in  the  same  Gemara  or 
Gloss,  Uiat  a  male  child  was  not  to  be  considered 
capable  of  giving  his  o^  consent  to  become  a 
proselyte  until  he  wa^  thirteen  years  old  and  a 
day;  but  a  female  might  give  her  consent,  or 
be  proselyted  in  her  own  name,  at  twelve  years 
and  a  day. 

The  opinions  of  several  Jewish  and  Christian 
doctors  are  then  quoted,  as  to  the  power  of  in- 
fants to  retract  their  baptismal  vows ;  and  a  quo- 
tation by  Hammond  of  a  '  saying'  from  Mai- 
monides (who  quotes  it  from  the  Babylonian 
Talmud),  that  *  A  heathen  woman,  if  she  be 
made  a  proselyte  when  big  with  child,  that  child 
needs  not  baptism,  for  the  baptism  of  die  mother 
serves  him  for  baptism.'  Children  bom  to  pro- 
selytes after  their  parents  were  baptized,  *  they 
reckoned  were  clean  by  their  birth.^ 

And  these  are  all  the  proofs  of  Jewish  infiint^ 
baptism  produced  by  Dr.  Wall,  beginning  with 
a  Jewish  Commentary  of  the  sixth  century,  and 
confirmed  by  subsequent  writers. 

III.  Dr.  Wall,  thirdly,  undertakes  to  prove  that 
gentile  infants  found  exposed,  or  taken  in  war, 
were  frequently  '  baptized  for  proselytes.'  So 
says  Maimonides ;  and  by  Dr.  Wall  the  baptism 
of  such  a  child  is  said  to  be  according  to  the 
rule  of  rabbi  Hezekiah,  set  dovm  in  the  Jerasa- 
lem  Talmud.  This  mle,  however,  which  he  re- 
cites, relates  entirely  to  the  dipping  for  servi- 
tude, or  otherwise,  or  a  civil  designation  totally 
distinct  from  the  baptism  of  proselytes,  as  Mai- 
monides himself  states,  the  former  being  re- 
peated (anabaptistically)  in  case  pf  the  servant 
ever  becoming  free ;  that  is,  he  was  then  dipped 
or  dipped  himself,  for  the  ten  thousandth  tmie 
perhaps,  with  a  difiefent  object  in  view.  See 
isuri  Biah,  c.  xiii.  ss.  11  and  12,  &c. 


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And  these  are  Dr.  Wall's  authorities  for  hit 
third  conclusion. 

IV.  His  fourth  is  entirely  grounded  on  the 
preceding,  viz.  that  the  baptism  of  proselytes  was 
called  by  the  Jews  a  new  birth,  a  regeneration, 
or  being  born  again.  He  quotes  the  Babylonian 
Gemara  and  Maimonides  in  support  of  this,  the 
latter  of  whom  applies  the  same  phrase  to  '  a 
servant  made  free.  Dr.  Wall  thinks  that  our 
Lord  adopted  this*  phraseology  in  his  conversa- 
tion with  Nicodemus,  that  St.  Paul  alludes  to  it, 
2  Cor.  V.  16,  17,  &c.,  and  that  the  Fathers  con* 
tinned  it  in  their  manner  of  stating  regeneration. 
This  writer  afterwards  draws  a  sort  of  parallel 
between  what  he  conceives  to  have  been  the 
Jewish  and  the  early  Christian  modes  of  bap- 
tizing, with  regard  both  to  adults  and  infants ; 
he  again  quotes  the  Babylonian  Talmud,  in  reply 
to  Sir  Norton  Knatchbull,  to  prove  '  the  wise 
men  pronouoced'  that  until  he  were  '  both  cir- 
cumcised and  baptized  no  gentile  could  be  a 
proselyte;'  this, however,  is  the  statement  of  but 
one  side  of  a  dispute ;  and  with  rabbi  Eliezer 
(who  was  on  the  other  side)  and  who  pronounced, 
even  at  this  date,  that  a  gentile  circumcised  and 
not  baptized  was  an  honorable  proselyte,  the 
decision  is  always  held  to  rest.  Tnis  is  the  en- 
tire amount  of  evidence  produced,  by  the  doctor. 

*  A  more  singular  instance  of  confused  quota- 
tions,' says  this  writer, '  passing  current  with  the 
world  for  proofs,  never  perhaps  was  afibrded, 
than  in  the  authority  this  Introauction  has  been 
allowed  in  the  baptisms^  controversy.  Wall 
never,  it  is  clear,  examined  the  works  on  which 
he  ultimately  rests  this  important  part  of  his  ar- 
gument (and  upon  which  *so  many  respectable 
writers  Jiave  rested  their  notions  of  the  matter 
after  him) ;  he  does  not  even  seem  to  have  paid 
the  attention  of  an  ordinary  compiler  to  their 
dates.  Thus  a  writer  (Maimonides)  of  the  latter 
end  of  the  twelfth  century,  the  Babylonian  Tal- 
mud first  published  in  the  sixth  century,  and 
the  Jerusalem  Talmud  (which  he  thinks  he  is 
quoting)  of  the  third  century,  Moses  Kotsensis 
who  flourished  in  the  fourteenth,  and  Drusius, 
a  writer  of  the  sixteenth  century,  are  made  to 
speak  in  succession  as  to  the  existence  of  a 
custom  disputed  in  point  of  date,  and  evidently 
as  if  they  were  all  speaking  of  the  same  period. 
After  quoting  the  last  writer  he  gravely  says, 
*  this  custom  of  the  Jews  continued  after  Christ's 
time,  and  after  their  expulsion  from  the  Holy 
Land.' 

PROSEMINATION,  ».  *.  Lat.  protemino, 
proieminatus.    Propagation  by  seed. 

Touching  the  impossibility  of  the'Ctemal  succes- 
sion of  men,  animals,  or  vegetables,* by  natural  pro- 
pagation or  jmuemination,  the  reasons  thereof  snail 
be  delivered.  Hale. 

PROSERPINACA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the 
trigynia  order,  and  triandria  class  of  plants ;  na- 
tund  order  fifteenth,  inundats:  cal.  tripartite 
superior  :  cor.  none:  there  isonetrilocularseed. 

PROSERPINE,  in  febulous  history,  the 
daughter  of  Jupiter  and  Ceres,  and  queen  of 
hell.  She  was  carried  off  by  Pluto  while  gather- 
ing flowers.  Ceres,  after  a  tedious  search,  in- 
treated  Jupiter  to  let  her  return  from  hell.  To 
this  request  Jupiter  consented,  if  she  had  tasted 


nothing  in  hell ;  but  Ascalaphus  inibnning  him 
that  he  had  seen  her  eat  part  of  a  pomegranate,  she 
was  sentenced  to  continue  in  Tartarus  as  Pluto's 
spouse ;  but,  to  mitigate  the  grief  of  Ceres,  Ju- 
piter ordered  her  to  spend  six  months  on  earth, 
and  the  other  six  months  in  the  infernal  regions. 
Some  explain  this  fiible  to  relate  to  the  com  re- 
maining six  months  in  the  earth. 

PROSEUCH^,  in  antiquity  [Gr.  irpo4rcvx9> 
prayer],  the  places  of  prayer  of  the  Jews,  nearly 
the  same  as  their  synagogues.  But  the  syna- 
gogues were  oiiginally  in  the  cities,  and  were 
covered  places ;  whereas,  for  the  most  part,  the 
proseuchte  were  out  of  the  cities,  and  on  the 
banks  of  rivers ;  having  no  covering,  except  per- 
haps the  shade  of  some  trees  or  covered  galleries. 

PROSLAMBANOMENE,  a  musical  note  in 
the  Greek  system.  As  the  two  tetrachords  of  the 
Greeks  were  conjunctive,  or,  in  other  words,  as 
the  highest  note  of  the  first  served  likewise  for 
the  lowest  note  of  the  second,  it  is  plain  that  a 
complete  octave  could  not  be  formed.  To  remedy 
this  deficiency,  therefore,  one  note  beneath  the 
lowest  tetrachord  was  added,  as  an  octave  to  the 
highest  of  the  last  tetrachord.  Thus,  if  we  sup- 
pose the  first  to  have  bc^n  on  B,  the  last  must 
have  ended  upon  A,  to  which  one  note  subjoined 
immediately  beneath  the  lowest  B  in  the  diato- 
nic order  must  have  formed  an  octaVe.  But  it 
appears  from  authors  who  have  scrutinised  anti- 
quity with  some  diligence,  and  perhaps  with  as 
much  success  as  the  data  upon  ^hich  they  pro- 
ceeded could  produce,  that  the  naines  of  the 
notes  in  the  Greek  system,  which  originally  sig- 
nified their  natural  station  in  the  scale  of  ascend- 
ing or  descending  sounds,  were  afterwards  ap- 
plied to  their  positions  in  the  lyre.  Higher  or 
lower,  then,  according  to  this  application,  did 
not  signify  their  degree  of  acuteness  or  gravity, 
but  their  higher  or  lower  situation  upon  this  in- 
strument. 

PROS'ODY,  n.  t.  >      Fr.  prosodU ;  Gr.   irpo- 

Prqso'dian.  Icrw^ia.      That     part     of 

grammar  which  teaches  the  sound  and  quantity 
of' syllables,  and  the  measures  of  verse;  one 
skilled  in  prosody. 

Some  have  been  so  bad  proto^nt,  as  from  thence 
to  derive  malum,  because  that  fruit  was  the  first  oc- 
casion of  evil.  Browne^ 

Many  of  the-  rules  and  observations  respecting 
prosody  are  taken  from  Sheridan's  Art  of  Reading. 

Murrojf^ 

Prosody,  in  grammar,  treats  of  the  quan- 
tity of  syllables,  as  well  as  their  accent  and 
sound ;  it  has  also  been  held  to  include  the  laws 
of  versification.  Its  most  important  and  popular 
application  is  to  quantity,  although  its  Greek 
etymon,  irpoc*»9ta  (irpoc,  «5i|)  would  certainly 
teach  us  to  include  accent,  and  therefore  both 
pause,  and  tune.  We  devote,  however,  a  dis- 
tinct article  to  Versification,  to  which  we  refer 
the  reader  for  much  we  should  otherwise  be  here 
disposed  to  say  on  the  latter  topics ;  and  under 
Quantity  will  be  found  what  relates  peculi- 
arly to  that  subject.    See  Pronunciation. 

PROSOPIS,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  mono- 
gynia  order,  and  decandria  class  of  plants :  cal. 
hemispherical  and  quadridentate :  stigma  sim- 
ple; the  legume  inflated  and  monospermous.  ' 


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PROSOPOPOEIA,  n.$.  Fr.  prosopopU ; 
Gr.  irpoffmiroiroua.  Personification;  a  figure  of 
rhetoric  by  which  things  are  made  persons. 

These  reasoos  are  argued,  and  raised  by  the  pro- 
upop^ia  of  nature  speaking  to  her  children. 

Dryden. 

PROS'PECT,  n. «.  I      LskU  proiq)cctus.    View 

Prospec'tive,  adj.  ]  bf  something  distant  or 
future ;  view  delineated ;  place  of  view ;  series 
of  objects  brought  under  tne  eye :  the  adjective 
corresponding. 

To  be  king. 
Stands  not  within  the  prorpeet  of  belief, 
No  more  than  to  be  Cawdor. 

Shakspeare.  Mucbeth. 
Man  to  himself 
Is  a  large  proipect,  raised  above  the  level 
Of  hia  low  creeping  thoughts.  Denham. 

Eden  and  all  the  coast  in  protpeet  lay. 

MiUon, 
The  French  king  and  king  of  Sweden  are  circum- 
spect, indnstueus  and  prospectivt  too  in  this  affair. 

Child, 
Is  he  a  prudent  man,  as  to  his  temporal  estate, 
that  lajs  designs  only  for  a  dav.  without  any  jtrospect 
to,  or  provision  for  the  remaining  part  of  his  life  ? 

TiUotton, 
It  is  better  to  many  than  to  burn,  says  St.  Paul ; 
a  httle  burning  felt  pushes  us  more  powerfully,  than 
greater  pleasures  in prtvpect  allure.  LocHe, 

Against  himself  his  gratitude  maintained, 
By  favours  past,  not  future  prospects  gained. 

Smith* 
There  is  a  very  noble  prospect  from  this  place :  on 
the  one  side  lies  a  vast  extent  of  seas,  that  runs 
abroad  further  than  the  eye  can  reach :  just  opposite 
stands  the  green  promontory  of  Surentum,  and  on 
the  other  slide  the  whole  circuit  of  the  bay  of  Naples. 

Addison, 
Present,  sad  pro^ieet !  can  he  ought  descry, 
fiat  what  affects  his  melancholy  eve  ; 
lite  beauties  t>f  the  ancient  fabric k  lost 
la  chains  of  craggy  hills,  or  length  of  dreary  coast  *! 

Prior, 
To  sa^  more  of  a  man  than  one  thinks,  with  a  pros- 
feet  of  interest,  is  dishonest ;  and  without  it  foolish. 

Pope. 
Claude  Lorrain,  on  the  contrary,  was  convinced, 
that  taking  nature  as  he  found  it  seldom  produced 
beauty ;  his  pictures  are  a  composition  of  the  va- 
Hobs  draughts  which  he  has  previously  made  from 
various  beautiful  scenes  and  prospects.        Reynolds. 
Proepeets,  however  lovelv,  may  be  seen 
Till  half  their  beauties  fa({e.  Cowper. 

PR0STER;v.ii.  &i7.n.* 

PaOSPEK'lTY, 

Pros'perous,  4 

Pros'perously, 

Pbos'perousness. 
prosperity  and   prosperoosness  mean  success; 
oappiness ;  good  fortune :  the  adjective  and  ad- 
verb corresponding. 

My  word  shall  not  return  void,  but  accomplish 
that  which  I  please,  and  it  shall  prosper  in  the  thing 
wfaereunto  I  sent  it.  Uaiah. 

Proeperiixf,  in  r<^;ard  of  our  corrupt  inclination  to 
those  the  blessings  of  Almighty  God,  doth  prove 
a  thing  dangerous  to  the  souls  of  men.        Hooker. 
Kind  gods,  forgive 
Me  that,  and  prosper  him. 

Shak$peare.  King  Lear, 


PRO 


Proaperousltf  I  have  attempted,  and 
With  bloody  passage  led  your  wars,  even  to 
The  gates  of  iiome.  Id.  C<yriolanus. 

All  things  do  prosjier  best,  when  they  are  advanced 
to  the  better ;  a  nursery  of  stocks  ought  to  be  in  a 
more  barren  ground,  than  that  whereunto  you  remove 
them.  Baco7i. 

God's  justice  reaps  that  glory  in  our  calamities, 
which  we  robbed  him  of  in  our  pros])erity. 

King  Charles, 
Surer  to  prosper,  than  prosperity 
Could  have  assured  us.  Milton. 

She  visits  how  they  prospered,  bud,  and  bloom.    Id. 

I'hat  neat  kind  of  acer,  whereof  violins  and  mu- 
sical instruments  are  made,  prospers  well  in  these 
parts.  Broume's  Travels. 

All  things  concur  to  prosper  our  design  ; 

All  things  to  prosper  any  love  but  mine.  Dryden. 

Those,  who  are  prosperously  unjust,  are  intitled  to 
panegyrick,  but  afflicted  virtue  is  stabbed  with  re- 
proaches. Id. 

Prosperity  which  depends  upon  the  caprice  of 
others  is  of  short  duration.  Johnson. 

PROSSNITZ,  or  Prostiegow,  a  trading  town 
of  the  Austrian  States  in  Moravia,  the  chief 
place  of  the  district  of  Ilanna,  and  situated'  in 
the  midst  of  a  very  fertile  tract.  Nine  miles 
S.  S.  W.  of  Olmutz. 

PROSTAT-/E  Glanduue,  prostate  glands-. 
See  Anatomy. 

PROSTERNATION,  n.$.  Lat.  pro$terno. 
Dejection;  depression;  state  of  being  cast 
down ;  or  act  of  casting  down.  A  word  not 
adopted. 

Pain  interrupts  the  cure  of  ulcers,  whence  are 
stirred  up  a  fever,  watching,  and  prostemation  of 
spirits.  Wiseman. 

PROSTITUTE,  V.  o.,  adj.,  &  n. «.  {     French 

Prostitu'tion,  n.  t.  5  prostiuer; 

Span,  and  Port,  prosit ituyr ;  Lat.  prostituo. 
To  sell  to  wickedness ;  expose  to  crimes  for  a 
reward :  bribed  or  sold  to  vice :  a  hireling  or 
mercenary  so  sold.  Commonly  used  of  women 
sold  to  whoredom.  Prostitution,  the  act  or  habit 
of  being  prostituted. 

Do  not  prostitute  thy  daughter,  to  cause  her  to  be 
a  whore.  Leviticus  zix.  29. 

Who  shall  prevail  with  them  to  do  that  themselves 
which  they  beg  of  God,  to  spare  his  people  aud  h-.a 
heritage,  to  prostitute  them  no  more  to  their  own 
sinister  designs  ?  Decay  of  Piety, 

Marrying  or  prM(i(irtitig, 
Rape  or  adultery.       MiUon*s  Paradise  Lost. 

It  were  unfit  that  so  excellent  and  glorious  a  re- 
ward, as  the  gospel  promises,  should  stoop  down  like 
fruit  upon  a  full  laden  bough,  to  be  plucked  by  every 
idle  and  wanton  hand,  that  heaven  should.be  prosti- 
tuted to  slothful  men.  Tillotson. 
At  open  fulsome  bawdry  they  rejoice. 

Base  prostitute!  thus  dost  thou  gain  thy  bread. 

Dryden. 

An  inlamous  woman,  having  passed  her  youth  in 
a  most  shameless  state  of  prostitution,  now  gains 
her  livelihood  by  seducing  others. 

Addison's  Spectator, 

Affections,  consecrated  t  >  children,  husbands,  and 
parents,  are  vilely  prostituted  and  thrown  away  upon 
a  hand  at  loo.  Addison, 

Their  common  loves,  a  lewd  abandoned  pack 
By  sloth  corrupted,  by  disorder  fed. 
Made  bold  by  want,  and  prostitute  for  bread. 

Prior. 

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No  hireling  sliet  no  prottituU  to  praise.       Pope. 
PROSTRATE,  adf.  &  «.  o.  I      Lat.  proitra- 
Prostha'tion,  n.  «.  S  tus.    Lying  at 

length  ;  a  posture  denoting  adoration  and  humi- 
liation ;  hence  lying  at  mercy :  to  lay  flat ;  throw 
down :  the  noun  substantive  corresponds,  and 
means,  also,  dejection ;  depression. 

Once  I  saw  with  dread  oppressed 
Her  whom  I  dread  ;  so  that  with  pnutrate  lying. 
Her  length  the  earth  in  lovers  chief  cloathing  dressed. 

A  storm  that  all  things  doth-proHrate, 
Finding  a  tree  alone  all  comfortless. 
Beats  on  it  strongly,  it  to  ruinate.       Spentgr. 
The  warning  sound  was  no  sooner  heard,  but  the 
churches  were  fiUed,   the   pavement  covered  with 
bodies  prostrate,  and  washed  with  tears  of  devout 
joy.  Hooker. 

Look  gracious  on  thy  prottrate  thrall. 

Shak$peare. 
In  the  streets  many  they  slew,  and  fired  divers 
places,  prostrating  two  parishes  almost  entirely. 

Haytoard, 
He  heard  the  western  lords  would  undermme 
His  city's  wall,  and  lay  his  towers  prottrate. 

FairfaT, 
Our  mrottrate  bosomes  forc*t  with  prayers  to  trie. 
If  any  hospitable  right,  or  boone 
Of  other  nature,  such  as  have  bin  wonne 
By  laws  of  other  houses,  thou  wilt  give.  Chapman* 

Your  lordships  must  give  me  leave  to  say  that  the 
poor  Church  of  England  humbly  proetratet  herself, 
next  after  his  sacred  majesty,  at  your  lordships'  feet ; 
and  humbly  craves  your  compassion  and  aid. 

Bp.  Hall. 
Some  have  prottrated  themselves  an  hundred  times 
in  the  day,  and  as  often  in  the  night.  Duppa. 

Grovelling  and  prottrate  on  yon  lake  of  fire. 

MiUon. 
Nor  is  only  a  resolved  prottration  unto  antiquity  a 
powerful  enemy  unto  knowledge,  but  any  confident 
adherence  unto  authority.  BroKne. 

Stake  and  bind  up  your  weakest  plants  against  the 
winds,  before  they  come  too  fiercely,  and  in  a  moment 
prostrate  a  whole  year's  labour.  Evefyn. 

The  truths,  they  had  subscribed  to  in  speculation, 
they  reversed  by  a  brutish  senseless  devotion,  ma- 
naged with  a  greater  pnufroiion  of  reason  than  of 
body.  SoutK. 

The  drops  falling  thicker,  faster,  and  with  greater 
force,  beating  down  the  fruit  from  the  trees,  protirat^ 
ing  and  laying  com  growing  in  the  fields. 

Woodward* 9  Natural  BUtory, 
A  sudden  prottration  of  strength,  or  weakness,  at-? 
tends  this  colick.  Arhutknot. 

While  prottrate  here  in  humble  grief  I  lie, 
Kind  virtuous  drops  just  gathering  in  my  eye. 

Pope. 
The  general  idea  of  showing  respect  is  by  making 
yourself  less ;  but  the  manner,  whether  by  bowing  the 
body,  kneeling,  prostratiom,  pulling  off  the  upper  part 
of  our  dress,  or  uking  away  the  lower,  ia  a  matter  of 
custom.  Sir  J,  ReynoUls. 

PROSYL'LOGISM,  n.s.   Pro  and  syllogism. 

A  protjfUogitm  is  when  two  or  more  syllogisms  are 
so  connected  together  that  the  conclusion  of  the  for> 
mer  is  the  major  or  the  minor  of  the  following. 

IValtt. 

PROTAGORAS,  a  celebrated  Greek  philoso- 
pher, bom  at  Abdera.  Being  in  his  youth  em- 
ployed in  carrying  wood  to  Abdera,  Democritus 


met  him  one  day,  and,  observing  the  logs  packed 
up  with  mathematical  exactness,  took  him  mider 
his  protection,  maintained  him,  and  taught  bim 
philosophy.  He  afterwards  himself  taught  with 
reputation  at  Athens,  but  was  at  length  buiished 
thence  for  the  alleged  impiety  of  his  doctrines. 
Of  this  he  was  accused  by  different  persons,  and 
among  others  by  one  of  his  scholars,  viz.  £ual- 
thus,  who  asserted  that  in  one  of  his  books  he 
had  said,  '  concerning  the  gods  I  am  wholly 
unable  to  determine  whether  they  have  any 
existence  or  not ;  for  the  weakness  of  the  human 
understanding,  and  the  shortness  of  human  life, 
with  other  causes,  prevent  us  from  attaining  this 
knowledge.'  Similar  opinions  were  also  to  be 
met  with  in  some  of  his  other  writings,  and,  on 
this  account,  they  were  ordered  to  be  collected 
and  burnt  in  the  market-place.  He  had  unques- 
tionably an  inclination  to  scepticism.  Adopting 
the  doctrine  of  Democritus,  that  the  atoms  of 
which  bodies  are  composed  are  in  perpetual 
motion,  Protagoras  conceived  that  external  ob- 
jects are  liable  to  such  continual  fluctuation  that 
nothing  can  certainly  be  known  of  them;  and 
hence  he  concluded  that  nothing  can  be  pro- 
nounced to  exist,  but  that  which  is  at  any  instant 
perceived  by  the  senses ;  and  that  since  these  are 
perpetually  varying,  things  themselves  accord- 
ingly vary,  so  that,  upon  me  same  evidence,  that 
of  the  senses,  contradictory  opinions  may  be 
advanced.  Qn  his  banishment  from  Athens  he 
visited  the  islands  in  the  Mediterranean,  where 
it  is  said  that  he  was  the  first  philosopher  that 
lectured  for  money.  He  died  in  a  voyage  to 
Sicily,  in  a  very  advanced  age.  He  commonly 
reasoned  by  dilemmas,  and  left  the  mind  in 
suspense  with  respect  to  all  the  questions  be 
proposed.  Plato  wrote  a  dialogue  against  him. 
He  flourished  about  A.  A.  C.  400. 

PROTAnCK,  flrf;.  Fr.  protatique;  Or. 
wp&rartKoc.    Previous. 

There  are  protatick  persons  in  the  ancients,  whom 
they  use  in  their  plays  to  hear  or  give  the  relation. 

Drydm. 

PROTEA,  in  botany,  the  silver  tree,  a  genus 
of  the  monogynia  order,  and  tetrandria  class  of 
plants;  natural  order  forty-eighth,  aggregatae. 
rhere  is  one  quadrifid  petal  surrounding  the 
germ:  cal.  none;  the  receptacle  is  paleaceous. 
There  are  thirty-six  species,  all  natives  of  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope ;  of  which  the  most  re- 
markable are : — 

1.  P.  aigentea,  commonly  called  silver  tree, 
with  a  strong  upright  stem,  covered  widi  pur- 
plish bark,  divining  into  several  branches  which 
grow  erec^  garnished  with  broad,  shining,  silvery 
leaves/  which  make  a  fine  appearance  when  in- 
termixed with  other  exotics.  Through  the  whole 
year  it  exhibits  its  glossy  white  or  silvery  leaves. 
It  has  at  first  a  very  uncommon  and  beautiful 
appearance,  and  sometimes  in  the  course  of  twelve 
or  fifteen  years  reaches  the  height  of  twenty 
feet,  which  it  never  exceeds.  These  trees  are 
generally  planted  near  some  fiirms,  and  very 
seldom  grow  wild. 

2.  P.  conifera,  with  linear,  spear-shaped, 
entire  leaves,  grows  to  the  hei^t  of  ten  or 
twelve  feet,  wiUi  a  straight  regular  stem.  The 
branched  naturally  form  a  large  regular  head. 

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The  leaves  are  long  and  nanow,  of  a  shining 
silver  color ;  and,  as  they  remain  the  vrhole  year, 
make  a  fine  appearance  in  the  green-house. 

3.  P.  nitida,  or  wageboom,  greatly  resembles 
the  first  sort:  the  leaves  are  very  silky  and 
white,  with  erect  purple  branches.  All  these 
plants,  being  tender  exotics,  require  to  be  con- 
tinually kept  in  the  green-house  during  winter. 
The  second  may  l^  propagated  by  cuttings, 
which  should  be  cut  off  in  April,  just  before  die 
plants  begin  to  shoot ;  the  first  and  third  sorts 
may  be  propacrated  by  seeds. 

PROTECr,  V,  a.  -v     Yt.proUgeryprotecteur ; 
PaoTzxi'TiON,  n.  t,  I  Lat.  protectus.    To  shel- 
PaoT^TiVE,  oc^.  >ter;  defend:   afford  im- 
Pbotec'tor,  n.  s.  i  munity  from  evil ;  and  in 
Pbotec'tress.       j  a  modem  sense  (to  avoid 
*  calling  a  spade  a  spade*),  to  keep  as  a  concu- 
bine:   protection    and    protector  follow  these 
senses :  protective  is  defcSasive ;  sheltering :  pro- 
tectiess,  a  woman  who  protects. 

Drive  toward  Dover,  friend,  where  thou  sbalt  meet 
Both  welcome  and  jnvteetum, 

SOtaktpearB,  King  Ltar» 
The  king 
Had  vixtnouft  undet  to  proUct  his  grace. 

Shahnptare, 
Is  it  condaded  he  shall  he  protector  t  Id, 

All  things  should  be  guided  by  her  directioa,  as 
the  sovereign  patroness  and  protectress  of  the  enter- 
prise. Boron. 

Leave  not  the  faithful  side, 
That  gave  thee  being  still  shades  thee  and  protects, 

MUum, 
Hither  the'  oppressed  shall  henceforth  resort. 
Justice  to  crave,  and  succour  at  your  court ; 
And  then  your  highness,  not  for  out's  alone. 
Bat  for  the  world's  proteeter  shall  be  known. 

WaUer. 

The  law  of  the  empire  is  my  protection.  KettleweU, 

Full  in  the  midst  of  his  own  strength  he  stands. 

Stretching  his  brawny  arms  and  leafy  hands, 

His  shade  protects  the'plains.  Dryden's  Vlryil. 

The  obligations  of  hospitality  and  protection  are 
sacred ;  nothing  can  absolve  us  from  the  discharge 
of  those  duties.  L' Estrange. 

Behold  those  arts  with  a  propitious  eye. 
That  suppliant  to  their  great  protectress  fly. 

Addison. 
The  king  of  Spain,  who  is  protector  of  the  common- 
wealth, reoetved  information  from  the  great  duke.. 

Id. 
If  the  weak  mijj^ht  find  protection  from  the  mighty» 
they  could  not  with  justice  lament  their  condition. 

Sm/i. 
The  stately  sailing  swan  guards  his  osier  isle, 
Protective  of  his  young.  Thomson, 

PaoTECToa  is  also  a  title  given  to  the  repre- 
sentative of  a  Catholic  nation,  or  religious  order, 
at  the  court  of  Rome,  who  is  often  a  cardinal. 

PROTECTORATE,  the  office  of  protector; 
applied  in  British  history  to  the  office  held  by 
Oliver  Cromwell* 

PROTEND*,  V.  a.  Lat.  protendo.  To  hold 
out ;  to  stretch  forth.    Not  used. 

All  stood  with  their  protended  spears  prepared. 

Dryden, 

PROTESILAI  TuRRis,  the  sepulchre  of  Pro- 
tesilaus,  with  a  temple,  at  which  Alexander 
sacrificed,  situated  at  the  south  extremity  of  the 
Hellespont,  next  to  the  Chersonesus  Thracica. 


PROTESILAUS,  a  king  of  part  of  Thessaly, 
the  son  of  Iphiclus,  grandson  of  Phylacus,  and 
brother  of  Alcimede,  the  mother  of  Jason.  He 
was  the  first  Greek  who  landed  on  the  coast  of 
Troy,  and  the  first  slain  by  the  Trojans.  (Homer, 
Ovid.)  His  wife  Laodamia,  to  assuage  her 
grief,  requested  of  the  gods  that  his  shade  might 
be  permitted  to  visit  her,  and,  obtaining  her 
request,  she  expired  in  his  embraces.  (Uyginus.) 
Protesilaus  was  also  called  Phylacides,  from 
Phylace,  a  town  of  Thessaly,  or  rather  from  his 
grandfather  Phylacus. 

PROTEST,  V.  n.,  v.  a.,  &  n.  s .  n     Fr.  protet- 
Prot'estaht,  n.  s.  &  adj.  i  tcr ;    Span. 

Prot'estancy,  n.  s.  >  and  Port. 

Protest a'tiow,  i  protestor ; 

Protes'ter.  Jital.  protes- 

tare ;  Lat.  protestor.  To  make  a  solemn  decla- 
ration of  one's  judgment  or  resolution ;  more 
commonly  used  of  an  adverse  judgment:  to 
prove;  show;  call  as  witness:  a  protest  is  a 
solemn  declaration  of  opinion ;  particularly  the 
solemn  and  expressed  aissent  ot  a  peer  of  par- 
liament from  the  opinion  of  the  Bouse  of  Lords  : 
protestant,  one  who  in  any  way  solemnly  pro- 
poses or  objects  his  opinion;  but  particularly 
one  who  adheres  to  the  objections  of  the  Reformed 
against  the  Church  of  Rome :  protestant,  as  an 
adjective,  relating  to  Protestants:  prutestancy, 
the  profession  or  religion  of  Protestants:  pro- 
testation is  the  dissent  or  resolution  made  or  ex- 
pressed :  protester,  he  who  makes  or  issues  it. 

He  maketh  protestation  to  them  of  Corinth,  that 
the  gospel  did  not  by  other  means  prevail  with  them, 
than  with  others  the  same  gospel  taught  by  the  rest 
of  the  apostles.  Hooker. 

Here*s  the  twin  brother  of  thy  letter ;  but  let  thine 
inherit  first,  for,  I  protest,  mine  never  shall. 

Shaktpeare. 
The  peaking  comuto  comes  in  the  instant,  after 
we  had  protested  and  spoke  the  prologue  of  our 
comedy.  Id, 

But  to.  your  protestation ;  let  me  hear 
\That  you  profess.  Id.  Winter's  Tale. 

Did  I  use 
To  stale  with  ordinary  oaths  my  love 
To  every  new  proteeter  ?  Id.  Julius  Ceotar. 

This  is  the  first  example  of  any  protesunt  subjecU 
that  have  taken  up  arms  against  their  kiog  a  protee- 
tani,  Kin^  Charles, 

What  miserable  subdivisions  are  there  m  our  pro- 
testaney!  Bp.  Hall. 

He  proteats  against  your  votes,  and  swears 
He'll  not  be  tried  hy  any  but  his  peers.  Denham. 
If  the  lords  of  the  council  issued  out  any  order 
against  them,  some  nobleman  published  9,  protestation 
against  it.  Clarendon. 

Fiercely  they  opposed 
My  journey  strange  with  clamorous  uproar, 
ProteUmg  fate  supreme.  Milton. 

The  conscience  has  power  to  disapprove  and  to 
proUst  against  the  exorbitances  of  the  passions. 

South. 
Since  the  spreading  of  the  protestant  religion,  seve- 
ral nations  are  recovered  out  of  their  ignorance. 

Addison, 
I  smiled  at  the  solemn  protestation  of  the  poet  in 
the  6rst  page,  that  he  believes  neither  in  the  fates  or 
destinies.  ^<f- 

What  if  he  were  one  of  the  latest  protesters  against 
popery  1  and  but  one  among  many  that  set  about 
the  same  work  ?  Atierhury. 

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We  receive  but  little  advantage  from  repeated 
protestations  of  gratitude,  but  they  cost  them  very 
much  from  whom  we  exact  them  in  return. 

(hldmith. 

Each  peer  has  a  right,  b^  leave  of  the  house,  when 
a  vote  passes  contrary  to  his  sentiments,  to  enter  his 
dissent  on  the  journals  of  the  hduse  with  the  reasons 
for  such  dissent,  which  is  usually  styled  his  protect, 
1  Comm.  c.  2.  Lord  Clarendon  relates  that  the 
first  instances  of  protests,  with  reasons,  in  England, 
were  in  1641 ;  before  which  time  they  usually  only 
set  down  their  names  as  dissentient  to  the  vote. 

Ttmline. 

Protest,  in  commerce,  is  a  writing  executed 
by  a  notary  public  to  secure  to  the  holder  of  a 
bill  recourse  upon  the  indorsers  when  the  drawer 
refuses  to  accept,  or  the  acceptor  fails  to  pay. 

Protest,  in  parliament.  Any  of  the  lords  in 
parliament  have  a  right  to  pi^test  their  dissent 
from  any  bill  passed  by  a  majority ;  which  pro- 
test is  entered  m  form.  This  is  said  to  be  a  very 
ancient  privilege.  The  commons  have  no  right 
to  protest. 

Protestantism.  The  emperor  Charles  V. 
called  a  diet  at  Spires,  in  1529,  to  request  aid 
from  the  German  princes  against  the  Turks,  and 
to  devise  the  most  effectual  means  for  allaying 
the  religious  disputes  which  then  raged  in  conse- 
quence of  Luther's  opposition  to  the  established 
religion.  The  emperor  being  at  Barcelona,  at 
the  meeting  of  this  diet,  his  brother  Ferdinand, 
archduke  of  Austria,  was  appointed  to  preside. 
In  this  diet  it  was  decreed,  by  Ferdinand  and 
other  popish  princes,  that,  in  the  countries  which 
4iad  embraced  the  new  religion,  it  should  be 
lawful  to  continue  in  it  till  the  meeting  of  a 
council ;  but  that  no  Roman  Catholic  should  be 
allowed  to  turn  Lutheran ;  and  that  the  reformers 
should  deliver  nothing  in  their  sermons  contrary 
to  the  received  doctrine  of  the  church.  This  de- 
cree was  justly  considered  as  iniquitous  and  in- 
tolerable oy  the  elector  of  Saxony,  the  langrave 
of  Ilesse,  and  other  members  of  the  diet.  Nor 
was  any  one  of  them  so  simple,  or  io  little  ac- 
quainted with  the  politics  of  Rome,  as  to  look 
upon  the  promises  of  assembling  speedily  a 
general  council  in  any  other  light  than  an  artifice 
to  quiet  the  minds  of  the  people ;  since  it  was 
easy  to  perceive  that  a  lawtul  council,  free  from 
the  despotic  influence  of  Rome,  was  the  very  last 
thing  that  a  pope  would  grant  in  such  a  critical 
situation  of  affairs.  Against  this  decree,  therefore, 
six  Lutheran  princes  (John  and  George,  the 
electors  of  Saxony  and  Brandenburg ;  Ernest  and 
Francis,  the  two  dukes  of  Lunenberg;  the  land- 
grave of  Hesse ;  and  the  prince  of  Anhalt),  with 
the  deputies  of  thirteen  imperial  towns  (Stras- 
burg,  Ulm,  Nuremburg,  Constance,  Rottingen, 
Windsheim,  Memmingen,  Nortlingen,  Lindau, 
Kempten,  Heilbron,  Wissemburg,  and  St.  Gall), 
formally  and  solemnly  protested,  and  declared 
that  they  appealed  to  a  general  council ;  and 
hence  the  name  of  Protestants,  which,  from 
this  period,  has  been  given  to  the  followers  of 
Luther.  Nor  was  it  confined  to  them;  for  it 
soon  after  included  the  Calvinists,  and  has  now 
of  a  long  time  been  applied  indiscriminately  to 
all  the  churches,  sects,  and  denominations,  in 
whatever  country  they  may  be  found,  which 
iiave  separated  from  the  see  of  Rome. 


The  important  period  which  .was  distin- 
guished by  this  reformation  of  religion,  is  not, 
as  Protestants  contend,  to  be  considered  at  the 
period  when  the  principles  then  embraced  first 
made  their  appearance.  Long,  very  long,  had 
purity  of  doctrine  and  discipline  slept  beneath 
the  overloaded  ornaments  and  corruptions  of  the 
church  of  Rome ;  and  there  was  a  time  when . 
that  church  herself  might  have  boasted  of  her 
primitive  purity  and  freedom  from  error^  with 
other  churches  of  Christ:  never,  indeed,  was 
there  a  lime,  from  the  date  of  her  first  departure 
from  sound  principles,  wherein  there  were  not 
witnesses  to  the  truth;  or  some,  more  or  less^ 
who  withstooa  the  corruptions  and  depravi^  of 
their  respective  ages,,  maintained  orthodox  and 
primitive  doctrine,  and  exhibited  in  their  lives 
the  genuine  fruits  of  our  most  holy  faith 

We  are  not  to  wonder  that  Protestantism 
soon  exhibited  a  variety  of  religious  opinion  and 
practice.  The  active  spirit  of  enquiry,  natural 
to  men  who  had  just  broken  loose  from  the 
despotism  of  popery,  operating  differently  on 
different  intellects  and  aispositions,  almost  ne- 
cessarily produced  a  variety  of  sects;  and,  in 
some  cases,  gave  birth  to  extreme  wildness  and 
extravagance  of  unscriptural  doctrine  and  prac- 
tice. Protestants,  therefore,  have  been  far  from 
unanimous  in  all  points  of  doctrine,  worship^ 
church  government,  or  discipline:  on  the  con- 
trary, while  they  agree  only  in  receiving  the 
Scriptures  as  the  supreme  rule  of  their  faith  and 
practice,  and  in  rejecting  the  distinguishing  doc- 
trines of  the  church  of  Rome,  particulaily  the 
authority  ascribed  by  her  members  to  tnufition 
as  a  rule  of  faith,  in  many  other  respects  they 
still  differ  not  more  widely  'from  that  church 
than  they  do  from  one  another.  And,  to  ascertain 
their  doctrines,  it  will  be  necessary  to  examine 
their  several  libri  symbolici,  or  the  confessions 
and  articles  of  the  different  churches,  sects,  and 
parties,  into  which  professors  of  the  reformed 
religion  are  now  subdivided.  The  learned  Chil- 
lingworth,  addressing  himself  to  a  writer  ia  favor 
of  the  church  of  Rome,  speaks  of  the  religion  of 
Protestants  in  the  following  terms,  worthy,  as 
has  been  well  observed,  to  be  inscribed  in  letters 
of  gold : — *  Know  then.  Sir,  that  when  I  say  the 
religion  of  Protestants  is,  in  prudence,  to  be 
preferred  before  yours ;  on  the  one  side,  I  do  not 
understand  by  your  religion  the  doctrine  of  Bel- 
larmine,  or  Baronius,  or  any  other  private  man 
amongst  you,  nor  the  dottrine  of  the  Sorbonne, 
or  of  the  Jesuits,  or  of  the  Dominicans,  or  of 
any  other  particular  company  among  you,  but 
that  wherein  you  all  agree,  or  profess  to  agree, 
'The  doctrine  of  the  council  of  Trent.*  so  ac- 
cordingly, on  the  other  side,  by  the  religion  of 
Protestants  I  do  not  understand  the  doctrine  of 
Luther,  or  Calvin,  or  Melancthon,  nor  the  con- 
fession of  Augsburg,  or  Geneva,  nor  the  cate- 
chism of  Heidelberg,  nor  the  articles  of  the 
church  of  England — no,  nor  the  harmony  of 
Protestant  confessions ;  but  that  wherein,  they  all 
agree,  and  which  they  all  subscribe  with  a 
greater  harmony,  as  a  perfect  rule  of  faith  and 
action,  that  is,  the  Bible.  The  Bible,  I  say,  the 
Bible  only,  is  the  religion  of  Protestants.  What- 
soever else  they  believe  besides  it,  and  the  plain 


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irrefragable,  iDdubitable,  consequences  of  it,  well 
may  they  hold  it  as  a  matter  of  opinion ;  but,  as 
a  matter  of  iaith  and  religion,  neither  can  they, 
with  coherence  to  their  own  grounds,  believe  it 
themselves,  nor  require  belief  of  it  of  others, 
without  most  high  and  most  schismatical  pre- 
sumption. I,  for  my  part,  after  a  long,  and  (as 
I  verily  believe  and  hope)  impartial  search  of 
the  true  way  to  eternal  happiness,  do  profess 
plainly,  that  I  cannot  find  any  rest  for  tne  sole 
of  my  foot,  but  upon  this  rock  only.  I  see 
plainly,  and  with  my  own  eye's,  that  there  are 
popes  against  popes,  and  councils  against  coun- 
cils; some  fathers  against  othet*  fathers,  the 
same  &thers  against  memselves;  a  consent  of 
Others  of  one  age,  ajgainst  a  consent  of  fathers  of 
another  age.  Traditive  interpretations  of  Scrip- 
ture are  pretended,  but  there  are  few  or  none  to 
be  found:  no  tradition,  but  that  of  Scripture, 
can  dehve  itself  from  the  fountain,  but  may  be 
plainly  proved  either  to  have  been  brought  in  in 
such  an  age  after  Christ,  or  that  in  such  an  age 
it  was  not  in.  In  a  word,  there  is  no  sufficient 
certainty  but  of  Scripture  only,  for  any  consider- 
ing man  to  build  upon.  This,  therefore,  and 
this  only,  I  have  reason  to  believe.  This  I  will 
profess :  according  to  tliis  I  will  live ;  and,  for 
this,  if  there  be  occasion,  I  will  not  only  willingly, 
but  even  gladly,  lose  my  lifie ;  though  I  should 
be  sorry  that  Christians  should  take  it  from  me. 
Propose  me  any  thing  out  of  this  book^  and  re- 
quire whether  I  believe  or  no,  and,  seem  it  never 
so  incomprehensible  to  human  reason,  I  will 
subscribe  it  with  hand  and  heart,  as  knowing  no 
demonstration  can  be  stronger  than  this,  God 
hath  said  so,  therefore  it  is  true.  In  other  things, 
I  will  take  no  man's  liberjty  of  judging  from  him; 
neither  shall  any  man  take  mine  from  me.' 

But  though  the  Bible  is,  properly  speaking, 
Aeir  only  symbolic  booky  or  the  only  sure  founda* 
tion  upon  wnich  all  true  Protestants  build  every 
article  of  the  faith  which  they  profess,  and  every 
point  of  doctrine,  which  they  teach,  whereby 
they  may  be  said  to  unite  in  subscribing  to  the 
sixth  article  of  the  United  Church  of  England 
and  Ireland ;  and  though  all  other  foundations, 
whether  they  be  the  decisions  of  councils,  the 
confessions  of  churches,  the  rescripts  of  popes, 
or  the  expositions  of  private  men,  are  considered 
by  them  as  sandy  ana  unsafe,  or  as  in  no  wise 
to  be  ultimately  relied  on;  yet,  on  the  other 
hand,  they  do  by  no  means  fastidiously  reject 
them  as  of  no  use.  For  while  they  admit  the 
Bible,  or  the  Scriptures  of  the  Old  and  New 
Testaments,  to  be  the  only  infallible  rule  by 
which  we  must  measure  the  truth  or  falsehood 
of  every  religious  opinion,  they  are  sensible  that 
all  men  are  not  equally  fitted  to  apply  this  rule, 
considered  in  all  its  latitude';  and  that  the  wisest 
men  want,  on  many  occasions,  all  the  helps  of 
human  learning,  to  enable  them  to  understand 
its  precise  nature,  and  to  define  its  certain  ex- 
tent That  is,  the  consistent  Protestant  must 
admit  that  all  men  are  not  equal  judges  of  what 
nature,  i.  e.  the  national  sense  of  propriety, 
taoght  the  Corinthian  ladies  respecting  the 
wearing  of  their  hair,  see  1  Cor.  xi.  15,  nor  of 
the  geographical  question,  whether  the  *  river  of 
Egypt,'  given  as  a  boundary  to  Canaan  in  the 


important  grant.  Gen.  xv.  18,  were  or  were  not 
the  river  Nile:  but  it  is  an  essential  part  of 
consistent  Protestantism  to  maintain,  witn  Chil- 
lingworth,  not  only  the  fulness,  but  the  plainness, 
of  Scripture,  as  a  rule  in  all  things  needful  to 
salvation.  *  He  that  would  usurp  an  absolute 
lordship  over  conscience,'  says  this  admirable 
writer,  *  need  not  put  himself  to  the  trouble  and 
difficulty  of  abrogating  and  disannulling  the 
laws  made  to  maintain  the  common  liberty ;  for 
he  may  frustrate  them  entirely,  and  compass  his 
own  design  as  well,  if  he  can  get  the  power  and 
authority  to  interpret  them  as  he  pleases,  and 
add  to  them  what  he  pleases.'  <lf  you  will 
stand  to  your  rule,  that  Scripture  is  as  perfect  a 
rule  of  faith  and  practice  as  a  writing  can  be, 
you  must  then  giant  it  both  so  complete  that  it 
needs  no  addition,  and  So  evident  that  it  needs 
no  interpretation ;  for  both  these  properties  are 
requisite  to  a  perfect  rule,  and  a  writing  is  capa- 
ble of  both  these  properties '  The  helps  adverted 
to  are  great  and  numerous,  having  been  supplied, 
in  every  age  of  the  church,  by  the  united  labors 
of  learned  men  in  every  country,  and,  we  may 
add,  particularly  in  Protestant  communions. 

With  regard  to  church  government,  it  may  be 
here  remarked  in  general,  that,  however  widely 
Protestants  may  differ  in  other  respects,  they  all 
agree  in  rejecting  a  universal,  visible,  supreme 
head  of  the  church,  together  with  the  infiadlibility 
of  any  church  governors  or  councils  whatsoever, 
from  the  days  of  the  apostles.  They  all  likewise 
agree  in  adopting  the  principle  of  the  inde- 
pendency of  every  churcn,  either  in  its  national 
or  congregational  character;  as  subject  to  no 
spiritual  head  but  Christ;  as  conceding  no 
superiority,  and  claiming  no  preeminence  of 
jurisdiction ;  and  as  stuthorized  to  frame  its  own 
laws,  and  to  regulate  its  own  government :  while, 
at  the  same  time,  a  very  great  proportion  of  them 
equally  concur  in  admitting  the  union  of  church 
and  state,  or  the  lawfulness  of  national  establish- 
ments of  religion.  <  It  is  very  remarkable,'  says 
dean  Comber, '  that  a  Romanist  may  turn  Protes- 
tant without  adding  any  one  article  to  his  feith; 
but  a-  Protestant  cannot  turn  to  Rome  unless  he 
embrace  many  new  articles:  for  our  doctrines 
are  generally  confessed  by  both  sides  to  be  true; 
but  those  of  the  Roman  church  are  rejected  by 
our  reformers-  as  novel  additions,  and  such  as 
have  no  good*  foundations  in  Scripture  nor 
genuine  antiquity :  and  therefore  the  Protestant 
doctrines  are  the  surer  and  safer,  as  in  which 
both  sides  agree.  For  example,  we  "and  they 
both  hold  there  are  two  states  after  this  life, 
heaven  and  hell ;  but  they  add  a  third,  which  is 
purgatory ;  and  this  we  deny :  we  and  they  both 
say  that  sins  are  to  be  remitted  by  the  merits  of 
Christ's  death ;  but  they  add  the  merits  of  the 
saints,  and  their  own  satisfactions,  with  the  merit 
of  their  own  good  works,  which  we  deny  to  be 
expiatory,  or  such  as  can  merit  remission  for  us  i 
we  hold  there  be  two  sacraments,  baptism  and 
the  eucharist :  these  they  confess  are  the  chief, 
but  add  five  more,  to  which  we  affirm  the  name 
of  sacraments  doth  not  properly  belong :  we  say 
that  God  alone  is  to  be  worshipped :  they  confess 
he  is  chiefly  to  be  worshipped ;  but,  then,  they 
sny  the  blessed  Virgin  Mary,  angels,  and  saints,. 


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are  to  be  wonhipped  also;  which  additions  we 
deny :  we  say  Christ  is  our  only  mediator  and 
advocate:  they  confess  he  is  principally  so,  but 
add  that  saints  and  angels  are  so  in  an  inferior 
manner;  which  we  utterly  deny :  we  say  Christ 
is  really  present  in  the  sacrament  of  the  altar: 
this  they  confess,  but  add  he  is  corporally  there, 
by  the  transubstantiation  of  the  bread,  &c. ;  and 
this  we  deny:  we  say  there  are  twenty-two 
books  of  the  Old  Testament  canonical,  and  they 
confess  these  all  to  be  so,  but  they  add  divers 
others,  and  call  them  canonical,  wliich  we  affirm 
to  be  apocryphal :  we  say  the  Scriptures  are  the 
rule  of  iaith ;  and  they  will  not  absolutely  deny 
it,  but  add  their  own  traditions,  which  we  reject. 
I  could  ffive  more  instances ;  but  these  may  suf- 
fice to  show  tiiat  the  Protestant  doctrines  look 
moqt  like  the  ancientest,  as  being  received  by 
both  parties ;  but  the  Roman  opinions  are  novel 
enlargements  added  to  the  old  Catholic  truths/ 

PROTEUS,  in  mythology,  a  sea  deity,  the 
son  of  Oceanus  and  Tethys,  or,  as  others  say,  of 
Neptune  and  Phcenice.  From  Neptune  he 
received  the  eift  of  prophecy,  and  was  often 
consulted  on  &e  coast  of  the  Carpathian  Sea  by 
mortals.  But  on  these  occasions  he  was  some- 
times very  shy,  and  shifted  his  votaries  by  as- 
suming the  shapes  of  various  animals;  and, 
while  they  held  him  fast  as  a  sea  god,  eluded 
their  grasp  in  the  form  of  a  fish  or  a  serpent, 
unless  they  previously  bound  him  with  fetters. 
Hercules,  Ansteus,  and  many  other  heroes,  con- 
sulted him.  Some  say  he  reigned  long  in  Egypt. 
He  had  two  sons,  Telegonus  and  Polygonus ;  and 
three  daughters,  Cabira,  Fidothea,  and  Rhetia. 

Proteus,  in  zoology,  a  genus  of  the  class 
reptilia,  order  batraciens,  of  Cuvea,  discovered 
in  1789  in  the  limestone  caves  of  Camiola,  and 
also  in  Mexico.  The  first  protei  described  by 
Laurenti  and  Scopoli  were  not  procured  from 
the  lake  of  Zirknitz,  as  has  been  commonly  re- 
presented, nor  from  any  of  the  caverns  of  Car- 
niola,  but  were  found  accidentally  by  the  peasants 
in  small  puddles  of  water  near  the  mouths  of 
certain  caverns,  a  little  distant  from  Sittich,  on 
the  road  to  Newstadt,  in  Lower  Camiola,  cast 
out  of  the  caverns  probably  by  the  overflowing 
of  their  water  idler  heavy  rains.  It  was  not  till 
the  year  1797  that  these  animals  were  discovered 
in  the  caverns  of  Maddalena.  At  present,  the 
peasants  of  Adelsberg,  when  the  season  suits, 
go  to  fish  for  them,  aud  preserve  them  alive,  till 
they  sell  them  to  thCcurious,  who  visit  Camiola, 
or  convey  them  to  Trieste,  where  they  are  sold 
for  the  small  sum  of  two  or  three  lire  each. 

Hermann  and  Schreibers  wrote  on  Uie  pro- 
tens,  but  described  only  its  external  parts, 
and  contributed  nothing  to  clear  up  the.«many 
doubts  and  conjectures  respecting  it.  In  this 
state  of  uncertainty,  Dr.  Schreibers  first  had 
recourse  to  anatomy,  as  the  only  satisfactory 
mode  of  gaining  correct  information :  but  un- 
fortunately he  possessed  only  three  protei  which 
had  been  sent  to  him  from  Camiola,  preserved 
in  spirits;  which  circumstance  precluded  him 
ftom  giving  that  complete  information  which 
might  otherwise  have  oeen  expected  from  so 
eminent  a  naturalist.  His  description  was  pub- 
lished in  1801 ;  and,  among  many  excellent  ob- 


servationsy  he  points  out  the  striking  difierence 
of  form  between  the  lungs  of  the  sirena  lacertina 
and  those  of  the  proteus.  Next  to  Schreibers 
we  have  to  notice  two  zoologists  of  the  highest 
celebrity,  MM.  Cuvier  and  Rudolphi,  both  of 
whom  examined  the  internal  stracture  of  this 
animal.  The  former  first  discovered,  and  accu- 
rately described,  the  organs  of  generation  in  the 
female,  and  established,  on  a  solid  foundation, 
that  the  proteus  was  not  a  larva,  as  many  had 
supposed,  but  a  perfect  animal;  an  opinion  now 
generally  followed,  and  confirmed  by  the  recent 
observations  of  Rudolphi,  who  has  described  the 
generative  system  in  the  male. 

The  sirena  lacertina  occupies  the  same  class 
and  order,  and  is  another  genus  consisting  only  of 
oue  species.  It  is  said,  like  the  proteus,  to 
retain  through  its  whole  life  three  gills  on  each 
side  the  neck,  and  to  possess,  at  the  same  time, 
lungs  internally.  A  most  ample  description  of 
this  curious  reptile  was  fumisned  to  the  Edin- 
bui|[h  Philosophical  Journal,  by  professor  Con- 
figliachi,  and  Dr.  Rusconi,  to  the  fourth  volume 
of  which  we  must  refer  the  reader  for  more 
ample  information. 

PROTHON'OTARY,  n. «.  Fr.  protonotatre ; 
Lat.  protonotanta.    The  head  register. 

Saligniaeus,  the  pope's  prvthanoiaryy  denies  the 
Nubians  professing  ot  obedience  fo  the  bishop  of 
Rome.  Brertwood, 

He  had  the  jnvthonotarithip  of  the  chancery.  Carem, 
Prothonatory  [from  irporoc  Or.  first,  and 
notarius,  Lat.]  properly  signifies  first  notary,  and 
was  anciently  tne  title  of  the  principle  notaries  of 
the  emperors  of  Constantinople. 

Prothonotary  is  used  in  England  for  an 
officer  in  the  court  of  king*s  bench  and  common 
pleas ;  the  foraier  of  which  courts  has  one,  and 
the  latter  three.  The  prothonotary  of  the  king^s 
bench  records  all  civil  actions  sued  in  that  court, 
as  the  clerk  of  the  crown-ofiice  does  all  criminal 
causes.  The  prothonotaries  of  the  common 
pleas  enter  and  enrol  all  declarations,  pleadings, 
assizes,  judgments,  and  actions ;  they  also  make 
out  all  judicial  writs,  except  writs  of  habeas 
corpus  and  distringas  jurator,  for  which  there  is 
a  particular  office,  called  the  habeas  corpus 
office;  they  likewise  enter  recognizances  ac- 
knowledged, and  all  common  recoveries ;  make 
examplifications  of  records,  &c. 

Prothonotary,  in  the  courts  of  Rome. 
There  is  a  college  of  twelve  prelates,  called 
apostolical  prothonotaries,  empowered  to  receive 
the  last  wills  of  cardinals,  to  make  all  informa- 
tions and  proceedings  necessary  for  the  canonisa- 
tion of  samts,  and  all  such  acts  as  are  of  great 
consequence  to  the  papacy ;  for  which  purpose 
they  have  the  right  of  admission  into  all  consis- 
tories. They  also  attend  on  the  pope,  whenever 
he  performs  any  extraordinary  ceremony  out  of 
Rome. 

PROTOCOL^  n. «.  Belg.  protokol ;  Fr.  pro- 
t'ocole ;  Gr.  irpwroKoXXov,  from  rpwroc  and  K0XA9. 
The  original  copy  of  a  writing ;  the  rough  memo- 
randum of  a  diplomatic  conference. 

An  original  is  stiled  the  protocol,  or  scriptura 
matrix ;  and  if  the  protocol,  which  is  the  root  and 
foundation  of  the  instrument,  does  not  appear,  the 
instrument  is  not  valid.  Ayiiffe. 


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PROTOG£N£S,  acelebrated  ancieot  painter, 
bom  at  Caunas,  a  city  of  Caria,  subject  to  the 
Hhodians,  who  flourished  about  A.  A.  C.  300.  He 
was  at  first  employed  in  painting  ships,  &c.y  but 
socn  acquired  the  highest  fame  for  historical 
pieces.  His  most  celebrated  piece  was  Jalysus,  the 
tbunder  of  Jalysus,  a  city  of  Rhodes.  Apelles 
gave  him  fifty  talents  (about  £10,000)  for  one 
picture,  which  the  Rhodians  purchsused  back  from 
aim  at  a  still  higher  price.  He  lived  Tery 
abstemiously. 

PRCn:OPLAST,  w.«.  Gr.irpwrocand  irXaroQ. 
Original ;  thing  first  formed  as  a  copy. 

The  consuxnptioQ  was  the  primitive  diitease,  which 
put  a  period  to  out  protaplasU,  Adam  and  Eve. 

Harvejf, 

PROTOTYPE,  n.  s.  Fr.  prototype  ;  Greek 
wpwcrvfrw.  The  original  of  a  copy;  arche- 
type; exemplar. 

Man  it  the  prototype  of  all  exact  symmetry. 

Woitmu 

The  image  and  proMype  were  two  distinct  things ; 
and  therefore  what  belonged  to  the  eisropiar  could 
not  be  attributed  to  the  image.  StiUlnff/het. 

PROTRACT,  ».  a.  8c  n.  «.'v     Tjii. protractus. 

Protrac'tor,  n.  f.  ^To  draw  out;  to 

Protrac'tion,  ^  delay;  to  length- 

Protrac'tive,  adj,  Jen;    to    spin  to 

length :  the  derivations  all  corresponding. 

Since  I  did  leave  the  preatenre  of  my  love, 
Many  long  weary  days  I  have  out- worn, 

And  many  nights,  that  slowly  seemed  to  move 
Their  sad  protract  from  evening  until  mom.  Spnuer. 

Where  can  they  get  victuals  to  support  such  a 
multitude,  if  we  do  but  protract  the  war  1     KnoUet, 
Our  woiks  are  nought  else 

But  the  protractite  tryals  of  great  Jove, 

To  find  persistive  constancy  in  men.   Shakspeare, 
Thtee  delays 

And  long  protraction ^  which  he  must  endure, 

Betray  the  opportunity.  DanieL 

As  to  the  fabulous  protractiong  of  the  age  of  the 
world  by  the  Egyptians,  they  are  uncertain  idle  tra- 
ditions. '  Hale. 
He  suffered  their  protracthe  arts, 

And  strove  by  mildness  to  reduce  their  hearts. 

Drsfden, 

Protractor^  an  instrument  for  laying  down 
and  measuring  angles  upon  paper  with  accuracy 
and  despatch ;  and  by  which  tne  use  of  the  line 
of  chorls  is  superseded. 

The  CiRcin,AR  Protractor  is  a  complete 
circle^  and  is  superior  by  far  to  either  the  right- 
angled  or  seiririicnlar,  both  in  point  of  accuracy 
and  despatch,  especially  when  several  angles  are 
to  be  formed  at  the  same  point.  The  limb  of 
this  instrument  is  divided  into  36^,  and  each 
degree  in  some  protractors  is  halved ;  it  has  a 
snbdiyiding  scale  or  vernier,  by  which  an  angle 
may  be  laid  down  or  measured  to  a  single  mi- 
nute. In  the  centre  of  the  protractor  is  a  mark, 
which,  when  an  angle  is  to  be  protracted  or 
measured,  is  to  be  laid  upon  the  angular  point, 
and  O,  or  zero  on  the  limb,  upon  the  given  line 
forming  one  side  of  the  angle. 

The  Rectancular  Protractor  is  con- 
stracted  in  form  of  a  right-angled  parallelogram, 
vhich,  when  applied  to  a  case  of  mathematical 
intruments,  is  substituted  in  place  of  the  semi- 
dicnlar  protractor  and  scale  ot  equal  parts. 


PROTREPTICAL,  tuij,  Gr.  irporpeim^oc. 
Hortatory;  suasory. 

The  means  used  are  partly  didactical  and  protrep^ 
tioal ;  demonstrating  the  truths  of  the  ^oipel,  and 
then  urging  the  professors  to  be  stedfast  m  the  faiths 
and  beware  of  infidelity.  Ward  on  Injidelity, 

PROTRUDE',  V.  a.  &  t>.  n.  >     Lat.  protrudo. 

Protru'sion,  n. ».  <  To  ^  thrust    for- 

ward ;  thrust  itself  forward :  the  act  of  thrusting 
forward. 

If  the  spirits  be  not  merely  detained,  but  protrude 
a  little,  and  that  motion  be  confused,  there  fotloweth 
putrefaction.  Bacon, 

When  the  stomach  has  performed  its  office  upon 
the  food,  it  protrude*  it  into  the  guts,  by  whose  pe- 
ristaitick  motion  it  is  gently  conveyed  along.  Locke. 

One  can  have  the  idea  ot  one  body  moved,  whilst 
others  are  at  rest ;  then  the  place  it  deserted  gives 
us  the  idea  of  purer  space  without  solidity,  whereinto 
another  body  may  enter  without  either  resistance  or 
protrusion  of.  any  thing.  /d. 

They  were  tiot  left,  upon  the  sea's  being  protruded 
forwards,  and  constrained  to  fall  off  from  certain 
coasts  by  the  mud  or  earth,  which  is  discharged  into 
it  by  rivers.  Woodward. 

His  left  arm  extended,  and  fore  finger  protruded, 

Garliek. 

PROTU'BERANCE,  n.  t.  J     Lat. protubero. 
Protu'beramt,  adj.  )  Something  swell- 

ing out:  prominence;  tumor;  the  adjective  cor- 
responding. 

If  the  world  were  eternal,  by  the  continual  fall 
and  wearins  of  waters,  all  the  prohiheraneet  of  the 
earth  would  infinite  ages  since  have  been  levelled, 
and  the  superficies  of  the  earth  rendered  plain. 

Hale. 
Mountains  seem  but  so  many  wens  and  unna- 
tural protuberance*  upon  the  face  of  the  earth. 

More, 
One  man's  eyes  are  more  protuberant  and  swell- 
ing out,  another's  more  sunk  and  depressed. 

Olanville. 
If  the  navel  protuherqte»t  make  a  small  puncture 
with  a  lancet  through  the  skin,  and  the  waters  will 
be  voided  without  any  danger  of  a  hernia  succeeding. 

Sharp's  Surgery, 

PROUD,  adj.  -i     Sax.  |>nu*be,  \>ji\te',  Goth. 

Proud'ly,  adv.  )  and  Swed.  prud.  See  Pri  de. 
Arrogant ;  self-exalted ;  haughty ;  elated,  taking 
of  before  the  object  of  pride ;  daring ;  presump- 
tuous; ostentatious;  salacious;  exuberant; 
swelling  (as  'proud  flesh*);  lofty  of  mien  or 
manner;  grand;  splendid:  the  adverb  follows 
these  senses. 

By  his  understanding  he  smiteth  through  the 
proud.  Job, 

The  patient  in  spirit  is  better  than  the  proud  in 
spirit.  Eeoiee, 

The  blood  foretold  the  giant's  fall. 
By  this  proud  palmer's  hand.  Drayton. 

I  better  brook  the  loss  of  brittle  life. 
Than  those  proud  titles  thou  hast  won  of  me. 

Skakfpeara, 
He  bears  himself  mots  proudly 
Even  to  my  person,  than  I  thought  he  would.    Id, 

So  much  is  true,  that  the  said  country  of  Atlan- 
tis, as  well  as  that  of  Peni.  then  called  Coya,  as 
that  of  Mexico,  then  named  Tyrambel,  were  mighty 
and  proud  kingdoms  in  anns,  shipping,  and  riches. 
Boeon*»  New  Atlantis, 

A  man  is  certainly  proud  of  that  knowledge  he 
despises  others  for  the  want  of. 


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Tin  vnud  attempt  thou  hut  rmUed. 

MiUon. 
Ho  like  a  proud  steed  reined,  went  haughty  on.  Id, 

The  swan 
Between  her  white  wings  mantling  proudlif  rows. 

Soaliger  gave  it  (camphor)  unto  a  bitch  that  was 
proMrf.  Brownest  Vulgar  Envurg. 

Fortane,  that,  with  malicious  joy. 
Does  man  her  slave  oppress. 

Proud  of  her  office  CO  destroy. 
Is  seldom  pleased  to  bleu.      lhydmC$  Hpmob, 
Storms  of  stones  from  the  jtroud  temple's  height 
Pour  down,  and  on  our  battered  helms  alight. 

Drydin. 
Ancus  follows  with  a  fawning  air  ; 
But  vain  within,  and  proudljf  pppular.         Id. 
If  thou  beest  pnntd,  be  most  insUnt  in  praying 
for  humility.  i>u<y  ?f  ™»« 

PrmuU^  he  marchw  on,  and  void  of  fear ; 
Vain  insolence.  Addison, 

When  the  vessels  are  too  lax.  and  do  not  suffix 
ciently  ruist  the  influx  of  the  liquid,  that  begeU  a 
fungus  or  proud  flesh.  Arhuthnat, 

Promd  SparU  with  their  wheels  lesounds. 

Pope. 
The  proudett  admirer  of  his  own  parU  might  find 
it  useful  to  consult  with  others,  though  of  inferior 
capacity.  •    Wattt. 

If  it  were  a  virtue  in  a  woman  to  be  proud  and 
vain  in  herself,  we  could  hardly  take  better  means  to 
raise  this  passion  in  her,  than  those  that  are  now 
used  in  their  education.  X«io. 

What  is  all  righteousness  that  men  devise ! 
What— but  a  sordid  bargain  for  the  skies? 
But  Christ  as  soon  would  abdicate  his  own, 
As  stoop  from  heaven  to  sell  the  proud  a  throne. 

Cowper, 

PROVE,  V.  a.  &  v.  n.  ^      Fr.  prouver ;    Ital. 

Prove'able,  adj.  S  provare  ;  Spanish  pro- 
bar;  lAt.  probo.  To  evince;  to  show  or  attest 
by  argument  or  testimony ;  to  try ;  experience ; 
endure:  as  a  verb  neuter  to  make  true;  be 
found  experimentally ;  succeed :  proveable  is, 
demonstrable ;  that  may  be  proved. 

For  the  dai  of  the  Lord  schal  dedaro,  for  it  schal 
be  schcwid  in  fier,  the  ficr  schal  prw  the  werk  of 
ech  man,  what  maner  of  werk  it  is. 

Wicltf,  1  Cor.  3. 
Who  so  delyteth  to  prouxn  and  assay. 

Of  waveryng  fortune  the  vncertayne  lot. 

If  that  the  aunswere  please  you  not  alway. 

Blame  ye  not  me.  Sir  T,  More. 

Wilt  thou  thy  idle  rage  bv  reason  prove  ? 
Or  speak  those  thoughts  which  have  no  power  to 
move  1  Sattdjft, 

Let  the  trumpet  sound : 

If  none  appear  to  prove  upon  thy  person 

Thy  heinous,  manifest,  and  many  treasons. 

There  is  my  pledge  :  I'll  prooe  it  on  thy  heart 

Hhakspeare, 
Delay  not  the  present,  but 
Filling  the  air  with  swords  advanced,  and  darts. 
We  prooe  this  very  hour.  Id.  Coriotanus. 

Children  prove,  whether  they  can  rub  upon  the 
breast  with  one  hand,  and  pat  upon  the  forehead 
with  another.  Bacon, 

If  the  experiment  proved  not,  it  mieht  be  pre- 
tended that  the  beasts  were  not  killed  in  the  due 
time.  id. 

Could  sense  make  Marius  sit  unbound,  and  proot 
The  cruel  lanciog  of  the  knotty  gout  ?  Davies. 

Jn  a  set  copy  every  fault  is  important,  and  may 
prove  a  lule  of  error.  Bp,  Hall. 


So  both  their  deeds,  compared  this  day  shall  prate 

MiUan. 
Thy  overpraising  leaves  in  doubt 
The  virtue  of  that  fruit,  in  thee  first  proved.   Jd, 
Smile  on  me,  and  1  will  proce 
Wonder  is  shorter  lived  than  love.        WaUer. 
Well  I  deserved  Evadne's  scorn  to  proM, 
That  to  ambition  sacrificed  my  love.  Id.  " 

Let  him  in  arms  the  power  of  Tumus  prove. 
And  learn  to  fear  whom  he  disclaims  to  love. 

Drydem. 
The  eons  prepare, 
Meeting  like  winds  broke  loose  upon  the  main, 
To  proee  by  arms  whose  fate  it  was  to  reign.    Id. 
If  it  prooe  any  thing,  it  can  only  prooe  against  our 
author,  that  the  assi^ment  of  dominion  to  the  eldest 
is  not  by  divine  institution.  Locke. 

In  spite  of  Luther's  declaration,  he  will  prove  the 
tenet  uppn  him.  Atterkwry. 

When  the  inflammation  ends  in  a  gangrene,  the 
case  pnnee  mortal.  Arbuiknal. 

Property,  you  see  it  alter. 
Or  in  a  mortgage  prooe  a  lawyer's  share. 
Or  in  a  jointure  vanish  from  the  heir.      Pspe. 

PROVED'ITOR,  or  ^    Ital.pfwwC^ortr.  One 
Provedore',  ft.  s.       S  ^1^0  undertakes  to  pro- 
cure military  supplies. 

The  Jews,  in  thou  agu,  had  the  office  of  prone' 
dare.  JMemd. 

PROVENDER,  n.f.  Fr.  proweikfe ;  Ital.  jiro- 
venda;  Be\%. provande.  Dry  food  for  brutes; 
bay  and  com. 

Good  provender  labouring  horses  would  have. 

Tueeer. 
I  do  appoint  him  store  of  provender ;, 

It  is  a  creature  that  I  teach  to  fight   Shaiepeare. 

For  a  fortnight  before  you  lull  them,  feed  them 
with  hay  or  other  provender.  Morttmar. 

Whene'er  he  chanced  his  hands  to  lay 

On  magazines  of  com  or  hay. 

Gold  ready  coined  appeared,  instead 

Of  paltry  provender  and  bread. 

8»ift*e  MiseeUanies. 

PROVENCE,  a  ci-devant  province  of  France, 
bounded  by  Dauphine  on  the  north,  by  the  late 
Piedmontese  on  the  east,  by  the  Mediterranean 
on  the  soutfi,  and  by  the  Rhone,  which  separated 
it  from  Languedoc,  on  the  west,  being  1 38  miles 
long  and  1(K)  broad.  The  air  is  cold  near  the 
Alps,  hot  on  the  coast,  and  temperate  in  the 
middle.  Since  the  revolution  it  nas  been  di- 
vided into  tlie  following  departments : — 

Sq.  Miles.    Population. 

The  Lower  Alps      .    .    2845        146,000 

TheVar 2820        284,000 

The  Mouths  of  the  Rhone  2272        320,000 

Total     .     7937         750,000 
To  these  is  to  be  added  a  portion  of  the  depart- 
ment of  the  Vaucluse.    The  principal  towns  are 
Marseilles,  Toulon,  Aix,  Aries,  and  Grasse.     It 
was  divided  into  the  Upper  and  Lower  Provence. 

PROVERB,  n.  s.  k.v.a.^       Fr.  proverbe; 

Prover'bial,  adj.  >  Ital.    proverbio ; 

Prover'bially,  adv,         j  Lat.    provtrbium. 

A  pithy  saying;  a  saw ;  an  adage :  uie  rerb,  to 

mention  in,  or  provide  with,  a  proverb,  has  been 

very  properly  disused :  the  adjective  and  adverb 

'  correspond  with  the  noun  substantive. 

Thou  hast  delivered  us  for  a  spoil,  and  a  proverb 
of  reproach.  Teh.  iii.  4. 


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Let  wantons,  light  of  hwrt, 
TicUft  the  lenseleu  rushes  with  their  heels ; 
For  I  am  proverbed  with  a  grandsire  phrase  ; 
.    Ill  be  a  candle-holder  and  look  on.     Shaktpear^, 
It  is  in  praise  and  commendation  of  men,  as  it  is 
in  getiings  and  gains ;  for  the  proverb  is  true,  that 
li^t  gains  make  heavy  parses  ;  for  light  gains  come 
thick,  whereas  great  come  bat  now  and  then. 

Bacon's  Euajft, 
The  sum  of  his  whole  book  of  proderbt  is  an  exhor- 
tation tD  the  study  of  this  practic  wisdom. 

Decay  of  Pietif. 
The  prwerht  of  several  nations  were  much  studied 
by  Bishop  Andrews,  and  the  reason  he  gave,  was, 
because  by  them  he  knew  the  minds  of  several  na- 
tions, which  is  a  brave  thing*  SeUien, 
Am  I  not  sung  and  proverbed  for  a  fool 
In  every  street ;  do  they  not  say,  how  well 
Are  come  upon  him  his  deserts  ?                Milton, 
He  (Solomon),  did  wonderfully  excel  in  ethics  ; 
concerning  which  he  spake  three  thousand  proverbs, 
or  moral  aphorisms.                                      Uarrow. 

It  is  prwerbUUly  said,  formics  sua  bills  inest,  ha- 
bet  et  musca  splenem  ;  whereas  these  parts  anatomy 
hath  not  discovered  in  insects.  Browne. 

In  case  of  excesses,  I  take  the  German  proverbial 
core,  by  a  hair  of  the  same  beast,  to  be  the  worst  in 
the  world;  and  the  be»t,  the  monks  diet,  to  eat  till 
you  are  sidiL,  and  fast  till  you  are  well  again. 

Templets  Miscellanies. 
The  proverb  says  of  the  Genoese,  that  they  have  a 
sea  without  fish,  land  without  trees,  and  men  with- 
out faith.  Addison. 

Moral  sentences  and  proverbial  speeches  are  nu- 
merous in  this  poet.  Pope, 

People  will,  in  a  ^at  degree,  and  not  without 
reason,  form  their  <n>inion  of  you,  upon  that  which 
they  have  of  your  friends  ;  and  there  is  a  Spanish 
yr^erb  wfcich  says,  very  justly,  '  Tell  me  with  whom 
you  live,  and  I  will  teU  you  who  you  are.' 

Chesterjield. 
Proverbs,  Book  of,  ^  canonical  book  of  the 
Old  Testament,  containing  a  part  of  the  proverbs 
of  Solomon.  The  first  twenty-four  chapters  are 
the  work  of  that  prince ;  the  next  five  are  a  col- 
lection made  by  order  of  king  Hezekiah ;  and 
tke  authors  of  the  two  last  are  Agur,  the  son  of 
Jakeh,  and  king  Lemuel. 
PROVIDE',  r.  a.  "^      laX,provideo,  To 

pROv'iDENCE,  ft.  s.  I  procure,  or  supply, 

pROv'iDENT,  adj.  I  beforehand ;       fur- 

Providen'tial,  J^nish ;  get  ready,  tak- 

Provideh'tially,  adv,  |  ing  o/* or  u;i<A before 
pROv'iDEKTLY,  I  the  object :  '  to  pro- 

Provi'der,  n.  s.  J  vide  against*  is  to 

take  measures  to  counteract  or  escape ;  <  provide 
for,*  to  take  care  of ;  maintain :  *  provided  that* 
means,  conditioned  that :  providence  is,  forecast ; 
forethought ;  timely  care ;  prudence ;  frugality ; 
act  of  providing ;  in  a  theological  sense,  God's 
care  of  all  his  creatures :  providential  and  provi- 
dentially are  generally  used  in  this  last  sense : 
provident  is,  prudent ;  forecastin]^^ :  providently 
corresponding :  provider,  he  who  provides. 

God  will  provide  himself  a  lamb  for  a  burnt  offier- 
iae.  Oenens. 

The  only  peo|}le  which,  as  by  their  justice  and  pro- 
mineet  give  neither  cause  nor  hope  to  their  neigh- 
hoors  to  annoy  them,  so  are  they  not  stirred  with 
fidie  praise  to  trouble  others'  (^uiet.  Sidney, 

Eternal  providence  exceeding  thought, 
Where  none  appears  can  make  himself  a  way. 

Spenser, 


States,  which  will  eontinue,  are  above  all  things 
to  uphold  their  reverend  regard  of  religion,  and  to 
provide  for  the  same  by  all  means.  Hooker, 

This  appointed!  unto  them  their  kinds  of  working, 
the  disposition  whereof,  in  the  purity  of  God*s  owd 
knowledge,  is  rightly  termed  providence.  Id, 

He  hath  intent,  his  wonted  followers 
Shall  all  be  very  well  provided  for,      ShakepMrt, 

I  take  your  offer,  and  will  live  with  you ; 
Provided  that  you  do  no  outrages.  Id, 

1  saw  your  brother. 
Most  provident  in  peril,  bind  himself 
To  a  strong  mast  that  lived  upon  the  sea.        Id, 

Here's  money  for  my  meat, 
I  would  have  left  it  on  the  board,  so  soon 
As  I  had  made  my  meal,  and  parted  thence 
With  prayers  for  the  provider.  Id, 

A  provident  man  provides  for  the  future.  Raleigh, 
Providence  is  an  intellectual  knowledge,  both  fore- 
seeing, caring  for,  and  ordering  all  things,  and  doth 
not  only  behold  all  past,  all  present,  and  all  to  come ; 
but  is  the  cause  of  their  so  being,  which  prescience  is 
not.  Id, 

To  make  experiments  of  gold,  be  provided  of  a  con- 
servatory of  snow,  a  good  large  vault  under  erounda 
and  a  deep  well.  Baeon, 

Providence  for  war  is  the  best  prevention  of  it. 

Id, 
The  king  forthwith  provides  him  of  a  guard, 
A  thousand  archers  daily  to  attend.         Daniei, 
He  happier  seat  provides  for  us.  Milton, 

The  world  was  ail  before  them,  where  to  chuse 
llieir  place  of  rest,  and  providence  their  guide.    Id. 
First  crept 
The  parsimonious  emmet,  provident 
Of  future.  Id, 

Sagacity  of  brutes  in  defending  themselves,  provid'' 
ing  agaimt  the  inclemency  of  the  weather,  and  care 
for  their  young.  Hale, 

Though  the  providence  of  God  doth  suffer  many 
particular  churches  to  cease,  yet  the  promise  of  the 
same  God  will  never  permit  that  all  or  them  at  once 
shall  perish.  Pearson, 

Orange  with  youth,  experience  has. 
In  action  young,  in  council  old  ; 
Orange  is  what  Augustus  was. 
Brave,  wary,  provident ^  and  bold>         WmUer. 
They  could  not  move  me  from  my  settled  faith  in 
God  and  his  providence,      More*s  Divine  Dialogues, 

Nature  having  designed  water  fowls  to  fiy  in  the 
air,  and  live  in  the  water,  she  providently  makes 
their  feathers  of  such  a  texture  that  they  do  not  ad- 
mit the  water.  Boyle, 
He  went. 
With  large  expence  and  viih  a  pompous  train 
Provided,                                                 Dryden, 
Some  men,  instructed  hy  the  labouring  ant. 
Provide  against  the'  extremities  of  want.  Id, 
By  thrift  my  sinking  fortune  to  repair. 
Though  late,  yet  is  at  last  become  my  care ; 
My  heart  shall  be  my  own,  my  vast  expence 
Reduced  to  bounds,  by  timely  providence.        Id, 
Provided  that  he  set  up  his  resolution  not  to  let 
himself  down  below  the  dignity  of  a  wise  man. 

UEsttange. 
Every  animal  is  providentiaUy  directed  to  the  use 
of  its  proper  weapons.  Ray  on  the  Creatim, 

An  earth  well  provided  of  all  requisite  things  for 
an  habitable  world.        ^  Btimet's  Theory, 

The  lilies  grow  and  tm  ravens  are  fed  according 
to  the  course  of  nature,  and  yet  they  are  made  argu- 
ments of  providence,  nor  are  these  things  less  prom- 
dential,  because  regular.  Burnet, 

My  arbitrary  bounties  nndenied ; 
I  give  reversions,  and/iir  heirs  provide.      Garth, 


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He  will  have  many  dependents,  whoie  wants  he 
cannot  provide  far.  Additom, 

It  bapp|eneu,  very  previdmHaUjf  to  the  honour  of 
the  Christian  religion,  that  it  did  not  take  its  rise  in 
the  dark  illiterate  ages  of  the  world,  but  at  a  time 
when  arts  and  sciences  were  at  their  height.        Id, 
This  thin,  this  soft  contexture  of  the  air. 

Shows  the  wise  author's  providential  care. 

Blaekmore. 

An  established  character  spreads  the  influence  of 
such  as  move  in  a  high  sphere,  on  all  around ;  it 
reaches  farther  than  their  own  care  and  frrovi^enee 
can  do.  Atterburii, 

A  very  prosperous  people,  flushed  with  ^reat  suc- 
cesses, are  seldom  so  pious,  so  humble,  so  just,  or  so 
provident,  as  to  perpetuate  their  happiness.  Id. 

Rome,  by  the  care  of  the  magistrates,  was  well 
provided  with  corn.  Arlmthnot  on  Coim, 

Fraudulent  practices  were  provided  against  by  laws. 

Arbuthnot. 

When  the  monasteries  were  granted  away,  the 
parishes  were  left  destitute,  or  very  meanly  provided 
of  any  maintenance  for  a  pastor. 

Swift*s  Misceilanies. 

The^  were  of  good  birth,'  and  such  who,  although 
inheriting  good  estates,  yet  happened  to  be  well  edu- 
cated, and  provided  with  learning.  Swiji. 

Providence.  That  there  exists  a  divine  pro- 
vidence,' or,  in  other  words,  that  the  Deity  attends 
to  the  affairs  of -this  world,  and  directs  their 
course,  has  been  an  opinion  generally  received 
among  mankind,  in  all  ages,  and  in  all  countries 
of  the  world.  It  has  not,  however,  passed  with- 
out opposition  from  philosophers  in  various 
ages,  as  well  as  the  present.  The  most  ancient 
of  these  were  Democritus,  Leucippus,  and  Epi- 
curus. We  think  it  totally  unnecessary,  however, 
to  state  the  arguments  on  either  side,  as  they 
would  lead  into  a  discussion  of  the  much  dis- 
puted doctrines  about  the  origin  of  evil,  liberty, 
and  necessity,  free-will,  predestination,  &c., 
which  have  been  sufficiently  noticed  elsewhere. 
The  weight  of  the  argument  indeed  lies  on  the 
side  of  the  affirmative,  both  for  a  general  and 
particular  Providence.  Every  argument  that 
nas  been  advanced  in  favor  of  the  eternal  self- 
existence,  infinite  power,  wisdom,  and  goodness 
of  God,  is  equally  decisive  in  favor  of  his  su- 
perintending care  over  all  his  works.  See  Theo- 

LOOY. 

Providence,  an  island  near  the  coast  of  Hon- 
duras, eleven  miles  long  and  four  wide,  and  ce- 
lebrated in  the  history  of  the  buccaneers,  who 
fortified  it  for  some  years.  Its  western  extremity, 
called  the  island  of  Santa  Catalina,  is  separated 
from  the  rest  of  the  island  by  a  narrow  channel, 
over  which  was  thrown  a  bridge.  It  has  been 
considered  one  of  the  best  of  the  West  India 
islands  for  fertility,  and  the  salubrity  of  its  cli- 
mate ;  to  which  may  be  added  the  facility  of  its 
fortification  and  defence,  and  the  abundance  of 
its  fine  water. 

Providence,  a  post-town,  port  of  entry,  and 
aemi-metropolis  of  Rhode  Island,  in  a  county  of 
the  same  name ;  fifteen  miles  N.  N.  W.  of  Bris- 
tol, thirty  north  by  west||f  Newport,  forty  S.  S. 
W.  of  Boston,  and  fifty-nine  north-east  of  New 
London,  is  situated  on  both  sides  of  Providence 
River,  iust  above  the  mouth  of  the  Seekhonk,  or 
Pawtucket,  and  thirty-five  miles  from  the  ocean. 
It  is  a  pleasant  well-built,  and  very  thriving 


town,  well  situated  for  trade,  and  has  a  flourish- 
ing commerce,  and  extensive  manufactures. 
The  shipping  owned  here  in  1810,  amounted  to 
14,465  tons.  The  river  is  navigable  as  far  as  the 
town  for  vessels  of  900  tons.  'ITie  two  parts  of 
the  town  are  connected  by  an  elegant  bridge, 
.  ninety  feet  in  breadth.  In  point  of  population,  it  is 
the  first  town  in  Rhode  island,  and  the  third  in 
New- England.  It  contains  a  court-house,  a  jail, 
a  university,  a  public  library  of  about  2000  vo- 
lumes, a  Friencls*  boarding-school  and  five  pub- 
lic schools,  seven  banks,  including  a  branch  of 
the  United  States  bank,  and  eight  houses  of  pub- 
lic worship :  three  for  rongr<»gationalists,  two 
for  Baptists,  one  for  Episcopalians,  one  for 
Friends,  and  one  for  Methodists.  Two  of  the 
Congregational,  and  one  of  the  Baptist  meeting- 
houses, and  the  Episcopal  chUrch,  are  among  the 
handsomest  edifices  of  the  kind  in  the  United 
States.  Many  of  the  private  houses  are  elegant, 
and  some  of  them  very  finely  situated.  Among 
the  manufiicturing  establishments  are  four  cotton 
manufactories,  a  large  woollen  manufactory,  a 
paper-mill,  a  bleaching,  dyeing,  and  calendering 
company.  These  manufactories  are  aided  by 
three  steam  engines.  Three  newspapers  are 
published  here,  one  twjce  a-week,  and  two  once 
a-week.  A  little  to  the  east  of  the  town  there 
are  two  handsqme  bridges  across  the  Seekhonk. 

This  town  was  originally  settled,  in  1 636,  by 
Roger  Williams,  to  whom  is  ascribed  the  honor 
of  having  established  the  first  political  commu- 
nity in  which  perfect  religious  toleration  was 
admitted.  Brown  University  was  originally 
founded  at  Warren  in  1764,  and  removed  to 
Providence  in  1770.  It  received  its  present 
name  in  1804  from  Nicholas  Brown,  esq.,  one  of 
its  principal  benefactors.  It  is  a  respectable  and 
flourbhing  seminary.  Its  funds  are  not  large, 
having  ansen  solely  from  individual  liberality. 
The  college  building  is  a  spacious  and  elegant 
Crick  edifice,  four  stories  high,  150  feet  l«qg, 
forty- six  broad,  with  a  projection  of  iwenty-feet 
on  each  side ;  and  it  contains,  forty-eight  rooms 
for  students,  and  six  rooms  for  public  purposes. 
It  is  delightfully  situated  on  an  eminence  on  the 
east  side  of  the  town,  commanding  a  fine  pros- 
pect. The  librar}  contains  about  300O-<volumes, 
and  the  philosophical  apparatus  is  resf>«K^ble. 

The  board  of  trustees  is  composed  of  thirty- 
six  members;  of  whom  twenty-two  must  be 
Baptists,  five  Friends,  five  Episcopalians,  and 
four  Congregational ists  The  number  of  fellows, 
or  learned  mculty,  is  twelve ;  of  these  eight,  in- 
cluding the  president  must  be  Baptists;  the 
other  four  may  be  of  anv  denomination ;  as  also 
may  be  die  professors  and  tutors.  The  executive 
government  consists  of  the  president,  seven  pro- 
fessors, and  two  tutors. 

Providence,  New,  an  island  of  the  West 
Indies,  nearly  in  the  centre  of  the  great  Bahama 
Bank,  is  twenty^five  miles  long  and  nine  broad. 
The  harbour  of  Nassau  is  on  the  north  side,  and 
is  sheltered  to  the  north  by  Hog  Island ;  it  is  fit 
for  vessels  of  thirteen  feet.  The  town  of  Nassau 
is  the  seat  of  government  of  the  Bahamas;  and 
one  of  the  best  planned  towns  of  the  West  In- 
dies;  the  streets  being  wide  and  airy,  and  the 
houses  well  built.    The  trade  here,  jNirticularly 


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with  the  United  States,  was  at  a  late  period  very 
considerable.  Its  chief  objects  were  live  stock, 
and  salt  and  fresh  provisions ;  which  latter  have 
been  chiefly  obtained  from  the  more  southern  of 
the  states.  A  considerable  intercourse  has  like- 
wise occasionally  taken  place  between  New  Pro- 
vidence and  the  Island  of  Cuba ;  particularly  to 
the  Uavannah,  where  there  was  a  brisk  market 
for  British  manufactures,  prize  goods,  &c., 
through  the  facilities  rendered  by  the  licence 
trade.  In  May,  1803,  there  had  been  granted  in 
this  island,  by  the  crown,  no  less  than  23,079 
acres  of  patented  estates,  for  the  purpose  of  culti- 
vation. The  population,  in  1801,  amounted  to 
1599  whites,  752  free  people  of  color,  and  3861 
slaves,  making  a  total  or6212 ;  and  in  1803  to 
1758  whites,  817  people  of  color,  and  251.3 
slaves,  the  total  being  5090. 

At  Nassau,  there  are  two  parish  churches,  and 
an  old  fort  near  the  ^est  entrance  of  the  harbour. 
The  government  house  (built  in  1804)  is  one  of 
the  best  in  the  West  Indies,  and  is  finely  situated 
on  a  hill  that  commands  the  town  and  harbour. 
Here  also  is  Fort  Fincastle,  and  a  small  light- 
house. The  public  buildings,  courts  ofjustice, 
&C.,  are  handsome  and  commodious.  Tne  bar- 
racks situated  in  Fort  Charlotte,  a  little  to  the 
west  of  Nassau,  were  erected  at  a  great  expense 
by  ihe  earl  of  Duumore,  a  late  governor  of  the 
Bahamas.  There  is  a  very  good  road,  extending 
for  a  considerable  way  along  the  coast  of  New 
Providence,  and  likewise  one  across  the  island 
from  Nassau  to  the  south.  The  island  is  situated 
between  long.  77**  iC  and  77**  38'  W.,  lat.  25° 

a-N. 

Providence,  North,  a  town  of  Providence 
county,  Rhode  Island,  on  the  west  side  of  the 
Pawtucket.  It  lies  on  the  north  side  of  Provi- 
dence, and  contains  several  cotion  manufactories, ' 
two  banks,  and  an  air  furnace.  Pawtucket  vil- 
lage is  in  this  township. 

Also  a  town   of  Saratoga  county,  New  York. 

Providence  River,  a  river  of  Rhode  Island, 
formed  by  the  Wanasquiatucket  and  Moshasick, 
which  unite  just  above  Providence.  It  flows 
into  Narraganset  Bay,  at  Bullock's  Point,  five  or 
six  miles  below  Providence. 


Fr. 


province ; 


t*,  n.  f .  J 

,  adj.  &  ft.  s.  >  Ital.,  Span.,  Port., 

E, «.  o.  is'' 


PROVINCE,  n.f. 

Provincial, 

Pbovik'ciate,  V,  a.  )  and  LaX.provincia, 

A  conquered  region  or  tract  of  country ;  a  coun- 
try governed  by  delegated  authority  ;  hence  any 
one's  proper  sphere  or  business :  provincial  is, 
relating  or  belonging  to  a  province ;  unpolished ; 
rude ;  not  oecumenical :  and,  as  a  noun  substan- 
tive, a  spiritual  delegate  among  the  Jesuits  and 
other  religious  orders :  to  provinciate ;  to  make 
into  a  province.    Not  used. 

Those  pnmmeet  these  arms  of  mine  did  conqaer. 

Skakspeare, 
The  duke  dare  not  more  stretch 
This  fin^r  of  mine,  than  he  dare  rack  his  own ; 
His  subtect  am  I  not,  nor  here  prmrincial.        Id, 
When  there  was  a  design  to  provinciate  the  whole 
kingdom,  Draina,  though  offered  a  canton,  would  Dot 
accept  of  it.  HoweL 

Over  many  a  tract 
Of  heaven  they  marched,  and  many  a  provmee  wide. 

MiUon. 


Some  have  delivered  the  polity  of  spiriu,  and  left  ah 
account  even  to  their  /mmndo/ dominions.  Browne, ' 
I  am  fit  for  honours's  toughest  task ; 
Nor  ever  yet  found  fooling  was  my  prooinee, 

Otway. 
Nor  can  I  alone  sustain  this  day's  provmu, 

JfOfV* 

Valignanus  was  provincial  of  the  Jesuits  in  the 
Indies.  StiUins(fleei. 

Greece,  Italy,  and  S*cily,  were  divided  into  com- 
monwealths, till  swallowed  up  and  made  provinces 
by  Rome.  Temple. 

Tis  thine,  whatever  is  pleasant,  good,  or  fair ; 
All  nature  is  thy  prooinee,  life  thy  care.       Dryden, 

They  huild  and  treat  with  such  magnificence. 
That,  \ik&  the  ambitious  monarchs  of  the  age. 
They  give  the  law  to  our  promncial  stage.  Id, 

The  womtfn's  prooinee  is  to  be  carefid  in  her  oeco- 
nomy,  and  chaste  in  her  afiection.  Taller, 

He  has  caused  fortified  towns  and  large  provineM 
to  be  restored,  which  had  been  conquer^  long  be- 
fore. Davenant. 

A  law  made  in  a  provineial  synod  b  properly 
termed  a  provincial  constitution.   Ayliffe^i  Parergon. 
See  them  broke  with  toils,  or  sunk  in  ease. 

Or  infamous  for  plundered  provinoes.  Pope, 

A  country  sqifire  having  only  the  prooineial  accent 
upon  his  tongue,  which  is  neither  a  fault,  nor  in  his 
power  to  rem^iy,  must  many  a  cast  wench.    Swi/i, 

Their  understandings  are  cooped  up  in  narrow 
bounds ;  so  that  they  never  look  abroad  into  other 
provinces  of  the  intellectual  world.  Watu, 

His  mien  was  aukward  ;  graces  he  had  none ; 
Provineial  were  his  notions  and  his  tone.       Harte, 

Province,  in  Roman  antiquity,  was  a  country 
of  considerable  extent,  which,  upon  being  en- 
tirely reduced  under  the  Roman  aominion,  was 
new-modelled  according  to  the  pleasure  of  the 
conquerors,  and  subjected  to  the  command  of 
annual  governors,  sent  from  Rome,  being  obliged 
to  pay  such  taxes  and  contributions  as  the  senate 
thought  fit  to  demand.  Of  these  countries,  that 
part  of  France  next  the  Alps  was  one,  and  re- 
tained the  name  of  Provence  till  the  Revolution. 
Nicod  derives  the  word  a  procul  vivendo,  living 
afiir  off;  but  it  is  better  derived  from  pro  and 
vinco,  I  overcome. 

Province,  in  geography,  is  a  division  of  a 
kingdom  or  state,  comprising  several  cities,  towns, 
&c.,  all  under  the  same  government,  and  usually 
distinguished  by  the  extent  either  of  the  civil  or 
ecclesiastical  jurisdiction.  The  church  distin- 
guishes its  provinces  by  archbishoprics ;  in  which 
sense,  England  is  divided  into  two  provinces, 
Canterbury  and  York. 

Province  Island,  a  fertile  island  in  the  De- 
laware, six  miles  below  Philadelphia. 

PROVINCETOWN,  a  post  town  of  Barnstaple 
county,  Massachusets,  near  Cape  Cod;  forty- 
four  miles  north-east  of  Barnstaple,  and  116 
south-east  of  Boston.  It  is  situated  on  the  hook 
of  Cape  Cod,  three  miles  south-east  of  Race 
Point.  The  harbour,  which  is  one  of  the  best 
in  the  state,  opens  to  the  southward,  and  has  suf- 
ficient depth  of  water  for  any  vessels.  The 
houses  are  of  one  story,  and,  in  order  to  prevent 
their  being  buried  in  the  sand,  are  set  on  piles, 
that  the  driving  sands  may  pass  under  them. 
The  inhabitants  depend  almost  wholly  on  the 
fisheries  for  subsistence ;  raise  nothing  on  their 
lands,  and   are  dependent  on  Boston  and  the 

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neighbouring  towns,  for  eTery  vegetable  prod  no- 
tion. They  keep  a  few  cows,  which  obtain  a 
scanty  subsistence  from  the  beach  grass  and 
marshes. 

PROVINS,  a  post-town  of  the  department  of 
the  Seine-et-Mame,  France,  and  the  chief  place 
of  a  sub-prefecture  of  the  same  name,  containing 
5600  inhabitants,  and  having  a  lower  court  of 
judicature,  a  chamber  of  commerce,  an  agricul- 
tural society,  and  a  communal  college.  This 
town  is  situated  on  the  declivity  and  at  the  foot 
of  a  lofty  hill,  watered  by  the  little  rivers  of 
Durtein  and  Vouzie,  which  turn  about  sixty 
flour-mills  in  the  neighbourhood.  It  is  well 
built,  and  divided  into  the  Upper  and  Lower 
Town ;  most  of  the  streets  are  wide,  clean,  and 
airy ;  but  it  is  not  peopled  in  proportion  to  its  size. 
It  was  fortified  in  ancient  times,  and  there  are 
still  to  be  seen  in  the  Upper  Town  the  remains  of 
a  strong  castle.  Both  parts  of  the  town  are  en- 
compassed with  walls  m  a  pretty  good  state  of 
preservation.  It  is  also  almost  encircled  with 
boulevards,  which  form  majestic  bowers  over  a 
fountain  of  mineral-water,  of  a  ferruginous  qua- 
lity. In  1780  a  canal  was  commenced,  for  the 
purpose  of  rendering  the  litle  river  Vouzie  navi- 
gable; the  accomplishment  of  this  enterprise,  as 
the  canal  would  communicate  with  the  Seine 
near  Bray,  would  be  of  the  highest  importance 
to  this  town. 

Here  are  manufactures  of  linsey-woolsey, 
earthenware,  and  conserve  of  roses ;  there  are 
also  numerous  flour-mills,  tan-yards,  and  bark 
mills,  tile  and  lime-kilns.  The  trade  consists  in 
com  and  flour  for  the  Paris  market,  Provins 
roses  for  medicinal  purposes,  cultivated  in  this 
neighbourhood  for  centuries ;  wool,  leather,  and 
mineral-waters.  The  most  remarkable  public 
places  are,  the  mineral-spring,  the  walks,  and  the 
extremity  of  the  hill,  on  which  the  town  is  built, 
the  ruins  of  an  ancient  fort,  supposed  to  be  of 
Roman  construction,  from  which  tnere  is  a  very 
extensive  prospect.  Provins  is  thirty-seven  miles 
east  of  Melun,  thirteen  north-west  of  Nogent, 
and  sixty-three  south-east  of  Paris. 

PROVrSION,  n.  s.     -j     Fr.  provuion ;  Lat. 

Provis'ional,  adj.       tprovisiOyprovUo,  The 

pROvis'iONALLT,  odv.  I  act    of     providing ; 

pROvi'so,  n.  f .  J  care ;  things  provided 

or  measures  taken  beforehand;  stock,  particu- 
larly of  food ;  terms  settled :  provisional  means 
provided  for  the  present  only ;  temporary : 
the  adverb  corresponding :  proviso,  stipulation ; 
expressed  condition;  caution  or  care  taken. 

Kalander  knew  that  pronrion  is  the  foundation  of 
hospitality,  and  thrift  the  fewel  of  magnificence. 


This  proviso  is  needful,  that  the  sheriff  may  not 
have  the  like  power  of  life  as  the  marshal  hath. 

Sponger. 
Mendoza  advertised,  that  he  would  valiantly  de- 
fend the  city,  so  long  as  he  had  any  prooiskn  of  vic- 
tuals. KnolUt, 
He  doth  deny  his  prisoners, 
But  with  prooiw  and  exception, 
That  we,  at  our  own  charge,  shall  ransom  strait 
His  brother-in-law.           Shakspeare.  Henry  IV. 

Five  days  we  do  allot  thee  for  prooition. 
To  shield  thee  from  disasters  of  the  world. 

Shaktptare. 
lie  preser\Td  all  points  of  humanity,  in  taking 


order  and  making  provuion  for  the  reKef  of  atiangen 
distressed.  Bacon. 

This  law  was  only  to  reform  the  degenerate  £ng- 
j^lish,  but  there  was  no  care  taken  for  the  reforma- 
tion of  the  mere  Irish,  no  ordinance,  no  provision 
made  for  the  aboliihing  of  their  barbarous  customs. 
Dmiies  on  Ireland. 

Under  whose  chin  nature  hath  fastened  a  little 
bag,  which  she  hath  also  taught  him  to  use  as  a 
store-house  ;  for  in  this,  haring  filled  his  belly,  he 
preserveth  the  remnant  of  his  prooision,        HeitUn, 

He  caused  prooisiens  to  be  brought  in.  Clarendon, 

Provisions  laid  in  large  for  man  or  beast  Milton. 
In  such  abundance  lies  our  choice. 

As  leaves  a  greater  store  of  fruit  untouched. 

Still  hanging  incorruptible,  till  men 

Grow  up  to  their  provision.  Id. 

Religion  lays  the  strictest  obligations  upon  men, 
to  make  the  best  provision  for  their  comfortable  sub- 
sistence in  this  world,  and  their  salvation  in  the  ne&t. 

TiUotson 

The  prudent  part  is  to  propose  remedies  for  the 
present  evils,  and  provisions  against  future  events. 

Tempie, 

The  abliot  of  St.  Martin  was  bom.  was  baptised, 
and  declared  a  man  prooisionalljf,  till  time  should 
show  what  he  would  prove,  nature  had  moulded  him 
so  untowardiy.  Locke. 

Darid,  after  he  had  made  such  vast  provision  of 
materials  for  the  temple,  yet,  because  he  had  dipt  his 
hands  in  blood,  was  not  permitted  to  lay  a  stone  in 
that  sacred  pile.  South. 

Some  will  allow  the  church 'no  further  power  than 
only  to  exhort,  and  this  but  with  a  proviso,  too,  that 
it  extends  not  to  such  as  think  themselves  too  wise 
to  be  advised.  U. 

The  commenda  semestris  grew  out  of  a  natural 
equity,  that,  in  the  time  of  the  patron's  respite  given 
him  to  present,  the  church  should  not  be  without  a 
provisional  pastor.  Ayliffe. 

PROV^OKE',  v.a.  &  v.n^      Fr.  jfrovoguer; 

Provoca'tion,  n.  s.  f  Spanish  provocar; 

Provo'cativ  e,  y  LBLLprovocareypro^ 

Provo'ker,  inooo.    To  excite; 

Provo'kingly,  odu.  J  rouse  to  energy; 
rouse  or  excite  to  anger;  enrage;  offend;  chal- 
lenge ;  induce ;  promote ;  move :  as  a  verb 
neuter,  to  produce  anger;  and  (a  Latinism)  to 
appeal :  provocation  is,,  the  act  or  cause  which 
excites  to  anger ;  excitement ;  appeal :  provoca- 
tive, that  which  operates  as  an  excitement  of  the 
appetite,  in  particular:  provoker,  one  who  ex- 
cites anger  or  displeasure;  promoter:  provok- 
ingly,  in  a  way  to  excite  anger. 

The  Lord  abhorred  them,  because  of  the  provoking 
of  his  sons.  Deuteronomu  xxzii.  19. 

Ye  provoke  me  unto  wrath,  burning  incense  unto 
other  Gods.  Jeremiah  xliv.  8. 

To  provoke  unto  love  and  to  good  works.     Hebrews. 

The  like  effects  may  grow  in  all  towards  thei- 
pastor,  and  in  their  pastor  towards  every  of  them, 
Detween  whom  there  daily  and  interchangeably  pass 
in  the  hearing  of  God  himself,  and  in  the  presence 
of  his  holy  angels,  so  many  heavenly  acclamations, 
exultatii^ns,  provocations,  and  petitions.        Hooker, 

Drink  is  a  great  provoker;  it  proookes  and  unpro- 
vokes.  Shaktpeare. 

It  is  a  fundamental  law,  in  the  Tuikish  empire, 
that  they  may,  without  any  other  provocation,  make 
war  upon  Christendom  for  the  propagation  of  their 
law.  Baton. 

When  we  see  a  man  that  yesterday  kept  a  humi- 
liation, to-day  invading  the  possessions  of  bis  bre- 

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thicn,  «•  need  no  other  proof  bow  hypocriticallj 
tud  provokingltf  he  confessed  hit  pride. 

Decay  of  Piety. 

If  we  consider  man  in  such  a  loathsome  and  pro- 
wktM^  condition  y  was  it  not  love  enough  that  he 
wBspermitted  to  e]\)Oy  a  being  ?  Taylor. 

Though  often  provokedt  by  the  insolence  .of  some 
of  the  bishops,  to  a  dislike  of  their  overmuch  fer- 
vour, his  integrity  to  the  king  was  without  blemish. 

Clanndon, 
Neither  to  proeoAtf,  nor  dread 
New  war  provoked.  Milton. 

A  practice  which,  to  the  shame  of  our  a^,  is  now 
so  much  in  fashion,  and  with  some  men  in  vogue ; 
the  invoking  God's  name,  appealing  to  his  testimony, 
and  provoking  his  judgment,  upon  an;^  slight  occa- 
sion, in  common  talk,  with  vain  incogitancy,  or  pro- 
lane  boldness.  Barrow. 
Anus  and  Felagius  durst  proeohe 

To  vHiat  the  centuries  preceiting  spoke.    Dryden. 

I  neither  fear,  nor  will  provoke  the  war.  Id. 

He  now  proookes  the  8eai>gods  from  the  shore  : 
With  envy  Triton  heard  the  martial  sound. 
And  the  bold  champion  for  his  challenge  drowned. 

Id, 
Tempt  not  my  swelling  rage 

With  black  reproaches,  scorn  and  prooooatimi. 

Smith. 

We  may  not  be  startled  at  the  breaking  of  the  ex- 
terior earth ;  for  the  face  of  nature  hath  provoked 
men  to  think  of,  and  observe  such  a  thin^.  Burnet. 

As,  in  all  civil  insurrections,  the  iingleader  is 
looked  on  with  a  peculiar  severity,  so,  in  this  cass, 
the  first  provoker  has  double  portion  of  the  guilt. 

Government  of  the  Tonpie. 

There  would  be  no  variety  of  taste  to  solicit  his 
palate  and  occasion  excess,  nor  any  artificial  pro- 
voetUhet  to  relieve  satiety.  Addieon. 

A  provoeatiim  is  every  act,  whereby  the  office  of 
the  judge  or  his  assistants  is  asked ;  a  provocation 
including  both  a  judicial  and  an  extrajudicial  ap- 
peal. Ayliffe. 

One  Petro  covered  up  his  patient  with  warm 
doaths,  and  when  the  fever  be^n  a  little  to  decline, 
gaie  him  cold  water  to  drink  till  he  provoked  sweat. 

Arbuthnot. 

Agamemnon  prooaiket  Apollo  against  them,  whom 
he  was  willing  to  appease  afterwards.  Pope. 

If  the  performance  of  a  writer  thus  distressed  is 

not  perfect,  iu  faults  ought  surely  to  be  imputed  to 

a  cause  very  difiRsrent  from  want  of  genius,  and  must 

nther  excite  pity  than  provoke  censure.       Johnson. 

When  gifts  perverted,  or  not  duly  prized. 

Pleasure  o'ervalued,  and  his  grace  despised 

Provoke  the  vengeance  of  his  righteous  hand. 

To  pour  down  wrath  upon  a  thankless  land  ; 

He  will  be  found  impartially  severe. 

Too  just  to  wink,  or  speak  the  guilty  clear. 

Covper. 

Garrulity,  attended  with  immoderate  fits  of 
laughing,  is  no  uncommon  case,  when  the  provoea- 
tiem  thereunto  springs  from  jokes  of  a  man's  own 
making.  Cumberland. 

PROVOST,  n.«.>     Sajcpnapar*;   Fr.  pro- 
Prov'ostship.      Svott;  Ital.  provoito;  Lat. 

prapoiitUM.     The  chief  of   any  body,  dvil  or 

militaiy :  the  office  of  a  provost. 

Kinsston,  provost  marshal  of  the  king's  army,  was 
deemed  not  only  cruel,  but  inhuman  in  his  executions. 

Nayutard. 

C.  Piso  first  rose,  and  was  afterwards  aiivanced 
to  the  provostship  of  Rome  by  Tiberius.     Hakewill. 

He  bad  particular  intimacy  with  Dr.  Potter,  pro- 
cou  of  Queen's  College.  Fed, 


Ths  Pbotost  of  a  city  or  town  is  the  diief 
municipal  magistrate  in  several  trading  cities, 
particularly  Edinburgh,  Paris,  &c.,  being  much 
the  same  with  mayor  in  other  places.  He  pre- 
sides in  city  courts,  and,  together  with  the  l>ai- 
lies,  who  are  his  deputies,  determines  in  all  dif- 
ferences that  arise  among  citizens.  The  provost 
of  Edinburgh  b  called  lord;  and  the  same  title 
is  claimed  by  the  provosts  of  Perth  and  Glas- 
gow. The  former  calls  yearly  conventions  of 
the  royal  boroughs  to  Eainburgh  by  his  mis« 
fiives,  and  is,  ex  officio,  president  of  the  con- 
vention when  met. 

'  Provost  Gen  era  l  of  the  marines,  a  ci-devant 
French  officer,  whose  duty  it  was  to  prosecute 
the  marines  when  guiltv  of  any  crime,  and  to 
make  report  thereof  to  the  council  of  war ;  be- 
sides a  marine  provost  in  every  vessel,  who  was 
a  kind  of  jailor,  and  took  the  prisoners  into  his 
care,  and  kept  the  vesse}  clean. 

Provost  Martial  of  an  Armt  is  an  officer 
appointed  to  seize  and  secure  deserters,  and  all 
other  criminals.  He  is  to  hinder  soldiers  from 
pillaging,  to  indict  offenders,  and  see  the  sen- 
tence passed  on  them  executed.  He  also  regu- 
lates the  weights  and  measures,  and  the  price  of 
provisions,  &c.,  in  the  army.  For  the  discharge 
of  his  office,  he  has  a  lieutenant,  a  clerk,  and  a 
troop  of  marshalmen  on  horseback,  as  also  an 
executioner. 

Provost  of  the  Marshals  was  a  kind  of 
lieutenant  of  the  marshals  of  France :  of  these 
there  were  180  seats  in  France ;  their  chief  juris- 
diction regarded  highwaymen,  footpads,  house- 
breakers, &c. 

Provost  op  a  University  or  College,  a 
title  given  to  the  head  of  King's  College,  Cam- 
bridge, and  of  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  and 
also  to  the  president  of  a  college  in  the  United 
States. 

PROW,  n.  s.  Tr.proue;  Span  proa;  IaU 
prora.    The  head  or  forepart  of  a  ship. 

The  sea-victory  of  Vespasian  was  a  lady  holding 
a  palm  in  her  hand,  at  her  foot  the  prow  of  a  ship. 
Peoauun  on  DrtMsngi 

Straight  to  the  Dutch  he  turns  his  dreadful  prow. 
More  fierce  th'  important  quarrel  to  decide. 

Dryden. 

PROWESS,  n.  «. )      Fr.  prautte ;  Ital.  pro^ 

Prov/est,  adj.  ]  dezza ;  Span,  proeza.  Bra- 
very ;  military  valor :  prowest,  oravest ;  valiant : 
an  obsolete  barbarism. 

Men  of  such  prowess,  as  not  to  know  fear  in  them- 
selves, and  yet  to  teach  it  in  others  that  should  deal 
with  them ;  for  they  had  often  made  their  lives  tri- 
umph over  most  terrible  dangers,  never  dismayed, 
and  ever  fortunate.  Sidney. 

I  hope 
That  your  wisdom  will  direct  my  thought. 
Or  that  vour  prowees  can  roe  yield  relief.    Spenser 

They  Se  t^wo  of  the  prowesi  knights  on  ground. 
And  oft  approv'd  in  many  a  hard  assay. 
And  eke  of  surest  steel,  that  can  be  found. 
Do  arm  yourself  against  that  day  them  to  confound. 

Nor  should  thy  provess  want  praise  and  esteem. 
But  that  'tis  shewn  in  treason.' 

Shakspeare*  Henry  VI. 
Those  are  they 
First  seen  in  acts  of  prowess  eminent. 
And  great  exploits,  but  of  true  virtue  void.  Milton, 


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The  fiurvt  of  her  lei,  Angelica, 
His  daughter,  sought  by  many  prowett  knight.    Id. 

These  were  the  eotertainineats  of  the  softer  na- 
tions, that  fell  under  the  virtue  and  prowea  of  the 
two  last  empires.  Tempts, 

The  vigour  of  this  arm  was  never  vain. 
And  that  my  wonted  prowess  I  retain, 
Witness  these  heaps  of  slaughter  on  the  plain. 

Dryden. 

PROWL,  V.  a.  &  V.  n.  |    The  old  dictionaries 

Prowl'er,  n.  *.  i  write    prole,    which 

Casaubon  derives  from  iroooXifc,  ready,  quick. 
Skinner,  from  prosier,  a  diminutive  formed  by 
himself  from  proier  to  prey,  French ;  *  perhaps,' 
says  Johnson,  '  it  may  be  formed,  by  accidentsd 
corruption,  from  patrol*  Thomson,  rr./woio/fr, 
to  rove  over. 

The  champion  robbeth  by  night. 
And  pTowUth  and  filcheth  by  daie.     TWser. 

He  prowU  each  place,  still  in  new  colours  deck't. 
Sucking  one's  ill,  another,  to  infect.  Sidney. 

Nor  do  they  bear  so  quietly  the  loss  of  some  par- 
cels confiscates  abroad,  w  the  great  detriment  which 
they  suflbr  by  some  prowling  vice-admiral  or  pub- 
lic minister.  RaUigh. 

As  when  a  prowling  wolf. 
Whom  hunger  drives  to  seek  new  haunt  for  prey. 

MiUon. 
On  church -yards  drear. 
The  disappointed  prowUrs  fall,  and  dig 
The  shrouded  body  from  the  grave.    Ttumuon, 

PROXIMATE,  adj,^     Lat.  prortmw.   Next 

pROx'iMATELY,  odv,  f  in  the  series  of  ratioci- 

pRox'iME,  ct^/*  1  nation;  near  and  im- 

Proxim'i'^y,  n.  s,  J  mediate  :  this  is  the  sig- 
nification of  both  adjectives ;  the  adverb  and 
noun-substantive  correspondmg. 

When  kingdoms  have  customably  been  carried  bv 
right  of  succession,  according  to  proximity  of  blood, 
the  violation  of  this  course  hath  always  been  dange- 
rous. Haywari, 
If  he  plead  protunit^f  of  blood. 

That  empty  title  is  with  ease  withstood.  Drydm. 

Add  the  convenience  of  the  situation  of  the  eye, 
in  respect  of  its  prorimUy  to  the  brain,  the  seat  of 
common  sense.  Bi^. 

Writing  a  theoiy  of  the  delu^,  we  were  to  shew 
the  prosimaie  natural  causes  of  it.  Bume:. 

I  can  call  to  my  assistance 
Proximity^  mark  that !  and  distance.  Prior. 

The  consideration  of  our  mind,  which  is  incorpo- 
real, and  the  contemplation  of  our  bodies,  which 
have  all  the  characters  of  excellent  contrivance;  these 
alone  easily  and  proximately  guide  us  to  the  wise  au- 
thor of  all  things.  Bentley, 

Must  we  send  to  stab  or  poison  all  the  popish 
princes,  who  have  any  pretended  title  to  our  crown  by 
the  proximity  of  blo<xl  1  Swift. 

A  syllogysm  is  made  up  of  three  propositions, 
and  these  of  three  terms  variously  joinea  :  the  three 
tcrAis  are  called  the  remote  matter  of  a  syllogism, 
the  three  propositions  the  proxtmejor  immediate  matter 
of  it.  Watts*t  Logiek. 

PROX'Y,  n.  f.  Contracted  from  procuracy. 
Agency  of  another;  the  substitution  of  another: 
hence  the  appearance  of  a  representative,  or  per- 
son substituted. 

We  must  not  think  that  we.  who  act  only  as  their 
proxies  and  representatives,  may  do  it  for  them. 

Kettlewell. 

A  wise  man  will  commit  no  business  of  import- 
ance to  a  proxjf,  where  he  may  do  it  himselfl 

VEetmnge. 


None  acts  a  friend  by  a  deputy,  or  can  be  femiliar 
by  proxy.  South. 

Had  Hyde  thus  sat  by  proxy  too. 
As  Venus  once  was  said  to  do. 
The  painter  must  have  searched  the  skies. 
To  match  the  lustre  of  her  eyes.        GramUU. 
PRUCE,  It.  ».    From  Pnissia  or  Pruzzi.    Sea 
Prussia.    Prussian  leather. 

Some  leathern  buckles  use 
Of  folded  hides,  and  leathern  shields  of  prueo. 

Jhyden. 

PRUDE,  n.  f.    >     Fr.pritffe;  LsA.  prudential' 
Pru'dish,  adj.    5  A  woman    affectedly    nice 
and  scrupulous :  affectedly  grave  or  nice. 

The  graver  prude  sinks  downward  to  a  gnome. 

In  search  of  mischief,  still  on  earth  to  roam.  Pope 

Not  one  careless  thought  intrudes. 

Less  modest  than  the  speech  of  prudee.  Sw^. 

I  know  you  all  expect,  from  seeing  me. 

Some  formal  lecture,  spoke  with  prudish  face. 

Garrriek* 

PRU'DENCE,  n.  «.  ^      Fr.  prudence ;  Lat. 


Pru'dent,  adj, 
Pruden'tial,  adj. 
Pruden'tially,  adv, 
Pruden'tials,  n.s. 
Prd'dently,  adv. 


prudentia.  Wisdom  in 
practice ;  dbcretion : 
^prudent  is  the  corre- 
sponding adjective : 
prudential  is,  accord- 


ing  to  rules  of  prudence,  the  adverb,  and  noun- 
substantive  corresponding:  prudentials,  max- 
ims or  principles  of  prudence :  prudently,  dis- 
creetly; judiciously. 

I  have  seen  a  son  of  Jesse,  that  is  a  man  of  war, 
and  prudent  in  matters.,  I  Samua  xvi.  18. 

I  wisdom  dwell  with  prudence,.  Proverbs. 

These  laws  were  so  prudently  framed,  as  they  are 
found  fit  for  all  succeeding  times.  Bacon. 

Under  prudence  is  comprehended  that  ducreet, 
apt,  suiting,  and  disposing  as  well  of  actions  as 
words,  in  their  due  place,  time,  and  manner. 

Peaeham. 

If  the  probabilities  on  the  one  hand  should  some- 
what preponderate  the  other,  yet  if  there  be  no  con- 
siderable hazard  on  that  side,  which  has  the  least 
probabilitv,  and  a  very  great  apparent  danger  in  a 
mistake  about  the  other  :  in  this  case,  prudence  will 
oblige  a  man  to  do  that  which  may  make  most  for 
his  own  safety.  WiikiaM, 

So  steers  the  prudent  crane 
Her  annual  voyage.  Milton. 

Prudence  is  principally  in  reference  to  actions  ti 
be  done,  and  due  means,  order,  season,  and  method 
of  doing  or  not  doin^.  Hale. 

Being  incapable  nghtly  to  judse  the  prudentiality 
of  afHairs,  they  -only  gace  upon  the  visible  success, 
and  thereafter  condemn  or  ay  up  the  whole  progres- 
sion. Browne. 

Motives  are  only  prudential,  and  not  demonstra- 
tive. TiUataon. 

Such  deep  designs  of  empire  does  he  lay 
O'er  them,  whose  cause  he  seems  to  take  m  hand ; 

And  prudently  would  make  them  Lords  at  sea. 
To  whom  with  ease  he  can  give  laws  by  land. 

Drjfdenn, 

He  acts  upon  the  surest  and  most  prudenHal 
grounds,  who,  whether  principles  which  he  actf 
u  on  prove  true  or  false,  yet  secures  a  happy  iasae 
to  his  actions.  South. 

If  he  acts  piously,  soberly,  and  temperately,  he 
acts  prudentially  and  safely.  Id. 

These  virtues,  though  of  excellent  use,  some  pru' 
dential  rales  it  is  necessary  to  take  with  them  u 
practice.  Ragmt. 


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Muy  flMias,  ki  poetick  meaiorei,  contaki  niks 
nlatlns  ta  commoa  mudentiaU,  as  well  as  to  religion. 

Watu. 
Pndent  men  lock  up  their  motives ;  lettine  fa- 
ailian  have  a  key  to  their  heart  as  to  their  garden. 

Shen*tone. 
Adieu,  dear  amiable  youth ! 

Your  heart  can  ne  er  be  wanting  : 
May  prudence,  ionitude*  and  truth, 
£rect  your  Krow  undaunting.         Byron, 

Prudekce,  in  ethics,  may  be  defined  an  abi- 
lity of  judging  what  is  best,  in  the  choice  both 
of  ends  and  means.  According  to  the  definition 
of  Cicero,  De  Officiis,  lib-  i.  c.  43,  prudence 
is  the  knowledge  of  what  is  to  be  desired  or 
avoided.  Accordingly,  he  makes  orudentia  (De 
Legibus,  lib.  i.)  to  be  a  contraction  of  proci- 
dentia, or  foresight  Plato  calls  this  the  leading 
Tirtue ;  and  Juvenal  Stat.  x.  observes,  Nullum 
Dumen  abesi  si  sit  prudentia. 

PRUDENTIUS,  or  Aurelius  Prudentius 
Clehems,  a  celebrated  Christian  poet,  under 
Theodosius  the  Great,  bom  in  Spain,  A.  D.  348. 
He  was  first  an  advpcate,  and  afterwards  a  judge ; 
be  then  became  a  soldier,  and  at  length  obtained 
an  honorable  employment  at  court.  We  have  a 
great  number  of  his  poems,  which,  from  the 
choice  of  his  subjects,  may  be  termed  Christian 
Poems ;  butlhe  style  is  barbarous,  and  very  dif- 
ferent from  ibe  purity  of  the  Augustan  age.  The 
best  editions  of  his  works  are  those  of  Amster- 
dam, in  1667,  with  Heinsius's  notes,  and  Paris 
in  1687,  in  usum  Delphini. 
PRUNE,  v.a.,v.n.,9x.^  Of  unknown  de- 
Prd'n  er,  [n.  f .  f  rivation.  —  Johnson. 

Pau'NiMCHOOK,  I  Fr.  provin,  of  Latin 

Peukingknife.  Jpropago,   an  exube- 

rant shoot. — Thomson.    To  lop ;  divest  trees  of 
their  superfluities ;  dress ;  prink :  a  dried  plum ; 
one  who  crops  trees :  pruning-hook  and  prun- 
isg-knife  are  instruments  of  his  art. 
His  royal  bird 
Pnous  the  immortal  wing,  and  cloys  his  beak. 

Shaktpeare, 
Many  birds  ftrune  their  feathers ;  and  crows  seem 
to  call  apon  rain,  which  is  bat  the  comfort  they  ro- 
oeive  in  the  relenting  of  the  air.  Baem.  • 

lo  drying  of  pears  and  prunes  in  the  oven,  and 
reoMmng  of  them,  there  is  a  like  operation.        Jd» 
So  lopp^  and  pnmed  trees  do  flounsh  fair.  Datnet, 
Some  sitting  on  the  beach  to  prune  their  painted 
breasts.  Dnytm, 

Lest  thy  redojidant  juice 
ShovU  fading  leaves,  instead  of  fruits,  produce, 
Thepnantfr't  hand  with  letting  blood  must  quench 
Thy  heat,  and  thy  exub'rant  parts  retrench. 

Denham, 
What  we  by  day 
Lop  overgrown,  or  prune,  or  prop,  or  bind. 
One  night  with  wanton  erowth  derides, 
Tending  lo  wild.  millan*s  Paradise  Lost.   * 

Honce  will  oar  smperflaous  branches  prune. 
Give  OS  new  rules,  and  set  our  harp  in  tune. 

WaUer. 
Every  scribbling  man 
Grows  a  fop  as  fast  as  ere  he  can, 
Prmes  up,  and  asks  his  oracle  the  glass. 
If  pink  or  purple  best  become  his  face.    Dryden, 
Let  thy  hand  supply  the  pruningknife. 
And  crop  Inxunant  stragglers.  /cf , 

No  plough  shall  hurt  the  glebe,  no  pnminghooh 
the  vine.  Jd. 

Vol.  XVIIL 


The  cyder  land  obseouiius  still  (o  thrones. 
Her  prunin^^ibi  extended  in^o  swdrds.    PhiHps, 
You  have  no  less  right  to  correct  me  than  the 
«ame  hand  that  raised  a  tree  has  to  prune  it.  Pope, 

PRUNELTA,  in  botany,  self-heal,  a  genus  of 
the'gymnospermia  order,  and  didynamia  class  of 
plants ;  natural  order  fortieth,  verticillate.  The 
iilamehts  are  bifurcated,  with  an  anthera  only 
on  one  point;  the  stigma  is  bifid.  The  chief 
species  is 

P.  vuIeariS)  the  herb  self-heal.  The  stem  is  . 
erect,  and  eight  or  ten  inches  high.  The  leaves 
grow  on  foot-stalks,  are  ovato-oblong,  slightly 
indented  and  somewhat  hairy.  The  bractes 
are  heart-shaped,  opposite,  and  fringed.  The 
flowers  are  white  and  purplish,  grow  in  dense 
spikes,  and  are  terminal,  llie  plant  is  peren- 
nial; grows  wild  in  meadows  and  pasture 
grounds,  and  flowers  in  June  and  July.  It  is 
recommended  as  a  mild  astringent  and  vfilne- 
rary,  in  spitting  of  blood  and  other  hsemorrhagies 
and  fluxes ;  and  in  gargles  against  aphthae  and 
inflammations  of  the  fauces.  Its  taste  is  slightly 
austere  and  bitterish ;  and  this  is  more  percep- 
tible in  the  flowery  tops  than  in  the  leaves, 
though  the  latter  are  chiefly  prescribed. 

PRUNEL'LO,n.f.  Barb.  Lat.  orune/^.  A 
kind  of  stuff  of  which  clergymen  s  gowns  are 
made. 

Worth  makes  the  man,  and  want  of  it  the  fellow ; 
The  rest  is  all  but  leather  or  pnmeUo,  Pope. 

PRUNING,  in  gardening  and  agriculture,  is 
the  lopping  off  the  superfluous  branches  of 
trees.     Pruning,  or  the  amputation  of  part  of  a 

Slant  with  the  knife  or  other  instrament,  says 
Ir.  Loudon,  is  practised  for  various  purposes, 
but  chiefly  on  trees  of  the  fruit-bearing  kinds. 
Of  two  adjoining  and  equal  sieed  branches  of 
the  same  tree,  if  the  one  be  cut  off,  that  remain- 
ing will  profit  by  the  sap  which  would  have 
nourished  the  other,  and  both  the  leaves  and  the 
fruits  which  it  may  produce  will  exceed  their 
natural  size.  If  part  of  a  branch  be  cut  off 
which  would  have  carried  a  number  of  fruits, 
those  which  remain  will  fix  better,  and  become 
larger.  The  objects  of  pruning  may  be  reduced 
to  the  following :  promoting  growth  and  bulk ; 
lessening  bulk;  adjusting  the  stem  and  branches 
to  the  roots ;  renevinid  of  decayed  plants  or  trees ; 
and  removal  or  cure  of  diseases. 

Pruning,  for  promoting  the  growth  and  bulk 
of  a  tree,  is  the  simplest  object  of  pruning,  and 
is  that  chiefly  which  is  employed  by  nursery- 
men with  young  trees  of  every  description.  The 
art  is  to  cut  off  all  the  weak  lateral  shoots,  that 
the  portion  of  sap  destined  for  their  nourish- 
ment may  be  thrown  into  the  strong  ones.  In 
some  cases,  besides  cutting  off  the  weak  shoots, 
the  strong  ones  are  shortened,  in  order  to  pro- 
duce three  or  four  shoots  instead  of  one.  In 
general,  mere  bulk  beine  the  object,  upright 
shoots  are  encouraged  rattier  than  latersd  ones ; 
excepting  in  the  case  of  trained  trees,  where 
shoots  are  encouraged. 

Pruning  for  lessenmg  the  bulk  of  the  tree  is 
also  chiefly  confined  to  nursery  practice,  as  ne- 
cessary to  keep  unsold  trees  portable.  It  con- 
sists in  little  more  than  what  is  technically  called 
heading  down ;  that  is,  cutting  off  the  leading 

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shoots  within  an  inck  or  two  of  Ihe  main  stem, 
leaving,  in  some  cases,  some  of  the  lower  lateral 
shoots.  Care  is  taken  to  cut  to  a  leaf  bud,  and 
to  choose  such  from  among  the  side,  upper,  or 
under  buds  of  the  shoot,  according  as  the  suc- 
ceeding year's  shoots  may  be  wanted,  in  radi- 
ated lines  from  the  stem,  or  in  oblique  lines  in 
some  places  to  fill  up  vacancies.  It  is  evident 
that  tills  unnatural  operation  persisted  in  for  a 
few  years  must  render  the  tree  knotty  and  un- 
sightly, and  in  stone-fruits,  at  least,  it  is  ^pt  to 
generate  canker  and  gum. 

In  rearing  trees  planted  for  timber,  it  is  de- 
sirable to  throw  the  timber  produced,  as  much 
as  possible,  into  long  compact  masses;  and 
hence  pruning  is  employed  to  remove  the  side 
branches,  and  encours^  the  growth  of  the  bole 
or  stem.  Where  this  operation  is  begun  when 
the  trees  are  young,  it  is  easily  performed 
every  two  or  three  years,  and  the  progress  of 
the  trees  under  it  is  most  satisfoctoty;  when, 
however,  it  is  delayed  till  they  have  attained  a 
size,  it  will  sometimes  prove  injurious.  'It  is 
safer  in  such  cases  to  shorten  or  lessen  the  size 
of  lateral  branches,  rather  than  to  cut  them  off 
close  by  the  stem,  as  the  large  wounds  produced 
by  the  latter  practice  either  do  not  heal  at  all,  or 
not  till  the  central  part  .is  rotten,  and  has  con- 
taminated the  timber  of  the  trunk.  Where 
timber-trees  are  planted  for  shelter  or  shade,  it 
'  is  evident,  pruning  mutt  be  directed  to  clothing 
them  from  the  summit  to  the  ground,  with  side 
branches ;  but  in  avenues,  and  hedge-row  trees, 
it  is  generally  desirable  that  *'  lowest  branches 
should  be  a  considerable  distance  from  the 
ground.  In  all  cases,  the  superfluous  parts  are 
to  be  cut  off  with  a  clean  section,  near  a  bud  or 
shoot  if  a  branch  is  shortened,  or  close  to  the 
trunk  if  it  is  entirely  removed,  in  order  that  it 
may  more  easily  heal. 

Pruning  for  adjusting  the  stem  and  braoiches 
to  the  roots  is  almost  solel)[  applicable  to  trans- 
planted trees,  in  which  it  is  an  essential  opera- 
tion; and  should  be  performed  in  general  in  the 
interval  between  removal  and  replanting,  when 
the  plant  is  entirely  out  of  the  ground ;  if  the 
roots  have  been  broken  or  bruised,  in  any  of 
their  main  branches  or  ramifications,  the  pruner, 
estimating  the  quantity  of  root  of  which  the 
plant  is  deprived  by  the  sections  of  fracture  and 
other  circumstances,  peculiar  and  general,  will 
be  able  to  form  a  notion  of  what  was  the  bulk 
of  the  whole  roots  before  the  tree  was  undis- 
turbed. Then  he  may  state  the  question  of  les- 
sening the  top  to  adjust  it  to  the  roots,  thus  :— 
as  the  whole  quantity  of  roots  which  the  tree 
had  before  removal  is  to.  the  whole  quantity  of 
branches  which  it  now  has,  so  is  th^quantity  of 
roots  which  it  now  has  to  the  quantity  of  top 
which  it  ought  to  have.  In  general,  bearing- 
wood  and  weak  shoots  should  be  removed,  and 
the  stronger  lateral  and  upright  shoots,  with  leaf 
or  shoot-eyes,  left 

Pruning  for  renewal  of  the  head  is  performed 
by  cutting  over  the  stem  a  little  way,  say  its 
own  thickness  above  the  collar,  or  the  surface  of 
the  ground.  This  practice  applies  to  old  osier<' 
beds,  coppice  woods,  and  to  young  forest-trees. 
Sometimes  also  it  is  performed  on  old,  or  ill- 


thriving  firuit^treet  which  are  headed  down  to  the 
top  of  their  steins.  This  operation  is  performed 
with  the  saw,  and  better  after  scarification,  as  in 
cutting  off  the  broken  limb  of  an  animal.  The 
live  section  should  be  smoothed  with  Uie  chisel 
or  knife,  covered  with  the  bark,  and  coated  over 
with  grafting-clay,  or  any  convenient  compo< 
sition,  which  will  resist  drought  and  rain  for  a 
year.  Those  who  are  advocates  for  pruning 
when  the  sap  is  dormant,  will  not  of  course  be 
able  to  perform  the  operation  of  scarification, 
and  coverinff  the  section  with  bark. 

Pruning  for  curing  diseases  has  acquired  much 
celebrity  since  the  time  of  Forsvth,  whose  am- 
putations and  scarifications  for  the  canker,  toge- 
ther with  the  plaster  or  composition  which  he 
employed  to  protect  the  wounds  firom  air,  are 
treated  of  at  large  in  his  Treatise  on  Fruit-Trees. 
Almost  all  vegetable  diseases  either  have  their 
origin  in  the  weakness  of  the  individual,  or  in- 
duce a  degree  of  weakness;  hence  to  amputate 
a  part  of  a  dis^ised  tree  is  to  strengthen  tne  re- 
maining part,  because,  the  roots  remaining  of  the 
same  force,  the  same  quantity  of  sap  will  be 
throvm  upwards  as  when  the  head  and  brandiies 
were  entire.  If  the  disease  is  constitutional,  or 
in  the  system,  this  practice  may  probably,  in 
some  cases,  communicate  to  the  tree  so  much 
strength  as  to  enable  it  to  throw  it  off;  if  it  be 
local,  the  amputation  of  the  part  will  at  once  re- 
move the  disease,  and  strengtnen  the  tree. 

PRUNUS,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  mono- 
gynia  order,  and  icosandria  class  of  plants;  na- 
tural order  thirty-sixth,  pomaces:  cax.  quin- 
quefid,  inferior;  there  are  five  petals;  the  fruit 
is  a  plum,  having  a  kernel  with  prominent  su- 
tures. There  are  thirty-three  species,  of  which 
six  are  cultivated  in  Britain :  they  are  originally 
natives  of  America  and  Siberia. 

1.  P.  armeniaca,  or  apricot  tree,  grows  twenty 
feet  high,  with  a  large  spreading  head,  having 
reddish  shoots,  birge  nearly  hearu«haped  leaves, 
and  close-flitting  pale  red  flowers  rising  all  along 
the  sides  of  the  young  branches;  succeeded  bt 
laige  roundish  nruit  of  a  yellow  and  reddisn 
color  in  different  varieties.  The  fruit  and  ker- 
nels excite  when  eaten  a  continued  head-«che : 
the  kernels,  infused  in  brandy,  communicate  an 
agreeable  flavor. 

2.  P.  avium,  the  great  wild  cherry-tree,  grows 
forty  or  fifty  feet  high,  havii^  oval  spe^-shaptd 
leaves,  downy  underneath,  with  umDelhite  ses- 
sile clusters  of  white  flowers,  succeeded  by 
.small  round  fruit  of  different  properties  in  tlie 
varieties. 

3.  P.  Canadensis,  the  Canada  dwarf  bird 
cherry,  grows  but  four  or  five  feet  high,  branch- 
ing horizontally  near  the  ground  with  smooth 
branches;  broad,  spear-shaped,  rough,  downy 

*  leaves,  without  glands ;  and  long  clusters  of  white 
flowers,  succeeded  by  small,  round,  berry-like, 
black  fruit,  ripe  in  autumn. 

4.  P.  cerasus,  the  common  cherry-tzee,  grows 
twenty  /sjc  or  more  in  height,  gambhed  with 
oval  clusters  of  lanceolate,  smooth  leaves,  um- 
bellate flowers,  succeeded  by  clusters  of  red 
roundish  fruit  of  different  sizes  and  pr(^>erties 
in  the  varieties.  The  cherry  trees  afford  an  al- 
most endless  variety ;  all  differing  in  some  re- 


Digitized  by  VjiUUy  IC 


J^kmdimJkSiltAtd  fy  Ikt^mutfTK^jr. , 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


PRUSSIA. 


211 


spMl  m  dM  muiiMr  of  ^hootiogy  leaves,  flowers, 
or  fruit:  two  in  jMuticular  demand  admission 
into  tho  pleasiue-gardeB ;  tbe  double-blosaomed 
and  the  red-flowering.  The  pleasing  show  the 
common  dierrv  tree  makes  when  in  Blow  ia 
known  to  tfll ;  but  that  of  the  double-blossomed 
is  much  more  beautiful.  It  blossoms  like  the 
other  iff  May ;  the  flowers  are  produced  in  large 
and  noble  clusters ;  for  each  separate  flower  is  as 
double  as  a  rose,  is  very  large,  and  placed  on 
long  and  slender  footrstalLs,  so  as  to  occasion  the 
branches  Uf  have  an  air  of  ease  and  freedom. 
They  are  of  a  pure  white ;  and  the  trees  are  so 
pronisely  coveted  with  them,  that  when  viewed 
at  a  distance  they  have  been  compared  to  balU 
of  snow.  But  by  tbe  multiplicity  of  the  petals 
the  organs  of  generation  are  destroyed ;  so  that 
tbote  flowers  which  are  really  full  are  never 
succeeded  by  any  fruit  Tne  red-flowering 
cherry  tree  diflers  in  no  respect  from  the  common 
cher^  tree,  only  that  the  flowers  are  of  a  pale 
red  color,  and  by  many  are  esteemed  on  that  ac- 
count Besides  the  ornament  and  utility  afibrd- 
ed  by  the  flowers  and  fruit  of  the  cherry,  its 
timber  is  a  further  inducement  for  propagating 
it ;  more  e^p^ially  that  of  the  small  olack  wild- 
ing sort ;  ^hicb  will  grow,  in  a  soil  and  situation 
it  afiects,  to  be  a  large  tree ;  which,  if  taken  in 
Its  prime,  will  jrield  perhaps  not  less  than  a  ton 
of  valuable  materials^  peculiarly  adapted  to  the 
purposes  of  furniture.  The  grain  is  fine,  and 
the  coloi  nearly  approaching  to  that  of  mahogany. 

5.  P.  domestica,  the  common  plum  tree,  grows 
twenty  or  thirty  fc^t  high,  garuished  with  oval, 
spear-shaped  leaves,  and  with  the  pedunculi  for 
the  most  part  single,  terminated  by  flowers,  suc- 
ceeded by  plums  of  many  different  colors,  sizes, 
and  shapes  in  the  varieties. 

6.  P.  insititia,  wild  plum,  or  bullace  tree, 
grow?  twelve  or  fifteen  teet  high ;  the  branches 
somewhat  spinous ;  the  leaves  oval,  hairy  under- 
neath ;  and  the  pedunculi  by  pairs,  terminated 
bv  white  flowers,  succeeded  by  small,  round, 
plum-like,  fruit  of  diflerent  colors  in  the  vari- 
eties. 

7.  V*  padus,  the  common  bird-cherry  tree, 
grows  fifteen  or  twenty  feet  high,  of  a  shrub-like 
growth,  with  a  spreading  head,  large,  oblong, 
louffh,  serrated  leaves,  having  two  glands  at  the 
beck  of  the  base  like  Uie  oth^,  and  with  shorter, 
more  compact  clusters  of  flowers,  succeeded  by 
large  red  fruit  This  grows  wiid  in  hedges  in 
the  north  parts  of  England. 

8.  P.  spinosa,  black  thorn,  or  sloe  tree,  grows 
ten  or  twdve  feet  high,  veiy  branchy  and  bushy 
quite  from  bottom,  armed  with  strong,  sharp 
spines,  small,  spear-shaped,  amooth  leaves,  pe- 


dunculi growing  ttngly,  tefminated  by  flowers, 
succeeded  by  small  round  cherries  in  autumn. 
It  grows  wild  every  where  in  hedges  and  woods  ; 
and  is  very  proper  for  planting  field  hedges, 
being  of  very  quick  and  close  growth. 

9.  P.  Virginiana,  the  Virginian  bird-cherry, 
grows  thirty  feet  high,  dividing  into  a  very 
branchy  head,  having  a  dark  purple  bark,  oval, 
slightly  serrated,  shining  green  leaves,  having  two 
glands  at  the  fore  part  of  the  base,  and  long 
clusters  of  white  flowers,  succeeded  by  small, 
round,  berry-like,  black  fruit  All  the  diflerent 
varieties  of  plums  have  at  first  been  raised  from 
the  stones,  and  are  afterwards  preserved  by  bud- 
ding and  grafting  on  any  pium-stock.  The 
same  method  is  applicable  to .  cherries ;  only 
these  are  grafted  to  most  advantage  upon  stocks 
of  the  wild  black  and  red  cherry  raised  from 
the  stones  of  the  (piit.  The  apricot-trees  are 
propagated  by  budding  on  any  icind  of  plum- 
stocks. 
PRU'RIENCE,  ti.  s.  )  Latin  pruno.  An 
Pru'rienct.  S  itching  or  great  desire 

or  appetite  to  any  thing. 

There  is  a  frurisnee  in  the  speech  of  some. 
Wrath  sta^s  him,  or  else  God  would  strike  him  dumb : 
His  wise  forbearance  has  their  cod  in  view. 
They  fill  their  measure,  and  receive  their  due. 

Cowf«r. 

PRUSA,  in  ancient  geography,  a  town  situated 
at  Mount  Olympus  in  Mysia,  built  bv  Prusias, 
who  waged  war  with  Croesus  and  Cyrus.  It 
was  the  capital  of  Bithynia,  in  Asia  Minor. 

PRUSIAS  II.,  king  of  Bithynia,  made  an  al- 
liance with  the  Romans,  but  afterwards  receiving  ' 
Hannibal  kindly,  by  his  advice,  made  war  on 
Eumenes,  king  of  Pergamus,  whom  he  defeated. 
EumeneS  complained  to  tlie  Romans,  on  which 
queen  Fl&minius  was  sent  against  him;  where- 
upon Prusias  rendered  himself  for  ever  infill 
mous  by  ofCering  to  deliver  up  Hannibal,  which 
that  hero  prevented  by  a  voluntary  death.  Pru- 
sias then  restored  Eumeneshis  provinces;  but 
became  such  a  servile  flatterer  of  the  Romans 
that  hb  subjects  dethroned  him,  made  his  son 
Nicomedes  lung ;  and,  on  hb  flight  to  Nioomediay 
assassinated  him,  A.A.C.  149. 

Prusias,  in  geography,  a  town  of  Bithynia, 
anciently  called  Cios,  from  a  cognominal  river, 
and  giving  name  to  the  Sinus  Cianus  of  the  Pro- 
pontis ;  rebuilt  by  Prusias  the  son  of  Zela  after 
naving  bee.,  destroyed  by  Philip  the  son  of  De> 
metrius.  It  stood  on  the  Sinus  Cianus,  at  the 
fbot  of  Mount  Arganthonius.  Of  thi^  place  was 
Asclepiades,  sumamed  Prusicus,  the  frunoua 
physidan.  * 


PRUSSIA. 


PRUSSIA,  an  extensive  kingdom  of  modem 
Europe,  is  by  some  writers  said  to  have  derived 
that  name  (through  Prussia  proper)  from  the 
Praza,  a  tribe  of  the  ancient  Scythians  or'Sar- 
natians.  Others  suppose  it  derived  from  the 
word  Russia,  united  with  the  Sclavonic  word  po, 
si^ifying  near.    Po-Russia,  easily  modified  into 


Prussia,  would  thus  imply  the  people  or  country 
near  Russia.  This  kingdom  occupies  a  great 
part  of  northern  Germany,  bordering  on  the 
south  of  the  Baltic ;  and  extends,  with  little  in- 
terruption, from  the  confines  of  Lithuania  to 
those  of  the  Netherlands :  l>eing  washea  at  one 
extremity  by  the  Neimen,  and  at  the  other  by 

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212 


PRUSSIA. 


the  Rhine  and  the  Moielle.  Or  it  is  bounded 
by  Russia  and  the  Baltic  on  the  north ;  Poland 
on  the  east ;  the  Austrian  empire  and  the  king- 
dom of  Saxony  on  the  south;  the  Netherlands 
on  the  west ;  and  the  kingdom  of  Hanover,  with 
the  duchy  of  Mecklenburg,  on  the  north-west. 
From  north-east  to  south-west  it  measures  about 
760  miles.  Its  breadth  is  very  unequal,  and  in 
some  places  it  does  not  exceed  100  miles :  in 
others  it  is  300.  In  one  place  it  reaches  from 
the  Baltic  to  the  southern  point  of  Silesia,  below 
50**  of  latitude.  The  extremity  of  the  grand 
duchy  of  the  Lower  Rhine,  which  now  forms  a 
part  of  the  kingdom,  also  stretches  nearly  to  the 

According  to  Hoffmann,  the  whole  extent  of 
tlie  Prussian   dominions   includes  an  area  of 


115,795  £ngltsb  square  miles,  or  74,106,800 
British  statute  acres.  The  population,  in  1817, 
was  10,536,^70 ;  which  is  about  nine^-one  per- 
sons for  each  square  mile.  The  following  state- 
ment shows  the  rapid  increase  of  this  popula- 
tion:— In  1688  it  was  stated  at  1,500,000;  in 
1713  it  was  1,620,000 ;  at  the  death  of  Frederick 
William,  in  1740,  it  had  increased  to  2,200,000; 
and  in  1786  it  was  5,800,000.  On  the  accession 
of  his  present  majesty,  in  1797,  the  population 
of  his  dominions  was  8,700,000. 

Part  of  the  Prussian  monarchy,  situated  with- 
in the  confines  of  Germany,  forms  a  portion  of 
the  Germanic  confederation.  The  other  part  as 
entirely  independent  of  that  body.  The  whole 
is  now  divided  into  ten  provinces,  i.  e. 


I.  German  Provinces. 

Provinces.           Extent  in  Eng.  sq.  miles. 

Population. 

Chief  towns.  No.  of  inhabitants. 

1.  Brandenburg ;.        .        .        .    17,227 

1,297,795 

Berlin 

.     180,000 

2.  Pomerania      ....    13,018 

700,766 

Stettin 

.       20,000 

3.  Silesia 16,560 

1,992,598 

Breslau 

.       70,000 

4.  Duchy  of  Saxony    .                 .     10,411 

1,214,219 

Magdeburg . 

.       30,500 

5.  Westphalia    *.                 .              8,648 

1,074,079 

Munster 

.       13,000 

6.  Duchy  of  JuHers,  Cleves,  and  Berg  3,634 

7.  Grand  duchy  of  the  Lower  Rhine     6312 

935,040 

Cleves 

5,000 

972,724 

Cologne 

39,000 

II.  Provinces  out  of  Germany. 
Provinces.  Extent  in  Eng.  sq.  miles.  Population. 

8.  Eastern  Prussia  .     16,146        .       919,580 

9.  Western  Prussia  .    10,695  581,971 
10.  Grand  duchy  of  Poseo     .        .    12,374               847,800 


Chief  towns.  No.  of  inhabitants. 
Konigsbei^g .  .  55,000  ^ 
"^  .       45,000 


Dantzic 
Fosen. 


15,000 


Total  (exclusive  of  lakes  and  waters)  1 15,025  10,536,572 


A  level  and  ratber  low  suiface  is  the  predomi- 
nant character  of  this  country;  but  Silesia, 
whicb  is  divided  from  Moravia  and  Bohemia  by 
the  Carpathians,  is  frequently  diversified  by  the 
sapid  interchange  of  hill  and  valley.  The  eastern 
siae,  however,  participates  with  the  grand  duchy 
of  Posen  in  all  the  properties  of  an  extensive 
plain,  which,  with  the  other  regions  between  it 
and  the  Baltic,  constitute  the  grand  basin  of  the 
Oder.  According  to  Busching,  the  principal 
detached  hills  in  Silesia  are  Spiltzberg'  and 
Gratzberg.  The  countries  approaching  the  Bal- 
tic are  level  and  marshy.  Many  parts  of  the 
Pruasian  landscape,  particularly  Prussia  Proper, 
abound  with  forests,  and  in  the  districts  of  Sile- 
sia bordering  on  Hungary  noble  woods  clpthe 
the  range  of  hills  that  forms  the  barrier.  The 
south-western  regions,  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
Rhine,  also  contain  many  forests,  and  morasses 
and  pools  abound  in  various  parts. 

Most  bf  the  large  rivers  which  intersect  these 
dominions  originate  in  foreign  sources.  The 
Oder  and  the  Pregel,  indeed,  may  be  considered 
as  Prussian  rivers:  the  former,  rising  in  the 
mountains  in  the  northern  part  of  Moravia,  soon 
after  enters  the  southern  parts  of  Silesia,  flows 
throueh  the  middle  of  that  province,  and  crosses 
Brandenburg  and  Pomerania,  falling  into  the 
Grass-Haff,  af^er  a  course  of  nearly  400  miles. 
The  Pregel  originates  near  tlie  south-east  ex- 
tremity of  Prussia,  and  passes  by  Konigsberg 
into  the  northern  end- of  the  Frische-Haff.  The 
Spree,  rising  in  Saxony,  flows  through  Berlin,  and 
enters  the  Elbe.    The  Vistula  and  the  Memel 


likewise  complete  their  course  by  flowing  through 
this  kingdom ;  the  former  into  the  Frische-Haff, 
and  the  latter  into  the  Curische-Hafl'.  The  Netze 
and  the  Warta  are  two  considerable  rivers  run- 
ning from  east  to  west,  through  the  grand  duchy 
of  Posen,  till  they  unite  above  Landsberg,  and 
afterwards  pour  their  waters  into  the  Oder.  The 
Weser,  the  Rhine,  and  the  Moselle,  with  some  of 
their  tributary  streams,  intersect  Western  Prus- 
sia. The  Netse  and  the  Vistula  are  united  by  a 
canal,  which  enters  the  latter  river  near  Brom- 
berg.  Smaller  canals  intersect  some  parts  of  the 
kingdom :  as  one  which  connects  the  capital  with 
the  Oder  on  the  east,  and  another  with  the  Elbe 
on  the  west 

The  lakes  and  pools  of  Prussia  are  so  nume- 
rous as  to  add  considerably  to  the  insalubrity  of 
the  climate.  These  are  chiefly  in  the  eastern  re- 
gions, and  are-  supposed  to  exceed  400  in  num- 
ber :  many  are  also  spread  over  the  surface  of 
Pomerania,  Brandenburg,  and  the  western  re- 
gions. One  of  the  largest  of  these  is  the 
Spelding-See,  in  the  south-east  of  Prussia 
Proper;  and,  including  its  several  creeks,  spreads 
more  than  twenty  English  miles.  Besides 
these,  the  kingdom  of  Prussia  presents  many 
singular  Hafls  or  sheets  of  water,  at  the  estuaries 
of  some  of  its  principal  rivers.  One  of  these, 
denominated  the  Grass-Haff,  is  situated  in  the 
north-west  point  of  Pomerania,  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Oder.  A  second,  the  Frische-Haff,  extends 
from  Elbing  to  Konigsberg,  and  is  only  sepa- 
rated from  the  Baltic,  to  which  it  is  nearly  pa- 
rallel* by  a  narrow  slip  of  land.  It  is  about 
Digitized  by  VjiUOyiC 


PRUSSIA. 


2ie 


serenty  Englisb  miloB  in  length,  and  from  three 
to  ten  in  breadth;  but  not  of  sufficient  depth  to 
admit  ships  of  lar^  burden.  The  bank  which 
separates  it  from  the  Baltic  is  said  to  have  been 
thrown  up  by  storms  about  the  end  of  the  twelfth 
century.  Another  of  these  gulfs  commences  a 
few  miles  north-east  of  the  last,  stretches  north- 
ward, and  enters  the  sea  opposite  Memel.  This 
is  the  Curische-Haff,  and  is  broadest  at  its  south- 
era  extremity,  but  very  narrow  towards  the  op- 
posite end.  Its  length  is  nearly  sixty  English 
miles,  and  its  greatest  breadth  about  thirty.  The 
space  between  it  and  the  sea  is  likewise  very 
narrow.    It  is  subject  to  frequent  storms. 

Prussia,  amidst  great  variety  of  climate,  must 
be  considered  as  oit  the  whole  a  cold  and  damp 
country.  The  lakes,  forests,  and  marshes, 
render  some  places  particularly  unhealthy;  as, 
for  instance,  Prussia  Proper,  where  the  autumn 
is  often  deluged  with  rain,  and  the  winter  is 
Teiy  long.  Silesia  is  the  toost  pleasant  and 
healthy  province,  but  in  the  south-western  parts, 
which  border  on  the  Carpathians,  the  winters  are 
Kvere.  Some  of  the  most  favored  districts  pro- 
duce the  grape,  but  not  in  perfection.  Branaen- 
burg  and  Pomerania  are  principally  sandy  and 
manhy  plains.  The  south-western  regions 
enjoy  a  more  favorable  temperature. 

Silesia  is  one  of  the  most  fertile  of  the  old 
provinces,  and  portions  of  the  lately  acquired 
territory  on  the  Rhine  possess  a  genial  soil  as 
well  as  climate,  requiring  skilful  culture  to  ren- 
der them  very  productive.  But  in  Brandenburg 
the  soil  V  sandy  and  very  barren :  and  other 
central  parts  of  the  country  are  marshy  and  to- 
tally unfit  for  culture. 

We  have  not  met  with  so  able  a  sketch  of  the 
general  agricultural  state  of  Prussia  as  is  fur- 
nished by  Mr.  Jacob  in  the  course  of  his  firat 
Report  on  the  Foreign  Trade  in  Com.  He 
carefully  examined  the  maritime,  which  are  also 
the  principal  agricultural  provinces  of  Prussia, 
i.  e.  East  and  West  Prussia  and  Pomerania. 

They  appear  by  the  official  accounts,  which 
he  quotes,  to  have  exported  447,183  quarters  of 
wheat,  and  1,218,916  quarters  of  rye,  bariey,  and 
oats,  beyond  their  own  growth,  in  the  last  nine 
years,  up  to  the  end  of  1824 ;  exclusive  of  the 
year  1818,  the  returns  of  which,  for  East  Prus- 
sia, are  wanting,  but  which  probably  were 
350,000  quarters  of  wheat,  and  340,000  quarters 
of  the  other  grains.  It  is  possible,  however,  that 
some  portion  of  this  quantity  may  have  been 
produoed  in  the  internal  contiguous  provinces  of 
Posen,  Silesia,  and  Brandenburg. 

Befort  the  year  1807  the  landed  estates  in 
Prussia,  a?  in  most  other  parts  of  Europe,  were 
in  the  possession  of  large -proprietors.  Many  of 
them  could  only  be  held  by  such  as  were  of 
noble  birth ;  an<{  the  merchant,  the  manufacturer, 
or  the  artisan,  however  much  money  he  might 
have  accumulated,  could  not  inyest  it  in  such 
land  until  he  had  obtained  a  patent  of  nobility. 
These  restrictions  were  removed  by  the  king, 
about  the  year  1807,  when  the  French  had  over^ 
run  the  country.  A  tenantry  in  our  sense  of  the 
term  was  then,  as  it  still  is,  almost  unknown. 
The  land  was  worked  by  a  class  of  persons  in 
*onie  respects  slaves ;  and  in  most  respects  but 


little  removed  from  that  condition.  In  many 
cases  they  had  an  hereditary  kind  of  right  tA> 
some  use  of  the  land,  such  as  to  grow  one  croD 
of  com  according  to  a  prescribed  course,  whilst 
the  lord  had  the  right  of  pasture  between  the 
crops.  These  peasants  were  sold  with  the  land^ 
or  aescended  to  the  heir,  and  were  bound  to 
perform  certain  labor  or  services  for  the  lord. 
They  eould  not,  on  the  other  hand,  be  dismissed 
from  their  holdings,  nor  bad  their  superior  any 
power  over  the  property  they  might  happen  to 
oe  able  to  accumulate. 

The  conditions  upon  which  the  peasants  held 
their  portions  of  land  were  very  various,  some 
having  a  greater,  and  others  a  less  share  of  the 
use  of  them ;  some  doing  greater,  anc|  others 
less  service  ibr  them.  By  a  series  of  legislative 
measures,  which  were  enacted  from  1807  to  1811, 
the  whole  of  the  enslaved  peasants  have  become 
convened  into  freemen  ana  freeholders.  In  some 
cases  the  holdings  have  been  equally  divided, 
and  the  pea^nt  has  his  moiety  in  perpetuity. 
In  cases  where  the  lord's  claims  for  personal  ser- 
vices were  more  extensive,  the  peasant  had  a 
smaller  share  in  the  land.  In  some  instances, 
compensations  in  money  were  settled  by  com- 
pact between  the  lords  and  the  peasants,  some- 
times by  the  pajrment  of  a  fixed  sum,  or  by  a 
security  on  the  land  allotted  in  perpetuity  to  the 
peasant,  for  the  payment  of  sucn  sjum.  Some- 
times the  peasant  retained  the  whole  of  the  land 
he  had  before  used,  paving  to  the  lord  the  value 
of  that  portion  whicn  might  otherwise  have 
been  given  up  to  him.  The  successive  measures 
by  which  the  peasants  were  raised  to  the  rank 
of  freemen  were  not  received  by  all  with  equal 
readiness.  The  lords  were  compelled,  but  the 
peasants  were  allowed  to  decline  compliance  ^ 
and,  even  to  the  present  day,  some  few  prefer  the 
ancient  mode  of  their  holdings  to  that  which  the 
laws  have  allowed. 

Although  the  foundation  is  laid  for  a  new  and 
better  order  of  things,  yet  its  effects  on  the  agri- 
culture of  the  country  have  not  hitherto  been 
fully  realised.  The  abolition  of  personal  ser- 
vices, and  of  hereditary  ownership  of  such  ser- 
vices, has  been  too  recent  for  the  full  operation 
of  the  change  of  the  parties  from  the  relation  of 
master  and  slave,  to  that  of  employer  and'  em- 
ployed, to  produce  the  effect  which  is  its  natural 
tendency.  It  is  obvious  that  all  the  operations 
of  agriculture  are  still  performed  by  the  laborera 
with  a  listlessuess  and  slovenly  indolence  which 
was  natural  to  their  former  cluuracter,  and  which 
their  new  condition  has  not  yet  had  time  to  re- 
move. 

The  land  in  the  three  maritime  provinces,  as 
indeed  in  almost  the  whole  of  Prussia,  may  be 
considered  as  either  in  very  large  portions  be- 
longing to  the  nobility,  or  to  the  new  class  of 
proprietors ;  or  as  very  small  portions,  such  as 
under  the  ancient  system  were  aeemed  sufficient 
for  half  the  maintenance  of  the  family  of  a  pea- 
sant. There  are  but  very  few  of  that  middle  class 
of  capitalisu,  resembling  our  fiarmers,  who  can 
hire  land  to  that  extent,  which  one  able  man  can 
most  advantageously  manage,  and,*  after  stocking 
and  working  it,  pay  for  the  hire  to  the  proprietor. 

With  some  few  exceptions,  and  those  very  few,. 


Digitized  by  ^^UU*^ 


le 


214 


PRUSSIA. 


no  rent  is  paid ;  but  each  occupier,  whether  a 
large  or  a  amall  one,  is  his  own  landlord.  The 
deviatibns  from  this  general  view  are  to  be  found, 
for  the  most  part,  on  Ihe  banks  of  the  great 
riven,  where  meadows,  either  for  the  purpose  of 
fattening  cattle,  or  of  saving  hay,  for  the  supply 
of  large  towns  near  tlie  mouths  of  these  rivers, 
are  let  to  tenants  for  money  rents. 

The  value  of  land  generdlly  is  low,  as  may  be 
inferred  from  the  low  price  of  produce,  and  of 
rents  for  what  little  is  rented. 

According  to  official  documents  it  appears  that 
the  three  maritime  provinces  of  East  Persia,  West 
Prussia,  and  Pomerania,  including  in  the  latter 
the  late  Swedish  territory,  contains  about 
25,500,000  acres,  or  more  than  half  the  extent 
of  England.  By  an  official  account,  made  up 
in  1821,  the  stock  of  cattle  appeared  to  be  as 
Mows,  at  tlie  latter  end  of  the  year  1819 ;  riz. 

556,839  horses  and  colts. 
1,171,434  oxen,  cows,  and  calves. 
2|049,801  sheep  and  lambs,— and 

617,310  swine. 

"the  lowest  estimate  of  the  stock  of  cattle  in 
England  gives  three  times  this  number  of  horses, 
and  more  than  four  times  the  number  of  cows 
and  sheep,  to  the  same  extent  of  land ;  and  most 
of  those  who  have  calculated  on  the  subject 
have  carried  the  proportion  of  cattle  to  surmce 
in  England  much  higher. 

From  this  deficient  stock  of  the  animals,  from 
which  manure  is  derived,  it  will  naturallv  be  in- 
ferred that  the  increase  of  grain  must  be  very 
small.  Mr.  Jacob  was  satisfied,  from  hie  obser- 
vations, confirmed  by  the  opinion  of  intelligent 
natives,  that  much  of  the  land  in  cultivation 
could  not  yield  on  an  average  more  than  three 
rimes  as  much  corn  as  the  s^  that  had  been 
sown.  The  calculations  made  by  the  most  in- 
telligent statistical  enauirers,  and  the  most  ob- 
serving calculators,  have  not  estimated  the 
average  increase  of  the  four  kinds  of  grain,  viz. 
wheat,  rye,  barley,  and  oats,  taken  together,  to 
be  more  than  four  times  the  seed. 

Course  of  cu/^tt;a^um.-^The  general  course  of 
cultivation  is  to  fallow  every  third  year,  by 
ploughing  three  times,  when  designed  for  rye,  or 
five  times  if  intended  for  wheat,  and  allowing  the 
land  to  rest  without  any  crop  during  the  whole  of 
the  year,  from  one  autumn  to  the  next.  Most  of  the 
land  is  deemed  to  be  unfit  for  the  growth  <^ wheat 
under  any  circumstances.  Where  it  is  deemed 
adapted  to  that  grain,  as  much  as  can  be  manured 
from  their  scanty  supply  of  that  article  is  sown 
with  wheat,  and  the  remainder  of  the  fallow 
ground  with  rye.  The  portion  which  is  destined 
for  wheat,  even  in  the  best  farms,  is  thuA  very 
small ;  and,  as  on  many  none  is  sown,  the  whole 
of  the  land  devoted  to  wheat  does  not  amount 
to  one-tenth  of  that  on  which  rye  is  grown.  Of 
late  years  «he  proportion  of  rye  to  wheat  has 
been  increasmg.  The  first  is  an  article  of  do- 
mestic consumption  and  of  universal  demand ; 
the  far  greater  number  of  the  inhs^itants  eat  only 
bread  made  from  it  from  necessity,  and  those 
"who  can  afford  wheaten  buead  eat  conjroonly 
that  of  rye  from  choice.  At  the  tables  of  the 
first  families,  both  in   Geimany  and  Poland, 


fhouffh  wheaten  bread  was  always  to  be  seen,  Mr 
Jacob  remarked  that  the  natives  scarcely  ever 
tasted  it. 

<  From  the  time,'  says  ibis  gentleman, '  I  left 
the  Netherlands,  through  Saxony,  Prussia,  Po- 
land, Austria,  Bavaria,  and  Wurtemberr,  till  I 
entered  France,  I  never  saw,  either  iir  the  Dakers* 
shops,  in  the  hotels,  or  private  houses,  a  loaf  of 
wheaten  bread.  In  eveiy  large  town,  small  rolls, 
made  of  wheaten  flour,  could  be  purchased,  and 
they  were  to  be  seen  at  the  tables  at  which 
foreigners  were  seated.  In  the  small  towns  and 
villages  only  rye  bread  can  be  obtained ;  and 
travellers  commonly  take  in  their  carriages  suffi- 
cient wheaten  rolls  to  supply  them  fVom  one  large 
town  to  Uie  next.  Wheat  Is  only  used  by  the 
natives  for  making  what  our  English  Irnkers 
would  call  fancy  bread,  or  in  pastry  and  catkftc 
tionary.' 

Although  the  increase  of  wheat  is  greater  than 
that  of  rye,  yet,  as  it  absorbs  all  the  manure  of 
the  farm,  and  requires  the  land  to  be  ploughed 
twice  more,  it  is  now  deemed  to  be  the  least  pvo- 
fitable  of  the  two  crops  by  many  of  the  fsutden. 
As  the  rye  receives  the  full  benefit  of  the  fidlow, 
its  increase  is  greater  than  that  of  the  spring 
crops  which  follow  it. 

Barley  and  oats  are  sown  in  the  spring  which 
follows  the  harvesting  the  wheat  and  lye,  and 
these  complete  the  course,  which  is  Wfxn  fol- 
lowed by  a  whole  year's  fallow.  By  this  rota- 
tion of  crops,  the  land  bears  corn  only  two  years 
out  of  three;  and  the  crop  of  the  last  year 
scarcely  produces  three  times  the  quantity  of  the 
seed  that  was  sown. 

<  Like  others,'  says  our  able  repovter, '  I  was 
prevailed  upon  to  pay  the  closest  attention  to 
the  details  and  face  of  the  land  of  the  most  skil- 
ful, the  most  affluent,  and  most  productive  pro- 
prietors. I  visited  several  noolemen,  whose 
knowledge  of  and  attention  to  agriculture  was 
fully  equal  to  tiiat  of  any  men  in  this  or  any 
other  country ;  and,  if  the  produce  of  Uie  land 
was  not  equal  to  that  raised  by  our  best  farmers, 
the  difference  must  be  attributed  rather  to  die 
soil  and  climate  than  to  any  deficiency  either  of 
capital,  of  skill,  or  of  assiduity.  On  such  pro- 
perty the  wheat  sown  was  very  insignificant, 
and  the  proportion  of  that  grain  to  lye  had  gra- 
duailv  declined  of  late  years.  One  nobleman, 
who  frirmed  his  estate  of  26,000  acres,  of  which 
two-thirds  was  tillage,  and  one-third  woodland, 
grew  but  a  few  acres  of  wheat,  and  of  late  had 
sold  no  corn  of  any  kind.  From  the  ports  of 
England  being  shut  against  com,  he  bsd  tnmed 
his  attention  to  the  production  of  fine  wool.  On 
this  estate  there  is  a  fiock  of  15,000  merino  sheep, 
yielding  on  an  average  two  pounds  and  a  half 
of  fine  wool,  the  annual  sales  of  which  amount 
to  one-half  more  than  the  value  of  the  sheep. 
Through  the  five  winter  months  the  sheep  are 
fed  with  corn,  chiefly  rye,  at  the  rate  ot  one 
pound  per  day,  which  is  estimated  to  be  equal 
to  three  pounds  of  hay.  The  proprietor  calcu- 
lated, that  sheep  thus  kept  yielded  neariy  as 
much  more  wool  as,  added  to  the  benefit  wUich 
the  manure  of  the  animals  received  fW>m  that 
kind  of  food,  was  equal  to  the  price  he  ahouhl 
have  received  for  the  com,  if  he  had  sold  it;  and 

Digitized  by  VjUUy  IC 


PRUSSIA. 


215 


ihttt  Urn  proAt  <m  Hm  lyitem  was  the  Tulue  of 
the  whoffi  of  die  hay,  which  woald  haTe  been 
etbenrise  consumed.  Instead  of  selUngy  he 
fiods  it  more  profitable  to  bay  com.  On  the 
same  property,  the  extent  of  land  planted  with 
potatoes  was  upwards  of  1500  raorgens,  or  about 
1000  acres,  the  chief  part  of  which  were  used  in 
the  distillery,  which  seems  an  indispensable  ad- 
junct to  every  well-managed  £airm.  The  calcula- 
tion made  there  was  that  two  bashels  of  potatoes 
yielded  as  much  ardent  spirit  as  one  of  barley ; 
and  that  the  residuum,  after  extracting  the  spirit, 
was  equal  in  alimentary  power,  for  the  draft 
bollocks,  which  are  fed  with  if,  lo  two-thirds  of 
its  yaloe  before  the  wort  was  extracted  from  it 
By  the  process  on  this  estate  nine  bushels  of  po- 
tatoes are  mixed  with  one  of  malt,  to  draw  the 
wort,  which  is  afterwards  distilled,  so  as  to  pro- 
duce a  spirit  containing  eighty  per  cent,  of  alco- 
hol, in  which  state  it  pays  a  daty,  much  com- 
phuoed  of,  of  sixpence  per  gallon.  It  is  reduced, 
Defore  it  is  sold,  till  it  retains  fifty  per  cent,  of 
alcohol ;  and  the  price  charged  to  the  retailers 
is  about  fourteen-pence  per  gallon. 

*  Another  person,  of  the  same  rank,  who  had 
turned  his  attention  to  the  improvement  of  his  pro- 
perty, boasted  that  his  corn  land  already  yielded 
nearly  six  fold  for  the  seed  that  was  sown,  and 
could  be  further  increased.  He,  too,  cultiTated 
potatoes  very  extensively,  and,  by  converting 
theffl  into  starch  and  treacle,  made  that  land 
yield  a  profit  which,  had  it  been  devoted  to  com, 
would  have  produced  a  loss.  He  had  tried  to 
make  sugar  nom  potatoes,  and  found  it  not  ad- 
vantageous ;  but  he  assured  me  that  treacle  paid 
him  well,  and  he  could  afford  to  sell  it  18s.  per 
cwt.,  whilst  that  from  the  West  Indies  cost  24s. 
I  could  perceive  no  difference  between  the  sweet- 
ness of  this  treacle  and  that  from  the  tropics,  but 
it  has  less  consistency.  A  noblenian  Whom  I 
had  before  known,  to  whose  hospitality  I  am 
much  indebted,  and  whose  estate  I  viewed  in 
detail,  took  the  trouble  to  furnish  me  with  the 
course  of  cultivation  he  pursued  on  the  property 
on  which  he  reside^.  Though  cultivated  with 
eare,  and  tliough  (airly  productive,  I  readily  give 
credit  to  what  he  assured  me, — that  the  whole 
benefit  which  6e  derived  from  the  estate  of  6300 
acres,  in  his  joint  capacity  of  landlord  and  cul- 
tivator, had  not  exceeded  the  amount  for  which 
he  had  sold  the  annual  clip  of  the  wool  of  his 
flock  of  4000  sheep. 

^  On  the  several  other  estates  that  1  viewed,  the 
recurrence  of  com  crops  was  equally  distant ; 
the  superior  portion  of  land  devoted  to  green 
crops,  and  paisture,  the  same ;  and  the  atock  of 
cattle  bore  nearly  a  like  proportion.  These, 
however,  were  exceptions,  few  in  number  and 
confined  in  extent,  when  compared  yith  the 
geoeval  condition  of  the  estates  of  the  three  pro- 
vinces.' 

The  new  proprietors,  he  afterwards  stjites,  who 
have  been  raised  to  that  condition  by  the  aboli- 
tion of  the  ancient  feudal  tenures,  though  they 
<an  scarcely  ever  want  the  bare  necessaries  of 
life,  have  very  little  beyond  them.  If  they  hap- 
pen to  be  both  industrious  and  economical,  their 
own  labor,  on  the  small  portion  of  land  which 
they  possess,  will  supply  tliem  with  potatoes  and 


fODM  little  bi«ad  cora^  as  well  as  provision  kft 
their  two  oxen.  They  all  grow  a  small  patch  of 
fiax,  and  some  contrive  to  keep  five  or  six  sheep. 
If  disposed  to  labor  beyond  the  time  required 
for  their  own  land,  there  is  a  difficulty  in  obtain- 
ing employment ;  and  in  the  winter  months, 
which  are  long  and  severely  cold,  no  agricultural 
work  can  be  performed.  The  flax  and  the  wool 
spun  in  their  cottages  must  supply  the  clothing 
of  the  fiimily;  and  the  fat  of  the  animals  they 
kill  must  be  converted  into  soap  and  candles. 
Meat  of  any  kind  can  be  rarely  afforded  to  be 
ealen  by  such  fiimilies;,  and  only  the  few  who 
are  more  prosperous  than  their  neighbours  can 
keep  a  cow  to  supply  them  with  milk.  They 
consume  nearly  all  they  produce,  aLd  are  consi- 
dered happy  if  they  have  a  sufficient  surplus  for 
sale  to  meet  the  demands  of  a  few  shillings  an^ 
nually  for  the  payment  of  their  triflin^  ta\es  and 
local  assessments.  It  was  the  uifiversal  opinion 
of  all  with  whom  I  had  any  conversation  on  the 
topic  that  this  description  of  peasants  were 
hitherto  in  a  worse  condition  than  under  the  old 
tenures ;  and  as  this  was  attributed  to  the  de- 
pression of  agriculture,  and  the  want  of  capital, 
and  of  incitement  to  the  large  occupiers  to  em- 
ploy their  spare  time,  it  was  not  considered  to 
oe  an  impeachment  of  the  wisdom  which  had 
planned  and  executed  their  emancipation.' 

Low  state  ofagricuUwre. — In  general  the  soil  of 
the  maritime  provinces  of  Prassia  is  so  light  that  it 
maybe  easily  ploughed  witli  two  oxen,  and  those 
of  diminished  size  and  no  great  strength.  On  the 
smaller  portions  of  land  a  single  cow  is  not  un- 
frequently  seen  drawing  the  plough;  the  latter 
guided  by  the  owner,  while  the  cow  is  led  by 
his  wife.  The  more  tenacious  soils,  on  the 
banks  of  the  streams,  are  commonly  but  of  small 
extent.  There  is  indeed  a  large  portion  of  land 
on  the  Delta,  formed  by  the  separation  of  the 
Nogat  from  the  Fistula,  between  Derschau  and 
Marienbttrg,  which,  under  a  good  system  of 
management,  would  be  highly  productive,  and 
which  requires  greater  strength  to  plough.  Some 
others,  especial^'  near  Tilsit,  are  of  less  extent ; 
but  the  whole  of  them,  if  compared  with  the 
great  extent  of  the  surfece  of  tne  country,  are 
merelv  sufficient  to  form  exceptions  to  the  general 
classification  which  may  be  made  of  the  soil. 
The  various  implements  of  husbandry  are  quite 
of  as  low  a  description  as  the  working  cattfe. 
The  ploughs  are  ill  constructed,  with  very  little 
iron  in  them.  The  harrows  are  made  of  wood, 
without  any  iron,  even  for  the  tines  or  teeth. 
The  waggons  are  mere  planks,  laid  on  the  frame 
loose,  and  resting  against  upright  stakes,  fixed 
into  its  sides.  Ttie  cattle  are  attached  to  these 
implements  by  ropes,  without  leather  in  any  part 
of  the  harness.  The  use  of  this  roller  is  scarcely 
known ;  and  the  clods,  in  preparing  the  fallow 
ground,  are  commonly  broken  to  pieces  by  hand 
with  wooden  mallets.  In  sowing,  the  seed  is 
carried  in  the  apron,  or  the  skirts  of  the  frock  of 
the  man  who  scatters  it  on  the  ground. 

The  monied  value  of  the  live  stock  on  the 
farms  is  low.  The  best  flocks  of  Merino  sheep, 
exclusive  of  the  wool,  are  averaged  to  be  worth 
about  6s.  or  6s.  8i.  per  head.  Cows  are  wortli 
from  30t.  to  65s.  A  dairy  which  Mr.  Jacob  saw. 


Digitized  by  N^jUU^IC 


gk 


216 


PRUSSIA. 


of  th«  bett  deicriptiony  was  let  to  a  dairyman  at 
96f .  per  year.  Tne  owner  told  him  he  valued 
them  at  75s.  per  head,  and  thought  the  average 
weight  of  the  butter  from  each,  the  calf  being 
taken  from  the  mother  when  ten  d^ys  old,  wa3 
about  120  lbs.  each  year.  The  variation  in  the 
price  of  cows  is  much  greater  than  in  that  of 
sheep,  according  to  their  race,  to  the  soil  on 
which  they  are  pastured,  and  to  the  distance  from 
large  towns  requiring  supplies  of  milk  and 
butter.  The  price  of  hay  varies,  according  to  the 
situation  and  quality,  from  145.  to  20s.  the  ton. 

Taxes, — ^The  general  burdens  of  the  state  jn 
Prussia  are  the  subject  of  complaints  among  all 
classes ;  and  although  they  may  appear  to  us  to 
amount  to  a  very  small  sum,  rated  oy  the  num- 
ber of  persons,  they  must  be  considered  heavy 
in  a  country  so  destitute  of  little  other  capital 
than  that  of  land,  now  vastly  depreciated  in  value. 
The  whole  uxes  in  Prussia  amount  to  about 
10s.  per  head ;  but  the  effective  value  of  money, 
in  exchange  for  commodities,  may  be  considered 
to  be  double  what  it  is  with  us. 

The  land  is  divided  into  six  classes,  the  rent 
of  the  lowest  of  which  is  estimated  to  be  about 
7(/.  per  acre,  and  that  of  the  highest  about  4s. 
an  acre.  On  this  amount  the  grund  steuer  or  land 
tax  is  twenty-five  per  cent.,  and  averages  in  the 
three  maritime  provinces  somewhat  less  than  2d, 
per  acre.  The  gross  amount  collected  in  the 
three  provinces  annually,  according  to  Hassel,  is 
about  £265,000  sterling.  The  local  taxes  do 
not  h\[  wholly  on  the  land.  That  for  the  disa- 
bled soldiers,  and  the  families  of  such  as  fell  in 
the  conflicts,  is  in  part  borne  bv  the  cities  and 
towns,  though  the  chief  weight  falls  on  the  land. 
The  same,  in  some  measure,  is  the  case  respecting 
the  tax  for  roads,  bridges,  schools,  and  the  poor. 
These  are  various  in  different  districts,  so  that  it 
is  impossible  to  form  any  general  estimate  of 
their  amount  In  some  parts  of  the  country 
they  appear  to  be  equal  to  the  grund  steuer  ;  in 
others  higher ;  and  in  others  they  do  not  amount 
to  one-tenth.  Among  the  cultivators  there  is 
much  complaint  of  the  heavy  tax  on  the  distil- 
leries. 

The  militaiy  service  is  extremely  onerous 
throughout  Prussia,  as  every  young  man  is  com- 
pelled to  serve  three  years,  from  the  age  of 
twenty  to  twenty-four,  as  a  soldier.  This,  though 
not  precisely  a  tax,  and  not  peculiar  to  the  agri- 
cultural class,  is  a  burden  which  perhaps  presses 
as  much  on  the  productive  industiy  of  the 
country  as  the  heavier  taxes  that  are  collected  in 
other  countries.  To  this  must  be  ad^ed  the 
quartering  of  the  troops,  who  are  billeted  on  pri- 
vate houses;  and,  however  well  discipline  may 
be  maintained  amongst  them,  roust  be  a  great  an- 
noyance, and  in  most  cases  an  expense,  which, 
though  apparently  trifling  in  amount,  becomes 
weighty  to  those  whose  means  of  supporting  it 
are  small.  In  a  country  where  four-nfths  of  the 
inhabitants  subsist  wholly  by  producing  food, 
and  depend  for  the  conveniencies  besides  bare 
food  on  the  price  which  they  can  obtain  for  their 
surplus^  the  low  rate  at  which  that  surplus  can. 
be  disposed  of  must  be  felt  and  observed  in 
every  rank  of  society. 

The  scale  of  living  in  the  country  we  are  con- 


sidering corresponds  with  the  low  prices  ^  the 
objecta  in  which  their  labor  is  employed.  The 
working  class  of  the  inhabitants,  amounting  in 
the  maritime  provinces  to  upwards  of  1,000,000, 
including  both  those  who  work  for  daily  wages 
and  those  who  cultivate  their  own  little  portions 
of  land,  cannot  be  compared  to  any  class  of  per- 
sons in  £ogland.  This  large  description  of  the 
inhabitants  live  in  dwellings  provided  with  few 
conveniencies,  on  the  lowest  and  coarsest  food ; 
potatoes,  or  rye,  or  buck  wheat,  are  their  chief, 
and  frequently  their  only  food ;  linen,  with  flax 
of  their  own  growth,  and  wool,  spun  by  their 
own  hands,  both  coarse  and  both  worn  as  long 
as  they  will  hold  together,  furnish  their  dress ; 
whilst  an  earthen  pot  that  will  bear  fire  forma 
one  of  the  most  valuable  articles  of  their  furni- 
ture. As  fuel  is  abundant  they  are  warmed 
more  by  close  stoves  than  by  the  shelter  of  their 
wooden  or  mud  houses  covered  by  shingles, 
which  admit  the  piercing  cold  of  the  severe  wea- 
ther through  abundant  crevices.  If  they  have 
bees  and  a  plot  of  chicory,  their  produce  serves 
as  a  substitute  for  sugar  and  coffee;  but  too 
often  these  must  be  sent  to  market  to  raise  the 
scanty  pittance  which  the  tax-gatherer  demands. 
Though  the  price  of  whiskey  is  low,  yet  the  farm 
produce  is  still  lower ;  and  neither  that,  nor  the 
Dad  beer  which  is  commonly  brewed,  can  be 
afforded  by  the  peasantry  as  a  usual  drink.  In 
common  seasons  this  description  of  people  suffer 
much  in  the  winter;  but  m  times  of  scarcity, 
such  as  followed  the  disastrous  harvest  of  1816, 
their  distress  and  their  consequent  mortality  is 
increased. 

Since  the  acquisition  of  the  Rhenish  pro- 
vinces, wine  is  one  of  the  most  important  of 
the  Prussian  products.  They  yield  various  kinds 
of  a  good  quality ;  and  the  average  quantity  is 
estimated  at  100,000  hoesheads. 

The  Prussian  horses  differ  little  from  those  of 
the  adjacent  districts,  but  are  generally  con- 
sidered as  inferior  to  the  Polish :  for  the  Prussian 
cavalry  are  chiefly  supplied  from  that  country. 
The  domestic  cattle  are  likewise  the  same  as  in 
the  other  parts  of  Northern  Germany.  Silesia, 
Saxony,  and  the  provinces  near  the  Rhine,  are 
the  best  adapted  tor  supporting  a  superior  breed 
of  sheep;  and  the  increase  of  Merinos  has 
greatly  augmented  both  the  quantity  and  quality 
of  the  wool  yielded  by  these  dbtricts.  M. 
Krug  has  lately  given  the  following  estimate 
of  the  live  stock  in  the  entire  Prussian  States ; 


Horses  . 

1,661,800 

CatUe    . 

.      5,252,820 

Sheep  and  Lambs  . 

.     11,230,000 

Swine    .      *. 

.      2,640,000 

Go»ts     . 

181,000 

Asses  and  Mules    . 

9,680 

Bee-hives 

521,000 

The  minerals  of  Prussia  are  found  chiefly  in 
the  high  ground  of  the  Westphalian  and  Rhenish 
provinces,  particularly  in  the  mountainous  dis- 
trict of  the  Harz.  Iron,  copper,  lead,  vitriol, 
alum,  saltpetre,  are  all  founa  here,  and,  in  a 
smaller  degree,  silver.  Salt  from  brine  springs, 
and  coal,  are  abundant  in  some  parts  of  Prussian 


Digitized  by  ^^JiJUy  It: 


PRUSSIA. 


317 


Saiooy ;  but  the  expense  of  conveyance  prevents 
the  use  of  the  latter  for  fael.  Amber  is  found 
in  sereral  parts  of  Prussia  Proper.  The  whole 
annual  valqe  of  mineral  produce  in  the  states  is 
about  £2,000,000. 

Imber  can  be  exported  only  from  the  vicinity 
of  rivers  or  canals.  Hops,  in  like  manner,  are 
confined  to  particular  districts.  Wesfjphalia  hal 
long  been  noted  for  its  hams ;  Pomerania  for  its 
poaUry.  Game  is  abundant  in  many  parts.  The 
fisheries  are  confined  to  the  shores  of  the  Baltic, 
the  lakes,  and  the  mouths  of  the  great  rivers. 
The  general  use  of  coffee,  and  the  notion  that 
the  import  of  large  quantities  of  it  from  abroad 
was  a  disadvantage,  induced  certain  individuals, 
so  far  back  as  the  year  1780,  to  attempt  to  find  a 
substitute  for  it.  Several  plants  were  tried; 
among  which  the  root  of  «uccory  was  most  suc- 
cessfiil,  and  is  now  cultivated  to  a  great  extent 
to  mix  with  coffee. 

Weaving  is  the  general  emplovment  of  the 
lower  orders  in  Silesia  and  Vi  estph&lia,  long  noted 
for  their  linensy  also  in  no  small  degree,  in  Pome- 
laoia.  A^ooUens  are  made,  more  or  less,  in  almost 
every  town  or  Urge  village :  in  some  parts  of 
Silesia,  and  of  the  province  of  the  Lower  Rhine, 
they  are  manufactured  in  great  quantities. 
Cotton  manu&ctures  are  of  recent  introduction, 
and  are  found  chiefly  near  the  Rhine,  at  Berlin, 
at  Erfurt,  at  Elberfeld,  and  in  particular  quarters 
of  Silesia.  These  and  hardware  are  the  only 
&brics  carried  on  in  collective  establishments ; 
the  Prussian  linens  and  woollens  being  both 
made  by  individuals  in  their  cottages.  Next  in 
importance  is  the  leather  manufacture,  then 
earthenware,  glass,  paper,  tobacco,  starch,  po- 
tash, and  vitriol.  Brewing  is  also  a  pursuit  of 
considerable  importance. 

Possessing  on  the  Baltic  the  ports  of  Dantzic, 
Konigsberg,  Memel,  and  Stralsund,  the  com- 
merce of  Prussia  has  kept  fully  pace  with  her  in- 
terior cultivation  ;  and  the  maintenance  of  neutra- 
Uty  during  so  many  years  of  war  between  Britain 
and  France  (from  1795  to  1806)  was  highly 
fitvorable  to  it.  Subsequently,  however,  it 
suffered  greatly,  particularly  in  1810, 1811,1812, 
ard  has  recovered  but  slowly.  The  last  century 
was  in  Prussia  the  era  of  monopolies :  one  com- 
pany had  the  exclusive  right  of  manufacturing 
and  selling  tobacco ;  another  were  the  sole  im- 
porters of  salt ;  while  a  third  had  a  contract  to 
supply  Potsdam  with  firewood.  Another  abuse, 
remedied  only  since  1818,  was  the  tax  levied  on 
the  mtroduction  of  merchandise  from  one  pro- 
vince of  the  kingdom  to  another.  A  third,  and 
one  not  within  the  control  of  the  government, 
is  the  heavy  transit  duty  levied  by  the  Dutch 
and  Hanoverian  governments  on  foreign  goods 
imported  by  the  Rhine,  on  the  Ems  and  the 
^Veser.  The  result  is,  that  the  commerce  of 
Prussia,  though  conducted  under  many  advan- 
tages, both  maritime  and  inland,  is  in  an  early 
stage.  The  value  of  goods  annually  exported 
differs  under  different  circumstances,  but  the 
great  article  of  linen  is  steady  in  amount.  The 
whole  may  probably  be  averaged  between 
£7,000,000  and  £8,000,000  sterling,  or  about  a 
seventh  of  the  exports  of  England.  They  con- 
Mst,  in  addition  to  linen,  of  woollens  and  hard- 


ware, com,  wool,  dmber,  pitolL  tar,  potarii, 
lintseed,  tobacco,  wax;  horses,  nomed  cattle^ 
hogs,  saJt  meat,  and,  from  a  few  maritime  towns, 
the  produce  of  the  fisheries.  Distilled  spirits 
are  also,  like  com,  an  article  of  export  from  the 
eastern  part  of  the  kingdom.  The  imports  com- 
prise coffee,  cotton,  sugar,  tea,  and  other  produce 
of  the  colonies ;  the  wines,  silk,  fruit,  and  bay- 
salt  of  the  south  of  Europe,  printed  cotton,  and 
the  finer  hardware,  tin,  furs,  and  dye-stuffs.  The 
chief  trade  takes  place  with  Great  Britain,  whi- 
ther Prussia  sends  her  com,  and  takes  in  return 
manufactures  and  colonial  goods. 

The  religion  of  the  royal  family,  and  of  the 
majority  of  the  population  of  Prussia,  is  the  CaU 
vinist;  but  Christians  of  all  denominations  are 
admitted,  on  an  equal  footing,  to  public  employ- 
ments Tlie  year  1 61 7,  the  300th  anniversary  of 
the  reformation,  was  remarkable  for  the  union  of 
the  Calvinists  and  Lutherans  of  the  Prussian  do- 
minions, and  of  some  other  parts  of  Germany, 
into  one  religious  community,  under  the  name 
of  Evangelical  Christians.  The  relative  num- 
ber of  the  different  creeds  is  thus  stated, 

Calvinists  and  Lutherans  .        .  6,600,000 

Catholics  .        .  .        .  3,600,000 

Jews        . 75,000 

Baptists  .        «        ...        «       14,000 

Moravian  brethren   ....         7,000 
Unitarians,  Pietists,  and  members  of 
the  Greek  church  .        .        .         4,000 

The  elementary  tchook  in  Brandenburg,  Sax- 
ony, and  part  of  Pmssia  Proper,  are  numerous, 
and  well  conducted.  Silesia  has  also  much  im- 
proved in  the  means  of  education  since  the 
middle  of  last  century ;  but  in  other  parts  of  the 
kingdom,  particularly  where  the  majority  are 
Catholics,  tne  government  has  as  yet  been  unable 
to  introduce  much  reform.  The  universities  are 
those  of  Beriin,  Halle,  Breslau,  Konigsberg; 
and  here,  and  at  Dantzic,  Magdeburg,  and  a 
number  of  other  towns,  are  academies  (under 
the  name  of  gymnasia,  colleges,  or  high  schools), 
in  which  are  taught  the  classics  and  mathematics, 
the  modem  languages,  drawing,  &c.  There  are 
also,  in  the  large  towns,  schools  of  surgery  and 
midwifery  distinct  from  the  universities ;  but  for 
the  study  of  medicine,  in  a  comprehensive  sense, 
Vienna  is  the  great  resort  of  all  Germany.  Fre- 
derick n.  established  an  academy  of  sciences  at 
Berlin,  and  associations  of  a  similar  nature, 
but  on  a  smaller  scale,  are  established  in  most  of 
the  great  towns. 

Frederick  IL  also  introduced  the  liberty  of  the 
press  to  that  degree  which  led  to  the  production 
of  a  number  of  books  disfigured  by  declamation 
and  extravagance.  Others  were,  however,  of  a 
different  character,  and  full  of  useful  informa- 
tion. The  result  was  the  formation  of  that  spirit 
of  freedom  which  has  for  some  time  back  caused 
great  disquietude  to  the  executive,  and  produced, 
in  1819,  the  restrictive  enactments  of  the  con- 
gress of  Carisbad.  It  is  said  that  some  of  the 
best  writers  in  the  Pmssian  dominions  have  been 
Jews. 

Several  of  the  kings  of  Prussia  have  been  eco- 
nomists. The  father  of  Frederick  IL,  with  a  re- 
venue of  only  £l|200,000,[^found  means  to  leave  at 

Digitized  by  VjUU*^IC 


318  PRUSSIA. 

bis  deathi  in  1740,  a  well  tepleniibed  tfeasaty  cftTaltv,  artillery,  or  infantry,  ii  diligently  at- 

and  a  large  army.    His  successor,  notiHthstand-  tended  to. 

ing  expenstYe  wars  and  improYements,  left  in  Prossia  had  fbrmerly  a  representatiTe  body, 
1785  a  treasure  of  £r,000,000.  This  disappeared  nnder  the  name  of  states.  While  the  powers 
in  the  reign  of  his  successor,  and  prior  to  the  and  privileges  of  the  nobility  were  also  very  ex- 
year  1785.  In  the  twelve  succeeding  years  of  tensive,  comprising,  until  lately,  the  local  adroi- 
peace,  the  standing  army  was  numerous  and  ex-  nistration  of  iustice.  By  degrees,  the  power  of 
pensive,  and  the  misfortunes  of  1806,  and  the  the  crown  reduced  that  of  the  aristocracy ;  and 
great  exertions  made  in  1813, 1814,  and  1615,  the  sovereign  fcund  means  to  conduct  the  public 
have  all  borne  so  hard  on  the  Prussian  finances,  business  independent  of  the  states.  Such  was 
as  to  have  led  to  the  creation  of  a  debt  amount-  the  state  of  political  afikirs  during  the  eighteenth 
ing  to  above  £45,000,000  sterling.  After  all  ber  century.  Bjt  the  diffusion  of  knowledge 
late  acouisilions,  the  revenue  of  Prussia  is  not  awakened  the  attention  of  the  middling  ranks  to 
above  x7  500,000 :  but  there  is  no  paper  ctir-  the  existence  of  a  number  of  abases,  and  to  the 
rency.  Mr.  Jacob,  in  his  View  of  Germany,  necessity  of  electing  a  representative  body :  this 
gives  the  following  st^le  of  the  revenue,  and  the  feeling  and  hope  prompted  the  memorable  exer- 
proportions  contributed  by  the  different  pro-  tions  m  1813, 1814,  and  1815,  for  the  overthrow 
▼inces  of  the  monarchy,  in  1819,  viz.—  of  Buonaparte;  and  great  disappointment  has 

East  Prussia 8,100,000  ^^"  experienced  by  the  better  classes  of  society 

West  Prussia         ....    3750000  <^t  ^e  successive  delays  and  evasions  of  the  court, 

pQggQ             .       •        •        •        •    g'jQ^*QQQ  which  as  yet  has  done  little  more  than  new 

Brandenburg  '        !        !        '.        '.    9W000  ^^^^  ^  executive  departments.     Each  circle 

Pomerania     .....    3.000,000  <>' d»tr<jt  has  its  council  for  the  transaction  of 

Silesia    ......  13^00  000  P^**"^  busmess,  vit   the  collection  of  the  direct 

gaxtji^y 10  417*000  taxes,  regulation  of  local  traffic,  and  supcrinten- 

Westphalia    \       \       !        '.        !    8!43r,000  dance  of  police.    In  the  second  nlace,  each  gt^ 

Juliers,  Clevei,  and  Berg       .        .    8,670,000  vernment  has  an  administrative  Wd  charged 

Lower  Rhine          .       !        .        .    7,000,000  with  a  similar  supermtcndance;  while,  at  thelieaa 

___J of  each  of  the  ten  provinces,  is.  a  high  president. 

Guldens,  or  74,968,000  ^^^*  ^^^^  the  prefet  of  a  French  department, 

_.  serves  as  a  medium  or  connecung  link  between . 

Sterling  £7,528,003  the  province  and  the  ininisters.  These  are 
"  neany  on  the  same  footing  as  m  England  and 
The  Prussian  army  was  a  subject  of  admira-  France.  The  orders  of  knighthood  are  four, 
tion  to  all  foreigners,  during  great  pari  of  the  The  noblesse  or  gentry,  comprising  20,000  ftimi- 
eighteenih  century.  On  the  termination  of  his  lies,  were  formerly  exempt  from  part  of  the 
dreadful  struggle,  in  1768,  Frederick  II.  deter-  taxes,  and  considered  as  entitled  to  a  preference 
mined  to  cultivate  peace,  and  to  trust  to  the  gra-  in  public  appointments ;  but  the  disastent  of 
dual  operation  of  time  for  the  reinstatement  of  1806  taught  government  the  folly  of  these  pre- 
his  finances  and  army.  Such,  with  little  devia-  ferences,  and  led  also  to  the  abolition  of  exclu- 
tion,  was  the  policy  of  Prussia  during  forty  sive  privileges  in  regard  to  trsdes,  &c. 
▼ears ;  and  the  num1>er  of  disciplined  men  be-  The  first  proceedings  of  the  law  take  place  be- 
longing to  the  army  during  this  period  was  car-  fore  justices,  or  courts  of  limited  jurisdiction, 
ried  to  more  than  200,000,  without  involving  a  nominated  chiefly  by  the  king,  but  in  certain  dis- 
permanent  expense  of  more  than  half  the  num-  tricts  by  the  mediatised  princes,  or  ecclesiastical 
oer.  The  battle  of  Jena  was  followed  by  the  dignitaries  of  the  quarter ;  the  second  stage  of 
surrender  of  successive  corps  and  garrisons,  to  jurisdiction  is  the  Oberiandes  gerichte,  or  courts 
the  number  of  more  than  100,000 ;  and  the  loss  in  each  government ;  and  the  final  appeal  is  to 
of  the  financial  resources  of  the  kingdom  re-  the  supreme  courts  at  Berlin,  consisting  of  a 
dttced  for  a  time  the  Prussian  military  establish-  high  tribunal  and  commission.  Ecclesiastical 
ment  to  utter  insignificance.  The  humiliating  affairs  are  managed  by  provincial  consistories  or 
peace  of  Tilsit  restricted  the  means  of  its  rein-  commissions :  and  medical  police  is,  in  like 
statement;  but,  in  1813,  the  national  ardor  burst  manner,  subject  to  a  provincial  commission 
forth,  and  the  old  soldiers  repaired  to  their  stan-  Commercial  affairs  are  superintended  by  a  board 
dards,  in  a  manner  that  excited  universal  admi-  of  merchants  in  several  of  the  towns,  psrticularly 
ration.  They  soon  asserted  in  Silesia,  their  su-  at  Berlin,  Konigsberg,  and  Swinemdnde.  The 
periority  over  the  raw  levies  of  the  French,  aqd  highest  court  for  fiscal  questions  is  the  exche- 
maintained  their  character  in  a  more  advanced  quer,  or  high  chamber  of  reckoning  at  Berlin, 
stage  of  operations  in  Saxony  and  Champagne.  The  Prussians  are  generally  allowed  to  be  a 
At  Ligny,  in  1815,  the  army  was  80,000  strong:  brave  and  industrious  people.  They  hav^  more 
the  total  number  of  Prussian  troops  under  arms  military  parade,  more  show,  and  higher  preten- 
that  year  exceeded  200,000.  Since  then,  the  sions,  &ian  any  other  people  of  northern  Ger- 
confirmation  of  peace,  the  complaint  of  heavy  many.  Berlin  is  consiaered  as  the  Paris  of  that 
taxation,  and  the  reductions  of  neighbouring  part  of  the  continent;  but,  in  other  parts  of  old 
powers,  have  led  to  a  partial  diminution  of  the  Prussia,  the  people  have  a  tinge  of  gloom  in 
military  establishment ;  but  it  still  exceeds  their  character.  Some  writers  have  ascribed  this 
150,000.  At  Berlin,  Breslau,  Konigsberg,  and  feature  to  the  nature  of  their  government,  the 
at  Stolpe  in  Pomerania  are  military  schools:  strict  and  unceasing  vigilance  of  which,  and  the 
where   every  branch  of  the  service,  whether  constant  «nd  uniform  obedience  of  the  people. 

Digitized  by  VjUU^  IC 


PRUSSIA. 


319 


have^  doaUtoaa,  done  much  towanl«  superin- 
ductog  such  a  diuposition  in  the,  inhabitants. 

UiSTOET.— On  the  expulsion  of  the  Christianf 
from  the  Holy  Land,  by  Soladin,  a  tettlemeot 
mas  giren  to  the  Teutonic  knights  in  Prassia  by 
Conrade  duke  of  Masovia,  tfie  competitor  of 
Boleslaus  V.  for  the  crown  of  Poland.  Their 
first  residence  in  this  countiv  was  Culm;  to 
which  territory  they  were  connned  by  the  con* 
ditions  of  the  donation,  excepting  what  th^ 
could  conquer  from  their  pagan  neighbours,  all 
of  which  the  emperor  granted  to  them  in  perpe* 
tuity.  Encouraged  by  this  grant,  ihe  knignts 
coBqoered  the  greatest  pan  of  the  country  which 
now  goes  by  tlM  name  of  Prussia ;  and  became 
▼ery  troublesome  to  Poland  :  see  that  article. 
The  Teutottic  order  conunued  in  Prussia  till 
1531.  Their  last  giand^roaster  was  Albeit  mar> 
quia  of  Brandenburg,  nephew  to  Sigismofld  L, 
king  of  Poland.  He  was  preferred  te  this  dtg^ 
Bity  in  hopes  that  his  affinity  to  Sigismuwl 
might  procure  a  restitution  of  some  of  the  places 
which  W  been  taken  from  the  order  daring  tb^ 
former  unsuccessful  wars  with  Poland ;  but  Al- 
bert, instead  of  endeavouring  to  obtain  any  favor 
from  his  uncle,  refused  to  do  homage  to  him, 
began  U>  assert  his  independence,  and  to  recover 
the  whole  of  Prussia  and  Pomerania  by  force  of 
arms.  But,  being  foiled  in  every  attempt,  he 
was  forced  to  resign  the  grand-masterthip,  instead 
of  which  his  uncle  gave  him  Ducal  Prussia.  It 
was  now  the  interest  of  the  house  of  Branden- 
burg to  assist  in  the  expulsion  of  the  fraternity ; 
and  accordingly,  being  at  last  driven  out  of  Prus- 
sia and  Pomerania,  they  transferred  their  chapter 
to  Mariendal  in  Franconia ;  but  in  that,  and  other 
*  provinces  of  the  empire  where  they  settled,  little 
more  than  the  name  of  the  order  once  so  ikmow 


The  other  most  c^isiderable  part  of  his  Pros- 
sian  majesty's  dominions  is  tne  electorate  of 
Brandenboig.    like  other  parts  of  Germany,  it 
was  anciently  possessed  byVarbarians,  of  whom 
no  history  can  be  given.    These  were  subdued 
by  Charlemagne;  4>ut,  being  on  every  occasion 
ready  to  revolt,  in  927  Henry  the  Fowler  estab- 
lished maigraves,  or  governors  of  the  frontiers. 
The  first  margrave  of  Brandenburg  was  Sigefroy, 
brother-in-law  to  Henry,  under  whose  adminis- 
tration the  bi^prics  of  Brandenburg  and  Havel- 
berg  were  established  by  Otho  I.    From  this 
Sigefroy,  to  the  succession  of  the  house  of  Ho< 
henzoUem,  from  whom  the  present  elector  is 
descended,  there  are  reckoned  eight  different  fa^* 
milies,  who  have  been  margraves  of  Branden- 
burg; mroely,  the  family  of  the  Saxons,  of 
Walbeck,    Staden,    Plenck,   Anhalt,    Bavaria, 
Luxemburg,  and  Misnia.    The  margraves  of  the 
four  first  races  had  continual  wars  with  the  Van- 
dals and  other  barbarous  people ;  nor  could  their 
ravages  be  stopped  till  tne  reign  of  Albert,  sur- 
naroed  the  Bear,  the  first  prince  of  the  house  of 
Anhalt    He  was  made  margrave  by  the  emperor 
Conrad  III.,  and  afterwards  elector  by  Frederick 
Barbarossa,  about  A.  D.  1100.    Afterwards  the 
king  of  the  Vandals  dying,  without  issue,  kft  the 
Middle  Marche  to  the  elector,  who  was  possessei 
of  the  old  Marche,  Upper  Saxony,  the  country 
of  Anhalt,  and  part  of  Lusace.    In  1 332  this  line 


btc^ma  extinct,  aikd  th#  eiectoratto  devolved  to  the 
empire.  It  was  then  given  by  tbaeorperor  Lewis 
of  Bavaria  lo  his  son  Lewis,  who  was  the  first  of 
the  sixth  race.  Lewis  the  Roman  succeeded  his 
brother;  aod|  as  ht  also  died  vrithont  childreii^ 
he  was  succeeded  by  Otho,  his  third  brother, 
who  sold  the  electorate  to  the  emperor  Charles 
IV.  for  200,000  florins  of  gold.  Charles  IV. 
gave  the  Marche  to  his  son  Wenceslaus,  to  whom 
Sigismund  succeeded.  This  electof,  being  em- 
barrassed in  his  circumstances,  sold  the  ne# 
Marche  to  the  knights  of  the  Teutonic  order. 
Josse  snoceeded  Sigismund ;  but,  aspiring  to  the 
etnpire,  sold  the  electorate  to  William  duke  of 
Misnia ;  who,  next  year  sold  it  again  to  the  eon 
peror  Sigismund.  In  1417  Frederick  VI.,  of 
Nuremberg,  received  the  investiture  if  Branden- 
burg at  Constance  ftom  the  emperor  Sigismund ; 
Who,  in  1415,  had  made  him  eleotdi*,  and  arch* 
chamberlain  of  the  empire. 

Thift  prince,  the  first  of  the  fiimily  of  Hohen- 
sollem,  found  himself  possessed  of  the  Old  and 
Middle  Marches,  but  the  dukes  of  Pomerania 
had  usurped  the  Marche  Ukraine.  Against  them, 
therefore,  the  elector  immediately  declared  war, 
and  soon  recovered  the  province.    As  the  New 
Marche  stiU  continued  in  the  hands  of  the  Teu- 
tonic knights,  the  elector  took  possession  of 
Saxony,  then  vacant  by  the  death  of  Albert  the 
last  elector  of  the  Anhalt  line.    But  the  emperor 
gave  the  investiture  of  Saxony  to  the  duke  of 
Misnia;  upon  which  Frederick  voluntarily  resign- 
ed his  acquisitions.  This  elector  made  a  division 
of  his  possessions  by  will.    His  eldest  son,  be* 
cause  ne  had  attempted  to  search  for  the  philoso- 
pher's stone,  Was  left  only  Vogtland.    The  elec- 
tomte  was  given  to  hift  second  son  Frederick ; 
Albert,  sumamed  Achilles,  had  Franconia ;  and 
Frederick  the  fiit  had  the  old  Marcbe;  but  by 
his  death  it  returned  to  the  electorate.  Frederick 
I.  was  snoceeded  by  his  son  Frederick,  sumamed 
Iron-tooth.    He  might  have  been  sumamed  the 
Magnanimous,  for  lie  refused  two  crowns,  vit. 
that  of  Bohemia,  offered  him  by  the  pope,  and 
that  of  Poland  by  the  people ;  iMit  Frederick  de- 
dared  he  would  not  accept  of  it  unless  Casimir, 
brother  to  Ladislaus  the  late  king,  refused  it. 
Thb  indnoed  the  states  of  Lower  lAisatia  to  make 
a  voluntary  surrender  of  their  country  to  him. 
But,  Lnmtia  bemg  a  fief  of  Bohemia,  the  king  of 
that  country  made  war  on  the  elector- to  recover 
it.    But  by  a  treaty,  in  1402,  he  was  obliged  to 
yield  the  sovereignty  of  Corbns,  Peits,  Sommer^ 
field,  &c.    Frederick  then,  having  redeemed  the 
New  Marche  from  the  Teutonic  o^er  for  100,000 
florins,  and  still  further  enlarged  his  dominions, 
resigned  the  sovereignty  in  1469,  to  his  brother 
Albert,  suraamed  Achilles.    Albert  was  at  this 
time  fifty-eeven  years  old.    Most  of  the  etploits, 
for  whidi  he  had  the  simame  of  Achilles,  had 
been  performed  while  he  was  burgrave  of  Nu- 
remberg.   He  bad  dented  and  taken  prisoner 
Lewis  duke  of  Bavaria.    He  had  gained  eight 
battles  against  the  Nurembergers,  in  one  of  which 
he  fought  singly  against  sixteen  men.    He  had 
taken  Greissenburg,  as  Alexander  took  the  capi- 
tal of  tbeOxydrac8s,and  Frederick  III.  gave  him 
the  direction  of  almost  the  whole  empire.    He 
had  also  gained  the  prize  at  seventeen  tourna- 


Digitized  by  VjUUy  IC 


390 


P  R  U  8  B  I  A. 


meols.  From  this  peHod  |iothaig1in[Jbitftnt  dt- 
0iTred  till  1594,  when,  John  Sigis**«iind  of  Bram 
denburg,  ha?ing  married  Anne  the  only  daughter 
of  Albert  duke  of  Prussia,  that  duchy  was  joined 
to  the  electorate,  with  which  it  has  continued 
united  ever  since;  and  gave  pretensions  to  the 
countries  of  Juliers,  Berg,  Cieves,  Marck,  Ra- 
vensburg,^  and  Ravenstein,  to  the  succession  of 
which  Anne  was  heiress. 

Sigismund  died  in  1619,  and  was  succeeded 
by  his  son  George  William ;  during  whose  go- 
vernment the  electorate  suffered  the  most  miser- 
able calamities.  At  this  time  a  war  commenced 
betiyeen  the  Protestants  and  Catholics,  which 
lasted  thirty  years.  The  former,  although  leagued 
together,  were  on  the  point  of  being  utterly  de- 
stroyed by  tbe  Imperialists  under  Tilly  and  waU 
lenstein,  wHen  Gustavus  Adolphus  turned  the 
scale  in  their  &vor,.  and  threatened  the  Catholic 
party  with  utter  destruction.  But  by  his  death, 
at  the  battle  of  Lutzen,  the  fortune  of  war  was 
once  more  changed.  At  last,  however,  peace 
i/?as  concluded ;  and,  in  1640,  the  elector  died, 
and  was  succeeded  bv  his  son  Frederick  William. 
This  young  prince,  though  only  twenty  years  of 
age  at  bis  succession,  applied  himself  to  repair 
the  losses  and  devastations  occasioned  by  the 
dreadful  wars  which  had  preceded.  He  receiv- 
ed the  investiture  of  Prussia  personally  from  the 
king  of  Poland,  on  condition  of  paying  100,000 
florins  annually,  and  not  making  truce  or  peace 
with  the  enemies  of  that  crown.  His  envoy 
likewise  received  the  investiture  of  the  electorate 
from  Ferdinand  III.  The  elector  now  conclud- 
ed a  truce  for  twenty  years  with  the  Swedes, 
who  evacuated  the  greatest  part  of  his  estates, 
concluded  a .  treaty  with  the  Hessians,  who  deli- 
vered up  a  part  of  the  duchy  of  Cieves ;  and  ob- 
tained of  the  Hollanders  the  evacuation  of  other 
cities.  In  the  mean  time  the  powers  of  Europe 
began  to  be  weary  of  a  war  which  had  continued 
for  so  long  a  time  with  such  unrelenting  fiiry. 
The  conferences  were  opened  at  Osnaburg  and 
Munster,  in  1645.  France  demanded  that  Po-* 
merania  should  be  ceded  to  Sweden,  as  an  in- 
demnification for  the  expenses  which  the  war 
had  cost  Gustavus  Adolphus ;  but,  though  the 
empire  and  the  elector  refused  to  give  up  Pome- 
rania,  it  was  at  last  agreed  to  give  up  to  the 
Swedes  Hither  Pomeraoia,  with  the  isles  of  Ru- 
gen  and  Wollin,  and  some  other  cities ;  in  return 
for  which,  the  bishoprics  of  Halberstadt,  Minden, 
and  Camin,  were  secularised  in  favor  of  the  elec- 
tor, and  ceded  to  him,  with  the  lordships  of 
Hochenstein  and  Richenstein,  and  the  reversion 
of  the  archbishopric  of  Magdeburg.  Thus  was 
the  treaty  of  Westphalia  concluded  in  1648, 
which  so  long  served  as  a  basis  for  all  the  pos- 
sessions and  rights  of  the  German  princes.  The 
elector  then  concluded  a  new  treaty  with  the 
Swedes,  for  the  regulation  of  limits,  and  for  the 
acquittal  of  some  debts ;  and  next  year  the  elec- 
torate, Pomerania,  and  the  duchy  of  Cieves, 
were  evacuated  by  the  Swedes.  Notwithstand- 
ing these  treaties,  however,  the  Swedes  soon  after 
invaded  Pomerania,  but  were  entirely  defeated 
by  the  elector  near  Fehrbellin ;  with  the  loss  of 
3000  killed,  and  many  prisoners.  He  pursued 
bis  victory,  gained  many  advantages  over  the 


6%'ede8,  and  took  the  Qitle9  of  Stralsund  and 
Gripswald.  On  this  the  Swedes,  to  oblige  the 
elector  to  evacuate  Pomerania,  which  he  had  al- 
most totally  subdued,  invaded  Prussia,  from  Li 
vonia,  with  16,000  men ;  burnt  the  suburbs  o^ 
Memel,  and  took  Tilse  and  Insterburg.  The 
elector,  to  oppose  the  invaders,  left  Berlin  on 
the  10th  of  January,  1679,  at  the  head  of  9000 
men.  The  Swedes  retired  at  his  approach,  and 
were  very  much  harassed  by  his  troops.  So 
successful  indeed  was  Frederick  on  this  occa- 
sion, that  the  Swedes  lost  almost  one-half  of  their 
army.  At  last,  having  crossed  the  bay  of  Frische- 
haff  and  Courland  on  the  ice,  be  arrived  on  the 
19th  of  January,  with  his  infiintty,  within  three 
miles  of  Tilse,  the  head  quarters  of  the  Swedes. 
The  same  day  his  general,  Trefenfeldt,  defeated 
two  Swedish  regiments  near  Splitter;  and 
the  Swedes  abandoned  Tilse.  They  were  pur- 
sued into  Courland  by  general  Gortz,  and  de- 
feated with  such  slaughter  that  scarce  3000  of 
them  returned  to  Livonia.  Yet,  notwithstanding 
these  victories,  the  elector,  pressed  by  the  victo- 
rious generals  of  Frtoce,  Turenne  and  Conde, 
was  obliged  to  make  peace  with  the  Swedes. 
The  conditions  were,  that  the  treaty  of  Westpha- 
lia should  serve  for  a  basis;  that  the  elector 
should  have  the  property  of  the  customs  in  all 
the  ports  of  Further  Pomerania,  with  the  cities 
of  Gamin,  Gortz,  Griessenburg,  and  Wilden- 
bruck ;  while  he  gave  up  to  the  Swedes  all  that 
he  had  conquered  from  them.  Frederick  Wil- 
liam passed  his  last  years  in  peace.  His  great 
qualities  had  rendered  him  respected  by  all  Eu- 
rope, and  had  even  reached  Tartary,  whence  he 
received  an  embassy  courting  his  friendship. 
From  1684  to  1686  he  received  into  his  domi- 
nions 20,000  Protestants  who  fled  out  of  France, 
after  the  revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantz,  and 
who  introduced  new  arts  and  manufactures,  that 
were  of  the  utmost  benefit  to  the  country.  By 
this,  however,  he  disobliged  Louis  XIV.,  for 
which  reason  he  concluded  an  alliance  with  the 
emperor ;  and,  having  furnished  him  with  8000 
troops  against  the  Turks  in  Hungary,  the  empe- 
ror ceded  to  him  the  circle  of  Schwibus  in  Sile- 
sia. In  1688  the  elector  Frederick  William 
died,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Frederick  III. 
This  elector  was  remarkably  fond  of  show 
and  ceremony ;  and  the  great  object  of  his  am- 
bition seemed  to  be  the  regal  dignity.  To  ob- 
tain this,  he  joined  with  the  emperor  in  the  alli- 
ance against  France  in  which  be  was  engaged 
by  our  William  III.  He  also  yielded  up  the 
circle  of  Schwibus,  whidh  had  been  given  to  his 
predecessor;  and,  in  1700,  obtained  from  the 
emperor  that  dignity  which  he  had  so  earnestly 
desired.  The  chief  terms  on  which  it  was  ob- 
tained were,  that  he  should  never  separate  from 
the  empire  those  provinces  of  his  dominions 
which  depended  on  it;  that  he  should  not,  in  the 
emperor's  presence,  demand  any  other  marks  of 
honor  than  those  which  he  had  hitherto  enjoyed; 
and  that  he  should  maintain  6000  men  in  Italy 
at  his  own  expense,  in  case  the  emperor  should 
be  obliged  to  make  war  on  account  of  the  house 
of  Bourbon's  claim  to  the  crown  of  Spain.  Fre- 
derick I.  continued  all  his  life  in  strict  alliance 
with  the  emperor. 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


PRUSSIA. 


221 


Frederick  I.  diad  in  tbe  beginniDg  of  1713, 
and  wM  snccfeeded  by  Frederick  William  L,  in 
almost  every  thing  the  reverse  of  his  father.  His 
dispositions  were  altogether  martial ;  so  that  he 
applied  himself  entirely  to  the  augmentation  of 
the  army.  His  whim  was  to  have  it  composed 
of  men  above  tne  ordinary  size,  and  his  officers 
made  no  scruple  of  picking  up  such  men  wher- 
ever they  coald  find  them.  However  he  was 
never  engaged  in  any  martial  enterprise  of  con- 
sequence ;  but  having  put  his  army  on  the  most 
respectable  footing,  and  filled  his  coffers,  he  put 
it  in  the  power  of  his  son  to  perform  those  ex- 
ploits which  astonished  all  Europe.  Frequent 
bickerings  took  place  between  the  prince  and  the 
emperor,  for  which  the  persecution  of  the  Pro- 
testants by  some  of  the  Catholic  states  of  the 
empire  afforded  a  pretence.  But  when  Frederick 
William  died,  in  1740,  this  enmity  broke  out  in 
full  force. 

Frederick  II.,  immediately  on  his  accession, 
seized  upon  Silesia,  of  which  his  ancestors,  he 
said,  haa  been  unjustly  deprived.  But  it  cost 
him  dear;  for  the  empress  queen,  having  over- 
come her  momentary  difficulties,  formed  against 
him  the  most  formidable  combination  that  had 
hitherto  been  known  in  Europe.  The  treaty  was 
hardly  concluded,  by  which  she  reluctantly 
yielded  up  Silesia,  with  a  revenue  of  £800,000  a 
year,  before  she  entered  into  another  with  Rus-  • 
sia.  This  treaty,  called  tlie  treaty  of  Peters- 
burgh,  was  apparently  only  defensive;  but  six 
secret  articles  were  appended,  one  of  which  was, 
that  if  the  king  of  Prussia  should  attack  the  em- 
press queen,  or  Russia,  or  Poland,  it  should  be 
held  as  a  breacli  of  the  treaty  of  Dresden  :  ano- 
ther contained  a  plan  for  a  partition  of  Prussia. 
The  empress  queen  concluded  also  a  treaty  with 
France,  on  the  1st  of  May,  1756.  Frederick, 
hearing  of  these  machinations,  resolved  to  be 
beforehand  with  his  enemies,  and,  entering 
Saxony  with  a  considerable  army,  demanded 
a  free  passage  for  his  troops,  on  the  principle  of 
the  king  of  Poland's  professed  neutrality ;  which 
being  refrised,  he  blockaded  the  Saxon  camp  at 
Pima.  To  oppose  the  two  Saxon  armies,  then  in 
Bohemia,  he  placed  one  army  under  M.  Schwerin 
and  another  under  the  celebrated  M.  Keith ;  and 
soon  after  joined  the  latter :  on  the  first  of  De- 
cember, 1756,  he  attacked  and  defeated  the  Aus- 
trian general.  On  this  the  king  of  Poland  quitt- 
ed bis  German  dominions,  and  the  Prussians 
took  up  their  quarters  in  Saxony,  where  they 
seized  the  reyenties  and  raised  recruits :  in  the 
archives  of  Dresden  Frederick  discovered  the 
originals  of  the  secret  articles  above-mentioned. 
Mean  time  he  was  put  to  the  ban  of  the  empire; 
the  circles  were  ordered  to  furnish  their  contin- 
gents :  the  French  sent  a  large  body  of  troops 
under  prince  de  Soubise;  the  Austrians  raised 
100,000  men  under  prince  Charles  of  Lorrain 
and  M.  Brown;  and  the  Czavina  sent  60,000 
under  M.  Apraxin  into  Ducal  Prussia,  with  a 
strong  fleet  to  co-operate  with  them  in  the  Baltic. 
The  king  of  Sweden  and  the  duke  of  Mecklen- 
burgh  also  joined  the  combination  ;  while  Prus- 
sia had  not  a  single  ally,  except  about  35,000 
Hanoverians  under  the  duke  of  Cumberland; 
who  were  soon  forced  to  yield  to  a  superior  army 


of  the  French.  In  tpring  1757  thft.Plussiane 
entered  Bohemia  in  tnree  divisions ;  one  under 
the  king;  another  under  general  Schwerin;  and 
the  third  under  the  prince  of  Bevem,  from  Lu« 
satia,  where  he  defeated  an  army  of  28,000  Aus- 
trians. The  Austrians  then  detached  another 
body  of  20,000  men  from  Iheir  main  army; 
whereupon  Frederick  cut  off  all  communication 
between  that  detachment  and  the  main  body,  and, 
having  quickly  joined  his  two  generals,  attacked 
tlie  Austrians  near  Prague  and  totally  defeated 
them,  but  lost  the  brave  general  Schwerin.  The 
Austrian  general,  also,  was  mortally  wounded ; 
and  about  40,000  of  his  troops  took  refuge  in 
Prague,  which  was  immediately  invested  by  the 
king.  The  garrison  made  a  sally,  but  were  re- 
pulsed, as  were  also  12,000  of  the  inhabitants, 
who  wished  to  quit  it  In  this  desperate  situa- 
tion, Leopold  count  Daun  took  the  command  of 
the  remains  of  Brown's  army,  and  having  col- 
lected 60,000  of  them  retired  to  a  strong  post 
near  the  town.  Frederick  sent  against  them 
only  32,000  men,  who  were  defeated  at  Colin  on 
the  18lh  of  June,  afler  a  bloody  battle.  The 
king  then  raised  the  siege  of  Prague,  lefi  Bohe- 
mia, and  retired  into  Saxony. 

Meantime  the  Russians,  under  Apraxin  and 
Permor,  were  committing  the  greatest  cruelties  in 
Ducal  .Prussia.  The  Austrians  entered  Silesia, 
penetrated  to  Breslau,  and  besieged  Schweidnitz. 
Another  body  of  them  took  Zittau.  An  army  of 
22,000  Swedes  also  entered  Prussian  Pomerania, 
took  Anclam  and  Demmein,  and  plundered  the 
country :  while  the  French  devastated  Halbert- 
stadt  and  the  Old  Marche  of  Brandenburgh. 
General  Haddick,  laid  Beriin  itself  under  contri- 
bution. The  Prussian  general,  Lehwald,  with 
30,000  men,  attacked  30,000  Russians,  who 
were  strongly  intrenched  at  Norkitten,  but, 
though  they  performed  prodigies  of  valor,  were 
obliged  to  retire.  At  last,  on  the  5th  of  Novem- 
ber 1757,  the  king  of  Prussia  met,*at  Rasbach, 
with  the  united  army  of  his  enemies  under  prince 
Saxe-Ililburghhausen  and  general  Soubise, 
amounting  to  50,000  men.  His  army  did  not 
amount  to  above  half  that  number  of  men,  but 
inspired  with  the  most  enthusiastic  patriotism, 
and  encouraged  by  the  presence  of  their  king, 
they  completely  defeated  the  Austrians,  with  the 
loss  of  3000  men  killed ;  eight  generals,  250  offi- 
cers, and  6000  men,  prisoners,  while  night  alone 
prevented  their  total  destruction.  But  in  Silesia 
the  Austrians,  after  a  siege  of  sixteen  days,  re- 
duced Schweidnitz,  and  took  the  Prussian  garri- 
son of  4000  men  prisoners.  They  next  attacked 
the  army  under  the'  prince  of  Bevem,  encamped 
at  Breslau,  on  the  22d  of  November;  but  were 
repulsed  with  dreadful  slaughter.  Yet  the 
Prussians,  soon  after,  rashly  deserted  their  strong 
post,  and  in  two  days  the  prince  of  Bevern,  re- 
connoitering  carelessly,  was  taken  prisoner; 
Breslau  of  course  surrendered,  and  all  was  going 
to  wreck,  when  the  king,  by  a  rapid  march, 
passing  through  Tburingia,  Misnia,  and  Lusatia, 
entered  Silesia  on  the  2d  of  December,  and  was 
joined  by  the  prince  of  Bevern's  corps  and  the 
garrison  of  Schweidnitz.  He  now  approached 
Breslau,  where  the  Austrians,  trusting  to  their 
numbers  (amounting  to  70,000)  while  the  Prus- 


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PRUSSIA. 


fli«ns  wera  scarcely  36,000  men,  left  their  strong 
carop  and  advanced  to  battle.  Tlie  two  armies 
met  on  the  5th  of  December  near  Luthen. 
Count  Daun  occupied  a  plain  with  some  small 
eminences,  and  caused  his  troops  to  scatter  a 
gjeat  number  of  trees  in  the  road  of  the  Prus- 
sians. But  Frederick  overcame  all  these  difficul- 
ties :  attacked  the  enemy  with  the  utmost'impe- 
tuosity,  took  the  post,  and  a  total  rout  ensued, 
wherein  the  Austrians  lost  6000  killed,  15,000 
prisoners,  and  200  cannons.  The  consequences 
were  great ;  Breslau  surrendered  on  the  29th  of 
December  with  a  garrison  of  13,000  men:  the 
Russians  retreated  out  of  Ducal  Prussia:  general 
Lehwald  expelled  the  Swedes  out  of  Prussian 
Pomerania,and  took  part  of  Swedish  Pomerania; 
and  the  king  took  ample  vengeance  on  Mecklen- 
burg. To  add  to  his  good  fortune,  the  French 
were  now  so  successfully  opposed  by  the  Hano- 
verians, under  prince  Ferdinand,  that  he  had  no 
more  trouble  from  them. 

On  the  8d  of  April,  1758,  Frederick  laid 
siege  to  Schweidnitz,  which  surrendered  on  the 
16th.  He  then  disposed  his  forces  in  the  best 
manner  for  the  defence  of  his  dominions,  placing 
one  army  under  count  Dohna  on  the  side  of  Po- 
merania ;  another  between  Wohlan  and  Glogau, 
to  cover  Silesia ;  and  a  third  in  Saxony  under 
his  brother  prince  Henry,  consisting  of  thirty 
battalions  and  forty-five  squadrons,  to  make  head 
against  the  empire.  All  tnese  armies  were  con^^ 
nected  by  posts.  Frederick  next,  making  a  feint 
of  invadmg  Bohemia,  suddenly  burst  into  Mora- 
via, ovei^run  the  whole  country,  and  laid  siege 
to  Olmutz  on  the  27ih  of  May.  But  general 
Daun,  seizing  a  strong  hold  where  he  could  not 
be  attacked,  obliged  tfie  king  to  raise  the  siege ; 
which  he  did  very  unexpectedly,  on  the  1st  of 
July,  and  roarchc^i  in  two  columns  into  Bohe- 
mia. After  laying  Konigsgratz  and  the  adjacent 
districts  und^  contribution,  he  marched  rapidly 
against  the  Russians,  who  had  been  employed  in 
TOsieging  Custrin,  since  the  15th  of  August. 
Frederick  arrived  on  the  25th  within  sieht  of  the 
Russians,  after  fifty-six  days  march :  when  they 
raised  the  siege  and  retired  to  ZomdoHT.  The 
battle  of  ZomdofT  began  at  9  A.  M.,  and  con- 
tinued till  7  P.  M.,  with  various  success  and 
dreadful  slaughter.  At  one  period  the  Prussians 
had  fliven  way  and  fled  before  an  army  half  de- 
feated ;  but  the  king,  by  a  rapid  and  masterly 
m({vement,  bought  his  cavalry  to  the  centre, 
and,  falling  on  the  Russian  foot,  put  them  into 
such  confusion  that  they  fired  on  each  other, 
plundered  their  own  baggage,  and  got  so  much 
mtoxicated  that  the  fire  of  the  Prussians  had 
dreadful  efifect  In  a  word,  their  loss,  besides  a 
vast  train  of  artillery,  amounted  to  21,529  men, 
the  military  chest,  &c.,  while  that  of  the  Prus- 
sians did  not  exceed  2000.  The  remains  of  \i\e 
Russian  army  retreated  to  Landsperg ;  and  the 
king  marched  to  the  relief  of  prince  Henry. 
Here  he  met  with  a  severe  check.  Blarshal  Daun 
had  his  camp  advantageously  situated  at  Stolpen, 
while  the  right  wing  of  the  king  extendea  to 
Hochkirchen,  by  which  he  had  a  communication 
with  prince  Henry  and  protected  Brandenburg. 
In  this  critical  situation  Daun  surprised  the 
Prussian  camp  at  5  A.  M.  or  the  14th  of  Octo- 


ber. The  brav«  marshal  Ij^eitb,  and  prince 
Francis  of  Brunswick,  were  killed  on  the  spot ; 
and  though  the  king  did  his  utmost  to  encourage 
his  troops,  and  the  victory  was  Ions  doubtful,  the 
king  at  last  ordered  a  retreat,  whicn  he  conduct- 
ed in  good  order :  but  this  bloody  battle  cost  him 
7000  men,  with  a  great  number  of  cannon.  The 
Austrians  lost  5000.  Fredericl^  next  reinforced 
his  army  from  that  of  prince  Henry,  and  hiotened 
to  raise  the  siege  of  Neiss,  which  had  tieen  in- 
vested on  the  4th  of  October.  On  the  24th  he 
came  to  Gorlitz,  where  he  defeated  a  party  of 
Austrians,  with  the  loss  of  800  men ;  and  soon 
after  relieved  Cosel.  The  king  then  hastened  to 
the  relief  of  Dresden,  which  was  badly  fortified 
and  garrisoned  by  only  13,000  men.  It  bad 
large  suburbs,  but  these  had  been  burnt  by 
Schmettau,  the  governor,  on  the  10th  of  Novem- 
ber, to  prevent  their  being  taken  by  the  Austrians. 
under  Daun,  as  then  all  defence  of  the  city 
would  have  been  vain.  Upon  the  king's  ap- 
proach all  the  Austrian  armies  retired  into  Bohe- 
mia. He  now  took  up  his  winter  quarters  in 
Saxony,  where  he  levied  the  most  exorbitant 
contributions.  On  the  23d  of  February,  1759, 
general  Wobersow  marched  with  a  body  of 
Prussians  into  Poland,  where  he  destroyed  se- 
veral large  Russian  magazines.  The  successes  of 
prince  Henry,  in  the  interim,  cleared  Franconia 
of  their  enemies;  but  now  the  Russians  once 
more  approaciied.  The  king  disgraced  count 
Dohna,  for  not  opposing  them  with  sufficient 
zeal,  and  appointed  general  Wedel  in  his  place ; 
who,  on  the  23d  of  July,  with  an  army  of  not 
quite  30,000  men,  attacked  70,000  Russians 
most  advantageously  posted  at  Zulichau.  The 
Prussians  fought  with  their  usual  bravery,  but 
were  defeated  with  the  loss  of  4700  killed  or 
taken,  and  3000  wounded.  The  oonsequenca 
were  that  the  Russians  took  Crossen  and  Frank- 
fort on  the  Oder;  on  which  the  king  joined 
Wedel  with  a  large  body  of  troops,  leaving  the 
rest  of  his  army  in  Saxony,  under  prince  Henry. 
But  as  Daun  bad  sent  12,000  horse  and  8000 
foot,  under  Laudohn,  to  assist  the  Russians,  the 
king  was  unwilling  to  venture  a  battle.  This, 
however,  became  unavoidable;  he  therefore,  on 
the  12th  of  August,  attacked  the  enemy  in  their 
strong  entrenchments  with  a  heavy  cannonade, 
forced  the  entrenchments  with  great  slaughter, 
and  took  seventy-two  cannon.  The  Russians 
made  a  stand  at  Cunnersdorf,  but  were  driven 
from  it,  s^id  from  post  to  post  to  the  last 
redoubts.  For  above  six  hours  the  Prussians 
were  wholly  successful ;  and  victory  was  com- 
pletely in  their  power,  if  the  king[  had  not  lost  it 
by  his  impetuosity.  General  Saltikoff  assembled 
the  remains  of  the  Russian  army  at  an  advanta- 
geous post  where  prudence  and  policy  would 
have  allowed  them  to  remain.  But,  the  king  at- 
tempting to  drive  them  from  it,  his  £uigued  troops 
were  overpowered,  and  the  Austrians,  who  had 
not  been  much  engaged  all  day,  assisting  them, 
the  fortune  of  the  day  was  tumed  so  completely 
that  nothing  but  the  nisht  coming  on  saved  the 
Prussians  from  total  destruction.  Their  loss 
amounted,  to  20,000  men.  After  this  defeat 
Frederick  es^erted  himself  to  procure  artillery 
from  Berlin;  he  lecalled  general  Kleist  with 


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293 


5000  men  ftom  Pomenmia ;  detached  6000  from 
his  ovhk  enny  to  'defend  Saxony;  and  with  the 
remtinder  put  himself  between  the  Russians  and 
Great  Glogan ;  thus  obliging  them  to  return  to 
Poland,  notwithstanding  their  victory.  New 
iDisfortuneSy  howerer,  attended  the  Prussian 
arms.  General  Finch,  who  had  been  sent  with 
12,000  Pmssiana  to  oppose  Daun,  having  ad- 
mteed  too  §u,  was  surrounded  and  obliged  to 
surrender.  Geoeral  Durceke,  and  another  body 
of  Prussians,  were  posted  at  the  £lbe,  opposite 
Meissen;  but  were  suddenly  attacked  by  the 
Austriaos,  and  lost  3000  men. 

The  year  1760  began  with  very  un&vorable 
aospices.  Since  October  1756  forty  generals 
had  been  killed  in  the  Prussian  service, exclusive 
of  those  wounded  or  takan :  and  most  of  Fre- 
derick's veteran  soldiers  had  &llen  in  battle,  and 
their  places  were  filled  up  by  raw  inexperienoed 
troops.  At  this  time  Laudohn  drew  general 
Fouquet  and  a  body  of  above  11,000  Prussians 
nto  a  situation  from  which  they  could  not  es<- 
cape ;  and  on  the  23rd  of  June  attacked  them  at 
midnight,  near  Landshut,  when,  though  they 
made  a  brave  defence,  4000  were  killed,  7000 
taken,  with  fifty-ei|^t  cannon,  and  not  above  300 
escaped.  The  'victory,  however,  cost  the  Aua- 
trians  12,000  men  in  killed  and  wounded.  Lau 
doho  immediately  followed  it  up  by  the  capture 
of  Glatz.  Thence  he  marched  against  Breslau, 
and  invested  it ;  but,  the  king  of  Prussia  having 
laid  siege  to  the  town  on  the  13th  of  July,  Daun 
appeared  within  three  miles  on  the  19th,  and  on 
the  2l8t  had  supplied  it  with  sixteen  bsutalions, 
which  obliged  the  king  to  raise  the  siege.  Bres- 
lau  was  also  bombarded  by  Laudohn,  but  the 
approach  of  prince  Henrv  obliged  him  to  retire 
00  the  5th  of^  August  Meantime  the  king  ad- 
vanced into  Silesia  with  his  usual  rapidity.  This, 
however,  ^id  not  prevent  the  junction  of  the  ar- 
mies under  Laudohn,  Daun,  and  Lacy,  which 
formed  a  line  of  encampments,  extending  no  less 
than  thirty  miles.  They  now  laid  a  plan  to  at<r 
tack  and  surround  the  king's  army  in  the  night; 
hut  Frederick,  having  heard  or  suspected  their 
intention,  quitted  his  camp  privatdv,  and  took  an 
^vantageous  post  on  the  road  through  which 
laudohn  was  to  pass.  A  thick  fog  in  the  morn- 
ing bid  the  Prussians  till  Laudohn  saw  them  with 
surprise  regularly  drawn  up  for  battle.  An  obsti- 
oate  conflict  ensued,  wherein  Laudohn  was  com- 
pletely defeated,  with  the  loss  of  10,000  killed, 
wounded,  and  prisoners;  eighty-two  cannon, 
ud  twenty-three  colors.  This  victory  compelled 
count  Cxemidiew,  who  was  advancing  with 
24,000  Russians  to  join  Daun,  to  repass  the 
Oder;  and  soon  after  the  king  joined  prince 
Henry  at  New  Mardie,  and,  attacking  a  corps 
uoder  geneial  Breck,  took  two  battalions  of 
Croats  prisoners.  iUiout  this  time  too  general 
Hulsen  defeated  the  imperial  army  in  &utony. 
But  a  body  of  15,000  Austnans,  under  generals 
Lacy  and  Brentano,  with  the  whole  of  the  impe- 
rialists in  Saxony,  began  their  march  in  concert 
with  the  Russians  towards  Berlin,  tliese  azmia 
amounted  to  40,000  men.  The  Prussian  gene- 
rals Uttlsen  and  Werner  could  not  raise  above 
^tOOO.  Berlin  was  therefore  abandoned  to  its 
lite;  which, by  the powerinl mediation  of  sevenl 


foreign  ministers,  was  better  than  oould  have 
been  expected.  The  city,  however,  was  obliged 
to  pay  the  sums  of  800,000  guilders,  and 
1,900^000  crowns :  the  magazines,  arsenals,  and 
foundries  were  destroyed;  all  the  military 
stores,  cannon,  and  other  arms  seized,  and  the 
king's  pahice  plundered.  The  combined  armies 
left  Berlin  in  four  days,  dreading  the  vengeance 
of  Frederick ;  and  on  their  return  took  l^ipsic, 
Torgau,  Meissen,  and  Wirtembeiig.  A  detach- 
ment of  French  under  M.  Stainville  laid  Halber^ 
stadt  under  contribution.  In  East  Poroerania 
the  Russians  besieged  Colberg ;  in  West  Pome- 
rania  the  Swedes  advanced,  while  Laudohn  be- 
sieged Cosel ;  and  Daqn  watched  the  king  with 
a  Superior  army.  The  Prussians  did  not  amount 
to  50,000:  the  Austnans  exceeded  86,000.  The 
king  therefore  resoUed  to  make  a  desperate 
effort.  On  the  3rd  of  November^  1760,  he  di- 
vided his  forces  into  three  columns,  with  one  of 
which  general  Hulsen  took  post  in  a  wood.  WiUi 
the  other  two  columns,  under  hitnself  and  general 
Ziethen,  the  king  attacked  general  Daun  about 
2  P.  M^  who  received  him  with  the  fire  of  200 
cannon.  The  Prussians  were  thrice  led  on  to 
the  attack,  but  as  often  repulsed  with  dreadful 
slaughter;  till,  at  length,  general  2eithen  with 
the  right  winff  attained  the  enemy  in  the 
rear,  repulsed  them,  and  got  possession  of  some 
eminences.  Encouraged  by  tins  success,  the 
Prussians  advanced,  mastered  the  Austrian  en- 
trenchments, and  made  way  for  their  cavalry, 
which  broke  in  with  irresistible  fury  and  threw 
the  Austrians  into  irreparable  confusion.  It 
was  now  about  9  P.  M.,  both  armies  were  in 
darkness,  yet  the  firing  continued,  till  M.  Daun 
was  wounded ;  and  the  command  devolved  on 
count  0*Donnel,  who  ordered  a  retreat.  This 
important  victory  cost  the  Prussians  10,000 
kilted  and  wounded,  and  3000  prisoners.  The 
loss  of  the  Austrians  in  killed  and  wounded  is 
unknown ;  but  8000  wefe  taken  prisoners,  among 
whom  were  four  generals  and  212  other  officers. 
The  consequences  of  this  victory  were  that  the 
king  recovered  all  Saxony,  except  Dresden ;  the 
Russians  raised  the  siege  of  Colberg,  and  retired 
into  Poland;  Werner  defeated  .the  Swedes,  and 
drove  them  totally  out  of  West  Pomerania; 
Laudohn  raised  the  blockade  of  Cosel,  and  re*- 
tired  into  Austrian  Silesia;  Daun  pkoed  his 
army  in  Dresden,  and  other  strong  posts  south 
and  west  of  it;  and  the  imperial  army  retired 
into  Franconia.  But,  though  these  successes  re* 
trieved  the  king's  aJairs,  they  exhausted  his 
strength;  and  in  1761  he  was  unable  to  make 
any  vigorous  efforts.  He  continued  strongly  en* 
camped  at  Schweidnitz,  but  was  closely  watched 
by  Daun  and  Laudohn.  He  however  defeated 
the  designs  of  the  Russians  against  Breslaw,  by 
sending  general  Platen  to  destroy  their  maga- 
zines, who  at  the  same  time  cut  off  4000  of  their 
troops.  But  they  retook  Colberg  on  the  3rd  of 
December;  and,  the  king  hafing  drawn  4000 
men  out  of  Schweidnitz,  Laudohn  took  it  by  a 
coup  de  main.  In  the  ;nidst  of  these  adverse 
circumstances,  the  empress  Elizabeth,  Frederick's 
inveterate  enemy,  died  on  the  2d  of  January 
1762,  and  was  succeeded  by  Peter  III.  his 
warm  firiend.    The  ornsequences  were  a  suspeD- 


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PRUSSIA. 


flion  of  hostilities  qd  tbe  16th  of  March,  and  a 
fifeaty  of  peace  aud  alliance  on  tbe  5th  of  May. 
Sweden  maoe  peace  too  on  the  23d  of  May. 
The  arms  of  Prussia  were  now  attended  every 
where  with  success.  Prince  Henry  drove  the 
imperialists  from  several  important  .posts  in 
Saxony,  wh*ch  secured  all  the  Prussian  posses- 
sions there.  The  king  was  joined  by  the  Rus- 
sians ir  the  end  of  June )  after  which  he  drove 
M.  Daun  to  the  extremity  of  Silesia*  He  then 
penetrated  deep  into  Bohemia,  where  the  Rus- 
sians committea  the  same  cmelties  on  their  late 
allies,  the  Austrians,  that  they  had  long  practised 
on  the  Prussians.  But  the  deposition  and  murder 
of  Peter  III.  occasioned  a  new  change.  Catharine 
II.  was  prejudiced  against  Frederick ;  but  his  pri- 
vate letters  to  Peter,  wherein  he  had  advised 
him  to  treat  her  well,  being  discovered,  excited 
her  gratitude ;  ard,  though  she  ordered  her  troops 
home,  she  adhered  to  tlie  peace,  and  restored  all 
the  places  taken  during  the  war.  The  success  of 
Frederick,  however,  continued :  he  totally  de- 
feated lAudohn ;  retook  Schweidnitz,  with  a  gar- 
rison of  8000  men ;  and,  on  the  29th  of  Octo- 
ber, entirely  routed  the  Austrians  at  Freyberg, 
vast  numbers  being  killed,  and  6000  taken  pri- 
soners. This  decisive  victory  produced  the 
peace  of  Hubertsburg,  whereby  every  thing  was 
settled  in  statu  quo.  After  this  Frederick  turned 
his  attention  to  the  arts  of  peace ;  which  was 
hardly  interrupted  in  1778  by  a  difference  with 
Austria,  about  Bavaria.  No  other  remarkable 
events  occurred  during  his  life,  but  what  are  al- 
ready mentioned  in  our  article  FaEDEarcK.  He 
died  August  17th,  1786,  and  was  succeeded  by 
his  nephew,  Frederick  William  II 

Frederick  the  Great  had  bequeathed  the  roost 
effectual  securities  to  his  successor  for  the  pre- 
servation of  his  dominions,  that  human  wisaoro 
could  provide  or  devise;  and  the  new  monarch, 
with  these  advantages,  was  not  wanting  to  him- 
'  self.  But  his  uncle's  pr^ilection  for  the  French 
language  and  French  literature  was  not  grateful 
to  his  subjects.  Frederick-William  began  his 
reien  with  declaring  in  council,  Germans  we  are, 
and  Germans  I  mean  we  shall  continue ;  giving 
directions  at  the  same  time,  that  their  native  lan- 
guage should  resume  its  natural  rank  and  station. 
This  was  a  very  popular  measure,  and  it  was  fol- 
lowed by  another  still  more  so.  Observing  that  he 
had  marked  with  great  concern  the  progress  of 
impiety  and  profaneness  on  the  one  hand,  and  of 
enthusiasm  on  the  other,  he  declared,  that  he 
would  not  have  his  subjects  corrupted  either  by 
fanatics  or  atheists,  and  strictly  prohibited  all  puly> 
lications  tending  to  excite  a  contempt  or  indiffer- 
ence for  religion.  An  opportnnity  soon  occurred, 
in  which  he  was  also  thought  to  have  displayed 
such  talents  in  negociation  and  in  military  ar- 
rangements, as  proclaimed  him  in  every  respec* 
a  worthv  successor  of  his  uncle.  The  States  of 
Holland,  who  had  long  been  jealous  of  the  power 
of  the  Stadtholder,  and  inclined  to  a  republican 
government  without  any  permanent  chief,  had 
gained  such  ascendancy  in  the  states  general,  that 
in  1786  and  1787  they  divested  the  prince  of 
Orange  of  all  his  prerogatives.  They  proceeded 
even  to  the  seizure  and  imprisonment  of  the 
princess,  sister  to  the  king  of  Prussia;  and,  de- 


pending upon  support  ttom  France^  treated  widi 
Insolence  every  power  connected  with  them  in 
£urope.  The  court  of  Berlin  did  not  witness 
these  proceedings  without  indi^tion ;  and  the 
king  formed  his  plan  for  restoring  the  power  of 
the  Stadtholder  with  such  secresy  and  prudence, 
that,  in  the  space  of  one  month,  the  duke  of 
Brunswick  led  18,000  Prussians  to  Amsterdam. 
Tbe  monarch's  subsequent  conduct  was  not  such 
as  the  beginning  of  his  reign  gave  reason  to  ex- 
pect. See  the  article  Poland.  He  was,  on  the 
whole,  a  weak  voluptuous  character,  who  dissi- 
pated his  treasures,  and,  in  the  part  which  be 
tooic  against  the  French  republic,  by  no  means 
added  to  the  reputation  of  tne  Prussian  arms. 

Frederick  William  III.  came  to  the  crown  in 
1797,  and  acted  for  several  years  in  concurrence 
with  France.  In  1806,  however,  his  eyes  were 
opened  to  the  usurpations  of  Buonaparte ;  war 
was  determined  on,  and  the  army  led  to  the 
western  frontier,  with  as  much  confidence  as  if 
tbe  French  troops  had  been  those  of  Louis  XV. 
The  result  was  the  fatal  battle  of  Jena ;  and  the 
capture,  in  succession,  of  almost  every  corps  of 
the  Prussian  army ;  the  loss  of  Berlin,  and  soon 
after  of  every  province  of  the  kingdom,  except 
Prussia  Proper.  The  peace  of  Tilsit  restored 
little  more  than  half  the  states  of  the  monarchy; 
and  during  six  years  all  the  calamities  of  foreign 
occupation  and  exaction  were  accumulated  on 
this  ill  fated  country.  Hence  the  ardor  with 
which  the  Prussians  rushed  to  arms  in  1813; 
their  courage  under  the  first  reverses  of  tbe  cam- 
paign, and  their  perseverance  in  its  prosecution. 
The  peace  of  Pans  in  1814,  confirmed  by  that 
of  1815,  gave  them  their  reward  ;  for,  while  the 
Prussian  monarch  did  not  obtain  the  restoration 
of  the  same  extent  of  territory  in  Poland,  he  had 
an  ample  equivalent  in  Saxony  and  on  the  Lower 
Rhine.  Since  that  period  the  closest  }ies  of  the 
Prussian  court  have  been  with  Russia  and  the 
Netherlands. 

pRi}ssi4  Pbopeb  is  a  division  of  the  Prussian 
dominions,  having  on  the  one  side  the  northern 
frontier  of  Poland,  on  the  other  the  Baltic.  Its 
fiarm,  though  irregular,  approaches  to  an  oblong, 
extending  from  east  to  west ;  its  superficial  ex- 
tent is  nearly  equal  to  that  of  Scotland.  It  is  in 
a  great  measure  agricultural,  and  is  composed  of 
the  provinces  of  East  and  West  Prussia,  divided 
formeriy  by  the  Vistula,  but  now  by  a  line  a  few 
miles  to  the  east  of  that  river. 

Eat  or  Ducal  Pnana  lies  between  19*"  SO' 
and  24'*  15'  of  E.  long.,  and  52^  32'  and  56**  3' 
of  N.  lat.  It  has  a  superficial  extent  of  15,000 
square  miles,  with  856,000  inhabitants,  of  whom 
about  a  third  are  of  Po<ish  or  Lithuanian  origin. 

It  is  divided  into  th^  governments  of  Konigs- 
berg  and  Gumbinnen,  the  latter  being  the  part  of 
Lithuania  allotted  to  Prussia  on  the  partition  of 
Poland.  Two-thirds  of  the  population  are  de- 
scendants of  Swiss,  French,  or  German  pro- 
testants.  The  soil  is  tolerably  productive,  but 
the  climate  severe,  and  the  spring  and  autumn 
changeable  and  foggy.  A  great  degree  of  mois- 
ture is  produced  by  the  lakes,  manhes,  and  vast 
forests ;  yet  the  winds  that  brush  the  surfiice  of 
this  country  almost  without  interruption  purify 
the  air.    Tne  forests  are  said  to  cover  nearly 


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S,400y000  acres.  They  contain  bears,  elks,  and 
other  wild  animals  common  in  Poland;  they 
9lao  produce  kermes,  or,  as  it  is  here  termed, 
Russian  cochineal.  The  lakes,  gre$it  and  small, 
are  said  to  be  fully  300  in  number.  All  these 
abound  in  fis^.  Com  of  all  kinds,  as  well  as 
flax  and  hemp,  are  largely  cultivated ;  hops  and 
iDadder  are  reared  in  particular  districts;  and 
potatoes  are  much  used.  Hogs  are  also  reared 
in  great  numbers,  and  bees,  in  a  domestic  as  well 
as  wild  state,  kre  in  great  abundance.  The 
hones  are  both  numerous  and  of  good  breeds. 
The  royal  studs  are  now  united  at  the  town  of 
Stallupohen,  and  are  said  to  form  the  largest  es- 
tablishment of  the  kind  in  Europe.  Iron  ore  is 
found  in  many  of  the  marshes.  linen,  woollen, 
and  m  a  small  degree  leather  and  glass,  are  the 
manufactures.  T^e  commercial  towns  are  Ko- 
nigsberg  and  Memel.  But  the  most  singular  ar- 
ticle in  this  country  is  amber,  currently  sold  for 
about  three  or  four  shillings  the  Icwt.  The 
district  in  which  it  is  obtained  from  the  sea  is 
about  twenty-five  miles  in  length.  It  is  thrown 
OD  the  ooest  or  fished  like  coral,  after  strong 


north  and  north-west  winds.  It  is  manufactured 
at  Dantzic,  Konigsberg,  and  Stoipe,  and  serves 
to  make  trinkets,  scented  powder,  a  spirituous 
acid,  and  a  fine  varnishing  oil.    Part  or.it  is  ex- 

Sorted  to  Denmark  and  Italy,  whence,  after  un- 
ergoing  a  farther  process  of  manufacture,  it  is 
sent  to  Turkey.  The  quantity  annually  collected 
in  Prussia  is  about  200  tons. 

West  Prussia  has  an  area  of  about  10,000 
square  miles ;  its  population  is  560,000. .  The 
foreign  settlers  here  are  far  less  numerous  than 
in  East  Prussia.  It  is  divided  into  the  govern- 
ments of  Dantzic  and  Marienwerder.  The 
small  part  to  the  right  of  the  Vistula  is  fall  of 
lakes;  but  along  the  banks  of  that  river  the  soil 
is  fertile ;  in  other  parts  it  is  sandy  and  oarren. 
The  agricultural  products  are  similar  to  those 
of  East  Prussia ;  but  the  number  of  cattle  is 
larger.  Manufactui«s,  with  the  exception  of 
linen,  are  backward ;  but  this  province  contains 
the  well  known  commercial  towns  of  Dantzic 
and  Elbing,  and  possesses  in  the  Vistula  a  grand 
channel  of  communication  between  Poland  and 
the  sea. 


PRUSSIC,  Cyanic,  or  Htdroctanic,  Acid, 
in  chemistry,  was  first  discovered  in  the  pigment 
commonly  odled  Prussian  blue,  by  Bergman, 
and  first  obtained  separate  by  Scheele.  The 
compound  formed  by  this  acid  with  iron  was 
long  known  and  used  before  its  nature  was 
understood.  Slacquer  first  found  that  alkalies 
woukl  decompose  Prussian  Blue,  by  separating 
the  iron  from 'the  principle  with  which  it  was 
combined,  and  which  he  supposed  to  be  phlo-  ^ 
giston.  Hence  the  prussiate  ot  potash  was  long 
called  phlogisticated  alkali.  Bergman,  however, 
ranked  it  among  the  acids;  and,  as  early  as 
1772,  Sage  announced  that  this  animal  acid,  as 
be  called  it,  formed  with  the  alkalies  neutral 
salts.  About  the  same  time  Scheele  instituted  a 
aeries  of  experiments  to  obtain  the  acid  separate, 
and  to  ascertain  its  constituent  principIlBs. 
These,  according  to  him,  are  ammonia  and 
carbon;  and  Berthollet  showed  that  its  triple 
base  contiadns  hydrogen  and  azote,  nearly,  if  not 
precisely,  in  the  proportions  that  form  ammonia. 
Berthollet  could  find  no  oxygen  in  any  of  bis 
experiments  for  decomposing  Siis  acid. 

Scheele's  method  or  p.eparing  this  acid  is 
this:^Mix  four  ounces  of  Prussian  blue  ^th 
two  of  red  oxide  of  meicuiy  prepared  by  nitric 
acid,  and  boil  them  in  twelve  ounces  by  weight 
of  water,  till  the  whole  becomes  colorless;  then 
filter  and  add  to  it  one  ounce  of  clean  iron 
filings,  and  six  or  seven  drachms  of  sulphuric 
acid.  Draw  oflfby  distillation  about  a  fourth  of 
the  liquor,  which  will  be  prussic  acid,  contami- 
nated with  a  portion  of  sulphuric ;  to  render  it 
pure,  it  may  be  rectified  by  redistilling  it  from 
carbonate  of  lime. 

This  prussic  acid  has  a  strong  smell  of  peach 
blossoms,  or  bitter  almonds ;  its  taste  is  at  first 
sweetish,  thai  acrid,  hot,  and  virulent,  and  ex- 
cites coughing;  it  has  a  strong  tendency  to  as- 
sume the  form  of  gas ;  it  has  been  decomposed 
in  a  hisfa  temperature,  and  by  the  contact  of 
Vol,  XVIII 


light,  into  carbonic  acid,  ammonia,  and  carbu- 
retted  hydrogen.  It  does  not  completely  neu- 
tralise alkalies,  and  is  displaced  even  by  the 
carbonic  acid :  it  has  no  action  upon  metals,  but 
unites  with  their  oxides,  and  forms  salts  for  the 
most  part  insoluble  ;  it  likewise  unites  into 
triple  salts  with  these  oxides  and  alkalies. 

The  peculiar  smell  of  the  prussic  acid  could 
scarcely  fail  to  suggest  its  affinity  with  the  poison 
of  the  leaves  of  the  hiuro-cerasus ;  and  M.  Schrader 
of  Berlin  has  ascertained  the  fact,  that  these  do 
contain  a  principle  capable  of  forming  a  blue 
precipitate  with  iron ;  and  that  with  lime  they 
afTora  a  test  of  the  preseifte  of  iron  equal  to  the 
prussiate  of  that  earth-  Dr.  Bucholz  of  Wei- 
mar, and  Mr.  Roloff  of  Magdeburgn,  confirm 
this  fact.  The  prussic  acid  appears  to  come 
over  in  the  distilled  oil. 

The  following  communication  to  the  Royal 
Society,  by  Dr.  Madden,  of  Dublin,  contains 
the  first  proofs  of  the  deleteiAous  effects  of  this 
poison  upon  mankind : — *  A  very  extraordinary 
accident,^  says  the  Dr.,  *  has  discovered  to  us  a 
most  dangerous  poison,  which  was  never  before 
known  to  be  so,  though  it  has  been  in  frequent 
use  among  us.  This  is  a  simple  water,  distilled 
from  the  leaves  of  the  laaro-cerasus ;  the  water 
is  at  first  milky,  but  the  oil  ^hich  comes  over, 
being  in  a  good  measure  separated  from  the 
phlegm,  by  passing  it  through  a  flannel  bag,  it 
bect)mes  as  clear  as  common  water.  It  hap- 
pened that  a  servant,  who  live<l  with  a  person 
who  sold  great  quantities  of  this  water,  got  a 
bottle  of  it  from  her  mistress,  and  gave  it  to  a 
shopkeepeer  in  town,  who  she  thought  might 
oblige  her  customers  with  it  Accordingly,  in  a 
few  days,  she  gave  about  two  ounces  to  a  woman 
called  Mary  Whaley,  who  drank  about  two-  • 
thirds  and  went  away.  In  a  quarter  of  an  hour 
after  Mary  Whaley  had  drunk  the  water,  she 
complained  of  a  violent  disorder  in  her  stomach, 
soon  after  lost  her  speech,  and  died  in  about  an 

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PRUSSIC    ACID. 


houFi  without  vomitii^  or  puiging,  or  any  con- 
vulsion. The  shop-keeper  sent  word  to  her 
sistei  of  what  had  happened,  who  came  to  her 
upon  the  message,  and  af&nned  that  it  was  not 
possible  the  cordial  could  have  occasioned*  the 
death  of  the  woman ;  and,  to  convince  her  of  it, 
she  filled  out  about  three  ounces  and  drank  it.  She 
continued  talking,  about  two  minutes  longer, 
and  wa3  so  earnest  to  persuade  her  of  the 
liquor's  being  inoffensive,  that  she  drank  about 
two  spoonfuls  more,  but  was  hardly  seated  in 
her  chair  when  she  died  without  the  least  groan 
or  convulsion.  A  similar  instance,  fresh  in  the 
memory  of  every  one,  is  that  of  Mr.  Montgo- 
mery, who  took  one  ounce  and  a  half  of  this  acid 
in  Newgate,  the  night  previous  to  his  intended 
execution  for  forgery. 

The  following  is  the  method  usually  adopted 
by  M.  Vauquelin  to  obtain  this  acid  pure : — • 
To  a  quantity  of  powdered  Prussian  blue 
diffused  in  boiling  water,  let  red  nitric  oxide 
of  mercury  be  added  till  the  blue  color  is 
destroyed.  Filter  the  liquid,  and  concentrate 
by  evaporation  till  a  pellicle  appears.  On  cool- 
ing, crystals  of  prussiate  of  mercury  will  be 
formed.  Dry  these,  and  put  them  into  a  tubu- 
lated fflass  retort,  to  the  beak  of  which  is 
adapted  a  horizontal  tube  about  two  feet  long, 
and  half  an  mch  wide  at  its  middle  part.  The 
first  third  part  of  the  tube  next  the  retort  is  filled 
with  small  pieces  of  white  marble,  the  two  other 
thirds  with  fused  muriate  of  Hme.  To  the  end 
of  this  tube  is  adapted  a  small  receiver,  which 
should  be  artificially  refrigerated.  Pour  on  the 
crystals  muriatic  acid,  in  rather  less  quantity 
than  is  sufficient  to  saturate  the  oxide  of  mer- 
cury which  formed  them.  Apply  a  very  gentle 
heat  to  the  retort.  Prussic  acid,  named  kydrO' 
cyanic  by  M.  Gay  Lussac,  will  be  evolved  in 
vapor,  and  will  condense  in  the  tube.  What- 
ever muriatic  acid  may  pass  over  with  it  will  be 
abstracted  by  the  marble,  while  the  water  will 
be  absorbed  by  the  muriate  of  lime.  By  means 
of  a  moderate  heat  applied  to  the  tube,  the  prus- 
sic acid  maybe  made  to  pass  successively  along; 
and,  after  being  left  some  time  in  contact  with 
the  muriate  of  lime,  it  maybe  finally  driven  into 
the  receiver.  As  the  carbonic  acid  evolved  from 
marble  by  the  muriatic  is  apt  to  carry  off  some 
of  the  prussic  acid,  care  should  be  taken  to  con- 
duct the  heat  so  as  to  prevent  the  distillation  of 
this  mineral  acid. 

Prussic  acid  thus  obtained  has  the  following 
properties : — It  is  a  colorless  liquid,  possessing 
a  strong  odor;  and  the  exhalation,  if  incautious- 
ly snuffed  up  the  nostrils,  may  produce  sickness 
or  fainting.  Its  taste  is  coolmg  at  first^  then 
hot,  asthenic  in  a  high  degree,  and  it  is  a  most 
deadly  poison.  Its  specific  gravity  at  44^^  is 
0-7058;  at  64®  it  is  0*6969.  It  boils  at  81 1% 
and  congeals  at  about  3®.  It  then  crystallises 
regularly,  and  affects  sometimes  the  fibrous  form 
of  nitrate  of  ammonia.  The  cold  which  it  pro- 
duces, when  reduced  into  vapor,  even  at  the 
temperature  of  68®,  is  sufficient  to  congeal  it. 

M.  Gay  Lussac  analysed  this  acid  by  intro- 
ducing its  vapor  at  the  temperature  of  86®  into  a 
jar,  two-thiras  filled  with  oxygen,  over  warm 
mercury.    When  the  temperature  of  the  mer- 


cury was  reduced  to  that  of  the  surronndiiig 
atmosphere,  a  determinate  voluipe  of  the  gaseous 
mixture  was  taken  and  washed  in  a  solution  of 
potash,  which  abstracts  the  prussic  acid,  and 
leaves  the  oxygen.  A  known,  volume  was  intro- 
duced into  a  Volta's  eudiometer,  with  platina 
wires,  and  an  electric  spark  was  passed  across 
the  gaseous  mixture.  The  combustion  is  livdy, 
and  of  a  bluish-white  color.  A  white  prussic 
vapor  is  seen,  and  a  diminution  of  volume  takes 
place,  which  is  ascertained  by  measuring  the 
residue  in  a  graduated  tube.  This,  being  washed 
with  a  solution  of  potash  or  bastes,  suffers  a 
new  diminution  from  the  absorption  of  carbonic 
acid  eas  formed.  Lastly,  the  gas  whidi  the 
alkali  has  left  is  analysed  over  water  by  hydrogen, 
and  it  is  ascertainea  to  be  a  mixture  of  nitrogen 
and  oxygen. 

The  following  are  the  results  referred  to  pnis- 
*  sic  acid  vapor : — 

Vapor 100 

Diminution  ^fter  combustion       •        78*5 

Carbonic  acid  gas  produced         .  101*0 

Nitrogen 46*0 

Hydrogen  ....        55*0 

During  the  combustion  a  quantity  of  oxygen 
disappears,  equal  to  about  one  and  a  quarter  of 
the  vapor  employed. 

M.  Gay  Lussac  also  analysed  prussic  acid  by 
passing  its  vapor  through  an  ignited  porcelain 
tube  qontainmg  a  coil  o^  fine  iron  wire,  which 
facilitates  the  decomposition  of  tiiis  vapor,  as  it 
does  with  ammonia.  No  trace  of  oxyg^  could 
be  found  in  prussic  acid.  And  again,  by  trans- 
mitting the  acid  in  vapor  over  ienited  peroxide 
of  copper  in  a  porcoain  tube,  he  came  to  the 
,  same  conclusion  :~- 

One  volume  of  the  vapor  of  ca  bon^ 

Half  a  volume  of  hydrogen, 

Half  a  volume  of  nitrogen, 
condensed  into  one  volume;  or  la  weight. 
Carbon  .  .  .  44-39 

Nitrogen         .  .  .  51*71 

Hydrogen       .  .  '  .  3*90 

10000 

This  acid,  when  compared  with  the  odier 
animal  products,  is' distinguished  by  the  great 
quantity  of  nitrogen  it  contains,  by  its  small 
quantity  of  hydrogen,  and  especifldly  by  the 
absence  of  oxygen. 

When  this  acid  is  kept  in  weU-doaed  Tessels, 
even  though  no  air  be  present,  it  is  sometimes 
decomposed  in  less  than  an  hour ;  though  it  has 
been  occasionally  kept  for  fifteen  days  without 
alteration.  It  begins  by  assuming  a  reddish* 
brown  color,  wnidi  becomes  deeper  and  deeper, 
and  it  gradtudly  deposits  a  oonsider^le  carbona- 
ceous matter,  which  gives  a  deep  color  to  both 
water  and  acids,  and  emits  a  strone  smell  of 
ammonia.  If  the  bottle  oontainine  the  prussic 
acid  be  not  hermetically  sealed  noming  ronains 
but  a  diycharry  mass,  which  gives  no  color  to 
water.  Thus  a  prussiate  of  ammonia  is  formed 
at  the  expense  of  a  part  of  the  acid,  and  an 
azoturet  or  carbon.  When  potassium  is  heated 
in  prussic  add  vapor  mixed  with  hydrogen  or 


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PRUSSIC    ACID. 


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chrogcn,  ther^  h  absorption  without  inflamma- 
tion, aod  the  metal  is  converted  into  a  gray 
fpongy  snbstaoce,  which  melts,  and  assumes  a 
yellow  color. 

Supposing  the  quantity  of  potassium  employ- 
ed capable  of  disengaging  from  water  a  volume 
of  hyorogeD  equal  to  fifty  parts,  we  find  after  the 
action  of  the  potassium,  1.  That  the  gaseous 
miituK  has  experienced  a  diminution  of  volume 
afflounting  to  ^ftj  parts :  2.  On  treating  this 
miituie  with  potash,  and  analysing  the  residue 
by  oxygen,  that  fifW  parts  of  hydrogen  hare  been 
jffoduoed :  3.  And  consequently  that  the  potas- 
sium has  absorbed  100  parts  of  prussic  vapor; 
f>r  there  is  a  diminution  of  fifty  parts,  which 
%Duld  obviously  have  been  twice  as  great,  had 
not  fiiW  parts  of  hydrogen  been  disengaged. 
The  yeUow  matter  is  prussiate  of  potash ;  pro- 
Mly  a  pnuside  of  potassium,  analop^us  in  its 
fbnoatkm  to  the  enloride  and  iodide,  when 
muriatic  and  hydriodic  gases  are  made  to  act  on 
potassium. 

Hie  base  of  prussic  acid,  thus  dirested  of  its 
acidifying  hydrogen,  should  be  called,  agreeably 
to  the  same  chemical  analogy,  prussine.  M. 
Gay  Lussac  styles  it  cyanogen,  because  it  is  the 
principle  which  generates  blue. 

The  prusside  or  cyanide  of  potassium  gives  n 
veryalkalioe  solution  in  water,  even  when  a 
great  excess  of  hydrocyanic  vapor  has  been  pre- 
sent at  Hs  formation.  In  this  respect  it  differs 
from  the  chlorides  and  iodides  of  Uiat  metal, 
which  are  perfectly  neutral. 

On  subjectiiig  prussic  acid  to  the  action  of  a 
galvanic  batteiy,  much  hydrogen  is  disengaged 
at  the  negative  pole ;  and  prussine  or  (nr^mogen 
at  the  positive,  which  remains  dissolved  in  the 
add.  This  compound-  should  be  regarded  as  a 
hypopnissic  or  prussous  acid.  Since  potash  by 
heat  separates  the  hydrogen  of  the  prussic  acid, 
we  see  that  in  exposing  a  mixture  of  potash  and 
animal  matters  to  a  high  temperature,  a  true 
pnuside  or  oyanide  of  potash  is  obtained,  for- 
merly called  the  Prussian  or  phlogisticated  al- 
kali. MHien  pmsside  of  potassium  is  dissolved 
B  water,  prussiate  of  potash  is  produced,  which 
is  decomposed  by  the  acids  without  generating 
ammonia  or  carbonic  acid ;  but,  when  prusside 
of  potash  disserves  in  water,  no  change  takes 
phioe ;  and  neither  ammonia,  carbonic  acid,  nor 
Aydrocyanic  vapor  is  given  out,  unless  an  acid 
be  added.  These  are  the  characters  which  dis- 
tinguish a  metallic  prusside  or  cyanide  from  the 
cyamide  of  an  oxide. 

From  the  experiments  of  M.  fiia^ndie  it  ap- 
pears that  the  pure  prussic  acid  is  the  most 
violent  of  all  poisons.  When  a  rod  dipped  into 
it  is  brought  m  contact  with  the  tongue  of  an 
animal,  death  ensues  before  the  rod  can  be  with- 
drawn. If  a  bird  be  held  a  moment  over  the 
mouth  of  a  phial  containing  this  acid,  it  dies. 
A  French  professor  of  chemistry  left  by  acci- 
dent, on  a  table,  a  flask  containing  alcohol  im- 
pregnated with  prussic  acid;  the  servant,  en- 
ticed by  the  agreeable  flavor  of  the  liquid, 
swallowed  a  small  glass  of  it.  In  two  minutes 
shedropt  down  dead,  as  if  struck  with  apoplexy. 

'Scharinger,  a  professor  at  Vienna,*  says 
Orfila,  *  prepared  a  pure  and  concentrated  prus- 


;uc  acid ;  he  spread  a  certain  quantity  of  it  on 
his  naked  arm,  and  died  a  little  time  thereafter.' 

Dr.  Magendie  has,  however,  ventured  to  in- 
troduce its  employment  into  medicine.  He 
found  it  beneficial  against  phthisis  and  chronic 
catarrhs.    His  formula  is  the  following : — 

Mix  one  part  of  the  pure  prussic  or  hydrocyanic 
acid  of  M.  Gay  Lussac  with  eight  and  a  half  of 
water  by  weight.  To  this  mixture  he  gives  the 
name  of  medicinal  prussic  acid. 

Of  this  he  takes    1  gros.  or      69  gr.  Troy. 
Distilled  water      1  lb.     or  7560  gra. 
Pure  sugar  1|  ox.  or  708|  grs. 

And,  mixing  the  ingredients  well  together,  he 
administers  a  table-spoonful  every  morning  and 
evening.  A  well  written  report  or  the  use  of  the 
prussic  acid  in  certain  diseases,  by  Dr.  Magendie, 
was  communicated  by  Dr.  Granville  to  Mr. 
Brande,  and  is  inserted  in  the  fourth  volume  of 
the  Journal  of  Science. 

For  the  following  ingenious  and  accurate  pro- 
cess, for  preparing  prussic  acid  for  medicmal 
uses,  we  are  indebted  to  Dr.  Nimmo  of  Glas- 
gow:— 

'Take  of  the  ferroprussiate  of  pocasb  100 
grains,  of  the  protosulphate  of  iron  eighty-four 
grains  and  a  half;  dissolve  them  separately  in 
four  ounces  of  water,  and  mingle  them.  After 
allowing  the  precipitate  of  the  protoprussiate  of 
iron  to  settle,  pour  off  the  clear  part,  and  add 
water  to  wash  the  sulphate  of  potash  completely 
away.  To  the  protoprussiate  of  iron,  mixed 
with  four  ounces  of  pure  water,  add  135  grains 
of  the  peroxide  of  mercury,  and  boil  the  whole 
till  the  oxide  is  dissolved.  With  the  above  pro- 
portions of  peroxide  of  mercury,  the  protoprus- 
siate of  iron  is  completely  decomposed.  The 
vessel  being  kept  warm,  the  oxide  of  iron  will 
fell  to  the  lK>ttom ;  the  clear  part  may  be  poured 
off  to  be  filtered  through  paper,  taking  care  to 
keep  the  ftinnel  covert,  so  that  crystals  may 
not  form  in  it  by  reftigeration.  The  residuum 
may  be  treated  with  more  water,  and  thrown 
upon  the  filter,  upon  which  warm  water  ought 
to  be  poured,  until  all  the  soluble  part  is  washed 
away.  By  evaporation,  and  subsequent  rest  in 
a  cool  place,  145  grains  of  crystals  of  the  prus- 
side or  cyanide'  of  mercury  will  be  procured  in 
quadrangular  prisms. 

'The  following  is  a  new  process  for  obtaining 
the  prussic  acid  :^Take  of  the  prusside  of  mer- 
cuiy  in  fine  powder  one  ounce,  diffuse  it  in  two 
ounces  of  water,  and  to  it,  by  slow  degrees,  add 
a  solution  of  hydrosulphuret  of  barytes,  made 
by  decomposing  sulphate  of  baiytes  with  char- 
coal in  the  common  way.  Of  the  sulphuret  of 
barytes  take  an  ounce,  boil  it  with  six  ounces  of 
water,  and  filter  it  as  hot  as  possible.  Add  this 
in  small  portions  to  the  prusside  of  mercury, 
agitating  tne  whole  very  well,  and  allowing  suffi- 
cient time  for  the  prusside  to  dissolve;,  while  the 
decomposition  is  going  on  between  it  and  the 
hydrosulphuret  as  it  is  added.  Continue  the 
addition  of  the  hydrosulphuret>so  long  as  a  dark 
precipitate  of  sulphuret  of  mercury  rails  down, 
and  even  allowing  a  small  excess.  Let  the  whole 
be  thrown  upon  a  filter,  and  kept  warm  till  the 
fluid  drops  through ;  add  more  water  to  wash  the 

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PRUSSIC    ACID. 


sulphuret  of  mercury,  until  eight  ounces  of  fluid 
have  passed  through  the  filter,  and  it  has  become 
tasteless.  To  this  fluid,  which  contains  the 
prussiate  of  barytes,  with  a  small  excess  of  hy- 
drosulphuret  of  barytes,  add  sulphuric  acid,  di- 
luted with  an  equal  weight  of  wat^^r,  and  allowed 
to  become  cold,  so  long  as  sulV-  ale  of  barytes 
falls  dowD.  Tim  excess  of  sulphureted  hydro- 
gen will  be  removed  by  adding  a  sufficient  por- 
tion of  carbonate  of  lead,  and  agitating  very 
well.  The  whole  may  now  be  put  upon  a  filter, 
which  must  be  closely  covered ;  the  fluid  which 
passes  is  the  hydrocyanic  or  pnissic  acid,  of 
what  is  called  the  medical  standard  strength.' 

Dr.  Nimmo  finds  that  prussme  of  mercury  is 
capable  of  dissolving  the  mercurial  peroxide. 
Hence  the  above  proportions  must  be  strictly 
observed,  if  we  wish  to  obtain  this  powerful 
medicine  of  uniform  strength.  He  conceives, 
therefor^,  that  the  ferroprussiate  of  potash  should 
be  taken  for  the  basis  of  (he  calculation. 

Scheele  found  that  prussic  acid  occasioned 
precipitates  with  only  the  following  three  me- 
tallic solutions ;  nitrates  of  silver,  and  mercury, 
and  carbonate  of  silver.  The  first  is  white,  the 
second  black,  the  third  green,  becoming  blue. 

The  prussiates  or  hydrocyanates  are '  all  alka- 
line, even  when  a  great  excess  of  acid  .is  em- 
ployed in  their  formation ;  and  they  are  decom* 
posed  by  the  weakest  acids. 

The  hydrocyanate  of  ammonia  crystallises  in 
cubes,  in  small  prisms  crossing  each  other,  or  in 
feathery  crystals,  like  the  leaves  of  a  fern.  Its 
volatility  is  such  that  at  the  temperature  of  71  J'' 
it  is  capable  of  bearing  a  pressure  of  17*72 
inches  of  mercury ;  and  at  97°  its  elasticity  is 
equal  to  that  of  the  atmosphere.  Its  great  vola- 
tility prevented  M.  Gay  Lussac  from  determin- 
ing the  proportion  of  its  constituents.  M.  Gay 
Lussac  considers  Prussian  blue  as  a  bydrated 
prusside  of  iron,  or  a  cyanide  having  water  in 
combination  ;  and  M.  Vauquelin,  in  a  memoir 
lately  read  before  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  re- 
gards Prussian  blue  as  a  simple  hydrocyanate  of 
iron.  He  finds  that  water  impregnated  with 
prussine  can  dissolve  iron  without  changing  it 
mto  Prussian  blue,  and  without  the  disengs^- 
ment  of  any  hydrogen  gas,  while  Prussian  blue 
was  left  in  the  undissolved  portion.  But  prussic 
acid  converts  iron  or  its  oxid^  into  Prussian  blue 
without  the  help  either  of  alkalis  or  acids.  He 
farther  lays  it  down  as  a  general  rule,  that  those 
metals  which,  like  iron,  decompose  water  at  the 
ordinary  temperature  of  the  atmosphere,  form  hy- 
drocyanates ;  and  that  those  metals  which  do  not 
'  possess  this  power,  as  silver  and*  quicksilver,  form 
only  cyanides. 

rrussic  acid  is  easily  separated  from  potash 
by  carbonic  acid,  but,  when  oxide  of  iron  is 
added  to  the  compound,  a  triple  salt  is  formed, 
usually  called  ferroprussiate  of  potash.  The  me- 
thod of  preparing  tnis  salt  practised  by  Klaproth 
is  one*  of  the  best.  It  is  as  follows  : — Prepare 
pure  potass,  by  gradually  projecting  into  a  large 
crucible,  heated  to  whiteness,  a  mixture  of  equal 
parts  of  purified  nitre  and  crystals  of  tartar; 
when  the  whole  is  injected,  let  it  be  kept  at  a 
white  heat  for  half  an  hour,  to  bum  off  the 
coal.    Detach  the  alkali  thus  obtained  from  the 


crucible,  reduce  it  to  powder,  spread  it  on  a 
mufBe,  and  expose  it  to  a  white  heat  for  half  an 
hour.  Dissolve  it  in  six  times  its  weight  of 
water,  and  filter  the  solution  while  warm.  Pour 
this  solution  into  a  glass  receiver,  placed  in  a  sand 
furnace,  heated  to  170°  or  180°,  and  then  gradually 
add  the  best  Prussian  blue  in  powder,  injecting 
new  portions  of  it  as  the  former  becomes  gray, 
and  supplying  water  as  fast  as  it  evaporates; 
continue, until  the  added  portions  are  no  longer 
discolored ;  th^n  increase  the  heat  to  212°,  and 
continue  for  half  an  hour.  Filter  the  ley  thus 
obtained,  and  samrate  it  with  sulphuric  acid  mo- 
derately diluted;  a  precipitate  will  appear: 
when  this  ceases,  filter  off  the  whole,  and  wash 
the  precipitate.  Evaporate  the  filtered  liquor  to 
about  one  quartei;  and  set  it  by  to  crystedlise : 
after  a  'few  days,  yellowi.sh  crystals  of  a  cubic  or 
quadrangular  form  will  be  found  mixed  with 
some  sulphate  ot  potass  and  oxide  of  iron ;  pick 
out  the  yellowish  crystals,  lay  tliem  on  blotting 
paper,  and  redissolve  them  in  four  times  their 
weight  of  cold  water,  to  exclude  the  sulphate  of 
potass.  Essay  a  few  drops  of  this  solution  with 
a  solution  of  barytes,  to  see  whether  it  contains 
any  sulphuric  acid :  filter  off  the  solution  from 
.  the  sulphat  of  barytes,  which  will  have  precipi- 
tated, and  set  it  by  to  crystallise  for  a  few  days, 
that  the  barytes,  if  any  should  remain,  may  be 
precipitated.  If  the  crystals  now  obtained  be 
of  a  pale  yellow  color,  and  disco>er  no  bluish 
streaks,  wheu  sprinkled  over  with  muriatic  acid, 
they  are  fit  for  use,  and  should  be  kept  in  a  well 
stopped  bottle,  which,  to  preserve  them  from  the 
air,  should  be  filled  with  alcohol,  as  they  are 
insoluble  in  it. 

M.  Gay  Lussac  prepared  a  hydrocyanate  of 
potash  and  silver,  which  ^as  quite  neutral,  and 
which  crystallised  in  hexagonal  plates.  The  so- 
lution of  these  crystals,  precipitates  salts  of  iron 
and  copper,  white.  Muriate  of  ammonia  does 
not  render  it  turbid ;  but  muriatic  acid,  by  dis- 
engaging hydrocyanic  acid,  precipitates  chloride 
of  silver.  Sulphureted  hydrogen  produces  in  it 
an  analogous  change.  This  compound,  says  M. 
Gay  Lussac,  is  evidently  the  triple  prussiate  of 
potash  and  silver ;  and  its  formation  ought  to  be 
analogous  to  that  of  the  other  triple  hydrocyan- 
ates, '  And  as  we  cannot  doubt,*  adds  he, '  that 
hydrocyanate  of  potash  and  silver  is  in  reality, 
firom  the  mode  ot  its  formation,  a  compound  of 
cyanide  of  silver  and  hydrocyanate  of  potash,  I 
conceive  that  the  hydrocyanate  of  potash  and 
iron  is  likewise  a  compound  of  neutral  hydro- 
cyanate of  potash,  and  subcyanide  of  iron,  which 
I  believe  to  be  combined  with  hydrocyanic  acid 
in  the  white  precipitate.  We  may  obtain  it  per- 
fectly neutral,  ana  then  it  does  not  decompose 
alum ;  but  the  hydrocyanate  of  potash,  which  is 
always  alkaline,  produces  in  it  a  light  and  fioc- 
culent  precipitate  of  alumina.  To  the  same  ex- 
cess •f  alkali  we  must  ascribe  the  ochry  color  of 
the  precipitates  which  hydrocyanate  of  potash< 
forms  with  the  persalts  of  iron.' 

M.  Vauquelm  has  given  the  following  very 
elegant  process  for  obtaining  pure  hydrocyanic 
or  prussic  acid,  from  the  cyanide  or  prusside  of 
mercury  :-^ 

Considering  that  mercury  has  a  strong  attrac- 


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229 


tion  for  sulphur,  and  that  prussine  unites  easily 
to  hTdrogen,  when  present^  in  the  proper  state, 
he  thought  that  sulphureted  hydrogen  might  be ' 
employed  for  decon^posing  dry  cyanide  (prusside) 
of  mercaty.  He  operated  in  the  following  way: 
—He  made  a  current  of  sulphureted  hydrogen 
gas,  disengs^ed  slowly  from  a  mixture  of  sul- 
phuret  of  iron,  and  very  dilute  sulphuric  acid, 
pass  slowly  through  a  glass  tube  slightly  heated, 
filled  with  the  mercurial  prusside,  and  commu- 
cating  with  a  receiver,  cooled  by  a  mixture  of 
salt  and  snow. 

As  soon  as  the  sulphureted  hydrogen  came  in 
contact  with  the  mercurial  salt,  this  last  substance 
blackened,  and  this  effect  gradually  extended  to 
the  farthest  extremity  of  the  apparatus.  During 
this  time  no  trace  of  sulpnureted  hydrogen 
could  be  perceived  at  the  mouth  of  a  tube  pro- 
ceeding from  the  receiver.  As  soon  as  the  odor 
of  this  gas  began  to  be  perceived,  the  process 
was  stopped ;  and  the  tube  was  heated  in  order 
(0  drive  over  the  acid  which  might  still  remain 
in  it  The  apparatus  being  unluted,  he  found 
in  the  receiver  a  colorless  fluid,  which  possessed 
all  the  known  properties  of  prussic  acid.  It 
amounted  to  nearly  the  fifth  part  of  the  prusside 
"  of  mercury  employed. 

This  process  is  easier,  and  furnishes  more 
acid,  than  M.  Gay  Lussac's,  by  means  of  mu* 
riatic  acid.  He  repeated  it  several  times,  and 
always  successfully.  It  is  necessary  merely  to  take 
care  to  stop  the  process  before  the  odor  of  the  sul- 
phureted hydrogen  begins  to  be  perceived,  other- 
wise the  hydrocyanic  acid  will  be  mixed  with  it. 
However,  we  may  avoid  this  inconvenience  by 
placing  a  little  carbonate  of  lead  at  the  extremity 
of  the  tube.  As  absolute  hydrocyanic  acid  is 
required  only  for  chemical  researches,  and  as  it 
cannot  be  employed  in  medicine,  it  may  be 
worth  while,  says  M.  Vauquelin,  to  bring  to  the 
recollection  of  apothecaries  a  process  of  M. 
Proust,  which  has  perhaps  escapied  their  atten- 
tion. It  consists  in  passing  a  current  of  sul- 
phureted hydrogen  gas  through  a  cold  saturated 
solution  of  prussiate  of  mercury  in  water,  till 
the  liquid  contains  an  excess  of  it ;  to  put  the 
mixture  into  a  bottle,  in  order  to  agitate  it  firom 
time  to  time ;  and  finally,  to  filter  it. 

If  this  prussic  acid,  as  almost  always  happens, 
contains  traces  of  sulphureted  hydrogen,  agitate 
it  with  a  little  carbonate  of  lead,  and  filter  it 
again.  By  this  process  we  may  obtain  hydro- 
cyanic acid  in  a  much  greater  degree  of  con- 
centration than  is  necessary  for  medkine.  It 
has  the  advantage  over  the  dry  prussic  acid,  of 
being  capable  of  being  preserved  a  long  time, 
always  taking  care  to  keep  it  as  much  as  possible 
from  the  contact  of  air  and  heat.  Dr.  Nimmo's 
directions  for  preparing  the  prusside  of  mercury 
ought  to  be  attended  to. 

PRUSSINE,  or  Prussic  Gas,  in  chemistry, 
the  cyanogen  of  M .  Gay  Lussac,  is  a  peculiar 
gas  obtained  by  decomposing  prusside  of  mer- 
cury by  heat.  The  term  cyanogen  signifies  the 
produce  of  blue ;  but  as  the  pr^uction  of  blue 
IS  never  the  result  of  the  direct  action  of  this 
substance  on  any  other  single  body,  but  au  in- 
direct and  unexplained  operation  of  it  in  con- 
junction  with  iron,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen,  the 


same  reason  which  leads  to  the  term  cyanogen, 
would  warrant  us  in  calling  it  leucogen,  erythro- 
gen,  or  chlorogen ;  for  it  produces,  white,  red, 
or  green,  with  other  metals,  as  it  produces  blue 
vnth  iron. 

By  digesting  red  oxide  of  mercury  with  Prus- 
sian blue  and  hot  water,  we  obtain  a  prusside 
perfectly  neutral,  which  crystallises  in  long  four- 
sided  prisms,  truncated  obliquely.  By  repeated 
solutions  and  crystallisations,  we  may  free  it  from 
a  small  portion  of  adhering  iron.  But  M.  Gay 
Lussac  prefers  boiling  it  with  red  oxide  of  mer- 
cury, which  completely  precipitates  the  oxide  6f 
iron,  and  he  then  saturates  the  excess  of  oxide 
of  mercury  with  a  little  prussic  acid,  or  a  little 
muriatic  acid.  The  prusside  thus  formed  is  de- 
composed by  heat  to  obtain  the  radical.  For 
common  experiments  we  may  dispense  witli 
these  precautions. 

When  this  cyanide  is  boiled,  vnth  red  oxide  of 
mercury,  it  dissolves  a  considerable  quantity  of 
the  oxide,  becomes  alkaline,  crystallises  no  longer 
in  prisms,  but  in  small  scales,  and  its  solubility 
in  water  appears  a  little  increased.  When  eva- 
porated to  dryness,  it  is  veiy  easily  charred, 
which  obliges  us  to  employ  a  water  bath.  This 
compound  was  observed  by  M.  Proust.  When 
decomposed  by  heat,  it  gives  abundance  of  prus- 
sine, but  mixed  with  carbonic  acid  gas.  Proust 
says  that  it  yields  ammonia,  oil  in  considerable 
abundance,  carbonic  acid,  azote,  and  oxide  of 
carbon.  He  employed  a  moist  prusside.  Had 
it  been  dry,  the  discovery  of  prussine  could 
hardly  have  escaped  him.  The  prusside  of  mer- 
cury, when  neutral  and  quite  dry,  gives  nothing 
but  prussine ;  when  moist,  it  furnishes  only  car- 
bonic acid,  ammonia,  and  a  great  deal  of  prussic 
acid  vapor.  When  we  employ  the  prusside  made 
with  excess  of  peroxide,  the  same  products  are 
obtained,  but  in  different  proportions,  along  with 
azote,  and  a  brown  liquid,  which  Proust  took  for 
an  oil,  though  it  is  not  one  in  reality.  Hence, 
to  obtain  pure  prussine,  we  must  employ  the 
neutral  prusside  in  a  state  of  perfect  dryness. 
The  other  mercurial  compound  is  not,  however, 
simply  a  sub-prusside.  It  is  a  comoound  of 
oxiae  of  mercury  and  the  prusside. 

When  the  simple  mercurial  prusside  is  ex- 
posed to  heat  in  a  small  glass  retort,  or  tube, 
shut  at  one  extremity,  it  soon  begins  to  blacken. 
It  appears  to  melt  like  an  animal  matter,  and 
then  the  prussine  is  disengaged  in  abundance. 
This  gas  is  pure  from  the  beginning  of  the  pro- 
cess to,  the  end,  provided  always  that  the  neat 
be  not  very  high ;  for,  if  it  were  sufficiently  in- 
tense to  melt  the  glass,  a  little  azote  would  be 
evolved.  Mercury  is  volatilised  with  a  consi- 
derable quantity  of  prusside,  and  there  remains 
a  charry  matter  of  the  color  of  soot,  and  as  light 
as  lampblack.  The  prusside  of  silver  gives  out 
likewise  prussine  when  heated ;  but  the  mercu- 
rial prusside  is  preferable  to  every  other. 

Prussine  or  cyanogen  is  a  permanently  elastic 
fluid.  Its  smell,  Irvhich  it  is  impossible  to  de- 
scribe, is  very  strong  and  penetrating.  Its  solu- 
tion in  water  has  a  very  sharp  taste.  The  gas 
bums  with  a  bluish  flame  mixed  with  purple. 
Its  specific  gravity,  compared  to  that  of  air,  is 
1*8064.    M.  Gay  Lussac  obtained  it  by  weigh- 

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ing  at  Um  same  temperatore,  and  under  the  name 
pressure,  a  balloon  of  about  two  litres  and  a 
half  (152*56  cubic  inches),  in  which  the  vacuum 
was  made  to  the  same  degree,  and  alternately 
full  of  air  and  prussine.  100  cubic  inches  weigh 
therefore  55*1295  grains. 

Prussine  is  capable  of  sustaining  a  pretty  high 
heat,  without  being  decomposed.  Water,  with 
which  M.  Gay  Lussac  agitated  it  for  some  mi- 
nutes, at  the  temperature  of  68%  absorbed  about 
four  times  and  a  naif  its  volume.  Pure  alcohol 
absorbs  twenty-three  times  its  volume.  Sul« 
phuric  ether  and  oil  of  turpentine  dissolve  at 
least  as  much  as  water.  Tincture  of  litmus  is 
reddened  by  prussine.  On  heating  the  solution 
the  gas  is  disengaged,  mixed  with  a  little  car- 
bonic acid,  and  the  blue  color  of  the  litmus  is 
restored.  The  carbonic  acid  proceeds  no  doubt 
from  the  decomposition  of  a  small  quantity  of 
prussine  and  water.  It  deprives  the  red  sulphate 
of  manganese  t>f  its  color,  a  property  which 
prussic  acid  does  not  possess..  This  is  a  proof 
that  its- elements  have  more  mobility  than  those 
of  the  acid.  In  the  dry  way  it  separates  the 
carbonic  acid  from  the  carbonates. 

Phosphorus,  sulphur,  and  iodine,  may  be 
sublime!  by  the  heat  of  a  spirit-lamp  in  prus- 
sine, without  occasioning  any  change  on  it.  Its 
mixture  with  hydrogen  was  not  altered  by  the 
same  temperature,  or  bypassing  electrical  sparks 
through  it.  Copper  and  gold  do  not  combine 
with  it ;  but  iron,  when  h^ted  almost  to  white- 
ness, decomposes  it  in  part.  The  metal  is  co- 
vered with  a  slight  coating  of  charcoal,  and  be- 
comes brittle.  The  undecomposed  portion  of 
the  gas  is  mixed  with  azote  (contains  nee  azote). 
In  one  trial  the  azote  constituted  0*44  of  the 
mixture,  but  in  general  it  was  less.  Platinum, 
which  had  been  pkiced  beside  the  iron,  did  not 
undergo  any  alteration.  Neither  its  surfiice,  nor 
that  c^the  tube,  was  covered  with  charcoal  like- 
the  iron. 

In  the  cold,  potassium  acta  but  slowly  on 
prussine,  because  a  crust  is  formed  on  its  sur- 
face, which  presents  an  obstacle  to  the  mutual 
action.  On  applying  the  spirit-lamp,  the  potas- 
sium becomes  speedily  incandescent ;  the  aosorp* 
tion  of  the  gas  begins,  the  inflamed  disc  gradually 
diminishes,  and  when  it  disappears  entirely, 
which  takes  phice  in  a  few  secouds.  the  absorp- 
tion is  Uk'ewibeat  an  end.  Supposing  we  employ 
a  quantity  of  potassium  that  would  disengage 
fifty  parts  of  hydrogen  from  water,  we  find  that 
from  forty-eight  to  fifty  parts  of  gas  have  disap- 
peared. On  treating  the  residue  with  potasn, 
there  usually  remains  four  or  five  parts  of  hy- 
drogen, sometimes  ten  or  twelve.  M.  Gay 
Lui»ac  made  a  great  number  of  experiments  to 
discover  the  origin  of  this  gas.  He  thinks  that 
it  is  derived  from  the  water  which  the  prusside 
of  mercury  contains  when  it  has  not  been  suf- 
ficiently dried.  Prussio  acid  vapor  is  then  pro- 
duced, whidi,  when  decomposed  by  the  potas* 
slum,  leaves  half  its  volume  of,  hydrogen.  Po- 
tassium, therefore,  absorbs  a  volume  of  pure 
prussine,  equal  to  that  of  the  hydrogen  which  it 
would  disengage  from  water. 

The  compound  of  prussine  and  potassium  is 
yellowish.    It  dissolves  in  water  without  cff"er- 


vescence,  and  the  solution  is  strongly  alkaline. 
Its  taste  is  the  same  as  that  of  hydrocyanate  or 
simple  prussiate  of  potash,  of  which  it  posteeses 
all  the  properties. 

The  gas  beift^  very  inflammable^  M.  Gay  Lus- 
sac exploded  ft  m  Volta's  eudiometer,  with  about 
twice  and  a  half  its  volume  of  oxygen.  The  de- 
tonation is  very  strong;  and  the  flame  is  bluish, 
like  that  of  sulphur  burning  in  oxygen. 

It  is  now  obvious  that  the  action  of  potassium 
on  prussine  agrees  with  its  action  on  prussic  acid. 
We  have  seen  that  it  absorbs  fifty  parts  of  the 
fisst,  and  likewise  that  it  absorbs  100  parts  of 
the  second,  from  which  it  separates  fifty  parts 
of  hydrogen.  But  100  parts  of  prussic  acid 
vapor,  minus  fifty  parts  of  hydrogen,  amount 
exactly  to  fifty  parts  prussine.  Hence  the  two 
results  agree  perfectly,  and  the  two  compounds 
obtained  ought  to  be  identical,  which  agrees  pre^ 
cisely  with  experiment 

The  analysis  of  prussine  being  of  great  im- 
portance, M.  Gay  Lussac  attempted  it  likewise 
by  other  methods.  Having  put  prusside  of  mer- 
cury into  the  bottom  of  a  glass  tube,  he  covered 
it  with  brown  oxide  of  copper,  and  then  raised 
the  heat  to  a  dull  red.  6n  heating  gradually 
the  part'of  the  tube  containing  the  prusside,  thie 
prussine  was  gradually  disengaged,  and  passed 
through  the  oxide,  which  it  reduced  completely 
to  the  metallic  state.  On  washing  the  gaseous 
products  with  aqueous  potash^  at  difierent  parts 
of  the  process,  he  obtained  only  from  0*19  to 
0*30  of  azote,  instead  of  0*33,  which  ought  to 
have  remained  according  to  the  preceding  ana- 
lysis. Presuming  that  some  nitrous  compound 
had  been  formed,  he  repeated  the  expenment, 
covering  the  oxide  with  a  column  of  copper 
filings,  which  he  kept  at  the  same  temperature 
as  the  oxide.  With  this  new  arranpement,  the 
results  were  veiy  singular;  for  me  smallest 
quantity  of  azote  which  he  obtained  during  the 
whole  course  of  the  experiment  was  32*7  for  100 
of  gas,  and  the  greatest  was  34*4.  Thesieanof 
all  the  trials  was,— 

Azote    ....  33*6  or  nearly  1 

Carbonic  acid     .  66*4  3 

A  result  which  shows  clearly  that  pmssine  ooih 

tains  two  volumes  of  the  vapor  of  carbon,  and 

one  volume  of  azote. 

In  another  experiment,  instead  of  passing  the 
prussine  through  the  oxide  of  copper,  he  nuule  a 
mixture  of  one  part  of  the  piussiae  of  mercury, 
end  ten  parts  of  the  red  oxide,  and  after  intro- 
dudi^  it  into  a  glass  tube,  close  at  one  end,  he 
covered  it  with  copper  filing  which  he  raised 
first  to  a  red  heat.  On  heatmg  the  mixture  suo- 
cessively,  the  decomposition  went  on  With  the 
greatest  fiicility.  The  proportions  of  the  gaseoul 
mixture  were  less  regular  than  in  the  preceding 
experiment.    Their  mean  was,-^ 

Azote    .     .    .    .  34*6  instead  of  33*3 
Carbonic  add     *  65*4  66*6 

In  another  experiment  he  obtained, — 

Azote 32*2 

Carbonic  acid  .    .    .    67*6 
Now  the  mean  of  these  results  gives, — 

Azote 33*'4 

Carbonic  acid  .    .    .    66*6 


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231 


!fo  sensible  quantity  of  water  seemed  to  be 
formed  during  these  flmalyses.  Thil  shows  further 
that  what  has  been  called  a  prussiate  of  mercuiy 
is  really  a  pnisside  of  that  metal. 

When  a  pure  solution  of  potash  is  introduced 
mto  this  gas,  the  absorption  is  rapid.  If  the  al- 
kali be  not  too  concentrated,  and  be  not  quite 
saturated,  it  is  scarcely  tinged  of  a  lemon-yellow 
color.  But,  if  the  prussine  be  in  excess,  we  ob- 
tain a  brown  solution,  apparently  carbonaceous. 
On  pouring  potash  combined  with  prussine 
into  a  saline  solution  of  black  oxide  of  iron,  and 
adding  sxk  add,  we  obtain  prussian  blue.  It 
would  appear  from  this  phenomenon  that  the 
nrassine  is  decomposed  the  instant  that  it  com- 
Dines  with  the  potash :  but  this  conclusion  is 
premature;  for,  when  this  body  is  really  decom- 
posed  by  means  of  an  alkaline  solution,  carbonic 
add  is  always  produced,  together  wiUi  prussic 
add  and  ammonia.  But  on  pouring  barytes  into 
a  solution  of  prussine  in  potash,  no  precipitate 
takes  jdace,  which  shows  that  no  carbonic  acid  gas 
is  present  On  adding  an  excess  of  quicklime, 
no  trace  of  ammonia  is  perceptible.  Since,  then, 
DO  carbonic  acid  and  ammonia  have  been  formed, 
water  has  ^not  been  decomposed,  and  conse- 
quently no^  pnissic  acid  evolved.  How  then 
comes  the  solution  of  prussine  in  potash  to  pro- 
duce prussian  blue,  with  a  solution  of  iron  and 
add?  The  following  is  M.  Gay  Lussac's' inge- 
nious solution  of  this  difficulty  :^ 

The  instant  an  acid  is  poured  into  the  solu- 
tion of  prussine  in  potash,  a  strong  effisrvescence 
of  carbonic  acid  is  produced,  and  at  the  same 
time  a  strong  smell  of  prussic  acid  becomes  per- 
ceptible, ioninonia  is  likewise  formed,  which' 
remains  combined  with  the  add  employed,  and 
which  may  b«  rendered  very  sensible  to  the 
smell  by  the  addition  of  quicklime.  Since, 
therefore,  we  are  obliged  to  add  an  acid  in 
•rder  to  form  prussian  blue,  its  formation  oo« 
casions  no  &rther  difficulty. 

Pmssine  rapidly  decomposes  the  carbonates 
at  a  dull  red  nevt,  and  prussides  of  the  oxides 
are  obtained.  When  passed  through  sulphuret 
of  baiytes,  it  combines  widiout  disengaging  the 
sulphur,  and  renders  it  very  fusible,  and  of  a 
brownish  black  color.  When  put  into  water  we . 
obtain  a  colorless  solution,  but  which  gives  a  deep 
brown  (maroon)  color  to  muriate  of  iron.  Wliat 
does  not  dissolve  contains  a  good  deal  of  sul- 
phate, which  is  doubtless  formed  during  the 
preparation  of  the  sulphuret  of  barytes. 

On  dissolving  prussine  in  the  sulphureted 
hydrosulphniet  or  barytes,  sulphur  is  precipi- 
tated, which  IS  agai»  dissolved  when  the  liquid 
is  saturated  with  prussine,  and  we  obtain  a  so- 
lution having  a  very  deep  brown  maroon  color. 
This  ffas  does  not  decompose  sulphuret  of  silver, 
nor  of  potash. 

Prussine  and  sulphureted  hydrogen  combine 
slowly  with  each  other.  A  yellow  substance  is 
obtained  in  fine  needles,  which  dissolves  in  water, 
does  not  predpitate  nitrate  of  lead,  produces  no 
prussian  olne,  and  is  composed  of  one  volume 
prussine  (cyanogen)^  and  one  volume  and  a  half 
of  sulphureted  hydrogen.* 

Ammoniacal  gas  and  prussine  begin  to  act  on 
each  other  whenever  they  come  in  contact ;  but 


some  hours  are  requisite  to  render  the  effect 
complete.  We  perceive  at  first  a  white  thick 
vapor,  which  soon  disappears.  The  diminution 
of  volume  is  considerable,  and  the  glass  in  which 
the  mixture  is  made  becomes  opaque,  its  inside 
being  covered,  with  a  solid  brown  matter.  On 
mixing  ninety  parts  of  prussine,  and  227  ammo- 
nia, £ey  combined  nearly  in  the  proportion  of 
one  to  onte  and  a  half.  This  compound  gives  a 
dark  orange-brown  color  to  water,  but  dissolves 
only  in  a  very  small  proportion.  The  liquid 
produces  no  prussian  blue  with  the  salts  of  iron. 

When  pnrssic  acid  is  exposed  to  the  action 
ot  a  voltaic  battery  of  twenty  pairs  of  plates, 
much  hydrogen  cas  is  disengagea  at  the  negative 
pole,  while  nothing  appears  at  the  positive  pole. 
It  is  because  there  is  evolved  at  that  pole  prus- 
sine, which  remains  dissolved  in  the  add. 

A  portion  of  pure  cyanide  of  mercury  was 
beaten  by  Faraday  fill  perfectly  dry,  and  then 
enclosed  in  a  green  glass  tube,  and,  being  col- 
lected  to  one  end,  was  decomposed  by  heat, 
whilst  the  other  end  was  cooled.  The  cyanogen 
soon  appeared  as  a  licjuid,  limpid,  colorless,  and 
very  fltiid ;  not  altering  its  stSite  at  0**  Fahr.  A 
tub^e  containing  it  being  opened  in  the  air,  tiie 
expansion  within  did  not  seem  to  be  very  great ; 
anq  the  liquid  passed  with  comparative  slow- 
ness into  fhe  state  of  vapor,  producing  great 
cold.  The  vapor  collected  over  mercury  proved 
to  be  pure  cyanogen.  Liquid  cyanogen,  evolved 
in  contact  with  moisture,  does  not  mix  with  the 
water,  but  floats  over  it  In  a  few  days  the 
water  and  cyanogen  react  on  each  other,  and 
carbonaceous  matter  is  evolved.  Faraday,  Phil. 
Trans.  1823. 

In  the  first  volume  of  the  Journal  of  Sdence 
and  the  Arts,  Sir  H.  Davy  has  stated  some  inte- 
resting particulars  relative  to  prussine.  By 
heating  pnisside  of  mercuiy  in  muriatic  acid 
gas,  he  obtained  pure  liquid  prussic  acid,  and 
corrosive  sublimate.  By  heating  iodine,  sulphur, 
and  phosphorus,  in  contact  with  pnissiae  of 
inercury,  compounds  of  these  bodies  with  prus- 
sine or  cyanogen  may  be  formed.  That  of  io** 
dine  is  a  very  curious  body.  It  is  voktsle  at  a 
very  moderate  heat,  and  on  cooling  collects  in 
flocculi,  adhering  together  like  oxide  of  zinc 
formed  by  combustion.  It  has  a  pungent  smell, 
and  very  acrid  taste. 

PRUTH,  a  considerable  river  of  Europe, 
which  rises  in  the  palatinate  of  Marmarosch, 
Hungary,  and  forms  the  boundary  between  the 
Russian  and  Turkish  dominions  in  Moldavia, 
falling  into  the  Danube  below  Galatz.  .  It  is  re- 
maikable  for  the  perilous  situation  of  the  Rus- 
sian army  under  Peter  I.  in  1712,  from  which 
it  was  extricated  by  a  treaty  with  the  Turkish 
vizier. 

PRT,  V.  n.  Perhaps  of  Span,  perqjar,  to  ob- 
serve. To  peep  nanowly;  inspect  curiously  or 
impertinently. 

He  that  pritftA  in  at  her  windows,  shall  also  heiikMi 
at  her  doors.  Eccfut.  xiv.  91^ 

I  can  Goanterlett  the  deep  tragedian, 

Speak,  and  look  back,  and  pry  on  every  side, 

Intending  deep  suspicion. 

Shakipeon.  RUshmrd  Ifl. 
Nor  need  we  with  a  prying  w  survey 

The  distant  skies  to  find  the  milky  way.    CruA, 

Digitized  by  VjUUy  It: 


PRZ 


232 


PSA 


I  waked,  and,  lookiaf  round  the  bowV, 
Searched  ev*ry  tree,  and  pry*d  on  every  flow'r. 
If  any  where  by  chance  I  might  espy 
The  raral  poet  of  the  melody.  Dryden, 

We  have  naturally  a  curiosity  to  be  prying  and 
searching  into  forbidden  secrets.  L'Bttrangt. 

AH  these  I  frankly  own  without  denying  ; 
But  where  has  this  Praxiteles  been  pryti^  ? 

Additon. 
PRYNNE  (William),  an  English  lawyer,  who 
greatly  distinguished  himself  in  the  civil  com- 
motions under  Charles  I.,  was  bom  at  Swains- 
wick,  in  Somersetshire,  in  1600.  His  Ilistrio- 
mastix,  written  against  stage  plays  in  1632,  con- 
taining some  reflections  that  offended  the  court, 
he  was  sentenced  by  the  star-chamber  to  pay  a 
fine  of  £5000,  to  stand  in  the  pillory,  to  lose 
his  ears,  and  to  perpetual  imprisonment  Dur- 
ing his  confinement,  he  wrote  several  more 
books;  particularly,  in  1637, one  entitled  News 
from  Ipswich,  which  reflecting  severely  on  the 
bishops,  he  was  again  sentenced  by  the  8ta> 
chamoer  to  another  fine  of  £5000,  to  lose  the 
remainder  of  his  ears  in  the  pillory,  to  be  brand- 
ed on  both  cheeks  with  S:  L.  for  seditious  libel- 
ler, and  to  be  perpetually  imprisoned  in  Caernar- 
von castle.  Notning  however  could  intimidate 
the  stubborn  spirit  of  Prynne,  he  continued  to 
write,  and  in  1640,  being  set  at  liberty  by  the 
house  of  commons,  he  entered  London  in  a  kind 
of  triumph,  was  elected  into  parliament  for 
Newport  m  Cornwall,  and  opposed'  the  bishops 
with  great  vigor,  being  the  chief  manager  of 
archbishop  Laud's  trial.  In  the  long  parliament 
he  was  zealous  in  the  Presbyterian  cause ;  but, 
when  the  Independents  gained  the  ascendancy, 
he  opposed  them  warmly,  and  promoted  an 
agreement  with  the  king.  When  the  army  di- 
vided the  house,  and  refused  him  entrance,  he 
became  a  bitter  enemy  to  them  and  their  leader 
Cromwell,  and  attacked  them  with  his  pen  so 
severely  that  he  was  again  imprisoned :  but  he 
pleaded  the  liberty  of  the  subject  so  successfully 
that  he  was  enlarged.  Being  restored  to  his 
seat  after  Cromwell's  death,  with  the  other  se- 
cluded members,  he  assisted  in  promoting  the 
restoration,  aod  was  appointed  keeper  of  the 
Tower  records ;  where  he  was  very  useful  by 
the  collections  he  published  from  them.  He 
presented  forty  volumes  of  his  works,  in  folio 
and  4to.,  to  Lincoln's  Inn  library,  of  which  so- 
ciety he  was  a  member ;  and,  dying  in  1669,  was 
buried  under  the  chapel. 

PRYTANES,  in  Grecian  antiquity,  were  the 
presidents  of  the  senate,  whose  authority  con- 
sisted chiefly  in  assembling  the  senate ;  which, 
for  the  most  part,  was  done  once  every  day  The 
senate  consisted  of  -500,  fifty  senators  being 
elected  out  of  each  tribe :  after  which  lots  were 
cast,  to  determine  in  what  order  the  senators  of 
each  tiibe  should  preside;  which  they  did  by 
turns,  and  during  their  presidentship  were  called 
prytanes.  However,,  all  the  fifty  prytanes  of  the 
tribes  did  not  govern  at  once,  but  one  at  a 
time,  viz.  for  seven  da^s ;  and,  after  thirty-five 
days,  another  tribe  presided  for  other  five  weeks ; 
and  so  of  the  rest 

PUZEMYSL,  a  circle  and  town  of  Austrian 
Poland,  in  the  centre  of  that  country,  to  the  west 
of  the  circle  of  Lcmberg.    Its  area  is  1420 


square  miles,  population  of  the  circle  about 
212,000,  of  the  town  7500 ;  the  former  consists 
of  a  vast  plain,  traversed  nearly  throughout  its 
extent  by  the  river  San ;  and  watered  by  a  num- 
ber of  other  minor  streams.  The  sur&ce  is  oc- 
casionally diversified  by  gentle  elevations  and 
woods.  The  only  manufacture  is  a  coarse 
linen  and  leather.  The  town  -  is  1^  see  both  of 
a  Greek  and  Catholic  bishop. 

PRZIBRAM,  a  town  in  the  west  of  Bohemia, 
near  silver  and  lead  mines,  nineteen  miles  south 
of  Beraun,  and  thirty-three  S.  S.  W.  of  Prague. 
Population  2300. 

PRZIPICA,  fbe  greatest  river  in  fhe  east  of 
Poland,  is  ioined  paitly  by  a  canal,  partly  by  the 
stream  of  tne  Muchawica,  to  the  Bug  and  Vis- 
tula, the  great  rivers  of  the  central  part  of  that 
kingdom,  and  after  flowing  west  fiuls  into  the 
Dnieper  forty  miles  above  Kiev. 

PRZIPCOVIUS  (Samuel),  a  learned  Sod- 
nian  wnter,  bom  in  1590,  who  was  driven  from 
Poland  with  many  others  of  that  sect  in  1658. 
He  took  refuge  in  Prussia,  where  be  died  in 
1670,  aged  eighty.  His  works  are  inserted  in 
the  collection  of  Socinian  writers  published  in 
1656,  in  9  vols,  folio. 

PSALM,  ft.  s.  "J     Fr.  psalme,  pseaume  ;  Gr. 

Psalm'ist,         f  rjfoX^o^.  A  holy  song :  psalm- 

Psal'ter,  1  isc  IS  the  author  of  such  a 

Psal'tie.ry.  ^song:  psalms,  a  collection 
of  psalms  :  psaltery,  a  harp  on  which  they  are 
played. 

Praise  with  trumpets,  pierce  the  skies. 
Praise  with  harps  and  pttUteries. 

Sandy$*8  Paraph, 

The  choice  and  flower  of  all  things  profitable  in 
other  books,  the  pmlmt  do  both  more  briefly  contain 
and  more  movin^lv  express,  by  reason  of  that  poeti- 
cal fomi  wherewith  they  are  written.  Hoohtr, 
The  trumpets,  sacbut,  psalteries,  and  fife. 

Make  the  sun  dance.         Skaktptare.  Cericbntm. 

Stemhold  was  made  groom  of  the  chamber,  for 
turning  certain  of  David's  psalnu  into  verse. 


The  sweet  singer  of  Israel  with  his  ptaUery,  loodlj 
resounded  the  benefits  of  the  Almightv  Creator. 

'  W. 

Those  just  spirit*  that  wear  victorious  palms. 
Hymns  devote  and  holy  psaUnB 
Singing  continually  MiiUan 

In  another  psalm  he  speaks  of  the  wisdom  ana 
power  of  God  in  the  creation.  Burnet, 

How  much  more  rational  is  this  system  of  the 
psalmist,  than  the  Pagan's  scheme  in  Virgil,  where 
one  deitv  is  represented  as  raising  a  storm,  and  ano- 
ther as  laying  it !  Addison, 

Nought  shall  the  pealiery  and  the  harp  avail. 
When  the  quick  snirits  their  warm  march  forbnr. 
And  numbing  coldness  has  unbraced  the  ear. 

Prior. 

She,  her  daughters,  and  her  maids,  meet  together 
at  all  the  hours  of  prayer  in  the  day,  and  c^unt 
psalms,  and  other  devotions,  and  spend  the  rest  of 
their  time  in  such  good  works,  and  innocent  diver- 
sions, as  render  them  fit  to  return  to  their  pmdm  and 
prayers.  Lam. 

Psalms,  Book  of,  a  canonical  book  of  the 
Old  Testament.  Most  of  the  psalms  have  par« 
ticular  titles,  signifying  either  the  iiame  of  the 
author,  the  person  who  was  to  set  it  to  music  or 
sing  it,  the  instrument  that  was  to  be  used,  or 


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PSALMODY. 


233 


the  subject  and  occasion  of  it  Many  of  the 
Dsalms  aie  inscribed  with  the  names  Korah,  Je- 
authun,  &c.y  from  the  persons  who  were  to  sing 
them. 

PSALMANAZAR  .(George),  the  name  as- 
sumed by  a  very  extraordinary  character,  bom 
in  France  and  educated  in  a  Jesuit's  College : 
upon  leaving  which,  he  led  the  life  of  a  pilgrim. 
At  liege  he  entered  into  the  Dutch  service,  and 
afterwards  into  that  of  Cologne.  In  the  habit 
of  a  pilgrim  he  begged  through  several  countries, 
in  elegant  Latin,  and,  accosting  only  sentlemen 
and  clergymen,  received  liberal  supplies,  which 
be  spent  as  freely.  In  Germany  he  passed  for  a 
native  of  Formosa,  a  convert  to  Christianity, 
and  a  sufferer  for  it.  At  Sluys  he  fell  in  with 
brigadier  Lauder,  a  Scots  colonel,  who  intro- 
duced him  to  the  chaplain ;  who,  to  recommend 
himself  to  the  bisbop  of  London,  took  him  over 
to  that  city.  The  bishop  patronised  him  with 
credolous  humanity,  ana  a  large  circle  of  his 
great  friends  patronised  him  as  a  prodigy.  He 
published  a  History  of  Formosa,  and  invented  a 
character  and  language  for  that  island,  and  trans- 
lated the  church  catechism  into  it,  which  was 
examined  by  learned  critics  and  approved. 
Some  of  the  learned,  however,  doubted  him, 
particularly  Drs.  Halley,  Mead,  and  Wood- 
ward. He  was  allowed  the  use  of  the  Oxford 
libraiy,  and  employed  in  compiling  the  Uni- 
versal History.  Some  errors  in  his  History  of 
Formosa  first  led  him  to  be  suspected  as  an  im- 
postor. He  died  in  1753,  and  in  his  last  will 
confessed  the  imposture. 

Psalmody.  The  act  or  practice  of  singing 
holy  songs  was  always  esteemed  a  considerable 
part  of  devotion.  The  plain  song  was  early 
used,  being  a  gentle  inflection  of  the  voice,  not 
much  different  from  reading,  like  the  chant  in 
catbedrals ;  at  other  times  more  arti^cial  compo- 
sitions, like  our  anthems.  Sometimes  a  single 
person  sung  alone ;  sometimes  the  whole  assem- 
bly joined  together,  which  was  the  most  ancient 
and  general  practice.  At  other  times,  as  in  those 
of  king  David,  the  psalms  were  sung  alternately, 
the  congregation  dividing  themselves  into  parts, 
and  singing  verses  in  turns.  There  was  a  fourth 
way  of  singing,  pretty  common  in  the  fourth  cen- 
tury, which  was,  when  a  single  person  began  the 
verse,  and  the  people  joined  with  him  in  the 
close;  this  was  often  used  for  variety  .in  the 
same  service  with  alternate  psalmody.  The  use 
of  musical  instruments,  in  the  singing  of  psalms, 
seems  to  be  as  ancient  as  psalmody  itself;  the 
first  psalm  we  read  of  being  sung  to  the  timbrel, 
viz.  tnat  of  Moses  and  Miriam,  &er  the  deliver- 
ance of  the  Israelites  from  Egypt:  and  afterwards 
musical  instruments  were  in  constant  use  in  the 
temple  of  Jerusalem.    See  Organ. 

In  the  early  ages  of  Christianity  much  was 
done  by  the  priests  to  mystify  the  principles  of 
the  various  branches  of  psalmody,  and  the  arts 
and  sciences  in  general,  in  order  more  effectually 
to  keep  the  common  people  in  ignorance,  and 
consequently  in  superstition.  To  create  the 
greater  reverence  for  the  church  and  its  priests, 
who  were  alone  supposed  capable  of  understand- 
ing its  sacred  mysteries,  psalmody  was  carefully 
inculcated  in  the  minds  of  youth  as  of  divine 


origin,  and  thorough!?  to  be  understood  only  by 
actual  inspiration.  Ecclesiastical  modes  of  ac» 
centuation  were  adopted  in  the  reading  of  the 
gospels,  epistles,  &c.;  and,  for  the  performance 
of  those  parts  of  the  divine  worship  which  were 
sung  rather  thkn  thus  musically  or  artificially 
declaimed  (see  article  Music,  p.  280),  the  au- 
thentic, and,  300  years  after^i^s,  ihe  plagal 
modes  of  the  ancient  Greeks  were  introduced 
into  the  church  bv  Gregory  VIII.  He  declared 
that,  to  ensure  the  perfect  development  of  his 
principles  of  psalmoay,  he  was  duly  inspired  by 
God.  These  difficulties,  together  with  the  syl- 
labic nature  of  their  music,  to  suit  the  rythmical 
structure  of  the  words,  the  exact  performance  of 
which  required  the  utmost  attention  to  acouire, 
excluded  all  participation  on  the  part  or  the 
people  in  praising  their  Maker,  but  through  the 
medium  of  the  priests :  a  principle  which,  for 
ages,  proved  a  most  powerful  engine  of  priest- 
craft. Of  these  ecclesiastical  accentuations  an 
idea  may  be  formed,  though  but  a  faint  one,  for 
they  are  but  mere  shadows  of  them,  by  attending 
our  cathedral  service;  they  were  formerly  ex- 
pressed by  a  number  of  signs,  termed  pes  nexus, 
pes  sinuosus,  pes  gutturalis,  quassus,  resupinus, 
quilissimi,  &c.,  each  of  which  designated  a  pe- 
culiar inflexion  of  the  human  voice. 

With  the  exception  of  the  Metzian  hymns, 
which,  from  their  popularity,  are  supposed  to 
have  partaken  much  of  the  principles  of  natural 
meloay,  and  written  by  Benoit,  who  established 
himself  at  Metz  soon  after  the  return  of  Charle- 
magne from  Rome  (a  specimen  of  which  style 
we  have  inserted  in  our  article  Music),  the 
principles  appertaining  to  syllabic  music  were 
maintained  unimpaired,  in  the  church  of  Rome, 
up  to  the  eighteenth  century,  to  the  total  ex- 
clusion of  musical  rhythm :  and,  notwithstanding 
the  rapid  progress  of  the  arts  and  sciences  after 
the  extinction  of  the  Bards  and  Druids,  it  was 
not  before  the  first  dawnings  of  the  reformation 
that  melody,  iiidependently  of  absolute  prosodial 
Quantity  and  accentuation,  was  generally  intro- 
duced into  the  divine  service,  when,  as  may  be 
expected,  the  grand  distinction  took  place  be- 
tween the  Protestant  and  Catholic  modes,  of 
psalmody.  The  fauxbourdons  of  the  Roman 
church  are  however  still  adopted  by  the  Protes- 
tants of  Germany  and  Switzerland,  both  in  the 
modern  as  well  as  in  the  ancient  modes ;  a  species 
of  music  brought  to  the  highest  pitch  of  excel- 
lence in  the  pontificate  of  Marcellus,  by  Pales- 
trina  and  others ;  though  of  late,  even  amongst 
the  Catholics  themselves,  such  have  been  the 
mutations  of  their  ideas  relative  to  ecclesiastical 
music,  these  compositions  have  been  allowed  to 
be  superseded  by  others  totally  of  an  opposite 
description,  as  the  performance  of  the  works  of 
Haydn,  Mozart,  Rhigini,  &c.,  has  abundantly 
testified;  thus  completing  a  revolution  which, 
but  fifty  vears  ago,  would  not  have  been  antici- 
pated without  feelings  of  horror  and  disgust. 

In  the  church  of  England  the  system  of 
psalmodising  in  four  parts  has  been  of  late 
generally  superseded  by  adhering  to  one,  in 
which  all  classes  may  with  fiicilit^  join.  It  is 
nevertheless  susceptible  of  great  improvement^ 
as  we  shall  endeavour  presently  to  show.    But, 


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aB  the  understanding  of  the  principles  of  music, 
like  those  of  painting,  depends  more  upon 
example  than  precept,  one  good  specimen  of 
either  conveying  more  to  the  mind,  ^e  eye,  or 
ear,  than  volumes,  we  have  hut  little  more  to 
offer  upon  this  subject  than  what. has  been 
stated  in  substance  in  our  article  Music. 

With  respect  to  the  proper  mode  of  singing, 
that  is  to  be  preferred  which  best  tends  to  in- 
duce the  people  assembled  for  th^  purpose  of 
praismg  their  Maker  to  join  with  the  greatest 
ease,  devotion,  and  dignity:  singing  in  parts 
constituting  a  system,  which,  whilst  it  precludes 
the  possibility  of  congregational  psalmody,  can 
only  be  effected  with  tolerable  decency,  by 
the  hiring  of  persons  to  do  that  which  we  are  in 
fact  commanaed  to  do  for  ourselves.  The  first 
point  to  be  attended  to  is  propriety  of  articula- 
tion ;  this  is  effected  by  warbling  steadily  on  the 
vowel,  and  quickly  pronouncing  the  consonant : 
singing  being  only  a  lengthening  of  the  mode  of 
speech.  The  necessity  of  this  observation  will 
immediately  be  felt  in  the  singing  of  the  foUow- 
'vg  lines  from  Dr.  Watts, 

'Their  captive  sons,  exposed  to  seom/  &c., 

wnen,  if  we  endeavour  to  warble  upon  the  con- 
sonant, no  tone  can  be  produced,  neither  can 
any  sense  be  given  to  the  .melody  or  words; 
dwelling,  on  the  contrary,  upon  the  vowels,  and 
quickly  pronouncing  the  consonants,  the  air  is 
set  in  motion,  a  tune  is  formed,  and  the  words 
thoroughly  understood  and  feft,  more  especially 
when  the  congregation  joins  in  the  manner  com- 
mended by  the  ritual,  which  the  reader  will 
pardon  us  if  we  observe,  consists  neither  in  the 
boisterous  vociferation,  as  if  in  glorification  of 
our  noisy  powers,  too  often  observed  in  dis- 
senting meetings,  nor  in  the  gross  indifference  so 
prevalent  in  the  church  of  England. 

Of  the  two  modes  upon  which  all  modem 
music  is  composed,  the  major  one,  being  the 
simplest  to  understand,  is  to  be  preferred ;  but 
great  advantages  will  be  obtainea  in  the  forma- 
tion of  psalm-tunes  upon  the  other  modes  of  the 
ancient  Greeks,  the  adoption  of  which  added 
greatly  to  the  celebrity  of  their  extraordinary, 
most  powerful,  and  varied  music,  as  compared 
with  our  own ;  for  the  truth  of  this  remark  we 
need  only  refer  the  reader  to  our  article  Music, 
where  the  powers  of  the  different  Grecian  modes 
are  made  evident  in  our  practical  illustration  of 
the  principles  of  Scottish  music.  The  mixt 
Lydian  mode,  comprising  the  notes  from  G  to  G 
of  our  diatonic  scale  of  C,  making  the  half-tones 
fall  between  the  third  and  fourth,  and  sixth  and 
seventh  intervals,  instead  of  the  third  and  fourth, 
and  seventh  and  eighth,  intervals  of  the  octave, 
mingles  well  with  the  harmonic  powers  of  the 
organ,  though  it  is  best  felt  when  employed  in 
the  construction  only  of  melody.  The  Lydian 
mode  or  measure,  which  has  been  supposed  by 
many  writers  to  have  been  lost  to  us,  is  precisely 
our  scale  of  F  major;  the  same  may  b«  said  of 
the  Ionian,  transposed  a  fourth  lower  than  the 
Lydian  measure.  Excepting  the  .£olian  mode, 
ynddi  is  our  descending  minor  scale,  these  are 
the  only  modes  capable  of  receiving  the  princi- 
ples of  harmonic  support.    The  Dorian  mode, 


and  the  melodious  Phiygian,  are  formed  of  ma- 
terials entirely  different  from  all  others;  and, 
being  remarkable  as  rejecting  all  haimoiiic  sup- 
port, are  peculiarly  serviceable  for  places  of 
worship  where  there  are  no  organs,  or  where  the 
mode  of  worship  rejects  the  use  of  musical  in- 
struments to  accompany  the  singbg  of  ihe 
psalms  and  hymns. 

As  the  musical  staff  and  clef  were  inserted  to 
express  pie  different  compasses  of  the  human 
voice,  and  as  all  appreciable  musical  sound  is 
expressed  within  the  limits  of  the  octave,  and 
one  note,  termed  the  ninth  (the  replication  of 
the  second  of  the  scale),  it  follows  that  melody 
suitable  for  psalmody  must,  of  all  species  of 
music,  be  the  easiest  to  comprehend.  The 
principal  points  of  attention,  in  the  Lydian  and 
Ionian  measures,  are  the  situations  of  the  two 
half-tones  denominated  in  solmisation  mi  fii, 
and,  in  the  disjoined  tetrachordial  order,  C 
sound,  forming  the  modem  major  scale,  mi  & 
and  si  do,  thus :  CDEfGABc  (the  capitals 
denoting  tones,  and  the  Romans  hsdf-tones). 
This  scale,  so  simple  in  its  constraction,  and  so 
strictly  conformable  to  the  feelings  of  every  one 
possessing  a  musical  ear,  is  sufficient  to  explain 
the  whole  mysteries  of  modem  psalmody :  the 
alteration  of  one  or  the  other  or  the  half-tones 
constituting  the  means  whereby  modulation  is 
effected  into  the  dominant,  sub-dominant,  and 
relative  minor  of  the  primitive  key,  which  are 
the  utmost  limits  assigned  for  the  composition 
of  psalmody.  The  principles  also  of  any  well 
regulated  melody  in  others  of  the  Grecian  modes 
are  to  be  acquired  with  equal  facility;  the  being 
habituated  to  the  major  and  minor  systems  of 
sound  causing  the  ancient  modes  in  general  to 
be  only  momentarily  difficult  to  adopt.     To 

})rove  this  assertion  we  notice  the  known  secular, 
or  want  of  a  sacred,  melody,  '  Scots  wha  hae,' 
which  is  written  in  the  mixt  Lydian  mode  of  the 
ancient  Greeks. 

On  the  varie^  of  opinions  published  about 
the  latter  end  of  the  sixteenth  century  upon  the 
use  and  abuse  of  psalmody  in  churches,  and  of 
the  efforts  of  many  writers  to  prove  the  impro- 
priety of  its  introduction  in  the  reformed  churchy, 
as  a  relic  only  of  monkish  superstition,  we  need 
not  offer  a  comment.  According  to  the  Scrip- 
tures it  has  always  formed,  together  with  instru- 
mental accompaniments,  a  part  of  die  divine 
service :  and,  sanctioned  by  the  most  enlightened 
men  of  the  age,  it  prevails  universally.  Upon 
the  subject  of  interludes,  voluntaries,  &c.,  *  inter- 
mptions  of  the  divine  service^'  as  they  have  often 
been  fairly  designated,  we  would  observe  that 
they  were  adopted  in  the  church  as  early  as  the 
time  of  St  Ambrose,  and  that  in  cases  where  the 
organist  confines  himself  to  the  performance  of 
the  sacred  compositions  of  Handel,  Graun,  Mo- 
zart, Marcello,  &c.,  and,  in  the  composition  of 
his  interludes,  strictly  regulates  hb  melody  ac- 
cording to  the  style  of  the  psalm  tune,  improper 
associations  of  ideas  could  not  be  raised  in  the 
minds  even  of  the  most  fastidious;  on  the  con- 
trary, they  are  known  to  create  a  tone  of  feeling 
highly  proper  for  the  occasion.  Having,  in  our 
article  Organ,  sufficiently  explained  our  senti- 
ments on  the  abuses  of  extemporaneous  peribr- 


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muDoeSy  and  of  the  immoral  tendency  of  intto- 
dacing  secular  music  into  the  church,  we  cannot 
better  conclude  this  article,  than  by  recommend- 
ing to  the  heads  of  our  ecclesiastical  affairs,  the 
establishment  of  one  collection  of  psalm  tunes 
to  be  sung  throughout  the  establisned.  church : 
such  a  regulation  would  surely  prove  not  less 
useful  than  one  form  of  prayer;  at  least  the 
parishioners  of  one  church  would  then  have  the 
advant^e  of  joining  in  this  part  of  the  divine 
service  with  facility  at  another,  whichj  from  the 
strange  mixture  of  musical  styles  observed 
at  the  different  churches,  is  now  become  impos- 

Sibhi. 

The  Psaltery  was  a  musical  instrument 
much  in  use  among  the  ancient  Hebrews,  who 
called  it  nebel ;  but  we  know  little  or  nothing 
of  the  precise  form  of  the  ancient  psaltery.  See 
Music 

PSAMMETICUS,  or  Psavmetichus,  a  re- 
nowned conqueror,  who  subduing  eleven  other 
petty  kings  of  Efinrpt  became  the  founder  of  a 
new  dynasty  in  dbe  kingdom  of  Egypt,  about 
670  B.  C.  He  is  memorable  likewise  for  taking 
the  citf  of  Azot,  after  a  siege  of  twenty-nine 
yean. 

PSATYRIANS,  a  sect  of  Arians,  who,  in  the 
council  of  Antiodi,  held  in  the  year  360,  main- 
tained that  the  Son  was  not  like  the  Father  as 
to  will ;  that  he  was  taken  from  nothing,  or  made 
of  nothing;  and  that  in  God  generation  was  not 
to  be  distinguished  from  creation. 

PSELLlfS  (Michael  Constantine),  a  learned 
Christian  of  tiie  eleventh  century,  was,  by  birth, 
a  Constantinopolitan  of  consular  rank,  and  flou- 
rished under  tiie  emperor  Constantine  Mono- 
machus.  He  was  the  chief  instructor  of  the 
Constantinopolitan  youth,  and  at  the  same  time 
the  companion  and  the  preceptor  of  the  empe- 
ror. Towards  the  close  of  his  life,  Psellus  re- 
tired into  a  monasteiy,  and  soon  afterwards 
died.  His  -works,  which  have  been  much  cele- 
brated, are,  Commentaries  upon  Aristotle's  Logic 
and  Physics ;  a  Compendium  of  Questions  and 
Answers ;  and  an  Exphmation  of  the  Chaldean 
Oracles. 

PSEITDO,  n,  t.  From  Or.  ^evdoc.  A  pre- 
fii,  which  signifies  false  or  counterfeit :  as  pseu- 
do^postle,  a  counterfeit  apostle. 

I  will  not  pursue  the  many  pteudograpkiet  in  use, 
bat  tbow  of  how  gieat  concern  the  emphasii  were, 
if  ri^tly  used. 

It  u  Dot  according  to  the  sound  rules  of  pmMogjf, 
to  report  of  a  pious  prince,  that  he  neglects  his  de- 
votion, but  you  may  rej^rt  of  a  merciful  prince,  that 
he  has  pardoned  a  crimmal  who  did  not  deserve  it. 

Arimthmt. 

PSHAW,  interf.    An  expression  of  contempt. 

A  peevish  iellow  has  some  reason  for  beinf  out  of 
homour,  or  has  a  natural  incapacity  for  delight,  and 
therefore  disturbs  all  with  pishes  and  pthawt. 


PSIDIUM,  the  guava,  or  bay  plum,  a  genu3 
of  the  monogynia  order,  and  icosandria  class  of 
plants;  natural  order  nineteenth,  hesperides: 
CAL.  qninquefid,  superior;  there  are  five  petals; 
the  berry  is  unilocular  and  monospermous. 
There  are  two  species : 

1.  P.  pomiferum,  the  red  guava;  and  2.  P. 
pyriferum,  the  white  guava.    The  red  guava 


rises  to  twenty  feet,  and  is  covei^  with  a  tmooth 
bark;  the  branches  are  angular,  covered  with  oval 
leaves,  having  a  strong  midrib,  and  many  veins 
running  towards  the  sides,  of  a  light  green  color, 
standing  opposite  upon  very  short  foot-stalks. 
From  the  wings  of  tne  leaves  the  flowers  come 
out  upon  foot-stalks  an  inch  and  a  half  long: 
they  are  composed  of  five  large  roundish  con- 
cave petals,  within  which  are  a  great  number  of 
stamina  shorter  than  the  petals,  and  tipped  widi 
pale  yellow  tops.  After  the  flower  is  past,  tiie 
germen  becomes  a  large  oval  fruit,  shaped  like  a 
pomegranate.  A  decoction  of  the  roots  of  guava 
IS  employed  with  success  in  dysenteries :  a  bath 
of  a  decoction  of  the  leaves  is  said  to  cure  the 
itch  and  other  cutaneous  eruptions.  Guayava, 
or  guava,  is  distinguished  from  the  color  of  the 
pulp  into  the  t^o  species  above-mentioned,  the 
white  and  the  red ;  and,  from  the  figure  of  the 
fruit,  into  the  round  and  the  pear-f^hioned  or 
perfumed  guava.  tlie  latter  has  a  thicker  rind, 
and  a  more  delicate  taste  than  the  other.  The 
fruit  is  about  the  bigness  of  a  large  tennis  ball; 
the  rind  or  skin  generally  of  a  russet  stained 
with  red.  The  pulp  within  the  thick  rind  is  of 
an  agreeable  flavor,  and  interspersed  with  a  num- 
ber of  small  white  seeds.  The  rind,,  when 
stewed,  is  eaten  with  milk,  and  preferred  to  any 
other  stewed  firuit  From  the  same  part  is  made 
marmalade;  and  from  the  whole  trait  is  pre- 
pared the  finest  jelly  in  the  world.  The  fruit  is 
very  astringent,  and  nearly  of  the  same  quality 
with  the  pomegranate ;  so  should  be  avoided  by 
all  who  are  subject  to  costiveness.  Hie  seeds 
are  so  hard  as  not  to  be  aflected  by  the  fermen- 
tation in  the  stomachs  of  animals ;  so  that  when 
voided  vrith  the  excrements  they  take  root,  ger- 
minate, and  produce  thriving  trees.  Whole 
mejuiows  in  the  West  Indies  are  covered  with 
guavas  which  have  been  propagated  in  this  man- 
ner. The  buds  of  guava,  boiled  with  barley  and 
liquorice,  produce  an  excellent  ptisan  for  diarr-^ 
hosas,  and  even  the  bloody  flux,  when  not  too  in- 
veterate. The  wood  of  the  tree,  employed  as 
fuel,  makes  a  lively,  ardent,  and  lasting  fire. 

PSHTACUS,  the  panot,  in  ornithology,  a 
genus  belonging  to  the  order  pictt.  The  bill  is 
hooked  from  the  base  t  the  upper  mandible  is 
moveable :  the  nostrib  are  round,  placed  in  the 
base  of  the  bill,  which  in  some  species  is  fur- 
nished with  a  kind  of  cere :  the  tongne  is  broad, 
and  blunt  at  one  end :  the  head  is  large,  and  the 
crown  flat :  the  legs  are  short,  the  toes  placed 
two  before  and  two  behind.  It  might  seem  sur- 
prising why  this  animal,  which  is  not  naturally  a 
bird  of  prey,  but  feeds  on  fruits  and  vegetables, 
should  have  the  crooked  beak  allotted  to  the 
hawk  and  other  carnivorous  birds:  the  reason 
seems  to  be  that  the  parrot  being  a  heavy  bird, 
and  its  legs  not  very  nt  for  service,  it  climbs  up 
and  down  trees  by  the  help  of  this  sharp  and 
hooked  bill,  with  which  it  lays  hold  of  any  thing 
and  secures  itself  before  it  stirs  a  foot ;  and  helps 
itself  forward  venr  much,  by  pulling  its  body  on 
with  this  hold  Of  all  animals,  the  parrot  and 
crocodile  are  the  only  ones  which  move  the  upper 
jaw ;  all  creatures  else  moving  the  lower  only. 
The  parrot  loves  nothing  so  much  as  the  seeds 
of  the  carthamus,  or  l»9tard  saffron.    Parrots 


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un  fottod  almost  every  where  within  the  tropics ; 
and  in  their  natural  state  thev  live  on  fruits  and 
seeds,  though,  when  tame,  they  will  eat  flesh, 
and  even  fish.  In  the  East  and  West  Indies  they 
are  very  common,  and  in  such  warm  climates 
are  very  brisk  and  lively ;  here,  however,  they 
lose  much  of  their  vigor.  They  seldom  make 
nests,  but  breed  like  owls  in  hollow  trees :  they 
lay  two  eggs.  At  particular  times  they  fly  in 
very  large  troops,  but  still  they  keep  two  and 
two  together.  This  genus  consists  of  inf  nite 
variety,  not  so  much  owing  to  mixture  of  spe- 
cies. Mr.  Latham  increased  the  genus  from 
forty-seven  to  163 ;  and,  since  the  time  he  wrote 
his  Index,  at  least  thirty  more  have  been  disco- 
vered. They  are  very  generally  divided  into 
<hree  kinds :  1.  The  larger,  which  are  as  big  as  a 
moderate  fowl,  called  macaos  and  cocketoons ; 
these  have  very  long  tails.  2.  The  middle-sized 
ones,  commonly  called  parrots,  which  have  short 
tails,  and  are  a  little  larger  than  a  pigeon.  And, 
3.  The  small  ones,  which  are  called  paroquets, 
and  have  long  tails,  and  are  not  larger  man  a 
lark  or  blackbird. 

1.  P.  ararauna,  the  b^ue  and  yellow  macaw, 
is  blue  above,  and  yellow  below,  and  the  cheelu 
are  naked,  with  feathery  lines.  It  is  about  the 
same  size  with  the  last,  and  inhabits  Jamaica, 
Guiana,  Brasil,  and  Surinam. 

2.  P.  aurora,  the  yellow  amazon,  is  about 
twelve  inches  long,  of  a  green  color,  with  blue 
wing  quills,  and  a  white  front;  its  orbits  are 
snowy.  It  inhabits  Mexico  or  Brasil,  but  in  all 
probability  the  latter,  from  the  one  which  Sa- 
feme  saw,  and  which  pronounced  Portuguese 
words. 

3.  P.  Guineensis,the  yellow  lory,  is  about  ten 
inches  long,  and  is  an  inhabitant  of  Guinea. 
The  bill  is  of  a  black  color;  the  cere,  the  throat, 
and  space  about  the  eyes,  are  white ;  above  the 
eye  tnere  is  a  patch  of  yellow,  and  the  rest  of 
the  head  and  neck  is  crimson.  The  breast  is 
vellow,  wipg  coverts  green,  and  the  quills  are 
blue,  edged  with  yellow.  Under  the  wind's, 
belly,  thighs,  vent,  and  to  the  under  part  of  the 
tail,  the  color  is  white,  which  last  is  tipped  with 
red ;  the  legs  are  dusky,  and  the  claws  black. 

4.  P.  macao,  the  red  and  blue  macao,  is  red, 
except  the  wing  quills,  which  above  are  blue, 
below  red :  the  particular  feathers  are  variegated 
with  blue  and  green :  the  cheeks  are  naked  and 
wrinkled.  It  is  about  two  feet  seven  inches  and 
a  half  long,  and  about  the  size  of  ^.  capon.  It 
inhabits  Brasil,  Guiana,  and  other  parts  of 
South  America.  It  was  formerly  very  common 
in  St.  Domingo,  but  is  now  rarely  found  there. 
It  generally  lives  in  moist  woods,  does  not  in 
general  learn  to  speak,  and  its  voice  is  particu- 
larly rough  and  disagreeable.  The  flesh  is  hard, 
black,  and  unsavory,  but  makes  good  soup, 
and  is  much  used  by  the  inhabitants  of  Cayenne 
and  other  places.  This  species,  in  common  with 
other  parrots,  is  subject  to  fits  when  tamed. 

5.  P.  pullarius,  red-headed  Guinea  paroquet, 
or  Guinea  sparrow,  is  about  five  inches  and  a 
lialf  long.  It  inhabits  Guinea,  and  is  found  in 
Ethiopia,  the  East  Indies,  and  the  island  of 
Java,  and  sometimes  in  Surinam.  It  is  green, 
with  a  red  front,  fiilvous  tail,  black  bar,  and 


cinereous  orbits.  The  male  of  this  species  it 
peculiarly  affectionate  to  the  female. 

6.  P.  severus^  the  Brasilian  green  macaw,  is 
black,  with  a  greenish  splendor:  the  bill  and 
eyes  are  reddish,  and  the  legs  are  yellow.  It  is 
aoout  one  foot  and  five  inches  lon(^,  and  is  com- 
mon in  Jamaica,  ^uiana,  and  Brasil.  It  is, 
however,  comparatively  rare;  but  is  extremely 
beautiful,  and  of  a  very  amiable  and  sociable 
temper  when  fiimiliar  and  acquainted;  but  it 
can  neither  bear  strangers  nor  rivals ;  its  voice  is 
not  strong,  nor  does  it  articulate  very  distinctly 
the  word  ara. 

PSOAS  Muscle,  in  anatomy.  See  Anatomy. 

PSOKV,  a  government  of  European  Russia, 
between  those  of  Livonia  and  Smolensko.  Its 
superficial  extern  is  about  22,000  square  miles ; 
and  the  population  about  700,000,  almost  all 
of  Russ  origin,  and  members  of  the  Greek 
church.  It  is  divided  into  eight  circles  or 
districts.  The  surface  is  level,  and  clayey  or 
&andy,  but  tolerably  fertile,  producing  flax  and 
hemp,  which,  along  with  the  timber  of  its  forests, 
are  exported  to  Narva  and  St.  Petersburgh. 
The  manufactures  are  limited  to  the  weaving  of 
linen,  and  the  preparation  of  leather.  The 
climate  is  healthy,  but  cold.  Pskov  is  watered 
by  several  rivers,  and  contains  a  large  lake  called 
the  lake  of  Pskov. 

Pskov,  or  Pleskov,  a  considerable  trading 
town  and  archbishop's  see  of  European  Russia, 
the  capital  of  the  above  government,  is  situated 
at  the  confluence  of  the  Pskov  River  and  the 
Velikaja.  It  is  small,  but  contains  a  kremlin 
or  citadel;  a  middle  town  and  greater  town; 
all  distinct  and  surrounded  by  an  earthen 
mound.  Inhabitants  7000.  Leather  is  the  only 
manufacture. 

PSOPHIA,  in  omitholoey,  a  genus  belonging 
to  the  order  of  gallinae.  The  bill  is  moderate ; 
the  upper  mandible  convex ;  the  nostrils  oblong, 
suUk,  and  pervious;  the  tongue  cartilaginous, 
flat,  and  fringed  at  the  end ;  and  the  legs  are 
naked  a  little  above  the  knees.  The  toes  are 
three  before  and  one  behind ;  the  last  of  which 
is  small  with  a  round  protuberance  beneath  it, 
which  is  at  a  little  distance  from  the  ground. 
Latham  only  enumerates  two  species. 

1.  P.  crepitans,  the  gold-breasted  trumpeter. 
Its  head  and  breast  are  smooth  and  shining 
green.  By  the  Spaniards  of  Maynas  it  is  called 
trompetero,  and  by  the  French  at  Cayenne 
agami,  under  which  last  Buffbn  describes  it.  It 
inhabits  various  parts  of  South  America,  Brasil, 
Guiana,  Surinam,  Ike.,  but  it  is  most  plentiful  in 
the  AmaTons  country.  It  is  about  twenty  inches 
long,  being  about  the  size  of  a  large  fowl,  and 
lays  eggs  rather  larger,  of  a  blue  green  color.  It 
id  met  with  ip  the  Caribee  islands,  ^"here  it  is 
called  a  pheasant,  and  its  flesh  is  reckoned  as 
good  as  that  of  a  pheasant.  The  most  charac- 
teristic and  remarkable  property  of  these  birds 
consists  in  the  wonderful  noise  they  make,  par- 
ticularly when  urged  by  the  keepers  of  the 
menagerie.  Another  very  remarkable  circum- 
stance is,  that  thev  follow  people  through  the 
streets,  though  yerfect  strangers.  It  is  difficult 
to  get  rid  of  them ;  for,  if  you  enter  a  house, 
they  will  vmit  your  return,  and  again  join  you. 


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thoogh  often  after  an  intemd  of  three  hours. 

*  I  loive  sometimes/  says  M.  de  la  Borde,  *  be- 
taken myself  to  mv  heels,  but  they  ran  £uter, 
aod  always  sot  berore  me ;  and,  when  I  stopped, 
th^  stopped  also.    I  know  one,'  continues  he, 

*  which  invariably  follows  all  the  strangers  who 
eoter  his  master's  bouse,  accompanies  them  into 
the  garden,  takes  as  many  tuips  as  they  do,  and 
attends  them  back  again/ 

2.  P.  undulata,  the  undulated  trumpeter,  is 
about  the  size  of  a  goose.  The  upper  part,  of 
the  body  is  of  a  pale  reddish  brown  color,  beau- 
tifully undulatea  with  black.  The  head  is 
adorned  with  a  dependent  crest.  On  each  side 
of  the  neck,  beneath  the  ears,  begins  a  list  of 
black,  widening  as  it  descends,  and  meeting  on 
the  lower  part  before,  where  the  feathers  become 
greatly  elongated,  and  hang  loosely  down.  The 
under  parts  are  generally  white,  the  legs  are  of  a 
dusky  blue  color  like  the  bill.  It  is  a  native  of 
Africa ;  Latham's  specimen  came  from  Tripoli. 
'  PSORALEA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  de- 
candria  order,  and  diadelphia  class  of  plants ; 
natural  order  thirty-second,  papilionaces  :  cal. 
powdered,  with  callous  points,  and  as  long  as 
the  moQospermous  legumen.  The  most  remark- 
able species  are : — 

1.  P.  aculeata,  the  aculeated  prickly  psoralea, 
which  rises  with  a  shrubby  branching  stem  three 
or  four  feet  high,  with  ternate  leaves,  having 
wedge-shaped  lobes  terminating  in  a  recurved 
sharp  point,  and  the  branches  terminated  by 
roundish  heads  of  blue  flowers ;  it  grows  in 
Ethiopia.  These  plants  flower  here  every  sum- ' 
mer;  the  first  sort  greatest  part  of  that  season, 
and  the  others  in  July  and  August;  all  of  which 
are  succeeded  by  seeds  in  autumn.  Keep  them 
in  pots  in  order  for  removing  into  the  green- 
house in  winter.  They  are  propagated  by  seeds, 
sown  in  a  hot-bed  in  the  sprii^;  and,  when  the 
plants  are  two  or  three  incnes  high,  prick  them 
in  separate  small  pots,  and  gradually  harden 
them  to  the  open  air,  so  as  to  bear  it  fully  by  the 
end  of  May  or  beginning  of  June.  They  may 
also  be  propagated  by  cuttings  any  time  in 
snmmer,  plant^  in  pots,  and  plunged  in  a  little 
heat,  or  covered  close  with  hand-glasses,  shaded 
from  the  sun  and  watered. 

2.  P.  bituminosa,  the  bituminous  trifoliate 
psoralea,  rises  with  a  shrubby  stalk,  branching 
sparingly  about  two  or  three  feet  hig[h,  with  ter- 
nate or  three  lobed  leaves  of  bituminous  scent, 
and  blue  flowers  in  close  heads;  it  grows  in 
Italy  and  France. 

3.  P.  primata,  the  pinnated  psoralea,  rises 
with  a  woody  soft  stem,  branching  fire  or  six 
feet  high,  pinnated  leaves  of  three  or  four  pairs 
of  narrow  lobes  terminated  by  an  odd  one,  and 
at  the  axillas  close-sitting  blue  flowers  with 
white  keels.    It  is  a  native  of  Ethiopia. 

PSYCHE,  a  nymph  whom  Cupid  married, 
and  carried  into  a  place  of  bliss,  where  he  long 
enjoyed  her  socie^.  Venus  put  her  to  death, 
because  she  had  robbed  the  worid  of  her  son ; 
but  Jupiter,  at  the  request  of  Cupid,  granted 
immortality  to  Psyche.  The  same  Greek  word, 
^nyi,  signifies  a  butterfly  and  the  soul.  Hence 
.  the  former  was  used  by  the  Greek  artists  as  an 
€Hd)lem  of  the  latter;  and  Cupid  fondling  or 


burning  a  butterfly  is  the  same  as  his  earetsinff 
or  paining  Psyche  or  the  human  spirit.  Indeed 
for  almost  all  the  ways  in  which  Cupid  is  seen 
playing  with  butterflies,  some  parallel  may  be 
found  in  the  representations  of  Cupid  and 
Psyche.  Thus,  in  an  antique,  the  goa  of  love 
is  drawn  in  a  triumphal  oar  by  two  Psyches ;  in 
another  by  two  butterflies.  By  this  might  be 
shadowed  forth  his  power  over  the  beings  of  the 
air,  of  which  the  car  is  an  emblem. 

PSYCHOTRIA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the 
monogynia  order  and  pentandria  class  of  plants; 
naturad  order  forty-seventh,  stellatse :  cal.  quin- 
quedentate,  persisting,  and  crowning  the  fruit : 
COR.  tubulated ;  berry  globose,  with'  two  hermi- 
spherical  sulcated  seeds.  The  species  are  four, 
VIZ.: — 1.  P.  aspatica.  2.  P.  emetica.  3.  P. 
herbacea:  and  4.  P.  serpens.  They  are  all 
natives  of  Jamaica. 

PSYLLI,  a  people  in  the  south  of  Cyrenaica, 
so  called  from  king  Psyllus  (Agathargides, 
quoted  by  Pliny) ;  almost  all  overwhelmed  by 
sand  driven  by  a  south  wind  (Herodotus).  Ac- 
cording to  Pliny,  Lucan,  &c.,  they  had  some- 
thing in  their  bodies  fatal  to  serpents,  and  their 
very  smell  proved  a  charm  against  them. 

PTARMIGAN,  in  ornithology.   See  Tetrao. 

PTELEA,  shrub-trefoil,  a  genus  of  the  mono- 
gynia order  and  tetrandria  class  of  plants  :  cor. 
tetrapetalous :  cal.  quadripartite  inferior;  fruit 
monospermous,  with  a  roundish  membrane  in 
the  middle.    'Fhere  are  two  species  :— 

1.  P.  trifoliata,  the  Carolina  shrub  trefoil,  has 
a  shrubby  upright  stem,  dividing  into  a  branchy 
head  eight  or  ten  feet  high,  covered  with  a  smooth 
purplish  bark,  trifoliate  leaves,  formed  of  oval 
spear-shaped  folioles,  and  the  branches  termi- 
nated by  large  bunches  of  greenish-white  flowers, 
succeeded  by  roundbh  bordered  capsules.  This 
is  a  hardy  deciduous  shrub,  and  a  proper  plant 
for  the  shrubbery  and  other  ornamental  planta- 
tions to  inprease  the  variety.  It  is  propagated 
by  seeds,  layers,  or  cuttings. 

2.  P.  viscosa,  the  viscous  Indian  ptelea,  rises 
with  several  strong  shrubby  stems,  branchin*^ 
erectly  twelve  or  fifteen  feet  high,  having  a  light 
brown  bark,  spear-shaped,  stiff,  simple  leaves, 
and  the  branches  terminated  by  clusters  of  greei^- 
ish  flowers.  It  is  a  stove  plant,  and  is  propa- 
gated commonly  by  seeds. 

PTERIS,  in  botany,  brakes  or  female  fern,  a 
genus  of  the  order  of  filices,  and  cryptogamia 
class  of  plants ;  natural  order  fifty-fifth,  filices. 
The  fructifications  are  in  lines  under  the  margin. 
There  are  numerous  species ;  the  most  remark- 
able is  the 

P.  aquilina,  or  common  female  fern.  The 
root  of  this  is  viscid,  nauseous  and  bitterish ;  and, 
like  all  the  rest  of  the  fern  tribe,  has  a  salt,  mu- 
cilaginous taste.  It  creeps  under  the  ground  in 
some  rich  soils  to  the  depth  of  five  or  six  feet, 
and  is  vei^  difficult  to  be  destroyed.  Frequent 
mowings  m  pasture  grounds,  plentiful  dunging 
in  arable  lands,  but,  above  all,  pouring  urine 
upon  it,  are  the  most  approved  methods  of*  kill- 
ing it  It  has,  however,  many  good  qualities  to 
counterbalance  the  few  bad  ones.  Fern  cut 
while  green,  and  left  to  rot  upon  the  ground,  is 
a  good  improver  of  land ;  for  its  ashes,  if  boinl^ 


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vlll  yield  double  the  quantity  of  salt  that  most 
other  vegetables  will.  Fern  is  also  an  excellent 
manure  for  potatoes ;  for«  if  buried  beneath  their 
roots,  it  never  fails  to  produce  a  good  crop.  Its 
astringency  is  so  great  that  it  is  used  in  many 
places  abroad,  in  dressing  and  preparing  kid  and 
chamois  leather.  In  several  places  in  the  north 
the  inhabitants  mow  it  green,  and,  burning  it  to 
ashes,  make  those  ashes  up  into  balls,  with  a 
little  water,  which  they  dry  m  tlie  sun,  and  make 
use  of  them  to  wash  their  linen  with  instead  of 
soap.  In  many  of  the  Western  Isles  the  people 
gain  a  very  considerable  profit  from  the  sale  of 
the  ashes  to  soap  and  glass  makers.  In  Glenelg 
in  Inverness-shire,  and  other  places,  the  people 
thatch  their  houses  with  the  stalks  of  this  fern, 
and  fiisten  them  down  with  ropes  made  either  of 
birch-bark  or  heath.  Sometimes  they  use  the 
whole  plant  for  the  same  purpose,  but  that  does 
not  make  so  durable  a  covering.  Swine  are 
fond  of  the  roots,  especially  if  boiled  in  their 
wash.  In  some  parts  of  Normandy  the  poor 
have  been  reducea  to  the  miserable  necessity  of 
mixing  them  with  their  bread.  And  in  Siberia, 
and  some  other  northern  countries,  the  inhabi&- 
ants  brew  them  in  their  ale,  mixing  one-third  of 
the  roots  to  two-thirds  of  malt  The  'ancients 
used  the  root  of  this  fern,  and  the  whole  plant, 
in  decoctions,  and  diet-drinks,  ,in  chronic  dis- 
orders of  all  kinds,  arising  from  obstructions  of 
the  viscera  and  the  spleen.  The  country  people 
still  continue  to  retain  some  of  its  ancient  uses ; 
for  they  give  the  powder  of  it  to  destroy  worms, 
and  look  upon  a  bed  of  the  green  plant  as  a 
sovereign  cure  for  the  rickets  in  children. 

PTEROCAHPUS,  in  boUny,  a  genus  of  the 
decandria  order,  and  diadelphia  class  of  plants ; 
natural  order  thirty-second,  papilionaoee :  gal. 
quinquedentate :  caps,  sulcatea,  filiaceous,  vari- 
cose. The  seeds  are  few  and  solitary.  There 
are  four  species,  viz.  :^ 

1.  P.  draco.  *  2.  P.  ecastaphyllum.  3. 
natus:  and  4.  P.  santolinus.  The  last 
some  referred  to  the  genus  santalum. 
called  red  saunders ;  and  the  wood  is  brought 
from  the  East  Indies  in  large  billets,  of  a  com- 
pact texture,  a  dull  red,  almost  blockish  color  on 
the  outside,  and  a  deep  bright  red  vnthin.  This 
wood  has  no  manifest  smell,  and  little  or  no  taste* 
The  principal  use  of  red  saunders  is  as  a  coloring 
drug;  with  which  intention  it  is  employed  in 
some  formulas,  particularly  in  the  compound  of 
tincture  of  lavender.  It  communicates  a  deep 
red  to  rectified  spirit,  but  gives  no  tii^  to 
aqueous  liquors ;  a  small  <|uantity  of  the  resin, 
extracted  by  means  of  spint,  tinges  a  large  one 
of  fresh  spirit,  of  an  elegant  blood-red.  There 
is  scarcely  any  oil,  that  of  lavender  excepted,  to 
which  it  communicates  its  color. 

PTERONIA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  poly* 
garoia  squalis  order,  and  syngenesia  class  of 
plants;  natural  order  forty-ninth,  composite: 
receptacle  full  of  multipartite  bristlies ;  pappus 
a  little  plumy :  cal.  imbricated. 

PTEROSPERMUM,  in  botany,  a  genus  of 
the  polyandria  order  and  monadelphia  class  of 
plants ;  natural  order  tlurty-seventh,columnifer8e : 
CAL.  quinquepartite :  coa.  consists  of  five  ob- 
long spreading  petals.    The  filaments  are  about 


P.lu- 


IS 

It 


fifteen,  which  unite  towards  the  base  isto  ft  tAt, 
The  style  cylindrical:  caps,  oval,  woody,  and 
quinquelocuLar,  each  bivalved,  containing  maoy 
oblong,  coQ'pressed,  and  winged  seeds.  There 
is  only  one  species,  viz. : — 

P.  pentapetes,  a  native  of  the  East  Indies; 
the  wood  of  which  is  veiy  hard,  and  very  like 
that  of  the  holly  tree. 

PTINUS,  a  genus  of  insects  belonging  to  the 
^er  of  eoleoptera.  The  antennae  are  filiform : 
the  last  or  exterior  articulations  are  longer  tb^ 
the  others ;  the  thorax  is  nearly  round,  without  a 
margin,  into  which  the  h^  is  drawn  bacli  or 
received;  the  feet  are  made  for  leaping.  The 
most  remarkable  species  are,-^ 

1.  P.  pectinicomis.  This  is  produced  from  a 
worm  that  lodses  in  wood  and  the  trunks  of  trees, 
such  as  the  willow,  where  it  makes  deep  round 
holes,  turns  to  a  winged  insect,  takes  flight  and 
roosts  upon  flowers.  It  is  distii^ishea  by  its 
antenna  pectinated  on  one  side,  whence  it  hu 
the  name  of  feathered.  The  elytra  and  thorax 
are  of  a  deep  clay-colored  brown,  the  antenna 
and  1^  are  of  a  pale  brown. 

2.  P.  nertinax.  The  form  of  this  insect  re* 
sembles  tne  precedii^  one,  saving  that  its  anten* 
me  are  filiform.  It  is  all  over  of  a  deep  black- 
ish-brown color  resembling  soot  It  attacks 
household  furniture,  clothes,  furs,  and  especially 
animals  dried  and  preserved  in  collections  of 
natural  history,  where  it  makes  great  havoc. 
When  caught,  this  insect  bends  its  leg?,  draws 
back  its  head,  and  lies  qs  if  it  was  doid  till  it 
thinks  itself  out  of  danger.  It  cannot  be  forced 
out  of  this  state  of  inaction  either  by  pricking 
or  tearing;  nothing  but  a  strong  d^^ree  of  heat 
can  oblige  it  to  resume  its  motion  and  run  avray. 
There  are  many  beautiful  varieties  of  this  genus; 
but  they  in  general  escape  our  attention  by  their 
minuteness,  and  living  among  hay,  dried  leaves, 
and  divers  other  dusty  matters,  where  they 
undergo  their  metamorphoses.  The  larva  oi 
some  are  found  in  trunks  of  decayed  trees,  in 
old  tables,  chairs,  &c. 

PTrSAN,  n.  s.  ¥r,  ptitanne  g  Gr,  TTiwffayjq. 
A  medical  drink,  made  of  barley  decocted  with 
raisins  and  liquorice. 

Thrice  happv  were  those  golden  days  of  old. 
When  dear  as  bnigundy  tbaptinmt  lold ; 
When  patients  cfaoae  to  die  with  better  irill, 
Than  breathe  and  pay  the  apothecary's  bill.  Chrth, 

In  fevers  the  aliments  prescribed  by  Hippocrates 
were  pti$ant  and  cream  of  barley.  AAvJtkitot* 

Ptisan  is  properly  barley  decorticated,  or 
deprived  of  its  husk,  by  beating  in  a  mortar,  as 
was  the  ancient  practice;  though  the  ooolinf 
potion  obtained  by  boiling  such  iNirley  ia  water 
and  afterwards  sweetening  the  liquor  witl 
liquorice  root,  is  what  at  present  goes  by  the 
name  of  ptisan ;  and  to  render  it  laxative  some 
add  a  little  senna,  or  other  similar  ingredient 

PTOLEMAIS,  in  ancient  geography,  the 
largest  and  most  considerable  town  of  lliebais, 
or  Higher  Egypt,  and  equal  to  Memphis.  It 
was  governed  in  the  manner  of  a  Greek  repub- 
lic, and  situated  on  the  west  side  of  the  Nile, 
almost  opposite  to  Coptos.  Strabo.  This 
town,  which  was  built  by  Ptolemy  Philadelphus, 
is  now  called  Ptolometa.    The  walls  and  gateb 


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axe  stiU  entire,  and  there  are  a  vast  number  of 
Greek  inscriptioDS,  but  only  a  few  columns  of 
the  portico  remain.  Tl^re  is  likewise  an  Ionic 
temple,  in  the  most  ancient  style  of  executing 
that  order,  of  whidi  Mr.  Bruce  took  a  drawing, 
which  is  preserved  in  the  king's  collection. 

Ptolemais,  the  port  of  Axsinoe,  situated  on 
the  west  branch  of  the  Nile,  which  concurs  to 
form  the  island  called  Nomos  Heracleotes,  to  the 
south  of  the  vertex  of  the  Delta. 

PTOLEMY  (Claudius),  a  celebrated  mathe- 
matician and  astrologer,  bom  at  Pelusium,  and 
sumamed  by  the  Gr^ks  most  divine  and  most 
irise.  He  flourished  at  Alexandria  in  the 
second  century,  under  Adrian  and  Marcus 
Aurelius,  about  A.  D.  138.  There  are  still  ex- 
tant his  Geogr^hy,  and  several  learned  works 
OD  astronomy.  The  principal  of  which  are  1. 
The  Almagest.  2.  De  Judiciis  Astrologicis.  3. 
Planisphcrium.  His  system  of  the  world  was 
for  many  centuries  adopted  by  the  philosophers 
and  astronomers.    See  Astsonomt. 

Ptolemt,  a  son  of  Pyrrhus,  king  ^f  Epirus, 
by  Antigone,  who  was  left  governor  of  Epirus, 
while  his  fiither  was  absent  in  Italy,  fighting 
against  the  Romans.  He  governed  with  gr^ 
prudence,  and  was  killed  some  time  after  in 
Fyrrhus's  expedition  against  Sparta  aud  Argos. 

Ptolemy  Csraukus,  the  eldest  brother  of 
Ptolemv  Philadelphus,  who  fled  to  Seleucus 
kiiKf  of  Macedoma,  wlio  received  him  hospita- 
bly; in  return  for  which  he  assassinated  Kim, 
and  usurped  his  crown.  He  then  invited  Ar- 
sinoe,  who  was  his  widow  and  his  own  sister,  to 
share  the  government  with  him;  but,  as  soon  as 
he  had  her  in  his  power,  he  murderad  her  and 
her  children.  He  was  at  length  defeated,  killed, 
and  torn  limb  from  limb  by  the  Gauls,  A.  A.  C. 
279. 

Ptolemt  Laous,  or  Soteb,  king  of  Egypt,  a 
renowned  warrior,  who  established  the  a^emy 
at  Alexandria.  He  was  the  first  of  the  Mace- 
donian race  of  Egyptian  monarchs,  being  a  na- 
tural son  of  Philip  II.  of  Macedon,  by  Arsinoe, 
who  married  Lagus  while  she  was  pregnant  of 
him.  He  was  one  of  Alexander's  generals,  and 
killed  an  Indian  lung  in  single  combat;  and  to 
his  courage  Alexander  owed  the  reduction  of 
Aomus.  He  conquered  Coelosyria,  Phoenicia, 
and  part  of  Syria,  and  carried  100,000  prisoners 
to  ^gypt,  whom  he  attached  to  him  by  liberal 
privileges.  He  wrote  a  History  of  Alexander, 
which  was  much  admired,  but  ia  lost  He  died 
A  A  C.  284,  aged  ninety-two. 

Ptolevt  Philadelphus,  the  second  son  of 
Ptolemy  Soier.  He  was  renowned  as  a  coi>- 
queror,  but  more  reyered  for  his  great  virtues 
and  political  abilities.  He  established  and  auff. 
mented  the  famous  Alexandrian  library,  whicn 
bad  been  begun  by  his  fiither.  He  greatly  in- 
creased the  commerce  of  Egypt,  and  granted 
considerable  privileges  to  the  Jews,  from  whom 
he  obtained  a  copy  of  the  Old  Testament,  which 
he  caused  to  be  translated  into  Greek,  and  de- 
posited in  his  library.  See  Septuagint.  He 
«ed  246  years  B.  C.  aged  sixty-four. 

Ptolemy  was  also  the  name  of  eleven  other 
kings  of  Egypt,  of  whose  reigns  we  here  only 
add  the  following  brief  chronological  table,  down 
to  queen  Cleopatra,  the  last  of  the  race  :— 


239  PUB 

Years.  A.M. 

1.  Ptolemy  Sote*  reigned  39    and  died  3720 

2.  Ptolemy  Philadelphus 

3.  Ptolemy  Euexgetes 

4.  Ptolemy  Philopater 

5.  Ptolemy  Epiphanes 

6.  Ptolemy  Philometor 

7.  Ptolemy  Physcon 

8.  Ptolemy  Lathyrus 

9.  Ptqlemy  Alexander  I. 
10.  Ptolemy  Alexander  II. 
11..  Ptolemy  Alexander  III. 


39 

3758 

25 

3783 

17 

3800 

24 

3824 

37 

3861 

28 

3888 

36J 

3923 

20 

3943 

6 

3949 

1 

banished. 

13 

3953 

«l 

3953 

17 

8974 

_  _ .  Ptolemy  Auletes 

13.  Ptolemy  DionysiiA 

14.  Cleopatra 

PU'BERTY,  n.  s.")     Fr.  puherti ;  Lat.  iw. 

Publs'cence,        ybertat.    The  time  of  life 

PuBEs'cENT,  adj.  J  in  which  the  two  sexes  be- 
gin to  be  acquainted  i  pubescence  is  thS  state  of 
puberty:  pubescent,  the  corresponding  adject 
tive. 

The  cause  of  changing  the  voice  at  the  years  of 
fubtrtg  seemeth  to  be,  for  that  when  much  of  the 
moisture  of  the  body,  which  did  before  irrigate  the 
parts,  is  drawn  down  to  the  speimatical  vessels,  it 
leaveth  the  body  more  hot  than  it  was,  whence  cometk 
the  dilatation  m  the  pipes.  Bacon. 

Solon  divided  it  into  ten  septenaries :  in  the  first  is 
dedentitbn  or  Calling  of  teetn,  in  the  second  pute- 

That  the  Women  are  menstraant^  and  the  men 
puhetoeta  at  the  year  of  twice  seven,  is  accounted  a 
pundtual  truth.  Jd, 

All  the  carnivorous  animals  would  have  multiplied 
exceedingly,  before  these  children  that  escaped  could 
come  to  the  age  o{ puberty.  Bentley*s  Sernwnt, 

PuBEKTT,  in  law,  is  fixed  at  the  age  of  twelve 
in  females,  and  fourteen  in  males ;  after  which 
they  are  reckoned  to  be  fit  for  marriage. 

PUBES,  in  botany,  the  hair  or  down  on  the 
leaves  of  some  plants.    See  Haik. 

PuBES,  in  anatomy.    See  Akatomt. 

PUBTJC,  adj.  kn.i.^      Vi.mbUque;  Itol. 

Pub'lican,  n.  I.  and  Span,  publico; 

PuBtxcA'TiON,  Port,  pubrico;  Lat. 

PvBLic-HousE,  publicOfpubUus,  Ge- 

Pub'licly,  adv.  >  nend;  universal; 

Pub'licness,  n.  s.  open :  belonging  to 

PuBLic-sPia'iTED,  o^      a  state  or  nati6n ; 

Pub'lish,  v.  a.  open :  the  great  body 

Pub'lisher,  n.i,  J  oi  a  people  or  of 

mankind ;  open  view  or  notice ;  exposure :  pub- 
licly and  publicness  corresponding :  publican  is, 
in  an  ancient  sense,  a  toll  or  tax-gatherer ;  in  a 
modem  one,  the  landlord  of  a  house  of  public 
entertainment,  or  public-house :  publication  is 
the  act  of  publishing  a  thing,  particularly  a 
book  published;  also  an  edition  of  a  book: 
public-spirited  is,  having  regard  to  the  general 
good;  patriotic:. to  publish  is,  to  make  ffenerally 
known;  make  public;  proclaim;  send  forth  a 
book  into  the  world :  publisher,  follows  both  the 
general  and  particular  sense. 

As  Jesus  sat  at  meat,  many  puNieans  and  sinners 
came  and  sat  down  with  him.  Matt.  is.  10. 

Joseph  being  a  just  man,  and  not  wilhnff  to  make 
her  a  public  example,  was  minded  to  put  her  away 
privily.  Matthew. 

By  following  the  law  of  private  reason,  where  the 
law  oipubiic  should  take  place,  they  breed  disturb, 
ance.  Hoohef 


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7or  tbe  mitnietion  of  all  men  to  etemil  life,  it  is 
necessary  that  the  sacred  and  saving  truth  of  God  be 
openly  fmbluh^  unto  them,  which  open  publication 
of  heavenly  mysteries  is  by  an  excellency  termed 
preaching.  ^d. 

How  will  this  grieve  you. 
When  you  shall  come  to  clearer  knowledge,  that 
You  thus  have  puUuhed  me !  ShaJupeare, 

Love  of  you 
Hath  made  me  pubUsher  of  this  pretence.         Id, 
Sometimes  also  it  may  be  private,  communicating 
to  the  judges  some  things  not  fit  to  be  publiclg  deli- 
vered. Bacon, 
And  for  traducing  such 
That  are  above  ua,  publishing  to  the  world 
Their  secret  crimes,  we  are  as  innocent 
As  such  as  are  born  dumb.               Massenger. 
His  commission  from  God  and  his  doctrine  tend  to 
the    impressing  the  necessity  of  that  reformation 
which  he  came  to  publuh,                         Hammond, 

If  I  had  not  unwarily  too  far  engaged  myself  for 
the  present  publishing  it,  I  should  have  kept  it  by  me. 

Dipby, 
They  were  public  hearted  men ;  as  they  paid  all 
taxes,  so  they  gave  up  all  their  time  to  their  Country's 
service,  without  any  reward  Clarendon. 

A  dismal  universal  hiss,  the  sound 
Of  public  acorn.  Milton. 

Suppose  he  should  relent. 
And  publish  grace  to  all.  Id. 

i  f  royal  maids  how  wretch^  is  the  fate, 
Bora  only  to  be  victims  of  the  state ; 
Our  hopes,  our  wishes,  all  our  passions  tried 
For  public  use,  the  slaves  of  others  pride. 

Granville, 
The  multitude  of  partners  does  detract  nothing 
from  each  private  share,  nor  does  the  puJbUeknest  of  it 
lessen  propriety  in  it  Bojflc, 

The  apostle  doth  not  speak  as  the  publisher  of  a 
new  law,  but  only  as  a  teacher  and  monitor  of  what 
his  lord  and  master  had  taught  before.    KetUewell. 

These  were  the  public  spiriiei  men  of  their  age* 
that  is,  patriots  of  their  own  interest.  Dryden, 

Philosophy,  though  it  likes  not  a  gaudy  dress,  yet, 
when  it  appears  in  publict  must  have  so  much  com- 
placency as  to  be  cloathed  in  the  ordinary  fashion. 

Loche, 
They  have  with  bitter  clamours  defaced  the  public 
service  of  our  church.  White, 

I  am  called  off  from  public  dissertations  by  a  do- 
mestic afiair  of  great  importance,  which  is  no  less 
than  the  disposal  of  my  sister  Jenny  for  life. 

Totter,  No.  75. 
Those  natbns  are  most  liable  to  be  over-run  and 
conquered,  where  the  people  are  rich,  and  where,  for 
want  of  good  conduct,  ^hrpublic  is  noor.  Daoenaut, 
All  nations  that  grew  great  out  of  little  or  nothing, 
did  so  merely  by  the  fnthlic  mindedness  of  particular 
persons.  South, 

The  public  is  more  disposed  to  censure  Uian  to 
praise.  Additon, 

The  income  of  the  commonwealth  is  raised  on  such 
as  have  money  to  spend  at  taverns  and  pubtic-houtet, 

td% 
This  has  been  so  sensibly  known  by  trading  na- 
tions, that  great  rewards  are  jmUtdUj^  offered  for  its 
supply.  Id, 

Another  pubUc-tpirHed  project,  which  the  common 
enemy  could  not  foresee,  might  tet  king  Charles  on 
the  throne.  Id, 

The  unwearied  sun,  from  day  to  day. 
Does  his  Creator's  power  display, 
And  puHuihcs  to  every  land 
The  work  of  an  almighty  hand.  Id,  Spectator. 
A  collection  of  poems  appeared,  in  which  the  pub- 


Usher  has  given  me  some  things  that  did  not  belong 
to  me.  Prior. 

A  good  magistrate  must  be  endued  with  a  public 
spirit,  that  is,  with  such  an  excellent  temper  as  sets 
him  loose  from  all  selfish  views,  and  makes  him  en- 
deavour towards  promoting  the  common  good. 

Atterbury, 
In  puhUc  'tis  they  hide, 
Where  none  distinguish.  Pope. 

An  imperfect  copy  having  been  offered  to  a  book- 
seller, you  consented  to  the  publication  of  one  more 
correct.  Id. 

The  publication  of  these  papen  was  not  owing  to 
our  folly,  but  that  of  others.  Suift, 

Have  we  not  able  counsellors  hourly  watching  over 
the  public  weal  1  Id. 

It  was  generous  and  pubHc-efmited  in  you  to  be 
of  the  kingdom's  side  in  this  dispute,  by  shewing, 
without  reserve,  your  disapprobation  of  Wood's  de- 
sign. Id. 
Then  each,  in  its  peculiar  honours  dad. 

Shall  publish  even  to  the  distant  eye 

Its  family  and  tribe.  Cowper, 

PITBLIUS,  a  prsnomen  very  common  among 
the  ancient  Komans.  It  was  the  prenomen  of 
the  Scipios,  Ovid,  and  many  other  eminent  men. 

PUCERON,  in  entomology,  a  common  name 
given  to  several  genera  of  animalcules  or  insects, 
most  of  which  live  on  the  young  •  branches  of 
trees,  particularly  the  peach  tree,  and  feed  on  the 
sap.  The  various  genera  and  species  of  puce- 
rons  have  each  their  favorite  plant,  on  which 
they  live  and  feed  on  its  juices. 

Earth  pucerons  differ  from  most  of  the  other 
genera,  by  residing  in  the  earth.  In  the  month 
of  March,  if  the  turf  be  raised  in  several  places 
in  any  dry  pasture,  there  will  be  found,  under 
some  parts  of  it,  clusters  of  anta*;  and,  on  a  far- 
ther search,  it  will  be  usually  found  that  diese 
ants  are  gathered  about  some  pucerons  of  a  pe- 
culiar species.  These  pucerons  are  large,  and 
of  a  grayish  color,  and  are  usually  found  in  the 
midst  of  clusters  of  ants.  As  the  common  abode 
of  the  other  kinds  of  puceron  is  on  the  young 
branches  or  leaves  of  trees,  and  as  their  only 
food  is  tbe  sap  of  these  trees,  these  earth  kinds 
are  supposed  to  extract  their  food  from  the 
roots  ot  grasses,  and  other  plants,  in  the  same 
manner  mat  the  others  do  from  the  leaves  and 
branches.  The  ants  follow  these  and  the  other 
species,  for  the  sake  of  the  saccharine  juices 
which  they  extract  from  plants,  and  whicb  they 
evacuate  vei^  little  altered  from  their  original 
state  in  the  vegetable. 

Oak  pucerons,  a  name  given  by  naturalists  to 
a  very  remarkable  species  of  animal*  of  the 
puceron  kind.  Th^  bury  themselves  in  the 
clefb  of  the  oak  and  some  other  trees,  and  get 
into  the  crevices,  where  the  bark  is  a  little  sepa- 
rated from  the  vcood.  They  are  larger  than  the 
other  pucerons,  the  winged  ones  being  nearly  as 
large  as  a  common  house  fly;  those  wimou^¥nngs 
are  also  larger  than  any  other  species  of  th^  same 
genus.  The  winged  ones  are » black,  and.  the 
others  of  a  coffee  color.  Their  trunk  is  twice 
the  length  qf  their  bodies,  and,  when  widking,  it 
is  carried  straight  along  tlie  belly,  trailing  behind 
it  vrith  the  point  m .  When  the  puceron  wishes 
to  suck  a  part  of  a  tree  that  is  just  before  it,  it 
draws  up,  and  shortens  the  trank,  till  it  brings 


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it  to  a  proper  length  and  direction ;  but,  when  it 
sucks  m  the  common  way,  it  crawls  upon  the 
inner  surface  of  the  bark,  and  the  turned  up  end 
of  the  trunk,  which  resembles  a  tail,  fixes  itself 
against  the  wood  that  is  behind  it,  and  sucks 
there.  The  extremity  of  this  trunk  holds  so  fast 
by  the  wood,  that,  when  it  is  pulled  away,  it  fre- 
quently brings  a  small  piece  of  the  wood  away 
with  it  The  ants  are  as  fond  of  these  as  of  the 
other  species  of  pucerons,  not  feeding  upon  them, 
bat  on  their  dung,  which  is  a  liquid  matter  of  a 
sweet  taste.  "Diese  creatures  ve  die  surest 
guides  where  to  find  this  species  of  pnceron ; 
for,  if  we  at  any  time  see  a  number  of  these 
crawling  up  an  oak  and  creeping  into  the  clefts 
of  the  l^k,  we  may  be  assured  tbit  in  that  place 
there  are  quantities  of  these  oak  pucerons.  The 
ants  are  so  extremely  fond  of  the  juices  of  the 
tree,  when  prepsored  by  passing  throof^  the  body 
of  this  anxmal»  that  when  ue  puceron  has  a 
drop  not  yet  evacuated,  but  hanging  onl^'in  part 
out  at  tde  passage,  an  ant  will  often  seize  on  it 
there. 

PUCK',  n. «. )     Scot  puck  f  Goth.  puke.   A 

Pcck'er.  )  sprite  among  the  fairies;  an 
imp,  who  seems  chargeable  with  mischievous 
disarrangements  of  ladies*  work,  dress,  &c.: 
hence  pucker,  a  disorderly  fold  :  or  from  Poke, 
a  bag^  which  see. 

0  gentle  puek,  take  this  tiaDsfionned  scalp 

From  off  the  head  of  this  Athenian  swain. 

8kakspear$* 
Turn  your  cloaks, 
Quoth  he,  for  puck  is  busy  in  these  oaks, 
And  this  is  fairy  ground.  Corbet, 

I  saw  an  hideous  spectre ;  his  eyes  were  sunk  into 
bis  head,  his  face  pale  and  withered,  and  his  skin 
ptteftfrtd  up  in  wrinkles.  Sptctmtor* 

A  ligatai«  above  the  part  wouaded  is  pernicious, 
as  itfmeken  up  the  intestines  and  diseriers  its  si- 

9t0rp» 


PUITDINGrn.  i.'\     Fr.  6oim^  ;  Welsh  pot- 

Puo'dikcpies,       >ten  (an  intestine)  Swed. 

Pud'dingtime.  j  puding :  Svian,  pjjidifu  A 
kind  of  food  variously  compounaed,  but  made 
commonly  of  meal  and  suitable  admixtures :  it 
seems  to  owe  its  name  to  being  originally  cooked 
in  the  integuments  of  animals :  a  pudding  pie 
is  a  pudding  containing  meat:  pudding  time, 
dinner  time:  hence,  by  a  construction  natural 
enough,  any  critical  time. 

He'll  yield  the  crow  a  pudding  one  of  these  days ; 
the  king  has  killed  his  heart.  S/taktpettre,  Henry  V, 
As  sure  as  his  guts  are  made  of  puddingt. 


PUCKHOLI,  or  Paxali,  a  district  to  the 
nordi  of  the  province  of  Lahore,  situated  about 
34°  of  N.  lat.,  and  bounded  on  the  west  by 
the  Indus.  It  Is  very  little  known  beyond  the 
description  given  of  it  in  the  sixteenth  century  by 
Abul  Fazel.  The  common  but  hazardous  road 
from  Cashmere  to  the  Indus  lies  through  this 
district,  which  is  chiefly  held  by  predatory 
Afghaun  tribes. 

PUDDER,  n.  <.,  v,  n.,  &  v.  a.  Commonly 
written  Pother,  which  see.  A  tumult ;  turbu- 
lent and  irregular  bustle :  to  make  such  a  bustle : 
to  perplex;  confound. 

Let  the  great  gods. 
That  keep  this  dieadfui  pudder  o'er  oar  heads, 
Find  out  their  enemies.    S3iaksptme.  King  Lear, 
What  a  p»iddef  is  made  about  eieencei,  and  how 
much  is  all  knowledge  pesteied  by  the  careless  aae 
efwoids!  Locke, 

Mathematiciaiis,  abstractixig  their  thoaghu  from 
aames,  and  setting  before  their  nunds  the  ideas 
themselves,  have  avoided  a  great  part  of  that  per- 
nlexity,  puddering  and  confasion,  which  has  so  mach 
hindered  knowledge.  Id, 

He  that  will  improve  every  matter  of  fact  into  a 
n^arim  will  abound  in  contrary  observations,  that 
can  be  of  no  other  use  but  to  perplex  and  pudder 
him.  ^^  Id, 

Vou  XVIII. 


Some  cry  the  covenant,  instead 
Of  puddhgpiei  and  gingerbread.        HvdUnrn, 
Mars  that  still  protects,  the  stout, 
In  puddingtime  came  to  his  aid.  Id, 

Sallads,  and  eggs,  and  lighter  fare 
Tune  the  Italian  spark's  guitar ; 
And,  if  I  take  Dan  Conereve  right. 
Pudding  and  beef  make  Britons  fight.     Prior. 
Mind  neither  good  nor  bad,  nor  right  nor  wrong, 
But  eat  your  pudding,  slave,  and  hold  your  tongue. 

Pfwr. 

PUDDLE,  w.s.&t?.fl.>       Latin    ptdeolua. 

Pud'dly,  adv.  S  Skinner ;  from  old 

Bavarian  poily  dirt,  Junius;   Ital.  padula,    A 

small  muddy  lake ;  a  dirty  plash :  to  plash ;  be 

mired ;  the  adverb  corresponding. 

As  if  I  saw  my  sun-shine  in  a  puddled  water,  I 
cried  out  of  nothing  but  Mopsa.  Sidney, 

Thou  didst  dnnk 
The  stale  of  horses,  and  the  gilded  puddle 
Which  beasts  would  cough  at.  Shaktpeare, 

His  beard  they  sineed  off  with  brand  of  fire, 
And,  ever  as  it  blaaed,  they  threw  on  him 
Great  pails  of  pieidled  mire  to  quench  the  hair.  Id. 
Limy,  or  thick  puddly  water  killeth  them. 

*  CarMo 

The  Hebrews  drink  of  the  well-head,  the  Greeks 
of  the  stream,  and  the  Latins  of  the  puddk.  HalL 
Treadioff  where  the  treacherous  puddU  lay. 

His  heels  new  up;  and  on  the  grassy  floor 

He  fell,  besmeared  with  filth.      Dryden'i  Vtrgil. 
The  noblest  blood  of  Africk 
Runs  in  my  veins,  a  purer  stream  than  thine ; 
For,  though  derived  from  the  same  source,  thy  cur- 
rent 
Is  puddled  and  defiled  with  tyranny.  Dryden. 

A  physician  cured  madmen  thus :  they  were  tied 
to  a  stake,  and  then  set  in  a  puddle,  till  brought  to 
their  wits.  VEetrange, 

Happy  was  the  man,  who  was  sent  on  an  errand 
to  the  .most  remote  streeet,  which  he  performed  with 
the  greatest  alacrity,  ran  through  every  puddle,  and 
took  care  to  return  covered  with  dirL  Addium, 

FU'DENCY,  n.s.  Lat.  pttdeiu.  Modesty; 
shameiacedneas. 

A  ptadentuMi  rosy,  the  sweet  view  on't 
4itweUhav(  " 


Might  well  have  warm'd  oki  Saturn. 

Shakspeare, 

PUEBLA,  or  Puebla  de  los  Akoblos  (be- 
cause, as  we  shall  see,  the  angels  were  materially 
concerned  in  the  erection  of  the  capital),  is  one 
of  the  twelve  i&tendencies  into  which  Mexico  or 
the  former  '  New  Spain'  is  divided.  It  has  a 
coast  of  about  seventy-eirht  railed  towards  the 
Pacific;  and,  as  it  extend  from  i^^  57'  to  20"* 
40*  of  N.  lat.,  is  wholly  situated  within  the  tio- 
pics.    It  is  bounded  on  the  nordi^east  by  Vera 

R 


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P  U  E  B  L  A. 


Cruz,  on  the  east  by  the  intendancy  of  Oaxaca, 
on  the  south  by  the  Ocean,  and  oo  the  west  by 
Mexico. ,  Its  greatest  length  from  the  mouth  of 
the  smaU  river  Tecoyame  to  near  Mexitlan  is 
118  leagues,  and  its  greatest  breadth  from  Te- 
chuacan  to  Mecameca  is  150  miles.  Thegreater 
part  of  this  province  is  traversed  by  the  high 
Cordilleras  or  Anahuac.  Beyond  18°  of  lati- 
tude the  whole  country  is  a  plain,  eminently 
fertile  in  wheat,  maize,  agave,  and  fruits,  and 
from  5900  to  6560  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
sea.  Here  is  the  most  elevated,  mountain  of 
New  Spain,  the  Popocatepetl.  The  volcano, 
first  measiued  by  Humboldt,  is  continually 
burning ;  but  for  these  several  centuries  it  ha  * 
thrown  nothing  up  from  its  crater  but  smoke 
and  ashes.  It  is  nearly  2000  feet  higher  than 
the  most  elevated  summit  of  the  old  continent ; 
and  there  is  only  one  higher  mountain  in  the 
American  continent  The  population  is  un- 
equally distributed,  being  concentrated  on  the 
plain  which  extends  from  the  eastern  declivity 
of  the  snowy  Andes  to  the  environs  of  Perote, 
especially  between  Cholula,  La  Puebla,  and 
TIascala.  Almost  the  whole  country,  from  the 
central  table-land  towards  San  Luis  and  Ygua- 
lapa,  near  the  South  Sea  coast,  is  desert ;  but 
not  ill  adapted  for  sugar,  cotton,  and  other  pro- 
ductions of  the  tropics.  The  table-land  or  La 
Puebla  exhibits  vestiges  of  ancient  Mexican  ci- 
vilisation. The  great  pyramid  of  Cholula  is  a 
carious  monument 

'  We  left  La  Puebla  on  the  22d  of  March, 
and  slept  at  San  Martin,'  says  Mr.  Ward,  the 
latest  traveller  in  these  regions,  *  taking  the  road 
through  Cholula  to  that  place,  in  order  to  obtain 
a  better  view  of  .the  old  Mexican  Teocalli,  or 

Syramid,  of  which  Humboldt's  work  contains  so 
etailed  a  description.  The  base  of  this  pyra- 
mid comprises  a  square  of  about  1773  feet ;  the 
height  is  fifty-four  metres,  or  177  feet  It  is 
truncated,  and,  on  the  spacious  platform  in 
which  it  terminates,  the  conquerors  haye  erected 
a  chapel  as  if  to  mark  the  substitution  of  ano- 
ther creed,  and  another  race,  for  the  nation  by 
whose  united  exertions  this  stupendous  monu- 
ment must  have  been  raised.  The  whole  mass 
is  formed  of  alternate  layers  of  unbumt  bricks 
and  clay,  and  is  now  ovei^own  with  thick 
shrubs,  amoi^^t  which  clouds  of  tortolas  (a 
small  wood  pigeon)  are  found.  Its  structure  is 
said  by  baron  Humboldt  to  present  a  curious 
analogy  with  that  of  the  temple  of  Belus  at  Ba- 
bylon, and  of  the  pyramids  of  Egypt  Its  ob- 
ject was  undoubtealy  religious,  but  as  its  con- 
struction is  ascribed  to  the  Toltecs,  a  nation 
which  preceded  the  Aztecs  in  their  emigration 
towards  the  south,  the  exact  nature  of  the  rites 
to  which  it  was  dedicated  can  only  be  conjec- 
tured. It  may  have  served  for  the  performance 
of  human  sacrifices  in  the  sight  of  the  assem- 
bled tribe ;  or  as  a  place  of  defence  in  the  event 
of  an  unexpected  attack : — perhaps  the  two  ob- 
jects were  combined,  for,  in  the  siege  of  Mexico^ 
the  most  obstinate  resistance  was  made  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  great  temple  (which  resemUed  in 
form,  though  not  in  size,  the  Teocallis  of  Cho- 
'  lula  and  Teotihuacen),  from  the  summit  of  which 
the  prieBts.are  said  to  have  encouraged  the  war- 


riors by  whom,  the  great  staircase  and  platfona 
were  defended. 

<  The  view  from  the  pyramid  of  Cholula  em- 
braces the  three  great  volcanoes,  and  the  Ma- 
linche,  with  a  finely  cultivated  country  covering 
the  intervening  space.  The  town  of  Cholula 
lies  immediately  below  the  platform,  reduced, 
like  the  rival  state  of  TIascala,  which  is  sepa- 
rated from  it  by  the  Malinche,  to  a  mere  shadow 
of  its  former  greatness ;  but  still  indicating,  bv 
the  size  of  its  plaza,  the  extent  of  ground  which 
the  city  formerly  covered.  The  fertility  of  the 
pUiin  around  is  very  great,  as  from  the  vicinity 
of  the  two  great  mountains,  Popocatepetl  and 
Istaccihuatl,  a  constant  supply  of  water  for  irri- 
gation can  be  obtained ;  it  abounds  in  haciendas 
de  trigo  (com  estates),  many  of  which,  in  good 
years,  are  said  to  produce  wheat  in  the  propor- 
tion of  eighty  to  one  to  the  seed.  This  fertility 
terminates  a  little  b^ond  San  Martin,  where  the 
TOssage  of  the  mountains,  that  separate  J  a 
Puebla  from  Mexico,  commences.' 

The  progress  of  commerce  has  in  this  provinoe 
been  extremely  slow.  The  fiour  trade,  formerly 
very  flourishii^,  has  suffered  from  the  enormous 
price  of  carriage  from  the  Mexican  table-land  to 
the  Havannah,  and  especially  from  the  want  of 
beasts  of  burden.  That  which  Puebla  carried  on 
till  1710  with  Peru,  in  hats  and  delf-ware,  has 
entirely  ceased.  The  intendancy  has  considerable 
salt-works  near  Chila,  Xicotlan,  and  Ocotlan,  in 
the  district  of  ChiauUa,  as  also  near  Zapotitlan. 
The  beautiful  marble  known  by  the  name  of  the 
Puebla  marble  is  procured  in  the  quarries  of 
Totamehuacan  and  Tecali,  at  two  and  seven 
leagues  distance  from  the  capital.  The  indige- 
nous inhabitants  speak  three  languages,  Teiy  dif- 
ferent from  each  otner,  i.  e.  the  Mexican,  Totonac, 
and  Tlapanec.  Their  industry  is  not  much  di- 
rected to  the  working  of  the  mines,  many  of 
which  are  either  abandoned  or  very  partially 
worked.  The  population  of  Puebla  was  esti- 
mated, in  1803,  at  813,300  inhabitants.  The  ex- 
tent of  surface  is  2696  square  leagues,  which 
allows  301  inhabitants  to  each  square  league. 

Puebla,  la,  oe  los  Angelos,  a  city  of  Mexico^ 
the  capital  of  the  intendancy  of  this  name,  is  one 
of  the  number  of  American  towns  founded  by 
European  colonists ;  for,  in  the  plain  of  Acaxete 
or  Cuitlaxcoapan,  on  the  spot  wtiere  this  capital 
now  stands,  there  were  only,  in  the  beginning  of 
the  sixteenth  century,  a  few  huts  inhabited  by 
the  Indians  of  Cholula.  The  privilege  of  the 
town  of  Puebla  is  dated  28th  September,  1531. 

La  Puebla  stands  on  a  plain  7381  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  sea,  and  is,  after  Mexico,  Gua- 
naxuato,  and  the  Havannah,  the  most  considera- 
ble city  of  the  former  Spanish  colonies.  Its 
temples  are  sumptuous;  and  its  streets  wide, 
and  drawn  in  a  straight  line  from  east  to  west, 
and  from  north  to  south.  The  public  squares 
are  large  and  handsome,  and  the  edifices  in  a 
suitable  style  of  architecture.  The  principal 
square  is  adorned  on  three  sides  with  uniform 
porticoes,  and  shops  filled  with  all  kinds  of 
commodities;  on  the  other  is  the  cathedral,, 
which  has  a  very  beautiful  front,  and  two  lofty 
towers. 
^  '  We  remained,'  says  Mr.  Ward,  *  during  the 


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whole  of  the  22d  at  La  Puebla,  as  the  governor, 
whose  hospitality  and  friendly  disposition  to- 
wards eve^  Englishman  of  respectability  who 
visits  the  town  I  have  ever  found  the  same, 
would  not  hear  of  our  passing  a  shorter  time 
with  him  than  we  had  done  at  Jalapa  with  ge- 
neral Barraean.  The  delay  afforded  us  an  op- 
portunity of  seeing  the  cathedral,  a  magnificent 
building,  in  the  construction  of  which  the  angels 
thenuelves  are  said  to  have  taken  a  very  active 

CIt  is  regarded  by  the  Indians,  and  by  a 
proportion  of  the  female  Spanish  popular 
tion,  as  a  well  authenticated  fact,  that,  during 
the  time  that  the  walls  of  the  edifice  were  con- 
structing, two  messengers  from  heaven  descended 
every  night,  and  add^  to  their  height  exactly  as 
much  as  had  been  raised,  by  the  united  efforts 
of  the  laborers,  during  the  day.  With  such  as- 
sistance the  work  advanced  at  a  prodigious  rate, 
and  was  brought  to  a  conclusion  in  a  much 
shorter  space  of  time  than  could  have  been 
effected  by  human  exertions  alone.  It  is  in 
grateful  commemoration  of  this  event  that  the 
name  of  the  town,  *  La  Puebla  de  los  Angelos/ 
was  assumed ;  and  as  all  the  details  of  it  are 
recorded  with  singular  care  in  the  convents, 
which  have  since  been  built  upon  this  fevered 
spot,  there  is  little  danger  of  their  not  being 
luoded  down  to  posterity,  in  all  the  parity  in 
which  they  are  now  preserved. 

*  But,  whether  of  divine  or  human  origin,  the 
cathedral  is  a  very  fine  building,  and  the  riches 
of  the  interior  are  worthy  of  a  country  that  has 
produced,  during  the  last  two  centuries,  nearly 
two-thirds  of  the  whole  of  the  silver  raised  an- 
nually in  the  world.    The  lofty  candlesticks,  the 
balustrade,  the  lamps,  and  all  the  ornaments  of 
the  principal  altar,  are  of  massy  silver ;  and  the 
effect  produced  by  such  magnificence,*  in  con- 
junction with  the  beauty  of  the  columns  of  native 
marble  by  which  the  roof  is  supported,  is  very 
striking.     We  were  not,  however,  allowed  to 
admire  them  long  in  peace,  for,  notwithstand- 
ing the  presence  of  Madame  Calderon,  and  two 
or  three  aides-de-camp  of  the  governor,  the  cjx- 
nosity  excited  by  the  first  appearance  of  an 
English  woman  was  so  ungovernable  that  Uie 
great  market-place,  through  which  the  carriage 
bad  passed,  transferred  in  a  moment  by  far  & 
largest  portion  of  its  inmates  to  the  cathedra], 
where  the  crowd  soon  beoune  so  great  that, 
althou^  no  incivility  was  intended,  it  was  quite 
impossible  for  us  to  remain.    La  Puebla  con- 
tained, at  that  time,  a  Laxzaroni  population 
nearly  as  numerous  as  that  of  the  capital ;  a 
naked  and  offensive  race,  whom  you  cannot  ap- 
proach without  pollution,  or  even  behold  wito- 
out  disgust    I  ao  not  know  any  thing  in  nature 
more  hideous  than  an  old  Indian  woman,  with 
all  the  deformities  of  her  person  displayed,  as 
they  usually  are,  by  a  dress  which  hardly  covers 
a  tenth  part  of  her  body ;  and  in  La  Puebla,  in 
consequence  of  the  nuiperous  convents  in  which 
alms  were  distributed,  these  objects  were  parti- 
cularly  numerous.     We   were    too    happy  to 
escape  by  a  different  door  from  tliat  by  which 
we  had  entered,  and  to  take  refuge  in  the  car- 


the  cathedral,  there  are  other  churches 


and  convents,  well  built  and  adorned.  There 
are  also  several  colleges  and  charity  schools, 
both  for  male  and  female  pupils.  Puebla  was 
formerly  celebrated  for  its  fine  manufactories  of 
delf-ware  and  pots.  At  present  the  delf  manu- 
factories have  aeclined,  on  account  of  the  low 
price  of  the  stone-ware  and  porcelain  imported 
at  Vera  Cruz.  Hard  soap  is  still  a  considerable 
manu£ELcture  and  object  of  commerce:  it  is  also 
famous  for  its  manufactures  of  iron  and  steel, 
particularly  swords  and  bayonets. 

Mr.  Ward  says  *  La  Puebla  was  formerly  a 
town  inferior  only  to  the  capital  in  extent  and 
population.  It  contains  at  present  about  60,000 
inhabitants,  and  is  an  important  place,  as  being 
the  seat  both  of  the  ricnest  bishopric  in  the 
country,  and  of  the  most  extensive  manufactures 
of  cotton,  earthenware,  and  wool.  The  streets, 
like  those  of  Mexico,  are  rectangular,  spacious, 
and  airy.  The  houses  low,  but  roomy,  and  the 
apartments  mostly  paved  with  porcelain,  and 
adorned  with  Fresco  paintings  on  the  stuccoed 
walls.  The  country  around  is  rich,  but  naked, 
being  totally  devoid  of  iie^.s,  with  the  exception 
of  the  Pinal,  a  pine  forest  (as  the  name  implies), 
which  extends  from  within  a  league  and  a  half 
of  Nopaluca,  to  about  five  lea^ies  from  the  gates 
of  La  Puebla,  where  cultivation  re-commences. 
The  whole  distance  is  about  twelve  leagues. 
The  road  through  the  Pinal  is  extremely  bad, 
and  dangerous  in  unsettled  times,  the  forest 
being  the  favorite  haunt  of  banditti,  who  some- 
times assemble  there  in  considerable  numbers 
for  a  coup  de  main.'  Seventy  miles  E.S.E.  of 
Mexico,  and  150  W.N.W.  of  Vera  Cruz.  In- 
habitants 67,800. 

PUENTE  DEL  Abcobispo,  or  Archbishop's 
Bridge,  a  town  in  toe  west  of  Spain,  on  the 
Tagus,  fifty-eight  miles  W.S.W.  of  Toledo. 
Population  1200,  The  name  is  derived  from  an 
old  bridge  over  the  river. 

PuEMTE  DE  Don  Gomzalo,  a  town  of  Cor- 
dova, Spain,  belonging  in  part  to  the  duke  of 
Medina  Celi.  Population  4800.  Fifteen  miles 
west  of  Lucena. 

PU'ERILE,  adj,  >      Fr.  puerile ;  Lat  ptier»- 
Pueril'ity,  n.s,Sl**'  Childbh;  boyish:  slate 
or  time  of  boyhood ;  childishness. 
A  reserve  of  pumitty  not  shaken  off  from  school. 

Brovme, 
Some  men,  imaeining  themselves  possessed  with  a 
divine  fiiiy,  often  fall  into  toys  and  trifles,  which  are 
ovXy  pum/t<iM.  Dryden, 

I  looked  upon  the  mansion  with  a  veneration  mixt 
with  a  pleasure  that  represented  her  to  me  in  those 
pueriie  amusements.  Pope, 

PUERPERAL  Fevkb.  See  Midwifery. 
PUERTO  DEL  Baylio  Bucareli,  a  bay  on 
the  west  coast  of  the  Prince  of  Wales's  archipe- 
lago, discovered  by  Quadra  in  1775,  and  con- 
taining a  great  number  of  small  islands.  Long. 
226**  12'  to  22r  5'  E.,  lat.  55*»  14'  to  55*  40'  N. 
Puerto  de  Bazan,  a  bay  on  the  south-west 
coast,  of  the  above  archipelago.  Long.  227° 
16'E.,  lat.  54'»49'N. 

Puerto  Cordova,  a  bay  on  the  east  coast  of 
Prince  William's  Sound,  between  Hawkins's  Is- 
land and  the  north-west  coast  of  America.  Long. 
214*»13'  E.,  lat.  60*  3r  N. 

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Puerto  Cordova  y  Cordova,  a  large  bay 
of  the  North  Pacific,  on  the  south  side  of  the 
Prince  of  Wales's  archipelagq.  Long.  227**  28' 
to  228«  E.,  lat.  5A°  42'  to  55°  6'  N. 

Puerto  Gravina,  an  inlet  on  the  north- 
western coast  of  America,  in  Prince  William's 
Sound.  For  four  miles  it  runs  parallel  to  the 
neighbouring  inlet  of  Port  Fidalgo,  and  the  in- 
tervening land  is  not  more  than  four  miles  across. 
It  then  suddenly  turns  to  the  N.  N.  £.  for  about 
four  miles  and  a  half,  when  it  termiqates  in  a 
shallow  flat  in  long.  214°  45'  E.,  lat.  60°  44'  N. 
At  its  entrance  it  is  from  four  to  six  mites  wide. 

Puerto  Real,  an  increasing  town  in  the 
south-west  of  Spain,  in  Seville,  five  miles  east 
of  Cadiz,  on  the  bay.  The  streets  are  airy, 
clean,  and  straight.  At  the  beginning  of  last 
century  it  had  not  more  than  1500  inl^bitants: 
it  now  contains  more  than  10,000.  This  is  the 
great  depot  of  the  salt  made  in  the  tanks  that  of 
the  isle  of  Leon  and  bay  of  Cadiz. 

Puerto  de  Santa  Maria*  or  St.  Mary's, 
the  Portus  Menesthei  of  the  ancients,  a  sea-port 
of  Spain,  in  Seville,  five  miles  north-east  of 
Cadiz,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Guadalete.  The  cli- 
mate is  excellent,  having  little  either  of  the  se- 
verity of  cold  in  winter,  or  the  scorching  heat  of 
summer,  and  the  town  is  well  built,  well  paved, 
and  kept  very  clean.  The  Calle  Ancha  is  about 
a  mile  m  length,  and  resembles  a  superior  Eng- 
lish street  in  the  number  of  shops  and  bustle. 
On  the  west  side  of  the  town  there  is  a  very  fine 
prospect  of  the  bay  and  town  of  Cadiz,  and  the 
surrounding  country.  The  church  and  monas- 
teries are  chiefly  remarkable  for  a  profusion  of 
ornaments.  The  public  walk  is  fine ;  and  there 
is  a  beautiM  public  garden  on  the  bank  of  the 
Guadalete.  The  quay  is  also  well  contrived, 
but  large  ships  cannot  come  up,  on  account  of 
sand-banks  at  the. mouth  of  the  river.  The  only 
manufacture  of  consequence  is  linen  and  printea 
cotton,  but  the  inhabitants  are  still  more  in  pre- 

Siring  the  bay-salt  of  the  adjoining  salt-pans, 
ere  is  also  a  traffic  in  the  conveyance  of  water 
from  one  of  the  fountains  to  Cadiz,  for  the  sup- 
ply of  the  town  and  ships.  *St.  Majy's  is  the 
residence  of  the  captain-general  and  vicar-gene- 
ral  of  Andalusia,  and  of  an  official  of  the  arch- 
bishop of  Castile.    Inhabitants  12,000. 

PU'ET,  n. «.,  or  Pew'et,  which  see.    A  kind 
of  water  fowl. 
Among  the  first  sort  are  coots,  sanderlings  and 

pewets,  Sarew, 

The  fish  have  enemies  enough ;  as  otters,  the  cor- 
morant, and  the  -puet,  Walton's  Angler. 

PUFF,  n.  ».,  t;. «.  &  v.  a.  "j     Belg.  pof;  Span. 
Puf'fingly,  adv.  S-jDotf/b,  bufo ;  French 

Puf'fy,  adj.  J  bouffe;  Scot,  buffie : 

and  there  is  an  oriental  fuf  (Pers.),  and  iSans. 
pu,  wind;  all  clearly  words  deriv^  from  the 
sound  of  wind  blown  from  the  mouth.  A  blast 
of  wind  through  the  lips ;  a  small  blast  of  wind; 
any  thing  light  or  porous ;  or  any  thing  used  to 
sprinkle  light  dust  with,  as  hair-powder,  &c. :  to 
pufl*  is  (0  blow  in  the  way  described :  hence  to 
swell  the  cheieks  with  wind;  breathe  thick  or 
hard ;  swell  with  wind  or  air ;  move  with  hurry  or 
tumult  (which  produces  puffing) ;  sneer  at ;  treat 
with  scorn,  or  as  light  and  trifling :  as  a  verb 


active  to  inflate ;  drive  or  agitate;  swell  or  elate 
with  pride;  the  adjective  and  adverb  follow  these 
senses. 

Think  not  of  men  above  that  which  is  written, 
that  no  one  of  you  be  puffed  up  one  against  another. 
1  Corinthians  iv.  6. 
His  looke  like  a  coxcomb  up  puffed  with  pride. 

Tmter. 
Wherefore  do  you  follow  her, 
Like  foggy  South  pujlng  with  wind  and  rain  7 

Shakspeare. 
Seldfthown  flammias 
Do  press  among  the  popular  throngs,  and  puff" 
To  win  a  vulgar  station.  Id.  Coriaiastus, 

Have  I  not  heard  the  sea,  puffed  up  with  winds. 
Rage  like  an  angry  boar  chafed  with  sweat  1 

Shakspeare. 
This  army,  led  by  a  tender  prince. 
Whose  spirit,  with  divine  ambition  puffl. 
Makes  mouths  at  the  invisible  event.  Id. 

The  Rosemary,  in  the  days  of  Henry  VII.  with  a 
sudden  puff  of  wind  stooped  her  side,  and  took  in 
water  at  her  ports  in  such  abundance,  as  that  she  in- 
stantly sunk.  Raleigh, 
The  attendants  of  courts  engage  them  in  quarrels 
of  jurisdiction,  being  truly  parasiti  curia,  in  pujfing 
a  court  up  beyond  her  bounds  for  their  own  advan- 
tage. Bacon, 
Then  came  brave  dory  pufing  by 
In  silks  that  whistled,  who  but  he  1 
He  scarce  allowed  me  half  an  eye.  Herbert, 
Let  him  fall  by  his  own  greatness. 
And  pttjfhim  up  with  glory,  till  it  swell 
And  break  him.                       Denham^s  Sophtf. 

The  naked  breathless  body  lies. 
To  every  puff  of  wind  a  slave, 
At  the  beck  of  every  wave. 
That  once  perhaps  was  fair,  rich,  stoat,  and  wise. 

FUstman. 
A  new  coal  is  not  to  be  cast  on  the  nitre,  till  the 
detonation  be  quite  ended  ;  unless  the  puffing  matter 
blow  the  coal  out  of  the  crucible.  Boyle. 

A  true  son  of  the  church 
Came  puffing  with  his  greasy  bald-pate  choir. 
And  fumbling  o'er  his  beads.  Dryden. 

The  unerring  sun  by  certain  signs  declares 
When  the  South  projects  a  storm^r  day. 
And  when  the  clearing  North  will  puff  the  clouds 
away.  Lfryden's  VirgU*e  Georgies. 

I  can  enjoy  her  while  she's  kind; 
But  when  she  dances  in  the  wind. 
And  shakes  her  wings,  and  will  not  stay, 
I  puff  the  prostitute  away.  Drgden. 

An  injudicious  poet,  wIm^  aims  at  loftiness,  runs 
into  the  swelling  puffy  stile,  because  it  looks  like 
greatness.  Id. 

A  puff  of  mnd  blows  off  cap  and  wig.  U Estrange. 
The  ass  comes  back  again,  puffing  and  blowing 
from  the  chase.  Id. 

Flattering  of  others,  and  boasting  of  ourselves, 
mav  be  referred  to  lying ;  the  one  to  please  others, 
and  pit^them  up  with  self-conceit ;  the  other  to  gain 
more  honour  than  is  due  to  ourselves.  Ray. 

In  garret  vile,  he  with  a  wanning  puff 
Regales  chill  fingers.  PMlips. 

Some  puff  at  these  instances,  as  being  such  as 
were  under  a  difierent  economy  of  religion,  and  con- 
sequently not  directly  pertinent  to  ours.         South,  ' 
Why  must  the  winds  all  hold  their  tongue  1 
If  they  a  little  breath  should  raise  ; 

Would  that  have  spoiled  the  poet's  song, 
Or  puffed  away  the  monarch's  praise  t         Prior. 
Emphysema  is  a  light  puffy  tumour,  easily  yield- 
ing to  the  pressure  of  your  iingerB,  and  ariseth  again 
in  the  instant  you  take  them  off.  Wiseman. 


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I  have  been  endeavouring  very  busily  to  raise  a 
friendship,-  which  the  fint  bmth  of  any  ill-oatured 
by-stander  could  fuff  away.  Pope, 

Who  stands  safest  ?  tell  me.  is  it  he 
That  spreads  and  swells  in  ptiffed  pros])erity  t     Id, 

The  Plueadans  were  so  pu.jf'ed  up  with  their  con- 
stant felicity,  that  they  thought  nothing  impossible. 

jBroome, 

Honor's  ^pujjfof  noisy  breath.  Wattt, 

The  pipe,  with  solemn  interposing  puff, 
Makes  haif  a  sentence  at  a  time  enough ; 
The  dosing  sages  drop  the  drowsy  strain, 
l*ben  pause,  and  puff-^nd  speak,  and  pause  again. 

PUFFENDORF  (Samuel  de),  an  eminent 
German  lawyer,  bom  in  1631  at  Fleh,  a  village 
of  Misnia,  in  Upper  Saxony.  He  was  son  of 
Elias  PufTeadorf,  minister  of  that  place.  After 
acquiring  the  sciences  at  Leipsic,  he  studied  the 
public  law,  but  refused  to  take  the  degree  of 
doctor.  He  accepted  the  place  of  governor  to 
the  son  of  Mr.  Coyot,  then  ambassador  from 
Sweden  to  the  court  of  Denmark.  For  this 
purpose  he  went  to  Copenhagen,  but,  the  war 
being  renewed  soon  after  between  Denmark  and 
Sweden,  he  was  seized  with  the  ambassador's 
family.  During  his  confinement,  which  lasted 
eight  months,  as  he  had  no  books,  he  amused 
himself  by  meditating  on  what  he  had  read  in 
Grotius's  treatise  De  Jure  Belli  et  Pacis,  and 
on  Hobbes's  political  writings.  Out  of  these  he 
drew  up  a  snort  system,  with  thoughts  of  his 
own,  and  published  it  at  the  Hagne  in  1660, 
under  the  title  of  Elemeota  Jurispnidentie  Uni« 
versalis.  The  elector  Palatine  mvited  him  to 
t'le  university  of  Heidelberg,  where  he  founded 
in  his  favor  a  professorship  of  the  law  of  nature 
and  nations,  the  first  of  tnat  kind  established  in 
Germany.  Puffendorf  remained  at  Heidelberg 
till  1673,  when  Charles  XI.  of  Sweden  invited 
him  to  be  professor  of  the  law  of  nature  and 
nations  at  Lunden ;  which  he  accepted.  Some 
years  after  the  king  sent  for  him  to  Stockholm, 
&nd  made  him  hb  historiographer,  and  a  co*jn- 
sellor.  In  1688  the  elector  of  Brandenburg 
obtained  the  king's  consent  that  he  should  come 
to  Berlm,  to  write  the  history  of  the  elector, 
William  the  Great;  and  in  1694  made  him  a 
baron.  He  died  in  1694,  aged  sixty-three,  of  an 
inflammation  in  his  feet.  Of  his  works,  which 
are  numerous,  the  following  are  the  principal  :— 
1-  A  Treatise  on  the  Law  of  Nature  and  Na- 
tions. 2.  An  Introduction  to  the  History  of  the 
principal  States  in  Europe.  Both  these  were 
written  in  German,  and  have  been  translated  into 
Enelish.  The  former  with  Barbeyrac's  Notes. 
3-  The  Histonr  of  Sweden,  from  Gustavus  Adol-- 
phub's  Expedition  into  Germany  to  the  Abdica- 
tion of  Queen  Christina.  4.  The  History  of 
Charles  Gustavus,  2  vols,  folio. 

PUFFIN,  n.  f .    Ital  pufftno.    A  water  fowl. 

Among  the  firrt  sort  we  reckon  the  dipchick, 
nmra,  creysere,  curlews  and  pujfins,  Catna, 

PUG,  n.  I.  Sax.  pija,  a  girl.  Skinner.  A 
kind  name  of  a  monkey,  or  any  thing  tenderly 
loved. 

Upon  setting  him  down,  and  calling  him  pug, 
I  found  him  to  be  her  favourite  monkey.    Addhan, 

PUGANTZ,  or  Baka  Banya,  a  free  town,  at 
the  foot  of  a  hill,  on  the  north-west  of  Hungary, 


twenty-nine  miles  east  of  Neutra,  and  seventy- 
three  £.  N.  £.  of  Presburg.  Population  2400. 
It  is  the  seat  of  a  mine-office,  connected  with 
mines  of  gold  and  silver,  inferior  only  to  those 
of  Cremnitz. 

PUGET  (Peter  Paul),  one  of  the  greatest 
painters  and  sculptors  France  ever  produced, 
was  bom  at  Marseilles  in  1623.  He  was  the 
disciple  of  Roman,  an  able  sculptor;  and  went 
afterwards  to  Italy,  where  he  studied  painting 
and  architecture.  In  1657  a  dangerous  disorder 
obliged  him  to  renounce  the  pencil,  and  devote 
himself  to  sculpture;  and,  being  invited  to 
Paris,  he  obtained  a  pension  of  1200  crowns,  as 
naval  sculptor  and  director  of  the  works.  He 
died  at  Marseilles  in  1695,  and  left  a  number  of 
admirable  statues  both  in  France  and  Italy^ 

PUGGERED,  A^'.  For  puckered.  Crowded; 
complicated. 

Nor  are  we  to  cavil  at  the  red  puggtred  attire  of 
the  turkey,  and  the  long  excieseency  that  hangs 
down  over  his  bill,  when  he  swells  with  pride. 

Mom  ojfaitut  Athnsm. 

PU'GIL,  n.  s.  Fr,  pugiUe.  What  is  taken 
up  between  the  thumb  and  two  first  £ngers. 

Take  violets,  and  infuse  a  good  puffil  of  them  in  a 
quart  of  vinegar.  Bacon**  Natural  History. 

PUGLIA,  the  ancient  Apulia,  a, large  tract  on 
the  coast  of  the  Adriatic,  Naples,  now  forming  the 
provinces  of  Capitanata,  Bari,  and  Otranto, 
which  see. 

PUGNA'CIOUS,  adj. )      Lat.  pugruu.     In- 

PuoM  a'ciously,  adv.  S  clinable  to  nght ;  Quar- 
relsome. We  find  no  instance  of  the  use  or  this 
word  in  our  standard  writers ;  but  our  pugilistic 
^ntlemen,  and  most  of  the  monkey  tribes,  ftimish 
illustrations  of  it. 

PUIKA,  or  PoYK,  a  river  of  Austrian  Illyria, 
ia  Camiola,  remarkable  for  the  length  of  its 
course  under  ground.  Enterins  a  subterra- 
neous cavern  at  Adelsbeig,  it  finds  its  way  be- 
neath the  surfece  of  the  earth  eight  miles  to 
Planina,  where  it  loses  itself  again  almost  im- 
mediately, and  re-appears  at  a  distance  of  five 
miles,  under  the  name  of  the  Laybach.  The 
entrance  at  Adelsburg  is  in  the  form  of  a  Gothic 
vault,  and  the  appearance  extremely  grand.  The 
noise  of  the  water  ceases  for  som6  time,  as  the 
traveller  advances  by  a  glimmering  light;  and, 
when  he  hears  it  again,  the  guides  are  accus- 
tomed to  light  up  a  straw  fire/ which  shows  that 
he  is  now  arrived  at  almost  impassable  preci- 
pices, and  thai  he  stands  on  a  natural  bridge, 
while  the  river  rolls  below  at  a  great  distance. 
The  travellers  Valvasor  and  Keysler  penetrated 
to  a  second  bridge,  about  four  miles  from  the 
mouth  of  the  cavern,  and  saw  the  water  eighty 
or  100  feet  below  them. 

PUrSNE,  ^dj.  French  jmii  ni.  Commonly 
spoken  and  written  Puny,  which  see.  Younger; 
later  in  time ;  inferior ;  subordinate ;  small. 

A  puisnt  tilter,  that  spurs  his  horse  but  on  on<3 
side,  breaks  his  staff  like  a  noble  goose. 

ShaJupeare. 

When  the  place  of  a  chief  jadse  becomes  vacant, 
apuuiM  judge  who  hath  approved  himself  deserving, 
should  be  prelerred.  Bacm. 

If  he  undergo  any  alteration,  it  must  he  in  time, 
or  of  a  puisne  date  to  eternity.  Hciis. 


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PUIS'SANCE,  11.  8.  ^     Fr.^wttttwa.  Power ; 

Puis'sAKTy  adj.  S  strength ;  force:  power- 

ful; forcible. 

Look  with  foiehead  bold  and  big  enough 

Upon  the  power  and  puittanee  of  the  king. 

Shahpeafe. 

The  queen  is  coming  with- a  puismni  host.        Id, 
Told  the  most  piteous  tale  of  Lear 

That  ever  ear  received ;  which  in  recountine 

His  grief  grewputaant,  and  the  strings  of  life 

Began  to  crack.  id. 

The  climate  of  Syria,  the  far  distance  from  the 
strength  of  Christendom,  and  the  near  neighbour- 
hood of  those  that  were  most  fmitunt  among  the 
Mahometans,  caused  that  famous  enterprise,  after  a 
long  continuance  of  terrible  war»  to  be  quite  aban- 
doned. RalmgVs  Buayt, 

For  piety  renowned  and  jmu$ant  deeds.     MUton* 

Our  ptiissanee  is  our  own ;  our  own  right  hand 
Shall  teach  us  high  deeds.  Id, 

The  chariots  weie  drawn,  not  by  the  strength  of 
horses,  but  by  the  ptiumnee  of  men. 

Dettntetion  of  Troy. 

PUKE,n.f.  &w.fi.>     Teut.  spucker.     Vo- 

Pu'ker,  n.s,  S  mit :  hence  an  emetic ; 

to  Tomit :  a  puker  also  means  an  emetic. 
The  infant 
Mewling  and  puking  in  the  nune*s  arms. 
The  pi£r  rue, 

The  sweetner  sassafras  are  added  too.         Garth, 

PUL,  or  PntJL,  the  first  king  of  Assyria, 
upon  the  division  of  the  empire  after  the  death 
or  Sardanapalus. 

PULARuM  Isle,  one  of  the  smallest  of  the 
Banda  Isles,  named  l^  early  naTigators  Polaroon, 
in  long.  129**  45'  E.,  and  lat.  5°  35'  N.  The  English 
East  India  Company  obtained  possession  of  it 
in  1617,  but  were  repeatedly  expelled  by  the 
Dutch ;  and  it  was  not  until  March  1665  that 
it  was  formally  delivered  up  by  the  Dutch. 

PULCHEkIA,  a  daughter  of  the  emperor  Ap- 
cadius,  eminent  for  her  virtues.  She  was  mother 
of  Valentinian  III.,  and  governed  the  empire  for 
many  years.  She  died  A.  D.  452,  and  was  in* 
terred  at  Ravenna,  where  her  tomb  is  still  visi- 
ble. 

PUL'QHRITUDE,  n.  t.  Lat.  pulckriiudo. 
Beauty;  grace;  handsomeness;  quality  oppo- 
site to  deformity. 

Neither  will  it  agree  unto  the  beauty  of  animals, 
wherein  there  is  an  approved  piUchritxide,    Broume. 

PvkhritudB  is  conveyed  by  the  outward  senses  unto 
the  soul,  but  a  more  intellectual  faculty  is  that  which 
relishes  it.  Mare. 

That  there  is  a  great  pukhritudB  and  comeliness  of 
proportion  in  the  leaves,  flowers,  and  fruits  of  plants, 
IS  attested  by  the  general  verdict  of  mankind. 

Ray  an  the  Creation, 

By  their  virtuous  behaviour  they  compensate  the 
hanmess  of  their  favour,  and  by  the  pulchritude  of 
their  souls  make  up  what  is  wanting  in  the  beauty 
of  their  bodies.  South, 

PULCI  (Lewis),  an  eminent  Italian  poet, 
bom  in  Florence  in  1431.  He  wrote  a  cele- 
brated poem  on  a  tournament  held  at  Florence, 
in  which  Lorenzo  de  Medicis  was  victor,  en- 
titled Giostra  de  Lorenzo  de  Medicis.  He  had 
two  brothers  equally  devoted  to  the  Muses ;  one 
of  whom  wrote  an  elegy,  entitled  Bernardo,  on 
the  death  of  the  great  Cosmo  de  Medicis.  Lewis 
aied  about  1487. 


PULE,  V.  ft.  FT.piautar ;  Ital.  plfUare,  of  Lat. 
p^t^.    To  cry  like  a  chicken;  whine. 
To  have  a  wretched  puUng  fool, 
A  whining  mammet  in  her  fortune's  tender. 
To  answer,  I'll  not  wed. 

Shakepeare,  Remeo  ami  JuUet, 
Let  the  songs  be  loud  and  cheerful,  and  not  chirp- 
ings mpuUngi ;  let  the  musick  likewise  be  sharp  and 
loud.  Bacon. 

Weak  puling  things  unable  to  sustain 
Their  share  of  labour,  and  their  bread  to  gain. 

Drfdem, 
When  ice  covered  the  water,  the  child  bathed  his 
legs ;  and  when  he  began  this  custom  was  puling  and 
tender.  Locke, 

lliis  puling  whining  harlot  rules  his  reason. 
And  prompts  his  zeal  for  Edward's  bastard  brood. 

Rowe, 
While  yet  thou  wast  a  grovelling  p*ding  chit. 
Thy  bones  not  fashioned,  and  thy  joints  not  knit. 
The  Roman  taught  thy  stubborn  knee  to  bow. 
Though  twice  a  Casar  could  not  bend  thee  now. 

Cowper^ 

PULEX,  the  flea,  in  entomology,  a  genus  of  in- 
sects belonging  to  the  order  of  aptera.  It  has 
two  eyes,  and  six  feet  fitted  for  leaping;  the 
feelers  are  like  threads ;  the  rostrum  is  inflected, 
setaceous,  and  armed  with  a  sting ;  and  the  belly 
is  compressed.  Fleas  bring  forth  eggs,  which 
they  deposit  on  animals  that  afford  them  a  proper 
food.  Of  these  eggs  are  hatched  white  worms  of 
a  shining  pearl  color,  which  feed  on  the  scurfy 
substance  of  the  cuticle,  the  downy  mau^ 
gathered  in  the  piles  of  clothes,  or  other  similar 
substances.  In  a  fortnight  thev  come  to  a  tolerable 
size,  and  are  very  lively  and  active ;  and,  if  at 
any  time  disturbed,  they  suddenly  roll  themselves 
into  a  kind  of  ball.  Soon  after  this  they  begin 
to  creep,  after  the  manner  of  silk  worms,  with  a 
very-  swift  motion.  When  arrived  at  their  size» 
they  hide  themselves,  and  spin  a  silken  thread 
out  of  their  mouth,  wherewith  they  form  them* 
selves  a  small  round  bag  or  case.  Here,  after  a 
fortnight's  rest,  the  animalcule  bursts  out,  trans» 
formed  into  a  perfect  flea;  leaving  its  exuvis  in 
the  boff.  While  it  remains  in  the  bag  it  is 
milk-white,  till  the  second  day  before  its  erup- 
tion ;  when  it  becomes  colored,  grows  hard,  and 
gets  strength;  so  that  upon  its  first  delivery  it 
springs  nimbly  away.  The  flea  is  covered  all 
over  with  black,  hard,  and  shelly  scales  or  plates, 
which  are  curiously  jointed,  and  folded  over  one 
another  in  such  a  manner  as  to  coinply  with  all 
the  nimble  motions  of  the  creature.  These  scales 
are  finely  polished,  and  beset  about  the  edgrs 
with  short  spikes,  in  a  very  beautiful  and  regular 
order.  Its  neck  is  finely  arched,  and  resembles 
the  tail  of  a  lobster :  the  head  also  b  very  extra- 
ordinary; for,  from  the  snout  part  of  it,  proceed 
the  two  fore  legs,  and  between  these  is  placed 
the  piercer  or  sucker,  with  which  it  penetrates 
the  skin  to  get  its  food.  Its  eyes  are  very  laige 
and  beauti^l,  and  it  has  two  short  horns  or 
feelers.  It  has  four  other  legs  joined  all  at  the 
breast  These,  when  it  leaps,  fold  short,  one 
within  another;  and  then,  exerting  their  spring 
all  at  the  same  instant,  they  carry  the  creature  to 
a  surprising  distance.  'The  legs  have  several 
joints,  and  are  very  hairy,  and  terminate  in  two 
long  and  hooked  sharp  claws.    The  piercer  or 


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sucker  of  the  flea  is  lodsed  between  its  fore  legs, 
and  includes  a  couple  of  darts  or  lancets ;  which, 
afier  the  piercer  has  made  an  entrance,  are  thrust 
farther  into  the  flesh,  to  make  the  blood  flow 
from  the  adjacent  parts,  and  occasion  that  round 
red  spot,  with  a  hole  in  the  centre  of  it,  vulgarly 
csdlea  a  flea-bite.  This  piercer,  its  sheath  open- 
ing sidewise,  and  the  two  lancets  within  it,  are 
very  diflicult  to  be  seen;  unless  the  two  fore 
legs,  between  which  they  are  hid,  be  cut  off"  close 
to  the  head:  for  the  flea  rarely  puts  out  its 
piercer,  except  at  the  time  of  feeding,  but  keeps 
It  folded  inwards ;  and  the  best  way  of  seeing  it 
is  by  cutting  off  first  the  head  and  then  the  fbre* 
leg^  and  then  it  is  usually  seen  thrust  out  in 
convulsions.  By  keeping  fleas  in  a  glass  tube 
corked  up  at  both  ends,^  but  so  as  to  admit  of 
fresh  air,  their  several  actions  may  be  observed. 
They  may  also  be  thus  seen  to  lay  their  eggs,  not 
all  at  once,  but  ten  or  twelve  in  a  day,  for  seve- 
ral days  successively;  which  eggs  will  be  after- 
wards found  to  hatch  snccessivelv  in  the  same 
order.  The  flea  may  easily  be  dissected  in  a 
drop  of  water;  and  thus  the  stomach  and  bowels, 
with  their  peristaltic  motion,  may  be  discovered 
very  plainly,  as  also  their  testes  and  penis,  with 
the  veins  and  arteries.  This  blood-thirsty  in- 
sect, which  fattens  at  the  expense  of  the  human 
species,  prefers  the  more  delicate  skin  of  women; 
but  preys  neither  upon  epileptic  persons,  nor 
upon  the  dead  or  dying.  It  loves  to  nestle  in 
the  fur  of  dogs,  cats,  and  rats.  The  nests  of 
river  swallows  are  sometimes  plentifully  stored 
with  them.  Fleas  are  apterous ;  walk  but  little, 
but  Uap  to  a  beic^t  equal  to  200  times  that  of 
their  own  body.  Tliis  amazing  motion  is  per- 
formed by  means  of  the  elasticity  of  their  feet, 
the  articulations  of  which  are  so  many  springs. 
Thus  it  eludes,  with  surprising  agility,  the  pur- 
suit of  the  person  on  whom  it  riots.  See  En- 
tomology. 

PuLEx  Aquaticus  of  some  authors,  the  mono- 
culus  pulex  of  Linnsus,  in  entomology,  is  a 
species  of  the  gemus  monoculus.  See  Ento- 
mology. 

PULL,  V.  a.  &  n.  t. )       Sax.  pullian ;    Belg. 

Pdll'eb,  11.1.  Sop  paolen.  To  draw  to- 
wards one ;  opposed  to  push ;  tear ;  rend ;  pluck ; 
draw  forcibly ;  taking  on,  off^  down,  up,  &c., 
before  the  object :  the  -act  of  pulling;  contest ; 
struggle. 

He  put  forth  his  hand,  and  TpuJkd  the  dove  ia. 

Genesii  viii.  9. 

PuU  them  out  like  sheep  for  the  slaughter,  and 
prepare  them  for  the  day  of  slaughter.    Jer.  vii.  11. 

He  hath  turned  aside  my  ways,  and  jwOcd  me  in 
pieces ;  he  hath  made  me  desolate.        Lam,  iii.  2. 

What  they  seem  to  ofl*er  us  with  the  one  hand,  the 
same  with  the  other  thcnr  jnM  back.  Hooker. 

Duke  of  Glo  ster,  scarce  himself; 

That  bears  so  shrewd  a  main  ;  twopulU  at  once ; 
His  lady  banished,  and  a  limb  lopt  off.  ShaJupean. 
ShameUss  WarwicV,  peace ! 

Pnmd  tetter  up  and  jnilUr  down  of  kings.      Id. 

Although  it  was  judged  in  form  of  a  statute  that 
he  should  be  banished,  and  his  whole  .estate  confis- 
cated, and  his  houses  jndltd  down,  yet  his  case  even 
then  had  no  great  blot  of  ignominy.  Bacon. 

He  was  not  so  desirous  of  wars,  as  without  just 
cause  of  his  own  to  fmll  them  upon  him.    Hayward. 


Ill  fortune  never  crushed  that  man,  whom  good 
fortune  deceived  not;  I  therefore  have  counseled 
mj  friends  to  place  all  thinn  she  gave  them  so  as 
she  might  take  them  from  them,  not  pull  them. 

Ben  Jonton^t  Discovoria. 

This  wrestling  pvU  between  Corineus  and  Gogma- 

F  is  reported  to  have  befallen  at  Dover.     Carew. 

Ln  political  affairs,  as  well  as  mechanical,  it  is  far 
easier  to  puli  down  than  build  up ;  for  that  structure, 
which  was  above  ten  sunmieis  a  ouilding,  and  that  by 
no  mean  artists,  was  destroyed  in  a  moment. 

HommP*  Voeal  Forett, 

He  begs  the  gods  to  turn  blind  fortune's  wheel. 
To  raise  the  wretched,  and  jmU  down  the  proucU 


a' 


When  bounteous  Autumn  reais  his- head. 
He  joys  to  pM  the  rijpen'd  pear.  Dryden, . 

What  censure,  doubting  thus  of  innate  principles^ 
I  may  deserve  from  men,  who  will  be  apt  to  call  it 
pulling  up  the  old  foundations  of  knowledge,  I  cannot 
tell ;  I  persuade  myself  that  the  way  I  have  pur- 
sued, bemg  conformable  to  truth,  lays  these  founda- 
tions surer.  Locke, 
Flax  pulled  ia  the  bloom  will  be  whiter  and 
stranger  than  if  let  stand  till  the  seed  is  ripe. 

They  may  be  afraid  to  pull  down  ministers  and  h- 
vouriles  grown  formidable.  Davenant. 

When  God  is  said  to  build  or  pull  down,  'tis  not  to 
be  understood  of  an  house ;  God  builds  and  un- 
builds worlds.  Bumet. 

1  awaked  with  a  violent  pull  upon  the  ring,  which 
was  fastened  at  the  top  of  my  box.  (^dUver» 

A  boy  came  in  great  hurry  to  pull  of  my  boots. 

Swift. 

PUULET,  n.  ff.  French  pouiet.  A  young 
hen. 

Brew  me  a  pottle  of  sack  finely. 
—With  eggs,  9irl 

— Simple  of  itself ;  1*11  no  pullet  sperm  in  my  brew* 
affe.  Shaitfeare, 

They  died,  not  because  the  pui<«ls  would  not  feed  \ 
but  because  the  devil  foresaw  their  death,  he  con- 
trived that  abstinence  in  them.  Browne, 

I  fislt  a  hard  tumour  on  the  right  side,  the  bigness 
of  a  pulkVi  egg.  Wirnman**  Surgery, 

PUL'LEY,  n.  i .    Fr.  poulie ;  Ital.  poUa ;  Gr. 
woXcM  ?  A  small  grooved  wheel  turning  on  a  pi- 
vot or  line. 
Here  puUiet  make  the  ponderous  oak  aseenA.    Gay, 

Nine  hundred  of  the  strongest  men  were  employed 
to  draw  up  these  cords  by  many  pulletfe  fastened  on 
the  poles,  and  in  three  hours  I  was  raued  and  slung 
into  the  engine.  Swift, 

Pulley,  in  mechanics,  one  of  the  ^ve^  me- 
chanical powers.    See  Mechanics. 

PULLICAT,  or  Valiacata,  a  sea-port  on 
the  coast  of  the  Camatic,  twenty-five  mihssnordi 
from  Madras.  The  lake  of  PulUcat,  on  which  it 
stands,  appears  to  owe  its  existence  to  the  sea's 
breaking  through  a  low  sandy  beach,  and  over- 
flowing the  hinds.  Its  communications  with  the 
sea  are  extremely  narrow.  This  lake  b  in  extent 
thirty-three  miles  from  north  to  south,  eleven 
miles  across  in  the  broadest  part,  and  compre- 
hends several  large  islands.  The  Dutch  estab- 
lished themselves  here  in  1609,  when  they  built 
a  square  fort  named  Geldria ;  to  which,  after  the 
loss  of  Negapatam,  the  chief  government  of  their 
settlements  on  the  Coromandel  Coast  was  trans- 
ferred. Their  imports  were  arrack,  sugar, 
Japan  copper,  spices,  and  other  articles,  brought 


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from  Bataviau    In  1795  the  British  took  posses- 

sion  of  Pullicaty  aad  it  is  now  comprehended  in 
the  northern  Ajtx>t  colleotorship. 

PULMANNUS  (Theodore),  or  Poelman,  a 
learned  corrector  of  the  sixteenth  century,  horn 
at  Cranenburgh,  in  the  duchy  of  Cleves,  about 
t510.  He  superintended  the  printing  and  cor- 
recting' of  the  Latin  poets  from  ancient  MSS., 
for  the  oelebrated  Plantin's  press.  He  died  about 
1680. 

PULMO,  the  langs.    See  Anatomy. 

PULMONARIA,  in  botany,  lungwort,  a  genus 
of  the  monogynia  oider,  and  pentandria  class  of 
plants;  natural  order  fortv-ftrst,  asperifoliae: 
COR.  iiinnel-shaped,  with  its  throat  pervious: 
CAL.  prismatic  and  pentagonal.  There  are  seve- 
ral species;  of  which  the  most  remarkable  is 

P.  officinalis,  common  spotted  lungwort,  or 
Jerusalem  cowslip.  This  is  a  native  of  woods 
and  shady  places  in  Italy  and  Germany;  but  has 
been  cultivated  in  Britain  for  medical  use.  The 
leaves  are  of  a  green  color,  spotted  with  white ; 
imd  of  a  mucilaginous  taste,  without  any  smell. 
They  are  recommended  in  phthisis,  ulcers  of  the 
lungs,  &C. ;  but  their  virtues  in  these  diseases 
are  not  warranted  by  experience. 

PUL'MON ARY,  <u^.  I      Lat  pulmo.  Belong- 
Pulhok'ic.  S  ing  to  the  lungs. 

An  ulcer  of  the  lungs  may  be  a  cause  of  jputmottiek 
consumption,  or  consumption  of  the  langs. 

Often  these  unhappy  suiferers,  for  want  of  sufficient 
vigour  and  spirit  to. carry  on  the  animal  regimen, 
drop  into  a  true  pulmonary  consumption. 

Blaekmon. 

Cold  air,  by  its  immediate  contact  with  the  sur- 
face of  the  lungs,  is  capable  of  producing  defluxions 
upon  the  lun^,  ulcerations,  and  all  sorts  of  putnuh- 
mck  consumptions.  Arbuthnot, 

The  force  of  the  air  upon  the  pulmcnary  arterv  is 
but  small  in  respect  to  that  of  the  heart.  id, 

PULO  Bally,  an  island  in  the  eastern  seas, 
about  two  miles  round,  with  abundance  of  wood 
and  water ;  divided  from  the  island  of  Bachian 
by  a  channel  five  miles  w)de. 

PuLO  Baviac  Isle,  an  island,  about  twenty* 
five  miles  in  circumference,  on  the  west  coast  of 
Sumatra,  between  2^  and  3^  N.  lat. 

PuLO  Batu,  an  island  about  forty  miles  off  the 
western  coast  of  Sumatra,  called,  says  Mr.  Mars- 
den,  by  corruption,  Mintaon.  It  &  about  forty 
miles  long,  and  twelve  broacf,  in  long.  97®  56'  £., 
lat.  0®  20'  N. 

PuLo  Laitt,  an  island  in  the  eastern  seas,  at 
the  south  entrance  of  the  Straits  of  Macassar, 
near  the  south-east  coast  of  Borneo.  It  is  of  a 
triangular  form,  and  about  100  miles  in  circum- 
ference :  the  chief  produce  is  rice.  The  channel 
between  this  island  and  Borneo  is  about  two 
miles  broad,  less  or  more,  and  from  seven  to 
eight  fathoms  deep.  It  forms  a  good  harbour. 
Long.  116°  24'  E.,  lat.  d,^  45'  S. 

PuLO  Nako-nako,  a  cluster  of  isles  in  the 
eastern  seas,  near  the  western  coast  of  Nias. 
lArge  quantities  of  cocoa-nut  oil  are  prepared 
here.  They  are  governed  by  a  rajah,  who  mo- 
uonolises  the  produce. 

PvLo  Sanding,  or  Sandiang,  two  islands  in 
the  Eastern  seas,  near  the  south-eastern  extremity 


of  the  Nassau  or  Poggy  Isles.  They  are  bodi 
uninhabited,  and  the  only  productioiL»  that  grow 
on  them  worth  notice  is  the  long  nutmeg,  and 
some  timber. 

Polo  Tihoak,  an  island  of  the  eastern  seas, 
inhabited  by  a  short  race  of  Malays.  Byron 
found  them,  in  the  year  1765,  a  suriy  set  of 
people,  who  came  down  to  (he  beach  in  great 
numbers,  having  a  Ioikt  knife  in  one  hand,  a 
spear  beaded  with  iron  in  the  other,  and  a  dagger 
by  their  side.  They  went  on  shore  however; 
but  all  they  could  procure  was  about  a  doxen 
fowls,  and  a  goat  and  kid,  in  exchange  for  some 
pocket-handkerchiefs.  The  island  is  hilly  and 
woody. 

PuLo  Varklla,  an  island  in  the  Straits  of 
Malacca,  about  twenty  miles  firam  the  north-east 
coast  of  Sumatra.  It  is  chiefly  resorted  to  by 
the  piratical  inhabitants  of  the  neighbouring 
islands.    Long.  99**  36'  E.,  lat  8*  47'  N. 

PuLO  Way,  a  Spice  Island  in  the  eastern 

seas,  about  nine  miles  west  of  Goronv  Apee,  is 

nearly  circular,  and  about  a  mile  and  a  half  in 

diameter.    It  has  a  strong  fort,  and  is  esteem 'hI 

heahhy.    Long.  ISO^"  26'  £.,  lat.  4''  9'  S. 

PULP,  fi.  «.     J     Tt.  pulpe ;  Lat ptt/pa.  Any 

PiTC'i'onSy  adj.  >  soft  mass ;  the  soft  part  of 

PuL  PY.  J  firuit : .  soft,  pappy  <• 

The  jaw  bones  have  no  marrow  severed,  but  a  lit- 
little  pulp  marrow  diffused. 

Bacon's  ffatmml  Hhttaiy. 
The  savoury  pulp  they  chew,  and  in  the  rind, 
Still  as  they  thirsted,  scoop  the  brimming  stream. 

Milton, 
In  the  walaut  and  plums  is  a  thick  pulpy  cover- 
ing, then  a  hard  shell,  within  which  is  the  seed. 

Rajf  on  the  Crmtimt. 
The  grub 
Oft  unobserved  invades  the  vital  core, 
Pernicions  tenant,  and  her  secret  cave 
Enlarges  hourly,  preying  on  the  pulp 
Cesseless.  PhUip$, 

The  redstreak's  pulpom  fruit 
With  gold  irradiate,  and  vennilion  shines.       Id, 
Putrefaction  destroys  the  specifick  difierenoe  of  one 
vegetable  from  anothef ,  converting  them  into  a  pulpjf 
subsunce  of  an  animal  nature.  Arhutknoi, 

The  Pulp  of  fruits,  in  pharmacy,  is  extracted 
by  infusion  or  boiling,  and  passed  through  a 
sieve. 

PUJ^'PIT,  fi.  t.  Fr.  pulpilre ;  Lat.  ftdvUum  i 
Ital.,  Span.,  and  Port.,  pulpito,  A  raised  place 
where  a  speaker  stands. 

Produce  his  body  to  the  market-place. 
And  in  the  pulpit,  as  becomes  a  friend. 
Speak  in  the  order  of  his  funeral.      Shak$pear9, 
Their  late  patron  of  famous  memoiy  (as  their  dear 
relique),  enshrined  in  their  La  Flesche,  was,  after 
his  death,  in  their  pulpits  proclaimed  tyrant  and 
worse.  Bp,  Hall, 

We  see  on  our  theatres  the  examples  of  vice  re- 
warded, yet  it  ought  not  to  be  an  argument  against 
the  art,  any  more  than  the  impieties  of  the  pulpit  in 
the  late  rebellion.  Dr^fdm, 

Sir  Rosrer  has  given  a  handsome  pulpit  cloth,  and 
railed  in  me  communion-table.  Addison, 

Bishops  were  not  wont  to  preach  out  of  the  pulpit, 

AyHffe. 
P\dpitt  their  sacred  -satyr  learned'to  spare. 
.  And  vice  admired  to  find  a  6att'rer  there.    Pope, 


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PULPITLTM,  in  the  Grecian  and  Roman 
theatres,  a  place  vhere  the  players  performed 
ibeir  parts.  It  was  lower  than  the  scena,  and 
higher  than  the  orchestra. 

PuLPiTuif  was  also  a  moveable  desk  or  pulpit, 
from  which  disputants  pronounced  their  disserta- 
ttons,  and  authors  recited  their  works. 

PUI^E',  n.s.  From  pull.  Leguminous  plants. 
Plants  not  reaped,  but  pulled  or  plucked. 
With  Elijah  he  partook. 
Or  as  guest  with  Baniei  at  his  pulse. 

MiUon, 
Mortals,  from  your  fellows'  blood  abstain  ! 
While  corn  and  piiUe  by  nature  are  bestowed. 

Dryden. 
Tares  are  as  advantageous  to  land  as  other  jmUes, 

Mortimer. 
Pul'se,  9I.S.  &  V.  n.     "J      Fr.  pauls;   Span. 
Pulsa'tion,  n. «.         /^^^ »    ^^*    f^*^* 
Pcl'siok.  3  The  vibratory  motion 

of  the  blood  in  an  artery ;  oscillation;  vibration : 
to  beat  as  the  pulse :  pulsation  is  the  vibratory 
stroke  of  the  pulse ;  any  stroke  beating  against 
somethii^  opposing:  pulsion  is,  the  act  of  driv- 
ing forw^  a  fluid,  as  opposed  to  suction  or  trac- 
tion. 

Think  yon  I  bear  the  shears  of  destiny? 
Have  I  commandment  on  the  jmlse  of  life? 

Shakspeare, 
These  commotions  of  the  mind  and  body  oppress 
the  heart,  whereby  it  is  choaked  and  obstructed  in 
its  DuZMtton.  Harvey. 

The  prosperity  of  the  neighbour  kingdoms  is  not 
inferior  to  that  of  this,  which,  according  to  the  pulse 
of  states,  is.  a  great  diminution  of  their  health. 

CUrendian. 
This  original  of  the  left  vein  was  thus  contrived,  to 
avoid  the  pulaation  of  the  great  artery.     .    Brewne, 

Admit  it  might  use  the  motion  of  jntiiion,  yet  it 
could  never  that  of  attraction. 

Mortis  Dmne  Dialogties, 
My  body  is  from  all  diseases  free ; 
My  temperate  pulse  does  regularly  beat. 

Vryden. 
The  heart,  whed  separated  wholly  frmn  the  body 
m  some  animab,  continues  still  to  pulse  for  a  con- 
siderable time.  Ray, 

The  vibrations  or  pulses  of  this  medium,  that  they 
may  cause  the  alternate  fits  of  easy  transmission  and 
easy  reflection,  must  be  swifter  than  light,  and  by 
consequence  above  seven  hundred  thousand  times 
swifter  than  sounds.  Newton. 

If  one  drop  of  blood  remain  in  the  heart  at  every 
ptdse,  those,  m  many  pulses,  will  grow  to  a  consider- 
able m«|M.  Arbutknat, 

By  attraction  we  do  not  here  understand  what  is 
inproperly  called  so,  in  the  operations  of  drawing, 
socking,  and  pumping,  which  is  really  puUion  and 
tnuion.  BetUley, 

PULSE,  in  physiology.  See  Physiology 
and  Medicike. 

PULTENEY  (William),  the  celebrated  op- 
poser  of  Sir  Robert  Walpole,  and  afterward  earl 
of  Bath,  was  descended  from  one  of  the  most 
ancient  fiaimilies  in  the  kingdom,  and  was  bom 
in  1682.  He  early  procured  a  seat  in  the  house 
of  commons,  and  distinguished  himself  against 
queen  Anne's  ministry.  When  king  Geoige  I. 
came  to  the  tlircjne,  he  was  made  secretary  at 
war;  but  the  friendship  between  him  and  Sir 
Eobert  Walpole,  the  premier,  was  interrupted 
in  1725,  by  a  suspicion  that  Walpole  wished  to 


Sromote  the  hiterests  of  Hanover,  to  the  preju- 
ice  of  Great  Britain.  His  opposition  to  Sir 
Robert  was  indeed  carried  to  tiie  most  indis- 
criminate length.  At  last,  in  1731,  the  king 
with  his  own  hand  struck  out  his  name  from  the 
list  of  privy  counsellors.  But  he  still  continued 
to  attack  the  minister  with  a  severity  of  elo- 
quence and  sarcasm  that  worsted  every  antago- 
nist; and  Sir  Robert  was  known  to  say,  he 
dreaded  his  tongue  more  than  another  man's 
sword.  At  length,  when  Walpole  resigned  in 
1741,  Mr.  Pulteney  was  restored  to  his  place  in 
the  privy  council,  and  was  created  earl  of  Bath ; 
a  title  purchased  at  the  expense  of  his  popularity. 
In  1760,  in  the  close  of  the  war,  he  published  A 
Letter  to  two  Great  Men,  recommending  certain 
articles  to  be  insisted  on  in  a  treaty  of  peace ; 
whichy  though  the  writer  was  then  unknown, 
was  greatly  applauded,  and  went  through  several 
impressions.    He  died  in  1764. 

Pulteney  (Richard),  M.D.,  was  bom  at 
Loughborough  in  1730.  He  became  a  surgeon 
and  apothecary  at  Leicester,  whence  he  com- 
municated some  papers  on  the  sleep  of  plants, 
and  the  rare  productions  of  Leicestershire,  to  the 
Royal  Society,  of  which  he  was  elected  a  member 
in  1762.  Two  years  afler  he  took  his  doctor's 
degree  at  Edinl3urgh9  and  went  to  settle  at  Bland- 
ford  in  Dorsetshire,  where  he  died,  October  13th, 
1801.  Dr.  Pulteney  published  A  General  View 
of  the  Writings  of  Linnaeus,  4to. ;  and  Sketches 
of  the  Progress  of  Botany  in  Eqgland,  2  vcds.  8vo. 
He  left  his  museum  to  the  Linnean  Society. 

PULTUSK,  or  Pultovsk,  a  celebrated  town 
of  Poland,  on  the  Narew,  thirty-four  miles 
N.N.  E.  of  Warsaw.  It  is  the  residence  of  the 
bishop  of  Plock,  and  has  a  Benedictine  abbey 
and  gymnasium.  The  Saxons  were  defeated 
here  by  the  Swedes  in  1703 ;  and  an  important 
engagement  took  place  here  between  the  French 
and  Russians,  on  26th  December,  1806.  Popu- 
lation 2100. 

PULVERIZE',  r.fl.  J     Yt. pulveriser:  Lat. 

Pul'verable,  adv.  )  pulveris.  To  reduce  to 
powder  or  dust :  possible  to  be  reduced  to  dust. 

If  the  experiment  be  carefully  made,  the  whole 
mixture  will  shoot  into  €ne  crystals,  that  seem  to  be 
of  an  uniform  substance,  and  are  consistent  enough 
to  be  even  brittle,  and  to  endure  to  be  pubserised  and 
sifted.  Boyle. 

In  making  the  first  ink,  I  could  by  filtration  sepa- 
rate a  pretty  store  of  a  black  pulverahU  substance 
that  remained  in  the  -fire.  Id, 

Tis  thine  to  cherish  and  to  feed 
The  pungent  nose-refreshing  weed : 
Which,  whether  pulverised  it  gain 
A  speedy  passage  to  the  brain.  C&wper, 

Pulverisation  is  performed  on  friable  bodies 
by  pounding  or  beating  them  in  a  mortar,  &c.; 
but,  to  pulverise  malleable  ones,  other  methods 
must  be  taken.  To  pulverise  lead,  or  tin,  the 
method  is  this:  Rub  a  round  wooden  box  all 
over  the  inside  with  chalk ;  pour  a  little  of  the 
melted  metal  nimbly  into  the  box ;  when,  shut- 
ting the  lid,  and  shaking  the  box  briskly,  the 
metal  will  be  reduced  to  powder. 

PUL'VIL,  n.5.  6i.  V.  a.  haX.  pulvUltan.  Sweet 
scents. 

Have  you  pulviUed  the  coachman  and  postilion, 
that  they  may  not  stink  of  the  stable?      Cmgreeve. 


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The  toilette,  ODraety  of  charms, 
Completely  famished  with  bright  beauty's  arms. 
The  patch,  the  powder-box,  jmhU,  perfumes.   Gay, 

PUMEX,  the  pumice-stone,  a  substance  fre- 
quently thrown  out  of  Volcanoes,  very  full  of 
pores,  in  consequence  of  which  it  is  specifically 
very  light,  and  resembles  the  frothy  slag  pro- 
duced in  our  iron  furnaces.  It  is  ot^two  colors, 
black  and  white ;  the  former  being  that  which  it 
has  when  thrown  out  of  the  volcano.  It  is  of  a 
rough  and  porous  consistence,  being  made  up  of 
slender  fibres  parallel  to  each  other,  and  very 
light,  so  that  it  swims  on  water.  Pumice-stone 
is  used  by  silversmiths  and  other  mechanics,  for 
rubbing  and  smoothing  the  su.rface  of  metals, 
wood,  pastcboaurd,  and  stones ;  for  which  it  is 
well  fitted  bv  its  harsh  and  brittle  texture;  thus 
scouring  and  carrying  off  all  the  inequalities. 

Jam^on  arranges  pumice  under  three  species, 
viz.  the  glan^j  comtnony  and  porphyritie.  1. 
Glassy  pumice.  Color  smoke  gray.  Vesicular. 
Glistenmg  pearly.  Fracture  promiscuous  fibrous. 
Translucent.  Between  hard  and  semi-hard.  Very 
brittle.  Feels  rough,  shiurp,  and  meagre.  Specific 
gravity  O-STS  to  1'44.  It  occurs  in  beds  m  the 
Lipari  Islands. 

2.  Common  pumice.  Color  nearly  white. 
Vesicular.  Glimmering  pearly.  Fracture  fibrous. 
Translucent  on  the  edges.  Semi-hard.  Very 
brittle.  Meagre  wid  rough.  Specific  gravity 
0-752  to  0914.  It  melts  into  a  gray-colored 
slag.  Its  constituents,  according  to  the  analysis 
of  Klaproth,  silica  77'5,  alumina  17-5,  natron 
and  potash  3,  iron  mixed  with  manganese  1-75. 
It  occurs  with  the  preceding. 

3.  Porphyritic  pumice.  Color  grayish  white. 
Massive.  Minutely  porous.  Glimmering  and 
pearly.  Specific  gravity  1-661.  It  contains 
crystals  of  felspar,  quartz,  and  mica.  It  is  asso- 
ciated with  claystone,  obsidian,  pearlstone,  and 
pitchstoue  porphyry.  It  occurs  m  Hungary,  at 
Tokay,  &c. 

PUM'ICE,  n. «.    Lat  panexy  pumias. 
So  long  I  shot,  that  all  was  spent, 
Though  pumce  stones  I  hastily  hent. 
And  threw  ;  but  nought  availed.         Spmuer, 
Etna  and  Vesuvius,  which  consist  upon  sulphur, 
shoot  forth  smoke,  ashes,  and  pumice,  but  no  water. 

Baeoa, 
Near  the  Lucrine  lake. 
Steams  of  sulphur  raise  a  stifling  heat. 
And  through  the  pores  of  the  warm  pumiee  sweat. 

Additon. 
The  prniiee  is  evidently  a  flag  or  cinder  of  some 
fossil,  originally  bearing  another  form,  reduced  to 
this  state  by  fire :  it  is  a  lax  and  spungy  matter  full 
of  little  pores  and  cavities :  of  a  pale,  whitish,  grey 
colour :  the  pumice  is  found  particularly  about  the 
burning  mountains.  niWs  Materia  Medica, 

PUMP,  n. «,  V. n.,  &  v.  a.   J     Fr.,  Belg.,  and 
Pump'er.  S    Teut.    pompe ; 

Dan.  pomp ;  Gr.  iroiivai  ?  A  hydraulic  engine 
of  extensive  use  and  great  variety  of  construc- 
tion ;  a  kind  of  shoe:  to  work  a  pump ;  to  raise 
or  throw  any  thing  liquid,  as  by  means  of  a  pump : 
to  examine  artfully  ;  suck :  a  pumper  is  he  who 
uses  the  pump  literally,  or  who  extracts  the  con- 
tents of  another^s  mind. 

Get  good  Ktrings  to  your  beads,  new  ribbons  to 
your  pumps.  Shahjuvre, 


Follow  me  this  jest,  now,  till  thon  hast  worn  out 
thy  puiifp.  W. 

Thalia's  ivy  shews  her  prerogative  over  comical 
poesy ;  her  mask,  mantle,  and  pumpe,  are  ornaments 
belonging  to  the  stage.  Peocfton. 

The  f(3ly  of  him  who  pumpe  very  laboriously  in  a 
ship,  yet  neglects  to  stop  the  leak.  Pmiy  ef  Piety, 
In  the  framing  that  ^reat  ship  built  by  Hiero, 
Athensus  mentions  this  mstrument  as  being  instead 
of  a  ptmp,  by  the  help  of  which  one  man  might 
easily  drain  out  the  water,  though  veiy  deep. 

WWdni't  Dadalue. 
The  one's  the  learned  knight,  seek  out. 
And  pump  them  what  they  come  about.    HudSbfoe. 

Ask  him  what  passes 
Amongst  hu  brethren,  he'll  hide  nothing  from  you ; 
But  jMMp  not  me  for  politics. 

CH»ttg*t  Veniee  Preeerved, 
A  pwNp  ^wn  dry  will  yield  no  water,   unless 
youpour  a  little  water  into  it  first.  Mere, 

The  flame  lasted  about  two  minutes,  from  the  time 
the  pumper  began  to  draw  out  air.  Bo/fU. 

Pumpe  may  be  made  single  with  a  common  pump 
handle,  for  one  man  to  won  them,  or  double  for  two. 

Mifrtimer, 
Not  finding  suflicient  room,  it  breaks  a  vessel  to 
force  its  passage,  and.  rushing  through  a  larger  chasm, 
overflows  the  cavities  about  it  with  a  deluge,  which 
is  pumped  up  and  emptied.  ^Uiekmore. 

The  water  and  sweat 
Splish  splash  in  their  pumpt. 

Swift's  Mieedlama. 
As  an  impartial  traveller  I  must  however  tell, 
that  in  Stow-street,  where  I  left  a  draw  well,  I  have 
found  a  pump.  Jehnsotu 

Pumps.  For  the  theory  and  construction  of 
a  great  variety  of  these  useful  machines,  see 
Hydrostatics  and  Hydraulics,  vol.  xi.  p. 
511  to  523. 

Pumps,  Air,    See  Air^Pumps  and  Pneuma- 
tics, Index. 
PUM'PION,n.s.    Lat  p€po.    A  plant. 
We*ll  use  this  gross  watery  pumpieu,  and  teach 
him  to  know  turtles  from  jays.  Shakspemre, 

PuMPiov,  or  PuMKiN.  See  Cucurbita. 
PUN,  n.  «.  &  V.  n.  Johnson  seems  rather 
punning  when  he  says,  *  to  pun  is  to  grind  or 
beat  with  a  pestle;  can  pun  mean  an  empty 
sound,  like  that  of  a  mortar  beaten,  as  clench, 
the  old  word  for  pun,  seems  only  a  corruption  of 
clink  V  Qu.  Lat.  punclum  ?  A  quibble ;  double 
meaning,  or  equivocation ;  play  on  a  word  or 
words :  to  use  a  pun;  quibble. 

The  hand  and  head  were  never  lost  of  those 
Who  dealt  in  doggrel,  or  who  pmned  in  prose. 

You  would  be  a  better  man,  if  you  could  pun  like 
Sir  Tristram.  Tatler. 

It  is  not  the  word  but  the  figure  that  appears  on 
the  medal :  cuniculus  may  stand  for  a  rabbit  or  a 
mine,  but  the  picture  of  a  rabbit  is  not  the  picture  of 
a  mine :  a  pun  can  be  no  more  engraven  than  it  can 
be  translated.  Addieon, 

But  fill  their  purse,  our  poet's  work  is  done. 
Alike  to  them  by  pathos,  or  by  pun.  Pope, 

PUNA,  a  rich  city  of  Peru,  in  the  province 
of  Paucarolla,  on  the  Lake  Chucuito  or  Titicaca. 
It  has  a  beautiful  church  for  the  whites,  and  ano- 
ther for  the  Indians ;  but  has  suffered  much  by 
an  insurrection  of  the  Indians.  The  silver  ores 
in  the  neighbourhood  are  rich ;  but  the  mines 
filled  with  water.  Fourteen  miles  north-west  of 
Chucuito.    Long.  70«  26'  W.,  lat.  16°  20'  S. 


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VxjVA,  a  woody  island,  district,  and  city  of 
South  America.  The  island  is  situated  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Guayaqail,  is  between  six  and 
seven  leagues  long,  and  about  the  same  in 
breadth,  and  was  once  populous,  containing 
20,000  Indians.  It  was  famous  in  the  history  of 
the  conquest  of  Peru.  The  port  of  Puna  serves 
for  the  lading  place  of  large  ships,  which  cannot 
get  over  the  Inir  to  Guayaquil ;  the  island  abounds 
in  mangrove  treies.  The  city  is  poor,  and  de- 
cayed. The  port  is  eight  leagues  from  the  city. 
LoDg.  70^  5ff  W.,  lat.  2*»  50' S. 

PUNCH,  fi.  s.  As  some  have  thought  of  Lat. 
potui  nautkus.  Mr.  Thomson  suggests  Sans, 
and  Hind,  pttnchiene,  of  |7tm,  pimna,  a  beverage, 
and  ckeerte,  *  which  signifies  both  Chinese  and 
sugar.'  See  Fryer,  quoted  below.  A  liquor 
made  of  spirits,  sugar,  water,  lemons,  &c. :  the 
only  wholesome  ingredient,  says  Cheyne,  being 
the  water. 

The  West  India  dry  gripes  are  occasioned  by  lime 
jttioe  in  puMch,  Arlmthnot  on  Ali$neiUs. 

No  bnite  can  endure  the  taste  of  strong  liquor, 
and  consequently  it  is  a^nst  all  the  rules  of  hiero- 
glyph to  assign  those  animaU  as  patrons  of  jnoiefc. 

Swift. 

Punch  is  an  Indian  word  expressing  the  number  of 
ingredients.  JFryerU  TraveU, 

Pum'ch,  n.  f .    Ital.  jntncinello.    The  buffoon 
or  harlequin  of  a  puppet-show^ 
Of  raree-shows  he  sung,  and  jmneh'i  feats.   Gojf, 
PuNCH^  v,a.  Icn.s.       f      Fr,  fotnfonner ; 
Pun'cheon,  n.  f.  SSpan.    poiiouy   jnair 

Punch'er.  3  zon,  of  Lat.  puncto. 

To  cut  a  hole ;  bore,  or  perforate  with  a  sharp 
instrument :  a  puncheon  and  puncher  are  names 
for  the  instrument  used :  puncheon  is  abo  a 
liquid  measure  of  eighty  gallons. 

When  I  was  mortal  my  anointed  body 
By  thee  was  pmuhed  full  of  deadly  holes. 


He  granted  liberty  of  coining  to  certain  cities  and 
abbies,  allowing  them  one  staple  and  two  punckeont 
at  a  rate.  Camden. 

The  fly  may,  with  the  hollow  and  sharp  tube  of 
her  womb,  fnmeh  and  perforate  the  skin  of  the  eruca, 
and  cast  her  eggs  into  her  body.  Kay. 

The  shank  of  a  key  the  punch  cannot  strike,  be- 
cauae  the  shank  is  not  forged  with  substance  suffi- 
cient ;  but  the  drill  cuts  a  true  round  hole. 

Moson*t  Meehanical  JSMrcuci. 
In  the  upper  jaw  are  five  teeth  before,  not  incisors 
or  cotters,  but  thick  punchers.  Grew. 

By  reason  of  its  constitution  it  continued  open,  as 
I  have  seen  a  hole  pundted  iii  leather.       Wueman. 

A  Punch  is  an  instrument  of  iron  or  steel, 
used  in  several  arts,  for  the  piercing  or  stamping 
holes  in  plates  of  metals,  &c.,  being  so  contrived 
as  not  only  to  perforate,  but  to  cut  out  and  take 
away  the  piece. 

A  Pdkcheon,  Punchin,  or  Punch  ion,  is  a 
little  block  or  piece  of  steel,  on  one  end  of  which 
is  some  figure,  letter,  or  mark,  engraven  either 
en  cieux  or  relievo,  impressions  whereof  are 
taken  on  metal,  &c.,  by  striking  it  with  a  ham- 
iner  on  the  end  not  engraved.  There  are  various 
kinds  of  these  puncheoxjs  used  in  the  mechanical 
arts.  Puncheon  is  also  a  common  name  for  all 
those  iron  instruments  used  by  stone-cutters, 
sculptors,  blacksmiths,  &c..  for  the  cutting,  in- 


ciding,  or  piercing  their  several  matters.  Those 
of  sculptors  and  statuaries  serve  for  the  repairing 
of  statues  when  taken  out  of  the  moulds.  The 
locksmiths  use  the  greatest  variety  of  puncheons; 
some  for  piercing  hot,  others  for  piercing  cold ; 
some  flat,  some  square,  some  round,  others  oval, 
each  to  pierce  holes  of  its  respective  figure  in 
the  several  parts  of  locks. 

PUNCTILIO,  n.«.  1   Lat.  ptmcttdum.  Nice- 

PuNCTi  L'lous,  >  ty  of  behaviour ;  a  nice- 

Punctil'iousness.  Jness  or  exact  point: 
punctilious,  nice;  exact;  fisistidious;  supersti- 
tiously  particular:  the  noun  substantive  corre- 
sponding. 

If  their  cause  is  bad,  they  use  delays  to  tire  out 
their  adversaries,  they  feign  pleas  to  gain  time  for 
themselves,  and  insist  onpunett/toi  in  his  proceedings. 

KettleweU. 

Common  people  are  much  astonished  when  they 
hear  of  those  solemn  contests  which  are  made  among 
the  great,  upon  the  punetiUot  of  a  public  ceremony. 

Addiaon. 

Some  depend  on  a  punetiKcua  observance  of  divine 
laws,  which  they  hope  will  atone  for  the  habitual 
transgression  of  the  rest.  Rogen*s  Sermom. 

PunetiUo  is  out  of  door  the  moment  a  daughter 
clandestinely  quits  her  father's  house.         Gbrufo. 

PUNCTO,  n.  s.  Span,  punto.  Nice  point  of 
ceremony ;  the  point  in  fieiicing. 

Vat  be  all  you  come  for  t 
—To  see  thee  here,  to  see  thee  there,  to  see  thee 
pass  thy  puneto. 

ahakipeare.  Merry  Wke$  of  Windsor. 

The  final  conquest  of  Granada  from  the  Moors, 
king  Ferdinando  displayed  in  his  letters,  with  all 
the  particularities  and  religious  pvauHos  and  ceremo- 
nies that  were  observed  in  the  reception  of  that  city 
and  kingdom.  Bacon's  Htnry  VII. 

PUNCTUAL,  adf.  )  Fr.  jnmetueL  Com- 
Punctoal'itt,  n.;f.  f  prised,  or  consisting 
Punc'tuallt,  ado.  cm  a  point:  exact; 
PunC'tualness,  n.  i.  J  nice ;  scrupulous :  the 
adverb  and  noun  substantives  corresponding. 

A  gentleman  punctual  of  his  word,  when  he  had 
heard  that  two  had  agreed  upon  a  meeting,  and  the 
one  neglected  his  hour,  would  say  of  him,  he  is  a 
young  man  then.  Roioon. 

For  the  encouragement  of  those  that  hereafter 
should  serve  other  princes  mth  that  pwnctuo^  as 
Sophronio  had  done,  he  commanded  him  to  offer  him 
a  blank,  wherein  he  might  set  down  his  own  condi  • 
tions.  Howel*s  Vocal  Forsif. 

This  earth  a  spot,  a  grain. 

An  atom  with  the  firmament  compared, 

And  all  her  numbered  stars,  that  seem  to  rowl 

Spaces  incomprehensible ;  for  such 

Ineir  distance  argues,  and  their  swift  return 

Diurnal,  merely  to  officiate  li^ht 

Round  this  opacons  earth,  this  ptmettial  spot. 

Milton. 

This  mistakp  to  avoid,  we  must  observe  the  pune- 
tual  differences  of  time,  and  so  distinguish  thereof, 
as  not  to  confound  or  lose  the  one  in  the  other. 

Browne's  V^tlgar  Errours. 

His  memory  was  serviceable,  but  not  officious ; 
faithful  to  things  and  business,  but  unwillingly  re- 
taining the  contexture  and  punctualities  of  the  words. 

Concerning  the  heavenly  bodies,  thefe  is  so  much 
exactness  in  their  motions,  -that  they  prntctually  come 
to  the  same  periods  to  the  hundredth  part  of  a  mi- 
nute, liay  on  the  Creatitn^ 


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Though  some  of  theto  punctueiUtie$  did  not  to 
much  conduce  to  preserve  the  text,  yet  all  of  them 
shew  the  iufiDite  care  that  was  taken  that  there 
miffht  be  no  mistake  in  a  single  letter.  Grew. 

I  freely  bring  what  Moses  hath  related  to  the  test, 
comparing  it  with  things  as  now  they  stand ;  and, 
finding  his  account  to  be  punetuaUy  true,  I  fairly  de- 
clare what  I  find.  Woodmird. 

The  correspondenoe'of  the  death  and  sufferings  of 
our  Lord  is  so  punctual  and  exact,  that  they  seem 
rather  li^e  a  history  of  events  past,  than  a  prophecy 
of  such  as  were  to  come.  R»ger$. 

He  was  punctual  and  just  in  all  his  dealings. 

Atterbury^ 

The  most  literal  translation  of  the  scriptures,  in 
the  most  natural  signification  of  the  words,  is  gene- 
rally the  best ;  ana  the  same  punetualnesM  which  de- 
baaeth  other  writings,  preserveth  the  spirit  and  ma- 
jesty of  the  sacred  text.  Felton, 

PUNCTUATION,  11. «.  Lat-pimctem.  The 
act  or  method  of  pointing  a  book  or  writing. 

It  ought  to  do  it  willingly,  without  being  forced 
to  it  by  any  change  in  the  wotds  or  punatuation, 

Add'uon. 

PuMCTUATiotf,  in  grammar,  the  art  of  point- 
ing, or  of  dividing  a  discourse  into  perioos,  by 
points  expressing  the  pauses  to  be  made  therein. 
The  ancients  were  not  entirely  unacquainted 
with  punctuation.  Suidas  says  that  the  period 
and  colon  were  discoveced  and  explained  by 
Thrasymachus,  about  A.A.C.  380;  and  Cicero 
says  that  Thrasymachus  was  the  first  who  studied 
oratorical  numbers,  which  consisted  in  the  arti- 
ficial structure  of  periods  and  colons.  It  appears 
from  a  passage  in  Aristotle  that  it  was  Known 
in  his  time.  Dr.  Edward  Barnard  says  it  con- 
sisted  in  the  different  ^ttions  of  one  single 
point.  At  the  bottom  or  a  letter,  thus  (A.),  it 
was  equivalent  to  a  comma;  in  the  middle, 
thus  (A.),  to  a  colon ;  at  the  top  (A*),  it  denoted 
a  full  period.  Cicero,  Quiatilian^  Seneca,  Sue- 
tonius, ^ius  Donatus,  and  St  Jerome,  all  men- 
tion that  the  Romans,  as  well  as  the  Greeks, 
made  use  of  points.  Peculiar  marks,  however, 
were  used  in  different  ages.  Of  these  marks  of 
distinction,  the  Waloote  inscription,  found  near 
Bath,  may  serve  for  a  specimen  * 

IVLIVSv  VITALISv  FABRI 
CESISv  LEGv  XXv  Vv  V 
STIPENDIORVMv  &c. 

After  every  word  here,  except  at  the  end  of  a  line, 
we  see  this  mark  v.  There  is  an  inscription  in 
Montfau9on,  which  has  a  capital  letter  laid  in  an 
horizontal  position,  by  way  of  interstitial  mark. 
Our  punctuation  appears  to  have  been  introduced 
with  the  art  of  pnnting.  In  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury no  stops  were  used  but  arbitrary  marks 
here  and  there.  In  the  fifteenth  century,  we 
observe  their  first  appearance.  We  find,  from 
the  books  of  this  age,  that  they  were  not  all  pro- 
duced at  the  same  time ;  those  we  meet  with  in 
use  first  being  only  the  comma,  the  parenthesis, 
the  interrogation,  and  the  full  point.  To  these 
succeeded  the  colon,  afterwards  the  semicolon, 
and,  lastly,  the  note  of  admiration.  The  hyphen, 
the  parenthesis,  and  quotation  marks,  are  sdso  a 
species  ofpunctuation. 

'  PUNCTULATE,  B.  a.  LaX.  punctulum.  To 
vasak  with  small  spots. 


The  studs  have  their  surface  piMicltiilatel,  as  if  aet 
all  over  with  other  studs  infinitely  lesser. 

Woodward. 

PUNCTUM  Stans,  a  phrase  by  which  the 
schoolmen  vainly  attempted  to  bring  within  the 
reach  of  human  comprehension  the  positive 
eternity  of  God.  Those  subtle  reasoners  seem  to 
have  discovered  that  nothing  which  is  made  up 
of  parts,  whether  continuous  or  discreet,  can  be 
absolutely  infinite,  and  that  therefore  eternity 
cannot  consist  of  a  boundless  series  of  successive 
moments.  Yet,  as  if  such  a  series  had  always 
existed  and  were  commensurate  in  duration  with 
the  Supreme  Being,  they  compared  his  eternity 
to  one  of  the  momenta  which  compose  the  flux 
of  time  arrested  in  its  course ;  and  to  this  eternal 
moment  they  gave  the  name  of  punctum  stans, 
because  it  was  supposed  to  stand  stil^  while 
the  rest  followed  each  other  in  succession,  all 
vanishing  as  soon  as  they  appeared. 

PUNCTURE,  11.1.  Lat^pimctos.  A  small 
prick ;  a  hole  made  with  a  sharp  point. 

With  the  loadstone  of  Lautentius  Gnascna,  what- 
soever needles  or  bodies  were  touched,  the  wounds 
and  puMctmret  made  thereby  were  never  iblt 

Brownest  Vulgar  JBnrawrs. 

Nerves  may  be  woqnded  by  scission  or  pumciuru  .- 
the  former  way  being  cut  through,  they  axe  irrecover- 
able ;  but  when  pricked  by  a  sharp-pointed  weapon, 
which  kind  of  wound  is  called  a  puncture,  they  are 
much  to  be  regarded.  Witenum, 

PUNDA,  or  PuNDY,  a  town  of  Hindostan, 
province  of  Bejapore,  formerly  belonging  to  the 
Mahrattas.  Long.  74*»  3'  E.,  laL  15^  20'  N.— - 
There  is  another  place  of  this  name  in  the  Norths 
ern  Circars.     Long.  84°  40'  E.,  lat  18°  14'  N. 

PUNDERPOOR,  or  Pundepore,  a  town  of 
the  province  of  Bejapore,  Hindostan,  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  BeemaJ.  It  is  not  large,  but  regu- 
lar and  well  built,  and  has  a  handsome  temple 
dedicated  to  Vishnu. 

PUNDITS,  or  Pamdits,  learned  Brahmins 
devoted  to  the  study  of  the  Shanscrit  language, 
and  to  the  ancient  sciences,  laws,  and  religion  of 
Hindostan. 

PUN'GENT,  adj.  >      Lat.  prnigau.     Prick- 

Pun'gemcy,  n.  s,  )  ing ;  acrid ;  sharp :  pun- 
gency is,  power  of  pricking,  or  piercing ;  keen- 
ness ;  acridness. 

An  opinion  of  the  successfulness  of  the  work  is  as 
necessary  to  found  a  purpose  of  undertaking  it,  as  the 
authority  of  commands,  the  persuasiveness  of  pro- 
mises, pungency  of  menaces,  or  prospect  of  mischielk 
Upon  neglect  can  be.  Hammond, 

The  latter  happening  not  only  upon  the  pungent 
eziflencies  of  present  or  impenifinff  judgments,  but 
in  me  common  service  of  the  churen.  Fall, 

When  he  hath  considered  the  force  and  pungency 
of  these  expressions  applied  to  the  fathers  of  that  Ni- 
cene  synod  by  the  western  bishops,  he  may  abate  his 
raee  towards  me.  Smingfleet, 

it  consists  chiefly  of  a  sharp  and  pungent  manner 
of  speech  ;  but  partly  in  a  facetious  way  of  jesting. 

Do  not  the  sharp  and  pungent  tastes  of  aci(k  arise 
from  the  strong  attraction,  whereby  the  acid  particles 
rush  upon  and  agitate  the  particles  of  the  tongue  1 

Newtou^t  Optict. 
Any  substance,  which  by  iu  pungency  can  wound 
.the  worms  will  kill  them,  as  steel  and  haruhorn. 

Arbuthnot 


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Just  where  the  breath  of  life  his  nostrils  drew, 
A  charge  of  snuff  the  wily  virgin  threw ; 
The  gnome*  direct  to  everv  atom  just, 
The  punyent  gnins  of  titillating  dnst.  Pope. 

Thou  canst  set  him  on  the  rack. 
Inclose  him  in  a  wooden  tower. 
With  pungtnt  pains  on  every  side ; 
So  Regulus  in  torments  died. 

Swifl's  Miicellanies. 

PUNIC  Wars.  See  Carthage. 
PUNICA,  the  pomegranate  tree,  a  genus  of 
the  moDogyDia  order  and  icosandria  class  of 
plants;  natural  order  thirty-sixth,  pomaces: 
CAL.  quinquefid  saperior;  petals  five;  fruit  a 
multilocular  and  potysperroous  apple.  1.  P.  gra- 
natdy  the  common  pomegranate,  rises  with  a  fre« 
stem,  branching  numerously  all  the  way  from 
the  bottom,  growing  eighteen  or  twenty  feet  high ; 
with  spear-a^ped,  narrow,  opposite  leares ;  and 
the  branches  terminated  by  the  noost  beautiful 
jnd  large  red  flowers,  succeeded  by  large  round- 
ish fruit  as  big  as  an  orange,  haying  a  hard  rind 
filled  with  soft  pulp  and  numerous  seeds.  There 
is  a  Tariety  with  double  flowers,  remarkably 
beautiful  ^  and  one  with  striped  flowers. 

2.  P.  anan,  the  dwarf  American  pomegranate, 
rises  with  a  shrubby  stem  branching  four  or  five 
feet  high,  with  narrow  short  leaves  and  small  red 
flowers,  succeeded  by  small  fruit ;  begins  flower- 
ng  in  June,  and  continues  till  October.  Both 
these  species  aie  propagated  by  layers :  the 
young  branches  are  to  be  chosen  for  this  pur* 
pose,  and  autumn  is  the  proper  time  for  laying 
them.  Those  of  the  common  sort  may  be  trained 
either  as  half  or  full  standards,  or  as  dwarfs.  But 
those  designed  for  walls  must  be  managed  as  di- 
rected for  peaches.  The  dried  flowers  of  tlie 
double-flowered  pomegranate  are  possessed  of 
an  astringent  quality ;  for  which  reason  they  are 
recommended  in  diarrhoeas,  dysenteries,  &c., 
where  astringent  medicines  are  proper.  The  rind 
of  the  fruit  is .  also  a  strong  astnngent,  and  as 
Huch  is  occasionally  made  use  of. 
PUNISH,  V.  a.  ^  Ldt,  pumo;  Ft.  pwui 
Pvn'ishable,  adj.  \  tahUy  punitum.  To  chas- 
Puh'isher,  n.  f .  1  ten ;  afflict  with  penal- 
Pvh'ishmbnt,  I  ties  for  a  crime;  avenge 

PuMi'TioNy  or  revenge  with  death  : 

Pv'ifiTivE,  adv.  J  punishable,  worthy  of  o-* 
demanding  punishment :  punisher,  he  who  in* 
flictsit:  punishment  and  punition,  the  penalty 
of  crime :  punitiye,  awarding  or  inflicting  that 
penalty. 

If  yon  will  not  hearken  I  will  punuh  you  seven 
times  more  for  your  sins.  Levitieus.  xzvi.  18. 

The  house  of  endless  pain  is  built  thereby. 
In  which  ten  thousand  sorts  of  punishments 
The  cursed  creatures  do  eternally  torment. 

Spenser. 
Theft  is  naturally  punishable,  but  the  kind  of  pu- 
viAment  is  positive,  and  such  lawful,  as  men  shall 
think  with  dticretion  convenient  to  appoint. 

Hooker. 
ITnkss  it  were  a  bloody  murtherer, 
I  never  gave  them  condign  puuishmettt. 
,  Shaktpeare. 

Neither  is  the  cylinder  charged  with  sin,  whether 
God  or  men,  nor  any  punitive  law  enacted  by 
iither  sgainst  its  rolling  down  the  hill. 

Hammond's  Fundamentals* 


Fie  that  doubts  whether  or  no  he  should  honour 
his  parents,  wants  not  reason,  but  punUhment. 

Holiday, 
Their  bribery  is  less  punishable  w  hen  bribery  opened 
the  door  by  which  they  entered,  Taylor. 

\I111  he  draw  out, 
For  anger  s  sake,  finite  to  infinite 
In  punished  man  1 
This  knows  my  punisher ;  therefore  as  far 
From  granting  me,  as  I  from  begging  peace. 

Milton. 
A  greater  power 
Now  ruled  him,  punished  in  the  shape  he  sinned. 

Drifdea^ 
Say,  foolish  one— can  that  unbodied  fame. 
For  which  thou  barterest  health  and  happiness. 
Say,  can  it  soothe  the  slumbers  of  the  grave — 
Give  a  new  zest  to  bliss,  or 'chase  the  pangs 
Of  everlasting  punishment  condign  ?  Kirke  White. 

Punishment  of  Crimes.  Dr.  Paley  was  the 
last,  and  we  believe  will  be  the  final  author  of  any 
celebrity,  who  will  be  found  to  vindicate  the  ge- 
neral spirit  of  our  criminal  jurisprudence,  in  which 
the  punishment  has  been  any  thing  but  the  pre- 
vention of  crimes.  It  has  been  constructed  upon 
no  general  system  of  legislation.  Sometimes  the 
magistrate  is  clothed  with  a  species  of  vindictive 
justice,  which  it  seems  doubtful,  at  least,  if  ever 
the  Supreme  Being  delegated  to  any  creature ;  at 
other  times  he  is  the  minister  of  a  particular 
order  of  men,  a  particular  caste,  or  class ;  as  in 
the  administration,  for  instance,  of  the  appal- 
ling enactments  of  the  game  laws :  again  he 
feebly  endeavours  at  the  legitimate,  perhaps 
only,  end  of  human  legislation,  the  preven- 
tion of  crimes,  by  puimhments  which,  if 
they  efliected  their  object,  are  wholly  dispropor 
tioned  to  the  ofl^ence.  It  seems  indeed  to  have 
been  forgotten  that  the  infliction  of  some  kinds 
of  punishment  may  in  itself  constitute  a  crime. 
Again,  it  has  been  forgotten  thsit  it  is  one  thing 
to  enact  a  law,  and  another  to  give  it  operation. 
The  moral  feelings  will  come  into  exercise 
among  a  people  like  our  own,  and  predominate 
occasionally,  and  even  steadily,  beyond  the  force 
of  attachment  to  any  human  institution.  An 
ostensible  and  real  equity  will  therefore  be  de- 
manded in  a  body  of  laws,  devolving  on  such  a 
people  to  execute. 

Dr.  Paley,  as  Sir  Samuel  Romily  has  re- 
marked, himself  enumerates  the  several  aggrava- 
tions which  ought  to  guide  the  magistrate  in  the 
selection  of  objects  of  condign  punishment;  and 
mentions  principally  three — repetition,  cruelty, 
and  combination ;  which  aggravations.  Sir 
Samuel  remarks,  are  as  capable  of  being  clearly 
and  accurately  described  in  written  laws,  and  as 
proper  to  be  submitted  to  the  decision  of  a  jury, 
as  the  crimes  themselves.  But  Paley  pro- 
ceeds to  say,  that, '  by  this  expedient  (meaning 
the  multiplication  of  capital  punishments),  few 
actually  suffer  death,  whilst  the  dread  and  dan- 
ger of  it  hangs  over  the  crimes  of  many ;'  and 
then  that,  *  &.e  wisdom  and  humanity  of  this 
design  furnish  a  just  excuse  for  the  multiplicity 
of  capital  offences,  which  the  laws  of  England 
are  accused  of  ci  eating,  beyond  those  of  other 
countries.'  We  may  oppose  to  this  extraordi- 
nary reasoning,  .the  sagacious  and  sound  obser- 
vation of  the  marquis  Beccaria,  that,  where  the 


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eODsequences  of  Crimea  are  problematical,  addi- 
tional force  is  rather  given  to  the  passions.  With 
respect  to  the  second  remark  of  Dr.  Paley, 
above  noticed,  it  is  impossible  not  to  be  sur* 
prised,  with  Sir  Samuel  Romilly,  that,  in  this 
mode  of  "administering  the  law,  an  apology 
should  be  found  for  the  great  number  of  our 
statutes  creating  capital  offences ;  for  certainly 
'  one  would  have  imagined  that  one  advantage 
of  such  a  system,  by  which  it  is  left  to  those 
who  exercise  the  law  to  discriminate,  and  to  find 
out  the  circumstances  which  are  to  characterize, 
to  extenuate,  or  to  aggravate  offences,  would  be, 
that  the  laws,  being  extremely  genend,  might  be 
few  in  number,  and  simple  and  concise  in  their 
enactments.  Were  we  to  frame  laws  which 
should  distinguish  accurately  the  general  cha- 
racter of  different  offences,  and  enumerate  all 
the  peculiar  aggravations  with  which  they  might 
be  attended,  and  should  leave  unforeseen  and 
tmnoticed  no  human  action  which  was  dangerous 
by  its  example,  or  heinous  in  its  circnmstances, 
we  might,  indeed,  have  a  good  excuse  to  offer 
for  the  multiplicity  of  our  penal  laws/ 

One  remark  more  from  Sir  Samuel  Romilly.— > 
The  power  of  suspending  the  laws  by  granting 
pardons  is  exclusively  in  the  king,  and  it  is  a 

Srerogative  of  a  very  transcendental  character, 
tut  in  the  exercise  of  that  discretion,  witb 
which,  in  judicial  practice,  at  least,  the  judge  is 
invested  in  dispensing  justice  on  his  circuit,  he 
is  made  the  depositary  of  the  royal  clemency ; 
he  administers  the  law;  he  suspends  its  execu- 
tion. Still,  however,  it  is  through  the  king  alone 
that  lenity  after  sentence  can  reach  the  case  of 
the  prisoner.  It  must  happen,  therefore,  that 
'  the  convicts  pardoned,  so  much  exceeding  in 
number  those  against  whom  the  law  is  suffered 
to  take  its  course,  and  the  few  who  are  executed^ 
not  the  many  who  are  pardoned,  appearing  to 
form  the  exceptions  to  a  general  rule,  this  prero- 
gative assumes,  in  practice,  an  aspect  of  seve- 
rity, not  of  mercy,  and  the  crown  seems  to 
single  out  its  victims  for  punishment,  not  to  se- 
lect the  objects  to  whom  it  should  extend  ks 
clemency.* 

On  the  practical  consequences  of  this  system 
we  have  not  room  to  dwell :  they  are  well  stated 
in  Mr.  Buxton's  speech  on  the  bill  for  mitigat- 
ing the  criminal  law,  23d  May^  1821.  Juries 
will  not  convict;  but,  to  save  the  criminal  from 
the  law  they  are  sworn  to  administer,  resort  to 
the  most  palpable  contradiction.  We  select  an 
instance  or  twO  at  random. 

'Mary  Whiting  was  indicted  for  stealing 
seven  guineas  and  34s.,  in  the  house  of  John 
Sun.  Verdict,  guilty  of  stealing  to  the  valtte 
of  39s. 

Jonathan  Smith  was  indicted  for  stealing  £20 
in  money  in  the  house  of  J.  Marsh.  Guilty  of 
stealing  to  the  value  of  39s. 

Joseph  Court  was  indicted  for  stealing  eieht 
pairs  of  gold  ear-rings,  value  £3  16s. ;  121  other 
pairs  of  ditto,  value  £74  lOs.  6d.;  forty-eight 
pairs  of  ditto,valne£l2  12s. ;» 204  pairs  of  ditto, 
value  £36  9s.;  twenty -four  pairs  or  ditto,  value 
£6  6s. ;  2488  gold  beads,  value  £72  18s ;  864 
colored  beads,  value  £l8;  144' pairs  of  gold 
car-rings,  value  £20  8s. ;    diree  pairs  of   gold 


enamelled  bracelets,  value  £9;  eighteen  pain  of 
9old  ditto,  value  £ll  78.  6d. ;  three  sraaU  cAses 
for  bracelets,  value  6s.;  thirty-six  gold  fieals, 
value  £33 12s.;  twelve  gold  lockets,  value  £3; 
and  a  parcel  of  shoes,  value  148.  8d. ;  the  pro- 
perty of  Messrs.  Mackenzie  and  Grey,  in  a 
lighter  belonging  to  them  on  the  Thames  navi- 
gable river.  Guilty  of  stealing  to  the  value 
of  39s.  r 

We  can  oidy  add  that  the  proposed  alterations 
of  Sir  Samael  Romilly  had  in  vain  been  advo- 
cated by  Sir  James  Mackintosh  and  Mr.  Bux- 
ton in  parliament,  until  a  distinguished  member 
of  the  governnMDt,  Mr.  Secretary  Peel,  adopted 
in  a  great  measure  the  views  of  that  eolightend 
statesman:  be  has  been  obKged  to  leave  much 
that  is  desirable  (the  entire  subject  of  forgery, 
for  instance)  untouched,  but  be  has  done  much, 
and  excited  the  just  confidence  of  the  nation 
that  he  wiU  not  hi\  shortly  to  follow  up  this  im- 
portant subject,  and  do  all  that  existing  and  long 
seated  prejudioes  in  high  qnartclfe  will  permit. 

PUNK,  n.  t.  Barb.  Lat  putamca,  A  whoie  ; 
common  prostitute. 

She  may  be  a  punk  ;  for  many  of  them  are  neither 
maid,  widow,  nor  wife.  SAoJbpear*. 

And  made  them  fight  like  mad  or  druxuL, 

For  dame  Teligion  as  for  j»mk,  HmMbras. 

Near  these  a  nmrsery  erects  its  head. 

Where  unBedged  actors  k»tti  to  laugh  and  ciy. 

Where  inftint  jmuMs  their  tender  voices  try. 

Dtydau 

PUN'STER,  n.  i.  Fiwn  pmi.  A  quibbler; 
a  low  wit. 

His  mother  was  cousin  to  Mr.  Swan,  gamester  and 
fwmUr  of  London.  Arbuihut  and  Pope, 

PUNT,  V.  n.  Ital.  pmto.  A  point  To  play 
at  basset  or  ombre. 

One  is  for  setting  up  an  assembly  for  basset,  where 
none  shall  be  admitted  to  punt  that  have  not  taken 
the  oaths.  Addison, 

When  a  dake  to  Jansenpunis  at  White's, 
Or  city  heir  m  mortgage  melts  away» 
Satan  himself  ieeU  iar  kss  joy  than  they. 

Pope^ 
PU'NY,  «4?*.  &  «.  #.     Fr.  ptiti  fie.    Young ;» 
inferior ;  petty ;  an  inexperienced  person. 

Is  not  the  king's  name  lorty  thousand  names  T 
Arm,  arai,  my  aame ;  a  pmijf  subject  strikes 
At  thy  great  gloiy.,  Shokspeore's  Biehard  IIL 

Drive 
The  puny  habitants ;  or,  if  not  drive. 
Seduce  them  to  oar  party.  MiiUoti. 

Jove  at  their  head  ascendina  from  the  sea^ 
A.  shoal  of  puny  powers  atfend  his  way.  Dryden. 
PUPA,  in  entomology,  a  term  now  used  by 
zoologists  for  that  state  of  insects  formerly  called 
aurelia,  and  chrysalis.      See  Chrysalis,  and 

EVTOMOLOGY. 

PUPIENAS  (M.  Cfamditts  Maximus),  a  man 
of  an  obscure  family,  the  son  of  a  bUcksmitfa, 
who,  by  his  merit,  raised  himself  to  the  highest 
offices  in  the  Roman  armies ;  and  became  suc- 
cessively a  pretor,  consul,  prefect  of  Rome,  and 
a  governor  of  a  province.  On  the  death  of  Gor- 
dian  I.  and  II.,  he  was  elected  emperor  toge- 
ther with  Balbinus  by  the  senate ;  but,  his  col- 
league and  he  disagreeing,  the  pretorian  guavds 
murdered  them  both,  A.  D.  326. 


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PUTIL,  *.  f.  Ital.  pvpiUa ;  Lai.  pipii/a.  The 
ipple  of  the  eye. 

Looking  in  a  glass,  when  you  shut  one  eye,  the 
jmjfU  o(  the  other,  that  is  open,  dilateth. 

Bacon's  Natural  Hutary, 

The  avea  has  a  xnusctilous  power,  and  can  dilate 
and  contract  that  round  hole  m  it  called  the  pupil  of 
the  eye.  More. 

The  rays,  which  enter  the  eye  at  several  parta  of 
the  pupa,  have  several  obliquities  to  the  glasses. 

Nevoton*s  Optieht* 

Po'piL,  ».  «.        ")  Fr.  m^im ;  Lat.  yufUhu* 

Pu'piLAOB,  >A  icholar;  a  ward:   one 

Pu'piLAkYy  adj.  3  under  the  care  of  a  tutor, 

or  guardian :  pupilage^  the  state  of  Mng  under 

such  care:  pupUaiy,  pertaining  to  a  ward  or 

pupil. 

Three  sons  he  dying  left,  all  under  tfge. 
By  means  whereof  their  uncle  Vortigem 
Usurp'd  the  crown  during  their  puipiiage ; 
Which  the  inftknts*  tutors  gathering  to  fear. 
Them  closely  into  Anoorick  did  bear.  Spenaer. 
My  master  sues  to  her,  and  she  hath^  taught  her 
suitor. 
He  being  her  iwf»i»  to  become  her  tutor. 

SkaihtpeaTe. 
One  of  my  father's  servants. 
With  store  of  tears,  thi%  treason  'gan  unfold. 
And  said  my  guardian  would  his  pupU  kill. 

Fairfax. 
Tutors  should  behave  lererently  before  their  jm- 
pUi.  VEurangB, 

The  severi^  of  the  father's  brow,  whilst  they  are 
under  the  diaciplioe  of  pttpilags,  should  be  relaxed 
as  fast  as  their  age,  discretion,  and  good  behaviour 
allow.  .  Id. 

So  some  weak  shoot,  which  else  would  poorly  rise, 
Jove's  tiee  adopts,  and  lifts  him  to  the  skies ; 
Tkrottgh  the  lusw  pupil  soft'ning  juices  flow. 
Thrust  forth  the  gems,  and  give  the  flow'rs  to  blow. 

TUM. 
Pupil,  in  the  civil  law,  a  boy  or  girl  not  yet 
arrived  at  the  age  of  puberty ;  i.  e.  the  boy  under 
fourteen  years,  Uie  girl  under  twelve. 

Pupil,  in  anatomy,  a  little  aperture  in  the 
middle  of  the  uvea  and  the  iris  of  the  eye, 
through  which  the  rays  of  light  pass  to  the  crys- 
talline humor,  in  order  to  be  painted  on  the  re- 
tina, and  cause  vision.    See  Anatomy. 
PUFPET,  n.  I.  ^    Fr.  poupU ;  Ital.  puppa  ; 
Pup'pETM  A  w,        >  Lat.  pipur.  A  small  wooden 
Pup'pETSHOW.      )  image ;  a  doll ;  a  wooden 
tragedian :    pappetman  is  the  master  of  a  pup- 
pet or  puppetsnow. 

Once  Zelmane  coidd  not  stir,  but  that,  as  if  they 
had  been  puppttt  whose  motion  stood  only  unon  her 
pleasure,  Basilius  with  sevioeable  steps,  Gynecia 
with  greedy  eyes,  would  follow  her.  Stingy, 

Oh  eideUent  motsnn !  oh  etoeeding  p«n»t  / 

Shakspiore, 
Divers  of  them  did  keen  in  their  houses  certain 
things  made  of  cotton  wooX  in  the  manner  of  puf- 


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jwto. 


Abbot. 


Tim,  you  have  a  taste  I  know. 
And  often  see  a  puppettkme.  Smift. 

Why  is  a  handsome  wife  adored 
By  every  coxcomb  but  her  lord  t 
From  yonder  puppBtmon  enquire. 
Who  wisely  hides  his  wood  and  wire.  Id. 

PUP'PY,  n.  s.  Fr.  pouvU ;  Lat.  pupus.  A 
whelp ;  progeny  of  a  bitch ;  a  name  of  con- 
tempt fbr  a  fop  or  pert  young  person. 


Talks  as  familiarly  of  roaring  lions. 
At  maids  of  thirteen  do  of  pyppif  dog«. 

^kakspmire, 
I  found  my  place  Uke»  up  by  aa.  ill-l»red  awkward 
jN^yy,  with  a  mooey  bag  under  each  arm. 

Addiiom. 
Natan  does  the  pt^ppy^f  eyelid  close. 
Till  the  bright  sun  has  nine  times  set  and  rose. 

Oatf. 

PURBACH  (George),  a  German  astronomer, 
bom  at  the  village  of  Pnrbach,  in  1423.  He 
studied  philosophy,  divinity,  and  astronomy,  at 
Vienna,  and  paid  particular  attention  to  the  lat- 
ter. He  composed  Astronomical  Tables,  and 
invented  several  mathematical. instramenu.  He 
also  translated  Ptolemy*s  Almagesta,  and  pub- 
lished several  tracts  of  his  own.  He  died  in 
1462. 

PUR'BLIND,  at^.  From  poreblind,  which 
is  still  used  in  Scotland ;  pore  and  blind.  Near- 
sighted; shortsighted. 

Tf  t  known  to  seveial 

Of  head  pieoe  extraordinary  ;  lower  aesaes. 

Perchance,  are  to  this  business  pmhUnd. 


PurbUni  man 
Sees  but  a  part  o'  the  chain,  the  nearest  links  ; 
His  eyes  not  carrying  to  that  equal  beam. 
That  poises  all  above.        Drydim  and  Lee*t  OedipuM, 

PURCELL  (Henry),  a  celebrated  master  of 
music.  He  was  made  organist  to  Westminster 
Abbey  in  the  end  of  the  reign  of  Charles  XL 
His  principal  works  have  been  published  under 
the  title  of  Orpheus  Britannicus.  He  died  in 
1695,  aged  thirty-seven;  and  was  interred  in 
Westminster  Abbey,  where  he  has  a  monument. 

PURCHAS  (Samuel),  an  English  divine,  ce- 
lebrated as  the  compiler  of  a  valuable  collection 
of  voyages,  was  born  in  1577,  at  Thackstead  in 
Essex.  After  studying  at  Cambridge,  he  ob- 
tained the  vicarage  of  Eastwood  in  Essex ;  but, 
leaving  that  cure  to  his  brother,  he  settled  in 
London,  to  carry  on  the  great  work  in  which  he 
was  engaged.  He  published  the  first  volume  in 
folio  in  1613,  and  the  last  four  twelve  yean  after, 
under  the  title  of  Purchas  his  Pilgrimage,  or 
Relations  of  the  World,  and  the  Religions  ob- 
served in  all  ages  and  places.  Meanwhile  he 
was  made  rector  of  St.  Martin's,  Ludgate,  in 
London,  and  chaplain  to  Dr.  Abbot,  archbishop 
of  Canterbury.  His  Pilgrimage,  and  Hack- 
luyt's  Voyagesy  led  the  way  to  other  collections 
of  that  kind,  and  have  been  justly  esteemed. 
But  unhappily  by  his  publishing  he  involved 
himself  in  debt.    He  died  about  1628. 

PUR'CHASE,  V.  a.  &  «.  t.  ^  Yt.poutchaner, 

Pur'chaseable,  adj.  >  To  acquire ;  ob- 

Pc7r'chaser,  «.  #.  .  J  tain  at  any  ex- 
pense of  labor,  danger,*  &c. ;  to  buy  for  a  price : 
puTcbaseable,  that  may  be  purchased  or  bought : 
purchaser,  he  wlio  makes  a  purchase ;  a  buyer. 

His  sons  baried  him  in  the  cave  which  Abraham 
pwrthoMod  of  the  sons  of  Heth.  Oenem  xxv. 

I  will  be  deaf  to  pleading  and 'excuses. 
Nor  tears  nor  prayers  shall  putehau  out  abases ; 
Therefore  use  none.  8AaAupeare. 

Upon  one  only  alienation  and  change,  the  pur 
chaser  is  to  pass  both  licence,  fine,  and  recovery. 


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A  world  who  woald  not  jmnhtue  with  a  bniite  Y 

Money  being  the  connteriMlenee  to  aU  thingi  fmt- 
chtuahU  by  it,  m  much  ai  yon  take  off  from  the 
valae  of  money,  to  mnch  yon  add  to  the  prioe  of 
things  ejcchanged  for  it.  Loekt, 

Mott  of  the  old  atatnee  may  be  wall  aapposed  to 
have  been  cheaper  to  their  firK  ownerBy  than  they  are 
to  a  modem  pMreAoMr.  Addimm, 

Oar  thriving  dean  hai  pmeha$$i  land  ; 
▲  purdkiM  which  will  bring  him  clear 
Above  hit  rent  foar  poanda  a  year.  Swift, 


PURE,arfj. 
Pube'ly,  adv. 
Pure'mbss,  h.  i. 
Purxfica'tiov, 
Pu'eifier, 
Pd'ripy,  v,  a.,&v.fi. 
Pu'rity,  n.  #. 


French  pur^  pure; 

Belg.   puer;    Italian^ 

Span,  and  Port,  puro ; 

^Lat.   jwrui.      Clean; 

clear ;      unmiogled ; 

free ;    incorrupt ; 
chaste;  mere:   nence 


morally  or  ritually  clean ;  holy ;  guiltless :  the 
adverb  and  noun  substantive  corresponding: 
purification,  the  act  of  cleansing  or  making 
pure:  purifier,  he  who  performs  it:  to  purify, 
to  make  clear,  clean,  guiltless,  free  from 
guilt  or  corruption :  purity  is  synonymous  with 
pareness. 

All  of  them  were  pme,  and  killed  the  pasaover. 

Ewr:i, 

Who  can  .say,  I  have  made  my  heart  clean,  I  am 
pure  from  my  sin?  Pnnerlm  xx.  9. 

I  will  pmely  purge  away  thy  dross,  and  take  away 
all  thy  tin.  Itumk. 

As  oft  as  I  read  those  comedies,  so  oft  doth  soond 
in  mine  ear  the  pars  fine  talk  of  Rome.        Amham, 

Thoa  purmt  wUaw,  whoae  pmnneu  doth  present 
My  pumt  mind.  fiiuiMy. 

Could  I  come  to  her  with  any  detection  in  my 
hand,  I  could  drive  her  then  from  the  ward  of  her 
punhft  her  reputation,  and  her  marriage  vow. 


An  essence  eternal  and  apiritual,  of  absolute  pun- 
nen  and  simplicity.  JtoW^A. 

If  any  bad  blood  should  be  left  in  the  kingdom, 
an  honourable  foreign  war  will  vent  or  pi^rify  it. 

Bocoti'f  Hmnry  VIL 
Water  is  the  symbol  otpwrifieation  of  the  soul  from 
sin,  and  bread  and  wine  of  Christ's  body  and  blood  ; 
therefore  the  symbols  rsceive  the  names  of  what  they 
sign.  Tajfior. 

The  lord  of  the  castle  was  a  young  man  of  spirit, 
but  had  lately,  out  of  pme  weariness  of  the  fatigue, 
and  having  spent  most  of  his  money,  left  the  king. 

Clarendim, 
Hypocrites  austerely  talk. 
Defaming  as  impure  what  God  dedarea 
Pun,  and  commands  to  some,  leaves  free  to  all. 

MUum. 
My  love  was  such, 
It  could,  though  he  supplied  no  fuel,  bum  ; 
Rich  in  itoelf ,  like  elemental  fire. 
Whose  jMrwMSf  does  no  aliment  require. 

If  Ood  gives  grace,  knowledge  will  not  stay  long 
behind  ;  since  it  is  the  same  apirit  and  principle  that 
purifiet  the  heart,  and  clarifies  the  understanding. 

aeuth  t  Stntiom, 
.Her  urn 
Poms  streams  select  and  pmity  of  waters.       PfMr. 

Upon  the  particular  observations  on  (he  meuUick 
and  mineral  bodies,  I  have  not  founded  any  thing 
but  what  purdy  and  immediately  concerns  the  na- 
tural history  of  those  bodies.  Wo&dward, 

Death  sets  us  safely  on  shore  in  our  long  expected 


Canaan,  where  there  are  no  temptations,  no  danger 
of  falling,  but  etenal  pmitjf  and  immortal  joya 
secure  our  innocence  and  happiness  for  ever. 

ITcfe. 
Her  gxiiltless  glory  just  Britannia  draws 
From  pun  religion,  and  impartial  laws.       Tidid, 
I  converse  in  foil  freedom  with  men  of  both  par- 
ties ;  and,  if  not  in  equal  number,  it  is  purdg  acci- 
dental, as  having  made  acquaintance  more  under  one 
ministry  than  another.  8mfi. 

Purs  and  mixt,  w|ien  applied  to  bodies,  are  much 
akin  to  simple  aiul  compound ;  so  a  guinea  is  jnsrv 
gold,  if  it  has  in  it  BO  alloy.  WuUt't  Itgiek. 

From  the  body's  purity,  the  mind 
Receives  a  secrst  aid.  '  Tkomaam. 

Hope,  as  an  anchor  firm  and  auie,  holds  fast 
The  Christian  vessel,  and  defies  the  blast. 
Hope  !  nothing  else  can  nourish  and  aeeure 
His  new-bom  virtues,  and  preserve  him  ^Mre. 

Cmper. 

PUR'FILE,  n.  # .  Fr.  pourfike,  A  sort  of  an- 
cient trimming  for  women  s  gowns. 

A  goodly  lady  clad  in  acarlet  red, 
PurfUd  with  gold  and  pearl  of  rich  assay. 

Spmuer, 
Emrold  tufb,  flowers,  pnnjM  blue  and  wlute, 
Like  saphire,  pearl,  in  rich  embroidery. 
Buckled  below  fair  knighthood's  bending  knee. 

*  fifcajtonerf. 

Iris  there  with  humid  bow 
Waters  the  odorous  banks  that  blow. 
Flowers  of  more  mingled  hue 
Than  her  purfkd  scarf  can  shew.         MUtan. 
In  velvet  white  as  snow  the  troop  was  gowned. 
Their  hoods  and  sleeves  the  same,  and  fwr/lsd  o'er 
With  diamonds.  XHydsn. 

PURFLEET,  a  village  of  England,  in  Essex, 
on  the  north  bank  of  tM  Thames,  famous  for  its 
extensive  lime-works.  It  has  also  a  large  ma- 
sazine  of  Gunpowder.  It  is  four  miles  west  of 
Grays,  and  nineteen  east  of  London. 

PURGE,  V.  a.,  v.  n.,  fc  fi.  s.  \      Fr.  purger  ; 
Purga'tiok,  n.  i.  I  Lgi.  purgo.  To 

Pira'cATivB,  cuj^'.  i  cleanse;  clan- 

Pur'gatory,  «.  $.  Jfy;  scour ;  e- 

vacuate  the  body;  clear  from  guilt  or  charge: 
purgation  is  the  act  of  purging  in  any  way :  pur- 
gative, having  the  power  to  purge  or  evacuate ; 
cathartic :  purgatory,  a  place  which  the  Roman* 
ists  suppose  to  be  devoted  in  the  other  world  to 
cleansmg  men  from  impurities. 

I  will  purge  out  from  among  you  the  rebels. 

JBuek.  ax.  38. 
The  blood  of  Christ  [shaQ]  purge  our  conscience 
from  dead  works  to  serve  Ood.  Heb.  ix.  14. 

Thou  thy  folk  through  pains  of  purgatory, 
Dest  bear  unto  thy  bliss.      Spauer't  Ugmn  en  Low, 
If  any  man  doubt,  let  him  put  me  to  my  putgelion. 

Hhakepeare. 
To  the  English  court  assemble  now 
From  ev^  region  apes  ol  idleness  ; 
Now  neighbour  conflnes  purge  you  of  your  scum.  Id, 
He,  I  accuse. 
Intends  t'appear  before  the  people,  hopiug 
To  purge  himself  with  words.  Id. 

This  shall  make 
Our  purpose  necessary,  and  not  envious  ; 
We  shall  be  called  purgen,  not  murtherers.      Id, 
Sir  Philip  Calthrop  purged  John  Drakes,  the  shois 
maker  of  Norwich,  of  the  proud  humour. 

Ofimrfm. 


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'  Purging  medicines  have  their  mirgativ*  virtiiQ  in  a 
fine  spirit,  the^  endure  not  boiling  without  loss  of 
virtue.  Id. 

Marqais  Dorset  was  hasting  towards  him»  to  jmr^e 
himselfof  some  accusation.  Id.  Henry  VI f. 

It  is  of  good  use  in  physick,  if  you  can  retain  the 
ffUTging  virtue,  and  take  away  the  unpleasant  taste  of 
the  yurger.  Bacon, 

All  that  is  filled,  and  all  that  which  doth  fill, 
AH  the  round  world  to  man  is  but  a  pill ; 
In  all  it  works  not,  but  it  is  in  all 
Poisonous,  or  yur^athe,  or  cprdial.  Donne. 

Simplicity  and  integrity  in  the  inward  parts  may 
vurge  out  every  prejudice  and  passion. 

Vecajf  of  Pieiif. 
A  certain  monk  saw  some  souls  roasted  upon  spits 
like  pigs,  and  some  devils  basting  them  with  scaloing 
lard ;  but  a  while  after  they  were  carried  to  a  cool 
place,  and  so  proved  purgatory,  Bp.  Taylor, 

In  this  age  there  may  be  as  great  instances  pro- 
daced  of  rnd  charity  as  when  men  thought  to  get 
souls  out  of  purgetUtry,  Stillhigfieet, 

Pills,  not  laxatives,  I  like ; 
Of  these  his  gain  the  sharp  physician  makes. 
And  often  gives  a  purge,  but  seldom  takes. 

Dryden. 
We  do  not  suppose  the  separation  finished,  before 
the  purgation  of  the  air  began.  Bumei, 

Syphax,  we'll  join  our  cares  to  pwge  away 
Our  country's  cnmcs,  and  clear  her  reputation. 

Addison. 
Air  ventilates  and  cools  the  mines,  and  pttrgee 
and  frees  them  from  mineral  exhalations. 

Woodward. 
He  was  no  g^t  friend  to  purging  and  clysters ; 
he  was  for  mixing  aloes  with  all  purges.  ArinUhnot. 
Lenient  purgatives  evacuate  the  humours.  Wiaewum. 
Purgation,  in  law,  signifies  the  clearing  a 
peraon's  self  of  a  crime  of  which  he  is  suspected 
and  accused  before  a  judge.  This  purgation  is 
either  canonical  or  vulgar.  Canonical  purgation 
is  prescribed  by-  the  canon  law,  and  the  form 
thereof  in  the  spiritual  court  is  usually  thus : 
The  person  thus  suspected  takes  his  oath  that  he 
is  innocent  of  the  crime  charged  against  him ; 
and  at  the  same  time  brings  some  of  his  neigh- 
bours to  make  oath  that  they  believe  he  swears 
truly.  Vulgar  purgation  was  anciently  by  fire 
and  water,  or  else  by  combat,  and  was  practised 
here  till  abolished  by  our  laws. 

Purgation,  in  medicine,  is  an  excretory  mo^ 
tion  arising  from  a  quick  and  orderly  contrac* 
tion  of  the  fleshy  fibres  of  the  stomach  and  in- 
testines, whereby  the  chyle,  corrupted  humors, 
aud  excrements  lodged  therein,  are  protruded 
further,  and  at  length  quite  excluded  the  body 
by  stooL 

Purgatory  is  a  place  in  which  the  just,  after 
death,  are  supposed  by  the  Roman  Catholics  to 
exoiate  certain  offences  which  do  not  merit  eter- 
nal damnation.  Broughton  has  endeavoured  to 
J  rove  that  this  notion  has  been  held  bv  Pagans, 
ews,  and  Mahometans,  as  well  as  by  Chris- 
tians; and  that  in  the  days  of  the  Maccabees 
the  Jews  believed  that  sin  might  be  expiated  by 
sacrifice,  aRer  the  death  of  the  sinner,  cannot  be 
Questioned.  Much  abuse  has  been  poured  upon 
the  church  of  Rome  for  her  doctrine  of  purga- 
tory, and  many  false  represeDtations  have  been 
pade  of  the  doctrine.  The  following  view  of  it 
w  taken  from  a  work  which  is  considered  as  a 
standard  by  the  British  Catholics:  1.  Every  sin, 
V0L.XVIH      . 


how  slight  soever,  tihough  no  more  than  an  Mle 
word,  as  it  is  an  offence  to  God,  deserves  pu- 
nishment from  him,  and  will  be  punished  by  him 
hereafter,  if  not  cancelled  by  repentance  here. 
2.  Such  small  sins  do  not  deserve  eternal  punish- 
ment. 3.  Few  depart  this  life  so  pure  as  to  be 
totally  exempt  from  spots  of  this  nature,  and 
from  every  kind  of  debt  due  to  God*s  justice. 
4.  Therefore  few  will  escape  without  suffering 
something  from  his  justice  for  such  debts  as  they 
have  carried  with  them  out  of  this  world ;  ac- 
cording to  that  rule  of  divine  justice,  by  which 
he  treats  every  soul  hereafter  according  to  its 
works,  and  according  to  the  state  in  which  he 
finds  it  in  death.  From  these  propositions, 
which  the  Papist  considers  as  so  many  self-evi- 
dent truths,  he  infers  that  there  must  be  some 
third  place  of  punishment ;  for,  since  the  infinite 
goodness  of  God  can  admit  nothing  into  heaven 
which  is  not  clean  and  pure  from  all  sm  both 
great  and  small;  and  his  infinite  justice  can  . 
permit  none  to  receive  the  reward  of  bliss,  who 
as  yet  are  not  out  of  debt,  but  have  something 
in  justice  to  suffer :  there  must  of  necessity  be 
some  place  or  state  where  souls  departing  this 
life,  pardoned  as 'to  the  eternal  guilt  or  pain,  yet 
obooxious  to  some  temporal  penalty,  or  with  the 
guilt  of  some  venial  fiaiults,  are  purged  and  puri- 
fied before  their  admittance  into  heaven.  Such 
is  the  Popish  doctrine  of  purgatory. 

Purification  is  a  ceremony  which  consists 
in  cleansing  any  thing  from  a  supposed  defile- 
ment. The  Pagans,  before  they  sacrificed,  usu-  , 
ally  washed  themselves  in  water ;  and  they  were 
particularly  careful  to  wash  their  hands,  because 
with  these  they  were  to  touch  the  victims  conse- 
crated to  the  gods.  They  likewise  washed  the 
vessels  with  which  they  made  their  libations. 
The  Mahometans  also  use  purifications  previous 
to  prayer;  which  are  of  two  kinds,  bathing,  or 
washing  the  face,  hands,  and  feet.  The  first  is 
required  only  in  extraordinary  cases,  as  after 
havin^lain  with  a  woman,  touched  a  dead  body, 
&c.  But  where  water  cannot  be  had,  or  when  it 
may  be  of  prejudice  to  a  person's  health,  they 
are  allowed  to  use  fine  sand,  or  dust,  by  clap- 
ping their  open  hands  on  the  sand,  and  passing 
them  over  the  parts,  in  the  same  manner  as  u 
they  were. dipped  in  water.  There  were  also 
many  legal  purifications  among  the  Hebrews. 
When  a  woman  was  brought  to  bed  of  a  male 
child,  she  was  esteemed  impure  for  forty  davs ; 
and  when  of  a  female,  for  sixty :  at  the  end  of 
which  time  she  carried  a  lamb  to  the  door  of  the 
temple  to  be  offered  for  a  burnt-offering,  and  a 
young  pigeon  or  turtle  for  a  sin-offering;  and 
after  this  ceremony  she  was  declared  pure. 

PURIM,  or  the  Feast  of  Lots,  a  solemn 
festival  of  the  Jews,  instituted  in  memory  of  the 
deliverance  they  received,  by  means  of  Mordecai 
and  Esther,  from  Hainan's  wicked  attempt  to  de- 
stroy them. 

PU'RITAN,n.«.  j  From  pure,  A  name 
PuRiTAN'iCAL,a4r\>  originally  given  to  the 
Pu'ritanism,  n.s.  )  Dissenters  of  England, 
from  the  great  professions  of  purity  in  their 
creed  and  practice  :  puritanical  is  relating  to,  or 
resembling,  the  puritans  :  puritanism,  their  reli- 
gious systems  or  opinions. 

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The  ichUm  which  the  papisU  on  the  one  hand, 
and  theHupentition  which  the  purUant  on  the  other, 
lay  to  our  charge>  are  very  justly  chargeable  upon 
themselves.  *  Sandenon, 

Such  guides  set  over  the  several  congregations  will 
misteach  them,  by  instilling  into  them  jmritanical 
and  superstitious  principles,  that  they  may  the  more 
securely  exercise  their  presbyterian  tyranny. 

Waltm, 

A  serious  and  impartial  examination  of  the 
grounds,  as  well  of  popery  as  puritanUnit  according 
to  that  measure  of  understanding  God  hath  affordea 
me.  •  •  Id, 

Puritan  was  a  name  formerly  given  in  deri- 
sion to  the  dissenters  from  the  church  of  Eng- 
land, on  account  of  their  profession  to  follow 
the  pure  word  of  God,  in  opposition  to  all  tra- 
ditions and  human  constitutions.  It  was  like- 
wise given  in  the  primitive  church  to  the  No^a- 
lian  schismatics,  because  they  would  never 
admit  to  communion  any  one  who  from  dread  of 
death  had  apostatised  from  the  faith.    See  Nova-^ 

TIANS. 

PURL,  n.  »,  &  V.  a.  Supposed  by  Minsheu 
to  be  contracted  from  purfle.  An  embroidered 
and  puckered  border :  to  decorate  with  embroi- 
dery. 

Himself  came  in  next  after  a  triumphant  chariot 
made  of  carnation  velvet,  enriched  with  purl  and 
pearl.  Sdneif. 

The  jagging  of  pinks  is  like  the  inequality  of  oak 
leaves ;  but  they  seldom  have  any  small jn<ri«. 

Bacon, 
When  was  old  Sherewood's  head  more  quaintly 
curled, 
Or  nature's  c  adle  more  enchased  and  purUd  ? 

Ben  Jonum. 

Purl,  v.  n.    Swed.  pttrUi.    To  murmur. — 
Lye.    To  murmur ;  to  flow  with  a  gentle  noise. 
Tones  are  not  to  apt  to  procure  sleep,  as  some  other 
sounds ;  as  the  wind,  the  purUng  of  water,   and 
humming  of  bees.  Bacon, 

All  fish  from  sea  or  shore 
Freshet,*  or  purling  brook,  or  shell  or  fin. 

MiUon, 
My  flow'ry  theme, 
A  painted  mistress,  or  a  purling  stream.  Pop*. 
Around  the  adjoining  brook,  that  purls  along 
The  vocal  grove,  now  fretting  o'er  a  rock.  Thomson. 
PUR'LIEU,  71.  t.    Form  PuR^    a    border. 
The  grounds  on  the  border  of  a  forest ;  border ; 
enclosure;  district. 

In  the  purlieus  of  this  forest  stands 
A  sheepcote,  fenced  about  with  olive  trees. 

Shakspeare, 
Such  civil  matters  fall  within  the  purlieus  of  reli- 
gion. UEstrange, 

To  understand  all  the  purlieus  of  this  place,  and 
to  illustrate  this  subject,  I  must  venture  myself  into 
the  haunts  of  beauty  and  gallantly.  Spectator. 

He  may  be  left  to  rot  among  thieves  in  some  stink- 
ing jail,  merely  for  mistaking  the  purUeiu  of  the  laws. 

Swift. 

Purlieu,  ^n  law,  signifies  all  that  ground 
near  any  forest  which,  being  made  forest  by  king 
Henry  II.  Richard  I.  and  king  John,  was  after- 
wards by  perambulations  and  grants  of  Henry 
III.  severed  again  from  the  same,  and  made  pur- 
lieu ;  that  is  to  say,  pure  and  free  from  the  laws 
of  the  forest.  The  word  is  derived  from  the 
French  pur,  pure,  and  lieu,  place. 


PURLOIN',  V.  o.  Of  doubtftil  etymology. 
Skinner  deduces  it  from  French  pour  and  /otn. 
Mr.  Lye  from  Saxon  pujUlouhoan,  to  lie  hid. 
To  steal ;  to  take  by  theft. 

Not  purloining,  but  shewing  all  good  fideli^. 

Titus  u.  10. 
He,  that  brave  steed  there  finding  ready  dight, 
Purloined  both  steed  and  spear,  and  ran  away  full 
light.  Spenser, 

They,  not  content  like  felons  topurUin, 
Add  treason  to  it,  and  debase  the  coin. 

Denham. 
The  Arimaspian  by  stealth 
Had,  from  his  wakeful  custody,  purloined  | 

The  guarded  gold.  MiUon, 

Some  wnters  make  all  ladies  purXmned, 
And  knights  pursuing  like  a  whirlwind. 

Hudihras. 
When  did  the  muse  from  Fletcher  scenes  purloin. 
As  thou  whole  Eth'ridge  dost  transfuse  to  thine  ? 

Dryden, 
It  may  seem  hard  to  see  puUick  pfirloiners  sit  upon 
the  lives  of  the  little  ones,  that  go  to  the  gallows. 

Xr  IHtStranffe. 
Your  butler  purloins  your  liquor,  and  the  brewer 
sells  your  hogwash. 

Arbuthnot*s  History  of  John  BuU. 
Prometheus  once  this  chain  purloined. 
Dissolved,  and  into  money  coined.  Stcift. 

PURNEAH,  a  district  forming  the  north-west 
division  of  Bengal.  It  is  extremely  fertile  and 
well  watered,  producing  remarkably  fine  cattle. 
It  exports  a  great  quantity  of  clarified  butter, 
and  is  also  celebrated  for  its  sugar  and  indigo. 
The  cattle  are  much  used  in  the  army,  and  for 
agricultural  purposes:  the  northern  mountains 
also  produce  valuable  timber,  which  is  cut  in 
the  hot  weather,  and  afterwards  floated  down  the 
rivers.  It  is  supposed  to  contain  nearly  1 ,500,000 
of  inhabitants,  about  one-third  of  whom  are 
Mahometans.  In  1722  the  nabob  Sief  Khan,  a 
friend  of  Cooly  Jaffler  Khan,  was  governor  of 
Purneah,  and  had  permission  to  conquer  from 
the  bordering  rajahs  as  much  territory  as  he 
could,  which  was  to  be  exempt  from  any  in- 
crease of  revenue  to  the  state.  He  made  there- 
fore very  considerable  additions  to  the  district ; 
and,  while  other  parts  of  Bengal  were  overrun  by 
the  Mahrattas,  Purneah  continued  in  a  state  of 
tranouilli^  and  prosperity.  In  May  1760 
Khadem  Hussein,  then  in  possession  of  this  dis- 
trict, endeavoured  to  cut  off  a  British  detach- 
ment under  the  command  of  captain  Knox,  but 
after  an  engagement  of  six  hours  was  repulsed. 
On  the  25th  of  June  he  again  encountered  the 
British  forces,  and  was  defeated.  At  the  peace 
this  chief  was  compelled  to  retire  to  Oude, 
from  which  period  Purneah  has  became  a  dis- 
trict of  Bengal.  Its  principal  towns  are  Pur- 
neah and  Tajepore,  its  n^rmer  capital  was 
Deocote. 

Purneah,  the  capital  of  the  above  district,  is 

Eleasantly  situated  on  the  eastern  bank  of  the 
eraw,  and  carries  on  a  considerable  trade.  It 
is  the  residence  of  a  judge,  collector,  &c.  Long. 
88°  23'  E.  lat.  25°  45'  w. 

PUR'PARTY,  n. «.  French  pour  and  parti 
Share ;  part  in  division. 

Each  of  the  coparceners  had  an  entire  counts 
allotted  for  her  pu/qmrty,  Davies  on  Ir^nd. 


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PUR  259 

PURTLE,  v.a,,  n.s.icadj.  Fr.  pourpre; 
Lat.  pwrpwreui.  Red  tinctured  with  blue:  a 
color  among  the  aucients  considered  as  the 
noblest,  and  as  the  regal  color :  to  make  purple : 
the  color;  a  purple  dress. 

The  poo^  was  beaten  gold, 
PurpU  the  sails,  and  so  perfumed,  that 
The  winds  were  love-sick  with  'em. 

Shakrpeare, 
Whilst  your  purpled  hands  do  reek  and  smoak, 
fulfil  your  pleasure.  Id.  Julius  Cewr. 

Cruel  and  snddain,  hast  thou  idnce 
Pvrpled  thy  nail  in  blood  of  innocence  ? 

Donne, 
You  violets,  that  first  appear, 
Bv  your  pure  purple  mantles  known ; 
What  are  you  when  the  rose  is  blown  1 

Wotton. 
Not  alone,  while  thou 
Visit'st  my  slumbers  nightly  ;  or  when  morn 
PurpUi  the  East.  MiUon*s  Paradise  Lost. 

O'er  his  lucid  arms 
A  Test  of  military  purple  flowed 
Livelier  than  Meliboean,  or  the  gnun 
Of  Sanra,  worn  by  kings  and  heroes  old. 

MilUm. 
I  could  change  the  color,  and  make  it  purpUA. 

Boyle. 
I  view  a  field  of  blood. 
And  Tyber  rolling  with  ajwrpli  flood. 

Dryden. 
Aurora  had  but  newly  chased  the  night. 
And  purpled  o'er  the  sky  with  blushing  light. 

Id, 
May  be  it  has  been  sometimes  thought  harsh  in 
those  who  were  bom  in  purple  to  look  into  abuses 
with  a  stricter  eye  than  their  predecessors;  but 
elected  kings  are  presumed  to  come  upon  the  foot  of 
leformatbn.  Ikmenant* 

A  small  oval  plate,  cut  off  a  flinty  pebble,  and  po- 
lished, is  prettily  variegated  with  a  pale  grey,  blue, 
yellow,  and  purple.  Woodward, 

Reclining  soft  in  blissful  bowers, 
Purpled  sweet  with  springing  flowers.  FenUm, 
Not  with  more  glories  m  the  ethereal  plain, 
The  sun  first  rises  o'er  the  purpled  main.         Pope. 
Their  mangled  limbs 
Crashi  g  at  once,  death  dyes  the  purple  seas 
With  gore.  Tfwm»on*s  Summer. 

Purple.  See  Color-Making,  and  Dyeing- 
PUR'PORT,  n.  $.  &  w.  a.  "j  Fr.  pourporte ; 
pDR'posEy  n.  $.,  V.  a.  &  v.  R.  >  of  Lat.  pro  and 
Pur'posely,  fliv.  1  porta.    Design; 

tendency  of  a  writing  or  discourse :  to  intend : 
purpose,  the  intention,  design,  or  thing,  intended ; 
effect ;  consequence ;  instance :  to  purpose  as  a 
verb  active  is,  to  intend;  design:  as  a  verb 
neuter  to  have  a  design :  purposely,  by  design. 
I  am  purposed  that  my  mouth  shall  not  transgress. 

Psalm  xvii. 
This  is  the  purpoee  that  is  purpoeed  upon  the  whole 
earth.  Isaiah. 

What  David  did  purpose,  it  was  the  pleasure  of 
God  that  Solomon  his  son  should  perform.  Hooker, 

Bong  the  instrument  which  God  hath  purposely 
framed,  tl^ereby  to  work  the  knowledge  of  salvation 
in  the  hearts  of  men,  what  cause  is  Uiere  wherefore 
it  should  not  be  acknowledged  a  most  apt  mean  ? 

He  with  troops  of  horsemep  beset  the  passages  of 
o<fpot0,  that,  when  the  army  should  set  forward,  he 
might  in  the  streights,  fit  for  his  purpose,  set  upon 
diem.  KneUes. 


PUR 


He  quit  the  house  of  purpose,  that  their  punish- 
ment . 
Might  have  the  freer  course. 

Skakspeare,  King  Lear. 
Change  this  purpose. 
Which  being  so  horrible,  so  bloody,  must 
Lead  on  to  sonie  foul  issue  Skakspeare. 

It  is  a  purposed  thing,  and  grows  by  plot, 
Te  curb  the  nobility.  Id.  Coriolanus. 

There  was  an  article  against  the  reception  of  the 
rebels,  purporting  that  if  any  such  rebel  should  be 
required  of  the  prince  confederate,  that  the  prince 
confederate  should  command  him  to  avoid  the  country. 
Bacon's  Henry  VU. 
The  ground  will  be  like  a  wood,  which  keepeth 
out  the  sun,  and  so  continueth  the  wet,  whereby  it 
will  never  graze  to  purpose  that  year.  Bacon. 

The  first  purpose  to  sin  opens  the  gates  to  Satan. 

Bp.  Hall. 
That  kind  of  certainty  which  doth  not  admit  of 
any  doubt,  may  serve  us  as  well  to  all  intents  and 
purposes  as  that  which  is  infallible.  '  Wilfcins. 

And  I  persuade  me  God  hath  not  permitted 
His  strength  again  to  grow,  were  not  his purposa 
To  use  him  farther  vet.  Milton's  Agonistes. 

The  whole  included  race  his  purposed  prey. 

JUiUon.     < 
Oaths  were  not  purposed  more  than  law. 
To  keep  the  good  and  just  in  awe, 
But  to  confine  the  bad  and  sinful, 
Like  moral  cattle  in  a  pinfold.  Hudibras. 

Their  design  is  a  war,  whenever  they  can  open 
it  with  a  prospect  of  succeeding  to  purpose.  Temple. 
They,  who  are  desirous  of  a  name  in  painting, 
should  read  and  make  observations  of  such  things  as 
th^  find  for  their  purpose,  Vryden's  Dufresnoy. 
Tis  common  for  double-dealers  to  be  taken  in 
their  own  snares,  as  for  the  purpose  in  the  matter  of 
power.  VEttran^e. 

Such  first  principles  will  serve  us  to  very  little 
purpose,  and  we  shall  be  as  much  at  a  loss  with,  as 
without  them,  if  they  may,  by  any  human  power, 
suck  as  is  the  will  of  our  teachers,  or  opinions  of  our 
companions,  be  altered  or  lost  in  us.  Locke. 

Tnat  Plato  intended  nothing  less  is  evident  from 
the  whole  scope  and  purport  of  that  dialogue. 

JViorw. 
He  travelled  the  world,  on  purpose  to  converse  with 
the  most  learned  men.  Guardian. 

St.  Austin  hath  laid  down  a  rule  to  this  very  piir- 
pote,  Burnet. 

They  in  most  grave  and  solemn  wise  unfolded 
Matter,  which  little  purported,  but  words 
Ranked  in  right  learned  phrase.  Bou>e. 

I  have  purposely  avoided  to  speak  any  thing  con- 
cerning the  treatment  due  to  such  persons. 

Addison. 
Doubling  my  crime,  I  promise  and  deceive. 
Purpose  to  slay,  whilst  swearing  to  forgive. 

Prior. 
He  that  would  relish  success  ,to  purpose,  should 
keep  his  passion  cool,  and  his  expectation  low. 

Collier  on  Desire, 
In  composing  this  discourse,  I  purposely  declined 
all  oflfensive  and  displeasing  truths.  Atterbury. 

The  vulgar  thus  through  imitation  err. 
As  oft  the  learned  by  being  singular ; 
So  much  they  scorn  the  crown,  that  if  the  throng. 
By  chance  go  right,  they  purposely  go  wrong. 

Pope, 
Where  men  err  against  this  method,  it  is  usually 
on  purpose,  and  to  shew  their  learning.  Swift. 

I  do  this  on  purpose  to  give  you  a  more  sensible 
impression  of  the  imperfection  of  your  knowledge. 

Watts. 
S  2         T 
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260 


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What  the  Romans  hare  done  is  not  worth  notice, 
having  had  little  occasion  to  make  use  of  this  art, 
and  what  they  have  of  it  to  pwrptmhein^  borrowed 
from  Aristotle.  Baker. 

PUR'PRISE,  n.  *.  Old  Fr.  pourpris ;  law 
Lat.  purpriium,  prensus.  A  close  or  enclosure ; 
the  whole  compass  of  a  manor. 

The  place  of  justice  is  hallowed ;  and  therefore 
not  only  the  bench  but  the  foot-pace  and  precincts, 
and  purprise  ought  to  be  preserved  without  cormp* 
tion.  Baoan't  Esaatfs. 

PURPURA,  in  natural  history.   See  Murex. 

PURPURIC  Acid,  in  chemistry,  acidum 
purpuricum:  so  called  from  its  fine  red  color. 
The  excrements  of  the  serpent  boa  constrictor 
consist  of  pure  lithic  acid.  Dr.  Proul  found 
that  on  digesting  this  substance  thus  obtained, 
or  from  urinary  calculi,  in  dilute  nitric  acid,  an 
effervescence  takes  place,  and  the  lithic  acid  is 
dissolved,  forming  a  beautiful  purple  liquid. 
The  excess  of  nitric  acid  being  neutralised  with 
ammonia,  and  the  whole  concentrated  by  slow 
evaporation,  the  color  of  the  solution  becomes 
of  a  deeper  purple ;  and  dark  red  granular  crys- 
tals, sometimes  of  a  greenish  hue  externally, 
soon  begin  to  separate  in  abundance.  These 
crystals  are  a  compound  of  ammonia  with  the 
acid  principle  in  question.  The  ammonia  was 
displaced  by  digesting  the  salt  in  a  solution  of 
caustic  potassa,  till  the  red  coloi  entirely  disap- 
peared. This  alkaline  solution  was  then  gradu- 
ally dropped  into  dilute  sulphuric  acid,  which, 
uniting  with  the  potassa,  left  the  acid  principle 
in  a  state  of  purity. 

'  This  acid  principle  is  likewise  produced  from 
lithic  acid  by  chlorine,  and  also,  but  with  more 
difficulty,  by  iodine.  Dr.  Prout,  the  discoverer 
of  this  new  acid,  has,  at  the  suggestion  of  Dr. 
Wollaston,  called  it  purpuric  acid,  because  its 
saline  compounds  have  for  the  most  part  a  red 
or  purple  color. 

This  acid,  as  obtained  by  the  preceding  pro- 
cess, usually  exists  in  the  form  of  a  very  fine 
powder,  of  a  slightly  yellowish  or  cream  color ; 
and  when  examined  with  a  magnifier,  especially 
under  water,  appears  to  possess  a  pearly  lustre. 
It  has  no  smell,  nor  taste.  Its  specific  gravity 
is  considerably  above  water.  It  is  scarcely 
soluble  in  water.  One-tenth  of  a  grain,  boiled 
for  a  considerable  time  in  1000  grains  of  water, 
was  not  entirely  dissolved.  The  water,  how- 
ever, assumed  a  purple  tint,  probably,  Dr. 
Prout  thinks,  from  tlie  formation  of  a  little  pur- 
purate  of  ammonia.  Purpuric  acid  is  insoluble 
in  alcohol  and  ether.  The  mineral  acids  dis- 
solve it  only  when  they  are  concentrated. 

PURR,  V,  a,  Teut.  murren.  To  murmur  as 
a  cat  or  leopard ;  both  words  probably  from  the 
sound. 

Tray  fast  asleep,  and  puss  a  purring, 
All  silent,  not  a  fpurmur  stirring.     Fire  Side. 

PURRURY,  a  town  and  district  of  the  pro- 
vince of  Gundwanah  and  Hindostan,  the  resi- 
dence of  a  Burdy  chief,  who  is  a  tributary  of 
Singrowla  rajah.  The  town  is  large,  but  the 
country-  poor,  and  largely  covered  with  forests. 

PURSE,  n.  t.  &  u.  fl.  J  Fr.  bourse ;  Italian 
>6or«a;  barb.  Lat  bursa; 


Purse'net, 
Puese'procjd,  (U^, 


J  W/pl.  pwrs.    A  small 


bag  in  which  money  is  contained  :  a  net  closed 
by  a  string,  like  a  purse :  to  put  into,  or  contract 
as,  a  purse;  purse-proud  is,  puffed  up  with 
riches. 

He  sent  certain  of  the  chief  prisoners,  richly  ap- 
parelled, with  their  purses  full  of  money,  into  the 
city.  KnoUes. 

She  bears  the  purse  too ;  she  is  a  region  in 
Guiana,  all  gold  and  bounty. 

Shaktpeare.  Merry  Wines  of  Windtor, 
Thou  cried'st. 
And  didst  contract  and  ptnrse  thy  brow  together. 
As  if  thou  then  had'st  shut  up  in  thy  brain 
Some  horrible  conceit.  Id.  Othello. 

The  illiberality  of  parents,  in  allowance  towards 
their  children,  is  a  harmful  error,  and  makes  them 
base  ;  acquaints  them  with  shifts  ;  makes  them  sort 
with  mean  company ;  and  makes  them  Rurfeit  more 
when  they  come  to  plenty  :  and  therefore  the  proof 
is  best  when  men  keep  their  authority  towards  their 
children,  but  not  their  purse.  Lord  Bacon. 

I  pursed  it  up,  but  little  reck'ning  made. 
Till  now,  that  this  extremity  compelled, 
I  find  it  true.  Milton. 

I  am  spell-caught  by  Philidel, 
And  pursed  within  a  net.  Dryden. 

Conies  are  taken  by  pwrsenets  in  their  barrows. 

Mortimer, 

I  will  give  him  the  thousand  pieces,  and,  to  his 
great  surprise,  present  him  with  another  purse  of  the 
same  value.  Addison. 

He  was  desirous  of  visiting  Trent  while  the  coun- 
cil vras  sittiD|[ ;  but  the  scantiness  of  his  pu^te  de- 
feated h  is  curiosity.  Johnson . 

A  Purser  is  an  ofiicer  aboard  a  man  of  war, 
who  receives  her  victuals  from  the  yictualler, 
sees  that  it  be  well  stowed,  and  keeps  an  account 
of  what  he  every  day  delivers  to  the  steward.  He 
also  keeps  a  list  of  the  ship^s  company,  and  sets 
down  exactly  the  day  of  each  man's  admission, 
in  order  to  regulate  the  quantity  of  provisions 
to  be  delivered  out,  and  that  the  paymaster  or 
treasurer  of  the  navy  may  issue  out  the  dis- 
bursements, and  pay  off  the  men,  according  to 
his  men. 

The  purser  is  charged  with  the  clothes  and 
effects  of  persons  who  die  on  board;  and  he 
sells  the  same  before  the  mast  to  the  rest  of  the 
crew,  and  is  obliged  to  give  a  satisfactory  account 
of  the  same  to  the  executors  or  administrators 
of  the  deceased.  It  is  his  duty  also  to  keep  a 
regular  slop-book,  wherein  he  is  to  make  dbtinct 
and  separate  entries  of  the  particulars  and  value 
of  the  slop-clothes,  bedding,  dead  men's  clothes, 
&c.,  issued  or  supplied  to  the  ship's  company. 

PUR'SLAIN,  n.  «.    LslI.  portulaca.    A  plant. 

The  medicaments,  proper  to  diminish  the  milk, 
are  lettuce,  pwrskan,  and  endive.  Wiseman's  Sm^ery. 

PURSUE',  V.  ft.  &  ».  fl.  -N      Fr.    paursuivre  ; 
Pursi/able,  f  IsA,  proseqwr.  To 

Pursu'ant,  S  follow ;  chase ;  fol- 

Pursu'er,  n. «.  I  low  hostilely  ;  imi- 

PuRsurf.  Jtate;   copy:   as   a 

verb  active,  proceed :  to  go  on :  pursuable  is 
that  may  be  pursued :  pursuant,  done  in  con- 
sequence or  prosecution  of  (a  legal  term) :  pur- 
suer, he  or  she  who  follows,  particularly  with 
hostility :  pursuit,  the  act  of  following ;  prosecu- 
tion;  endeavour ;  attempt  made. 


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When  Abraham  heard  that  his  brother  was  taken 
captive,  he  aimed  his  trained  servants,  and  pursued. 

Genesis  x\v.  14. 
As  xiffhteousness  tendeth  to  life ;  so  he  that  /ntr- 
fuetft  evil,  jmrmeih  it  to  his  own  death.       Proverbs. 
Love  1^  a  shadow  flies,  when  substanoe  love  p«r- 
sues  I 
Purswkuf  that  that  flies,  and  flying  what  fmrsues, 

Shakspeare. 
Fled  with  the  rest. 
And  falling  from  a  hill,  he  was  so  braised. 
That  the  pursuers  took  him.       Id.  Henrjf  IV. 

like  a  declining  statesman  left  forlorn 
To  his  frieads'  pity  and  pursuers*  scorn. 

Denham. 
He  concluded  with  sighs  and  tears*  to  conjure 
them,  that  they  would  no  more  press  him  to  give 
his  consent  to  a  thing  so  contraiy  to  his  reason, 
the  execution  whereof  would  break  his  heart,  and 
that  they  would  give  over  further  pursuit  of  it. 

Clarendon. 
Insatiate  to  pursue 
Vain  war  with  heaven.  Milton. 

His  swift  pursuers  from  heaven's  gates  discern 
The  advantage,  and  descending  tread  us  down 
Thus  drooping.  MUton^s  Paradise  Last, 

Ann.  warriors,  arm  for  fight !  the  foe  at  hand. 
Whom  fled  we  thought,  will  save  us  long  pursuit.  ' 

Milton. 
I  have,  pursues  Carneades,  wondered  chymists 
ihould  not  consider.  Boyle. 

1  will  pursue 
This  ancient  story,  whether  false  or  true. 

Dryden. 

This  means  they  long  proposed,  but  little  gained. 

Yet,  after  much  pursuit,  at  length  obuined.        Jd. 

When  men  pursue  their  thoughts  of  space,  they 

stop  at  the  confines,  of  body,  as  if  space  were  there 

at  an  end.  Loeke. 

He  has  annexed  a  secret  pleasure  to  the  idea  of 
any  thing  that  is  new  or  uncommon,  that  he  might 
ancourage  us  in  the  pursuit  after  knowledge,  and  en- 
gage us  to  search  into  the  wonders  of  his  creation. 

Addison* 
We  happiness  pursue  ;  we  fly  from  pain  ; 
Yet  the  pursuit,  and  yet  the  flight  is  vain. 

Prior, 
Its  honours  and  vanities  are  continually  passing 
before  him,  and  inviting  his  pursuit.  B4>gers, 

What  nature  has  denied  fools  will  pwtue, 
s  apes  are  ever  walking  upon  two.  Young, 

PUR'SUIVANT,  n.  «.    Fr.  poursuxvant.     A 
state  messenger ;  an  attendant  on  the  heralds. 
How  oft  do  they  with  golden  pinions  cleave 

The  flitting  skies,  like  flying  pursuioajUl  Spenser. 

Send  out  a  pursuieant  at  arms 
To  Stanley's  regiment ;  bid  him  bring  his  power 
Before  sun-rising.  Shakspeare. 

For  helmets,  crests,  mantles,  and  supporters,  I 
leave  the  reader  to  Edmond  Bolton,  Gerard  Leigh, 
John  Ferne,  and  John  Guillim  Portismouth,  pur- 
sutvants  of  aims,  who  have  diligently  laboured  in 
annory.  Camden. 

The  pursmmnts.  ftame  next, 

And  like  the  heralds  each  his  scutcheon  bore. 

Dry  den. 

Pursuivant,  in  heraldry,  is  the  lowest  order 
of  officers  at  arms.  They  are  properly  atten«^ 
ants  on  the  heralds  when  they  marshal  public 
ceremonies.  Of  these  in  England  there  were 
formerly  many ;  but  at  present  there  are  only 
four,  viz.  blue-mantle,  rouge-cross,  rouge-dragon, 
and  port-cuUice.    In  Scotland  there  is  only  one 


king  at  arms,  who  is  styled  Lyon ;  and  has  un- 
der him  six  heralds,  and  as  many  pursuivants. 

PUR'SY,  (Mf;.  .Fr.  poussif;  ItaL  pulswo;  gf 
Lat.  pulsus.    Short-breathed  and  fat. 
Now  breathless  Wrong 
Shall  sit  and  pant  in  your  great  chairs  for  ease. 
And  pursy  Insolence  shall  break  his  wind 
With  fear  and  horrid  flight.  Shakspeare 

An  hostess  dowager, 
Grown  fat  and  pursy  by  retail 
Of  pots  of  beer  and  bottled  ale.     Hudihras, 
By  these,  the  Medes  • 
Perfume  their  breaths,  and  cure  old  pursy  men. 

Temple. 
PURTENANCE,  n.  s.      Fr.  appertenance. 
The  pluck  of  an  animal. 

Roast  the  lamb  with  fire,  his  head  with  his  legs, 
and  with  the  purtenance  thereof.  .  Exodus: 

The  shaft  against  a  rib  did  glance, 
And  galled  him  in  the  purtenance.     Hudihras, 
PURVES  (James),  a  learned  Arian  preacher, 
bom  at  a  little  village  of  Berwickshire,  in  1734. 
His  father  was  only  a  keeper  of  cattle,  and  in* 
tended   James  for  the  same  profession.     He  • 
meanwhile,  having  obtained  the  loan  of  some 
books  on  mathematics,  made  himself  master  of 
geometiT    and     trigonometry,    and    afterwards 
taught  these  sciences  with  other  branches  of  ma- 
thematics, and  assisted  some  public  authors  in 
compiling  mathematical  work^,  which  have  been 
well  received.    He  joined  a  party  of  the  ancient 
Cameronians,  and  in  1769,  at  one  of  their  gene- 
•^1  meetings,  was  called  to  be  a  pastor  among 
them.    To  qualify  himself  for  this  office  he  stu- 
died  the  Greek  and  Hebrew  languages,  and 
compiled  a  Hebrew  Grammar,  which  is  still  in 
MS.    These  acquisitions  led  him  into  the  study 
of   the  Arian    Controversy,  when    he    finally 
adopted  the  opinions  of  Anus ;  and  afterwards 
became  preacher  to  a  small  Arian  congregation 
in  Edinburgh ;  where  he  also  kept  a  school  and 
a  book  shop,  for  many  years  before  he  died,. 
His  works  are,  1.  A  Humble  Attempt  to  inves- 
tigate the  Scripture  doctrine  of  the  Trinity.    2. 
Observations  on  Prophetic  Times^  2  vols.     3. 
A  Treatise  on  Civil  Government.    ^  Observa- 
tions on  Socinian  Arguments.    5.  A  Scriptural 
Catechism.     6.  Correspondence  with  the  Bn- 
chanites.    7.  Dissertation  on  the  Seals,  Trum- 
pets, &c.     8.  Enquiry  into  the  Nature  of  Faith 
and  Regeneration.     9.  Review  of  Paine's  Age 
of  Reason.    10.  A  Treatise  on  Sacrifices.      1 1. 
Review  of  some  Religious  Opinions,  established 
by  the  Powers  of  the  World,  favorable  to  Des- 
potism.     12.  An  Historic  and  Prophetic  Re- 
presentation  of   Events.     13.    Scheme  of   the 
Lives  of  the  Patriarchs.    All  these  were  pub- 
lished at  Edinburgh  within  the  last  twelve  years 
of  his  life,  and  evidence  at  least  uncommon  in- 
dustry.   He  was  three  times  married,  and  left  a 
daughter  by  each  wife.    He  died  in  1789. 
PURVEY',  r.  a.  &  v.  n.-j     Fr.  pourvqir ;  Lat. 
Puevey'ance,  n.  «.         tprovisus.     To  pro- 
Pubvey'or,  i  vide    with    conve- 

Pur'view.  3niencies;    a    sense 

not  now  in  use:  procure;  buy  in  provisions: 
purveyance  is  provision ;  or  the  procurement  or 
exaction  of  it :  purveyor, ,  he  who  procures  vie-  , 
tuals ;  a  procurer  of  any  kind :  purview,  pro- 
viso; providing  clause. 


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PUS 


Ghre  do  odds  to  yoar  fbei,  but  do  purMy 
YouneU  of  sword  before  thtt  bloody  day. 

Upemer. 
Whence,  mounting  up,  they  find  jmrveyanoe  meet 
Of  all  that  princes  royal  court  became.  Id. 

The  puTMys  or  victuallers  are  much  to  be  con- 
demned, as  not  a  little  faulty  in  that  behalf. 

Baleigk, 
Some  lands  be  more  changeable  than  others ;  as 
for  their  lying  near  to  the  borders,   or  because  of 
great  and  continual  prnveyanen  that  are  made  upon 
them.  Bacon, 

I  the  praise* 
Yield  thee,  so  well  this  day  thou  hast  purveyed. 

MilUm. 
Though  the  petition  expresses  only  treason  and 
felony,  yet  the  act  is  general  agunst  all  appeals  in 
parliament ;  and  many  times  the  purview  of  an  act  is 
larger  than  the  preamble  of  the  petition.         Hale. 
His  house  with  all  convenience  was  pmveyed. 
The  rest  he  found.  Dryden. 

These  women  are  such  cunning  purvejfon ! 
Mark  where  their  appetites  have  once  been  pleased. 
The  same  resemblance  in  a  younger  lover 
lies  brooding  in  their  fancies  the  same  pleasures. 

The  stranger,  ravished  at  his  good  fortune,  is  in- 
troduced to  some  imaginary  title  ;  for  this  purvesfor 
has  her  representatives  of  some  of  the  finest  ladies. 

Additon. 
What  though  from  outmost  land  and  sea  purveyed. 
For  him  each  rarer  tributary  life 
Bleeds  not.  Thmum. 

And  winged  purveyon  his  sharp  hunger  fed 
With  finigal  scraps  of  flesh,  and  maslin  bread. 

Haiie, 

PU'RULENT*  adj.  Fr.  puruknt ;  Lat.  pwu- 
lentut.  Consisting  of  pus  or  the  running  matter 
of  wounds. 

A  carcase  of  man  is  most  infectious  and  odious  to 
man,  and  purulent  matter  of  wounds  to  sound  flesh. 

Bacon, 
Nothing  could  be  more  proper,  for  the  ripening  of 
hard  and  purulent  tumors,  than  dry  figs. 

Bp.  HaU. 
It  is  no  easy  thing  always  to  discern,  whether  the 
suspected  matter  expectorated  bv  a  cough  be  really 
purulent,  that  is,  such  as  comes  from  an  ulcer. 

Blackmore. 
An  acrimonious  or  purulent  matter,  stagnating  in 
some  organ,  is  more  easily  deposited  upon  the  liver 
than  any  other  part.  Arhuthnot, 

It  spews  a  filthy  froth 
Of  matter  purulent  and  white, 
Which  happened  on  the  skin  to  light. 
And  there  comijpting  on  a  wound. 
Spreads  leprosy.  Swift, 

PUS,  n.  f.    Lat.  pm.  Corrupt  animal  matter; 
matter  of  a  sore.  ' 
Acrid  substances  break  the  vessels,  and  produce 
■    an  ichor  instead  of  laudable  put.  Arbuthnot. 

Pus,  in  medicine  and  surgery.      See  Sur- 

OERY. 

PUSH,  V.  a.y  V.  n,  &  n.  t .  Fr.  paiuser ;  of  Lat. 
pulso,  pello.  To  strike  in  the  manner  of  a  thrust ; 
drive;  impel;  force;  urge;  make  a  thrust, 
effort,  or  attack :  as  a  noun  substantive,  the  ef- 
fort; thrust;  attack  made;  exigence;  trial; 
emergence. 

If  Uie  ox  puA  a  man-servant,  he  shall  be  stoned. 
'  Exoduu 

Through  thee  will  we  pnuk  down  our  enemies. 

Fsalmi. 


The  king  of  the  south  shall  piuk  at  him,  and  the 
king  of  the  north  shall  come  agaiopt  him.    Daniel, 
Ne  might  his  corse  be  harmed 
With  dint  of  sword  or  puA  of  pointed  spear. 

6:pefuer. 
They*  like  resolute  men,  stood  in  the  face  of  tlie 
breach,  receiving  them  with  deadly  shot  i^nd  puth  of 
pike,  in  such  furioaS'  manner,  that  the  Turks  began 
to  retire.  KnoUes. 

Shew  your  mended  faiths* 
To  putk  destruction  and  perpetual  shame 
Out  of  the  weak  door  of  our  fainting  land. 

Snamtpeare^ 
He  gave  his  co«intenance  against  his  name. 
To  laugh  with  gybing  boys,  and  stand  the  jnah 
Of  every  beardless  vain  comparative.  Id, 

We'll  put  the  matter  to  the  present  pmk.    Id. 
He  that  was  praised  to  his  hurt  should  have  a  puA 
rise  upon  his  note ;  as  a  blister  will  rise  upon  one's- 
tongue,  that  tells  a  lye.  Bacon, 

Waters  forcing  wa^, 
Sidelong  had  pushed  a  mountain  from  his  seat. 
Half  sunk  with  all  his  pines.  Milton, 

He  forewarns  his  care 
With  rules  to  puA  his  fortune  or  to  bear.   Drydem, 

Arts  and  sciences,  in  one  and  the  same  century, 
have  arrived  at  great  perfection,  and  no  wonder, 
sinde  every  age  has  a  kind  of  universal  genius,  which 
inclines  those  that  live  in  it  to  some  particular  stu- 
dies ;  the  work  then  being  pmhed  on  by  many  hands, 
must  go  forward.  fd. 

Away  he  goes,  makes  his  pueht  stands  the  shock 
of  a  battle,  and  compounds  for  leaving  of  a  leg  be- 
hind him.  L*E$trange, 
Tis  common  to  talk  of  djring  for  a  friend ;  but, 
when  it  comes  to  the  puth,  'tis  no  more  than  talk. 

Id. 
A  calf  will  so  manage  his   head  as  though  he 
would  push  with  his  horns  even  before  they  shoot. 

Bay. 
Ambition  jwchet  the  soul  to  soch  actions  as  are 
apt  to  procure  honour  to  the  actor.  ^jeetatar. 

Lambs,  though  they  never  saw  the  actions  of  their 
species,  push  with  their  foreheads,  before  the  budding 
of  a  horn.  Addison, 

Jove  was  not  more  pleased 
With  infant  nature,  when  his  spacious  hand 
Had  rounded  this  huge  ball  of  earth  and  seas. 
To  give  it  the  first  puah,  and  see  it  roll 
Along  the  vast  abyss.  Id, 

The  question  we  would  put  is  not  whether  the 
sacrament  of  the  mass  be  as  truly  propitiatory  as 
those  under  the  law  1  but  whether  it  be  as  truly  a 
sacrifice  1  if  so,  then  it  is  a  true  proper  sacrifice,  and 
is  not  only  commemorative  or  representative,  as  we 
are  told  at  a  puth.  Atterhury, 

This  terrible  scene  which  might  have  proved  dan- 
gerous, if  Cornelius  had  not  been  pushed  out  of  the 
room.  Arbuthnot. 

We  are  pushed  for  an  answer,  and  are  forced  at 
last  freely  to  confess,  that  the  corruptions  of  the 
administration  were  intolerable.  Swijt. 

When  such  a  resisUnce  is  made,  these  bold  talkms 
will  draw  in  their  horns,  when  their  fierce  and  feeble 
pushes  against  truth  are  repelled  with  pushing  and 
confidence.  Watts, 

PUSILLANIMITY,  n.f.>       Fr.   punllmil. 

Pusillan'imous,  adj.  S  ffiU ;  Lat.  pusU- 
lut  and  oiiuRttf .  Cowardice ;  meanness  of  spirit ; 
the  adjective  corresponding. 

The  property  of  your  excellent  sherris  is  the  wann- 
ing of  the  blood,  which,  before  cold  and  settled,  left 
the  liver  white  and  pale,  the  badge  of  pufiUanimit^ 
and  cowardice.  Shahpeare. 


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The  Chineie  nil  wbo^  they  will,  which  theweth 
that  their  lav  of  kee|uiig  out  ttnmgers  ii  a  law  of 
ptmUankmity  and  fear.  Bacon, 

An  argument  fit  for  great  princes,  that  neither  by 
ofenneaaurin^  their  forces  they  lose  themselves  in 
vain  enterprises;  nor,  by  undervaluine  them,  de- 
scend to  fearful  and  pioi/lantmotu  counsels.    Bacon, 

What  greater  instance  can  there  be  of  a  weak  pu- 
tifUnnmu  temper,  than  for  a  man  to  pass  his  whole 
life  in  opposition  to  his  owa  lentiroents  ?  Spectator. 

It  is  obvious,  to  distinguish  between  an  act  of 
courage  and  an  act  of  rashness,  an  act  of  pun/iani- 
mifjT,  and  an  act  of  great  modesty  or  humility. 

8oMh, 
He  became  puaiUanixnanu,  and  was  easily  ruffled 
with  every  little  passion  within;    supine,   and  as 
openly  exposed  to  any  temptation  from  without. 

Woodward^i  Natural  History, 
PUSS,  n,  i.    Lat.  piaiOf  a  dwarf,  Johnson 
conjectures ;  but  Belg.  poes,  is  a  cat.    The  fond- 
ling name  of  a  cat. 

A  youD^  fellow,  in  fove  with  a  cat,  made  it  his 
humble  suit  to  Venus  to  turn  puu  into  a  woman. 

L*  Estrange, 
Poor  honest  puss, 
'    It  grieves  my  heart  to  see  thee  thus ; 

But  hounds  eat  sheep  as  well  as  hares.  Cay, 
I  will  permit  my  son  to  play  at  apodidrascinda, 
which  can  oe  no  other  than  ourptMs  in  a  comer. 

Arbulhnot  and  Pope, 
Let  pusi  practise  what  nature  teaches.        Watts, 
Puss  grew  presently  familiar,  and  would  leap  into 
my  lap.  Cowper, 

PUSTERTHAL,  a  mountainous  district  of  the 
Austrian  states,  in  the  Tyrol,  on  the  borders  of 
Carinthia,  fifty  miles  long  by  eighteen  broad.  Its 
chief  product  is  flax,  and  the  manufactures  linen 
and  lace.  It  abounds  in  metallic  ores,  rock 
crystal,  mineral  waters,  and  warm  baths.  The 
population  is  80,000,  and  the  chief  town  Lienz. 
PUSTULE,  n.  s.  Fr.  pustule;  Lat.  pustula. 
A  small  swelling ;  a  pimple. 

The  blood,  turning  acrimonious,  corrodes  the  ves- 
sels, producing  hemorrhages,  pustides,  red,  black,  and 
gangrenous.  Arbuthnot, 

PUT,  t;.  a.,  t;.  n.  &  n.  s.  Dan.  putten,  *  to 
plant,'  says  Junius ;  but  Lat  positOy  and  Ital. 
postare  9tidpotta,  seem  a  more  natuial  etymolo- 
gy. To  place;  deposit;  repose;  trust;  apply; 
use  actively;  oblige;  urge:  hence  cause;  pro- 
duce; consign,  especially  to  writing;  incite; 
instigate  (taking  iiptm) ;  propose ;  state ;  offer ; 
place  as  an  ingredient:  this  word  takes  a  variety 
of  prepositions,  as  fry,  doum,  forth,  in,  of,  on, 
upon,  &c. ;  but  explained  in  their  actual  use : 
ZR  a  verb  neuter,  to  put,  is  to  go,  or  move ;  steer 
a  vessel;  germinate;  shoot;  taking /orM,  in, 
in  for  J  off,  over,  &c. :  as  a  noun  substantive, 
put,  is  an  action  or  signal  of  distress :  hence, 
perhaps,  a  rustic ;  low  person ;  and  an  excuse ; 
theft ;  as  is  a  ipvAroff. 

And  alle  men  that  herden  puttiden  in  her  herte, 
and  seiden  what  manner  child  schal  this  be,  for  the 
bond  of  the  Lord  was  with  him.  Wicliff  Luk,  i. 

<}od  planted  a  garden,  and  there  he  put  man. 

Gen.  ii.  8. 
He  put  forth  bis  hand  and  pulled  her  in.  Id,  viii.  9. 

If  God  he  with  me,  and  give  me  bread  to  eat,  and 
raiment  to  put  on,  then  shall  the  Lord  be  my  God. 

Id,  xxviii.  20.  . 
When  she  travailed,  the  one  put  oiK  his  hand. 

Genesis, 


If  a  man  put  in  his  beast,  and  feed  in  another 

man's  field  ;  of  the  best  of  his  own  shall  he  make 

restitution.  Exod,  xxii.  5. 

Rejoice  before  the  Lord  in  all  that  thou  puttest 

thine  hands  unto.  Deut,  xii.  18. 

She  shall  be  his  wife,  he  may  not  put  her  away. 

Id,  xxii. 
Samson  said,  I  will  now  put  forth  a  riddle  unto 
you.  Judgu, 

The  Philistines  put  out  his  eyes.  Id,  xvii. 

How  wilt  thou  put  thy  trust  on  Egypt  for  charioU  1 

2  Kiwfs, 
Cyrus  made  proclamation,  and  put  it  also  in  writ- 
ing. 2  Chronicles, 

The  king  of  Egypt  put  Jehoahaz  down  at  Jerusa- 
lem. Id, 

None  of  uspui  o^our  deaths,  saving  that  every 
one  put  them  off  (or  a  washing.         Nehem.  iv.  23. 
Whatsoever  God  doeth,  nothing  can  be  put  to  it, 
nor  any  thing  taken  from  it.  Eeclus.  iii.  14. 

The  fig-tree  putteth forth  her  green  figs. 

Canticles  ii.  13. 
When  he  had  put  them  all  out  he  entereth  in. 

Markv.  40. 
As  we  were  put  in  trust  with  the. gospel,  even  so 
we  speak,  not  as  pleasing  men,  but  God.     1  Thess. 

Basilius,  in  his  old  years,  marrying  a  young  and 

fair  lady,  had  of  her.  those  two  daughters  so  famous 

in  beauty,  which  put  by  their  young  cousin  from  that 

expectation.  Sidney, 

The  ^eedy  thirst  of  rojral  crown 

Stirred  Forrex  up  to  put  his  brother  down, 

Spenser, 
The  Turks  were  in  every  place  pui  to  the  worst, 
and  lay  by  heaps  slain. 

Knolles's  History  of  the  Turks, 
Taking  his  cap  from  his  head,  he  said,  this  cap 
will  not  hold  two  heads,  and  therefore  it  must  be 
fitted  to  one,  and  so  put  it  m  again.  Knolles. 

The  carpenters  being  set  to  work,  and  every  one 
putting  to  bis  helping  hand,  the  bridge  was  repaired. 

Id. 
Before  we  will  lay  bv  our  just  bom  arms. 
We'll  put  thee  dmon,  Against  whom  these  arms  we 

bear, 
Or  add  a  royal  number  to  the  dead.        Shakspeare, 
I  do  but  keep  the  peace,  put  up  thy  sword.    Id, 
This  dishonours  you  no  more, 
Than  to  take  in  a  town  with  gentle  words, 
Which  else  would  put  you  to  your  fortune. 

Id. 
Was  the  crown  offered  him  thrice? 
— Ay,  marry,  was't,  and  he  put  it  by  thrice, 
Every  time  gentler  than  other.  Id. 

Mark  now  how  a  plain  tale  sl^all  put  you  doum. 

Id, 
Upon  these  taxations, 
The  dothiere  all  put  off 
The  spinsters,  carders,  fullers,  weavers.  Id, 
Strangely  visited  people  he  cures. 
Hanging  a  golden  stamp  about  their  necks. 
Put  on  with  holy  prayers.  Id,  Macbeth. 

So  shul  interior  eyes. 
That  borrow  their  behaviour  from  the  great. 
Grow  great  by  your  example,  and  put  on 
The  dauntless  spirit  of  resolution.    Shakspeare. 
For  the  certain  knowledge  of  that  truth, 
I  put  you  o'er  to  heaven,  and  to  my  mother.   Id, 
From  Ireland  am  X  come. 
To  signify  that  rebels  there  are  up. 
And  put  the  Englishmen  unto  the  sword.    Id. 
They  have  a  leader. 
Tullns  Aufidins,  that  will  put  you  to't.    Id. 
Why  so  earnestly  seek  you  to  put  up  that  letter  ? 


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PUT 


When  in  ftwinish  sleep, 
What  cannot  you  and  I  perfoim  upon 
The'  unguarded  Duncan  {  what  not  put  upon 
His  spungy  officers,  who  shall  bear  the  ffuilt 
Of  our  great  quell  1  Id,  oiacbath. 

Orders  for  sea  are  given ; 
They  have  pul/irfA  the  haven.    Shakspeare. 
My  ^ciod  lord  cai^inal,  they  vent  reproaches 
Most  bitterly  on  you,  as  putter  on 
Of  these  exactions.  Id.  Henry  VII f. 

They  shall  stand  for  seed !  they  had  gone  down 
too,  but  that  a  wise  burgher  put  in  for  them. 


Whatsoever  cannot  be  digested  by  the  stomach  is 
by  the  stomach  either  put  up  by  vomit,  or  put  down 
to  the  guts.  Bacon. 

Those  that  put  their  bodies  to  endure  in  health, 
nay,  in  most  sicknesses,  be  cured  only  with  diet  and 
tendering.  Id. 

An  excellent  observation  of  Aiistotie,  why  some 
plants  are  of  greater  age  than  living  creatures,  for 
that  they  yearly  put  forth  new  leaves ;  whereas  living 
creatures  put  forth,  after  their  period  of  growth,  no- 
thing but  hair  and  nails,  which  are  excrements.  Id. 
'  It  is  the  new  skin  or  shell  that  puttetk  off  the  old ; 
so  we  see,  that  it  is  the  young  horn  that  puttexh  off 
the  old.  Id, 

This  came  handsomely  to  put  on  the  peace,  be- 
cause it  was  t  fair  example  of  a  peace  bought. 

Id.  Henry  Vll. 

Wheresoever  the  wax  floated,  the  flame  forsook  it, 
till  at  last  it  spread  all  over,  and  put  the  flame  quite 
cut,  ,  Boom. 

The  nobility  of  Castile  pmt  out  the  king  of  Arra- 
gon,  in  favour  of  king  Philip.         Id,  Henry  VII, 

There  were  no  barks  to  throw  the  rebels  into,  and 
send  them  away  by  sea,  they  were  put  all  to  the 
sword.  Bttcon. 

Having  lost  two  of  their  bravest  commanders  at 
sea,  they  durst  not  pui  it  to  a  battle  at  sea,  and  set 
up  their  rest  wholly  upon  the  land  enterprize.     Id, 

It  is  to  be  put  to  question  in  general,  whether  it 
be  lawful  for  Christian  princes  to  make  an  invasive 
war,  simply  for  the  propagation  of  the  faith.       Id. 

The  wind  cannot  be  perceived,  until*  there  be  an 
eruption  of  a  great  quantity  from  under  the  water ; 
whereas,  in  the  first  putting  up,  it  cooleth  in  little 
portions.  Id. 

It  is  manifest  that  the  duke  did  his  best  to  come 
down,  and  to  jntt  to  sea.  Id. 

One  Bell  was  put  to  death  at  Tyburn  for  moving 
a  new  rebellion.  Hayward, 

No  ties, 
Halsers,  or  gables  need,  nor  anchor  cast. 
Whom  storms  put  in  there,  are  with  stay  embraced. 

CmipiRun. 
I  boarded  and  commanded  to  ascend 

My  friends  and  soldiers,  to  put  off  and  lend 
Way  to  our  ship.  Id, 

Ambition,  like  a  torrent,  ne'er  looks  back ; 

And  is  a  swelling,  and  the  last  afGection 

A  high  mind  can  piit  off.    Ben  Jonmm's  CatiUne. 
Others  envy  to  the  state  draws,  and  puts  on    . 

For  contumelies  received.  Id. 

Sir  Francis  Drake  came  coasting  along  from  Car- 
thagena,  a  city  of  the  mainland  to  which  he  put  over, 
and  took  it.  A^ot. 

Himself  never  put  up  any  of  the  rent,  but  dis- 
posed of  it  by  the  assistance  of  a  reverend  divine  to 
augment  the  vicar's  portion.  Spelnum. 

Avarice  puts  on  the  canonical  habit. 

Decay  of  Piety. 

A  nimbler  fencer  will  put  in  a  thrust  so  quick  that 
the  foil  will  be  in  your  bosom,  when  you  thought  it 
a  yard  ofl^.  Digby. 


Jonathan  had  died  for  Being  so, 
Had  not  just  God  put  by  the'  unnatural  blow. 

It  putt  a  man  from  all  employment,  and  make»  a 
man's  discourses  tedious.        Taylor's  Holy  lammg. 
In  honouring  God,  put  forth  ail  thy  strength. 


Such  as  were  taken  on  either  side,  were  put  to  the 
sword  or  to  the  halter.  cSmronden, 

The  great  preparation  put  the  king  upom  the  reso- 
lution of  having  such  a  body  in  his  way.  Id, 
Four  speedy  cherubims 
Put  to  their  mouths  the  sounding  alchemy. 

MUton, 
This  question  asked  puU  me  in  doubt.         Id, 
I  put  not  forth  my  goodness.  Id. 

I  for  his  sake  will  leave 
Thy  bosom,  and  this  glory  next  to  thee 
Freely  put  off  and  for  him  lastly  die.  Id, 

1  must  die 
Betrayed,  captived,  and  both  my  eyes  put  out.    Id. 
He  said,  let  the  earth 
Put  forth  the  verdant  grass,  herb  yielding  seed. 
And  fruit  tree  yielding  fruit.  Id, 

In  these  he  put  two  weights.  .  Id. 

When  the  wisest  council  of  men  have  witl)  the 
greatest  prudence  made  laws,  yet  frequent  emer- 
gencies happen  which  they  did  not  foresee,  and  there- 
fore they  are  put  upon  repeals  and  supplements  of 
such  their  laws ;  but  Almighty  God,  by  one  simple 
foresight,  foresaw  all  events,  and  could  therefore  fit 
laws  proportionate  to  the  things  he  made.  Hale, 
Soon  as  they  had  him  at  their  mercy. 
They  put  him  to  the  cudgel  fiercely.  Hudibras. 

Nor  put  up  blow,  but  tiiat  whicn  laid 
Right  worshipful  on  shoulder-blade.  Id, 

One  hundred  pounds  only  put  out  at  interest,  at 
ten  per  cent,  doth  in  seventy  years  encrease  to  above 
one  nundred  thousand  pounds.  Child. 

Although  astrologers  may  here  put  tn,  and  plead  the 
secret  influence  of  this  star,  yet  Galen,  in  nis  com- 
ment, mak^  no  such  consideration.  Browne, 
I  do  not  intend  to  be  thus  put  o/f  with  an  old 
song.  More, 
The  discourse  I  mentioned  was  written  to  a  pri- 
vate friend,  who  put  me  ttpon  that  task.           Boyle. 

I  hope  for  a  demonstration,  but  Themistius  hopes 
to  put  me  o^with  an  harangue.  Id, 

The  Canaanitish  woman  must  put  up  b.  refusal,  and 
the  reproachful  name  of  a  dog,  commonly  used  by 
the  Jewft  of  the  heathen.  Id, 

We  are  put  to  prove  things,  which  can  hardly  be 
made  plainer.  TiUotson. 

Those  who  have  lived  wickedly  before,  must 
meet  with  a  great  deal  more  trouble,  because  they 
are  put  upon  changing  the  whole  course  of  their  life. 

Id. 
To  put  your  ladyship  in  mind  of  the  advantages 
you  have  in  all  these  points,  would  look  like  a  de- 
sign to  flatter  you.  Temple, 
So  nature  prompts  ;  so  soon  we  go  astray. 
When  old  experience  put«  us  in  the  way. 

Dryden. 
Put  it  thus — unfold  to  Statius  straight. 
What  to  Jove's  ear  thou  didst  impart  of  late : 
He'll  stare.  Id. 

I  am  as  much  ashamed  to  put  a  loose  indigested 
play  upon  th<  publick,  as  I  should  be  to  ofl^er  brass 
money  in  a  pavment.  Id. 

When  1  drove  a  thrust,  home  as  I  could. 
To  reach  his  traitor  heart,  he  put  it  by. 
And  cried,  spare  the  stripling.  Id. 

Now  the  cheerful  light  her  fears  dispelled. 
She  with  no  winding  turns  the  tniih  concealed, 
But  put  the  woman  off,  and  stood  levcal'd.  Id. 


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With  copper  collars  and  with  brawny  backs, 
ur  blacks. 


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PUT 


Quite  to  put  down  tbe  fashion  of  our  blacks.       id, 

Yoa  tell  UK  that  you  shall  be  forced  to  leave  off 
TOUT  modesty  ;  you  mean  that  little  which  is  left ; 
for  it  was  worn  to  rags  when  you  put  out  this  medal. 

Id. 
I  was  not  more  concerned  in  that  debate 

Of  empire,  when  our  universal  state 

Was  put  to  hazard,  and  the  giant  race 

Our  captive  skies  were  ready  to  embrace.        Id, 
He  warned  him  for  his  safety  to  provide ; 

Not  put  to  sea,  but  safe  on  shore  abide.  Id, 

Some  hard  words  the  goat  gave,  but  the  fox  put 
off  all  vrith  a  jest.  VBatraiufe. 

the  most  wretched  sort  of  people  are  dreamers 
upon  events  and  putten  of  cases.  Id, 

Mercury  had  a  mind  to  learn  what  credit  he  had 
in  the  world,  and  so  put  on  the  shape  of  a  man.  Id, 

The  stork  found  he  was  put  upon,  but  set  a  good 
face  however  upon  his  entertainment.  Id, 

It  is  prudence  in  many  cases,  to  piU  up  the  injuries 
of  a  weaker  enemy,  for  fear  of  incurring  the  displea- 
sore  of  a  stronger.  Id, 

The  sta^s  was  a  forced  put,  and  a  chance  rather 
than  a  choice.  Id, 

The  fox*s  put  off  is  instructive  towards  the  govem- 
meot  of  our  lives,  provided  his  fooling  be  made  our 
earnest.  Id, 

Men  may  put  government  into  what  hands  they 
please.  Loche, 

A  sinew  cracked  seldom  recovers  its  former  strength, 
or  the  memory  of  it  leaves  a  lasting  caution  in  the 
man,  not  to  put  the  part  quickly  again  to  robust  em- 
ployment. Id, 


My  friend,  fancying  her  to  be  an  old  woman  of 
<^ualuy,  put  off  his  hat  to  her,  when  the  person  pol- 
ling off  his  mask  appeared  a  smock-f^^d  young 
fellow.  Id. 

An  old  usurer,  charmed  with  the  pleasures  of  a 
country  li^e,  in  order  to  make  a  purchase,  called  in 
all  his  money ;  but,  in  a  very  few  days  after,  put  it 
oifl  again.  Id, 

'When  I  was  at  Venice,  they  were  putting  out 
curious  stamps  of  the  several  edifices,  most  famous 
for  their  beauty  or  magnificence.  Id. 

I  shall  be  hard  put  to  it,  to  bring  myself  off.   Id, 
Such  national  injuries  are  not  to  be  put  up,  but 
when  the  oflender  is  below  resentment.  Id, 

An  ordinary  fleet  could  not  hope  to  succeed 
against  a  place  that  has  always  a  considerable  num- 
ber of  men  of  war  ready  to  put  to  sea.  Id, 

This  scrupulous  way  would  make  us  deny  our 
senses  ;  for  there  is  scarcely  any  thing  but  puts  our 
reason  to  a  stand.  Collier, 

If  a  man  should  put  in  to  b«  one  of  the  knights  of 
Malta,  he  might  modestly  enough  prove  his  six  de- 
scents against  a  less  qualified  competitor.  Id. 

Queer  country  piits  extol  aueen  Besses  reign. 
And  of  lost  hospitality  complain.  Branuton, 

This  put  me  upon  observing  the  thickness  of  the 
glass,  and  considering  whether  the  dimensions  and 
proportions  of  the  rings  may  be  truly  derived  from  it 
by  computation.  Nowton, 

It  need  not  be  any  wonder  why  I  should  employ 
myself  upon  that  study,  or  put  others  ifpon  it. 

Walker, 
He  seems   generally  to  prevail,  persuadin?  them 
to  a  confidence  in  some  partial  works  of  obedience, 


A  man,  not  having  the  power  of  his  own  life,    or  else  to  put  off  the  care  of  Uieir  salvation  to  some 
__   1.. li.        .       .i_    _i___t_._   __!-! future  opportunities.  Bjogert, 

Wherever  he  put*  a  slight  wpon  good  works,  'tis  as 
th^  stand  distinct  from  faith.  Atterhury, 

Teuta  put  to  death  one  of  the  Roman  ambassadors ; 
she  was  obliged,  by  a  successful  war  which  the  Ro< 
mans  made,  to  consent  to  give  up  all  the  sea  coast. 

Arhuthnot, 

So  many  accidents  may  deprive  us  of  our  lives, 
that  we  can  never  say,  that  he  who  neglects  to  se- 
cure his  salvation  to-day,  may  without  danger  put  it 
o|f  till  to-morrow.  Wake, 

We  see  the  miserable  shifts  some  men  are  put  to, 
when  that  which  was  founded  upon,  and  supported 
by  idolatry,  is  become  the  sanctuary  of  atheism. 

Bentltit, 

If  without  any  provocation  ^ntlemen  will  fall  upon 
one,  in  an  aflair  wherein  his  interest  and  reputation 
are  embarked,  they  cannot  complain  of  being  put  into 
the  number  of  his  enemies.  Pope, 

As  Homer  went,  the  ship  put  in  at  Saraos,  where 
he  continued  the  whole  winter,  singing  at  the  houses 
of  CTeat  men,  with  a  train  of  boys  after  him.        Id. 

When  men  and  women  are  mixed  and  well  chosen, 
and  put  their  best  qualities  forward,  there  may  be 
any  intercourse  of  civility  and  good  will.         Swift, 

These  wretches  put  us  upon  all  mischief,  to  feed 
their  lusts  and  extravagancies.  Id, 

I  only  put  the  question,  whether  in  reason  it 
would  not  have  been  proper  the  kingdom  should  have 
received  timely  notice  1  Id, 

It  is  very  hard  that  Mr.  Steele  should  take  up  the 


cannot   put  himself  under   the  absolute  arbitrary 
power  of  another  to  take  it.  Id, 

fhere  is  great  variety  in  men's  understanding ; 
and  their  natural  constitutions  put  so  wide  a  differ- 
ence between  some  men,  that  industry  would  never 
be  able  to  master.  Id, 

They  should  seldom  be  put  about  doing  those 
things,  but  when  they  have  a  mind.  Id, 

He  has  right  to  put  into  his  complex  idea,  signi- 
fed  by  the  word  gold,  those  qualities  which  upon 
trial  he  has  found  united.  id. 

Fallacies  we  are  apt  to  put  upon  ourselves,  by 
taking  words  for  thines.  Id, 

Christ  will  bring  all  to  life,  and  then  they  shall 
be  put  every  one  upon  his  own  trial,  and  receive  judg- 
ment. Id, 

Feed  land  with  beasts  and  horses,  and  after  both 
put  in  sheep.  Mortimer't  Husbandry. 

As  for  the  time  of  putting  the  rams  to  the  ewes, 
you  must  consider  at  what  time  your  grass  will* 
maintain  them.  Mortimer, 

A  fright  hath  puthgzn  ague  fit,  and  mitigated  a 
fit  of  tbe  gout.  Grew'i  Coemologia, 

I  expect  an  ofispring,  docile  and  tractable  in  what- 
ever we  put  them  to.  Tatler. 

This  last  age  has  made  a  greater  progress  than 
all  ages  before  put  together,  Burnet, 

Do  men  in  good  earnest  think  that  God  will  be 
}»tf  of  so  ?  or  that  the  kw  of  God  will  be  baflled 
with  a  lie  clothed  in  a  scoff?  South. 

I  put  the  case  at  the  worst,  by  supposing,  what 


seldom  happens,  that  a  course  of  virtue  makes  us     artificial  reports  of  his  own  faction,  and  then  put  them 
miserable  in  this  life.  Spectator,       -^ ^^ '^ :.j-.?— i  r_ r =_. 

He  replied,  with  some  vehemence,  that  he  would 
oodertaie  to  prove  trade  would  be  the  ruin  of  the 
English  nation  ;  I  would  fain  have  put  him  upon  it. 

Addison. 

We  should  put  forth  all  our  strength,  and,  without 
having  an  eye  to  his  preparations,  make  the  greatest 
push  we  are  able.  Id, 


off  upon  the  world  as  additional  fears  of  a  popish 
successor.  Id. 

There  is  no  quality  so  contrary  to  any  nature  which 

one  cannot  affect,  and  pttt  on  upon  occasion,  in  order 

to  serve  an  interest.  Id. 

With  this  he  put  up  to  my  lord. 

The  courtiers  kept  their  distance  due. 

He  twitched  his  sleeve.  Id» 


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Homer  Myt  he  p«tf  o/thet  tir  of  graBdear  which 
so  properly  beloogs  to  his  character,  aad  debaeea 
hunaelr  into  a  (boll.  BromM, 

As  danger  did  approach,  her  spirits  rose. 
And  putting  on  the  king  dismayed  her  foes. 

^Nalif OT, 

PUTAMINE^,  from  putainen,  a  ^ell,  the 
name  of  the  twenty-fifth  order  of  Linn«iis*i 
fragments  of  a  natural  method ;  consisting  of  a 
few  genera  of  plants  allied  in  habit,  whose  fleshy 
seed-vessel  or  fruit  is  frequently  covered  with  a 
hai4  woody  shell.    See  Botakit. 

PUTATIVE,  adj,  Fr.  fmtatify  from  Lat. 
pido.    Supposed;  reputed. 

If  a  wife  commits  adultery,  site  shall  lose  her 
dower,  though  she  be  only  a  piiK^ive,  and  not  a  true 
and  real  wife.  AyUffe, 

PUTEANUS  (Erycius),  LL.D.,  or  Erick 
Vandeput,  a  learned  professor,  bom  at  Venlo,  in 
Guelderland,  in  1574.  lie  was  educated  at  Dort, 
and  studied  rhetoric  and  philosophy  at  Cologne, 
in  the  Jesuits'  college  Ue  next  studied  law  at 
Leavain,  and  in  15^  went  to  Padua  and  Milan  j 
al  which  Ust  city  he  was  Chosen  professor  of  elo- 
qtience  in  1001.  He  was  made  historiographer 
to  the  king  of  Spain;  and  in  1603  a  patrician 
of  Rome.  In  1604  lie  became  LL.  D.  at  Milan, 
and  married.  In  1606  he  was  called  to  Louvain, 
appointed  successor  to  Justus  Lipsius,  and  go- 
vernor of  the  castle.  He  published  many  works, 
amounting  to  5  vols,  folio;  and  died  in  1646. 

PUTEOLX,  an  ancient  city  of  Italy,  in  Na- 
ples, and  in  the  province  of  Campania,  so  called 
either  from  its  wells,  there  being  many  hot  and 
cold  springs  thereabouts;  or  from  its  stench, 
putor,  cauMd  by  sulphureous  exhalations.  (Livy, 
Varro,  Strabo.)  In  a  very  remote  age  the  Co- 
means  made  it  their  arsenal  and  dockyard ;  and 
to  this  naval  establishment  gave  the  sublime 
appellation  of  Dicearchea,  or  just  power.  The 
Romans,  sensible  of  the  utility  of  this  port,  took 
great  pains*  to  improve  its  natural  advantages. 
Nothing  remains  of  their  works  but  a  line  of 
piers,  vulgarly  called  the  bridge  of  Caligula.. 
The  ruins  of  its  ancient  wlifices  are  widely  spread 
along  the  adjacent  hills  and  shores.  An  am- 
phitheatre still  exisu  entire  in  most  of  its  parts, 
and  a  temple  of  Serapis.  In  the  neighbourhood 
are  many  relics  of  ancient  grandeur;  particularly 
the  Campanian  way,  paved  vnth  lava,  and  lined 
on  each  side  with  venerable  towers,  the  reposi- 
tories of  the  dead,  which  are  richly  adorned  with 
stucco  in  the  inside.  -t  j- 

PUTI  Caraja,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  Indian 
plants:  gal.  five  cleft:  cor.  has  five  equal 
petals,  the  pericarp  a  thorny  legumen  and  two 
seeds,  the  leaves  oval  and  pinnated,  and  the 
stem  armed :  seeds  very  bitter,  and  tonic. 

PUTID,  adj.  Let.  patidus.  Mean;  low; 
worthless. 

He  that  follows  nature  is  never  out  of  his  way ; 
whereas  all  imitation  is  putid  and  servile. 

VEttrange. 

PUT-IN-BAY,.a  bay  in  the  south-west  part 
of  Lake  Erie,  formed  by  the  island  of  Edward, 
ten  miles  W.  N.  W.  of  Sandusky  Bay.  It  is 
open  to  the  north,  and  well-sheltered.  The 
entrance  is  not  more  than  a  quarter  of  a  mile 
wide,  having  on  the  western  side  a  narrow  rocky 


point,  about  forty  feet  high;  where  it  joint  tlie 
island  the  isthmus  is  so  low  as  to  be  geoenllj 
overflowed.  From  the  point  a  block-hooae  and 
strong  batteiy  defeud  tne  harbour,  which  has 
excellent  anchorage. 

PUTIVL,a  town  of  the  government  of  Kursk, 
European  Russia,  on  the  Sem.  It  is  the  chief 
place  of  a  district  or  circle ;  has  a  number  of 
churches,  a  monastery,  and  9000  inhabitants, 
who  carry  on  a  traffic  chiefly  in  woollens  and 
sink.  Here  is  also  a  manufactory  of  vitriol,  and 
some  brick-works.  It  is  120  miles  W.  S.  W.  of 
Kursk. 

PITTLOG,  n,  s.  From  pot  and  log.  See  the 
extract. 

Putlogs  are  pieces  of  timber  or  short  poles,  about 
seven  foot  long,  [put]  to  bear  the  boards  they  stand 
on  to  work,  and  to  lay  bricks  and  mortar  upon. 

Moxon*$  Mechanical  Erercisea* 

PUTNAM,  a  town  of  Washington  county. 
New  York,  twenty-eight  miles  north  of  Sandy 
Hill.  Population  499.  It  lies  on  lake  Cham- 
plain. 

Putnam,  a  county  of  the  west  part  of  Georgia. 
Population  upwards  of  1000.  Chief  town  Eaton 
Town.— Also  a  county  of  New  York. 


PUTREFACTION, 
Putred'ikous,  adj. 
Putrefac'tive,  0^5^. 
Pu'trefy,  v.  a.  &  v.  a 
Putres'cence,  n.  f. 
Putres'cent,  fl<§. 
Pu'trid,  adj. 
Pu'tridness. 


Fr.  putride ;  Lat, 
putridus.  Rotten ; 
corrupt ;  stinking : 
pntrediaout  is  an 
^obsolete  synonyme : 
putrefaction  sign  ifies 
the  state  of  growing 
corrupt ;  rotten  ;  or 


foul ;  act  of  making  rotten:  putrefactive,  making 
rotten  :  to  putrefy,  to  corrupt ;  make  rotten  :  as 
a  verb  neuter,  to  rot :  putrescence,  the  slate  of 
rotting ;  the  adjective  corresponding :  putridness, 
rottenness. 

From  the  sole  of  the  foot,  even  unto  the  head, 
there  is  no  soundness  in  it,  but  wounds  and  bruises, 
and  pulrefifing  sores.  isaiah  i.  & 

To  keep  them  here, 
They  would  but  stink,  and  ptUrefy  the  air. 

Shaktptare. 

If  the  spirit  protrude  a  Kttle,  and  that  motion  he 
inordinate,  there  followelh  jmirefaction,  which  ever 
dissolveth  the  consistence  of  the  body  into  much  in- 
equality. Bacon. 

Many  ill  prejects  are  undertaken,  and  private  suits 
putrefit  the  public  good.  Id, 

These  hymns,  though  not  revive,  embalm  and 
spice 
The  world,  which  else  would  putrify  with  vice. 

DOMU. 

They  make  putrefactitfe  generations  conformable 
unto  seminal  productions.  Browne*i  Vulgar  Erraun. 
Now  if  any  ground  this  effect  from  gall  or  cholor, 
beca^jse  being  the  6ery  humour,  itwilj  readiest  sur- 
mount the  water,  we*  may  confess  in  the  common 
putrttcenee,  it  may  promote  elevation.  Brtncnt, 

The  wine  to  putrid  blood  converted  flows. 

Waller. 
A  wound  was  so  putrified  as  to  endanger  the  bone. 

TempU, 
Putrid  fever  is  that  kind  of  fever  in  which  the 
humours,  or  part  of  them,  have  so  little  circulatory 
motion  that  they  fall  into  an  intestine  one,  and  pu- 
trefy,  which  is  commonlv  the  case  after  great  evacua- 
tions, great  or  excessive  beat.  '^ -^ — 


Quinqi. 


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PvinfaeHm  is  a  kind  of  fermentation,  or  intestine 
motion  of  bodies,  which  tends  to  the  destruction  of 
that  form  of  their  existence  which  is  said  to  be  their 
natural  state.  Id. 

All  imperfect  mixture  is  apt  to  putrefy,  and  watery 
substances  are  more  apt  to  puirefif  than  oily. 

IVowlward'i  Natural  History. 

One  of  these  knots  rises  to  suppuration,  and 
barsting  excludes  its  putrefaction.  Bldckmore. 

If  a  nurse  feed  onl^  on  flesh,  and  drink  waiter,  her 
mQk,  instead  of  turning  sour,  will  tarn  pwtrid,  and 
scaell  like  urine.  Arbuthnot, 

Vegetable  paUrtfaeUon  u  produced  by  throwing 
green  vegetables  in  a  heap  in  open  warm  air,  and 
pressing  them  together,  by  which  they  acquire  a  pic- 
trid  stercoraceous  taste  and  odourt  Id. 

Such  a  constitution  of  the  air,  as  would  naturally 
piUnfy  raw  flesh,  must  endanger  by  a  mortiiication. 

Id, 

Aliment  is  not  only  necessary  for  repairing  the 
fluids  and  solids  of  an  animal,  but  likewise  to  keep 
the  fluids  from  the  putrescent  alkaline  state  which 
th^  would  acquire  by  constant  motion.  Id. 

If  the  bone  be  corrupted,  the  putrefactive  smell 
will  discover  it.  fVi»0man*s  Surgery. 

The  iKiin  proceeded  from  some  acrimony  in  the  se- 
raia,  which,  falling  into  this  declining  part,  putrefied. 

Id, 

Nidorons  ructus  depend  on  the  foetid  ^irituosity 
of  the  ferment,  and  the  putriditess  of  the  meat. 

Flayer  on  the  Humours. 

A  putredinons  ferment  coagulates  all  humours,  as 
milk  with  rennet  is  turned.  Id. 

Tis  such  a  light  as  putrefaction  breeds 
In  fly-blown  flesh,  whereon  the  maggot  feeds. 
Shines  in  the  dark,  but,  ushered  into  day, 
The  stench  remains,  the  lustre  dies  away.     Comper. 

His  limbs. 
With  palsj  shaken  about  him,  blasted  lie  ; 
And  all  his  flesh  is  full  of  putrid  sores 
And  noisome  wounds,  his  bones  of  racking  pains : 
Strange  vesture  this  for  an  immortal  soul.      PoUok. 

PoTECFACTioir  is  one  of  the  natural  processes 
by  which  organized  bodies  are  dissolved,  and 
reduced  to  what  may  be  called  their  original  ele- 
ments. Putrelaction  differs  from  chemical  solu* 
tion ;  because,  in  the  latter,  the  dissolved  bodies 
are  kept  in  their  state  of  solution  by  being  com- 
bined with  a  certain  agent  from  which  they  can- 
not easily  be  separated ;  bat,  in  putre&ction,  the 
agent  which  dissolves  the  body  appears  not  to 
combine  with  it  in  any  manner  or  way,  but 
merely  to  separate  the  parts  from  each  other.  It 
differs  also  from  the  resolution  of  bodies  by  dis- 
tillation with  violent  fire ;  because  in  dbtillation 
new  and  permanent  compounds  are  formed,  but 
by  putreiaction  every  thing  seems  to  be  resolved 
into  substances  much  more  simple  and  inde- 
structible than  those  which  are  the  result  of  any 
chemical  process.  The  bodies  most  liable  to  pu- 
trefaction are  those  of  animals  and  vegetables, 
especially  when  full  of  juices.  Stones,  though 
|>y  the  action  of  the  weather  they  will  moulder 
into  dust,  yet  seem  not  to  be  subject  to  any  thing 
like  ifftl  putrefluiUon,  as  they  are  not  resolved 
into  any  other  substance  than  sand,  or  small  dust, 
which  still  preserves  its  lapideous  nature.  In  like 
manner  vegetables  of  any  kind,  when  deprived 
<rf  their  juices  by  drying,  may  be  preserved  for 
.  many  ages  without  being  subjected  to  any  thinsf 
like  a  putreiactive  process.  The  parts  of  animals 
also,  by  simple  drying,  may  be  preserved  in  a 


sound  state  for  a  much  longer  time  than  they 
could  be  without  the  previous  exhalation  of  their 
juices. 

Putrefaction  is  generally  allowed  to  be  a  kind 
of  fermentation,  or  rather  to  be  the  last  stage  of 
that  process ;  which,  beginning  with  the  vinous 
fermentation,  goes  on  through  the  acetous,  to  the 
stage  of  putridity,  where  it  stops.  In  several 
respects,  however,  it  differs  so  much  fix>m  these 
processes,  that  it  seems  in  some  degree  doubtfnl 
whether  it  can  with  propriety  be  called  a  fer- 
mentation or  not.  Both  these  vinous  and  acetous 
fermentations  are  attended  with  a  considerable 
degree  of  heat :  but  in  the  putrefaction  of  animal 
natters  especially,  the  heat  is  for  the  most  part 
so  small  that  we  cannot  be  certain  whether  there 
is  any  degree  of  it  or  not  produced  by  the  pro- 
cess. A  most  remarkable  difference  is  that  the 
vinous  fermentation  produces  ardent  spirits,  the 
acetous  vinegar ;  but  putrefaction  produces  no- 
thing but  earth,  and  some  effluvia,  which,  though 
most  disagreeable,  and  even  poisonous  to  the 
human  body,  yet,  being  imbioed  \>y  the  earth 
and  vegetable  creation,  give  life  to  a  new  race 
of  beings.  It  is  commonly  supposed,  indeed, 
that  volatile  alkali  is  a  production  of  the  putrefac- 
tive process;  but  this  is  disputed.  Tlie  only 
thing  in  which  the  putrefactive  fermentation 
agrees  with  the  other  kinds  is,  that  in  all  the 
three  there  is  an  extrication  of  carbonic  acid. 

One  reason  why  an  aniioai  body  does.aot  pu- 
trify  while  alive  is  its  ventilation,  as  we  may 
call  it,  by  respiration ;  and  another  is  the  con- 
tinual accession  of  new  particles,  less  disposed 
to  putrify  than  itself,  by  the  food  and  drink 
which  is  constantly  taken  in.  But,  if  either  of 
these  ways  of  preventing  the  commencement  of 
this  process  be  omitted,  then  putrefaction  will 
take  place  as  well  in  a  living  as  in  a  dead  body. 
Bodies  will  not  putrify  in  vacuo,  because  there 
the  atmosphere  has  not  access  to  impart  its  elas- 
tic principle.  If  the  body  is  very  dry,  putre&o- 
tion  cannot  take  place,  because  the  texture  is  too 
firm  to  be  decomposed  by  the  weak  action  of  the 
elastic  principle.  Putrefaction  may  also  be 
prevented  by  the  addition  of  certain  substances. 
Thus  various  kinds  of  salts  and  acids  harden  the 
texture  of  animal  substances,  and  thus  are  suc- 
cessfully used  as  antiseptics.  The  same  thing 
may  be  said  of  ardent  spirits;  while  oils  and 
gums  of  various  kinds  prove  antiseptic  by  a  total 
exclusion  of  air,  which  is  necessary  in  some  de- 
gree for  carrying  on  the  process  of  putrefaction. 
Many  vegetables,  by  the  astringent  qualities  they 
possess,  harden  the  texture  of  animal  substances, 
and  thus  prove  powerfully  antiseptic ;  while,  on 
the  oUier  hand,  fixed  alkaline  salts,  quicklime, 
and  caustic  volatile  alkali,  though  they  prevent 
putrefiGiction,  yet  they  do  it  by  dissolving  the  sub- 
stances in  such  a  manner  that  putrefaction  could 
do  no  more  had  it  exerted  its  utniost  force. 
Sugar,  though  neither  acid  nor  alkaline,  is  yet 
one  of  the  most  effectual  antiseptics  known  :  and 
this  seems  to  be  owing  to  its  great  tendency  to 
run  into  the  vinous  fermentation,  which  is  totally 
inconsistent  with  that  of  putrefaction ;  and  this 
tendency  is  so  great  that  it  can  scarcely  be  coun- 
teracted by  the  tendency  of  animal  substances 
to  putrefy  in  any  circumstances  whatever. 


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In  potrefiiction  the  animal  matter  generally 
passes  off  in  the  gaseous  form ;  and  an  incon- 
siderable quantity  of  earthy  matter  remains  when 
the  process  is  finished.  The  precise  nature  of 
these  combinations  has  not,  from  the  extreme 
offensiveness  of  the  process,  been  accurately  ob- 
served ;  and  they  probably  vary  according  to  the 
nature  of  the  animal  matter,  and  the  circum- 
stances under  which  it  is  decomposed.  Ammonia, 
formed,  by  the  union  of  the  azote  and  hydrogen 
of  the  animal  matter,  is  always  disengaged  in 
considerable  quantity.  Phosphureted  hydrogen 
is  likewise  produced;  and  this  gas,  even  when 
obtained  pure,  has  the  odor  exclusively  termed 
putrid.  Sulphureted  hydrogen  forms  another 
part  of  the  vapors  disengaged  from  putrefying 
substances.  Carbureted  hydrogen  and  carbonic 
acid  are  likewise  separated.  And,  lastly,  it  is 
probable  that  not  only  these  binary  combinations, 
out  compound  gases,  consisting  of  three  or  more 
of  diese  elements  with  oxygen,  are  formed  and 
discharged.  As  this  process  must  necessarily 
be  carried  on  at  the  surface  of  the  earth,  its  pro- 
ducts are  diffused  through  the  atmosphere,  dis- 
solved by  water,  and  absorbed  by  the  soil.  They 
furnish  the  principal  nutritious  matter  for  the 
support  of  vegetables,  and  are  again  prepared 
for  the  nourishment  of  animals. 

PUTTINGSTONE,  n.  s.  Putting  and  stone. 
That  is,  a  stone  thrown  or  placed  by  the  hands. 

In  800)6  parts  of  Scotland,  stones  are  laid  at  the 
gates  of  great  houses,  which  they  call  putting  stones, 
lot  trials  of  strength.  Pope, 

PUrTOCK,  n.  f.    LaX.buteo,    A  buzzard. 
Who  finds  the  partridge  in  the  puttock*s  nest. 

But  may  imagine  how  the  bird  was  dead  ? 

Skakspean, 

The  next  are  those  which  are  called  birds  of 
prey,  as  the  eagle,  hawk,  puttock,  and  cormorant. 

Peacham, 

PUTTY,  ». «.  Fr.  potee ;  Sp.  potea.  A  kind 
of  powder  on  which  glass  is  ground ;  a  cement 
of  glass. 

An  object  glass  of  a  fourteen  foot  telescope,  made 
by  an  artificer  at  London,  1  once  mended  consider- 
^ly»  by  grinding  it  on  pitch  with  putty,  and  leanin? 
on  It  very  easily  in  the  grinding,  lest  the  putty  should 
scratch  it.  Nevton, 

Putty  is  compounded  of  whiting  and  lintseed 
oil,  beaten  together  to  the  consistence  of  a  thick 
dough.  It  is  used  by  glaziers  for  fastening  in 
the  squares  of  glass  in  sash  windows,  and  by 
painters  for  stoppiug  up  the  crevices  and  clefb 
in  timber,  &c. 

PUTUMAYO,  or  lea,  a  river  of  South  Ame- 
rica, which  has  its  rise  in  the  district  of  Ibarra, 
Quito,  about  eighty  miles  to  the  south  of  Popa- 
yan.  Its  course  is  S.S.  £.  about  300  miles, 
when,  being  joined  by  a  branch  of  the  Caquet, 
it  takes  the  name  of  lea,  and,  after  a  south-east 
course  of  about  200  miles,  joins  the  Amazons, 
in  long.  50®  40'  W.,  lat.  3°  30'  S.  It  washes 
down  considerable  quantities  of  gold.  There 
is  a  settlement  of  this  name  on  the  river. 

PUY  (Peter  de),  a  learned  French  writer,  bom 
in  Paris  in  1583.  He  wrote  twelve  treatises, 
chiefly  on  political  subjects;  such  as,  1.  The 
Origin  of  the  Salique  Law  :  2.  The  Liberties  of 
the  Gallican  Church  :    3.  The  History  of  the 


Tempburs,  &c.    He  died  in  1652,  aged  seventf- 
two. 

Put,  Revessid,  a  city  and  post  town' of  high 
antiquity,  and  the  principal  place  of  the  depart- 
ment of  the  Upper  Loire,  France,  containing 
13,000  inhabitants,  and  having  an  inferior  court 
under  the  royal  court  of  Riom;  a  board  of  ma- 
nufactures, an  agricultural  society,  and  a  com- 
munal college.  It  stands  in  a  fine  situation,  in 
the  centre  of  three  broad  and  very  fertile  valleys, 
each  watered  by  a  river,  and  crossed  by  three 
great  roads.  Rising  in  the  form  of  an  amphi- 
theatre on  the  south  side  of  mount  Anis,  ovei^ 
topped  by  the  vertical  rock  of  Comeil,  and  sur- 
rounded with  vofcanic  rocks,  richly  cultivated 
fields,  pretty  country  houses,  gardens,  shrub- 
beries, fruit  trees,  and  verdant  meadows,  this 
town  presents  a  most  picturesque  appearance.  It 
is  generally  well  built,  the  houses  being  con- 
structed of  lava,  which  is  very  abundant  in  the 
neighbourhood  ;  the  streets,  which  are  paved 
with  the  same  material,  are  wide  and  airy,  but 
very  steep  and  impassable  for  carriages. 

Near  the  top  of  the  hill  appears  the  cathedral, 
the  front  of  which  is  a  mixture  of  ancient  and 
Gothic  architecture,  presenting  four  rows  of 
columns  and  porticoes  with  large  arches,  the 
middle  one,  which  is  most  magnificent,  being  the 
entrance  to  the  church.  The  ascent  is  by  an 
immense  flight  of  118  steps,  covered  with  a  lofty 
vaulted  roof,  above  which  rises  full  half  of  the 
building.  The  steeple  is  of  a  pyramidal  form, 
and  very  lofty ;  built  entirely  of^  volcanic  stone. 
In  the  lower  part  of  the  town  is  a  very  steep 
basaltic  rock,  which  resembles  a  tower,  and  on 
the  sunmiit  of  it  stands  the  church  of  St  Mi- 
chael. This  rock,  which  is  300  fleet  high,  has 
the  form  of  a  cone ;  and  the  steeple  of  the  church, 
pointed  and  extremely  slender,  rises  like  an  obe-  . 
lisk  over  all.  The  ascent  to  this  building  is  by 
260  steps  cut  in  the  rock. 

Here  are  considerable  manufactories  of  laoe, 
thread.  Mack  lace  and  blond,  common  stuffs^ 
woollen  counterpanes,  and  ^in  bottles  for  wine, 
nail  factories,  a  foundry,  tan-yards,  fulling- 
mills,  and  dye-houses.  The  trade  consists  in 
com,  lace,  cloth,  serge,  iron  goods,  delf-ware, 
mules,  horses,  and  cattle.  The  public  library, 
containing  5000  volumes,  the  museum  of  pic- 
tures, statues,  and  antiquities,  are  also  worth  no- 
tice; as  well  as  the  tomb  of  Duguesclin,  the 
promenade  of  fireuil,  and  the  assembly  room : 
an  ancient  building,  in  good  preservation,  once 
consecrated  to  Diana.  About  a  mile  and  a  half 
from  Puy  is  the  village  of  Espailly,  remarkable 
for  the  ruins  of  its  ancient  castle,  and  some 
curious  groups  of  basaltic  prisms,  called  the 
organs  ofEspailly.  This  city  is  fifty-eight  miles 
south  of  Montbrison,  ninety  south-west  of  Lyons, 
sixty-three  north-west  of  Privas,  eighty-seven 
souUi-east  of  Clermont,  and  375  south  of  Paris. 

PUY-DE-DOME,  a  department  of  France, 
is  formed  out  of  die  former  province  of  Lower 
Auvergne,  and  derives  its  name  from  a  high 
mountain  which  overtops  the  whole  chain  of  the 
Domes  Mountains  that  extend  over  this  country. 
The  principal  place  of  this  prefecture  is  Cler- 
mont-Ferrand, and  it  consists  of  five  arrondisse- 
ments,     Clermont-Ferrand,     Ambert,     Issoire, 


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Riom,  m^  Thiers,  having  a  total  population  of 
553,410  souls,  on  an  area  of  3295  square  miles, 
and  yielding  a  revenue  of  22,428,000  francs. 
These  are  subdivided  into  fifty  cantons  and  438 
communes.  This  forms  part  of  the  nineteenth 
military  division,  having  a  royal  court  at  Riom, 
and  a  bishopric  at  Clermont,  and  consists  of 
four  electoral  arrondissements,  which  send  seven 
members  to  the  chamber  of  deputies.  The  de- 
partment is  bounded  by  that  or  the  AUieron  the 
north,  on  the  east  by  that  of  the  Loire,  on  the 
south  by  those  of  the  Upper  Loire  and  Cantal, 
and  on  the  west  by  those  of  the  Creuse  and  the 
Correge. 

This  country  presents,  through  almost  its 
whole  extent,  mountains  of  remarkable  Elevation, 
among  which  are  found  rich  hollows,  beautiful 
valleys,  and  plains  of  the  greatest  fertility.  The 
mountains  are  nearly  all  volcanic,  and  the  whole 
chain  extends,  from  south  to  north,  over  a  space 
of  fifteen  or  eighteen  miles,  in  which  are  at  least 
forty  Puys,  with  their  ancient  craters,  ravines, 
torrents  of  lava,  prisms,  and  columns  of  basalt. 
Above  these  extends  the  smiling  Limagne,  the 
fertile  soil  of  which  is  covered  with  orchards  and 
vineyards,  fruitful  fields  richiy  cultivated,  and 
fine  meadows  intersected  by  a  great  number  of 
rivulets  and  canals.  The  plains  are  filled  with 
chestnut  trees,  the  green  toliage  of  which  gives 
an  indescribable  charm  to  this  delightful  country. 
A  number  of  artificial  lakes,  serving  the  pur- 
pose of  watering  the  lands,  are  formed  by  a 
raised  causeway  resting  on  the  sides  of  two 
neighbouring  hills,  which  interrupts  the  course 
of  Uke  streams,  and  thus,  swelling  tnem  insensibly, 
causes  them  to  overflow  and  fertiHze  the  pastures; 
where  feed  vast  herds  of  horses  and  cattle  of 
every  description.  In  the  chain  or  rather  group 
of  the  Domes  and  the  Dores,  which  cover  a 
peat  portion  of  the  department,  are  every  where 
oiscoverable  the  effects  of  former  volcanic  erup- 
tions ;  and  the  currents  of  lava  yield  most  of  the 
petrifactions  dug  for  the  building  of  houses :  in- 
deed whole  towns  are  constructed  of  it.  The 
volcanic  cinders  are  very  favorable  to  vegetation. 
The  soil  is  most  cultivated  with  horses  and  mules, 
and  yields  more  than  a  supply  for  its  population. 
It  contains  54,250  hectares  of  forest  (chiefly  oak 
and  fir),  and  22,000  hectares  of  vineyards,  and 
the  mean  produce  of  every  hectare  of  arable 
land  is  twenty-four  francs  twenty-eight  centimes. 

The  productions  of  this  department  consist  in 
com  of  all  sorts,  chestnuts,  very  good  hemp,  fruit, 
good  wine,  wood,  and  excellent  pasturage.  The 
lakes  and  rivers  abound  in  fish ;  horses  of  a  small 
kind  are  bred,  as  well  as  homed  cattle  and  sheep, 
there  are  also  mines  of  lead  and  antimony  ; 
quarries  of  marble  of  different  colors,  granite, 
iraystone,  millstone,  tripoli,  puzzolani,  basal^ 
and  plaster,  and  pits  of  coal.  There  is  a  royal 
depot  of  standard  measures  at  Parentignac,  a 
?oyal  sheep  walk  from  Poy-de-D6me  to  St.  Ge- 
aest,  and  a  large  botanical  garden  at  Clermont. 
At  Mont-d'or-les-Bains,  at  Chateaumont,  at 
Chatel  Guyon,  at  St.  Myon,  at  St.  Nectaire,  at 
St.  Marguerite  au  Tambour,  at  St.  Mark,  and  at 
Chateldon,  are  establishments  of  mineral  waters 
and  warm  baths.  The  principal  manufactures 
are  those  of  linen,  camlets,  tent  cloths,  Turkish 


satins,  blond-lace,  playing  cards,  salt-petre,  che^ 
micals,  glue,  candles,  mercery  goods,  ironmoiw 
gery,  cutlery,  kettles,  and  copper  vessels.  They 
have  also  cotton  and  wool-spinning  manufac- 
tories, paper-mills,  delf  and  other  potteries,  brass 
foundries,  tan  yards,  numerous  hydraulic  saw- 
mills, &c.  The  trade  consists  in  wines,  com^ 
brandies^  liqueurs,  dry  confectionary,  walnut  and 
hemp-seed  oil,  cattle,  Auvergne  cheeses,  hemp, 
wool,  linen,  leather,  paper,  wood,  fir-planks, 
coal,  &c.  •  This  department  is  watered  oy  the 
Allier,  which  is  navigable,  the  Dor6,  the  Dor- 
dogne,  the  Sioule,  and  the  Morge^  it  is  also 
crossed  by  the  great  roads  of  Lyons,  Limoges, 
and  Moulins. 

Puy-de-D6me,  a  celebrated  mountain  in  Au- 
vergne,  situated  towards  the  centre  of  the  chain 
of  the  D6me,  which  extends  from  north  to 
south  over  a  space  of  twentv-four  miles,  but  va- 
rying considerably  in  breadth.  This  mountain 
is  in  the  centre  of  the  chain,  and  much  higher 
than  those  around,  appearing  like  a  giant  in  the 
midst  of  his  children  ;  one  of  the  mountains  in- 
deed, called  the  Little  Puy-de-D6me,  rises  at  its 
side,  and,  being  united  at  the  base,  seems  io 
spring  out  of  it.  The  Puy-jie-D6me  presents  a 
majestic  cone,  exact  in  all  its  proportions,  having 
an  extensive  hollow  like  a  disk  at  its  top.  From 
the  base  to  the  summit,  notwithstanding  its  steep- 
ness, it  is  covered  with  a  verdure,  on  which  nu- 
merous herds  of  cattle  feed ;  and  the  whole  sur- 
face is  a  grass  plat,  except  in  two  or  three  places, 
where  the  protuberances  of  white  lava  appear, 
and  show  tnat  the  mountain  has  been  volcanic. 
This  magnificent  extent  of  verdure  gives  an  in- 
conceivable charm  to  a  scene  abounding  in  gran- 
deur and  beauty. 

The  ascent  to  the  mountain  is  by  two  different 
roads,  one  on  the  south  side,  called  the  road  of 
Alagnat,  the  other  on  the  north,  called  the  Gra-, 
vouse.  From  the  crest  one  of  the  finest  and 
richest  prospects  in  the  world  is  unfolded  to  the 
view.  Elevated  nearly  6000'  feet  above  the  level 
of  the  sea,  and  nearly  4000  above  that  of  Cler^ 
mont,  there  is  no  limit  to  the  sight  for  an  im- 
mense distance ;  below  you  are  seen  the  forty 
neighbouring  Puys,  with  their  ancient  craters, 
their  ravines,  currents  of  lava,  and  beds  of  black 
and  red  puzzolain.  Farther  distant  is  the  whole 
country  of  Limagne,  with  its  towns,  villages,  and 
hills  without  number ;  on  all  sides  are  nelds  of 
every  color,  vineyards,  houses,  roads,  and  moun- 
tains stretching  into  the  distance,  till  they  are 
lost  to  the  view,  and  including  an  extent  of  nearly 
400  miles. 

Although  the  Puy  is  only  a  scorched  rock,  yet 
the  rain  and  vapors  that  it  incessantly  imbibes 
give  it  an  amazing  fertility,  which  it  communi- 
cates to  all  the  neighbouring  mountains  ;  all  of 
them,'  with  only  one  or  two  exceptions,  being 
covered  with  grass.  This  mountain  has  been 
rendered  immortal  by  the  experiments  of  Pascal 
here  on  the  weight  of  the  atmosphere. 

PUZZLE,  V.  a.,  V.  n.,  &  n. «.  For  postle  (or 
apposail  as  it  has  been  written)  .from  pose. 
Skinner.  To  perplex ;  entangle ;  confound ;  em- 
barrass ;  involve ;  put  to  a  stand ;  teaze :  be  be- 
wildered, perplexed,  or  awkward :  a  puzzle  is 
a  perplexity ;  a  perplexing  occurrence ;  embar- 


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nssment ;  also  a  child's  toy  designed  to  exercise 

Tnuity. 
lay  there  is  no  darkness  bat  ij^orance,  in  which 
thou  art  more  fmaledk  than  the  Egyptians  in  their  fog. 

Men  in  great  fortunes  are  strangers  to  themselves, 
and,  while  they  are  in  the  vuaU  of  business,  they 
have  no  time  to  tend  their  health  either  of  body  or 
mind.  Bacon's  Euayi. 

I  shall  purposely  omit  the  mention  of  arguments 
which  relate  to  infinity,  as  being  not  so  easily  intel- 
ligible, and  therefore  more  apt  to  putsU  and  amuse, 
than  to  convince.  Wilkint, 

Both  amues  of  the  enemy  wonld  have  been  fusxUd 
what  to  have  done.  Clarendon. 

A  very  shrewd  disputant  in  those  points  is  dex- 
terous in  pitJuUing  others,  if  they  be  not  thorough- 
paced speculators  in  thoee  great  theories.       More. 
The  servant  is  Kpunl'mg  £ool  that  heeds  nothing. 

•  VEitrange. 

These,  as  my  guide  informed  roe,  were  men  of 
subtle  tempers,  and  puxsled  politicks,  who  would 
supi>Iy  the  place  of  real  wisdom  with  cunning  and 
avarice.  Tatler. 

He  is  perpetually  pttss/tfd  and  perplexed  amidst  his 
<mjk  blunders,  and  mistakes  the  sense  of  those  he 
nould  confute.  Addison, 

I  did  not  indeed  at  first  imagine  there  was  in  it 
such  a  jargon  of  ideas,  such  an  inconsistency  of  no- 
tions, such  a  confusion  of  particles,  that  rather  fristte 
than  connect  the  sense.  Id. 

Persons  who    labour  under  real  evils  will  not 
jmuU  themselves  with  conjectural  ones.     CUtrisaa, 
She  strikes  each  point  with  native  force  of  mind» 
"While  pusxMleammg  blunders  far  behind.  Young. 
Few  angles  were  there  in  her  form,  'tis  true. 

Thinner  she  might  have  been  and  yet  scarce  lose, 
Ytt,  after  all,  'twould  putuU  to  say  where 
It  wonld  not  spoil  some  separate  chaim  to  pare. 

Byron. 
PUZZULANA Terra,  or  Terra  Pozzolaka, 
is  a  grayish  kind  of  earth  used  in  Italy  for  build- 
ing under  water.  The  best  is  found  about  Pu- 
teoli,  Bais,  and  Cumae,  in  Naples,  from  the  first 
of  which  places  it  derives  its  name.  It  is  a  vol- 
canic proauct,  composed  of  heterogeneous  sub- 
stances, thrown  out  from  the  burning  mouths  of 
volcanoes  in  the  form  of  ashes ;  sometimes  in 
such  large  quantities,  and  with  so  great  violence, 
that  whole  provinces  have  been  covered  with  it 
at  a  considerable  distance.  This  volcanic  earth 
is  of  a  gray,  brown,  or  blackish  color ;  of  a  loose, 
granular,  or  dusty  and  rough,  porous  or  spongy 
texture,  resembling  a  clay  haraened  by  fire,  and 
then  reduced  to  a  gi-oss  powder.  Its  specific 
gravity  is  from  2'57  to  2*8 ;  and  it  is  in  some 
degree  magnetic :  it  scarcely  effervesces  with 
acids,  though  partially  soluble  in  them.  It  easily 
melts  per  se ;  but  its  most  distinguishing  pro- 
perty IS,  that  it  hardens  very  suddenly  when  mix- 
ed with  one-third  of  its  weight  of  lime  and  water; 
and  forms  a  cement  which  is  more  durable  in 
water  than  any  other.  According  to  Bergman's 
analysis,  100  parts  of  it.contain  from  55  to  60  of 
sileceous  earth,  20  of  argillaceous,  5  or  6  of  cal- 
careous, and  from  15  to  20  of  iron.  It  is  found 
also  in  France,  in  the  late  provinces  of  Auvergne 
and  Limoges. 

PUZZUOLO,  or  PozzpoLi,  the  ancient  Pu- 
teoli,  a  celebrated  town  of  Italy,  delightfully 
situated  on  a  peninsula,  in  the  centre  of  the  noble 
bay  of  this  name.    In  ancient  times  tliis  was 


the  chief  mart  of  tlie  inhabitants  of  Cumsa,  and 
a  rendezvous  for  merchants  from  Italy,  Sicily, 
and  Greece :  the  baths  allured  the  most  opu- 
lent Romans  to  its  vicinity.  But  the  devastations 
of  war  and  earthquakes  have  long  since*  greatly 
reduced  it.  Its  population  of  about  1000  is 
now  confined  to  the  point  which  formed  the 
ancient  port.  But  in  a  square  of  the  town  stands 
a  beautiful  marble  pedestal,  covered  with  bas- 
reliefs,  representing  in  allegorical  figures  the 
fourteen  towns  of  Asia  Minor  that  were  destroyed 
by  an  earthquake,  and  rebuilt  by  Tiberius.  The 
cathedral,  which  occupies  the  site  of  an  ancient 
temple  and  is  built  chiefly  of  its  materials,  has 
a  subterranean  edifice  attached,  called  the  laby- 
rinth, divided  into  a  number  of  apartments.  On 
the  hill  behind  the  town  are  the  remains  of  an 
amphitheatre  of  con^derable  extent;  but  only 
the  gates  and  portions  of  the  vaults  remain.  Here 
are,  however,  massy  remains  of  the  temple  of  Ju- 
piter Serapis,  and  of  the  mole  that  formed  the 
ancient  port.  Several  of  its  piers  and  arches  still 
stand  unshaken.  At  the  end  of  this  mole  began 
the  bridge  of  Caligula,  which  extended  across 

girt  of  the  bay  to  Baiae,  no  less  than  half  a  mile, 
uziuolo  is  still  a  bishop's  see.  In  the  neighbour- 
hood is  the  plain  of  Solfotara.  It  is  seven  miles 
west  of  Naples. 

PWLLHELY,  a  large  market  town  of  North 
Wales,  in  Caerna.*vonshire,  seated  on  the  coast 
between  two  rivers.  It  has  a  market  on  Wed- 
nesday for  corn  and  provisions;  and  lies  six 
miles  south  of  Nevin,  twenty  S.  S.  W.  of  Caer- 
narvon, and  243 1  north-west  of  London. 

PYANEPSIA,  in  antiquity,  an  Athenian  fes- 
tival celebrated  on  the  seventh  day  of  the  month 
Pyanepsion.  Plutarch  ascribes  the  institution  of 
this  feast  to  Theseus,  who,  after  the  funeral  of  his 
father,  on  this  day  paid  his  vows  to  Apollo,  be- 
cause the  youths  who  returned  with  him  safe 
from  Crete  then  made  their  entry  into  the  city. 
On  this  occasion  these  young  men,  putting  all 
that  was  left  of  their  provisions  into  one  kettle, 
feasted  together  on  it,  and  made  great  rejoicing. 
The  Athenians  carried  about  an  olive  branch, 
bound  about  with  wool,  and  crowned  with  all 
sorts  of  first  fruits,  to  signify  that  scarcity  and 
barrenness  had  ceased,  singing  in  procession  a 
song.  And,  when  the  solemnity  was  over,  it  was 
usual  to  erect  the  olive  branch  before  their  doors 
as  a  preservative  against  scarcity  and  want 

PYCNOSTYLE,  in  ancient  architecture,  a 
building  where  the  columns  stand  veir  close  to 
each  other ;  only  one  diameter  and  a  half  of  the 
column  being  allowed  for  the  intercolumniations. 
The  pycnostyle  chiefly  belonged  to  the  compo- 
site order,  and  was  used*  in  the  most  magnificent 
buildings. 

PYDNA,  an  ancient  city  of  Macedonia,  ori- 
ginally called  Citron,  seated  between  the  mouths 
of  the  Aliacmon  and  Lydius.  In  this  city  Cas- 
sand^r  murdered  the  mother,  widnw,  and  son  of 
Alexander  the  Great  A  decisive  battle  was  af- 
terwards fought  near  it  A.  A.  C.  168,  between  the 
Romans  under  Paulus  iElmilius  and  the  Mace- 
donians under  Philip  V.,  in  which  the  latter  was 
defeated,  and  his  kingdom  was  a  few  years  after 
made  a  Roman  province. 

PYE  (Henry    Tames),  LL.D..  an  English 


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poet,  Dr.  Soathey's  predecessor  in  the  laureate- 
shtp,  was  bom  m  London  in  1745.  Afler  re- 
oeiring  a  private  education,  he  went  to  Magda- 
len College  Oxford,  and  took  the  honorary  de- 
gree of  master  of  arts  in  1766,  and  that  of  doctor 
of  lams  in  1772.  He  was  for  some  time  in  the 
Berkshire  militia,  and  embarrassed  himself  by 
standing  a  contest  for  the  representation  of  the 
county.  Id  1790  he  became  poet  laoreat;'  and 
in  1792  a  police  magistrate.  He  died  *  Angust 
nth,  1813.  His  principal  works  are,  1.  Far- 
riDgdon  Hill,  a  poem.  2.  Six  odes  of  Pindar, 
translated  into  English  verse.  3.  The  Progress 
of  Refinement,  a  poem.  4.  Poems  on  various 
subjects,  2  vols.  5.  A  Translation  of  the  Poetics 
of  Aristotle.  6.  Lenore,  a  tale  from  the  German 
of  Burger.  7.  The  Democrat,  2  vols.  8.  The 
Aristocrat,  2  vols.  9.  Alfred,  an  epic  poem. 
10.  Another  collection  of  poems,  2  vols.  11. 
Comments  on  the  Commentators  on  Shakspeare, 
8vo.  12.  A  translation  of  the  hymns  ana  epi- 
grams of  Horoer. 

PYGMALION,  in  fabulous  history,  a  king 
of  Cyprus,  who,  being  disgusted  at  the  dissolute 
lives  of  the  women  of  his  island,  resolved  to  live 
in  perpetual  celibacy ;  but,  having  made  a  statue 
of  ivory,  he  so  much  admired  it  that,  at  the  high 
festival  of  Venus,  he  fell  down  before  the  altar  of 
that  goddess,  and  besought  her  to  give  him  a 
wife  like  the  statue  he  had  made.  At  his  return 
home  he  embraced  his  ivory  statue,  when  he 
perceived  that  it  became  sensible  by  degrees,  and 
was  at  last  a  living  maid,  who  found  herself  in 
her  lover'^s  arms  the  moment  she  saw  the  light. 
Venus  blessed  their  union  ;  and  in  nine  months 
she  was  delivered  of  a  son,  named  Paphos. 

Pygmalion,  king  of  Tyre,  son  of  Belus,  and 
brother  of  queen  Dido,  who  founded  Carthage. 
He  succeeded  his  father,  but  became  odious  by 
his  avarice  and  cruelty ;  and  murdered  Sich&us, 
the  husband  of  Dido,  in  a  temple  of  which  he 
was  priest,  on  which  Dido  flea  with  her  hus- 
band's treasure.  He  died  in  his  fifty-first  and  forty- 
seventh  of  his  reign. — ^Virg.  ^n.  i.  347.  Justin, 
18.  c.  5. 

PYG'MY,  n.  f .  Fr.  pygmee ;  Gr.  rrvyfiatoC' 
A  dwarf;  one  of  a  nation  fabled  to  be  only  three 
spans  high  ;  any  little  thing  or  person. 

They,  less  than  smallest  dwarfs  in  narrow  room, 
Throug  numberless  like  that  pygmean  race 
Bevood  the  Indian  mount.  MfiUon. 

If  they  deny  the  present  spontaneous  production 
of  laiger  plants,  ana  confine  the  earth  to  as  pygmy 
births  in  the  vegetable  kingdom  as  they  do  in  the 
other;  yet  surely  in  such  a  supposed  universal 
decay  of  nature,  even  mankind  itself  that  is  now 
nourished,  though  not  produced,  by  the  earth,  must 
have  degenerated  in  stature  and  strength  in  every 
generation.  Beniiey, 

Can  place  or  lessen  us  or  aggrandise  ? 

Ptigmies  are  pygmies  still,  tho'  perched  on  Alps, 

And  pyramids  are  pyramids  in  vales.        Young, 

PYLADES,  a  son  of  Slrophius,  king  of  Pho- 
cis,  by  a  sister  of  Agamemnon.  He  was  educat- 
ed with  his  cousin  Orestes^  with  whom  heformed 
the  most  inviolable  friendship,  and  whom  he  as- 
sisted to  revenge  the  murder  of  Agamemnon,  by 
assassinating  Clytemnestra  and  ^gysthus.  He 
also  accompanied  him  into  Taurica  Chersonesus; 
and  Orestes  rewarded  him  for  his  services  by 


nving  him  bis  sister  Electra  in  marriage.  Py* 
lades  had  by  her  two  sons,  Medon  and  Strophius. 
The  friendship  of  Orestes  and  Pylades  became 
proverbial. 

PYLORUS.    See  An ato^t. 

PYLOS,  an  ancient  town  of  Messenia,  on  the 
west  coast  of  Peloponnesus,  at  the  foot  of  Mount 
^galseus,  opposite  the  island  Sphacteria,  in  the 
lonhin  Sea ;  seated  on  the  promontory  of  Cory- 
phasion,  a  name  also  dven  to  the  town.  It  was 
Duih  by  Pylus,  at  the  bead  of  a  colony  of  Lcleges 
'from  Megara,who  were  dispossessed  of  it  by  Ne- 
leus,  the  father  of  Nestor,  who  called  it  Nelea. 

PYR'AMID,  n. «.       ^     Fr.  pyramide  ;  Gr. 

Pyram'idal,  ac^.         /  vvpa/uQ.     From  irvp 

Pyramid' icAL,  >fire ;  because  fire  as- 

Pyramid'icallt,  adv.  i  cends  in  the  figure  of 

Pyr'amis,  n. «.  3  a  cone.   A  soW  geo- 

metrical figure,  whose  base  is  a  polygon,  and 
whose  sides  are  plain  triangles,  their  points 
meeting  in  one :  the  two  adjectives  and  actverbs 
corresponding :  pyramis  is  an  obsolete  form  of 
the  noun  substantive. 

Know,  Sir,  that  I  will  not  wait  pinioned  at  your 
master's  court ;  rather  make  my  country's  high  py< 
ramide  my  gibbet,  and  hang  me  up  in  chaiM; 

Shaktpear€,  Antony  and  Ckopatra, 

The  form  of  a  pyramis  in  flame,  which  we  usually 
see,  is  merely  by  accident,  and  that  the  air  about, 
by  (juenchin^  the  side  of  the  flame,  crusheth  it,  and 
eztenuateth  it  into  that  form,  for  of  itself  it  would 
be  round,  and  therefore  smoke  is  in  the  figure  of  a 
pyramis  reversed  ;  for  the  air  quencheth  the  flame, 
and  receiveth  the  smoke.  Bacon, 

An  hollow  crystal  pyramid  he  takes. 
In  firmamental  waters  dipt  above, 

Of  it  a  broad  extinguisher  he  makes, 
And  hoods  the  flames.  Dryden, 

The  pyra$mdicai  idea  of  its  flame,  upon  occasion 
of  the  candles,  is  what  is  in  question.  Loeka, 

Of  whRh  sort  likewise  aier  the  gems  or  stones,  that 
are  here  shot  into  cubes,  into  pyramidal  forms,  or 
into  angular  columns.  Woodward, 

Olympus  is  the  largest,  and  therefore  he  makes  it 
the  basis  upon  which  Ossa  stands,  that  being  the 
next  to  Olympus  in  magnitude,  and  Pelion  being  the 
least,  is  placed  above  Ossa,  and.thus  they  rise  pyra- 
midioaUxi,  Broome*s  Noles  on  Odyssey. 

Virtue  alone  outbuilds  tlie  pyramids ; 

Her  monuments  shall  last  when  Egypt's  fall. 

Young, 

Pyramid,  in  geometry,  a  solid  figure,  whose 
base  is  a  polygon,  and  whose  sides  are  plain  tri- 
angles, their  several  points  meeting  in  one,  called 
the  vertex  of  the  pyramid. 

Hence  the  superficies  of  a  given  pyramid  is 
easily  found  by  measuring  these  triangles  sepa- 
rately;  for  their  sum,  added  to  the  area  of  the 
base,  is  the  surface  of  the  pyramid  required.  It 
is  no  less  easy  to  find  the  solid  content  of  a  given 
pyramid ;  for,  the  area  of  the  base  being  found, 
let  it  be  multiolied  by  the  third  part  of  the  height 
of  the  pyramia,  or  the  third  part  of  the  base  by 
the  height,  and  the  product  will  give  the  solid 
content,  as  is  demonstrated  by  Euclid,  lib.  xii. 
prop.  7. 

Pyramids  of  Egypt.  These  celebrated 
buildings,  ranked  by  the  most  ancient  historians 
among  the  wonders  of  the  world,  have  for  many 
ages  excited  the  attention  of  the  curious  and  the 
criticism  of  the  learned.    The  pyramids  uf  Gee* 

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272 


PYRAMIDS. 


a  or  Oizeh,  to  denominated  ftora  a  village  of 
that  name  on  the  banks  of  the  Nile,  are  the 
largest,  and  are  distant  from  that  river  about 
eleven  miles.  The  three  which  most  attract  the 
notice  of  travellers  stand  near  one  another  on  the 
west  side  of  the  river,  almost  opposite  to  Cairo, 
and  not  ^r  from  the  spot  whereon  stood  the  an- 
cient Memphis.  The  great  app^irance  of  anti- 
quity which  they  display  fiivors  tne  supposition 
that  the  whole  of  these  wonderful  works  must 
have  been  constructed  at  an  earlier  period  than 
any  other  edifices  that  are  to  be  seen  in  Egypt/ 
Homer  is  silent  respecting  them;  but  his  silence 
is  no  proof  tliat  they  were  not  in  existence  in  his 
time.  In  the  time  of  Herodotus  as  little  was 
known  concerning  the  second  pyramid  as  before 
the  late  opening,  with  this  exception,  that  in  his 
time  it  was  understood  to  be  nearly  in  the  state 
in  which  it  was  left  when  closed  by  the  builders. 
These  three  pyramids  are  named  after  three 
kings,  whose  tombs  they  are  supposed  to  be,  viz. 
Cheops,  Cephrenes,  and  Mycermus.  Of  these 
the  largest,  that  of  Cheops,  was  faced  with  white 
marble,  as  was  also  the  second,  and  its  four 
sides  face  the  four  cardinal  points.  The  ascent 
to  the  top  is  by  steps,  the  lowermost  being  nearly 
four  feet  high  and  three  broad ;  the  second  of  the 
same  dimensions,  but  retiring  inward  from  the 
f  rst  nearly  three  feet ;  and  in  the  same  manner 
the  third  row  is  placed  upon  the  second,  and  the 
rest  in  the  same  order  to  the  top,  which  termi- 
nates in  a  small  flat  or  square ;  and  they  are  so 
disposed  that  a  line  stretched  from  the  bottom  to 
the  top  would  touch  the  angle  of  every  step. 
From  the  time  of  Herodotus  to  the  present  day 
tnis  pyramid  has  been  measured  by  a  great  num^ 
ber  of  travellers  and  learned  men,  and  their  dif- 
ferent calculations  have  only  increased  the 
uncertainty.  The  following  table  will  show,  at 
least,  how  difficult  it  is  to  come  at  the  truth. 

GREAT  PYRAMID. 


Height. 

Width  of  one 

of  iU  sides. 

French  feet. 

French  feet. 

Herodotus   .             800  . 

, 

.     800 

Strabo                  .     625  . 

,         , 

.     600 

Diodorus  Siculus      600  and  8 

L  fraction 

.     700 

Pliny  .                 .    . 

.        , 

.     708 

Le  Bruyn    .        .    616  . 

. 

.     704 

Prosper  Alpinus  .     623  . 

. 

.     750 

Thevenot     .        .    520  . 

.     682 

Niebuhr                .     440  . 

,        , 

.     710 

Greaves       .         .    444  . 

,        , 

.     648 

Belzoni        .         .     456  . 

. 

.     684 

Number  of  Layers  of  Stone  WHibs  form  it. 

Greaves 207 

Maillei 208 

Albert  Liewenstein   ....  260 

Pococke 212 

Belon 250 

Thevenot 208 

According  to  Herodotus,  the  blocks  of  stone 
which  served  for  the  construction  of  the  pyra- 
mids were  obtained  from  quarries  of  oriental 
mountains  on  the  frontiers  of  Arabia.  This, 
however,  is  contrary  to  the  observations  of  mo- 
dem travellers,  who  have  ascertained  that  the 


same  chalkv  ktone  of  which  they  are  composed 
is  the  produce  of  the  district  in  which  they 
stand. 

The  second  pyramid  stands  at. about  a  bow- 
shot from  the  first,  towards  the  south.  He- 
rodotus says,  ^Aer  having  measured  both,  that 
it  falls  short  of  the  other  in  magnitude ;  that  it 
has  no  subterraneous  chambers :  and  that  the 
Nile  is  not  conveyed  into  it  by  a  channel,  as  be 
affirms  it  was  into  the  former,  but  that  it  is  of  an 
equal  altitude.  Diodorus  informs  us  that  it  re- 
sembles the  first  in  its  architecture,  but  is  inferior 
to  it  in  magnitude;  each  side  of  the  base  con- 
taining a  stadium,  or  600  Grecian  feet  in  length : 
so  that  by  his  computation  each  side  is  less  fiian 
that  of  the  former  in  length  by  100  feet.  Pliny 
makes  the  difference  to  be  greater  by  forty-six 
feet. 

On  the  north  and  west  sides  of  this  second  py- 
ramid are  two  very  elaborate  pieces  of  architec- 
ture, cut  out  of  the  rock  in  a  perpendicular 
direction  and  squared  by  a  chisel,  about  thirty  feet 
in  depth  and  about  1400  in  length;  supposed  to 
be  designed  for  the  lodgings  of  the  Egyptian 
priests. 

The  third  pyramid  stands  at  about  the  distance 
of  a  furlong  from  the  second,  on  an  advantage- 
ous rising  of  the  rock,  so  tliat  at  a  distance  it  ap- 
pears equal  to  the  former,  though  in  fact  much 
lower.  Herodotus  says  that  it  is  300  feet  on 
every  side,  and  built  of  Ethiopic  marble.  Dio- 
dorus gives  the  same  dimensions  of  its  base,  and 
adds  that  the  walls  were  raised  fifteen  stories  with 
black  stone,  like  Thebaic  marble,  and  the  rest 
finished  with  such  materials  as  the  other  pyra- 
mids are  built  with ;  that  this,  though  exceeded  by 
the  two  former  in  magnitude,  yet  hs  excels  them 
in  respect  to  the  structure,  art,  and  magnificence 
of  the  marble ;  and  that,  on  the  side  towards  the 
north,  the  name  of  Micerinus,  the  founder,  is  en- 
graved :  but  this  inscription  has  been  effaced  by 
time.  Pliny  writes  to  the  same  effect,  except 
that  he  makes  this  pyramid  363  feet  between  the 
angles. 

Very  important  discoveries  in  the  interior  of 
these  enormous  masses  have  been  made  within 
our  own  time  by  Messrs.  Davison  and  Caviglio, 
and  by  M.  Belzoni.  The  most  celebrated,  and 
perhaps  the  most  arduous  of  M.  Belzoni's  labors, 
was  the  opening  of  the  pyramid  of  Cephrenes. 
Herodotus  was  informed  that  this  pyramid  had 
no  interior  chambers,  and  this  no  doubt  operated 
in  preventing  that  curiosity  which  had  long  be- 
fore opened  the  pyramid  of  Cheops.  The  account 
of  his  discovery  we  cannot  give  better  than  in 
Belzoni's  own  words. 

On  my  return  to  Cairo,  I  again  went  to  visit 
the  celebrated  pyramids  of  Ghiza;  and,  on 
viewing  that  of  Cephrenes,  I  could  not  help  re- 
flecting how  many  travellers  of  different  nations, 
who  had  visited  this  spot,  contented  themselves 
with  looking  at  the  outside  of  this  pyramid,  and 
went  away  without  enquiring  whether  any,  and 
what  chambers,  exist  in  it ;  satisfied  perhaps  with 
the  report  of  the  Egyptian  priests,  '  that  the 
pyramid  of  Cheops  only  contained  chambers  in 
its  interior.'  I  then  began  to  consider  about  the 
possibility  of  opening  this  pyramid ;  the  attempt 
was  perhaps  presumptuous ;  and  the  risk  of  un- 


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PYRAMIDS. 


273 


dertaklng  such  an  immense  work  without  success 
deterred  me  in  some  degree  from  the  enterprise. 
I  am  not  certain  whether  love  foi^  antiquity,  an 
ardent  curiosiw,  or  amhition,  spurred  me  on 
most  in  spite  of  every  obstacle,  but  I  determined 
at  length  to  commence  the  operation.  I  soon 
discovered  the  same  indications  which  had  led 
to  the  development  of  the  six  tombs  of  >the  kings 
in  ThebeSy  and  which  bduced  me  to  begin  the 
operation  on  the  north  side.  It  is  true,  the  situ- 
ations of  the  tombs  at  Thebes,  their  form  and 
epochs,  are  so  very  different  from  those  of  the 
pyramids,  that  many  points  of  observation  made 
with  regard  to  the  mrmer,  could  not  apply  to  the 
latter ;  yet  I  perceived  enough  to  urge  me  to  the 
enterprise.  I  accordingly  set  out  Irom  Cairo  on 
the  6th  of  February,  1818,  under  pretence  of 
going  in  quest  of  some  antiquities,  at  a  village 
not  hi  off,  in  order  that  I  might  not  be  disturbed 
in  my  work  by  the  people  of  Cairo.  I  then  re- 
paired to  the  Kaiya  Bey,  and  asked  permission 
to  work  at  the  pyramid  of  Ghiza  in  search  of  an- 
tiquities. He  made  no  objection,  but  said  that 
he  wished  to  know  if  there  was  any  ground  about 
the  pyramid  fit  for  tillage ;  I  informed  him  that 
it  vras  all  stones,  and  at  a  considerable  distance 
ftom  any  tilled  ground.  He  nevertheless  per- 
sisted in  enquiring  of  the  cashief  of  the  province, 
if  there  was  any  good  ground  near  tne  pyra- 
mids ;  and,  after  receiving  the  necessary  informa- 
tion, granted  my  request. 

*  Having  thus  acquired  permission,  I  began  my 
labors  on  the  10th  of  Februs^,  at  a  point  on 
the  north  side  in  a  vertical  section  atrignt  angles 
to  that  side  of  the  base.  I  saw  many  reasons 
against  my  beginning  there,  but  certain  indica^ 
tions  told  me  that  there  was  an  entrance  at  that 
spot.  I  employed  sixty  laboring  men,  and  began 
to  cut  through  the  mass  of  stones  and  cement 
which  had  feUen  from  the  upper  part  of  the  py- 
ramid, but  it  was  so  hard  jomed  together,  tnat 
the  men  spoiled  several  of  their  hatchets  in  the 
operation;  the  stones  which  had  ^len  down 
along  with  the  cement  having  formed  themselves 
into  one  solid  and  almost  impenetrable  mass.  I 
succeeded,  however,  in  making  an  opening  of 
fifteen  ieet  ¥dde,  and  continued  working  down- 
wards in  uncovering  the  face  of  the  pyramid ; 
this  work  took  up  several  days,  without  the  least 
DTOSpect  of  meeting  with  any  thing  interesting. 
Meantime  I  began  to  fear  that  some  of  the  Eu- 
ropeans residinff  at  Cairo  might  pay  a  visit  to 
the  pyramids,  which  they  do  very  often,  and  thus 
discover  my  retreat,  and  interrupt  my  proceed- 
ings. 

'  On  the  17th  of  the  fiame  month  we  had  made 
a  considerable  advance  downwards,  when  an 
Arab  workman  called  out,  making  a  great  noise, 
and  saying  that  he  had  found  the  entrance.  He 
had  discovered  a  hole  in  the  pyramid  into  which 
he  could  just  thrust  his  arm  and  a  djerid  of  six 
ieet  long.  Towards  the  evening  we  discovered  a 
larger  aperture,  about  three  feet  square,  vbich  had 
heea  closed  in  irregularly,  by  a  hewn  stone ;  this 
atone  I  caused  to  be  removed,  and  then  came  to 
an  opening  larger  than  the  preceding,  but  filled 
np  vrith  loose  stones  and  sand.  This  satisfied 
rae  that  it  was  not  the  real  but  a  forced  passage, 
which  I  found  to  lead  inwards  and  towards  the 
Vol.  XVIII. 


south  ; — ^the  nekt  day  we  succeeded  in  entering 
fifteen  feet  from  the  outside,  when  we  reached  a 
place  where  the  sand  and  stones  began  to  fall 
from  above.  I  caused  the  rubbish  to  be  taken 
out,  but  it  still  continued  to  fell  in  great  quanti- 
ties ;  at  last,  after  some  days  labor,  I  discovered 
an  upper  forced  entrance,  communicating  with 
the  outside  from  above,  and  which  had  evidently 
been  cut  by  some  one 'who  was  in  search  of  the 
true  passage.  Having  cleared  this  passage,  I 
perceived  another  opening  below,  which  appa- 
rently ran  towards  tfie  centre  of  the  pyramid.  In 
a  few  hours  I  was  able  to  enter  this  passage,  and 
found  it  to  be  a  continuation  of  the  lower  forced 
passage,  which  runs  horizontally  towards  the 
centre  of  the  pyramid »  nearly  all  choked  up 
with  stones  and  sand.  These  obstructions  I 
caused  to  be  taken  out;  and  at  halfway  from  the 
entrance  I  found  a  descent  which  also  had  been 
forced ;  and  which  ehded  at  the  distance  of  forty 
feet  I  afterwards  continued  the  work  in  the 
horizontal  passage  above,  in  hopes  that  it  might 
lead  to  the  centre ;  but  I  was  disappointed,  and 
at  last  was  convinced  that  it  ended  there ;  and 
that,  to  attempt  to  advance  in  that  way  would 
only  incur  the  risk  of  sacrificing  some  of  my 
workmen;  as  it  was  really  astonishing  to  see 
how  the  stones  hung  suspended  over  their  heads, 
resting,  perhaps,  by  a  single  point.  Indeed  one 
of  these  stones  did  fall,  and  had  nearly  killed 
one  of  the  men.  I  therefore  retired  from  the 
forced  passage,  with  great  regret  and  disappoint- 
ment. 

'  Notwithstanding  the  discouragements  I  met 
with,  I  recommenc^  my  researches  on  the  fol- 
lowing day,  depending  upon  my  indications.  I 
directed  the  ground  to  be  cleared  away  to  the 
eastward  of  the  felse  entrance;  the  stones,  en- 
crusted and  bound  together  with  cement,  were 
equally  hard  as  the  former,  and  we  had  as  many 
large  stones  to  remove  as  before.  By  this  time 
my  retreat  had  been  discovered,  which  occa- 
sioned me  many  interruptions  from  visitors : 
among  others  was  the  abb^  de  Forbin. 

*■  On  February  28th  we  discovered  a  block  of 
granite  in  an  inclined  direction  towards  the  cen- 
tre of  the  pyramid,  and  I  perceived  that  the  in- 
clination was  the  same  as  that  of  the  passage  of 
the  first  pyramid,  or  that  of  Cheope;  conse- 
quently I  began  to  hope  that  I  was  near  the  true 
entrance.  On  the  lat  of  March  we  observed 
three  large  blocks  of  stone  one  upon  another,  all 
inclined  towards  the  centre :  these  large  stones 
we  had  to  remove  as  well  as  others  much  larger 
as  we  advanced,  which  considerably  retarded  our 

'approach  to  the  desired  spot.  I  perceived, 
however,  that  I  was  near  the  true  entrance,  and, 
in  feet,  the  next  day  about  noon,  on  the  2nd  ot 
March,  was  the  epoch  at  which  the  grand  pyra- 
mid of  Cephrenes  was  at  last  opened,  after  being 
closed  up  for  so  many  centuries  that  it  remained 
an  uncertainty  whether  any  interior  chambers  did 
or  did  not  exist.  The  passage  I  discovered  was 
a  square  opening  of  four  feet  high  and  three  and 

'  a  half  .wide,  formed  by  four  blocks  of  granite; 
and  continued  slanting  downward  at  the  same 
inclination  as  that  of  the  pyramid  of  Cheops, 
which  is  an  angle  of  26°.  It  runs  to  the  length  oi 
104  feet  five  inches,  lined  the  whole  way  with 

T 


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274 


PYRAMIDS. 


graniU.  I  had  much  to  do  to  remove  and  draw 
up  the  stones  which  filled  the  passage  down  to 
the  portcullis  or  door  of  granite,  which  is  fitted 
into  a  niche  also  made  of  granite.  I  found  this 
door  supported  by  small  stones  within  eight 
inches  ot  the  floor,  and  in  consequence  of  the 
narrowness  of  the  place  it  took  up  the  whole  of 
that  day  and  part  of  the  next  to  raise  it  suffi- 
ciently to  aflbrd  an  entrance ;  this  door  is  one 
foot  three  inches  thick,  and,  together  with  the 
work  of  Uie  niche,  occupies  six  feet  eleven 
incites,  where  the  granite  work  ends :  then  com- 
mences a  short  passage,  gradually  ascending 
towards  the  centre,  twenty-two  feet  seven  inches, 
at  the  end  of  which  is  a  perpendicular  of  fifteen 
feet :  on  the  left  is  a  small  forced  passage  cut  in 
the  rock,  and  also  above,  on  the  right,  is  another 
forced  passage  which  runs  upwards  and  turns  to 
the  north  thirty  feet,  just'  over  the  port-cuUis. 
There  is  no  doubt  that  this  passage  was  made  by 
the  same  persons  who  forced  the  other,  in  order 
to  ascertain  if  there  were  any  others  which  might 
ascend  above,  in  conformity  to  that  of  the  pyra- 
mid of  Cheops.  I  descended  the  perpendicular 
by  means  of  ^  rope,  and  found  a  laige  quantity 
of  stones  and  earth  accumulated  beneath,  which 
very  nearly  filled  up  the  entrance  into  the  pas- 
sage below  which  inclines  towards  the  north.  I 
next  proceeded  towards  the  channel  that  leads  to 
the  centre,  and  soon  reached  the  horizontal  pas- 
sage. This  passage  is  five  feet  eleven  inches 
high,  three  feet  six  inches  wide,  and  the  whole 
length,  fiK}m  the  above-mentioned  perpendicular 
to  the  great  chamber,  is  158  feet,  8  inches.  These 
passages  are  partly  cut  out  of  the  living 
rock,  and  at  naif-way  there  is  some  mason^s 
work,  probably  to  fill  up  some  vacancy  in  the 
rock;  the  walls  of  this  pass^e  are  in  several 
parts  covered  with  inrcustations  of  salts. 

<  On  entering  the  great  chamber,  I  found  it  to 
be  forty-six  feet  three  inches  long,  sixteen  feet 
three  inches  wide,  and  twenty-three  feet  six 
inches  high ;  for  the  most  part  cut  out  of  the 
rock,  except  that  part  of  the  roof  towards  the 
western  end.  In  tne  midst  we  observed  a  sar- 
cophagus of  granite,  partly  buried  in  the  ground, 
to  the  level  of  the  floor,  eight  feet  long,  three  feet 
six  inches  wide,  and  two  teet  three  inches  deep 
inside,  surrounded  by  large  blocks  of  granite, 
being  placed  apparently  to  guard  it  from  being 
taken  away,  which  coula  not  be  etfected  without 
great  labor ;  the  lid  of  it  had  been  opened ;  I 
found  in  it  only  a  few  bones  of  a  human  skele- 
ton, which  merit  preservation  as  curious  reliques, 
they  being  in  all  probability  those  of  Cephrenes, 
the  reported  builder  of  this  pyramid.  On  the 
wall  of  the  western  side  of  the  chamber  is  an 
Arabic  inscription,  a  translation  of  which  has 
been  sent  to  the  British  Museum.  It  testifies 
that,  *  this  pyramid  was  opened  by  the  Masters 
Mahomet  £1  Aghar  and  Otman,  and  that  it  was 
inspected  in  presence  of  the  Sultan  Ali  Mahomet 
the  1st,  Ugloch.'  There  are  also  several  other 
inscriptions  on  the  walls,  supposed  to  be  Coptic ; 
part  of  the  floor  of  this  chamber  had  been  re- 
moved in  difierent  places,  evidently  in  search  of 
treasure,  by  some  of  those  who  had  found  their 
way  into  it.  Under  one  of  these  stones  I  found 
a  piece  of  metal  something  like  tlie  thick  part  of 


an  axe,  but  it  is  so  rusty  and  decayed  that  it  is 
almost  impossible  to  form  a  just  idea  of  its  form* 
High  up  and  near  the  centre  there  are  two  small 
square  holes,  one  on  the  north  and  the  other  on 
the  south,  each  one  foot  square ;  they  enter  into 
the  wail  like  those  in  the  great  chamber  of  the 
first  pyi^mid.  I  returned  to  the  before-men- 
tioned perpendicular,  and  found  a  passage  to  the 
north ,  in  the  same  inclination  of  26*^  as  that 
above :  this  descends  forty-eight  feet  six  inches, 
where  the  horizontal  passage  commences,  whidi 
keeps  the  same  direction  Q<mh  fifty-five  feet,  and 
halt-wav  along  it  there  is  on  the  east  a  recess  of 
eleven  feet  deep.  On  the  west  side  there  is  a 
passage,  twenty  feet  Ions,  which  descends  into  a 
chamber  thirty-two  feet  long  and  nine  feet  nine 
inches  wide»  eight  and  six  feet  high ;  this  cham- 
ber contains  a  quantity  of  small  square  blocks  ot 
stone,  and  some  unknown  inscriptions  written  on 
the  walls.  Returning  to  the  original  passage, 
and  advancing  north,  near  the  end  of  it  is  a  niche 
to  receive  a  port-cuUis  like  that  above.  Frag- 
ments of  granite,  of  which  it  was  made^  are 
Wing  near  the  spot;  advancing  still  to  the  north 
I  entered  a  passage  which  runs  in  Uiesanaeindi- 
nation  as  that  before-mentioned,  and  at  forty- 
seven  feet  six  inches  from  the  niche  it  is  filled 
up  with  some  large  blacks  of  stone,  put  there 
to  close  the  entrance  which  issues  out  pre- 
cisely at  the  base  of  the  pyramid.  According  to 
the  measurements,  it  is  to  be  observed  that  all 
the  works  below  the  base  are  cut  into  the  living 
rock,  as  well  as  part  of  the  passages  and  cham- 
bers before-mentioned.  Before  I  condude  I 
have  to  mention  that  I  caused  a  range  of  steps 
to  be  built,  from  the  upper  part  of  Uie  perpen- 
dicular to  the  passage  below,  for  the  accommo- 
dation of  visitors. 

*  It  may  be  mentioned  that,  at  the  time 
I  excavated  on  the  north  side  of  the  pyramid,  I 
caused  the  ground  to  be  removed  to  the  eastward 
between  the  pyraihid  and  the  remaining  portico 
which  lies  nearly  on  a  line  with  the  pyramid  a^d 
the  sphinx.  I  opened  the  ground  in  several 
places,  and  in  particular  at  the  base  of  the  py- 
ramid ;  and  in  a  few  days  I  came  to  the  founda- 
tion and  walls  of  an  extensive  temple,  which 
stood  before  the  pyramid  at  the  distance  of  only 
forty  feet  The  whole  of  this  space  is  covered 
with  a  fine  platform,  which  no  doubt  runs  all 
round  the  pyramid.  The  pavement  of  this 
temple,  where  I  uncovered  it,  consists  of  fine 
blocks  of  calcareous  stone,  some  of  which  are 
beautifully  cut  and  in  fine  preservation;  the 
blocks  of  stone  that  form  the  foundation  are  of  an 
immense  size.  I  measured  one  of  <wenty-one  feet 
long,  ten  feet  high,  and  eight  in  breadth  (130 
tons  weight  each} ;  there  are  some  others  above 
ground  in  the  porticoes  which  measured  twenty- 
four  feet  in  length,  but  not  so  broad  nor  so 
thick.* 

The  great  pyramid  of  Gizeb  was  explored 
with  extraordinary  labor  and  peril  by  Mr. 
Davison,  British  Consul  at  Algiers,  who  ac- 
companied Wortley  Montague  to  Egypt,  in 
the  year  1763;  and,  in  order  to  apprehend 
the  importance  of  the  recent  discoveries,  it  is 
necessary  to  understand  the  extent  to  which  that 
gentleman  had  carried  his  researches. 


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PYRAMIDS. 


276 


One  of  his  prhidpal  objects  was  to  ascertain 
the  depth  of  what  liad  hitherto  been  denominated 
the  Well.  After  descending,  by  means  of  a  rope 
tied  about  his  body,  to  the  bottom  of  the  first 
shaftyhe  fonud,  on  the  south  side,  at  the  distance 
of  e^;ht  feet  from  the  lower  extremity  of  that 
shaft,  a  second  of>ening  which  peached  in  a  per- 
pendicular direction  to  the  depth  of  only  five 
uet;  and,  at  the  distance  of  four  feet  and  a  half 
from  the  bottom  of  this  shaft,  he  found  a  third 
opening,  which  was  so  much  closed  up  by  a  large 
stone  at  the  mouth  as  barely  to  admit  the  body 
of  a  man.  Having  with  the  utmost  difficulty 
prevailed  upon  the  Arabs  who  accompanied  him 
to  come  down  and  hold  the  rope  by  which  he 
was  suspended,  he  proceeded  in  his  descent,  and 
about  half  way  down  he  came  to  a  grotto  nearly 
fifteen  feet  long,  four  or  five  feet  wide,  and  as 
high  as  a  man  of  ordinary  stature.  From  this 
pbce  the  shaft  took  a  sloping  direction  for  a 
little  way,  and  then  becoming  more  perpendicu- 
tar,  he  at  length  reached  the  bottom  wnich  was 
completely  closed  with  sand  and  rubbish.  Here 
he  found  a  rope  ladder,  which  had  been  used  by 
Mr.  Wood  (author  of  the  Ruins  of  Palmvra  and 
Balbec),  who  had  proceeded,  no  forther  than  the 
grotio ;  and,  though  ithad  been  left  there  sixteen 
years  before,  was  as  fresh  and  strong  as  if  per- 
fectly new.  The  depth  of  the  first  of  these 
shafts  was  twenty-two  feet,  of  the  second  twenty- 
nine,  and  of  the  third  ninety-nine,  making,  with 
the  addition  of  the  five  feet  between  the  first 
and  second  shafts,  a  total  descent  of  155  foet. 

Upon  a  subsequent  visit,  Mr.  Davison  next 
proposed  to  explore  an  opening  which  he  had 
discovered  at  the  top  of  the  gallery :  and  for  this 
purpose  provided  himself  with  several  short 
ladders,  capable  of  being  fiutened  to  one  ano- 
ther by  wooden  pins,  so  as  to  extend,  when  thus 
united,  to  the  length  of  twenW-six  foet.  Having 
mounted  by  the  assistance  of  this  ladder  to  the 
opening  which  he  had  observed,  he  found  apas- 
s^  two  feet  four  indies  square,  which  turned 
immediately  to  the  right;  but,  on  account  of  the 
dust  and  bats-dung  with  which  it  was  covered  to 
the  depth  often  of  a  foot,  it  was  with  the  greatest 
difficulty,  and  the  constant  hazard  of  suffocation, 
that  he  crawled  along  with  his  fiice  to  the  ground. 
Upon  reaching  the  end  of  this  passage,  he  found 
on  the  right  a  straight  entrance  into  a  long,  broad, 
and  low  room ;  and,  both  by  the  length  and  di- 
rection of  the  passage  through  which  he  had  en- 
tered, he  knew  it  to  be  situated  immediately 
above  the  large  room,  usually  called  the  king^ 
chamber.  This  chamber  is  four  feet  longer  than 
the  one  below,  but  exactly  of  the  same  breadth, 
and  its  covering  is  composed  of  eight  stones  of 
beautiful  granite.  This  place  could  not  be  found 
by  Niebuhr,  though  informed  of  its  situation  by 
Mr.  Meynard  who  had  accompanied  Mr.  Da- 
vison, and  has  never  been  visited  since  the  time 
of  the  last-mentioned  traveller,  till  the  date  of 
those  recent  discoveries  which  we  now  proceed 
to  describe. 

Captain  or  Mr.  Caviglia,  the  master  of  a  mer^ 
caatile  vessel  in  the  MMiterranean  trade,  set  out 
fiom  Cairo  on  die  8th  of  January  1817,  with  a 
fsiolntion  to  employ  his  utmost  exertions  in 
exploring  the  sumerous  passages  and  interior  re- 


cesses of  the  pyramids  of  Ghizeh.  Conceiving 
that  the  descent  of  the  Well  in  the  great  pyramid 
had  never  been  thoroughly  prosecuted,  he  entered 
the  shaft,  as  Mr,  Davison  had  done,  with  a  lamp 
in  his  band  and  a  rope  about  his  middle.  He 
describes  the  different  shafts  nearly  in  the  same 
manner  as  |that  gentleman  does,  but  discovered 
the  additional  feet,  that  the  interior  was  lined 
with  n^asonry  above  and  below  the  grotto,  fur 
the  purpose,  as  was  supposed,  of  supporting  one 
of  tiiose  insulated  beds  of  gravel,  wnich  are  fre- 
quently found  in  rock.  He  found  nothing  at  the 
bottom  but  loose  stones  and  rubbish ;  and  was 
compelled,  by  the  excessive  heat  and' foul  air,  to 
reascend  the  shaft  with  all  possible  expedition ; 
but,  before  be  reached  the  grotto,  all  his  lights 
were  extinguished  in  rapid  succession.  Neither 
this  experience  of  the  enervating  heat  and  im- 
pure air  of  these  subterranean  channels  (which 
nave  often  been  known  to  cause  the  stoutest  man 
to  feint,  even  in  getting  up  as  fer  as  the  gallery), 
or  the  various  histories  current  in  Cairo  of  per- 
sons who  were  supposed  to  have  perished  in  these 
attempts,  could  deter  this  enterprising  traveller 
from  renewing  his  researches,  with  a  degree  of 
perseverance  as  unexampled  as  his  success  was 
unexpected.  Having  remarked  that  the  ground 
at  the  bottom  of  the  Well  gave  a  hollow  sound 
under  his  feet,  he  was  convince  that  there  must 
be  some  concealed  outlet  below;  and,  having 
pttdied  his  tent  in  front  of  the  pyramid,  he  hired 
a  number  of  Arabs  to  draw  up  the  rubbish  from 
the  spot  with  baskets  and  coras.  With  the  aid 
of  an  order  from  the  Kiaya-  Bey,  and  the  payment 
of  enormous  wages, '  it  is  still,'  says  Mr.  Salt, 
'  almost  inconceivable  how  he  could  so  fer  sur- 
mount the  prejudices  of  these  people  as  to  in- 
duce them  to  work  in  so  confined  a  space,  where 
a  light  after  the  first  half  hour  woula  not  burn, 
and  where,  consequently,  every  thing  was  to  be 
done  by  feeling  and  not  by  sight ;  the  heat  at  the 
same  time  being  so  intense,  and  the  air  so  suffo- 
cating, that,  in  spite  of  all  precautions,  it  was  not 
possible  to  stay  below  an  hour  at  a  time,  without 
suffering  from  its  pernicious  effects.  At  length, 
indeed,  it  became  so  intolerable  that  one  .^b 
was  brought  up  nearly  dead,  and  several  others 
on  their  ascending  fiiinted  away ;  so  that,  at  last, 
in  spite  of  the  command  laid  upon  them,  they 
almost  entirely  abandoned  their  labor,  declaring 
that  they  were  willing  to  work  but  not  to  die  for 
him.' 

Disappointed  in  this  pursuit  Mr.  Caviglia  ap- 
plied his  endeavours  to  clear  the  principal 
entrance  of  the  pyramid,  whidi  had  from  time 
immemorial  been  so  much  obstructed  as  to  ren- 
der it  necessary  for  those  who  entered  the  pas- 
sage to  creep  on  their  hands  and  knees :  by  this 
means  he  hoped  to  admit  a  fteer  passage  for  the 
air  into  the  interior.  In  the  course  of  these 
labors  he  made  the  unexpected  discovery  that 
the  main  passage  leading  nom  the  entrance  con- 
tinued downwuds,  with  the  same  degree  of  in- 
dination,  the  same  dimensions,  and  the  same 
finish  of  work  at  the  sides,  as  at  the  beginning 
of  the  channel.  Having  cleared  out  this  in- 
clined passage  to  the  length  of  150  feet,  the  air 
became  so  impure,  and  the  heat  so  suffocating, 
that  he  experienced  ih»  same  difliculties  in  ptfe* 

T% 

Digitized  by  VjUUy  IC 


276 


PYRAMIDS. 


vailing;  with  the  Arabs  to  continue  the  work,  and 
was  himself  attacked  with  spitting  of  blood,  and 
other  symptoms  of  impairea  health.    Still,  how- 
ever, persevering  in  his  researches  till  he  had  ex- 
cavated the  passage  to  a  distance  of  200  feet,  his 
labors  were  rewarded  with  the  discovery  of  a 
door-way  on  the  right  side,  from  which  a  smell 
of  sulphur  was  soon'  perceived  to  issue.    Recol- 
lecting, that  in  his  first  visit  to  the  pyramid,  he 
had  burned  some  sulphur  at  the  bottom  of  the 
well,  for  the  purpose  of  purifying  the  air,  he 
conceived  the  probability  of  there  being  a  com- 
munication by  this  dopr-way  with  the  well.    This 
conjecture  was  soon  realised  by  the  discovery 
that  the  channel  opened  directly  upon  the  well, 
where  he  found  the  baskets,  cords,  and  other  im- 
plements, which  had  been  left  by  the  workmen. 
The  opening  of  this  communication  afforded  a 
complete  circulation  of  air  along  the  new  pas- 
sage, and  up  the  shaft,  so  as  greatly  to  facilitate 
his  ^ture  operations.     This  new  passage,  how- 
ever, did  not  terminate  at  this  door-way;  but, 
continued  twenty-three  feet  &rther,  in  the,  same 
line  of  inclination,  till  at  length  it  took  a  hori- 
zontal direction  for  the  space  of  above  twenty- 
eight  feet,  and  then  opened  into  a  spacious 
chamber  immediately  under  t)ke  centre  of  thepy- 
ramid,  and  100  feet  below  the  base.     This 
chamber,  with  the  greatest  part  of  the  passage 
leading  to  it,  is  all  cut  out  of  the  solid  rock  upon 
which  the  pyramid  is  built,  and  which  projects 
into  the  IxKly  of  the  pyramid  about  eighty  feet 
above  the  level  of  its  external  base.    The  cham- 
ber itself  is  sixty  feet  long,  twenty-seven  broad, 
with  a  high  but  flat  roof;  and,  when  first  disco- 
vered, was  nearly  filled  with  loose  stones  and 
rubbish.    The  platform  of  the  floor  is  irregular, 
nearly  one-half  of  its  length  from  the  entrance 
being  quite  level,  and  about  fifteen  feet  from  the 
ceiling ;  while,  in  the  middle  space,  it  descends 
five  feet  lower,  where  there  is  an  opening  or 
hollow,  resembling  the  commencement  of  ano- 
ther shaft  or  .well;  and  thence,  to  the  western 
end,  it  rises  so  much  that  there  is  scarcely  room, 
at  the  extremity,  to  stand  upright  betwepn  the 
floor  and  the  ceiling.    Some  Roman  characters, 
rudely  formed,  and  marked  by  the  flame  of  a 
candle,  were  observed  on  the  walls;  but  the 
mouldering  of  the  rock  had  rendered  them  ille- 
gible.   There  was  no  vestige  of  any  sarcophagus ; 
and  it  is  supposed  that  this  receptacle  of  the 
dead  had  been  spoiled  of  its  contents  by  the  early 
Arabs,  under  Al  Mamoun,  the  son  of  Haroun  al 
Raschid.    On  the  south  side  of  this  chamber  is 
an  excavated  passage,  just  sufficient  to  admit  a 
person  creeping  along  on  his  bands  and  knees, 
and  continuing  horizontally  for  the  space  of 
fifty-five  feet,  when  it  seems  to  terminate  ab- 
ruptly.   Another  passage,  at  the  east  end  of  the 
chamber,  commencing  with  a  kind  of  arch,  runs 
about  forty  feet  into  the  solid  body  of  the  pyramid. 
Dr.  Clarke  says  of  the  above  well,  *  We  threw 
down  some  stones,  and  observed  that  they  rested 
at  about  the  depth  which  Greaves  has  mentioned 
(twenty  feet) ;  out  being  at  length  provided  with 
a  stone  nearly  as  large  as  the  mouth  of  the  well, 
and  about  fifty  pounds  in  weight,  we  let  this  fieill, 
listeuinff  attentively  to  the  result  from  the  spot 
where  the  other  stones  .rested.    We  were  agree- 


ably surprised  by  hetrlng,  after  a  length  of  time 
which  must  have  equalled  some  seconds,  a  load 
and  distinct  report,  seeming  to  come  from  a  spa- 
cious subterraneous  apartment,  accompanied  by 
a  splashing  noise  as  it  the  stone  had  bc«n  broken 
into  pieces,  and  had  fallen  into  a  veservoir  of 
water  at  an  amazing  depth.'  ^  Thus,'  continues 
the  doctor,  '  does  experience  always  tend  to 
confirm  the  accounts  left  us  by  the  ancients  I  for 
this  exactly  answers  to  the  description  given  by 
Pliny  of  this  well.'  Now  it  is  quite  obvious, 
from  Messrs.  Davison  and  Caviglia*s  better  *  ex- 
perience,' that  Dr.  Clarke's '  large  stone'  could 
not,  by  any  possibility,  travel  an  inch  beyond 
the  bottom  of  the  first  shaft,  or  about  twenty 
feet;  unless  we  are  to  suppose  that,  on  reaching 
the  first  bottom,  it  took  a  horizontal  roll  due 
south  eiffht  feet,  dropped  down  the  second  shaft 
of  five  feet ;  then  took  a  second  roll  of  about 
fixe  feet,  and  finally  tumbled  down  the  third 
shaft :  but  even  thus  there  would  be  no  *  splash- 
ing,' though  '  the  inundation  of  the  Nile  was 
nearly  at  its  height ;'  as  the  new  chamber  disce- 
vered  by  Caviglia,  which  is  even  lower  than  the 
bottom  of  the  well,  is  thirty  feet  above  the  level 
of  the  Nile  at  its  greatest  elevation. 

Mr.  Caviglia  next  proceeded  to  examine  the 
chamber  discovered  by  Mr.  Davison,  imme- 
diately above  the  king's  chamber,  and  found  the 
dust  and  bats'  dung  with  which  the  floor  was  co- 
vered, increased  to  the  depth  of  eighteen  inches. 
He  describes  the  sides  ana  the  roof  of  this  upper 
apartment  as  coated  with  red  granite  of  the  finest- 
polish,  but  its  floor  is  very  uneven,  in  conse- 
quence of  its  bein^  formed  by  the  individual 
blocks  of  granite  which  compose  the  roof  of  the 
chamber  l^low.  It  is  only  four  feet  high ;  and 
it  is  not  easy  to  conjecture  for  what  purp(»e  it 
could  have  been  intended.  Nothing  was  disco- 
vered by  Mr.  Caviglia  that  could  l&d  to  a  sola- 
tion  of  the  long  contested  question  respecting 
the  original  design  of  th^se  recesses ;  but  it  is 
still  considered  as  the  most  probable  opinion 
that  they  were  principally  intended  to  secure  the 
remains  of  the  rounder,  or  of  the  priesu ;  and  it 
is  also  conjectured  that,  among  the  contents  of 
the  sarcophagus,  discovered  in  the  pyramid  of 
Cephrenes,  some  human  bones  may  have  been 
mixed  with  those  of  the  cow. 

Few  subjects  have  occasioned  more  specula- 
lation  than  the  intent  and  use  of  the  ^yptian 
pyramids.  About  forty  years  since,  a  Uennan 
professor  published  a  volume  to  prove- that  these 
majestic  remains  of  the  most  remote  antiquity 
are  nothing  more  than  basaltic  eruptions,  mag- 
nificent sports  of  nature,  and  so  many  incontro- 
vertible proo&  of  the  general  derangement  which 
has  taken  place  on  the  globe  1  It  is,  indeed,  a 
remarkable  example  of  human  vanity  that  these 
buildings,  reckoned  among  the  wonders  of  the 
world,  should  not  have  preserved  more  certain 
data  of  their  origin.  Pliny  mentions  a  number 
of  authors  who  in  bis  time  had  written  concerp- 
ing  them;  and  all,  he  informs  us,  disagree  in 
their  accounts  of  those  who  built  them.  Some 
modem  writers  maintain  that  they  were  erected  - 
by  the  Israelites,  under  the  tyranny  of  the  Pha- 
raohs, and  allege  to  this  purpose  the  testimony 
of  Josephus,  Autiq.  lib.  i.  cap.  5. 


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Aficording  to  Herodotus,  and  to  Diodoras, 
the  first  pyramid  was  erected  by  Cheops,  or 
Cbemmisy  a  king  of  Egypt,  who  is  said  to  have 
employed  360,000  men  tor  twenty  years  in  the 
structure.  Cephrenes,  brother  and  successor  to 
the  former  king,  is  said  to  be  the  founder  of  the 
second  pyramid ;  and  the  third  is  said  to  have 
been  built  by  Mycerinus,  the  son  of  Chemmis; 
according  to  Diodorus ;  or,  according  toHerodotus, 
of  Cheops.  Howerer,  Herodotus  says,  that  some 
ascrit>ed  the  last  to  Rhodope,  a  courtezan,  and 
the  other  two  to  the  shepherd  Philittion.  The 
learned  Greaves  places  the  three  kings  who 
erected  these  pyramids  in  the  twentieth  dynasty ; 
Cheops  having  begun  his  reign  in  the  year  3448 
of  the  Julian  period,  490  years  before  the  first 
Olympiad^  and  1266  years  before  the  Christian 
era.  He  reigned  fifty  years,  says  Herodotus, 
and  built  this  pyramid,  as  Diodorus  observes, 
in  the  180th  Olympiad;  whereas  he  might 
have  said  1207.  Cephrenes,  the  builder  of  the 
second,  reigned  fifty-six  years ;  and  Mycerinus, 
the  builder  of  the  third,  seven  years.  Bryant 
ascribes  the  structure  of  the  pyramids  to  the 
Cnthites,  or  Arabian  shepherds,  who  built  Helio- 
polis,  anid  who  were  the  giants  and  Titans  of  the 
first  ages. 

The  general  opinioo  with  regard  to  their  inten- 
tion and  use  is,  that  they  were  sepulchres  and 
monuments  of  the  Egyptian  monarchs.  This 
is  expressly  affirmed  by  Diodorus  and  Strabo, 
and  ttie  opiiiion  is  confirmed  by  the  Arabian 
writers.  The  reason,  says  Greaves,  of  their 
erecting  these  magnificent  structures  is  founded 
in  the  Uieology  of  the  Egyptians,  who,  as  Servius 
shows  in  his  comment  upon  Virgil  (^neid,  lib. 
iii.),  believed  that  as  long  as  the  body  eudured 
so  long  the  soul  continued  with  it;  and  this  was 
also  the  opinion  of  the  Stoics.  Upon  this  prin- 
ciple, that  the  bodies  might  neither  be  reduced 
to  dust  by  pntrefitction,  ner  converted  into  ashes 
by  fire,  they  embalmed  them,  and  laid  them  up 
in  these  stately  repositories,  where  they  might 
continue  free  from  injury.  Many,  however,  have 
objected  to  this  account  of  the  pyramids,  and  are 
of  opinion  that  they  were  originally  intended  for 
some  nobler  purpose.  If  Cheops,  says  Dr.  Shaw, 
or  any  other  person  who  was  the  founder  of  the 
great  pyramid,  intended  it  only  for  his  sepulchre, 
what  occasion  was  there  for  such  a  narrow  crook- 
ed entrance  into  it;  for  the  well,  as  it  is  called, 
at  the  end  of  the  entrance;  for  the  lower  cham- 
ber; for  the  long  narrow  cavities  m  the  walls  of 
the  upper  room ;  or,  for  the  two  anti-chamben 
and  the  lofty  gallery,  with  benches  on  each  side 
that  introduce  us  into  it  As  the  whole  of  the 
Egyptian  theology  was  clothed  in  mysterious 
emblems  and  figures,  it  seems  reasonable  to  sup- 
pose, he  adds,  that  all  these  turnings,  apartments, 
and  secrets  in  architecture  were  designed  for 
some  purpose  of  religion,  and  that  the  deity, 
which  was  typified  in  the  outward  form  of  this 
pile,  was  to  be  worshipped  within. 

Maior  Fitzckurence,  m  his  journey  over  land 
fiom  India,  reached  Cairo  shortly  afWr  the  open- 
ing of  the  pyramid  of  Cephrenes  had  been  ac- 
complished by  Belzoni ;  and,  with  the  zeal  and 
enterprize  of  his  profession,  he  determined  to 

r  into  the  pyramid  and  examine  for  himself. 


the  wonders  of  the  central  chamber,  so  recently 
laid  open.  With  less  reverence,  perhaps,  for  the 
august  repository  of  the  mighty  dead  than  might 
have  been  felt  by  a  contemporary  of  the  Pha- 
raohs, he  brought  away  a  few  fragments  from  the 
domus  exilis  Plutonia,  and  among  the  rest  some 
small  pieces  of  bone,  one  of  which  proved  to  be 
the  lower  extremity  of  the  thigh  bone,  where  it 
comes  in  contact  with  the  knee  joint.  This  sin- 
gular curiosity  was  presented  by  major  Fitzcla- 
rence  to  his  royal  highness  the  prince  Regent, 
who  submitted  it  to  the  inspection  of  Sir  Eve- 
rard  Home.  Sir  Everard,  entertaining  no  doubt 
of  its  being  part  of  a  human  skeleton,  took  it  to 
the  Museum  of  the  College  of  Surgeons,  that,  by 
adjusting  it  to  the  same  part  of  different  sized 
skeletons,  he  might  be  enabled  to  form  some  es- 
timate of  the  comparative  stature  of  the  ancient 
Egvptians  and  modern  Europeans.  On  a  closer 
and  more  laborious  examination,  however,  the 
fragment  was  found  to  agree  with  none  of  them ; 
and  it  finally  appeared  that,  instead  of  forming 
any  part  of  the  thigh  bone  of  a  human  subject, 
it  actually  made  part  of  that  of  a  cow. 

The  large  sarcophagi,  instead  of  being  the  de- 
positories of  the  remains  of  the  kings  of  Egypt, 
would  hence  appear  to  have  been  hollowed  out 
and  sculptured  with  such  extraordinary  skill  and 
pains  to  receive  the  mortal  exuvis  of  the  tutelary 
deities;  and  those  immense  masses  in  whicn 
they  were  entombed  to  have  owed  their  bound- 
less cost  and  magnificence  to  a  reverential  regard 
for  *  the  brutish  forms'  of  Apis  or  Osiris.  Pro- 
bably also  the  kings  of  Egypt  would  order  their 
bones  to  be  placed  with  &os6  of  their  gods,  and 
thus  give  rise  to  the  tradition  deltveied  to  us  by 
Herodotus. 

Some  have  supposed  that  these  stupendous 
monuments  were  erected  by  the  Egyptians  as 
temples  or  altan  to  their  god  Osiris  or  the  sun. 
It  was  natural,  say  they,  to  build  them  in  that 
shape  which  the  rays  of  the  sun  display  when 
discovered  to  the  eye,  and  which  they  observed 
to  be  the  same  in  terrestrial  flame,  because  the 
circumstance  was  combined  in  their  imaginations 
with  the  attribute  which  they  adored.  If  they 
were  temples  dedicated  to  the  sun,  it  seems  a 
natural  consequence  that  they  should  likewise  be 
places  of  sepulture  for  kings  and  illustrious  men, 
as  the  space  which  they  covered  would  be  con- 
sidered consecrated  ground.  This  hypothesis  is 
common,  and  is  not  contradicted  by  the  present 
reasoning.  But  considering  them  as  altars,  and, 
as  most  travellers  agree  that  they  terminate  in  a 
square  horizontal  surface,  they  venture  to  assert 
that,  in  great  and  solemn  acts  of  adoration,  the 
Egyptians  constructed  fires,  the  flames  of  which, 
terminating  in  the  vertex  of  the  pyramid,  com- 
pleted that  emanation  of  their  deity  which  they 
admired  and  adored.  The  learned  Bryant,  hav- 
ing settled  them  to  be  temples  consecrated  to  the 
deitv,  had  no  difficulty  in  transforming  the  sar- 
cophagus into  a  water-trough  to  hold  the  sacred- 
element  drawn  up  from  the  Nile — a  conception 
about  as  felicitous  as  that  which  would  have  con- 
verted the  supposed  sarcophagus  of  Alexander 
into  a  batliing-tub ;  a  proof  of  which  was  in  the 
holes  in  the  bottom  to  let  out  the  water  1 

Dr.  Clarke  rejects  entirely  all  that  the  Greeks 


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278 


PYRENEES. 


have  told  us  respecting  the  names  of  their  foan- 
den,  and  the  circumstanoes  under  which  they 
were  erected ;  and  has  recourse,  as  he  tells  us, 
to  Arabic  or  Jewish  tradition,  to  prove  that  some 
of  these  vast  piles  were  raised  by  the  Israelites 
during  their  abode  in  Egypt,  and  that  the  par- 
ticular pyramid  which  is  now  open  was  the  tomb 
of  the  patriarch  Joseph.  Its  being  now  open  is, 
of  course,  accounted  for  by  the  hci  that  his 
bones  were  removed  by  his  countiymen  on  theii 
departure  for  Canaan  1  '  On  the  whole/  say  the 
Quarterly  Reviewers, '  we  can  find  no  reason  for 
depriving  Cheops,  Cephrenes,  and  Mycerinus  of 
the  wicked  renown  of  having  raised  the  useless 
and  oppressive  piles  which  heu  their  name ;  and 
though  it  is  impossible  to  say  when  the  first  py- 
ramids were  erected,  and  whether  some  of  them 
may  be  or  may  not  be  the  work  of  the  Israelites, 
it  is  utterly  unlikely  that  any  of  them  were  raised 
by  this  people  on  their  own  account,  or  in  honor 
of  the  (MLtriarch  Joseph/ 

Before  we  take  leave  of  these  vast  piles,  we 
must  advert  to  a  circumstance  which  is  too  re- 
markable to  be  passed  over.  In  all  the  pyra- 
mids that  have  been  opened,  which  at  Gizeh  and 
Saccam  amount  at  least  to  six,  the  entrance  has 
been  found  at  or  .near  the  centre  on  the  northern 
face,  and  the  passage  thence  to  proceed  invaria- 
bly in  a  slanting  direction  downwards ;  the  angle 
of  the  inclination  being  always  the  same.  Greaves, 
in  his  Pyramidogiupnia,  makes  that  of  Cheops 
26^,  and  Caviglia  27*,  which,  he  says,  is  com- 
mon to  all  the  sloping  passages  within  the  pyra* 
mid  of  Cheops.  He  found  the  same  angle  on 
opening  one  of  the  small  pyramids  to  the  south  of 
that  of  Mycerinns,  at  the  end  of  the  passiura  of  which 
were  two  chambers,  leading  one  out  of  the  other, 
both  empty.  Belzoai  estimates  the  sloping  mis- 
sages  of  the  pyramid  of  Cephrenes  at  26®.  This 
coincidence  cannot  be  referred  to  accident,  and 
'  the  able  Reviewer,  just  quoted,  suggests  that 
these  passages  might  have  been  used  to  correct 
their  measurement  of  time.  The  adits,  as  we 
have  observed,  are  invariably  inclineddownwards, 
in  an  angle  of  about  27%  more  or  less,  with  the 
horizon,  which  gives  a  line  of  direction  not  fer 
removed  from  that  point  in  the  heavens  where 
the  north  polar  star  now  crosses  the  meridian 
below  the  pole.  The  observation  of  the  passase 
of  this  or  some  other  star  across  this  part  of  me 
meridian  would  give  them  an  accurate  measure 
of  sidereal  time:  a  point  of  the  first  importance 
in  an  age  when  no  other  instruments  than  rude 
solar  gnomons,  or  something  still  more  imperfect, 
were  in  use.  Indeed,  we  know  not  of  any  me- 
thod that  could  more  effectually  be  adopted  for 
observing  the  transit  of  a  star  with  the  naked 
eye  than  that  of  watching  its  passage  across  the 
mouth  of  this  lengttiened  tube ;  and  some  one  or 
more  of  these  luminaries,  when  on  the  meridian 
below  the  pole,  must  have  been  seen  in  the  di- 
rection of.  the  angular  adits.  Dr.  Young,  how- 
ever, observes  that  the  observation  of  the  pole- 
star  was  at  least  extremely  ill  contrived  for  the 
determination  of  time,  on  account  of  the  very 
■low  apparent  motion  of  that  star. 

The  pyramids  of  Saccara,  though  second  only 
In  importance  to  those  of  Gizeh,  so  nearly  resem- 


ble them  in  every  paiticubff  as  to  need  no  M|** 

rate  description. 

At  Dashouv  is  a  large  pyramid  of  brick,  call- 
ed by  Herodotus  the  pyramid  of  Asychis,  andon 
which  he  reports  was  the  following  remarkable 
inscription  :— *Do  not  compare  me  with  the  py- 
ramids of  stone ;  for  I  excel  them  as  much  as 
Jupiter  excels  the  other  gods:  for  thoae  who 
built  me  thrust  poles  into  a  lake,  and,  collecting 
the  mud  which  adhered  to  them,  they  made 
bricks  of  it,  and  thus  they  constructed  me.'  See 
Egypt,  Spbihx,  and  Thbbbs. 

PYRAMUS,  in  ancient  geography,  a  river 
of  Cilicia,  which  rises  on  the  north  side  of  Mount 
Taurus,  and  runs  into  that  part  of  the  Mediter^ 
ranean  anciently  called  the  Pamphylian  Sea,  be- 
tween Issus  and  Magarassus. 

Pyramus,  in  fabulous  historv,  an  unfortunate 
youth  of  Babylon,  who  fell  in  love  with  Thisbe^ 
whom,  as  their  parents  disapproved  of  their 
union,  he  appointed  to  meet  with  in  a  wood; 
but,  finding  ner  veil  all  bloody,  concluded  she 
had  been  torn  to  pieces  by  a  wild  beast,  on  which 
he  killed  himself;  and  Thisbesoon  after  coming 
to  the  spot,  and  finding  him  dying,  fell  upon  his 
sword  also.  Ovid  celebrates  their  unfortunate 
love. 

PYREyH.  s.  LaLpyra;  Gr.  irvp.  A  pile  to 
be  burnt. 

When  his  brave  son  upon  the  fan  "hd  pyre 
He  saw  extended,  and  hii  beard  on  fire.      Drydmu 

Bivinatioa  was  invented  by  the  Persians^  and  is 
seldom  or  never  taken  in  a  good  sense ;  there  are 
four  kinds  of  divination,  hydromancy,  pgr^manty, 
aeromancy,  geomancy.  Aylifft, 

PsfriUs  contain  sulphur,  sometimes  anenicV,  al- 
ways iron,  and  sometimes  copper.  WoodwtKrd. 

with  tender  billet-doux  he lighU  the  pyre. 
And  breathes  three  am'rons  sigui  to  raise  the  fire« 

Let  earth  dissolve,  yon  ponderous  orbs  descend, 
And  grind  us  into  dust.    The  soul  is  safe ; 
The  man  emeiges :  mounts  above  the  wreck. 
As  tow'riog  flune  from  nature's  funeral  pyrs . 

Yoiaj. 

PYREIA,  or  Pyratbria,  in  antiquity,  tem- 
ples consecrated  to  the  sun,  wherein  a  perpetual 
fire  was  kept  They  were  large  enclosures  built 
upon  high  eminences,  without  any  coverii^. 
The  Guebres,  or  worshippers  of  fire  in  Persia 
and  the  East  Indies,  have  still  these  pyreia. 

PYRENiEUS,  in  fabulous  historv,  a  king  of 
Thrace,  who  during  a  storm  gave  shelter  to  the 
nine  Muses  in  his  palace;  but  afterwards  at- 
tempted to  offer  them  violence,  upon  which  the 
goddesses  took  to  their  wings  and  flew  away; 
and  Pyrenaeus,  attempting  to  fly  after  them  (tom 
the  top  of  a  tower,  fell  and  was  killed. 

PYRENE,  an  ancient  town  of  Gallia  Celtica, 
near  the  source  of  the  Istor :  also  a  fountain  near 
Corinth* 

PYRENEES,  Departmeht  op  the  Lower, 
is  formed  out  of  the  former  provinces  of  Navarre 
and  the  Beam,  France,  and  oerives  its  name  from 
its  being  situated  at  the  western  extremity  ol 
the  Pyrenees.  The  principal  place  of  this  pre- 
fecture is  Pau;  it  is  divided  into  five  anron- 
dissements  or  subprefectuies,  containing  a  total 
population  of  399,454  souls,  on  an  area  of  8492 


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PYRENEES. 


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Maare  miles,  and  yielding  a  territorial  revenue 
of  1 5,392,000  francs.  These  are  subdivided  into 
forty  cantons  and  655  communes,  and  form  three 
electoral  arrondissements,  which  send  three  mem- 
bers to  the  chamber  of  deputies.  It  is  in  the 
eleventh  military  division,  having  a  royal  court 
at  Pau  and  a  bishopric  at  Bayonne.  This  de- 
partment is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Landes 
and  the  Gers ;  on  the  east  by  that  of  the  Upper 
Pyrenees ;  on  the  south  by  the  Pyrenean  Moun- 
tains, whidi  separate  it  from  Spain,  and  on  the 
west  by  the  ocean. 

The  surface  of  this  country,  generally  moun- 
tainous and  unequal,  presents  a  great  variety  of 
productions,  and  agreeable  and  diversified  scene- 
ry. It  abounds  with  rising  grounds,  covered 
with  vines  yielding  excellent  wine,  beautiful  val- 
leys affording  good  pasturage,  and  uncultivated 
and  wild  plains.  On  the  southern  side  runs  a 
range  of  high  mountains  covered  with  wood,  ter- 
minating westward  in  the  Pyrenees ;  these  di- 
minish gradually  in  elevation  till  they  are  lost  in 
the  sea.  The  soil  is  naturally  dry  and  barren, 
and  yields  its  produce  only  by  dint  of  labor.  The 
small  plains  and  valleys  produce. lye,  wheat, 
barley,  oats,  millet,  and  maize,  on  which  the  peo- 
ple chiefly  subsist ;  hay,  and  very  soft  and  fine 
flax,  which  serves  for  the  manulacture  of  the 
Beaim  linens.  Great  quantities  of  chestnuts  are 
gathered  here.  Game  of  all  kinds  abounds,  and 
the  forests  furnish  wood  for  masts,  timber,  and 
building.  The  climate  is  very  temperate  in  the 
plains,  but  cold  in  the  mountains;  yet  every 
where  very  healthy.  Horses  and  mules  are  used 
in  agriculture,  but  the  produce  is  insu65cient  for 
its  inhabitants.  There  are  112,225  hectares  of 
forests  (chestnuts,  oaks,  pines,  and  firs),  and 
16,700  of  vineyards,  yielding  on  an  average  six- 
teen francs  seven  centimes  per  hectare  of  arable 
land.  The  productions  are  corn  of  all  sorts, 
chestnuts,  excellent  fruit  and  wines,  fine  litten, 
gall  nuts,  salt  and  fresh  water  fish,  particularly 
salmon,  tunnies,  tnrbots,  lampreys,  pilchards, 
and  excellent  trout,  horses  for  cavalry,  mules, 
sheep,  and  small  homed  cattle,  and  pigs.  There 
are  mines  of  silver,  iron,  and  copper,  and  quar- 
ries of  marble  of  every  color,  granite,  slate,  marl, 
anlnhur,  and  cobalt ;  mineral  waters  at  Laurens, 
at  Aas,  and  at  Cambo,  and  a  royal  stud  at  Pau. 
The  manufectures  chiefly  consist  in  Beam  linens, 
cotton,  handkerchief,  table  linen,  woollen  coun- 
terpanes, twine,  coarse  serge,  stuffs  for  hoods, 
Tunisian  caps,  carpets,  auills,  chocolate,  Andaye 
brandy,  and  cream  of^  tartar;  besides  cotton 
spinning  factories,  tan-yards,  manufactories  of 
white  tuid  chamois  leather,  dye-houses,  paper- 
mills,  and  dock  yards  for  ship  building.  A  con- 
siderable trade  is  carried  on  in  these  articles,  as 
well  as  drags,  liquorice  juice,  resinous  matters, 
timber,  salt,  fine  wool,  Bayonne  hams,  &c. 

The  chief  rivers  are  the  Adour,  the  Bidassoa, 
the  Bidouze,  the  Nivelle,  the  Nive,  and  the  gave 
d'Aleron,  navigable ;  the  Rixe,  the  Laran,  the 
Luy  de  Beam,  the  Luy  de  France,  the  Gabns,  the 
Gaves  de  Pau,  d*Aspe,  d*Ossau,and  deManleon. 
«is  crossed  by  the  great  roads  of  Mont  de  Mar- 
san,  Auch,  Tarbes,  and  Bayonne. 

Ptremees,  Departmckt  op  the  Upper,  is 
formed  out  of  the  Bigarre,  a  dependency  of  the 


former  province  of  Gascony,  and  takes  its  name 
from  its  natural  situation  in  the  Pyrenean  Moui>- 
tains.  The  principal  town  is  Tarbes.  It  is '  di- 
vided into  tnree  arrondissements  orsubprefeo- 
tures ;  containing  a  total  population  of  211,079 
souls,  on  an  area  of  21 15  square  miles,  and  yield- 
ing a  revenue  of  •7,769,000  francs.  It  is  subdi- 
vided into  twenty-six  cantons  and  501  communes; 
it  is  in  the  tenth  military  division ;  forms  part  of 
the  diocese  of  Bayonne,  having  its  reyal  court  at 
Pau,  and  consists  of  three  electoral  arrondisse- 
ments, which  send  five  members  to  the  chamber 
of  deputies.  This  department  is  bounded  on  the 
north  by  that  of  the  Gers,  on  the  east  by  that  of 
the  Upper  Garonne,  on  the  south  by  the  Pyre- 
nean Mountains,  which  divide  it  from  Spain,  and 
on  the  west  by  the  department  of  the  Lower 
Pyrenees. 

This  country  is  covered  with  lofty  mountains^ 
the  tops  of  which  are  covered  with  perpetual 
snows;  some  presenting  bare  peaks,  towering 
into  the  clouds  and  receiving  at  their  feet  the 
waters  of  numerous  torrents.  The  mountains 
next  in  size  to  these  have  their  tops  covered  with 
ancient  forests,  which  furnish  excellent  wood  for 
building  and  other  purposes :  here  are  found  a 
number  of  rare  and  usetul  plants,  and  excellent 
pasturage,  feeding  numerous  flocks  of  goats  and 
sheep.  Among  the  mountains  are  scattered  fer- 
tile plains,  rich  pastures,  and  vine  covered  hills, 
proaucing  good  red  and  white  wine.  The  region 
of  hills  which  succeeds  to  the  large  valleys  is 
particularly  well  cultivated ;  the  plains  produce 
a  little  wheat,  some  hay,  rye,  barltey,  and  especi- 
ally millet  The  climate  is  temperate  in  the 
plains,  and  very  cold  in  the  mountains.  The 
mhabitants  of  the  Upper  Pyrenees  are  in  general 
simple,  brave,  and  generous ;  the  soil  is  partly 
cultivated  with  mules,  and  yields  an  insufficient 
supply  for  its  inhabitants.  There  are  67,530 
hectares  of  forests  (chestnuts,  oaks,  beech,  and 
fir),  and  11,000  hectares  of  vineyards;  the  pro- 
duce of  each  hectare  of  arable  land  being  thir- 
teen francs  eighty-five  centimes. 

Beside  the  above-mentioned  productions^ 
buckwheat  and  maize  are  grown  here ;  mulberry 
trees,  potatoes,  figs,  and  herbs  <^  different 
kinds;  honey  and  wax  are  made;  there  are 
good  firesh-water  fish,  particularly  trout;  horses 
suited  for  light  cavalry,  many  mules  and  asses,  a 
fivie  species  of  horned  cattle,  numerous  flocks  of 
sheep,  shepherds'  dogs  remarkable  for  their  size 
and  extraordinary  strength,  pigs,  goats,  poultiy, 
especially  geese,  bees,  &c.  Iron  mines  are  found ; 
aiKl  quarries  of  asbestos,  granate,  ochre,  marbl^  * 
granite,  marie,  fullers'  earthy  potters*  clay,  &c 
There  are  establishments  of  mineral  waters  at 
Bagn^res  de  Bigorre,  Bareges,  Cautereta,  Luz, 
Cadeac,  Capoeme,  Siradan,  and  St.  Marie. 
Manufactures  are  carried  on  here,  of  bolting- 
cloths,  twine,  serge,  linen  cloths,  light  stuns, 
crapes,  shawls,  cudgels,  agricultural  instruments^ 
cutlery,  nails,  leather,  coarse  paper,  and  brandy ; 
and  there  is  a  considerable  trade  in  excellent 
butter,  cheese,  honey,  provisions  of  all  kinds, 
sheep  and  lambs,  pigs,  hams,  poultry,  wood, 
timber  for  coopers,  noops,  wooden  shoes,  &c. 

The  principal  rivers  tnat  water  this  department 
are  the  Adour,  the  Garonne,  the  Neste,  the  Gen, 


Digitized  by 


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280 


PYRENEES. 


the  Gave  de  Pau,  the  Arros,  and  the  Estreux ; 
and  it  is  crossed  by  the  great  roads  of  Pau, 
Auchy  and  Mont-de-Manan. 

Pyrenees,  Department  of  tbe  Easteem,  is 
formed  out  of  the  ancient  province  of  Roussillon, 
and  takes  its  name  from  the  eastern  part  of  the 
Pvrenean  Mountains,  among  which  it  is  situated. 
The  principal  place  of  this  prefecture  is  Perpig- 
nao,  and  it  is  divided  into  tnree  arrondissements 
or  sub-prefectures;  containing  a  population  of 
133,446  souls,  on  a  superficial  extent,  of  1908 
SQuare  miles ;  and  yielaing  a  territorial  revenue 
of  7,351,000  francs.  These  are  subdivided  into 
seventeen  cantons  and  248  communes,  and  con- 
sist of  two  electoral  arrondissements,  that  send 
two  members  to  the  chamber  of  deputies.  It 
forms  part  of  the  tenth  military  division,  in  the 
diocese  of  Carcassonne,  and  has  a  royal  court  at 
Montpelier.  This  department  is  bounded  on 
the  north  by  that  of  the  Aude ;  on  the  east  by  the 
Mediterranean ;  on  the  south  by  the  Pyrenean 
Mountains,  which  divide  France  from  Spain; 
and  on  the  west  by  the  department  .of  the  Ar- 
riege. 

This  country  is  intersected  vrith  loffy  moun- 
tain!i,  which  join  on  the  Pyrenean  chain,  and  are 
the  highest  of  all  the  range  between  the  Mediter- 
ranean and  the  Ocean.  They  are  covered  with 
snow  and  ice,  and  give  rise  to  a  great  number  of 
rivers,  which,  on  account  of  their  great  declivity, 
are  destitute  of  vrater  for  one  part  of  the  year; 
but  in  the  rainy  season,  or  when  the  snows  are 
melted,  they  become  impetuous  torrents,  theoveiw 
flowing  of  which  often  causes  dreadful  ravages. 
The  surface  is  divided  into  three  great  basins 
by  the  Tet,  the  Tech,  the  Agly,  and  the  Aude, 
and  generally  affords  a  fertile  soil,  suitable  for 
every  purpose  of  agriculture.  There  are  com- 
monly two  harvests  in  those  lands  which  are 
watered.  The  hedges  are  formed  in  a  great 
measure  of  pomegranate  trees;  orange  and  citron 
trees  flourisn  every  where,  in  the  open  field ;  and 
the  hills  and  uncultivated  parts  are  covered  with 
thyme,  rosemary,  creeping  thyme,  lavender, 
juniper,  and  mulberry  trees.  The  climate  is 
rather  warm ;  the  vnnter  here  is  a  kind  of  spring; 
the  heat  is  sometimes  very  great  in  summer,  and 
in  some  cantons  the  air  would  be  rather  un- 
healthy, were  it  not  often  purified  by  a  wind  from 
the  north-west  called  tramontane.  The  soil  is 
cultivated  with  mules,  and  yields  a  full  supply 
for  its  inhabitants :  there  are  47,229  hectares  of 
forests,  chiefly  firs,  pines,  and  beech ;  and  35,500 
hectares  of  vineyaixls,  yielding  an  average  pro- 
duce of  sixteen  francs  thirty  centimes  on  each 
hectare  of  arable  land. 

The  productions  are  wheats  barley,  millet, 
maize,  vegetables,  melons,  excellent  fruits,  flax, 
hemp^  oak,  kermes,  wood,  salt-marshes,  wine, 
fine  honey,  mulberries,  olives,  lavender,  &c.y 
small  game,  sea  fish  in  abundance,  mules,  some 
cows,  numerous  flocks  of  merino  sheep  (famed 
for  tbe  flavor  of  their  flesh  and  the  fineness  of 
their  wool),  poultry,  bees,  silk-worms,  cachemire 
goats,  &c.  There  are  also  mines  of  iron,  anti- 
mony, and  coal,  and  quarries  of  white  and  color- 
ed marble,  hmestone,  &c.  They  have  hot  baths 
at  Aries,  Molitg,  Lapreste,  Escaldes,  and  Vernet. 
The  manufactures  consist  of  common  cloth,  wool- 


len stuffs  and  caps,  corks,  forged  iron,  and  lea- 
ther ;  and  a  trade  b  carried  on  in  all  the  abov» 
articles. 

The  principal  rivers  that  water  the  department 
are  the  Tet,  the  Tech,  the  Gly,  the  Cantarana, 
the  Reart,  i^nd  the  Segr^ ;  and  it  is  crossed  hy 
the  great  roads  of  Narbonne,  Figui^res,  and  Pay« 
arda. 

Pyrenees,  a  great  chain  of  mountains  sepa- 
rating France  from  Spain,  and  extending  from 
the  port  of  Vendres  on  the  coast  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean to  the  Atlantic  Ocean  near  Fontarabia.  It 
is  about  210  miles  lone;  its  direction  is  nearly 
from  S.S.EtoN.N.W.;  and  both  on  the  side 
of  Spain  and  that  of  France  it  consists  of  seyeral 
parallel  ridges,  varying  in  breadth  from  sixty  to 
120  miles.  On  the  side  of  France  these  moun- 
tains project  several  branches,  which  run  through 
those  departments  that  are  on  the  Spanish  fron- 
tier. Hie  two  most  considerable  of  these  are 
that  which  crosses  the  departments  of  the 
Arriege  and  the  Aude,  and  unites  with  tbe  Alps 
near  Uastelnaudary,  and  that  which,  crossing  the 
departments,  of  the  Upper  Pyrenees  and  the 
Gers,  terminates  on  the  oorders  of  the  depart- 
ments of  the  Landes  and  the  Gironde.  Next  to 
the  Alps  these  are  the  highest  mountains  in 
Europe ;  they  rise  gradually  to  the  top,  which 
serves  as  a  point  of  demarcation,  and  at  the  two 
extremities  sink  in  elevation  down  to  the  level  of 
the  Ocean  and  the  Mediterranean.  The  highest 
summits  of  the  cham  are,  according  to  M.  Hum- 
boldt, the  top  of  Nethon  about  10,722  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  sea,  Posets  10,584  feet.  Mount 
Perdu  10,576,  Le  Cylindre  10,374,  the  pic-du- 
Midi  8958,  and  Canigou  8946  feet 

The  Pyrenees  are  less  steep  on  the  French 
sid^  than  on  that  of  Spain ;  the  most  elevated 
summits  are  covered  with  snow  during  a  great 
part  of  the  year,  and  at  the  height  of  7200  Uie 
snows  never  melt,  but  occupy  a  zone  of  from 
3000  to  3600  feet,  that  resists  all  the  rays  of  die 
sun ;  on  'the  north  and  west,  however,  they  al- 
most always  melt  From  Marbore  to  Maladetta 
there  is  a  great  number  of  glaciers,  which  the  eye 
can  distinguish  afar  off"  by  their  bluish  tint,  by 
their  even  appearance,  and  \if  the  clefts  which 
cross  them.  The  air  of  the  hisher  mountains  is 
as  unwholesome  as  that  of  me  lower  ones  is 
healthy.  In  the  month  of  May  impemous  cata- 
racts precipitate  themselves  on  all  sides  from  the 
tops  of  the  Pyrenees,  and  inundations  caused  by 
the  sudden  melting  of  the  snows  and  the  abun- 
dant rains  soon  fill  up  all  the  close  valleys. 
Trees  broken  by  the  .violence  ot  the  winds  often 
choke  the  course  of  the  torrents,  or,  carried  away 
themselves,  drag  with  them  the  crops  and  the 
houses  hanging  on  the  declivity  of  the  mountains. 
Enormous  m.asses  of  rocks,  which  appeared  im- 
moveable, are  now  dashed  from  steep  to  steep, 
carrying  every  thing  before  them.  To  these  ava- 
lanches we  may  add  those  which  are  occasioned 
in  the  winter  bv  the  abundant  snows,  which  the 
storms  loosen  from  the  summits  and  precipitate 
into  the  ravines,  and  which  increasing  in  site  as 
they  advance,  and  dragging  with  them  masses  of 
stone  and  earth,  sometimes  form  bridges  over  the 
torrents  and  fill  up  the  valleys.  Often  they  are 
accompanied  with  a  tremendous  hissing;  nothing 

Digitized  by  V^OUy  IC 


PYRENEES. 


281  ' 


can  resist  their  force;  and  the  agitation  of 
the  air.  which  thej  produce  is  so  Tiolent  that 
CTcrj  obstacle  to  their  progress  is  overturned. 
In  the  neighbourhood  of  Bau-^ges  whole  villages 
have  sometimes  been  thus  overwhelmed. 

No  country  is  richer  in  natural  productions 
than  that  of  the  Pyrenees;  the  geologist  may  find 
here  numberless  beauties,  and  ever  fresh  sources 
of  instruction ;  the  mineralogist  a  multitude  of 
the  most  cnrioos  minerals;  tlie  botanist,  passing 
in  the  same  day  from  the  greatest  heat  to  the 
most  intense  cold,  meets  in  his  way  every  species 
of  plants,  firom  those  which  grow  in  the  Alps  and 
in  Sweden  to  those  which  flourish  in  Spain.  In 
the  middle  part  mineral  springs  abound;  but, 
though  some  are  of  great  efficacy,  they  arp  little 
used.  The  most  celebrated,  and  which  have 
establishments  greatly  frequented,  are  the  baths 
of  Molitg,  Bareges,  Bagneres,  Aries,  Vemet,  La 
Preste,  Ax,  Cambo,  Cauterets,  Nossa,  Olette, 
Nyer,  and  the  warm  springs  of  the  Cerdagne, 
generally  known  by  the  name  of  Lascaldas. 

Since  the  above  has  been  prepared  for  press 
our  attention  has  been  directed  to  the  Geological 
Conjectures  of  Mr.  Charpentier,  director  of  the 
Canton  de  Vaud  mines,  respecting  the  original 
fomi  and  constraction  of  the  Pyrenees.  The  fol- 
lowing is  an  abstract  of  them  as  given  in  his 
Essai  sur  la  Constitution  Geogrostique  des  Py- 
renees, a  very  sensible  and  distinguished  per- 
formance. 

*  We  have  seen,'  says  this  writer,  ^  that  the  diffei^ 
ent  formations  are  clisposed  in  bands  parallel  to 
each  other  and  parallel  to  the  general  direction  of 
tbe  Pyrenees  ;  tW  the  granite  forms  only  a  single 
hand,  or,  speaking  more  correctly,  a  chain  or  series 
of  protuberances ;  that  each  of  the  other  formations 
constitutes  ia  general  two  bands,  one  of  which  is 
situated  to  the  north,  the  other  to  the  south  of 
the  granitic  chain,  resting  upon  it  in  the  order  of 
their  relative  antiquity ;  that  many  of  these  gra- 
Ditic  protuberances  are  separated  from  one  ano- 
ther by  valleys,  while  otners,  on  the  contraiy, 
are,  as  it  were,  ^glutinated  by  rocks  of  later 
origin,  which  have  filled  up  the  spaces  or  vacui- 
ties by  which  they  were  formerly  separated; 
and,  lastly,  that  it  is  commonly  in  the  spaces 
which  exist  between  two  great  protuberances  that 
we  observe  the  bands  that  occur  to  the  south  of 
the  granitic  chain,, touching  and  mingling  with 
those  which  occur  to  the  north.    These  (acts  en- 
title tts  to  presume  that  the  granitic  formation, 
comprising  that  of  mica-slate  and  primitive  lime- 
stone, formed  originally  an  uninterrupted  chain, 
or  rather  an  elongated  line,  having  a  direction 
from  south-east  to  north-west,  and  being  of  a 
height,  whether  absolute  or  relative,  much  mater 
than  at  the  present  day ;  that  at  a  period  ante- 
rbr  to  the  formation  of  the  other  rocks  which 
recline  upon  it,  this  granitic  chain  has  undergone 
degradations  caused  by  a  power  (perhaps  currents 
of  water)  which,  acting  horizontally  trom  south 
to  north,  or  from  north  to  south,  has  broken  its 
fidge  in  many  parts,  scooped  it  out  to  a  great 
depth,  and  changed  it  into  a  series  of  more  or 
less  isolated  eminences ;  that  the  rocks  formed 
titer  this  revolution  have  been  applied  on  each 
^  af^nst  this  central  granitic  chain,  have  fill- 
^  up  its  deepest  hollows,  and  have  even  cover- 


ed its  lowest  protuberances;  and  that,  lastly, 
immediately  after  this  revolution,  the  ridge  of  the 
primitive  formation  was,  without  doubt,  at  the 
same  time  that  of  the  whole  chain  of  the  Pyre- 
nees. 

*  Now,  as  we  observe  at  the  present  day  that 
the  ridge  of  the  Pyrenees,  with  the  exception  of 
a  small  number  of  places,  is  no  longer  the  ridge 
of  the  granitic  chain,  which  is  found  removed  at 
some  distance  to  the  north ;  but  that  this  geograr 
phic  ridge  is  composed  of  more  modem  rocks, 
whieh  generally  surpass  the  primitive  formation 
in  height,  we  are  naturally  led  to  presume  that 
the  Pyrenees  have  undergone  a  second  very  con- 
siderable degradation.  The  disposition  of  the 
rocks,  and  the  external  form  of  the  mountains, 
appear  to  determine  the  period  of  this  revolution. 
It  is  probable  that  it  has  taken  place  after  the 
formation  of  the  transition  deposite,  and  before 
the  excavation  of  the  presently  existing  valleys, 
and  consequently  before  the  deposition  of  the 
trap  formation,  which,  as  we  shall  see  in  the  se- 
quel, appears  to  be  of  a  very  late  origin. 

'  Observation  tends  to  induce  a  presumption 
that  this  degradation  has  principally  attacked  the 
ridge  then  existing,  and  all  the  northern  aspect 
of  the  chain.  We  shall  represent  by  a  diagram 
the  results  which  have  given  rise  to  this  suppo- 
sition. 

'The  figure  shows  the  vertical  and  transverse 


section  A  B  C  of  the  Pyrenees  in  the  direction 
of  their  breadth,  such  as  we  presume  it  to  have 
been  before  these  mountains  underwent  the  de- 
gradation of  which  we  have  been  speaking.  We 
see  in  this  section  the  two  declivities  A  B  and 
A  D  of  eoual  size ;  the  granite  occupying  the 
centre,  ana  forming  the  ridge  of  the  chain ;  the 
transition  formation,  and  the  secondary  forma- 
tion, distributed  in  nearly  equal  quantities  upon 
the  south  and  north  sides,  resting  upon  the  gra- 
nite. Let  us  now  suppose  that  all  the  portion 
of  these  mountains  situated  between  A,  B,  and 
C,  has  been  destroyed  by  the  effect  of  some 
power  acting  from  north  to  south,  in  such  a 
manner  that  there  remains  only  the  part  situated 
between  C,  B,  and  D. 

'The  necessary  consequence  of  this  degrada^ 
tion  would  be  a  considerable  change  in  the  ex- 
ternal form  of  the  whole  chain  6f  mountains,  and 
especially  in  the  disposition  and  distribution  of 
the  rocks  with  relation  to  the  external  form  of  the 
chain ;  in  short,  this  revolution  would  produce 
a  multitude  of  results  and  accidents  which  ate 
observed  in  the  Pyrenees,  and  of  which  we  shall 
recapitulate  the  chief. 

*  There  would  result  from  the  destruction  of 
all  the  parts  situated  between  A,  B,  and  C,  1st, 
That  the  ridge  would  be  ^§^^^^^^34^^^^ 


PYR 


282 


PYR 


that  its  position  would  be  removed  more  to  the 
south,  and  that  consequently  the  northern  aspect 
B,  C,  would  become  longer  and  more  sloping 
than  the  southern  one  B  D.  2A\yy  That  the  gra- 
nite, including  the  other  primitive  rocks,  would 
no  longer  form  the  ridge  of  the  central  chain,  to 
the  north  of  which  it  would  occur  at  a  short 
distance.  Sdly,  That  the  southern  bands  of  the 
secondary  and  transition  formations  would  ob- 
tain a  height  which  would  in  general  surpass 
that  of  the  granite  and  that  of  all  the  other 
rocks  situated  to  the  north  of  the  primitive 
formation.  4thly,  That  these  two  southern 
bands  would,  in  general,  form  the  ridge  of 
the  whole  system.  5thlv,  That  the  transition 
formation  would  be  much  more  diffused,  or,  at 
least,  would  appear  to  a  much  greater  extent, 
upon  the  north  side  than  upon  the  southern  de- 
clivity. 6thly,  That  the  secondary  formation 
would  occupy  all  the  southern  declivity,  while, 
on  the  northern  side,  it  would  only  form  the  low 
mounMiins  at  the  foot  of  the  chain. 

*  We  here  see  how  well  the  necessary  results 
of  the  supposition  which  we  have  admitted  ac- 
cord with  the  actual  phenomena.  Several  other 
observations  would  turther  lead  us  to  presume, 
tliat,  independently  of  the  great  revolution  of 
which  we  nave  been  speaking,  the  northern  part 
of  the  Pyrenees  must  have  undergone,  previously 
to  the  formation  of  the  present  valleys,  a  new 
degradation  of  considerable  extent;  such,  for 
example,  are  the  generally  softer  and  more  round- 
ed forms  of  the  northern,  compared  with  the 
southern  mountains;  the  more  considerable 
number  of  basins  in  the  French  valleys  than  in 
those  of  the  Spanish  side ;  and  the  immense  de- 
posites  of  transported  rocks,  of  which  the  soil  of 
the  plains  whicn  extend  from  the  north  side  of 
the  Pyrenees  is  formed.' 

PYRIFORMIS,  banksia,  in  botany,  a  species 
of  Banksia,  which  see.  It  was  unknown  to 
Linn^;  and  Gaertner,  who  has  mentioned  it, 
gives  no  specific  character  of  it  It  has  solitary 
flowers,  ovate  downy  capsules,  and  lance-shaped 
entire  smooth  leaves :  caps,  larger  than  in  any 
other  known  species. 

PYRMONT,  a  district  in  the  north-west  of 
Germany,  between  Hanover  in  the  north,  and  the 
Prussian  government  of  Minden,  in  Westphalia, 
in  the  south.  It  belongs  to  prince  Waldec,  with 
the  title  of  a  county,  out  has  an  area  of  only 
thirty-six  sauare  miles,  with  4300  inhabitants ; 
of  the  prince  s  income  (about  £10,000),  the  larger 
half  arises  from  the  mineral  springs  of 

Ptrmont,  the  chief  town  of  the  above  princi- 
pality. It  contains  2000  inhabitants,  and  is  situ- 
ated in  a  pleasant  valley,  with  public  walks,  and 
houses  adapted  to  the  accommodation  of  visitors. 
Thirty-three  miles  S,  S.  W.  of  Hanover,  and  six- 
teen south-east  of  Rinteln. 

PYROCITRIC  Acid,  in  chemistry.  When 
citric  acid  is  put  to  distil  in  a  retort,  it  begins  at 
first  by  melting ;  the  water  of  crystallisation  sepa- 
rates almost  entirely  from  it  by  a  continuance  of 
the  fusion;  then  it  assumes  a  yellowish  tint, 
which  gradually  deepens.  At  the  same  time 
there  is  disengaged  a  white  vapor  which  goes 
over,  to  be  condensed  in  the  receiver.    Towards 


the  end  of  the  calcination  a  brownish  vapor  is 
seen  to  form,  and  there  remains  in  the  lx>(tom 
of  the  retort  a  light  very  brilliant  charcoid. 

The  product  contained  in  the  recover  consists 
of  two  different  liquids.  One  of  an  amber-yel- 
low color,  and  an  oily  aspect,  occupies  the  lower 
part;  another,  colorless,  and  liquid  like  water, of 
a  very  decided  acid  taste,  floats  above.  Af^ 
separating  them  from  one  another,  we  perceive 
that  the  first  has  a  very  strong  bituminous  odor, 
and  an  acid  and  acrid  taste;  that  it  reddens 
powerfully  the  tincture  of  litmus,  but  that  it 
may  be  deprived  almost  entirely  of  that  acidity 
by  agitation  with  water,  in  which  it  divides  it- 
self into  globules,  which  soon  fall  to  the  bottom 
of  the  vessel,  and  are  not  long  in  uniting  into 
one  mass»  in  the  manner  of  oils  heavier  than  water. 

In  this  state  it  possesses  some  of  the  pro- 
perties of  these  substances ;  it  is  soluble  in  al- 
cohol, ether,  and  the  caustic  alkalis.  However, 
it  does  not  long  continue  thus ;  it  becomes  acid, 
and  sometimes  even  it  is  observed  to  deposit,  at 
the  end  of  some  days,  white  crystals,  which 
have  a  very  strong  acidity ;  if  we  then  agitate  it 
anew  with  water,  it  dissolves  in  a  great  measure^ 
and  abandons  a  yellow  ot  brownish  pitchy  mat- 
ter, of  a  very  obvious  empyreumatic  smell,  and 
which  has  much  analogy  with  the  oil  obtained 
in  the  distillation  of  other  vegetable  matters. 
The  same  effect  takes  place  when  we  keep  it 
under  water;  it  diminishes  gradually  in  volume, 
the  water  acquires  a  sour  taste,  and  a  thick  oil 
remains  al  the  bottom  of  the  vessel. 

This  liquid  may  be  regarded  as  a  combioatioD 
(of  little  permanence  indeed)  of  the  peculiar 
acid  with  the  oil  fora^d  in  similar  circum* 
stances. 

This  acid  is  white,  inodorous,  of  a  strongly 
acid  taste.  It  is  difficult  to  make  it  crystalUse 
in  a  r^^lar  manner,  but  it  is  usually  presented 
in  a  white  mass,  formed  by  the  interlacement  of 
very  ^e  small  needles.  Projected  on  a  hot 
body  it  melts,  is  converted  into  white  very  pun- 
gent vapors,  and  leaves  some  traces  of  caroon. 
When  heated  in  a  retort,  it  affords  an  oily-look- 
ing acid,  and  yellowish  liquid,  and  is  partially 
decomposed.  It  is  very  soluble  in  water  and  in 
alcohol;  water  at  the  temperature  of  10^  C. 
(50®  F.)  dissolves  one-third  of  its  weight  The 
watery  solution  has  a  strongly  acid  taste,  it  does 
not  precipitate  lime  or  barytes  water,  nor  the 
greater  part  of  metallic  solutions,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  acetate  of  lead  and  protonitrate  of 
mercury.  With  the  oxides  it  forms  salts  pos- 
sessing properties  different  from  the  citrates. 

The  pyrocitrate  of  potash  crystallises  in  small 
needles,  which  are  white,  and  unalterable  in  the 
air.  It  dissolves  in  about  four  parts  of  water. 
Its  solution  gives  no  precipitate  with  die  nitrate 
of  silver,  or  of  barytes ;  whilst  that  of  the  citrate 
of  barytes  forms  precipitates  with  these  salts. 

The  pyrocitrate  of  lime  directly  formed  exhi- 
bits a  white  ciystalline  mass,  composed  of  needles, 
opposed  to  each  other  in  a  ramification  form. 
This  salt  has  a  sharp  taste. 

PYROLA,  in  botany,  winter  green,  a  genus 
of  the  monogynia  order,  and  decandria  class  of 
plants;  natural  order  eighteenth^  bicomes :  cat.. 


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f]iiuiqiiepartite ;  petals  five :  caps,  is  quinque- 
locular,  openine  at  the  angles. 

PYROLIGN  EOUS  Acid,  in  chemistry,  is  the 
destructive  dbtillation  of  any  kind  of  wood  an 
acid  is  obtained,  which  was  formerly  cabled  acid 
spirit  of  wood,  and  since  pyroUgneous  acid, 
loarcroy  and  Vauquelin  showed  that  this  acid 
was  merely  the  acetic,  contaminated  with  empy- 
feumatic  oil  and  bitumen.  See  Ac£Tic  Acid, 
Chemistry,  and  Vinegar. 

PYROLITHIC  Acid,  in  chemistry.  'When 
uric  acid  concretions  are  distilled  in  a  retort, 
silvery  white  plates  sublime.  These  are  pyroli- 
thate  of  ammonia.  When  their  solution  is 
poured  into  that  of  subacetate  of  lead,  a  pyroli- 
thate  of  lead  falls,  which,  after  proper  washing, 
is  to  be  shaken  with  water,  and  decomposed  by 
sulphureted  hydrogen  gas.  The  supernatant 
liquid  is  now  a  solution  of  pyrolithic  acid,  which 

S'elds  small  aoicular  crystids  by  evaporation, 
yheat,  these  melt  atad  sublime  in  white  needles. 
They  are  soluble  in  four  parts  of  cold  water,  and 
the  solution  reddens  vegetable  blues.  Boiling 
alcohol  dissolves  the  acid,  but  on  cooling  it  de- 
posits it,  in  small  white  grains.  Nitric  acid  dis- 
solves without  changing  it.  Hence,  pyrolithic 
IS  a  different  acid  m>m  the  lithic,  which,  by 
nitric  acid,  is  convertible  into  purpurate  of  am- 
monia. Tlie  pyrolithate  of  lime  crystallises  in 
stalactites,  which  have  a  bitter  and  slightly  acrid 
taste.  It  consists  of  91*4  acid  +  8*6  lime.  Py- 
rolithate of  barytes  is  a  nearly  insoluble  powder. 
The  salts  of  potassa,  soda,  and  ammonia,  are 
soluble,  and  the  former  two  crystallisable.  At  a 
red  heat,  and  by  passing  it  over  ignited  oxide  of 
copper,  it  is  decompc»ed,  into  oxygen  44*32, 
carbon  28-20,  azote  16  84,  hydrogen  10.' 

PYROMALiC  Acid,  in  chemistry,  when 
malic  or  sorbic  acid,  for  they  are  the  same,  is 
distilled  in  a  retort,  an  acid  sublimate,  in  white 
fteedles,  appears  in  the  neck  of  the  retort,  and 
tn  acid  liquid  distils  into  the  receiver.  This 
bquid,  by  evaporation,  affords  crystals,  consti- 
tuting a  peculiar  acid,  to  which  the  above  name 
has  lieen  given. 

They  are  permanent  in  the  air,  melt  at  118® 
Fahienheit,  and  on  cooling  fbfm  a  pearl-colored 
mass  of  diverging  needles.  When  thrown  on 
ted-hot  coals,  ihe^  completely  evaporate  in  an 
acrid,  cottgfa-excitittg  smoke.  Exposed  to  a 
strong  heat,  in  a  retort,  they  are  partly  sublimed 
in  needles,  and  are  partly  decomposed.  They 
are  very  soluble  in  strong  alcohol,  and  in  dou- 
ble tiieir  weight  of  water,  at  the  ordinary  tem- 
perature. Tbe  solution  reddens  ve^table  blues, 
and  yields  white  ilocculent  precipitates  with 
acetate  of  lead  and  nitrate  of  mercury ;  but  pro- 
duces no  precipitate  with  lime  water.  By 
miung  it  with  barytes  water,  a  white  powder 
^Is,  which  is  redissolved  by  dilution  with  water, 
«fter  which,  by  gentle  evaporation,  the  pyroma- 
late  of  barytes  may  be  obtained  in  silve^  plates. 
^These  consist  of  100  acid,  and  185*142  barytes, 
t>r,  m  prime  equivalents,  of  5-25  +  9*75. 

Pyromalate  of  potash  may  be  obtained  in 
feather  formed  crystals,  which  deliquesce.  Py- 
VMBalate  of  lead  forms  first  a  white  flocculent 
precipitate,  soon  passing  into  a  semi-transparent 
jelly,  which,  by  ailution  and  filtration  from  the 


water,  jrields  brilliant  pearly  loobng  needles. 
The  white  crystals  that  sublime  in  the  original 
distillation  are  considered  by  M.  Lassaigne  as  a 
peculiar  acid. 

PYROMETER,  from  irvp,  fire,  and  /icrpoy, 
measure.  To  measure  those  higher  degrees  of 
heat  to  which  the  thermometer  cannot  be  ap- 
plied there  have  been  other  instruments  invented 
by  different  philosophers :  these  are  called  pyro- 
meters. The  most  celebrated  instrument  of  this 
kind,  and  which  has  been  adopted  into  general 
us^,  is  that  invented  by  the  late  ingenious  Mr. 
Wed^ood. 

This  instrument  is  also  suflSciently  simple. 
It  consists  of  two  pieces,  of  brass  fixed  on  a  plate, 
so  as  to  be  six-tenths  of  an  inch  asunder  at  one 
end,  and  three -tenths  at  the  other;-  a  scale  is 
marked  upon  them,  which  is  divided  into  240 
equal  parts,  each  one-tenth  of  an  inch ;  and  with 
this  his  gauge,  are  furnished  a  sufficient  number 
of  pieces  of  baked  clay,  which  must  have  been 
prepared  in  a  red  heat,  and  must  be  of  given  di- 
mensions. These  pieces  of  clay,  thus  prepared, 
are  first  to  be  applied  cold  to  the  rule  of  Uie  . 
gauge,  that  there  may  no  mistake  take  place  in 
regsurd  to  their  dimensions.  Then  any  one  of 
them  is  to  be  exposed  to  the  heat  which  is  to  be  . 
measured,  till  it  shall  have  been  completely  pe- 
netrated by  it.  It  is  then  removed  and  applied 
to  th^  gauge.  The  difference  between  its  former 
and  its  present  dimensions  will  show  how  much 
it  has  shrunk ;  and  will  consequently  indicate  to 
what  degree  the  intensity  of  the  heat  to  which  it 
was  exposed  amounted. 

High  temperatures  can  thus  be  ascertained 
with  accuracy.  Each  degree  of  Wedgwood's 
pyrometer  is  equal  to  130**  of  Fahrenheirs. 

Mr.  Wedgwood  sought  to  establish  a  corre- 
spondence between  the  indications  of  his  pyrome- 
ter and  those  of  the  mercurial  thermometer,  by 
employing  a  heated  rod  of  silver,  whose  expan- 
sions he  measured,  as  their  connecting  link.  The 
clay-piece  and  silver  rod'  were  heated  in  a 
muffle. 

When  the  muffle  appeared  of  a  low  red  heat, 
such  as  was  judged  to  come  fully  within  the 
province  of  the  thermometer,  it  was  drawn  for- 
ward toward  the  door  of  the  oven ;  and,  its  own 
door  being  then  nimbly  opened  by  an  assistant, 
Mr.  Wedgwood  pushed  the  silver  piece  as  fiEu*  as 
it  would  go.  But,  as  the  division  which  it  went 
to  could  not  be  distinguished  in  that  ignited 
state,  the  muffle  was  lifted  out,  by  means  of  an 
iron  rod  passing  through  two  rings  made  for  that 
purpose  with  care  to  keep  it  st^y,  and  avoid 
any  shake  that  might  endanger  the  displacing  of 
the  silver  piece. 

When  tne  muffle  was  grown  sufficiently  cold 
to  be  examined,  he  noted  the  degree  of  expan- 
sion which  the  silver  piece  stood  at,  and  the  de- 
gree of  heat  shown  by  the  thermometer  pieces 
measured  in  their  own  gauge;  then  returned 
(he  whole  into  the  oven  as  before,  and  repeated 
the  operation  with  a  stronger  heat>  to  obtain  ano» 
ther  point  of  correspondence  on  ihe  two  scales. 
The  first  was  at  2i^  of  his  thermometer,  which 
coincided  with  66**  of  the  intermediate  one ;  and, 
as  each  of  these  last  had  been  before  found  to 
contain  20^  of  Fahrenheit's,  the  66^  will  contain 


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1320;  to  which  add  50,  tht  de^  of  his  acalo 
to  wldch  the  (0)  of  the  intennediate  thermometer 
was  adjusted,  and  the  som  1370  will  be  the 
degree  of  Fahreoheif  s  correspondiDg  to  his  2^^. 

The  second  point  of  coincidence  was  at  6i^ 
of  his,  and  92^  of  the  intennediate;  which  92^ 
being,  according  to  the  above  proportion,  ^ui- 
▼alent  to  1840  of  Fahrenheit,  add  50  as  before 
to  this  number,  and  his  6^^  is  found  to  fall  upon 
the  1890^  of  Fahrenheit 

It  appears  hence  that  an  interval  of  4^  upon 
Mr.  Wedgwood*s  thermometer  is  eouivalent  to 
an  interval  of  520°  upon  that  of  Fahrenheit ; 
and,  consequently,  one  of  the  former  to  130°  of 
the  latter;  and  that  the  (0)  of  Mr.  Wedgwood 
corresponds  to  1077|°  of  Fahrenheit. 

From  these  data  it  is  easy  to  reduce  either 
•cale  to  the  other  throu^  their  whole  range; 
and  from  such  reduction  it  will  appear,  that  an 
interval  of  nearly  480°  remains  between  them, 
which  the  intermediate  thermometer  serves  as  a 
measure  for;  that  Mr.  Wec^ood's  includes 
an  extent  of  about  32,000  of  Fahrenheit's  degrees, 
or  about  fifty-four  times  as  much  as  that  between 
the  freesing  and  boiling  points  of  mercury,  by 
which  mercurial  ones  are  naturally  limited ;  that 
if  the  scale  of  Mr.  Wedgwood's  thermometer 
be  produced  downwasd  in  the  same  manner  as 
Fahrenheit's  has  been  supposed  to  be  produced 
upward,  for  an  ideal  standard,  the  freezmg  point 
of  water  would  fall  nearly  on  8°  below  (0)  of 
Mr.  Wedgwood's,  and  the  freezing  point  of 
mercury  a  little  below  8|°;  and,  that,  therefore, 
of  the  extent  of  now  measurable  heat,  there  are 
about  five-tenths  of  a  degree  of  his  from  the 
freezing  of  mercury  to  the  freezing  of  water;  8° 
from  the  freezing  of  water  to  full  ignition;  and 
160°  above  this  to  the  highest  degree  he  has  hi- 
therto attained. 

Mr.  Wedgwood  concludes  his  account  with 
the  following  table  of  the  effecU  of  heat  on  dif- 
ferent substances,  according  to  Fahrenheit's  ther- 
mometer and  his  own : —  ■ 

Fahr.    Wedg. 
Extremity  of  the  scale  of 

his  thermometer    .    .    .  32277^  240 
Greatest  heat  of  his  small 

air  furnace 21877  160 

Cast-iron  melts     ....  17977  130 
Greatest  heat  of  a  common 

smith's  forge     ....  17327  125 

Welding  heat  of  iron  greatest  13427  95 

Welding  heat  of  iron  least .  12777  90 

Fine  gold  melts    ....  5237  32 

Fine  silver  melts  ....  4717  28 

Swedish  copper  melts    .    .  4587  27 

Brass  melts 3807  2 1 

Heat  by  which  hb  enamel 

colors  are  burnt  on    .    .  1857  6 
Red  heat  fully  visible  in 

day-light 1077  0 

Red  neat  fully  visible  in  the 

dark 947  —   1 

Mercury  boils 600  3^ 

Water  boils 212  6§k 

Vital  heat 97  7^ 

Water  freezes 32  8^ 

Proof  spirit  freezes  ...  0  B^St 


The  point  it  which  mereuiy 
congeals,  consequently  the 
limit  of  mercurial  ther- 
mometers, about  ...  40  8  ^ 
PYROMUCIC  Acid.  This  acid,  discovered 
in  1818  by  M.  Houton  Labillardi^re,  is  one  of 
the  products  of  the  distillation  of  mucic  acid. 
When  we  wish  to  procure  it,  the  operation  must 
be  performed  in  a  glass  retort  furnished  with  a 
receiver.  The  acid  is  formed  in  the  brown 
liquid,  which  is  produced  along  with  it^  and 
which  contains  water,  acetic  acid,  and  empyreu- 
matic  oil ;  a  very  small  quanti^  of  the  pyro- 
mucic  acid  remaining  attached  to  the  vanlt  of 
the  retort  under  the  form  of  crystals.  These 
crystals,  being  colored,  are  added  to  the  brown 
liquor,  which  is  then  diluted  with  three  or  four 
times  its  quantity  of  water,  in  order  to  threw 
down  a  certain  portion  of  oil.  The  whole  is 
next  filtered,  and  evaporated  to  a  suitable  de- 
gree. A  great  deal  of^  acetic  acid  is  volatilised, 
and  then  Uie  new  acid  crystallises.  On  decant- 
ing the  mother  waters,  and  concentrating  them 
&rther,  they  yield  crystals  anew ;  but,  as  these 
are  small  and  yellowish,  it  is  necessary  to  make 
them  undergo  a  second  distillation  to  render 
them  susceptible  of  being  perfectly  purified  br 
crystallisation;  150  parts  ot  mucic  acid  fumisn 
about  sixty  of  brown  liquor,  from  which  we  can 
obtain  eight  to  ten  of  pure  pyromncie  add. 

This  acid  is  white,  inoaorous,  of  a  stronsly 
acid  taste,  and  a  decided  action  on  litmus.  Ex- 
posed to  heat  in  a  retort  it  melts  at  the  tempera- 
ture of  266°  Fahrenheit^  then  rolatilisesy^and 
condenses  into  a  liquid,  which  passes  on  cool- 
ing into  a  crystalline  mass,  covered  with  very 
fine  needles.  It  leaves  very  slight  traces  of  re- 
siduum in  the  bottom  of  the  retort. 

On  burning  coals,  it  instantly  diffuses  white 
pungent  vapors.  Air  has  no  action  on  it  Wa- 
ter at  60°  dissolves  one-twenty-eighth  of  its 
weight.  Boiling  water  dissolves  it  much  more 
abundantly,  and  on  cooling  abuidons  a  portion 
of  it,  in  small  elongated  plates,  which  cross  in 
eveiy  direction. 

PYROPHORUS.  By  this  name  is  denoted 
an  artificial  product,  which  takes  fire  or  becomes 
united  on  exposure  to  the  air.  Hence,  in  the 
German  language,  it  has  obtained  the  name  of 
lufl^zunder,  or  air-tinder.  It  is  prepared  from 
alum  by  calcination,  with  the  addition  of  various 
inflammable  substances.  Homberg  was  the  first 
that  obtained  it,  which  he  did  accidentally  in  the 
year  1680,  from  a  mixture  of  human  excrement 
and  alum,  upon  which  he  was  operating  by  fire. 
The  preparation  is  manased  m  (he  following 
manner : — ^Three  parts  of  uum  are  mixed  with 
firom  two  to  three  parts  of  honev,  flour,  or  sugar; 
and  this  mixture  is  dried  over  the  fire  in  a  glazed 
bowl,  or  an  iron  pan,  diligently  stirring  it  all  the 
while  with  an  iron  spatula.  At  first  this  mixture 
melts,  but  by  degrees  it  becomes  thicker,  swells 
up,  and  at  last  runs  into  small  dry  lumps.  These 
are  triturated  to  powder,  and  once  more  roasted 
over  the  fire,  till  there  is  not  die  least  moisture 
remaining  in  them,  and  the  operator  is  well  as- 
sured that  it  can  liquefy  no  more :  the  mass  now 
looks  like  a  blackish  powder  of  charcoal.  For 
the  sake  of  avoiding  the  previous  above  men- 


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tioned  openti«o,  ftom  four  to  five  yuts  of 
burned  alum  may  be  mixed  direcdy  with  two  of 
charcoal  powder.    This  powder  is  poured  into  a 

{>hial  or  matrass,  with  a  neck  about  six  inches 
ong.  The  phial,  which  however  must  be 
fillM  three-quarters  fuU  only,  is  then  put  into  a 
crucible,  the  bottom-  of  which  is  covered  with 
sand,  and  so  much  sand  is  put  round  the  former 
that  the  upper  part  of  its  body  also  is  covered 
with  it  to  the  height  of  an  inch :  upon  this  the 
crucible,  with  the  phial,  is  put  into  the  furnace, 
and  surrounded  with  red-hot  coals.  The  fire, 
being  now  gradually  increased  till  the  phial  be- 
comes red-hot,  is  kept  up  for  the  space  of  about 
a  quarter  of  an  hour,  or  till  a  black  smoke  ceases 
to  issue  from  the  mouth  of  the  phial,  and  instead 
of  this  a  sulphureous  vapor  exhales,  which  com- 
monly takes  fire.  The  fire  is  kept  up  till  the 
Uue  sulphureous  flame  is  no  longer  to  be  seen ; 


upon  this  the  calcination  mvst  be  p«t  an  end  to, 
and  the  phial  closed  for  a  short  time  with  a 
stopper  of  clay  or  loam.  But,  as  soon  as*  the 
vessel  is  become  so  cool  as  to  be  capable  of 
being  held  in  the  hand,  the  phial  is  taken  out  of 
the  sand,  and  the  powder  contained  in  it  trans- 
ferred as  last  as  possible  fiom  the  phial  into  a 
dry  and  stout  glass  made  warm,  which  must  be 
secured  with  a  glass  stopper. 

We  have  made  a  ve^  good  pyrophorus  by 
simply  mixing  three  parts  of  alum  with  one  of 
wheat-fiour,  odcining  them  in  a  common  phial 
till  the  blue  flame  <hsappeared ;  and  have  kept 
it  in  the  same  phial,  well  stopped  with  a  good 
cork  when  cold. 

If  this  powder  be  exposed  to  the  atmosphere, 
the  sulphuiet  attracts  moisture  from  the  air,  and 
generates  sufficient  heat  to  kindle  the  carbonace- 
ous matter  mingled  with  it. 


PYROTECHNY. 


PYR'OT£CHNY,fi.s.  Fr.mrotecAiiie.  The 
an  of  managing  fire,  or  making  fire-works. 

Great  discoveries  have  been  made  bv  the  means  of 
fjfnttchnjf  and  chymistry,  which  in  late  ages  have 
attained  to  a  greater  height  than  formerly. 

Hidt'i  Origin  of  Mankind. 

Pybotechnt,  of  Greek,  irvp,  fire,  and  ri xv9» 
art,  is  a  term  that  has  been  applied  to  all  kinds 
of  artificial  fire-works,  including  those  of  a  mili- 
tary deKription ;  but  of  late  it  has  been  more 
commonly  restricted  to  those  fire-works  which 
are  constructed  for  amusement,  or  are  used  in 
public  demonstrations  of  joy :  and  it  is  in  this 
sense  we  shall  consider  it  in  this  article. 

These  are  inventions  which,  though  they  seem 
to  have  been  for  ages  fiuniliar  to  the  Chinese  and 
other  nations  of  the  eastern  world,  were  brought  at 
a  recent  period  only  into  Europe  by  way  of  Italy ; 
and  the  Italian  and  French  artists  long  bore 
away  the  palm  in  their  construction.  The  late 
Sir  William  Congreve,  however,  at  the  period  of 
the  peace  of  1815,  seemed  suddenly  to  rise  like 
one  of  his  own  rockets,  above  our  foreifi^i  com- 
petitors ;  and  with  the  aid  of  his  majesty's  parks, 
the  public  purse,  die  sheet  of  water  m  St. 
James's  park,  and  the  never-to-be-forgotten  Chi- 
nese briaee  over  the  said  water,  to  have  attained 
the  most  brilliant  honors  in  this  art.  We  believe 
all  his  principal  devices  will  be  found  included 
in  the  oescriptire  account  of  modem  fire-works 
here  following  :-^ 

PART  I. 

SMALLER  AND   IflSCELLANEOUS  HRE- 
WORKS. 

1.  Of  the  ChMettfre.— hi  honor  of  the  Chinese 
we  bq[in  with  the  brilliant  fire  sometimes  called 
Ckmaejrt,  Iron  filings,  when  thrown  into  the 
fire,  inume  and  emit  a  strong  light  This  pro- 
ptrhf,  discovered  perhaps  by  chance,  gave  rise 
to  the  idea  of  tendering  the  fire  of  rockets>  and 


other  pyrotechnical  inventions,  much  more  bril- 
liant than  when  gunpowder,  or  the  substances  of 
which  it  is  composea,  are  alone  employed.  No- 
thing is  necessary  but  to  take  iron  filings,  very 
clean  and  free  from  dust,  and  to  mix  them  with 
the  ordinary  composition.  It  must,  however, 
be  observed,  that  works  of  this  kind  will  not 
keep  longer  than  a  week ;  because  the  moisture 
contracted  by  the  saltpetre  rusts  the  iron  filings. 

The  Chioese  have  long  been  in  possession  of 
a  method  of  rendering  this  fire  much  more  bril- 
liant and  variegated  m  its  colors ;  and  we  are 
indebted  to  father  dlncarviUe,  a  Jesuit,  for  having 
made  it  known.  It  consists  in  the  use  of  a  sim- 
ple ingredient,  namely,  cast  iron  reduced  to  a 
powder  more  or  less  fine :  the  Chinese  gave  it 
a  name  which  is  equivalent  to  that  of  iron  tand. 
To  prepare  this  sand  take  an  old  iron  pot,  and, 
havmg  broken  it  to  pieces  on  an  anvil,  pulverise 
the  fragments  till  the  grains  are  not  larger  than 
radish  seed ;  then  sift  them  through  six  graduated 
sieves,  to  separate  the  different  sizes;  and  pre- 
serve these  SIX  different  kinds  in  a  very  dry  place, 
to  secure  them  from  rust,  which  would  render 
this  sand  absolutely  unfit  for  the  proposed  end. 
We  must  here  remark  that  the  grains  which  pass 
through  the  closest  sieve  are  called  sand  of^the 
first  order ;  those  which  pass  through  the  next 
in  size,  sand  of  the  second  order.;  and  so  on. 

This  sand,  when  it  inflames,  emits  a  light  ex- 
ceedingly vivid.  It  is  very  surprising  to  see 
fragments  of  this  matter  no  bigger  than  a  poppy 
seed  form  all  on  a  sudden  luminous  flowers  or 
stars,  twelve  and  fifteen  lines  in  diameter.  These 
flowers  are  also  of  different  forms,  according  to 
that  of  the  inflamed  grain,  and  even  of  different 
colors,  accordiog  to  .the  matters  with  which  the 
grains  are  mix^.  Rockets  which  contain  the 
finest  sand  wiU  not  keep  longer  than  eight  days» 
and  those  which  contain  the  coarsest,  fifteen. 
The  following  tables  exhibit  the  proportions  of 
the  different  ingredients  for  rockets  of  from  twelve 
to  thirty-six  pounds. 


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386 


PYROTECHNY. 


For  red  Chmaejire 


CalibiM. 

Salt 
petre. 

Salphur. 

Charcoal. 

Sand  of  the 
1st  order. 

lbs. 
t2tpl5 
18  to  21 
24  to  36 

lU. 

I 
1 
1 

OK. 

3 
3 

4 

oz. 
4 
5 
6 

oz.    dr. 

7 

7    8 
8 

Far  whiie  Chinaefire. 


Calibres. 

Salt- 
petre. 

Bruised 
Gun- 
powder. 

Charcoal. 

Sandofehe 
3d  order. 

lbs. 
12  10  15 
18  to  21 
24  to  36 

lbs. 

1 
1 
1 

oz. 
12 

11 
11 

oz.    dr. 

7  8 
8 

8  8 

oz.    dr. 
11 

11     8 
12 

When  these  materials  have  been  weighed,  the 
saltpetre  and  charcoal  must  be  three  times  sifted 
through  a  hair  sieve,  in  order  that  they  may  be 
well  mixed  :  the  iron  sand  is  then  to  be  moistened 
vrith  good  brandy,  to  make  the  sulphur  adhere, 
and  they  must  be  thoroughly  incorporated.  The 
sand  thus  sulphured  must  be  spread  over  the 
mixture  of  saltpetre  and  charcoal,  and  the  whole 
must  be  mixea  together  by  spreading  it  over  a 
table  with  a  spatula. 

2.  A  tfunoer  o/'^re.— To  form  a  shower  of  fire, 
mould  small  paper  cartridges  on  an  iron  rod  two 
lines  and  a  half  in  diameter,  and  make  them  two 
inches  and  a  half  in  length.  They  must  not  be 
choked,  it  being  sufficient  to  twist  the  end  of 
the  cartridge,  and  having  put  the  iron  rod  into 
it  to  beat  it,  in  order  to  make  it  assume  its  proper 
form.  When  the  cartridges  are  filled,  which  is 
done  by  immersing  them  in  the  composition, 
fold  down  the  other  end,  and  then  apply  a  niatch. 
This  will  fill  the  surrounding  air  with  an  undu- 
lating fire.  T\\e  following  compositioiis  are 
given  as  proper  for  meteors  of  this  kind.  1 .  Chi<- 
nese  fire  -^Mealed  gunpowder  one  pound,  sul- 
phur two  ounces,  iron-sand  of  the  first  order  five 
ounces.  2.  Ancient  fire. — Mealed  guripowder 
one  pound,  charcoal  two  ounces.  3.  A  brilliant 
fire. — Mealed  gunpowder  one  pound,  iron-filings 
four  ounces.  The  first  of  these  compositions  is 
thought  to  be  the  most  beautifiil. 

3.  Sparks,  difibring  only  firom  stars  in  their 
size  and  duration,  are  thus  prepared : — Put  into 
an  earthen  vessel  an  ounce  of  mealed  gunpowder, 
two  ounces  of  pulverised  saltpetre,  one  ounce  of 
liquid  saltpetre,  and  four  ounces  of  camphor  re- 
duced to  powder;  pour  over  this  mixture  some 
gum-water,  or  brandy  in  which  gum  has  been 
dissolved,  till  the  composition  becomes  of  ^e 
consistence  of  thick  soup.  Then  take  some  lint 
which  has  been  soaked  m  brandy,  or  in  vinegar, 
or  even  in  a  solution  of  saltpetre,  and,  being  dried 
and  unravelled,  throw  into  the  mixture  such  a 
quantity  of  it  as  is  sufiScient  to  absorb  it  entirely, 
taking  care  to  stir  it  well.  This  composition 
maybe  formed  into  small  balls  about  the  size  of  a 
pea,  and  being  dried  in  the  shade,  and  sprinkled 
with  mealed  powder,  they  will  readily  catch  fire. 


Sparks  may  also  be  made  thus :— Take  saw-dust 
of  fir,  poplar,  &c.,  and  boil  it  in  water  in  wfaidh 
saltpetre  has  been  dissolved.  When  the  water 
has  boiled  some  lime,  it  is  to  be  poured  off,  that 
the  saw-dust  may  remain  in  the  vessel.  When 
nearly  dry,  it  is  to  be  spread  out  on  a  table,  and 
sprinkled  with  sulphur  sifted  through  a  very  fine 
sieve,  to  which  may  be  added  a*  little  mealed 
powaer. 

4.  Golden  ram.— Some  rockets,  which,  as 
they  fall,  make  small  undulations  in  die  air, 
called  by  French  writers  fus^  chevelues,  and 
by  us  bearded  rockets,  finbh  with  a  kind  of 
shower  of  fire,  which  is  called  golden  rain,  thus 
constructed  :-.Fill  the  barrels  of  some  goose 
quills  with  the  composition  of  flying  rockets 
(for  which  see  onward),  and  place  upon  the 
mouth  of  each  a  little  moist  gunpowder,  both  to 
keep  in  the  composition,  anoto  serve  as  a  matdi. 
If  flying  rockets  be  then  loaded  with  these  quills, 
the  explosion  of  them  will  terminate  in  a  Dean- 
tifiil  shower  of  fire,  to  which  the  name  of  goldea 
rain  has  been  given. 

5.  Ghbft  which  bum  on  the  vfoter, — ^To  makes 
spherical  fire  ball,  construct  a  hollow  wooden  globe 
of  any  size,  and  let  its  thickness  be  about  one* 
ninth  of  its  diameter.  Into  the  upper  hemisphere 
insert  a  right  concave  cylinder,  the  breadth  of 
which  may  be  equal  to  one*fiflh  of  the  diameter. 
A  petard,  loaded  with  good  grained  gunpowder, 
is  to  be  introduced  at  the  bottom  of  it,  and  to 
be  placed  horizontally  ;  then  the  aperture  is 
closed  with  a  wooden  tompion  dipped  in  pitch, 
and  over  the  whole  of  this  part  a  quantity  of 
lead  is  melted  sufficient  to  make  the  ^obe  sink : 
if  the  globe  be  now  placed  in  the  water,  the  lead 
by  its  gravity  will  make  the  aperture  tend  directly 
downwards,  and  keep  in  a  perpendicular  direc- 
tion the  cylinder,  to  which  fire  must  hare  been 
previously  applied.  To  ascertain  whether  the 
lead,  which  has  been  added  to  the  globe,  renders 
its  weight  equal  to  that  of  an  equal  yolume  of 
water,  rub  the  globe  over  with  pitch  or  grease, 
and  make  a  trial,  by  placing  it  in  the  water. 

The  composition  with  which  the  globe  must 
be  loaded  is  aS  follows ;  to  a  pound  of  grained 

Sowder  add  thirty-two  pounds  of  saltpetre  re^ 
uced  to  fine  flour,  eight  pounds  of  sulphur,  one 
ounce  of  scrapings  of  ivory,  and  eight  pounds 
of  saw-dust  previously  boiled  in  a  solution  of 
saltpetre,  and  dried  in  the  shade,  or  in  the  sun. 
Or  to  two  pounds  of  bruised  gunpowder  add 
twelve  pounds  of  saltpetre,  six  pounds  of  suU 
phur,  four  pounds  of  iron  fUings,  and  one  pound 
of  Greek  pitch. 

It  is  not  necessary  that  this  composition  should 
be  beaten  so  fine  as  that  intended  for  rockets:  it 
requires  neither  to  be  pulverised  nor  sifted ;  it 
is  sufficient  to  be  well  mixed  and  incorporated. 
But,  to  prevent  it  torn  becoming  too  diy,  it  will 
be  proper  to  besprinkle  it  with  a  little  oil,  or  any 
other  liouid  susceptible  of  inflammation. 

6.  Of  globes  i&AicA  iet^  orroUonthe  ground.^ 
Having  constructed  a  wooden  globe  with  a  cy- 
linder similar  to  the  above  described,  and  bav« 
ing  loaded  it  with  the  same  composition,  intro- 
duce into  it  four  petards,  or  even  more,  loaded 
with  good  graineo  gunpowder  to  i  their  oHficcs, 
which  must  be  well  stopped  with  paper  or  tow 

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PYROTECHNY. 


287 


If  ft  ^be,  prepaiedin  this  manner,  be  fired  by 
means  of  a  match,  it  will  leap  about,  as  it  bums, 
on  ft  smooth  horizontal  plane,  according  as  the 
petards  are  set  on  lire.  Instead  of  placing  these 
petards  in  the  inside,  they  may  be  affixed  to  the 
exterior  surface  of  the  globe;  which  they  will 
make  to  roll  and  leap  as  they  catch  fire.  They 
roay  be  applied  in  any  manner  to  the  surface  of 
the  globe. 

7.  A  similar  globe  may  be  made  to  roll  about 
on  a  horizontal  plane,  with  a  very  rapid  motion. 
Construct  two  equal  hemispheres  of  pasteboard, 
and  adjust  in  one  of  them  three  common  rockets 
filled  and  pierced  like  flying  rockets  that  ha^e  no 
petard :  these  rockets  must  not  exceed  the  in- 
terior breadth  of  the  hemisphere,  and  ought  to 
be  arranged  in  such  a  manner  that  the  head  of 
the  one  shall  correspond  to  the  tail  of  the  other. 
The  rockets  being  arranged,  join  the  two  hemi- 
spheres, by  cementing  them  together  with  strong 
paper,  in  such  a  manner  that  they  shall  not  se- 
parate, while  the  globe  is  moving  and  tuminfr,  at 
the  same  time  that  the  rockeUc  produce  their  effect. 
To  set  fire  to  the  first,  make  a  hole  in  the  globe 
opposite  to  the  tail  of  it,  and  introduce  into  it  a 
match.  This  match  will  communicate  fire  to  the 
first  rocket ;  which,  when  consumed,  will  set  fire 
to  the  second  by  means  of  another  match,  and  so 
on  to  the  rest ;  so  that  the  globe,  if  placed  on  a 
smooth  horizontal  plane,  will  be  kept  in  conti- 
nual motion.  It  is  here  to  be  observed  that  a 
few  more  holes  must  be  made  in  the  globe,  other- 
wise it  will  burst. 

The  two  hemispheres  of  pasteboard  may  be 
prepared  in  the  following  manner : — ^Construct 
a  very  round  globe  of  solid  wood,  and  cover  it 
with  melted  wax ;  then  cement  over  it  several 
bands  of  coarse  paper,  about  two  inches  in 
breadth,  giving  it  several  coats  of  this  kind,  to  the 
thickness  of  about  two  lines.  Or,  which  will  be 
still  easier  and  better,  having  dissolved,  in  glue 
water,  some  of  the  pulp  employed  by  the  paper- 
makers,  cover  witli  it  the  suriace  of  the  globe ; 
then  dry  it  Kradually  at  a  slow  fire,  and  cut  it 
through  in  the  middle;  by  which  means  you 
will  have  two  strong  hemispheres.  The  wooden 
globe  may  be  ea^iily  separated  from  the  paste- 
board by  means  of  heat ;  for  if  the  whole  be  ap- 
plied to  a  strong  fire  the  wax  will  dissolve,  so 
that  the  globe  may  be  drawn  out :  instead  of  melt- 
ed wax,  soap  may  be  employed. 

8  OfaeruU  gtobeSf  called  6om^.— These  globes 
are  called  aerial  because  they  are  thrown  into  the 
air  horn  a  mortar,  which  is  a  short  thick  piece  of 
artillery  of  a  large  calibre.  And  though  these 
globes  are  of  wood,  and  have  a  suitable  thickness, 
namely,  equal  to  the  twelfth  part  of  their  diame- 
ters, it  too  much  powder  be  put  into  the  mortar 
they  will  not  be  able  to  resist  its  force ;  the 
chuge  of  powder  therefore  must  be  proportioned 
to  f&  globe  to  be  ejected.  The  usual  quantity 
is  an  ounce  of  powder  for  a  globe  of  four  pounds 
weight ;  two  ounces  for  one  of  eight,  and  so  on. 
As  the  chamber  of  the  mortar  may  be  too 
laige  to  contiun  the  exact  quantity  of  powder  suf- 
ficient for  the  fire-ball,  which  ought  to  be  placed 
immediately  above  the  powder,  in  order  that  it 
may  be  expelled  and  set  on  fire  at  the  same  time, 
anoUier  noftar  may  be  constructed  of  wood,  or  of 


pasteboard  with  a  wooden  bottom :  it  ought  to  be 
put  into  ft  large  iron  mortar,  and  to  be  loaded 
with  a  quantity  of  powder  proportioned  to  the 
weight  of  the  globe.  This  small  mortar  must  be 
of  light  wood,  or  of  paper  pasted  together,  and 
rolled  up  in  the  form  or  i  cylinder,  or  truncated 
cone,  the  bottom  excepted ;  which,  as  already 
said,  must  be  of  wood.  The  chamber  for  the 
powder  must  be  pierced  obliquely,  with  a  small 

giiplet;  so  that,  the  aperture  corresponding  to 
le  aperture  of  the  metal  mortar,  the  fire  applied 
to  the  latter  may  be  communicated  to  the  pow- 
der which  ia  at  the  bottom  of  the  chamber,  im- 
mediately below  the  globe.  By  this  means  the 
globe  will  catch  fire,  and  make  an  agreeable  noise 
as  it  rises  into  the  air;  but  it  would  not  succeed 
so  well  if  any  vacuity  were  left  between  the 
powder  and  the  globe. 

A  profile  or  perpendicular  section  of  such  a 
globe  is  represented  by  the  right-angled  parallelo- 
gram, the  breadth  of  which  is  nearly  equal  to  the 
height.  The  tliickness  of  the  wood,  towards  the 
two  sides,  is  equal,  as  above  said,  to  the  twelfth 
part  of  the  diameter  of  the  globe;  and  the  thick- 
ness of  the  cover  is  double  the  preceding,  or  equal 
to  a  sixth  part  of  the  diameter.  The  height  of 
the  chamber  where  the  match  is  applied,  and 
which  is  terminated  by  a  semicircle,  is  equal  to 
the  fourth  pan  of  the  breadth  ;  and  its  breadth 
is  equal  to  the  sixth  part.  We  must  here  ob- 
serve that  it  is  dangerous  to  put  wooden  covers 
on  aerial  balloons  or  globes;  for  these  covers 
may  be  so  heavy  as  to  wound  those  on  whom 
th^  happen  to  fall.  It  will  be  sufficient  to  place 
tuif  or  hay  above  the  globe,  in  order  that  the 
powder  may  experience  some  resistance. 

The  globe  must  be  filled  with  several  pieces 
of  cane  or  common  reed,  equal  in  length  to  the 
interior  height  of  the  globe,  and  charged  with  a 
slow  composition,  made  of  three  ounces  of  pound- 
ed gunpowder,  an  ounce  of  sulphur  moistened 
with  a  small  quantity  of  petroleum  oil,  and  two 
ounces  of  charcoal ;  and  in  order  that  these  reeds 
or  canes  may  catch  fire  sooner,  and  with  more 
fiicility,  they  must  be  charged  at  the  lower  ends, 
which  rest  on  the  bottom  of  the  globe,  with  pul- 
verised gunpowder  moistened  in  the  same  man* 
ner  with  petroleum  oil,  or  well  besprinkled  with 
brandy,  and  then  dried.  The  bottom  of  the  globe- 
ought  10  be  covered  with  a  little  gunpowder  half 
pulverised  and  half  grained ;  which,  when  set  on 
lire,  by  means  of  a  match  applied  to  the  end  of 
the  chamber,  will  set  fire  to  the  lower  part  of  the 
reed.  But  care  ipust  have  been  taken  to  fill  the 
chamber  with  a  composition  similar  to  that  in 
the  reeds,  or  with  another  slow  composition 
made  of  eight  ounces  of  gunpowder,  four  ounces 
of  saltpetre,  two  ounces  of  sulphur,  and  one 
ounce  of  charcoal:  the  whole  must  be  well 
pounded  and  mixed.  Instead  of  reeds,  the  globe 
may  be  charged  with  running  rockets,  or  paper 
petards,  and  a  quantity  of  fiery  stars  or  sparks 
mixed  with  pulverised  gunpowder,  placed  with- 
out any  order  above  these  petards,  which  must 
be  choked  at  unequal  heights,  that  they  may 
perform  their  efiect  at  different  times. 

These  globes  may  be  constructed  in  yarious 
other  ways,  which  it  would  be  tedious  here  to 
enumerate.    We  shall  only  observe  Uiat|  when 

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PYROTECHNY. 


loaded, .  they  must  be  well  covered  at  the  top; 
they  must  be  wrapped  up  in  a  piece  of  doth 
dipped  in  glue,  and  a  piece  of  woollen  cloth  must 
be  tied  round  them,  so  as  to  co?er  the  hole  which 
contains  the  match. 

9.  Jett  of  fire. — Jets  of  fire  are  a  kind  of  fixed 
rockets,  the  effect  of  which  is  to  throw  up  into 
the  air  jets  of  fire,  similar  to  jets  of  water.  They 
serye  also  to  represent  cascades :  for  if  a  series  of 
such  rockets  be  placed  horizontally  on  the  same 
line,  it  may  be  easily  seen  that  the  fire  they  emit 
will  resemble  a  sheet  of  water.  When  arranged 
in  a  circular  form,  like  the  radii  of  a  circle,  they 
form  what  is  called  a  fixed  sun.  To  form  jets  of 
this  kind,  the  cartridge  for  brilliant  fires  must, 
in  thickness,  be  eoufd  to  a  fourth  part  of  the 
diameter,  and,  for  Chinese  fire,  only  to  a  sixth 
part. 

The  cartridge  is  loaded  on  a  nipple,  having  a 
point  equal  in  length  to  the  same  diameter,  and 
in  thickness  to  a  fourth  part  of  it ;  but,  as  it  ge- 
nerally happens  that  the  mouth  of  the  jet  becomes 
larger  than  is  necessary  for  the  effect  of  the  fire, 
you  must  begin  to  charge  the  cartridge,  as  the 
Chinese  do,  by  filling  it  to  a  height  equal  to  a 
fourth  part  of  the  diameter  with  clay,  which  must 
be  rammed  down  as  if  it  were  gunpowder.  By 
these  means  the  pet  will  ascend  much  higher. 
When  the  charge  is  completed  with  the  composi- 
tion you  have  made  choice  of,  the  cartridge  must 
be  close  with  a  tompion  of  wood,  above  which 
it  must  be  choked.  The  train  or  match  must 
be  of  the  same  composition  as  that  employed  for 
loading;  otherwise  the  dilatation  of  the  air  con- 
tained in  the  hole  made  by  the  piercer  would 
cause  the  jet  to  burst    Clayed  rockets  may  be 

Eierced  with  two  holes  near  theneck,  in  order  to 
ave  three  jets  in  the  same  plane. 
If  a  kind  of  top,  pierced  with  a  number  of 
boles,  be  added  to  them,  they  will  imitate  a 
bubbling  fountain.  Jets  intended  for  represent- 
ing sheets  of  fire  ought  not  to  be  choked.  They 
must  be  placed  in  a  horizontal  position,  or  inclin- 
ed a  little  downwards.  It  appears  to  us  that 
they  might  be  choked  so  as  to  form  a  kind  of 
slit,  and  be  pierced  in  the  same  manner;  which 
would  contnbute  to  extend  the  sheet  of  fire  still 
farther.  A  kind  of  long  narrow  mouth  might 
even  be  provided  for  this  particular  purpose. 

Prineipal  compoiiHcmfor  jeU  of  fire. 

Ist.  Jets  of  five  lines,  or  less,  of  interior  diameter. 

Chinese  fire, — Saltpetre  one  pound,  pulverised 
gunpowder  one  pound,  sulphur  eight  ounces, 
charcoal  two  ounces. 

T9^^«/re^— Saltpetre  one  pound,  pulverised 
gunpowder  eight  ounces,  sulphur  three  ounces, 
charcoal  two  ounces,  iron  sand  of  the  first  order 
€ight  ounces. 

2d.  Jets  of  from  ten  to  twelve  lines  in  diameter. 

BrUUarU  fire. — Pulverised  gunpowder  one 
pound,  iron  filings  of  a  mean  size  five  ounces. 

White  fire. — Saltpetre  one  pound,  pulverised 
gunpowder  one  pound,  sulphur  eight  ounces, 
charcoal  two  odnces. 

CAtfiefe/£re.— Saltpetre  one  pound  four  ounces, 
sulphur  five  ounces,  sand  of  the  third  order 
twelve  ounces. 


3d.  Jets  of  fifteen  or  eighteen  lines  in  diameter 
ddnae  fire.  —  Saltpetre  one  pound  feat 
ounces,  sulphur  seven  ounces,  cnarcoal  fi^e 
ounces,  of  the  six  different  kinds  of  sand  mixed 
twelve  ounces.  P^re  dlncarville,  in  his  me- 
moirs on  this  subject,  gives  various  other  propor- 
tions for  the  composition  of  these  jets ;  but  we 
must  confine  ourselves  to  what  has  been  here 
said,  and  refer  the  reader  to  the  author's  memt«izs, 
which  will  be  found,  in  the  Manuel  de  TArti- 
ficier. 

The  saltpetre,  pulverised  gunpowder,  sukd 
charcoal,  are  three  times  sifted  through  a  hair 
sieve.  The  iron  sand  is  besprinkled  with  sul- 
phur, after  being  moistened  with  a  little  brandy, 
that  the  sulphur  may  adhere  to  it;  and  they  are 
then  mixed  together :  the  sulphured  sand  is  then 
spread  over  the  first  mixture,  and  the  whole  is 
mixed  with  a  ladle  only;  for  if  a  sieve  were  em- 
ployed, it  would  separate  the  sand  fiom  the  other 
materials.  When  sand  larger  than  that  of  the 
second  order  is  used,  the  composition  is  mobten- 
ed  with  brandy,  so  that  it  forms  itself  into  balls, 
and  the  jets  are  then  loaded :  if  there  were  too 
much  moisture,  the  sand  would  not  perform  its 
effect. 

10.  Offrei  of  different  colors, — ^It  is  much  to 
be  wished  that,  for  the  sake  of  variety,  different 
colors  could  be  given  to  these  fire-works  at  plea- 
sure ;  but,  though  we  are  acquainted  with  several 
materials  which  communicate  to  fiame  Tarious 
colors,  it  has  hitherto  been  possible  to  introduce 
only  a  very  few  colors  into  that  of  inflamed  gun- 
powder. 

To  make  white  fire,  the  gunpowder  must  be 
mixed  with  iron  or  rather  steel  nlings. 

To  make  red  fire,  iron  sand  of  the  first  order 
must  be  employed  in  the  same  manner. 

As  copper  filings,  when  thrown  into  a  flame, 
render  it  green,  it  might  be  concluded  that,  if 
mixed  wiui  gunpowder,  it  would  produce  a 
green  flame ;  but  this  experiment  does  not  suc- 
ceed. It  is  supposed  that  the  flame  is  too  ardent, 
and  consumes  the  inflammable  |»rt  of  the  cop- 
per too  soon.  But  it  is  probable'thata  sufficient 
number  of  trials  have  not  yet  been  made ;  for  is 
it  not  possible  to  lessen  the  force  of  gunpowder 
in  a  considerable  degree,  by  increasing  the  dose 
of  the  charcoal  ? 

However  the  following  are  a  few  of  those  ma- 
terials which,  in  books  on  pyrotechny,  are  said. 
to  possess  the  property  of  communicating  various 
colors  to  fire-works. 

Camphor  mixed  with  the  composition  makes 
the  flame  to  ap|)ear  of  a  pale  white  color. 

Raspings  or  ivory  give  a  cite  flame  of  a  sil- 
Ter  color,  inclining  a  little  to  that  of  lead ;  or 
rather  a  white  dazzling  fiame. 

Greek  pitch  produces  a  reddish  flame,  of  a 
bronze  color. 

Black  pitch,  a  dusky  flame,  like  a  thick  smoke, 
which  obscures  the  atmosphere. 

Sulphur,  mixed  in  a  moderate  quanti^,  makes 
the  flame  appear  bluish. 

Sal  ammoniac  and  verdigris  give  a  greenish . 
flame. 

Raspings  of  yellow  amber  communicate  to  the 
flame  a  lemon  color. 

Crude  antimony  gives  a  russet  color. 


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PYROTECHNY. 


289 


Borax  ought  to  produce  a  blue  flame ;  for  spi* 
rit  of  wtne,  in  which  sedative  salt,  one  of  the 
component  parts  of  borax,  is  dissolved  by  the 
means  of  heat,  bums  with  a  beautiful  green  flame. 

Much,  however,  still  remains  to  be  done  in 
regard  to  this  subject ;  but  it  would  add  to  the 
b»uty  of  artificial  fire-works,  if  they  could  be 
varied  by  giving  them  difierent  colors :  this  would 
be  creating  for  the  eyes  a  new  pleasure. 

11.  Compontwn  of  apqfie  proper  for  rqtresent* 
mg  anunaltyand  otiir  devket  in  fire, — It  is  to  the 
Chinese  also  that  we  are  indebted  for  this  me- 
thod of  representing  figures  with  fire.  For  this 
purpose  take  sulphur  reduced  to  an  impalpable 
powder,  and,  having  formed  it  into  a  paste  with 
starch,  cover  with  it  the  figure  you  are  desirous 
of  representing  on  fire :  it  is  here  to  be  observed 
that  the  figure  must  first  be  coated  over  with  clay, 
to  prevent  it  from  being  burnt  When  the  figure 
has  been  covered  with  this  paste,  besprinkle  it 
while  stUl  moist  with  pulverised  gunpowder;  and, 
when  the  whole  is  perfectly  dry,  arrange  some 
small  matches  on  the  principal  fmrts  of  it,  that 
the  fire  may  be  speedily  communicated  to  it  on 
all  sides. 

The  same  paste  may  be  employed  on  figures 
of  clay,  t*  form  devices  and  various  designs. 
Thas,  for  example,  festoons,  garlands,  and  other 
ornaments,  the  flowers  of  which  might  be  imitat- 
ed by  fire  of  different  colors,  could  be  formed 
on  the  frieze  of  a  piece  of  architecture,  covered 
with  plaster.  The  Chinese  imitate  grapes  ex- 
ceedingly well,  by  mixing  pounded  sulphur  with 
the  pulp  of  the  jujube  instead  of  flour  paste. 

12.  Of  sum  both  fixed  andmoveabie. — None  of 
the  pyrotechnic  inventions  can  be  employed  with 
so  much  success,  in  artificial  fire-works,  as  suns; 
of  which  there  are  two  kinds,  fixed  and  revolv- 
ing: the  method  of  constructing  both  is  very 
simple. 

For  fixed  suns,  cause  to  be  constructed  a 
round  piece  of  wood,  into  the  circumference  of 
which  can  be  screwed  twelve  or  fifteen  pieces  in 
the  form  of  radii ;  and  to  these  radii  attach  jets 
of  fire,  the  composition  of  which  has  been  al- 
ready described,  so  that  they  may  appear  as  ra- 
dii tending  to  tlie  same  centre,  the  mouth  of  the 
jet  being  towards  the  circumference.  Apply  a 
match  in  such  a  manner  that  the  fire  communi- 
cated at  the  centre  may  be  conveyed,  at  the  same 
time,  to  the  mouth  of  each  of  the  jets ;  by  which 
means,  each  throwing  out  its  fire,  there  will  be 
produced  the  appearance  of  a  radiating  sun. 
We  here  suppose  that  the  wheel  is  placed  in  a 
position  perpendicular  to  the  horuon.  These 
rockets  or  jets  may  be  so  arranged  as  to  cross 
each  odier  in  an  angular  manner ;  in  which  case, 
instead  of  a  sun,  you  will  have  a  star,  or  a  sort  of 
cross  resembling  that  of  Malta.  Some  of  these 
sans  are  made  also  with  several  rows  of  jets : 
these  are  called  glories. 

Revolving  suns  may  be  constructed  in  this 
manner : — rrovide  a  wooden  wheel,  of  any  size 
at  pleasure,  and  brought  into  perfect  equilibrium 
around  its  centre,  in  order  that  the  least  effort 
may  make  it  turn  round.  Attach  to  the  circum- 
ference of  it  fire-jets  placed  in  the  direction  of 
the  dnmmference ;  they  must  not  be  choked  at 
the  bottam,  and  ought  to  be  arranged  in  such  a 
Vol.  XVIII, 


manner  that  tlie  mouth  of  the  one  shall  be  near 
the  bottom  of  the  other,  so  that  when  the  fire  of 
the  one  is  ended  it  may  immediately  proceed  to 
another.  It  may  easily  be  perceived  that,  when 
fire  is  applied  to  one  of  these  jets,  the  recoil  of 
the  rocket  will  make  the  wheel  turn  round, 
unless  it  be  too  large  and  ponderous :  for  this 
reason,  when  these  suns  are  of  a  considerable 
size,  that  is,  when  they  consist  for  example  of 
twenty  rockets,  fire  must  be  communicated  at  the 
same  time  to  the  first,  the  sixth,  the  eleventh, 
and  the  sixteenth ;  from  which  it  will  proceed  to 
the  second,  the  seventh,  the  twelfth,  the  seven- 
teenth, and  so  on.  These  four  rockets  will  make 
the  wheel  turn  round  with  rapidity. 

If  two  similar  suns  be  placed  one  behind  the 
other,  and  made  to  turn  in  a  contrary  direction, 
they  will  produce  a  very  pretty  effect  of  cross- 
fire. Three  or  four  suns,  with  horizontal  axes 
passed  through  them,  might  be  implanted  in  a 
vertical  axis,  moveable  in  the  middle  of  a  table. 
These  suns,  revolving  around  the  table,  will  seem 
to  pursue  each  other.  It  may  be  easily  perceived 
that,  to  make  them  turn  around  the  table,  they 
must  be  fixed  on  their  axes,  and  these  axes,  at  the 
place  where  they  rest  on  the  table,  ought  to  be 
furnished  with  a  very  moveable  roller. 

13.  To  make  crackerg, — Cut  some  stout  car- 
tridge paper  into  pieces  three  inches  and  a  half 
broad,  and  one  foot  long ;  one  edge  of  each  of 
these  pieces  fold  down  lengthwise  about  three- 
quarters  of  an  inch  broad ;  then  fold  the  double 
edge  down  a  quarter  of  an  inch,  and  turn  the 
single  edge  back  half  over  the  double  fold ;  open 
it,  and  lay  all  along  the  channel,  which  is  formed 
by  the  foklings  of  the  paper,  some  meal  powder; 
th^  fold  it  over  and  over  till  all  the  paper  is 
doubled  up,  rubbing  it  down  every  turn;  this 
being  done,  bend  it  backwards  and  forwards, 
two  inches  and  ahalf,  or  thereabouts,  at  a  time,  as 
often  as  the  paper  will  allow;  hold  all  these 
folds  flat  and  close,  and,  with  a  small  pinching 
cord,  give  one  torn  round  the  middle  of  the 
cracker,  and  pinch  it  close ;  bind  it  with  pack- 
thread, as  tight  as  you  can ;  then,  in  the  place 
where  it  was  pinched,  prime  one  end  and  cap 
it  with  touch-paper.  When  these  crackers  are 
fired  they  will  give  a  report  at  every  torn  of  the 
paper;  if  you  would  have  a  great  number  of 
bounces,  you  must  cut  the  paper  longer,  or  join 
them  after  they  are  made ;  but,  if  they  are  made 
very  long  before  they  pinched,  you  must  have  a 
piece  of  wood  with  a  groove  in  it,  deep  enough  to 
let  in  half  the  cracket;  this  will  hola  it  straight 
while  it  is  pinching. 

14.  To  make  tquibtd — ^First  make  the  cases,  of 
about  six  inches  in  lensth,  by  rolling  slips  of 
stout  cartridge  paper  three  times  round  a  roller,  and 
pasting  the  last  mid ;  tying  it  near  the  bottom  as 
tight  as  possible,  and  making  it  air-tight  at  the 
end  by  sealing-wax.  Then  take  of  gunpowder 
half  a  pound,  charcoal  one  ounce,  brimstone  one 
ounce,  and  steel  filings  half  an  ounce  (or  in  like 
proportion) ;  grind  them  with  ai  muller,  or  pound 
them  in  a  mortar.  Your  cases  being  dry  and 
ready,  first  put  a  thimble  full  of  your  powder, 
and  rain  it  bard  down  with  a  ruler ;  then  fill  the 
case  to  the  top  with  the  aforesaid  mixture,  ram- 
ming it  hard  down  in  the  course  of  filling  two  or 

U  T 

Digitized  by  VjiUU*^lC 


290 


PYROTECHNY. 


three  times;  when  this  is  done  point  it  with 
touch-paper,  which  should  be  pasted  on  that  part 
which  touches  the  case,  otherwise  it  is  liable  to 
drop  off. 

%♦  The  apparatus  chiefly  used  in  makmg  fire- 
works consists  of  solid  wooden  cylinders,  called 
formers,  for  rolling  the  cases  on ;  similar  cylin- 
ders, either  of  wood  or  meta),  for  ramming  down 
the  composition;  moulds  for  holding  the  cases 
while  filling;  a  machine  for  contracting  the  ca- 
vity of  the  cases ;  another  for  grinding  the  mate- 
terials;  and  a  particular  apparatus  for  boring 
some  cases  aAer  they  are  filled. 

Imitative  Fikewokxs. 

Take  a  paper  that  is  blacked  on  both  sides,  or, 
instead  of  black,  the  paper  may  be  colored  on 
each  side  with  a  deep  blue,  which  will  be  still 
better  for  such  as  are  to  be  seen  through  trans- 
parent papers.  It  roust  be  of  a  proper  size  for 
the  figure  you  intend  to  exhibit.  In  this  paper 
cut  out  with  a  penknife  several  spaces,  and  with 
a  piercer  make  a  great  number  of  holes,  rather 
long  than  round,  and  at  no  regular  distance  from 
each  other. 

To  represent  revolving  pyramids  and  globes, 
the  paper  must  be  cut  through  with  a  penknife, 
and  the  space  cut  out  between  each  spiral  should 
be  three  or  four  times  as  wide  as  the  spirals 
themselves.  You  must  observe  to  cut  them  so 
that  the  pyramid  or  globe  may  appear  to  turn  on 
its  axis.  The  columns  that  are  represented  in 
pieces  of  architecture,  or  in  jets  of  fire,  must  be 
cut  in  the  same  manner,  if  they  are  to  be  repre- 
sented as  turning  on  their  axes.  In  like  manner 
may  be  exhibited  a  great  variety  of  ornaments, 
cyphers,  and  medallions,  which,  when  properly 
colored,  cannot  fail  of  producing  a  most  pleasing 
effect.  There  should  not  be  a  venr  great  diver- 
sity of  colors,  as  that  would  not  produce  the  most 
agreeable  appearance. 

When  these  pieces  are  drawn  on  a  large  scale, 
the  architecture  or  ornaments  may  be  shaded : 
and,  to  represent  different  shades,  pieces  of  color- 
ed paper  must  be  pasted  over  each  other,  which 
will  produce  an  effect  that  would  not  be  expect- 
ed trom  transparent  paintings.  Five  or  six 
pieces  of  paper  pasted  over  each  other  will  be 
sufficient  to  represent  the  strongest  shades. 

To  give  these  pieces  the  different  motions  they 
require,  you  must  first  consider  the  nature  of 
each  piece ;  if,  for  example,  you  have  cut  out 
the  figure  of  the  sun,  or  ot  a  star,  you  must  con- 
struct a  wire  wheel  of  the  same  diameter  with 
those  pieces ;  over  this  wheel  you  paste  a  very 
thin  paper,  on  which  is  drawn,  with  black  ink, 
the  spiral  figure.  The  wheel  dius  prepared  is 
to  be  placed  behind  the  'sun  or  star,  in  such  a 
manner  that  its  axis  may  be  exactly  opposite  the 
centre  of  either  of  those  figures.  This  wheel 
may  be  turned  by  any  method  vou  think  proper. 

Now,  the  wheel  being  placed  directly  behind 
the  sun,  for  example,  and  very  near  to  it,  is  to 
be  turned  regularly  round,  and  strongly  illumi- 
nated by  candles  placed  behind  it.  The  lines 
that  form  the  spiral  will  then  appear,  through  the 
spaces  cut  out  from  the  sun,  to  proceed  from  its 
centre  to  its  circumference^  and  will  resemble 


sparks  of  fire  that  incessantly  succeed  each  other. 
The  same  effect  will  be  produced  by  the  star,  or 
by  any  other  figure  where  the  fire  is  not  to  ap- 
pear as  proceeding  from  the  circumference  of  the 
centre. 

These  two  pieces,  as  well  as  those  that  follow, 
may  be  of  any  size,  provided  you  obser?e  the 
proportion  between  the  parts  of  the  figure  and 
the  spiral,  which  must  be  wider  in  larger  figures 
than  in  small.  If  the  sun,  for  example,  have 
from  six  to  twelve  inches  diameter,  the  width  of 
the  strokes  that  form  the  spiral  need  not  be  more 
than  one-twentieth  part  of  an  inch,  and  the  spaces 
between  them,  that  form  the  transparent  parts, 
about  two-tenths  of  an  inch.  If  the  sun  be  two 
feet  diameter,  the  strokes  should  be  one-eighth 
of  an  inch,  and  the  space  between  one-quarter 
of  an  inch  ;  and,  if  the  figure  be  six  feet  diameter, 
the  strokes  should  be  onenjuarter  of  an  inch  and 
the  spaces  five  twelfths  of  an  inch.  These  pieces 
have  a  pleasing  effect  when  represented  of  a 
small  size,  but  the  deception  is  more  striking 
when  they  are  of  large  dimensions. 

It  will  be  proper  to  place  those  pieces,  when 
of  a  snKtll  size,  in  a  box  quite  closed  on  eve^ 
side,  that  none  of  the  light  may  be  diffused  in 
the  chamber :  for  which  purpose  it  will  be  con- 
venient to  have  a  tin  door  oehind  the  box,  to 
which  the  candlesticks  may  be  soldered,  and  the 
candles  more  easily  lighted. 

The  several  figures  cut  out  should  be  placed 
in  frames,  that  they  may  be  put  alternately  in  a 
groove  in  the  fore-part  of  the  box ;  or  there  may 
be  two  grooves,  that  the  second  piece,  may  be 
put  in  before  the  first  is  taken  out. 

The  wheel  must  be  carefully  concealed  from 
the  eye  of  the  spectator. 

Where  there  is  an  opportimity  of  representing 
these  artificial  fires  by  a  hole  in  the  partition, 
they  will  doubtless  have  a  Inuch  more  striking 
effect,  as  the  spectator  cannot  then  conjecture  by 
what  means  they  are  produced. 

It  is  easy  to  conceive  that,  by  extending  this 
method,  wheels  may  be  constructed  with  three  or 
four  spirals,  to  which  may  be  given  different  di- 
rections. It  is  manifest,  also,  that  on  the  same 
principle  a  great  variety  of  transparent  fignres 
ma^  be  contrived,  and  which  may  be  all  placed 
before  the  same  spiral  lines. 

To  repretent  cascades  of  fire. — In  cutting  out 
cascades,  you  must  take  care  to  preserve  a  natu- 
ral inequality  in  the  parts  cut  out ;  for  if  to  save 
t*rae  you  should  make  all  the  holes  with  the  same 
pointed  tool,  the  uniformity  of  the  parts  will  not 
fail  to  produce  a  disagreeable  effect.  As  Uiese  cas- 
cades are  very  pleasing  when  well  executed,  so 
they  are  highly  disga sting  when  imperfect.  These 
are  the  most  difficult  pieces  to  cut  out 

To  produce  the  apparent  motion  of  these  cas- 
cades, instead  of  drawing  a  spiral  you  must  have 
a  slip  of  strong  paper,  of  such  length  as  yon 
judge  convenient.  In  this  paper  there  must  be 
a  great  number  of  holes  near  each  other,  and 
mside  with  pointed  tools  of  different  dimensions. 

At  each  end  of  the  paper,  a  part,  of  the  same 
size  with  the  cascade,  must  be  left  uncut;  and 
towards  those  parts  the  holes  roust  be  made  a 
greater  distance  from  each  other. 

When  the  cascade  that  is  cut  out  is  placed  be- 


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lore  the  scroll  of  ptper  just  mentioned,  and  it  is 
entirely  wotind  upon  the  roller,  the  part  of  the  pa- 
per diat  b  then  between  being  quite  opaque,  no 
part  of  the  cascade  will  be  visible ;  but,  as  the 
winch  is  turned  gently  and  regularly  round,  the 
transparent  part  of  the  paper  will  give  to  the 
cascade  the  appearance  of  lire  that  descends  in 
<he  same  direction;  and  the  illusion  will  be  so 
strong  that  the  spectators  will  think  they  see 
a  cascade  of  £re,  especially  if  the  figure  be 
judiciously  cut  out. 

PART  II. 

•  OF  ROCKET& 

Sect.  L— CoKSTRncricN  op  the  Cases. 

Rockets  may  be  regarded  as  the  grand  basis  of 
all  fire-works,  which  are  little  more  than  modifi- 
cations of  their  form,  and  of  the  materials  of 
which  they  usually  consist.  A  rocket  is  a  car- 
tridge or  case  made  of  stifi*  paper,  which  beioff 
filled  in  part  with  gunpowder,  saltpetre,  and 
charcoal,  rises  of  itsetf  into  the  air,  wnen  fire  is 
applied  to  it. 

There  are  three  sorts  of  rockets :  small  ones 
the  calibre  of  which  does  not  exceed  a  pound 
bullet;  that  is  to  say,  the  orifice  of  them  ise<}uai 
to  the  diameter  of  a  leaden  bullet  which  weighs 
only  a  pound ;  for  the  calibres  or  orifices  of  the 
moulds  or  the  models  used  in  making  rockets 
are  measured  by  the  diameters  of  leaden  bullets* 
Middle  sized  rockets,  equal  to  the  site  of  a  ball 
of  finom  one  to  three  pounds.  And  large  rockets^ 
equal  to  a  ball  of  from  three  to  100  pounds. 

To  give  the  cartridges  the  same  length  and 
thickness,  in  order  that  any  number  of  rockets 
may  be  prepared  of  the  same  size  and  force, 
they  are  put  into  a  hollow  cylinder  of  strong 
wood,  called  a  mould.  This  mould  is  sometimes 
of  metal ;  but  at  any  rate  it  ought  to  be  made  of 
some  very  hard  wood.  This  mould  must  not  be 
confounded  with  another  piece  of  wood,  called 
the  former  or  roller,  around  which  is  rolled  the 
thick  paper  employed  to  make  the  cartridge.  If 
the  calibre  of  the  mould  be  divided  into  eight 
equal  parts,  the  diameter  of  the  roller  must  be 
equal  to  Bve  of  these  parts.  The  vacuity  be- 
tween the  roller  and  the  interior  surface  of  the 
mould,  that  is  to  say  three-eighths  of  the  calibre 
of  the  mould,  will  be  exactly  filled  by  the  car^ 
tridge. 

At  rockeu  are  made  of  difierent  sizes,  moulds 
of  different  lengths  and  diameters  must  be  pro- 
vided. The  calibre  of  a  cannon  is  nothing  else 
than  the  diameter  of  its  mouth ;  and  we  here 
apply  the  same  term  to  the  diameter  of  the  aper- 
tUTe  of  the  mould.  The  size  of  the  mould  is 
measured  by  its  calibre ;  but  the  length  of  the 
moulds  ibr  different  rockets  does  not  always  bear 
the  same  proportion  to  the  calibre,  the  length 
being  diminished  as  the  calibre  is  increased.  The 
length  of  the  mould  for  small  rockets  ought  to 
be  six  times  the  calibre,  but  for  rockets  of  the 
mean  and  larger  size  it  will  be  sufficient  if  the 
length  of  the  mould  be  five  times  or  four  times 
the  calibre  of  the  moulds.  We  shall  give  two 
tables,  one  of  which  contains  the  calibres  of 
below  a  pound  bullet;  and  the  other 


the  calibres  firom  a  pound  to  100  pounds  bullet. 

For  making  the  cartridges,  large  stiff  paper  is 
employed.  This  paper  is  wr&pped  round  the 
roller,  and  tlien  cemented  by  means  of  common 
paste.  The  thickness  of  the  paper,  when  rolled 
up  in  this  manner,  ought  to  be  about  one-eighth 
and  a  half  of  the  calibre  of  the  mould,  accord- 
ing to  tlie  proportion  given  to  the  diameter  of  the 
roller.  But,  if  the  diameter  of  the  roller  be  made 
equal  to  three-fourths  the  calibre  of  the  mould, 
the  thickness  of  the  cartridge  must  be  a  twelfth 
and  a  half  of  that  calibre.  When  the  cartridge 
is  formed,  the  roller  is  drawn  out,  by  turning  it 
round,  until  it  is  distant  from  the  edge  of  the  car- 
tridge the  length  of  its  diameter.  A  piece  of 
cord  is  then  made  to  pass  twice  round  the  car- 
tridge at  the  extremity  of  the  roller.  And  into 
the  vacuity  left  in  the  cartridge  another  roller 
is  introduced,  so  as  to  leave  some  space  be- 
tween the  two.  One  end  of  the  pack-thread 
must  be  fiistened  to  something  fixed,  and  the 
other  to  a  stick  conveyed  between  the  legs,  and 
placed  in  such  a  manner  as  to  be  behind  the 
person  who  chokes  the  cartridge.  The  cord  is 
then  to  be  stretched  by  retiring  backwards,  and 
the  cartridge  most  be  pinched  until  there  remains 
only  an  aperture  capable  of  admitting  the  piercer. 
The  cora  employed  for  pinching  it  is  then  re- 
moved, and  its  place  is  supplied  by  a  piece  of 
pack-thread,  which  must  be  drawn  veiy  tight, 
passing  it  several  times  round  the  cartridge,  aiter 
which  it  is  secured  by  means  of  running  knots 
made  one  above  the  other. 

Besides  the  roller,  a  rod  is  used,  which  being 
employed  to  load  the  cartridge,  must  be  some-, 
what  smaller  than  the  roller,  in  order  that  it  may 
be  easily  introduced  into  the  cartridge.  The  rod 
is  pierced  lengtliwise,  to  a  sufficient  depth  to  re- 
ceive the  piercer,  which  must  enter  into  the 
mould,  ana  unite  with  it  exactly  at  its  lower 
part.  The  piercer,  which  decreases  in  size,  is  in- 
troduced into  the  cartridge  through  the  part 
where  it  has  been  choked,  and  serves  to  pre- 
serve a  cavity  within  it  Its  length,  besides  the 
nipple  or  button,  must  be  equal  to  about  two- 
thirds  that  of  the  mould.  Lastly,  if  the  thick- 
ness of  the  base  be  a  fourth  part  of  the  calibre 
of  the  mould,  the  pomt  must  be  made  equa)  to  a 
sixth  of  the  calibre.  It  is  evident  there  must  be 
at  least  three  rods,  pierced  in  proportion  to  the 
diminution  of  the  piercer,  in  order  that  the  pow- 
der whic^  is  rammed  in  by  means  of  a  mallet, 
may  be  uniformly  packed  throughout  the  whole 
length  of  the  rocket  It  may  be  easily  perceived, 
also,  that  these  rods  ought  to  be  made  of  some 
very  hard  wood,  to  resist  the  strokes  of  the 
mallet 

In  loading  rockets  it  is  more  convenient  not  to 
employ  a  piercer.  When  loaded  on  a  nipple, 
vrithout  a  piercer,  by  means  of  one  massy  rod, 
they  are  pierced  with  a  bit  and  a  piercer  fitted 
into  the  end  of  a  bit-brace.  Care  however  must 
be  taken  to  make  this  hole  suited  to  the  propor- 
tion assigned  for  the  diminution  of  the  piercer.  * 
That  is  to  say,  the  extremity  of  the  hole,  at  the 
choked  part  of  the  cartridge,  ought  to  be  about 
a  fourth  of  the  calibre  of  the  mould ;  and  the 
extremity  of  the  hole  which  is  in  the  inside  fcr 

U2 


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PYROTECHNY. 


about  two-thirds  of  the  leogth  of  the  rocket 
ought  to  be  a  sixth  of  the  calibre.  This  hole 
must  pass  directly  through  the  middle  of  the 
rocket.  In  short,  experience  and  ingenuity  wiU 
suggest  what  is  most  convenient,  and  in  what 
manner  the  method  of  loading  rodiets,  which  we 
shall  here  explain,  may  be  Taried. 

After  the  cartridge  is  placed  in  the  mould, 
pour  gradually  into  it  the  prepared  composition ; 
taking  care  to  pour  only  two  spoonfuls  at  a  time, 
and  to  ram  it  immediately  down  with  the  rod, 
striking  it  in  a  perpendicular  direction  with  a 
mallet  of  a  proper  size,  and  giWng  an  eauai 
number  of  strokes,  for  example,  three  or  tour 
each  time  that  a  new  quantity  of  the  composition 
is  poured  in.  When  the  cartridge  is  about  half 
filled,  separate  wiA  a  bodkin  the  half  of  the 
folds  of  the  paper  which  remains,  and,  having 
turned  them  back  on  the  composition,  press 
them  down  with  the  rod  and  a  few  strokes  of  the 
mallet,  in  order  to  compress  the  paper  on  the 
composition.  Then  pierce  three  or  four  holes 
in  the  folded  paper,  by  means  of  a  piercer, 
which  must  be  made  to  penetrate  to  the  compo- 
sition of  the  rocket.  These  holes  serve  to  form 
a  communication  between  the  body  of  the  rocket 
and  the  vacuity  at  the  extremity  of  the  cartridge, 
or  that  part  which  has  been  left  empty. 

In  small  rockets  this  vacuity  is  filled  with  gra- 
nulated powder,  which  serves  to  let  them  ofi": 
they  are  then  covered  with  paper,  and  pinched 
in  the  same  manner  as  at  the  other  extremity.  But 
in  other  rockets,  the  pot  containing  stars,  ser- 
pents, and  running  rockets,  is  adapted  to  it,  as 
will  be  shown  hereafter.  It  may  be  sufficient 
however  to  make,  with  a  bit  or  piercer,  only  one 
hole,  which  must  be  neither  too  large  nor  too 
small,  such  as  a  fourth  part  of  the  diameter  of 
the  rocket,  to  set  fire  to  tne  powder,  taking  care 
that  this  hole  be  as  straight  as  possible,  and  ex- 
actly in  the  middle  of  the  composition.  A  little 
of  the  composition  of  the  rocket  must  be  put 
into  these  holes,  that  the  fire  may  not  fail  to  be 
communicated  to  it. 

It  now  remains  to  fix  the  rocket  to  its  rod, 
which  is  done  in  the  following  manner :— When 
the  rocket  has  been  constructed  as  above  de- 
scribed, make  fast  to  it  a  rod  of  light  wood,  such 
as  fir  or  willow,  broad  and  flat  at  the  end  next 
the  rocket,  and  decreasing  towards  the  other.  It 
must  be  as  straight  and  tree  from  knou  as  pos- 
sible, and  ought  to  be  dressed,  if  necessary,  with 
a  plane.  Its  length  and  weight  must  be  propor- 
tioned to  the  rocket;  that  is  to  say,  it  ought  to  be 
six,  seven,  or  eight  feet  long,  so  as  to  remain  in 
equilibrium  with  it,  when  suspended  on  the 
finger,  within  an  inch,  or  an  inch  and  a  half  of 
the  neck.  Before  it  is  fired,  place  it  with  the 
neck  downwards,  and  let  it  rest  on  two  nails,  in 
a  direction  perpefidicular  to  the  horizon.  To 
make  it  ascend  straighter  and  to  a  greater  height, 
adapt  to  its  summit  a  pointed  cap  or  top,  made 
of  common  paper,  which  will  serve  to  nicilitate 
its  passage  through  the  air. 

These  rockets,  in  general,  are  made  in  a  more 
complex  manner,  several  other  things  being 
added  to  them  to  render  them  more  agreeable, 
such  for  example  as  a  petard,  which  is  a  box  of 


tin-plate,  filled  with  fine  gunpowder^  placed  on 
the  summit  The  petard  is  deposited  on  the  com- 
position, at  the  end  where  it  has  been  filled; 
and  the  remaining  paper  of  the  cartridge  is  folded 
down  over  it  to  keep  it  firm.  The  petard  pro- 
duces its  effiect  when  the  rocket  is  in  the  air  and 
the  composition  is  consumed. 

Stars,  golden  rain,  serpents,  saocissons,  and 
several  other  amusing  things,  may  also^  as  we 
have  seen,  be  added  to  them.  This  is  done  by 
adjusting  to  the  head  of  the  rocket,  an  empty 
pot  or  cartridge,  much  larger  than  the  rocket,  in 
order  that  it  may  contain  serpents,  stars,  and 
various  other  appendages,  to  render  it  more  beau- 
tiful. 

Rockets  may  be  made  to  rise  into  the  air 
without  rods.  For  this  purpose  four  wings  must 
be  attached  to  them  in  tne  form  of  a  cross,  and 
similar  to  those  seen  on  arrows  or  darts.  In 
length,  these  wings  must  be  equal  to  two-thirds 
that  of  the  rocket;  their  breadth  towards  the 
bottom  should  be  half  their  length,  and  their 
thickness  ought  to  be  equal  to  that  of  a  card. 
But  this  metliod  of  making  rockets  ascend  is  less 
certain,  and  more  inconvenient,  than  that  where 
a  rod  is  used ;  and  for  this  reasonitis  rarely  em- 
ployed. 

We  shall  now  show  the  method  of  finding  the 
diameters  or  calibre  of  rockets,  according  to 
their  weight ;  but  we  must  first  observe  that  a 
pound  rocket  is  that  just  capable  of  admitting  a 
leaden  bullet  of  a  pound  weight,  and  so  of  the 
rest  The  calibre  for  the  different  sizes  may  be 
found  by  the  two  following  tables,  one  of  which 
is  calculated  for  rockets  of  a  pound  weight  and 
below ;  and  the  other  for  those  from  a  pound 
weight  to  fifty  pounds. 

I.  Table  of  the  calibre  of  moulds  of  a  pound 
weight  and  below 


Ounces. 

Lines. 

Drachms. 

Lints. 

16 

19i 

14 

7* 

12 

17 

12 

7 

8 

15 

10 

H 

7 

14f 

8 

H 

6 

14i 

•6 

H 

5 

13 

4 

*k 

4 

12* 

2 

H 

3 

11* 

2 

9i 

1 

61 

The  use  of  this  table  will  be  undentood 
merely  by  inspection;  for  it  is  evident  that  a 
rocket  of  twelve  ounces  ought  to  be  seventeen 
lines  in  diameter;  one  of  eight  ounces,  fifteen 
lines  ;  one  often  drachms^  six  lines  and  one-third ; 
and  so  of  the  rest.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the 
diameter  of  the  rocket  be  given,  it  will  be  easy 
to  find  the  weiffht  of  the  ball  corresponding  to 
that  calibre.  For  example,  if  the  diameter  be 
thirteen  lines,  it  will  be  immediately  seen,  by 
looking  for  that  number  in  the  column  of  lines» 
that  it  corresponds  to  a  ball  of  five  ounces. 


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PYROTECHNY. 

II.  Tablb  of  the  calibie  of  moulds  from  one  to  fifty  pounds  ball. 


293 


Pounds. 

Calibie. 

Founds. 

Calibre. 

Pounds. 

Calibre. 

Pounds. 

Calibre. 

1 

100 

14 

241 

27 

300 

40 

341 

2 

126 

15 

247 

28 

304 

41 

344 

3 

144 

16 

252 

29 

307 

42 

347 

4 

158 

17 

257 

30 

310 

43 

350 

5 

171 

18 

262 

31 

314 

44 

353 

6 

181 

19 

267 

32 

317 

45 

355 

r 

191 

20 

271 

33 

320 

46 

358 

8 

200 

21 

275 

34' 

823 

47 

361 

9 

208 

22 

280 

35 

326 

48 

363 

10 

215 

23 

284 

36 

330 

49 

366 

11 

222 

24 

288 

37 

333 

50 

368 

12 

228 

25 

292 

38 

336 

13 

235 

26 

296 

39 

389 

The  use  of  the  second  table  is  as  follows  :-^If  the 
weight  of  the  ball  be  giTeo,  which  we  shall  suppose 
to  lx»  twenty-four  pounds,  seek  for  that  number 
in  the  column  of  pounds,  and  opposite  to  it,  in 
the  column  of  calibres,  will  be  found  the  number 
288.  Hien  say,  as  100  is  to  nineteen  and  a  half 
so  is  288  to  a  fourth  term,  which  will  be  the 
number  of  lines  of  the  calibre  required;  or 
multiply  the  number  found,  that  is  288,  by  nine- 
teen and  a  half,  and  from  the  product,  56*16,  cut 
off  the  last  two  figures:  the  required  calibre 
therefore  will  be  56-16  lines,  or  four  inches  eight 
lines. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  calibre  being  giren  in 
lines,  the  weight  of  Uie  ball  m^  be  found  with 
equal  ease:  if  the  calibre,  for  example,  be 
twenty-eight  Ihies,  say  as  nineteen  and  a  half  is 
to  twenty-eight  so  is  100  to  a  fourth  term,  which 
will  be  143-5  or  nearly  144.  But  in  the  above 
table,  opposite  to  144  in  the  second  colnmn,  will 
be  found  the  number  three  in  the  first;  which 
shows  that  a  rocket,  the  diameter  or  calibre  of 
which  is  twenty-eight  lines,  is  a  rocket  of  a  three 
pounds  ball. 

Sect.  II. — Composition  of  the  Powder  for 
Rockets,  akd  the  mode  of  filling  them. 

The  composition  of  the  powder  for  rockets 
must  be  different,  according  to  the  different 
sixes;  as  that  proper  for  small  rockets  would  be 
tM>  strong  for  large  ones.  This  is  a  ftict  respect- 
ing which  almost'  all  the  makers  of  fire-works 
are  agreed.  The  quantities  of  the  ingredients 
which  experience  has  shown  to  be  the  best  are 
as  follow : — 

For  roehas  ctpable  of  coniaiiung  one  or  ttoo 
ounoa  of  compoSitum. — To  one  pound  of  gun- 
powder add  two  ounces  of  soft  charcoal ;  or  tc^one 
pound  -of  gunpowder  a  pound  of  the  coarse 
powder  used  for  cannon-;  or  to  nine  ounces  of 
gunpowder  two  ounces  of  charcoal;  or  to  a 
poimd  of  gunpowder  an  ounce  and  a  half  of 
saltpetre,  and  as  much  charcoal. 

For  rodseU  of  iwo  or  three  oimees, — ^To  four 
ounces  oi  gunpoiHrder  add  an  ounce  of  charcoal ; 
or  to  nine  ounces  of  gunpowder  add  two  ounces 
of  saltpetre. 

For  a  rocket  of  four  otmcet* — To  four  pounds 
of  gunpowder  add  a  pound  of  saltpetre  and  four 
( uncet  of  charcoal :  you  msy  add  also,  if  you 


choose,  half  an  ounce  of  sulphur ;  or  to  one 
pound  two  ounces  and  a  half  of  gunpowder  add 
four  ounces  of  saltpetre  and  two  ounces  of  char- 
coal ;  or  to  a  pound  of  powder  add  four  ounces 
of  saltpetre  and  one  ounce  of  charcoal ;,  or  to 
seventeen  ounces  of  gunpowder  add  four  ounces 
of  saltpetre  and  the  same  quantity  of  charcoal ; 
or  to  three  ounces  and  a  half  of  gunpowder  add 
ten  ounces  of  saltpetre  and  three  ounces  and  a 
half  of  charcoal.  But  the  composition  will  be 
strongest  if  to  ten  ounces  of  gunpowder  you  add 
three  ounces  and  a  half  of  saltpetre  and  three 
ounce)  of  charcoal. 

For  a  rocket  of  five  or  nx  ounces, — To  two 
pounds  five  ounces  of  gunpowder  add  half  a 
pound  of  saltpetre,  two  ounces  of  sulphur,  six 
ounces  of  charcoal,  and  two  ounces  of  iron 
filings. 

For  rocJ^tM  of  teven  or  eight  ounea. — ^To 
seventeen  ounces  of  gunpowder  add  four  ounces 
6f  saltpetre  and  three  ounces  of  sulphur. 

For  rockett  of  from  eight  to  ten  ounces. — ^To 
two  pounds  and  nve  ounces  of  gunpowder  add 
half  a  pound  of  saltpetre,  two  ounces  of  sulphur, 
seven  ounces  of  charcoal,  and  three  ounces  of 
iron  filings. 

For  rejects  of  from  ten  to  ttoehe  ounces, — ^To 
seventeen  ounces  of  gunpowder  add  four  ounces 
of  saltpetre,  three  ounces  and  a  half  of  sulphur, 
ttad  one  ounce  of  charcoal. 

For  rockets  cf  from  fourteen  to  fifteen  ounces. 
— To  two  pounds  four  ounces  of  gunpowder  add 
nine  ounces  of  saltpetre,  three  ounces  of  sulphur, 
five  ounces  of  charcoal,  and  three  ounces  or  iron 
filings. 

For  rockets  of  one  pound.-^To  one  pound  of 
gunpowder  add  one  ounce  of  sulphur  and  three 
ounces  of  charcoal. 

For  a  rocket  of  two  vowids. — ^To  one  pound 
four  ounces  of  gunpowaer  add  two  ounces  of 
saltpetre,  one  ounce  of  sulphur,  three  ounces  of 
charcoal,  and  two  ounces  of  iron  filings. 

For  a  rocket  of  three  pounds, — ^To  Airtjr  ounces 
of  saltpetre  ada  seven  ounces  and  a  half  of  sul- 
phur and  eleven  ounces  of  charcoal. 

For  rockets  offour,  five,  six,  or  seven  pounds. 
— ^To  thirty-one  pounds  of  saltpetre  add  four 
pounds  and  a  halt  of  sulphur  ana  ten  pounds  of 
charcoal. 

For  rockets  of  eight,  nine,  or  ten  pounds.^ 


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To  eight  poands  of  saltpetre  add  one  pound  four 
ounces  of  sulphur  and  two  pounds  tweWe 
ounces  of  charcoal. 

We  shall  here  observe,  that  these  insredients 
must  be  each  pounded  separately  and  sifted; 
they  are  then  to  be  weighed  and  mixed  together, 
for  the  purpose  of  loading  the  cartridges,  which 
ought  to  be  kept  ready  in  the  moulds.  The  car* 
triages  must  be  made  of  strong  paper,  doubled, 
and  cemented  by  means  of  strong  paste,  made  of 
fine  floor  and  very  pure  water. 

Of  Matches. — Before  we  proceed  farther  it 
will  be  proper  to  describe  the  composition  of  the 
matches  necessary  for  letting  the  rockets  off. 
Take  linen,  hemp,  or  cotton  thread,  and  double 
it  eight  or  ten  times,  if  intended  for  large 
rockets ;  or  only  four  or  five  times,  if  to  be  em- 
ployed for  stars.  When  the  match  has  been  thus 
made  as  large  as  necessary,  dip  it  in  pure  water, 
and  press  it  between  your  hands,  to  free  it  from 
the  moisture.  Mix  some  gunpowder  with  a  little 
water,  to  reduce  it  to  a  sort  of  paste,  and  immerse 
the  match  in  it,  turning  and  twisting  it  till  it  has 
imbibed  a  sufficient  quantity  of  the  powder; 
then  sprinkle  over  it  a  little  dry  powder,  or  strew 
some  pulverised  dry  powder  upon  a  smooth 
board,  and  roll  the  match  over  it.  By  these 
means  you  will  have  an  excellent  match ;  which 
if  dried  in  the  sun,  or  on  a  rope  in  the  shaded 
will  be  fit  for  use. 

Sect.  III.— Foamation  of  Rockets. 

The  upper  part  of  rockets  is  generalfy  fur- 
nished with  some  composition,  which  takes  fire 
when  it  has  reached  to  its  greatest  height,  emits 
a  considerable  blaze,  or  produces  a  loud  report 
and  whizzing  noise.  Of  this  kind  are  saucissons, 
maroons,  stars,  showers  of  fire,  &c  To  make 
room  for  an  artifice  of  this  kind,* the  rocket 
is  crowned  with  a  part  of  greater '  diameter 
called  a  pot.  The  loUowing  is  the  method  of 
making  this  pot,  and  connecting  it  with  the 
rocket : — 

The  mould  for  forming  the  pot,  though  of  one 
piece,  must  consist  of  two  cylindric  parts  of 
different  diameters.  That  on  which  the  pot  is 
rolled  up  must  be  three  diameters  of  the  rocket 
in  length,  and  its  diameter  must  be  three-fourths 
that  o^  the  rocket ;  the  length  of  the  other  ought 
to  be  equal  to  two  of  these  diameters,  and  its 
diameter  to  seven-fiflhs  that  of  the  rocket.  Having 
rolled  the  thick  paper,  intended  for  making  the 
pot,  twice  round  the  cylinder,  a  portion  of  it 
must  be  pinched  in  that  part  of  the  cylinder 
which  has  the  least  diameter:  this  part  must  be 
pared  in  such  a  manner  as  to  leave  only  what  is 
necessary  for  making  the  pot  fast  to  the  top  of 
the  rocket,  and  the  ligature  must  be  covered  with 
paper. 

To  charge  such  a  pot,  attached  to  a  rocket. 
Having  pierced  three  or  four  holes  in  the  double 
paper  which  covers  the  vacuity  of  the  rocket, 
pour  over  it  a  small  quantity  of  the  composition 
with  which  the  rocket  is  filled,  and  by  shaking 
it  make  a  part  enter  these  holes ;  then  arrange, 
in  the  pot,  the  composition  with  which  it  is  to  be 
charged,  taking  care  not  to  introduce  into  it  a 
quantity  heavier  than  the  body  of  the  rocket. 
The  whole  must  be  secured  by  means  of  a  few 


small  balls  of  paper,  and  the  pot  covered  with 
paper  cemented  to  its  edses :  let  a  pointed  sum- 
mit be  added  to  it,  and  the  rocket  b  fit  for  nae. 

We  shall  now  give  an  account  of  the  different 
artifices  with  which  such  rockets  are  loaded. 

1.  Of  tarpetiU. — Serpents  are  small  flying 
rockets  without  rods,  which,  instead  of  rising  in  a 
perpendicular  direction,  mount  obliquely,  and 
fall  back  in  a  zig-zag  form  without  ascending  to 
a  great  height  The  composition  of  them  is 
nearly  the  same  as  that  of  rockets ;  and  therefore 
nothing  more  is  necessary  than  to  determine  the 
proportion  and  construction  of  the  cartridge, 
which  is  as  follows : — The  length  of  the  cartridge 
may  be  about  four  inches;  it  must  be  rolled 
round  a  stick  somewhat  larger  than  the  barrel  of 
a  goose-quill,  and,  afker  being  choked  at  one  of 
its  ends,  fill  it  with  the  composition  a  little  be- 
yond its  middle,  and  then  pinch  it  so  as  to  leave 
a  small  aperture.  The  remainder  must  be  filled 
with  grained  powder,  which  will  make  a*  report 
when  it  bursts.  Lastly,  choke  the  cartridge  en- 
tirely towards  the  extremity ;  and  at  the  other 
extremity  place  a  train  of  moist  powder,  to  which, 
if  fire  be  applied,  it  will  be  communicated  to  the 
composition,  and  cause  the  whole  to  rise  in  the 
air.  The  serpent,  as  it  falls,  will  make  several 
turns  in  a  zig-zag  direction,  till  the  fire  is  com- 
municated to  the  grained  powder;  on  which  it 
will  burst  with  a  loud  report  before  it  falls  to  the 
ground. 

If  the  serpent  be  not  choked  towards  the  mid- 
dle, instead  of  moving  in  a  zig-zag  direction,  it 
will  ascend  and  descend  with  an  undulating  mo- 
tion, and  then  burst  as  before.  The  cartridges  of 
serpents  are  generally  made  with  playing  cards. 
These  cards  are  rolled  round  a  rod  of  iron  or 
hard  wood,  a  little  larger,  as  already  said,  than 
the  barrel  of  a  goose-quill.  To  confine  the  card, 
a  piece  of  strong  paper  is  cemented  over  it.  The 
length  of  the  mould  must  be  proportioned  to 
that  of  the  cards  employed,  and  the  piercer  of 
the  nipple  must  be  three  or  four  lines  m  length. 
These  serpents  are  loaded  with  bruised  powder, 
mixed  only  with  a  very  small  'quantity  of  char- 
coal. To  introduce  the  composition  into  the 
cartridge,  a  quill,  cut  into  the  form  of  a  spoon, 
may  be  employed;  it  must  be  rammed  down  by 
means  of  a  small  rod,  to  which  a  few  strokes  are 
given  with  a  small  mallet. 

When  the  serpent  is  half  loaded,  instead  of 
pinching  it  in  that  part,  you  may  introduce  into 
it  a  vetch  seed,  and  place  granulated  powder 
above  it  to  fill  up  the  remainder.  Above  this 
powder  place  a  small  pellet  of  chewed  paper, 
and  then  choke  the  other  end  of  the  cartriage. 
If  you  are  desirous  of  making  larger  serpents, 
cement  two  playing  cards  together;  and,  that 
they  may  be  mana^  with  more  ease,  moisten 
them  a  little  with  water.  The  match  consists  of 
a  paste  made  of  bruised  powder,  and  a  small 
quantity  of  water. 

2.  Marrams. — Marroons  are  small  cubical 
boxes,  filled  with  a  composition  proper  for 
making  them  burst,  and  may  be  constructed  with 
great  ease. 

Cut  a  piece  of  pasteboard,  according  to  the 
method  taught  in  geometry  to  form  Uie  cube ; 
ioin  these  squares  at  the  eclges,  leaving  only  one 


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295 


to  be  cemented,  and  fill  the  carity  of  the  cube 
with  grained  powder ;  then  cement  strong  paper 
in  various  directions  over  this  body ;  and  wrap 
round  it  two  rows  of  pack-thread,  dipped  in 
strong  glue ;  then  make  a  hole  in  one  of  the  cor- 
ners, and  introduce  into  it  a  match.  If  you  are 
desirous  to  have  luminous  marroons,  that  is  to 
say,  marroons  which,  before  they  burst  in  the 
air,  emit  a  brilliant  light,  cover  them  with  a  paste 
the  composition  of  which  will  be  given  hereafter 
for  stars ;  and  roll  them  in  pulverised  gunpowder 
to  serve  as  a  match  or  communication. 

3.  SaucitMom, — Marroons  and  saucissons  differ 
from  each  other  only  in  their  form.  The  car- 
tridges of  the  latter  are  round,  and  must  be  only 
four  times  their  exterior  diameter  in  length. 
They  are  choked  at  one  end  in  the  same  manner 
as  a  rocket ;  and  a  pellet  of  paper  is  driven  into 
the  aperture  which  has  been  left,  in  order  to  fill 
it  up.  They  are  then  charged  with  grained 
powder,  above  which  is  placed  a  ball  of  paper 
gently  pressed  down,  to  prevent  the  powder  from 
being  bruised ;  the  second  end  of  the  saucisson 
being  afterwards  choked,  the  edges  are  pared 
00  both  sides,  and  the  whole  b  covered  with 
several  turns  of  pack-thread,  dipped  in  strong 
glae,  and  then  left  to  dry.  When  you  are  de- 
sirous of  charging  them,  pierce  a  hole  in  one  of 
the  ends,  and  apply  a  match,  in  the  same  man- 
ner as- marroons. 

4.  iSfors.— Stars  are  small  globes  of  a  compo- 
sition which  enaits  a  brilliant  light,  which  may 
he  compared  to  the  light  of  the  stars  in  the  hea- 
vens. These  balls  are  not  larger  than  a  nutmeg 
or  musket  bullet,  and  when  put  into  the  rockets 
must  be  wrapped  up  in  tow,  prepared  for  that 
purpose.  The  composition  of  these  stars  is  as 
^ollo?rs  : — ^To  a  pound  of  fine  gunpowder  well 
pulverised  add  four  pounds  of  saltpetre,  and  two 
pounds  of  sulphur.  When  these  ingredients  are 
tboronghly  incorporated,  take  about  the  size  of  a 
nutmeg  of  this  mixture,  and  having  wrapt  it  up  in 
a  piece  of  linen  rag,  or  of  paper,  form  it  into  a 
ball;  dien  tie  it  closely  round  with  a  packthread, 
tod  pierce  a  hole  through  the  middle  of  it,  suffi- 
ciently large  to  receive  a  piece  of  prepared  to«, 
which  will  serve  as  a  match.  This  star,  when 
lighted,  will  exhibit  a  most  beautiful  appearance ; 
heiides  the  fire,  as  it  issues  from  the  two  ends  of 
the  hole  in  the  middle,  will  extend  to  a  greater 
distance,  and  make  it  appear  much  larger. 

If  you  are  desirous  to  employ  a  moist  compo- 
sition in  the  form  of  a  paste,  instead  of  a  dry 
one,  it. will  not  be  necessary  to  wrap  up  the 
•tar  in  any  thing  but  prepared  tow ;  because, 
when  made  of  such  paste,  it  can  retain  its  sphe- 
rical figure.  There  will  be  no  need  also  of 
piercing  a  bole  in  it,  to  receive  the  match ;  be- 
cause, when  newly  made,  and  consequently 
moist,  it  may  be  rolled  in  pulverised  gunpowder, 
which  willadhere  to  it.  Thispowder,when  kindled, 
will  serve  as  a  match,  and  inflame  the  composi- 
tion of  the  star,  whiclk  in  falling  will  form  itself 
into  tears. 

Another  method  of  making  rockets  unth  stan.-^ 
Mix  three  ounces  of  saltpetre,  with  one*  ounce 
of  sulphur,  and  two  drachms  of  pulverised  gun- 
powder; or  mix  four  ounces  of  sulphur  with 
ne  same  Quantity  of  saltpetre  and  eight  ounces 


of  pulverised  gunpowder.  When  these  materials 
have  been  well  sifted,  besprinkle  them  with 
brandy,  in  which  a  little  gum  has  been  dissolved, 
and  then  make  up  the  star  in  the  following  man- 
ner :— Take  a  rocket  mould,  eight  or  nine  lines 
in  diameter,  and  introduce  into  it  a  nipple,  the 
piercer  of  which  is  of  a  uniform  size  throughout, 
and  equal  in  length  to  the  height  of  the  mould. 
Put  into  this  mould  a  cartridge,  and  by  means  of 
a  pierced  rod  load  it  with  one  of  the  preceding 
compositions  ;  when  loaded,  take  it  from  the 
mould,  without  removing  the  nipple,  the  piercer 
of  which  passes  through  the  composition,  and 
then  cut  the  cartridge  quite  round  into  pieces  of 
the  thickness  of  three  or  four  lines.  The  car- 
tridge being  thus  cut,  draw  out  the  piercer 
gently,  and  the  pieces,  which,  resemble  the  men 
employed  for  playing  at  drafts,  pierced  through 
the  middle,  will  be  stars,  which  must  be  filed 
on  a  match  thread,  which,  if  you  choose,  may  be 
covered  with  tow. 

To  give  more  brilliancy  to  stars  of  this  kind,, 
a  cartridge  thicker  than  the  above  dimensions, 
and  thinner  than  that  of  a  flying  rocket  of  the 
same  size,  may  be  employed ;  but,  before  it  v^ 
cut  into  pieces,  five  or  six.  holes  must  be  pierced 
in  the  circumference  of  each  piece  to  oe^  cut 
When  the  cartridge  is  cdXy  and  the  pieces  have 
been  filled,  cement  over  the  composition  small, 
bits  of  card,  each  having  a  hole  in  the  middle, 
so  that  these  boles  may  correspond  to  the  place 
where  the  composition  is  pierced. 

Remarks. — 1.  There  are  several  other  methods 
of  making  stars,  which  it  would  be  too  tedious 
to  describe.  We  shall  therefore  only  show  how 
to  make  ^toUes  i  pet,  or  stars  which  give  a  report 
as  loud  as  that  of  a  pistol  or  musket.  Make 
small  saucissons,  as  taught  in  the  third  section ; 
only  It  vrill  not  be  necessary  to  cover  them  with, 
pack-thread :  it  will  be  sufficient  if  they  are 
pierced  at  one  end,  in  order  that  you  may  tie  to 
It  a  star  constructed  according  to  the  first  method, 
the  composition  of  which  is  dry ;  for,  if  the  com- 
position be  in  the  form  of  a  paste,  there  will  be 
no  need  to  tie  it.  Nothing  will  be  necessary  in 
that  case  but  to  leave  a  little  more  of  the  paper 
hollow  at  the  end  of  the  saucisson  which  nas 
been  pierced,  for  the  purpose  of  introducing  the 
composition ;  and  to  place  in  the  vacuity,  to- 
wards the  neck  of  the  saucisson,  some  grained 
powder,  which  will  communicate  fire  to  the  sau- 
cisson when  ^e  composition  is  consumed. 

2.  As  there  are  some  stars  which  in  the  end 
become  petard^,  others  may  be  made  which  shall 
conclude  with  becoming  serpents.  But  this  may 
be  so  easily  conceived  and  carried  into  execution 
that  it  would  be  losing  time  to  enlarge  further 
on  the  subject.  We  shall  only  observe  that  these 
stars  are  not  in  use,  because  it  is  difficult  for  a 
rocket  to  carry  them  to  a  considerable  height  in 
the  air  :  they  diminish  the  effect  of  the  rocket 
or  saucisson,  and  much  time  is  required  to  make 
them. 

Sect.  IV. — Of  Courantins  or  Rockets 

WHICH   FLY   ALONG   A   RoPE. 

A  common  rocket,  which  however  ought  not 
to  be  very  large,  may  be  made  to  run  al  >ng  an 
extended  rope.    For  t^iis  purpose  affix  to  thei 


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PYROTECHNY. 


rocket  an  empty  cartridge,  and  introduce  into  it 
the  rope  which  is  to  carry  it ;  placing  the  head 
of  the  rocket  towards  that  side  on  which  you  in- 
tend it  to  more:  if  you  then  set  fire  to  the 
rocket,  adjusted  in  thb  manner,  it  will  run  along 
the  rope  without  stopping,  till  the  matter  it  con^ 
tains  is  entirely  exhausted.  If  you  are  desirous 
that  the  rocket  should  more  in  a  retrograde  di- 
rection ;  first  fill  one-half  of  it  with  the  compo- 
sition, and  coTer  it  with  a  small  round  piece  of 
wood,  to  serve  as  a  partition  between  it  and  that 
put  into  the  other  half;  then  make  a  hole  below 
this  partition,  so  as  to  correspond  with  a  small 
canal  filled  with  bruised  powdety  and  terminating 
at  tlte  other  end  of  the  rocket :  by  these  means 
the  fire,  when  it  ceases  in  the  first  half  of  the 
rocket,  will  be  communicated  through  the  hole 
into  the  small  canal,  which  will  convey  it  to  the 
other  end ;  and,  this  end  being  then  kindled,  the 
rocket  will  move  backwards,  and  return  to  the 
place  from  which  it  set  out. 

Two  rockets  of  equal  size;  bound  together  by 
means  of  a  piece  of  strong  pack-thread,  and' dis- 
posed in  such  a  manner  that  the  head  of  the 
one  shall  be  opposite  to  the  neck  of  the  other, 
that  when  the  fire  has  consumed  the  composition 
in  the  one  it  may  be  communicated  to  that  in 
the  other^  and  oblige  both  of  them  to  move  in  a 
retrograde  direction,  may  also  be  adjusted  to  the 
rope  by  means  of  a  piece  of  hollow  reed.  But, 
to  prevent  the  fire  ot  the  former  from  being  com- 
municated to  tlie  second  too  soon,  they  ought  to 
be  covered  with  oil-cloth,  or  to  be  wrapped  up 
in  paper. 

iZmorft.— Rockets  of  this  kind  are  generally 
employed  for  setting  fire  to  various  other  pieces 
when  large  fire-works  are  exhibited;  and  to 
render  them  more  agreeable,  they  are  made 
in  the  form  of  difierent  animals,  such  as  ser- 
pents, dragons,  &c. ;  on  which  account  they  are 
called  flying  dragons.  These  dragons  are  very 
amusing^  especially  when  filled  with  various 
compositions,  such  as  golden  rain,  long  hair, 
&c.  They  might  be  made  to  discharge  serpents 
firom  their  mouths,  which  would  produce  a  very 
pleasing  effect,  and  give  them  a  greater  resem- 
blance to  a  dragon. 

Rockets  which  Jiy  along  a  rape,  and  turn  round 
at  the  same  time. — Nothing  is  easier  than  to  give 
to  a  rocket  of  this  kind  a  rotatory  motion  around 
the  rope  along  which  it  advances ;  it  will  be  suf- 
ficient for  this  purpose  to  tie  it  to  another  rocket, 
placed  in  a  transversal  direction.  But  the  aper*- 
ture  of  the  laUer,  instead  of  being  at  the  bottom, 
ought  to  be  in  the  side,  near  one  of  the  ends. 
If  both  rockets  be  fired. at  the  same  time,  the 
latter  will  make  the  other  revolve  around  the 
rope,  while  it  advances  along  it. 

Of  rockets  which  bum  in  the  uMifer.— -Tnough 
fire  and  water  are  two  things  of  a  very  opposite 
nature,  the  rockets  above  described,  when  set  on 
fire,  will  burn  and  produce  their  effect  even  in 
the  water ;  but  as  they  are  then  below  the  water 
the  pleasure  of  seeing  them  is  lost :  for  this  rea- 
son, when  it  is  required  to  cause  rockets  to  burn 
as  they  fioat  on  Uie  water,  it  will  be  necessary 
to  make  some  change  in  the  proportions  of  the 
moulds,  and  materials  of  which  they  are  com- 
posed.   In  regard  to  the  mould,  it  may  be  eight 


or  nine  inches  in  length,  and  an  inch  in  diame- 
ter :  the  former,  on  which  the  cartridge  is  rolM 
up,  may  be  nine  lines  in  thickness,  and  the  rod 
for  loading  the  cartridge  must  as  usual  be  some- 
what less.  For  loading  the  cartridge  there  is  no 
need  for  a  piercer  with  a  nipple 

The  composition  may  be  made  in  two  wap  ; 
for  if  it  be  required  that  the  rocket,  while  burn- 
ing on  the  water,  should  appear  as  bright  as  a 
candle,  it  must  be  composed  of  three  materials 
mixed  together,  viz.  three  ounces  of  pulverised 
and  sifted  gunpowder,  one  pound  of  saltpetre, 
and  eight  ounces  of  sulphur.  But,  if  you  are 
desirous  that  it  shonld  appear  on  die  water  with 
a  beautiful  tail,  the  composition  must  consist  of 
eight  ounces  of  gunpowoer  pulverised  and  sifted, 
one  pound  of  saltpetre,  eight  ounces  of  pounded 
and  sifted  sulphur,  and  two  ounces  of  charooal. 
When  the  composition  has  been  prepared  ac- 
cording to  these  proportions,  and  the  rocket  has 
been  filled  in  the  manner  above  described,  apply 
a  saucisson  to  the  end  of  it ;  and  having  covered 
the  rocket  with  wax,  black  pitch,  resin,  or  any 
othe;r  substance  capable  of  preventing  the  paper 
from  being  spoiled  in  the  water,  attach  to  it  a 
small  rod  ot  white  willow,  about  two  feet  in 
length,  that  the  rocket  may  conveniently  float 

If  it  be  required  that  these  rockets  should 
plunge  down,  and  again  rise  up,  a  certain  quan- 
tity of  pulverised  gunpowder,  without  any  mix- 
ture, must  be  introduced  into  them,  at  certain 
distances,  such,  for  example,  a^  two,  three,  or 
four  lines,  according  to  the  size  of  the  cart- 
ridge. 

Ilemarks. — ^1 .  Small  rockets  oYthis  kind  may  be 
made  without  changing  the  mould  or  composi- 
tion, in  several  different  ways,  which,  for  the  sake 
of  brevity,  we  are  obliged  to  omit.  Such  of  our 
readers  as  are  desirous  of  further  information  on 
this  sabject  mav  consult  those  authors  who  have 
written  expressly  on  pyrotechny. 

2.  It  is  possible  also  to  make  a  rocket  which, 
after  it  has  burnt  some  time  on  the  water,  sMl 
throw  out  sparks  and  stars ;  and  these  after  they 
catch  fire  shall  ascend  into  the  air.  This  may 
be  done  by  dividing  the  rocket  into  two  parts, 
by  means  of  a  round  piece  of  wood,  having  a  bole 
in  the  middle.  The  upper  part  must  be  filled 
with  the  usual  composition  of  rockets,  and  the 
lower  with  stars,  which  must  be  mixed  with 
grained  and  pulverised  gunpowder,  &c. 

3.  A  rocket  which  uikes  fire  in  the  water, 
and,  after  burning  there  half  the  time  of  its  du- 
ration, mounts  into  the  air  with  great  Velodty, 
may  be  construct^  in  the  following  manner  :— 
Take  a  flying  rocket,  furnished  with  its  rod,  and 
by  means  of  a  little  glue  attach  it  to  a  water- 
rocket,  but  only  at  the  middle,  in  such  a  manner, 
that  the  latter  shall  have  its  neck  uppermost, 
and  the  other  its  neck  downward.  Adjust  to  their 
extremity  a  small  tube,  to  communicate  the  fire 
from  one  end  to  the  other,  and  cover  both  with 
a  coating  of  pitch,  wax,  &c.,  that  they  may  not 
be  damaged  by  the  water.  Then  attach  to  the 
flying  rocket,  after  it  has  been  thus  cemented  to 
the  aquatic  one,  a  rod  of  the  kind  described  in 
the  second  article;  and  suspend  a  piece  of  pack- 
thread to  support  a  mnsket  bullet  made  fiist  to 
the  rod  by  means  of  a  needle  or  bit  of  iron  wire 


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When  these  arrangemenU  have  been  mad^,  set 
fire  to  the  part  after  the  rocket  is  id  the  water ; 
and,  when  the  composition  is  consumed,  the  tire 
will  communicate  through  the  small  tube  to  the 
other  rocket :  the  latter  will  theo  rise  and  leave 
the  other,  which  will  not  be  able  to  follow  it,  on 
account  of  the  weight  adhering  to  it 

Sect.  V. — Bt  means  op  Rockets  to  repae- 

8IVT  SEYEBAL  FIOUEES   llf   THE  AlR. 

If  sereral  small  rockets  be  placed  upon  a  lar^e 
one,  their  rods  being  fixed  around  the  large  car- 
tridge which  is  usually  attached  to  the  head  of 
the  rocket,  to  contain  what  it  is  destined  to  carry 
'  up  into  the  air ;  and  these  small  rockets  be  set 
on  fire  while  the  large  one  is  ascending,  they 
will  represent  in  a  yerv  agreeable  manner  a  tree, 
the  trunk  of  which  will  be  the  large  rocket,  and 
the  branches  the  small  ones.  If  these  small 
rockets  take  fire  when  the  large  t>ne  is  half  burned 
in  the  air,  they  will  represent  a- comet ;  and  when 
the  large  one  is  entirely  inverted,  so  that  its  head 
he^us  to  point  downwards,  in  order  to  fell,  they 
wiU  represent  a  kind  of  fiery  fountain.  If 
sereral  serpents  be  attached  to  the  rocket  with  a 


piece  of  pack-thread,  by  tha  eads  that  do  not 
catch  fire ;  and  if  the  pack-thread  be  sufie.ed  lo 
hang  down  two  or  three  inches,  between  every 
two,  this  arrangement  will  produce  a  varisty  of 
agreeable  an4  amusing  figures. 

A  rocket  whkh  tucends  in  the  form  of  a  icrew, 
— ^A  straight  rod,  as  experience  shows,  makes  a 
rocket  ascend  perpendicularly,  and  in  a  straight 
line :  it  may  be  compared  to  the  rudder  of  a  ship, 
or  the  tail  of  a  bird,  the  efiect  of  which  is  to 
make  the  vessel  or  bird  turn  towards  that  side 
to  which  it  is  inclined ;  if  a  bent  rod  therefore 
be  attached  to  a  rocket,  its  first  effect  will  be  to 
make  the  rocket  incline  towards  that  side  to 
which  it  is  bent;  but,  its  centre  of  gravity  bring- 
ing it  afterwards  into  a  vertical  situation,  the  re^ 
suit  of  these  two  opposite  efforts  will  be  that  the 
rocket  will  ascend  m  a  zig-zag  or  spiral  form.  In 
this  case  indeed,  as  it  displaces  a  greater  volume 
of  air  and  describes  a  longer  line,  it  will  not 
ascend  so  high  as  if  it  had  been  impelled  in  a 
straight  direction ;  but,  on  account  of  the  sinen- 
larity  of  this  motion,  it  will  produce  an  agreeable 
effect.  For  the  military  Congreve  rodi^t,  see 
Rocket. 


PYRRHA,  the  daa^ter  of  Epimetheus  and 
Pandora,  and  wife  of  Deucalion,  king  of  Thes- 
saly,  in  whose  reign  the  flood  happened.  See 
Deucaljov.  She  was  the  mother  of  Amphyc- 
tkm,  Helen,  uid  Protogenes,  by  Deucalion. 
Ovid,  Met  i. 

PYRRHICHA,  in  antiquity,  a  kind  of  exeiv 
cise  on  a  horseback,  or  a  feigned  combat,  for  the 
exercise  of  the  cavalry..  It  was  thus  called 
from  its  inTentor  Pyrrfaus  of  Cydonia,  who  first 
taught  the  Cretans  to  march  in  measure  and 
cadence  to  battle,  and  to  observe  the  time  of  the 
Pynfaic  foot  Others  derive  the  name  fipom 
l^nhus  the  son  of  Achilles,  who  instituted  this 
exercise  at  the  obsequies  of  his  &ther.  Aristotle 
says  thai  it  was  Achilles  himself  who  invented 
it  The  Romans  also  called  it  Indus  1Vojanu.$y 
the  Trojan  game ;  and  Aulus  OeUius,  decnrsus. 
It  is  represented  on  medals  by  two  cavaliers  in 
front  running  with  lancets,  and  the  word  decnr- 
sio  in  the  exergue.  ' 

PYRRHIC,  in  the  Greek  and  Latin  poetiy, 
a  foot  consisting  of  two  syllables,  both  short ;  as 
dens.  Among  the  ancients  this  foot  is  also 
called  periaml^ ;  by  others  hegemona. 

PYRRHO,  a  Greek  philosopher,  bom  at  £lis 
in  Peloponnesus,  who  flourished  about  300 
B.  C.  He  was  the  disciple  of  Anaxardius, 
whom  he  accompanied  as  far  as  India,  where  he 
conversed  with  the  Brahmins  and  Gymnoso- 
phists.  He  had  made  paintine  his  profession 
oefore  he  studied  philosophy.  He  established  a 
sect  whose  fundamental  principle  was,  that  there 
is  nothing  true  or  felse,  right  or  wrong,  honest 
or  dishonest,  just  or  unjust ;  or  that  there  is  no 
standard  of  any  thing  beyond  law  or  custom,  and 
that  uncertainty  and  doubt  belong  to  every  ^ing. 
From  this  continual  seeking  after  truth  and 
never  finding  it,  the  sect  obtained  the  name  of 
Sceptics  qr-  Pyrrhonians  from  the  founder. 
Pynho  died  about  the  ninetieth  year  of  his  age; 
his  memory  was  honored  with  a  statue  at 
Athens,  and  a  monument  in  his  own  country. 


PYRRHUS  I.,  or  Neoptolemus,  the  first  kmg 
of  Epirus,  the  son  of  Achilles  and  Deidainia. 
See  £pi<Rus.  He  was  killed  by  Orestes  in  tlie 
temple  of  Delphi. 

Pyrrhvs  Ii.,  king  of  Epirus,  the  son  of 
£acides  and  Phthia,  and  a  lineal  descendant  of 
Pyrrhus  I. ;  celebrated  for  his  war  with  the 
Romans.  He  conquered  AnUgonus,  and  reigned 
some  time  in  Macedonia,  but  was  at  last  lulled 
at  Argos,  A.  A.  C.  272.    See  Rome.     • 

PYR'RHONISM,  n.  s.  [From  Pyrrho,  the 
founder  of  the  sceptics.]  Scepticism ;  universal 
doubt 

As  some  ignorast^  afiect  to  be  more  knowing,  so 
others  vainly  afiect  to  be  more  igqorant  than  they 
are  ;  who.  to  show  they  have  greater  insight  and  pe- 
netratioD  than  other  men,  insist  upon  the  absolute  un« 
certainty  of  science ;  will  dispute  ev^n  first  principles  ; 
grant  nothing  as  certain,  and  so  run  it  into  downright 
pSfrrhonimn ;  the  too  common  eftct  of  abstracted  de* 
hates  ezeeasively  refined.  JIumi. 

PYRUS,  the  pear-tree,  a  genus  of  the  pen- 
h^^ynia  order  and  icosandria  class  of  plants ; 
natural  order  thirty-sixth;  pomaces :  cal.  quin- 
quefid;  petals  five;  fruit  an  apple,  inferior, 
quinquelocular,  and  polyspermous.  To  this 
genus  Linn^  has  joined  the  apple  and  quince. 

1.  P.  communis,  the  common  pear-tree,  rises 
with  an  upright  large  trunk,  branching  thirty  or 
forty  feet  hi^;  in  some  widely  around,  in  others 
more  erecUy,  and  forming  a  conical  head,  oval, 
lanceolated,  serrated  leaves,  and  corymbous 
chisters  of  white  flowers  from  the  sides  of  the 
branches,  succeeded  by  large  firuit  extended  at 
the  base.  Under  this  species  are  comprehended 
almost  endless  varieties,  all  bearing  the  above 
description.  They  bear  their  flowers  and  fruit 
upon  spurs,  arising  from  the  sides  of  the 
branches  from  two  or  three  years  old  and  up- 
wards ;  the  same  branches  and  spurs  continuing 
fruitful  for  a  great  number  of  years.  The  sum- 
mer pears  ripen  in  different  sorts  from  the 
beginning  of  July  until  the  middU  or  end  of 


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PYTHAGORAS. 


'SeptcRnber,  and  ai^  generally  fit  to  eat  from  the 
tree,  or  at  least  do  not  keep  a  week  or  two 
before  they  rot.  The  autumn  pears  come  to 
perfection  in  October,  November,  and  Decem- 
ber ;  some  ripening  nearly  on  the  tree  in  Octo- 
ber and  November,  others  requiring  to  lie  some 
time  in  the  fruitery,  while  some  will  keep  two 
months ;  but  all  the  winter  pears,  though  they 
attain  their  full  growth  on  the  tree  by  the  end  o( 
October  and  in  November,  yet  they  do  not  ac- 
quire perfection  for  eating  till  from  the  end  of 
November  to  April  and  May.  Those  of  each 
class  liave  different  properties;  some  being 
melting,  others  breaking,  some  mealy,  and  some 
hard  and  austere,  fit  only  for  kitchen  uses.  As 
many  of  the  finest  sorts  were  first  obtained  from 
France,  they  are  still  continued  in  most  cata- 
logues by  I'rench  names.  All  the  varieties  of 
the  pear-tree  are  hardy,  and  will  succeed  in  any 
common  soil  of  a  garden  or  orchard.  They  are 
propagated  by  grafting  and  budding  upon  any 
idna  of  pear  stocks ;  also  occasionally  upon 
quince  stocks,  and  sometimes  upon  white  thorn 
flocks ;  but  pear  stocks  are  greatly  preferable  to 
all  others  for  general  use. 

3.  P.  coronaria,  the  sweet  scented  crab  of 
Virginia,  grows  twelve  or  fifteen  feet  high,  having 
angular  serrated  leaves,  pedunculated  umbeb 
of  whitish  red,  sweet-scented  flowers,  succeeded 
by  small  round  crabs,  remarkably  sour  and 
austere.  There  is  one  variety,  called  the  evergreen 
Virginian  crab-tree. 

3.  P.  cydonia,  the  quince,  formerly  ranked  by 
botanists  as  a  distinct  genus,  but  classed  by 
Linn^  and  his  followers  as  a  species  of  pyrus. 
It  was  formerly  divided  into  three  species,  which 
must  now'  rank  as  varieties;  viz. 

i.  P.  cydonia  lusitanica,  the  Portugal  quince, 
with  obverse  oval  leaves,  woolly  on  meir  under^ 
side : 

ii.  P.  cydonia  maliforma,  with  oval  leaves, 
wholly  on  their  under  side,  and  lengthened  at 
their  base :  and 

iii.  P.  cydonia  obloi^ga,  with  an  oblong  fruit 
lengthened  at  the  base.  There  are  some  other 
varieties  of  this  fruit,  propagated  in  fruit  gar- 
dens, and  in  the  nursenes  tor  sale ;  one  of  which 
is  a  soft  eatable  fruit,  another  very  astringent, 
and  a  third  with  a  very  small  fruit,  cottony  all 
over,  which  is  scarcely-  worth  keeping,  lliese 
Mr.  Miller  supposed  to  be  the  seminal  varia- 
tions, but  the  three  others  to  be  distinct  species. 
The  Portugal  quince  is  the  most  valuable;  its 
pulp  turns  to  a  fine  purple  when  stewed  or 
baked,  and  becomes  much  ^fter  and  less  austere 
than  the  others ;  it  is  therefore  much  fitter  for 
making  marmalade.  These  trees  are  all  easily 
propagated,  either  by  layers,  suckers,  or  cuttings, 
which  roust  be  planted  in  a  moist  soil.  .Thrae 
raised  from  suckers  are  seldom  so  well  rooted  as 
those  which  are  obtained  from  cuttings  or  layers, 
and  are  subject  to  produce  suckers  again  in 
greater  plen^;  which  is  not  so  proper  lor  firuit 
bearing  trees.  These  trees  require  very  little 
pruning ;  the  chief  thing  to  be  observed  is,  to 
keep  their  stems  clear  from  suckers,  and  cut  off 
sucn  branches  as  cross  each  other;  likewise  all 
upright  luxuriant  shoots  from  the  middle  of  the 
tree  should  be  takejn  off,  that  the  head  may  not 


be  too  much  crowded  with  wood,  which  is  ef  iff 
consequence  to  afl  fruit  trees.  These  sorts  may 
also  be  propagated  by  budding  or  grafting  upou 
stocks  raised  by  cuttings;  so  that  the  best  sorts 
may  be  cultivated  in  this  way  in  greater  plenty 
than  by  any  other  method. 

4.  P.  malus,  the  common  apple-tree,  grows 
twenty  or  thirty  feet  hiffh,  havii^  oval  senaled 
leaves  and  sessile  umbels  of  whitish  red  flowers^ 
succeeded  by  larse,  roundish,  and  oblong  fruit« 
•concave  at  the  base.  The  varieties  of  this 
species  are  amazingly  great  with  respect  to  the 
differences  of  the  fruit.  Botanists  say,  that  the 
wilding,  or  crab-apple  of  the  woods  and  hedges 
is  the  original  kind,  and  from  the  seeds  of  which 
the  cultivated  apple  was  first  obtained.  The 
varieties  of  this  last  no  doubt  are  multiplied  to 
some  hundreds  in  different  places,  having  been 
all  first  accidentally  obtained  from  the  seed  or 
kernels  of  the  fruit,  and  the  approved  sorts  con- 
tinued and  increased  by  graftme  upon  crabs  or 
any  kind  of  apple  stocks ;  but,  although  the  num- 
ber of  varieties  is  very  considerable,  there  ate 
not  above  forty  or  fifty  sorts  retained  in  the 
nurseryman's  catalogue.  These  varieties  arrive 
at  full  growth  in  successive  order  finom  July  to 
the  end  of  October,  improve  in  perfection  after 
being  gathered,  and  several  of  the  winter  kinds, 
in  particular,  keep  good  for  many  months,  even 
till  the  arrival  of  apples  next  summer.  Among 
these  various  Idnds  of  apples  some  are  used  for 
the  dessert,  some  for  the  kitchen,  and  some  for 
cyder  making.  All  kinds  of  apples  are  pro- 
pagated in  the  same  manner  as  tne  pears,  using 
apple  stocks  instead  oC  pear  stocks.  They  will 
succeed  in  any  common  soil  of  a  garden  or 
orchard,  and  in  any  free  situation,  except  in  a 
low  and  very  moist  soil,  in  which  they  are  apt  to 
canker,  and  very  soon  go  off.  In  a  friable  loam 
th^  are  generally  very  successftiL 

PYTIlAGOBAS,  a  celebrated  philosopher  of 
antiquity,  respecting  the  time  and  place  ot  whose 
birth  critics  are  jnuch  divided.  Dr.  Beotley 
determines  the  date  of  his  birth. to  be  the  foortb 
year  of  the  forty-third  Olympiad ;  Uoyd  places 
It  about  the  third  year  of  the  forty-eighth;  and 
Dodwell  fixes  it  in  the  fourth  year  of  the  fi%- 
second.  It  is  generally  believed  that  he  was 
bom  in  the  island  of  Samos,  and  that  he 
flourished  about'  A.  A.  C.  500.  His  fiaher 
Mnesarchus,  who  is  said  by  some  to  hare  been  a 
lapidary,  and  by  others  a  merchant  of  T^re, 
appears  to  have  been  a  man  of  some  distinction, 
and  to  have  bestowed  upon  his  son  the  best 
education.  Of  his  childhood  and  early  educa- 
tion we  know  nothii^,  except  that  he  was  first 
instructed  in  his  own  country  by  Creophilus,  and 
afterwards  in  Scyros  by  Phim^ydes.  Poetry 
and  music>  eloquence  said  astronomy,  became 
his  studies ;  and  in  gymnastic  exercises  he  often 
bore  the  palm  for  strength  and  dexteri^.  He 
first  distmguished  himself  in  Greece  at  the 
Olmpic  games,  and  soon  after  he  commenced 
his  traveb.  He  visited  Egypt,  where,  through 
the  interest  of  Polycrates,  tyrant  of  Samoa,  he 
obtained  the  patronage  of  king  Amasis,  by  whose 
influence,  with  his  own  assiduity  and  pose- 
verance,  he  gained  the  confidence  of  the  priests; 
from  whom  he  learned  their  sacred  myateries,. 


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theology,  and  syitem  of  symboUcat  learning. 
In  Bgypty  tooy  he  became  acquainted  with  geo- 
metry, and  the  solar  system ;  and  made  himself 
master  of  all  the  leamii^  for  which  it  was  so 
fiuned  among  the  nations  of  antiquity.  It  is 
said  that  he  aifterwards  visited  Persia  and  Chal- 
dea,  where  from  the  Magi  he  learnt  divination, 
the  interpreting  of  dreams,  and  astronomy. 
He  likewise  travelled  into  India,  conven»ed 
with  the  Gvmnosophists,  and  acquired  from 
them  a  knowledge  or  the  philosophy  and  litera- 
ture of  the  east ;  and  such  was  his  ardor  in  the 
pursuit  of  science,  that  in  quest  of  it,  says 
Cicero,  he  crossed  many  seas,  and  travelled  on 
foot  through  many  barbarous  nations.  After  he 
had  spent  many  years  in  acquiring  information 
on  every  subject,  he  returned  to  Samos,  and 
attempted  to  institute  a  school  for  the  instruction 
of  his  countrymen.  Failing  of  success,  he  re- 
paired to  Delos,  where  he  pretended  to  receive 
moral  dogmas  from  the  priestess  of  Apollo.  He 
also  visited  Crete,  where  he  was  initiated  into 
the  most  sacred  mysteries  of  Greece.  He  went 
likewise  to  Sparta  and  Elis,  and  again  assisted  at 
the  Olympic  games ;  where,  in  the  public  assem- 
bly, he  vras  saluted  with  the  title  of  sophist,  or 
wise  man,  which  he  declined.  He  returned  to 
Samos,  enriched  with  mythological  learning  and 
mysterious  rites,  and  again  instituted  a  sdiooK 
His  mysterious  symbols  and  oracular  precepts 
made  this  attempt  more  successful  than  the 
former ;  but,  meeting  vrith  some  opposition,  he 
retired  to  Magna  Grscia,  and  settle  at  Crotona. 
Here  he  founded  the  Italic  sect;  and  his  mental 
accomplishments,  the  fame  of  his  travels,  and 
his  Olympic  crown,  soon  procured  him  numerous 
pupils.  His  manly  eloquence,  and  graceful  de- 
livery, attracted  the  most  dissolute,  and  produced 
a  remarkable  change  in  the  morals  of  the  Cro- 
tonians.  His  influence  was  increased  by  the 
regularity  of  his  own  example,  and  its  confor- 
mity to  his  precepts.  He  punctually  attended 
the  temples  of  the  gods  at  an  earlv  hour;  he 
lived  upon  the  most  simple  food ;  clothed  him- 
self like  the  priests  of  Egypt;  and,  by  his  fre- 
quent purifications  and  regular  oflfenngs,  ap- 
peared superior  in  sanctity  to  the  rest  of  mankind. 
He  endeavoured  to  delight  his  scholars  with 
verse  and  music,  by  playing  on  his  harp,  and 
singing  the  pseans  of  Thales.  Bodily  exercises 
^  made  a  considerable  part  of  his  discipline. 
At  Crotona  he  had  a  public  school  for  the  gene- 
lal  benefit  of  the  people,  in  which  he  taught 
them  virtue,  condemning  vice,  and  instructing 
them  in  the  duties  of  social  life.  He  also  had  a 
college  in  his  own  house,  which  he  denominated 
coiyi^cov,  in  which  there  were  two  classes  of 
students,  viz.  cCwrcpunM,  or  auscultantes,  and 
<n*npicoi.  The  former  were  probationers,  and 
were  kept  under  a  long  examen.  A  silence  of 
five  years  was  imposed  upon  them ;  which,  ac- 
cording to  Clemens  Alexandrinus  was  to  inure 
them  to  the  pure  contemplation  of  the  Deity. 
The  latter  were  called  genuini,  perfecti,  mathe- 
"Mtici;  and,  by  way  of  eminence,  Pythagoreans. 
They  alone  were  admitted  to  the  knowledge  of 
me  arcana  of  Pythagoric  discipline,  and  the  use 
«  ciphers  and  hieroglyphics.  The  authority  of 
^thagona  among  his  pupils  was  so  great  that  . 


it  was  even  deemed  a  crime  to  dispute  his  word ; 
and  their  arguments  were  considered  as  infallibly 
convincing,  if  they  could  enforce  them  by  adding 
that  the  master  said  so.  To  give  more  weight  to 
his  exhortations,  Pythagoras  retired  mto  a  sub- 
terraneous cave,  where  his  mother  sent  him  in- 
telligence of  every  thing  which  happened  during 
his  absence.  After  several  months,  oe  re-appeared 
on  the  earth  with  a  grim  and  ghastly  countenance^ 
and  declared  in  the  assembly  of  the  people  that 
he  was  returned  from  Hades ;  which  gave  rise  to 
many  other  fabulous  reports.  At  length  his 
singular  doctrines,  and  perhaps  his  strenuously 
'asserting  the  ri^ts  of  tke  people  against  their 
tyrannical  governors,  raised  a  powerful  party 
against  him ;  which  soon  obliged  him  to  fly  for 
his  life.  His  friends  fled  to  Rhegium ;  and  he 
himself,  after  being  refused  protection  by  the 
Locrians,  fled  to  Metapontum,  where  he  took 
refuge  in  the  temple  of  tne  Muses,  and  where  it 
is  said  he  died  of  hunger  about  A.A.C.  497. 
The  time,  place,  and  manner  of  his  death,  how- 
ever, are  all  very  uncertain.  After  his  death  his 
followers  paid  the  same  respect  to  him  as  was 
I>aid  to  the  gods ;  they  erect^  statues  in  honor 
of  him,  converted  his  house  at  Crotona  into  a 
temple  of  Ceres,  appealed  to  him  as  a  deity, 
and  swore  W  his  name.  Pythagoras  married 
Theano  of  Cfrotona,  .or  of  Crete,  by  whom  he 
had  two  sons,  Tela^es  and  Mnesarchus,  who, 
after  his  dea^,  tooic  the  management  of  his 
school.  He  also  had  a  daughter  called  Damo. 
Whether  he  left  any  writings  behind  him  is  dis- 
|fnted.  The  golde^  verses,  which  Hierocles 
illustrated  with  a  commentary,  have  been  as- 
cribed to  Epicharmus  or  £mpedocles,  and  con- 
tain a  briet  summary  of  his  popular  doctrines. 
From  his  mysterious  secrecy,  our  information 
,  concerning  his  doctrine  and  philosophy  is  very 
uncertain.  The  purpose  of  philosophy,  accord- 
ing to  his  system,  is,  to  raise  the  mind  to  the 
contemplation  of  immutable  truth,  and  the 
knowledge  of  divine  and  spiritual  objects. 
Mathematical  science  was  with  him  the  first 
step  to  wisdom,  because  'it  inures  the  mind  to 
contemplation,  and  takes  a  middle  course  be^ 
tween  corporoil  and  incorporeal  beings.  The 
whole  science  he  divided  into  two  parts,  num- 
bers and  magnitude ;  and  each  of  these  he  sub- 
divided into  two  others,  the  former  into  arithmetic 
and  music,  and  the  latter  into  magnitude  at  rest 
and  in  QQotion ;  the  former  comprehending  geome- 
try, and  the  latter  astronomy.  Arithmetic  he 
considered  as  the  noblest  science;  and  an  ac- 
quabtance  with  numbers  as  the  highest  good. 
He  considered  numbers  as  the  principles  of 
every  thing;  and  divided  them  into  scientific 
and  intelligible.  Of  the  Monad,  Duad,  Triad, 
Tetrad,  and  Decad,  various  explanations  have 
been  given  by  various  authors ;  but  nothing  cer- 
tain is  known  of  them.  Music  followed  numbers, 
and  was  useful  in  raising  the  mind  above  the 
dominion  of  the  passions.  He  invented  the 
harmonical  canon,  or  monochord;  and  the  music 
of  the  spheres  was  a  fanciful  doctrine  of  Pytha- 
goras. He  reduced  geometry  to  a  regular  science. 
A  geometrical  point,  which  he  defines  to  be  a 
monad,  or  unity  with  position,  he  says,  corres- 
ponds to  unity  in  arithmetic,  a  line  to  two,  a 

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sap^cies  to  three,  and  a  solid  to  four.  God  he 
considered  uthe  universal  mind,  difiused  through 
flU  things,  and  the  self-moving  principle  of  ^l 
things  (avrofMirto'ttoc  rmv  xarrmv),  and  of  whom 
every  human  soul  is  a  portion.  Subordinate  to 
the  Deity  there  were,  in  the  Pythagorean  creed, 
three  orders  of  intellisences,  gods,  demons,  and 
heroes,  of  different  degrees  of  excellence  and 
dignity.  These,  together  with  the  human  soul, 
were  considered  as  emanations  from  the  Deity, 
the  particles  of  subtle  ether  assuming  a  grosser 
clothins  the  fiirther  they  receded  from  the  .(bun* 
tain.  Uod  himself  was  represented  under  the 
notion  of  monad,  and  the  subordinate  intelli-* 
^nces  as  numb^  derived  from,  and  included 
m,  unity.  Man  was  considered  as  consisting  of 
an  elementary  nature,  and  a  divine  or  rational 
soai.  His  soul,  a  self-moving  principle,  is  com- 
posed of  two  parts ;  the  rational,  seated  in  the 
brain ;  and  the  irrational,  including  the  passions, 
in  the  heart  In  both  these  respects  he  partici- 
pates with  the  brutes.  The  sensitive  soul  perishes ; 
the  other  assumes  an  ethereal  vehicle,  and  passes 
to  the  regions  of  the  dead,  till  sent  back  to  the 
earth  to  inhabit  some  other  body  brutal  or  hu- 
man. See  Metempsychosis.  It  was  this  notion 
which  led  Pythagoras  and  his  followers  to  ab- 
stain from  flesh,  and  to  be  so  peculiarly  mercifUl 
to  animals  of  every  description.  This  doctrine 
is  thus  beautifully  represented  by  Ovid,  who  in- 
troduces Pythagoras  as  saying, 

'  Morte  carent  anime :  seroperque  priore  relicta 
Sede,  novis  domibus  habitant,  vivun^ufrrecept* :  , 
Omnia  matantur ;  nihil  intent ;  errat  et  illinc, 
Hoc  venit,  hinc  illuc,  et  quoslibet  occupet  artus 
Spiritus,  eque  feris  humana  in  corpora  transit^ 
Inqve  fiuai  noster:  nee  tempore  deperit  ullo, 
Utque  novit  fragilis  signator  oera  figuris, 
Nee  manet  ut  fuerat,  nee  foimas  tervat  eaidem, 
Sed  tamen  ipsa  eadem  est,  animam  sic  semper  eaadem, 
Essei  sed  in  varias  doceo  migrare  figuras.' 

'  l^hat  then  is  death,  but  ancient  matter  drest 
In  some  new  figure,  and  a  varied  vest? 
Thxa  all  tbines  are  but  altered,  nothing  dies ; 
And  here  and  there  the' unbodied  spirit  flies. 
By  time,  or  force,  or  sickneu  dispossessed. 
And  lodges  where  it  lights*  in  man  or  beast ; 
Or  hunto  without,  till  ready  limbs  it  find. 
And  actuates  those  according  to  their  kind ; 
From  teneroeot  to  tenement  is  tott. 
The  soul  is  still  the  same,  the  figure  only  lost :      > 
And,  as  the  softened  wax  new  seals  receives. 
This  face  assumes,  and  that  impression  leaves ; 
Now  called  by  one,  now  by  another  name. 
The  fbrm  is  only  changed,  the  wax  is  still  the  same ; 
So  death,  thus  called,  can  but  the  form  deface, 
The'  imoMwtal  soul  flies  out  in  empty  space. 
To  seek  her  fortune  in  some  other  place.' 


PTTHEAS,  aa  eminent  phikMopher,  astrono- 
mer, and  geogrwher,  bora  in  Massdia  in  the  age 
of  Aristoue.  lie  distinguished  himself  by  lua 
travels,  as  well  as  by  his  writings,  all  of  whicta 
are  now  lost,  though  some  of  iSem  were  extant 
so  late  as  the  fifth  century.  He  entered  tiie  sea, 
then  unknown,  now  called  the  Baltic,  and  saitod 
as  &r  as  Thule.  He  was  the  first  who  established 
a  distinction  of  climate  by  the  lei^  of  days  and 
nights. 

PYTHEUS,  a  Lydian,  femous  for  his  riches, 
who  is  said  to  have  entertained  Xerxes,  and  all 
his  numerous  army,  when  going  to  invade 
Greece. 

PYTHIA,  or  Pttbonissa,  the  priestess  of 
ApoUo  at  Delphi,  by  whom  he  delivmd  oracles. 
She  was  so  called  from  Pythius,  a  name  of  that 
god.  The  Pythia  was  at  first  required  to  be  a 
young  girl ;  but  in  latter  times  she  was  a  woman 
of  fifty  years  of  age.  The  first  and  most  famous 
Pythia  was  Phemonoe.  Oracles  were  at  first  de- 
livered by  her  in  hexameter  verse.  All  the  Py- 
thias were  to  be  pure  virgins,  and  all  of  them 
delivered  their  oracles  with  great  enthusiasm  and 
violent  agitations.    See  Obacle  and  Dblphi. 

Pythian  Games,  in  Grecian  antiquify,  sports 
instituted  near  Delphos  in  honor  of  Apollo,  on 
account  of  his  slaymg  the  serpnent  Python.  See 
Apollo.  These  games,  at  their  first  institution, 
Vrere  celebrated  only  once  in  nine  years;  but 
afterwards  every  fifUi  year,  from  the  namber  of 
the  Parnassian  nymphs  who  came  to  oongratnlale 
Apollo,  and  to  make  him  presents  on  his  victory. 
The  victor  was  crowned  with  garlands. 

PYTHON,  in  fabulous  historv,  a  monstrous 
serpent,  produced  by  the  earth  aner  Deacalion's 
deluge.  Juno,  being  exasperated  at  Latona, 
who  was  beloved  by  Jupiter,  commanded  this 
serpent  to  destroy  her;  but,  flying  from  the  pur- 
suit of  the  monster,  she  escaped  to  Delos,  wnere 
she  was  delivered  of  Diana  and  Apollo ;  the  lat- 
ter of  whom  destroyed  Python  with  his  arrows, 
in  memory  of  which  victory  the  Pythian  games 
were  instituted.    See  Apollo. 

PYX,  n.t.  Lat.  pyxis;  Gr.  irv(ic>  a  box. 
The  box  in  which  the  Romanists  keep  the  hoiL 

Pjrjrtt  is  a  small  metal  case  for  containing  the  con- 
secrated species  ia  the  Catholic  church.  Anciently 
it  was  made  in  the  fbim  of  a  dove,  and  suspended 
over  the  altar.  Dr.  A.  ~ 


Ptx.  Lat.  pyxtf,  from  Gr.  ir^^tc.  In  archai- 
ology,  a  name  given  to  the  little  casket  in  which 
the  ancienU  often  deposited  their  jewels  and 
other  ornaments.  It  was  frequently  of  rich  ma- 
terials, and  highly  embellished ;  its  shape  was  a 
long  square,  and  it  is  often  fouiid  represented  on 
Greeks 


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Q. 


Q,  the  sixteenth  letter  of  the  alphabet,  bor- 
rowed fronuthe  Latin  or  French,  and  for  which 
the  Saxons  generally  used  c)>,  ew.  The  name  of 
this  letter  is  derived  from  Fr.  queue,  tail;  its 
form  being  tibat  of  an  D  w*]th  a  tail.  The  Q 
has  this  peculiar  to  it,  that  it  is  always  followed 
by  a  U,  and  is  therefore  reckoned  amone  the 
mutes.  It  is  formed  from  the  Hebrew  p,  koph; 
which  most  other  langoagel  have  borrowed; 
though  some  of  them  have  rejected  it  again,  par- 
ticulaihr  the  Greeks. 

In  effect,  there  is  that  resemblance  between 
the  Q  and  the  C  in  some  hinguages,  and  the  K 
ia  others,  that  many  erammarians,  in  imitation 
•  of  the  Greeks,  banish  the  Q  as  a  sunerfluous  let- 
ter. Fapias  even  aflSims  that  all  the  Latin 
words  now  written  with  a  Q  were  written 
among  the  ancient  Romans  with  a  C ;  but  we 
want  better  authority  for  this.  For  though,  in 
many  cases,  some  write  indifferently  qjuur,  or 
cur;  cum,  or  quum;  quotidie,  or  cotidie,  &c., 
yet  it  does  not  thence  follow  that  they  ever 
wrote  cis,  ce,  cid,  for  qiiis,  que^  quid.  Far  from 
this,  the  ancients  sometimes  substituted  Q  for  C  ; 
and  wrote  quojus,  quoi,  for  cujus,  cui,  &c. 

Varro,  however,  and  some  other  grammarians, 
as  we  are  told  by  Censorinus,  &c.,  would  never 
use  the  Q*  The  truth  is,  its  use  or  disuse  seems 
to  have  been  so  little  settled  and  agreed  on  that 
the  poets  used  the  Q  or  C  indifferently,  as  best 
suited  their  measures;  it  being  a  rule  that  the  Q 
joined  the  two  foUovring  vowds  into  one  sylla- 
ble ;  and  that  the  C  imported  them  to  be  divided. 
Hence  it  is  that  Lucretius  uses  cuiret  for  three 
syllables,  in  lieu  of  quiret ;  acua  for  aqua;  and 
that  Plautususes  relicuum  for  reliquum  ;  as  in 

Quod  dedi,  datum  non  veilem  relicnum  non ; 
where  the  cuum  must  be  two  syllables,  otherwise 
the  trochiac  verse  will  be  lame  of  a  foot.  In  the 
French  the  sound  of  the  Q  and  R  are  so  near 
akin,  that  some  of  their  nicest  authors  think  the 
former  might  be  spared.  Ramus  adds  that  till 
the  establishment  of  royal  professors  in  the 
university  oi  I^s,  under  Francis  L,  they  always 
used  Q  m  the  Latin  the  same  as  in  the  French  ; 
pronouncing  Ids,  kalis,  kantos,  &c.,  for  quis, 
qualis,  quantus. 

Some  very  learned  men  make  Q  a  double 
letter  as  well  as  K  and  X.  According  to  them, 
Q  is  evidently  a  C  and  U  joined  together,  and 
they  see  the  traces  of  the  C  U  in  the  figure  of 
the  Q;  the  V  being  only  laid  obliquely,  so  as  to 
come  within  the  cavity  of  the  C;  as  C  <1 

Q,  among  the  ancients,  was  a  numeral  letter, 
*iSiii^7ing  ^00;  as  in  the  verse, 

Q  vehit  A  CUB  D  quingentns  vult  numerare. 
A  dash  over  it,  as  Q,  denoted  it  to  signify 
500,000. 

Q  is  also  used  as  an  abbreviation  in  several 
arts.  Q.  pi.  in  physicians'  bills,  stands  for 
quantum  placet,  as  much  as  you  please ;  q.  s. 
vx  quantum  sufficit,  or  as  much  as  is  necessary. 
See  Abbreviatiov. 


QUACK,  V,  ft.  &  n.  *.  Belg.  quaeken ;  Tent. 
kuacken ;.or  from  ttie  sound.  To  cry  as  a  goose 
or  duck;  be  boisterously  or  chatterindy  vain: 
hence,  as  a  noun-substantive,  a  vain  and  boastful 
pretender  to  medicinal,  or  other  arts. 

Many  poor  oountryTicars,  for  want  of  other  means, 
are  driven  to  their  shifts ;  to  turn  mountebanks, 
fuacMmlven,  and  empviicks.  BwrUm, 

Believe  mecnanick  virtuosi 
Can  raise  them  mountains  in  Potosi, 
Seek  out  for  plants  with  signatures. 
To  quack  of  universal  cures.  Hudibnu. 

Saltimbancoes,  quaektalvertt  and  charlatans  deceive 
tbe  vul^  in  lower  degrees ;  were  iEsop  alive,  the 
Piasza  and  the  Pont  Neuf  could  speak  their  fallacies. 

Browns. 

The  chanae,  schools,  and  pulpits  axe  full  of  quacks, 
junlers,  and  plagiaries.  VErttange, 

.  Ordinaiy  quadu  and  charlatans  are  thoroughly 
sensible  how  necessary  it  is  to  support  themselves  by 
collateral  assistances,  and  therefore  always  lajr  claim 
to  some  suj)emumerary  accomplishments  foreign  to 
their  profession.  TatUr, 

Wild  ducks  quack  where  grasshoppers  did  sing. 

JITtfi^. 

At  the  first  appearance  that  a  French  quaek  made 
in  Paris,  a  boy  walked  before  him,  poblishine  with 
a  shrill  voice,  '  My  father  cures  all  sorts  of  distem- 
pers ; '  to  which  the  doctor  added  in  a  grave  manner, 
'  The  child  says  true.'  AddiMon, 

Some  quacks  in  the  art  of  teaching  pretend  to  make 
young  gentlemen  masters  of  the  languages,  before 
they  can  be  masters  of  common  sense. 

Fskon  an  iha  Clastiaks. 

Despairing  quacks  with  curses  fled  the  place, 
And  vile  attorneys,  now  an  useless  race.         Pope, 

QUADI,  an  ancient  people  of  Germany, 
situated  on  the  south-east  of  the  mountains  of 
Bohemia,  on  the  banks  of  the  Danube,  and 
extending  as  far  as  the  river  Marus,  or  Mareh^ 
running  by  Morevia,  which  country  they  occu- 
pied. 

QUADRA  AND  Vancouver's  Island,  an 
island  on  the  north-west  coast  of  North  America, 
between  Queen  Charlotte's  Sound  and  De 
Fuca's  Straits.  Nootka  Sound  lies  not  for  from 
its  south-west  side.  It  was  so  named  by  Van- 
couver in  honor  of  his  meeting  with  signior 
Quadra,  the  officer  who  was  commissioned  by 
the  court  of  Spain  to  cede,  in  the  name  of  his 
court,  the  disputed  territory  of  Nootka*. 

QUADRAGESIMAL,  adj.  ft.  qvadrageti^ 
mal;  Lat.  quadragaima.  Lenten;  belonging  to 
or  used  in  Lent. 

I  have  composed  prayers  out  of  the  church  collects, 
adventual,  quadTag6gimai,ywA»i,  or  pentecostaL 

Sasmtnoa* 

QUADHANGLE,  n.  i.  Lat.  quadrtUus  and 
angubu,  A  square ;  a  snrhce  with  four  right 
angles. 

My  choler  being  overblown 
With  walking  once  about  ihtquadratigU, 
I  come  to  talk.  Skaktpeare,  Htnqf  YL 

Theescurial  hath  a  quadrwyg^U  for  every  month  in 
the  year.  Howd, 

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I  was  plaoed  at  a  ^mdranguiar  table,  opposita  to 
the  mace-bearer.  Sptetator, 

Common  aalt,  sbootetb  into  little  ciyitals.  coming 
near  to  a  cube,  aometimes  into  aquare  platea,  aome- 
ttmea  into  abort  quadrangular  priama.  Gr«w, 

Eacb  environeid  witb  a  cruat,  conforming  itaelf  to 
tbe  planea,  ia  of  a  figue  qtudrangHlar,     Woodward, 

QUADRANS,  a  farthing,  the  fourth  part  of  a 
penny.  Before  the  reign  of  Edwara  I.  the 
amalleat  coin  was  a  sterling,  or  penny,  marked 
with  a  cross ;  by  the  guidance  of  which  a  penny 
might  be  cut  into  halves  for  a  halfpenny,  or  into 
Quarters  or  four  parts  for  &rthing8 ;  till,  to  avoid 
the  fraud  of  unequal  cuttings,  that  kins  coined 
halfpence  and  farthings  in  distinct  round  pieces. 

QUATTRANT, ».  t.         -n      Lat.  quadrmu. 

Qvadkah'taLj  adj,  I  The  fourth  part; 

QuAD'fiATE,  adj.j  n.  t.y  &  >  tbe  quarter ;   the 

QuADEAi^iCy  adj.     [v.  11.  i  quarter  of  a  circle ; 

Quad'eatuee,  n.  I.  y  an  mstrument  for 

measuring  altitudes :  quadrate  is  square;  four* 
fold;  divisible  into  fbur  parts;  suited;  fitted: 
a  square ;  in  astrology,  an  aspect  of  the  heavenly 
bodies,  wherein  they  are  distant  firom  each  other 
ninety  degrees,  and  the  same  with  quartile :  as 
a  veit)  neuter,  to  suit ;  fit;  be  accommodated : 
quadratic,  an  algebraic  term  applied  to  such 
equations  as  retain,  on  the  unknown  side,  the 
square  of  the  root  or  the  number  sought: 
quadrature  is  the  act  of  squaring;  state  of  being 
square;  a  quadration  square;  ue  first  and  last 
quarter  of  the  moon* 

And  'twiit  &em  both  a  quadrate  was  the  base» 
Proportioned  equally  bjr  seven  and  nine ; 
Nine  waa  the  arcle  aet  in  beaven'a  place, 
All  which  compacted,  made  a  goodly  diapaae. 

Spender. 

Whether  the  exact  quadrate  or  the  long  aquare  be 
the  better  ia  not  well  determined ;  I  prefer  the  latter, 
provided  the  length  do  not  exceed  the  latitude  above 
one^third  part.  Wotton, 

Some  tell  ua  that  the  years  Moses  speaks  of  were 
somewhat  above  the  monthly  year,  containing  in 
them  thirty-aix  days,  which  is  a  nomber  quadrate. 
ffakmoiU  on  Protideuce, 

The  word  conaumption,  being  applicable  to  a 
proper  or  improper  conaumption,  requires  a  generical 
description,  jiM^rate  to  both.  Harv^, 

The  powera  militant 

That  atood  for  heaven,  in  mighty  quadrate  joined 

Of  union  irreaiatible,  moved  on 

In  ailence  their  bright  legiona.  Jftiton. 

All  things  parted  by  the'  empyreal  bounda, 

Hia  quadrature  from  thy  orbicular  world.        Id. 

In  aizty-three  yean  may  be  lost  eighteen  days, 
omittine  the  intercalation  of  one  day  every  fourth 
year,  allowed  for  thia  quadrant  or  aix  hours  aupemu- 
"^Ky-  Browne. 

The  number  of  ten  hath  been  extolled,  as  con- 
taining even,  odd,  long  and  plain,  quadrate  and  cu- 
bical numbera.  id. 
^  To  our  understanding  a  quadrate,  whose  diagonal 
la  commensurate  to  one  of  the  sides,  is  a  plain  con- 
tradiction.                                                   More, 

The  obliquity  of  tbe  ediptick  to  the  equator,  and 
from  thence  the  diurnal  diflerences  of  the  sun's  right 
aacenaiona,  which  finish  their  variationa  in  each  qua- 
drant of  the  circle  of  the  ecliptick,  being  joined  to 
the  former  inequality,  ariaing  from  the  excentricity, 
makea  these  quarterly  and  seeming  irregular  inequa- 
Utiea  of  natural  daya.  Holder  on  Thiie. 


It  is  full  mpoQ  when,  the  earth  bang  between  the 
sun  and  moon,  we  see  all  the  enlightened  part  of  the 
moon ;  new  moon  when,  tbe  moon  being  between 
ua  and  the  aun,  ita  enlightened  part  ia  turned  from 
ua :  and  half  moon,  when  tbe  moon  being  in  the 
quadratures,  we  aee  but  half  the  enlightened  pert. 

Lodie. 

Some  had  compasaes,  othera  quadrant^       Tatler. 

Ariatotle'a  rules  for  epick  poetry,  which  he  had 
drawn  from  hia  reflectiona  upon  Homer,  cannot  be 
auppoaed  to  quadrate  exactly  with  the  heroick  poema 
which  have  been  made  ainoe  hia  time ;  as  it  is  plain 
his  rules  would  have  been  atill  more  perfect,  could 
he  have  perused  the  ^neid.  Addison. 

Thin  taper  sticks  must  from  one  centre  part ; 

Lat  these  into  the  quadrant*s  form  divide.      Gay. 

Sir  laaac  Newton  diacovered  a  way  of  attain'iiig 
the  quantiW  of  all  quadribU  curvea  analytically,  fay 
hia  method  of  fluxions,  some  time  before  the  vear 
1688.  DtrhL. 

To  fill  that  space  of  dilating,  proceed  in  straight 
lines,  and  dispose  of  those  lines  in  a  variety  of  pa- 
ralels :  and,  to  do  that  in  a  quadrantal  apace,  there 
appeara  but  one  way  posaible ;  to  form  all  the  inier- 
aections,  which  the  branchea  make,  with  angles  of 
forty-five  degrees  only.  yi/. 

The  speculations  of  algebra,  the  doctrine  of  infi- 
mtes.  and  the  quadrature  of  curves,  should  not  in- 
trench upon  our  studies  of  morality.  Watts. 

Quadrant,  in  geometry,  is  the  arch  of  a 
circle,  containing  90*»,  or  the  fourth  part  of  the 
entire  periphery.  Sometimes  also  tlie  space  or 
area  included  between  this  arch  and  two  radii 
drawn  from  tbe  centre  to  each  extremity  thereof, 
Js  called  a  quadrant,  or  more  properly  a  quad- 
rantal 8pace>  as  being  a  quarter  of  an  entire 
circle. 

QuADEAVT  is  also  a  mathematical  instrument 
of  great  use  in  astronomy  and  navigation,  for 
taking  the  altitudes  of  the  sun  and  stars,  and 
for  taking  angles  in  surveying,  &c.  It  is  vari- 
ously contrived,  and  furnished  with  different 
apparatus,  according  to  the  various  uses  it  is 
intended  for.  See  Astronomy  and  Navigation. 
The  common  surveying  quadrant  is  made  of 
brass,  wood,  or  any  other  solid  substance ;  the 
limb  of  which  is  divided  into  90®,  and  each  of 
these  forther  divided  into  as  many  equal  parts 
as  the  space  will  allow,  either  diagonally  or 
otherwise.  On  one  of  these  seraidiameters  aie 
fitted  two  moveable  sights ;  and  to  the  centre  is 
sometimes  fixed  a  label,  or  moveable  index, 
Rearing  two  other  sights;  but  in  lieu  of  these 
last  sighu  there  is  sometimes  fitted  a  telescope; 
also  finom  the  centre  there  is  hung  a  thread  with 
a  plummet;  and  on  the  under  side  or  face  of 
the  instrument  is  fitted  a  ball  and  a  socket,  by 
which  it  may  be  put  into  any  position.  Tlie 
general  use  of  it  is  tor  taking  angles  in  a  vertical 
plane,  comprehended  under  right  lines  going 
from  the  centre  of  the  instrument,  one  of  which 
is  horizontal,  and  the  other  is  directed  to  some 
visible  point.  But,  besides  the  parts  already 
described,  there  is  frequently  added  on  the  fiice, 
near  the  centre,  a  kind  of  compartment,  called 
the  quadrat,  or  geometrical  square.  This  quad- 
rant may  be  used  in  different  situations;  for 
observing  heights  or  depths,  its  plane  must  be 
disposed  perpendicularly  to  the  horizon ;  but,  to 
take  horizontal  distances,^  its  plane  b  disposed 
parallel  thereto.    Again,  heights  and  distances 


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niajr  be  taken  two  ways,  viz.  by  means  of  the 
fixed  sights  and  jptummet,  or  by  the  label. . 

Quadrant,  GuvN£R*Sy  called  also  gunners' 
square,  is  that  used  for  elevating  and  pointing 
cannon,  mortars,  &C.,  and  consists  of  two 
branches,  either  of  brass  or  wood,  between 
which  is  a  quadrantal  arch  divided  into  90% 
beginning  from  the  shorter  branch,  and  furnished 
with  a  uread  and  plummet.  The  use  of  the 
gunnen'  quadrant  is  extremely  easy ;  for  if  the 
longest  branch  be  placed  in  the  mouth  of  the 
piece,  and  it  be  elevated  till  the  plummet  cut 
the  degree  necessary  to  hit  a  proposed  object, 
the  thing  is  done.  Sometimes  on  one  of  the 
surfaces  of  the  long  branch  are  noted  the  divi- 
sions of  diameters  and  weights  of  iron  bullets, 
as  also  the  bores  of  pieces. 

QuADRAKT,  Gunter's,  SO  Called  from  its  in- 
ventor Edmund  Gunter,  besides  the  usual  ap- 
paratus of  other  quadrants,  has  a  ster^ographical 
projection  of  the  sphere  on  the  plane  of  the 
equinoctial.  It  has  also  a  kalendar  of  the 
months,  next  to  the  divisions  of  the  limb. 

Quadrant,  Hadlby's,  is  an  instrument  of 
great  utili^  both  in  navigation  and  practical 
astronomy.    It  is  named  from  Mr.  Hadley,  who 
first  published  an  account  of  it,  though  the  in- 
vention   originated   with    the    celebrated    Dr. 
Uooke,  and  was  completed  by  Sir  Isaac  Newton. 
Its  ut^ty  arises  from  the  accuracy  and  precision 
with  which  it  enables  us  to  determine  the  lati- 
tude and  longitude,  and  to  it  navigation  is  much 
indebted  for  tbe  very  great  and  rapid  advances 
it  has  made  of  late  years.    It  is  easy  to  manage, 
and  of  extensive  use,   requiring   no  peculiar 
steadiness  of  hand,  nor  any  such  fixed  oasis  as 
is  pecessarv  to  other  astronomical  'instruments. 
It  is  Used  for  taiking  angles  in  maritime  survey- 
ing, and  with  equal  facility  at  the  mast  head  as 
opon  the  deck,  by  which  its  sphere  of  obser- 
vation is  much  extended ;  for  supposing  many 
islands  to  be  visible  from  the  mast  h^,  and 
only  one  from  deck,  no  useful  observation  can 
be  made  1^  any  other  instrument.    By  this 
an^  may  be  taken  at  the  mast  head  firom  the 
one  visible  object  with  great  exactness;  and 
fbrthec,  taking  angles  firom  heights,  as  hills,  or  a 
shin  mast's  head,  is  almost  the  only  way  of  ez- 
9tX\y  describing  the  figure  and  extent  of  shoals. 
It  hu  been  objected  to  the  use  of  this  instra* 
ment  for  surveying,  that  it  does  net  measure  the 
horizontal  angles,  by  which  alone  a  plan  can  be 
laid  down.    This  objection,   thou^   true    in 
theory,  may  be  reduced  in  practice  by  a  littie 
caution ;  and  Mr.  Adams  has  given  very  good 
^iirections  for  doing  so.     No  instrument  has 
andeigone,  since  the  original  invention,  more 
changes  tlttn  this  quadrant.    An  essential  and 
invaluable   pioperty,   whereby  it  is  rendered 
peculiarly  aavantageous  in  marine  observations, 
Uy  that  it  is  not  liable  to  be  disturbed  by  tlie 
ship's  motion ;  for,  provided  the  nuffiner  can  see 
distmctly  the  two  objects  in  the  field  of  his 
instrument,  no  motion  nor  vacillation  of  the 
«hin  will  injure  his  observation. 
Quadrant,  Mural.    See  Astronomy. 
Quadrant  op  Altitude  is  an  appendage  of 
the  artificial  globe,  consisting  of  a  lamina,  or  slip 
^  brass,  the  length  of  a  quadrant  of  one  of  the 


great  oirclet  of  the  globe,  and  pdualed.  At 
the  end,  where  the  division  terminates,  is  a  nut 
rivetted  on,  and  furnished  with  a  screw,  by 
means  whereof  the  instrument  is  fitted  on  the 
meridian,  and  moveable  round  upon  the  rivet  to 
all  points  of  Uie  horizon.  Its  use  is  to  serve  as 
a  scale  in  measuring  of  altitudes,  amplitudes, 
azimuths,  &c. 

Quadrantal,  in  antiquity,  the  name  of  a 
vessel  in  use  among  the  Romans  for  the  measur- 
ing of  liquids.  It  was  at  first  called  amphora ; 
and  afterwards  quadrantal,  from  its  form,  which 
was  s<}uare  every  way  like  a  die.  Its  capacity 
vras  eighty  librae,  or  pounds  of  water,  which 
made  forty-eight  sextaries,  two  umc,  or  eight 
congii. 

Quadrate,  a  mathematical  instrument,  called 
also  a  geometrical  square,  and  line  of  slmdows : 
it  is  frequently  an  additional  member  on  the 
hce  of  the  common  quadrant,  as  also  on  those 
of  Gunter's  and  Sutton's  quadrants. 

Quadrate,  in  printing,  a  piece  of  metal  used 
to  fill  up  the  void  spaces  between  words,  &c. 

Quadrature,  in  astronomy,  that  aspect  6k 
the  moon  when  she  is  90®  distant  from  the  sun; 
or  when  she  is  in  a  middle  point  of  her  orbit, 
between  the  points  of  conjunction  and  oppo-» 
sition,  namely*  in  the  first  and  third  quarters. 
See  Astronomy. 

Quadrature,  in  geometry,  denotes  the  re- 
ducing a  figure  to  a  square,  or  the  finding  of  a 
.square  which  shall  contain  just  as  much  surface 
or  area  as  a  circle,  an  ellipsis,  a  triangle,'  &c.,  is 
the  <j[uadrature  of  a  circle,  ellipsis,  &c.  This 
question,  especially  among  the  ancient  mathe- 
maticians, was  a  great  postulatum.  The  quad- 
rature of  rectilineal  figures  is  easily  found,  for 
it  is  merely  the  finding  their  areas  or  surfiices, 
i.  e.  their  squares ;  for  the  squares  of  equal  areas 
are  easily  found  by  only  extracting  the  roots  of 
the  areas  thus  found.  The  quadrature  of  the 
curvilinear  spaces  is  of  more  difficult  investi- 
gation ;  and  in  this  respect  extremely  little  was 
done  by  the  ancients,  except  the  finding  the 
Quadrature  of  the  parabola  hj  Archimedes, 
tliis  he  obtained  in  a  very  ingenious  manner,  by 
inscribing  an  isosceles  triangle  in  the  parabola, 
then  two  isosceles  triangles  on  the  equal  sides  of 
the  former,  four  others  on  these,  and  so  on, 
which  he  found  to  have  a  certain  relation,  de- 
creasing in  the  proportibn  1,  i,  <J^,  &c.,  the  infi- 
nite sum  of  wmch  series  would  therefore  ex- 
press the  area  of  the  parabola,  or  the  area  of  all 
the  triangles  of  which  he  thus  conceived  it  to  be 
composed ;  and  which  sum  he  found  to  be  one 
and  one-third,  or  two-thirds  of  the  circum- 
scribing rectangle.  After  this  time,  a  period  of 
near  2000  years  elapsed  without  producing  the 

auadrature  of  a  single  curvilinear  figure,  al- 
lough  the  subject  seems  to  have  engaged  the 
attention  of  the  most  eminent  mathematiciane 
during  that  long  intervd,  particularly  the  quad- 
rature of  the  circle.  This  figure,  being  the  moet 
simple  in  appearance  and  construction  of  any 
contained  under  a  curve  line,  was  well  calcu- 
lated to  excite  the  curiosity  of  mathematicians. 
Archimedes  doubtless  attempted  the  solution  of  ^ 
this  problem ;  but,  foiling  in  producing  the  exact 
quadrature,  be  contented  himself  with  giving  an  • 


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•pproximatioot  thowing  by  the  mscription  and 
circumscription  of  apotygon  of  ninety-six  sides, 
that  the  diameter  being  1,  the  circumference  was 
greater  than  3^  but  less  than  3.|t. 

It  would  be  useless  to  attempt  in  this  place  to 
tnumerate  the  various  absurd  quadratures  which 
have  been,  from  time  to  time,  published  by 
minor  geometers,  with  all  that  conceit  and  con- 
fidence wMcH  seldom  fiiil  to  accompany  infe- 
riority. Some  attributed  their  success  to  divine 
inspiration;  others  to  their  own  superior  ta- 
lents: some  offered  large  sums  of  money  to 
those  who  should  discover  any  error  in  their 
investigation,  while  others  expected  great  re- 
wards from  their  govemmoit  as  a  recompence 
for  their  discovery,  foolishly  attaching  great  im- 
portance to  a  problem,  which,  if  it  could  be 
accurately  solved,  would  serve  no  other  purpose 
but  to  gratify  the  curiosity  of  mathematicians. 
Towards  the  year  1585,  Metius,  combatting  the 
fisdse  quadrature  of  Simon  Duch^ne,  gave  the 
ratio  of  1 13  to  355,  which  is  very  exact.  Vieta 
found  a  stm  nearer  approximation,  carrying  it  to 
ten  places  of  dednials,  whereas  the  former  is  true 
•nly  to  six  places. 

Adria&us  Romanus  carried  the  approximation 
to  seventeen  figures,  and  Ludolph  Van'Ceulen 
to  tiiirty-six ;  which  he  published  in  his  work, 
De  Circulo  et  Adscriptis ;  and  of  which  Snel- 
Itus  published  a  Latin  translation  in  1619.  He 
afterwards  verified  Van  Ceulen's  approximation 
by  some  theorems  of  his  own  invention,  which 
gready  fccilitated  the*computatibn,  and  which  he 

Sublished  in  1621,  under  the  title  of  Wille- 
rordi  Snellii  Cyclometricus  de  Circuli  Dimen- 
sione,  &c. 

Descartes  gave  a  geometrical  construction 
from  which  it  was  easy  to  draw  an  expression 
in  the  form  of  a  series;  and  Huygens  after- 
wards discovered  some  carious  theorems  con- 
nected with  this  subject,  and  formed  some  useful 
niles  for  approximating  towards  the  length  of 
the  circuUur  arc. 

A  curious  discovery  connected  with  this  sub- 
ject was  given  by  Wallis  in  his  Arithmetica 
Infinitorum,  in  1655 :  where  he  shows  that  the 
ratio  of  a  circle  to  the  square  of  its  diameter  is 
truly  expressed  by  the  infinite  fraction. 

3*.    5».    n    9«.  11».    &c. 
a.    4^.    6*.    8«.  10*.  12*.    &c. 

Such  was  the  progress  which  mathematicians 
had  made  towards  tfie  solution  of  this  interest- 
ing problem  prior  to  the  invention  of  fluxions, 
whicn,  by  reducing  the  quadrature  of  all  curves 
to  one  general  principle,  again  revived  the  hopes 
of  success  with  regard  to  the  circle,  notwith- 
standing some  pretended  demonstrations  of  its 
impossibility;  and  its  quadmture  was  accord- 
ingly aeun  attempted  with  the  greatest  eager- 
ness. The  quadrature  of  a  space,  and  the  recti- 
fication of  a  curve,  were  now  reduced  to  that  of 
finding  the  fluent  of  a  given  fluxion  but  still 
the  problem  was  found  to  be  incapable  of  a  ge- 
neral solution  in  infinite  terms.  The  fluxion  of 
a  given  fluent  was  found  to  be  always  assign- 
able, but  the  converse  proposition,  viz.  of  find- 
ing the  fluent  of  a  given  flnxion,  could  only  be 
effected  in  particular  cases;  and  amongst  the 


exceptions,  to  the  great  regret  and  disappoint- 
ment of  geometricians,  was  included  the  case  of 
the  circle  with  regard  to  every  form  of  fluxion 
under  which  it  could  be  obtained.  Mr.  Gleoie 
in  1812  read  a  paper  before  the  Royal  Society 
to  prove  that  the  true  geometrical  quadrature 
of  the  circle  was  impossible ;  which  i^  now  in- 
deed generally  allowed. 

QUADRATUS,  a  native  of  Athens,  where 
he  was  educated,  and  became  a  dbciple  of  the 
apostles.  About  A.  D.  125,  when  the  emperor 
Adrian  visited  Athens,  and  was  initiated  into 
the  .Eleusinian  mysteries,  a  persecution  of  the 
Christians  arose,  wherein  Publius  bishop  of 
Athens  suffered  martyrdom.  Quadratua  suc- 
ceeded him,  and  wrote  an  Apology  for  the 
Christians,  which  he  presented  to  the  emperor, 
who  thereupon  stopt  the  prosecution.  This 
work  b  lost,  but  was  extant  m  the  time  of  Euse- 
bius,  who  says  it  showed  the  genius  of  the  au- 
thor, and  the  true  doctrine  of  the  apostles. 
Quadratus  was  banished  from  Athens,  but  nothing 
xertain  is  recorded  of  his  death. 

Quadratus,  a  surname  of  Mercury,  because 
some  of  his  statues  were  square. 

QUADREL,  in  building,  a  kind  of  artificial 
stone,  so  called  from  its  being  square.  The 
auadrels  are  made  of  a  chalky  earth,  .&c.,  and 
dried  in  the  shade  for  two  years.  These  were 
formerly  in  great  request  among  the  Italian  ar- 
chitects. 

QUADRIFRONS,  and  Quadriceps,  sur- 
names of  Janus,  because  he  was  represented  with 
four  heads  and  four  faces. 

QUADRIGA,  in  antiquity,  a  car  or  chariot 
drawn  by  four  horses.  On  the  reverses  of  me- 
dals, we  frequently  see  the  emperor  or  Victory  in 
a  quadriga,  holding  the  reins  of  the  horses; 
whence  these  coins  are,  amon^  the  curious,  called 
nummi  quadrigati  and  victonati. 

QUADRILATERAL,  «4f.  Vr,  quadrilaiere ; 
Lat.  quatuor  and  /d/itf.    Havii^  four  sides. 

Tin,  incorporated  with  crystal,  dispose*  it  to  shoot 
into  a  quadrUatmtd  pyramid,  sometimes  J^aced  on  a 
fuadrilaUral  base  or  column.  Wocdmard. 

QUADRILLE,  agame  played  by  four  persons, 
with  forty  cards ;  which  are  the  remains  of  a 
pack,  after  die  four  tens,  nines,  and  eights  are 
discsunled ;  these  are  dealt  three  and  three,  and 
one  round  four,  to  the  right  hand  player ;  and 
the  trump  is  made  by  him  that  plays  with  or 
without  callinsr,  by  naming  spades,  clubs, 
diamonds,  or  hearts,  and  the  suit  named  is 
trumps. 

QuADRIO  (Francis  Xavier),  a  learned  Je- 
suit, bom  in  the  Valtdine  in  1695.  He  after- 
wards became  secular  priest,  and  died  at  Milan 
in  1756.  He  published,  1.  A  Treatise  on  the 
Italian  Poetry.  .  2.  A  History  of  Italian  Poetry, 
in  7  vols.  3.  Dissertations  upon  the  Vakdine, 
in  3  vols. 

QUAITRUPED,  n.  s.  Fr.  quadrupeie  ;  Lat. 
quadrupes.    An  animal  that  goes  on  four  legs. 

The  different  flexure  and  order  of  the  joints  is  not 
disposed  in  the  elephant  as  in  other  quadruped*. 


The  fang  teeth,  eye  teeth,  or  dentes  canini  of  some 
Wooiumrd  mt  FfmUs. 


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Moit  mtadmpedu,  that  live  upon  heibi  have  ia- 
citor  teeth  to  pluck  and  divide  them.       Arlmthnvt. 
The  king  of  brutes. 
Of  quadntpedt  I  only  mean.  Swift, 

The  cockney,  travelling  into  the  country,  u  sur- 
prized at  many  actions  of  the  quadruwd  and  winged 
animals.  iVatWi  LogicM, 

Quadrupeds,  in  zoolos^,  those  animals  which 
have  four  limbs  or  legs  proceeding  from  the  trunk 
of  their  body.    See  Zoology. 
QUAITRUPLE,  ac^.     Fr.  gttadruple;  Lat. 
flut.    Fourfold ;  four  times  tola. 


A  law,  that  to  bridle  theft  doth  punish  thieves 
with  a  quadruple  restitution,  hath  an  end  which  will 
continue  as  long  as  the  world  itself  continueth. 

Hookgr. 

The  lives  of  men  on  earth  might  have  continued 
double,  treble,  or  quadmjplt,  to  any  of  the  longest 
times  of  the  first  age.  RaUigh. 

Fat  refreshes  the  blood  in  the.  penury  of  aliment 
during  the  winter,  and  some  animals  have  a  quadru' 
fk  caul.  Arhulhnot  on  Alimenti, 

If  the  person  accused  maketh  his  innocence  appear, 
the  accuser  is  put  to  death,  and  out  of  his  goods 
the  innocent  person  is  quadruple  recompensed. 

Sunft. 

QU£'RB.  Lat.  quare.  Enquire;  seek;  a 
wotd  put  when  any  thing  is  recommended  to  en- 
quiry. 

Quore,  if  it  is  steeped  in  the  same  liquor,  it  may 
not  prevent  the  fly  and  grub. 

MoTtimer^i  Husbandry, 

To  QUAFF,  V.  a.  Junius  derives  this  word 
from  the  Greek  KvafiZtiv  in  the  iEolic  dialect 
used  for  cvad«^fiv.  skinner  from  go  off,  as  go 
off,  guoff,  quoff,  quaff.  It  comes  from  Fr.  cotf" 
fir,  to  be  drunky  says  Johnson :  Swed.  guafa, 
from  Goth,  kaf,  deep.  Thomson.  To  drink; 
swallow  in  large  draughts. 

He  calls  for  wine ;  a  health,  quoth  he,  as  if 

H'  ad  been  abroad  carousing  to  his  mates 

After  a  storm,  quafft  off  the  muscadel. 

And  threw  the  sops  all  in  the  sexton's  hce, 

Shakgptitrg, 
I  found  the  prince. 
With  such  a  deep  demeanor  m  great  sorrow. 
That  tyranny,  which  never  qtuiffs  but  blood. 
Would,  by  beholding  him,  have  washed  his  knife 
With  gentle  eye-drops.  Id.  Henry  IV. 

On  flowers    reposed,   and  with  rich   flowerets 
crowned. 
They  eat,  they  drink,  and  in  communion  sweet 
Qvajf  immortality  and  joy.    MUtorCi  Paradise  Lost. 

Twelve  days  the  gods  their  solemn  revels  keep. 
And  9110/ with  blameless  Ethiops  in  the  deep. 

Dryden. 

Beldiazzar,  qttaffmg  in  the  sacred  vessels  of  the 
temple,  sees  his  fatal  Sentence  writ  by  the  fini^rs  of 
God.  South. 

Dncks,  having  larger  nerves  that  come  into  their 
bills  than  geese,  qu^er  and  grope  out  their  meat 
the  most.  Derham. 


QUAG'MIR£,n.f.  Quake  and  mire.  A 
shaking  marsh;  a  bog  that  trembles  under  the 
feet. 

The  fen  and  quagmin,  so  marish  by  kind. 
Are  to  be  drained.  Tusser. 

Poor  Tom !  whom  the  foul  fiend  hath  led  thro' 
ford  and  whirlpool,  o'er  bog  and  quagmire. 

Shahtptare. 
Vol,  XVIII. 


The  brain  is  of  such  a  clammy  consistence  that 
it  can  no  more  retain  motion  than  a  quagmire. 

QUmvUWi  Scepsis* 

The  wet  particles  mieht  have  easily  ever  mingled 
with  the  dry,  and  so  all  had  either  been  sea  or  quag- 
mtne.  More. 

QUAID,  pact.  <  Of  this  participle  I  know  not 
the  verb/  says  Johnson,  *  and  believe  it  only 
put  by  Spenser,  who  ofien  took  great  liberties, 
for  quailed.'  But  it  is  nearer  cowed  both  in 
sound  and  signification.  Dejected;  depressed; 
crushed. 

Therewith  his  sturdy  courage  soon  was  quaid. 
And  all  his  senses  were  with  a  sudden  dread  dismaid. 


QUAIGH,  or  Quaff,  a  kind  of  drinking  res- 
sel,  peculiar  to  the  Highlands,  made  of  different 
pieces  of  wood,  of  various  colors  joined  toge- 
ther by  small  hoops.  They  are  made  of  various 
sizes,  to  bold  from  a  gill,  (or  quartern)  to  a  pint 
or  even  a  quart  of  Scottish  measure.  The 
small  ones  have  two  handles  (or  lugs  as  they  are 
called)  projecting  from  the  brim ;  Sie  large  have 
four. 

QUAIL,  V.  n.  &  V.  a,  Belg.  quelen ;  Teut.  qrud^ 
is  sickness.  To  languish ;  lose  spirits ;  sink  into 
dejection;  decline:  crush;  quell. 

After  Solyman  had  with  all  his  power  in  vain  be- 
sieged Rhodes,  his  haughty  courage  began  to  qvaif., 
so  that  he  was  upon  point  to  have  raised  his  siege. 

To  drive  him  to  despair,  and  quite  to  fuotZ, 
He  shewed  him  painted  in  a  table  plain 
The  damned  ghosts.  Spenmr, 

This  may  plant  courage  in  their  fuaiiti^  breasts. 
For  yet  is  hope  of  life  and  victory.  Adhpeare. 

While  rocks  stand. 
And  rivers  stir,  thou  can'st  not  shrink  or  qiuad ; 
Yea,  when  both  rocks  and  all  things  shall  disband. 
Then  shalt  thou  be  my  rock  and  tower.        Herbert. 

To  pass  the  quailing  and  withering  of  all  things  ' 
by  the  recess,  and  their  reviving  by  the  reaocess  of 
the  sun,  the  sap  in  trees  precisely  follows  the  mo- 
tion of  the  sun.  HaiewiU, 

Three,  with  fi'ry  coura^,  he  assails ; 
Three,  as  kings  adorned  m  royal  wise  ; 
And  each  successive  after  other  quails. 
Still  wond'ring  whence  so  many  kings  should  rise. 

Daniel, 

Quail,  n.  s.  Fr.  caille ;  Ital.  qvaglia ;  Belg. 
quackel ;  barb*  Lat  quaquila.  A  bird  of  game 
and  passage. 

His  quails  ever 
Beat  mine.      Shaktpeare,  Antony  and  Cleopatra. 
Hen  birds  have  a  peculiar  sort  of  voice,  when  they 
would  call  the  male,  which  is  so  eminent  in  quaiis, 
that  men,  by  counterfeiting  this  voice  with  a  quaU" 
pipe,  easily  draw  the  cocks  into  their  snares. 

Rag  on  the  Creation. 
A  dish  of  wild  fowl  furnished  conversi^tion,  con- 
cluded with  a  late  invention  for  improving  the  quail- 
pipe,  Addison. 

A  fresher  gale 
Sweeping  with  shadowy  gust  the  field  of  com, 
While  the  quail  clamours  for  his  running  mate. 

Thomson, 

Quail,  in  ornithology.    See  Perdix. 

QUAIL-PIPES,  or  quail-calls,  are  made  of  a 
small  leather  purse,  about  two  fingers  wide,  and 
four  fingers  long,  m  the  shape  of  a  pear;  this  is 
stuffed  half  full  of  horse-hair,  and  at  the  end  of 


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it  is  placed  a  small  whistle,  made  of  the  bone  of 
a  rabbit's  leg,  about  two  inches  long,  and  the 
end  fonned  like  a  flageolet,  with  a  little  soft  wax. 
This  is  the  end  fastened  into  the  puise;  the 
other  is  closed  up  with  the  same  wax,  only  a 
hole  is  opened  with  a  pin,  to  make  it  give  a  dis- 
tinct ana  clear  sound.  To  make  this  sound,  it 
must  be  held  full  in  the  palm  of  the  hand,  with 
one  of  the  fingers  placed  over  the  top  of  the 
wax;  then  the  purse  is  to  be  pressed,  and  the 
finger  is  to  shake  over  the  middle  of  it,  to  mo- 
'  dulate  the  sound  it  gives  into  a  sort  of  shake. 
This  is  the  most  useful  call ;  for  it  imitates  the 
note  of  Uie  hen- quail,  and  seldom  fails  to  bring 
a  cock  to  the  net  if  there  be  one  near  the  place. 
The  call  that  imitates  the  note  of  the  cock,  and 
is  used  to  bring  the  hen  to  him,  is  to  be  about 
four  inches  long,  and  above  an  inch  thick ;  it  is 
to  be  made  of  a  piece  of  wire  turned  round  and 
curled,  and  covered  with  leather ;  and  one  end 
of  it  must  be  closed  up  with  a  piece  of  flat 
wood,  about  the  middle  of  which  tnere  must  be 
a  small  thrtead  or  strap  of  leather,  and  at  the 
other  end  is  to  be  placed  the  same  tort  of  pipe, 
made  of  bone,  as  in  the  other  call.  The  noise 
is  made  by  opening  and  closing  the  spiral. 
QUAINT,  «(;.  ")  Tr.coirU;  oflAtcomp" 
Quaini'ly,  adv.  >  tm.  Nice ;  minutely  ex" 
Quaint'kess,  II.  i.jact;  having  petty  ele- 
gance ;  subtle ;  sly ;  fine-spun ;  affected:  Spenser 
uses  it  for  quailed. 
As  clerkes  been  full  subtle  and  qttaint.  Chatuer, 
Each  ear  sucks  up  the  words  a  true  love  icattereth 
And  plain  speech  oh,  than  quaisU  phrase  framed  is. 

Sidney. 
With  such  fair  slight  him  Guyon  failed : 
Till  at  the  last,  all  Imathless,  weary  and  faint. 

Him  spying,  with  fresh  onset  he  assailed. 

And  kindmgnewhis  coarage,  seeming  qvMhu, 

Struck  him  so  hugely,  that  uirough  great  constraint 

He  made  him  stoop.  Speiutr, 

You  were  glad  to  be  employed. 

To  shew  how  quaint  an  orator  you  are. 

Skaktpean. 
I  never  saw  a  better  fashioned  gown, 
More  quaint,  more  pleasing,  or  more  commendable. 

Breathe  his  faults  so  quaintljf, 
That  they  seem  the  tainU  of  liberty. 
The  flash  and  outbreak  of  a  fiery  mind.    Id. 
When  was  old  Sherewood's  hair  more  quaintly 
curled. 
Or  nature's  cradle  more  enchased  and  purl'dl 

Btn  JoMon. 
What's  the  efficient  cause  of  a  kinel  surely  a 
quahu  question ;  yet  a  question  that  has  been  moved. 

Holydt^. 
He  his  fabrick  of  the  heav'ns 
Hath  left  to  their  disputes,  perhaps  to  move 
His  laughter  at  their  quaint  opinions  wide 
Hereafter.  MUton*t  PenxuliM  Lost. 

He  spends  some  passages  about  two  similitudes ; 
one  of  mine,  and  another  qwUnter  of  his  own. 

StiUingfleet. 
As  my  Buxoma 
With  gentle  6nger,  streaked  her  milky  care, 
I  quaintly  stole  a  kiss.  Gny. 

There  is  a  certain  majesty  in  simplicity,  which  is 
far  above  all  the  quaintness  of  wit.  Popt. 

To  this  we  owe  those  monstrous  productions, 
which  under  the  name  of  trips,  spies,  amusements, 
and  other  conceited  appellations,  have  overrun  us ; 


and  I  wish  I  could  say,  those  quaint  fopperies  »eie 
wholly  absent  from  graver  subjects.  Sarift. 

QUAKE,  V.  n.  &  n.  s.  Sax.  c)>acan ;  Lat.  qualio 
To  shake;  to  tremble  with  cold  or  fear;  to  be 
yielding ;  not  solid  or  firm :  a  shudder. 

The  mountains  quake  at  him,  and  the  hills  melt, 
and  the  earth  is  burnt  at  his  presence.  Nahum.  i.  5. 

Dorus  threw  Pamela  behind  a  tree,  where  she 
stood  quaking  like  the  partridge  on  which  the  hawk 
is  ready  to  seize.  &dnty. 

Do  such  business  as  the  better  day 
Would  quake  to  look  on.     iihahtpeart.  Hamkt. 

As  the  earth  may  sometimes  shake, 
For  winds  shut  up  will  cause  a  quake  ; 
So  often  jealousy  and  fear 
Stol'n  to  mine  heart,  cause  tremblings  there. 

Sodding. 
The  qnakmg  powers  of  height  stood  in  amaie. 

CM»f«y. 
In  fields  they  dare  not  fight,  where  honour  calls, 
The  very  noise  of  wars  their  souls  does  wound. 
They  9iiaAe  but  hearing  their  own  tnimpeU  sound. 

Dryrfen. 
Next  Smedley  dived ;  slow  circles  dimpled  o'er 
The  qualdng  mud,  that  closed  and  op'd  no  more. 

Pope. 
QUAKERS.    See  Friends. 
QUALIFY,  «.  a.  &  v.  n.  I       Fr.    qual^r; 
Qualifica'tion,  ft.  s.        S  of  Lat.  qualis  and 
facere.     To  fit  or  furnish^  make  capable  of; 
hence  reduce ;   assuage ;   modify ;  abate  :  as  a 
verb  neuter,  fit  one's  self:  qualification  is,  ac- 
complishment ;  fitness ;  that  which  fits  or  quali- 
fies; abatement;  modification. 

He  balms  and  herbs  thereto  applied. 
And  evermore  with  mighty  spells  them  charmed, 

That  in  short  space  he  has  them  qualijied, 
And  him  restored  to  health  that  would  have  dy'd. 

Speneer. 
That  which  ordinary  men  are  fit  for,  I  am  qualijied 
in ;  and  the  best  of  me  is  diligence.       Shaiupeart. 
1  do  not  seek  to  quench  your  love's  hot  fire. 
But  qualify  the  fire's  extreme  rage, 
Lest  it  should  burn  above  the  bounds  of  reason. 

Id. 
I  have  drunk  but  one  cup  to>night,  and  that  was 
rraftily  ifualtfied  (00  ;  and  behold  what  innovation  it 
make*  here.  /<i. 

It  hath  se  pleased  God  to  provide  for  all  liun;; 
creatures,  wherewith  he  hath  filled  the  world,  tl*al 
such  inconveniences  as  we  contcniplnie  afar  off  aie 
found  by  tiial,  and  the  witness  of  rien's  travels,  to 
be  so  qiuUi/iml,  as  tlicre  is  no  portion  of  the  earth 
made  in  vam.  Raleiyh^s  Hilary  of  the  World, 

Place  over  them  such  governors,  as  may  be  quaii- 
M  in  Sttch  manner  as  may  govern  the  place. 

Bacon, 

They  would  r^rt  that  they  had  records  for  twenty 

thousand  years,  which  must  needs  be  a  very  great 

untruth,  unless  we  will  qualify  it,  expounding  their 

years  not  of.  the  revolution  of  the  sun,  but  of  the 


It  hath  no  larinx  or  throttle  to  qualify  the  sound. 

Browne. 

So  happy  'tis  you  move  in  such  a  sphere. 
As  your  high  majesty  with  awful  fear 
In  human  breasts  might  qualify  that  fire. 
Which  kindled  by  those  eyes  luid  flamed  higher. 

Children  should  be  early  instructed  in  the  true 
estimate  of  things,  by  opposing  the  good  to  the 
evil,  and  compensating  or  quaiy^ying  one  thing  with 
another.  VKtirange, 


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Good  quMeatiani  of  mind  enabte  a  maeistrate  to 
perform  bis  auty,  and  tend  to  create  a  pablic  esteem 
of  kim.  Atterbunf. 

My  propoftition  I  have  qualified  with  the  word 
eften ;  thereby  making  allowances  for  those  cases, 
whereby  men  of  excellent  minds  may,  by  a  long 
practice  of  virtue,  have  rendeied  the  heights  and  ri- 
goure  of  it  delightful.  Id, 

It  is  in  the  power  of  the  prince  to  make  piety  aud 
virtue  become  the  fashion,  if  he  would  make  them 
necessary  gtudifieations  for  preferment.  Swift, 

After  mentioning  the  corporation  and  test  acts, 
and  some  others  which  do  not  relate  to  the  point  un- 
der consideration,  it  is  enacted  that  persons  who, 
afker  the  passing  of  tl»  act,  have  omitted  to  qualify 
in  the  manner  pcescribed  by  those  acts,  and' who 
shall  properly  quaUfy  before  the  25th  of  the  ensaing 
December,  shaU  be  indemnified  against  all  penalties, 
IbHeitoTCe,  incapacities,  and  disabilities ;  and  their 
elections,  mud  the  acts  done  by  them,  are  declared  to 
be  good.  TomUn'i  Law  DicHonary. 

QUAL'ITY,  n.  t.  Fr.  quahtif  Lat.  qualUat. 
Natare  considered  relatively ;  property ;  adjunct ; 
disposition  of  mind  or  temper;  qualification; 
Tank :  henoe  persons  of  high  rank  cc^ectively 
considered. 

These,  being  of  a  far  other  nature  and  quality,  m 
Dot  BO  strictly  or  everlastingly  commanded  in  scrip- 
tuie.  Hooker. 

It  is  with  the  clergy,  if  their  persons  be  respected, 
even  as  it  is  with  other  men  ;  their  quahty  many 
times  hi  beneath  that  which  the  dignity  of  theu: 
place  requireth.  Id. 

In  the  division  of  the  kingdom,  it  appears  not 

which  of  the  dukes  he  values  most ;  for  qualitiei  are 

10  weighed,  that  curiosity  in  neither  can  make  choice 

of  cither's  moiety.  Skaktpeare, 

0,  mickle  is  the  powerfal  grace,  that  lies 

In  fdanu,  iMrbe,  stones,  and  their  true  qualitiei. 

Id* 
Let  him  be  so  entertained,  as  suits  with  gentlemen 
of  your  knowing  to  a  stranger  of  his  auaUtjf. 

Id,  CymbeHine. 
The  attorney  of  the  duch^  of  Lancaster  partakes 
of  both  qualities,  partly  of  a  mdge  in  that  court,  and 
partly  of  an  attomey-eenerai.  Bacon. 

The  matter  is,  whether  he  be  a  man  of  such  quaUtg 
that  the  state  allows  him  to  have  a  dove-house. 

Selden. 
He  had  diose  qualitkt  of  horsemanship,  dancing, 
tad  fencing,  which  accompany  a  good  breeding. 

Clarwiden. 
The  masters  of  these  horses  may  be  admitted  to 
dine  with  the  lord  lieutenant :  this  is  to  be  done, 
what  quality  soever  the  persons  are  of.         Temple, 
One  doubt  remains,  said  I,  the  dames  in  green. 
What  wen  their  qualitiee,  and  who  their  queen  1 

Dryden, 
The  power  to  produce  any  idea  in  our  mind,  I  call 
quality  of  the  suDJect,  wherein  that  power  is. 

Leehe, 
Since  the  event  of  an  action  usually  follows  the 
Mtwe  or  ^ueHiy  of  it,   and  the  quality  follows  the 
rale  directing  it,  it  concerns  a  man,  in  the  framing 
of  his  actions,  not  to  be  deceived  in  the  rule* 

South, 
I  shaU  appear  at  the  masquerade,  dressed  up  in 
n^  feathers,  that  the  quality  ma^  see  how  pretty  they 
vul  look  in  their  travelling  habits.  Additon. 

People  of  quaUty  are  fine  things,  indeed,  if  they 

had  but  a  little  more  money ;  but  for  want  of  that 

tbey  are  often  forced  to  do  things  they  are  ashamed 

of.  Vanburyh. 

No  lensible  qmlUie$,  as  light  and  color,  heat  and 


sound,  can  be  subsistent  in  the  bodies  themselves  ab- 
solutely considered,  without  a  relation  to  our  eyes 
and  ears,  and  other  organs  of  sense  :  these  qualities 
are  only  the  effects  of  our  sensation,  which  arise  from 
the  di£(erent  motions  upon  our  nerves  from  objects 
without,  according  to  tneir  various  modification  and  * 
position.  Bentley. 

Of  all  the  servile  herd,  the  worst  is  he. 
That  in  proud  dullness  joins  with  quaUty, 
A  constant  critick  at  the  great  man's  board. 
To  fetch  and  carry  nonsense  for  my  Lord. 

Pope. 
We,  who  are  hearers,  may  be  allowed  some  op- 
portunities in  the  quality  of  standers-by.        Swift, 
To  quaUiy  belongs  the  highest  place. 
My  lord  comes  forward ;  forward  let  him  come ! 
Ye  vulgar !  at  your  peril  give  him  room. 

Young, 
Nothing  discovers  the  true  quality  and  disposition 
of  the  mind  more,  than  the  particular  kind  of  know- 
ledge it  is  most  fond  of.  Mason, 

QUALM,  n.  t.    {     Sax.  cp^ra;  Dan.  and 
Qualm'ish,  adj.  S  Teut  qualm,    A  sudden  fit 
of  sickness;  sudden  seizure  of  languor :  the  ad- 
jective corresponding. 

Some  sudden  quahn  hath  struck  me  to  the  heart, 
And  dimmed  mine  eyes,  that  I  can  read  no  further. 

Shakspeare, 
I  am  qualmish  at  the  smell  of  leek.  Id, 

Compared  to  these  storms,  death  is  but  a  qualm. 
Hell  somewhat  lightsome,  the  Bermudas  calm. 

Donne. 
I  find  a  cold  qualm^  come  over  my  heart,  that  I 
faint,  I  can  speak  no  longer.  Hdwel, 

All  maladies 
Of  ehastly  spasm,  or  racking  torture  qualms 
Of  heart-sick  affony.  miUan's  Paradise  Lost, 

For  who,  wiUiout  a  qualm,  hath  ever  looked 
On  holy  garbage,  though  by  Momer  cooked  ? 

IloseemsnoH, 
Thy  mother  well  deserves  that  short  delight, 
The  nauseous  qualms  of  ten  long  months  and  travail 
to  delight.  Dryden's  VirgU. 

You  dn>p  into  the  place. 
Careless  and  quakmsh  with  a  yawning  face. 

Drydtn, 
They  have  a  sicklv  uneasiness  upon  them,  shift- 
ing and  changing  from  one  error,  and'  from  one 
qmbn  to  another,  hankering  after  novelties. 

VlEttrange. 
The  ifealms  or  raptures  of  your  blood 
Rise  in  proportion  to  your  food.  Prutr. 

When  he  hath  stretched  his  vessels  with  wine  tc 
their  utmost  capacity,  and  is  grown  weary  and  sick, 
and  feels  those  qmdms  and  di^rbances  that  usually 
attend  such  excesses,  ho  resolves  that  he  will  here- 
after contain  himaelf  within  the  bounds  of  sobriety. 

CaUuny. 

QUANGS££,  a  province  of  the  south-west- 
em  fhmtier  of  China,  bordering  on  Tonijuin. 
East  and  north  it  is  flat,  but  fertile,  and  yields 
rice  for  export.  The  rest  of  the  province  consists 
of  lofty  mountauns,  covered  with  wood,  and  con- 
taining mines  of  gold,  silver,  copper,  and  tin, 
which  have  only  of  late  been  allowed  to  be 
worked  on  condition  of  their  paying  forty  per 
cent,  to  the  emperor,  and  five  per  cent  to  the 
officers  and  troops  employed  in  superintending 
them.  The  gold  mines,  however,  were  retained 
by  the  emperor  in  his  own  hands.  The  quang- 
lang  tree,  of  the  pith  of  which  bread  is  made,  is 
indigenous  here;  as  well  89  a  species'  of  einna* 

X  3        T 
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QUANTITY. 


tnon.  Sir  O.  Staunton  reckons  the  inhabitants 
St  10,000,000.  The  capital  is  called  Kouelong 
or  Queyling. 

QUANTITY,  n. «. )   Fr.  qmntiU ;  Ital.  quan- 

Quan'titive,  >  tita ;  Lat.  quantita%.  Ex- 

Qi'an'tum,  n. «.  3 tent;  bulk;  bigness  or 
small ness  of  size  or  number;  part;  portion;  a 
large  portion ;  measure  of  time  m  pronunciation : 
quantitive  is  estimable  by  quantity :  quantum, 
amount;  sum. 

If  I  were  sawed  into  mtan^iie$t  I  should  ratke 
four  dozen  of  such  bearded  hermites  staves  as  master 
Shallow.  .   Shakspeare. 

So  varying  still  their  moods,  observing  yet  in  all 
Their  quantitiet,  their  rests,  their  censures  metrical. 

Drayton. 

This  explication  of  rarity  and  density,  by  the  com- 
position of  substance  with  quantitif,  may  give  little 
satisfaction  to  such  who  are  apt  to  conceive  therein 
■no  other  compositioii  or  resolution  but  snch  as  our 
senses  shew  us,  in  compounding  and  dividing  bodies 
according  to  quantUive  parts.  Digby. 

The  easy  pronunciation  of  a  mute  before  a  liquid 
does  not  necessarily  make  the  preceding  vowel,  by 
position,  long  in  quantity ;  as  patrem.  Holder, 

Unskilled  in  hellebore,  if  thou  shou'dst  tiy 

To  mix  it,  and  mistake  the  qyantity. 

The  rules  of  physick  wou'd  against  thee  cry. 

Diyden. 

The  warm  antiscorbutical  plants,  taken  in  quan^ 
titin,  will  occasion  stinking  breath,  and  cormpt  the 
blood.  •     ArMtnat, 

Quantity  is  what  may  be  increased  or  diminished. 

Ckeyne, 

The  quantum  of  presbyterian  merit,  during  the 
reign  of  that  ill-advised  prince,  will  easily  be  com- 
puted. Swift. 

Quantity. — ^To  define  what  the  ancient  quan- 
tity was,  in  the  age  when  its  nature  was  not 
determinable  merely  from  the  mouldering  manu- 
scripts, or  hieroglyphic  symbols  of  our  modem 
copyists;  but  when  the  criteria  for  the  ear, 
which  Quinctilian  declares  cannot  be  imitated 
except  orally,  were  obtained  from  the  only  ef- 
fectual source,  the  viva  vox,  is  an  arduous  and 
almost  hopeless  task.  From  the  ashes,  how- 
ever, we  have  gleaned  together  with  other  anti- 
quarians our  quota;  and  from  the  scattered 
fragments,  imperfect  records,  and  broken  monu- 
ments of  the  general  ruin,  have  collected  what 
we  call  our  rules. 

It  is  clear  that  in  .the  ancient  elocution  ther^ 
were  not  only  fifteen  vowel  sounds,  represented 
by  six  letters,  but  each  of  these  was  again  sus- 
ceptible of  one  of  the  three  accents,  the  acute, 
the  grave,  or  the  circumflex.  And  though  the 
Greeks  remedied  this  in  part,  by  two  additional 
characters,  yet  to  express  the  mere  duration  of 
their  syllables,  there  is  still  an  obvious  defi- 
ciency. Every  intelligent  observer  will  admit 
that  elocution  is  nothing  but  a  species  of  music, 
since  every  thing  implied  by  the  duration  of  a 
syllable,  the  mood  or  general  time  of  delivery, 
accent,  emphasis,  pause,  tone,  and  cadence,  are 
properties  which  may  be  very  adequately  ex- 
pressed on  paper,  in  musical  composition,  or, 
more  completely,  by  a  good  organ.  Hence  the 
duration  of  a  syllable  is  perfectly  analogous  to 
the  relative  difference  between  a  minim  and  a 
crotchet ;  'the  mood,  to  the  general  time,  whether 
quick  or  slow,  observed  in  the  whole  compo- 


sition ;  accent  and  emptbasis,  being  an  elevatioR 
or  depression  of  the  voice,  are  actually  the  vari- 
ation from  one  note  to  another;  pause  is,  by 
musicians,  under  the  term  a  rest,  only  changed 
in  name ;  while  tone,  implying  all  that  modu- 
lation of  the  voice  effected  by  the  tranquil, 
plaintive  or  empassioned  mind,  is  what  the 
complete  organ  very  nearly  effects  by  its  dia- 
pason, sesquialter,  principal,  and  occasionally 
oy  the  swell ;  and  the  cadence  is  but  the  return 
of  the  air  and  notes  to  the  same  key  to  which 
the  whole  composition  is  set.  We  now  easily 
perceive  that  of^  all  that  once  gave  eloquence  to 
the  orations  of  Cicero,  and  harmony  to  the 
strains  of  Virgil,  we  now  retain  but  a  concate- 
nation of  vowels  and  consonants,  in  fact,  but  a 
lifeless  syllabication.  Notwithstanding,  how- 
ever, this  latitude  for  doubt,  and  the  difficulties 
to  which  the  question  is  liable,  several  with 
little  hesitation  define  the  quantity  of  a  syllable 
to  be  the  duration  of  the  voice  in  pronouncing 
it.  But  whilst  this,  on  the  one  hand,  renders 
the  whole  poetic  fabric  consistent,  it  i«,  on  the 
other,  not  a  little  at  variance  with  the  customaiy 
and  established  pronunciation  of  many  who 
are  amongst  the  principal  advocates  of  prosodial 
orthoepy,  as  well  as  with  the  manner  in  which 
the  Latin  language  is  frequently  pronounced 
among  the  modems,  and  by  the  British  nation. 
To  youth  we  prescribe  the  laws  of  quantity, 
and  we  oblige  them  to  pronounce  the  first  syl- 
lable of  pr6fugus  short,  and  that  of  c5pia  long, 
because  the  former  is  a  tribrac,  and  the  latter  a 
dactyl ;  but  we  not  only  allow  them,  but  accus- 
tom ourselves  to  pronounce  nSpos,  fides,  gl5bus, 
and  conjfigium,  as  though  these  several  syllables 
were  respectively  long,and  are  accused  by  foreign- 
ers not  only  of  departing  from  the  genuine  sound 
of  the  Greek  and  Latin  vowels,  but  of  violating 
the  quantity  of  these  languages  more  than  any 
other  European  nation.  The  author  of  the  Essay 
on  the  Harmony  of  Languages  gives  us  a  detail  of 
the  particulars  by  which  this  accusation  is 
proved,  so  accurate  as  to  give  it  claim  to  cita- 
tion here.  *  The  falsification  of  the  harmony  by 
English  scholars  in  their  pronunciation  of 
Latin,  with  regard  to  essential  points,  arises 
from  two  causes  only.:  first,  from  a  total  inat- 
tention to  the  length  of  vowel  sounds,  making 
them  long  or  short  merely  as  chance  directs; 
and,  secondly,  from  sounding  doubled  conso- 
nants as  only  one  letter.  The  remedy  of  the 
last  fault  is  obvious.  With  regard  to  the  first, 
we  have  already  observed  that  each  of  our  vowels 
hcvs  its  general  long  sound,  and  its  general  short 
sound  totally  different.  Thus,  the  short  sound  of 
e  lengthened  is  expressed  by  the  letter  a,  and 
the  short  sound  of  i  lene^hened  is  expressed  by 
the  letter  e. '  And  with  all  these  anomalies,  usual 
in  the  application  of  vowel  characters  to  the 
vowel  sounds  of  our  own  language,  we  proceed 
to  the  application  of  vowel  sounds  to  the  vowel 
characters  of  the  Latin.  Thus,  in  the  first  syl- 
lable of  sidus  and  namen,'  which  ought  to  be 
long,  and  of  miser  and  5nus,  which  ought  to  be 
short,  we  equally  use  the  common  long  sound 
of  the  vowels ;  but,  in  the  oblique  cases,  sideris, 
nominis,  miseri,  oneris,  &c.,  we  use  quite  ano- 
ther sound,  and  that  a  short  one.  These  strange 
anomalies  are  not  in  common  to  us  with  our 


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QUANTITY. 


309 


Mmtheni  neighbours  the  French,  Spaniards,  and 
Italians.  They  pronounce  sidus,  according  to 
our  orthography,  seedus,  and  in  the  oblique 
cases  preserve  the  same  long  sound  of  the  t. 
Nomen  they  pronounce  as  we  do,  and  preserve, 
in  the  oblique  cases,  the  same  long  sound  of  the 
o.  The  Italians  also,  in  their  own  language,  pro- 
nounce doubled  consonants  as  distinctly  as  the 
two  most  discordant  mutes  of  their  alphabet. 
It  is  a  matter  of  curiosity  to  observe  witn  what 
regularity  we  use  these  solecisms  in  the  pro- 
nunciation of  lAtin.  When  the  penultin^te 
is  accented,  its  vowel,  if  followed  but  by  a  single 
consonant,  is  always  long,  as  in  Dr.  Foster's 
examples.  When  the  antepenultimate  is  ac- 
cented, its  vowel  is,  without  any  regard  to  the 
requisite  quantity  pronounced  short,  as  in  mir&- 
bile,  frigldus ;  except  the  vowel  of  the  penul- 
timate be  followed  by  a  vowel>  and  then  the 
▼owel  of  the  antepenultimate  is,  with  as  little 
regard  to  true  quantity,  pronounced  long,  as  in 
nianeo,  redeat,  odium,  imperium.  Quantity  is, 
however,  vitiated,  to  make  i  short,  even  in  this 
case,  as  in  oblivio,  vinea,  virium.  The  only  dif- 
ference we  make  in  pronunciation  between 
Tinea  and  venia,  is,  that  to  the  vowel  of  the  first 
syllable  of  the  former,  which  ought  to  be  long, 
"we  g^ve  a  short  sound ;  to  that  of  the  latter, 
which  ought  to  be  short,. we  give  the  same 
sound,  but  lengthened.  U,  accented,  is  always, 
before  a  single  consonant,  pronounced  long,  as 
in  humerus,  fugiens.  Before  two  consonants  no 
▼owel  sound  is  ever  made  long,  except  that  of 
the  diphthong  ou,  so  that,  whenever  a  doubled 
consonant  occurs,  the  preceding  syllable  is 
short.* 

Mr.  Pickboum,  the  author  of  a  Dissertation 
on  the  English  Verb,  justly  observes  (Monthly 
Magazine,  No.  135),  'That  scholars  err  in 
their  pronunciation  of,  1st,  words  of  two  syl- 
lables having  the  first  short,  as  eques;  2dly, 
words  of  three  syllables  having  the  first  long 
and  the  second  short,  as  sidera;  3dly,  poly- 
syllables accented  on  the  antepenultimate;  as 
juvenilibus,  interea,  &c. ;  and,  lastly,  words  endu- 
ing in  a  long  vowel,  as  domini,  or  in  a  long 
▼owel  and  a  single  consonant,  as  dominis.  These 
errors  arise  in  part  from  the  want  of  distinguish- 
ing between  the  long  and  short  powers  of  the 
vowels,  and,  in  part  from  the  indistinct  and  con- 
fused notion  wnich  we  have  of  accent.  For, 
when  it  falls  on  a  short  syllable,  we  often  make 
that  syllable  long;  and,  when  it  falls  on  a  long 
one,  we  sometimes  make  it  short.  Accent  does 
certainly  affect  quantity ;  that  is,  it  makes  the 
accented  syllable  a  little  longer  than  it  would 
be  without  it.  But  its  operation  is  never  so 
great  as  to  make  a  short  syllable  become  long, 
nor  does  the  privation  of  accent  make  a  long 
syllable  become  short ;  for  there  are  degrees  of 
time  both  in  long  and  short  syllables.  All  short 
syllables  are  not  equally  short ;  nor  are  all  long 
ones  equally  long.' 

In  justice  to  this  part  of  the  subject  we  may 
now  offer  a  remark  which  we  find  in  Dr.  Valpy's 
excellent  Greek  Grammar.  He  differs  in  some  de- 
gree from  Mr.  Pickboum,  when  he  observes,  *  that 
the  elevation  of  the  voice  does  not  lengthen  the 
time  of  ttiat  syllable,  so  tiiat  accent  and  quantity 


by  the  best  critics  are  considered  as  perfectly 
distinct,  and  by  no  means  inconsisteht  with 
each  other.  In  our  language  the  accent  falls  on 
the  antepenultimate  equally  in  the  words  liberty 
and  library,  yet,  in  the  former,  the  tone  only  is 
elevated,  in  the  latter  the  syllable  is  also  length- 
ened. The  same  difference  exists  in  baron,  and 
b^on>  in  l<§vel  and  I^ver.  In  words  of  two  and 
of  three  short  syllables  the  difference  between 
the  French  and  English  pronunciition  is  strik- 
ing. The  former  make  iambics  and  anapxsts, 
the  latter  chorees  and  dactyls.  The  French  say, 
fugis,  fugimOs;  the  English,  fugis,  ftigimus; 
In  many  instances  both  are  equally  &ultY ;  thus 
we  shorten  the  long  is  in  f^vls,  the  plural  of 
f^vus;  they  leqffthen  the  short  is  in  oris,  the 
genitive  of  ot.  Indeed  both  may  be  said  to  ob- 
serve neither  accent  nor  quantity.'  We  have 
thus  stated  at  length  the  manner  in  which  an- 
cient quantity  is  violated  by  the  modems,  and 
more  particularly  by  the  English.    . 

Three  methods  present  themselves  to  enable 
us  to  preserve  the  prosodial  quantity.  1st.  To 
allow  every  vowel  its  prescribed  duration,  with- 
out altering  the  customary  division  of  syllables ; 
as  n6-ta,  l6-cus,  &c. ;  but  this  will  oblige  us  to 
throw  the  accent  on  the  second  syllable,  as  gl6- 
bus,  contrary  to  the  laconic  canon  of  Sanctius : 

'  Accentum  in  ae  ipsa  monosyllaba  dictio  pooit. 
Exacait  sedem  dissyllabon  omne  priorem. 
Ex  tribus  extollit  primam  penultima  carta. 
Extollit  se  ipsam  quando  est  penultima  longa.' 

This  will  very  frequently  occasion  the  follow- 
ing vowel  to  be  long;  as,  tC-n^-o,  contrary  to, 
*  Vocalis  ante  alteram  in  eadem  dictione  ubique 
brevis  est.* 

2dly.  If,  then,  we  must  abandon  the  preceding 
method,  we  have  the  alternative  left  of  unit- 
ing to  the  preceding  vowel  the  succeeding  con- 
sonant; as,  n5t-a,  16c-us.  But  still  some  diffi- 
culty occurs,  for,  first,  this  method  would  in 
many  instances  occasion  pronunciations  veiy 
harsh  to  our  customary  prepossessions;  as,  grfid- 
us,  cftd-o,  plYc-o,  sti&p-e-o,  b^n-us,  j&b-e-o,  t£n- 
e-o,  mttn-e-o,  nttm-e-rus,  trlb-us,  h6n-os,  fiv-or, 
f)it-u-rus,  jttg^um,  fid-es,  p£t-o,  tim-or,  tim-e-o, 
vid-e-o,  'Homines  tuentur  ilium  gl6b-um.'  *  Per- 
taesum  est  con-j)ig-ii,  &c.  But  is  this  really  an  ob- 
jection ?  Have  not  custom  and  long-established 
usage  the  power  of  warping  the  mind,  and  giv- 
ing it  prejudices  against  that  which  in  its  un- 
biassed state  it  would  have  adjudged  to  be  agree- 
able and  elegant?  This  from  innumerable  in- 
stances we  are  assured  to  be  a  fact.  And  we 
may  very  reasonably  enquire,  is  all  this  harsh- 
ness of  pronunciation  of  which  we  appear  to  be 
so  sensible  actually  chargeable  on  the  ancients  ? 
Does  it  not  arise  rather  ^om  the  mistaken  ideas 
we  have  formed  of  the  power  of  their  vowels  and 
consonants,  which,  if  rectified,  would  render  the 
harmony  of  pronunciation  and  prosodial  quan- 
tity again  consistent  ? 

<  £,  in  Latin,  as  well  as  Greek,'  according  to 
Ainsworth,  '  was  pronounced  ci.'  From  the 
circumstance  of  their  anciently  writing  TBI 
AT  AG  EI  TYXEI  for  r^  iyaOii  rvx^y  it  is  to  9 
that  he  attributes  the  power  of  a.  But  since 
it  is  ambiguous,  and  the  attempt  inconclusive,  to 


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explain  the  aoond  of  one  ancient  TOweL  by  an- 
other, t)>e  most  satis&Qtory  and  dedsive  method^ 
as  &r  as  it  can  be  doae,  is  to  have  recourse  to 
the  'more  immutable  sounds  of  nature. 

The  learned  authors  of  the  Port  Royal  Greek 
Grammar,  in  order  to  convey  the  sound  of  the 
long  Greek  vowel  q,  tell  us  *  it  is  a  sound  be- 
tween the  e  and  a ;  and  that  Eustathius,  who 
lived  towards  the  close  of  the  twelfth  century, 
says  that  /3^,  j3q,  is  a  sound  made  in  imitation 
of  the  bleating  of' a  sheep ;  to  this  purpose  they 
quote  the  following  verse  of  ftn  ancient  writer, 
Cratinus : — 

'  Is  fatuus  peiinde,  ac  ovis,  bd,  b6,  dicens  iacedit. 
'  He,  like  a  silly  sheep,  goes  crying  baa.' 

In  a  similar  manner  the  sound  of  the  long  t 
is  preserved  to  us  by  the  word  pipio,  which  sig- 
nifies to  pip  like  a  chicken;  and,  since  their 
note  is  neainy  what  we  may  express  by  pee-ep, 
the  long  power  of  that  letter  seems  to  have  been 
equivooil  to  our  ee.  Eustalhios  likewise  re- 
marks on  the  499th  verse  of  Iliad  I.  that  &e 
word  BX6i{/  iariv  6  iHc  cXe^^fMcc  Jx^'C  l»HUiruc&c 
Kard  re(  vaKaiite  ^iy  ^x^i  ^i^ifoii/  wpop6riif¥ 
futvfiQ.  Kp^ivof,  i.  e.  BM',  is,  according  to  the 
ancients,  an  imitation  of  the  sound  of  the  clep- 
sydra; et  Bi)  imitates  the  bleating  of  sheep.  The 
clepsydra  was  an  instrument  to  measure  time  by 
water ;  and,  it  should  be  particularly  observed, 
was  occasionally  employed  to  measure  time  for 
the  regulations  of  orators,  and  in  other  recita- 
tions. Abstracting  the  o  in  BXo^  from  the  effect 
of  position  before  ^,  it  will,  as  we  shall  deter- 
mine hereafter,  have  the  power  of  our  o ;  and 
blops  adequately  imitates  the  noise  of  water  run- 
ing  with  mtermissions  out  of  a  narrow-mouthed 
vessel;  and,-  with  the  French  pronunciation, 
with  equal  propriety,  is  signified  by  the  word 
glouelou ;  but  not  quite  so  happily  by  us,  by  the 
word  guggle.  Ait^sworth  seems  to  consider  that 
the  long  sound  of  o  vras  equal  to  h.  To  deter- 
mine this,  it  may  be  useful  to  quote  the  word 
gl5cio,  to  duck  as  a  hen  (ibom  KKtttiv),  particu* 
larly  since  this  word,  amongst  many  others  will 
prove  an  inefiragable  proof  that  c,  amongst  the 
ancients,  was  equivocal  to  c,  or  hard,  since 
glouk,  glouk,  is  the  sound  produced  by  the  hen 
after  ihe  period  of  incubation.  The  sound  of  the 
long  u  is  no  less  sincerely  preserved  by  Plautus 
in  Mensch.  page  622,  edit.  Lambin,  in  making 
use  of  it  to  imitate  the  cry  of  an  owl : — 

« 'Meo.  Egon'  dedil  Pen.  Tu,  Ta>  istic,  inqoam 
vin'  afierri  noctuam. 
Que  ta,  tttp  usqae  dioat  tibi  9  nam  nos  jam  aos  de- 
fiusi  sumus.' 


'It  appears  here,'  says  Mr.Forster,  in  his  De- 
fence of  the  Greek  accents,  page  129,  that  an 
owl's  cry  was  tu,  tu,  to  a  Roman  ear;  tou,  tou, 
to  a  French ;  and  too,  too,  to  an  English  one.' 
Lembin,  who  was  a  Frenchman,  observes  on  the 
passage,  *  Alludit  ad  noctute  vocem  tu,  tu,  sen 
tou,  tou.'  On  this  Mr.  Walker  remarks,  that  the 
English  have  totally  departed  from  this  sound  of 
the  u  in  their  own  language,  as  well  as  their  pro- 
nunciation of  Latin.  Ausonius  confirms  this 
power  of  t« :  *  Cecropiis  ignota  sonis,  fierale  «o- 


U.  Ferale  id^  <)uia  refert  leralem  iikn 
avem.'  This  also  exf^ns  the  reason  of  the  La- 
tin word  bftbulo  expressing  the  cry  of  an  ovri. 
Aristophanes  has  handed  aown  to  us  the  pro- 
nunciation of  the  Greek  diphthong  dv,  bf,  by 
making  it  expressive  of  the  barkmg  of  a  dog. 
This  is  what  is  exactly  preserved  by  nurses  ai^ 
children  to  this  day  in  bow,  wow.  This  is  the 
sound  of  the  same  letters  in  the  Latin  tongue, 
not  only  in  proper  names  derived  from  Gnekf 
but  in  every  other  word  where  this  diphthong 
occurs.  Most  nations  in  Europe,  peihape  all  but 
the  English,  pronounce  audio  and  laudo,  as  if 
written  owdio  and  lowdo ;  the  diphthong  sound 
like  ou  in  loud.' 

Since  the  long  u  has  been  so  fully  proved  to 
have  been  equivocal  to  oo,  which  Dr.  Cacey 
confirms,  by  considering  it  equivalent  to  the 
Greek  «,  and  to  the  sounds  in  the  Italian  pur, 
the  French  pour,  and  the  English  poor,  we  m^ 
suppose  that  the  ancients  pronounced  lumen, 
according  to  our  orthography,  loomen,  and  al- 
lowed tl:^  power  of  the  middle  «,  as  in  cabe,  to 
their  short  accented  u,  and  that  of  &,  as  in  cub, 
to  their  short  unaccented  u,  i.  e.  when  the  aoceni 
rested  on  the  following  consonant    Henoe,  in- 
stead of  bemg  compiled  to  divide  nftm'-er-us, 
fl&f-u-rus,  st&p'-e-o,  jub'-e-o,  so  as  to  throw  the 
accent  on  the  latter  oonaonant  of  the  first  sylla- 
ble, we  may  adopt  a  distribution  morereogncile- 
able,  at  least  with  our  habits,  and  by  placbg  the 
accent  on  the  first  vowel  instead  of  the  foUowii^ 
consonant,  may  give  the  short  Roman  accented  m 
the  sound  of  «  in  tube,  and  pronounce  nearly  as 
usual,  nft'-me-rus,  f^'-tu-nis,  jfi'-be-o,  &c.    Re- 
lative to  jugum  and  conjugium,  we  here  nvail 
ourselves  of  a  remark  from  Dr.  Carey.    '  The 
word,  which  in  England  we  pronounce  jugum, 
is  in  reality  yugum,  as  the  Germans,  in  iact,  at 
this  day,  pronounce  it    Of  this,  indeed,  there  is 
little  doubt,  since  Iaie«^  was  properly  yakob, 
and  the  Hebrew  ^,  before  a  vowel,  had  tiie  power 
of  ^.    Now  by  these  remarks  bdng  warranted, 
first,  lo  place  the  accent  on  the  first  vowel  of  the 
root  i4'-gum :  secondly,  to  give  the  power  of  the 
aiddle  k  to  the  short  Roman  accented  tf ;  and 
thirdly,  that  of  jf  to  i'  before  a  vowel,  we  may 
avoid  nearly  all  the  harshness  lor  wUch  these 
words  would  otherwise  havie  been  notorious;  as 
y&'-gum,  oon-yH'-gium.    The  same  unpleasantly 
may  be  removed  from  gl6b'«us,  sinoe  the  long 
Roman  o  is  considered  to  have  been  equal  to  «, 
which  is  more  exactly  represented  by  our  au ; 
for  bora  was  probably  proaounoed  haura,  since 
it  is  borrowed  from  the  Hebrew  "^IK,  aur,  and 
aurora  from  cv,  *)1lt  (propitious  light),  or  owrauia. 
Therefore  the  middle  o,  as  in  note,  may  be  ceded 
to  the  short  Roman  accented  o,  and  for  gl6b'-us, 
we  may,  more  agreeably,  say  gl6'-bus.. 

Many  writers  have  undertaken  to  assign  the 
syllables  which  constitute  the  seat  of  the  accent, 
but  few  distinguish  the  accented  vowel  from  the 
accented  consonant  And  here,  perhaps,  the 
solution  of  the  whole  may  be  found.  It  is  evi- 
dent, that  mi'-les  has  the  accent  on  the  first  sylla- 
ble, and  on  the  vowel  of  that  syllable:  hence  it 
is  easily  preserved  long.    And,  it  is  equally  ob- 


vious, that  honorif  icus  has  the  accent  on  the  an- 


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QUANTITY. 


311 


tepentltttnatey  and  on  the  consonant /of  that 
syllable;  and,  therefore,  it  more  rapidly  incline* 
to  an  increased  brevity. 

Another  difficulty  to  which  we  are  liable  in 
our  apprehension  of  the  nature  of  ancient  quan- 
tity arises  from  that  which  i^said  to  be  long  by 
position.  From  this  some  have  deduced  an 
objection  against  the  attempt  to  conform  the' 
present  pronunciation  to  quantity ;  observing 
that, '  if  we  would  be  consistent  and  unexcep- 
tionable in  our  adherence  to  prosodial  mietre^  we 
have  to  recollect  that  the  same  word  is  often  both 
long  and  short ;  as  nifc,  when  single,  or  not  fol- 
lowed by  a  consonant ;  which  by  posiiton  we 
find  long,  as  Fulgura  nee  diri  toties  arsere 
oometae..  Then,  if  we  invariably  echo  the  quan- 
tity, we  must,  pro  re  natft,  say  n£c,  and  nee  diri, 
i.  e.  neek,  and  neck  diri.  And  the  improbability 
that  the  ancients  were  so  ready  on  every  occasion 
to  pronounce  the  same  word  both  long  and 
short  would  incline  as  to  infer  that  we  have  no 
idea  of  what  they  meant  by  quantity.' 

This  has  given  rise  to  the  remarks  in  Mr. 
Walker's  Treatise  on  Classical  Pronunciation, 
which,  if  they  are  not  in  every  instance  the  most 
decisive,  are  at  least  the  most  ingenious  that  we 
have  seen  on  the  question. 

'  The  long  quantity,'  says  he, '  of  the  ancients, 
must  arise  either  fifom  a  prolongation  of  the 
sound  of  the  vowel,  or  from  the  delay  of  the 
voice,  which  the  pronunciation  of  two  or  more 
consonants  in  succession  are  supposed  naturally 
to  require.  Now  vowels  were  said  to  be  either 
long  by  nature,  or  long  by  position.  Those 
Towels  which  were  long  by  position  were  sudb 
as  were  succeeded  by  two  or  more  consonants ; 
as  the  first  o  in  sponsor.  If  the  long  quantity 
of  the  ancients  was  the  same  distinction  of  the 
sound  of  the  vowel  as  we  make  in  the  words 
cadence  and  magic,  then  the  a  in  mfiter  and 
pttter  must  have  been  pronounced  like  our  a  in 
p4)er  and  matter ;  and  those  vowels  which  were 
long  by  position,  as  the  a  in  B&ochus  and  cam- 
pus, must  have  been  sounded  by  the  ancients  as 
we  bear  them  in  the  words  bake  and  came. 
But  if  the  long  quantity  of  the  ancients  was  no 
more  than  a  reSardation  of  the  roice  on  the  con- 
sonants, or  that  doration  of  sound  which  an 
assemblage  of  consonants  is  supposed  naturally 
to  produce,  without  making  any  alteration  in  the 
sound  of  ^e  vowel,  of  such  long  quantity  as 
this  an  English  ear  has  not  the  least  idea. 
Unless  the  sound  of  the  vowel  be  altered,  we 
have  not  any  conception  of  a  long  or  short 
syllable ;  and  the  first  syllables  of  banish,  ban- 
ner, and  banter,  have,  to  our  ears,  exacUy  the 
same  quantity.  The  same  may  be  observed  of 
senate,  seminary,  sentence,  and  sentiment;'  and 
if,  as  an  ingenious  enquirer  into  this  subject  has 
asserted,  the  ancients  pronounce  both  the  con- 
sonants in  callidus,  fallo,  &c.,  this  seems  to 
shorten,  rather  than  lengthen,  the  vowel  of  the 
first  syllable.  '  If,  however,  the  quantity  of  the 
ancients  lay  only  in  the  vowel,  which  was  length- 
ened and  shortened  in  our  manner  by  altering 
the  sound,  how  strange  must  have  been  their 
poetical  langus^,  and  how  different  from  the 
words  taken  singly !  And,  when  these  observa- 
tions on  the  qviantity  of  the  ancients  are  collect- 


ively considered,  shall  we  wonder  that  the 
learned  and  ingenious  author  of  the  Elements  of 
Criticism  should  go  so  far  as  to  assert  that  the 
dactyls  and  spondees  of  hexameter  verse,  with 
respect  to  pronunciation,  are  perely  ideal,  not 
only  with  us,  but  that  they  were  so  with  the 
ancients  themselves  ?  Few,  however,  will  adopt 
an  opinion  which  will  necessarily  imply  that  the 
GreeK  and  Latin  critics  were  utterly  ignorant  of 
the  nature  of  their  own  language ;  and  every 
admirer  of  those  excellent  writers  will  rather 
embrace  any  explanation  of  accent  and  quantity, 
than  give  up  Dionysius  of  Halicamassus,  Cicero, 
Quinctilian,  and  Longinus.  Suppose  then,  as  a 
last  refuge,  we  were  to  try  to  read  a  Greek  or 
Latin  verse,  both  by  accent  and  quantity,  and 
see  what  such  a  trial  will  produce. 

*  By  quantity,  let  us  suppose  the  vowel 
lengthened  to  express  the  long  quantity ;  and  by 
the  acute  accent  the  rising  inflexion ;  thus : — 

Tityre.  t(i  pituln  r^uhans  sub  t^gmine  f&gi, 
Sylv^trem  t^nui  miisam  medit&ris  av6na. 
Tltyr£,  tii  p&tula  r  JSc&bans  sub  tegmlnif  fagi, 
SylvSstrem  t^^n&I  musam  mildltftrls  livena. 
Te^tyre  to6'  p4tulee  r^ubanes  9o6h  te^gmine  f6gi» 
Se^lveestreem  t^nui  mo^same  medit^s  avena. 

OifXofdintVf  >}  /ivpt  'Axaioi^  dKyt  lOriKti. 
M^vXv  dliSi  Qiat  II^X^Ia^etD  AxiKfjog 
OvK&fiivriVf  rj  fivpX  AxdioiQ  aXye  IBiJKij. 

Metn-en  4-eye-de  The-ay,  Fei-lei-e-i-dyo  A-kil-let- 

ose. 
Ow-lom-6n-ein,  hei  moo-r6  a-kay-o^s  al-ge  £th-ei- 

kei. 

'  Now  there  are  but  four  possible  ways  of 
pronouncing  these  verses,  without  going  into  a 
perfect  song;  One  is,  to  pronounce  the  accented 
syllable  vrith  the  falling  inflexion,  and  the  unac- 
cented vrith  the  same  inflexion  in  a  lower  tone ; 
which  is  the  manner  In  which  we  pronounce  our 
ovm  words,  when  we  give  them  the  accent  with 
the  falling  inflexion.  The  second  is  to  pro- 
nounce the  accented  syllable  vrith  the  rising 
inflexion,  and  the  unaccented  syllables  vrith  the 
same  inflexion  in  a  lower  tone ;  which  we  never 
hear  in  our  own  language.  The  Uiird  is  to 
pronounce  the  accented  syllable  vrith  the  falling 
mflexion,  and  the  unaccented  syllables  with  the 
rising,  in  a  lower  tone.  And  the  fourth  to  pro- 
nounce the  accented  syllable  with  the  rising  in- 
flexion, and  the  unaccented  with  the  falling,  in  a 
lower  tone.  None  of  these  modes,  but  the 
first  and  last,  do  we  ever  hear  in  our  own  lan- 
guage ;  the  second  and  third  seem  too  difficult 
to  permit  us  to  suppose  that  they  could  be  the 
natural  current  of  the  human  voice  in  any  lan- 
guage. The  first  leaves  us  no  possible  means  of 
explaining  the  circumflex ;  but  the  last,  by  doing 
this,  gives  us  the  strongest  reason  to  suppose 
that  the  Greek  and  Latin  acute  accent  vras  the 
rising  inflexion,  and  the  grave  the  falling  in- 
flexion in  a  lower  tone.^ 

Concerning  the  question  whether  the  ancient 
poetry  should  be  read  chiefly  according  to  accent 
or  quantity,  which  has  lately  been  much  agitated, 
may  we  not  then  infer,  tluit  since  the  precise 
nature  of  accent  does  not  seem  to  be  determined. 


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QUA 


mid  therefore  if,  in  reading,  either  must  give  way 
to  the  other  (for  which,  however,  there  is  no 
absolute  necessity),  it  b  certainly  better  that 
what  is  in  some  degree  uncertain  should  yield 
to  that  which  is  more  accurately  ascertained. 
By  reading  according  to  quantity  is  not,  how- 
ever, meant  the  breaking  down,  splitting,  or 
destroying  the  words  by  attending  to  the  feet  ' 
only;  but  pronouncing  the  words  of  a  verse  so 
as  to  give,  as  much  as  possible,  its  due  quantity, 
in  real  time,  to  every  syllable.  And  as  much  as 
to  this  mode  of  reading,  we  can  add  an  attention 
to  accent,  emphasis,  tone,  pause,  and  cadence, 
whether  metrical  or  sentential,  insomuch,  doubt- 
less, will  the  pronunciation  be  the  more  correct 
and  harmonious. 

The  nature  of  quantity  as  observed  in  the 
English  language  is  at  once  so  simple,  unique, 
and,  in  general,  so  well  known,  that  any  enlarge- 
ment on  this  part  of  the  subject  is  unnecessary. 
It  is  sufficient  to  observe  that  a  vowel  or  sylla- 
ble is,  in  the  English  language,  long,  and  re- 
quires double  the  time  of  a  short  one,  when  the 
accent  is  on  the  vowel ;  which  occasions  it  to  be 
slowly  joined  in  pronunciation  with  the  follow- 
ing letters ;  as  fell,  bale,  hQfise,  fSiture.  And 
that  a  syllable  !»  short,  and  only  of  half  the 
length  of  a  long  one,  when  the  accent  is  on  the 
consonant;  which  occasions  the  vowel  to  be 
quickly  ioined  to  the  succeeding  letters ;  as  ttrt, 
bdnnSt,  h&ngSr. 

QUANTONG,  an  extensive,  fertile,  and  popu- 
lous province  of  Southern  China,  on  the  sea 
coast,  which  bounds  it  E.S.  S.  Northward  it  is 
bounded  by  a  high  ridge  of  mountains,  which 
separate  it  from  Kyangsi.  It  contains  the  im- 
portant port  of  Canton,  and  is  the  most  commer- 
cial of  all  the  Chinese  provinces.  The  mountains 
of  the  north  frontier  yield  gold,  copper,  iron, 
and  the  timber  called  iron-wood:  also  a  fine 
species  of  rose-wood  and  of  osier.  Southward,  the 
countiy  produces  every  kind  of  grain  and  firuits 
in  profusion,  and  two  crops  in  the  year.  A  great 
number  of  ducks  are  bied  in  the  waters.  The 
governor  resides  at  Cbao-king,  and  has  a  consi- 
derable military  and  naval  force  on  foot  to  sup- 
press the  piracy  of  the  neighbouring  seas,  and 
keep  in  awe  the  rude  mountain  tribes.  Sir 
George  Staunton  estimates  the  inhabitants  at 
21,000,000. 

Qua M TOKO,  a  town  of  the  province  of  Ava,  in 
the  Birman  empire,  on  the  south-east  side  of  the 
Irrawaddy,  and  only  twenty-five  miles  distant 
from  the  China  frontier.  The  meaning  of  Quan- 
tong,  or  Canton,  is,  in  Chinese,  a  port  or  mart ; 
a  number  of  such  names,  therefore,  occur  on  the 
boundaries  of  the  empire,  to  wnich  foreign  mer- 
chants are  allowed  to  repair.  It  is  probable  this 
town  was  either  built  or  named  by  the  Chinese : 
it  is  still  frequented  by  these  merchants,  who 
bring  porcelain,  tea,  silks,  fruit,  &c.,  hither,  and 
exchange  them  for  emeralds,  rubies,  iron,  and 
brown  cotton. 
QUA'RANTAIN,  n.  s,  )  French  quanrntaia. 
Qua'rantine.  S  The   space  of  time 

which  a  ship,  suspected  of  infection,  is  obliged 
to  forbear  intercourse  or  commerce. 

Pass  your  qiwrantuu  among  some  of  the  churches 
round  this  town,  where  you  may  learn  to  speak,  be- 


fore you  venture  to  expose  your  parts  in  a  cktv  con- 
gregation, Smft, 

Quarantine  may  be  ordered  by  {he  king, 
with  advice  of  the  privy  council,  at  such  times, 
and  under  such  regulations,  as  he  judges  proper. 
Ships  ordered  on  ^quarantine  must  repair  to  the 
place  appointed,' and  must  continue  there  during 
Uie  time  prescribed,  generally  six  weeks ;  and 
must  have  no  intercourse  with  the  shore,  except 
for  necessary  provisions,  which  are  conveyed  with 
every  possible  precaution.  When  the  time  is 
expirea,  and  the  goods  opened  and  exposed  to 
the  air  as  directed,  if  there  be  no  appearance  of  in- 
fection they  are  admitted  to  port.  Persons  giving 
false  information  to  avoid  performing  quarantine, 
or  refusing  to  go  to  the  place  appointed,  or  escap- 
mgy  also  officers  appointed  to  see  quarantine 
pedTormed  deserting  their  office,  neglecting  their 
duty,  or  giving  a  false  certificate,  suffer  death  as 
felons.  Goods  from  Turkey,  or  ibe  Levant,  may 
not  be  landed  without  a  licence  from  the  kin?, 
or  certificate  that  they  have  been  landed  and 
aired  at  some  foreign  port.  See  Sanita&t 
Laws. 

QUARLES  (Francis),  the  son  of  James 
Quarles,  clerk  to  the  boaid  of  green  cloth,  and 
purveyor  to  queen  Elizabeth,  was  bom  in  1592. 
He  was  educated  at  Cambridge ;  became  a  mem- 
ber of  Lincoln's  Inn;  and  was  for  some  time 
cup-bearer  to  the  queen  of  Bohemia,  and  chro- 
nologer  to  the  city  of  London.  He  went  to  Ire- 
land as  secretary  to  archbishop  Usher;  but  the 
troubles  in  that  kingdom  forced  him  to  return, 
and  he  died  in  1644.  His  works  both  in  prose 
and  verae  are  numerous,  and  were  formerly  in 
great  esteem,  particularly  his  Divine  Emblems. 

QUARREy  It.  «.  Fr.  quarrc.  A  quarry.  Not 
in  use. 

Behold  our  diamonds  here,  as  in  the  quam  they 
*•  stand.  Drapton, 

QU AR'REL,  «.».&».».)       Fr.   querelle ; 

Quar'relous,  adi  S  Lat.  querela.     A 

'^  Quar'relsome.  3  breach    of    con- 

cord ;  dispute ;  contest ;  cause  of  contest ;  ground 
of  opposition  or  objection :  Shakspeare  uses  it 
for  a  quarrelsome  person :  to  quarrel  u,  to  dis- 
pute; debate,  squabble;  scuffle;  combat;  dis- 
agree; object,  urge  frivolous  objections:  the 
adjectives  correspond. 

Herodias  had  a  quarrel  against  him,  and  wonld 
have  killed  him,  but  she  could  not.      Mark  vi.  19. 

Wine  drunken  with  excess,  maketh  bttternens  of 
the  mind,  with  brawling  and  qwtrrding.        Ecdm. 

He  thought  he  had  a  good  quarrel  to  attack  him. 

HoUngthed. 

The  qmurd  which,  in  this  present  part,  striveth 
against  the  current  and  stream  of  laws,  was  a  long 
while  nothing  feared.  Hooker, 

I  love  the  sport  well,  but  I  shall  as  soon  quarrel 
at  it  as  any  man.  Shakepeare. 

If  I  can  fasten  but  one  cup  upon  him. 
With  that  which  he  hath  drank  to  night  already. 
He'll  be  as  full  of  quarrel  and  ofience 
As  my  young  mistress'  dog.  Id,  OUielle, 

Better 
She  ne'er  had  known  pomp,  though't  be  temporal ; 
Y«t  if  that  quarrel,  fortune,  do  divorce 
It  from  the  bearer,  'tis  a  suff 'ranee  panging 
As  soul  and  body's  sev'ring.         Id,  Henry  VIIT* 


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Ready  in  gybes,  quick  answered,  saucy,  and 
Al  qmrrthui  as  the  weazel.  Id,  Cymbelint, 

Wives  are  young  men's  mistresses,  companions 
for  middle  age,  and  old  men's  nurses ;  so  a  man 
may  have  a  quaml  to  marry  when  he  will.    Bacon, 

Cholerick  and  quarreUome  persons  will  engage  one 
into  their  qiaarrth.  id,  Euayt, 

If  not  in  service  of  our  God  we  fouebt. 
In  meaner  quarrel  if  this  sword  were  shaken, 
.  Well  mi^ht  thou  gather  in  the  gentle  thought, 
So  fair  a  princess  should  not  be  forsaken.   Fairfax. 

You  and  1  may  engage  in  this  quesuon,  as  far  as 
either  of  us  shall  think  profitable,  without  any  the 
least  beginning  of  a  quarrtl,  and  then  that  will  com- 
petently be  removed  from  such,  as  of  which  you 
cannot  hope  to  see  an  end.  Hammond, 

It  were  a  matter  of  more  trouble  than  necessity  to 
repeat  in  this  quarret  what  has  been  alledged  by  the 
worthies  of  our  church.  Holjfday, 

To  admit  the  thing,  and  quarrel  about  the  name, 
is  to  make  ourselves  ridiculous.' 

BramhaU  against  Hobhes. 

Some  things  arise  of  strange  and  quarreling  kind. 
The  forepart  lion  and  a  snake  behind.  (hwley. 

In  a  poem  elegantly  writ 
I  will  not  quarrel  with  a  slight  mistake. 

Roseommcn 

Beasts  called  sociable  quarrel  in  hunger  and  lust^ 
and  the  bull  and  ram  appear  then  as  much  in  fury 
and  war,  as  the  lion  and  the  bear.  Temple. 

1  quarrel  not  with  the  word,  because  used  by  Ovid. 

Dryden, 

The  same  seal  and  faithfulness  continues  in  your 
blood,  which  animated  one  of  your  noble  ancestors 
to  sacrifice  his  life  in  the  quarrel  of  his  sovereign. 

Id. 

We  are  apt  to  pick  qmrr^  with  the  world  for 
every  little  foolery.  L*E$trange, 

There  needs  no  more  to  the  setting  of  the  whole 
world  in  a  flame  than  a  qftarreUome  plaintiff  and 
defendant.  Id. 

*  I  have  no  quarrel  to  the  practice ;  it  may  be  a  di- 
verting way.  Felion  on  the  Classich. 

1  consider  your  very  testy  and  quarreUome  people 
in  the  same  light  as  I  do  a  loaded  gun,  which  may 
by  accident  go  off  and  kill  one.  Sfiengtone. 

Quae'rel.  Fr.  quadreau;  Ital.  quadrella, 
of  Lat.  qttadrangula.    An  arrow  with  a  square 


It  is  reported  by  William  Brito  that  the  arcuba- 

lista  or  arbalist  was  first  skewed  to  the  French  by 

ear  king  Richard  I.  who  was  shortly  after  slain  by 

a  quarrel  thereof.  Camden. 

Twanged  the  string,  out  flew  the  quarrel  long. 

Faitjax. 
QUAR'RY,  n.  s.  >      Fr.  quarrey  of  Lat.  qm- 
Quar'ryman.      S  dratut.    A  square;  an  ar- 
row with  a  square  head ;  a  place  where  stones 
are  roughly  squared :  a  quarryman  is  one  who 
works  in  a  quarry. 

The  same  is  said  of  stone  out  of  the  quarry ,  to 
make  it  more  durable.  Bacon*t  Natural  History, 

The  shafts  and  quarries  from  their  engines  fly, 
As  thick  as  falling  drops  in  April  showers. 

Fairfax. 
As  hard  and  unrelenting  she. 
As  the  new-crusted  Niobe ; 
•  Or,  what  doth  more  of  statue  carry, 
A  nun  of  the  Platonick  quarry.    Cleaveland. 
Pyramids  and  towers 
From  diamond  quarries  hewn,  and  rocks  of  gold. 

Milton. 
He  tike  Amphion  makes  those  quarries  leap 
Into  ^r  figures  from  a  oobfused  heap.      Waller, 


Could  necessity  inftdlibly  produce  fiuirne*  of  stone, 
which  are  the  materials  of  alt  magnificent  structures! 

More, 
For  them  alone  the  heavens  had  kindly  heat 

In  eastern  quarriu,  ripening  precious  deW. 

Dryden^ 

To  take  dowu  a  quarry  of  glass  to  scowre,  aiodder, 
band,  and  to  set  it  up  again,  is  three  halfpence  a 
foot.  Mortimer. 

As  long  as  the  next  coal-pit,  quarry,  or  chalk-pit 
will  give  abundant  attestation  to  what  I  write,  to 
these  I  may  safely  appeal.  Woodward. 

One  rhomboidal  bony  scale  of  the  needle-fish,  out 
of  Stunsfield  quarr^,  the  quarryman  assured  me  was 
flat,  covered  over  with  scales,  and  three  foot  long. 

Id. 

Quar'rt,  n.  t,  &  V.  a.  Fr.  qverir,  to  seek. 
Skinner.  Fr.  curee,  from  Lat.  euro.  Thomson. 
A  prey ;  particularly  the  prey  of  the  hawk :  to 
•prey  upon. 

She  dwells  among  the  rocks,  on  every  side 
With  broken  mountains  strongly  fortified  ; 
•From  thence  whatever  can  be  seen  surveys. 
And  stooping,  on  the  slaughtered  quarry  preys. 

Sundye, 
Your  wife  and  babes 
Savagely  slaughtered  ;  to  relate  the  manner. 
Were  on  the  quarry  of  these  murdered  deer 
To  add  the  death  of  you.     Shaktpeare.  Macbeth, 

So  scented  the  ^rim  feature,  and  up  turned 
His  nostrils  wide  into  the  murky  air, 
Sagacious  of  his  quarry.  Mlilton. 

The\  their  guns  discharge  ; 
This  heard  some  shipii  of  ours,  though  out  of  view. 
And  swift  as  eagles  to  the  quarry  flew.  Waller. 

An  hollow  crystal  pyramid  he  takes. 
In  firmaroental  waters  dipftabove, 

Of  it  a  broad  extinguisher  he  makes. 
And  hoods  the  flames  that  to  their  quarry  strove. 

Dryden, 
Let  reason  then  at  her  own  quarry  fly. 
But  how  can  finite  grasp  infinity  ]  Id, 

With  cares  and  horrors  at  his  heart,  like  the  vul- 
ture that  is  day  and  night  quarrying  upon  Prome- 
theus's  liver.  L*  Estrange. 

Quarry,  among  hunters,  is  sometimes  used 
for  a  part  of  the  entrails  of  the  beast  taken,  given 
by  way  of  reward  to  the  hounds. 

Quarry,  or  Quarrel,  among  glaziers,  a  pane 
of  glass  cut  in  a  diamond  form,  (xuarries  are  of 
two  kinds,  square  and  long ;  the  acute  angle  in 
the  square  quarrels  being  77°  19',  and  67°  21'  in 
the  long  ones. 

QUARRYING,  is  the  business  of  directing 
and  conducting  the  sinking  and  roanai^ement  of 
the  different  kinds  of  quarries,  pits,  and  shafts, 
as  well  as  of  the  different  sorts  of  work  which 
are  necessary  to  be  undertaken,  carried  on,  and 
performed  in  the  several  different  descriptions  of 
them ;  such  as  those  of  separating;)  getting  up, 
and  preparing  the  various  sorts  of  materials  for 
use  in  the  arts,  or  in  other  ways.  It  is  a  practice 
which  requires  considerable  knowledge  and  ex- 
perience, to  be  fully  master  of  it  in  all  its  bear- 
ings and  intentions. 

Limestone,  chalk,  and  building  stone,  are  gene- 
rally found  in  strata  either  on  or  near  the  surface. 
When  at  a  great  depth  it  is  not  found  worth  while 
to  work  them.  When  stones  of  any  kind  are  pro- 
cured by  uncovering  the  earth,  and  then  working 
them  out,  they  are  said  to  be  quarried ;  but  when 


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a  pit  or  shaft  is  sunk,  and  the  materials  procured 
are  worked  under  ground,  they  are  said  to  be 
mined. 

Quarrying  ilaies,  particularly  those  of  the 
blue,  green,  and  purple  or  blackish*  kinds,  un- 
dergo several  different  sorts  of  preparation  in  the 
2uarrying,  according  to  the  purposes  to  which 
ley  are  to  be  afterwards  applied.  They  are  se-  . 
parated  and  divided  into  very  thin  pieces  or 
slates,  where  light  neat  coverings  are  required, 
or  in  much  demand ;  but  for  more  strong  and 
heavy  coveriogs,  in  exposed  situations,  or  other 
places,  they  are  split  into  much  thicker  sheets, 
layers,  or  slates,  and  are,  of  course,  more  clumsy 
in  their  appearance.  Each  sort  in  the  business 
of  quarrying  is  wrought  in  a  separate  manner, 
and  packed  up  by  itself;  the  different  sorts  hav- 
ing appropriate  names. 

White  or  brown  slates  are  never  divided  and 
prepared  in  so  fine  a  way  as  the  other  kinds,  but 
separated  into  much  thicket  flakes  or  laminse,  in 
this  intention.  The  blue,  green,  and  purple, 
or  darkish  sorts,  are,  for  the  most  part,  found 
capable  of  being  split  into  very  thin  Uminee  or 
sheets ;  but  those  of  the  white,  or  brownish  free- 
stone kinds,  can  seldom  be  separated  or  divided 
in  any  very  thin  manner,  as  the  layers  of  the  large 
masses  of  the  stones  are  of  a  much  thicker  na- 
ture, they  consequently  form  heavy,  strong,  thick 
coverings,  proper  for  buildings  in  exposed  cli- 
mates and  situations,  and  of  the  more  rough 
kinds,  such  as  bams,  stables,  and  other  sorts  of 
out-houses.  In  the  different  operations  and  pro- 
cesses of  this  sort  of  quarrying,  slate  knives, 
axes,  bars,  and  wedjires,  are  chiefly  made  use  of 
in  the  difterent  intentions  of  splitting  and  clean- 
ing the  slates,  they  being  separated  into  proper 
thicknesses  by  the  axe,  bar,  and  wedge,  and 
afterwards  chipped  into  their  proper  forms  and 
shapes  by  the  knife.  All  the  different  inequali- 
ties whidi  may  appear  upon  any  part  of  them 
are  likewise  removed  by  this  last  sort  of  imple- 
ment. 

In  quarrying  itone  the  work  is  usually  perform- 
ed in  such  a  manner  as  to  suit  the  different  uses 
for  which  they  are  intended.  Where  flags  are  to  be 
formed,  they  are  split  or  riven  into  suitable 
thicknesses,  and  squared  to  different  sizes,  so 
as  to  be  adapted  to  different  applications.  These 
operations  are  executed  in  rather  a  rough  way, 
as  they  are  afterwards  to  be  finished  by  the  stone- 
mason. When  for  steps,  they  have  the  proper 
breadths  and  depths  given  to  them  in  a  sort  of 
squaring  manner,  being  left  to  be  completed  as  they 
may  be  wanted  for  particular  uses  and  applications. 
Gate-posts  are,  for  the  most  part,  quarried  so  as 
have  from  about  a  foot  to  a  foot  and  a  half  or 
more  in  the  square.  Trough-stones  have  the 
quarrying  performed  so  as  to  be  formed  into  va- 
rious proper-sized  squares  or  other  forms,  in  a 
rough  manner,  being  left  in  these  states  to  be 
afterwards  hewn  and  hollowed  out,  in  the  in- 
tended parts,  by  the  stone-masons.  Stones  for 
bnildingpurposes  are  usually  raised  and  quarried 
out  roughly  into  something  of  &e  square  shape, 
beinff  left  in  that  state  for  the  builders,  who  after- 
wards fit  them  so  as  to  suit  their  own  purposes 
and  intentions. 
The  quarrymen  commonly  make  use  of  large 


hammers,  with  cutting  ends  on  one  side^  die 
other  being  formed  in  a  plain  manner ;  strong 
sharp  crowbars,  and  broad  sharp  iron  wedges ; 
by  which  means  these  matters  are,  firom  the 
constant  practice  of  the  men,  split  and  torn  into 
such  forms  as  are  wanted  with  great  ease  and 
facility. 

Quarry  Cart  is  a  name  given  to  that  sort  o' 
cart  which  is  principally  employed  in  the  work 
of  quarries,  and  which  is  gpsnerally  of  a  low, 
compact,  strong  kind,  in  its  nature,  form,  ai:d 
manner  of  construction,  in  order  to  sustain 
heavy  weights,  and  receive  them  without  diffi- 
culty, or  the  danger  of  being  destroyed.  Carts 
for  this  purpose  should  always  be  made  of  well- 
seasoned  wood,  be  well  put  togethe  r,  and  have 
sufficient  strength  of  timoer  in  those  parts  where 
the  main  stress  of  the  load  is  placed.  Some 
quarry  counties  have  well-formed  carts  of  this 
nature,  as  many  of  those  towards  the  northern 
boundaries  of  this  kingdom. 

Quarry  Waggon^  or  truck,  a  small  carriage 
of  the  low  truck  kind,  which  is  much  employol 
in  the  business  of  quarries,  especially  those  of  the 
slate  kinds,  for  the  purpose  of  holding  and  con- 
veying the  rough  materials,  which  have  been 
blown  from  the  large  massy  rocks,  or  separated 
in  other  ways,  out  of  or  from  the  quarnes  and 
pits  in  which  they  are  situated  and  contained,  to 
the  places  where  they  are  to  receive  their  differ- 
ent preparations  and  shapes. 

It  is  formed  and  constructed  on  a  frame  some- 
what similar  to  that  of  the  common  barrow,  and 
mounted  on  two  low  light  iron  wheels  on  the 
forepart,  having  two  feet  behind,  projecting  from 
the  frame,  bent  something  in  the  manner  of  the 
letter  S,  and  of  sufficient  length  to  let  it  stand  or 
rest  in  a  horizontalposition  while  it  is  in  the  act 
of  being  loaded.  These  feet  are  usually  made  of 
iron,  but  they  may  be  formed  of  other  materials. 
A  sort  of  inclined  plane  is  formed  from  the  bot- 
toms of  the  quarnes  or  pits,  up  which  it  is 
forced  with  great  ease  and  facility  by  the  work- 
men, or  small  animals  of  the  horse  kind,  after 
being  filled  with  these  sorts  of  heavy  materials. 
It  is  a  very  useful  and  convenient  machine  in 
this  application,  being  met  with  in  mott  of  the 
slate  quarries  in  the  northern  part  of  Lancashire, 
as  well  as  in  those  of  many  odier  districts  of  the 
kingdom. 

Quarrying  are  the  small  pieces  which  are 
broken  or  chipped  off  from  the  differents  sorts  of 
materials  which  are  found  aod  wrought  in  quar- 
ries, while  they  are  undergoing  their  different  pre- 
parations for  various  uses.  These  substances, 
where  they  are  of  the  hard  kind,  such  as  those 
of  the  blue  and  Itme-stone,  as  well  as  some 
other  softs,  are  extremely  well  calculated  for  the 
purpose  of  forming  and  repairing  roads,  as  they 
are  nearly,  if  not  quite,  in  a  state  fit  for  imme- 
diate application  in  this  way.  Materials  of 
these  kinds  ought,  therefore,  where  they  can  be 
conveniently  had,  never  to  be  neglected  by  those 
who  have  the  care  and  management  of  rmds,  as 
they  will  save  much  expense  and  trouble,  in  a 
great  number  of  instances. 

Draining  of  quarries. — In  order  to  accomplish 
this  it  will  be  necessary,  in  ascending  firom  the 
quarry  or  pit,  carefully  to  examine  and  ascertaiu 


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QUARRYING. 


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if^  at  aay  place  hi|^  on  tha  declmty,  any 
porous  stnUnm,  bed  of  rock,  sand,  or  gravel,  tails 
out,  wfaidi  may  conduct  and  convey  the  water 
contained  in  it  to  the  sand  bed,  which  is  below 
in  the  woiks ;  and,  where  any  such  bed  is  found, 
to  cut  or  bore  into  it  in  such  a  manner  as  to  form 
a  drain  that  is  capable  of  carrying  away  the 
whole  or  the  greatest  part  of  the  water,  and  of 
course  to  clear  or  diminish  the  quantity  contain- 
ed in  liie  quarry  or  pit,  which  would  otherwise 
have  continued  to  descend  through  such  porous 
substrata  or  beds,  and  have  continued  to  fill  the 
sands,  or  quarries  and  pits.  . 

But  a  sufficient  quantity  to  injury  hinder,  and 
inconvenience  the  working  of  the  quarries  or 
pits,  may  yet  continue  to  dmin  and  ooze  from  the 
sides  of. the  sand-beds,  notwithstanding  they 
should  happen  to  dip  towards  the  lower  ground, 
in  which  case,  however,  the  water  may  readily 
and  with  great  ease  be  drawn  off  at  some  particu- 
lar point  in  it.  In  order  to  effect  this,  and 
thereby  remove  the  inconvenience  of  this  filtrat- 
ing water,  in  descending  from  the  quarries  or 
pits  along  the  declivity,  it  should  be  endeavoured 
to  discover  and  ascertain  at  what  particular 
point  or  place,  in  the  low  ground,  the  sand  ter- 
minates or  tails  out,  which  is  mostly  best  accom- 
plished by  means  of  proper  levelling;  and  if 
tbeie  should  be  there  any  appearance  of  the 
water's  having  a  natural  outlet,  it  may,  by  means 
of  making  in  it  a  deep  drain,  be  far  more  readily 
and  effectually  drawn  off  and  removed;  as 
springs,  for  the  most  part,  naturally  pass  and 
flow  tiirough  narrow,  winding,  convoluted  open- 
ings, or  perforations;  of  course,  whenever  the 
orifices  or  passages  are  opened,  enlarged,  or 
made  lower  than  before,  the  discharge  of  water 
becomes  greater  and  more  expeditious.  Where, 
however,  there  happens  to  be  a  deep  impervious 
layer  or  covering  of  clay,  or  other  matter  of  a  si- 
milar nature,  placed  above  or  upon  the  termina- 
tion or  tail  of  the  sand,  the  drain  need  only  be  cut 
down  to  it  or  a  little  way  into  it,  as  by  means  of 
borine  through  it,  or  the  remaining  portion  of  it, 
a  ready  and  easy  outlet  or  passage  may  be  given 
to  the  whole  of  die  water  that  may  be  contained 
in  the  satid-bed  or  other  porous  stratum. 

In  regard  to  the  removal  of  the  water  found 
and  contained  in  the  bottoms  of  such  quarries, 
pits,  or  deep  works,  it  must  be  drained  off  and 
got  rid  of  ui  quite  a  different  manner,  as  the 
level  of  the  ground  may  probably  be,  or  decline, 
nowhere  lower  than  the  mouths  or  openings  of 
such  quarries,  pits,  &c. ;  as  it  is  solely  and  parti- 
cularly on  the  supposition,  and  in  such  cases  as 
where  the  direction  of  the  different  strata  and 
sand-beds  have  a  dipping  position  with  the 
natural  inclination  of  the  surface  of  the  land,  or 
He  nearly  horizontally,  that  the  method  of  pso-- 
ceeding  which  is  stated  above  is  practicsmle. 
But  should  th^,  for  instance,  lie  in  a  reverse  or 
contrary  direction,  there  is  but  little  possibility 
or  chance  of  accomplishing  the  object,  ^e  re- 
n*oval  of  the  water,  unless  by  discovering  or 
hitting  on  their  terminations,  somewhere  on  the 
opposite  sides  of  the  hills  or  elevations,  which  in 
some  cases  may  very  nearly  or  exactly  be  found 
out,  by  ascertaining  the  precise  inclination  or  di- 
rection of  the  materials  of  the  quarries,  pits,&c., 


and  by  a  careful  and  exact  use  of  the  level.  But 
this  will  be  much  better  comprehended,  and  a 
more  full  and  perfect  notion  of  its  nature  be  af- 
forded, by  the  section  figure  in  the  plate  oi 
draining  quarries,  pits,  &c.,  in  agriculture,  given 
by  Mr.  Elkington,  in  bis  work  on  this  subject. 

The  water  which  is  found  in  the  bottoms  of 
these  different  kinds  of  undertakings,  or  which 
proceeds  from  the  rocks  or  their  sides,  or  iu 
other  ways  in  the  course  of  working  them,  is 
commonly  got  quit  of  by  means  oC  some  sort  of 
engine  or  pump,  in  order  to  assist  in  working  of 
which  the  water  gained  by  cutting  the  drains  al- 
ready noticed  may  be  particularly  useful,  espe- 
cially where  the  usual  stream  for  that  purpose  is 
insufficient  for  that  purpose,  in  saving  the  great 
expense  of  working  such  machinery  by  the 
power  of  steam.  But  without  the  aid  of  a 
natural  stream,  which  is  capable  of  being  con- 
verted to  this  purpose,  it  is  rarely  possible  to 
find,  by  means  of  drains,  or  in  any  other  way,  a 
quantity  of  water  sufficient  to  drive  weighty  ma- 
chinery, in  a  situation  of  proper  height  to  have 
the  full  and  necessary  command  of  it. 

It  has  been  remarked  in  Mr.  Elkington's  work 
on  draining,  in  these  cases,  that  the  duke  of 
Buccleugh's  coal-works,  near  Langholm,  in  the 
county  of  Dumfries,  afford  a  striking  example  o^ 
the  superior  powers  of  water  and  machinery, 
when  properly  combined,  where  a  command  oF 
the  former  can  be  had,  and  when  the  latter  is 
constructed  on  proper  principles,  and  conducted 
with  that  care  and  ingenuity  which  axe  requisite 
in  such  difficult  undertakings. 

Boring  has  been  practised  of  late,  with  com- 
plete success,  in  the  case  of  a  colliery  in  the 
county  of  York,  which  had  been  wrought  many 
years,  and  in  which  the  water  was  raised  about 
sixty  yards  bv  a  steam-engine. 

The  actual  working  of  quarries  is  an  opera- 
tion depending  more  on  strength  than  skill.  In 
3 uarrying  sandstone,  consisting  of  regular  layers, 
le  work  is  performed  chiefly  by  means  of  the 
pick,  wedge,  hammer,  and  pinch  or  lever;  re- 
course being  seldom  had  to  the  more  violent 
and  irregular  effects  of  gunpowder.  But  for 
some  kiiras  of  limestone,  and  for  greenstone  and 
basalt,  blasting  with  gunpowder  is  resorted  to ; 
and  some  of  the  rocks  called  primitive,  such  as 
granite,  gneiss,  and  sienite,  could  scarcely  be  torn 
asunder  without  it. 

The  burning  of  lime  may  be  considered  as  be- 
longing to  the  subject  of  quarrying.  See  our 
article  Lime.  The  operation  is  performed  in 
what  are  called  draw-kilns,  or  perpetual  kilns. 
These  should  always  be  close  to  or  near  the 
quarry,  and  either  situated  at  a  bank^  or  fur- 
nished with  a  ramp  or  inclined  plane  of  earth 
for  carting  up  the  coal  and  lime  to  the  top  of  the 
kiln.  lime-kilns  may  be  built  either  of  stone  or 
brick;  but  the  latter,  as  being  better  adapted  to 
stand  excessive  degrees  of  heat,  is  considered  as 
preferable.  The  outside  form  of  such  kilns  is 
sometimes  cylindrical,  but  more  generally  square. 
The  inside  should  be  formed  in  the  shape  of  a 
boghead,  or  an  egg,  opened  a  little  at  j^th  ends, 
and  set  on  the  smallest ;  being  small  m  circum- 
ference at  the  bottom,  gradually  wider  towards 
the  middle,  and  then  contracting  again  towards 


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the  top.  In  kilos  constructed  in  this  way,  it  is 
observed/ fewer  coab  are  necessary,  in  conse* 
quence  of  the  great  degree  of  reverberation 
created,  above  that  which  takes  place  in  kilns 
formed  in  the  s-hape  of  a  sugar  loaf  reversed. 
Near  the  bottom,  in  large  kilns,  two  or  more 
apertures  arc  made :  these  are  small  at  the  inside 
of  the  kiln,  but  are  sloped  wider,  both  at  the 
sides  and  the  top,  as  they  extend  towards  the 
outside  of  the  building.  The  uses  of  these  aper- 
tures are  for  admitting  the  air  necessary  for  sup- 
plying the  fire,  and  also  permitting  the  laborers 
to  approach  with  a  drag  and  shovel  to  draw  out 
the  calcined  lime.  From  the  bottom  of  the  kiln 
within,  in  some  cases,  a  small  building  called  a 
horse  is  raised  in  the  form  of  a  wedge,  and  so 
constructed  as  to  accelerate  the  operation  of 
drawing  out  the  burned  limestone,  by  forcing 
it  to  fall  into  the  apertures  which  have  been 
mentioned  above.  In  other  kilns  of  this 
kind^  in  place  of  this  building  there  is  an  iron 
mte  near  the  bottom,  which  comes  close  to  the 
inside  wall,  except  at  the  apertures  where  the 
lime  -is  drawn  out.  When  the  kiln  is  to  be 
filled,  a  parcel  of  furze  or  faggots  is  laid  at  the 
bottom,  over  this  a  layer  of  coals,  then  a  layer  of 
limestone  (which  is  previously  broken  into 
pieces,  about  the  size  of  a  man's  fist),  and  so  on 
alternately,  ending  with  a  layer  o(  coals,  which 
is  sometimes,  though  seldom,  covered  with  sods 
or  turf,  in  order  to  keep  the  heat  as  intense  as 
possible.  The  fire  is  then  lighted  in«  the  aper- 
tures; and  when  the  limestone  towards  the  bot- 
tom is  completely  calcined,  the  fuel  being  consi- 
derably exliausted,  the  limestone  at  the  top 
subsides.  The  laborers  then  put  in  an  addition 
of  limestone  and  coal  at  the  top,  and  draw  out 
at  bottom  as  much  as  they  nnd  thoroughly 
burned ;  and  thus  go  on,  till  any  quantity  re- 
quired be  calcined.  When  limestone  is  burned 
with  coals,  from  two  bushels  and  a  half  to  three 
and  a  half,  on  a  medium  three  bushels  of  calcined 
limestour,  are  produced  for  every  bushel  of  coal 
used. 

A  lime-kiln,  on  an  improved  plan,  has  been 
erected  at  Closeburn  in  Dumfrieshire,  by  Mon- 
teith.  Instead  of  the  wide  and  shallow  circular 
kiln,  these  kilns  are  elliptical  and  deep.  Some 
parts  are  added  to  it  which  are  found  of  most  im- 
portant use.  The  first  is  a  kind  of  roof  or 
cover.  The  disadvantage  of  the  want  of  some 
,  contrivance  to  protect  kilns  in  stormy  weather, 
has  been  long  felt,  and  many  attempts  have  been 
made  to  apply  some  kind  of  cover,  but,  we  be^ 
lieve,  none  with  such  success  as  that  used  at 
Closeburn.  The  next  addition  is  having  cast- 
iron  doors  below,  at  the  opening  where  the  kiln 
is  drawn.  There  is  a  grating  through  which  the 
ashes  fall  while  drawing  the  kiln,  which  makes 
that  operation  a  much  less  disagreeable  employ- 
ment than  formerly;  and  the  ashes  and  small 
lime  thus  separated  are  excellent  for  agricultural 
purposes.  There  is  often  a  great  loss  of  fuel, 
from  allowing  lime-kilns  to  cool  when  there  is 
no  demand ;  all  that  is  necessary  to  be  done  is, 
to  shut  the  cast-iron  doors,  above  as  well  as  be- 
low, and  the  dampers  in  the  chimneys.  The 
heat  is  thus  preserved,  and  fuel  saved,  by  keep- 
ing the  kiln  not,  to  be  ready  for  use  as  soon  as 
wanted.    Farmer*s  Magazine,  vol.  xvi.  p.  13-1. 


Booker's  lime  kiln  (Dumfries  Report,  p.  594), 
is  of  an  oval  form,  twenty-two  feet  nigh,  two  feet 
wide  at  the  bottom,  nine  feet  in  the  middle,  and 
gradually  contracted  to  three  feet  at  top.  It  is  lined 
with  brick,  and,  instead  of  being  covered  with  a 
dome,  Booker  adopts  a  cover  of  cast-iron  with  a 
vent  in  it,  which  cover  is  placed  on  a  ring  of 
three  feet  diameter,  built  into,  and  fixed  on  the 
top  of  the  kiln.  The  cover,  by  moving  on  a 
pivot,  is  easily  thrown  off  when  the  kiln  is  to  be 
charged,  and,  being  put  on  during  the  process  of 
calcination,  it  both  increases  the  draught  of  air 
through  the  kiln,  and,  by  acting  as  a  reverbe^ 
ratory  furnace,  is  attended  with  a  considerable 
saving  of  fuel. 

QUART,  n.  s.  Fr.  quart,  of  Lat.  quarha. 
The  fourth  part ;  a  quarter;  the  fourth  part  of  a 
gallon ;  a  quart  measure. 

AltMLnact  had  all  the  northern,  part* 
Which  of  himself  Albania  he  did  call. 

And  Camber  did  possess  the  western  qtwrt. 


When  I  have  been  dry,  and  bravely  marching,  it 
hath  served  me  instead  of  a  quart  pot  to  drink  in. 

You'd  rail  upon  the  hostess  of  the  house. 
And  say  you  would  present  her  at  the  leet. 
Because  she  bought  stone  jugs  and  no  sealed  qaartt. 

Id. 
You  have  made  an  order  that  ale  should  be  sold 
at  three  halfpence  a  quart,         Sioifft  MucslUwet* 

Quart,  in  English  measure,  the  fourth  part  of 
the  gallon,  or  two  pints. 

QUAR'TAN,  n.  s.  Fr.  qvartame ;  Lat.  quta-- 
tana.    The  fourth  day  ague. 

Call  her  the  metaphysicks  of  her  sex, 

And  say  she  tortures  wits,  as  quartant  vex 

Physicians.  Ckawland, 

It  were  an  uncomfortable  receipt  for  a  quartan 

ague,  to  lay  the  fourth  book  of  Homer's  Iliads  under 

one's  head.  Broma, 

A  look  so  pale  no  quartan  ever  gave. 
Thy  dwindled  legs  seem  crawling  u>  the  grave. 

DrydM. 
QUARTATION,n.s.    Lat.5iiflrfitt.    Achy- 
mical  operation,  defined  below. 

In  quartation,  which  refiners  employ  to  purify  gold, 
although  three  parts  of  silver  be  so  exquisitely 
miugled  by  fusion  with  a  fourth  part  of  gold,  whence 
the  operation  is  denominated,  that  the  resulting  mass 
acquires  several  new  .qualities;  yet,  if  you  cast  this 
mixture  into  aqua  fortis,  the  silver  will  be  dissolved 
in  the  menstruum,  and  the  gold,  like  a  dark  powder, 
will  fall  to  the  bottom.  BoyU. 

QuABTATiON  is  an  operation  by  which  the 
quantity  of  one  thing  is  made  equal  to  a  fourth 
part  of  the  quantity  of  another  thing.  Thus, 
when  gold  alloyed  with  silver  is  to  be  parted, 
we  a:re  obliged  to  facilitate  the  action  of  the 
aquafortis  by  reducing  the  quantity  of  the  former 
of  these  metals  to  one-fourth  part  of  the  whole 
mass ;  which  is  done  by  sufficiently  increasing 
the  quantity  of  the  silver,  if  it  be  necessary.  This 
operation  is  called  quartation,  and  is  preparatory 
to  the  parting ;  and  even  many  authors  extend 
this  name  to  the  operation  of  parting.  See  Assay. 


QUARTER,  n.s.&i;.fl. 

Qvar'terage, 

Quar'ter-day, 

Quar'ter-deck, 

Qua  r'teb  ly,  oc^*.  &  adv. 

Qua r'ter- MASTER,  n.  s. 


Fr.  quartkr,  of 
Lat  quartia,  A 
fourth  part;  apart 
^of  the  heavens  con- 
sidered as  divided 
into-  the   cardinal 


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j^jCkaU :  lience^  region ;  district ;  division ;  sta-        Th^  a  larUn  of  the  several  chiefk  th^  showed, 
tiOD ;  abode :  particularly  military  station,  can-    Hero  Pheniz,  here  Achilles,  made  abode.  Id, 


toament,  or  abode;  hence  a  military  cry  for 
mercy,  i.  e.  to  be  seQt  to  the  c^iptors'  quarters ; 
mercy;  friendship;  kind  treatment;  a  measure 
of  eight  bushels:  to  divide  into  four  parte;  divide 
in  any  way  ;  station;  lodge;  diet;  bear  as  an  ap- 
pendage to  herald  in  arms,  see  below :  quarter- 
age is  a  quarterlv  allowance :  quarter-day,  one  of 
the  four  days  in  the  year  on  which  rent  is  usually 
paid:  quarter-deck,  the  short  upper  deck  of  a 
ship:  quarterly,  containing  a  fourth  part;  or 
once  in  a  quarter:  quarter-master,  he  who  regu- 
lates soldiers'  quarters. 

No  leaven  shall  be  seen  in  th^  quarten.   Exodvs. 
It  is  an  aocustoroed  action  with  her  to  seem  thus 
washing  her  hands ;  I  have  known  her  continue  in 
this  a  quarter  of  an  hour.         Shahpeare.  Modttth. 
I'll  give  thee  a  wind. 
— ^I  mvself  have  all  the  other,     ' 
And  the  veiy  points  they  blow, 
And  all  the  quarten  that  they  know, 
r  the  shipman's  card.  Id. 

Where  is  lord  Stanley  quarttredf 
— ^Unless  I  have  mistaken  his  quartmt  much. 
His  regiment  lies  half  a  mile 
Soath  from  the  mighty  power  of  the  king. 

sSsAipearv. 
Friendsp  all  bat  now, 
In  quarter,  and  in  terms  like  bride  and  groom 
Divesting  them  for  bed,  and  then,  but  now 
Swords  out,  and  tilting  one  at  other's  breasts.     Id, 
Mothers  shall  but  simile  when  they  behold 
Their  infants  quartered  by  the  hands  of  war.    Id. 
They  do  best,  who,  if  they  can      but  admit  lovet 
yet  make  it  keep  quarter,  and  sever  it  wholly  from 
their  serious  afiiurs.  Bacon. 

The  first,  being  compounded  of  argent  and  azurs. 


Discover  the  opinion  of*  your  enemies,  which 
commonly  the  truest;  for  they  will  give  you  no 
quarter,  and  allow  nothing  to  complaisance.       Id. 

A  bundling  cobbler,  that  vras  leady  to  starve  at  his 
own  trade,  changes  his  quarter,  dtnd  sets  up  for  a 
doctor.  I    L'Estrange. 

When  the  cocks  and  lambs  lie  at  the  mercy  of 
cats  and  wolves,  they  must  never  expect  better  quar^ 
ter.  Id. 

Supposing  only  three  millions  to  be  paid,  'tis  evi- 
dent that  to  do  this  out  of  commodities,  they  must, 
to  the  consumer,  be  raised  a  quarter  in  their  price ; 
so  that  every  thing,  to  him  that  uses  it,  must  be  a 
quarter  dearer.  Locke. 

The  qttartermaster  general  was  marking  the  ground 
for  the  encampment  of  the  covering  army.     Tatter, 

The  sons  of  the  church  being  so  much  dispersed, 
though  without  being  driven,  into  all  quarters  of  the 
land,  there  was  some  extraordinary  design  of  divine 
wisdom  in  it.  fl)>af. 

You  have  quartered  all  the  foill  language  upon  me 
that  could  be  raked  out  of  Billingsgate.    Speetater. 

When  the  winds  in  southern  quarten  rise, 
Ships,  from  their  anchors  torn,  become  their  spoit. 
And  sudden  tempests  rage  within  the  port. 

Addwm. 

The  usurer  would  be  very  well  satis6ed  to  have 
all  the  time  annihilated  that  lies  between  the  present 
moment  and  next  quarter-day.  Id. 

Suppose  the  common  depth  of  the  sea,  taking  one 
place  with  another,  to  be  about  a  quarter  of  a  mile. 

Burnet. 

To  the  young,  if  you  ^ve  any  tolerable  quarter, 
you  indulge  them  in  their  idleness,  and  ruin  them. 

Collier. 

From  the  obliquity  of  tl^e  ecliptick  to  the  equator 
arise  the  diurnal  difierences  of  the  sun's  right  ascen- 

^ ^     sion,  which  finish  their  variations  in  each  quadrant 

is  the  coat  of  Beauchamp  of  Hack  in  the  county  of    pf  the  ecliptick,  and  this,  being  added  to  the  former 


Somerset,  now  quartered  by  the  earl  of  Hertford. 

Peacham. 
The  like  is  to  be  said  of  the  populousness  of  their 
coasts  and  quarters  there.  Abbot. 

They  had  settled  here  many  ages  since,  and  over- 
spread all  the  parts  and  quarters  of  this  spacious  con- 
tinent. Heylin. 
The  soil  so  fruitful  that  an  acre  of  land  well  or- 
dered will  return  200  bushels  or  25  quarters  of  corn. 

Id. 
Thou  canst  defend  as  well  as  get. 
And  never  hadst  one  quarter  beat  up  yeL     Cowley. 

He  magnified  his  own  clemency,  now  they  were  at 
his  mercy,  to,  offer  them  quarter  for  their  lives  if  they 
gave  np  the  castle.  Clarendon. 

His  praise,  ye  winds !  that  from  font  quarters  blow, 
Breathe  soft  or  loud.  kUton*s  Paradise  LmI. 

He  fed  on  vermin  ; 
And,  when  these  failed,  he'd  suck  his  claws. 
And  quarter  himself  upon  his  paws.       Hudibras, 
He  used  two  equal  ways  of  gaining. 
By  bindring  justice  or  maintaining ; 
To  many  a  whore  gave  privilege, 
And  whipped  for  want  of  quarterage.  Id. 

However  rarely,  his  own  rent-dayes  occurred,  the 
indigent  had  two  and  fifty  quarter-daies  returning  in 
faisyear.  Fell. 

loe  moon  makes  four  quarterly  seasons  within  her 
Jittle  year  or  month  of  consecution.  Holder. 

Observe  what  stars  arise  or  disappear, 
And  the  four  quarters  of  the  rolling  year. 

Dry  den. 


inequality  from  eccentricity,  makes  these  quarterly 
and  seemingly  irregular  inequalities  of  natural  days. 

Bentleif. 

Mr.  .Wharton,  who  detected  some  hundreds  of  the 
bishop's  mistakes,  meeto  with  very  ill  quarter  from 
his  lordship.  '     Swift. 

The  quarter-deck  is  that  above  the  upper-deck, 
reaching  forward  from  the  stem  to  the  gangway, 
and  supports  the  carronades,  &c.  halconer. 

Quarter,  in  dry  measure,  is,  eight  bushels. 

Quarter,  in  heraldry,  is  applied  to  the  parts 
or  members  of  the  first  division  of  a  coat  that  is 
quartered,  or  divided  into  four  quarters. 

Quarter,  Franc,  in  heraldry,  is  a  quarter 
single  or  alone ;  which  is  to  possess  one  fourth 
part  of  the  field.  It  makes  one  of  the  honorable 
ordinaries  of  a  coat.    See  Heraldry. 

Quarters,  Winter,  sometimes  mean  the 
space  of  time  included  between  leaving  the  camp 
and  taking  the  field;  but  more  properly  the 
places  where  the  troops  are'quartered  during  the 
winter.  The  first  business,  after  the  army  is  in 
winter  quarters,  is  to  form  the  chwn  of  troops  to 
cover  the  quarters  well;  which  is  done  either 
behind  a  river,  under  cover  of  a  range  of  strong 

E»sts,  or  under  the  protection  of  fortified  towns, 
ussars  are  very  useful  on  this  service.  It 
should  be  observed,  as  an  invariable  maxim,  in 
winter  quarters,  that  the  regiments  be  disposed 
in  brigades,  to  be  always  under  the  eye  of  a  ge- 
neral officer;  and,  if  possible,  let  the  regiments 


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be  so  difltribttted  as  to  be  each  under  the  com- 
mand of  its  own  chief. 

QuABTEB  Bill,  a  roil  or  liitt,  containing  the 
dtfierent  stations  to  which  all  the  officers  and 
crew  of  the  ship  are  quartered  in  the  time  of 
battle,  and  the  names  of  all  the  persons  appointed 
to  those  stations. 

Quarter  op  a  Ship,  that  part  of  the  ship's 
side  which  lies  towards  the  stem:  or  which  is 
comprehended  between  the  aftmost  end  of  the 
main  chains  and  the  sides  of  the  stem,  where  it 
is  terminated  by  the  quarter  pieces.  On  the 
quarter  may  be  defined  an  arch  of  the  horizon, 
contained  between  the  line  prolonged  from  the 
ship's  stem  and  any  distant  object,  as  land,  ships, 
&c.  Thus,  if  the  ship's  keel  lies  on  an  east  and 
west  line,  the  stem  b«ing  westward,  any  distant 
object  perceived  on  the  north-west  or  south-west 
is  said  to  be  on  the  larboard  starboard  quarter. 

Quarters,  a  name  given  at  sea  to  the  several 
stations  where  the  officers  and  crew  of  a  i^p 
of  war  are  posted  in  action.  The  number  of 
men  appointed  to  manage  the  artillery  is  al- 
ways in  proportion  to  the  nature  of  the  guns,  and 
the  numoer  and  condition  of  the  ship's  crew. 
The  lieutenants  are  usually  stationed  to  command 
the  different  batteries,  and  direct  their  efforts 
against  the  enemv.  The  master  superintends  the 
movements  of  the  ship,  and  whatever  relates  to 
the  sails.  The  boatswain,  and  a  sufficient  num- 
ber of  men,  are  stationed  to  repair  the  damaged 
rigging ;  and  the  gunner  and  carpenter  wherever 
necessary,  accordmg  to  their  respective  offices. 
The  marines  are  generally  quartered  on  die  poop 
and  forecastle,  or  gangway,  under  the  direction 
of  their  officers;  although,  on  some  occasions, 
they  assist  at  the  great  guns,  particularly  in  dis- 
tant cannonading. 

Quarters,  Head,  of  an  Army,  the  place 
where  the  commander-in-chief  has  his  quarters. 
The  quarters  of  generals  of  horse  are,  if  possible, 
in  villages  behind  the  right  and  left  wmgs,  and 
the  generals  of  foot  are  often  in  the  same  place ; 
but  the  commander-in-chief  should  be  near  the 
centre  of  the  army. 

Quarter  Gunner,  a  petty  officer  under  the 
direction  of  the  gunner  ot  a  ship  of  war,  whom 
he  is  to  assist  in  every  brancli  of  his  duty;  as 
keeping  the  guns  and  their  carriages  in  proper 
order,  and  duly  furnished  with  whatever  is  ne- 
cessary ;  filling  the  powder  into  cartridges ;  scal- 
ing the  guns,  and  keeping  them  always  in  a 
condition  for  service.  The  number  of  quarter- 
gunners  in  any  ship  is  always  in  proportion  to 
the  number  of  her  artillery,  one  quarter-gunner 
being  allowed  to  every  four  guns. 

A  Quarter  Master,  in  the  array,  is  an  offi- 
cer, whose  business  is  not  only  to  look  after  the 
quarters  of  the  soldiers,  but  their  clothing,  bread, 
ammunition,  firing,  &c.  Every- regiment  of  foot 
and  artillery  has  a  quartei^master,  and  every 
troop  of  horse  one. 

Quarter  Masters,  in  a  ship  of  war,  are 
petty  officers  anpointed  by  the  captain  to  assist 
in  the  several  amies  of  the  ship,  as  stowing  the 
ballast  and  provisions  in  the  hold,  coiling  the 
cables  on  their  platforms,  overiooking  the  steer- 
age of  the  ship,  keeping  the  time  by  the  watdi- 


glasses,  and,  in  turn,  overiooking  the  panel's 
steward  in  his  delivery  of  provisions,  &c. 

Quarter  Master  General  is  a  consider- 
able o^ker  in  th^  army ;  and  should  be  a  man  of 
peat  judgment  and  experience,  and  well  skilled 
m  eeography.  His  duty  is  to  make  the  marches 
and  encampments  of  an  army ;  be  should  know 
the  country  perfectly,  with  its  rivers,  plains, 
marshes,  woods,  mountains,  defiles,  passages,  kc. 
even  to  the  smallest  brook.  Prior  to  a  march, 
he  receives  the  order  and  route  from  the  com- 
manding general,  and  appoints  a  place  for  the 
quarter-masters  of  the  army  to  meet  him  next 
morning,  with  whom  he  marches  to  the  next 
camp;  where,  having  viewed  the  ground,  he 
marks  out  to  the  regimental  quarter-masters  the 
KTound  allowed  each  regiment ior  their  camp: 
ne  chooses  the  head  quarters,  and  appoints  the 
villages  for  the  generals  of  the  army^  quarters : 
he  appoints  a  proper  place  for  the  encampment 
of  the  train  of  artill^ :  he  conducts  foraging 
parties,  as  likewise  the  troops  to  cover  them 
against  assaults,  and  has  a  share  in  r^alatiug  the 
winter-quarters  and  cantonments. 

Quarter  Nettino,  a  sort  of  net-^work,  ex- 
tended along  the  rails  on  the  upper  part  of  a 
ship's  quarter.  In  a  ship  of  war  these  are  always 
double.  The  interval  is  sometimes  filled  with 
cork,  or  old  sails ;  but  chiefly  with  the  ham- 
mocks of  the  sailors,  so  as  to  form  a  parapet 
against  the  enemy's  small  arms  in  battle. 
'  Quarter  Sessions,  a  general  court  held 
quarterly  by  the  justices  of  peace  of  each 
county.  This  court  is  appointed  by  statute  2 
Hen.  V.  c.  4,  to  be  in  the  first  week  after  Mi- 
chaelmas day ;  the  first  week  after  the  Epiphany ; 
the  first  week  after  the  close  of  Easter ;  and  in 
the  week  after  the  translation  of  St  Thomas  a 
Becket,  or  the  7th  of  July.  This  court  is  held 
before  two  or  more  justices  of  the  peace,  one  of 
whom  must  be  of  the  quomm.  The  jurisdic- 
tion of  this  court,  by  34  £dw.  III.  c.  1,  extends 
to  the  trying  and  determining  of  all  felonies 
and  trespasses  whatsoever,  though  they  seldom, 
if  ever,  try  any  greater  offence  uan  small  felo- 
nies within  the  benefit  of  clergy,  their  commis- 
sion providing,  that  if  any  case  of  difficulty  arises, 
they  shall  not  proceed  to  judgment,  but  in  the 
presence  of  one  of  the  justices  of  the  courts  of 
Ling's  bench  or  common  pleas,  or  one  of  the 
judges  of  assiie.  But  there  are  many  offences, 
and  particular  matters,  which  by  particular  sta- 
tutes belong  properly  to  this  jurisdiction,  as  the 
smaller  misdemeanors  not  amounting  to  felony, 
relating  to  the  game,  highways,  alehouses,  bas- 
tard children,  uie  settlement  and  provision  for 
the  poor,  vagrants,  servants'  wages,  apprentices:, 
&c.  The  recofds  or  rolls  of  the  sessions  are 
committed  to  the  custody  of  a  special  officer, 
denominated  the  custos  rotulorum.  In  most 
corporation  towns  there  are  quarter-sessions  kept 
before  justices  of  their  own,  within  their  respec- 
tive limits,  which  have  exactly  the  same  autho- 
rity as  the  general  quarter-sessions  of  the  county, 
except  in  a  very  few  instances. 

QUARTER-STAFF,  n.  $.  Quarter  and  staff. 
A  staff  of  defence :  so  odled,  perhaps,  from  the 
manner  of  using  it;  one  hand  being  placed  at 
the  middle,  and  the  other  equally  between  the 


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middle  and  tlie  end.  So  says  Dr.  Johnson :  Mr. 
Thomson,  more  prohably,  from  quarter,  a  dis- 
trict, and  staff;  the  qnarterstaff  being  once  a 
badge  of  aothorky  amongst  forestere. 

His  ^lUTtentafft  which  he  could  ne'er  foneke. 
Hung  half  before,  and  half  behind  his  back. 

Immense  riches  he  sqaandeied  away  at  quartentaff 
and  cudgel  play,  in  which  he  chaUeng^  all  the 
country.  Artuthnot. 

QUARTILE,  n.  s.  Lat.  qmrtw.  An  aspect 
of  the  planets,  when  they  are  three  signs  or 
ninety  degrees  distant  from  each  other,  and  is 
marked  thus  r} 

Mars  and  Venus  in  a  quartUe  move 

My  paogs  of  jealousy  for  Ariet's  love.    Dryden. 

QUARTO,  fi.s.  Lat.  quartus.  A  book  in 
which  every  sheet,  being  twice  doubled,  makes 
four  leaves. 

Oar  fatbeis  had  a  just  valoe  for  regularity  and 
STStamsi  then  folios  and  qvartct  were  the  fashion* 
able  sixes,  as  volumes  in  octavo  aie  now.       Wattt. 

QUARTO-DECIMANI,  an  ancient  sect  in  the 
Christian  church,  who  taught  that  Easter  should 
always  be  celebrated  accoiding  to  the  custom  of 
the  Jews,  on  the  fourteen  day  of  the  moon  in 
the  month  of  March,  whensoever  that  day  fell 
out.  And  hence  they  derived  their  name  quarto- 
decimani. 

QUARTZ,  in  mineralogy,  a  ^us  of  silice- 
ous earths,  chiefly  composed  of  silica.  Accord- 
ing to  Kirwan,  the  quarts  are  in  general  the 
pusest  of  die  siliceous  kind.  Cronstedt  gives 
'  the  following  characteristics  of  it :— 1.  It  is  ge- 
nerally cracl^  throughout,  even  in  the  rock  it- 
self, whereby,  as  well  as  by  its  own  nature,  it 
breaks  into  irregular  and  sharp  fragments.  2. 
It  cannot  be  easily  made  red  hot,  wiUiout  crack- 
ing still  more.  3.  It  never  decays  in  the 
air.  4.  Melted  with  potass,  in  a  due  proportion, 
it  gires  a  more  solid  ghiss  than  any  of  the  other 
siliceous  stones.  It  is  met  with  in  clefts,  fis- 
sufei,  and  small  Teins  in  rocks ;  it  seldom  forms 
large  yeins,  and  still  more  rarely  whole  moun- 
tains, without  a  mixture  of  heterogeneous  sub- 
stances. M.  Magellan  remarks  that  quartz  is 
one  oi  the  princi^  kinds  of  stone  which  con- 
tain metals.  In  some  of  the  Hungarian  veins 
fbe  gold  is  so  nunutely  dispersed  that  it  cannot 
be  ^seemed  by  the  best  imcroscopes  before  it  is 
separated  by  pounding  and  washing.  The  width 
of  the  veins,  some  of  which  are  half  a  fathom, 
and  some  still  more,  repay  the  trouble  and  ex- 
penses, which  the  small  quantity  of  gold  would 
not  otherwise  counterbalance.  Near  Lauterberg, 
upon  the  Hartz,  are  veins  of  this  stone  from  one 
to  three  fathoms  wide,  consisting  of  a  loose  sand, 
in  which  they  find  the  copper  ore  in  nests. 

Rock  crystals  are  generally  fbund  upon  or 
among  quartz,  and  are  to  be  met  with  in  all 
parts  of  the  world.  The  greatest  numbers  are 
tumished  to  the  European  countries  from  Mount 
St  Gothard,  in  Switzerland. 

Professor  Jameson  divides  this  mineral  geuus 
into  two  species :  rhomboidal  quartz,  and  indi- 
visible quartz. 

1.  Rhomboidal  quartz  eontains  fourteen  sub-^ 
species.  1.  Amethyst.  2.  Rock  crystal.  3. 
Milk  qoBrtz.    4.  Common  quartz.     5.  Prase. 


6.  Cat's  eye.  7.  Fibrous  quartz.  8.  Iron  flint. 
9.  Homstone.  10.  Flinty  slate.  11.  Flmt.  12. 
Calcedony.    13.  Heliotrope.    14.  Jasper. 

2.  Indivisible  quartz  contains  nine  sub-spe- 
cies. 1.  Float-stone.  2.  Quartz  sinter.  3. 
Hyalitcw    4.  Opal.    5.  Menilite.    6.  Obsidian. 

7.  Pitchstone.  8.  Pearlstone.  9.  Pumice-stone. 
See  Mineralogy; 

QUASH,  V.  a.  8e  v.  n,  French  caster;  Belg. 
qucusen^  Ital.  tquacciare,  quassare ;  Lat.  quasso. 
To  crush ;  squeeze ;  subdue ;  annul ;  make  void. 

Twas  not  the  spawn  of  such  as  these 
That  dyed  with  Punick  blood  the  conquered  seas 
And  ^wuhtd  the  stem  ^acides.  Rotecmmon. 

The  whales 
Against  sharp  locks,  like  reeling  vessels  qvashed, 
Though  huge  as  moontains,  are  in  pieces  dashed. 

WaUer, 

A  thin  and  fine  membrane  strait  and  closely  ad- 
hering to  keep  it  from  quashing  and  shaking,    kajf. 

Our  she  confederates  keep  pace  with  us  in  quasliing 
the  rebellion,  which  had  begun  to  spresid  .itself 
among  part  of  the  fair  sex.        AddUorCi  Fneholder, 

The  water  in  this  dropsy,  by  a  sudden  jerk,  may 
he  heard  to  fuos/k.  Sharp's  Surgery, 

QUASI  Contract,  in  the  civil  law,  an  act 
without  the  strict  form  of  a  contract,  but  yet 
having  the  force  thereof.  In  a  contract  there 
must  be  the  mutual  consent  of  both  parties,  but 
in  a  quasi-contract  one  party  may  be  bound  or 
obligated  to  the  other,  without  having  given  his 
consent  to  the  act  wherby  he  is  obliged.  For 
example :  I  have  done  your  business,  in  your 
absence,  without  your  procuration,  and  it  has 
succeeded  to  your  advantage.  I  have  then  an 
action  against  you  for  the  recovery  of  what  I 
have  disbursed,  and  you  an  action  against  me  to 
make  me  give  an  account  of  my  administration, 
which  amounts  to  a  quasi  contract 

QUASSIA,  in  botanv,  a  genus  of  the  mono- 
gynia  order,  and  decandria  class  of  plants ;  na- 
tural order  fourteenth,  gruinales.  It  was  so 
named  from  Quassi,  a  negro  slave,  who  disco- 
vered its  virtues:  cal.  pentaphyllous ;  petals 
five ;  nectarium,  pentaphyllous ;  tliere  are  from 
two  to  five  seed  cases,  standing  asunder,  and  mo- 
nospermous.  There  are  three  species,  tlie  amara, 
simaruba,  and  excelsa  or  polyoma. 

i.  Q.  amara  grows  to  the  height  of  several 
feet,  and  sends  off  many  strong  branches.  The 
wood  is  of  a  white  color  and  light ;  the  bark  is 
thin  and  gray :  the  leaves  are  placed  alternately 
on  the  branches,  and  consist  of  two  pairs  of  pp- 
posite  pinnae,  with  an  odd  one  at  tne  end :  all 
the  leaflets  are  of  an  elliptical  shape,  entire, 
veined,  smooth,  pointed,  sessile,  on  the  upper 
pagina  of  a  deep  green  color,  on  the  under  paler : 
the  common  foot-stalk  is  articulated,  and  winged, 
or  edged,  on  each  side  with  a  leafy  membrane, 
which  gradually  expands  towards  the  base  of  the 
pinne :  the  flowers  are  all  hermaphrodite,  of  a 
bright  red  color,  and  terminate  the  branches  in 
long  spikes:  the  bractes  or  floral  leaves  are 
lance-snaped  or  linear,  colored  and  placed  alter- 
nately upon  the  peduncles ;  the  cal3rx  is  small, 
persistent,  and  five  toothed ;  the  corolla  consists 
of  five  lance-shaped  equal  petals,  at  the  base  of 
which  is  placed  the  nectary,  or  five  roundish, 
colored,  scales;  the  filaments  are  ten,  slender, 
somewhat  longer  than  the  corolla,  and  crownad 


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QUASSIA. 


with  simple  antherc,  placed  transversely;  the 
receptacle  is  fleshy  and  orbicular;  the  germen  is 
ovate,  divided  into  five  parts,  and  supports  a 
slender  style,  longer  than  the  filaments,  and  tei^ 
minating  by  a  tapering  stigma ;  the  capsules  are 
five,  two  celled,  and  contain  globular  seeds.  It 
is  a  native  of  South  America,  particularly  of 
Surinam,  and  also  of  some  of  the  West  Indian 
Islands.  Tlie  root,  bark,  and  wood,  of  this  tree 
have  all  places  in  the  materia  medic^  The 
wood  is  most  generally  used,  and  is  said  to  be  a 
tonic,  stomachic,  antiseptic,  and  febrifuge. 

It  has  been  found  veiy  effectual  in  restoring  di- 
gestion, expelling  flatulencies,  and  removing  habi- 
tual costiveness,  produced  from  debility  of  the 
intestines,  and  common  to  a  sedeiftary  life.  Dr. 
Lettsom,  whose  extensive  practice  gave  him  an 
opportunity  of  trying  the  effects  of  quassia  in  a 
great  number  of  cases,  says,  *  In  debility,  suc- 
ceeding febrile  ^liseases,  the  Peruvian  bark  is 
most  generally  more  tonic  and  salutary  than  any 
other  vegetable  hitherto  known ;  but  in  hysteri- 
cal atony,  to  which  the  female  sex  is  so  prone, 
the  quassia  affords  more  vigor  and  relief  to  the 
system  than  the  other,  especially  when  united 
with  thevitriolum  album,  and  still  more  with  the 
aid  of  some  absorbent.'  In  dyspepsia,  arising 
from  hard  drinking,  and  also  in  diarrhoeas,  the 
doctor  exhibited  the  quassia  with  great  success. 
But,  with  respect  to  the  tonic  and  febrifuge  qua- 
lities of  quassia,  he  says,  '  I  by  no  means  sub- 
scribe to  the  Linnsean  opinion  where  the  author 
declares, '  roe  quidem  judice  chinchinam  longe 
superat.'  It  is  very  well  known  that  there  are 
certain  peculiarities  of  the  air,  and  idiosyncrasies 
'of  constitution,  unfavorable  to  the  exhibition  of 
Peruvian  bark,  even  in  the  most  clear  intermis- 
sions of  fever.  In  these  cases  quassia  may  often 
be  substituted  with  success.' 

2.  Q.  excelsa,  or  Q.  polygama,  was  named  by 
Sir  Joseph  Banks,  Dr.  Solander,  and  Dr.  Wright, 
pricrania  amara.  It  is  now,  however,  always 
ranked  under  quassia.  It  is  very  common  in  tne 
woodlands  of  Jamaica,  is  beautiful,  tall,  and 
stately,  sometimes  being  100  feet  long,  and  ten 
feet  in  circumference,  eight  feet  above  the  ground. 
The  trunk  is  straight,  smooth,  and  tapering, 
sending  off*  its  branches  towards  the  top.  The 
outside  bark  is  pretty  smooth,  of  a  light  gray  or 
ash  color,  from  various  lichens.  The  bark  of 
the  roots  is  of  a  yellow  cast,  somewhat  like  the 
cortex  simaruba.  The  inner  bark  is  tough,  and 
composed  of  tine  flaxy  fibres.  The  woodis  of  a 
yellow  color,  tough  but  not  very  hard.  It  takes 
a  good  polish,  and  is  used  as  flooring.  The 
leaves  are  sub-alternate ;  the  small  leaves  are  in 
pairs,  from  five  to  eight,  standing  opposite  to 
each  other  on  short  foot-stalks,  and  ending  with 
an  odd  one.  Thej  are  of  an  oblong  oval  shape, 
and  pointed ;  the  ribs  reddish,  and  the  young 
leaves  are  covered  with  'a  fine  brownish  down. 
The  flowers  come  out  in  bunches  or  clusters 
from  the  lower  part  of  the  last  shoot  before  the 
leaves,  and  stand  on  round  foot-stalks.  Tlie 
flowers  are  small,  of  a  yellowish  green  color, 
with  a  very  small  calyx.  The  male  or  barren 
tree  has  flowers  nearly  similar  to  the  hermar 
phrodite,  but  in  it  there  are  only  the  rudiments 
of  a  style.    The  fruit  is  a  smooth  black  drupa, 


round  shaped,  and  of  the  size  of  a  pea.  There 
is  but  little  palp,  and  the  nut  covers  a  round 
kernel.  These  drupe  are  generally  three,  some- 
times two,  and  often  only  one,  attached  sidewise 
to  a  roundish  fleshy  receptacle.  It  flowers  in 
October  and  November,  and  its  fruit  is  ripe  in 
December  and  January.  Except  the  pulp  of 
the  fruit,  every  other  part  of  this  tree  has  an  in- 
tensely bitter  taste.  In  taste  and  virtues  it  is 
nearly  equal  to  the  ouassia  of  Surinam,  and  is 
sold  in  London  for  tne  quassia  amara ;  and  it 
may  be  safely  used  in  all  cases  where  that  drug 
has  been  thought  proper,  whether  as  an  antiseptic, 
or  in  cases  of  weakness  in  the  stomach  and 
bowels.  It  may  either  be  given  alone,  or  joined 
with  the  Jesuit's  bark. 

3.  Q.  simaruba  is  common  in  all  the  wood- 
lands in  Jamaica.  It  grows  to  a  great  height 
and  considerable  thickness.  The  trunks  of  the 
old  trees  are  black  and  a  little  ftirrowed.  Those 
of  the  young  trees  are  smooth  and  gray,  with . 
here  and  there  a  broad  yellow  spot.  The  inside 
bark  of  the  trunk  and  branches  is  white,  fibrous, 
nnd  tough.  It  tastes  slightly  bitter.  On  cut- 
ting or  stripping  off"  this  bark,  no  milky  juice 
issues,  as  has  been  mentioned  by  various  authors. 
The  wood  is  hard  and  useful  for  buildings.  It 
splits  freely,  and  makes  excellent  staves  for  sugar 
hogsheads.  It  has  no  sensible  bitter  taste.  The 
branches  are  alternate  and  spreading.  The 
leaves  are  numerous'  and  alternate.    On  the  up- 

Ser  side  they  are  smooth,  shining,  and  of  a 
eep  green  color ;  on  the  under  side  they  are 
white.  The  flowers  appear  about  the  beginning 
of  April.  They  are  of  a  yellow  color,  and 
placed  on  spikes  beautifully  branched.  The 
fruit  is  of  that  kind  called  a  drupa,  and  is  ripe 
towards  the  end  of  May.  It  is  of  an  oval  shape, 
is  black,  smooth,  and  shining.  The  pulp  is 
fleshy  and  soft;  the  taste  a  nauseous  sweet 
The  nut  is  flattened,  and  on  one  sMe  winged. 
The  kernel  is  small,  flat,  and  tastes  sweet  The 
natural  number  of  these  drupae  is  five  on  each 
common  receptacle ;  but,  for  tne  roost  part,  there 
are  only  two  or  three ;  the  rest  by  various  acci- 
dents prove  abortive.  The  roots  are  thick,  and 
run  superficially  under  ground  to  a  considerable 
distance.  The  bark  is  rough,  scaly,  and  vfarted. 
The  inside  when  fresh  is  a  full  yellow,  but 
when  dry  paler.  It  has  but  little  smell.  The 
taste  is  bitter,  but  not  very  disagreeable.  *  This  is 
the  true  cortex  simarubff  of  the  shops.  This  tree 
in  Jamaica  is  called  mountain  damson,  bitter  dam- 
son, and  stave  wood.  On  examining  the  fructi- 
fication. Dr.  Wright  found  this  tree  to  be  a 
species  of  quassia.  Under  that  name  he  sent  it 
to  Europe,  and  Linnsus  adopted  it  into  his  sys- 
tem. There  are  male  flowers  on  one  tree  and 
female  flowers  on  another ;  and  this  is  invariably 
the  case  in  Jamaica.  Most  authors  who  have 
written  on  the  simaruba  agree  that  in  fluxes  it 
restores  the  lost  tone  of  the  intestines,  allays 
their  spasmodic  motions,  promotes  the  secretion 
by  urine  and  perspiration,  removes  that  lowness 
of  spirits  attending  dysenteries,  and  disposes 
the  patient  to  sleep;  the  gripes  and  tenesmus 
are  taken  off",  and  the  stools  are  changed  to  their 
natural  color  and  consistence.  In  a  moderate 
dose  it  occasions  no  disturbance  or  uneasiness; 


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QUA 


but  hi  a  large  dose  it  produces  sickness  at  sto- 
mach and  Yomiting.  Negroes  aie  less  affected 
by  it  than  white  people.  Dr.  Culleo,  however, 
saysy  *  We  can  perceive  nothing  in  this  bark  but 
that  of  a  simple  bitter ;  the  virtues  ascribed  to  it 
in  dysentery  have  not  been  confirmed  by  my  ex- 
peheDce^  or  that  of  the  practitioners  in  this 
country ;  and,  leaving  what  others  are  said  to 
have  experienced  to  be  further  examined  and  con- 
sidered by  practitioners,  I  can  only  at  present  say 
that  my  account  of  the  effect  of  bitters  will 
perhaps  explain  the  virtues  ascribed  to  the  si- 
maniba.  In  dysentery  I  have  found  an  infusion 
of  chamomile  flowers  a  more  useful  remedy.' 
QUATER'NARY,  j  Lat.  quatenuuita,  qua- 
QuATER;NioN,or     Jfe^.  Theuumberfour. 

QUATERNITY.  J 

Air  and  y«  elements,  the  eldest  birth 
Of  natore's  womb,  that  in  qmtemion  run 
Ferpetusl  circle,  multiform,  and  mix 
Ana  noorish  all  things ;  let  your  ceaseless  change 
Vaiy  to  our  |reat  Maker  still  new  praise.     MUton. 

The  nmnber  of  four  stands  much  admired,  not 
only  in  the  quatemiiy  of  the  dements,  which  are  the 
priociples  of  bodies,  out  in  the  letters  of  the  name  of 
God.  Browne.  . 

The  objections  against  the  qmimmanf  of  elements 
and  ternary  of  principles,  needed  not  to  be  oppoaed 
10  much  against  the  doctrines  themselves.      Boy^. 

I  have  not  in  this  scheme  of  these  nine  quaierniom 
of  consonants,  dutinct  known  characters,  whereby  to 
express  them,  hot  must  repeat  the  same. 

UoldtrU  EimnenU  rf  Spe«^. 

QUATRAIN,  n.i.  Tt.  quatrtnn.  A  stanza 
of  foar  lines  rhyming  alternately :  as, 

I  have  writ  my  poem  in  ^uatrmta  or  stanzas  of 
four  ia  alternate  rhyme,  because  I  have  ever  judged 
them  of  greater  dignity  for  the  sound  and  number, 
than  any  other  verse  in  use.  Dryden. 

QUATRE-BRAS,  a  hamlet  of  the  Netherlands, 
in  the  province  of  Namur,  about  seven  miles 
west  of  Ligny,  remarkable  for  the  memorable 
conflict  occurring  here  between  the  British  and 
French,  on  the  16th  of  June,  1815.  It  derives 
its  same  from  the  meeting  of  four  roads.    See 

WATEaLOO. 

QUATUORVIRI,  in  antiquity,  formerly  writ- 
ten nil  Viri,  Roman  magistrates,  who  had  the 
care  of  conducting  and  settling  the  colonies  sent 
into  the  provinces.  There  were  also  quatuorviri 
appointed  to  inspect  the  high-ways,  to  take  care 
or  repairs,  &c. 

QUAVER,  V.  n.  Sax.  cpavan.  To  shake 
the  voice ;  speak  or  sing  with  a  tremulous  voice ; 
tremble, 

Miso  sitting  on  the  ground  with  her  knees  up,  and 
her  hands  upon  her  knees,  tuning  her  voice  with 
muiv  a  tjuoBeriny  cough,  thus  discoursed.     Sidnty. 

The  division  and  qwnming,  which  please  so  much 
in  musick,  have  an  agreement  with  tne  glittering  of 
Kght  playing  upon  a  wave.  Bmou. 

A  membrane,  stretched  like  the  head  of  a  drum, 
is  to  receive  the  impulse  of  the  sound,  and  to  vi- 
brate or  fmvm-  according  to  its  reciprocal  motions. 

Ray, 
Now  spoitive  youth  , 

Carol  incondite  rhythms  with  suiting  notes. 

And  tpiaver  inharmonious.  PhiUpt, 

We  shall  hear  her  qmavering  them  half  a  minute 
after  ui,  to  some  sprightly  airs  of  the  opera. 

Addwn* 
Vol.  XVIII. 


321  QUE 

If  the  eye  and  the  finger  remain  qatei,  these  colors 
vanish  in  a  second  minute  of  time,  but  if  the  finger 
be  moved  with  a  quavering  motion,  they  appear  again* 
Newton's  OpHekt, 

Quaver,  in  music,  a  measure  of  time  equal  to 
half  a  crochet,  a  fourth  part  of  a  minim,  or  an 
eighth  part  of  a  semibreve. 

QUAY,  n.  t.  Fr.  gvai.  See  below.  A  key ; 
an  artificial  bank  to  the  sea  or  river,  on  which 
goods  are  conveniently  unladen. 

Kay,  key,  or  quay,  is  a  wharf  or  place  by  the  wa- 
ter side,  in  a  sea-port,  for  the  loading  and  unloading 
of  merchandise.  The  verb  cajore,  in  old  writers,  ac- 
cording to  Scaliger,  signifies  to  keep  in  or  restrain ; 
and  hence  came  our  term  kay ;  the  ground  where 
keys  are  made  being  bound  in  with  planks  and  posts. 

Dr,  A»  Sees* 

Quay,  or  Key,  a  long  wharf,  usually  built  of 
stone,  by  the  side  of  a  harbour  or  river,  and  hav- 
ing .  several  storehouses  for  the  convenience  of 
^ading  and  discharging  merchant'  ships;  with 
posts  and  rings  whereby  they  are  secured ;  to- 
gether with  cranes,  capstems,  and  other  engines, 
to  lift  the  goods  in  or  out  of  the  vessels  which 
lie  along  side. 

QVEAfCHY,  adj.  Originally  perhaps  miacky, 
quaggy,  or  quas^y.  Unsound ;  Doggy.  Not  m 
use. 

The  boggy  mears  and  queaehy  fens  below. 

Drayton, 
Gurdwin's  qaeadtjf  sand.  M. 

QU£AN|  n.  s.  Sax.  cpean,  )K)|icpen.  A  low 
or  worthless  woman;  a  strumpet. 

As  fit  as  the  nail  to  his  hole,  or  as  a  scolding 
quean  to  a  wrangling  knave.  Shakspeart. 

This  well  they  understand  like  cunning  qeeam^ 
And  hide  their  nastiness  behind  the  scenes. 

Dryden. 

Such  is  that  sprinkling  which  some  careless  quun 
Flirts  on  you  from  her  mop.  Svk^. 

Now  Tarn,  O  Tam ;  had  they  been  qiuant 

A*  ^lump  and  strapping  in  their  teens ; 

Their  sarks,  instead  o'  creeshie  flannen, 

Been  snaw-white  seventeen  bunder  linen  ! 


QUEA'SY,  adj.  Of  uncertain  etymology. 
Goth,  kuesoy  is  to  sicken ;  sicken  vrith  nausea ; 
fastidious;  squeamish. 

I,  with  your  two  helps,  will  so  practise  on  Bene- 
dict, that,  in  despight  of  his  quick  wit  and  his 
queasy  stomach,  he  shall  fall  in  love  with  Beatrice. 


He,  queasy  with  his  insolence,  alieady 
Will  their  good  thoughts  call  from  him.  Id. 

Whether  a  rotten  slate  and  hope  of  gain, 
Or  to  disuse  me  from  the  queasjf  pain     < 
Of  being  beloved  and  loving, 
Out  push  me  first.  Donne. 

The  humility  of  Gregory  the  Great  would  not  ad- 
mit the  style  of  bishop,  but  the  ambition  of  Bonifiaoe 
made  no  scruple  thereof,  nor  have  queaty  resolutions 
been  harboured  in  their  successors  ever  since. 

Broume*s  Vutgar  Errours. 

Without  question. 
Their  conscienre  was  tiw  qtmtif  of  digestion. 

Dryden 
Men's  stomachs  are  generally  so  tpteasif  in  these 
cases,  that  it  is  not  safe  to  overioad  them. 

.Government  of  the  Tongue, 


Digitized  by  •^^JiJU^?lC 


322 


QUEBEC. 


QUEBEC,  the  capital  of  Canada  and  of  British 
America,  is  situated  at  the  junction  of  Charles 
River  with  the  St.  Lawrence,  and  is  divided  into 
the  Old  and  New,  or  Upper  and  Lower  towns. 
The  former  is  on  a  rocky  promontory,  named 
Cape  Diamond,  the  summit  of  which  is  350  feet 
above  the  level  of  th6  river.  On  the  highest 
part  of  the  promontory  is  the  citadel,  composed 
of  a  whole  bastion,  a  curtain,  and  half  bastion, 
with  a  ditch,  counterguard,  covered  way,  and 
glacis  to  the  south-west,  with  many  other  works, 
so  that  the  fortilications  may  be  considered  as 
impregnable,  both  by  nature  and  art,  and  re- 
quire 5000  meu  to  defend  them  properly. 

The  public  buildings  are  chiefly  remarkable 
for  their  great  solidity;  and  consist  of  the  castle 
of  St.  Louis ;  a  Catholic  church ;  the  ancient 
Jesuit's  College,  now  occunied  as  a  barrack  for 
the  troops ;  a  seminary  lor  the  education  of 
Catholic  clergy;  a  Protestant  church;  court- 
house ;  the  hotel-dieu,  or  civil  hospital ;  a  poor- 
house  ;  a  new  jail ;  a  convent  of  Ursulines, 
which  has  thirty-six  sisters ;  a  general  hospital, 
&c.  There  are  two  market-places;  a  place 
d'armes,  a  parade,  and  an  esplanade.  The  castle 
of  St.  Louis,  situated  on  the  summit  of  the  rock, 
is  a  handsome  stone  building,  seated  near  the 
edge  of  a  precipice,  something  more  than  200 
feet  high,  and  supported  towards  the  steep  by  a 
solid  work  of  masonry,  rising  nearly  hsUf  the 
height  of  the  edifice,  and  surmounted  by  a  spa- 
cious gallery,  whence  there  is  a  most«command- 
ing  prospect  over  the  basin,  the  island  of  Or- 
leans, Point  Levi,  and  the  surrounding  country. 
The  whole  pile  is  162  feet  long,  by  forty-five 
broad,  and  three  stories  high.  This  building 
has  been  repaired  and  improved  on  a  grand 
scale.  The  new  jail  was  completed  in  181 4,  at 
an  expense  of  £15,000. 

The  Lower  Town  is  the  principal  place  of 
commerce,  and  occupies  the  gix>und  at  the  foot 
of  the  promontory,  which  has  been  gradually 
gained,  either  by  mining,  or  running  out  wharfs  : 
it  is  considered  unhealthy. '  The  streets  of  both 
towns  are  in  general  irregular,  uneven,  and  nar- 
row, and  few  of  them  paved :  but  some  con- 
siderable improvements  in  the  style  of  building 
have  of  late  been  made,  as  well  as  in  the  plan 
of  the  streets.  The  houses  are  of  unequal 
heights,  and  often  covered  with  boards,  though 
the  frequent  fires  have  caused  some  to  use  tin 
or  painted  sheet  iron.  Next  the  river  are  very 
extensive  warehouses,  and  vessels  come  close  to 
the  wharfe  to  discharge  their  cargoes ;  at  some 
of  them  the  vessels  remain  afloat  at  low  water, 
at  others,  which  are  not  carried  so  far  out,  or 
where  the  river  does  not  deepen  so  suddenly, 
the  vessels  lie  dry  at  low  water.  The  communi- 
cation from  the  Lower  to  the  Upper  Town  is  by 
a  winding  street,  at  the  top  of  which  is  a  forti- 
fied gate. 

Mountain  Street,  where  formerly  the  ascent 
was  so  steep  as  to  make  it  difficult  for  a  car- 
riage, is  now  passable  for  all  sorts  of  vehicles. 
John  Street,  Buade  Street,  Fabrique  Street,  and 
the  greater  part  of  Palace  Street,  may  be  con- 
sidered as  the  mercantile  part  of  the  Upper 
Town,  being  inhabited  chiefly  by  merchants,  re- 
tail trader?,  artizans,  and 'tavern-keepers.     St. 


Louis  Street,  running  nearly  panillel  to  St.  Jolm 
Street,  is  much  more  elevated,  airy,  and  agreea- 
ble, and  by  far  the  pleasantest  part  of  the  town ; 
as  such,  most  of  the  superior  officers  of  the  pro- 
vincial governmeut,  and  people  of  the  first  rank 
reside  here. 

On  the  south  shore  of  the  river,  opposite  Cape 
Diamond,  is  Point  Levi,  which  with  the  former 
cape  narrows  the  river  to  three-quarters  of  a  mile; 
but  between  these  points  and  Orleans  Island  is 
a  basin,  five  or  six  miles  wide,  capable  of  hold- 
ing 100  sail  of  the  line.  The  rise  of  tide  at  the 
equinoxes  is  twenty-five  feet.  Charles's  River, 
which  empties  itself  at  the  town,  issues  from  a 
lake  of  the  same  name,  twelve  miles  from  Que- 
bec, and  is  only  navigable  for  boats. 

At  Quebec  Uie  river  begins  to  freeze  in  De- 
cember, and  some  years  the  ice  becomes  solid 
and  stationary,  and  carriages  and  horses  cross 
side  to  side.  The  ice  usually  begins  to  break 
up  in  April,  when  a  sudden  thaw  comes  on,  and 
generally  clears  the  river  in  a  few  days.  The 
first  breaking  up  is  accompanied  by  a  noise  like 
that  of  a  heavy  cannonade ;  for  the  current  being 
then  increased,  by  the  melting  of  the  ice  and 
snow,  the  masses  of  the  former  are  driven  against 
each  other  with  great  fury  and  noise.  Between 
Quebec  and  Point  Levi,  on  the  opposite  shore 
of  the  St.  Lawrence,  a  great  number  of  ferry- 
boats are  continually  passing.  In  the  winter, 
when  masses  of  ice  are  floating  up  and  down 
with  the  tide,  and  oflen  when  there  is  a  strong 
breeze,  impelled  at  the  rate  of  three  or  four  knots 
an  hour,  this  passage  ^is  singularly  laborious ;  yet 
it  is  very  rare  that  accidents  happen.  It  is  not 
an  uncommon  thing  to  see  several  large  canoes, 
laden  with  provisions  for  the  market,  crossing 
the  river  as  nearly  in  a  line  as  they  are  able  to 
keep.  They  are  provided  with  strong  poles, 
having  iron  hooks  at  the  end  for  grappling  bold 
of  the  ice,  and  drag  ropes ;  the  cargoes  are  ge- 
nerally secured  by  a  strong  lashing.  When 
large  sheets  of  ice  oppose  their  progress,  the 
men,  by  means  of  the  poles  and  ropes,  which 
they  employ  with  uncommon  ability,  get  the  canoe 
upon  it,  and  by  main  force  drag  it  perhaps  fifly 
or  sixty  yards,  or  imtil  they  find  a  convenient 
opening  to  launch  it  agam  among  the  smaller 
fragments.  Quebec  exports  grain,  flour,  timber, 
lumber,  ashes,  &c.  In  return,  all  the  manu&c- 
tures  of  Europe  are  imported.  The  annual 
value  of  the  exports  and  imports  amount  to  about 
£1,000,000  sterling.  Mr.  Bouchette  estimates 
thepopulation  of  this  city  at  18,000  souls. 

Tne  French  first  chose  the  ground  on  which 
Quebec  now  stands  for  a  settlement,  in  the  year 
1608.  Its  progress  was  slow,  owing  to  the  hos- 
tility of  the  natives.  In  1629  it  was  taken  by 
the  English,  but  restored.  In  1690  it  vvzs  forti- 
fied, and  from  this  period  gradually  improved. 
In  1711  an  attempt  was  made  by  the  English 
and  Americans,  under  brigadier  Hill,  to  sur- 
prise Quebec,  but  it  proved  abortive ;  and  it  re- 
mained io  possession  of  the  French  till  the  me- 
morable year  1759,  when  it  was  taken  by  the 
Englishj'under  the  command  of  the  brave  NVolfe, 
who  fell  in  the  engagement :  by  the  peace  in 
1 763  it  was  cededj  with  the  rest  of  Canada,  to 
this  country.    In  1775  the  Americans  made  an 

Digitized  by  VjiUUy  IC 


QUE 


323 


QUE 


UBSiioceB^Ail  attempt  againtt  this  citj,  with  the 
Ion  of  about  700  men,  and  their  commander 
Montgomery. 

Nothing  can  be  more  beautiful  than  the  sum- 
mer views  between  Quebec  and  Montreal,  both 
banks  of  the  river  being  thickly  dotted  with 
villages  and  farm-houses,  the  latter  extremely 
neat ;  and  in  each  of  the  former,  however  small, 
is  a  church. 

QUECK,  V.  n.  Sex.  ;{epican,  to  wince.  To 
shrink.;  show  pain;  complain.    Not  in  use. 

The  lads  of  Sparta  were  accustomed  to  be  whip- 
ped at  altars,  without  so  much  as  qmcking.   Bacon, 

QUEDAH,  or  Kiddeh,  a  Malay  principality 
in  the  peninsula  of  Malacca,  on  die  west  coast, 
along  which  it  extends  about  150  miles,  between 
6^  and  8^  N.  lat.,  and  immediately  opposite 
Prince  of  Wales*8  Island.  It  presents  a  consider- 
able plain,  covered  with  close  wood,  through 
which  winds  a  river  navigable  for  small  craft  up 
to  the  foot  of  the  mountains.  From  Trang  to 
Purlis  this  coast  is  sheltered  by  many  islands, 
the  distance  being  twenty-four  leagues,  low,  and 
covered  with  woods.  The  water  is  also  remjark- 
ably  shallow,  ships  being  obliged  to  anchor  a 
great  distance  from  the  shore.  Along  this  tract 
eleven  small  rivers  empty  themselves  into  the 
Hea.  Inland  this  country  is  from  twenty  to 
thirty>five  miles  in  breadth,  but  the  cultivated 
land  no  where  exceeds  twenty  miles  from  the 
shore. 

The  smaller  rivers  of  Quedah  are  navigable 
for  prows,  and  some  of  them  for  larger  vessels, 
i^ualla  Mooda  is  a  shallow  rapid  stream,  con- 
venient on  account  of  its  communication  with 
the  tin  mines ;  the  annual  produce  of  which  b 
about  1000  peculs,  and  might  be  much  more. 
The  country  to  the  south,  being  supplied  with 
abundant  moisture,  is  extremely  productive  of 
rice,  and  abounds  with  bufialoes,  bullocks,  and 
poultry.  The  other  articles  of  commerce  are  tin, 
elephants*  teeth,  wax,  &c. ;  and  the  imports  the 
same  as  at  the  other  Malay  ports,  chiefly  opium 
and  Spanish  dollars.  It  was  a  place  of  con- 
siderable trade  before  the  establbhment  of  Prince 
of  Wales's  Island. 

The  principal  sea-port,  called  Quedah  b^ 
stiangers,  and  Quallah  Batany  by  the  natives,  is 
in  lat.  &*  N.  Its  river  is  navigable  for  vessels  of 
300  tons ;  but  the  entrance  is  choked  up  by  a 
mud  bank;  and  the  road,  where  ships  of  burden 
anchor,  is  above  t^o  leagues  from  the  shore.  At 
the  mouth  there  was  a  small  brick  fort,  now  in 
ruins.  Both  shores  are  muddy,  swampy,  and 
covered  with  jungle.  Seven  miles  up  tne  river 
is  Allistar,  where  the  kins  resides,  to  which 
place  all  vessels  can  ascend  whose  draught  of 
water  permits  to  pass  the  bar. 

In  1786  an  agreement  was  entered  into  with 
the  king  of  Quedah  for  the  cession  of  Pulo  Pe- 
nang,  now  Pnnce  of  Wales's  Island,  to  the  Bri- 
tish ;  and,  in  May  1792,  a  regular  treaty  of  peace 
and  amity,  to  continue  as  long  as  the  sun  and 
moon  give  light,  was  concluded ;  by  this  the  East 
India  Company  engaged  to  pay  the  king  6000 
dollars  annually,  while  they  remained  in  posses- 
sion of  the  island.  In  1802  a  new  arrangement 
was  entered  into,  by  the  conditions  of  which 
Yeng  de  per  Tuan,  king  of  Quedah,  agreed  to 


make  over  to  the  East  India  Company  all  that 
part  of  his  sea-coast  between  Qualla  Karrican 
and  the  river  side  of  Qualla  Moodah,  and  mea- 
suring inland  from  the  sea  sixty  orlongs ;  which 
tract  of  country  the  company  engaged  to  protect 
from  all  enemies  and  pirates.  The  king  agreed 
to  permit  the  free  exportation  of  provisions,  and 
other  articles,  to  Prince  of  Wales's  Island,  and 
engaged  not  to  permit  any  European  to  settle  in 
his  dominions.   The  treaty  stipulated  for  the  ap- 

Srehension  and  delivery  of  insurgents,  felons, 
ebtors,  and  slaves ;  and,  in  consideration  of  the 
benefits  accruing  to  the  company,  they  agreed 
to  pay  his  majesty  of  Queda  10,000  dollars  an- 
nually. 

QUEDLINBURG,  a  large  town  of  Prussian 
Saxony,  on  the  Bude,  thirty  miles  S.S.W.  of  Mag- 
deburg. It  is  surrounded  by  an  earthen  mound, 
and  divided  into  the  Old  and  New  Town,  which 
has  three  suburbs.  The  abbey  church  is  hand- 
some, but  the  others  are  only  remarkable  as  an- 
tiquities. Until  1802  there  was  a  Lutheran 
abbey  for  ladies  in  this  neighbourhood,  which 
was  admitted  to  rank  with  the  principalities  of 
the  empire.  In  that  year  it  was  secularised. 
Here  are  manufactures  of  woollen,  a  high  school, 
and  several  hospitals;  and  the  poet  Klopstock 
was  bom  here.  ' 

QUEEN,  n.  t.  &  o.  n.  Sax.  cpen,  a  woman,  a 
wife,  the  wife  of  a  king  ;  the  wife  or  widow  of  a 
king ;  a  female  sovereign:  to  play  the  queen. 

He  was  lapt 
In  a  most  curious  mautle,  wroagfat  by  the  hand 
Of  his  ffuem  mother.  Shak$peare.  Cymbeline, 

A  threepence  bowed  would  hire  me, 
Old  as  I  am,  to  queen  it.        Id.  Henry  VJIL 
Have  1  a  queen 
Past  1^  my  fellow  rulers  of  the  world  ? 
Have  I  refused  their  blood  to  mix  with  yours, 
And  raise  new  kings  from  so  obscure  a  race  ? 

Drvden. 
That  queen  Elizabeth  lived  sixty-nine,  and  reigned 
forty-five  years,  means  no  more  than  that  the  dura- 
tion of  her  existence  was  equal  to  sixty-nine,  and  the 
duration  of  her  government  to  forty-five  annual  re- 
volutions of  the  sun.  Locke, 
The  meanest  hind  in  fair  Scotland 

May  rove  their  sweets  amang ; 
But  I,  the  queen  of  a'  Scotland, 

Maun  lie  in  prison  straug.  -  Bums. 

Within  the  gaiden's  peaceful  seen 
Appeared  two  lovely  foes 


Aspinng  to  the  rank  of  queen. 
The  T -^ 


Cowper. 


Lily  and  the  Rose. 
Queen,  in  law.  The  queen  of  England  is 
either  queen  regnant  queen  consort,  or  queen 
dowager.  Tlie  queen  regent,  regnant,  or  sove- 
reign, is  she  who  holds  the  crown  in  her  own 
right;  as  the  first,  and  perhaps  the  second,  queen 
Mary,  queen  Elizabeth,  and  queen  Anne ;  and 
such  a  one  has  the  same  powers,  prerogatives, 
rights,  dignities,  and  duties,  as  if  she  had  been 
a  king.  But  the  aueen  consort  is  the  wife  of  the 
reigning  king;  and  she,  by  viltueof  her  marriage, 
is  participant  of  divers  prerogatives  above  other 
women.  She  is  a  public  perbon,  distinct  from 
the  king ;  and  not,  like  other  married  women,  so 
closely  Connected  as  to  have  lost  all  legal  or 
separate  existence.  For  the  queen  is  of  ability 
to  purciiase  lands,  and  to  convey  them,  to  make 

Y2 


Digitized  by 


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Q(j6 


324 


QUE 


leasei,  to  grant  copyholds,  and  do  other  acts  of 
ownership,  without  the  concurrence  of  her  lord. 
She  is  also  capable  of  receiving  a  grant  from  the 
king,  which  no  other  wife  is  from  her  husband. 
The  queen  of  England  has  separate  courts  and 
ofiScers,  distinct  from  the  king's^  not  only  in 
matters  of  ceremony,  but  even  of  law ;  and  her 
attorney  and  solicitor-general  are  entitled  to  a 
place  within  the  bar  of  his  maiest/s  courts,  to- 
gether with  the  king's  counsel.  She  may  like- 
wise sue  and  be  sued  alone,  without  joining  her 
husband.-  She  may  also  have  a  separate  property 
in  goods  as  well  as  lands,  and  has  a  right  to  dis- 
pose of  them  by  will.  In  short,  she  is  in  all 
legal  proceedings  looked  upon  as  a  feme  sole, 
and  not  as  a  feme  covert ;  as  a  single,  not  as  a 
married  woman.  For  which  the  reason  given  is 
this:  Because  the  wisdom  of  the  common  law 
would  not  have  the  king  (whose  continual  care 
and  study  is  for  the  public,  and  circa  ardua 
regni)  to  be  troubled  and  disquieted  on  account 
of  his  wife's  domestic  affairs;  and  therefore  it 
vests  in  the  queen  a  power  of  transacting  her 
own  concerns,  without  the  intecvention  of  the 
king. 

The  queen  has  also  many  exemptions,  and 
minute  prerogatives.  For  instance :  she  pays  no 
toll ;  nor  is  Sie  liable  to  any  amercement  in  any 
court.  But  in  general,  unless  where  the  law 
has  expressly  declared  her  exempted,  she  is 
upon  the  same  footing  with  other  subjects ;  being, 
to  all  intents  and  purposes,  the  king's  subject, 
and  not  his  equal.  Nevertheless,  it  is  equally 
treason  to  compass  or  imagine  the  death  of  our 
lady  the  king's  companion,  as  of  the  king  him- 
self:  and  to  violate  or  defile  the  queen  consort 
amounts  to  the  same  high  crime ;  as  well  in  the 
person  committing  the  fact,  as  in  the  queen  her- 
self, if  consenting.  If,  however,  the  queen  be 
accused  of  any  species  of  treason,  she  shall, 
whether  consort  or  dowager,  be  tried  by  the 
peers  of  parliament. 

The  husband  of  a  queen  regnant,  as  prince 
George  of  Denmark  was  to  queen  .Anne,  is  her 
subject;  and  may  be  guilty  of  higli  treason 
against  her :  but,  in  the  mstance  of  conjugal  in- 
fidelity, he  is  not  subjected  to  the  same  penal 
restrictions. 

Queen  Dowager  is  the  widow  of  the  king, 
and  as  such  enjoys  most  of  the  privileges  be- 
longing to  her  as  queen  consort :  but  it  is  not 
high  treason  to  violate  her  chastity,  or  conspire 
her  death,  because  the  succession  is  not  en- 
dangered thereby;  but  no  man  can  marry  her 
without  special  license  Irom  the  king,  on  pain  of 
forfeiting  his  lands  and  goods. 

Queen  Ann's  County,  a  county  of  Maryland, 
bounded  north  by  Kent;  east  by  Delaware; 
south-east  by  Caroline  county ;  south  by  Talbot 
county;  and  west  by  Chesapeake  Bay.  The 
chief  town  is  Antreville. 

Queen-apple, ^n.  t.  Queen  and  apple.  A 
species  of  apple. 

Her  cheeks  with  kindly  claret  spread, 
Aurora-like  new  out  of  bed. 
Or  like  the  fresh  qmeen-appU*s  side. 
Blushing  at  sight  of  Phoebus'  pride.     Sidney, 
The  qveeti'ajfpU  is  of  the  summer  kind,  and  a  good 
cyder-apple  mixed  with  others.  Mortimir. 


The  winter  qutenmg  is  good  for  the  table.        Id. 

Queen  Catherine's  Foreland,  the  nortb- 
cast  point  of  Terra  del  Fuego,  at  the  east  en- 
trance into  the  straits  of  Magellan,  discovered  by 
Frobisher  in  1576. 

Queen  Charlotte's  Foreland,  the  south- 
east extremity  of  New  Caledonia.  Long.  167** 
14'  £.,  lat.  22''  15'  N.  Also  the  name  of  the 
south-west  point  of  New  Hanover,  in  the  eastern 
seas ;  discovered  by  captain  Carteret  in  1767. 
It  is  a  high  bluff  point,  and  the  land  around  has 
a  great  number  of  little  hummocks  or  hilb. 
Long.  148<»  2r  E.,  lat.  2°  29'  S. 

Queen  Charlotte's  Island,  an  island  in  the 
Pacific,  about  six  miles  long  and  one  broad,  dis- 
covered in  1 767  by  captain  Wallis!  He  describes 
it  as  sandy  and  level,  full  of  trees,  without  under- 
wood, and  abounding  with  scurvy-grass.  TTie 
canoes  appeared  to  be  about  thirty  feet  long, 
four  feet  oroad,  and  three  and  a  half  deep.  Two 
of  these,  being  brought  along-side  of  each  other, 
were  ikstened  at  the  distance  of  about  three  feet, 
by  cross  beams,  passing  from  the  larboard  gun- 
wale of  one  to  that  of  the  other,  in  the  middle, 
and  near  to  each  end.  The  inhabitants  were 
handsome,  of  a  middle  stature,  and  dark  com- 
plexion,  with  long  black  hair.  Long.  138°  4'  W., 
lat.  19**  18'  S. 

Queen  Charlotte's  islands,  a  group  in  the 
North  Pacific  Ocean,  of  wluch  we  know  very 
little,  except  that  they  lie  off  the  west  coast  of 
North  America ;  the  largest  being  of  a  triangular 
form,  about  170  miles  long,  and  in  some  places 
sixty  broad.  These  islands  were  observed  by 
captain  Cook,  who  imagined  them  to  form  part 
of  the  continent.  They  were  first  discovered  to 
be  islands  by  Dixon,  in  1787.  Being  visited  by 
captain  Gra^,  of  the  United  States,  he  called 
them  Washington's  Islands,  and  found  several 
convenient  harbours.  Vancouver  coasted  along 
the  shore,  and  observed  that  near  the  sea,  the 
land  was  elevated,  but  rose  gradually  into  rug- 
ged and  uneven  mountains  towards  &e  interior 
of  the  principal  island.  He  understood  that  the 
inhabitants*  cultivated  a  species  of  tobacco. 
Long,  from  131°  to  133°  T  W.,  lat.  52°  to  54° 
22' N. 

Queen  Charlotte's  Islands,  another  group 
discovered  by  captain  Carteret  in  1767,  consist- 
ing of  Egmont's  Island  or  New  Guernsey,  Lord 
Howe's  Island  or  New  Jersey,  and  several  others. 
Carteret  sent  a  cutter,  widi  the  master. and  a 
party  of  men,  on  shore ;  when  a  quarrel  ensued, 
respecting  the  cutting  down  of  a  cocoa-tree, 
in  which  many  Indians  were  killed,  and,  on  the 
side  of  the  English,  the  master  and  three  of  ihe 
seamen  were  wounded,  and  soon  after  died. 
Captain  Carteret,  being  desirous  to  get  in  some 
water,  veered  the  ship  close  to  the  shore,  but 
was  himself  induced  to  order  several  shots  to  be 
fired,  by  which  several  Indians  seem  to  have 
been  killed,  before  he  could  attain  his  purpose. 
These  islands  were  discovered  in  1595  by  Men- 
dana,  the  principal  being  called  by  him  Santa 
Cruz.    The  others  are  very  inconsiderable. 

*  The  inhabitants  of  Egroont  Island,'  says  Car- 
teret, <  are  extremely  nimble,  vi^rous,  and  active, 
and  seem  to  be  as  well  qualified  to  live  in  the 
water  as  upon  the  land;  for  they  were  in  and 


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out'  of  their  caiioes  almost  every  mimite.  The 
caDoes  that  caFie  out  against  us  from  the  west 
end  of  the  island  might  probably,  upon  occasion, 
carry  about  a  dozen  men,  though  three  or  four 
manage  them  with  amazing  dexterity ;  we  saw, 
howerer,  others  of  a  large  size  upon  the  beach, 
with  awnings  or  shades  over  them.  We  got  two 
of  their  bows,  and  a  bundle  of  their  arrows,  from 
a  canoe;  and  with  these  weapons  they  do  exe- 
cution at  an  incredible  distance.  One  of  them 
went  through  the  boat's  washboard,  and  dan- 
gerously wounded  a  midshipman  in  the  thigh. 
Their  arrows  were  pointed  with  flint,  and  we 
saw  among  them  no  appearance  of  any  metal. 
The  country  in  general  is  woody  and  mountain* 
ous,  with  many  valleys  intermixed.  Several 
small  rivers  flow  from  the  interior  part  of  the 
country  into  the  sea,  and  there  are  many  har- 
bours upon  the  coast  Long.  163^  30'  to  165° 
la  E.,  lat  9°  50^  to  11*  2(f  S. 

Queen  Charlotte's  Sound,  \  northern  bay 
of  the  south  island  of  New  ZesJand,  where  cap- 
tain Cook  erected  a  post  with  a  union  flag,  and 
took  possession  of  the  country  in  the  name  and 
for  the  use  of  king  Oeorge  III.  In  sailing  either 
in  or  out  with  little  wind,  attention  must  be  had 
to  the  tides,  which  flow  about  nine  or  ten  o'clock 
at  the  full  and  change  of  the  moon,  and  rise  and 
fell  between  seven  and  eight  feet.  The  variation 
of  the  compass  was  found,  from  good  observa- 
tion, to  be  IS*  5'  £.  The  land  about  consists 
wholly  of  high  hills  and  deep  valleys,  well 
stored  with  a  variety  of  hard  timber,  fit  for  all 
purposes  except  masts.  The  sea  abounds  with 
fish ;  so  that,  without  going  out  of  the  cove  where 
they  lay,  the  Endeavour's  crew  caught  every  day, 
with  hooks  and  lines,  a  quantity  sufficient  to 
serre  the  ship's  company:  the  inhabitants, 
amounting  to  about  400,  had  straggling  houses 
along  the  shore.     See  Zealand,  New. 

Queen's  County,  anciently  called  Leix,  a 
shire  in  the  province  of  Leinster  and  kingdom  of 
Ireland,  so  named  from  c|ueen  Mary  of  England. 
It  is  about  thirty  miles  m  length  by  twenty-five 
in  breadth,  contains  about  130,000  inhabitants, 
23,000  houses,  and  its  superficies  measures 
235,000  acres.  Here  are  mne  baronies,  viz. 
Ballyadams,  Cullinagh,  Maryborough  East, 
MaiyboTough  West,  Portenehinch,  Slieumargue, 
Stiadhally,  Tinnehinch,  and  Upper  Ossory. 
The  ecclesiastical  subdivision  is  made  into 
twenty-nine  parishes,  and  twenty-three  parts  of 
parishes,  ifhe  chief  towns  are  Ballynakill, 
Maryborough  (so  named  also  from  Mary  queen 
of  England),  the  Assizes  Town,  Mountrath,  part 
of  the  elegant  town  of  Portarlington,  Stradbally, 
and  Mountmellick.  There  are  here  many  noble 
seats,  and  many  resident  gentry.  Much  of  the 
boggy  districts  has  been  reclaimed,  by  which 
both  the  climate  and  soil  have  benefited.  Be- 
tween the  King's  and  Queen's  counties  is  that 
great  natural  boundary,  seventeen  miles  in  length, 
called  the  Sliehh-bloom  Kange,  or  the  Ard-na- 
erm  Mountains.  The  first  appellation  appears  to 
signify  the  'mountain  dedicated  to  Beat's  Day;' 
the  second  means  <  The  height  of  Ireland.'  In 
the  whole  length  of  this  great  chain  there  is  but 
one  pass,  called  the  Gap  of  Glandine,  and  even 
this  a  difficult  one.    A  remarkable  circumstance 


relating  to  the  Sliebh-Bloom  mountains  is,  that 
the  north  side  of  the  >»hole  range  is  singularly 
fertile,  while  the  south  is  completely  barren. 
Here  also  are  the  sources  of  the  only  two  rivers 
of  consequence  in  the  county,  the  Barrow  and 
the  Nore;  the  former  rendered  navigable  by 
deepening  and  by  lateral  cuts,  but  the  latter  un-< 
manageable  from  its  rapidity  and  sudden  floods. 
The  Queen's  County  abounds  in  mineral  pro- 
ductions; the  gjreatbed  of  coal,  called  the  Leins- 
ter district,  lies  between  the  rivers  Nore  and 
Barrow,  and  rests  upon  limestone :  this  coal  is 
of  the  non-flaming  species  called  stone,  and 
sometimes  Kilkenny  coal ;  the  vein  reaching  this 
last  district.  The  limestone  of  this  region  ex- 
hibits many  remarkable  appearances  j  such  as 
great  dislocations,  parallel  disturbances  in  the 
coal  strata,  and  an  apparent  change  in  their  na- 
ture; the  occurrence  of  irregular  beds  and  veins 
of  siderocalcite,  or  brown  spar,  traversing  the 
limestone ;  and,  lastly,  the  vast  caves  discovered 
at  or  near  the  junction  of  the  calcareous  and 
coal  strata.  The  soil  of  this  county  in  general  is 
gravelly,  favorable  for  the  growth  of  com;  an4 
the  pasture  is  found  peculiarly  adapted  for  the 
cheese  farmer,  who  sometimes  deceives  the  factor 
by  imposing  his  cheese  as  English-roade.  Queen's- 
County  cheese  is  held  in  high  estimation  at  home. 
The  ancient  families  of  this  district  were  the 
O'More's,  Fitzpatrick's,  and  Wandesford's.  Many 
beautiful  specimens  of  military  and  ecclesiastic 
antiquities  still  survive,  amongst  which  the  cele- 
brated fortified  rock  called  '  Dunamaze'  should 
not  be  omitted :  this  still  interesting  place,  foiv 
pierly  the  citadel  of  the  O'More's  of  Leix,  was 
occupied  as  a  post  of  defence  and  security  as 
early  as  the  third  century.  The  ruins  now  visi- 
ble were  erected  by  the  chieftain  O'More.  Ab- 
bey Leix  and  Aghaboe  are  the  most  interesting 
of  the  monastic  remains.  Queen's  County  re- 
turns three  members  to  the  imperial  parliament, 
two  for  the  county,  and  one  tor  the  borough  of 
Portarlington. 

Queen's-Countt,  a  county  of  New-York,  in 
the  west  part  of  Long  Island ;  bounded  north  by 
Long  Island  Sound;  east  by  Suflblk  county; 
south  by  the  Atlantic;  and  west  by  King's 
county.  Chief  towns,  Jamaica  and  North  Hemp- 
stead. 

QUEENBOROUGH,  a  borough  and  market 
town,  situate  at  the  western  extremity  of  the 
Isle  of  Sheppey,  Kent,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Medway,  forty-five  miles  east  from  London.  The 
houses  are  neat,  uniform,  and  regularly  built 
Tlie  church  is  a  plain,  ancient  structure.  Here 
is  a  small  copperas  manufisictory,  and  in  the 
town  is  a  guildhall  and  a  prison.  This  place  is 
a  distinct  liberty,  and  it  is  governed  by  a  mayor, 
four  jurats,  and  two  bailiffs.  Its  magistrates 
hold  quarterly  courts,  and  also  general  sessions, 
every  half  year.  It  returns  two  members  to 
parliament,  the  right  of  election  being  in  the 
corporation  and  burgesses,  in  number  about  150. . 
Market  on  Monday. 

QUEENSFERRY,  a  loyal  borough  and  pa- 
rish on  the  south  bank  of  the  Frith,  where  the 
river  is  not  above  two  miles  broad ;  nine  miles 
west  of  Edinbrigh.  It  was  so  named  from  the 
celebrated  quern  Margaret,  wife  of  Malcolm 


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Can  more,  who  frequented  this  passage  much, 
and  patronised  the  town.  It  consists  of  one 
street,  chiefly  inhabited  by  seafaring  people.  Its 
chief  manufacture  is  soap.  This  borough  unites 
with  Stirling,  Dunfermline,  Culross,  and  Inver- 
keithing,  in  electing  a  representative  in  the  impe- 
rial British  parliament.  It  is  governed  by  a 
provost,  three  bailies,  dean  of  guild,  and  town 
council.  It  has  two  piers  on  the  east  and  west, 
and  the  coast  abounds  with  cod,  haddocks,  whit- 
ings, skate,  flounders,  herrings,  lobsters,  oysters, 
crabs,  &c. 

QUEENSTOWN,  a  neat  place  of  Upper 
Canada,  on  the  Niagara,  under  the  ridge  called 
Queenstown  Heights.  It  is  the  depot  for  the 
merchandise  brought  from  Montreal  ind  Quebec, 
foi  the  Upper  province,  and  is  remarkable  for 
the  romantic  beauty  and  grandeur  of  its  situa- 
tion. It  has  a  good  capacious  harbour,  a  church, 
court-house,  stores  for  government  and  for  the 
Indian  department,  whaHs,  and  barracks.  Much 
commercial  activity  is  displayed  during  the  sea- 
son of  navigation.  Queenstown  suffered  much 
during  the  late  war. 

,  QUEER,  adj.  '  Of  this  word  the  original  is 
not  known,'  says  Dr.  Johnson :  *  a  correspondent 
supposes  a  queer  man  to  be  one  who  has  a  <}naere 
to  his  name  in  a  list.*  But  there  is  a  Teut. 
kuerh,  of  this  signification.  Odd;  strange f 
particular;  churlish. 

He  never  went  to  bed  till  two  in  the  morning  be- 
cause he  would  not  be  a  ^mer  fellow ;  and  was  every 
now  and  then  knocked  down  by  a  constable,  to  sig- 
nalise his  vivacity.  Speetator. 

QUEILING,  or  Koueiling,  a  city  of  China, 
of  the  first  rank,  capital  of  Quangsee,  (which 
see,)  environed  by  mountains.  Its  name  is  de- 
rived from  a  species  of  oderiferous  flower,  abun- 
dant in  the  neighbourhood,  A  rapid  river,,  but 
not  navigable,  flows  under  the  walls.  This  cit/ 
is  fortified,  but  does  not  equal  other  Chinese 
capitals  in  wealth  and  populatioo.  Long.  109^ 
51' E.,  lat.  25*12' N. 

QUEIS,  or  QuEiss,  a  river  of  the  Prussian 
states,  which  rises  in  Silesia,  divides  it  from 
Lusatia,  and  falls-  into  the  Bober,  above  the 
town  of  Sagan.  Its  banks  were,  in  September 
1813,  the  scene  of  a  battle  between  the  French 
and  Prussians. 

QUELL,  V.  a.  &  n.  s.  >      Sax.  cpellan ;  Dan. 

QuEL^LTR.  \      S  qttale.        To     kill; 

crush;   subdue:   hence,  as  a  noun-substantive, 
murder;  violent  death :  a  queller  is  a  conqueror. 
What  cannot  we  put  upon 

His  spungy  followers,  who  shall  bear  the  guilt  ' 

Of  our  great  ^ueUI  Shakiptare.  Machetk, 

What  avails 
Valour  or  strength,  though  matchless,  tfiMed  with 

pain, 
Which  all  subdues,  and  makes  remiss  the  hands 
Of  mightiest  Milton's  Paradut  Lo$i, 

Hail,  Son  of  the  Most  High, 
Queller  of  Satan,  on  thy  glorious  work 
Now  enter.  id,  Paradim  Regained 

This  iimlled  her  pride,  but  other  doubts  remained. 
That,  once  disdaining,  she  might  be  disdained. 

Dry  den. 

He  is  the  ^ardian  of  the  publick  qniet,  appointed 
to  restraia  violence,  to  quell  seditions  and  tumults, 
and  to  preserve  that  peace  which  preserves  the  world. 

AtterbuTjf. 


1 


To  extinguish ;  cool ; 
allay :  hence  to  de- 


QUELPAERT,  an  island  in  the  eastern  seas, 
south  of  the  peninsula  of  Corea.  It  vras  made 
known  to  Europeans  in  1635  by  the  wreck  of  a 
Dutch  vessel  here,  called  the  Sparrow-hawk. 
The  crew  were  carried  to  the  capital  of  Corea, 
whence  they  with  difficulty  made  their  escape. 
The  island  was  also  coasted  by  La  Perouse,  in 
1787.  It  is  chiefly  composed  of  a  mountain^ 
about  6000  feet  high,  whence  the  land  slopes 
down  to  the  sea.  The  jealous  character  of  the 
nation  prevents  any  considerable  intercourse  be- 
tween It  and  Europeans.  Long.  126^.  35'  £., 
lat.  33°  14'  N. 

QUELQUE'CHOSE.  n.  s.  Fr.  guelquechote. 
A  trifle ;  a  kickshaw.    A  word  not  adopted. 

From  country  grass  to  comfitures  of  court. 
Or  city's  qHelqutauMt,  let  not  report 
My  mind  transport.  Bonne. 

QUENCH,  V,  a,  &  v,  n,'\     Saxon    cpencan ; 

Quekch'able,  odj,         (Goth,  kuaugicen, 

Quekch'er,  fl.  s. 

Quench'less,  a^. 
stroy :  as  a  neuter  verb,  to  grow  cool ;  the  ad- 
jectives and  noun  substantive  corresponding. 

The  fire  had  power  in  the  water,  forgetting  his- 
own  virtue ;  and  the  water  forgat  bis  own  qmeneliiiig 
nature.  Wiedom  xiz.  20. 

Since  stream,  air,  sand,  mine  eyes  and  ean  con- 
spire. 
What  hope  to  quench,  where  each  thing  blows  the 
fire  t  Sidney, 

This  is  the  way  to  kindle,  not  to  quench. 

Shahspeart. 
But  if  all  aim  but  this  be  levelled  false. 
The  supposition  of  the  lady's  death 
Will  quench  the  wonder  of  her  infamy. 

Dost  thou  think,  in  time 
She  will  not  quench,  and  let  instructions  ente 
When  foUy  now  possesses  1  id,  Cvnteliiw. 

Coma,  Uoody  Clifford,  rough  Northomberland* 
I  dare  your  qun»Meu  fury  to  more  rage. 

Shtthtpetre. 
MiijL  quencheihvnld'^n  better  than  water,  because 
it  entereth  better.  Bacon's  Natural  Hietory, 

When  death's  form  appears,  she  feareth  not 
An  utter  quenching  or  extinguishment ; 

She  would  be  glad  to  meet  with  such  a  lot 
That  so  she  might  all  future  ill  prevent.    Dories. 
The  judge  of  tonnenta,  and  the  king  of  tears. 
He  fills  a  burnished  throne  of  quenchlm  fire. 

Subdued  in  fire  the  stubborn  metal  lies ; 

One  draws  and  blows  reciprocating  air  ; 

Others  to  quendi  the  hissing  mass  prepare. 

Dryden. 
You  have  already  quenched  sedition's  brand. 

And  zeal,  which  burnt  it,  only  warms  the  land. 

Id, 

Covered  with  skin  and  hair  l^ebps  it  warm,  being 
naturally  very  cold,  and  also  to  quench  and  dissipate 
the  force  of  any  stroke,  and  retund  the  edge  of  any 
weapon.  ^«tf« 

Beseech  God,  that  he  will  inflame  thy  heart  with 
this  heavenly  fire  nf  devotion ;  and,  when  thou  hast 
obtained  it,  beware  that  thou  neither  quench  it  by 
any  wilful  sin,  or  let  it  go  oat  again  for  mnt  of 
stirring  it  up  and  employing  it.  Duty  ef  Man. 

W^hen  your  work  is  forged,  do  not  quench  it  in 
water  to  cool  it,  but  throw  it  down  upon  the  floor  or 
hearth  to  cool  of  itself ;  for  the  quenching  of  it  in 
water  will  harden  it.  Moron's  Mechaitical  Exercises. 

Every  draught,  to  him  that  has  quenched  his  thirst,. 


Id. 


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is  but  a  further  qwnekmg  of  naturQ,  a  provisioa  for 
lUtium  and  diseases,  a  arowning  of  the  spirits. 

SmUh, 
His  heart  with  woands  unnambered  riven. 
His  back  to  earth,  his  face  to  heaven, 
t  alien  Hassan  lies — his  unclosed  eye 
Vet  lowering  on  his  enemy, 
As  if  the  hour  that  sealed  his  fate, 
Surviving  left  his  quendiUss  hate.  Bifnn, 

QUENTIN,  (St.),  a  fine  town  in  the  north- 
east of  France,  and  department  of  the  Aisne,  is 
situated  on  the  Somme,  and  near  the  canals  of 
CroEat  and  St.  Qnentin.  It  stands  on  an  emi- 
nence, in  a  strong  position,  but  its  fortifications 
have  been  long  neglected.  It  contains  a  public 
square,  in  which  is  situated  the  hotel  de  ville, 
and  the  ancient  cathedral,  both  in  the  Gothic 
style.  It  has  long  been  noted  for  its  linen, 
thread,  cambric,  lawn,  gauze,  and  latterly  for  its 
oottons.  In  these  a  surprising  number  of  hands 
are  employed,  and  a  great  export  trade  carried 
OD  with  Holland,  Germany,  and  other  foreign 
countries.  The  French  were  defeated  here  in  a 
general  engagement  by  the  Spaniards,  in  1557. 
Population  11,000.  Twenty-two  miles  south  of 
Cambray,  forty  south  by  east  of  Arras. 

QUERCUS,  the  oak  tree,  a  genus  of  the 
polyandria  order  and  monoecia  class  of  plants ; 
natural  order  fiftieth,  amentaces:  cal.  nearly 
quinquefid :  cor.  none ;  the  stamina  are  from 
five  to  ten  in  number  :  female  cal.  monophyl- 
lous,  very  entire,  and  scabrous  ;  cor.  none;  the 
styles  are  from  two  to  five,  and  there  is  an  ovate 
seed.  Dr.  Rees  describes  eighty-four  species  of 
quercus ;  the  following  are  some  of  tne  most 
mportant. 

Q.  s^Iops,  the  large  prickly-cupped  Spanish 
oak,  grows  seventy  or  eighty  feet  high,  or  more, 
with  a  ver^  large  trunk,  and  widely  spreading 
head,  haymg  a  whitish  bark,  large  oblong-oval 
deeply  serrated  smooth  leaves,  the  serratures 
bowed  backwards,  and  large  acorns  placed  in 
singularly  large  prickly  cups.  This  is  a  noble 
species,  nearly  equal  in  growth  to  our  common 
English  oak. 

Q.  cerris,  the  smaller  prickly-cupped  Spanish 
oak,  grows  thirty  or  forty  feet  high,  and  has 
oblong,  lyre-shaped,  pinnatifid,  transversely  jag- 
ged leaves,  downy  undemeaih,  and  small  acorns 
placed  in  prickly  cups. 

Q.  coccifera,  the  scarlet  or  kermes  oak,  grows 
but  fourteen  or  fifteen  feet  high,  branching  all 
the  way,  and  of  bushy  growth ;  with  large  oval, 
undivided,  indented,  spinous  leaves;  and  pro- 
ducing small  glandular  excrescences*  called 
kermes  or  scarlet  grain,  used  by  the  dyers.  See 
Coccus  and  Kermes. 

Q.  esculus,  of  Pliny,  or  the  cut-leaved  Italian 
oak,  grows  about  thirty  feet  high,  having  a 
purplish  bark,  oblong  deeply  sinuated  smooth 
leaves,  and  long  slender  close-sittihg  acorns  in 
Tciy  large  cups. 

Q.  gramuntia,  the  Montpelier  holly-leaved 
eveigreen  oak,  grows  forty  or  fifty  feet  high ;  and 
has  oblong-oval,  close-sitting,  siuuated  spinous 
leaves,  downy  underneath,  bearing  a  resemblance 
to  the  leaves  of  the  holly. 

Q.  ilex,  the  common  evergreen  oak,  grows 
forty  or  fifty  feet  high,  having  a  smooth  bark. 


oval  and  oblong,  undivided,  serrated,  petiolated 
leaves,  downy  and  whitish  underneath.  The 
varieties  are  broad-leaved,  narrow-leaved,  and 
sometimes  both  sorts  and  other  different  shaped 
leaves  on  the  same  tree;  also  sometimes  with 
sawed  and  prickly  leaves. 

Q.  Moluccensis,  Moluccan  oak,  commonly 
called  American  live  oak,  gfrows  about  forty  feet 
high,  having  oval,  spear-shaped,  smooth,  entire 
leaves,  and  small  oblong  eatable  acorns. 

Q.  phellos,  the  willow-leaved  American  oak, 
grows  forty  or  fifty  feet  high,  having  long  nar- 
row, smooth,  entire  leaves,  like  those  of  the 
willow.  There  is  a  variety  called  the  dwarf 
willow-leaved  oak. 

Q.  prinus,  the  chestnut-leaved  American  oak, 
grows  fifty  or  sixty  feet  high;  having  large 
oblong-oval  smooth  leaves,  pointed  both  ways, 
the  edges  sinuated  serrated,  with  the  sinubes 
uniformly  round. 

Q.  robur,  the  common  English  oak,  grows 
from  about  sixty  or  seventy  to  100  feet  high, 
with  a  prodigiously  large  trunk,  and  monstrous 
spreading  head ;  oblong  leaves,  broadest  towards 
the  top,  the  edges  acutely  sinuated,  having  the 
angles  obtuse.  There  is  a  variety,  having  the 
leaves  finely  striped  with  white.  This  species 
grows  in  great  abundance  all  over  England,  in 
woods,  forests,  and  hedge-rows. 

The  follovring  are  the  dimensions  of  some  of 
the  finest  oaks  at  Welbeck,  as  stated  in  a  pam- 
phlet by  Hayman  Rooke,  esq.,  F.  S.  A. :— The 
Green  Dale  Oak  is  said  to  be  700  years  old. 
Girth  of  the  trunk  above  the  arch  thirty-five 
feet ;  height  of  the  arch  ten  feet  three  inches ; 
width  six  feet  three  inches ;  and  height  of  the 
tree,  to  the  top  of  the  live  stump,  fifty-four  feet. 
The  Porters  are  two  very  large  trees,  and  are  so 
called  from  the  circumstance  of  there  formerly 
having  been  a  ^te  placed  between  them.  The 
first  measures  m  circumference  at  the  ground 
thirty-eight  feet;  at  a  yard  high  twenty-seven 
feet ;  at  two  yards  twenty  three  feet ;  total  height 
ninety-eight  feet  six  inches;  and  solidity  848 
feet !  The  other  in  girth  at  the  surface  thirty- 
four  feet ;  at  one  yard  high  twenty-three  feet ; 
at  two  yards  twenty  feet;  height  eighty-eight 
feet ;  and  solidity  744  feet.  The  Duke*s  Walk- 
ing Stick,  in  girth  at  the  ground  twenty-one . 
feet;  at  one  yard  high  fourteen  feet ;  stem  seventy 
feet  six  inches;  total  height  111  feet;  and 
solidity  440  feet.  The  Oak  and  Ash.  Girth  of 
both  at  the  ground  thirty-six  feet ;  of  the  oak  at 
one  yard  high  eighteen  feet ;  at  two  yards  fifteen 
feet  four  inches,  and  height  ninety-two  feet. 
The  ash  b  comparatively  very  small ;  it  leaves 
the  oak  at  a  small  distance  above  the  ground, 
and  unites  again  at  eight  or  nine  feet  high ;  then 
branches  out,  and  towers  with  it  for  some  thirty 
or  forty  (eet.  Dr .Walker  mentions  an  oak,  at  Loch 
Arkeg  in  Lochaber,  which  measured  twenty-four 
feet  SIX  inches,  at  the  height  of  four  feet  from 
the  ground. 

Tne  English  oak  is  as  remarkable  for  its  slow- 
ness of  growth  and  longevity  as  for  its  bulk ; 
the  trunk  has  been  often  observed  to  have  reach- 
ed the  size  of  not  more  than  twenty  inches,  and 
sometimes  not  more  than  fourteen,  in  the  space 
of,  fourscore  years.    In  regard  to  bulk  we  huvct 


Digitized  by 


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328 


Q  U  E  R  C  U  8. 


an  account  of  an  oak  belonging  to  lord  Powis, 
zrowing  in  Broomfield  wood,  near  Ludlow  in 
Shropshire,  in  1764,  the  trunk  of  which  mea- 
surea  sixty-eight  feet  in  girth,  twenty-three  in 
length,  and  which,  reckoning  ninety  feet  for  the 
hunger  branches,  contained  in  the  whole  1455 
feet  of  timber,  round  measure,  or  twenty-nine 
load  and  five  feet,  at  fifty  feet  to  a  load.  The 
Cowthorp  oak,  near  Wetherby  in  Yorkshire,  lays 
a  claim  to  being  the  .father  of  the  forest.  Dr. 
Hunter,  who,  in  his  edition  of  Evelyn,  has 
ffiven  an  engraving  of  it,  says  that  within  three 
feet  of  the  surface  it  measures  sixteen  yards,  and 
close  to  the  ground  twenty-six.  In  1776,  though 
in  a  ruinous  condition,  it  was  eighty-five  feet 
high,  and  its  principal  limb  extended  sixteen 
yards  from  the  bole.  The  foliage  was  very 
thin.  If  this  measurement  was  taken  as  the 
dimensions  of  the  real  stem,  the  size  of  this 
tree  would  be  enormous;  but  like  most  very 
large  trees,  its  stem  is  short,  spreading  wide  at 
the  base,  the  roots  rising  above  the  cround  like 
buttresses  to  the  trunk,  which  is  sitnilar,  not  to  a 
cylinder,  but  to  the  frustum  of  a  cone.  Mr. 
Marshman  says,  '  I  found  it  in  1768  at  four 
feet,  forty  feet  six  inches ;  at  five  feet,  thirty-six 
feet  six  inches ;  and  at  six  feet,  thirty-two  feet 
one  inch.*  In  the  principal  dimensions  it  is 
exceeded  by  the  Bentley  oak,  of  which  the  same 
writer  gives  the  following  account : — *  In  1759 
the  oak  in  Holt  forest,  near  Bentley,  viras  at 
seven  feet,  thirty-four  feet.  There  is  a  large 
excrescence  at  five  and  six  feet,  that  would 
render  the  measure  unfair.  In  1778  this  tree 
was  increased  half  an  inch  in  ten  years.  It  does 
not  appear  to  be  hollow,  but  bv  the  trifling  in^ 
crease  I  conclude  it  not  sound.  These  dimen- 
sions, however,  are  exceeded  by  those  of  the 
Boddington  oak,  near  the  turnpike  road  between 
Cheltenham  and  Tewkesbury,  in  the  vale  of 
Gloucester.  The  stem  is  remarkably  collected 
at  the  root,  the  sides  of  its  trunk  being  much 
more  yprightthan  those  of  large  trees  in  general;  ^ 
and  yet  its  circumference  at  the  ground  is  about 
twenty  paces ;  measuring  with  a  two  foot  rule  it 
is  more  than  eighteen  yards.  At  three  feet  high 
it  is  forty-two  feet,  ana  where  smallest,  i.  e.  from 
five  to  six  feet  high,  it  is  thirty-six  feet.  At  six 
feet  it  swells  out  larger,  and  forms  an  enormous 
head,  which  has  been  furnished  with  huge,  and 
probably  extensive,  arms.  But  time  and  the 
fury  of  the  wind  have  robbed  it  of  much  of  its 
grandeur,  and  the  greatest  extent  of  arm  in  1783 
was  eight  yards  from  the  stem. 

In  the  Gentlemaq*s  Magazine  for  May,  1794, 
we  have  an  account  of  an  oak  tree  growing  in 
Penshurst  Park  in  Kent,  together  with  an  en- 
graving. It  is  called  the  bear  or  bear  Qak,  from 
being  supposed  to  resemble  that  which  Camden 
thought  gave  name  to  the  county  of  Berkshire. 
The  dimensions  of  the  tree  are  these : — 

Ft.  In: 

Girth  close  to  the  ground  35  6 

Girth  one  foot  from  the  ground  27  6 

Girth  five  feet  from  the  ground  24  0 

Height  taken  by  shadow  73  0 

Girth  of  lowest,  but  not  largest,  limb  6  9 

With  respect  to  longrevity,  Linn^  gives-  an 
account  of  an  oak  260  years  old  ;  but  we  have 


had  traditions  of  tome  in  England  (how  f^  to 
be  depended  upon  we  know  not)  that  have  at- 
tained to  more  tlian  double  that  9ge. 

Q.  rubra,  the  red  Virginian  oak,  grows  about 
sixty  feet  high,-  having  a  dark  grayish  bark,  long 
obtaselv  sinuated  leaves,  with  the  sinuses  ter- 
minated by  bristly  points,  and  have  sometimes 
red  spotted  veins,  but  generally  dyeing  in 
autumn  to  a  reddish  color,  remaining  on  the 
trees  late  in  the  season. 

Q.  suber,  the  cork  tree,  grows  thirty  or  forty 
feet  high,  having  a  thick,  roufih,  fungous,  c)eft 
.bark,  and  oblong-oval,  undivided,  serrated  leaves, 
downy  underneath.  This  species  furnishes  that 
useful  material  cork;  it  being  the  bark  of  the 
tree,  which  becomes  of  ^  thick  fungous  nature, 
under  which,  at  the  same  time,  is  formed  a  new 
bark,  and,  the  old  one  being  detached  for  use,  the 
tree  still  lives,  and  the  succeeding  young  bark 
becomes  also  of  the  same  thick  spungy  nature 
in  six  or  seven  years,*  fit  for  barking,  having 
likewise  another  fresh  bark  forming  under  it, 
becoming  cork  like  the  others  in  the  like  period 
of  time ;  and  in  this  manner  these  trees  wonder- 
fully furnish  the  cork  for  our  use,  of  which  are 
iqade  the  corks  for  bottles,  bungs  forbarrds,  and 
numerous  other  useful  articles.  The  tree  grows 
in  great  plenty  in  Spain  and  P4>rtugal,  and  from 
these  countries  we  receive  the  cork.  The 
Spaniards  bum  it,  to  make  that  kind  of  light 
black  we  call  Spanish  black,  used  by  painteri. 
The  Spaniards  hne  stone  walls  with  cork,  which 
not  omy  renders  them  very  warm,  but#  corrects 
the  moisture  of  the  air.  All  the  above  species 
of  quercus  produce  flowers  annually  in  the 
spring,  about  April  or  May,  of  a  yellowish  color, 
but  make  no  ornamental  appearance,  and  are 
males  and  females  separated'  in  the  same  tree ; 
the  males  being  in  loose  amentums,  and  the 
females  sitting  close  to  the  buds  in  thick  leatheiy 
hemispherical  calyxes,  succeeded  by  the  fruit  or 
acorns,  which  are  oval  nuts  fixed  by  their  base 
into  rough  permanent  cups,  and  mostly  sit  quite 
close,  and  some  on  short  foot-stalks,  npening  in 
autumn,  which  in  the  common  Englisn  oak  are 
in  great  abundance,  and  often  in  tolerable  plenty 
on  some  of  the  other  sorts ;  those  of  all  the  kinds 
serve  for  propagating  their  respective  species ; 
they  are  also  excellent  food  for  swine  and  deer, 
the  common  acorns  in  particular.  All  the  above 
species  will  prosper  m  any  middling  soil  and 
open  situation,  though  in  a  loamy  soil  they  are 
generally  more  prosperous;  however  there  are 
but  few  soils  in  wliicn  oak  will  not  grow ;  they 
will  ^ven  thrive  tolerably  in  gravelly,  sandy, 
and  clayey  land,  as  may  be  observed  in  many 
parts  of  ^is  country  of  the  common  oak.  Be- 
sides the  grand  purposes  to  which  the  timber  is 
applied  in  navi^tion  and  architecture,  and  the 
bark  in  tanning  of  leather,  there  are  other  uses 
to  which  the  different  parts,of  this  tree  have  been 
referred.  The  Highlanders  use  the  bark  to  dye 
their  yam  of  a  brown  color,  or,  mixed  with  cop- 
peras, of  a  black  color.  The  acorns  are  a  good 
food  to  fatten  swine  and  turkeys.    See  Oak. 

Q.  marina,  the  sea  oak,  in  botany,  the  name  of 
one  of  the  broad-leaved  dichotomous  sea  fucuses. 
It  is*  not  agreed  among  the  late  botanists,  what 
was  the  sea  oak  of  Theophrastus ;  Clusius  and 
Ccsalpinus  suppose  it  to  have  beetl  a  species  of 
Digitized  by  N^UU^  It: 


Qirs 


930 


QUB 


tlie  thrabby  coralline;  bnt  Theopbnatus  says. 
the  sea  oak  had  a  long,  thick,  and  fleshy  leaf; 
whence  we  may  conclude  it  to  have  been  of  the 
fucus  class. 

QUE'RELE,  n.  s.  Fr.  giureUe ;  Lat.  querela, 
A  complaint  to  a  oonrt    See  Quarrel. 

A  dicvmdttction  obtains  not  in  causes  of  appeal, 
but  in  causes  of  first  instance  and  simple  quertU  only. 

QUERETARO,  a  city  in  the  intendancy  of 
Mexico,  the  laigest  after  Mexico  in  this  part  of 
the  republic.  From  north  to  south  it  is  sheltered 
by  a  mountain ;  and  thence  begins  its  celebrated 
glen,  irrigated  by  a  large  river,  the  waters  being 
introduce  by  means  of  hidden  aqueducts, 
which  are  reduced  to  twelve  currents  running 
from  the  mother  stream.  Thus  the  water  is  let 
in  upon  2000  houses,  to  which  are  attached 
gardens,  abounding  in  a  thousand  kinds  of  fruits 
and  flowers,  European  and  American.  It  has 
three  grand  squares,  from  which  the  streets 
extend  to  the  four  cardinal  points.  Here  is  also  a 
celebrated  aqmeduct  for  carrying  the  water  to  the 
city,  having  forty  arches  of  thirty-five  yards  high. 
The  church  is  magnificent,  and  there  are  several 
convents.  In  this  city  are  fiibricated  fine  cloths, 
baizes,  &c.,  and  several  tanneries.  Humboldt 
also  visited  a  great  manufactory  of  cigars,  in 
which  3000  people,  including  1  ^HX)  women  were 
employed,  liere  are  consumed  130  reams,  and 
2770  pounds  of  tobacco  leaf.  Queretaro  is  sit- 
uated 6374  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  Hum- 
boldt estimates  the  population  at  36,000.  Nine- 
ty-five miles  north-west  of  Mexico* 

QUERFURT,  atown  of  Prussian  Saxony,  in 
the  government  of  Merseburg,  on  the  river 
Quern.  It  was  formerly  the  chief  place  of  a 
principality.  Population  2500.  Fifteen  miles 
west  of  Mersebuig,  and  twenty-nine  west  of 
Leipsic 

QUERIA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  trigynia 
order,  and  triandria  class  of  plants;  natural' 
order  twenty-second,  caryophillei :  cal.  penta- 
phyllous:  cor.  none:  caps,  unilocular  and 
trivalved,  vrith  one' seed.  There  are  two  species, 
viz.: — 1.  Q.  Canadensis, and  2.  Q.  Hispanica. 

QUERIMBA,  the  name  of  islands,  extending 
aloDg  the  eastern  coast  of  Africa,  to  die  south  of 
Cape  Delgado.  When  discovered  by  the  Por- 
tuguese, tbey  were  inhabited  by  Arabs,  who  were 
nearly  exterminated  by  their  European  visitors. 
The  Querimbas  have  since  been  re-peopled  by 
Portuguese  and  their  slaves  from  Mosambique. 
The  principal  island  is  four  or  five  miles  long, 
containing  about  thirty  iarm  houses,  and  a  small 
fort.  It  was  lately  plundered- by  the  pirates  of 
Madagascar. 

QUERIMCyNIOUS,  adj.  >     Lat.  querimomu. 

Querimo'niously,  adv,  S  Querulous ;  com- 
plaining :  the  adverb  corresponding. 

To  theo,  dear  Thorn,  myself  addressing. 
Most  qiterm^moudy  ooofassing.  Utnham. 

QUE'RY,  n.  s.  &  o.  a.  3     Lat.  qtutre.  A  ques- 
Que'rist,  n.  s.  5  tion ;  matter  of  enqui- 

ry :  an  enquirer ;  proposer  of  questions. 

I  shall  propose  some  considerations  to  my  gentle 
T^^w'-  Spectator, 


I  shaH  coneluda,  with  proposing  only  some  pmrn, 
in  Older  to  a  farther  search  to  be  made  by  others. 

This  shews  the  folly  of  this  futfiy,  that  might  always 
be  demanded,  that  would  impiously  and  ahsuidly  at- 
tempt to  tie  the  arm  of  omnipotence  from  doing  any 
thing  at  all,  because  it  can  never  do  its  utmost. 

Beniiey, 
Three  Cambridge  sophs. 
Each  prompt  to  qwry,  answer,  and  debate.     Pope. 
'   The  ju^ftng  sea  god  when  by  chance  trepanned 
By  some  instructed  querUt  sleeping  .on  the  stiand. 
Impatient  of  all  answers,  strait  became 
A  stealing  brook.  SwifCi  MUceUaniu. 

QUEKN,  n.  i.  Sax.  cpeojm;  Dan.  guerno; 
Swed.  quarne.    A  hand-mill. 

Skim  milk,'  and  sometimes  labour  in  the  quern, 
And  bootless  make  the  breathless  huiwife  chum. 

Shakipeare, 
Some  apple  coloured  com 
Ground  in  fair  querns,  and  some  did  spindles  turn. 

CnapfMiti* 

QUERTO,  n.  s.  Span,  cuerpo.  A  dress 
close  to  the  body;  a  waistcoat. 

I  would  fain  see  him  walk  in  querpo,  like  a  cased 
rabbit,  without  his  holy  fur  upon  his  back.  Dryden^ 

QUER'ULOUS,  ffd;.  I  Lat.  ^iimi/ttf.  Moum- 

Quee'ulously, o^.  Sing;  whining;  com- 
plaining :  the  adverb  corresponding. 

Although  they  were  a  people  by  natore  hard- 
hearted, qturyUme,  wrathful,  and  impatient  of  rest 
and  quietness,  yet  was  there  nothing  of  force  to  work 
the  subversion  of  their  state,  till  the  tune  before- 
mentioned  was  expired.  Hooker. 

The  pressures  or  war  have  cowed  their  spirits,  as 
may  be  gathered  from  the  very  accent  of  their  words, 
which  they  prolate  in  a  whining  kind  of  querulota 
tone,  as  if  still  complaining  and  crest-fallen. 

HoweVs  Vocai  Foreei. 

Though  you  give  no  countenance  to  the  complaints 
of  the  quertdom,  yet  curb  the  insolenee  of  the  inju- 
rious. Loehe. 
His  wounded  ears  complaints  eternal  fill, 

As  unoiied  hinges,  qmeruUnul§f  shrill.         Young. 
A'  querulous  old  woman's  voice 
His  humorous  talent  next  employs ; 
He  scolds  and  gives  the  lie.  Cowper» 

QUESNAY  (Francis),  a  French  physician  and 
writer  on  political  economy,  was  bom  in  1694, 
near  Montfort  TAmaury,  in  the  isle  of  France. 
His  father  was  a  farmer,  and  he  acquired  the  ru- 
diments of  his  profession  as  a  surgeon  in  the 
country,  when,  going  to  the  metropolis,  he  be- 
came secretary  to  a  society  for  the  improvement 
of  surgery.  At  length  he  obtained  the  situation 
of  physician  to  madame  de  Pompadour,  and 
through  her  interest  became  physician  to  the 
king.  His  simplicity  of  manners  and  dis- 
interestedness are  said  to  have  formed  a 
strong  contrast  with  the  characters  of  those 
around  him ;  towards  the  latter  part  of  life  he 
became  the  leader  of  the  political  economists  of 
France.  Quesnay,  however,  by  no  means  anti- 
cipated the  result  of  his  doctrines;  and  was 
much  attached  to  the  royal  family,  and  especially 
to  the  king,  who  called  him  his  thinker  *  pen- 
seur.'  He  was  author  of  a  Philosophical  Essay  on 
the  Animal  Economy,  3  vols.  12mo. ;  and  vari- 
ous surgical  and  medical  works,  besides  articles 
in  the  Encyclopedic,  and  tracts  on  Physiocrasy, 
or  the  Government  most  Advantageous  to  the 
Human  Uace,  1768,  8vo.,  &c. 


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QU£SN£  (Abraham  maiqub  Du),  admiral 
of  the  naval  forces  of  France,  was  bom  in  Nor- 
mandy in'  1610.  He  contributed  to  the  defeat 
of  tiie  naval  power  of  Spain  before  Gattari;  was 
dangerously  wounded  before  Barcelona  in  1642, 
and  on  other  occasions :  he  went  into  the  ser- 
vice of  the  Swedes,  and  became  vice-admiral ; 
gave  tlie  Danes  an  entire  defeat,  killed  their  ad-  * 
miral,  and  took  his  ship.  He  was  recalled  into 
France  in  1647,  and  commanded  the  squadron 
sent  to  Naples.  The  naval  affairs  of  France 
being  much  fallen,  he  fitted  out  divers  ships  for 
the  relief  of  the  royal  army  that  blocked  up 
Bourdeaux ;  which  was  the  principal  cause  of 
the  surrender  of  the  town.  He  was  very  fortu- 
nate in  the  last  wars  of  Sicily,  where  he  beat  the 
Dutch  thrice,  and  De  Ruyter  was  killed.  He 
also  obliged  the  Algerines  to  sue  for  peace  from 
France  in  a  very  humble  manner.  Asia,  Africa, 
and  Europe,  felt  the  effects  of  his  valor.  He 
was  a  Protestant ;  nevertheless  the  king  bestowed 
on  him  the  land  of  Bouchet.     He  died  in  1668. 

QUESNEL  (Pasquier),  an  able  French  di- 
vine, of  the  congregation  of  the  Oratory,  distin- 
guished on  account  of  the  church  dissensions  to 
which  his  writings  gave  rise.  He  was  bom  at 
Paris  in  1634,  and  early  devoted  himself  to 
literaiy  studies.  He  gave  offence  to  the  court 
of  Rome  by  an  edition  of  the  works  of  Leo  the 
Great  in  1675;  but  that  which  excited  the 
greatest  animosity  was  his  New  Testament,  with 
moral  reflections,  in  8  vols.  8vo. ;  from  which 
101  propositions  being  extracted,  they  were  con- 
demned by  the  celebrated  bull,  Unigenitus,  as 
favoring  the  doctrines  of  the  Jansenists.  Father 
Quesnel  retired  to  Bmssels,  and  aflerwards  to 
Amsterdam,  where  he  died  in  1719.  His  New 
Testament  was  translated  into  English  by  Mr. 
Russell,  and  published  in  1729,4  vols.  8vo.  Dr. 
Adam  Clarke  strongly  recommends  it. 

QUESNOY,  a  fortified  town  of  French  Flan- 
ders, having  a  population  of  4000,  besides  a 
small  garrison,  and  some  trade  in  wood,  silk, 
cottons,  starch,  and  tobacco.  It  was  taken  by 
the  Austrians  in  1793,  but  retaken  by  the  French 
in  1794.  Twenty  miles  east  by  north  of  Cam- 
bray.  It  is  also  the  name  of  another,  but  less 
remarkable  town  of  French  Flanders,  on  the 
Deule.  Population  3700.  Six  miles  north- 
west of  Lisle. 

QUEST,  n.«.  &  r.  n.  N      Fr.  queste.   Search ; 

Questran!',  #  enquiry ;  examination ; 

Questman,  \act  of  seeking:  those 

Quest'monger,  i  who  seek  taken  collec- 

Quest'rist.  J  lively :  to  go  in  search : 

a  questant  and  questrist  mean  a  seeker  or  searcher : 
a  questman  or  queslmonger,  a  starter  of  law-suits 
or  prosecutions. 

None  but  such  as  this  bold  ape  unblest, 
Can  never  thrive  in  that  unlucky  qmtt, 

Spenser. 
If  lustv  love  should  go  in  quest  oF  beauty, 
Where  should  he  find  it  fairer  than  in  Blanch  1 

ahakipeare. 
What's  my  offence? 
Where  is  the  evidence  that  doth  accuse  me  1 
What  lawful  quest  have  given  their  verdict  up 
Unto  the  frovming  judge  1  Id,  Richard  ///. 

O  place  and  greatness!  millions  of  false  eyes 
Are  stuck  upon  thee ;  volumes  of  report 


Run  with  these  false  and  most  coatzarious  f  wMto 
Upon  thy  doings.  id.  Measure  for  Measure. 

See,  that  you  come 
Not  to  woo  honour,  but  to  wed  it ;  when 
The  bravest  questant  shrinks,  find  what  you  seek. 
That  fame  may  cry  you  loud.  S9uikspeare. 

Six  and  thirty  of  his  knights, 
Hot  questrists^ta  him,  met  him  at  the  gate. 
Are  gone  with  him  tow'rd  Dover.  Id. 

Their  principal  working  was  upon  penal  laws, 
wherein  they  spared  none,  great  nor  small,  bat 
raked  over  all  new  and  old  statutes,  having  ever  a 
rabble  of  promoters,  questtnengert,  and  leading  jurors 
at  their  command.  Bacon. 

Gad  not  abroad  at  every  quest  and  call 
Of  an  untrained  hope  or  passion.         Herbert. 
An  aged  man  in  rural  weeds. 
Fallowing,  as  seemed,  the  quest  of  some  stray  ewe. 

MUum. 
There*s  not  an  African, 
That  traverses  our  vast  Kumidian  deserts 
In  quest  of  prey,  and  lives  upon  his  how, 
Bui  better  practices  these  boasted  virtues. 

'Addison. 
Twould  be  not  strange,  should  we  find  Paradise 
at  this  day,  where  Adam  left  it :  and  I  the  rather 
note  this,  because  I  see  there  are  some  so  earnest  in 
quest  of  it.  WoodsDord, 

I'he  insolence  of  his  mistress  quickly  disgusted 
him,  and  he  went  up  to  London  in  quest  of  moie 
suiuble  employment.  Johnson. 

QU  ES'TION,  n. ».,  v.  n.  &  v.  a.-v    French  and 
Questionable,  adj.  I  Span,    ques- 

Uues'tionary,  \  tian ;    ItaL 

Qu  ts  TioNER,  n.s.  i    queUione; 

Questionless,  adj,  J  LslU  qtuutio. 

Enquiry;  interrogatory;  examination;  dispute; 
matter  of  dispute  or  debate ;  controversy  ;  judi- 
cial trial;  examination  by  torture;  act  of  seek- 
ing :  to  question  is  to  enquire ;  debate  by  inter- 
rogatory ;  and,  as  a  verb  active,  examine  one  by 
Questions;  doubt:  questionable  is,  doubtful; 
isputable ;  suspicious :  questionary,  enquiring : 
Questioner,  he  who  enquires  :  questionless, 
oubtless  :  clear ;  without  or  beyond  enquiry. 

There  arose  a  question  between  some  of  John's^ 
disciples  and  the  Jews  about  purifying.      St,  John. 
suddenly  out  of  this  delightlul  dream 
The  man  awoke,  and  would  have  questiomed  more ; 
But  be  would  not  endure  the  woful  theme. 

Spenser, 
If  we  being  defendants  do  answer,  that  the  cere- 
monies in  question  are  godly,  comely,  decent,  pro- 
fitable for  the  church,  their  reply  is  childish  and  un- 
orderly  to  say,  that  we  demand  the  thing  in  quettion. 

hooker. 
Your  accustomed  clemency  will  take    ia   good 
worth  the  ofier  of  these  my  simple  labors,  bestowed 
for  the  necessary  justification  of  laws  heretofore  made 
questiotuible,  because  not  perfectly  understood. 

Id.  Dedication. 
This  is  not  my  writing. 
Though  I  confess  much  like  the  character : 
But  out  of  quest'u)H  'tis  Maria's  hand. 

Shabspeare. 
As  it  more  concerns  the  Turk  than  Rhodes, 
So  may  he  with  more  facile  question  bear  it ; 
For  that  it  stands  not  in  such  warlike  brace. 
But  altogether  lacks  the  abilities 
That  Rhodes  is  dressed  in.  .  Id. 

'  I  pray  you  think  you  question  with  a  Jew ; 
You  may  as  well  use  question  with  the  wolf. 
Why  he  hath  made  the  ewe  bleat  for  the  lamb.  Id. 

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But  hark  you,  Kate, 
I  must  not  have  you  henceforth  quettwn  me 
Whither  I  go.  id.  Hmvqf  IK 

Be  thy  adyent  wicked  or  charitablOp 
Thou  comest  in  such  a  questhnabU  shape* 
That  I  wiU  speak  to  thee.  Id.  HamUt. 

QatttumUu  hence  it  comes  that  many  were  mis- 
taken. BaUigh. 

He  that  questionBth  much  shall  learn  much,  and 
content  much ;  but  especially  if  he  apply  his  qut»r 
tioia  to  the  skill  of  the  persons  whom  he  asketh. 

Bacons  Etsayt. 
Unreasonable  snbtiUty  will  still  seem  to  be  rea- 
toning ;  and  at  least  will  quution,  when  it  cannot 
answer.  Holyday, 

It  is  qu£siionMe,  whether  the  use  of  steel  springs 
was  known  in  those  ancient  times.  Wukimt. 

This  construction  is  not  so  indubitably  to  be  re- 
ceived as  not  at  all  to  be  qvMtMmtd,  Brcwne, 


questors  was  afterwards  greatly  increased.  They 
had  the  care  of  the  decrees  of  the  senate ;  and 
hence  came  the  two  officers  of  questor  principis, 
or  augusti,  sometimes  called  candidatus  prin- 
cipiSy  whose  office  resembled  in  most  respects 
that  of  our  secretaries  of  state ;  and  the  questor 
palatii. 

QUE'STUMIY,  a^.  Lat.  qwsttm.  Studi- 
ous of  profit 

Although  lapidaries  and  fuMtwn^  enquirers  affirm 
it,  yet  the  writers  of  minerals  conceive  the  stone  of 
this  name  to  be  a  mineral  concretion,  not  to  be  found 
in  animals.  Bntume, 

QUEVEDO  BE  ViLLEGAS  (Francis),  a  cele- 
brated Spanish  poet,  bora  at  Madrid  in  1570. 
He  was  oescended  ftom  a  noble  family,  and  was 
made  a  knight  of  St.  James ;   but  was  thrown 


That  persons  drowned  float  the  ninth  day,  when  into  prison  by  order  of  count  Olivarei,  whose 

their  gall  breaketh,  is  a  ifMttvmahU  determination,  administration  he  satirized  in  his  verses,  and  was 

both  in  the  time  and  cause.       Id,  Vtdear  Erraun,  not  set  at  liberty  till  after  that  minister's  dis- 

Tis  time*  for  him  to  shew  himself,  when  his  very  ^race.    Quevedo  wrote  some  heroic,  lyric,  and 

being  is  called  in  fueitum,  and  to  come  and  judge  Sicetious  poems :  he  also  composed  several  trea- 

the  world,  when  men  begin  to  doubt  whether  he  tj^gg  ^  religious  subjects,  and  translated  some 

««feit.                                                 TtUoUan.  authors  into  Spanish. "  He  died  in  1645.    His 

If  It  would  purchase  six  shillings  and  three-pence  celebrated  works  are.  1.  The  Spanish  Par- 

weighty  money,  he  had  proved  the  matter  m^rjan.  ^^      ^   r^^  Adventurer  Buseor  3.   Vi- 

Quathnles*  duty  moves  not  so  much  upon  com-  ^om  of  Hell  Reformed,  &c.     His  youth  was 

iDtnd  as  promise;  now  that  which  proposes  the  spent  in  the  service  of  his  county  m   Italy, 

greatest  and  most  suitable  rewards  to  obedience,  and  where  he  distinguished  himself  by  his  sagacity 

the  greatest  punishments  to  disobedience,  doubtless  is  and  prudence. 


the  most  likely  to  enforce  the  one  and  prevent  the 
other.  South, 

Such  a  piesumption  is  only  sufficient  to  nut  the 
person  to  the  rad^  or  qmettion,  according  to  tne  dr . 
law,  and  not  bring  them  to  condemnation. 

Agile's  Parergom. 
O  impotent  estate  of  human  nfe  ! 
Where  fleeting  joy  does  lasting  doubt  inspire. 
And  most  we  quettkm  what  we  most  desire. 

Pfwr. 
Nor  axe  these  assertions  that  dropoed  from  theh 
pens  by  chance,  but  delivered  by  them  in  places 
where  they  profess  to  state  the  points  in  qusstum. 
AtUrbury*$  Preface, 
How  easy  is  it  for  a  man  to  fill  a  book  with  quo- 
tations, as  you  have  done,  that  can  be  content  with 
any  thing,  however  foreign  to  the  quettum ! 

Wftttrland, 
Our  own  earth  would  be  barren  and  desolate, 
without  the  benign  influence  of  the  solar  rays,  which 
without  fMoCion  is  true  of  all  the  other  planets. 

Bmtiey. 
I  grow  laconick  even  beyond   laconicism;    for 
Miaetimes  I  return  only  yes  or  no  to  <pu$tumary 
epistles  of  half  a  yard  long.  Pope  to  Swift. 

In  point  or  honour  to  be  tried. 
Suppose  the  questum  not  your  own.         Swift, 
It  is  quntvmaiU,  whether  Galen  ever  saw  the 
dissection  of  a  human  body.  Baker, 

QUESTOR,  or  Quastor,  in  Roman  antiquity, 
an  officer  who  had  the  management  of  the  public 
treasure.  The  questorship  was  the  first  office 
any  person  could  bear  in  the  commonwealth,  and 
gave  a  right  to  sit  in  the  senate.  At  first  there 
were  only  two ;  but  afterwards  two  others  were 
created,  to  take  cajre  of  the  payment  of  the  armies 
abroad,  of  the  sale  of  the  plunder,  booty,  &c.,  for 


QUIB'BLE,  n.«.  &«.n.>      Lat.    quidUbct, 
Quib'bler.  S  a  cavil ;  pun :  to 

pun ;  to  play  on  the  sound  of  words. 

The  first  service  was  neat's  tonnes  sliced,  which 
the  philosophen  took  occasion  to  discourse  and  quUh- 
ble  upon  in  a  grave  formal  way.  UEurange, 

'  Tms  may  be  of  great  use  to  immortalize  puns  and 
qnibbks,  and  to  let  posterity  see  their  forefathers  were 
blockheads.  Addiun. 

Having  once  fhlly  answered  your  quibble,  you  will 
not,  I  hope,  expect  that  I  should  do  it'agam  and 
again.  Waterland. 

Quirks  or  qwMet  have  no  place  in  the  search  after 
irurh.  Watu, 

QUIBERON,  a  town  of  France,  on  a  long 
and  narrow  peninsula  of  the  same  name,  which, 
with  some  islands,  forms  a  noble  bay,  having  two 
harbours  defended  by  batteries.  A  British  force 
landed  here  in  1 746,  but  was  repulsed.  In  June 
and  July,  1T95,  a  number  of  the  French  emi- 
grants in  England  prevailed  on  the  British  go- 
vernment to  land  them  in  this  bay;  but  they 
were  soon  overpowered  by  the  republican  troops, 
suffered  great  loss  in  their  flight,  and  those  of 
their  associates  who  were  made  prisoners  under- 
went the  sentence  of  the  law  against  emigrants 
of  being  shot.  Twelve  miles  north  of  Belle- 
Isle,  twenty-three  south-west  of  Vannes,  and 
twenty-four  S.  S.  E.  of  UOrient. 

QUICK,  fl($*.&n.s.7      Sax.    epic;     Swed. 

Quicken,  r.  a.  5  quick ;  Dan.  and  Belg. 

QuiCKEMER,  n.  J.  > guik; Goth.fattA.  Alive; 
living;  a  living  aaimal  or  plant;  living  or  pe- 
culiarly sensible  parte:  to  quicken  is  to  make 


which  purpose  they  ReneWly  accompanied  the   a«ve ;  become  Imng :  ^^^^^  "'^ 
coiwuU  in  Wr  ffli^itions ;  on  which  account    al«'e  i  ^  "dj"*""*  «  »'"«»t  *»"'*^ 


they  were  called  peregrini,  as  the  first  and  prin- 
cipal two  were  called  urbani.    The  number  of 


If  there  be  qmck  raw  flesh  in  the  risings,  it  is  an 
old  leprosy.  Lmltcwi  xiii.  10. 


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All  they  that  bo  down  into  th«  dust  ihall  kneel 
oefore  him;  ana  no  nan  hath  qmekened  his  own 
floul.  P$alm  xxii.  90. 

Who  shall  jndgo  the  fukk  and  the  dead  at  his  ap- 
pearing. 8t,  pQtU, 

They  rah  out  of  it  a  red  dost,  that  converieth  after 
a  while  into  worma«  which  they  kill  with  wine  when 
they  begin  to  qwekm.  8(ntdjf9*s  Jammtg, 

Peeping  close  into  the  thick, 
Might  see  the  moving  of  some  quick, 

Whose  shape  appeared  not ; 
But  were  it  fairy,  fiend,  or  snake, 
My  courage  earned  it  to  wake, 

And  manful  thereat  shot.  Spemet. 

These  hairs  which  thou  dost  ravish  from  my  chin 
Will  quidcen  and  accuse  thee  ;  I'm  your  host; 
With  robbers  bauds,  mv  hospitable  favour 
You  should  not  ruffle  thus.  ShaJUpean,  King  Ltar. 
This  my  mean  task  would  be 
As  heavy  to  me,  as  'tis  odious  ;  but 
The  mistress  which  I  serve  quiekent  what's  dead, 
And  makes  my  labours  pleasures.     Id.  Tempest, 
If  Stanley  held  that  a  son  of  king  Edward  had 
still  the  better  right,  it  was  to  teach  all  England  to 
say  as  much ;  anid  thereibie  that  speech  touchelh  the 

As  the  sun  makes ;  here  noon,  there  day,  there 
night, 
MelU  wax,  dries  clay,  makes  'floweia,  some  quick, 
some  dead  Davaei. 

Thence  shall  come, 
When  this  world's  dissolution  shall  be  ripe. 
With  glory  and  power  to  Judge  both  quick  and  dead. 

MiUon. 
He  throws 
His  influence  round,  and  kindles  as  ne  goes ; 
Hence  flocks  and  herds,  and  men  and  beasts  and 

fowls 
With  breath  are  quickened^  and  attract  their  souls. 

Vryden, 
Seized  with  sudden  smart. 
Stung  to  the  quick,  he  felt  it  at  his  heart.        Id. 
The  neart  .is  the  first  part  that  quickens^  and  the 
last  that  dies.  Ray  on  the  Creatien. 

For  inclosing  of  land,  the  most  usual  way  is  with 
a  ditch  and  bank  set  with  quick.  Mortimer. 

The  thought  of  this  disgraceful  composition  so 
conches  roe  to  the  quick  that  I  cannot  sleep. 

Arbuthnot*s  John  Bull. 
Scarifying  gangrenes,  by  several  incisions  down  to 
the  quick,  is  almost  universal,  and  with  reason,  since 
it  not  only  discharges  a  pernicious  ichor,  but  makes 
way  for  topical  applications. 


^        From      quick, 

I  alive.  Vivacious ; 
active ;  nimble ; 
i-  swift ;  sprightly ; 
ready:  as  an  ad- 
verb, nimbly;  spee- 
dily :  to  quicken  is 


Quick,  odj,  &  adv, 
Quick'en,  v.  a. 
.  Quick'ener,  n.  f. 
Quick'ly,  adv. 
Quick'ness,  n.  s. 
Quicksight'ed,  adj. 

QUICKSIGHT^EDKESS,  tl.S._ 

to  hasten ;  accelerate ;  sharpen ;  excite :  quickener, 
the  thing  or  person  that  quickens  or  actuates : 
quickly  and  quickness  correspond  with  quick: 
and  quicksighted  means  sharp  of  sight ;  of  acute 
perception. 

Though  my  senses  were  astonished,  my  mind 
forced  them  to  quicken  themselves;  because  I  had 
learnt  of  him  how  little  favour  he  is  wont  to  shew  in 
any  matter  of  advantage.  Sidney. 

rreyers  whereunto  devout  minds  have  added  a 
piercing  kind  of  brevity,  thereby  the  better  to  express 
that  qniek  and  speedy  expedition,  wherewith  ardent 
affections,  the  wings  of  prayer,  are  delighted  to  pre- 
sent our  suits  in  heaven.  Hoof^. 


Ready  in  gybes,  quick  answered,  saucy,  and 
As  quarrellous  «s  the  weazle. 

SkakMpeare.  Cymbdine. 
Thou  comest  to  use  thy  tongue :  thy  wlUnyguieUy, 


Honour,  that  is  gained  and  broken  upon  another, 
hath  the  quickest  reflection,  like  diamonds  cot  with 
fascets ;  and  therefore  let  a  man  contend  to  excel 
any  competitors  of  his  in  honour,  in  outihooring 
them,  if  he  can,  in  their  own  bow.  Beten. 

You  may  sooner  by  imagination  quicken  or  slack  a 
motion,  than  raise  or  cease  it ;  as  it  is  easier  to  make 
a  dog  go  slower,  than  to  make  him  stand  stilL 

Baeon*s  Natural  History. 

Othen  were  appointed  to  consider  of  penal  laws 
and  proclamations  in  force,  and  to  vukken  the  execu- 
tion of  the  most  principal.  Hayward. 
This  shall  your  understanding  clear. 
Those  things  from  me  that  you  shall  hear. 
Conceiving  much  the  quicker. 

Drayteu't  Nyei^^id. 

The  best  choice  is  of  an  old  physician  and  a  young 
lawyer ;  because,  where  errors  are  fatal,  alnU^  of 
judgment  and  moderation  are  required  ;  but,  where 
advantages  may  be  wrought  upon,  diligence  and 
quickness  of  wit.  Wotten. 

If  passion  work  like  a  hot-reined  horse,  - 

Twin  futdUy  tire  itself.  Masemger. 

What  any  invention  hath  in  the  strength  of  its  * 
motion  is  abated  in  the  slowness  of  it ;  and,  what  it 
hath  in. the  extraordinary  quickness  of  iu  motion, 
must  be  allowed  for  in  the  great  strength  that  is  re- 
quired unto  it.  WHkins. 

A  man  of  great  sagacity  in  business,  and  he  pre- 
served so  great  a  vigour  of  mind,  even  to  his  death, 
when  near  eighty,  that  some,  who  had  known  him  in 
his  younger  years,  did  believe  htm  to  have  mnch 
quicker  parts  in  his  age  than  before.  Ciarenden. 
On  he  to  her  his  charge  of  quick  return 

Repeated.  MUton*s  Paradise  host. 

Love  and  enmity,  aversation  and  fear,  are  not  able 
whetters  zjoAquidtieners  of  the  spirit  of  life  in  all  ani- 
mals. Mere. 

fhy  generous  fruits,  though  gathered  ere  their 
prime. 
Still  shewed  a  quickneu ;  and  maturing  time 
But  mellows  what  we  write  to  the  dull  sweets  of 
rhime.  Dryden. 

They  gave  those  complex  ideas,  that  the  things 
they  were  continually  to  give  and  receive  information 
about,  might  be  the  easier  and  quicker  understood. 

locfe. 

Though  any  commodity  should  shift  hands  never 
so  fast,  yet,  if  they  did  not  cease  to  be  any  longer 
traffick,  this  would  not  at  all  make  or  quicken  their 
vent.  id. 

No  body  will  deem  the  quicksighted  amongst  them 
to  have  very  enlarged  views  in  eUiicks.  Id. 

The  ignorance  that  is  in  us  no  more  hinders  the 
knowledge  that  is  in  others,  than  the  blindness  of  a 
mole  is  an  argument  against  the  qmeksightedness  of 
an  eagle.  id. 

Gin^  rendera  it  brisk,  and  corrects  iu  wildness, 
and  jmoe  of  corinths,  whereof  a  few  drops  tin§^  and 
add  a  pleasant  quidmess,  Mortimer. 

The  animal,  which  is  first  produced  of  an  egg,  is 
a  blind  and  dull  worm :  but  that  which  hath  its 
resurrection  thence,  is  a  quick-eyed,  volatile,  and 
sprightly  Sy.  Orew*s  Cosnuioyia. 

They  endeavour  by  brandy  to  quicken  their  taste 
already  extinguished.  Tatler. 

A  man  must  have  passed  his  noviciate  in  sinning 
before  be  comes  to  this,  be  he  never  so  quidc  a  pro- 
ficient. Seutk. 

Joy,  like  a  ray  of  the  sun,  reflects  with  a  greater 


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aidonr  and  fuacAfwit,  when  it  rebounds  upon  a  man 
from  the  breast  of  his  friend.  Id, 

An  aigument  of  great  force  to  fuiehen  them  in  the 
improvement  of  those  advantages  to  which  the  mercy 
of  God  had  called  them  by  the  gospel.         Rogen, 

No  article  of  religion  hath  credibility  enough  for 
them  ;  and  yet  these  same  cautious  ana  qwckti^hud 
gentlemen  can  swallow  down  this  sottish  opinion 
aboot  percipient  atoms.  Bentley, 

Sees  by  de|;ree8  a  purer  blush  arise, 
And  keener  liehtnings  ^uieften  in  her  eyes.  Pope. 
The  desire  of  fame  hath  been  no  inconsiderable 
motive  to  qtdrken  you  in  the  pursuit  of  those  actions 
which  will  best  deserve  it.  Swift. 

QUICKTIME,  n.».  Lat.  calx  wtw,  quick 
axbd  lime.     Lime  unquenched. 

After  burning  the  stone,  when  lime  is  in  its  perfect 
and  unaltered  state,  it  is  called  quicklime.        HiU, 
Quicklime.    See  Lime  and  Chemistry. 
QUICK'SAND,n.<.  Quick  and  sand.  Mov- 
ing  sand ;  unsolid  ground. 

Undergirding  the  ship,  and  fearing  lest  they  should 
fall  into  the  ftodhmndt,  they  strake  sail,  and  so  were 
driven.  AcU  xxvii. 

What  is  Edward,  but  a  ruthless  sea? 
What  Clarence,  but  a  (fuichtand  of  deceit  ? 

SkaJupean, 
But  when  the  vessel  is  on  ({^ksands  cast. 
The  flowing  tide  does  more  the  sinking  haste. 

Drjfden. 
I  have  marked  out  several  of  the  shoals  and  ^wdk- 
tonii  of  life,  in  order  to  keep  the  unwary  from  run- 
ning upon  them.  Addison, 
When  ministry  rests  upon  public  opinion,  it  is  not, 
indeed,  built  upon  a  rock  of  adamant ;  it  has  how- 
ever some  stability.    But,  when  it  stands  upon  pri- 
vate humour,   its  structure  is  of  stubble,  and  its 
foundation  is  on  quiektand.  Burke, 
QUICK'SET,r.a.    Quick  and  set.   To  plant 
with  living  plants. 

In  making  or  mending,  as  needeth  thv  ditch, 
Get  set  to  qtdektet  it,  learn  cunningly  which. 

Ttaser, 
The  batfol  pastures  fenced,  and  most  with  quiektet 
mound.  Drayton, 

A  man  may  ditch  and  quick$tt  three  poles  a  day. 
where  the  ditch  is  three  foot  wide  and  two  foot  deep. 

Mortimer, 
Plant  qmekaeit  and  transplant  fruit-trees  towards 
the  decrease.  Sv^yn's  Kaiendar, 

Nine  in  ten  of  the  quidaet  hedges  are  ruined  for 
want  of  skill.  Smfi's  MuctUaniet. 

QUICK'SILVER,  n.  s.  >     Quick  and  silver. 
Quick'siltbked,  o^^'.    $  Mercury:    overlaid 
with  mercury. 

Ctnnsbar  maketh  a  beautiful  purple  Tike  unto  a 
red  rose ;  the  1>est  was  wont  to  be  inade  in  Libya, 
of  brimstone  and  quiektUver  burnt.  Peaehtan, 

MeUl  is  more  difficult  to  polish  than  ^lass,  and  is 
afterwards  very  apt  to  be  spoiled  by  tarnishing,  and 
reflects  not  so  much  light  as  glass  quiektUvered  over 
does ;  I  would  propound  to  use  instead  of  the  metal 
a  glass  ground  concave  on  the  foreside,  and  as  much 
convex  on  the  backside,  and  quieksilvered  over  on  the 
coovex  side.  Newton's  Optick$, 

Pleasures  are  few ;  and  fewer  we  enjoy ; 

Pleasure,  like  quicksilioer,  is  bright  and  coy  ; 

We  strive  to  grasp  it  with  our  utmost  skiU, 

Still  it  eludes  us,  and  it  glitters  still : 

If  seind  at  last,  compute  your  mighty  gains. 

What  is  it,  but  rank  poisdn  in  your  veins  ? 

Yomig. 

Quicksilver,  or  mercury.    See  Mekcuky. 


Quid  pro  quo,  In  law,  what  fbr  what,  denotes 
Ae  giving  one  thing  of  value  for  another ;  or  the 
mutual  consideration  and  performance  of  both 
parties  to  a  contract. 

Quid  pro  quo,  or  Qui  pro  quo,  is  also 
used  in  physic  to  express  a  mistake  in  the^  phy- 
sician's bill,  where  quid  is  written  for  quo,  i.  e. 
one  thing  for  another ;  or  of  the  apothecary  in 
reading  quid  for  quo,  and  giving  the  patient  the 
wrong  medicine.  Hence  the  term  is  in  general 
extended  to  all  blunders  or  mistakes  committed 
in  medicine,  either  in  the  prescription,  the  pre- 
paration, or  application  of  remedies. 

QUTDAM,  n.  s.  Lat.  quidam*  Somebody. 
Not  used. 

For  envy  of  so  many  worthy  quidams,  which  catch 
at  the.  garland  which  to  you  alone  is  due,  you  will 
be  persuaded  to  pluck  out  of  the  hateful  darkness 
those  so  many  excellent  poems  of  yours  which  lie 
hid,  and  bring  them  forth  to  eternal  light.  Speruer. 

QUIEKDIT,  n.  s.  )      Fr.  que  dit,  corrupted 

Quid'dity.  S  from  quidlibet ;  low  Lat. 

quidditat*  A  subtilty ;  an  equivocation :  quid- 
dity, essence ;  that  which  is  a  proper  answer  to 
the  question,  quid  est? 

Why  may  not  that  be  the  skull  of  a  lawyer  ?  where 
be  his  quidditi  now  1  his  quillets  ?  his  cases  1  and  his 
tricks  1  Shakspeare. 

Misnomer  in  our  laws,   and  other  quiddities,  1 
leave  to  the  professors  of  law.      Ounden's  Remains, 
He  could  reduce  all  things  to  acts. 
And  knew  their  natures  and  abstracts, 
.  Where  entity  and  quiddity 
The  ghosts  of  defunct  bodies  fly.       HudUnru^ 

QUIES'CENCE,  n.s. )      Lat.  quietco.  Rest; 

Quies'cent,  adj.  y  repose ;  state  of  quiet : 

the  adjective  corresponding. 

Whether  the  earth  move  or  rest,  I  undertake  not 
to  determine :  my  work  is  to  prow  that  the  common 
inducement  to  the  belief  of  its  quiesoenee,  the  testi- 
mony of  sense,  is  weak  and  frivolous.        OlanvilU. 

Though  the  earth  move,  its  motion  must  needs  be 
as  insensible  as  if  it  were  qmescent.  Id. 

The  right  side,  from  whence  the  motion  of  the  body 
beginneth,  is  the  active  or  moving  side ;  but  the 
sinister  is  the  weaker  or  more  quiescent  side. 

Browne'i  Vulgar  Srroun. 

Sight  takes  in  at  a  greater  distance  and  more  va- 
riety at  once,  comprehending  ahk>  quiescent  objects, 
which  hearing  does  not.  Holder. 

If  it  be  in  some  part  movent,  and  in  some  part^  qui- 
escent, it  must  needs  be  a  curve  line,  and  so  no  ra- 
dius. Grew. 

Pression  or  motion  cannot  be  propagated  in  a  fluid 
in  right  lines  beyond  an  obstacle  which  stops  part  of 
the  motion,  but  will  bend  and  spread  every  way  into 
the  quiescent  medium,  which  lies  heyond  the  obstacle. 
•  NewUnCs  Opticks, 

Fr.  qtdet ;  Span, 
and  Port,  quieto ;  Ital. 
qitieto;  Lat.  quietvs. 


^At  rest;  still;  peace- 
able ;  smooth ;  mild : 
as  a  noun  substantive, 
test ;       tranquilliw ; 


QUraT,  a^.,  n.  *,,  &^ 
Qui'eter,  te.  s.   [v.  a, 
QufmsM, 
Qui'EtLT,  adv. 
Qoi'ethess,  n.  s. 

QufEtSOMB,  at^. 

Qvi'etude,  R.  s.  ^         , 

peace;  aeeuri^ :  as  a  verb  active,  to  calm;  lull; 
pacify:  quietism  is  tranquillity,  real  or  affected, 
of  the  mind  and  temper :  quiedy  and  quietness 
corresponding  with  the  senses  of  quiet,  adjective : 
quietsome  is  calm ;  still  (obsolete) :  quietude,  re- 
pose; stillness. 

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They  Itid  wait  for  him,  and  mn  quiet  all  tho 
tiiffht.  Judgei. 

Let  it  bo  in  the  ornament  of  a  meek  and  quiet 
tpirit.  1  feur. 

This  cruel  quietnm  neither  letuming  to  mislike 
Aor  proceeding  to  favour ;  gracious,  but  gracious  still 
after  one  manner.  Sidney, 

Breaking;  off  the  end  for  want  of  breath. 
And  sliding  soft,  as  down  to  sleep  her  laid, 
She  ead«l  all  her  woe  in  quiet  death.  Spenser, 
Let  the  night  be  calm  and  quirtsome. 
Without  tempestuous  storms  or  sad  aiFray.     Jd, 
That  which  we  move  for  our  better  instruction 
sake,  turneth  into  anger  and  choler  in  them;  they 
ffiow  altogether  out  of  quietness  with  it ;  they  answer 
fumingly.  Hooker, 

This  life  is  best. 
If  9tiMt  life  is  best ;  sweeter  to  you,  . 
That  have  a  sharper  known. 

Skahtpoart,  CymheUne, 
Stop  effusion  of  our  christian  blood, 
And  'stablish  quietness  on  every  side. 

Shakspeare. 
Although  the   rebels   had   behaved    themselves 
quietly  and  modestly  by  the  way  as  they  went ;  yet 
they  doubted  that   would  but   make    them  more 
hungry  to  fall  upon  the  spoil  in  the  end.       Baron. 

What  miseries  have  Doth  nations  avoided,  and 
what  qtiietneu  and  security  attained  by  their  peace- 
able union !  Hayvard, 
The  lowest  degree  of  faith,  that  cmx  quiet  the  soul 
of  man,  is  a  firm  conviction  that  God  is  placable. 

Forbes, 
From  the  equal  distribution  of  the  phle^atick 
humour,  the  proper  allay  of  fervent  blooa,  will  Bow 
a  future  quietude  and  serenitude  in  the  affections. 
Wottan  OH  Edutatiott. 
Let  no  man  for  his  own  poverty  become  more  op- 
pressine  in  his  bargain,  but  quietly,  modestly,  and 
patiently  recommend  his  estate  to  God,  and  leave 
the  success  to  him.  Taylor, 

Justly  thou  abhorrest 
That  son,  who  on  the  quiet  state  of  man 
Such  trouble  brought.  Milton. 

What  is  called  by  the  poets  apathy  or  dispassion, 
by  the  sceptics  indisturbanee,  by  the  Molinists  quiet- 
Mm,  by  common  men  peace  of  conscience,  seems  all 
to  mean  but  great  tranquillity  of  mind.  Temple, 
There  fixed  their  arms,  and  there  renewed  their 
name, 
And  there  in  quiet  rules.  Dryden's  A^Auit. 

Putting  together  the  ideas  of  moving  or  quieting 
corporeal  motion,  joined  to  substance,  we  have  the 
idea  of  an  immaterial  spirit.  Loeke, 

Indulgent  quiet,  power  serene. 
Mother  of  peace,  and  joy.  and  love.  Hughee, 
1(  we  compare  the  quietness  and  chastity  of  the 
Bolognese  pencil  to  the  bustle  and  tumult  that  fills 
every  part  of  a  Venetian  picture,  without  the  least 
attempt  to  interest  the  passions,  their  boasted  art 
will  appear  a  mere  struggle  without  effect. 

Re^noldM, 

QUIETISTS,  a  religious  sect,  famous  towards 
the  close  of  the  seventeenth  century.  They  were 
80  called  from  a  kind  of  absolute  rest  and  inaction, 
which  they  supposed  the  soiil  to  be  in,  when  ar- 
rived at  that  state  of  perrection,  which  they 
called  the  unitive  life ;  in  which  state  they  ima- 
gined the  soul  wholly  employed  in  contem- 
plating its  God,  to  whose  influence  it  was  en- 
tirely submissive.  In  this  state  the  soul  no 
longer  needs  prayers,  hymns,  &c.,  being  entirely 
occupied  with  the  contemplation  of  the  Deity. 
Molinos,  a  Spanish  priest,  is  the  reputed  author 


of  Quietism ;  though  the  Illuminati  in  Spain  had 
certainly  taught  something  like  it  before.  The 
most  celebrated  patroness  of  Quietism  was 
madagi  De  la  Motne  Guyon,  a  lady  of  excelleit 
character;  whose  sentiments- were  refuted  in  1697 
by  Bossuet  She  was  defended  by  the  celebrated 
archbishop  Fenelon,  whose  book,  however,  was 
condemned  by  Innocent  XII.  and  the  arch- 
bishop himself  obliged  to  read  the  sentence, 
thougn  he  retained  his  opinions  to  the  last.  The 
Quietists  spread  through  Italy,  France,  and  the 
Netherlands.  A  sect  similar  to  this  had  appeared 
at  Mount  Athos  in  Thessaly,  near  the  end  of  the 
fourteenth  century,  called  Uesychasts.  They 
were  a  branch  of  the  mystics,  or  those  more  per- 
fect monks,  who,  by  long  and  intense  contem- 
plation, endeavoured  to  arrive  at  a  tranquillity  of 
mind  free  from  every  degree  of  tumult  and  per- 
turbation. 

QUILL,  n.  s.  Goth,  koyle,  a  writing  reed,  or 
Lat.  caiamia  ?  The  hard  strong  feather  of  which 
pens  are  made ;  dart  of  a  porcupine;  a  reed  oT 
weavers  and  musicians. 

The  presumptuous  damsel  rashly  dared 
The  goddess'  self  to  challenge  to  the  field. 
And  to  compare  with  her  in  curious  skill. 
Of  works  with  loom,  with  needle,  and  with  quiU, 


Birds  have  three  other  hard  substances  proper  to 
them  ;  the  bill,  which  is  of  a  like  matter  with  the 
teeth,  the  shell  of  the  egg,  ^d  their  quilU. 

Bacon's  Natural  Histery, 
With  her  nimble  quiUs  his  soul  doth  seem*  to 
hover, 
And  eye  the  very  pitch  that  lusty  bird  did  cover. 

Drayton. 
I  will  only  touch  the  duke*s  own  department  in 
that  island,  the  proper  subject  of  my  qmu,  Watton, 

His  flying  fingers  and  harmonious  quiU 
Strike  seven  distinguished  notes,  and  seven  at  once 
.they  fill.  Dryiem, 

Being  rooted  so  little  way  in  the  skin,  nothing 
near  so  deejily  as  the  quilLs  of  fowls,  they  are  the 
more  easily  ejaculated.  Crew's  MueeBum, 

Those  lives  they  failed  to  rescue  by  their  skill, 
Their  muse  would  make  immortal  with  her  q[uUL 

Gurtk. 

Near  these  was  the  black  prince  of  Monomot^^ 

by  whose  side  was  seen  the  f  utU-darting  porcupine. 

Arhutknot  and  Pope, 

From  him  whose  quHU  sUnd  quivered  at  his  ear. 

To  him  ihat  notches  sticks  at  Westminster.     Pope. 

Quills  are  denominated  from  the  order  in 
which  they  are  fixed  in  the  wing ;  the  second 
and  third  quills  being  the  best  for  writing,  as 
they  have  the  lar^t  and  roundest  hanels. 
Crow-quills  are  chiefly  used  for  drawing.  To 
harden  a  quill  that  is  soft,  thrust  the  bairel  into 
hot  ashes,  stirring  it  till  it  is  soft,  then,  taking  it 
out,  press  it  almost  flat  upon  your  knee  with  the 
back  of  a  penknife,  and  afterwards  reduce  it  to 
a  roundness  with  your  fingers.  If  you  have  a 
number  to  harden,  set  water  and  alum  over  the 
fire,  and  while  it  is  boiling  dip  the  barrels  of  the 
quills  for  a  minute,  and  then  lay  them  1^. 

QUIL'LET,  n.  s.  Lat.  quidlibet,  Suhtilly ; 
nicety ;  fraudulent  distinction ;  petty  cant 

Why  may  not  that  be  the  skul(of  a  lawyer!  where 
be  his  quiddits  nowl  his  quilleu?  his  cases?  and  his 
tricks  1  Shaktpeare. 

A  great  soul  weighs  in  the  scale  of  reason,  vrhat 


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it  ir  to  Judge  of  rather  than  dwellt  with  too  scropu- 
ton  a  diligence  upon  little  qtdlUts  and  niceties. 

Ply  her  with  love  letters  and  billets, 
And  bait  them  well  for  quirks  and  quiUeU, 

Hudibrtu. 
Quillet  (Claude),  an  eminent  Latin  poet  in 
the  seventeenth  century,  bom  at  Chinon,  in  Tou- 
raine.  He  practised  physic  there  with  reputa- 
tion ;  but  having  declared  against  the  pretended 
possession  of  the  nuns  of  Loudun,  in  a  MS. 
treatise,  afterwards  deposited  in  the  library  of  the 
Sorbonne,  he  was  obliged  to  retire  into  Italy, 
where  he  became  secretary  to  the  marshal 
d'Estr^,  the  French  ambassador  at  Rome.  In 
1655  Quillet  haring  published  in  Holland  a  La- 
tin poem,  entitled  Csdlipsdia,  under  the  name  of 
Galvidus  Ltetus,  he  there  inserted  some  verses 
against  cardinal  Mazarine  and  his  family;  but 
retrenched  what  related  to  the  cardinal  in  ano- 
ther edition,  and  dedicated  it  to  him.  Mazarine 
having,  before  it  was  printed,  given  him  an 
abbey.  He  died  in  1661,  aged  fifty-nine,  after 
having  given  Menage  all  his  writings, .  and  500 
crowns  to  pay  the  expense  of  printing  them ; 
but  the  abb^  took  the  money  and  papers,  and 
published  none  of  them.  His  Callipedia  has 
been  translated  into  English  verse. 

QUILIX)TA,  a  province  pf  Chili,  bounded 
by  Coquimbo  on  the  north,  on  the  east  by  Acon- 
cagua, on  the  south  by  Melipilla,  and  on  the 
west  by  the  sea.  It  is  twenty-five  leagues  in 
length,  and  sixteen  in  breadth.  Its  rivers  are 
the  Longotoma,  Ligua,  Aconcagua,  and  Limache, 
which  flow  down  horn  the  Coitlillefa  west.  This 
district  is  one  of  the  most  populous,  and  the 
most  productive  in  gold  of  any  in  Chili.  Its 
hemp  and  honey  are  also  esteemed.  It  has  a 
parish,  with  the  churches  of  St.  Dominic,  St. 
Francis,  St.  Augustine,  and  a  college  formerly 
of  the  Jesuits.  The  province  contains  also  the 
cities  of  Piazza,  Plazilla,  Ingenio,  Casablanca, 
and  Petrorca.  Quillota  contains  likewise  ,a 
number  of  ports,  the  most  considerable  of  which 
are  Papudo,  Quintiro,  TErradura,  C6ncon,  and 
Valpaiaiso.  They  cultivate  in  this  province  all 
kinds  of  grain  and  vines,  and  fabricate  much 
rigging,  cords,  tiiread,  and  soap.  Inhabitants 
14,000. 

Quillota,  the  capital  of  the  above  pro- 
vince, is  pleasantly  situated  in  a  valley,  on  the 
borders  ol^the  river  Aconcagua.  Long.  71°  18' 
W,  lat  32«  50*  S. 

QUILOA,  a  city  and  sea-port  of  Eastern 
Africa,  capital  of  a  country  of  the  same  name. 
It  is  built  on  an  island  situated  close  to  the 
maialand.    Lone.  39°  47'  £.,  lat.  8°  41'  S. 

QUILT,  ».  8.  &  V.  a.    Fr.  cm/ette ;  Ital.  coltre ; 
Bele.  hdcht;  Lat.  culdta,  adciira.    A  cover 
made  by  stitching  some  soft  substance  between 
layers  of  doth  or  silk :  to  stitch  in  this  manner. 
The  sharp  steel  arriving  forcibly 
On  his  horse  neck  bef<Are  the  ^luUud  fell. 
Then  from  the  head  the  body  sundred  quite. 

Spenter. 
QidlU  of  roses  and  spices  are  nothing  so  helpful, 
as  to  take  a  c^  of  new  bread,  and  bedew  it  with  a 
little  sack.  Bacon. 

A  bag  qvUted  with  bran  is  very  good,  but  it  drieth 
too  much.  Id,  Natvral  Histoni. 


Entellus  for  the  strife  prepareSp 
Stripped  of  his  quilled  coat,  his  body  bares. 
Composed  of  miehtv  bone.      Dryden*s  Mmim, 
In  both  tables  the  beds  were  covered  with  magni- 
ficent quUU  amongst  the  richest  sort.       Arhuthnot, 

She  on  the  qmU  sinks  with  becoming  woe, 
Wrapt  in  a  gown,  for  sickness  and  for  show.  Pope. 

QUIMPER,  or  KiMPERCoRENTiN,a  town  of 
France,  the  caoital  of  the  department  of  Finis- 
terre,  b  situated  on  the  declivity  of  a  hill,  at  the 
confluence  of  two  navi^ble  rivers,  and  divided 
into  the  Old  and  New  Town.  It  is  surrounded 
with  a  wall  and  towers,  and  is  the  see  of  a 
bishop.  The  objects  of  interest  are  the  cathedral, 
exchange,  public  library,  and  botanical  garden. 
The  river  is  capable  of  receiving  vessels  of  200 
tons,  while  those  of  greater  burden  find  safie 
anchorage  in  the  neighbouring  road  of  Benaudet. 
It  has  manufactures  of  stone-ware,  a  good  trade, 
and  7000  inhabitants.  Thirty-four  miles  south- 
east of  Brest,  and  115  west  of  Rennes. 

QUIMPERLE,  a  town  of  France,  department 
of  Finisterre,  on  the  Isolle.  It  has  two  churches, 
manufactures  of  pottery,  tobacco-pipes,  find 
stone-ware,  and  4200  inhabitants :  also  paper- 
mills  and  tanneries.  Twelve  miles  north-west  of 
L'Orient,  and  twenty-eight  east  by  south  of 
Quimper. 

Ql/tN  (James),  a  celebrated  performer  on  the 
English  stage,  bom  at  London  in  1693.  He  was 
intended  for  the  bar;  but,  on  the  death  of  his 
father,  appeared  on  the  stage  at  Drury-lane.  In 
1720  he  exhibited  his  powers  in  ralstaff,  and 
soon  after  appeared  to  great  advantage  in  the 
character  of  Sir  John  Brute :  but  it  was  not  un- 
til Booth's  quitting  the  stage  that  Quin  appeared 
to  fiill  advantage  in  the  part  of  Cato.  Uarrick*a 
eminence  gradually  withdrew  the  public  atten- 
tion from  Quin,  who  observed  tluit  '  Garrick, 
like  Whitefield,  was  a  new  religion,  but  all 
would  come  to  church  again ;'  a  remark  which 
extorted  a  well-known  epigram  from  his  rival. 
He  continued  a  favorite  performer  until  1748, 
when,  on  some  disgust  between  him  and  Rich 
the  manager,  he  retired  to  Bath,  and  only  came 
up  annually  to  act  for  the  benefit  of  his  friend 
Ryan.  While  Quin  continued  upon  the  stage 
he  constantly  kept  company  with  the  literati  of 
the  age,  particularly  Pope,  awift,  and  lord  Ches- 
terfield. His  judgment  in  readiiig  the  English 
language  was  .such  that  Frederick  prince  of 
Wales  appointed  him  preceptor  to  his  children, 
and  George  III.  afterwards  gave  him  a  pension, 
though  he  stood  in  no  need  of  it.  He  died  of  a 
fever  in  1766. 

QUINARIUS  was  a  small  Roman  coin,  equal 
to  half  the  denarius,  and  conseqVtently  worth 
about  three  pence  three  fiirthings  of  our  money.- 
See  Money.  It  was  called  quinarius,  because  it 
contained  the  value  of  five  asses,  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  denarius  was  named  from  its  con- 
tainine  ten. 

QLTNARlf ,  a^.  Lat.  qianarm.  Consisting 
of  five. 

This  futnory  number  of  elements  ought  to  have 
been  restrained  to  the  generality  of  anunals  and  ve- 
getables. BcyU, 

QUINAUT  (Philip),  a  celebrated  French  poet, 
born  in  Paris  in  1635.     He  cultivated  poetry 


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finom  his  hitancy,  and  sixteen  dhmatic  pieces  of 
mswere  acted  between  1653  and  1666.  He 
also  studied  the  law,  and  made  a  ibitnpe  by 
marrying  a  rich  widow.  He  died  in  1688,  after 
having  enjoyed  a  handsome  pension  from  Louis 
XIV,  for  many  years. 

QUINCE,  n. «.  Fr.  coin ;  Tcut.  quidden,  from 
Cydon,  in  Crete.  A  tree  and  its  fruit.  See 
betow. 

They  call  for  dates  and  puneet  m  dM  paMry. 

A  fmnet,  in  token  ef  fruitfnliieflB,  by  the  Uws  of 
Solon,  was  given  to  the  brides  of  Athens  upon  the 
day  of  theu  marriage.  Ptaekmm  on  Drawing. 

The  tfuhue  tree  is  of  a  low  stature  ;  the  branones 
are  diffused  and  crooked;  the  flower  and  fruit  is 
like  that  of  the  pear  tree ;  but,  however  cultivated, 
the  fruit  is  sour  and  astrinfi«nt,  aud  is  covered 
with  a  kind  of  down :  of  this  the  species  are  six. 

Quince,  in  botany.    See  Ptrits. 

QUINCH,  V.  a.  The  same  with  Queck,  which 
see.  To  stir;  flounce;  as  in  resentment  or 
pain. 

Bestow  all  my  soldiers  in  such  sort  as  I  have,  that 
no  part  of  all  that  realm  shall  be  able  to  dare  to 
quineh  Sjpeetator, 

QUIN'CUNX,  n.  s.  Lat.  qtunctmx.  A  mode 
of  planting  trees,  whereby  they  are  disposed  in  a 
square,  consisting  of  five  trees,  one  at  each  cor- 
ner, and  a  fifUi  in  the  middle,  repeated ;  so  that . 
viewed  through  an  angle  of  the  square  or 
parallelogram,  ttiey  represent  equal  or  parallel 
alleys. 

Brown  produces  several  examples  in  his  discourses 
about  the  quinettnx.  Itt^  on  tht  Creation. 

Of  a  pentagon  or  quineuncial  disposition.  Sir  Tho- 
mas Browne  produces  several  examples  in  bb  dis- 
courses about  the  quincunx.  id. 

He  whose  lighming  pierced  the  Iberian  lines, 
Now  forms  my  qmnouns,  and  now  ranks  my  vinea. 

Popt, 

QUINCY,  a  post-town  of  Norfolk  county^ 
Massachusetts,  eight  miles  south  of  Boston.  It 
is  a  pleasant  town,  and  contains  a  Congregational 
and  an  Episcopal  church.  The  inhabitants  are 
mostly  employed  in  agriculture,  but  large  quan* 
tities  of  boots  and  sbi^  are  manu&ctured  bere. 
This  town  is  flunous  for  being  the  residence  of 
the  honorable  John  Adams,  late  president  of  the 
United  States. 

QUINDECEMVIRI,  in  Roman  antiquity,  a 
college  of  fifteen  magistrates,  whose  business  it 
was  to  preside  dver  the  sacrifices.  They  were 
also  the  mterpreters  of  the  Sybil's  books;  which, 
however,  they  never  consulted  but  by  an  express 
order  of  the  senate. 

QUINDtU,  a  high  and  craggy  range  of  moun- 
tains of  South  America,  in  the  province  of  Po- 
payan,  Colombia.  By  these  mountains  there  is 
a  pass^e  from  the  provinces  of  Popayan  to 
Santa  Fe,  considered  as  one  of  the  most  difficult 
in  the  Andes.  In  the  finest  season  it  cannot  be 
traversed  in  less  than  ten  or  twelve  days,  and 
consists  chiefly  of  a  thick  uninhabited  forest. 
Not  even  a  hut  is  to  be  seen,  nor  are  any  means 
of  subsistence  to  be  finind.  Travellers  always 
furnish  themselves  with  a  month's  provisions, 
since  it  often  happeits  that,  by  the  melting  of 
the  snows,  they  can  descend  neither  on  the  side 


of  Carthago,  nor  that  of  Ibo^ve.  The  highest 
point,  the  Garilo  del  Paiamo^  is  11,489  &et 
above  the  level  of  the  sea.  The  pathway,  which 
forms  the  passage  of  the  Cordillera,  is  only  twelve 
or  sixteen  feet  in  breadth,  and  has  the  appear- 
ance in  several  places  of  an  artificial  g^eiy. 
See  Popayan. 

Humboldt  and  Bonpland  traversed  this  moun- 
tain in  October  1801,  followed  by  twelve  oxen, 
which  carried  their  collections  and  instniments, 
amidst  a  deluge  of  rain. 

QUININA,  or  Quivive,  in  chemistzy,  a  ve- 
geUible  alkali,  obtained  from  pale  cinchona  (bark), 
by  the  following  process : — A  nound  of  bruised 
bark  is  boiled  in  about  a  gallon  of  water,  to 
which  three  fluid  drachms  of  sulphuric  acid  have 
been  previously  added.  A  similar  decoction  is 
repeated  vnth  about  half  the  quantity  of  liquid, 
and  so  on  till  all  the  soluble  matter  is  extracted. 
The  decoctions  are  then  mixed  together,  and 
strained;  and  powdered  slaked  lime  is  added  in 
a  proportion  somewhat  greater  than  necessary  to 
saturate  the  acid ;  the  precipitate  that  ensues  (a 
mixture  of  quinine  and  sulphate  of  lime),  is  col- 
lected, dried,  and  boiled  for  some  minutes  in 
strong  alcohol,  which  is  then  decanted  ofi*,  while 
still  hot,  and  fresh  portions  successively  added 
for  the  repetition  of  the  same  operation,  until  it 
ceases  to  act  on  the  residuum,  which  is  then 
merely  sulphate  of  lime.  The  different  alcoholic 
'  solutions  are  then  put  into  a  retort  or  still,  and 
considerably  evaporated,  during  which,  and  es- 
pecially on  cooling,  transparent  phites  of  quintne 
are  deposited.  It  is  very  insoluble  in  vrater,  and 
its  taste  is  very  bitter.  It  unites  with  the  acids, 
forming  crystallisable  salts.  The  sulphate  is  of 
a  dull  white  color,  silky  and  flexible :  it  is,  like 
the  alkali,  soluble  in  alcohol;  It  bums  away 
without  leaving  any  residuum.  According  to 
Mons.  Pelletier  and  Caventou,  it  is  composed  of 
Quinine  .        .  100 

Sulphuric  acid  .    10-9147 

but  M.  Baup  describes  a  crystallised  sulphate  as 
well  as  a  super-sulphate.    The  first  consists  of 
Quinine  .  1  prime     45 

Sulphuric  acid    .1  5 

Water        .        .  4         .4-5 

54-5 
The  acetate  is  remarkable  for  the  manner  in 
which  it  crystallises.    Its  crystals  are  flat  needles, 
of  a  pearly  lustre,  grouped  in  silky  bundles,  or 
in  stars. 

Quinine  is  very  soluble  in  ether.  Hie  sul- 
phate 0^  quinine,  in  doses  of  from  six  to  twelve 
grains,  has  been  found  an  effectual  remedy 
against  intermittent  fevers.  It  is  sai4  that  the 
red  or  yellow  bark  yields  the  most  febrifuge 
quinine.  | 

Quinine  affords  a  large  quantity  of  ammonia, 
when  subjected  to  destructive  distillation,  and 
consequently  contains  azote  as  one  of  its  ele- 
ments. Analysed  by  Mr.  Brande,  it  afforded, 
in  100  parts. 

Carbon     ....  73-80 

Azote        ....  1300 

Hydrogen         .  .    7-65 

•  Oxygen  .    5-55 


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AoooidiDg  to  Dumas  and  Pdletier, 
Carbon     ....  7414 
Hydrogen  .6*77 

Azote       ....    8*80 
Oxygen    ....  10-76 

M.  Baup  adopts  45  as  the  prime  eqaivalent 
of  quinine.    He  states  its  sulphate  as  follows  :— 
Supersnlphate  in  rectangular  pnams. 

1  atom  45     .        .        .  61*644 

2  10  .    .    .  13-698 
16     18  .    .    .  24-658 


100000 


QUINQUAGESIMA,  Latin  quingttagesima. 
A  Sunday  so  called  because  it  is  the  fiftieth  day 
before  Easter,  reckoned  by  whole  numbers: 
Shrove  Sunday. 

QUINQUAN'GULAR,(u^'.  Lat^tidi^and 
oi^itf.    Having  five  comers. 

Each  talu8»  environed  with  a  crost,  confonung  it- 
Mlf  to  the  iidbs  of  the  tains,  is  of  a  figure  ttrnnqmrn- 
gdar.  Woodward, 

Exactly  rouud,  ordinately  ^'jiqiMUju^r,  or  hav- 
ing the  sides  parallel. 

MoTt^t  Antidote  ogainft  Atha$m. 

QUINQUARTIC'ULAR,  adj.  LaUn  qtdn. 
que  and  articului.    Consisting  of  five  articles. 

They  have  given  an  end  to  the  futnfwrlteularcon- 
tro«eisy«  for  none  have  sinpe  undertaken  to  say  more. 

SandenoH* 

QUINQUATRIA,  or  Quihquatbus,  was  a 
festival  kept  at  Rome  in  honor  of  Minerva, 
which  began  on  the  18th  of  March,  or,  as  others 
wilt  have  it,  on  the  19th,  and  lasted  five  days. 
On  the  first  day  th^  offered  sacrifices  and  obla- 
tions without  the  emision  of  blood ;  the  second, 
third,  and  fourth,  were  spent  in  shows  of  gladia- 
tors; and  on  the  fifth  day  they  went  in  proces- 
sion through  the  city.  Scholars  had  a  vacation 
during  the  eolemnity,  and  presented  their  mas- 
ters at  this  time  with  a  gift  or  fee  called  Minerval. 
Boys  and  girls  used  to  piay  to  the  goddess  Mi- 
nerva for  vnadom  and  learning,  of  which  she  had 
the  patronage.  Plays  were  acted,  and  disputar 
tions  held,  at  this  finst,  on  the  subjects  of  polite 
hteratore.  The  quinquatria  were  so  called  be- 
cause they  lasted  five  days.  There  seems  to  be 
a  strong  resemblance  betwixt  this  festival  and  the 
Panathenea  of  the  Greeks. 

QUINQUENNALIS,  in  Roman  antiquity,  a 
magistrate  in  the  colonies  and  municipal  cities  of 
that  empire,  who  had  much  the  same  office  as 
the  aedUe  at  Rome. 

QUINQUEREMIS,  in  thenavgl  arahitectore 
of  the  ancients,  a  name  gVfea  to  a  galley  wliich 
had  five  rows  of  oars.  They  divided  their  ves- 
sels in  general  injto  monocrota,  and  polycrota. 
The  former  had  only  one  tire  of  rowers ;  the  lat- 
ter had  several  tires  of  them.  The  quinque- 
remes  of  the  ancients  had  420  men  in  each ;  300 
of  whom  were  rowers,  and  the  rest  soldiers. 

QUINQUEVIRI,  m  Roman  antiquity,  an 
order  of  five  priests,  peculiarly  appointed  for  the 
sacrifices  to  tne  dead,  or  celebrating  the  rites  of 
Erebus. 

QUIN'SY,  n.f.    Corrupted  from  SguiKAMCY, 
which  see.    A  tumid  inflammation  in  the  throat, 
which  sometimes  produces  suffocation. 
Vol.  XVin. 


The  throttling  ^tniuy,  'tis  my  star  appoints. 
And  rheumatisms  I  send  to  nek  the  joints.  Dryden. 

Great  heat  and  cold,  succeeding  one  anotho*,  oc- 
casion pleurisies  and  quin$Ut.       Ar^thnot  on  Aw, 

Quinsy.    See  Medicine. 
QUINT,  n.s.    Tr.qtdnt,    A  set  of  five. 
For  state  has  made  a  numt 
Of  generals  he's  Usted  inH.  Hudibrat, 

QUINTAIN,  n.  s.  Fr.  qtdrUam.  A  tilting 
poet  for  the  game  of  quintin.    See  Quintin. 

My  better  parts 
Are  all  thrown  down ;  and  that,  which  here  stands 

up. 
Is  but  a  futnttfui,  a  mere  lifeless  block.  8hak$peare. 
QuiNTAiNE,  Quintin,  an  instrument  used 
by  the  common  people  in  the  days  of  chivalry,  to 
tilt  against.  It  consisted  of  an  upright  post,  on 
the  top  of  which  a  cross-post  turned  upon  a 
pivot ;  at  one  end  of  the  cross-post  was  a  broad 
t>oard,  and  at  the  other  a  bag  of  sand.  The  prac- 
tice was  to  ride  against  the  board  with  a  lance, 
and  at  such  speed  as  to  pass  by  before  the  sand- 
bag could  strike  the  tilter  on  the  back. 

QUINTANA,  in  Roman  antiquity,  the  fifth 
gate  of  the  Roman  camps,  which  were  generally 
square,  and  had  four  other  principal  gates.  The 
quintana  was  near  the  questorium.  The  soldiers 
were  here  instructed  m  the  discipline  of  the 
Palaria.  Upon  the,  irruption  of  the  Istri  into 
the  Roman  camps,  which  they  plundered,  Livy 
says, '  Ad  Questorium  forum  quintanamque  per- 
venerunt.' 

QUINTE,  a  bay  and  harbour  on  Lake  Onta- 
rio, to  the  westward  of  Kingston.  It  is  formed 
between  the  irregular  peninsula  of  prince  Ed- 
wued  county  on  the  south,  and  the  mainland  of 
the  midland  district  on  the  north.  The  length, 
through  the  various  crooked  turns  it  makes,  is 
little  short  of  fifty  miles,  but  its  breadth  only 
between  six  and  twelve  miles.  The  isthmus 
formed  between  it  and  Lake  Ontario,  in  the 
township  of  Murray,  is  not  more  than  three  fur- 
longs broad.  This  inlet  affords  to  vessels  safe 
shelter  from  the  heavy  gales  frequently  of  the 
lake. 
QUINTES'SENCE,  n.  «. )  Lat.  quinia  e$- 
Quintessen'tial,  adj.  y  ieniia.  A  fifth 
being;  see  the  extract  ftom  Watts ;  extract  con- 
taining all  the  virtues  of  any  thing,  the  adjective 
corresponding. 

To  me  what  is  this  fitinteMfnce  of  dnsti  man  de- 
lights not  me,  nor  woman  neither.  Shaktpeare. 
From  their  gross  matter  she  abstracts  the  forms. 
And  diaws  a  kind  of  fmnienene$  from  things. 

Dams. 
For  I  am  a  very  dead  thing. 
In  whom  love  wrought  new  alchymy, 
For  by  his  art  he  did  express 
A  quintesstnee  even  from  nothingness. 
From  dull  privations  and  lean  emptiness. 

Donne. 
Venturous  assertions  as  would  have  nuzsled  the 
authors  to  have  made  them  good,  specially  consider- 
ing that  there  is  nothing  contrary  to  the  quintessential 
matter  and  circular  figure  of  the  heavens ,  so  neither 
is  there  to  the  light  thereof.  HaketnU. 

The  ethereal  quintetsenee  of  heaven 
Flew  upward,  spirited  with  various  forms, 
That  rolled  orbicula.*'  and  tuned  to  stait. 

Milton, 


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Par«Mlsiis»  by  the  help  of  an  interne  cold,  teaches 
to  lepaimte  the  fumteaene$  of  wine.  B^yU, 

When  the  lupreme  iacaltiei  move  re^Iarly,  the 
tn£uior  passions  and  afiecUons  following,  there  arises 
a  serenity  and  complacency  upon  the  whole  soul, 
infinitely  beyond  the  greatest  bodily  pleasures,  the 
highest  <iuinU$$tnet  and  elixir  of  worldly  delighu. 

SowOi, 
They  made  fire,  air,  earth  and  water,  to  be  the 
four  elemento,'  of  which  all  earthly  things  were  com- 
pounded, and  supposed  the  heavens  to  be  a  f  uMlet- 
MHc*  or  fifUi  sort  of  body  distinct  from  all  these. 

WatU't  Logiek. 
QUINTILE,  in  astronomy,  an  aspect  of  the 
planets  when  they  are  72®  distant  from  one  an- 
other, or  a  fifth  part  of  the  zodiac. 

QUINTILIANS,  a  sect  of  ancient  heretics, 
thus  called  from  their  prophetess  Quintilia.  In 
this  sect  the  women  were  admitted  to  perform 
the  sacerdotal  and  episcopal  functions.  They 
attributed  extraordinary  gifts  to  £ve,  for  havins: 
first  eaten  of  the  tree  of  knowledge.  They  added 
that  Philip's  four  dauehters,  who  were  all  pro- 
phetesses, were  of  their  sect  In  these  assem- 
olies  the  virgins  entered  in  white  robes,  personat- 
ing prophetesses. 

QUINTILIANUS,  the  fiuher  of  the  celebrated 
orator  Marcus  Quintilianus,  was  also  an  orator, 
and  wrote  many  declamations.  Ugolin  of  Parma 
published  the  first  136  in  the  fifteenth  century ; 
nine  others  were  published  in  1563  by  Peter 
AYrault,and  afterwards  by  Peter  Pitbou  in  1580. 
There  have  also  been  nineteen  other  declama- 
tions printed  under  the  name  of  Quintilian  the 
orator ;  but,  in  the  opinion  of  Vossius,  they  were 
written  neither  by  that  orator  nor  his  grandiathMer. 
QuzRTiLiANus  (Marcus  Fabius),  a  celebrated 
Latin  orator,  and  the  first  critic  of  his  age,  was  a 
native  of  Calagurris,  or  Calahorra,  in  Spain;  and 
was  the  disciple  of  Domitius  Afer,  who  died 
A.  D.  59.  He  taught  ihetoric  at  Rome  for 
twenty  years  with  great  applause,  and  practised 
at  the  bar.  Some  imagine,  with  but  little  founda- 
tion, that  he  was  consul ;  but  it  is  certain  that  he 
fas  preceptor  to  the  grandsons  of  Domitian's 
ister.  There  is  still  extant  his  excellent  work, 
QtiUed  Institutiones  Oratorie,  which  is  a  trea- 
tise on  rhetoric,  in  twelve  books,  justly  admired. 
The  work  was  found  by  Pognus  in  an  old 
tower.  There  b  also  attributed  to  Quintilian  a 
dialogue  De  Causis  corruptee  Eloquentis ;  but  it 
is  more  commonly  ascribed  to  Tacitus. 

QUINTIN,  or  Qoiktain,  n.  t.    Fr.  qtdrUame. 
*  I  know  not  whence  derived.'    Johnson.— Min- 
shew  deduces  it  from  Lat.  quiiUut,  and  calls  it  a 
game  celebrated  every  fifth  year.    Others  trace  it 
to  Syr.  chanet ;  Gr.  xovroc ;  which  produced  Lat. 
€onto  gtdntana,  A  tilting  game.   See  Quintaik. 
At  quintin  he. 
In  honour  of  his  bridaltee, 
Hath  challensed  either  wide  conntee 
Come  cut  and  long  tail,  for  there  be 
Six  batcheloTs  as  bold  as  he, 
Adjutmg  to  his  company. 
And  each  one  nath  his  livery.    Ben  Jonaon. 
QuiNTiN  Matsys,  also  called  the  fiurier  of 
Antwerp,  had  been  a  blacksmith  nearly  twenty 
years;  when,  falling  in  love  with  a  painter's 
daughter,  who  was  very  handsome,  and  disliked 
his  trader  he  betook  himself  to  painting,  in  which 


be  made  very  uncommon  progress.  He  was  a 
diligent  and  careful  imitator  of  ordinary,  life.  His 
best  known  picture  is  that  of  the  Two  Miitfs  m 
the  gallery  at  Windsor.    He  died  in  1529. 

QUINTINIE  (John  De  U),  celebrated  for  hU 
skill  in  horticulture,  born  at  Poictiers  in  1626. 
He  was  brought  up  to  the  law ;  and  acquitted 
himself  so  well  at  the  bar  as  to  acquire  the  es- 
teem of  the  chief  magistrate.  M.  Tamboneau, 
president  of  (he  chamber  of  accounts,  engaged 
him  to  undertake  the'  preceptorship  of  hb  only 
son,  which  Quintinie  executed  to  his  satisfiuiion 
employing  his  leisure  hours  in  the  study  of  writers 
on  agriculture.  He  gained  fresh  information 
with  regard  to  his  fiivorite  pursuit  by  attending 
his  puDil  to  Italy;  for,  all  the  gardens  about 
Rome  being  open  to  him,  he  fiuled  not  to  add 
practice  to  his  theory.  On  his  return  to  Paris 
M.  Tamboneau  gave  up  the  management  of  his 
garden  entirely  to  him;  and  Quintinie  applied 
so  closely  to  it  that  he  became  &mons  aU  over 
France.  Louis  XIV.  erected  a  new  office,  pur- 
posely for  him,  that  of  director  of  the  royal  fniH 
and  kitchen  gardens ;  and  these  gardens,  while 
he  lived,  were  the  admiration  of  the  curious. 
He  twice  visited  London,  and  a  paper  of  his  was 
published  in  the  Philosophical  Transactions,  on 
the  culture  of  melons.  In  1690  he  published 
'  Instructions  pour  les  Jardins  Fruitiers  et  Pou- 
gers,'  which  obtained  great  popularity,  was  fre- 
quently reprinted,  and  was  translated  into  several 
modern  languages.  The  hist  edition  was  the 
'  Parfiiit  Jardinier,'  in  2  vols.  4to.  The  author 
died  at  Paris  in  the  year  1700. 

QUINTIUS  Flamininius,  (Titus),  a  cele- 
brated Roman  general,  who  was  consul  A.  U.  C. 
554.  He  acquired  much  military  experience  in  the 
war  against  Hannibal ;  and  was  afterwards  sent 
against  Philip  V.  of  Macedon,  whom  he  totally 
defeated  on  the  confines  of  Epirus,  and  made 
all  Locris,  Phocis,  and  Thessaly,  tributary  to 
Rome.  Yet  he  not  only  granted  peace  to  Philip^ 
but  proclaimed  all  Greece  free  and  independent 
at  the  Isthmian  games.  This  step  rendered  him 
very  popular  among  the  Greeks,  and  paved  the 
way  tor  the  univernl  dominion  of  the  Romans. 
He  was  afterwards  sent  to  Prusias,  king  of  A> 
thynia ;  who  had  given  refuge  to  Hannibal,  and 
by  his  address  prevailed  on  the  monarch  to  de- 
sert the  matest  man  of  that  age.  Flaminius 
died  suddenly. 

QUI'NTUPLE,  iMfj.  UlLqiuntupUa.  Five- 
fold. 

In  the  country,  the  greatest  proportion  of  mor« 
tality,  one  hundred  and  fifty-six,  is  above  ^mnUmk 
unto  twenty-eight  the  least. 

Gfatml'f  BOb  of  MartaUty. 

QUINTUS  Calaber,  a  Greek  poet,  who 
wrote  a  large  supplement  to  Homer^  Iliad,  in 
fourteen  books,  in  which  a  relation  is  given  of  the 
Trojan  war  from  the  death  of  Hector  to  the  d&. 
struction  of  Troy.  He  is  supposed  to  have 
lived  in  the  fifth  century,  but  notmng  certain  can 
be  collected  either  of  his  person  or  country.  His 
poem  was  first  made  known  by  Cardinal  Bessa- 
rion,  who  discovered  it  in  St.  Nicholas's  church, 
near  Otranto,  in  Calabria;  whence  die  author 
was  name  Quintus  Calaber.  It  was  first  pub- 
lished at  Venice  by  Aldus. 


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QUI 


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QUI 


QUIP,  n. «.    From  Whip,  to  clean  by  rub- 
bings which  see.    A  sharp  jest;  sarcasm. 

Notwithstanding  ail  her  sadden  fMpf , 
The  least  whereof  would  quell  a  lovePs  hope. 
Yet,  spaniel  like,  the  more  she  spurns  my  love, 
The  more  it  grows  and  fawneth  on  her  still. 

Shaktpeare* 
Nymph,  bring  with  thee 
Jest  and  youthful  jollity, 
^tps,  and  cranks,  and  wanton  wiles. 
Nods,  and  bedu,  and  wreathed  smiles. 

ifUton, 
So  did  not  Paul.    Direct  me  to  a  (fitip 
Or  merry  turn  in  all  he  ever  wrote, 
And  I  consent  you  take  it  for  your  text. 
Your  only  one,  till  sides  and  benches  fail. 

Cawper, 
QUIR£,  fi.  f .  &  V. fi.  )      Fr.  choeur ;  ItaLcAo- 
QutB'iSTEA.  Sro.  A  body  of  singers; 

m  chorus :  the  part  of  a  church  where  the  service 
is  sung :  to  sing  in  concert :  a  chorister. 
The  trees  did  bud  and  early  blossoms  bore, 
And  all  the  qtdre  of  birds  did  sweetly  sing,  ' 
And  told  that  garden's  pleasures  in  their  caroling. 

Sptnter, 
Myeelf  have  limed  a  bush  for  her, 
And  placed  a  fuirt  of  such  enticing  birds. 
That  she  will  light  to  listen  to  their  la^ 


There's  not  the  smallest  orb  which  thou  baholdest 
But  in  his  motion  like  an  angel  sings. 
Still  fiurtng  to  the  young-eyed  cherubims.         Jd, 
I  am  all  on  fiie. 
Not  all  the  buckets  in  a  country  quire 
Shall  quench  my  rage.  CZea«e/ana. 

Begin  the  song,  and  strike  the  lively  lyre, 
'  Lo  how  the  years  to  come,  a  numerous  and  Well 
fitted  quire. 
All  hand  in  hand  do  decently  advance. 
And  to  my  song  with  smooth  and  equal  measures 
dance.  Cowley. 

•    At  thy  nativity  a  etorious  quire 
Of  angels  in  the  fields  of  Bethlehem  sung 
To  shepherds  watching  at  their  folds  by  night, 
And  told  them  the  Messiah  now  was  bom. 

MUton, 
As  in  beauty  she  surpassed  the  quire, 
So  nobler  than  the  rest  was  her  attire.    Dryden, 

The  fox  obscene  to  ^pine  tombs  retires. 
And  wolves  with  howling  fill  the  sacred  quhes. 

Pope. 
The  coy  qumeten,  that  lodge  within 
Are  prodigal  of  harmony.  Thonum**  Spring. 

Quire,  n.s.  Fr.  qvagur^  cahir;  Ital.  quader- 
fio ;  Lat.  quatemio,  A  bundle  of  {Mtper  contain- 
ing twenty-four  sheets. 

This  operation  is  called  parting,  and  is  repeated 
two  or  three  times  for  the  best  papers.  The  paper  is 
now  counted  into  qmrts,  folded  and  packed  up  into 
reams  for  market.  Rete't  Cyclopedia. 

QUIRIA,  a  province  of  Immeretia,  in  Asia, 
on  die  shores  of  the  Black  Sea.  It  would  appear 
to  bare  been  formerly  flourishing.  The  residence 
of  the  prince  is  Titi  Zighe,  on  the  sea  coast.  The 
only  considerable  river  is  called  Boas,  passable 
for  mules;  but  it  is  the  custom  for  those  who  can 
afibrd  it  to  be  carried  on  men*s  backs,  in  a  chair. 
Lat.  4<»  36*  N. 

QUIRINALI A,  in  antiquity,  a  feast  celebrated 
anumg  the  Romans  in  honor  of  Romulus. 
It  was  also  called  stultorum  feri»,  and  was 


celebrated  on  the  13th  of  the  calends  of  March, 
our  I7th  of  February. 

QUIRINI  (Ai^elo  Maria),  a  learned  caidinal, 
born  in  Venice  in  1684.  He  was  eminent  as  a 
philologer,  historian,  and  antiquary.  He  was 
promoted  to  the  cardinalate  by  Benedict  XIIL 
He  was  a  member  of  almost  all  the  learned  so- 
cieties in  Europe ;  and  wrote  a  great  number  of 
works.  He  died  in  1755,  and  left  his  valuable 
library  to  the  Vatican ;  to  which  an  additional 
room  was  built  to  admit  it. 

QUIRINUS,  the  name  given  to  Romulus 
afier  his  deification. 

QUIRITES,  in  Roman  antiquity.  In  con- 
sequence of  the  agreement  entered  into  by  Ro- 
mukis  afad  Tatius,  king  of  the  Sabines,  Rome 
was  to  retain  its  name  from  Romulus ;  and  the 
people  were  to  be  called  Quirites,  from  Cures, 
the  nrincipal  town  of  the  Sabines,  a  name  used 
in  all  public  addresses  to  the  Roman  people. 
Dion.  Hal.  says  that  each  particular  citizen  was 
to  be  called  Romanus,  and  the  collective  body  of 
them  Quirites;  yet  it  appears  by  this  ancient 
form  of  words  used  at  funerals,  OUus  Quiris 
letho  datus  est,  that  each  private  citizen  was  also 
called  Quiris.  Quiris,  according  to  Plutarch  and 
others,  signified,  in  the  Sabine  language,  both  a 
dart,  and  a  warlike  deity  armed  with  a  dart.  This* 
Quiris,  or  Quirinus,  was  either  Mars  or  some 
other  gbd  of  war ;  and  the  worship  of  Quiris  con- 
tinued in  Rome  during  the  reign  of  Romulus; 
but  after  his  death  he  was  honored  with  the 
name  Quirinus,  and  took  the  place  of  the  god 
Quiris. 

QUIRK,  n.f.  Of  this  word  I  can  find  no 
rational  derivation. — Johnson.  But  see  Qu£er, 
and  the  Teut.  querh.  Quick  stroke;  or  fit; 
sharp  saying ;  subtilty. 

I've  felt  so  many  quirks  of  joy  and  grief. 

That  the  first  face  of  neither  on  the  start. 

Can  woman  me  unto't.  Shaktpeare. 

Some  kind  of  men  quarrel  purposely  on  others  to 
Uste  their  valor ;  belike*  this  is  a  man  of  that  quirk. 

Id. 

1  may  chance  fo  have  some  odd  quvrke  and  rem- 
nants of  wit  broken  on  me.  Id, 
Most  fortunately  he  hath  achieved  a  maid. 

That  paragons  description  and  wild  fame. 

One  that  excels  the  quirks  of  blazoning  pens,  id. 

Let  a  lawyer  tell  them  he  has  spied  some  defect  in 
an  entail  ;-bow  solicitous  are  thc^  to  repair  that  er- 
ror, and  leave  nothing  to  the  mercy  of  a  law  fwirAf 

Decay  of  Piety, 

There  are  a  thousand  qmrke  to  avoid  the  stroke  of 
the  law.  L'&trange's  Fables. 

Now  the  chapel's  silver  be^  you  hear. 

That  summons  you  to  all  the  pride  of  prayer  ; 

light  quirks  of  music,  broken  and  uneven.   Pope. 

Conceits,  puns,  qmrke,  or  quibbles,  jesu  and  rs-    . 
partees  may  agreeably  entertain,  but  have  no  place  in 
the  seareh  after  truth.  Watts  on  the  Mind. 

QUISQUALIS,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the 
monogynia  order,  and  decandria  cla5!s  jf  plants; 
natural  order  thirty-first,  Vepreculif .  cal.  quin- 
quefid  and  filiform;  petals  five;  fruit,  a  quin- 
queangular  plum.  One  species  only,  viz.  Q. 
Indica,  a*  native  of  the  Molucca  Isles. 

QUIT,  V.  a.  ^     Fr.  quitUr ;  Ital. 

Quii^-REtiT,  n.  f.        ^     y^qutiare^    qmetarei 

Quii^TAKCB,  n.f.  &  V.  a.  3  barb.  lat.  quiitart. 


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QUITO. 


To  dkchaiigtt  an  obligation ;  free ;  carry  through ; 
perform;  repay;  absolve;  acquit;  abandon; 
ronoJce ;  resign :  a  quit-rent  is,  a  small  reserved 
rent :  quittance  is,  discharge  from  debt  or  obli- 
gation ;  recompense ;  repayment :  to  repay. 

We  will  be  fwt  of  thine  oath,  which  thou  hast 
made  as  to  swear.  Joshm  ii.  20. 

He  fair  the  knight  saluted,  louting  low. 
Who  fair  him  quitud,  as  that  courieovs  was. 

OpttUtTm 

They  both  did  fail  of  their  purpose,  and  got  not  so 
much  as  to  ftdt  their  charges ;  becanse  truth,  which 
is  the  secret  of  the  most  hi^h  God,  whose  pio^r 
.handy-work  all  things  are,  cannot  be  compassed  with 
that  wit  and  those  senses  which  are  our  own. 

Hooker. 
Enkindle  all  the  sparks  of  nature, 
To  ^  this  horrid  act. 

Skakspeare.     King  Lear, 
Now  I  am  remembered,  he  scorned  at  me  f 
But  that's  all  one ;  omittance  is  no  fuaitoncs.  Id. 

Mine  eyes  saw  him  in  bloody  state. 
Rendering  faint  ((uittatice,  wearied  and  out- breathed, 
To  Henry  Monmouth.  id.  Henry  IV ^ 

Embrace  me  then  this'opportunity, 
As  fitting  best  to  q;uHianee  their  deceit. 

Shakepeof, 
Nor  farther  seek  what  their  oflences  be. 
Guiltless  I  fwt,  guilty  I  set  them  free.    Fairfax, 
Far  other  plaints,  tears,  and  laments. 
The  time,  the  place,  and  our  estates  require. 

Think  on  thy  sins,  which  man's  old  foe  presents 
Before  that  judge  that  ^uitt  each  soul  his  hue.    id. 
For  our  reward. 
All  our  debts  are  paid  ;  dangers  of  law 
Actions,  decrees,  judgments  against  us  fuitted. 

Ben  Jcnun, 
Never  worthy  prince  a  day  did  f  «tt 
With  greater  hazard,  and  with  more  renown. 

DoiimI. 
By  this  act,  old  tyrant, 
I  shall  be  futt  with  thee.  Iknham, 

Thou  art  q[uit  from  a  thousand  calamities ;  there- 
'  fore  let  thy  joy,  which  should  be  as  great  for  thy 
freedom  from  them  as  is  thy  sadness  when  tbou  feel- 
est  any  of  them,  do  the  same  cure  upon  thy  discon- 
tent. Taller, 
Samson  hath  ^ utf  hxnuelf 
Like  Samson,  and  heroicly  hath  finished 
A  life  heroic,  on  his  enemies 
Fully  revenged,  hath  left  them  years  of  mourning. 

Milton, 
One  step  higher 
Would  set  roe  highest,  and  in  a  moment  ipat 
The  debt  immenae  of  endless  gratitude.  Id. 

Iron  works  ought  to  be  confined  to  -certain  places, 
where  there  is  no  conveyance  for  timber  to  pieces  of 
vent,  so  as  to  quii  the  cost  of  the  carriage.    TempU, 

Such  a  tax  would  be  insensible,  and  pass  but  as  a 
small  fvi^-fimi,  which  every  one  would  be  content  to 
pay  towards  the  guard  of  the  seas.  Id, 

Still  I  shall  hear  and  never  ifuit  the  score. 
Stunned  with  hoarse  Codrus'  Theseid  o'er  and  o'er. 

Diyden. 
Such  variety  of  arguments  only  distract  the  under- 
standing ;  such  a  superficial  way  of  examining  is  to 
qmi  truUi  for  appearance,  only  to  serve  our  vanity. 

Locke. 
Does  not  the  air  feed  the  flame?  and  does  not  the 
flame  at  the  same  time  warm  and  enlighfien  the  air  ? 
and  does  not  the  earth  quit  scores  with  all  the  ele- 
lin  the  noble  fruits  that  issue  from  it  7 

Stutk'e  Sermons, 


To  John  I  owed  great  obligation; 
But  John,  unhappily,  thought  fit 
To  publish  it  to  all  the  nation ; 
Sure  John  and  I  are  more  than  qtdt.       Fritr. 

The  prince,  renowned  in  bounty  as  in  amSp 
With  pity  saw  the  ill-conoealed  distress. 

Quitted  his  title  to  Campaspe's  charms. 
And  gave  the  fair  one  to  the  mend's  embraee.     Id, 

My  old  roaster,  a  little  before  his  death,  wished 
him  joy  of  the  estate  which  was  falling  to  him,  de- 
siring him  only  to  pay  the  gifts  of  charity  he  had  loft 
as  quit-renU  upon  tne  estate.      AddiutJt  Spectator. 

To  quit  vou  of  this  fear,  you  have  already  lo6ked 
death  in  the  face ;  what  have  you  found  so  terrible 
in  it  1  Wake. 

QoiT-REiiT(quietui  redditns,  i.  e.  quiet  rent), 
is  a  certain  smiul  rent  payable  by  the  tenants  of 
manors,  in  token  of  subjection,  and  by  which  the 
tenant  goes  quiet  and  free.  In  ancient  records 
it  is  called  white  rent,  because  paid  in  sihrer 
money,  to  distinguish  it  from  rent-oom,  &c. 

QUITCU'GRA^S,  n.  t.  Sax.  cpice.  Dog- 
grass. 

Th^  are  the  best  com  to  grow  on  grounds  sub- 
ject to  qtdtckgraa  or  other  weras. 

Mertimar'i  HvOaeidfy. 

QUITE,  ado.  From  Quit.  Completely; 
perfectly;  thoroughly. 

He  hath  sold  us,  and  quite  devoured  our  money. 
*  Genens  zxzi. 

Those  latter  exclude  not  the  former  quite  and  dean 
as  unnecessary.  Hooker. 

If  some  foreign  ideas  will  offer  themselves,  seject 
them,  and  hinder  them  from  running  awaj  with  our 
thoughts  quite  from  the  subject  in  hand.         Loeke. 

The  same  actions  may  be  aimed  at  different  ends, . 
and  srise  from  quiu  contraiy  principles.      Ad^tm. 

QUITO,  a  presidency  of  Colombia,  was  ori- 
ginally an  independent  country,  which  remained 
distinct  from  all  the  neighbouring  states,  until  a 
short  time  previous  to  the  conquest  of  Peru  by 
Francisco  Pisarro;  but  ita  limits  were  not  then 
exactly  the  same  as  at  present.  It  is  now  bound- 
ed by  Santa  F^  on  the  north ;  on  the  east  it  ex- 
tends to  Maynas,  Macas,  and  Quixos,  which 
reach  to  the  Portuguese  frontiers;  on  the  west 
the  Great  Pacific  washes  it  from  the  gulf  of  Puna 
to  the  government  of  Atacames;  and  on  the 
south  the  kingdom  of  Peru  forms  its  boundary. 
Its  length  from  north  to  south  is  about  600 
miles,  while  its  breadth  exceeds  1800. 

The  chain  of  the  Andes  which  pervades  Quito, 
after  having  been  divided  near  Popayan  into 
three  branches,  unites  in  the  district  of  Paataa, 
and  stretches  fer  beyond  the  equator.  Its  moat 
lofty  summits  form  two  lines,  separated  by  a 
series  of  valleys,  from  10,600  to  13,900  feet  in 
height,  as  far  as  the  3®  of  S.  lat.»  in  which 
the  chief  towns  of  Quito  are  situated.  On 
the  west  side  of  this  vale  or  plain  rise  the 
mountains  of  Casitagua,  Pichincha,  Atacazo, 
Corazon,  Ilinissa,  Carguirazo,  Chimborazo,  and 
Conambay ;  and  on  the  east  are  the  peaks  of 
Cayarobe,  Guamani,  Antisana,  Passuchoa,  Rq- 
minari,  Cotopaxi,  Quelendama,Tunguragua,and 
cape  Urcu,  or  the  Altar— all  of  which,  exoeptiog 
three  or  four,  are  higher  than  Mpnt  Blanc,  but 
on  account  of  the  great  elevation  of  the  plain  on 
which  they  rest,  their  appearance  is  not  so  lofty 
as  may  be  imagined;  the  summit  of  Chimborazo, 


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34] 


the  most  elevated,  not  being  more  than  11,959 
feet  above  the  plain  of  Tapia,  which  itself  is  9481 
feet  abore  the  lerel  of  the  sea. 

The  temperature  of  the  air  is  here  so  constant 
that  the  summits  of  those  mountains  which  enter 
Jie  region  of  perpetual  snow  have  the  line  of 
congelation  distinctly  marked ;  and  the  road 
from  Guayaquil  to  Quito  leads  along  the  northern 
declivity  of  Chimborazo,  amid  scenes  of  the 
most  majestic  nature,  and  near  the  regions  of 
eternal  frost  Chtmborazo,  the  most  lofty  of  the 
American  summits,  towers  in  the  form  of  a  dome 
3?er  the  conical  p^Jcs  and  heads  of  the  adjacent 
mountains,  to  the  altitude  of  21,441  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  sea.  Pichincha,  which  sur- 
mounts the  city  of  Quito,  was  formerly  a  very 
active  volcano ;  but  since  the  conquest  its  erup- 
tions have  not  been  frequent  See  that  article^ 
Humboldt  supposes  the  bottom  of  the  crater  is 
on  a  level  witn  the  city  of  Quito.  It^  edges  are 
always  covered  with  snow;  and  flames  rise  from 
its  sur&ce  amid  columns  of  dark  smoke. 

But  of  all  the  American  volcanoes  Cotopaxi  is 
the  most  noted.  It  is  situated  to  the  sooth-east 
of  Quito,  twelve  leagues  distant  from  that  city, 
and  five  leagues  north  of  Latacunga,  between  the 
mountains  of  Ruminavi,  the  summit  of  which  is 
rugsed  and  jagged  "with  separate  rocks,  and  Que- 
leodama,  whose  peaks  enter  the  regions  of  eternal 
frost.  It  has  ejected  such  masses  of  scoria  and 
immense  pieces  of  rock,  on  the  jplain  below,  that 
they  would  of  themselves,  if  heaped  together, 
form  an  enormous  mountain ;  and  in  a  violent 
eruption  in  1774  its  roarings  were  heard  at 
Honda,  at  the  distance  of  200  leagues.  In  1768 
it  sent  forth  such  a  volume  of  ashes  that  the 
light  of  the  sun  was  obscured  at  Hambato  till 
three  in  the  afternoon,  and*  the  people  were 
forced  to  use  lanterns';  at  the  same  time  the 
cone  was  so  heated  that  the  mass  of  snow  which 
covered  it  suddenly  melted  away ;  and  at  Guar- 
aquil,  150  miles  distant*  its  eruptions  were  audi- 
bly distinguished. 

The  volcano  of  Sangai,  or  Mem,  is  tlie  most 
southern  mountain  of  Quito,  and  is  covered  with 
snow ;  but  a  continual  fire  issues  from  its  sum- 
mit, attended  by  explosions  which  are  heard  120 
miles  distant,  and  when  the  wind  is  fair  are 
audible  even  at  Quito.  The  country  adjacent 
to  this  Tolcano  is  totally  barren,  being  covered  . 
with  cinders.  In  this  desert  the  river  Sangay 
rises,  and,  joining  the  Upano,  flows  into  the  Ma- 
ranon  under  the  name  <5f  the  Payra.  Sangia  is 
17,131  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  The  Altar, 
or  £1  Altar,  is  on  the  eastern  crest,  in  the  district 
of  Riobamba,  joining  itself  by  a  high  desert  to 
another  peak  allied  Collanes.  The  Indians  have 
a  tradition  that  £1  Altar  was  formerly  more 
lofty  than  Chimboraxo,  but  that  its  summit  sud- 
denly fell  in.  By  the  latest  observation  it  was 
found  to  be  17,256  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
sea. 

Tunguragua  is  seven  leagues  north  of  Rio- 
bamba. The  figure  of  this  volcanic  mountain 
is  conical,  and  very  steep.  Riobamba  was  de- 
stroyed by  its  dreadful  eruptions.  Some  hot 
springs  gush  out  through  crevices  in  its  sides, 
which  has  caused  warm  baths  to  be  erected  for 
the  accommodation  of  invalids.    Tunguragua  is 


16,500  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  North- 
west of  Riobamba  is  Carguiraio,  which  jut 
enters  the  lower  period  of  congelation.  Neav 
this  mountain  and  Chimborazo  is  the  road  lead^ 
ing  to  Guayaquil,  passing  over  such  lofty  deserts 
and  such  dangerous  places,  that  many  people 
perish  in  attempting  to  travel  over  it  in  bad  waa- 
tber,  or  in  winter.  The  height  of  this  mountain 
is  15,540  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 

In  these  mountainous  regions  the  wind  is 
often  so  violent  that  it  tears  off  fragments  of 
rocks  .The  French  academicians,  in  measuring 
their  oase>  and  taking  the  necessary  angles,  were 
often,  it  will  be  remembered,  in  danger  of  having 
their  tents  and  hots  blown  over.  In  this  im« 
mense  extent  the  population,  therefore,  is  chiefly 
confined  to  the  valley,  formed  on  the  very  ridge 
of  the  main  chain  of  the  Andes,  by  the  parallel 
summits  making  a  prolonged  series  of  small  nm* 
row  plains,  extending  from  San  Miguel  de  Ibarra 
to  Loja,  and  to  the  country  between  those  and 
Popayan,  and  from  the  western  slope  of  the  Cor«* 
dillera  to  the  ocean.  The  eastern  governments 
are  chiefly  immense  tracts,  thinly  scattered  with 
missionary  villages. 

Quito  Proper  is  subdivided  from  north  to  south 
into  nine  districts,  viz.  San  Miguel  de  Ibarra, 
Otabalo,  Quito,  Latacunga,  Riolnmba,  Chimbo, 
Guayaquil,  Cuen9a,  and  Loxa  or  Loja. 

Thejwisdiction  of  Quito  contains,  independent- 
ly of  the  city,  twenty-five  villages,  or  parishes. 

The  lands  are  covered  with  plantations,  in  the 
plains,  breaches  or  valleys,  and  up  the  sides  of 
the  mountains,  as  for  as  vegetatation  will  reach^ 
so  as  to  be  productive  of  any  return  to  the  cultii 
vator.  The  valleys,  being  hot,  grow  sugar-canes 
and  cotton ;  the  plains,  maize ;  and  the  higher 
regions,  wheat,  bariey,  &c.  European  grain  was 
introduced  into  Quito  hy  father  Jose  Rixi,  a  na- 
tive of  Ghent  in  Flanders,  who  sowed  some  neac 
the  convent  of  St  Francis ;  and  the  monks  still 
show  the  vase  in  which  th^  first  wheat  came  from 
Europe,  as  a  sacred  relic.  Above  the  wgions 
which  produce  wheat,  barley,  potatoes,  &c.,  are 
fed  numerous  flocks  of  sheep,  which  yield  great 
quantities  of  wool ;  and  cows  are  reared  also  in 
great  numben  for  the  sake  of  cheese  and  butter.. 
Most  of  the  villages  of  Quito  are  inhabited  by 
Indians.  .' 

The  capital  of  this  presidency  is  Quito.  It  is 
situated  in  long.  78''  lO'  16'  W.,  and  laL  0^  13^ 
27^  S.,  on  the  eastern  slope  of  the  western 
branch  of  the  equatorial  Andes,  thirt^-fiy» 
leagues  distant  from  the  coasts  of  the  South  S^ 
The  volcanic  mountain  Pichincha  is  the  iMois  on 
which  the  celebrated  city  rests.  Its  crevices  are 
so  numerous  in  the  environs  that  many  of  the. 
suburban  houses  are  built  on  arches ;  and  from 
the  acclivity  of  the  groujnd  the  streets  are  very 
irregular  and  uneven.  The  city  has  in  its  vici* 
nity  the  great  plains  Turubamba  and  Inna  Quito^ 
covered  with  country  seats  and  cultivation ;  and 
the  junction  of  these  plains  forms  a  neck  of  land, 
on  which  some  of  the  streets  are  built  Hie 
height  of  Quito  above  the  level  of  the  sea  is 
9510  feet;  and  it  is  backed  by  the  conical  sum- 
mit of  Javirac,  immediately  under  that  of  Pichin- 
cha,— ^Javirac  being  10,239  feet  above  the  ocean, 
consequently  729  feet  higher  than  the  city. 


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QUITO. 


The  temperature  of  the  climate  ii  nuch  that 
neither  heat  Dor  cold  is  felt  in  extremes,  thong:!^ 
this  may  be  experienced  in  a  very  short  journey 
from  it.  The  whole  year  is  a  perfect  spring, 
with  little  or  no  variation  ;  pleasant  gales  con-» 
stantly  waf^  the  odors  of  the  cultivated  plains 
towards  the  town,  and  these  are  seldom  known 
to  fiul  or  to  become  boisterous.  The  rain  alone 
descends  occasionally  with  impetuosity,  and  pre- 
vents the  usual  out-of-door  avocations.    With 


reaped  and  sown  at  the  same  time ;  and  such  is 
the  goodness  of  the  pasture  that  excellent  mutton, 
beef,  &C.,  are  to  be  had  here.  Fine  cheese  is 
also  made  in  the  dairies,  and  so  much  is  iised, 
that  70,000  or  80,000  dollars'  worth  is  annually 
consumed.  .Good  butter  is  also  found  ;  and  foi 
the  service  of  the  table,  whether  in  luxuries  or 
necessaries,  nothing  appears  to  be  wanting. 

In  this  province  some  cotton  goods  are  mann- 
fectured.  These  are  exported  to  Peru ;  for  which 


such  a  climate,  and  in  the  midst  of  plenty,  the  gold,  silver,  laces,  wine,  brandy,  oil,  copper,  tin, 

city  is  hourly  liable  to  earthquakes,  dnd  its  in-  lead,  and  quicksilver,  are  returned.  *  Tlie  wheat 

habitants  are  frequently  occupied  in  noticing,  of  Quito  is  exported  to  Guaya<quil;  and  die 

with  the  most  awful  apprehensions,  the  slightest  coast  of  Guatimala  sends  indigo,  iron,  and  steel, 

variations  in  the  phenomena  of  the  heavens  ;  for  for  which  some  of  the  products  of  Quito  are  re- 

from  these  they  affect  to  judge  of  the  approach  of  turned  by  way  of  Guayaquil.    The  commerce  of 

the  subterraneous  concussions- which  have  so  fre-  Quito  is,  however,  mostly  internal ;  and  this  pro- 


quently  destroyed  the  place.  Of  these  a  Tery  de- 
structive one  was  experienced  in  1775.  In  1797, 
on  the  4th  of  February,  the  lace  of  the  whole  dis- 
trict was  changed,  and  in  the  space  of  a  second 
40,000  persons  were  hurled  into  eternity.  During 
this  tremendous  soene  the  ground  opened  in  all 
directions,  and  vomited  out  sulphur,  mud,  and 


Tince  contains  no  metallic  veins  which  are 
worked,  though  many  rich  ones  are  supposed  to 
exist;  and. some  mercury  has  been  round  be^ 
tween  the  villages  of  Cuen^a  and  Azogue. 

Quito  is  celebrated  as  having  been  the  soene 
of  the  measurement  of  a  degree  of  the  meridian 
by  the  French  and  Spanish  mathematicians,  in 


water.    Tliis  earthquake  affected  the  tempera-  the  reign  of  Louis  XV.  The  plain  made  choice  of 

ture  of  the  air,  which  is  now  commonly  between  for  the  mensuration  of  the  great  base  is  1592  feet 

40°  and  55®,  whereas  it  was  usually  66°  or  68° ;  lower  than  the  city  of  Quito,  and  four  leagues 

and  since  that  time  violent  shocks  have  frequently  north-east  of  it,  near  the  village  Yurancjui,  from 

been  experienced.  which  it  has  its  name.    It  was  in  this  desert 
Quito  is  plentifully  supplied  vrith  water  from 


several  streams,  which  flow  from  the  sides  of  the 
mountains,  and  ^re  conducted  into  the  town  by 
means  of  conduits.  Several  of  these  brooks 
unite  in  one  spot,  and  form  the  small  river  Ma- 
changara,  which  washes  the  south  parts  of  the 
city,  and  is  crossed  by  a  stone  bridge.  The 
principal  streets  are  all  paved*  and  the  houses 
are  large  and  convenient,  being  mostly  of  one 
story  in  height,  built  of  unbumt  bricks  and  clay, 
and  cemented  by  a  sort  of  mortar  which  was 
made  use  of  anciently  by  the  Indians,  and  which 
becomes  exceedingly  solid.  The  principal  square 
of  Quito  is  ornamented  with  the  cathedral,  the 
bishop's  palace,  the  town-hall,  and  the  palace 
of  the  royal  audience,  and  with  a  beautiful  foun- 
tain in  the  centre.  Four  streets  terminate  at  the 
ansles  of  this  square,  which  are  broad,  straight, 
and  well  built  for  about  400  yards,  when  the  ac- 
clivities and  breaches  commence;  on  tliis  account 
the  luxury  of  wheel-carriages  is  not  to  be  had 


valley,  surrounded  by  the  lofty  summits  of  the 
central  Andes,  that  these  operations  were  carried 
on.  In  the  chureh  of  the  Jesuits  is  an  alabaster 
slab,  on  which  is  engraven  a  Latin  inscription, 
commemorating  these  labors,  and  enumerating 
the  signals,  angles,  and  other  circumstances  con- 
nected with  the  measurement  performed  in  these 

years* * 

QUITTER-BONE.  See  Veterikaet  Art. 
QUIVER,  «.».    Goth,  h^a,kofe:  Lai.  cavea. 
Corrupted  fipm  Fr.  antvrir,  or  cover.    A  case 
or  sheath  for  arrows. 

A%  arrows  are  in  the  hand  of  a  mighty  man ;  so 
are  children  of  the  youth.  Happy  is  the  man  that 
hath  his  quiver  full  of  them.  PttJm  cuvii.  5. 

As  Dianne  hunted  on  a  day. 
She  chanced  to  come  where  Cupid  lay. 
His  qmver  by  his  head.  ^mutr, 

ThoM  works,  with  ease  as  mnch  he  did. 
As  you  would  ope  and  shut  your  9«iMr-lid. 

Chnpman, 
Diana's  nymphs  would  be  arrayed  in  white,  their 


Besides  the  great  square,  there  are  two  others  of    arms  and  shoulders  naked,  bows  in  their  hands,  and 

9Mii»r#  by  their  sides.  Peaeham  on  Dnwu^. 

'Tis  chastity : 
She  that  has  that,  n  clad  m  compleat  steel. 
And  like  a  tfuivered  nymph  with  arrowrs  keen. 
May  trace  huge  forests  and  unharboured  heaths. 
Infamous  hills,  and  perilous  sandy  wilds.  MHUoiu 
Her  sounding  qmoer  on  her  shoulder  tied. 
One  hand  a  dart,  and  one  a  bow  supplied.  Dtydai. 

The  thousand  loves  that  arm  thy  potent  m. 
Must  drop  their  quMen,  flag  their  wings  and  diU* 


considerable  size,  and  several  small  ones.  In 
these  are  situate  the  churches  and  convents,  w|iich 
are  generally  fine  buildings.  The  hospital  is  a 
fine  structure ;  and  there  are  several  courts  for 
the  administration  of  justice,  the  exchequer, 
treasury,  &c. 

The  population  is  estimated  at  70,000  persons; 
among  whom  are  many  of  high  rank,  oescend- 
ants  of  the  conquerors,  or  persons  who  came  in 
tiie  eariy  periods  from  Spain.  Notwithstanding 
the  horror  of  earthquakes,  and  the  constant  state 
of  anxiety  they  must  feel,  the  inhabitants  are 
gay,  lively,  and  much  addicted  to  pleasure, 
luxury,  and  amusement. 

The  clay  and  hot  water  vomited  from  the  vol- 
cano diffuses  much  fertility  in  the  vicinity,  where 
a  constant  succession  of  fruits,  flowers,  and 
leaves  appear  during  the  whole  year.  .  Corn  is 


From  him  whose  quills  stand  quivered  in  his  ear. 
To  him  who  notches  sticks  at  Westminster.     Pope. 

Qui'vER,  V.  n.  ti,adj.  Wei.  cAi^ior;  Span. 
queboTj  or  perhaps  from  quake.  To  quake ;  shi- 
ver ;  play  with  a  tremulous  motion :  quick  in 
motion;  nimble. 

When  I  heard,  my  belly  trembled;  m^  lips  qm- 
vered  at  the  voice. 


I;  m^  lips  qm-. 
Hah.  iii.  16. 


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QUO 


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QUO 


ZdouuM  would  hav«  put  to  Ur  hcslplng  hand,  Imt 
fho  was  taken  with  such  a  qithermg,  that  she  thought 
it  more  wisdom  to  lean  herself  to  a  tree  and  look  on. 

Sulh«y, 
The  hifds  chaunt  melody  on  every  bush, 
The  green  leaves  qumr  with  the  cooling  wind. 


There  was  a  little  quiver  fellow,  and  he  would 
manage  you  his  piece  thus  -,  and  he  would  about  and 
about.  Id, 

O'er  the  pommel  cast  the  knight, 
Forward  he  6ew,  and  pitching  on  his  head. 
He  quivertd  with  his  feet,  and  lay  for  dead.  Dryden. 

With  what  a  spring  his  furious  soul  broke  loose, 
And  left  the  limbs  still  (piivering  on  the  ground. 

Addiion, 
Curvdioe  with  quWring  voice  be  mourned, 

Aod  Heber's  banks  Earydice  returned.         Gay. 
Dancing  sun-beams  on  the  waters  played. 

And  verdant  alders  formed  a  (puv^ring  shade. 

Pope. 
The  dying  gales  that  pant  upon  the  trees, 

The  lakes  that  ^ieer  to  the  curling  breeae.      Id. 

QUIXOS  AMD  Macas,  the  most  easterly  pro- 
rince  of  the  audience  of  Quito,  is  bounded  on 
the  north  by  Popayan  and  the  plains;  east  by 
Portuguese  Guiana ;  on  the  west  it  is  separated 
from  Latacnnga*and  Ibarra  bv  the  Cordilleras  of 
Cotopaxi,  Cayambe,  &c. ;  ini.  on  the  south  it  is 
limited  by  Maynas  and  firacamoros.  It  is  ex- 
tremely mountainous,  full  of  ravines,  and  abound- 
ing in  rivers,  some  of  which  are  very  large,  and 
all  running  into  the  Maranon.  Impassable,  ex- 
cept on  foot,  it  was  traversed  by  the  missiona- 
ries, who,  at  the  expense  of  great  labors  and  fa- 
tigues, entered  Mainas.  Its  temperature  is  cold, 
but  it  produces  much  cotton  and  fine  tobacco ; 
the  valleys  and  ravines  are  extremely  fertile.  In 
the  soutlv-west  of  Quixos  is  Los  Canelos,  a  sort 
of  spice  resembling  cinnamon  growing  there. 
The  south  part  of  Quixos  is  called  Macas,  and  is 
separated  into  a  distinct  district,  under  that  ap- 
pellatioD,  of  which  the  chief  town  is  Macas,  or 
Sevilla  de  Oro. 

QUOiyUBET,  ft.  f.  Lat.  quod4ibet.  A 
nice  point ;  a  snbtilty. 

He  who  reading  on  the  heart. 
When  all  his  quedlibeU  of  art 
Could  not  expound  its  pulse  and  heat. 
Swore,  he  had  never  felt  it  beat.  Prier, 

QUOJA,  a  country  of  Africa,  at  the  back  of 
Sierra  Leone,  between  8°  and  10°  of  W.  long.,  and 
between  6"  and  9°  of  N.  lat.  It  is  well  cultivated, 
bat  has  little  trade.  The  monarch  is  despotic, 
and  his  nobles  enjoy  extraordinary  respect.  On 
the  tombs  of  their  masters,  slaves  are  freqnently 
sacrificed,  and  numerous  subjects  on  that  of  the 
king. 

QUOIF,  n.  f .  &  v.  a.  )     Fr.  coefe.    Any  cap 

Quoif'fube.  S  ^ith  which  the  head  is 

covered  :  to  dress  with  a  cap :  quoiffure  is,  head- 
dress.   See  Coif. 

Hence,  thou  siddy  fu^*/. 
Thou  art  a  guard  too  wanton  for  the  head. 
Which  princes,  flushed  with  conquest,  aim  to  hit. 

Shakepeare. 
She  is  always  fmiffed  with  the  head  of  an  ele- 
phant, to  shew  that  this  animal  is  the  breed  of  that 
country.  iAddimm, 

The  lady  in  the  next  medal  is  venr  particular  in 
her  quoiffure.  Id.  on  Medalt. 


QUOIN,  n.  t.    Fr.  com.    A  comer ;  a  wedge. 

A  sudden  tempest  from  the  desert  flew 
With  horrid  wings,  and  thundered  as  it  blew. 
Then,  whirling  round,  the  fwww  together  diook.  ' 

\  Ssndjft. 

Build  brick  houses  with  strong  and  fixni  quoim  or 
columns  at  each  end.  MorHnm't  HuAmiry, 

Quoiv,  or  Coin,  on  board  a  ship,  a  wedge 
fastened  on  the  deck,  close  to  the  breach  of  the 
carriage  of  a  gun,  to  keep  it  firm  up  to  the  ship's 
side.  Cantic  quoins  are  short  three  legged  quoint 
put  between  casks  to  keep  them  steady. 

QooiNS,  in  architecture,  denote  the  comers  of 
brick  or  stone  walls.  The  word  is  particnlariy 
used  for  the  stones  in  the  comers  of  brick  build- 
ings. When  these  stand  out  beyond  the  brick- 
work, their  edges  being  chamfred  off,  they  are 
called  rastic  quoins. 

QUOIT,  n.  1.,  V.  n.  &  v.  a.  Belg.  coete,  gooed^ 
thrown.  Something  thrown  at  a  certain  point  or 
mark :  to  play  at  quoits  or  the  discus ;  to  throw. 

He  plajrs  at  quoitt  well.     Shakspeare.  Henry  IV. 

Quoit  him  down,  Bardolf,  like  a  shove-groat  shil* 
ling.  Shakspeart, 

Noble  youths  for  mastership  would  strive. 

To  quoii,  to  run,  and  steeds  aind  chariots  drive. 

Dryden, 

When  he  played  at  qtmU,  he  was  allowed  hi» 
breeches  and  stockings.  Arhuthnot  and  Pope. 

QUON'DAM.  Ui.  quondam.  Having  been 
formerly.    A  ludicrous  word. 

This  is  the  quondam  king,  let's  seise  upon  him. 

Skahpean. 

What  lands  and  lordships  for  their  owner  know 
My  quondam  barber,  but  his  worship  now.  Dryden, 

QUOOK.    Preterite  of  quake.    Obsolete. 
Freely  up  those  royal  spoils  he  took. 
Yet  at  Uie  lion's  skin  he  inly  ftwoA.     Speneer. 

QUORUM,  fi.  s.  Lat.  quorum.  A  bench  of 
justices ;  such  a  number  or  officers  as  is  suffi- 
cient to  do  business. 

They  were  a  parcel  of  mummers,  and  being  him- 
self one  of  the  quorum  in  his  own  county,  he  won- 
dered that  none  of  the  Middlesex  justices  .took  care 
to  lay  some  of  them  by  the  heels.  Additm, 

Qt70BVM  is  often  mentioned  in  English  statutes, 
and  in  commissions  of  justices  of  the  peace  and 
others.  It  is  thus  called  from  the  words  of  the 
commission,  quoram  A.  B.  unum  esse  volumus : 
— e.  g.  where  a  commission  is  directed  to  seven 
persons^  or  to  anv  three  of  them,  whereof  A.  B. 
and  C.  D.  are  to  be  two ;  in  this  case,  they  are 
said  to  be  of  the  quorum,  because  the  rest  can- 
not proceed  without  them;  so  a  justice  of  the 
peace  and  quorum  is  one  without  whom  the  rest 
of  the  justices  in  some  cases  cannot  proceed. 

QUOTA,  n.  t.  Lat.  quohu,  A  share ;  an  as- 
signed proportion. 

Scarce  one  in  this  list  but  en|[ages  to  supply*  a 
quota  of  brisk  young  fellows,  equipt  with  hau  and 
feathers.  Addiaon. 

QUOTE',  V.  a.)     Fr.  quoter;  Ital.  and  Lat. 

Quotation,     ^ cotto,  a  marginal  note.     To 

Quo'ter.  )  cite  an  author  or  passage  of 

an  author ;  adduce  the  words  of  another  by  way 
of  authority. 

The  second  chapter  to  the  Romans  is  here  quoted 
only  to  paint  the  margent.  Whi^/U. 


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St.  Paul  qiuUt  006  of  their  poets  for  this  saying. 

He,  that  has  but  ever  so  little  examined  the  dta- 
tions  of  writers,  cannot  doubt  how  iittl^  credit  the 
^utftotwiM  deserve,  where  the  originals  are  wanting. 

He  ranged  his  tropes,  and  preached  np  patience. 
Backed  his  opinion  with  ifuolatMni,  Prior. 

He  quoted  texts  right  upon  our  Savionr,  though  he 
expounded  them  wrong.  Atterbury. 

I  proposed  this  passage  entire,  to  take  off  the  dis- 
guise wnich  its  quoter  put  upon  it.  Id, 

He  will,  in  the  middle'  of  a  session,  quote  nes- 
sagBB  out  df  Plato  and  Pindar.  Swift*t  MiteOkmut, 

Some  for  renown  on  scraps  of  learning  dote. 
And  think  they  grow  immortal  as  they  quote. 
To  patchwork  learned  quotations  are  allied, 
Both  strive  to  make  oar  poverty  our  pride.    Young, 

Quotation,  sir,  is  a  good  thiog ;  there  is  a  community 
ot  mind  in  it :  classical  quotation  is  the  parole  of  li- 
terary men  all  over  the  world.  Johnson. 

QUOTH,  verb  imperfict.  The  only  part  of 
Sax.  cpoSan ;  Teut.  queden^  to  say,  retained  in 
English,  and  now  only  used  in  ludicrous  lan- 
guage. It  is  used  by  Sidney  irregularly  in  the 
second  person.  Quoth  I,  means,  say  I,  or  said 
I :  quoth  he,  says  he,  or  said  he. 

Enjoying,  quoth  you.  Sidney, 

Shall  we,  quoth  he,  so  basely  brook 
This  paltry  ass  t  Hudibrtu, 

QUOTID'IAN,  (u^\  &  n.  t.  Fr.  guotidien: 
Lat.  guotidiartus.  Daily ;  happening  every  day; 
a  fever  returning  daily. 

If  I  Gonld  meet  that  fancymonger,  I  wonld  give 


him  counsel ;  for  he  seems  to  have  the  quotidian  of 
love.  Sfuuetpeote* 

Quotidian  things,  and  equidistant  hence 

Shot  him  for  man  in  one  circumference.    Domne. 

Nor  was  this  a  short  fit  of  shaking,  as  an  ague, 
but  a  quotidian  fever,  always  increasing  to  hieher  in- 
flammation. Kin^  uunHm, 

QUOTIENT,  n.  f .  French  quotient ;  Latin 
quoiies.    The  resulting  sum  in  division. 

In  arithmetick,  quotient  is  the  number  produced  by 
the  division  of  the  two  given  numbers  the  one  by  the 
other.  Cocker. 

To  make  all  the  steps  belonging  to  the  same  pair 
of  stairs  of  an  equal  height,  they  consider  the  heieht 
of  the  room  in  feet  and  inches,  and  multiply  the  feet 
l^  twelve,  whose  product,  with  the  numoer  of  odd 
inches,  gives  the  sum  of  the  whole  height  in  inches, 
which  sum  they  divide  by  the  number  of  steps  th«r 
intend  to  have  in  that  height,  and  the  quotient  shall 
be  the  number  of  inches  and  parts  that  each  step 
shall  be  high.  JfiMRm. 

QUO-WARRANTO,  in  law,  a  writ  which  lies 
against  a  person  or  corporation  that  usurps  any 
franchise  or  liberty  against  the  king,  in  order  to 
oblige  them  to  show  by  what  right  and  title  he 
claims  such  franchise.  This  writ  also  lies  for 
mis-user  or  non-user  of  privileges  granted.  The 
attorney-general  may  exhibit  a  quo-warranto  in 
the  crown  office  against  any  particular  persons, 
or  bodies  politic  or  corporate,  who  use  any  fran* 
chise  or  privilege  without  having  a  leeal  grant  or 
prescription  for  the  same ;  and  a  judgment  ob* 
tained  upon  it  is  final,  as  being  a  writ  of  right 


R. 


R  is  called  the  canine  letter,  because  it  is  uttered 
with  some  resemblance  to  the  growl  or  snarl  of  a 
cur;  it  has  one  constant  sound  in  English;  as, 
red,  rose,  more,  muriatic ;  in  words  derived  from 
the  Greek,  it  is  fbllowed  by  an  A,  as  rhapsody :  r 
is  never  mute,  unless  the  second  r  may  be  ac- 
counted mute,  where  two  are  used ;  as  myrrh. 
R  is  a  liquid  consonant,  being  the  seventeenth 
letter  of  our  alphabet.  Its  sound  is  formed  by 
a  guttural  extrusion  of  the  breath  vibrated  througn 
the  mouth,  with  a  sort t>f  quivering  motion  of  the 
tongue,  drawn  from  the  teeth  and  canulated  with 
the  tip  a  little  elevated  towards  the  palate. 
When  not  aspirated,  it  is  always  followed  by  a 
vowel  at  the  beginning  of  words  and  syllables. 
R  would  seem  to  have  a  softer  sound  among  the 
ancient  Romans  than  among  us,  by  its  being  fre- 
'  quently  interposed  to  prevent  the  clashing  of 
vowels ;  as  in  rarus,  tipawe,  nurus  from  woq,  mu- 
rex  from  fivaHi,  mus  muris  from  fiv^  /ivoc ;  for 
Iletrusci  they  frequently  wrote  Thusci,  and  even 
Tusci ;  and  for  sursum  susum  ;  prorsus,  prosus. 
In  fact  there  was  that  similarity  between  the 
sound  of  the  5  and  r,  that,  as  the  Romans  avoided 
the  doubling  of  their  consonants,  they  dropped 
the  r  in  such  words ;  the  s  supplying  the  place 
of  both.  Hence  too  it  came  to  pass  that,  what 
they  at  first  pronounced  asa,  asena,  casmen,  was 
afterwards  ara,  arena,  carmen ;  and  those  first 


named  Fusii  and  Valeaii  were  afterwards  called 
Furii  and  Valerii.  Cicero  tells  us,  the  Papirii 
were  first  called  Papisii ;  and  even  fixes  the  time 
when  the  change  was  made,  viz.  in  the  year  of 
Rome  415. 

From  the  same  softness  of  the  sound  of  the  r, 
it  came  to  be  used  indifierently  with  the  /,  in 
many  words;  e.  gr.  Latiarius  and  Latialis,  Pali- 
lia  and  Parilia,  &c. ;  but  it  still  more  frequently 
degenerated  into  / ;  thus  remures  became  chan^ 
ed  into  lemures ;  interlego,  perluceo,  into  intd- 
ligo  and  pelluceo ;  frater  into  fratellus,  &c.  As 
an  abbreviation,  in  the  notes  of  the  ancients,  R. 
or  RO.  signifies  Roma ;  R.  C.  Romana  ci vitas. 
See  Abbreviation.  In  the  prescriptions  of  phy- 
sicians, R.  stands  for  recipe,  i.  e.  take.  As  a 
numeral,  R  anciently  stood  for  eighty;  and 
with  a  dash  over  it,  thus  R,  for  80,000 ;  but  the 
GreeV  p ,  with  a  small  mark  over  it,  signified 
100;  with  the  same  mark  under  it  denoted  1000 
X  100 ;  thus  p,  signified  100,000.  In  the  He- 
brew numeration  *>  denoted  200 ;  and  with  two 

horizontal  points  over  it  1000  x  200;  thus  *i 
=:  200,000. 

RAAB,  a  country  of  Hungary,  on  the  Danube 
and  Raab  rivers,  has  an  area  of  600  square  miles, 
with  78,000  inhabitants,  of  whom  about  1000  are 
Jews.     It  contains  a  number  of  hills,  on  which 


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▼ines  m  fhe  cultnie,  flod  produces  com  and  ptas- 
turage. 

Raab,  Gyoii,  or  Nagy-Gyor,  the  capita],  is  a 
considerable  town,  situated  in  a  fine  plain,  and 
nearly  surrounded  by  the  Danube,  the  Raab,and 
the  Kabnitz.  It  is  fortified  by  nature  and  art ; 
and  has  a  large  glacis  and  open  space  between  the 
town  and  tbe  suburbs.  Most  of  the  houses  are 
of  stone,  and  some  of  them  very  handsome.  It 
is  a  bishop's  see,  and  contains  11,000  inhabitants. 
Tbe  chief  manufacture  is  cutlery,  particularly 
knives  and  swords.  A  theological  academy  was 
erected  here  in  1T50 ;  here  also  the  Lutherans 
have  a  college.  Raab  was  a  place  of  strength  in 
the  time  of  the  Romans ;  but  the  present  fortifi- 
cations are  modem.  In  the  sixteetithund  seven- 
teenth centuries,  when  the  Turks  advanced  into 
Hungary, it  fell  for  a  time  into  their  hands  and  sus- 
tained a  siege  of  some  length  ftom  th6  French  in 
1809.  Thirty-eijht  miles  S.  S.  E.  of  Presburg, 
and  sixty-sfx  E.  5.  E.  of  Vienna. 

RAAMSES,  an  ancient  town  of  Egypt,  said 
to  have  been  built  in  the  time  of  Joseph's  minis- 
try, as  one  of  Pharaoh's  store-houses. 

RAASAY,  or  Raaza,  one  of  the  Hebrides^ 
lying  between  the  mainland  of  Scotland  and 
Skye,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  a  narrow 
soand.  It  is  a  rough,  rocky,  and  indifiierently 
fmitfol  island,  with  bold  and  dangerous  shores, 
fifteen  miles  long  by  about  two  broad,  and  contain- 
ing thirty-one  square  miles  and  a  half.  The  west 
coast  rises  to  a  great  height  above  the  sea.  Near 
the  south  end  of  it  is  Dunlan,  a  lofty  hiM,  whence 
many  rivulets  descend. 

RABATE',  t7.7i.        )     Fr.  rabattre,  rabat, 

Raba'to,  n.  t.  yreAater:    Ital.  rabato. 

Rab'bet,  t7.  a.  &  n. «.  >  To  reduce ;  bring 
down;  particularly  to  bring  down  or  recover  a 
hawk  to  the  fist :  the  rabato  is  the  old  folding 
down  collar  of  a  shnrt  or  shift :  to  rabbet,  among 
carpenters,  is  to  reduce  or  pare  down  wood  so 
as  to  make  a  joint ;  and  as  a  noun  substantive  the 
joint  so  made.  In  ship-carpentry,  it  signifies  the 
letting  in  of  the  planks  of  the  ship  into  the 
keel. 
I  think  your  other  rabato  were  better.    Skaktpeare, 

They  set  tbe  rabbeU  of  the  door  within  the  rabbett 
of  tbe  door  post.  Mosen. 

RAB'BI,  n.f.)     Heb.  ^3*».  A  doctor  among 
i'     ' 


Rab'bin. 


I  the  Jews. 


Be  not  ye  called  rahbi ;  for  one  is  your  master, 
even  Christ,  and  all  ye  are  brethren. 

Mat,  x&iii.  18. 
The  Hebrew  rahbhu  say  that  nature  hath  given 
man,  for  the  pronouncing  of  all  letters,  the  Ups,  tbe 
teeth,  the  tongue,  the  palate,  and  throat. 

Camdm*s  Rewutim, 

Rabbin,  or  Rabbi,  was  a  title  which  the  doc- 
tors of  the  law  an.'ong  the  Jews  assumed,  and  li- 
terally signifies  masters  or  excellents.  There 
were  several  gradations  before  they  arrived  at 
the  dignity  of  a  rabbin  ;  which  was  not  conferr- 
ed till  they  had  acquired  the  profoundest  know- 
leds^  of  the  law  and  the  traditions.  It  does  not, 
however,  appear  that  there  was  any  fixed  age  or 
previous  examination  necessary;  but  when  a 
man  had  distinguished  himself  by  his  skill  in  the 
Written  and  oral  law,  and  passed  through  the 


8ubordiD«te  degrees,  he  was  saluted  a  (abbin  bj 
the  public  voice.  Ainong  the  modem  Jews,  the 
learned  men  retain  no  other  title  than  that  of 
rabbi  or  rabbins;  they  have  great  respect  paid 
them,  have  the  first  places  or  seats  in  their  syna- 
gogues, determine  all  matters  of  controversy, 
and  frequently  pronounce  upon  civil  aflairs : 
they  have  even  power  to  excommunicate  the  di»- 
obedient. 

RABBINISTS,  among  the  modern  Jews,  an 
appellation  given  to  the  doctrine  of  the  rabo 
bins  concerning  traditions,  in  opposition  to  the 
Cacaites;  who  reject  all  traditions.  See  Kara- 
ites. 

RAFBIT,  n.  i .  Beig.  robbe ;  Swed.  rof;  of 
Goth,  rmf  (also  a  pole).  An  animal  that  lives  on 
plants,  and  burrows  in  the  ground. 

I  knew  a  wench  married,  as  she  went  to  the  gar- 
den for  parsley  to  stuff  a  rabbit,  Shakspmre, 

A  company  of  scholars  going  to  catch  conies,  car- 
ried one  with  them  which  had  not  much  wit,  and 
gave  in  charge  that,  if  be  saw  any,  be  should  be 
Slent  for  fear  of  scaring  of  them ;  but  he  no  sooner 
espied  a  company  of  rabbits,  but  he  cried  aloud,  ecoe 
multi  cuniculi ;  which  he  had  no  sooner  said,  but  tbe 
conies  ran  to  their  burrows ;  and  he,  being  checked  by 
them  for  it,  answered.  Who  would  have  thought  that 
the  rabbits  understood  Latin  ?  oacon. 

Rabbit,  in  zoology.  See  Lepus.  The  buck 
rabbits  will  kill  the  young  ones  if  they  can  get  at 
them ;  and  the  does  in  the  warrens  prevent  this 
by  covering  their  stocks,  or  nests,  with  gravel  or 
earth,  whicn  they  close  so  artificially  up  with  the 
hiuder  part  of  their  bodies,  that  it  is  hard  to  find 
them  out.  They  never  suckle  their  young  ones 
at  any  other  time  than  early  in  the  morning,  and 
late  at  night :,  and  always,  for  eight  or  ten  days, 
close  up  the  hole  at  the  mouth  of  the  nest,  in 
this  careful  manner  when  they  go  out.  After 
this  they  begin  to  leave  a  small  opening,  which 
they  increase  by  degrees;  till  at  lengUi,  when 
they  are  about  three  weeks  old,  the  mouth  of  the 
hole  is  left  wholly  open  that  they  may  go  out,  as 
they  are  then  big  enough  to  take  care  of  them- 
selves*. Those  who  keep  rabbits,  breed  them  in 
hutches ;  but  these  must  be  kept  very  neat  and 
clean,  else  they  will  be  always  subject  to  dis- 
eases. ,  Care  must  be  taken  also  to  keep  the 
bucks  and  does  apart  till  the  latter  have  just 
kindled;  when  they  are  to  be  turned  to  the 
bucks.  In  choosing  tame  rabbits,  pick  the 
largest  and  fairest ;  particularly  the  silvered -hair- 
ed ones,  which  sell  better  than  any  other.  Their 
food  may  be  colewort  and  cabbage  leaves,  car- 
rots, parsnips,  apple  rinds,  green  com,  and 
vetches ;  also  vine  leaves,  grass,  fruits,  oats,  and 
oat-meal,  milk  thistles,  sow  thistles, and  the  like; 
but  with  these  moist  foods  they  must  have  a  pro- 
portionable quantity  of  dry  food,  as  hay,  bread, 
oats,  bran,  &c.,  else  they  will  grow  pot-bellied, 
and  die.  Bran  and  grains  mixed  together  are 
proper.  In  winter  they  will  eat  hav,  oats,  and 
chafi",  and  these  may  be  given  them  three  times  a 
day ;  but,  when  they  eat  green  things,  they  must 
not  drink  at  all,  else  they  will  fall  into  a  dropsy. 
At  all  other  times  little  drink  may  be  allowed^ 
but  it  must  always  be  fi^sh.  When  any  green 
herbs  or  grass  are  cut  for  their  food,  care  must 
be  taken  that  there  be  no  hemlock  among  it ;  as 


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k  is  poison  to  them.  Rabbits  are  subject  to  two 
diseases;  1st,  the  rot^  which  is  caused  by  too 
large  a  quantity  of  greens,  or  from  ginng  them 
fresh  gathered  and  wet  with  dew  or  rain.  The 
greens  therefore  are  always  to  be  given  dry ;  and 
a  sufficient  quantity  of  dry  food  roiled  with  them : 
the  best  food  is  the  shortest  and  sweetest  hay 
that  can  be  got,  of  which  one  load  will  serve  200 
couples  a  year ;  and,  out  of  this  stock  of  200, 200 
may  be  eaten  in  the  family,  200  sold,  and  a  suffi- 
cient number  kept  for  breeding.  The  other  dis- 
ease is  a  sort  of  madness :  this  may  be  known 
by  their  wallowing  and  tumbling  about  with  their 
heels  upwards,  and  hopping  in  any  odd  manner 
into  their  boxes.  This  distemper  is  supposed  to 
be  owing  to  the  rankness  of  their  feeding;  and 
the  general  cure  is  the  keeping  them  low,  and 
giving  them  the  prickly  herb  allied  tare-thistle 
to  eat.  The  general  computation  of  males  and 
females  is,  £at  one  buck  rabbit  will  serve  for 
nine  does ;  some  allow  ten  to  one  buck.  The 
wild  rabbits  are  either  to  be  taken  by  small  cur 
dogs,  or  by  spaniels  bred  up  to  the  sport ;  and 
the  places  of  hunting  those  who  *straggle  from 
their  burrows  is  under  close  hedges  or  bushes, 
or  among  com  fields  and  fresh  pastures.  The 
owners  use  to  course  them  with  small  greyhounds. 
The  common  method  is  by  neU  called  purse 
nets,  and  ferrets.  The  ferret  is  sent  into  the  hole 
to  fetch  them  out;  but  the  purse  net,  being  spread 
over  the  hole,  takes  them  as  they  come  out.  The 
ferret's  mouth  must  be  muffled,  and  then  the  rab- 
bit gets  no  harm.  A  hay  net  or  two  may  also  be 
put  up  at  a  small  distance  from  the  burrows  that 
are  to  be  hunted;  thus  very  few  will  escape. 
Some  who  have  not  ferrets  smoke  the  rabbits  out 
of  their  holes  with  burning  brimstone  and  orpi- 
ment ;  but  this  is  very  detrimental  to  the  place, 
as  no  rabbit  will  for  a  long  time  afterwards  come 
near  it    See  Warren.  4 

RAFBLE,  n.  #.  i     Lat.  rabula;  baib.  Lat. 

Rab'blem ENT.  S  rabtdari ;  French  racaUle  ; 
Belg.  rapaljcy  rabbelan,  A  tumultuous  crowd ; 
an  assembly  of  low  people ;  both  nouns  are  thus 
applied. 

A  rode  nbblement. 
Whose  like  he  never  saw,  he  dnrst  not  bide, 
But  got  his  ready  steed,  and  fast  away  'gan  ride» 


(^onntrymen  will  je  relent  and  yield  to  mercy. 
Or  let  a  rahbU  lead  ye  to  youi  deaths  ?  Shahp^are. 

Go  bring  the  rabble  here  to  this  place.  Id, 

The  rabhUment  hooted,  clapped  their  chopt  hands, 
and  uttered  a  deal  of  stioking  breath.  id. 

Of  these  his  several  ravishments,  betrayings,  and 
stealing  away  of  men's  wives,  came  in  all  those  an- 
cient fables,  and  all  that  rabble  of  Grecian  forgeries. 

Baleigh. 

There  will  be  always  tyrants,  murderers,  thieves^ 
traitors,  and  other  of  the  same  rabblement.  Camden. 

There  is  a  rabble  amongst  the  gentry,  as  well  as 
the  commonalty,  a  sort  of  plebeian  beads,  whose 
fancy  moves  with  the  same  wheel  as  these  men. 

Sir  T,  Browne, 

The  better  sort  abhors  scurrility. 
And  often  censures  what  the  rabUe  like,  ftotcommon. 

I1iat  profane,  atheistical,  epicurean  rabble,  whom 
the  whole  nation  so  rings  of,  are  not  the  wisest  men 
in  the  world.  South, 

To  gratify  the  barbarous  audience,  I  gave  them  a 
short  rabbU  scene,  because  the  mob  are  represented  by 


Plotarch  and  Polyblus  with  the  ma 

baseness  and  cowardice.  Drydm. 

His  enemies  have  only  been  able  to  make  ill 
impressioiis  upon  the  low  and  ignorant  rabble,  and  to 
put  the  dregs  of  the  people  in  a  ferment. 

Addium^e  Fredudder, 

^RABELAIS  (Francis),  a  French  writer  of  the ' 
sixteenth  century,  was  bom  at  Chinon,  in  Tou- 
raine  about  1483.  He  was  first  a  Franciscan 
friar,  but  quitting  his  religious  habit  studied  phy- 
sic at  Montpelier,  where  he  took  his  degree  of 
M.  D.  Some  time  after  he  came  to  Rome  as 
physician  in  ordinary  to  cardinal  John  du  BeU 
lay,  archbishop  of  Paris.  On  a  second  joumqr 
to  Rome,  he  obtained,  in  1536,  a  briefto  qualify 
him  for  holding  ecclesiastical  benefices ;  and,  by 
the  interest  of  cardinal  Du  Bellay,  was  received 
as  a  canon  in  the  abbey  of  St.  Man'r,  near  Paris. 
His  knowledge  in  physic  rendered  him  doubly 
useful ;  but,  as  he  was  a  man  of  wit  and  humor, 
many  ridiculous  things  are  reported  of  him.  He 
published  several  works ;  but  his  chief  perform- 
ance is  a  strange  incoherent  romance,  called  the 
History  of  Gargantua  and  Pantagruel,  a  satire. 
He  died  about  1553. 

RAB'lD,adj,  Lat. rafrudis.  Fierce;  furious; 
mad. 

A  woman  had  her  coat  torn  by  a  aiad  dog,  which 
she  a  considerable  time  after  sewed  up,  and  bit  off 
the  thread  with  her  teeth,  and  some  time  after  died 
ra^id  from  biting  off  that  thread.  (Htidanus  Obs. 
Cbir.)  Also  a  man  only  kissing  his  children  to  take 
his  leave  of  them  when  he  had  the  ro^iei  upon  him, 
they  all  soon  after  died  rabid, 

Dieeam  of  Barbadoee,  p.  249. 

RABIRIUS  (Caius),  a  Roman  knight,  who 
lent  an  immense  sum  of  money  to  Ptolemy  Au- 
letes,  king  of  Egypt.  The  monarch  afterwards 
not  only  refused  to  repay  him,  but  confined  him, 
and  endangered  his  life.  Rabirius  escaped  from 
Egypt  with  difficulty ;  but,  on  his  return  to  Rome, 
he  was  accused  by  the  senate  of  having  lent  mo- 
ney to  an  African  prince  for  unlawful  purposes. 
He  was  ably  defended  by  Cicero,  and  acquitted 
with  difficulty. 

Rabirius,  a  Roman  poet  in  the  age  of  Augus- 
tus. He  wrote  a  poem  on  the  victory  over  An- 
tony at  Actium.  Seneca  has  conipared  him  to 
Virgil  for  elegance  and  majesty ;  but  Quintilian 
does  not  speak  so  favorabljf  of  him. 

Rabirius,  an  architect  in  the  reign  of  Oomi- 
tian.  He  built  a  celebrated  palace  for  the  em- 
peror, of  which  the  ruins  are  still  seen  at  Rome. 

RABNABAD,  a  low  island  in  the  bay  of 
Bengal,  formed  by  the  debris  of  the  river  Ganges, 
and  separated  from  the  mainUnd  by  a  narrow 
strait.  It  is  fifteen  miles  in  length,  by  five  in 
breadth,  and  is  covered  with  long  grass  and  un- 
derwood, the  habitation  of  deer  and  tigers.  It 
is  nearly  inundated  during  the  spring  tides;  and 
is  not  inhabited.    Long.  QO®  26'  E.,  lat  22**  N. 

RACE,  n.  s.  Fr.  race ;  Span,  ra^a ;  Ital.  roiza^ 
of  Lat.  radixj  a  root  A  family ;  course  of  gene- 
rations ;  particular  breed :  also  used  for  a  taste  of 
the  root;  hence  a  strong  taste  or  flavor.  See  the 
extract  from  Temple,  and  Racy. 

A  race  of  youthful  and  unhandled  colts. 
Fetching  mad  bounds. 

Shakgpeare,  Merchanjt  of  Vmiee^ 


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347 


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Hn  fM*  of  imtles,  fit  for  thopkragh  is  fared. 

Chapman. 
Of  gardens  there  may  be  forms  wholly  irregular^ 
that  may  have  more  beauty  than  of  others ;  but  they 
most  owe  it  to  some  eztraordiaary  dispositions  of  na- 
tnre  in  the  seat,  or  some  great  race  of  fancy  or  jodg* 
ment  in  contrivance.  Temple. 

He  in  a  moment  will  create 
Another  world ;  out  of  man,  a  race 
Of  men  innumerable,  there  to  dwell.      M'dien. 

Male  he  created  thee,  but  thy  consort 
Female  for  nee.  Id, 

Instead 
Of  spirits  malign,  a  better  raee  to  bring 
Into  their  vacant  room.  Id. 

High  as  the  mother  of  the  go^  in  place, 
And  proud  like  her  of  an  immoital  mwe. 

Thffdtn, 
Hence  the  long  race  of  Alban  fathers  come.    Id. 
In  the  races  of  mankind,  and  families  of  the  world, 
there  remains  not  to  one  above  another  the  least  pre* 
teuce  to  have  the  right  of  inheritance.  Loate. 

If  they  are  all  debased  and  willing  slaves, 
The  young  but  breathing  to  grow  grey  in  bondage. 
And  the  dd  sinking  to  ignoUe  graves. 
Of  such  a  roes  no  matter  who  is  king.        Mwrphjf. 
Race,  n.  s.  &  v.  n.  "J  Sax.  ji»r;  ^^th.  Swed. 
Rac£'-hoksi:,  >  and  I:»l.  rtu^  of  rwuMy  ren- 

Ra'cer.  Ifta,  to  run. — ^Thomson. 

Contest  in  runnitig;  match  between  running  ani- 
mals; course  on  die  feet;  progress;  train:  to 
run  in  a  race:  a  race-horse  or  racer  is  a  horse 
thus  used :  the  latter  is  also  applied  to  any  ani- 
mal that  runs  a  race. 

It  suddenly  fell  from  an  excess  of  favour,  which 
many  examples  have  taught  them  never  stopt  his 
racif  till  it  came  to  a  headlong  overthrow.     Sidney. 

The  flight  of  many  birds  is  swifter  than  the  raee  of 
many  beasts.  Bofion, 

An  ofiensive  war  is  made,  which  is  unjust  in  the 
aggressor ;  the  prosecution  and  raee  of  the  war  car- 
rieth  the  defendant  to  invade  the  ancient  patrimony 
of  the  first  aegressor,  who  is  now  turned  defendant ; 
shall  he  sit  down,  and  not  put  himself  in  defence? 

Id. 

The  raee  of  this  war  fell  upon  the  loss  of  Urbin, 

which  he  reobtained.  Id. 

To  describe  meet  and  games 

Of  tilting  furniture.  Jfiiton. 

My  f«ef  of  gloiT  ran,  and  nice  of  shame.        Id. 

The  great  light  of  dav  yet  wants  to  ran 
Much  of  his  race  though  steep.  Id, 

llie  reason  Hudibras  gives,  why  those  who  can 
talk  on  trifles  speak  with  the  greatest  fluency,  is.  that 
the  tongue  is  lUe  a  race-hone,  which  runs  the  faster 
the  less  weight  it  carries.  Addison. 

Stand  forth  y|e  champions,  who  the  gauntlet  wield, 
Or  you,  the  swiftest  racers  of  the  field ; 
Stand  forth,  ye  wrestlers,  who  tiiese  pastimes  grace, 
I  wield  the  gn^untlet,  and  I  ran  the  race.        Pope. 
A  poet's  foftn  ^  placed  before  their  eyes. 
And  bad  the  nimblest  racer  seize  the  prize.     Id. 

He  safe  returned,  the  raee  of  glory  past. 
New  to  his  friends'  embrace.  Id.  Odyssey. 

For  every  horse,  mare,  or  geldin^^,  honk  fide,  kept 
for  the  purpose  of  roctn^  or  running  for  any  plate, 
prize,  or  sum  of  money,  or  other  thing,  or  kept  in 
training  for  any  of  the  said  purposes,  whether  in  the 
stables,  of  the  proprietor  or  proprietors,  or  of  any 
other  person  or  peraons,  the  sum  of  2/.  8#. 

46  G^.  III.  c.  13. 
A  poet  hurts  himself  by  writing  prose,  as  a  race- 
horse nurte  his  motions  by  condescending  to  draw  in 
&  team.  Sheiuume. 


Away  went  Gilpin— who  but  he? 

His  fame  soon  spread  around, 

He  carries  weight !  he  rides  a  raee ! 

Tis  for  a  thousand  pound !  Oowper, 

Race,  in  general,  signifies  running  with  others 
in  order  to  obtain  a  prize,  either  on  foot,  or  on 
horseback,  in  chariots,  &c.    The  race  was  one  of 
the  exercises  among  the  ancient  Grecian  games, 
which  was  performed  in  a  course  containing  125 
paces ;  and  those  who  contended  in  these  foot 
races  were  frequently  clothed  in  armour.    Cha* 
riot  and  horse  races  also  made  a  part  of  these 
ancient  games.    Races  were  known  in  England  , 
in  very  early  times.    Fitz-Stephen,  who  wrote  in 
the  days  of  Henry  II.,  mentions  the  great  de*light 
that  the  citizens  of  London  took  tn  the  diversion, 
from  a  generous  emulation  of  showing  superior 
skill  in  horsemanship.    Races  appear  to  have 
been  in  rogue  in  the  reign  of  queen  Elizabeth, 
and  to  have  been  carried  to  such  excess  as  to  in- 
iure  the  fortunes  of  the  nobility,  though  it  is  pro- 
bable that  the  parsimonious  queen  did  not  ap- 
prove of  it.    In  king  James's  reign  places  were 
allotted  for  the  sport :  Croydon  in  the  south,  and 
Garteriy  in  Yorkshire,  were  celebrated  courses^ 
Camden  also  says,  that  in  1607  there  were  races 
near  York,  and  the  prize  was  a  little  golden  bell. 
RacE-HoasES.  In  preparing  the  race-horse  for 
running,  it  is  first  necessary  to  examine  whether 
he  be  low  or  high  in  flesh ;  and  whether  he  be 
dull  and  heavy,  or  brisk  and  lively  abroad.    If 
he  appear  dtiU  and  heavy,  and  there  is  reason  to 
suppose  it  is  owing  to  too  hard  riding,  or,  as  the 
jockeys  express  it,  to  some  grease  that  has  been 
dissolved  in  hunting,,  and  has  not  been  removed 
by  scouring,  then  the  proper  remedy  is  half  an 
ounce  of  diapente  given  in  a  pint  of  good  sack ; 
this  will  at  once  remove  the  cause,  and  revive 
the^animal's  spirits.  Afi^r  this,  for  the  first  week, 
he  is  fed  with  oats,  bread,  and  split  beans ;  giv- 
ing him  sometimes  the  one,  and  sometimes  the 
other  as  he  likes  best;  and  always  leaving  some 
in  the  locker,  that  he  may  feed  at  leisure  when 
left  alone.    When  the  eroom  returns  at  the  feed- 
ing time,  whatever  is  left  of  this  must  be  removed 
and  fresh  given ;  thus  he  will  soon  become  high 
spirited,  wanton,  and  playfal.     Every  day  he 
must  be  rode  out  an  ainng,  and  every  other  day 
it  will  be  proper  to  give  him  a  little  more  exer- 
cise ;  but  not  so  much  as  to  make  him  sweat 
much.    The  beans  and  oats  in  this  case  are  to  be 
put  into  a  bag,  and  beaten  till  the  hulls  are  all 
ofi*,  and  then  winnowed  clean ;  and  the  bread  is 
to  have  the  crust  clean  cut  off.    If  the  horse  be 
in  good  flesh  and  spirits  when  taken  up  for  its 
month's  preparation,  the  diapente  must  be  omitt- 
ed ;  and  the  chief  business  will  be  to  give  him 
eood  food,  and  so  much  exercise  as  will  keep 
him  in  wind,  without  oversweating  him  or  ex- 
hausting his  spirit.    When  he  takes  large  exer* 
cises  afterwartis,  towards  the  end  of  the  month, 
it  will  be  proper  to  have  some  horses  in  the  place 
to  run  against  him.    This  will  put  him  upon  his 
mettle,  and  the  beating  them  will  give  nim  spi- 
rits. This,  however,  is  to  be  cautiously  observed, 
that  he  has  not  a  bloody  heat  given  him  for  ten 
days  or  a  fortnight  before  the  plate  is  to  be  run 
for ;  and  that  the  last  heat  that  is  given  him  the 
day  before  the  race,  must  be  in  his  clothes :  this 


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348 


RAC 


will  make  him  rmi  with  much  more  vigor  when 
stripped  for  the  race,  aod  feeling  the  cold  wind 
on  every  part.  In  the  ^^Bcond  week  he  should 
have  the  same  food,  and  more  exercise.  In  the 
last  fortnight  he  must  have  dried  oats,  that  have 
been  hulled  by  beating.  After  this  they  are  to 
be  wetted  in  a  quantity  of  whites  of  «ggs,  beaten 
up»  and  then  laid  out  in  the  sun  to  dry ;  and 
when  dry,  as  before,  the  horse  ia  to  have  them. 
This  sort  of  food  is  rery  light  of  di^^estion,  and 
very  good  for  his  wind.  The  beans  this  time 
should  be  given  more  sparingly,  and  the  bread 
should  be  made  of  three  parts  wheat  and  one 
psirt  beans.  If  he  should  become  costive  under 
this  course,  he  must  then  have  some  ale  and 
whites  of  eggs  beaten  together ;  this  will  coqI 
him,  and  keep  his  body  moist  In  the  last  week  ' 
the  mash  is  to  be  omitted,  and  barley  water  given 
him  in  its  place :  every  day,  till  the  day  More 
the  race,  he  should  have  his  fill  of  hay ;  then  he 
must  have  it  given  him  more  sparingly,  that  he 
may  have  time  to  digest  it;  and  in  the  morning 
of  the  race-day  he  must  have  a  toast  or  two  of 
white  biiead  soaked  in  sack,  and  the  same  just 
before  he  is  let  out  to  the  field.  This  is  an  ex^ 
cellent  method,  because  .the  two  extremes  of  ful- 
ness and  fasting  are  at  this  time  to  be  equally 
avoided;  the  one  hurting  his  wind,  and  the  other 
occasioning  fiuntness.  After  he  has  had  his  food, 
the  litter  is  to  be  shaken  up,  and  the  stable  kept 
quiet,  that  he  may  be  disturbed  by  nothing  till 
he  is  taken  out  to  run. 

The  amusement  of  horse-facing  gradually  ob- 
tained its  (xresent  celebrity.  In  1699  private 
matches  between  gentlemen,  who  were  their  own 
jockeys  and  riders,  vrete  very  common ;  and,  in 
the  reign  of  James  I.,  puUic  noes  were  establish* 
ed  at  various  pUces,  when  the  discipline  and 
mode  of  preparing  the  horses  for  running,  &c., 
were  much  ine  same  as  now.  The  most  cele- 
brated races  of  that  time  were  called  bell  courses, 
the  prize  of  the  conqueror  being  a  bell :  hencey 
perhaps,  the  phrase  of  bearing  the  bell,  applied 
to  excellence.  In  the  end  of  Charles  I.'s  reign, 
races  were  oerformed  in  Hyde  Park.  Newmar- 
ket was  auo  a  place  for  the  same  purpoee, 
though  it.  was  first  used  for  hunting.  Racing 
was  revived  soon  after  the  Rertoratton,  and  much 
encouraged  by  Charles  II.,  who  appointed  races 
for  his  own  amusement  at  Datcbet  Mead,  when 
he  resided  at  Windsor.  Newmarket,  lM>wever, 
became  the  principal  place.  The '  king  attended 
in  person,  established  a  honse  for  his  own  aceom- 
modation,  and  entered  horses  in  his  own  name. 
Instead  of  bells,  be  gave  a  silver  bowl  or  cup, 
value  100  guineas;  on  which  prize  the  exploits 
and  pedigree  of  the  snceessful  horse  were  gene« 
rally  engraved.  William  III«  added  to  the 
plates,  and  founded  an  academy  for  riding:  and 
queen  Anne  continued  the  bounty,  adding  seve- 
ral  plates  herself.  George  I.,  towards  the  end  of 
his  reign,  discontinued  the  phttes,  and  gave  in 
their  room  100  guineas.  An  act  was  pSMed  in 
the  13th  of  George  II.  for  suppressing  races  by 
ponies  and  other  small  and  weak  horses,  &c.,  by 
which  all  matches  for  any  prize  under  the  value  <^ 
£50  are  prohibited,  under  a  penalty  6f  £200  to  be 
paid  by  the  owner  of  each  horse  mnning,  and 
£lOO  by  such  as  advertise  the  plate ;  and  by 


which  each  hone  entered  to  run,  if  five  jeais 
old,  is  obliged  to  carry  ten  stone ;  if  six,  eleven; 
and  if  seven,  twelve.  It  was  also  ordained  that 
no  person  shall  run  any  horse  at  a  course,  unless 
it  be  his  own,  nor  enter  more  than  one  horse  for 
the  same  plate,  upon  pain  of  forfeiting  the  horses; 
and  also  every  horse-race  must  be  b^un  and 
ended  in  the  same  day.  Horses  may  run  lor  the 
value  of  £50  with  any  weight,  and  at  any  place : 
13  Geo.  II.  cap.  19 ;  18  Geo.  II.  cap.  34.  Be- 
renger's  History  and  Art  of  Horsemanship.  . 
A  plaintiff  shall  not  be  allowed  to  recover  a  wa- 
ger on  such  a  horse-race  as  is  illegal  within  the 
statute.  4  Term.  Rep.  1.  A  match  for  £25  a 
side  is  a  match  t>r  £50. 

RAC£BfA'TION,ff.s.  Lat  racemtit.  Clus> 
ter,  like  that  of  grapes. 

A  cock  will  in  one  day  fertilitate  the  whole  ran- 
motion  or  cluster  of  eggs,  which  are  not  excluded  ia 
many  weaks  after.  SruwnB, 

RACHORE,  a  district  of  Hindostan  in  the  pro- 
vince of  Bejapore.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north 
by  the  Kutnah,  and  on  the  south  by  the  Tung- 
budra,  and  is  extremely  fertile.  Its  chief  towns 
are  Rachore  and  Anamsagur. 

RACINE  (John),  of  the  French  academv, 
treasurer  of  Moulins,  and  secretary  to  Louis  XIV., 
was  bom  at  Ferre-Milon  in  1639.  He  prodoced 
his  Thebaide  when  very  young;  and  aherwarda 
other  pieces,  which  met  with  great  success,  tboogb 
they  appealed  when  Corneille  was  in  his  highoft 
reputation.  In  his  career,  however,  he  did  not 
foil  to  meet  with  opposition  from  envy  and  cabal. 
Owing  to  chagrin  from  this  circumstance,  and 
partly,  it  is  said,  from  religions  motives,  be  re- 
solved to  quit  the  theatre  for  ever,  in  his  thirty- 
eighth  year ;  he  even  formed  a  design  of  becom- 
ing a  Carthusian  friar,  but^  at  last  married  the 
daughter  of  the  treasurer  of  Amiens,  by  whom 
he  had  seven  children.  He  had  been  admitted  a 
member  of  the  French  academy  in  1673,  and  in 
1677  he  was  nominated  with  Boileau,  with  whom 
he  was  ever  in  strict  friendship,  to  vrrite  tlie  his- 
tory of  Louis  XIV.  Boileau  anfl  Racine,  after 
havinff  for  some  time  labored  at  this  work,  per- 
ceived that  history  was  not  their  fort,  aod  Kacine 
spent  the  latter  years  of  his  lifo  in  composing 
an  accoant  of  the  house  of  Port-royal,  the  place 
of  his  education  ;  which,  though  well  drawn  up, 
has  not  been  published.  Having  drawn  up  a  rae^ 
morial  upon  the  miseries  of  the  people,  and  the 
means  of  relieving  them,  he  one  day  lent  it  to 
madame  de  Maintenon,  when  the  kmg,  coming 
in,  commended  the  xaJ  of  EUcine,  but  disap- 
proved of  his  meddling  with  things  that  did  not 
concern  him.  The  king's  displeasure  is  said  to  have 
so  mortt6ed  the  poet  that  it  brought  oo  a  fever, 
of  which  he  died  the  32d  of  April,  1G90.  Hie 
king  sent  ofteivto  him  in  his  illness;  and  after 
his  death  settled  a  handsome  pension  upon  his 
family.— There  is  nothing  in  the  French  language 
written  with  more  wit  and  elegance  than  his 
pieces  in  prose;  and, besides  his  plays,  several  of 
his  letters  have  been  published.  Racine's  works 
were  printed  at  Amsterdam  in  1722,  in  2  vols. 
12mo.,  and  a  pompous  edition  was  printed  in  2 
vois.  4to.,  in  1723. 

RA'CINESS,  ff.  f.  Fromiacy.  Thequrfity 
of  being  racy. 


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His  inuget  and  descriptions  of  the  scenes  or  opera- 
tions of  nature  do  not  seetn  to  be  always  copied  from 
original  form,  nor  to  have  the  freshnesSp  raoineu»  and 
energy  of  immediate  obserration.  J<Anson. 

RACKfiL$^v.a.hv.n.^     9elg.  rakke^  from 
Rack'-R£NT,  n. «.  >rekken,    to    extend, 

Rack'-benter.  3 draw    out,    stretch; 

Goth,  rtckia.  An  engine  of  torture  by  stretching 
the  limbs;  any  instrument  of  extension;  a  trail 
of  clouds  as  driven  by  the  wind :  Shakspeare 
uses  it  for  wreck:  torment;  torture:  to  rack  is 
to  stream  or  extend  out  as  clouds  before  the 
wind;  to  torment  by  the  rack;  torment  in  any 
way;  screw;  force;  extend;  defecate  or  draw  on 
from  the  lees :  rack-rent  is  rent  stretched  to  the 
utmost:  rack-renter,  be  who  pays  it. 

The  landlocds  there  shamefully  rack  their  tenants, 
encting  of  them,  besides  his  corenants,  what  he 
pleaieth.  Sperucr. 

They,  raekiug  and  stretching  Scripture  further 
than  by  God  was  meant,  ase  drawn  into  sundry  in- 
conveniences. Hooker, 
Vex  not  his  ghost ;  O  let  him  pass !  he  hates  him 
That  woald  upon  the  rack  of  this  rough  world 
Siretch  him  out  longer.        Skakspean,  King  Lear. 
The  great  ^lobe  itself. 
Yea,  all  which  it  inherits,  shall  dissolve ; 
And,  like  tifis  insnbstantial  pageant,  faded. 
Leave  not  a  rack  behind.             Id,  Tmtpni* 
We  often  see  against  some  storm, 
A  silence  in  the  Iwavens,  the  rack  stand  still. 
The  bold  winds  speechless,  and  the  orb  below 
As  hush  as  death.                             Id.  Hawda. 

Three  giorious  suns,  each  one  a  perfect  sun, 
Not  separated  with  the  racking  clouds, 
But  severed  in  a  pale  clear-shining  sky. 

Shakgpeare, 
The  winds  in  the  upper  region,  which  move  the 
clouds  above,  which  we  call  the  radc,  and  are  not 
peioeived  below,  pass  without  noise.  Bacon. 

It  is  common  to  draw  wine  or  beer  from  the  lees, 
which  we  call  raddng,  whereby  it  will  clarify  much 
sooner.  Id. 

Did  ever  any  man  upon  the  rack  afflict  himself, 
because  he  had  received  a  cross  answer  from  his  mis- 
tress 1  Toglar. 
These  bows,  being  somewhat  like  the  lone  bdws  in 
nie  amongst  us,  were  bent  only  by  a  man  s  imme- 
diate strength,  without  the  help  of  any  bender  or 
rack  that  are  uwd  to  others.                         WUkhu, 

A  fit  of  the  stone  puts  a  king  to  the  rack,  and 
nakes  him  as  miserable  as  it  does  the  meanest  sub- 
ject Temple, 
The  sisters  turn  the  wheel, 
Empty  the  woolly  rack,  and  fill  the  reel. 

JDrydm. 
As  wtslenr  winds  contending  in  the  sky, 
With  equal  foro«  of  lunn  their  titles  try ; 
They  rage,  they  roar  :  the  doubtful  raJt  of  heaven 
Stands  without  motion,  and  the  tide  undriven.    Id, 

Let  them  feel  the  whip,  the  sword,  the  fire, 
And  in  the  tortures  of  the  rack  expire.  Id. 

He  took  possession  of  his  just  estate, 
Nor  mdbd  his  tenants  with  increase  of  rent.  Id. 
Hold,  O  dreadful  sir. 
You  would  not  rack  an  innocent  old  man. 

Id.  and  Lee. 
Unhappy  most  like  tortured  me, 
.  Their  joints  new  set  to  be  new  racked  again. 

Caeeley. 
The'  apostate  angel,  though  in  pain, 
y tuning  aiond,  but  racked  with  acep  despair. 

MUton. 


The  wisest  among  the  heathens  raiiked  their  wits, 
and  cast  about  every  way,  managing  every  little  ar- 
gument to  the  utmost  advantage. 

TiUffUatCe  Semone. 

Though  this  be  a  quarter  of  his  yearly  income, 
and  the  publick  tax  takes  away  one  hundred,  yet 
this  influences  not  the  yearly  rent  of  the  land,  which 
the  rackrenter  or  undertenant  pays.  Loehe. 

Some  roll  their  cask  about  the  cellar  to  mix  it 
with  the  lees,  and,  after  a  few  days  resettlement, 
rack  it  off.  Mortimer, 

It  was  worth  the  while  for  the  adversary  to  rack 
invention,  and  to  call  in  all  the  succours  of  learning 
and  critical  skill  to  assail  them,  if  possible;  and  to 
wrest  them  out  of  our  hands.  Waterland. 

Have  poor  families  been  ruined  by  raek-renU, 
paid  for  tne  lands  of  the  church  ? 

8mfi*t  Mlscellaniee. 

Rack,  n.  f.  Sax.  pnacca  pjuc;  Goth,  rygg, 
the  back-bone ;  Gr.  paxcc  (Me  Ridge).  Hence 
formerly  a  neck  of  mutton  cut  for  the  table ;  and 
(probably  from  its  similarity  of  shape)  th«  grate 
in  which  hay  is  placed  for  cattle,  or  on  which 
bacon  is  dried:  others  derive  tihis  last  word  from 
Belg.  rak;  Swed.  racke,  range.  See  Range. 
Their  bulls  they  send  to  pastures  far. 
Or  hill,  or  feed  them  at  full  racks  within. 

May^i  Virgil. 

The  best  way  to  feed  cattle  with  it  is  to  put  it  in 
roeii,  because  of  the  great  quantity  they  tread  down. 

Mortimer, 
He  bid  the  nimble  hours 

Bring  forth  the  steeds ;  the  nimble  hours  obey : 

From  their  full  racks  the  generous  steeds  retire. 

Addison. 

The  Rack  is  an  instrument  of  torture,  fur- 
nished with  pulleys,  cords,  &c.,  for  extorting 
confession  from  criminals.  The  trial  by  rack  is 
utterly  unknown  to  the  law  of  England ;  though 
once,  when  the  dukes  of  Exeter  and  Suffolk, 
and  otlier  ministers  of  Henry  VI.  had  laid  a 
design  to  introduce  the  civil  law  into  this  king- 
dom as  the  rule  of  government ;  for  a  beginning 
they  erected  a  rack  for  torture,  which  was  called 
in  derision  the  duke  of  Exeter's  daughter,  and 
still  remains  in  the  tower  of  London,  where  it 
was  occasionally  used  as  an  engine  of  the  state 
not  of  the  law,  more  than  once  in  the  reign  of 
queen  Elizabeth.  But  when,  upon  the  assassi- 
nation of  ViUiers,  duke  of  Buckingham,  by  Fel- 
ton,  it  was  proposed  in  the  privy  council  to  put 
the  assassin  to  the  rack,  to  discover  his  accom- 
plices; the  judges,  being  consulted,  however, 
declared  unanimously,  to  their  own  honor  and 
that  of  the  law,  that  no  such  proceeding  was 
allowable  by  the  laws  of  England.  The  mar- 
quis Beocaria  (chap.  16)  has  proposed  this  pro- 
blem, with  a  gravity  and  precision  truly  mathe- 
matical :  <  The  force  of  the  muscles,  and  the 
sensibility  of  (he  nerves  of  an  innocent  person 
being  given,  it  is  required  to  find  the  degree  of 
pain  necessary  to  make  him  confess  himself 
guilty  of  a  given  crime f 

Rack,  a  spirituous  liquor  made  by  the  Tartars 
of  Tongusia.  This  kind  of  rack  is  made  of 
mare's  milk,  which  is  left  to  be  sour,  and  after- 
wards distilled  twice  or  thrice  between  two 
earthen  pots  closely  stopped ;  whence  the  liquor 
runs  through  a  small  wooden  pine. 

Rack  (Edmund),  a  celebrated  writer  on  agri- 
culture, was  bom«in  Norfolk,  and  a  Quaker.  He 


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wrote  many  essays,  poems,  and  letters,  aod  some 
controversial  tracts,  tie  settled,  about  his  for- 
tieth year,  at  Bath  in  1775,  and  was  soon  intro- 
duced to  the  most  eminent  literati  of  that  place, 
among  whom  Dr.  Wilson  and  Mrs.  Macauley 
highly  esteemed  him  for  his  integrity  and  abili- 
lities.  In  1777  he  published  Mentors  Letters,  a 
work  which  has  run  through  many  editions ;  and 
laid  the  plan  of  an  agricultural  society,  which 
was  soon  adopted  by  four  counties.  He  still 
Airther  advanced  his  fame  by  his  papers  in  the 
Farmer's  Magazine,  and  his  communications  to 
the  Bath  Society's  papers.  His  last  engagement 
was  in  the  History  of  Somersetshire,  where  he 
wrote  the  topographical  parochial  surveys.  This 
work,  in  3  vols.  4to.,  was  published  in  1791,  by 
his  colleague  the  Rev.  Mr.  ColUnson.  Mr. 
Rack  died  of  an  asthma  in  February  1787,  aged 
iifty-lwo. 

RACKET,  n.  s .  Fr.  raquetta ;  Teut.  racket ; 
Ital.  raechetta.  The  instrument  with  which  a 
ball  b  struck  at  tennis :  the  noise  of  a  racket- 
court  ;  hence  any  loud  irreguhir  noise. 

That  the  tennis-court  keeper  knows  better  than  I 
it  is  a  low  ebb  of  linen  with  thee,  when  thou  keepest 
not  TQchtt  there.  Skakspeare, 

When  we  have  matcht  our  racketi  to  these  balU, 
We  will  in  France  play  a  set,  ' 
Shall  strike  his  father's  crown  into  the  hazard,   id. 

The  body  into  which  impression  is  made,  either 
can  yield  backward  or  it  cannot:  if  it  can  yield 
backward,  then  the  impression  made  is  a  motion  ;  as 
we  see  a  stroke  with  a  rochet  upon  a  ball  makes  it 
fly  from  it.  J^ig^ff  on  the  Soul. 

He  talks  much  of  the  motives  to  do  and  forbear, 
how  they  determine  a  reasonable  man,  as  if  he  were 
no  more  thsn  a  tennis-ball,  to  be  tossed  to  and  fro 
by  the  ndtels  of  the  second  causes. 

BramhaU  againtt  Hobbee. 

Ambition  hath  removed  her  lodging,  and  lives  the 
next  door  to  faction,  where  they  keep  such  a  raehet 
that  the  whole  parish  is  disturbed  and  every  night  in 
an  uproar.  Swift, 

RACKOON,  n.  f .  Or  racoon.  A  species  of 
Uasus,  which  see. 
The  neoan  is  a  New  England  animal,  like  a  bad- 
ir,  having  a  tail  like  a  fox,  beine  cloathed  with  a 
lick  and  deep  fur :  it  sleeps  in  ue  day  time  in  a 
hollow  tree,  and  goes  out  a-nights,  nfhea  the  moon 
shines,  to  feed  on  the  sea  side,  where  it  is  hunted  by 
dogs.  ~  B»iey. 

RACONIGl,  or  Raconis,  a  town  of  Pied- 
mont, Italy,  in  the  province  of  Saluzzo,  on  the 
river  Grana,  near  its  junction  with  the  Maira. 
It  IS  surrounded  with  a  wall,  and  contains 
several  good  churches,  but  its  chief  ornament  is 
a  magnificent  castle  and  park  belonging  to  the 
prince  of  Carignano.  Population  10,500,  em- 
ployed for  the  most  part  in  the  itianufecture  of 
silk.  Ten  miles  south  of  Carignano,  and  twenty 
south  of  Turin. 
IIACOON,  in  zoology.  See  Unsus. 
RA'CY,  adj.  Of  Race,  a  root,  which  see. 
Strongly  flavored ;  tasting  strongly  of  the  root. 

Rich  racy  verses  in  which  we 
The  soil,  from  which  they  come,  taste,  smell,  and  see. 

Cowlesf. 
From  his  brsin  that  Helicon  distil. 
Whose  raey  liquor  did  his  offspring  fill. 

,  Denham, 


^ 


The  cyder  at  first  is  very  luscious,  bat,  if  groaad 
more  early,  k  is  more  raey,    Mortimer't  Husbandry, 

The  hospitable  sage,  in  sign 
Of  social  welcome,  mixed  the  raey  wine. 
Late  from  the  mellowing  cask  restored  to  light, 
By  ten  long  years  refin^,  and  rosy  bright.      Pepe. 

RADCLIFFE  (Dr.  John),  an  eminent  Eng- 
lish physician,  bom  at  Wakefield  in  York^ire  in 
1650.  He  vras  educated  at  Oxford,  but  recom- 
mended himself  more  by  his  ready  wit  and  vi- 
vacity than  by  his  acquisitions  in  learning.  He 
began  to  practise  at  Oxford  in  1675 ;  but  never 
paid  any  regard  to  established  rules,  which  he 
censured  widi  great  acrimony ;  and,  as  this  drew 
all  the  old  practitioners  upon  him,  he  lived  in  a 
continual  state  of  hostility  with  them.  Yet  his 
reputation  increased  so  much  that,  before  he  l^d 
baen  two  years  in  business,  his  practice  was  very 
extehsive  among  persons  of  high  rank.  In 
1684  he  removed  to  London,  and  settled  in  Bow 
Street,  Covent  Garden,^where  in  less  than  a  yc&r 
he  had  the  first  practice.  In  1687  the  princess 
Anne  of  Denmark  made  him  her  physician ;  yet, 
when  she  and  her  husband  joined  the  prince  of 
Onmse,  Radcliffe  excused  himself  from  attend- 
ing mem,  on  pretence  of  the  multitude  of  his 
patients.  Nevertheless  he  was  often  sent  for  to 
king  William,  and  incurred  oensifre  for  his  treat- 
ment of  queen  Mary,  who  died  of  the  small-pox ; 
and  soon  after  lost  his  place  about  the  princess 
Anne  by  his  attachment  to  the  bottle.  He  also 
totally  lost  the  fiivor  of  king  William  by  his  nn- 
courtly  freedom.  In  1699,  when  the  king  showed 
him  his  swollen  ancles,  while  the  rest  of  his  body 
was  emaciated,  and  asked  him  what  he  thought  of 
them .'  *  Why  truly  I  would  not  have  your  majesty's 
two  legs  for  your  three  kingdoms,'  replied  Rad- 
cliffe. He  continued  increasing  in  business  and 
insolence  as  long  as  he  lived,  and  was  continn- 
ally  at  war  with  his  brethren  the  physicians; 
who  considered  him  in  no  other  ligrit  than  that 
of  an  active  ingenious  empiric.  He  died  in 
1714 ;  and,  if  he  never  attempted  to  write  any 
thing  himself,  has  perpetuatea  his  memory  by 
founding  a  fine  library  at  Oxford. 

Radcliffe  (Ann),  a  modem  female  novelist, 
bom  in  London,  Jul^  9th,  1764.  Her  father's 
name  was  Ward,  and  at  the  age  of  twenty-three 
she  married  William  Radcliffe,  esq.,  a  student  at 
law,  which  profession,  however,  he  never  fol- 
lowed, but  became  proprietor  of  the  English 
Chronicle.  Mrs.  Raddiffe's  first  performance 
was  a  romance,  entitled  the  Castles  of  Athlen 
and  Dumblaine,  and  the  next  the  Sicilian  Ro- 
mance ;  but  the  first  of  her  works  which  attracted 
much  attention  was  the  Romance  of  the  Forest, 
which  was  followed  by  the  Mysteries  of  Udolpho, 
a  veiy  popular  and  well  conceived  tale.  Her 
last  work,  the  Italian,  produced  her,  it  is  said, 
the  sum  of  £1500.  Besides  these  works  she 
published  a  quarto  volume  of  Travels  through 
Holland  and  along  the  Rhine,  in  1793.  Mrs. 
Radcliffe  suffered  much  in  the  latter  part  of  her 
life  from  asthma,  of  which  she  died  in  London, 
January  9th,  1823. 

RAD'DOCK,  or  Ruddock,  n.s.  From  red. 
A  bird ;  the  red  breast. 

The  raddoeh  would 
With  charitable  bill  bring  thee  all  this. 


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AA'DIANCE,!!.!. 

Ra'i 
Ra'i 
Ra'i 
Radia'i 

shine ;  emit  rays ;  sparkle :  radiated,  adorned 
with  rays,  or  emitting  rays :  radiation,  emission 
of  tays ;  emission  from  a  centre ;  beamy  lustre. 
By  the  saoed  radiance  of  the  sun. 
By  all  the  operations  of  the  orbs, 
Here  I  disclaim  all  my  paternal  care. 

Shaktpwrt, 
There  was  a  sun  of  gold  radiant  upon  the  top,  and 
before,  a  small  cherub  of  gold  with  win^  displayed. 

Bacon, 
Sound  paralleleth  in  many  things  with  the  light 
and  radiation  of  things  visible.  Id.  Natural  Hi9tory, 

Should  I  say  I  lived  darker  than  were  true. 
Your  radiation  can  all  clouds  subdue. 
Bat  one ;  'tis  best  light  to  contemplate  you.  Domu, 
Thasun 
Girt  with  omnipotence,  with  radianea  crowned. 
Ofm^esty  dinne.  MiUon* 

I  see  the  warlike  host  of  heaven, 
Radimit  in  glittering  aims  and  beamy  pride, 
Go  forth  to  succour  truth  below.  Jd, 

Whether  there  be  not  too  high  an  apprehension 
above  its  natural  radiancn,  is  not  without  just  doubt ; 
however  it  be  granted  a  very  splendid  gem,  and  whose 
sparkles  may  somewhat  resenible  the  fiances  of  fine. 
Browne*M  Vulgar  Errourt, 
Though  with  wit  and  parts  their  possessors  could 
never  engage  God  to  send  forth  hw  liffht  and  his 
truth ;  yet  now  that  revelation  bath  disclosed  them, 
and  that  be  hath  been  pleased  to  make  them  radiata 
in  his  word,  men  may  recollect  those  scattered  divine 
beams,  and,  kindling  with  them  the  tc^ics  proper  to 
warm  oar  aflbctions,  enfiame  holy  leaL  Boyls* 

Light  radiatoi  from  luminous  bodies  directly  to  our 
ejes,  and  thus  vre  see  the  sun  or  a  flame ;  or  it  is  re- 
flected from  other  bodies,  and  thus  we  see  a  man  or 
a  pictare.  Loek$, 

A  gloiy  surpassing  the  sun  in  its  greatest  radiancff, 

Bumat. 
The  radiated  head  of  the  phoenix  gives  us  the 
meaning  of  a  passage  in  Ausonius.  Additon. 


RADICAL,  at^. 

RADICAL'lTTy  n.f. 

Rad'ically,  adv. 
Rad'icatb,  V,  a. 
Radica'tion,  n.f. 
Rad'icle. 


Fr.  radical;  Lat.  radix. 
Original ;  primitive ;  im- 
^planted  by  nature ;  it  has 
lately  been  used  also  in 
the  sense  of  effectual; 
penetratine  to  the  root: 
radicality  is,  origination:  radically  follows  the 
senses  of  radicsd:  to  radicate  is  to  plant  or 
root  firmly  :  radication,  the  act  of  taking  root : 
radicle,  that  part  of  die  seed  which  becomes  the 
root. 

The  differences,  which  are  secondaxy,  and  proceed 
from  these  radical  diflerences,  are,  plants  are  allfigu- 
rateand  determinate,  which  inanimate  bodies  are  not. 

Bacon. 
Meditation  will  radicate  these  seeds,  fix  the  tran- 
sient gleam  of  light  and  warmth,  confirm  resolutions 
of  goM,  and  give  them  a  durable  consistency  in  the 
soul.  Hammond. 

They  that  were  to  plant  a  church,  were  to  deal 
with  men  of  various  inclinations,  and  of  different 
habits  of  sin,  and  degrees  of  radication  of  Uiose 
habits ;  and  to  each  of  these  some  proper  application 
was  to  be  made  to  cure  their  souls.  Id. 

If  the  radical  moisture  of  gold  were  separated,  it 
might  be  contrived  to  bum  without  being  consumed. 

mikhu. 


If  the  object  stays  not  on  the  sense,  it  makes  not 
impression  enough  to  be  remembered ;  but,  if  it  be 
repeated  there,  it  leaves  plenty  enough  of  those 
iomges  behind  it  to  strengthen  the  knowledge  of  the 
object :  in  which  radicdted  knowledge,  if  the  memory 
consist,  there  would  be  no  need  of  reserving  those 
atoms  in  the  brain.  GlanvilU*M  Defence,, 

There  may  be  equivocal  seeds  and  hermapfiroditi- 
cal  principles,  that  contain  the  radicality  and  power 
of  different  forms ;  thus  in  the  seeds  of  wheat  there 
lieth  obscurely  the  seminality  of  darnel. 

Brownc'i  Vulgar  'Earoun. 

Nor  have  vre  let  fall  our  pen  upon  discouragement 
of  unbelief,  from  radicated  beliefs,  and  points  of  high 
prescription.  ^  Brwma. 

These  great  orbs  thus  radically  bright. 

Primitive  founts,  and  origins  of  li^ht. 

Enliven  worlds  denied  to  human  sight       Prior. 

Radicle  is  that  part  of  the  seed  of  a  plant  v  bich, 
upon  its  vegetation,  becomes  its  root.  Quincy, 

The  sunbeams  render  the  humours  hot,  and  dry 
up  the  radios/  moisture.  Arbtittmot. 

Such  a  radial/  truth,  that  God  is,  springing  up 
together  with  the  essence  of  the  soul,  and  previous  to 
all  other  thoughts,  is  not  pretended  to  by  religion. 

BentUy. 

RADICAL.  That  which  is  considered  as  con- 
stitituting  the  distinguishing  part  of  an  acid,  by 
its  union  with  the  acidifying  principle  or  oxygen, 
which  is  common  to  all  acids.  Thus,  sulphur 
is  the  radical  of  the  sulphuric  and  sulphurous 
acids.  It  is  sometimes  called  the  base  of  the 
acid,  but  base  is  a  term  of  more  extensive  appli- 
cation. 

Radish,  in  botany.    See  Raphanus. 

Radius,  in  anatomy.    See  Anatomy. 

RADNOR,  New,  or  Maesyfed-newyold,  a 
borougli  and  market-town,  the  chief  town  of 
Radnorshire,  situated  on  the  river  Sommergill,  at 
the  narrow  entrance  of  a  pass  between  two  high 
pointed  hills,  is  twenty-four  miles  north-west 
from  Hereford,  and  156  W.  N.  W.  from  London. 
The  town  was  formerly  defended  by  a  strong 
ca.stle,  whidi  has  been  destroyed.  Owen  Glyn- 
dower,  in  the  reign  of  Henry  IV.,  nearly  burnt 
the  place  to  the  ground ;  and  it  now  only  con- 
sists of  one  irregularly  built  street.  It  was  a 
borough  by  prescription,  till  the  reign  of  queen 
Elisabeth,  when  a  charter  was  granted  it,  with 
many  privileges,  together  with  a  manor  contain- 
ing eleven  townships,  and  a  jurisdiction  extend- 
ing ten  or  twelve  miles  in  circuit.  The  church 
stands  on  an  eminence  above  the  town,  and  is  a 
verv  small  edifice.  The  town-ball  is  a  mean 
building.  The  corporation  consists  of  a  bailiff, 
twenty-five  burgesses,  &c.y  and,  jointly  with 
Rhaiader  and  Knighton,  sends  one  member  to 
parliament,  elected  bv  about  300  voters.  The 
Dorough  has  a  court  of  pleas  for  all  actions  with- 
out limitation,  but  the  assizes  are  held  at  Pres- 
teigne. In  the  neighbourhood  is  a  cataract,  called 
Water-break-neck,  which  precipitously  descends 
into  a  vast  hollow,  surrounded  by  craggy  decli- 
vities. Market  on  Saturday.  Fair  October  18th. 
It  is  a  rectory,  value  £13,  Patron,  the  king. 

Radnor,  Old,  or  Maesyfed-bfk,  a  parish 
two  miles  south-east  from  New  Radnor,  and 
sometimes  called  Pen-y-craig,  from  its  situ-, 
ation  on  the  summit  of  a  rock.  The  church  is  a 
large  stone  building,  consisting  of  a  nave  and 
chancel. 


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RADNORSHIRE. 


RADNORSHIRE,  a  county  of  the  priacipa- 
lity,  deriTCs  its  name  from  Radnor  the  county 
town,  but  is  called  by  the  Welsh  Sir  Vaes-ivid. 
It  is  an  inland  county  of  South  Wales,  bounded 
by  Herefordshire  and  a  part  of  Shropshire  on  the 
east ;  by  Brecknockshire  on  the  south ;  by  the 
same  county  and  part  of  Montgomeryshire  and 
Shropshire  on  the  north,  and  is  twenty-four  miles 
in  length  from  east  to  west,  twenty -two  in  breadth 
from  north  to  south,  and  about  ninety  miles  in 
circumference.  Radnorshire  is  divided  intQ  six 
hundreds,  and  fifty-two  parishes. 

•  This  county  was  in  the  time  of  the  Romans 
part  of  the  country  of  the  Silures,  and  contains 
several  barrows;  most  of  the  mountains  have 
cairns  or  large  heaps  of  stones,  probably  intended 
as  memorials  of  the  dead.  One  of  the  most  ce- 
lebrated remains  of  antiquity  in  this  county  is 
part  of  ,a  work  called  by  the  Welsh  Rlawdh 
Offa,  or  OfTa's  Dyke,  from  its  having  been  cut 
by  Ofia  king  of  Mercia,  as  a  boundary  between 
the  English  Saxons  and  the  ancient  Britons. 
This  dyke  may  be  traced  from  the  mouth  of  the 
Wye  to  that  of  the  Dee,  through  the  whole  ex- 
tent of  the  county.  We  are  told  that  .king 
Harold  made  a  law  that  whatever  Welshman 
should  be  found  armed  on  the  east  side  of  the 
dyke  should  have  his  right  hand  cut  off.  There 
are  the  ruins  of  several  castles,  particularly  those 
of  Kevn  Lyks,  and  of  Tinbod,  which  last  stood 
on  the  summit  of  a  hill,  and  was  destroyed  in 
the  year  1260  by  Llewelyn,  prince  of  Wales. 
The  only  religious  house  in  this  oounty  was  at 
Combehire,  where  Cadwathelan  ap  JVfadoc  in 
1143  founded  a  Cistercian  abbey,  which  was 
dedicated  to  St.  Mary ;  and,  at  the  suppression 
of  religious  houses  by  Henry  VIIL,  had  a  re- 
venue of  £28  17f.  4d.  per  annum. 

The  principal  river  of  this  county  is  the  Wye, 
which  skirts  it  from  north-west  to  south-east, 
constituting  the  boundary  between  Brecknock- 
shire and  Radnorshire.  The  first  tributary  flood 
of  any  consequence  that  attends  on  its  stream  is 
Clarwen,  with  Clargwy,  receiving  as  they  do  the 
Elain  into  their  united  channels  before  they  join 
the  Wye.  This  latter  river  in  its  progress  is  in- 
creased by  the  Ithor,  drawing  along  with  it 
the  Dulas,  the  Clywedoc,  and  Cyroran,  all  of 
which  rise  in  Radnorshire;  as  do  Edwy  and 
Machwy,  the  last  contributions  the  Wye  derives 
from  this  county.  The  train  of  rivers  which  at- 
tend it  from  the  Brecknockshire  side  is  not  so 
productive  of  interesting  scenery  and  specula- 
tions connected  with  the  mythological  antiqui- 
ties of  the  principality.  The  nortb-eastem  and 
central  parts  of  the  county  likewise  abound  in 
forests,  which  were  once  consecrated  by  all  the  na- 
tural awe  of  religious  institutions,  and  as  some 
say,  by  all  the  fictitious  terrors  of  craftily  pretended 
enchantment,  though  time  has  left  few  if  any  re- 
mains of  the  machinery,  by  the  mouldering  frag- 
ments of  which  we  are  enabled  in  some  other 
places  to  weigh  the  credulity  of  the  disciples 
a^inst  the  wit  and  ingenuity  of  the  instructors. 
The  eastern  part  of  Radnorshire  is  upon  the 
whole  a  fine  and  beautiful  country.  The  Lug  is 
on  this  side  the  principal  river.  It  rises  in  the 
interior  of  the.  county,  and  quits  it  for  Hereford- 
shire  at  Prestaip.  Afterwards  at  Lemster  it  tekes 


in  the  Arro,  the  source  of  which  is  likewise  in 
Radnorshire.  But  the  Lug  is  rather  to  be  con- 
sidered as  a  Herefordshire  river,  from  its  longer 
course  through  the  north  of  that  county,  the  su- 
perior plenteousness  of  its  streams,  and  the 
many  brooks  it  brings  with  it.  Radnor^ire,  in 
a  picturesque  point  of  view,  is  generally  con- 
sidered as  the  least  interesting  of  the  Welsh 
counties.  If  this  is  to  be  understood  as  apply- 
ing to  it  on  the  whole,  it  is  undoubtedly  true ; 
for  both  its  grandeur  and  beauty  are,  with  a  few 
exceptions,  confined  to  its  western  side,  on  a 
narrow  edge  of  the  Wye,  opposite  Brecknock- 
shire, and  to  that  nonh-westem  nook  which 
touches  upon  the  counties  of  Montgomery  and 
Cardigan,  and  participates  in  tlie  irrefragable 
majesty  of  their  character.  But  Radnorshire,  in- 
dependently of  the  Wye,  has  insulated  scenes 
which  vie  with  any  thing  to  be  found  in  the 
whole  compass  of  the  district  that  surrounds  it. 
We  need  only  mention  the  dingle  through  which 
the  Machwy  runs,  the  vale  of  ^wy,  and  the 
beauties  of  Cwm  Elain,  or  the  vale  of  Does,  to 
illustrate  the  truth  of  these  assertions.  In  the  two 
last  especially  are  realised  those  apparent  contra- 
rieties of  luxuriance  and  barrenness,  sylvan  de- 
coration and  leafless  horror,  the  blended  descrip- 
tion of  which,  in  works  of  fancy,  we  are  apt  to 
criticise  as  out  of  nature.  They  certainly  are  so 
for  the  most  part ;  and  our  poets,  to  say  nothing 
of  our  painters,  cannot  easily  be  acquitted  of 
dealing  in  them  too  profusely  and  indiscrimi- 
nately. But  they  do  exist  as  exceptions  to  a 
general  rule,  and  here  seem  almost  to  introduce 
the  traveller  into  fairy  land;  particularly  if  his 
spirits  have  become  languid,  and  the  elasticity  of 
his  expectations  has  been  slackened  by  toiling 
over  the  eastern  division  of  the  county,  where  his 
Imagination  is  neither  kept  alive  by  what  is 
grand,  nor  his  speculation  as  a  philosopher  or 
economist  excited  by  the  improvements  of  sci- 
ence, working  on  the  capabilities  of  nature. 

The  proportion  of  mountain  to  vale  is  prob»- 
bly  less  here  than  in  any  county  of  Wales,  ex- 
cept Pembrokeshire ;  and  the  quantity  of  land  in 
cultivation,  compared  with  that  which  is  un- 
broken, is  certainly  greater  than  in  most,  on  a  fair 
estimate  of  their,  respective  dimensions.  The 
mountains  of  Radnorshire  are  for  the  most  part 
low  and  broad  crowned,  so  that  they  might  be 
convertible  to  purposes  of  husbandry,  if  there 
was  not  already  a  larger  proportion  of  ground  in 
tillage  than  the  confined  knowledge  and  deficient 
activity  of  the  natives  can  turn  to  a  lucrative  ac- 
count. The  appearance  of  the  farms,  therefore, 
is  in  too  many  places  impoverished  and  hungry ; 
but  this  is  injuriously  attributed  to  nature;  for 
the  roost  intelligent  and  experienced  inhabitants 
aver  the  quality  of  the  soil  to  be  generally  good, 
though  its  tendency  to  fertility  is  kept  dovm  by 
slovenly  management,  local  prejudice,  and  indo- 
lent habits.  The  inhabitants  can  live  as  their 
fathers  have  lived  before  them,  and  they  have  no 
desire  to  live  better.  The  consequence  of  an 
agricultural  system  so  imperfect  is,  that  they  de- 
pend" principally  on  their  sheep,  for  the  wool  of 
which  they  find  a  ready  market  at  Lemster ;  and 
this,  rather  than  any  intrinsic  difference,  is  the 
why  the  price  of  good  land  in  the  heart 


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of  Radnonhiro  bean  so  yery  disproportionate  a 
'elatioD  to  the  current  price  in  the  adjoining 
noanties  of  Herefordshire  and  Shropshire.  Cattle 
and  sheep  are  such  staple  articles  ttiat  the  rate  at 
which  farms  let  is  very  much  governed  by  their 
possessing  or  not  possessing  right  of  mountain : 
and,  as  the  best  land  for  tillage  in  general  is  not 
that  which  lies  contiguous  to  these  black  and 
barren  mountains,  this  circumstance  occasions 
the  apparent  absurdity,  that  some  of  the  best  land 
in  the  coun^  is  let  at  a  lower  rent  than  some  of 
the  wofsL  Such  discouragement  to  the  occupa- 
tion of  the  more  even  and  fertile  districts,  arising 
firom  the  difficulty  of  consulting  the  general 
interests  of  agriculture,  without  sacrificing  local 
objects,  to  which  long  cherished  opinions,  con- 
firmed by  the  experience  of  partial  benefit,  have 
attached  importance,  must  continue  to  depress  the 
improvement  and  consequent  value  of  laud  be- 
low the  average  standard  of  the  times,  and  of  the 
joontiy  at  large.  But  more  extensive  and  un- 
prejudiced views,  a  broader  calculation  of  ad- 
vantages and  disadvantages,  a  less  servile  adhe- 
rence to  established  maxims,  and  a  less  timid 
investigation  of  their  merits,  are  making  way, 
though  slowly,  in  these  regions. 

The  language  of  Radnorshire  is  almost  uni- 
versally Ei^lish.  In  leamiuff  to  converse  with 
their  ^on  neighbours,  they  have  forgotten  the 
use  of  their  vernacular  tongue.  It  is  uncommon 
to  meet  with  a  peasant  who  understands  Welsh, 
though  it  seems  to  have  been  generally  spoken, 
even  in  the  eastern  parts  of  this  county,  so  lately 
as  the  midcOe  of  the  seventeenth  century.  The 
angle  of  the  county  beyond  Rhayader,  to, the 
north-west,  is  however  to  be  excepted,  where' the 
few  scattered  people  speak  nothing  dse.  But  the 
features  and  ttie  character  of  this  comer  partici- 
pate entirely  in  those  of  Cardiganshire ;  ana,  when 
we  recollect  how  near  Ofia*s  Dyke  approaches 
to  this  KK>t,  we  should  perhaps  rather  wonder 
that  the  .Welsh  language  has  lost  so  little  ground, 
and  not  been  obliged  to  recede  still  fiirther.  Nay, 
in  the  south-east  part  of  the  county,  about  Cly- 
row,  Pune's  Castle,  and  other  places  in  that 
neighbouihood,  even  beyond  Omi'a  Dyke,  the 
^dsh  knguage  is  still  understood,  and  all  are 
able  to  sp^  it,  though  they  decidedly  affect  the 
English.  About  Presteign  no  native  understands 
Wdsh,  but  it  is  partially  known  to  all  or  most  in 
the  places  five  or  six  miles  to  the  westward.  It 
may  indeed  be  suspected  that  the  people  in  the 
east  of  Radnorshire  are  not  Welshmen,  who  by 
vicinity  and  intermarriages  have  gradually  chang- 
ed their  speech  for  one  more  ^hionable,  but  that 
they  are  the  direct  descendants  of  the  English 
Marches,  who,  with  their  ramu:ious  followers,  oc- 
cupied the  limits  between  England  and  Wales, 
and  were  pouring  in  upon  the  natives  of  the 
Welsh  slyres  from  Hereford,  Shropshire,  and 
the  Eaglish  part,  on  every  slight  pretence  of  li- 
centiousness, disaffection,  or  danger.  By  these 
maeoi  they  might  have  driven  the  aboriginal 
Britons  still  further  into  the  mountainous  districts, 
ind  have  established  them^lves  in  their  seats. 
Radnorshire  sends  two  members  to  the  imperial 
pariiament,  viz.  one  for  the  shire,  and  one  for  the 
<own  of  Radnor,  which  gives  the  title  of  esai  to 
the  fiunily  of  Pleydell-Bouverie,  and  the  village 
Vol,  XVllI 


of  liandrindod  the  title  of  earl  of  March  (derived 
from  the  Marches  in  South  Wales)  to  that  of 
Lennox. 

RA£,  an  ancient  and  immense  city  of  Persia, 
was  formerly  the  capital. of  that  country.  Its 
ruins  cover  a  vast  extent  of  ground.  They 
do  not,  however,  present  any  remarkable  ob- 
jects ;  for  having,  like  other  Persian  cities,  been 
composed  merely  of  bricks  dried  in  the  sun,  it 
has  crumbled  into  dust,  and  presents  now  only 
the  appearance  of  mounds  or  hillocks  of  sand, 
covered  with  lacmiered  tile.  In  the  centre  stands 
a* village,  called  Sheikh  Abdul  Azzeem,  from  a 
son  of  the  seventh  Imam,  to  whose  memory  a 
noble  mosque  and  mausoleum  have  been  erected. 
Rae  was  destroyed  by  the  Tartars  under  Zinges 
Khan. 

RAFF,  V.  a.  ^     Sax.  peapian;    Isl. 

Raf'fls,  v.n,kn,t.S  rifa  ;  Swed.  rifeva  ; 
barb.  Lat  reffare;  Fr.  rajie.  To  rob;  sweep; 
huddle  up,  or  huddle  away.  Spender  uses  tne 
participle  passive  raff  for  torn ;  rent :  to  raffle  is 
to  cast  dice  for  a  prize :  as  a  noun  «ubstantive,  a 
species  of  lottery  of  this  description. 

Their  causes  and  efiects  I  thus  raff  up  together. 

Camw* 

Letters  from  Hamstead  give  me  an  account  there 
is  a  late  institution  there,  under  the  name  of  raffUng 
shop.  TatUr. 

The  toy  brought  to  Rome  in  the  third  triumph  of 
POmpey,  being  a  pair  of  tables  for  gamine,  made  of 
two  precious  stones,  three  foot  broiul,  and  four  foot 
long,  would  have  made  a  fine  nJU, 

Arbuthnot  on  Ccuu, 

RAFFAELLE.    See  Raphael. 

Rapfl£S  (Sir  Thomas  Stamford),  LL.D.,  was 
the  son  of  Benjamin  Raffles,  a  captain  in  the 
West  India  trade,  and  bom  at  sea  in  the  ship 
Anne,  off  Port  Morant  in  Jamaica,  July  6th, 
1781.  His  &ther  placed  him  for  education  with 
Dr.  Anderson,  of  Hammersmith,  whence  he 
removed  to  a  clerkship  in  the  India  house.  In 
1805  tlie  interest  of  Mr.  secretary  Ramsay  pro- 
cured him  the  si^iation  of  assistant  secretary  to 
the  government  of  Pulo  Penang,  in  the  straits  of 
Malacca,  whither  he  accompanied  governor  Dun- 
das.  He  here  applied  himself  to  the  study  of  the 
Malay  language ;  was  soon  afier  appointed  Ma- 
lay translator  to  the  government;  and,  in  1807, 
became  secretary  to  the  council  and  registrar  of 
the  recorder*s  court ;  the  following  year  he  was 
compelled,  by  indisposition,  to  retire  to  Malacca. 
In  1810  his  reputation  procured  him  the  appoint- 
ment of  agent  of  the  governor-general  wim  the 
Malay  states ;  and  the  following  year,  on  the 
reduction  of  Batavia  and  Java,  he  was  nominated 
lieutenant-governor  of  the  latter.  Here  he  con- 
tinued till  1816,  having,  in  the  interval,  brought 
tlie  hostilities  commenced  against  the  native 
chiefr  to  a  successful  termination.  In  1816  he  re- 
turned to  England,  bringing  with  him  a  Javanese 
prince  and  a  most  extensive  collection  of  speci- 
mens of  the  productions,  &c.,  of  the  Eastern  ar- 
chipelago. The  year  following  appeared  his 
History  of  Java,  in  two  thick  quartos,  with  plates. 
He  again  sailed  from  Falmouth  in  the  winter  of 
1817,  having  been  nominated  to  the  residency  of 
Bencoolen  in  Sumatra,  with  the  honor  of  knight- 
hood mo  the  lieutenant-governorship  of  Fort 

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Marlborough.  On  reaching  his  goYeramenty  in 
March  1818,  be  set  himself  forthwith  to  remedy 
many  abuses,  and  did  much  towards  carrying 
into  effect  the  abolition  of  slavery.  He  also  dis- 
tinguished himself  by  his  arrangements  with  the 
Dutch  commissioners  in  the  interest  of  the  sultan 
of  Palemban^,  and  by  the  occupation  of  the  is- 
land of  Singapore.  On  his  last  visit  to  the  is- 
land, in  1823,  he  laid  the  foundation  of  the  An- 
glo-Chinese college,  but  in  the  following  year 
the  impaired  state  of  his  constitution  induced  him 
to  return  to  Europe.  With  this  view  he  em- 
barked on  board  tne  Fame,  on  the  2d  of  Febru- 
ary 1824;  but  a  fire  breaking  out  in  the  ship,  on 
the  evening  of  the  same  day,  the  vessel  and  pro- 
perty of  his  own  to  the  amount  of  nearly  £30,000 
with  many  valuable  papers,  were  destroyed  at 
sea ;  the  crew  and  passengers  saving  their  lives 
with  difficulty,  and  landing  in  a  state  of  utter 
destitution,  about  fifteen  miles  from  Bencoolen. 
Of  this  calamity  an  account  remains,  in  a  letter 
written  by  Sir  Thomas  to  a  friend  in  England, 
dated  the  daiy  after  the  accident.  In  April  his 
family  embarked  again  on  board  the  Mariner, 
which  landed  them  in  London,  in  August.  Sir 
Thomas,  however,  survived  his  return  not  quite 
two  years,  dying  of  an  apoplectic  attack  in  July 
1826.  In  addition  to  the  work  alluded  to,  he 
left  behind  him  a  memoir  of  Singapore,  in  MS. ; 
besides  editing Finlayson*s  Mission  to  Siam,  8ro., 
and  Dr.  Leyden's  Malay  Annals. 

RAFT,  n,  f.  Dan.  rafte ;  Swed.  rafft ;  Lat. 
ratii.    A  float  of  timber. 

Where  is  that  son 
That  floated  with  thee  on  the  fatal  raft  1 

Shahpmre, 

Fell  the  timber  of  yon  lofty  grove. 
And  form  a  raftf  and  build  the  rising  ship.    Pope, 

Rafts  are  formed  by  various  planks  of  timber, 
fastened  together  side  by  side,  so  as  to  be  con- 
veyed more  commodiously  to  any  short  distance 
in  a  harbour  or  road  than  if  they  were  separate. 
The  timber  and  planks  with  which  merchant- 
ships  are  laden,  in  the  different  parts  of  the  Bal- 
tic Sea,  are  attached  together  in  this  manner,  in 
order  to  float  them  down  the  rivers  and  ofi"  to  the 
shipping. 

RAFTER,  n.  s.  >     Sax.  pxjitefi ;  Belg.  raf- 

RAF'xERtD,  adj.  S  ter ;  Goth,  rajira,  or  roof 
tree.  The  cross  or  secondary  timl>er  of  a  house : 
furnished  with  rafters. 

The  rafters  of  my  body,  bone. 
Being  still  with  you,  the  muscle,  sinew,  and  vein. 
Which  tile  this  house,  will  come  again.        Donne. 

By  Danaus,  king  of  Egypt,  when  he  fled  from  his 
brother  Rameses,  the  use  of  shipping  was  first 
brought  among  the  Grecians,  who  before  that  time 
knew  no  other  way  of  crossing  their  narrow  seas, 
but  on  beams  or  rafUre  tied  to  one  another. 

HeyliH. 
On  them  the  Trojans  cast 

Stones,  rafiert,  pillars,  beams.  Denham, 

Soepherd, 
I  trust  thy  honest  oflered  courtesy. 
Which  oft  is  sooner  found  in  lowly  sheds, 
With  smoky  rcfun,  than  in  tap'stry  halls. 

MUion. 
From  the  east,  a  Belgian  wind 

His  hostile  breath  through  the  dry  rafttn  sent ; 

The  flames  impelled.  Drydsn 


No  rt^i€roA  roofk  witli  dance  and  taibor  sooad. 

No  noontide  bell  invites  the  country  round.    Pope. 

The  roof  began  to  mount  aloft. 

Aloft  rose  every  beam  and  n^ttr , 

The  heavy  wall  climbed  slowly  after. 

Sunffs  MueeUimm, 
Rafters,  in  building,  are  pieces  of  timber 
which,  standing  by  pairs  on  the  reason  or  tailing 
piece,  meet  in  an  angle  at  the  top,  and  form  the 
roof  of  a  buildiog.    See  Aachitectdke. 
RAG, «.  ff.  '^      Sax.'  ppac,  pjiaccroe, 

Rag'geo,  od^'.  Stom;  Swed.  rocs;  Gr. 

RAo'oBDNsas,  n.  s.  3  pome-  A  piece  of  doth 
torn  from  the  rest ;  any  thing  torn  or  tattered ; 
mean  dress :  the  adjective  imd  other  noon  sub- 
stantive corresponding :  ragged  is  also  used  for 
uneven;  broken;  rugged. 

Worn  like  a  cloth, 
Onawn  into  rage  by  the  devouring  moth.  Am^ 
Fathers  that  wear  rags. 
Do  make  their  children  blind  ; 

But  fathers  that  bear  bags. 
Shall  see  their  children  kind. 

Sffiakspeare.  Ztng  Lear. 
That  some  whirlwind  bear 
Unto  a  rojggedf  fearful,  hanging  ndk. 
And  throw  it  thence  into  the  raging  r" 


Poor  naked  wretches,  wheresoe'er  you  aie, 
That  bide  the  pelting  of  this  pitiless  storm! 
How  shall  your  houseless  beads  and  unfed  sides. 
Your  looped  and  windowed  raggednue  defend  yoat 

Id. 
They  tooke  from  me 
Both  coate  and  cloake,  and  all  things  that  might  be 
^  Grace  in  my  habit ;  and,  in  place,  put  on 
These  tattered  rags.  Chapman. 

The  earl  of  War^ck's  ragged  staff  is  yet  to  be 
seen  pourtrayed  in  their  church  steeple.        Cante. 
Cowls,  hoods,  and  habits,  with  their  wearen  toit, 
And  fluttered  into  rags.  MUten. 

He  had  first  matter  sera  nndrest ; 
He  took  her  naked  all  alone. 
Before  one  rag  of  form  was  on.     Hu^hru 
Content  with  poverty,  my  soul  I  arm ; 
And  virtue,  though  in  rags,  wUl  keep  me  warm. 

Dryden. 
What  shepherd  owns  those  ragged  sheep  1  Id. 
Rugged ;  not  smooth. 

The  wolf  would  barter  away  a  ragged  coat  and  a 
raw-boned  carcase,  for  a  smooth  fat  one. 

L*&trmge. 
Rttgt  are  a  great  improvement  of  chalky  lauds. 

The  moon  appears,  when  looked  upon  with  a  good 
glass,  rttde.and  ragged,  BuneL 

Dressed  in  tatters. 

As  I  go  in  this  ragged  tattered  coat,  I  am  haoted 
away  from  the  old  woman's  door  by  erery  baiiing 
cur.  ArkUhuet. 

RAGAMUFFIN,  n.  t.  From  rag  and  ^ 
know  not  what  else,'  says  Dr.  Johnson.  Queiy 
muffUf  which  pervades  all  the  nor^iem  lao 
guages ;  from  Ooth.  hufa,  to  conceal.  A  petty 
mean  fellow. 

I  have  led  my  ragamujlnt  where  they  were  psp- 
pered  j  there's  not  three  of  my  hundred  and  fifty  left 
alive  'f  and  they  are  for  the  town's  end  to  beg  dnriog 
life.  Shakspeare,  Henry  IV. 

Shall  we  brook  that  paltry  ass 
And  feeble  scoundrel,  Hudibras, 
With  that  more  plltiy  ragamnfffin, 
Ralpho,  vapouring  and  huffing!  .Hudiirai 


Digitized  by  VaUUy  It: 


RAG 


355 


RAJ 


Atliiidid  with  a  enw  of  tvi^mmjflm,  the  brolw 
into  fab  honw,  turned  all  thing*  tapiy^tarry,  tad 
theoMlitOBte.  Swift, 

RAGE,  II.  t.  Ic  V.  II.  >     Fr.  race,  of  Lat.  rabies ; 

RAOi^Ftrr,  adj.  i  Anger ;  fury,  Tehemence ; 
eagerness :  to  rage  is  to  be.  heated  with  anger ; 
be  in  foiious  passion^  ravage :  the  adjective 
corresponding. 

Why  do  the  heathen  foy^r  PnOmii.  1. 

Wine  is  a  mocker,  strong  drink  is  raging ;  and 
whosoever  is  deceived  thereby  is  not  wise« 


This  covrtflsy  was  worse  than  a  bastinado  to  Zel- 
mane ;  so  that  again  with  rofftfiU  eyes  she  bad  him 
defend  himself;  for  no  less  than  his  life  would  an-, 
twer  iu  Sidney, 

Desire  not 
T'  sllay  my  raget  and  revenges  with 
Your  cold  reasons.  S 

A  popular  orator  may  represent  vices  in  so  formid- 
able appearanoes,  and  set  out  each  virtue  in  so  ami- 
able a  form,  that  the  covetous  person  shall  scatter 
most  liberaUy  his  beloved  idol,  wealth,  and  the  t^e" 
fui  penon  shall  find  a  calm.  Hamnumd, 

who  brought  green  poesy  to  her  perfect  age. 
And  made  that  art  which  was  a  rag§.  CowUy, 

Torment,  and  loud  lament,  and  nirious  rage. 

MiUen. 

The  madding  wheels  of  brazen  chariots  raged. 

Id. 
Heart-rending  news, 

That  death  should  license  have  to  rage  among 

The  fair,  the  wise,  the  virtuous.  Wauer, 

After  these  waters  had  raged  on  the  earth,  they 
began  to  lessen  and  shrink,  and,  the  great  flactoa- 
tions  of  this  deep  bebg  quieted  by  degrees,  the 
walen  jetired.  Bwmit, 

You  purchase  pain  with  all  that  joy  can  give. 

And  die  of  nothing  but  a  ro^  to  live.  Pope» 

Then  may  his  soul  its  free-born  rage  enjoy 

Give  deed  to  will,  and  ev'ry  pow'r  employ. 

ffarU. 
The  rose  soon  reddened  into  rage, 

And,  fiwelling  with  disdain. 
Appealed  to  man^  a  poef  s  page. 
To  prove  her  right  to  reign.  Colder. 

RAGGSTONE,  in  mineralogy,  is  a  genus  of 
stones  belonging  to  the  class  of  siliceous  earths. 
It  is  of  a  gray  color ;  the  texture  obscurely  la- 
minar, or  rather  fibrous;  but  the  lamine  or 
fibres  consist  of  a  congeries  of  grains  of  aquartzy 
appearance,  coarse  and  rough.  The  specific 
gravity  is  2*729 ;  it  effervesces  with  acids,  and 
strikes  fire  with  steel.  Kirwan  found  it  to  con- 
tain a  portion  of  mild  calcareous  earth,  and  a 
small  proportion  of  iron.  It  is  used  as  a  whet- 
stone ror  coarse  cutting  tools.  It  is  found  about 
Newcastle,  and  many  other  parts  of  England. 

RAGMAN'S  Roll,  Rectius  Ragimund's  roll, 
so  called  from  one  Ragimund  a  lepte  in  Scot- 
land, who,  calling  before  him  all  the  beneficed 
cler^rihan  in  that  kingdom,  caused  them  on  oath 
to  give  in  the  true  value  of  their  benefices ;  ac- 
cording to  which  they  were  afterwards  taxed  by 
the  court  of  Rome ;  and  this  roll,  among  other 
records,  being  taken  from  the  Scots  by  Edward 
!•,  was  redelivered  to  them  in  the  beginning  of 
the  reign  of  Edward  III. 

RAGOUT,  n.  «.  Fr.  ragout.  Meat  stewed 
and  highly  seasoned. 

When  art  and  nature  join,  th'  effect  vrill  be 
Some  nice  ragout,  or  charming  fricasy.  I^ing- 


To  the  stage  permit 
Bag<mU  for  Tereos  or  Thyestee  drest. 
Tie  task  enough  for  thee  t'  expose  a  Roman  ten. 

Drytoi 
No  fish  they  reckon  comparable  to  a  rageut  of 
snails. 


RAGULED,  or  Raog£D,  iu  heraldry,  jagged 
or  knotted.  This  term  is  applied  to  a  cross 
formed  of  the  trunks  of  two  trees  without  their 
branches,  of  which  they  show  only  the  stumps. 
Raguled  differs  firom  indented,  in  that  the  latter 
is  regular,  the  former  not. 

RAGUSA,  a  town  ana  district  ot  Austrian 
Dalmatia,  containing  the  territory  of  the  repub- 
lic, with  the  islands  of  Curzola,  Lagosta  or 
Agosta,  Mileda,  Guipana,  Mezzo,  Calamata,  &c. 
It  is  bounded  by  the  Turkish  frontier  east,  and 
by  the  Adriatic  on  the  west.  Its  area  is  about 
700  square  miles ;  population  about  60,000.  It 
contains  no  town  of  consequence,  except  the 
capital.  Tracts  along  the  banks  of  the  Ndrenta 
are  marshy  and  unhealthy ;  but  in  general  the 
climate  is  good,  and  the  soil  fertile.  The  rivers 
are  the  Narenta,  Drino,  Glinta,  and  Ombla. 

Ragusa,  the  chief  town  of  the  above  district, 
and  an  archbishop's  see,  is  situated  on  a  peninsula 
on  the  Adriatic.  The  peninsula  on  which  it  stands 
forms  two  commodious  harbours,  sheltered  by  a 
hill  from  the  north  winds,  which  are  so  pernicious 
in  the  Adriatic;  and  the  attacks  of  an  enemy 
hj  land  are  rendered  difficult  by  almost  inacces- 
sible rocks.  The  town  itself  is  surrounded  by 
a  wall  flanked  with  old  towers ;  but  the  harbours 
are  protected  by  strone  modem  works.  The 
streets  are  narrow,  wim  the  exception  of  the 
principal  one  which  extends  from  north  to  south. 
The  mansion  of  the  chief  magistnAe,  the  cathe- 
dral, and  some  of  the  churches,  are  worth  no- 
tice. The  inhabitants  exhibit  a  heterogeneous 
mixture  of  northern  and  oriental  dress  and  hm- 
guage,  and  their  religious  and  other  ceremonies 
are  a  combination  or  Catholic,  Greek,  and  even 
Pagan  rites.  They  weave  silk  and  woollen 
stuffs,  and  build  some  shipping,  and  still  cany 
on  a  traffic  with  the  Levant  and  Italy. 

This  city  was  founded  in  the  seventh  century 
by  fugitives  from  Epidaurus.  Subject  for  some 
time  to  the  Roman,  afterwards  to  the  Greek  em- 
pire, it  became  independent;  and,  pursuing  a 
pacific  policy,  paid  a  slight  tribute  to  Venice 
and  other  maritime  powers.  It  suffered  severely 
from  the  great  earthquake  of  1767;  but  its  com- 
merce continued  nearly  as  before,  though  it  has 
been  long  eclipsed  by  that  of  the  larger  states  of 
the  south  of  Europe.  The  republic  did  not  lose 
its  independence  until  the  successes  of  Buona- 
parte, who  gave  to  marshal  Marmont  the  title  of 
duke  of  Ragusa.  Of  the  men  of  note  bom  here 
the  most  remarkable  was  Boscovich.  It  is  278 
miles  east  by  north  of  Rome,  and  ninety-four 
south-east  of  Spalatro. 

Ragusa,  a  populous  town  in  the  south  part 
of  the  island  or  Sicily,  in  the  Val  di  Noto, 
on  the  small  river  Ragusa.  This  town  is  said  to 
contain  20,000  inhabitants,  and  the  environs  are 
very  beauciful  and  fertile 

RAJA,  or  Rajah,  the  title  of  tlie  Indian  black 
princes,  the  remains  of  thofie  who  mied  there 
before  the  Moguls. 

Digitized  by  N^jOOQIC 


356 


RAJA. 


Kaja,  the  ray  fish,  in  ichthyology,  f^  genus 
belonging  to  the  oxder  of  chondropterygia.  There 
are  five  spiiacula  below  towards  the  peak ;  the 
body  compressed;  and  the  mouth  is  situated 
under  the  head.  The  most  remarkable  species 
are: — 

1.  R.  aspera,  the  rousfa  ray,  is  found  in  Loch 
Broom  in  Scotland.  l%e  length  from  the  nose 
to  the  tip  of  the  tail  is  two  feet  nine  inches.  The 
tail  is  almost  of  the  same  length  with  the  body. 
The  nose  is  very  short  Before  each  eye  is  a 
laige  hooked  spine ;  and  behind  each  another, 
beset  with  lesser.  The  upper  part  of  the  body 
is  of  a  cinereous  brown  mixed  with  white,  and 
spotted  with  black;  and  entirely  covered  with 
smdl  spines.  On  the  tail  are  three  rows  of  mat 
spines;  all  the  rest  of  the  tail  is  irregularly 
beset  with  lesser.  The  fins  and  under  side  of 
the  body  are  equally  rough  with  the  upper.  The 
teeth  are  flat  and  rhomboidal. 

2.  R.  batisy.the  skate.  This  species  is  the 
thinnest  in  proportion  to  its  bulk  of  any  of  th& 
genus,  and  also  the.large8t,some  weighing  nearly 
200  pounds.  The  nose,  though  not  long,  is  sharp 
pointed ;  above  the  eves  is  a  set  of  short  spines  ; 
the  upper  part  is  of  a  pale  brown,  sometimes 
streakea  with  black:' the  lower  part  is  white, 
marked  with  great  numbers  of  minute  black 
spots.  The  jaws  are  covered  with  tfhiail  granu- 
lated but  sharp-pointed  teeth.  The  tail  is  of  a 
moderate  length ;  near  the  end  are  two  fins ; 
along  the  top  of  it  is  one  row  of  spines,  and  on 
the  edges  are  irregularly  dispersed  a  few  others. 
It  is  remarked  that  in  the  males  of  this  species 
the  fins  are  fall  of  spines.  Skates  generate  in 
March  and  April ;  at  which  time  they  swim  near 
the  surface  of  the  water,  several  of  the  males  pur- 
suing one  female.  They  adhere  so  fast  together 
in  coition  that  the  fishermen  frequently  draw  up 
both  together,  though  only  one  has  taken  the 
bait.  The  females  begin  to  cast  their  purses,  as 
the  ^shermen  call  them  (the  bags  in  which  the 
young  are  included),  in  May,  and  continue  doing 
It  till  September.  In  October  they  are  exceed- 
ingly poor  and  thin ;  but  in  November  they 
begin  to  improve,  and  grow  gradually  fiitter  till 
May,  when  they  are  in  the  highest  perfection. 
The  males  go  sooner  out  of  season  than  the  fe- 
males. 

3.  R.  clavata,  the  thomback,  is  easily  distin- 
guished from  ^e  others  by  the  rows  of  strong 
sharp  spines  disposed  along  the  back  and  tail.  In  a 
large  one  seen  by  Mr.  Pennant  were  three  rows 
on  the  back,  and  five  on  the  tail,  all  inclining 
towards  its  end.  On  the  nose,  and  on  the  inner 
side  of  the  forehead,  near  the  eyes,  were  a  few 
spines,  and  the  others  were  scattered  without 
order  on  the  upper  part  of  the  pectoral  fins.  The 
mouth  was  small,  and  filled  with  teeth ;  the 
upper  part  of  the  body  was  of  a  pale  ash  color, 
marked  with  short  streaks  of  black,  and  the  skin 
rough,  with  small  tubercles  like  shagreen.  The 
belly  white,  crossed  with  a  strong  semilunar  car- 
tilage beneath  the  skin :  in  general  the  lower 
part  was  smooth,  having  only  a  few  spines  on 
each  side.  The  young  fish  have  very  few  spines 
on  them;  their  backs  are  often  spotted  wiUi 
white,  and  each  spot  is  encircled  with  black. 
This  species  frequent  our  sandy  shores;  they 


are  very  voracioQs,  and  feed  on  all  toils  of  flat 
fish  ;  are  particularly  fond  of  herrings  and  sand 
eels;  and  som^etimes  eat  crustaceons  animals, 
such  as  crabs.  These  sometimes  weigh  fborteen 
or  fifteen  pounds,  but  with  us  seldom  exceed 
that  weight.  They  begin  to  generate  in  June, 
and  bring  forth  their  young  in  July  and  August, 
which  (as  well  as  those  of  the  skate),  before  they 
are  old  enough  to  breed,  are  called  maids.  The 
thomback  bqgins  to  be  in  season  in  November, 
and  continues  so  later  than  4he  skate :  but  the 
young  of  b«th  are  good  at  all  times  of  the  year. 

4.  R.  electrica,  the  torpedo,  cramp  fiA,  or 
electric  ray,  is  frequently  taken  in  Torbay ;  has 
been  once  caudit  ofi"  Pembroke,  and  sometimes 
near  Waterford  in  Ireland.  It  i^  generally  taken, 
like  other  fikt  fish,  with  the  trawl;  but  there  is 
an  insOmce  of  its  taking  the  bait.  It  commonly 
lies  in  water  of  about  K>rty  fathoms  depth ;  and 
in  company  with  the  congenerous  rays.  A  gen- 
tleman oT  La  Rochelle,  on  dissecting  certain 
females  of  this  species,  on  the  10th  Sq>tember, 
found  in  the  matrices  several  of  the  foetuses  quite 
formed,  and  nine  eggs  in  no  state  of  forward- 
ness :  superfoetation  seems  therefore  to  be  a  pro 
perty  of  this  fish.  The  food  of 'the  torpedo  is 
fish,  such  as  plaice,  surmullets,  &c.  They  will 
live  twenty-four  hours  out  of  the  sea,  and  but 
very  little  longer,  even  if  plaoed  in  fireih  water. 
They  inhabit  sandy  places,  and  will  buiy  them- 
selves superficially  in  it,  by  flinging  the  sand 
over,  by  a  quick  flapping  of  all  the  extremities. 
In  this  situation  the  torpedo  gives  his  most  forci- 
ble SDoca,  which  throws  down  the  astonished 
passenger  who  inadvertently  treads  upon  him. 
In  our  seas  it  grows  to  a  great  size,  and  weighs 
above  eighty  pounds.  The  tail  is  thick  and 
round ;  me  caudal  fin  broad  and  abrupt.  The 
head  and  body,  which  are  indistinct,  are  nearly 
round ;  attenuating  to  extreme  thinness  on  the 
edges;  below  the  body  Uie  ventral  fins  form  on 
each  side  a  quarter  of  a  ciicle.  The  two  doml 
fins  are  placed  on  a  trunk  of  the  tail.  The  eyes 
are  small,  placed  near  each  other ;  behind  each 
is  a  round  spiracle,  with  six  small  cutaneous 
rags  on  their  mner  circumference.  Mouth  small; 
teeth  minute,  spicular;  five  openings  to  the 
gills,  as  in  others  of  this  genus ;  the  skin  every 
where  smooth ;  cinereous  brovm  above,  white  be- 
neath. 

5.  R.  fullonica,  the  fuller,  derives  its  Latin 
name  from  the  instruments  fullers  make  use  of 
in  smoothing  cloth^  the  back  being  rough  and 
spiny.  The  nose  is  short  and  sharp.  At  the 
comer  of  each  ejt  are  a  few  spines.  The  mem- 
brane of  nictitation  is  fringed ;  teeth  small  and 
sharp.  On  the  upper  part  of  the  pectoral  fins  are 
three  rows  of  spines  pointing  towards  the  back, 
crooked  like  those  on  a  fullers  instmment.  On 
the  tail  are  three  rows  or  strong  spines;  the 
middle  row  reaches  up  part  of  the  back.  The 
tail  is  slender,  and  rather  longer  than  the  body. 
The  color  of  the  upper  part  of  the  body  is  cine- 
reous, marked  usually  with  numerous  black 
spots ;  the  lower  part  is  white.  This,  as  well  as 
most  other  species  of  rays,  vary  a  little  in  color 
according  to  age.  It  grows  to  a  size  equal  to 
the  skate.  It  is  common  at  Scarborough,  where 
it  is  called  the  white  bans  or  gullet. 


Digitized  by  VjUU*^ 


le 


RAJA. 


357 


6.  R.  pastinaca,  the  fting  luy,  does  not  grow 
to  the  bulk  of  the  others ;  the  body  is  <|ttite 
smooth,  of  shape  almost  round,  and  is  of  a  much 
greater  thickness  and  more  derated  form  in  the 
middle  than  any  other  ray,  but  grows  thin  to- 
wards the  edges.  The  nose  is  very  sharp-point- 
ed, but  short ;  the  mouth  small,  and  filled  with 
gniDulated  teeth.  The  irides  are  of  a  gold  color; 
behind  each  eye  the  orifice  is  very  large.  The 
tail  is  very  thick  at  the  beginning;  the  spine  is 
pliced  about  a  third  the  length  of  tail  fit>m  the 
Dody ;  is  about  five  inches  long,  flat  on  the  top 
and  bottom,  rery  hard,  sharp-pointed,  and  the 
two  sides  thin,  and  closely  and  sharply  bearded 
the  whole  way.  The  tail  extends  four  mches  be- 
yond the  end  of  the  spipe,  and  grows  very 
slender  at  the  extremity.  These  fishes  shed  theic 
spines^  and  renew  them  annually;  sometimes 
the  neir  spine  appears  before  the  old  one  drops 
off;  and  tne  Cornish  call  this  species  cardmal 
tnlost,or  three-tailed,  when  so  circumstanced. 
The  color  of  the  upper  part  of  the  body  is  a 
dirty  yellow,  the  middle  part  of  an  obscure 
blue;  the  lower  side  white,  the  tail  and  spine 
dusky.  The  weapon  with  which  nature  has 
armed  this  fish  has  supplied  the  ancients  with 
maoy  tremendous  &bles  relating  to  it,  which  the 
reader  may  find  in  the  worics  of  I'liny,  i£.lian, 
and  Oppiau. 

7.  K.  oxyrinchus,  the  sharp-nosed  ray,  nearW 
seven  feet  long,  and  five  feet  two  inches  broad. 
When  just  brought  on  shore  it  makes  a  remark- 
able snorting  noise.  The  nose  is  very  long,  nar- 
row, and  sharphpointed,  not  unlike  the  end  of 
a  spontoon.  The  body  is  smooth,  and  very  thin 
io  proportion  to  the  size;  the  upper  part  ash- 
colored,  spotted  with  numerous  white  spots,  and 
a  few  black  ones.  The  tail  is  thick;  towards 
the  end  are  two  small  fins ;  on  each  side  is  a 
row  of  small  spines,  with  another  row  in  the 
middle,  which  runs  some  way  up  the  back.  The 
lower  part  of  the  fish  is  quite  white.  The  mouth 
is  very  large,  and  furnished  with  numbers  of 
small  sharp  teeth  bending  inwards. 

8.  R.  sqnalicomia,  the  shagreen  ray,  increases 
to  the  size  of  the  skate ;  is  fond  of  launces  or 
jond  eels,  which  it  takes  generally  as  a  bait.  The 
form  is  narrower  than  that  of  the  common  kinds ; 
the  nose  long  and  very  sharp ;  pupil  of  the  eye 
sapphirine,  on  the  nose  are  two  short  rows  of 
spmes ;  on  the  comer  of  the  eyes  another  of  a 
semicircular  form ;  on  the  tail  are  two  rows^con- 
tinued  a  little  up  the  back,  small,  slender,  and 
very  sharp ;  along  the  sides  of  the  tail  is  a  row 
of  minute  spines,  intermixed  with  infiumerable 
little  spicuUe.  The  upper  part  of  the  body  is  of 
a  cinereous  brown,  covered  closely  with  sha- 
ereeu'like  tubercles,  resembling  the  skin  of  a 
dog-fish ;  the  under  side  of  the  bodv  is  white ; 
from  the  nose  to  the  beginning  of  the  pectoral 
fins  is  a  tuberculated  space.  The  teeth  slender, 
and  sharp  as  needles. 

9.  R.  Banksiana,  found  often  in  the  West 
Indian  Seas,  Sir  Joseph  Banks  informs  us,  is 
sometimes  so  large  that  it  requires  seven  pairs 
of  oxen  to  drag  it  along  the  ground.  A  species 
of  ray,  probably  the  Banksiana,  was  .killed  on 
the  coast  of  America,  the  capture  of  which  is  thus 


described  by  Mr.  Mitchell  of  New  York,  in  a 
letter  to  the  president  of  the  New  York  Lyceum 
of  Natural  History : — 

<  On  the  9th  day  of  September  1823  retuped 
from  a  cruise  off  Delaware  Bay  the  fishing  smack 
Una.  She  had  sailed  about  three  weeks  before 
from  New  York  for  the  express  purpose  of 
catching  an  enormous  fish,  which  had  been  re- 
ported to  frequent  the  ocean  a  few  leagues  be- 
yond cape  Henlopen.  The  adventurers  of  this 
bold  enterprise  nave  been  successfiil.  The 
creature  is  one  of  the  huge  individuals  of  the 
family  of  raia,  or,  perhaps,  may  be  erected,  from 
its  novelty  and  peculiarity,  into  a  new  genus,  be- 
tween the  squalus  and  the  acipenser.  Its  strength 
was  such  that,  after  the  body  had  been  penetrated 
by  twor  strong  and  Well  formed  gigs  of  the  b^t 
tempered  iron,  the  shank  of  one  of  them  was 
broken  off,  and  the  other  singularly  bent.  The 
boat  ^containing  the  fishermen  was  coi^nected, 
after  the  deadly  instrument  had  taken  hold,  with 
the  wounded  inhabitant  of  the  deep,  by  a  strong 
warp  or  line.  The  celerity  with  which  the  fish 
swam  could  only  be  compared  to  that  of  the 
harpooned  whale,  dragging  the  boat  after  it  with 
sudi  speed  as  to  cause  a  wave  to  rise  on  each 
side  or  the  furrow  in  which  he  moved  several 
feet  higher  than  the  boat  itself.  The  weight  of  the 
fish  af&r  death  was  such  that  three  pair  of  oxen, 
one  horse,  and  twenty-two  men,  all  pulling  toge- 
ther, with  the  surge  of  the  Atlantic  wave  to  help, 
could  not  convey  it  far  to  the  dry  beach.  It  was 
estimated  from  this  (a  probable  estimate)  to 
eaual  four  tons  and  a  hair,  or  perhaps  five  tons. 
The  size  was  enormous ;  for  the  distance  from 
the  extremity  of  one  wing  or  pectoral'  fin  to  the 
other,  expanded  like  the  wing  of  an  e^le,  mea- 
sures eiffhteen  feet;  over  the  extremity  of  the 
back  and  on  the  right  line  of  the  belly  sixteen 
feet ;  the  distance  from  the  snout  to  the  end  of 
the  tail  fourteen  feet ;  length  of  the  tail  four  feet ; 
width  of  the  mouth  two  feet  nine  inches.  The 
operation  of  combat  and  killing  kisted  nine 
hours.  The  achievement  was  witnessed  by 
crowds  of  citizens  on  the  shores  of  New  Jersey 
and  Delaware,  and  by  the  persons  on  board  the 
flotilla  of  vessels  in  the  bay  and  offing.  During 
the  scuffle,  the  wings,  side-flaps,  or  vast  alated 
fins  of  the  monster  lashed  the  sea  with  such  vehe- 
mence that  the  spray  rained  around  to,  the'  dis- 
tance of  fifty  feet.' 

The  following  interesting  account  of  the  cap- 
tare  of  the  colossal  skate  or  ray  is  by  lieutenant 
I^mont  of  the  ninety-first  regiment  :^ 

'  The  first  appearance  of  an  animal  of  this  spe- 
cies,' says  the  lieutenant,  'since  I  have  been 
here  (about  eighteen  months)  was  about  two 
months  ago,  when  I  was  called  out  to- the  beach 
by  some  of  the  inhabitants,  whom  I  found,  on 
going  there,  to  be  assembled  in  great  numbers, 
to  see  what  they  called  the  sea  devil.  I  confess 
my  curiosity  was,  not  less  excited  than  theirs, 
when  I  saw  floating  close  to  the  surface  of  the 
water,  about  twenty  yards  from  me,  a  large  nuiss 
of  living  substance,  of  a  dark  color,  but  of  the 
shape  and  size  of  which  I  could  not,  at  the  time, 
form  any  proper  idea,  it  being  so  very  differcc 
from  any  thing  I  had  ever  before  seen  or  heara 


Digitized  by  VjUU*^ 


le 


358 


RAJA. 


of»  farther  than  that  I  supposed  it  to  have  been 
many  times  the  size  of  what  I  now  believe  it 
was.  No  time  was  lost  in  setting  out  in  pursuit 
of  him,  with  harpoons,  ke. ;  and  it  was  not 
long^  before  he  was  come  up  with,  and  struck 
with  one  of  the  harpoons ;  when  he  made  off 
with  great  velocity,  towing  the  boat  aAer  him. 
As  he  seemed  to  incline  chiefly  to  the  surface  of 
the  water,  six  or  seven  more  harpoons  were,  with 
the  assistance  of  several  canoes  that  had  come 
up,  successively  plunged  into  him,  and  all  the 
boats  made  fast  to  each  other,  which  he  was 
obliged  to  pull  after  him,  with  several  people  in 
each.  Sucn,  however,  was  the  great  strength  of 
this  animal,  that,  after  beine  fast  in  the  manner 
I  have  described  fbr  upwards  of  four  hours,  and 
taking  the  boats  out  to  sea  attached  to  hiqa,  to  a 
distance  of  about  ten  miles  from  the  harbour, 
and  having  been  pierced  with  so  many  wounds, 
he  was  still  able  to  defy  every  effort  to  bring  him 
in.  It  had  now  got  late,  and  was  dark,  and  an 
attempt  was  made  to  force  him  up  near  enough 
to  get  another  large  harpoon  into  him :  this  was 
no  sooner  done  than  he  darted  off;  and,  by  an 
almost  unaccountable  and  seemingly  convulsive 
effort,  in  a  moment  broke  loose  from  all  his  fet- 
ters, carrying  away  with  him  eight  or  ten  har- 
poons and  pikes,  and  leaving  every  one  staring  at 
nis  neighbour  in  speechless  astonishment,  con- 
founded at  the  power  of  an  animal  which  could 
thus  snatch  himself  from  them  at  a  time  when 
they  conceived  him  completely  in  their  power. 

'  Since  then  some  of  these  animals  have  occa- 
sionally been  heard  of  at  a  distance  from  the 
harbour;  and  a  few  days  ago,  in  coming  over 
from  fort  Augusta  with  another  gentleman,  we 
fell  in  with  one  of  them,  which  allowed  us  to 
get  so  near  him  that  it  was  determined  to  set 
out  the  next  morning  to  look  for  him.  We  did 
so;  and  took  with  us  several  large  harpoons, 
muskets,  pikes,  &c.,  determined,  if  it  were  pos^ 
sible,  to  bring  him  in.  He  was  descried,  about 
eight  o'clock,  towards  the  top  of  the  harbour,  as 
usual  floating  near  the  surface,  and  moving 
slowly  about.  Having  allowed  the  boat  to  get 
very  close  to  him,  he  was  struck  with  a  harpoon, 
which  was  thrown  at  him  in  a  most  dexterous 
manner  by  lieutenant  St.  John,  of  the  royal  ar- 
tillery. He  immediately  set  out  towards  the 
mouth  of  the  harbour,  towing  the  boat  after  him 
with  such  velocity  that  it  could  not  be  overtaken 
by  any  of  the  others ;  after  going  in  this  way  for 
nearly  an  hour  he  turned  back,  which  enabled  the 
other  boats  to  lay  hold ;  and  four  of  themwere  tied, 
one  afier  the  other,  to  the  one  in  which  be  was 
harpooned,  with  four  or  five  people  in  each  of 
them.  By  this  means  we  hoped  to  tire  him  out 
the  sooner.  In  about  an  hour  and  a  half  afler  he 
was  first  struck,  a  favorable  opportunity  offering, 
a  large  five-pointed  harpoon,  made  fast  to  a  very 
heavy  staff,  was  thrown  at  him  with  such  an  ele- 
vation that  it  should  fall  upon  him  with  the 
whole  weight  of  the  weapon.  This,  having  been 
BS  well  directed  as  the  first,  was  lodged  nearly 
in  the  middle  of  his  back.  The  struggle  he 
made  at  this  time  to  get  awav  was  truly  tremen- 
dous,— ^plunging  in  the  midst  of  the  boats, — 
darting  from  the  bottom  to  the  surface  alternate- 
ly,— dashing  the  water  and  foam  on  eveiy  side 


of  him, — and  rolling  round  and  round  to  e«n- 
cate  himself  from  the  pole.  This  might  be  con- 
sidered as  having  given  him  the  coup  de  grace, 
although,  at  short  intervals  afterwards,  he  was 
struck  with  two  more  harpoons,  and  several 
musket-balls  were  fired  into  him.  Still  he  was 
able  to  set  out  again,  taking  the  four  boats  after 
him,  which  ne  carried  along  with  the  greatest 
ease.  Having  gone  in  this  way  for  some  time, 
he  came  to  a  stop,  and  laid  himself  to  the  bot- 
tom, when,  with  all  the  lines  that  were  attached 
to  him,  it  was  quite  impossible  to  m^vehim.  All 
expedients  were  nearly  beginning  to  fail,  wbea 
it  was  proposed  to  sladcen  the  lines,  which  being 
done,  had  the  desired  effect,  and  he  again  set 
out.  Having  thus  got  him  from  the  ground,  inch 
by  inch  was  gained  upon  him,  till  he  was  got 
Hear  the  surface,  when  he  was  struck  with  two 
large  pikes.  He  now  got  rather  faint;  and,  th^ 
boats  closing  on  him  on  every  side,  the  combat 
became  general  with  pikes,  muskets,  and  every 
weapon  we  had.  In  fact,  to  such  a  pitch  were 
all  excited  on  the  occasion,  that,  had  a  cool 
spectator  seen  the  affray,  he  would  undoubtedly 
have  imagined  that  it  was  his  sable  majesty  him- 
self that  we  had  got  amongst  us.  He  was  now 
towed  ashore,  being  about  five  hours  since  he 
vras  first  struck.  Thb  it  required  all  the  boats 
to  do,  and  then  but  very  slowly.  His  appear- 
ance now  showed  the  extraordinary  tenacity  of 
life  of  which  this  animal  must  be  possessed,  as 
his  whole  body  was  literally  a  heap  of  wounds, 
many  of  which  were  through  and  through,  and 
he  was  not  yet  quite  dead.  This  circumstance, 
with  his  great  strength,  is  the  cause  of  the  name 
which  has  been  given  him  by  the  fishermen  here, 
as  they  have  never  been  able  to  succeed  in  taking 
one  of  them,  and  were  firmly  of  opinion  that  it 
was  impossible  to  do  so. 

<  This  monster  is  of  the  flat  fish  kind.  On 
measurement  it  was  found  to  be  in  length  and 
breadth  nearly  the  same,  about  fifteen  feet,  and 
in  depth  from  three  to  four  feet  It  had  the  ap- 
pearance of  having  no  head,  as  there  was  no  pro- 
minence at  its  mouth ;  on  the  contrary,  its  exte- 
rior margin  formed,  as  it  were,  the  segment  of  a 
circle,  with  its  arc  towards  the  animaFs  body, 
and  opening  into  a  large  cavity  of  about  two  fevt 
and  a  half  in  width,  without  teeth,  into  which  a 
man  went  with  so  much  ease,  that  I  do  not  ex- 
aggerate when  I  say  that  another  might  have 
done  so  at  the  same  time.  On  each  side  of  the 
mouth  projected  a  mass  of  cartilaginous  sub- 
stance like  boms,  about  a  foot  and  a  half  long 
and  capable  of  meeting  before  the  month.  These 
feelers  moved  about  a  great  deal  in  swimming, 
and  are  probably  of  use  in  feeding.  On  looking 
on  this  animal  as  it  lay  on  the  ground  with  its 
back  upwards,  it  might  be  said  to  be  nearly  of 
equal  dimensions  on  every  side,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  two  lateral  extremities,  extending  to  a 
point  about  four  feet  from  the  body,  and  a  tail 
albout  five  feet  long,  four  inches  and  a  half  in 
diameter  at  the  root,  and  taperins  to  the  point. 
Above  the  root  of  the  tail  was  the  dorsal  fin,  and 
on  each  side  of  it  a  flat  and  flabby  substance 
lying  close  to  the  body,  of  the  appearance  of 
fins.  There  were  no  other  distinct  fins,  and  its 
sole  pppelling  power  seemed  to  be  its  two  late- 


Digitized  by  Vjiuuy  It: 


RAJ 


369 


RAJ 


ral  eitremitiety  which  beoanM  tery  flat  and  thin 
towards  the  point  Aj  it  shows  these  much  in 
swimmii^,  it  gives  the  spectator  an  .extraordinary 
idea  of  its  size,  as,  when  imperfectly  seen,  the 
condusioD  naturally  is,  if  the  breadth  is  so  great, 
how  much  greater  must  the  length  be.  This 
animal  was  a  female,  and  viviparous.  On  open- 
ing it  a  young  one,  about  twenty  pounds  weight, 
was  taken  out,  perfectly  formed,  and  which  has 
been  preserved.  Wishing  to  know  what  it  fed 
upon,  I  saw  the  stomadi  opened,  which  was 
round,  about  eight  inches  in  diameter,  and  quite 
empty.  It  was  closely  studded  over  with  cir- 
cular spots  of  a  muscular  substance.  Under  the 
stomacQ  was  a  long  bag,  with  transverse  muscu- 
lar layers  from  end  to  end,  and  which  contained 
nothing  but  some  slime  and  gravel.  This  mus- 
cular appearance  of  the  digestive  organs  would 
lead  one  to  suppose  that  it  fed  upon  other  fish, 
as  is  the  general  opinion  here,  though  its  having 
no  teeth  does  not  support  that  idea.  Its  weight 
was  so  great  that  it  was  impossible  to  ascertain 
it  at  the  time ;  but  some  idea  may  be  formed  of 
it,  when  I  assure  you  that  it  was  with  difficulty 
that  forty  men,  with  two  lines  attached  to  it, 
could  drag  it  along  the  ground.  Its  bones  were 
soft,  and,  with  the  exception  of  the  jaw  bones, 
could  be  cut  with  a  knife.  One  ridge  of  bone 
ran  from  the  mouth  to  the  middle  of  the  back, 
where  it  vras  met  by  another  running  transverse- 
ly, from  the  extremities  of  which  there  were  two 
larger  ones  converging  towards  the  tail.' 

RAJABARY,  a  considerable  trading  town  of 
.Bengal,  district  of  Dacca,  on  the  western  bank 
of  the  majestic  river  Megna.  Long.  96**  21'  £., 
lau  23^  25*  N.  There  are  innumerable  towns  in 
Hindostan  to  which  Rajah  (a  prince)  is  the  prae- 
nomen. 

RAJAMUNDROOG,  a  town  and  fortress  of 
Hindostan,  province  of  Bejapore,  commands  the 
entrance  into  the  navigable  rirer  Miijee.  It  was 
taken  by  the  British  troops  under  general  Mat- 
thews in  1783,  but  afterwards  ceded  to  Tippoo. 
Long.  ry>  30r  E.,  lat.  14"  Z(f  N. 

RAJAMUNDRY,  an  extensive  district  of 
Hindostan,  province  of  the  Circars,  bounded  on 
the  north  by  Cicacole,  on  the  south  by  Ellore, 
on  the  west  by  the  territories  of  the  Nizam,  and 
on  the  east  by  the  bay  of  Bengal.  It  is  fertilised 
by  the  Godavery,  which  partly  forms  iti  southern 
boundary.  At  the  distance  of  thirty-five  miles 
from  the  sea  it  divides  itself  into  two  great 
branches,  within  which  it  forms  the  island  of 
Nagor,  comprehending  a  triangular  space  of 
500  square  miles.  This  district  is  celebrated  for 
its  sugar.  The  mountains  also  abound  with  teak 
timber.  It  contains  a  number  of  towns,  the 
,  chief  of  which  is  Rajamundry ;  but  the  principal 
sea-port  is  Coringa.  This  district  was  ceded  by 
the  Nizam  Salabut  Jung  in  1753  to  the  French ; 
hut  was  taken  from  them  by  the  British  in  1765, 
and  now  constitutes  one  of  the  five  collectorships 
of  the  province.  The  rajahs  of  this  country  are 
mentioned  in  the  Mahometan  hbtories  as  early 
as  the  thirteenth  century. 

Rajamundry,  the  capital  of  the  above-men- 
tioned district,  and  residence  of  the  British  civil 
establishment,  is  situated  on  the  north  side  of  the 
Godavery,  and  formerly  possessed  a  good  brick 


fort,  now  in  ruins.    Long.  81®  64'  £.,  lat.  16^ 
59' N. 

RAIANIA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  hezm- 
dria  order,  and  dioecia  class  of  plants ;  natural 
order  eleventh,  sannentacese :  male  cal.  sexpar- 
tite :  CO&.  none :  female  cal.  as  in  the  male  : 
COR.  none ;  there  are  three  styles ;  the  fruit  is 
roundish  with  an  oblique  wing,  inferior.  There 
are  three  species  :— 

1.  R.  cordata. 

2.  R.  hastata,-^and 

3.  R.  quinquefolia. 

RAJ  CH0HAN,an  extensive  uneultivated  district 
of  Hindostan,  province  of  Gundwaneh,  situated 
between  23"^  and  24®  N.  lat.  It  produces  little 
but  rice  and  vegetables,  but  abounds  with  game. 
The  greater  part  belongs  to  the  rajah  of  C^rair, 
a  tributary  of  the  Mahrattas.  The  chief  town 
is  Sonebut. 

RAJEMAL,  or  Rajemabal,  ah  unproductive 
district  of  Bengal,  situated  on  the  western  side 
of  the  river  Ganges^  about  25®  N.  lat.  It  is  in- 
habited by  a  race  of  small  people,  probably  the 
aborigines,  who  speak  a  distinct  language^  and, 
although  idolaters,  cannot  be  esteemed  Hindoos. 
They  have  never  been  conquered;  but  about 
the  year  1780  Mr.  Cleveland  subdued  them  by 
gentle  measures.  He  formed  a  battalion  of  them, 
consisting  of  300  men,  who  have  proved  exceed- 
ingly useful.  It  was  in  this  district  that  the  ex- 
periment was  first  tried  of  granting  lands  to  the 
native  invalid  officers  and  soldiers ;  and  the  tm- 
veller  now  passes  with  as  much  safety  from 
human  foes  in  this  district  as  in  any  other  part 
of  India.  It  still,  however,  shelters  a  vast  num- 
ber of  tigers,  bears,  and  wild  beasts. 

Rajemabal,  the  royal  residence,  an  ancient 
city  of  Bengal,  on  the  western  bank  of  the 
Ganges.  The  modem  town  consists  only  of  one 
street,  at  the  foot  of  a  range  of  hills,  and  composed 
of  stone  houses,  generally  two  stories  in  height, 
and  the  ruins  of  a  palace.  It  carries  on  a  small 
trade  vrith  the  inhaoitants  of  the  hills,  and  quar* 
ries  supply  the  neighbourhood  with  flags  and 
millstones.  An  inundation  of  the  Ganges  for- 
merly swept  away  a  coiuiderable  part  of  it ;  a 
conflagration  destroyed  another  portion ;  and  the 
transfer  of  the  seat  of  government  to  Decca  com- 
pleted its  ruin. 

Nothing  can  exceed  the  romantic  prospect  of 
Rajemahid,  vrith  the  mountains  at  tne  back  of 
the  town,  when  a  person,  emerging  from  the 
Cossimbazar  River  and  the  flat  country  of  Ben- 
gal, enters  the  Ganges  at  Sooty,  and  sails  up  that 
river.  There  is  a  tradition  that  this  place  was 
in  very  ancient  times  the  seat  of  »  Hindoo 
government,  and  was  then  called  Raje  Girhi,  or 
Ghur.  It  was  first  noticed  by  the  Mahometan 
historians,  in  the  year  1576,  under  the  name 
of  Agmahel  (the  house  of  fire),  probably  in  allu- 
sion to  ao  early  conflagration.  In  1592  rajah 
Man  Sing,  governor  of  Bahar  and  Bengal,  on 
the  part  of  the  emperor  Akbar,  fixed  upon  this 
place  as  the  capital  o:  the  two  provinces,  and 
named  it  in  compliment  to  his  sovereign,  Akbar- 
nagur  Rajemabal.  He  in  consequence  erected 
a  palace  and  a  stone  wall  here,  having  bastions 
at  the  angles  and  gates ;  and,  having  drawn 
hither  all  the  public  offices,  the  city  soon  rose  in 


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RAIL    ROADS. 


splendor.  In  1608  the  Mogul  governor,  Islam 
Khan,  was  induced,  in  consequence  of  the  invar 
sioo  of  the  south-east  of  Bengal  by  the  Portu- 
guese, to  transfer  the  seat  of  authority  to  Dacca. 
But  in  1639  Shujaa,  the  son  of  Shah  Jehan, 
again  restored  Rajeroahal  to  its  former  dig- 
nity, and  built  an  elegant  palace  here,  some  of 
the  rooms  of  i%|iich  arc  standing.  He  also 
strengthened  the  fortifications,  and  spent  large 
sums  of  money  in  rendering  the  city  worthy  of  die 
royal  residence :  in  the  following  year,  however, 
nearly^  the  whole  was  destroyed  by  a  dreadful 
conilagratioo,  in  which  many  lives  were  lost,  and 
the  fiimily  of  the  prince  with  difficulty  escaped. 
About  the  same  time  the  'Ganges  changed  its 
bed,  and,  pouring  its  torrents  against  the  wallsy 
washed  away  many  of  the  edifices.  In  1659 
Aurungzebe  took  it  after  a  short  siege.  After 
the  expulsion  of  Shuja,  the  Mogul  governor, 
Meer  J  oomla,  fixed  his  residence  at  Dacca,  since 
which  period  Raiemahal  has  steadily  declined. 

RAIKES  (Robert),  a  printer  and  philanthro- 
pist of  Gloucestershire,  bom  in  1735.  His  iather 
was  proprietor  of  the  Gloucester  Journal,  and 
the  son  succeeded  him.  Having  realised  a  pro- 
perty, he  employed  it  in  relieving  such  objects 
as  stood  in  need  of  his  assistance ;  but  is  best 
known  for  his  institution  of  Sunday  schools, 
which  he  planned  conjointly  with  the  Rev.  Mr. 
Stock  in  1781.  See  Education.  Mr.  Raikes 
died  at  Gloucester  in  1811. 

RAIL,  n.  s.    Belg.  ragle,    A  kind  of  bird. 

Of  wild  birds  Co^rwall  hath  quail,  raU,  partridge 
and  pheasant.  Carew*s  Slavey  of  CannoaU, 

Rail,  v.  n.  "^  Fr.  raUler ;  Belg.  rallen  ; 
Rail'er,  n. «.  S  Swed.  ralla.  To  use  reproach- 
Rail'lery.  9ful  language;  accuse;  speak 
to  or  mention  in  opprobrious  terms;  formerly 
taking  on  now  ati  a  railer  is  he  who  insultingly 
accuses  or  defames:  raillery,  a  diminutive  of 
railing ;  slight  satirical  speech  or  manner. 

Angels  bring  not  roitinf  accusation  against  them. 

2  P$Ur  ii. 
What  a  monstroos  fellow  art  thou !  thus  torat^  on 
one  that  is  neither  known  of  thee,  nor  knows  thee. 

Skaktpeare, 
Till  thou  canst  rati  the  seals  from  off  my  bode. 
Thou  bat  offendest  thy  lungs  to  speak  so  loud.    Id,  ■ 
The  plain  the  forests  doth  disdain  : 
The  forests  rail  upon  the  plain.  Drayton. 

Let  ratiiry  be  without  malice  or  heat. 

Sen  Jotuon. 
Thou  art  my  blood,  where  Johnson  has  no  part  ; 
Whexe  did  his  wit  on  learning  fix  a  brand, 
And  rail  at  arts  he  did  not  lyiderstand  1     Dryden. 

If  any  is  angry,  and  rails  at  it,  he  may  securely. 

Lotice, 
If  I  build  my  felicity  upon  my  reputation,  I  am  as 
happy  as  long  as  the  raikr  will  give  me  leave. 

8outh*s  SgrmoHs. 
Studies  employed  on  low  objects ;  the  very  naming 
ef  them  is  sufficient  to  turn  them  into  raiUtry. 

Addrnn. 
To  these  we  are  solicited  by  the  arguments  of  the 
subtile,  and  the  raUUrie$  of  the  profane. 

BmtUjf't  Senurns, 
Leshia  for  ever  on  me  raiU, 
To  ta^k  of  me  she  never  fails.  Svnft. 

Ijet  not  presuming  impious  railer  tax 
Creative  wisdom.  TiumuoiCs  Summer, 


Rail,  n,s,ht.  n.  Teut.  neeel ;  Swed.  regd, 
A  cross  beam  fixed  at  the  ends  in  posts ;  a  se- 
ries of  rails;  to  enclose  with  rails;  confine. 

A  man  upon  a  high  place  without  rdb,  is  ready  to 
fall.  Bom*. 

They  were  brought  to  London  all  iwlsd  in  ropes, 
like  a  team  of  horses  in  a  cart,  and  were  executed 
some  at  London,  and  the  rest  at  divers  places.   Id, 

The  hand  is  square,  with  foar  rounds  at  ibe  cor- 
ners \  this  should  first  have  been  planched  over,  and 
raiUd  about  with  hallisters.  Ctfio* . 

A  large  square  table  for  the  commissio  lers,  *  ne 
side  beii^  suflicient  for  those  of  either  party,  and  a 
raii  for  others  which  went  round.  Oartndtn, 

If  you  make  another  square,  and  also  a  tennant, 
on  each  untennanted  end  of  the  stiles,  and  another 
mortess  on  the  top  and  bottom  raiUf  you  may  put 
them  .together.  Mduron. 

As  tM  churchyard  oueht  to  be  divided  from  other 
profane  places,  so  it  ought  to  be  fenced  in  and  raibd. 

A^ffe, 

Sir  Roger  has  given  a  handsome  pulpit-dodi,  and 
raUsd  in  Uie  communion  table. 


Rail  Roads.  These  useful  appendages  to  min- 
ing and  various  other  works  have  been  in  use  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  Newcastle  since  the  middle 
of  the  seventeenth  century.     They  were  first 
solely  employed  for  transporting  ccals  to  a  mo- 
derate dbtance  fix>m  tlie  pits,  to  the  places  where 
they  could  be  shipped,  being  universally  made 
of  wood.    '  And  long,*  says  Dr.  Anderson,  <had 
they  been  applied  to  this  use,  without  any  idea 
havinff  been  entertained  that  they  could  be  em- 
ployed for  more  general  purposes.'    By  degrees 
they  were,  however,  carried  to  a  fhrther  extent ; 
the  scarcity  of  wood,  and  the  expense  of  their 
repairs,  suggested  the  idea  of  employing  iron  for 
the  purpose  of  improving  these  roads.    At  the 
first,  flat  rods  of  bar-iron  were  nailed  npon  the 
original  wooden  rails,  or,  as  they  were  techni- 
cally called,  sleepers ;  and  this,  though  an  ex- 
pensive process,  was  found  to  be  a  great  im- 
provement.    But,  the  wood  on  which   these 
rested  being  liable  to  rot  and  give  way,  some  im- 
perfect attempts  were  made  to  make  them  of 
cast-iron,  but  these  were  (bund  to  be  liable  to 
many  objections,  until  Mr.  Outram,  engineer,  at 
Butterly   Hall,  Derbyshire,  devoted  his  atten- 
tion to  this  object,    ^e  contrived  at  the  same 
time  so  fer  to  diminish  the  expense,  and  improve 
the  strength  of  the  road,  9$  to  bring  it  to  a  de- 
gree of  perfection  that  no  one  else  had  con- 
ceived  possible.     Having   been   carried   into 
execution  in  a  few  cases,  and  found  to  answer, 
his  plan  has  been  improved  upon  and  simplified 
by  practice,  till  it  is  now  evident  that  it  admits 
of  being  carried  much  beyond  even  its  present 
limits. 

We  cannot  particularixe  the  numerous  exist-  * 
ing  rail-roads:  but  the  chief  lines  that  have 
been  laid  down  are  found  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
the  river  Wear,  near  Newcastle,  in  the  coal  and 
mining  districts  of  Yorkshire  and  Lancashire,  m 
Derbyshire,  Staffordshire,  and  Shropshire ;  and 
in  the  great  mining  districts  aloi^  the  vale  of 
the  Severn.  Here  it  was  that  the  inclined  plane 
was  first  brought  in  aid  of  inland  navigation.  In 
Surrey  there  is  a  railway  of  considerable  extent, 
that  presents  one  of  the  few  attempts  that  have 
been  made  to  adapt  rail-roads  to  general  use.  It 

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861 


hv  ooty  upon  the  whole,  toeoeededy  and  the 
original  doign  of  oontintting  it  to  Portsmouth 
has  been  for  sometime  abandoned.  In  thegreat 
mnipg  districts  on  the  west  of  the  Severn,  in- 
cluding South  Wales,  the  rail-roads  are  Tery  nu- 
merous; and  here,  ^ywing  to  the  steepness  and 
impiacticable  nature  of  the  ground,  Ihey  have 
heen  of  essential  utility  in  supplying  the  place 
of  canals.  In  1791  there  was  scarcely  a  single 
railway  in  all  South  Wales,  and  in  1811  me 
completed  rail-roads  connected  with  canals,  col- 
kries,  iron,  and  oop^per-woiks  in  the  counties  of 
MonoMmtl^  Glamorgan,  and  Caermarthen^ 
amounted  to  nearly  150  miles  in  length,  exclu- 
sive of  a  great  extent  within  the  mines,  of  wfaidi 
one  company  in  Merthyr^Tydvil  has  thirty  miles 
under  nound.  In  Monmouthshire  the  Sirho- 
wav  railway  forms  one  of  the  first  in  Britain  in 
pomt  of  magnitude.  It  first  extends  thirteen 
miles  from  Pilffwdly,  near  Newport,  to  the  Sir- 
howayand  Trecugar  iron-works,  whence  it  is  con- 
tinued five  miles  rarther  to  the  Trevil  lime-works, 
in  Brecknockshire^  along  with  a  branch  to  the 
west,  to  the  Rumnev  and  Union  iron-works. 
This  railway  was  maile  by  the  Monmouthshire 
Canal  Company.  A  branch  proceeds  firom 
Siifaowav  eastwards  to  the  Ebbwy  works,  and 
thence  down  the  course  of  the  Ebbwy  to  Crum- 
lin  Bridge,  whence  it  joins  the  canal  fx>m  New- 
port; and,  from  Simoway  again,  the  Brinare 
nUway  is  continued  over  the  Black  Mountain  to 
the  vale  of  the  Uske  at  Brecon,  and  thrace  to 
Hay  on  the  riTer  Wye.  In  Glamorganshire  the 
prindpal  railways  are  the  Cardiff  aM  the  Mer- 
thyr  l^dvil,  the  Aberdare  and  the  Swansea.  In 
Caennarthenshire  the  principal  railway  is  that 
which  runs  from  Caennarthen  to  the  lime-works 
near  Llandebie,  a  distance  of  fifteen  miles. 
Such  are  the  diief  rail-ways  in  England  and 
Wales. 

In  Scotland  the  duke  of  Pordand's  rail-road 
fiom  Kilmarnock  to  Troin,  a  distance  of  ten 
miles,  is  the  principal  work  of  this  kind  yet 
executed;  but  round  Glassow,  and  in  Uie  coal 
fields  of  Mid  Lothian  and  Fife^  are  several  minor 
lines. 

It  is  supposed  that  on  a  rail-way  well  con- 
structed, and  laid  with  a  declivity  of  fifty-five 
feet  in  a  mile,  one  horse*  will  readily  take  down 
waggons  containing  from  twelve  to  fifteen  tons, 
sndbring  back  the  same  waggons  with  four  tons 
in  them.  ^This  delivity,  therefore,  suits  wdl, 
when  the 'imports  are  only  one-fourth  part  of 
what  is  to  be  enwrted.  If  the  emp^  vraggons 
only  are  to  be  brought  back,  the  declivity  may 
he  made  greater;  or  an  additional  horse  appliea 
qp  the  returning  journey  will  balance  the  in- 
crease of  declivity.  If  the  length  of  the  rail- 
way were  to  be  considered,  it  may,  it  is  sup- 
posed, without  much  inconvenience,  be  varied 
from  being  level  to  a  declivity  of  one  inch  in  a 
yard,  and  by  dividing  the  whole  distance  into 
separate  stages,  and  providing  the  number  of 
horses  suitable  for  each  portion  of  rail-wav  ac- 
Goidine  to  the  distance  and  degree  of  declivity, 
the  whole  operation  may  be  carried  on  with 
regularity  and  despatch.  It  is  upon  the  whole 
believed  that  this  useful  contrivance  vm  be 
varied  so  as  to  suit  the  surface  of  many  difficult 


countries,  at  a  comparatively  moderate  expense. 
It  may  be  construed  in  a  much  mora  expedi- 
tious manner  than  navigable  canals ;  it  may  be 
introduced  infb  many  districts  where  canals  are 
wholly  inapplicable ',  and  in  case  of  any  change 
in  the  woruor  of  mines^  pits,  or  manufactories, 
the  rails  may  be  taken  up  and  laid  down  again 
in  new  situations  at  no  very  great  expense  or 
trouble.       * 

In  laying  out  a  line  of  rail-way  no  further 
general  rule  can  be  laid  down  than  that  regard 
should  in  the  first  place  be  had  to  such  a  direc- 
tion and  such  a  declivity  as  may  best  suit  the 
nature  of  the  ground  through  which  it  passes, 
and  the  trade  to  be  carried  on  upon  it  if  the 
trade  be  all  or  chiefly  in  one  direction,  the  road 
should  of  course  dedine  that  way,  so  that  the 
wagons,  vrith  their  contents,  may  descend  on 
this  inclined  plane  as  much  as  possible  by  their 
own  weight.  If  the  exports  and  imports  be 
equal,  the  road  should  be  on  a  level ;  and,  where 
the  ground  will  not  permit  that  decliviw  or  level 
best  suited  to  the  trsude,  the  line  should  be  varied, 
and  the  inequalities  made  up,  so  as  to  bring  it 
as  near  as  possible  to  the  proper  standard.  If 
the  ineaualities  are  such  as  to  render  this  im- 
practicable, the  only  resource  lies  in  inclined 
planes;  fiw  instance  where  the  difierence  of 
level  between  the  two  extremities  of  the  road  is 
such  as  would  render  an  equal  declivity  too 
steep,  the  road  must  then  be  carried  either  on  a 
level  or  widi  the  due  degree  of  slope,  as  fiur  as  prac- 
ticable, and  then  lowered  by  an  inclined  plane ; 
on  which  the  vraggons  are  let  gently  down  by 
means  of  a  brake,  are  dragged  up  by  means  of 
an  additional  power  to  that  which  dtaws  them 
along  the  Yoad,  or  at  once  let  down  and  drawn 
up  by  means  of  a  rolWr  or  pulley. 

The  distance  between  the  opposite  rails  of  a 
road  varies  generally  from  three  met  to  four  and  a 
half  feet,  according  as  a  long  and  narrow,  or  a 
broad  short  vraggon  is  preferred.  A  breadth  of 
from  nine  to  twelve  feet  therefi>re  vrill  be  suffici- 
ent for  a  single  road,  and  from  fifWen  to  twenty 
for  a  double  one.  The  iieejftn  consist  of  solid 
blocks  of  stone,  of  the  weight  of  one  or  two 
hundred-weight;  the  base  must  be  broad,  and 
the  upper  surfiice  present  an  even  basis  for  the 
rail.  They  are  to  be  placed  along  each  side  of 
the  road,  about  three  feet  distant  from  each  other 
from  centre  to  oentre ;  the  opposite  ones  being 
separated'  by  the  width  between  the  oppk>site 
rails ;  'the  ground  under  them  being  rammed  or 
beaten  down  to  form  a  firm  foundation ;  some- 
times it  is  first  bud  with  a  coat  of  gravel  or 
refuse  metal.  The  space  between  them  is  also 
rammed  or  filled  up  with  firm  materials. 

Two  kinds  of  iron  rails  are  in  use,  each  of 
which  has  its  warm  advocates ;  the  flat  rail  or 
tram  plate,  which  being  laid  on  its  side,  the 
vraggon-wheels  travel  over  the  broad  and  flat 
sur&ce,  the  other  is  termed  an  edge  rail,  the  rails 
being  laid  edgeways,  and  the  wheels  travelling 
on  their  upper  sur&ces  The  flat  rail,  or  tram 
plate,  consists  of  a  plate  of  cast  iron,  about  three 
feet  long,  from  three  to  five  inches  broad,  and 
from  half  an  inch  to  an  inch  thick;  extending 
from  sleeper  to  sleeper,  'and  having  a  flaunche 
turn-up  or  crest  on  the  inside,  from  two  and  a 

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hair  to  four  inches  high.  It  bean  on  the  sleep- 
en  at  each  end»  where  &e  rails  are  cast  about 
half  an  inch  thicker  than  in  the  middle,  at  least 
three  inches,  and  as  there  is  no  intermediate 
bearing,  except  the  surfikce  of  the  road,  the  use 
of  ^  flauncne  is  to  resist  the  transverse  strain 
arising  from  the  weight  of  the  waggon ;  on  this 
account  it  is  often  raised  higher  in  the  middle 
than  at  the  sides,  forming  an  arch,  and,  to 
streng^en  the  rail  still  farther,  a  similar  flaunche, 
arcb^  inversely,  is  added  below.  The  weight 
of  each  rail  is  from  forty  to  fifty  pounds.  TlM&se 
rails  are  merely  laid  to  each  otner,  end  to  end, 
all  along  each  side  of  the  road ;  being  kept  in 
their  places,  and  at  the  same  tinle  made  fast  to 
the  sleepers,  by  an  iron  spike  six  inches  long, 
driven  through  the  extremity  of  each  into  a  plug 
of  oak  fitted  in  the  centre  of  each  sleeper.  This 
spike  has  no  head,  bi.t  the  upper  eud  of  it  forms 
an  oblong  square,  about  one  inch  broad,  half  an 
inch  thick;  and  the  hole  in  the  rails,  through 
which  it  passes,  ts  formed  by  a  notch,  half  an 
inch  square,  in  the  middle  of  the  extremity  of 
each  rail;  the  opposite  notches  of  each  rail 
forming,  when  laid  together,  an  oblone  square 
of  one  inch  by  half  an  incl^  and  slightly  dove- 
tailed fh>m  top  to  bottom,  soas  to  fit  exactly  the 
tapering:  head  of  the  spike,  which  is  driven  clear 
below  uke  upper  surface  of  the  rail.  When  the 
rails  cross  a  road,  the  space  between  them  and 
on  each  side  must  be  paved  up  to  the  level  of 
the  top  of  the  flaunches,  that  the  carriages 
on  the  rend  may  be  enabled  to  pass  clear 
over  the  raits.  In  single  railways  it  is  also  ne- 
cessary ta  have  a  place  at  interrals  where  the 
empty  waggons  in  returning  may  be  ^conducted 
off  the  road  and  allow  the  load^  ones  to  pass. 
This  place  is  termed  a  turn-out;  and  the  wag- 
gons are  directed  into  it  by  a  moveable  pointer 
or  rail, 'fixed  at  the  intersection  between  the 
principal  rail  and  the  turn-out,  moving  on  its 
extremity,  so  as  to  open  a  way  into  the  turn-out, 
and  shut  that  along  tV  road.  This  is  also  used 
whenever  one  line  of  rail-way  crosses  another.' 
lliese  flat  or  tram  roads  are  universal  in  Wales, 
and  the  principal  ones  used  in  Scotland. 

In  tiie  collieries  of  the  north  of  England  the 
flat  has  been  almost  entirely  superseded  by  the 
edge  rail,  and  the  latter  are  admitted  to  be  de- 
cidedly superior  in  ease  of  draught,  the  edge  of 
the  bar  presenting  less  friction,  and  'being  less 
liable  to  cloff.  Tne  edge  rail  consists  of  a. single 
rectangular  bar  of  cast  iron,  three  feet  long, 
three  or  fbur  inches  broad,  and  from  half  an  inch 
to  an  indi  thick,  set  in  its  edge  between  the 
sleepers,  and  bearing  on  them  at  its  ends.  The 
upper  side  of  the  rail  is  flaunched  out  to  present 
a  oroad  bearing  surface  for  the  wheeb ;  the  under 
side  is  also  cast  thicker  than  the  middle.  But 
the  greatest  strength  is  attained  by  casting  the 
rail  not  'rectangiuar,  but  deeper  in  the  middle 
than  at  the  ends,  which  may  be  safely  reduced  to 
nearly  one-third  of  the  depth  in  the  middle. 
The  rails  are  set  in  a  cast  iron  socket  or  chair, 
attached  firmly  to  the  sleeper.  This  socket  em- 
braces the  extremities  of  the  adjacent  rails,  which 
are  here  made  to  overiap,  and  a  pin  is  driven 
at  once  through  the  rails  and  thi^gh  the  socket, 
so  as  to  bind  the  whole  together.    Malleable 


iron  has  of  late  been  used  in  the  eonstrmction  of 
these  rail&  Mr.  Biriunshaw  of  the  Bed^ingtOD 
Iron-works  has  obtained  a  patent  ibr  broftd  top- 
ped malleable  rails  of  a  weage  form.  The^pecifr- 
mt  shape  is  given  them  in  the  rolling  of  the 
nsetal,  by  means  of  grooves  cut  in  the  roUeis^ 
corresponding  with  the  requisite  breadth  and 
depth,  and  Ute  curvature  of  the  proposed  raiL 
This  seems  a  very  great  improvement. 

The  Westminster  Review,  No.  VIIL,  anigiis 
the  m^t  of  the  invention  of  iron  rail-ways  to 
Mr.  Curr  an  engineer  of  Sheffield.  '  We  yet 
expect,'  continues  the  reviewer,  'to  see  them 
applied  to  some  of  the  ordinary  purposes  of 
travelling.  The  first  five  miles  of  the  Dover 
road  are  maintained  at  an  annual  expense  of 
more  than  £1000  a  mile,  and  this  is  chie^ 
caused  by  the  sharp  wheels  of  heavy  stage- 
coaches. There  would  be  no  difficulty  in  giving 
rails  to  this  class  of  carriages,  at  least,  as  their 
rapidity  is  equable  -and  their  times  fixed.  A 
sepamte  rail  might  be  applied  to  waggons  which 
are'  equally  regular  in  motion  if  not  in  speed; 
while  an  ordinary  road  might  still  be  preserved 
for  vehicles  of  irregular  rates  and  times.' 

RAI'MENT,  fi.  s.  Abridged  from  Akeai- 
MBMT.    Vesture;  clothes;  dress;  garment 

His  raimmti,  thoogh  mean,  received  handsomenen 
by  the  grace  of  the  weaier.  fiicbMy. 

O  Protheus,  let  this  habit  wake  thM  hNah ! 
Be  .then  ashamed  that  I  have  took  apon  me 
Such  an  immodest  rammt.  fiRdfapaarf. 

Liviog  both  food  and  raimma  the  suppliea. 

Drydm 

You  are  to  consider  them  as  the  servants  and  in- 
stnunenu  of  action,  and  so  give  them  food,  andiest, 
and  raimeni,  that  they  may  be  strong  and  healthfiil 
to  do  the  duties  of  a  charitable,  usefol,  pious  life. 


RAIN,  n.  t.,  V.  a.,  kv.n, 
Rain'bow,  n.  s. 


N     Sax. 
(pen. 


penian; 


Rain-water^  iBelg.  and  Teut. 

Rai'ny.  Jregen;        Goth. 

rign.  The  water  which  falls  in  drops  from  the 
clouds ;  to  fall  in  such  drops ;  *  it  rains,'  signifying 
that  the  water  falls  in  this  way  from  the  clouds  ^ 
to  pour  down  as  rain :  rainbow,  the  iris ;  the  bow 
formed  on  the  clouds  by  the  sun  in  showery 
weather :  rain-water,  ^e  water  of  the  clouds ; 
rainy,  showery;  wet;  damp;  likely  to  rain. 

A  contiaual  dropping  in  a  veiy  twny  day,  and 
a  contentious  woman,  are  alike. 

PfDMrir  xxvii.  16.. 
Casting  of  the  water  in  a  most  cunning  manner, 
makes  a  perfect  rambom,  not  more  pleasant  to  the 
eye  than  to  the  mind,  so  sensibly  to  see  the  proof  of 
the  heavenly  iris.  oidmgr. 

When  shall  we  three  meet  again,  « 

In  thunder,  lightning,  or  in  rain.    Shtiupt§n> 
That  which  serves  for  gain 
And  fellows  but  for  form. 

Will  pack  when  it  begins  to  ffom 
And  leave  thee  in  the  storm. 

Id.  King  Urn. 
Bain  sacrificial  whisperiogs  in  his  ear. 
Make  sacred  even  his  stirrup. 

Id.  Tmen  of  Athens. 
To  add  another  hue  unto  the  rrnnbow. 

ShaAtptart. 
Court  holy  water  in  a  dry  house,  is  better  than  th«^ 
raimmlfr  cut  o'  doors.  Id,  Kmg  Lm, 

Digitized  by  V^UUy  \SC 


RAI 

On  wmm  aad  Mr  g«ilt  m  all  bMUiiclwd, 
With  nay  manhiog  in  Ih*  ptiafol  fi«14. 


863 


RAI 


TW  TtMow  b  draim  like  a  vympk  wiUi  large 
wings  diipmad  in  tlie  fonn  of  a  Minicircle,  the  ft«* 
theo  of  fandiy  colon.  Pmtcham, 

They  lat  them  down  to  w«ep ;  nor 'only  tewt 
Rain$4  at  their  eyes,  but  high  winds  rose  within. 

MilUm. 
They  conld  not  be  ignorant  of  the  promLse  of  God 
never  to  drown  the  world,  and  the  rMnbov)  before 
their  eyes  to  pnt  them  in  mind  of  it. '         Browne. 
The  lost  elonds  pour 
Into  the  sea  an  useless  shower. 
And  the  vest  sailors  curse  the  rain, 
for  which  poor  farmers  prayed  in  vain. 

We  took  diitilled  ratn-watsr.  JBoyle . 

Like  a  low  hung  cloud  it  ruins  so  fast, 

That  ail  at  once  it  falls.  Drydm*s  Knighi^s  Tali, 

The  wind  is  south-west,  and  the  weather  lowring^ 
and  like  to  ram.  Locke, 

Rain  is  water  by  the  heat  of  the  sun  divided  into 
very  small  parts  ascending  in  the  air,  till,  encounter- 
ing the  coldf  it  be  condensed  into  clouds,  and  de- 
scends in  drops.  Ray, 

Bak^wttter  is  to  be  preferred  before  spring-water. 

Mortimer, 

This  rminbaw  never  appears  bat  where  it  rains  in 
the  sun-shine,  and  ma^  be  made  artificially,  by 
ipoudn^  up  water,  which  may  break  aloft,  and 
scatter  into  drops,  and  h\\  down  like  ratti ;  for  the 
san  shining  upon  these  drops,  certainly  causes  the 
bow  to  apoear  to  a  spectator  standing  in  a  true  po- 
sition to  tne  rain  and  sun  :  this  bow  is  made  by  re* 
fraction  of  the  sun*s  light  in  drops  of  falling  rain. 

rfewton. 

The  dome's  high  arch  reflects  the  mingled  blase. 
And  forms  a  rainbow  of  alternate  rays.  Pope, 

Gay  rainbow  silks  her  mellow  charms  infold. 
And  nought  of  Lyce  but  herself  is  old.        Young, 

Rain.    See  Meteorology. 

Rainbow,  iris,  is  a  meteor  in  form  of  a  party- 
colored  arch,  or  semicircle,  exhibited  in  a  rainy 
sky,  opposite  to  the  sun,  by  the  refraction  and 
reflection  of  his  rays  in  the  drops  of  falling  rain. 
There  is  also  a  secondary,  or  fainter  bow,  usually 
seen  inyesting  the  former  at  some  distance. 
Among  natundists  we  also  read  of  lunar  rain- 
bows, marine  rainbows,  &c. 

This  beautiful  phenomenon  has  engaged  the 
attention  of  all  ages,  and  by  some  nations  it 
has  even  been  deified.  The  observations  of  the 
aacients  and  philosophers  of  the  middle  ages, 
concerning  the  rainbow,  were  such  as  could  not 
have  escaped  the  notice  of  the  most  illiterate 
husbandmen  who  gaze4l  at  the  sky;  and  their 
various  hypotheses  deserve  no  notice.  Mauroly- 
cus  waa  the  first  who  pretended  to  have  measured 
the  diameters  of  the  two  rainbows  with  much  ex- 
actness ;  and  he  reports  that  he  found  that  of  the 
inner  "bow  to  be  45%  and  that  of  the  outer  bow 
56^;  from  which  Descartes  takes  occasion  to  ob- 
serve how  little  we  can  depend  upon  the  obser- 
vations of  those  who  were  not  acquainted  with 
the  cause  of  the  appearances.  See  Optics,  In- 
dex. The  meon  sometimes  exhibits  the  pheno- 
menon of  an  iris  or  rainbow  by  the  refraction  of 
her  rays  in  drops  of  ruin.  This  phenomenon  in 
the  night-time  is  however  very  rare. 

The  marine  or  sea  rainbow  is  a  phenomenon 
which  may  be  frequently  observed  in  a  much 


agitated  sea,  and  is  occasioned  by  the  wkid 
sweeping  part  of  the  waves  and  carrying  them 
aloft,  which  when  they  fall  down  are  refracted 
l^  the  sun's  rays,  painting  the  colors  of  the  bow 
just  as  in  a  common  shower.  These  bows  are 
often  seen  when  a  vessel  is  sailing  with  consider^ 
able  force,  and  dashing  the  waves  around  her> 
which  are  raised  partly  by  the  action  of  the  ship 
and  partly  by  the  force  of  the  wind,  and,  filing 
down,  they  form  a  rainbow ;  ^nd  they  are  sJso 
oflen  occasioned  by  the  dashing  of  the  waves 
against  the  rocks  on  shore.  The  colors  of  the 
marine»ralnbow  are  less  lively,  less  distinct,  and 
of  shorter  continuance,  than  those  of  the  com- 
mon rainbow ;  there  are  scarcely  more  than  two 
colors  distinguishable,  a  dark  yellow  on  the  side 
next  the  sun,  and  a  pale  green  on  the  opposite 
side.  But  they  are  more  numerous,  there  being 
sometimes  twenty  or  thirty  seen  together. 

RAINOLDS  (John),  D.  D.,  an  eminent  £ng* 
lish  divine,  born  at  Pinto  in  Devonshire  in  1549, 
and  sent  to  Morton  College,  Oxford,  in  1562. 
He  became  fellow  of  Corpus  Christi,  where  be 
took  b:s  degrees.  In  1598  he  was  msule  dean  of 
Lincoln,  and  in  1599  president  of  Corpus 
College.  Queen  Elizabeth  offered  him  a  bishop, 
ric,  but  he  modestly  refused  it,  saying  in 
earnest.  Nolo  episcopal!.  He  wrote  and  pub- 
lished a  great  number  of  works,  and  was  one  of 
the  learned  divines  employed  by  James  I.  to 
translate  the  Bible.  He  was  moderately  inclined 
to  puritanism.    He  died  in  1607. 

Rainy  Riv£R,  a  river  oC  Illinois,  which  rises 
near  the  west  border  of  Indiana,  flows  W.  N.W.. 
and  joins  the  Illinois,  long.  88^  5'  W.,  lat.  41^ 
20'  N. 

Rainy  Lake,  a  lake  of  North  America,  divided 
by  an  isthmus  near  the  middle  into  two  parts, 
l^he  west  part  is  called  the  Great  Rainy  Lake, 
the  east  the  Little  Rainy  Lake,  being  the  least 
division.  It  is  in  general  very  shallow  in  its 
depth.  The  broadest  part  of  it  is  not  more  than 
twenty' miles;  its  length,  includmg  both,  about 
300  miles.  In  the  west  part  the  water  is  very 
clear  and  good,  and  some  excellent  fish  9fe  taken 
in  it.  A  great  many  fowl  resort  here  at  the  fsill 
of  the  year.  Moose  deer  are  to  be  found  in 
great  plenty,  and  likewise  the  Carvaboo,  whose 
skin,  for  breeches  or  gloves,  exceeds  by  hi 
any  other  to  be  met  with  in  North  America. 

RAIRY,  a  celebrated  fortress  of  Hiudostan, 
in  Bejapore.  It  is  situated  on  the  top  of  a  steep 
hill,  and  was  the  favorite  residence  of  the  MaL^ 
ratta  chief  Sevajee. 

RAISE,  V.  a.  )      Swed.    resa;    Dan.  rei$a; 

Rais'er,  n.  t.  ^ Teut.  reiiun;  Or.  toeOiZt^l 
To  lift ;  heave ;  erect ;  exalt ;  set  up ;  aavance ; 
excite;  irritate;  rouse:  he  who  raises. 

Raiee  not  a  false  report.    Esodtu  xziii.  I. 

Take  his  carcase  down  from  the  tree,  cast  it  at  the 
entering  of  the  gate,  and  raiee  thereon  a  heap  ot 
stones.  Jothua  viii. 

He  raieeth  the  stomy  wind.      PeaUn  cvii.  28. 

Then  shall  stand  up  in  his  estate  a  raieer  of  taxes. 

Daniel  xi. 

They  neither  found  me  in  the  temple  disputing 
with  any  man,  neither  raieing  up  the  people.  Ads. 

It  is  sown  in  dishonour,  it  is  raised  in  glory  ;  i 
is  sown  in  weakness,  it  is  raked  in  power. 

1  Cmat&iaiu  XV.  23« 
Digitized  by  VjOU*^'IC 


RAI 


364 


RAK 


TIm  spiritt  of  tiM  dfloanwd,  by  ctrUttn  tpellt  mnd 
li^ftfnal  Mcriiioei.  were  raimd.      Samd^^i  Jimrmy. 

That  eyeleu  heed  of  thine  tree  fint  framed  fleeh. 
To  rout  my  fortunet.  SKahiptan.  King  Lmr» 

He  fint  ramd  heed  egeinit  usurping  Richard. 


CooufeUon  mev  mexie^  aflhin,  which  iieverthei> 
leu  are  ht  from  ue  ability  to  rmm  and  emplify  an 
estate.  Baim, 

They  that  are  the  fint  nnitrs  of  their  houses  are 
most  indulgent  towards  their  children.  Id, 

And  drittke  tlie  daik-deepe  water  of  the  spring. 
Bright  Arethusa,  the  most  nourishing 
Raimr  of  heeidsi  Cknmtau 

He  that  boasts  of  his  ancestors,  the  founders  and 
raimn  of  a  funily,  doth  oonfeu  that  he  heth  less 
virtue.  Tofflor. 

This  gentleman  came  to  be  taiiid  to  great  tides. 

CUemuitm. 
Thou  so  pleased, 
Canst  raiu  thy  creature  to  what  height  thou  wilt 
Of  union.  Jftiton. 

He  miffht  teint 
The'  animal  spirits,  ttiat  from  pure  blood  arise. 
Thence  mim  distempered  thoughts.  Id. 

God  ▼oachssfos  to  nriif  another  world 
From  him.  Id, 

He  out  of  smallest  things  could  without  end 
Hate  rmutd  inoeisant  armies.  /d. 

The  common  ferryman  of  £fypt»  that  wafted  over 
the  deed  bodies  frmn  Jtfemphis,  was  made  by  the 
Greeks  to  be  the  fenyman  ot  hell,  and  iblemn  stories 
raited  after  him.  BraufM, 

The  plate  pieces  of  eight  were  raittd  three -pence 
in  the  puce.  T§mpU*§  MitetUanm. 

^ness  then  employs  his  pains 
In  parts  remote  to  mm  the  Tuscan  swains. 

DrydM. 
All  gaae,  and  all  admire,  and  raim  a  shouting 

sound.  id. 

These  are  spectres  the  understanding  nuMt  to 
itself,  to  flatter  iu  own  laziness.  Locke, 

Miss  Liddy  can  dance  a  jig,  and  tviee  paste. 

SpeetaUfr. 
The  Penians  gaiing  on  the  sun, 
.Admired  how  high  'twas  placed,  how  bright  i(  shone ; 
But,  as  his  power  was  known,  their  thoughts  were 


And  soon  they  wordiipped  what  at  first  they  praised. 


I  should  not  thus  be  bound. 
If  I  had  means,  and  could  but  ratae  five  pound. 

Britain,  once  despised,  can  raite 
As  ample  sums,  as  Rome  in  Cesar's  days. 

ArbutJmot, 
Such  h  bulk  as  no  twelve  bards  could  rviw. 
Twelve  starveling  bards  in  these  degenerate  days. 

Pope. 
Gods  encountering  gods,  Jove  encoureging  them 
with  his  thunders,  and  Neptune  nmti^  bis  tempests. 

Mdt 

I7aiifr  of  human  kind !  bynatnre  cast. 
Naked  and  helpless.  fkomton's  Autumn, 

Content  if  thus  sequestered  I  may  rotM 
A  monitor's,  though  not  a  poet^s  praise. 
And  while  I  teaph  an  art  too  little  known. 
To  close  life  wisely,  may  not  waste  my  own. 

Cmper, 

RAI'SIN,  ft.  ff.  Fr.  rmitn ;  Arab,  rwa  ;  Lat. 
rocfiiittf .    A  dried  mpe. 

Botmu  are  the  fruit  or  the  vine  suflfered  to  remain 
on  the  tree  till  perfecUy  ripened,  and  then  dried : 
grapes  of  eveiy  kind,  preserved  in  this  manner,  are 
ca^ed  rattiju,  but  those  dried  in  ^e  sun  are  much 


than  diose  dried  In  ovens ; 

from  their  being  inmorted 

HUL 

,  boiled  in  a  convenient 

s  sweet  liquor,  which. 


sweeter  and 

they  are  called  jar  • 

in  eerthen  jars. 

Dried  grapes  or 
nroportion  of  waiei, 

iwing  betimes  distilled,  alfords  anoil  and  ^uttmnch. 
like  the  vmims  themselves.  BopU, 

Raisins.  To  obtain  fine  raisins  tie  two  or 
three  bunches  of  grapes  together  while  ^ei  on 
the  vine,  and  dip  them  into  a  hot  lixivium 
wood  aite,  with  a  little  of  the  oil  of  olives  kt 
it  This  disposes  them  to  shrink  and  wrinkle ; 
after  this  ihey  are  left  on  the  vine  three  or  four 
days  separated  on  sticks  in  an  horizontal  situ- 
ation, and  then  dried  in  the  sun  at  leisare,  after 
being  cut  from  the  tree.  The  finest  and  best 
raisins  are  those  called  in  some  places  Damascus 
and  Jube  raisins ;  which  are  distinguished  from 
the  others  by  their  size  and  figure ;  they  are  flat 
and  wrinkled  on  the  surface,  soft  and  juicy 
within,  and  nearly  an  inch  long ;  and,  when  fresh 
and  growing  on  the  bunch,  are  of  the  size  and 
shape  of  the  large  olive.  The  raisins  of  the  sun 
are  all  dried  by  the  heat  of  the  sun ;  and  these 
with  the  jar  raisins  are  the  sorts  used  in  medi- 
cine. However  all  the  kinds  have  much  the 
same  virtues;  they  are  all  nutritive  and  bal- 
samic; they  are  allowed  to  be  attenuantyare  said 
to  be  good  in  nephritic  complaints,  and  are  an 
ingredient  in  pectoral  decoctions:  in  which 
cases,  as  also  in  all  others  where  astringency  i% 
not  required  of  them,  the  stones  should  be  care- 
fully taken  out. 

RAKE,  n.  s.,  v.  a.,  k  v.  n.-\  Sax.  pace ;  Bdg. 

Rake'hell,  n.  s.  Iraeche  ;    Swedish 

Rake'hellt,  01^*.  iroka  (to  soape); 

Ra'kish.  J  Teut.  recheu.  An 

instrument  with  teeth  designed  to  collect  or 
scrape  things  together ;  hence  (Fr.  racaUUy  the 
rabble)  both  a  rake,  a  low  worthless  fellow,  and 
rakehell,  according  to  Skinner,  of  the  same  sig-- 
nification :  to  rake  is  to  sather  or  clear  vrith  a 
rake;  collect;  and  hence  heap ;  scour:  and,  in 
nautical  aflabs,  to  fire  so  as  to  search  a  vessel : 
as  a  verb  neuter,  to  search ;  grope ;  the  adjec- 
tives both  mean  wild ;  dissolute.  , 

At  Midsnnuner  down  with   the  brsmUes  and 
brakes. 
And  after  abroad  with  thy  (brkes  and  thy  rdm. 

Turner. 
Mow  barlie,  and  rake  it,  and  set  it  on  cocks,  id. 
When  Pas  hand  reached  him  to  take 
The  fox  on  knees  and  elbows  tumbled  down : 
Pas  could  not  suy,  but  over  him  did  rake. 
And  crowned  the  earth  wi(h  his  first  t 


Out  of  the  frie  of  these  rahdieU  hone-bovs,  grow- 
ing  up  in  knavery  and  villany,  are  their  kem  sup- 
pfaed.  Spemaer, 

I  scorn  the  rakekdly  rout  of  our  ragged  rMmers, 
which  without  learning  boost,  without  judgment 
jangle,  and  without  reason  rsge  and  foam.         /d. 

An  eager  desire  to  rake  together  whatsoever  asisfat 

a'udice  or  any  way  hinder  the  credit  of  apoccyfmal 
Ils,  hath  caused  the  collector's  pen  so  to  run  ss  it 
were  on  wheels,  that  the  mind,  which  should  guide 
it,  had  no  lebuje  to  think.   .  Hotioer. 

What  piles  of  wealth  hath  he  accumulated ! 
How,  i'  th'  name  of  thrift. 
Does  he  rake  this  together  ? 

Hwfj  vni. 


Digitized  by  V3UU*^IV::  * 


RAL 

IfytmhidetlMcrowQ 
Evco  in  your  hearts,  then  will  he  rate  for  it. 


365 


RAL 


The  kins,  when  he  heard  of  Perkiy'  ijege  of 
Exeter,  nid  in  tport,  that  the  king  of  raktheOt  was 
landed  in  the  West,  and  that  he  hoped  now  to  see 


No  hretking  of  wind4>w8  or  glasses  for  spight. 
And  spoiling  the  goods  for  a  rakJidljf  prank. 

JBm  JoMOHa 
The  hlaztng  wood  may  to  the  eye  seem  great. 
Bat  tis  the  fire  raM  up  that  has  the  heat. 
And  keeps  it  lone.  fibeUny. 

HaiTows'  iron  teeth  shall  ereiy  where 
Adit  helmets  up.       Uay*t  TtrnVB  Gwrgieh. 

A  sport  more  fonnidabia 
Had  nktd  together  villa^  rabble.     Hudiftrai. 
O  that  thy  bounteous  deity  would  please 
To  guide  my  take  upon  the  chinking  sound 
Of  some  vast  treasure  hidden  under  ground. 

Drydm, 
Another  finds  the  waj  to  dye  in  grain ; 
Or  for  the  golden  ore  in  n?ers  ntket, 
Then  melts  the  mass.  Id.  Perriut. 

One  is  for  nkmg  in  Chaucer  for  antiauated  words, 
which  are  neiver  to  be  revived,  but  when  sound  or 
ngnificancy  it  wanting.  Dryden. 

The  Belgians  tack'  upon  our  rear, 
And  roMng  chase-guns  through  our  sterns  they  send. 

Jdm 

Ill-gotfeen  goods  are  squandered  away  with  as 
little  oonideiioe  as  they  were  roM  together. 

VBttnmge, 

ItisasoiieDaiveastOfdk»  into  a  dunghill.   South, 

He  examines  his  face  in  the  stream,  combs  his 
raeful  locks  with  a  rake.  Garth, 

The  next  came  with  her  son,  who  was  the  neatest 
rate  in  the  place,  but  so  much  the  mother's  darling, 
that  the  l«ft  her  husband  for  the  sake  of  this  grace- 
len  youth.  Addimm, 

After  having  made  essays  into  it,  |u  they  do  for 
coal  in  Snglanid,  they  rmkt  into  the  most  promising 
parts.  Id. 

Raka  hate  sober  grave  gentlewomen.   4f^hnot. 

Men,  some  to  business,  some  to  pleasure  take. 

But  every  woman  is  at  heart  a  roJks.  Pops* 

The  statesman  rakn  the  town  to  find  a  plot. 

Swift, 

A  rakdidl  of  the  town,. whose  character  is  set  off 
with  excessive  prodigality,  pro^haneness,  intempe- 
rance, and  lust,  is  rewarded  with  a  lady  of  great 
fntune  to  repair  his  own,  which  his  vices  had  almost 
mined.  &»^. 

As  they  rah*  the  gieen  appearing  ground, 

The  russet  hay-co^  rises.  Thomon^ 

There  seldom  can  be  peculiarity  in  the  love  of  a 
rakiih  heart.  Ctmntta. 

To  dance  at  publick  plaoes,  that  fops  and  raktt 
might  admire  the  fineness  of  her  shape,  and  the 
beauty  of  her  motions.  Law. 

The  Rake  of  a  Ship  is  all  that  part  of  her 
hull  which  hangs  over  both  endi  of  her  keeL 
That  which  is  before  is  called  the  fore-take,  or 
lake  forward,  and  that  part  which  is  at  the  set- 
ting on  of  the  stem-post  is  called  the  zake-aft,  or 
after-waid. 

To  Rakb  a  Ship  is  to  cannonade  her  on  the 
stem,  er  head,  so  as  that  the  balls  shall  scour 
the  whoie  length  of  her  decks ;  which  is  one  of 
the  moat  dangeious  incidents  that  can  happen  in 
a  naval  action.  This  is  frequently  callea  raking 
fore  and  aft,  and  is  similar  to  what  is  called  by 
engineers  enfilading. 

RiLLEIGH  (Sir  Walter),  fourth  son  of  Wal- 


ter  Raleiffh,  esq.,  of  Fardel,  in  the  parish  of 
Comwood.  in  Devonshire,  was  bom  in  1552. 
About  1568  he  was  sent  to  Ariel  College  Ox- 
ford, but  next  year  he  embarked  for  France, 
being  one  of  the  100  volunteers,  commanded 
by  Henry  ChaAipemon,  who,  wiUi  other  Eng- 
lish troops,  were  sent  by  queen  Elizabeth  to 
assist  the  queen  of  Navarre  in  defSendii«  the 
Protestants.    In  this  service  he  continued  nve  or 
six  years ;  after  which  he  retumed  to  London. 
In  1577  or  1578  he  embarked  for  the  Low 
Countries  with  the  troops  sent  by  the  queen  to 
assist  the  Dutch  against  the  Spaniards.    On  his 
letura  to  England,  his  half-brother,  Sir  Hum- 
phrey Gilbert,  having   obtained  a  patent   to 
colonise  some  parts  of  North  America,  he  em- 
barked in  this  adventure ;  but  meeting  with  a 
Spanish  fleet,  after  a  smart  engagement,  they  rer 
tumed  vrithout  success  in  1579.  In  1580  Philip 
II.  of  Spain,  having  projected  a  con<]^ue8t  of  Eng- 
knd,  sent  troops  to  Ireland  to  assist  the  Des- 
monds in  the  Munster  rebellion.    Raleish  ob- 
tained a  captaincy  under  lord  Grey  of  Wilton, 
then  deputy  of  Ireland,  and  embarked  for  that 
kingdom ;  where  he  was  greatly  instrumental  in 
putting  an  end  to  the  war.    Hft  rrtumed  to 
England,  and  attracted  the  notice  of  oueen 
Elizabeth,  owing,  as  Naunton  says,  in  his  Frag- 
menta  B^p!^  to  an  accidental  piece  of  gal- 
lantry.   Tne  queen  Uddn^  a  walk,  being  stopped 
by  a  muddy  plape  in  the  road,  our  young  nulant 
took*  off  his  new  plush  mantle  and  spread  it  on 
the  ground.    Her  majesty  trod  gently  over  the 
footrcloth,  surprised  and  pleased  vrith  the  ad- 
venture.   He  was  a  handsome  man,  and  remark- 
able for  his  address.    The  queen  admitted  him 
to  her  court,  and  employed  him  first  as  an  at- 
tendant oii  the  French  ambassador  Simier,  on 
his  return  home,  and  afterwards  to  escort  the 
duke  of  Anjou  to  Afatwerp.    During  this  excur- 
sion he  became  personally  knovm  to  the  prince 
of  Oran;^ :  from  whom  on  his  return  he  brought 
special  acknowledgments  to  the  queen.      In 
1583  he  embarked  vrith  his  brother,  Sir  Hum- 
phrey, on  a  second  expedition  to  Newfoundland, 
m  a  ship  called  the  Raleigh,  built  at  his  own 
expense ;  but  was  obliged  to  return  on  account 
of  an  infectious  distemper  on  board.    He  then 
laid  before  the  queen  and  council  a  proposal  for 
exploring  the  continent  of  North  Amenca ;  and 
in  1584  obtained  a  patent  to  possess  sudi  coun- 
tries as  he  should  discover.     Accordingly  he 
fitted  out  two  ships  at  his  own  expense,  vmich 
sailed  in  April,  and  retumed  to  England  in  Sep- 
tember, reporting  that  they  had  discovered  a 
fine  oountiy  called  Windangoooa,  to  which  the 
<|ueen  gave  the  name  of  Virginia.    About  this 
time  he  was  elected  member  for  Devon,  and 
soon  after  vfis  knitted ;  and,  to  enable  him  to 
execute  his  plans,  the  queen  granted  him  a 
patent  for  a  licenoe  on  wine  throughout  the 
kin|;dom.    In  1 585  he  sent  a  fleet  of  seven  ships 
to  Virginia,  under  his  relation   Sir   Richard 
Grenville,  who  left  a  colony  at  Roanah  of  107 
persoDs,  under  Mr.  Lane ;  and  from  this  colony 
ne  first  imported  tobacco  into  England.    He 
also  obtained  a  grant  of  12,000  acres  of  the  for- 
feited lands  in  Cork,  was  made  seneschal  of 
Cornwall,  and  warden  of  the  stanneries.    In 
1587  he  sent  another  colony  of  150  men  to  Vir* 


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ginia,  with  t  gOYeraor  and  iwalTe  aniitanta. 
Aboat  this  'time  lie  had  the  titles  of  oaptain  of 
the  qaeeii*s  guaidi,  and  lieotenani-general  of 
Cornwall.  From  this  period  to  1594  he  was 
contmiially  engaged  in  projecting  new  expedi- 
tion^ Rending  succors  to  odoms  abroad,  de- 
fending the  kingdom  from  the  insults  of  the 
Spaniudsy  and  transacting  pailiamentary  biisi* 
ness  with  equal  ability  and  resolution.  In  1594 
he  obtained  from  the  qneen  a  grant  of  the  manor 
of  Sherborne  in  Dorsetshire,  where  he  built  a 
magmftoent  house;  bnt  fell  under  the  (}ueen*s 
displeasure  on  account  of  an  intrigue  with  the 
daughter  of  Sir  Nicholas  Throgmorton,  one  of 
the  maids  of  honor;  he  however  married  the 
kdy.  During  his  disgrace  at  court^be  projected 
the  conquest  of  Guiana  in  South  America,  and 
in  1595  sailed  for  that  country ;  of  which  having 
taken  possession,  aifter  defeating  the  Spaniards 
settled  there,  he  returned  to  England  and  pub- 
lished an  account  of  his  expedition.  In  1596 
he  was  one  of  the  admiimls  in  the  Mcoessful  ex- 

BMlition  against  Cadis,  under  the  command  of 
oward  and  the  eail  of  Essex;  and  in  159r  he 
sailed  with  them  against  the  Azoves.  In  1600 
be  was  sent  on  a  joint  embassy  with  lord  Cobham 
to  Flanders,  and  at  his  return  made  governor  of 
Jersev.  Queen  Elizabeth  died  in  1603,  and 
with  her  Raleigh's  glory  sunk.  U^.the  acces- 
sion of  James,  Sir  Waker  lost  his  interest  at 
oourt,  was  stripped  of  his  preferments,  and  ac- 
cused of  a  plot  against  the  kinff.  He  wad  ar- 
raigned at  Winchester,  and  on  his  trial  shame- 
fhlly  insulted  by  Cokey  the  attomey-genenl, 
whose  sophistical  vociferations  influenced  the 
juiy  to  convict  him  without  the  least  proof  of 
^ilt  After  a  month's  imprisonment,  however, 
m  daily  expectation  of  his  execution,  he  vras 
reprieved,  and  sent  to  the  Tower,  his  estates 
being  given  to  Car,  earl  of  Somerset,  the  king^s 
fevorite.  During  this  confinement  he  wrote 
many  of  his  most  valuable  pieces,  particularly 
his  History  of  the  Worid.  In  March  1615,  after 
sixteen  years  imprisonment,  he  obtained  his 
liberty,  and  immediately  began  to  prepare  for 
another  voyage  to  Guiana.  In  August  1616 
the  king  granted  him  a  very  ample  commission 
for  that  purpose;  and  in  July  1617  he  sailed 
from  Plymouth ;  but  the  whole  scheme  was  re*- 
vealed  to  the  Spaniards,  and  thus  rendered 
abortive.  He  returned  to  England  in  1618, 
where  he  was  soon  after  seized,  imprisoned,  and 
beheaded ;  not  for  any  pretended  misdemeanor 
on  the  late  expedition,  but  in  consequence  of 
his  former  attainder.  The  truth  is,  he  was  sacri- 
ficed by  the  pusillanimous  monarch  to  appease 
the  Spaniards ;  who,  whilst  Raleigh  lived, 
thought  every  part  of  their  dominions  in  danger. 
He  was  executed  in  Old  Palace  YM,  and  buried 
in  St.  Maigaret*s  adjoining,  in  his  sixty-sixth 
year.  His  behaviour  on  the  scaffold  was  manly, 
unaffected,  cheerfol,  and  easy.  Being  asked  hy 
the  executioner  which  way  he  would  lay  his 
head,  he  answered,  '  So  the  heart  be  right,  it  is 
no  matter  which  way  the  head  lies.'  He  was  a 
man  of  uncfUestionable  talents,  extensive  know- 
ledge, undaunted  resolution,  and  strict  honor. 
He  was  the  author  of  several  works,  which  never 
hive  been  printed. 


R4UI0H,  a  poet  town,  the  metropolis  of 
North  Carolina,  m  Wake  county,  ten  mua  bm 
Wadce  courtrhouse,  twent]r-seven  north-west  of 
Smithfield,  the  nearest  point  of  navigation,  sixty 
north  of  Fayetteville.  It  contains  a  state^ousei 
a  court-house,  a  jail,  a  governor's  house,  a  mar- 
ket-house, ar  theatre,  and  state  bank,  two  aca- 
demies, one  for  males  and  one  for  females,  two 
meetinc-houses,  and  three  printing  offices,  from 
each  of  which  is  issued  a  weekly  newspaper. 
The  situation  of  the  town  is  pleasaat  and  consi- 
siderably  elevated. 

RALLUS,  the  rail,  in  oreithologv  a  genus 
belonging  to  the  order  of  graihe.  flie  beak  is 
thicket  at  the  base,  compressed  equal,  acute, 
and  somewhat  sharp  on  the  back  near  the  point; 
the  nostrils  are  oval;  the  feet  have  four  toes, 
without  any  web ;  and  the  body  is  compress«d. 
Latham  enumerates  twenty-four  species,  oesides 
some  varieties.  They  are  chiefly  distinguished 
by  their  color.  'These  birds,'  says  Buffon,  'con- 
stitute a  large  family,  and  their  habits  are  dif- 
ferent from  those  of  the  other  shore-birds,  whidi 
reside  on  sands  and  gravels.  Hie  rails,  on  tbe 
contrary,  inhabit  only  the  slimy  margins  of  pods 
and  rivers,  especially  low  grounds  covend  irith 
flags  and  other  large  marsh  plants.  This  mode 
of  living  is  common  to  all  the  vrater  rails.  Tbe 
knd  rail  frequents  meadows,  and,  from  the  dis- 
agreeable cry  or  rather  rattling  in  the  throat  of 
this  bird,  is  derived  the  eeneric  name.  In  all 
the  rails  the  body  is  slender,  and  shrunk  at  tbe 
sides;  the  tail  extremely  short;  the  head  small; 
the  bill  like  that  of  the  gallinaceous  kind,  tbougb 
much  longer,  and  not  so  thick ;  a  portion  of  tbe 
leg  above  the  knee  is  baie  ;  the  three  foce  toes 
without  membranes,  and  very  long :  they  do  not 
like  other  birds  dmw  their  feet  under  tbehr  belly 
in  flying,  but  allow  them  to  hang  down ;  their 
wings  are  small  and  very  concave,  and  their  fl^ 
is  short  They  seem  to  be  more  diflhsed  than 
varied ;  and  ttiev  are  dispersed  over  the  most 
distant  lands.  Captain  Cook  found  them  at  the 
Straits  of  Magellan ;  in  different  islands  of  tbe 
south  hemisphere,  at  Anamoka,  at  Tanna,  and 
at  the  isle  of  Norfolk.  The  principal  species 
are:— 

1.  R.  aquaticus,  or  water  rail,  is  a  bird  of 
a  long  slender  body,  with  short  concave  wings. 
It. delights  less  in  ilymg  than  runnrng,  which  it 
does  very  swifUy  along  the  edges  of  brooks,  co- 
vered with  bushes :  as  it  runs,  it  every  now  and 
ihio  flirts  up  its  tail,  and  in  flying  hangs  down 
its  legs.  Its  weight  is  four  ounces  and  a  half. 
The  length  to  the  end  of  the  tail  is  twelve 
inches ;  the  breadth  sixteen.  The  bill  is  slender, 
slightly  incurvated,  one  inch  and  three  (joarters 
long :  the  upper  mandible  black,  edrnd  widi  red ; 
the  lower,  orange-colored  :  the  head,  hind  part  of 
the  neck,  the  back,  and  coverts  of  the  wings  and 
tail,  are  black,  edged  with  an  olive  brown ;  the 
throat,  breast,  and  upper  part  of  the  belly,  s« 
ash  colored ;  the  sides  under  the  wings,  as  ib  as 
the  ronjP>  finely  varied  with  black  and  white 
bars.  The  tail  is  very  short,  consists  of  twelve 
black  feathers ;  the  ends  of  the  two  middle  tipt 
with  rust  color ;  the  fathers  immediately  beneath 
the  tail  white.  The  legs  are  placed  fcr  behind, 
and  are  of  a  dusky  flesh-color.    The  toes  very 


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iQiig»  and  divided  to  their  very  origin ;  though 
the  feet  are  not  webbed,  it  takes  the  water;  will 
swim  ooit  with  much  ease,  but  is  often  observed 
to  ran  along  the  surface.  *  Water  raib,'  says 
Buflon,  'are  seen  near  the  perennial  fountains 
during  the  greatest  part  of  tne  winter,  yet,  like 
the  land  rails,  they  have  their  regular  micrrations. 
The  flesh  of  the  water  rail  is  not  so  delicate  as 
that  of  the  land  rail,  and  has  even  a  marshy  taste, 
nearly  like  that  of  the  gallinule.  It  continues 
the  whole  year  in  England. 

2.  R.  crex,  or  corn-crake,  has  been  supposed 
by  some  to  be  the  same  wiUi  the  water-rail,  and 
that  it  differs  only  by  a  change  of  color  at  a  cer- 
tain season  of  the  year :  this  error  is  owing  to 
inattention  to  their  characters  and  nature,  bo^ 
which  differ  entirely.  The  bill  of  this  species 
is  short,  strong,  and  thick;  formed  exactly  like 
that  of  the  water-nen,  and  makes  a  generical 
distinction.  It  nerer  frequents  watery  places; 
but  is  always  found  among  com,  grass,  broom, 
or  furze.  It  quits  the  kingdom  before  winter ; 
but  the  water-rail  endures  our  sharpest  seasons. 
They  ame  in  their  aversion  to  flight;  and  the 
legs,  wnich  are  remarkably  long  for  the  size  of 
the  bird,  hang  down  whilst  they  are  on  wing* 
thev  trust  their  safety  to  their  swiftness  on  foot, 
and  seldom  are  SDrun^^'a  second' time  without 
great  difficulty.  Ijie  land  rail  lays  from  twelve 
to  twenty  eggs,  of  a  duU  white  color,  marked  with 
a  few  yellow  spots ;  notwithstanding  this,  they 
are  very  numerous  in  this  kingdom.  Their  note 
is  Teiy  singular ;  and  like  the  quail  it  is  decoyed 
into  a  net  by  the  imitation  of  its  cry,  cr^k  cr€k 
criFk,  by  rubbing  hard  the  blade  of  a  knife  on  an 
indented  bone.  They  are  very  numerous  in  An- 
glesea;  where  they  appear  about  the  20th  of 
April,  supposed  to  pass  over  from  Ireland,  where 
tfa^  abound :  at  their  first  arrival  it  is  common 
to  shoot  seven  or  eisht  in  a  mondng.  They  are 
found  in  most  of  tte  Hebrides,  and  the  Ork- 
neys. On  their  arrival  they  are  very  lean, 
weighing  only  six  onnces ;  but,  before  they  leave 
this  island,  grow  so  fat  as  to  weigh  above  eight. 
The  feathers  on  the  crown  of  the  bead  and  hind 
part  of  the  neck  are  black,  edged  with  bay  color : 
the  coverts  of  the  wings  of  the  same  color,  but 
not  spotted ;  the  tail  is  short,  and  of  a  deep  bay; 
the  belly  white,  the  legs  ask-colored. 

3.  R.  porsana,  the  gaUinule,  is  not  veiy  fre- 
quent in  Great  Britain,  and  is  said  to  be  migra- 
toiy.  It  inhabits  the  sides  of  small  streams, 
conoeafing  itself  among  the  bushes.  Its  length 
is  nine  inches,  its  brmth  fifUen:  its  weight 
four  oi^ces  five  drachms.  The  head  is  brown 
spotted  with  black ;  the  neck  a  deep  olive  plot- 
ted with  white:  the  feathers  of  tne  back  are 
black  next  their  shafts,  then  olive-colored,  and 
edged  with  white ;  the  scapulars  are  olive,  finely 
marked  with  two  small  white  spots  on  each  web ; 
the  legs  of  a  yeltowish  green.  Their  flesh  is 
delicate,  and  much  esteemed:  those  in  parti- 
cular which  are  candit  in  the  rice  fields  in 
Piedmont  are  very  rat,  and  of  an  exquisite 


RAL'LY,v.n.  Fr.  iW/ier.  To  re-aUy;  bring 
disordered  or  dispersed  troops  together:  as  a  verb 
neuter  to  oome  together  with  rapidity  or  into 
Older. 


INiblick  arguing  serves  to  whet  the  wits  of  heie- 
ticks,  and,  by  showing  weak  paru  of  their  doctriDes, 
promps  them  to  rail^  all  their  sophistry  to  fortify 
them  with  fallacy.  Decay  of  PUty, 

With  rallied  arms  to  try  what  may  be  yet 
Regained  in  heaven.  MUnm, 

If  God  should  show  this  perverse  man  a  new  heaven 
and  a  new  earth,  springing  out  of  nothing,  he  might 
say,  that  innumerable  parts  of  matter  chanced  iust 
then  to  rally  together,  and  to  form  themselves  into 
this  new  world.  TUlataon, 

The  Grecians  raU^,  and  their  powers  unite ; 

With  fury  charge  us.  J)ryden*t  JBaeu. 

Luther  deters  men  from  solitariness ;  but  he  does 
not  mean  from  a  sober  soUtade,  that  raUue  our  scat- 
tered strengths,  and  pit^ares  us  against  any  new  en- 
eounters  fioni  without.  Au»  ftunr. 

Ral'ly,  v.  a.  Fr.  raiUer ;  of  Lai.  ruxiadm , 
barb.  LaL  ridiadare.    To  satirize ;  banter. 

If,  alter  the  reading  of  this  letter,  you  find  yourself 
in  a  humour  rather  to  rally  and  ridicule  than  to  com- 
fort me»  I  desire  you  would  throw  it  into  the  fire. 

Addiem, 

Strephon  had  long  confiBSsed  his  amovons  pain. 
Which  gay  Coiiana  miijr'd  with  disdain.  Gay. 

RALPH  (James),  a  political  writer,  bom  in 
America,  and  placed  by  his  parents  in  a  count- 
ing-house at  Fniladelphia.  Fancying  himself  a 
poet,  he  deserted  a  wife  and  child,  and  accom- 
panied Dr.  Franklin  to  London,  where  he  for 
some  time  lived  at  the  expense  of  the  latter.  He 
attempted  to  get  on  the  stage,  oflered  to  write  for 
the  booksellers,  or  copy  for  the  law  stationers, 
ad  without  success.  He  then  retired  to  a  recluse 
village  in  Berkshire,  where  he  commenced  school- 
master, borrowing  his  friend  Franklin's  name. 
Having  finished  his  poem  on  Night,  he  returned 
to  town ;  and,  as  it  met  with  some  little  success, 
he  began  to  be  employed  by  the  booksellers ; 
but,havingprocured  nimself  aniche  in  the  Dun- 
ciad,  they  soon  cast  him  off.  He  next  began 
play-writing,  and  his  plays,  the  Fashionable 
Lady,  &c.,  kept  him  from  absolute  want  About 
.1735  he  became,  by  some  means,  joint  manager 
with  Henry  Fielding  in  the  Haymarket  theatre; 
but  his  emoluments  do  not  seem  to  have  raised 
him  above  poverty.  His  first  political  publica* 
tion  speared  in  1749,  entitled  The  other  side  of 
the  question,  in  answer  to  the  duchess  of  Marl* 
borough's  Memoirs;  and  he  was  employed  to 
write  many  others :  about  the  end  of  Walpole's 
administration  he  was  bought  by  a  pension  of 
£200  per  annum,  which  at  the  death  of  Georae 
II.  was  increased  by  lord  Bute  to  £600.  Of 
the  latter  sum  he  did  not  enjoy  above  half  a 
year's.income,  being  cut  off  by  toe  gout  in  1761. 
He  was  the  author  of  numerous  works.  Those 
most  esteemed  are  As  Continuation  of  Guthrie's 
History  of  England,  and  the  Review  of  the 
Reigns  of  Charles  II.  and  James  II. 
RAM,  n.  I.  &  V.  n.  >  Saxon  yiam;  Danish 
Ram'ubr,  ».  t.  ]  ramme ;  Belg.  ram ;  from 
Goth,  remtm,  robust  Thom6on.-^A  male  sheep; 
a  tub ;  hence  the  sign  Aries,  and  the  ancient 
instrument  made  with  a  head  like  a  ram  for  bat- 
tering :  as  a  verb  active,  to  batter  with  such  an 
instrument;  drive  violently;  fill  or  choke  by 
ramming :  a  rammer  is  any  instrument  used  in 
ramming* 


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Jndat  calKng  upon  tfio  Lord,  who  witboat  any 
roMi  or  engines  of  war  did  cast  down  Jericho,  gave  a 
fierce  assault  against  the  walls.        2  Mae,  zii.  15. 

As  when  that  devilish  iron  engine  wrought 
In  deepest  hell,  and  franked  by  furies  skill, 

With  windy  nitre  and  ({uick  sulphur  fraught, 
And  ranuntd  with  bullet  round  ordained  to  kill. 

Spenter, 
The  ewes*  being  rank,  turned  to  the  ramt. 

Shahpmre* 
Let  not  the  piece  of  rirtue. 
Which  is  set  as  the  cement  of  our  love, 
To  keep  it  builded,  be  the  ram  to  batter 
The  fortress  of  it.     Id.  Antmy  and  Cieopatra. 
Ram  thou  thy  fsithlul  tidings  in  mine  ears. 

That  long  time  have  been  barren.       Shakiptan, 

Having  no  artillery  nor  engines,  and  finding  that 
he  could  do  no  good  by  rammiHg  with  logs  of  timber, 
he  set  one  of  the  gates  on  fire.  Bacon. 

They  mined  the  walls,  laid  the  powder,  and  rammed 
the  mouth,  but  the  citizens  made  a  countermine. 

HayvMord, 

Much  like  a  well  growne  bell  •weather,  or  feltred  ram 
he  shews.  Chapman. 

Vou  may  draw  the  bones  of  a  ram*f  head  hnng 
'  with  strings  of  beads  and  ribbands.  Paaeham* 

The  ram  having  passed  the  sea,  serenely  shines. 
And  leads  thft  year.  Creach^i  ManUmt. 

This  into  hollow  enffines  long  and  round, 
Thick  rammed  at*  the  ottier  bore  with  touch  of  firs 
Dilated  and  infuriate,  shall  send  forth 
Such  imploneAts  of  mischief,  as  shall  dash 
To  pieces.  MUUm'i  Paradite  Lett. 

A  ram  their  offisring,  and  a  ram  their  neat. 

J>ydm. 

The  master  bricklayer  must  try  the  foundations 
with  an  iron  crow  or  rammer,  to  see  whether  the 
foundations  are  sound.  Moxon, 

Here  many  poor  people  roll  in  vast  balb  of  snow, 
which  they  ram  together,  and  cover  from  the  sun- 
shine. Addison. 

A  ditch  drawn  between  two  parallel  furrows,  was 
filled  with  some  sound  materials,  and  rammed  to  make 
the  foundation  solid.  Arbuthmot. 

A  mariner  loading  a  gun  suddenly,  while  he  was 
ramming  in  a  cartridge,  the  powder  took  fire,  and 
shot  the  rommsr  out  of  his  hand.  Wueman. 

Ram,  in  zoology.    See  Ovis. 

Ram,  Battering^  in  antiquity,  a  military 
engine  used  to  batter  down  the  walls  of  besieged 
places.    See  Artillery. 

RAMA,  or  Ramla,  a  town  of  Palestine,  de- 
scribed by  the  Arabian  geographers  in  the  mid- 
dle ages  as  the  capital  of  that  country.  It  is 
situated  in  one  of  the  most  fertile  distri<te  of 
the  Holy  Land,  though  during  Dr.  Clarke's  yisit 
it  was  almost  deserted,  in  consequence  of  the 
ravages  of  the  plas ue.  It  seems  doubtful  if  this 
was  the  city  de9cru)ed  under  that  name  in  Scrip- 
ture. Rama  and  Lydda  were  the  two  first  cities 
of  the  Holy  Land  which  fell  into  the  hands  of 
ihe  crusaders.  The  foniilr  was  then  in  iu 
greatest  splendor,  exceedingly  populous,  adorned 
vrith  stately  bnildincs,  and  well  fortifi^.  It  is 
twenty-five  miles  W.  N.  W.  of  Jerusalem. 

RAMAH,  in  ancient  geography,  a  town  of 
Beniamin,  near  Gibeah,  called  also  Ramah  of 
Saul  (1  Sam.  xxii.),  six  miles  north  of  Jeru- 
salem ;  memorable  for  the  story  of  the  Levite 
and  his  concubine :  taken  and  fortified  by  Baasah 
king  of  Israel,  to  annoy  the  kingdom  of  Judah. 
TUs  Ramah  his  mentioned  Isa.  x.  Jer.  xxxi.  and 
Matth.  ii.  and  is  to  be  distinguished  from 


Ramah,  or  Ramah  of  Samnel»  1  Sam.  xb. 
called  also  Ramathaim  Zophim,  1  Sam.  i.  1, 
which  lay  a  great  way  to  the  west  towards  Joppa, 
near  Lydda,  1  Maccab.  ii.,  the  birtlnplace  of 
Samuel ;  adjoining  to  the  mountains  of  Ephraim, 
and  the  place  of  his  residence,  1  Sam.  xv.  &c. — 
Josephus. 

RAMAZINI  (Bemaidin),  an  Italian  physi- 
cian, bom  at  Carpi,  near  Modena,  in  1633.  Ue 
was  professor  oi  physic  in  the  university  of 
Modena  fito  eighteen  years;  and  in  1700  accept- 
ed an  invitation  from  Padua,  where  be  was 
made  rector  of  the  college;  and  di«i  in  1714. 
His  works  were  collected  and  published  in  Lon- 
don, 1716;  of  which  bis  treatise  De  MoHois 
Artificum  is  much  esteemed. 

RAM'BLE,  V.  n.  &  n.  I.  (       Swed.     roai^  ; 

Ram'bler.  ^IslLreamMo,   To 

wander;  rove  irregularly ;*a  wandering  excur- 
sion :  a  rambler  is  a  rover. 

This  conceit  puts  us  upon  the  ramUe  up  and  down 
for  relief,  till  veiy  weariness  brings  us  at  last  to  our- 
selves. L'Ettraage. 

Says  the  rambler,  we  must  e'en  beat  it  out.     Id. 

He  that  is  at  liberty  to  rambie  in  perfiect  darkness, 
#vhat  is  his  liberty  better  than  if  driven  up  and  down 
as  a  bubble  by  the  wind  t  Locke. 

Shame  contracts  the  spiriu,  fiies  the  ramblu^t 
of  iancy,  and  gathers  the  man  into  himself.   Smoh, 

Chapman  has  taken  advanta^  of  an  immeasurable 
length  of  vene,  notwithstanding  which,  there  is 
scarce  any  paraphrsse  so  loose  and  nuMing  as  his. 

Pope. 

Never  ask  leave  to  go  abroad,  for  yon- will  be 
thought  an  idle  rambimg  fellow.  Smji. 

She  quits  the  narrow  path  of  sense 

For  a  dear  ramble  through  impertinence.         Id. 
0*er  his  ample  sides,  the  rambUng  sprays 

Lnzunant  shoot.  Thoatton'i  Spring. 

RAMBOUILLET,  a  town  in  the  department 
of  the  Seine  and  Oise,  France,  has  an  elegant 
royal  castle^  situated  between  two  forests,  and 
frequently  resorted  to  by  the  Bourbon  princes 
on  hunting  parties.  RambouUlet  is  also  re- 
markable for  lU  breed  of  Merinos  brought  here 
in  1787.  A  canal  has  been  dug  from  this  place 
tif  Versailles.  Popuktion  2600.  Thirty  miles 
south'West  of  Paris. 

RAMEAU  (John  Philip)  a  celebrated  French 
musician,  bom  at  Dijon  in  1683.  He  was  irade 
organist  of  the  cathedral  of  Clermont,  where  he 
wrote  most  of  his  works ;  the  chief  of  which  u 
his  Demonstration  du  Principe  de  rHarmonie, 
1750.  He  was  appointed  manager  of  tUe  opera 
at  Paris,  and  raised  to  the  rank  of  nobility.  He 
died  in  Paris  in  1764. 

RAMESES,  king  of  the  Lower  Egypt,  when 
Jacob  went  thither  with  his  fimiily,  alnmi  AA.C. 
1706.  Ancient  authors  mention  several  other 
kings  of  Egypt  of  the  same  name;  and  it  is 
thought  that  one  of  those  princes  erected,  in  the 
temple  of  the  sun  at  Thebes,  the  magnificent 
obelisk  which  the  emperor  Constantine  caused 
to  be  removed  to  Alexandria  in  the  year  334. 

Rameses,  in  ancient  geography,  a  town  built 
by  the  Israelites  during  their  bondage  in  Egypt, 
and  from  which  the  Exodus  toc^  place,  and 
which  must  have  been  towards,  and  not  far  firom 
the  Arabian  Gulph,  seeing  in  the  third  station  the 
Israelites  arrived  on  its  shore 


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French  ramiper  ; 


RABTIFY,  w.  a.  hv,n. 

Rxic'iFiCATiONy  SLat     romttf  'and 

Ra'mous,  adj,  J  facto.    To  make  or 

separate  into  branches;  be  parted  into  branches : 
ramiBcation  is,  separation  into  branches,  or  the 
branches  separated  considered  collectively :  ra- 
mous,  brancny. 

By  continuation  of  profane  histories  or  other  mo- 
naments  kept  together,  the  genealogies  and  ramijioa- 
ft'ofu  of  some  single  families  to  a  vast  extension  may 
be  preserved.  Hals. 

The  mint,  grown  to  have  a  pretty  thick  stalk,  with 
the  various  and  nanified  roots,  which  it  shot  into  the 
water,  presented  a  spectacle  not  unpleasant  to  be- 
hold. BoyU, 

Which  vast  contraction  and  expansion  seems  nn« 
tnteUigible,  by  feigning  the  particles  of  air  to  be 
spring?  and  ranunu,  or  rolled  up  like  hoops,  or  by 
any  other  means  than  a  repulsive  power.     sftwUm, 

A  rammu  efllorescence.  of  a  fine  white  spar,  found 
hanging  from  a  crust  of  like  spar,  at  the  top  of  an  old 
wrought  cavern.  Woodward. 

As  the  blood  and  chyle  pass  together  through  the 
ranifications  of  the  pulmonary  artery,  they  will  be 
still  more  perfectly  mixed  ;  but  if  a  pipe  is  divided 
into  branches,  and  these  again  subdivided,  the  red 
and  white  liquors,  as  they  pass  through  the  nimt/fca- 
tiW,  will  be  nnore  intimately  mixed  ;  the  more  rami" 
Jkaiiont,  the  mixture  will  be  the  more  perfect. 

Arbttthtut, 

Whoever  considers  the  few  radical  positions  which 
the  Scriptures  afforded  him,  will  wonder  by  what 
energetick  operation  he  expanded  them  to  such  ex- 
tent, and  ramified  them  to  so  much  variety,  restrained 
as  he  was  by  religious  reverence  from  licentiousness 
of  6ction.  ,  Johjuon. 

RAMILLIES,  or  Ram elies,  a  village  of  the 
Netherlands,  in  South  Brabant,  femoua  for  the 
victory  obtained  23rd  May  1706,  by  the  allied 
forces  under  the  duke  of  Marlborough  over  the 
Frendi. 

RAMMISSERAM  Isle,  an  island  in  the 
straits  between  the  continent  of  Hindostan  and 
Ceylon,  eleven  miles  in  length,  by  six  in  breadth, 
it  is  naturally  of  little  value ;  but  forms  the  first 
fait  of  what  is  believed  by  the  Hindoos  to 
nave  been  a  bridge,  constructed  by  their  god 
Ham,  for  the  prurpose  of  conquering  Ceylon.  It 
contains  a  large  town  called  Panban ;  and  a  ce- 
lebrated temple,  the  entrance  to  which  is  through 
a  lofty  stone  gateway,  100  feet  in  height.  6n 
the  stones,  many  of  which  are  very  large,  are 
carved  in  alto  relievo  figures  of  die  Hindoo 
deities.  The  temple  is  said  to  be  built  in  the 
same  massy  style,  and  the  architecture  resembles 
the  Egyptian ;  but  no  European  has  been  permitted 
to  enter  it.  The  image  of  Ram  is  bathed  every 
day  with  vrater  brought  1000  miles  from  the 
Ganges,  and  the  concourse  of  pilgrims  is  prodi- 
gious. The  rajahs  of  Tanjore  are  said  to  have 
expended  £25,000  in  some  of  tlieir  visits :  each 
pilgrim  pays  according  to  his  ability;  and  the 
revenue,  after  paying  the  expenses  of  the  temple, 
becomes  the  property  of  a  fhmily  of  Brahmins, 
the  chief  of  whom  is  called  the  pandaram.  The 
strait  between  the  island  and  the  shore  is  about 
a  mile  wide,  but  is  only  passable  by  small  ves- 
sels. Early  in  the  fourteenth  century,  the  Ma- 
hometans carried  their  arms  into  this  island,  and 
erected  a  mosque.  The  island  is  now  an  appen- 
dage to  the  distriot  of  Ramoad,  and  pays  a  small 
Vol.  XVIII 


revenue  to  the  ranee  or  queen  of  that  place,  one 
of  the  British  tributaries.  Long.  79*'  21'  E., 
lat.  9*»irN. 

RAMNAD^  a  trading  town  aud  district  of  the 
south  of  India,  and  province  of  Marawar.  It 
is  governed  by  a  Hindoo  family,  tributary  to  the 
British.  The  present  ruler  is  a  lady,  styled  the 
ranee,  a  considerable  part  of  whose  revenue 
arises  from  a  tax  laid  upon  every  pilerim  passing 
through  her  territories  to  the  sacred  temple  of 
Rammisseram. 

RAMP,  V.  n.  & n.  l.'\   Fr.  romper;  Ital. reanr 

Rampal'lia; 

Ramp'anct, 

Ramp'ant, 
spring:  rampallian  is  a  low  sordid  wretch :  rain- 
pancy,  prevatency :  rampant,  prevailing ;  passing 
beyond  restraint ;  etuberant;  the  heraldic  use  is 
explained  below. 

They  gape  upon  me  with  their  mouth  \  u  a  ramp- 
ing and  roaring  lion.  Pso/m  xxii.  13. 

Foaming  tarr,  their  bridles  they  would  champ, 
And  trampling  the  fine  element,  would  fiercely  ramp. 


sram. 

,  V.  n.  hn,t,'\  Fr.  romper;  Ital. reanr 
l'lian,  n.  I.  \poire ;  Latin  repo^  to 
lNct,  4  climb.  To  leap,  climb, 

.NT,  adj.        Jot  spring:    a  leap  or 


He  is  vaulting  variable  rampt. 
In  your  despight,  upon  your  purse.    Shaktpeare. 
Away,  you  scullion,  you  rampaUion,  you  fustila- 
rian.  td. 

Upon  a  bull,  that  deadly  bellowed, 
Two  horrid  lions  rampt,  and  seized,  and  tugged. 

Chapman. 
Bampant  is  when  the  lion  is  reared  up  in  the 
escutcheon,  as  it* were  ready  to  combate  with  his 
enemy.  Peaclutin, 

The  bold  Ascalonite 
Fled  from  his  lion  ranatf  old  warriors  turned 
Their  plated  backs  under  his  heeL 

MiUon*s  Agonittes, 
If  a  lion  were  the  proper  coat  of  Judah,  yet  were 
it  not  probable  a  lion  ratripant,  but  couchant  or  dor- 
mant. Brovme. 
Furnished  with  claspers  and  tendrils,  they  catch 
hold  of  them,  and  so,  ramping  upon  trees,  they  mount 
up  to  a  great  height.  Axy. 

As  they  are  come  to  this  height  and  rampanesf  of 
vice,  from  the  countenance  of  ueir  betters,  so  they 
haVe  took  some  steps  in  the  same,  that  the  extrava- 
gances of  the  young  carry  with  tbem  the  approbation 
of  the  old.  South. 

The  foundation  of  this  behaviour  towards  per«>ns 
set  apart  for  the  service  of  God,  can  be  nothing  else 
but  atheism ;  the  growing  rampant  sin  of  the  tunes. 

Jd. 
The  seeds  of  death  gfow  up,  till   like  rampant 
weeds,  they  choak  the  tender  flower  of  life. 

Clariisa. 
But  these  are  too  incoherent  and  Senseless  to  be  of 
long  continuance ;  and  the  maddest  sallies,  and  the 
moftt  ramping  reveries  of  the  fv^cy,  that  can  be. 

Mason. 

Ravpant.  in  heraldry,  a  terra  applied  to  a 
lion,  leopard,  or  other  beast  that  stands  on  its 
hind  legs,  and  rears  np  its  fore  feet  in  the 
posture  of  climbing,  showing  only  half  its  face, 
one  eye,  &c. 

RAM'PART,or  I      Fr.   rwwpflr/;*  Ital. 

Ram'pike,  n.  I.  &  V.  a.  ^  riparo.  An  embank- 
ment  or  wall  round  a  fortified  place :  to  fortify 
with  such  wall. 

She  felt  it,  when  past  preventing,  like  a  river,  no 
rampirts  being  built  against  it,  till  already  it  have 
overflowed.  Sidney. 


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Set  but  thy  foot 
Against  our  rampired  gates,  and  they  shall  ope. 

Skdkipeare, 
The  marquis  directed  part  of  his  forces  to  rampart 
the  gates  and  ruinous  places  of  the  walls. 

•  HoywoTdm 

Yo'  have  cut  a  way  for  virtue,  which  our  great 
men 
Held  shut  up,  with  all  rmnparu,  for  themselves. 

BenJiHUon, 
The  son  of  Thetis,  rampirt  of  our  host, 
Is  worth  our  ,care  to  keen.  Dryden, 

The  Trojans  round  the  place  a  rampart  cast. 
And  palisades  about  the  trenches  placed.        Id. 
He  wDo  endeavours  to  know  his  uuty,  and  prac- 
tises what  he  knows,  has  the  equity  of  God  to  stand 
as  a  mishty  wall  or  rampart  between  him  and  dam- 
nation tor  any  infirmities.  South. 
No  standards,  from  the  hostile  ramparti  torn. 
Can  any  future  honours  ffive 
To  the  victorious  monaicn's  name.  Prior. 


RAMPART,  in  fortification,  an  elevated  bank 
of  earth  raised  around  a  place  to  resist  the  ene- 
my's great  shot,  and  cover  the  buildings.  A 
parapet  is  raised  upon  this  bank  or'elevatiob, 
wMcn  looks  towards  the  country.  It  is  gene- 
rally about  Ihree  fathoms  high,  and  ten  or  twelve 
thick ;  but  this  depends  partly  upon  the  quan- 
tity of  earth  which  may  be  taken  out  of  the 
ditch.  A  rampart  with  half  moons  has  advan- 
tages from  being  low,  because  the  muskets  of  the 
besieged  can  better  reach  the  bottom  of  the 
ditch ;  but  care  must  be  taken  that  it  is  not  com- 
manded by  the  covert-way.  A  rampart  ought 
to  be  sloped  on  both  sides ;  that  is,  the  mass  of 
earth  which  composes  the  rampart  ought  always 
to  be  larger  at  bottom  than  at  top ;  it  should  be 
broad  enough  to  allow  the  passing  of  waggons 
and  cannon,  independent  of^  the  parapet  which 
is  raised  on  it.    See  Fortification. 

RAM'PIONS,  n.  i.  Lat.  rapuncuba.  A 
plant.  • 

Rampion  is  a  plant  whose  tender  roots  are  eaten 
in  the  spring,  like  those  of  radishes.         Mortimer. 

RAMPOOR,  a  city  and  extensive  district  of 
Hindostan,  situated  on  the  banks  of  the  Soosey 
or  Cossila  River.  It  contains  the  palace  of  the 
nabob  Fyzoola  Khan,  and  some  other  good 
houses ;  but  the  greater  part  of  the  town  contains 
only  sun  burnt  brick  houses,  with  thatched  or 
tiled  roofs.  After  the  conquest  of  the  Rohillas, 
by  the  Nabob  Shuja  Addowla,  and  the  British, 
in  the  year  1774  this  district,  then  valued  at 
fourteen  lacs  of  rupees  per  annum,  was  ceded 
to  4he  Nabob  Fyzoola  Ktuin,  son  of  Alv  Mo- 
hammed, as  a  jagier  or  fief:  and  under  his 
superintendence  it  doubled  in  population  and 
value.  He  died  in  1794  and  was  succeeded 
by  his  eldest  son  Mohammed  Aly,  who  v^as  very 
shortly  after  assassinated  by  Ohoolaum  Moham- 
med his  brother.  A  British  force- was  in  conse- 
quence sent  against  him,  -and,  after  a  severe  con- 
test, succeeded  in  compelling  him  to  surrender. 
After  this,  the  jagier  was  curtailed,  and  the  town, 
with  a  revenue  of  ten  lacs  of  rupees  per  annum, 
assigned  for  the  8uptK>rt  of  the  orphan  son  of  the 
murdered  prince.  Ram  being  the  name  of  one 
of  the  Hindoo  demigods,  there  are  innumerable 
places  called  after  him. 

RAMSAY  (Allan),  a  Scottish  pastoral  poet, 
was  born  at  Peebles  in  1606,  and  brought  up  as 


a  barber  in  Edinburgh.  His  songs  are  in  univer- 
sal esteem ;  and  his  dramatic  performance,  eih 
titled  the  Gentle  Shepherd,  is  allowed  by  the 
best  judges  to  be  unrivalled.  Lord  Gardenstone 
says,  ^  this  excellent  piece  does  honor  id  North 
Britain.  There  is  no  pastoral  in  the  Fjiglish 
language  comparable  to  it,  and  I  believe  there  is 
none  in  any  language  superior.' 

Ramsay  (Allan),  a  portrait  painter,  the  son  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  at  £ainburgfa  in  1709. 
He  studied  at  Rome,  and  on  his  return  settled  at 
Edinburgh ;  but,  after  residing  there  some  years, 
removed  to  London,  and  was  appointed  pAinter 
to  the  king.  At  the  close  of  life  he  went  to 
Italy,  and  died,  on  landing  H  Dover,  in  1784. 
He  wrote  a  piece,  entitled  The  Present  State  of 
the  Arts  in  England,  and  a  volume  of  essays, 
called  The  Investigator. 

Ramsay  (Andrew  Michael),  commonly  called 
Chevalier  Ramsay,  a  Scottish  writer,  bom  of  a 
good  hmily  in  Ayr  in  1686.  He  studied  at 
Edinburgh,  where  he  became  tutor  to  the  earl  of 
Wemvs's  son.  Travelling  afterwards  to  Leydeo, 
he  fell  in  with  one  Poiret  a  mystic  divine ;  on 
which  he  went  to  Paris  to  consult  archbishop 
Fenelon,  who  converted  him  from  deism  to 
the  Roman  Catholic  faith  in  1709.  By  this 
prelate*s  influence,  he  was  appointed  governor  to 
the  duke  of  Chateau  Thierry,  and  the  prince  of 
Turenne ;  and  was  made  a  knight  of  the  order  of 
St.  lAzarus.  He  died  at  St.  Germain  in  1743 
in  the  office  of  intendant  to  the  duke  of  Bouil- 
lon, prince  de  Turenne.  His  principal  work  is 
the  Travels  of  CyniS)  which  has  been  several 
times  printed  in  English. 

Ramsay  (Rev.  James),  was  bom  at  Fraser- 
burgh, in  Aberdeenshire,  in  1733.  Having  sto- 
died  at  King's  College,  Aberdeen,  be  was  bound 
apprentice  to  Dr.  Findlay,  a  physician  in  Fraser- 
burgh. He  afterwards  went  to  London;  studied 
two  years  under  Dr.  Macauley;  passed  the 
usual  trials  at  surgeons*  hall ;  and  then  went  on 
board  the  Arundel,  •commanded  by  captain,  af- 
terwards Sir  Charles,  Middleton  (now  lord  Bar- 
luim},  which  was  soon  after  met  by  a  slave  ship 
from  •Guinea  in  great  distress,  an  infectious 
fever  having  carried  ofi*  a  great  number  of  the 
crew  and  slaves,  besides  the  surgeon  himself. 
Ramsay  was  the  only  surgeon  in  the  fleet  who 
would  venture  on  board  to  prescribe  *for  diein, 
and  be  very  fortunately  escaped  the  infectioo, 
but  broke  his  thigh  bone  in  getting  on  board  his 
own  ship :  this  rendered  him  lame  for  life.  On 
his  return  he  was  recommended  to  the  bishcn)  of 
London,  by  whom  he  was  admitted  into  oroeis, 
and  immediately  sent  out  to  St.  Christopher's, 
where  the  governor  presented  him  to  two  recto- 
ries worth  £700  a  year.  He  soon  published  his 
Essay  on  the  Treatment  and  Conversion  of  the 
African  Slaves  in  the  British  Sugar  Colonies ; 
and  in  1763  married  Miss  Rebecca  Akers,  jthe 
daughter  of  a  respectable  planter.  All  his  exer- 
tions in  favor  of  the  slaves  were,  however,  only 
productive  of  opposition,  calumny,  and  acrimo- 
nious abuse  from  the  planters.  Vexed  with  such 
unmerited  persecution  he  returned  to  Britain  in 
1777,  visited  his  native  country,  where  his  mo- 
ther, on'  whom  he  had  settled  an  annuity,  had 
died  some  time  before.  Being  introduced  to 
lord  George  Germaine,  he  was,  in  1778,  ap- 

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pointed  chaplain  to  admiral  Barrington,  and  af- 
terwards to  admiral  Rodney;  under  both  of  . 
whom  he  was  present  at  several  engagements. 
After  this  he  took  his  farewell  of  St.  Christo- 
pher'sy  resigned  his  benefices,  and  returned  to 
England  in  1781 ;  where  he  republished  his 
Essay  above-mentioned.  He  died  July  20th 
1789,  in  his  friend  Sir  C.  Middleton's  house; 
leaving  a  widow  and  three  daughters.  He  pub- 
lished also  at  an  early  period,  An  Rssay  on  the 
Duty  and  Qualifications  of  a  Sea  Officer ;  2.  A 
Treatise  on  Signals ;  and  3.  A  volume  of  Sea 
Sermons.  The  profits  of  these  works  he  devoted 
to  the  JSagdalen  and  British  lying  in  hospitals, 
and  the  marine  society. 

Ramsay  (David),  an  American  physician  and 
historical  writer,  was  a  native  of  Charlostown, . 
South  Carolina,  and  engaged  in  the  practice  of 
medicine  at  the  place  of  his  birth.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  congress  of  the  United  States 
from  1782  till  1785.  Having  gone  to  visit  the 
patients  in  a  lunatic  asylum,  in  1815,  he  was  r 
unfortunately  killed  by  one  of  the  insane  inmates.  * 
Dr.  Ramsay  was  the  author  of  A  History  of  the 
American  Revolution,  so  lar  as  respects  the  State 
of  South  Carolina,  1791,  2  vols.  8vo;  The 
Life  of  George  Washington,  1807,  8vo.  A  Dis- 
course delivered  on  the  Anniversary  of  American 
Independence,  1800 ;  and,  A  View  of  the  Im- 
provements made  in  Medicine  during  the  £igh- 
teeth  Century,  1802,  8vo. 

RAMSDEN  (Jesse),  F.  R.S.,  an  eminent  op- 
tician, was  bom  at  Halifax  in  Yorkshire  in 
1738,  and  came  to  London  as  an  engraver.  Hav- 
ing to  delineate  several  mathematical  instru- 
ments, he  finally  constructed  them  himself,  and 
married  a  daughter  of  Mr.  DoUond,  the  cele- 
brated optician.  He  first  opened  a  shop  in  the 
Hay  market,  whence  he  removed  to  Piccadilly, 
where  he  remained  until  his  death  in  1800. 
Ramsden  early  obtained  a  premium  from  the 
board  of  longitude,  for  the  invention  of  the  cu- 
rious machine  for  the  division  of  mathematical 
instruments  hereafter  described:  he  also  im- 
proved the  construction  of  the  theodolite,  the 
pyrometer  for  measuring  the  dilatation  of  bodies 
by  heat,  the  barometer  for  measuring  the  height 
of  mountains,  &c. ;  also  the  refracting  microme- 
ter and  transit  instrument  and  quadrant.  He 
made  great  improvements  also  in  Hadle/s  quad- 
rant and  sextant,  and  procured  a  patent  for  an 
amended  equatorial.  Such  was  his  reputation, 
that  hij  instruments  were  bespoken  in  every 
p^irt  of  Europe;  and  ultimately,  though  he 
employed  sixty  men,  to  obtain  the  execution  of 
an  order  was  a  high  favor. 

Ramsdew's  Machine  for  Dividing  Mathe- 
matical Instruments  Is  an  invention  of  the 
last  century,  by  which  these  divisions  can  be 
performed  with  exeeedingly  great  accuracy.  On 
discovering  the  method  of  constructing  this 
machine^  its  inventor,  Mr.  Ramsden  of  Picca- 
dilly, received  £615  from  the  Board  of  Longi- 
tude ;  engaging  himself  to  instruct  a  certain 
numberof  persons,  not  exceeding  ten,  in  the  me- 
thod of  making  and  using  it  from  the  28th  of 
October  1775  to  28th  October  1777;  also 
binding  himself  to  divide  all  octants  and  sex- 
^nts  by  the  same  engine,  for  as  long  time  as 


the  commissioners  should  think  proper.  The 
following  description,  of  the  engine  is  that  given 
by  Mr.  Ramsden  himself.  'This  engine  consists 
of  a  large  wheel  of  bell-melal,  supported  on  a 
mahogany  stand,  having  three  legs,  which  are  • 
strongly  .connected  together  by  braces,  so  as  to 
make  it  perfectly  steady.  On  each  leg  of  the 
stand  is  placed  a  conical  friction-pulley,  where- 
on the  dividing-wheel  rests;  to  prevent  the 
wheel  from  sliding  ofi*  the  friction-pulleys,  the 
bell-metal  centre  under  it  turns  in  a  socket  on 
the  top  of  the  stand.  The  circumference  of  the 
wheel  is  ratched  or  cut  (by  a  meihod  which  Mr. 
Ramsden  describes)  into  2160  teeth,  in  which 
an  endless  screw  acts.  Six  revolutions  of  the 
screw  will  move  the  wheel  a  space  equal  to  one 
degree.  Now  a  circle  of  brass  being  fixed  on 
the  screw  arbor,  having  its  circumference  di- 
vided into  sixty  parts,  each  division  will  conse- 
quently answer  to  a  motion  of  the  wheel  of  ien 
seconds,  six  of  them  will  be  equal  to  a  minute, 
&c.  Several  difierent  arbors  of  tempered  steel 
are  truly  ground  into  the  socket  in  the  centra  of 
the  wheel.  The  upper  parts  of  the  arbors  that 
stand  above  the  plane  are  turned  of  various 
sizes,  to  suit  the  '  centres  of  different  pieces  of 
work  to  be  divided.  When  any  instrument  is 
to  be  divided,  the  centre  of  it  is  very  exactly 
fitted  on  one  of  these  arbors ;  and  the  instrument 
is  fixed  down  to  the  plan  of  the  dividing  wheel, 
by  means  of  screws,  which  fit  into  holes  made 
in  the  radii  of  the  wheel  for  that  purpose.  The 
instrument  being  thus  fitted  on  the  plane  of  tlie 
wheel,  the  frame  which  carries  the  dividing-point 
is  connected  at  one  end  by  finger-screws  with 
the  frame  which  carries  the  endless  screw ;  while 
the  other  end  embraces  that  part  of  the  steel 
arbor  which  stands  above  the  mstrument  to  be 
divided,  by  an  angular  notch  in  a  piece  of  har- 
dened steel;  by  this  means  both  ends  of  the 
frame  are  kept  perfectly  steady  and  free  from 
any  shake.  The  frame  carrying  the  dividing 
point  or  tracer  is  made  to  slide  on  the  frame 
which  carries  the  endless  screw  to  any  distance 
from  the  centre  of  the  wheel,  as  the  radius  of  the 
instrument  so  divided  may  require,  and  may 
there  be  fastened  by  tightening  two  clamps; 
and  the  dividing-point  or  tracer,  being  connected 
with  the  clamps  by  the  double-jointed  frame*  ad- 
mits a  free  and  easy  motion  towards  or  from  the 
centre  for  cutting  the  divisions,  without  any  la- 
teral shake.  From  what  has  been  said,  it  ap- 
pears, that  an  instrument  thus  fitted  on  the  di- 
viding-wheel may  be  moved  to  any  angle  by  the 
screw  and  divided  circle  on  its  arbor,  and  that 
this  angle  may  be  marked  od  the  limb  of  the  in- 
strument with  the  greatest  exactness  by  the  di- 
viding-point or  tracer,  which  can  only  move  in  a 
direct  line  tending  to  the  centre,  and  is  altogether 
freed  from  those  inconveniences  that  attend  cut- 
ting by  means  of  a  straight  edge.  This  method 
of  drawing  lines  will  also  prevent  any  error  that 
might  arise  from  an  expansion  or  contraction  of 
the  metal  during  the  time  of  dividing.  The 
screw  frame  is  fixed  on  the  top  of  a  conical 
pillar,  which  turns  fireely  round  its  axis,  and  also 
moves  freely  towards  or  from  the  centre  of  the 
wheel,  so  that  the  screw-frame  may  be  entirely 
guided  by  the  frame  which  connects  it  with  the 

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centre ;  by  this  means  any  eccentriciw  of  the 
wheel  and  the  arbor  would  not  produce  any 
«nor  in  the  dividing ;  and,  by  a  pimicular  con- 
tiivanoe,  the  screw  when  pressed  against  the  teeth 
of  the  wheel  always  mores  parallel  to  itself;  so 
that  a  line  joinii^  the  centre  of  the  arbor  and  the 
tracer  continued,  will  always  make  equal  angles 
with  the  screw/ 

RAMSEY,  a  town  of  Huntingdonshire,  sixty- 
eight  miles  north  of  London,  and  tweWe  north- 
east of  Huntingdon.  It  was  once  famous  for  a 
very  rich  abbey,  part  of  the  gatdionse  of  which 
is  still  standing,  and  a  neglected  statue  of  Ail- 
win,  the  epitaph  of  whose  tomb,  which  is  reck- 
oned one  of  the  oldest  pieces  of  English  sculp- 
ture extant,  styles  him  *  kinsman  of  the  famous 
king  Edward,  alderman  of  all  England,  and  the 
miraculous  founder  of  this  abb^.  It  was  de^ 
dicated  to  St.  Dunstan,  and  its  abbots  were 
mitred,  and  sat  in  parliament;  and  so  many 
kings  of  England  were  bene&ctors  to  it  that  its 
yearly  rents,  says  Camden,  were  £7000.  The 
towa  was  then  called  Ramsey  the  Rich ;  but  by 
the  dissolution  of  the  abbey  it  soon  became  poor, 
and  even  lost  its  market  for  many  years,  which 
is  now  held  on  Saturday.  There  is  a  charity 
school  for  poor  girls. 

Ramsey,  a  town  in  the  Isle  of  Man,  on  the 
north  coast,  with  a  noted  and  spacious  haven. 

liAMSGATE,  a  sea-port  town  of  Kent,  in  the 
isle  of  Thanet,  five  miles  south  from  Margate, 
with  a  very  fine  pier,  seated  near  the  Downs, 
between  the  North  and  South  Foreland,  ten  miles 
north-east  of  Canterbury.  It  was  formerly  but 
an  obscure  fishing  village,  but  since  1688  has 
been  improved  and  enlarged  by  a  successful 
trade  to  Russia  and  the  Baltic,  and  has  become 
a  frequented  bathing  place.  The  harbour  is  very 
capacious,  and  was  begun  in  1750.  It  is  formed 
by  two  piers ;  that  to  the  east  is  built  of  Pur- 
Ijeck  stone,  and  extends  into  the  ocean  nearly  800 
feet  before  it  forms  an  angle ;  its  breadth  on  the 
top  is  twenty-six  fleet,  including  a  strong  parapet 
wall.  The  other,  to  the  west,  is  constructed  of 
wood  as  far  as  the  low-water  mark,  but  the  rest 
is  of  stone.  The  angles,  of  which  there  are  five 
in  each  pier,  consist  of  160  feet  each,  with  octa- 
gons at  the  ends  of  sixty  feet  diameter,  leaving  an 
entrance  of  200  feet  into  the  harbour,  the  depth 
of  which  admits  of  a  gradual  increase  of  eigh- 
teen to  thirty-six  feet  It  is  defended  by  two 
batteries.  It  is  now  made  a  royal  port  in 
commemoration  of  his  majesty's  visit  in  1821. 
After  the  piers  were  nearly  finished,  the  deposition 
of  sand  within  the  harbour  became  so  considera- 
ble as  to  threaten  its  complete  destruction,  when 
it  was  advised  by  Mr.  Smeaton  to  construct  a 
basin  within  the  harbour,  to  retain  the  tide  water, 
and,  letting  it  out  again  at  every  ebb,  to  carryoff 
any  deposition  by  this  artificial  current.  Tliis 
was  accordingly  done,  and  the  beneficial  effects 
were  such  as  even  to  exceed  expectation;  but 
as,  notwithstanding  these  improvements,  the  har- 
bour was  found  unsafe  during  easterly  gales,  an 
advanced  pier  was  begun  in  1787,  the  utility  of 
which  became  apparent  as  the  work  advanced, 
and  greatly  facilitated  the  entrance  of  shipping  in 
tempestuous  weather.  A  military  road  was  also 
completed  under  the  cliff  connecting  the  centre 


and  outward  piers,  for  the  embarkation  of  troo^ 
About  the  same  period  a  dry  dock  was  erected, 
and  storehouses  for  eveiy  necessary  purpose.  A 
new  stone  light-house  hu  beed  since  constractfid 
on  the  head  of  the  west  pier,  a  handsome  house 
for  the  business  of  the  trustees,  another  for  the 
residence  of  the  harbour  master,  a  watch-houae, 
&c.  From  the  light-house  are  displayed  in  the 
night,  two  lamps,  with  argand  burners,  wbea 
the  water  in  the  harbour  is  of  the  depth  of  tea 
feet;  and  in  the  day  this  90tice  is  given  by  a 
fla^-staff  from  Sion  Hill.  A  large  stone  build- 
ing has  been  erected  for  a  dock-house,  and  a  wet 
dock  near  the  basin,  for  the  repair  of  vessels ; 
and  no  cost  has  been  spared  to  render  this  har- 
bour as  useful  as  possible,  in  proportion  to  the 
dangerous  navigation,  in  stormy  weather,  of  the 
adjacent  part  of  the  channel.  The  pier  forms 
the  grand  promenade.  The  bathing  place,  fur- 
nished with  machines  and  accommodations  in 
the  same  manner  as  at  Margate,  lies  in  front  of 
a  long  line  of  high  chalky  rocks  at  the  back  of 
the  pier.  Warm  salt-water,  and  also  plunging 
and  shower  baths,  are  established  here,  with 
suitable  conveniencies.  The  assembly-room  is  a 
neat  building,  near  the  harbour;  with  cofiee,  tea, 
billiard,  card,  and  other  rooms;  the  whole  being 
under  tfie'direction  of  the  master  of  the  ceremo- 
nies at  Margate.  Here  are  several  good  hotels, 
and  numerous  lodging-houses  suited  to  every 
description  of  company.  The  libraries  in  the 
town  are  numerous,  spacious,  and  valuable.  It 
has  a  handsome  chapel  of  ease,  besides  which 
there  are  several  meeting-houses.  The  town  is 
well  paved,  lighted,  and  watched,  and  has  a 
court  of  requests  for  the  recovery  of  small 
debts. 

RAMUS,  in  general,  denotes  a  branch  of  any 
thing,  as  of  a  tree,  an  artery,  &c.  In  the  anato- 
my of  plants  it  means  the  first  or  lateral  bianchtt, 
which  go  off  firom  the  petiolum,  or  middle  nb 
of  a  leaf.  The  subdivisions  of  these  are  called 
surculi;  and  the  final  divisions,  into  the  most 
minute  of  all,  are  by  some  called  capillamenta; 
but  both  kinds  are  generally  denominated  su> 
cuius. 

Ramus  (Peter),  one  of  the  most  celeS>rated 
professors  of  the  sixteenth  century,  was  bom  in 
Picardy  in  1515.  A  thirst  for  learning  prompted 
him  to  go  to  Paris  when  very  young,  and  he  was 
admitted  a  servant  in  the  college  of  Navane. 
Spending  the  day  in  waiting  on  his  masters,  and 
the  greatest  part  of  the  night  in  study,  he  made 
such  surprismg  progress,  that,  when  he  took  bis 
degree  of  M.  A.,  he  ofiered  to  maintain  a  quite 
opposite  doctrine  to  that  of  Aristotle.  This 
raised  him  many  enemies;  and  the  two  first 
books  he  published,  Institutiones  Dialectics, 
and  Aristotelica  Animadversiones,  occasioned 
great  disturbances  in  the  university  of  Paris: 
and  the  opposition  against  him  was  not  a  little 
heightened  by  his  deserting  the  Romish  religion, 
and  professing  that  of  the  Reformed.  Being 
thus  forced  to  retire  from  Paris,  he  visited  the 
universities  of  Germany,  and  received  great  ho- 
nors wherever  he  came.  He  returned  to  France 
in  1571,  and  lost  his  life  miserably  in  the  horrid 
massacre  of  St.  Rartholemew's  day.  He  pub- 
lished many  works  which  Teissier  enumerates. 


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M«ch  is  due  to  him  for  having  with  to  much 
finnness  snd  perseyerance  asserted  the  natural 
freedom  of  the  human  understanding.  The 
logic  of  Ramus  obtained  great  authority  in  the 
schools  of  Germany,  Great  Britain,  Holland, 
and  France ;  and  long  and  violent  contests  arose 
between  his  followers  and  those  of  the  Stagy- 
rite,  till  his  £une  vanished  before  that  of  Des- 
cartes/ 

HANA,  the  frog,  in  zoology,  a  genus  belong- 
ing to  the  order  amphibia  reptilia.  The  body  is 
naked,  furnished  with  four  feet,  and  without  any 
tail.  There  are  many  species.  The  most  remark- 
able are  these : 

1.  R.  aquatic^  the  water  frog  of  Catesby  has 
laige  black  eyes,  yellow  irides,  and  long  limbs ; 
the  upper  part  of  the  head  and  body  is  of  a 
dusky  greeny  spatted  with  black ;  and  n-om  each 
eye  to  the  nose  is  a  white  line ;  and  a  yellow 
line  along  the  sides  to  th6  rump.  They  fre- 
quent rivulets  and  ditches,  which  they  do  not 
quit  for  the  dtj  land.  They  spring  five  or  six 
yards  at  a  leap. 

2.  R.  arborea,  the  green  tree  frog  of  Catesby, 
is  of  a  slender  shape  and  bright  green  color, 
maiied  on  each  side  with  a  line  of  yellow :  the 
eyes  are  black ;  the  irides  yellow ;  thiky  have  four 
toes  before  and  Qve  behind ;  at  the  end  of  each 
toe  there  is  a  round  membrane,  concave  be- 
neath, and  like  the  month  of  a  leech.  They  lurk 
under  the  lower  sides  of  leaves,  even  of  the 
tallest  trees,  and  adhere  firmly,  by  means  of  the 
membranes  at  the  ends  of  their  toes  sticking  to 
the  smoothest  sur&ce :  a  looking-glass  was  held 
before  one,  at  four  yards  distance ;  it  reached  it 
at  one  leap,  and  stuck  closely  to  it.  At  night 
these  frogs  make  an  incessant  chirping,  and  leap 
from  spmy  to  spray  in  search  of  msects.  This 
species  is  common  to  America  and  the  wanner 
parts  of  £aTope. 

3.  R.  bafo,  the  toad,  i&lian  and  other  ancient 
writers  tell  mainf  ridiculous  febles  of  the  poison 
of  the  toad.  Inis  animal  was  believed  by  some 
old  writers  to  have  a  stone  iu  its  head  fraught 
with  great  virtues  medical  and  magical ;  it  was 
distmguished  by  the  name  of  the  reptilf ,  and 
called  the  toad-stone,  bufonites,  ciapaudine^ 
krottenstein.    See  Bufo. 

The  most  frill  information  conoeming  the  na- 
ture and  qualities  of  this  animal  is  contained  in 
letters  torn  Mr.  Arscott  and  Mr.  Pittfield  to  Dr. 
Milles,  communieated  toMir.Penn&nt ;  concerning 
a  toad  that  lived  above  thirty-six  years  with  tiiem, 
was  completely  tame,  and  became  so  great  a  fa- 
vorite that  most  of  tide  ladies  in  the  neighbour- 
hood got  the  better  of  their  prejudices  so  fhr  as 
to  be  anxious  to  see  it  fed.  Its  food  was  insects, 
such  as  millepedes,  spiders,  ants,  flies,  &c.,  but  it 
was  particuhuiy  fond  of  flesh  worms,  which  were 
bred  on  purpose  for  it.  Itneverappeared  in  winter^ 
butregnlarly  made  its  appea^noe  in  spring, 
when  £e  warm  weather  commenced,  climbing 
up  a  few  steps,  and  waiting  to  be  taken  up,  car- 
ried into  the  house,  and  fed  upon  a  table.  Before 
it  attacked  the  insects,  it  fixea  iU  eyes  on  them, 
and  regained  motionless  for  a  quarter  of  a  mi- 
nute, when  it  seized  them  by  an  instantaneous 
motion  of  its  tongue  darted  on  the  insect,  with 
such  rapidity  that  the  eye  could  not  follow  it, 


whereby  the  insect  stuck  to  the  tip  of  its  tongue^ 
and  was  instantly  conveyed  to  its  mouth.  This 
favorite  toad  at  last  lost  its  life,  in  consequence 
of  being  attacked  by  a  tame  raven,  which  picked 
out  one  of  its  eyes ;  and  although  the  toad  was 
rescued,  and  lived  a  year  longer,  it  never  re- 
covered its  health  or  spirit.  Air.  Pennant's  cor^ 
respondent,  among  many  other  particulars^  adds, 
that  '  there  are  thirty  males  to  oue  female,  twelve 
or  fourteen  of  whore  I  have  seen  clinging 
round  a  female :  I  have  often  disengaged  her, 
and  put  her  to  a  solitary  male  to  see  widi  what 
es^emess  he  would  seize  her.  They  imprego 
nate  the  spawn  as  it  is  drawn  out  in  long 
strings.' 

4.  R.  cinerea,  the  cinereous  frog,  has  a  gib- 
bons, cinereous,  and  smooth  back  ;  the  belly  is 
yellow  and  granulated ;  on  each  side,  from  the 
nose  to  the  rump,  there  is  a  white  line;  and 
there  is  the  same  on  the  outside  of  the  thighs 
and  legs ;  the  toes  are  bullated  at  their  ends.  They 
inhabit  Carolina* 

5.  R.  esculenta,  the  edible  firog,  differs  from 
the  common  frog,  in  having  a  high  protuberance 
in  the  middle  of  the  back,  forming  a  very  sharp 
angle.  Its  colors  are  also  mere  vivid,  and  its 
marks  more  distinct;  the  ground  color  being  a 
pale  or  yellowish  green,  marked  with  rows  of 
black  spots  from  the  head  to  the  rump. 

6.  R.  ocellata,  the  bull  frog,  a  very  large  spe- 
cies, found  in  Pennsylvania,  and  some  other  parts 
of  North  America.  I'he  irides  are  of  a  dusky 
red,  surrounded  with  a  yellow  ring.  The  auricles 
are  covered  with  a  thin  circular  skin,  which 
forms  a  spot  behind  each  eye.  They  have  four 
toes  on  the  fore  feet,  and  five  palmated  toes  be- 
hind. Their  color  is  a  dusky  brown,  mixed  with 
yellowish  green,  and  spotted  with  black.  The 
belly  is  yellowish,  and  ftiintly  spotted.  These 
make  a  roaring  noise  like  a  bull,  only  more 
hoarse.  Their  size  is  superior  to  that  of  any 
other  of  tiie  genus,  and  they  can  spring  forward 
three  yards  at  a  leap ;  and  thus  will  equal  in 
speed  a  very  good  horse  at  its  swiftest  course. 
They  live  in  ponds  or  bogs  with  stagnant  wa- 
ter; but  never  frequent  streams.  In  the  day 
time  ^ey  seldom  make  any  great  noise,  unless 
the  sky  is  covered ;  but  in  the  night  time  they 
maybe  heard  at  the  distance  of  a  mile  and  a  half. 
When  .they  croak,  they  are  commonly  near  the 
surfhce  of  the  water,  under  the  bushes,  and  have 
their  heads  out  of  the  water.  By  going  slowly, 
therefore,  one  may  get  up  almost  close  to  thembe- 

'fore  they  go  away.  As  soon  as  they  are  quite  under 
water,  they  thiftk  themselves  safe,  though  it  be 
ever  so  shallow.  These  creatures  kill  and  eat 
young  ducklings  and  goslings,  and  sometimes 
carry  off  chickens  that  eome  too  near  the  water; 
when  beaten,  they  cry  out  almost  like  little  diil- 
dren.  As  soon  as  the  air  begins  to  grow  a  little 
cool  in  autumn  they  hide  themselves  under  the 
mud  in  the  bottom  of  stagnant  waters,  and  lie 
there  torpid  dt^rlng  the  winter.  As  soon  as  the 
weather  grows  mild  towards  summer,  they  begin 
to  get  out  of  their  holes  and  croak.  They  are 
supposed  by  the  people  of  Virginia  to  be  fh» 
purifiers  of  waters,  and  are  respected  as  the  ge- 
nii of  the  fountains.  Some  of  them  were  brought 
to  England  alive  several  years  ago. 


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7.  R.  pipal,  the  Surinam  toad,  is  more  u^Xy 
than  even  the  common  one.  The  body  is  flat 
and  broad;  the  head  small;  the  jaws,  like 
those  of  a  mole,  are  extended,  and  evidently 
formed  for  rooting  in  the  ground ;  the  skin  of 
the  neck  forms  a  sort  of  wrinkled  collar ;  the 
color  of  the  head  is  of  a  dark  chestnut,  and  the 
eyes  are  small ;  the  back,  which  is  very  broad, 
is  of  a  lightish  gray,  and  seems  covered  over 
wilh  a  number  of  small  eyes,  which  are  round, 
and  placed  at  nearly  equal  distances.  These 
eyes  are  very  different  from  what  the^  seem  : 
they  are  the  animal's  eggs,  covered  witli  their 
shell,  and  placed  there  for  hatching.  These  eggs 
are  buried  deep  in  the  skin,  and  in  the  beginning 
of  incubation  but  just  appear ;  and  are  very  vi- 
sible when  the  young  animal  is  about  to  burst 
from  ila  confinement.  They  are  of  a  reddish 
shining  yellow  color;  and  the  spaces  between 
them  are  full  of  small  warts,  resembling  pearls. 
This  is  their  situation  previous  to  their  coming 
forth ;  but  nothing  is  so  surprising  as  the  man- 
ner of  their  production.  The  eggs,  when  formed 
in  the  ovary,  are  sent,  by  some  internal  canals, 
which  anatomists  have  not  hitherto  described,  to 
lie  and  come  to  maturity  under  the  bony  sub- 
stance of  the  back ;  in  this  state  they  are  im- 
pregnated by  the  male;  the  skin,  however,  is  still 
apparently  entire,  and  forms  a  very  thick  cover- 
ing over  the  whole  brood ;  but  as  they  advance 
to  maturity,  at  different  intervals  one  after  another, 
the  egg  seems  to  start  forward  from  the  back, 
becomes  more  yellow,  and  at  last  breaks ;  when 
the  young  one  puts  forth  its  head ;  it  still,  how- 
ever, keeps  its  situation  until  it  has  acquired  a 
proper  degree  of  strength,  and  then  it  leaves  the 
shell,  but  still  continues  to  keep  upon  the  back 
of  the  parent.  In  this  manner  the  pi  pal  is  seen 
travelling  with  her  wondrous  family  on  her 
back,  in  all  the  different  stages  of  maturity. 
Some  of  the  strange  progeny,  not  yet  come  to 
sufficient  perfection,  appear  quite  torpid,  and  as 
yet  without  life  in  the  egg;  others  seem  just  be- 
ginning to  rise  through  the  skin ;  here  peeping 
forth  from  the  shell,  and  there  having  entirely 
forsaken  their  prison  ;  some  are  sporting  at 
large  upon  the  parent's  back,  and  others  descend- 
ing to  the  ground  to  try  their  own  fortune  below. 
The  male  pipal  is  every  way  larger  than  the  fe- 
male, and  has  the  skin  less  tightly  drawn  round 
the  body.  The  whole  body  is  covered  wkh  pus- 
tules,'resembling  pearls;  and  the  belly,  which  is 
of  a  bright  yellow,  seems  as  if  it  were  sewed  up 
from  the  throat  to  the  vent,  a  seam  being  seen  to 
run  in  that  direction. 

8.  R.  rubeta,  the.natte?  iack,  frequents  dry  and 
sapdy  places ;  it  is  found  on  Putney  common, 
and  9lso  near  Revesby  abbey,  Lincolnshire.  It 
never  leaps,  neither  does  it  crawl  witb  the  slow 
pace  of  a  toad,  but  its  motion  is  more  like  run- 
ning. Several  are  found  commonly  together, 
and,  like  others  of  the  genus,  they  appear  in  the 
evenings.  The  upper  part  of  the  body  is  of  a 
dirty  yellow,  clouaed  with  brown,  and  covered 
with  porous  pimples  of  unequal  sizes;  on  the 
back  is  a  yellow  line.  The  upper  side  of  the 
body  is  of  a  paler  hue,  marked  with  black  spots, 
which  are  rather  rough.  On  the  fore  feet  are 
four  divided  toes;  on  the  hind  five,  a  little 


webbed.  The  length  of  the  body  it  two  inches 
and  a  quarter ;  the  breadth  one  inch  and  a  quar- 
ter ;  the  length  of  the  fore  legs  one  inch  and  a 
sixth ;  of  the  hind  legs  two  inches.  This  is  the 
account  given  by  Sir  Joseph  Banks. 

9.  R.  temporaria,  the  common  frog.  This  is 
an  animal  so  well  known  that  it  needs  no  de- 
scription; but  some  of  its  properties  are  veiy 
singular.  Its  spring,  or  power  of  taking  Urge 
leaps,  is  remarkably  great,  and  it  is  tl^  best 
swimmer  of  all  four-footed  animals.  Its  limbs 
are  finely  adapted  for  those  ends,  the  fore  mem- 
bers of  the  body  being  very  lightly  made,  the 
hind  legs  and  thighs  very  long,  and  furnished  with 
very  strong  muscles.  While  in  a  tadpole  state, 
it  is  entirely  a  water  animal ;  and,  as  soon  as  the 
frogs  are  released  from  their  tadpole  state,  they 
immediately  take  to  land ;  and  if  the  weather 
has  been  hot,  and  there  fall  any  refreshing  showsrs^ 
the  ground  for  a  considerable  space  is  perfectly 
blackened  by  myriads  of  these  animalcules,  seek- 
ing for  some  secure  lurking  places.  Some  phi 
losophers,  not  taking  time  to  examine  into  this 
phenomenon,  imagined  them  to  have  been  gene 
rated  in  the  clouds,  and  showered  on  the  earth 
but,  had  they  but  traced  them  to  the  next  pool 
they  would  have  found  a  better  solution  of  the 
difficulty.  As  frogs  adhere  closely  to  the  backs 
of  their  own  species,  so  we  know  they  will  d^ 
the  same  by  fish.  That  they  will  injure,  if  not 
entirely  kill  carp,  is  a  well-known  fact.  Not 
many  years  ago,  on  fishing  a  pond  belonging  to 
Mr.  Pitt  of  Encomb,  Dorsetshire,  great  numbers 
of  the  carp  were  found  each  with  a  frog  mounted 
on  It,  the  hind  legs  clinging  to  the  back,  and  the 
fore  legs  fixed  to  the  comer  of  each  eye  of  the 
fish,  which  were  thin  and  greatly  wasted,  teased 
by  carrying  so  disagreeable  a  load.  These  frogs 
Mr.  Pennant  supposes  to  have  been  males  dis- 
appointed of  a  mate.  The  croaking  of  frogs  is 
well  known ;  and  hence  in  fenny  countries  they 
are  dbtinguished  by  ludicrous  titles :  thus  they 
are  stiled  Dutch  Nightingales,  and  Boston  waites. 
Yet  there  is  a  time  of  the  year  when  they  become 
mute,  neither  croaking  nor  opening  their  mouths 
for  a  whole  month ;  mis  happens  in  the  hot  sea- 
son, and  that  is  in  many-  places  knovra  to  the 
country  people  by  the  name  of  the  paddock 
moon.  These,  as  well  other  reptiles,  feed  but  a 
small  space  of  the  year.  Their  food  is  flies,  in- 
sects, and  snails.  During  winter  frogs  and  toads 
remain  in  a  torpid  state ;  the  last  or  which  will 
dig  into  the  earth,  and  cover  themselves  with  al- 
most the  same  agility  as  the  mole. 

10.  R.  terrestris,  the  land  frog  of  Catesby, 
has  much  the  appearance  of  a  toad ;  above  it  is 
gray  or  brown,  spotted  with  dusky ;  below  white, 
faintly  spotted ;  the  irides  are  red ;  and  the  legs 
short.  •  They  frequent  the  high  lands,  and  are 
seen  m^t  finequently*inwet  weather  and  in  the 
hottest  time  of  the  day ;  they  leap,  feed  on  m- 
sects,  particularly  the  fire-fly  and  ant.  Some- 
times the  Americans  bake  and  reduce  this  species 
to  powder,  which,  mixed  with  orrice-root,  is  taken 
a»  a  cure  for  a  tympany. 

RANCAGUA,  a  province  of  Chili,  between 
the  rivers  Maypo  and  Cachapoal,  and  extending 
from  the  Andes  to  the  sea.  Its  breadth  is  very 
unequal,  being  from  seventeen  to  only  eight 


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leagues.  It  contains  the  lakes  Aculeu  and  Bu- 
calemu,  and  the  lands  are  very  fertile  in  grain. 
But  it  is  thinly  peopled,  and  the  inhabitants, 
amounting  only  to  12,000,  widely  dispersed.  It 
has  mines  of  gold  of  superior  quality. 

RANCAoaA,  the  capital  of  the  above  province, 
also  called  Santa  Cruz  de  Triana,  is  situated  on 
the  north  shore  of  the  river  Cachapuel,  fifty-three 
miles  south  of  Santiago. 

RANGE  (D.  A.  J.  Bouthillier),  a  learned 
French  writer,  bom  in  Paris  in  1626.  At  the 
age  of  twelve,  so  rapid  was  his  progress,  he  pub- 
lished an  edition  of  Anacreon  in  Greek,  with 
notes,  in  8vo.  Having  taken  his  degrees  at  Sor- 
bonne,  he  wrote  several  theological  pieces,  but 
gave  himself  up  to  dissipation ;  and  at  last  re- 
tired into  a  monastery,  where  he  died  in  1700. 

RANCH,  V.  a.  Cforrupted  from  wrench.  To 
sprain ;  to  injure  with  violent  contortion.  Dry- 
den  uses  it  for  to  tear. 

Agiinit  a  stump  his  tusk  the  monster  grinds, 
And  randted  his  hips  with  one  continued  round. 

Dryden, 
Emeticks  ranch,  and  keen  catharticks  icour. 

Oanh. 
RAN'CID,a4r.  laX-rancidus,  Strong  scented. 
See  Rank. 

The  oil,  with  which  fishes  abound,  often  turns 
nmeid,  and  lies  heavy  on  the  stomach,  and  affects 
tlie  very  sweat  with  a  rancid  smell.  Arbuthnot, 

RAN'COR,  n.  i.       )     Old  French  rancoeur ; 
Ran'corous,  ad^.      >Teut.  ranken,    Invete- 
Ran'corously,  oJv.J  rate  malignity;  malice; 
implacability:  the  adjective  and  adverb  corre- 
sponding. 

His  breast  full  of  rancor  like  canker  to  freat 

Tuster, 
As  two  brave  knights  in  bloodv  fight 
With  deadly  rancour  he  enraged  found. 

Spetuer. 
So  flamed  his  eyen  with  rage  and  rancorom  ire. 

Id, 
Raneowr  will  out,  proud  prelate ;  in  thy  (ace 
I  see  thy  fury.  Shaiupeara.  Henry  VL 

Because  I  cannot 
Duck  with  French  nods  and  apish  courtesy, 
I  must  be  h^d  a  rancormu  enemy.  ShahMpear§, 

Such  ambush 
Wailed  with  hellish  raneam"  immineat. 

Milton. 
No  authors  draw  upon  themselves  more  displea- 
sure than  those  who  deal  in  political  matters,  which 
is  justly  incurred,  considering  that  spirit  of  rancour 
and  virulence  with  which  works  of  this  nature 
abound.  Adduon't  Freeholder, 

Presbyterians  and  their  abettors,  who  can  equally 
go  to  a  church  or  conventicle,  or  such  who  bear  a 
personal  rancour  towards  the  clergy.  Aot^'t. 

The  most  powerful  of  these  were  Pharisees  and 
Sadduoees ;  of  whose  chief  doctrines  some  notice  is 
taken  bj  the  evangelists,  as  well  as  of  their  rancorous' 
opposition  to  the  gospel  of  Christ.  West. 

RANDIA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  monogy- 
nia  order,  and  pentandria  class  of  plants :  gal. 
monophyllous :  coa.  salver-shaped ;  berry  unilo- 
cular, with  a  capsular  rind.  Tnere  are  two  spe- 
cies, viz.    1.  R.  aculeata;  and  2.  R.mitis. 

RANDOLPH  (Thomas),  an  eminent  English 
poet  of  the  seventeenth  century,  bom  in  North- 
amptonshire in  1605.  He  was  educated  at 
Westminster  and  Cambridge,  and  was  patronised 


by  some  of  the  greatest  men  of  his  age ;  particu- 
larly by  Ben  Jonson.  He  died  in  1634.  He 
wrote,  1.  The  Muses'  Looking-glass,  a  comedy. 
2.  Amyntas,  or  the  Impossible  Dowry,  a  pasto- 
ral, acted  before  the  king  and  queen.  3.  Aristip- 
pus,  or  the  Jovial  Philosopher.  4.  The  Con- 
ceited Pedlar.  5.  The  Jealous  Lovers,  a  comedy. 
6.  Hey  for  Honesty,  down  with  Knavery,  a  co- 
medy ;  and  several  poems. 

Randolph  (Sir  Tnomas),  LL  D.,  was  bom  in 
Kent  in  1530.  He  was  a  student  at  Christ- 
Church,  when  Henry  ¥111.  tumed  it  into  a  ca- 
thedral. He  became  principal  of  Broad-gate 
Hall  in  1549.  Under  queen  Elizabeth  he  was 
employed  in  several  embassies  to  Scotland, 
France,  and  Russia;  was  knighted,  and  pro- 
moted to  several  considerable  offices.  He  wrote 
An  Account  of  his  Embassage  to  the  emperor  of 
Russia,  annol568 ;  and  Instructions  for  Searching 
the  Seaand  Border  of  the  Coast,  from  the  Pechora 
to  the  Eastwards,  anno  1588.  He  died  in  1590, 
aged  sixty. 

Randolph  (Thomas),  D.  D.,  was  the  son  of 
a  barrister,  the  recorder  of  the  city  of  Canterbury, 
where  he  was  bom  about  the  commencement  of 
the  last  century ;  and  went  upon  the  foundation  to 
Corpus  Christi  College,  Oxford,  of  which  so- 
ciety he  eventually  became  president  in  1748. 
Besides  the  benefices  of  Petham,  Waltham,  and 
Saltwood,  all  in  the  immediate  neighbourhood 
of  his  native  city,  his  distinguished  talents  as  a 
theologian  raised  him  to  the  Lady  Margaret  di- 
vinity chair,  and  the  archdeaconry  of  Oxford, 
to  which  latter  dignity  he  was  elevated  in  1768. 
He  acquired  considerable  reputation  by  his  Vin- 
dication of  the  Doctrine  of  the  Trinity,  &c.  A 
View  of  the  Ministry  of  our  Saviour  Jesus 
Christ  8vo.  2  vols ;  The  Christian's  Faith  a  ra- 
tional Assent;  Citations  from  the  Old  Testament 
contained  in  the  New;  and  a  volume  of  Sermons, 
preached  at  St.  Mary's,  Oxford.  He  died  in 
1783,  leaving  behind  him  two  sons. 

Randolph  (right  reverend  John),  the  eldest,^ 
afterwards  bishop  of  London,  was  bom  in  1749 ; 
became  a  student  of  Corpus  Christi  College, 
Oxford;  M.  A.  1774;  B.  D.  1782;  D.  D.  by 
diploma  1783;  prselector  of  poetry  1776;  proc- 
tor 1781  ;  regius  professor  of  Greek  1782; 
and,  in  the  sauie  year,  a  prebendary  of  Salisbury ; 
canon  of  Christ  Church,  regius  professor  of  divi- 
nity, and  rector  of  Ewelme,  in  1783;  elevated 
to  the  bishopric  of  Oxford  in  1799;  translated 
to  that  of  Bangor  in  1807;  and  thence  to  London 
in  1809.  He  was  elected  F.  R.  S.  in  181 1.  He 
passed  a  great  part  of  his  life  in  the  University 
of  Oxford,  and  enjoyed  a  considerable  reputation 
for  teaming,  and  it  is  generally  understood  that, 
when  he  was  elevated  to  the  see  of  Oxford,  the 
university  was  complimented  with  the  nomina- 
tion by  the  crown.  By  some,  however,  it  has 
been'insinuated  that  his  opinions  were  somewhat 
too  high  and  determined,  to  succeed  so  very 
mild  and  conciliating  a  prelate  as  Dr.  Porteus. 
His  publications  are— A  Sermon  preached  at  an 
Ordination  at  Christ  Church,  1779,  1  Cor.  xii. 
31.  Oxon.  1779,  4to.  A  Sermon  preached  at 
the  Consecration  of  Dr.  Lewis  Bagot,  in  1782^ 
to  the  bishopric  of  Bristol,  Acts  ii.  42.  Oxon,  1782, 
4to.     De  Unecie  linguae  studio  piielectio  habita 


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in  schola  liaguaniin,  Oxon.  lu.  Non.  Dec.  A.  D. 
MDccLxxxii.  1783,  4to.  Conscio  ad  Clerum  in 
Synodo  Provincial  Cantuariensis  Provinciae, 
ad  D.  Pauli,  die  26®  Novembris,  A.  D.  1790. 
A  Sermon  preached  before  the  Lords  spiritual 
and  temporal,  in  the  Abbey  Church  of  Westmin- 
ster, March  12,  1800,  being  the  day  appointed 
for  a  general  hsi.  A  Sermon  preached  before 
the  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel  in 
foreign  parts,  1803.  A  Charge  delivered  to  the 
clergy  of  the  diocese  of  Baneor,  at  his  primary 
visitation  in  1808,  and  {^blisned  at  the  request 
of  the  Clergy.  A  Charge  delivered  to  the  Clergy 
of  the  diocese  of  London,  at  his  Primary  Visitar 
tion,  1810.  The  bishop  died  at  Hardham,  28th 
July,1813. 

Randolph,  a  post  town  of  Orange  county, 
Vermont,  twelve  miles  W.  S.  W.  of  Chelsea, 
twenty-three  south  of  Montpelier,  and  thirty-eight 
north  of  Windsor.  This  is  a  pleasant  and  valu- 
able agricultural  town,  and  has  a  small  village, 
containing  an  academy,  and  a  Congregational 
meeting-house.  The  town  contains  a  laree  bed 
of  iron  ore.  It  is  watered  by  the  branches  of 
White  River,  and  has  valuable  mills  and  iron- 
works. 

Randolph,  a  county  in  the  north-west  part  of 
Virginia,  bounded  north  by  Monongalia  county, 
east  and  south-east  by  Pendleion  county,  south- 
west by  Greenbrier  and  Kenhawa  counties,  and 
west  by  Harrison  county.  It  is  watered  by  the 
head  waters  of  the  Monongahela.  Chief  town, 
Beverly. 

Randolph,  a  county  of  the  central  part  of 
New  Carolina,  a  county  of  Ohio,  and  of  Illinois. 

RAN'DOM,  ».s.  Stod;.  ¥t.  random.  Want 
of  direction,  rule,  or  method ;  chance ;  hazard : 
done  by  chance. 

For,  not  to  speake 

At  needy  random  ;  but  my  breathe  to  breake 
,    In  sacred  oath,  Ulysses  shall  return.     Chapman, 

The  striker  must  be  dense,  and  in  its  best  velocity : 
the  angle  which  the  missive  is  to  mount  by,  if  we 
will  have  it  so  to  its  furthest  random,  must  be  the 
half  of  a  right  one ;  and  the  figure  of  the  missive 
mast  be  such  as  may  give  scope  to  the  air  to  bear 
it.  *  I>ig^' 

Thy  words,  at  random  aigue  inexperience. 

MUton. 
Fond  love  his  darts  at  random  throws. 
And  nothing  springs  from  what  he  sows. 

Waller. 
Virtue  borrow^  but  the  arms  of  chance. 

And  struck  a  random  blow ;  'twas  fortune's  work, 

And  fortune  take  the  praise.  Drydm. 

In  the  days  of  old  the  birds  lived  at  random  in  a 
lawless  state  of  anarchy  ;  but  in  a  time  they  moved 
for  the  settine  up  of  a  king.       L'Bitrang«*i  Fable$. 

Who  could  govern  the  dependence  of  one  event 
upon  another,  if  that  event  happened  at  random,  and 
was  not  cast  into  a  certain  leUUion  to  some  foregoing 
purpose  to  direct  1  South* s  Sermons. 

'Tis  one  thing  when  a  person  of  true  merit  is 
drawn  as  like  as  we  can ;  and  another,  when  we 
make  a  fine*thing  at  random,  and  persuade  the  next 
vain  creature  that  'tis  his  own  likeness.  Pope. 

Let  fortune's  gifts  at  random  fiee, 
They  ne'er  shall  draw  a  wish  frae  me. 
Supremely  blest  wi'  love  and  thee, 

in  the  Birks  of  Aberfeldy.  Bums. 

Nor  will  you  be  sensible  of  any  disadvantage  at- 
tending it,  excepting  one,  viz.  its  making  you  more 


sensible  of,  the  weakness  and  ignorance  of  othecs, 
who  are  often  talking  in  a  rtaidom,  inconsequential 
manner.  Mason. 

RANDOM -SHOT,  in  gunnery,  is  a  shot  made 
when  the  muzzle  of  a  gun  is  raised  above  the 
horizontal  line,  and  is  not  designed  to  shoot  di- 
rectly or  point  blank.  The  utmost  random  of 
any  piece  is  about  ten  times  as  far  aa  the  bullet 
will  go  point-blank.  The  bullet  will  go  &rthest 
when  the  piece  is  moumted  to  near^  A5°  above 
the  level  of  the  range.    See  Projectilss. 

RANGE,  V.  a.,  v.  n.  >      Fr.    ranger;   Dan. 

RAN'cE»,n.i.  [&n.i.  5  roi^e;  Welsh  rheng* 
To  order ;  place  in  rank ;  hence  to  course  or  rove 
over:  and,  as  a  verb  neuter,  rove  at  large;  be 
placed  in  order,  or  in  any  particular  direction : 
a  rank;  class;  order;  step;  collection  of  steps  or 
bars ;  hence  a  fire-grate:  excursion;  coinpass  of 
excursion  or  course;  hence  extent  of  the  course 
of  a  ball,  in  gunnery :  a  ranger,  one  that  raogesy 
applied  both  to  dogs  and  men. 

As  a  roaring  lion  and  a  ran^ng  bear,  so  is  a 
wicked  ruler  over  the  poor  people. 

Pfewrhs  xxviii,  15. 
It  was  a  vanlt  ybuilt  for  great  dispence. 
With  many  ranges  reared  along  the  walU 
And  one  great  chimney.  Spemut. 

They  walk  not  widely,  as  they  were  woont. 
For  fear  of  raxmeers  and  the  great  hoont. 
But  privily  prolling  to  and  fro.        Id.  Paalgnis^ 
Tis  better  to  be  lowly  bom. 
And  range  with  humble  livers  in  content. 
Than  to  be  perked  up  in  a  glistering  grief. 
And  wear  a  golden  sorrow. 

Shakspeare.  Henry  Vill. 
Cesar's  spirit  rtmgmg  for  revenge. 
With  Ate  by  his  n&  come  hot  from  hdl, 
Shall  in  these  confines,  with  a  monarch's  voice, 
Ciy  havock,  and  let  slip  the  dogs  of  i 


You  fled 

From  that  great  face  of  war,  whose  several  rangee 
Frighted  each  other.         Id.  Antony  and  CUopatnu 
Ihe  implements  of  the  kitchen  are  spits,  T&mges, 
cobirons,  and  pots.  Bacon's  PhjfsUal  Remmim. 

Direct  my  course  so  right,  as  with  thy  hand  to 
show, 
Which  way  thy  ibrests  mnge,  whidi  way  thy  rivers 
flow.  DnsyUm. 

The  butlMy  must  be  visible,  and  we  need  lor  our 
ranges  a  more  spacious  and  luminous  kitchen. 

WotUm*s  Arehitettwre. 
The  range  and  compass  of  Hammond's  knowledge 
filled  the  whole  circle  of  the  arts.  fetL 

He  saw  not  the  marquis  till  the  battle  was  rmnged. 

Clarendom. 
The  Utnigy,  practised  in  England,  woeld  kindle 
that  jealousy,  as  the  prologue  to  that  design,  and  as 
the  first  rafif  0  of  that  ladder  which  should  serv«  to 
mount  over  all  their  customs.  Id. 

Somewhat  raised, 
By  false  presumptuous  hope,  the  ranged  povren 
Disband,  and  wandering  eadi  his  several  way 
Pursues.  Milton. 

Other  animals  unactive  range, 
And  of  their  doings  God  takes  no  account  ^    Id, 
The  next  range  of  beings  above  him  are  the  imma- 
terial intelligences,  the  next  below  him  is  the  sensible 
nature.  Hate. 

Come,  says  the  ranger,  here's  neither  honour  nor 
money  to  be  got  by  staying.  VBttrange. 

He  was  bid  at  his  first  coming  to  take  oflT  the 
range,  and  let  down  the  cinders.  id. 


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Tbflfar  Mm  Tyniem  did  Ub  fodder  biiag, 
Tyxiheos ,  chief  ranger  to  tbo  Latian  king. 

Men,  from  the  qualities  they  find  united  in  them, 
aDd  wherein  they  obsenre  several  individuals  to 
agree,  rwuft  them  into  sorts  for  the  convenience  of 
comprehensive  signs.  Loeke, 

He  may  take  a  range  all  the  world  over,  and  draw 
in  all  that  wide  circumference  of  sin  and  vice,  and 
center  it  in  his  own  breast.  Sottth't  Smiumi. 

Thanks  to  my  stars,  I  haw  not  ranged  about 
The  wilds  of  liib,  ere  I  could  Had  a  fnend. 


From  this  walk  you  have  a  fall  view  of  a  huge 
range  of  mountains,  that  lie  in  the  country  of  the 
Grisons.  id. 

The  li|:ht  which  passed  through  its  several  inter- 
stices, painted  so  many  range*  of  colours,  which  were 
parallel  and  contiguous,  and  without  any  mixture  of 
white.  Newton, 

To  the  copee  thy  lesser  q>aniel  take. 
Tetch  him  to  range  the  ditch  and  force  the  brake. 

Oay, 
Let  your  obsequious  ranger  search  around. 
Nor  will  the  roving  spy  direct  in  vain, 
But  numerous  coveys  gratify  thy  pain.  Id, 

These  rangee  of  barren  mountains,  by  condensing 
the  vapours  and  producing  rains,  fountains,  and 
rivers,  give  the  very  plains  that  fertility  they  boast 
of.  BentUy't  Simons. 

Far  as  creation's  ample  range  extends. 
The  scale  of  sensual,  mental  powers  ascends. 

Pope. 
A  certain  form  and  order,  in  which  we  have  long 
accustomed  ooiselves  to  mn^e  our  ideas,  may  behest 
iior  us  now,  though  not  origmally  best  in  itself. 

WatU. 

Range,  in  gunnery,  the  path  of  a  bullet,  or 
the  line  it  describes  from  the  mouth  of  the 
piece  to  the  point  where  it  lodges.  If  the  piece 
lie  in  a  line  parallel  to  the  horizon,  it  is  called 
the  right  or  level  range;  if  it  be  mounted  to 
45°,  it  is  said  to  have  t^  utmost  range ;  all  others 
between  0°  and  45°  are  called  the  intermediate 
ranges.    See  Projectiles. 

Raxosr,  a  sworn  officer  of  a  forest,  appointed 
by  the  king's  letters  patent ;  whose  business  is  to 
drive  back  the  deer  out  of  the  purlieus,  &c.,  and 
to  present  all  trespasses  within  his  jurisdiction  at 
the  next  forest  court 

RANGOON,  a  city  and  principal  port  of  die 
Burmhan  empire  in  the  province  of  Pegu.  It  was 
formerly  called  Dagoon,  and  is  much  celebrated 
in  the  wars  of  the  Burmbans  and  Peguers.  Stand- 
ing on  the  north  bank  of  the  eastern  branch  of 
the  Irrawaddy,  at  the  distance  of  thirty  miles 
fiom  the  sea,  this  town  is  almost  wholly  built  of 
wood,  and  is  about  a  mile  in  length  by  half  a 
mile  broad.  At  the  river  gate  there  is  a  battery 
erected,  with  a  few  pieces  of  cannon ;  but  the 
place  could  not  stand  the  fire  of  a  fHggte  for  an 
hour.  The  stxieets  are  narrow^  but  stiaight,  and 
paved  with  brick.  The  houses  are  hdsed  several 
feet  horn  the  ground ;  and  those  near  the  river 
we  washed  by  spring  tides.  The  under  story  of 
the  others  are  kept  clean  by  hogs,  who  wander 
about  here  without  any  owner.  The  population 
is  said  to  amount  to  30,000^  composed  of  per- 
sons from  all  parts  of  the  world,  after  the  Burm- 
bans and  Peguers.  The  Chinese  are  very  nu- 
merous and  are  all  carpenters,  and  obtain 
employment  in  the  dock-yards.     The  river  is 


extresDMly  ooounodlous  for  the  ooDBtmctlon  of 

ships.  The  spring  tides  rise  twenty  feet  perpen- 
dicularly. The  banks  are  flat  and  soft,  fto  that  there 
is  little  occasion  for  docks,  and  the  shipwrights^ 
being  active  and  athletic,  turn  to  good  account 
their  timber,  which  is  the  finest  in  the  world.  It 
grows  several  hundred*  miles  up  thecountnr,  and 
is  cut  down  during  the  diy  season,  and  split 
into  very  thick  planks.  It  is  then  floated  down 
the  rivers.  It  is  known  that  ships  can  be  built 
at  Rangoon  much  cheaper  than  at  Calcutta  or 
Bombay.  It  is  therefore  resorted  to  by  Euro- 
peans, who,  however,  generally  procure  their 
iron  work,  masts,  and  capstems,  from  other 
places.  Vessels  of  600  tons  burden,  however, 
are  often  entirely  constructed  at  Rangoon.  All 
kinds  of  European  goods  are  imported,  and  a 
variety  of  cloths  from  different  parts  of  India ; 
here  also  are  found  tea,  sugar-candy,  and  porce- 
lain from  China.  The  exports  are  chiefly  tim- 
ber, wax,  and  ivory.  The  police  is  veiy  exact ; 
and,  after  a  certain  hour  of  the  night,  ropes  are 
drawn  across  the  streets  and  a  number  of  watch- 
men and  firemen  stationed  in  different  places. 
Two  miles  and  a  half  from  the  town  stands  the 
temple  of  Shoe  Dagoon.  In  the  vicinity  are 
several  convents,  inhabited  by  the  Rahaans,  or 
priests,  who  in  general  are  respectable  people ; 
and,  as  the  Burmans  allow  universal  toleration, 
there  is  both  a  Portuguese  and  Arminian  church 
in  the  town,  which  serve  for  Christians  of  all 
denominations.  Rangoon  rose  into  celebrity  on 
the  ruin  of  Pegu  in  the  middle  of  the  last  cen- 
tury. It  is  now  the  residence  of  the  viceroy  of 
the  province,  and  his  council,  and  is  considered 
the  second  city  in  the  Burmhese  empire.  It  has 
frequently  be^  injured  by  fire:  and  is  the  only 
port  in  the  empire  which  Europeans  are  allowed 
to  settle  at  or  trade  with.  Long.  96'='  9'  £.,  kit. 
16"='  47'  N. 

RANK,ii.f.,A$.&t7.i».^     Sax.  pane;  Dan. 

Bank'le,  v.n.  C^^*     ^^^     Swed. 

Rakk'ly,  adv,  i  rank,  of  Goth,  rakia, 

Rank'n ESS,  n.t.  J  to    extend.-»-Thora-. 

son.  Fr.  fwtce;  Lat.  rmciduB.  Hig^i-growing; 
tall ;  luxuriant ;  fruitful ;  strong ;  strong  of  seent ; 
ill-flavored;  gross;  coarse;  filtering:  rankle  is, 
to  fester ;  be  inflamed;  breed  corruption :  rankly 
is,  coarsely ;  grossly :  rankness  corresponding. 

Seven  ears  came  up  upon  one  stalk*  rank  and 
good.  Genesiem 

Down  with  the  grasse. 
That  groweth  in  shadow  so  nuiAe  and  so  stout. 

Tuuer. 
Seven  thousand  broad-tailed  sheep^grazed  on  his 
downs; 
Three  thousand  camels  his  rank  pastuxes  fed. 

I  Sandtfe* 

The  stonn  of  his  own  rage  the  fool  confounds. 
And  envy's  rankling  sting  the'  imprudent  wounila. 

Rank  smelling  me,  and  cummin  good  for  eyes« 

Speneer, 

As  when  two  boars  with  rankling  malice  met. 
Their  gory  sides  foash  bleeding  fieroely  fiet.        Jd, 

It  bringeth  forth  abundantly,  through  too  much 
rankneee,  things  less  i>rofitable,  whereby  that  which 
principally  it  should  yield,  being  either  prevented  in 
place,  or  defrauded  of  nourishment,  (aileth. 
^  Uooker. 


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Who  would  be  oat,  being  before  his  beloved  mis- 
treu? 

— ^That  should  you,  if  I  were  your  mistress,  or  I 
should  think  my  honesty  ranker  than  my  wit. 

Shalupeart, 
In  which  disguise^ 
While  other  jests  are  sontething  rank  on  foot* 
Her  faCher  hath  commanded  her  to  slip 
Away  with  Slender. 

Id,  Merry  Wives  of  Windaor, 
The  ewes,  being  rank, 
In  the  end  of  Autumn  turned  to  the  rams. 

Shaktpeare, 
For  you,  most  wicked  Sir,  whom  to  call  brother 
Would  infect  my  mouth,  I  do  forgire 
Thy  rankest  faults.    ,  Id»  Tempeet. 

Beware  of  yonder  dog ; 
Look,  when  he  fawns,  he  bites ;  and,  when  he  bites. 
His  venom  tooth  will  rankle  to  the  death. 


'Tis  given  out,  that,  sleeping  in  my  garden, 

A  serpent  stung  me :  so  the  whole  ear  of  Denmark 

Is,  by  a  forged  process  of  my  death, 

Rankltf  abused.  Id.  Handet, 

Begin  you  to  grow  upon  me ;  I  will  physick  your 

ranknes*.  Id.  As  You  Like  It, 

Hemp  most  hugely  rark.  Drayton, 

Team  lastly  thither  com'n  with  water  is  so  rank. 

As  though  she  would  contend  with  Sabryn.        Id. 

Divers  sea  fowl  taste  rank  of  the  fish  on  which 
they  feed.  Bo^. 

They  fancy  that  the  difference  lies  in  the  manner 
of  appulse,  one  being  made  by  a  fuller  or  ranker  ap> 
pulse  than  the  other.  Holder, 

This  Epipbanius  cries  out  upon  as  rank  idolatry, 
and  the  device  of  the  devil,  who  always  brought  in 
idolatry  under  fair  pietences.  SliUingfleet. 

He  the  Ktubbom  soil  manured. 
With  rules  of  husbandry  the  ranknese  cured ; 
Tamed  us  to  manners.  Dryden. 

The  crane's  pride  is  in  the  rankness  of  her  wing. 

UEitrange, 
Such  animals  as  feed  upon  flesh,  because  such 
kind  of  food  is  h'gh  and  rankt  qualify  it ;  the  one  by 
swallowing  the  hair  of  the  beasts  thev  prey  upon, 
the  other  by  devouring  some  part  of  the  feathers  of 
the  birds  they  gorge  themselves  with.  Ray. 

Where  land  is  rank,  'tis  not  good  to  sow  wheat 
after  a  fallow.  Mortimer's  Hutlmndry. 

I  have  endured  the  rage  of  secret  grief, 
A  malady  that  bums  and  rankle*  iawlml. 

Rowe, 
'Tis  pride,  rank  pride,  and  haughtiness  of  soul ; 
The  Romans  call  it  stoicism.  AddiecnCs  Cato. 

The  most  plentiful  season,  that  gives  birth  to  the 
finest  flowers,  produces  also  the  rankest  weeds. 

Additon» 
The  drying  marshes  such  a  stench  convey, 
Sach  the  rank  steams  of  reeking  Albula.        ^  Id. 
Thou  shall  feel,  enraged  with  inward  pains. 
The  hydra's  venom  rankling  in  thy  veins.  Id. 

This  power  of  the  people  in  Athens,  claimed  as 
the  undoubted  privilege  of  an  Athenian  bom,  was 
the  rankest  encroachment,  and  the  grossest  degene- 
racy, from  the  form  Solon  left.  Swift, 
Hircina,  rank  with  sweat,  presumes 
To  censure  Phillis  for  perfumes. 

Id,  Mitoelbmiee, 
Byzantium's  hot-bed  better  served  for  use. 
The  soil  less  stubborn,  and  myre  rank  the  juice. 

Harte, 

Rank,  n.  ».,  v.  a.  &  v,  n,  Fr.  rang ;  Armor. 
renk  ;  Wei.  rhenc.  Row  or  order ;  line  of  men 
abreast :  class  ;  order ;  .subordination  :  degree, 


and  Kence  high  degree  of  excellence,  dignity,  or 
eminence :  to  range ;  place  in  any  order  or  class: 
place  methodically ;  be  ranged. 

West  of  this  place  down  in  the  neighbour  bottoo.. 
The  raink  of  osiers,  by  the  murmuring  stream. 
Left  on  your  right  hand  brings  you  to  the  place. 

Skakspeeat, 
Fierce  fiery  warriours  fight  upon  the  clouds. 
In  rankt,  and  squadrons,  and  nght  form  of  war. 
Which  drizzled  blood  upon  the  capitol.  Id 

If  sour  woe  delights  in  fellowship. 
And  neediy  will  be  ranked  with  other  griefs ;' 
Why  followed  not,  when  she  said  Tybalt's  <Wad, 
Thy  father  or  thy  mother!  Id, 

.    His  horse-troupes,    that  the  vantgard  had,   he 

strictly  did  command, 
To  ride  their  horses  temperately,  to  keepe  their  ranks, 

and  shun 
Confusion.  Chapman, 

Heresy  is  ranked  with  idolatry  and  witchcraft. 

Decay  of  Piety, 
Much  is  said  touching  the  ranking  of  dignities  as 
well  temporal  as  spiritual.  Selden, 

That  state,  or  condition,  by  which  the  nature  of 
an^  thin^  is  advanced  to  the  utmost  perfection  of 
which  it  IS  capable,  according  to  its  rank  and  kind, 
is  called  the  chief  end  or  happiness  of  such  a  thing. 

WUkint. 
A-  sylvan  scene,  and,  as  the  rankt  ascend 
Shade  above  shade,  a  woody  theatre.  MiUan, 

In  view  stood  ranked  of  seraphim  Another  row.   Id. 

If  she  w&dk,  in  even  rankt  they  stand. 
Like  some  well-marshalled  and  obsequious  band. 

Waller. 
He  could  through  rankt  of  min  go. 
With  storms  above  and  rocks  below. 

Dryden^s  Horace. 
Her  charms  have  made  me  man,  her  ravished  love 
In  rank  shall  place  me,  with  the  blessed  above. 

Dryden, 
The  wisdom  and  goodness  of  the  maker  plainly 
appears  in  the  parts  of  this  stupendous  fabric,  and 
the  several  degrees  and  rankt  of  creatures  in  it. 

Locke, 
He  found  many  of  the  chief  rank  and  figure  over- 
whelmed in  public  and  private  vices.         Danenmnt. 

From  straggling  mountaineers,  for  public  good. 
Go  rank  in  tnbes,  and  quit  the  savage  wood.  Tate, 

These  all  are  virtues  of  a  meaner  rank. 
Perfections  that  are  placed  in  bones  and  nerves. 

Additen, 
The  enchanting  power  of  prosperity  over  private 
persons  is  remarkable  in  relation  to  great  kingdoms, 
where  all  rankt  and  orders  of  men,  being  equally 
concerned  in  public  blessings,  equally  join  in  spread- 
ing the  infection.  Atterbury, 
Lepidus's  house,  which  in  his  consulate  was  the 
finest  in  Rome,  within  thirty-five  years  was  not  in 
the  hundredth  rank.                                  ArbutknoL 
'Mong  the  ranker  grass 
Cull  each  salubrious  plant,  with  bitter 
Concoctive  stored,  and  potent  to  allay 
Each  vicious  ferment.  SomerviUe, 
Poets  were  ranked  in  the  class  of  philosophers, 
and  the  ancients  made  use  of  them  as  preceptors  in 
music  and  morality.  Breome. 
Ranking   all  things  und^r  general  and  special 
heads  renders  the  nature  or  uses  of   a  thing  more 
easy  to  be  found  out,  when  we  seek  in  what  rank  of 
being  it  lies.                                         Watu*t  Logic. 

Nor  rank  nor  sex  escapes  the  general  frown. 
But  ladies  are  ript  up,  and  cits  knocked  down. 


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Thooeh  hereditary  wealth,  and  the  rtinJk  which 
2oet  wtUk  it,  are  too  much  idolized  b^  creepiDg  sy- 
cophants, and  the  blind  adject  admireis  oi  power, 
they  are  too  rashly  slighted  in  shallow  specolatioos 
of  the  petulant,  assuaungp  shortsighted,  coxcombs  of 
philosophy.  Burke* 

Rank,  is  a  straight  line  made  by  the  soldiers 
of  a  battalion  or  squadron,  drawn  up  side  by 
side :  this  order  was  established  for  the  marches, 
and  for  regulating  the  different  bodies  of  troops 
which  compose  an  array. 

Rank  in  tue  Navy.  The  admiral,  or  com* 
mander-in-chief  of  his  majesty's  fleet,  has  the 
rank  of  a  field-marshal;  admirals,  with  their 
flags  on  the  main-top-mastp-head,  rank  with  gene- 
rals of  horse  and  foot ;  vice-admirals  with  lieu- 
teoantpgenerals ;  rear-admirals  as  major-gene- 
rals; commodores,  with  broad  pendants,  as 
brigadier-generals ;'  captains  ^of  post-ships,  after 
three  years  from  the  date  of  their  first  commis- 
sion, as  coloneb ;  other  captains,  as  commanding 
post-ships,  as  lieutenant-colonels ;  captains,  not 
taking  post,  as  majors ;  lieutenants  as  captains. 

Rank  of  Engines  as.  Chief  as  colonel;  di-* 
rector  as  lieutenantrcolonel ;  sub-direotor  as 
major;  engineer  in  ordinary,  as  captain;  engi- 
neer extraordinary  as  captain-lieutenant;  sub- 
engineer  as  lieutenant;  practitioner-engineer  as 
ensign. 

RA'NNY,  n.  f .    From  run.    The  shrewmouse. 

The  mas  areneas,  the  shrewmouse  or  ranngf, 

Browne, 

RAN'SACK,  v.  II.    Sax.  pan,  and  Swed.  takoy 
to  search  for  or  seize. — ^Johnson.    There  is  also 
a  Goth,  and  Swed.  rajuakoj  and  Dan.  ransage. 
To  plunder;  pillage;  search;  violate. 
A  covetous  spirit, 
Warily  awaited  day  and  nigrht. 
From  other  covetous  fiends  it  to  defend. 
Who  it  to  rob  and  ransack  did  intend.  Speruer, 
With  greedy  force  he  'gan  the  fort  assail. 
Whereof  he  weened  possessed  soon  to  be, 
And  with  rich  spoil  of  rantacked  cha&tity.       Id. 
Their  vow  is  made  to  ransack  Troy. 

Shakspeare. 
Men,  by  his  suggestion  tau|[ht, 
Haruuiked  the  centre,  and,  with  impious  hands. 
Rifled  the  bowels  of  the  earth.  Milton. 

The  ransacked  city,  taken  by  our  toils. 
We  left,  and  hither  brought  the  golden  spoils. 

Dryden. 
I  rmuaek  the  several  caverns,  and  search  into  the 
store-houses  of  water,  to  find  out  where  that  mighty 
man  of  water,  which  overflowed  the  earth,  is  be- 
stowed. Woodward. 

RAN'SOM,  ».  I.  &  17.  fl.    ^       Fr.  ran^on; 

Ran'somless,  adj.  ]  Ital.  ronson.  Price 

of  redemptioti  from  captivity  or  punishment :  to 
redeem  by  purchase :  ransomeless,  without  ran- 
some  or  price. 

I  frill  niiiAMii  them  from  the  grave,  and  redeem 
them  from  death.  Ho§ea  ziii.  14. 

How  isH  with  Titles  Lartius  ? 

—Condemning  some  to  death  and  some  to  exile, 

BMuommg  him,  or  pitying,  threatening  the  other. 

Skakipeare. 

Amtoncieu  here  we  set  our  prisoners  free.      Id. 

By  his  cantivity  in  Austria,  and  the  heavy  raneom 
that  he  paid  for  his  liberty,  Richard  was  hindered 


to  pursue  the  conquest  of  Ireland. 


Donee  on  Ireland. 


His  the  prince  lost  his  army  or  his  liberty 
Tell  me  what  province  they  demand  for  ransom. 

Demham. 
Ere  the  third  dawning  light 
Return,  the  stars  of  morn  shall  see  hin  rise. 
The  ransom  paid,  which  man  from  death  redeems. 
His  death  for  man.  Milton's  Paradise  Lost. 

To  adore  that  great  mystery  of  divine  love,  God*s 
sending  his  only  Son  into  this  world  to  save  sinners, 
and  to  give  hiar  life  b.  raneom  for  them,  would  be 
noble  exercise  for  the  pens  of  the  greatest  wits. 

TiUotson, 
This  as  a  ransom  Albemarle  did  pay. 
For  all  the  glories  of  so  great  a  liiiB.  Jd. 

RANT,  t>.  a.  &  n.  s.  )     Belg.  randen^  to  rave ; 

Ranker,  n.  s.  )  Sco.  ranter,  is  a  musi- 

cian.   To  rave  in  violent  or  high  sounding  lan- 
guage :  such  language :  a  ranter,  one  who  uses  it. 

Nay,  an  thoult  mouth,  I'll  Ttint  as  well  as  thou. 

Shakspeare. 

They  have  attacked  me ;  some  with  piteous  moans, 
others  grinning  and  only  showing  their  teeth,  others 
ranting  and  hectoring,  others  scolding  and  reviling. 

StiUinsifleet. 

This  is  a  stoical  rant,  without  any  foundation  in 
the  nature  of  man  or  reason  of  things.    Alterbury. 
Dryden  himself,  to  please  a  frantic  age, 

Was  forced  to  let  his  judgment  stoop  to  rage ; 

To  a  wild  audience  he  conformed  his  voice, 

Comply'd  to  custom,  but  not  erred  through  choice ; 

Deem  then  the  people's,  not  the  writer's  sin, 

Almansor's  rage,  and  rants  of  Maximin. 

'  Granville. 

RANTIPOLE,  adj.  &  v.  n.  Wantonly  form- 
ed from  rant.  Wild;  roving;  rakish;  to  rove 
about.    A  low  word. 

What,  at  years  of  discretion,  and  comport  your- 
self at  this  rmntipole  rate  1 

Cangreve's  Way  of  tke  World. 

The  eldest  was  a  termagant  imperious  wench ;  she 
used  to  rantipole  about  the  house,  pinch  the  children, 
kick  the  servants,  and  torture  the  cats  and  dogs. 

ArbtUhnot. 

RANTZAN  (Josias),  count,  a  brave  oflScer, 
bom  in  Holstein  in  the  beginning  of  the  seven- 
teenth century.  He  was  made  a  marshal  of 
France  and  governor  of  punkirk  by  Louis  XIII. 
He  was  raised  to  be  commander  in-chief  o£  the 
Danish  army,  under  Frederick  I.  and  Christian 
III.  and  by  his  valor  the  liberties  of  his  country 
were  secured  against  the  efforts  of  Christian  II. 
Alter  having  lost  an  eve,  an  ear,  an  arm,  and  a 
leg,  in  various  battles,  he  died  in  1665. 

RANULA,  n.  s.    Lat.  ranula. 

Ranvla  is  a  soft  swelling,  possessing  the  salivals 
under  the  tongue :  it  is  made  by  congestion,  and  its 
progress  fiUeth  up  the  space  between  the  jaws,  and 
maketh  a  tumour  externally  under  the  chin. 

Wiseman's  Smgiry. 

RANUN'CULUS,n.i.  TLrammatU.  Crow- 
foot 

Banuneuhtses  excel  all  flowers  in  the  richness  of 
their  colours:  of  them  there  is  a  great  variety. 

Morttmer. 

Ranunculus,  crowfoot,  a  genus  of  the  poly- 
gamia  order  and  polyandria  class  of  plants ;  na- 
tural order  twenty-sixth,  multisiliqux  :  cal.  pen- 
taphyllous ;  petals  five,  each  with  a  melliferous 
pore  on  the  inside  of  the  heel ;  the  seeds  naked. 
There  are  upwards  of  sixty  different  species  of 


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RAP 


this  genitty  six  or  eight  of  which  ckaiin  general 
tisteem  as  flowery  plants  for  omameiitiiig  the 
gardens,  and  a  great  number  are  common  weeds 
in  the  fields,  waters,  and  pasture  ground.  Of 
the  garden  kinds  the  principal  sort  is  the 
Asiatic  or  Tarkey  and  Persian  ranunculus,  which 
comprises  many  hundred  varieties  of  large, 
double,  most  beautiful  flowers  of  various  colors ; 
but  several  other  species,  having  varieties  with 
fine  double  flowers,  make  a  good  appearance  in 
a  collection,  though  as  those  of  each  species  con- 
sist only  of  one  color,  some  white,  others  yel- 
low, they  are  inferior  to  the  Astatic  ranunculus, 
which  is  laige,  and  diversified  a  thousand  ways 
in  rich  colors,  in  diflerent  varieties.  However, 
the  garden  kinds  in  general  eflect  a  very  agree- 
able diversity  in  assemblage  in  the  flower  com- 
partments. Ice,  and  they  being  all  very  hardy, 
succeed  in  any  open  beds  and  borders,  &c. 

1.  R.  Asiatica.  .  The  Asiatic  species  iu  all  its 
varieties  will  succeed  in  any  lignt,  rich,  garden 
earth ;  but  the  florist  often  prepares  a  particular 
compost  for  the  fiue  varieties,  consisting  of  good 
garden  mould  or  pasture  earth,  sward  and  all,  with 
a  fourth  part  of  rotted  cow  dung,  and  the  like  por- 
tion of  sea  sand;  and  with  this  they  prepare 
beds  four  foet  wide  and  two  deep :  however,  in 
default  of  such  compost,  use  beos  of  any  good 
light  earth ;  or,  it  may  be  made  light  and  rich 
with  a  portion  of  drift  sand  and  rotten  cow- 
dung ;  they  will   J^lso  thrive  in  beds   of  well 
wrought  kitchen  garden  earth,  and   they  often 
prosper  in  common  flower  borders.    The  seasons 
for  planting  the  roots  are  in  autumn  and  spring ; 
the  autumn  plantings  generally  flower  strongest 
and  soonest  by  a  month  at  least,  and  are  suc- 
ceeded by  the  spring  planting  in  May  and  June. 
The  autumnal  planting  is  performed  in  October 
and  early  part  of  November.    Some  plant  in  the 
end  of  September  to  have  a  very  early  bloom ; 
but  those  planted  in  that  month  and  beginning 
of  October  often  come  up  with  rank  leaves  soon 
after,  in  winter,  so  as  to  require  protection  in 
hard  frosts ;  those,  however,  planted  about  the 
middle  or  end  of  October,  and  beginning  of 
November,  rarely  shoot  up  strong  till  towards 
spring,  and  will  not  require  so  much  care  of  co- 
vering during  winter ;  and  the  spring  planting 
may  be  performed  in  the  end  of  January  or  be- 
ginning of  February  as  soon  as  the  Weather  is 
settled;   they  will  not  require   any  covering. 
Thus  by  two  or  three  different  plantings  may  be 
obtained  a  succession  of  these  beautiful  flowers 
in  constant  bloom  from  April  till  the  middle  of 
June ;  but  the  autumnal  plants,  for  the  general 
part,  not  only  flower  strongest,  but  the  roots  in- 
crease more  in  size,  and  furnish  the  best  off-sets 
for  propagation.     Prepare  for  the  choicer  sorts 
four-feet  beds  of  light  earth,  and  rake  the  sur- 
face smooth :  then  plant  the  roots  in  rows  length- 
ynse  the  beds,  either  by  drilling  them  in  two 
inches  deep^  and  six  inches  distance  in  the  row, 
and  the  rows  six  or  eight  asunder;    or  plant 
them  by  bedding-in,  or  by  dibble-planting,  the 
same  depth  and  distance.    Those  designed  for 
the  borders  should  be  planted  generally  towards 
the  spring,  in  little  cliimps  or  patches,  three,  four, 
or  five  roots  in  each,  putting  tHem  in  either  with 
a  dibble  or  trowel,  two  or  three  inches  deep» 


and  three  or  four  asunder  in  each  patch,  9ni  llie 
patches  from  about  three  to  five  or  ten  ftec  dis- 
tance, placing  them  rather  forward  in  the  bonder. 
All  the  varieties  of  this  species  propagate  abun- 
dantly by  off-sets  from  the  root,  and  new  varies 
ties  are  gained  by  seed.  1.  By  ofl'-sets.  The 
time  for  separating  the  off-sets  is  in  summer, 
when  the  flower  is  past,  and  the  leaves  and  stalks 
are  withered :  then,  taking  up  all  the  roots  in 
dry  weather,  separate  the  ofl^-j^ts  from  each 
main  root,  and,  after  drying  the  whole  gradually 
in  some  shady  airy  room,  put  them  up  in  bags 
till  the  autumn  and  spring  seasons  of  planting  ; 
then  plant  them  as  before,  placing  all  the  off*-sets 
in  separate  beds :  many  of  them  will  blow  the 
flrst  year,  but  in  the  second  they  will  all  flower 
in  perfection.  2.  By  seed.  Save  a  quantity  of 
seed  from  the  finest  semi-double  flowers,  and 
sow  it  either  in  August,  March^  or  April ;  it 
should  be  sowed  in  li^ht  rich  mould,  either  in 
pots  or  in  an  east  border,  drawing  very  shallow 
flat  drills  five  or  six  inches  asunder,  in  which 
sow  the  seeds  thinly,  and  cover  them  liehtly  with 
earth,  giving  frequent  refreshments  of  water  in 
dry  weather,  and  in  a  month  or  six  weeks  the 
plants  will  rise  with  small  leaves ;  continue  the 
light  waterings  in  dry  weather,  to  preserve  the 
soil  moist  during  their  summer*s  growth  to  in* 
crease  the  size  of  the  roots ;  and  in  June,  when 
the  leaves  decay,  take  up  the  roots  and  preserve 
them  till  the  season  for  planting;  then  plant 
them  in  common  beds,  and  they  will  flower  the 
spring  following,  when  all  the  doubles  of  good 
properties  should  be  marked,  and  the  singles 
thrown  away.  The  juice  of  many  speeies  of 
ranunculus  is  so  acrid  as  to  raise  blisters  on  the 
skin,  and  yet  the  roots  may  be  eaten  with  safety 
when  boiled. 

RAP,  V.  a.  &  n.s.    Sax.  ^^jissppan;  Dan.  and 
Swad.  rap.    To  strike  with  a  quick  smart  blow  ; 
utter  hastily :  a  quick  smart  blow. 
Knock  me  at  this  gate 
And  rap  me  well,  or  I'll  knock  your  knave's  pate. 

Shaktpearem 
With  one  great  peal  they  rap  the  door, 
Liice  footmen  on  a  visiting  dajf.  Prior, 

He  was  provoked  in  the  spirit  of  magistracy,  upon 
discovering  a  judge,  who  rapped  out  a  great  oath  at 
his  footman.  Addison. 

Tbey  that  will  not  be  counselled  cannot  be  helped, 
and,  if  you  will  not  hear  reason,  she  will  surely  rup 
your  knuckles.  Franklin, 

Rap,  V,  a.  From  Lat.  rapio.  To  snatch  aviray  ; 
seize;  afiect  with  rapture;  strike  with  extasy. 

These  are  speeches  of  men  not  comforted  with  the 
hope  of  that  mey  desire ,  but  rapped  with  admiration 
at  the  view  of  enjoyed  bliss.  ^        Hookor. 

He  leaves  the  welkin  way  most  beaten  plain. 
And,  rapi  with  whirling  wheels,  inflames  the  skyen. 
With  fire  not  made  to  bum,  but  fairly  for  to  shyne. 

Spemer. 
What  thus  rapt  yon  I  are  you  well  1 

SkaJt^foartm 
The  government  I  cast  upon  my  brother. 
And  to  my  state  grew  stranger,  being  transported 
And  rapt  m  secret  studies.  14, 

The  rocks  that  did  more  high  their  foreheads  raise 
To  his  rapt  eye.  Chapmom. 

You  may  safe  approve. 
How  strong  in  instigation  to  your  love 
Their  rapiing  tunes  are.       Chapman't  Odymtf. 


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381 


AdttUeim  Jour,  the  kug  of  Bflcmbrant,  wptd 
fuK  Jonan  his  dear  love.  Dfifftm. 

UDdenieath  a  bright  aea  flowed 
Of  jasper,  or  of  liquid  pearl,  whereon 
Who  after  came  from  earth,  sailing  arrived 
Wafted  by  angels,  or  flew  o'er  the  lake 
Rapt  in  a  chariot  drawn  by  fiery  steeds. 

Milton. 
Their  husbands  robbed,  and  made  hard  shifts 
To'  administer  unto  their  gifts 
All  they  could  rap  and  rend  and  pilfer. 
To  scraps  and  ends  of  gold  and  silver.       Budihnu, 
I'm  rapt  with  joy  to  see  my  Mercia's  tears. 

Addison's  Cato. 
How  comest  then  to  go  with  thy  arm  tied  up  ?  has 
old  Lewis  given  thee  a  rap  over  thy  fingers'  ends  ? 

Arbutbmoi, 
It  is  impoeaible  duly  to  consider  these  thin^, 
without  betng  rope  into  admiration  of  the  infimte 
wisdom  of  the  divine  aichitecL  Cheifne. 

Rapt  into  future  times,  the  bard  begun, 
A  virgin  shall  conceive,  a  virgin  bear  a  son ! 

Pope, 
RAPA'CIOUS,  ag.   ^      Fr.  rq[>ace  ;    Lat. 
Rapa'ciously,  a<2v.     (rapax.  Given  to  plun- 
Rapa'ciousn ESSy  II. I.  ider  or  violence:  the 
Rapacity.  3  adverb  and  noun  sub- 

stantives corresponding. 

Well  may  thy  Lord,  appeased. 
Redeem  thee  quite  from  death's  rapacious  claim. 

Milton. 
Any  of  these,  without  regarding  the  pains  of 
churchmen,  gnidce  them  those  small  remains  of  an- 
cient piety  which    the  rapacity  of  some  ages  'has 
scarce  left  to  the  church.  Sprat, 

Shall  this  prize, 
Soon  heightened  by  the  diamond's  circling  rays. 
On  that  rapadom  hand  for  ever  blaze?         Pope, 
Rape,  n.  t.    Sax.  jia(« ;  Goth,  and  Swed  rep, 
A  bunch  or  cluster.    See  Rope. 

The  juice  of  grapes  is  drawn  as  well  from  the  rape, 
or  whole  grapes  plucked  from  the  cluster,  and  wise 
poured  upon  them  in  a  vessel,  as  from  a  vat,  where 
they  are  bruised*  Ray, 

RAPE,  ».  I.      Fr.  rape ;  Lat.  raptut,  rapio. 
Act  of  taking  away ;  violent  defloration  of  chas- 
tity ;  something  snatched  or  taken  violently. 
Where  now  are  all  mv  hopes  T  oh  never  more 
Shall  th(7  revive !  nor  death  her  rapes  restore  ! 

Sandys, 
You  are  both  decyphered 
For  villains  marked  with  rape, 

Skakspeare,  Titus  Andranieus, 
The  parliament  conceived  that  the  obtaining  of 
women  by  force  into  possession,  howsoever  afterwards 
assent  might  follow  by  allurements,  was  but  a  rape 
drawn  forth  in  length,  because  the  first  force  drew  on 
all  the  rest.  Bacon'*  Henrif  ^  VII, 

Pear  grew  after  pear, 
Fig  after  fig  came  ;  time  made  never  rape. 
Of  any  dainty  there.  Chapman's  Odyssey, 

Witness  that  night 
In  Gibeah,  when  the  hospitable  door 
Exposed  a  matron,  to  avoid  worse  rape,    MUlon. 

Tell  the  Thracian  tyrant's  altered  shape, 
And  dire  revenge  of  Philomela's  rape. 

Rasoofmnon, 
The  haughty  fair 
Who  not  the  rape  ev'n  of  a  god  could  bear. 

Dry  den. 
Rape  of  Women,  in  English  law,  from  rapio. 
An  unlawful  and  carnal  knowledge  of  a  woman, 
by  force,  and  against  her  will ;  which  is  felony 


by  the  Gommon  and  statute  law.  Co.  Litt.  190. 
Trie  word  Tapuit  (ravished)  is  so  appropriated 
by  law  to  this  offence,  that  it  cannot  be  ex- 
pressed by  any  othet ;  even  the  word  camaliter 
cognovit,  &c.,  without  it,  will  not  be  sufficient. 
Co.  Litt.  124.  2  Inst.  180. 

Rape  was  punished  by  the  Saxon  laws,  parti- 
cularly those  of  king  Athelstan,  with  death ;  but 
this  was  afterwards  thought  too  hard,  and  in 
its  stead  another  severe,  but  not  capital  punish- 
ment was  inflicted  by  William  the  Conqueror, 
▼iz.  castration  and  loss  of  eyes ;  whiq^  conti- 
nued till  after  Bracton  wrote,  in  the  reign  of 
Henry  III.  But,  in  order  to  prevent  malicious 
accusations,  it  was  then  the  law  that  the  woman 
should  immediately  after  *  dum  recens  fuerit 
maleficium,'  go  to  the  next  town,  and  there 
make  discovery  to  some  credible  persons  of  the 
injury  she  has  suffered :  and  afterwards  should 
acquaint  the  high  constable  of  the  hundred,  the 
coroners,  and  the  sheriff  with  the  outrage.  Af- 
terwards, by  statute  Westm.  c.  13,  thp  time  of 
limitation  was  extended  to  forty  days.  At  pre- 
sent there  is  no  time  of  limitation  fixed;  for,  as 
it  is  usually  punished  by  indictment  at  the  suit 
of  the  king,  the  maxim  of  law  takes  place  that 
nullum  tempus  occurrit  regi :  but  the  jury  will 
rarely  give  credit  to  a  stale  complaint.  During 
the  former  period  also  it  was  held  for  law,  that 
the  woman  (by  consent  of  the  judge  and  her 
parents)  might  redeem  the  offender  from  the 
execution  of  his  sentence,  by  accepting  him  for 
her  husband ;  if  he  also  was  willing  to  a^ee  to 
the  exchange,  not  otherwise.  But  this  is  now 
not  held  for  law;  and  it  is  said  that  the  election 
of  the  woman  is  taken  away  by  the  stat.  Westm. 
2,  making  the  rape  felony,  although  she'  consent 
afterwards. 

By  Stat.  Westm.  1,  3  Ed.  I.  c.  13,  the  punish- 
ment of  rape  was  much  mitigated :  the  offence 
itself  being  reduced  to  a  trespas.s,  if  not  prose- 
cuted by  appeal  within  forty  aays,  and  subject- 
ing the  offender  only  to  two  years'  imprison*- 
ment,  and  a  fine  at  the  king's  will.  But,  Uiis 
lenity  being  productive  of  terrible  consequences^ 
it  was  soon  found  necessary  to  make  the  offence 
of  forcible  rape  felony,  which  was  accordii^gly 
doneby  stat.  Westm.2, 13  Ed.  IILc.34.  And 
by  stat.  18  Eliz.  c.  7,  it  is  made  felony  without 
benefit  of  clergy :  as  is  also  the  abominable 
wickedness  of  carnally  knowing  and  abusing 
any  woman  child  under  the  age  of  ten  years ;  in 
which  case  the  consent  or  non-consent  is  imma- 
terial, as  by  reason  of  her  tender  years  she  is 
incapable  of  judgment  and  discretion. 

Hale  is  of  opinion  that  such  profligate  ac- 
tions committed  .on  an  infant  under  the  age  of 
twelve  years,  the  age  of  female  discretion  by  the 
common  law,  either  with  or  without  consent, 
amount  to  rape  and  felony;  as  well  since  as 
before  the  statute  of  queen  Elizabeth,  1  Hal. 
P.  C.  631.  That  law,  however,  has  in  general 
been  held  only  to  extend  to  infants  under  ten ; 
though  it  should  seem  that  damsels  between  ten 
and  twelve  are  still  under  the  protection  of  the 
stat.  Westm.  1,  the  law  with  respect  to  their  se- 
duction not  having  been  altered  by  either  of  the 
subsequent  statutes.    4  Comm.  c.  15. 

A  male  infant  under  the  age  of  fourteen  years 
Digitized  by  N^UU*^lC 


382 


RAPHAEL. 


U  presumed  by  law  incapable  to  commit  a  rape ; 
^nd,  tlierefore,  it  seems,  cannot  be  found  guilty 
of  iu  For  thouflfh  in  other  felonies  malitia  suf)- 
plet  ctatem,  yet,  as  to  this  particular  species  of 
telony,  the  law  supposes  an  imbecillity  of  body 
^  well  as  mind.  1  Hal.  P.  C.  631.  But  it  is 
no  excuse  or  mitigation  of  the  crime>  that  the 
woman  at  last  yielded  to  the  violence,  and  con- 
sented either  aner  the  fact  or  before,  if  such  con- 
sent was  forced  by  fear  of  death  or  duress ;  or 
that  she  was  a  common  strumpet,  for  she  is  still 
\inder  the  protection  of  the  law,  and  may  be 
forced  :•  but  it  was  anciently  held  to  be  no  rape 
to  force  a  man's  own  concubine ;  and  it  is  said 
by  some  to  be  evidence  of  a  woman's  consent, 
that  she  was  a  common  whore.  Also,  formerly, 
it  was  adjudged  not  to  be  a  rape  to  force  a  wo- 
man, who  conceived  at  the  time ;  because  it  was 
imagined  that,  if  she  had  not  consented,  she 
could  not  have  conceived :  though  this  opinion 
has  been  since  questioned,  by  reason  the  pre- 
vious violence  is  no  way  extenuated  by  such  a 
subsequent  consent :  and  if  it  were  necessary  to 
show  the  woman  did  not  conceive,  to  make  the 
crime,  the  offender  could  not  be  tried  till  such 
•time  as  it  might  appear  whether  she  did  t>r  not 
2  Inst.  190. 

As  to  the  facts  requisite  to  be  given  in  evidence 
and  proved  upon  an  indictment  of  rape,  they 
are  of  such  a  nature,  that  though  necessary  to  be 
known  and  settled,  they  are  highly  improper  to 
be  publicly  discussed,  except  in  a  court  of  jus- 
tice. And  Mr.  Peel  has  recently  siniplified  the 
evidence  necessary  to  be  given  there.  Judge  Hale 
observes  that,  though  a  rape  is  a  most  detestable 
crime,  it  is  an  accusation  easily  made,  and  hard 
to  be  prr)ved;  but  harder  to  be  defended  by  the 
man  accused,  although  ever  so  innocent :  and  he 
mentions  several  instances  of  rapes,  which  at 
the  time  were  apparently  fully  proved,  but  were 
afterwards  discovered  to  have  been  malicious 
contrivances.  1  Hales's  Hist.  P.  C.  625.  636. 
Aiders  and  abettors  may  be  indicted  as  principal 
felons. 

RAPHAEL,  Raffaelle,  or  Raffaello 
Sanzio,  the  most  e*ninent  of  modern  painters, 
was  bom  at  Urbino  in  1483,  being  the  son  of  a 
painter  of  no  great  reputation.  He  however  cul- 
tivated with  care  the  talents  which  his  son  Ra- 
phael exhibited  at  an  earlv  age,  and  was  soon 
repaid  by  the  assistance  which  he  afforded  him 
in  several  of  his  pieces.  But,  finding  that  the 
talents  of  his  son  merited  still  more  skilful  instruc- 
tion, he  placed  him  under  the  care  of  Carvadini, 
better  known  by  the  name  of  Carnevale,  till  he 
was  sufficiently  advanced  to  be  received  into  the 
school  of  Pietro  Perugino. 

This  master  was  then  in  very  high  esteem, 
though  his  style  was  dry  and  meagre,  in  compa- 
rison with  that  of  Masaccio,  and  others  of  the 
Florentine  school.  Raphael  therefore  soon  be- 
came the  rival,  rather  than  the  pupil  of  this 
artist.  His  aptitude  enabled  him  quickly  to  ac- 
quire his  master's  manner  in  the  most  perfect 
degree.  Vasari  speaks  of  an  Assumption  of  the 
Virgin,  painted  at  this  period  by  Raphael,  as 
being  wrought  with  extreme  beauty,  and  pre- 
cisely like  the  work  of  Perugino. 

In  1499,  being  then  only  sixteen  years  of  age. 


he  quitted  Perugino^  and  began  soon  after  to 
execute  designs  of  his  own  for  the  dmrches,  and 
private  persons.    Among  those  early  productioos 
of  his  genius  are,  the  Crovming  of  the  Virgin,  in 
the  convent  of  the  Eremitani;  the  Crucifixion 
in  the  Dominican  t:hurch,  at  Citta  di  Castello; 
and  a  Holy  Family  at  Formio,  in  which  the 
Virgin  is  represented  as  lifting  a  veil  from  tiie 
Infant  who  is  asleep.    About  this  time,  his  friend 
and  fellow  pupil,  Pi'nturicchio,  being  employed 
by  cardinal  Piccolomini  to  ornament  the  library 
at  Sienna,  requested  Raphael  to  become  his  co- 
adjutor  in  that  work.    He  assented,  and  the  two 
artists  began  there  ten  large  pictures,  illustrative 
of  the  history  of  Pope  Pius  U.,  and  Raphael 
drew  the.  sketches  and  cartoons  for  the  whole 
work.    Previous  to  the  completion  of  these  paint- 
ings, however,  lie  visited  Florence,  where  the 
performances  of  Masaccio  and  Lionardo  da  V'ind 
attracted  his  attention,  and  contributed  consider- 
ably to  his  improvement.    In  this  city  he  also 
became  acquainted  with  Fra  Bartolomeo  di  Sl 
Marco,  who  instructed  him  in  the  principles  of 
coloring,  and  the  chiaro-oscuro,  for  which  in  re- 
turn lUphael  taught  his  friend  the  rules  and 
practice  of  perspective.     After  a  short  stay  at 
Florence,  the  death  of  his  lather  obliged  him  to 
return  to  Urbino,  where  the  duke  engafged  him  to 
-paint  four  pictures  for  his  palace,  which  were 
much  valued.     In  1505  he  removed  to  Perugia, 
being  engaged  there  to  paint  the  chapel  of  St. 
Severe;   and  a  crucifixion  in  the  Camaldolian 
monastery.    The  latter  he  executed  himself,  but 
the  foiiner  work  he  left  to  be  completed  by  his  old 
master ;  in  order  that  he  might  return  to  Florence, 
for  the  continuance  of  his  studies,  well  per- 
suaded that  he  had  yet  much  to  learn.    He  re- 
mained at  Florencenearly  two  years,  duringwhich 
period  he  painted  the  Virgin  with  the  Infant  and 
St.  John,  for  the  ducal  gallery ;  and  the  Entomb- 
ing of  Christ,  for  the  Franciscan  church  of  Pe- 
rugia.   The  reputation  which  Raphael  acquired 
by  these  productions  having  reached  Rome,  he 
was  invited  thither  by  pope  Julius  II.,  who  was  « 
at  that  time  encaged  in  ornamenting  the  Vatican. 
At  the  beginnmg  of  1508,  the  young  Raphael 
presented  himsebT  to  the  pontiff,  by  whom  he 
was    cordially  received,  and  immediately  em- 
ployed in  painting  a  superb  suite  of  apartments 
called  La  Segnatura.     Here  he  began  a  set  of 
pictures  emblematical  of  theology,  philosophy, 
poetry,  and  jurisprudence,  the  design  of  which 
so  much  pleased  tne  pope  that  he  ordered  all  the 
paintings  on  the  walls  of  his  palace  to  be  obli- 
terated, and  replaced  by  the  productions  of  Ra- 
phael.   The  works  of   former  masters  accord- 
ingly disappeared,  with  the  exception  of  one  piece 
by  Perugino,  which  was  saved  through  the  earnest 
intercession  of  Raphael,  out  of  respect  to  his  old 
friend  and  preceptor.    He  was  also  employed  by 
the  rich  banker,  Agostino  Chigi,  for  whose  family 
chapel  he  painted  some  of  his  most  beautiful 
pieces ;  but  his  y^assion  for  a  beautiful  young 
woman,  the  daughter  of   a  baker,  who  thence 
took  the  name  of  La  Bella  Fomarina,  causing  him 
to  withdraw  to  Uer  house,  Chigi  invited  her  to 
his  palace,  that  tlie  painter  might  continue  bis 
work  without   interruption.    The    painting  of 
these  rooms,  which  occupied  niiie  y^eus,  was  corn- 


Digitized  by  ^^JiJuy  It: 


RAPHAEL. 


383 


pleted  in  1517,  and  they  obtained  the  name, 
which  they  still  retain  of  the  stanze  of  Raphael : 
be  within  the  same  period  abo  painted  the  prin- 
cipal events  in   the    history  of  Constantine; 
twelve  whole  length  figures  of  the  apostles ;  and 
several  small    pictures  for  the  ceilix^  of  the 
palace.    He  also  found  time  to  study  architec- 
ture under  bis  uncle  Bramante,  whom  he  suc- 
ceeded in  1515,  as  superintendant  of  the  build- 
ing of  St.  Peter's  church,  with  a  salary  of  300 
gold  crowns.    The  same  year  Raphael  accom- 
panied the  pope  to  Florence,  where  he  con- 
structed a  design  for  the  facade  of  the  church 
of  St.  Lorenzo :  and  another  of  a  palace  for  the 
bishop  of  Troja.    He  also  designed  the  Caffa- 
rdli  palace  at  Rome,  another  for  the  marquis 
deila  Salticella;  a  villa  for  the  cardinal  Giulio 
de  Medici;  a  set  of  stables  for  the  prince  Ghiffi; 
and  a  chapel  in  the  church  of  St.  Mario  del' 
Popolo.     when  he  had  completed  the  painting 
of  the  three  principal  apartments  of  the  Vatican, 
his  powers  were  directed  to  the  decoration  of 
the  arcades,  now  known  by  the  name  of  the 
Loggie,  the  architecture  of  which,  though  begun 
by  Bramante,  was  finished  by  his  nephew.  Here 
Raphael  and  his  assistants  painted  thirteen  ceil- 
mgs^eacls  containing  four  subjects  taken  from 
sacred  history,  the  whole  having  been  designed 
by  himself.    The  entire  series  has  been  en- 
graved, and  is  commonly  known  by  the  title  of 
Raphael's  Bible.    About  the  same  period  he  also 
designed  the  celebrated  Cartoons  tor  the  tapes- 
try hangings  of  the  papal  chapel.    These  de- 
s^s^aAer  having  been  wrougnt  in  Flanders, 
were  bought  by  Charles  I.,  and  have  long  formed 
a  part  of   the  royal  collections  at  Hampton 
Court.    They  have  been  engraved  more  than 
once,  and  recently  in  the  first  style  by  Mr.  Hol- 
loway,  after  the  laborious  application  of  many 
years.    Besides  his  works  in  the  Vatican,  Ra- 


phael executed  a  number  of  frescoes,  the  Far- 
nesina,  where  he  painted  &e  Triumph  of  Ga- 
latea, and  designed  a  set  of   pictures  of  the 
Loves  of  Cupid  and  Psyche.    Of  his  pieces  in 
oil,  the  principal  are  a  St.  Cecilia,  painted  for 
the  church  of  St.  Giovanni  in  Monte,  at  Bo- 
logna ;  Christ  carrying  the  Cross,  which  is,  or 
was,  in  the  royal  collection  at  Madrid ;  St.- Mar- 
garet and  St.  George  now  in  the  Louvre ;  St. 
John  in  the  Desert;  and  a  Holy  Family,  in  the 
same  repository ;  and  a  Virgin  with  the  Child 
in  her  lap  at  Loretto.    The  last,  and  perhaps 
the  greatest  work  of  this  celebrated  artiist  is  the 
'Transfiguration  of  Christ,  ^hich  he  painted  for 
the  cardinal  de  Medici.    At  the  foot  of  Mount 
Taltor  is  an  assembled  multitude,  among  whom 
are  some  of  the  disciples  endeavouring  in  vain 
to  relieve  a  youth  from  the  dominion  of  an  evil 
spirit.    The  various  emotions  of  the  different 
'parties  in  this  groupe  are  most  characteristic; 
but  the  mind  is  soon  carried  beyond  the  touch- 
ing scene  below  to  the  more  sublime  one  above, 
whece  Christ  appears  elevated  in  the  air,  sur- 
rounded with  gloiy,  between  Moses  and  Elias, 
while  the  three  favored  apostles  kneel  in  devout 
astonishment  on  the  ground.    With  this  great 
work  the  labors  and  life  bf  the  painter  termi- 
nated ;  for  while  engaged  upon  it  he  was  attacked 
by  a  disease,  which,  for  want  of  proper  treat- 
ment, carried  him  off  on  Good  Friday,  April 
7th,   1520,  when  he  had  just  completed  his 
thirty-seventh  year.     His  boidy  lay  m  state  in 
the  room  where  he  had  been  accustomed  to 
study,  ai^d  the  picture  of  the  Transfiguration 
was  placed  near  the  bier.    The  funeral  was  con- 
ducted with  great  pomp  at  the  Pantheon,  and 
cardinal  Bembo,   by  the  desire  of  the  pope, 
wrote  the  following  inscription  for  the  tomb, 
which  was  soon  afterwards  erected  to  the  me- 
mory of  Raphael : 


D.  0.   V. 

RAPHABLI   SAVCTIO  JOAN.   F.   URBINATI, 

PICTORI    EMINENTISS.  VETERUMQUE   JEMULO, 

Ct7JUS  SPIRANTEIS   PROPE   IHAGINEIS  SI 

CONTEMPLARE   NATURE  ATQUE  ART^S   FCEDUS   FACILE 

INSPEXERIS. 

JULII    II.    ET   LEON  IS   X.   PONT.   MAX.   PICTURJE 

ET   ARCHITECT.   OPERIBUS  GLORIAM    XUXIT. 

VIXIT.   A.   XXXVII.    INTEGER    INTEGROS 

QUO   DIE   NATUS   EST,   EO   ESSf:   DESIIT. 

VII.    ID.   APRIL.   H.D.XX. 

ILLE   HIC    EST   RAPHAEL,  TIHUIT   Q170   SOSPITE   VINCI 

REBUH   MAGNA   PARENS,   ET  MORIENTE   HORI. 


Raphael  was  of  a  mild  and  amiable  character; 
but  his  immoderate  attachment  to  his  art  in- 
duced him  to  decline  matrimony,  though  car- 
dinal Bibliena  offered  him  one  of  his  nieces. 
*  General  opinion,'  says  Fuseli,  *  has  placed 
Raphae'  at  the  head  of  his  art,  not*  because  he 
possessed  a  decided  superiority  over  every  other 
painter  in  every  branch,  bnt  because  no  other 
artist  ever  united  with  his  own  peculiar  excel- 
lence all  the  other  parts  of  the  art  in  an  equal 
degree  with  him.  The  drama,  or  the  represen- 
tation of  character  in  conflict  with  passion,  was 
his  sphere ;  to  represent  which,  his  mvention  in 
the  choice  of  the  moment,  his  composition  in' 
the  arrangement  of  his  actors,  and  nis  expres- 


sioQ  in  the  delineation  of  their  emotions,  were, 
and  perhaps  ever  will  be,  unrivalled.  To  this 
he  added  a  style  of  design  dictated  by  the  sub- 
ject, a  color  correspondent  thereto,  all  the  grace 
which  propriety  permitted  or  sentiment  sug- 
gested, and  as  much  chiaro-oscuro  as  vras  com- 
patible with  his  desire  of  perspicuity.  It  is 
therefore  only  when  he  forsook  the  drama  to 
make  excursions  into  the  pure  epic  or  sublime, 
that  his  forms  became  inadequate,  and  inferior 
to  those  of  Michael  Angelo.  Jt  is  only  in  sub- 
jects where  color  becomes  the  ruling  principle 
that  he  is  excelled  by  Titian ;  and  he  yields  to 
Corregio  only  in  that  grace  and  chiaro-oscuro 
which  is  less  the  minister  of  propriety  and  sen- 


Digitized  by  N^UUy  IC 


RAP 


S84 


RAP 


tlmeat  than  its  charming  abuse  or  Toluptnous 
excess,  and  sacrifices  to  &e  eye  what  is  claimed 
by  the  mind/ 

RAPHAIMj,  or  Repoaik,  a  name  mentioned 
by  Moses,  signifying  Giants,  as  they  really  were, 
and  an  actual  people  too,  situated  in  Basan  or 
Batanea,  beyond  Jordan,  separated  from  the  Zan- 
zummim  by  the  river  Jaobc^.  Also  a  valley 
near  Jerusalem,  Joshua  x. 

HAPHANUS,  radish,  a  genus  of  the  siliquosa 
order,  and  tetradynamia  class  of  plants ;  natural 
order  thirty-nintii,  siliquosae:  cal.  close;  the 
siliqua  torose,  or  swelling  out  in  knots,  subarti- 
culated,  and  round..  There  are  two  melliferous 
glandules  between  the  shorter  stamina  and  the 
pistil,  and  two  between  the  longer  stamin#and 
the  calyx.    There  is  only  one  species,  viz. 

R.  sativus,  the  common  garden  radish,  of 
which  there  are  several  varieties.  They  are  an- 
nual plants,  which,  being  sowed  in  spring,  attain 
perfection  in  two  or  three  months,  and  shoot  up 
soon  after  into  stalk  for  flower  and  seed,  which, 
ripening  in  autumn,  the  whole  plant,  root  and 
top,  perishes ;  so  that*  a  fresh  supply  must  be 
raised  annually  from  seed  in  the  spring,  per- 
forming the  sowings  at  several  different  times, 
from  about  Christmas  until  May,  to  continue  a 
regular  succession  of  young  tender  radishes 
throughout  the  season:  allowing  only  a  fort- 
night or  three  weeks  interval  between  the  sow- 
ings; for  one  crop  will  not  continue  good  longer 
than  that  space  of  time',  before  they  will  either 
run  to  seed,  or  become  tough,  sticky,  and  too  hot 
to  eat. 

RAPHELENGIUS  (Francis),  a  learned 
French  orientalist,  bom  at  Laney,  near  Lisle,  In 
1539.  He  studied  Greek  and  Hebrew  at  Paris ; 
but,  the  civil  wars  breaking  out,  he  came  to  Eng- 
land, and  taught  Greek  at  Cambridge.  He  after- 
wards went  to  the  Netherlands,  and  corrected 
the  press  for  the  celebrated  Plantin.  He  was 
afterwards  appointed  professor  of  Hebrew  and 
Arabic  in  the  university  ot  Leyden.  He  pub- 
lished a  Chaldaic  Dictionary,  ixx,  Arabic  Lex- 
icon, and  a  Hebrew  Grammar,  which  are  much 
esteemed.     He  died  in  1597,  aged  fifty-eight. 

RAPHIDIA,  in  entomology,  a  genus  of  in- 
sects of  the  neuroptera  order.  See  Entomolo- 
gy.    The  most  remarkable  species  is  the 

R.  ophiopsis.  It  has  an  obloDg  head,  shaped 
like  a  heart,  with  its  point  joined  to  the  thorax, 
and  the  broad  part  before.  It  is  smooth,  black, 
flattened,  contmually  shaking,  with  short  an- 
tennae, yellowish  maxills,  and  four  palpi.  To- 
wards the  middle  of  the  upper  part  of  tne  head, 
between  the  eyes  are,  the  three  stemroata,  placed 
to  a  triangle.  The  thorax,  to  which  this  head  is 
fastened,  is  narrow,  long,  and  cylindrical.  The 
abdomen,  broader,  is  black  like  the  rest  of  the 
body,  with  the  segments  margined  yellow.  The 
feet  are  of  a  yellowish  cast.  The  wings,  which 
are  fastigiated,  are  white,  diaphanous,  veined, 
and  as  it  were  covered  with  a  very  fine  net-work 
of  black.  This  insect,  in  the  figure  of  its  head, 
resembles  a  snal^.  It  is  found  but  seldom,  and 
in  woods  only. 

RAPHOE,  a  dilapidated  village  of  Ireland, 
in  the  county  of  Donegal,  but  an  ancient  episco- 


pal see:  the  bishop  of  which  is  saflVagan  of  Ai- 
magh.  The  cathedral  was  erected  in  thie  elevendi 
oentury.  The  episcopal  castle  was  built  in  the 
reign  of  Charles  I.  at  the  expense  of  government. 
In  the  rebellion  of  1641  it  stood  a  long  and  vi- 
gorous  siege;  it  has  been  since  modernised. 
Twenty-one  miles  north-east  of  Don^;al,  and 
eleven  south-west  of  Londonderry. 

RAPtD,  adj.     •\     Fr.  reside  ;  Lat,  rufodus. 

Rap'idly,  oJv.   (Quick;  swift:   the  adverb 

Rapid'ity,  n.  s.  &and  noun  substantive  cor- 

^Ap'iDNESs.        J  responding. 

Part  shun  the  goal  with  ropid  wheels. 

While  you  so  smoothly  turn  and  rowl  oar  sphere. 
That  rapid  motion  doas  but  rest  appear.      £hydtn. 

Where  the  words  are  not  nionoayllableSp  we  make 
them  Bo  by  our  rapidity  of  proaunciation.   dddiaemm 
To  the  lascivious  pipe  and  wanton  song. 
That  charm  down  fear,  they  frolic  it  along, 
Wiih  mad  rapidity  and  unconCern, 
Down  to  the  gulf,  from  which  is  no  return. 

CcwpcTm 

RA'PIER,  n.s.  \     Fr.  rapiere ;  Tent  rapiery 
Ra'pibr-fish.     )  so  called  from  the  quk^- 

ness  of  its  motion.    A  small  thrusting  swoid: 

for  rapier-fish  see  below. 

I  will  turn  thy  falsehood  to  thy  heart, 
Where  it  was  forged,  with  my  rapier*s  point. 

ShaJbpeare. 
The  rafitr-fih,  called  ziphias,  grows  sometimes  to 
the  length  of  five  yards :  the  sword,  which  ^rows  level 
from  the  snout  of  the  fish,  is  here  about  a  yard  long. 
at  the  basis  four  inches  over,  two-edged,  and  pointnl 
exactly  like  a  rapmr :  he  preys  on  fishes,  having  first 
stabbed  them  with  this  sword.  Grew. 

A  soldier  of  far  inferior  strength  may  manage  a 
rapier  or  fire-arms  so  expertly  as  to  be  an  over- 
match for  his  adversary.  '  Pope« 

Rapier  formerly  signified  a  long  old  fhshioned 
sword,  such  as  those  worn  by  the  commoD 
soldiers ;  but  it  now  denotes  a  small  sword,  as 
contradistinguished  from  a  broad  sword. 

RAPIN  (Nicholas),  an  eminent  French  poet, 
bom  at  Fontaney  Le  Comte,  about  1540.  He 
was  made  grand  prevot  by  Henry  III.,  displaced 
by  the  Leaguers,  being  a  Protestant,  but  restored 
by  Henry  IV.  Some  of  his  best  pieces  are  to  be 
found  in  the  Delices  des  Poetes  Latins  de  FraQce. 
He  died  at  Fontaney  in  1609. 

Rapin  (Renatus),a  Jesuit  and  eminent  French 
writer,  was  bom  at  Tours  in  1621.  He  taught 
polite  literature  in  the  society  of  the  Jesuits  with 
great  applause,  and  was  justly  esteemed  one  of 
the  best  Latin  poets  of  his  time.  He  died  in 
Paris  in  1687.  He  wrote,  1.  A  great  number 
of  Latin  poems,  which  have  rendered  him  feunous 
throughout  all  Europe;  among  which  are  his 
Hortorum  Libri  Quatuor,  reckoned  his  master- 
piece. 2.  Reflections  on  Eloquence,  Poetry, 
History,  and  Philosophy.  3.  Comparisons  be^ 
tween  Virgil  and  Homer,  Demosthenes  and 
Cicero,  Plato  and  Aristotle,  Tlmcydides  and 
Titus  Livius.  4.  The  History  of  Jansenism. 
5.  Several  works  on  religious  subjects.  The  best 
edition  of  his  Latin  poems  is  that  of  Paris  ia 
1723,  in  3  vols.  12mo. 


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lUpiir  Db  Thotras  (Paul  de),  a  celebrated 
historian,  the  son  of  James  Rapin,  lord  of  Thoy- 
ras,  was  bom  at  Castres  in  1661.  After  being 
educated  under  a  tutor  in  bis  father*s  house,  he 
was  sent  to  Puy  Laurens,  and  thenoe  to  Saumur. 
In  1669  he  returned  to  his  father,  studied  the 
law,  and  was  admitted  an  advocate :  but,  reflect- 
ing that  his  being  a  Protestant  would  prevent  his 
advancement  at  the  bar,  he  resolved  to  quit  the 
law,  and  apply  himself  to  the  sword ;  but  his 
fetber  would  not  consent  to  it.  The  revocation 
of  the  edict  of  Nantes  in  1685,  and  the  death  of 
his  father,  which  happened  two  months  after, 
made  him  come  to  England ;  but  he  soon  after 
went  to  Holland,  and  enlisted  himself  in  the  com- 
pany of  French  volunteers  at  Utrecht,  com- 
manded by  M.  Rapin,  his  cousin-german.  He 
attended  the  prince  of  Orange  into  England  in 
1688 ;  and  in  1689  lord  Kingston  made  him  an 
ensign  in  his  regiment,  with  which  he  went  into 
Ireland,  where  he  gained  the  esteem  of  his  offi- 
cers at  the  siege  of  Carrickfergus,  and  had  soon 
a  lieutenant's  commission.  He  was  present  at 
the  battle  of  the  Boyne,  and  was  shot  through 
the  shoulder  at  the  siege  of  Limerick,  fie  was 
soon  after  captain  of  the  company  in  which  be 
bad  been  ensign ;  but,  in  1693,  resigned  it  to  one 
of  his  brothers,  in  order  to  be  tutor  to  the  earl 
of  Portland's  son.  In  1699  he  married  Mari- 
anne Testard ;  but  this  neither  abated  his  care 
of  his  pupil,  nor  prevented  his  accompanying 
bim  in  his  travels.  Having  finished  his  employ- 
ment, be  returned  to  his  mmily,  which  he  had 
settl^  at  the  Hague;  and  here  he  continued 
some  years.  But,  as  he  found  his  family  increase, 
he  resolved  to  retire  to  some  cheap  country :  and 
accordingly  removed,  in  1707,  to  Wesel,  where 
he  w^ote  bis  History  of  England,  and  some  other 
pieces.  Though  he  was  of  a  strong  constitution, 
yet  seventeen  years  close  application  (in  com- 
posing that  history)  entirely  ruined  his  health. 
Hed^  in  1725.  He  wrote  in  French,  1.  A 
Dissertation  on  the  Whigs  and  Tories.  2.  His 
History  of  England,  printed  at  the  Ha^e  in 
1726  and  1727,  in  9  vols.,  4to.,  and  reprinted  at 
Trevoux  in  1728,  in  10  vols.  4to.  This  last 
edition  is  more  complete  than  that  of  the  Hague. 
It  has  been  translated  into  Eneltsh,  and  improved 
with  notes,  by  the  Rev.  Mr.  Tindal,  in  2  vols, 
folio.  Lord  Gardenstpne  observes,  that  'Mr. 
Hume  has  branded  him  as  an  author  the  most 
despicable  both  in  style  and  matter.'  'The  cen- 
sure (adds  his  lordship)  is  invidious  and  unjust. 
His  work  contains  an  immense  multitude  of  in- 
teresting circumstances  wholly  omitted  by  the 
Scottish  author.  Fromhb  situation,  a  classical 
composition  was  not  to  be  expected.  He  wrote 
a  more  complete  general  history  of  England 
than  had  ever  appeared  in  this  country;  and, 
whatever  be  his  faults,  it  would  be  ungenerous 
to  deny  his  uncommon  merit.*  Card.  Miscell. 
p.  203. 

RATINE,  11.1.  Fr.  ^apine;  Lat.  rapina. 
The  act  of  plundering :  violence ;  force. 

If  the  poverty  of  Scotland  might,  yet  the  pLsntj  of 
England  cannot,-  excuse  the  envy  and  rapme  of  the 
chaich*B  rights.  Kinf^  Chariet. 

The  logk  ofa  conquering  sword  may  sdence,  but 
convince  it  cannot  -,  iu  efficacy  rather  breeds  aver- 
VoL.  XVIII.-Part  2. 


sion  and  abborrenoe  of  xeKgioo,  wfaose  first  addreis  it 
in  blood  and  rapine.  Decay  of  Piety. 

KAPP  (John),  a  modem  French  general,  was 
bom  of  an  obscure  family  at  Colmar  in  1 772, 
and  entered  upon  a  military  life  in  1788.  Hav- 
ing become  a  lieutenant,  in  the  tenth  regiment  of 
chasseurs,  he  served  as  aid-de-camp  to  Dessaix 
in  the  campaigns  of  1796  and  1797,  and  after- 
wards in  Egypt.  After  the  battle  of  Marengo 
he  became  aid-de-camp  to  Buonaparte ;  and  in 
1802  was  employed  in  the  subjugation  of  Swit- 
zerland. Returning  to  Paris  the  following  year, 
he  accompanied  Buonaparte  into  Belgium:  at 
the  battle  of  Austerlitz  he  defeated  the  Russian 
imperial  guard,  and  took  prisoner  prince  Repnini 
In  December  1805  he  was  a  general  of  a  di- 
vision ;  and  appointed  governor  of  Dantzic  in 
1807.  After  tne  campaign  of  1812  he  com- 
manded the  garrison  of  that  city,  which  he  de- 
fended with  great  skill  ^d  valor,  but  he  was  at 
length  oblig^  to  capitulate.  In  1814  he  sub- 
mitted to  the  Bourbons ;  but  joined  Napoleon  on 
his  return ;  and  after  all  his  vicissitudes  died  in 
1823  in  favor  with  Louis  XVIII.,anda  member 
of  the  chamber  of  Peers.  M6raoires  du  General 
Rapp  appeared  at  Paris  the  same  year,  8vo. 

RAPPAHANNOCK,  a  navigable  river  of 
Virginia,  which  rises  in  the  Blue  Ridge,  and 
runs  £.  S.  E.  about  130  miles.  It  flows  into 
the  Chesapeake,  twenty-five  south  of  Potomac. 
It  passes  by  the  tovms  of  Falmouth,  Fredericks- 
burgh,  Port  Royal,  Leeds,  Tappahannock,  and 
Urbanna:  has  four  fathoms  water  to  Hobb's 
Hole,  and  is  navigable  for  vessels  of  130  or 
140  tons  to  Fredericksburgh,  110  miles  from  its 
mouth. 

RAPPORT*,  n.  s,  Fr.  rappat^  rapport.  Re- 
lation; reference;  proportion.  A  word  intro- 
duced by  Temple,  but  not  copied. 

Tis  obvious  what  rapport  there  is  between  the 
conceptions  and  languages  in  ever^  country^  and  how 
mat  a  difFereace  this  must  make  in  the  excellence  of 
books.  Tempk. 

RAPTURE,  n.«.)     Lat.  rapio.    See  Rap. 

Rap'tured,  adj.    >  V'iolent  seizure ;  ecstacy ; 

Rap'tu ROUS.  I  transport ;  violence  of  pas- 
sion ;  rapidity :  raptured  is  ravished ;  trans- 
ported: rapturous,  ecstatic ;  transporting. 

And  thicke  into  our  ship  he  threw  his  flash  : 
That  'gainst  a  rocke,  or  ml,  her  keele  did  dash 
With  headlong  rapture.  Chapman. 

Could  virtue  be  seen  it  would  beget  love,  and  ad- 
vance it  not  only  into  admiration,  but  rapture. 

Holyiajf, 
The  wat*ry  throng, 
Wave  rolling  after  wave,  where  way  they  found. 
If  steep,  with  torrent  rapture ;  if  through  plain 
Soft-ebbinfl: :  nor  withstood  them  rock  or  hill. 

MiUon. 

Mustek,  when  thus  applied,  raises  in  the  mind 
of  the  hearer  great  conceptions  ;  it  strengthens  de- 
votion, and  advances  praise  into  rapture.    Additon* 
.  Are  the  pleasures  of  it  so  inviting  and  rapturomJ 
is  a  man  bound  to  look  out  sharp  to  plague  himself  r 

CoUier. 

Nor  will  he  be  able  to  forbear  a  raptmvtu  acknow- 
ledgment of  the  infinite  wisdom  and  contrivance  of 
the  divine  artificer.  Blaekmore. 

You  grew  correct,  that  once  with  rapture  writ. 

Pojie, 
2C 


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He  drew 
Suck  maddening  dntofffati  of  beauty  to  the  ioal, 
At  for  awhile  o'erwhelmed  hia  raptmtd  Oiought 
With  luiuiy  too  daring,  Tlumttm*9  Summtr. 

Bat  can  th^  melt  the  gbwing  heart. 

Or  chain  the  soul  in  speechlesi  pleaiure, 
Or  through  each  nerve  the  rapture  dart, 
Like  meeting  her,  our  bosom's  treasure  T 

Bunu, 
All  love,  half  languor,  and  half  fire, 
Like  saints  that  at  the  stake  expire, 
And  lift  their  raptured  looks  on  high, 
As  though  it  were  a  joy  to  die.  Bjfron. 

RARE,  adj.  -n     Fr.  rare ;  Lat.  rarm, 

'Rk'%z^%fLcm^n.i*f   Uncommon;      unire- 
Raee'ly,  adv,        >  quent ;    scarce ;    excel- 
Rare'ness,  n.  I.    i     lent;  incomparable; 
Ra'rity.  j  thin ;   subtle :    a   raree- 

show  is  a  rare  show  comiptly  pronounced^  and 
therefore  written :  rarely  corresponds  with  rare ; 
as  well  as  rareness  and  rarity,  which  are  synony- 
mes. 

This  jealou^ 
Is  for  k  precious  creature ;  as  she's  rore. 
Must  It  be  great ;  and  as  his  person's  mighty 
Must  it  be  violei^t       Shahrpeare.  Winter  §  Tak. 

Live  to  be  the  show  and  gazeo'  the  time  ; 
We'll  have  thee,  as  our  rarer  monsters  are. 
Painted  upon  a  pole.  Shakepeofe, 

Haw  raretif  does  it  meet  with  this  time's  guise* 
When  a  man  waa  willed  to  love  his  enemies.      Id, 

Sorrow  would  be  a  rarity  must  be  bved. 
If  all  could  so  become  it.  Id.  King  Lear. 

They  are  of  so  tender  and  weak  a  nature,  as 
they  affect  only  such  a  rare  and  attenuate  'substance, 
as  the  spirit  of  living  creatures. 

Ticklin|  is  most  ii;  the  soles,  arm-holes,  and  sides : 
toe  cause  is  the  thinness  of  the  skin,  joined  with  the 
rareneet  of  being  touched  there;  for  tickling  is  a 
light- motion  of  the  spirits,  which  the  thinness  oif  the 
skin,  the  suddennea  and  rareneu  of  toudi,  doth 
further.  Bacon. 

To  worthiest  things. 
Virtue,  art,  beauty,  fortune,  now  I  see 
Bareneu  or  use,  not  nature,  value  brings^ 

Donm. 
Bodies,  under  the  same  outward  bulk,  have  a 
greater  thinness  and  ex^nsion,  or  thickness  and  so- 
lidity, which  terms,  in  English,  do  not  signify  fully 
those  differences  of  quantity  ;  therefore  I  will  do  it 
under  the  names  of  rarity  and  density.  I>igb^* 
On  which  was  wrought  the  gods  and  ^ants  fight, 
Rare  work,  all  filled  with  terror  and  dehght. 

Cowley, 
For  the  rareneu,  and  rort  efiisct  of  that  petition, 
I'll  insert  it  as  presented.  Clarendon, 

The  cattle  in  the  fields  and  meadows  green. 
Those  rare  and  solitary,  these  in  fiocks 
Pasturing  at  once,  and  in  broad  herbs  upsprung.  ' 

Milton, 
So  eagerly  the  fiend 
O'er  bog  or  'steep,  through  strait,  rough,  dense,  or 


With  liMd,  hands,  wings,  or  feet,  pursues  his  way. 

Id. 
His  temperance  in  sleep  resembled  that  of  his 
meals ;  mianight  being  the  usual  time  of  his  going 
to  rest,  and  four  or  five,  and  very  rarely  six,  the  hour 
of  his  rising.  FM, 

Above  the  rest  I  judge  one  beauty  rare. 

Dryden, 
Of  my  heart  I  now  a  present  make ; 
Accept  It  as  when  early  tniit  we  send,^ 
And  let  the  rareness  the  small  gift  commend.  Id, 


Far  from  being  fond  of  any  flower  for  Its  rantii,  if 

I  meet  with  any  in  a  field  whid^  pleases  ne,  1  pn 

it  a  place  in  my  garden,  Speetater, 

1  saw  three  rarities  of   diflerent  kinds,  wkich 

pleased  me  more  than  any  other  shows  of  the  plaoe. 

Addisim. 
It  would  be  a  fart<y  worth  the  seeing,  could  any  one 
show  us  such  a  thing  as  a  perfectly  reconciled  eoeny. 

Swtk 
The  dense  and  bright  U|^ht  of  the  circle  will  ob- 
scure the  rare  and  weak  lieht  of  these  dark  colonn 
round  about  it,  and  render  Uiem  almost  insensible. 
Newton*s  Optkh. 
Of  mrM-«ftdiM  be  snng,  and  Punch's  feats. 

Gey. 
This  I  do,  not  to  draw  any  aignment  against  them 
from  the  nniversal  rest  or  accuncely  equal  difiasaon 
of  matter^  hot  only  that  I  may  better  demoastiate 
the  great  rarity  and  tenuity  of  Haoi  imaginaty  cbsM. 
Bentj0y*s  Sermem. 
The  fashions  of  the  town  affect  us  just  like  a  rerm- 
show ;  we  have  the  curiosity  to  peep  at  them,  and 
nothing  more.  Pope, 

Vanessa  in  her  bloom. 
Advanced  like  Atalabta's  star, 
JBut  rardy  seen,  and  seen  from  far.     SmfL 
I  cannot  talk  with  eivet  in  tlie  room, 
A  fine  nuss  gentleman  that's  all  perfume ; 
The  sight's  enough — ^no  need  to  smell  a  beau— 
Who  Uimsts  his  nose  into  a  euree-Aowl  Cowper 
Rare,  adj.    Sax.  ppejit ;  Goth.  ror.  Under- 
done by  the  fire. 

New-laid  eggs,  with  Baucis'  busy  care, 
Turned  by  a  gentle  fire,  and  roasted  rare. 

Drydee. 

Rare  and  Scarce  Books.  We  are  not  bib- 
liomaniacs. See  the  article  Libraiiy  :  and  in  un- 
dertaking what  we  have  there  promised,  to  f  ir- 
nish  the  reader  with  a  fbw  criteria  of  rare  and 
scarce,  as  distinguished  from  usefiil  books,  ve 
shall  not,  of  course,  detain  him  long. 

Of  the  date  of  MSS.  we  have  dready  given 
the  general  marks  in  the  article  of  that  name: 
printed  books  are  rare  according  to  the  date  or 
circumstances  of  their  being  printed ;  the  male- 
rial  on  which  they  are  printed ;  the  manner  in 
which  their  circulation  tias  be^  interrupted  by 
authority  or  accident ;  whether  they  are  on  laige 
or  small  paper ;  and  the  manner  in  which  they 
have  been  illustrated.  These  have  been  called 
marks  of  absolute  rarity. 

Books  are  said  to  be  comparatively  or  relatively 
rare  which  are  of  the  first  editions  of  particulai 
places ;  which  have  proceeded  from  the  press  of 
certain  distinguished  printers  of  the  last  three 
centuries,  as  the  Aldi,  the  Stephenses,  Elzevirs, 
Brindl^,  Baskerville,  &c. ;  which  have  never 
been  offered  to  sale  or  have  been  sold  under 
different  titles;  and  lastly  which  are  local. or 
confined  to  particular  classes  of  mankind  in 
their  interest ;  such  as  the  topography  of  certain 
places  and  districts,  books  treating  of  exploded 
arts  or  sciences,  the  history  of  particubir  acade- 
mists,  catalogues  of  libraries,  &c. 

Some  bibliographers  have  fiirther  distinguished 
books  into  those  simply  rare ;  booLf  precim 
but  not  rare ;  and  books  both  rare  and  precious. 
The  first  are  such  as  from  any  circumstances  are 
difficult  to  be  procured :  their  value  therefore  is 
oflen  wholly  aaventitious,  and  idle  clergymen  and 
noblemen  are  adding  to  this  important  list  every 


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yctr  hy  prfntfng'  one  or  two  copies  of  an  im- 
pression of  a  book  on  vellan  ;  ilrastratine  it  in 
some  particular  way,  diversrftring  die  binding, 
&c.'  EkMks  prtcwus,  we  are  told,  are  those  which 
hare  been  of  very  mat  expense  in  bringing 
oat :  such  as  splendid  collections  of  architectu- 
ral eagrarinss;  large  collections  of  imifbrm 
woiiu  on  antiquities,  Sec.,  and  why  not  Encyclo- 
paedias? 

Books  both  rare  and  precious  are  those  which 
extend  to  an  immense  number  of  vohunes  on  an 
important  subject,  or  are  executed  with  remark- 
able care  or  splendor,  and  are  therefore  seldom 
found  perfect,  as  the  Collections  of  Travels  pub- 
lished by  De  Bry,  the  basit  of  which  alone  cost 
Mr.  Grenville  £240,  and  a  copy  of  which  was 
lately  purchased,  as  Dr.  Dibdin  tells  us,  by  the 
duke  of  Devonshire  for  £546.  ^  Ah  I  it  makes 
our  heart  rejoice,'  says  our  author  (and  we 
unite  in  this  feeling  with  him,  only  his  fear  is 
oar  hope),  'to  think  of  the  'good  old  times,' 
theeolden  days  of  the  bibliomania,  when  colonel 
Stanley's  copy  was  sold ;  days  I  fear  which  are 
gone,  never  to  return :  Ramusfo,  de  Bry,  Hak- 
luyt,  and  Pnrchas,  Caxton,  De  Worde,  Pynson, 
and  William  Faques,  were  then  contemplated 
and  caressed  as  their  beauties  and  merits  entitle 
them  to  be!' 

We  add,  as  calculated  to  exhibit  the  earlier 
difficulties  and  gradual  improvements  in  the  art 
of  printing,  the  following  directions  for  ascer- 
taining editions  of  the  fifteenth  century.  1.  The 
texture  and  thickness  of  the  paper  is  to  be  re- 
garded :  as  printed  books  were  at  first  imitations 
of  MSS.,  they  were  made  to  imitate  vellum  as  near- 
ly as  possible.  2.  The  unequal  size  and  general 
clumsmess  of  the  type.  It  was,  however,  soon 
improved  in  these  respects.  3.  The  absence  of 
title  pages ;  printer  s  name  and  abode ;  date  when 
printed ;  signatures  or  letters  marking  the  sheet ; 
and  catchwords  on  the  right  hand  page.  Title- 
pages  first  began  to  be  printed  separately  about 
1470,  some  say  1480,  but  were  very  rare  until 
the  beginning  qf  the  sixteenth  century.  4.  The 
infrequency  of  divitionty  and  of  capital  letters  at 
the  beginning  of  divisions,  chapters,  &c.  The 
plan  was  at  first  to  leave  Uiese  to  be  filled  up 
Dy  illuminators  who  ornamented  them  with  the 
gold  and  fine  colors  that  enrapture  our  biblio- 
maniacs. 5.  The  little  ptmc^fia^ton  that  appears, 
and  particuhirly  the  omission  of  commas  and 
semi-colons.  Books  printed  about  the  middle  of 
the  fifteenth  century  nave  no  stops  but  periods. 
8.  The  numerous  abbreviationsy  as  neqZy  qtdbz^ 
for  Deque  and  quibus;  Dnt  for  Dominua  and 
many  others  less  intelligible.  See  Jungendre. 
DitterUtio  de  Notit  Characteritt.  Librorum  k 
Typognmk.  Ineurubtdo  ad  Ann,  M.D.  impret- 
9onmy  Norimb.  174(K  Dibdin's  Bibiiowmnith 
Home's  Introduction  to  Bibliography,  &c; 

Finally,  the  reader  may  contrast  the  scarce- 
ness of  books  in  the  dark  ages  with  their  present 
abundance.  'Many  circumstances,'  says  Dr. 
Robertson  (Charles  V.  vol.  i.)  *  prove  the  scarcity 
of  books  during  these  ages.  Private  persons 
seldom  possessed  any  b<x>ks  whatever.  Even 
monasteries  of  considerable  note  had  only  one 
ouaaaL  Murat  Antiq.  vol.  ix.  p.  789.  I«up«s, 
abbot  of  Ferrieresy  in  a  letter  to  the  pope,  A.  D. 


S55y  beseeches  him  to  lend  him  a  copy  of  Cicero 
de  Oratorc,  and  Quintilian's  Institutions ;  *  for,' 
says  he,  *  although  we  have  parts  of  those  books, 
there  is  no  complete  copy  or  them  in  all  France.* 
Murat.  Ant.  v.  iii.  p,  835.  The  price  of  books 
became  so  high  that  persons  of  a  moderate  for- 
tune could  not  afford  to  purchase  them.  The 
countess  of  Anjou  paid  for  a  copy  of  the  Homi- 
lies of  Haimon,  bishop  of  Halberstadt,  200 
sheep,  five  quarters  of  wheat,  and  the  same 
Quantity  of  lye  and  millet.  Histoire  Literaire 
ae  France,  par  des  Religieux  Benedictins,  toir. 
▼ii.  p.  3.  Even  so  late  as  the  year  1471,  when 
Louis  XI.  borrowed  the  works  of  Rasis,  the 
Arabian  physician,  from  the  faculty  of  medicine 
in  Paris,  ne  not  only  deposited  in  pledge  a  con- 
siderable quantity  of  plate,  but  was  obliged  to 
procure  a  nobleman  to  join  with  him  as  surety 
in  a  deed,  binding  himself,  under  a  great  ibrfei-  ■ 
ture,  to  restore  it.  Gabr.  Naudb  Addit.  k  Tllis- 
toire  de  Loyus  XI.  par  Comines,  edit,  de  Fies- 
noy,  tom.  iv.  p.  281.  Many  curious  circum- 
stances, with  respect  to  the  extravagant  price  of 
books  in  the  middle  ages,  are  collected  by  that 
industrious  compiler,  to  whom  I  refer  such  of 
my  readers  as  deem  this  small  branch  of  literary 
history  an  object  of  curiosity.  When  any  person 
made  a  present  of  a  book  to  a  church  or  a 
monastery,  in  which  were  the  only  libraries 
during  several  ages,  it  viras  deemed  a  donative 
of  such  value  that  he  offered  it  on  the  altar, 
pro  remedio  anim«  suae,  in  order  to  obtain  the 
forgiveness  of  his  sins.  Murat.  vol.  iii.  p.  836. 
Hist.  liter,  de  France,  tom  vi.  p.  6.  Nonv. 
Trait,  du  Diplomat,  par  deux  Benedictins,  4to. 
tom  i.jp.  481.*  In  these  *good  old  times,*  to 
adopt  Dr.  Dibdin's  phrase,  we  suppose  the  editor 
of  an  Encyclopedia  would  have  been  at  least  a 
cardinal! 

RAR'EFY,  V.  aMn^l   Fr.  rarefier ;  Lat.  ranu 

RAaEFAc'TioN.  )  aud/acto.  To  make  thin 

or  subtle ;  become  thin  or  rare ;  act  of  doing 
this  or  becoming  so :  extension  of  the  parts  of  a 
body. 

Tjie  water  within  bein^  rare/led,  and  by  rarefac- 
tion resolved  into  wind,  will  force  up  the  smoke. 
Wottan*s  ArchiUeturB 
Earth  rarefies  to  dew ;  expanded  more 
The  subtile  dew  in  air  begins  to  soar. 

Dryden. 

When  exhalations,  shut  up  in  the  caverns  of  the 
oarth  by  rarefaetum  or  compression,  come  to  be 
straitened,  they  strive  every  way  to  set  themselvos  at 
liberty.  Burnet, 

To  the  hot  equator  crowding  fast. 
Where  highly  rartfied  the  yi Jding  air 
Admits  their  steam.  Thomum. 

BAHITAN,  a  river  of  New  Jersey,  formed 
by  two  branches,  which  unite  about  twenty 
miles  above  New  Brunswick.  It  becomes  navi- 
gable two  utiles  above  that  city,  at  a  place 
calltd  Brunswick  Landing.  Flowing  by  New 
Brunswick  and  gradually  becoming  broader  and 
deeper,  it  pass&<t  Amboy,  and  then  widens  into 
Rantan  Bay,  which  is  immediately  connected 
with  the  ocean.  It  is  navigable  for  sloops  of 
eidity  tons,  as  fiir  as  New  Brunswick,  seventeen 
miles.  The  general  course  of,  the  Raritan  is 
south  of  east.    It  is  intended  to 'connect  this 

2  C  2  J 

Digitized  by  VjOU^^IC 


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river  with  the  Delaware,  by  a  canal  which  is  to 
commence  between  New  Brunswick  and  Wash* 
ington,  and  join  the  Delaware  at  Croswick's 
Creek.    The  distance  is  twenty-nine  miles. 

RAS  El  Khy  Ma,  the  chief  town  of  the  Pi- 
rates on  the  Persian  Gulf.  There  is  a  suburb  of 
bamboo  huts.  Here  are  several  castles,  one  the 
residence  of  the  chief,  and  another  for  naval 
stores.  In  1809  the  depredations  of  the  pirates 
induced  the  British  authorities  to  fit  out  an  ex- 
pedition against  them.  On  the  13th  of  Novem- 
ber Ras  el  Khyma  was  taken  by  storm,  the  ships 
burned,  and  the  guns  spiked :  the  British  loss 
consisted  of  only  one  killed,  and  four  wounded. 
In  the  course,  however,  of  a  few  years,  the 
enemy  had  repaired  the  place  and  its  defences, 
and  had  again  become  so  formidable  that  a  ,new 
expedition  was  sent  against  them,  which  effected 
its  object  with  the  same  success.  Long.  55"  30' 
E.,  lat.  25*  49'  N. 

RAS'CAL,  n.  8.'\      Sax.    jiafcal.    '  A  lean 

Rascal'lion,     f  beast,'  says  Johnson:  pro- 

Rascal'ity,       i  perly  a  lean  deer.    See  the 

Ras'cally,  udj.  y  nne  instance  of  its  use  so 
late  as  in  Shakspeare,  and  the  equivoque  of  Fal- 
staff  which  can  only  be  thus  understood.  A 
mean  fellow;  a  scoundrel:  rascallion  is  synony- 
mous :  rascality  and  rascally  correspond. 

For  the  nueoi  commons,  lest  he  cared.    Spentsr, 

And  when  him  list  the  rateal  routs  appal, 
Men  into  stones  therewith  he  could  transmew.    Id, 

A  little  herd  of  England's  humorous  deer, 
Maaed  with  the  yelping  kennels  of  French  curs ! 
If  we  be  Enfflish  deer  be  then  in  blood, 
Not  nucaMike,  to  fall  down  with  a  pinch ; 
But  rather  moody-mad  and  desperate  stags, 
Turn  on  the  bloody  hounds  with  heads  of  steel. 
And  make  the  cowards  aloof  at  bay. 

Shahspettre,  Henry  VI. 
The  ra$eal  people,  thirsting  alter  prey, 

Join  with  the  traitor.  Id. 

DoL. — You  muddy  naedl  is  that  all  the  comfort 
yon  give  me? 

Fal. — You  make  fat  rateaU  mistress  Doll. 

Id.  Henry  IV. 

Would*st  thou  not  be  glad  to  have  the  niggardly 
rascally  sheep  biter  come  by  some  notable  shame  t 

Shahepeare. 
That  proud  dame 

Used  him  so  like  a  base  nuoa/ion, 

That  old  Pig — ^what  d'  ye  call  bim — ^maUou, 

That  cut  his  mistress  out  of  stone. 

Had  not  so  hard  a  hearted  one.  Hudibrtu. 

Pretended  philosophers  judge  as  ignorantly  in  their 
wav,  as  the  rtuoalUy  in  theirs.  OlawriUe. 

Did  I  not  see  you,  rascal,  did  I  not, 
When  you  lay  snug  to  snap  young  Damon's  goat  ? 

Dryden. 
I  have  sense,  to  serve  my  turn,  in  store, 

And  he's  a  rascal  who  pretends  to  more.  Id. 

Scoundrels  are  insolent  to  their  superiors;  but  it 
does  not  become  a  man  of  honour  to  contest  with 
mean  rascals,  L'Estranye. 

Jeroboam  having  procured  his  peopl»gods,  the  next 
thing  was  to  provide  priests  ;  hereupon,  to  the 
calves  he  adds  a  commission,  for  the  approving,  try- 
ing, and  admitting  the  ratcality  and  lowest  of  the 
people  to  minister  in  that  service.  8(mih, 

The  poor  girl  provoked  told  him  he  lyed  like  a 
rascal.  Swift. 

Our  rascaUy  porter  is  fallen  fast  asleep  with  the 
black  cloth  ana  sconces,  or  we  might  have  been 
tacking  up  by  this  time.  Id, 


RASCIANS,  or  BjujZBVf  a  numerous  and  an- 
cient Sclavonic  tribe,  inhabiting  the  south  of 
Hungary.  They  are  supposed  to  be  the  de- 
scendants of  Christians  who  fled  from  the  district 
of  Rascia,  in  Servia  and  Bosnia,  when  they  were 
invaded  by  the  Turks.  They  came  into  Uungaiy 
early  in  the  fifteenth  century,  and  received  parti- 
cular privileges.  Some  time  after  their  arrival 
they  were  driven  by  the  Turks  farther  north. 
They. are  found  at  present  in  considerable  num- 
bers in  the  Bannat,  in  Sclavonia,  and  other  parts 
of  the  south  of  Hungary.  In  Croatia  they  fonn 
a  third  of  the  population.  They  live  in  great 
simplicity,  partly  employed  in  a^coltural  and 
pastoral  occupations,  and  partly  in  woollen  and 
linen  manufactures.  Early  marriage  is  customary 
among  them,  and  their  increase  consequently  con- 
siderable ;  but  they  have  never  exhibited,  durii^ 
three  centuries,  Mr.  Malthus's  fearful  propensity 
to  multiply.  The  Uscocks  and  Morlachians  ap- 
pear to  be  of  the  same  descent,  but  are  behind 
the  Rascians  in  civilisation.  Each  of  these  tribes 
calls  itself  by  the  name  of  Srbi,  or  Servians,  and 
all  speak  dialects  of  the  Illyrian  language. 
RASE,  V.  a.  }  '  Fr.  roser,  of  Lat.  rasm.  *  I 
Ra'sure,  n.  s.  \  would  write  rase,'  says  John- 
son, *  when  it  signifies  to  strike  slightly,  per- 
stringere;  and  raze,  when  it  signifies  to  ruin, 
delere.'  To  skim ;  strike  on  the  surface ;  blot 
out ;  overthrow :  rasure  is  the  mark  made  by 
blotting  or  rubbing  out. 

He  certifies  your  lordship  that  this  niffht 
He  dreamt  the  boar  had  rased  off  his  helm. 

Skaksptart. 

Though  of  their  names  in  heav'nly  records  now 
Be  no  memorial,  blotted  out  and  rased.        Milton. 

Was  he  not  in  the  nearest  neighbourhood  to 
death  1  and  might  not  the  bullet,  that  rased  his 
cheek,  have  gone  into  his  bead  T  SmtiK 

Such  a  writing  ought  to  be  free  from  any  vitupera- 
tion of  raemre.  Ayl^e*s  ratteryen. 


RASH,  fl(§.        -^     Belg.  and  Teut.  nwA; 
Rash'ly,  adv.      >  Swed.    and    Dan.   rosi 
Rash'ness,  n.i.  3Hasty;    violent;    precipi- 
tate: the  adverb  and  noun  substantive  corres- 
ponding. 

Be  not  rask  wun  thy  mouth,  and  let  not  duot 
heart  be  hasty  to  utter  any  thing  before  God;  for 
God  is  in  heaven,  and  thou  upon  earth ;  theieforB 
let  thj  words  be  few.  Ecties. 

This  is  to  be  bold  withuuc  shame,  raah  without 
skill,  full  of  words  without  wit.  iisdbat. 

Who  seeth  not  what  sentence  it  shall  enforce  u 
to  give  against  all  churches  in  the  world  ;  inasmuch 
as  there  is  not  one,  but  hath  had  many  things  esta- 
blished in  it,  which  though  the  scripture  did  nerer 
command,  yet  for  us  to  condemn  were  rasknus. 

Heohir. 

Blast  her  prides  O  ye  blest  ^ods !  so  will  yoa 
wish  on  me,  when  the  risk  mood  is  on  me. 


This  expedition  was  by  York  and  Talbot 
Too  rashly  plotted.  Id.  Heniy  VI- 

Men  are  not  rashly  to  take  that  for  done  which  is 
not  done.  Baeoe. 

Nature  to  youth  hot  rashness  doth  dispense. 
But  with  cold  prudence  age  doth  recompence. 

DeidiBwu 
Her  ToA  hand  in  evil  hour,   \ 
Forth  reaching  to  the  fruit,  she  plucked,  she  eat. 

Vdum 


Digitized  by 


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RAS 


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RAT 


Tlie  nin  Mont  by  hh  own  nuhnen  wrought, 
Too  toon  diioovored  his  ambitious  thought, 
Believsd  me  his,  because  I  spoke  him  fair.  Drjfden. 

He  that  doth  any  thing  nthlv,  most  do  it  will- 
ingly ;  for  he  was  free  to  deliberate  or  not. 

L'Eitrange. 
Declare  the  secret  villain, 

The  wretch  so  meanly  base  to  injure  Phcdia, 

So  nthly  breve  to  dare  the  sword  of  Theseus. 

Smith, 

In  so  speaking,  we  offend  indeed  agunst  truth ; 
yet  we  otfend  not  properly  by  falseho^,  which  is  a 
speaking  against  our  thoughts  ;  but  by  rashneu, 
which  is  an  affirming  or  denying,  before  we  have  suf- 
ficiently informed  ourselves.  South, 

RASirER,  n.  s.  Lat.  ratura,  A  thin  slice  of 
bacon. 

If  we  grow  all  to  be  pork  eaters,  we  shall  no\ 
shortly  have  a  rathir  on  the  coals  for  money. 

Shakmeart,  Merehant  of  Veniee, 
White  and  black  wis  all  her  homely  cheer, 

And  nuhen  of  singed  bacon  on  the  coals. 

Djyden, 

Quenches  his  thint  with  ale  in  nut-brown  bowls, 
And  takes  the  hasty  rathar  from  the  coals.      Kmg, 

RASP,  V.  a,  &  n. «.  >    Fr.  rtuper  ;  Ital.  ra^are ; 

Rasp'atory,  n.  f .  i  Span,  ratpar.  To  rub  to 
powder  with  a  rough  file;  the  file  used :  a  sur- 
geon's rasp. 

Havine  prepared  hard  woods  and  ivory  for  the 
lathe  with  nu^^ng,  they  pitch  it  between  the  pikes. 

Jnojnpn* 

Case-hardening  is  used  by  file-cutters, 'when  they 
mske  coarse  files,  and  generally  most  rasps  have 
ibnuexiy  been  made  of  iron  and  case-hardened. 

Moion*s  Mechanical  Exerciset, 

Some  authore  have  advised  the  rasping  of  these 
bones ;  but  in  this  case  it  is  needless.        Wiseman. 

I  pat  into  his  mouth  a  ratpatory,  and  pulled  away 
the  Gormpi  flesh,  and  with  cauteries  burnt  it  to  a 
crust.  Id,  Sitrgery, 

Rasp,  n.  s.  '  ^     Ital.  rospo.  A  delicious  berry 

Rasp'berrt.  S  that  grows  on  a  species  of  the 
bramble;  a  raspberry. 

Set  sorrel  amongst  rasps,  and  the  rmpiwill  be  the 
smaller.  Bacon, 

Uatpberries  are  of  three  sorts ;  the  common  wild 
one,  the  large  red  garden  raspberrvt  which  is  one  of 
the  pleasantest  fruits,  and  the  white,  which  is  little 
inferior  to  the  red.  Mortimer*a  Husbandry, 

Now  will  the  corinths,  now  the  rasps  supply 
Delicious  draughts,  when  prest  to  vines.     PhiUps, 

Raspberry-tree.    See  Rubus. 

RASTADT,  a  town  of  Baden,  the  capital  of 
the  district  of  Murg,  and  the  seat  of  one  of  the 
four  grand  courts  of  the  duchy.  Here  is  an  ex- 
cellent manufiM^ture  of  fire  arms ;  but  the  town 
is  chiefly  noted  as  having  been,  in  1714  and 
1798,  the  seat  of  diplomatic  conferences.  On 
this  last  occasion  two  of  the  French  negociators, 
on  their  journey  to  Strasburg,  were  assassinated 
in  a  manner  never  fully  explained,  but  supposed 
to  have  been  the  act  of  common  robbers.  In 
the  campaign  of  1796  die  French  obtained  here 
an  advantage  over  the  Austrians.  Twenty  miles 
N.N.  £.  of  Strasburg. 

RASTALL  (John),  a  printer  and  miscellaneous 
writer,  bom  in  London  about  the  end  of  the 
fifteenth  century,  and  educated  at  Oxford.  He 
married  the  sister  of  Sir  Thomas  More,  with 
whom  he  was  very  intimate,  and  whose  writings 


he  strenuously  defended.  He  died  in  1536. 
Rastallwas  a  zealous  Papist.  He  wrote,  1.  Na- 
tura  Naturata.  Pits  calls  it  an  bgenious  comedy, 
describing  £urope,  Asia,  and  Africa,  with  cuts. 
2.  The  Pastyme  of  the  People ;  the  Cronycles 
of  diverse  Realmys,  and  most  especially  of  the 
realm  of  England,  fol.  3.  Ecclesia  Johannis 
Rastal,  1 542 ;  one  of  the  prohibited  books  in  the 
reign  of  Henry  VIII.  4.  Legum  Anglicanarum 
▼ocabula  explicata.  French  and  Latin.  Lon- 
don 1567,  8vo. 

RAT,n.i.    Sax.  jwt;  Fr.  rat;  Belg.  ratte; 
Swed.  and  Span,  ratta;  raton.    An  animal  of  the 
mouse  kind  that  infests  houses  and  ships:  to 
'  smell  a  rat'  is  to  suspect;  be  on  the  watch. 
Our  natures  do  pursue 

Like  rais  that  ravin  down  their  proper  bane. 

Shakspeoft. 

I  have  seen  the  time,  with  my  long  sword  I  would 
have  made  yon  four  tall  fellows  skip  like  ruts.    Id, 
Quoth  Hudibras,  I  smdl  a  rat, 
Ralpho,  thou  dost  prevaricate.       Hudibras. 

Thus  horses  will  knable  at  walls,  and  rats  will 
gnaw  iron.  Browne^s  Vulgar  Emurc, 

If  in  despair  he  goes  out  of  the  way  like  arai  with 
a  dose  of  arsenick,  why  he  dies  nobly.         Dennis, 

Rat,  in  zoology.     See  Myjs. 

RATAFIA  is  prepared  from  the  kernels,  Sec. 
of  several  other  kinds  of  fruits.  Ratafia  of 
cherries  is  prepared  by  bruisinz  the  cherries,  and 
putting  them  into  a  vessel,  herein  brandy  has 
Deen  long  kept ;  then  adding  to  them  the  kemeb 
of  cherries  with  strawberries,  sugar,  cinnamon, 
white  pepper,  nutmep;,  cloves  ;  and  to  20  lbs. 
of  cherries  ten  quarts  of  brandy.  The  vessel  is 
left  open  ten  or  twelve  days,  and  then  stopped 
close  for  two  months  before  it  be  tapped.  Ratafia 
of  apricots  is  prepared  two  ways,  viz.  either  by 
boiling  the  apricots  in  white  wine,  adding  to  the 
liquor  an  equal  brandy,  with  sugar,  cinnamon, 
mace,  and  the  kernels  of  apricots ;  infusing  the 
whole  for  eight  or  ten  days ;  then  straining  the 
liquor,  and  putting  it  up  for  use :  or  else  by  in- 
fusing the  apricots,  cut  in  pieces,  for  a  day  or 
two,  passing  it  through  a  straining  bag,  and  then 
putting  in  the  usual  ingredients. 

RATE,  n.  •.,  V.  a.  &«.  n.  >     Old  Fr.  rate ;  Lat. 

Ra'table,  fl<§.  Sraha,  Price  fixed,  or 

allowance  .nettled;  tax;  degree;  value;  princi- 
ple of  value ;  quantity ;  manner :  to  value  at  a 
price;  make  an  estimate. 

His  allowance  was  a  continual  allowance,  a  daily 
ttU  for  every  day.  2  Kings  xxv.  30. 

I  am  a  spirit  of  no  common  rau ; 
llie  summer  still  doth  tend  upon  my  state. 


In  goodly  form  comes  on  the  enemy ; 
And,  by  the  ground  they  hide,  I  judge  their  number 
Upon  or  near  the  rate  of  thirty  thousand.  Id, 

I  freely  told  you  all  the  wealth  I  had 
Ran  in  my  veins,  I  was  a  gentleman ; 
And  yet,  dear  lady. 

Bating  myself  ^  nothing,  you  shall  tee 
How  much  I  was  a  braggart.  Id. 

Many  times  there  is  no  proportion  df  shot  ano 
powder  allowed  ratably  by  that  quantity  of  the  great 
ordnance.  Raleigh. 

The  Danes  brought  in  a  reckoning  of  money  by 
ores,  per  oras ;  I  collect  out  of  the  abbey-book  of  Bur- 
ton, that  twenty  ore  were  ratable  to  two  marks  of 
silver.  Camden's  Bemaint, 


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Matty  of  the  hone  could  not  mtrch  at  that  rats, 
nor  come  up  soon  enough.  Claartndcn. 

We  may  there  be  instructed  how  to  name  and  rait 
all  goods,  by  those  that  will  concentre  into  felicity. 

BoyU. 

In  rating,  when  things  are  thus  little  and  frivolous, 
we  must  not  judge  by  our  own  pride  and  passions, 
which  count  nothing  little,  but  aggrandize  ei^ry  af- 
front and  injury  that  is  done  to  ourselves. 

KettUw$iL 

You  seem  not  nigh  enough  your  joys  to  nUa, 
You  stand  indebted  a  vast  sum  to  fate, 
And  should  large  thanks  for  the  great  blessings  pay. 

Drtfden. 

How  many  things  do  we  value,  because  the;^  come 
at  dear  rateM  from  Japan  and  China,  which,  if  they 
were  our  own  manufacture,  common  to  be  had,  and 
for  a  little  money,  would  be  neglected !  Lockg, 

The  price  of  land  has  never  changed,  the  several 
changes  have  been  made  in  the  rau  <k  interest  by 
Uw ;  noT  now  that  the  rate  of  interest  is  by  law  tliie 
sttaie,  is  the  price  of  land  every  where  the  same. 

/a« 

To  which  relation  'whatsoever  is  done  agreeably, 
-is  -morally  and  essentially  good ;  and  whatsoever  is 
done  otherwise  is  at  the  same  rate  morally  evil. 

South. 

They  obliged  themselves  to  remit  after  the  rate  of 
twelve  hundred  thousand  pounds  sterling  per  annum, 
divided  into  so  many  monthly  payments.    Addison. 

Tom  hinting  his  dislike  of  some  trifle  his  mistress 
had  said,  she  asked  him  how  he  would  talk  to  her 
after  marriage,  if  he  talked  at  this  rate  before  1     Id, 
They  paid  the  church  and  parish  rate. 
And  took,  but  read  not,  the  receipt.        Prior, 

In  thb  did  his  holiness  and  godliness  appear  above 
•the  rate  and  pitch  of  other- men's,  in  that  he  was  so 
•infinitely  merciful.  Ca(amy. 

A  virtuous  heathen  is,  at  this  rate,  as  happy  as  a 
virtuous  Christian.  AUerbmy. 

Rate,  v.  a.  Isl.  and  Goth,  retto.  To  chide 
hastily  and  vehemently. 

Go  rate  thv  minions,  proud  insulting  boy ; 

Becomes  it  thee  to  be  thus  bold  in  terms 

Befoie  thy  sovereign  1       Shakspeare.  Henry  VI. 

If  words  are  sometimes  to  be  used,  they  ought  to 
be  giave,  kind,  and  sober,  representing  the  ill  or  un- 
becomin?ness  of  the  faults,  father  than  a  hasty  rating 
of  the  child  for  it.  Loeke. 

RATH,  fi.  s.  G«th.  and  Swed.  rad.  A  hill. 
Out  of  use. 

There  is  a  great  use  among  the  Irish,  to  make 
great  aesemblies  upon  a  rath  or  hill,  there  to  parly 
about  matters  and  wrongs  between  townships  or  pri- 
vate persons.  Spenser. 

Rath,  adj.       )  Sax.  pais,  soon.     Early.;  be- 

Rather,  m^.  )  fore  the  osual  time:  rather, 
the  compaTative  of  Sax.  paS,  meaning  sooner,  is 
more  willingly ;  with  better  liking. 

This  is  he  that  I  seide  of,  after  me  is  comun  a 
man,  which  was  made  bifore  me,  for  he  was  rather 
than  I.  Widif.  Jon  i. 

Almighty  God  desireth  not  the  death  of  a  sinner, 
but  rather  that  he  should  turn  from  his  wickedness 
and  live.  Ccmnum  Proffer, 

Thus  is  my  summer  worn  away  and  wasted. 
Thus  is  my. harvest  hastened  all  to  rathe. 

The  ear,  that  budded  fair,  is  burnt  and  blasted^ 

And  all  my  hoped  gain  is  turned  to  scathe. 


RAT 

You  are  come  to  me  in  -a  happy  tine. 
The  rather  for  I  have 


Rath  ripe  are  some,  and  aome  of  htor  Uad, 
Ofgolden  some,  and  some  of  purple  rind.       Ma^, 

Brine  the  ra(^  primrose  that  forsaken  dies. 
The  tutted  crow-toe  and  pale  jessamine.      Jfiitm. 

He  sought  through  the  world,  but  sought  in  vain. 
And,  no  where  fintUng,  rather  feaied  her  alaia. 

Drydea. 
^  Tis  rather  to  be  thou|fht  that  an  heir  had  ao  sudi 
right  by  divine  institution,  than  that  God  dumld 
give  such  right,  but  yet  l«tve  it  undetennmate  who 
such  heir  is.  Lock. 

Tis  with  relttctanoy  he  is  provoked  by  our  impeoi- 
tence  to  apply  the  discipline  of  severity;  he  bad 
rather  mankind  should  adore  him  as  their  patron  aad 
benefiaictor.  Begm. 

RATIFY,  V.  a.  ■\     Lat  raiumfaao.  To  oon- 
RAt'iFiEK,  ft. «.  >  6rm ;  settle  The  who  setUes 
Ratifica'tion.3  or  confirms :  confirmation. 
We  have  ratified  unto  them  the  borders  of  Judsa. 

I  Mae. 
There  must  be  zeal  and  fervency  in  hun  which 
proposeth  for  the  rest  those  suits  and  supplicadons, 
which  they  by  their  joyful  aeohmations  must  taitfy. 

They  ciy,  '  chuse  we  Laertes  for  onr  king:' 
The  ratijiers  and  props  of  every  word. 
Caps,  hands,  and  tongues  applaud  it  to  the  clouds. 

Shak^pmn, 
By  the  help  of  these,  with  him  above 
To  ratify  the  work,  we  may  again 
Give  to  our  tables  meat,  sleep  to  our  nights.  Id, 
Tell  me,  my  friend,  from  whence  hadst  thou  the 
skill, 
So  nicely  to  distinguish  good  from  ill  ? 
And  what  thou  art  to  foUow,  what  to  fly. 
This  to  condemn,  and  that  to  rolj/j/?  Jhgdat, 

God  ratified  their  pmyers  by  the  judgmentbrongfat 
down  upon  the  head  of  him  whom  they  prayed  agaiast. 


This  is  an  art, 
Which  does  mend  nature,  change  it  rather,  but 
The  art  itself  is  nature.   Shakspeare.  Winter*5  Tale. 


RATIO,  n.  $.    Lat.  ratio.    Prqportion. 

Whatever  inclination  the  rays  have  to  the  phne 
of  incidence,  the  sine  of  the  angle  of  incidence  of 
every  ray,  considered  apart,  shall  have  to  the  sine 
of  the  angle  of  refraction  a  constant  ratio,    Chepe. 

Ratio,  in  arithmetic  and  geometry,  is  that 
relation  of  homogeneous  things  which  determines 
the  quantity  of  one  from  the  quantity  of  another, 
without  the  interrention  of  a  third.  Two  num- 
bers, lines,'or  quantities,  A  and  B,being  proposed, 
their  relation  one  to  another  may  be  considered 
under  one  of  these  two  heads :— 1.  How  much  A 
exceeds  B,  or  B  exceeds  A  ?  And  this  is  found 
by  taking  A  from  B,  or  B  from  A,  and  is  called 
arithmetic  ratio.  2.  Or  how  many  times,  and 
parts  of  a  time,  A  contains  B,  or  B  contains  A? 
And  this  is  called  geometric  reason  or  latio 
(or,  as  Euclid  defines  it,  it  is  the  mutual  habitude 
or  aspect  of  two  magnitudes  of  the  «ame  kind, 
according  to  quantity ;  that  is,  as  to  hew  often 
the  one  contains,  or  is  contained  in,  the  other), 
and  is  foimd  by  dividing  A  by  B,  or  B  by  A. 
And  here  note,  that  that  quantity  which  is  lelared 
to  another  quantity  is  called  the  antecedent  of  the 
ratio ;  and  that  to  which  the  other  is  referred  is 
called  the  consequent  of  the  ratio;  as,  in  the  ratio 
of  A  to  B,  A  is  the  antecedent,  and  B  the  con- 
sequent Therefore  any  quanti^,  as  anteoedent, 
divided  by  any  quantity  is  a  consequent,  gives  die 


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ratio  of  that  antecedent  to  the  consequent.  Thus 

•the  ratio  of  A  to  B  is  *^>  but  the  ratio  of  B  to  A 

B  ,  ^  12 

is  -^ ;  and  in  nnmberSy  the  ratio  of  12  to  4  is--- 

r=  Zj  or  triple;  but  the  ratio  of  4  to  12  is  rr  = —  , 

1<6  3 

or  subtriple.  And  here  note,  that  the  quantities 
thus  compared  must  be  of  the  same  kiud ;  that 
is,  such  as  by  multiplication  may  be  made  to 
exceed  one  the  other,  or  as  these  quantities  are 
said  to  have  a  ratio  between  them,  which,  being 
multiplied,  may  be  made  to  exceed  one  another. 
Thus  a  line,  how  short  soever,  mayl>e  multiplied, 
that  is,  produced  so  long  as  to  exceed  any  given 
right  line ;  and  consequently  these  mav  be  com- 
pared together,  and  the  ratio  expressea ;  but  as 
a  line  can  never,  by  any  multiplication  whatever, 
be  made  Ho  have  breadth,  that  is,  to  be  made 
equal  to  a  superficies,  how  small  soever ;  ^ese 
can  therefore  never  be  compared  toge&er,  and 
consequently  have  no  ratio  or  respect  one  to 
another. 

RATION,  in  the  army,  a  portion  of  ammuni- 
tion, bread,  drink,  and  forage,  distributed  to 
each  soldier  in  the  army,  for  his  daily  subsistence, 
&c.  The  horse  have  rations  of  hay  and  oats  when 
they  cannot  go  out  to  forage.  The  rations  of 
bnad  are  regulated  by  weight.  The  ordinary 
ration  of  a  foot  soldier  is  a  pound  and  a  half  of 
bread  per  day.  The  officers  nave  several  rations, 
accordmg  to  their  quality,  and  the  number  of 
attendants  they  are  obliged  to  keep.  When  the 
ration  b  augmented  on  occasions  of  rejoicing,  it 
is  called  a  £>uble  ration.  The  ships'  crews  have 
also  their  nations,  or  allowances  of  biscuit  and 
water,  proportioned  according  to  their  stock. 


RATIONAL,  adf, 
Ratioc'inate,  v.  n. 
Ratiocika'tion,  ».  s. 
Ratiocin'atxve,  adj, 

Ra'tIOM ALISTy  n.  f . 

Ratiohal'ity, 

Ra'tionallt,  ado. 


Latin  rationaUt. 
Having  reason ;  agree- 
able to  reason ;  wise :  to 
>'ratiocinate  (not  used) 
means,  to  reason  or 
argue,  ratiocination 
corresponding:  ratio- 


cinative  is  argumentative :  rationalist  is,  one  who 
reasons  or  proceeds  upon  reason :  rationality, 
power  of  reason ;  or  reasonableness :  rationally 
follows  the  senses  of  rational. 

He  often,  used  this  comparison :  the  empirical 
philosophers  are  like  to  pismires  ;  they  only  lay  up 
and  use  their  store  :  the  raiimudUtt  are  like  to  spi- 
ders ;  they  spin  all  out  of  their  own  bowels :  but 
sivc  me  a  philosopher,  who,  Hke  the  hee,  hath  a  mid- 
dle faculty,  gathering  from  abroad,  but  digesting  that 
which  is  gathered  by  his  own  virtue.  Bacoru 

God  d«;reed  to  create  man  after  his  own  image,  a 
free  and  nUional  agent.  Hamnumd, 

The  discerning  of  that  connexion  or  dependence 

which  there  is  betwixt  several  propositions,  whereby 

we  are  enabled  to  infer  one  proposition  from  another, 

which  is  called  ratiocinatum  or  discourse.    WiUdnt, 

What  hieher  in  her  society  thou  findest    , 

Attractive,  numane,  rationai,  love  still.     MiHon* 

Some  consecutions  are  so  intimately  and  evidently 
connected  to,  or  found  in  the  premises,  that  the  con- 
clusion is  attained  quasi  per  saltum,  and  without  any 
'king  of  ratiocinative  process,  even  as  the  eye  sees 
his  object  immediately,  and  without  any  previous 
discourse.  HaU*s  Origin  of  MarUcind. 

When  the  conclusion  is  deduced  from  the  unerring 


dictates  of  our  Ibculties,  we  say  the  inference  m  ro* 
tiotuU,  GkmwilU**  8cep$i$, 

In  human  occumnoes,  there  have  been  many 
well  directed  intentions,  whose  rationalitiu  will 
never  bear  a  rigid  examination. 

Brow7U*i  Vulgar  Errattn. 

Can  any  kind  of  ratiocinatum  allow  Christ  all  the 
marks.of  the  Messiah,  and  yet  deny  him  to  he  the 
Messiah?  South. 

Upon  the  proposal  of  an  agreeable  object,  it  may 
rationatly  be  conjectured,  that  a  man's  choice  win 
rather  incline  him  to  accept  than  to  refuse  it.  South, 

When  Crod  has  made  rationality  the  common  por- 
tbn  of  mankind,  how  came  it  to  be  thy  enclosure  1 
Gooernmmu  of  the  Tangm* 

Such  an  inscription  would  be  self-evident  without 
any  ratiodnaiion  or  study,  and  could  not  fail  con- 
stantly to  exert  its  energy  in  their  minds.   Bentley, 

If  your  arguments  m  rationai,  offer  them  in  as 
moving  a  manner  as  the  nature  of  the  subjtet  will 
admit ;  but  beware  of  letting  the  pathetic  part  swal- 
low up  the  rational.  Swift, 

If  It  be  our  glory  and  happiness  to  have  a  rational 
nature,  that  is  endued  with  wisdom  and  reason,  that 
IB  capable  of  imitatine  the  divine  nature ;  then  it 
must  be  our  dory  and  happiness  to  improve  our  rea- 
son and  wisdom,  to  act  up  to  the  excellency  of  our 
rational  namre,  and  to  imitate  God  in  all  our  actions, 
to  the  utmost  of  our  power.  Lam. 

RATS'BANE,  n.  i.  Ra^  and>  bane.  Poison 
for  rats ;  arsenic. 

When  murder's  out,  what  vice  can  we  advance. 
Unless  the  new-found  pois'ning  trick  of  France  1 
And  when  their  art  of  ratthana  we  have  got. 
By  way  of  thanks,  we'll  send  'em  o'er  our  plot. 

Dr^dm, 

He  would  throw  rattbano  up  and  down  a  house, 
where  children  might  come  at  it.  VEt^nge, 

I  can  hardly  believe  the  relation  of  his  being  poi- 
soned, but  sack  might  do  it,  though  ratine  would 
not.  Stoifi  to  Pope, 

RATISBON,  German  Regensburg,  an  an- 
cient city  of  E^varia,  long  known  as  the  plice 
of  meeting  for  the  imperial  diet.  It  is  situated 
on  the  south  bank  of  the  Danube,  opposite  to 
the  influx  of  the  river  Reffen,  from  which  its 
German  name  is  derived,  and  is  suxrounded  with 
an  earthen  mound,  though  not  defensible  against 
an  army.  It  is  built  of  stone,  but  the  houses  are 
very  high  and  old;  the  streets  narrow  and 
crooked.  The  town-house  partakes  of  the  gloomy 
character  of  the  rest  of  the  town,  and  the  apart- 
ment where  the  diet  held  its  sittings  is  plain 
even  to  meanness.  But  the  cathedral  ana  the 
church  of  St.  Emeran,  the  former  a  venerable 
Gothic  pile  and  the  latter  containiog  a  number 
of  good  paintings,  are  worth  attention;  and  afler 
these  the  episcopal  residence,  a  palace  belonging 
to  the  prince  of  Tour  and  Taxis ;  the  Jesuits* 
college ;  the  arsenal,  and  the  Haidplatz,  where 
tournaments  were  formerly  given.  Here  is  also 
a  public  drawing-school,  two  public  libraries, 
and  several  hospitals. 

When  Ratisbon  had  the  exclusive  navigation 
of  the  Danube  to  Vienna,  and  upwards  to  Ulm, 
it  was  of  course  far  more  brisk  as  a  trading  town ; 
but  it  possesses  still  a  considerable  share  of 
traffic  in  timber,  com,  and  salt.  The  town  has 
extensive  dock-yards  for  the  building  of  boats 
and  lighters,  ana  a  number  of  breweries  and  dis- 
tilleries, but  few  manufactures.  It  has  long  been  a 
favorite  residence  of  the  respectable  classes  of  so- 


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ciety ;  and  ibnnerly  the  presence  of  Ihe  diet,  which 
assembled  here  habitually,  from  1 662,  until  the  ex- 
tinction of  the  body  in  1 805,  contributed  much  to 
its  support.  The  majority  of  tlie  inhabitants  are 
Catholics;  and  Ratisbon  (reduced  in  1817  to  a 
bishopric)  was  long  the  see  of  an  archbishop, 
who  had  a  considerable  territory,  and  was  at  the 
head  of  the  abbey  of  St.  Emeran,  situated  within 
the  walls,  and  a  small  town  of  itself.  In  the 
river  is  an  island,  crossed  by  a  bridge  of  great 
.  length,  extending  across  the  Danube,  and  con- 
necting the  city  with  its  northern  suburb,  Stad- 
tham  Hof.  In  April  1809,  this  country  was 
the  scene  of  obsunate  contests  between  the 
French  and  Austrians.  Ratisbon  is  sixty-three 
miles  N.  N.  E.  of  Munich,  and  127  south-west 
of  Prague.    Population  20,000. 

RAITEEN',  n.  s.  Fr.  ratine;  Span,  ratina. 
A  kind  of  stuff. 

We'll  rig  in  Meath-street  Egypt's  haughty  queen. 
And  Antony  shall  court  her  in  nUtsm.  S»ifi, 

RA'rTLE,r.n.,f;.o.&n.s.  I      Belg.  ratelen; 

Rai^tle-snake,  ti.  s.  5  or  a  frequentative 

of  Sax.  neotan.  To  make  a  sharp,  quick,  or  ckt- 
tering  noise;  speak  clamorously  or  eagerly;  to 
move  any  thing  so  as  to  make  a  clatter ;  to  stun 
or  drive  with  noise ;  scold :  the  noise  made ; 
loud  and  empty  talk ;  a  child's  toy :  the  rattle- 
snake is  the  genus  crotalus  of  amphibia,  ser- 
pentes.    See  Crotalus. 

The  quiver  rattUth  against  him.     Job  zxxix.  23. 
The  noise  of  a  whip,  of  the  rattling  of  the  wheels, 
of  prancmg  horses,  and  of  the  jumping  chariou. 

NaJium  iii.  2. 
Sound  but  another,  and  another  shall. 
As  loud  as  thine,  rattle  the  welkin's  ear, 
And  mock  the  deep-mouthed  thuiider. 

Shaktpiore, 
The  rattlet  of  Isis,  and  the  cymbals  of  Brasilea, 
nearly  enough  resemble  each  other.  Raleigh. 

He  should  be  well  enough  able  to  scatter  the  Irish 
as  a  flight  of  birds,  and  ratUe  away  this  swarm  of 
bees  with  their  king.  Battmt, 

They  had,  to  a£iffht  the  enemies  horses,  big  rat» 
tin  covered  with  parchment,  and  small  stones  within ; 
but  the  rattling  of  shot  might  have  done  better  service. 

Hayviard, 
All  this  ado  about  the  |;olden  age  is  but  an  empty 
rattle  and  frivolous  conceit.  HakewUl. 

Opinions  are  the  rattUi  of  immature  intellects,  but 
the  advanced  reasons  have  outgrown  them. 

GlanviUe's  Scepne, 
She  loses  her  being  at  the  very  sight  of  him,  and 
drops  plump  into  his  arms,  like  a  charmed  bird  into 
the  mouth  of  hrattlemal<e.  3fore*s  Foundling, 

With  jealous  eyes  at  distance  she  hath  seen 
Whispenng  with  Jove  the  silver-footed  queen ; 
Then,  impotent  of  tongue,  her  silence  broke. 
Thus  turbulent  in  rattling  tone  she  spoke.    Dryden. 
Her  chains  she  raUlet,  and  her  whip  she  shakes. 

Id. 
They  want  no  rattUi  for  their  froward  mood. 
Nor  nurse  to  reconcile  them  to  their  food.  Id. 

Hearing  JEiop  had  been  beforehand,  he  sent  for 
him  'in  a  nee,  and  rattled  him  with  a  Uiousand  trai- 
tors and  villains  for  robbing  his  house.  VEetrange. 

The  rattlesnake  is  so  called  from  the  rattle  at  the 
end  of  his  tail.  Grew'a  Musetun. 

There  she  assembles  all  her  blackest  storms, 
And  the  rude  hail  in  raitVing  tempest  forms. 

Addiion. 


I'll  hold  ten  pound  my  dream  is  oat ; 
I'd  tell  it  you  but  for  the  rattU 
Of  those  confounded  drums.  Frior, 

She  that  would  sometimes  rattle  off  her  serrants 
diarply,  now,  if  she  saw  them  drunk,  never  took 
notice.  Arlmhut. 

Farewel  then,  verse,  and  love,  and  every  toy, 
The  rhymes  and  rattles  of  the  man  or  boy ; 
What  right,  what  true,  what  fit  we  justly  call, 
Let  this  be  all  my  care,  for  this  is  all.  Pope. 

He  is  a  man  of  pleasure,  and  a  free-thinker ;  he  ii 
an  assertor  of  liberty  and  property  ;  he  rattles  it  out 
against  popery.  Smift. 

Rattlesnake.    See  Crotalus. 

RAVAG£,v.a.&n.s.  3     Fr.  rot»ger;  barb. 

Rav'ager,  n.  I.  3Lat.irasiMrrc.   To  lay 

waste ;  ransack ;  pillage :  the  spoil  or  ruin  tbua 
made :  ravager,  he  who  makes  it 

Some  cruel  pleasure  will  from  thence  aitie. 

To  view  the  mighty  ravage  of  your  eyes. 

DryiiH. 
Would  one  think  'twere  possible  for  love 

To  make  such  ravage  in  a  noble  soul  1     AdHsoH. 

Those  savages  were  not  then  what  civilised  msn- 
kind  is  now ;  but  without  mutual  society,  withost 
arms  of  oflfenoe,  without  hooses  or  fortifications,  an 
obvious  and  exposed  piey  to  the  rsiM^  of  devooriiip 
beasU.  BentUy. 

When  that  mighty  empire  was  overthrown  by  the 

northern  people,  vast  sums  of  money  were  buried  to 

esca^  the  plundering  of  the  conquerors ;  and  wbtt 

remained  was  carried  off  by  those  ravagers.     Smft. 

His  blasts  obey,  and  ouit  the  bowling  hill, 

The  shattered  forest,  and  the  ravagad  vale. 

Themtm. 

Cambyses  marched  one  army  from  Thebes,  after 
having  overturned  the  temples,  ravaged  the  coantrv, 
and  deluged  it  with  blood,  to  subdue  Ethiopia  •  ckii 
army  almost  perished  by  famine,  insomuch  that  they 
**epeatedly  slew  every  tenth  man  to  supply  the  re- 
mainder with  food.  DttrwM. 

RAU'CITY,  n.t.  Lat  raucta.  Hoarseness; 
loud  roiiffh  noise. 

Inequality  not  stayed  upon,  but  passing,  is  nther 
an  increase  of  sweetness ;  as  in  the  purling  of  s 
wreathed  string,  and  in  the  raueiig  of  a  trumpet. 
Bacon*s  Natural  History, 

RAV£,e.ii.       ^     Fr.  river;  Belff.  men; 

Ra'vi NGLY,  adv,  S  Lat.  rabo.  To  be  delirious; 
talk  irrationally  or  incoherently ;  burst  into  furious 
exclamations. 

Shall  these  wild  distempers  of  thy  mind. 

This  tcm])est  of  thy  tongue,  thus  rave,  and  find 

No  opposition?  Sandjf's  Parapbarase  on  Jok. 

In  this  depth  of  muses,  and  divers  sorts  of  dii- 
courses^  would  she  ravingly  have  remaned.  Sidney, 

Our  ravings  and  complaints  are  but  like  sirovs 
shot  up  into  me  air,  at  no  mark,  and  A>to  no  mirpofe. 

Another  partiality  is  as  fantastical  and  wild,  st- 
tributing  sill  knowledge  to  the  ancients  or  tbe 
moderns ;  this  raving  upon  antiquity,  in  matter  of 
poetry,  Horace  has  wittily  exposed  in 'one  of  hit 
satires.  Lath, 

Her  grief  hss  wrought  her  into  frenzy ! 
The  images  her  troubled  fancy  forms 
Are  incoherent,  wild ;  her  words  disjointed : 
Sometimes  she  raves  for  mnsick,  light,  and  air,; 
Nor  air,  nor  light,  nor  musick  calm  her  pains. 

Smitk. 
He  swore  he  could  not  leave  me, 
With  ten  thousand  ravings, 

Royct's  Royal  Canert 


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Woiid«  it  my  pcttonee, 
Htvs  I  not  cause  to  rove,  and  beat  my  breast. 
To  lend  my  heart  with  giief,  and  ron  distracted  1 

Additon^ 
Men  who  thus  rav$,  we  may  conclude  their  brains 
are  turned,  and  one  may  as  well  read  lectures  at 
Bedlam  as  treat  with  such. 

Government  of  the  Tan^. 
It  soon  infecteth  th^  whole  member,  and  is  ac- 
companied with  watching  and  roving.        Wieeman, 
Kevenge,  revenge,  thus  nming  through  the  streets, 
I'll  cry  for  Tengeance.       8(nUUm*i  Spartan  Dame. 

RAVEL,  V.  a.  &  r.  «.  Belg.  raveUn,  To 
entangle;  perplex;  invoWe;  entwist  one  with 
another;  unweave;  undo  knit-work;  to  fall  into 
perplexity  or  confusion;  work  in  a  perplexed 
state. 
Sleep*  that  knits  up  the  raveied  sleeve  of  pare. 

Shakspeare. 
As  yon  unwind  her  love  from  him, 
■   uKt  it  should  race/,  and  be  ^ood  to  none. 

You  must  provide  to  bottom  it  on  me.         Id. 
It  will  be  needless  to  ravel  far  into  the  records  of 
elder  times ;  every  man's  memory  will  suggest  many 
pertinent  instances.  Decay  of  Piety. 

They  but  ravel  it  over  loosely,  and  pitch  upon 
disputing  against  particular  conclusions,  that,  at  the 
first  encounter  of  tnem  single,  seem  harsh  to  them. 

Digby. 
Give  the  reins  to  wandering  thought. 
Regardless  of  his  glory's  diminution ; 
Till,  by  their  own  perplexities  involved. 
They  ravel  more,  sull  less  resolved, 
But  never  find  self-satisfying  solution. 

Miltoa, 
If  then  such  praise  the  Macedonian  got. 
For  having  rudely  cut  the  Gordian  knot ; 
'What  glory's  due  to  him  that  could  divide 
Suq^  raveled  interests,  has  the  knot  untied. 
And  without  stroke  so  smooth  a  passage  made. 
Where  craft  and  malice  such  obstructions  laid ! 

WaUer, 

The  humour  of  ravMing  into  all  these  mystical  or 

intaAgled  matters,  mingling  with  the  interest  and 

passions  of  princes  and  of  parties,    and  thereby 

heightened  and  inflamed,  produced  infinite  disputes. 

Temple, 
Ravelin,  in  fortification,  was  anciently  a  flat 
bastion  placed  in  the  middle  of  a  curtain.     See 
Fortification. 
RA' V£N,  fi.  s.,  V.  a.  &  v.  n.'\      Saxon    ppepn, 
Rav'emous,  ac[^.  fp^flepian,  to  rob; 

Rav'enously,  adv.  i  Belg.  raven;  Goth. 

Rav'enousness,  It.  s.  3  and  Swed.  rt^n. 
A  large  black  carnivorous  fowl,  whose  cry  is 
supposed  ominous:  to  prey  rapaciously ^  the  ad- 
jective, &c.,  corresponding. 

Beniamin  shall  raven  as  a  wolf ;  in  the  morning  he 
shall  oevour  the  prey,  and  at  night  he  shall  divide 
the  spoil.  Oenetu, 

They  gtped  upon  me  with  their  mouths,  as  a 
rawsinf  and  a  roaring  lion.  Ptalm  zzii.  13.  * 

The  Lion  strangled  for  his  lionesses,  and  filled  his 
holes  with  prey,  and  his  dens  vrith  ramn,    Nahum* 
The  raven  himself  is  hoarse 
That  crokes  the  fatal  entrance  of  Duncan 
Under  my  battlements.     Shaktpeare,  Macbeth. 
Thriftless  ambition,  that  will  rdveri  up 
hine  own  life's  means.  Shakspeare. 

-    The  cloyed  will 
That  satiate  yet  unsatisfied  desire,  that  tuh 
Both  filled  and  runnine,  ravening  first  the  Iamb, 
Longs  after  for  the  garbage.  Id.  Cytnbeline. 


Thydedvas 
Are  wolfish,  bloody,  starveo,  and  ramnmef 

Skakipeare^ 
He  made  the  greedy  niMiu  to  be  £lias'  caterera. 
and  bring  him  food.    -  King  Chwlee^ 

As  when  a  flock 
Of  ravewnu  fowl,  through  many  a  league  remote. 
Against  the  day  of  battle,  to  a  field 
Where  armies  he  encamped  come  flying,  lared 
With  scent  of  living  carcasses. 

Milton's  Paradiee  XoH. 
To  me,  who  with  eternal  famine  pine. 
Alike  is  hell,  or  paradise,  or  heaven;' 
There  best,  where  most  with  ravin  1  may  meet. 

MUton. 
The  ravenounesg  of  a  Hon  or  bear  are  natural  to 
them ;  yet  -their  mission  upon  dn  extraordinary  occa.- 
sion  may  be  an  actus  imperatus  of  divine  providence. 

Hal9. 
I  have  seen  a  perfectly  white  raven,  as  to  bill  as 
well  as  feathers.  Boyle  on  Cplourt. 

On  several  parts  a  several  praise  bestows. 
The  ruby-lips,  and  well-proportioned  nose, 
The  snov?y  skin,  the  raven  glossy  hair. 
The  dimpled  cheek. 

Dryden*i  Cymon  and  Ipklgenh, 
The  more  they  Sad,  they  ravened  still  for  more. 
They  drained  from  Dan,  and  left  Beersheba  poor ; 
But  when  some  lay  preferment  fell  by  chance, 
The  Gourmands  made  it  their  inheritance.  Drgden. 

They  might  not  lie  in  a  condition  exposed  to  the 
ravin  of  any  vermin  that  may  find  them,  being  unable 
to  escape.  Bag. 

What !  the  kind  Ismena, 
That  nursed  me,  watched  my  sickness  1  oh  she 

watched  me, 
As  ravenous  vultures  watch  the  dybg  lion.     Smitlu 

The  raven  once  in  snowy  plumes  was  drest. 
White  as  the  whitest  dove  s  unsullied  breast, 
His  tongue,  his  prating  tongue,  had  changed  him 

quite 
To  sooty  blackness  from  the  purest  white.  Addium. 
Convuluons  rack  man's  nerves,  and  cares  his 
breast, 
His  flying  life  is  chased  by  ravening  pains 
Through  all  his  doubles  in  the  vnnding  veins. 

BlaeknOTt. 
Hence  Gildon  rails,  that  raven  of  the  pit, 
Who  thrives  upon  the  carcasses  of  wit.     yowi^. 
Raven,  in  ornithology.    See  Coavus. 
Ravenna,  a  large  town  in  the  east  of  Italy, 
and  states  of  the  church,  situated  in  a  marshy 
district  at  the  mouth  of  the  Montone.    In  the 
time  of  the  Lower  empire  it  stood  on  a  bay  of 
the  Adriatic,  and  had  a  considerable  port,  sepa- 
rated from  the  city  by  the  Via  Cssaris ;  bu»  tnis 
port  is  now  filled  up  with  mud,  and  the  city, 
though  still  occupying  its  former  site,  as  proved 
by  the  ancient  monuments  it  contains,  is  now  at 
a  distance  of  three  or  four  miles  from  the  sea. 
The  situation  is  pleasant,  though  unhealthy  from 
the  marshy  nature  of  the  ^und.    This  has  been 
partly  remedied  by  carrymg  along  the  side  of  the 
town  the  rivers  Montone  and  Ronco.  In  formet 
times  Ravenna  was  surrounded  with  lasunes :  at 
present^  though  encircled  with  a  mound,  it  is  not 
a  place  of  strength.    Its  streets  are  straight  and 
broad,  but  gloomy ;  and  the  town  has  a  deserted 
aspect.  The  most  interesting  objects  are  the  mo- 
numents of  antiquity,  in  particular  the  ruins  of 
the  palace  of  Theodoric,  and  the  Porta  Aurea,  a 
splendid  gate  of  marble.    Smaller  monuments, 
as  mosaics,  bas  reliefs,  and  statues,  are  fimind  in 


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all  parts  of  th«.  town.    The  cathedral  is  a  Ane 
modeni  edifice,  having  its  nave  supported  by 
four  ranges  of  colamns  of  Grecian  marble.     The 
octagon  church  of  St.  Vitale,  erected  about  the 
sixth  century,  is  likewise  supported  by  pillars  of 
Grecian  marble,  brought  from  Constantinople, 
Another  church,  called  the  Rotonda,  and  situated 
outside  of  the  town,  was  built  in  honor  of  Theo- 
doric,  by  his  daughter  Amalasonda.    Ravenna 
contains  likewise  the  tomb  of  Dante.    It  was 
made  a  Roman  colony  by  Augustus :  Tiberius 
repaired  its  walls,  and  made  other  improvements; 
and  the  emperor  Honorius  made  it  the  seat  of  his 
residence.    Theodoric,  kiug  of  the  Ostrogoths, 
having,  in  the  latter  part  of  the  fifth  century,  be- 
come master  of  Italy,  fixed  here  the  seat  of  his 
empire,  and  erected  several  buildings.    Ravenna 
was  also  the  residence  of  the  imperial  lieutenants 
in  the  reign  of  Justinian ;   and  Longinus,  th^ 
successor  of  Narses,  took  the  title  of  exaich,  borne 
by  the  governors  of  Italy  during  176  years  that 
they  resided  at  Ravenna.     The  exaiduite  was 
brought  to  a  close  in  the  eighth  century,  by  Pe- 
pin; father  of  Charlemagne,  who  made  it  over  to 
the  see  of  Rome.    On  Easter  day,  1512,  9 
battle  was  fought  in  the  neighbourhood  between 
the  French  and  Spaniards,  in  which  the  former 
took  Ravenna  by  assault,  and  plundered  it  in  a 
manner  which  it  never  recovered.  The  town  has 
given  birth  to  several  eminent  men,  and  is  stijl 
the  see  of  an  archbishop,  and  the  residence  of  a 
papal  legate.    Its  manufectures,  chiefly  of  9ilk> 
are  inconsiderable,  but  it  has  a  great  annual  fair. 
Population  12,000.    Forty  miles  east  of  Bolog^« 
na,  and  sevenW  north-east  of  Florence. 

Ravenna  (John  de),  otherwise  called  Mai- 
phaghino,  was  bom  in  Ravenna  in  1352.  He 
studied  under  Donatus  the  grammarian.  After  a 
wandering  life,  for  some  years,  he  settled  at  Pa- 
dua, where  Sicco,  one  of  his  scholars,  says  he 
taught  the  Roman  eloquence  and  moral  philoso- 
phy, with  applause  and  success  beyond  all  the 
professors  of  that  period.  In  1397,  his  forty-fifth 
year,  John  was  invited  by  the  magistrates  of 
Florence  to  settle  in  that  city,  where  he  taught 
many  learned  men.    He  died  about  1418. 

RAUGHT.  The  disused  pret.  and  part.  pass, 
of  Reach.    Snatched ;  reached ;  attained. 

His  tail  was  stretched  out  in  wonderous  length. 
That  to  the  house  of  heavenly  gods  it  ruught. 

And  with  extorted  power  and  borrowed  strength, 
The. ever-burning  lamps  from  thence  it  brought. 

Grittus,  furiously  running  in  upon  Schenden,  vb- 
lently  rvught  from  his  head  his  rich  cap  of  sables, 
and  with  nis  horsemen  took  him.  KnolU§. 

The  hand  of  death  has  roMght  him. 

RAVILLIAC  (Francis),  the  assassin  of  Henry 
IV.  of  France,  was  a  native  of  Angoulesme,  and 
at  the  time  of  his  execution  about  thirty-two 
years  of  age.  Ravilliac's  parents  lived  upon 
alms.  His  father  was  an  inferior  retainer  to  the 
law,  and  his  son  had  been  bred  up  in  the  same 
profession.  Ravilliac  had  set  up  a  claim  to  an 
estate,  but  the  cause  went  against  him,  which  af- 
fected his  mindr  He  afterwards  kept  a  school, 
and  received  gifts  of  small  value  from  the  parents 
of  those  whom  he  taught.  When  he  was  put  to 
die  torture,  he  broke  out  into  horrid  execrations. 


but  always  Insisted  that  he  acted  iram  his  <nm 
impulse,  and  that  he  could  accuse  nobody.   Go 
the  day  of  his  execution,  after  he  had  niade  the 
amende  honourable  before  the  church  of  Notre 
Dame,  he  was  carried  to  the  Greve ;  and  tied  to 
a  wooden  engine  iq  the  shape  of  a  St  Andiew'i 
cross.   His  right  hand,  with  the  knife  widi  which 
he  did  the  murder  £sistened  in  it,  was  first  burnt 
in  a  slow  fire ;  then  the  fleshy  parts  of  his  body 
were  torn  with  red-hot  pincers,  and  melted  1^, 
oil,  pitch,  and  rosin  poured  iuto  the  wounds. 
The  people  refused  to  pray  for  him;  and  when, 
according  to  the  sentence  pronounced  upon  hiza, 
he  came  to  be  dragged  to  pieces  by  four  hor^s, 
one  of  those  that  were  brought  appearing  to  be 
but  weak,  one  of  the  spectators  offered  his  owo, 
with  whidi  the  criminal  wa^  much  moved :  he  is 
said  to  have  then  made  a  confession,  which  was  so 
written  by  the  greffier  Voisin  that  not  one  word 
of  it  could  ever  be  read.    He  was  very  earnest 
for  absolution,  which  his  confessor  refused,  un- 
less he  would  reteal  his  accomplices ;  '  give  it 
me  conditionally,'  said  he,  *  upon  condition  diat 
I  have  told  the  truth,'  which  he  did.    His  body 
was  so  robust,  that  it  resisted  the  force  of  the 
four  horses ;  and  the  executioner  was  at  lepgth 
obliged   to   cut  him   into  quarters,  which  the 
people  dragged  through  the  streets.    The  house 
m  which  he  was  bom  was  demolished,  and  a 
column    of  iniamy    erected;    his    fether  and 
mother  were  banished  firom  Angoulesme,  and 
ordered  to  quit  the  kingdom  upon  pain  of  being 
hanged,  if  they  returned,  without  any  form  of 
process ;  his  brothers,  sisters,  uncles,  and  other 
relations,  were  commanded  to  lay  aside  the  name 
of  Ravilliac,'and  to  assume  some  other.    Such 
was  the  &te  of  this  murderer,  who,  accordhg  to 
his  own  account,  suffered  himself  to  be  impelled 
to  the  act  by  the  seditious  sermons  and  books  of 
the  Jesuits,  whom  Henry,  rather  out  of  fear  than 
love,  had  recalled  and  caressed.    Neithei'the 
dying  words  of  Ravilliac,  nor  so  much  of  his 
process  as  was  published,  were  credited,  by  his 
contemporaries.  Various  reports  were  circulated 
which  it  is  unnecessary  to  recapitulate,  as  tbey 
were  totally -unsupported  by  any  evidence.    See 
Frakce. 

RAVISH,  V.  fl.  Fr.  ranir ;  ltd.  rapire ;  Lat 
rapio.  To  constuprate  by  force;  deflower  by 
violence;  take  away  violently;  overcome  tb^ 
senses ;  hence  transport  with  pleasure. 

J  ^  thou  ranuked  always  with  her  love. 

rTQVtfvt* 

They  ramihed  the  women  and  maids. 

Um.y,  11. 
They  are  cruel  and  bloody,  common  rmuktrt  of 
women,  and  murtherers  of  children.     ,        Sptmer, 
They  cut  thy  sisler's  tongue,  and  ravuM  her. 

These  hairs  which  thou  dost  rmfuk  from  my  chio, 
Will  quicken  and  accuse  thee.         Id,  King  Uar. 

Of  bis  several  ramhmtnii,  betrayings  and  stealiog 
away  of  men's  wives,  came  in  all  those  znaeoi 
fables  of  his  transformations  and  aU  that  rabble  of 
Grecian  forgeries.  Baki^ 

As  all  the  housewiferies  of  deities  are 
To  heare  a  voice  so  ravMiftgly  fair.  Ckapman, 

A  ravither  must  repair  the  temporal  detriment  to 
the  maid,  and  give  her  a  dowry,  or  marry  her  if  she 
desire  it.  Taifhr. 


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T^  them  laiicicBt  i toriw  of  the  rvouftmml  of 
cbaftte  makieiis.  id,  Mm  of  Hoiy  Living, 

Wliat  a  ramthmcnt  ym  that,  wheo,  having  found 
oQt  the  way  to  measure  Hiero's  crown,  he  leaped  out 
of  the  bath,  and,  as  if  be  were  iuddenly  possest,  ran 
naked  up  and  down  1  Witldna. 

Can  any  mortal  mixture  of  earth's  mould 
fiieathe  such  diTine  enchanting  ramskment  t 

I  owe  myielf  the  care. 
My  feme  and  injured  honour  to  sepair ; 
From  thy  own  teikt,  proud  roan,  in  thjjr  despi^, 
This  hand  shall  nvitk  thy  pretended  right. 

Turn  hence  those  pointed  fflories  of  your  eyes ; 
For  if  more  charms  beneath  those  circles  rise, 
60  weak  my  virtue,  they  so  strong  appear, 
I  shall  torn  ramktr  to  keep  you  here.  Id, 

I  loM  Aem  I  was  one  of  their  knight  enants  that 
deliveied  them  from  fuviskment.  Id» 

But  when  in  beauty's  li|<ht 
She  meets  my  rmniud  sight, 
Wlien  through  m;^  very  heart 
Her  beaming  glories  dart ; 
Tis  then  I  wake  to  life,  to  light,  and  joy^ 

MunUm 
RAVrrZ,  or  Rawitsch,  a  fortified  town  of 
Prussian  Poland,  near  the  confines  of  Silesia. 
It  has  a  wall  and  ditch ;  four  gates ;  is  r^olarly 
built,  and  the  streets  generally  paved.  Of  the 
8000  inhabitants  1200  are  Jews ;  the  rest  chiefly 
Lutherans.  It  has  manufactures  of  woollen, 
linen,  hats,  and  leather.  The  town  was  erected 
by  fugitives  from  Germany,  during  the  thirty 
years'  war.  In  1704  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden 
took  up  bis  winter  quarters  here;  but  in  1707 
the  Russians  plundered  and  burned  it  down.  In 
1802  the  greatest  part  was  again  burned  by  an 
accidental  fire.  Fifty-five  miles  south  of  Poaen. 
RAU JESHT,  an  extensive  district  of  Bengal, 
situated  principally  between  24**  and  25°  of 
N.  lat  It  is  intersect^  and  watered  in  its 
whole  length  by  ^e  Ganges  and  other  rivers.  It 
produces  four-fifths  of  the  silk  exported  from 
Bengal,  and  contains  Moorshudabad,  Baulea, 
Commercolly,  and  Bogwangola,  and  1,500,000 
inhabitants.  The  lemindary  of  this  district  had 
been  long  possessed  by  a  Hindoo  familv,  the  last 
of  whom,  dreading  the  tyranny  of  the  nabob 
Moorshud  Cooly  Jaffier  khan,  terminated  his 
own  existence,  and  the  zemindary  was  transferred 
about  the  year  t722  to  a  person  named  Ran^e* 
won,  whose  iamily  still  retain  it. 

RAURICUM,  in  ancient  geography,  a  town 
of  the  Raurici,  situated  over  asainst  Abnoba,  a 
mountain  from  which  the  Danube  takes  its  rise. 
It  was  a  Roman  colony,  led  by  Lucius  Munatius 
Plancus,  the  scholar  and  friend  of  Cicero ;  called 
Colonia  Rauriaca,  by  Pliny,  Raurica,  and  Au- 
gusta Rauricorum.  The  town  was  destroyed  in 
Julian's  time. 

RAUVQLFIA,  a  genus  of  the  monogynia 
order,  and  pentandxia  class  of  plants ;  natural 
order  thirtieth,  cortortse.  It  is  named  after  the 
celebnted  botanist  Rauwolf. 

RAUWOLF  (Leonard),  a  learned  physician 
and  botanist  of  the  sixteenth  century,  bom  in 
Angsbnrg.  T6  acouire  the  knowledge  of  botany, 
he  travelled  through  Syria,  Arabia,  and  America. 
He  published  an  Account  of  his  Travels,  which 


was  translated  and  printed  in  England  Id  1699. 
Being  persecuted  (of  his  religions  opinions,  he. 
retired   to   Linton,   where  he  died   in  1606. 
His  Flora  Orientalis  w^  published  at  Ij^den 
1755. 
RAW,«if.       -V     Sa».  ppeap;  Teut,  and 
{Iaw'boneo,      /Belg.   raco^   rauw;    Goth. 
Ra Vhead,  n»  $'  >  and  Swed.  ra.    Uncooked ; 
Raw'ly,  adv. .    i  unwrought ;  baie  or  stripped 
Raw  NESS,  f».  f .  J  of  skin ;  sore ;  unripe ;  new ; 
'Crude ;  bleak ;  chill :  lawboned  is  having  bones 
scarcely  covered  with  flesh:  raiy-head,  a  sup- 
posed spectre  or  hobgoblin :  the  adverb  and  noun 
jsubstantive  following  correspond  with  raw. 

If  there  be  quick  ram  flesh  in  the  risings,  it  if  an 
old  lenrosy.  Lentiau  xiii*  50. 

FuU  of  great  lumps  of  flesh*  and  gobbeU  raw, 

Spenter, 
They  carried  always  with  them  that  weed,  as  their 
houae,  their  bedf  and  their  gaiment;  and,  coming 
lately  into  Ireland,  thev  found  there  more  speciu 
vse  thereof,  by  reason  of  ^  rmw  cold  climate. 

Id.  SUOi  of  Ireland. 
All  aloud  the  wind  doth  blow. 
And  oou^ng  dcowas  the  pasHm's  saw ; 

And  birds  sit  brooding  in  the  snow, 
And  Marian's  nose  looks  red  and  rmo, 

fi&oteworv* 
I  have  in  my  nlnd 
A  thousand  raw  tricks  of  these  bragging  jacks. 

Id, 

Youthful  still  in  your  doublet  and  liose,  this  raw 

thepmatick  day.  Id, 

Lean  rawbon$d  rascals  I  who  would  e*er  foppose 

They  had  such  courage  t  Id. 

Some  ciying  for  a  surgeon,  some  upon  the  debts 
they  owe,  some  upon  their  children  raw^  left. 

Id.  Hmry  V. 
Why  in  that  rvwnm  left  he  wile  and  children, 
without  leave  tskingl  Id,  Maobeik, 

Some  people,  very  tatp  and  ignorant,  are  very  un- 
worthily ana  unfitly  nominated  to  places,  when  men 
of  desert  are  held  back  aad  unpreferred. 

Raleigh**  Baays, 
Distilled  watecs  will  last  longer  than  raw  waters. 

Baeon. 
Charles  V.,  considering  the  rawfi«M  of  his  i 
established  a  pilot  major  for  their  ezsmination* 


The  fim  digests  the  raumtu  of  the  night. 

Bp,  HaU.  CoHtomfdatum, 
Sails  were  spread  to  every  wind  that  blew, 
Sato  were  the  sailors  and  the  depths  were  new. 

Jhydm, 
Hence  dmw  -thy  theme,  and  to  the  stage  permit 
RavAead  and  bloody  bones,  and  hands  and  feet, 
Bagouts  for  Tereus  or  Thyestes  drest.  Id. 

The  wolf  was  content  to  barter  away  a  rawbotud 
carcase  for  a  smooth  and  fat  one.  L'Euram^. 

Servantb  awe  children,  and  keep  them  in  *8ubjec* 
tioD,  by  telling  them  of  rawkoad  and  bloody  bones. 

Imkho, 
People,  while  yoaag  and  raw,  and  soft-natnied, 
are  apt  to  think  it  an  eas^  thing  to  gain  love,  and 
leokon  their  own  firiendship  a  sure  price  of  another 
man's ;  but,  when  experience  shall  have  onoe  opened 
their  ^es,  they  frill  find  that  a  friend  is  the  gift  of 
God.  South, 

RAWANKRAJD,  a  noted  long  and  narrow 
lake  in  the  mountains  of  Thibet,  to  the  north 
of  the  great  Himmaleh  raqge.  It  is  connected 
with  the  lake  Mansoiawar,  and  gives  rise  to  the 


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Suttelega.  It  is  divided  b'y  an  island  and  fed  by 
several  small  rivers,  and  by  the  melting  of  the 
snow,  with  which  the  neighbouring  mountains 
ate  always  covered.  In  its  vicinity  is  to  be  seen 
Mount  Cailas,  a  celebrated  scene  of  Hindoo 
(able.  It  is  situated  about  31°  of  N.  lat.,  and 
was  visited  in  the  year  1812  by  Mr.  Moorcrofl. 

RAWLEY  (William),  D.  D.,  a  learned  di- 
vine, bom  at  Norwich,  about  1518.  He  studied 
at  Benet  College,  Cambridge ;  took  his  degree 
ofA.fi.  in  1604;  A.M.  in  1608;  fi.  D.  in 
1615;  and  D.  D.  in  1621.  In  1609  he  was 
ehosen  fellow;  took  orders  in  1611,  and  was 
appointed  rector  of  Landbeach  in  1616.  Al- 
though he  was  chaplain  to  lord  Verulam,  and 
afterwards  to  king  Charles  I.  and  II.,  he  never 
received  any  higher  promotion.  During  the 
commonwealth  he  was  ejected  by  the  parlia- 
ment; but  survived  their  power,  and  was  re- 
stored to  his  living,  which  he  held  till  his  death, 
June  18th,  1667.  He  was  married  and  had  a 
«on 

RAWLINS  (Thomas),  a  dramatic  writer,  who 
was  engraver  for  the  mint  under  Charles  I.  and 
II.  He  wrote  three  plays,  entitled  Rebellion, 
Tom  Essence,  and  Tunbridge  Wells ;  and  died 
in  1670. 

RAWLtNSON  (Richard),  LL.D.,  an  eminent 
English  antiquary,  educated  at  St.  John's  Col- 
lege, Oxford,  where  he  took  his  degrees  in  1713 
and  1719.  He  made  large  collections  for  the 
continuation  of  Wood's  Athenie  Oxonienses,  and 
History  of  Oxford  ;  which,  with  notes  of  his  own 
travels,  he  bequeathed  to  the  university.  He 
promoted  the  publication  of  many  books  of  his- 
tory and  antiquities,  with  particular  descriptions 
of  several  counties  in  England.  In  1728  he 
translated  and  published  Fresnoy's  new  mode  of 
studying  history,  with  a  catalogue  of  the  chief 
historians,  2  vols.  8vo.  In  1 750  he  founded  an 
Anglo-Saxon  professorship  at  Oxford ;  and  be- 
queathed to  that  university  a  large  collection  of 
books  and  medals,  and  also  his  heart  in  a  marble 
urn.    He  died  at  Islington  in  1755. 

Rawlinson  (Christopher,  esq,),  of  Clarkhall, 
in  Lancashire,  another  learned  antiquary,  was 
born  in  1677,  and  educated  at  Queen's  College, 
Oj^ford.  He  became  eminent  for  his  skill  in 
Saxon  and  northern  literature ;  and  published  a 
beautiful  edition  of  king  Alfred's  Saxon  transla- 
tion of  Boethius  de  Consolatione,  Oxford  1698, 
8vo,  He  died  January  8lh,  1733,  leaving  a  gngat 
collection  of  MSS. 

Rawlinson  (ITiomas),  a  learned  collector  of 
books,  conimemorated  in  Addison's  Tatler,  under 
the  name  of  Tom  Folio.  He  collected  such  a 
quantity  of  books  that  he  took  a  large  house 
on  purpose  for -them.  He  died  in  1725,  aged 
forty-four,  and  the  sale  of  his  library  lasted  three 
months. 

RAY  (John),  a  celebrated  botanist,  was  bom 
at  Black  Notley  in  Essex,  in  1628.  He  received 
the  first  rudiments  of  education  at  the  grammar- 
school  at  Braintree;  and  in  1644  was  admitted 
into  Catharine  Hall,  Cambridge,  whence  he  af- 
terwards removed  to  Trinity  College  in  that  uni- 
versity. He  took  the  degree  of  M.  A.  and  be- 
came at  length  a  senior  fellow  of  the  college ; 
but  his  intense  application  to  hu  studies  having 


injured  his  health,  he  was  obliged  to  exenn» 
himself  by  riding  or  walking  in  the  fields,  whid 
led  him  to  the  study  of  plants.  In  1660  he 
published  his  Catalpgus  Plantarum  circa  Canta- 
nrigiam  nascentium,  and  was  ordained  deacon 
and  priest  In  1661  he  made  a  tour  through 
Britain  along  with  Mr.  Willughby,  in  search  of 
rare  plants ;  and  in  1662  accompanied  him  in  a 
tour  through  Holland,  Germany,  France,  and 
Italy;  and  on  his  return  was  made  F.R.S. 
In  1672  Mr.  Willughby  dyin^  left  Ray  one  of 
his  executors,  and  tutor  to  his  sons,  with  £60 
a  year  for  life.  For  their  use  he  composed  his 
NomencIatoT  Classicus,  in  1672.  In  1673  he 
married  a  daughter  of  Mr.  Oakley,  of  Launlon, 
Oxfordshire;  and  published  his  Observations 
Topographical  and  Moral,  &c.,  made  in  foreign 
countries;  to  which  was  added  his  Catalogiis 
Stirpium  in  Exteris  Regionibus  Observatarum ; 
and  about  the  same  time  his  Cc^lection  of  Un- 
usual or  local  English  Words,  which  be  had  ga- 
thered up  in  his  travels  through  the  counties  of 
England.  In  1697  he  published  the  Wisdom 
of  God  manifested  in  the  Works  of  the  Creation, 
8vo.  The  rudiments  of  this  work  /were  read  in 
some  college  lectures  ;  and  another  collection  of 
the  same  kind  he  enlarged  and  published  under 
the  title  of  Three  Physico-Theological  Dis- 
courses, concerning  the  Chaos,  Deluge,  and  Dis- 
solution of  the  Worid,  8vo.  1692.  He  died  in 
1705.  He  was  modest,  affable,  and  communi- 
cative ;  and  was  distinguished  by  his  probity  and 
piety.  He  wrote  a  great  number  of  other  works ; 
the  principal  of  which  are,  1.  Catalogus  Plan- 
tarum Anglis.  2.  Dictionariolum  Trilingue  se- 
cundum Locos  Communes.  3.  Historia  Plan- 
tarum, Species  hactenus  Editas,  aliasque  insuper 
no V  Her  multas  Inventas  et  Descriptas,  Com- 
plectens,  3  vols.  4.  Melhodus  Plantarum  Nova, 
cum  Tabulis,  8vo.,  and  several  other  works  on 
plants.  5.  'Synopsis  Methodica  .Aniraalium, 
Quadrupedum  et  Serpentini  Generis,  8vo.  6. 
Synopsis  Methodica  Avium  et  Piscium.  7.  His- 
toria Insectorum,  Opus  Posthumaro.  8.  Me- 
thodus  Insectorum.  9.  Philosophical  Letters, 
&c. 

Ray,  n.  «.&v.a.  Fr.  raie;  Span,  rago;  Ital. 
raggio ;  IaX.  radius.  A  beam  of  light ;  any  lustre, 
natural  or  artificial ;  a  mental  beam :  as  an  obso- 
lete verb  active,  to  streak  with  ray-like  lines. 

Before  a  bubbling  fountain  low  she  lay, 
Which  sbe  increased  with  her  bleeding  heart. 
And  the  clean  waves  with  purple  gore  did  ray, 

Spenser, 
His  horse  is  raied  with  the  yellows.     Skai^^emre. 

These  e^es  that  roll  in  vain 
To  find  thy  piercing  ray,  and  find  no  dawn 

MTUttm. 
The  least  light,  or  part  of  light,  which  mav  be 
stopt  alone,  or  do  or  .suffer  any  thing  alone,  which 
the  rest  of  the  light  doth  not  or  suflfen  not,  I  call  a 
ray  of  light.  AwfM. 

Sol  through  white  curtains  shot  a  tirn'roos  rsy, 
And  op'd  those  tyes  that  must  eclipse  the  day. 

Pept, 
Then  kneeling  down,  to  Heaven's  Eternal  King* 
The  saint,  the  father,  and  the  husband  prays - 
Hope  "  springs  exulting  on  triainpbant  wing,' 
That  thus  they  all  shall  meet  in  future  days: 
There  ever  bask  in  uncreated  rays. 


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No  BMm  to  Mgk.  or  shed  Uio  Uttef  tear. 
Together  hjmnmg  their  Creator's  piaiae.  Bumt^ 

Ray,  in  optics.    See  Licet  and  Optics. 

Rat9,  Inflectbd,  those  rays  of  light  which, 
on  their  near  approach  to  the  edges  of  bodies; 
in  passing  bv  them,  are  bent  out  of  their  course, 
being  turned  either  from  the  body  or  towards  it. 
This  property  of  the  rays  of  light  is  generally 
termed  aifiraction  by  foreigners,  and  Dr.  Hooke 
sometimes  called  it  deflection. 

Rays,  Pencil  of,  a  number  of  rays  issuing 
from  a  point  of  an  object,  and  direrging  in  the 
form  of  a  cone. 

Rays,  Reflected,  those  rava  of  light,  which, 
after  fallii^  upon  the  body,  do  not  go  beyond 
the  surface  of  it,  but  are  thrown  back  again. 

Rays,  Refracted,  those  rays  of  light  which, 
after  falling  upon  any  medium,  enter  its  surface, 
being  bent  eitner  towards  or  from  a  perpendicu* 
lar  to  the  point  on  which  they  felL 

RAYNAL  (William  Thomas),  the  celebrated 
abb^  was  bom  in  1712:  educated  among  the 
Jesuits,  and  had  even  become  a  member  of  their 
order;  bnt  was  expelled  for  denying  the  supreme 
authority  of  the  church.  He  afterwards  asso- 
ciated withVoluire,  D'Alembert,and  Diderot,  and 
was  by  them  employed  to  furnish  the  theological 
articles  lor  the  Encyclopedie.  In  this,  however, 
he  received  the  assistance  of  the  abbe  Yvon,  to 
whom  he  did  not  give  above  a  sixth  part  of  what 
he  received;  which  being  afterwards  discovered, 
be  was  obliged  to  pay  Yvon  the  balance.  His 
most  celebrated  work  is  his  Political  and  Philo- 
sophical History  of  the  European  Settlements 
in  the  East  and  West  Indies ;  which  has  been 
traanlatfid  into  all  the  languages  of  Europe,  and 
much  admired.  This  work  was  followed  in 
1780  by  another,  entitled  The  Revolution  of 
America,  in  which  the  abb^leads  the  cause  of 
the  Americans  with  zeal.  The  French  govern- 
ment commenced  a  prosecution  against  him  for 
the  former  of  these  works ;  npon  which  he  re- 
tired to  Berlin,  where  Fredenck  the  Great  af- 
forded him  an  asylum.  The  chief  trait  in  Ray- 
nal's  character  was  his  love  of  liberty ;  but,  when 
he  saw  the  length  to  which  the  French  revolu- 
tionists were  going,  he  made  one  effort  to  stop 
them  in  their  career.  In  May,  1 791,  he  addressed 
a  letter  to  the  Constituent  National  Assembly, 
in  which,  after  complimenting  them  upon  thp 
great  things  they  had  done,  he  cautioned  them 
against  the  dangers  of  going  farther.  He  lived 
not  only  to  see  his  forebcxlings  of  public  ca- 
lamity realised,  but  to  suffer  his  share  of  it 
After  being  stripped  of  all  his  property,  which 
was  considerable,  by  the  robbers  of  the  revolu- 
tion, he  died  in  poverty,  in  March  1796,  in  the 
eighty-fourth  year  of  his  age.  Besides  the  works 
above  mentioned,  he  wrote,  1.  A  History  of 
the  Parliament  of  England.  2.  A  History  of 
the  Stadtholderate.  3.  The  History  of  the  Di- 
vorce of  Catharine  of  Arragon  by  Henry  VIII. 
About  the  time  of  his  dea&,  he  was  preparing 
anew  edition  of  all  his  works,  with  many  altera- 
tions; and  he  is  said  to  have  left  among  his 
MSS.  A  History  of  the  Revocation  of  the  Edict 
of  Nantes,  in  4  vols;  but  during  the  bloody 
reign  of  Robeapierre  he  burnt  a  great  number  of 
his  MSS.  ^ 


RAZE,  n.  $,  Span,  nryx,  a  root,  A  root  of 
ginger.    Written  also  race,  but  less  properly, 

I  have  a  gammon  of  bacon  and  tvfo  raxes  of  gineer 

to  be  delivered.  Shaktpeare,  Henry  IV. 

Raze,  v.  0.      )      Tt.  rater;  Lat.  rona.    See 

Ra'zurb,  11. «.  S  Rasr.    To  overthrow ;  ruiu ; 

subvert ;  efi'ace :  razure,  the  act  or  mark  of  razing. 

Will  you  suffer  a  temple,  how  poorlj  built  soever^ 

but  yet  a  temple  of  your  deity,  to  be  raxed? 

Sidney, 
It  nieved  the  tyrant  that  so  base  a  town  should  so 
long  hold  oat,  so  that  he  would  threaton  to  raxe  it. 

KnoiUt. 
He  yoaketh  your  rsbellious  necks, 
Haxetk  your  cities,  and  subverts  your  towns. 

Shakepeare. 
Pluck  from  the  memory  a  rooted  sorrow. 
Rase  out  the  written  troubles  of  the  brain.      Id^ 

Oh !  your  desert  speaks  loud , 
It  well  deserves  with  characters  of  brass 
A  forted  residence,  'gainst  the  tooth  of  time 
And  nmnre  of  oblivion.  Id» 

He  in  derision  sets 
Upon  their  tongues  a  various  spirit,  to  raxe 
Quite  out  their  native  language ;  and  instead, 
To  sow  a  jangline  noise  of  worcU.  Milton. 

Shed  Chnstian  blood,  and  populous  cities  raxe ; 
Because  they're  taught  to  uso  some  difierent  phrase. 

•  WaUer. 
We  touched  with  joy 
The  royal  hand  that  rased  unhappy  Troy. 

JJryden, 
The  place  would  be  raged  to  the  ground,  and  its 
foundations  sown  with  salt.       Addi$(m*$  Spectator 

RA'ZOR,  n.$,  1     Fr.  raioir;  Lat.  rotor,    A 

Ra'zorfish.  $  knife  used  in  shaving:  a  fish, 
so  called  from  its  shape. 

Zeal,  except  ordered  aright,  useth  the  rotor  with 
such  eaeerness  that  the  life  of  religion  is  thereby 
bazardea.  Hooker. 

These  words  are  rason  to  my  wounded  heart. 

Shahtfpeare, 

New-bom  chins  be  rough  and  rammrabU,        Id, 

The  sheath  or  rasorjieh  lesembleth  in  length  and 
bigness  a  man's  finger.  Carew. 

Those  thy  boisterous  locks,  not  by  the  sword 

Of  noble  warrior,  so  to  stain  his  honour. 

But  by  the  bajber's  rator  best  subdued.    Milton, 

Rasor  makers  generally  clap  a  small  bar  of  Venice 
steel  between  two  smalt  bars  of  Flemish  steel,  and 
weld  them  together,  to  strengthen  the  back  of  the 
raxor,  Moxon, 

As  in  smooth  oil  the  roMor  best  is  whet. 
So  wit  is  by  politeness  shar^iest  set, 
Their  want  of  edge  from  their  offence  is  seen  ; 
Both  pain  us  least  when  exquisitely  keen.     Young, 

REACCESS',  n.s.  Re  and  access.  Renewed 
visit. 

Let  pass  the  quailin|;  and  withering  of  all  things 
by  the  recess,  and  their  reviving  by  the  reaeeett  of 
the  iun.  HaiewiU, 

REACH,  V,  a.,  v,n,k,n,  t.  Sax.  pascan ;  Belg. 
tkken ;  Goth,  rtdda.  To  attain ;  penetrate  or 
be  adequate  to ;  arrive  at ;  touch,  strike,  or  fetch, 
from  a  distance;  hold  out;  give:  as  a  verb 
neuter,  be  extended ;  penetrate ;  be  far  extended ; 
endeavour:  as  a  noun  substantive  reach  is  power 
of  touching,  taking,  or  compassing;  limit  of  fa- 
culties; attainment;  anthonty;  range;  extent; 
scheme ;  device ;  fetch. 

He  hath  delivered  them  into  your  hand,  and  ye 
have  slain  them  in  a  rage,  that  reachoih  up  unto 
heaven.  2  Chromdoe  zxviii. 


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Rwdk  faithw  thy  flnger,  and  behold  nj  hands ; 
and  vMcft  hither  thy  hand,  and  thrust  it  into  my 
tide.  John  ix.  27. 

He  ftttdted  toe  a  foil  cop.  2  Suirti  xir.  39. 

These  kinds  of  goodness  are  so  nearly  united  to 
the  things  which  dwire  them,  that  wa  scarcely  per* 
cetve  the  appetite  to  stir  in  rtaekmg  forth  her  hand 
towards  them.  Hooker. 

We  hold  that  the  power  which  the  church  hath 
lawfully  to  make  laws,  doth  extend  unto  sundry 
things  of  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction,  and  such  other 
matters  whereto  their  opinion  is,  that  the  church's 
authority  and  power  doth  not  rtaek.  Id, 

Great  men  hare  rtaehing  hands.         Shdupean, 
Strain  not  my  speech 
To  grosser  issues,  nor  to  larger  rtoeh. 
Than  to  suspicion.  id.  Othello, 

ne  duke  of.  Parma  had  particular  rmefut  and 
ends  to  his  own  underhand,  to  cross  the  design. 

Bacon, 
Some,  under  types,  have  affected  obscurity  to 
amuse  and  make  themselves  admired  for  profound 
reaches,  Howei. 

Round  the  tree 
They  longing  stood,  but  could  not  rtaxk» 

MUtoH, 
Thy  desire  leads  to  nd  excess  that  reaehet  blame. 

Id. 
Lest  he  reach  of  the  tree  of  life,  and  eat.         Id. 

The  confines  met  of  empyrean  heaven. 
And  of  this  world:  and,  on  the  left  hand,  hell 
With  long  reach  interposed.      Id,  Paradise  Lost. 
The  new  world  reaches  quite  cross  the  torrid  zone 
in  one  tropick  to  the  other.  B&yle. 

The  coast  so  long  desired 
Thy  troops  shall  rsocfc,  but  having  reached,  repent. 

Dryden, 
What  remains  beyond  this,  we  have  no  more  a 
poMtiva  notion  of,  than  a  mariner  has  of  the  depth 
of  the  sea ;  where,  having  let  down  his  sounding  line, 
he  reeiehes  no  bottom.  Locks. 

When  men  pursue  their  thoughts  of  space,  they 
are  apt  to  stop  at  the  confines  of  body,  as  if  space 
were  there  at  an  end  too,  and  reached  no  farther. 

Id. 
There  may  be  in  a  man's  readi  a  book  containing 
pictures  ana  discourses,  capable  to  delight  and  in- 
struct him,  which  yet  he  may  never  have  the  will  to 
open.  Id. 

Through  such  hands 
The  knowledge  of  the  gods  is  reached  to  man. 

Rowe. 
Here  imprecations  reach  not  to  the  tomb. 
They  shut  not  out  society  in  death.  Adttison^s  Cato. 

What  are  riches,  empire,  power. 
But  larger  means  to  gratify  the  will ; 
The  steps  by  which  we  climb  to  rise  and  reach 
Our  wish,  and,  that  obtained,  down  with  a  scaffolding 
Of  sceptres,  crowns,  and  thrones:  they've  served 

their  end. 
And  there  like  lumber  to  be  left  and  scorned  t 

Coitgreve. 
The  best  accounts  of  the  appearances  of  nature, 
which  human  penetiatioQ  can  reach,  come  short  of 
iu  reality.  •  Cheyne. 

'    It  must  fall  perhaps  before  this  ietter  reaches  your 
iiands.  Pops. 

Be  sure  yourself  and  your  own  reach  to  know. 
How  far  your  g^ios,  taste,  and  learning  go.      Id. 

The  inihienoe  of  tiie  stars  readtes  to  many  events, 
which  are  not  in  the  power  of  reason.  Swift. 

REACT',  «.  a.    )     Re  and  act.    To  retam 
Reac'tion,  fi.  i.  S  an  impulse  or  impression : 
the  noun  substantive  corresponding. 


Do  not  great  bodies  conserve  theb  heat  the  loBgeit, 
their  parts  heating  one  another ;  and  may  not  gfreat, 
dense,  and  fixed  bodies,  when  heated  b^nd  a  cer- 
tain degree,  emit  light  so  copiously  as  by  the 
emission  and  reaction  of  its  light,  and  the  r^Qectioat 
and  refractions  of  its  rays  wiuin  its  pores,  to  grow 
still  hotter  till  it  comes  to  a  certain  penod  of  bat, 
such  as  that  of  the  sun  T  NewUmU  Optich. 

The  lungs  being  the  chief  instrument  of  sanguifica- 
tion, and  acting  strongly  upon  the  chyle  to  bring  it 
tp  an  animal  fluid,  mnstoe  reacted  upon  ss  ttrongiy. 

AfhuUmt. 
Cut  off  your  hand,  and  you  atiay  do 
With  t'other  hand  the  woit  of  two ; 
Because  the  soul  her  power  contracts, 
And  on  the  brother  limb  reacu. 

Swift's  MiseeUenies, 

READ,v.a.,v.ti.&fi.t.-\     Sax.  |ueb;  Teut 
READ'Ea,  «.  t.  Ireden;    Goth,  redo, 

Read'ehship,  iradOf  to  eaplain  or 

Read'ing.  JdiTine.    To  peroie; 

discover  by  marks  or  characters ;  hence  learn  by 
observation  of  any  kind ;  to  perform  the  act  of 
reading ;  be  studious ;  know  by  reading :  as  an 
obsolete  noun  substantive,  counsel;  saying: 
a  reader  is  he  who  reads ;  who  is  studious;  or 
whose  office  it  is  to  read  in  public :  readership, 
his  office :  reading  is  public  recital ;  study ;  varia- 
tion of  copies. 

It  shall  be  with  him,  and  he  shall  read  therein, 
that  he  may  learn  to  fear  the  Lord.  Deut.  xvii.  19. 
Give  attendance  to  reading,  exhortatioa,  and  doc- 
trine. 1  Timothy. 
The  man  is  blest  that  hath  not  lent 
To  wicked  read  his  ear.  StenksU, 
This  reade  is  rife  that  oftantime 
Great  cumbers  fall  unioft. 
In  humble  dales  is  footing  fast, 
The  trade  ii  not  so  tickle.  Spemer. 
An  armed  corse  did  lye, 
In  whose  dead  face  he  read  great  magnanimity.  Id. 
The  Jews  had  their  weekly  readinge  of  the  law. 

Hochrr. 
1  have  seen  her  take  forth  paper,  write  upon't, 
read  it,  and  afterwards  seal  it.  Shahtpan. 

O  most  delicate  fiend! 
Who  is't  can  tead  a  woman  t 
As  we  must  take  the  can  that  oar  words  asd 
sense  be  clear ;  ao,  if  the'obi[:urity  happen  throagh 
the  hearen  or  rtaders  want  tif  undecstandiog,  I  an 
not  to  answer  for  them.  Ben  Jontsa. 

Tis  sure  that  Fleuiy  raiuii.  ToffUr. 

Vti|;il's  ahepherds  are  too  well  rasie  in  the  phiiois- 
phy  of  Epicurus.  Dnfdea. 

Basiris'  altars,  and  the  dire  decrees 
Of  h'ajd  Eurestheus,  every  reader  sees.        Id. 
Till  a  man  can  judse  whether  they  be  truths  or  no, 
his  understanding  is  out  little  improved:  and  tbu 
men  of  much  reading  are  greatly  learned,  but  may  )x 
little  knowing.  Loete. 

We  have  a  poet  among  us,  of  a  genius  as  exalted 
as  his  stature,  and  who  is  very  well  read  in  I^ngiaas, 
his  treatise  concerning  the  sublime.  Addisoe. 

That  learned  prelate  has  restored  some  of  the 
na^of  iif  the  anthois  vrith  preat  sagacity. 

ArbulhMft  en  Coins. 
The  passage  you  must  have  read,  though  since 
dipt  out  of  your  memory.  P<V^* 

Less  reading  than  makes  felons  'scape, 
Less  human  genius  than  God  gives  an  ape. 
Can  make  a  Gibber.  ^     ^'• 

I  have  read  of  an  eastern  king,  who  put  a  judge  to 
death  for  an  iniquitous  sentence.  ^t'^* 


Digitized  by 


vjQOgle 


READING. 


899 


He  got  into  mdek;  and  beeune  a  ttaitr  in  a 
parish  dkuch  at  twenty  poamb  a  year.  Id. 

When  they  have  taken  a  degree,  they  get  Into  ot- 
den,  and  solicit  a  tuodenft^.  Xd,  MlueeUamtt. 

Though  reading  and  conyersation  mav  ftiraish  ui 
with  many  ideas  ot  men  and  things,  yet  it  is  our  own 
meditation  most  form  our  judgmenL 

WatU  on  ikg  MTmd. 

READEFTtON,  n.  t.  Lat  re  and  adeptta, 
Recorexy ;  act  of  r^aining.  jt 

Will  any  say  that  the  nadeptum  of  TreWgi  was 
matter  of  scruple  f  Bacon, 

READING,  a  borough,  market  and  county- 
town  in  the  county  of  Berks,  is  thirty-nine 
miles  west  by  south  from  the  metropolis,  on  the 
high  road  from  London  to  Bath.    It  is  of  consi- 
derable extent  and  importance,  and  is  unques- 
tionably of  yery  great  antiquity;  but  whether  it 
is  indebted  for  its  origin  to  the  Britons,  the  Ro« 
mans,  or  the  Saxons,  is  unknown.    In  1389  a 
great  council  Mna  held  at  Reading,  at  which  the 
king  and  his  barons  were  reconciled  by  John  of 
Gaunt.     Parliaments  were  held  hete  in  1440 
and  1451 ;  in  the  former  of  which  the  order  of 
viscounts  was    first   established;  and    in  the 
year  following  the  parliament  adjourned  hither 
from  Westminster,  on  account  of  the  plagye. 
Edward  IV.'s   marriage  with  Elizabeth,  lady 
Orey,  was  first  acknowledged  at  Readingi  in 
1464 ;  on  which  occasion  she  made  her  public 
appearance  at  the  abbey,  conducted  by  the  duke 
of  Gloucester  and  the  earl  of  Warwick.  In  1466 
pariiament  was  a  second  time  adjourned  to  Read- 
uig,  to  avoid  the  plague.    King  Henry  VIII. 
frequently  resided  liere  at  the  dissolved  abbey. 
His  son,  king  Edward  VI.,  visited  the  town  m 
1552,  when  he  was  met  by  the  mayor  and  alder- 
men at  Coley-Cross,  and  presented  with  two 
yokes  of  oxen.     The  same  ceremony  was  re- 
peated when  Reading  was  vbited  by  the  bigots 
ted  Mary,  and  her  husband,  Philip  of  Spain. 
When,  early  in  the  reign  of  Charles  I.,  the  plague 
raged  with  great  viotence  in  the  metropolis,  all 
the  great  courts  of  law  were  held  here.   In  1642 
Heading  was  a  parliamentaiy  post ;  but  the  gar- 
rison, wanting  ammunition,  quitted  the  tofwn, 
without  resistance,  on  the  approach  of  the  king's 
horse.    In  consequence  of  this  event  it  became 
^  royal  garrison,  and  continued  to  be  so  till  taken 
by  Essex  in  April  1643,  after  a  siege  of  eight 
days.    The  king,  however,  again  recovered  it  in 
September,  and  held  it  till  Ma^  1644,  when  he 
ordered  the  works  to  be  demolished.    Readiuflr 
was  afterwards  frequently  occupied  as  the  head 
quarters  of  the  parliamentary  army,  and  much 
impoverished  by  the  contributions  levied  upon 
it    In  1688  the  army  of  king  James  II.  vras 
quartered  in  this  town,  but  quitted  it  on  the  ap- 
proach of  thejprince  of  Orange.    In  1 700  queen 
Anne  visited  Keading,  when  she  was  received  by 
the  corporation  in  state,  and  presented  with  forty 
broad  pieces  of  gold  in  an  elegant  purse. 

The  first  monarch  who  conferrea  upon  Read- 
ing the  privilege  of  separate  jurisdiction  vras 
Henry  itl.  His  charter  was  confirmed  by  all 
kb  sucoessois,  but  without  any  material  altera- 
tions,  till  the  reign  6f  Henry  VI.,  when  the  cor- 
poration is  first  mentioned  by  tiie  title  of  the 
noyorand  burgesses.  Charles  I.  authori8ed<alder- 


men  to  be  elected,  and  invested  them  wiA  ample 
powers  for  the  government  of  the  town.  T^ 
;  charter  was  confirmed,  after  the  restoration,  by 
Charles  II.,  and  is  the  one  now  extant.  By  it 
the  officers  are  declared  to  be  a  mayor,  twelve 
aldermen,  and  the  same  number  of  capital  bui^ 
gesses ;  the  mayor,  and  his  deputy  {the  preceding 
mayor),  the  senior  alderman,  the  bishop  of  Salis- 
bury, and  his  chancellor,  being  justices  of  thA 
peace  for  the  borough,  and  empowered  to  hold 
sessions,  and  a  court  of  record.  Reading  sent 
inembers  to  parliament  from  the*  time  of  the 
earliest  records.  Before  1716  the  right  of  elec- 
tion was  vested  in  the  fireem«>n  not  receiving 
alms,  and  in  the  inhabitants  paying  scot  and 
lot ;  but  in  that  year  it  was  limited,  by  a  deci- 
sion of  the  house  of  commons,  to  the  inhabitants 
paying  scot  and  lot  only.  The  number  of  voters 
IS  lar^,  and  the  mayor  i^  the  returning  officer. 

The  town  is  situated  on  both  banks  of  the 
river  Kennet,  which  here  separate  itself  into 
several  branches.  It  contains  tSiree  parishes, 
St.  GHies,  St.  Mary,  and  St.  Lawrence,  rormeriy 
it  was  a  place  of  great  trade  in  woollens,  but 
Chat  manufkcture  feu  to  decay  during  the  seven- 
teenth century,  and  has  never  since  revived.  The 
principal  support  of  the  town  arises  from  its 
water  communications  with  London,  Bath,  and 
Bristol.  The  articles  exported  are  flour,  timber, 
baric,  stndght  hoops,  and  a  variety  of  minor 
articles.  Many  improvements  have  been  lately 
made  in  the  internal  navigation  of  the  district. 
Its  markets  are  held  weekly,  on  Wednesday 
and  Saturday,  and  there  are  four  annual  fairs. 
The  houses  are  mostly  of  brick,  and  the  streets 
r^lar,  spacious,  well  lighted,  and  paved. 
Within  the  last  few  years  the  town  has  greatly 
increased  in  size,  and  a  new  town  has  sprung  up 
to  the  westward  of  the  old  one.  Along  the  Ox- 
ford and  London  roads,  also,  many  well  buUt 
rows  of  houses  have  been  lately  erected. 

The  principal  public  buildings  and  institutions 
in  the  town  are  tne  three  churches  of  St.  Law- 
rence, St  Mary,  and  St.  Giles ;  a  handsome  epis- 
copal chapel  recently  erected  by  the  Rev.  George 
Hulme;  and  several  dissenting  meeting-houses; 
the  town-hall  and  firee-school,  blue-coat  school, 
^^reen-school,  foundation  school,  the  school  of 
mdustry,  Lancasterian  school,  school  for  national 
education,  the  theatre,  and  the  county  gaol. 

The  ruins  of  the  ancient  monast^  are  also 
an  object  of  considerable  attraction.  Ihe  church 
of  St.  Lawrence  was  chiefly  erected  towards  the 
close  of  the  sixteenth  century,  and  is  partly  con- 
structed of  materials  taken  from  the  buildings  of 
the  abbey.  St.  Mary's  church  is  more  ancient 
than  that  of  St  Lawrence,  and  its  tesselated  tower 
is  much  admired.  St  Giles's  church  was  pro- 
bably constructed  at  the  commencement  of  the 
twelfth  century.  The  tower  only  is  modem,  the 
ancient  one  having  been  demolished  during  the 
civil  war.  This  church  has  recently  undergone 
complete  rcpair.  The  meeting-houses  belong  to 
the  independents.  Baptists,  Quakers,  Method 
ists^  Unitaritos,  and  Catholics. 

The  town  hall  and  free-school  form  one  build- 
ing ;  the  free-school  occupying  the  ground  story, 
and  the  hall,  court  room,  and  offices,  the  floor 
above.    The  free-school  was  established  in  the 

K^ooqle 


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jreign  of  Ilenrj  VII.,  by  Joha  Tbome,  »bbot  of 
Rpftding,  with  the  funds  of  a  suppreued  alms- 
house. The  blue-coat  school  was  founded  in 
1656  by  Mr.  Richard  Aldworth,  who  bequeathed 
£4000  for  the  support  of  a  master,  lecturer,  and 
twenty  boys.  The  green  school,  situated  in 
Broad-street,  is  appropriated  for  the  education 
of  the  daughters  of  decayed  tradesmen,  residents 
in  the  town,  and  of  orphans,  who  have  been  left 
unprovided  for  by  their  parents.  The  theatre  of 
Heading  is  a  neat  and  convenient  building, 
erected  under  the  act  for  regulating  provincial 
theatres.  The  gaol  is  built  on  the  site  of  some 
of  the  abbey  ruins.  It  is  a  large  edifice,  and  con- 
tains commodious  apartments  for  the  keeper,  a 
neat  chapel,  an  infirmary,  and  a  room  for  toe  re^ 
oeption  of  the  magistrates,  in  the  centre. 

Ileading  has  given  birth  to  several  persons  of 
eminence,  amons  whom  may  be  named  Sir 
Thomas  White,  founder  of  St.  John's  College, 
Oxford ;  archbishop  Laud ;  John  BUgrave,  Sie 
mathematician ;  Sir  Thomas  Holt;  Sir  John  Ber- 
nard ;  James  Merrick,  the  translator  of  the 
Psalms,  &c.  &c. 

Reading,  a  borough  and  canital  of  Berks 
county,  Pennsylvania,  on  the  Schuylkill,  fifty- 
four  miles  north-west  of  Philadelphia.  Popula- 
tion 3463.  It  is  a  very  pleasant  and  flourishing 
town,  and  contains  a  court  house,  a  jail,  two 
banks,  a  large  edifice  for  the  public  ofiices,  and 
four  houses  of  public  worship :  one  for  Luther- 
ans, one  for  Calvinists,  one  for  Roman  Catholics, 
and  one  for  Friends.  It  is  chiefly  settled  by  Ger- 
mans. 

READMIT,  v,a.  Re  and  admit.  To  let  in 
again. 

These  evils  I  deserve, 
Yet  despair  not  of  his  final  pardon. 
Whose  ear  is  ever  opea,  ana  his  eye 
Gracious  to  rtadmit  the  suppliant.     Milton. 

In  an  exhausted  receiver,  animals,  that  seem  as 
they  were  dead,  revise  upon  the  nadmUtion  of  fiesh 
sir.  Arbuthiwt, 

After  twenty  minutes  I  teadmitt^  the  air. 

Dtrham, 

RFADORN',  u.  a.  Re  and  adorn.  To  de- 
corate again,  or  anew. 

The  streams  now  change  their  languid  bine. 
Regain  their  glory,  and  th«r  fame  renew, 
With  scarlet  honours  nadom  the  tide.     BltckiMn, 

READT,  adj.y  adv,,  k,n.  s.)     Saxon  nae'b; 

Read  ily,  adv,  [  Goth,  rad  (apt, 

Read'iness,  n.  t.  j      prompt.) 

Prompt;  prepared;  fit;  willing;  eager;  quick; 
nimble;  hence,  near;  at  hand;  the  adverb 
and  noun-substaotive  corresponding:  ready  is 
also  sometimes  used  as  an  adverb :  see  the  ex- 
tract from  the  book  of  Numbers ;  and  as  a  noun- 
substantive,  in  colloquial  discourse,  for  ready 
money. 

We  will  go  rtad^  armed  before  the  children  of 
Israel.  ^Numben. 

Trouble  and  anguish  shall  prevail  against  him,  as 
a  king  feadff  to  the  battle.  Job  xv.  24. 

He  will  shew  you  a  large  upper  room ;  there  make 
wody  for  us.  Murk  xiv,  16. 

This  mene  I  now  by  mighty  Theseus, 
That  for  to  hunten  is  so  diMirous, 
And  namely  at  the  grete  hart  in  May, 
That  in  his  bed  ther  daweth  him  no  day 


That  he  n*Ss  dad,  and  r$ds  for  to  rido 

With  hunte  and  borne  and  houndes  him  beside. 

Chaucer,  Cant,  Tola. 
Men,  when  their  actions  succeed  not  u  thej 
would,  are  always  ready  to  impute  the  blaoie  thereof 
unto  the  heavens,  so  as  to  excuse  their  own  Collies. 
Speuier's  State  trf  Ireland. 
Sometimes  the  readieti  way  which  a  wise  man  hath 
to  conquer,  is  to  fly.  Hooker't  PreJ'aet. 

All  things  are  ready,  if  our  minds  be  so, 
Perish  the  man  whose  mind  is*  backward  now ! 


I  am  joyful  to  hear  of  their  raadineis.  Id. 

He  would  not  forget  the  readineu  of  their  king  in 
aiding  him  when  the  duke  of  Bretagoe  failed  him. 

Bacon. 
A  cloud  that  is  more  show  than  moisture ;  a  cloud 
that  is  more  ready  to  bestow  his  drops  upon  the  sea. 
than  on  the  land.  Holudav. 

They  remained  near  a  month,  that  they  might  be 
in  readineei  to  attend  the  motion  of  the  ann. 

Clarenion. 
Death  ready  stands  to  interpose  hisdarU 

Al'dtM. 
My  tongue  obeved,  and  readily  could  aaoM 
Whatever  I  saw.  Id. 

The  race  elect, 
Safe  towards  Canaan  from  the  shore  advance 
Through  the  wild  desert,  not  the  readieet  way. 

Nature  has  provided  for  the  readinai  and  easiness 
of  speech.  Hokter. 

Tnese  commodities  yield  thereaifie«(  money  of  aor 
in  thi«  kingdom,  because  they  never  foil  of  a  price 
abroad.  7«a^. 

He  overlooked  his  hinds  ;  their  pay  was  jest 
And  ready;  for  he  scorned  to  go  on  trust 

Drydtu. 

One  hand  the  sword i  and  one  the  pen  employs 
And  in  my  lap  the  ready  paper  lies.  ^  /• . 

Proud  of  their  conquest,  prouder  oY  their  prey, 
They  leave  the  camp,  and  take  the  readiest  way. 

Id. 

The  imagination  is  always  restless,  and  the  wilt 
reason  being  laid  aside,  is  ready  for  every  evtnva- 
gant  project.  Locke. 

I  readily  grant  that  one  truth  cannot  contradict 
another.  U, 

They  who  should  have  helped  him  1 1  mend  thiogs* 
were  readier  to  promote  the  disorders  by  which  they 
might  thrive  than  to  set  a^/oot  frugality.  DavenatU 

The  ready  way  to  be  thought  inad  is  to  contend 
that  you  are  not  so.  Speetaur, 

Their  conviction  grew  so  strong  that  they  em- 
braced the  same  truths,  and  laid  down  their  lives,  or 
were  always  in  readinee$  to  do  it,  rather  than  depart 
from  them.  Addi»». 

A  pious  and  well-disposed  mind,  attended  with  a 
rtttdmeas  to  obey  the  known  will  of  God.  istbesarest 
means  to  enlighten  the  understanding  to  a  belief  of 
Christianity.  South. 

Those  very  things  which  are  declined  as  impossi- 
ble, are  readily  practicable  in  a  case  of  extreme  n»> 
cessity.  Id. 

Lord  Strut  was  not  flush  in  ready,  either  to  go  to 
law,  or  clear  old  debts.  '  Arbutkaot. 

Those,  who  speak  in  publick,  are  much  better  ac- 
cepted, when  they  can  oeliver  their  discourse  by  the 
help  of  a  lively  genius  and  a  ready  memory,  thait 
when  they  are  roiced  to  read  all.  iVetts, 

For  the  most  part  there  is  a  finer  sense,  a  clearar 
mind,  a  readier  apprehenuon,  and  gentler  dispositioni 
in  that  sex,  than  in  the  other.  l^^* 

A  ready  consent  often  subjects  a  woman  to  con- 


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REAFFIR'MANCE,  n. «.  Re  and  affinnance. 
A  second  confinnation. 

Cauies  of  deprivation  are  a  conviction  before  the 
ordinary  of  a  wilful  maintaining  any  doctrine  contrary 
to  the  thirty-nine  articles,  or  a  persisting  therein 
without  revocation  of  his  error,  or  a  reaffirmance 
after  such  revocation.  AyUffe, 

REAGENTS,  in  chemistry,  are  such  substances 
as  enable  the  experimenter  to  draw  conclusions 
as  to  the  nature  of  the  bodies,  examined  by 
means  of  the  alterations  produced' by  the  reagent. 
In  the  experiments  of  chemical  analysis,  the 
component  parts  of  bodies  may  either  be  ascer- 
tained in  quantity  as  well  as  quality  by  the  per- 
fect operations  of  the  laboratory,  or  their  quality 
alone  may  be  detected  by  the  operations  of  cer- 
tain tests  or  reagents.  Thus  the  infusion  of  galls 
is  a  reagent,  which  detects  iron  by  a  dark  purple 
or  black  precipitate ;  the  prussiate  of  potash  ex- 
hibits a  blue  with  the  same  metal,  &c.  See 
Tests. 

RE-AGGRAVATION,  in  the  Romish  eccle- 
siastical law,  the  last  monitory,  published  af^er 
three  admonitions,  and  before  the  final  excom- 
munication. Before  they  proceed  to  excommu- 
nication, they  always  publish  an  aggravation, 
and  a  re-aggravation. 

REALyWij.      -N      Fr.    reel;     lat.    realis. 

Real'itt,  n.  i.  I  Genuine ;    true ;    intrinsic ; 

Re' ALizE,  «.  fl.N  relating    to  things,  not   to 

Re'ally, at/v.  (persons;  in  law  relating  to 

REAL'GAB,ii.f.  J  things  immoveable,  as  land, 
&G.;  reali^  is  truth;  verity:  something  in- 
trinsically important:  to  realise,  to  bring  into 
act  or  being ;  sometimes  to  convert  money  into 
land;  sometimes  to  convert  other  property 
into  money :  really  corresponds  with  real :  real- 
gar is  a  mis<eral  defined  below. 

Many  are  perfect  in  men's  humoars,  that  are  not 
greatly  capable  of  the  rtal  part  of  business  ;  which 
IS  the  constitution  of  one  that  hath  studied  men  more 
than  books.  Bacon* 

Put  realgar  hot  into  the  midst  of  the  quicksilver, 
whereby  it  may  be  condensed  as  well  from  within  as 
without.  id. 

Nothing  properly  is  his  duty  but  what  is  reaUy  his 
interest.  WiUdns, 

Of  that  skill  the  more  thou  knowest, 

The  more  she  will  acknowledge  thee  her  head, 

And  to  reaiiHiu  yield  all  her  snows. 

Made  so  adorn  for  thy  delight  the  more.  Mi/ton. 

We  do  but  describe  an  imaginary  world,  that  is 
but  little  a-kic  to  the  reo/  one.     GUumUe'i  Seejttu. 

Thus  we  reaUxa  what  Archimedes  had  only  in  hy- 
pothesis weighing  a  smgle  grain  against  the  globe  of 
earth.  GlanoUU. 

We  shall  at  last  discover  in  what  persons  this  ho- 
liness is  inherent  vBoUy,  in  what  condition  it  is  inhe- 
rent perfectly,  and  consequently  in  what  other  sense 
it  mav  be  truly  and  properly  afl&med  that  the  church 
is  holy.  Pear$on. 

I  am  hastening  to  convert  my  small  estate,  that  is 
personal,  into  rml.  Child  on  Trade, 

As  a  diocesan,  yon  are  like  to  exemplify  and 
ftalixe  every  word  of  this  discourse.  South. 

There  cannot  be  a  more  impoitant  case  of  con- 
science for  men  to  be  resolved  in,  than  to  know  cer- 
tainly how  far  God  accepts  the  will  for  the  deed,  and 
how  far  he  does  not ;  and  to  he  informed  truly  when 
men  do  really  will  a  thing,  and  when  they  have 


Ttaily  no  power  to  do  what  they  have  willed.      Id. 
it  place  any' 
Vol.  XVIII 


When  1  place  any  imaginary  name  at  the  head  of  a 


character,  I  examine  every  letter  of  it,  that  it  may 
not  bear  any  resemblance  to  one  that  is  real. 

Adduoti. 

I  would  have  them  well  versed  in  the  Greek  and 
Latin  poets,  without  which  a  man  fancies  that  he 
understands  a  critick,  when  in  reality  he  does  not 
comprehend  his  meaning.       ,  Id. 

Realgar  or  sandaracha  is  red  arsenick.  Harrit. 

Imaginary  distempers  are  attended  with  real  aud 
unfeigned  sufferings,  that  enfeeble  the  body,  and 
dissipate  the  spirits.  Blackmore. 

The  whole  strength  of  the  Arian  cause,  real  or  ar- 
tificial ;  all  that  can  be  of  any  force  either  to  con- 
vince, or  deceive  a  reader.  WaierUmd. 

The  best  account  of  the  appearances  of  nature,  in 
any  single  instance  human  penetration  can  reach, 
comes  infinitely  short  of  its  reality  and  internal  con- 
stitution; for  who  can  search  out  the  Almighty's 
works  to  perfection  ?  Ckejfne. 

I  was  reaUy  so  diffident  of  it,  as  to  let  it  lie  by  me 
these  two  years,  just  as  you  now  see  it.  Pope. 

These  orators  inflame  the  people,  whose  anger  is 
reaiUy  but  a  short  fit  of  madness.  Swift. 

They  even  affect  to  be  more  pleased  with  dress, 
and  to  be  more  fond  of  every  litUe  ornament,  than 
th^  reaUy  are.  Law. 

Why  really  sixty-five  !is  somewhat  old.     Young, 

My  neck  may  be  an  idea  to  you,  but  it  is  a  reality 
to  me.  Beattie. 

Real,  the  name  of  a  Spanish  silver  coin.  See 
Coins. 

Real  (Cssar  Vichard  de  St.),  a  French 
writer,  who  distinguished  himself  at  Paris  by 
several  ingenious  productions,  and  died  at 
Chamberry  in  1692,  at  an  advanced  age.  A 
complete  edition  of  his  works  was  printed  in 
Paris,  in  3  vols.  4to.,  1745,  and  another  in  6  vols. 
12mo. 

Real  (Gaspard  de),  lord  of  Curban  and  grand 
seneschal  of  lorcalquier,  was  bom  at  Sisteron, 
in  1682,  and  became  disringutshed  for  his  poli- 
tical abUities.  He  wrote  a  Treatise  on  Govern- 
ment, in  8  vols.  4to.,  Paris,  1762,  which  was 
much  esteemed.    He  died  in  Paris  in  1752. 

REALGAR,  in  chemistry  and  mineralogy, 
the  native  sulphuret  of  arsenic. 

REALISTS,  a  sect  of  school  philosophers 
formed  in  opposition  to  the  nominalists.  See 
Nominalists.  Under  the  realists  are  included 
the  Scotists,  Thomists,  &c.  Their  distinguishing 
tenet  is  that  universals  are  realities,  and  have  an 
actual  existence  out  of  an  idea  or  imagination ; 
or,  as  they  express  it  in  the  schools,  a  parte  rei ; 
whereas  the  nominalists  contend  that  they  exist 
only  in  the  mind,  and  are  only  ideas,  or  methods 
of  conception.  Dr.  Odo,  or  Oudard,  a  native 
of  Orieans,  afterwards  abbot  of  St.  Martin  de 
Touinay,  was  the  chief  of  the  realists.  He  wrote 
three  books  of  dialectics,  where,  on  the  principles 
of  Boethius  and  the  ancients,  he  maintained  that 
the  object  of  that  art  is  things,  not  words. 

REALM,  'n.  s.  Fr.  roiaulme.  A  kingdom  ; 
a  king's  dominion. 

Is  there  any  part  of  that  realm,  or  any  nation 
therein,  which  have  not  yet  been  subdued  to  the 
crown  of  England  1  Spenter. 

They  had  gathered  a  wise  council  to  them 
Of  every  realm  that  did  debate  this  business. 

Shakspe'tre. 
A  son  whose  worthy  deeds 
Raise  him  to  be  the  second  in  that  realm,     Mltou. 

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Learn  each  imaU  people's  geniaa,  poiiciea» 
The  ant's  lepublkk,  ana  the  raoim  of  bees.     Pope. 

When  few  from  famines  or  from  plagues  survive. 
Or  earthquakes  swallow  half  the  reaim  aUve. 

Darwin. 

RE'ALTY,  n.  «.  Ital.  reaUy ;  of  Lat.  re- 
galitas.    Loyalty  to  kings. 

O  heaven,  that  such  resemblance  of  the  Highest 
Should  yet  remain,  where  faith  and  reak^ 
Remain  not.  MiUon't  ParadtM  Lott, 

Realty  means  not  in  this  place  reality  in  opposition 
to  show,  but  loyalty ;  for  the  Italian  dictionajy  ex- 
plains the  adjective  reaU  by  loyal.  Pearce. 

REAM,  n.  s.  Sax.  peam;  Fr.  rame;  Belg. 
riem.  A  bundle  of  paper  containiDg  twenty 
quires. 

All  vain  petitions  mounting  to  the  sky, 

With  fWMf  abundant  this  abode  supply.     Papa, 

REANIMATE,  v.  a.  Lat.  re  and  animo. 
To  revive ;  restore  to  life. 

We  are  our  rtanimaUd  axKsestors,  and  antedate 
their  resurrection.  GratnUk**  SoejMt. 

The  young  man  left  his  own  body  breathleM  oa 
the  ground,  while  that  of  the  doe  was  raanimatad. 

Spaetator, 

REANNEX',  v.o.  Re  and  annex.  To  an- 
nex again. 

King  Charles  was  not  a  little  inflamed  with  an 
ambition  to  repurchase  and  reannts  that  duchy. 

Bacon' t  Hanry  Vlt, 
REAP,  v.  Oi  &  V.  ft.  "^      Sax.  pepan ;    Belg. 
Reap'er,  n. «.  >  reepen  ;    Swed.    rtpa. 

Reap'ing-hook.  j  To  cut  com  at  harvest ; 
to  obtain  or  gather ;  to  harvest :  the  reaper  is  he 
who  reaps;  and  the  reaping-hook,  his  instru- 
ment. 

When  ye  reap  the  harvest,  thou  shalt  not  wholly 
reap  the  comers  of  thy  field.  I^evitieua  xix.9. 

They  that  sow  in  tears,  shall  reap  in  joy. 

Pasifiu. 
The  hire  of  the  labourers,  which  have  rtaiped  down 
your  fields,  is  kept  back  by  fraud.  Joims. 

From  hungry  reapert  they  their  sheaves  withhold. 

Sandye* 
They  that  love  the  religion  which  they  profess, 
may  have  failed  in  choice,  but  yet  they  are  sure  to 
fiMp  what  benefit  the  same  is  able  to  afford. 

Hooker, 
From  Ireland  come  I  with  my  strength. 
And  reap  the  harvest  which  that  rascal  sowed. 

Shakspeara, 
What  sudden  anger's  this  ?  how  have  I  reaped  it? 

Id, 
Our  sins  being  ripe,  there  was  no  preventing  of 
God's  justice  from  reapmg  that  glory  in  our  calami- 
ties, which  we  robbed  him  of  in  our  prosperi^. 

King  Chmiet* 
Some  are  bribed  to  vow  it  looks 
Most  plainly  done  by  thieves  with  rtapingKodke. 

Dryden. 
Here  Ceres'  gifts  in  wavine  prospects  stand. 
And  nodding  tempt  the  joyfiu  reaper'i  hand. 

Pope. 
REAR,  n.  $.  >      Fr.  arriere,   of  Lat  retro. 
REAR'WARn.  )  The   hinder   class;    hinder 
troop  of  an  army,  or  the  hinder  line  of  a  fleet : 
rearward  is  also  used  in  these  senses. 

The  standard  of  Dan  was  the  rearward  of  the 
camp.  Numbere. 

He  from  the  beginning  began  to  be  in  the  rear- 
ward,  and  before  they  left  fighting  was  too  far  off. 

Sidney* 


The  nor  adniial,  an  azch  phat^  was  aftvwaidi 
slain  with  a  great  shot.  JTnoUa. 

Why  fbUowed  not,  when  she  said  Tybalt's  desd. 
Thy  lather  or  thy  mother? 
But  with  a  rearward  following  Tybalt's  death, 
Romeo  is  banished.     Skakepeare.  Roawo  and  JvIieL 

He  was  ever  in  the  rsorward  of  the  fiuhion. 


Coins 
both 


»ins  I  place  in  the  fMr,  because  made  np  of 
the  other.  Peaekam. 

Snowy-headed  winter  leads. 
Yellow  autumn  brings  the  rear,        Wailer, 
Argive  chidb 
Fled  from  his  well-lmown  face,  with  wonted  fear, 
As  when  his  thund'ring  sword  and  pointed  spear 
Drove  headlong  to  their  ships,  and  gleuied  the 
rear,  iAyocx. 

Rear,  v.  a.  Sax.  afisjian  ;  Isl.  reira.  To 
raise  up ;  move  or  life  upwards ;  hence  bring  to 
maturity;  breed;  educate. 

All  the  people  shouted  with  a  loud  voice,  for  tiie 
rearing  up  of  the  house  of  the  Lord.  1  Eeirw. 

Down  again  she  fell  unto  the  gnmnd. 
But  he  her  quic^y  rsorsd  up  again.         Sptneer, 
No  creature  goeth  to  generate,  whilst  the  female 
is  busy  in  sitting  or  rearing  her  youne.         Baeea. 
In  adoration  at  his  feet  I  fell 
Submiss  ;  he  reared  me.  Id. 

Who  now  shaH  rear  you  to  the  ann,  or  rank 
Your  tribes.  Id. 

Into  the  naked  woods  he  goes, 
And  seeks  the  tusky  boar  to  rear, 
With  well-mouthed  hounds  and  pointed  spear. 

They  vrere  a  very  hardy  breed,  and  reared  their 
young  ones  without  any  care. 

MortiawrU  Hvabaadrg. 

Charity  decent,  modest,  easy,  kind. 
Softens  the  hi^h,  and  rean  the  akpect  mind.  Pri«r. 

They  have  m  every  town  public  nurseries,  wheie 
all  parents,  ezcei>t  cottagers  and  labourers,  are 
obliged  to  send  their  infenU  to  be  reared  and  eda- 
cated.  $teift. 

He  wants  a  fether  to  protect  his  youth. 

And  rear  him  up  to  virtue.  Semthem. 

They  flourished  long  in  tender  "bliss,  and  reared 
A  numerous  oflspring,  lovely  like  theinselves. 

No  flesh  from  market-towns  our  peasant  sought  j 
He  f»ar«d  his  frugal  meat,  but  never  bought. 

Harte. 

Rear,  adj.  Sax.hpe|ie.  Raw;  half-roasted; 
early.    A  provincial  word. 

O'er  Tonaer  hill  does  scant  the  dawn  appear. 
Then  why  does  Cuddy  leave  his  cot  so  rsor  ?  ihy, 

Reaa  Guaed  is  that  body  of  an  army  which 
marches  af^er  the  main  body.  The  M  grand 
guards  of  the  camp  alvrays  form  the  rear  guard 
of  the  army,  and  are  to  see  that  every  tiling  ar- 
rives safe  at  the  new  camp. 

REAR'MOUSE,  n.(.  Sax.  ppejte  muf .  The 
leather-winged  bat. 

Some  war  with  reamdea  for  their  leathern  wings 
To  make  my  small  elves  coats.  Shahpeart, 

Oi  flying  fishes  the  wings  are  not  feathers,  bat  a 
thin  kind  of  skin,  like  the  wings  of  a  bat  or  rear- 
motae.  Aibet. 

REASCENiy,  t;.  n.  &  t;.  a.  Re  and  asceui 
To  climb  again;  mount  again. 

When  as  the  day  the  heaven  doth  adoni, 

I  wish  that  night  the  noyous  day  would  end ; 

And  when  as  night  hath  us  of  light  forlorn, 

I  wish  that  day  would  shortly  reatcend. 


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laL  ratio.  The 
power  by 
>>which  men  de- 
duce conclu- 
sions from  an 
argument;  ra- 


Tftnght  by  the  haar'nlj  muse  to  vMtsn  down 
The  dark  descent,  and  up 'to  reateend.  MiUon. 

Wben  the  god  his  fury  has  allayed. 
He  mounts  aloft^  and  rea»eend»  the  skies.    Addism, 

aEA'SON,«.i.,».n.  &t;.a,^      Fr.   raiton; 
ReaJsonabls,  adj. 

REA*B0VABUJiES9,  M.S. 

Rsa'somably,  adv. 
Rea'soner,  ft.  s. 
Rea'sonimo, 

Rea'S0NL£S8,  tt^'. 

tiocination ;  disoumve  art ;  hence  cause,  con- 
sidered logically ;  efficient  or  final  cause ; 
reasonable  or  just  claim,  account,  or  practice; 
moderation:  to  reason  is  to  argue;  hence  to 
debate;  discourse;  make  enquiry  ;  arg^e  ra- 
tionally or  correctly ;  and  to  examine  rationally 
(a  gallicism):  reasonable,  reasonableness,  and 
reasonably,  correspond  with  reason  as  a  noun 
sabstantive :  reasoner  is  he  who  uses  the  faculty 
of  reason ;  an  arguer :  reasoning  is  aigument ; 
logic :  reasonless,  devoid  of  reason ;  (suseless. 

Stand  still,  that  I  may  rtaun  with  you  of  all  the 
righteous  acts  of  the  Lord.  1  Samuel  zii.  7. 

Jesus  perceiving  their  thoughts,  said.  What  reason 
ye  in  your  hearts  ^  LuMe  v.  22. 

She  perceived  her  only  son  lay  hurt,  and  that  his 
hurt  was  so  deadly,  as  that  already  his  life  had 
lost  «e  of  the  reatonable  and  almost  sensible  part. 

Sidney. 
I  was  promised  on  a  time. 
To  hvre  rmsm  for  my  thyme  : 
From  that  time  uato  this  season, 
I  received  nor  rhyme  nor  rtason.      SpinMor. 
IZmmii  is  the  director  of  man's  will,  discovering 
in  action  what  is  good  ;  for  the  laws  of  wall-doing 
are  the  dictates  of  nght  rtaun.  Uosker, 

I  mask  the  business  from  the  common  eye 
For  sundry  weighty  reuons. 

Shdktpean,  Ma^eth. 
WheU  valour  preys  on  nason. 
It  eats  the  sword  it  fi^^hts  with.       Shahpeare, 
Ate  yon  m  earnest  t  • 

— Ay,  and  resolved  withal 
To  do  nwself  this  reason  and  this  right.       Id, 
Rsason  with  the  fellow. 
Before  you  punish  him,  where  he  heard  this.  Id, 
Let  aU  things  be  thought  upon, 
That  may  with  reasonable  swiftness  add 
More  feathers  to  our  wings.         Id,  Henry  T. 
This  pioffer  is  absurd  and  reasonless,    Shnhspeare, 
That  they  wholly  dixect  the  reasonless  mind,  I  am 
resolved ;   for  all  those  which  were  created  mortal, 
as  buds  and  beasts,  are  left  to  their  natural  appetites. 
Raleigh's  History  of  the  World, 
It  was  a  reaeonabU  conjecture,  that  those  countries 
whkh  were  situated  directly  under  the  tropic,  wen 
of  a  distemper  uninhabitable.  Id, 

Spain  is  diin  sown  of  people,  partly  by  reason  of 
the  sterility  of  the  soil,  and  partly  their  natives  are 
exhausted  by  so  many  employments  in  such  vast  ter- 
ritories as  they  possess.  Bacon, 

Some  man  reasonably  studied  in  the  law,  should  be 
persuaded  to  go  thither  as  chancellor.  Id, 

When  she  rates  things,  and  moves  from  ground  to 
ground. 
The  name  of  reason  she  obtains  by  this ; 

But  when  by  reason  she  the  trath  haUi  found, 
And  standeth  fist,  she  understanding  is.      Barnes, 

The  parliament  was  dissolved,  and  gentlemen  fur- 
nished wHh  such  fofces,  as  were  held  sufficient  to 
hold  in  bridle  either  the  malice  or  rage  of  reasonahU 
people.  Haymird* 


A  good  way  distant  from  the  nigra  rupee,  titers 
are  four  several  lands  of  reaeonabU  quamity. 

Abbot. 

Such  a  benefit,  as  by  the  antecedent  will  of  Christ 
is  intended  to  all  men  living,  though  all  men,  by  rea- 
son of  their  own  demeriu,  do  not  actually  receive  the 
fruit  nf  it  fVhite. 

What  the  apoetles  deemed  rational  and  probable 
means  to  that  end,  there  is  no  reason  or  probability 
to  think  should  ever  in  any  prodnoe  this  effect. 

Hamsnond, 

God  brings  good  out  of  evil ;  and  therefore  it  were 
but  reason  we  should  trust  God  to  govern  his  own 
world,  and  wait  till  the  change  comedi,  or  the  muon 
be  discovered.  Taylor, 

Is  it  reasonable  when  I  reprove  any  vicious  person 
for  dishonouring  God,  and  dissuade  him  from  his 
wicked  courses,  that  he  should  tell  me  he  will  not 
be  discouraged  by  my  fine  words,  but  if  I  will  go  to 
principles  and  first  grounds  be  will  hear  me  1 

Bp,  Tpylor, 

By  indubitable  certainty,  I  mean  that  which  doth 
not  admit  of  Bjgf  reaeanabU  cause  of  doubting,  which 
u  the  only  certainty  of  whkh  most  things  are  capa- 
ble. WUkins, 

They  thought  the  woifc  would  be  better  done,  if 
those,  who  had  satisfied  themselves  with  the  rea- 
sonableness of  what  they  wish,  would  undertake 
the  converting  and  disposmg  of  other  men. 

Clarendon, 
Though  brutish  that  contest  and  foul, 

When  reason  hath  to  deal  with  force ;  yet  so 

Most  reason  is  that  reason  overcome.         MUton, 

Down  fioam  toen,  at  least  vain  reasoning  down. 

Id, 

These  reasons  in  love's  law  have  pa^t  for  good, 
Though  fond  and  reasonlms  to  some.  Id, 

The  passive  reaaon,  which  is  more  properly  rea- 
sonableness, is  that  order  and  congruity  which  is 
impressed  upon  the  thing  thus  wrought ;  as  in  a 
watch,  the  whole  frame  and  contexture  of  it  car- 
ries a  reasonableness  in  it,  the  passive  impression  of 
the  reason  or  intellectual  idea  that  was  in  the  artist. 

Hale. 

To  render  a  reason  of  an  effect  or  phenomenon  is 
to  deduce  it  from  something  else  more  known  than 
itself.  Boyle. 

Virtue  and  vice  are  not  arbitiary  things,  but  there 
is  a  natural  and  eternal  reason  for  that  goodness 
and  virtne,  and  against  vice  and  wickedness. 

Tilletson: 

When  any  thing  is  proved  by  as  good  arguments 
as  a  thing  m  that  kind  is  capable  o^  we  ought  not 
in  reason  to  doubt  of  its  existence.  Id, 

If  we  can  by  induatrr  make  our  deaf  and  dumb  per- 
son tm»)ii«%  perfect  m  the  language  and  pronun- 
ciation, ha  may  be  also  capable  of  the  same  privilege 
of  understanding  by  the  eye  what  is  spoken. 

Holder's  ElemenU  of  Speech, 

Dim*  as  the  borrowed  beams  of  moon  and  stars 
To  lonely,  weary,  wandering  travellers. 
Is  reason  to  the  soul :  and  as  on  high, 
Those  rolling  fires  discover  but  the  sky, 
Not  light  us  here ;  so  reason's  glinunering  ray 
Was  lent,  not  to  assure  our  doubtful  way, 
But  guide  us  upward  to  a  better  day.         Dryden, 
Let  it  dripk  deep  in  thy  naost  vital  part ; 

Strike  home,  and  do  me  reason  in  thy  heart.     Id, 

Chaucer  malms  Ardte  violent  in  his  love,  and  un- 
iust  in  the  pursuit  of  it;  yet  when  he  came  to  die, 
he  made  him  think  more  reasonabljf.  Id, 

The  papists  ought  in  reason  to  allow  them  all  the 
excuses  they  make  use  of  for  themselves ;  such  as  an 
invincible  ignorance,  oral  tradition,  and  authority. 

StilLingfieet* 
2D2        , 
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404 


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JUasen,  in  the  Engliih  lan^age,  sometimes  is 
taken  for  true  and  clear  principles ;  sometimes  for 
clear  and  fair  deductions ;  sometimes  for  the  cause, 
particularly  the  final  cause.  Lockt, 

Every  man's  reaaomng  and  knowledge  is  only 
about  the  ideas  existing  in  his  own  mind ;  and  our 
knowledge  and  retuoning  about  other  things  is  only 
as  they  correspond  with  those  our  particular  ideas. 

Td, 

By  r$a$on  of  the  sickness  of  a  reverend  prelate,  I 
have  been  over-ruled  to  approach  this  place. 

Sprat. 

If  we  commemorate  any  mystery  of  our  redemp- 
tion, or  article  of  our  faith,  we  ought  to  confirm 
our  belief  of  it,  by  considering  all  those  rea»on$ 
upon  which  it  is  built ;  that  we  ma^  be  able  to 
give  a  good  account  of  the  hope  that  is  in  us. 

NeUon, 

When  they  are  clearly  discovered,  well  digested, 
and  well  reatoned  in  every  part,  there  is  beauty  in 
such  a  theoiy.  Burnet. 

No  man,  in  the  strength  of  the  first  grace,  can 
merit  the  second.;  for  nason  they  do  not,  who  think 
so ;  unless  a  beggar,  by  receiving  one  alms  can  merit 
another.  South. 

The  most  probable  way  of  bringing  France  to  rea- 
«m,  would  be  by  the  making  an  attempt  upon  the 
Spanish  West  Indies,  and  by  that  means  to  cut  off 
all  communication  with  this  great  source  of  riches. 

Addiion, 
Love  is  not  to  be  na»imed  down,  or  lost 

In  high  ambition.  Id. 

The  terms  are  loose  and  undefined ;  and  what  less 
becomes  a  fair  rAUOfwr,  he  puts  wrong  and  invidious 
names  to  every  thing  to  colour  a  false  way  of  arguing. 

Id. 
Due  reverence  pay 
To  learned  Epicurus^  see  the  way 
liy  which  this  rtatotur  of  so  high  renown 
Moves  through  the  ecliptick  road  the  rolling  sun. 

Blackmore. 

Your  rsMOHingt  therefore  on  this  head,  amount 
only  to  what  the  schools  call  inioratio  elenchi ; 
proving  before  the  question,  or  talking  wide  of  the 
purpose.  WtOtrUtnd. 

In  the  lonely  grOTe, 
'Twas  there  just  and  good  he  reatoned  strong, 
Cleared  some  great  truth,  or  raised  some  senoussong. 

Tickel. 

It  would  be  well,  if  people  would  not  lay  so  much 
weight  on  their  own  rea$on  in  matters  of  religion,  as 
to  think  every  thing  impossible  and  absurd  which 
they  cannot  conceive  :  how  often  do  we  contradict 
the  right  rules  of  reaton  in  the  whole  course  of  our 
lives !  reason  itself  is  true  and  just,  but  the  reason  of 
every  particular  man  is  weak  and  wavering,  perpetu- 
ally swayed  and  turned  by  his  interests,  his  passions, 
and  his  vices.  Swift. 

A  law  may  be  reasonable  in  itself,  although  a  man 
does  not  allow  it,  or  does  not  know  the  reason  of  the 
lawgivers.  Id. 

The  church  has  formerly  had  eminent  saints  in  that 
sex  ;  and  it  may  reasonably  be  thought  that  it  is 
purely  owing  to  their  poor  and  vain  education,  that 
this  honour  of  their  sex  is  for  the  most  part  confined 
to  former  ages.  Law. 

On  the  whole  it  appears,  and  my  argument  shows 
;        With  a  reatotdne  the  court  will  never  condemn. 

That  the  spectacles  plainly  were  made  for  the 
nose. 
And  the  nose  was  as  plainly  intended  for  them. 

Cowper. 

Reason  is  that  &culty  or  power  of  the  mind 
whereby  it  distinguishes  good  from  evil^  truth 
from  falsehood. 


REASSEM'BLE,  v.  a.  Re  and  asKmUe. 
To  collect  anew. 

There  reaisembling  our  afflicted  powers, 
Consult  how  to  offend  our  enemy.  MiUoa. 

REASSERT,  V.  a.  Re  and  assert.  To  assert 
anew ;  to  maintain  after  suspension  or  cessatioD. 
His  steps  I  followed,  his  doctrine  I  reasserted. 

Atterhusy. 
Young  Orestes  grown 
To  manly  years  shoidd  reassert  the  throne.  Pope. 
REASSUM£',v.a.    Lat.  reamano;  re  and 
assume.    To  resume ;  to  take  again. 
Nor  only  on  the  Trojans  fell  this  doom. 
Their  hearts  at  last  the  vanquished  reasmme. 

Denkam. 
To  him  the  Son  returned 
Into  his  blissful  bosom  reassumed. 
In  glory  as  of  old.  MUum. 

After  Henry  VIII.  had  reassumed  the  supremacjr, 
a  statute  was  made,  by  wliich  all  doctors  of  the  civil 
law  might  be  made  chancellors.  AyUffe. 

For  this  he  reassumes  the  nod. 
While  Semele  commands  the  god.  Prior. 

REASSURE',  v.  a.     Fr.  reamtrer;  re  and 
assure.    To  restore  from  terror;  free  from  fear. 
They  rose  with  fear. 
Till  dauntless  Pallas  reassured  the  rest 

Dryden. 

REATE',  n.s.  A  kind  of  long  small  grass 
that  grows  in  water,  and  complicates  itself  to- 
gether. 

Let  them  lie  dry  six  months  to  kill  the  water- 
weeds  ;  as  water-liilies,  candocks,  reate,  and  bul- 
rushes. Waltw. 
REAVF,  V.  a.  Pret.  reft.  Sax.  psBpian ; 
Dan.  rave.  To  take  away  by  stealth  or  violence. 
See  Bereave 

Dismounting  from  his  lofty  steed. 
He  to  him  leapt,  in  midd  to  reave  his  life. 

Speiuer. 
Who  can  be  bound  bv  any  solemn  tow 
To  do  a  murderous  deed,  to  rob  a  man, 
^0  force  a  spotless  virgin's  chastity^  ' 
To  reave  the  orphan  of  his  patrimony. 
And  have  no  other  .reason  for  his  wrong 
But  that  he  was  bound  by  a  solemn  oaSi  1 

Skakspeart. 

But  these  men  knowing,  havin?  heard  the  voyce 

Of  God,  by  some  meanes,  that  sad  death  hath  reft 

The  ruler  heere  ;  will  never  suffer  left 

Their  unjust  wooing  of  his  wife.  Chapman, 

Some  make  his  meashy  bed,  but  reave  his  rest. 

Carew. 

REAUMUR  (Renatus  Anthony  Ferchault, 
sieur  de),  a  celebrated  French  philosopher,  bom 
at  Rochelle  in  1663.  After  the  usual  coune  of 
school  education,  in  the  place  of  his  birth,  be 
began  a  course  of  philosophy  at  Poitiers,  and  of 
civil  law  at  Bburges ;  but  soon  relinqni^ed  the 
latter,  to  apply  himself  to  mathematics,  physi«, 
and  natural  history.  He  repaired  to  Paris  in 
1703,  and  was  received  into  the  Academy  of 
Sciences  in  1708.  From  that  hour  he  was 
wholly  employed  in  natural  hbtory.  The  nu- 
merous discoveries  he  made  in  the  various 
branches  of  science  are  too  numerous  to  deiail- 
lie  discovered  the  Turquois.  mines  in  the  late 
province  of  Languedoc ;  and  his  improvement 
on  the  art  of  oonvertinff  iron  into  st^  was  re- 
warded by  a  pension  of  12,000  livres.  It  was 
owing  to  his  endeavours  that  there  were  es- 


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tebliihed  in  France  manu&ctures  of  tin  plates 
and  of  poicdain  in  inutation  of  china-ware.  We 
owe  to  Dim  also  a  new  thermometer,  whidi  bears 
his  name,  and  is  pretty  generally  used  on  the 
oontiaeot  Reaumur's  is  a  spirit  thermometer, 
having  the  freeting  point  at  0  ,  and  the  boiling 
point  at  80^.  He  died  in  the  seventy-sixth  year 
of  his  age,  on  the  18th  of  October,  1757.  He 
beaueathed  to  the  Academy  of  Sciences  his 
MdS.,  and  his  collection  of  natural  productions. 
His  chief  woiks  are,  a  number  of  Memoirs 
and  Observations  on  different  parts  of  Natural 
History ;  nrinted  in  the  collections  of  the  Aca- 
demy of  Sciences.  A  large  work  minted  sepa- 
rately in  6  vols,  in  4to.,  entitled  A  mtural  His- 
tory of  Insects ;  which  is  much  esteemed. 

KEAUMURIA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the 
pentagynia  order  and  pentandria  class  of  plants ; 
natural  order  thirteentn,  succulents :  cal.  hexa- 
phyllous;  petals  ^ve:  caps,  unilocular,  qutn- 
quevalved,  and  polyspermous.  Species  two  only, 
annuab  of  Syria. 

REBAFTIZE',  v.  a.  Fr.  rebaptiter;  re  and 
baptize.    To  baptize  again. 

In  maintenance  of  rebaptigathn,  their  argunents 
ve  boilt  upon  this,  that  heretics  are  not  any  part  of 
tlie  church  of  Christ.  Hooker. 

Undeistanding  that  the  rights  of  the  church  were 
oUerved,  he  approved  of  their  baptism,  and  would 
not  kttflfer  them  to  be  r^Mtptixed.  Aytiffe*t  Parergon. 

REBATE',  v. n.  Fr.  rebaitre.  To  blunt; 
beat  to  obtuseness. 

He  doth  rebate  and  blunt  his  natural  edge 

With  profits  of  the  mind,  steady  and  fast. 

Skaktpeare. 

The  icy  goat,  the  crab  which  square  the  scales  ; 
With  those  of  aries  trine  consent  to  hate 
The  scales  of  libra,  and  her  rays  rebate.        Creedi, 

My  flagging  soul  flies  under  her  own  pitch. 
My  lenses,  too,  are  dull  ami  stupified. 
Their  ed^  rehaied.  Dryden't  Don  SebaUian. 

Then-  innocence  unfingned  long  joys  afford 

To  the  honest  nuptial  bM,  and,  in  the  wane 

Of  tife,  rebate  the  miseries  of  age.  Pfdlipt, 

Rebate,  or  Rebatement,  in  commerce,  a 
term  much  used  at  Amsterdam,  for  discount  al- 
lowed on  the  price  of  several  commodities,  when 
the  buyer,  instead  of  talung  time^  advances  ready 
money. 

REBEC,  or  Rebeck,  a  Moorish  word  signi- 
fying an  instrument  vrith  two  strings  played  on 
with  a  bow.  The  Moors  first  brought  the 
rebec  into  Spsun,  whence  it  passed  into  Italy, 
and,  after  the  addition  of  a  third  string,  obtained 
the  name  of  rebecca;  whence  the  old  English 
rebec,  or  fiddle  with  three  strings. 

Rebec,  ribibe,  and  ribible  seem  to  be  different 
names  of  the  same  instrument,  and  are  often  in- 
discriminately used  by  Gower,  Chaucer,  and  the 
more  ancient  bards. 

As  the  head,  or  scroll-work,  of  old  .viols  and 
violins  used  to  be  curiously  carved,  so  seems  to 
have  been  that  of  the  rebec.  Chaucer  compares 
the  face  of  an  old  woman,  an  old  trot,  to  the 
bead  of  a  rebec.    See  the  example  above. 

RE'BECK,  n-  s.  Fr.  rebec ;  Ital.  ribecca.  A 
three-stringed  fiddle. 

Brother,  quod  he,  here  wonneth  an  old  rAehhe, 
That  had  almost  as  lefe  to  lese  her  nekke 
Ai  for  to  geve  a  peny  of  hire  eood. 

Chaucer,  CanU  Talee, 


405  REB 

When  the  merry  bells  ring  round. 
And  the  jocund  reheehe  sound. 
To  many  a  youth  and  many  a  maid, 
Dancing  in  the  checkered  shade.  Milton, 

REB'£I^n.(.  &v.n.^       Fr.    rebelle ;  Lat. 

Rebel'lion,  n.  $.        I  rebellis,    A  revolter ; 

Rebel'lious,  adj.       \  one  who  opposes  law- 

Rebel'liously,  adv.  i  ful  authority :  to  act 

REBEL'LiousMESS,n.i.  Jin  opposition  to  such 
authority :  rebellion  is  the  revolt  or  insurrection 
made :  rebellious  means  opposed  to  lawful  au- 
thority :  the  adverb  and  noun  substantive  cor- 
responding. 

From  the  day  that  thou  didst  depart  out  of  Egypt, 
until  ye  came  unto  this  place,  ye  have  been  rebelliout 
against  the  Lord.  Deui.  ix.  7. 

This  our  son  is  stubborn  and  rebeUiouSf  he  will 
not  obey  our  voice.  Id.  xzi.  20. 

The  merciless  Macdonel 
Worthy  to  be  a  r^l ;  for  to  that 
The  multiplying  villanies  of  nature 
Do  swarm  upon  him.    Shaktpeare,  Maebeth. 
Boys,  iiflmature  in  knowledge. 

Pawn  their  experience  to  the  present  pleasure. 

And  so  rebel  to  judgment.  Shahpeare. 

Such  smiling  rogues  as  these  soothe  every  passion. 
That  in  the  nature  of  their  lords  re6e(< ; 
Bring  oil  to  fire.  Id,  Kin^  Lear, 

He  was  victorious  in  rebeUwns  and  seditions  of 
people.  Bac(m. 

Where  one  shewed  him  where  a  nobleman,  that 
had  rebeUioutly  borne  arms  against  him,  lay  very 
honorably  intombed,  and  advised  the  king  to  deface 
the  monument ;  he  said,  no,  no,  but  I  would  all  the 
rest  of  mine  enemies  were  as  honourably  intombed. 

Camden, 

Who  could  ever  yet  shew  me  a  man  rebeilioualy 
undutiful  to  his  parents  that  hath  prospered  in  him- 
self, and  his  seed  ?  Bp.  Hall. 

Armed  with  thy  might,  rid  heaven  of  these  reMted. 

Milton. 
Of  their  names  in  heavenly  records  now 

Is  no  memorial,  blotted  out  and  razed 

By  their  rebellion  from  the  books  of  life.  Id, 

Bent  he  seems 

On  desperate  revenue,  which  shall  redound 

Upon  his  own  rebellious  head.  Id, 

How  could  my  hand  rebel  against  my  heart  1 
How  could  your  heart  rebd  against  your  reason  ? 

Dryden, 

Part  of  the  angels  rebelled  against  God,  and 
thereby  lost  their  hap|)y  state.  Locke, 

Tl)ou,  with  rebel  insolence,  didst  dare 

To  own  and  to  protect  that  hoary  ruffian ; 

And,  in  despite  even  of  thy  father's  justice. 

To  stir  the  factious  rabble  up  to  arms.        Rowe. 

This  is  not  disobedience  but  rebellim;  'tis  dis- 
claiming the  aovereigntv  of  Christ,  and  renouncing 
all  allegiance  to  his  authority.  Rogen, 

Shall  man  from  nature's  sanction  stray, 

A  rebel  to  her  rightful  sway  1  Felton. 

Rebellion  (rebellio),  ateong  the  Romans, 
was  where  those  who  had  been  formerly  over- 
come in  battle,  and  yielded  to  their  subjection, 
made  a  second  resistance ;  but  with  us  it  is  ge- 
nerally used  for  taking  up  arms  traitorously 
against  the  king,  whether  by  natural  subjecU,  or 
others  when  once  subdued ;  and  the  word  rebel 
is  sometimes  applied  to  him  who  wilfully  breaks 
a  law.  There  is  a  difference  between  enemies 
and  rebels.  Enemies  are  those  who  are  out  of 
the  king's  allegiance  :  therefore  subjects  of  the 
king,  either  in  open  war,  or  rebellion,  are  not  the 

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.kiiiff*s  enemieSi  but  traitors.  And  David,  prince 
of  Wales,  who  levied  war  against  Edward  1.,  be- 
cause he  was  said  to  be  within  the  allegiance  of 
the  king,  had  sentence  pronounced  against  him 
as  a  traitor  and  rebel,  rrivate  persons  may  arm 
themseWes  to  suppress  rebeb,  enemies,  &c. 

REBELLiotra  Assembly  is  a  gathering  together 
of  twelve  persons  or  more,  intending  unlawftiUy, 
of  their  own  authority,  to  attempt  any  change  in 
the  law  or  statutes  of  the  realm;  or  to  destroy 
the  enclosures  of  any  ground,  or  banks  of  any 
fish  pond,  pool,  or  conduit,  to  the  intent  the  same 
shall  lie  waste  and  void ;  or  to  destroy  the  deer 
in  any  park,  or  any  warren  of  conies,  dove- 
houses,  or  fish  in  ponds ;  or  any  house,  bams, 
mills,  or  bays ;  or  to  bum  stacks  of  com ;  or 
abate  rents,  or  prices  of  victuals,  &c. 

REBEL'LOW,  v.  n.  Re  and  bellow.  To 
bellow  in  return ;  echo  back  a  loud  noise. 

He  loudly  brayed  with  beastly  yelling  sound. 

That  all  the  fields  nbeltawed  again.         Spemer. 

The  resisting  air  the  thunder  bnAe, 
lliecave  rebeUowtd,  and  the  temple  shook.  Dryden, 

From  whence  were  heard,  rtbtikmng  to  the  main. 
The  roars  of  lions.  Id.  JEmU, 

REBOUNir,  V.1I.  «.  a.  &  n.  t.  Fr.  reiyondir. 
Re  and  bound.  To  spring  back ;  be  reverbe- 
rated ;  fly  back  in  consequence  of  motion  im- 
pressed and  resisted  by  a  greater  power;  rever- 
berate :  a  reverberation. 

Whether  it  were  a  roaring  voice  of  most  savage 
wild  beasts,  or  a  rtbcunding  echo  firom  the  hollow 
mountains.  Wisdom  xvii. 

I  do  feel, 

Bv  the  Tthownd  of  yours,  a  grief  that  shoots 

My  veiy  heart.  Shakxpear:  Antony  and  CUopatra, 

If  you  strike  a  ball  sidelong,  not  full  upon  the 
surface,  the  rebound  will  be  as  much  the  contraiy 
way  ;  whether  there  be  any  such  resilience  in  echoes 
may  be  tried.  Bacon, 

It  with  rebounding  surge  the  bars  assailed.  MUton. 

All  our  invectives  at  their  supposed  errors  fall 
back  with  a  rebounded  force  upon  our  own  real  ones. 

Decay  of  Piet^, 
Silenus  sun?,  the  vales  his  voice  rebound. 

And  carry  to  toe  skies  the  sacred  sound.  Dryden, 

The  weapon  with  unerring  fury  flew. 
At  bis  left  shoulder  aimed :  nor  entrance. found  ; 
But  back,  as  from  a  rock,  with  swift  rebound 
Harmless  returned.  Id, 

Life  and  death  are  in  the  power  of  the  tongue, 
and  that  not  only  directly  witn  renrd  to  the  good 
or  ill  we  may  do  to  others,  but  reflezively  with  re- 
gard to  what  may  robound  to  ourselves. 

Government  of  the  Tongue, 

Flowers,  by  the  soft  South  West 
Opened,  and  gathered  by  religious  hands, 
Rebound  their  sweets  from  the  odoriferous  pavement. 

Prior, 

Bodies  which  are  a)>solate]y  hard,  or  so  soft  as  to 
be  void  of  elasticity,  will  not  rebound  from  one  ano- 
ther :  impenetrability  makes  them  only  stop. 

Uemum*t  OptidcM, 

She  bounding  from  the  shelfy  shore, 
Round  the  deMending  nymph  the  waves  nhemadiag 
roar.  Pope, 

REBUFF',  n.i.     Fr.  re\mffadtjl\3\,  rebuffo. 
Repercussion ;  quick  and  sudden  resistance. 
By  ill  chance 

The  strong  rebuff  of  some  tumultous  cloud, 

Instinct  with  fire  and  nitre,  hurried  him 

As  many  miles  aloft.  Milton's  Paradise  Lost, 


REBUiny,  v.a.  R*  and  build.  To  rs- 
edify ;  restore  flrom  demolition ;  lepair. 

The  fines  imposed  there  were  the  more  <{vesfioaed 
and  repined  against,  because  they  were  assi«aed  to 
the  rebuUding  luid  repairing  of  St.  Paul's  ckaicb. 

Fine  » the  secret,  delicate  the  art. 
To  raise  the  shades  of  heroes  to  our  view, 
lUbuM  ftdlen  empires,  and  old  time  renew. 

dEBUKE',  V.  a.  fc  n.  s.  )     Fr.  rthoMckery  or 
RsBu'saBLE,  A^'.  (Lat.  r^iei^o.    To 

chide;  reprehend;  rcproee;  cemare:  the  ceo- 
sure  giren :  rebukable  is  worthy  of  rebuke. 
Thy  r^uke  hath  broken  my  heart.      Pealm  Ixtx. 
The  mvolters  are  profound  to  make  slaaghter, 
though  I  have  been  a  r^bnker  of  them  all.      Hmm, 
He  was  reimked  for  his  iniquity  ;  the  dumb  an, 
^waking  with  ssan's  voice,  forbad  the  madness  of  tb« 
prophet.  2  Petir. 

Why  bear  you  these  reftuto,  and  answer  not? 

SbaJktptoTe, 
i  am  ashamed  ;  does  not  the  stone  nkutm  me, 
For  being  more  stone  than  it  1  Id, 

Rebukable 
And  worthy  shameful  check  it  were,  to  stand 
On  mere  mechanick  compliment  Id. 

The  proud  he  tamed,  the  penitent  he  cheered. 
Nor  to  r^uie  the  rich  oflenoer  feared.         Dryden, 
He  ||ave  him  so  terrible  a  r^uka  upon  the  fore- 
head with  his  heel,  that  he  laid  him  at  his  length. 

VEslrenye, 
The  rdmkes  and  chiding  to  children^  should  be  is 
grave  and  dispassionate  wmds.  Locke. 

Shall  Gibber's  son»  without  r06«te, 
Swear  like  a  lord  "*  Pope, 

Should  vice  expect  to  escape  rOmka, 
Because  its  owner  is  a  duke  1  Swiff e  MkoeBenies. 

RE'BUS,  n.s.  Lat.  rdm,  A  word  repie- 
sented  by  a  picture. 

Some  citizens,  wanting  arms,  have  coined  theai- 
selves  certain  devices  alloding  to  their  names,  which 
we  call  rebue;  Master  Jagge  the  printer,  in  many 
of  his  books,  took,  to  expresshis  name,  a  nightingale 
stttiog  in  a  bush  with  a  scrole  in  her  mouth,  whoem 
was  written  jugge,  jugge,  jugge.  Peaekm, 

The  origin  of  the  Rebus  or  name-device,  as 
Camden  styles  it,  is  genemlly  attributed  to  the 
priests  of  Ficardy,  who,  it  seems,  anciently  used 
to  make  certain  libels,  entitled  de  rebus  quae  ge- 
runtur,  being  satires  Dn  the  transactions  aad 
manners  of  the  day ;  in  which  they  made  great 
use  of  these  allusions,  omitting  and  bred^ing 
words  and  supplying  them  with  paintings.  Cam- 
den tells  ns,  the  rebut  was  in  great  esteem  among 
our  forefathers ;  and  that  he  was  nobody  who 
could  not  hammer  out  of  his  name  an  invention 
by  this  wit-craft,  and  picture  it  accordingly. 

The  Sieor  des  Accords  has  made  an  ample 
collection  of  the  most  femous  rebuses  de  Pica^ 
die,  and  Camden  has  done  something  of  the 
same  kind  in  his  Remains.  Abel  Droggei^s  de- 
vice in  Ben  Jonson's  Alchemist,  and  Jack  of 
Newbury,  in  the  Spectator,  are  known  to  eveiy 
body.  But  the  rebus,  being  once  raised  to  sign- 
posts, grew  out  of  fashion  at  ooort. 

This  fency  for  representing  the  name  by  sooe 
device  seems  to  have  existdl  in  the  pure  An- 
j;ustan  age :  Cicero  in  a  dedication  to  me  gods, 
mscribed  Marcus  Tullius,  with  a  little  pea, 


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calkd  hf  die  Latim  deeir,  by  us  a  ^ich  pea. 
And  JiiHits  Cesar,  on  some  of  his  coins,  used 
an  elephant,  callcxi  Cesar  in  the  Mauritantan 


Ibbus,  in  heraldry,  a  coat  of  arms  which  bears 
an  allusion  to  the  name  -of  the  person ;  as  three 
castles, 'for  Castleton;  ^ee  cups  for  Butler; 
three  conies,  for  Convoy ;  bearings  which  are  of 
great  antiquity. 

RfiBU'TiV.fi.  TT.rebtaer.  To  retire  back. 
Obsolete. 

Thenselvei  too  rudely  rigorous, 
Astonied  with  the  stroke  of  their  own  hand. 
Do  htA  rtha,  and  each  to  other  yidded  land. 

Spenser, 

REBrTTER  (from  the  French  bouter,  to  put 
back  or  bar)  is  the  answer  of  defendant  to  plain- 
tiff's surrejoinder;  and  plaintiff's  answer  to  the 
rebutter  is  called  a  surrebutter.  Rebutter  is  also 
where  a  man  by  deed  or  fine  grants  to  warrany 
any  land  or  hereditament  to  another;  and  the 
person  making  the  warranty,  or  his  heir,  sues  him 
to  whom  the  warranty  is  made,  or  his  heir  or 
assignee,  for  the  same  thing ;  if  he  who  is  so  sued 
plead  the  deed  or  fine  with  warranty,  and  pray 
jadgment,  if  the  plaintiff  shall  be  received  to  de- 
mand the  thing  which  he  ought  to  warrant  to  the 
party  s^alnst  &e  warranty  in  the  deed,  &c.,  this 
is  called  a  rebutter.  And  if  I  grant  to  a  tenant  to 
hold  without  impeachment  of  waste,  and  after- 
wards implead  him  for  waste  done,  he  may  debar 
me  of  this  action  by  showing  my  grant  which  is 
a  rebutter. 

RFCAL,  v.a.  &  n.$.  Re  and  call.  To 
call  back ;  call  again ;  revoke :  revocation. 

They  who  reoatt  the  church  unto  that  which  was 
at  tlie  first,  must  set  bounds  unto  their  speeches. 

Hooker. 

If  Henry  were  reeaUed  to  life  again, 
These  news  would  cause  him  once  more  yield  the 
ghost.  Shaktpeare. 

Other  decrees 
Against  thee  are  gone  forth,  widiOKit  recall, 

MiUon. 

Tia  done,  and  since  'tis  done  'tis  past  read; 
And,  since  'tis  past  reeal,  must  be  forgotten. 

Drydm. 
Neglected  lon^,  she  let  the  secret  rest, 

Till  love  recalled  it  to  her  lah'ring  breast.        fd. 

It  is  strange  the  soul  should  never  once  reeal  over 
any  of  its  pure  native  ideas,  before  it  borrowed  any 
thing  from  the  body  ;  never  any  other  ideas,  but  what 
derive  tfadr  original  from  that  union.  LocAv. 

To  the  churches,  wherein  they  were  ordained, 
they  might  of  rieht  be  reeaUed  as  to  their  proper 
charch,  under  pain  of  excommunication.      Aylifi, 

If  princes,  whose  dominions  lie  contignous,  be 
forced  to  draw  from  dioie  armies  which  act  against 
France,  we  must  hourly  expect  having  those  troops 
reeaUed  which  they  now  leave  with  us  in  the  micttt 
of  a  siege.  Sw^. 

It  is  necesiary  to  reeaU  to  the  reader's  mind,  the 
desire  Ulysses  has  to  reach  his  own  conntry. 

Broome  on  Odyueg, 

RECANATI,  the  andent  Recinefum,  a  town 
of  Italy,  m  the  Ecclesiastical  States,  and  delega- 
tion of  Anoona.  It  is  finely  situated  on  an  emi- 
nence near  the  Musone,  four  miles  south-west  of 
Loretto,  and  forms  with  that  town  the  see  of  a 
bishop.  Its  only  objects  of  interest  are  a  monu- 
ment in  bronzey  at  the  town-house,  and  an  aque- 


duct leading  to  Loretto.    The  conntry  around  is 
extremely  fertile.  Inhabitants  4000.  Four  miles 
south-west  of  Loretto,  and  thirteen  south  of  An- 
oona. 
RECANT,  v. a.  Uv,n,'\     Lat.  recarUo,   To 
Kecam'tatiok,  n.  s.        S  retract ;  recall ;  con- 
RECANt'EB.  3  tradict ;  revoke  a  po- 

sition :  recantation  and  recanter  corresponding. 
She  could  not  see  means  to  join  this  reeantation  to 
the  former  vow.  Sidney. 

JJe  shall  do  this^  or  else  I  do  recant 
The  PJ^on  that  I  late  pronounced.     Shakspeare, 
The  publick  bodv,  which  doth  seldom 
Flay  the  recanter,  feeling  in  itself 
A  lack  of  Timon's  aid,  hath  sense  withal 
Of  its  own  fall,  restraining  aid  to  Timon.    Id, 
How  soon  would  ease  recant 
Vows  made  in  pain  as  violent  and  void  !  MiUon, 
The  poor  man  was  imprisoned  for  this  discovery, 
and  forced  to  make  a  publick  recantatum. 

StUlingfleet. 
If  it  be  thought  that  the  praise  of  a  translation 
consists  in  adding  new  beauties,  I  shall  be  willing 
to  recant,  Dryden, 

That  the  legislature  should  have  power  to  change 
the  succession,  whenever  the  necessities  of  the  king- 
dom require,  is  so  useful  towards  preserving  our  re- 
ligion and  liberty  that  I  know  not  how  to  recant. 

Swift, 

RECAPrrULATE,  v.  a,  J     Fr.  recamtuUr ; 

Recapitula'tion,  n,  t.      /  Lat.  re  ana  capitur 

RECAPiT'uLATonY,  odj.  3  han.  To  repeat 
again ;  the  repetition  made ;  repeating  again. 

He  maketh  a  racopftujotum  of  the  christian  churches ; 
among  the  rest  he  addeth  the  isle  of  Eden  by  name. 

Raleigh. 

Hylobares  judiciously  and  resentingly  reeapittuates 
your  main  reasonings.         Merest  Dioine  Dialogues^ 

1  have  been  forced  to  reeapitulaie  these  things, 
because  mankind  is  not  more  liable  to  deceit,  than 
it  is  willing  to  continue  in  a  pleasing  error. 

Dryden. 

Instead  of  raising  any  particular  uses  from  the 
point  that  has  been  deuvered,  let  us  make  a  brief 
recapitulation  of  the  whole.  Sou^, 

Recapitulatory  exercises.  Garretwn, 

RECARHY,  V.  a.  Re  and  carry.  To  carry 
back. 

When  the  Turks  besieged  Malta  or  Rhodes, 
pigeons  carried  and  recarried  letters.  Walton. 

RECCO,  a  town  of  the  Sardinian  States,  in 
the  province  of  Genoa,  on  the  sea  coast.  Inha- 
bitants 2000.  It  carries  on  some  traffic  in  linen; 
likewise  in  oil  fruit,  and  other  products  of  the 
country.    Ten  miles  E.  S.  E.  of  Genoa. 

RECEDE',  w.n.  Lat.  rcccio.  To  fall  back; 
retreat;  desist 

I  can  he  content  to  recede  much  from  my  own  in- 
terests and  personal  rights.  King  Charles. 

They  hoped  that  their  general  assembly  would  be 
persuaded  to  depart  from  some  of  their  demands ;  but 
that,  for  the  present,  they  had  not  authority  to  recede 
from  any  one  proposition.  Clarendon. 

A  deaf  noise  of  sounds  that  never  cease. 

Confused  and  chiding,  like  the  hollow  roar 

Of  tides  receding  from  the  insulted  shore. 

Dryden. 
Ye  doubts  and  fears  \ 
Scattered  by  winds,  recede,  and  wild  in  forests  rove 

Prior. 

All  bodies,  moved  circularly,  have  a  perpetual 
endeavour    to  recede  from  the  centre,  and  every 


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moment  would  fiy  out  in  right  lines,  if  they  were 
not  violently  restrained  by  contiguous  matter. 

BentUjf, 

RECEIVE',  v.  a. ^      Fr.  recevoir;   Lat.  re- 

Receipt^,  n.  s.       tdpio.    To  obtain  or  take 

Receiv'edness,    4  that  which  is  due ;  take  or 

Receiv'er.  J  obtain  in  any    sense  or 

way;  embrace;  admit;  entertain:  i-eceipt  is  the 
act  of  receivinff;  reception;  admission;  wel- 
come; note  of  sometning  received  or  to  be 
tfidcen,  hence  a  medical  or  other  prescription ; 
place  of  receiving;  receivedness  is  general  al- 
lowance ;  custom :  receiver  follows  all  the  senses 
of  receive. 

Let  her  be  shut  out  from  the  camp  seven  daj^s,  and 
after  that  received  in  again.  hfumben  lii.  14. 

What?  shall  we  receive  good  at  the  hand  of  God, 
and  shall  we  not  receive  evil?  Job  ii.  10. 

Thou  shalt  guide  me  with  thy  counsel,  and  after- 
ward receive  me  to  glory.  Ptalm  Ixxiii.  24. 

Jesus  saw  Matthew  sitting  at  the  reeeipt  of  custom. 

Matthew. 

A  certain  nobleman  went  into  a  far  country,  to 
receive  for  himself  a  kingdom,  and  return.       Luke» 

He  that  doeth  wrong,  shall  receive  for  the  wrong 
done ;  and  there  is  no  respect  of  persons.  Colaeriant. 

The  same  words  in  my  lady  Philoclea's  mouth 
might  have  had  a  better  grace,  and  perchance  have 
found  a  gentler  receipt.  Sidney, 

This  is  a  great  cause  of  the  maintenance  of  thieves, 
knowing  their  receivers  always  ready  ;  for  were  there 
no  receioert,  there  would  be  no  thieves. 

^ruer*s  State  of  Ireland* 

It  is  of  things  heavenly  an  universal  declaration, 
working  in  them,  whose  hearts  God  inspireth  vrith  the 
due  consideration  thereof,  a  habit  or  disposition  of 
mind  whereby  they  are  made  fit  vessels,  both  for  the 
receipt  and  delivery  of  whatsoever  spiritual  perfect- 
tion.  Hooker, 

Long  received  custom  forbidding  them  to  do  as 
they  did,  there  was  no  excuse  to  lustify  their  act ; 
unless  in  the  scripture,  they  could  show  some  law , 
that  did  licence  them  thus  to  break  a  received  custom. 

Id, 
Villain,  thou  did'st  deny  the  gold's  receipt, 

And  told  me  of  a  mistress. 

Shahpeare,  Comedjf  of  Erronrt. 
On's  bed  of  death 
Many  receipts  he  gave  me,  chiefly  one 
Of  his  old  experience  the  only  darling. 

Shakspeare. 
If  by  this  crime  he  owes  the  law  his  life, 

Why,  let  the  war  receive  it  in  valiant  gore.      Id, 
To  one  of  your  receiving. 
Enough  is  shown.  Id. 

All  the  learnings  that  his  time  could  make  himre- 
eeiver  of,  he  took  as  we  do  air.  Id. 

Lest  any  should  think  that  any  thing  in  this  num- 
ber eight  creates  the  diapason  ;  this  computation  of 
eight  IS  rather  a  thing  received,  than  any  true  com- 
putation. Bacon. 

There  is  a  receiver,  who  alone  handleth  the  mo- 
nies.. Id. 

She  from  whose  influence  all  impression  came, 
But  by  receivers*  impotencies  lame.  Donne, 

jove  requite. 
And  all  the  immortal  gods,  with  that  delight 
Thou  most  desirest,  thy  kind  receite  of  me  ; 
Of  friend  to  humane  hospitality.  Chapman. 

What  was  so  mercifully  designed,  might  have  been 
improved  by  the  humble  and  diligent  receivers  unto 
their  greatest  advantages.  Hammond. 

-Vl\  teach  him  a  receipt  to  make 

Words  that  weep,  and  tears  that  speak.    Couley. 


The  signification  and  sense  of  the  i 
pose  the  spirit  of  the  reoeiver  to  admit  the  gnoeef  tke 
spirit  of  uod  there  consigned.  Taller, 

Abundance  fit  to  honour,  and  reeeke 
Our  heavenly  stranger.  JfUtm. 

That  Medea  could  make  old  men  young  again,  wis 
nothine  else,  but  that,  from  a  knowledge  of  simples, 
she  had  a  receipt  to  make  white  hair  black. 

Broume's  Vuigar  Erran. 

Others  will,  upon  account  of  the  feestwi&tfsf  of  tbe 
proposed  opinion,  think  it  rather  wortii  to  be  exa. 
mined,  than  acquiesced  in.  BoyU. 

The  joy  of  a  monarch  for  the  news  of  a  victoiy 
must  not  be  expressed  like  the  ecstacy  of  a  harle- 
quin, on  the  reee^  of  a  letter  from  his  mistren. 

Drjfien. 

Wise  leeches  will  not  vain  receipts  obtrude, 
While  growing  pains  pronounce  the  humoors  crude. 

Id. 

They  lived  with  the  friendship  and  equality  of 
brethren;  received  no  laws  from  one  another,  bai 
lived  separately.  Lodn. 

The  idea  of  solidity  we  receive  by  our  touch.  Id. 

If  one  third  of  the  money  in  trade  were  locked  up, 
land-holders  must  receive  one  third  less  for  their 
goods ;  a  less  quantity  of  money  by  one  third  beiDg 
to  be  distributed  amongst  an  equal  number  of  re- 
ceivers.  Id. 

•In  all  works  of  liberality,  something  more  is  to  be 
considered,  besides  the  occasion  of  t£e  given ;  and 
that  is  the  occasion  of  the  receivers.  Sprat. 

Gratitude  is  a  virtue,  disposing  the  mind  to  an 
inward  sense,  and  an  outward  acknowledgement 
of  a  benefit  received,  together  with  a  readiness  to  re- 
turn the  same,  as  the  occasions  of  the  doer  shall  re- 
quire, and  the  abilities  of  the  receiver  extend  to. 

Seetk. 

These  liquors  which  the  wide  receiver  fill, 
Prepared  with  labour  and  refined  with  skill. 
Another  course  to  distant  parts  begin.     Blaekmen. 

Alkaline  spirits  run  in  veins  down  the  sides  of  the 
receiver  in  distillations,  which  will  not  take  fire. 

Affhuhmt. 

Scribonius  found  the  receipt  in  a  letter  wrote  to  Ti- 
berius, and  was  never  able  to  procure  the  recast 
during  the  emperor's  life.  Id.  en  CatM. 

It  must  be  done  upon  the  receipt  of  the  woand, 
before  the  patient's  spirits  be  overheated.  Wisemm. 

The  air  that  in  exhausted  receivere  of  air-pumps 
is  exhaled  from  minerals,  is  as  true  as  to  elasticity 
and  density  of  rarefaction,  as  that  we  respire  in. 

Bentley. 

Some  dryly  plain,  without  invention's  aid. 
Write  dull  receipts  how  poems  may  be  made.  P(^. 

Wood's  halfpence  will  be  ofiered  for  six  a  penav* 
and  the  necessary  receivers  vrill  be  losers  of  two-thirds 
in  their  pay.  Svifi. 

Free  converse  with  persons  of  dififerent  sects  vill 
enlarge  our  charity  towards  others,  and  incline  us  to 
fvosioe  them  into  all  the  degrees  of  unity  and  affec- 
tion, which  the  word  of  God  requires.  Watts. 

Receipt,  or  Receit,  in  commerce,  an  acquit- 
tance or  discharge,  in  writing,  intimating  that 
the  party  has  received  a  certain  sum  of  money, 
either  in  full  for  the  whole  debt,  or  in  part, 
or  on  account.  Receipts  arc  subject  to  stamp 
duties. 

Receiver,  receptor  or  receptator,  -in  law,  is 
commonly  used  in  a  bad  sense  for  such  as  know- 
ingly receive  stolen  goods  from  thieves,  and  con- 
ceal them.  '  This  crime  is  felony,  and  the  punish- 
ment is  transportation  for  fourteen  years. 

'  Receivers,  in  chemistry,  are  vessels  adapted 
to  the  necks  or  beaks  of  retorts,  alembics,  and 

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«tiier  dbtUlatory  ressek,  to  collect  and  contain 
the  products  of  the  distillation.  They  are  made 
of  gnss,  earthenware,  and  of  metal.  See  Labo- 
ratory. 

R£C£L'£BRAT£,  v.  a.  Re  and  celebrate. 
Te  cdebrate  anew. 

Freoch  air  and  EDglish  verse  here  wedded  lie  : ' 
Who  did  this  knot  compose, 
Again  hath  brought  the  lily  to  the  rose ; 
And  with  their  chained  dance 
Bicelebrates  thejoyful  match:  Ben  Jontan, 

RECENSIO  was  an  account  taken  by  the 
censors,  every  lustrum,  of  all  the  Roman  people. 
It  was  a  general  survey,  at  which  the  equites,  as 
well  as  the  rest  of  the  people,  were  to  appear. 
New  names  were  put  upon  the  censor's  list,  and 
old  ones  cancelled.  In  short,  it  was  a  more  so- 
lemn and  accurate  sort  of  probatio,  showing  who 
were  fit  for  military  service. 

REC  EN'SION,  n.  i.  Lat.  recensio.  Enume- 
ration; review. 

Id  this  recensum  of  monthly  flowers,  it  is  to  he  ud- 
deistood  from  its  first  appearing  to  its  final  wither- 
og.  Eoeljfn. 

RE'CENT,  fldf;.    y     Lai, receru.    New;  not 
Re'centlt,  (u/i7.     Sof  long    existence:   the 
Re'centness,  n.  s.  J  adverb    and    noun-sub- 
stantive corresponding. 

Among  all  the  great  and  worthy  persons,  whereof 
the  memory  remaineth,  either  ancient  or  recent,  there 
is  not  one  that  hath  been  transported  to  the  mad  de- 
gree of  love.  Bacon, 
This  inference  of  the  Tecentne$$  of  mankind  from 
tke  recentnest  of  these  apotheoses  of  gentile  deities, 
seems  too  weak  to  hear  up  this  supposition  of  the 
Doritas  humani  generis.  Hale. 
The  ancients  were  of  opinion,  that  those  parts, 
where  Egypt  now  is,  were  formerly  sea,  and  that  a 
considenwle  portion  of  that  country  was  recent,  and 
fonned  out  of  the  mud  discharged  into  the  neigh- 
bouring lea  by  the  Nile.                          Woodward. 

Those  tubes  which  are  most  recently  made  of  fluids 
are  most  flexible  and  most  easily  lengthened. 

Arbutknot. 
A  schirms  in  its  recencjf,  whilst  it  is  in  its  aug- 
ment, requireth  milder  applications  than  the  con- 
finned  one.  Wiseman. 

Ulysses  moves 
Urged  on  by  want,  and  recent  from  the  storms, 
The  brackish  ooze  his  manly  grace  deforms.    Pope. 
RECEPTACLE,  n.  s.      Lat.  receptacuban. 
A  vessel  or  place  into  which  any  thing  is  re- 
ceived.   This  had  formerly  the  accent  on  the  first 
syllable. 

The  county  of  Tipperaiy,  the  only  county  palatine 
in  Ireland,  is  by  abuse  of  some  bad  ones  made  a  re- 
cepiade  to  rob  the  rest  of  the  counties  about  it. 

Spem9er*t  State  of  Ireland. 
When  the  sharpness  of  death  was  overcome,  he 
then  opened  heaven  as  well  to  believing  gentiles  as 
Jews ;  heaven  till  then  was  no  receptacle  to  the  souls 
of  either.  Hooker. 

As  in  a  vault,  an  ancient  receptacle, 
Where  for  these  many  hundred  years  the  bones 
Of  all  my  buried  ancestors  are  packt.     ShaJupeere. 
The  eye  of  the  soul,  or  receptacle  of  sapience, 
and  divine  knowledge. 

Raieigh't  History  of  the  World. 
Let  paradise  a  receptacle  prove 
To  spirits  foul,  and  all  my  trees  their  prey.  Milton. 

Their  intelligence  put  in  at  the  top  ot  the  horn, 
shall  convey  it  into  a  little  receptacle  at  the  bottom. 

Addison. 


Though  the  supply  from  this  great  reeeptaele 
below  be  continual  and  alika  to  all  the  globe ;  yet 
when  it  arrives  near  the  surface,  where  the  heat 
is  not  so  uniform,  it  is  subject  to  vicissitudes. 

Woodteardm 

These  are  conveniences  to  private  persons ;  instead 
of  being  receptacles  for  the  truly  poor,  they  tempt 
men  to  pretend  poverty,  in  order  co  share  the  advan- 
tages. Atterbury. 

RECEPnBIL'ITY,n.«.^      All  of*  Latin 
Recep'tary,  frecepiiis.  Possibi- 

Recbp'tion,  Mity  of  receiving: 

Recep'tive,  adj.  i  receptory    is  the 

RECEP'TORy.  J  thing    received 

(obsolete) :  reception,  the  act  or  manner  of  re- 
ceiving ;  admission ;  and,  in  an  obsolete  sense, 
recovering:  receptive  is  having  the  quality  of 
admission:  receptory,  generally  or  commonly 
received. 

The  soul  bung,  as  it  is,  active,  perfected  by  love 
of  that  infinite  gw)d,  shall,  as  it  is  receptive,  be  idso 
perfected  with  those  supernatural  passions  of  joy, 
peace  and  delight.  Hooker. 

He  was  right  glad  of  the  French  king's  reception 
of  those  towns  from  Maximilian.  J!<u»fi. 

This  succession  of  so  many  powerful  methods 
being  farther  prescribed  by  God,  have  found  so  dis- 
couraging a  reception  that  nothing  but  the  violence 
of  stormmg  or  batteiy  can  pretend  to  prove  success- 
ful. Hammcnd*s  Fundamentals. 
Causes,  according  still 
To  the  reception  of  their  matter,  act ; 
Not  to  the  extent  of  their  own  sphere.  Milton. 

All  hope  is  lost 
Of  my  reception  into  grace.  Id,  Paradise  Loot. 
The  pretended  first  matter  is  capable  of  all  forms, 
and  the  nnaginaiy  space  is  receptive  of  all  bodies. 

Olmmlle. 
The   peripatetic    matter  is  a  pure  unactuated 
power ;  and  this  concei  ed  vacuum  a  mere  reoepta- 
UlUy.  Id. 

In  this  animal  are  found  parts  official  unto  nutri- 
tion, which,  were  its  aliment  the  empty  reception  of 
air,  provisions  had  beei^  superfluous.  Browne. 

Although  therein  he  contained'  many  excellent 
things,  and  verified  upon  his  own  experience,  yet  are 
there  many  alM)  receptory,  and  will  not  endure  the 
test.  Id. 

They,  which  behold  the  prnent  state  of  things, 
cannot  condemn  our  sober  enquiries  in  the  doubtful 
appurtenhnoes  of  arts  and  reeeptaries  of  pliilosophy.. 

Id. 
To  advance  the  spiritual  concerns  of  all  that  could 
in  any  kind  become  receptive  of  the  good  he  meant 
them,  was  his  unlimited  designment  and  endeavour. 

FeU. 
Both  serve  completely  for  the  reception  and  com- 
munication of  learned  knowledge.  Holder. 

In  some  animals,  the  avenues,  provided  by  nature 
for  the  reception  of  sensations,  are  few,  and  the  per- 
ception, they  are  received  with,  obscure  and  dull. 

Loeke. 

RECEPTACULUM,  in  botany,  one  of  the 
seven  parts  of  fructification,  defined  by  Linn6  to 
be  the  base  which  connects  or  supports  the 
other  parts.    See  Botany. 

RECESS',  n.  s.  >  Lat.  refeinii.  Retire- 
Reces'sion.  it  ment ;  retreat ;  secession ; 
departure;  place  of  retreat  or  concealment; 
secret  part  or  drawer,  hence,  perhaps,  papers  or 
memoranda  deposited  there :  recession  is  the  act 
of  retreating. 


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On  bath  tides  fUbrnj  made  rather  a  kind  of  raem, 
than  a  bnech  of  treaty,  and  oondoded  upon  a  tntoe. 


What  tumults  could  not  do,  an  army  must ;  my 
riem  hath  given  them  confidence  that  I  may  be  con- 
quered. King  C^mrUt, 

I  conceived  this  parliament  would  find  work  with 
convenient  netam  for  the  first  three  years.         Id* 
This  happy  place,  oar  sweet 
lUentt  and  only  consolation  left*      MiUtm, 
The  great  seraphic  lords  and  cherubim, 

In  close  rweif ,  and  secret  conclave  sat  Id» 

In  the  rectts  of  the  jury,  they  are  to  consider  their 
evidence.  Haie. 

We  come  into  the  world,  and  know  not  how ;  we 
live  in  it  in  a  self-nesdence,  and  go  hence  again,  and 
are  as  ignorant  of  our  reemt,  Otanintle. 

Whatsoever  sign  the  sun  possessed,  whose  reeets 
or  vicinity  deflneth  the  quarters  of  the  year,  those 
of  our  seasons  were  actually  existenL  Brawn§, 

In  their  mysteries,  and  most  secret  rteeuet,  and 
adyUof  their  religion,  their  heathen  priests  betrayed 
and  led  their  votaries  into  all  the  most  horrid  unna- 
tural uns.  Hammond, 
The  deep  rfosisn  of  the  grove  he  gained.     Dryden, 

Good  verse,  neeu  and  solitude  requires } 
And  ease  from  cares,  and  undisturbed  desires.    Id, 

In  the  imperial  chamber,  the  proctors  have  a  florin 
taxed  and  aAowed  them  for  eve^  substantial  rsceti. 

Avliffe. 

Fair  Thames  she  haunts,  and  ev*iy  neighbring 
grave. 
Sacred  to  soft  rteen  and  gentle  love.  Prior, 

Every  scholar  should  acquaint  himself  with  a  su- 
perficial scheme  of  all  the  sciences,  yet  there  is  no 
necessity  for  every  man  of  learning  to  enter  into  their 
difficulties  and  deep  recetsti*  WatU. 

RECEIABITES,  among  the  ancient  Jews,  a 
kind  of  religious  order  instituted  by  Jonadab  die 
son  of  Rechab,  domprehending  only  his  own  fa- 
mily and  posterity.  Their  founder  prescribed 
them  three  things :  first,  not  to  drink  any  wine ; 
not  to  build  any  houses,  but  to  dwell  in  tents; 
not  to  sow  com  or  plant  lines.  The  Uechabites 
observed  these  rules  with  great  strictness,  as  ap- 
pears from  Jer.  xicxv.  6^  &c.  Whence  St.  Je» 
rome>  in  his  thirteenth  epistle  to  Paulinus,  calls 
them  monachi,  monks.  Jonadab,  their  founder, 
lived  under  Jehoash,  king  of  Judah,  contempo- 
rary with  Jehu  king  of  Israel :  his  father  Rechab, 
from  whom  his  posterity  were  denominated,  de- 
scended from  Raguel  or  Jethro,  father-in-law  to 
Moses,  who  was  a  Kenite;  whence  Kenite  and 
Rechabite  are  used  as  synonymous  in  Scripture. 
Serrurius  distinguishes  the  ancient  Rechabites 
descended  from,  and  instituted  by,  Jethro,  from 
the  Rechabites  of  Jonadab.  The  injunction  of 
Jonadab  laid  no  obligation  on  the  other  Kenites, 
nor  on  the  other  descendants  of  Jethro.  Benja- 
min de  Tudela  declares  that  he  found  this  cele- 
lebrated  femily  still  existing  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Mecca :  and  the  recent  publication  of  the 
Travels  of  Mr.  Wolff  in  the  East  seems  to  con- 
firm the  iieu^t  of  their  present  existence. 

The  Rechabites  were  mentioned  to  him  under 
the  name  of  Hybarri  both  by  the  Jews  and  Mar 
hometans  of  Yemen:  and  making  enquiiv  re^ 
specting  them  of  some  Jews  whom  he  found 
leading  an  Arab  life  in  the  desert,  one  of  them  ex- 
claim^, <  See  there  is  one  of  them,'  and  turning 
his  eyes,  as  directed,  he  saw  a  man  standing  by 
his  horse's  head  dresse^  like  an  Arab,  but  having 
a  for  more  striking  countenance  than  this  race 


hate  generally.  He  accepted  tenkAiUy  a  bible  in 
Arabic  and  Hebrew  (tisading  both) ;  but  answer- 
ed all  questions  ^  in  a  voice  of  thunder.'  When 
asked  who  he  was,  he  read  aloud  the  whole  of 
the  thirty-fifth  chapter  of  Jeremiah,  saying  stthe 
close  <  I  am  a  son  of  Rechab.'  He  invited  the 
missionary  to  visit  his  tribe  who  live  in  three 
caves  near  Mecca,  and  amount  to  60,000  innum- 
ber,  and  requested  him  to  bring  more  bibks  with 
him.  Like  their  fitters,  they  dwell  in  huts,  and 
neither  sow  the  fields  nor  plant  vineyards.  They 
(ire  circumcised,  and  prgfess  pure  Judaism; 
having  among  them  the  books  of  the  Pentateuch, 
Samuel,  and  Kings:  as  well  as  the  greater  and 
lesser  prophets.  They  all  speak  Arabic  and  resd 
Hebrew.  They  attacked,  as  they  state,  Maho- 
met, in  the  name  of  the  law  of  Sinai,  but  were 
defeated;  and  have  a  tradition  that  he  was  poi- 
soned by  a  girl  of  their  tribe.  The  Jews  of  the 
neighbourhoMod  are  persuaded  that  these  Beai 
Rechab  are  'intendea  for  their  powerful  succor 
on  their  return  to  Judea.  The  Arabs  spoke  of 
them  with  great  respect,  and  as  admirable 
horsemen :  one  of  these  always  appearing  sud- 
denly before  the  Mahometan  caravan  on  its  ar- 
rival in  the  vicinity  of  Mecca,  to  receive  an  ac- 
customed tribute,  or  its  refusal.  In  either  case 
he  vanishes  again  like  lightning;  but  in  the  latter 
as  the  certain  omen  of  a  storm  of  well  appointed 
cavalry,  which  bursts  with  resistless  force  cm  the 
heads  of  the  Moslems. 

RECHANOE',  v.  a.  Ft.nekMger.  Re  and 
change.    To  chant^e  agai^. 

Those  endued  with  foresight,  work  with  facility; 
others  are  perpetually  changing  and  rtckanging  their 
work.  Lhyden. 

RECHA'RGE,  v.  o.  Fr.  recharger.  lie  and 
charge.    To  accuse  in  return;  attdck  anew. 

The  fault  that  we  find  with  them  is.  that  tfaej 
ovemiuch  abridge  the  church  of  her  power  in  these 
things :  whereupon  they  rtekarge  us,  as  if  in  tkae 
things  we  gave  the  church  a  liberty  which  hath  no 
limits  or  bounds.  Hwnktr. 

Thev  chajge,  reeharge,  and  all  along  the  sea 
They  drive,  and  squander  the  huge  Belgian  fleet. 

Diydn, 

RECHEAT,  ft.  s.  Re  and  cheat  Among 
hunters,  a  lesson  which  the  huntsman  winds  oo 
the  bom,  when  the  hounds  have  lost  their  game, 
to  call  them  back  from  pursuing  a  counterscent 

That  a  woman  conceived  me,  I  thank  her ;  hot 
that  I  will  have  a  rtcheat  winded  in  my  forehead,  or 
hang  my  bugle  in  an  invisible  baldrick*  all  women 
shall  pardon  me.  Shabpmrt, 

RECHERCHE  Aechipelago,  a  cluster  of  is- 
lands, stretchmg  about  126  miles  in  the  south 
coast  of  New  Holland,  between  33^  and  34''  S. 
lat.  They  are  almost  all  small,  and  many  of 
them  naked  rocks :  firom  the  banks  and  shoals  in- 
terspersed, the  access  to  this  part  of  New  Holland 
is  dangerous. 

RECIDIVATION,  n.  s.  Lat.  readimf^ 
Backsliding ;  Ming  again. 

Our  renewed  obedience  is  still  move  indispenwbW 
requiied,  though  mixed  with  much  of  weakness,  frail- 
ties, recidioatunu,  to  make  ut  capable  of  pardon. 
Hammond* t  PraetiMl  CateokUm. 

llEClPE,  n.  s.  Lat.  rcftpe.  A  medical  pre- 
scription. 

I  should  enjoin  you  travel ;  for  absence  doth  in  a 
kind  remove  the  cause,  and  answers  the  pbysidan'i 
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int  mipi,  Tonidng  moA  parging ;  Imt  this  vronld  be 
too  bush.  SadUinf, 

Tho'  apothecaiy  tma  U  wholly  blind, 
from  llei  a  raodoB  rvoijM  they  take. 
And  many  deathi  of  one  pnscription  make. 

Ihydm, 
RECIPIENT,  ».  8.  Lat  rec^nens.  .  A  re- 
ceiver ;  that  to  wbich  any  thing  is  commanicated. 
The  form  of  found  words,  dissolved  by  chymical 
preparation,  ceases  to  be  nutritive ;  and,  aiter  all  the 
tsboun  of  the  alembecky  leaves  in  the  redpient  a  fr«t- 
ingcorrosive.  Decay  of  Pttfty. 

Though  the  images,  or  whatever  else  is  the  cause 
of  sense,  may  be  alike  as  from  the  object,  yet  may 
the  repreientations  be  varied  according  to  the  nature 
ciiheneipknt,  OlattvilU 

RECIPROCAL,  adj.  -s      Lat.  reciprocut ; 
RECip'KOCALLYy  adv.    I  Fr.  reeiproqtie,    Al- 
REciP'ROCALNESSy  11.  s.  >  temate ;  acting  in  tI- 
Recif^bocate,  v.  n.      i  cissitude ;     mutual : 
RscipaocA'TiON,  n.  $,  J  interchangeable  mu- 
tually :  the  adyerb  and  nounaubstantive  corres- 
ponding :  to  reciprocate  is  to  act  interchangeably 
oraltematelv:  reciprocation,  alternation;  action 
interchanged. 

His  mind  and  place 
Infecting  one  another  ttciproeaUy,       Shaktpaart, 
Corruption  is  reciprocal  to  generation ;  and  they 
two  are  as  nature's  two  boundaries,  and  guides  to 
life  and  death.  Baemi. 

The  redproeahuu  of  the  injury  ought  to  allay  the 
displeasure  at  it.  Decay  of  Pwty, 

What  if  that  light, 
To  the  terrestrial  moon  be  as  a  star, 
Enlightening  her  by  day,  as  she  by  night, 
This  earth  1  reciprocal,  if  land  be  tnere. 
Fields  and  inhabitants  MUtan. 

That  Aristotle  drowned  himself  in  Euripns,  as 
despairittff  to  resolve  the  cause  of  its  reciprocation  or 
ebb  and  now  aeven  times  a  day,  is  generally  believed. 


Make  the  bodies  appear  enlightened  by  the  itha- 
dowi  which  bound  the  si^ht,  which  cause  it  to  re- 
pose for  some  space  of  time ;  and  reciprocaUy  the 
shadows  may  be  made  sensible  by  enlightening  your 
gronnd.  Dryden. 

One  brawny  smith  the  puffing  bellows  plies. 
And  draws,  and  blows  reciprocating  air.  Id, 

Where  there's  no  hope  of  a  reciprocal  aid,  there 
can  be  no  reason  for  the  mutual  obligation. 

VEstrange. 

Where  the  bottom  of  the  sea  is  owse  or  sand,  it  ia 
by  the  motion  of  the  water,  so  far  as  the  reaproeatum 
of  the  sea  extends  to  the  bottom,  brought  to  a  leveL 

tlap. 

From  whence  the  quick  reeiproeaHng  breath. 
The  lobe  adhesive,  and  the  sweat  of  death.    Setoel. 

If  the  distance  be  about  the  hundredth  pan  of  an 
loch,  the  water  will  rise  to  the  height  of  about  an 
inch ;  and,  if  the  distance  be  greater  or  less  in  any 
proportion,  the  height  will  be  reaprocaUy  proportionu 
to  the  distance  very  nearly :  for  the  attractive  force 
of  the  fflasses  is  the  same,  whether  the  distance  be- 
tween them  be  greater  or  less ;  and  thewasht  of  the 
water  drawn  up  is  the  same,  if  the  height  of  it  be  rv- 
ciproeaUy  proportional  to  the  height  of  the  classes. 
Newton  t  OpHce* 

According  to  the  lavrs  of  motion,  if  the  bulk  and 
activity  of  uiment  and  medicines  are  in  reciprocal 
proportion^  the  effect  will  be  the  same. 

Arimthnot  on  Alitnenit. 

In  reeiproedl  duties,  the  failure  on  one  side  justi- 
fies not  a  failure  on  the  other.  Claritta, 

These  two  rules  will  render  a  definition  reciprocal 


with  the  dung  dafined ;  which,  in  the  schools,  sig* 
niiies,  that  the  definition  may  be  used  in  the  place  of 
the  thing  defined.  Wmtu, 

REciPBocALy  in  arithmetic,  algebra,  &c.,  is  the 
quotient  arising  from  the  division  of  unity  by 
any  number  or  quantity.    Thus  the  reciprocal 

of  2  is  },  of  3  is  j,  and  of  a  is  — »     Hence  the 
a 

reciprocal  of  a  vulgar  fraction  may  be  found,  by 
barely  making  the  numerator  and  the  denomina- 
tor mutually  change  places :  thus  the  reciprocal 

of  i  is  for  2;  of]  is  i;  of  T-is-,&c.     Hence 
o      a 

also,  any  quantity  being  multiplied  by  its  reci- 
procal, die  product  is  always  equal  to  unity  or 
1;  soj  X  f  =  |  =  l,andjx  |  =  |=l,and 

i.X-=  — =1. 
b       a       ab 

Reciprocal  Figures,  in  geometry,  those 
whioh  have  the  antecedents  and  consequents  of 
the  same  ratio  in  both  figures. 

Reciprocal  Proportion,  in  arithmetic,  is 
when,  in  four  numbers,  the  fourth  is  less  than 
the  second,  by  so  much  as  the  third  is  greater 
than  the  first;  and  vice  weak. 

Reciprocal  Terms,  amon^  logicians,  are 
those  which  have  the  same  signification;  and 
consequently  axe  convertible,  oi  may  be  used  for 
each  other. 

RECITE',  v. a.&n.  1.1       Fr.  reciter;  Lat. 


Reci'tal,  n.  t. 
Recita'tion, 
Reci'tative,  or, 
Recitati'vo, 
Reci'ter. 


rectto.  To  rehearse; 
^repeat ;  enumerate : 
^narrative  (obsolete): 
recital  and  recitation 
mean  rehearsal ;  nar- 


ration; repetition:  recitative,  or  recitativo,  a 
chaunt;  a  tuneful  pronunciation:  reciter,  he  who 
recites  or  repeats. 

If  menaces  of  scripture  fall  upon  men's  persons :  if 
they  are  but  the  recitations  and  descriptions  of  God's 
decreed  wrath,  and  those  decrees  and  that  wrath  have 
no  respect  to  the  actual  sins  of  men  ;  whv  should 
terrors  restrain  me  from  sin,  when  presMit  advantage 
invites  me  to  it  ?  *  Hammond. 

The  last  are  repetitions  and  reeitaU  of  the  first.  * 

Denham. 

This  added  to  all  former  reeitee  or  observations  of 
ong-lived  laoes,  makes  it  easy  to  condode,  that 
health  and  long  life  are  the  blessings  of  the  poor  as 
well  as  rick.  Temple, 

Ha  used  philosophical  arguments  and  recitations. 

He  introduced  the  examples  of  moral  virtue,  vrrit 
in  verse,  and  performed  in  recitative  music.  Dryden. 

This  often  sets  him  on  empty  boasts,  and  betrays 
him  into  vain  fiantastic  redtalt  of  his  own  perform- 
ances. Addieon. 
While  Telephus'a  ^oathfol  diarras. 
His  rosy  neck,  and  vruding  arms. 
With  endless  rapture  you  recite, 
'  And  in  the  tender  name  delight.  id. 
To  make  the  ronsh  recital  aptly  chime. 
Or  bring  the  sum  of  Gallia's  loss  to  rhime. 
Is  mighty  hard.                                          Prtvr. 

By  singing  peers  upheld  on  either  hand. 
Then  thus  in  plain  recitatieo  spoke.        Dtutdad. 
The  thoufffaU  of  gods  let  Granville's  verse  reeUe, 
And  bring  the  scenes  of  opening  fate  to  light.  Pope. 

Recitative,  or  Recitativo,  in  music,  a  spe- 
cies of  harmonious  recitation,  forming  the  me- 
dium between  air  andihetoriod  declamation  and 


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ia  which  tfa«  composer  or  performer^  rejecting 
the  rigorous  rules  of  time,  imitates  the  inflexions^ 
accent,  and  emphasis,  of  natural  speech. 

Recitative,  so  called  because  its  true  province 
lies  in  narration  and  recital,  was  first  introduced 
at  Rome,  in  the  year  1660,  by  Signer  Emilia  del 
Cavaliere,  and  was  so  powerhilly  recommended 
by  its  effect  as  to  be  speedily  adopted  in  other 
parts  of  Italy,  and,  by  degrees,  through  the  rest 
of  Europe.  The  beauty  of  this  species  of  com- 
position depends  greatly  on  the  cnaracter  of  the 
language  in  which  it  is  used;  as  that  is  more  or 
less  accented  and  melodious,  so  the  more  or  less 
natural  and  striking  will  be  the  effect  of  the  re- 
citative. 

RECK,  V.  n.  &  V.  a.  *}      Sax.  ^ecan ;  Swed. 

Reck'less,  adj,  yreka;  Goth,  rakia.  To 

Reck'lessness,  n.  t.  j  value ;  care ;  heed ; 
mind ;  care  for:  reckless  is,  careless ;  heedless : 
the  noun  substantive  corresponding. 

This  son  of  mine,  not  reeking  danger,  and  neglect- 
ing the  present  good  vray  he  wis  in  of  doing  himself 
gtMd,  came  hither  to  do  this  kind  office  to  my  un- 
speakable grief.  Siimf. 

It  made  the  kin?  as  rteUett  as  them  diligent.  Id. 

Over  many  ffood  fortunes  began  to  bre^  a  proud 
rteUeMttuu  in  them.  Id, 

Thott's  but  a  lazy  loarde, 

And  r^cki  much  of  thy  swinke. 
That  with  fond  terms  and  witless  words. 

To  blear  mine  eyes  dost  think.  ;^efii«r. 

I  reek  as  little  what  betideth  roe. 

As  much  I  wish  all  good  befortnne  you. 

Shahpeare. 
Do  not  yo|i  as  ungracious  parsons  do. 

Who  shew  the  steep  and  thorny  way  to  heaven ; 

Yet  like  unthinking  reckku  liliertine, 

That  in  the  soft  path  of  dalliance  treads, 

Reekt  not  his  own  rede.  id. 

Next  this  was  drawn  the  rec1de$$  cities  flame, 
When  a  strange  hell  poured  down  from  heaven  there 
came.  CowUy. 

With  that  care  lost 

Went  all  his  fear ;  of  God,  or  hell,  or  worse. 

He  r$eked  not.  Milton. 

Of  night'or  loneliness  it  recks  me  not ; 

I  fear  the  dread  events  that  dog  them  both, 
'  Lest  some  ill-greeting  touch  attempt  the  person 

Of  our  unowned  sister.  Id. 

RECK'ON,  V.  a.  &  r.  n.  ">       Saxon    jiecan ; 

Recr'oner,  n.  s.  J   Belg.  reckenan  ; 

Recr'oking.  jTeut.  recken.    See 

Reck  .  To  estimate  as  to  value ;  number ;  count ; 
esteem ;  assign  in  reckoning ;  to  compute ;  cal- 
culate ;  charge  to,  or  in  account ;  taking  on,  upon^ 
and  with:  a  reckoner  is  a  computer  or  calcula- 
tor: reckoning,  computation;  account  taken; 
esteem;  estimate. 

The  priest  shall  roekon  unto  him  the  money  ac- 
cording to  the  years  that  remain,  and  it  shall  be 
abated.  Levitiau  xxvii.  18. 

There  was  no  reckoning  made  with  them  of  the 
money  delivered  into  their  hand.  2  Kings. 

To  him  that  worketh  is  the  reward  not  roehmed  of 
grace,  but  of  debt  Romant  iv.  4. 

Canst  thou  their  reeVningt  keept   the  time  com- 
pute 
When  their  swoln  bellies  shall  enlarge  their  fruit ! 

Samdvi. 

Where  we  cannot  be  persuaded  that  the  will  of 
God  is,  we  should  so  far  reject  the  authority  of  men, 
as  to  reekm  it  nothing.  Hooker. 


We  shall  not  spoad  a  large  expenos  of  thns^ 

Before  we  reckon  vnth  your  several  loves. 

And  make  us  even  with  you.  Shahpean. 

His  industry  is  up  stairs  and  down ;  hiseloqnence 
the  parcel  of  a  reckoning.  Id,  Heerjf  IV. 

ReckoHore  without  their  host  must  reckon  twice. 

Camden. 
I  call  posterity 
Into  the  deM,  and  reckon  on  her  bead*  Ben  Jeuien. 

Varro's  aviary  is  still  so  famous  that  it  is  reeknui 
for  one  of  those  Rotables  which  men  of  foreisn  as- 
tions  record.  Wotten. 

Numbering  of  his  virtues  praise. 

Death  lost  the  reckoning  of  bis  days.     CraAn. 

For  him  I  reokon  not  in  hi|[h  estate ; 
But  thee,  whose  strength,  while  virtue  was  her  mate, 
Mifiht  have  subdued  the  earth.    Mi2ion*»  AgewaUt. 

God  suffers  the  most  grievous  sins  of  particular 
persons  to  go  unpunished  in  this  world,  became  hU 
justice  wilt  have  another  opportunity  to  meet  and 
reckon  toith  them.  TUJotsim. 

You  reckon  vpon  losinr  your  friends'  kindness, 
when  you  have  sufficiency  convinced  them,  the; 
can  never  hope  for  any  of  yours. 

TemplM*s  MtteeOana. 

The  freezing  of  water,  or  the  blowing  of  a  plant, 
returning  at  equidistant  periods,  would  as  well  tent 
men  to  reckon  their  years  by,  as  the  motions  of  the 
sun.  Loch. 

I  reckoned  above  two  hundred  and  fifty  on  the  out- 
side of  the  church,  though  I  only  told  three  sides  of 
it.  Additim. 

A  multitude  of  cities  are  rockonod  up  by  the  geo- 
graphers, particularly  by  Ptolemy.  Arbntknat. 

Heckoming,  or  a  Ship's  Reckoning,  in  navi- 
gation, is  that  account  whereby  at  any  time  it 
may  be  known  where  the  ship  is,  and  on  what 
course  or  courses  she  is  to  steer  in  order  to  gaio 
her  port;  and  that  account  taken  from  the  log- 
boaixi  is  called  the  dead  reckoning.  See  Navi- 
gation. 

RECLAIM',  V.  a. )      Lat.  rtdamo.    To  re- 

Reclaim'er,  n.t.  S  form  ;  correct ;  adjust; 
bring  to  a  desired  standard ;  tame :  reclaimer  is 
a  contradicter. 

He  spared  not  the  heads  of  any  mischievous  prac- 
tices, but  shewed  sharp  judgment  on  them  for  eo- 
sample  sake,  that  all  the  meaner  sort,  which  were 
infected  with  that  evil,  might,  by  terror  thereof,  be 
reektimBd  and  saved.  Spenaa. 

This  errour  whosoever  is  able  to  reclmm,  be  shall 
save  more  in  one  summer,  than  Tbemiaon  destroyed 
in  any  autumn.  Browne. 

Reclaim  your  wife  from  strolling  up  and  down 
To  all  assizes.  D^en'e  Juoami 

The  head-strong  horses  hurried  Octavius,  the 
trembling  charioteer,  along,  and  were  deaf  to  bis 
reclaimitig  them.  Dryden. 

Upon  his  fist  he  bore 

An  eagle  well  reclaimed.         Id.  Knijfht*i  Taie. 

Are  not  hawks  brought  to  the  hand,  and  lions, 
tygers,  and  bears  reclaimed  by  good  usage  ? 

VEstrang^. 

Minds  she  the  dangers  of  the  Lydan  coast  1 
Or  is  her  low'ring  flight  reclaimed. 
By  seas  from  Icarus's  downfU  named  1 
Vain  is  the  call,  and  useless  the  advice.         Pritr. 

'Tis  the  intention  of  providence,  in  all  the  vari- 
ous expressions  of  his  goodness,  to  reclaim  man- 
kind, and  to  engage  their  obedience. 

IUgen*t  Sermont. 
Oh  tyrant  love ! 

Wisdom  and  wit  in  vain  reclaim. 

And  arU  but  soften  us  to  fieel  thy  flame.     Pcpf' 


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The  penal  lawi  in  being  against  papists  have  been 
found  inefiectual,  and  rather  oonnrm  than  reclaim 
raen  from  their  errors.  Swift, 

Reclaiming,  in  ancient  English  customs, 
was  a  lord's  pursuing,  prosecuting,  and  recalling 
his  vassal,  who  had  gone  to  live  in  another  place 
without  his  permission. 

Reclaiming  is  also  used  for  the  demanding 
of  a  person  or  thing,  to  be  delivered  up  to  the 
prince  or  state  to  which  it  properly  belongs; 
when,  by  any  irregular  means,  it  is  come  into 
another's  possession. 

Reclaiming,  in  falconry,  is  taming  a  hawk, 
&c.,  and  ihaking  her  gentle  and  familiar.  A 
partridge  is  said  to  reclaim,  when  she  calls  her 
young  ones  together,  upon  their  scattering  too 
much  from  her. 

RECLINE',  V.  fl.,  V.  n.  &  ae^.  Fr.  recUner ; 
lAt  reclmo.  To  lean  back,  or  sidewise;  rest; 
repose :  in  a  resting  posture. 

They  sat  reclintd 
On  the  soft  downy  bank,  damasked  with  flow'n. 

MUtan. 
The  mother 
Rtdmid  her  dying  head  upon  his  breast.    Drydtn. 

While  thus  she  rested,  on  her  arm  rteUiudt 
The  purling    streams  that  through  the  meadows 

strayed. 
In  drowsy  murmurs  lulled  the  gentle  maid. 

Addison, 

RECLOSE',  V.  a.  Re  and  close.  To  close 
again. 

The  silver  ring  she  pulled,  the  door  reehued ; 
The  bolt,  obedient  to  the  silken  cord, 
To  the  strong  staple's  inmost  depth  restored, 
Secured  the  valves.  Popt't  Odyuty, 

RECLUDE',  V,  a.    Lat.  recludo.    To  open. 

The  ingredienU  absorb  the  intestinal  superfluities, 
T«dvdB  oppilations,  and  mundify  the  blood. 

Ho>T9tym 

RECLUSF,  adj,  &  n.s.  Fr.  reclm ;  Lat.  re- 
cbmu.    Retired ;  shut  up ;  a  retired  person. 

This  must  be  the  inference  of  a  mere  contempla- 
tive ;  a  reckM  that  converses  only  with  his  own  me- 
UiUtions.  Decay  ef  Piety, 

It  seems  you  have  not  lived  with  an  obstinate 
ncluu  from  the  disputes  and  transactions  of  men. 

Hammond, 
I  all  the  live-long  day 
Consume  in  meditation  deep,  recUue, 
From  human  converse.  PhiUpt, 

The  nymphs 
Melissan,  sacred  and  reehue  to  Cere^, 
Pour  streams  select,  and  parity  of  waters.     Prior, 

A  RECLT7SE,  among  the  Roman  Catholics,  is  a 
person  shut  up  in  a  small  cell  of  a  hermitage 
or  monastery,  and  cut  off,  not  only  from  all  con- 
versation wiUi  the  world,  but  even  with  the 
house.  This  is  a  kind  of  voluntarr  unprison- 
ment,  from  a  motive  either  of  devotion  or 
penance.  Tlie  word  is  also  applied  to  incon- 
tinent wiTes,  whom  their  husbands  procure  to  be 
thus  kept  in  perpetual  imprisonment*  in  some 
religious  house.  Recluses  were  anciently  very 
numerous.  They  took  an  oath  never  to  stir  out 
of  their  retreat;  and,  havine  entered  it,  the 
bishop  set  his  seal  upon  the  door;  and  the  re- 
close  had  every  thing  necessary  for  the  support 
of  life  conveyed  through  a  window.  If  he  was 
a  priest,  he  was  allow^  a  small  oratory  with  a 
wmdow,  which  looked  into  the  church,  through 


which  he  might  make  his  offerings  at  the  mass, 
hear  the  singing,  and  answer  those  who  spoke  to 
him ;  but  this  window  had  curtains  before  it,  so 
that  he  could  not  be  seen.  He  was  allowed  a 
little  garden,  adjoining  to  his  cell,  in  v^hich  he 
might  plant  a  few  herbs,  andf  breathe  a  little  fresh 
air.  If  he  had  disciples,  their  cells  were  con- 
tiguous to  his,  with  only  a  window  of*  communi- 
cation, through  which  they  conveyed  necessaries 
to  him,  and  received  his  instructions.  If  a  re- 
cluse fell  sick,  his  door  might  be  opened  for 
persons  to  come  in  and  assist  him,  but  he  him- 
self was  not  to  stir  out. 

RECOAGULATION,  n.s.  Re  and  coagu- 
lation.   Second  coagulation. 

This  salt,  dissolved  in  a  convenient  quantity  of 
water,  ^does  upon  its  reeoagulation  dispose  of  the 
aqueous  particles  among  its  own  saline  ones,  and 
shoot  into  crystals.  Boyle, 

RECOGNIZE,  «.  d-N  Lax.  recognotco.  To 
Recoo'nisance,  n.  s.  f  acknowledge ;  recover 
Recognisee',  >or  avow    knowledge; 

Recognisor',  i  review :    recognisance 

Recogni'tion,  J  is,    acknowledgment ; 

badge;  a  legal  bond  described  below:  the  re- 
cognisee  is  he  in  whose  favor  it  is  drawn  ;  the 
recognisor,  he  who  gives  it  t  recognition  is,  ac- 
knowledgment;  review. 

Apparent  it  is»  that  all  men  are  either  christians 
or  not ;  if  by  external  profession  they  be  christians, 
then  are  they  of  the  visible  church  of  Christ,  and 
christians  by  external  profession  they  are  all  whose 
mark  of  reeogrmanee  hath  in  it  those  things  men- 
tioned, yet  although  they  be  impious  idolaters  and 
wicb^  hereticks.  Hooktt, 

She  did  gratify  his  amorous  works 
With  that  reeognixance  and  pledfi(e  of  love. 
Which  I  first  gave  her ;  an  handkerchief. 

Shahpeare, 
The  English  should  not  marry  with  any  Irish,  un- 
less bound  by  reeagmvmoe  with  sureties,  to  continue 
loyal.  Daviet, 

The  Israelites  in  Moses'  days  were  redeemed  out 
of  Egypt ;  in  memory  and  recogniiion  whereof  thejr 
were  commanded  to  observe  the  vreekly  sabbath. 

WkUe. 
He  brought  several  of  them,  even  under  their  own 
hands,  to  reeogniu  their  sense  of  their  undue  proce- 
dure used  by  them  tmto  him.  FtU, 
The  British  cannon  formidably  roars, 
While  starting  from  his  oozy  bed, 
The  asserted  ocean  rears  his  reverend  head, 
To  view  and  recogniu  his  ancient  lord.    Dryden. 
Every  species  of  fancy  hath  three  modes :  recog^ 
nition  of  a  thing,  as  present ;  memory  of  it,  as  past ; 
and  foresight  of  it,  as  to  come.                       Grev, 
Christ  will  recognine  them  at  a  greater.       South. 

Recognition  is  a  term  used  in  the  English 
law  books  for  the  first  chapter  of  the  statute  1 
Jac.  I.,  by  which  the  parliament  acknowledged 
that,  liter  the  death  of  queen  Elizabeth,  the 
crown  had  rightfully  descended  to  king  James. 

Recognizance,  in  law,  is  an  obligation  of 
record,  which  a  man  enters  into  before  some 
court  of  record  or  magistrate  duly  authorised, 
with  condition  to  do  some  particular  act ;  as  to 
appear  at  the  assizes,  to  keep  the  peace,  to  pay 
a  debt,  or  the  like.  It  is  in  most  respects  like 
another  bond ;  the  difference  being  chiefly  this, 
that  the  bond  is  the  creation  of  a  fresh  debt  or 
obl^^ation  de  novo,  the  recognizance  is  an  ac- 
knowledgment of  a  former  debt  upon  record ; 

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the  form  whereof  is,  *  that  A  B  doth  acknow- 
ledge to  owe  to  our  lord  the  king,  to  the  pkuntitf, 
or  to  C  D,  or  the  like,'  the  sum  of  £10,'  with 
condition  to  be  void  od  perfennance  of  the 
thing  stipulated;  in  which  case^  the  king,  the 
plaintiff,  C  D,  &c.,  is  called  the  cogniiee,  is  cut 
cognosdtur ;  as  he  that  enters  into  the  recogni- 
zanoe  is  called  the  oognizor,  is  cul  eognoccit. 
This  being  certified  to,  or  taken  by,  the  officer  of 
some  court,  is  witnessed  only  by  the  record  of 
that  court,  and  not  by  the  party's  Seal;  so  that  it 
is  not  in  strict  propriety  a  deed,  though  the 
effects  of  it  are  greater  than  a  common  oblig»- 
tioQ ;  being  allowed  a  priority  in  point  of  pay- 
ment, and  binding  the  lands  of  the  cognizor 
from  the  time  of  enrolment  on  record. 

RECOIL',  V.  n.  &  n,  t.    Fr.  reader.  To  rush 
or  iall  back ;  fell ;  shrink :  a  fidling  back. 

Ye  both  forewearied  be ;  therefore  a  while 
I  read  you  rest,  and  to  your  bowers  nooU.   Spuuer, 
The  Teiy  thought  of  my  revengw  that  way 

i2«0Qtf  upon  ne ;  in  himself  too  mighty. 

OnflMipMrf. 

Who  in  deep  mines  for  hidden  knowledge  toils. 
Like  guns  o'erchaiged,  breaks,  misses,  or  r$coiU, 

VenMam, 
Revenge,  at  first  though  sweet. 
Bitter  ere  long,  back  on  itself  recoiU,       Afiiton. 

My  hand's  so  soft,  his  heart  so  hard. 
The  blow  rtooiU,  and  hurts  me  while  I  strike. 

Drydifu 
Recoil,  in  gimnery,  is  the  retrograde  motion 
made  by  any  piece  of  fire  arms  on  being  dis- 
charged. Cannon  are  always  subject  to  a  recoil, 
according  to  the  sizes  and  the  char^  they  con- 
tain, &c.  Guns,  whose  vents  are  a  httle  forward 
in  the  chase,  recoil  most  To  lessen  the  recoil 
of  a  gun,  the  platforms  are  generally  made 
sloping  towards  the  embrasures  of  the  battery. 
See  PaojECTiLES.    The  following  is 

A  Table, of  the  recoil  of  field  guns  on  travelling 
carriages,  on  elm  planks. 


I  Shot 

2  Shot 

Case 

Nature. 

Charge. 

at  1030' 
Eleva. 

atl^SO' 
Eleva- 

Shot at 
3P46'E- 

tion. 

tion. 

levatioB 

lbs.    OS. 

FeeL 

Feet. 

Feet. 

12  Pr.  Med. 

4    0 

12 

25 

8^ 

6  Pr.  Heavy 

2    0 

7 

11 

r* 

6  Pr.  Light 

1     8 

12 

21 

10 

3  Pre.  Heavy 

1     0 

3 

5 

H 

The  recoil  of  sea-service  iron-jguns,  on  ship- 
carriages,  upon  a  horizontal  platform,  is  as  fol- 
lows : — 


Chaige  of  Powder 
and  Shot. 

Ele- 
va- 
tion. 

32 

pound- 
ers. 

24 
pound- 
ers. 

18 
pound- 
ers. 

i   of  Powder  1 
and  1  Shot    f 

i    of  Powder) 
and  2  Shot    \ 

i   of  Powder  J 
and  2  Shot    ^ 

I>eg. 
2 

.    4 

7 

Ft.  In. 
11  0 

19  6 

11  6 

Ft.  In. 

11  0 

18  6 

12  0 

Ft.   In. 
10  6 

18  0 

12  0 

Recoil  of  famd  service  iron  mman,  on  iron 
beds. 

Ft  la. 
13-inch  with  a  charge  of  6  lbs.  4    2| 

10-inch  3  lbs.  2  10 

2-inch  1  lb.  9  OK.   3  10 

R£COIN,'t;.a.  >     Re  and  coin.    To  coin 
Recoim'aoe,  II.  s. )  over  again :  theactctf  coin- 
ing anew. 

The  mint  gained  upon  the  late  statute,  W  the  rt- 
eomag€  of  groats  and  half- groats,  now  twuvspeitoes 
and  sixpences.  Baeps. 

Among  the  Romans,  Co  preserve  great  eventi  upon 
their  coins,  when  any  paiticelar  pieoeof  money  giev 
very  scaroe,  it  was  often  reemned  by  a  succeeding 
emperor,  Addim. 

RECOLLECT,  v.  a.  >     Lat.  recoUectut.  To 
Rscollec'tiok,  is.  s.  )  remember ;  recover  to 
memory  or  reason ;  gather  again ;  the  noon  sub- 
stantive corresponding. 

It  did  relieve  my  passion  much ; 
More  than  light  sirs  and  r$ooUeeUd  terms 
Of  these  most  brisk  and  giddy  paced  times. 

Shakiptsftt 

Let  ns  take  care  that  we  sleep  not  without  todi  a 

reeoUeotim  of  the  actions  of  the  day  as  mav  repment 

any  thing  that  is  remarkable,  as  nmitter  of  « 


thankseivinff.  TVyior. 

Fining  Uie  reeolUctwn  of  his  thoughts  diatai^  hit 
sleep,  he  remitted  the  particular  care  of  the  compo- 
sition. Fdi. 
The  Tyrian  queen 

Admired  his  fortunes,  more  admired  the  man; 

Then  reeoOected  stood.  Drydsn's  Mnm, 

ReeoUeetion  is  when  an  idea  is  sought  after  by  tbe 
mind,  and  with  pain  and  endeavour  found,  &nd 
brought  again  in  view.  Ledu. 

BiSeoUect  every  day  the  things  seen,  heard,  or  read, 
which  made  any  addition  to  your  nadentaadiag. 

RECOM'FORT,  V.  a.  Re  and  comfort.  To 
comfort  or  console  again. 

What  place  is  there  left,  we  miay  hiofe  our  woe 
to  rveom/brt  7  Siimri. 

Ne'er  through  an  arch  so  hurried  the  blown  tides, 
As  the  reoom/brted  through  the  gates.  Shidape&re. 
As  one  from  sad  dismay 

Rse(m^&rt§dt  and  afler  thoughts  disCuihed, 

Submitting  to  what  seemed  remediless.     J/tZiM. 

RECOMMEND',  v.  a.  -v     Fr.  recotmendtr. 

Recommend' ABLE,  adj,  I  Re  and  commend. 

Recom MEN da'tion,  ».  s.  \  To  praisc earnestly ; 

Recommend'ato&t,  adj.  i  maie    acceptable : 

Recommend'er,  n.  t.  J  reeommeodable  is, 
worthy  of  praise;  the  act  or  mode  of  praising; 
that  which  secures  preference;  qualificatioa : 
recommendatory,  that  which  comm^ds:  le- 
commender,  he  who  commends. 

They  had  been  r^eammmditd  to  the  giace  of  God. 

Mecenas  reeommtndtd  Viigil  and  Horace  to  An- 
gustus,  whose  praises  helped  to  make  him  poptdv 
while  alive,  and  after  his  death  have  made  hiin  pre- 
cious to  posterity.  Vr^dn. 

Popllcola's  doors  were  opened  on  the  outside,  to 
save  the  people  even  the  common  civility  of  asking 
entrance;  where  misfortune  was  a  powerful ««■- 
mendtuion ;  and  where  want  itMelf  was  a  povcrfol 
mediator.  ^ 

A  decent  holdneas  ever  meets  wtdi  friends, 

Succeeds,  and  even  a  stranger  mfOMmmdi.  P«P** 


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Vfliwi  fwmwMndatoy  they  h«T»  oommanded  me 
10  pnfiz  btfoTO  my  book.  Bwifi, 

RECOMMITy  0.0.    Re  and  commit    To 


When  they  hid  boiled  the  twelve  bUhope,  who 

wBie  in  the  Tower,  the  house  of  commons  expoeta- 

hted  with  them,  and  caused  them  to  be  reoommitud. 

'  Clmrwdon, 

RECOMPACTy  V.  a.  Re  and  compact.  To 
join  anew. 

Repair 
And  mamfaa  my  scattered  body.     Dontu, 

RECOMPENSE,  v.  a.  fc  n.«.  Fr.  rteomr 
pauer;  Lat  re  and  compenio.  To  repay;  re- 
quite; compensate;  redeem:  as  a  noun-sub- 
i(*»!:tive»  reward ;  compensation ;  equivalent. 

If  the  man  have  no  kinsman  to  reeompnm  the 
trespan  unto,  let  it  be  rteompemml  unto  the  Lord. 

Numbers  v.  8. 

Hear  from  heaven,  and  requite  the  wicked,  by  tv- 
tompeaimg  his  way  upon  his  own  head.     2  CArm. 

Rtetmpgim  to  no  man  evU  for  evil.  Rom.  zii.  17. 
Thou'rt  so  far  before. 
That  swiftest  wing  of  noompenm  is  slow 
To  overtake  thee.  Shaktpeare, 

Wise  men  thought  the  vast  advantage  from  their 
lesraing  and  integrity  an  ample  reeompetue  for  any 
inconvenience  from  their  passion.  Clarendim. 

He  is  long  ripening,  but  then  his  maturity,  and 
the  coraplentfent  thereof,  reoomptrueth  the  slowness  of 
his  maturation.  JETok. 

Your  mother's  wrongs  a  reeampenm  shall  meet, 
I  lay  my  sceptre  at  her  daughter's  leeU        Drydgn* 

RECOMFILE'MENT,  n.  «.  Re  and  com- 
pilement    New  compilement 

Although  I  had  a  purpose  to  make  a  particular 
digest  or  vMempikmint  or  the  laws,  I  laid  it  aside. 

BaeoUm 

R£COMPOS£',o.a.)     Ft.  recompoter.  Re 

Rbcomposi'txon,!!.  «.  )and  compose.  To 
settle,  quiet;  or  adjust  anew;  the  noun-sub- 
stantive corresponding. 

Elijah  was  so  transported,  that  he  could  not  receive 
answer  from  God,  till  by  mosick  be  wu  Tweompotad. 

We  produced  a  lovely  purple,  which  we  can  de« 

«lioy  or  rscoaipoM  at  pleasure,  by  severing  or  reap- 

proaching  the  edges  of  the  two  inses.  BoyU, 

RECONCILE,  V.  c.  ^     Fr,  reconciler ; 

Recomcils'able,  at^,  Lat.    reconcUio, 

REcoNciLE'ABLEiTESSy  A.  1. 1  To    restore    to 

Reconcile'ment,  [kindness  or  fa- 

Reconci'lbb,  vor;  restore  to 

Recokcilia'tion.  J     consistency ; 

make  consistent:  the  adjective  and  first  noun 

substantive  corresponding:  reconcilement  is  re- 


',  he 


newal  of  kindness  or  frivor ;  agreement ;  and  s; 
nonymous  with  reconciliation :  a  reconcil 
who  effects  reconciliation ;  a  peace-maker. 

So  thou  shalt  do  for  every  one  that  eneth  and  is 
tiiDDle,  so  shall  ye  neoneiU  the  house.  Eukkl. 

He  might  be  a  mercifid  and  faithful  high  priest  to 
mkertconeUiatim  for  sin.  HtbrewM  ii.  17. 

Injury  went  beyond  all  degree  of  recondUment, 

Sidney, 
.  This  noble  passion. 

Child  of  integrity,  hath  from  my  soul 
Wiped  the  black  scruples,  reamcOed  my  thoughts 
To  thy  good  truth  and  honour.  Shahpettre. 

What  we  did  was  against  the  dictates  of  our  own 
conscience ;  and  consequently  never  makes  that  act 


feemeUmUe  with  a  regenerate  estate,  which  other- 
wise would  not  be  so.  .        .  Mammmd. 

Janes  concealed  are  half  reoeneUed  ;  which  if  ge* 
neially  known,  'tis  a  double  task  to  stop  the  breach 
at  home,  and  men's  mouths  abroad.  FuUer, 

Many  wise  men  who  knew  the  treasurer's  talent  in 
removing  prejudice,  and  reconoUine  himself  to  waver- 
ing affections,  believed  the  loss  of  the  duke  was  un- 
seasonable. Clarendim, 

Let  him  live  before  thee  reeoneUed,  KUton, 

Creature  so  ftur  !  his  reooneihment  seeking. 
Whom  she  had  displeased.  Id.  Paradiu  Lott. 

He  not  only  attained  his  purpose  of  uniting  dis- 
tant parties  unto  each  other,  but,  contrary  to  the 
usual  fate  of  reotmaien,  gained  them  to  himself. 

FeU. 

Part  of  the  world  know  how  to  acconunodate  St. 
James  and  St.  Paul,  better  than  some  laiereeonciUn. 

JViwrii. 

Worldly  affairs  and  recreations  may  hinder  our  at^ 
tendance  upon  the  worship  of  God,  and  are  not  re- 
coueileaUe  with  solemn  assemblies,  NtUen. 

Submit  to  Cssar, 
And  reeoneile  thy  mighty  soul  to  life.  Addistm. 

The  diflerent  accounts  of  the  numbers  of  ships  are 
reeencUeable,  by  supposing  that  some  spoke  of  the 
men  of  war  only,  and  others  added  the  transports. 

Arbuthtot, 

The  bones,  to  be  tlft  most  convenient,  ought  to 
have  been  as  light  as  was  rsoonciltoMe  xwith  sufficient 
strength.  Cheyne, 

On  one  side  great  reserve,  and  very  great  resent- 
ment on  the  other,  have  inflamed  animosities,  so  as 
to  make  all  reeondlement  impracticable.  8w^. 

Contending  minds  to  reeoncUe.  Id, 

RECONDENSE',  v,  a.  Re  and  condense. 
To  condense  anew. 

In  the  heads  of  stills  and  necks  of  eolipiles,  such 
vapours  quickly  are  by  a  very  little  cold  reetmdeiued 
into  water.  Boyle. 

RECONDITE,  (ujf.  Lat.  reomdt^.  Secret ; 
profound;  abstruse. 

A  disagreement  between  thought  and  expression 
seldom  happens,  but  among  men  of  more  reeondUe 
studies  and  deep  learning.  F^Um. 

RECONDUCT,  v.  a.  Fr.  reamdrnt;  Lat. 
recanductut.  Re  and  conduct.  To  conduct 
again. 

Wanderest  thou  within  this  lucid  oib. 
And  stravnl  from  those  fair  fields  of  light  above. 
Amidst  tnis  new  creation  want'st  a  guide. 
To  reconduct  thy  steps  1 

Jhyden*9  State  of  Iimocence, 

RECONJOIN',  V.  a.  Re  and  conjoin.  To 
join  anew. 

Some  li(|uors,  although  colorless  themselves,  when 
elevated  into  exhalations,  exhibit  a  conspicuous 
colour,  which  they  lose  again  when  receefjemed  into  a 
liquor.  BoyU, 

To  RECONNOITRE  [Fr.l  in  military  affairs, 
implies  to  view  and  examme  the  state  of  things, 
in  order  to  make  a  report  thereof.  Parties 
ordered  to  reconnoitre  are  to  observe  the  counti^ 
and  the  enemy :  to  remark  the  routes,  conveni- 
ences, and  inconveniences  of  the  first;  the  posi- 
tion, marcb,  or  forces  of  the  second.  In  either 
case  they  should  have  an  expert  geographer, 
capable  of  taking  plans  readily ;  he  should  be 
the  best  mount^  of  the  whole,  in  case  the 
enemy  happen  to  scatter  the  escort,  that  he  may 
save  ^s  plans  and  ideas. 


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RECON'QUBE,  v.  o.  -  Fr.  re&mquenr.  Re 
aod  conquer.    To  conquer  again. 

Chatterton  undertook  to  ttcoMfutr  Ogier.  Amet . 

RECONVENE',  v.  a..  Re  and  convene.  To 
asaemble  anew. 

A  worse  accident  fell  oat  about  the  time  of  the 
two  houses  fteotnadngt  which  made  a  wonderful  im- 


pression. 


Clanndon, 


RECON'SECRATE, «.  a.  Re  and  consecrate. 
To  consecrate  anew. 

If  a  church  should  be  consumed  by  fire,  it  shall,  in 
such  a  case,  be  rtcanuenUd, .      Ayliffs^s  Parerg<m. 

RECONVEY',  V.  n.  Re  and  convey.  To 
convey  again. 

As  rivers  lost  in  seas,  some  secret  vein 
Thence  raemiMyf,  there  to  be  lost  again.     Denham. 
RECORiy,  t». «.  &  n.  f .  >      Fr.  recorder ;  Lat. 
Record'er,  n.  «.  Srecordor,    To  regis- 

ter ;  celebrate ;  recite :  a  register ;  authentic  me- 
morial; remembrance:  a  recorder  is  he  whose 
business  it  is  to  keep  records;  the  rolls  of  a  city, 
&c. ;  also  a  kind  of  flute. 

I  call  heaven  and  earth  to  record  this  day  against 
you,  that  I  have  set  before  you  life  and  death. 

Deut,  XXX.  20. 
Those  things  that  are  recorded  of  him,  and  his  im- 
piety, are  written  in  the  chroiiicles.         1  Esdrai  i. 

llie  shepherds  went  amone  them,  and  sung  an 
eclogue,  while  the  other  shepherds,  pulling  out  re* 
earden,  which  nossest  the  place  of  pipes,  accorded 
their  music  to  tbe  others  voice.  Sidney* 

He  shall  record  a  gift 
Here  in  the  court  of  all  he  dies  possessed. 
Unto  his  son  Lorenzo.  ShtUupeare. 

Is  it  upon  record  7  or  else  reported 
Snccessivelv,  from  age  to  age  1  id. 

I  never  shall  have  length  of  life  enough. 
To  rain  upon  remembrance  with  mine  eyes. 
That  it  may  grow  and  sprout  as  high  as  heaven 
For  recordation  to  my  noble  husband.  Xd. 

1  asked,  what  meant  this  wilful  silence  1 
His  answer  was,  tbe  people  were  not  used 
To  be  spoke  to  except  by  the  recorder.  Id, 

I  but  vour  recorder  am  in  this,. 
Or  mouth  and  speaker  of  the  universe, 

A  ministerial  notary ;  for  'tis 
Not  I,  but  you  and  fame  that  make  the  verse. 

Donne, 
They  loneed  to  see  the  day,  to  hear  the  lark 
Record  her  hymns,  and  chaunt  her  carols  blest. 

Foxtfax, 
So  even  and  mom  recorded  the  third  day.  Milton^ 

An  ark,  and  in  the  aric  a  testunony. 
The  record*  of  his  covenant.  Id. 

Of  such  a  goddess  no  time  leaves  record. 
Who  burned  the  temple  where  she  was  adored. 

Dryden. 
If  he  affinns  such  a  monarchy  continued  to  the 
flood,  I  would  know  what  reeordt  he  has  it  from. 

Locke. 
Thy  elder  look,  great  Janus !  cast 
Into  the  long  records  of  ages  past ; 
Review  the  years  in  fairest  action  drest.     Prior. 
The  office  of  recorder  to  this  city  being  vacant,  five 
or  six  persons  are  soliciting  to  succeed  him.  Smft. 

Record,  Trial  by,  is  where  a  matter  of 
record  is  pleaded  in  any  action,  as  a  fine,  a 
judgment,  or  the  like;  and  tbe  opposite  party 
pleads;  nul  tiel  record,  that  there  is  no  such 
matter  of  recurd  existine.  Upon  this,  issue  is 
tendered  and  joined  in  the  following  form, '  and 
.  this  he  prays  may  be  enquired  of  by  the  record; 
and  the  other  does  the  like  ;*  and  hereupon  the 


party  pleading  ^  record  has  a  day  given  him  to 

Dring  it  in,  and  proclamation  is  made  in  court 
for  him  to '  bring  forth  the  record  by  him  in 
pleading  alleged,  or  else  he  shall  be  condeoaned ;' 
and,  on  his  failure,  his  antagonist  shall  have 
judgment  to  recover.  The  trial,  therefore,  of 
this  issue  is  merely  by  the  ^^rd ;  for,  as  Sir 
Edward  Coke  observes,  a  record  or  enrolment  is 
a  monument  of  so  high  a  nature,  and  importeth 
in  itself  such  absolute  verity,  that  if  it  be  pleaded 
that  there  is  no  such  record,  it  shall  not  receive 
any  trial  by  witness,  jury,  or  otherwise,  but 
only  by  itself.  Thus  titles  of  nobility,  as 
whether  earl  or  not  earl,  baron  or  not  baron, 
shall  be  tried  by  the  king's  writ  or  patent  only, 
which  is  matter  of  record.  Also,  in  case  of 
an  alien,  whether  alien,  friend,  or  enemy,  he 
shall  be  tried  by  the  league  or  treaty  between 
his  sovereign  and  ours;  for  every  league  or 
treaty  is  of  record.  And  also,  whether  a  maoor 
be  held  in  ancient  demesne  or  not,  shall  be  tried 
by  the  record  of  doomsday  in  the  king's  exche- 
quer. 

The  Recorder  is  a  person  whom  the  mayor 
and  other  magistrates  of  a  city  or  corpoiaiion 
associate  witnthemselves,  for  their  direction  in 
matters  of  justice  and  proceedings  in  law  ;  on 
which  account  this  person  is  generally  a  covn- 
seller  well  skilled  in  the  law.  No  reootder  of 
London  is  mentioned  before  1304.  He  is  the 
first  officer  in  order  df  precedence  that  is  paid  a 
salary,  which  originally  was  no  more  than  JClO 
sterling«per  annum,  with  some  perquisites ;  bnt 
it  has  from  time  to  time  been  augmenteci  to 
upwards  of  £1000  per  annum.  This  office  faas 
sometimes  been  executed  by  a  deputy. 

RECORDE  (Robert),  M.D.,an  English  phy- 
sician and  anriquarian  of  the  sixteendi  century. 
He  was  educated  at  Cambridge,  where  he  took 
his  degrees,  and  was  the  first  Englishman  iwho 
wrote  on  Algebra.  He  was  also  well  versed  in 
the  Saxon  langua^  and  collected  many  his- 
torical and  other  ancient  MSS.  His  learning, 
however,  unfortunately  did  not  prevent  his  being 
imprisoned  in  the  King's  Bench  prison  for  debt, 
where  he  died  in  1558. 

RECOUCH',  t».a.  Re  and  couch.  To  He 
down  again. 

Thou  mak'est  the  night  to  overvail  the  day ; 
Then  lions'  whelps  lie  roaring  for  their  prey, 
And  at  thy  powerful  hand  demand  their  food ; 
Who  when  at  morn  they  all  reeotich  again, 
Then  toiling  man  till  eve  pursues  his  pua.  Wotiam* 

RECOVER,  V.  0.  &  V.  n.  ■)     Fr.  reantvrir  ; 

Recot'erable,  o^*.  yhai.  rtcupeto.    To 

Recov'ery,  n.  *.  '  restore ;    repair ; 

renew;  regain;  release:  grow  healthy  or  free 
from  disease  or  evil :  recoverable  is,  poesibte  to 
be  regained :  recovery,  restoration;  act  or  power 
of  regaining:  in  law,  act  of  cutting  off  an  entnil. 

Would  my  lord  were  with  the  prophet ;  for  he 
would  recover  him  of  his  leprosy.         *  Kmg9  ▼.  3. 

The  Spirit  of  the  Lord  is  upon  me.  to  preach  the 
gospel  to  the  poor,  and  recovering  of  sight  to  the 
blind.  J^«**  >^»  *®- 

That  they  may  recover  themselves  out  of  the  snare 
of  the  devil,  who  are  taken  captive  by  him. 

2  Ttmothy  ii.  26. 

These  Italians,  in  despight  of  what  could  be  done, 
Tiliaventum.  KnoUe*, 


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Tbs  forest  U  not  three  league  off; 
If  we  rtcfiver  that,  weVe  sure  enough.     Shaktpean. 
A  prodigal's  course 

Is  like  the  sun's,  but  not  like  his,  r90ot!erable^l 
fear.  rl 

What  should  move  me  to  undertake  the  reeoocrv  of 
this,  being  not  ignorant  of  the  impossibility  1      Id. 

The  spirit  of  wantonness  is  sure  scared  out  of  him  ; 
if  the  devil  have  him  not  in  fee  simple,  with  fine.and 
neocriy.  Id, 

Once  in  forty  years  oometh  a  pope,  that  casteth  his 
eve  nnoa  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  to  rwner  it  to  the 
chuicfa.  Bac<m, 

They  promised  the  good  people  ease  in  the  matter 
of  protections,  bv  which  the  ctebts  from  parliament 
men  and  their  followers  were  nol  neoverabte. 

Ciartndan. 

Adam,  by  this  from  the  cold  sodden  damp 
Bteowtring,  his  scattered  spirits  returned.      MiUon. 

The  clouds  diraelled,  the  sky  resumed  her  light. 
And  nature  stooa  nemtertd  of  her  fright.      Diyden. 

Any  other  person  may  join  with  him  that  is  in- 
jured, and  assist  him  in  reeovering  from  the  ofiender 
so  much  as  may  make  satisfaction.  Loekt. 

The  sweat  sometimes  acid,  is  a  sign  of  rteentry 
after  acute  distempers.  Arbtuhmot  on  AUwmUs. 

Recov£ey,  or  Common  RficoVERTy  in  Eng- 
lish law.  Common  recoveries  were  invented  by 
the  ecclesiastics  to  elyde  the  statutes  of  mort- 
main; and  afterwards  encouraged  by  the  finesse 
of  the  courts  of  law,  in  order  to  put  an  end  to 
all  fettered  inheritances,  and  bar  not  only  estates- 
tail,  but  also  all  remainders  and  reversions  ex- 
pectant theieon.  A  common  recovery  is  a  suit  or 
action,  either  actual  or  fictitious;  and  in  it  the 
lands  are  recovered  against  the  tenant  of  the 
freehold ;  which  recovery,  being  a  supposed  ab- 
judication of  the  right,  binds  all  persons,  and 
vests  a  free  and  absolute  fee-simple  in  the  re- 
coverer.  There  must  be  three  persons  at  least  to 
make  a  common  recovery,  a  recoverer,  a  reco- 
▼eree,  and  a  vouchee.  The  recoverer  is  the 
plaintiff  or  demandant,  that  brings  the  writ  of 
entry.  The  recoveree  is  the  defendant  or  tenant 
of  the  land,  against  whom  the  vrrit  is  brought. 
The  vouchee  is  he  whom  the  defendant  or  tenant 
▼oucheth  or  calls  to  vrarranty  of  the  hmd  in  de- 
mand, either  to  defend  the  ri^ht,  or  to  yield  him 
other  hmds  in  value,  according  to  a  supposed 
agreement  And,  this  being  by  consent  and  per- 
mission of  the  parties,  it  is  therefore  said  that  a 
recovery  is  suffered. 

The  operation  of  this  legal  fiction  not  being 
generally  well  understood,  judge  Blackstone  has 
endeavoured  to  explain  it  iii  detail. 

'  Let  us,'  sap  he, '  in  the  first  place,  suppose 
David  Edwards  to  be  tenant  of  the  freehola,  and 
desirous  to  suffer  a  common  recovery,  in  order 
to  bar  all  entails,  remainders,  and  reversions, 
sod  to  convey  fhe  same  in  fee-simple  to  Francis 
Oolding.  To  effect  this,  Golding  is  to  bring  an 
action  against  him  for  the  lands ;  and  he  accord- 
ingly sues  out  1^  writ,  called  a  praecipe  auod 
reddat,  because  those  were  its  initials  or  most 
operative  words,  when  the  law  proceedings  were 
in  Latin.  In  this  writ  the  demandant,  Golding, 
alleges  that  the  defendant,  Edwards  (here  called 
the  tenant),  has  no  l^al  title  to  the  land ;  but 
that  he  came  into  possession  of  it  after  one  Hu^h 
Hunt  lubd  turned  the  demandant  out  of  it. 
The  subsequent  proceedings  are  made  up  into  a 
Vou  XVlIl 


record  or  recovery  roll,  in  which  the  writ  and 
complaint  of  the  demandant  are  first  recited ; 
whereupon  the  tenant  appears,  and  calls  upon 
one  Jacob  Moreland,  who  is  supposed,  at  the 
original  purchase,  to  have  warranted  the  title  to 
the  tenant;  and  thereupon  he  prays  that  the 
said  Jacob  Moreland  may  be  called  in  to  defend 
the  title,  which  he  so  warranted.  This  is  called 
the  voucher,  vocatio,  or  calling  of  Jacob  More- 
land  to  warranty;  and  Morehind  is  called  the 
vouchee.  Upon  this,  Jacob  Moreland,  the 
vouchee,  appears,  is  impleaded,  and  defends  the 
title.  Whereupon  Goldiz^,  the  demandant, 
desires  leave  of  the  court  to  imparl,  or  confer 
with  the  vouchee  in  private ;  which  is  (as  usual) 
allowed  him.  And  soon  afterwards  the  de- 
mandant, Golding,  returns  to  court,  but  More- 
land  the  vouchee  disappears,  or  maikes  the  de- 
fault. Whereupon  judgment  is  siven  for  the 
demandant,  Golding,  now  called  the  recoverer, 
to  recover  the  lands  in  question  against  the  te- 
nant, Edwards,  who  is  now  the  recoveree ;  and 
Edwards  has  judgment  to  recover  of  Jacob  More- 
land  lands  of  equal  value,  in  recompense  for  the 
lands  so  warranted  by  him,  and  now  lost  by  his 
default;  which  is  agreeable  to  the  doctrine  of 
warran^.  This  is  called  the  recompense,  or  re- 
covery in  value.  But  Jacob  Moreland  having  no 
lands  of  his  own,  bebg  usually  the  cryer  of  the 
court  (who,  from  being  freauentl^  thus  vouched, 
is  called  the  common  voucnee)  it  is  plain  that 
Edwards  has  only  a  nominal  recompense  for  the 
lands  so  recovered  against  him  by  Golding; 
which  lands  are  now  absolutely  vested  in  the 
said  recoverer  by  judgment  of  law,  and  seisin 
thereof  is  delivered  by  the  sheriff  of  the  county. 
So  that  this  collusive  recovery  operates  merely 
in  the  nature  of  a  conveyance  in  fee-simple, 
from  Edwards  the  tenant  in  tail,  to  Gohiing  the 
purchaser.' 

RECOUNT,  17. a.)     fr.reamter.  To  relate 

Recoumt'ment.  S  in  detail ;  tell  distinctly : 
relation;  recital. 

Bid  him  recouni  the  fore-recited  practices. 

Shoibpesrs. 

When  from  the  first  to  last,  betwixt  us  too, 
Tears  our  reamnimenU  had  most  finely  bathed  ; 
As  how  I  came  into  that  desart  place.  Id, 

Plato  in  Tinueo  produces  an  Egyptian  priest,  who 
Ttmuftied  to  Solon  out  of  the  holv  books  ot  Egjrpt  the 
stoiy  of  the  flood  universal,  which  happened  long  be- 
fore the  Grecian  inundation.  Rdmgh. 

The  talk  of  worldlv  afiairs  hindereth  much,  al- 
though rtetmnUd  with  a  fair  iatention  :  we  speak 
willingly,  but  seldom  return  to  silence.        TVyivr. 

Say  from  these  glorious  seeds  what  harvest  flows, 
Rteownt  our  blessings,  and  compare  our  woes. 

Ihydm, 

RECOURSE',  n. «.  )     Fr.  rumart ;  liit.  re- 

Recourse'ful,  adj.  S  ctimu»  Frequent  pas- 
sage; return;  renewed  attack  or  application; 
hence  the  common  sense  of  application  ft>r  help 
or  protection;  access:  recourseftil  is,  moving 
alternately. 

The  doors  be  lockt. 

That  no  man  hath  neourtt  to  her  by  night. 

finuMJMOff. 

.  In  that  reeounrful  deep.  Drajfton. 

Thus  died  this  ereat  peer,  in  a  time  of  neat  re- 
course unto  him  and  dependanoe  upon  him,  the  house 
and  town  full  of  servants  and  soitois.  WoUan. 

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Preventive  phviic»  by  purg^ing  noxious  humouis 
and  the  causes  of  diseases,  preventeth  sickneiis  in  the 
healthy,  or  the  rocimrw  thereof  in  the  valetudinary. 
Bfown^s  Vulgar  Emmrs. 
The  council  of  Trent  commends  the  making  recount, 
not  only  to  the  prayers  of  the  saintk,  but  to  their  aid 
and  assistance.  StiUinfi^, 

All  other  means  have  failed  to  wound  her  heart. 
Our  last  reecune  is  therefore  to  our  art«       Drjfden* 
RECREANT,  adj.    Fr.  rearemt,  Cov»ardly ; 
meanspirited ;  subdued;  fallen;  apostate. 

Let  be  that  lady  debonaire, 
Thou  rtermnt  knight,  and  aoon  thyself  prepare 
To  battle.  Spenm. 

Dost 
Thou  wear  a  lion's  hidel  doff  it  for  shame. 
And  hang  a  calf 's  skin  on  those  TecreeaU  limbs. 

ShahiptaTf» 
Who  for  so  many  benefits  received 
Turned  recreant  to  God,  ingrate  and  false. 
And  so  of  all  true  good  himself  despoiled. 

Milton, 
,  The  knight,  whom  fate  and  happy  chance  shall 

grace 
From  out  the  bars  to  force  his  opposite. 
Or  kill,  or  make  him  recreant  on  the  plain. 
The  prize  of  valour  and  of  love  shall  gain.  Dryden, 
RECREATE,  t;.  n."j     Fr.  recreer ;  Lat.  «- 
Recrea'tion,  n.  «.    Srreo.    To  refresh  ;  re- 
Recre' ATivB, 01^'.     3 Vive;  relieve  after  or 
avert  weariness ;  delight.:  the  noun-substantiTe 
and  adjective  corresponding. 

The  chief  recreutum  she  could  find  in  her  anguish 
was  sometime  to  visit  that  place,  where  fint  she  was 
so  happy  as  to  see  the  cause  of  her  unhq).  Sidney* 

I'll  visit 
The  chapel  where  they  lie,  and  tears  shed  there, 
Shall  be  my  recreation,    ShaJUpeare,   Wiater't  Tale, 

Let  the  musick  be  recreatnx,  and  with  some 
stranee  changes.  Bacon, 

Take  a  walk  to  refresh  yourself  with  the  open  air, 
which  inspired  fresh  doth  exceedingly  recreaU  the 
lungs,  heart,  and  vital  spirits.  Harvey, 

Let  not  your  recreations  be  lavish  spenders  of  your 
time  ;  but  choose  such  as  are  healthful,  recrtatim, 
and  apt  to  refresh  you  j  but  at  no  hand  dwell  upon 
them.  Taywr. 

He  vralked  abroad,  which  he  did  not  so  much  to 
recreate  himself,  as  to  obey  the  prescripts  of  his  phy- 
sician. Fell. 
These  ripe  fruits  recreate  the  nostrils  with  their  aro- 
matick  scent.                     '  Afore'i  Divine  Jhalognee, 

The  access  these  trifles  gain  to  the  closets  of  ladies 
seem  to  promise  such  easy  and  recraatioe  experiments, 
which  require  but  little  time  or  charge.  Bo/fU, 

Yon  may  have  the  recreation  of  surprising  those 
with  admiration  who  shall  hear  the  deaf  person 
pronounce  whatsoever  they  shall  desire,  without  your 
seeming  to  guide  him.  Holder's  Elements  of  Spick, 
Nor  is  that  man  less  deceived,  that  thinks  to 
maintain  a  constant  tenure  of  pleasure,  by  a  conti- 
nual pursuit  of  sports  and  recreations :  for  all  these 
things,  as  Uiey  refresh  a  man  when  weaiy,  so  they 
weaiy  him  when  refreshed.  South, 

RECREiiTioif  Island,  a  fertile  island  in  the 
Southern  Pacific  Ocean,  discovered  in  the  year 
1722  by  Roggewin.  It  is  twelve  leagues  in  cir^ 
cuit,  and  some  of  the  ship's  company  obtained  a 
quantity  of  antiscorbutic  herbs  here,  but  ventur- 
ing into  the  country,  were  assaulted  by  the  na- 
tive, who  stoned  some  of  them  to  death,  and 
wounded  almost  all.  Many  of  the  islanders 
were  killed  in  return  by  their  fire-arms.    The 


soil  is  elevated,  and  produces  sugar-canes,  cocoa- 
nuts,  pomegranates,  Indian  figs,  &c.  llie  in- 
habitants are  well-made,  robust,  and  full  of  viva- 
city ;  their  bodies  were  painted. 
'recrement,  n.  t.  >  Lat.  recrementum, 
Recremem'tal,  adj,  S  Dross  ;  spume;  su- 
perfluity: drossy. 

The  vital  fire  in  the  heart  reqolres  an  ambient 
body  of  a  yielding  nature,  to  receive  the  superfluous 
serosities  and  other  recrements  of  the  blood.   Boyle, 

RECRIMINATE,  v. n.& v.  a.  t     Fr. reaimi- 
Recriuina'tiom,  n.  s.  S  ner ;  Lat  re 

and  crtminor.    To  return  one  accusation  with 
another ;  the  accusation  made  in  letuni. 

It  is  not  my  business  to  recriminate,  hoping  suffi- 
ciently to  clear  myself  in  this  matter.    SiUUng/ket. 
How  shall  such  hypocntes  reform  the  state. 

On  whom  the  brothers  can  recriminatel  Dr^en, 

Did  not  Joseph  lie  under  black  infamy  1  he  scorn- 
ed so  much  as  to  clear  himself,  or  to  recriminau  the 
stnimpet.  South, 

Public  defamation  vnll  seem  disobliging  enough 
to  provoke  a  return,  which  again  begeu  a  rejoinder, 
and  so  the  qoarvel  is  carried  on  with  mutual  recrimi- 
nations. Government  of  the  Tongve. 

RECRUIT,  V.  fl.,  V,  n.,  &  n.  s.  Fr.  reenter. 
To  repair ;  waste ;  supply  an  army ;  with  new 
men ;  raise  new  soldiers ;  supply  of  any  thing 
wasted.  Pope  has  used  it  improperly  for  a  subh 
stitute  of  something  wanting;  anew  soldier.  - 

He  trusted  the  earl  of  Holland  with  the  command 
of  that  army,  with  which  he  was  to  be  recruited  and 
assisted.  Ctarendm, 

Increase  thy  care  to  save  the  sinking  kind, 
Witli  greens  and  flow'rs  recruit  their  empty  hives, 
And  seek  fresh  forage  to  sustain  their  lives. 

Dryden, 
The  iww'rs  of  Troy 
With  fresh  recruits  their  youthful  chief  sustain  i 
Not  their's  a  raw  and  unexperienced  train, 
But  a  firm  body  of  embattel  d  men.  Id. 

The  French  have  only  Switzerland  besides  theii 
own  country  to  recruit  in  ;  and  we  know  the  difficul- 
ties they  meet  with  in  getting  thence  a  single  regi- 
ment. Addison, 

He  was  longer  in  recrutttn^  his  flesh  than  vas 
usual ;  but  by  a  milk  diet  he  recovered  it. 

l^iseaMiii. 
Her  cheeks  glow  the  brighter,  recruitbig  their 
colour  ; 
As  flowers  by  sprinkling  revive  with  fresh  odoor. 

GfamaOe, 

RECTAN'GLE,  n.  *.      Fr.  rectangle;  Lat 
ectangulus,    A  figure  which  has  one  angle  or 
more  of  ninety  degrees :    the  adjective  and  ad- 
verb corresponding. 

Bricks  moulded  in  their  ordinary  rwtoi^u^fomi, 
if  they  shall  be  laid  one  by  another  in  a  level  row 
between  any  supporters  sustaining  the  two  ends,  then 
all  the  pieces  will  necessarily  sink.  IVottoa, 

If  all  Athens  should  decree,  that  in  rectangle  tri- 
angle the  Square,  which  is  made  of  the  side  that  snb- 
tendeth  the  right  angle,  is  equal  to  the  squares  which 
are  made  of  the  sides  containing  thenght  angle,  |^- 
metricians  would  not  receive  satisfaction  without  de- 
monstration. Bre»ne*e  VtiUfar  Erroun. 

The  mathematician  considers  the  truth  end  pro- 
perties belonging  to  a  rectangle,  only  as  it  is  in  liea 
in  his  own  mind.  Locke, 


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419 


RECTIFY,  i>.  a.  ^   Fr.  rectifier ;  Lat.  rectus 

Rec'tifiable,  adv,  >  and /ocio.  To  make  right ; 

Rectifica'tion.  >refonn;  improve  by  re- 
peated distillation :  rectiiiable  is,  capable  of  be- 
ing rectified :  rectification,  is  rectifying;  repeat- 
ed  distillation.    See  below. 

That  wherein  unsounder  times  have  done  amiss, 
the  better  ages  ensuing  must  rectify  as  they  may. 

Hooker, 
It  shall  be  bootless 
Thst  longer  yon  defer  the  court*  as  well 
For  your  own  quiet,  as  to  veetijy 
What  is  unsettled  in  the  king.        Shaktpeare. 

At  the  first  rootyieationof  some  spirit  of  salt  in  a 
retort,  a  single  pound  afforded  no  less  than  six  ounces 
of  phlegm.  Boifie, 

The  natural  heat  of  the  parts  being  insufficient 
for  a  perfect  and  thorough  digestion,  the  errors  of  one 
concoction  are  not  recti/iabli  by  another.     Browne,    ' 

The  substance  of  this  theory  I  mainly  depend  on, 
being  willing  to  supjpose  that  many  particularities 
may  be  reeti^  uiwn  further  thoughts.         Bumet. 

if  those  men  of  parts,  who  have  been  employed  in 
vitiating  the  age,  bad'  endeavoured  to  rectify  and 
amend  it,  they  needed  not  have  sacrificed  their  good 
tense  to  their  fi^ne.  Addittm, 

The  false  judgments  he  made  of  thhigs  are  owned ; 
and  the  metho£i  pointed  out  by  whicb  he  rectified 
tbem.  AtUrbury, 

RECTiFiCATioif  is  in  hex  a  second  distillation^ 
in  which  subsUnces  are  purified  by  their  more 
volatile  parts  being  raised  by  beat  carefully 
managed.  Sometimes  indeed  the  rectifier  has 
recourse  to  a  third  and  even  a  fourth  distillation, 
when  he  wishes  his  spirits  or  goods,  as  they  are 
technically  ealled,  to  be  very  clean  and  pure. 

The  objects  of  distillation,  considered  as  a 
trade,  are  chiefly  spirituous  liquors;  and  the 
distillation  of  compound  spirits  and  simple 
water,  or  those  waters  that  are  impregnated  with 
the  essential  oil  of  plants,  is  commonly  called 
rectification.  ' 

Malt  spirit,  and  indeed  spirits  from  other  sub- 
stances, must  be  brought  into  the  state  of  alcohol, 
before  it  is  adapted  to  internal  uses,  after  which 
it  is  said  to  be  more  fit  for  all  the  various  inter- 
nal uses  than  even  French  biandy,  it  being  by 
this  purification  a  more  uniform,  hungry,  taste- 
less spirit,  than  any  other  spirits  which  are  fre- 
quently esteemed  much  better.  A  quarter  of 
malt,  aocoiding  to  its  goodness  and  the  season 
of  the  year,  will  aiTord  from  eight  to  fourteen 
gallons  of  alcohol.  The  malt  distiller  always 
gives  his  spirit  a  single  rectification  per  se  to 
purify  it  a  little,  and  in  this  state,  though  cer- 
tainly not  at  sdl  adapted  to  internal  uses,  it  is 
^  frequently  and  at  once  distilled  into  gin  or  other 
ordinary  compound  liquors  for  the  common 
people.  The  Dutch  never  give  it  any  fiaurther 
rectification  than  this: — ^They  distil  the  wash 
into  low  wines,  and  then  at  once  into  full  proof 
spirit,  from  which  they  manufacture  their  cele- 
brated Hollands*  geneva,  which  they  export  to 
foreign  countries.  Malt  spirit,  in  its  unrectified 
state,  is  usiiaily  found  to  have  the  common 
bubble  proof,  which  makes  it  a  marketable  com- 
modity, and  which  is  obtained  by  mixing  with  it 
a  certain  portion  of  the  gross  oil  of  the  malt ; 
this  iodeea  gives  the  rectifier  much  trouble  if  he 
require  a  very  fine  and  pure  spirit,  but  in  gere- 


ral  he  does  not  concern  himself  about  this,  but 
mixes  it  still  stronger  by  alkaline  salts,  and  dis- 
guises its  taste  by  the  addition  of  flavoring  in- 
gredients. The  'spirit  loses  in  these  processes 
the  vinous  character  which'  it  had  when  it  came 
out  of  the  hands  of  the  malt  distiller,  and  is  in 
all  respects  inferior,  except  in  the  disguise  of  a 
mixed  flavor.  The  alkaline  salts  us^  by  the 
rectifier,  destr6ying  the  natural  vinosity  of  the 
spirit,  it  is  necessary  to  add  an  extraneous  acid 
to  give  it  a  new  one,  and  this  is  frequently  what 
is  denominated  in  the  shops  '  spiritus  nitri  dul- 
cis,'  and  the  common  metnod  of  applying  it  is 
the  mixing  it  to  the  taste  with  rectified  spirit; 
and  it  is  said  to  be  this  that  gives  the  English 
malt  spirit  a  flavor  something  like  brandy,  which 
flavor  is,  however,  very  apt  to  fly  off",  and  ac- 
cordingly experienced  manufacturers  recommend 
the  addition  of  a  proper  quantity  of  Glauber's 
strong  spirit  of  niti-e,  to  the  spirit  in  the  still. 
By  this  means  the  liquor  comes  over  impreg- 
nated with  it,  the  acid  is  more  intimately  mixed, 
and  the  flavor  is  retained.  The  action  of  the 
alkali  is  thus  explained : — ^There  is  a  greater 
attraction  or  affinity  between  the  alkaline  salt 
and  the  water  than  between  the  water  and  the 
spirit,  of  course  the  salt  combines  with  the 
water  contained  in  the  spirit,  and  sinks  with  it 
to  the  bottom. 

With  the  spirit-gauge  of  Messrs.  Borie  and 
Poujet,  the  different  degrees  of  spirituosity  are 
very  easily  ascertained  by  means  of  silver 
weights  of  variolic  sizes ;  the  heaviest  is  in- 
scribed with  the  words  Hollands*  proof,  and  the 
lightest  three-sevenths.  The  other  weights  serve 
to  mark  the  intermediate  degrees  between  these 
two  terms.  Thus,  if  you  screw  to  the  end  of 
the  beam  of  the  sl>irit  gauge  the  weight  denoting 
HoUands*-proof,  and  plunge  it  into  three-fifths, 
the  instrument  will  descend  in  the  liquid  below 
the  degree  marked  on  the  scale  Hollands*-proof, 
but  it  returns  to  that  point  on  the,  addition  of 
two-fifths  of  water,  so  that  three-fifths  spirit  is 
thus  transformed  into  Hollands-proof  spirit.  If, 
on  the  contrary,  you  screw  on  the  three-fifths 
weight,  and  plunge  the  spirit  gauge  into  Hol- 
]ands*-pToof,  It  will  rise  in  the  liquor  above  the 
latter  nfeirk,  and  it  may  be  easily  carried  down 
to  that  degree  by  the  addition  of  alcohol  or 
spirit  of  wine.  When  spirits  are  distilled  for 
the  purpose  of  extracting  alcohol,  or  spirit  of 
wine,  the  balneum  marise  is  generally  employed. 
The  heat  is  then  more  gentle  and  more  equal, 
and  the  produce  of  the  distillation  of  superior 
quality. 

Alcohol,  or  spirit  of  wine  diluted,  is  used  as 
a  beverage.  It  is  the  dissolvent  of  resins,  and 
constitutes  the  basis  of  drying  vamisbes.  Spirit 
of  wine  serves  as  a  vehicle  for  the  aromatic  prin- 
ciple of  plants,  and  is  then  called  spirit  o(^  this 
or  that  plant.  The  apothecary  likewise  employs 
spirit  of  wine  to  dissolve  resinous  medicines. 
These  dissolutions  are  denominated  tinctures. 
It  forms  the  base  of  almost  all  the  different  sorts 
of  beverage  called  liquors.  It  is  sweetened  with 
sugar,  or  rendered  aromatic  with  all  kinds  of 
substances  of  an  agreeable  taste  or  smell.  Spirit 
of  wine  preserves  vegetable  and  animal  sub- 
stances from  fermentation  or  putrefaction.    To 

2  E2 


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RECTIFICATION. 


this  end  it  is  used  for  preserving  fruits,  vegeta- 
bles, and  almost  all  the  objects  smd  preparations 
relating  to  the  natural  history  of  animals.  All 
the  liquors  produced  by  the  fenntotation  of 
saccharine  substances,  yield  alcohol.  But  the 
quantity  and  quality  vary  according  to  the  nar 
ture  of  the  substances. 

It  is  chiefly  in  consequence  of  the  ascent  of 
bodies  of  greater  lixivity  with  certain  bodies  of 
greater  volatility  that  there  is  so  much  difficulty 
here  of  imitating  the  foreign  vinous  spirits  of 
other  countries,  as,  for  example,  French  brandies, 
and  West-Indian  rums.  All  these  are  remark- 
able by  the  character  of  the  essential  oil  that 
ascends  with  the  spirit,  and  which  gives  it  the 
peculiar  flavor  by  which  one  spirit  difiers  from 
another.  Now  we  can  obtain  an  essential  oil 
from  any  of  the  vegetables  that  furnish  these 
different  spirits;  but  we  cannot,  as  we  have 
seen,  readily  obtain  a  spirit*  altogether  tasteless, 
and  destitute  of  some  sort  of  essential  oil  still 
combining  with  it.  Could  we  do  this,  we  could 
manufiicture  to  perfection  an  artificial  Cogniac 
brandy  or  Jamaica  rum;  .but,  as  we  cannot 
wholly  separate  the  inherent  essential  oil  from 
tlk«  purest  and  most  colorless  and  most  insipid 
spiiit  we  can  obtain,  when  we  add  the  essential 
oil  with  which  we  mean  to  flavor  it,  the  union  of 
the  two  oils  gives  us  a  different  result,  and 
betrays  the  artifice  to  those  who  are  acquainted 
with  the  taste  of  the  genuine  material. 

In  order,  then,  to  prepare  the  oil  of  wine,  or 
of  the  grapes  from  which  French  brandies  are 
distilled,  which  are  generally  the  worst  that  the 
country  affords;  the  best  being  selected  for 
the  process  of  wine  itself,  as  yielding  a  fer 
ampler  profit;  take  some  caJces  of  dry  wine-lees, 
dissolve  them  in  six  or  eight  times  their  weight 
of  vfrater,  distil  the  liquor  with  a  slow  fire,  and 
separate  the  oil,  reserving,  for  only  the  nicest 
uses,  that  which  comes  over  first,  the  succeeding 
oil  being  Gt>arser  and  more  resinous.  Havii^ 
procured  this  fine  oil  of  wine,  it  may  be  dis- 
solved in  alcohol ;  by  which  means  it  may  be 
preserved  a  long  time,  fully  possessed  of  all  its 
flavor,  but  otherwise  it  will  soon  grow  rancid. 
With  a  fine  essential  oil  of  wine,  thus  procured, 
and  a  pure  and  tasteless  spirit,  French  brandies 
may  be  imitated  to  some  degree  of  perfection. 
The  essential  oU,  it  should  be  observed,  must  be 
drawn  from  the  same  kind  of  lees  as  the  brandy 
to  be  imitated  was  procured  from ;  that  is,  in 
order  to  imitate  Cogniac  brandy,  it  vrill  be 
necessary  to  distil  the  essential  oil  from  Cogniac 
lees;  and  the  skme  for  any  other  kind  of  brandy. 
For  as  different  brandies  have  different  flavors, 
and  as  these  flavors  are  entirely  owine  to  the 
essential  oil  of  the  grape,  it  would  be  ridiculous 
to  endeavour  to  imitate  the  flavor  of  Cogniac 
brandy  vrith  an  essential  oil  procured  from  the 
lees  of  Bourdeaux  vrine.  When  the  flavor  of 
the  brandy  is  well  imitated,  other  difficulties  are 
still  behind.  The  flavor,  though  the  essential 
part,  is  not  the  only  one ;  the  color,  the  proof, 
and  the  softness,  must  also  be  regarded,  before  a 
spirit  that  perfectly  resembles  brandy  can  be 
procured.  With  regard  to  the  proof,  it  may  be 
easily  accomplished,  by  using  a  spirit  rectified 
above    proof;    which,   after   being    intimately 


mixed  with  the  essential  oil  of  wine,  may  be  let 
down  to  a  proper  standard  with  fair  water;  and 
the  softness  may,  in  a  great  measure,  be  obteined 
by  distilling  and  rectifying  the  spirit  with  a 
^tle  fire ;  and  what  is  veanting  of  this  criterion 
m  the  liquor  when  first  made,  vrill  be  supplied 
by  time ;  for  it  is  time  alone  that  gives  this  pro- 
perty to  French  brandies,  they  being,  at  nrst, 
acrid,  foul,  and  fiery.  But,  with  regud  to  tiie 
color,  a  particular  method  is  required  to  imitate 
it  to  perfection,  which  may  be  effected  by  means 
of  treade  or  burnt  sugar. 

The  spirit  distilled  from  molasses  or  txeade  is 
tolerably  pure.  It  is  made  from  common  treacle, 
dissolved  in  water,  and  fermented  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  wash  for  the  common  malt  spirit. 
But  if  some  particular  art  be  not  used  in  recti-* 
fying  this  spirit,  it  will  not  prove  so  vinous  as 
imdt  spirit,  but  less  pungent  and  acrid,  though 
odierwise  much  cleaner-tasted,  as  its  essential 
oil  is  of  a  less  offensive  flavor.  Therefore,  if 
good  fresh  wine-lees,  abounding  in  tartar,  be  well 
fermented  with  molasses,  the  spirit  will  acquire 
a  greater  vinosity  and  briskness,  and  approadi 
nearer  to  the^iature  of  foreign  spirits.  Where 
the  molasses  spirit  is  brought  to  the  commonproof 
strength,  if  it  be  found  not  to  have  a  sufficient 
vinosity,  it  will  be  very  proper  to  add  some 
dulcified  spirit  of  nitre ;  and,  if  the  spirit  be 
clean  worked,  it  may,  by  this  addition  only,  be 
made  to  pass  for  French  brandy.  Great  Quanti- 
ties of  this  spirit  are  used  in  adulterating  foreign 
brandy,  rum,  and  arrack.  Much  of  it  is  ako 
used  in  making  cbtfry-brandy,  and  other  cor- 
dials, by  infusions ;  but  in  them  all  many  per- 
sons prefer  it  to  foreign  brandies.  Molasses, 
like  all  other  spirits,  is  entirely  colorless  when 
first  extracted;  but  rectifiers  alvrays  give  h  as 
nearly  as  possible  the  color  of  foreign  spirits. 

In  a  similar  manner  we  may  imitate  foreign 
spirits  of  all  kinds.  Thus,  if  Jamaica  rum  be 
our  object  instead  of  French  brandy,  it  will 
only  be  necessary  to  procure  some  of  the  tops 
of  the  sugar  canes,  from  which  an  essential  oil 
being  drawn  and  mixed  with  clear  molasses 
spirit,  will  give  it  the  real  flavor ;  or  at  least  a 
flavor  as  true  as  a  spirit  not  totally  divested  of  aH 
essential  flavor  of  its  own  can  possibly  lommu- 
nicate.  The  principal  difficult  theiefore  must 
still  lie  in  procuring  a  spirit  totally,  or  nearly, 
free  from  all  flavor  of  its  own. 

To  rectify  their  spirit  into  Holland  ^,  the 
Dutch  distillers  add  to  every  twenty  gallons  of 
spirit  of  the  second  extraction,  about  the  strength 
of  proof-spirit,  three  pounds  of  juni{ier-berries,  « 
and  two  ounces  of  oil  of  juniper,  and  distil  witti 
a  slow  fire,  till  the  feints  benn  to  ascend ;  then 
change  the  receiving-can.  This  produces  the 
best  Rotterdam  gin.  An  inferior  kind  is  made 
vrith  a  less  proportion  of  berries,  sweet  foinel- 
seeds,  and  Strasburffhturpoiitine,  without  a  drop 
of  iuniper-oil.  This  last  is  also, a  better  sort, 
and  though  still  inferior  to  that  of  Rotterdam, 
is  produced  in  very  large  quantities  at  Welsoppe. 

It  is  remarkable  that  no  one  method  of  com- 
binatory rectification,  that  is,  of  the  rectification 
performed  by  means  of  salt,  and  other  additions, 
is  suited  to  all  the  several  kinds  of  spirits ; 
scarcely  indeed  will  any  one  way  serve  for  any  two ; 


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oat  the  method  of  simple  and  careAil  distillation 
&  e^uall^  suited  to  aU.  Molasses  spirit,  cyder 
spirit,  wine  spirit*  or  brandy,  mm,  and  arrack, 
are  all  improved  bv  it ;  and  all  of  them  are  then 
known  to  be  perfectly  rectified,  when,  in  the 
state  of  alcohol,  they  not  only  prove  totally  in- 
flammable in  a  little  vessel  floating  upon  cold 
waters,  but  when  poured  into  the  purest  spring 
water  they  have  not  the  least  power  of  making 
any  change  in  it,  nor  leave  any«marks  of  oiliness, 
or  that  unctuosity  which,  on  the  mixture  of  the 
less  pure  spirits,  floats  on  the  top,  and  in  certain 
lights  gives  the  rainbow  colors.    See  Distilla- 

TIOW. 

Fixed  salts  are  rectified  by  calcination,  disso- 
lution, or  filtration. 

Metals  are  rectified,  i.  e.  refined,  by  the 
coppel ;  and  reguluses  b^  repeated  fusions,  &c. 
In  a  word,  all  rectifications  are  fiiunded  upon 
the  same  principle;  and  consist  in  separating 
substances  more  volatile  from  substances  less 
volatile ;  and  the  general  method  of  efiecting 
this  is  to  supply  only  the  degree  of  heat  which  is 
necessary  to  cause  this  separation. 

RECTIFIER,  in  navigation,  an  instrument 
consisting  of  two  circles,  either  laid  one  upon, 
or  let  into  the  other,  and  so  fastened  together  in 
their  centres,  that  they  represent  two  compasses, 
one  fixed,  the  other  moveable ;  each  of  them  di- 
vided into  the  thirty-two  points  of  the  com- 
pass, and  36°,  and  numbered  both  ways,  from 
the  ftorth  and  south,  ending  at  the  east  and  west 
in  90°.  The  fixed  compass  represents  the  hori- 
EOD,  in  whidi  the  north  and  all  the  other  points 
of  the  compass  are  fixed  and  immoveable.  The 
moveable  compass  represents  the  mariner's  com- 
pass; in  which  the  north  and  all  other  points  are 
liable  to  variation.  In  the  centre  of  tne  move- 
able compass  is  fastened  a  silk  thread,  long 
enough  to  reach  the  outside  of  the  fixed  com- 
pass. But,  if  the  instrument  be  made  of  wood, 
there  is  an  index  instead  of  the  thread.*  Its  use 
is  to  find  the  variation  of  the  compnu,  to  rectify 
the  course  at  sea;  having  the  amplitude  or  azi- 
muth given. 

RECTILIN*EAR,a(^\')       Fr.    rectitude; 

Recti um'eous,  >  Latin   rectus   and 

Rec'titudb,  n,  t,  J  linea.  Consisting  of 

right  lines:  rectitude  is,  literally,  straightness ; 
hence,  and  more  commonly,  mental  uprightness; 
integrity. 

Theie  are  only  three  ttedHmNm  and  ordinate 
fibres,  which  can  serve  to  this  purpoie ;  and  inor- 
diaate  or  unlike  ones  must  have  oeen  not  oaly  less 
elennt,  but  unequal.  tia^. 

This  image  wai  oblong  and  not  oval,  but  termin- 
ated with  two  rtctUxnmr  and  parallel  sides  and  Iwo 
temiciicalar  ends.  "Newton, 

Calm  the  disorders  of  thy  mmd,  by  reflectinff  on 
the  wisdom,  eqai^»  and  absolute  rectiindt  of  all  his 
proceedingi.  AtUrbmy. 

RECTOR,  n.  t.  "J     Fr.  rec/eiir;  laX.  rector. 

REC^ToasHXP,      >  Ruler ;   lord ;    governor ; 

Rec'tort.  3  parson    of    an    unimpro- 

priated  parish:  rectorship  and  rectory  are  both 
used  for  his  office ;  and  the  latter  for  his  resi- 
dence also. 

Had  your  bodies 
No  heart  among  you  1  or  had  your  tongues  no  cry 
Against  the  rector*^  of  judgment  ?       Shaksptttrt. 


A  rectorjf  or  parsonage  is  a  splntoal  living,  com- 
posed of  land,  tithe,  and  other  oblations  of  Uie  peo- 
}yle,  separate  or  dedicate  to  God  in  any  conmgation 
or  the  service  of  his  church  there,  and  for  the  main- 
tenance of  the  governor  or  minister  thereof,  to 
whose  charge  the  same  is  committed.  S^iman, 

God  is  the  supreme  rector  of  the  world,  and  of  all 
those  snbordinate  parte  thereof.*  HaU, 

When  a  f«otor  of  a  univenitjr  of  scholars  is  cho- 
sen by  the  corporation  or  university,  the  election 
ought  to  be  confirmed  by  the  superior  of  such  uni- 
versity.    ^  A^Uffe**  Pamyon. 

Rector  is  a  term  applied  to  several  persons 
whose  offices  are  very  different :  as,  1.  The  rec- 
tor of  a  parish  is  a  clergyman  that  has  the  chaige 
and  cure  of  a  parish,  and  possesses  all  the  tithes, 
&c.  2.  The  same  name  is  also  given  to  the 
chief  elective  officer  in  several  foreign  univer- 
sities, particularly  in  that  of  Paris,  and  abo  in 
those  of  Scothmd.  3.  It  is  also  applied  to  the 
head  master  of  laige  schools  in  Scotland,  as  in 
the  high  school  of  Edinburgh.  4.  Rector  is 
also  used  in  several  convents  for  the  superior 
officer  who  governs  the  house :  and  the  Jesuits 
pye  this  name  to  the  superiors  of  such  of  their 
houses  as  are  either  seminaries  or  colleges.  •  5. 
The  head  of  Lincoln  College,  in  Oxford,  is' also 
called  rector. 

RECTUM,  in  anatomy,  the  hist  of  the  laige 
intestines.    See  Anatomy. 

RECTUS,  in  anatomy,  a  name  common  to 
several  pairs  of  muscles,  so  called  on  account  of 
the  straightness  of  their  fibres.    See  Anatomy. 

llECUBATION,  11.1.)     Lat.  recubo.    The 

Recum'bency,  >act  of  luring  or  lean- 

Recvm'bent,  lUg.  J  ing :  this  both  sub- 
stantial^ signify,  and  the  adjective  corresponds^ 

.Whereas  our  translation  renders  it  sitting,  it  can- 
not have  that  illation,  for  the  French  and  Italian 
translations  express  neither  position  of  session  or  ra- 
eubtUian*  •    Btownt, 

When  the  mind  has  been  once  habituated  to  this, 
la^^  rwumbeney  and  satisfaction  on  the  obvious,  sur- 
face of  things,  it  is  in  danger  to  rest  satisfied  there. 

The  Roman  rtsumimt,  or  more  pioperly  aocum- 
bent,  posture  in  eating  was  introduced  after  the  first 
PunicK  war.  ArbuthMt, 

RECUPERATORES,  among  the  ancient 
Romans,  were  commissioners  appointed  to  take 
cognizance  of  private  matters  in  dispute  between 
the  subjects  of  the  state  and  fbreigners,  and  to 
take  care  that  the  former  had  justice  done  them. 
It  came  at  last  to  be  used  for  commissioners,  to 
whom  the  pretor  referred  the  determination  of 
any  affair  between  one  subject  and  another. 

RECUPERO  (Alexander),  a  learned  numis- 
matologist,  was  bom  about  1740  at  Catanea,  of 
a  noble  fiumily.  He  travelled,  with  the  name  of 
Alexis  Motta,  through  the  principal  cities  of 
Italy,  and  employed  himself  in  forming  a  col- 
lection of  the  Roman  consular  medals.  The 
examination  and  classification  of  these  stores  en- 
gaged him  more  than  thirty  years,  in  the  course 
of  which  he  seems  to  have  obtained  an  unrivalled 
acquaintance  with  the  family  history  of  the  Ro- 
mans. His  death  took  j^ace  at  Rome,  October, 
1803.  He  wrote  Institutio  Stemmatica,  sive  de 
Vera  Stemmatum  pivsertim  Romanonim  Natura 
atque  Differentia ;  Annales  fiimiliarum  Romano- 


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rum;  and  Annales  Gentium  Historico-Numis- 
matics,  sive  de  Origine  Gentium  seu  Familiarum 
Romanorum  Dissertatio :  also  treatises  on  the 
Roman  weights,  and  manner  of  numbering.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  antiquarian  academies  of 
Veletia  and  Cortona. 

Recupero  (Joseph)y  brother  of  the  preceding, 
was  also  a  learned  mineralogist.  He  «mbraced 
the  ecclesiastical  profession,  and  obtained  a 
canonry  in  the  cathedral  of  Catanea.  He  dis- 
tinguished himself  by  his  researches  concerning 
Etna,  and  some  details  which  he  communicated  to 
our  countryman  Brydone,  relative  to  the  proba- 
ble age  of  the  mountain.  See  /Ktna.  He  pub- 
lished an  oryctographical  chart  of  Etna;  and 
left  a  work  on  the  same  subject  in  manuscript. 
His  death  took  place  in  1787. 

RECUR',  V,  n.  Fr.  recourir;  Lat.  rtcurro. 
To  come  back  to  the  thought;  revive  in  the 
mind ;  have  recourse  to  (from  the  Fr.  word  J. 

If  to  avoid  succession  in  eternal  existence,  they 
ricur  to  the  punctum  stans  of  the  schools,  they  will 
thereby  very  little  help  us  to  a  more  positive  idea  of 
infinite  duration.  Locke. 

In  this  life  the  thoughts  of  God  and  a  future  state 
often  offer  themselves  to  us ;  they  often  spring  up  in 
our  mmds,  and  when  expelled,  recur  again. 

Calam]f. 

The  second  cause  we  know,  but  trouble  not  our- 
selves to  recur  to  the  first.  Wake, 

When  any  word  has  been  used  to  signify  an  idea, 
that  old  idea  will  recur  in  the  mind  when  the  word 
is  heard.  WatU, 

RECURE',  v.a.  Re  and  cure.  To  recover 
from  sickness  or  labor.    Not  in  use. 

Through  wise  handling  and  fair  governance,  e 
I  him  recured  to  a  better  will, 
Purged  from  the  drugs  of  foul  intemperaace.£^}<iM«r. 

Phoebus  purs 
In  western  waves  his  weary  wagon  did  recwre.    Id, 

Whatsoever  fell  into  the  enemies'  hands,  was  lost 
without  reeurt :  the  old  men  were  slain,  the  young 
men  led  away  into  captivity.  KnolUi. 

Thy  death's  wound 
Which  he  who  comes  thy  Saviour  shall  reeure. 
Not  by  destroying  Satan,  but  his  works 
In  thee  and  in  thy  seed.        Milton* s  ParadUe  Loet, 

RECUR'RENT,  arf;.^     Fr.  recurrent;  Lat. 

Recur'aence,  n.t.      Irecurrens.    Returning 

REcuR'REKcr,  I  from    time  to    time: 

Recur'sion.  J  return ;  this  last  is  the 

sense  of  all  the  noun  substantives. 

Next  to  lingering  durable  pains,  short  intermittent 
or  swift  recurrent  pains  precipitate  patients  untocon- 
somntions.  Harvey, 

Although  the  opinion  at  present  be  well  sup- 
pressed, yet,  from  some  strings  of  tradition  and  fruit- 
ful recurrence  of  error,  it  may  revive  in  the  next  ge- 
neration. Browne*M  Vulgar  Errtyun. 

One  of  tne  .assistants  told  ihe  reeunions  of  the 
other  pendulum  hanging  in  the  free  air.         Bojfle, 

Recurrekts,  in  anatomy,  a  name  given  to 
several  large  branches  of  nerves  sent  out  by  the 
par  vagum  from  the  upper  part  of  the  thorax  to 
the  larynx.    See  Anatomy. 

Recurring  DEciMALsHire  those  which  repeat 
in  the  same  order,  oi  certain  intervals.  Thus, 
the  fraction  j|  is  expressed  by  the  recurring  deci- 
mal 66666,  &c. 

It  is  curious  that  all  fractions  whose  denomi- 
nator is  7  are  expressed  by  compound  recurring 


decimals  wliich  have  the  same  eflfectiTe  figures, 
though  Taried  in  their  position.    Thus, 

4=  -142857142857,  &c. 
f  r=  -285714285714,  &c. 
f  =  -428571428571,  &c. 
^  =  -571428571428,  &c. 
f  =  -714285714285,  &c. 
f  =  -857142857142,  &c. 

RECURVIRGSTRA,  in  ornithology,  a  genus 
belonging  to  the  order  of  grallx  of  Linnsus,  and 
that  of  palmipedes  of  Pennant  and  Latliam.  The 
bill  is  long,  subulated,  bent  back,  sharp,  and  flexi- 
ble at  the  pomt.  The  feet  are  webbed,  and  fur- 
nished with  three  toes  forwards,  and  a  short  one 
behind.  Latham  notes  of  this  genus  three  specif>s, 
viz.  the  alba,  the  Americana,  and  the  avosetta, 
or  the  one  commonly  known. 

1 .  R.  alba,  or  scolopax  alba,  is  about  fourteen 
inches  and  a  quarter  lon^,  its  color  white,  the 
inferior  coveis  of  its  wings  duskish,  its  bill 
orange,  its  leffs  brown.  Edwards  remarks  that 
the  bill  of  tins  bird  is  bent  upwards,  as  in  the 
avoset ;  it  is  black  at  the  tip,  and  orange  the  rest 
of  its  length ;  all  the  plumage  is  white,  except  a 
tint  of  ydlowish  on  the  great  quills  of  the  wing 
and  the  tail.  Edwards  supposes  that  the  whitcs 
ness  is  produced  by  the  cold  climate  of  Hudson's 
Bay,  from  which  he  received  it,  and  that  they 
resume  their  brown  feathers  during  the  summer. 
It  appears  that  several  species  of  this  bird  bave 
spr^  further  into  America,  and  have  even 
reached  the  southern,  provinces:  for  Sloane 
found  this  species  in  Jamaica ;  and  Fernandez 
seems  to  indicate  two  of  them  in  New  Spain,  by 
the  names  chiquatototl  and  elotototl ;  the  former 
being  like  our  woodcock,  and  the  latter  lodging 
under  the  stalks  of  maize. 

2.  R.  Americana,  tlte  American  avoset,  b  rather 
larger  and  longer  than  the  avoset.  Tlie  bill  is 
similar,  and  its  color  black:  the  forehead  is 
dusky  white :  the  head,  neck,  and  upper  part  of 
the  breast,  are  of  a  deep  cream  color:  the  lower 
parts  of  the  neck  behind  white:  the  back  is 
olack,  and  the  under  parts  from  the  breast  pure 
white :  the  wings  are  partly  black,  partly  wnite, 
and  partly  ash-colored.  These  birds  inhabit 
North  America,  and  were  found  by  Dampier  on 
the  coast  of  New  Holland. 

3.  R.  avosetta  is  about  the  size  of  a  lapwing 
in  body,  but  has  very  long  legs..  The  substance 
of  the  bill  is  soft,  and  almost  membranous  at  its 
tip :  it  is  thin,  weak,  slender,  compressed  hori- 
zontally, and  incapable  of  ^defence  or  eflfort. 
These  birds  are  variegated  with  black  and 
white,  and  during  the  winter  are  frequent  on  the 
eastern  shores  of  Great  Britain.  They  visit  also 
the  Severn,  and  sometimes  the  pools  of  Shrop- 
shire. They  feed  on  worms  and  insects,  which 
they  scoop  out  of  the  sand  with  their  bills.  They 
lay  two  eggs,  white,  with  a  greenish  hue,  and 
large  spots  of  black:  these  eggs  are  about  the 
size  of  a  pigeon's.  They  are  found  alsO  m 
various  parts  of  tlie  continent  of  Europe,  in 
Russia,  Denmark,  and  Sweden,  but  they  are  not 
numerous.  They  are  also  found  in  Siberia,  but 
oftener  about  the  salt  lakes  of  the  Tartarian 
desert,  and  about  the  Caspian*  Sea.  They  do  not 
appear  to  wander  farther  south  in  Europe  tlian 


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Its^y.     Whether  from  timidity  or  address,  the 
avoset  shuDS  snares,  and  is  not  easily  taken. 

RECUR'VOUS,  (mO',  J     Lai.  recurvus.    Bent 

Recurvation,  or      >  backward  :    the  noun 

RecukVity,  n.  s.       J   substantive    corres- 
ponding. 

Aioending  first  into  a  capsulary  reception  of  the 
breast  bone  by  a  serpentine  recurvation,  it  adceadeth 
again  iotQ  the  neck.  Browne. 

I  have  not  observed  tails  in  all ;  but  in  others  I 
have  observed  long  recurvom  tails,  longer  than  their 
bodies.  Derham, 

RECUSANTS,  in  law,  are  such  persons^ 
^whether  papists  or  other,  who  refuse  to  go  to 
church  and  to  worship  God  after  the  manner 
prescribed  by  the  Church  of  England.  Popish 
recusants  are  papists  who  so  refuse ;  and  a  popish 
recusant  convict  is  a  Catholic  convicted  of  such 
offence.    See  Roman  Catholicism. 

RECUSE',  t;.  n.  Fr.  reciwcr;  Lat  recuso. 
To  refuse.    A  juridical  word. 

All  that  are  Tvctuaitif  of  holy  rites*     ^  Holyday, 

The  humility,  as  well  of  understanding  as  man- 
ners of  the  fathers,  will  not  let  them  be  troubled 
when  they  are  ^cvaed  as  iudges.  ^igftjf' 

They  demand  of  the  lords,  that  no  recumnt  lord 
might  have  a  vote  in  passing  that  act.      Clarendon. 

A  judge  may  proceed  notwithstandine  my  ap- 
peal, unless  I  recute  him  as  a  suspected  judge. 

Ayliffe. 


RED,  adj. 
Red'breaSt,  n.  s. 
Red'coat, 

Red'den,  v.  a.  &  v.n. 
Red'dish,  a(jf. 
Red'dishness,  n.5. 
Red'hot,  adj. 


Saxon  jie'to ;  Welsh 
rhud;  Dan.  rad;  Belg. 
rood;  Golh.rwrf;  from 
> the  Greek  epv^pof.  Of 
the  color  of  blood: 
one  of  the  primitive 
colors,  which  is  sub- 


divided into  many ;  as  scarlet,  vermilion,  crim- 
son :  the  redbreast  is  a  bird  named  from  its 
color :  redcoat,  a  contemptuous  name  for  a  sol- . 
dier :  to 'redden  is  to  make  or  grow  red  :  reddish, 
somewhat  red :  the  noun  substantive  correspond- 
ing :  red-hot  is  heated  to  redness. 

His  eyes  shall  be  red  with  wine,  and  his  teeth  white 
with  milk.  Genesu  xliz.  12. 

A  bright  spot,  white  and  somewhat  redduh. 

Levitieui, 
Look  I  so  pale  ? 
— Ay,  and  no  man  in  the  presence. 
But  his  red  colour  hath  forsook  his  cheeks. 

Skaktpeare, 
firing  me  the  fairest  creature  northward  bom. 
To  prove  whose  blood  is  reddest.  Id, 

There  was  a  pretty  rednem  in  his  lips.  Id, 

Iron  redhot  bumeth  and  consumeth  not.     Baean* 
The  aneelick  squadron  turned  fiery  red.    MiUon. 
In  the  fied  Sea  most  apprehend  a  material  rednett, 
from'  whence  they  derive  its  common  denomination. 

Broume. 
Two  parts  of  copper  and  one  of  tin,  by  fusion 
brought  into  one  mass,  the  whiteness  of  the  tin  is 
more  conspicuous  than  the  reddhhnes$  of  the  copper. 

Boyie, 
ne  fearfnl  passengjer,  who  travels  late, 
Shakes  at  the  moonshine  shadow  of  a  rush. 
And  sees  a  redcoat  rise  from  every  bush.  Dnfdm. 

In  a  heaven  serene,  reful^nt  arms  appear 
Reddening  the  skies,  and  glittering  all  around. 
The  tempered  metals  crash.  Id,  Mneid, 

With  shame  they  reddened,  and  with  spight  grew 
pale.  Id,  Juoenai. 


The  glowing  redneu  of  the  berries  vies  with  the 
verdure  of  their  leaves.  .  Spectator. 

Turn  upon  the  ladies  in  the  pit. 
And,  if  they  redden,  you  are  sure  'tis  wit. 

Addison. 
The  sixth  red  was  at  first  of  a  very  fair  and  livdy 
scarlet,  and  soon  after  of  a  brighter  colour,  being 
very  pure  and  brisk,  and  the  best  of  all  the  redt. 

Newton^t  Optict. 
Is  not  fire  a  body  heated  so  hot  as  to  emit  light 
copiously  ?  for  what  else  is  a  redhot  iron  than  fire  ? 
and  what  else  is  a  burning  coal  than  redhot  wood  1 

For  me  the  balm  shall  bleed,  and  amber  blow. 
The  coral  redden,  and  the  ruby  glow.  Pope. 

The  redhot  metal  hisses  in  the  lake.  Id, 

Why  heavenly  truth, 
v.nd  moderation  fair,  were  the  red  marks 
Of  superstition^s  scourge.  Thomson* s  Winter^ 

The  redbreast,  sacred  to  the  household  gods, 
Pays  to  trusted  man  his  annual  visit.         Thomson. 
And,  instant,  lo,  his  dizzy  eye-ball  swims 
Ghastly,  and  reddening  darts  a  threatful  glare  : 
Pain  with  strong  grasp  distorts  his  writhing  limbs, 
And  Fear's  cold  hand  erects  his  bristling  hair ! 

Beattie. 

Red  is  one  of  the  colors  called  simple  or  pri- 
mary :  being  one  of  the  shades  into  which  the 
light  naturally  divides  itself,  when  refracted 
through  a  prism. 

Red  Breast.    See  Motacilla. 

Red  Lake,  a  lake  of  North  America,  a  compa- 
ratively small  lake  for  this  Beighbourhood,  but  at 
the  head  of  a  branch  of  the  Bourbon  or  Red 
River.  Its  form  is  nearly  circular,  about  sixty 
miles  in  circumference.  On  one  side  is  a  tole- 
rably large  island.  It  is  almost  south-east  from 
Lake  Winnipeg,  and  south-west  of  the  Lake  of 
the  Woods.    Long.  95°  10'  W.,  lat.  47''  40'  N. 

Red  Riveb,  or  Natchitoches,  a  large  river 
of  Louisiana,  North  America,  which  derives  its 
,name  from  die  rich  fat  earth  or  marl  of  that 
color,  borne  down  by  its  floods.  It  rises  about 
long.  105°  W.,  lat.  35°  K.,  and  flows  into  Uw? 
Mississipi,  240  miles  above  New  Orleans,  in 
Long.  91°  48'  W.,  lat.  31°  15  N.  The  navigation 
of  the  Red  River  is  interrupted  at  a  place  called 
Rapide,  135  miles  from  its  mouth,  by  a  ledge  of 
soft  rock  of  the  consistence  of  pipe-clay,  which 
extends  across  the  river,  but  might  be  easily  re- 
moved. No  difficulty,  however,  is  experienced 
except  in  low  water.  About  500  miles  from  its 
mouth  the  voyager  meets  with  a  more  serious 
obstacle,  namely,  the  natural  bridges  or  rafts 
formed  by  the  accumulation  of  drift  wood,  under 
which  the  current  of  this  great  river  passes  for 
several  miles.  They  have  remained  unbroken 
for  so  long  a  period  that  they  have  acquired  a 
soil  and  a  growth  of  timber  similar  to  the  sur- 
rounding country. 

The  Red  Sea  (Sinus  Arabicus),  is  a  gulf  of 
the  Sea  of  Arabia,  500  leagues  in  length  and 
seventy-five  in  its  greatest  breadth.  It  is  entered 
from  the  gulf  of  Socotra  by  a  channel,  ten 
leagues  wide,  in  which  is  the  little  island  of 
Perim,  or  Mehun,  three  miles  and  a  half  distant 
from  the  Arabian  shore,  the  channel  between 
being  the  proper  strait  of  Babelmandeb,  or  the 
Gate  of  Tears,  alluding  to  its  difficult  navigation, 
and  which  is  the  most  used,  as  it  is  without 


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RED    SEA. 


danger,  and  has  good  anchoraget  while  the  broa  ] 
passage  between  the  coast  of  Africa  and  Perim 
nas  too  great  a  depth  of 'water,  and,  the  current 
usually  setting  strong  into  the  Bay  of  Zeila,  it  is 
dancerous  to  be  cau^t  here  in  a  calm. 

The  denomination  of  Red,  given  to  tliis  sea, 
is  differently  accounted  for.  Buffon  accordu 
with  the  idea  that  it  received  it  from  the  color  of 
the  coral  with  which  it  abounds ;  but  this  sub- 
stance is  in  general  whitbh.  Others  derive  it 
from  £dom  or  Idumea,  the  ancient  names  of 
Upper  Egypt  washed  by  the  sea,  which,  signify- 
ing red,  they  suppose  to  have  been  given  it  from 
the  reddish  color  of  the  shore.  The  modem 
Arabian  name  is  Bahr  Suph,  Sea  of  Alg«,  firom 
the  Quantity  of  these  plants  that  cover  the  rocks. 

Oi  the  sea  of  Arabia  called  by  the  ancients 
Mare  Erythneum,  Quintos  Curtius,  after  ob- 
serving that  the  Ganges  empties  itself  into  it, 
adds,  '  Mare  eerie  quo  (India)  aluitur  ne  colore 

auidem  abhorret  a  ceteris.  Ab  Erythra  rege  in- 
itum  est  nomen :  propter  quod  ignari  rubere 
aquas  credunt.'  Lib.  viii.  cnap.  9.  *  The  sea 
v^ishing  India  varies  not  from  other  seas.  It  de- 
rived its  name  from  king  Erythros ;  on  whidi 
account  the  ignorant  believe  the  water  to  be  red.' 
Pratt's  translation.  The  weed  named  suph  by 
the  Hebrews  is  of  a  red  hue  between  scarlet 
and  crimson ;  it  abounds  in  the  gulf  of  Suez. 
And  it  is  remarkable  that  the  name  by  which 
the  Arabian  Gulf  at  large  is  designated  through- 
out the  Old  Testament  is  that  preserved  in  the 
Arab.  Bater  Souf.  By  the  septuagint  the  origi- 
nal word  is  rendered  BaXXaea  2c^  the  Sea  of 
Zeph ;  KpvOpa  doiXawav,  the  Erythrean  Sea,  and 
c^X^^^  iaXaooav,  the  further  sea. 

At  its  head  the  Red  Sea  forms  two  gulfs :  the 
western  is  named  the  Gulf  of  Suez,  the  Heroo- 
polites  sinus  of  the  ancients,  and  the  Bahr-el- 
kolzum,  or  Bahr-el  Suez,  of  the  Arabs.  The  eastern 
gulf  of  Akaba  is  the  ancient  ^lanites  sinus,  and 
the  Bahr-el-Ailah  of  the  Arabs.  The  tract  which 
separates  these  gulfii  is  named  the  Desert  of 
Sinai,  into  which  Moses  led  the  children  of 
Israel. 

It  seems  certain  that  the  Red  Sea  formerly 
extended  several  miles  farther  to  the  north  than 
it  does  at  present;  it  now  heads  about  four  miles 
above  Suez,  and  bevond  this,  running  ten  miles 
to  the  north,  is  a  depressed  tract,  the  level  of 
which  is  thirty-five  ieet  below  that  of  the  sea, 
and  which  is  only  kept  from  being  overflowed 
by  an  elevated  ridge  of  sand.  The  soil  of  this 
sunk  basin  is  sea  sand  and  shells ;  and  it  has 
several  shallow  ponds  of  salt  water.  The  desic- 
cation of  this  basin  is  accounted  for  by  supposing 
the  waves  to  have  accumulated  a  bar  of  sand, 
which,  at  length,  rising  above  the  level  of  the  sea, 
a  lake  was  formed,  the  waters  of  which  have 
been  carried  off  by  evaporation.  It  is  generally 
thought  also  that  the  Red  Sea  is  thirty-four 
feet  more  elevated  than  the  Mediterranean; 
hence  it  would  follow,  that  if  the  Ist^imus  of 
Suez  was  cut  through,  the  waters  of  the  Red  Sea 
would  rush  with  rapidity  into  the  Mediterranean, 
while  those  of  the  Atlantic  running  in  through 
the  Strait  of  Gibraltar,  an  accumulation  and 
concussion  would  take  place,  the  consequences 
of  which  are  incalculable.    And  even  supposing 


the  levels  of  the  two  seas  to  be  the  sane^  aslhefe 
is  no  tide  in  the  Mediterranean,  and  a  feiy 
strong  one  in  the  Red  Sea,  this  would  alone 
cause  a  great  body  of  water  to  flow  ikom  the 
latter  into  the  former,  if  the  isthmus  was  broken. 

T^e  tides  in  the  Red  Sea  are  considerable 
from  its  entrance  facing  the  east,  and  there  being 
BO  rivers  to  counteract  the  stream.  The  winds 
considerably  affect  these  tides ;  and  it  is  not  oo- 
common,  in  strong  north  westers,  for  the  bottom 
to  be  left  entirely  dry  on  the  ebb,  between  Sua 
and  the  opposite  shore.  The  monsoons,  which 
are  strong  and  regular  in  the  open  sea  of  Arabia, 
are  subject  to  variations  in  approaching  the  land. 
In  the  gulf  of  Socotra  their  direction  is  usually 
from  the  east  between  October  and  May,  and 
from  the  west  the  other  six  months;  whiles 
within  the  Red  S«i,  they  blow  directly  up  and 
down,  but  with  this  variation,  that  the  sontb-east 
winds  blow  without  intermission  in  the  lower 
part  of  the  sea,  from  October  to  June,  when  the 
northerly  winds  begin  and  continue  for  lour 
months.  Towards  the  head  of  the  sea,  it:  the 
gulf  of  Suez,  northeriy  winds,  on  the  oontiaiy, 
prevail  for  nine  months,  and^blow  wHh  great 
violence.  The  causes  of  these  variations  are  evi- 
dently the  positions  of  the  sea  of  Arabia  and  the 
Mediterranean,  with  respect  to  the  Red  Sea. 
Thus  the  monsoon,  which  is  from  the  east  in  the 
gulf  of  Socotra,  changes  to  the  sooth-east  and 
S.  S.  £.  in  the  Red  Sea,  from  this  sea  lying  in  a 
direction  south-«ast  and  north-west ;  and  is  of 
longer  continuance,  from  the  atmosphere  of  the 
sea  of  Arabia  beins  for  a  great  part  of  the  year 
colder  than  that  of  the  Red  Sea.  For  a  similar 
reason  north-west  win-is  are  of  longest  duration 
at  the  head  of  the  sea ;  for  the  denser  air  of  the 
Mediterranean  is  almost  constantly  flowing  to- 
wards the  more  rarified  atmosphere  of  the  desert 
of  Suez  and  Red  Sea,  and  this  cause  is  strongest 
in  the  months  of  June,  July,  and  August,  when 
the  presence  of  the  sun  has  most  raised  the  tem- 
perature of  these  latter ;  hence  north-west  winds 
blow  with  great  violence  towards  the  head  of  the 
sea  during  these  months.  Though  these  monsoon 
winds  prevail  with  great  regularity  in  the  middle 
of  the  sea,  close  to  Uie  shores,  there  are>  through- 
out the  year,  land  and  sea  breezes;  but  they 
cannot  be  taken  advantage  of  in  navisating  this 
sea,  by  reason  of  the  reefe  which  line  the  shores, 
obliging  ships  to  keep  at  too  great  a  distance 
during  the  night  to  profit  by  the  land  wind.  The 
currents  mosUy  run  with  the  wjnd. 

We  have  no  knowledge  of  a  single  stream  of 
fresh  water  reaching  the  Red  Sea.  The  river 
Famt,  laid  down  in  the  charts  on  the  African 
coast,  nearly  opposite  Judda,  is  probably  only  a 
creek.  The  Arabian  coast  is  lined  by  a  chain  of 
mountains  throughout  its  whole  extent,  whose 
base  is  from  ten  to  thirty  leagues  from  the  sea; 
the  intermediate  space  being  an  arid  sea  sand, 
totally  deprived  of  fresh  water,  and  naturally 
producing  only  a  few  herbaceous  plants,  such  as 
the  mesembryanthem,  euphorbia,  stapelia,  colo- 
q]iintia,&c.  This  barren  waste,  however,  abounds 
with  antelopes  and  other  game;  and  immedi- 
ately beyond  it  the  scene  suddenly  changes  to 
an  exuberant  vegetation,  and  a  profosion  of 
spring  water. 


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Thedimate  of  die  Red  Sea  diftrs  esientialljr 
at  its  extremities.  At  Mocha,  with  the  exoep- 
tion  of  a  few  light  showers  about  Christmas,  ram 
b  unknown ;  and  the  thermometer,  in  July  and 
•  August,  rises  to  112^  during  the  day,  and  never 
descends  below  90^  at  night.  The  dews  are, 
thitraghout  the  year,  extremely  heavy. 

The  African  coast  of  the  lUd  Sea  is  divided 
into  Abyssinia,  Baza,  and  Upper  Egypt.  The 
coast  of  Abyssinia,  being  generally  avoided  by 
ships  navigating  in  this  sea,  was  very  imper« 
fectly  known  until  the  visit  of  lord  VaJentia  in 
1804.  It  is  now  found  to  possess  several  good 
ports,  but  also  to  be  9f  dangerous  approach  in 
several  places  from  reefs  and  islands.  From 
Ras  Firmah,  the  north  point  of  Asab  Bay,  on 
which  is  the  negro  town  of  Asab  (Sabe),  to  Has 
Rattah  or  the  Sister  Hilk,  there  are  several  cur* 
vatures  and  good  anchorage. 

Suez  is  a  modem  and  a  poor  place,  being 
ruined  by  the  cessation  of  commerce  during  the 
occupation  of  Egypt  by  Ae  French.  It  is 
situated  on  an  inlet  nlled  with  banks,  whidi  dry 
at  half  tide,  and  crossed  by  a  bar  two  miles  and 
a  half  below  the  town,  with  but  ten  or  eleven 
feet  high  water:  inside  the  depths  between  the 
banks  are  eight  and  nine  feet  at  low,  and  fifteen 
to  sixteen  feet  high  water  springs.  This  forms  a 
kind  of  inner  harbour,  in  which  the  country 
vessels  lay  when  they  require  careening,  which  is 
done  in  a  cove  or  basin  at  the  back  of  the  town. 
The  water  used  by  the  inhabitants  and  shipping 
is  brought  on  camels  from  wells  to  the  east  of 
the  town  at  a  considerable  distance.  The  ruins 
of  Clysma  are  visible  in  a  mount  of  rubbish 
south  of  Suez,  now  called  Kolzum.  In  1817  a 
small  fleet  of  English  ships  arrived  here  direct 
from  Bombay,  in  consequence  of  the  desire  of 
the  pacha  of  Egypt  to  open  a  direct  trade  be- 
tween India  and  that  country. 

The  Arabian  coast  of  the  Red  Sea  includes 
Yemen  or  Tehama,  and  Hejaz.  The  coast  from 
Cape  Babelmandob,  at  the  entrance  of  the  strait, 
to  Mocha  is  clean  and  bold-to ;  but  from  this  to 
the  north  it  is  lined  with  reefs  within,  and  through 
which  the  Arab  vessels  sail  by  day  only. 

Niebuhr  thinks  this  was  the  point  at  which  the 
Israehtes  crossed  the  lied  Sea :  it  is  a  passage 
'  of  twenty-fours  to  Tor  on  the  opposite  sine ;  but 
as  he  observes,  and  as  we  have  noticed,  there  can 
be  no  doubt  the  sea  formerly  extended  much  fiir- 
ther  north. 

The  natives  point  out  the  valley  of  Bedeab^ 
and  other  points  of  the  coast  further  southard, 
opposite  Avoun  Mousa  and  the  Hammam  Fara- 
oun.  Di.  Shaw  objects,  against  the  opinion  which 
fixes  the  passage  opposite  Ayoun  Mousa,  that 
there  is  not  sufficient  depth  of  water  there  to 
drown  so  many  Egyptians, — an  objection  which 
would  seem  to  apply  with  still  greater  force  to 
the  opinion  of  Niebuhr  and  others,  who  fix 
upon  Suez  as  the  point  at  which  they  crossed. 
But  the  fact  is,  that  the  waters  have  retired,  and 
the  coral  shoals  Have  increased  so  much  in  every 
part  of  the  gulf  that  no  decisive  argument  can 
DC  built  on  the  present  shallowness  of  the  water. 
In  former  times,  ships  entered  the  harbour  of 
Kolsoum,  whiph  stood  higher  up  than  Suez,  but, 
in  consequence  of  the  retreat  of  the  waters,  that 


harbour  was  deserted,  and  Sue%  which  was  not 
in  existence  towards  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury, rose  OB  its  ruins.  Niebuhr  crossed  the 
creek  af  low  water  on  his  camel,  near  the,  sup- 
posed ruins  of  Kolsoum,  and  the  Arabs)  who 
attended  him  on  foot,  were  only  up  to  their  knees ; 
but  no  caravan,  he  says,  could  pass  here  without 
sreat  inconvenience,  and  certainly  not  dry-foot. 
Nor  could  the  Israelites,  he  remarks,  have 
availed  themselves  of  any  coral  rocks,  as  they 
are  so  sharp  that  they  would  have  cut  their 
feet.  Moreover,  if  we  suppose  that  the  agency 
of  the  tides  was  employed  by  divine  providence 
in  favoring  the  passage  of  the  Israelites,  the  east 
wind  whidi,  blowing  all  night,  divided  the  waters 
of  the  gulf  in  the  middle,  preserving  a  body  of 
water  above  and  below,  and  laying  bare  the 
channel  betireen  the  walls,«-was  clearly  super- 
natural. The  wind  here  constantly  blows  six 
months  north  and  six  months  south.  And,  as  this 
unprecedented  ebb  of  the  waters  must  have  been 
preternatural,  not  less  so  was  the  sudden  tem- 
pestuous reflux  by  which  Che  Ecyptians  were 
overwhelmed.  Perhaps  a  thick  fog,  it  is  sug- 
might  hasten  their  destruction.  The 
>th  at  high  water  now  does  not  exceed  from 
It  to  ten  feet,  but  the  same  causes  which  have 
~  the  land  on  the  eastern  shore,  have  ren- 
the  gulf  shallower.  The  winds,  blowing 
the  sands  of  Arabia  into  the  Red  Sea,  are  con- 
stantly forming  shallows  among  the  rocks,  and 
threaten  in  time  to  fill  up  the  gulf.  Dr.  Shaw, 
however,  displays  his  usual  learning  and  inge- 
nuity in  fixing  the  passage  of  the  Israelites  op- 
posite the  desert  of  Shur.  Supposing  Rameses 
to  have  been  Cairo,  there  are  two  roads,  he  re- 
marks, by  which  the  Israelites  might  have  been 
conducteid  to  Pihahhiroth  on  the  coast ;  the  one 
through  the  valleys  of  Jendily,  Rumeleah,  and 
Baid^,  which  are  bounded  on  each  side  by  the 
mountains  of  the  Lower  Thebais;  the  other, 
more  to  the  northward,  having  these  mountains 
for  several  leagues  on  the  right,  and  the  desert 
on  the  left,  tul  it  turns  through  a  remarkaUa 
breach  or  ravine  in  the  northernmost  range,  into 
the  valley  of  Baideah.  The  huter  he  presumes 
to  have  been  the  road  taken  by  the  Israelites. 
Succoth,  the  first  station,  signifies  only  a  place 
of  tents ;  and  Etham,  the  second  station,  he  con- 
siders as  probably  on  the  edge  of  the  mountai- 
nous district  of  the  Lower  Thebais.  Here  ti^ 
Israelites  were  ordered  to  turn  (from  their  line 
of  march),  and  encamp  before  Pihahhiroth,  i.  e. 
the  mouth  of  the  gullet  or  defile,  betwixt  Mig- 
dol  and  the  sea.  This  valley  he  supposes  to  be 
identified  with  that  of  Baideah,  which  signifies 
miraculous,  and  it  is  also  still  called  Tiah  Beni 
Israel,  the  road  of  the  Israelites.  Baal-tzephon, 
over  against  which  they  encamped,  is  supposed  to 
be  the  mountain  still  called  Jebel  Attaxkah,  the 
mountain  of  deliverance.  Over  against  Jebel 
Attakkah,  at  ten  miles  distance,  is  the  desert  of 
Sdur,  or  Shur,  where  the  Israelites  landed.  This 
part  of  the  gulf  would,  therefore,  be  capacious 
enough  to  cover  a  numerous  armjr,  and  yet 
might  be  traversed  by  the  Israelites  in  a  night ; 
whereas,  from  Corondel  to  Tor,  the  channel  is 
ten  or  twelve  leagues  broad,  which  is  too  great  a 
distance  to  have  been  travelled  by  a  multitude 


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vriih  8ueh  incumbranced,  and  the  passage  from 
Suez  appears  as  much  too  short.  Havins  once 
entered  this  valley,  it  might  well  be  said  that  the 
wilderness  had  '  shut  them  in,'  inasmuch  a^  the 
mountains  of  Mokattem  would  deny  them  a 
passage  to  the  southward ;  those  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  Suez  would  be  a  barrier  to  the 
northward,  towards  the  land  of  the  Philistines ; 
the  Red  Sea  was  before  them  to  the  east,  while 
Pharaoh  with  his  army  closed  up  the  defile  be- 
hind them.  The  valley  ends  in  a  small  bay 
formed  by  the  eastern  extremities  of  the  moun- 
tains. 

Dennis  Bay,  in  about  14^  35',  is  according  to 
the  French  a  safe  road  with  a  watering  place. 
Hodeida  is  a  considemble  town  and  the  sea  port 
of  Betelfakie,  whence  a  great  quantity  of  coffee 
is  shipped.  Cape  Israel  is  a  long  projecting 
point,  with  a  bay  on  the  north  sheltered  bv  the 
island  of  Camaran.  Loheia  is  at  the  north  ex- 
tremity of  this  bay,  and  is  a  large  town  without 
walls,  but  with  several  towers  guarded  by  sol- 
diers ;  some  of  the  houses  are  of  stone,  but  the 
greater  number  are  of  mud  thatched.  The 
shore  is  here  so  shoal  that  ships  cannot  anchor 
nearer  than  two  leagues  to  the  town,  and  even 
boats  cannot  approach  it  at  low  water ;  it  has, 
however,  a  share  of  the  coffee  trade.  Ghesan  and 
Attui  are  towns  further  north.  Camfida  (llejaz) 
is  a  considerable  town,  ten  leagues  north  of  which 
is  Bender  Dodja,  wh^re  there  is  said  to  be  good 
water.  From  hence  to  Cape  Ibrahim  the  land  is 
high  with  some  small  towns  little  known  to  Eu- 
ropeans. 

Judda,  the  sea- port  of  Mecca,  which  is  forty 
miles  inland,  is  a  large  town  with  an  extensive 
trade,  as  well  with  Europeans  from  India  as  with 
other  parts  of  the  Red  Sea,  particularly  Cossire, 
Suez,  and  Tor.  The  harbour  is  formed  by  a 
great  number  of  ree6,  and  the  anchorage  is  three 
miles  from  the  town.  The  town  is  tolerably 
built,  and  is  governed  by  a  vizier  from  Mecca. 

The  places  in  succession  firora  Judda,  of  which 
we  have  any  knowledge,  are  Yambo  (Jambia), 
by  the  Arabs  called  Jembo  el  Bahr ;  it  is  the 
port  of  Medina,  a  day's  journey  inland,  and  is  a 
considerable  town,  but  partly  in  ruins,  with  a 
harbour  between  two  reefs,  but  very  contracted. 
The  land  over  it  is  extremely  high  and  rugged. 
It  is  a  general  rendezvous  of  the  Arab  vessels 
bound  to  and  from  Egypt,  but  is  never  visited 
by  European  ships,  the  natives  being  treacherous 
and  inhospitable.  Bareedy  harbour,  also  formed 
by  shoals,  is  fourteen  leagues  farther  north. 

Ras  Aboo  Mahomet  (Pharan  promont.)  is  the 
extremity  of  the  peninsula  that  separates  the 
gulfs  of  Akaba  and  Suez ;  it  is  a  very  low  sandy 
point,  but  with  deep  water  close  to  it,  and  b<^- 
hind  the  point  a  chain  of  high  hills  runs  through 
the  peninsula  to  Mount  Sinai.  Before  the  centre 
of  tne  entrance  of  the  Gulf  of  Akaba,  and  north 
of  Cape  Mahomet,  is  the  island  Tiran,  elevated 
in  the  middle.  On  the  east  shore  of  the  en  - 
trance  of  the  gulf  is  Calai  el  Moatloah  (Pheni* 
cum  oppidum),  a  large  town,  whose  inhabitants 
have  the  name  of  great  robbers,  and  this  gulf  is 
infested  bv  pirates.  Near  its  head  is  Calaat  el 
Akaba  (^.lana),  whence  the  gulf  has  received  its 
name.    £1  Akaba,  i.  e.  the  end  (of  thesea),  Vol- 


ney  thinks  it  may  be  the  Atsium  Oaber  of  the 
Bible,  which,  as  well  as  Ailah  on  the  same  gulf, 
which  still  retains  its  name,  was  a  celebrated 
mart  in  .the  time  of  Solomon.  Being  in  the  posses- 
sion of  the  Bedouin  Arabs,  who  have  no  idea  of  ' 
commerce,  they  are  never  visited.  El  Akaba 
is  said  to  be  a  Turkish  fort,  and  to  possess  good 
water. 

The  gulf  9f  Suez  is  entered  between  Ras 
Mahomet  and  the  island  of  Shadwan,  the  channel 
being  four-  leagues  wide.  Tor,  the  Elim  of  the 
Scripture,  and  the  Phenicon  of  the  Romans,  is 
now  a  wretched  village,  inhabited  by  about  100 
Greeks,  and  a  few  Arab  Ashermen.  The  ruins 
of  a  well  built  Turkish  fort  denote  it  to  have 
formerly  been  of  more  consequence.  The  des- 
cription of  this  place  given  in  the  Bible  per- 
fectly answers  to  its  appearance  at  {his  day,  ex- 
cept that  three  only  of  tne  twelve  wells  are  now 
to  be  seen,  about  200  yards  from  the  beach,  and 
the  only  verdure  is  two  small  clumps  of  date 
trees.  The  water  of  the  wells  is  less  brackish  han 
that  of  Mocha  or  Judda,  but  is  in  very  small  quan- 
tity, and  is  only  freshened  by  filtration  through 
the  sand  of  the  beach.  There  are  no  kind  of  re- 
freshments except  fish,  and  they  are  far  from 
abundant,  to  be  procured  here.  The  foot  of  the 
ridge  of  hills  which  runs  through  the  peninsula 
is  about  a  day's  journey,  or  six  leagues  from  Tor. 
Amongst  them  Mount  Sinai  raises  its  lofty  head 
in  two  peaks,  and  to  the  religious  mind  recalls 
the  scenes  described  by  the  sacred  historian;  it 
is  a  vast  mass  of  red  granite  with  white  spots. 
In  the  little  dispersed  spots  of  soil,  almonds, 
figs,  and  vines,  are  cultivated,  and  numerous 
rills  of  excellent  water  gush  from  the  crevices, 
and  wander  among  these  little  gardens ;  at  its 
foot  is  a  monastery  of  Greek  monks.  The 
coasts  of  this  peninsula  are  lined  with  coral 
reefs,  and  covered  with  petrifications.  The  road 
or  harbour  of  Tor  is  perfectly  safe,  being  shel- 
tered by  reefs  running  off  from  the  points  of  a 
semi-circular  bay,  having  a  channel  a  mile  and  a 
half  wide.  Cape  Jehan  is  eight  or  nine  leagues 
north-west  of  Tor: 

A  mere  enumeration  of  the  vast  number  of 
islands  and  reefs,  above  and  under  water,  scat- 
tered throughout  the  Red  Sea,  would  be  equally 
useless  and  tedious,  we  shall  therefore  confine 
ourselves  to  the  notice  of  those  which  are  most 
conspicuous  and  best  known. 

On  the  African  shore  are  Dhalac  Island,  seven 
leagues  long,  with  many  islands  and  reefs  near 
it.  St.  John's  Island,  five  or  six  leagues  sofilh- 
east  of  Emerald  Island,  has  a  high  hill  at  the 
south-east  end.  Shadwan,  at  the  entrance  of  the 
gulf  of  Suez,  is  a  large  and  high  island. 

Nearest  to  the  Arabian  shore  is  the  island  Ba- 
belmandeb,  Perim,  or  Mehun,  anciently  Diodiri, 
three  miles  and  a  half  from  Cape  Babelmandeb, 
and  forming  the  lesser  strait.  It  is  four  miles  in 
circuit,  of  little  elevation,  but  highest  in  the 
middle ;  it  is  covered  with  lai^  loose  masses  of 
black  stone,  except  in  some  spots  where  a  thin 
sea  sand  covers  a  Coral  rock,  and  exceeds  even 
in  sterility  the  neighbouring  continent,  a  few 
aromatic  plants,  and  a  prickly  and  leafless  shrub 
of  the  milky  tribe,  bemg  the  only  vegetables: 
and  even  these  are  in  so  suOul  a  quantity,  that  if 


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the  whole  were  coUectednhey  would  not  make  a 
fire  sufficient  to  dress  a  dinner.  The  attempts 
of  the  English  to  procure  fresh  water  on  the 
island,  by  digging  wells,  were  fruitless.  A  few 
small  lizards  are  the  only  stationary  animals 
found  on  the  island,  but  in  the  season  of  incuba- 
tion it  is  resorted  to  by  vast  numbers  of  gulls  to 
breed ;  its  beaches  are  also  frequented  by  green 
turtles  in  December  and  January.  Though  no 
Testige.of  habitations  is  seen  on  the  island,  it 
was  evidently  once  resorted  to,  a  cistern  to  hold 
water,  biiilt  of  stone  and  coated  with  mortar, 
still  remaining  perfect :  it  is  possible  this  was  a 
work  of  the  Portuguese,  when  in  1513  they 
made  an  unsuccessful  attack  on  Aden.  A 
great  number  of  granite  bullets  were  also  disco- 
vered by  the  English,  in  the  water  near  the  island* 
On  the  north- west  side  of  the  island  b  a  very  snug 
harbour,  nearly  land-locked,  for  about  four  ships. 
The  Arroas  are  north-west  eleven  leagues  from 
Mocha,  .nearly  midway  between  the  Arabian 
and  Abyssinian  coasU;  the  great  Arroa  is 
elevated.  Gebel  Zeghir,  five  leagues  north  of 
the  Arroa,  and  six  leagues  from  the  Arabian 
coast,  is  high,  with  three  small  islands  on  its  north 
side.  The  Sabugar  islands  extend  from  lat.  15°  to 
16°  10';  they  are  high,  rocky,  and  barren:  the 
laigesty  named  Gebel  Zebayr,  has  two  conical 
hills.  Gebel  Tar  is  of  considerable  height,  as 
its  name  denotes  (Gebel,  mountain — ^Tar,  high), 
With  a  volcanic  peak.  Doohorab,  a  small  low 
island  in"  16°  15',  covered  with  trees. 

In  their  persons  the  Arabs  of  this  flfeighbour- 
hood  exceed  the  middle  size,  but  are  generally 
thin ;  they  are  excellent  horsemen,  expert  in  the 
use  of  the  lance  and  matchlock,  and  generally 
brave.  The  wandering  tribes,  named  Bedouins, 
are  robbers  by  profession,  and  honestly  avow 
their  trade,  while  the  Arab  of  cities,  less  candid, 
is  equally  a  robber  by  extortion.  The  Arabs, 
however,  possess  the  virtue  of  hospitality  to 
strangers  who  demand  their  protection,  and 
the  eating  togetlier  is  the  seal  of  safety  from 
the  Bedouin  to  his  guest.  The  towns  of  the 
Arabs  are  built  of  stone  or  sun-dried  bricks. 
The  houses  .  have  two  stories,  with  terraced 
roofs  ;  the  front  is  occupied  by  the  men  and  the 
back  by  the  females,  who  are  strictly  guarded 
from  the  eyes  of  strangers,  for  which  purpose  the 
tent  of  the  Bedouin  is  divided  by  a  screen.  The 
Arabs  are  abstemious  in  their  diet,  the  common 
class  making  only  one  meal  a  day  of  doura»  a 
species  of  millet,  with  milk  or  oil. 

REDAR'GUE,  w.fl.  IaI.  redarguo.  To  re- 
fute.   Not  in  use. 

The  last  wittily  redaryuaihe  pretended  fibding  of 
coin,  graved  with  the  image  of  Augustus  Cmar,  in 
the  American  mines.  HakewiU  vn  Providmee. 

REDDITIO,  was  the  third  part  of  the  sacri- 
fice of  the  heathens,  and  Consisted  of  the  solemn 
act  of  putting  in  again  the  entrails  of  the  victims, 
after  they  had  been  religiously  inspected.  Sec 
Sacrifice. 

REDDITION,  n.«.  From  Lat.  rcAfo.  Res- 
titution. 

She  is  reduced  to  a  nerfcct  obedience,  partly  by 
voluntary  reddition  and  desire  of  protection,  ana 
partly  by  conquest.  Uowel, 


REiyDLE,  n.  t.  From  red.  A  sort  of  mi- 
neral. 

ReddU  is  an  earth  of  the  metal  kind,  of  a  tolenbW 
close  and  even  texture :  its  surface  is  smooth  and 
somewhat  glossy,  and  it  is  soft  and  unctuous  to  the 
touch,  staining  the  fingers  verv  much :  in  England 
we  have  the  finest  in  the  world..  HiU. 

Reddle,  a  sof^  heavy,  red  made,  of  great  -use 
in  coloring;  and  being  washed  and  fr^  from 
sand,  is  often  sold  by  our  druggists  under  the 
name  of  bole  armeniac. 

REDE,  n.i.  &  v. a,'  Sax.  ps'o.  Counsel; 
advice.    Not  used. 

I  rede  thee  hence  to  remove. 
Lest  thoa  the  price  of  my  displ^ure  prove. 

Spenatr. 

Do  not  as  some  ungracious  pastors  do. 
Shew  me  the  steep  and  thorny  way  to  heaven ; 
Whilst  he  a  pufl  and  reckless  libertine, 
Himself  the  primrose  path  of  dalliance  treads, 
And  recks  not  his  own  rede.      SluUtspeare.  Hamlet, 

Rede  (William),  a  learned  English  prelate 
of  the  fourteenth  century,  who  became  bishop  of 
Chichester  in  1369.  He  was  the  first  mathema- 
tician of  his  age.  He  erected  the  first  library  of 
Merton  College,  and  built  the  castle  of  Amberley, 


REDEEM', ».  a. 
Redeem'able,  adj. 
Redeek'ablenesS}  n.s. 
Redeem'eb, 
Redemption, 
Redemp'toet,  a^. 
ment  or  price :  hence  to 


Lat.  redimo.  f  o 
ransom ;  buy  off 
from   captivity    or 

^slavery;  pay  the 
penalty  of;  free  by 
paying  any  atone- 

compensate;  recom- 


pense ;  and,  in  a  theological  sense,  to  buy  again 
something  that  had  been  devoted  to  God ;  de^ 
liver  from  the  bondage  of  sin ;  save  time  by 
self-denial:  redeemable  is  capable  of  redemp- 
tion; the  noun  substantive  that  follows  oone- 
9ponding:  redeemer,  he  who  ransoms  or  re^ 
deems ;  the  Saviour  of  the  world :  redemption,  the 
act  of  redeeming;  price  paid;  actual  ddivery  of 
the  redeemed :  redemptory^  adjective,  paid  for 
ransom. 

The  firstling  of  an  ass  thou  shalt  redeem  with  a 
lamb*  Exodus. 

The  kinsman  Kaid,  I  cannot  redean  it  for  myself, 
lest  I  mai  mine  inheritance.  .  Ruth  iv»  6. 

Redeem  Israel,  0  God,  out  o{  all  bis  troubles. 

PuUm  XXV. 
Christ  redeemed  us  from  the  curse.  Gal,  iiu  13. 
The  time  redeeming.  Ephee,  v.  16. 

The  Almighty  from  the  grave 
Hath  me  redeemed ;  he  will  the  humble  f  ave. 

Sandys. 
She  inflamed  him'  so 
That  he  would  algates  with  Pvrocles  fight. 
And  his  redeemer  challenged  for  his  foe, 
Because  he  had  not  well  maintained  his  right. 

Spenser. 
How  if,  when  I  am  laid  into  the  tomb, 
I  awake  before  the  tune  that  Romeo 
Come  to  redeem  me  ?  there's  a  fearfiil  point. 

Shaktpcare, 
This  feather  stirs,  she  lives ;  if  it  be  so. 
It  is  a  chance  which  does  redeem  all  sorrpws 
That  ever  I  have  ftlt.  Id.  K'mg  Lear. 

I  every  day  expect  an  embassage 
From  my  redeemer  to  redeem  me  hence ; 
And  now  in  peace  my  soul  shall  part  to  heaven. 

,    Shahpeare,' 


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I  chtige  jM,  M  yoa  hope  lo  >vr« 
That  yon  doMit,  and  lay  no  handa  on  ma.        Jd. 
Omega  singa  the  exequiea. 
And  Hector*!  rftimptoty  price. 

Ou^man**  Iliad, 
Which  of  vou  will  be  mortal  to  rtdmm 
Man'i  mortal  crime  1  MiUonn 

Man's  friend,  his  Mediator,  his  designed 
Both  ransom  and  Etdmmtr  voluntary.  id. 

Utter  darkness  his  place 
Oidained  without  rtdimpiion,  without  end.         Id. 
When  saw  we  thee  any  way  diatiessed,  and  relieved 
thee  1  will  be  the  question  of  those  to  whom  heaven 
itself  will  be  at  the  last  day  awarded,  as  having  mi- 
nistered to  their  IUd§gm»r.  BwfU, 
Esdemn  from  this  reproach  my  wandering  ghost 

The  Saviour  son  be  glorified. 

Who  for  lost  man's  rtdemfttwn  died.  Td, 

The  salvation  of  our  souls  may  be  advanced,  by 
firmly  believing  the  mysteries  of  our  ndemption,  and 
by  imitating  the'example  of  those  primitive  patterns 
of  piety.  N«Um, 

R£D£IJV*£R,  v.a.  Re  and  deliver.  Tode 
liver  back.         , 

I  have  remembrances  of  yours* 
That  I  have  longed  long  to  mUKen-.       Shaktfetn, 

InstrvmenU  judicially  exhibited  are  not  of  the  acts 
of  courU  ;  ana  therefore  may  be  tedelktr^d  on  the 
demand  of  the  person  that  euibiied  them. 

Agkff4*9  Paf9rgm. 

REDEMANiy,  v.  a.  Fr.  redemander.  Re 
and  demand.    To  demand  back. 

Threescore  attacked  the  place  where  they  were 
kept  in  custody,  and  rescued  them ;  the  duke  rede- 
Manif  his  prisoner^,  but  receiving  excuses  resolves  to 
do  himself  justice.  AddUoH, 

Redemption,  in  theology,  denotes  the  reco^ 
very  of  mankind  from  sin  and  death,  by  the  obe- 
dience and  ncrifice  of  Christ,  who  on  this 
account  is  called  the  Redeemer  of  the  world. 
See  Theology. 

Redekptiov,  in  law,  a  right  of  re-entering 
upon  lands,  be.,  that  have  been  sold  and  as- 
signed, upon  reimbursing  the  purchase-money, 
with  legal  costs. 

REDENS,  Redans,  or  Redant,  in  ibrtiflca* 
tion,  a  kind  of  indented  work  in  form  of  the 
teeth  of  a  saw,  with  salient  and  re-entering  an- 
gles ;  to  the  end  that  one  part  may  flank  or  de- 
fend another.    See  Foetification. 

REDFORD,  East.    See  Retford,  East. 

REDI  (Francis),  an  Italian  physician  and 
naturalist,  bom  at  Arezzo  in  Tuscanv  in  1626. 
His  learning  recommended  him  to  the  office  of 
first  phj^cian  to  Ferdinand  II.  duke  of  Tuscany ; 
and  be  contributed  towards  compiling  the  Dio- 
tionaiy  of  La  Crusca.  He  wrote  upon  vipers 
and  upon  the  generation  of  insects.  All  his 
works  are  in  Italian;  and  his  language  is  so 
pure  that  the  authors  of  the  Dictionaiv  of  La 
Crusca  have  often  cited  them  as  standards  of 
perfection.    He  died  in  1697. 

Redi  (Thomas),  an  eminent  Italian  painter, 
bom  in  Florence  in  1685.  His  historical  pictures 
adom  the  churches  in  Etruria.,  He  had  also  an 
excellent  style  of  painting  portraits.  He  died  in 
1726. 

REDICULUS,  a  deity  of  ^e  Romans,  whose 
name  is  derived  firom  redire,  to  return.  The  Ro- 
liians  erected  a  temple  to  this  imaginary  deity  on 


the  spot  where  Hannibal  retired,  wtai  after  ap- 
proaching Rome  to  besiege  it,  he  set  oat  on  lus 
return. 

REDINTEGRATE,  Aj^'.  laL  redmUgntm. 
Restored ;  renewed ;  ntade  new. 

Charies  VIU.  received  the  kingdom  of  Fiance  in 
flourishing  estate,  bung  redi$tiagnte  in  those  princi- 
pal mem&rs  which  anciently  had  been  portions  of 
the  crown,  and  were  after  dissevered ;  so  as  tbey  re- 
mained only  in  homage,  and  not  in  sovereign^. 

Bacon, 

He  but  piescribes  a  abare  chymical  ponncxtion  of 
nitre,  what  I  teach  u  a  philoeophioal  rtdiniegniitm 
of  iU  BoyU, 

REDNITZ,  a  river  of  Fianconia,  formed  of 
the  Upper  and  Lower  Retzat,  which  unite  five 
miles  south  of  Roth.  Joined  by  the  Peenitz, 
near  Furth,  it  falls  into  the  Maine  below  Bam- 
berg, being  navigable  in  the  lower  part  of  its 
course.  It  has  X^  been  in  viewto  effisct  a 
communication  between  this  river  and  the  Alt- 
muhl,  and  by  this  means  to  unite  the  Danube 
with  the  Rhine.  Charlemagne,  during  his  war 
with  Uie  Avari,  actually  ordered  this  plan  to  be 
begun  upon;  but  his  attention  was  soon  after 
drawn  from  it  by  an  invasion  of  the  Saxons ;  but 
the  remains  of  his  works  are  still  to  be  seen  at  a 
▼illase  in  Pappenheim. 

REiyOLENT,  atg.  Lat.  ndoUm,  Sweet  of 
scent 

Thy  love  excels  the  joys  of  wine ; 
Thy  odours,  O  how  rMeut ! 

Sttudy^s  Powfkrau* 

We  hafe  all  the  radobnfle  of  the  perfimes  we  bum 
upon  his  altars.  Beyb. 

Their  flowers  attract  spiders  with  their  rtddmcy, 

MuftuatT, 

REDONES,  a  nation  of  ancient  Gaul,  men- 
tioned faj  Cssar  (De  Bell.  Gall.),  among  the 
Armoria;  who  inhabited  that  part  of  the  coun- 
try, now  called  Rennes  and  St  Malo^  in  the  ci- 
devant  province  of  Brittany. 

REDOUB'LE,  v,  a.kv.n.  Fr.  rtdtmbUr, 
Re  and  double.  To  repeat  in  return,  or  often; 
to  become  twice  as  much. 

So  ended  she ;  and  all  the  rest  around 

To  her  rtdoMtd  that  her  undersong.        Spmuar, 
They  were 

As  cannons  overchaiaed  with  double  cracks,    , 

So  they  ndoubUd  stijces  upon  the  foe. 

If  we  conrider  that  our  whole  eternity  is  to  take 
its  colour  from  those  hours  wUch  we  here  employ  ia 
rirtne  or  vice,  the  argument  redmMes  upon  us,  for 
putting  in  practice'  this  method  of  passing  away  oar 
time.  Additen'9  apeetatar. 

REDOUBT,  n.  s.  ■)     Fr.    reduUy   redout; 

Redovbt^able,  a^.  >  Ital.  ridotia.     The  out- 

Redoubt  ED.  j  work  of  a  fortification ; 

a  fortress :  redoubtable  is  formidable :  redoubted, 
dreaded;  avrful. 

So  for  be  mine  my  most  mdoukad  lord. 
As  my  true  service  shall  deserve  your  love. 

Shaktptan, 

Every  great  ship  is  an  unpregnable  fort,  and  our 
safe  and  commodious  ports  are  as  rtdoohU  to  secure 
them.  JBImph. 

The  enterpfising  Mr.  Linton,  the  feimtesUt  rrnd 
of  BCr.  Tonson,  overtook  me.  Ptft, 

Redoubt,  in  fortification.  See  Fortifica- 
tion. 


Digitized  by 


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RED 


REDOUNiy,  V.  n,  Lat.  retkmih.  To  be 
Mat  back  by  reaction ;  hence,  reaction  o?  accu- 
mulated action  genendly :  and  hence  to  conduce 
to  an  end. 

The  efil,  loon 
Driven  back,  ndmmdtd,  u  a  flobd  on  thoie 
FhNn  whom  it  sprang.  MiUm'i  Paradiae  Loa. 

Nor  hope  to  be  myielf  hu  miienble. 
By  thoie  I  leek,  but  others  to  make  such 
As  I,  thoi^h  thereby  worse  to  me  rtdomi.   MiUoik 

As  both  these  monsters  will  devour  great  quanti- 
ties of  paper,  there  will  no  small  um  redomtd  from 
them  to  that  manufacture.  GuttntUm, 

The  honour  done  to  our  >  religion  ultimately  n- 
*4ioundi  to  God  the  author  of  it.      Regen*$  Sermms. 

REDRESS',  V.  a.  &  n.  f .  )      Fr.  redteuer.  To 

Redres'sive,  01^*.  (set  right;  amend; 

relieve :  relief;  amendment :  the  adjective  cor- 
responding. 

She  felt  with  me,  what  I  felt  of  my  ca^vity,  and 
straight  laboured  to  rednu  my  pain,  which  was  her 
pain.  Siinnf, 

To  seek  reformation  of  evil  laws  is  commendaUe, 
but  for  us  the  more  neoessaiy  is  a  apeedy  ttdrtu  of 
ounelves.  Hookr. 

No  humble  suitors  press  to  spesk  for  right ; 
Ne,  not  a  man  comes  for  ttdmu  to  thee. 

In  yonder  spring  of  roses, 

Find  what  to  ndrm  till  noon.  MOUm, 

Grief,  finding  no  rtdnu,  ferment  and  rage. 
Nor  less  than  wounds  uDunedicahle, 
Rankle,  and  fester,  and  gangrene 
To  black  mortification.  Id. 

Lighter  affronts  and  injuries  Christ  commands  us 
not  to  redrm  by  law,  but  to  besr  with  patience. 

KeiiUwelL 

A  few  may  complain  without  lesion  ;  but  there  is 
oocttion  for  ndrm  when  the  ciy  is  universal. 

Davenant. 

In  countries  of  freedom,  princes  aie  bound  to  pro- 
tect their  subjects  in  liberty,  property,  and  religion, 
to  receive  their  petitions,  and  rtdmt  their  giievanoes. 

The  generous  band. 
Who,  touched  with  human  woe.  rtdremve  learched 
Into  the  horrors  of  the  gloomy  jail.  T&4nmm. 

REDRUTH,  a  market  town  and  parish  of 
Cornwall,  four  miles  west  of  Truro,  and  268 
W.  S.  W.  of  London ;  bang  situate  in  the  midst 
of  many  productive  mines.  Besides  the  churdi 
of  St.  Uny,  without  the  town,  it  has  seveial  meet- 
ing-houses, and  two  good  charitv  schoob.  Mar- 
tee  are  held  on  Tuesday  and  Friday. 

REiySEAR,v.n.  Red  and  sear.  Atennof 
workmen. 

IF  iron  he  too  cold,  it  will  not  feel  the  weiriit  of 
'the  hammer,  when  it  will  not  batter  under  the  nam- 
ner ;  and,  if  it  be  too  hot,  it  wUl  rwfMar,  that  is, 
hieak  or  crack  under  the  hammer.  Moson, 

REDSHANK,  n.  t.  Red  and  shank.  A  con- 
temptuous  appellation  for  some  of  the  people  of 
ScoUand ;  perhaps,  however,  soldiers  witn  red 
hose. 

He  sent  over  his  brother  Edward  with  a  power  of 
Scots  and  r^dAmkM  unto  Ireland,  where  they  got , 
feoting.  Spmmr* 

Red-shavk.    See  Scolopax. 
RED-START.    See  Motacilul. 
RED^TREAK,  n.  s.    Red  and  streak.    An 
apple. 


There  an  several  sorts  of  redMh^t^i  some  sorts  of 
them  have  red  veins  running  through  the  whole  fruit* 
which  is  esteemed  to  give  the  cyder  the  richest  tinc- 
ture. JtforriiiMr. 

Bsdtireah  he  quafik  beneath  the  Chianti  vine. 
Gives  Tuscan  yearly  for  thy  Scudmore's  wine. 

Smith. 


Fr.  redidre  ;  Lat 
rtdwco.  To  brin^ 
back;  bring  to  a 
former  state ;  hence 
"restore  to  order  or 
dominion  ;  sub- 
due; bring  into  a 
lower    state ;    de- 


REDUCE',t).4i. 

Reouce'ment,  n.  s. 

Redu'cer, 

Reou'cible,  o^'. 

Redv'cibleness,  a.  f. 

Reduc'tion, 

Reduc'tive,  n.  t.  &  adj, 

Reduc'tivelt,  ado. 
grade ;  impair :  reducementls  the  act  of  reduciikg ; 
as  b  reduction :  the  latter  being  also  the  name  of 
a  well-known  aritlimetical  rule :  a  reducer  is  he 
who  reduces :  reducible,  possible  to  be  reduced : 
the  noun  substantive  corresponding:  reductive, 
having  the  power  of  reducing ;  something  pos- 
sessed of  this  power  (see  the  second  extract  ^m 
Hale) :  the  adverb  corresponding. 

They  could  not  learn  to  digest* that  the  man, 
which  they  had  ao  long  used  to  mask  their  own  appe- 
tites, fhojild  now  be  dm  rtduur  of  them  into  order. 

Sidney. 
Abate  the  edge  of  traitors,  nacious  lord*. 
That  would  rtdtiM  these  bloody  days  again. 


The  navy  received  bleising  from  Pope  Sixtus,  and 
was  assigned  as  an  apostolical  mission  for  the  rednc*. 
nwni  of  mis  kingdom  to  the  obedience  pf  Rome. 

Bacon, 

If  they  be  our  superiors,  then  'tis  modesty  and  re- 
verence to  all  such  in  general,  at  least  ndurlttw^y. 

/nHMMNM. 

It  were  but  just 
And  equal  to  rtdmot  me  to  my  dust. 
Desirous  to  resign  and  render  back 
All  I  received.  MUum. 

Under  thee,  as  head  supreme, 
Thrones,  princedoms,  powers,  dominions,  I  redact. 

Left  desert  utmost  hell, 
Aaefiwid  in  careful  watch  round  their  metropolis. 

Id, 

Some  will  have  these  years  to  be  but  months ;  but 
we  have  no  certain  evidence  that  they  used  to  account 
a  month  a  year ;  and,  if  we  had,  yet  that  reduction 
will  not  lerve.  Bok, 

Thus  far  concerning  these  redme^tou  by  inunda- 
tions and  conflagratipns.      Jd.  Origin  of  Mankind, 

Every  thing  visibly  tended  to  the  redmtion  of  his 
sacred  majesty,  and  all  peraons  in  their  several  sta- 
tions began  to  make  way  and  prepare  for  it.     FoU. 

A  diaphanous  body,  redneod  to  very  minute  parts, 
thereby  acquires  many  little  surfaces  in  a  narrow 
compass.  Bcvk, 

Spirits  of  wine,  by  its  pungent  taste,  and  especially 
by  iXMredtieiblenoti,  according  to  Helmont,  into  alkali 
and  water,  seems  to  be  as  well  of  a  saline  as  a  sul- 
phureous nature.  Id, 

There  is  nothing  so  bad  bat  a  man  may  lay  hold 
of  something  about  it  that  will  afford  matter  of  ex- 
cuse ;  nor  nothing  so  excellent  but  a  man  may  fasten 
upon  something  belonging  to  it  whereby  to  rtdtKo  it. 

Tiuotion. 

Other  niceties,  though  they  are  not  matter  of  con- 
science, singly  and  apart,  are  yet  so  redmtMy;  that 
ia,  though  they  are  not  so  in  the  abstract,  they  be- 
come BO  by  aflinity  and  connection.       VEttrange.  , 


Digitized  by  ^^JiJUy  It: 


RED 


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REE 


Jlie  ordlnaiy  nMlleat  meuare  it  lookod  jqu  as  an 
unit  in  number,  when  the  mind  by  division  woii)|d 
'  reduce  them  into  leu  fractions.  Locke. 

Actions  that  promote  society  and  mutual  fellow- 
ship, seem  redueHtU  to  a  nroneness  to. do  good  to 
others,  and  a  ready  sense  ot  any  good  done  by  othen. 

South. 
The  most  prudent  part  was  his  moderation  and  in- 
dulgenoe,  not  reducing  them  to  desperation. 

Arbuthnet  en  Coins, 

Reductiok  of  Equations,  in  algebra,  is  the 
clearing  them  from  all  superfluous  quantities, 
bringing  them  to  their  lowest  terms,  and  separa- 
ting the  known  from  the  unknovm,  till  at  length 
only  the  unknown  quantity  is  found  on  one  side, 
and  known  ones  on  the  other.  The  reduction  of 
an  equation  is  the  last  part  of  the  resolution  of 
the  problem.    See  Algebra. 

REDUN'DANT,  adj.  Lat.  redundans.  Su- 
p6rabnndant;  exuberant;  superfluous. 

The  cause  of  generation  seemeth  to  be  fulness ; 
for  generation  is  from  redundancy:  this  fulness 
ariseth  from  the  nature  of  the  creature,  if  it  be  hot, 
and  moist  and  aanguine ;  or  from  plenty  of  food. 

•  Bacon. 

His  head, 
With  burnished  neck  of  rerdant  gold,  erect 
.  Amidst  his  circling  spires,  that  on  the  grass 
Floated  redundant.        MiUon*i  Paradiae  Lo$t. 

I  shall  show  our  poet's  reditndanee  of  wit,  just- 
nest  t)f  comparisons,  and  elegance  of  descriptions. 

Garth. 
.   Labour  ferments  the  humours,  casts   them  into 
their  proper  channels,  and  throws  oSredundaneiee, 

Addieon. 

Where  the  author  is  redundant,  mark  those  para- 
graphs to  be  retrenched ;  when. he  trifles^  abajidon 
those  passages.  Watte. 

REDU'PLICATE,  v.a.^   Re  and  duplicate. 

Reduplica'tion,  ji.  ».     >  To  double :  the  act 

Redu'plicative,  adj.  J  of  doubling :  dou- 
ble. 

This  is  evident  when  the  mark  of  exclusion  is  put ; 
as  when  we  speak  of  a  white  thine,  adding  the  redu- 
jUicationf  as  white ;  which  excludes  all  other  consi- 
derations, ^igf^' 

Some  logicians  mention  reduplieatine  propositions ; 
as  men,  considered  as  men,  arc  rational  creatures ; 
i.  e.  because  they  are  men.  Walt**9  Logiek. 

RED-WING.    SeeTuRDus. 

REE,  V.  a.    Bel?,  ree,  rede.    To  riddle ;  sift. 

After  malt  is  well  rubbed)  a&d  winnowed,  you 
must  then  ree  it  over  in  a  sieve. 

Mortimfer*t  Hutbandry, 

REEC'HO,  V.  n.  Re  and  echo.  To  echo 
back.     '"    • 

Around  we  stand,  a  melancholy  train. 

And  a  loud  groan  reechoes  from  thQ  maiv^    Pope. 

REE'CHY,  adj.  Comiptly  formed  froir 
Reekv  which  see.  Smoky;  sooty;  tanned- by 
smoke. 

Let  him,  for  a  pair  of  reeehy  kisses, 
Make  you  to  ravel  all  this  matter  out.     Shakspeare. 
The  kitchen  malkin  pins 

Her  richest  lockram  'bout  her  reeehif  neck.      Id. 

REED,fi.  ». '\      Sax.  peo>>;    Belg.    ried ; 

Reed'ed,  adj.  f  Teut.  riet.    A  hollow  knotted 

Reed'en,        i  slalk  or.  cane  which  grow»  in 

Reed'y.  .  J  wet  grounds :  hence  a  small 
pipe  or  arrow :  reeded,  reeden,  and  reedy,  mean 
consisting  of,  or  covered  with,  reeds. 


Where  houses  be>0«d«l, 
Noi»  pare  off  the  moss,  and  go  beat  in  the  reed. 

Twteer. 
Youths  toomed  before  their  parents  were. 
Whom  foul  Cocytus'  reedless  banks  enclose.    Uay. 

rU  speak  between  the  change  of  man  and  boy 
With  a  reed  voice.  Shaktpeare. 

Arcadian  pipe,  the  pastoral  reed 
Of  Hermes.  Milton. 

The  knotty  bulrush  next  in  order  stood, 
And  all  within  of  reeds  a  trembling  wood. 

Vryilen. 
Honey  in  the  sickly  hive  infuse 
Through  reeden  pi{>es.     fd.  Virp.Cs  Georgicks. 
When  the  Parthian  turned  his  steed,  • 

And  from  the  hostile  camp  withdrew ; 
With  cruel  skill  tlie  backward  reed 
He  sent ;  and  as  he  fled,  he  Bew.  *  Prior. 

The'  adjoining  brook,  now  fretting  o'er  a  rock. 
Now  scarcely  moving  through  a  re^y  ^ool. 

Jlumtm. 

Reed,  in  botany.  See  Aiei^NDo  and  Bamboo. 
There  are  two  sorts  of  reeds,  says  Hasselquist, 
growipg  near  the  Nile.  One  of  them  has  scarcely 
any  branches ;  but  is  furnished  with  numerous 
leaves,  which  are  narrow,  smooth,  channelled  on 
the  upper  surface ;  and  ihe  plant  b  about  eleven 
feet  high.  The  Egyptians  make  ropes  of  the 
leaves.  They  lay  them  in  water  like  hemp,  and 
then  make  them  into  good  strosg  cables.  These, 
vrith  the  bark  of  the  date  trees,  form  almost  the 
only  cable  used  in  the  Nile.  The  other  sort  is 
a  small  reed,  about  two  or  three  feet  high,  full- 
branched,  with  short,  sharp,  lancet-shaped  leaves. 
The  roots,  which  are  thick  at  the  stem,  creep 
and  mat  themselves  together  to  a  considerable 
distance. 

Reed,  a  term  in  the  west  of  England  for  the 
straw  used  by  thatchecSy  which  is  wheat  straw 
finely  combed,  consisting  of  stiff,  unbruised, 
and  unbroken  stalks  of  great  length,,  carefully 
separated  from  ihe  straw  used  for  fodder  by  the 
thresher,  and  bound  in  sheaves  or  nitches,  each 
of  which  weighs  twenty-eight  pounds,  and  are 
sold  from  21«.  to  3 it.  per  hundrea  nitches  accord- 
ing to  the  season; 

Reed  (Isaac),  a  late  ingenious  English 
critic,  was  a  native  of  London,  and  bom  in  1742. 
He  was  educated  for  the  law,  and  in  the  earlier 
part  of  his  life  practised  as  a  conveyancer,  but 
eventually  gave  himself  up  entirely  to  the  cultiva- 
tion of  general  literature,  and  was  the  author  of 
a  History  of  the  English  Stage,  prefixed  to  his 
edition  of  the  Biographia  Dramatica;  the  Repo- 
sitory, a  collection  of  humorous  and  miscelluie- 
ous  pieces,  4  vols.  1783 ;  besides  superintending 
the  publication  of  lady  Mary  Wortley  Montagu's 
poetical  effusions,  and  an  improved  edition  of 
Dodsley's  Old  Plays.  He  is,  however,  most  ad- 
vantageously known  as  superintending  splendid 
editions  of  Shakspeare,  in  10  and  subsequently 
in  21  vols.  8vo.,  of  which  the  latter  b  considered 
the  most  perfect  extant  As  a  book  collector, 
also,  he  displayed  considerable  judgment,  and 
had  amassed  a  libraiy  of  classical  and  misoella- 
neous  literature  inferior  to  few  private  ones.  It 
occupied  thirty- nine  days  in  its  disposal  by  pub- 
lic auction  on  .his  dea^.  In  addition  to  toese 
literary  labors,  the  miscellany  k^own  by  the  name 
of  the  European  Magazine,  of  which  he  was 


Digitized  by 


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:RES 


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partly  the  owner,  was  for  many  years  carried  on 
by  him.    His  death  took  place  in  the  commence- 
ment of  1807. 
RE£D-GBASS.    See  Aeunoo. 
REED'IF Y, «.  a,    Fr.  reedifier^  re  and  edify. 
To  rebuild ;  build  again. 
The  iEoiians,  who  repeopled,  reedtfied  Iliam. 

Sandys, 
The  ruined  walls  he  did  reedify,  Spenaer. 
This  monument  five  hundred  years  hath  stood. 
Which  I  have  sumptuously  reedifitd.  Shakspeare, 
REEF,  in  nautical  affairs,  a  certain  portion 
of  a  sail,  comprehended  between  die  top  or  bot- 
tom, and  a  row  of  eyelet  holes  parallel  thereto. 
The  intention  of  the  reef  is  to  reduce  the  surface 
of  the  sail  in  proportion  to  the  increase  of  the 
wind ;  for  which  reason  there  are  several  reefs 
parallel  to  each  other  in  the  superior  sails^ 
whereby  they  may  be  still  farther  diminished^  in 
order  to  correspond  with  the  several  degrees  of 
the  gale.  Thus  the  top«sails  of  ships  are  usually 
furnished  with  four  reefs,  and  there  are  always 
three  or  four  reefs,  parallel  to  the  bottom  on  those 
main-sail&and  fore  sails,  which  are  extended  upon 
booms.  'Ae  topsails  are  always,  and  the  courses 
generally,  reefed  with  points,  which  are  flat 
braided  pieces  of  cordage,  whose  lengths  are 
nearly  double  the  circumference  of  the  yard. 
These,  being  inserted  in  the  eyelet-holes,  are  fixed 
m  the  sail  by  means  of  two  knots  in  the  middle. 
In  order  to  reef  the  top-sails  with  more  facility 
and  expedition,  they  are  lowered  down  and  made 
to  shiver  in  the  wind ;  the  extremities  of  the  reef 
are  then  drawn  up  to  the  yard  arms  by  the  reef- 
tackle,  where  they  are  securely  ftslened  by  the 
earings.  The  space  of  sail  comprehended  in  the 
reef  is  then  laid  smoothly  over  the  yard,  in 
several  folds,  and  the  whole  is  completed  by 
tying  the  points  about  the  yard,  so  as  to  bind  the 
leef  close  up  to  it. 

In  reefing  a  course,  the  after  end  of  the  point 
should  be  thrust  forward  between  the  head  of  the 
sail  and  the  yard;  and  the  fore  end  of  the  same 
point  should  come  aft  over  the  head  of  the  sail, 
and  also  under  the  yard ;  and,  thus  crossed  oVer 
the  head  of  the  sail,  the  two  ends  should  be  tied 
on  the  upper  side  of  the  yard  as  tight  as  possible. 
When  a  sail  is  reefed  at  the  bottom,  it  is  gene- 
rally done  with  knittles  in  the  room  of  points; 
or  in  larse  sails,  such  as  the  mainsails  of  cutters, 
pieces  of  line  termed  reef  banks  are  fixed .  in  the 
eyelet  holes. 

Captain  Malcolm  Cowan,  R.  N,  made  an  im- 
provement both  in  the  construction  and  the  reef- 
ing of  sails,  which  renders  the  operation  of  reef- 
ing the  courses  more  easy  and  expeditious, 
with  a  less, number  of  men  than  the  old  method 
requires. 

K££F  is  also  a  name  given  to  the  perpen- 
dicular  banks  of  coral  so  often  met  with  in  the 
South  Seas. 
REEK,  n.  t.  >    Sax.  pec ;  Belg.  reuke ;  Teut. 
Reek'y.         Srauch,  Smoke;  steam;  vapor : 
reeky  is  smoky;  tanned • 
'Tis  as  hateful  to  me  as  the  reek  of  a  lime  kiln. 

Shaktpeare. 
Byini  like  men,  though  buried  in  your  dunghills, 


They  shall  be  fiuned,  for  there  the  sun  shall  greet 

them. 
And  draw  their  honours  reeking  up  to  heaven.   -Id, 

Shut  me  in  a  charnel  house, 
O'ercovered  quite  with  dead  men's  rattling  bones. 
With  reekjf  shanks  and  vellow  chapless  skuUs.    Id. 
I  found  me  laid 
In  balmy  sweat ;  which  with  hb  beams  the  sun 
Soon  dried,  and  on  the  recking  moisture  fed. 

Hilton. 
Nor  bams  at  hoaie,  nor  re«k$  are  reared  abroad. 

Lhyden. 
The  covered  ruk,  much  in  use  westward,  must 
needs  prove  of  great  advantage  in  wet  harvests. 

^    Mortimer, 
Love  one  descended  from  a  race  of  tyrants. 
Whose  blood  yet  reeks  on  my  avenging  sword « 

Smith. 
REEL,  V.  n.,  v.  a.,  &  n.  t.  Sax.  jteol ;  Isl. 
rala ;  Swed.  rtula ;  Scot.  reU.  To  roll ;  slagger; 
roll  in  walking :  as  a  verb  active,  take  yam  o'ff 
die  spindle :  a  tumine  frame,  upon  which  yarn 
is  wound  into  skeins  from  the  spindle. 

They  reel  to  and  fro,  and  stagger  like  a  drunken 
man.  '  Psalms. 

Grope  in  the  dark,  and  to  no  seat  confine 
Their  wandering  feet,  and  reel  as  drunk  with  wine. 

Sandys. 

•  Him  when  his  mistress  proud  perceived  to  Ml', 
While  yet  his  feeble  feet  for  faintness  ruled. 
She  'gan  call,  help  Orgoglio !  Spetiser. 

What  news  in  this  our  tottering  state? 
T-It  is  a  reeling  world, 
And  I  believe  will  never  stand  upright,      ^ 
Till  Richard  wear  the  p;arland.  Skahpeare 

It  is  amiss  to  sit 
And  keep  the  turn  of  tipling  with  a  slave, 
To  reel  tne  streets  at  noon.  Id. 

It  may  be  useful  for  the  reeling  of  yam.  WUkins, 

He  with  heavy  fumes  opprest. 
Reeled  from  the  phlaoe,  and  retired  to  rest.  Pope. 

Should  he  hide  his  face. 
The'  extinguished  stars  would  loosening  reel 
Wide  from  their  spheres.  Thommm. 

My  heart  turned  sick,  my  brain  grew  sore. 
And  throbbed  awhile,  then  beat  no  more : 
The  skies  spun  like  a  miffhty  wheel ; 
I  saw  the  trees  like  drankaids  reel,  Byrmu 

REELECTION,  n.  s.    Re  and  election.  Re- 
peated election. 

Several  acts  have  been  made,  and  rendered  in- 
effectual, by  leaving  the  power  of  reelection  open. 

Sunfi, 

<  REELING,  in  the  manufactories,  the  winding 
of  silk  cotton,  &c.  into  a  skain,  or  upon  a  button, 
to  prerent  its  entangitng.-  It  is  also  used  for  the 
charging  or  discharging  of  bobbins,  or  quills,  to 
use  them  in  the  roanuActure  of  different  stuffs, 
as  thread,  silk,  cotton,  &c. 
REENACT,  v.a.    Re  and  enact    To  enact 


The  eonstraction'Of  ships  was  lorbidden  to 
tors,  by  a  law  made  by  Claudius  the  tribune,  and 


by  the  Julian  law  of  concessions. 

Arbuthnot. 
REENFORCE',  o.  a.    Re  and  enforce.    To 
strengthen  with  new  assistance  or  support. 
The  French  have  rek^vreed  their  scattered  men. 


Alone  he  entered 
The  mortal  gate  o'  the  city,  which  be  painted 


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with  flflivntcA  ilettb J ;  tidUm  turn  vB, 
And  with  a  suddeQ  rtenfirotment  struck 
Corioli  like  •  plaMt.  Jd,  CorioUmm. 

They  used  the  stooet  to  twn/brv*  the  pier. 

Utiywttnm 
What  rtm^mvtmmu  we  may  gain  from  hope. 

Miltan, 
The  preienoe  of  a  friend  raises  fancy,  and  rwn* 
foreea  reason.  Ccllier, 

The  words  eie  a  reiteration  or  rmHfiremma  of  a 
corollary.  Ward, 

REENJOY',  V.  a.  Re  and  enjoy.  To  enjoy 
anew  or  a  second  time. 

The  calmness  of  temper  Achilles  re^i^sd  is 
only  an  eiiecff  of  the  revenge  which  ought  to  have 
preceded.  Popf. 

REENTER,  v.  a.  Re  and  enter.  To  enter 
again ;  to  enter  anew. 

With  opportune  eicursion,  we  may  chance 
RsenUr  heaven.  MUUn. 

The  fieiy  sulphureous  vapours  seek  the  centre  from 
whence  they  proceed ;  that  is,  reenter  tgain. 

Mortimer' $  ffuebandry, 

REENTHRONE',  v.  a.  To  replace  in  a 
throne. 

He  di^wses  in  my  hands  the  scheme 
To  rmakrom  the  king.  Southern. 

REENTRANCE,  n.  «.  Re  and  entrance. 
The  act  of  entering  again. 

Their  repentance,  although  not  their  first  entrance, 
is  notwithstanding  the  first  step  of  their  reentranoe 
into  life.  Hooker, 

^  The  pores  of  the  brain,  through  the  which  the  spi- 
rits before  took  their  course,  are  more  easily  opened 
to  the  spirits  which  demand  reentraneo, 

GlanvOle't  Seopeii. 

REEPHAM,  a  parish  and  market  town  of  Nor- 
folk seated  on  the  river  Eyne,  thirteen  miles  north- 
west from  Norwich,  and  113  north  by  east  from 
London.  It  is  remarkable  for  having  had  an- 
cientlv  three  churches,  one  in  Reepham,  another 
in  Whitwell,  and  anoUier  in  Hacton,  two  villages 
adjoining,  all  in  one  church-yard ;  the  two  for- 
mer were  long  ago  demolished,  and  the  latter  was 
burnt  down,  together  with  the  greater  part  of  the 
town,  about  the  year  1500.  The  chief  trade  of 
this  little  town  is  in  malt,  and  the  market  is  held 
on  Saturday. 

REES  (Abraham),  D.D.,  F.R JS.,  and  F.L.S.  a 
late  disaenting  clergyman  of  distinguished  literaiy 
and  scientific  rank,  was  the  son  of  a  nonconformist 
minister  of  the  principality,  and  was  bom  at,  or  in 
the  neighbourhood  of,  Montgomery,  in  1743.  He 
was  first  placed  under  Dr.  Jenkins  of  Carmaithen, 
and  uftenvards  at  the  Hoxton  Academy  founded 
by  Mr.  Coward,  where  his  progress  was  so  rapid 
that  in  his  nineteenth  year  he  was  appointed 
mathematical  tutor  to  the  institution,  and  soon 
after  resident  tutor,  in  which  capacity  he  con- 
tinued upwards  of  twenty-two  years.  In  1768 
he  became  pptor  of  the  presbyterian  congrega- 
tion of  St.  Thomas's  Soutnwark,  and  continued 
in  that  situation  till  1783,  when  he  accepted  an 
invitation  to  become  minister  of  a  congregation 
in  the  Old  Jewry,  with  whlbh  he  remained  till  his 
death.  On  the  establishment  of  the  New  Dis- 
senting College  at  Hackney,  in  1786,  Dr.  Rees, 
who  had  seceded  frt>m  Hoxton  two  years  before, 
was  elected  to  the  situation  of  resident  tutor  in 
the  natural  sciences,  which  he  held  till  the  dis- 


solution of  the  academy,  on  the  death  of  Dr. 
Kippis.  But  Dr.  Rees,  though  esteemed  throagb- 
out  his  long  life,  as  an  able  and  learned  Amn 
divine,  was  principally  and  most  advantageously 
known  in  his  literary  capacity.  In  1776  he  vras 
applied  to  by  the  proprietors  of  Chambers's 
Cyclopaedia  as  the  person  best  qualified  to  super- 
intend a  new  and  enlarged  edition  of  that  compila- 
tion, which,  after  nine  years*  labor,  he  completed 
in  four  folio  volumes.  After  this  Uie  proprietors 
and  our  author  projected  a  much  improved 
edition;  and  he  had  the  satisfaction  to  see  the 
Cyclopedia,  now  generally  known  by  his  name, 
proceed  with  credit  from  the  publication  of  its  first 
volume  in  1802  to  its  completion  in  forty-five 
volumes,  4to.  His  other  works  are,  Eooooroy 
Illustrated  and  Recommended,  1800 ;  Antidote 
to  the  Alarm  of  Invasion,  1805 ;  Practical  Ser- 
mons, 2vols.8vo.,  1809—1812;  The  Principles 
of  E^testant  Dissenters  stated  and  vindicated ; 
and  a  variety  of  occasional  Sermons.  Dr.  Rees, 
we  are  told,  obtained  his  diploma  from  the  uni- 
versity of  Edinburgh  at  the  express  reconunen- 
dation  of  Dr.  Robertson  the  hbtorian.  His 
death  took  place  June  9th,  1825.         e 

REESTAB'LISH,  v.  a.  Re  and  esUblisL 
To  establish  anew. 

To  reettabiuk  the  right  of  lineal  suooession  to  pa- 
ternal government  is  to  put  a  man  in  possession  of 
that  government  which  his  fathers  did  enjoy.  LoiAe. 

Peace,  which  hath  for  many  years  been  banished 
the  christian  world,  will  be  speedily  reostabliskod. 

SmaMdge, 

The  Jews  made  such  a  powerful  effort  for  their 
reeetabHJmmt  under  Barcnocab,  in  the  reign  of 
Adrian,  as  shook  the  whole  Roman  empire. 

Addmn, 

REEVE,  n.  s.  Sax.  s»n»l^  A  steward. 
Obsolete. 

The  reeve,  miller,  and  cook,  are  distinguished. 

Dryden. 

Reeve  (Clara),  an  ingenious  modem  autho- 
ress, was  bom  at  Ipswich  in  1738.  She  pos- 
sessed considerable  leaming,  which  she  displayed 
in  a  translation  of  Barclay's  Latin  Romance  of 
Argenis,  published  under  the  title  of  the  Phcenix, 
or  the  History  of  Polyarchus  and  Aigenis,  4  vols. 
12mo.,  1772;  and  the  Progress  of  Romance. 
Her  other  works  are.  The  Old  English  Baron ; 
The  Two  Mentors, a  modem  Story;  The  Exile; 
The  School  for  Widows;  A  Plan  of  Education^ 
and  Memoirs  of  Sir  Roger  de  Clarendon,  4  vols. 
She  died  at  Ipswich  in  1806. 

REEXAMINE,  v.  a.  Re  and  examine.  To 
examine  anew. 

Spend  the  time  in  reexamining  more  duH  yoai 
cause.  Hooker, 

RE-EXCHANGE,  in  commerce,  a  second 
payment  of  the  price  of  exchange,  or  rather  the 
pnce  of  a  new  exchange  due  upon  a  bill  of  ex- 
change that  is  protested,  and  leninded  the  bearer 
by  the  drawer  or  indorser. 

REFECT,  «.a.   >     Lat.  rtfectm.    To  re- 

Ref'ectort,  n.  s. )  fresh ;  to  restore  after 
hunger  or  fatigue  :  an  eating-room.  Not  in  use. 

A  man  in  the  morning  is  lighter  in  the  scale,  be- 
cause in  sleep  some  pounds  have  perspired ;  and  is 
also  lighter  unto  himself,  because  he  is  refected, 

Broume^e  Vuigar  hnromt.  , 


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After  a  draught  of  wine,  a  man  may  seem  lighter 
in  himfelf  from  sudden  r^ection,  though  he  he  hea- 
vier in  the  balance,  from  a  ponderous  addition. 

Browne. 
He  cells  and  re^eetorie*  did  prepare. 
And  large  provisions  laid  of  winter  fare. 

Drydm, 
Fasting  is  the  diet  of  ansels,  the  food  and  reftetian 
of  souls,  and  the  richest  aliment  of  grace.     StnUh, 
For  tweet  refsetWH  due. 
The  genial  viandis  let  my  train  renew.     Pope, 

Refectioic,  among  ecclesiastics,  is  a  spare 
meal  or  repas^  for  the  support  of  lifb :  hence  the 
ball  in  convents,  and  other  communities,  where 
the  monks,  nuns,  &c.,  take  their  refections  or 
meals  in  common,  is  called  the  refectory. 

REFEL',  17.  a,  Lat.  refello.  To  refute  ;  to 
repress. 

Friends,  not  to  reftl  ye 
Or  any  way  quell  ye, 
Ye  aim  at  a  mystery, 
Worthy  a  history.     Ben  Jmuon's  Gypnu. 

It  iaatracts  the  scholar  in  the  various  methods  of 
dinoverittg  and  refeUing  the  subtile  tricks  of  sophis- 
ten.  Watu. 

RJEFER',v.a.&t;.fi.'\     Fr.    referer;    Lat. 

Referee',  n.  t.  /  refero.     To  send  for 

Ref'erence,  >  information  or  decisi- 

Referen'dary.         I  on ;   reduce  to  a  class 

Refer'rible,  adj.  J  or  end ;  as  a  verb- 
neuter,  to  respect ;  appeal :  a  referee  is  one  to 
whom  reference  is  maae :  as  also  is  (obsolete) 
referendaiy ;  reference  is  dismission  or  deference 
to  another  tribunal ;  relation;  respect:  referri- 
ble,  capable  of  reference. 

The  knowledge  of  that  which  man  is  in  reference 
unto  himself,  and  other  things  in  relation  unto  man, 
I  may  term  the  mother  of  all  those  principles  which 
are  decrees  in  that  law  of  nature,  whereby  human 
actions  are  framed.  Hooker. 

The  heir  of  his  kingdom  hath  referred  herself  unto 
a  poor  but  worthy  gentleman.  Shdapeare. 

Jupiter  was  the  son  of  iEther  and  Dies ;  so  called,, 
because  the  one  had  reference  to  his  celestUl  condi- 
tions, the  other  discovered  his  natural  virtues. 

RakigWt  History  of  the  World, 

You  profess  and  practise  to  refer  all  things  to 
yourself.  Bacon. 

In  suits  it  is  good  to  refer  to  some  friend  of  trust ; 
but  let  him  chuse  well  his  rrfetendariet. 

Bacon's  Eetays, 

Unto  God  all  parts  of  mine  are  alike,  unto  whom 
none  are  more  r^erribU,  and  all  thioga  present,  unto 
whom  nothing  is  past  or  to  come,  but  who  is  the 
aaaie  yesterday,  to-day,  and  to-morrow.      Browne, 

The  salts,  predominant  in  quicklime,  we  refer  ra- 
ther to  lixivate,  than  acid.  ■    BoyU  en  Coloure, 

Christian  religion  commands  sobriety,  temperance, 
and  moderation,  in  reference  to  our  appetites  and 
pusions.  •  TUlotson, 

Uefereet  and  arbitrators  seldom  forget  themselves. 

VEttrw^, 

Of  those  places  that  refer  to  the  shutting  and 
opening  the  abyss,  I  take  notice  of  that  in  Job. 

Bumei, 

It  passed  in  England  without  the  least  referemee 
hither.  8mft, 

REFERMENTjr.a.  Re  and  ferment.  To 
ferment  anew. 

The'  admitted  nitre  a^tates  the  flood. 
Revives  its  fires,  and  reftrmentt  the  blood. 

Blaclnmre, 
Vol.  XVIH. 


REFINE',  V.  a.  &  v.  n.^     Fr.  rajfina'.    To 

Refi'vedly,  adv.  f    purify;     clear; 

Refime'icent,  ft.  f.        a  make    subtle,   ele- 

Refi'ner.  •'gant,  or  accurate: 

as  a  verb  neuter,  to  improve  in  accuracy  or  ae- 
licacy;  grow  pure;  affect  nicety  or  scrupulous- 
ness :  the  adverb  and  noun  substantives  corre- 
sponding. 

I  will  refine  them  as  silver  is  refined,  and  will  try 
them  as  gold  is  tried.  Zedutriah  xiii.  9. 

The  r^ners  of  iron  observe  that  that  iron  stone  is 
hardest  to  melt  which  is  fullest  of  metal ;  and  that 
easiest  which  has  most  dross.  Bacon, 

Queen  Elizabeth's  time  was  a  golden  a^  for  a 
worid  of  refined  wits,  who  honoured  poesy  with  their 
pens.  Peacham. 

Love  refines  the  thought,  and  hath  his  seat 

In  reason.  Milton. 

Chaucer  refined  on  Boccace,  and  mended  his 
stories.  Dryden. 

Will  any  dog 

Refinedljf  leave  his  bitches  and  his  bones 

To  turn  a  wheel  1  Id. 

The  red  Dutch  current  yields  a  rich  juice  to  be 
diluted  with  a  quantity  of  water  boiled  with  refined 
sugar.  Mortimer. 

The  more  bodies  are  of  kin  to  spirit  m  sabtilty 
and  rejinementf  the  more  diffusive  are  they.  Norrit. 

The  pure  limpid  stream,  when  foul  with  stains. 
Works.  Itself  clear,  and  as  it  runs  refines.    Addison. 

The  iiirts  about  town  had  a  design  to  leave  us  in 
the  lurch,  by  some  of  their  late  refinements.         Id. 

No  men  see  less  of  the  truth  of  things,  than  these 
great  refiners  upon  incidents,  who  are  so  wonderfully 
subtle,  and  over-wise  in  their  conceptions. 

Id.  Spectator. 

The  rules  religion  prescribes  are  more  successful 
in  public  and  private  afiairs  than  the  refinemejUs  of 
irregular  cunning.  Rogera. 

He  makes  another  paragraph  about  our  refining  in 
controversy,  and  coming  nearer  still  to  the  church  of 
Rome.  Atterbury, 

Let  a  lord  but  own  the  happy  lines ; 
How  the  wit  brightens,  how  tne  sense  refines ! 

Pope, 

The  same  traditional  sloth  which  renders  the 
bodies  of  children,  bom  from  wealthy  parents,  weak, 
may  perhaps  refine  their  spirits.  Swift. 

from  the  civil  war  to  this  time,  I  doubt  whether 
the  corruptions  in  our  language  have  not  equalled  its 
refinements.  Id, 

Some  refiners  pretend  to  argue  for  the  usefulness 
of  parties  u{>on  such  a  government  as  ours.         Id, 

The  reli^on  of  the  gospel  is  only  the  refineamtt 
and  exaltation  of  our  b^t  taculties.  Law, 

She  judges  of  refinement  by  the  eye> 
He  by  the  test  of  conscience,  and  a  heart 
Not  soon  deceived ;  aware  that  what  is  base 
No  polish  can  make  sterling.  Cowper, 

REFINING,  in  metallurgy,  is  the  purifying 
metals  from  any  accidentd  alloys  with  which 
the^  may  be  mixed.  Gold,  having  the  property 
which  no  other  metal  has  of  resisting  the  action 
of  sulphur,  antimony,  nitrous  acid,  and  muriatic 
acid,  may  be  purified  by  these  agents  from  all  other 
metallic  substances.  These  operations  are  dis- 
tinguished by  proper  names,  aji  purification  of 
gold  by  antimony,  parting,  concentrated  parting, 
dry  parting.  See  Assaying  and  Parting.  As 
silver  has  also  the  property,  which  the  less  valua- 
ble metals  have  not,  of  resisting  the  action  ol 
nitre,  it  may  be  refined  by  this  salt :  but  the  teim 
refining  is  chiefly  applied  to  the  purification  o 

«  ^     T 

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gold  and  silver  hy  lead  in  the  cupel.  This  is 
performed  by  the  destruction,  vitrification,  and 
scorification,  of  all  the  extraneous  and  destructi- 
ble metallic  substances  with  which  they  are  al- 
loyed. As  gold  and  silver  alone  can  resist 
the  combined  action  of  air  and  fire,  there  b  a 
possibility  of  purifying  gold  and  silver  from  all 
alloy  of  the  other  metals  merely  by  the  action  of 
fire  and  air ;  only  by  keeping  them  fused  till  all 
the  alloy  be  destroyed;  but  this  purification 
would  be  very  tedious  and  expensive,  from  the 
great  consumption  of  fuel.  Silver  alloyed  with 
copper  has  been  exposed  above  sixty  hours  to  a 
glass-house  fire  witnout  being  perfectly  refined : 
the  reason  is,  that,  when  a  small  quantity  only  of 
other  metal  remains  united  with  gold  or  silver, 
it  is  protected  from  the  action  of  the  air,  which 
is  necessary  for  its  combustion.  This  refining 
of  gold  and  silver  merely  by  the  action  of  fire, 
which  was  the  only  method  anciently  known, 
was  very  tedious,  difficult,  expensive,  and  imper- 
fect ;  but  a  much  shorter  and  more  advantageous 
method  has  been  long  practised.  This  consists 
in  adding  to  the  alloyed  gold  and  silver  a  certain 
quantity  of  lead,  and  in  exposing  this  mixture 
to  the  action  of  fire.  The  vessel  in  which  the 
refining  is  performed  is  hollowed,  but  shallow, 
that  the  matter  which  it  contains  may  present  to 
the  air  the  greatest  surface  possible.  This  form 
resembles  that  of  a  cup,  ana  hence  it  is  called  a 
cupel.  The  surface  ought  to  be  vaulted,  that 
the  heat  may  be  applied  upon  the  surface  of  ^he 
metal  during  the  whole  time  of  the  operation. 
Upon  this  suHace  a  crust  of  dark  colored  pellicle 
is  continually  forming.  In  the  instant  wnen  all 
the  other  metals  are  destroyed,  the  surface  of  the 
gold  and  silver  is  seen,  and  appears  clean  and 
brilliant.  By  this  mark  the  metal  is  known  to 
be  refined.  If  the  operation  be  so  conducted 
that  the  metal  sustains  only  the  precise  degree  of 
heat  necessary  to  keep  it  fused  before  it  be  per- 
fectly refined,  it  fixes  or  becomes  solid  all  at 
once  in  the  very  instant  of  the  coruscation ;  be- 
cause a  greater  heat  is  required  to  keep  gold  or 
silver  in  fusion  when  they  are  pure  than  when 
alloyed  with  lead.  The  operation  of  refining 
may  be  performed  in  small  or  in  large  quantities, 
upon  the  same  principles,  but  only  with  some 
difierences  in  the  management.  As  the  refining 
of  small  quantities  of  gold  and  silver  is  per- 
formed in  the  same  manner  as  these  metals  are 
assayed,  the  assay  being  only  a  very  accurate 
refining,  we  refer  to  the  articles  Assaying  and 
Metallurgy. 

REFIT, «.  a.  fr,  refait.  Re  and  fit.  To 
repair ;  to  restore  after  damage. 

Pennit  our  ships  a  shelter  on  vour  shores, 
Befitted  from  your  woods  with  planks  and  oars, 

Drydtn, 

He  will  not  allow  that  there  are  any  such  signs  of 
art  in  the  make  of  the  present  globe,  or  that  there 
was  so  great  care  taken  m  the  rtjittiny  of  it  up  again 
at  the  deluge.  Woodward. 

REFLECT  ».  a.  &t).n.^  IaL  refiecto.  To 
Reflec'tent,  <u^'.  ,  #  throw  or  bend  back; 
Reflec'tiou,  n. «.  V throw  back  light; 

Reflec'tive,  flij;.  Ibend  back;  throw 

Peflec'to^,  n.  s.  y  back  thought;  con- 

sider ;  throw  reproach  or  censure :   reflectent  is 


bending  or  flying  back ;  reproachlUl :  refiectioo, 
the  act  of  reflecting  in  any  way ;  that  which  is 
reflected  ;  consideration ;  censure :  reflective, 
throwing  back ;  applied  both  to  literal  images 
and  thought :  reflector,  he  who  reflects  or  con- 
siders. 

In  dead  men's  scalls,  and  in  those  holes. 
Where  eyes  did  once  inhabit,  there  were  crept. 
As  'twere  in  scorn  of  eyes,  refteeting  gems. 

The  eye  sees  not  itself. 
Bat  by  ifefteetum  from  other  things.  £d. 

She  shines  not  upon  fools,  lest  the  nfleetiotkihoulA 
hurt  her.  Id. 

We,  bis  gathered  beams 
"Reflected,  ma}r  with  matter  sere  foment.    Mikon, 
The  imagination  casts  thopgh'ts  in  our  way,  and 
forces  the  understanding  to  reflect  upon  l' 


The  ray, descendant,  and  the  ray  reflectent,  flying 
with  so  great  a  speed  that  the  air  between  them  can- 
not take  a  formal  play  any  way,  before  the  beams  of 
the  light  be  on  both  sides  of  it ;  it  follows,  that,  ac- 
cording to  the  nature  of  humid  things,  it  must  first 
only  swell.  I^^  <m  ^  Soul. 

In  every  action  r^/feef  upon'the  end  ;  and,  in  voor 
undertaking  it,  consider  .wny  you  do  it.        Taybr. 

Who  saitb,  who  could  such  ill  evenU  expect! 
With  shame  on  his  own  counsels  dpth  r^fied. 

Denhem, 

The  three  first  parts  I  dedicate  to  my  old  friends, 
to  take  off'  those  melancholy  rdbciioiu  which  tha 
sense  of  age,  infirmity,  and  death  may  give  them. 

There  is  scarce  any  thing  that  nature  has  made, 
or  that  men  do  suffer,  whence  the  devout  reflector 
cannot  take  an  occasion  of  an  aspiring  meditation. 
Boyle  on  Colours. 

Bodies  close  together  reflect  their  own  colour. 

JJryaen. 

Errors  of  wives  reflect  on  husbands  still.        Jd. 

This  dreadful  image  so  possessed  her  mind. 
She  ceased  all  farther  hope  ;  and  now  began 
To  make  reflection  on  the  unhappy  man.  Id. 

When  the  weary  king  gave  place  to  night. 

His  beams  he  to  his  royal  brother  lent. 

And  so  shone  still  in  his  refUetwe  light.       ^  Id. 

Wben  men  are  grown  up,  and  reflect  on  their  own 
minds,  they  cannot  find  any  thing  more  ancient 
there  than  those  opinions  which  were  taught  them 
before  their  memoiy  began  to  keep  a  register  of  their 
actions.  Locke, 

Reflection  is  the  perception  of  the  operations  of 
our  own  minds  within  us,  as  it  is  employed  about 
the  ideas  it  has  got.  Id. 

This  delight  grows  and  improves  under  thought 
and  reflection ;  and,  while  it  exerci»as»  does  also  en- 
dear itself  to  the  mind  ;  at  the  same  time  employ- 
ing and  inflaming  the  meditations.  South't  Sermont. 

It  is  hard  that  any  part  of  my  land  should  be 
settled  upon  one  who  has  used  me  so  iU ;  and  yet  I 
could  not  see  a  sprig  of  any  bough  of  this  whole 
walk  of  trees,  but  I  should  reflect  upon  her  and  her 
severity.  Adduan*e  Spectator. 

Into  myself  my  season's  eye  I  tamed  ; 
And,  as  I  much  rejhected,  much  I  mourned.  IVior. 

He  died  ;  and  oh !  may  no  re/bction  shed 
Its  pois'nous  venom  on  the  royal  dead.  Id. 

In  the  reflectine  stream  the  sighing  bride, 
Viewing  her  channs  impaired,  abashed  shall  hide 
Her  pensive  head.  Id. 

Inanimate  matter  moves  always  in  a  straight  line, 
and  never  reflecU  in  an  angle,  nor  bends  in  a  circle, 
which  is  a  continual  reflMtkn,  unless  other  by  some 


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•ztemal  impttlae,  or  by  an  intrinsick  principle  of 
gnivity.  Bentie^a  Sermoru, 

What  wounding  leproachei  of  soul  must  lie  feel, 
from  the  refUetunu  on  nis  own  ingratitude.    Rog^n, 

Job's  rejitetian*  on  his  once  flourishing  estate  • 
did  at  the  same  time  afflict  and  encourage  him. 

Atterbury, 

If  the  sun's  light  consisted  but  of  one  sort  of  rays, 
there  would  be  but  one  colour,  and  it  would  be  im- 
fK>snble  to  prodnoe  any  new  by  refleetiont  or  refrac- 
tions. Qnynt, 

Neither  do  I  rtJUet  in  the  least  upon  the  memory 
of  his  late  majesty,  whom  I  entirely  acquit  of  any 
imputation.  Qvsifti 

REFLECTING  Telescotes.  See  Optics 
and  Telescopes. 

Reflection  op  Light.    See  Optics. 
Reflecting  Ciiicle,  an  instnimeDt  ibr  near 
snring  angles  to  a  verv  great  degree  of  accaracy. 
It  was  invented  by  Mayer  of  Gottingen,  princi- 
pally with  a  view  to  do  away  the  errors  of  the 
divisions  of  the  limb ;  and  has  since  been  much 
improved  by  the  Chevalier  de  Borda,  and  M. 
J.  H.  de  Magellan.    See  Navigation. 
BETLEX,  adj.  &  n.  #.     -n     Lat.  reJUxia. 
Reflexibil'ity,  n.  s.       /  Backward ;  back- 
Reflex'ible,  adj.  >  ward  direction : 

Reflex'ive,  adj.  i  reflexibility  15  the 

Reflex'ivelt,  adv.  1  quality  of  beiz^ 

reflexible :  reflexible,  capable  of  being  thrown 
back  :  reflexive,  thrown  oackwards  :  the  adverb 
corresponding. 

There  was  no  other  way  for  angels  to  sin,  but  by 
re/les  of  their  nnderstandings  upon  themselves. 

I'll  lay  yon  nay  is  not  the  morning's  eye,   , 
Tis  bat  the  pate  rtfUs  of  Cynthia's  brow. 

That  aasoiance  rtfleswe  cannot  be  a  divine  faith, 
bat  at  the  most  an  human,  ^et  soch  ab  perhaps  I 
may  have  no  doubting  mixed  with.  Hammond, 

The  motions  of  my  mind  are  as  obvious  to  the  f«> 
ybx  act  of  the  soul,  or  the  turning  of  the  intellectual 
eye  inward  upon  its  own  actions,  as  the  passions  of 
my  sense  are  obvious  to  my  sense ;  I  see  the  object, 
and  I  perceive  that  I  see  it  Hale, 

Solomon  tells  us  life  and  dieath  are  in  the  power  of 
the  tongue,  and  that  not  only  directly  in  regard  of 
the  |ood  or  ill  we  may  do  to  others,  out  r^iutively 
also  lb  respect  of  what  may  rebouttd  to  ourselves. 
Chnemmnt  of  the  Tongtis. 

RtfiesibiUtp  of  rays  is  their  disposition  to  he  le- 
flected  or  turned  back  into  the  same  medium  from 
any  other  medium,  upon  whose  8urftu»  they  fall ; 
and  rays  are  more  or  less  nflexibU  which  are  turned 
back  more  or  less  easily.  Newton.^ 

The  order  and  l>eauty  of  the  inanimate  parts  of  the 
world,  the  discernible  ends  of  them,  do  evince  by  a 
reflex  argument  that  it  is  the  workmanship,  not  of 
blind  mechanikm  or  blinder  chance,  but  of  an  intelli- 
gent and  benign  agent.  Bentlev. 

Sir  Isaac  Newton  has  deriionstrated,  by  convincing 
expeiimeats,  that  the  light  of  the  sun  consists  of  rayi 
differently  refrangible  and  refUxiUe ;  and  that  those 
rays  are  difiereoUy  r^flesiUm  that  are  diiierently  re- 
frangible. Chtyne, 

REFLOAT',  n.f.  Re  and  Boot.  Ebb;  reBnx. 

The  main  float  and  r^bat  of  the  sea  is  by  content 
of  the  aniveise,  as  part  of  the  diurnal  motion. 


REFLOURlSHyV.e;    Re  and  flourisk.   To 
flourish  anew. 


Virtue  given  for  lost 
Revives,  reflourishee,  then  vigorous  most. 
When  most  unactive  deemed.      Milton'i  Agonktee, 

REFTUENT,  adj.  Lat.  rtfluau.  Running 
back ;  flowing  back. 

Tell,  by  what  paths, 
Back  to  the  fountain's  head  the  sea  conveys 
The  reftntnt  rivers,  and  the  land  repays.  Biackmeft, 

Tflle  liver  receives  the  refiuent  blood  almost  from 
all  parts  of  the  abdomen.  Arbuthnoi. 

REFLUX,  ».  *.  Fr.  reflux';  Lat.  reftusvu. 
Backward  course. 

Besides 
Mine  own  that  bide  upon  me,  all  from  me 
Shall  with  a  fierce  reflux  on  me  redound.      Milton, 

The  variety  of  the  flux  and  reflux  of  Euripus,  or 
whether  the  same  do  ebb  and  flow  seven  times  a  day, 
is  incontrovertible.  Browne, 

REFORM',  V. a,  kv.n.^      Fr.    reformer  ; 

Reforma'tion,  ft.  t.        >Lat.  reformo.     Td 

Reform'er.  3  form    on  a   better 

model ;  change  from  worse  to  better :  reforma- 
tion is  the  act  of  so  changing;  applied  particu- 
larly to  the  religious  change  of  several  European 
nations  from  popery  in  the  sixteenth  century :  9 
reformer  is  one  who  eflects  a  beneficial  change  o^ 
things  or  persons;  one  who  particularly  pro- 
moted the  Protestant  Reformation. 

A  sect  in  England,  following  the  verv  same  rule  of 
policy,  seeketh  to  re/ormeven  the  French  reformation, 
and  purge  out  from  thence  all  dregs  of  popery. 

Hooiir 

Never  came  reformation  in  a  flood 
With  su^h  a  heady  current,  scowering  frittlts ; 
Nor  ever  Hydra-headed  wilfrilness 
So  soon  did  lose  his  seat,  as  in  this  king. 

Bnakepearem 

Oar  fim  refotmen  were  famous  eonfessors  and 
martyrs  all  over  the  world*  Baeon, 

Public  rrformers  had  need  first  practise  that  on  their 
own  hearts  which  they  purpose  to  tVy  on  others. 

King  Chariei. 
May  no  such  storm 

Fall  on  our  times,  where  ruin  must  reform, 

Denham, 

Seat  worthier  of  Oods  was  built 
With  second  thoughts,  reforming  what  was  old. 

MiUon, 

Now  lowerin|r  looks  presage  approaching  stonns. 
And  now  prevailing  love  her  face  reforms.  Drjfden, 

Satire  lavishes  vice  into  reformation.  Id, 

One  cannot  attempt  the  perfect  reforming  the  lan- 
guages of  the  world,  without  rendenng  himself  ridi- 
culous. Locke, 

The  complaint  is  more  general  than  the  endea- 
vours to  redress  it :  abroad  every  man  would  be  a 
reformer,  how  very  few  at  home !  Sprat, 

It'  was  honour  enough  to  behold  the  English 
churches  reformed;  that  is,  delivered  from  the  r«- 
/oriMft.  South, 

The  pagan  converts  mention  this  |;reat  reformation 
of  those  who  had  been  the  greatest  sinners,  with  that 
sudden  and  surprising  change  which  the  Christian 
religion  made  in  the  bves  of  the  most  profligate. 

Addison. 

Was  his  doctrine  of  the  mass  struck  out  in  this 
conflict  1  or  did  it  give  him  occasion  of  reforming  in 
Ihis  point  ?  Atterhury, 

The  burden  of  the  reformation  lay  on  Luther's 
snoulders.  Atterbmy, 

The  efzample  alone  of  a  vicious  prince  will  corrupt 
an  age  ;  bat  that  of  a  good  one  will  not  reform  it. 

amft, 
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REFORMATION. 


Reform ATTOX.  Amid  the  corruptions  of  the 
Christian  churchy  from  its  first  aberration  from  the 
simplicity  of  the  gospel  down  to  the  council  of 
Trent,  there  have  ever  been  those  vrho  exhibited 
'  the  faith  and  patience  of  the  saints  :*  and  to  these 
persons,  who  amid  persecution,  and  contempt, 
and  neglect,  were  indeed  the  salt  of  the  earth, 
we  are  indebted,  under  God,  for  those  efforts 
which,  after  many  conflicts  and  trials,  terminated 
in  the  reformation  of  the  Christian  profession  in 
the  sixteenth  century;  and  divested  it  of  that 
gorgeousness,  extravagance,  and  ceremonial  for- 
mality, by  which  its  purity  and  spirituality  had 
been  long:  obscured,  and  well  nigh  obliterated. 
The  conflicts  between  truth  and  error,  light  and 
darkness,  had  endured,  with  more  or  less  of  vio- 
lence and  alternate  success,  from  the  time  of 
Paulinus  of  Apulia  to  that  of  Wickliff;  and 
thence  down  to  those  of  the  great  Luther,  it  is 
true  the  powers  of  ignorance  and  of  a  corrupt 
religion  held  the  minds  of  mankind  in  the  deep- 
est thraldom;  and  few,  comparatively,  were 
those  who  felt  their  moral  degradation,  and  sigh- 
ed after  a  holier  and  a  more  pure  faith :  yet  were 
these  few  <  valiant  for  the  truth,'  *  not  counting 
their  lives  dear  unto  themselves.'  Of  these  many 
who  adhered  to  the  gospel,  and  remained  uncor- 
rupted  amidst  the  growth  of  superstition;  who 
deplored  the  miserable  state  to  which  Christianity 
was  reduced  by  the  alteration  of  its  divine  doc- 
trines, and  the  vices  of  its  profligate  ministers ; 
opposed  with  vigor  the  tyrannical  ambition  both 
of  the  lordly  pontiff  and  the  aspiring  bishops ; 
and  in  some  provinces  privately,  in  others 
openly,  attempted  the  reformation  of  a  corrupt 
and  idolatrous  church,  and  of  a  barbarous  and 
superstitious  age.  This  was,  indeed,  bearing 
witness  to  the  truth  in  the  noblest  manner. 

Before,  however,  we  enter  on  a  review  of  the 
various  attempts  which  were  thus  made  to  cor- 
rect the  abuses  of  the  Roman  church,  it  will  be 
necessary  to  take  a  survey  of  its  actual  state,  at 
the  period  to  which  we  refer.  That  authority, 
to  which  the  church  could  lay  no  claim  for  the 
purity  of  its  members,  was  supported  by  its  ar- 
rogant pretensions ;  availing  itself  of  all  notions, 
accidents,  practices,  and  frauds,  from  which  any 
advantage  could  be  derived,  till  the  whole  mon- 
strous accumulation  assumed  a  coherent  form, 
which  well  deserves  to  be  called  *  the  mystery 
of  iniquity.'  The  scriptures,  even  in  the  Latin 
version,  had  long  become  a  sealed  book  to  the 
people :  and  the  Roman  see,  in  proportion  as  it 
extended  its  supremacy,  discouraged  or  proscrib- 
ed the  use  of  such  vernacular  versions  as  existed. 
This  it  did,  not  lest  the  ignprant  and  half  inform- 
ed should  mistake  the  sense  of  Scripture,  nor 
lest  the  presumptuous  and  the  perverse  should 
deduce  new  errors  in  doctrine,  and  more  fatal 
consequences  in  practice,  from  its  distorted  lan- 
guage ;  but  in  the  secret  and  sure  consciousness 
that  what  was  now  taught  as  Christianity  was  not 
to  be  found  in  the  written  word  of  God.  In 
maintenance  of  the  dominant  system,  tradition. 


or  the  unwritten  word,  was  set  up.  This  had 
been  the  artifice  of  the  earliest  heretics,  who, 
when  they  were  charged  with  holding  doctrines 
not  according  to  scripture,  affirmed  that  some 
things  had  been  revealed  which  were  not  com- 
mitted to  writing,  but  were  orally  transmitted. 
The  Pharisees  before  them  pleaded  the  same  sup- 
posititious authority  for  the  formalities  which  they 
superadded  to  the  law,  and  by  which  they  some- 
times superseded  it,  *  making  the  word  of  Goi  of 
none  effect,'  as  our  Saviour  himself  reproached 
them ;  upon  this  ground  the  Romish  clergy  jus- 
tified all  the  devices  of  man's  imagination  with 
which  they  had  corrupted  the  ritual  and  the  &ith 
of  the  western  churches. 

At  one  time  relics,  or  entire  bodies,  used  to  be 
carried  about  the  country  and  exhibited  to  the 
credulous  multitude ;  but  this  gainful  practice 
gave  occasion  to  such  scandalous  impostures 
that  it  was  at  length  suppressed ;  but  what  is  still 
encouraged  is  sufficiently  disgraceful  to  the  Ro- 
manists. 

I.  State  of  the  Bvmish  church. — A  review  of 
the  then  existing  state  of  the  Romish  faith  and 
practice  will,  at  once,  justify  the  efforts  of  those 
who  sought  to  reform  their  abuses  and  restore 
the'  purity  of  its  doctrine  and  discipline.  The 
bodies  of  the  saints  were,  at  times,  exposed  in . 
their  churches,  some  dried  and  shrivelled,  others 
reduced  to  a  skeleton,  clothed  either  in  religious 
habits  or  in  the  most  gorgeous  garments; — a 
spectacle  as  ghastly  as  the  superstition  itself  is 
degrading  1  The  poor  fragments  of  mortality, 
a  scull,  a  bone,  or  the  fragment  of  a  bone,  or 
tooth,  or  a  tongue,  were  either  set  or  mounted, 
according  to  the  size,  in  gold  or  silver ;  deposit- 
ed in  costliest  shrines  of  the  finest  workmanship, 
and  enriched  with  the  most  precious  gems. 
Churches  soon  began  to  vie  with  each  ether  in 
the  number  and  variety  of  these  ir.i&ginary  trea- 
sures, which  were  sources  of  real  wealth  to  their 
posessors :  the  instruments  of  our  Lord*8  cruci- 
fixion were  shown  (the  spear  and  the  cross  hav- 
ing, so  it  was  pretended,  been  miraculously 
discovered) ;  the  clothes  wherein  he  was  wrapt  in 
infancy ;  the  manger  in  which  he  was  laid  ;  the 
vessels  in  which  he  converted  water  into  wine  at 
the  marriage  feast ;  the  bread  which  he  brake  at 
the  last  supper;  his  vesture,  for  which  the  sol- 
diers cast  lots.  Such  was  the  impudence  of  Ro- 
mish fraud,  that  portions  were  produced  of  the 
burning  bush,  of  the  manna  wnich  feU  in  the 
wilderness,  of  Moses's  and  Samson's  honeycomb, 
of  Tobit's  fish,  of  the  blessed  Virgin's  milk,  and 
of  our  Saviour's  blood  1  Enormous  prices  were 
paid  by  sovereigns  for  such  relics;  it  was  deem- 
ed excusable,  not  to  covet  merely,  but  to  steal 
them ;  and  if  the  thieves  were  sometimes  mira- 
culously punished  they  were  quite  as  often 
enabled  by  miracle  to  effect  the  pious  robbery, 
and  bring  the  prize  in  triumph  to  the  church  for 
which  it  was  dfesigned.  In  the  rivaliy  of  deceit 
which  the  desire  of  gain  occasioned,  it  often 
happened  that  the  head  of  the  same  saint  was 


Digitized  by  VjiUUy  IC 


REFORMATION. 


437 


shown  in  several  churches,  each  church  insist- 
ing that  its  own  was  genuine,  and  all  appealing 
to  miracles  as  the  test.  Sometimes  the  dispute 
was  accomplished  in  a  more  satisfactory  manner, 
by  asserting  a  miraculous  multiplication,  and 
three  whole  bodies  of  one  person  have  been 
shown;  the  dead  saint  having  tripled  himself 
to  terminate  a  dispute  between  three  churches  at 
his  funeral  1  The  catacombs  at  Rome  were  an 
inexhaustible  mine  of  relics. 

With  the  reverence  which  was  paid  to  relics, 
arising  thus  naturally  at  first,  and  converted  by 
crafty  priests  into  a  source  of  lucre,  saint  worship 
grew  up.  If  such  virtue  resided  in  their  earthly 
and  perishable  remains,  how  great  must  be  the 
power  wherewith  their  beatified  spirits  were  in- 
vested in  heaven  1  The  Greeks  and  Romans 
attributed  less  to  their  demigods  than  the  Catho- 
lic church  has  done  to  those  of  its  members  who 
have  received  their  apotheosis.  They  were  in- 
voked as  mediators  oetween  God  and  man; 
individuals  claimed  the  peculiar  protection  of 
those  whose  names  they  had  received  in  baptism ; 
and  towns,  and  kingdoms,  chose  each  their  tute* 
lary  saint  But,  though  every  saint  was  able  to 
avert  all  dangers  and  heal  all  maladies,  each  was 
supposed  to  exert  his  influence  more  particularly 
in  some  specific  one,  which  was  determined  by 
the  circumstances  of  his  life  or  martyrdom,  the 
accidental  analogy  of  a  name,  or  by  chance  and 
custom  if  these  sluidows  of  a  cause  were  wanting. 
The  virtue  which  they  possessed  they  imparted 
to  their  images,  in  which,  indeed,  it  was  affirmed 
that  they  were  really  and  potentially  present,  par- 
taking of  ubiquity  in  their  beatitude.  Church 
vied  with  church,  and  convent  with  convent,  in 
the  reputation  of  their  wonder-working  images, 
some  of  which  were  pretended  to  have  been 
made  without  hands,  and  some  to  have  descend- 
ed from  heaven  1  But  the  rivalry  of  the  monastic 
orders  was  shown  in  the  fictions  wherewith  they 
filled  the  histories  of  their  respective  founders  and 
worthies.  While  the  monastic  orders  contended 
with  each  other  in  exaggerating  the  fame  of  their 
<lecea«ed  patriarchs,  each  claimed  the  Virgin 
Mary  for  its  especiaJ  patroness.  Some  peculiar 
fovor  she  had  bestowed  upon  each ;  she  had  ap- 
pointed their  rule  of  life,  or  devised  the  pattern 
of  their  habits,  or  enjoined  them  some  new  prac- 
tice of  devotion,  or  granted  them  some  singular 
privilege.  She  had  espoused  their  founder  with 
a  ring,  or  fed  him  like  a  babe  at  her  breast.  All 
therefore  united  in  elevating  her  to  the  highest  rank 
in  the  mythology  of  the  Romish  church — for  so, 
in  strict  truth,  must  this  enormous  system  of  fa- 
ble be  d&iignated.  They  traced  her  in  types 
throughout  the  Old  Testament :  She  was  the  tree 
of  life;  the  ladder  which  Jacob  had  seen  leading 
from  heaven  to  earth;  the  rod  which  brought 
forth  buds  and  blossoms,  and  produced  fruit ; 
the  ever  burning  bbsh ;  the  ark  of  the  covenant ; 
the  fleece  upon  which  alone  the  dew  of  heaven 
descended.  And  though,  indeed,  being  subject 
to  death,  she  paid  the  common  tribute  of  mor- 
tality; yet,  having  been  born  without  sin,  she  ex- 
pired without  suffering,  and  her  most  holy  body, 
too  pure  a  thing  to  see  corruption,  was  translated 
immediately  to  heaven,  there  to  be  glorified.  Her 
image  was  to  be  found  in  every  church  through- 


out Christendom ;  and  she  was  worshipped  un- 
der innumerable  appellations,  *  *  *  devotees 
believing  that  the  one  which  they  particularly  af- 
fected was  that  to  which  the  ooject  of  their 
adoration  most  willingly  inclined  her  ear.    By 
such  representations  and  fables,  the  belief  of  the 
people  became  so  entirely  corrupted  that  Christ, 
instead  of  being  regardexl  as  our  mediator  and 
Redeemer,  appeared  to  them  in  the  character  of 
a  jealous  Goo,  whom  it  behoved  them  to  propi- 
tiate through  the  mediation  of  his  virgin  mother ; 
for  through  her  alone  could  mercy  and  salvation 
be  obtained.    The  pantheon,  which  Agrippa  had 
dedicated  to  Jopiter  and  all  the  gods,  was  by  the 
pope,  who  converted  it  into  a  church,  inscribed 
to  the  blessed  Virgin,  and  all  the  saints.    The 
consequence  of  this  persuasion  brought  into  full 
view  the  weakness  and  strength  of  human  nature; 
in  some  respects  they  degraded  it  below  the  beasts. 
The  dearest  and  holiest  ties  of  nature  and  society 
were  set  at  nought  by  those  who  believed  that 
the  way  to  secure  their  own  saltation  was  to 
take  upon  themselves  theobligaiionsof  a  monas- 
tic life.    They  regarded  it  as  a  merit  to  renounce 
all  intercourse  with  their  nearest  friends  and  kin ; 
and,  being  by  profession  dead  to  the  world,  ren- 
dered themselves,  by  a  moral  suicide,  dead  in 
reality  to  its  duties  and  affections.    For  the  sake 
of  saving  their  own  souls,  or  of  attaining  a  higher 
seat  in  the  kingdom  of  heaven,  they  sacrificed, 
without  compunction,  the  feelings,  and,  as  far  as 
depended  upon  them,  the  welfare  and  happiness 
of  a  wife,  parent,  or  child ;  yet  when  the  con- 
version of  others  was  to  be  promoted,  these  very 
persons,  it  is  but  justice  to  add,  were  ready  to 
encounter  any  danger  and  to  offer  up  their  lives, 
not  in  doing  good  to  others,  but  in  inflicting  the 
greatest  possible  quantity  of  discomfort  and  ac- 
tual suffering  upon  themselves.    It  was  deemed 
meritorious  to  aisfigure  the  body  by  neglect  and 
filth,  to  attenuate  it  by  £aistinff  and  watchfulness, 
to  lacerate  it  with  stripes,  and  to  fret  the  wounds 
with  cilices  of  horse  hair.   Linen  was  proscribed 
among  the  monastic  orders ;  and  the  use  of  the 
warm  bath,  which,  being  not  less  conducive  ' 
to  health  than  to  cleanliness,  had  become  general 
in  all  the  Roman  provinces,  ceased  throughout 
Christendom ;  because,  according  to  the  morality 
of  the  monastic  school,  cleanliness  itself  was  a 
luxury,  and  to  procure  it  by  pleasurable  means 
was  a  positive  sm.    There  were  some  saints  who 
never  washed  themselves,  and  made  it  a  point 
of  conscience  never  to  disturb  the  vermin  who 
were  the  proper  accompaniments  of  such  sanctity ; 
in  as  fiir  as  tney  occasioned  pain  while  burrow- 
ing ;  or,  at  pasture,  were  increasing  the  stock  of 
the  aspirant's  merits.  The  act  of  eating  they  made 
an  exercise  of  penance,  by  minding  whatever 
was  most  nauseous  with  their  food.  They  bound 
chains  round  the  body  which  ate  into  the  flesh ; 
or  fastened  graters  upon  the  breast  and  back ;  or 
girded  themselves  with  bandages  of  bristles  in- 
termixed with  points  of  wire.    Cases  of  horrid 
self-mutilation  were  sometimes  discovered ;  and 
many  perished  by  a  painful  and  lingering  sui- 
cide, believing  that,  in  the  torments  which  they 
inflicted  upon  themselves,  they  were  ofiering  att 
acceptable  sacrifice  to  their  Creator.    Some  be- 
came famous  for  the  number  of  their  daily  ge* 

Digitized  by  VjUU*^IC 


438 


REFORMATION. 


niiflectioQt;  otheit  for  imromng  tb«iiuelT«s  to 
the.  neck  in  cold  water  during  winter  while  they 
recited  the  psalter.  Thus  there  was  created  a 
large  and  accumulating  iund  of  good  work4»  which, 
though  supererogatory  in  the  saints,  were  never- 
theless not  to  1^  lost.  The  redemption  which 
had  been  purchased  for  fallen  man  was  held  to 
be  from  external  punishment  only ;  sin  was  not, 
therefore,  to  go  unpunished,  even  in  repentant  sin- 
ners who  had  contesssed  and  received  absolution. 
The  souls  of  baptised  children,  it  was  held,  pass- 
ed immediately  to  heaven:  but  for  all  others,  ex- 
cept the  few  who  attained  to  eminent  holiness  in 
their  lives,  nurgatory  was  prepared ;  a  place,  ac- 
cording to  the  popular  belief,  so  near  the  region 
of  everlasting  torments,  though  separated  from  it, 
that  the  same  fire  pervaded  both ;  acting  indeed 
to  a  different  end,  and  in  different  degrees,  but 
even  in  its  mildest  effect  inflicting  sufferings 
more  intense  than  heart  could  think  or  tongue 
express,  and  enduring  for  a  length  of  time  which 
was  left  fearfully  indefinite.  Happily  for  man- 
kind, the  authority  of  the  pope  extended  over  this 
draadfiil  place.  The  works  of  supererogation 
were  at  his  disposal,  and  his  treasure  was  inex- 
haustible, because  it  contained  an  immeasurable 
and  infinite  store  derived  from  the  atonement. 
One  drop  of  the  Redeemer's  blood  being  sufficient 
to  redeem  the  whole  human  race,  the  rest  which 
had  been  shed  during  the  passion  was  given  as  a 
legacy  to  be  applied  in  mitigation  of  purgatory, 
as  the  popes  m  their  wisdom  might  think  fit. 
So  they  in  their  infallibility  declared,  and  so  the 
people  believed !  The  popes  were  liberal  of  this 
treasure. 

If  they  wished  to  promote  a  new  practice  of 
devotion,  or  encourage  a  particular  snrine,  they 
granted  to  those  who  should  perform  the  one  or 
visit  the  other  an  indulgence,  that  is  a  dispensa- 
tion for  so  many  years  of  purgatory ;  sometimes 
for  shorter  terms,  but  often  by  centuries,  or 
thousands  of  years,  and  in  many  cases  the  indul- 
gence was  plenary — a  toll  ticket  entitling  the 
soul  to  pass  scot  free.  All  persons,  however, 
could  not  perform  pilgrimages;  and  even  the 
accommodating  device  of  the  church,  which  pro- 
mised large  indulgences  for  saying  certain  prayers 
before  the  engraved  portrait  of  a  miraculous 
image,  was  liable  in  numerous  instances  to  be 
frustrated.  The  picture  might  not  find  its  way 
to  remote  places,  the  opportunity  of  acquiring  it 
might  be  neglected,  or  it  might  remain  in  the 
possession  of  its  unthinking  owner,  a  forgotten 
thing.  The  Romish  church,  in  its  infinite  be- 
nevolence, considered  this,  and  therefore  sold 
indulgences,  making  the  act  of  purchasing  them, 
and  thus  contributing  to  its  wants,  a  merit  of  itself 
sufficient  to  deserve  so  inestimable  a  reward.  It 
was  taught,  aUo,that  merits  were  transferrible  by 
gift  or  purchase :  under  this  persuasion  large 
endowments  were  bestowed  upon  convents,  on 
condition  that  the  donor  should  partake  in  the 
merits  of  the  community ;  and  few  persons,  who 
had  any  property  at  their  own  disposal,  went  out 
of  the  world  without  bequeathing  some  of  it  to 
the  clergy  for  saying  masses,  in  number  propor- 
tioned to  the  amount  of  the  bequest,  for  the  be- 
nefit of  their  souls.  The  wealthy  founded 
chantries,  in  which  service  was  to  be  performed 


for  ever,  to  this  end.  Thos  were  men  tanght  ta 
put  their  trust  in  riches ;  their  wealtl^  being  thus 
invested,  became  available  to  them  «beyond  the 
grave ;  and  in  whatever  siqs  they  indulged^  pio- 
tided  they  went  through  the  proper  forms  and 
obtained  a  dischaige,  they  m^nt  purchase  a  free 
passage  through  purgatory,  or,  at  least,  an  ab* 
breviation  of  the  term  and  a  mitigation  of  its  tor* 
ments  while  they  lasted.  But  puigatery  was  not 
the  only  invisible  world  over  which  the  authoci^ 
of  the  diurch  extended ;  for  to  the  pope,  as  to  the 
representative  of  St.  Peter,  it  was  pretended  thax 
thfi  kevs  of  heaven  and  hell  were  given ;  a  por- 
tion of  this  power  was  delegated  to  every  pnest, 
and  they  inculcated  that  the  soul  which  departed 
without  confession  and  absolution,  bore  with  it 
the  weight  of  its  deadly  sins  to  sink  it  to  perdi- 
tion. 

Of  all  the  practices  of  the  Romish  church  this 
is  the  one  which  has  proved  most  injurious  to  re- 
ligion and  morals ;  and^  if  it  be  regarded  in  con- 
nexion with  the  celibacy  of.  the  clergy,  the  cause 
will  be  apparent  why  the  state  of  morab  is  ge- 
nerally so  much  more  corrupt  in  Catholic  than 
in  Protestant  countries.  Tables  were  actually 
set  forth,  by  authority,  in  which  the  rate  of  ab- 
solution for  any  imaginable  crime  was  fixed,  and 
the  most  atrocious  might  be  committed  with 
spiritual  impunity  for  a  few  shillings.  The 
cnurch  of  Rome  appears  to  have  delighted  in  in- 

Iting  as  well  as  in  abusing  human  credulity^ 
and  to  have  pleased  herself  with  discovering  how 
far  it  was  possible  to  subdue  and  degrade  the 
human  intellect,  as  an  eastern  despot  measures 
his  own  greatness  by  the  servile  prostration  of 
his  subjects.    If  farther  proof  than  has  already 
appeared  were  needful,  it  would  be  found  in  the 
prodigious  doctrine  of  transubstantiation.  Strange 
as  it  may  appear,  the  doctrine  had  become  popu- 
lar— ^with  the  people  for  its  very  extravagance — 
with  the  clergy  because  they  grounded  upon  it 
their  loftiest  pretensions;  for  if  there  were  in  the 
sacrament  this  actual  and  entire  sole  presence, 
which  they  denoted  by  the  term  transubstantia- 
tion, it  followed  that  divine  worship  was  something 
more  than  a  service  of  prayer  and  thanksgiving — 
an  actual  sacrifice  was  performed  in  it,  wherein, 
they  affirmed,  the  Saviour  was  again  offered  up, 
in  the  same  body  which  had  suffered  on  the  cross, 
by  their  hands.  The  priest,  when  he  performed  this 
stupendous  function  of  his  ministry,  had  before 
his  eyes,,  and  held  in  his  hands,  the  maker  of 
heaven  and  earth ;  and  the  inference  which  they 
deduced  from  so  blasphemous  an  assumption  was, 
that  the  clergy  were  not  to  be  subject  to  any  se- 
cular authority,  seeing  that  they  could  create  God 
their  Creator  1    Let  it  not  be  supposed  that  the 
statement  is  in  the  slightest  part  exaggerated :  it 
is  delivered  fiiithfully  in  their  own  words.    If, 
then,  such  were  the  power  of  the  clergy,  even  of 
the  meanest  priest,  what  ipust  be  attributed  to 
their  earthly  head,  the  successor  of  St.  Peter? 
They  claimed  for  him  a  plenitude  of  power;  and 
it  has  been  seen  that  he  exercised  it  over  the 
princes  of  Christendom  in  its  fullest  meaning. 
According  to   the  canons  the  pope  was  as  far 
above  all  kings  as  the  sun  is  greater  than  the 
moon.    He  was  kins  of  kings  and  lord  of  lords, 
though  he  subscribed  himself  the  servant  of  ser- 

Digitized  by  VjUUy  It: 


REFORMATION. 


vanU.  The  immediate  and  sole  rule  of  the 
whole  world  belonged  to  him,  by  natural,  moral, 
and  diTine  right ;  all  authority  depending  upon 
him.  As  supreme  king,  he  might  impose  taxes 
upon  all  Christians ;  and  the  popes  declared  it 
was  to  be  held  as  a  point  necessary  to  salvation, 
that  every  human  creature  is  subject  to  the  Ro- 
man pontiff.  That  he  might  lawfully  depose 
kings  was  averred  to  be  so  certain  a  doctrine  that 
it  could  only  be  denied  by  madmen,  or  through 
the  instigation  of  the  devil ;  it  was  more  perni- 
cious and  intolerable  to  deny  it  than  to  err  con- 
cerning the  sacraments.  All  nations  and  king- 
doms were  under  the  pope's  jurisdiction ;  for  to 
him  had  Cod  delivered  over  the  power  and  do- 
minion in  heaven  and  earth.  Nay,  he  might 
take  away  kingdoms  and  empires,  with  or  with- 
out cause,  and  give  them  to  whom  he  pleased, 
though  tlie  sovereign  whom  he  should  depose 
were,  in  every  respect,  not  merely  blameless  but 
meritorious.  It  was  reason  enough  for  the 
change  that  the  pope  deemed  it  convenient. 
The  spouse  of  the  cnurch  v^as  vice-God :  men 
were  commanded  to  bow  at  his  name,  as 
at  the  name  of  Christ ;  the  proudest  sovereigns 
waited  upon  him  like  menials,  led  his  horse  by  the 
bridle,  and  held  his  stirrup  while  he  alighted ; 
and  there  wepe  ambassadors  who  prostrated 
themselves  before  him,  saying,  *  O  thou  that  tak- 
est  away  the  sins  of  the  world,  have  mercy  upon 
usi'  The  advocates  of  the  papal  power  pro- 
claimed that  any  secular  laws  vi^hich  might  be 
passed,  against  a  decree  of  the  Roman  Pontiff, 
were  in  themselves  null  and  void :  and  that  all 
pontifical  decrees  ought  for  ever  to  be  observed, 
by  all  men,  like  the  word  of  God ;  to  be  received 
as  if  they  came  from  the  mouth  of  St.  Peter 
himself,  and  held  like  canonical  scripture.  Nei- 
ther the  Catholic  fiaiith,  nor  the  four  evangelists, 
could  avail  those  who  rejected  them^  this  being  a 
sin  which  was  never  to  be  remitted.  Christ  had 
bestowed  upon  the  pope,  when  he  spake  as  such, 
the  same  infallibility  which  residea  in  himself. 
And  were  he  utterly  to  neglect  his  duty,  and  by 
his  misconduct  draw  down  innumerable  souls  to 
hell  with  him,  there  to  be  eternally  tormented, 
00  mortal  man  might  presume  to  reprove  him  for 
his  faults. 

Even  this  monstrous  proposition  was  advanced, 
that,  although  the  Catholic  faith  teaches  all  virtue 
to  be  good  and  all  vice  evil,  nevertheless  if  the 
pope,  Uirough  error,  should  enjoin  vices  to  be 
committed,  and  prohibit  virtues,  the  church 
would  be  bound  to  believe  that  vices  were  good 
and  virtues  evil,  and  would  sin  in  conscience 
were  it  to  believe  otherwise.  He  could  change 
the  nature  of  things,  and  make  injustice  justice. 
Nor  was  it  possible  that  he  should  be  amenable 
to  any  secular  power ;  for  he  had  been  called 
God  by  Constantine,  and  God  was  not  to  be 
judged  by  man :  under  God,  the  salvation  of  all 
the  fiaithful  depended  on  him,  and  commentators 
even  eave  him  the  blasphemous  appellation  of 
•our  Lord  God  the  pope  V  It  was  disputed  in 
the  schools  whether  he  could  not  abrogate  what 
the  apostles  had  enjoined ;  determine  an  opinion 
contrary  to  theirs,  and  add  a  new  article  to  the 
creed  ;  whether  he  did  not,  as  God,  participate 
both  natures  with  Christ :  and  whether  he  were 


not  more  merciful  than  Christ,  inasmuch  as  he 
delivered  souls  from  the  pams  of  purgatory, 
whereas  we  do  not  read  that  this  was  ever 
done  by  our  Saviour.  Lastly,  it  vras  affirmed 
that  he  might  do  things  unlawful,  and  thus  could 
do  more  than  God.  All  this  was  certain,  because 
the  church  was  infallible.  Where  this  feUibiKty 
resided  the  Romanists  have  differed  among 
themselves,  some  vesting  it  in  the  pope,  others 
requiring  the  concurrence  of  a  general  council. 
Infallible,  however,  it  was  determined  that  the 
Roman  Catholic  church  must  be,  and  thus  the 
keystone  was  put  to  this  prodigious  structure  of 
imposture  and  wickedness.  No  one  acauainted 
with  ecclesiastical  history  will  consider  tnis  view 
of  the  morals  and  conditions  of  the  Roman 
church  as  exaggerated  or  incorrect.  We  will 
therefore  turn  to  a  more  grateful  subject,  and 
briefly  trace  the  various  efforts  which  were 
made  to  correct  this  lamentable  state  of  things, 
and  to  bring  back  the  church  to  its  original  ( a- 
rity  and  discipline.   ' 

II.  The  early  efforts  at  reform. — As  early  as 
the  reign  of  Charlemagne,  Paulinus,  a  royal  fa- 
vorite, and  the  bishop  of  Aquilia,  employed  his 
voice  and  his  pen  to  arrest  the  progress  of  these 
and  similar  corruptions.  In  the  year  804  his 
honorable  career  was  terminated,  and  in  a  few 
years  later  it  devolved  on  the  celebrated  Claude 
of  Turin  to  check  the  same  abuses,  to  advocate 
the  same  truth,  and  to  scatter  more  widely  the 
seeds  of  future  opposition  and  reform.  The 
sovereignty  of  the  Redeemer  in  his  church  was 
so  maintained  by  this  prelate  as  virtually  to  an- 
nihilate the  ambitious  pretensions  of  the  Roman 
see.  The  worship  of  images  he  denounced  a^ 
gross  idolatry ;  the  childish  veneration  of  relics 
he  exposed  to  its  deserved  contempt :  and,  dis- 
carding prayer  for  the  dead  as  the  device  of  man, 
his  zeal  bowed  to  no  authority  in  religion,  op- 
posed to  the  obvious  meaning  of  the  sacred 
Scriptures.  Explaining  the  doctrine  of  justifi- 
cation by  faith  alone,  with  a  force  and  perspicu- 
ity not  unworthy  of  Luther,  the  papal  scheme  of 
merit  was  greatly  bfoken  and  impeded  by  his  la- 
bors. More  than  twenty  years  of  his  life  were 
devoted  to  this  warfiire  a^inst  the  prevailing  su- 
perstitions, and  to  the  cause  of  Christian  truth, 
as  embraced  by  its  earliest  disciples. 

The  episcopal  authority  of  Turin  extended 
over  the  valleys  of  Piedmont,  and  that  the  &ith 
defended  by  Claude  was  preserved  on  \hat  local- 
ity through  the  ninth  and  tenUi  centuries  is  the 
testimony  of  Catholic  writers.  Before  the  close 
of  this  period  the  fires  of  persecution  were 
kindled  in  that  favored  diocese,  in  the  hope  of 
consigning  b6th  the  name  and  the  doctrine  of  its 
distinguished  reformer  to  oblivion.  But  in  the 
hour  of  trial  the  disciple  vras  often  found  to  be 
worthy  of  his  master ;  while  the  real  of  such  as 
were  expelled  their  home  increased  by  a  natural 
process  with  the  increase  of  suffering,  never 
failing  to  convert  the  fact  of  their  dispersion  into 
the  means  of  imparting  a  more  extended  influ- 
ence to  their  obnoxious  creed.  It  was  in  the 
century  commencing  with  the  year  following  that 
in  which  the  poem  of  the  Troubadours,  entitled 
I A  Nobla  Leyczon,  was  completed,  that  Peter  de 
Brugs,  became  distinguished  in  Provence  and 

'  Digitized  by  VjUUyit: 


440 


REFORMATION. 


Languedocy  as  the  intrepid  advocate  of  certain 
reformed  opinions ;  and  his  zeal,  after  the  labor 
of  twentyyears,  sustained  the  trial  of  martyrdom. 
On  his  decease  his  place  was  more  than  supplied 
by  the  leamins  and  the  invincible  ardor  of  Henry 
the  founder  of  the  sect  called  Henricians.  But, 
if  Henry  imbibed  the  zeal  of  his  predecessor,  he 
had  also  to  share  in  his  reward.  The  invective 
in  which  these  preachers  indulged  on  the  man- 
ners of  their  age,  and  especially  on  the  vices  of 
the  clergy,  was  not  to  be  patiently  endured.  It 
roused  the  displeasure  of  the  pontiffs  and  of  their 
court;  and,  in  the  name  of  Eugenius  III.,  the 
person  of  Henry  was  seized  and  committed  to 
prison,  where,  after  a  brief  interval,  his  life  was 
the  sacrifice  incurred  by  his  unshaken  integrity. 
Such  are  the  measures  which  have  been  long  and 
widely  adopted  to  crush  the  leaders  of  reform, 
and  experience  has  shown  how  little  they  are 
suited  to  diminish  either  the  number  or  the 
ardor  of  its  advocates.  But  if  the  Petrobrussians 
and  Henricians  were  sufficiently  numerous  to 
excite  the  alarm  of  the  church,  it  is  certain  they 
were  but  few  and  feeble  when  compared  with 
their  opponents. 

It  was  towards  the  close  of  the  century,  in  the 
former  half  of  which  they  had  flourished,  that 
the  ear  of  Europe  became  familiar  with  the  name 
of  Arnold  of  Brescia,  as  that  of  a  more  daring 
opponent  of  clerical  ambition.  This  extraordi- 
nary man  had  suddenly  risen  from  the  lowest 
rank  in  the  church,  and  there  are  facts  included 
io  his  history  which  impart  to  it  an  unusual 
interest.  He  studied  under  the  famous  Abelard, 
and  had  probably  adopted  some  of  the  specula^ 
tions  which  exposed  the  lover  of  Eloise  to  the 
frown  of  the  church.  But  with  the  skill  of  the 
master  the  disciple  associated  an  independence 
and  hardihood  peculiar  to  himself.  In  the  garb 
of  a  monk,  and  with  a  countenance  which  be- 
spoke his  decision  and  capacity,  but  which  had 
already  become  marked  with  many  cares,  Arnold 
commenced  his  stormy  career,  as  a  preacher  in 
the  streets  of  Brescia.  Arraigned  before  the  pre- 
fect of  the  city,  the  reformer  was  condemned  to 
die ;  and,  deserted  (perhaps  of  necessity)  by  his 
more  powerful  adherents,  he  perished  at  the 
stake,  amid  the  idle  gazings  of  the  Roman  popu- 
lace. His  ashes  were  given  to  the  Tiber;  but 
his  opinions  were  not  so  easily  consigned  to  ob- 
livion. But  ten  years  from  that  period  had 
scarcely  passed,  when  Peter  Waldo,  an  opu- 
lent mercnant  of  Lyons,  became  known  in  that 
city  as  an  opponent  of  the  Romish  superstition, 
and  a  zealous  advocate  of  what  has  smce  been 
designated  the  reformed  faith.  Waldo  had 
witnessed  the  sudden  decease  of  a  friend  at  his 
table,  and  a  disposition  already  favorable  to  re- 
ligion was  much  confirmed  by  the  affecting  in- 
cident. Often  scandalised  by  the  manners  of  the 
clergy,  his  superior  education  had  enabled  him  to 
consult  the  Latin  Version  of  the  Scriptures.  From 
that  source  he  derived  the  instruction  which 
taught  him  to  separate  from  communion  with  the 
papal  church.  His  morals  had  ever  defied  the 
oreath  of  calumny ;  from  this  period  his  wealth 
ministered  largely  to  the  comforts  of  the  poor ; 
and  if  his  opposition  to  vice  and  error  exposed 
him  to  the  malice  of  interested  men,  his  fearless 


enforcement  of  the  truths  of  the  Oospd  won  the 
applause  and  the  grateful  attachment  of  mul- 
.  titudes.  For  a  season  he  found  his  protection 
in  his  rank,  in  the  influence  of  his  connexions, 
and  in  the  number  of  his  followers.  But  the  in- 
roads of  his  zeal  which  had  thus  eluded  every 
hostile  purpose  of  the  local  authorities  were,  at 
length,  deemed  so  serious  an  innovation  as  U> 
require  the  most  formal  interference  of  the  pa- 
pacy. In  a  council  convened  by  Alexander  III. 
Peter  Waldo  and  his  numerous  disciples  Were 
presumed  to  be  convicted  of  heresy,  and  until 
signs  should  be  given  of  repentance  they  were 
cut  off  from  all  communion  with  the  fiaithful. 
This  sentence  would  probably  have  been  little 
regarded,  had  it  not,  through  Uie  ferocity  of  the 
times,  become  no  less  destructive  of  civil  than  of 
religious  communion.  The  Lyonese,  who  were 
not  fully  prepared  to  brave  the  wrath  of  the 
church,  were  constrained  to  refuse  the  hated 
sectaries  even  the  remotest  intercourse  of  social 
life.  That  flourishing  city  was,  in  consequence, 
deserted  by  a  large,  and  by  the  most  valuable, 
portion  of  its  inh^itants ;  but  like  the  Hebrew 
tribes  they  were  not  to  be  lost  in  their  disper- 
sion. Waldo  continued  to  publish  his  doctrine 
with  great  success,  through  Dauphiny,  Picardy, 
and  various  of  the  German  states,  concluding  a 
labor  of  twenty  years  in  a  province  of  Bohemia. 
His  disciples,  every  where  harassed  by  the  hand 
of  persecution,  are  still  found  associated  with 
almost  erery  continental  sect,  and  by  a  benevo- 
lent arrangement  of  providence  they  were  pre^ 
served  as  witnesses  for  the  truth  until  the  age  of 
Luther.  Aware  of  the  assistance  which  he  had 
derived  from  the  Scriptures,  and  of  the  princi- 
ples which  assert  them  to  be  the  property  of  the 
people  no  less  than  of  the  priest,  it  had  been  an 
object  of  early  solicitude  with  Waldo  to  confer 
upon  his  followers  a  vernacular  translation  of 
the  inspired  volume.  It  was  a  novelty  in  mo- 
dern Europe,  and  contributed  much  to  his  un- 
precedented success  in  the  work  of  reformation. 
The  Noble  Lesson*  had  long  since  supplied  the 
devout  with  a  valuable  summary  of  Scripture 
history,  and  of  the  doctrines  and  the  duties  of 
the  Gospel ;  but  such  was  the  impulse  given  to 
the  mind  of  multitudes  by  the  possession  of  the 
Scriptures,  that  the  numerous  sectaries,  however 
poor  and  despised,  were  generally  capable  of 
vindicating  their  peculiarities  of  custom  or  opi- 
nion by  an  appeal  to  that  authority ;  it  was  even 
their  boast  that  there  was  scarcely  a  man  or  wo- 
man among  them  who  was  not  for  better  read  in 
the  Bible  than  the  doctors  of  the  church.  Waldo 
finished  his  career  in  1179,  and  it  was  two  years 
later  that  the  pontiff,  Lucian  III.,  issued  his 
memorable  decree,  condemning  all  manner  of 
heresy,  by  whatever  name  denominated.  By 
the  haughty  Innocent  III.  every  motive  which 
superstition  could  supply  was  employed  to  arm 
the  princes,  and  the  people  of  Europe  against 
the  pacific  disciples  of  the  Gospel.  To  extirpate 

*  La  Noble  Leyczon,  or  Th^  Noble  Lesson,  is  a 
poem  in  the  lanjguage  of  the  Troubadours ;  the  de- 
pository of  opinions,  and  an  expression  of  feelings, 
not'  unworthy  of  the  professors  of  the  Gospel  in  3i« 
most  favorecf  period  m  its  history. 


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REFORMATION. 


441 


them  by  fire  and  by  the  sword  was  the  object 
distinctly  proposed ;  and  the  indulgences  so  im- 
piously connected  with  the  crusades  into  Asia 
were  now  as  freely  bestowed  on  such  as  became 
devoted  to  this  murderous  cause.  Under  the  im- 
pulse of  such  motives  towns  were  taken  in  suc- 
cession, and  their  inhabitants  slaughtered  with 
an  atrocity  which  spared  neither  age  nor  sex. 

A  volume  might  be  occupied  in  detailing 
these  atrocities,  but  it  must  be  sufficient  to  oIh 
serve,  in  the  language  of  Mr.  Gibbpn, '  that  pope 
Innocent  III.  surpassed  the  sanguinary  fame  of. 
Theodore.  It  was  in  cruelty  alone  her  soldiers 
could  equal  the  heroes  of  the  crusades,  and  the 
cruelties  of  her  priests  were  far  excelled  by^the 
founders  of  the  inquisition,  an  office  more  adapted 
to  confirm  than  to  confute  the  belief  of  an  evil 

grinciple.'  The  interval  between  the  former 
alf  of  the  thirteenth  centuiy,  with  which  these 
crusades  were  connected,  and  the  middle  of  the 
following,  in  which  Wycliffe  appeared,  is  one 
of  unusual  gloom  in  the  history  of  true  religion. 
The  efforts  of  the  Waldenses  and  Albigeois  to 
restore  its  purity,  and  which  has  not  been  im- 
properly oesignated  the  first  reformation,  ap- 
peared as  a  total  failure,  and  through  nearly  300 
succeeding  years  the  good  which  it  was  designed 
to  confer  on  the  nations  of  the  western  empire 
was  effectually  resisted.  And  not  only  so,  the 
machinery  of  despotism  appeared  to  become 
every  day  more  matured,  ana  every  struggle  of 
its  victims  but  to  place  them  more  completely 
beneath  it. 

III.  Rise  andvrogrtst  of  WickUffe*s  doctrinet 
in  England, — ^The  manifold  and  complicated 
evils  of  popery,  however,  reached  their  highest 

?itch  about  the  thirteenth  or  fourteenth  century, 
'hat  astonishing  system  of  spiritual  tyranny,  for 
instance,  had  now  drawn  within  its  vortex  almost 
the  whole  government  of.  England.  The  pope's 
haughty  legate,  spurning  at  all  law  and  equity, 
made  even  the  ministers  of  justice  to  tremble  at 
its  tribunal ;  parliaments  were  overawed,  and 
sovereigns  obliged  to  temporise,  while  the  lawless 
ecclesiastics,  entrenched  oehind  the  authority  of 
councils  and  decrees,  set  at  nought  the  civil 
power,  and  opened  an  asylum  to  any,  even  the 
most  profligate,  disturbers  of  society.  In  the 
mean  time  the  taxes  collected,  under  various 
pretexts,  by  the  agents  of  the  see  of  Rome, 
amounted  to  five  times  as  much  as  the  taxes  paid 
to  the  king.  The  insatiable  avarice  and  insup- 
portable tyranny  of  the  court  of  Rome  bad 
given  such  universal  disgust,  that  a  bold  attack, 
made  about  this  time,  on  the  authority  of  that 
court,  and  the  doctrine  of  the  church,  was,  at 
first,  more  successful  than  could  have  been  ex- 
pected in  that  dark  and  superstitious  age.  This 
attack  was  made  by  the  famous  John  Wickliffe, 
who  was  one  of  the  best  and  most  learned  men 
of  the  age  in  which  he  flourished.  His  reputa- 
tion for  learning,  piety,  and  virtue,  was  so  great, 
that  archbishop  Islip  appointed  him  the  first 
warden  of  Canterbury  College,  Oxford,  in  1365. 
The  lectures  in  divinity  which  he  read  in  that 
university  were  much  admired,  though  in  these 
lectures-  he  treated  the  clergy,  and  particularly 
the  mendicant  friars,  with  no  little  freedom  and 
severity.  A  discourse  which  he  published  against 


the  pope's  demand  of  homage  and  tribute  from 
Edward  III.,  for  the  kingdom  of  England,  re- 
commended him  so  much  to  that  prince  that  he 
bestowed  upon  him  several  benefices,  and  em- 
ployed him  in  several  embassies.  Edward  III. 
nad  refused  that  homage  to  which  king  John  had 
subjected  his  successors, and  Urban  V.  threatened 
that  if  it  were  not  performed  he  would  cite  him 
to  Rome,  there  to  answer  for  the  default.  A 
sovereign  of  Edward's  ability  and  renown  was 
not  thus  to  be  intimidated ;  the  feeling  of  the 
country  was  with  him,  and  the  parliament, 
affirming  that  what  John  had  done  in  this  matter 
was  a  violation  of  his  coronation  oath,  declared 
that,  if  the  pope  proceeded  in  any  way  against 
the  king,  he  and  all  his  subjects  should  with  all 
their  power  resist  him.  The  papal  claims  were 
defended  by  a  monk,  who  ventured  to  challenge 
Wickliffe  upon  the  subject,  who  coming  forward 
with  superior  ability,  and  in  a  better  cause,  pro- 
duced a  conclusive  reply ;  in  reward  for  which, 
when  an  appeal  concerning  the  wardenship  was 
decided  against  him,  he  was  appointed  professor 
of  divinity,  and,  as  a  further  mark  of  favor,  the 
living  of  Lutterworth  in  Leicestershire  was  given 
him.  Two  years  after  his  appointment  to  the 
divinity  chair  he  was  named,  with  other  ambas- 
sadors, to  meet  the  pope's  representative  at 
Bruges,  and  resist  his  pretensions  to  the  presenta- 
tion of  benefices  in  England,  an  injurious  prac- 
tice,against  which  several  statutes  had  been  passed. 
The  iiegociation  lasted  nearly  two  years,  and 
it  is  probable  that  what  he  then  had  opportuni- 
ties of  discovering  convinced  him  that  the  system 
of  the  papal  court  and  its  doctrines  were  equally 
corrupt.  For  on  his  return  he  attacked  it  in  the 
boldest  manner,  maintained  that  the  Scriptures 
contained  all  truths  necessary  to  salvation,  and 
that  the  perfect  rule  of  Christian  practice  was  to 
be  found  in  them  only;  denied  tlie  authority  of 
the  pope  in  temporal  matters ;  proclaimed  that 
he  was  that  roan  of  sin,  the  son  of  perdition, 
whom  St.  Paul  prophetically  describes,  '  sitting 
as  God  in  the  temple  of  God,  showing  himself 
that  he  is  God  ;*  and  denounced  him  as  anti- 
christ. These  opinions  he  openly  preached  and 
published,  appealing  to  the  Scriptures  for  their 
truth ;  and  they  were  propagated  by  his  disci- 
ples, who  attacked  the  friars  in  their  own  man- 
ner, preaching  to  the  people,  and  going  about, 
as  he  himself  did,  barefoot,  and  in  plain  fringe 
gowns.  It  was  not  long  before  he  was  accused 
of  heresy,  and  orders  came  to  Sudbury  the  pri- 
mate, and  Courtney  the  bishop  of  London,  to  have 
him  arrested,  and  kept  in  close  custody  till  they 
should  receive  further  instructions.  But  the 
duke  of  Lancaster,  John  of  Gaunt,  who  was  then 
governing  the  kingdom  during  the  latter  days  of 
his  father,  protected  him  with  a  high  hand ;  and 
he  was  still  so  popular  in  Oxford  that,  when  a 
nuncio  was  sent  thither,  requiring  the  university^ 
under  pain  of  the  severest  penalties,  to  delivet 
him  up  for  justice,  the  threat  was  disregarded . 
The  archbishop,  finding  it  impossible  to  proceed 
in  the  summai^  manner  which  the  pope  ordered, 
summoned  him  to  appear  within  thirty  days  be- 
fore him  and  the  bisnop  of  London,  at  a  synod 
held  in  St  Paul's ;  and  Wickliffe,  confident  in 
his  cause  and  in  his  protectors,  hesitated  not  te 

Digitized  by  VjiUU^^lC 


442 


REFORMATIO  ». 


obejr-.  It  is  not,  however^  likely  that  any  pro- 
tection could  long  have  upheld  him  against  the 
ecclesiastical  authority,  if  a  schism  had  not  at 
this  juncture  occurred  to  weaken  the  papal 
power,  and'  shake  its  very  foundations.  Wickliffe 
seized  the  advantage  which  was  thus  afforded 
him,  and  set  forth  a  tract  upon  the  schism,  ex- 
posing the  absurdity  of  ascribing  infallibility  to 
a  divided  church.  While  the  doctrines  of  Wick- 
lifib  were  propagated  and  opposed  with  much 
zeal  at  Oxford,  and  at  other  places,  he  being  in  a 
declining  state  of  health  resided,  during  tl^  two 
last  years  of  his  life,  at  his  living  of  Lutterworth, 
in  Leicestershire,  employed  in  finishing  his  trans- 
lation of  the  Bible  and  other  works.  Being 
seized  with  a  stroke  of  the  palsy,  which  deprived 
him  of  his  speech  December  28th,  1384,  he  ex- 
pired on  the  last  day  of  that  year. 

The  invention  of  printing  had,  at  this  time, 
created  facilities  for  the  diffusion  of  knowledge, 
unknown  before  *  and  the  struggle  between  the 
elements  of  darkness  and  the  principles  of  light 
resembled,  for  a  while,  the  smothering  vapor 
which  precedes  the  burst  and  the  radiance  of  a 
clear  and  steady  flame.  Thousands  were  pre- 
pared by  these  antecedent  causes  to  receive  the 
truth  in  all  its  holy  purity,  and  sacred  influence. 
Already  the  rays  of  truth  were  emanating  from 
the  sacred  volume  in  all  directions;  and  men 
were  beginning  to  start  as  from  the  slumbers  of 
a  dream,  or  the  reveries  of  a  distempered  ima- 
gination. It  must  not,  however,  be  supposed 
that  this  change  of  opinion  escaped  the  notice 
of  the  dominant  church ;  or  that  it  was  negligent 
of  that  strong  arm  of  power  which  it  possessed, 
in  order  to  suppress  the  growing  heresy.  Henry 
IV.,  at  the  instigation  of  the  clergy,  passed  a 
statute,  forbidding  the  propagation  of  the  new 
doctrine  by  preaching,  writing,  teaching,  or  dis- 
course ;  and  demanding  of  all  persons  the  re- 
nunciation of  their  errors,  on  pain  of  being  con- 
demned for  heresy,  and  burnt  alive. 

William  Sautre,  the  parish  priest  of  St.  Osithes, 
in  London,  and  formerly  of  St.  Margaret's,  at 
Lynn,  in  Norfolk,  was  the  first  victim  under  this 
new  statute,  and  the  first  martyr  for  the  reform- 
ation in  England.  The  single  question  with 
which  he  was  pressed  was,  whether  the  sacra- 
ment of  the  altar,  after  the  pronouncing  of  the 
sacramental  words,  remainea  material  bread  or 
not.  It  was  not  sufiicient  for  him  to  declare  a 
firm  belief  that  it  was  <  the  bread  of  life  which 
came  down  from  heaven  ;*  he  was  required  to 
acknowledge  that  it  ceased  to  be  bread.  Find- 
ing it  in  vain  to  protest  that  he  attempted  not  to 
explain  what  is  inexplicable,  his  final  answer 
was  that  the  bread,  after  consecration,  remained 
very  bread  as  it  was  before.  He  was  then  pro- 
nounced to  be  judicially  and  lawfully  convicted 
as  a  heretic,  and  as  a  heretic  to  be  punished ; 
and  being,  moreover,  a  relapsed  heretic,  to  be 
degraded,  deposed,  and  delivered  over  to  the 
secular  arm. 

This  being  the  first  condemnation  of  the  kind 
in  England,  Arundel  was  punctual  in  all  its 
forms,  that  they  might  serve  for  an  exact  prece- 
dent in  future.  They  were,  probably,  derived 
from  the  practice  of  the  accursed  inquisitors  in 
Languedoc ;  and  they  were  well  devised  for  pro- 


longing an  impression  of  horror  upon  the  expect- 
ant and  awed  spectators.  Sautre  was  broa^t 
before  the  primate  and  six  other  bishops,  in  the 
cathedral  of  St.  Paurs ;  they  were  in  their  pon- 
tifical attire,  and  he  appeared  in  priestly  vest- 
ments with  the  paten  and  chalice  in  his  hands. 
Arundel  stood  up^  and,  in  the  name  of  the 
Father,  and  of  the  Son,  and  of  the  Holy  Spirit 
(thus  profiined  in  this  inhuman  progress),  de- 
graded him,  first  from  his  priestly  order,  and,  in 
sign  of  that  degradation,  took  from  him  the 
paten  and  chalice^juid  plucked  the  priestly  casule 
from  his  back.  The  New  Testament  was  then 
pat  into  his  hands,  and  taken  from  him ;  the 
stole  J)eing  at  the  same  time  pulled  off,  to  de- 
grade him  from  the  office  of  deacon.  By  de- 
priving him  of  the  alb  and  maniple,  his  depriva- 
tion from  the  order  of  subdeacon  was  effected.  The 
candlestick,  taper,  and  urceole,  were  taken  from 
him  as  an  acolyte ;  the  book  of  exorcisms,  as  ex- 
orcist ;  the  lectionary,  as  reader;  he  then  remained 
in  a  surplice  as  sexton,  and,  with  the  I'ey  of  the 
church  door:  these  also  were  taken  from  him;  the 
priest's  cap  was  then  to  be  laid  aside,  the  ton- 
sure rased  away,  so  that  no  ootwaxd  mark  what- 
ever of  his  orders  might  remain ;  the  cap  of  a 
layman  was  placed  upon  his  head,  and  Arundel 
then  delivered  him,  as  a  secular  person,  to  the 
secular  court  of  the  high  constable  and  marshal 
of  England,  there  present,  beseeching  the  court 
to  receive  faTorably  the  said  William  Sautre, 
unto  them  thus  committed  I  For  with  this  hypo- 
critical recommendation  to  mercy  the  Romish 
church  always  delivered  over  its  victims  to  be 
burnt  alive.  Sautre  accordingly  suffered  mar- 
tyrdom at  the  stake;  leaving  a  name  which  is 
still  slandered  by  the  Romanists,  but  which  the 
church  of  England  will  ever  hold  in  deserved 
respect. 

At  this  time  twelve  inquisitors  of  heresy,  for 
this  dreadful  name  had  been  introduced  in 
England,  were  appointed  at  Oxford,  to  search 
out  heretics  and  heretical  books.  They  presented 
as  heresies  1246  conclusions,  deduced,  some  truly 
and  some  falsely,  from  the  writings  of  Wickliffe's 
followers,  and  of  the  Lollards;  atid  they  repre- 
sented that  Christ's  vesture  without  seam  could 
not  be  made  whole  again,  unless  certain  gresit 
men,  who  supported  the  disciples  of  Wicklifle, 
were  removea;  particularising  Sir  John  Old- 
castle,  who,  in  right  of  his  wife,  was  lord  Cob- 
ham,  a  man  of  high  birth,  and  at  that  time  in 
favor  with  Henry  V.  Him  they  accused  to  the 
king  of  holding  heretical  opinions  concerning 
the  sacrament,  penance,  pilgrimages,  the  adora- 
tion of  images,  and  the  authority  of  the  Romish 
church,  declaring  their  intention  of  proceeding 
against  him  as  a  most  pernicious  heretic. 

In  better  reliance  upon  a  good  cause  than 
upon  popular  favor  and  his  own  means  of  resist- 
ance, be  wrote  a  paper,  which  he  entitled  the 
Christian  belief  of  tne  lord  Cobham ;  and  with  this 
he  went  to  the  king,  trusting,  it  is  said,  to  find 
mercy  and  favor  at  his  hand.  The  writing  began 
with  the  Apostle's  creed,  to  which  a  larger  decla- 
ration of  his  faith  was  added.  Like  Wicklifife, 
he  expressed  an  opinion  that  the  church  was 
divided  into  three  parts,  the  saints  in  heaven, 
the  souls  in  purgatoiy,  and  the  faithful  on  earth ; 

Digitized  by  VjUUy  l€ 


REFORMATION. 


44? 


but  he  qnaUfied  thi»  admusioii  of  a  purgatory, 
by  saying  if  any  such  place  be  in  the  Scriptures : 
the  duty  of  the  priests  was  that,  secluded  from 
ail  worldliness,  tney  should  conlbrm  their  lived 
to  the  examples  of  Christ  and  his  apostles,  ever- 
more  occupied  in  preaching  and  teaching  the 
Scriptures  purely,  and  in  giving  wholesome  ex- 
amples of  good  living  to  the  other  degrees ;  more 
modest  also,  more  loving,  gentle,  and  lowly  in 
spirit  should  they  be  than  any  other  people.  The 
duty  of  the  people  was,  *  to  bear  their  good 
minds  and  true  obedience  to  the  foresaid  minis- 
ters of  God,  their  king,  civil  governors,  and 
Eriests  f  jusliy  to  occupy  every  roan  his  fiau^ulty, 
e  it  merchandise,  handicraft,  or  the  tilth  of  the 
ground,  and  so  one  to  be  helper  to  another.  He 
then  professed  his  full  belief  that  the  body  and 
blood  of  Christ  were  verily  and  indeed  contained 
in  the  sacrament  of  the  altar  under  the  simili- 
tudes of  bread  and  wine ;  that  the  law  of  God 
was  most  true  and  perfect,  and  that  they  which 
did  not  so  follow  it  in  their  faith  and  works  (at 
one  time  or  other)  could  not  be  saved ;  *  whereas 
he  that  seeketh  it  in  iaith,  accepteth  it,  leameth  it, 
delighteth  therein,  and  performeth  it  in  love, 
shall  taste  for  it  the  felicity  gof  everlasting  inno- 
cency.  Finally,  that  God  ^ill  ask  no  more  of 
a  Christian  believer,  in  this  life,  than  to  obey  the 

Erecepts  of  this  most  blessed  law.  If  any  pre- 
Lte  require  more,  or  any  oth'^r  kind  of  obedience 
than  this,  he  contemneth  Christ,  exalteth  himself 
above  God,  and  so  becometh  an  open  antichrist.' 
He  required  that  the  king  would  cause  this  his 
confession  of  faith  to  be  justly  examined  by  the 
wisest  and  most  learned  men  in  the  realm ;  and 
that,  if  it  were  found  in  all  parts  agreeing  to  the 
truth,  it  might  be  so  allowed,  and  he  himself 
thereupon  holden  for  none  other  than  a  true 
Christian ;  or  that  it  might  be  utterly  condemned 
if  it  were  found  otherwise,  provided  always  that 
he  were  taught  a  better  belief  by  the  word  of 
God,  which  word  he  would,  at  all  times,  most 
reverently  obey. 

When  the  king  allowed  him  in  his  presence  to 
be  personally  cited,  lord  Cobham  perceived  that 
his  destruction  was  determined  on,  and,  rejecting 
the  archbishop  as  his  judge,  appealed  from  him 
to  the  pope;  this  appeal  being  disallowed  he 
was  immediately  committed  to  the  tower,  till  the 
day  appointed  for  his  examination.  On  that 
day  at  the  Dominican  convent  within  Ludgate, 
many  canonists  and  friars,  the  heads  and  leading 
persons  of  their  respective  orders,  were  convened 
to  sit  in  judgment  on  him ;  while  a  number  of 
priests,  monks,  canons,  and  friars,  with  a  rabble 
of  underlings,  who  were  collected  as  spectators^ 
insulted  him  as  he  came,  for  a  horrible  heretic, 
and  a  man  accursed  before  God.  These  prepa- 
rations, and  the  certainty  of  what  was  to  ensue, 
could  not  shake  the  constancy  of  his  resolved 
mind.  But  the  taunts  and  mockery  of  the  brutal 
audience  who  came  there  as  to  a  spectacle,  and 
anticipated  with  exultation  the  inhuman  catas- 
trophe, disturbed  that  equanimity  which  he  had 
hitherto  preserved ;  and  moved  him,  not  to  an 
unseemly  anger,  nor  to  aught  unworthy  of  him- 
self, but  to  an  emotion  than  which  nothing  nobler 
in  its  kind  hath  been  imagined  in  fiction,  or  re- 
corded in  history.    For  when  Arundel  began  the 


tragedy,  by  offering  him  ab8otutioo  «id  tmncj, 
if  he  would  humbly  desire  it,  in  due  form  aiuJ 
iBanner,  as  the  church  ordained. — '  Nay,  ibrspotb, 
will  i  not,*  he  replied,  <  for  I  never  trespassed 
against  you,  and  therefore  I  will  not  do  it !' 
Then  kneeling  on  the  pavement,  and  holding  up 
bis  hands  toward  heaven,  he  exclaimed,  <  I  shrive 
me  here  unto  Thee,  my  eternal,  living  God,  that 
in  my  youth  I  offended  thee,  O  Lord,  most  grie- 
vously in  pride,  wrath,  and  gluttony ;  in  cove- 
tousness,  and  in  lechery  !  Many  men  have  I 
hart  in  mine  anger,  and  done  many  other  hor- 
rible sins !  Good  Lord,  I  ask  Thee  mercy !'  He 
wept  while  he  uttered  this  passionate  prayer; 
then,  standing  up,  said  with  a  mighty  voice, 
'  Lo,  good  people,  lo  1  for  the  breaking  of  God's 
law  and  hiscommandffients,they  never  yet  cursed 
me !  but  for  thine  own  laws  and  traditions  most 
cruelly  do  they  handle  both  me  and  other  men. 
And,  therefore,  both  they  and  their  laws,  by  the 
promise  of  God,  shall  utterly  be  destroyed !' 

When  they  had  recovered  from  the  surprise 
whioh  this  awfiil  appeal  produced,  they  began  to 
examine  him  concerning  his  belief.  He  replied 
with  the  same  intrepid  spirit,  *  I  believe  fully 
and  faithfully  in  the  universal  laws  of  God.  I 
believe  that  all  is  true  which  is  contained  in  the 
Holy  Scriptures  of  the  Bible.  Finally,  X  believe 
all  that  my  Lord.  God  would  I  should  believe.' 
They  pressed  him  with  the  murderous  question 
concerning  material  bread.  He  made  answer, 
*  The  Scriptures  make  no  mention  of  this  word 
material,  and  therefore  my  faith  hath  nothing  to 
do  therewith.  But  this  I  say,  and  believe,  that  it 
is  Christ's  body  and  bread.'  They  exclaimed 
against  this  with  one  voice;  and  one  of  the 
bishops  stood  up  and  said,  *It  was  a  heresy  ma- 
nifest, to  say  that  it  is  bread  afler  the  sacramental 
words  were  spoken.*  The  noble  martyr  replied, 
'  St  Paul  was,  I  am  sure,  as  wise  as  you,  and 
more  godly  learned,  and  he  called  it  bread,  'the 
bread  that  we  break/  saith  he,  *  is  it  not  the  par- 
taking of  the  body  of  Christ?'  And  as  for  that 
virtuous  man,  Wickliffe,  I  shall  say  here,  both 
before  God  and  man^  that  before  I  knew  that 
despised  doctrine  of  his  I  never  abstained  from 
sin.  But,  since  I  learned  therein  to  fear  my  Lord 
God,  it  hath  otherwise,  I  trust,  been  with  me, 
so  much  grace  could  I  never  fiud  in  all  your 
glorious  instructions !  One  pope  hath  put  down 
another,  one  hath  poisoned  another,  one  hath 
cureed  another,  and  one  hath  slain  another,  and 
done  much  more  mischief,  as  all  the  chronicles 
tell.  Let  all  men  consider  well  this,  that  Christ 
was  meek  and  merciiul ;  the  pope  is  proud  and 
a  tyrant-^Christ  was  poor  and  forgave ;  the  pope 
is  rich,  and  a  malicious  manslayer,  as  his  daily 
acts  do  prove  him.  Rome  is  the  very  nest  of  anti* 
Christ,  and  out  of  that  nest  cometh  all  the  disciples 
of  hins,  of  whom  prelates,  priests,  and  monks 
are  the  body,  and  these  pilea  frian  are  the  tail ! 
Though  he  judge  my  body,  which  is  but  a 
wretched  thing,  yet  am  I  certain  and  sure  that  he 
can  do  no  harm  to  my  soul,  no  more  than  could 
Satan  upon  the  soul  of  Job.  He  who  created 
that,  will,  of  his  infinite  will  and  promise,  save 
it ;  I  have  therein  no  -manner  of  doubt  And,  as 
concerning  these  articles  before  rehearsed,  I  will 
stand  to  them,  even  to  the  very  death,  by  the 


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REFORMATION- 


^race  of  my  eternal  God  1'  Turning  to  the  spec- 
tators then,  he  spread  his  hands,  and  spake  with 
a  louder  voice,  *Good  Christian  people,  for 
God*s  love  be  well  ware  of  these  men !  for  they 
will  else  beguile  you,  and  lead  you  blinding  into 
hell  with  themselves.  For  Christ  saith  plainly 
unto  you.  If  one  blind  man  leadeth  another,  they 
art  like  both  to  fall  into  the  ditch  1*  Then,  kneel- 
ing down  before  them,  he  prayed  for  his  enemies : 
*  Lord  God  eternal  1  I  beseech  thee,  of  thy  great 
mercy's  sake  to  forgive  my  pursuers,  if  it  be  thy 
blessed  will  !*  Being  committed  to  the  Tower, 
whence  he  escaped,  a  large  reward  was  offered 
for  taking  lord  Cobham,  alive  or  dead ;  so  faith- 
fully, however,  wa^he  sheltered,  notwithstanding 
all  who  harboured  him  incurred  the  same  danger 
with  himself,  that  he  eluded  his  persecutors  for 
four  years,  until  he  was  discovered,  by  means  of 
lord  Powis,  in  Wales.  He  now  stood  resolutely 
upon  his  defence,  and  would  probably  not  have 
been  taken  alive,  if  a  woman  had  not  broken  his 
legs  with  a  stool.  In  this  condition  he  was  car- 
ried to  London  in  a  horse  litter;  and  there,  being 
hung  by  the  middle  in  chains,  was  consumed  in 
the  flames  praising  God. 

IV.  The  Bohemian  reformen, — ^The  historians 
of  the  Reformation  too  generally  represent  that 
great  revolution  to  originate  exclusively  with 
Luther  and  his  friends ;  in  Germany,  however, 
as  well  as  in  England,  the  pure  sentiments,  the 
holy  lives,  and  the  triumphant  deaths  of  the  mar- 
tyrs, from  the  twelfth  to  the  fifteenth  centuries, 
paved  the  way  for  their  successors  of  the  six- 
teenth. Before  we  enter  on  the  history  of  the 
rupture  between  the  German  princes  and  the 
papacy,  we  shall  briefly  notice  that  of  the  Bohe- 
mian reformers.  Bohemia  partook  of  the  general 
corruption,  and  was  immersed  in  darkness  and 
superstition,  when  Waldo  and  his  friends  sought 
an  asylum  in  that  kingdom,  and  in  the  year  1176 
formed  a  colony  at  Saltz  and  Laun,  on  the  river 
Eger.  These  Waldenses  found  the  Bohemians 
scarcely  less  superstitious  than  the  members  of 
the  church  of  Home;  but  subsequently  intro- 
duced among  them  the  knowledge  ot  the  Christian 
faith  in  its  purity,  according  to  the  word  of  God. 
On  the  introduction,  however,  of  popery,  through 
the  influence  of  Charles  IV.,  ignorance,  profli- 
gacy, and  corruption  of  manners,  began  to  pre- 
vail among  all  orders  of  the  people;  the  inquisition 
was  introduced  for  the  purpose  of  enforcing  des- 
potism in  the  civil  government,  and  uniformity 
of  opinion  in  matters  of  religion.  The  conse- 
quence was,  that  multitudes  withdrew  themselves 
from  the  public  places  of  worship,  and  followed 
the  dictates  of  their  own  consciences,  by  wor- 
shipping God  in  private  houses,  woods,  and 
caves.  Here  they  were  persecuted,  dragooned, 
drowned  and  killed ;  and  thus  matters  went  on 
until  the  appearance  of  John  Huss  and  Jerome 
of  Prague.  Jghn  Huss,  who  had  been  a  student 
in  the  university  of  Prague,  where  he  had  taken 
his  degrees,  and  become  a  zealous  disciple  of 
Wickliff,  was  bom  in  the  village  of  Hussinetz, 
in  1373,  of  parents  not  in  affluent  circumstances. 
He  was  a  person  of  eminent  abilities,  and  of  still 
more  eminent  zeal ;  his  talents  were  popular, 
his  life  irreproachable,  and  his  manners  the  most 
afifable  and  engaging.     He  was  the  idol  of  the 


populace ;  but,  in  proportion  as  he  attracted  their 
esteem  and  regara,  ne  -drew  upon  himself  the 
execration  of  the  priests.  The  introduction  of 
Wickliff's  writings  into  the  university  of  Prague 
gave  great  offence  to  the  archbishop  of  Prague, 
who  issued  a  decree  that  every  person  who  was 
in  possession  of  them  should  bring  the  books  to 
him,  in  order  that  such  as  contained  any  thing 
heretical  might  be  burnt  Huss,  and  the  mem- 
bers of  the  university,  entered  a  protest  against 
these  proceedings,  and  on  the  25th  of  June,  1410, 
appealed  from  the  sentence  of  the  archbishop  to 
the  court  of  Rome.  The  affair  was  carried  before 
pope  John  XXUL,  who  granted  a  commission  to 
cardinal  Colonna  to  cite  Huss  to  appear  persoually 
before  him  at  Rome,  there  to  answer  the  accu- 
sations laid  against  him  of  preaching  both  errors 
and  heresies.  Huss  desirea  to  be  excused  a  per- 
sonal appearance,  and  so  greatly  was  he  favored 
in  Bohemia,  that  king  Wenceslaus,  his  queen, 
the  nobility,  and  the  university  at  large,  joined 
in  a  request  to  the  pope  that  he  would  dispense 
with  such  an  appearance ;  and,  moreover,  that 
he  would  not  suffer  the  kingdom  of  Bohemia  to 
be  subject  to  the  imputation  of  heresy,  but  per- 
mit them  to  preach  the  gospel  with  freedom  in 
their  places  of  worship,  and  that  he  would  send 
legates  to  Prague  to  correct  any  presumed  abuses, 
the  expense  of  which  should  be  defrayed  by  the 
Bohemians.  Three  proctors  were  despatched  to 
Rome  to  tender  Huss*s  apology  to  his  holiness  ; 
but  the  excuses  alleged  were  deemed  insufficient, 
and  Huss,  being  declared  contumacious,  was  ac- 
cordingly excommunicated.  This  excommunica- 
tion extended  also  to  his  disciples  and  friends; 
he  himself  was  declared  a  promoter  of  heresy, 
and  an  interdict  was  pronounced  against  him. 
Urban  VI.,  who  had  succeeded  to  tlie  pontificate 
on  the  death  of  Gregory  XL,  A.  D.  1378,  having 
rendered  himself  odious  in  the  eyes  of  his  sub- 
jects, the  cardinals  so  resented  his  conduct  that 
they  set  aside  his  election,  and  chose  Clement  VII. 
in  his  room.  The  adherents  of  both  pontiffs  were 
indefatigable  in  their  exertions  to  support  their 
respective  pretensions,  and  much  human  blood 
was  spilt  in  the  contest.  To  terminate  this  dis- 
graceful schism,  a  third  pope,  Alexander  V.,  was 
elected,  in  the  hope  of  inducing  the  resignation 
of  the  others.  Neither  of  them,  however,  would 
give  up  nis  power  ;  and  the  world  now  saw  three 
popes  ruling  at  one  and  the  same  time.  With  a 
view  to  heal  the  fatal  schisms,  and  repair  the  dis- 
orders that  had  sprung  up  during  their  con- 
tinuance, as  well  as  to  bring  about  a  reformation 
of  the  clergy,  which  was  now  loudly  and  generally 
called  for,  in  the  year  1414  the  emperor  Sigis- 
mund  convened  the  council  of  Constance. 

Hither,  from  all  parts,  princes  and  prelates, 
clergy  and  laity,  regulars  and  seculars,  flocked 
together  (November  16th,  1414),  to  determine 
the  dispute  between  the  three  contending  factions 
for  the  papacy ;  and  thither  Huss  was  cited  to 
appear,  in  order  to  justify  his  conduct  and 
writings.  The  emperor  Sigismund,  brother  d 
Wenceslaus,  encouraged  Huss  to  obey  the  sum- 
mons, and,  as  an  inducement  to  his  compliance 
sent  him  a  passport  with  assurance  of  safe  con- 
duct, permitting  him  to  come  freely  to  the 
council,  and  pledging  himself  for  bis  safe  return. 


Digitized  by 


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REFORMATION. 


445 


Huss  consented ;  but  no  sooner  had  he  arrived 
within  the  pope*s  jurisdiction,  than,  regardless 
of  the  eaiperor*s  passport,  he  was  arrested  and 
committed  close  prisoner  to  a  chamber  in  the 
palace.  This  violation  of  common  law  and  jus- 
tice was  noticed  by  the  friends  of  Huss,  who 
had,  out  of  the  respect  they  bore  his  character, 
accompanied  him  to  Constance.  They  urged 
the  imperial  safe  conduct ;  but  the  pope  replied 
that  lie  never  granted  any  safe  conduct,  nor  was 
he  bound  by  that  of  the  emperor. 

Jerome  of  Prague  was  the  intimate  friend  and 
companion  of  Huss ;  inferior  to  him  in  age,  ex- 
perience, and  authority,  but  his  superior  in  all 
liberal  endowments.  He  was  bom  at  Prague, 
and  educated  in  that  university.  Having  finished 
his  studies  he  travelled  into  many  countries  of 
Europe.  The,  universities  of  Prague,  of  Paris, 
of  Cologne,  and  of  Heidelberg,  conferred  upon 
him  the  degree  of  M.  A. ;  and,  having  made 
the  tour  of  the  continent,  he  visited  England, 
where  he  obtained  access  to  the  writings  of 
WicklifTe,  which  he  copied  out,  and  returned 
with  them  to  Prague.  As  Jerome  had  distin- 
guished himself  by  an  active  co-operation  with 
Huss  in  all  his  opposition  to  the  abominations 
of  the  tiroes,  he  was  cited  before  the  council  of 
Constance  on  the  17th  April  1415,  at  the  time 
his  fiiend  Huss  was  confined  in  a  castle  near  that 
city.  Arriving  shortly  afterwards  in  Constance, 
or  the  neighbourhood,  he  learned  how  his  friend 
had  been  treated,  and  what  he  himself  had  to 
expect ;  on  which  he  prudently  returned  to  Iber- 
]ingen,  an  imperial  city,  whence  he  wrote  to  the 
emperor  and  council,  requesting  a  safe  conduct ; 
but,  not  obtaining  one  to  his  satisfaction,  he  was 
preparing  to  return  into  Bohemia,  when  he  was 
arrested  at  Kirschaw,  and  conveyed  to  Con- 
stance. Every  one  knows  the  fate  of  these  two 
eminent  men.  They  were  both  condemned  by 
the  couacil  to  be  burnt  alive,  and  the  sentence 
was  carried  into  efiect.  Huss  was  executed  on 
the  7th  July  1415 ;  and  Jerome  on  the  20th  of 
May  1416. 

V.  The  reformation  in  Germany. — If,  in  the 
following  sketch  of  the  circumstances  which  pre- 
ceded and  prodt^ced  the  Reformation  we  seem  to 
look  principally  to  the  efforts  of  the  German 
reformer,  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  great 
work,  then  generally  designated,  was  begun  in 
Germany,  and  that,  although  political  and  per- 
sonal circumstances  apparently  produced  the 
rupture  between  England  and  Rome,  the  minds 
of  men  had  been  previously  prepared  for  a  thank- 
fiil  embrace  of  it,  by  the  writings  of  Luther ; 
that  the  political  causes  were  only  accidental 
ones,  providentially  concurring  with  those  of  a 
moral  nature ;  and  that,  so  far  from  being  consi- 
dered as  independent  and  isolated  events,  the 
Reformation  both  in  England  and  Germany  was 
one  and  the  same  event  under  different  appear- 
ances and  modifications. 

With  this  caution  we  now  proceed  to  state 
what  to  us  appear  to  have  been  the  more  proxi- 
mate causes  of  the  Reformation,  first  begun  in 
the  early  part  of  the  sixteenth  century. 

In  the  nrst  instance  it  was  not  against  the  Ca- 
tholic dogmata,  but  against  the  abuses  and  the 
corruption  of  the  papal  court,  as  '  in  the  cas«>  of 


indulgences,'  that  Luther  and  others  directed 
their  zeal.  Our  intrepid  reformer  does  not  ap- 
pear at  all  to  have  originally  contemplated  an 
attack  against  transubstantiation,  purgatory, 
praying  for  the  dead,  the  use  of  images  and 
pictures,  the  veneration  of  relics,  tradition  as  a 
rule  of  faith,  the  invocation  of  saints,  or  even 
against  the  use  and  sale  of  indulgences.  It  was 
not  against  all  or  any  of  these  Catholic  tenets 
that  the  reformers,  in  the  first  instance,  protested. 
The  extreme  laxity  and  even  profligacy  of  the 
clers:y  had  long  been  the  source  of  painful  regret 
to  the  wise  and  good,  and  of  sarcasm,  impious 
pleasure,  and  contempt,  to  the  wicked  and  the 
vain.  Cardial  Bellarmine,  a  writer,  as  all  the 
world  knows,  but  seldom  disposed  to  say  a  syl- 
lable in  disparagement  of  the  church  or  the  Ro- 
man court,  confesses  that,  *  for  some  years  before 
the  Lutheran  and  Calvinistic  heresies,'  as  he 
expresses  it,  *  were  published,  there  was  not,  as 
contemporary  authors  testify,  any  severity  in 
ecclesiastical  judicatories,  any  knowledge  of 
sacred  literature,  any  reverence  for  divine  things ; 
there  was  not  almost  any  religion  remaining.' 
Had  the  moral  conduct  of  the  head,  and  minis- 
ters of  religion,  been  such  as  became  their  holy 
office,  it  is  more  than  probable  that  no  particular 
outcry  would  have  been  raised  against  the  Ca* 
tholic  doctrines  at  that  time.  No,  it  was  the  base 
conduct  of  the  clergy  that  first  sounded  the  tocsin 
of  religious  war.  This  depravity  had,  naturally 
enough,  become  the  subject  of  public  ridicule, 
of  reproach,  and  at  last  of  contempt  and  open 
opposition.  The  universal  cry  was  <  Reform  I* 
and  when  this  cry  was  rejected  another  still  more 
powerfiil  and  dreadful  was  raised  of  *  Destruc- 
tion !* 

The  holiness  of  the  church  became  the  first 
object  of  general  attack  ;  and,  unfortunately  for 
herself,  that  which  should  have  been  her  strongest 
hold  was  the  most  vulnerable  part  in  the  whole 
fortress.  The  outcry  was  not  against  the  host, 
but  against  him  by  whom  it  was  elevated.  Holy 
images^  pictures,  relics,  and  shrines,  were  never 
despised  till  they  were  abused  and  profaned  by 
those  to  whose  custody  they  had  been  previously 
consigned.  The  growing  pride  of  the  church  of 
Rome,  naturally  engendered  by  the  union  of  the 
spiritual  and  temporal  power,  was  one  of  the 
strong  symptoms  of  approaching  revolt.     Every 

Srince  bore  the  insolence  and  ambition  of  the 
loman  pontiff  with  a  greater  or  less  degree  of 
impatience.  Some  of  them  dared  to  oppose  it 
openly,  and  the  university  of  Paris  had  more 
than  once  been  made  the  organ  of  sovereign 
power  to  answer  the  menaces  of  Rome,  they  had 
the  courage  to  appeal  to  a  future  council,  which 
they,  without  ambiguity,  deemed  superior  to  the 
pope.  The  eyes  of  men  began  to  open.  The 
impolitic  violence  of  some  popes ;  the  scandalous 
lives  of  others ;  the  seventy  years  captivity  at 
Avignon ;  the  schism  of  forty  other  years  which 
followed  it,  in  which  two  and  sometimes  three 
popes  appeared,  each  having  a  party,  abusing 
and  excommunicating  each  other,  loading  each 
other  with  the  most  revolting  insults,  and  re- 
proaching each  other  with  the  lowest  vices— un- 
expected discoveries  which  covered  both  rivals 
with  ignominy  at  the  same  time ;  all  these  will 


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REFORMATION. 


surely  aoooimt  for  the  hatred  and  cootempt 
which  every  where  lurked  secretly  agaiust  the 
Romish  hierarchy.  Complaints  and  murmurs 
arose  oti  every  hand ;  thousands  of  ? oices  united 
in  demanding  a  reformation  of  the  church  in  its 
head  and  in  its  members,  in  its  faith  and  in  its 
manners.  Next  to  the  lordly  pride  of  the  Ro- 
man court  we  may  reckon  among  the  proximate 
causes  of  the  Reformation  the  luxury,  extrava- 
gance, and  religious  indifference  of  Leo  X. 

About  the  period  of  Luther's  Brst  attack  on 
the  religion  of  the  Catholics,  Rome  was  in  pro- 
found peace ;  and  this  interval  of  repose  Leo  X. 
occupied  in  expensive  schemes  for  aggrandizing 
tlie  family  of  theMedici ;  in  expending  &e  splendor 
of  the  papal  see ;  and  in  lavishing^  presents  on 
authors,  artists,  profane  wits,  and  buffoons.  To 
support  the  enormous  expenses  to  which  these  pro- 
pensities subjected  the  supreme  pontiff  required 
tar  greater  resources  than  the  now  almost  exhausted 
papal  treasury  supplied.  Yet  at  no  time  was  the 
Koman  court  in  greater  splendor,  nor  did  the  vicars 
of  Christ  ever  exhibit  a  magnificence  so  imposing 
as  that  (lisplayed  during  the  pontifioate  of  Leo 
X.  Every  decoration  that  art  could  suggest; 
every  wish  that  the  most  voluptuous  appetite  could 
engender;  and  every  refinement  that  an  un- 
bounded love  of  science  and  literature  could  de- 
vise ;  found  a  patron  in  that  luxurious  prince. 
This  profusion  and  magnificence  in  the  supreme 
pontiff  was  amply  copied  by  the  chiefs  and 
the  princes  of  the  Roman  court,  who  vied 
with  each  other  in  the  grandeur  and  sump- 
tuousness  of  their  palaces,  and  the  prodigality 
and  gaiety  of  their  entertainments;  nor  did  it 
deduct  from  the  pressure  to  which  this  extrava- 
gance exposed  the  subjects  of  the  papal  domi- 
nion, that  a  considerable  portion  of  the  riches 
which  were  drained  from  the  labor  or  the  purses 
of  the  poor  was  lavishf  d  without  discrimination 
on  artists,  painters,  and  sculptors.  Divine  pro^ 
vidence,  intending  on  the  one  hand  to  chastise 
the  church  for  her  profligacy  of  manners,  and  on 
the  other  to  free  the  gospel  of  Christ  from  the 
errors  and  corruptions  which  had  grown  upon 
it,  seems  to  have  lulled  the  supreme  pontiff  to 
a  fatal  security,  and  to  have  struck  with  blindness 
those  whom  it  designed  to  punish. 

An  admirer  of  the  fine  arts,  from  which  he 
only  sought  fame  and  gratification,  a  crafty  but 
presuming  politician,  prepossessed  with  con- 
tempt for  the  German  ruaeness  of  manners,  under 
which  he  was  unable  to  discover  that  strength 
and  manliness  of  character,  all  the  energy  of 
which  he  had  to  encounter,  Leo  X.  was  not 
qualified  to  enter  the  lists  with  Luther;  and  the 
arrogant  weakness  of  the  one  opened  number- 
less advantages  to  the  intrepid  firmness  of  the 
other.  Whoever  considers  the  characteristic 
national  differences  between  the  Italians  and 
Saxons  will  perceive  that  divine  providence  had 
been  secretly  but  effectually  preparing  for  that 
great  Reformation  in  the  church.  The  Italians 
adhered  strongly  to  a  religion  which  captivated 
their  senses,  and  permitted  indulgence  of  their 
vices.  A  taste  for  luxury,  pomp,  and  voluptu- 
tuousness,  with  that  of  the  fine  arts,  was  all  tneir 
enjoyment ;  always  oppressed^  they  were  natu- 
rallv  deceitful,  cunning,  dissimulating,  and  self- 


ish ;  every  thing  conducive  to  the  enjoymeot  of 
taste,  every  thing  flattering  to  the  sensibility, 
physical  and  moral,  had  become  the  object  o^ 
Italian  activity.  But  the  calm,  equal,  persevering 
activity  of  the  Saxons  was  directed  to  the  abstract 
sciences,  to  philosophy,  to  historical  researches. 
When  the  Reformation  burst  forth,  there  was  not  a 
single  theologian  of  Italy  capable  of  encounter- 
ing those  of  Saxony ;  some  of  them  had  the  pre- 
sumption to  attempt  it,-~a  presumption  always 
the  associate  of  ignorance ;  they  were  defeated 
and  covered  with  confusion;  in  revenge  Italy 
boasted  loudly  of  her  poets  and  her  painters  ; 
thev  had  not  produced  a  Luther,  but  Saxony 
had  not  produced  an  Ariosto. 

The  recent  invention  of  the  art  of  printing 
operated  in  a  very  powerful  manner  to  bring  into 
circulation  those  principles  which,  at  length, 
produced  the  Reformation.  The  revival  of  litera- 
ture about  this  period  under  the  especial  patron- 
age of  Leo  gave  a  stimulns  to  every  effort  of 
intellect.  Hence  the  reproaches  so  profusely 
cast  on  the  conduct  of  the  clergy  were  carried 
by  means  of  the  press  to  every  cottage,  and  were 
road  with  eagerness  by  both  the  pious  and  the 
profane ;  by  those  who  saw  the  decay  of  devo- 
tion in  the  people,  and  the  licentiousness  of  the 
clergy,  with  sentiments  of  sorro#,  and  a  wish  to 
have  them  reformed ;  and  also  by  those  who 
saw  these  evils  with  a  malicious  pleasure,  and  a 
secret  desire  for  the  ruin  of  the  Roman  eoart, 
and  the  destraction  of  the  papal  hierarchy. 

The  ill  use  which  Tetzel  and  others  noade  of 
the  sale  of  indulgences  is  a  cause  of  the  Reform* 
ation  which  has  been  repeated  by  every  writer 
on  the  subject  since  the  days  of  Lnther.  The 
splendor  aiia  magnificence  of  the  papal  see  hawe 
been  already  stat^ ;  but  we  deferred  to  notice  the 
enormous  expenses  to  which  the  Roman  govern- 
ment was  subjected,  in  the  completion  of  the 
astonishing  fabric  begun  during  the  pontificate 
of  Julius  II.,  the  church  of  St.  Petef  at  Rome. 
To  accomplish  this  stupendous  undertalting 
large  supplies  were  become  indispensably  need-> 
ful ;  and  Leo  X.,  as  almost  a  last  resource^  re- 
sorted to  a  measure  which  had  been  applied  to 
as  early  as  A.  D.  1100,  when  Urban  11.  granted 
a  plenary  indulgence  and  remission  of  sins  to  all 
such  persons  as  should  join  in  the  crusades  to 
liberate  the  holy  sepulchre  from  the  hands  of  the 
infidels.  In  thus  reviving  an  ancient  practice 
Leo  X.  was  not  introducing  any  new  mode  of 
taxation ;  yet  he  «»ek  no  pains  to  secure  the 
church  from  the  disgrace  which  she  subsequently 
•  sustained  by  the  improper  use  of  this  exti>aordi-> 
nary  species  of  traffic.  But  the  mere  act  of 
vending  remittances  of  holy  discipline  was  not 
all.  The  commissioners  ^in  this  noble  traffic 
were  not  chosen  from  amcMig  the  ranks  of  wise,- 
prudent,  and  honest  men.  John  Tetael,  a  Domi- 
nican Inai',  of  the  most  depraved  habits  and 
vicious  principles,  was  apfK>inted  by  Albert, 
archbishop  of  Menia,  to  dispose  of  these  disho- 
norable wares  to  the  credulous  and  deluded 
people.  Being  determined  to  extend  the  benefit 
of  his  commerce  as  much  as  possible,  he  scru- 
pled not  to  ex<:eed  the  bounds  of  his  eommis- 
siouy  nor  to  extol  his  merchandise  as  abounding 
with   every   virtue  that  the  most  meritotions 


Digitized  by 


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REFORMATION. 


447 


sacrifice  or  service  could  confer.  To  such  an 
impious  length  did  this  ag:ent  of  iniquity  extend 
his  blasphemies  as  to  declare  that  these  indul- 
gencies  would  atone  for  every  vice, — rpast,  pre- 
sent, or  to  come, — and  remit  every  punishment, 
both  in  this  life  and  in  the  next,  to  which  the 
most  profligate  wretch  could  be  exposed  I 

This  blasphemous  and  most  ridiculous  fraud 
was  played  off  upon  the  people  in  every  possible 
shape,  while  the  infamous  fabricator  and  vender 
wallowed  in  every  species  of  luxury,  debauchery 
and  wickedness ;  an  abuse  so  flagrant  could  not 
but  cause  the  honest  indignation  of  every  think- 
ing person.  Accordingly,  when  a  knowledge  of 
these  practices  came  to  the  ear  of  Martin  Luther, 
all  the  greatness  of  his  soul  was  called  into 
action,  and  he  inveighed  not,  at  first,  against  in- 
dulgences themselves,  but  against  that  torrent  of 
corruption  which  TetzeFs  abuse  of  them  was 
bringing  into  Christendom.  But  it  is  not  to  be 
supposed  that  an  institution  of  so  long  standing,  in- 
grafted on  so  many  prejudices  and  interests,  and 
supported  by  such  an  extraordinary  weight  of 
power  and  influence,  could  be  overturned  1^  any 
of  the  aforenamed  causes,  unless  those  causes 
had  been  called  into  action  by  some  bold  and  in- 
trepid spirit ;  some  daring  soul,  impatient  of  the 
crown  of  martyrdom,  and  indifferent  to  every 
consideration  that  contributed  not  to  advance  the 
glory  of  his  character,  the  iromortalitv  of  his 
memory,  and,  above  all,  the  interests  of  that  re- 
ligion to  which  he  was  devoted.  Inspired  by  a 
zeal  which  could  consume  the  most  obdurate 
prejudice,  and  a  courage  that  could  brave  the 
roost  potent  authority,  Luther  carried  every  thing 
before  him  that  retarded  his  designs.  He  knew 
when  to  advance,  and  when  to  make  good  a  safe 
retreat ;  when  to  trust  the  energies  of  his  own 
mind,  and  when  to  profit  by  the  advice  of 
others. 

The  Europeans,  who  till  this  time  had  been 
confined  within  the  limits  of  the  old  world,  had 
just  launched  beyond  it ;  the  road  to  India  and 
America  had  been  lately  discovered.  While  en- 
terprising navigators  were  in  this  manner  subdu- 
ing an  ocean  that  had  been  unconquei-able,  every 
mind  seemed  also  desirous  of  being  liberated 
from  the  narrow  circle  of  ideas  within  which  it 
had  been  confined  for  ages.  The  human  race 
advanced  perceptibly  towards  the  point  of  matu- 
rity of  a  new  epoch.  A  change  in  the  order  of 
things,  an  approaching  commotion,  seemed  tft 
band;  a  rumoling  was  heard  in  the  bowels  of  the 
volcano;  ardent  vapors  burst  forth  and  streamed 
through  the  obscunty.  Such  was  the  menacing 
fermentation  which  appeared  in  the  political 
state  of  nations  from  tne  commencement  of  the 
sixteenth  century.  The  minds  of  men  bad  un- 
dergone a  great  change;  worship  bad  become 
the  business  of  the  senses  and  religion  a  mytho- 
logy ;  splendid  ceremonies  had  superseded  sim- 
ple prayers  ;  saints  and  images  became  the 
intercessors  with  an  almost  forgotten  God,  and 
the  immediate  objects  of  d^totion.  The  popu- 
lace and  the  ignorant  adhered  very  strongly  to 
this  system  of  superstition,  which  captivated  their 
senses  and  lulled  all  their  vioes.  But  he  who 
began  to  think  and  to  'examine  would  perceive^ 
amid  all  this  pomp  and  ceremonial  obser? ance, 


only  the  work  of  man's  hand ;  he  would  at  onoe^ 
and  entirely,  reject  a  system  in  which  he  could 
no  longer  discover  any  trace  of  true  religion. 

Advancing  to  the  period  of  the  German  re^ 
formation  we  find  that  the  first  attack  on  the 
church  of  Rome  commenced  in  1517  on  the  part 
of  Martin  Luther,  who,  on  the  30th  of  Septem- 
ber, delivered  ninety-five  propositions,  in  which 
he  censured,  in  the  boldest  manner,  the  extrava- 
gant conduct  and  extortion  of  the  papal  conunis* 
sioners  for  the  sale  of  indulgences.  These  pro- 
positions were  promulgated  at  Wittembeiig,  at 
the  college  of  which  he  was  doctor.  Ignorant  of 
a  stipulation  made  between  Leo  X.  and  Albert 
of  Brandenburgh,  by  which  the  latter  should  re- 
tain one  ha^f  of  the  profits  arising  firom  the  sale 
of  these  indulgences,  Luther  addressed  a  letter 
of  remonstrance  to  this  elector;  but,  as  might 
naturally  have  been  supposed^  no  regard  was 
paid  to  his  complaints.  Exasperated  by  this 
neglect,  he  next  published  to  the  world  the  pro- 
positions he  had  read  in  the  church  in  Wittem- 
oerg.  They  contained  many  censures  on  the 
pope  himself,  but  were  rendered  as  palatable^  as 
possible  by  repeated  expressions  of  obedience  t» 
the  papal  authority  and  the  doctrines  and  deci- 
sions of  the  church.  On  the  fits!  appearance  of 
these  propositions  Tetzel,  the  principal  vender 
of  the  indulgences  by  the  appointment  of  the 
elector  of  Mentz,  endeavoured  to  defend  a  trafiic 
in  which  he  had  so  much  personal  interest.  To 
effect  thb  purpose,  he  published  a  set  of  counter 
propositions,  and  then  publicly  burned  those  by 
Luther.  The  friends  of  Luther,  in  a  similar 
spirit,  rejoined,  by  burning  800  oopies  of  Tet- 
zeFs  propositions  in  one  of  the  public  squares  of 
Wittemberg.  This  conduct  Luther  had  the  mo- 
deration or  good  sense  to  lament ;  and  he  affirmed 
tliat  it  was  adopted  without  his  knowledge. 

Leo  X.,  confiding  in  the  professions  of  Luther, 
who  had  declared  to  him  '  that  he  would  regard 
whatever  came  from  him  as  delivered  by  Christ 
himself,'  took  no  immediate  steps  to  curb  the 
zeal  of  the  reformers,  nor  to  remove  the  cause  of 
their  just  complaints.  At  length,  however,  the 
indolent  pontiff  was  roused  from  his  danger; 
and,  in  1518,  he  summoned  Luther  to  appear 
before  him  at  Rome,  within  sixty  days,  there  to 
answer  the  questions  which  should  be  proposed 
to  him  by  Prierio,  his  virulent  opponent.  It  re- 
quired no  extraordinary  degree  ot  penetration  to 
perceive  what  must  be  the  issue  of  the  trial, 
wherein  the  judge  and  the  plaintiff  were  one  and 
the  same  person.  Accordingly  Luther  made 
sufficient  interest  to  have  his  cause  heard  in  Ger- 
many. Tomaso  de  Vio,  cardinal  of  Gaeta,  the 
pope's  legate  at  the  diet  of  Augsburg,  was  em- 
powered to  summon  Luther  before  him ;  and,  if 
he  should  persist  in  his  errors,  to  hold  him  in 
custody  till  farther. instructions  should  be  sent 
from  Rome.  It  was  of  small  consequence  to 
Luther  whether  his  cause  shoild  be  heard  before 
the  prejudiced  and  interested  Prierio  at  Rome 
or  by  file  equally  interested  Dominical  cardinal 
of  Gaeta,  in  Germany.  Whatever  might  have 
been  the  lenient  principles  at  first  cherished,  by 
the  pope,  this  precipitate  and  rash  determination 
gave  great  ana  just  cause  of  offence  to  LutlMr 
and  his  friends.     No  alternative,  however,  re- 


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448 


REFORMATION. 


mained ;  and  Luther,  having  obtained  with  great 
difficulty  and  delay  a  safe  conduct  from  the  em- 
peror, repaired  to  Augsburg.  Previously,  how- 
ever, to  this,  and  after  the  pope  had  sent  bis  mo- 
nitory to  the  cardinal  of  Gaeta,  a  power  had  been 
delegated  to  that  cardinal  to  hear  his  defence, 
and,  in  case  of  penitence  and  submission,  again 
to  receive  him  to  the  communion  of  the  faithful. 
Encouraged  by  several  powerful  and  determined 
patrons,  Luther  contemned  the  authority  of  the 
legate ;  and  refused  to  mal^  any  concessions,  or 
to  violate  his  conscience,  as  he  termed  it,  by 
disavowing  what  he  knew  to  be  the  truth.  He 
yielded,  however,  so  far  as  to  consent  that  his 
opinions  should  be  submitted  to  such  universities 
as  he  should  name;  and  promised  in  future  to 
desist  from  impugning  the  discipline  of  indul- 
gences, provided  his  adversaries  were  likewise  to 
be  silent  concerning  them.  Luther,  after  different 
meetings,  was  permitted  to  depart;  when  his 
friends  judging  from  the  bold  or  rash  manner  of 
his  proceeding,  and  the  known  authority  of  his 
adversaries,  that  it  would  not  be  prudent  for  him 
to  remain  any  longer  in  danger,  advised  a  secret 
flight  from  Augsburg.  Prior,  however,  to  his 
departure,  he  published  a  solemn  appeal  from 
the  supreme  pontiff  prejudiced  and  misled  to  the 
same  pontiff  when  better  informed.  The  abrupt 
departure  of  Luther  from  Augsburg  naturally 
awakened  the  resentment  of  the  cardinal,  and  he 
immediately  addressed  a  letter  to  the  elector  of 
Saxony,  to  whose  protection  Luther  fled,  expres- 
sing his  surprise  and  indignation  at  his  conduct, 
at  the  same  time  requesting  that,  if  he  should 
continue  to  hold  and  defend  his  opinions,  he 
might  be  sent  to  Rome,  or  at  least  banished  from 
the  elector*s  dominions.  Frederick,  the  elector, 
replied  in  a  respectful  manner  to  the  legate's 
letter,  but  refusea  to  condemn  Luther  before  his 
opinions  were  proved  to  be  erroneous.  Every 
day  increased  the  danger  to  which  Luther  was 
exposed  by  his  intrepid  zeal  and  perseverance ; 
but  the  power  claimed  by  Leo  X.,  in  a  bull  he 
had  just  issued,  reduced  htm  to  this  most  diffi- 
cult alternative— either  openly  to  acknowledge, 
as  he  had  ever  done,  his  perfect  obedience  to  the 
holy  see,  by  submitting  his  judgment  to  the  de- 
cisions of  the  pope ;  or  at  once  renounce  obedi- 
ence to  the  vicar  of  Christ,  and  declare  open 
war  against  the  whole  Christian  world.  With  a 
boldness  unparallelled,  he  resolved  on  the  latter, 
and  immediately  appealed  from  the  pope  to  a 
general  council.  He  was  then  at  Wittemburg. 
To  justify  himself  in  this  measure,  he  truly  de- 
clared that  general  councils  'are  superior  in 
power  to  the  pope,  who,  being  a  fallible  man, 
might  err,  as  St.  Peter,  the  most  perfect  of  his 
pr^ecessors,  had  erred.'  He  furtner  remarked 
that  the  prophet  forbids  us  to  put  our  trust  or 
confidence  in  roan,  even  in  princes,  to  whose 
judgment  nothing  ought  less  to  be  committed 
than  the  words  of  God ;  protesting,  however,  at 
the  same  time,  that  he  had  no  intention  to  speak 
any  thing  against  the  holy  catholic  and  apostolic 
church,  nor  against  the  authority  of  the  holy  see. 
Leo  X.,  still  unwilling  or  afraid  to  push  matters 
to  extremities  against  this  unruly  son  of  the 
church,  addressed  a  conciliatory  message  to  the 
elector  of  Saxony.      This  was  accompanied  by 


a  present  which  a  very  snort  time  oefore  would 
have  had  the  most  pleasing  effects  on  the  mind 
of  the  elector :  it  was  the  consecrated  rose,  which 
the  pontiff  had  been  in  the  habit  of  sending  an- 
nually to  those  princes  for  whom  be  professed  a 
more  than  usual  affection  and  regard,  llus  sa- 
cred and  honorable  present  came  too  late.  The 
rose  had  lost  its  fragrance  with  the  half  reformed 
elector. 

.  VL  Decisive  progress  of  the  Reformation  in 
Germany. — About  this  period  Andrew  Bodcn- 
stein,  called  by  himself  Carlostadt,  from  the 
place  of  his  birth,  having  embraced  the  opinions 
of  Luther,  published  a  thesis  in  their  defence. 
This  called  forth  the  learning  and  powerful  abili- 
ties of  Eckius.  To  enter  into  a  detail  of  the 
disputes  at  Leipsic  between  Eckius,  Carlostadt, 
and  Luther,  irould  neither  edify  the  reader  nor 
illustrate  the  history.  As  usual  both  sides 
claimed  the  victory :  before  they  entered  upon 
the  debate,  which  was  conducted  in  the 
hall  of  the  castle  at  Leipsic,  in  the  presence  of 
George,  duke  of  Saxony,  and  a  large  concourse 
of  other  eminent  persons,  Eckius  proposed  to 
appoint  suitable  judges.  Luther,  with  his  cha- 
racteristic boldness  and  impetuosity,  replied  that 
all  the  world  might  be  the  judge.  If,  however, 
tliese  disputes  had  but  little  effect,  while  they 
were  carried  on  by  both  parties  in  propria  per- 
soni,  when  they  were  renewed  in  writing  they 
called  forth  the  efforts  of  many  learned  and  emi- 
nent scholars ;  amongst  whom  were  Melanctbon 
and  Erasmus,  whose  various  publications 
awakened  the  spirit  of  enquiry,  and  forwarded, 
in  a  very  poweitul  manner,  the  cause  of  the  Re- 
formation. After  the  fruitless  disputes  at  Leip- 
sic, Luther  returned  to  Wittemburg,  where 
Miltitz  renewed  his  efforts  to  reconcile  Luther  to 
the  pope  and  the  church ;  and  prevailed  upon 
him,  by  calling  in  the  assistance  of  the  society  of 
the  Augustine  monks,  to  which  Luther  belonged 
to  write  again  to  the  pope,  with  a  further  and 
more  explicit  account  of  his  conduct.  Under  the 

})retext  of  obedience,  respect,  and  even  affection 
or  the  pontiff,  Luther  conveyed  the  most  deter- 
mined opposition,  the  most  bitter  satire,  and  the 
most  marked  contempt;  insomuch  that  it  is 
scarcely  possible  to  conceive  a  composition  more 
replete  with  insult  and  offence  than  that  which 
Luther  affected  to  allow  himself  to  be  prevailed 
on  to  write  by  the  representations  of  his  own 
firatemity.  After  justifying  the  asperity  with 
which  he  had  commented  on  the  misconduct  of 
his  adversaries,  by  the  example  of  Christ  and  of 
the  prophets  and  apostles,  he  thus  proceeds :  '  I 
must,  however,  acknowledge  my  total  abhorrence 
of  your  see,  the  Roman  court,  which  neither  vou 
nor  any  man  can  deny  is  more  corrupt  than 
either  mbylon  or  Sodom,  and  according  to  the 
best  of  my  information  is  sunk  in  the  most  de- 
plorable and  notorious  impiety.  For  what  has 
Rome  poured  out  for  many  years  past  (as  you 
well  know)  but  the  desolation  of  all  things,  both 
of  body  and  soul,  and  the  worst  examples  of  all 
iniquity.  It  is  indeed  as  clear  as  daylight  to  all 
mankind  that  the  Roman  church,  formerly  the 
most  holy  of  all  churches,  is  become  the  mod 
licentious  den  of  thieves,  the  most  shameless  ut 
all  brothels,  the  kingdom  of  sin,  of  death,  and  of 


Digitized  by  ^^JiJUy  It: 


REFORMATION. 


449 


hell :  the  wtckedness  of  which  not  antichrist 
himself  could  conceive.  The  fate  of  the  court 
of  Rome  is  decreed ;  the  wraih  of  Gdd  is  upon 
it;  advice  it  detests;  reformation  it  dreads;  the 
fury  of  its  impiety  cannot  be  mitigated,  and  it 
has  now  fulfilled  that  which  was  said  of  its  mo- 
ther :  *  We  have  medicined  Babylon  and  she  is 
not  healed ;  let  us  therefore  leave  her  /  It  was 
the  office  of  you  and  your  cardinals  to  have  ap- 
plied a  remedy;  but  the  disorder  derides  the 
nand  of  the  physician,  <nec  audit  cumis  ha- 
benas/ 

Had  the  friends  of  the  Roman  court  yiewco 
this  in  the  light  in  which  some  protestants  have 
considered  it,  and  not  in  hci  completing  *  the 
measure  of  his  offences'  against  the  pope  and  the 
holy  Catholic  church,  the  bull  of  excommunica- 
tion which  Leo  X.  unwillingly  issued  against  the 
author  of  it,  would  never  have  been  put  in  force. 
Lather  and  his  adherents  are  conjured  in  it  to 
return  to  their  duty,  and  renounce  their  errors ; 
assuring  them,  that  if  they  give  manifest  proof  of 
ibeir  obedience,  by  destroying  and  disavowing 
their  writings  within  six  days,  they  should  be 
graciously  received  to  the  bosom  and  protection 
of  the  church ;  but  that,  should  they  persist  in 
their  errors  and  contumacy,  af%er  the  time  speci- 
fied, they  should  be  proceeded  against  immedi- 
ately as  obstinate  and  perverse  heretics,  and  re- 
ceive the  punishment  which  the  law,  in  such 
cases,  has  provided.  The  bull  of  Leo  X.,  instead 
of  allaying  these  tumults,  called  forth  all  the 
seal  and  energy  of  Luther,  and  his  powerful  and 
oumerous  friends.  To  such  a  pitch  of  exaspera- 
tion did  this  measure  raise  the  intrepid  and 
daring  innovator,  that  he  threw  off,  in  the  most 
unequivocal  manner,  all  forms  of  respect,  and 
even  decency,  towards  the  pope,  the  councils  and 
the  Catholic  church.  Refusing  to  appear  to  the 
pope's  citation,  he  boldly  exclaimed,  'I  defer  my 
appearing  there  until  I  am  followed  by  5000 
horse  and  20,000  foot ;  then  will  I  make  myself 
believed.'  No  epithet  of  a  severe  and  offensive 
nature  was  spared  in  representing  the  character 
and  conduct  of  the  pope  and  his  whole  court. 
He  once  more  appealed  to  a  general  council,  and 
hesitated  not  to  call  the  supreme  pontiff,  the  lord, 
whose  authority  he  had  lately  declared  as  infe- 
rior only  to  that  of  Jesus  Christ,  a  tyrant,  a 
heretic,  an  apostate,  and  antichrist,  himself.  He 
even  summons  the  pope  and  his  cardinals  to  re- 
pent of  their  sins  and  renounce  their  errors,  or 
ne  would  otherwise  deliver  over  both  them  and 
their  bull,  with  all  their  decretals,  to  Satan,  that 
by  the  destruction  of  the  flesh,  their  souls  may 
be  liberated  in  the  coming  of  our  Lord. 

Not  being  in  a  capacity  to  carry  his  threat  into 
execution  in  any  other  way,  '  on  the  10th  of 
December  1520,  he  caused  a  kind  of  funeral  pile 
to  be  erected  without  the  walls  of  Wittemberg, 
surrounded  by  scaffolds,  as  for  a  public  specta- 
cle ;  and,  when  the  places  thus  prepared  were 
filled  by  the  members  of  the  university  and  the 
inhabitants  of  the  city,  Luther  made  his  appear- 
ance with  many  attendants,  brinnng  with  him 
several  volumes  containing  the  decrees  of  Gra- 
tian,  the  decretals  of  the  popes,  the  constitutions 
called  the  Extavagants,  the  writings  of  Eckius, 
»nd  of  Emser,  another  of  his  antagonists,  and, 
Vol.  XVIIL 


finally,  a  copy  of  the  bull  of  Leo  X.  The  pile 
being  then  set  on  fire,  he,  with  his  own  hands, 
committed  the  books  to  the  flames,  exclaiming  at 
the  same  time,  *  Because  ye  have  troubled  th« 
holy  of  the  Lord,  ye  shall  be  burnt  with  eternal 
fire.'  That  there  might  be  no  mistake  respect- 
ing the  real  sentiments  of  these  xealous  reformers, 
on  the  follovring  day  Luther  mounted  the  pul- 
pit and  [openly  declared  that  the  conflagration 
they  had  just,  seen  was  a  matter  of  small  import- 
ance ;  that  it  would  be  more  to  the  purpose  if 
the  pope  himself,  or,  in  other  words,  the  napal 
see,  were  also  burnt.  * 

Every  one  must  allow  to  Luther  the  merit  of 
uncommon  fortitude,  zeal,  and  constancy.  This 
was  manifested  in  a  conspicuous  manner  at  the 
diet  of  Worms,  which  was  assembled  early  in  the 
year  1521,  by  the  emperor  Charles  V.  To  this 
assembly  Luther  was  summoned  to  appear,  and  . 
he  did  not  hesitate  promptly  to  obey  the  sum- 
mons, declaring  to  his  friends,  who  were  alarm- 
ed for  his  safety  should  he  comply,  that  were  he 
sure  to  encounter  there  as  many  devils  as  there 
were  tiles  on  the  houses,  he  would  not  disobey 
ttie  call.  He  arrived  at  tlie  city  of  Worms  on 
the  16th  of  April,  attended  by  a  numerous  and 
splendid  retinue,  and  was  conducted  to  the  diet 
on  the  following  day  bv  the  marshal  count  Pap< 
penhem,  who  informed  him  that  he  would  not 
be  permitted  to  address  the  assembly,  but  must 
'give  unequivocal  answers  to  such  questions  as 
should  be  put  to  him.  Being  asked  whether  the 
books  published  in  his  name,  the  titles  whereof 
were  recited  to  him,*were  indeed  his  own  pub- 
lications ;  and,  also,  if  they  were,  whether  he  was 
prepared  to  retract  what  had  been  condemned  by 
the  pope's  bull  in  them :  He  replied,  that  cer« 
tainly  the  books  were  his,  and  that  he  should 
never  deny  them ;  but  that  with  respect  to  re* 
tracting  any  thing  he  had  advanced  in  those  books, 
it  was  a  matter  of  such  importance,  that  he  re- 
quested a  little  time  to  consider  before  he  gave 
his  answer.  Accordingly  he  was  allowed  till  the 
following  day  to  deliver  a  verbal  and  decided 
resolution.  Encouraged  by  the  plaudits  and  the 
advice  of  numerous  friends,  and  urged  on  to  con- 
stancy by  the  admiration  of  the  populace,  be 
again  appeared  before  the  diet  at  the  time  ap- 
pointed. He  delivered  a  very  long  and  eloquent 
oration,  in  which  he  declared  that  some  of  his 
writinp  being  published  purely  for  the  promo-  - 
tion  of  piety  and  good  morals,  he  could  not  be 
expected  to  condemn  what  both  friends  and  ene- 
mies allowed  to  be  useful  and  innocent  ;-^tbat 
others  being  directed  principally  against  the  ty-' 
ranny  of  2ie  papistical  doctrines,  which  had 
given  such  general  offence,  he  could  not  retract 
them  without  betraying  the  cause  of  liberty  and 
truth,  which  he  had  hitherto  resolved  to  support  ( 
—but  that  with  reipect  to  the  third  portion  of 
his  writings,  which'  were  those  written  directly 
against  his  various  adversaries,  he  would  confess 
he  might  have  departed  from  that  strict  line  of 
mildness  and  decorum  which  he  ought  to  have 
observed ;  and  that  as  he  made  no  extraordinary 
pretensions  to  sanctity,  and  was  rather  disposed 
to  defend  his  doctrines  than  his  manners,  he 
should  only  reply  in  the  words  of  the  Saviour, 
<  If  I  have  spoken  evil,  bear  witness  of  the  evU,* 

«G 

DigitizQd'byVjiUUgle 


450 


REFORMATION. 


This  was  the  only  oonoeaskHi  he  ttppeared  dis- 
posed to  make,  except  that,  if  any  of  his  doc- 
trines could  be  proYed  to  be  opposed  to  the  holy 
Scriptures,  he  himself  would  be  the  first  to  com- 
mit them  to  the  flames.  Addressing  himself  im- 
mediately to  the  emperor  and  the  other  princes 
who  were  ]9resent,  he  said  that  the  true  doctrine, 
when  publicly  acknowledged,  was,  at  all  times, 
to  be  regarded  as  a  divine  blessing ;  but  that  to 
reject  it  would  infallibly  bring  upon.them  many 
serious  calamities.  This  harangue  not  being 
deemed  a  satisGetctory  answer,  it  was  demanded 
of  him  to*say,  simply  and  uoequivocally,  whe- 
ther he  would  or  would  not  retract  bis  opinions 
and  writings.  Now  it  was  that  all  the  native 
greatness  and  dignity  of  his  soul  became  manifest, 
and  he  boldly  replied  in  the  following  terms^  as 
translated  by  Mr.  Roscoe : — *  Since  your  majesty, 
and  the  sovereigns  now  present,  require  a  simple 
answer,  I  shall  reply  thus,  without  evasion  and 
without  vehemence.  Unless  I  be  convinced  by 
the  testimony  of  Scripture,  or  by  evident  reason 
(for  I  cannot  rely  on  the  authority  of  the  pope 
and  councils  alone,  since  it  appears  they  nave 
frequently  erred  and  contradicted  each  other), 
and  unless  my  conscience  be  subdued  by  the 
word  of  God,  i  neither  can  noi'  will  retract  any 
thing,  seeing  that  to  act  against  mv  own  consci- 
ence is  neither  safe  nor  honest.'  After  which  he 
added,  in  his  native  German,  for  he  had  previ- 
ously spoken  in  Latin,  *  Hier  stehe ;  ich  gan  nicht ' 
anders ;  Gott  helff  mir.  Amen.'  <  Here  I  take  my 
stand ;  I  can  do  no  other ;  God  be  my  help  I 
Amen.'  Never  through  his  "whole  life  did  Lu- 
ther appear  to  so  much  advantage  as  on  this  me- 
morable occasion.'  The  answer  which  Luther 
had  given  to  the  diet  seemed  to  have  placed  the 
matter  beyond  all  further  dispute,  and  that 
nothing  remained  but  to  put  the  law  against  here- 
tics in  force  upon  him  ;  yet,  through  much  per- 
suasion, the  emperor  was  induced  to  allow  him, 
to  remain  three  days  longer  at  Worms,  and  in 
the  mean  time  several  persons  were  permitted  to 
use  their  best  efforts  in  private  to  persuade  him 
to  obedieni'e.  But,  eve^  mild  ana  lenient  me^ 
thod  proving  abortive,  he  was  eommanded  to. 
depart  from  the  city  and  not  to  be  found  within 
tiie  emperor's  dominions  after  the  eipiretion  of 
twenty  days.  Some  persons  even  advised  the 
emperor  to  disregard  the  safe  conduct  which  had 
been  granted,  and,  imitating  the  council  of  Con- 
stance, to  destroy  at  once  so  dangerous  a  heretic; 
but  to  the  eternal  honor  of  Charles  V.  he  replied, 
that  he  would  not  give  himself  occasion  to  blush 
as  the  emperor  Sigismun4  had  done,  in  the  case 
of  John  Hoss.  In  thus  nobly  reftising  to  depart 
from  the  spirit  of  his  religious  profession,  he  was 
encouraged  by  Louis,  the  elector  count  Palatine^ 
who  declared  that  such  an  act  would  brand  the 
German  name  with  perpetual  infamy ;  and  add-  v 
ed  that  it  was  intolerable  that  the  empire  should 
be  for  ever  disgraced  and  reproached  for  not 
keeping  the  public  fttith  merely  to  gratify  the  re- 
sentment of  a  few  priests.  Luther  left  the  city 
of  Worms  on  the  26th  of  April,  accompanied  by 
llie  imperial  herald.  He  was  met  at  the  gate  of 
the  city  by  a  numerous  body  of  his  friends,  firara 
ipi^om  he  received  the  wannest  congratulations 
and  applaiises;  he  then  proceeded  on  his  jour- 


ney to  Wittemberg.  On  the  26ih  of  May,  one 
month  after  his  departure,  the  emperor,  after  re- 
peated solicitations,  issued  a  decree  of  the  diet 
against  hin^  in  which  he  is  represented  '  as  the 
devil  in  the  semblance  of  a  man,  and  the  dress 
of  a  monk :'  and  all  the  subjepu  of  the  imperial 
dominions  are  required  to  seute  upon  him  and  bis 
adherents,  to  destroy  their  property,  and  bum 
their  books  and  writings ;  and  all  printers  are 
forbid  to  publish  any  of  their  works  without  the 
consent  of  the  ordinary.  Luth<;r,  however,  es- 
caped the  rage  of  his  enemies,  by  a  very  fortunate 
and  unlooked-for  circumstance.  Passing  through 
a  wood  on  his  way  to  Wittemberg,  with  but  a 
small  band  of  attendants,  he  was  seized  by  se- 
veral persons  in  masks,  employed  by  the  elector 
of  Saxony,  and  forcibly  carried  to  the  castle  of 
Wartburg,  where  be  remained  in  privacy  for  the 
space  of  nine  or  ten  months,  during  which  Leo 
X.  died,  and  was  succeeded  by  Adrian  VI.  This 
master  piece  of  policy  and  humanity  in  Frederick 
was  attended  by  several  beneficial  effects.  Dur- 
ing this  retreat  Luther  employed  himself  in  com- 
posing many  of  those  works  which  have  since 
become,  in  a  manner,  the  ground-work  of  the 
Reformation.  Here,  also,  he  translated  a  great 
part  of  the  New  Testament  into  the  German  Lan- 
guage, and  wrote  numerous  letters  to  various 
parts ;  so  that  the  ^ork  of  the  Reformation  went  on 
with  a  rapidity  equal  to  his  most  sanguine  wishes, 
notwithstanding  the  opposition  it  met  with  from, 
the  apostolic  nuncios  and  others. 

From  this  period  the  Reformation  may  pro- 
perly be  said  to  have  taken  effectual  root.  The 
subject  which  now  chiefly  engaged  public  atten- 
tion was  the  expected  call  of  a  general  council. 
The  reformed  party  was  solicitous  for  the  mea- 
sure, in  the  hope  of  reducing  the  prerogative  of  the 
pontiff;  while  the  moderate  and  well-intentioned 
part  of  the  Catholics  looked  to  it  as  the  means  of 
stopping  the  faurther  progress  of  schism.  After 
many  delays  the  unsteady  and  irresolute  Cle- 
ment had  at  last  declared  his  assent  to  the  long 
expected  convocation.  Whether  he  was  sincere  in 
this  declaration,  or  as  is  more  probable  meant 
only  an  apparent  concession  to  the  wish  of  the 
German  diet,  the  occurrence  of  his  death,  in  the 
midst  of  the  n^ociation,  has  left  a  matter  of  un- 
certainty. Alexander  Farnese,  to  whom  Clement 
had,  in  a  manner,  bequeathed  the  pontificate^ 
succeeded  him  without  opposition,  and  assumed 
the  name  of  Paul  III. 

Paul  proceeded,  or  affected  to  proceed,  on  the 
plan  of  making  arrangements  for  the  convocation 
of  a  council.  But,  as  the  reformed  were  now  too 
numerous  to  be  refused  access  to  the  council, 
Paul  determined,  as  a  preliminary  step,  f  o  despatch 
a  confidential  person  to  confer  with  their  leading 
men.  His  nuncio  in  Germany,  Peter  Paul 
Verger,  a  native  of  Istria,  and  a  &vorite  of  Paul's 
predecessor,  was  chosen  for  this  commission. 
This  person  proceeded  to  Wittemberg  to  mee^ 
Luther.  The  interview  was  terminated,  as  might 
be  expected,  without  any  beneficial  result.  The 
pope  now  ordered  his  legate  to  declare  to  the 
diet  of  Spires,  assembled  in  1542,  that  be  would, 
according  to  the  promise  he  had  already  made, 
assemble  a  general  council,  and  that  Trent  should 
be  the  place  of  its  meeting,  if  the  diet  had  no 


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ol]jcetioti  to  that  city.  Fefidiimnd  tmd  the 
priooes  who  adhered  to  the  cause  of  the  pope 
gave  their  consent  to  thia  proposal ;  hot  it  was 
vehemently  opposed  by  the  protestants,  both  be- 
caose  the  council  was  summoned  by  the  autho- 
rity of  the  pope  only,  and  also  because  the  place 
was  within  his  jurisdiction,  while  they  desired  a 
free  council,  which  should  not  be  t)iassed  by  the 
dictates  nor  awed  by  the  proximity  of  the  pontiff. 
But  this  protestation  produced  no  effect.  Paul 
III.  persisted  in  his  purpose,  and  issued  out  his 
circular  letters  for  the  convocation  of  the  council- 
with  the  approbation  of  the  emperor. 

The  emperor  labored  to  persuade  the  protes- 
tants to  consent  to  the  meeting  of  the  council  of 
Trent ;  but,  when  he  found  ^m  fixed  in  their 
opposition  to  thi^  measure,  he  began  to  listen  to 
the  sanguinary  measures  of  the  pope,  and  re- 
solved to  terminate  the  disputes   oy  force  of 
arms.    The  elector  of  Saxony  and  Landgrave 
of  Hesse,  who  were  the  chief  supporters  of  the 
protestant  cause,  upon  this  took  proper  mea- 
sures to  prevent  their  being  surprised  and  over- 
whelmed by  a  superior  force.    But,  before  the 
borron  of  war  commenced,  the  great  reformer 
Luther  died  in  peace  at  Eisleben,  his  native 
plecey  February  14th,  1546.    He  had  travelled 
ta  JSisleben  from  Wittemburg  in  the  midst  of 
winter,  to  endeavour  to  effect  a  reconciliation 
between  the  counts  of  Mansfield.    Soon  after 
entering  Bisleben,  he  suffered  an  access  of  ex- 
treme debility,  a  circumstance  not  unusual  with 
him  in  engaging  in  a  matter  of  deep  interest. 
But  this  attack  was  more  serious  than  on  former 
occasions.    He  recovered,  however,  and  seemed 
to  enjoy  the  hospitality  which  his  friends  were 
aaxious  to  show  him.    His  time  was  passed  in 
attention  to  his  customary  hours  of  daily  prayer; 
in  the  transaction  of  the  business  which  had 
called  him  to  Eisleben;  and  in  cheerful  and  good 
humored   conversation.    He  partook   twice  of 
the  Lord's  Supper,  and  preached  three  or  four 
times  before  the  progressive  advance  of  his 
roakidy  led  to  the  exhaustion  of  his  frame ;  after 
passing  nearly  three  weeks  at  Eisleben,  his  illness 
was  productive  of  a  htid  termination,  Luther 
expired,  surrounded  by  friends,  and  placing  the 
fullest  trust  in  Him  to  the  promotion  of  whose 
cause  he  had  icealously  and  constantly  devoted  his 
powers.    To  the  eternal  honor  of  Luther  we  may 
add,  that  after  having  refused  the  offers  of  the 
court  of  Rome;   afl^  having  been  so  many 
years  the  father  and  almost  the  founder  of  a  new 
church;  after  havine  been  the  friend,  the  ad- 
viser, the  spiritual  &ther  of  so  many,  princes, 
who,  through  the  Reformation,  had  been  enriched 
with  all  the  possessions  of  the  clergy,  of  which 
he  might  if  desirous  have  obtained  a  rich  share, 
he  lived  and  died  in  a  state  bordering  on  po- 
verty, and  left  to  his  wife  and  children  only  the 
esteem  due .  to  his  name.    In  the  diet  of  Augs- 
burgy  which  was  soon  after  called,  the  emperor 
required  the  protestants  to  leave  the  decisions  of 
these  religious  disputes  to  the  wisdom  of  the 
cotmcil  which  now  met  at  Trent.    See  Tbemt. 

A  plague  which  broke  out,  or  was  said  to  do 
so,  in  the  city  of  Trent,  caused  the  greater  part 
of  the  bishops  to  retire  to  Bologna;  by  which 
means  the  council  was  in  effect  dissolved,  npr 


could  all  the  entreaties  and  remonstrances  of  the 
emperor  prevail  upon  the  pope  to  reassemble  it 
without  delay. 

In  the  year  1549  Paul  III.  died,  and  was 
succeeded  by  Julius  III.,  who,  at  the  repeated 
solicitations  of  the  emperor^  consented  to  the  re- 
assembling of  a  council  at  Trent.    A  diet  was 
again  held  at  Augsburg  under  the  cannon  of  an 
imperial  army,  and  Charles  laid  the  ecclesias- 
tioal  aflairs  before  the  princes  of  the  empire. 
On  the.  dissolution  of  this  meeting,  in  1551,  the 
emperor  Charles  V.,  being  defeat^  at  Inspruck, 
concluded  a  treaty  with  Maurice,  elector  of 
Saxony.at  Passau,  which  is  considered  by  the 
protestants  as  the  basis  of  their  religious  liberty. 
By  this  treaty  it  was  provided  that  another  diet 
slxmld  be  called  with  a  view  to  an  amicable  ad- 
justment of  all  matters  in  dispute^  and  that  until 
such  adjustment  the  contenaing  parties  should 
enjoy  the  free  and  undisturbed  exercise  of  their 
religion.      Various  circumstances  delayed  the 
promised  meeting  of  the  diet ;  at  length,  how- 
ever, it  met  at  Augsburg,  where  it  was  opened  by 
Ferdinand  in  the  name  of  the  emperor,  and  ter- 
minated those  deplorable  calamities  which  had 
so  long  desolated  the  empire.    After  various  de- ' 
bates  the  following  resolutions  were  agreed  to 
on  the  25th  of  September  1555 ;  tint  the  pro- 
testanjts  who  followed  the  confession  of  Augs->' 
burg  should  be,  for  the  future,  considered  as  en- 
tirely free  from  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Roman 
pontiff,  and  from  the  authority  and  superintend-* 
ance  of  the  bbhops ;  that  they  were  left  at  per- 
fect liberty  to  enact  laws  for  themselves  relating 
to  their  religious    sentiments,  discipline,  and 
worship ;  that  all  the  inhabitants  of  the  German 
empire  should  be  allowed  to  jud^  for  them- 
selves in  religious  matters,  and  to  jom  themselves 
to  that  church  whose  doctrine  and  worship  they 
thought  the  most  pure  and  consonant  to  the  true 
spirit  of  Christianity ;  and  that  all  those  who 
should  injure  or  persecute  any  person  under  re- 
ligious pretences,  and  on  account  of  their  opi- 
nions, should  be  declared  and  proceeded  against 
as  public  enemies  of  the  empire,  invaders  of  its 
liberty,  and  disturbers  of  its  peace.    Thus  was 
the  Reformation  established  in  several  of  the 
states  of  the  Gennan  empire,  where  it  continues 
to  this  day ;  nor  have  the  efforts  of  the  papacy 
been  since  able  to  suppress  it,  or  even  to  prevent 
its  growth.' 

VII.  Progrea  of  the  Rtformation  in  Eng- 
land. — ^Turning  from  Germany  the  cradle  of  the 
Reformation,  and  from  those  holy  men  to  whom 
under  God  we  owe  the  first  revival  of  truth  and 
science  on  the  continent,  the  pious  and  Chris- 
tian mind  vrill  delight  to  contemplate  the  various 
causes  which  were  preparing  the  way  in  Eng- 
land for  a  religious  revolution  not  less  remark- 
able nor  less  beneficial  than  that  effected  by 
Luther.  The  growing  cruelty,  oppression,  and 
ignorance  of  the  clergy  had  already  excited  the 
just  hatred  of  the  people  to  no  small  extent ; 
but  the  enemies  whom  the  wealth  of  the  church 
tempted  to  assail  it  were,  far  more  dangerous 
than  those  who  opposed  its  corrupt  doctrines 
and  superstitious  practices.  When,  however,  its 
wealth  had  once  become  an  object  of  cupidity  to 
the  government,  thp  enemies  whom  its  corruption 

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had  provoked,  and  its  craelties  incensed^  weve 
ready  to  league  with  any  allies  against  it,  and 
fefbrm  and  spoliation  went  hand  in  hand.  The 
accession  of  Heniy  VIII.  to  the  throne  of  Eng- 
land promised  to  the  world  a  reign  of  splendor, 
popularity,  and  peace.  With  every  advantage 
of  person,  he  united  a  high  degree  of  bodily  and 
mental  accomplishment;  his  understanding  was 
quick  and  vigorous ;  and  his  learning  such  as 
might  have  raised  him  to  distinction,  had  he 
been  born  in  humble  life.  Among  the  passions 
of  Henry  must  be  reckoned  that  which  h^  had 
for  the  writings  of  St.  Thomas  Aquinas.  His 
veneration  for  this  vigorous  champion  .of  the 
Roman  orthodoxy  was  carried  so  far  that,  Luther 
having  contradicted  St.  Thomas  with  acumen, 
Henry  thought  himself  bound  to  enter  the  lists 
and  defend  his  master.  He,  therefore,  wrote  a 
Treatise,  or  Assertion  of  the  Seven  Sacraments, 
against  Luther,  who  admitted  with  all  tiie  re- 
formed churches  of  no  more  than  two.  The 
latter  treated  his  new  adver^ryas  his  equal,  and 
ridiculed  him;  but  the  pope,  who  perhaps 
really  laughed  at  the  book  as  much  as  Luther 
did,  appeared  so  much  delighted  with  his  literary 
efforts  m  his  favor,  that  he  bestowed  on  Henry 
the  title  of  '  defender  of  the  faith.'  Little  did 
the  world  imagine  that  Henry  was  so  soon  to 
1)ecome  one  of  the  most  potent  enemies  of  the 
papacy;  and  that  the  Reformation  under  his  aus- 
pices would  be  introduced  into  England.  A 
speech  of  the  court  fool  upon  that  occasion  has 
been  preserved :  '  O,  good  Harry,  let  thou  and  I 
defena  one  another,  and  let  the  faith  alone  to 
defend  itself.'  Henry  had  now  been  married 
eighteen  years  to  Catherine  of  Arragon,  who  had 
been  brought  over  from  Spain  to  marry  his 
eldest  brother,  prince  Arthur,  who  died  some 
months  after  his  cohabitation  with  her.  Henry 
had  three  children  by  this  lady,  one  'of  whom 
was  still  living,  while  she  herself  was  esteemed 
for  her  virtue  and  the  gentleness  of  her  dispo- 
sition. It  happened  at  length,  that  among  the 
maids  of  honor  that  then  waited  on  the  queen, 
his  attention  was  attracted  by  Anna  Bullen,  the 
daughter  of  a  gentleman  of  distinction,  though 
not  of  the  nobility.  The  king,  who  never  re- 
strained one  passion  which  he  desired  to  gratify, 
saw  and  loved  her ;  but,  after  several  efforts  to 
induce  her  to  comply  with  his  criminal  'passion, 
he  found  that  without  marriage  he  could  have  no 
hopes  of  succeeding.  This  obstacle,  therefore, 
he  undertook  to  remove;  his  own  queen  was 
DOW  become  hateful  to  him,  and,  in  order  to 
procure  a  divorce,  he  pretended  his  conscience 
rebuked  him  for  having  so  longed  lived  in 
incest  with  his  present  queen,  formerly  his  bro- 
ther's wife.  In  this  perplexity,  therefore,  he 
applied  to  Clement  VlL,  who  owed  him  obli- 
gations, and  from  whom  he  expected  a  ready 
compliance,  to  dissolve  the  bnll  of  the  former 
pope,  who  had  given  him  permission  to  marry 
Catherine,  and  to  declare  it  was'  contrary  to  all 
laws  both  divine  and  human.  Clement  was 
now  in  the  utmost  perplexity.  Queen  Cathe- 
rine was  aunt  to  the  emperor,  who  had  lately 
made  him  a  prisoner,  and  whose  resentment  he 
dreaded  to  rekindle^  by  thus  injuring  so  near  a 
lelation ;  besides  ht  could  not^  in  honor,  declare 


the  hull  of  the  former  pope  illicit^  for  this  would 
be  entirely  destroying  the  papal  iBfallibiUty. 
On  the  other  hand,  Henry  vraa  his  protector 
and  friend,  the  dominions  of  England  weie  the 
chief  source  of  his  finances ;  and  the  king  of 
France,  some  time  before,  had  got  a  bill  of  di- 
vorce in  somewhat  similar  circumstances.  In 
this  exigence  he  thought  the  best  method  was  to 
spin  out  the  affair  by  negociation;  Vhilst  it 
depended,  he  was  sure  of  two  great  friends,  but, 
when  it  should  be  decided,  of  one  great  foe: 
and  thus  he  argued,  temporised,  promised,  r^ 
canted,  and  disputed,  hoping  that  the  king  s  pas- 
sion would  never  hold  out  during  the  tedious 
course  of  an  ecclesiastical  controversy,  or  that 
the  not  improbable  death  of  the  queen,  or  some 
other  of  those  accidents  to  which  human  affain 
are  subject,  might  extricate  him  from  his  embar- 
rassment. During  the  negociations,  on  which 
Henry's  happiness  seemed  to  depend,  he  ex- 
pected, in  his  favorite  Wolsey,a  warm  defender, 
and  a  steady  adherent;  but  Wolsey  seemed  to 
be  in  almost  as  great  a  dilemma  as  the  pope 
himself.  On  the  one  hand  he  was  to  please 
his  master,  the  king,  from  whom  he  had  received 
a  thousand  marks  of  favor ;  on  the  other  hand 
he  could  not  disoblige  the  pope,  whose  servant 
he  more  immediately  was,  ana  who  had  power 
to  punish  his  disobedience.  The  king's  resent- 
ment was  consequently  excited  against  the  car- 
dinal, who  died  soon  after,  in  all  the  pangs  of 
repentance  and  remorse. 

Henry,  by  the  advice  of  Cranmer,  had  the 
lenity  of  his  present  marriage  canvassed  in  the 
different  universities  of  Europe.  Almost  all 
the  colleges  of  Italy  and  France  declared  his 
present  marriage  against  all  law,  divine  and 
numan ;  and  that,  therefore,  it  was  not,  at  first, 
in  the  power  of  the  pope  to  grant  a  dispensation. 
Among  the  places  where  it  was  roost  warmly 
opposed  were  Cambridge  and  Oxford ;  but,  at 
last,  they  also  concurred  in  the  same  opinion. 
Thus  fortified,  the  king  was  resolved  to  oppose 
even  the  pope  himself,  for  his  passion  coula  by 
no  means  brook  the  delays  and  subterfuges  of 
the  holy  see ;  being  therefore  supported  by  his 
clergy,  and  authori^  by  the  universities ;  having 
seen  the  pope  formerly  degraded  by  a  lay  mon- 
arch, and  Luther's  doctrine  followed  by  thou- 
sands; and  yet  still  further  instigated  by  the 
king  of  France,  he,  without  further  dispensation, 
annulled  his  marriage  with  queen  Catherine; 
and  Cranmer,  now  bKBcome  an  archbishop,  pro- 
nounced the  decree. 

The  pope  now  thought  himself  obliged  to 
hold  no  measures  with  the  king;  and,  therefoie, 
published  a  sentence  declaring  queen  Catherine 
alone  to  be  Henry's  lawful  wife,  and  requiring 
him  to  take  her  again,  with  a  denunciation  of 
censures  in  case  of  refusal.  Henry,  enraged 
that  the  pope  should  dare  to  thwart  his  pas- 
sion, declared  himself  at  once  head  of  the 
church  of  England,  and  prohibited  all  inter- 
course with  Rome ;  the  tribute  of  Peter-pence^ 
and  the  interference  of  the  pope  in  the  cotlatioQ 
to  benefices.  The  people  came  into  the  kins's 
proposal  with  joy,  and  took  an  oath,  called  me 
oath  of  supremacy ;  all  the  credit  of  the  pope^ 
that  had  subsisted  for  ages,  vras  now  at  once  ove?  - 


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throwD,  and  few,  txoept  thoM  ^ho  held  to  the 
leligioos  booses,  seemed  dissatisfied.  In  this 
maimer  began  the  Reformation  of  England,  and 
bv  such  surprising  methods  providence  brought 
about  its  designs. 

Henry  was  very  sensible  that  the  parliament 
was,  even  from  motives  of  interest,  entirely  de- 
voted to  him,  and  therefore  be  was  resolved  to 
make  use  of  ^e  opportunity,  and  render  himself 
absolute.  Being  empowered  to  act  as  he  thought 
proper,  he  went  vigorously  to  work  in  the  sup- 
pression of  monasteries,  colleges,  and  religious 
obuses.  To  reconcile  the  people  to  these  pro- 
ceedings, Henry  took  care  to  have  the  counter- 
feit reliques  exposed,  the  scandalous  lives  of  the 
friars  and  nuns  made  public,  and  all  Uieir  de- 
baucheries detected.  Whatever  had  served  to 
engage  the  people  in  superstition,  was  publicly 
burnt;  but  what  grieved  the  people  most  to  see, 
were  the  bones  of  Thomas  fiecket,  the  saint  of 
Canterbury,  burnt  in  public,  and  his  rich  shrine, 
in  which  there  was  a  diamond  of  great  valae, 
confiscated  among  the  common  plunder.  But, 
though  the  king  had  entirely  separated  himself 
from  Rome,  yet  he  was  by  no  m&ms  willing  to 
be  a  follower  of  Luther.  The  invocation  of 
saints  was  not  ye^  abolished  by  him,  but  only 
restrained;  he  ordered  the  Bible  to  be  trans- 
lated into  the  vulgar  tongue,  but  not  put  into  the 
hands  of  the  laity.  The  publication  of  Tindal^s 
Translation  of  the  Bible  vras  at  this  time,  in  its 
effects  upon  this  nation,  the  most  important 
volume  that  ever  issued  from  the  press.  Under 
the  patronage  of  Humphrey  Monmouth,  a 
wealuiy  and  benevolent  citizen,  Tindal  travelled 
into  Germany,  where  he  conferred  with  Luther 
and  others  of  the  great  protestant  divines,  and 
then  settling  at  Antwerp,  as  the  best  place  for 
printing  his  book  and  securing  its  transmission 
to  England,  completed  the  New  Testament. 
Tindal  had  perceived,  he  said,  that  it  was  im- 
possible to  establish  the  people  in  any  truth,  ex- 
cept the  Scriptures  were  nlainly  laid  before  Uiem 
in  their  mother  tongue,  mat  they  might  see  the 

C»s,  order,  and  meaning  of  the  text.  The 
anists  understood  perfectly  well  how  little 
the  practice  of  their  church  was  supported  by 
Scripture;  and  that,  if  the  ark  of  the  covenant 
was  admitted,  Dagon  must  fall.  No  sooner 
therefore  vras  it  discovered  that  copies  of  this 
translation  were  industriously  dispersed  in  Eng- 
land than  it  was  prohibited,  as  being  corrupted 
with  articles  of  heretical  pravity,  and  opinions 
erroneous,  pernicious,  pestilent,  and  scanda- 
lous ;  tending  to  seduce  persons  of  simple  and 
unwaiy  dispositions ;  but  a  spirit  had  now  been 
roused  which  no  persecution  could  suppress; 
the  book  was  therefore  eagerly  sought  for  and 
widely  dispersed. 

It  was  a  capital  crime  to  believe  in  the  pope's 
supremacy,  and  yet  equally  heinous  to  be  of  the 
retormed  religion,  as  practised  in  Germany. 
Henry's  opinions  in  religion  were  delivered  in  a 
law,  which,  from  its  horrid  conseouences,  was 
termed  the  bloody  statute,  by  which  it  was  or- 
dained that  whoever,  by  word  or  writing,  de- 
nied transubstantiatioo,  that  whoever  maintained 
that  the  communion  in  both  kinds  was  neces- 
•aiy^  or  that  it  was  lawful  for  priests  to  marry, 


or  that  vows  of  chastity  could  innocently  be 
broken,  or  that  private  masses  were  unprofi^le, 
or  that  auricular  confession  was  unnecessary^ 
should  be  burnt  or  hanged  as  the  court  should  de- 
termine. The  kingdom,  at  that  time,  was  in  some 
measure  divided  between  the  followers  of  Lu- 
ther and  the  adherents  to  the  pope ;  this  statute, 
with  Henry^s  former  decrees,  in  some  measure 
excluded  both,  and  therefore  opened  a  wide  field 
for  persecution.  Children  were  now  compelled 
to  accuse  their  parents  and  parents  their  chil- 
dren, wives  their  husbands  and  husbands  their 
wivesf  unless  they  would  share  the  same  fate. 
The  poor  wretches,  who  saved  their  lives  by 
abjuration,  were,  under  the  name  of  perpetu^ 
penance,  condemned  to  perpetual  bondage,  being 
distributed  to  monasteries  beyond  the  precincts 
of  which  they  were  never  to  pass,  and  where  by 
their  labor  they  were  to  indemnify  the  convent 
for  their  share  of  such  food  as  was  regularly 
Jbestowed  as  charity  at  the  gate.  The  mark  of 
the  branding  iron  they  were  never  to  conceal ; 
they  were  to  bear  a  £aiggot  at  stated  periods,  apd 
once  at  the  burning  of  a  heretic ;  for  which  every 
one  who  contributed  a  fiiggotwas  rewarded  with 
forty  days  indulgence. 

Among  the  martyrs  of  those  days,  Thomas 
Bilney  is  one  whose  name  will  ever  be  held  in 
deserved  reverence.  He  had  been  brought  up 
from  a  child  at  Cambridge,  where,  laying  aside 
the  profession  of  both  Taws,  he  entered  upon 
what  was  then  the  dangerous  study  of  divinity ; 
and  being  troubled  in  mind  repaired  to  priests, 
who  enjoined  him  masses,  fasting,  watching,  and 
the  purchase  of  indulgences,  till  his  scanty 
purse  and  feeble  constitution  were  both  well 
nigh  exhausted.  At  this  time  hearing  the  New 
Testament,  which  Erasmus  had  just  published, 
praised  for  its  Latinity,  he  bought  it  for  that 
inducement  only;  and  opened  it  upon  a  text, 
which  finding  his  heart  open,  rooted  itself  tliere : 
*  This  is  a  faithful  saying  and  worthy  of  all,  ac- 
ceptation, that  Christ  Jesus  came  into  the  world 
to  save  sinners,  of  whom  I  am  chief.'  The  com- 
fort which  these  words  conveyed  was  confirmed 
by  the  frequent  penisal  of  a  book  which  now 
became  sweeter  than  honey,  or  the  honeycomb ; 
and  he  began  to  preach,  as  he  had  learnt,  that 
men  should  seek  tor  righteousness  by  faith.  It 
was  not  long  before  he  was  accused  before 
Cuthbert  Tonstal,  then  bishop  of  London,  a 
man  of  integrity  and  moderation,  though  com« 
pelled  to  bear  a  part  in  proceedings  which  were 
utterly  abhorrent  to  his  natural  duposition. 
The  main  accusations  against  him  were,  that  he 
asserted  Christ  was  our  only  mediator,  not  the 
Virgin  Mary,  nor  the  saints ;  that  pilgrimages 
were  useless ;  and  that  offerings  to  images  were 
idolatry.  Of  these  doctrines  he  was  found 
guilty ;  the  sheriff,  to  whose  custody  he  was  deli- 
vered, happened  to  be  one  of  his  friends,  and 
therefore  treated  him  with  every  kindness  which 
could  be  afforded  during  his  imprisonment. 
The  ni^ht  before  he  was  to  suffer  some  friends 
who  visited  him  found  him  at  supper  eating 
heartily,  and  with  a  cheerful  coVintenance ;  and 
one  of  them  saving  he  was  glad  to  see  him  re- 
fresh himself  thus  so  shortly  before  he  was  to 
undergo  so  painful  a  death,  he  replied, '  I  follow 


Digitized  by  ^^JiJUQlC 


454 


REFORMATION. 


the  example  of  thoee,  wbo,  having  a  ruinous 
house  to  dwell  in,  hold  it  up  bv  props  as  long  as 
they  may:'  another  observed  that  his  pains 
would  be  ^ort,  and  the  spirit  of  God  would 
support  him  in  them,  and  reward  him  afterwards 
with  everlasting  rest.  Bilney,  upon  this,  put 
his  finger  into  the  candle,  which  was  burning 
before  him  more  than  once.  *  I  feel,'  said  he, 
<  by  experience,  and  have  long  known  by  philo* 
sopby,  that  fire  is  naturally  hot;  yet  I  am  per- 
suaded by  God's  holy  word,  and  by  the  expe- 
rience of  some  saints  of  God  therem  recorded, 
that  in  the  flames  they  may  feel  no  heat,  and  in 
the  fire  no  consumption.  And  I  constantly  be- 
lieve that,  however  the  stubble  of  this  my  body 
shall  be  wasted  by  it,  yet  my  soul  and  spirit 
shall  be  purged  thereby— a  pain  for  the  time, — 
whereon  follOweth  joy  unspeakable;'  and  then 
he  repeated  the  words  of  Scripture :  '  Fear'not, 
for  I  have  redeemed  thee,  and  called  thee  by  thy 
name;  thou  art  mine  own;  when  thou  goest- 
through  the  water,  I  will  be  with  thee,  and  the 
strong  floods  shall  not  overflow  thee.  When 
thou  walkest  in  the  fire,  thou  shall  not  be  con- 
sumed, and  the  flame  shall  not  bum  thee ;  for  I 
am  the  Lord  thy  God,  the  Holy  One  of  Israel, 
thy  Saviour.'  This  text  he  applied  to  himself 
and  those  who  were  present,  some  of  whom,  re- 
ceiving the  words  as  a  legacy  of  a  blessed  mar- 
tyr, had  them  fairly  written  on  tables,  or  in 
books,  and  derived  comfort  from  them  till  their 
dying  day.  On  the  following  morning  he  was 
led  to  execution,  one  of  his  friends  exhorting 
him  at  the  prison  door,  with  few  and  secret 
words,  to  take  his  death  patiently  and  con- 
stantly. Bilney  answered,  <  When  the  mariner 
IS  tossed  upon  the  troubled  sea,  he  beareth  his 
perils  better,  in  hope  that  he  shall  yet  reach  his 
narbour ;  so,  whatever  storms  I  shall  feel,  my 
ship  will  soon  be  in  its  quiet  haven;  thereof,  I 
doubt  not,  by  the  grace  of  God,— and  I  entreat 
you,  help  me  with  your  prayers,  to  the  same 
effect.'  The  place  of  execution  was  a  low 
valley,  surrounded  with  rising  ground,  without 
the  bishop's  gate.  Having  put  ofl*  the  layman's 
gown,  in  which  after  his  degradation  he  had  been 
clad,  he  knelt  upon  the  sledge,  and  prayed  with 
deep  and  quiet  devotion,  ending  with  the  143d 
Psalm,  in  which  he  thrice  repeated  the  verse, 
*  Enter  not  into  judgment  with  thy  servant,  O 
Lord,  for  in  thy  sight  shall  no  man  living  be 
justified.'  He  then  put  off  his  jacket  and  doub- 
let, and  remained  in  his  hose  and  shirt,  and  S9 
was  chained  to  the  stake.  The  dry  reeds  were 
kindled ;  and  in  a  few  minutes  Bilney,  triumph- 
ing over  death,  rendered  up  his  soul,  in  the 
fulness  of  faith,  and  entered  into  his  reward. 

Those  who  adhered  to  the  pope,  or  those  who 
followed  Luther,  were  now  equally  the  objects 
of  royal  vengeance  and  ecclesiastical  perse- 
cution. In  the  houses  of  parliament,  parties 
werp  nearly  equally  divided;  there  were  on  both 
sides  meti  of  great  learning,  ability,  and  address. 
After*  long  consultation  and  debate  certain  arti- 
cles were  at  length  set  forth  in  the  king*s  name 
as  head  of  the  church  of  England ;  it  being  in 
the  preamble  stated,  '  among  the  chief  cares 
appertaining  to  his  princely  office,  diligently  to 
provide  thiait  unity  and  concord  in  religious  opi- 


nions should  merease  and  go  ftyrwatd ;  and  all 
occasion  of  dissent  ahd  discord,  touchmg  the 
same,  be  repressed  and  utterly  extinguished/ 
The  articles  were  such  as  could  satisfy  neidier 
party,  both  having  struggled  to  introduce  thdr 
own  opinions,  and  each  with  considerable  suc- 
cess, though  on  the  whole  to  the  manifest  advan- 
tage of  the  reformers.    The  Bible  and  the  three 
creeds  were  made  the  standards  of  £uth,  no 
mention  being 'made  of  tradition,  nor  of  the 
decrees  of  the  church.      Three  sacraments-* 
those  of  baptism,  penance,  and  the  altar-^weie 
said  to  be  necessary  to  salvation— four  betn{^ 
thus   pretermitted;    but  the  corporal  presence 
*was  aeclared,  and  the  necessity  of  anncular 
cpnfession.    Images  were  allowed  as  useful,  bat 
they  were  not  to  be  worshipped;   and  saints 
might  laudably   be  addressed  as  intercessiws, 
though  it  was  asserted  that  Christ  is  our  only 
sufficient  mediator.    The  existing  rites  and  cere- 
monies were  to  be  retained  as  good  and  laudable ; 
not  as  having  power  to  remit  sin,  but  as  usefol 
in  stirring  and  lifting  up  our  minds  unto  God, 
by  whom  only  out  sins  can  be  forg^iven.     Lastly, 
prayers  for  tibe  dead  were  advis^  as  good  and 
charitable;  though  the  question  of  purgatory 
was  said  to  be  uncertain  by  Scripture,  and  the 
abuses  which  under  that  belief  haa  arisen  were 
to  be  put  away.    Thomas  Cromwell,  raised  bj 
the  king's  caprice  from  a  blacksmith's  son  to  he 
a  royal  favonte,  and  Cranmer,  now  become  arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury,  with  all  their  might  as- 
sisted the  Reformation.    The  pope  had  long 
threatened  to  issue  a  bull  of  deposition,  but  had 
hitherto  delayed  it  because  ot  the  displeasure 
which  he  knew  it  would  occasion  to  other  sove- 
reiffn  princes.     The  manner  in  which  Becket 
had  been  uncanonised  put  an  end  to  this  bus- 
pension ;  and  the  bull  was  now  fulminated,  re- 
quiring the  king  and  his  accomplices  to  appear 
at  Rome,  and  there  give  an  account  of  their 
actions  on  pain  of  excommunication  and  rebel- 
lion, otherwise  the  pope  deprived  him  of  his 
crown,  and  them  of  their  estates,  and  both  of 
Christian  burial.    He  interdicted  the  kingdom; 
absolved  his  subjects  and  their  vassals  from  all 
oaths  and  obligations  to  them ;  and  offered  his 
dominions  to  the  king  of  Scotland,  if  he  would 
go  and  take  them.    But  the  throne  of  England 
was  no  longer  to  be  shaken  by  such  thunders. 
Even  the  Romish  bishops  joined  in  the  declara- 
tion which  Henry  set  forth,  that  Christ  had  for- 
bidden his  apostles  or  their  successors  to  take  to 
themselves  ttie  power  of  the  sword,  or  the  au- 
thority of  kings ;  and  if  the  bishop  of  Rome,  or 
any  other  bishop,  assumed  any  such  power,  he 
was  a  tyrant  ana  usurper  of  other  men's  ri^ts, 
and  a  subverter  of  the  kingdom  of  Christ 

At  length  so  many  hundred  persons  were 
thrown  into  fSrison  upon  the  six  articles,  that 
Henry  himself  thought  it  b^ter  to  grant  a  ge- 
neral pardon,  than  to  proceed  against  them  all ; 
and  this  bloody  act  slept  till  his  determination 
to  put  away  Anne  of  Cleves,  and  marry  Cathe- 
rine Howaid,  drew  on  the  fidl  of  Cromwell, 
whom  the  duke  of  Norfolk,  uncle  to  the  bride 
elect,  mortally  hated.  Now  the  six  articles  were . 
enforced  with  extreme  severity ;  and  Henry  ss 
if  to  show  his  impartiality  while  he  exewitfd  ai 


Digitized  by 


Google 


REFORMATION. 


435 


heretics  those  reformers  who  went,  beyond  the 
limits  which  he  had  laid  down,  put  to  death  bb 
traitors  those  Romanists  who  reftised  to  acknow^ 
ledge  his  supremacy. 

The  alterations  in  the  reign  of  Heniy  were 
rather  separations  from  the  pope  ^an  a  refor- 
mation of  religious  abuses :  in  the  reign  of  his 
successor,  Edward  VI.,  the  eiTors  of  Rome,  in 
reality,  beean  to  be  reformed.  It  was  left  to 
people's  choice  to  go  to  confession,  which  had 
hitherto  been  de^m^  an  indispensable  duty,  or 
to  neglect  that  practice.  It  was  ordered  that  all 
images  should  be  taken  out  of  churches ;  priests 
were  allowed  to  marry ;  the  old  mass  was  abo- 
lished ;  and  a  new  liturgy  drawn  up,  which  re- 
trenched several  abuses  in  the  service  of  the 
church,  and  which  is  the  same  with  that  now 
used,  excepting  a  few  alterations.  Gardiner  and 
Bonner,  refusing  their  consent  to  these  momen- 
tous changes,  were  deprived  of  their  sees  and 
imprisoned;  but  no  rigor  was  used  towards 
them,  nor  did  the  protestants  in  any  instance 
abuse  their  triumpn  by  retaliating  upon  the 
papists  for  the  prsecution  which  they  had  en- 
dured. Immediately  upon  the  death  of  the 
young  king,  two  competitors  put  up  for  the 
crown;  Mary  relying  upon  the  justness  of  her 
pretensions,  and  the  lady  Jane  urey  supported 
.  by  the  duke  of  Northumberland,  her  father-it)- 
law.  Mary  was  strongly  bigoted  to  the  popish 
superstitions.  Her  zed  had  rendered  her  cruel, 
and  she  was  not  only  blindly  attached  to  her  re- 
ligious opinions,  but  even  to  the  popish  clergy 
who  maintained  them.  On  the  other  hand,  Jane 
Grey  was  attached  to  the  reformers ;  though  yet 
but  sixteen,  her  judgment  had  obtained  such  a 
degree  of  perfection  as  few  enjoy  m  theit  more 
advanced  age.  Queen  Mary,  however,  obtained 
possession  of  her  rightful  throne  without  the 
loss  of  a  single  life;  so  completely  did  the 
nation  acknowledge  her  claim,  whilst  an  after 
insurrection  rashly  planned,  and  worse  conduct- 
ed, served  only  to  hasten  the  destruction  of  the 
lady  Jane  and  her  husband.  Mary  began  by 
giving  orders  for  the  suppression  of  all  married 
bishops  and  priests ;  tne  mass  was  directed  to 
be  restored;  the  pope's  authority  was  re-esta*- 
blished  with  some  restrictions ;  the  laws  against 
heretics  were  renewed ;  and  the  church  and  its 
privileges  put  on  the  same  foundation  in  which 
they  were  before  the  alteration  of  Henry  VIII. 
This  was  kindling  up  the  fires  of  persecution 
anew ;  at  the  head  of  these  measures  were  Gan- 
diner  bishop  of  Winchester,  and  Bonner  bishop 
of  London.  Gardiner  began  this  bloody  scene 
with  Hooper  and  Rogers.  Hooper  had  been 
bishop  of  Gloucester;  Rogers  was  a  clergyman 
who  had  shone  among  the  most  distinguished  of 
the  protestants.  He  was  prebendary  of  St. 
Pauls,  and  refused  all  submission  to  the  church 
of  Rome,  which  he  looked  upon  as  antichristian. 
They  were  both  condemned  by  the  commis- 
sioners appointed  by  the  qufeen,  with  the  chan- 
cellor at  the  head  of  them.  Rogers  suffered  in 
Smithfield.  When  he  was  brought  to  the  stake  he 
had  it  in  his  power  to  save  himself,  by  recanting 
his  opinions ;  but  neither  hopes  nor  fears  could 
prevail  on  him  to  desert  his  religion.  When  the 
raggots  were  placed  around, him  he  seemed  no 


way  daunted  at  the  preparation,  but  cried  out, 
*  I  resign  my  life  with  joy,  in  testimony  of  the 
doctrine  of  Jesus;'  and  washing  his  hands  in  the 
flames,  as  they  blazed  around  him,  took  his  death 
with  so  calm  and  resolute  a  patience,  that  many 
who  were  present  blessed  God  for  the  support 
which  had  been  vouchsafed  him.  Hooper  had 
his  pardon  offered  him  upon  the  same  terms,  but 
he  refused  it  with  equal  indignation.  This  old 
martyr,  who  was  executed  at  Gloucester,  was 
three-rquartefs  of  an  hour  in  torment;  the  fire 
either  from  malice  or  neglect  had  not  been  sui&- 
ciently  kindled,  so  that  his  legs  and  thighs  were 
first  burnt,  and  one  of  his  hands  dropped  off 
before  be  expired ;  yet  the  voice  with  which  he 
called  upon  his  Redeemer  was  not  that  of  one 
impatient,  or  overcome  with  pain;  he  remained 
still  and  calm,  we  are  told,  to  the  last ;  and  at 
length,  in  the  words  of  Fox, '  died  as  quietly  as  a 
child  in  his  bed.*  No  father  in  his  household, 
no  gardener  in  his  garden,  no  husbandman  in 
his  vineyard,  was  ever  more  employed  than 
Hooper  had  beto  in  his  diocese  among  his  flock, 
going  about  the  towns  and  villages  teaching  and 
preaching  to  the  people  there. 

Saunders  and  Taylor,  two  other  clergymen, 
whose  zeal  had  been  distinguished  in  carrying  on 
the  Reformation,  were  the  next  that  suffered. 
And  now  Ridley  bishop  of  London,  and  the 
venerable  Latimer  bishop  of  Worcester,  were  to 
receive  the  martyr*s  crown.  Ridley  was  one  of 
the  ablest  champions  of  the  Reformation :  his 
piety,  learning,  and  solidity  of  judgment,  wei'e 
admired  by  his  friends  and  dreaded  by  his  ene- 
mies. The  night  before  his  execution  he  invited 
the  mayor  of  Oxford  and  his  wife  to  see  him 
die ;  and  when  he  saw  them  melted  into  teats 
he  himself  appeared  quite  unmoved.  '  When  he 
came  to  the  stake  where  he  was  to  be  burnt,  he 
found  his  old  friend  Latimer  there  before  him, 
and  began  to  comfort  him  •  in  his  sufferings, 
while  I^timer  was  as  ready  to  return  the  kind 
office.  Ridley  distributed  such  trifies  as  he  had 
about  him  to  those  who  were  near  him;  and 
many  pressed  about  him  to  obtain  something  as 
a  relic.  They  then  undressed  for  the  stake; 
and  Latimer,  when  he  had  put  off  his  prison 
dress,  remained  in  ^  shroud  which  he  had  put 
on,  instead  of  a  shirt,  for  that  day's  office.  When 
the  fire  was  brought  Latimer  said,  *  Be  of  eood 
comfort,  master  Ridley,  and  play  the  man  !  we 
shall  this  day  light  such  a  candle,  by  God's 
grace,  in  England^as  I  trust  shall  never  be  put 
out !'  The  venerable  old  man  received  the  flame 
as  if  embracirig  it ;  and  having,  as  it  were,  bathed 
his  hands  in  the  fire,  and  stroked  his  ^ce  with 
them,  died  apparently  without  pain.  Ridley 
enduied  a  long  martyrdom,  and  fell  at  Latimer^ 
feet.  As  the  bodies  were  consumed  the  quantity 
of  blood  which  gushed  from  Latimer*s  heart  as- 
tonished the  beholders. 

As  soon  as  Cranmer'  perceived  what  course 
events  were  likely  to  take,  after  king  Edward's 
death,  he  gave  orders  that  all  his  debts  should 
be  paid  to  the  uttermost  farthing,  and  cancelled 
the  bills  which  were  due  to  him  from  persons 
who  were  not  in  a  condition  to  discharge  thera. 
This  being  dOne,  he  said  he  was  his  own  man. 
and,  with  God's  help,  abletQ  answer  all  the  world 

Digitized  by  VjUUyiC 


466 


reformation: 


wad  all  worldly  adversities.    Those  adversities 
won  came  upon  him ;  he  was  attainted  of  trea->- 
■oo,  and  adjudged  guilty  of  it    Accordingly  he 
was  arraigned  for  blasphemy,  incontinency,  and 
heresy,  before  the  same  commissioners  who  con- 
demned his  fellow-prisoners :  but  he  was  dealt 
with  very  differently  from  any  of  the  former 
sufferers;  being  removed  to  the  house  of  the 
dean  of  Christ  Church,  and  treated  there  rather 
as  a  guest  than  a  prisoner.    We  have  noticed  the 
success  of  this  treatment  on  a  mind  natprally 
timid.    See  our  article  Cranmer.    He  signed 
a  recantation  of  his  former  opinions,  and  co'n« 
eluded  it  with  a  protestation  that  he  had  done  it 
freely  and  only  for  the  discharge  of  his  con- 
science.   The  queen,  however,  was  resolved  to 
make  him  a  sacrifice  to  her  resentments.'  She 
said  it  was  good  for  his  own  soul  that  he  repented ; 
but,  since  he  had  been  the  chief  spreader  of 
heresy  over  the  nation,  it  was  necessary  to  make 
him  a  public  example;  so  the  writ  was  sent  down 
to  burn  him:  and,  after  some  stop  had  been 
made  in  the  execution  of  it,  new  orders  came 
for  doing  it  suddenly.    This  seems  to  have  been 
kept  from  Cranmer's  knowledge.    He,  however, 
was  gradually  prepared  by  a  better  influence  for 
the  worst;  and  on  being  carried  to  St.  Mary's 
where  Dr.  Cole  vindicated  the  queen's  justice  in 
condemning  Cranmer  while  he  magnified  his 
conversion  and  ascribed  it  to  the  workings  of 
God's  Spirit,  the  conduct  of  the  archbishop  far 
more  surprised  his  enemies.    A  Romanist  who 
was  present,  and  who  thought  that  his  former 
life  and  wretched  end  deserved  a  greater  misery, 
if  greater  had  been  possible,  was  yet,  in  spite  of 
his  opinions,  touched  with  compassion  at  behold- 
ing him  in  a  bare  and  ragged  gown,  exposed  to 
universal  contempt.  '  I  think,'  said  he  *  tnat  there 
was  none  that  pitied  not  his  case,  and  bewailed 
not  his  fortune,  and  feared  not  jbis  own  chance, 
to  see  so  noble  a  prelate,  so  grave  a  counsellor,  of 
so  long  continued  honor,  after  so  many  dignities, 
in  his  old  years  to  be  deprived  of  his  estate,  ad- 
judged to  die,  and  in  so  painful  a  death  to  end 
his  life.'    In  this  hour  of  utter  humiliation,  and 
severe  repentance,  he  certainly  possessed  his 
soul  in  patience ;  never  had  his  mind  been  more 
clear  and  collected,  never  had  his  heart  been  so 
strong.    At  the  stake  no  cry  was  heard  from  him, 
save  die  exclamation  of  the  proto-martyr  Stephen, 
'  Lord  Jesus,  receive  my  Spirit  1'    He  stood  im* 
movable  as  the  tree  to  which  he  was  bound,  his 
countenance  raised,  looking  to  heaven,  and  an- 
ticipating that  rest  into  which  he  was  about  to 
enter. 

Bonner  now  seemed  not  satisfied  with  single 
deaths,  but  sent  men  in  whole  companies  to  Sie 
flames;  even  women  were  not  spared;  and  in 
Guernsey,  when  a  woman  condemned  for  heresy 
was  delivered  of  a  child  in  the  midst  of  the 
flames,  and  some  of  the  spectators  humanely 
snatched  it  out,  the  magistrate,  who  w^s  a  papist, 
ordered  it  to  be  thrown  in  again,  and  it  was  con- 
sumed with  the  mother  1  During  the  four  years 
that  this  persecution  continued,  it  appears  by 
authentic  records  that  280  persons  were  burnt 
alive ;  tne  number  of  those  who  perished  in  pri- 
son is  unknown.  The  loss  of  property  in  London 
inlone,  consequent  upon  the  arrest  or  flight  of 


h] 


substantial  citizens,  and  the  general  insecurity, 
was  estimated  at  £300,000.  Nor  was  it  in 
wealth  alone  that  the  kingdom  suffered;  the 
spirit  of  the  nation  sunk ;  and  the  chaiacteri  and 
with  it  the  prosperity,  of  the  £nglish  would 
have  been  irrecoverably  lost,  if  God  in  his  mercy 
had  not  cut  short  this  abominable  tyranny. 
Mary  was  supposed  to  be  with  child ;  but  those 
appearances,  which  had  so  far  deceived  the  queen 
herself  that  the  cradle  was  made  ready»  proved 
to  be  the  indications  of  a  mortal  disease.  Not  a 
week  before  her  death  three  women  and  two 
men  were  burnt  at  Canterbury. 

Elizabeth,  immediately  on  her  accession,  made 
greater  approaches  to  toleration  than  any  prince 
who  had  hitherto  reigned  on  any  throne  in 
Europe.  Indulgence  and  forbearance,  such  as  that 
age  had  never  seen,  were  freely  extended  to  all ; 
neither  were  there  any  violations  of  this  unknown 
and  unthought  of  senerosity  till  repeated  acts  of 
treason  endangered  the  safety  both  of  her  person 
and  her  throne.  When  the  parliament  met,  the 
keeper  of  the  great  seal,  Sir  Nicholas  Bacon,  was 
directed,  with  a  moderation  at  that  time  very 
unusual,  to  entreat  the  members  to  reynite  all 
classes  of  the  people  by  avoiding  the  extremes 
of  both  parties.  In  consequence  of  this  advice, 
and  in  accordance  with  the  known  wishes  of  the 
queen,  public  worship  was  appointed  in  the  vul- 
gar tongue— the  supremacy  of  the  queen  was 
restored-^the  acts  of  Edward,  concerning  reli- 
gion, were  renewed  and  confirmed.  No  laws 
were  made  to  punish  the  Romanist  persecutors 
of  the  former  reign — no  retaliation  was  at- 
tempted—no censure  was  passed — no  disappro- 
bation expressed. 

The  first  act  of  the  new  queen  was  to  take  Sir 
William  Cecil  into  her  council,  and  appoint 
him  her  principal  secretary.  When  the  bill  for 
restoring  the  supremacy  to  the  crown  was  de- 
bated in  parliament,  it  vras  opposed  by  the 
bishops.  Heath  said,  tiiat,  as  concerning  tem- 
poral government,  the  house  could  give  her 
nighness  no  further  authority  than  she  already 
had  by  right  and  inheritance,  not  by  their  gift, 
but  by  the  appointment  of  God,  she  being  their 
sovereign  lord  and  lady,  theii  king  and  queen, 
their  emperor  and  empress.  But  spiritual  govern* 
ment  they  could  not  grant,  neither  coidd  she 
receive. 

Tlie  bishop  ofi  Chester,  speaking  upon  the 
same  subject,  asked  of  whom  those  men,  who 
in  this  and  other  points  dissented  from  the 
Catholic  church,  learned  their  doctrine  ?  *  They 
must  needs  answer,'  said  he, '  that  they  learned 
it  of  the  Germans.  Of  whom  did  the  Germans 
learn  it  ?  Of  Luther.  Well,  then,  of  whom  did 
Luther  learn  it?  He  shall  answer  himself:  he 
saith,  that  such  things  as  he  teacheth  against  the 
mass,  and  the  bless^  sacrament  of  the  altar,  he 
learned  of  Satan,  the  devil ;  at  whose  bands,  it  is 
like,  he  did  also  receive  the  rest  of  his  doctrines.' 
The  infamous  persecutor.  Story,  went  beyond 
this  in  the  house  of  commons.  He  boasted  of 
the  part  he  had  taken ;  related  with  exultation 
how  he  had  thro\Vn  a  faggot  in  the  face  of  an 
earwig,  as  he  called  him,  who  was  singing  psalms 
at  the  stake,  and  how  he  had  thnist  a  thornbush 
under  his  feet  to  prick  him :  wished  that  he  had 


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467 


done  more ;  and  said  he  only  regretted  that  they 
should  have  labored  at  the  <  young  and  little 
twigs,  when  they  ought  to  have  struck  at  the 
root ;'  words  by  which  it  was  understood  that  he 
meant  the  queen.  Even  this  unreasonable  inso- 
lence did  not  provoke  the  government  to  depart 
from  the  temperate  course  which  it  had  laid 
down.  The  measures  adopted  by  the  pope  were, 
at  this  time,  not  less  impolitic  than  cruel  and 
wicked.  It  is  possible  that  Elizabeth  would  have 
been  content  to  have  allowed  the  people  to  retain 
their  faith  so  long  as  her  crown  was  independent. 
The  measures  of  the  pope,  and  the  dissensions  he 
fomented,  however,  gradually  kindled  in  Eliza- 
beth's mind  the  most  anxious  apprehensions  for 
her  individual  safety  as  well  as  that  of  her  throne. 
The  insurrection  of  Northumberland  and  West- 
moreland was  sanctioned  by  the  pope,  who,  in 
his  letters,  exhorts  them  *  to  persevere  in  the 
work,  not  doubting  but  that  Uod  would  grant 
them  assistance ;  and  that  if  they  should  die  in 
asserting  the  Catholic  faith,  and  Uie  authority  of 
the  see  of  Rome,  it  were  better  for  them,  with 
the  advantage  of  a  glorious  death,  to  purchase 
eternal  life,  than  by  ignominiously  living,  with 
the  loss  of  their  souls,  shamefully  to  obey  the  will 
of  an  ungovernable  woman.' — Pii.  V.  Epist.  p. 
290.  Soon  after  this  pious  exhortation  the  pope, 
in  the  thirteenth  year  of  the  reign  of  Elizabeth, 
fulminated  the  Bull  of  Excommunication  '  out 
of  the  fulness  of  his  apostolic  power  ;*  declaring 
the  queen  to  be  a  heretic,  and  a  favorer  of  here- 
tics. <  We  declare  her,'  said  the  pope,  '  to  be 
deprived  of  her  pretended  title  to  the  kingdom 
aforesaid,  and  of  all  dominions,  dignity,  and  pri- 
vilege whatsoever:  and  also  the  nobility,  sub- 
jects, and  people  of  the  said  kingdoms,  and  all 
which  have  in  any  sort  sworn  unto  her,  to  be 
for  ever  absolved  from  every  such  oath,  and  all 
manner  of  duty,  of  dominion,  of  allegiance,  and 
obedience.  We  also  command  and  interdict  all 
and  every  the  noblemen,  subjects,  and  people, 
aforesaid,  that  they  presume  not  to  obey  her,  or 
her  monitions,  mandates,  and  laws,  and  those 
which  shall  do  to  the  contrary  we  do  likewise 
anathemise.'  Irritated  by  this  presumptuous  and 
scandalous  decree  Elizabeth  procured  an  act 
declaring  it  to  be  h^h  treason  to  affirm  that  the 
queen  was  not  a  lawful  sovereign,  or  to  bring 
bulls,  indulgences,  or  absolutions  from  the  pope. 
Matters  now  threatened  so  complete  a  separation 
of  England  from  Rome  that  the  pope  declared  it 
would  be  of  so  much  benefit  to  Christendom  that 
Elizabeth  should  be  destroyed,  that  he  vras  ready 
to  aid  in  person,  to  spend  the  whole  revenue  of 
the  apostolic  see,  all  the  chalices  and  crosses  of 
the  church,  and  even  his  very  clothes,  to  procure 
her  destruction,  &c.  A  public  disputation  was  at 
this  time  appointed,  not,  as  in  Mary's  reign,  to 
be  concluded  by  burning  those  who  differed  in 
opinion  from  the  ruling  party,  but  with  full 
liberty  of  speech,  and  perfect  safety  for  the 
Romish  disputants.  Upon  Heath's  motion,  the 
queen  ordered  it  should  be  managed  in  writing, 
as  the  best  means  to  avoid  vain  altercation;  but, 
when  it  came  to  the  point,  the  Romanists,  upon 
some  difference  concerning  the  manner  of  pro- 
ceeding, refused  to  dispute  at  all.  for  this  con- 
tempt of  the  privy  council,  in  whose  presence 


they  had  met,  they  were  fined.  Without  delay 
Elizabeth  then  deprived  the  ref^tory  bishops^ 
Kitchen  of  Llandaff  being  the  only  one  who  con* 
formed :  there  were  but  fourteen  living,  many 
having  died  in  the  great  mortality  at  the  close  of 
the  preceding  reign.  The  vacant  sees  were  filled 
by  Parker,  Grindal,  Cox,  Sands,  Jewel,  Park-* 
burst,  Pilkington,  and  others;  men  worthy  to  be 
held  in  lasting  remembrance  and  honor,  who  had 
either  escaped,  during  the  Marian  persecution, 
by  retiring  to  the  continent  or  secreting  them- 
selves at  home.  Thus  was  gradually  established, 
never  more,  we  trust,  to  be  subverted,  the  sepa- 
ration of  England  and  all  the  members  of  her 
hierarchy  from  the  domination  of  Rome. 

VIII.  The  EUfomuUion  in  Denmark^  France^ 
4'C.— 'In  Denmark  the  Reformation  was  intro- 
duced as  early  as  the  year  1521,  in  consequence 
of  the  ardent  desire  of  ChrLstiem  II.  to  have 
his  subjects  instructed  in  the  doctrines  of  Luther.' 
His  uncle  Frederick,  duke  of  Holstein  and 
Sleswick,  being  appointed  hb  successor,  con- 
ducted the  Reformation  with  much  greater  pru- 
dence than  his  predecessor.  He  permitted  the 
Protestant  doctors  to  preach  publicly  the  senti- 
ments of  Luther,  but  did  not  venture  to  change 
the  established  government  and  discipline  of  the 
church.  However,  he  procured  the  publication 
of  a  famous  edict,  by  which  every  subject  of 
Denmark  was  declared  free  either  to  adhere  to 
the  tenets  of  the  church  of  Rome,  or  to  the  doc- 
trine of  Luther ;  and  the  papal  tyranny  was  to- 
tally destroyed  by  his  successor  Christiem  III., 
who  began  by  suppressing  the  despotic  authority 
of  the  bishops,  and  rStoring  to  their  lawful 
owners  a  great  part  of  the  wealth  and  posses- 
sions which  the  church  had  acouired.  Tniswas 
followed  by  a  plan  of  religious  doctrine,  worship, 
ami  discipline,  laid  down  by  Bugenhagius, 
whom  the  king  had  sent  for  from  Witteraberg; 
and,  in  1539,  an  assembly  of  the  states  at 
Odensee  gave  a  solemn  sanction  'to  all  these 
transactions,  and  settled  that  form  of  church 
government  which  has  since  been  retained. 

The  first  dawn  of  the  Reformation  in  France 
appeared,  as  we  have  before  noticed,  in  the 
preaching  of  Waldo,  who,  in  the  twelfth  century, 
brought  to  light  some  truths  which  had  been 
long  hidden  amidst  the  ignorance  and  supersti- 
tion of  the  Romish  church ;  and,  though  perse- 
cution soon  attended  his  steps,  it  served  nut  to 
scatter  his  principles,  and  disperse  his  fol- 
lowers over  tne  fece  of  Europe.  Waldo  himself 
appears  to  have  proclaimed  his  opinions  in 
various  parts  of  the  continent.  The  Albigenses,  ^ 
so  called  from  the  country  about  Toulouse, 
where  they  dwelt,  embraced  in  a  body  the  doc- 
trine of  reform.  It  was  carried  into  Calabria, 
Bohemia,  Germany,  Flanders,  Poland,  Spain, 
and  even  the  dominions  of  the  grand  sultan. 

Calvin  was  bom  at  Noyon,  in  Picardy,  early 
in  the  sixteenth  century ;  when  twenty  years  of 
age,  he  first  preached  the  doctrines  of  the  Refor^ 
mation  to  his  countrymen ;  and,  seven  years 
afterwards  (in  1536),  printed  his  Institutes, 
which  contain  a  full,  and  certainly  a  very  able, 
•statement  of  his  opinions.  This  work  was  dedi- 
cated, in  a  preface  written  with  remarkable  ele« 
gance  of  style,  to  Francis  I.;  but  it  does  not 


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REFORMATION. 


seem  to  have  produced  macb  effect  on  the  mind 
of  that  monaidi.  In  1553  Calvin  edited  an 
editioa  of  Olintan's  translation  of  the  Bible, 
which  prored  of  great  benefit  to  the  church.  In 
1557,  nowever,  an  attempt  was  made  to  estab- 
lish an  inquisition  at  Paris,  after  ^e  plan  of  that 
in  Spain,  to  put  down  heretical  opinions ;  but  it 
did  no  effectual  mischief^  The  king  of  Navarre, 
who  was  also  a  prince  of  the  blood,  and  through 
whom  the  title  to  the  crown  of  France  afterwards 
descended  to  his  son  Henry  IV.,  became  about 
this  thne  a  convert  to  the  reformed  doctrines. 
In  1562  the  ever-memorable  Charles  IX.  suc- 
ceeded to  his  brother.  As  he  was  only  nine 
years  of  age  at  that  time,  the  government  re- 
mained in  the  hands  of  Catherine.  Two  years 
after  this  period  Calvin  died.  It  does  not  ap-  - 
pear  that  this  great  man,  except  at  an  early 
period  of  his  life,  took  directly  any  persoual 
part  in  prosecuting  the  Reformation  in  France ; 
Dut  it  grew  up  under  his  inspection;  and  his 
authority  was  the  acknowledged  human  standard 
of  .fiiith  and  duty.  In  1 57 1  the  Protestant  church 
in  France  had  reached  its  highest  point  of  pros- 
perity. A  synod  was  held  at  Rochelle,  where 
the  queen  of  Navarre,  Jean  D'Albert,  her  son, 
afterwards  Henry  IV.,  and  two  princes  of  the 
royal  family,  attended.  At  that  time  the  protes- 
tants  had  2150  churches,  some  of  which  contained 
10,000  members.  The  deepest  aversion,  however, 
to  the  views  of  the  Protestants  had  long  dwelt 
in  the  minds  of  all  connected  with  the  court, 
eicept  the  few  members  of  their  own  body ;  and 
a  plot  for  getting  rid  of  the  reformed  religion 
had  long  been  meditatdd.  To  the  queen-mother> 
one  of  the  family  of  Guise,  the  atrocious  con- 
trivance is  due,  of  the  means  by  which  it  was  to 
be  attempted.  On  the  occasion  of  the  marriage 
of  Henry,  with  the  sister  of  Charles  IX.,  the 
whole  body  of  Protestants  were  enticed  to 
Paris.  After  the  admiral  De  Coligny,  the 
champion  of  the  reformed  cause,  as  he  was 
really  the  head-  of  the  party,  was  fairly  in  the 
toils,  the  minds  of  the  populace  were  exaspe- 
rated against  the  Protestants  by  the  contrivance 
of  the  Due  de  Guise ;  and,  by  the  command  of 
the  king,  they  were  all  given  up  to  slaughter. 
The  proclamation  for  their  destruction  was  made 
on  the  night  of  St.  Bartholomew;  and,  at  two 
o'clock  in  the  morning,  the  work  of  death  began. 
The  king  himself  is  said  to  have  shot  from  a 
gallery  many  of  the  fugitives ;  and  neither  age, 
rank,  nor  character,  afforded  any  protection  to 
the  unfortunate  victims.  Henry  of  Navarre,  the 
brother-in-law  of  Charles,  the  prince  De  Conde 
his  uncle,  and  the  king's  physician,  were  alone 
exempted  from  destruction.  Henry  and  De 
Conde  were  hurried  ftom  their  beds,  and  dragged, 
not  without  danger,  before  the  king,  who,  when 
they  refused  to  be  converted,  as  the  phrase  ran, 
broke  out  into  an  excessive  rage,  declaring  that 
he  would  be  obeyed  as  the  vicegerent  of  God ; 
that  they  must  teach  others  to  submit  by  their 
acquiescence ;  and  that  it  became  them  no  longer 
to  hold  themselves  in  opposition  to  the  holy 
mother.  They  were  in  consequence  obliged  to 
attend  mass.  The  massacre  was  continued 
without  cessation  for  three  days,  till  the  king 
became  aghast  at  his  own  act,  and  his  conscience 


was  so  haunted  with  images  of  murder  and  death 
that  he  directed  it  should  cease.  Charles  IX. 
survived  this  event  only  one  year;  he  lived, 
however,  to  repent  of  his  crimes,  and  to  suffer 
for  them.  His  death  was  of  that  kind  which  it 
has  pleased  God  often  to  inflict  upon  eminent 
persecutors  of  his  church.  He  was  tormented  in 
mind  and  body ;  and  sank  into  his  untimefy 
grave  unhonored  even  by  his  former  friends^ 
and  unregretted  by  every  lover  of  his  country. 
During  the  concluding  period  of  this  reign,  the 
reformed  church  was  at  a  very  low  ebb.  There 
could  be  no  security  that  the  anniversary  ai  St. 
Bartholomew  would  not  be  celebrated  with  a 
recurrence  of  the  same  disasters.  The  heads  of 
the  church  wer^  gone.  Henry  of  Navarre  him- 
self seemed  to  have  been  in  a  sort  of  imprison- 
ment, and  the  remainder  of  the  scattered  flock 
could  scarcely  be  collected  together.  It  was  not 
till  the  year  1578  that  another  synod  was  held, 
and  then  no  formal  notice  was  taken  of  the  late 
eventi.  Henry  III.  succeeded  his  brother  in 
1574.  During  his  reign  the  great  conflict  for 
independence  and  religious  liberty  was  being 
carried  on  in  the  Low  Countries ;  and  the  suc- 
cessful issue  of  it  gave  respect  and  consideration 
to  the  Protestant  cause  wherever  its  supporters 
were  found. 

At  length,  in  1589,  Henry  IV,  ascended  the 
throne.  Never  had  a  prince  been  nurtured 
amidst  greater  dangers,  concerned  in  more  criti- 
cal enterprises,  or  come  to  a  throne  more  en- 
compassed with  difficulties.  He  had  been  well 
educated  by  his  excellent  mother,  whose  pru- 
dence and  power  he  inherited,  but  not  her  piety. 
In  the  year  1572  he  married  Margaret,  sister  of 
Charles  IX.,  from  whom  he  was  divorced.  He 
married  a  second  time  Mary  of  Medicis.  This 
was  the  first  step  by  which  he  allied  himself  to 
the  Catholics;  and  it  was  doubted  by  some 
whether  to  it  may  not  be  traced  another  great 
error  of  his  life,  his  abjuration  of  the  Protestant 
laith,  which  took  place  in  the  year  1592.  In  the 
year  1598  he  granted  all  his  subjects  fiill  liberty 
of  conscience  by  the  fiimous  edict  of  Nantes, 
and  the  Reformation  seemed  to  be  established 
throughout  his  dominions.  During  the  minority 
of  Louis  XIV.,  however,  this  edict  was  revoked 
by  cardinal  Mazarine;  since  which  time  the 
Protestants  have  often  been  cruelly  persecuted ; 
nor  has  the  profession  of  the  reformed  religion 
in  France  been  at  any  time  so  safe  as  in  most 
other  countries  of  Europe. 

In  the  other  parts  of  the  continent  the  cause 
of  the  Reformation  made  a  considerable,  though 
secret,  progress.  Some  countries  threw  off*  the 
Romish  yoke  entirely ;  and  in  others  a  prodigious 
number  of  families  embraced  the  principles  of 
the  reformed  religion.  It  is  certain  indeed,  and 
some  Roman  Coolies  themselves  do  not  hesi- 
tate to  acknowledge  it,  that  the  papal  doctrines 
and  authority  would  have  fiadlen  into  ruin  in  all 
parts  of  the  world  at  once,  had  not  the  force  of 
the  secular  arm  been. employed  to  support  the 
tottering  edifice.  In  several  places  the  pope  put 
a  stop  to  the  progress  of  the  Reformation,  by 
letting  loose  the  inquisitors ;  who  spread  dread- 
ful marks  of  their  barbarity  through  the  greatest 
parts  of  Europe.    These  foratidable  ministers  of 


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fuperstition'  pot  ao  many  to  death,  and  perpe- 
iTited  such  horrid  acts  of  cruelty  and  oppression, 
that  most  of  the  reformed  consulted  their  safety 
by  m  Toluntary  exile ;  while  odiers  returned  to 
the  religion  of  Rome,  at  least  in  external  ap- 
pearance. The  political  results  of  the  Reforma- 
tion are  thus  summarily  stated  hy  Villiers: — 
5  Europe,  plunged  for  seTeral  centuries  in  a  stu- 
por and  apathy  interrupted  only  by  wars,  or 
•father  by  incursions  and  robberies,  without  any 
■Oeneficial  obiect  to  humanity,  received  at  once  a 
new  life  and  a  new  activity;  a  universal  and 
deep  interest  agitated  the  nations,  their  powers 
were  developed,  their  minds  expanded  by  new 
political  ideas.  Former  revolutions  had  only 
fxerciaed  men^s  arms ;  this  employed  their  heads. 
The  people,  who  before  had  been  only  estimated 
as  flocks  passively  subject  to  the  caprice  of  their 
leaders,  now  begui  to  act  for  themselves,  and  to. 
feel  their  importance  and  ability.  Those  who 
embraced  the  reform  made  common  cause  with 
their  princes  for  liberty;  and  hence  arose  a 
closer  bond,  a  communi^  of  interests  and  of 
action,  between  the  sovereisn  and  his  subjects. 
Both  were  for  ever  delivered  from  the  excessive 
and  burdensome  power  of  the  clergy,  as  well  as 
from  the  struggle,  so  distressing  to  all  Europe, 
between  the  popes  and  the  emperors,  for  supreme 
power.  Social  order  was  now  regulatea  and 
Drought  neaier  to  perfection.  In  one  part  of 
Europe  the  church  ceased  to  form  an  extraneous 
state  within  the  state ;  from  which  it  was  easy 
to  foretell  that  this  change  would  one  day  be 
effected  through  the  whole  of  iit,  and  that  its 
head  would  be  reduced  to  the  simple  spiritual 
primacy.    At  length  the  Catholic  clergy  reformed 


their  conduct  on  the  example  <.«f  the  ProteilantBy 
and  gained  in  manners,  knowledge,  and  esteem, 
as  much  as  they  lost  in  power  and  riches.  Nor 
has  science  been  less  a  gainer.  It  is  little  mora 
than  two  centuries  since  Galileo,  having  dis- 
covered and  collected  incontestable  proofs  of  thtt 
true  motion  of  the  earth,  was  condemned,  ?9  a 
heretic,  to  perpetual  imprisonment,  by  the  tribu- 
nal of  the  inquisition.  The  ancient  system  of 
Roman  Catholicism  was  diametrically  opposite 
to  the  progress  of  knowledge ;  the  Reformation, 
which  has  contributed  to  free  the  human  mind 
from'such  an  adversary,  must  ever  be  considered 
as  one  of  the  most  fortunate  epochs  in  the  intel- 
lectual culture  of  modem  nations.  The  opposite 
system  of  liberality,  of  examination,  of  free  criti- 
cism, established  by  the  Reformation,  has  be- 
come the  sgis  under  which  the  Galileos  of  sub- 
sequent ages  have  been  enabled  securely  to 
develope  their  exalted  conceptions.' 

The  moral  effects  of  the  Reformation  on  the 
opinions  and  conduct  of  mankind  must  not  be 
overlooked.  The  intention  of  the  Reformers 
was,  in  principle,  to  free  themselves  from  the 
despotism  and  infallibility  of  the  popes ;  to  de» 
pend  only  on  the  Sacred  Writings  tor  the  grounds 
of  their  belief;  and,  in  short,  to  overthrow  the 
scholastic  divinity,  which  was  become  the  soul 
of  the  Roman  theology,  and  the  Arm  support  of 
the  hierarchy.  Hence  it  follows  that  the  Refor- 
mation, in  Its  essence,  must  have  had  an  im- 
mediate and  powerftil  influence  on  the  liberty 
of  men's  opinions,  judgment,  and  actions.  It  at 
once  stimulated  them  to  think  for  themselves, 
and  handed  to  them  a  perfect  standard  of  faith 
and  morals. 


REFRACT,  v.a,  -^     Lat.  refraclia;  Fr.  re- 

REFRAc'TroN,  n.f.  >/rac^i'(m.     To  break  the 

.    Refrac'tive,  adj.  j  natural  course  of  rays : 

the  noun  substantive  and  adjective  corresponding. 

Refraetian,  in  general,  is  the  incurvation  or  change 
of  determination  in  the  body  moved,  which  happens 
to  it  whilst  it  enters  or  penetrates  any  medium :  in 
dioptricks,  it  is  the  variation  of  a  ray  of  light  from 
that  right  line,  which  it  would  have  passed  on  in, 
had  not  the  density  of  the  medium  turned  it  aside. 

Harris. 
The  image  of  the  sun  should  be  drawn  out  into  an 
oblong  form,  either  by  a  dilatation  of  every  ray,  or 
by  any  other  casual  inequality  of  the  refractions, 

Kewton. 
Thoic  superficies  of  transparent  bodies  reflect  the 
greatest  quantity  of  li^ht,  which  have  the  greatest 
refracting  power;  that  is,  which  intercede  mediums 
that  differ  most  in  their  refractive  densities. 

Id,  Optics. 
If  its  angle  of  incidence  be  large,  and  the  refrac- 
tive power  of  the  medium  not  very  strong  to  throw  it 
far  from  the  perpendicular,  it  will  be  refracted. 

Cheyne'g  Philotophical  Principle: 
Rays  of  light  are  urged  by  the  refraetijig  media. 

Cheyne. 
Befraeted  from  yon  eastern  cloud, 
The  grand  ctherial  bow  shoots  up.  Thomum. 

Refraction  is  chiefly  used  with  regard  to  the 
rays  of  light,  and  is  an  inflection  or  deviation  of 
the  rays  uom  their  lectilinear  course  on  passing 


obliquely  out  of  one  medium  into  another  of  a 
diflferent  density. 

That  a  body  may  be  refracted,  it  is  necessary 
that  it  should  fall  obliquely  on  the  second  me- 
dium :  in  perpendicular  incidence  there  is  no  re- 
fraction. Yet  ^ossius  and  Snellius  imagined 
they  had  observed  a  perpendicular  ray  of  light 
undergo  a  refraction;  a  perpendicular  object 
appearing  in  the  water  nearer  than  it  really  was : 
but  this  was  attributing  thatlo  a  refraction  of  the 
perpendicular  rays,  which  was  owing  to  the  di- 
vergency of  the  oblique  rays  after  refraction,  from 
a  nearer  point.  Yet  there  is  a  manifest  refrac- 
tion even  of  perpendicuUir  rays  found  in  island 
crystal.  Ronault  adds,  that  though  an  oblique 
incidence  be  necessary  in  all  other  mediums  we 
know  of,  yet  the  obliquity  must  not  exceed  a 
certain  degree ;  if  it  do,  the  body  will  not  pene- 
trate the  medium,  but  will  be  reflected  instead  ot 
being  refracted.  Thus,  cannon-balls,  in  sea  en- 
gagements, falling  very  obliquely  on  the  surface 
of  the  water,  are  observed  to  bound  or  rise  from 
it,  and  to  sweep  the  men  from  off  the  enemy's 
decks.  And  the  same  thing  happens  to  the  little 
stones  with  which  children  make  their  ducks  and 
drakes  along  the  surface  of  water. 

The.  ancients  confounded  refraction  with  re- 
flection; and  it  vras  Newton  who  first  taught 
the  true  difference'  between  them.  He  shows 
however  that  there  is  a  good  deal  of  analogy 


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betwten  them,  and  particularly  in  tha  case  of 

light 

The.  laws  of  the  refraction  of  the  rajra  of  light 
in  mediums  differently  terminated,  i.e.  whose 
surfaces  are  plane,  concave,  and.  convex,  make 
the  suhject  of  dioptrics.  Bv  refraction  it  is  thai 
convex  glasses,  or  lenses,  collect  the  rays,  mag- 
nify objects,  bum.  &c.,  and  hence  the  founda- 
tion of  microscopes,  telescopes,  &c.  And  by 
refraction  it  is  tliat  all  remote  objects  are  seen 
out  of  their  real  places ;  particularly  that  the  hea- 
venly bodies  are  apparently  higher  than  they  are 
in  reality.  The  refraction  of  the  air  has  many 
times  so  uncertain  an  influence  on  the  places  of 
celestial  objects  near  the  horizon,  that,  wherever 
refraction  is  concerned,  the  conclusions  deduced 
from  observations  that  are  much  affected  by  it 
will  always  remain  doubtful,  and  sometimes  too 
precarious  to  be  relied  on.    See  Optics. 

The  true  law  of  refraaion,  viz.  that  the  ratio 
of  the  sines  of  the  angles  made  by  the  perpen- 
dicular (to  the  plane  bounding  the  ntediums) 
with  the  incident  and  refracted  rays,  is  a  constant 
and  fixed  ratio,  yns  first  discovered  by  Wille*- 
brord  Snell,  professor  of  mathematics,  at  Ley- 
den.  From  this  law  it  follows  that  one' angle  of 
inclination,  and  its  corresponding  refracted  angle^ 
being  found  by  observation,  the  refracted  angles 
corresponding  to  the  several  other  angles  of  in- 
clination are  thence  easily  computed.  Now 
Zahnius  and  Kircher  have  found  that,  if  the  angle 
of  inclination  be  70%  the  refiracted  angle  out  of 
air  into  glass  will  be  38°  SO' ;  on  which  principle 
Zahnius  has  constructed  a  table  of  these  refrac- 
tions for  the  several  degrees  of  the  ai^le  of  in- 
clination ;  a  specimen  of  which  here  follows : — 


Ansle  of  In- 
cUnation. 

Refracted 

Angle  of  Re- 
fraction. 

angle. 

O               '               H 

O          #         /r 

t 

0    40      5 

0     19    55 

2 

1     20      6 

0    39    54 

3 

2      0      4 

0    59     56 

4 

2    40      5 

1     19    55 

5 

3     20      3 

1     39    57 

10 

6    39     16 

3     20    44 

20 

13     11     35 

6    48    25 

30 

19.    29     29 

10    30     31 

45 

28      9     19 

16    50    41 

90 

41    51     40 

48      8     20 

Hence  it  appears  that,  if  the  angle  of  incline* 
tion  be  less  than  20°,  the  angle  of  refraction  out 
of  air  into  glass  is  almost  one-third  of  the  angle 
of  inclination ;  and  therefore  a  ray  is  refracted 
to  the  axis  of  refraction  by  almost  a  third  part  of 
the  quantity  of  its  angle  of  inclination.  And  on 
this  principle  it  is  that  Kepler,  and  most  other 
dioptrical  writers,  demonstrate  the  refractions  in 
glasses ;  though,  in  estimating  the  law  of  these 
refractions,  he  followed  the  example  of  Alhazen 
and  Vitello,  and  sought  to  discover  it  in  the  pro- 
portion of  the  angles,  and  not  in  that  of  the  sines, 
or  cosecants,  as  discovered  by  Snell,  as  mentioned 
above. 

Refraction  op  Altitude  is  the  arc  or  por- 
tion of  a  vertical  circle,  by  which  the  aKitude  of 
a  star  is  increased  by  the  refraction  of  light. 


RSFRACTIOH  or  ASCBKSIOH  AKD  DbSCBHSIOV 

is  an  arc  of  the  equator,  by  which  the  ascen- 
sion and  descension  of  a  star,  whether  right  or 
oblique,  is  increased  or  diminished  by  the  re* 
fraction. 

Refraction  of  Declikatiom  is  an  arc  of  a 
circle  of  declination,  by  which  the  declination 
of  a  star  is  increased  or  diminished  by  the  re- 
fraction. 

Refraction  of  Latitude  is  an  arc  of  a  circle 
of  latimde,  by  which  the  latitude  of  a  star  is  in- 
creased or  diminished  by  the  refraction. 

Refraction  of  Longitude  is  an  arc  of  the 
ecliptic,  by  which  the  longitude  «f  a  star  is  in- 
creased or  diminished  by  the  refraction. 

Refraction,  Terrestrial  or  Atmospheri- 
cal, is  that  by  which  terrestrial  objects  appear 
to  be  raised  higher  than  they  really  are,  in  ob- 
serving their  altitudes.  The  quantity  of  this  re- 
fraction is  estimated  by  Dr.  Maskelyne  at  one- 
tenth  ;  by  Le  Gendre  at  one-fourteenth ;  by  De 
Lambre  atone-eleventh,  and  by  others  at  the 
twelfth  of  the  distance  of  the  object  observed, 
•expressed  in  degrees  of  a  great  circle.  But  there 
can  be  no  fixed  quantity  of  this  refraction,  as  it 
depends  on  the  state  of  the  atmosphere,  which  is 
very  variable.  Some  veiy  singular  effects  of  this 
are  related  in  the  Plulosophical  Transactions  for 
1798,  by  W.  Latham,  esq.,  F.  R.  S.  and  A.  S. 

Many  curious  effects  of  atmospherical  refraction 
have  been  noticed  by  ingenious  men ;  for  which 
see  Dr.  Button's  Dictionary,  and  the  papers  of 
Vince,  Huddart,  Lathem,  &c.,  in  the  Pnilosopbi- 
cal  Transactions.  For  more  on  the  theory  of 
atmospherical  refraction,  the  reader  may  consult 
the  treatises  on  astronomy  by  Vince,  Gregory, 
Biot,  Woodhouse,  and  Prony's  Architectural 
Hydraulique.  See  also  our  article  Astronomy. 
REFRACTORY,  adj.  >    French  refractaire  ; 

Reprac'toriness,  n.  s.  S  Lat.  rtfractarim.  It 
is  sometimes  accented  on  the  first  syllable,  but  by 
Shakspeare  on  the  second;  sullen;  obstinate; 
perverse:  sullenness;  obstinacy. 

There  is  a  law  in  each  well-ordered  nation. 
To  curb  those  raging  appetites  that  are 
Most  disobedient  and  rifractory^  Shaktpmn, 

A  rough  hewn  seaman,  being  broaght  before  a  wise 
mstice  for  some  misdemeanor,  was  by  him  ordered  to 
oe  sent  away  to  prison,  and  was  rrfractory  after  he 
heard  his  doom,  insomuch  as  he  would  not  stir  a 
foot  from  the  place  where  he  stood ;  saying,  it  was 
better  to  stand  where  he  was,  than  go  to  a  worse 
place.  Bacon*8  Apophthegms. 

I  did  never  allow  any  man's  rejraetorimeu  against 
the  privileges  and  orders  of  the  houses. 

King  Charla. 

It  maketh  them  indocile  and  intracti5>le,  avene 
from  better  instmction,  pertinacious  in  their  opinions, 
and  rejhietory  in  their  ways.  ^rrow. 

Great  Complaint  was  made  by  the  presbyteriar 
gang,  of  refractoriness  to  obey  the  parliament's  order. 

Satindersom, 

Refractory  mortal!    if  thou  wilt  npt  trust  thy 
friends,  take  what  follows ;  know  assuredly,  before 
nest  full  moon,  that  thou  wilt  be  hun^  up  in  chains. 
Arbuthnot's  History  of  John  Bull. 

These  atoms  of  theirs  may  have  it  in  them,  but 
they  are  refractory  and  sullen ;  and  therefore,  like 
men  of  the  same  tempers,  must  be  hanged  and  but' 
4c(ed  into  reason.  Bentlry, 


t 


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REFRAIN',  ».  a.  &  ».  n.  Fr.  rtfrener ;  Lat. 
re  and  Jrarmm.  To  hold  back  j  to  keep  from 
action :  to  forbear ;  abstain. 

Hold  not  thy  tongue,  O  God,  keep  not  still  si- 
lence ;  Ttfrain  not  thyself.  Ptalm  Ixzxiii.  1. 

My  son,  walk  not  thou  in  the  way  with  them,  r«- 
fnin  thy  foot  from  their  path.  PTOoerht  i.  15. 

For  my  name's  sake  will  I  defer  mine  anger,  and 
fi^tnn  for  thee,  that  I  cut  thee  not  off.         Uaiah. 

In  what  place,  or  npon  what  consideration  soever 
it  be,  they  do  it,  were  it  in  their  own  opinion  of  no 
•  force  being  done,  they  would  undoubtedly  refrain  to 
do  it.  Hooker, 

Nor  from  the  holy  one  of  heaven 
Refrained  his  tongue.  Milton. 

That  they  fed  not  on  flesh,  at  least  the  faithful 
party  before  the  flood,  may  become  more  probable, 
because  they  refrtuned  therefrom  some  time  ailer. 
Browne's  Vulgar  Errourt. 

Neptune  atoned,  his  wrath  shall  now  refrain. 
Or  thwart  the  synod  of  the  gods  in  vain.         Pope, 

REFRAN'GIBLE,  adj. )     Lat.  re  and  /ra»- 

Refbavgibil'itt,  n.  f .  y  go.  Capable  of,  or 
tending  to,  refraction :  the  noun  substantive  cor- 
responding. 

As  some  rays  are  more  refrangible  than  others, 
that  is,  are  more  turned  out  of  their  course,  in  pas- 
sing from  one  medium  to  another ;  it  follows  that, 
after  such  refraction,  they  will  be  separated,  and  their 
distinct  colour  observed.  Lodce, 

R^rangibilUy  of  the  rays  of  light  is  their  dispo- 
sition to  be  refracted  or  turned  out  of  their  way,  in 
passing  oat  of  one  transparent  body  or  medium  into 
another.  Newton, 

Refrangibility  of  Light  is  chiefly  applied 
to  the  disposition  of  rays  to  produce  different 
colors.    See  Optics. 

REFRESH',  w. a.)     Fr.  refraischer,  refret- 

Refresh'er,  n.s.  >cA€r;  Lat.  re^r^ero.    To 

Refresh'ment.     3 revive;  recreate;  relieve; 
improve ;  refrigerate :  a  refresher  is  that  which 
refreshes:    refreshment,  telief,   or  that  which 
gives  relief. 
A  dew  coming  after  heat  refreeheth.  Bcol.  xliii.  22. 

Service  shaU  with  steel  sinews  toil ; 
And  labour  shall  refresh  itself  with  hope. 

Shakspean. 

The  rest  refresh  the  scaly  snakes,  that  fold 
The  shield  of  Pallas,  and  renew  their  gold. 

Dryden, 

If  yon  would  have  trees  to  thrive,  take  care  that 
no  plants  be  near  them,  which  may  deprive  them  of 
nourishment,  or  hinder  refreshings  and  helps  that 
they  mieht  receive.  Mortimer. 

Such  honest  refreAnunts  and  comforts  of  life,  onr 
christian  liberty  nas  made  it  lawful  for  us  to  use. 

Sprat, 

His  meals  are  coarse  and  short,  his  employment* 
warrantable,  his  sleep  certain  and  refreshtne,  neither 
inteirupted  with  the  lashes  of  a  guilty  mind,  nor  the 
aches  of  a  crazy  body.  South. 

He  was  full  of  agony  and  honour  upon  the  ap- 
proach of  a  dismal  death,  and  so  had  most  need  of 
the  refreshmenU  of  society,  and  the  firiendly  assistance 
of  his  disciples.  South, 

The  kind  refresher  of  the  summer  heats.     Thomson, 


REFRIG'ERATE,i;.a/ 
Refrig'erant,  a£§. 
RefrioeraVtok,  n.  t, 
Reprig'erative,  adf. 
Refrio'er  ATORr,<td^.  fc  n.  s. 

RbFRIGK'IIIUII,  II.  I.  j 


Lat.  refrigero. 
To  cool;  refrige- 
rant and  refrige- 
''lative,  as  well  as 
refrigeratory,  ad- 
jective,      mean 


cooling,  or  having  the  power  to  cool :  refrigera- 
tion, the  act  of  cooling,  or  state  of  being  cooled : 
refrigeratory,  noun  substantive,  the  part  of  old 
distilling  vessels  that  was  placed  about  the  head 
of  a  still,  and  filled  with  water  to  cool  tha  con* 
deosing  vapors;  any  thing  internally  cooling: 
refrigerium,  cool  refreshment;  refrigeration. 

In  the  cure  of  gangrenes,  you  must  beware  of  dry 
heat,  and  resort  to  things  that  are  refrigerant,  with 
an  inward  warmth  and  virtue  of  cherishing.  Bacon, 

The  |[reat  breezes,  which  the  motion  of  the  air  in 
great  circles,  such  as  the  girdle  of  the  world  pro- 
duceth,  do  refrigerate;  and  therefore  in  those  parts 
noon  is  nothing  so  hot,  when  the  breezes  are  great, 
as  abont  ten  of  the  clod:  in  the  forenoon.  Id, 

Divers  do  stut ;  the  cause  ma  v  be  the  refrigera- 
tion of  the  tongue,  whereby  it  is  less  apt  to  move. 

Id. 

If  the  mere  refrigeration  of  the  air  would  fit  it  for 
bieathmg,  this  might  be  somewhat  helped  with  bel- 
lows. Wiikins. 

Whether  they  be  refrigeralted  inclinatorily  or  some- 
what equinozicalljT,  though  in  a  lesser  degree,  they, 
discover  some  verticity.  Browne, 

A  delicate  wine,  and  a  durable  refrigemtory, 

Mortimee, 

It  must  be  acknowledged,  the  ancienta  have  talked 
much  of  annual  refrigerivsns,  respites  or  intervals  of 

}>unishment  to  the  damned ;  as  particularly  on  the 
iestivals.  South, 

If  it  arise  from  an  external  cause,  apply  refrige- 
rants, without  any  preceding  evacuation.  Wiseman. 

REFT,  part.  pret.  of  Reave,  which  see.  De- 
prived ;  taken  away.    Obsolete. 

Thus  we  well  left,  he  better  refi. 
In  heaven  to  take  his  place. 
That  like  by  life  and  death,  at  last. 
We  may  obtain  like  grace.    Aseham's  SehoohnoMter, 
About  his  shoulders  broad  he  threw 

An  hairy  hide  of  some  wild  beast,  whom  he- 
In  savage  forest  by  adventures  slew. 

And  reft  Uie  spoil  his  ornament  to  be.     Spenser, 

Another  ship  had  seized  on  us, 
And  would  have  refl  the  fishers  of  their  prey. 

ShUupeare. 

Our  dyinff  hero  from  the  continent 
Ravished  whole  towns,  and  forts  from  Spaniards  refit. 
As  his  last  legacy  to  Britain  left.  Waller, 

REFUGE,  n.$.kv.  a.  French  refiige ;  Ital. 
Port,  and  Span,  rtfvgio ;  Lat.  rejughtm.  Shelter 
or  protection  from  danger  or  distress;  expedient: 
to  shelter :  a  refugee  is  one  who  seeks  a  refuge. 

They  shall  be  your  refuge  from  the  avenger  of 
blood.  Joshua. 

The  Lord  will  be  a  refuge  for  the  oppressed,  a  re- 
frige  in  times  of  trouble.  Psalm  ix.  9. 

This  last  old  man. 
Whom  with  a  cracked  heart  I  have  sent  to  Rome, 
Loved  me  above  the  measure  of  a  father : 
Their  latest  refrge  was  to  send  hun.       Shakspeare, 

Silly  beggars, 
Who,  sittine  in  the  stocks,  refuge  their  shame 
That  many  nave,  and  others  must,  sit  there.       Jd. 

Light  must  be  supplied,  among  graceful  refuges 
by  teiradng  any  stoiy  in  danger  of  daiiness. 

•       Wetton, 

Rocks,  dens,  and  caves,  but  I  in  none  of  these 
Find  place  or  refuge.  Milton's  Paradise  Lost^ 

The  voung  vipers  supposed  to  break  through  the 
belljr  of  the  dam,  will,  upon  any  fright,  for  protection 
run  into  it ;  for  then  the  old  one  receives  them  in  at 
her  month,  which  way,  the  fright  being  past,  they 


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will  rtlom  again ;  which  is  a  peculiar  way  of  rii^«. 

Poor  rtfugen,  at  first  they  purchase  here ; 
And,  aooQ  as  denizened,  they  domineer.      Dryden, 

Dreads  the  Tenffeanoe  of  her  injured  lord ; 
Even  by  those  goos,  who  refugtd  her,  abhorred.  Id, 

This  is  become  more  necessary  in  some  of  their 
governoieBta,  since  so  many  refugen  settled  among 
them.  Addi$on, 

Those,  who  take  refuge  in  a  multitude,  have  an 
Arian  council  to  answer  for.  Alttrbmy. 

Refuge,  Cities  of,  were  places  provided  as 
asyla,  for  such  as  aoainst  their  will  should  happen 
to  kill  a  man.  Of  these  cities  there  were  three 
on  each  side  Jordan ;  on  this  side  were  Kedesh 
of  Nephtali,  Hebron,  and  Schechem ;  beyond 
Jordan  were  Bezer,  Golan,  and  Ramoth-Gilead. 
When  any  of  the  Hebrews,  or  strangers  that 
dwelt  in  their  country,  happened  accidentally  to 
kill  a  man,  they  might  retire  thither,  to  be  oat  oi 
the  reach  of  the  relations  of  the  deceased,  and  to 
prepare  for  their  defence  and  iustification  before 
the  judges.  The  manslayer  underwent  two  trials : 
first  before  the  judges  of  the  city  of  refige  to 
which  be  had  fied;  and  secondly  before  the 
judges  of  his  own  city.  If  found  guilty,  be  was 
put  to  death.  If  acquitted,  he  was  not  immedi- 
ately set  at  liberty;  but,  to  inspire  a  deeree  of 
horror  against  even  involuntary  homicide,  he  was 
reconducted  to  the  place  ^f  refuge,  and  obliged 
to  continue  there  in  a  sort  of  banishment  till  the 
death  of  the  high  priest.  If,  before  this  time,  he 
ventured  out,  the  avenger  of  blood  might  freely 
kill  him ;  but  after  the  high  priest*s  deaUi  he  was 
at  libertyto  go  where  he  pleased  without  molest- 
ation. The  cities  of  refuge  were  to  be  well  sup- 
plied with  water  and  necessary  provisions ;  to  be 
of  easy  access ;  to  have  good  roads  leading  to 
them,  with  commodious  bridges  where  there  was 
occasion.  The  width  of  the  roads  was  to  be 
thirty-two  cubits  or  forty-eight  feet  at  least.  At 
all  cross  roads  direction  posts  were  erected,  with 
an  inscription  pointing  out  the  road  to  the  cities 
of  refoge.  The  15th  of  Adar,  which  answers  to 
our  February,  was  appointed  for  the  city  magis- 
trates to  see  that  the  roads  were  in  good  condi- 
tion. No  persons  in  any  of  these  cities  were* 
allowed  to  make  weapons,  lest  the  relations  of 
the  deceased  should  be  furnished  with  the  means 
of  gratifying  their  revenge. 

REFUL'GENT,  adj,  f       Latin       refulgem. 

Reful'gently,  <uft;.  ^  Bright;  shining;  glit- 
tering :  the  adverb  corresponding. 

He  neither  might,  nor  wished  to  know 

A  more  r^ulgent  lieht.  WaUer. 

So  conspicuous  and  rtftdgent  a  truth  is  that  of 
God's  being  the  author  of  man's  felicity,,  that  the 
dispute  is  not  bo  much  concerning  the  thing,  as  con» 
caniing  the  manner  of  iL  Beyl$, 

Agamemnon's  train. 
When  hi»  refulgmit  arms  flashed  through  the  shady 

plain, 
Fled  from  his  well-known  face.      Dtylm's  JEneii, 

REFUND',  w.  a. '  Lat.  re/iwdo.  To  pour  or 
gireback;  fepay;  restore. 

A  ^vemor  that  had  pillaged  the  people,  was,  for 
receivmg  of  bribes,  sentenced  to  refund  what  he  had 
wrongfully  taken.  VEeiratige, 

Were  the  humours  of  the  eye  tinctured  with  any 
colour,  they  would  refund  that  colour  upon  the  ob* 


ject,  and  so  it  woald  not  be  fapieaeated  as  in  ibelf 
It  is.  K19- 

Soch  wise  men  as  himself  account  all  that  is  past 
to  be  also  gone ;  and  know  that  there  can  be  no 
gain  in  refunding,  nor  any  profit  in  paying  debu. 

South, 
How  to  Icarius,  in  the  bridal  hour. 
Shall  I,  by  waste  undone,  refund  the  dower  1 

Pe^. 

REFUSE',  V.  iH  od^.,  &^  Fr.  rtfiaer;  Ital. 
Repu'sal,  11.  s.  [a.  s.  S  ncuMore ;  Lat.  rtcur 
Refu'ser.  3w.     To  deny  that 

which  is  requested  or  demanded ;  reject ;  not  to 
accept  or  comply :  the  adjective,  which  as  well 
as  the  noun  substantive  bos  its  accent  on  the 
first  syllable,  means  refused ;  left  when  the  rest  is 
taken :  the  noun  substantive,  something  so  left : 
refusal  is,  the  act  of  refusing ;  denial ;  preemp- 
tion; option:  refuser,  he  who  refuses. 

Every  thing  vile  and  refute  ttiey  destroyed.  Samnul. 

We  dare  not  disgrace  our  worldly  superiours  with 
ofiering  unto  them  such  refum,  as  we  bring  unto 
God  himself.  Mooket. 

If  he  should  oifer  to  chuse,  and  chuse  the  right 
casket,  you  should  refuu  to  perform  your  father's 
will,  if  you  should  r^use  to  accept  him. 

Shakspmre. 

Man)r  kinds  have  much  refute,  which  countervails 
that  which  they  have  excellent.  Bmetm. 

Having  most  aflectionateW  set  life  and  death  be- 
fore them,  and  conjured  them  to  chnse  one,  and 
avoid  the  other,  he  stiU  leaves  nnto  them,  as  Co 
free  and  rational  agents,  a  liberty  to  refute  all  hii 
calls,  to  let  his  talents  lye  by  them  unprofitable. 


Some  few  others  are  the  only  refueere  and  con- 
demnors of  this  catholick  practice.  Tatflar. 

Wonder  not  then  what  God  saw  for  yon  good 
If  I  refuse  not,  but  convert,  as  you, 
To  proper  substance.  MHton, 

He  never  had  vexatious  law-disputes  about  his 
does,  but  had  his  tithes  full?  paid,  and  not  of  the 
most  refuse  parts,  but  generally  the  very  best.  FeU, 

Down  with  the  falling  stream  the  nj'ust  nui« 
To  raise  with  joyful  news  his  drooping  son. 

Jhyden. 

Common  experience  has  justly  a  mighty  influence 
on  the  minds  of  men,  to  make  them  give  or  rrfuse 
credit  to  any  thing  proposed.  Locke. 

Please  to  bestow  on  him  the  refuse  letters;    he 
hopes  by  printing  them  to  get  a  plentiful  provision. 
<  SpecUttT, 

This  humourist  keeps  mora  than  he  wants,  and 
gives  a  vast  refute  of  his  superfluities  to  purchase 
heaven.  Addison. 

1  know  not  whether  it  be  more  shame  or  wondery 
to  see  that  men  can  so  put  off  ingenuity,  as  to  de- 
'scend  to  so  base  a  vice ;  yet  we  daily  see  it  done, 
and  that  not  only  by  the  scum  and  refuse  of  the 
people.  Gooemmtnt  ef  the  Tomfut, 

Women    are   made  as   they  themselves    would 
chooaa; 
Too  proud  to  ask,  too  humble  to  refim.        Gmrtk,  • 

God  has  borne  with  all  his  weak  and  ohatinate  ft- 
futak  of  grace,  and  has  given  him  time  day  afierday. 

Rtitn, 

When  eroplovments  go  a  begging  for  want  of 
hands,  they  shall  be  sure  to  have  the  refiual,  Swifi. 

REFUTE',  V.  a.     )     Fr.  r^futer  ;  Span,  and 
Refcta'tion,  n.  s.  \  Port.  re/iitor/Lat.  rejuto. 

To  prove  false  oi  erroneous :  the  noun  substaoitive 

corresponding. 


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SeU-defniction  sQught,  rtAom 
That  excelleDce  thought  in  thee.       MUkm,   , 
He  knew  that  there  were  so  many  witnesses  in 
these  two  miracies,  that  it  was  impoesible  to  n/uu 
such  multitudes.  Addium, 

Tis  such  misecible  absurd  stuff,  thai  we  will  not 
honour  it  with  especial  ref'utaium,  Btntley. 

REGAIN',  V.  a.  Fr.  regagnar;  n  and  gain. 
To  recover ;  gain  anew. 

Hopeful  to  rtgain 
Thy  lore,  from  thee  I  will  not  hide 
What  thoughU  in  my  unquiet  breast  aie  risen. 

MiUon. 
We*Te  driven  badL 
Tbeae  heathen  Saxons,  and  re^aifisd  our  earth, 
As  earth  recovers  from  an  ebbing  tide.        Diydm, 

As  soon  as  the  mind  regains  the  power  to  stop 
ot  continue  any  of  these  motions  of  the  body  or 
thoughts,  we  then  consider  the  man  as  a  free  agent. 

Locke. 

RE'GAL,  adj.  kn,t.^     Fr.  Span,  and  Ital. 

Regal'ity,  n.  t.        yregtd;    Latin  regalis. 

Royal;  kingly :  a  kind  of  organ:  regality  is  the 

noun  substantive  corresponding  with  regal  as  an 

adjective. 

Behold  the  image  of  mortality, 
nd  feeble  nature  clothed  with  fleshy  *tire, 
When  raging  passion  with  fierce  tyranny 
Roba  reason  of  her  due  regality.  Spenmr. 

Edward,  duke  of  York, 
Usurpe  the  reg/d  title  and  the  seat 
Of  England's  true  anointed  lawful  heir.  Shahtptair: 

The  sounds  that  produce  tones  are  ever  from  such 
bodies  as  are  in  their  parts  and  porta  equal ;  and 
such  are  in  the  nightingale  pipes  mngaU  or  organs. 

Boeon. 
He  neither  could  nor  would  yield  to  any  diminu- 
tion of  the  crown  of  France,  in  territory  or  regalitif. 

Id. 
The  miuesty  of  England  might  hang  like  Maho- 
met's tomb  by  a  magnetick  charm,  between  the  pri- 
vileges  of  the  two  houses,  in  airy  imagination  of 
regality.  King  CharUs. 

With  them  comes  a  third  of  regal  |X)rt, 
With  fiaded  splendour  wan,  who  by  his  gait 
And  fierce  demeanour  seems  the  prince  of  hell. 

MUton. 
When  was  there  ever  a  better  prince  on  the  throne 
than  the  present  oneenf  I  do  not  talk  of  her  govern- 
ment, her  love  ot  the  people,  or  qoaltnes  that  are 
purely  regal;  but  her  piety,  charity,  temperance, 
and  oenjugal  love.  Swift. 

REGALE',  V.  a.      >     Fr.  regeler;  Ital.  re- 
RsGALE'MfiNTy  A.  s.  I gcdote.    To  refresh;  en- 
tertain; the  entertainment  given. 
I  with  warming  puff  regaled  chilled  fingers.  PhUipe. 
The  muses  stiU  require     ^ 
Humid  rvfalMMnl,  nor  will  ao^t  avail  ¥ 
Imploring  Phoebus  with  unmoisteoed  lips.      Id. 
Regalia  is  also  used  for  the  appstatus  of  a 
coronation ;  as  the  crown,  the  sceptre  with  the 
ctoss,  that  with  the  dove,  St.  Edward's  staff,  the 
globe,  and  the  orb  widi  the  cross,  &c.  See  Coro- 

VATIOK. 


REGARiy,  V.  a.  &  n.  $. 

Regard'able,  m^*. 
Regari/eb,  It.  t. 
Regard^ful,  iu^.  r 

Regard'puily,  adv.      • 

RS6ARD'LE86,  ad}. 

Rega  rd'lcsslt,  a</v. 
Heoard'lessiiess,  ft.  $.  J 


Fr.  recorder ;  Ital. 
riguatw.  To  es- 
teem; value;  no- 
tice; attend  to; 
observe :  observe 
religiously ;  as  a 
noun  substantive, 
attention;  respect; 


account;  relation ;  look ;  aspect :  reganlable  is, 
observable ;  vvorthy  of  notice :  regarder,  he  who 
pays  attention  or  regard :  regardf\il,  observant ; 
attention :  the  adverb  corresponding :  regardless, 
heedless;  negligent;  devoid  of  attention  or  care: 
the  adverb  and  noun  substantive  cori^ponding. 

He  that  observeth  the  wind  shall  never  sow,  and 
he  that  regardeth  the  clouds  shall  never  reap. 

Proverbs. 

To  him  they  had  regard,  because  long  he  had  be- 
witched them.  ,  ilcis  viii.  II. 

He  that  regardtth  the  day,  rtgardsik  it  unto  the 
Lord ;  and  be  that  rtgard^th  not  the  day,  to  the  Lord 
he  doth  not  regard  it.  Rmtm*  aiv.  6. 

It  is  peninsula,  which  regardeth  the  mainland. 

•Sandys. 

Mac  Ferlagh  was  a  roan  of  meanest  rej^ard  amongst 
them,  neither  having  wealth  nor  power.       Spenter. 
He  likeliest  is  to  fall  into  mischance, 

That  is  regardless  of  his  governance.  Id. 

Change  was  thought  necessarv,  in  regard  of  the 
great  hurt  which  the  church  did  receive  by  a  number 
of  things  then  in  use.  .  Hooker. 

This  aspect  of  mine, 

The  best  regarded  virgins  of  our  clime 

Have  loved.         Siakspeare.  Merchant  of  Vemee, 
If  much  you  note  him, 

You  ofiend  him ;  feed,  and  regard  him  not. 


Throw  out  our  eyes  for  brave  Othello, 
Even  till  we  make  the  main  and  the  aerial  blue 
An  indistinct  regard.  Id.  Othello. 

lb  Ais  the  Athenian  minion,  whom  the  world 
Voiced  so  r»gardfu%?  Id.  Thnon  of  Athene. 

Biyan  was  so  regardfid  of  his  charge,  as  he  never 
disposed  any  matter,  but  first  he  acquainted  the 
general.  Mayward. 

Tintoger,  more  famous  for  his  antiquity  than  re- 
gardabU  for  his  present  estate,  abutteth  on  the  sea. 

Cormc, 
He  denies 
To  know  their  God,  or  message  to  r^ard.    JUilton. 
How  best  we  may 
Compose  our  present  evils,  with  regard 
Of  what  we  are  and  where.  Id. 

Regardien  of  the  bliss  wherein  he  sat. 
Second  to  thee,  offered  himself  to  die 
¥or  man's  ofience.  Id.  Faradiee  Lost, 

I  cannot  discover  this  difference  of  the  badger's 
legs,  although  the  regardabU  side  be  defined,  and 
the  brevity  by  roost  imputed  unto  the  left  Browne. 

He,  surprised  with  humble  joy,  surveyed 
One  sweet  regard,  shot  by  the  royal  maid.  Dryden. 

Let  a  man  be  very  tender  and  regardful  of  every 
pioas  motion  made  by  the  spirit  of  God  to  his  heart. 

Stmth. 
The  nature  of  the  sentence  he  is  to  pronounce, 
the  rule  of  judgment  by  which  he  will  proceed,  re- 
quires that  a  particular  M^rd  he  had  to  our  obser- 
vation of  this  precept.  Atierlmry. 

Their  bnsiness  is  to  addrua  all  the  ranks  of*  man- 
kind, and  persuade  them  to  pursae  and  persevere  in 
virtue,  with  f^ard  to  themselves;  in  justice  and 
goodness  with  regard  to  tbor  neighbours ;  and  piety 
towards  God.  Watu. 

We  must  learn  to  be  deaf  and  rmrdUss  of  other 
things,  besides  the  present  subject  of  our  meditation. 


REGARDANT,  in  heraldry, 
signifies  looking  behind,  and  is 
applied  to  beasts  represented 
on  coats  of  arms,  as  m  the  an- 
nexed figure. 


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RsoARDSB,  an  ancient  officer  of  the  king's 
forest,  sworn  to  make  the  regard  of  the  forest 
every  year;  that  is,  to  take  a  view  of  its  limits^ 
to  enauire  into  all  offences  and  defaults  com- 
mitted by  the  foresters  within  the  forest,  and  to 
observe  whether  all  the  officers  executed  their 
respective  duties. 

KEGATA,  or  Regatta,  a  kind  of  boat  race, 
formerly  annually  held  at  Venice,  when  that  city 
was  the  capital  of  an  independent  republic.  The 
race  was  performed  in  gondolas  by  gondoliers. 
The  competitors  were  chosen  from  the  fkmilies 
of  the  first  rank ;  and  no  competitors  at  the  an- 
cient Olympic  Games  were  ever  more  anxious 
for  success.  The  course  was  about  four  miles. 
The  gondolas,  after  starting,  passed  through  the 
great  winding  canal,  which  divides  the  city  into 
two  parts,  turned  round  a  picket,  and  returning 
the  .<ame  way,  seized  the  prize,  which  was  fixed  at 
the  acutest  angle  of  the  great  canal,  where  it  was 
Tisible  by  the  spectators  on  both  sides.  On  such 
occasions  both  the  gondolas  and  the  gondoliers 
were  decorated  in  the  most  elegant  and  superb 
manner.  Regattas,  in  imitation  of  the  Venetian, 
have  been  often  given  on  the  Thames,  and  are 
still  continued. 

REGEN,  a  river  in  the  interior  of  Germany, 
which  rises  on  the  southern  frontier  of  Bohemia, 
unites  with  the  Little  Regen,  and  falls  into  the 
Danube,  near  Ratisbon.  , 

Regen,  Circle  of  tbe,  is  a  province  of  Ba- 
varia, adjacent  to  Bohemia,  having  the  circle  of 
the  Upper  Maine  on  the  north-west,  and  that  of 
the  Lower  Danube  on  the  south-west  It  has 
an  area  of  3800  s<juare  miles.  This  province 
is  hilly  and  woody,  including  part  of  the  districts 
called  the  Fichtelbeig  and  Bouemian  forest;  ye* 
it  has  several  plains  of  considerable  extent.  The 
sale  of  timber  and  working  in  wood  are  consi- 
derable occupations.  The  fields  also  abound  in 
game,  and  have  mines  of  iron.  Ratisbon,  in  the 
south  of  the  circle,  is  the  seat  of  the  provincial 
administration ;  and  Amberg,  in  the  north,  that 
of  the  high  court  of  justice.  Inhabitants,  of 
whom  the  great  majority  are  Catholics,  358,000. 

REGEN'ERATE,  17.  a.  &  (Hjf.  >      Lat.   rv^e- 

Regevera'tion,  ti.  t.  ynero.  Re  and 

generate.    To  reproduce ;  beget  or  create  anew : 

as  an  adjective  reproduced ;   bom  anew  to  the 

Christian  life :  regeneration  corresponding. 

He  saved  us  by  the  washing  of  r^tmnUum,  and 
renewiog  of  the  Holy  Ghost.  Titut  iii.  6. 

Thou !  tbe  earthly  author  of  my  blood, 
Whose  youthful  spirit,  in  me  regenerate, 
Doth  with  a  twofold  vigour  lift  me  up. 
To  reach  at  victory.  Shaktpeare*  Richard  II. 

Albeit  the  son  of  this  earl  of  Desmond,  who  lost 
his  head,  were  restored  U>  the  earldom ;  yet  could 
not  the  king's  grace-  regenerate  obedience  in  that 
degenerate  house,  but  it  grew  rather  more  wild. 

Dames. 
For  fmm  the  mercy  seat  above, 
Prevenient  grace  descending,  had  removed 
The  stony  from  their  hearts,  and  made  new  flesh 
Regenerate  grow  instead.  Milton. 

No  sooner  was  a' convert  initiated,  but  by  an 
easy  figure  he  became  a  new  man,  and  both  acted 
and  looked  upon  himself  as  one  regenerated  and 
boin  a  second  time  into  another  state  of  existence. 

Addieim. 


Through  all  the  soil  a  genial  fbiment  spread^ 
Regemerates  tbe  plants,  and  new  adorns  the  meads. 

Blaekmore. 

An  alkali,  poured  to  that  which  is  mixed  with  an 
acid,  raiseth  an  efiervescence,  at  the  cessation  of 
which,  the  salts,  of  which  the  acid  is  composed,  will 
be  regenerated.  Arbuthnot. 

If  you  fulfil  this  resolution,  though  you  fall  some- 
times by  infirmity;  nay,  thou^  you  should  fall  into 
some  greater  act,  even  of  deliberate  sin,  which  you 
presently  retract  by  confession  and  amendment,  yoa 
are  nevertheless  in  a  regenerate  estate,  yon  live  tho 
life  of  a  Christian  here,  and  shall  inherit  the  reward 
that  is  promised  to  such  in  a  glorious  immortality 
hereafter.  Wake. 

RE'GENT, adj.kn. i.  j     Fr.  rcgeni  ; Lai. rt- 

Re'oency,  n.  s.  /f^^"*'  Governing ;  nil- 

Re'gektsbip.  3mg;  governor  or  ni- 

ler :  one  exercising  vicarious  royalty :   regency 
and  regentship,  his  office  or  station. 

As  Christ  took  manhood,  that  by  it  lie  might  be 
capable  of  death,  wfaereunto  he  humbled  hiuMelf :  so 
because  manhood  is  the  proper  subject  of  compassioQ . 
and  feeling  pity,  which  maketh  the  sceptre  of  Christ's 
regency  even  in  the  kingdom  of  heaven  amiable. 

Hooker. 
Lord  regent,  I  do  greet  yoor  excellence 

With  letters  of  commission  from  the  king. 

Skaktpeere. 

If  York  have  ill  demeaned  himself  in  France, 
Then  let  him  be  denied  the  regentAip.  Id. 

Regions  they  passed,  the  mighty  regeneiet 
Of  seraphim.  ^ftlMt^ 

He  togther  calls  the  re^snl  powera 
Under  him  regent.  Id.  Patadiee  Leet. 

The  operations  of  human  life  flow  not  from  the 
corporeal  molds,  but  from  some  other  active  regent 
principle  that  resides  in  the  body,  or  governs  it, 
which  we  call  the  soul.  Hole. 

This  great  minister,  finding  the  regency  shaken  by 
the  faction  of  so  many  great  ones  within,  and  awed 
by  the  terror  of  the  Spanish  greatness  without,  durst 
begin  a  war.  Temple, 

But  let  a  heifer  with  gilt  horns  ^e  led 

To  Juno,  regent  of  the  marriage  bed.      Ihyden, 

Men  have  knowledge  and  strength  to  fit  them  for 
action:  women  afiection,  for  their  better  compli- 
ance ;  and  herewith  beauty  to  compensate  their  sub- 
jection, by  giving  them  an  equivalent  regeney  over 
men.  Grew. 

Regent,  one  who  governs  a  kingdom  during 
the  minority  or  absence  of  the  king.  In  England 
the  methods  of  appointing  this  guardian  or  re- 
gent have  been  .so  various,  and  the  duration  of 
his  power  so  uncertain,  that  from  hence  it  might 
almost  be  collected  that  his  office  is  unknown 
to  the  Common  Uw;  and  therefore^  according 
to  Sir  Edward  Coke,  the  surest  way  i<  to  have 
him  appointed  by  authority  of  the  ureat  council 
in  parliament.  The  earl  of  Pembroke,  by  his. 
own  authority,  assumed  the  regency  of  Heniy 
III.,  who  was  then  only  nine  years  old,  but  was 
declared  of  full  age  by  the  pope  at  seventeen, 
confirmed  the  great  charter  at  eighteen,  and  took 
upon  him  the  administration  of  tbe  government 
at  twenty.  A  guardian  and  councils  of  regency 
were  named  for  Edward  III.  by  the  parliament 
which  deposed  his  father ;  the  young  king  being 
then  fifteen,  and  not  assuming  the  government 
till  three  years  after.  When  Richard  II.  suc- 
ceeded, at  the  age  of  eleven,  the  duke  of  l4n« 


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oester  took  apon  him  the  managemont  of  the 
kingdom  till  the  parliament  met,  which  appoint- 
ed ft  nominal  council  to  assist  him.  Henry  V. 
on  his  death  bed  named  a  regent  and  a  guaidian 
for  his  infent  son  Henry  VI.,  then  nine  months 
old :  but  the  parliament  altered  his  disposition, 
and  appoint^  a  protector  and  council,  with  a 
special  limited  authority.  Both  these  princes 
remained  in  a  state  of  pupilage  till  the  age  of 
twenty-three.  Edward  v.,  at  the  age  of  thirteen, 
was  recommended  by  his  father  to  the  care  of  the 
duke  of  Gloucester ;  who  was  declared  protector 
by  the  privy  c(mncil.  The  statutes  25  H.  VIII. 
c.  12,  and  28  H.  VIII.  c.  7,  provided  that  the 
successor,  if  a  male  and  under  eighteen,  or  if  a 
female  and  under  sixteen,  should  be  till  such 
«^  in  the  governance  of  his  or  her  natural  mo~ 
&er  (if  approved  by  the  king),  and  such  other 
counsellors  as  his  majesty  should  by  will  or 
otherwise  appoint :  and  he  accordingly  appointed 
his  sixteen  executors  to  have  the  government  of 
his  son  Edward  VI.,  and  the  kingdom,  which 
executors  elected  the  earl  of  Hartford  protector. 
And  during  the  illness  of  George  III.  in  the  end 
«f  17B8,  there  were  repeated  debates  in  parlia- 
ment, respecting  a  regency,  the  mode  of  settling 
it,  and  the  most  proper  persons  to  fill  it;  but 
his  majesty's  recovery  rendered  it  totally  unne- 
cessary. These  debates  were  renewed  m  the 
end  of  1810,  and  a  limited  regency  for  a  year 
was  committed  to  the  prince  of  Wales,  who,  in 
consequence  of  the  continued  indisposition  of  his 
royal  fiaher,  became  regent  with  mil  power  on 
the  18th  of  February  1812,  till  his  lather's  death 
in  1820. 

Regent  also  siniifies  a  professor  of  arts  and 
sciences  in  a  college,  havmg  pupils  under  his 
can ;  but  it  is  generally  restraineci  to  the  lower 
classes,  as  to  rhetoric,  logic,  &c. :  those  of  philo- 
sophy being  called  professors.  In  the  English 
universities  it  is  applied  to  masters  of  arts  under 
five  years  standing,  and  to  doctors  under  two. 

REGERMINATION,  n.  f .  Re  and  germin- 
ation.   The  act  of  sprouting  again. 

REGGIO,  Regium  Julii,  a  large  town  in  the 
south  of  Naples,  and  capital  of  Calabria  Ultra, 
at  the  extremity  of  whicti  it  is  situated,  on  the 
Faro  di  Messina,  or  strait  which  separates 
Sicily  fitmi  the  main  land.  It  stands  on  an  emi> 
nence,  and  its  environs  are  delightful,  abounding 
in  the  fruits  of  a  tropical  climate.  It  is  the  see 
of  an  archbishop,  and  several  of  the  houses  are 
constructed  of  the  remains  of  ancient  buildings. 
Its  public  edifices  consist  of  a  cathedral,  eleven 
churches,  seven  convents,  and  two  colleges. 
Many  of  the  inhabitants  are  employed  in  the 
manufacture  of  silk,  partly  raised  in  the  environs, 
and  partly  procured  from  the  pinna  marina :  it 
is  made  into  gloves,  stockings,  and  other  small 
articles  of  extreme  fineness.  Wine,  oil,  and 
firait  are  likewise  objects  of  export.  Reggio  was 
almost  destroyed  by  the  dreadfiil  earthquake  of 
February  1783.  Population  16,500.  Six  miles 
^outh-east  of  Messina,  in  Si^cily,  and  thirty-three 
torth  by  west  of  Nicotera. 

HEcoro,  anciently  Regium  Lepide,  a  town  in 

the  north  of  Italy,  the  capital  of  a  small  duchy 

of  the  same  name,  belonging  to  Modena.  '  It  is 

durrounded  with  a  rampart,  and  situated  in  a 

Vol.  XVin. 


delightful  track  on  the  Tessino.  The  streets 
are  bordered  with  arcades  or  piazzas,  and  the 
houses  tolerably  built. .  The  public  edifices  of 
interest  are  the  cathedral  with  its  paintings,  the 
church  of  St.  Prospero,  that  of  the  Augustine 
friars,  the  town  house,  the  theatre,  the  Porta 
Nuova,  the  library  of  30,000  volumes,  and  a  mu- 
seum of  natural  history,  formerly  belonging  to 
Spallanzani.  The  trade  is  trifling,  but  it  1^  a 
.  considerable  yearly  fair.  It  was  the  birth  place 
of  Ariosto,  and  Buonaparte  gave  the  title  of  duke 
of  Reggio  to  marshal  Oudinot.  Population 
13,000.  Twelve  miles  W.  N.  W^.  of  Modena, 
and  fifteen  south-east  of  Parma. 

REGICIDE,  n.  s.  Lat.  regicida,  regicidium. 
A  murderer  of  his  king;  the  murder  of  a  king. 

Were  it  not  for  this  amulet,  how  were  it  possible 
for  any  to  think  they  may  ventare  upon  peijury,  sa- 
crilege, murder,  regicide,  without  impeachment  to 
their  saintihip  1  Decay  of  Piety. 

I  through  the  mans  of  the  bloody  field 
Hunted  your  sacred  life  ;  which  that  I  missed 
Was  the  propitious  error  of  my  fate. 
Not  of  my  soul :  my  soul's  a  regicide,      Jhrydtn, 

Did  fate  or  we,  when  neat  Atrides  died. 
Urge  the  bold  traitor  to  the  regieidc  f 

Pape'i  Odgtcey. 

REGIFUGIUM  was  a  feast  celebrated  at 
Rome  on  the  24th  of  February  in  commemora- 
tion of  the  expulsion  of  Tarquin  II.,  and  the 
abolition  of  regal  power.  It  was  also  performed 
on  the  26th  of  May,  when  the  Rex  Sacrorum, 
king  of  the  sacrifices,  offered  bean  flour  and 
bacon,  in  the  place  where  the  assemblies  were 
held.  The  sacrifice  being  over,  the  people 
hasted  away  with  all  speed,  to  denote  the  preci- 
pitate fiiffht  of  Tarouin. 

R£GILL£,  or  Regillum,  an  ancient  town 
of  Italy,  in  tlie  country  of  the  Sabines,  fiimous 
for  a  battle  fought  near  it,  A.  U.  C.  258,  between 
24,000  Romans  and  40,000  Etrurians,  headed 
by  the  Tarquins.  The  Romans  obtained  so  com- 
p^lete  a  victory  that  hardly  10,000  of  the  Etru- 
rians escaped. — Livy. 

REGILLIANUS  (Q.  Nonius),  a  Dacian,  who 
entered  into  the  Roman  army,  and  was  promoted 
to  the  hiffhest  military  honors  under  Valerian. 
He  was  elected  emperor  by  the  people  in  oppo- 
sition to  Gallienus,  but  was  soon  after  murdered 
by  the  soldiers,  A.  D.  262. 

REGILLUS,  in  ancient  geography,  a  lake 
of  Italy,  in  Latium,  which  had  a  communication 
with  the  Anio,  east  of  Rome.  Posthumius,  the 
dictator,  defeated  the  Latins  near  it. — Livy. 

REGIMEN,  n.  i.  Lat.  regimen.  Care  in 
diet  and  living. 

Yet  should,  some  neighbour  feel  a  pain, 

Just  in  the  parts  where  I  complain. 

How  many  a  message  would  he  send ! 

What  hearty  prayers,  that  I  should  mend ! 

Enquire  what  regimen  I  kept. 

What  gave  me  ease,  and  how  I  slept  ?        ^i/^. 

Regimen,  in  medicine.    See  Medicine. 

REGIMENT,  ».t.  >       Old    Yi.  regiment ; 

Reoi men'tal,  adj.  S  Ital.  and  Port. regimento. 
Established  government ;  polity  ;  a  body  of  sol- 
diers under  a  colonel :  belonging  to  a  regiment. 

The  corruption  of  our  nature  being  presupposed, 

2  11 


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we  maj  not  deny  Init  that  the  Uw  of  natura  doth 
noir  require  of  necesflty  some  kind  of  regmtnt. 

Higher  to  the  plain  we'll  set  forth. 
In  best  appointn^nt,  all  our  rtyimetOs,   Shakipeare. 

They  utterly  damn  their  own  consistorian  regiment, 
for  the  same  can  neither  be  proved  by  any  literal 
texU  of  holy  scriptures,  nor  yet  by  necessary  infer- 
ence out  of  scripture.  White. 

The  regiment  of  the  soul  over  the  body  is  the  re- 
giment of  the  more  active  part  over  the  passive. 

HaU, 
The  elder  did  whole  regimenit  afford, 
The  younffer  brought  his  conduct  and  his  tword. 
^  WalUr, 

Now  thy  aid 
Eugene,  with  r^gimenH  unequal  piest, 
AwaiU.  Philipt. 

Regiment,  in  military  affairs,  a  term  applied 
to  any  body  of  troops,  which,  if  cavalry,  consisU 
of  one  or  more  squadrons,  commanded  by  a 
colonel ;  and,  if  in&ntry,  of  one  or  more  batta- 
lions, each  commanded  in  the  same  manner. 
The  squadrons  in  cavalry  regimerts  are  divided, 
sometimes  into  six,  and  sometimes  into  nine 
troops.  The  battalions  of  British  infantry  are 
generally  divided  into  ten  companies,  two  of 
which  are  called  the  flanks ;  one  on  the  right 
consisting  of  grenadiers,  and  another  on  the  left 
formed  of  light  troops.  There  is  not,  however, 
any  established  nile  on  this  head;  as  both  ca- 
valry and  infantry  regiments  differ  according  to 
the  exigencies  of  service  in  time  of  war,  or  the 
principles  of  economy  in  time  of  peace. 

RE'GION,  n.  's.  French  region ;  Latin  regio. 
Tract  of  land)  country;  space;  place;  rank. 
All  the  regiinu 
Do  seemingly  revolt ;  and,  who  resist, 
Are  mocked  for  valiant  ignorance.  Shaktpeare. 
The  bow  is  bent  and  drawn,  make  from  the  shaft. 
— Let  it  fall  rather,  though  the  fork  invade 
The  region  of  my  heart.  Id.  King  Lear. 

The  i^entleman  kept  company  with  the  wild  prince 
and  Poins  ;  he  is  of  too  high  a  region ;  he  knows  too 
much.  ^  Siaktpeare, 

The  upper  regiont  of  the  air  perceive  the  collec- 
tion of  tne  jnatter  of  tempests  before  the  air  below. 

Bacon, 
Thus  raged  the  goddess,  and  with  fury  fraught,  . 
The  restless  regioiu  of  the  storms  she  sought. 

Jhryden, 
REGISTER, ». «.  &  v.  fl,  >     Fr.  registre ;  Lat. 
Reg'istry.  S  registrum.  A  regu- 

lar account  of  any  thing ;  he  who  keeps  it :  to 
record  or  enrol  in  a  register :  registry  is  the  act 
of  doing  so ;  the  series  of  entries ;  or  the  place 
where  they  are  kept. 

Joy  may  yon  have  and  everlasting  fame, 
Of  late  most  hard  atchievement  by  you  done. 
For  which  inrolled  is  your  glorious  name 
In  heavenly  regitters  above  the  sun.        Spenter, 
Sir  John,  as  you  have  one  eye  upon  my  follies, 
as  you  hear  them  unfolded,  turn  anotner  into  the  re^ 
gister  of  your  own.  Shaktpeare* 

This  island,  as  appeareth  by  foithfnl  r^isten  of 
those  times,  had  ships  of  ffreat  content.        Boom. 
Such  follow  him,  as  shall  be  regietered ; 
Part  good ;  part  bad  ;  of  bad  the  longer  scrowl. 

Jfi/ton. 
A  little  fee  was  to  be  paid  for  the  regietry.  Graunt, 

Of  these  experiments  our  friend,  pointing  at  the 
rioter  of  this  dialogue,  will  perhaps  give  you  more 
particular  account.  Boyle, 


I  wonder  wh^  a  regittrv  has  n6t  been  kept  ita  tne 
college  of  physicians  of  uinas  invented.      Temple. 

For  a  conspiracy  against  the  emperor  Clandius,  it 
was  ordered  that  Scnbooianus's  name  and  coamlate 
should  be  effaced  out  of  all  public  regieien  aa^i  in- 
•crintions.  *  Addittn. 

The  Roman  emperors  regietered  their  most  re- 
markable buildings,  as  well  as  actions.  Id. 

A  Register  is  a  public  book,  in  which  are 
entered  and  recordea  memoirs,  acts,  and  mi- 
nutes, to  be  had  recourse  to  occasionally  for 
knowing  and  proving  nuitters  of  fiict.  Of  these 
there  are  several  kinds ;  as,  1.  Register  of  deeds 
in  Yorksfaore  and  Middlesex,  in  which  are  regis- 
tered all  deeds,  conveyances,  vrilb,  &c.,  that 
affect  any  lands  or  tenements  in  these  counties, 
which  are  otherwise  void  against  any  subsequent 
purchasers  or  mortsages,  £c. :  but  this  does  not 
extend  to  any  copyh(3d  estate,  nor  to  leases  at  a 
rack-rent,' or  where  they  do  not  exceed  twenty- 
one  yean.  The  registered  memorials  must  be 
engrossed  on  parchment,  fnder  the  hand  and 
seal  of  some  or  the  gianters  or  giantees,  attested 
by  witnesses  who  are  to  prove  the  signing  or 
sealing  of  them  and  the  execution  of  the  eked. 
But  wese  registent,  which  in  England  are  eon- 
fined  to  two  cotmties,  are  in  Scotland  general. 
Of  these  there  are  two  kinds ;  the  <me  general, 
fixed  at  Edinburgh,  under  the  direction  of  the 
lord  register;  and  the  other  is  kept  in  the  several 
shires,  stewartries,  and  regalities,  the  clei^  of 
which  are  obliged  to  transmit  the  registers  of 
their  respective  courts  to  the  genend  register. 
2.  Parish  registers  are  books  in  which  are  regis- 
tered the  baptisms,  marriages,  and  burials  of  each 
parish. 

Among  dissenters  who  admit  of  infant  bap- 
tism, the  minister  is  generally  supposed  to  keep 
a  register  of  the  several  duldren  baptixed  by 
him.  But  as  these  are  frequently  lost,  by  the 
succession  of  new  ministers  to  the  same  con- 
gregation; or  at  best  do  not  aiTe  an  account  of 
the  date  of  the  births,  whi<£  may  have  hap- 
pened many  weeks  or  months  before  baptism, 
It  is  now  generally  the  custom  among  dissenters 
of  all  denominations  to  register  the  births  of 
their  children  at  the  library  in  Redcross  Street, 
Cripplegate,  for  which  the  charge  is  Is.  This 
register  is  admitted  in  the  courts  of  law. 

Reoisters  were  kept  both  at  Athens  and 
Rome,  in  which  were  inserted  the  names  of 
children,  as  soon  as  they  were  bom.  Marcus 
Aurelius  required  all  free  persons  to  give  in  ac- 
counts of  their  children,  within  thirty  days  alter 
the  birth,  to  the  treasurer  of  the  empune,  in  order 
that  they  might  be  deposited  in  the  temple  of 
Saturn,  where  the  public  acts  were  kept.  Officers 
were  also  appointed  as  public  registers  in  the 
provinces,  that  recourse  might  be  had  to  their 
list  of  names,  for  settling  disputes,  or  proving 
any  person's  fi«edom. 

KsGistEKs,  in  d^emistry,  are  holes,  with  stop- 
ples, contrived  in  the  sides  of  furnaces,  to  regu- 
late the  fire ;  that  is,  to  make  the  heat  more  in- 
tense or  remiss,  by  opening  them  to  let  in  the 
air,  or  keeping  them  close  to  exclude  it. 

Registry  of  a  Ship  is  a  printed  instrument, 
containing  the  names  of  the  owner  and  master, 
the  name  and  exact  description  of  the  vessel, 
the  place  to  which  she  beloi^fs,  when  and  where 


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built  or  captured,  and,  if  a  prize-ship,  the  date 
of  condemnatioD,  whether  British,  foreign,  or 
British  plantation  built,  her  precise  dimensions, 
tonnsfge,  and  the  port  al  which  she  was  regis- 
tered. 

REGIUM,  Regium  Lepidi,  or  Regium  Le- 
Pioi^M,  in  ancient  geography,  a  town  of  Cisal- 
pine Gaul,  on  the  Via  Emilia,  so  called  from 
>Emilius  Lepidus,  who  was  consul  with  Caius 
Flaminius.    It  is  now  called  Reegio. 

REGIUS  (Urban),  a  learned  writer  of  the 
sixteenth  century,  born  at  Langenargen.  He 
studied  at  Basil,  and  read  lectures  at  Ingold- 
stadu  Being  afterwards  involved  by  some 
friends  in  debt,  he  was  obliged  to  sell  his  books 
and  enlist  as  a  soldier.  From  this  situation  he 
was  rescued  and  restored  to  literature  by  pro- 
fessor Eccius ;  and  he  obtained  the  poetical  and 
oratorical  crown  from  the  emperor  Maximilian. 
He  afterwards  became  a  protestant,  and  took  re- 
fuge at  Zell,  where  he  died  in  1541. 

Regius  Professor,  in  universities,  a  pro- 
fessor appointed  by  royal  authority. 

REGALEMENT,  n.  t.  Fr.  reglement.  Re- 
gulation.   Not  used. 

To  speak  of  the  reformation  and  r§gltmeiU  of 
nswy,  by  the  balance  of  commodities  and  discom- 
modities theieof»  two  Uiiags  are  to  be  reconciled. 

Baean*t  Euapt, 

REG'NANT,  adj.  Fr.  regnant.  Reigning; 
having  sovereign  authority ;  predominant. 

Princes  are  shy  of  their  successors,  and  there  may 
be  reasonably  supposed  of  queens  -egrumt  a  little 
proportion  of  tenderness  that  way,  more  than  in 
Kina.  Wotton. 

The  law  was  regnant.Kud  confined  his  thought. 
Hell  was  not  conquered  when  the  poet  wrote.  • 

Ifaflr-. 

His  guilt  is  clear,  his  proofs  are  pregnant, 
A  tiaytor  to  the  vices  ngnant.  SwijVt  MitedUmss. 

REGNARD  (John  Francis),  a  Frrach  comic 
poet,  was  bom  at  Paris,  February  8th,  1655 
Having  received  a  good  education  he  went  to 
Italy  in  1676,  or  1677.  Being  fond  of  play, 
and  very  fortunate,  he  was  returning  home  with  a 
considerable  sum  of  money,  when  he  vras  cap- 
tured by  an  Algerine  corsair,  and  being  sold  for 
a  slave  was  carried  to  Constantinople.  His  skill 
in  cookery  here  rendered  him  a  favorite ;  but  at 
length  he  was  ransomed,  and  returned  to  France. 
He  did  not  however  remain;  for  in  April  1681 
he  set  off  on  a  journey  to  Lapland,  and  returned 
through  Sweden,  Poland,  and  Germany.  He 
then  retired  to  Dourdan,  eleven  leagues  from 
Paris,  where  he  died  in  September  1709.  He 
wrote  an  account  of  his  Noithem  Tour ;  a  num- 
ber of  dramatic  pieces,  poems,  and  other  works, 
which  have  been  often  published. 

REGNAULT  (Noel),  a  learned  French  Je- 
suit, bom  at  Arras,  in  1683.  He  wrote,  1.  En- 
tretiens  Physiques,  3  vols.  12mo.  2.  Origine 
Ancienne  de  la  Physique  nouvelle,  3  vols.  12mo. 
3.  Entretiens  Mathematiques,  3  vob.  12mo.  4 
Ixviaue,  12mo. 

REGNER,  sumamed  Lodbrog,  a  king  of  Den- 
marii,  who  flourished  in  the  ninth  century.  He 
v^as  also  a  warrior,  a  poet,  and  a  painter.  His 
poems  are  extant,  but  savour  of  the  wildness 
and  fanaticism  of  the  age  in  which  he  lived. 


REGNI,  an  ancient  ])eople  of  South  Britain, 
who  inhabited  the  country  now  called  Surrey, 
Sussex,  and  the  coast  of  Hampshire,  and  resided 
next  to  tlie  Caniii,  the  ancient  inhabitants  of 
Kent. — Camden. 

REGNIER  (Mathurin),  a  French  poet,  was 
bom  at  Chartres  in  1573.  He  was  brought  up 
to  the  church,  for  which  his  debaucheries  ren- 
dered him  very  unsuitable.  Yet  he  obtained  a 
canonry  in  the  church  of  Chartres,  with  other 
benefices;  and  died  in  1613.  There  is  a  neat 
Elzevir  edition  of  his  works,  12mo.  1652,  Ley- 
den  ;  but  the  most  elegant  is  that  with  notes  by 
M.  Brossette,  4to.  1729,  London. 

Regnier  des  Ma  rets  (Francis  Seraphin), 
a  French  poet,  bom  at  Paris  in  1632.  He  dis- 
tinguished himself  early  by  his  poetical  talents, 
and  in  1 684  was  made  perpetual  secretary  to  the 
French  Academy  on  the  death  of  Mezeray ;  when 
he  drew  up  the  papers  against  Furetierre;  the 
king  gave  him  the  priory  of  Grammont,  and  an 
abbey.  He  died  in  1713.  His  works  are 
French,  Italian,  Spanish,  and  Latin  poems, 
2  vols.;  a  French  grammar;  and  an  Italian  trans- 
lation of  Anacreon's  Odes,  with  some  other  trans- 
lations. 

REGNUM,  in  ancient  geography,  a  town  of 
South  Britain,  the  capital  of  the  Regni  (Camden), 
situated  b)  the  Itinerary  numbers,  on  the  con- 
fines of  the  Belgs,  in  a  place  now  called  Ring- 
wood,  in  Hampshire,  on  the  Avon,  about  ten 
miles  from  the  sea. 

REGORGE',  v.  a.  Re  and  gorge.  To  vomit 
up;  throw  or  swallow  back ;  swallow  largely. 

It  was  Koffingly  said,  he  had  eaten  the  king's 
goose ;  and  did  then  regorge  the  feathers. 

Maywordm 
Drunk  with  wine, 

And  fat  regorged  of  bulls  and  goats.        Jft/ion. 

As  tides  at  highest  mark  regorge  the  flood, 
So  fate,  that  coald  no  more  improve  their  jov. 
Took  a  malicious  pieasare  to  destroy.  Dryden. 

REGRAFT,  v.  a.  Fr.  rtgrci)\r.  Re  and 
graft.    To  graft  again. 

Oft  regrafting  the  same  cions,  may  make  fruit 
greater.  Bacon. 

REGRANT,  v.  ff.  Re  and  grant.  To  grant 
back. 

He,  by  letters  patent,  incorporated  them  by  the 
name  of  the  dean  and  chapter  of  Trinity  church  in 
Norwich,  and  regranted  their  lands  to  them. 

AyUjfe's  Parergon, 

REGRATE ,  v.  a.  From  Grate,  which  see. 
To  offend ;  shock ;  also,  from  the  French  regrater, 
to  engross ;  forestall. 

Neither  should  they  buy  any  com,  unless  it  weru 
to  make  malt  thereof ;  for  by  such  engrossing  and  re- 
grating,  the  dearth,  that  commonly  reigned  in  Eog 
land,  hath  been  caused.  Spenter. 

The  clothing  of  the  tortoise  and  viper  rather  re- 
graUth  than  pleasetb  the  eye. 

Derham't  Phyneo-Thgologg. 

REGREET,  v.  a.  Re  and  greet.  To  resa- 
lute ;  greet  a  second  time. 

And  shall  these  hands,  so  newly  joined  in  love, 
t^n  oke  this  seizure,  and  this  kind  regreet  ? 
Play  fast  and  loose  with  faith  ?  Shaktpeare. 

RE'GRESS,  n.  t.  8c  r.  n.  'I  Fr.  regrh  ;  Lat, 

Regres'sion,  71.  s.  ^  ;f£:reutii.  Passage 

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back ;  power  of  passing  back  :  to  go  bad,  or 
return ;  act  of  going  back. 

All  being  forced  unto  fluent  consutencies,  nata- 
rally  fsgrm  into  their  former  solidities.      Browne. 

To  desire  there  were  no  God,  were  plainly  to  un- 
wish  their  own  being,  which  must  needs  be  annihi- 
lated in  the  subtraction  of  that  essence  which 
substantially  supporteth  them,  and  restrains  from 
regreuum  into  nothing.  Id, 

'Tis  their  natural  place  which  they  always  tend  to  : 
and  from  which  there  is  no  progress  nor  rtgrea, 

BmneU 

REGRET,  n.  «.  &  v.  a.  Fr.  regret,  regreter; 
Ital.  regrettaref  of  low  Lat.  regravito.  Vexation 
at  some  past  event  or  action;  bitter  reflection ; 
prief;  sorrow;  aversion:  to  grieve  at;  bemoan; 
be  uneasy  at.  The  last  senses  of  both  the  noun- 
substantive  and  verb  active  are,  however,  impro- 
per. 

I  never  bare  any  touch  of  conscience  with  greater 
regret.  King  Charles. 

A  passionate  regret  at  sin,  a  grief  and  sadness  at 
its  memory,  enters  us  into  God's  roll  of  mourners. 

Decay  of  Piety. 

Is  it  a  virtue  to  have  some  inefiective  regrets  to 
damnation,  and  such  a  virtue  too  as  shall  balance  all 
our  vices  1  •  /d. 

Never  any  prince  expressed  a  more  lively  regret 
for  the  loss  of  a  servant,  than  his  majesty  did  for  this 
great  man  ;  in  all  ofiices  of  Eiaoe  towards  his  ser- 
vants, and  'in  a  wonderful  solicitous  care  for  the 
payment  of  his  debts.  CUtremdoH. 

Those,  the  impiety  of  whose  lives  makes  them  re* 
gret  a  deity,  ana  secretly  wish  there  were  none,  will 
greedily  listen  to  atheistical  notions.  GlamUle. 

I  shall  not  regret  the  trouble  my  experiments  cost 
me,  if  they  be  found  serviceable  to  the  purposes  of 
respiration.  Boyie, 

Though  sin  ofiers  itself  in  never  so  pleasing  a 
dress,  yet  the  remorse  and  inward  regrets  of  the  soul, 
upon  the  commission  of  it,  ii^nitely  overbalance  those 
faint  gratifications  it  afibrds  the  senses. 

South's  Sermons. 
That  freedom  which  all  sorrows  claim. 
She  does  for  thy  content  resign ; 
Her  piety  itself  would  blame, 
If  her  regrets  should  waken  thine.  Prior. 

Calmly  he  looked  on  either  life,  and  here 
Saw  nothing  to  regret,  or  there  to  fear ; 
From  nature's  temperate  feast  rose  satisfied, 
Thank'd  heaven  that  he  had  liv'd,  and  that  he  died. 

REGUER'DON,  n.  s.  Re  and  gueMon. 
Reward;  recompense. 

Stoop,  and  set  your  knee  again  my  foot ; 
And  in  reguerdon  of  that  duty  done, 
I  gird  thee  with  the  valiant  sword  of  York. 


Long  since  we  were  resolved  of  your  tmiL, 
Your  faithful  service,  and  your  toil  in  war ; 
Yet  never  have  you  tasted  of  your  reward. 
Or  been  r^turdoned  with  so  much  as  thanks.    Id. 

REGULAR,  «$•.&  n.  ».  ^        Fr.  repdier  ; 
Regul  ar'ity,  n.  $,  Port,  and  Spanish 

Reg'ularlt,  adv.  [regular ;  Ital.  re- 

Reg'vlate,  v.a.  CgMore;  low  Lat. 

Regula'tion,  n.  s.  regularis.        Ao- 

Regula'tor.  J  cording  to  rule; 

or  prescribed  mode ;  initiated ;  orderly  :  in  geo- 
metry, a  regular  body  is  a  solid  whose  surface 
is  composed  of  regular  and  equal  figures,  and 
whose  solid  angles  are  all  equal,  and  of  which 
there  are,  and  can  be,  but  five  sorts :  as  a  noun- 


substantive,  an  order  of  Romish  clergy :  regu 
larly  and  regularity  follow  the  senses  of  the  ad- 
jective :  to  regulate  is  to  adjust  or  direct  by  rule 
or  method,  the  noun-substantives  corresponding. 

I  restrained  myself  to  so  rendar  a  diet,  as  to  eat 
flesh  but  once  a  day,  and  litUe  at  a  time,  wichoat 
salt  or  vioeear.  TempU. 

So  bold,  yet  so  judiciouslv  you  dare,, 

That  your  least  praise  is  to  t>e  regular.     Drydem. 
Even  goddesses  are  women ;  and  no  wife 

Has  power  to  regulate  her  husband's  life.         Id. 

Nature,  in  the  production  of  things,  always  de- 
signs them  to  partake  of  certain,  reguiated,  establish- 
ed essences,  which  are  to  be  the  models  of  all  things 
to  be  produced ;  ihis,  in  that  crude  sense,  would 
need  some  better  explanation.  Leeke. 

Being  but  stupid  matter,  they  cannot  but  continue 
any  regular  and  constant  motion,  without  the  guid« 
ance  and  regulation  of  some  intelligent  being.  Rav. 

Regularity  is  certain,  where  it  is  not  so  appsireot, 
as  in  all  fluids ;  for  regularity  is  a  similitude  conti- 
nued. Grew. 

The  regularity  of  corporeal  principles  sheweth 
them  to  come  at  first  from  a  divine  regulator.      Id. 

The  common  cant  of  criticks  is,  that  though  the 
lines  are  good,  it  is  not  a  rmlar  piece.     Guardian. 

The  ways  of  heaven  are  dark  and  intricate ; — 
Our  understanding  traces  them  in  vain, — 
Nor  sees  with  how  much  art  the  windings  run. 
Nor  where  the  regular  confusion  ends.        Addison. 

In  the  Romish  church,  all  persons  are  said  to  be 
repdarst  that  do  profess  and  follow  a  certain  mle  of 
life,  in  Latin  styled  re^la.        AyUffk's  Partrgon. 
With  one  judicious  stroke 
On  the  plain  ground  Apelles  drew 
A  circle  regularly  true.  Prior, 

He  was  a  mighty  lover  of  regularitg  and  order ; 
and  managed  all  his  affairs  with  the  utmost  exactne^. 

Atterbury. 

lUgulate  the  patient  in  his  manner  of  living. 

Wisemasi. 

There  is  no  universal  reason,  not  confined  to  hu- 
man fancy,  that  a  figure,  called  regulart  which  hath 
equal  sictes  and  angles,  is  more  beautiful  than  any 
irregular  one.  BenUey. 

So  when  we  view  some  well-proportioned  dome. 
No  monstrous  height  or  breadth  or  length  appear; 
The  whole  at  once  Is  bold  and  regular.  Pope. 

Strains  that  neither  ebb  nor  flow. 
Correctly  cold  and  regularly  low.  Id. 

More  people  are  kept  from  a  true  sense  and  taste 
of  religion,  by  a  regiar  kind  of  sensuality  and  in- 
dulgence, than  by  gross  drunkenness.  Law. 

A  Regular  Figure,  in  geometiy,  is  one 
whose  sides, and  consequently  angles,  are  equal; 
and  a  regular  figure  with  three  or  four  sides  is 
commonly  termed  an  equilateral  triangle  or 
square,  as  all  others  with  more  sides  are  called 
regular  polygons. 

REGULBIUM,  or  Regdlvium,  an  ancient 
town  of  the  Cantii  in  Britain,  mentioned  in  the 
Notitia  Imperii,  now  called  Reculver. 

REGULUS  (M.  Attilius),  a  Roman  consul 
during  the  first  Punic  war.  He  reduced  Brun- 
dusium,  and,  in  his  second  consulship,  took 
sixty-four  and  sunk  thirty  galleys  of  the  Car- 
thaginian fleet,  on  the  coasts  of  Sicily.  Aiiei^ 
wards  he  landed  in  Africa ;  and  so  rapid  was 
his  success,  that  in  a  short  time  he  made  himself 
master  of  about  200  important  places  on  the 
coast.  The  Carthaginians  sued  for  peace,  but 
he  reftised  to  grant  it ;  and  soon  after  he  was  de- 
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ftaied  by  Xaatippus,  and  30,000  of  his  men 
were  killed^and  15,000  taken  prisoners.  Re- 
gius himself  was  also  taken,  and  carried  in  tri- 
umph to  Carthage.  He  was  then  sent  to  Rome, 
to  propose  an  accommodation ;  and,  if  his  com- 
mission was  unsuccessful,  he  ¥ras  bound  by  the 
most  solemn  o^hs  to  return  to  Carthi^e.  When 
he  came  to  Rome,  Regulus  dissuaded  his  coun- 
trymen from  accepting  the  terms  which  the 
enemy  proposed;  and,  when  his  opinion  had  in* 
fluenced  the  senate,  Regulus  returned  to  Car- 
thage agreeable  to  his  oaUis.  The  Carthaginians, 
hearing  that  their  offers  of  p^e  had  been  re- 
jected at  Rome  through  the  influence  of  Re- 
gulus, prepared  to  punish  him  with  the  greatest 
aeverity.  His  eye-lids  were  cut  off,  and  he  was 
exposed  for  some  day^  to  the  excessive  heat  of 
the  meridian  sun,  and  afterwards  confined  in  a 
barrel,  whose  sides  were  stuck  with  iron  spikes, 
till  he  died  in  the  greatest  agonies.  His  sufferings 
being  heard  of  at  Rome,  the  senate  permitted 
his  widow  to  inflict  whatever  punishment  she 
pleased  on  some  of  the  most  illustrious  captives 
of  Carthage,  who  were  in  their  hands.  She 
confined  them  in  presses  filled  with  sharp  iron 
points;  and  was  so  exquisite  in  her  cruelty  that 
the  senate  at  length  interfered,  and  stopped  her 
barbarity.    Regulus  died  about  A.  A.  C.  251. 

Regulus  (Memmius),  a  Roman,  made  gover- 
nor of  Greece  by  Caligula.  While  Regulus 
governed  this  province,  the  emperor  wished  to 
bring  the  celebrated  statue  of  Jupiter  Olympius 
by  Phidias  to  Rome ;  but  this  was  supematurally 
prevented,  according  to  ancient  authors,  the 
ship  which  was  to  convey  it  being  destroyed  by 
lightning. 

Regulus,  in  chemistry,  diminutive  of  rex, 
a  king :  so  called  because  the  alchemist  expected 
to  find  gold,  the  king  of  metals,  collected  at  the 
bottom  of  the  crucible  after  fusion.  The  name 
regulus  was  given  by  chemists  to  metallic  mat- 
ters when  separated  from  other  substances  by 
fusion.  It  was  afterwards  applied  to  the  metal 
extracted  from  the  ores  of  the  semi-metals,  which 
formerly  bore  the  name  that  is  now  given  to  the 
semi-metals  themselves.  To  procure  the  regulus 
or  mercurial  pans  of  metals,  &c.,  flux  powders 
were  formerly  used,  as  nitre,  tartar,  &c.,  to  purge 
the  sulphureous  part  adhering  to  the  metal,  h^ 
attracting  it  to  themselves,  and  absorbing  it. 

KIC^UR'GITATE,  1?.  fl.  &  t;.  n.  I     Fr.  regor- 

Reguroita'tiom,  n.  t.  I  ger  :    Lettin 

re  and  gurges.    To  throw  back ;  pour  back :  be 

pouied  bade :  the  act  of  resorption  or  swallowing 

back. 

The  inhabitants  of  the  dty  remove  themselves  into 
the  country  so  long,  until  for  want  of  receipt  and 
encoartgement,  it  regurgitates  and  lends  them  back. 

GraufU, 

Nature  was  wont  to  evacuate  its  vicioos  blood,  oat 
of  these  veins,  which  passage  being  stopt,  it  reg^sr^ 
taU$  upwards  to  the  lungs. 

Hgrvey  on  CaiuMmptioiu. 

Rtgwgiiaiwn  of  matter  is  the  constant  symptom. 

ohatp* 

Arguments  of  divine  wisdom,  in  the  frame  of  ani- 
mate bodies,  axe  the  artificial  nosition  of  many 
valves,  all  so  sitoate  as  to  give  a  free  passage  to  the 


blood  in  their  due  channeb,  but  not  permit  them  to 

regwrgiuue  and  disturb  the  great  circulation. 

Beiit2<y. 
REHEAR',  v.  a.  ^     Re  and  hear.    To  hear 
Rehearse',  v.  a.     ^  again ;     repeat ;    recite ; 
Rehear'sal,  n.f. 3 relate:    rehearsal  is  the 

act  of  repetition  or  recital;   recital  previous  to  a 

public  exhibition. 

Reheant  not  |into  another  that  which  is  told.  Eeciut, 
Twice  we  appoint  that  the  words  which  the  mi- 
nister pronouncetb  the  whole  congre^tion  shall  re- 
peat after  him ;  as  first  in  the  public  confession  of 
sins,  and  again  in  reheami  qI  our  Lord's  prayer 
after  the  blessed  sacrament.  Hooker. 

What  dream'd  my  lord  1  tell  me,  and  I'll  requite  it 
With  sweet  reheanal  of  my  morning's  dream. 

^AoAspforff. 
The  chief  of  Rome, 
With  gaping  mouths  to  these  reheanaU  come. 

Jhyden. 
Gieat  master  of  the  muae  !  inspired 
The  pedigree  of  nature  to  reheane. 
And  sound  the  Maker's  work  in  equal  verse.  ld» 
What  respected  their  actions  as  a  rule  or  admoni- 
tion, applied  to  yours,  is  only  a  reluarsal,  whose 
zeal  in  asserting  the  ministerial  caose  is  so  generally 
known.  South. 

My  design  is  to  give  all  persons  a  rehearing,  who 
have  suffered  under  my  unjust  sentence.    Additon, 
Of  modest  poets  be  thou  just, 
To  silent  shades  repeat  thy  verse, 
Till  fame  and  echo  almost  burst, 
Yet  hardly  dare  one  line  reheane.        Swift.  * 
But  a'  your  doings  to  reheane. 
Your  wily  snares  an  fechtin  fierce, 
Sin'  that  day  Michael  did  you  pierce 

Down  to  this  time,    . 
Wadding  a'  Lallan  tongue  or  Erse, 

In  prose  or  rhyme.  Bums, 

The  lover,  in  melo<uous  verses. 
His  singular  distress  rehearMee, 
Still  closing  with  a  rueful  ciy. 
Was  ever  such  a  wretch  as  1 1  Cowper. 

REIIER,  a  district  of  Delhi,  Hindostan,  situ- 
ated between  lat.  28°  and  29°.  It  formerly  was 
the  northern  limit  of  Kuttaher  or  Rohilcund, 
and  was  ceded  to  the  British  by  the  nabob  of 
Oude.  It  is  bounded  on  the  west  by  the  Ganges, 
and  watered  by  several  other  rivers.  The  prin- 
cipal towns  are  Reher,  Nijibabad,  and  Damagur. 

Reher,  a  town  of  Hindostan,  formerly  the 
capital  of  the  above  district,  became  in  1774  the 
property  of  a  chief  named  Nijif  Khan,  who  re- 
moved the  seat  of  government  to  Nijibabad,  in 
consequence  of  ivhich  Reher  has  declined.  The 
town  and  district  are  now  included  in  the  Bri- 
tish collectorship  of  Bareily.  Long.  78°  44'  E., 
lat  29°  23*  N. 

REHOBOAM,  the  son  of  Solomon,  king  of 
Israel,  succeeded  his  father  about  A.  M.  3029. 
By  his  folly,  in  totally  refusing  the  people  any 
redress  of  grievances,  he  occasioned  the  revolt  of 
the  ten  tribes.  See  1  Kings  xii.  1— -24.  After 
an  unfortunate  reign  of  seventeen  years,  during 
which  his  capital  was  invaded  and  the  temple 
plundered  of  its  treasures  by  Shishak,  or  Sesacus, 
king  of  Egypt,  he  died  A.  M.  3046. 

REJANG,  a  country  of  Sumatra,  divided  to 
the  north-west  from  the  kingdom  of  Anak  Sun- 
ffer  by  the  river  Uri,  near  that  of  Kattaun ;  which 
bst,  with  the  district  of  Labun,  bounds  it  on  the 


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north  side.  Hie  country  of  Musi  is  its  limit  to 
the  eastward.  Bencoolen  River  confines  it  on 
the  south-east. 

REICHENBACH,  one  of  the  four  goTemments 
of  Prussian  Silesia.  It  is  in  the  west  of  that 
province,  and  ^comprises  the  county  of  Glatz, 
the  principalities  of  Munsterberg,  Brieg,  and 
Schweidnitz,  and  a  considerable  part  of  the 
Jauer.  Its  area  is  2500  square  miles.  It  is  di- 
vided into  the  circles  of  Frankenstein,  Glatz, 
Hirdiberg,  Jauer,  Nimptsch,  Munsterberg,  Rei- 
chenbach,  Schweidnitz,  Striegau,  and  Bolken- 
hayn-Luidshut.    Population  470,000.' 

This  province  is  hilly,  particularly  in  the  county 
of  Glatz;  but  has  also  many  plains,  fertile  in 
com,  fruits,  hops,  and  occasionally  mulberry- 
trees.  Among  tne  mountains  wood  forms  an  ar- 
ticle of  export.  In  general  this  is  the  most 
active  part  of  Silesia,  and  consequently  of  the 
Prussian  states.  The  chief  manufactures  are 
linen,  ^lass,  and  hardware.  The  number  of  vil- 
lages IS  very  great.  The  province  being  very 
populous,  it  is  necessary  to  import  com.  In  the 
county  of  Glatz,  and  the  principaliw  of  Mun- 
sterberg,  the  Catholics  form  the  majority ;  but 
throughout  the  rest  the  Protestants. 

Reichenbach,  the  chief  town  of  the  above 
government,  is  eleven  miles  south-east  of  Schweid- 
nitz,  and  thirty  south-west  of  dreslau.  It  has 
manufactures  of  cotton,  canvas,  starch,  and  a 
*  trade  in  woollens.  A  convention  v^as  concluded 
here  in  1790  between  Pmssia  and  Austria.  In- 
habitants 3300.  Long.  16°  36'  37'  E.,  lat.  50® 
ay  15*  N. 

Reichenbach,  a  town  of  Saxony,  in  the  Vogt- 
land.  Its  inhabitants,  about  3000,  are  employed 
chiefly  in  the  manu&cture  of  woollens.  Their 
mode  of  dyeing  scarlet  is  much  esteemed.  This 
town  suffered  much  from  fire  in  1681  and  1720. 
Thirteen  miles  N.  N.  £.  of  Plauen. 

Reichenbach,  a  river  of  the  canton  of  Berae, 
Switzerland,  in  the  district  of  Oberland.  It  is 
small,  but,  when  swelled  by  the  melted  snow  of 
the  Alps,  pours  a  large  mass  of  water  over  a 
tremendous  precipice. 

REICHENBERG,  a  thriving  town  of  Bohe- 
mia, in  the  northern  circle  of  Buntzlau,  on  the 
Neisse;  the  chief  place  of  a  lordship  belonging 
to  the  count  of  Clkm-Galla.  It  has  three  churches, 
and  great  manufacturing  establishments  for  wool- 
lens, with  fulling-mills  and  dye-houses.  The 
value  of  the  woollen,  linen,  and  stockings,  annu- 
ally made,  is  estimated  at  more  than  half  a  mil- 
lion ;  there  is  also  a  traffic  in  wool  and  yam.  In 
the  neighbourhood  are  found  precious  stones  of 
the  finer  and  semi-transparent  kinds.  On  the 
21st  of  April,  1757,  the  Prussians,  under  the 
duke  of  Branswick,  obtained  a  victory  here  over 
the  Austrians.  Inhabitants  12,000.  Fifty-two 
miles  N.  N.  E.  of  Prague,  and  twenty-five  N.  N.E. 
of  Jurff  Bunzlau. 

REICHENHALL,  a  town  in  the  south-east 
of  Bavaria,  on  the  Sala,  sixty-five  miles  E.  S.  E. 
of  Munich,  and  eleven  S.  S.W.  of  Saliburg.  It 
is  of  great  importance  on  account  of  its  salt- 
works, at  which  16,000  tons  of  that  mineral  ^e 
annually  produced. 

REID  (Thomas),  D.  D.,  a  late  eminent  Scot- 
tish writer,  was  the  son  of  the  Rev.  Lewis  Reid. 


He  was  bom  at  StrMian  in  April,  1710,  ttid 
educated  first  at  the  parish  school  of  KincaidiDe 
O^Niel,  whence  he  was  sent  to  the  Marischal  col- 
lege, Aberdeen,  in  his  12th  year ;  where  he  took 
his  degree  of  M.  A.  and  studied  theology.  Afier 
obtaining  his  license  he  cultivated  matheiDatics 
under  professor  John  Stuart,  whose  place  be  often 
supplied  in  his  absence.  After  this  he  was  pie- 
fened  to  the  church  of  New  Machar,  and  soon 
overcame  the  popular  prejudice  against  him,  on 
account  of  that  patronage.  On  the  22d  Nov. 
1751,  he  was  Appointed  professor  of  philosophy 
in  King*s  College,  Aberdeen;  an  ofiioe  for  which 
he  was  peculiarly  qualified.  Soon  after  this  he 
wrote  his  Ess^  on  Quantity,  published  in  the 
Philosophical  Transactions,  vol.  46;  which  is 
esteemed  the  finest  specimen  of  metaphysical 
mathematics  extant.  About  this  time,  too,  he 
was  made  D.  D.,  and  published  his  oelebiated 
Enquiry  into  the  Human  Mind,  ob  the  princi- 
ples of  Common  Sense.  On  the  death  of  Dr. 
Adam  Smith,  he  was  called  to  be  professor  of 
moral  philosophy  in  tiie  university  of  Glasgow, 
on  the  eleventh  of  June,  1764.  In  1773  ap- 
peared in  lord  Karnes's  Sketches  of  the  History 
of  Man,  a  brief  Account  of  Aristotle's  Logic,  ' 
with  Remarks  by  Dr.  Reid ;  which  is  esteemed 
the  best  analysis  yet  given  of  that  philosopher's 
writings.  In  1785  he  published  E^ys  on  the 
Intellectual  Powers  or  Man,  dedicated  to  Dr. 
Gregory  and  professor  Stewart  of  Edinburgh; 
and,  in  1788,  Essays  on  the  active  Powers  of 
Man ;  both  in  4to.  He  died  in  October  1796, 
aged  eighty-seven.  He  had  been  married,  and 
left  one  daughter.    See  METAravsrcs. 

REJECT,  ti.  a.    )      Lat  rf;*fio,  re^fw.  To 
Rejec'tion,  n.  s.  ]  dismiss  without    compli- 
ance; refiise ;  cast  off:  the  act  of  casting  off  or 
aside. 

Thou  hast  rejected  the  word  of  the  Lord,  lad  tbe 
Lord  hath  r^ected  thee  from  being  king. 

1  Samua  zv.  26. 

He  is  despised  and  r^etted  of  men,  a  man  of  sor- 
rows. Imek, 

Because  thou  hast  r^eeted  knowledge.  T  w31  njeet 
thee,  that  thou  shalt  be  no  pnest.  Hoeea  iv.  6. 

'  Barbarossa  was  rejected  into  Syria,  althoug^h  he 
perceiTed  that  it  tended  to  his  disgrace.       KnolUt. 

Medicines  urinative  do  not  work  by  ryeetum  and 
indigestion,  as  solutive  do.  Bacon. 

Have  I  r^ted  those  that  me  adored 

To  he  of  him,  whom  I  adore,  abhorred  t  Bnmu. 

W^bether  it  be  a  divine  revelation  or  ne,  maon 
must  judge,  which  can  never  permit  tbe  mind  to  fv- 
ject  a  greater  evit^nce,  to  embrace  what  is  lest  eri- 
dent.  Locke,  ^ 

How  vvould  sQch  thoughts  make  him  avoid  er&y 
thing  that  was  sinful  and  displeasing  to  God,  lest,         | 
when  he  prayed  for  his  children,  God  should  r^         ' 
his  prayer !  Lno 

In  the  philosophy  of  haroan  natme,  as  wdl  as  iii 
physicks  and  mathematicks,  let  principles  be  en- 
mined  aocording  to  the  standard  of  eommoo  seose, 
and  be  admitted  or  rejected  according  as  they  ire 
found  to  agree  or  disagree  with  it.  Beaa»^ 

With  abhorrence  r^t  immediately  all  profane 
and  blasphemous  thoughts;  which  are  sometimes         , 
suddenly  injected  into  me  mind,  we  know  not  how. 
though  we  may  give  a  pretty  good  guess  from  wbeooe.         | 


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REFGLB.  fi.  I.  Fr.  rcf(e.  A  hollow  cut  to 
guide  any  thing. 

A  flood  gate  is  drawn  up  and  let  down  through 
the  rmgiea  in  the  side  potts.  Carwf, 

REIGNy  0.  n.  &  n.  t.  Fr.  ftgner ;  Span,  and 
Port,  reyne ;  Ttal.  and  Lat- regno.  To  exercise 
sovereign  authority ;  obtain  power ;  be  predomi- 
nant: royal  authority ;  sovereignty;  power. 

And  he  lichal  regpe  in  the  hons  of  Jacob  with- 
oaten  ende,  and  of  ms  lewme  schal  be  noon  ende. 

l^wlif,  Luk.  1. 
A  king  shall  fmgn  in  righteottsness,  and  princes 
rale  in  jndgmenA.  imiak  xxxi.  1. 

That,  as  sin  rmamd  unto  death,  even  so  might 
grace  t^gn^  through  r^hteoumewi,  unto  eternal  life 
by  Jesus  Christ.  Romant. 

This,  done  by  them,  gave  them  such  an  authority, 
that,  though  he  reigned,  they  in  effect  ruled,  most 
men  honouring  them,  because  they  only  deserved 
honour.  Sidney. 

Tell  roe,  shall  Banquo's  issue  ever 
Reign  in  this' kingdom  t        Shakspeare,  Macbeth, 
More  are  sick  in  the  summer,  and  more  die  in  the 
winter,  except  in  pestilent  diseases,  which  commonly 
rngn  in  summer  or  autumn.  Baeon. 

The  year  againe 
Was  turning  round ;  and  every  season's  nn^gne 
Renewed  upon  us.  .Chapman, 

Did  he  not  first  seven  yean,  a  life-time  reignl 

CotoZfly. 
Great  secrecy  '^eigni  in  their  publick  councils. 

Addison. 
.    Satnm*s  sons  received  the  threefold  reign 
Of  heaven,  of  ocean,  and  deep  hell  beneath.  Prior. 
The  following  licence  of  a  foreign  reign. 
Did  all  the  dre^  of  bold  Socinus  drain.      Pope. 
That  wrath  which  hurled  to  Pluto's  gloomy  reign. 
The  souls  of  mighty  chiefs  untimely  slain.  Id. 

Russel's  blood 
Stained  the  sad  annals  of  a  giddy  reign,    Thornton, 
This  right  arm  shall  fix 
Her  seat  of  empire  j  and  your  son  shall  reign. 

A.  PhiUpi. 
REIMBCyDYjip.n.     Re  and  imbody.    To 
embody  again. 

Quicksilver,  broken  into  little  globes,  the  parU 
brought  to  touch  immediately  reimMff,        Boyle. 
REIMBURSE',  v.  a.    Fr.  re,  in,  and  bourse 
.  a  purse.    To  repay ;  repair  loss  or  expense. 
If  any  person  has  been  at  expence  about  the  fune- 
ral of  a  scholar,  he  may  retain  his  books  for  the  re- 
imburtement.  Ayliffe, 

Hath  he  saved  any  kingdom  at  his  own  expences 
to  give  him  a  title  of  reiniurting  himself  by  the  de- 
stmction  of  ours  1  Swift. 

REIMPRECNATEjtJ.a.  Re  and  impreg- 
nate.   To  impregnate  aoew. 

The  vigour  of  the  loadstone  is  destroyed  by  fire, 
nor  will  it  be  reimpregwUed  by  any  other  magnet  than 
the  earth.  Broime. 

REIMPRES'SION,  «.  t.  Re  and  impres- 
sion.   A  second  or  repeated  impression. 

Belt^on,  ol  which  the  rewards  are  distant,  and 
which  IS  animated  only  by  faith  and  hope,  will  glide 
by  degrees  out  of  the  mind,  unless  it  be  invigoratod 
and  ^'wmpreued  by  external  ordinances,  by  stated 
calls  to  worship,  and  the  salutary  influence  of  ex- 
ample.  Johnton. 

REIN,  A.  1. 8c)     Fr.    remet;    Ital.    redeni. 
Reins,    [v.  a.  i  The  part  of  a  bridle  which 
governs  the  horse's  head ;  used  metaphorically 


for  any  instrument  of  government : '  to  give  the 
reins*  is  to  give  licence :  to  rein,  to  govern ;  re- 
strain :  reins,  always  in  the  plural,  are  from  Lat. 
renet,  Gr.  pecy,  the  kidneys, 

Whom  I  shall  see  for  myaelf,  though  my  reins  be 
consumed.  Job. 

Every  horse  bears  his  commanding  rein. 
And  may  direct  his  course  as  please  nimself. 

Shakspeare: 

The  hard  rein,  which  both  of  them  have  borne 
Against  the  old  kind  king.  Id.  Kimg  Lear. 

Being  once  chaft,  he  cannot 

Be  rnned  ag^ain  to  temperance ;  then  he  speaks 

What's  in  ms  heart.  Id.  CanoUmsu. 

He  mounts  and  reUu  his  horse.  Chapman. 

War  to  disordered  rage,  let  looie  the  reins,  MiUon, 

He,  like  a  proud  steed  reined,  went  haughty  on. 

Id, 

Take  you  the  reins,  while  I  from  cares  remove, 
And  sleep  within  the  chariot  which  I  drove. 

Vrjfden, 
His  son  retained 
His  fiather's  art,  and  warriour  steeds  he  reined.   Id. 

With  hasty  hand  the  ruling;  reins  he  drew  ■, 
He  lashed  the  coursers,  and  the  coursers  flew. 

Pope. 

When  to  hb  lust  ^gisthus  gone  the  vein. 
Did  fate  or  we  the'  adultrous  act  constrain  1      Id, 

Strip  them  of  those  false  colours  that  so  often  de- 
ceive us  ;  correct  the  sallies  of  the  imagination,  and 
leave  the  reins  in  the  hand  of  reason.  Matou. 

REINDEER.    See  Cervus. 

REINECCIUS  (Reinier),  a  learned  German 
of  the  sixteenth  century,  bom  at  Steinheim.  He 
taught  the  belles  lettres  in  the  universities  of 
Frankfort  and  Helmstadt.  He  published  Uisto- 
ria  Julia,  and  Historia  Orentalis;  with  some 
other  tracts.    He  died  in  1695. 

REINESIUS  (Thomas),  a  learned  German 
physician  and  philosopher,  bom  at  Gotha  in 
Thuringia  in  1587.  He  settled  as  a  physician 
at  Altemberg,  where  he  was  elected  a  burgo- 
master. He  was  afterwards  appointed  counsellor 
to  the  elector  of  Saxony,  and  resided  at  Leipsic. 
He  wrote  some  tracts  on  medicine,  but  his  chief 
works  are  on  pbilolosy  and  criticism.  His  most 
celebrated  work  is  Variaram  Lectionum  Libri 
Tres;  4to.    He  died  at  Leipsic  in  1"587. 

IlEINHOLD  (ErasmusJ,  a  learned  German 
astronomer  and  mathematician,  bom  at  Salfeldt 
in  Upper  Saxony  in  1511.  He  wrote  several 
mathematical  and  astronomical  works ;  and  died 
in  1535. 

REINSPIRE',  tf.  0.  Re  and  inspire.  To 
inspire  anew. 

Time  virill  run. 

On  smoother,  till  Favonius  teintpire 

The  frozen  earth,  and  cloath  in  fresh  attire 

The  Uly  and  rose.  MHum, 

The  mangled  dame  lay  breathless  on  the  ground. 
When  on  a  sudden,  reinspired  with  breath. 
Again  she  rose.  Dryden. 

REINSTAL',t;.a.  Re  and  instal.  To  seat 
again.  > 

Thy  fathei 
Levied  an  army,  weeDio|  to  redeem. 
And  reinsUU  me  in  the  diadem.        '" 


That  alone  can  truly  reinstall  thee 
In  David's  royal  seat,  his  true  successor.      Milton. 

REINSTATE',  v.  a.    Re  and  instate.  To  put 
again  in  possession.  • 


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David,  after  that  signal  victory  which  had  pre- 
•enred  his  life,  remstatad  him  ia  his  throne,  and  re- 
stored him  to  the  ark  and  sanctuaiy ;  yet  suffered 
the  loss  of  his  rebellious  son  to  overwhelm  the  sense 
of  his  deliverance.  Govemmefit  of  the  Tongue. 

Modesty  rehutaUt  the  widow  in  her  virginity. 

Addimm, 

Tlie  fmuULting  of  this  hero  in  the  peaceable  pos- 
•anion  of  his  kingdom  was  acknowledged.      Pope, 

REINTEGRATE,  v.  o.  Fr.  rdntegrtr;  Lat. 
re  and  integer.  To  renew  with  regud  to  any 
state  or  quality;  repair;  restore. 

This  league  drove  all  the  Spaniards  out  of  Ger- 
many, and  reintegrated  that  nation  in  their  ancient 
liberty.  Baam. 

The  falling  from  a  discord  to  a  concord  hath  an 
agreement  with  the  afiections,  which  are  remtegnOed 
to  the  better  after  some  dislikes. 

Id,  Natural  Hitlory. 

REJOICE',  t;.n.&t>.a.>     Fr.  rejottir,     To 

Rejoi'cer,  fi.  «.  $  be  glad;  exult;  re- 

ceive pleasure  irom  something  past;  exhilarate; 
make  glad :  the  noun  substantive  corresponding. 

Let  them  be  brought  to  confusion  that  r^foioe  at 
mine  hurt.  Ftaim  xxtv.  26. 

I  will  comfort  them,  and  make  them  n^'oiof  from 
their  sorrow.  Jeremiah  zzzi.  13. 

This  is  the  r^jeicirg  citv  that  dwelt  carelessly, 
that  said,  there  is  none  besioe  me.  Zepkaniah  ii.  15. 

Whatsoever  faith  entertains,  produces  love  to 
God ;  but  he  that  believes  God  to  be  cruel,  or  a 
r^oieer  in  the  unavoidable  damnation  of  the  greatest 
pait  of  mankind,  thinks  evil  thoughts  concerning 
uod.  royJor'f  Rule  of  Holy  Lhmg, 

They  rt*joiee  each  with  their  kind.      Milton. 

We  should  particularly  express  our  rejineing  by 
love  and  charity  to  our  neighbours.  NeUen, 

Alone  to  thy  renown,  'tis  given, 
Unbounded  through  all  worlds  to  go ; 

While  she  great  saint  r^oiees  heavto. 
And  thou  sustains't  the  oib  below.         Prior. 

I  should  give  Cain  the  honour  of  the  invention  ; 
were  he  alive,  it  would  r^oiee  his  soul  to  see  what 
mischief  it  had  made.  AHmthnot. 

REJOIN',  V.  a.  &v.n.)      Fr.    rejoindre.    To 

Rejoin'der,  n,  s.  S  join  or  meet  again;  to 
reply  to  an  answer :  rejoinder  is  the  reply  maide. 

Iniury  or  chance  rudely  beguiles  our  lips 
Of  all  rejoindure,  Shaktpeare,  Troilut  and  Cremda, 

The  quality  of  the  person  makes  me  judge  myself 
obliged  to  a  rejoinder,  Glanvilie  to  AUnus, 

The  grand  signior  conveyeth  his  galleys  down  to 
Grand  Cairo,  where  thev  are  taken  in  pieces,  carried 
upon  cameU'  backs,  and  rejoined  together  at  Suez. 
Browne*M  Vulgar  Enroure, 

It  will  be  replied  that  he  receives  advantase  by 
this  lopping  of  his  snnerfluous  branches ;  but  I  re- 
join, that  a  translator  has  no  such  right.     Dryden. 

Thoughts,  which  at  Hyde-park-comer  I  forgot. 
Meet  and  r^oin  me  in  the  pensive  grot.  P<pe. 

Rejoinder,  in  law,  is  the  defendant's  answer 
to  the  plaintiffs  replication  or  reply.  Thus,  in 
the  court  of  chancery,  the  defendant  puts  in  an 
answer  to  the  plaintiffs  bill,  which  is  sometimes 
also  called  an  exception ;  the  plaintiffs  answer 
to  that  is  called  a  replication,  and  the  defendant's 
answer  to  that  a  rejoinder. 

REJOLT,!!.*.  YT.rejaUlir.  Shock;  sue- 
cussion. 

The  sinner,  at  his  highest  pitch  of  enjoyment,  is 
not  pleased  with  it  so  much,  but  he  is  afflicted  more ; 
and,  as  long  as  these  inward  rtjekt  and  recoilings  of 


the  mind  oontimie,  Ae  sinner  will  find  Ida  i 
of  pleasure  very  poor. 

REISKE  (John  James),  M.D.,  a  celebrated 
oriental  scholar  and  critic,  bom  in  1706,  at  a 
^town  in  the  duchy  of  Anhalt  After  the  nsoal 
school  education  he  went,  in  17^,  to  Leipsic, 
where  he  studied  five  years,  acquired  the  Arabic 
language,  and  transhited  and  published  a  book 
in  it.  He  next  travelled  on  foot  to  Leyden, 
where  he  was  employed  in  arrai^ing  the  Arabian 
MSS.  though  but  poorly  compensated  for  it. 
He  next  trai^ted  from  the  German  and  French 
into  Latin  various  Essays  sent  him  by  DorviUe, 
whom  he  had  Tisited  in  his  journey,  and  who  in- 
serted these  in  the  Miscellanea  Critica.  At  Dor- 
▼ille's  desire  he  also  translated  the  whole  of  the 
Chariton  from  the  Greek,  and  Aballeda's  Geo- 
graph]f  from  the  Latin.  He  continued  eight 
years  in  Leyden,  and  received  his  degree  in  it, 
but  leil  it  on  account  of  calumnies  excited  aaainst 
him  by  Peter  Bunnan,  whose  translation  m  Pe- 
tronius  Arbiter  he  nad  criticised.  He  tlien  tra- 
velled through  Germany,  and  settled  at  Leipsic, 
where  he  was  made  professor  of  Arabic,  and  con< 
tinned  for  twelve  vears,  writing  for  the  book- 
sellers. The  Acta  ^Erud^torum  were  greatly  in- 
debted to  him.  On  the  death  of  Haltansius,  in 
1756,  he  was  made  rector  of  the  Academy  at 
Leipsic,  which  placed  him  above  want.  Previ- 
ously to  this  he  had  published  his  AnimadTer- 
slones  in  Auctores  Graecos,  in  five  vols,  a  work 
of  deep  erudition.  In  1764  he  married  £mes- 
tina  Christina  Muller,  a  woman  of  extraordinary 
abilities,  whose  learning,  particuhurly  in  Greek, 
was  hardly  inferior  to  his  own.  She  assisted 
him  in  all  his  literary  labors,  especially  in  his 
immortal  work  of  the  Edition  of  the  Greek  Ora- 
tors :  in  12  vols,  8vo.  Thus  Reiske  spent  the 
remainder  of  his  life;  and  died  in  1774,  univer- 
sally respected.  The  numberof  his  publications 
is  very  great.  Tlie  principal  are  tnose  above- 
mentioned  and  the  following:  Dionysius  Hali- 
camassensis,  seven  vols;  Plutarvli,  nine  vok.; 
Theocritus,  &c. 

REITERATE,  r.  a.  >     Fr.  reiterer ;  Lat.  re 

Reitera'tiom,  n. «.  )  and  itero.  To  repeat 
again  and  aitaiu :  rei)etition. 

Vou  neiei  »poke  what  did  become  you  less 
Than  this  .  which  lo  retietate  were  sin.  Shaiispeare, 
Wiih  rette^atetl  crimes  he  might 
I  leap  on  himself  damnation.  iiHtm. 

It  is  useful  10  have  new  experiments  tried  over 
again;  such  ^etterations  commonly  exhibiting  new 
phenomena.  Be^U. 

^  Although  Christ  hath  forbid  us  to  use  vain  repe- 
titions when  ue  pray,  yet  he  hath  taught  us  that  to 
reiteraie  the  same  requests  will  uot  be  vain. 

Smalridge. 

The  words  are  a  reiteraiion  or  reinforcement  of  an 
application,  arising  from  the  consideration  of  the 
excellency  of  Christ  above  Moses. 

Ward  of  infdeUtg. 

REJUDGE',  V.  a.  Re  and  judge.  To  re- 
examine ;  review ;  re-try. 

The  muse  attends  thee  to  the  silent  shade ; 
'TIS  her's  the  brave  man's  latest  steps  to  trace, 
R^jvdge  his  acts,  and  dignify  disgrace-  Pepe, 

REIZ,  or  RErrz  (Frederic  Wol%ang),  a  Ger- 
man philologist,  was  bom  in  Franconia,  in  1733, 
and,  after  having  completed  his  studies  at  Leip- 


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sic^  became  a  pimte  tntor^  and  then  a  coneetor 
of  the  niess  in  the  printing-office  of  Breitkopf. 
He  hela  the  professorships  of  philosophy,  Latin 
and  Gieeky  and  poetry,  and  was  director  of  the 
library  belonging  to  the  university  of  Leipsic. 
He  died  February  3, 1790.  Reiz  is  principally 
Imownas  the  editor  of  Herodotus;  but  he  putK 
lished  editions  of  other  classics,  and  two  Disser- 
tations on  Prosody. 

REKIN'DLE,  «.  a.  Re  and  kindle.  To  set 
on  fire  again. 

These  disappearing,  fixed  sUrs,  were  actually  ex- 
tiognished,  and  would  for  ever  continue  so,  if  not 
rdMUd,  and  new  recruited  with  heat  and  light. 

Cheyn§*i  PhUottfidoal  PrineipUt. 

RMtdUd  at  the  royal  charms, 
TDmoltnous  love  each  beating  bosom  warms.  Ptpe. 

RELAND  (Adrian),  an  eminent  Orientalist, 
bom  at  Ryp,  in  North  Holland,  in  1676 ;  and 
educated  three  years  under  Surenhusius,  from 
whom  he  acquired  the  Hebrew,  Syriac,  Chaldee, 
and  Arabic  langui^res.  In  1701  he  was,  by  the 
recommendation  of  king  William,  appointed 
professoi  of  Oriental  languages  and  ecclesiastical 
antiquities  in  the  university  of  Utrecht;  and  died 
of  the  small-pox  in  1 7 1 8.  He  was  distinguished 
by  his  modesty,  humanity,  and  learning;  ami 
carried  on  a  correspondence  with  the  moat  emi- 
nent scholars  of  his  time.  His  works  are  writ- 
ten in  Latin;  viz.  An  excellent  description  of 
Palestine.  Five  dissertations  on  the  Medals  of 
the  ancient  Hebrews,  and  several  other  disserta- 
tions on  different  subjects.  An  Introduction  to 
the  Hebrew  Grammar.  The  Antiquities  of  the 
Ancient  Hebrews.  On  tiie  Mahometan  Religion. 

RELAPSE',  V.  n.  &  n.  s.  Lat.  reUmmt,  To 
slip  back ;  slide  or  fiUl  back ;  particularly  from 
good  to  ill :  relapse  is  regression ;  falliog  back 
into  evil;  return. 

It  WIS  even  as  two  ^hvsicians  should  take  one 
sick  body  in  hand ;  of  which,  the  former  would  purge 
and  keep  under  the  bodv,  the  other  pamper  and 
•treogthen  it  suddenly ;  whereof  what  is  to  be  looked 
for,  but  a  most  dan^^erous  relapte.  Sperutr, 

Mark  a  bounding  valour  in  our  Eaglish ; 

That  being  dead  like  to  the  bullet's  ^rasing. 

Breaks  out  into  a  second  course  of  mischief. 

Killing  in  reUrpte  of  mortality. 

Siaktptart.  Henry  F. 

The  oftener  he  hath  rtlapud,  the  more  significations 
he  ought  to  give  of  the  truth  of  his  repentance. 

Tajflor, 
This  would  but  lead  me  to  a  vrone  nlap$0 

And  heavier  fall.  MiUcn^ 

We  see  in  too  frequent  instances  the  rdajmt  of 
those,  who  under  the  present  smart,  or  the  near  ap- 
prehension of  the  divine  displeasure,  have  resolved 
on  a  religious  reformation.  Rogert. 

He  was  not  well  cured,  and  would  have  rti^ttei. 

Wi$tman, 

R£LATE',v.a.&9.ii.^*   Lat.   relatm.     To 

Rela'ter,  fi.  s.  j  tell ;   recite ;    utter ; 

Rela'tiov,  II.  ff.  (give  vent  by  words 

Rel'atite,  im{/.&  n.  t.  f  (a  sense  only  used  by 

Rel'ativsly,  ai^v.  Bacon);  ally  by  kin- 

Rel'ativeness,  n,s.  J  dred  or  marriage:  as 
a  verb  neuter,  have  reference  or  respect :  a  re- 
later  is,  a  narrator ;  historian :  relation,  narration ; 
tale;  connexion ;  manner  of  connexion,  or  of  be- 
longing to  a  person  or  thing;  respect;  reference; 
alliance;  kindred;  person  related  by  birth  or 


marriage :  relative  is,  respecting ;  oonsidered  as 

belonging  to,  or  regarding,  aomething  eUe :  as  a 
noun  substantive,  somewhat  respecting  some- 
thing else ;  the  pronoun  that  answers  ta  an  an* 
tecedent ;  a  kinsman  or  kinswoman :  the  adverb 
and  noun  substantive  following  correspond  with 
relative  as  an  adjective. 

Learn  the  right  joining  of  substantives  with  adjec- 
tives, and  the  reiatne  with  the  antecedent. 

Aseh^m't  SchoolmaUm'. 
Your  wife  and  babes 
Savagely  slaughtered ;  to  relate  the  manner. 
Were  to  add  the  death  of  you. 

Shaktpeare.  MaeheOi, 
I'll  have  grounds 
More  rtiimiim  than  this.  Id, 

A  man  were  better  reiUUe  himself  to  a  statue,  than 
sufier  his  thoughts  to  pass  in  smother.  Baioon, 

Though  capable  it  be  not  of  inherent  holiness,  yet 
it  is  often  reLaim,  Hdyday, 

Tis  an  evil  dutifulnew  in  friends  and  relathet  to 
suffer  one  to  perish  without  reproof.  Taylor. 

Here  I  could  frequent 
With  worship  place  by  place,  where  he  vouchsafed 
Presence  divine ;  and  to  my  sons  relate,        MiUotu 

Her  husband,  the  relaier,  she  preferred 
Before  the  angel.  3lUtan*M  Paradite  Loti, 

ReUitifint  dear,  and  all  the  charities 
Of  father,  son,  and  brother,  first  were  known. 

MUton. 
We  shall  rather  perform  good  offices  unto  truth, 
than  any  disservice  unto  their  rdatert,        Browne.  ' 
Under  this  stone  lies  virtue,  youth. 
Unblemished  probity  and  truth ; 
Just  unto  all  relatuni  known, 
A  worthy  patriot,  pious  son.  VTalUr, 

All  those  things  that  seem  so  foul  and  disagreeable 
in  nature  are  not  really  so  in  then^elves,  but  only 
relatieely.  More-, 

Confining  our  care  either  to  ourselves  and  reUuvm, 

FeU. 
The  drama  presents  to  view,  what  the  poem  only 
does  relate,  Dryden, 

^  I  have  been  importuned  to  make  some  observa- 
tions on  this  art,  m  relation  to  its  agreement  vrith 
poetry.  Id, 

Be  kindred  and  relation  laid  aside. 
And  honour's  cause  by  laws  of  honour  tried.      Id. 

All  negative  or  privative  words  relate  to  positive 
ideas,  and  signify  tneir  absence.  Xoeke, 

Reiatton  consists  in  the  consideration  and  com- 
paring of  one  idea  with  another.  Id, 

Not  only  simple  ideas  and  substances,  but  modes 
are  positive  beings ;  though  the  parU  of  which  they 
consist  are  very  often  relative  one  to  another.     Id. 

When  the  mind  so  considers  one  thing  that  it 
sets  it  by  another,  and  carries  its  own  view  from  one 
to  the  other,  this  is  relation  and  respect ;  and  the 
denominations  given  to  positive  things,  intimating 
that  respect,  are  relotieck  Id, 

As  otner  courts  demanded  the  execution  of  per- 
sons dead  in  law ;  this  gave  the  last  orders  relating 
to  those  dead  in  reason.  .    TatUr. 

Are  vire  not  to  pity  and  supply  the  poor,  though 
they  have  no  relation  to  us  T  No  relation  !  that  can- 
not be :  the  gospel  stiles  them  all  our  brethren; 
nay,  they  have  a  nearer  relation  to  us,  our  fellow- 
members ;  and  both  these  from  their  relation  to  our 
Saviour  himself,  who  calls  them  his  brethren. 

These  being  the  greatest  good  or  the  greatest  evil, 
either  absolutely  so  in  themselves,  or  reldtively  so  to 
us;  it  is  therefore  good  to  be  sealously  afiected  lor 
the  one  against  the  other.  U, 


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la  an  biatoiical  rtkaion,  wa  ma  tcnni  that  an 
moat  proper.  Burnti*s  Tktorp  of  tht  Eatih, 

I'be  eocleiiastical,  at  frail  as  tiM  civil  gpveroour, 
has  cause  to  punue  tke  same  methods  of  confinntQe 
hiiBself  i  the  grounds  of  goverament  being  founded 
upon  the  same  bottom  of  nature  in  both,  though  the 
circumstances  and  relative  considerations  of  the  per- 
sons may  differ.  South. 

flo  far  as  service  imports  dvty  and  attbjeetba,  all 
created  beings  bear  the  necessary  rtkiiom  of  ser- 
vants to  God.  Id. 

The  author  of  a  just  fable  must  please  more  than 
the  writer  of  an  historical  relation.  Dennis. 

Wholesome  and  unwbolesooM  aTOr«l0<tM»  not  real 
qualities.  ArbtUhnot  on  Almsntt, 

Avails  thee  not, 
To  whom  related,  or  by  whom  begot  \ 
A  heap  of  dust  alone  remains.  Pepe. 

The  best  Enelish  historian,  when  his  style  grows 
antiquated,  will  be  only  considered  as  a  tedioua  re^ 
later  of  (acts.  Swift. 

A  she-cousin,  of  a  good  family  and  small  fortune, 
passed  months  among  all  her  relatiom.  Id, 

Consider  the  abaolute  affiactions  of  any  being  as  it 
is  in  itself,  before  you  consider  it  reiaiivelif  or  survey 
the  various  relations  in  which  it  stands  to  other  be- 
ings. W'o^tt. 

Our  necessary  relations  to  a  family,  oblige  all  to 
use  their  reasoning  powers  upon  a  thousand  occa- 
sions, id. 
Dependants,  friends,  relations, 

Savaged  by  woe,  forget  the  tender  tie.    Jlwmson. 

Our  intercession  is  made  an  exercise  of  love  and 
care  for  those  amongst  whom  our  lot  is  fallen,  or 
who  belong  to  us  in  a  nearer  relatiotr:  it  diea  be- 
comes the  greatest  benefit  to  ourselves,  and  produces 
its  best  effects  on  our  own  hearts.  ^  Law. 

Of  the  eternal  relations,  and  fitnesses  of  tilings  we 
know  nothing  ;  all  that  we  know  of  truth  and  false- 
hood is,  that  our  constitution  determines  us  id  some 
cases  to  believe,  in  others  to  disbelieve.      Beattie. 

Relative  Pronouns^  in  grammar,  are  those 
which  answer  to  some  other  word  foregoing, 
caUe4  the  antecedent ;  such  axe  the  Latin  pro- 
nouns qui,  quae,  quo<i»  &Q- '"  in  English,  who, 
w.hich,  what,  &c.  The  word  answering  to  these 
relatives  is  often  understood,  as,  I  know  whom 
you  mean,  for  I  know  the  peiaoD  whoni  you 
mean. 

RELAX',  V.  fl.  &  V.  n.  J      Lat  relaxo.     To 

Relaxa'tion,  n.s.  5  slacken  ;  to  make 
less  tense;  remit;  ease;  to  be  mild;  remiss: 
the  noun-substantive  corresponding. 

They  childishly  granted*  by  common  consent  of 
their  whole  senate,  under  their  own  seal,  a  relaxation 
to  one  Bertelier,  whom  the  eldership  had  excommu- 
nicated. Hooker. 

The  sinews,  when  the  southern  vrind  Uoweth,  are 
waoiei-elaxed.  Bacon*s  Natmai  UiMory. 

Cold  sweats  are  many  times  mortal ;  for  that  they 
come  hy  a  relaxation  or  forsaking  of  t^  spirits. 

Bacon, 
Adam,  amazed, 
Astonished  stood,  and  black;  while  hoiMmr  chill 
Ran  through  his  veins,  and  all  his  joints  relaxed. 

MUton, 

it  served  not  to  relax  their  serried  files.  id. 

The  sea  is  not  higher  than  the  land,  as  some  ima- 
gined the  sea  stood  upon  heap  higher  than  the  shore ; 
and  at  the  deluge,  a  relaxation  being  made,  it  over- 
flowed the  land.  Burnet.^ 

In  the  book  of  games  and  diversions,  the  reader's 
mind  may  be  supposed  to  he  relaxed. 

Addison  s  Spectator. 


As  God  has  not  so  devoted  our  bodies  to  toil,  but 
that  he  allows  as  some  recraatioa  ;  so  doubtlen  ho 
indulges  the  same  relaxation  to  our  minds. 

Gooemment  rf  the  Tm^iis. 
If  in  some  regards  she  chose 
To  curb  poor  Paulo  in  too  close ; 
In  others  she  relaxed  again. 
And  ^verned  with  a  looser  rein.     Prior. 
Many  who  live  healthy  in  a  dty  air,  fall  into  all 
the  diseases  that  depend  upon  relaxation  in  a  mobt 
one.  Ar^uihmet. 

The  statute  of  mortmain  was  at  sevonl  times  i«- 
laxed  by  the  legislature.  Sesiji. 

The  retaxatiou  of  the  statute  of  amrtmain  is  one  of 
the  reasons  vrhidi  gives  the  bishop  tenihle  appwhea- 
sions  of  popery  coming  on  us.  Id. 

Nor  praise  relax,  nor  difficult  fright. 

VasUtyef  Wiskes. 

RELAY',  n.  s.  Fr.  relait.  Horses  on  the 
road  to  relieve  others. 

RELEASE',  v.  a.  Fr.  rdascher,  relajer,  of 
Lat.  relaxo.  To  set  free  from  confinement,  ser- 
vitude, pain,  or  penalty ;  free  from  obligation ; 
quit;  let  go;  relax:  the  noun-substantiye  cor- 
responding. 

Every  creditor  that  lendeth  aught  unto  his  neigh- 
bour shall  release  it.  Deuteronomy. 

The  king  made  a  great  feast,  and  made  a  release  to 
the  provinces,  and  gave  gifts.  Esther  ii.  18. 

Filate  saud,  Whom  will  ye  that  I  release  unto  you? 

Matthew. 
It  may  not  seem  hard,  if  in  cases  of  necessi^, 
certain  profitable  ordinances  sometimes  be  released, 
rsfther  than  all  men  always  strictly  bound  to  the 
general  rigour  thereof.  Hooker. 

The  king  would  not  have  one  penny  abated,  of 

what  had  been  granted  by  parliament ;  because  it 

might  encoura^  other  couatnes  to  pray  the  like  f»- 

Uase  or  mitigaUon^  Bacon, 

Too  secure,  because  from  deiihrdeased  somedaya. 

mUos^ 
'    You  released  his  courage,  and  set  free 
A  valour  fatal  to  the  enemy.  Dryden. 

Why  should  a  reasonable  man  put  it  into  the 
power  of  fortune  to  make  him  miserable,  when  his 
ancestors  have  taken  care  to  release  him  from  her  t 

Id. 
He  had  been  base,  had  he  released  his  right. 
For  such  an  empire  none  but  kings  should  fight* 

Id. 
O  fatal  search  !  in  which  the  lab*ring  mind, 
Still  prised  with  weight  of  woe,  still  hopes  to  find 
A  shadow  of  delight,  a  dream  of  peace, 
From  vears  of  pain,  one  moment  of  release.    Prier, 
It  solitude  succeed  to  grief. 
Release  from  pain  is  slight  relief; 
The  vacant  bosom's  wilderness 
Might  thank  the  pang  that  made  it  less.    ^yron. 

Release,  in  law,  is  a  discharge  or  conveyance 
of  a  man's  ris^t  in  lands  or  tenemesls,  lo  ano- 
ther that  hath  some  former  estate  in  possession. 
The  words  generally  used  therein  are,  *  nemised, 
released,  aiMi  for  ever  quit-claimed.*  And  these 
rdeases  may  enure,  either,  1.  By  way  of  enlaig- 
ing  an  estate,  as,  if  there  be  tenant  for  life  or 
years,  remainder  to  another  in  fee,  and  lie  in  re- 
mainder releases  all  his  r^ht  to  the  particular 
tenant  and  his  heirs,  this  gives  him  the  estate  in 
fee.  But  in  this  case  the  relessee  must  be  in 
possession  of  «ome  estate  for  the  release  to  work 
upon  ;  for,  if  there  be  a  lessee  for  years,  and,  before 
.he  enters  and  is  in  possession,  the  lessor  releases 


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Co  Um  all  his  right  in  th€  rerersioDy  luch  release 
is  Toid  for  want  of  possession  in  the  relessee.  2. 
By  way  of  passing  an  estate,  as,  when  one  of 
two  coparpeners  releaseth  all  his  right  to  the 
other,  this  passeth  the  fee-simple  of  the  whole. 
In  bodk  these  cases  there  must  be  a  privity  of 
estate  between  the  releasor  and  releasee;  that  is, 
one  of  their  estates  mast  be  so  related  to  the 
other  as  to  make  bnt  one  and  the  same  estate  in 
law.  3.  By  way  of  passmg  a  right,  as  if  a  roan 
be  disseisea,and  releaseth  to  his  disseisor  all  his 
right ;  hereby  the  disseisor  acquires  a  new  right, 
which  changes  the  quality  of  his  estate,  and  ren- 
ders tiiat  lawful  which  before  was  tortious.  4. 
By  way  of  extinguishment :  as  if  my  tenant  for 
life  mues  a  lease  to  A  for  life,  remainders  to  B 
and  his  heirs,  and  I  release  to  A ;  this  extin-> 
goishes  my  right  to  the  reveraion,  and  shall  enure 
to  tlie  advantage  of  B's  remainder  as  well  as  of 
A's  particular  estate.  5.  By  way  of  entry  and 
feoffment:  as  if  there  be  two  joint  disseisors, 
and  the  disseisee  releases  to  one  of  them,  he 
sliall  be  sole  seised,  and  shall  keep  out  his  former 
companion ;  which  is  the  same  in  effect  as  if  the 
disseisee  had  entered,  and  thereby  pnt  an  end  to 
the  disseisin,  and  afkrwards  had  enfeoffed  one 
of  the  disseisors  in  fee.  When  a  man  has  in 
himself  the  possession  of  lands,  he  must  at  the 
common  law  conVey  the  freehold  by  feoffment 
and  liTCry,  which  makes  a  notoriety  in  the  coun- 
^  try:  but  if  a  man  has  only  a  right  or  a  future 
interest  he  may  convey  that  right  or  interest  by  a 
mere  rdease  to  him  that  is  in  possession  of  the 
land :  for  the  occupancy  of  the  relessee  isor  mat- 
ter of  sufficient  notoriety  ftUt>abdy. 

RELEGATION,  n,t,  Fr.  relegation;  Lat. 
relegaiio.    Exile ;  judicial  banishment. 

Acoordine  to  the  civil  law,  the 'extraordinary  pn- 
nishMent  of  adultery  was  deportation  or  rdtgaiUm, 

AyUffg, 

RELENT,  «.  n.  &  r .  a.  1     Fr.  ralentir.     To 

Relek'/lbss,  a^'.  S  soften ;    grow    less 

rigid  or  hard ;  melt ;  as  a  verb  neuter,  ;to 
slacken;  remit;  mdlify,  but  rarely  used:  the 
adjective  corresponds  with  the  verb  active. 

1  have  marked  ia  you  a  rdenting  truly,  and  a 
skclung  of  the  main  career,  you  had  so  notably  be- 
gan, and  almost  performed.  Sidney, 

Apace  he  shot,  and  yet  he  fled  apace, 
And  oftentimes  he  would  rtUnt  his  pace, 
That  him  his  foe  mora  fieraely  should  puisue. 

^ns8r. 
Can  you  behold 
My  tears,  and  not  onoe  relmt  ? 

Shaken.  Htnry  VI, 

In  some  houses,  sweetmeats  will  nUni  more  than 
iti  others.  Bacon, 

Crows  seem  to  call  upon  rain,  which  is  but  the 
comfort  they  seem  to  receive  in  the  rtUniing  of  the 
air.  Id. 

The  workmen  let  glass  cool  by  degrees  in  such  re- 
inoingt  of  fire,  as  they  call  their  n^ing  heats,  lest 
it  should  shiver  in  pieces  by  a  violent  succeeding  of 
air.  J^hf  <*■>  Bodicf. 

Undonbte^y  he  will  velml  and  turn 

From  his  displeasure.  MiUan. 

.  Only  in  destroying,  I  find  ease 

To  my  relentleu  thoughts.        Jd,  Poradue  Lett, 

Salt  of  tartar  brought  to  fusion,  and  placed  in  a 
cellar,  will  in  a  few  minutes  benn  to  relent,  and 
have  its  surface  softened  by  the  imbibed  moisture  of 


the  air,  whamtn,  if  it  be  left  long,  it  will  totally  bt 
dissolved.  Beyle. 

Why  should  the  weeping  hero  now 
Belenttem  to  their  wishes  prove  1  Ptier, 

All  nature  roonros,  the  skies  relent  in  showers, 
Hush'd  are  the  birds,  and  closed  the  drooping  ilow'rs  ; 
If  Delia  smile,  the  flowers  begin  to  spring. 
The  skies  to  brighten,  and  the  birds  to  sing.    Popg. 
He  sung,  and  hell  consented 
'To  hear  the  poet's  prayer ; 

Stern  Prosperine  rvUnted^ 
And  gave  him  back  the  fair.     ,  Td, 

RELHAM  (Richard),  F.R.S.  and  L.S ,  a  re- 
spectable divine  and  naturalist,  was  educated  at 
Cambridge,  and  became  a  fellow  of  King*s  Col- 
lege. In  1791  he  obtained  the  rectory  of  Hun- 
ningsby,  in  Lincolnshire.  His  works  are.  Flora 
Cantabrigensis,  in  which  he  describes  his  dis- 
covery of  a  new  species  of  lichen  and  of  the 
athamanta  libanotis;  and  Tacitus  de  Moribus 
Germanorum  et  de  Vit&  Agricols,  8vo. 

RELrANCE,  n. «.    From  Rely,  which  see. 

REL'IC,  or       ^     Fr.  relique ;  Lat.  reliqtda, 

Rel'ick,  n.  s.     >  Strictly  that  which  remains ; 

Rel'icly,  adv.  j  that  which  is  left  after  the 
loss  or  decay  of  the  rest:  often  applied  to  the 
body  after  death,  and  to  any  thing \ept  as  a  re- 
ligious memento. 

Up  dreary  dame  of  darkness  queen. 
Go  gather  up  the  relUpaei  of  thy  race. 
Or  Mse  go  them  avenge.  Spemer. 

The  fragments,  scraps;  the  bits,  and  greasy  tv- 
liqvet. 
Of  her  o'erealen  feith  are  bound  to  Diomede. 

Shakipean* 

Thrifty  wench  scrapes  kitchen  stuff, 
And  barrelling  the  droppings  and  the  snaff 
Of  wasting  candles,  which  in  thirty  year,  , 
Bdiddy  kept,  perhaps  onys  wedding  cheer.  Donne. 

AVhat  needs  my  Shakespeare  tor  his  honoured 
bones. 
The  labour  of  an  age  in  piled  stones  1 
Or  that  his  hallow^  reUquet  should  be  hid 
Under  a  starr^pointed  pyramid  Y  Milton. 

Nor  death  itself  can  wholly  wash  their  stains. 
But  long  contracted  filth  even  in  the  soul  remains; 
The  relicki  of  inveterate  vice  they  wear. 
And  spots  of  sin.  BrydenU  JEnek. 

This  church  is  very  rich  in  roUekt ;  among  the  rest, 
they  show  a  fragment  of  Thomas  a  fiecket,  as  indeed 
there  are  very  few  tieaanries  of  reHokt  in  Italy  that 
have  not  a  tooth  or  a  bone  of  this  saint. 

Addmm  on  Italy. 
Shall  our  rtHieh  second  birth  receive? 

Sleep  we  to  wake,  and  only  die  to  live  ?     Prior. 

Thy  reHckSf  Rowe,  to  tliis  fair  shrine  we  trust, 
And  sacred  place  by  Dryden's  awful  dust ; 
Beneath  a  rude  and  nameless  stone  he  lies. 
To  which  thy  tomb  shall  guide  enquiring  eyes. 

Pop$. 

Relics,  in  the  Romish  church,  the  remains 
of  the  bodies  or  clothes  of  saints  or  martyrs, 
and  the  instruments  by  which  they  were  put  to 
death,  devoutly  preserved,  in  honor  of  their  me- 
mory :  revered,  and  carried  in  procession.  The 
respect  which  was  due  to  the  martyrs  and  teachers 
of  the  Christian  faith  in  a  few  ages  increased 
almost  to  adoration.  Relics,  therefore,  were,  and 
still  axe  preserved  on  the  altars  of  the  Romanists 
whereon  mass  is  celebrated.  The  city  of  Co- 
logne was  femous  for  its  relics.  Many  precious 
relics  were  also  discovered  and  exposed  to  ridi- 


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cnU  in  Enriuid,  upoo  abolition  of  the 
teriei;  ludi  as  the  parings  of  St.  Edmund's 
toes,  the  girdle  of  the  Virgin  Maiy,  &c.  The 
honoring  the  relics  of  saints,  on  which  the  church 
of  Rome  aAerwards  founded  the  superstitious 
and  lucratiye  use  of  them,  as  objects  of  devo- 
votion,  as  a  kind  of  charms  or  amulets,  prin- 
cipally appears  to  have  originated  in  the  very 
ancient  custom  of  assembling  at  the  cemeteries 
or  burying-places  of  the  Christain  martyrs,  for 
the  purpose  of  commemorating  them,  and  of 
performing  divine  worship.  The  practice  of 
depositiog  relics  of  saints  and  martyrs  under  the 
altars  in  churches,  was  at  last  thought  of  such 
importance,  that  St.  Ambrose  would  not  conse- 
crate a  church  because  it  had  no  relics;  and  the 
council  of  Constantinople  in  TruUo  ordained, 
that  those  altars  should  be  demolished  under 
which  there  were  found  no  relics.  The  rage 
for  procuring  relics  for  thb  and  similar  pur- 
poses became  so  excessive  that,  in  A.  D.  300, 
Theodosius  the  Great  was  obliged  to  pass  a  law, 
forbidding  the  people  to  dig  up  the  bodies  of  the 
martyrs,  and  to  trsmfic  in  their  relics.  Such  was 
the  origin  of  that  respect  for  sacred  relics  which 
was  afterwards  perverted,  and  became  the  occa- 
sion of  innumerable  processions,  pilgrimages, 
&c.  In  the  end  of  the  ninth  century,  it  was  not 
su£Bcient  to  reverence  departed  saints,  and  to 
confide  in  their  intercessions  and  succours,  to 
believe  them  endued  with  a  power  of  healing 
diseases,  working  miracles,  ana  delivering  from 
all  sorts  of  calamities  and  dansrers ;  their  bones, 
their  clothes,  the  apparel  and  furniture  they  had 
possessed  during  their  lives,  the  very  ground  which 
they  had  touched,  or  in  which  their  carcasses 
were  laid,  were  treated  with^veneration,  and  sup- 
posed to  retain  the  virtue  of  healing  disorden 
both  of  body  and  mind,  and  of  defending  such 
as  possessed  them  against  the  assaults  and  de- 
vices of  the  devil.  In  consequence  of  this,  a 
new  and  lucrative  trade  was  opened  both  in 
Europe  and  in  the  east.  Public  credulity  was 
imposed  upon,  and  relics  of  sa'mts  were  multi- 
plied without  number ;  while  the  Greeks  found 
a  rich  prey  in  the  superstition  of  the  Latin  re- 
lic-hunters. The  Roman  Catholics  in  Great 
Britain  do  not  acknowledge  any  worship  to  be 
due  to  relics,  but  merely  a  high  veneration  and 
respect,  by  which  means  they  profess  to  honor 
God,  who,  they  say,  has  often  wiou^t  very  ex- 
traordinary miracles  by  them.  Relics  are  for- 
bidden to  be  used  or  brought  into  England  by 
several  statutes ;  and  justices  of  peace  are  em- 
powered to  search  houses  for  popish  relics, 
which,  when  found,  are  to  be  defaced  and  burnt, 
&c. 

RELICT,  n.  s.  Old  Fr.  relicte ;  Lat.  relicta, 
A  widow;  a  wife  desolate  by  the  death  of  her 
husband. 

If  the  fathers  and  hasbands  were  of  the  household 
of  fieiith,  then  certainly  their  r«/tcci  and  children  can- 
not be  strangers  in  this  household. 

Sprmt*M  Sfrmofif. 
Chaste  ftf/iet/ 

Honoared  on  earth,  and  worthy  of  the  love 

Of  such  a  spouse  ss  now  resides  kbove.      Oarth, 

Relief  (Relevamen;  in  Domesday,  Relevatio, 
Relevium),  signifies  a  certain  sum  of  money, 


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whidi  the  tenant  holding  by  knight's  service^ 
grand  seijeantry,  or  other  tenure  (for  which 
homage  or  legal  service  is  due),  and  being  at 
full  age  at  the  death  of  his  ancestor,  paid  unto- 
his  entrance. . 

Relief,  CnuacB  of,  or  Reuef,  PaESBTTsar 
OF,  a  set  of  Presbyterians,  in  Scotland,  who  dif- 
fer from  the  established  church  only  as  to  the 
submission  to  the  law  of  patronage.    See  Ai>- 
vowsoN,  Patronage,  and  Presentation.  Many 
violent  settlements,  as  they  are  called,  of  unpo- 
pular clergymen  in  various  parishes  in  Scotland, 
nad  repeatedly  taken  place,  in  consequence  of 
the  rigorous  exercise  of  the  law  of  patronage, 
which  was  always  a  very  unpopular  measure 
among  strict  Presbjrterians ;  and  some  of  these 
presentees  had  been  so  exceedingly  unjpopular 
that  they  were  obliged  to  be  setUed  in  their 
churches  and  benefices  by  the  force  of  military 
power.    Grievances  of  this  kind  had  repeatedly 
taken  place,  and  been  often  complained  of,  before 
any  attempt  was  made  for  relief  from  them,  till 
1752;    when  the  Rev.  Mr.  Thomas  Gillespie, 
minister  of  Gamock,  in  Fifeshire,  was  deposed 
by  the  General  Assembly  of  the  Church  of  Scot- 
land, and  for  no  other  &ttlt,  but  merely,  from  a 
scruple  of  conscience,  refusing  to  have  any  hand 
in  a  violent  settlement  of  this  kind,  where  the 
presentee  was  to  be  settled  in  opposition  to  the 
inclination  of  the  parishioners.     This  disobe- 
dience to  the  supreme  ecclesiastical  court  was 
punished  with  a  K>nnal  and  solemn  deposition. 
Mr.  Gillespie  was  soon  after  joined  in  commu- 
nion by  Mr.  Thomas  Boston  of  Jedburgh,  and 
several  other  clergymen  of  the  Church  of  Soot- 
land,  pnurticularlv  the  Rev.  James  Baine,  miius- 
ter  of  Paisley,  who  was  settled  in  a  relief  church 
of  Edinburgh ;  all  of  whom  differed  from  the 
established  church  in  nothing  but  the  rigorous 
exercise  of  the  law  of  patronage,  whidi  the 
church  holds  to  be  lawful  and  expedient,  and 
their  opponents  to  be  highly  criminial.    On  this 
principle  these  dissenting  clergymen  oonstitated 
themselves   into  a  society,  with  Presbyterian 
powers,  under  the  name  of  the  Presbytery  of  Re- 
lief; and  being  soon  followed  by  great  numbers  of 
people,  who  considered  patronage  as  a  piece  of 
unjustifiable  ecclesiastical,  or  rather  civil  Qrianny,. 
impmed  on  the  church  of  Scotland  by  a  tory 
party  in  the  reign  of  queen  Anne,  merely  to  be 
avenged  of  the  Presbyterian  Whigs  for  their 
zeal  against  the  house  of  Stuart;  they,  in  a  few 
years,    erected  churches    of   Relief    (meaning 
thereby  relief  from  the  oppression  of  patronage) 
in  a  great  number  of  parishes  throughout  Soot- 
land.    For  fhrther  particulars  respecting  this  sect^ 
we  refer  the  reader  to  a  treatise  entitled  Histori- 
cal Sketches  of  the  Church,  published  in  1774, 
by  the  Rev.  James  Smith,  who  succeeded  Mr. 
Gillespie  in  the  Relief  Church  at  Dunfermline, 
but  woo  afterwards  returned  to  the  established 
church,  and  died  minister  of  a  chapel  in  con- 
nexion with  the  establishment  in  Dundee. 
RELIEVE',  V.  c.-\   Fr.  relief,  reliever ;  Span. 
Reliev'able,  at^.  I  relievar  ;  Ttal.  relievo  ;LaL 
Relief',  n.i.        \relevo.    To  raise  up;  te- 
Reliev'er,  n.  s.    i  vive ;    support ;    succor ; 
Relie'vo.  J  ease;  free  from  pain,  or 

painful  duty ;  hence  change  a  military  guard ;  to 


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Ti^t  legally ;  reeommeiid  or  get  off  by  raterpo* 
«tioii :  the  adjectiTe  and  noan  substantWes  cor- 
responding: relievo  is  (from  the  Italian)  the 
prominence  of  a  figure  or  picture'. 

For  this  reUef,  much  thanks ;  'tis  bitter  cnld, 
Aod  I  am  uok  at  heart.  Shaktpmm,  Hamlti. 

Honest  soldier,  who  hath  rdieoed  you  7 
— ^Bernsnio  has  my  place.    Give  you  good  night 

Skaktpeait. 
Thoughts  in  my  uagiiiet  breast  are  risen, 

Tending  to  some  reUtfof  our  extremes.    MUtan. 

Neither  can  they,  as  to  reparation,  hold  plea  of 
things,  wherein  the  party  is  relwnble  by  common 
law.  Hale. 

Parallels,  or  like  rela^ns,  alternately  relieve  each 
<other;  when  neither  will  p«H  asunder,  yet  are  they 
plausible  together.  Browne, 

He  fonncf  his  designed  present  would  be  a  rtUrf^ 
aod  then  he  thought  k  an  impertinence  to  consiw 
what  it  could  be  cidled  besides.  FelL 

So  should  we  make  our  death  a  glad  relief 

From  future  shame.  Drtfden*i  KnighVt  Tale, 

A  convex  mirrour  makes  the  objects  in  the  middle 
<eoine  out  from  the  supei^ies :  the  painter  must  do 
so  in  rewect  of  the  lights  and  shadows  of  his  figures, 
to  give  them  more  relieoo  and  more  strength. 

Dryden. 
From  thy  growing  store 

Now  knd  assistance,  and  relieve  the  poor ; 

A  pittanoe  of  thy  land  will  set  him  free.         Id, 

RJieee  the  sentries  that  have  watched  all  night. 

Id. 
As  the  great  lamp  of  day, 
Through  dilfeient  legions  does  his  course  porsue, 
And  l^ves  one  world  but  to  revive  a  new  ; 
While,  by  a  pleasing  chang^,  the  queen  of  night 
Mtlievea  his  lustre  vnth  a  milder  light.         Stepnejf, 

The  figuses  of  many  ancient  coins  riie  up  in  a 
much  more  beautiful  relief  than  those  on  the  modem ; 
the  face  sinking  by  degrees  in  the  several  declensions 
of  the  empire,  till  about  Constantino's  time,  it  lies 
almost  even  with  the  sovHce  of  the  medal. 

Addimm, 

Since  the  inculcating  precept  upon  precept  will 
prove  tiresome,  the  poet  must  not  encumber  his 
poem  with  too  much  business ;  but  sometimes  reUeve 
the  subject  with  u  moral  reflection.  Id. 

He  is  the  protector  of  his  weakness,  and  the  rt- 
iiewr  of  his  wants.  Rogen**  Sermon. 

Not  with  jach  majesty,  such  bold  relief , 
The  forms  august  of  kings,  or  conquering  chief. 
E'er  swelled  on  marble,  as  in  verae  have  shined, 
la  polished  verK,  the  manners,  and  the  mind. 

Pope, 

To  Reueve  the  Sentries  is  to  put  fresh 
men  upon  that  duty  ^rom  the  guard,  which  is 
generally  done  every  two  hours,  by  a  corporal 
who  attends  the  relief;  to  see  that  the  proper 
orders  are  delivered  to  the  soldier  who  relieves. 

To  Relieve  the  Trenches  is  to  relieve  the 
■guard  of  the  trenches,  by  appointing  those  for 
that  duty  who  have  been  there  before. 

Relievo,  or  Relief,  in  sculpture,  &c.,  is  the 
projecture  of  a  figure  (torn  the  ground  or  plane 
on  which  it  is  formed ;  whether  that  figure  be 
cut  with  the  chisel,  moulded,  or  cast.  There 
are  three  kinds  or  degrees  of  relievo,  viz.  alto, 
basso,  and  demi-relievo.  ll)e  alto  relievo,  called 
also  haut-relief,  or  high  relievo,  is  when  the 
iigure  is  formed  after  nature,  and  projects  as 
much  as  the  life.  Basso  relievo,  bass-relief,  or 
low  relievo,  is  when  the  work  is  raised  a  little 
from  the  ground,  as  in  medals,  aod  the  frontis- 


pieces of  buildings;  and  particularly  in  the  his- 
tories, festoons,  foliages,  and  other  ornaments  of 
friezes.  Demi  relievo  is  when  one  half  of  the 
figure  rises  firom  the  plane.  When;  in  a  basso- 
relievo,  there  are  parts  that  stand  clear  out,  de- 
tached from  the  rest,  the  work  is  called  a  demi- 
basso.  In  architecture,  the  relievo  of  the 
ornaments  ought  always  to  be  proportioned  to 
the  magnitude  of  the  building  it  adorns,  and  to 
the  distance  at  which  it  is  to  be  viewed. 

Relievo,  or  Relief,  in  painting,  is  the  de- 
gree of  boldness  with  which  the  figures  seem,  at 
a  due  distance,  to  stand  out  from  the  ground  of 
the  painting.  The  relievo  depends  much  upon 
the  depth  of  the  shadow,  and  the  strength  of  the 
light ;  or  on  the  height  of  the  different  colors, 
bordering  upon  one  another;  and  particularly 
on  the  difference  of  the  color  of  the  figure  from 
that  of  the  ground ;  thus,  when  the  light  is  so 
disposed  as  to  m^ike  the  nearest  part  of  the 
figure  advance,  ahd  is  well  diffused  on  the 
masses,  yet  insensibly  diminishing,  and  termin- 
ating in  a  huge  spacious  shadow,  brought  off 
insensibly,  the  relievo  is  said  to  be  bold,  and 
the  clair  obscure  well  understood. 

RELIGHT,  v.  a.    Re  and  light.    To  light 
anew. 
His  power  can  heal  me,  and  r^gkt  my  eye.    Fope. 

RELIG'ION,  It.  ff.       )     Fr.  re/urum;  Lat. 

Relig'ious,  adj,  k.n,t,^  religio.     See  below. 

Relig'iously,  adv,  j  Virtue,  as  founded 
upon  piety  and  the  expectation  of  fiiture  rewards 
and  punishments ;  a  system  of  revealed  fidth  and 
worsnip:  religionist,  a  bigot;  a.  religious  per^ 
son :  tne  adjective  and  adverb  corresponding  in 
sense  with  religion:  religious  is  also  used  for 
exact ;  strict :  and, '  as  a  noun  substantive,  for  a 
man  professedly  devoted  to  religion. 

It  ts  a  matter  of  sound  conieqnenoe,  that  all 
'duties  are  by  so  much  the  better  performed,  by  how 
much  the  men  are  more  retigioue,  from  whose  abi- 
lities the  same  proceed.  Hooker. 

When  holy  and  devout  religiout  christians 
Are  at  their  beads,  'tis  hard  to  draw  them  from 

thence ; 
So  sweet  is  zealous  contemplation !        Shakepeare. 

These  are  their  brethrou  whom  von  Goths  beheld 
Alive  and  dead,  and  for  their  brethren  slain 
BeUgioutljf  they  ask  a  sacrifice.  Id. 

The  privileges,  justly  due  to  the  members  of  the 
two  houses  ami  their  attendants,  are  reUgiausljf  to  be 
maintained.  Baeon. 

For,  who  will  have  his  work  his  wished  end  to 
win. 
Let  him  with  hearty  prayer  n^isau^  begin. 

Drayton, 
He  that  is  void  of  fear,  may  soon  be  just. 
And  no  religion  binds  men  to  be  traitors. 

BenJonton. 
He  God  doth  late  and  early  pray. 
More  of  his  grace  than  gifts  to  lend ; 

And  entertains  the  harmless  day 
With  a  religiout  book  or  friend.  Wotton, 

Certain  fiyais  and  reUgiout  men  were  moved  vrith 
some  seal,  to  draw  the  people  to  the  christian  faith. 

Abboi. 
Equity  in  law  is  the  same  that  spirit  is  in  reUgion, 
what  every  one  pleases  to  make  it :  sometimn  they 
so  according  to  conscience,  sometimes  according  to 
law,  sometimes  according  to  the  rule  of  court. 

e$l  €«. 


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By  r^tgum,  I  mMD  that  genertl  habit  of  rove- 
renoo  toward  the  divine  aatvie,  whereby  we  are 
enablfld  and  iDcIined  to  wonhip  and  serve  God  af» 
ter  snch  a  maimer  as  we  coaoeive  most  agreeable  to 
bU  will,  so  aa  to  procure  his  favour  and  blessing. 
.  WUidus. 

One  spake  much  of  light  and  wrong. 
Of  justice,  ofnligion,  truth,  and  peace 
And  judgment  from  above.  MliUm, 

Their  lives 
Religwm  titled  them  the  sons  of  God.  Id, 

The  christian  ttUgum,  rightly  understood,  is  the 
deepest  and  choicest  piece  of  philosophy  that  is. 

If  we  consider  it  as  directed  against  God,  it  is  a 
breach  of  rtligion ;  if  as  to  men,  it  is  aa  cffence 
against  morality.  South. 

France  has  vast  numbers  of  ecclesiasticks,  secular 
and  relUfiou*.  Addimm**  State  rf  th*  War. 

What  the  protestants  would  call  a  fonatick  is  in 
the  Roman  church  a  religiimt  of  such  an  order  ;  as  an 
English  merchant  in  Lisbon,  after  some  great  disap- 
pointments in  the  world,  resolved  to  tnm  capuchin. 

Adduon. 

By  her  informed,  we  best  nligion  learn, 
Its  glorious  object  by  her  ud  diaoem.      BUokmon. 

The  lawfulness  of  taking  oaths  may  be  revealed  to 
the  quakers,  who  then  will  stand  upon  as  good  a  foot 
for  preferment  as  any  other  subject ;  under  sucb  a 
motley  administration,  what  pullinp;*  and  hawlings, 
what  a  zeal  and  bias  there  wul  be  in  each  retigionist 
to  advance  his  own  tribe,  and  depress  the  others. 


RtiigwH  or  virtue,  ia  a  larse  sense,  includes  doty 
to  God  and  our  neighbour ;  but,  in  a  proper  sense, 
virtue  signifies  duty  towards  men,  and  rJiffWi  duty 
to  God.  Watu. 

Her  family  has  the  same  regulation  as  a  religioui 
house,  and  all  its  orders  tend  to  the  support  of  a 
constant  regular  devotion.  Imw, 

But  I  am  stagsered  when  I  consider  that  a  caM 
may  happen  in  which  the  established  religion  may 
be  the  ttUgUm  of  a  minority  of  the  people,  that  mi- 
nority, at  tbe  same  time,  possessing  a  majority  of  the 
pioperty,  out  of  which  the  ministers  of  tbe  establish- 
ment an  to  be  paid.  Bp.  Wateen, 

Religion.  Religion  is,  according  to  Cicero, 
derived  from  relegere,  to  reconsider;  but  ac- 
cording to  Servius,  and  most  modern  gramma- 
rians, from  religare,  to  bind  fast.  The  reason 
assigned  by  the  Roman  oratolr  for  deducing  the 
term  from  relego  is  given  in  these  words,  <  qui  au- 
tem  omnia,  quae  ad  cultum  deorom  pertinerent,  di  • 
ligenter  retractarent,  et  tanauam  relegerent,  sunt 
dicli  religiosi  ex  relegendo.^  The  reason  given 
by  Servius  for  his  derivation  of  the  word  is 
'quod  mentem  religio  religet.'  If  Cicero*s 
etjrmology  be  the  true  one,  tbe  word  religion  will 
denote  the  diligent  study  of  whatever  pertains 
to  the  worship  of  the  gods ;  but  according  to  the 
other  derivation,  which  we  prefer,  it  denotes 
that  obligation  which  we  feel  on  our  minds  from 
the  relatipn  in  which  we  stand  to  some  superior 
power.  Religion  is  sometimes  distinguished 
from  theology,  in  that  the  former  chiefly  regards 
a  number  of  practical  duties,  and  the  latter  a 
system  of  doctrinal  truths.  But  theology,  fully 
considered,  embraces  both  doctrine  and  prac- 
tice. Mankind  are  distinguished  from  the  brutal 
tribes,  and  elevated  to  a  higher  rank,  by  the 
rational  and  moral  fiicuUies  with  which  they  ate 
endowed ;  but  they  are  still  more  widely  distin- 


Eaiabed  f^m  the  inferior  creation,  and  more 
ighly  exalted  above  them,  by  being  made  capa- 
ble of  religious  notions  and  sentiments.  The 
sliglitest  knowfedge  of  history  is  suffideat  to  in- 
form us  that  religion  has  ever  had  a  powerful 
influence  in  moulding  the  sentiments  and  man- 
ners of  men.  It  has  sometimes  dignifled,  and 
sometimes  degraded,  the  human  character.  In 
one  region  or  age  it  has  been  favorable  to  civi- 
lisation and  refinement;  in  another  it  has  occa- 
sionally cramped  the  genius,  depraved  tbe 
minds,  and  deformed  the  morals  of  men.  Tbe 
varieties  of  religion  in  this  general  view  of  the 
term  are  almost  innumerable ;  and  the  members 
of  every  distinct  sect  must  view  all  who  differ 
from  them  as  more  or  less  mistaken  with  re- 
spect to  the  most  important  concerns  of  man  : 
wherever,  however,  human  society  consists,  we 
are  certain  of  finding  religious  opinions  and 
sentiments.  The  great  variety  of  religions  that 
have  been  established  among  mankind  may  be 
reduced  to  four  classes,  viz.  the  Jewish,  the 
Christian,  the  Pagan,  and  the  Mahometan. 

The  first  two  claim  our  attention  as  the  great 
divisions  of  Revoded  Theology.  See  Theology. 
The  last  two  are  treated  of  in  diis  work  under  the 
articles  Polytheism  and  Mahometan  ism. 

REUN'QUISH,  v.ii.    j     IjA,  relkupio.  To 

Relin'quishmemt,  n.  s.  3  forsake ;  abandon  ; 
leave ;  desert :  the  noun  substantive  correspond- 
ing. 

Government  or  ceremonies,  or  whatsoever  it  be 
which  is  popish,  away  with  it :  this  is  the  thing  they 
require  in  us,  the  utter  retifff  iiuAnwm  of  all  things 
popish.  Hooker.  . 

The  English  colonies  grew  poor  and  weak,  though 
the  English  lords  grew  rich  and  mighty ;  for  they 
placed  Irish  tenants  upon  the  lands  reHnqmaked  by 
the  English.  Daviet, 

The  babitation  there  was  utterly  reUnptuked. 

Abbot. 
*  The  ground  ef  God's  sole  property  in  any  thine 
is,  the  return  of  it  made  by  man  to  God  -,  by  which 
act  he  reKnfvtsftef  and  delivers  back  to  God  all  his 
right  to  the  use  of  that  thing,  which  before  had  been 
freely  granted  hnn  by  God.  Bouth'e  Sermon*. 

That  natural  tenderness  of  conscience  which 
must  first  create  in  the  soul  a  sense  of  sin,  and  from 
thence  produce  a  sorrow  for  it,  and  at  length  cause 
a  relinquuhmeni  of  it,  is  took  away  by  a  customary 
repeated  course  of  sinning.  Somih. 

RELISH,  n.  !.,!>.  a.,  &)  Fr.  f«fecA«r,  to  lick 
Rel'ishable.  [v.  ».  jl  again.  Minsheuand 
Skinner.  Taste ;  the  effect  of  any  thing  on  the 
palate ;  used  psuticularly  of  a  pleasing  taste ; 
liking ;  delight ;  sense :  to  relish  is,  to  give  a 
taste ;  to  taste ;  have  a  liking ;  have  a  pleasing 
taste  or  flavor ;  give  pleasure. 

'  The  king-becoming  graces* 
As  justice,  verity,  temperance,  stableness. 
Devotion,  patience,  courage,  fortitude ; 
I  have  no  relUh  of  them.       SAdbpearc.  MeKMh. 
I  love  the  people ; 
Though  it  do  well,  I  do  not  rdi/h  well 
Their  loud  applause.  Skahipeart, 

Had  I  been  the  nnder-out  of  this  secret,  it  would 
not  have  relished  amone  my  other  discredits.       Id, 

The  ivory  feet  of  tables  were  carved  into  the  shajpe 
of  lions,  withoQt  which,  their  greatest  dainues 
would  not  relieh  to  their  palates; 

HaHtetpiU  on  Prmfidenu. 


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REL 


Bfodi  pleasnra  we  have  lost,  while  we  ftlntained 
From  thb  delightfol  fniit»  nor  known  till  now 
Tnie  reluh,  tasting.  MiUm. 

How  will  dissenting  brethren  relish  it  1 

What  will  malignants  say  ?  Hudibras. 

Under  sharp,  sweet,  and  soor,  are  abundance  of 
immediate  peculiar  relishes  or  tastes,  which  expe- 
rienced palates  can  easily  discern.  Btjyh  on  Colours. 

On  smoaking  lard  they  dine ; 
A  sav*ry  bit  that  served  to  relish  wine.        Drvden. 

Could  we  suppose  their  reU^es  as  different  there  as 
here,  yet  the  manna  in  heaven  suits  every  palate. 

Locke, 

We  have  such  a  reUth  for  faction,  as  to  have  lost 
that  of  wit.  Adduon*t  Freeholder, 

Some  hidden  seeds  of  goodness  and  knowledge 
give  him  a  relish  of  Kuch  reflections  as  improve  the 
mind,  and  make  the  heart  better.  Additon, 

When  liberty  is  gone. 

Life  grows  insipid,  and  has  lost  its  relish.       Id, 

A  theory  which,  how  much  soever  it  may  relish  of 
vrtt  and  invention*  hath  no  foundation  in  nature. 

WoodvMtrd, 

He  knows  how  to  prim  his  advantages*  and  relish 
the  hoooun  which  he  enjoys.  AtUrbmry, 

It  prcMrvet  some  reli^  of  old  writing.     Pope, 

The  pleasure  of  the  nropnetor,  to  whom  things  be- 
come familiar,  depends,  in  a  great  measure,  upon 
the  relish  of  the  spectator.  Seed. 

\ou  are  to  nourish  your  spirit  with  pious  readings, 
and  holy  meditations,  with  watching,  fastines,  and 
prayers,  tliat  yoti  may  taste,  and  relish,  and  desire 
that  eternal  state  which  is  to  begin  when  this  life 
ends.  Law, 

Men  of  nice  palates  would  not  r^ah  Aristotle,  as 
dnai  up  by  the  schoolmen.  Baker, 

RELIVE',  V.  n.  Re  and  lire."  To  revive ;  to 
live  anew.    Not  used. 

The  thing  on  earth,  which  is  of  most  avail. 
Any  virtue^  branch  and  beauty's  bud, 
Relieen  not  from  any  good.  £jp«*iMr. 

RELOVE',  V,  a.  Re  and  love.  To  love  in 
return.    Not  used. 

To  own  for  him  so  familiar  and  levelling  an  af- 
fection as  love,  much  more  to  expect  to  be  rtloved  by 
bim,  were  not  the  least  saucy  presumption  man  could 
be  guilty  of,  did  not  his  own  commandments  make  it 
a  duty.  Boyle. 

RELU'CENT,  114;.  Lat.  relucem.  Shining ; 
tnnsparent;  pellucid. 

In  brighter  mazes,  the  reluemi  stream 

Plays  o'er  the  mead.  Thomson*s  Summer, 

RELUCT,  V.  a,  ^  Latin  rebictor.  To 
Reluct'ance,  or  struggle  again  or  hard- 
Reluc/ancy,  n. «.  I  ly  :    the  noun-substan- 


RELUCf  ANT,  adj, 

Reluct'ate,  v.  n, 
Reluct'ation,  n.  s. 


tive  means  repugnance ; 
resistance ;  unwilling- 
ness : '  reluctant ;  unvm- 


ling :  reluctate,  to  resist ;  struggle  against. 

The  king  prevailed  with  the  prince,  though  not 
without  some  reluctation.  Bacon'*  Henry  VIL 

Adam's  sin,  or  the  rurse  upon  it,  did  not' deprive 
him  o''  his  rule,  but  left  the  *reatures  to  a  rebellion 
or  rriuetatien ,  Bacmt, , 

We.  with  studied  mixtures,  force  our  rtlttetifig 
appetites,  and,  with  all  the  spells  of  epicurism,  con- 
jure them  up,  that  we  may  lay  them  again. 

Decay  of  Piety. 

In  violation  of  God's  patrimony,  the  first  sacrilege 
is  looked  upon  with  some  horrour,  and  men  devise 
colours  to  delude  their  relmctating  consciences ;  but, 
w^n  they  have  once  made  the  breach,  their  scrupu- 
losity soon  retires.  Id, 


It  savours 

Reluetamee  against  God,  and  Ms  just  yoke 

Laid  on  our  neckti.  JIfUton.  • 

Relmctnnt;  bot  in  tain !  a  greater  power 

Now  ruled  him.  Id.  Pongee  Lost. 

A  little  mere  weight  added  to  tlie  lower  of  the 
marbles,  is  able  to  surmount  their  rektetaney  to  sepa- 
ration^  notwithstanding  the  supposed  danger  of 
thereby  introducing  a  vacuum.  Boyle, 

Bear  witness,  heaven,  with  what  rduotaney 
Her  helpless  innocence  I  doom  to  die.  Dryden. 

Many  hard  stages  of  discipline  must  he  imss 
through,  before  he  can  subdue  the  rekutaneee  or  his 
corruption.  Rogert. 

How  few  would  be  at  the  pains  of  aoqoving  such 
an  habit,  and  of  conquering  all  the  reluetaneies  and 
difficulties  that  lay  in  the  way  towards  virtue. 

Atterhury. 

Some  refuge  in  the  muse's  art  I  found  -, 
Reluctant  now  I  touched  the  trembling[  string. 
Bereft  of  him  who  taught  me  how  to  sing.      Tiehel, 

If  therefore  you  find  in  yourself  a  secret  diaincli- 
hation  to  any  particular  action  or  duW,  and  the  mind 
b^ns  to  cast  about  for  excuses  ana  reasons  to  jus- 
tify the  neglect  of  it,— coniider  the  matter  well :  go 
to  the  bottom  of  that  relmiance ;  and  seareh  out 
what  it  is  that  gives  the  mind  this  aversion  to  it. 

Mason, 

RELUME',  V,  a, }     To  light  tmew ;  rekin- 
Relu'mine.         S  die. 

Once  put  out  thy  light ; 
I  know  not  where  is  that  Promethean  heat,  • 
That  can  thy  li^ht  relumine.  Shakayeare,  Othello, 
Relumine  her  ancient  light,  nor  kindle  new.   Pope, 
RELr,r.n.     J      Re    and   lie.     To  lean 
Reli'akce,  n,  i,  ]  upon  with  confidence ;   put 
trust  in;  depend  upon;  with  on ;  the  noun-sub- 
stantive corresponding. 

His  days  and  tiroes  are  past. 
And  my  reliance  on  hisfracted  dates 
Has  smit  my  credit.  Sha/upeare,  Ttmon. 

Thus  Solon  to  Pisistratus  replied. 
Demanded,  on  what  succour  he  retiied. 
When  with  so  few  he  boldly  did  engage  T 
He  said  he  took  his  courage  from  his  age. 

Denham. 
Go  in  thy  native  innocence !  rely 
On  what  thou  hast  of  virtue  ;  summon  all ! 
For  God  towards  thee  has  done  his  part,  do  thine. 

Milton, 
Egypt  does  not  on  the  clouds  rely, 
But  to  Uie  Nile  owes  more  than  to  the  sky.  Waller. 

Fear  relies  ypon  a  natural  love  of  ourselves,  and  is 
complicated  with  a  necessary  de»re  of  our  own  pre- 
servation. Tillatsim. 
Such  variety  of  arguments  only  distract  the  under- 
standing that  relies  on  them.  Locke, 

Though  reason  is  not  to  be  relied  upon  as  nniver- 
aally  sufficient  to  direct  us  what  to  do ;  vet  it  is  ge* 
nerally  to  be  relied  upon  and  obeyed,  where  it  tells 
us  what  we  are  not  to  do.  South. 

That  pellucid  gelatinous  substance,  which  he 
pitches  upon  with  so  great  reliance  and  positivene&s, 
IS  chiefly  of  animal  constitution.  Woodward. 

They  afiPorded  a  sufficient  conviction  of  this  truth, 
and  a  firm  retianee  on  the  promises  contained  in  it. 

Bagere. 
No  prince  can  ever  rely  on  the  fidelity  of  that  man 
who  is  a  rebel  to  his  Creator.  Id. 

The  pope  was  become  a  party  in  the  cause,  and 
could  not  be  reHed  upon  for  a  decision.    Atteriuey. 

Resignation  in  death,  and  r^i^n^e  on  the  divine 
mercies,  give  comfort  to  the  friends  of  the  dying. 

Clarilaa. 


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REMAINS    (ORGANIC). 


REMAIN',  0.  ft.,  V. a. 9cn,$.}     Lat. remaneo. 

Remain'der,  ndj,  &  A.  «.  )  To  be  left  out 
of  a  larger  quantity  or  number ;  continue ;  not 
to  be  comprised :  to  await;  be  left  to :  as  a  noun- 
substantive,  relic;  memento;  the  body  as  left 
by  the  soul  (generally  used  in  the  plural) :  re- 
mainder, refuse  left;  that  which  is  left;  rem- 
nant :  in  law,  the  last  chance  of  inheritance. 

Bake  that  which  ye  will  bake  to-day ;  and  that 
which  remaintth  over  lay  up  until  the  morning. 

Esedui  zvi.  23. 
That  that  remami  shall  be  buried  in  death.  * 

Job  zxvii.  15. 
If  what  yoa  have  heard  shall  remain  in  you,  ye 
shall  continue  in  the  Son.  1  Jokn  li.  24. 

Such  end  had  the  kid ;  for  he  would  weaned  be 
Of  craft,  coloured  with  simplicity  ; 
And  such  end,  pardie,  does  all  them  remain 
That  of  such  falsera  friendship  shall  be  fain. 

Spemer. 
Now  somewhat  sing,  whose  endless  souvenance 
Among  the  shepherds  may  for  aye  remain.  Id. 

A  most  miraculous  work  in  this  good  king. 
Which  often  since  my  here  remain  in  England, 
I've  seen  him  do.  Shakspeare.  Macbeth, 

His  brain 
Is  as  dry  as  iheremamder  bisket 
After  a  voyage.  Id.  At  You  lake  It. 

The  gods  protect  you. 
And  bless  the  good  remainden  of  the  court ! 

.  Shakepeare. 
Shew  us 
The  poor  remainder  of  Andronicus.  Id. 

A  fine  is  fevied  to  grant  a  reversion  or  remainder, 
eipectant  upon  a  lease  that  yieldeth  no  rent 

Baeen. 
1*  may  well  employ  the  remainder  of  their  lives  to 
perform  it  to  purpose,  I  mean  the  woik  of  evangeli- 
cal obedience.  Hammond. 

Mahomet's  crescent  by  our  feuds  eocreast, 
Blasted  the  learned  remaindert  of  the  East. 

Denham. 
The  easier  conquest  now 
Hemaint  thee,  aided  by  this  host  of  friends, 
Back  on  thy  foes  more  glorious  to  return.     Milton. 
He  for  the  time  remained  stupidly  good.  Id, 

Childless  thou  art,  childless  remain.  Id. 

There  are  two  restraints  which  God  hath  put  upon 
human  nature,  shame  and  fear ;  shame  is  the  weaser, 
and  hath  place  only  in  those  in  whom  there  are  some 
nniiaifid0rf  of  virtue.  TUlotion. 


What  madness  moves  you,  matrons,  to- destroy 
The  last  remaindert  of  unhappy  Troy  ?         Ihyden, 

That  a  father  may  have  some  power  over  his  chi^ 
dren  is  easily  granted ;  but  that  an  elder  brother  has 
so  over  his  brethren  remain*  to  be  proved.       Locke. 

Could  bare  ingratitude  have  made  any  one  so 
diabolical,  had  not  cruelty  come  in  as  a  second  te 
its  assistance,  and  cleared  the  villain's  breast  of  all 
remainden  of  humanity  T  South. 

If  he,  to  whom  ten  talents  were  committed,,  has 
squandered  away  five,  he  is  concerned  to  mak»  a 
double  improvement  of  the  Remainder.  Rogers. 

If  these  decoctions  be  repeated  till  the  water  comes 
off  clear,  the  remainder  yields  no  salt.      Arbuthnet. 

I  grieve  with  the  old,  for  so  maziy  additional  itb- 
conveniences,  more  tiian  their  small  remedn  of  Kfe 
seemed  destined  to  undergo.  Pspe. 

But  fowls  obscene  dismembered  his  remaint. 
And  dogs  hkd  torn  him.  Id.  Odjfteey. 

Of  six  millions  raised  every  year,  for  the  service  of 
the  publick,  one  third  is  intercepted  through  the 
several  suboidinations  of  artful  men  in  office,  before 
the  remainder  is  applied  to  the  proper  use.      Swi/t. 

Remainder,  in  law,  is  an  estate  limited  in 
lands,  tenements,  or  rents,  to  be  enjoyed  after 
the  expiration  of  another  particular  estate.  As 
if  a  man*  seised  in  fee  simple  grants  landa 
to  A  for  twenty  years,  and,  after  the  determina- 
tion of  the  said  term,  then  to  B  and  his  heirs  for 
ever :  here  the  former  is  tenant  for  years^  re- 
mainder to  the  latter  in  fee.  In  the  mst  place,, 
an  estate  for  years  is  created  out  of  the  fee,  and 
given  to  A,  and  the  residue  and  the  remainder 
of  it  is  given  to  B.  Both  their  interests  are  in 
fact  only  one  estate ;  the  present  term  of  years^ 
and  the  remainder  afterwards,  when  added  toge- 
ther, being  equal  only  to  one  estate  in  fee; 
Blackstone. 

The  word  remainder  is  no  term  of  art,  nor  is  it 
necessary  in  passing  a  remainder.  Any  words 
sufficient  to  fthow  the  intent  of  the  party,  will 
create  a  remainder;  because  such  estates  take 
their  denomination  of  remainder  from  the  man- 
ner of  their  existence  after  they  are  limited.  See 
Feame  on  Remainders. 

There  is  this  difference  between  a  remainder 
and  a  reversion :  in  case  of  a  reversion  the  estate 
granted,  after  the  limited  time,  reverts  to  the 
grantor  or  his  heirs ;  but  by  a  remainder  it  goes 
to  some  third  person,  or  a  stranger. 


REMAINS    (ORGANIC). 


Remains,  Oroakic.  One  of  the  first  observa- 
tions whidi  were  made  after  the  distinction  of 
rocky  masses,  in  reference  to  dieir  component 
parts,  was  the  almost  invariable  order  of  relative 
position  which  the  different  species  maintain  with 
respect  to  each  other.  Different  rocks  are  seen 
piled  upon  one  another  in  mountain  ranges ;  and, 
in  digging  into  the  depths  of  the  earth,  a  perpetual 
and  varying  succession  of  strata  is  discovered. 
But  no  change  of  place  has  been  found  between 
the  upper  and  lower  orders  of  the  series.  The 
lines  of  junction  of  the  different  species,  and  the 
strata  into  which  they  are  individually  divided, 
are  parallel  to  one  anodier.  From  hence  the 
conclusion  seems  striking ;  first,  that  their  com- 


ponent parts  must  formerly  have  been  in  a  state 
of  fluidity ;  and,  secondly,  that  the  lower  rocks 
in  position  must  have  been  the  first  in  formation 
Their  division,  therefore,  into  two  grand  classes, 
distinguished  no  less  by  their  relative  position 
than  by  the  obvious  characters  of  their  composi- 
tion, is  scientific.  A  crystalline  texture,  ana  the 
absence  of  extraneous  fossils,  mark  the  series 
which  is  lowest  in  position,  and  justify  the  name 
of  primordiid ;  while  the  earthy  composition  of 
the  higher  series,  and  the  different  bodies  which 
they  envelope,  from  fragments  of  the  preceding 
class  to  remains  of  organised  bodies,  authorise 
no  less  for  these  the  appellation  of  secondary. 
Both  these  divisions  of  n>cks  ate  traversed  by 


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fissures  nvhich  are  filled  with  matters  wholly 
foreign  to  their  constitution.  These  veins  are 
allowed  by  all  to  be  of  posterior  formation  to  the 
masses  between,  which  they  are  interposed. 
Sometimes  veins  of  different  substances  cut 
through  each  other^  and  in  this  case  it  is  obvious 
that  the  one  which  is  cut  must  have  been  of  older 
formation  than  the  one  which  traverses  it.  The 
disorder  and  various  degrees  of  inclination  of  the 
planes  of  the  strata  point  to  some  great  revolu- 
tion which  must  have  broken  their  surfiaces  by 
the  elevation  of  the  upper  or  the  depression  of 
the  lower  ridge.  Geologists  all  aeree  in  this  un- 
avoidable inference,  though  they  differ  from  each 
other  as  to  the  nature  of  the  cause. 

In  the  science  of  geology,  of  late,  observation 
has  certainly  greatly  superseded  useless  specula- 
tion, and  the  classification  of  the  different  for- 
mations of  the  earth's  surface,  the  distinction  and 
description  of  different  individuals  of  a  series,  the 
analysis  of  minerals,  and  the  investigation  of  their 
properties,  have  taken  the  place  of  useless  cavils 
about  remoter  causes.  It  is  by  such  gradual 
means  that  we  may  hope  to  penetrate  the  secrets 
.of  time ;  step  by  step  to  unravel  the  long  series 
of  past  events;  to  harmonise  philosophy  vnth 
history. 

There  is  not  a  more  interesting  or  important  de- 
partment of  this  science  than  tluit  which  involves 
the  consideration  of  organic  remains ;  vaiving  as 
much  in  regard  to  the  state  in  which  they  are 
found  as  in  their  respective  species.  Sometimes 
the  most  delicate  boaies  are  little  changed  by  the 
processes  which  they  have  undergone ;  sometimes 
they  are  completely  impregnated  with  stony  mat- 
ter; and  often  exhibit  mere  casts  of  the  original 
substance.  Uniting  perhaps  in  himself  more  ex- 
tensive knowledge  of  every  department  of  nature 
than  any  other  existing  individual,  it  has  been 
the  arduous  undertaking  of  M.  Cuvier  not  only 
to  class  the  difierent  species,  and  compare  them 
with  their  existing  analogues,  but  carefully  to  as- 
certain the  superpositions  of  the  strata  in  which 
their  remains  occur,  and  their  connexion  with 
the  different  animals  and  plants  which  they  en- 
close. 

He  has  particularly  illustrated  the  fossil  re- 
mains of  quadrupeds ;  and  the  highest  degree  of 
importance  attaches  to  this  class  of  fossils.  They 
indicate  more  clearly  than  others  the  nature  of 
the  revolutions  they  have  undergone.  The  im- 
portant hci  of  the  repeated  irruptions  of  the  sea 
upon  the  land  is  by  them  placed  oeyond  a  doubt. 
Tlie  remains  of  shells  and  of  other  bodies  of 
marine  origin  might  merely  indicate  that  the  sea 
had  once  existed  where  these  collections  are 
found.  Thousands  of  aquatic  animals  may  have 
been  left  dry  by  a  recess  of  the  waves,  while  their 
races  may  have  been  preserved  in  more  peaceful 
parts  of  the  ocean.  But  a  change  in  the  bed  of  the 
sea,  and  a  general  irruption  of  its  waters,  must 
have  destroyed  all  the  quadrupeds  within  the 
reach  of  its  influence.  Thus  entire  classes  of 
animals,  or  at  least  many  species,  must  have 
been  utterly  destroyed.  Whether  this  actually 
has  been  the  case  we  are  more  easily  able  to  deter- 
mine from  the  greater  precision  of  our  knowledge 
with  respect  to  the  quadrupeds,  and  the  smaller 
limits  of  their  number.  It  may  be  decided  at 
Vol.  XVIIT. 


once  whether  fossil  bones  belong  to  any  species 
which  still  exists,  or  to  one  that  is  lost ;  but  it  is 
impossible  to  say  whether  fossil  testaceous  ani- 
mals, although  unknown  to  the  zoologist,  may 
not  belong  to  genera  yet  undiscovered  in  the 
fathomless  depths  of  the  sea. 

This  indefatigable  observer  of  nature,  from  a 
mature  consideration  of  the  subject,  after  a  dis- 
play of  the  most  complete  knowledge  of  the  os- 
teology of  comparatrve  anatomy,  and  after  a 
learned  comparison  of  the  description  of  the  rare 
animals  of  the  ancients,  and  the  fabulous  pro- 
ducts of  their  imaginations,  draws  the  following 
instructive  conclusion : — '  None  of  the  larger 
species'  of  Quadrupeds,  whose  remains  are  now 
found  imbedded  in  regular  rocky  strata,  are  at  all 
similar  to  any  of  the  known  living  species.  This 
circumstance  is  by  no  means  the  mere  effect  of 
chance,  or  because  the  species  to  which  these 
fossil  bones  have  belonged  are  still  concealed  in 
the  desert  and  uninhabited  parts  of  the  world, 
and  have  hitherto  escaped  the  observation  of 
travellers,  but  this  astonishing  phenomenon  has 
proceeded  from  general  causes,  and  the  careful 
investigation  of  it  affords  one  of  the  best  means 
for  discovering  and  investigating  the  nature  of 
those  causes.' 

The  method  of  observation  adopted  is  suscep- 
tible, he  contends,  of  the  utmost  accuracy. 
'  Every  organised  mdividual  forms  an  entire  sys- 
tem of  its  own,  all  the  parts  of  which  mutually 
correspond  and  concur  to  produce  a  certain  defi- 
nite purpose  by  reciprocal  re-action,  or  by  com- 
bining towards  the  same  end.  Hence  none  of  these 
separate  parts  can  change  their  forms  without  a 
corresponding  change  on  the  other  parts  of  the 
same  animal,  and  consequently  each  of  these 
parts  taken  separately  indicates  all  the  other 
parts  to  which  it  has  belonged.  Thus,  if  the 
viscera  of  an  animal  are  so  organised  as  only  to 
be  fitted  for  the  digestion  of  recent  flesh,  it  is 
also  requisite  that  the  jaws  should  be  so  con- 
structed as  to  fit  them  for  devouring  their  prey  ; 
the  claws  must  be  constructed  for  seizing  and 
tearing  it  to  pieces ;  the  teeth  for  cutting  and  di- 
viding its  flesh ;  the  entne  system  of  the  limbs, 
or  organs  of  motion,  for  pursuing  and  overtaking 
it ;  and  the  organs  of  sense  for  discovering  it 
at  a  distance.  Hence  any  one  who  observes 
merely  the  print  of  a  cloven  foot,  may  conclude 
that  it  has  been  left  by  a  ruminant  animal ;  and 
regard  the  conclusion  as  equally  certain  with 
any  other  in  physics  or  in  morals.  Consequently, 
this  single  foot-mark  clearly  indicates  to  the  ob- 
server the  forms  of  the  teeUi,  of  the  jaws,  of  the 
vertebre,  of  all  the  leg  bones,  thighs,  shoulders, 
and  of  the  trunk  of  the  body  of  Use  animal  that 
left  the  mark.' 

It  is  from  this  connexion  of  all  the  different 
parts  of  an  animal  that  the  smallest  piece  of  bone 
may  become  the  sure  index  of  the  class  and 
species  of  the  animal  to  which  it  has  belonged ; 
and  it  is  from  an  indefisttigable  and  ingenious 
application  of  this  rule  that  our  author  has  been 
enabled  to  class  the  fossil  remains  of  seventy- 
eight  different  quadrupeds,  of  which  forty-nine 
are  distinct  species,  hitherto  unknown  to  na- 
turalists. The  bones  are  generally  dispersed,- 
seldom  occurring  in  complete  skeletons,  smd 

2  I 

Digitized  by  VjUU*^IC 


482 


REMAINS   (ORGANIC). 


still  more  rarely  is  the  fleshy  part  of  tlie  animal 
preserved. 

But  one  of  the  most  important  and  interest- 
ing of  the  observations  for  which  we  are  in- 
debted to  the  precision  of  the  French  naturalist 
is  the  distinction  of  two  different  formations 
amongst  secondary  strata.  These  consist  of  al- 
ternate deposits  from  salt  and  fresh  water ;  and 
are  characterised  by  the  nature  of  the  shells 
which  are  found  imbedded  in  them.  The  coun- 
try about  Paris  is  founded  upon  chalk.  This  is 
covered  with  clay  and  a  coarse  limestone,  con- 
taining marine  petrifactions.  Over  this  lies  an 
alternating  series  of  gypsum  and  day,  in  which 
occur  the  remains  of  ouadrupeds,  birds,  fish,  and 
shells,  all  of  land  or  fresh  water  species.  Aoove 
this  interesting  stratum  lie  marl  and  sandstone, 
containing  marine  shells,  which  are  covered  with 
beds  of  limestone  and  flint,  which  again  contain 
petriiacttons  of  fresh  water  remains.  The  upper 
bed  of  all  is  of  an  alluvial  nature,  in  wnich 
trunks  of  trees,  bones  of  elephants,  oxen,  and 
rein-deer,  intermingled  with  salt  water  produc- 
tions, seem  to  suggest  that  both  salt  and  fresh 
water  have  contributed  to  its  accumulation.  This 
alternate  flux  and  reflux  of  the  two  fluids  is  a 
most  extraordinary  phenomenon,  and  promises 
to  lead  to  an  important  conclusion  respecting 
the  general  theory  of  the  earth.  We  are  inclined 
to  think  that  something  analogous  to  the  process 
which  produced  these  changes  may  be  perceived 
in  operations  which  are  going  on  in  our  own 
time,  and  in  gradual  alterations  which  have  been 
eflected  t^ithin  the  memory  of  one  generation. 

The  following  extract  from  the  accurate  de- 
scriptions of  the  indefatigable  De  Luc  will  better 
explain  our  ideas.  We  have  selected  one  from 
among  many  instances  which  are  afibrded  by  an 
attentive  examination  of  our  own  coasts.  <  Slap- 
ton  Lee  occupies  the  lower  part  of  a  combe, 
which  at  first  formed  a  recess  in  the  bay,  but,  the 
sea  before  it  being  shallow,  the  waves  brought 
up  the  gravel  from  the  bottom  along  the  coast,  and 
the  beach  thus  produced  passed  at  length  quite 
across  this  recess,  which  it  closed :  since  then,  the 
iresh  water  proceeding  from  the  combe  has  almost 
entirely  displaced  the  salt  water  within  this  space, 
because  the  former  arriving  there  freely,  and 
passing  through  the  gravel  of  the  beach,  repels 
the  small  quantity  of  the  sea  water  which  filtrates 
into  it.  Slapton  Lee,  which  is  about  two  miles 
in  length  and  a  quarter  of  a  mile  in  its  g^reatest 
breadth,  is  a  little  brackish,  on  account  of  its 
communications  with  the  sea  water,  as  well 
'through  the  gravel  in  common  seasons,  as  when 
there  is  any  opening  in  the  beach ;  however,  it 
contains  fresh  water  fish,  carp,  tench,  and  pike. 
The  sediments  of  the  land  waters  are  tending  to 
fill  up  this  basis,  and  wherever  the  bottom  is 
sufficiently  raised  the  reeds  are  beginning  to 
grow.' 

Such  may  have  been  the  process  which  formed 
a  fresh  vrater  deposit  upon  a  marine  basis.  By 
extending  the  analogy  further,  we  can  have  little 
difficulty  in  conceiving  that  the  barrier  thus 
raised  by  the  action  of  the  waves  may  have  been 
easily  destroyed  again,  even  by  an  extraordinary 
exertion  of  the  same  power  which  raised  it,  or 
by  some  other  of  those  violent  revolutions  whose 


effects  are  marked  upon  the  iaoe  of  the  wMe 
earth.  Thus  a  way  was  opened  for  the  retom 
of  the  waters  of  the  ocean,  which  again  de- 
posited their  sediments  and  the  remains  of  their 
living  tribes,  and  thus  gave  rise  to  the  Qpper 
salt  water  strata.  The  same  causes  again  aetmg 
excluded  once  more  the  waves  of  the  sea,  and 
gave  time  for  the  deposit  of  the  upper  fresh 
water  formation.  Such  an  explanation  appears 
to  us  simple  and  satisfiictory.  It  accounts  for 
the  phenomena  of  nature  by  nature's  laws.  But, 
however  this  may  be,  the  sagacity  which  first 
pointed  out  the  distinction  cannot  be  too  much 
praised.  The  discovery  has  already  stimulated 
the  exertions  of  others,  and  there  is  reason  to 
suppose  that  the  phenomenon  is  not  only  not 
confined  to  the  environs  of  Paris,  but  is  of  pretty 
general  occurrence  in  secondary  countries.  A 
similar  formation  has  bedn  observed  in  the  Isle 
of  VV  ight ;  and  has  been  most  scientifically  de- 
scribed and  compared  with  the  French  strata  by  a 
member  of  the  Geological  Society. 

It  is  remarkable  that  those  coarse  limestone 
strata  which  are  chiefly  employed  at  Paris  for 
building,  are  the  last  formcKi  series  which  indi- 
cate  a  long  and  quiet  continuance  of  the  water 
of  the  sea  above  the  surface  of  the  continent. 
About  them  indeed  there  are  found  formations 
containing  abundance  of  shells  and  other  pro- 
ductions of  tlie  sea,  but  these  consist  of  aUurial 
materials,  sand,  marie,  sand-stone,  or  clay,  which 
rather  indicate  transportations  that  have  taken 
place  with  some  degree  of  violence  than  strata 
formed  by  quiet  depositions ;  and,  where  some 
regular  rocky  strata  of  inconsiderable  extent  and 
thickness  appear  above  or  below  these  alluvial 
formations,  they  generally  bear  the  marks  of 
having  been  deposited-  from  fresh  water.  All 
the  known  specimens  of  the  bones  of  viviparous 
land  quadrMjdeds  have  either  been  found  in  these 
formations  nom  fresh  water,  or  in  the  aHuvial 
formations;  whence  there  is  every  reason  to 
conclude  that  these  animals  have  only  begun  to 
exist,  or  at  least  to  leave  dieir  remains  in  the 
strata  of  our  earth  since  that  retreat  of  the  sea 
which  was  next  before  its  last  irruption.  It  has 
also  been  clearly  ascertained,  from  an  attentive 
consideration  of  the  relation  of  the  diflerent  re- 
mains with  the  strata  in  which  they  have  bem 
discovered,  that  oviparous  quadrupeds  are  foand 
in  much  older  strata  than  those  of  the  viviparous 
class.  Some  of  the  former  have  been  observed 
in  and  even  beneath  the  chalk.  Dry  land  and 
fresh  waters  o&ust  therefore  have  existed  before 
the  foundation  of  the  chalk  strata.  Mo  bones  of 
mammiferous  quadrupeds  are  to  be  found  till 
we  come  to  the  newer  formations,  which  lie  over 
the  coaise  limestone  strata  incumbent  on  the 
chalk.  Determinate  order  may  also  be  observed 
in  the  succession  of  these.  The  genera  which 
are  now  unknown  are  tiie  lowest  in  position : 
unknown  species  of  known  genera  are  next  in 
succession :  and  lastly,  the  bones  of  species,  ap- 
parently the  same  with  those  which  are  now  m 
existence,  are  never  found  but  in  the  latest  allu- 
vial depositions. 

The  more  we  learn  respecting  the  secondary 
strata  of  the  globe,  the  more  interesting  becomes 
the  investigation.    The  bold  outline  of  the  pri- 


Digitized  by  ^^JiJU*^lt: 


REMAINS    (ORGANIC). 


483 


initiTe  ranges,  their  cloud-capt  summits  and  ma- 
jestic forms,  are  calculated  to  rivet  the  attention; 
bat  they  rather  force  the  iancy  to  speculate  upon 
their  formation  than  lead  the  judgment  by  in- 
ternal evidences  to  their  origin.  It  is  in  the 
curious  observations  above  recited  that  we  seem 
to  approach  the  history  of  our  own  state.  The 
study  of  secondary  formations  is  as  yet  scarcely 
commenced.  The  labors  of  Cuvier  have 
thrown  a  new  light  upon  their  high  importance ; 
already  by  his  exertions  has  the  history  of  the 
most  recent  changes  been  ascertained,  in  one 
particular  spot,  as  far  as  the  chalk  formation. 
This,  which  has  hitherto  been  conceived  to  be  of 
very  modem  origin,  is  shown  to  have  owed  its  de- 
position to  causes  connected  with  the  revolution 
and  catastrophe  before  the  last  general  irruption 
of  the  waters  over  our  present  habitable  world. 
Our  author  well  observes  that  these  posterior 
geological  facts,  which  have  hitherto  been  neg- 
lected by  geologists,  furnish  the  only  clue  by 
which  we  may  hope,  in  some  measure,  to  dispel 
the  darkness  of  the  preceding  times.  '  It  would 
certainly  be  exceedmgly  satisfactory  to  have  the 
fossil  organic  productions  arranged  in  chronolo- 
gical oraer,  in  the  same  manner  as  we  now  have 
the  principal  mineral  substances.  By  this  the 
science  of  organization  itself  would  be  i^iproved; 
the  development  of  animal  lifie ;  the  succession 
of  its  forms ;  the  precise  determinations  of  those 
which  have  been  nrst  called  into  existence,  the 
simultaneous  production  of  certain  species  and 
their  gradual  extinction; — all  these  would  perhaps 
instruct  us  fully  as  much  in  the  essence  of  or- 
ganisation as  all  the  experiments  that  we  shall 
ever  be  able  to  make  upon  living  animals :  and 
man,  to  whom  only  a  snort  space  of  time  is  al- 
lotted upon  the  earth,  would  have  the  glory  of 
restoring  the  history  of  thousands  of  ages  which 
precede!  the  existence  of  the  race,  anid  of  thou- 
sands of  animals  which  never  were  contempora- 
neous with  his  species.' 

In  the  present  state  of  science  respecting  them 
we  cannot,  we  conceive,  assist  the  geological 
student  better  than  by  presenting  to  him  an 
ample  classification  of  existmg  oreanic  remains. 
We  depend  in  the  first  instance  largely  on  the 
abstract  of  Cuvier's  researches  furnished  in  the 
notes  of  Mr.  Jameson  to  M.  Kerr's  translation 
of  the  Essay  on  the  Earth. 

Class  I.-^MAMMALIA. 

Order  I. — Dioitata. 

Family. — GHres, 

Cewia.— The  slaty  limestone  of  Oeningen, 
near  Schaffhausen,  tdfords  remains  of  a  species 
of  this  genus.  Cuvier  conjectures  it  to  belong 
to  the  cavia  porcellus  or  Guinea  pig,  or  more 
likely  to  an  unknown  species  of  this  tribe,  or  of 
that  entitled  arvicola. 

MuSj  jnotice.— In  the  slaty  limestone  rocks  at 
Walsch,  in  the  circle  of  Saatz,  Bohemia,  there 
are  fossil  remains  of  a  species  of  this  tribe  nearly 
allied  to  the  mus  terrestris;  smaller  remains 
occur  in  alluvial  strata  at  Kostritz,  in  Germany, 
and  in  the  limestone  of  Corsica. 

L<V09iys.— Occurs  in  Bssnrw  of  the  third  se- 


condary limestone  in  the  rock  of  Gibraltar  and 
Corsica.  It  nearly  resembles  the  1.  alpinus  of 
Siberia. 

JLepus,  Aorc.— Two  species  occur  in  fissures  of 
tlie  limestone  rocks  of  Cette ;  one  of  them  bears 
a  strong  resemblance  to  the  common  rabbit,  the 
other  is  one-third  less. 

Family. — Fera 

Ursus,  6car.— -2.  U.  Spelaeus.— The  size  of  a 
horse,  and  different  from  any  of  the  present  ex- 
isting species.  2.  U'.  Arctoideus.— A  smaller 
species,  also  extinct  Both  species  are  fossil, 
and  remains  of  them  are  found  in  great 
abundance  in  limestone  caves  in  Germany  and 
Hungary.  The  caves  ?ary  much  in  magnitude 
and  form,  and  are  more  or  less  deeply  incrusted 
with  calcareous  sinter,  which  assumes  a  great 
variety  of  singular  and  often  beautiful  forms. 
The  bones  occur  nearly  in  the  same  state  in  all 
these  caves :  detached,  broken,  but  never  rolled ; 
they  are  somewhat  lighter  and  less  compact  than 
recent  bones,  but  slightly  decomposed,  contain 
much  gelatine,  and  are  never  mineralised. 
Thev  are  generally  enveloped  in  an  indurated 
earth,  which  contains  animal  matter ;  sometimes 
in  a  kind  of  alabaster  or  calcareous  sinter,  and 
by  means  of  this  mineral  are  sometimes  attached 
to  the  walls  of  the  caves.  It  is  worthy  of  re- 
mark that  these  bones  occur  in  an  extent  of  up- 
wards of  200  leagues. 

Cuvier  thinks  that  rather  more  than  three- 
fourths  of  the  bones  in  the  caves  of  Gaylen- 
reuth,  BavaHa,' belong  to  species  of  bears  now 
extinct;  one-half,  or  two-thirds  of  the  remaining 
fourth  belong  to  a  species  of  hy»na,  which  oc- 
curs in  a  fossil  state  in  other  situations.  A  very 
small  number  of  these  remains  beloug  to  a  spe- 
cies of  the  genus  lion  or  tiger ;  and  another  to 
animals  of  the  dog  or  wolf  kinds ;  and,  lastly, 
the  smallest  portion  belongs  to  different  species 
of  smaller  carnivorous  animals,  as  the  fox  and 
pole-cat.  Cuvier  is  inclined  to  conjecture  that  the 
animals  to  which  they  belonged  must  have  lived 
and  died  peaceably  on  the  spot  where  we  now  find 
them.  This  opinion  is  rendered  highly  probable 
from  the  nature  of  the  earthy  matter  in  which 
they  are  enveloped,  and  which,  according  to 
Laugher,  contains  an  intermixture  of  animal 
matter  with  phosphate  of  lime,  and  probably 
also  phosphate  of  iron.  Remains  of  tne  fossil 
bear  also  occur  in  limestone  caves  in  England. 

Canis,  hyana,  and  wolf. — Several  species  oc- 
cur in  the  caves  already  mentioned ;  one  very 
closely  resembles  the  Cape  hysna,  and  is  about 
the  size  of  a  small  brown  bear ;  another  species 
is  allied  to  the  dog  or  wolf;  and  a  thiid  species 
is  almost  identical  with  the  common  fox.  A 
fossil  species  also  resembling  the  common  fox 
has  been  found  in  the  gypsum  quarries  near 
Paris;  and  in  the  same  formation  there  are 
fossil  remains  of  a  genus  intermediate  between 
canis  and  viverra.  Remains  of  the  wolf  were 
found  at  Cannstadt  in  Germany,  along  with  those 
of  the  elephant,  rhinoceros,  hysna,  horse,  deer, 
and  hare.  In  the  alluvial  deposites  there  are  re- 
mains of  the  Imena.  Blumenbach  has  described 
the  remains  of  a  fossil  hyasna^  nearly  resemblii^ 

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the  canis  crocuta,  which  was  found  in  marl  along 
with  the  remains  of  the  lion  and  the  elephant, 
between  Osterode  and  Henberg  in  Hanover.  Pro- 
fessor Buckland's  account  of  the  Kirkdale  cave 
of  hyenas  will  be  found  in  our  article  Great 
Britain,  vol.  x.  p.*  596. 

Bones  of  hyenas  have  been  found  in  similar 
caves  in  other  parts  of  Great  Britain,  viz.  at 
Crawlv  Rocks  near  Swansea^  in  the  Mendip  Hills 
at  Clifton,  at  Wirksworth  in  Derbyshire,  and  at 
Oreston,  near  Plymouth.  In  some  of  these 
there  is  evidence  of  the  bones  having  been  in- 
troduced by  beasts  of  prey ;  but  in  that  of  Hut- 
ton  Hill,  in  the  Mendips,  which  contains  rolled 
stones,  it  is  probable  they  were  washed  in. 

FeUs,  tiger. — One  species  occurs  in  the 
limestone  caves  of  Germany,  and  appears  to  be 
nearly  allied  to  the  jaguar;  another  species, 
nearly  allied  to  the  tiger,  is  found  in  alluvial  soil 
along  with  fossil  remains  of  the  elephant,  rhino- 
ceros, hyena,  and  mastodon. 

Vwerray  weauL — ^Two  species  occur  in  the 
German  limestone  caves ;  the  one  is  allied  to  the 
common  pole-cat,  and  the  other  to  the  zorille,  a 
pole-cat  belonging  to  the  cape  of  Good  Hope. 
Another  species  allied  to  the  ichneumon,  but 
double  its  size,  occurs  in  the  g3rpsum  quarries 
around  Paris. 

Family. — BrtUa. 

Bradypui,  $loth, — ^Two  fossil  species  have 
been  described,  which  are  neariy  allied  not  only 
to  the  two  living  species,  but  also  to  the  myrme- 
cophaga,  or  ant  eater.  They  are  the  4bllowin^ : — 
1.  Megalonix. — ^This  remarkable  fossil  animal 
appears  to  have  been  the  size  of  an  ox.  Its  re- 
mains were  first  discovered  in  limestone  caves  in 
Virginia  in  the  year  1796.  2.  Megatherium. 
— ^This  species  is  the  size  of  the  rhinoceros,  and 
its  fossil  remains  have  hitherto  been  found  only 
in  South  America.  The  first,  and  most  complete 
skeleton,  was  sent  from  Buenos  Ayres  by  the 
marquis  Loretto,  in  the  year  1789.  It  was  found 
in  digging  an  alluvial  soil,  on  the  banks  of  the 
river  Luxan,  a  league  south-east  of  the  village  of 
that  name,  about  three  leagues  W.  S.  W.  of 
Buenos  Ayres.  Plate  I.  fig.  1,  %emaiiis.  Or- 
ganic, g^ves  a  faithful  representation  of  this  re- 
markable skeleton,  whicn  is  now  preserved  in 
the  Royal  Cabinet  of  Madrid.  A  second  skele- 
ton of  the  same  animal  was  sent  to  Madrid  from 
Lima,  in  the  year  1795;  and  a  third  was  found 
in  Paraguay.  Thus  it  appears  that  the  remains 
of  this  animal  exist  in  the  most  distant  parts  of 
South  America.  It  is  very  closely  allied  to  the 
megalonix,  and  differs  from  it  principally  in  size, 
being  much  larger.  Cuvier  is  of  opinion  that 
the  two  species,  the  megalonix  and  megatherium, 
may  be  placed  together,  as  members  of  the  same 
genus,  and  should  be  placed  between  the  sloths 
and  ant-eaters,  but  nearer  to  the  former  than  to 
the  latter.  It  is  worthy  of  remark  that  the  re- 
mains of  these  animals  have  not  been  hitherto 
found  in  any  other  quarter  of  the  globe  besides 
America,  the  only  existing  country  which  affords 
tiem. 

Order  II. — ^Marsupiaua. 

Didelphiif  opossum, — One  species  of  this  ex- 
aaordinary  tribe  has  been  found  in  a  fossil  state 
in  the  gypsum  quarries  near  Paris.    It  does  not 


belong  to  any  of  the  present  existing  species,  and 
is  therefore  considered  as  extinct.  Cuvier  re- 
marks that,  as  all  the  species  of  this  genus  are 
natives  of  America,  it  is  evident  that  the  bypo> 
thesis  advanced  by  some  naturalists,  of  all  the 
fossil  organic  remains  of  quadrupeds  having 
been  flooded  from  Asia  to  northern  countries,  is 
erroneous. 

Order  III. — Soudumgula. 

"E^um  adamaticus,  eqnus  caballus? — Fossil 
teeth  of  a  species  of  horse  are  found  in  all  a  vial 
soils  associated  with  those  of  the  elephant,  rhino- 
ceros, hyena,  mastodon,  and  tiger  ?  These  teeth 
are  larger  than  those  of  the  present  horse,  and  lo 
all  appearance  belong  to  a  different  species  which 
inhabited  the  countries  where  they  are  now 
found,  as  Great  Britain,  along  with  elephants, 
rhinoceroses,  &c. 

Order  IV. — Bisulca. 

Cenmt,  deer. — 1.  FostUelkqf  Ireland. — This 
the  most  celebrated  of  all  the  fossil  ruminating 
animals,  is  certainly  of  a  different  species  from 
any  of  those  that  at  present  live  on  the  earth's 
surface,  and  may  therefore  be  considered  as  ex- 
tinct. It  was  first  found  in  Ireland,  where  it  ge- 
nerally occurs  in  shell  marl  and  in  peat-bc^. 
It  has  also  been  found  in  superficial  alluvial  soil 
in  England,  Germany,  and  France. 

In  plate  I.  fig.  2,  we  have  given  a  drawing  of 
the  head  and  horns  of  this  animal.  It  was  dm 
out  of  a  marl  pit  at  Dardisdoun,  near  Drogheda, 
in  Ireland.  Dr.  Molyneux,  in  ibe  Philosophical 
Transactions,  informs  us  that  its  dimensions  were 
as  follows : — 

Ft.  In. 
From  the  extreme  tip  of  each 

horn    .  ;        .        .  a.  b.    10    10 

From  the  tip  of  the  right  horn 

to  its  root    .        .        .        .  c.  d.      5      2 
From  the  tip  of  one  of  the  inner 

branches  to  the  tip  of  the  op- 
posite branch  .        .  e.  f.      3      7^ 
The  length  of  one  of  the  palms, 

within  the  branches      .        •  g.  h.      2      6 
The  breadth  of  the  palm,  within 

the  branches  .  .  .  i.  k.  1  10^ 
The  length  of  the  right  brow 

antler d.  1.      1      2 

The  beam  of  each  horn  at  some 

distance  from  the  head,   in 

diameter  .  .    m.        0     2j^ 

in  circumference,        .       0      8 
The  beam  of  each  horn,  at  its 

root,  in  circumference  .        .      d.       0    11 
The  length  of  the  head,  from 

the  back  of  the  skull  to  the 

extremity  of  the  upper  jaw,     n.  o.      2      0 
Breadth  of  the  skull  •  P-  q-      1      0 

We  saw  a  fine  specimen  of  the  horns  of  this 
animal  in  the  summer  of  1828  at  Knole,  the  seat 
of  the  duke  of  Dorset  It  is  exalted  among  the 
trophies  of  the  chase  in  the  hall  of  his  grace, 
but  not  claiming  we  suppose  to  have  been  hunted 
by  a  duke  of  Dorset  A  splendid  and  nearly 
perfect  skeleton  of  this  animal  has  been  lately 
dug  out  of  a  marl  pit  in  the  Isle  of  Man,  and  is 
now  preserved  in  the  Regium  Museum  of  Edin- 
burgh. 

2.  FoitU  deer  of  Scania,— Found  in  a  peat- 
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REMAINS    (ORGANIC). 


moss  in  Scania.  It  appears  from  the  descrip- 
tioQ  of  the  horns  to  be  an  extinct,  or  at  least,  an 
unknown  species. 

3.  FoMsit  deer  of  Samnie,^-The  horns,  the 
only  parts  hitherto  discovered,  show  that  this 
animal,  although  nearly  allied  to  the  fallow-deer, 
must  have  been  much  larger  than  the  fallow- 
deer.  The  horns  occur  in  loose  sand  in  the  val- 
ley of  Somme  in  France,  and  in  Germany. 

4.  Fossil  deer  of  Etampes. — ^Allied  to  the  rein- 
deer, but  much  smaller,  not  exceeding  the  roe  in 
size.  The  bones  were  found  in  abundance  near 
Etampes  in  France,  imbedded  in  sand. 

5.  JPosfi/  roe  of  OrUam, — ^Found  in  the  vici- 
nity of  Orleans.  It  occurs  in  limestone,  along 
with  bones  of  the  palseotherium.  It  is  the  only 
instance  known  of  the  remains  of  a  living  spe- 
cies having  been  found  along  with  those  of  ex- 
tinct species.  But  Cuvier  enquires,  May  not 
the  bones  belong  to  a  species  of  roe,  of  which 
the  distinctive  characters  lie  in  parts  hitherto  un- 
discovered ? 

6.  Fouil  roe  of  iSofiwie.— Verv  nearly  allied 
to  the  roe.     Found  in  the  peat  of  Somme. 

7.  FossU  red  deer  or  stag. — Resembling  the 
red  deer  or  stag.  Its  horns  are  found  in  peat- 
bogs, or  sand  pits  in  Scotland,  England,  France, 
Germany,  and  Italy. 

8.  FossU fallaw  deer, — ^Found  in  ptot-bogs  and 
marl  pits  in  Scotland  and  France. 

BoSy  ox  A — 1.  Aurochs, — Cuvier  considers  this 
as  distinct  from  the  common  ox,  and  it  differs 
from  the  present  varieties  in  being  larger.  Skulls 
and  horns  of  this  species  have  been  found  in  al- 
luvial soil  in  England,  Scotland,  France,  Ger- 
many, and  America. 

2.  Common  ox. — ^The  skulls  of  this  species 
also  differ  from  those  of  the  present  existing 
races,  in  beine  larger,  and  the  direction  of  the 
horns  being  different.  They  occur  in  alluvial 
soil  in  many  different  parts  of  Europe,  and  are 
considered  by  Cuvier  as  belonging  to  the  original 
race  of  the  present  domestic  ox. 

3.  Large  buffalo  of  5i6cria.— The  skull  of  this 
animal  is  of  great  size,  and  appears  to  belong  to 
a  species  not  at  present  known.  It  is  not  the 
common  buffalo,  nor  can  it  be  identified  with  the 
large  builalo  of  India,  named  amee.  Cuvier 
conjectures  that  it  roust  have  lived  at  the  same 
time  vrith  the  fossil  elephant  and  rhinoceros,  in 
the  frozen  regions  of  Siberia. 

4.  Posit'/  ox,  resembling  the  musk  ox  of  AmC' 
rica.>-More  nearly  resembling  the  American 
musk  ox  than  any  other  species,  and  have  hi- 
therto been  found  only  in  Siberia. 

These  fossil  remains  of  deer  and  oxen  may 
be  distinguished  into  two  classes,  the  unknown 
and  the  known  ruminants.  In  the  first  class 
Cuvier  places  the  Irish  elk,  the  small  deer  of 
Etampes,  the  stag  of  Scania,  and  the  great 
buffalo  of  Siberia ;  in  the  second  class  he  places 
the  common  stag,  the  common  roe-buck,  the 
fallow  deer,  the  aurochs,  the  ox  which  seems  to 
have  been  the  original  of  the  domestic  ox,  the 
buffalo  with  approximated  horns,  which  appears 
to  be  analogous  to  the  musk  ox  of  Canada ;  and 
there  remains  a  dubious  species,  the  great  deer 
of  Somme,  which  muph  resembles  the  common 
fallow-deer. 


486 

*  From  what  has  been  ascertained  in  regard  to 
the  strata,'  says  Mr.  Jameson,  in  which  these  re- 
mains have  been  found,  it  would  appear  that  the 
known  species  are  contained  in  newer  beds  than 
the  unknown.  Further,  ^at  the  fossil  remains 
of  the  known  species  are  those  of  animals  of 
the  climate  where  they  are  now  found :  thus  the 
stag,  ox,  aurochs,  roe-deer,  fallow  deer,  now 
dwell,«and  have  always  dwelt, in  cold  countries; 
whereas  the  species  which  are  regarded  as  un- 
known appear  to  be  analogous  to  those  of  warm 
countries:  thus  the  great  buffalo  of  Siberia  can 
only  be  compared  with  the  buffalo  of  India,  the 
amee.  M.  Cuvier  concludes  that  the  facts  hi- 
therto collected  seem  to  announce,  at  least  as 
plainly  as  such  imperfect  documents  can,  that  the 
two  sorts  of  fossil  ruminants  belong  to  two 
orders  of  alluvial  deposites,  and  consequently  to 
two  different  geological  epochas;  that  the  one 
have  been,  and  are  now,  daily  becoming  enve- 
loped in  alluvial  matter;  whereas,  the  others 
have  been  the  victims  of  the  same  revolution 
which  destroyed  the  oUier  species  of  the  alluvial 
strata;  such  as  mammoths,  mastodons,  and  all 
the  multungula,  the  genera  of  which  now  exist 
only  in  the  torrid  zone. 

Order  V.— Multunoula. 

Rhinoceros  antiguitatis, — Only  one  fossil  spe- 
cies has  hitherto  been  discovered,  which  diners 
from  the  five  living  species,  not  only  in  structure, 
but  in  geographical  distribution.  It  was  first 
noticed  in  the  time  of  Grew,  in  alluvial  soil  near 
Canterbury.  Sir  E.  Hone  describes,  in  the  Phi- 
losophical Transactions  for  181 7,  a  nearly  perfect 
heaa  of  this  species,  which  was  found  in  a  cave 
in  limestone,  near  Plymouth.  Similar  remains 
have  been  found  in  many  places  of  Germany, 
France,  and  Italy.  In  Siberia,  not  only  single 
bones  and  skulls,  but  the  whole  animal,  with  the 
flesh  and  skin,  have  been  discovered. 

Hippopolamus.^T'wo  fossil  species^  have  been 
ascertained  by  Cuvier.  The  one,  which  is  the 
largest,  is  so  very  nearly  allied  to  the  species  at 
present  living  on  the  surface*  of  the  eartn,  that  it 
IS  difficult  to  determine  whether  or  no  it  is  not 
the  same.  Its  fossil  remains  have  been  found  in 
alluvial  soil  in  France  and  Italy.  The  second 
fossil  species,  and  the  smallest,  not  being  larger 
than  a  nog,  is  well  characterised,  and  is  entirely 
different  from  any  of  the  existing  species  of 
quadrupeds. 

Tapir. — The  tapir,  until  lately,  was  considered 
as  an  animal  peculiar  to  the  new  world,  and  con- 
fined to  South  America;  but  the  recent  disco- 
very of  a  new  species  in  Sumatra  proves  that  it 
also  occurs  in  the  old  world.  Two  fossil  spe- 
cies of  this  genus  have  been  discovered  in  Eu- 
rope. The  one  is  named  the  small,  the  other 
the  gigantic  tapir,  and  both  have  been  found  in 
different  parts  of  France,  Germany,  and  Italy. 

Elephas  jubatus,  or  primigenus,  elephant  or 
mammoth. — Of  this  genus  two  species  are  at  pre- 
sent known  as  inhabitants  of  the  earth.  The 
one,  which  is  confined  to  Africa,  is  named  the 
African  elephant ;  the  other,  which  is  a  native  of 
Asia,  is  named  the  Asiatic  elephant.  Only  one 
fossil  species  has  hitherto  been  discovered.  It 
is  the  mammoth  of  the  Russians.    It  differs  firom 


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both  the  existing  species,  but  agrees  more  nearly 
with  the  Asiatic  than  the  African  species,  it 
appears  to  have  been  clothed  in  fur,  and  provided 
with  a  mane.  Its  bones  have  been  found  in  many 
different  parts  of  this  island;  as  in  the  alluvial 
soil  around  Loudon,  in  the>  county  of  Northamp- 
ton, at  Gloucester,  at  Trenton,  near  Stafford,  near 
Harwich,  at  Norwich,  in  the  island  of  Sheppy, 
in  the  river  Medway,  in  Salisbury  Plain,  and  in 
Flintshire  in  Wales ;  and  similar  remains  have 
been  dug  up  in  the  north  of  Ireland.  Bones  of 
this  animal  have  been  dug  up  in  Sweden,  and 
Cuvier  conjectures  that  the  bones  of  supposed 
giants,  mentioned  by  the  celebrated  bishop  Pon- 
toppidan  as  having  been  found  in  Norway,  are 
remains  of  the  fossil  elephant.  Torfeus  men- 
tions a  head  and  tooth  of  this  animal  dug  up  in 
the  island  of  Iceland.  In  Russia,  in  Europe, 
Poland,  Germany,  France,  Holland,  and  Hun- 
gary, teeth  and  bones  of  this  species  of  ele- 
phant have  been  found  in  abundance.  Hum- 
Doldt  found  teeth  of  this  animal  in  North  and 
South  America.  But  it  is  in  Asiatic  Russia  that 
they  occur  in  greatest  abundance.  Pallas  says, 
that  from  the  Don  or  the  Tanais  to  Tichutskoi- 
noss,  there  is  scarcely  a  river  the  bank  of  which 
does  not  afford  remains  of  the  mammoth;  and 
these  are  frequently  Imbedded  in,  or  covered 
with  alluvial  soil  containing  marine  productions. 
The  bones  are  generally  dispersed,  seldom  oc- 
curing  in  complete  skeletons,  and  still  more 
rarely  do  we  find  the  fleshy  part  of  the  animal 
preserved.  One  of  the  most  interesting  in- 
stances on  record  of  the  preservation  of  the  car- 
case of  this  animal  is  thus  given  by  M.  Cu- 
vier : — 

*  In  the  year  1799,  a  Tungusian  fisherman 
observed  a  strange  shapeless  mass  projecting 
from  an  ice-bank,  near  the  mouth  of  a  river  in 
(he  north  of  Siberia,  the  nature  of  which  he  did 
not  understand,  and  which  was  so  high  in  the 
bank  as  to  be  beyond  his  reach.  He  next  year 
observed  the  same  object,  which  was  then  rather 
more  disengaged  from  among  the  ice,  but  was  still 
unable  to  conceive  what  it  was.  Towards  the  end 
of  the  following  summer,  1801,  he  could  dis- 
tinctly see  that  it  was  the  frozen  carcase  of  an 
enormous  animal,  the  entire  flank  of  which,  and 
one  of  its  tusks,  had  become  disengaged  from 
the  ice.  In  consequence  of  the  ice  beginning  to 
melt  earlier,  and  to  a  greater  degree  than  usual 
in  1803,  the  fifth  year  of  this  discovery,  the 
enormous  carcase  became  entirely  disengaged, 
and  fell  dow  from  the  ice  craig  on  a  sand-bank 
forming  part  of  the  coast  of  the  Arctic  Ocean. 
In  the  month  of  March  of  that  year  the  Tun- 
gusian carried  away  the  two  tusks,  which  he  sold 
for  the  value  of  fifty  rubles;  and  at  this  time  a 
drawing  was  made  of  the  animal  of  which  I 
possess  a  copy. 

*  Two  years  afterwards,  or  in  1806,  Mr. 
Adams  went  to  examine  this  animal,  which  still 
remained  on  the  sand  bank  where  it  had  fellen 
from  the  ice,  but  its  body  vras  then  greatly  mu- 
tilated. The  Jukuts  of  the  neighbourhood  had 
taken  aN>vay  considerable  quantities  of  its  flesh 
to  feed  their  dogs ;  and  the  wild  animals,  parti- 
cularly the  white  bears,  had  also  feasted  on  the 
carcase ;  yet  the  skeleton  remained  quite  entire. 


except  that  one  of  the  fore  legs  was  gone.  The 
entire  spine,  the  pelvis,  one  shoulder-blade,  and 
three  legs,  were  still  held  together  by  their  liga- 
ments, and  by  some  remains  of  the  skin ;  and 
the  other  shoulder-blade  was  found  at  a  short 
distance.  The  head  remained,  covered  by  the 
dried  skin,  and  the  pupil  of  the  eye  was  still 
distinguishable.  The  brain  also  remained  withm 
the  skull,  but  a  good  deal  shrunk  and  dried  up ; 
and  one  of  the  ears  was  in  excellent  preserva- 
tion, still  retaining  a  tuft  of  strong  bri:»tly  hair. 
The  upper  lip  was  a  good  deal  eaten  away,  and 
the  under  lip  was  entirely  gone,  so  tliat  the  teeth 
were  distinctly  seen.  The  animal  was  a  male, 
and  had  a  long  mane  on  iti  neck. 

'The  skin  was  extremely  thick  and  heavy, 
and  as  much  of  it  remained  as  required  the  ex- 
ertions of  ten  men  to  carry  away,  which  they 
did  with  considerable  difficulty.  More  than 
thirty  pounds  weiglrt  of  the  hair  and  bristles  of 
this  animal  were  gathered  from  the  wet  sand- 
bank, having  been  trampled  into  the  mud  by  the 
white  bears  while  devouring  the  carcase.  Some 
of  the  hair  was  presented  to  our  Museum  of 
Natural  History  by  M.  Targe,  censor  in  the  Ly- 
ceum of  Charlemagne.  It  consists  of  three  dis- 
tinct kinds.  One  of  these  is  stiff  black  bristles, 
a  foot  or  more  in  length;  another  is  thinner 
bristles,  or  coarse  flexible  hair,  of  a  reddish- 
brown  color ;  and  the  third  is  a  coarse  reddish- 
brown  wool,  which  grew  among  the  roots  of  the 
long  hair.  These  afford  an  undeniable  proof 
that  this  animal  had  belonged  to  a  race  of  ele- 
phants inhabiting  a  cold  region,  with  which  we 
are  now  unacquainted,  and  by  no  means  fitted  to 
dwell  in  the  torrid  zone.  It  is  also  evident  that 
this  enormous  animal  must  have  been  frozen  up  by 
the  ice  at  the  moment  of  its  death.  Mr.  Adams, 
who  bestowed  the  utmost  care  in  collecting  all 
the  parts  of  this  animal,  proposes  to  publish  an 
exact  account  of  its  osteology,  whicn  must  be 
an  exceedingly  valuable  present  to  the  philoso- 

Shical  world.  In  the  mean  time,  from  the 
rawing  I  have  now  before  me,  I  have  every 
reason  to  believe  that  the  sockets  of  the  teeth  of 
this  northern  elephant  have  the  same  propor- 
tional lengths  with  those  of  other  fossil  ele- 
phants, of  which  the  entire  skulls  have  been 
round  in  other  places.' 

Sus  froamtutj  hog, — Only  single  bones  and 
teeth  or  this  tribe  have  been  hitherto  met  with ; 
some  of  these  appear  to  belong  to  the  sus  scrofa, 
or  common  hog;  while  others  are  of  a  dubious 
nature.  They  are  found  in  loam,  along  with  the 
remains  of  the  elephant  and  rhinoceros,  and  even 
imbedded  in  peat  mosses. 

Mastodon.  Mammoth  of  Blumenbach, — This 
is  entirely  a  fossil  genus,  no  living  species  hav- 
ing hitherto  been  discovered  in  any  part  of  the 
world.  It  is  more  nearly  allied  to  the  elephant 
than  to  any  other  animal  of  the  present  creation; 
it  appears  to  have  been  an  herbivorous  animal ; 
and  the  largest  species,  the  great  mastodon  of 
Covier,  was  equal  in  size  to  the  elephant. 

Five  species  are  described  by  Cuvier.  1. 
Great  mastodon,  mammoth  ohioticum  of  Blu- 
raenbach. — ^This  species  has  been  hitherto  found 
in  greatest  abundance  in  North  America,  near  the 
river  Ohio,  and  remains  of  it  have  been  dug  up 

Digitized  by  VjUUy  IC 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


H^4^9.Vol2e. 


REM  Ai:^S  ((DR(BAI^I€) 


Fie  2, 

OrnjtOwcephabu  Ztm^wosirU. 


PLATE  M. 


n^.t. 


hreiravit&it . 


Ikff^SO^. 


London.  fultUthed  hv Thonuis Tm^ . 


,g.  73.a^id..  j«m^Bmi  ^O^S-sto 


.Slmry  scnlp. 


REMAINS  (ORGANIC). 


487 


in  Siberia.  It  lias  been  frequently  confounded 
with  the  mammoth  or  fossil  elephant,  and  in 
North  America  it  is  named  mammoth.  In  plate 
II.  we  have  xiven  an  engrraving  of  one  or  the 
grinding  teeth  of  this  animal.  2.  Mastodon 
with  narrow  grinders. — The  fossil  remains  of 
this  species  have  been  dng  up  at  Simorre  and 
many  other  places  in  Europe,  and  also  in  Ame- 
rica. 3.  Little  mastodon  with  small  grmders.— 
This  species  is  much  less  than  the  preceding, 
and  was  found  in  Saxony  and  Montabusard.  4. 
Mastodon  of  the  cordilleras. — This  species  was 
discovered  in  South  America  by  Humboldt.  Its 
grinders  are  square,  and  it  appears  to  have 
equalled  in  size  the  great  mastodon.  5.  Ilum- 
boldien  mastodon. — This,  which  is  the  smallest 
species  of  the  genus,  was  found  in  America  by 
Humboldt. 

All  the  fossil  species  of  quadrupeds  we  have 
just  enumerated  have  been  found  in  the  alluvial 
soil  which  covers  the  bottoms  of  valleys,  or  is 
spread  over  the  surface,  of  plains.  All  of  them 
are  strangers  to  the  climate  where  these  bones 
now  rest 

FaUeotheriuniy  i.  e.  ancient  large  animal  or 
beast.  A  new  and  entirely  fo&sil  genus  found 
by  Cuvier  in  the  rocks  around  Paris.  The  fol- 
lowing are  the  characters  of  the  genus  and  the 
species : — 

Dentes  44.    Primores  utrinque  6. 
Laniarii  4,  acuminati  paulo  longiores,  tecti. 
Molares  28,  utrinque  7.     Superiores  quadrati; 

inferiores  bilunati. 
Nasus  productior,  llexilis. 
Palmae  et  plants  tradactylae. 

1.  P.  Magnum.    StaturaEqui. 

2.  P.  Medium.    Scatura  Suis ;  pedibus  strictis, 
subelongatis. 

3.  P.  Crassum.      Statura  Suis;   pedibus   latis, 
brevioribus. 

4.  P.  Curtum.    Pedibus  ecurtatis  patulis. 

5.  P.  Minus.    Statura  Ovis;  pedibus  strictis, 
digitis  lateralibus  minoribus. 

Besides  these  five  species  found  in  the  gyp- 
sum quarries  around  Paris,  remains  of  others 
have  been  discovered  in  oH)er  parts  of  France, 
either  imbedded  in  the  fresh-water  limestone,  or 
in  alluvial  soil.  Cuvier  enumerates  and  describes 
the  following  species : — 

6.  P.  Giganteum.    Statura  rhinocerolis. 

7.  P.  Tapiroides.    Statura  bovis ;  molarium  in- 
feriorum  colliculis  fore  rectis,  trans-vwrsis. 

8.  P.  Buxovillanum.    Statura  suis;  molaribus 
inferioribus  extus  sub  g^ibbosis. 

9.  P.  Aurelianensi.     Statura  suis;  molarium in- 
feriorum  angulo  inter  medio  bicorni. 

10.  P.  Occitanum.    Statura  ovis;  molarium  in- 
feriorum  angulo  intermedin  bicorni. 
Anopiotherium,  i.  e.  beast  without  weapons, 

referring  to  it^  distinguishing  character,  the  want 
of  canme  teeth.  This  also  is  another  fossil  ge- 
nus first  discovered  by  Cuvier.  The  following 
are  its  characters : — 

Dentes  44,  seria  continua. 
Primores  utrinque  6. 

Laniarii  primoribus  similes,  ceteris  non  lon- 
giores. 


Molares  28,  utrinques  7.    Anteriores  compress!. 

Posteriores  superiores  quadrati.     Inferiores 

bilunati. 
Palms  et  plant®  didactylte,  ossibus  metacarpi  et 

metatarsi  discretis ;  digitis  accessoriis  in  qui- 

busdam. 

1.  A.  Commune.    Digito  accessorio  duplo  bre- 

yiori,  in  palmis  tantum ;  cauda  corporis 

longitudine  crassissima. 
Magnitude  asini  aut  equi  minoris. 
Habitus  elongatus  et  depressus  lutre. 
Versimiliter  natatorius. 

2.  A.  Secundarium.'      Similis   praecedenti,  sed 

statura  suis.   £  tibia  et  molaribus  aliquot 
cognitum. 

3.  A.  Medium.      Pedibus  elongatis,  digitis,  ac- 

cessoriis nuUis. 
^lagnitudo  et  habitus  elegans  Gazellae. 

4.  A.  Minus.     Dinito  accessorio  utrinque,  in 

palmis  et  planti?,   intermedios  fere  se- 
quante. 
Magnitude  et  habitus  lepo'ris. 

5.  A.  ^finimum.    Statura  ca viae  cobayaey  e  max- 

illa tantum  cognitum. 
Habitatio   omnium,  olim  in  regione   ubi 
nunc  Lutetia  Parisiorum. 

Order  VI. — Palmata. 

Family.  Glires. 
CastoTf  beaver, — ^Two  species  are  found  in  al- 
luvial soil  of  different  kinds : — the  one,  which 
is  the  castor  fiber,  or  common  beaver,  has  been 
found  in  marl  pits  and  peat  bog,  in  Perthshire 
and  Berwickshire,  in  Scotland,  and  also  in 
France ;  the  other  (on  the  shores  of  the  sea  of 
Azof  by  M.  Fischer)  differs  from  the  former, 
and  is  named  castor  trogontherium. 

Family.     Fera. 

Pkoca,  seal.— A  species  of  seal  neariy  three 
times  the  size  of  the  common  seal,  or  phoca  vi- 
tulina,  has  been  found  in  the  coarse  marine  lime- 
stone of  the  department  of  the  Maine  and 
Loire.  Another  species  of  this  genus,  but  some- 
what less  than  the  common,  is  also  described  by 
Cuvier. 

Family.     Bruta* 

Lamantin. — ^Two  species  have  been  found  im- 
bedded in  the  coarse  marine  limestone  of  the  de- 
partment of  the  Maine  and  Loire. 

Class  II.— AVES. 

Stumusy  starling. — Occurring  in  the  formations 
around  Paris. 

Cotumix,  quail. — Bones  of  this  tribe  have  been 
also  found  in  the  strata  near  Paris. 

Sterna,  tern. — Bones  of  terns  are  occasionally 
found  along  with  those  of  the  quail. 

Gratia,  waddcrs.'—Bonts  of  birds  resembling 
those  of  the  order  grallae  have  been  found  near 
Paris  in  the  solid  rocks. 

Felicanui  /^e/iffln.— Bones  resembling  those  of 
the  pelican  tribe  occur  in  the  Paris  formations. 
Fossil  remains  of  birds  are  also  said  to  have  oc- 
curred in  the  limestone  of  Solenhoff  and  Pappen- 
lieim. 


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488 


REMAINS   (ORGANIC). 


Class  111.- AMPHIBIA. 
Order. — Reptilia. 


Tetttido,  tortoue. — Remains  of  this  genus  are 
met  with  in  different  parts  of  Europe ;  and  tor- 
toises, of  unknown  species,  are  found  imbedded 
in  coarse  marine  limestone  in  the  environs  of 
Brussels :  also  in  the  coarse  chalk  or  limestone 
of  the  hill  of  Saint  Peter,  near  Maestricht.  They 
are  irregularly  distributed  throughout  the  masses 
of  the  rock,  along  with  different  marine  produc- 
tions, and  bones  of  the  gigantic  monitor.  All 
of  them  are  remains  of  sea-tortoises,  named 
chelonii  by  French  zoologists ;  but  of  different 
species  from  those  at  present  known.  An  un- 
known species  of  tortoise  has  been  found  in  the 
limestone  slate  of  Claris;  and  remains  of  unknown 
species  have  been  dug  out  of  the  rocks  of  the  vi* 
cmity  of  Aix.  Fossil  f^esh-water  species  hare 
also  been  found  in  the  gypsum  quarries  near 
Paris. 

Crocodilusj  crocodile.'—'Tvro  extinct  species  of 
fossil  crocodiles,  nearly  allied  to  the  gavial 
(Lat.  f^ngeticus),  or  gangetic  crocodile,  occur 
in  a  pyritical  bluish-gray  compact  limestone,  at 
the  bottom  of  the  cliffs  of  Honfleur  and  Havre  : 
one  of  these  species  at  least  is  found  in  other 
parts  of  France.  It  would  also  appear  that  the 
skeleton  of  a  crocodile,  discovered  at  the  bottom 
of  a  cliff  of  pyritical  slate,  about  half  a  mile 
from  Whitby,  by  captain  William  Chapman,  be- 
longs to  one  of  these  species.  Fragments  of 
heads  of  crocodiles  found  in  the  Vicentine  may 
be  referred  to  the  same  species.  The  remains  of 
an  unknown  species  of  fossil  crocodile  was  found 
near  Newark,  in  Nottinghamshire,  by  Dr.  Stukely. 
The  supposed  crocodiles  found  along  with  fish 
in  the  copper  slate,  or  bituminous  marl  slate,  of 
Thuringia,  are  reptiles  of  the  genus  monitor.  All 
these  fossil  remains  of  oviparous  quadrupeds 
I  elong  to  old  flcetz  strata,  fiir  older  than  the 
flcetz  rocks  that  contain  unknown  genera  of  true 
quadrupeds,  such  as  the  palsotheriums  and  ano- 
plotheitums ;  which  opinion,  however,  does  not 
oppose  the  finding  of  the  remains  of  croco- 
diles with  those  of  these  genera,  as  has  been  done 
in  the  gypsum  quarries. 

Monitor, — In  the  quarries  of  Maestricht  there 
occur  remains  of  a  large  fossil  monitor.  This, 
which  is  one  of  the  most  celebrated  of  all  the 
fossil  species  of  oviparous  quadrupeds,  occurs 
in  a  soft  limestone  which  contains  flint,  and  the 
same  kinds  of  petrifications  as  are  observed  in 
the  chalk  near  Paris.  It  had  engaged  the  atten- 
tion of  enquirers  in  1766,  and  up  to  the  present 
day  has  not  ceased  to  be  an  object  of  discussion 
and  investigation.  Some  have  described  it  as  a 
crocodile,  others  as  a  whale ;  and  it  has  even  been 
arranged  along  with  fishes.  Cuvier,  after  a 
careful  study  of  its  osteology,  ascertained  that  it 
must  have  formed  an  intermediate  genus  between 
those  animals  of  the  lizard  tribe  which  have  a 
long  and  forked  tongue,  and  those  which  have  a 
short  tongue  and  the  palate  armed  with  teeth. 
The  length  of  the  skeleton  appears  to  have  been 
nearly  twenty-four  feet.  The  head  is  a  sixth  of 
the  whole  length  of  the  animal ;  a  proportion 
approaching  very  near  to  that  of  the  crocodile, 
but  differing  much  from  that  of  the  monitor,  the 


head  of  which  animal  formii  hardly  a  twelfth 
part  of  the  whole  length.  The  tail  most  have 
been  very  strone,  and  its  width  at  its  extremity 
must  have  rendered  it  a  most  powerful  oar, 
and  have  enabled  the  animal  to  nave  opposed 
the  most  agitated  waters.  From  this  circnro- 
stance,and  from  the  other  remains  which  accom- 
pany Uiose  of  this  animal,  Cuvier  is  of  opinion 
that  it  must  have  been  an  inhabitant  of  the 
ocean. 

Salamandra,  $danuxnder. — In  the  valley  of 
Altmnhl,  near  Aichsted  and  Pappenheim,  and 
at  Aeningen,  there  is  a  formation  of  calcareous 
slate,  belonging  to  the  Paris  formation,  rich  in 
petrifiictions.  One  of  the  most  remarkable  of 
these  is  that  described  by  Scheucbzer,  under  the 
name  homme  fossile,  and  which  some  natu- 
ralists, as  Gesner,  maintained  to  be  the  siluris 
glanis  of  Linnseus,  but  which  is,  in  reality, 
nothing  more  than  an  unknown  and  probabw 
extinct  species  of  salamander  or  proteus.  It 
was  founti  imbedded  in  the  limestone  of  Aenin- 
gen. 

Bti/o,  toad. — ^Remains  of  an  animal  of  this 
tribe  occur  in  the  slaty  limestone  of  Aeningen. 
Dr.  Karg,  who  has  published  a  long  description 
of  the  Aeningen  quarries,  is  of  opinion,  that  this 
petrifaction  is  that  of  a  common  toad  ;  whereas 
Cuvier  is  inclined  to  refer  it  to  some  species 
nearly  allied  to  the  bufo  calamita. 

Fottil  iounu  of  Cvvier. — Only  one  specimen 
of  this  remarkable  fossil  animal  has  nitherto 
been  found,  and  is  now  in  the  cabinet  of  the 
king  of  Bavaria.  In  regard  to  this  specimen,  it 
may  be  remarked,  that  some  naturalists  have 
taken  it  for  a  bird,  others  for  a  bat,  but  Cuvier  is 
of  opinion  that  it  belongs  to  the  class  amphibia. 
Its  true  nature  is  still  unascertained,  although  it 
appears  more  nearly  allied  to  the  class  mammalia 
than  to  any  of  the  others  in  the  system. 

Class  IV.— PISCES. 

*  The  accuracy  of  La  Cepede's  list  of  the  fossil 
fishes  of  3olca,  Aeningen,  and  Hessia,  has  been 
much  questioned  by  naturalists,*  says  Mr.  Jame- 
son, '  and  Cuvier  has  hitherto  paid  but  little 
attention  to  this  branch  of  geology.  He  only 
enumerates  in  a  very  general  way  the  few  met 
with  in  the  gypsum  quarries  around  Paris.  Five 
species  are  mentioned.  The  first  described  be- 
longs to  a  new  genus  allied  to  that  named  amia, 
and  is  conjectured  to  be  a  fresh-water  species. 
The  second  is  nearly  allied  to  two  fresh- water  ge- 
nera, viz.  the  mormyrus  of  La  Cepede,  natives 
of  the  river  Nile,  and  the  psecilia  of  Blocb,  na- 
tives of  the  fresh  waters  of  Carolina.  The  third 
appears  to  be  a  species  of  sparus,  different  from 
any  of  the  present  species.  The  fourth  and 
fifth  are  very  dubious.  The  bituminous  marl 
slate  of  Germany  abounds  in  fossil  fishes. 
Schlottheim  mentions  a  fossil  fish  found  in  this 
rock,  as  being  five  feet  in  length,  and  six  inches 
broad,  which  he  conjectures  to  belong  to  the 
genera  cyprinusor  Sal  mo.  Petrified  specimens, 
supposed  of  the  salmo  arcticus,  are  found  in  a 
bluish-gray  clay  iu  West  Greenland.  Single  bones, 
as  vertebrs,  teeth,  also  scales  of  fishes,  are  found 
in  the  shell  limestone,  chalk,  and  in  the  rocks  of 
the  Paris  formation. 


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REMAINS  (ORGANIC). 


489 


Thus  fer  vre  have  travelled  with  the  able  trans- 
lation of  Cuvier's  Essay  edited  hj  Mr.  Jameson, 
and  have  only  to  regret  that  he  did  not  complete 
the  catalogue  of  existing  remains  in  that  work* 
Two  or  three  important  classes  must  be  glean- ^ 
ed  from  other  sources. 

Class  V— AVES. 

Tlie  remains  of  birds  are  rarely  found  in  a 
fossil  state.  Bones,  which  may  be  considered  as 
referrible  to  this  class,  are,  however,  imbedded 
in  the  calcareous  schist  of  Oeningen,  and  in  the 
oolitic  schist  of  Stonesfield.  The  foot  of  a  bird 
has  been  found  incrusted  in  gypsum,  near  Mont- 
martre;  Blumenbach  describes  the  bones  of  a 
water-fowl  in  the  Pappenheim  stone ;  and  Faujas 
St.  Fond  has  figurea  two  feathers  found  in  the 
calcareous  stone  of  Vestena  Nuova. 

Cuvier,  however,  has  not  only  ascertained  the 
existence  of  fossil  remains  of  this  class,  but  has 
furnished  the  student  with  information  to  aid  him 
in  his  investigations  with  respect  to  these  fossils. 
The  foot,  he  observes,  in  birds,  has  a  single  bone 
in  the  place  of  the  tarsal  and  metatarsal  bones. 
Birds,  too,  form  the  only  class  in  which  the  toes 
all  differ  as  to  the  number  of  joints,  and  in  which 
this  number,  and  the  order  of  the  toes  which  have 
them,  is  nevertheless  fixed.  The  great  toe  has 
two ;  the  first  toe,  reckoning  on  the  inside,  three; 
the  middle,  five ;  and  the  outermost  five.  The 
crocodile  has  the  same  number  of  phalanges ; 
but,  as  these  have  a  tarsal  and  metatarsal  bone, 
they  cannot  be  mistaken.  Some  birds  have  no 
great  toes,  but«  in  these,  the  other  toes  preserve 
the  usual  order:  the  ostriches  and  cassowars 
have  three  toes.  Although  the  crocodile  has  the 
same  number  of  phalanges,  yet,  as  every  one  of 
the  toes  is  supported  by  a  particular  metatarsal 
bone,  the  distinction  is  easily  made.  From  an 
attention  to  the  specific  characters,  Cuvier  ascer- 
tained the  existence  of  the  remains  of  five  or  six 
different  species  of  birds  in  the  plaster  quarries 
near  Paris.  Among  these  are  the  bones  of  a  pe- 
lican, less  than  pelicanus  onocratulus,  and  larger 
than  P.  carbo ;  of  one  of  the  larger  curlews,  with 
a  naked  neck  (Tantalus,  Gmelin) ;  of  a  wood- 
cock, a  starling,  and  a  sealark(Alouettede  Mer). 
He  also  describes  and  figures  a  bird,  found  in 
the  quarries  of  Montmartre,  which  appears  to 
have  fidlen  on  its  belly  on  the  newly-formed 
gypsum,  without  having  been  quite  involved  in 
it ;  and  having,  probably  whilst  in*  this  state, 
been  deprived  of  its  head  and  the  whole  of  the 
rifffat  leg.  The  result  of  a  careful  examination 
of  this  fossil  is,  that  it  belongs  to  some  exotic 
quail,  rather  larger  than  the  one  known  in  France. 

And  here  pertiaps  we  may  best  introduce  the 
ormthocqMia,  although  naturalists  are  not 
agreed  as  to  its  correct  place.  It  is  entirely  a 
fossil  genus.  Cuvier  refers  it  to  the  amphibia ; 
others,  as  Blumenbacb»  to  birds;  CoUini  de- 
scribes it  as  a  fish ;  while  Sbmmering  arranges 
it,  as  a  bat,  with  the  mammalia.  The  skull  is 
enormous  in  proportion  to  the  skeleton,  the  jaws 
themselves  being  longer  than  the  body,  and  fur- 
nished with  sharp  incurvated  teeth.  The  head 
of  the  0.  longirostris  resembles  that  of  the  cur^ 
lew  tribe,  while  the  brevirostris  more  nearly  re- 
sembles the   bat,    particularly   the    vespertilio 


rourinus.  The  ortnts  of  the  eyes  are  dispropor- 
tionably  large,  and  hence  it  is  thought  probable 
that,  like  the  bat,  it  was  a  nocturnal  animal,  while, 
from  the  sixe  of  its  jaw%,  it  is  likely  that  it  fed 
on  small  flying  insects.  There  are  four  legs  (the 
hinder  ones  being  of  considerable  length),  and  a 
distinct  tail.  There  are  no  tarsal  bones,  only 
metatarsal  bones  and  cUws.  Two  species  are 
described  by  S6mmering,the  largest  about  a  foot 
long,  named  O.  longtrostrit ;  the  other,  which  is 
less,  O.  brevirostris.    See  plate  11.  figs.  1  &  2. 

Class  VI.— INSECTA. 

Insects  also  are  of  rare  occurrence  as  fossils. 
Scheweigga  mentions  a  perfect  scorpion,  different 
from  the  common  genus,  found  in  a  piece  of 
amber ;  ants  of  the  present  species  have  also 
been  found  in  amber :  supposed  larw  of  the 
libeUtUa  and  ephemera  genera  have  likewise  been 
mentioned,  and  the  elytra  of  coleopterous  insects 
as  occurring  in  the  Stonesfield  slate. 

Class  VII.-JIELIQUA  OCEANA. 

We  are  compelled  to  rank  under  this  general 
head  all  the  Crustacea,  mollusca,  rediarii,  and 
polypi  of  authors.  Of  the  first  the  mutilations 
are  so  great,  and  they  are  so  enclosed,  that  often 
nothing  is  to  be  seen  but  parts  of  the  thorax  or 
upper  surface  of  the  body :  the  antennee  and  feet 
are  commonly  broken  and  separated  from  the 
body;  while  the  under  surface,  or  numerous 
pieces  of  the  plastron,  or  sternum,  giving  attach- 
ment to  feet  composed  of  many  articulations, 
present  also  the  external  parts  of  the  mouth. 
The  want  of  the  antennae  and  feet  induced  Des- 
marest  to  restrict  the  distinctions  to  .characters 
obtained  from  the  shell  or  thorax.  The  various 
prominences  of  the  latter,  he  continues,  are  not 
irregular  and  accidental ;  on  the  contrary,  in  9II 
the  genera  the  disposition  of  these  inequalities 
is  constant,  and  suojected  to  certain  laws.  We 
have  been  the  more  inclined,  he  remarks,  to 
admit  these  relations,  that  it  is  known  at  a  cer- 
tain period  of  the  year  all  the  Crustacea,  after  . 
having  lost  their  old  solid  envelope,  ara  covered 
with  a  delicate  skin,  which  hardens  in  its  turn, 
and  at  the  end  of  a  few  days  changes  into  a 
crust  equally  resisting  with  that  which  it  substi- 
tutes ;  and  we  might  presume  that  in  the  first 
moments  the  new  skin  moulded  itself  to  a  cer- 
tain point  upon  the  internal  organs,  and  that  its 
ossification  was  su0bequently  influenced  by  the 
motions  peculiar  to  these  organs,  or  by  the 
greater  or  less  development  of  each  of  them. 
He  describes  on  this  plan  twenty  ffenera,  and  a 
considerable  number  of  species  ttom  different 
parts  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa.  Many  occur 
in  Great  Britain,  principally  in  England,  in  the 
chalk  formations,  as  well  as  in  the  plastic  clay 
of  Sheppey  and  other  places. 

Jlfo/^a.— Fossil  snells  are  perhaps  the  most 
abundant  of  all  organic  remains:  and  occur  from 
the  size  of  several  feet  in  diameter  to  microscopic 
objects.  They  are  divided  into  univalve,  bivalve, 
and  multivalve  shells. 

Univalve  shells  with  but  one  chamber  are  call- 
ed unilocular,  and  of  these  between  S3venty  and 
eiffhty  genera  have  been  specified ;  while  of  the  nml- 
tmcular,  or  many  chambered  univalves,  not  more 


Digitized  by  VjOO 


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490 


REMAINS  (ORGANIC). 


than  twenty-fiTe  occur.  Dr.  Montfort,  author 
of  an  important  work,  Conchy liologit  System- 
atiqae,  has,  indeed,  with  much  discrimination 
separated  the  muUilocular  uniralyes  into  many 
more  genera :  the  microscopic  shells  into  sixty  ; 
and  those  which  are  within  the  power  of  the 
naked  eye,  being  those  which  had  been  included 
in  nautilus,  ammonites,  belemnites,  orthocera- 
tites,  spirula,  scaphites,  nummulites,  and  sidero- 
lites,  into  forty  genera;  forming  almost  every 
shell,  marked  by  a  slight  difference,  into  a  dis- 
tinct genus.  These  separations,  although  per- 
haps founded  on  accurate  discrimination,  appear, 
as  Mr.  Parkinson  observes,  to  be  too  frequent ; 
their  multiplicity  bears  too  much  on  the  memory, 
and  deprives  it  of  the  aid  which  it  seeks  to  de- 
nve  from  classification.  A  more  intimate  know- 
ledge of  their  nature  and  characteristics  seems  to 
be  necessary  before  an  appropriate  arrangement 
of  them  can  be  adopted.  The  larger  tribe  has 
been  separated  into  twenty-two  genera,  all  of 
which  have  been  found  in  a  fossil  state:  whilst 
one  genus  only,  nautilus,  is  known  to  exist  in  a 
recent  state.  Two  opinions  are  entertained  re- 
specting this  great  disproportion  between  the 
number  of  fossil  and  of  recent  shells  of  this  tribe. 
Some  suppose  that  those  genera,  of  which  only 
fossil  shells  are  found,  have  become  extinct; 
whilst  others  bel  eve  that  these  shells  are  still 
existing  in  a  recent  state:  but  are  pelagian 
shells,  their  inhabitants  constantly  residing  at 
the  bottom  of  the  deep.  This  opinion  is  enter- 
tained by  some  of  the  latest  French  writers. 

An  examination  of  these  shells  proves,  how- 
ever, according  to  Mr.  Parkinson,  that,  so  far 
from  their  inhabitants  having  been  destined  to  a 
constant  residence  at  the  bottom  of  the  ocean, 
they  possessed,  beyond  all  other  testaceous  ani- 
mals, the  i)Ower  of  rising  up  to,  and  remaining 
at,  the  surface  of  the  sea.  Supposing  them  still 
to  live^  they  would  occasionally,  as  the  nautilus 
is,  be  seen  at  tlie  surface ;  but,  not  a  single  in- 
sunce  being  known  of  a  shell  of  these  genera 
having  been  thus  seen,  their  existence  may  be 
reasonably  doubted.  The  apparatus  enabling 
the  animal  to  raise  or  sink  himself  at  pleasure  is 
plainly  discoverable  in  the  fossil  shell  of  the 
nautilus :  but  the  most  important  part  of  this 
organ,  the  continuous  siphuncle,  is  not  discover- 
able in  the  dried  specimens  of  the  recent  shell. 
Tiie  shell  is  formed  of  a  number,  more  or  less,  of 
chambers,  divided  by  pierted  septa.  The  ani- 
mal resides  in  the  largest  and  last  formed  cham- 
ber; an  ^astictttbe,  proceeding  from  the  animal, 
passes  through  the  pierced  septa  and  <he  several 
chambers,  and  terminates  in  the  first.  Now,  as- 
suming that  the  office  of  this  tube  is  analogous 
with  that  of  the  swimming  bladder  of  fishes,  it  is 
by  no  means  difficult  to  conceive  how  the  requir- 
ed changes  of  situation  may  be  produced.  The 
weight  of  the  shell  is  so  counterbalanced  by  the 
empty  chambers,  that  the  siphuncle  'passing 
through  these  chambers,  accordingly  as  it  is  di- 
lated with  gaseous  or  with  aqueous  fluids,  will 
alter  the  specific  gravity  of  the  whole  mass,  and 
cause  it  either  to  swim  or  to  sink.    Supposing 


the  animal  to  be  lying  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea, 
saturated  with  food,  and  the  siphuncle  filled  wicfa 
a  fluid  ;  as  the  food  is  digested  and  decomposed, 
detached  gas  may  pass  into  the  siphuncle,  and 
gradually  take  the  place  of  the  water ;  when,  in 
proportion  as  the  specific  g^vity  of  the  whole 
mass  is  thus  diminished,  it  wilt  rise,  probably 
into  that  region  of  the  waters  in  which  the  food 
of  the  animal  most  abounds.  Here,  on  obtain- 
ing sufficient  food,  or  on  alarm  from  an  enemy, 
the  animal  admits  water  into  the  siphuncle,  and 
immediately  sinks.  In  all  the  odier  genera  of 
this  tribe,  an  apparatus,  formed  of  vacant  cham- 
bers and  a  membraneous  siphuncle,  exists,  capa- 
ble of  producing  similar  effects  with  those  pro- 
duced ny  that  <^  the  nautilus ;  but  necessarily 
differing  in  some  respects,  from  variety  of  modi- 
flcation  of  the  form  and  structure  peculiar  to 
each  genus.  The  siphuncle  is  often  rery  well 
displayed  in  sections  of  the  orthoceratite,  and  in 
these  this  tube  will  be  found  to  have  been  capa- 
ble of  being  dilated  to  a  very  considerable  ex- 
tent. 

With  the  nautilus  agree  in  general  at  a  ratio 
the  orthoceratite,  the. betemnite,  and  the  bacu- 
lite  species :  other  abundapt  tribes  of  muUilvers 
are  the  ammonites  and  nummulites ;  the  former 
being  the  vulgar  petrified  serpents;  and  whole 
masses  of  limestone  being  entirely  made  up  of 
the  latter :  as,  for  instance,  that  with  which  the 
pyramids  of  Egypt  are  built. 

Bivalve  fossils  are  so  varied  in  their  forms 
that  we  can  only  refer  the  reader  for  a  description 
of  them  to  Mr.  Parkinson's  Introduction,  or 
some  other  of  the  various  treatises  on  fossil  con- 
chology.  The  multivatves  are  of  unfirequent  oc- 
currence. 

Badiaria, — Of  the  echinus,  or  sea  urdiin 
family,  a  great  variety  is  met  with  in  several  of 
the  newer  rocks.  Some  of  the  species  resemble 
those  at  present  met  with  in  our  seas  The 
asterias  or  sea  star  family,  from  their  delicacy 
and  frail  structure,  are  rarely  met  with.  The 
crinoidea,  or  encrinite  family,  abound  in  many 
strata,  and  in  vast  abundance,  but  very  rarely 
in  a  liring  state.  Blumenbach  fint  conjectured 
their  affinity  to  the  radiaria ;  and  Miller,  in  his 
late  work  on  the  crinoidea,  has  removed  every 
doubt  as  to  their  true  place  in  the  system.  The 
entrochites  and  encrinites  belong  to  this  family. 

Poiypi. — We  may  Include  under  this  head  the 
different  kinds  of  simple  animals  named  polypi, 
and  their  coverings,  termed  polyparia  The 
corals  are  polyparia,  artd  many  tif  these  occur  in 
a  fossil  state.  The  alcyonia  and  sponges  are  like- 
wise to  be  included.  In  the  fresh  state  the  for- 
mer are  nearly  as  soft  as  sponge,  bnt  have 
openings  on  the  surface,  through  which  polypi 
project.  They  occur  frequently  in  flints.  Sponges 
are  composed  of  homy  fibres  connected  together 
by  means  of  an  animal  jelly,  but  no  distinct 
polypi  have  been  detected  in  them.  They  occur 
in  a  fossil  state,  and  are  abundant  in  tlie  flint 
and  chalk  formations.  We  add  from  Mr.  Par- 
kinson's work  * 


Digitized  by 


Google 


REMAINS  (ORGANIC). 


491 


A  Table  of  BaiTiSH  Fogsil  Shells. 
Each  Genus  and  each  Species  being  placed  in  the  order  of  the  Strata  in  which  they  occu 
Genera.  Species.  Strata. 


PRODUCTUS. 


CONUIARIA. 

AMPLEXUS. 
PENTAMERUS. 

ORTHOCERA. 


NAUTILUS. 


AMMONITES. 


longispinos 

Flemiogii 

spinulosus 

scoticus 

spinosus 

aculeatas 

scabriculus 

aculeatus 

quadrisulcata 
teres 

coralloides 

Knightii 

IflBvis 

Aylesfordii 

annulata 

circularis 

striata 

gigantea 

cordiforrois 

undulata 

Breynii 

Steinhaurii 


discus 

uentagonus 

Dilobatus 

tubercuiatus 

complanatus 

truncatus 

striatus 

intermedins 

lineatus 

sinuatus 

obesus 

simplex 

undulatus 

inaequalb 

elegans 

Comptotti 

iroperialis 

centralis 

ziczac 

striatus 

sphsricus 

>Valcotii 

Henslowi 

Listen 

annulatus    . 

ellipticus 

planicosta 

communis 
armatus 
angulatus 
Bucklandii 
Coney  beari 


MouvTAiv  Limestone. 

ditto 

ditto 

ditto 

ditto 

ditto 
Limestone  rock(coal  measares). 

ditto 

ditto 

MOUNTAIM  LiMESTOKB. 

ditto 

ditto 
MouMTAiv  Limestone. 

ditto 
Mountain  Limestone. 

ditto 

ditto 

ditto 
Mountain  Limestone. 

ditto 

ditto 

ditto 

ditto 

ditto 
Gray  limestone  (coal  measares). 
Limestone  shale. 
Coal  shale. 
Alum  shale. 
Mountain  Limestone. 

ditto 

ditto 

ditto 

ditto 
Slaty  limestone. 
Blue  lias. 

ditto. 
Blue  lias  and  crag. 
Lower  oolite. 

ditto 

ditto 
Green  sand. 

ditto 
Chalk  marl 

ditto 

ditto 
London  clay 

ditto 

ditto 
Mountain  Limestone. 

ditto 

ditto 
Alum  shale:    Lower  oolite.    Upper  oolite. 
Gray  limestone,  Isle  Of  Man. 
Coal  shale. 

Alum  shale.    Lower  oolite. 
White  lias  clay. 

(  Upper  lias  clay.    Matston  or  lias  marble. 
i  Chalk  marl. 
White  lias  clay. 
Lias  clay. 

ditto 
Blue  lias. 

ditto 


Digitized  by 


Google 


492 


Genen. 


REMAINS  (ORGANIC). 

Species.  StnU. 


AMMONITES. 


NAUTELLIPSITES. 
AMMONELLIPSITES. 

EUOMPHALtrS. 


Greenoughi 

Blue  lias 

fimbriatus 

ditto 

obtusus 

ditto 

Henleyi 

ditto 

Loscombt 

ditto 

Birchi 

ditto 

Brooki 

ditto 

Bechei 

ditto 

Brongniarti 

Lower  oolite. 

Baiiksii 

ditto 

Blagdeni 

ditto 

Brocchii 

ditto 

Sowerbii 

ditto 

ditto 

GervilUi 

ditto 

Strangewaysi 

ditto 

falcifer 

ditto 

nodosus 

Clay  under  the  lower  oolite. 

discus 

Combrash. 

Calloviensis 

Kelloway  rock. 

Koenigi 

ditto 

DuDcani 

Clunch  clay  under  coral  rag,  or  Oxford  day. 

excavatas 

Calcareous  grit  beneath  coral  rag. 

▼ertebralis 

ditto 

plicatilis 

ditto 

splendens 

Coral  rag.    Chalk  marl. 
Clay  under  the  lower  oolite. 

jugosus 

elegans 

ditto 

coDcavus 

ditto 

cordatus 

Kentish  rag. 

rotundus 

Kimmeridge  clay. 

Lambert! 

ditto 

Leachi 

ditto 

orophaloides 

ditto 

triplicatus 

Portland  freestone. 

stellaris 

ditto 

giganteus 

ditto 

Goodhalli 

Green  sand,  Devon. 

Nutfieldiensis 

Green  sand. 

monile 

ditto 

inflatus 

ditto 

auritus 

ditto 

rostratus 

Chalk  marl. 

minutus 

ditto 

vartans 

ditto 

ManteUi 

ditto 

rusticus 

Lower  chalk. 

biplex 

Blue  clay,  Suffolk. 

decipiens 

ditto. 

acutus 

Blue  clay,  Sheppey. 

binus 

Crag. 

quadratus 

ditto 

serratus 

ditto 

MouNTATK  Limestone, 

ovatus 

ditto 

Mountain  Limestone. 

funatus 

ditto 

compressus 

ditto 

Mountain  Limestone. 

pentangulus 

ditto 

catiltus 

ditto 

nodosus 

ditto 

discors 

ditto 

rugosus 

ditto 

angulosus 

ditto 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 

REMAINS   (ORGANIC). 

Spocies.  StnU. 


493 


CIRRUS. 


PLANORBIS. 


SPIRIFER. 


TEREBRATULA. 


6RYPIL£A 


CARDIUM. 


acutus 
nodosus 
leacbi 
plicattts 

ttqualis 

euomphalus 

radiatus 

hemUtoma 

lens 

cyliDdricus 

obtustts 

cuspidatus 

trigonalis 

oblatus 

glaber 

obtusus 

striatus 

pinguis 

Mantie 

Wilsoni 

lateralis 

bipHcata 

crumeDa 

punctata 

subrotuDda 

ornithocephala 

acata 

resupioata 

lampas 

digona 

obovata 

intermedia 

obsoleta 

concinna 

media 

tetraedra 

camea 

inconstans 

dimidiata 

ovata 


lyra 

semiglobosa 

subundata 

plicatilis 

octoplicata 

obliaua 

ovoides 

lata 

incarra 
dilatata 

hybemicttm 

efongatum 

hillanum 

proboscidenm 

umbonatum 

semigranulaturo 

nitens 

Parkinaoni 


Mountain  Limestone. 

ditto 
Lower  oolite. 
Chalk  marl, 
ditto 
Mountain  Limestone. 
ditto 

Slower  oolite.  Greeo  sand.  Above  tbe  London 
clay. 
Green  sand. 
London  clay. 
Above  the  London  clay. 

ditto 

ditto 
Mountain  Limestone. 

ditto 

ditto 

ditto 

ditto 

ditto 

ditto 

ditto 
Mountain  Limestone. 

ditto 

ditto 
Mountam  limestone.  Clay  of  upper  oolite. 
Mountain  limestone.  Green  sand.  Chalk  marl. 
Coal  shale.  Blue  lias  marble  (Maiston). 
Marly  sandstone  of  lower  oolite. 
Ditto.  Combrash.  Chalk  marl. 
Upper  lias  clay.   Combrash. 
Lower  oolite. 

ditto 

ditto 
Lower  oolite.    Oxford  clay.    Combrash. 
Combrash. 

Combrash.    Green  sand. 
Combrash.    Crag. 
Clay  in  oolite. 

ditto 

ditto 
Great  oolite.  Upper  chalk. 
Kimmeridge  clay. 
Green  sand,  Devon. 
Green  sand, 
ditto? 
Green  sand. 
Chalk  marl. 
Upper  chalk. 

ditto 

diUo 

ditto 
Green  sandstone  in  alluvium. 

ditto 
Mountain  Limestone. 
Blue  lias.  Kelloway  stone.  Crag. 

{Under oolite.  Clunch  clay. 
Portland  freestone.  London,  clay,  alluvia. 
BiouNTAiN  Limestone. 

ditto 

ditto 
Green  sand,  Devon. 

ditto 

ditto 
London  clay. 

ditto 
Crag 


Digitized  by 


Google 


494 


Gtoeni. 


REMAINS   (ORGANIC). 

Species.  Statft. 


HELIX. 


LINGULA. 


UNIO. 


PLAGIOSTOMA. 


TROCIlUa 


MODIOLA. 

MELANIA. 

HELICINA. 
CARDITA. 


MYA. 


carinatas 

Geiitii 

globoflos 

mytilloides 

tenuis 

ondis 

acotus 

uDiformis 

subconslrictus 

hybridus 

Usieri 

crassly  iimas 

crassiusculud 

frigantea 

pectinoides 

punctata 

ovalis 

oardiiformis 

obscura 

riflrida 

Bpinoaa 

anglicus 

abbrevialus 

concaTus 

dimidiatus 

duplicattts 

elongatus 

punctatus 

a«g1utinaut 

Benettie 

Isvigatus 

similis 

depressi 
elegans 
paiallela 
pallida 


striata 

Heddingtoi 

sulcata 

compressa 

lirata 

obtusa 

similis 

lunulata 

producta 

abrupta 

striata 

dettoidea 

tuberculata 


scripta 

angulifera 

literata 

mandibula 

plana 

intermedia 

subangulata 

lata 


C  4th  Limestone,  above  the  Moustaiv 
(     Limestone, 

ditto 
Green  sand. 

Above  the  London  clay. 
Coal  Shale. 

ditto 
London  day 
Crag 
Coal  Shale. 

ditto 

ditto 
Coal  shale,  alluTial  clay. 
Magnesian  Itmettone.  • 

Magnesian  limestone.  Cr  >  . 
Lias.  Portland  freestone. 
London  clay. 
Lias. 

White  lias.  Blue  Uas. 
Blue  lias. 

ditto 
Fullers'  earth.. 
Upper  oolite. 
Kelloway  rock. 
Portland  freestone. 
Lower  chalk.  Upp.r  chalk. 
Lias. 
Blue  lias 
Unaer  oolite. 

ditto 

.ditto 

ditto 

ditto 

ditto 
London  clay. 

ditto 
Crag. 

ditto  ) 

Lias. 

ditto 
Alum  shale.  Loodoo  day. 

ditto 
Upper  oolite 
Green  sand. 
Lias. 

ditto 
Upper  oolite. 
London  day. 
Lias. 

ditto 
Lias. 

Lias.  Combrash. 
Under  oolite, 
ditto 
ditto 
Ditto.  Combrash. 
Great  oolite.  ' 

ditto 
Combrash,  Kelloway  litone. 
Green  sand. 
Lias. 

Lias.  Kelloway  rock. 
Fullers'  earth  bed,  near  Bath. 
Gray  limestone,  near  Scarboioiigfa. 
Green  sand. 

Sand  under  London  clay. 
London  clay, 
ditto 

Digitized  by  VjOOSIC 


>gl 


Genen^ 

Species. 

PECTEN. 

fibrosus 

barbalus 

equivalvis 

oDscura 

lens 

similis 

ngida 

arcuata 

lamellosa 

orbicularis 

quadricostata 

qninquecostata 

Beaveri 

cornea 

ASTARTE. 

lurida 

elecfans 

excavata 

lineata 

cuneata 

planata 

plana 

obliquata 

TRIGONIA 

costata 

striata 

clavellata 

gibbosa 

duplicata 

daedalea 

spinosa 

eccentrica 

affinis 

CUCULL^EA. 

oblonga 

decussata  . 

carinata 

fihroda 

glabra 

NERITA. 

lievigaU 

sinuosa 

LUTRARIA 

gibbosa 

ambigua 

ovalis 

lirata 

MYTILUS. 

amplus 

})ectinatus 

antiquorun 

alsformis 

OSTREA. 

acuminata 

N 

Marshii 

'palmetta  * 

deltoidea 

gregaria 

expansa 

U'.dulata 

Meadii 

caniliculata 

tener 

REMAINS   (ORGANIC). 

Strata. 


496 


Under  Oolite. 

Under  oolite.  Cornbrash.  Kelloway  rock. 

ditto 

dit*to 
Stonesfield  slate. 
Combrash. 
Forest  marble. 

ditto 
Coral  rag. 

Cbicksgrove  limestone.  Green  sand. 
Green  sand. 

ditto 

ditto 
Chalk  marl. 
London  clay. 
Under  Oolite. 

ditto 

ditto 

ditto 
\  Oaktree  clay  over  Sussex  marble,  or  KimiLe 
il         ridfi^e  clay. 
Portland  stone. 
Induiated  mail  at  Gunton. 
Crag.  # 

ditto 
Under  Oolite. 

ditto 

ditto 

ditto 
Tisbury  limestone. 

ditto 
Green  sand,  Devon. 

ditto 

ditto 

ditto 
Under  Oolite. 

ditto 

ditto 
Green  sand,  Devon. 

ditto 
Green  sand. 
Under  Oolite. 

ditto « 
Chilmarsh,  near  Tisbury. 
Middle  or  Great  Oolite. 
Middle  oolite 
Cornbrnsh. 

Cornbrash.  Upper  oolite. 
Lime5tone  at  Norton  edge. 
Middle  Oolite. 

ditto 
Kimmeridge  clay. 
Crar. 

ditto 
Great  Oolite. 

(  Fullers'  earth  of  great  oolite.  Clay  over  oolite^ 
(         and  on  Woobum  sand. 
Cornbrash. 
Oxford  clay. 

(  Oxford  clay.  Kimmeridge  clay.  Clay  over  Sus- 
C  sex  marble. 

Coral  rag.  Green  sand. 
Tisbury  limestone. 
Farley,  near  Salisbury. 
Somerbetshire. 
Upper  chalk. 
Charlton. 


Digitized  by 


Google 


496                         ] 

REMAINS   (ORGANIC). 

Geoen. 

Species. 

Stiau. 

OSTREA. 

gigantea 

London  clay. 

pulchra 

London  clay  and  gravel. 

flabellula 

ditto 

%*  Fossil  oysters  occur  also  in  the  lias  formation. 

VENUS. 

CoaNBRASH. 

▼aricosa 

ditto 

lineolata 

Green  sand. 

planus 

ditto 

angulata 

ditto 

equalis 

Green  sand.  Crag. 

incrassata 

London  clay. 

ditto 

gibbosa 

Ciag. 

rustica 

ditto 

lentiformis 

ditto 

turgida 

ditto 

ISOCARDIA. 

CORNBaASR. 

minima 

ditto 

tener 

Kelloway  stone. 

rostrata 

Upper  oolite. 

sulcata 

London  clay  (only  a  single  individual] 

PINNA. 

Corn  BRASH. 

lanceolata 

Neigbbourliood  of  Scart)orough. 

margaritacea 

London  clay. 

VERMICULARIA. 

Upper  Oolite. 

ovata 

ditto 

concava 

Green  sand. 

umbonata 

Chalk  mail. 

crassa 

London  clay. 

SOLARIUM. 

Upper  Oolite. 

conoideum 

ditto 

discoideum 

London  clay. 

patulum 

ditto 

HAMITES. 

Green  Sand,  Devon. 

spinulosus 

ditto 

tenuis 

Chalk  marl. 

rotundus 

ditto 

attenuatus 

ditto 

compressus 

ditto 

adpressua 

ditto 

roaximus 

ditto 

intermedius 

ditto 

gibbosus 

ditto 

armatus 

ditto 

spiniger 

ditto 

nodosus 

ditto 

tuberculatus 

ditto 

tuigidus 

ditto 

plicatulis 

ditto 

CHAMA. 

Green  Sand,  Devon* 

canaliculata 

ditto 

haliotidea 

ditto 

recurvata 

ditto 

conica 

ditto 

plicata 

ditto 

digitata 

ditto 

CORBULA. 

Green  Sand,  Devon. 

le^igata 

ditto 

globosa 

ditto 

pisum 

London  clay. 

gigrantea 

ditto 

revoluta 

ditto 

ABCA. 

Green  Sand. 

carinata 

ditto 

subacuta 

Chalk  marl. 

Branderi 

Crag, 
ditto 

appendiculata 

Digitized  by  VjOOQ 

REMAINS   (ORGANIC). 


497 


0«Den 

SpeciM. 

Strata. 

PERNA. 

Gbeem  Sahd. 

atricaloides 

Blue  marl  under  gfe«n  sand. 

VIVIPAEIA. 

Green  Sand. 

extensa? 

ditto 

fluviorum 

Sussex  marble. 

lenta 

London  day. 

coDcinna 

ditto 

• 

suboperta 

Crag. 

DIANCHORA, 

Green  Sano. 

striata 

ditto 

lata 

Lower  chalk. 

TURRILITES. 

Green  Sand. 

' 

costata 

Green  sand.    Chalk  marL 

obliqua 

Green  sand. 

tuberculala 

Chalk  marl. 

uodulata 

ditto 

SCAPHITES. 

Green  Sand. 

equalts 

ditto 

obliquus 

Chalk  marl. 

NUCULA. 

Chalk  Marl. 

pectinata        ^^ 

ditto 

minima 

London  clay. 

similis 

ditto 

Cobboldia 

Craff. 
ditto 

laevigata 

ditto 

MAGAS. 

Chalk. 

pumilis 

Upper  chalk. 

INFUNDIBULUM, 

London  Clay,  Sand  Uvdbb. 

echinulatmn 

ditto 

. 

obliquum 

ditto 

rectum 

ditto 

ditto 

Bpinulosom 

ditto 

rectum 

Crag. 

PECTUNCULUS. 

London  Clat. 

ditto 

costatus 

ditto 

decuBsatus 

ditto 

EMARGINULA. 

London  Clay. 

craasa 

ditto 

reticulata 

London  clay.    Ciag. 

CYPRiEA. 

London  Clay. 

orifbrmis 

ditto 

OLIVA. 

London  Clay. 

Branderi 

ditto 

Salisburiana 

ditto 

ANCILLA. 

London  Clay. 

aveniformb 

ditto 

tnrritella. 

ditto 

CASSIS. 

London  Clay. 

ftriata 

ditto 

carinata 

ditto 

bicatenattts 

Crag. 

AMPULLARIA. 

London  Clay. 

acyta 

ditto 

patula 

ditto 

1 

sigaretiDa 

ditto 

NATICA. 

London  Clay. 

glauciaoides 

ditto 

similis 

ditto 

depressa 

Crag. 

BOSTELLARU. 

London  Clat. 

lucida 

ditto  . 

riroosa 

ditto 

Vol,  XVIII. 

macroptera 

ditto 

Digitized  by 

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498 

SCAIARIA. 

TEREBELLUM. 

SERAPHS. 

PLEUROTOMA. 


REMAINS  (ORGANIC). 

Spteiet.  Stnta. 


CERITHIUM. 


KUSUS. 


VOLUTA. 


MUREX 


VENERICARDIA. 


semicottalA 

acuta 

similis 

fusifofBe 

CODVOlutttS 

attcnuata 

ezorta 

rostrata 

acorn  inata 

comma 

semicolon 

colon 

melanoides 
geminatnm 


runatum 

fnoiculatum 

intermedium 

dubium 

cornucopie 

giganteum 

longoefus 

bifasciatna 

acuminattti 

asper 

nigosus 

bulbiformif 

magorum 

luctator 

ambigua 

spinosa 

costata 

magoTum 

Lamberti 

latut 

Bartonensis 

trilineatus 

coniferas 

regularis 

carine^a 

fistulosus 

gradatus 

tuberosus 

minax 

tubifer 

cristatus 

coronatus 

rugosus 

curtus 

striatus 

contrarius 

rugosus 

Comeus 

oostellifer. 

ecbinatus 

planicosta 
deltoidea 
carinata 
senili 


LovDov  Clat. 

ditto 

ditto 
Crag. 
London  Clat. 

ditto 
LoKDON  Clat.    . 

ditto 
LoKDON  Clat. 

ditto 

ditto 

ditto 

ditto 

ditto 

ditto 

ditto 
LovDOM  Clat. 

ditto 

ditto 

ditto 

ditto 

ditto 

ditto 

ditto 

ditto 

ditto 
London  Clat. 

ditto 

ditto 

ditto 

ditto 

ditto 

ditto 
London  Clat. 

ditto 

ditto 

ditto 

ditto 

ditto 

ditto 
London  clay.  Ciag. 
London  Clat 

ditto 

ditto 

ditto 

ditto 

ditta 

ditto 

ditto 

ditto 

ditto 

ditto 

.ditto 

ditto 

ditto 

ditto 

ditto 
Craff. 

ditto 

ditto 

ditto 

ditto 

ditto 
London  Clat. 

ditto 

ditto 

ditto 
Cra<r. 


Digitized  by 


Google 


REMAINS    (ORGANIC). 

Genera. 

Spaeiat. 

Strata. 

SAN6UINOLARU. 

LoHDov  Clat. 

HoUowaysii 

ditto 

SOLEN. 

£x>Hpov  Clay. 

• 

afimis 

ditto 

TEREDO. 

LoKDOv  Clay. 

antenftuts 

ditto 

BATiANUS. 

London  Clay. 

tesseUtns 

ditto 

• 

crassus 

ditto 

BUCCINUM. 

Crag. 

• 

eloQgatum 

ditto 

gianulatam 

ditto 

rugofum 

dittto 

retioosum 

ditto 

EBURNA. 

Cbao. 

glabntoO.R.IIL 

ditto 

TRT.TJNA. 

Crag. 

obiiqua 

ditto 

ovata 

ditto 

obtttsa 

ditto 

PHOLAS. 

Crag. 

cylittdricuB 

ditto 

PHASIANFJJA 

Sasd  above  Lovdoh  Clat 

orbicularis 

ditto 

mioutB 

ditto 

LYMNEA. 

angulosa 

ditto 
Savd  above  Lohdov  Clay. 

fusiformis 

ditto 

CYCLAS. 

mii^fti^tt 

ditto 
Saiid  above  LonM*  Clat. 

depeidita  ? 

ditto 

CQQeifomiis 

ditto 

oboTata. 

ditto. 

499 


Class  VHI^VEOETABLE  FOSSIL  RE- 
MAINS. 
Mr.  Parkinson  dxua  ably  traces  not  only  the 
geology  but  genealogy  of  these  remains.  When 
▼egetable  matter  is  accumulated  in  so  large  a 
quantity  that  the  compactness  of  the  mass  may 
in  a  great  degree  exclude  the  atmospheric  air 
from  the  internal  parts  of  the  mass,  a  considera- 
ble and  peculiar  diange  is  effected :  the  vegeta- 
ble matter  soon  loses  its  green  and  acauires  a 
brownish  color;  its  flavor  and  odor  are  changed, 
and  heat  is  to  be  produced,  teminatin^unless 
air  is  freely  admitted,  in  combustion.  The  ve- 
getable matter,  thus  dianged  into  hay,  acquires, 
among  its  other  new  properties,  that  of  power- 
fully resisting  any  forther  change  upon  exposure 
to  the  atmosphere.  But,  should  vegetable  matter 
be  thus  accumulated  in  a  situation  in  which 
moisture  has  almost  constant  access  to  it,  a  very 
different  result  ensues.  Another  process  takes 
place,  by  which  the  vegetable  matter,  as  the  pro- 
cess goes  on,  loses  its  original  forms,  and  be- 
comes a  soft  magma,  of  a  dark  color  and  pecu- 
liar appearance;  no  traces  of  its  former  mode  of 
existence  being  discoverable,  except  in  the  acci- 
dental presence  of  such  vegetable  matter  as  shall 
not  have  undergone  a  complete  conversion. 
When  dried,  it  forms  a  readily  combustible  sub- 
stance, of  a  reddish-brown  color,  readily  absorb- 
ing and  tenaciously  retaining  water,  and  yieldmg, 
whilst  burning,  a  strong  bituminous  odor.  This 
is  the  substance  termed  peat,  immense  accumu- 
lations of  which  are  formed  in  various  parts,  fa- 


vorable to  the  collection  of  water  and  the  growth 
of  the  sphagnum  palustre,  a  plant  by  the  con- 
version of  which  the  supply  of  this  substance  is 
chiefly  supported.  In  tne  peat-bogs  or  mosses, 
as  the  natural  magazines  d»f  this  substance  are 
called,  trunks  of  trees  are  often  found  imbeddedi 
and  partaking  of  the  nature  of  the  surrounding 
bituminous  mass.  This  change  is  effected  in 
different  degrees ;  the  deeper  in  the  mass,  and 
consequently  the  longer  exposed  to  the  process 
of  bituminisation,  the  more  perfect  is  the  con- 
version. Some  pieces  are  found  to  have  nearly 
lost  th^ir  lignjBous  appearance,  their  respective 
lines  and  markings  having  been  molten  down  in 
different  degrees  during  their  bituminisation; 
whilst  others,  in  which  the  nature  of  the  substance 
is  also  entirely  altered,  are  found  still  to  retain 
almost  all  their  characteristic  markings.  This 
substance  has  long  been  known  by  the  designa- 
tion of  bituminous  wood. 

'  Wood  of  a  very  different  character,  called 
moss  fir,  is  also  frequently  found  in  die  peat 
mosses  or  bogs.  It  much  resembles,  in  its  color 
9hd  general  external  appearatoce,  ordinary  decays, 
ed  fir-wood ;  but  on  examination  it  appears  tliat 
the  fibre  of  the  wood  is  strongly  imbued  with  re- 
sin, and  that  all  its  interstices  are  filled  with 
resinous  matter.  It  is  so  highly  inflammable  as 
to  be  employed,  by  the  poor  of  the  districts  in 
whidi  it  IS  found,not  only  as  fuel,  but  as  torches. 
As  die  real  nature  of  this  substance  is  not  per- 
haps known,  it  would  be  veir  desirable  diat  fur- 
ther enquiries  might  be  made  respecting  it;  it 

SK3  T 

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600 


REMAINS  (ORGANIC). 


might  then  be  determined  whether  (he  opinion 
which  is  here  offered  be  correct  or  not  From 
its  retaining  the  color  and  appearance  of  decayed 
wood,  it  is  conjectured  to  oe  wood  which^  by 
exposure  to  the  atmosphere,  had  sustained  the 
abstraction  of  ail  its  constituent  parts,  except  the 
resin  and  ligneous  fibre  imnregnated  therewith ; 
and,  from  its  baring  been  thus  rendered  almost 
an  entirely  resinous  mass,  it  has  not  been  affect- 
ed by  the  bituminisating  process.  Subterraneai^ 
collections  of  bitumini^  wood  and  other  vege- 
table matter  are  found  at  various  depths  in  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  world.  The  substance  thus 
found  is  generally  a  compact,  light,  glossy,  com- 
bustible substance  {  of  a  dark  brown  color,  and 
frequently  almost  black ;  splitting  longitudinally 
into  plates  of  various  thicknesses,  breaking  trans- 
versely with  an  imperfect  conchoidal  fracture, 
with  a  shining  resinous  lustre,  and  sometimes 
yielding  the  appearance  of  the  markings  of  wood. 
This  is  the  suturbrand  of  Iceland,  the  Bovey  coal 
of  this  country,  and  the  common  brown  coal  of 
Thomson. 

<  The  fossil  wood,  now  described,  may  be  said 
to  pass  into  jet,  which  is  found,  especially  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Whitby  in  Yorkshire,  in  a 
state  very  nearly  approximating  to  that  of  fiovey 
coal.  It  exists  in  plates,  generally  from  half  an 
inch  to  about  an  inch  in  thickness,  between 
which  a  film  of  carbonate  of  lime,  with  pyrites, 
is  disposed :  excepting  that  it  more  frequently 
shows  marks  of  ligneous  texture,  its  characters 
may  be  said  to  be  those  of  jet;  its  color,  velvet 
black;  internal  lustre,  shining,  resinous;  frac- 
ture oerfect,  large,  conchoidal ;  fragments,  sharp 
edffea,  soft,  rather  brittle;  easily  frangible ;  lerv 
lig^t  Jet  is  found  in  other  situations,  in  a  dif- 
ferent form ;  resembling  in  its  shape,  and  the 
markings  of  its  surface,  parts  of  the  branches  or 
trunks  of  trees,  but  rarely  possessing,  internally, 
anjr  marks  of  vegetable  origin;  a  circumstance 
easU^  accounted  for,  if  its  previous  softening  be 
admitted.' 

Carmell  coal  is  said  to  differ  from  jet  chiefly 
in  its  holding  a  greater  portion  of  earth  in  inti- 
mate mixture  wiUi  it.  it  never  manifests  inter- 
pally  any  traces  of  vegetable  structure,  but  some- 
times bears  on  its  surface  evident  marks  of 
impressions  formed  on  it  whilst  in  a  soft  state. 

Common  coal  is  composed  of  a  similar  bitumin- 
ous matter,  divided  by  films  of  calcareous  spar 
mingled  with  pyrites,  intersecting  each  otner 
nearly  at  right  angles :  its  fracture  is  thus  render- 
ed small  grained,  and  uneven,  and  its  fragments 
mostly  cubical  or  trapezoidal.  By  this  division 
and  enclosure  of  the  inflammable  bituminous 
matter  in  combustible  S'^pta,  the  ascension  and 
combustion  of  thu  substance  are  rendered  more 
slow,  and  better  adapted  to  the  purposes  for 
which  it  is  destined.  Traces  of  vegetable  struc- 
ture are  very  rarely  discoverable  in  coal,  except 
in  the  impressions  of  cactuses  and  of  various 
dorsiferous  and  succulent  plants. 

But  professor  Jameson,  speaking  of  the  coal 
found  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Edinburgh,  says, 
*  the  coal,  which  is  black  coal,  occurs  in  beds, 
seldom  more  than  a  few  inches  in  thickness,  and 
is  generally  contained  in  the  bituminous  shale  or 
slate  clay,  rarely  in  the  sandstone.    By  the  giar 


dually  increasing  mixture  of  clayey  matter,  it 
passes  into  bituminous  shale.  The  accompany- 
ing bituminous  shale  and  slate  clay 'contain  im- 
pressions of  ferns,  a  fact  which  has  been  adduced 
in  support  of  the  opinion  which  maintains  the 
vegetable  origin  of  black  coal.  We  are  inclined 
to  call  in  ouestion  the  supposed  vegetable  origin 
of  this  kind  of  coal,  and  are  rather  disposed  to 
consider  it  as  an  original  chemical  formation ; 
and  that  the  occurrence  of  vegetable  impressions 
in  the  adjacent  rocks  no  moie  proves  its  vegeta- 
ble origin,  than  the  existence  of  fossil  qu^ru- 
peds  in  the  gypsum  of  Paris  proves  that  rock  to 
nave  been  formed  from  the  debris  of  animals  of 
the  class  mammalia. 

To  these  opinions  it  may  be  sufficient  to  op- 
pose the  following  deductions  of  Dr.  M'CuUoch, 
trom  his  experiments  on  certain  products  ob- 
tained from  the  distillation  of  wood,  &c.  Thf 
Dr.  considers  himself  as  authorised  to  state 
that,  <  examining  the  alteration  produced  bv  wa- 
ter on  common  turf,  or  submerged  wood,  we 
have  all  the  evidence  of  demonstration  that  its 
action  is  sufficient  to  convert  them  into  substances 
capable  of  yielding  bitumen  on  distillation. 
That  the  same  action  having  operated  through  a 
longer  period  has  produced  the  change  in  the 
brown  coal  of  Bovey  is  rendered  extremely  pro- 
bable by  the  geognostic  relations  of  that  coal. 
From  this  to  the  harder  lignites,  suturbrand  and 
jet,  the  transition  is  so  gradual  that  there  seems 
no  reason  to  limit  the  power  of  water  to  prodace 
the  effect  of  bituminisation  in  all  these  varieties; 
nor  is  there  aught  in  this  change  so  dissonant 
from  other  chemical  actions  as  to  make  us  hesi- 
tate in  adopting  this  cause.'  Satisfied  that  jet, 
the  bituminous  lignite  which  approaches  the 
nearest  to  coal  in  its  chemical  characters,  is  the 
result  of  the  action  of  water  on  vegetable  matter, 
Dr.  M'Culloch  was  induced  to  try  if  this  sub- 
stance could,  by  heat  under  pressure,  be  conven- 
ed into  coal ;  the  result  of  his  experiment  was, 
that  the  produce  exhibited  the  true  characters  of 
coal,  having  not  merely  the  color  and  inflamma- 
bility, but  the  fracture  of  coal  and  its  odor  on 
burning.  These  experiments  and  observations, 
taken  with  those  of  Mr.  Hatchett,  appear  to  be 
sufficient  to  set  the  question,  as  to  the  vegetable 
origin  of  coal,  at  rest.  The  vegetable  origin  of 
naphtha,  petroleum,  and  asphaltum,  is  not  yet 
positively  ascertained. 

Amber,  from  its  being  found  generally  in  beds 
of  fossil  wood ;  the  blue  clay  resin,  found  at 
Highgate  and  at  Sheppey  among  the  pyriiified 
wood ;  and  the  retinasphftltum  of  Mr.  Hatchett, 
discovered  among  the  Bovey  coal,  may  either 
owe  their  orisin  to  the  changes  effected  in  vege- 
table matter  during  its  subterraneous  deposition, 
or  may  be  vegetable  resins,  the  original  product 
of  the  trees  which  they  accompany,  and  which, 
from  their  resinous  nature,  may  have  resisted  the 
bituminizating  process.  The  aigillaceous  iron- 
stone nodules  which  accompany  coal,  contain, 
with  the  remains  of  many  other  unknown  vege- 
tables, parts  of  various  cryptogamous  plants,  the 
recent  analogues  of  a  very  few  of  which  have 
been  said  to  be  found  in  some  of  the  tropical  re* 
gions.  On  tbese  nodules  being  broken,  the  pre- 
served remains  are  genenlly  discovered  on  each 


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REMAINS  (ORGANIC). 


601 


of  the  broken  tidlet  of  the  nodule ;  not,  as  might 
oe  expected,  displaying  different  sides  of  the 
vegetable,  but  the  same  side  of  the  leaf:  for 
instance,  on  each  broken  surfiu:e ;  in  one,  m  alto 
—in  the  other  in  basso  relievo.  The  explanation  of 
this  curious  circumstance,  which  long  puzzled 
the  oryctologists,  is  found  in  the  vegetable  matter, 
during  its  passing  through  the  bituminous  change, 
having  become  softened,  and  having  filled  its 
own  mould  with  its  melted  and  softened  sub- 
stance ;  the  nodule,  on  being  broken,  showing 
on  one  side  the  surface  of  the  adherent  bitumi- 
nous cast,  and,  on  the  other,  the  corresponding 
mould.  In  the  argillaceous  and  bituminous 
slate  forming  the  floors  and  roofs  of  coal  mines 
are  vast  collections  of  the  black  bitumini- 
zed  remains  of  gramina,  junci,  cryptogami,  and 
of  numerous  other  plants,  agreeing  in  their  gene- 
ral characters  with  those  of  succulent  plants,  but 
differing  from  the  recent  ones  known  in  Europe 
by  their  vast  magnitude,  and  by  the  richness  of 
the  ornamental  markings  which  appear  on  their 
trunks. 

'  Description,'  says  Mr.  Parkinson,  *  cannot 
succeed  in  an  attempt  to  give  an  idea  of  the 
beauty  and  varieties  of  the  figures  which  are  dis- 
played on  the  surface  of  many  of  those  fossils, 
and  which  have  been  supposed  to  owe  their 
markings  to  the  bark  of  different  trees  of  supposed 
antediluvian  existence.  Some  are  ornamented 
by  regularly  disposed  straight  plain  ribs,  disposed 
longitudinally  or  transversely  over  their  whole 
surface;  some  by  the  decussation  of  nearly 
straight  lines  obliquely  disposed ;  and  many  by 
the  alternate  contact  and  receding  of  gently 
waving  lines,  forming  areas  regularly,  but  most 
singularly  varying  in  their  forms,  and  having  in 
their  centres  tul^rcles  and  depressions  from 
which  spines,  or  sets,  have  in  all  probability 
proceeded.  In  others,  lines  obliquely  disposed 
intersect  each  other  at  angles,  varying  in  their 
acuteness  in  different  specimens,  in,  it  would 
seem,  an  almost  endless  variety ;  forming  sur- 
faces apparently  covered  with  squams  disposed 
in  an  imbricated  manner,  and  frequently  in  quin- 
cunx order.' 

Accounts  have  been  given  of  the  trunks  of 
trees  whose  cortical  markings  Were  entirely  un- 
known, having  been  found  in  the  sandstones  of 
Staffordshire,  Derbyshire,  Lancashire,  and  in- 
deed in  all  those  parts  in  which  the  coal  forma- 
tions have  been  explored.  Having  been  favored, 
says  Mr.  Parkinson,  with  the  opportunity  of  ex- 
amining severalspecimens  of  this  nature,  through 
the  kindness  of  Tlioroas  Botfield,  esq.,  of  Bewd- 
ley  in  Worcestershire,  I  am  enabled  to  say  that 
these  are  not  generally  the  remains  of  trees,  but 
of  succulent  plants,  the  firm  cortical  parts  of 
which,  having  been  converted  by  the  bitumini- 
sating  process  into  iet,  have  formed  that  firm 
tube  which  is  often  found,  in  these  instances, 
filled  with  sandstone,  agreeing  with  that  of  the 
general  matrix,  and  possessing  the  space  left  by 
the  waste  of  the  internal  succulent  part  of  the 
plant  The  description  of  the  last  announced 
ibssil  of  this  kind,  found  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  Glasgow^  agrees  exactly  with  the  general  ac- 
count of  these  supposed  f^il  trees,  and  will,  it 
is  presumed,  corroborate  the  opinion  which  has 


been  Just  advanced.  In  a  quarry  of  landttone' 
belonging  to  the  coal  formation  on  which  Glasgow 
is  built,  and  in  the  neighbourhood  of  that  city,- 
it  is  stated  that  *  tlie  quarrymen  came  upon  the 
cast  of  a  tree  in  situ  just  as  it  had  been  growing. 
The  trunk  is  about  twenty-six  inches  in  diameter, 
not  quite  round  but  somewhat  oval,  so  that  the 
north  and  south  diameter  is  several  inches 
longer  than  the  east  and  west  diameter.  The 
body  of  the  tree  itself  is  composed  of  sandstone 
precisely  similar  to  the  rest  of  the  quarry ; 
out  the-  bark  has  been  converted  into  perfect 
cherry  coal,  which  adheres  firmly  to  the  tree,  and 
renders  it  easy  to  remove  Che  rock  with  which  it 
is  incmsted.  About  three  feet  of  the  bottom 
prt  of  the  tree  has  been  uncovered ;  this  portion 
IS  situated  about  forty  feet  below  the  surface  of 
the  eartli  in  a  solid  quarry  of  sandstone.  The 
upper  part  of  the  trunk  and  branches  has  not 
been  discovered  :  indeed,  it  u  some  time  since 
the  upper  portion  of  the  quarry  was  removed. 
The  roofs  may  be  seen  dipping  down  into  the 
earth  precisely  as  the  roots  of  living  trees  do. 
Four  very  large  roots  may  be  seen  issuing  from 
the  trunks,  and  extending,  some  of  them,  about 
A  foot  before  they  are  lost  in  the  surrounding 
stone.  There  is  nothing  to  indicate  the  species 
of  tree  of  which  the  mould  has  been  here  pre- 
served. From  the  appearance  of  the  roots  it  is 
obvious  that  it  was  not  a  fir ;  it  had  more  re-* 
semblance  to  a  beech  i  the  bark  has  been  so 
completely  bituminised,  that  its  usual  characters 
are  effaced.  The  petrifaction,  however,  is  not 
without  its  value ;  it  demonstrates  that  tfie  sand- 
stone has  been  formed  at  a  period  posterior  to 
the  existence  of  large  trees,  and  that  the  water- 
worn  appearance  of  the  quartz  pebbles  of  which 
the  sandstone  is  composed  is  not  a  deceitful  in- 
•  dication.'  Hence  the  ingenious  observer  is  led 
to  observe,  that  *  if  the  sandstone,  which  consti- 
tutes so  great  a  proportion  of  the  coal  beds,  be 
a  formation  posterior  to  the  earth  being  covered 
with  wood,  we  can  entertain  no  doubt  that  this 
is  the  case  also  with  the  slate  clay  and  the  coal 
which  alternate  with  this  sandstone.  Indeed,  if 
the  coal  formation  exists  as  a  portion  of  the  old  red 
sandstone,  we  can  entertain  no  reasonable  doubt 
that  the  old  red  sandstone  itself  has  been  formed 
after  the  earth  was  covered  with  wood.'  Annals 
of  Philosophy,  Nov.  1820. 

*  The  size  which  these  fossil  plants  have  at- 
tained, compared  with  that  of  the  cactuses  known 
in  Europe,  must,  as  in  tlie  fossil  last  mentioned, 
lead  to  a  doubt  as  to  this  opinion  of  their  agree- 
ment with  the  recent  cactus.  But,  to  be  enabled 
to  form  a  correct  judgment  on  this  point,  it  is 
necessary  to  know  the  state  in  which  tnese  phints 
exist  where  the  soil  and  climate  are  such  as  to 
allow  them  to  develope  themselves  in  their  native 
luxuriance.  The  researches  of  the  celebrated 
Humboldl,  in  the  equinoctial  regions,  supply  us 
on  this  head  with  the  most  appropriate  and  sa<>> 
tisfactory  information.  The  following  detached 
observations  of  that  philosopher  will  show  not  only 
the  size  to  which  these  plants  may  arrive,  but  the 
vast  tracts  which,  under  favorable  circumstances, 
they  may  overrun,  as  well  as  the  great  proba- 
bility of  their  having  been  the  first  vegetable 
clothirg  of  the  earth.    *  The  hill  of  calcareous 


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REMAINS   (ORGANIC) 


bffcceia,  wUcb  wt  hftft  just  regarded  as  an 
island  in  the  ancient  gulpn,  is  coveied  with  a 
thick  forest  of  columnar  cactus  and  opuntia,  some 
thirty  or  forty  feet  high,  covered  with  lichens, 
and  divided  into  several  branches  in  the  form 
of  candelabrss,  wearing  a  singular  appearance. 
Near  Maniquarez,  and  Punta  Araya,  we  mea- 
sured a  cactus,  the  trunk  of  which  was  four  feet 
nine  inches  in  dicumferenoe.  The  European, 
acquainted  only  with  the  opuntia  in  our  hot- 
houses, is  surprised  to  see  the  wood  of  this  plant 
become  so  hard  from  age,  that  i^  resists  for  cen« 
tunes  both  air  and  water,  and  that  the  Indians 
of  Cumana  employ  it  in  preference  for  hords  and 
doorposts.  Cumana,  Coro,  the  island  of  Mar- 
garetta,  and  Curacao,  are  the  places  in  South 
America  that  abound  most  in  the  plants  of  the 
family  of  the  nopals.  There,  only,  a  botanist  can 
compose  a  monography  oi  the  genus  cactus,  the 
species  of  which  vary  not  only  in  their  flowers 
and  fruits,  but  in  the  form  of"^  their  articulated 
stem,  the  number  of  costs,  and  the  disposition 
of  the  thorns:  the  divisions  of  property  are 
marked  by  hedges  formed  of  the  agave  and  cac- 
tus. At  San  Fernando,  S.  A.,  the  soil  abounds 
in  aquatic  pkints  with  sagittate  leaves,  and  he 
remarks  that  some  of  these  succulent  plants  are 
from  eight  to  ten  feet  high.  In  Europe  their  as- 
semblage would  be  considered  a  little  wood/  He 
also  mentions  a  kind  of  bamboo  which  the  In- 
dians call  jagua,  which  is  found  near  San  Fer- 
nando, more  than  forty  fleet  in  height  These, 
he  observes,  cannot  but  remind  the  admirer  of 
fbssib  of  the  vast  fossil  bamboos  which  are  found 
in  the  sandstones  acoompanjring  coal.  Speaking 
of  a  rock  of  considerable  height  and  magnitude, 
he  observes,  <  Euphorbium,  cacalia,  kleinia,  and 
cactus,  which  are  become  wild  in  the  Canary 
Islands,  as  well  as  in  the  south  of  Europe  and 
the  whole  continent  of  Africa,  are  the  only  plants 
we  see  on  this  arid  rock,  being  plants  which 
draw  their  nourishment  rather  from  the  air  than 
from  the  soil  in  which  they  grow.'  He  also  re- 
marks, Mt  is  not,  in  general,  by  mosses  and 
lichens  that  vegetation  in  the  countries  near  the 
tropics  begins.  In  the  Canary  Islands,  as  well 
as  in  Guinea  and  in  the  rocky  coasts  of  Peru,  the 
first  vegetables  that  prepare  the  mould  for  others 
are  the  succulent  pluits.* 

We  now  follow  Mr.  Parkinson's  description  of 
I.  Calcareous  Vbo stable  Fossils. — Lime  is 
not  very  frequently  the  mineralising  matter  of  ve* 
getable  fossils ;  it  is  however  sometimes  found  in- 
troduced into  the  remains  of  wood  in  the  form 
of  spar,  and  sometimes  it  becomes,  in  the  form 
of  limestone,  the  internal  substance  of  fossil 
reeds  and  of  various  succulent  plants. 

1.  Cdcareaui  qnthoie  wooa  previoutfy  de* 
eayed, — Color  light  brown,  surfiice  rough  and 
dull,  but  susceptible  of  polish;  fracture  dulL 
uoeven,  and  rather  spicular;  interstices  filled 
with  nearly  colorless  spar.  The  line  being  re- 
moved from  this^fossil,  by  muriatic  acid,  a  con- 
siderable portion  of  lisht-colored  flocculent  sub- 
stance is  aeposited.  Found  in  alluvia  and  in  the 
oolite  formation. 

2.  CdkiMTtom  nathote  wood  frtmoitth/  bilumi^ 
niwd.— Color  dandsh  red  brown ;  surface  com- 
monly rough,  but  partially  glossy ;  fracture  dull. 


uneven,  and  rather  spicular,  veined  with  spar  of 
a  lightish  brown  color.  Found  in  the  clay  of 
bituminous  slate  accompanying  the  lias.  11»b 
lime  being  removed,  by  uie  muriatic  acid,  a  con- 
siderable volume  of  dark  brown  powdtt  remains, 
which,  when  dried,  is  remaikably  combustible, 
burning  with  a  flame  resembling  that  d  some  of 
the  pvrophori..  On  the  brown  spar  bein^  sub- 
iected  to  the  action  of  diluted  muriatic  acid,  the 
bituminous  matter  with  which  it  is  colored  rises 
in  a  film  to  the  surfece  of  the  solution.  The 
polished  surface  of  both  these  fossils  being  ex- 
amined with  a  lens,  the  spathose  substance  is 
seen  to  have  permeated  the  minutest  woody 
fibres  in  all  their  directions.  The  powder  de- 
posited during  the  solution  of  both  these  fossils 
u  undoubtedly  the  woody  fibre  reduced  to  thb 
state  of  minute  divisioii,  in  consequence  of  its 
penetration  in  every  direction  by  the  spithose 
crystallisation. 

II.  Siliceous  Vegetable  Fossils.— The  mi- 
neralisation of  vegetable  substances  is  most  fie- 
<]^uently  effected  by  those  iippregnations  in  which 
silez  is  the  principal  constituent;  the  fosals thus 
formed  being,  remarkable  for  the  correctness 
with  which  their  forms  and  markinigii  have  been 
preserved. 

1 .  SUkeout  wood. — Its  color  is  genendly  grayish 
and  yellowish  white,  thence  passing  into  ash 
gray,  grayish  black,  and  different  shades  of 
brown.  Its  internal  lustre  is  glistening,  its  frac- 
ture more  or  less  perfect  oonchqidal,  showing  the 
ligneous  texture.  The  fragments  sharp-edged 
and  translucent  It  is  hawr  than  opal,  and 
easily  fmngible. 

It  is  found  in  many  parts  of  the  world,  but 
some  of  the  finest  specimens  are  obtained  in  the 
neiriibourhood  of  Schemnits  and  at  Telkabaoya 
in  Hungary. 

It  is  fre(^nently  found  in  this  islana  in  the  di- 
luvian  detritus,  and  in  almost  the  whole  of  the 
green  sand  formation.  Very  large  fragments  are 
mund  in  the  Portland  stones,  the  interstices  of 
which  are  often  beautifully  sprinkled  with  quartz 
crystals.  Interesting  specimens  are  also  dis- 
covered in  the  gritstone  of  the  same  formation  in 
the  blackdown  pits  of  Devonshire,  which  are 
frequently  rendered  very  interesting  by  the  deli- 
cate amianthine  form  in  which  the  silez  is 
disposed.  Specimens  are  also  found  in  the 
sands  of  Bedn>rdshire.  It  is  but  rarely  found  in 
chalk;  it  however  forms  the  nucleus  of  a  flint 
nodule  which  is  said  to  have  been  obtained  b 
Berkshire. 

The  varieties  of  siliceous  wood  depend  not 
only  on  the  nature  of  the  combinations  forming 
the  lapideotts  maUes  of  which  it  is  diiefly  con- 
stituted, but  also,  as  has  been  already  observed, 
on  the  state  of  the  wood  previous  to  its  petriEic- 
tion.  When  the  fossil  is  light  colored,  and  of  a 
shivery  texture,  the  wood  may  be  presumed  to 
have  been  previously  in  a  decayed  state,  or,  as  it 
is  termed,  rotten  wood ;  and  when  dose,  cooh 
pact,  and  dark-colored,  it  may  have  snffined  pre- 
vious bituminisation. 

A.  Ckalchedonic  wood. — In  the  most  <vwn"MW 
form  in  which  this  variety  appears,  the  color  is 
of  a  yellowish-white,  the  substance  resemhliMr 
that  of  wiUiered  wood.    The  surfrce  rough  and 


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REMAINS  (ORGANIC). 


•pliDteiyyIlie  tplmten  frequenfly  lo  minute  m  to 
be  tnrftedwith  the  slightest  breath.  The  ioternal 
pert  solid,  ohiefly  formed  of  the  traaslvceDt  stli* 
ceons  matter,  which  fills  the  interstices  and  sodi 
cavities  as  may  have  been  formed  by  the  tere- 
dines and  other  insects,  and  also  sometimes  in- 
rests,  the  ends  of  ihe  specimen  in  a  mamraiUated 
or  stalagmitic  form.  Specimens  occur  in  which 
previous  bituminisation  also  appeatB  to  have 
taken  place,  and  in  which  the  clear  siliceous 
subetanoe  appears  as  if  it  had  transuded  into  the 
cavities,  and  had  eroded  at  the  ends  of  the  spe- 
cimens. Hither  must  be  refeited  those  amorphotis 
specimens  which  possess  a  rough  suifoce,  scarcely 
any  lustre,  with  patches  of  apple-green  color  and 
of  a  quartzose  Rardnesa^  intermixed  with  others 
of  alight  or  light  gray  color,  considerably  softer. 
IVhen  cut  and  polished,  the  white  parts  display 
evident  maika  of  vegetable  texture ;  either  that 
of  very  fine  grained  woods,  or  of  some  of  die 
fMhas  or  reeds,  the  spaces  between  being  filled 
with  siliceous  matter,  either  translucent  or  of  an 
apple-green  color. 

B.  Jaspenne  wood  displays  all  the  colors  and 
appearances  belonging  to  common  jasper,  so 
disposed  as  to  mark  the  existence  of  ligneous 
texture,  and  frequently  so  varied  as  to  give  the 
resemblance  of  different  woods.  It  is  usually 
opaque,  but  sometimes  translucent  at  the  edges, 
and  sometimes  in  patches,,  where  it  appears  as 
jasper  agate.  Its  fracture  passes  from  con- 
choidal  to  fiat  and  earthy ;  its  internal  lustre  is 
generally  dull,  but  somethnes  approaching  to  re- 
sinous; its  interstices  are  frequently  set  with 
minute  crystals.  The  texture  of  the  wood  is 
diacoveraue  in  some  very  rare  specimens  of  he- 
liotrope, or  bloodstone. 

C.  O^'ne  1000(2  occurs  in  pieces  of  a  yellow- 
ish or  yellowish-white  color,  passing  into  different 
shades  of  brown :  surfoce  generally  marked  by 
the  ligneous  structure,  and  possessing  a  resinous 
lustre.  The  fracture  more  or  less  approaching  to 
perfect  conchoidal,  showing  the  Kgneous  marking 
and  a  glistening  lustre.  Fragments  sharp-edged, 
and  somewhat  translucent:  the  sur&ce  some- 
times dull,  like  wood,  and  the  internal  substance 
transparent.  It  is  considered  by  Dr.  Thomson 
as  consisting  of  wood  penetrated  bv  opal,  and 
as  being  so  intimateW  connected  witti  opal  that 
it  would  perhaps  be  better  to  unite  them. 

D.  P&chstone  wood.— Spechnens  of  fossil 
wood,  evidently  showing  its  original  texture,  and 
answering  to  the  characters  of  pitchstone,  are 
frequently  seen :  its  colors  are  yellow,  brown, 
reddish  brown,  red,  black,  white,  and  gray,  with 
various  intermediate  shades ;  fracture  is  flattish, 
imperfiectly  large  conchoidal ;  lustre  varymg  be- 
tween dull,  vitreous,  and  resinous.  The  woody 
texture  i&  to  be  traced  also  in  numerous  lapide- 
ous  substaiices  bearing  the  intermingled  charac- 
ters of  pitchstone,  opal,  jasper,  chalcedony, 
jasper-agate,  Jse: 

ni.  Aluminous  Veoetablb  Fossils. 

1.  BUttmmaut  tlaU,  sckutug,  and  thak,  contmn- 
ing  vegetabie  rematm,  are  frequently  met  with  m 
the  neighbouibood  of  coal,  lliese  remains,  as 
have  been  already  mentioned,  are  of  various 
gramina,  cryptogami,  and  succulent  plants.  On 
allowing  some  of  these  bodies  to  remain  in  water, 


£03 

their  substance  becomes  softened  down,  md  is 
resolved  into  a  mass  in  which  thi^  vegetaole 
matter  is  obvious. 

3.  Alumnom  loood— Hie  wood  which  has 
been  thus  named  by  different  authors,  by  its. 
proneness  to  combustion,  and  by  the  other  pro- 
perties which  they  descrttie  it  to  possess,  should 
oe  considered  as  pyritous  wood,  naviug  obtained 
its  change  in  the  ferruginous  clay  in  which  it 
has  been  imbedded.  The  mineralising  matter  of 
metallic  fossil  vegetables  is  most  commonly  the 
pyrites  or  sulprarets  and  carbonates  of  iron, 
copper,  zinc,  or  lead. 

I.  FEERUOIVO09  FOSBKL  WoOD. 

1.  Fyriftco/.— In  this  fossil  the  sdphuret  of 
iron  pervades  the  charcoal  into  which  the  vege- 
table matter  has  been  converted.  When  first 
found  it  generally  possesses  metallic  brilliancy, 
is  sufficiently  hard  to  scratch  glass,  emits  sparks 
on  collision  with  steel,  and  displays  the  forms 
and  markiuffs  |>ointing  out  its  vegetable  origin ; 
but  it  soon  begins  to  sufler  from  decomposition, 
when  its  characters  change,  and  it  finally  resolves 
into  a  saline  fiocculent  substance. 

2.  Carbonaied^-^Jn  these  specimens,  which 
are  of  different  shades  of  brown  color,  and  ge- 
nerally of  a  uniform  substance,  the  marks  of  the 
vegetable  origin  are  easily  observable,  although 
not  so  distinct  as  in  the  specimens  of  the  pre- 
ceding species  before  the  commencement  of  tiie 
decomposition. 

II.  FEnRuomous  Fossil  Sbsds,  &c. 
Innumerable  seeds,  seed-vessels,  fcc.,  have  been 

found  by  Mr.  Crow  and  others,  in  the  blue  day 
of  Sheppey  in  the  state  of  pyrites.  Most  of 
these  bielong  to  plants  unknown  to  our  botanists; 
the  existing  plants,  to  which  the  others  seem  to 
approximate,  are  some  of  those  of  the  warmer 
climates. 

III.  Cupreous  Fossil  MPood. 

.1.  Pyritical, — ^This  fossil  is  distinguishable 
from  the  ferruginous  pyritical  wood,  by  the  py- 
rites being  of  rather  a  darker  color,  but  chiefly 
by  the  blue,  or  green  color  which  partially  per- 
vades the  fossil.  In  some  specimen^  in  which 
the  general  appearance  is  mat  of  bituminous 
wood,  the  melAllic  impregnation  can  only  be  de* 
tected  by  the  weight  of  the  fossU  and  the  blue  or 
green  hue  on  its  surfece. 

3.  Wood  converted  into  catiicmaU  and  kydraie 
of  oof)p«r.— Cupreous  wood  in  this  state  forms 
very  beautifttl  specimens,  displaying,  not  only  on 
its  sur&ce,  but  in  its  substance,  mingled  with 
the  charred  wood,  the  most  vivid  blue  and  green 
colors,  with  patches  of  the  carbonate  in  the 
state  of  malachite.  The  finest  specimens  of  ' 
cupreous  wood  are  obtained  fimn  the  copper 
mines  of  Siberia. 

3.  Wood  mrneraimdhy  /M<— -Spedmens  of 
wood  containing  galena,  the  snlphuret  of  lead, 
have  been  chiefly  discovered  in  Derbyshire.  The 
leaves  of  plants,  except  those  of  gramina,  junci, 
and  of  the  cryptogamia,  are  seldom  found  in  a 
mineralised  state.  The  lobes  and  pinnulie  of 
ferns,  as  has  been  before  mentioned,  are  fire- 
(piently  found  in  a  bitaminised  state  in  nodules 
of  ironstone,  and  in  inmiense  quantities  with  the 
remains  of  gramina  and  succulent  plants  in  the 
schistoee  and  slaty  coverings  of  coal. 


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REMAINS  (ORGANIC). 


Among  t!bt  namerous  renainfl  of  plants  reiy 
few  are  found  whicK  agree  in  their  specific  cha* 
racters  with  any  known  species,,  and  many  indeed 
differ  so  much  as  to  render  it  difficult  to  deter- 
mine eiren  the  genus  under  which  thev  should 
be  pUced.  The  leaves  of  trees  are  only  found 
<in  substances  which  appear  to  be  of  modem  for- 
mation. Among  these  are  said  to  have  been 
found  those  of  the  willow,  the  pear-tree,  muU 
berry-^e»  and  of  several  others.  These  have 
been  found  in  fossil  calcareous  stone^  chiefly  in 
that  of  Oeningen,  and  in  the  calcareous  tufa  bor- 
dering those  lakes  and  rivers  which  abound  in 
calcareous  matter.  Leaves  are  sometimes  found 
in  sandstone  which  somewhat  resemble  those  of 
trees,  but  which  most  probably  have  belonged  to 
aquatic  plants.  In  the  gray  chalk,  small  white 
ramose  iorms'  are  found,  which  pervade  the 
chalk,  and  have  the  appearance  of  being  of  vege- 
table origin.  Wood  and  other  vegetable  sub* 
stances  are  freouently  found  in  clay  wrid  limestone 
in  the  state  or  charcoal.  It  cannot  always  be 
ascertained  by  what  means  this  change  has  been 
effected ;  but  in  that  which  is  found  in  the  blue 
clay,  and  in  other  situations  in  which  pyrites  pre- 
vail, the  change  may  safely  be  attributed  to  the 
decomposition  of  the  pyrites  with  which  those 
substances  had  been  impregnated. 

Mosses^  Cofi/eroff,  4^. — Rounded  pebbles, 
called  moss  agates,  are  freauently  found  on  the 
coast  of  the  North  Riding  of  Yorkshire  and  Dr. 
M'CuUoch  describes  them  as  having  been  found 
on  the  shore  at  Douglas  in  Scotland,  containiug 
substances  which  have  the  appearance  of  vege* 
tobies. 

Daubenton  and  Blumenbach  had  expressed 
their  conviction  of  the  vegetable  origin  of  these 
substances;  still  many  considered  Uiem  as  en- 
tirely mineral :  but  Dr.  M'Cullocb,  pursuing 
ibis  enquiry  with  his  usual  teal  and  acuteness, 
observes,  that  deception  is  very  likely  to  arise  in 
these  specimens,  from  the  well  known  metallic 
arborizations  emulating  the  vegetable  forms,  be- 
cominff  blended  with  the  real  vegetoble;  and 
from  tne  actual  investment  of  the  whole  plant 
with  carbonate  of  iron ;  but  the  most  common 
source  of  deception  and  obscurity,  in  the  Dr.'s 
opinion,  'will  be  found  in  the  whimsical  and 
fiorous  disposition  occasionally  assumed  by 
chlorite,  its  color  often  imitating  the  natural  hue 
of  a  plant  as  perfectly  as  its  fibrous  and  ramified 
appwance  does  the  disposition  and  form  of  one.' 
All  the  plants  that  have  been  discovered  in  this 
state  of  envelopment  in  quartz  appear  to  belong 
to  certain  species  of  the  cryptogamia  class,  chiefly 
byssi,  confervs,  jungermannie,  and  the  mosses. 
Ine  stones  found  at  Dunglas,  Dr.  M'CuUoch  ob* 
serves, '  contain  remains  of  organized  substances 
of  an  epocha  at  least  equally  ancient  with  that  in 
which  the  vegetable  remains  found  in  the  floetz 
strata  existed.  As  the  species  ascertained  by 
Daubenton  have,  in  all  probability,  been  pre- 
served in  recent  formations  of  chalcedony,'  so  the 
Dr.  thinks  that  *  those  which  he  describes  have 
been  preserved  in  the  chalcedonies  of  former 
days.'  The  moss  agates  of  the  Yorkshire  coast 
appear  to  be  of  the  ancient,  whilst  other  speci- 
mens prove  the  correctness  of  Dr.  M'Culloch's 
opinion,  that  some  of  these  fossils  are  of  recent 
formation. 


The  remarks  of  Dr.  M'Culloch  on  the  mode 
in  which  these  curious  investments  were  accom- 
plished, deserve  particular  attention :— *  The  it* 
mains  are,  in  fact  (if  I  may  use  such  an  expression), 
embalmed  alive.  To  produce  this  effect,  we  can 
only  conceive  a  solution  of  silex  in  water,  so 
dense  as  to  support  the  weight  of  the  substance 
involved,  a  solution  capable  of  solidifying  in  a 
short  space  of  time,  or  capable  at  least  of  sud* 
denly  gelatinizing  previously  to  the  ultimate 
change  by  which  it  became  solidified  into  stone.' 
Dr.  M'Culloch  describes  and  figures  a  conge- 
ries of  tubuli  contained  in  an  oriental  agate: 
similar  substances  are  found  in  the  pebblu  on 
the  Yorkshire  coast. 

A  knowledge  of  the  vegetable  fossils  peculiar 
to  the  different  strata  will,  in  all  prooability, 
open  to  us  considerable  stores  of  instruction; 
we  may  thereby  learn,  not  only  the  nature  of  the 
several  vegetable  beings  of  the  earlier  ages  of  this 
planet,  but  may  ascertain  the  order  in  which  the 
several  tribes  were  created :  and,  reckoning  upon 
the  considerable  advance  which  has  been  made 
in  our  knowledge  of  the  structure  of  the  earth, 
and  upon  the  eagerness  with  which  enquiries  re- 
specting the  organic  remains  of  former  periods 
are  pursued,  the  attainment  of  such  knowledge, 
it  may  be  presumed,  is  not  far  distant.  At  pre- 
sent we  know  of  no  vegetable  remains  of  earlier 
existence  than  those  which'  belong  to  the  coal 
formation ;  and  these  appear  to  be  chiefly  deriv- 
ed from  various  grasses  and  reeds,  and  plants  of 
the  cryptogamous  and  succulent  tribes,  many  of 
which  are  not  known  to  exist  on  the  surface  of 
the  earth  at  present.  From  the  latter  of  these 
the  coal  itself  appears  to  have  chiefly  proceeded. 
In  the  mountoin  limestone  above  the  coal,  and 
in  the  different  members  of  this  formation  exist- 
ing between  this  and  the  blue  lias,  vegetable  re- 
mains appear  to  be  of  but  rare  occurrence ;  so 
that  particulars  of  such  ae  have  been  discovered 
in  these  situations  may  furnish  much  useful  in- 
formation, and  especially  with  respect  to  those 
fossils  wliicl)  are  supposed  to  have  derived  their 
origin  from  wood. 

It  has  been  assumed  that  wood,  or  parts  of 
trees,  have  been  found  in  coal  and  in  the  accom- 
panyiiag  coal-measures,  but  some  confirmation  of 
these  accounts  seems  to  be  required.  The  de- 
scription of  these  fossils  has  seldom  been  so  par- 
ticular and  exact  as  to  yield  positive  evidence  of 
their  original  nature ;  and,  as  has  been  already 
shown,  Uie  instances  are  by  no  means  infrequent 
in  which  the  traces,  and  even  the  remains,  of  cac- 
tuses and  other  succulent  plants,  had  given  rise 
to  the  belief  of  the  existence  of  fossil  trees  in 
these  strata.  This  opinion  may  therefore  have 
obtained  seeming  confirmation  from  the  ligneous 
hardness  which  large  plants  of  this  kind  might 
have  acquired,  and  which,  perhaps,  might  be 
traced  in  their  mineralised  remains.  The  earliest 
^stratification  in  which  fossil  wood  exists  is  not 
perhaps  at  present  determined ;  but  it  seems 
that  the  earliest  appearance  in  this  island  of  fos- 
sil wood,  which  by  its  uniformity  of  character 
appears  to  belong  to  a  particular  bed,  is  the 
spathose  bituminous  wood  of  the  blue  lias,  as 
found  at  Lyme  in  Dorsetshire,  and  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  Bath.    In  the  next  formation,  and 


Digitized  by 


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REMAINS  (ORGANIC). 


605 


jpaiticukriy  in  that  of  the  green  land,  silioeons 
fossil  wood  occurs  frequenUy.  Very  delicate 
f  pecimens  are  found  in  the  sandstone,  the  whet- 
stone of  the  Blackdown  hills  of  Devonshire.  The 
specimens  of  fossil  wood  found  in  the  Portland 
stone  are  frequently  of  very  considerable  size, 
and  bear  all  the  characteristic  marks  of  wood : 
these  are  also  siliceous,  and  are  often  beautifully 
sprinkled  on  their  inferior  surdsces  with  quartz 
crystals.  Siliceous  fossil  wood  is  also  found  in 
other  situations,  as  in  the  sands  of  Woobum  in 
Bedfordshire:  it  also  occurs  at  Folkstone  in 
Kent,  in  that  part  of  the  green  sand  where  it  ap- 
proximates to  the  superincumbent  marl,  in  which 
It  is  also  found.  Traces  of  wood  are  hardly  ever 
discovered  in  the  chalk  itself,  and  so  rarely  in 
the  accompanyiug  flint  nodules,  that  the  know- 
ledge of  but  one  specimen,  an  instance  of  this 
occurrence,  is  known  to  the  writer  of  these  pages. 
But  in  the  blue  clay,  incumbent  upon  this  im- 
mense accumulation  of  chalk,  fossil  wood,  pierc- 
ed with  teredines,  and  impregnated  with  calcare- 
ous spar,  is  eiceedinsly  abundant :  and  in  almost 
«very  sunken  part  of  this  bed,  and  even  of  the 
whole  sur&ce  of  this  island,  the  remains  are  dis- 
coverable of  vast  forests  which  have  suffered  little 
other  change  than  that  of  having  undergone  dif- 
ferent degrees  of  bituminisation. 

By  these  facts,  concludes  Mr.  Parkinson,  we 
learn  that,  at  some  very  remote  and  early  period 
of  the  existence  of  this  planet,  it  roust  have 
abounded  with  plants  of  the  succulent  kind,  and, 
as  it  appears  from  their  remains,  in  great  variety 
of  form  and  luxuriancy  of  size  These,  from 
what  is  discoverable  of  their  structure,  beset  with 
setsB  and  spines,  were  not  formed  for  the  food  of 
animals ;  nor,  from  the  nature  of  the  substances 
of  which  they  were  composed,  were  they  fitted 
to  be  applied  to  the  various  purposes  to  which 
wood,  the  product  of  the  earth  at  a  subsequent 
period,  has  been  found  to  be  so  excellently  adapt- 
ed, by  man.  Their  remains,  it  must  also  be 
remarked,  are  now  found  in  conjunction  with 
that  substance  which  nature  has,  in  all  probabi- 
lity, formed  from  them ;  and  which,  by  the  pe- 
culiar economical  modification  of  its  combustibi- 
lity, is  rendered  an  invaluable  article  of  fuel. 
If  this  be  admitted  to  be  the  origin  of  coal,  a 
satisfactory  cause  will  appear  for  the  vase  abund- 
ance of  vegetable  matter  with  which  the  earth 
must  have  been  stored  in  its  early  ages:  this 
vast,  and  in' any  other  view  useless,  creation,  will 
thus  be  ascertained  to  have  been  a  beneficent  ar- 
rangement by  Providence  for  man,  the  being  of 
a  creation  of  a  later  period. 

Class  IX.— HOMO. 

Remains  of  the  kuman  tpecies  are  not  found 
n  secondary  strata ;  but  in  the  clay  of  the  As- 
sures of  rocks  they  are  not  infrequent,  and  they 
have  been  found  in  alluvial  soil  at  Koestretz  in 
Germany.  Mr.  Konig^s  account  of  the  most 
celebrated  fossile  skeleton  yet  discovered  (and 
which  is  now  in  the  Britisii  Museum)  is  thus 
introduced : — 

'All  the  circumstances  under  which  the  known 
depositions  of  bones  occur,'  says  this  gentleman, 
*  both  in  alluvial  beds  and  in  the  caverns  and 
fissures  of  flcetz  limestone  tend  to  prove,  that 


the  animals  to  which  lim  belonged  met  thefar 
fate  in  the  very  places  where  thev  now  lie  bu- 
ried. Hence  it  may  be  considered  as  an  axiom, 
that  man,  and  other  animals,  whose  bones  are 
not  found  intermixed  with  ^em,  did  not  co- 
exist in  time  and  place.  The  same  mode  of 
reasoning  would  further  justify  us  in  the  con- 
clusion, that,  if  those  catastrophes  which  over- 
whelmed a  great  proportion  of  the  brute  cre- 
ation were  general,  as  geognostic  observations  in 
various  parts  of  the  worid  render  probable,  the 
creation  of  man  must  have  been  posterior  to 
that  of  those  genera  and  species  or  mammalia 
which* perished  by  a  general  cataclysm,  and 
whose  bones  are  so  thickly  disseminated  in  the 
more  recent  formations  of  rocks. 

*  The  human  skeletons  from  Guadaloupe  are 
called  Galibi  by  the  natives  of  that  island ;  a 
name  said  to  have  been  that  of  an  ancient  tribe 
of  Caribs  of  Guiana,  but  which,  accordmg  to  a 
plausible  conjecture,  originated  in  the  substi- 
tution of  the  letter  /  instead  of  r,  in  the  woiti 
Caribbee.  No  mention  is  made  of  them  by  any 
author  except  general  Emouf,  in  a  letter  to  M. 
Faujas  St.  fond,  inserted  in  vol  v.  1805  of  the 
Annales  du  Museum ;  and  by  M.  Lavaisse,  in 
his  Voyiu;e  i  la  Trinidad,  &c.,  published  in 
1813.  The  former  of  these  gentlemen  writes, 
that,  on  that  part  of  the  windward  side  of  ^e 
Grande-Terre  called  La  MoCile,  skeletons  are 
found  enveloped  in  what  he  terms  '  Masses  de 
madrepores  p^trifi^,'  which  being  very  hard, 
and  situated  withinr  the  line  of  high  water,  could 
not  be  worked  without  great  difficulty,  but  that 
he  expected  to  succeed  in  causing  some  of  these 
masses  to  be  detached,  the  measurements  of 
which  he  states  to  be  about  eight  feet  by  two 
and  a  half. 

'  The  block  brought  home  by  Sir  Alexander 
Cochrane  exactly  answered  this  account  with 
regard  to  the  measurements ;  in  thickness  it  was 
alx>ut  a  foot  and  a  half.  It  weighed  nearly  two 
tons ;  its  shape  was  irregular,  approaching  to  a 
flattened  oval,  with  here  and  there  some  conca- 
vities, the  largest  of  which,  as  it  afterwards  ap- 
peared, occupying  the  place  where  the  thigh 
bone  had  been  situated,  the  lower  part  of  which 
was  therefore  wanting.  Except  tne  few  holes 
evidently  made  to  assist  in  raising  the  block,  the 
masons  here  declared,  that  there  was  no  mark  of 
a  tool  upon  any  part  of  it;  and,  indeed,  the 
whole  had  very  much  the  appearance  of  a  huge 
nodule  disengaged  from  a  surrounding  mass. 
The  situation  of  the  skeleton  in  the  block  was  so 
superficial,  that  its  presence  in  the  rock  on  the 
coast  had  probably  been  indicated  bv  the  pro- 
jection of  some  of  the  more  elevated  parts  of 
the  left  fore-arm.  • 

<T)ie  skull  is  wanting;  a  circumstance  which 
is  the  more  to  be  regretted  as  this  character- 
istic part  might  possibly  have  thrown  some  light 
on  the  subject  under  consideration,  or  would,  at 
least,  have  settled  the  question,  whether  the  ske- 
leton is  that  of  a  Carib,  who  used  to  give  the 
frontal  bone  of  the  head  a  particular  shape  by 
compression;  which  had  the  effect  of  depres- 
sing the  upper,  and  protruding  the  lower  edge 
of  the  orbits,  so  as  to  make  the  direction  of  their 
opening  nearly  upwards,  or  horizontal,  instead 


^  Digitized  by  VjUU^ 


le 


506 

^  TerticaL  Tha  TeilefanB  of  die  neck'  were  lost 
irkh  the  heed.  The  bonei  of  the  ihonx  beur 
aU  the  nftrks  of  oonaidenble  ooacneBioD,  and 
axe  coMfdetely  dislocated.  The  aeven  true  ribs 
of  the  left  siae,  thoogh  their  heads  are  not  in 
connexion  with  the  ▼ertebrv^  are  eemplete ;  but 
only  three  of  the  felse  ribs  are  obserrable.  On 
the  right  side  only  fiagments  of  these  bones  are 
seen ;  but  the  upper  part  of  the  seven  trae  ribs 
of  this  side  are  found  on  the  left,  and  might  at 
first  sight  be  taken  ibr  the  termination  Si  the 
left  libs.  The  right  ribs  must  therefore  lucre 
been  violently  broken,  and  carried  over  to  the 
left  aide,  where,  if  this  mode  of  viewing  the 
subject  be  correct,  the  stemnm  must  likewise 
lie  concealed  bdow  the  tenninatioQ  of  the  ribs. 
Tbe  small  bone  dependent  above  the  upper  ribs 
of  the  left  side  appears  to  be  the  lig^t  clavicle. 
The  right  os  humeri  is  lost ;  of  the  left  nothing 
remains  except  the  condyles  m  connexion  with 
the  fore-arm,  which  is  in  the  state  of  pronation ; 
the  radius  of  this  side  exists  neariy  m  its  foil 
length,  while  of  the  ulna  the  lower  part  only 
remains,  which  is  considerebly  pushed  upwards. 
Of  the  two  bones  of  the  right  mre-arm  the  in- 
forior  terminations  are  seen.  Both  the  tows  of 
the  bones  of  the  wrists  are  lost,  but  the  wboie 
metacarpus  of  the  left  hand  is  displayed,  toge- 
ther with  part  of  the  bones  of  the  foigen :  the 
first  joint  of  the  fore  finger  rests  on  the  upper 
ridge  of  the  os  pubis,  the  two  others,  detached 
from  their  metacarpal  bones,  are  propelled 
downwards,  and  situated  at  the  inner  side  of  the 
femur,  and  bcdow  the  fommen  magnum  ischii 
of  this  side.  Vesti^  of  three  of  tl^  fingers  of 
the  right  hand  are  likewise  visible,  consi(ferably 
below  the  lower- portion  of  the  fore-arm,  and 
close  to  the  upper  extremity  of  the  femur.  The 
vert^ne  may  be  tiaced  along  the  whole  length 
of  the  colunm,  but  are  in  no  part  of  it  well  och 
fined.  Of  the  OS  sacrum  the  superior  portion 
ODly  is  distinct:  it  is  disunited  from  the  last 
vertebra  and  the  ilium,  and  driven  upwards. 
The  left  os  ilium  is  neady  comolete ;  but  shat- 
tered, and  one  of  the  fmements  aq;>r^sed  below 
the  level  of  the  rest:  me  ossa  pubis,  though 
well  defined,  are  gradually  lest  in  the  mass  of 
the  stone.  On  the  right  side  the  os  innomi» 
natum  is  completely  shattered,  and  the  finag- 
ments  are  sunk ;  but,  towards  die  acetabulum, 
part  of  its  internal  oellnlar  structure  is  di»- 
cemibie. 

'The  thigh  bones  and  the  bones  of  the  leg  of 
the  riffht  side  are  in  good  preservation,  but,  b^ng 
eonsideiabiy  turned  outwards,  the  fibula  lies 
buried  in  the  stone,  and  is  not  seen.  The  lower 
part  of  the  femur  of  this  side  is  indicated  onfy 
by  a  bony  outline,  and  appears  to  h^ve  been 
distended  by  the  compact  limestone  that  fills- 
the  cavities  both  of  the  bones  of  the  leg  -and. 
thigh,  and  to  the  expansion  of  which  these  bones 
probably  owe  their  present  shattered  conditioir. 
The  lower  end  of  the  left  thigh  4>one  appears  to 
have  been  broken  and  lostr  in  the  operation  <^ 
detaching  the  block ;  the  two  bones  of  the  leg, 
however,  on  this  side  are  neariy  complete:  iSe 
tibia  was  split  almost  the  whole  of  its  length  a 
little  below  the  external  edge,  and  the  fissure, 
being  filled  up  with  limestone,  now  presents 


REMAII^S  (ORGANIC). 


le  por- 
ofthe 


itself  as  a  daric  ooloied  straight  line.  The 
tion  of  die  stone  whidi  contained  part 
bones  of  the  tarsus  and  metatarsus  vras  unfor- 
tunately broken ;  but  the  separate  fragments  are 
preserved. 

*  The  whole  of  the  bones,  when  first  laid  bare, 
had  a  mouldering  appearance,  and  the  hard  sur- 
rounding stone  could  not  be  detached,  without 
frequently  injuring  their  suriaoe ;  but,  after  an 
exposure  for  some  days  to  the  air,  they  acquired 
a  considerable  degree  of  hardness.  Sir  H. 
Davy,  who  subjected  a  smaU  portion  of  them  to 
chemical  analysis,  firand  that  tney  contained  part 
of  their  animal  matter,  and  idl  their  phosphate 
of  Ume.  Here  follows  an  exact  descriptiott  of 
the  rock,  in  which  die  fiissile  skeleton  is  found. 
The  attention  of  geologists  being  now  directed 
towards  this  object,  it  may  be  expected  that  a 
scientific  examination  of  the  circumstances 
under  which  this  limestone  occurs  will  not  §aSk 
ere  long  to  fix  its  age,  and  assign  to  it  the  place 
it  is  to  occupy  in  iSbe  series  of  rocks.  All  our 
present  information  respecting  the  Grande  Terre 
of  GoadaUwpe  amounts  to  this,  that  it  is  a  flat 
limestone  country,  derived  principally  from  the 
detritus  of  loophytes,  with  here  and  there  single 
hiUs  (momes)  composed  of  shell  limestone  ; 
while  Guadaloupe,  property  so  called,  8€s>arated 
from  the  upper  part  by  a  narrow  channel  of  the 
sea,  has  no  traces  of  limestone,  and  is  entirely 
vokanic.'    See  ptote  II.  ^.  3. 

Since  the  above  has  been  prepared  we  have 
happened  of  the  accounts  of  an  old  acquaintance, 
Mr.  Trimmer,  of  some  organic  remains  found 
near  Brentford,  Middlesex ;  the  spot  menticmed 
will  be  fiuniliar  to  many  of  ourreadere.  He  » 
describing  in  order  the  remains  of  two  fields, 
not  contiguous. 

'  The  first,'  he  says,  *  is  about  half  a  mile 
north  of  the  Thames  at  Kew  Bridge ;  its  sutfoce 
is  about  twen^-five  feet  above  the  Thames  at 
low  water*  The  strata  here  are,  first,  sandy 
loam  firom  six  to  seven  foet,  the  lowest  two  feet 
slightly  calcareous.  Second]^,  sandy  gravd,  a  fow 
inches  only  in  thickness.  Thirdly,  loam  slightly 
calcareous,  from  one  to  five  feet :  between  tfav 
and  the  next  stratum  peat  frequently  intervenea 
i%  small  patches,  of  only  a  few  yards  wide  and  a 
few  inches  thick.  Fourthly,  gravel  containmg 
watery  this  stratum  varies  fiom  two  U>  ten  foet 
in  thickness,  and  is  always  die  deepest  in  the 
places  covered  by  peat;  in  these  places  the 
lower  part  of  the  stratum  becomes  an  heteroge- 
neous mass  of  day,  sand,  and  gravel,  and  fre- 
quently exhales  a  disagreeable  muddy  smdl. 
Fifthly,  the  main  stratum  of  blue  clay,  which  lia 
under  this,  extends  under  London  and  its  vici- 
nity ;  the  average  depth  of  this  dav  has  been 
ascertained,  by  wells  that  have  been  dug  through 
it,  to  be  about  200  feet  under  the  surfeoe  of  Ute 
more  level  lands^  and  proportionally  deeper 
under  the  Mils,  as  appears  finom  lord  Spencer's 
well,  at  Wimbledon,  which  is  567  feet  deep. 
This  stratum,  besides  figured  fossils,  contaui» 
pyrites  and  many  detached  nodules;  at  the  depth 
of  twenty  feet  there  is  a  regular  stratum  of  these 
nodules,  some  of  which  are  of  very  couBidenblr 
size. 

<  In  the  first  stratum,  as  for  as  my  observatia 


Digitized  by  N^jUU^^ltT 


REMAINS  (ORGANIC) 


haft'extendedy  no  lemains  of  an  oiganiflod  body 
has  ever  been  (bond,  and,  as  my  search  has  not 
been  very  limited,  I  may  Tenture  to  say  it  con- 
tains none.  In  the  second  stratum  snail  shells, 
and  the  shells  of  river  fish  have  been  found,  and 
a  few  bones  of  land  animals,  but  of  inconsiderap 
ble  size,  and  in  such  a  mutilated  stale  that  it 
cannot  be  ascertained  to  what  class  th^  belong. 
In  the  third  stratum  the  horns  and  bones  of  iSe 
ox,  and  the  horns,  bones,  and  teeth  of  the  deer, 
have  been  found,  and  also,  as  in  the  second 
stratum,  snail  shells,  and  the  shells  of  river  fish. 
In  the  fourth  stratum  were  found  teeth  and 
bones  of  both  the  Afirican  and  Asiatic  elephants, 
teeth  of  the  hippopotamus,  bones,  horns,  and 
teeth  of  the  ox.  A  tusk  of  an  elephant  measured, 
as  it  lay  on  the  ground,  nine  feet  three  inches, 
but,  in  attempting  to  remove  it,  it  broke  into 
small  pieces.  When  this  stratum  dips  into  the 
day,  and  becomes  a  mixed  mass,  as  before 
stated,  it  is  seldom  without  the  remains  of  ani- 
mals. In  the  fifth  stratum,  namely,  the  blue 
day,  the  extraneous  fossils  are  entirely  marine, 
with  the  exception  of  some  specimens  of  fruit 
and  pieces  of  petrified  wood,  the  latter  of  which 
may  be  considered  as  marine,  because,  when  of 
sufficient  size,  they  are  always  penetrated  by 
teredines.  The  other  fossils  from  this  stratum 
are  nautili,  oysters,  pinnae  marinte,  crabs,  teeth 
and  bones  of  fish,  and  a  great  variety  of  small 
marine  shells ;  this  stratum  has  been  penetrated 
hitherto  in  this  field  only  to  the  depth  of  thirty 
feet,  throughout  which  the  specimens  found  were 
dispersed  without  any  regularity. 

^  The  second  field  is  about  one  mile  to  the 
westward  of  the  former,  one  mile  north  of  the 
Thames,  and  a  quarter  of  a  mile  to  the  eastward 
of  the  river  Brent;  its  height  above  the  Thames 
at  low  water  is  about  forty  feet  The  strata  are, 
first,  sandy  loam,  eight  or  nine  feet,  in  the  lowest 
three  feet  of  which  it  is  slightly  calcareous. 
Secondly,  sand,  becoming  coarser  towards  the 
lowest  part,  and  ending  in  sandy  gravel  from 
three  to  eight  feet  Thinly,  sandy  loam  highly 
calcareous,  having  its  upper  surfiice  nearly  level, 
but  gradually  increasing  in  thickness,  from  a 
feather-edge  to  nine  feet.  Below  this  are  two 
strata  of  gravel  and  clay,  as  in  the  other  field ; 
but,  as  these  strata  have  been  only  occasionally 
penetrated  in  digging  for  water,  nothing  there- 
fore is  known  with  respect  to  them  but  t^  they 
exist  there.  In  the  first  stratum,  as  in  the  other 
field,  no  organic  remains  have  been  observed. 
In  the  second,  but  always  within  two  feet  of  the 
third  stratum,  have  been  found  the  teeth  and 
bones  of  the  hippopotamus,  the  teeth  and  bones 
of  the  elephant,  the  horns,  bones,  and  teeth  of 
several  species  of  deer,  the  boms,  bones,  and 
teeth  of  tne  ox,  and  the  shells  of  river  fish. 

'  The  remains  of  hippopotami  are  so  extremely 
abundant,  that,  in  tummg  over  an  area  of  120 
yards  in  the  present  season^  parts  of  six  tusks 
have  been  found  of  this  animal,  besides  a  tooth 
and  part  of  the  horn  of  a  deer,  part  of  a  tusk, 
and  part  of  a  grinder  of  an  elephant,  and  the 
horns,  with  a  sinall  part  of  the  sinill,  of  an  ox. 
One  of  these  horns  I  had  an  opportunity  of 
measuring  as  it  lay  on  the  ground,  and  found  it 
to  be  four  feet  and  a  half  in  length,  and  five 


607 


indies  in diamatar  at  the  hoge end;  itwasfoond 
impracticable  to  move  it  otherwise  than  in  frag- 
ments, whidi  I  have  preserved,  and  have  hopes 
of  being  able  to  put  a  considerable  part  or  it 
together.  The  immense  size  of  this  horn  is 
rendered  more  remarkaUe  by  another  horn  from 
the  same  spot,  which  measures  but  six  inches  in 
length.  Tnottgh  this  stratum  is  so  extremely 
productive  of  the  remains  of  animals,  yet  diere 
are  but  few  good  cabinet  specimens  from  it, 
owing,  it  is  presumed,  to  meir  having  been 
ctuslMid  at  the  time  they  were  buried,  and  to  the 
injury  they  have  since  received  from  moisture. 
It  is  necessary  to  remark  that  the  gravd-stones 
in  this  stratum  do  not  appear  to  have  been 
rounded  in  the  usual  way  oy  attrition,  and  that 
the  bones  must  have  been  deposited  after  the 
flesh  was  off,  because,  in  no  instance  have  two 
bones  been  found  together  which  were  joined  in 
the  living  animal;  and  further,  that  the  bones 
are  not  in  the  least  worn,  as  must  have  been  the 
case  had  they  been  exposed  to  the  wash  of  a  sea- 
beach. 

'  In  the  third  stratum,  viz.  calcareous  loam, 
have  been  found  the  horns,  bones,  and  teeth  of 
the  deer,  the  bones  and  teeth  of  the  ox,  together 
with  snail-shells,  and  the  shells  of  river-fish. 

*  Brentford,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  which 
are  the  fields  I  have  mentioned,  is  situated  on 
the  north  bank  of  the  Thames,  and  is  six  miles 
west  of  London.  The  fall  of  the  Thames  from 
Brentford  to  its  mouth  at  the  Norels  estimated 
at  seven  feet.' — Philosophkal  Tramaetiam, 

We  close  with  a  late  ingenious  speculation  of 
baron  Humboldt's  on  the  occurrence  of  tropical 
animals  and  phmts,  in  a  fossile  state,  in  the 
frozen  regions  of  the  earth. 

Speaking  of  the  heat  of  the  body  of  our  phmet 
he  says, '  It  is  perhaps  in  the  internal  heat  of 
the  earth,  a  heat  which  is  indicated  by  experi- 
ments made  with  the  thermometer,  and  the  phe- 
nomena of  volcanoes,  that  the  cause  of  one  of 
the  most  astonishing  phenomena  which  the  know- 
ledge of  petrifactions  presents  to  us  resides. 
Tropical  forms  of  animals,  arborescent  ferns, 
palms  and  bamboos,  occur  imbedded  in  the  frozen 
regions  of  the  north.  The  primitive  worid  every 
where  discloses  to  us  a  distribution  of  organic 
forms,  which  is  in  opposition  to  the  presently 
existing  state  of  climates.  To  solve  so  import- 
ant a  problem,  recourse  has  been  had  to  a  great 
number  of  hypotheses,  such  as  the  approach  of 
a  comet,  the  cnange  of  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic, 
the  increase  of  intensity  of  the  solar  heat  Kone 
of  these  hypotheses  h^  been  able  to  satisfy  at 
the  same  time  the  astronomer,  the  natural  phi- 
losopher, and  the  geologist.  As  to  my  own  opi- 
nion on  the  subject,  I  leave  die  earth's  axis  in 
its  position,  I  admit  no  change  in  the  radiation 
of  the  solar  disk,  a  change  by  which  a  cdebrated 
astronomer  thought  he  could  explain  the  good 
and  bad  harvests  of  our  fields ;  out  I  imagine 
that  in  each  planet,  independently  of  its  rela- 
tions to  a  central  body,  and  independently  of  its 
astronomical  position,  there  exist  numerous 
causes  of  development  of  heat,  whether  by  the 
chemical  processes  of  oxidation,  or  by  the  pred- 
pitation  and  changes  of  capacity  ot  bodies,  or 
by    the  augmentation  of  the  electro-magnetic 


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REM 


508 


REM 


intensity,  or  tha  communication  between  the 
interaal  and  external  parts  of  the  globe. 

*  When,  in  the  primitive  world,  the  deeply  fis- 
sured crust  of  the  earth  exhaled  heat  by  these 
apertures,  perhaps  during  many  centuries,  palms, 
arborescent  ferns,  and  the  animals  of  warm 
climates,  lived  in  vast  expanses  of  country. 
According  to  this  system  of  things,  which  I  have 
already  indicated  in  my  work  ^titled  Essai 
Geognostique  sur  le  Gisement  des  Roches  dans 
les  deux  Hemispheres,  the  temperature  of  volca- 
noes is  the  same  as  that  of  tne  interior  of  the 
earth,  and  the  same  cavise  which  ifbw  produces 
such  frightful  ravages  would  formerly  have 
made  the  richest  vo^tation  to  spring  in  every 
zone,  from  the  newly  oxidised  envelope  of  the 
earth,  and  from  the  deeply  fissured  strata  of 
rocks.  If,  in  order  to  account  for  the  distri- 
bution o'  the  tropical  forms  that  occur  buried  in 


the  northern  regions  of  the  globe,  it  is  aasatned 
that  elephants  covered  with  long  hair,  now  im- 
mersed m  the  polar  ice,  were  originally  natives 
of  those  climates,  and  that  forms  resembling  the 
same  principal  type,  such  as  that  of  lions  and 
lynxes,  may  have  lived  at  the  same  time  in  Tenr 
different  climates,  such  a  mode  of  explanation 
would  yet  be  inapplicable  to  the  vegetable  pro- 
ductions. For  reasons  which  vegetable  physio- 
logy  discloses,  palms,  bananas,  vdSL  arborescent 
monocotyledonous  plants,  are  unable  to  support 
the  cold  of  the  northern  countries ;  and,  in  the 
geognostical  problem  which  we  are  here  examining, 
it  appears  to  me  diflficult  to  separate  the  plants 
from  the  animals ;  the  same  explanation  ought  to 
embrace  the  two  forms.'  (Tableaux  de  la  Na- 
ture), as  quoted  in  the  Edinbur^  Philosophical 
Journal,  September,  1828. 


REMAKE*,  V.  a.    Re  and  make.    To  make 


That,  which  she  owns  above  her,  most  perfectly 
rtmak§  us  after  the  image  of  our  maker.     OlanvUU. 

REMAND".  Lat.  re  and  mamh.  To  send 
back ;  call  back. 

The  better  lort  quitted  their  freeholds  and  fled 
into  England,  and  never  returned,  though  many  laws 
were  made  to  remand  them  back.  Damet. 

Philoxeniis,  for  despising  some  dull  poetrjr  of 
Dionysius,  was  condemned  to  dig  in  the  quarries ; 
from  whence  beine  remanded^  at  his  return  Dionysius 
produced  some  other  of  his  verses,  which  as  soon  as 
Fhiloxenus  had  read,  he  made  no  reply,  but,  calling 
to  the  waiters,  said,  Carfy  me  again  to  the  quarries. 
G^Mnumnt  of  th§  Tomgm, 

REM'ANENT,  n.  s.  Old  Fr.  remanant ;  LaL 
"emantm.  Now  contracted  to  remnant.  The 
part  remaining. 

Her  majesty  boueht  of  his  executrix  the  remaMnt 


of  the  last  term  of  three  years. 

REMARK',i7.a.&n.«.  ^ 
Remark'able,  adj,        I 
Rsmark'ableness,  n.  s.  y 
R^mark'ably,  adv, 
Remark'er,  n.  s. 


Bacon. 

Fr.  '^marquery  or 

rhapsreandroark. 

)   note ;    observe 

i  particularly ;  distin- 

yguish:   the  note  or 


observation  made  or  taken :  remarkable  is,  wor- 
thy of  note ;  observable :  the  noun  substantive 
and  adverb  corresponding:  remarker,  an  ob- 
server. 

So  did  Orpheus  plainly  teach  that  the  world  had 
beginning  in  time,  from  the  will  of  the  most  high 
God,  whose  rtmarhajbk  words  are  thus  converted. 

Haleigh, 

They  signify  the  remarkalUnm  of  this  punishment 
of  the  Jews,  as  signal  revenge  from  the  crucified 
Christ  *  Hammond, 

The  prisoner  Samson  here  I  seek. 
— His  manacles  ranark  him,  there  he  sits.    MlUon. 

It  is  easy  to  obseive  what  has  been  remarked,  that 
the  names  of  simple  ideas  are  the  least  liable  to  mis- 
takes. Locke. 
Tis  rmarkabU  that  they 
Talk  most  who  have  the  least  to  say.      Prior, 

lie  csnnot  distinguish  difficult  and  noble  specula- 
tions from  trifling  and  vulgar  remarks.  Collier. 

Such  parts  of  tiiese  ^Tilings  as  may  be  remarhaVy 
stupid  should  become  subjects  of  an  occasional 
crittcism.  -       WatU, 


If  the  remarker  would  but  once  try  to  outshine  the 
author,  by  writing  a  better  book  on  the  same  subject, 
he  would  soon  be  convinced  of  his  own  msafficieocy. 

hL 

REMBANG,  a  large  town  on  the  north  coast 
of  Java,  containing  many  good  houses,  and  ad- 
vantageously situated  dose  to  the  sea,  which 
washes  the  walls  of  a  fort.  Formerly  the  Dutch 
built  their  principal  vessels  and  kept  a  consider- 
able garrison  here.  A  quantity  of  sea  salt  is 
produced  in  the  neighbourhood. 

REMBRANDT  (Van  Rvn).  This  celebrated 
painter  was  the  son  of  a  miller,  and  was  bom  at 
a  village  near  Leyden  in  1606.  He  obtained  the 
name  of  Van  Ryn,  from  his  having  spent  the 
youthful  part  of  his  life  on  the  holders  of  the 
Rhine.  He  was  at  first  placed  under  Jacob 
Van.Zwanenburg,  with  whom  he  continued  three 
years ;  and  after  this  studied  under  Peter  Last- 
man,  with  whom,  however,  he  staid  only  six 
months.  For  the  same  length  of  time  he  was 
the  scholar  of  Jacob  Pinas;  from  whom  he 
acquired  that  taste  for  strong  contrasts  of  light 
and  shadow  which  he  ever  afVer  so  happily 
cultivated.  He,  however,  formed  his  qwn  style 
entirely,  by  studying  and  imitating  nature,  and 
his  amazing  power  in  representing  every  object 
with  truth,  force,  and  life,  has  never  since  been 
equalled.  By  the  advice  of  a  friend,  Rembrandt 
was  prevailed  on  to  carry  one  of  his  early  per- 
formances to  the  Hague ;  where  a  dealer  instantly 
gave  him  100  florins  for  the  picture.  This  inci- 
dent not  only  served  to  make  the  public  ac- 
quainted with  his  abilities,  but  contributed  to 
make  him  more  sensible  of  his  own  talents.  He 
soon  after  this  settled  in  Amsterdam,  that  he 
might  follow  his  profession  with  more  advantage. 
Business  crowded  on  him  immediately,  so  as 
scarcely  to  allow  him  time  to  gratify  the  demand 
for  his  paintings ;  and  he  had  such  a  number  of 
pupils  that  wealth  flowed  in  plentifully.  He 
received  from  each  of  hb  scholars  100  florins 
a-year  for  their  instruction ;  and  he  also  raised  a 
considerable  sum  by  the  sale  of  the  copies  they 
made  after  his  pictures  and  designs ;  which  he 
always  retouched  in  several  parts,  to  increase 
their  vtrfiie,  and  to  make  purchasers  believe  them 
his  own.     By  this  traffic,  and  an  artful  manage 


Digitized  by  VjiUU^^lt: 


REM 


509 


REM 


ment  of  the  sale  of  his  etchings,  he  gained  at 
least  every  year  2500  florins.  His  style  of  paint- 
ing, in  the  first  years  of  his  practice,  was  very 
different  from  that  of  his  latter  time ;  his  early 
performances  being  highly  finished,  with  a  neat 
pencil,  resembling  those  of  Mieris;  while  his 
latter  style  of  coloring  and  handling  was  strong, 
bold,  and  with  a  degree  of  force,  in  which  he  has 
not  been  excelled  by  any  artist;  a  picture  of  his 
maid  servant,  placed  at  the  window  of  his  house 
in  Amsterdam,  is  said  to  have  deceived  the  pas- 
sengers for  several  days.  De  Piles,  when  he 
Mna  in  Holland,  not  only  ascertained  the  truth 
of  this  fiict,  but  purchased  the  portrait,  which 
he  esteemed  one  of  the  finest  ornaments  in  his 
cabinet.  Rembrandt's  local  colors  are  extremely 
good ;  he  perfectly  understood  the  orinciples  of 
3ie  chiaro-oscuro ;  and  it  is  said  tnat  he  gene- 
rally painted  in  a  chamber  so  contrived  as  to 
admit  but  one  ray  of  light,  and  that  from  above. 
The  lights  in  his  pictures  were  painted  with  a 
body  of  color  unusually  thick,  as  if  it  were  his 
intention  rather  to  model  than  to  paint ;  but  he 
knew  the  nature  and  property  of  each  particular 
tint  so  thoroughly  that  he  preserved  them  in  full 
fireshness,  beauty,  and  lustre. 

His  genuine  works  are  rarely  to  be  met  with, 
and  afford  incredible  prices.  Many  of  them, 
however,  are  in  the  collections  of  our  English 
nobility.  The  etchings  of  Rembrandt  are  ex- 
ceedmgly  admired,  and  collected  with  great  care 
and  expense  for  the  cabinets  of  the  curious  in 
most  parts  of  Europe ;  but  it  is  remarked  that 
none  of  his  prints  are  dated  earlier  than  1628, 
nor  later  than  1659,  though  there  are  several  of 
his  paintings  dated  in  1660,  and  particularly  the 
portrait  of  a  Franciscan  Friar.  There  is,  per- 
naps,  no  branch  of  coUectorship  that  exhibits 
more  caprice  than  that  of  prints  in  general,  or 
those  of  Rembrandt  in  particular.  Instances  of 
this  may  be  adduced  in  the  Juno  without  the 
crown ;  the  Coppenol  with  a  white  back  ground; 
the  Joseph  with  the  face  unshaded,  and  £e  good 
Samaritan, 'with  the  horse's  tail  white,  which  are 
regarded  as  inestimable ;  whilst  the  same  sub- 
jects, without  these  distinctions,  are  considered 
as  of  little  comparative  value.  Strutt  says  that, 
in  consequence  of  a  commission  from  an  emi- 
nent collet,  tor,  he  bid  forty-six  guineas  for  the 
Coppenol,  with  the  white  back  ground,  that  b, 
in  Its  unfinis^hed  state;  tliough  at  the  same  sale 
he  bought  a  beautiful  impression  of  that  phite  in 
a*perfect  coniition,  for  fourteen  guineas  and  a 
half.  Rembrandt  is  supposed  to  have  taken 
advantage  of  this  humor  in  collectors,  by  alter- 
ing and  obliterating  parts  of  bis  plates  to  render 
them  objects  of  enquiry.  He  also  suffered  him- 
self to  be  solicited  before  he  would  consent  to 
part  with  his  work;  and  it  is  a  fiict  that  the 
print  of  Christ  healinff  the  sick,  usually  deno- 
minated the  *  hundred  guilders,'  was  so  called 
because  he  refused  to  sell  it  under  that  price. 
At  present  a  good  impression  is  worth  from  fifty 
to  six^  guineas.  The  rarest  and  most  expen- 
sive of  Rembrandt's  portraits  are  those  of  Uten- 
bogard,  called  the  Gold  Weigher,  and,  in  France, 
the  Banker;  Van  Td,  the  advocate,  and  burgo- 
master Six,  each  of  which  is  estimated  at  fifty 
iniineaf .    This  great  artist  died  at  Amsterdam 


in  1674,  or  according  to  some  accounts  in  1688w 
His  p«sonal  character  was  far  from  amiable ;  he 
was  avaricious,  and  not  very  scrupulous  in  his 
means  of  getting  money.  He  was  also  fond  of 
low  company,  by  which  his  taste  and  principles 
became  aegntded. 

REMEDIOS,  NuESTRA  Senora  de  Los,  a 
reduced  city  of  New  Granada,  and  capital  of  the 
province  of  Rio  del  Hacha,  has  a  good  parish 
church,  and  is  defended  by  a  castle  of  regular 
constroction.  It  was  taken  and  sacked  by 
Francis  Drake  in  1596.  Seventy-three  miles 
east  by  north  of  Santa  Martha,  and  104  north 
west  of  Maracaibo.  It  was  formerly  femous  for 
its  pearl  fisheries. 

REM'EDY,n.i.&t;.a.N  Fr.  remede;  Ital. 
Reme'diabl'e,  a£^'.  I  Span,  and  Port,  re- 
Reme'diate,  \fnedio;  Lat.  rtmtdi- 

Rem'ediless,  I  urn.  Antidote;  agent 

Rem'edilessness,  n.  s.Jor  instrument  of 
cure;  medicine;  that  which  counteracts  any  evil; 
^^tLg  of y  for,  or  agaimty  before  the  object;  repa- 
ration :  to  cure  or  heal ;  repair  or  remove  mis- 
chief: remediable  is  capable  of  renewing; 
remediate,  medicinal :  remediless,  cureless ;  ad- 
mitting no  remedy:  the  noun  substantive  cor- 
responding. 

In  the  death  of  a  man  there  is  no  remedy. 

Wvdom  ii.  1. 
Sad  ^scalapius 
Imprisoned  was  in  chains  ftmedSlMt,    Spenur, 
Sony  we  are  that  any  good  and  godly  mind  should 
be  i^ieved  with  that  which  is  done ;  but  to  remedy 
their  grief  lieth  not  so  much  in  us  as  in  themselves. 

Hooker, 
All  you,  unpublished  virtues  of  the  earth, 
Spring  with  my  tears ;  he  aidant  and  remediate 
In  the  good  man's  distress.  Shahpeare.  King  Leer, 

'  Things,  without  all  remsdy. 
Should  be  without  regard.  id.  Maeheik. 

The  war,  grounded  upon  this  general  remediieu 
necessity,  may  he  termed  the  general,  the  remedUest, 
or  the  necessary  war.  Ealmgh. 

What  may  be  remedy  or  cure 
To  evils,  which  oar  own  misdeeds  have  wrought 

Milum. 
We,  by  rightful  doom  remediieu. 
Were  lost  in  death,  till  he  that  dwelt  above 
High-throned  in  secret  bliss,  for  us  frail  dust 
Emptied  his  glory.  Id, 

Here  hope  began  to  dawn ;  resolved  to  tiy , 
She  fixed  on  this  her  utmost  remedjf,  Drpden, 

There  is  no  surer  remedy  for  superstitious  and 
desponding  weakness,  than' first  to  govern  ourselves 
by  the  best  improvement  of  that  reason  which  provi- 
dence has  given  us  for  a  guide ;  and  then,  when  we 
have  done  our  own  parts,  to  commit  all  chearfully, 
for  the  rest,  to  the  good  pleasure  of  heaven,  with 
trust  and  resignation.  VEslrange. 

Civil  government  is  the  proper  remedy  far  the  in- 
conveniences of  die  state  of  nature.  Locke, 

Flatter  him  it  may,  as  those  are  good  at  flattering 
who  are  good  for  nothing  else  ;^  but,  in  the  mean 
time,  the  poor  man  is  left  under  a  retwiUett  delusion. 


O  how  short  my  interval  of  woe ! 
Our  griefs  how  swift,  our  rewtedie*  how  slow.  Prior, 

The  difierence  between  poisons  and  remediet  is 
easily  known  by  their  efiects ;  and  common  reason 
soon  distinguishes  between  virtue  and  vice.    Sieift^ 


Digitized  by 


vjQOgle 


REM 


510 


REM 


E£M£M'BEB,v.a.'\     Old  Fr. 
Rbmim'bbbbb,  ft.  s.  f  ItBl.  remBmbrare ;  lot 
RsMBM'BRAycBy         ft  rcwf woTW.    To  keq> 
Hbicbm'bbancee.      J  or  bear  in  mind ;  pre- 
serve  from  foigetfulness ;  put  in  mind ;  mention : 
a  rememberer  is  one  who  remembers :  remem- 
brance, memory ;  retentiTeness  of  memory ;  re- 
collection; reminiscence;  memorial;  memento; 
note  of  something  past  or  absent;  honorable 
memory :  remembrancer^  one  who  reminds ;  an 
officer  of  his  nujestyls  exchequer. 
RmmAtt  not  against  us  Ibiroer  iniqoities. 

Pmim  Izzix.  8. 
He  hann^  once  seen  and  vnmmhiui  nie»  even 
from  the  beginning  began  to  be  in  the  rierwaid. 


Ay,  thou  poor  ghost,  while  memory  holds  a  plan 
In  this  distracted  brain.    AcNwmter  thee ! 


Joy,  being  altogether  wanting, 
It  doth  tmmmbtT  me  the  more  ol  lorrow.     Id, 
Thoag;h  Cloten  then  but  young,  time  has  not  wcrn 
him 
From  my  rtmtmbraMe,  Id.  Cymhiim^ 

A  sly  knave,  the  agent  for  his  master, 
And  the  rwnemhraneer  of  her,  to  hold 
The  hand  fast  to  her  lord.  Id, 

Rosemary  and  me  keep 
Seeming  and  savour  all  the  wmter  long  ; 
Grace  and  rmntrnkraiMB  be  unto  you  both.    ■ 

ShakspeiKn, 
Keep  this  wimwtiwMe  for  thy  Julia's  sake.     Id, 
Let  your  fWMm6rofici  still  apply  to  Bauquo ; 
I*rssent  him  eminence,  both  witn  eye  and  tongae. 

Id. 
All  are  digested  into  books,  and  sent  to  the  r^- 
wimbftmetT  of  the  exchequer,  that  he  may  make  pro- 
cesses upon  them.  Bacon. 
It  grieves  me  to  be  rtmtmiertd  thus 
fiy  any  one,  of  one  so  glorious.         Chapman, 
A  bimve  master  to  servants,  and  a  remmberwr  of 
the  least  good  office;  for  his  flock  he  transplanted 
moat  of  tlwm  into  plentif ol  soils.                 watUm, 

If  ever  we  have  found  but  word  or  act  of  God  cor- 
dial to  us,  it  is  Rood  to  fistch  it  forth  oft  to  the  eye. 
The  renewing  of  our  sense  and  rtmBmJbramM  males 
every  gift  of  God  perpetually  beneficial. 

Bp.  Uafft  OnUtmplatUHU, 
I  would  only  nmtmber  them  in  love  and  preven- 
tion, with  the  doctrine  of-the  Jews,  and  the  example 
of  the  Grecians.  Holydajf, 

God  is  present  in  the  consciences  of  good  and  bad ; 
he  is  thoe  a  twMnbwMtr  to  call  our  actions  to 
mind,  and  a  witneu  to  bring  them  to  judgment. 

Taylor, 
Had  memory  been  lost  with  innocence,    , 
We  had  not  known  the  sentence  nor  the'  ofience ; 
Twas  his  chief  punishment  to  keep  in  store 
The  sad  rsfliim&rance  what  he  was  Wore.   Denham, 
These  petitions,  and  the  answer  of  the  common 
council  or  London,  were  ample  materials  for  a  con- 
ference with  the  knds,  who  inight  be  thereby  nmem' 
ftmd  of  their  duty.  Oanndim, 

He  brings  them  back, 
'    RtaMmtern^  mercy  and  his  covenant  sworn. 

I  hate  thy  beams. 
That  bring  to  my  ftmmnbnmet  from  what  state 
I  fell ;  how  glonous  once  above  thy  sphere.    Id, 

Thee  I  have  heard  relating  what  was  done, 
fire  my  rmMmbnmee,  Id, 

Giy  unto  God ;  for  you  shall  be  i9mmhei^  of 
him.  Bmrclay, 


Those  proceedings  and  wwwwIrewMi  ace  in  the 
Tower,  beginning  with  the  tweatiolh  year  of  Ed- 
ward I.  JSfalt. 

Would  I  were  in  my  grave ; 
For,    living  here,  you're  but  my  cursed  rwisw- 

braneen : 
I  once  was  happy.  Otway't  Femes  J*iiisi  vol. 

Sharp  renumbrtmet  on  the  English  part. 
And  shame  of  being  matched  by  such  a  fbe. 
Rouse  conscious  virtue  up  in  every  heart.  Jhjfden, 

This  is  to  be  nmmnbend,  that  it  is  not  poonUe 
now  to  keep  a  young  gentleman  from  vice  by  a  total 
ignoiance  of  it ;  unless  yon  will  all  his  life  mew  him 
up.  L«dh*. 

BfMSM^we  is  when  the  same  idea  recurs,  wHb- 
out  the  operation  of  the  like  otiject  on  the  extermal 
sensory.  Id,> 

A  atation  ought  to  be  certain,  in  reject  of  tlie 
person  cited ;  for,  if  such  certainty  be  therein  omit- 
ted, such  citation  is  invalid,  as  in  many  cases  bens- 
after  to  be  nnembtnd,  Aylifi. 


This  ever  grateful  in  remtmhramot  bear. 
To  me  thou  owest,  to  me  the  yital  air. 


Pope, 


We  are  said  to  rtmmber  any  thing  when  the  idea 
of  it  arises  in  the  mind  with  a  ooasdousneis  that  we 
nave  had  this  idea  before.  WaUa^ 

Sorrows  remtmberwd  sweeten  present  joy.      Pefiofc. 

RsMEM BRAKcsiSy  andendy  called  clerks   of 
the  remembrance,  certain  offioea  of  the  exclie* 
quer,  whereof  three  are  distinguished  by  tbt 
names  of  the  king's  remembrancer,  the  lord  trefr 
snrer's  remembrancer,  and  the  remembranoer  of 
the  first  fruits.    The  king's  remembrancer  enters 
in  his  office  all  recognizances  taken  before  the 
barons    for   any  of  the  king's  debts,  for  ap- 
pearances  or  observing  of  orders ;  he  also  tsto 
all  bonds  for  the  king's  debts,  and  makes  oat 
processes  thereon.    He  l&ewise  issues  procesBes 
against  the  collectors  of  the  customs,  excise,  and 
others,  for  their  accounts;  and  infonnations  wm 
penal  statntes  are  entered  and  sued  in  bis  office, 
where  all  proceedings  in  mutters  upon  EoglisJi 
bills  in  toe  exchequer  chamber  remain.    He 
makes  out  the  bills  ci  compositions  upon  penal 
laws,  takes  the  statement  ot  debts,  mid  into  has 
office  are  delirered  afl  kinds  of  indentures  and 
other  evidences  wlndi  ooocem  the  assuring  any 
lands  to  the  crown.    He  ereiy  year  in  crastiiio 
animaram  reads  in  open  court  the  statute  for 
election  of  sheri£fs ;  and  likewise  openly  reads  in 
court  the  oaths  of  all  the  officers,  when  they  are 
admitted.     Hie  lord  treasurer's  remembrancer 
is  charged  to  make  out  processes  against  all 
dierifi,  esdieators,  receivers,  and  bailiffi,  tSr 
their  aoeoonts.    He  ahK>  makes  out  writs  of  fieri 
fiuuas,  and  extent  for   debts  dne  to  the  king, 
either  in  the  pipe  or  with  the  auditors;  and  pro- 
cess for  all  sucb revenue  as  is  due  to  the  king'on 
acoountof  his  tenures.    He  takes  the  account  or 
sherift ;  and  also  keeps  a  record,  by  which  it 
iq>pears  whether  the  sberifis  or  other  accountants 
pay  their  prefiers  due  at  Easter  and  Michaelmas; 
and  at  the  same  time  he  makes  a  record,  whev^y 
the  sberifis  or  other  accountants  keep  their  pre- 
fixed davs ;  there  are  likewise  broo^t  into  his 
office  all  the  acooonts  of  customers,  comptrollers, 
and  accountants,  to  make  entry  thereof  on  re- 
cord ;  also  all  estreats  and  amercements  are  cer- 
tified here^  ficc.     The  remembrancer  of  the  first 
firuits  HdLes  all  compositions  and  bonds  for  tha 


Digitized  by  ^^JiJUy  It: 


REM 


611 


REM 


ptytAent  of  ilfst  ftuits  and  tenths;  and  makes 
out  process  against  such  as  do  not  pay  the  same. 

HEMER'CIEy  V.  a.  Fr.  remaxur.  To  thank. 
Obsolete. 

Oflering  his  aervim  and  his  dearest  Hie 
For  her  ddbnoe,  against  that  eaile  to  fight ; 
She  him  naercM,  as  the  patron  of  her  life. 


REM16RATE,  o.  n.  >     Lat.  rennero.     To 

Rekigra'tioK^  n.f.  ) remove  back  again: 
removal  back  again. 

The  Scots,  transplanted  hither,  became  acquainted 
with  onr  cnstoms,  which,  bv  occasional  renagratwiu, 
became  diflnted  in  Scotlana.  Hale. 

Some  other  ways  he  proposes  to  divest  some  bo- 
dies of  their  borrowed  shapes*  and  make  them  fm-- 
grmts  to  their  ilxat  stmphcity.  BojfU. 

REMINIX,  v.a.  Re  and  mind.  To  put  in 
mind;  to  force  to  remember. 

When  age  itself,  which  will  not  be  defied,  shall 
begin  to  anest,  seiss  and  nmmd  as  of  *  onr  mortdity 
by  pains  and  dulness  of  senses ;  vet  then  the  plea- 
sare  of  ^he  mind  shall  be  in  its  fall  rigonr.  South, 
^  The  brazen  fignie  of  die  consul,  with  the  ring  oo 
his  finger,  remmdtd  me  of  Juvenal's  majoris  pondera 

Addiaon. 


REMINIS'CENCB,  n.$.\    Lat  reminucent. 

Rshiviscen'tial,  0^*.  9  Recollection;  re- 
covery of  ideas;  rekting  to  memory. 

I  cast  about  for  ail  circumstances  that  may  re- 
vive my  memory  or  rcimiuiMfiM. 

HaU^t  Origin  of  Mankind, 

Would  tratfi  dispense,  we  conld  he  content  with 
Pinto,  that  knowleoj^  were  but  remembrance,  that 
intellectual  acquisition  were  but  nminiaoential  evoca- 
tion. ,  Browns, 

For  the  other  |iart  of  memoiy,  called  rmninitctneo, 
which  u  the  retrieving  of  a  thing  at  present  foreot, 
or  but  conihsedly  remembered,  by  setting  the  mind 
to  ransack  every  little  cell  of  the  Drain ;  while  it  is 
thvs  busied,  how  accidentally  does  the  thing  sought 
lor  oflfer  itself  to  the  mind  1  AaitA. 

REMIREMONT,  a  town  in  thenortb-eastof 
France^  situated  on  the  Mosdle^  among  the 
Voeges  mountains.  It  is  the  centre  of  the  trafiSc 
of  a  laige  mountain  district,  and  has  some  eotton 
manuftuctnres  and  inm  works.  It  had  formerly 
a  celebrated  abbey  ibr  ladies  of  superior  birth. 
The  environs  produce  cherries  and  timber.  In- 
habitanto  4000.  Fourteen  miles  south-east  of 
Epinal. 

REMISS^cu^'.         Y     Fr-  rends ;  Lat.  re- 

RnMisiTiBLSy 

RsMi^sioVy  n.  f . 

Remiss'vess,  n.  s . 
Remit',  v.  a.  &  v.  n. 
Remit'tavcb,  fl.  f . 

RbMII^TOR.  ^ — .n.^^,    ^^  B>'— » 

back  or  relapse  of  a  diseasej  release ;  forgive^ 
ness:  the  aaverb  and  noun  substantive  follow 
the  sense  of  remiss  as  n^ligent;  lax :  to  remit 
is,  to  reka;  resign;  defer;  mrgive;  send  back; 
send  money  to  a  distance :  as  a  ve^  neuter,  to 
slacken ;  abate :  remittance,  the  act  of  sending 
money  to  a  distance ;  the  sum  of  money  sent :  a 
remittor,  he  who  sends  it;  and,  in  law,  a  resti- 
tution to  the  possession  ^  lands  by  a  more  an- 
'    t  title. 


He  diat  blasaHneth  agena  the  Holy  Oest ,  hath 
not  rmiirioim  into  withoute  ende,  but  he  schal  be 
gilti  of  everlastynge  tiespas.  WkUf,  Mark  3. 

Whose  soever  sins  ye  mrit,  they  are  rmitted  unto 
them  ;  and  whose  soever  sins  ye  retain,  they  are  re- 
tained. John  zx.  23. 
How  should  it  then  be  in  our  power  to  do  it  coldly 
or  remisdy  1  so  that  our  desire  being  natural,  is  also 
in  that  degree  of  earnestness  whereunto  nothing  can 
be  added.  Hookor. 

Mad  ire  and  wrathful  fuiy  makes  me  weep. 
That  thus  we  die,  while  remin  traitors  sleep. 

Shaktpearo, 
My  nennaoce  is  to  call  Lucetta  back. 
And  ask  remuwm  for  m^^  folly  past.  Id, 

Future  evils. 
Or  new,  or  by  tvminneo  new  conceived. 
Are  now  to  have  no  successive  degrees.  Id. 

At  my  lovely  Tamora's  intreats, 
I  do  remit  these  young  men's  heinous  ikults.  Id, 
Error  miscteim,  and  forgetfulness  do  now  and  then 
become  suitors  for  some  remmim  of  extreme  rigour. 

The  bishop  had  certain  proud  instructions  in  the 
front,  thongn  there  were  a  pliant  clause  at  the  foot, 
that  remitted  all  to  the  bishop's  discretion.  Id. 

In  grievous  and  inhuman  crimes,  ofienders  should 
be  reakitted.  to  their  prince  to  be  punished  in  the 
place  where  they  have  ofiended.  Haifward. 

You  said,  if  I  returned  next  nze  in  Lent, 

I  should  be  in  remitter  of  your  grace ; 

In  the'  interim  my  letters  should  take  place 

Of  affidavits.  Donn§. 

Many  believe  the  article  of  remistun  of  sins, 
but  they  believe  it  without  the  condition  of  repent- 
ance, or  the  fruits  of  holy  life.  Taller, 
No  great  ofienders  'scape  their  dooms  ; 

Small  praise  from  lenity  and  ivmtoMn  comes. 

XWIMM* 

There  was  not  an  equal  concurrence  in  the  prose- 

cutwn  of  this  matter  among  the  bishops  ;  some  of 

them  proceeding  moie  remisHy  in  it.        Clarendon. 

So  willingly  doth  God  r«Mi^  his  irR.     Milton, 

That  plea 

With  God  or  man  will  gain  thee  no  remittion.    M 

These  nervous,  bold,  those  languid  and  r«miif ; 
Here  cold  salutes,  but  there  a  lover's  kiss. 


miuut,  remilto.  Slack; 
negligent;  not  intense 
or  earnest;  not  strict: 
remissible  is,  admitting 
of  foij^iveness:  remis- 
sion IS,  relaxation ; 
abatement;  the  giving 


If  when  by  God's  grace  we  have  conquered  the 
first  dificulties  of  religion,  we  grow  careless  and  rt- 
mtfs,  and  ne|^|ect  our  guard,  God's  spirit  will  not' al- 
ways strive  with  us.  TiUotton. 

Your  candour  in  pardoniiur  my  errors,  may  make 
me  more  remiu  in  conectine  them.  Drgden. 

With  suppliant  pnyers  Uieir  powers  appease ; 
The  soft  NapsBan  race  will  soon  repent 
Their  anser,  and  remit  the  punishment.  Id. 

The'  &yptian  crown  I  to  your  hands  remit ; 
And,  with  it,  take  his  heart  who  offers  it.  Id, 

This  bold  return  with  seeming  patience  heard. 
The  prisoner  was  rwnttatf  to  the  guard.  Id. 

This  diflerenoe  of  intension  and  remimion  of  the 
nund  in  thinking,  eveiy  one  has  experimented  in 
himself.  Loehe. 

The  magistnto  can  often,  where  the  public  good 
demands  not  the  execution  of  the  law,  remit  the  pu- 
nishment of  criminal  ofiences  by  his  own  authont;|r, 
but  yet  cannot  reaut  the  satisfactioo  due  to  any  pn- 
vato  man.  Locke. 

As,  by  degrees,  they  remitud  of  their  industry, 
loathed  their  business,  and  gave  way  to  their  plea- 
sures, they  let  fall  those  generous  principles,  which 
had  raised  them  to  worthy  thoughts.  South. 

Not  only  an  expedition,  but  the  remmion  of  a 


Digitized  by  VjiUU*^ 


le 


REM 


513 


REM 


dotj  or  tax,  w%n  trtnsmittod  to  poiteritj  after  Uui 
manner.  Ajddiaom. 

A  compact  among  privata  persona  famUhed  out 
t)ie  seyeru  remittaneei.  Id,  on  Italy. 

I  T9mit  me  to  themselves,  and  challenge  their  na- 
tural ingenuity  to  say,  whether  they  have  not  some- 
times snch  shiverings  within  them  1 

OowmiNfiU  of  ih§  Tongiu, 
n  September  and  October  these  diseases  do  not 
abate  or  remit  in  proportion  to  the  rtmission  of  the 
sun's  heat.  Woodtrard. 

The  great  concern  of  God  for  our  salvation  is  so 
far  from  an  argument  of  remissnen  in  us,  that  it 
ouffht  to  excite  our  utmost  care.    Rogfiris  Strmons. 

Jack,  through  the  rnniunat  of  constables,  has  al- 
ways found  means  to  escape.  ArhtOhnot. 

Another  ground  of  the  bishop's  fears  is  the  rmli- 
AMI  of  the  nrst  fruits  and  tenths.  Swift, 

When  onr  passions  rmnit,  the  Yehemence  of  our 
speech  nmiu  too.        Broomt't  Notes  on  the  Odym^, 

REM'NANT,  n.  ff.  &  A^'.     Corrupted  from 
Remanent,  which  see.    lUsidue ;  that  which  is 
left;  or  that  remains;  remaining. 
Poor  key-cold  figure  of  a  holy  king ! 
Thou  bloodless  remnant  of  that  royal  blood, 
Be't  lawful  that  I  invocate  thy  ghost  ?  Shaktpean. 
It  seems  that  the  remnant  of  the  generation  of  men 
were  in  such  a  deluge  saved.  Bacon. 

X  was  intreated  to  get  them  some  respite  and 
breathinp^  by  cessation,  without  which  they  saw  no 
probability  to  preserve  the  remnant  that  had  yet  es- 
caped. King  Charies. 
The  remnant  of  my  tale  is  of  a  length 
To  tire  your  patience.      Drydtn's  KnighVt  TaU. 

A  feeble  jumy  and  an  empty  senate, 
22«piiaiiti  of  mighty  battles  fought  in  vain. 

Addi$9n, 
It  bid  her  feel 
No  future  pain  for  me  ;  but  instant  wed 
A  lover  more  proportioned  to  her  bed ; 
And  quiet  dedicate  her  remnant  life 
To  the  just  duties  of  an  humble  wife.    Prior, 
See  the  poor  remnantt  of  these  slighted  hairs ; 
My  hands  shall  rend  what  even  thy  rapine  spares. 

Pope. 
The  fre(^uent  use  of  the  latter  was  a  remnant  of 
popery,  which  never  admitted  scripture  in  the  vulear 


tongue. 


Swift. 


REMO  (St.),  a  sea-port  of  the  Sardinian  states^ 
in  ifke  Genoa  territory.  It  is  built  on  an  emi- 
nence rising  geiftly  from  the  Mediterranean.  The 
gardens  of  orange  and  lemon  trees  with  which 
it  is  surrounded  render  it  a  most  delightful  spot. 
The  cathedral  churches  and  college,  are  the  only 
public  edifices  worth  notice.*  The  port  is  shallow, 
and  admits  only  small  vessels.  In  1745,  this 
place  was  bombarded  by  the  Britbh.  Popula- 
tion 7500.  Twenty-two  miles  east  by  north  of 
Nice,  and  sixty-six  south-east  of  Genoa. 

R£MOLTEN,|Nir/.  Re  and  molt  Melted 
again. 

It  were  ^ood  to  try  in  glass  woi^,  whether  the 
crude  matenals,  mingled  with  the  glass  already  mads 
and  remoltenf  do  not  facilitate  the  making  of  glass 
with  lesM  heat.  Bacon. 

REMON'STRATE,  v.  n.  >     Fr.  remonstrer ; 

Remon'strance,  n.  s.  >  Latin  remonstro. 
To  represent  strongly;  show  reason  in  strong 
terms  :  show ;  discovery  (not  in  use) ;  strong 
representation. 

The  same  God  which  revealeth  it  to  them,  would  also 
give  them  power  of  confirming  it  unto  othen,  either 


with  miraculous  opentbn,  or  with  strong  and  i 
cible  remonuranae  of  sound  reason.  Hooker. 

You  may  marvel  why  I  would  not  rather 

Make  rashrenumstraiiM  of  my  hidden  power. 

Than  let  him  be  so  lost.  Shakepoore. 

A  large  family  of  danghten  have  drawn  up  a  r»- 
moMtrance,  in  which  they  set  forth  that,  their  father 
having  refused  to  take  in  the  Spectator,  thi^  oflereit 
to  abate  the  article  ot  bread  and  butter  in  the  tea 
table.  Ad^oon't  Speetater. 

Importunate  passions  surround  the  man,  and  wUl 
not  sttfiler  him  to  attend  to  the  remonstmneet  of  jua- 
tioe.  Rogers, 

REM'ORA,  n.  $.  Lat  remora.  A  let  or  ob- 
stacle :  a  fish  or  worm  that  sticks  to  ships,  and 
retards  their  passage. 

^  Of  fishes  yon  shall  find  in  anns  the  whale,  her- 
ring, roach,  and  remora,       Peaekam  on  Blaioning. 

The  remora  is  about  three-quarters  of  a  yard  long ; 
his  body  before  three  inches  and  a  half  over ;  theiKse 
tapering  to  the  tail  end  ;  his  mouth  two  inches  and 
a  half  over :  his  chops  ending  angularly ;  the  nether 
a  little  broader,  and  produced  forward  near  an  inch ; 
his  lips  rough  with  a  great  number  of  little  pricklea. 

Grtm. 

Remora,  the  sucking  fish,  a  species  of 
Echeneis,  which  see. 

REMORSE',  n.  f.^     Fr.  remords;  Lat  re- 

Remorse'ful,  a£g,  >moma.     Pain  of  guilt; 

Remorse'less.  j  reproach  of  conscience : 
hence  tenderness;  pity:  the  adjective  corres- 
ponding. 

Many  little  esteem  of  their  own  lives,  yet  for  rs^ 
mono  of  their  wives  and  children,  vrould  be  withheld. 

openttrm 

The  rogues  slighted  me  into  the  river,  with  as  lit- 
tle remorte  as  they  would  have  drowned  a  bitch's 
blind  puppies.  Skahpeara., 

O  Eglamour,  think  not  I  flatter, 
Valiant  and  wise,  remorseful,  well  aooompliahed. 

id. 

Eurylochus  straight  hasted  the  report 
Of  this  his  fellows  most  reiiMrw^  fate.    Chapouau 

Not  that  he  believed  they  coiud  be  restrained  from 
that  impious  act  by  any  remorte  of  conacienoe,  or 
that  they  had  not  wickedness  enough  to  design  and 
execute  it.  CUrtuden. 

Where  were  the  nymphs,  when  the  i^wwprwlwi  deep 
Closed  o'er  the  head  of  your  lov'd  Lycidas  ? 

JfiilOA. 

Cune  on  the'  unpardoning  prince,  whom  tears  can 
draw 
To  no  remoree ;  who  rules  by  lion's  law.      Dryden. 

O  the  inexpressible  horrour  that  will  seize  upon  a 
sinner,  when  ne  stands  arraigned  at  the  bar  of  divine 
justice !  when  he  shall  see  his  accuser,  his  judge, 
the  witnesses,  all  his  remorteleu  adversaries  ! 

SonA't  Sermont, 

REMOTE',  «§.     •)     Lat.f«iBoftii.  Distant; 
Remote'ly,  atfv.     >  alien;     abstracted;    fo- 
RemoteI'ness,  n.  s.  3  reign :   the   adverb  and 
noun  substantive  corresponding. 

Their  rising  all  at  once  was  as  the  sound 

Of  thunder  heard  remote.  MiUon. 

An  unadvised  transiliency  from  the  tSect  to  the 
remotest  cause-  GlaneSUe. 

It  is  commonly  opinioned  that  the  earth  was 
thinly  inhabited,  at  least  not  rmnotdjf  planted  before 
the  flood.  Browne. 

The  joys  of  heaven  are  like  the  stan,  which  by 
reason  of  our  remoteness  appear  extremely  little. 

Beyle. 


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Titian  employed  l»rown  and  earthly  coloan  upon 
the  forepart,  ami  has  reserved  his  greater  light  for 
remoUnem  and  the  hack  part  of  his  landscapes. 

Dnfden, 

Two  lines  in  Mezentius  and  Lansus  are  indeed 
remotdy  allied  to  Virgil's  sense,  but  too  like  the 
tenderness  of  Ovid.  Id. 

In  this  narrow  scantling  of  capacity,  it  is  not  all 
««nor«  and  even  apparent  good  that  affects  us. 

Locke. 

If  the  greatest  part  of  bodies  escape  our  notice  b^ 
their  rtmoieneu,  others  are  no  less  concealed  by  their 
minuteness.  Id. 

How,  while  the  fainting  Dutch  retnoUljf  fire, 
And  the  famed  £ugene*s  iron  troops  retire. 
In  the  first  front  amidst  a  slaughtered  pile. 
High  on  the  mound  he  died.  SnUth. 

Remote  from  men,  with  God  he  passed  his  days ; 
Prayer  all  his  business ;  all  his  pleasure,  praise. 

Pamd. 

llu  obscurities  generally  arise  from  the  rematenem 
of  the  customs,  persons,  and  things  he  alludes  to. 

Ad^»on» 

In  quiet  shades,  content  with  rural  sports. 
Give  me  a  life  rtmoU  from  guilty  courts.  GranwlU. 

REMOVE',  V.  fl., ».  n.,  &^      Fr.  remuer ;  Lat. 

Remo'tiov,  n.  #.       [n.#.  I  removeo.     To  put 

Remo'vable,  adj.  I  from     its    place ; 

Remo'val,  n.  t.  >place    at    a   dis- 

Removed',  adj.  I  tance :  as  a  verb 

Remo'vedness,  n.  i .  |  neater,  to  change 

Remo'ver.  J  place ;  to  go  from 

place  to  place :  as  a  noun  substantive  remove  is 
synonymous  with  removal,  and  means  change  of 
place;  state  of  being  removed ;  departure;  act 
of  cbuiging  place  or  putting  away ;  step  in  a 
scale  of  gradation ;  a  small  distance :  remotion 
also  is  the  act  of  removing,  or  state  of  being 
removed :  removed,  removedness,  and  remover, 
correspond  with  remove  verb  active :  removable 
is  such  as  may  be  removed. 

He  renwoeth  awav  the  speech  of  the  trusty,  and 
taketh  away  the  understanding  of  the  aged. 

Job  zii.  SO. 

The  Irish  bishops  have  their  der^  in  such  sub- 
jection that  they  dare  not  complain  of  them;  for 
knowing  their  own  incapacity,  and  that  they  are 
therefore  remoMobU  at  their  bishop's  will,  they  yield 
what  pleaseth  him.  Sfmuer. 

By  which  rmnooal  of  one  extremity  with  another, 
the  world,  seeking  to  procure  a  remedy,  hath  pur- 
chased a  mere  exchange  of  the  evil  before  felt. 

Hooker. 

All  this  safety  were  remotiom,  and  thy  defence  ab- 
sence. Shakepean. 
Good  Godrvmow 
The  means  that  makes  us  strangers !  Id. 

Rosaline,  this  favour  thou  shalt  wear ; 
Hold,  take  you  this,  my  sweet,  and  give  me  thine. 
So  shall  Biron  take  me  for  Rosaline : 
And  change  your  favours  too ;  so  shall  your  loves 
Woo  contrary,  deceived  by  these  removes.  Id. 

Your  accent  is  something  finer  than  you  could 
purchase  in  so  removed  a  dwelling.  Id. 

1  have  eyes  under  my  service,  which  look  upon  his 
remooedneu.  Id. 

Let  him,  upon  his  removes  from  one  place  to  ano- 
ther, procure  recommendation  to  some  person  of 
quality  residing  in  the  place  whither  he  removeth. 

Baeom*s  Essays. 

Hasty  fortune  maketh  an  enterpriser  and  remover, 
but  the  exercised  fortune  maketh  the  able  man. 

Bocoti. 
Vol.  XVIll. 


To  heare.  from  out  the  high-hatred  oake  of  Jov^ 
Counsaile  from  him,  for  meaDS  to  his  remove 
To  his  loved  country.  Ckapman. 

He  longer  in  this  paradise  to  dwell 
Permits  not ;  to  remove  thee  I  am  come. 
And  send  thee  from  the  garden  forth  to  till 
The  ground.  BfUtons  Poradim  Lost. 

This  place  should  be  botji  school  and  university, 
not  neeoing  a  miovs  to  any  other  house  of  scholar- 
ship. Milton. 

What  is  early  received  in  any  considerable 
streneth  of  impress,  grows  into  our  tender  natures ; 
and  therefore  is  of  difficult  remove. 

GUmmlte's  Seeprn. 
The  consequent  strictly  taken,  may  be  a  fellacious 
illation,  in  reference  to  antecedency  or  consequence ; 
as  to  conclude  from  the  posilion  of  the  antecedent 
unto  the  position  of  the  consequent,  or  from  the  re- 
moHom  of  the  consequent  to  the  remotion  of  the  ante- 
cedent. Bnnm«'«  Fii^or  Brroun. 

So  looked  Astrea,  her  remove  desieuM, 
On  those  distressed  friends  she  left  behind.  Waller. 

A  short  exile  must  for  show  precede'; 
The  term  expired,  from  Candia  they  remove, 
And  happy  each  at  home  enjoys  his  love.    Dtyden. 

The  sitting  still  of  a  paralytick,  whilst  he  prefers 
it  to  a  remowl,  is  voluntary.  Loeke. 

They  are  farther  removed  from  a  title  to  be  innate, 
and  the  doubt  of  their  being  native  impressions  on 
the  mind,  is  stronger  against  these  moral  principles 
than  the  other.  Id. 

In  all  the  visible  corporeal  world,  quite  down  from 
us,  the  descent  is  by  easy  steps,  and  a  continued  se- 
ries of  things,  that  in  each  remove  difier  very  little 
one  from  the  other.  Id^ 

If  the  removal  of  these  persons  from  their  posts 
has  produced  such  popular  commotions,  the  conti- 
nuance of  them  might  have  produced  something  more 
fatal.  AddiMon. 

A  freeholder  is  but  one  remove  from  a  legislator, 
and  ouffht  to  stand  up  in  the  defence  of  those  laws. 

Id. 
In  such  a  chapel,  such  curate  is  removeabU  at  the 
pleasure  of  the  rector  of  the  mother  church.  A\iUffe. 

How  oft  from  pomp  and  state  did  I. remove. 
To  feed  despair !  Prior. 

The  fiercest  contentions  of  men  are  between  crea- 
tures equal  in  nature,  and  capable,  by  the  greatest 
distinction  of  circumstances,  of  but  a  very  small  re- 
move one  from  another.  Rogers. 
The  rcmowii  of  such  a  disease  is  not  to  be  at- 
tempted by  active  remedies,  no  more  than  a  thorn 
in  the  flesh  is  to  be  taken  away  by  violence. 

Arbuthnoim 
You,  who  fill  the  blissful  seats  above ! 
Let  kings  no  more  with  gentle  mercy  swav. 
But  every  monarch  be  the  scourge  of  God, 
If  from  your  thoughts  Ulysses  you  remove. 
Who  ruled  his  subjecU  with  a  father's  love.   Pope. 

Whether  his  removal  was  caused  by  his  own  fears 
or  other  men's  artifices,  supposing  the  throne  to  be 
vacant,  the  body  of  the  people  was  left  at  liberty 
to  chuse  what  form  of  government  they  pleased. 

•  Swift* 

His  horse  wanted  two  removes,  your  bone  wanted 
nails.  -fd. 

REMOUNT, «.  n.  Fr.remonter.  To  mount 
again. 

Stout  Cymon  soon  rvmoiuitf ,  and  cleft  in  two 
His  rival V  head.  Drydon. 

The  rest  remowts  with  the  ascending  vap6urs,  or 
is  washed  down  into  riven,  and  transmitted  into  the 
sea.  Woodward. 

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REMPHAN,  an  idol  or  Pagan  god,  whom  St. 
Stephen  says  the  Israelites  worshipped  in  the 
wilderness  as  they  passed  from  Egrpt  to  the  land 
of  promise.— Acts  vii.  43.  That  the  martyr  here 
quotes  the  words  of  the  prophet  Amos  (ch.  v.  26), 
all  commentators  are  agreed.  But,  if  this  coin* 
cidence  between  the  Christian  preacher  and  the 
Jewish  prophet  be  admitted,  it  follows  that 
Chiun  and  Remphanare  names  of  the  same  deity. 
Selden  and  other  critics  concluded  that  Chiun, 
and  of  course  Remphan,  is  the  planet  Saturn  ;be- 
cause  Chiun  is  written  Ciun,  Cevan.  Ceuan, 
Chevvin ;  all  of  which  are  modern  oriental  names 
of  that  planet.  But  others,  and  particularly  the 
late  learned  Dr.  Doig,  by  various  etymological 
arguments  (which  we  need  not  quote]^  render  it 
much  more  probable,  that  it  was  the  atrrpoKtMa^ 
or  ottpu)c  of  the  Greeks,  the  canis  or  Stella  cani- 
cularis  of  the  Romans,  and  the  dog-star  of  mo- 
dern Europe.  What  confirms  his  interpretation 
is,  that  the  idol  consecrated  by  the  Egyptians  to 
Sothis,  or  the  dog-star,  was  a  female  figure  with 
a  star  on  her  beaS;  and  hence  the*  prophet  up- 
braids his  countrymen  with  having  borne  the  star 
of  their  deity. 

REMS  4ND  FiLS,  one  of  the  twelve  depart- 
ments of  the  kingdom  of  Wurtemberg,  to  the 
east  of  that  of  the  Rothenberg.  Its  area  is  540 
square  miles ;  population  126,000.  It  is  divided 
into  the  five  baiiivncs  of  Gemund,  Goppingen, 
Schorndorf,  Lorch,  and  Geislingen.  The  chief 
town  is  Goppingen. 

REMU'NERATE,  v.  a,^       Fr.  remunerer; 

Remunera'tion,  n.  s.      >  Latin  remunero.  To 

Remunerative,  adj.  j reward ;  repay ;  re- 
quite; recompense:  the  noun  substantive  and 
adjective  corresponding. 

Is  she  not  then  beholden  to  the  man. 
That  brought  her  for  this  high  good  tarn  so  far  1 
Yes ;  and  will  nobly  rmntneraU.  Skalupeare. 

Money  the  king  thought  not  fit  to  demand,  be- 
cause he  had  received  satisfaction  in  matters  of  so 
great  importance ;  and  becauM  he  could  not  remu- 
nerate them  with  any  general  pardon,  being  pre- 
vented therein  by  the  coronation  pardon.       Bacon. 

Bear  this  significant  to  the  country  maid  Jaque- 
netta  ^  there  is  remuneration ;  for  the  best  ward  of 
mine  honour  is  rewarding  my  dependants. 

Skahtpeare, 

He  begets  a  security  of  himself,  and  a  careless 
•ye  on  tte  last  remmneratims. 

Browne*»  Vuigar  Erreure. 

The  knowledse  of  particular  actions  seems  requi- 
site  to  the  attainment  of  that  |Teat  end  of  God»  in 
the  manifestation  of  his  punitive  and  ummmiatite 
justice.  Bogle. 

A  collation  is  a  donation  of  some  vacant  benefice 
ID  the  church,  especially  when  such  donation  is 
freely  bestowed  without  any  prospect  of  an   evil 

AjfUjfe. 


REMURIA,  festivals  established  at  R4>me  by 
Romulus  to  appease  the  manes  of  his  brother 
Remus.  They  were  afterwards  called  lemuria, 
and  celebrated  yearly. 

REBIUR'MUR,  v.  a.  Re  and  murmur.  To 
utter  back  in  murmurs ;  repeat  in  low  hoarse 
sounds. 

Her  fellow  nymphs  tibe  mountains  tear 
WiHh  loud  laments,  and  break  the  yielding  air ; 


The  realms  of  Mars  nmurmwed  all  around. 
And  echoes  to  the  Athenian  shores  rebound. 

Ihydeu. 
His  untimely  fate,  the'  Angitian  woods 
In  siffhs  remurmured  to  the  Fucine  floods.  Id. 

Her  fate  is  whispered  by  the  gentle  breeze. 
And  told  in  sighs  to  all  the  trembling  trees ; 
The  trembling  trees,  in  every  plain  uid  wood. 
Her  fate  remurmur  to  the  silver  flood.  Pepe. 

REMUS,  the  twin  brother  of  Romulus,  was 
exposed  together  with  his  brother  by  the  cruelty 
of  his  grandfather.  In  the  contest  which  hap- 
pened between  the  two  brothers,  about  building 
a  city,  Romulus  obtained  the  preference,  and 
Remus,  for  ridiculing  the  rising  walls,  was  put  to 
death  by  his  brother's  orders,  or  by  Romulus 
himself.  See  Romulus.  The  Romans  were 
afflicted  with  a  plague  after  this  murder,  upon 
which  the  oracle  was  consulted,  and  the  manes  of 
Remus  appeased  by  the  institution  of  Remuria. 

REM\  (St.,)  a  town  of  France,  in  the  depart- 
ment of  the  mouths  of  the  Rhone,  situated  in  a 
fertile  plain,  covered  with  meadows  and  gardens. 
It  is  chiefly  remarkable  for  its  circular  prome- 
nade, and,  about  a  mile  from  the  town,  there  are 
a  'Roman  triumphal  arch  and  a  mausoleum,  both 
of  remote  antiquity,  and  in  toleral^le  preserva- 
tion. The  environs  produced  formerly  a  vast 
Quantity  of  olive  oil.  At  present  the  chief  arti- 
cle of  trade  is  the  wine  supplied  by  the  vine^  on 
the  neighbouring  hills.  Marie  is  also  found  in 
the  environs.  Inhabitants  5100.  Forty-two 
miles  north-west  of  Marseilles. 

RENAIX,  or  Ronse,  a  large  inland  town  of 
theNetherUnds,  in  East  Flanders.  It  has  extensive 
woollen  manufactures,  and  a  considerable  com- 
meroial  intercourse ;  but  the  only  public  build- 
ings of  interest  are  a  magnificent  chateau,  an 
hospital,  and  three  churehes.  Inhabitants  10,000. 
Seven  miles  south  of  Oudenarde,  and  twenty- 
two  south  by  west  of  Ghent. 

REN'ARD,  n.  $.  Fr.  rcnard,  a  fox.  Thm 
■ame  of  a  fox  in  fable. 

Before  the  break  of  day 
Benard  through  the  hedge  had  made  1 

J>rgden. 

RENAUDOT  CTheophrastus),  M.  D.,  an  emi- 
nent French  physician,  bom  in  London  in  1583. 
He  settled  in  Paris,  became  first  physician  to 
the  dauphin,  and  was  the  first  who  published  a 
gazette  m  France.  He  also  wrote  the  lives  of 
die  celebrated  prince  of  Cond^,  of  marshal  Gas- 
sion,  and  of  cardinal  Mazarin.  He  died  in  Paris 
in  1653. 

Renaudot  (Eusebius),  grandson  of  the  doctor, 
was  born  in  Paris  in  1646.  He  was  educated 
under  the  Jesuits,  and  at  Harcourt  College;  and 
became  famous  for  his  skill  in  oriental  history 
and  languages.  In  1700  he  attended  cardinal 
Noailles  to  Rome,  where  Clement  V.  made  hira 
prior  of  Fossay.  He  wrote  many  learned  dis- 
sertations, published  in  the  Memoirs  of  the 
Academy  of  Inscriptions,  of  which  he  was  a 
member,  as  well  as  of  the  French  Academy,  and 
the  Academy  de  la  Crusca.    He  died  in  1720. 

RENCOUNTER,  n.  s.  &  v.  n.  Fr.  remeonUe. 
Clash;. collision:  to  clash;  encounter. 

ViigU's  ffieiids  thought  fit  to  alter  a  line  in  Venus's 
speech  that  has  a  relation  to  the  fmeounier. 

Adduem. 


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'  You  may  as  well  expect  two  bowls  should  grow 
sensible  by  rubbing,  as  that  the  rencounter  of  any 
bodies  should  awal^  them  into  peiceptbn. 

Cottier. 
So  when  the  trumpet  sounding  gives  the  sign. 
The  justling  chiefs  in  rude  rencounter  join : 
So  meet,  and  so  renew  the  dextrous  fight ; 
Their  clattering  arms  with  the  fierce  shock  resound. 

CfnmnUe, 

Rencountbr,  in  single  combats,  is  used  by . 
way  of  contradistinction  to  duel.  When  two 
persons  quarrel  and  fight  on  the  spot,  without 
having  premeditated  the  combat,  it  is  called  a 
rencounter. 


Rencouiiter,  in  heraldry,  an 
apithet  applied  to  an  animal 
whose  face  stands  right  forward 
as  if  coming  to  attack  the  per- 
son, as  in  the  annexed  figure : — 


m 


REND,  V,  a.  pret,  9Xid  part.  pau.  rent.    Sax. 
^  "  a.    To  tear  with  violence ; 

lacerate. 


fienban;  Goth,  renna. 


He  rent  a  lion  as  he  would  have  rent  a  kid,  and  he 
bad  nothing  in  his  hand.  Judget  ziv.  4. 

I  will  not  rend  sway  all  the  kingdom,  but  give  one 
tribe  to  thy  son.  1  Kmgt  xl  13. 

Will  you  hence 

Before  the  tag  return,  whose  rage  doth  rend 

LOlb  interrupted  waters,  and  o'erhear 

What  they  are  used  to  bear  1  -  Shakepeare. 

This  council  made  a  schism  and  rent  from  the 
most  ancient  and  purest  churches  which  lived  before 
them.  White. 

By  the  thunderer^s  stroke  it  from  the  root  is  rent, 
So  sore  the  blows  which  from  high  heaven  are  sent. 

CowUjf, 

What  you  command  me  to  relate. 
Renews  the  sad  remembrance  of  our  fate. 
An  empire  from  its  old  foundations  rent.    Dryden, 
Thou  viper 

Hast  cmoeUad  kindred,  made  a  rent  in  nature. 

And  through  her  holy  bowels  gnawed  thy  way. 

Through  thy  own  blood  to  empire.  id. 

Look  round  to  see 
The  lurking  gold  upon  the  fatal  tree ; 
Thea  rend  it  off.  Id.  .Eneis. 

Is  it  not  as  much  reason  to  sav,  when  any  mo* 
naichy  was  shattered  to  pieces,  and  divided  amongst 
revolted  subjects,  that  God  was  careftil  to  i^reserve 
mooarchial  power,  by.  rending  a  settled  empire  into 
a  multitude  of  little  govenunenu  t  Locke, 

He  who  sees  this  vast  rent  in  so  high  a  rock,  how 
the  convex  parts  of  one  side  exactlv  tally  vrith  the 
concave  of  tfie  other,  must  be  satisfiea  that  it  was  the 
effect  of  an  earthquake.  Additen, , 

When  iu  way  the'  impetuous  passion  found, 
I  remd  my  tresses,  and  my  breast  I  wound,     ^ope, 

RENDER,  V,  a.  &  n.  s,  Fr.  rendre ;  Span. 
rendkr.  To  return;  payback;  restore;  give  on 
demand ;  give  generally ;  yield ;  surrender ;  ex- 
hibit a  surrender. 

Will  ye  render  me  a  recompense  1        /o»<  iii.  4. 

The  slumrd  is  wiser  in  his  own  conceit  than 
seven  men  that  can  render  a  reason.  FrMerts. 

I  heard  him  speak  of  that  same  brother. 

And  he  did  render  him  the  most  uimatural 

That  lived  'moagst  men.  Skakepeare, 


Of  Cloten's  death,  we  beinp^  not  known,  nor  mustered 
Among  the  bands,  may  dnve  us  to  a  rmdcr.       Id, 


My  renderwg  my  person  to  them,  may  engage 
their  affections  to  me.  King  ChaHes* 

Saint  Aagustine  renders  another  reason,  for  which 
the  apostles  observed  some  legal  rites  and  ceremonies 
for  a  time.  WhUe, 

One,  with  whom  he  used  to  advise,  proposed  to 
him  to  render  himself  upon  conditions  to  the  earl  of 
Essex.  Clarendon, 

Let  him  look  into  the  future  state  of  bliss  or 
.  misery,  and  see  there  God,  the  righteous  judge, 
rvady  to  render  every  man  according  to  his  deeds. 

Locke. 

Render  it  in  the  English  a  circle ;  but  'tis  more 
truly  rendered  a  sphere. 

BurmtU  Theory  of  the  Earth, 

Because  the  nature  of  man  carries  him  out  to  ac- 
tion, it  is  no  wonder  if  the  same  nature  renders  him 
solicitous  about  the  issue.  South'e  Sermone, 

Hither  the  seas  at  stated  tiroes  resort. 
And  shove  the  loaden  vessels  into  port ; 
Then  with  a  gentle  ebb  retire  again. 
And  render  back  their  cargo  to  the  main.   Additon, 

Logick  rtndert  its  daify  service  to  wisdom  and 
virtue.  Wattt, 

Love 
Can  answer  love,  and  render  bliss  secure. 

Tkomten, 

Would  he  render  up  Hermione, 
And  keep  Astyanax,  I  should  be  blest !  A.  PhUipe. 

Blr.  Hook,  in  his  Philos.  Exper.,  p.  306,  iinagines 
this  to  be  a  dilatable  or  compressible  tube,  like  the 
air  bladders  of  fish,  and  that,  by  contracting  or  per- 
mitting it  to  expand,  it  renden  its  sheU  buoyant  or 
the  contrary.  Darwin. 

RENDEZVOUS',  II.  f.&v.n.  Fr.  fvndesvotu . 
Assembly;  meeting  appointed ;  appointed  sign 
of  meeting;  to  meet  at  any  appointed  place. 

A  commander  of  many  ships  should  rather  keep 
his  fleet  together  than  have  it  severed  far  asunder ; 
for  the  attendance  of  meeting  them  again  at  the  next 
rendeaaoue  would  consume  time  and  victual. 

Raleigh't  Apology, 

The  philosopher's-stone  and  a  holy  war  are  but  the 
rendeseoui  of  cncked  brains,  that  wear  their  feather 
in  their  head  instead  of  their  hat.  Bacon. 

The  king  appointed  his  whole  army  to  be  dnwn 
together  to  a  rendemMm  at  Marlborougn. 

Cutrendon. 

This  was  the  general  rmdawut  which  they  all  ^t 
to,  and,  minglme  more  and  more  with  that  oily 
liquor,  they  suckea  it  all  up.  Burner. 

RENEALMIA,  in  botany,  wild  pine-apple, 
a  genus  of  the  monogynia  order,  and  monandria 
class  of  plants:  cor.  trifid;  nectarium  oblong: 
CAL.  mouophyllous;  anthera  sessile,  opposite 
to  the  nectarium;  the  toerry  fleshy.  Species 
one  only,  a  native  of  Surinam. 

RENEGADEr,ii.i.(     Fr.   renegat;    Span. 

Rbneoa'oo.  Srenitgado,   An  apostate; 

a  revolter. 

Some  stranling  soldiers  might  prove  reneyadioee, 
but  they  vroiud  not  revolt  in  troops. 

Deeaty  of  Piety. 

There  lived  a  French  reneyado  in  the  same  plaoe 
where  the  Castilian  and  his  vnfo  were  kept  prisoners. 

Addieon. 

If  the  Roman  government  subsisted  now,  ihey 
would  have  had  ren^^  seamen  and  shipwrighu 
enough.  Ariuthnot, 

RENEGE',  9.0.  Lat.  renego.  To  disown. 
Obsolete. 

t  L3 


Digitized  by 


Googk 


REN 


516 


REN 


Such  Bmiling  roffOM  as  these  sooth  evenr  passion, 
Rtfitgt,  affirm,  ana  turn  their  halcyon  beaks 
With  every  gale  and  Taxy  of  their  masters. 

Shaktpean. 
The  design  of  this  war  is  to  make  me  rtnegt  my 
conscience  and  thy  truth.  King  Chariu, 

RENEW'yV.a.     -^     Re  and  new;  Lat  rt- 
RenbVable,  ot^'.  > novo.    To  renovate;  r^ 
ReneVal,  ».  t.    J  store ;  repeat :  the  adjec- 
tive and  noun  substantive  corresponding. 
Let  us  go  to  Gilgal,  and  rmiew  the  kingdom  there. 

I  Samuel. 

It  is  impossible  for  those  that  were  once  en- 
lightened— ^if  Uiey  shall  fall  away,  to  rtruw  them 
again  unto  repentance.  Hebmn  vi.  2. 

In  sQch  a  night 
Medea  gathered  the  enchanted  herbs. 
That  did  renew  old  iEson.  Shakipean. 

The  body  percussed  hath,  hy  reason  of  the  per- 
cussion, a  trepidation  wrought  in  the  minute  parts, 
and  so  reneweth  the  percussion  of  the  air.      Bacon, 

The  eagle  casts  its  bill,  but  renews  his  age. 

Hclyday, 

The  last  great  age,  foretold  by  sacred  rhymes. 
Renew*  its  finished  course,  Saturnian  times 
Rowl  round  again.  Dryden's  VirgU  Pattaralt, 

Renewed  to  life,  that  she  might  daily  die, 

I  daily  doomed  to  follow.  Dnfden. 

The  old  custom  upon  many  estates  is  to  let  for 
leases  of  lives,  renewable  at  pleasure.  Swift. 

It  behoved  the  deity,  persisting  in  the  purpose  of 
mercy  to  mankind,  to  renew  that  revelation  from 
time  to  tin»e,  and  to  rectify  abuses,  vrith  such  au- 
thority for  the  renewal  and  rectification  as  was  suf- 
ficent  evidence  of  the  truth  of  what  was  revealed. 

Forbes. 

RENFREW  [Gad.  Rein  Froacb,  i.  e.  the 
heath  division],  an  ancient  royal  borough  of 
Scotland,  the  capital  of  Renfrewshire,  and  the 
seat  of  the  sherioTs  court,  and  of  a  presbytery. 
It  is  seated  on  the  Cathcart,  which  runs  into  the 
Clyde  five  miles  above  Glasgow.  King  Robert 
II.  had  a  palace  in  it  The  town  consists  of  one 
narrow  street,  half  a  mile  long,  with  some  small 
lanes.  It  was  made  a  royal^  bv  king  Robert, 
and  has  charters  from  Icing  James  VI.  and  queen 
Anne.  It  is  governed  by  a  provost,  two  bailies, 
and  sixteen  counsellors ;  who  send  a  delegate  to 
join  with  those  from  Glasgow,  Dumbarton,  and 
Kutherglen,  in  electins  a  representative  in  the 
impend  parliament.  It  has  a  salmon  fishery  on 
,  the  Clyde,  finom  Scotstown  to  Kelly  bridge.  Its 
chief  manufactures  are,  a  soap  and  candle  work ; 
a  bleachfield,  and  about  200  looms  are  employed 
in  muslins  for  Pabley.  It  formerly  stood  on  the 
banks  of  the  Clyde,  and  vessels  of  consider- 
able burden  were  built  close  to  the  town ;  but  the 
river,  changing  its  course  nearly  opposite  to 
Scotstown,  took  a  semicircular  direction,  leaving 
King's  Inch  on  the  north,  and  came  into  its  pre- 
sent course  above  the  ferry.  To  supply  this  defi- 
ciency a  large  canal  has  been  made  along  the  old 
bed  of  the  river,  from  the  Clyde  to  the  town, 
by  which  large  vesseb  come  up  and  unload  at 
spring  tides.  It  is  three  miles  north  of  Paisley, 
SIX  west  of  Glasgow,  and  forty-five  east  of  Edin- 
burgh. 

Renfrew,  or  Renfrewshire,  a  county  of 
Scotland,  about  twenty-eight  miles  long  from 
east  to  west,  and  from  ten  to  twenty-four  broad, 
bounded  on  the  east  by  Lanarkshire,  south  by 


Ayrshire,  west  by  the  Clyde,  which  smirates  it 
from  Dumbartonshire,  and  north  byCunniiig^ 
ham.  The  surfhce  b  beautifully  variegated  with 
hills  and  valleys,  woods  and  rivers,  populous 
towns,  villages,  and  gentlemen's  seats.  A  coaKi- 
derable  part  of  the  soil  is  moorish  and  barren ; 
but  along  the  banks  of  the  Clyde,  the  Gryfe, 
the  White  and  Black  Carts,  it  is  fertile.  The 
general  scenery  is  romantic  and  delightful.  It 
abounds  with  coals,  iron-stone  and  other  mi- 
'nerals.  Its  chief  towns  are  Paisley,  Greenock, 
Port  Glasgow,  and  Renfrew.  It  is  divided  into 
seventeen  parishes.  This  county  is  sometimes 
called  the  barony,  because  it  was  anciently  the 
inheritance  of  the  royal  house  of  Stuart;  and  still 
afibrds  the  title  of  baron  to  the  prince  of  Wales. 

RENI  (Guido  or  Guy),  an  illustrious  Italian 
painter,  bom  at  Bologna  in  1595.  He  first 
studied  under  Denis  Calvert,  and  afterwards 
under  the  Caracci.  He  imitated  I^ewis  Caracci, 
but  afterwards  formed  a  peculiar  style  of  his 
own,  that  secured  him  the  admiration  of  his 
contemporaries  and  of  posterity.  He  was  much 
honored,  and  lived  in  splendor ;  but  afterwards 
ruined  himself  by  gaming.  He  died  in  1642. 
There  are  several  of  his  designs  in  print,  etdied 
by  himself. 

RENITENT,  wg.  Lat.  renUem.  Acting 
against  any  impulse  elasticallv. 

By  an  inflation  of  the  musclea  thev  become  soft, 
and  yet  renitent,  like  so  many  pillows  diaripating  the 
force  of  the  pressure,  and  to  taking  away  the  sense 
of  pain.  Bap» 

RENNELL  (Thomas),  B.  D.,  F.  R.  S.,  son  of 
Dr.  Rennell,  dean  of  Winchester,  master  of  the 
temple,  &c.,  and  grandson,  by  the  mother*s  side, 
of  Sir  William  Blackstone,  was  bom  at  Win. 
Chester  in  1787.  At  an  early  age  be  was  pkced 
at  Eton,  where  he  distinguished  himself  by  his 
progress  in  classical  literature,  and  obtained  Dr. 
Buchanan's  prize  for  the  best  Greek  Sapphic  ode 
on  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel  in  India.  He 
joined  at  this  period  three  of  his  contemporaries 
in  the  publication  of  a  series  of  essays,  under 
the  name  of  the  Miniature,  which  went  through 
two  editions.  In  1806  he  removed  |o  Kind's 
CoUege,  Cambridge,  and  gave  additional  proof 
of  his  literary  attainments,  by  gaining,  in  1808^ 
Sir  William  Browne's  annual  Greek  medal  for 
an  ode  entitled  Veris  Comites,  as  well  as  by  his 
contributions  to  the  Museum  Criticum.  Having 
taken  orders  he  became  assistant  preacher  to  his 
father  at  the  Temple  church,  and  in  1 8 1 1  published 
his  Animadversions  on  the  Unitarian  Translation 
of  the  New  Testament,  under  the  designation  of 
A  Student  in  Divinity,  and  about  the  same  time 
became  editor  of  the  British  Critic.  In  1816 
he  was  elected  Christian  advocate  in  the  univer- 
sity of  Cambridge,  and  the  bishop  of  London 
conferred  on  him  in  the  same  year  the  vicarage 
of  Kensington.  In  the  former  capacity  he  pro- 
duced his  Remarks  on  Scepticism  as  it  is  con- 
nected with  the  subjects  of  Organisation  and 
Life.  Mr.  Rennell  was  the  rather  induced  to 
enter  into  this  enquiry  as  he  had  himself  made 
no  slight  progrerjs  in  the  study  of  anatomy.  It 
was  first  printed  in  1819,  and  went  rapidly 
through  six  editions.  His  last  work,  undertaken 
in  the  same  character,  was  entitled  Proofs  of 
Inspiration,    or   the   Grounds    of  Distinction 

Digitized  by  VjUU^  IC 


REN 


617 


REN 


"between  the  New  Testament  and  the  Apocryphal 
Volume.  In  1823  he  obtained  the  mastership 
of  St.  Nicholas*  hospital,  with  a  stall  in  Salisbury 
cathedral;  and  in  the  same  year  a  pamphlet 
appeared  from  his  pen  .addressed  to  H.  Broug- 
ham, esq.,  M.  P.,  on  tlie  subject  of  a  speech  made 
by  that  gentleman  at  Durham,  taken  in  con> 
nexion  with  some  articles  in  the  Edinburgh 
review.  In  the  autumn  of  this  year  he  married 
a  Miss  Delafield  of  Kensington ;  not  many 
weeks  after  which  a  violent  attack  of  fever  ter- 
minated in  a  (gradual  decline,  which  carried  him 
off  in  June  the  following  year,  just  as  he  had 
completed  his  new  translation  of  Munter*s  Nar- 
rative of  the  Conversion  of  Count  Struensee. 
In  private  life  he  was  highly  esteemed. 

RENNES,  a  large  town  of  France,  the  former 
capital  of  Brittany,  and  now  of  the  department 
of  the  lUe  and  Vilaine,  is  situated  in  a  large 
plain,  at  the  confluence  of  these  two  rivers. 
The  latter  divides  the  town  into  two  parts,  con- 
nected by  bridges.  That  built  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  river,  and  called  the  Lower  Town,  is 
almost  on  a  level  with  the  surface  of  the  water, 
and  subject  consequently  to  inundations.  The 
Upjper  Town,  on  the  right  bank,  stands  on  an 
emmence,  and  forms  the  most  considerable  part 
of  the  city.  Since  a  dreadful  fire  in  1720,  by 
which  nearly  900  houses  were  consumed,  Ren- 
nes  has  been  rebuilt  on  a  regular  plan ;  but  a 
few  of  the  narrow  streets  and  high  antiquated 
houses  remain ;  and  in  the  suburbs  there  is  a 
number  of  wooden  structures.  The  square  called 
the  Palais  de  Justice  was  constructed  on  the 
model  of  the  Place  Vendome  at  Paris,  and  had 
once  a  bronze  statue  of  Louis  XIV.  Of  the 
Place  d*armes  the  Hotel  de  Ville  forms  the  west- 
de;  this,  atf  well  as  the  Place  de  la 


grande  Cohue,  and  the  Place  de  la  Pompe,  are 
all  worth  notice.  -The  principal  promenades 
are  the  Cours  and  the  Tabor ;  tne  former  nearly 
a  mile  long. 

The  principal  public  edifices  are  the  cathedral, 
dedicated  to  St.  Peter;  the  building,  formerly 
the  house  of  meeting  for  the  parliament  of 
Brittany ;  the  town-hdl,  arsenal,  and  a  college 
formerly  belonging  to  the  Jesuits.  Here  is  also 
a  small  university,  iiaunous  for  the  study  of  law ; 
also  a  society  of  arts  and  sciences.  It  has 
besides  a  coll^  royal,  an  academy,  a  school  of 
medicine  and  surgery,  and  a  drawiiu;  school; 
a  public  library,  museum,  physical  cabinet, 
chemical  laboratory,  botanical  garden,  &c.  The 
trade  is  promoted  by  the  Vilaine  being  navigable 
for  large  vessels  towards  its  mouth,  and  for 
barges  of  considerable  burden  to  this  place. 
The  objects  of  commerce  are  com,  cattle,  hemp, 
flax,  and  timber ;  lead,  wax,  and  butter.  The  ma- 
nufieictures  consist  of  blankets,  sail-cloth,  hats, 
thread,  stockings,  gloves,  and  hardware.  !^en- 
nes  is  the  see  of  a  bishop,  and  the  seat  of  a 
court  of  appeal  for  four  adjoining  departments. 
It  has  likewise  criminal  and  commercial  courts. 
Inhabitants  30,000.  Eighty  miles  north  of 
Nantes,  and  220  west  of  Paris. 

REN'NET,  n. «.  >      Property  Fr.  ramette,  a 

Ren^neting.  5  little  queen.  A  kind  of 
apple. 

A  golden  rennet  is  a  very  pleasant  and  fair  fruit, 


of  a  yellow  flash,  and  the  best  of  bearers  for  all  sortR 
of  soil ;  of  which  there  are  two  sorts^  (he  large  sort 
and  the  small.  Mortimer. 

Ripe  pulpy  apples,  as  pippins  and  retmetingti  are 
of  a  syrupy  tenacious  nature.  Id, 

Rem'met,  n.  t.    See  Runnet,  and  below. 

A  putredinous  ferment  coagulates  all  humours, 
as  milk  with  rennet  is  turned. 

Flvyer  on  the  Humours. 

Rennet,  in  rural  economy,  a  term  applied  to 
the  coagulum  prepared  from  the  stomach  of  a 
young  calf  for  the  purpose  of  making  cheese. 
See  Dairy. 

RENNIE  (John),  F.  R.  S.,  the  celebrated 
engineer,  was  bom  near  Linton  in  East  Lothian, 
in  1760,  and  was  the  son  of  a  respectable  farmer, 
who  placed  him  with  an  eminent  mill-wright. 
After  serving  out  his  articles,  he  commenced 
business  on  his  own  account,  but  in  1783  vras 
induced  to  remove  to  London,  where  he  dis- 
tinguished himself  by  the  construction  of  the 
Albion  mill.  His  next  work  of  magnitude  was 
the  erection  of  machineiy  in  Whitbread's 
brewery.  His  reputation  from  this  time  in- 
creased, until  he  was  regarded  as  standing  at  the 
head  of  the  English  civil  engineers.  Among 
his  works  may  be  mentioned  Ramsgate  harbour, 
Waterloo  and  Southwark  bridges  (as  to  construc- 
tion), the  Breakwater  at  Plymouth,  and  the  Bell 
Rock  light-house.  No  one  has  effected  greater 
performances  in  the  difficult  branches  of  his 
profession.  Although  in  some  respects  a  self- 
taught  man,  he  acquired  the  respect  of  the  most 
distinguished  men  of  science  and  learning  in 
his  day.  His  death  took  place  at  his  house  in 
Stamford  Street,  Blackfriars,  October  4th,  1821, 
in  his  sixty-first  year,  and  he  was  buried  with 
the  respect  due  to  his  eminent  talents  in  St. 
Paul's  cathedral. 

REN'O  VATE,  vm,  J     Lat.  renow.  To  renew ; 

Renova'tion,  n.  t,  S  restore  to  the  first  state : 
the  noun  substantive  corresponding.  ^ 

Sound  continueth  some  small  time,  which  is  a 
renonaUon,  and  not  a  continuance ;  for  the  body  per- 
cussed hath  a  trepidation  wrought  in  the*  minute 
parts,  and  so  reneweth  the  percussion  of  the  air. 

Bacon's  Natural  History. 
To  second  life 
Waked  in  the  renovation  of  the  just. 
Resigns  him  up,  with  heaven  and  earth  renewed. 

MUtm. 
All  nature  feels  the  renovating  force 
Of  winter,  only  to  the  thoughtless  eye 
In  ruin  seen.  Thornton's  Winter, 

RENOUNCE',©.  a.&i;.n.)     Fr.    renoncer; 

RENOUNCE'MENT,n.i.         >  Lat.  rfimRcio.  To 

Renun'ciatiqn.  7  disown ;      abne- 

gate ;  abjure :  Dryden's  use  of  the  word,  as  a  verb 
neuter,  has  never  been  followed :  the  noun  sub- 
stantive corresponding. 

This  woild  I  do  renounce ;  and  in  your  sights 
Shake  patiently  my  great  affliction  off.    Shakspeare, 
1  hold  you  as  a  thing  enskied  and  sainted ; 

By  vour  renouncement,  an  immortal  spirit.       Jd, 

Pride  and  passion,  and  the  opinions  of  the  world, 
must  not  be  our  counsellors ;  for  we  renounced  them 
at  our  bsmtism.  KettleweH. 

From  Thebes  my  birth  I  own ;  and  no  disgrace 
Can  force  me  to  renounce  the  honour  of  my  race. 

Dryden. 


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RENTS. 


On  thii  firm  principle  I  ever  stood ; 
He  of  my  tons,  who  fails  to  make  it  good. 
By  one  rebellions  act  renouneet  to  my  blood,  'd. 
He  that  loves  riches,  can  hardlv  believe  the  doc- 
trine of  poverty  and  renunciation  of  the  world. 

Tojfhr. 

RENOWN',  n.  I.  &  v.  a.  FT.renommee;lAi, 
renamen.  Fame ;  celebrity ;  praise  widely  spread ; 
to  make  famous. 

These  were  the  rmuwned  of  the  congregation, 
princes  of  the  trih^,  heads  of  thonsands.  rlumben. 

She 
Is,  daughter  of  this  famous  duke  of  Milan, 
Of  whom  so  often  I  have  heard  rtnomu  Shaktpmrt, 
Let  us  satisfy  our  eyes 
With  the  memorials  and  the  things  of  fame, 
That  do  rewnen  this  city.  Id. 

That  thrice  renounud  and  learned  French  king, 
finding  Petrarch's  tomb  without  any  inscription, 
wrote  one  himself;  saying,  Shame  it  was  that  he 
who  sung  his  mistress's  praise  seven  years  before  her 
death,  should  twelve  years  want  an  epitaph. 

Ptaeham. 
The  rest  were  long  to  tell,  though  far  rtnownBd. 

Milton, 
Tis  of  more  renown 
To  make  a  river,  than  to  build  a  town.     WaUer, 
Nor  envy  we 
Thy  great  renown,  nor  grudge  thy  victoiy.  Dryden. 
Soft  elocution  does  thy  style  renoum. 
Gentle  or  sharp  according  to  thy  choice. 
To  laugh  at  follies  or  to  lash  at  vice.  Id. 

Ilva, 
An  isle  renowned  for  steel  and  unexhausted  mines. 

Id. 
In  solemn  silence  stand 
Stem  tyrants,  whom  their  cruelties  renoum 
And  emperors  in  Parian  marble  frown.  Addieon. 
A  bard,  whom  pilfiered  pastorak  renown.     Pope. 

Nor  far  beneath  her  in  renovn  is  she 
Who,  through  good  breeding,  is  ill  company ; 
Whose  manners  would  not  let  her  larum  cease, 
Who  thinks  you  are  unhappy  when  at  peace. 

Young. 
And  when  recording  History  displays 
Feats  of  renown^  though  wrought  in  ancient  days ; 
Tells  of  a  few  stout  hearts,  that  fought  and  died. 
Where  duW  placed  them,  at  their  country's  side ; 
The  man  that  is  not  moved  with  what  he  reads. 
That  takes  not  fire  at  their  heroic  deeds, 
Unworthy  of  the  blessings  of  the  brave. 
Is  base  in  kind,  and  bom  to  be  a  slave.       Cowper. 

RENSSELAER,  a  county  of  New  York, 
United  States,  bounded  north  by  Washington 
county,  east  by  Vermont  and  Massachusetts, 
south  by  Colombia  county,  and  west  by  the 
Hudson.  The  eastem  part  is  hilly,  and  in  some 
parts  mountainous :  indeed  the  general  charac- 
ter of  the  country  is  broken  and  hilly ;  but  the 
valleys  are  extensive,  and  the  alluvial  flats  of 
considerable  extent,  warm  and  fertile.  The  wet 
uplands  are  covered  with  a  luxuriant  growth  of 
lofty  white  pine,  variously  intermixed  with  hem- 
lock, maple  ash,  cherry,  beech,  and  birch;  and 
the  skilful  farmer  finds  all  the  varieties  of  soil 
which  these  contrarieties  of  forest  vegetation 
would  indicate.  It  sends  four  members  to  the 
house  of  assembly.  The  chief  towns  are  Troy 
and  LansinbuTgh. 

RENT,  v.n.  [now  written  rant,  yet  probably 
from  rend].  To  roar ;  to  bluster:  we  still  say, 
a  tearing  fellow. 


He  ventured  to  dismiaa  his  feir. 
That  partings  wont  to  rent  and  tear. 
And  give  the  desperatest  attack 
To  dukger  still  behind  his  back.    ITtidiftm. 

Rent,  v.  a.  &  n.  s.    )    Fr.  rente  ;  Ital.  rendita ; 
Rent'er.  )  low  Lat.  reddendum.  Re- 

venue ;  annual  payment ;  to  hold  as  a  teumt. 
See  below :  a  renter  is  he  who  pays  rent. 
Idol  ceremony. 
What  are  thy  rents  J  what  are  thy  comings  int 
O,  ceremony,  shew  me  but  thy  worth  !  Shaktpun. 

Such  is  the  mould,  that  the  blest  tenant  feeds 
On  precious  fraits,  and  pays  his  rent  in  weeds. 

WaUer. 
The  estate  will  not  be  let  for  one  penny  more  or 
less  to  the  renter^  amongst  whomsoever  the  rent  be 
pays  be  divided.  loeke. 

when  a  servant  is  called  before  his  master,  it  is 
often  to  know,  whether  he  passed  by  such  a  ground, 
if  the  old  man  who  rents  it  u  in  good  health. 

Addison's  SpeeUOor. 
I  bought  an  annual  rent  or  two, 
And  live  just  as  you  see  I  do.  Peps, 

Folks  in  mudwall  tenement. 
Present  a  peppercorn  for  rent.  Prior. 

Anticipated  rents,  and  bills  unpaid, 
Force  many  a  shining  youUi  into  the  shade. 
Not  to  redeem  his  time,  but  his  estate. 
And  play  the  fool,  but  at  a  cheaper  rate.  Cowper. 

Rents  are  classed  by  Blackstone  among  incor- 
poreal hereditaments.    The  word  rent  or  render, 
redditus,  according  to  him,  signifies  a  compen- 
sation or  return,  it  being  in  the  nature  of  an  ac- 
knowledgment, given  for  the  possession  of  some 
corporeal  inheritance.  See  1  inst.  144.  It  is  de- 
fined to  be  a  certain  profit  issuing  yearly  out  of 
lands  and  tenements  corporeal.     It  roust  be  a 
profit ;  yet  there  is  no  occasion  for  it  to  be,  as 
it  usually  is,  a  sum  of  money :  for  spurs,  capous, 
horses,  coro,  and  other  matters  may  be  rendered, 
and  frequently  are  rendered,  by  way  of  rent  It 
may  also  consist  in  services  or  manual  opera- 
tions ;  as,  to  plough  so  many  acres  of  groond, 
to  attend  the  king  or  the  lord  to  the  wars,  and 
the  like ;  which  services,  in  the  eye  of  the  law, 
are  profits.    This  profit  roust  also  be  certain ; 
or  that  which  may  be  reduced  to  a  certainty  by 
either  party.    It  must  also  issue  yearly ;  though 
there  is  no  occasion  for  it  to  issue  every  succes- 
sive year ;  but  it  may  be  reserved  every  second, 
third,  or  fourth  year :  yet,  as  it  is  to  be  produced 
out  of  the  profits  of  lands  and  tenements  as  a 
recompense. for  being  permitted  to  hold  or  enjoy 
them,  it  ought  to  be  reserved  yearly,  because 
those  profits  do  annually  arise,  and  are  annually 
renewed.  It  must  issue  out  of  the  thing  granted, 
and  not  be  part  of  the  land  or  thing  itself; 
wherein  it  differs  from  an  exception  in  the  grant, 
which  is  always  cf  part  of  tne  thing  granted. 
Plowd.  13  :  8  Rep.  71.  It  must,  lastly,  issue  out 
of  lands  and  tenemente  corporeal ;  that  is,  from 
some  inheritance  whereunto  the  owner  or  grantee 
of  the  rent  may  have  recourse  to  distrain.  There- 
fore a  rent,  strictly  speaking,  cannot  be  reserved 
out  of  an  advowson,  a  common,  an  office,  a 
franchise,  or  the  like ;  but  a  grant  of  such  annu- 
ity or  sum  (e.  g.  by  a  lessee  of  tithes,  or  other 
incorporeal  hereditament)  may  operate  as  a  per- 
sonal contract,  and  oblige  the  grantor  to  pay  tlie 
money  reserved,  or  subject  him  to  an  action  of 


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debt  for  the  ftmount  of  the  rent  agreed  upon ; 
though  it  doth  uot  affect  the  inheritance,  and  is 
no  legal  rent  in  contemplation  of  law.  And  the 
king  might  always  resenre  a  rent  out  of  incor- 
poreal hereditaments;  the  reason  of  which  is, 
that  he,  hy  his  prerogative,  can  distrain  on  all 
the  lands  of  his  lessee.  1  Inst.  47,  a.  in  n. 

I.  Cfftke  different  kindi  of  ren^— There  are, 
at  common  law,  three  kincfs  of  rent :  rent-ser- 
vice, rent-charge,  and  rent-seek. 

Rent-urvice  is  so  called,  because  it  hath  some 
corporeal  service  incident  to  it ;  as,  at  the  least, 
fealty,  or  the  feudal  oath  of  fidelity.  1  Inst.  142. 
For,  if  a  tenant  holds  his  land  by  fealty,  and 
Ws.  rent ;  or  by  the  service  of  ploughing  the 
lord's  land  and  5s.  rent ;  these  pecuniary  rents, 
being  connected  with  personal  services,  are  there- 
fore called  rent-service.  And  for  these,  in  case 
they  be  behind,  or  arrere,  at  the  day  appointed, 
the  lord  may  distrain  of  common  right,  without 
reserving  any  special  power  of  distress;  pro- 
vided he  hath  in  himself  the  reversion,  or  future 
estate  of  the  lands  and  tenements,  after  the  lease 
or  particular  estate  of  the  lessee  or  grantee  is  ex- 
pired. The  services  are  of  two  sorts,  either  ex- 
pressed in  the  lease  or  contract,  or  raised  by  im- 
plication of  law.  When  the  services  are  expressed 
in  the  contract,  the  quantum  must  be  either 
certainly  mentioned,  or  be  such  as,  by  reference 
to  something  else,  may  be  reduced  to  a  certain- 
ty ;  for,  if  the  lessor's  demands  be  uncertain,  it 
is  impossible  to  give  him  an  adequate  satisfac- 
tion or  compensation  for  them,  as  the  jury  can- 
not determine  what  injury  he  has  sustained.  Co. 
Litt  96,  a :  Stil.  397 :  2  Ld.  Raym.  1160. 

A  rent-charge  is  where  the  owner  of  the  rent 
has  no  future  interest,  or  reversion  expectant, 
in  the  land;  as  where  a  man,  by  deed,  maketh 
over  to  others  his  whole  estate  in  fee  simple, 
with  a  certain  rent  payable  thereout ;  and  adds 
to  the  deed  a  covenant  or  clause  of  distress,  that 
if  the  rent  be  arrere,  or  behind,  it  shall  be  lawful 
to  distrain  for  the  same.  •  In  this  case  the  land 
is  liable  to  the  distress,  not  of  common  right,  but 
by  virtue  of  the  clause  in  the  deed :  and  therefore 
it  is  called  a  rent-charge,  because  in  this  man- 
ner the  land  is  charged  with  a  distress  for  the 
payment  of  it.  1  Inst.  143.  A  clear  rent-charge 
must  be  firee  from  the  land-tax.  Doug.  602. 

Where  a  man,  seised  of  lands,  grants  by  deed- 
poll,  or  indenture,  a  yearly  rent  to  be  issuing 
out  of  the  same  land,  to  another  in  fee,  in  tail, 
for  life  or  years,  with  a  clause  of  distress ;  this 
is  a  rent-charge,  because  the  lands  are  charged 
with  a  distress  by  the  express  grant  or  provision 
of  the  parties,  which  otherwise  it  would  not  be. 
So,  if  a  man  make  a  feoffment  in  fee,  reserving 
rent,  and  if  the  rent  be  behind,  that  it  shall  be 
lawful  for  him  to  distrain ;  this  is  a  rent  charge, 
the  word  *  reserving'  amounting  to  a  grant 
from  the  feoffee.  litt.  §  217 :  Co.  Litt.  170  a : 
Plowd.  134. 

An  annuity  is  a  thing  very  distinct  from  a 
rent-charge,  with  which  it  is  frequently  con- 
founded :  a  rent-charge  being  a  burden  im- 
posed upon  and  issuing  out  of  lands ;  whereas 
an  annuity  is  a  yearly  sum  chargeable  only  upon 
the  person  of  the  grantor.  Therefore  if  a  man 
by  deed  g«nt  to  another  the  sura  of  £20  per 


annam^  without  expressing  out  of  what  lands  it 
shall  issue,  no  land  at  all  shall  be  charged  with 
it ;  but  it  is  a  mere  ^rsonal  annuity :  which  is 
of  so  little  account  m  the  law,  that,  if  granted 
to  an  eleemosynary  corporation,  it  is  not  within 
the  statutes  of  mortmain ;  and  yet  a  man  may 
have  a  real  estate  in  it,  though  his  security  is 
merely  personal.  2  Comm.  c.  3.  See  1  Inst. 
144. 

Rent'Secky  redditus  siccus,  or  barren  rent,  is 
in  effect  nothing  more  than  a  rent  reserved  by 
deed,  but  without  any  clause  of  distress.  A  rent- 
seek  is  so  called  because  it  is  unprofitable  to  the 
grantee ;  as,  before  seisin  had,  he  can  have  no 
remedy  for  recovery  of  it ;  as  where  a  man 
seised  in  fee  grants  a  rent  in  fee  for  life  or  years, 
or  where  a  man  makes  a  feoffment  in  fee  or  for 
life,  remainder  in  fee  reserving  rent,  without  any 
clause  of  distress,  these  are  rent-seek ;  for  which, 
by  the  policy  of  the  ancient  law,  there  was  no 
remedy,  as  there  was  no  tenure  between  the 
grantor  and  grantee,  or  feoffor  and  feoffee ;  con- 
sequently, no  fealty  could  be  due.  Litt.  §  215, 
218:  Cro.  Car.  520:  Kelw.  104  :  Cro.  Eliz. 
656. 

Though  a  rent  is  an  incornoreal  hereditament 
it  is  susceptible  of  the  same  limitations  as  other 
hereditaments.  Hence  it  may  be  granted  or  de- 
vised for  life,  or  in  tail,  with  remainders  or  limi- 
tations over.  But  there  is  this  difference  between 
an  intail  of  lands,  and  an  intail  of  rent ;  that  the 
tenant  in  tail  of  lands,  with  the  immediate  rever- 
sion in  fee  in  the  donor,  may,  by  a  common 
recovery,  bar  the  intail  and  reversion :  See  title 
Recovery,  Whereas  the  grantee  in  tail  of  the  rent 
de  novo,  without  a  subsequent  limitation  of  it 
in  fee,  requires,  by  a  common  recovery  only  a 
base  fee,  determinable  upon  his  decease,  and 
failure  of  the  issues  in  tail :  but  if  there  is  a 
limitation  of  it  in  fee,  after  the  limitation  in  tail, 
the  recovery  of  the  tenure  in  tail  gives  him  the 
fee-simple.  The  reason  of  this  differenee  is,  that 
it  would  be  unjust  that  the  conveyance  of  a 
grantee  of  a  rent  should  give  a  longer  duration 
or  existence  to  the  rent,  than  it  had  in  its  original 
creation.  It  is  true  that  the  barring  of  an  estate- 
tail  in  land  is  equally  contrary  to  the  intention  of 
the  grantor.  But  a  rent  differs  materially  from 
land.  The  old  principles  of  the  feudal  law 
looked  upon  every  modification  of  landed  pro- 
perty, which  was  considered  to  be  against  com- 
mon right,  with  a  very  jealous  eye.  Now  a  rent- 
charge  was  supposed  to  be  against  common 
right ;  the  grantee  of  the  rent-charge  being  sub- 
ject to  no  feudal  services,  and  being  a  burden 
on  the  tenant  who  was  to  perform  them.  Upon 
this  principle  the  law,  in  every  instance,  avoided 
giving,  by  implication,  a  continuation  to  the  rent, 
beyond  the  period  expressly  fixed  for  its  conti- 
nuance. Thus,  if  a  tenant  in  tail  of  land  die 
without  issue,  his  wife  is  entitled  to  dower  for 
her  life  out  of  the  land,  notwithstanding  tlie 
failure  of  the  issue ;  but  the  widow  of  a  tenant 
in  tail  of  rent  is  not  entitled  to  her  dower  against 
the  donor.  So  if  a  rent  is  granted  to  a  man  and 
his  heirs,  generally,  and  he  dies  without  an  heir, 
the  rent  does  not  escheat,  but  sinks  into  the 
land.  It  is  upon  this  principle  that,  when  there 
is  not  a  limitation  over  in  fee,  a  tenant  in  tail  of 


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rent  acquires  by  his  recoveiy  no  more  than  a 
base  fee ;  as  has  been  already  stated :  but  if 
there  is  a  limitation  in  fee ;  after  the  particular 
limitation  in  tail,  the  grantor  has  substantially 
limited  the  rent  in  fee ;  and,  therefore,  it  is  doing 
him  no  injustice,  that  the  recovery  should  give 
the  donee  who  suffers  it  an  estate  m  fee  simple. 

1  Inst.  298,  a.  in  n. 

There  are  also  other  species  of  rents,  which 
are  reducible  to  these  three.  Rents  of  assize 
are  the  certain  established  rents  of  the  freeholders 
and  ancient  copyholders  of  a  manor,  which  can- 
not be  departed  from  or  varied.  2  Inst.  19. 
Those  of  the  freeholders  are  frequently  called 
chief  rents,  redditus  capitales ;  and  both  sorts 
are  indifferently  denommated  quit-rents,  quieti 
redditus,  because  thereby  the  tenant  goes  quit 
and  free  of  all  other  services.  When  these  pay- 
ments were  reserved  in  silver  or  white  money, 
they  were  anciently  called  white- rents,  or  blanch- 
&rms,  redditus  albi ;  in  contradistinction  to 
rents  reserved  in  work,  grain,  or  baser  money, 
which  were  called  redditus  nigri,  or  black  mail. 

2  Inst.  19.  Rack-rent  is  only  a  rent  of  the  full 
value  of  the  tenement,  or  near  it.  A  fee-farm 
rent  is  a  rent-chaige  issuing  out  of  an  estate  in 
fee ;  of  at  least  one-fourth  of  the  value  of  the 
lands,  at  the  time  of  its  reservation :  for  a  grant 
of  lands,  reserving  so  considerable  a  rent,  is  in- 
deed only  letting  lands  to  farm  in  fee  simple, 
instead  of  the  usual  methods  for  life  or  years.  1 
Inst.  143.  It  seems  that  the  quantum  of  the  rent 
is  not  essential  to  create  a  fee-farm.  See  1  Inst. 
1 45  b.  n.  5  :  And  also,  whether  a  fee-farm  must 
necessarily  be  a  rent-charge ;  or  may  not  also  be 
a  rent-seek;  and  Doug.  605.  These  are  the 
general  divisions  of  rent ;  but  the  difference  be- 
tween them  (in  respect  to  the  remedy  for  reco- 
vering them)  is  now  totally  abolisheid ;  and  all 
persons  may  have  the  like  remedy  by  distress 
for  rents-seek,  rents  of  assise,  and  chief-rents  (if 
paid  for  three  years  within  twenty  years  preceding 
the  act,  or  if  created  since),  as  in  case  of  rents 
reserved  upon  lease.    Stat.  4  Geo.  II.  c.  28  §  5. 

II.  Moaet  of  recovering  rent. — By  stat.  8  Ann. 
cap.  14,  No  goods,  upon  any  tenements  leased, 
shall  be  taken  by  any  execution,  unless  the  party, 
at  whose  suit  the  execution  is  sued  out,  shall,  be- 
fore the  removal  of  such  goods,  pay  to  the  land- 
lord of  the  premises,  or  his  bailiff,  all  money  due 
for  rent  for  the  premises ;  provided  the  arrears 
do  not  amount  to  more  than  one  year*s  rent: 
and,  in  case  the  arrears  shall  exceed  one  year's 
rent,  then  the  party,  paying  the  said  landlord,  or 
his  bailiff,  one  year's  rent,  may  proceed  to  exe- 
cute his  judgment :  and  the  sheriff  is  required  to 
levy  and  pay  to  the  plaintiff,  as  well  the  money 
paid  for  rent,  as  the  execution  money.  §  1.  The 
act  contains  a  proviso  to  prevent  prejudice  to 
tlie  crown,  in  recovering  ana  seizing  debts,  fines, 
and  forfeitures.  §  8.  See  Ogilvy,  v.  Wingale, 
Pari.  Cas. 

It  shall  be  lawful  for  any  person  having  rent 
due  on  any  lease  for  life,  years,  or  at  will,  deter- 
mined to  distrain  for  such  arrears  ader  determi- 
nation of  the  leases :  provided.  That  such  dis- 
tress be  made  within  six  calendar  months  afler 
the  determination  of  such  lease,  and  during  the 
continuance  of  :»uch  landlord *s  title,  and  during 


the  possession  of  the  tenant  from  whom  such  aN 
rear  became  due.  Stat.  8,  Ann.  c.  14,  sec.  6, 7. 
The  above  clauses  were  made  to  remedy  the  de- 
fect of  the  common  law,  under  which  toe  power 
of  distress  ceased  with  the  tenure.  1  Inst.  162, 
6  in  ft. 

By  Stat  4  Geo.  II.,  cap.  28,  in  case  any  tenaot 
for  life  or  years,  or  other  person  who  shall  come 
into  possession  of  any  lands,  &c.,  under  or  by 
collusion  of  such  tenant,  wilfully  hold  over,  after 
the  determination  of  such  term,  and  after  de- 
mand made  in  writing  for  delivering  possession, 
such  person  holding  over  shall  pay  aonble  the 
yearly  value  of  the  lands,  &c.,  so  detained,  sec.  1 . 

In  all  cases  between  landlord  and  tenant,  on  half 
a  year's  rent  being  in  arrear,  the  landhold  having  a 
right  by  law  to  re-enter  for  non-payment,  may  with- 
out any  formal  demand  or  re-entry,  serve  a  decla- 
ration in  ejectment;  and  in  case  of  judgment  or 
non-suit  for  not  confessing  lease,  entry,  and 
ouster,  it  shall  appear  that  half  a  year's  rent  was 
due  before  a  declaration  served,  and  no  sufficient 
distress  to  be  found  ;  and  that  the  lessor  in  eject- 
ment had  poiwer  to  re-enter;  the  lessor  in  eject- 
ment shall  recover  judgment  Sec.  2.  Lesees, 
&c.,  filing  a  bill  in  equihr,  shall  not  have  an  in- 
junction against  proceedings  at  law,  unless  they 
shall,  within  forty  days  after  answer  filed,  bring 
into  court  such  money  as  the  lessors  in  their  an- 
swer shall  swear  to  ble  in  arrear,  over  and  above 
all  just  allowances,  and  costs  taxed,  there  to  re- 
mam  till  the  hearing  of  the  cause,  or  to  be  paid 
to  the  lessors  on  good  security,  subject  to  the 
decree  of  the  court ;  and  in  case  such  bill  shall 
be  duly  filed,  and  execution  executed,  the  lessors 
shall  oe  accountable  for  only  so  much  as  they  shall 
really  make  of  the  premises  from  the  time  of 
their  re-entry ;  and,  if  the  same  shall  happen  to 
be  less  than  the  usual  rent  reserved,  the  lessees 
shall  not  be  restored  to  the  possession  until  they 
shall  make  up  the  deficiency  to  the  lessors.  Sec. 
3.  If  the  tenant,  at  any  time  before  trial,  tender 
or  pay  into  court  all  arrears  with  costs,  proceed- 
ings on  ejectments  shall  cease.    Sec.  4. 

Previous  to  the  above  statute,  the  courts,  both 
of  law  and  equity,  had  exercised  a  discretionary 
power  of  staying  the  lessor  from  proceeding  at 
law,  in  cases  of  forfeiture  for  non-payment  of 
rent,  by  compelling  him  to  take  the  money  really 
due  to  him. 

By  Stat  11  Geo.  II.,  c.  19,  it  shall  be  lawful 
for  the  landlord,  where  the  agreement  is  not  by 
deed,  to  recover  a  reasonable  satisfaction  for  the 
tenements  occupied  by  defendants,  in  an  action 
on  the  case,  for  the  use  and  occupation  of  what 
was  held  ;  and  if,  in  evidence  on  the  trial,  any 
parol  demise  or  agreement,  not  by  deed,  whereon 
a  certain  rent  was  reserved,  shall  appear,  plantiff 
may  make  use  thereof  as  an  evioence  of  the 
quantum  of  the  damages.    Sec.  14. 

If  any  tenant  holding  tenements  at  a  rack-rent, 
or  where  the  rent  reserved  be  full  three-fourths 
of  the  yearly  value  of  the  premises,  who  shall  be  in 
arrear  for  one  year's  rent,  desert  the  premises,  and 
leave  the  same  uncultivated  or  unoccupied,  so  as 
no  sufficient  distress  can  be  had  to  countervail 
the  arrears  ;  it  shall  be  lawful  for  two  justices  of 
the  peace  (having  no  interest  in  the  premises)  to  r  o 
upon  and  view  tlie  same,  and  to  affi|,onUie  mov 


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botoitous  part,  notice  inwiiting,  what  day  ([at  the 
distance  ot  fourteen  days  at  least)  they  will  re- 
turn to  take  a  second  view ;  and  if,  on  such  se- 
cond yiew,  the  tenant,  or  some  person  on  his  he- 
half,  shall  not  appear  and  pay  the  rent  i^  arrear, 
or  Uiere  shall  not  he  sufficient  distress  on  the 
premises,  the  justices  may  put  the  landlord  in 
possession,  and  the  lease  to  such  tenants  as  to  anv 
demise  therein  contained  only 'shallb^ome  void. 
Sec.  16.  In  case  any  tenant  give  notice  of  his 
intention  to  quit,  and  shall  not  accordingly  de- 
liver up  the  possession  at  the  time  in  such  notice 
contained,  tbie  tenant,  his  executors,  or  adminis- 
trators, shall  pay  to  the  landlord  double  the  rent 
which  he  should  otherwise  have  paid.  Sec.  18. 
By  Stat  11  Geo.  II.  c.  19,  above  quoted, 
landlords  are  empowered  to  follow  goods  frau- 
dulently and  clandestinely  removed  off  the  pre- 
mises within  thirty  days:  but  this  applies  to  the 
goods  of  the  tenant  only,  aod  not  to  those  of  a 
stranger.  See  the  statutes  56  Geo.  III.  c.  88, 
and  58  Geo.  III.  c.  39,  to  amend  the  law  of  Ire- 
land respecting  the  recovery  of  tenements  from 
abacondmg,  overholdiog,  or  defaulting  tenants, 
and  for  piptection  of  the  tenant  from  undue 
distress,  by  which  many  provisions  of  the  Eng- 
lish acts  are  extended  to  Ireland. 

The  general  remedy  for  rent  is  by  distress, 
under  ihe  restrictions  and  directions  of  the  sta- 
tutes :  but  there  are  also  other  remedies  particu- 
larised by  Blackstone,  3  Comm.  c.  15,  which  it 
will  be  sufficient  here  to  notice  in  a  summary 
manner. 

By  action  of  debt,  for  the  breach  of  the 
express  contract  This  is  the  most  usual  reme- 
dy, when  recourse  is  had  to  any  action  at  all  for 
the  recovery  of  pecuniary  rents :  to  which  species 
of  render  almost  all  free  services  are  now  reduced 
since  the  abolition  of  the  military  tenures :  But 
for  a  freehold  rent,  reserved  on  a  lease  for  life, 
&c.,  no  action  of  debt  lay,  by  the  common  law, 
during  the  continuance  of  the  freehold,  out 
of  which  it  issued;  for  the  law  would  not 
9uffer  a  real  injury  to  be  remedied  l>y  an 
action  that  was  merely  personal.  1  Roll.  Abr. 
.595.  But  by  stat  8  Ann.  c.  14,  sec.  4,  an  ac- 
tion of  debt  is  given  for  rents  on  leases  for  life 
or  lives,  as  upon  a  lease  for  years :  and  by  stat. 
5  Geo.  III.  c.  17,  which  enables  ecclesiastical 
persons  to  lease  tiUies  and  other  incorporeal  in- 
neritances,  action  of  debt  is  given  (by  sec.  3)  for 
recovery  of  rent  on  such  leases;  and  perhaps 
the  first  of  these  statutes  extends  to  leases  of 
incorporeal  hereditaments.  See  1  Inst.  47,  a 
inn. 

The  rent  in  a  lease  must  be  reserved  to  the 
lessor,  or  his  heirs,  &c.,  and  not  to  a  stranger. 
See  1  Inst  213,  6.  The  principle  which  gave 
rise  to  this  rule  is,  that  rent  is  considered  as  a  re- 
tribution for  the  land,  and  is  therefore  payable  to 
those  who  would  otherwise  have  had  the  land. 
It  is  to  be  observed  that  remainder  men  in  a 
settlement,  being  at  first  view  neither  feoffors, 
donors,  lessors,  nor  the  heirs  of  feoffors,  donors, 
or  lessors,  there  seems  to  have  been,  for  some 
time  after  the  statute  of  Uses,  a  doubt  whether 
the  rents  of  leases,  made  by  virtue  of  powers 
contained  in  settlements,  could  be  reserved  to 
them.    In  Chudleigh*s  case,  1  Rep.  159,  it  is 


positively  said,  that  if  a  feoffaient  in  fee  be  made 
to  the  use  of  one  for  life,  remainder  to  another 
in  tail  with  several  remainders  over,  with  a 
power  to  the  tenant  for  life  to  make  leases,  re- 
serving the  rent  to  the  reversioners,  and  the 
tenant  for  life  accordingly  make  leases;  neither 
his  heirs,  nor  any  of  the  remainder-men,  shall 
have  the  rent  'But,  in.  Harcourt  v.  Pole,  1 
Anders.  273,  it  was  adjudged  that  the  remainder- 
men might  distrain  in  uese  cases :  and  in  T. 
Jones  35,  the  dictum  in  Chudleigh's  case  is  de- 
nied to  be  law.  The  determination  in  Harcourt 
V.  Pole  will  appear  incontiovertibly  right,  if  we 
consider  tha)(  Doth  the  lessees  and  remainder-men 
derive  their  estate  out  of  the  reversion  or  original 
inheritance  of  the  settler ;  and  therefore  the  law, 
to  use  Coke*s  expression  in  Whitlock's  case^  8 
Rep.  71,  will  distribute  the  rent  to  every  one  to 
wht>m  any  limitation  of  the  use  is  made.  1 
Inst  214,  a  in  n;  and  see  Id.  213,  6  in  n. 

III.  Re^)ecting  the  demand  of  rent, — With  re- 
spect to  the  necessity  of  demandipg  rent,  there  is  a 
material  difference  between  a  remedy  by  re- 
entry, and  a  remedy  by  distress,  for  non-payment 
of  the  rent ;  for,  where  the  remedy  is  by  way  of 
re-entry  for  non-payment,  there  must  be  an  ac^ 
tual  demand  made,  previous  to  the  entry,  other- 
wise it  is  tortuous ;  because  such  condition  of  re- 
entry is  in  derogation  of  the  grant,  and  the  estate 
at  law  being  once  defeated,  is  not  to  be  restored 
by  any  sub^quent  payment:  and  it  is  presumed 
that  the  tenant  is  there  residing  on  the  premises, 
in  order  to  pay  the  rent  for  preservation  of  his 
estate,  unless  tlie  contrary  appKears  by  the  lessor's 
being  there  to  demand  it  Therefore,  unless  there 
be  a  demand  made,  and  the  tenant  thereby,  con- 
trary to  the  presumption,  appears  not  to  be  on 
the  land  reaay  to  pay  the  rent,  the  law  will  not 
give  the  lessor  the  benefit  of  re-entiy,  to  defeat 
the  tenant's  estate,  without  a  wilful  defoult  in 
him;  which  cannot  appear  without  a  demand 
has  been  actually  made  on  the  land.  So,  if 
there  had  been  a  nomine  psn»  given  to  the 
lessor  for  non-payment,  the  lessor  must  demand 
the  rent  before  he  can  be  entitled  to  the  penalty^ 

Where  the  remedy  for  recovery  of  rent  is 
by  distress,  there  needs  no  demand  previous  to' 
the  distress;  though  the  deed  says  that  if  the 
rent  be  behind,  being  lawfully  demanded,  that 
the  lessor  may  distrain ;  but  the  lessor,  notwith- 
standing such  clause,  may  distrain  when  the  rent 
becomes  due.    So  it  is,  if  a  rent-charge  be 

? [ranted  to  A,  and  if  it  be  behind,  being  law- 
iilly  demanded,  that  then  A  shall  distrain ;  he 
may  distrain  widiout  any  previous  demand. 

But  this  general  distinction  must  be  understood 
with  these  restrictions : — ^That  if  the  king  makes 
a  lease,  reserving  rent,  with  a  clause  of  re-entry 
for  non-payment,  he  is  not  obliged  to  make  any 
demand  previous  to  his  re-entry ;  but  the  tenant 
is  obligea  to  pay  his  rent  for  the  preservation  of 
his  estate,  because  it  is  beneath  the  king  to  attend 
his  subject  to  demand  his  rent. 

But  this  exception  is  not  to  be  extended  to  the 
duchy  lands,  though  they  be  in  the  hands  of  the 
king ;  for  the  king  must  make  a  demand  before 
he  can  re-enter  into  such  lands,  by  the  stat.  1 
Hen.  IV.  c.  18,  which  provides,  that,  when  the 
duchy  lands  come  to  the  king,  they  shall  not  be 


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tinder  guch  coYernmeDt  and  regulations  as  the 
demesnes  and  possessions  belonging  to  the  crown. 
Moor  149,  160.  So,  if  a  prebendary  make  a 
lease,  rendering  rent,  and  if  the  rent  be  in  ar- 
rear  and  demanded,  that  it  shall  be  lawful  for  the 
prebendary  to  re-enter ;  if  the  reversion  in  this 
case  comes  to  the  king,  the  king  must  in  this 
case  demand  the  rent,  Uiough  he  shall  be  by  his 
prerogative  excused  of  an  implied  demand :  for 
the  implied  demand  is  the  act  of  the  law,  the 
other  tne  express  agreement  of  the  parties,  which 
(he  king's -prerogative  shall  not  dereat.  There- 
fore, in  case  of  the  king,  if  he  makes  a  lease  re- 
serving rent,  with  a  proviso,  if  the  rent  be 
in  arrear  for  such  a  time  (being  lawfully  de- 
manded, or  demanded  in  due  form),  that  then 
the  lease  shall  be  void ;  it  seems  that  not  only 
the  patentee  of  the  reversion  in  this  case,  but 
also  the  king  himself,  whilst  he  continues  the  re- 
version in  his  own  hands,  is  obliged  to  make  an 
actual  demand  by  reason  of  the  express  agree- 
ment for  that  purpose.  Dyer  87,  210.  But  if 
the  king,  in  cases  where  he  need  not  make  a  de- 
mand, assigns  over  the  reversion,  the  patentee 
cannot  enter  for  non-payment,  without  a  previous 
demand,  because  the  privilege  is  inseparably  an- 
nexed to  the  person  of  the  king. 

Another  exception  is,  where  the  rent  is  paya- 
ble at  a  place  off  the  land,  with  a  clause  that  if 
the  rent  be  behind,  being  lawfully  demanded  at 
the  place  off  the  land,  or  where  the  clause  is, 
if  the  rent  be  behind,  being  lawfully  demanded 
of  the  person  who  is  to  pay  it,  that  then  he  may 
distrain;  in  these  cases,  though  the  remedy  be 
by  distress  only,  yet  the  grantee  cannot  distrain 
without  a  previous  demand ;  because  here  the 
distress  ana  demand  being  not  complicate,  but 
different  acts,  to  be  performed  at  different  places 
and  times,  the  demand  must  be  previous  to  the 
distress;  for  distress  is  an  act  of  grace,  not  of 
conunon  right,  and  therefore  must  be  used  in 
the  manner  that  it  is  given. 

And  there  seems  to  have  been  formerly  ano- 
ther exception  admitted,  that  where  the  remedy 
•was  by  way  of  entry,  for  non-payment,  yet 
there  needed  no  demand,  if  the  rent  were  made 

Payable  at  any  place  off  the  land ;  because  they 
K)ked  on  the  money  payable  off  the  land  to  be 
in  nature  of  a  sum  in  gross,  which  the  tenant 
had  at  his  own  peril  undertaken  to  pay;  but 
this  opinion  has  been  entirely  exploded,  for  the 
place  of  payment  does  not  change  the  nature  of 
the  service,  but  it  remams  in  its  nature  a  rent, 
as  much  as  if  it  had  been  made  payable  on  the 
land ;  therefore,  the  presumption  is,  that  the  te- 
nant was  thereto  pay  it,  unless  it  be  overthrown 
by  the  proof  of  a  demand;  and  without  such  de- 
mand, and  a  neglect  or  refusal,  there  is  no  injury 
to  the  lessor,  consequently  the  estate  of  the  lessee 
ought  not  to  be  defeated.  But  when  the  power 
of  re-entry  is  given  to  the  lessor  for  non-payment, 
without  any  further  demand,  there  it  seems  that 
the  lessee  has  undertaken  to  pay  it,  whether  it 
be  demanded  or  not ;  and  there  can  be  no  pre- 
sumption in  his  favor  in  this  case ;  because  by 
dispensing  with  the  demand  he  has  put  himself 
nnaer  the  necessity  of  making  an  actual  proof 
that  he  was  ready  to  tender  and  pay  the  rent. 
Dyer  68. 


There  is  another  exception,  when  the  remedy 
is  bv  distress,  and  that  is,  when  the  tenant  was 
ready  on  the  land  to  pay  the  rent  at  the  day,  and 
made  a  tender  of  it ;  there  it  seems  there  must 
be  a  demand  previous  to  the  distress ;  because, 
where  the  tenant  has  shown  himself  ready  on 
the  day  by  the  tender,  he  has  done  all  tliat  in 
reason  can  be  required  of  him ;  for  it  would  put 
the  tenant  to  endless  trouble  to  oblige  him  every 
day  to  make  a  tender;  it  being  altogether  uncer- 
tain when  the  lessor  will  come  for  his  rent,  when 
he  has  omitted  to  receive  it  the  day  he  appoint- 
ed by  the  lease  for  payment  and  receipt;  where- 
fore as  the  lessee  must  expect  the  lessor,  and  be 
ready  to  pay  it  at  the  day  appointed,  or  else  the 
lessor  may  distrain  for  it  without  any  demand; 
so  where  the  lessor  has  lapsed  the  day  of  pay- 
ment, and  was  not  on  the  land  to  receive  it,  he 
mqst  give  the  tenant  notice  to  pay  iC  before  he 
can  distrain ;  for  the  tenant  shall  be  put  to  no 
trouble  wbere  it  appears  that  he  has  omitted 
nothing  on  his  part.  And  where  the  tender  was 
made  bv  a  tenant  on  the  land  at  the  day,  there  a 
demand  on  the  land  is  sufficient  to  justify  a  dis- 
tress after  the  day;  because  the  demand  in  such 
case  is  of  equal  notoriety  with  the  tender.  But 
if  the  tenant  had  tendered  the  rent  on  the  day  to 
the  person  of  the  lessor,  and  he  tefused  it,  it 
seems,  by  the  better  opinion,  that  the  lessor  can- 
not distrain  for  that  rent,  without  a  demand  of 
the  person  of  the  tenant ;  because  the  demand 
ought  to  be  equally  notorious  to  the  tenant,  as 
the  tender  was  to  the  lessor.  Hob.  207:  2  Roll. 
Abr.  427.  So,  if  the  services  by  which  the  te- 
nant holds  be  personal,  as  homage,  fealty,  &c., 
the  demand  must  be  of  the  person  of  the  tenant ; 
because  this  service  is  only  performable  by  the 
very  person  of  the  tenant,  therefore  a  deinand, 
where  he  is  not,  would  be  improper.  Hut.  13 : 
Hob.  207. 

Again,  if  the  rent  be  rent-seek,  and  the  tenant 
be  ready  at  the  last  instant  of  the  day  of  payment 
to  pay  the  rent,  and  the  granter  is  not  there  to 
receive  it,  he  must  afterwards  demand  it  of  the 
person  of  the  tenant  on  the  lands,  before  he  can 
nave  his  assise ;  but  in  the  case  of  a  rent-charge, 
after  such  tender  of  the  tenant  on  the  land,  &e 
grantee  may  afterwards  demand  the  rent  on  the 
land,  because  he  has  his  remedy  by  distress, 
which  is  no  more  than  a  pledge  for  the  rent ;  but 
in  this  case,  if  the  grantee  cannot  find  the  tenant 
on  the  land  to  demand  the  rent,  he  may,  on  the 
next  feast  on  which  the  rent  is  payable,  demand 
all  .the  arrears  on  the  land ;  ana,  if  the  tenant  is 
not  there  to  pay  it,  he  has  failed  of  his  duty,  and 
is  guilty  of  wilful  default  which  amounts  to  a 
denial ;  and,  that  denial  being  a  disseisin  of  the 
rent,  the  grantee  may  have  his  assbe,  and  by 
that  shall  recover  the  arrears. 

If  a  lease  be  made,  reserving  rent,  and  a  bond 
«given  for  performance  of  covenants  and  payment 
of  the  rent,  the  lessor  may  sue  the  bond  without 
demanding  the  rent.  If  there  be  several  things 
demised  in  one  lease,  with  several  reservations, 
with  a  clause,  that,  if  the  several  yearly  rents  re- 
served be  behind  or  unpaid  in  part,  or  in  all,  by 
the  space  of  one  month,  after  any  of  the  days  on 
whico  the  same  ought  to  be  paid,  that  then  it 
shall  be  lawful  for  the  lessor,  into  such  of  the 


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premises,  whereupon  such  rents,  bemg  behind,  is 
or  are  reserved,  to  re-eater;  these  are  in  the  na- 
ture of  distinct  demises,  and  several  reservations ; 
consequently  there  must  be  distinct  demands  on 
.each  demise  to  defeat  the  whole  estate  demised. 
Abo,  as  to  the  necessity  of  a  demand  of  the  rent, 
there  is  a  difference  between  a  condition  and  a 
limitation ;  for  instance,  if  tenant  for  life  (as  the 
case  was  by  marriage  settlement  with  power  to 
make  leases  for  twenty-one  years,  so  long  as  the 
lessee,  his  executors,  or  assigns,  shall  duly  pay 
the  rent  reserved)  make  a  lease  pursuant  to  the 
power ;  the  tenant  is  at  his  peril  obliged  to  pay 
the  rent  without  any  demand  of  the  lessor;  oe- 
cause  the  estate  is  limited  to  continue  only  so 
long  as  the  rent  is  paid ;  therefore,  for  non -per- 
formance, according  to  the  limitation  the  estate 
must  determine ;  as  if  an  estate  be  made  to  a 
woman  dum  sola  fiierit,  this  b  a  word  of  limita- 
tion which  determines  her  estate  on  marris^e. 

IV.  Of  the  time  and  place  of  demanding  rent. — 
Rent  b  regularly  due  and  payable  upon  the  land 
whence  it  issues,  if  no  particular  place  is  men- 
tioned :  but,  in  case  of  the  king,  the  payment 
.  must  be  either  to  his  officers  at  the  exchequer, 
or  to  his  receiver  in  the  country.  And,  strictly, 
the  rent  is  demandable  and  payable  before  the 
time  of  sun-set  of  the  day  whereon  it  is  reserved ; 
though  perhaps  not  absolutely  due  till  midnight. 
If  the  lessor  dies  before  sun  is  set  on  the  day 
upon  which  the  rent  is  demandable,  it  is  clearly 
settled  that  the  rent  unpaid  is  due  to  his  heir, 
and  not  to  his  executor :  but  if  he  dies  after  sun- 
set, and  before  midnight,  it  seems  to  be  the  bet- 
ter opinion  that  it  shall  go  to  the  executor,  and 
not  to  the  kin.    1  P.  Wms.  178. 

There  b  a  material  difference  between  the  re- 
servation of  a  rent  payable  on  a  particular  day, 
or  within  a  certain  time  after ;  and  the  reserva- 
tion of  a  rent  payable  at  a  certain  day,  with  a 
condition  that,  if  it  be  behind,  by  the  space  of 
any  given  time,  the  lessor  shall  enter ;  m  both 
^  cases  a  tender  on  the  first  or  last  day  of  pay- 
ment, or  on  any  of  the  intermediate  days,  to  the 
lessor  himself,  either  upon  or  out  of  the  land,  is 
good :  but,  in  the  former  case  it  b  sufficient,  if 
the  lessee  attends  on  the  first  day  of  payment  at 
the  proper^place;  and,  if  the  lessor  does  not  at- 
tend there  *to  receive  the  rent,  the  condition  is 
saved.  In  the  latter  case,  to  save  the  lease  it  is 
not  sufficient  that  the  lessee  attends  on  the  first 
day  of  payment,  for  he  must  equally  attend  on 
the  last  day. 

The  other  effects  of  this  question  of  the  time 
of  the  rent  becoming  due  are  now  in  equal 
measure  superseded  by  the  statute  regulations 
already  alluded  to.  But  the  following  determi- 
nations on  the  subject  may,  notwithstanding,  be 
requisite  to  be  known.  1.  The  time  for  pay- 
ment of  rent,  and  consequently  for  a  demand,  is 
such  a  convenient  time  before  the  sun-setting  of 
the  last  day  as  will  be  sufficient  to  have  the 
money  counted  ;  but  if  the  tenant  meet  the  lessor 
on  the  land  at  any  time  of  the  last  day  of  pay- 
ment, and  tenders  the  rent,  that  is  sufficient  ten- 
der, because  the  money  is  to  be  paid  indefinitely 
on  that  day,  therefore  a  tender  on  the  day  is  suf- 
ficient. 2.  If  a  lease  is  made,  rendering  rent  at 
Michaelmas,  between  the  hours  of  one  and  five 


in  the  afternoon,  with  a  clause  of  re-entr^,  and 
the  lessor  comes  at  the  day,  about  two  m  the 
afternoon,  and  continues  to  five,  this  is  sufficient. 
Cro.  Eliz.  15.  The  demand  may  be  by  attorney. 
4  Leon.  479.  But  the  power  must  be  special, 
for  such  land  and  of  such  tenant :  demand  must 
be  proved  by  witnesses,  and  must  be  made  of 
the  precise  sum  due.  3.  If  a  lease  be  made,  re- 
serving rent  on  condition  that  if  the  rent  be 
behind  at  the  day,  and  tec  days  after  (being  in 
the  mean  time  demanded),  and  no  distress  to  be 
found  upon  the  land,  that  the  lessor  may  re-enter; 
if  the  rent  be  behind  at  the  day,  and  ten  days 
after,  and  a  sufficient  distress  be  on  the  land  till 
the  afternoon  of  the  tenth  day,  and  then  the  lessee 
takes  away  his  cattle,  and  the  lessor  demands  the 
rent  at  the  last  hour  of  the  day,  and  the  lessee 
does  not  pay  it,  and  there  b  not  any  distress  on 
the  land ;  yet  the  lessor  cannot  enter,  because  he 
made  no  &mand  in  the  mean  time  between  the 
day  of  payment,  and  the  ten  days,  which  by  the 
clause  he  was  obliged  to  do.  4.  As  to  the  place 
of  demanding  rent,  there  b  a  difference  between 
a  remedy  by  re-entry  and  distress ;  for  when  the 
rent  is  reserved,  on  condition  that,  if  it  be  be- 
hind, that  the  lessor  may  re-enter,  in  such  case 
the  demand  must  be  upon  the  most  notorious 
place  on  the  land ;  therefore,  if  there  be  a  house 
on  the  land,  the  demand  roust  be  at  the  fore  door 
thereof,  because  the  tenant  is  presumed  to  be 
there  residing,  and  the  demand  being  required 
to  give  notice  to  the  tenant  that  be  may  not  be 
turned  out  of  possession,  without  a  wilful  default, 
snch  demand  ought  to  be  in  the  place  where  the 
end  and  intention  will  be  best  answered.  5. 
And  it  seems  the  better  opinion  that  it  b  not 
necessary  to  enter  the  house,  though  the  doors 
be  open,  because  that  is  a  place  appropriated  for 
the  peculiar  use  of  the  inhabitant,  into  which  no 
person  b  permitted  to  enter  without  his  permis- 
sion; and  it  is  reasonable  that  the  lessor. shall 
go  no  further  to  demand  hb  rent  than  the  te- 
nant should  be  obliged  to  go,  when  he  b  bound 
to  tender  it ;  and  a  tender  by  the  tenant  at  the 
door  of  the  house  of  the  lessor  is  sufficient, 
though  it  be  open,  without  entering;  therefore, 
by  parity  of  reason,  a  demand  by  the  lessor  at  the 
door  of  the  tenant,  without  entering,  b  sufficient. 
But  when  the  demand  is  only  in  order  for  a  dis- 
tress, there  it  is  sufficient,  if  it  be  made  on  any 
notorious  part  of  the  land,  because  thb  is  only  to 
entitle  him  to  his  remedy  for  hb  rent ;  therefore, 
tlie  whole  land  being  etqually  debtor,  and  charge- 
able with  the  rent,  a  demand  on  it,  without 
going  to  any  particular  part  of  it,  is  sufficient. 
Co.  Litt.  153. 

RENTERING,  in  the  manufactories,  b  the 
same  with  fine-drawing.  It  consbts  in  sewing 
two  pieces  of  cloth  edge  to  edge,  without  doubl- 
ing them,  so  that  the  seam  scarcely  appears; 
and  hence  it  is  denominated  fine-drawing.  It 
was  originally  a  French  word  derived  from  the 
Latin  retrahere,  because  the  seam  is  drawn  in  or 
covered.  In  die  East  Indies,  if  a  piece  of 
fine  muslin  be  torn,  and  afterwards  mended  by 
the  fine-drawers,  it  will  be  impossible  to  dis- 
cover where  the  rent  was.  In  this  country  the 
dexterity  of  the  fine  drawers  b  not  so  great,  but 
it  is  still  such  as  to  enable  them  to  defiraud  the 


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rereiiue,  by  fiateolnff  a  head  or  slip  of  fingllsh 
cloth  on  a  piece  of  Dutch,  Spanish,  or  other 
foreign  cloth ;  or  a  slip  of  foreign  cloth  on  a 
piece  of  English,  so  as  to  pass  the  whole  as  of  a 
piece;  and  Uius  avoid  the  duties,  penalties,  &c. 
The  trick  was  first  discoTered  in  France  by  M. 
Savary. 

Revteriho,  in  tapestry,  is  the  working  new 
warp  into  a  piece  of  txpnitf  damaged  by  rats  or 
otherwise,  and  on  this  waip  to  restore  the  ancient 
pattern  or  design.  The  warp  is  to  be  of  woollen, 
not  linen.  Among  the  titles  of  the  French 
tapestry  makers  is  included  that  of  renterers. 

REORDAIN;  V.  a.     )      FT.rtordiner.    Re 

Reoedima'tion,  n.  s.  i  and  ordain.  To  or- 
dain again :  the  noun-substantive  corresponding. 

He  proceeded  in  his  ministry  without  ezpectinff 
any  new  mittion,  and  never  thought  himself  obliged 
to  a  twortUfiatum.  Atterbury, 

REPA'CIFY,  V.  fi.  Re  and  pacify.  To  pa- 
cify again. 

Henry,  who  next  commands  the  state. 
Seeks  to  mpoq^y  the  people's  heat.       Damtl, 


REPAIR',  V.  a.,  v.  n.,  &fi.  i . 
Repair'er,  n.  i. 
Rep'arable,  atg. 
Rep^arably,  adv. 
Repara'tioh,  fl.  s. 
Rbpara'tive. 


Fr. 
Latin  reparo : 
Ital.  reparare, 
^To  restore  or 
amend  after  in- 
jury ;     supply 


los^;  revisit:  as  a  noun-substantive,  the  supply 
or  restoration  made ;  resort ;  abode :  reparation 
is  the  act  of  repairing:  the  other  derivatives 
correspond. 

Let  the  priests  rtptar  the  breaches  of  the  bouie. 

2  Kingi* 
Before  the  curing  of  a  strong  disease, 

Ev'n  in  the  instant  of  tvpatr  and  health, 

The  fit  is  strongest.  Shahptare,  King  Lear. 

May  all  to  Athens  back  again  repair,  Shalupeare. 

The  parts  in  man's  body  easily  repanMe,  as  tpiriu, 
blood,  and  flesh,  die  in  the  embracement  of  the  parts 
hardly  reparable,  as  bones,  nenres,  and  membranes. 

Baeon. 

The  king  should  be  able,  when  he  has  cleared 
himself,  to  make  him  reparation.  idm 

He  saw  Ulysses ;  at  his  ships  repaire. 

That  had  been  brushtwith  the  enraged  aire. 

Chapnumm 

New  preparatives  were  in  hand,  and  parti  v  repa" 
raiieet  ot  the  former  beaten  at  sea.  WoUan. 

An  adulterous  person  is  tied  to  restitution  of  the 
.-njury,  so  far  as  is  reparaUe,  and  can  be  made  to  the 
wronged  person  ;  to  make  provision  for  the  children 
begotten  in  unlawful  embraces.  Taylor. 

All  automata  need  a  frequent  repair  of  new 
strenffth.  the  causes  whence  their  motion  does  pro- 
ceed being  subject  to  fail.  Wilkins. 

The  fines  imposed  were  the  more  repined  against, 
because  they  were  assigned  to  the  rebuilding  and  re- 
pairing of  St.  Paul's  church.  Clarendon. 

The  king  sent  a  proclamation  for  their  repair  to 
their  houses,  and  foi'a  preservation  of  the  peace. 

Id. 

Heaven  soon  repaired  her  mural  breach.    MUton* 
To  be  revenged. 

And  to  repair  his  numbers  thus  impaired.       Id. 

He  cast  in  his  mind  for  the  repair  of  the  cathedral 
church.  FeU. 

When  its  spirit  is  drawn  from  vrine,it  vrill  not  by 
the  re-Union  of  its  constituent  liquors  be  reduced  to 
its  pristine  nature ;  because  the  workmanship  of  na- 
tuie,  in  the  disposition  of  the  parU  was  too  elabo- 


rate to  be  imltable,  or  reparable  by  the  bare  apposi- 
tion of  those  divided  parU  to  each  other.        Ayie. 
Suits  are  unlawfully  entered,  when  they  are  vin- 
dictive, not  reparative ;  and  began  only  for  revenge, 
not  for  reparaticn  of  damages.  KetlleweU. 

Temperance,  in  all  methods  of  curing  the  gout,  is 
a  regular  and  simple  diet,  proportioning  the  daily 
repain  to  the  daily  decays  of  our  wasting  bodlies. 

TempU'e  MiaedUmin. 
Depart  from  hence  in  peace, 
Seaich  the  wide  world,  and  where  you  please  rtpmir. 

Dnfden. 
So  'scapes  the«  insulting  fire  his  narrow  jaij, 
And  makes  small  outlets  into  open  air ; 

There  the  fierce  winds  his  tender  force  assail. 
And  beat  him  downward  to  his  first  repair.     Id. 
O  sacred  rest ! 
O  peace  of  mind !  repairer  of  decay, 
Wnose  balms  renew  the  limbs  to  laboors  of  the  day. 

U. 
He  that  governs  well,  leads  the  blind,  but  he  that 
teaches,  gives  him  eyes ;  and  it  is  a  ^orious  thing  to 
have  been  the  repairer  of  a  decayed  mtellect. 

8mUh*$  SsriRMU. 
When  the  organs  of  sense  want  their  due  repose 
and  necessary  reparatunu,  the  soul  exerts  herself  in 
her  several  faculties.  Addiwm^ 

Antoninus  Philoaophus  took  care  of  the  repmnumn 
of  the  hiffhways-  ArbeOknot  on  Ceitu. 

'Tis  fix  d ;  the  irrevocable  doom  of  Jove  : 
Haste  then,  Cyllenius,  through  the  liquid  air« 
Go  mount  the  winds,  and  to  the  shades  repair.  Pepe. 

REPAN'DOUS,  adj.  Lat.  repandta.  Bent 
upwards. 

Though  they  be  drawn  repandtme  or  convexedly 
crooked  in  one  piece,  jet  the  dolphin  that  cardeth 
Anon  is  concavously  inverted,  and  hath  its  spine 
depressed  in  another.  Browwie. 

REPARTEE',  n.  s.  &  v.  a.  Frencb  repariie. 
Smart  reply  or  saying:  to  make  smart  replies. 

The  fools  overflowed  with  smart  reparteee,  and 
were  onlv  distinguished  from  the  intended  wiu  by 
being  called  coxcombs.  Dryden. 

Cupid  was  as  bad  as  he ; 
Hear  out  the  youngster's  repartee.        Prior. 
High  flights  she  had,  and  wit  at  will. 
And  so  her  tongue  lay  seldom  still : 
For  in  all  visits,  who  but  she. 
To  argue,  or  to  repartee?  Id, 

REPASS',  V.  a.  k  v.  n.  Fr.  rtpaster.    To  ] 
again;  pass  or  travel  back :  go  back. 

Well  we  have  passed,  and  now  repaeted  the  seas. 
And  brought  desired  help.    Shakepeare.  Henry  VI. 

We  shall  find  small  reason  to  think  that  Abraham 
passed  and  repaseed  those  ways  more  often  than  he 
was  enforced  so  to  do,  if  we  consider  that  he  had  no 
other  comforter  in  this  wearisome  journey  than  the 
strength  of  his  faith  in  God.  Ratei^, 

Five  girdles  bind  the  skies,  the  torrid  »>ne 
Glows  with  the  passing  and  repaseing  sun.  Dryien. 

If  his  soul  hath  winged  the  destined  flight. 
Homeward  with  pious  speed  repate  the  main, 
Jo  the  pale  shade  funereal  rites  ordain.  Pops. 

REPASr,  n.  s.  &«.».}     Fr.  repot ;   Lat  rt 
Repas'ture.  5andpas<itt.    A  meal; 

act  of  taking  food ;  food  taken ;  entertainment. 
Go,  and  get  me  some  repast ; 
I  care  not  what,  so  it  be  wholesome  food. 

ShaJapeart. 
To  his  good  friends  1*11  ope  my  arm. 
And,  like  the  kind  life-rendering  pelican, 
lUpaet  them  with  my  blood.  Jd. 


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Ha  from  forage  will  iQclbe  to  play : 
But  if  thou  strive,  poor  soul,  what  art  thou  then  t 
Food  for  his  rage,  repattun  for  his  den.  14, 

Sleep*  that  is  thy  best  repatt, 
Yetof  death  it  bears  a  taste 
And  both  are  the  same  thing  at  last.  _ 

From  dance  to  sweet  npatt  they  turn 
Desirous ;  all  in  circles  as  they  stood. 
Tables  are  seU  MUkm*t  Paradm  Loti. 

What  neat  rtpast  shall  feast  us,  light  and  choice, 
Of  Attick  taste,  with  wine.  Milton. 

The  day 
Had  summoned  him  to  due  rgpatttX  noon.  Dryden. 
Keep  regular  hours  for  r§past  and  sleep.  Arbuthnot, 

REPAY',  V.  a.      )    Fr.  repcyer.  Re  and  pay. 

REPAT'irENTyfi.s.  i  To  payback ;  requite;  re- 
Tenge:  the  act  of  paying  back  in  any  way. 

According  to  their  deeds  he  will  repay  recompense 
to  his  enemies ;  to  the  islands  he  will  repay  recom- 
pense, haiah  lix.  18. 

The  poorest  service  is  repaid  with  thanks. 

Shakepeare. 

If  you  repay  me  not  on  such  a  day, 
Such  sums  as  are  expressed  in  the  condition. 
Let  the  forfeit  be  an  equal  pound  of  your  fair  flesh. 

Id. 

The  false  honour,  which  he  had  so  long  enjoyed, 
was  plentifully  repaid  in  contempt.  Aeon. 

He  clad 
Their  nakiedness  with  skins  of  beasts,  or  slain ; 
Or  as  the  snake  with  youthful  coat  repaid.    MKlUm. 

I  have  fought  well  for  Persia,  and  repaid 
The  benefit  of  birth  with  honest  service.        Row. 

The  centesima  usura  it  was  not  lawful  to  exceed ; 
and,  what  was  paid  over  it,  was  reckoned  as  a  raposy- 
ment  of  part  of  the  principal. '  Arbvtknot. 

FaVnng  heav'n  repaid  my  glorious  toils 
With  a  sacked  palace  and  barbanck  spoils.     Pope. 

R£P£AL',i;.a.&n.«.  Fr.  ramelUr;  I^t. 
re  and  appello.  To  recall  (out  ot  use);  abro- 
gate: a  revocation. 

Laws  that  have  been  approved,  may  be  again  ?«- 
pmUd,  and  disputed  against  by  the  authors  them- 
■rf»w.    .  Hooker' 9  Ptefaee. 

I  will  repeal  thee,  or  be  well  assured, 
.  Adventure  to  be  banished  myself.       Shalupesre, 
If  the  time  thrust  forth 

A  cause  for  thy  repeal,  we  shall  not  send 

0*er  the  vast  world  to  seek  a  single  man.        Id.  • 

The  king,  beine  advertised  that  the  over-large 
erants  of  lands  anddiberties  made  the  lords  so  inso- 
lent, did  absolutely  resume  all  such  erants ;  but  the 
earl  of  Desmond  above  all  found  himself  grieved 
with  this  resumption  or  repeal  of  liberties,  and  de- 
clared his  dislike.  Daviet  on  Ireland. 
Adam  soon  repealed 
The  doubu  that  in  his  heart  arose.        MUton. 

Sututes  are  silently  repealed  when  the  reason 
ceases  for  which  they  were  enacted.  Dryden. 

If  the  presbyterians  should  obtain  their  ends,  I 
could  not  be  sorry  to  find  them  mistalen  in  the 
point  which  they  have  most  at  heart,  by  the  repeal 
of  the  test ;  I  mean  the  benefit  of  employments. 

Swift. 

REPEAT,  v.fl.    -J      Lat.    repeto,   repeter, 

REPEAyEOLY,  adv.  f  To  iterate ;  use  again ;  do 

Repeat'er,  n.t.  '  1  or  try  again;  recite :  re- 

Repeti'tion.  Jpeatedly  is,  over  and 
over ;  more  and  mor« ;  more  than  once :  repeater, 
a  particular  kind  of  watch,  see  WATca-MAKiNG : 
in  a  general  sense  corresponding,  as  well  aa  re- 
petitioDy  with  the  verb. 


The  psalms,  for  the  excellency  of  theh-  use,  de- 
serve  to  beoftener  repeated ;  bat  that  their  multijtudo 
permitteth  not  any  oftener  repetition.  Hooker. 

These  evils  thou  repeatett  upon  thyself. 
Have  banished  me  from  Scotland.      -Shaktpeare. 
If  you  conquer  Rome,  the  benefit. 
Which  you  shall  thereby  reap,  is  such  a  name. 
Whose  repetition  will  be  dodged  with  curses.      Id. 
He,  though  his  power 
Creation  could  repeal,  yet  would  be  loth 
Us  to  abolish.  Milton. 

He  repeated  some  lines  of  Virgil,  suitable  to  the 
occasion.  Waller's  Life. 

Neglecting  for  Cieiisa's  life  his  own, 
lUpeaU  the  danger  of  the  burning  town.      Waller. 
Beyond  this  place  you  can  have  no  retreat ; 
Stay  here,  and  I  the  daagei  will  repeat.  Dryden. 
Where  sudden  alterations  are  not  necessary,'  the 
same  effect  may  be  obtained  by  the  repeated  force  of 
diet  with  more  safety  to  the  body.  Arbuthnot. 

The  freouent  repetition  of  aliment)  is  necessary  for 
repairing  the  fluids  and  solids.  Jd. 

And  are  not  these  vices,  which  lead  into  damna- 
tion, repeatedly,  and  most  forcibly  cautioned  against  ? 

Stephens. 

REPEL',  1?.  fl.  &  r. «.  (       Lat.  repello.     To 

Repel'lent,  n.t.  \  drive  back  any  thing 
or  person ;  resist  force  by  force :  that  which  has 
repelling  power. 

Neither  doth  Tertullian  bewray  this  weakness  in 
striking  only,  but  also  in  repelling  theb  strokes  with 
whom  he  contendeth.  Hooker. 

Stand  fast ;  and  all  temptation  to  transgress  repel. 

Milton. 

Your  foes  are  such  as  they,  not  you,  have  made. 
And  virtue  may  repel,  though  not  mvade.  Dryden. 

From  the  same  repelling  power  it  seems  to  be,  that 
flies  walk  upon  the  water  wiUiout  wetting  their  feet. 

Newton. 

In  the  cure  of  an  erysipelas,  whilst  the  body 
abounds  with  bilious  humours,  there  is  no  admitting 
of  repellents,  and  by  discutients  you  will  enciease  the 
beat.  Wiseman. 

With  hills  of  slain  on  every  side, 
Hi^pomedon  repelled  the  hostile  tide.       Pope. 

REP'ENT,  v.  n.  &  ».  fl. )     Fr.  repentir ;  Ital. 

Repent'akce,  n.  $.         ypentir,  of  Lat  pcmi- 

Repbnt^ant,  atg.  j  teo.  To  think  on  any 

thing  past  with  sorrow;  regret;  bemoan  sin; 
change  the  mind  from  fear  or  conviction  of 
error ;  change  the  mind  generally ;  to  remember 
with  sorrow :  the  adjective  and  noun  substantive 
corresponding. 

God  led  them  not  ihrougfa>ihe  land  of  the  Philb- 
tines.  lest  peradventore  the  people  repent  when  they 
see  war,  and  they  return.  Exodus  xiii.  17. 

Judas,  when  ne  saw  that  he  was  condemned,  r«- 
pented  himself.  Matthew  xxvii.  3. 

Nineveh  repented  at  the  preaching  of  Jonas. 

Id.  xii.  41. 

In  regard  of  secret  and  hidden  faults,  unless  God 
should  accept  of  a  general  repentance  for  unknown 
sins,  few  or  none  at  all  could  be  saved.      Perkins. 

lUpentanoe  so  altereth  a  man  through  the  merey 
of  God,  be  he  never  so  defiled,  that  it  maketh  him 
pw«r  Whitg^ 

Poor  Enobarbos  did  before  ihy  face  repent. 

1  repent  me  that  the  doke  is  slain.  Id. 

Who  by  repentance  is  not  satisfied. 
Is  not  of  heaven  nor  earth ;  for  these  are  pleased ; 
Sy  penitence  the'  £Cemal*s  wiath's  appesaed.    Id. 


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After  I  have  interred  this  noble  king. 
And  wet  his  grave  with  my  ttpentant  tean, 
I  will  with  all  expedient  duty  see  you.  Id. 

Rq)entanee  is  a  change  of  mind,  or  a  conversion 

from  sin  to  God  :  not  some  one  bare  act  of  change. 

but  a  lasting  durable  state  of  new  life,  which  is 

called  regeneration.  Hammond, 

Thou,  like  a  contrite  penitent 

Charitably  warned  of  th^  sins,  dost  repent 

These  vanities  and  giddinesses :  lo 

I  shut  my  chamber-door ;  come,  let  us  go.   Donne, 


Nor  had  I  any  reservations  in  my  own  soul,  when 

JGkii^  CharUi. 


sny  I 
I  passed  that  bill ;  nor  repenting  aher< 


I  will  clear  their  senses  dark 
What  may  suffice,  and  soften  stony  hearts 
To  prav,  repent,  and  bring  obedience  due.     MUton, 
Thus  tnev,  in  lowliest  plight,  repentant  stood.    Id. 
His  late  follies  he  ifould  late  repent.    Drydon. 

My  father  has  repented  him  ere  now, 
Or  will  repent  him,  when  he  finds  me  dead.        Id. 

Upon  any  deviation  from  virtue,  every  rational 
creature  so  deviating,  should  condemn,  renounce, 
and  be  soriy  for  every  such  deviation ;  that  is,  repent 
of  it.  South. 

This  is  a  confidence,  of  all  the  most  irrational ; 
for  upon  what  ground  can  a  man  promise  himself  a 
lutnra  rfpflitaiMs,  who  cannot  promise  himself  a  fu- 
turity? Id. 
Each  age  sinned  on ; 

Till  God  arose,  and  mat  in  anger  said, 

Lo !  it  repenteik  me  tnat  man  was  made.    Prior. 

Belentless  walls'!  whose  darksome  round  contains 
Repentant  sighs  and  voluntary  pains.  Pope. 

Still  you  may  prove  the  terror  of  vour  foes ; 
Teach  traitors  to  repent  of  faithless  leagues. 

A.  PkiUpt. 

The  first  step  towards  a  woman's  humility,  seems 
to  require  a  repentance  of  her  education.  Law. 

REPECyPLE,  «.  a.  Re  and  people;  Fr.  re- 
papier.    To  stock  anew  with  people. 

An  occurrence  of  such  remark,  as  the  universal 
flood  and  the  repeopUn^  of  the  world,  must  be  fresh 
in  memory  for  about  eight  hundred  years ;  especially 
considering  that  the  peopling  of  the  world  was  gra- 
dual. Hate*s  Origin  6/  Mankind. 

REPERCUSS',  V.  a.  ^      Lat  repercutio,  re- 

Repercus'sion,  n.$.  ypercuuus.      To    beat 

Repercus'sivE}  adj.  3  oack;  drive  back :  act 
of  driving  back;  rebound;  the  adjective  coi^ 
lespooding. 

Air  in  ovens,  though  it  doth  boil  and  dilate 
itself,  and  is  repereueted,  yet  it  is  without  noise.  . 

Baeon. 

In  echoes  there  is  no  new  elision,  but  a  repere^te- 
•urn.  Id, 

Aad  reperetutive  rocks  renewed  the  sound. 

Pattieon. 

By  reperamion  beams  ingender  fire. 
Shapes  bjr  reflection  shapes  beget ; 

Trie  voice  itself  when  stop])jMi  does  back  retire, 

And  a  new  voice  is  made  1^  it.  Cowley. 

They  various  ways  recoil,  and  swiftly  flow 

By  mutual  reperetueiont  to  and  fro.     niackmore. 
Amid  Carnarvon's  mountains  rages  loud' 

The  repercuuive  roar,  with  mighty  crush 

Tumble  the  smitten  difis.  Thomeon, 

REPINE',  v.  n.    Re  and  pine.    To  fret;  vex 
oneself;  be  discontented:  taking  at  and  agaimt. 
Of  late, 
When  corn  was  given  them  gratis,  you  rqrined, 

shalupeaTe, 


fht  fines  imposed  were  the  more  rgpimd  agaitai 
because  they  were  assigned  to  the  rebuilding  of  St. 
Paul's  church.  Clarendon. 

If  yon  think  how  many  diseases,  and  how  much 
poverty  there  is  in  the  world,  you  will  &11  down 
upon  your  knees,  and,  instead  of  rvptniii^  ai  om 
affliction,  will  admire  so  many  blesnngs  received  at 
the  hand  of  God.  Teaqrfc. 

The  ghosts  repine  at  violated  night. 
And  curse  the'  invading  sun,  and  sicken  at  the  sight 

Dryden. 

REPLACE',  V.  a.  Fr.  replacer^  Ye  and  place. 
To  put  again  in  a  former  place ;  place  anew. 

The  earl  being  apprehended,  upon  examination 
cleared  himself  so  well,  as  he  was  replaced  in  his 
government.  Bacon, 

The  bowls,  removed  for  fear. 
The  youths  reptaced ;  and  soon  restored  the  chear. 

Dryden. 

REPLANl^v.a.  Fr.f«p2aiiter;  re  and  plant. 
To  plant  anew. 

Small  trees  being  yet  unripe,  covered  in  antumn 
with  dung  until  the  spring,  take  up  and  replani  in 
good  ground.  Bacon. 

REPLArr,v.a.  Re  and  plait.  To  fold  one 
part  often  over  another. 

In  Raphael's  first  works,  are  many  small  foldings 
often  repiaited,  which  look  like  so  many  whipcords^ 

Dryden, 

REPLEN'ISH,  V.  a.  &  v.  n.  Old  Fr.  rqtiem; 
Lat.  r^leo,  from  re  and  plemu.  To  stock ;  fill ; 
consummate ;  recover  fulness. 

Multiply  and  replenish  the  earth.     Geneut  i.  28. 

We  smothered 
The  most  repleniehed  sweet  work  of  natore. 
That  from  the  prime  creation  e'er  she  framed. 

fimMlpMrf. 

The  humours  in  men's  bodies  encrease  and  de< 
crease  as  the  moon  doth ;  and  therefore  pnrge  some 
day  after  the  full ;  for  then  the  humoma  will  not  t«- 
pieniA  so  soon.  Bacon. 

The  woods  replonhhed  with  deer,  and  the  plains 
with  fowl.  Heylin. 

The  waters 
With  fish  T^pleniMhed,  and  the  air  with  fowL 

MiUon. 

REPLETE',  odj.  )    Fr.  rmlete ;  Lat.  r^ktmt. 

Reple'tion,  n.  i.  )  Full;  filled  completely,  or 
to  exuberance:  the  noun  substantive  correspond- 
ing. 

The  world's  large  tongue 

Proclaims  you  for  a  man  reptete  with  mocks ; 

Full  of  comparisons  and  wounding  flouts. 

Shakepogre. 

The  tree  had  too  much  repletion,  and  was  op- 
pressed with  its  own  sap ;  for  repletion  is  an  enemy 
to  generation.  Boera. 

His  words,  replete  with  guile. 
Into  her  heart  too  easy  entrance  won.  MUion. 
All  dreams 

Are  iiom  repletion  and  complexion  bred ; 

From  rising  fumes  of  undigested  food.     Dryden, 

In  a  dog,  out  of  whose  eve,  being  wounded,  the 
aqueous  humour  did  copiously  flow,  yet  in  six  boors 
the  bulb  of  the  eye  was  again  replete  with  its  humour, 
without  the  application  of  any  medicines.        Ray, 

The  action  of  the  stomach  is  totally  stopped  by  too 
neat  repletion,  AHnUhnot  on  AliaeenU. 

How  each  would  trembling  wait  the  moumlul  dieet. 

On  which  the  press  might  stamp  him  neat  to  die; 
And,  reading  here  his  sentence,  how  repUtt 

With  anxious  meaning,  Heavenward  turn  Us  eye ! 


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!Low  Lat.  repkgiOy  of 
re  and  plevitf  or  Fr.  pte- 


REPLEVlN,t>.<i. 

Replev'y. 
fir,  to  give  a  pledge.    To  take  back  or  set  at 
uberty,  upon  secarity,  any  thing  seized. — ^A  le- 
gal term. 

That  you're  a  beast,  and  turned  to  grass, 

Is  no  strange  news,  nor  ever  was ; 

At  least  to  me,  who  once,  you  know. 

Did  from  the  pound  repUvin  you.  Htidtbrat, 

Replevik,  in  law,  a  remedy  granted  on  a 
distress,  by  which  the  first  possessor  has  his 
goods  restored  to  him  again  on  his  giving  se- 
curity to  the  sheriff  that  he  will  pursue  his 
action  against  the  party  distraining,  and  return 
the  goods  or  cattle  if  the  taking  uem  shall  be 
adjudged  lawful.  In  a  replevin  the  person 
distrained  bepomes  plaintiff;  and  the  person 
distraining  is  called  the  defendant  or  avowant, 
and  his  justification  an  avowry.  At  the  com- 
mon law  replevins  are  by  writ,  either  out  of  the 
lung's  bencn  or  common  pleas ;  but  by  statute 
they  are  by  plaint  in  the  sheriff's  court,  and 
court  baron,  tor  a  person's  more  speedily  obtain- 
ing the  goods  distrained.  If  a  plaint  m  reple- 
vin be  removed  into  the  court  of  king's  bench, 
ftc^  and  the  plaintiff  make  default  and  become 
nonsuit,  or  judgment  is  ffiven  against  him,  the 
defendant  in  replevin  shsul  have  the  writ  of  re- 
tomo  habendo  of  the  goods  taken  in  distress. 

Replevy,  in  law,  is  a  tenant's  bringing  a 
writ  of  replevin,  or  replegiari  fiu:ias,  where  his 
goods  are  taken  by  aistress  for  rent;  which 
most  be  done  within  five  days  after  the  distress, 
otherwise  «t  the  five  days'  end  they  are  to  be 
appraised  and  sold. 

REPLICATION,  n.  s.  Lat.  replico.  Re- 
bound ;  repercussion.    Not  in  use.    Reply. 

Tyber  trembled  underneath  his  banks 
To  hear  the  rtpUcatUm  of  your  sounds 
Made  in  his  concave  shores.  Skaktpiare. 

To  be  demanded  of  a  spunse,  what  rephc^tion 
should  be  made  by  the  son  of  a  king?  Id. 

This  is  a  rtpliaatum  to  what  Menelaus  had  before 
oflered,  concerning  the  transplantation  of  Ulysses  to 
Sparta.  Broomt. 

REPLY',  r.n.,!;.  a.^n.t,l      Fr.      repUgver, 
Repli'er,  n.  i.  S  To  answer;  make 

a  return  to  an  answer ;  return  for  answer ;  the 
return  made :  replier,  he  who  answers. 

0  man !  who  art  thou  that  repliat  against  Godi 

Roman*  iz. 
If  I  sent  htm  word  it  was  not  well  cut,  be  would 
•end  me  word  he  cut  it  to  please  himself;  if  again,  it 
was  not  well  cut,  this  is  called  the  npfy  churrish. 

Shakrpeart, 
At  an  act  of  the  commencement,  the  answerer  gave 
for  his  question,  that  an  aristocracy  was  better  than 
a  monarchy :  the  rqU^er  did  tax  him,  that,  being  a 
private  bred  man,  he  would  give  a  question  of  state. 
Bacons  Apophthegwu, 
Perpleied 
The  tempter  stood,  oor  had  what  to  rtpl^.   Milton. 
His  trembling  toaffue  invoked  his  bride ; 
With  his  last  voice  Eurydice  he  cried : 
Eurydioe  the  rocks  and  river-banks  ropliid. 

Drydm. 

Would  we  ascend  hisber  to  the  rest  of  these  lewd 

persons,    we   should  find  what  reason  Castalio's 

painter  had  to  reply  upon  the  cardinal,  who  blamed 

nim  for  patting  a  little  too  much  colour  into  fit. 


Peter  and  Paul's  faces :  that  it  was  true  in  their  life, 
time  they  were  pale  mortified  men,  but  that  since 
they  were  grown  ruddy,  by  blushing  at  the  sins  of 
theu-  successors.  Atterhuy's  Sermont. 

To  whom,  with  sighs,  Ulysses  save  r0p/jf ; 
Ah,  why  ill-suiting  pastime  must  I  try  t     Pope. 
One  rises  up  to  make  repliee  to  establish  or  confute 
what  has  been  oflered  on  each  side  of  the  question. 

WatU. 
REPOL'ISH,  V.  a.  Fr.  repolir  ;  re  and  polish. 
To  polish  again. 

A  sundred  dock  is  piecemeal  laid 
Not  to  be  lost,  but  by  the  maker's  hand 
Repoiishtd,  without  error  then  to  stand.    Donne, 
REPORT,  t;.  a.  &fi.  f .  J  Fr.  rapporter.  To  give 
REPORfER,  n.  s.  >back;  noise  by  popu- 

Report'ingly,  adv.  )  lar  rumor;  give  report; 
the  report  or  account  given ;  sound ;  repercussion : 
a  reporter  is  a  relater;  one  who  gives  an  ac- 
count :  the  adverb  corresponding  with  the  verb. 

Boport,  say  they*  t^nd  we  will  report  it. 

JereMiah. 
There  is  a  king  in  Judah ;  and  now  shall  it  be  tv- 
ported  to  the  king.  Nehemiah  vi.  7. 

Timotheus  was  well  reported  of  by  the  brethren. 

Aetem. 
Approving  ourselves  as  the  ministers  of  God,  by 
honour  and  dishonour,  by  evil  report  and  ^pood  re* 
port.  2  Corintham  iv. 

Is  it  upon  record?  or  else  reported  successively 
from  age  to  ase  1  Shakepeare.  Richard  III. 

My  body's  marked 
With  Roman  swords ;  and  my  report  was  once 
First  with  the  best  of  note.  Id.  Cymbdme. 

There  she  appeared ;  or  my  reporter  devised  well 
for  her.  Shakspeare. 

Others  say,  thou  dost  deserve ;  and  I 
Believe  it  better  than  reportin^ly.  Id, 

In  Ticinum  is  a  church  with  windows  only  from 
above,  that  reporteth  the  voice  thirteen  times,  if  yoa 
stand  by  the  close  end  wall  over  against  the  door. 

Bacon. 
The  stronger  species  drowneth  the  lesser :  the  re- 
port of  an  oranance  the  voice.  Id.  Natnrai  Hietory. 

Rumours  were  raised  of  great  discord  among  the 
nobility;  for  this  cause  the  lords  assembled  gave 
order  to  apprehend  the  reportert  of  these  surmises. 

MMayward* 
Sea  nymphs  enter  with  the  swelling  tide ; 
From  TheUs  sent  as  spies  to  make  report, 
And  tell  the  wonders  of  her  sovereign's  court. 

Wattor, 
The  lashing  billows  make  a  long  report. 
And  beat  her  sides.       Dryden*$  Gb$*  and  Alqfone, 
If  I  had  known  a  thing  they  concealed,  I  should 
never  be  the  reporter  of  it.  Pope. 

After  a  man  has  studied  the  general  principles  of 
the  law,  reading  the  rqaorti  of  adjudged  cases  will 
richly  improve  his  mind*  Watti. 

REPOSE',  v.  a.  &  v.n.  >     Lat.  repono.    To 
Repo'sal,  n. s.  )  lay  to  rest;  lodge; 

place  as  in  confidence ;  to  rest ;  sleep :  the  rest 
or  sleep  taken;  confidence  placed;  cause  of  rest: 
reposal,  the  act  of  reposing. 
Dost  thou  think, 
If  I  would  stand  against  thee,  would  the  repoeal 
Of  any  trust,  virtue,  or  worth  in  thee, 
Make  thv  words  faithed  ?  ShdUpeare. 

Rome  s  readiest  champions,  repom  you  here. 
Secure  from  wordly  chances  and  mishaps ; 
Here  lurks  no  treason,  here  no  envy  swells.     Id. 
And,  for  the  ways  are  dangerous  to  pass. 


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thv  woTtftv  company* 

Upon  wboM  nith  and  honour  I  repott.  Id. 

Within  a  thickat  I  rtpoted ;  when  round 
I  ruffled  up  lall'n  leaves  in  heap ;  and  found. 
Let  fall  from  heaven,  a  sleep  interminate.  Chapman, 

I  lay  nothing  of  thy  hid  treasures,  which  thy  wis- 
dom hath  repomd  in  the  bowels  of  the  earth  and  sea. 

Bp.  Hall. 
Have  ye  chosen  this  place, 

After  the  toil  of  battle,  to  repote 

Your  weariedVirtue  1         Milum't  Paradite  Loit» 

I  repom  upon  your  management,  what  is  dearest 
to  me,  my  fame.  Dryden*i  Prefaet  to  Amrnt  Mirab, 
•  After  great  lights  must  be  great  shadows,  which 
we  call  repottt ;  because  in  reuity  the  sight  would 
be  tired,  if  attracted  by  a  continuity  of  glittering  ob- 
jects.' Id.  Jh^Ttmoff, 
I  all  the  livelong  day 

Consume  in  meditation  deep,  recluse 

From  human  converse ;  nor  at  shut  of  eve 

Enjoy  tvpoM.  PldUpt. 

Pebbles,  rtooted  in  those  cliffs  amongst  the  earthy 
being  not  so  dissoluble  and  more  bulky,  are  left  be- 
hind. Wooduwrd, 

That  prince  was  conscious  of  his  own  inteerity  in 
the  servioe  of  God,  and  relied  on  this  as  a  founda- 
tion for  that  trust  he  rtpamd  in  him,  to  deliver  him 
out  of  his  distresses.  Rogen, 

REPOS'ITE,  V.  a.  ->     Lat.  repontus.    To  lay 

Reposition,  n.f.   Sup;   lodge  as  in  a  place 

Repos'itory.  )or  safety:  act  ot  so 
lodging  or  of  replacing :  the  place  of  deposit. 

The  mind  of  man  not  being  capable  of^  having 
many  ideas  under  view  at  once,  it  was  neoessazy  to 
have  a  ttpmUny  to  lay  up  those  ideas.  Locke. 

He  can  take  a  body  to  pieces,  and  dispose  of  them, 
fo  us  not  without  the  appearance  of  irretrievable 
confusion,  but  with  respect  to  his  own  knowledge 
into  the  most  regular  and  methodical  repotitoriot, 

Rogers't  Sermons. 

Others  npotite  their  young  in  holes,  and  secure 
themselves  also  therein,  because  such  security  is 
wanting,  their  lives  being  sought  Derham, . 

<     REPOSSESS',  V.  a.    Re  and  possess.     To 
possess  again. 

How  comes  it  now,  that  almost  all  that  realm  is 
repoaiesied  of  them  1  Spmrnr't  Statt  of  Irtland, 

Her  suit  is  now  to  npoum  those  lands, 
Which  we  in  justice  cannot  well  deny.  Shaktpoan, 

Nor  shall  my  father  repoun$  the  land, 
The  father's  fortune  never  to  return. 

Pop0*i  Odyney. 
Lat.    rtpr^' 
kendo.     To  re- 
prove; chide; 


REPREHENiy,  v.  a. 

Reprehend'er,  n.  s. 

Reprehen'sible,  adj.  ,  - , 

Reprehen'sibleness,  ti.  s.  S-btame;  detector 


Reprehem'sibly,  odv.  charge  with  fault: 

REPREHEN'sioNy  fi.  s.  the  derivatives 

Rbprehen'sive,  0/^.  J  all    correspond- 

ing. 

All  as  before  his  sight,  whose  presence  to  offend 
with  any  the  least  unseemliness,  we  would  be  surely 
as  loth  as  they,  who  most  reprehend  or  devide  that 
we  do.  Hooker. 

These  fervent  rtpr^hmtdere  of  things,  established 
by  public  authority,  are  always  confident  and  bold- 
spinted  men.  Id. 

Pardon  me  for  reprehending  thee. 
For  thou  hast  done  a  charitable  deed,     Shakapeare. 

They  like  dumb  statues  stared ; 
Which  when  t  saw,  I  reprehended  them  ; 
And  asked  the  mayor,  what  meant  this  wilful  si- 
*      lencel  Id. 


This  color  will  be  repr^ended  or  encovnterad,  by 
imputing  to  all  excellencies  in  compositbns  a  kind  of 
poverty.  Baeen. 

To  a  heart  fully  resolute,  council  is  tedious,  bat 
reprehension  is  loathsome.  Id. 

He  could  not  repr^imd  the  fight,  so  many  strewed 
the  ground.  ChapmoH. 

The  admonitions,  fraternal  or  paternal,  of  his  fel- 
low christians,  or  the  governors  of  the  church ;  then 
more  public  reprdtensions  and  increpations. 


I  nor  advise,  nor  repr^iend  the  choice 

Of  Marcley-hill.  PhUip$. 

What  effect  can  that  man  hope  from  his  most  zea- 
lous repr^tenskms,  who  lays  himself  open  to  recrimi- 
nation 1  Government  of  the  Tongme. 

REPRESENT,  v.  a.N     Fr.  reprtsenter;  Lat. 

Representa'tion,     irepresento.     To  exh.- 

Represen'tative,     >bit;  describe;  show: 

Represen'ter,  i  a  representative  is  one 

Represent'ment.  J  bearing  a  delegated 
character  or  power :  the  other  derivatives  cor- 
responding with  the  verb. 

One  of  his  cardinals  admonished  him  against  that 
unskilful  piece  of  ingenuity,  by  representit^  to  him, 
that  no  reformation  could  bie  made,  which  would  not 
notably  diminish  the  rents  of  the  church. 

Decay  of  Piety. 

When  it  is  blessed,  some  believe  it  to  be  the  na- 
tural body  of  Christ ;  others,  the  blessings  of  Christ, 
his  passion  in  represeniment,  and  his  grace  in  real 
exhibition.  Taylor. 

Before  him  bum 

Seven  lamps,  as  in  a  zodiac  representing 

The  heavenly  fires.  MUton*s  Paradise  Lost. 

Where  the  real  works  of  nature,  or  veritable  acts 
of  story,  are  to  be  described,  art  being  but  the  imi- 
tator or  secondary  representor,  must  not  vary  from  the 
verib^.  Browne. 

We  have  met  with  some,  whose  reals  made  good 
their  repnsentments.  Id.  Vulgar  Errourt. 

If  imaees  are  worshipped,  it  must  be  as  gods, 
which  Celsus  deftied,  or  as  remnssentatums  of  God ; 
which  cannot  be,  because  God  is  invisible  and  in- 
corporeal. SdUing^. 

Difficulty  must  cumber  this  doctrine,  which  sup- 
poses that  the  perfections  of  God  are  the  represenia^ 
tfoes  to  us  of  whatever  we  perceive  in  the  creatures. 

Locks. 

This  bank  is  thought  the  greatest  load  on  the 
Genoese,  and  the  manasers  of  it  have  been  repre- 
sented as  a  second  kind  of  senate.  Addison. 

A  sutue  of  rumour  whispering  an  idbt  in  the  ear, 
who  was  the  r^esentative  of  credulity. 

Id.  Freeholder. 

They  relieve  themselves  witH  this  distinction,  and 
vet  own  the  legal  sacrifices,  though  representaOos,  to 
be  proper  and  real.  Alterbmy. 

This  council  of  four  hundred  was  chosen,  one 
hundred  out  of  each  tribe,  and  seems  to  have  been  a 
body  representative  of  the  people ;  though  the  people 
collective  reserved  a  share  of  power.  Sssift. 

Mv  muse  officious  ventures 
On  the  nation's  representers.  Id. 

REPRESS',  V.  a.  &  n.  s.  ->      Lat.  repressus ; 

Repres'sion,  n,  t.  >  Fr.  reprimer.     To 

Repres'sive,  a<^*.  j  crush ;  put  down ; 

subdue :  act  of  repressing :  repressive  is  the  bet- 
ter word  for  this  last  sense. 

Discontents  and  ill  blood  having  used  always  to 
repress  and  appease  in  person,  he  was  loth  they 
should  find  him  beyond  sea.      Bacon's  Henry  VII. 

Some,  taking  dangers  to  be  the  only  remedv  against 


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daii|i;«rt,  endeavoured  to  set  up  the  sedition  again ; 
but  they  were  speedily  rrprtutd,  and  thereby  the  se- 
dition suppressed  wholly.  Hayward, 

No  declaration  from  myself  could  take  place,  for 
the  due  npmtian  of  these  tumults.      King  Charlu, 
How  can  I 

Repress  the  horror  of  my  thoughts,  which  fly 

The  sad  remembrance  ?  Denham. 

Such  kings 
Favour  the  innocent,  renress  the  bold. 
And,  while  they  flourish,  make  an  age  of  gold. 

WaUer. 

Loud  outcries  of  injury,  when  they  tend  nothing  to 
tfie  repress  of  it,  is  a  liberty  rather  assumed  by  rage 
and  impatience  than  authorised  by  justice. 

Oovemment  of  the  Tongtie. 

Thus  long  succeeding  critics  justly  reigned, 
Licence  rejnessed,  and  useful  laws  ordained  : 
Learning  and  Rome,  alike  in  empire  grew.       Pope, 

REPRIEVE',  v.a.  &  n.i.  Fr.  reprendre,  re- 
pris ;  Lat.  re  and  privo.  To  respite ;  to  give  a 
respite ;  particularly  from  a  sentence  of  death : 
the  respite  given. 

He  cannot  thrive, 
Unless  her  prayera,  whom  heaven  delights  to  hear, 
And  loves  to  grant,  reprice  him  from  the  wrath 
Of  greatest  justice.  Skakspeare, 

I  hope  it  is  some  pardon  or  reprieve 
For  Claudio.  Id,  Measure  for  Measure, 

All  that  I  ask  is  but  a  short  reprieve, 
Till  I  forget  to  love,  and  learn  to  grieve.    Denham, 

The  morning  Sir  John  Hotham  was  to  die,  a  re- 
prieve was  Kent  to  suspend  the  execution  for  three 
<lays«  Clarendon, 

Company,  though  it. may  reprieve  a  man  from  his 
melancnoly,  yet  cannot  secure  him  from  his  con- 
science. South, 

Having  been  condemned  for  his  part  in  the  late 
rebellion,  his  majesty  had  been  pleased  to  reprieve 
him,  with  several  of  his  friends,  in  order  to  give  them 
their  lives.  Addit^n, 

He  reprieves  the  sinner  from  time  to  time,  and  con- 
tinues and  heaps  on  him  the  favours  of  his  provi- 
dence, in  hopes  that,  by  an  act  of  clemency  so 
undeserved,  he  may  prevail  on  his  gratitude  and  re- 
pentance, llogert's  Sermotu, 

Reprieve,  in  criminal  law  (from  Fr.  repren- 
dre,  i.  e.  to  take  back),  is  the  withdrawing  of  a 
sentence  for  an  interval  of  time ;  whereby  the 
execution  is  suspended. '  This,  says  judge  Black- 
stone,  may  be,  first,  ex  arbitrio  judicis,  either  be- 
fore or  after  judgment:  as,  where  the  judge  is 
not  satisfied  with  the  verdict,  or  the  evidence  is 
suspicions,  or  the  indictment  is  insufficient,  or 
he  is  doubtful  whether  the  ofience  he  within 
clergv  ;  or  sometimes  if  it  be  a  small  felony,  or 
any  favorable  circumstances  appear  in  the  cri- 
minal's  character,  to  give  time  to  apply  to  the 
crown  for  either  an  absolute  or. conditional  par- 
don.  These  reprieves  may  be  granted  or  taken 
oif  by  the  justices  of  gaol-delivery,  although  their 
session  be  finished,  but  this  rather  by  usage  than 
of  right.  Reprieves  may  also  be  ex  necessitate 
legis :  as  where  a  woman  is  capitally  convicted, 
and  pleads  her  pregnancy.  Though  this  is  no 
cause  to  stay  juagment,  yet  it  is  to  respite  the 
execution  till  she  be  delivered.  This  is  a  mercy 
dictated  by  the  law  of  nature,  in  favorem  prolis ; 
and  thererore  no  part  of  the  bloody  proceedings 
in  the  reign  of  queen  Mary  I.  hath  been  more 
iustly  detested  than  the  cruelty  exercised  in  the 
VoL.XVm. 


island  of  Guernsey,  of  burning  a  woman  big  with 
child;  and  when,  through  the  violence  of  the 
flames,  the  infiint  sprang  forth  at  the  stake,  and 
was  preserved  by  the  by-standers,  after  some  de- 
liberations of  the  priests  who  assisted  at  the 
sacrifice,  they  cast  it  into  the  fire  as  a  young  he- 
retic :  a  barbarity  which  they  never  learned  from 
the  laws  of  ancient  Rome ;  which  direct,  with 
the  same  humanity  Sis  our  own,  quod  prasgnantis  ' 
mulieris  damnats  pcena  differatur  quoad  pariat : 
which  doctrine  has  also  prevailed  in  England  as 
early  as  the  first  memorials  of  the  English  law 
will  reach.  When  this  plea  is  made,  in  stay  of 
execution,  the  judge  must  direct  a  jury  of  twelve 
matrons  or  discreet  women  to  enquire  into  thl 
fact ;  and  if  they  bring  in  their  verdict  quick 
with  child  (for  barely  with  child,  unless  it  he 
alive  in  the  womb,  is  not  sufficient),  execution 
shall  be  staid  generally  till  the  next  session ;  and 
so,  from  session  to  session,  till  either  she  is  deli- 
vered, or  proves  by  the  course  of  nature  not  to 
have  been  with  child  at  all.  But  if  she  once 
hath  had  the  benefit  of  this  reprieve,  and  been 
delivered,  and  afterwards  becomes  pregnant 
again,  she  shall  not  be  entitled  to  the  benefit  of 
a  farther  respite  for  that  cause.  For  she  may^ 
'  now  be  executed  before  the  child  is  quick  in  the' 
womb ;  and  shall  not,  by  her  own  incontinence, 
evade  the  sentence  of  justice.  Another  cause  of 
regular  reprieve  is,  if  the  offender  become  non 
compos  between  the  judgment  and  the  award  of 
execution  :  for  regulariy,  though  a  man  be  com- 
pos when  he  commits  a  capital  crime,  yet,  if  he 
oecome-non  compos  after,  he  shall  not  be  in- 
dicted ;  if  after  indictment,  he  shall  not  be  con- 
victed ;  if  after  conviction,  he  shall  not  receive 
judgment;  if  after  judgment,  he  shall  not  be 
ordered  for  execution ;  for  furiosus  solo  furore 
punitur ;  and  the  law  knows  not  but  h^  might 
have  offered  some  reason,  if  in  his  senses,  to  have 
stayed  these  respective  proceedings.  It  is  there- 
fore an  invariable  rule  when  any  time  intervenes 
between  the  attainder  and  the  award  of  execu- 
tion, to  demand  of  thfe  prisoner  what  he  hath  to 
allege  why  execution  should  not  be  awarded 
against  him ;  and,  if  be  appears  to  be  insane, 
the  judge  in  his  discretion  may  and  ought  to  re- 
prieve him.  Or  the  party  may  plead,  in  bar  of 
execution,  either  pregfnancy,  the  king  s  pardon, 
an  act  of  grace,  or  diversity  of  person,  viz.  that 
he  is  not  the  same  that  was  attainted.  In  this 
last  case  a  jury  shall  be  impannelled  to  try  the 
identity  of  his  person  ;  and  not  wheth^  guilty 
or  innocent,  for  that  has  been  decided  before. 
And  in  these  collateral  issues  the  trial  shall  be 
instanter ;  and  no  time  allowed  the  prisoner  to 
make  his  defence  or  produce  his  witnesses,  un- 
less he  will  make  oath  that  be  is  not  the  person 
attainted:  neither  shall  any  peremptory  chal- 
lenges of  the  jury  be  allowed  the  prisoner,  though 
formerly  such  challenges  were  held  to  be  allow- 
able whenever  a  man's  life  was  in  question.  If 
neither  pregnancy,  insanity,  non-identity,  nor 
other  plea,  will  avail  to  avoid  the  judgment,  and 
stay  the  execution  consequent  thereupon,  the  last 
and  surest  resort  is  in  the  king's  most  gracious 
pardon ;  the  granting  of  which  is  the  sole  prero- 
gative of  the  crown.    See  Pardon. 

REPRIMAND',  v.  a.  &  n,  t.    Fr.  repriman- 

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der;  Lat.  rtprimo.  To  chide;  check;  repre- 
hend ;  reprove  :  reproof  given. 

lie  enquires  how  such  an  one's  son  and  wife  do, 
whom  be  has  not  seen  at  church  ;  which  is  under- 
stood as  a  secret  reimmand  to  the  person  absent. 

Adduon*9  Spectator, 

Gennanicus  was  severely  reprimanded  by  Tiberius, 
for  travelling  into  Egypt  without  his  permission. 

ArhUknot. 

They  saw  their  eldest  sUter  once  brought  to  her 
tears,  and  her  j^rverseoess  sevecely  reprimanded. 

Law. 

REPRINT,  V.  a.  Re  and  print.  To  print 
again ;  to  renew  the  impression  of  any  thing. 

The  business  of  redemption  is  to  rub  over  the  de- 
faced copy  of  creation,  to  reprint  God's  image  upon 
the  soul,  and  to  set  forth  nature  in  a  second  and  a 
fairer  edition.  South. 

My  bookseller  is  reprinting  the  Essay  on  Criticism. 

Pope. 

REPRISE,'  n.  t.  >      Fr.  reprise.     The  act  of 

Repri'sal.  )  taking  something  in  reta> 

liation  of  injury :  the  thing  taken. 

The  English  had  great  advantage  in  value  of  re- 
prisals, as  being  more  strong  and  active  at  sea. 

Haytoard, 

Your  care  about  vour  banks  infers  a  fear 
Of  threatening  floods  and  inundations  near  ; 
If  so,  a  just  reprise  would  only  be 
Of  what  the  land  usurped  upon  the  sea.     Dryden. 

Sense  must  sure  thy  safest  plunder  be, 
Since  no  repriiaLs  can  be  n^ule  on  thee.         Dorset, 

Reprisal,  or  Recaption,  is  a  species  of 
remedy  allowed  to  an  injured  person.  This  hap- 
pens when  any  one  hath  deprived  another  of  his 
property  in  goods  or  chattels  personal,  or  wrong- 
fully detains  one*s  wife,  child,  or  servant :  in 
which  case  the  owner  of  the  goods,  and  the  hus- 
band, parent,  or  master,  may  lawfully  claim  and 
retake  them,  wherever  he  happens  to  find  them ; 
so  it  be  not  in  a  riotous  manner,  or  attended  with 
a  breach  of  the  peace.  The  reason  is,  that  it 
may  often  happen  that  the  owner  may  have  this 
only  opportunity  of  doing  himself  justice  :  his 
goods  may  be  afterwards  conveyed  away  or  de- 
stroyed, and  his  wife,  children,  or  servants,  con- 
cealed or  carried  out  of  his  reach,  if  he  had  no 
speedier  remedy  than  the  ordinary  process  of 
law.  If  therefore  be  can  gain  possession  of  bis 
property  again,  without  force  or  terror,  the  law 
will  justify  his  proceeding.  But,  as  the  public 
peace  is  a  superior  consideration  to  any  one 
man*s  private  property,  it  is  provided  that  this 
natural  right  of  recaption  shall  never  be  exerted 
where  such  exertion  must  occasion  strife  and 
bodily  contention,  or  endanger  the  peace  of  so- 
ciety. In  such  cases  the  loser  must  have  re- 
course to  an  action  at  law. 

REPROACH',  V.  a.  &  n.  i.  -\    Fr.  and  Span. 

Reproach' ABLE,  adj.  f  rcprocAc,ofLat. 

Reproach'ful,  ireprobatio.    To 

REPROACH'prLLY,  odv.  J  ceusurc  oppro- 

briously ;  upbraid :  the  adjectives  and  noun  sub- 
stantive corresponding. 

I  will  that  the  younger  women  many,  and  give 
none  occasion  to  the  adversary  to  speak  reproathfuUy, 
1  Timeithy  v.  14. 

If  ye  be  reproached  for  the  name  of  Christ,  happy 
are  ve.  I  Peter  iv.  14. 


With  his  reprooA  and  odious  menace. 
The  knight  emboiling  in  his  haughty  heart, 
Knit  all  his  forces.  Spenser, 

If  black  scandal  or  foul-faced  reprmck 
Attend  the  sequel  of  your  imposition. 
Your  mere  edoroament  shall  acquittance  me. 

Snemtpeere, 

0  monstrous !  what  riproMlb^  words  aie  these ! 

Id. 

Shall  I  then  be  used  tvprooeVWIiyf  §4, 

To  make  religion  a  stratagem  to  undemune  govera- 
ment  is  contrary  to  this  suimstructure,  most  acaa- 
dalous  and  rtproaehfvl  to  Christianity.     Hammamd. 

That  shame 
There  sit  not,  and  reproach  us  as  unclean.   Ifitton. 

Thy  punishment 
He  shall  endure,  by  coming  in  the  flesh 
To  a  reproachful  life  and  cursed  death.  Id. 

The  French  writers  do  not  burthen  thenndves  too 
much  with  plot,  which  has  been  rtproaeksd  to  thai 
as  a  fault.  Dvydm. 

An  advocate  ma^  be  punished  for  reproachfid  Ian* 
guage  in  respect  of  the  ^rties  in  suit.  Ay^ft. 

The  very  regret  of  bemg  surpassed  in  any  viiduable 
quality,  by  a  person  of  the  same  abilities  with  our- 
selves, will  reproaA  our  own  laxiness,  and  even 
shame  us  into  imitation.  Aigen. 

To  be  idle  and  to  be  poor  have  always  been  rv- 
proaehes,  and  therefore  every  man  endeavours  with 
his  utmost  care  to  hide  his  poverty  from  otheis,  and 
his  idleness  from  himself.  JokHsm, 

REPROBATE,  adj.^  n.  s.,  &  1        Lat.  rcpro- 
Reprpba'tiom,  n.  s.        [v.  a. )  Ina.      Lost  to 
virtue  or  to  grace ;  abandoned :  the  noun  sub- 
stantive corresponding. 

They  profess  to  know  God,  but  in  woiks  deay 
him,  bieing  abominable,  and  to  every  good  work  if- 
probate,  THiu  i.  16. 

What  if  we  omit 
This  rtprehate,  till  he  were  well  inclined  ? 

Skahspeart, 
This  sight  will  make  him  do  a  desperate  turn  , 
Yea  curse  his  better  angel  from  his  side. 
And  fall  to  reprobation.  Id.  (HMk. 

1  acknowledge  myself  for  a  re/prehate,  a  villain,  a 
traytor  to  the  Ung,  and  the  most  unworthy  man  thst 
ever  lived.  Raki^, 

What  should  make  it  necessaiy  for  him  to  repeat 
and  amend,  who  either  without  respect  to  any  de- 
gree of  amendment  is  supposed  to  be  elected  to  eter- 
nal bliss,  or,  without  respect  to  sm,  to  be  ineversiUy 
reprobated  ?  Hammond. 

All  ihe  saints  have  profited  by  tribulations ;  aad 
they  that  could  not  bear  temptations  became  repro- 
bates, TayltfT. 

God,  upon  a  true  repentance,  is  not  so  fatally  tied 
to  the  spindle  of  absolute  reprobalien  as  not  to  keep 
his  promise,  and  seal  mercihil  pardons.         Maine. 
Strength  and  art  are  easily  outdone 
By  spirits  reprobate.  MUten. 

You  are  empowered  to  nve  the  final  dedsion  of 
wit,  to  put  vour  stamp  on  ul  that  ought  to  pass  for 
current,  and  set  a  brand  of  reprobation  on  dipt  poetry 
and  false  coin.  Vrydem. 

A  reprobated  hardness  of  heart  does  them  the 
ofiice  of  philosophy  towards  a  contempt  of  death. 

VEstnage. 

God  forbid,  that  every  single  commission  of  a 
sin,  though  great  for  its  kind,  and  withal  acted 
against  conscience  for  its  aggravation,  should  so  far 
deprave  tlie  soul,  and  bring  it  to  such  a  reprobate 
condition,  as  to  take  pleasure  in  other  men's  sins. 
^  Soaik. 


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Such  an  Ultwer  at  this  is  rtprvkaud  and  disal- 
lowed of  in  lAir ;  I  do  not  beliete  it,  unless  the  deed 
appears.  Ayliffe, 

Drive  him  out 
To  rtjprohaUd  exile  round  the  world, 
A  caitiva  vagabond,  abhorred,  accursed.    Stmthtm, 

If  there  is  any  poor  man  or  woman,  that  is  more 
than  ordinarily  wicked  and  rvproAote,  Miranda  has' 
her  eye  upon  them.  Law. 

Reprobation,  in  theology,  is  applied  to  that 
decree  or  resolve  which  God  hath  taken  from  all 
etemity^  to  punish  sinners  who  shall  die  in  ini- 
nenitence.  This  opinion  was  adopted  by  St. 
Augustine  and  other  fathers;  as  well  as  by  CaU 
Tin  and  most  of  his  followers.  The  church  of 
Eaglandy  in  the  thirty -nine  articles,  teaches 
something  like  it;  and  the  church  of  Scotland, 
in  the  confession  of  faith,  maintains  it.  Repro- 
bation respects  angels  as  well  as  men,  and 
respects  the  latter  either  fellen  or  unfallen.  See 
Prkoestthation. 
REPRODUCE',  v.fl.  J  Fr.  reproduire;  re 
Reproduc'tion,  n. «.  J  and  produce.  To  pro- 
duce again  or  anew :  the  act  of  doing  so,  or  thing 
produ^. 

If  horse  dung  rtpnduettk  oats,  it  will  not  be  easily 
determined  where  the  power  of  generation  oeaseth. 

BrowM, 
am  about  to  attempt  a  rqtndnetum  in  vitriol, 
ID  which  it  seems  not  unlikely  to  be  performable. 

Boyle. 
Those  colouxs  are  unchangeable,  and,  whenever  all 
those  rays  with  those  their  colours  are  mixed  again, 
they  reproduet  the  same  white  light  as  before.       n 
NewUm's  Optickt. 
REPROVE',  tj.  fl.'j     Fr.  repnmver ;  re  and 
Reprov'able,  adj,  f  prove.    To  refute ;  con- 
Reprov'er,  n.  s.    i  vince ;  blame  to  the  face ; 
Reproof'.  3 reprehend;    blame    for: 

reprovable  is,  culpable;  blameable:  reprover, 
he  who  reproves:  reproof,  bUune  to  the  face; 
reprehension;  censure. 

for  Crist  pleside  not  to  hymsilf  as  it  is  writun, 
the  rvpronet  of  men«  dispisynge  thee  felden  on  me. 
Wicl^.  Romaynu. 
I  will  not  reprove  thee  for  thy  sacrifices. 

Psalm  1.  8. 
He  thafl  rgprooe  the  world  of  sin  and  of  righteous- 
ness. St,  John. 
"Reprove,  rebuke,  exhort          2  Tim.  iv.  2. 
This  is  the  sin  of  the  minister,  when  men  are 
called  to  reprove  sin,  and  do  not.  PcrihiM* 
What  if  they  can  better  be  content  with  one  that 
can  wink  at  tneir  faults,  than  with  him  that  will 
refrove  them  1                                           WhilgifU. 

There  is  no  slander  in  an  allowed  fool,  though  he 
do  nothing  but  rail ;  nor  no  railing  in  a  known  dis- 
creet man,  though  he  do  nothing  haX  reprove. 

Skakepeare. 
Mv  lords, 
Reprove  my  allegation  if  you  can.  Id. 

Good  Sir  John,  as  you  have  one  eye  upon  my 
follies,  turn  another  into  the  register  of  your  own, 
that  I  may  pass  with  a  reproof  thie  easier. 

Id.  Merry  Whet  of  Windeor. 
You  reprove  one  of  laziness,  they  will  say,  dost 
Ihou  make  idle  a  coat  ?  that  ih,  a  coat  for  idleness. 

iJorew. 
Next  to  the  not  deserving  a  reproof  is  the  well 
taking  of  It.  Bp.  HaWt  ContempUUunu. 

If  diou  dost  find  thy  faith  as  dead  after  the  recep- 
tion of  the  sacrament  as  before,  it  may  be  thy  faith 
v-as  not  only  little,  but  reprovable.  Taylor. 


What  if  thy  son 
Prove  disobedient,  and,  reproved,  retort, 
Wherefore  didst  thou  beget  me  ?  MiUon. 

This  shall  have  from  every  one,  even  the  reproven 
of  vice,  the  title  of  living  well.  Locke. 

Let  the  most  potent  sinner  speak  out,  and  tell  us, 
whether  he  can  command  down  the  clamours  and 
revilinn  of  a  guilty  conscience,  and  impose  silence 
upon  tnat  bold  reprover  ?  South. 

Fear  not  the  anger  of  the  wise  to  raise  ; 
Those  best  can  bear  reproof,  who  merit  praise. 

Pope. 
He  reproves,  exhorts,  and  preaches  to  those,  for 
whom  he  first  prays  to  God.  Law. 

Let  my  obedience  then  excuse 

My  disobedience  now. 
Nor  some  reproof  yourself  refuse 

From  your  aggrieved  Bow-wow.        Cowper. 
R£PRUN£',v.a.    Re  and  prune.    To  prune 
a  second  time. 

Reprune  apricots  and  peaches,  saving  as  many  of 
the  young  likeliest  shoots  as  are  well  pUced. 

Evelyn's  Ktdendar. 
REPS,  a  district  of  Transylvania,  inhabited 
by  ancient  Saxon  families,  and  lying  adjacent  to 
the  north-east  comer  of  Fogaras.  Its  area  b 
210  square  miles ;  population  about  26,000.  It 
is  adapted  partly  for  com  and  partly  forpasture : 
other  tracts  are  covered  with  forests.  The  chief 
river  is  the  Aluta. 

Reps,  or  Kohalom,  the  chief  place  of  the  above 
district,  a  small  neat  town  with  2200  inhabitants. 
Sixteen  miles  north  of  Fogaras. 

RE'PTILE,  flrfj.  &  n. «.  IsX.  reptile.  Creep- 
ing upon  many  feet ;  an  animal  that  so  creeps. 
In  Gay's  lines  reptile  is  confounded  with  serpent. 

Terrestrial  animals  may  be  divided  into  quadru- 
peds or  reptiles  which  have  many  feet,  and  serpents 
which  have  no  feet.  Locke. 

Holy  retreat !  sithenoe  no  female  hither. 
Conscious  of  social  love  and  nature's  rites. 
Must  dare  approach,  from  the  inferior  reptile. 
To  woman,  form  divine.  Prior. 

Cleanse  baits  from  filtiii,  to  give  a  tempting  gloss. 
Cherish  the  sully'd  reptile  race  with  moss.       Gay. 
Yeproud  and  wealthy,  let  this  theme 

Teach  humbler  thoughts  to  you. 
Since  such  a  reptile  has  its  gem. 

And  boasts  its  splendour  too.  Cowper. 

It  is  as  if  the  drad  could  feel 
The  icv  worm  around  them  steal. 
And  snudder,  as  the  reptHa  creep 
To  revel  o'er  their  rotting  sleep. 
Without  the  power  to  scare  away 
The  cold  consumers  of  their  clay.         Byron. 
Reptiles,  in    zoology,  the  modem,  name 
among  naturalists  for  the  class  of  animals  prin- 
cipally described  by  Linnb  as  Amphibia.    See 
that  article.    The  objections  to  this  classification 
of  the  great  Swedish  naturalist  seem  well  sus- 
tained.   If  we  regard  as  amphibia  all  aquatic 
animals  which  are  able  to  live  for  a  time  on  land, 
or  those  land  animals  which  can  remain  for  a 
time  under  water,  all  animals  are  amphibious ; 
for  even  man  and  most  of  the  mammalia  can  dive 
If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  word  amphibious  be 
taken  etymologically,  and  understood  to  denote 
an  equal  power  of  subsisting  in  air  and  water, 
it  is  applicable  to  no  class  of  animals.  Although 
reptiles  can  remain  longer  under  water  than  the 
mammalia,  or  birds,  they  are  obliged,  as  their 
2M2 


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respiratory  organs  are  only  calculated  for 
breathing  air,  to  come  sooner  or  later  to  the  sur- 
face; and  they  are  drowned,  like  any  warm-* 
blooded  animal,  if  detained  in  the  water  beyond 
that  time.  To  enable  an  animal  to  exist  equally 
in  air  and  water  it  should  have  lungs  and  gills ; 
that  is,  it  should  have  the  power  of  breathing 
air,  like  the  mammalia  and  birds,  and  of  breath- 
ing water)  like  fishes;  and  it  should  be  able  to 
use  either  of  these  methods,  to  the  exclusion  of 
the  other.  But  we  know  of  no  such  animals. 
The  larvae  of  frogs  and  salamanders,  the  proteus 
anguinus,  and  the  siren  lacentina,  have  indeed 
branchise  and  lungs ;  but,  as  far  as  our  knowledge 
hitherto  goes,  none  of  these  could  live  wholly  out 
of  water.  The  lungs  of  the  tadpole,  and  of  the 
larve  of  salamanders,  are  designed  for  the  ser- 
vice of  those  animals  in  their  subsequent  stage 
of  existence ;  but  do  not  give  them  the  power 
of  living  in  air :  and  the  lungs,  either  of  the 
proteus  or  siren,  do  not  seem  sufficient  to  enable 
them  to  dispense  with  the  office  of  the  branchial 
appendages.  Among  his  amphibia  Linnaeus 
places  reptiles  that  never  go  into  the  water^  and 
some  fishes  which  never  quit  it.  He  could  not 
foil  to  experience  great  difficulties  in  naming  so 
ill-conceived  a  class  :  the  genera  comprehended 
are  too  ill-assorted  to  admit  of  their  having  a 
common  name.  Daubenton  first  divided  them 
into  two  classes,  naming  one  oviparous  quadru- 
peds, and  the  oUier  serpents.  Lac^p4de  adopted 
these  two  classes,  and  placed  between  them  a 
third,  that  of  oviparous  bipeds.  Hermann,  in  his 
Tabulae  affinitatumAnimalium,  proposed  to  sub- 
stitute, for  the  term  amphibia,  tnat  of  cryerozoa. 
Cuvier  rejects  the  Linnaean  term  for  that  of  rep- 
tiles.   See  Zoology. 

REPTON  (Humphrey),  a  private  gentleman, 
distinguished  by  his  skill  in  the  art  of  gardening, 
was  a  native  of  Bury,  in  Suffolk,  where  he  was 
bom  in  1752.  Having  acquired  the  friendship  of 
the  late  Mr.  Windham,  he  in  1783  accompanied 
that  gentleman  to  Ireland,  and  obtained  a  lacra-^ 
tive  situation  in  the  castle  of  Dublin  :  this,  how> 
ever,  he  shortly  after  eave  up.  On  his  return  to 
London  he  applied  himself  to  the  improvement 
of  gardens  and  pleasure  grounds  professionally, 
and  published  several  works  on  landscape  gar- 
dening. He  died  in  1818,  leaving  several  sons, 
one  01  whom  was  married  to  a  daughter  of  the 
earl  of  Eldon. 

REPUB'LIC, ».  «-  I      Fr.  rtpublique; 

Repub'licak,  adj,  kn,  t.y  Lat.  rapMica. 
Commonwealth  ;  common  interest ;  state  in 
which  the  power  is  lodged  in  more  than  one : 
republican,  governed  by  the  people;  a  person 
who  holds  the  eligibility  of  this  form  of  govern- 
ment. 

Those  that  by  their  deeda  will  make  it  known. 
Whose  dignity  they  do  sustain  ; 
And  life,  state,  glory,  all  they  gain. 

Count  the  republic't,  not  their  own.    JBen  Jonsm. 

These  people  are  more  happy  in  imagination  than 
the  rest  of  their  neighbours,  because  they  think 
themselves  so ;  though  such  a  chimerical  happiness 
IS  not  peculiar  to  repuhlicans.  AdtUum, 

They  are  indebted  many  millions  more  than  their 
whole  republic  is  worth.  id.  State  of  the  War, 

REPUBLIC,  or  commonwealth   a  popular 


state  of  government,  or  a  nation  where  the  pco 
pie  have  the  government  in  their  own  hands. 

REPU'DIATE,  V.  a.  Fr.  rowdier ;  Lat  re- 
jnidion    To  divorce ;  reject ;  put  away. 

Let  not  those  that  have  repudiated  the  more  in- 
viting sins,  shew  themselves  philtered  and  bewitched 
by  this.  (jfeffinment  ef  the  Teegee. 

It  was  allowed  by  the  Athenians,  only  in  cue  of 
repudiaiien  of  a  wifie.  Arbulhmot  en,  Ceim. 

Here  is  a  notorious  instance  of  the  folly  of  the 
atheists,  that  while  they  repudiau  all  title  to  the 
kinedom  of  heaven,  merely  for  the  present  dleasure 
of  body,  and  their  boasted  tranquillity  of  mind, 
besides  the  extreme  madness  in  running  soch  a  des- 
perate hazard  after  death,  they  unwittingly  depiiTe 
themselves  here  of  that  veiy  pleasure  and  traaqmility 
they  seek  for.  Bentiey^e  Sermnu. 

REPUG'NANT,  adj.^     Fr.  repugfunt;  Ux. 

REFUo'NAKcr,  n.s.     >repug7Uim,    Disobedi- 

Rep0g'nantly,  flA;.  jent;  contrary;  oppo- 
site; inconsistent:  the  noun  substantive  ana  ad- 
verb corresponding. 

Bat»  where  difference  is  without  reptignaney,  i\ai 
which  hath  been  can  be  no  prejudice  to  that  which  it. 

Hooker, 

There  is  no  breach  of  a  divine  law,  bat  is  more  or 
less  repugnant  unto  the  will  of  the  law-giver,  God 
himself.  Perkui. 

His  antique  iword, 

Rebellious  to  his  arm,  lies  where  it  falls, 

Repugnant  to  command.         Shakepeare.  Hamlel. 

Why  do  fond  men  expose  themselves  to  battle, 
And  let  the  foes  quietly  cut  their  throats, 
Without  repugnancy  7  id,  Thmn. 

They  speak  not  repugnantljf  thereto.        Broinw. 

That  which  causes  us  to  lose  most  of  oar  tixoe, 
is  the  repugnance  which  we  naturally  have  to  laboor. 

Dniden. 

Thus  did  the  passions  [act  without  anv  of  their 
present  jars,  combats*  or  r$p^gnane^ee,  all  movio^ 
with  the  beauty  of  uniforaii^  and  the  stillaess  of 
composure.  South's  Spmrai. 

Why  I  reject  the  other  conjectures*  is,  becaoie 
they  have  not  due  warrant  from  observation,  hot  are 
clearly  repugnant  thereunto.  Woodwerd, 

Your  way  is  to  wrest  and  strain  some  piincipki 
maintained  both  by  them  and  me,  to  a  sense  rtpeg- 
nant  with  their  other  known  doctrines.    Wnteriand, 

It  is  no  affront  to  omnipotence,  if,  by  reason  of 
the  formal  incapacity  and  repugnancy  of  the  thine, 
we  aver  that  the  world  could  not  have  been  made 
from  all  eternity.  Beetiey, 

REPU'LLULATE,  v. «.  Fr.  repuUuler ;  Lat 
re  and  pullulo.    To  bud  again. 

Though  tares  repuUmlate,  there  is  wheat  still  left 
in  the  field.  Howe^i  Vooal  Forest, 

REPULSE',  v.a,k  n.  t.-\     Fr.  rqmi$e:  Lat 
Repul'sion,  ^repuUa,     To  beat 

Repul'sive,  adj.  J  or  drive  back;  the 

being  driven  off  or  back  from  any  attempt :  ft- 
pulsion  is  the  act  or  power  of  repelling;  die  ad- 
jective corresponds. 

The  christian  defendants  still  reptUied  them  with 
greater  courage  than  they  were  able  to  aasul  them. 

KnoUa. 

This  fleet,  attempting  St.  Minoes,  were  nfmlud, 

and,  without  gloiy  or  gain — ^returned  unto  England. 

BayuieTit 
My  repulse  at  Hull  seemed  an  act  of  so  rade  dis- 
loyalty,  that  roy   enemies  had    scarce  cooBdeoce 
enough  to  abet  it.  King  CharUu 


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By  fate  repelled  and  with  repulm  tired.  Denham, 

]MaQ  complete  to  have  discovered  and  refndaed 
Whatever  wiles  of  foe  or  seetain^  friend.      Milton. 

The  parts  of  the  salt  or  vitnol  recede  from  one 
•  another,  and  endeavour  to  expand  themselves,  and 
remove  as  far  asunder  as  the  quantity  of  water,  in 
which  they  float,  will  allow ;  and  does  not  this  en- 
deafour  imply,  that  they  have  a  repulse  force  by 
which  they  Sy  from  one  another,  or  that  they  attract 
the  water  more  stroagly  than  one  another? 

Nmrtan*$  .Optics. 

Air  has  soine  degree  of  tenacity,  wherfe^by  the  paru 
attract  one  another  ;  at  the  same  time,  by  their  elas- 
ticity, the  particles  of  air  have  a  power  of  rqmision 
or  flying  on  from  one  another.  Arbuthnot. 

•  Repulsion,  in  physics,  is  that  property  of 
bodies  whereby  they  recede  from  eacn  other, 
and,  on  certain  occasions,  mutually  avoid  coming 
into  contacL  Tliis,  as  well  as  attraction,  has 
been  considered  as  one  of  the  primary  qualities 
of  all  matter,  and  been  much  used  in  ex- 
plaining the  phenomena  of  nature ;  thus  the  par- 
ticles of  air,  fire,  steam,  electric  fluid,  &c., 
have  all  been  said  to  have  a  repulsive  power 
with  respect  to  one  another ;  because,  when 
they  are  compressed  into  a  small  space,  they  ex- 
pand with  great  force ;  but  as  to  Are,  light,  and 
electricity,  our  experiments  fail ;  nay,  the  suppo- 
sition of  a  repulsive  power  among  the  particles 
of  the  electric  fluid  is  at  least  a  moot  point. 
Sec  Electric  ITT.  £ven  in  those  fluids  air 
and  steam,  where  a  repulsive  power  manifestly 
exists,  it  is  demonstrable  that  the  repulsion  can- 
not be  a  primary  quality,  since  it  can  be  in- 
creased to  a  great  degree  by  heat,  and  diminished 
by  cold;  but  it  is  impossible  that  a  primaiy 
quality  of  naatter  can  be  increased  or  dimi- 
nished by  any  external  circumstances  whatever. 
The  repulsion  of  electrified  bodies  is  explained 
under  the  article  Electricitt;  that  of  others 
is  less  subject  to  investigation;  and  the  most 
that  can  be  said  of  it  is,  that  iu  many  cases  it 
seems  to  be  the  consequence  of  a  modification 
of  heat,  as  in  others  of  electricity. 

REPUR'CHASE,  v.  a.  Re  and  purchase. 
To  buy  again. 

Once  more  we  sit  on  England's  royal  throne, 
Ripurehased  with  the  blood  of  enemies ; 
What  valiant  foe-men,  like  to  autumn's  corn, 
Have  we  mowed  down  in  top  of  all  their  pride ! 

ShoMspeare. 

If  the  son  alien  those  lands,  and  repurchase  them 
again  in  fee,  the  roles  of  descents  are  to  be  observed, 
as  if  he  were  the  original  purchaser.  Hale. 


¥r.  reputfr;  lat. 
reputo.  To  hold; 
think ;  account ;  es- 
teem: hence,  as  a 
noun  substantive, 
character;  establish- 


REPUTF,t;.a.&n.s.^ 

Rep'utable,  adj. 

ReP'utablemess,  n.  s. 

REP'rTABLY,  adv. 

Reputa'tion,  n.  s. 

Repute'less,  adf. 
ed  character  or  opinion ;  credit ;  honor :  the  last^ 
or  the  meaning  ot  repute,  nouo  substantive,  being 
also  that  of  reputation  :  reputable,  is  of  good  re- 
pute ;  honorable :  the  noun  substantive  and  ad- 
verb following  corresponding :  reputeless,  disre* 
puuble;  disgraceful. 

The  king  was  reputed  a  prince  most  prudent. 

Shakepeare. 

fleputatim  is  an  idle  and  most  false  imposition  ; 
oft  got  without  merit,  and  lost  without  deserving : 


you  have  lost  no  reputation  at  all,  unless  you  repute 
yourself  sneh  a  loser.  Id. 

Opinion,  that  did  help  me  to  the  crown, 

Had  left  me  in  rtpuleUts  banishment, 

A  fellow  of  no  mark  nor  livelihood.  Id* 

Men,  such  as  chuse 

Law  practice  for  mere  gain,  boldly  repute 

Worse  than  embrotherd  strumpets  prostitute. 

Donne. 
He  who  reigns 
Monarch  in  heaven,  till  then,  as  one  secure. 
Sat  on  his  throne,  upheld  by  old  repute.        MiUon. 

If  the  grand  vizier  be  so.  great,  as  he  is  reputed, 
in  politics,  he  vrill  never  consent  to  an  invasion  of 
Hungary.  ^Temple. 

Versoy,  upon  the  lake  of  Geneva,  has  the  repu- 
tation of  being  extremely  poor  and  beggarly. 

Addison. 

If  ever  any  vice  shall  become  reputable,  and  be 
glorified  in  as  a  mark  of  greatness,  what  can  we 
then  expect  from  the  man  of  honour,  but  to  signa- 
li2e  himself?  Uogers's  Sermons. 

To  many  such  worthy  magistrates,  who  have  thus 
reputably  filled  the  chief  seats  of  power  in  this  great 
city,  I  am  now  addressing  my  discourse. 

Atterbury*a  Sermons. 

A  third  interprets  motions,  looks,  and  eyes ; 
At  every  word  a  reputation  dies.  Pope. 

In  the  article  of  danger,  it  is  as  reputable  to  elude 
an  enemy  as  defeat  one.  Broome. 

REQ  (J  EN  A,  a  trading  town  of  Cuen^a,  in 
Spain,  on  the  border  of  Valencia.  Its  inhabitants,  . 
about  6000,  are  largely  engaged  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  silks. 

REQUEST,  n.  i.  &  v.  a.  Fr.  regueste  ;  Lat. 
reqnisitus.  Petition ;  entreaty ;  solicitation ;  de- 
mand ;  state  of  being  desired;  hence  repute; 
credit:  to  request  is  to  ask;  entreat;  solicit. 

Haman  stood  up  to  make  request  for  his  life  to 
Esther.  Either. 

It  was  to  be  requested  of  Almighty  God,  by  prayer, 
that  those  kings  would  seriously  fulfil  all  that  hope 
of  peace.  Knolles. 

But  ask  what  you  would  have  reformed, 
I  will  both  hear  and  graUt  you  your  requesu. 

Shaktpeare 

Aufidius  vrill  appear  well  m  these  wars,  his  neat 
opposer  Coriolanps  being  now  in  no  request  of  his 
country.  Id 

Ask  him  to  lend 
To  this,  the  last  request  that  I  shall  send, 
A  gentle  ear.  JDenham. 

All  thy  request  for  man,  accepted  son ! 
Obtain  ;  all  thy  request  was  my  decree.        Milton. 

Whilst  this  vanity  of  thinkiPg,  that  men  are 
obliged  to  write  either  systems  or  nothing,  is  in 
request,  many  excellent  notions  aVe  suppressed. 

Boyle. 

Knowledge  and  fame  were  in  as  great  requ^t  as 
wealth  among  us  now.  Temple. 

In  thin^  not  unlawful  great  persons  cannot  be 
properly  said  tore^iien,  because,  all  things  considered 
they  must  not  be  denied.  South*s  Sermons. 

Requests,  Court  op  (curia  requisitionum), 
was  a  court  of  equity,  of  the  same  nature  with 
the  court  of  chancery,  but  inferior  to  it ;  princi- 
pally instituted  for  the  relief  of  such  petitioners 
as  in  conscionable  cases  addressed  themselves 
by  supplication  to  bis  toajes^.  Of  this  court 
the  lord  privy-seal  was  chief  judge,  assisted  by 
the  masters  of  request.  It  began  about  thp  9 
Hen.  VII.,  according  to  Sir  Julius's  Casar  s  irac- 

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late  upon  this  subject;  though  Mr.  Gwyn  as- 
serts that  it  began  from  a  commission  first  granted 
by  Henry  VJII.  This  court  having  assumed 
great  power  to  itself,  so  that  it  became  burthen- 
some,  Mich.  Anno  40  and  41  Eliz.  in  the  court 
of  common  pleas  it  was  adjudged  upon  solemn 
argument,  that  the  court  of  requests  was  no  conrt 
of  judicature,  &c.,  and  by  statute  16  &  17  Car. 
I.  c.  10,  it  was  taken  away.  There  are  siill  how- 
ever courts  of  requests,  or  more  properly  courts 
of  conscience,  constituted  in  London  and  other 
trading  and  populous  districts  for  the  recovery 
of  smadl  .debts.  The  first  of  these  was  established 
in  London  at  so  early  a  period  as  the  reign  of 
Henry  VIIL  by  an  act  of  their  common  council ; 
which,  however,  was  certainly  insufficient  for 
that  purpose,  and  illegal,  till  confirmed  by  stat. 
3  Jac.  Lc.  15,  which  has  since  been  explained  and 
amended  by  stat.  14  Geo,  II.  c.  10.  The  consti-. 
tution  is  thu :  two  aldermen  and  four  commoners 
sit  twice  a  week  to  hear  all  causes  of  debt  not  ex- 
ceeding the  value  of  40f .,  which  they  examine  in 
a  summary  way,  by  the  oath  of  the  parties  or 
other  witnesses,  and  make  such  order  therein  as 
is  consonant  to  equity  and  good  conscience.  The 
time  and  expense  of  obtaining  thb  summary  re- 
dress are  very  inconsiderable,  which  makes  it  a 
great  benefit  to  trade;  and  thereupon  divers 
trading  towns  and  other  districts  have  obtained 
acts  of  parliament  for  establishing  in  them 
courts  of  conscience  upon  nearly  the  same  plan 
as  that  of  London.  By  26  Geo.  III.  c.  45,  which 
is  confined  to  prosecutions  in  courts  of  con- 
science in  London,  Middlesex,  and  the  borough 
of  Southwark,  and  by  26  Geo.  III.  c.  38,  whicl) 
extends  the  provisions  of  the  former  act  to 
all  other  courts  instituted  for  the  recovery  of 
small  debts,  it  is  enacted  that,  after  the  1st  day 
of  September  1786,  no  person  whosoever  being 
a  debtor  or  defendant,  and  who  has  been  or  shall 
be  committed  to  any  gaol  or  prison  by  order  of 
any  court  or  commissioners  authorised  by  any 
act  or  acts  of  parliament  for  constituting  or  regu- 
lating any  court  or  courts  for  the  recovery  of 
small  debts,  where  the  debt  does  not  exceed  20s., 
shall  be  kept  or  continued  in  custody^  on  any 
pretence  whatsoever,  more  than  twenty  days 
from  the  commencement  of  the  last  mentioned 
act ;  or  from  the  time  of  his,  her,  or  their  com- 
mitment to  prison ;  and,  where  the  original  debt 
does  not  amount  to  or  exceed  the  sum  of  40<., 
more  than  forty  days  from  the  commencement  of 
the  said  act,  or  from  the  time  of  his,  her,  or 
their  commitment  as  aforesaid ;  and  all  jailers 
are  thereby  required  to  discharge  such  persons 
accordingly.  And  by  sect.  2,  if  it  snail  be 
proved  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  court  that  any 
such  debtor  ^as  money  or  goods,  which  he  has 
wilfully  and  fraudulently  concealed,  the  court 
shall  have  power  to  enlarge  the  aforesaid  time 
of  imprisonment  for  debts  under  20s.  to  any 
time  not  exceeding  thirty  days,  and  for  debts 
under  40s.  to  any  time  not  exceeding  sixty  days ; 
which  said  ground  of  farther  detention  shall  be 
specified  in  the  said  commitment.  And  that  (by 
sect.  3)  at  the  expiration  of  the  said  respective 
times  of  imprisonment,  every  such  person  shall 
immediately  be  discharged,  vnthout  paying  any 
sum  of  money,  or  other  reward  or  gratuity  what- 


534  REQ 

soever^  to  the  jailer  of  such  jail  cm  any  pieleoee 
whatsoever ;  and  every  jailer  demanding  or  re> 
ceiving  any  fee  for  the  discharge  of  any  sudi 
person,  or  keeping  any  such  person  prisoner  after  . 
the  said  respective  times  limited  by  the  said  act, 
shall  forfeit  £5,  to  be  recovered  in  a  summary 
way  before  two  justices  of  the  peace ;  one  moiety 
hereof  to  be  paid  to  the  overseers  of  the  poor  of 
the  parish  where  the  offence  shall  be  committed, 
and  the  other  to  the  informer. 

R£QUICK'£N,  v.  a.    Re  and  quicken.   T« 
reanimate. 

By  and  by  the  din  of  war  'gan  pierce 
His  ready  sense,  when  straight  his  doubled  spirit 
RBquichmed  what  in  flesh  was  fatigate. 
And  to  the  battle  came  he.  Shakspeare,  Cvndnm. 

RE'QUIEM,  n.t.    Lat.  requiem.   A  hymn  in 
which  they  implore  rest  for  the  dead. 

The  midwife  kneeled  at  my  mother's  throes, 
With  pain  produced  and  nursed  for  fotuiewoes ; 
Else  had  I  an  eternal  requiem  kept, 
And  in  the  arms  of  peace  for  ever  slept.      Sandifu 

We  should  profane  the  service  of  the  dead^ 
To  sing  a  rtquwn  and  such  peace  to  her. 
As  to  peace-parted  souls.  '  Skukqteare, 

REQUIRE',  V.  a.  ^     Fr.  rcyiiirtr;  Laf 

Requib'able,  o<^'.  frtquirOi    reqmatns. 

Re'quisite,  adj,  it  n.t.  >To    demand  ;   ask 
Re'quisitely,  adv.        i  as  of  right ;  eojoio ; 
Re'quisiteness,  n.  t.     J  make  or  show  ne- 
cessary;  need:    the  adjective  corresponding: 
requisite  is,  necessary;  needful;   naturally  re- 
quired :  the  adverb  and  noun  substantive  corre- 
sponding. 
The  king's  business  required  haste.         1 
Ye  me  require 
A  thing  without  the  compass  of  mj  wit ; 
For  both  the  lineage  and  the  certain  sire, 
From  which  I  sprung,  are  from  me  hidden  yet. 


We  do  require  them  of  yon,  so  to  nae  them. 
As  we  shall  find  their  merits.  SMapegrt. 

Cold  calleth  the  spirits  to  snoconr,  and  therefote 
they  cannot  so  well  close  and  go  together  in  the 
head,  which  is  ever  requitiU  to  sleep.  Beeoe. 

This  the  very  law  of  nature  teacheth  us  to  ds, 
and  this  the  law  of  God  reqmreth  also  at  oar  bandi. 


This  implied 
Subiectiou,  but  required  with  gentle  sway.    UiUm, 

High  from  the  ground,  the  branches  would  requin 
Thy  utmost  reach.  Id. 

It  contains  the  certain  periods  of  times,  and  all 
circumstances  requirable  in  a  history  to  infonn. 

HeU. 

Discerning  how  exquisitely  the  several  parts  of 
scripture  are  fitted  to  the  several  times,  persons,  sod 
occurrences  intended,  we  shall  discover  not  only  tbe 
sense  of  the  obscurer  passages,  but  thercfiiiittauiiof 
their  having  been  written  so  obscnreW.  ^^• 

Oft  our  alliance  other  lands  desired. 
And  what  we  seek  of  you,  of  us  required^     Vrydee, 

But  why,  alas !  do  mortal  men  complain? 
God  gives  us  what  he  knows  our  wants  require. 
And  better  things  than  those  which  we  desire.  Id. 

Res  non  paru  labore,  sed  relicts,  was  thought  by 
a  poet  to  be  one  of  the  requisitet  to  a  happy  life.  Id. 

God,  when  he  gave  the  world  in  common  to  man- 
kind, commanded  man  also  to  labour ;  and  the  pe- 
nury of  his  condition  required  it.  X^wfa. 

When  God  new-modelled  the  world  by  the  intro- 
duction of  a  new  religion,  and  that  in  the  roon  of 


Digitized  by  ^^JiJU*^lt: 


RES 


535 


RES 


one  let  Qp  bv  himself,  it  was  reqwtite  that  he  should 
leoommend  it  to  the  reasons  of  men  with  the  same 
authority  and  evidence  that  enforced  the  former. 

Smth. 

God  on  his.  part  has  declared  the  rejmntet  on 
ours ;  what  we  must  do  to  obtain  blessings  is  the 
great  business  of  us  all  to  know.  Wake, 

REQUITE', V. a.  >     Fr.requiter.   To  repay; 

Reqdi'tal,  ft.  s.  )  retaliate ;  recompense :  re- 
quital isy  retuTD  of  any  good  or  bad  office ;  re- 
taliation ;  reward* 

When  Joseph's  brethren  saw  that  their  father  was 
dead,  they  said,  Joseph  will  refuite  us  all  the  evil 
we  did.  Ownuit, 

An  avenger  against  his  enemies,  and  one  that  shall 
requiu  kindness  to  his  friends.  Ecelet, 

Should  we  take  the  quarrel  of  sermons  in  hand, 
and  revenge  their  cause  by  reqwtal,  thrusting  prayer 
in  a  manner  out  of  doors  under  colour  of  long  preach- 
ing !  Booker. 

Since  you 
Wear  out  your  gentle  limbs  in  my  affairs, 
Be  bold,  you  do  so  grow  in  my  rental, 
Am  nothing  can  unroot  you.  Shakspeare. 

If  he  love  me  to  madness,  I  shall  never  teqiniie 
him.  Id, 

I  have  ta'en  a  cordial. 
Sent  by  the  kin^  of  Haly  in  mptiial 
Of  all  my  misenes,  to  make  me  happy.       Denham, 

He  asked  me  for  a  song, 
And  in  requiud  op'd  his  leathern  scrip. 
And  shewed  me  simples  of  a  thousand  names. 
Telling  their  strange  and  vigorous  (acuities.  Hilton, 

Him  withm  protect  from  harms ; 
He  can  mniite  thee  for  he  knows  the  charms 
That  call  fame  on  such  gentle  acts  as  these.       Id, 

No  merit  their  aversion  can  remove, 
Nor  ill  remdud  can  efface  their  love.  Waller. 

In  all  the  light  that  the  heavens  bestow  upon  this 
lower  world,  uongh  the  lower  world  cannot  equal 
their  benefaction,  yet  with  a  kind  of  grateful  return 
it  reflects  those  rays,  that  it  cannot  recompense  \  so 
that  there  is  some  return  however,  though  there  can 
be  no  r«gttieal.  SouUCi  Semumt, 

Great  idol  of  mankind  we  neither  claim 
The  praise  of  merit,  nor  aspire  to  fame  ! 
Tis  all  we  beg  thee  to  conceal  from  right 
Those  acU  of  soodneaa  which  themselves  requite ; 
O  let  us  still  Uie  secret  jo^r  partake. 
To  follow  virtue  ev'n  for  virtue's  sake.  Pope, 

Unhappy  Wallace, 
Great  patriot  hero !  ill  requited  chief!        Thomeon. 

RESALE',  ft.  |.  Re  and  sale.  Sale  at  second 
hand. 

Monopolies  andcoemptiou  of  wares  for  resale,  where 
they  are  not  restrained,  are  great  means  to  enrich. 

Bacon, 

RESALUTE',  t».  a.  Fr.  reuduer ;  Lat  reta- 
hUo,  To  SAlute  or  gr^et  anew. 

We  drew  her  up  to  land. 
And  trod  ourselves  the  reeabtUd  sand.       Chapman, 

To  reealfUe  the  world  with  sacied  light, 
Leucothea  waked.  Miiten. 

RESAIL',«.n.    Re  and  sail.    To  sail  back. 

From  Pyle  rcMtliii^,  and  the  Spartan  court, 
Horrid  to  speak !  in  ambush  is  decreed.  Pope. 

RESCINiy,  V.  a,  ^     Fr.  rescinder ;  Lat.  re- 

Rescis'sion,  n.g.  S  tcindo.  To  cut  off;  abro- 
gate :  the  act  of  cutting  off;  abrogation. 

If  any  infer  reeciwon  of  their  estate  to  have  been 
for  idolatry,  that  the  governments  of  all  idolatrous 
nations  should  be  also  dissolved,  it  foUoweth  not. 

Bacon, 


It  is  the  imposing  a  sacramental  oblieation  upon 
him,  which  being  the  condition,  upon  the  perform- 
ance whereof  all  the  promises  of  endless  bliss  are 
made  over,  it  is  not  possible  to.  rr^md  or  disclaim 
the  standing  obliged  by  it.  Hanwuind. 

I  spake  against  the  test,  but  was  not  heard  ; 
These  to  rescind,  and  peerage  to  restore.      Dryden. 

RESCOUS>  or  Rescue  (rescussus),  in  law,  an 
illegal  taking  away,  and  setting  at  liberty,  a  dis- 
tress taken,  or  a  person  arrestra,  by  processt,  or 
course  of  law.  This  is  properly  a  rescous  in 
fact.  If  one  distrains  beasts  tor  damage  feasant 
iri  his  ground,  and,  as  he  drives  them  along  the 
highway  towards  the  pound,  they  enter  into  the 
owner's  house,  and  he  withholds  them  there,  and 
will  not  deliver  them  upon  demand ;  this  detainer 
is  a  rescous  in  law.  For  a  rescous,  or  the  taking 
of  goods  by  force,when,  in  a  distress,  they  are  in 
the  custody  of  the  law,  is  considered  as  an  atro- 
cious injury.  The  distrainer  may  bring  an  ac- 
tion on  the  case  for  this  injury,  and  shall  therein, 
if  the  distress  were  taken  for  rent,  recover  treble 
damages.  In  case  of  the  forcible  delivery  of  a 
person  arrested  from  the  officer  who  is  taking 
him  to  prison,  the  plaintiff  has  a  similar  remedy 
by  action  on  the  case,  or  of  rescous ;  or,  if  the 
sheriff  makes  a  return  to  such  rescous  to  the 
court  out  of  which  the  process  issued,  the  rescuer 
will  be  punished  by  attachment. 

RESCRIBE',t;.a.  >      Fr.  reicfwr;  Lat.  re- 

Re'script,  It.  t.  y  tcribo.  To  write  back, 
or  return  in  writing ;  transcribe :  a  rescript  is  an 
edict  of  some  sovereign  authority. 

One  finding  a  great  mass  of  money  digged  under 
ground,  and,  being  somewhat  doubtful,  sispified  it 
to  the  emperor,  who  made  a  reeaipt  thus :  Use  it. 
Baeon'i  Apophthegmi, 

Calliuff  for  more  paper  to  rescribe  them,  he  shewed 
him  the  mfiference  betwixt  the  ink-box  and  the  sand- 
box. Howel, 

Whenever  a  prince  on  his  being  consulted  renribei 
or  writes  back  Toleramus,  he  dispenses  with  that  act 
otherwise  unlawful.  Ayliffe^s  Parer^on. 

The  popes,  in  sach  cases  where  canons  were  silent, 
did,  after  the  manner  of  the  Roman  emperors,  vnite 
back  their  determinations,  which  were  suled  retcripte 
or  decretal  epistles,  having  the  force  of  laws.      Id. 

Rescript,  in  the  civil  law,  is  a  judgment  de- 
livered by  an  emperor  or  pope  on  some  difficult 
question  or  point  of  law,  to  serve  as  a  decision 
thereof  for  the  future.  The  papal  rescripts 
never  obtained  either  in  England  or  France,  when 
contrary  to  the  liberties  of  the  English  and  Gal- 
lican  churches ;  but  were  decUred  abusive. 
Among  the  ancient  Romans  the  contending  par- 
ties, and  even  the  magistrates  themselves,  fre- 
quently consulted  the  emi)eror  on«  the  measures 
they  were  to  take  in  certain  difficult  cases ;  and 
the  answers  returned  by  the  emperor  on  such 
consultations  were  called  rescripts.  These  had 
not,  indeed,  the  full  force  of  laws ;  but  they  were 
deemed  a  strong  prejudice  or  presumption :  and 
in  succeeding  ages  they  had  the  force  of  perpe- 
tual laws. 

Justinian  has  inserted  a  great  number  of 
rescripts  in  the  code ;  and  by  Uiat  means  given 
them  the  authority  they  would  otherwise  want. 
The  author  of  the  life  of  the  emperor  Macrinus 
observes,  of  that  prince,  that  he  would  have  his 
officers  judge  bylaws,  not  by  rescripts ;  esteem- 


Digitized  by  V3UU*i 


le 


RES 


536 


RES 


ing  it  absurd  to  admit  the  wills  of  ignorant  men, 
such  as  Commodus  and  Caracalla,  for  rules  of 
judging ;  and  Trajan  never  gave  any  rescripts  at 
ally  bemg  loth  to  countenance  a  custom,  where 
what  was  frequently  granted  as  a  favor,  in  parti- 
cular cases,  might  be  afterwards  pleaded  as  a 
precedent. 

RES'CUE,  V.  a.  &  n.  s.  Old  Fr.  reseorre ;  Lat. 
re  excuisui  ?  To  set  free  from  violence,  restraint, 
or  danger :  deliverance  from  a  state  of  this  kind. 
Sir  Scudamore,  after  long  sorrow,  in  the  end  met 
with  Britomartis,  who  succoured  him  and  rttkewed 
his  love.  Spemer, 

My  uncles  both  are  slain  in  re$cmHg  me. 

Skaktpeare. 
We're  beset  with  thieves ; 
Regeug  thy  mistress,  if  thou  be  a  man.         Id. 
How  comes  it,  you 
Have  help  to  make  this  rescue?  Id, 

He  that  is  so  sure  of  his  particular  election  as  to 
resolve  he  can  never  fall,  if  be  commit  those  acts 
against  which  scripture  in  plain  that  they  that  do 
them  shall  not  inherit  eternal  life,  must  necessarily 
resolve  that  nothing  but  the  removing  his  fundamen- 
tal error  can  rescue  him  from  the  superstructivc. 

Hammond's  Fundamentais, 
Dr.  Bancroft  understood  the  church  excellently, 
and  had  almost  reteued  it  out  of  the  hands  of  the 
Calvinian  party.  Qarendoa. 

Who  was  that  just  man,  whom  had  not  heaven 
Resetted,  had  in  his  righteousness  been  lost? 

Miltoa. 
Riches  cannot  rescue  from  the  grave. 
Which  claims  alike  the  monarch  and  the  slave. 

Dryden, 
We  have  never  yet  heard  of  a  tumult  raised  to 
rescue  a  minister  whom  his  master  desired  to  bring  to 
a  fair  account.  IkteenafU. 

RESEARCH',  n.f.&v.n.  Ft,  recherchei  En- 
quiry ;  search :  to  examine ;  enquire. 

It  is  not  easy  tp  research  with  due  distinction,  in 
the  actions  of  eminent  personages,  both  how  much* 
they  may  have  been  blemished  by  the  envy  of  others, 
ana  what  was  corrupted  by  their  own  feUcity. 

Wottons  Buckmgham, 
By  a  skilful  application  of  those  notices,  may  be 
pined  in  such  researches  the  accelerating  and  better- ' 
ing  of  fmits,  emptying  mines,  and  draining  fens. 
GlancUWs  Scepsis. 
I  submit  those  mistakes,  into  which  I  may  have 
fallen,  to  the  better  consideration  of  others,  who 
shall  have  made  researdi  into  this  business  with 
more  felicity.  Holder. 

A  felicity  adapted  to  every  rank,  such  as  the  rer 
searches  of  human  wisdom  sought  for,  but  could  not 
discover.  Rogers, 

RESEAT,  V.  a.  Re  and  seat.  To  seat  again. 
When  he's  produced,  will  you  reseat  hhn 

Upon  his  father's  throne  ?  Dryden, 

RESEDA,  dyer's-weed,  yellow-weed,  weld, 
or  wild  woad ;  a  genus  of  the  order  of  trigynia, 
and  dodecandria  class  of  plants ;  natural  order 
fifty-fourth,  miscellaneae  :  cal.  monophyllous 
ana  partite :  petals  lancintated:  caps,  unilocular, 
and  opening  at  the  mouth.  There  are  fourteen 
species,  of  which  the  most  remarkable  is  the— 

R.  luteola,  or  common  dyer's  weld;  growing 
natnrally  in  waste  places  in  many  parts  of  Bri- 
tain. The  young  leaves  are  often  undulated; 
the  stalk  b  a  yard  high,  or  more,  terminated 
uith   a  long   naked   spike  of  yellowish-green 


Howers ;,  the  plant  is  cultivated  and  much  used 
for  dyeing  silk  and  wool  of  a  yellow  color.  It 
will  grow  with  very  little  trouble,  without  dung, 
and  on  the  very  worst  soils.  It  is  therefore  com- 
monly sown  with,  or  immediately  after,  barley 
or  oats,  without  any  additional  care,  except 
drawing  a  bush  over  it  to  harrow  it  in.  Tlie  reap- 
ing of  com  does  it  little  or  no  hurt,  as  it  grows 
but  little  the  first  year  ;  and  the  next  summer  it 
b  pulled  and  dried  like  flax.  Much  care  and 
nicety,  however,  are  requisite  so  as  not  to  injure 
either  the  seed  or  stalk;  or,*wbich  soraetiines 
happens,  damaging  both,  by  letting  it  stand  too 
long,  or  pulling  it  too  green.  To  avoid  these 
inconveniences  a  better  method  of  culture  bas 
been  devised.  This  new  method  is  to  plough 
and  harrow  the  ground  very  fine,  without  dung, 
as  equally  as  possible,  and  then  sowing  a  gallon 
of  seed  upon  an  acre  some  time  in  August.  lo 
about  two  months  it  will  be  high  enough  to  hoe, 
which  must  be  carefully  done,  and  the  plants 
left  about  six  inches  asunder.  In  March  it  is 
.to  be  hoed  again,  and  this  labor  is  to  be  repeated 
a  third  time  in  May.  About  the  close  of  June, 
when  the  flower  is  m  full  vigor,  and  the  stalk  is 
become  of  a  greenish-yellow,  it  should  be 
pulled  ;  a  sufficient  quantity  of  stems  being  left 
growing  for  seed  till  September.  By  these 
means  the  flower  and  stalk,  both*  of  them  being 
carefully  dried,  will  sell  at  a  good  price  to  the 
dyers,  who  employ  it  constantly,  and  in  large 
quantities;  add  to  this,  that  the  seed  being  npe, 
and  in  perfect  order,  will  yield  a  very  consider- 
able nrofit.  In  a  tolerable  year,  when  the  sea- 
sons nave  not  been  unfavorable,  the  advantages 
derived  from  this  vegetable  will  answer  very 
well ;  but  if  the  summer  should  be  remarkably 
fine,  and  nroper  care  is  taken  in  getting  it  in, 
there  will  be  a  very  large  produce  upon  an  acre. 
The  crop  being,  as  has  been  shown,  so  early  re- 
moved, the  ground  may  be  conveniently  pre- 
pared for  growing  wheat  the  next  year.  Upon 
the  whole  it  is  in  its  nature  a  very  valuable  com- 
modity in  many  respects,  as  it  serves  equally  for 
woollen,  linen,  or  silk ;  dyeing  nd  only  a  rich 
deep  yellow,  but  also,  properly  managed,  ail  the 
different  shades  of  yellow  with  brightness  and 
beauty ;  and,  if  these  be  previously  dipped  bine, 
they  are  b^  the  weld  changed  into  a  veiy  pleasing 
green,  which  our  artists  can  also  diversify  into  a 
great  variety  of  shades. 

RESEFZER,  n.  s.    One  that  seizes  again. 

RESEI'ZURE,  n.  *.  Re  and  seiiure.  Re- 
peated seizure ;  seizure  a  second  time. 

Here  we  have  the  charter  of  foundation ;  it  is  oow 
the  more  easy  to  judge  of  the  forfeiture  of  remMan; 
deface  the  image,  and  you  divest  the  right.    Bacon. 

RESEND',  V.  a.     Re  and  send.     To  seod 
back ;  to  send  again.    Not  in  use. 
I  sent  to  her,  by  this  same  coxcomb, 

Tokens  and  letters,  which  she  did  rtsend, 

Shakspeen. 

RESEM'BLEjC.fl.  1    Tr.resembler.   Tocon- 

RESEM'BLAVcE,n.f.  )  pare ;  exhibit  or  repre- 
sent as  like  something  else ;  be  like :  reseoiblance 
is,  likeness;  similitude. 

These  sensible  thii^,  which  religion  hath  alloned. 
aie  resemblawa  formM  according  to  things  spiritual. 


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whereunto  they  serve  as  a  band  to  lead,  and  a  way 
to  direct.  ffooker. 

The  torrid  ports  of  Africk  are  resembUd  to  a  lib- 
bard's  skin,  the  distance  of  whose  spotn  represents  the 
disperseness  of  habitations.  Brerewood. 

Most  safely  may  we  raembU  ourselves  to  God,  in 
respect  of  that  pure  faculty  which  is  never  separate 
from  the  love  of  God.  RaUigh, 

Fairest  resemblance  of  thy  Maker  fzir. 
Thee  all  things  living  gaze  on. .  MUtam. 

One  main  end  of  poetry  and  painting  is  to  please ; 
they  bear  a  great  resemblance  to  each  other. 

Dr^detCs  Dufresnoy. 
The  quality  produced  hath  conimonlv  no  resem- 
hlanee  with  the  thing  producing  it ;  wherefore  we 
look  on  it  as  a  bare  effect  of  power.  Locke. 

They  are  but  weak  resemblances  of  our  intentions, 
faint  and  imperfect  copies,  that  may  acquaint  us  with 
the  general  design,  but  can  never  express  the  life  of 
the  original.  Addison. 

I  cannot  help  remarking  the  resemblance  betwixt 
him  and  our  author  in  qualities,  fame,  and  fortune. 

Pope, 
So  chymists  boast  they  have  a  power, 
Fr«im  the  dead  ashes  of  a  flower. 
Some  faint  re4emblanee  to  produce. 
But  not  the  virtue.  Swift*s  Miscellanies, 

But  deep  this  truth  impressed  ro^  mind — 
Throngh  all  his  works  abroad, 

The  heart,  benevolent  and  kind, 
The  most  resembles  God.  Bums, 

My  dog !  what  remedy  remains. 

Since,  teach  you  all  I  can, 
I  see  you,  after  all  my  pains, 

So  much  resimbU  Man  1  Cowper. 

RESEN,  a  town  of  Assyria  on  the  Tigris, 
mentioned  by  Moses  as  having  been  built  by 
Nimrod ;  thought  to  be  the  Larissa  of  Xenophon. 
It  is  probable  that  the  Greeks  asking  of  what 
city  those  were  the  ruins  of  which  Ihey  saw,  the 
Assyrians  mieht  answer  Laresen,  Of  Resen; 
'which- word  Aenophon  expressed  by  Larissa,  a 
more  familiar  sound  to  a  Greek  ear. 

R£S£NIUS  (Peter  John),  a  learned  Danish 
couDScllor  and  professor,  born  at  Copenhagen  in 
1623.  He  studied  four  years  at  Leyden,  was 
made  counsellor  of  the  German  nation  at  Padua, 
and  syndic  of  the  tmiFersity.  On  his  return  to 
Denmark  he  was  xtiade  president  of  Copen- 
hagen, counsellor  justice,  and  counsellor  of  state, 
and  ennobled.  He  wrote  several  vvorks,  the  chief 
of  which  is  his  £dda  Islandorum.  He  died  in 
1588. 


RESENT,  v.  a. 
Resent^er,  n.  4, 

RESESTT'FVLyOd;. 

Resent  FULLY,  adv, 
Resentingly, 
Resent  MENT,  n.  s 


Fr.  reserUir.  To  take 
well  or  ill ;  to  take  ill  is 
the  common  usage :  a 
resenter  is  one  who 
deeply  feels  an  injury: 
resentful,     malignant; 


soon  provoked  to  anger,  and  long  retaining  it : 
the  adverb  corresponding:  resentingly  means 
with  deep  sense  or  impression ;  with  malignity : 
resentment,  strong  perception  of  good  or  ill ; 
deep  feeling  of  anger. 

A  serious  consideration  of  the  mineral  treasures  of 
his  territories,  and  the  practical  discoveries  of  them 
by  way  of  my  philosophical  theory,  he  then  so  well 
resented,  that  afterwards,  upon  a  mature  digestion  of 
my  whole  design,  he  commanded  me  to  let  tout  lord- 
ships understand  how  great  an  inclination  be  hath  to 
'orther  so  hopeful  a.  work.  Bacon, 


The  earl  was  the  worst  philosopher,  being  a  great 
resenter,  and  a  weak  dissembler  of  the  least  disgrace. 

WottOH. 

Thou  with  scorn 

And  anger  would'st  recent  the  offered  wrong. 

MiltoH* 

What  he  hath  of  sensible  evidence,  the  very  ^rand 
work  of  his  demonstration  is  but  the  knowledge  ot 
his  own  resentment;  but  how  the  same  things  appear 
to  others,  they  only  know  that  are  conscious  to  them ; 
and  how  they  are  in  themselves,  only  he  that  made 
them.  GlaneilleU  Scepsis, 

To  be  absent  from  any  part  of  publick  worship  he 
thus  deeply  resenUd,  FaU, 

Uylobares  judiciously  and  resentingly  recapitulates 
your  main  reasonings.        Mere's  Diieine  Dialogues. 

He  retains  vivid  resmtments  of  the  more  solid 
morality.  Mare. 

Can  heavenly  minds  such  high  resentment  show,  . 
Or  exercise  their  spite  in  human  woe?        Dryden. 

Such  proceedings  have  been  always  resented,  and 
often  punished  in  this  kingdom.  Davenant. 

I  cannot,  without  some  envy,  and  a  just  resentmeni 
against  the  opposite  conduct  of  others,  reflect  upon 
that  generosity  wherewith  the  heads  of  a  struggling 
faction  treat  those  who  will  undertake  to  hold  a  pen 
in  their  defencft.  Swift. 

Though  it  is  hard  to  judge  of  the  hearts  of  people, 
yet,  where  they  declare  their  resentment  and  uneasi- 
ness at  any  thing,  there  they  pass  their  judgment 
npoB  themselves.  La», 


RESERVE',!?.  a.&fi.*: 
Reserva'tion,  n.  «. 
Reserv'atory, 
Reserved',  adj. 
Reserv'edly,  adv, 
Reseev'eoness,  n.  s. 
Reservoir'. 


Fr.  reserver  ; 
Lat.  reterpo.  To 
keep  ;  save ;  re- 
>-tain;  lay  up  in 
store:  reservation 
is,  the  act'of  so  do- 
ll^ ;  custody ;  state 


of  being  treasured  up,  or  the  thing  treasured ; 
place  in  which  any  thing  is  reserved  :  the  adjec- 
tive, adverb,  and  noun  substantive  corresponding : 
reservoir  (from  old  Fr.  reservoir)  is  a  sytto- 
nyme  of  reservatory. 

David  houghed  all  the  chariot  horses,  hut  reserved 
of  them  for  an  hundred  chariots.  2  Samud. 

Will  he  reserve  his  anger  for  ever !  will  he  keep  it 
to  the  end  ?  Jeremiah. 

I  could  add  many  probabilities  of  the  names  of 
places ;  bot  they  should  be  too  long  for  this,  and  I 
reserve  them  for  another.  Speneer. 

Reserve  thy  state,  with  better  judgment  check 
This  hideous  rashne»s«  Shakspeetre,    . 

Ourself  by  monthly  course. 
With  reservation  of  an  hundred  knights. 
By  you  to  be  sustained,  shall  oar  abode 
Make  with  you  by  due  turns.  Jdt 

TTe  willed  me, 
In  heedfurst  reservation,  to  bestow  them 
As  notes,  whose  faculties  inclusive  were 
More  than  they  of  note.  Id. 

Observe  their  gravity 
And  their  reservedness,  their  many  cautions 
Fitting  their  persons.  Ben  jmson*s  Catiline. 

By  formality,  I  mean  something  more  than  cere- 
mony and  compliment,  even  a  solemn  reservedness, 
which  may  well  consist  with  honesty,  WtUton. 

Nor  had  I  any  reservations  in  my  own  soul  when 
I  passed  that  bill,  nor  repentiogs  after. 

King  Charles. 
The  breach  seems  like  the  scissures  of  an  earth* 
quake,  and  threatens  to  swallow  all  that  attempt  tc 
close  it  and  reserves  its  cure  only  for  omnipotence. 

Decay  of  Piety, 


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W«  swett  with  Jetaitioal  equivocatioitt  and  men- 
tal rMfrvolum*.  Sandenon  Moiiut  tk§  Cooenaat. 

There  was  great  wariness  and  reiervMiiMM,  and  so 
great  a  jealousy  of  each  other  that  they  had  no 
mind  to  give  or  receive  visits.  Clartndon. 

Flowers 
R$$nv0d  from  night,  and  kept  for  thee  in  store. 

Milton. 

This  is  academical  retervatum  in  matters  of  easy 
truth,  or  rather  sceptical  infidelity  against  the  evi- 
dence of  reason.  Bnwne, 

The  viipns,  besides  the  oil  in  their  lamps,  carried 
likewise  a  reservt  in  some  other  vessel  for  a  continual 

TiUoium, 
NTothing  rettrved  or  sullen  was  to  see, 

But  sweet  regards.  Drydm. 

The  assent  may  be  withheld  upon  this  suggestion, 
that  I  know  not  yet  all  that  may  oe  said :  and  there- 
fore, though  I  be  beaten,  it  is  not  necessary  I  should 
Celd,  not  knowing  what  forces  there  are  in  mervo 
ihind.  Locke, 

To  all  obliging,  vet  reserved  to  all. 
None  could  himself  the  favoured  lover  call.  Walth, 

Dissimulation  can  but  just  guard  a  man  within 
the  compass  of  his  own  personal  concerns,  which  yet 
may  be  more  effectually  done  by  that  silence  and  re- 
eervedneu  that  every  man  may  innocently  practise. 

&mtA'i  Smnofu. 

However  any  one  may  concur  in  the  jgenoral 
scheme,  it  is  still  with  certain  r6MrMs  and  deviations, 
and  with  a  salvo  to  his  own  private  judgment. 

AddisoiCt  FreekoUer, 

There  is  not  a  spring  or  fountain,  but  are  well  pro- 
vided with  huge  cisterns  and  reeervoirs  of  rain  and 
snow-water.  Addium. 

Ere  guardian  thought  cou'd  bring  its  scattered  aid. 
My  soul  surprized,  and  from  herself  disjoined, 
hm  all  resertx,  and  all  the  sex  behind.  JVior. 

How  I  got  such  notice  of  that  subterranean  reser- 
votary  as  to  make  a  computation  of  the  water  now 
concMled  therein,  peruse  the  propositions  oonoem- 
iM  earthquakes.  WoodtMrd, 

I  must  sive  only  short  hints,  and  write  but  ob- 
scurely and  reservediif,  until  I  have  opportunity  to 
express  my  sentiments  with  greater  copiousness  and 
perspicuity.  Id. 

Each  has  some  darling  lust,  which  pleads  for  a  re- 
terve,  and  which  they  would  fain  reconcile  to  the  ex- 
pectations of  religion.  Rogen. 

He  speaks  reservedly,  but  he  speaks  with  force ; 
Nor  can  a  word  be  changed  but  for  a  worse.   Pope. 

Who  sees  pale  Mammon  pine  amidst  his  store, 
Sees  but  a  backward  stewara  for  the  poor ; 
This  year  aruertmr,  to  keep  and  spare  ; 
I1ie  next,  a  fountain  spouting  through  his  heir.  Id. 

Conceal  your  esteem  and  love  in  your  own  breast, 
and  reeerve  your  kind  looks  and  language  for  private 
hours.  Swift. 

Fame  is  a  bubble  the  reserved  enjoy. 

Who  strive  to  grasp  it,  as  they  touch,  destroy. 

Young. 

Reserve,  or  Corps  de  Reserve,  in  military 
affairs,  the  third  or  last  line  of  an  army,  drawn 
up  for  battle;  so  called  because  they  are  reserved 
to  sustain  the  rest  as  occasion  requires,  and  not 
to  engage  but  in  case  of  necessity. 

A  Reservoir  is  chiefly  used  for  a  place  where 
water  is  collected  and  reserved,  in  order  to  be 
conveyed  to .  distant  places  through  pipes,  or 
supply  a  fountain,  or  jet  d*eau. 

RESETTLE,  v.  a.  Re  and  settle.  To  set- 
tle again. 

Some  roll  their  cask  to  mix  it  vrith  the  lees,  and, 
after  a  resettlement,  they  rack  it.  Mrrtimer. 


To  the  quieting  of  my  passions,  and  the  resettUm 
ment  of  my  discomposed  soul,  I  consider  that  grief 
is  the  most  absurd  of  all  the  passions.  Norris. 

Will  the  house  of  Austria  yield  the  least  article, 
even  of  usurped  prerogative,  to  resettle  the  minds  of 
those  princes  in  the  alliance,  who  are  alarmed  at  the 
consequences  of  the  emperor's  death  ?  Smnji. 

RE'SIANT,  adj.  >     Fr.  resteant.    Resident ; 
Resiance,  ft.  s.  5  present  in  a  place. 
Solvman  was  come  as  far  as  Sophia,  where  the 
Turks*  great  lieutenant  in  Europe  is  always  renm^, 
before  that  the  Hungarians  were  aware.      Ks»Ues. 

The  king  forthwiSi  banished  all  Flemings  out  of 
his  kingdom,  commanding  his  merchant  adventoieis, 
which  had  a  resiance  in  Antwerp,  to  return. 

Bacon's  Henry  ni. 
The  AUobroges  here  reskni  in  Rome. 

Ben  Joneou. 

RESIDE',  V.  n.  ^      Fr.  resider;  Lat.  rendo, 

Res'idence, n. <.  tresideo.    To  have  abode; 

Res'ident,  4  live;   dwell;   also  (from 

Residem'tiart.  Jrmdo)  to  sink;  subside: 
the  derivatives  follow  both  senses. 

Within  the  infant  rind  of  this  small  flower. 
Poison  hath  residenoe,  and  medicine  power. 

Shakspeare.  Romeo  and  Juliet. 

Separation  is  wrought  by  weieht,  as  in  the  ordi- 
nary residence  or  Sjettlement  of  liquors.  Bacon. 

now  can  God  with  such  reside  ?  MiUon. 

Something  holy  lodges  in  that  breast. 
And  with  these  raptures  moves  the  vocal  air. 
To  testify  his  hidden  residence.  Id, 

There  was  a  mat  familiarity  between  the  con- 
fessor and  duke  W  illiam  ;  for  the  confessor  had  oAea 
made  considerable  residences  in  Normandy. 

Hale's  Law  of  ZnAnd. 

Our  clearest  vraters,  and  such  as  seem  sim^  unto 
sense,  are  much  compounded  unto  reason,  as  may 
be  observed  in  the  evaporation  of  water,  wheron, 
besides  a  terreous  residence,  some  salt  id  also  feond. 
JBrowne's  Vulgar  Erreurs. 

Wasps  and  hornets  will  fly  about,  and  use  their 
wings,  a  ffood  part  of  an  hour  after  they  have  lost 
their  beaoi ;  which  is  to  be  imputed  to  the  residente 
of  their  soul  in  them  still,  and  the  intireness  of  the 
animal  spirits  not  easily  evaporating  through  tfa«r 
crustaoeous  bodies. 

More.  The  Immortality  of  the  Sotd,  h.  iL  oh.  xi. 

Christ  was  the  conductor  of  the  Israelites  into  the 
land  of  Canaan,  and  their  residentiarjf  guardian. 

Mare, 

Oil  of  vitriol  and  petroleum,  a  drachm  of  each, 
turn  into  a  mouldy  substance ;  there  residing  in  the 
bottom  a  fair  cloud  and  a  thick  oil  on  the  top. 

In  no  fixed  place  the  h^ipy  souls  reside; 
In  grov^  we  kve,  and  lie  on  mossy  beds.    Drydem. 

1  am  not  concerned  in  this  objection,  not  thinking 
it  necessary  that  Christ  should  be  personally  present 
or  resident  on  earth  in  the  milleniom. 

BumeCs  Theory  of  the  Sarth. 

Caprea  had  been  the  retirement  of  Augustus  for 
some  time,  and  the  residenee  of  Tiberius  for  several 
years.  Addison, 

The  pope  fears  the  English  will  sufo  nothing  like 
a  resident  or  consul  in  his  kingdoms.  Id. 

He  is  not  said  to  be  resident  in  a  place  vrho  comes 
thither  with  a  purpose  of  retiring  immediately ;  so 
also  he  is  said  to  be  absent  who  is  absent  with  his 
family.  AyUJjVs  Pareryen 

RE'SIDUE,  n.  s.  Fr.  residu ;  Lat  rendmat. 
The  remaining  part;  that  which  is  left. 

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Tis  enough  to  lose  the  legacy,  or  the  rmiutirff 

ad?aatages  of  the  estate  left  him  by  the  deceased. 

The  causes  are  all  such  as  expel  the  most  voUtUe 
parts  of  the  blood*  and  fix  the  residue. 

Arbuthrioi  on  Aliments, 

RESIEGE',  v.  a.    Fr.  re  and  siege.    To  seat 
;)gain.    Obsolete. 

In  wretched  prison  long  he  did  remain. 
Till  they  ontreigned  had  their  utmost  date. 

And  then  therein  retieged  was  again, 
And  ruled  long  with  honourable  state.        Spenaer, 

RESIGN',  V.  a.  *)  Fr.  resiner ;  Lat. 
Resign  4'tiox,  n.i.Srw^no.  To  give  up 
Resign'iiest.      '  3  a  claim  or  possession ; 

yield ;  submit ;  give  up  confidence :  the  noun 

substantives  corresponaing. 
Aeeign 

Your  crown  and  kingdom  indirectly  held, 


I'll  to  the  king,  and  signify  to  him 
That  thus  I  have  resigned  to  you  my  charge.       Id, 

Do  that  office  of  thine  own  eood  will ; 
The  rengnaticn  of  thy  state  ana  crown.  Id. 

He  intended  to  procure  ^.resignatum of  the  righii  of 
the  king^s  majesty  s  sisters  and  others,  entitled  to  the 
possession  of  the  crown.  Hayward, 

Phoebus  retignM  his  darts,  and  Jove 
His  thunder,  to  the  god  of  love.  Denham. 

Desirous  to  resign  and  render  back 
All  I  received,  MUton. 

What  more  reasonable  than  that  we  should  in  all 
things  resign  up  ourselves  to  the  will  of  God  ? 

Tilbtsm. 
Happy  the  man  who  studies  nature's  laws. 
His  mind  possessing  in  a  quiet  state, 
Fearless  ot  fortune,  and  resigned  to  fate.      Drgden. 

Those,  who  always  ren^  their  judgment  to  the 
IsCst  roan  they  heard  or  read,  truth  never  ^inks  into 
those  men's  minds ;  but,  cameleon-like,  thi^  take  the 
color  of  what  is  laid  before  them,  and  as  soon  lose 
and  resign  it  to  tjie  next  that  comes  in  their  way. 

Locke. 
There  is  a  kind  of  sluggish  resignation,  as  well  as 
poorness  and  degeneracy  of  spirit,  in  a  state  of  sla- 
very, that  very  few  wiU  recover  themselves  out  of  it. 

Addison. 
Bv'ry  Ismena  would  r«i%>i  fier  breast  ^ 
And  cv'ry  dear  Hippolytus  be  blest.  Prior. 

I         A  firm,  yet  cautious,  mind. 
Sincere,  thou^  prudent ;  constant,  yet  rerigned. 

Pope. 
Thou  Power  Supreme,  whose  mighty  scheme 

These  woes  of  mine  fulfil, 
Here,  firm,  I  rest,  they  must  be  best. 

Because  they  are  Thy  will. 
Then  all  I  want  (Oh !  do  thou  grant 

This  one  request  of  mine !) 
Since  to  enjoy  thou  dost  deny. 

Assist  me  to  resign.  Bums. 

«    And  with  one  prayer  to  Mary  Mother, 
And,  it  may  be,  a  saint  or  two. 
As  I  resigned  me  to  my  fate, 
They  led  me  to  the  castle  gate.  Byron. 

RESILIENCE,  ii.s.^       Lat.  resUio.     The 
Resil'xencY)  n.  s.       S  act  of  starting  or  leap- 
ing back. 

H  you  strike  a  ball  sidelong,  the  rebound  wiU  be 
as  much  the  contrary  way ;  whether  there  be  anv 
such  rttiUenee  in  echoes,  that  is,  whether  a  man  shall 
Wr  better  if  he  stand  aside  Uie  body  repercussing, 
than  if  he  stand  where  he  speaketh,  may  be  tried. 
Baeon*s  Natural  History, 


RESIN,  fi.  f.  )  Fr.  resine;  Lat.  retma. 
.  Res'inous,  adf.  S  The  hX  sulphurous  parts  of 
vegetables:  resinoas,  containing  ram;  consist- 
ing of  resin. 

Those  vegetable  substances  that  will  dissolve  in 
water  are  gums,  those  that  will  not  dissolve  and  mix 
but  with  spirits  or  oil  are  resins.  Quiney. 

Reeiwms  gums,  dissolved  in  spirit  of  wine,  are  let 
fell  again  if  the  sjnrit  be  copiously  (tiluted. 

Boyle  on  CoUmrs. 

Resih,  in  natural  history,  a  viscid  mice  oozing 
either  spontaneously,  or  by  incision,  from  several 
trees,  as  the  pine,  fir,  &c.  Resins  are  distin- 
guished from  gums  by  being  inflammable,  and 
soluble  only  in  ardent  spirits. 

RfisiM.  The  name  resin  is  used  to  denote 
solid  inflammable  substances,  of  Tegetable  origin, 
soluble  in  alcohol,  usually  affording  much  soot 
by  their  combustion.  They  are  likewise  soluble 
in  oib,  but  not  at  all  in  water ;  and  are  more  or 
less  acted  upon  by  the  alkalis. 

All  the  resins  appear  to  be  simple  Tolatile  oils, 
rendered  concrete  by  their  combination  with 
oxygen.  The  exposure  of  these  to  the  open  air, 
and  the  decomposition  of  acids  applied  to  them, 
evidently  lead  to  this  conclusion. 

There  are  some  among  the  known  resins  which 
are  very  pure,  and  perfiectly  soluble  in  alcohol, 
such  as  the  balsam  of  Mecca  and  of  capivi,  tur- 
pentines, elemi,  &c.;  others  are  less  pure,  and 
contain  a  small  portion  of  extract,  which  renders 
them  not  totally  soluble  in  alcohol;  such  are 
mastic,  sandarach,  guaiacum,  labdanum,  and 
dragon's  blood. 

What  is  most  generally  known  by  the  name 
of  resin  simply,  or  sometimes  of  yellow  rosin, 
is  the  residuum  left  after  distilling  the  essential 
oil  from  turpentine.  If  this  be  urged  by  a 
stronger  fire,  a  thick  balsam,  of  a  dark  reddish 
color,  called  balsam  of  turpentine,  comes  over ; 
and  the  residuum,  which  is  rendered  blackish, 
is  called  black  resin,  or  colophony.  See  Cnucis- 
TRY,  Index. 

Resins  are  employed  for  many  purposes  in 
the  arts.  The  cheapest  are  used  for  torches,  and 
to  cover  the  outsiaes  of  ships  and  boats.  The 
fine  transparent  resins  compose  varnishes.  Some 
of  them  are  employed  medicinally,  and  enter 
into  the  composition  of  ointments  and  plasters ; 
or  internally,  as  the  resins  of  scammony  and 
jalap,  which  are  purgative.  Other  resins,  as 
beniamin  and  storax,  are  employed  as  perfumes. 

Iney  all  become  harder  by  exposure  to  a 
moderate  heat;  and  it  is  upon  this  that  the  ait  of 
the  jananner  depends.  If  the  surface  to  be  ja- 
panned be  covered  with  common  tar  only,  and 
exposed  to  the  temperature  of  300"  for  a  length 
of  time,  the  coating  becomes  hard  and  infusible. 
At  the  same  temperature,  any  other  resin,  ap- 
plied in  the  same  way,  vvould  assume  a  similar 
hardness. 


RESIST,  V.  a.  &n.<. 
Resist^ ANCE,  or 

RESIsfENCE,  n.  s. 

Resistibil'ity,  n.  i. 
Resisi^ible,  adj. 

RESISyLESS. 


Fr.  res'uter;  Lat. 
resitio.  To  oppose; 
act  against :  make 
opposition :  resist- 
ance, or  resistence,  is 
J  the  act ;  resistibility. 


the  quality  or  power  of  resisting :  the  adjective 
corresponding. 


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Submit  to  God,  resist  the  devil,  and  he  will  f]ee. 

James  ix. 

Demetrius,  teeing  that  the  land  was  quiet,  and  that 
BO  ntisUmoe  -was  made  agttint  him,  sent  away  all  his 
forces.  1  Moo, 

All  the  regions 
Do  seemingly  ravolt ;  and,  who  rwwt. 
Are  mocked  for  valiant  ignorance, 
And  perish  constant  fools.    Shaktpeare,  CorioUmm* 

Our  own  eyes  do  every  where  behold  the  sudden 
and  resUtleu  assaults  of  death.  Raleigh, 

The  resiMtanee  of  bone  to  cold  is  greater  than  of 
flesh  ;  for  that  the  flesh  shrinketh,  but  the  bone  rv- 
tisteth,  whereby  the  cold  becometh  more  eager. 


It  is  from  corruption,  and  liberty  to  do  evil,  meet- 
ing with  the  retUtibitity  of  this  siiificient  grace,  that 
one  retitU  it.  Hamnumd, 

To  do  ill  our  sole  delight. 

As  being  the  contrary  to  his  high  will 

Whom  we  resist,  MiUon, 

All  at  once  to  force  resistless  way.  Id, 

That  is  irresistible  ;  this,  though  potent,  yet  is  in 
its  own  nature  resistible  by  the  will  of  man ;  though 
it  many  times  prevails  by  its  efficacy. 

Hale*s  Origin  of  hfanhind. 

Whether  the  resistibiiity  of  Adam's  reason  did  not 
equivalence  the  facility  of  Eve's  seduction,  we  refer 
unto  schoolmen.  Browne, 

Music  so  Bof^ns  and  disarms  the  mind. 
That  not  an  arrow  does  remtanee  find.  Waller. 

She  changed  her  state  ; 
Resietless  in  her  love  as  in  her  hate.  Drjfden, 

The  idea  of  solidity  we  receive  by  our  touch,  and 
it  arises  from  the  resistance  which  we  find  in  body  to 
the  entrance  of  any  other  body  into  the  place  it  pos- 
sesses. Locke, 

The  name  body,  being  the  complex  idea  of  exten- 
sion and  resistibility,  together,  in  the  same  subject, 
these  two  ideas  are  not  exactly  one  and  the  same. 

Id, 

But  that  part  of  the  resistance  which  arises  from 
the  vis  inertMB  is  proportional  to  the  density  of  the 
matter,  and  cannot  be  diminished  by  dividing  the 
matter  into  smaller  parts,  nor  by  any  other  means 
than  by  decreasing  the  density  of  the  medium. 

Newton's  Optics, 

Though  thine  eyes  resistless  glances  dart, 
A  stronger  charm  is  thine,  a  generous  heart.  Legie, 

Some  forms,  tho'  bright,  no  mortal  man  can  bear. 
Some  none  resist,  though  not  exceeding  fair. 

Young, 

RESOLVE',  V.  a.,  r.ll.&fl.l.^     Lat.  retolvo. 

Resol'vedly,  adv. 

Resol'vxpness,  n.  s, 

Resolv'ent,  n.s. 

Resolv'er. 

fix;  dissolve;  ipelt ;  rednce:  as  a  verb  neuter,  to 
determine;  be  settled  or  dissolved:  resolve  is 
fixed  determination :  the  derivatives  correspond 
with  these  senses. 

In  all  tilings  then  are  our  consciences  best  resolved, 
and  in  most  agreeable  sort  unto  God  and  nature  re- 
sohedf  when  they  are  so  far  persuaded  as  those 
grounds  of  persuasion  will  bear.  Hooker, 

Give  me  some  breath. 
Before  I  positively  speak  in  this ; 
I  will  resolve  your  grace  immediately.     S^ioibpeDre. 
Long  since  we  were  resolned  of  your  truth. 

Your  faithful  service,  and  your  toil  in  war.     Id, 
Have  I  not  hideous  death  within  my  view? 

Retainina  but  a  quantity  of  life, 

Which  bleeds  away,  even  as  a  form  of  wax 

Resoltfelh  from  its  figure  'gainst  the  fite  "i  *       Id, 


I'm  glad  you  thus  continue  your  f 
To  suck  the  sweets  of  sweet  phiioscmby.  id. 

He  always  bent  himself  rather  jndicionsly  to  re- 
solve,  than  by  doubts  to  perplex  a  business. 

Uajfwatd,. 
I  resolve  the  riddle  of  their  loyalty,  and  give  them 
opportunity  to  let  the  world  see  they  mean  not  what 
they  do,  but  what  they  say.  King  Charles. 

This  resolvedness,  this  hieh  fortitude  in  sin,  can 
with  no  reason  be  imagined  a  preparative  to  its  re- 
mission. Decay  of  Piety. 
Good  or  evil  actions,  commanded  or  prohibitedby 
laws  and  precepts  simply  moral,  may  be  reeohed  into 
some  dictates  and  nnnciples  of  the  law  of  nature, 
imprinted  on  man's  heart  at  the  creation.  While. 
Thy  resolutions  were  not  before  sincere ;  conse- 
quently God,  that  saw  that,  cannot  be  thought  to 
have  justified  that  unsincere  resolver,  that  dead  faith. 

Hammond. 
When  he  sees 
Himself  by  dogs,  and  dogs  by  men  pursued. 
He  strait  revokes  his  bold  resolves,  and  more 
Repents  his  courage,  than  his  fear  before. 

Denhaiu. 
Good  proof 
This  day  afiTords,  declaring  thee  resohed 
To  undergo  with  me  one  ?uilt.  MUtou. 

The  eflect  is  wonderful  in  all,  and  the  causes  best 
resolvable  from  observations  made  in  the  countries 
themselves,  the  parts  through  which  they  pass. 

JSroictie'e  Vulgar  Emmrs, 
Into  what  can  we  resohe  this  strong  inclination  of 
mankind  to  this  error  t  it  is  altogether  unimaginable 
but  that  the  reason  of  so  univerul  a  consent  should 
be  constant.  Tillotson. 

Three  is  not  precisely  the  number  of  the  distinct 
elements  whereinto  mixt  bodies  are  resoluble  l^  fire. 

BoifU. 
Resehe  me,  strangers,  whence  and  what  you  are  ? 

J}rifdtn. 
•     I  run  to  meet  the  alarms. 
Resolved  on  death,  resolved  to  die  in  arms.    Id. 
Ye  immortal  souls,  who  once  vrere  men. 
And  now  resolved  to  elements  again.  Id. 

Let  men  resolve  of  that  as  they  please :  this  eveiy 
intelligent  being  must  grant,  that  there  is  something 
that  is  in  himself  that  he  would  have  happy. 

Locke. 
A  man  may  be  resolvedly  patient  unto  death ;  so 
that  it  is  not  the  mediocrity  of  resolution  which 
makes  the  virtue;  nor  the  extremity  which  makes  the 
vice.  Grew, 

Pride  is  of  such  intimate  connection  vrith  ingrati- 
tude, that  the  actions  of  ingratitude  seem  directly  re 
whabU  into  pride,  as  the  principal  reason  of  them. 

South. 

CsBsar's  approach  hath  summoned  us  together. 
And  Rome  attends  her  fate  from  our  resolves. 

Addison. 

Happiness,  it  was  resolved  by  all,  must  be  some 
one  uniform  end,  proportioned  to  the  capacities  of 
human  nature^  attainaole  by  eveiy  man,  independent 
of  fortune.  Rogers,  * 

As  the  seram  of  the  blood  is  retohabU  by  a  small 
heat,  a  greater  heat  coagulates  it,  so  as  to  tarn  it 
homy  like  parchment.  ArbittknM. 

Resolving  is  bringinff  a  fluid,  which  is  now  con- 
creted, into  the  state  of  floidity  again.  Id. 

When  the  blood  stagnates  in  any  part,  it  first  co- 
agulates, then  resobses  and  turns  alkaline."'        Id. 

Lactescent  plants,  as  Lettuce  and  endive,  contain 
wholesome  juice,  reeohent  of  the  bile,  anodyne  and 
cooling.  Id, 

No  man  condemn  me  who  has  never  felt 

A  woman's  power,  or  tried  the  force  of  love  ; 


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All  tempers  yield  and  soften  in  those  fires, 
Our  honours,  interests,  resolved  down, 
Run  in  the  gentle  current  of  our  jovs.   Southern, 
In  the  beginning  of  indammation  they  require  re- 
pellents ;  and,  in  the  increase,  somewhat  of  retolvenii 
ought  to  be  mixed.  Wiseman. 

The  decretals  turn  upon  this  point,  and  resolve  all 
into  a  monarchical  power  at  Rome.  Baker, 

RESOLUTE,  adj,    >     Tt.  retolu.     Firm; 

Res'olutely,  arfi?.      t  determined;     fixed; 

ResToluteness,  n.  s.  i  constant :   the  adverb 

Res'olution.  J  and  noun  substantives 

corresponding :  resolution  is  also  the  act  of  clear- 
ing or  analysing  difficulties :  dissolution. 

The  rest  of  the  Helots,  which  were  otherwise  scat- 
tered, bent  thitherward  with  a  new  life  of  resolution ; 
as  if  their  captain  had  been  a  root,  out  of  which  their 
courase  had  sprung.  Sidntg. 

Bel>loody,  oold,  and  resolute;  laugh  to  scorn 
The  power  of  man ;  for  none  of  woman  bom 
Shall  harm  Macbeth.  ShaJupeare. 

V  the'  progress  of  this  business. 
Ere  a  determmate  resolution^ 
The  bishop  did  require  a  respite.  Id. 

O  Lord,  resotutions  of  future  reforming  do  not  al- 
ways satisfy  thy  justice,  nor  prevent  thy  vengeance 
for  former *miscamages.  King  Charles. 

In  the  hot  springs  of  extreme  cold  countries,  the 
first  heats  are  unsuflerable,  which  proceed  out  of  the 
resolution  of  humidity  congealed.  I^igh* 

They,  who  governed  the  parliament,  had  the  reso- 
lution to  act  those  monstrous  thin^.         Clarendon, 

What  reinforcement  we  may  gain  from  hope. 
If  not  what  resolution  from  despair.  Milton. 

To  the  present  impulses  of  sense,  memory,  and  in- 
stinct, all  the  sagacities  of  brutes  may  be  reduced ; 
though  witty  men,  by  analytical  resolution,  have 
chymically  extracted  an  artificial  logick  out  of  all 
their  actions.  Hale. 

In  matters  of  antiquity,  if  their  originals  escape 
due  relation,  they  fedl  into  ereat  obscurities,  and 
such  as  future  ages  seldom  reduce  into  a  resolution. 

Browne. 
We  retolvJUljf  must. 
To  the  few  virtues  that  we  have,  bejust 

nttscMMBnon. 
All  that  my  tew^titenMi  to  make  use  of  my  ears, 
not  tongue,  could  do,  vras  to  make  them  acquiesce. 

Boyk. 
A  nan,  who  lives  a  virtuous  life,  despises  the 
tleasures  of  sin ;  and,  notwithstanding  all  the  al- 
arements  of  sense,  persists  resolutely  in  his  course. 

Tillotson, 
The  unravelline  and  resolmtion  of  the  difficulties 
that  are  met  with  ra  the  execution  of  the  design,  are 
the  end  of  au  action.  Ihydon. 

We  spend  our  days  in  deliberating,  and  we  end 
them  without  coming  to  any  remlulMm.  VEsHrange. 

How  much  this  is  in  every  man's  power,  by 
Bsking  fVMliUiofw  to  himself,  is  easy  to  try.  Loe^. 
^  The  mode  of  the  will,  which  answers  to  dubita- 
tion,may  &  called  suspension ;  that  which  answers  to 
invention,  reudkaioni  and  that  which,  in  the  phan- 
tastick  viill,  is  obstinacy,  is  constancy  in  the  intel- 
lectual. Gfw. 
Some  of  those  facts  he  examines,  some  he  reso» 
lutely  denies;  others  he  endeavours  to  extenuate, 
uid  the  rest  ba  distorts,  with  unnatural  turns. 

Swift. 

Resolution,  in  medicine  and  surgery,  the 
<liaappearing  of  any  tumor  without  coming  to 
•umiuration,  or  forming  an  abscess. 

RESOLUTION  Bay,  a  bay  on  the  west  coast  of 


Id 


St.  Christina,  one  of  the  Marquesas  Islands,  ia 
the  South  Pacific,  has  sometimes  been  called  the 
Port  of  Mendana.  It  was  discovered  by  that 
Spanish  circumnavigator  in  1595;  and,  as  well 
as  the  islands,  received  his  name.  It  obtained 
the  name  of  Resolution  Bay,  in  consequence  of 
captain  Cook's  anchoring  there  the  7th  of  April, 
1774,  in  his  second  voyage.  The  country  is  well 
inhabited.  Along  the  top  of  the  hill  to  the  north, 
which  seems  steep,  appear  villages  enclosed  by 
palisadoes.  The  valleys  in  this  bay  are  full  of 
trees.    Long.  139*^  8'  W.,  lat.  g**  55'  S. 

RES'ONANCE,  n.  1.  LaX.  resono.  Sound; 
resound. 

His  volant  touch 

Fled  and  pursued  transverse  the  resonant  fugue. 

Milton. 

An  anient  musician  informed  me  that  there  were 
some  famous  lutes  that  attained  not  their  full  season- 
ing and  best  resonance,  till  they  were  about  fourscore 
years  old.  Boyle. 

RESORr,  V.  n.  &  n.  s.  Ft.  ressortir;  Qu. 
Lat.  sortioTf  to  decide  by  lot?  To  have  re- 
course ;  appeal ;  hence  go  or  repair  to  ;  fall  back 
to :  act  ot  visiting ;  concourse ;  assembly. 

A  little  lowlv  hermitage  it  was, 
Downe  in  a  dale,  hard  by  a  forest's  side. 
Far  from  resort  of  people  that  did  pass 
In  traveil  to  and  froe.  Spenser.  Faerie  Queene. 

Join  with  me  to  forbid  him  her  resort.     Shakspeare. 

Some  know  the  resorts  and  falls  of  business,  that 
cannot  sink  into  the  main  of  it.  Baton. 

In  the  very  tiine  of  Moses'  law,  when  God's  spe- 
cial oommandments  were  most  of  all  required,  some 
festival  days  were  ordained,  and  dulv  observed  among 
the  Jews,  by  authority  of  the  church  and  state,  and 
the  same  was  not  superstitious ;  for  our  Saviour  him* 
self  resorted  unto  them.  White, 

The  king  thought  it  time  to  resort  to  other  coun- 
sels, and  to  provide  force  to  chastise  them,  who  had 
so  much  despised  all  his  gentler  remedies. 

Clarendon. 
The  sons  of  light 

Hasted,  retorted  to  the  summons  high.     Milton. 

The  inheritance  of  the  son  never  resorted  to  the 
mother  or  to  any  of  her  ancestors,  but  both  were 
totally  excluded  from  the  succession.  Hale. 

In  fortune's  empire  blindly  thus  we  go, 
We  wander  after  pathless  destiny, 

Whose  dark  resorts  since  prudence  cannot  know. 
In  vain  it  would  provide  for  what  shall  he. 

Dryden. 

Hither  the  heroes  and  the  nymphs  resort.    Pope. 

llie  like  places  of  resort  are  frequented  by  me  i 
out  of  place.  Saift. 

RESOUND*,  V.  a.  Fr.  resoimer ;  Lat.  resono. 
To  echo;  sound  back;  return  as  sound,  or  cele- 
brate in  sound ;  be  edioed  back. 

The  sweet  singer  of  Israel  with  his  osallery  loudly 
resounded  the  innumerable  benefiu  ot  the  Almighty 
Creator.  Peacham. 

With  other  echo  late  I  taught  your  shades, 
To  answer  and  resound  far  other  song.      Milton. 

The  sound  of  hymns,  wherewith  thy  throne 
Incompassed,  shall  resound  thee  ever  blest.      Id, 
What  resounds  in  fable  or  romance  of  Uther's  sons. 

Id. 
What  is  common  fame,  which  sounds  from  all 
quarters  of  the  world,  and  resounds  back  to  them 
again,  but  generally  a  loud,  rattling,  impudent  lye. 

South. 
And  Albion'    ^ifls  reeound  the  rural  lay.    Pope 


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The  man  for  wisdom's  Yftrious  arts  renowned. 
Long  exercised  in  woes,  oh  muse !  mound.        Id, 

RESOURCE';  n.s.  Fr.  reuource;  Skiimer 
dttiyes  it  from  Fr.  resoudrCf  to  spring  up ;  Lat. 
re  and  sort.  Thomson.  Some  new  or  unexpected 
means  that  offer;  resort;  expedient. 

Pallas  viewed 
Hb  foes  pursving,  and  his  frieods  punucd  ; 
Used  threatnings,  mixed  with  prayers,  his  last  re- 
source; 
IVtdi  these  to  move  their  minds,  with  those  to  fire 
their  force.  Dryden. 

RESO  W,  v.  a.    Re  and  sow.  To  sow  anew. 

Over  wet  at  sowing  time  breedeth  much  dearth, 
insomuch  as  they  are  forced  to  mow  summer  com. 

Baeon. 

RESPEAK',  V.  n.  Re  and  speak.  To  an- 
swer. 

The  great  cannon  to  the  clouds  shall  tell. 
And  the  king's  rowse  the  heaven  shall  bruit  again, 
Retpeaking  earthly  thunder.      Skakspean.  Hamltt, 

RESPECr,  V.  o.  &  ».  s.^     French  retpecter ; 

Rbspec'table,  a<$.  Lat.  rtfpectvs.    To 

Respecter, n. s.  regard;  have  rela- 

RESPEct'FUL,  ad§.  }  tion    to;    look  to- 

Respect'fully,  adt7.       jward;  regard  with 

Respect'fulness,  n.  t.       esteem     or     reve- 

Respec'tive,  adj.  rence :   as  a  noun- 

Respec'tivelt,  adv,  J  substantive,  atten- 
tion; regard;  honor;  consideration;  relation; 
venerated  character :  respectable,  venerable :  re- 
specter, one  who  has  partial  respect  or  regard  : 
respectful,  attentive ;  ceremonious ;  manifesting 
a  aegree  of  reverence:  the  adverb  and  noun 
substantive  corresponding:  respective,  particu- 
lar-; relative;  wortny  of  reverence;  careful  (the 
last  two  senses  obsolete) :  and  the  adverb  cor- 
responding. 

The  Lord  had  respect  unto  Abel  and  his  ofiering. 

Getiesis* 

It  is  not  good  to  have  retpeet  of  persons  in  judg- 
ment. Proverbs, 

There  is  nothing  more  terrible  to  a  guilty  heart 
than  Ihe  eye  of  a  rtspeeted  fiiend.  Sdnatf, 

Whatsoever  seciet  respeets  were  likely  to  mova 
them,  for  contenting  of  their  minds,  Calvin  returned. 

Hooker, 

Respective  and  wary  men  bad  rather  seek  quietly 
their  own,  and  wish  that  the  worst  may  go  well,  so 
it  be  not  lonff  of  them,  than  with  pain  and  hazard 
make  themselves  advisers  for  the  common  good. 

Id. 

Among  the  ministen  themselves,  one  being  so  far 

in  estimation  above  the  rest,  the  voices  of  the  rest 

were  likely  to  be  given  for  the  most  part  respectivelff 

with  a  kind  of  secret  dependency.  Id, 

Claudio,  I  quake, 

Lest  thou  should'st  seven  winters  more  respect 

Than  a  perpetual  honour.  ShJupeare, 

Yott  have  too  much  respect  upon  the  world ; 

They  lose  it  that  do  buy  it  with  much  care.    Id* 

Many  of  the  best  respect  in  Rome, 
Groaning  under  this  age's  yoke. 
Have  wished  that  noble  Brutus  had  his  eyes.      Xi. 
Since  that  t^si^mcIs  of  fortune  are  his  love, 
shall  not  be  his  wife.  Id»  King  Leau 

What  should  it  be,  that  he  respects  in  her. 

Bat  I  can  make  respeetiee  in  myself?  Shakspeare, 

Honest  Flaminiuft,  you  are  very  respeeHfody  wel- 
come, /d. 

If  there  had  been  no  other  choice,  but  that  Adam 
had  been  left  to  the  universal,  Moses  would  not  then 


have  said,  eastward  in  Eden,  seeing  the  world  hath 
not  East  nor  West,  but  respectnely.  Raleigh, 

He  was  exceedinglv  respective  and  predae.  Id. 

In  orchards  and  gardens  we  do  not  so  much  re- 
spect beauty,  as  vanety  of  ground  for  fruits,  trees^ 
and  herbs.  Bacon. 

You  must  use  them  with  fit  respects,  according  to 
the  bonds  of  nature ;  but  you  are  of  kin  to  ^eir 
persons,  not  errors.  Id, 

The  impressions  from  the  objects  of  the  senses  do 
mingle  respectivefy  every  one  with  his  kind. 

Bacon's  Natural  History. 
The  blest  gods  do  not  love    . 
Unffodly  actions ;  but  respect  the  right. 
And  in  the  works  of  pious  men  delight.    Chapman. 

The  duke's  carriag^  was  to  the  gentlemen  of  fair 
respect,  and  bountiful  to  the  soldier,  according  to  any 
special  value  which  he  spied  in  any. 

Wotton*s  BuekinghaM. 

There  have  been  always  monsters  amongst  them,  in 

fpect  of  their  bodies.  TVHJkins. 

Palladins  adviseth,  the  front  of  his  house  should 
so  respect  the  South,  that  in  the  first  angle  it  receive 
the  rising  rays  of  the  winter  sun,  and  d^Une  a  little 
from  Uie  winter  setting  thereof.  Bnncne. 

I  have  irapresented  to  yon  the  excellency  of  the 
Christian  religion,  in  respect  of  its  clear  diacovenes 
of  the  nature  of  God,  and  in  respect  of  the  perfection 
of  iU  laws.  TUUftsen. 

In  judgment-seats,  not  men's  qualities,  but  causes 
only  ought  to  be  respected.  Kettkwortk, 

To  your  glad  genius  sacrifice  this  day. 
Let  common  meats  respectfully  give  way.     Dryden, 

i£neas  must  be  drawn  a  suppliant  to  Dido,  with 
respect  in  his  gestures,  and  humility  in  his  eyes. 

Id.    Dt^TBSIUtf. 

He  that  will  have  his  son  have  a  respect  for  lum, 
must  have  a-  great  reverence  for  his  son.         Ledte. 

Whoever  tastes,  let  him  with  gratefid  heart 
Respect  that  ancient  loyal  house.  Pks^. 

The  same  men  treat  the  Lord's  Day  with  as  little 
respect,  and  make  the  advantage  of  test  and  leisure 
from  their  worldly  afifairs  only  an  instnunent  to  pro- 
mote their  pleasure  and  diversions.  Nelson. 

Good  and  evil  are  in  noralibr,  as  the  East  and 
West  aw  in  the  fnowof  the  wodd,  fswidfld  in  and 
divided  by  that  fixed  and  unalterable  situiioft  whnb 
they  have  respeetivdy  in  the  whole  body  of  the  nni. 
verse.  SoMs  fimwM. 

The  principles  of  those  governments  are  respeethely 
disclaimed  and  abhorred  by  all  men  of  sense  and 
virtue  in  both  parties.  Addieesi. 

1  found  the  king  abandoned  to  neglect ; 
Seen  without  awe,  and  served  without  mpset. 


Will  ^ou  be  only,  and  for  ever  minet 
From  this  dear  bosom  shall  I  ne'er  be  toni  I 
Or  you  grow  cold*  respec^,  or  fbnwom  t  id. 

The  medium  intended  is  not  an  absotote,  bat  a 
respective  medium ;  the  proportion  recommended  to 
all  is  the  same :  but  the  thmgs  to  be  desired  in  this 
proportion  will  vary.  Rogers. 

I  always  loved  smd  respected  Sir  William,  ^syi. 

Neither  is  any  condition  more  honoarabk  in  the 
sight  of  God  than  another ;  otherwise  he  would  be  a 
respecter  of  persons ;  (or  he  hath  proposed  the  same 
salvation  to  all.  Id. 

RESPIRE',  v.n.  Fr.  res^rtr;  Lat.  re^firv. 
To  breathe;  catch  breath:  hence  to  pause; 
rest. 

Till  breathless  both  themselves  aside  retire. 
Where  foaminff  wrath,  their  cmel  tusks  they  whet» 
And  trample  the'  eaith  tlie  whiles  they  may  respirt^ 

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ApoUonius  of  Tyaoa  affirmed  that  the  ebbing  and 
flowing  of  the  sea  was  the  re^intion  of  the  world, 
drawing  in  water  as  breath,  and  putting  it  forth 
again.  Baeon, 

Syrups  or  other  expectoratives  do  not  advantage  in. 
coughs,  by  slipping  down  between  the  epiglottis ; 
for»  as  I  instanced  wfore,  that  must  necessarify  occa- 
,  sion  a  greater  cough  and  difficulty  of  re$piration. 

Harvey  On  ContumptuHU. 

I,  a  prisoner  chained,  scarce  freelv  draw 
The  air  imprisoned  also,  close  and  damp. 
Unwholesome  draught ;  but  here  I  feel  amends. 
The  breath  of  heaven  firesh  blowing,  pare,  and  sweet. 
With  day-ipiing  born ;  here  leave  me  to  respire, 

Jft/ton. 
Till  the  day 

Appear  of  retpiration  to  the  just, 

And  vengeance  to  the  wicked.  Jd. 

The  ladies  gasped,  and  scarcely  could  respire  ; 
The  breath  they  drew  no  longer  air  but  fire.  Drifden' 

The  author  of  nature  foreknew  the  necessity  of 
rains  and  dews  to  the  present  structure  of  plants, 
and  the  uses  of  reBpirati4m  to  animals ;  and  therefore 
created  those  correspondent  properties  in  the  atmo- 
sphere. Beutley's  Semums. 

Hark !  he  strikes  the  eolden  lyre ; 
And  see !  the  tortured  ghosts  respire. 
See  shady  forms  advance.  Pcpe*s  8t.  Cecilia. 

Respiration.  See  Anatomy  and  Physiology* 
Thoueh  the  muscles  of  respiration,  having  a 
mixed  motion,  are  in  some  measure  dependent 
on  the  will,  yet  no  human  being,  after  having 
once  respired,  can  live  many  moments  without 
it.  In  an  attempt  to  hold  one's  breath,  the 
blood  soon  besins  to  distend  the  veins,  which 
cannot  empty  tbeir  contents  into  the  heart,  and 
^e  are  able  only  during  a  very  little  time  to  re- 
sist the  stiiBulus  to  inspiration.  In  drownine, 
the  ciiciilatioa  seems  to  be  stopped  upon  this 
principle ;  and,  in  hanging,  the  pressure  made  on 
the  jugular  veins  co-operates  with  the  stoppage 
of  respiration  in  bringing  on  death  Amphibious 
animals  respire  by  means  of  lungs :  but  they  can 
suspend  their  motion  even  whilst  they  are  in  the 
air;  as  has  been  observed  with  regard  to  frogs, 
vhich  stop  their  respiration  at  pleasure.  See 
Physiology. 

RES'PITE,  n.  s.  &  v.  a.  Fr.  respit  Reprieve ; 
suspension  of  a  capital  sentence;  pause:  to  sus- 
pend ;  delay ;  relieve  by  delay. 

The  fox  then  counselled  the'  ape  for  to  rftpiire 
Retptfe  till  morrow  to  answer  his  desire.      Spenser. 
^  This  customary  war,  which  troubleth  all  the  world, 
giveth  little  respite  or  breathinff  time  of  peace,  doth 
usually  borrow  pretence  from  the  necessity,  to  make 
itself  appear  more  honest.  Raleiifh, 

Sonie  pause  and  respite  only  I  require, 
Till  with  my  tears  I  shall  have  quenched  my  fire. 

Denhmn, 

An  act  passed  for  the  satisfaction  of  the  officers 
of  the  king's  army,  by  which  they  were  promised  pay- 
°*^t  in  November  following ;  till  which  time  they 
^^  to  retpiie  it*  and  be  contented  that  the  common 
soldiers  and  inferior  officers  should  be  satisfied  upon 
^^  disbanding.  Clarendon, 

,         I  had  a  hone  to  spend 
Quiet,  though  sad,  tue  respite  of  that  day. 
That  must  he  mortal  to  us  both.  Milton, 

In  what  bower  or  shade 
Tliough  find*st  him,  from  the  heat  of  noon  retired, 
To  rtspitt  his  day-labour  with  repast. 
Or  with  repose.  id.  Paradise  Lost. 


643  RES 

Wisdom  and  eloquence  in  vain  would  plead 
lh<ad; 


One  moment's  respite  for  the  learned  L .__ 
Judges  of  writings  and  of  men  have  died. 

RESPLEN'DENT,  ndj.j  Utm  resplendent. 

Resplen'dently,  a(2v.      > Bright;    shining : 

Resplen'dency,  n.  s.  j  lustrous :  the  noun 
substantive  corresponding. 

There  all  within  full  rich  arrayed  he  found, 
With  royal  arras  and  resplendent  gold.        Spenser. 

The  ancient  electrum  had  in  it  a  fi(th  of  silver  to 
the  gold,  and  made  a  compound  metal,  as  fit  for 
most  uses  as  gold,  and  more  resplendent^       Bacon, 

Rich  in  commodities,  beautiful  in  situation,  reic 
plendent  in  all  gloiy.  Camden's  Remains. 

Son  !  thou  in  whom  my  glory  I  behold 
In  full  resplendence,  heir  of  all  my  might.    Milton, 

Empress  of  this  fair  world,  resplendent  Eve !   Id, 

To  neglect  that  supreme  resplendancy  that  shines 
in  God,  for  those  dun  representations  of  it  in  the 
creature,  is  as  absurd  as  it  were  for  a  Persian  to 
offer  his  sacrifice  to  a  parhelion  instead  of  adoring. 

Bojfle. 

Every  body  looks  most  splendid  and  luminous  in 
the  liaht  of  iu  own  colour ;  cmnaber  in  the  homo- 
geneal  light  is  most  respkndeni,  in  the  green  light  it 
IS  manifestly  less  resplendent,  in  the  blue  light  still 
less-  Newton's  Opticlu. 

Resplendent  brass  and  more  resplendent  dames. 

Pope. 


French  retpondre  ; 
Lat.  respondeo.  To 
answer ;  correspond : 
a  respondent  is  he 
^who  tormally  or  le- 
gally answers  in  a 
recitation  dispute  or ' 
suit:    response,  the 


RESPONiy,  ti.  -         "^ 

Respon'dent,  n.  s 

Response', 

Respon'sible,  at^. 

Respon'si  blen  ess,  n,  s. 

Respq^'sion^ 

Respon'sivb,  (I(^'. 

Respom'sory. 
answer  made :  responsible  is,  answerable ;  ac- 
countable ;  capable  of  giving  answer  or  satisfac- 
tion ;  pecuniarily  competent :  the  noun-substantive 
corresponding:  responsion,  the  act  of  answering 
(not  used)  :  responsive,  madcing  answer ;  corres- 
ponding :  responsory,  containing  answer. 

The  oracles,  which  had  before  flourished,  began 
to  droop,  and,  from  giving  responses  in  verse,  descended 
to  prose,  and  within  a  while  were  utterly  silenced. 

Hammond, 

Heathens,  who  have  certainly  the  talent  of  natural 
knowledee,  are  responsible  for  it.  Id. 

How  becominglv  does  Philopolis  exercise  his  of- 
fice, and  seasonably  commit  the  opponent  with  the 
respondent,  like  a  long  practised  moderator  1   More, 

The  necessity  of  a  proportion  of  money  to  trade 
depends  on  money  as  a  pledge,  which  writing  cannot 
supply  the  place  of  ;  since  the  bill  I  receive  from 
one  man  will  not  be  accepted  as  security  by  another, 
he  not  knowing  that  the  Vill  is  legal,  or  that  the  man 
bound  is  honest  or  responsibU,  loohe. 

In  giring  an  answer,  the  respondent  should  be  in 
court,  and  personally  admonisned  by  the  judge  to 
answer  the  judge's  interrogation. 

AyUjfe*s  Parer§on, 

A  certificate  is  a  responnve  letter,  or  letter  by  way 
of  answer.  Id. 

Mere  natural  piety  has  taught  men  to  recmve  the 
responses  of  the  gods  with  all  possible  veneration. 
Oeoemment  of  the  Tongue, 

He  as  much  satisfies  the  itch  of  telling  news ;  he 
as  much  persuades  his  hearers;  and  all  this  while  he 
hal  his  retreat  secure,  and  stands  not  responsible  for 
the  truth  of  his  relations.  Id. 


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I'o  make  hit  parishioMrs  kneel  and  join  in  the 
'Vipmm,  he  gave  every  one  of  them  a  hauock  and 
common  prayer  book.  AddUon. 

Sing  of  love  and  gay  deure, 
Hespotuive  to  the  warbling  lyre.        Fenton, 
Be  there  Demodocus  the  bard  of  fame, 
Taught  bv  the  gods  to  please,  when  high  he  sings 
The  vocal  lay  retpcmshe  to  the  strings.  Pope. 

To  every  theme  responds  thy  various  lay  ; 
Here  rolls  a  torrent,  there  meanders  play. 

Broome. 
Let  the  rnpondent  not  turn  opponent ;  except  in 
retorting  the  argument  upon  his  adversary  after  a  di- 
rect response ;  and  even  this  is  allowed  i>nly  as  a  con- 
firmation of  his  own  response.  Watts. 

RESSIUS  (Rutger),  a  learned  professor  of 
Greek  at  Louvain,  of  the  sixteenth  century. 
Erasmus  gives  him  a  bigb  character,  lie  pub- 
lished many  >vorks,  particularly  a  correct  edition 
of  the  Aphorisms  of  Hippocrates.  He  died  in 
1545. 

REST,  n.  s.,  «<§.,  V.  a.,  &^     Sax.  jiept ;  E)a». 

Kest'ful,  adj.  [i>.fi.f  rai*;   Belg.    rust. 

Restless,  tf</j.  j  Quiet;    stillness; 

Rest'lbssly,  adv.  J  repose ;  sleep ;  ces- 

sation from  toil ;  that  on  which  any  thing  rests ; 
remainder;  place  of  repose;  hope:  as  an  ad- 
jective, others;  those  not  previously  includ- 
ed:  as  a  verb  neuter,  to  be  quiet,  or  in  slumber ; 
be  acquiescent ;  lean ;  sleep ;  be  asleep ;  cease 
from  labor ;  die ;  be  left  or  remain :  as  a  verb  ac- 
tive, to  lay  to  rest;  place  as  a  support :  the  ad- 
jectives and  adverb  following  correspond  with  the 
common  senses  of  rest.  ^ 

Six  days  shalt  thou  do  thy  work,  and  on  the  se- 
venth day  thdu  shalt  rest.  Exodm  zxiii.  12. 

The  ark  went  before  to  search  out  a  reelhig  place 
for  them.  Nwnbers  x.  33. 

There  the  weary  be  at  rest.,  Job  ili.  17. 

He  will  not  rest  content,  though  thou  givest  many 
gifts.  Proverbs. 

Learn  of  me,  for  I  am  meek  and  lowly  in  heart ; 
and  you  shall  find  rest  unto  your  touls.      Matthew. 
Is  not  my  arm  of  length. 

That  reachelh  from  the  resiful  English  court. 
As  far  as  Calais  to  my  uncle  s  head  1     Shakipettn* 

Putrefaction  asketh  rert ;  for  the  subtle  motion, 
which  putrefaction  requireth,  is  disturbed  by  any 
agitation.  liaeon. 

A  man  may  think,  that  a  musket  may  be  shot  off 
as  well  upon  the  arm,  as  upon  a  rest ;  but  when  all 
is  done,  good  counsel  setteth  business  straight.  Id. 

There  resteth  the  comparative  ;  that  is,  its  being 
granted,  that  it  is  either  lawful  ot  binding,  yet  whe- 
ther other  thin^  be  not  preferred  before  it,  as  extir- 
pation of  heresies.  Id. 
Forth  pricked  Clorinda  from  the  throng, 

And  'gainst  Tancredie  set  her  spear  in  rest. 

Fairfax. 

He  was  stout  of  courage,  strong  of  hand. 
Bold  was  his  heart,  and  restless  was  his  spright.  Id, 
Let  him  keep  the  rest. 
But  keep  them  with  repining  rtsiUssnus ! 
Let  him  be  rich  and  weary,  that  at  least. 
If  goodness  lead  him  not,  yet  weariness 
May  toss  him  to  my  breast.  Herbert. 

The  root  cut  off,  from  whence  these  tumults  rose. 
He  should  have  rest,  the  commonwealth  repose. 

Daniel, 

Hestlesaneu  and  intermission  from  sleep,  grieved 

Sersons  are  molested  with,  whereby  the  blood  is 
ried.  Harvey. 


Where  can  a  firail  man  hide  him  ?  in  what  arms 
Shall  a  short  life  enjoy  a  little  rest  ?  Fanshaw. 

When  you  enter  into  the  regions  of  death,  yoa 
rest  from  all  your  labonrs  and  your  fiars.     Tutiiir. 

Could  we  not  wake  from  that  lethargick  dream. 
But  to  be  reftiess  in  a  worse  extreme  ?         Denkam. 

This  answer  would  render  their  couttsds  of  less 
revAence  to  the  people,  if  upon  those  reasons,  they 
should  recede  from  what  they  had,wi(h  that  coofideoce 
and  disdain  of  the  house  of  peen,  demanded  of  the 
king  ;'they  therefore  resolved  to  set  up  their  mt  upon 
that  stake,  and  to  go  through  it,  or  pensh  in  the  at- 
tempt. Clanndim. 

What  cause  moved  the  Creator,  in  his  holy  rest. 
So  late  to  build  1  MiUoa. 

Sustained  by  him  vrith  comforts,  till  we  end 

In  dust,  our  final  mrand  native  home.  Id. 

All  things  retired  to  rest. 
Mind  us  of  like  repose,-  Id. 

Over  the  tent  a  cloud  shall  rest  by  day.  Jd. 

From  work 

Retting,  he  blessed  the  seventh  day.  id. 

Fal'n  he  is  ;  and  now 
What  mCf ,  but  that  the  mortal  sentence  pan 
On  his  transgression !  Jd.   Paradise  Jjost. 

Ease  to  the  body  some,  none  to  the  mind 
From  resileu  thoughu,  that  like  a  deadly  swarm 
Of  hornets  armed,  no  sooner  found  alone. 
But  rush  upon  me  thronging,  and  present 
Times  past,  what  once  1  was,  and  what  I'm  now. 

Milton. 

The  trembling  restlessness  of  the  needle,  in  any 
but  the  north  point  of  the  compass,  manifests  its  in- 
clination to  the  pole  ;  which  its  wavering  and  iu  rest 
bear  equal  vritness  to«  Botfle. 

As  tne  vexed  world,  to -find  repose,  at  last, 
Itielf  into  Augustus*  arms  did  cast ; 
So  England  now  doth,  with  like  toil  opprest. 
Her  weary  head  upon  your  bosom  rest.         WeJier. 

Religion  gives  part  of  its  reward  in  hand,  the  pre- 
sent comfort  of  having  done  our  dutv ;  and,  for  the 
rest,  it  ofiers  us  the  best  security  that  heaven  can 
give.  TUlotsou. 

Plato,  and  the  rest  of  the  phdosophers,  acknow- 
ledged the  unity,  power,  vrisdom,  goodness,  and  pro- 
vidence of  the  supreme  God.  StiUins(/Uet. 

Oft  with  holy  hymns  he  charmed  their  ears ; 
For  David  left  him,  when  he  went  to  rest. 
His  lyre.  .  Ihyden's  Parson. 

With  what  a  load  of  vengeance  am  I  prest. 
Yet  never,  never,  can  I  hope  for  rest ; 
For  when  my  heavy  burden  I  remove. 
The  weight  falls  down,  and  crushes  her  I  love. 

J^ryden. 

Their  vizora  closed,  their  lances  in  the  rest 
Or  at  the  helmet  pointed,  or  the  crest ; 
They  speed  the  nee.  '  Id.  KnighCs  Tale. 

The  power  in  glory  shone, 
Bv  her  bent  bow  and  her  keen  arrows  known, 
The  rest  a  huntress.  Id. 

Armed  like  the  rest,  the  Trojan  prince  appears. 
And  by  his  pious  Isbour  urges  theirs.  Drvdm. 

There  yet  survives  the  lawful  heii 
Of  Sancho's  blood,  whom,  when  I  shall  produce, 
I  rest  assured  to  see  you  pale  with  fear.  Id. 

On  him  I  rested. 
And,  not  without  consid'ring;  fixed  my  fete.       Id. 

He's  proud,  fantastic,  apt  to  change, 
Restless  at  home,  and  ever  prone  to  range.  Jd. 

Every  creature  has  a  share  in  the  common  bless- 
ings of  providence  ;  and  every  creature  should  rest 
well  satisfied  with  its  proportion  in  them. 

VEstrange. 

All  things  past  are  equally  and  perfectly  at  rest ; 
and  to  this  way  of  consideration  of  them  are  ah 


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oDe,  whether  they  were  before  the  world,  or  but  yes- 
terday. Locke, 

Sometimes  it  rest$  upon  testimony,  when  testi- 
TDony  of  right  has  nothing  to  do  ;  because  it  is  easier 
to  beliefe,  than  to  bo  scientifically  instructed.     Id, 

Take  the  handle  in  your  riehthand,  and,  clasping 
the  blade  of  it  in  your  left,  tean  it  steady  upon  the 
rett,  holding  the  edge  a  little  aslant  over  the  work, 
so  as  a  corner  of  the  thin  siae  of  the  chissel  may 
bear  upon  the  rett,  and  the  flat  side  of  the  chissel 
may  make  a  small  angle  with  the  rest,  Moxan, 

The  Christian  chuseth  for  his  day  of  rett  the  first 
day  of  the  week,  that  he  might  thereby  profess  him- 
self a  servant  of  God,  who  on  the  morning  of  that 
day  vanquished  Satan,  NeUon, 

Like  the  sun,  it  had  li^ht  and  agility  ;  it  knew  no 
rest  but  in  motion,  no  quiet  1)ut  in  activity, 

8outh*s  Sermoru, 
To  urge  the  foe  to  battle  ; 
Prompted. by  blind  revenge  and  wild  despair, 
Were  to  refuse  th*  awards  of  providence. 
And  not  to  rest  in  heaven's  determination.  Addison, 

What  tongue  can  speak  the  restless  monarch's 
woes. 
When  God  and  Nathan  were  declared  his  foes  ? 

Prior. 

Upon  so  ejqual  terms  did  they  all  stand,  that  to 
one  had  a  fairer  pretence  of  right  than  the  rest,- 

Woodward. 

We  find  our  souls  disordered  and  restless,  tossed, 
and  disquieted  by  passions,  ever  seeking  h^piuess  in 
the  enjovments  of  this  world,  and  ever  missing  what 
they  seek.  Atterbury. 

The  protestanU,  having  well  studied  the  fathers, 
were  now  willing  to  rest  their  cause,  not  upon  scrip- 
ture only,  but  fatliers  too ;  so  far  at  least  as  the  three 
first  centuries.  Water  land. 

My  tost  limbs  are  wearied  into  rest.  Pope. 

I  sought  my  bed,  in  hopes  relief  to  find, 
But  restlessness  was  mistress  of  my  mind.        Harte. 

Here  resU  his  head  upon  the  lap  of  earth, 
A  vouth  to  fortune  and  to  fame  unknown.      Gray, 

But  hawks  will  rob  the  tender  joys 
That  bless  the  lintwhite's  nest ; 

And  frost  will  blight  the  fairest  flowers. 

And  love  will  break  the  soundest  rest.    Bums. 

Rest,  in  military  affairs,  an  instrument  in  the 
snape-  of  a  fork,  formerly  used  to  support  the 
old  heavy  musket,  when  the  men  were  ordered 
to  present  and  fire.  Sometimes  these  rests  were 
armed  with  a  weapon  called  a  8wine*s  feather, 
which  was  a  sort  of  sword  blade  that  bsued 
from  the  &taff  of  the  rest,  at  the  hea^ ;  this  being 
placed  before  the  musketeers  when  loading,' 
served,  like  the  stakes  placed  before  the  archers 
and  the  lancers,  to  keep  off  the  cavalry.  Rests 
were  of  different  lengths,  according  to  the  heights 
of  the  men  who  were  to  use  them ;  and,  when 
the  musket  was  shouldered  on  the  march,  were 
carried  in  the  right  -hand,  or  hung  upon  it,  by 
means  of  a  loop. 

RESTAO'NATE,  r.  n.  >     Re  and  stagnate. 

Restag'nant,  adj,  5  To  stand  without 
flow :  remaining  withont  flow  or  motion. 

Upon  the  tops  of  high  mountains,  the  air,  which 
bears  against  the  restagnant  quicksilver,  is  less 
pressed  by  the  less  ponderous  incumbent  ur. 

Boyle. 
•  The  blood  returns  thick,  and  is  apt  to  reitaynaie, 

Wisemafi, 

RESTAURATION,  n.  «.  Lat.  rcstewo.  The 
act  of  recovering  to  the  former  state. 

Adam  is  in  us  an  original  c^use  of  our  nature, 
Vol.  XVIII. 


and  of  that  corruption  of  nature  which  causeth  death ; 
Christ  as  the  cause  original  of  restauration  to  life. 

f\        J       *   t      .  Hooker, 

U  my  dear  father !  restauration  hang 
Thy  medicine  on  my  lips  ;  and  let  this  kiss 
Repair  those  violent  harms,  that  my  two  sisters 
Have  in  th^  reverence  made.  Shakspeare. 

SpermaUcal  narts  will  not  admit  a  regeneration, 
much  less  will  they  receive  an  integral  restauration. 

Brovnie, 
RESTEM',  t;.  a.     Re  and  stem.    To  force 
back  against  the  current. 

How  they  restem 
Their  backward  course,  bearing-  with  frank  appear- 
ance 
Towards  Cyprus.  Shakspeare,  Othello, 


gomg  forward;  stubborn;  being  at  rest:  the 
noun  substantive  corresponding;  and  resly  being 
a  synonyme  of  restiff. 

Come,  our  stomachs 

Will  make  what's  homely  savoury,  weariness 

Can  snore  upon  the  flint,  when  resty  sloth 

Finds  the  down  pillow  hard.  Shakspeare, 

Overt  virtues  bring  forth  praise;  but  secret 
virtues  bring  forth  fortune;  certain  deliveries  of  a 
man's  self,  which  the  Spanish  name  disemboltura 
partly  ezpresseth,  where  there  be  not  stands  nor 
restheness  in  a  man's  nature ;  but  the  wheels  of  his 
mind  keep  way  with  the  wheels  of  his  fortime. 

Bacon. 

That  it  gave  occasion  to  some  men's  further  re«- 
tiveness  is  imputable  "to  their  own  depraved  tempers. 

King  Charles, 

Palsies  oftenest  happen  upon  the  left  side ;  the 
most  vigorous  part  protecting  itself,  and  protruding 
the  matter  upon  the  weaker  and  restive  side. 

Browne*s  Vulgar  Errours, 

All,  who  before  him  did  ascend  the  throne, 
Laboured  to  draw  three  restive  nations  on. 

Roscommon, 
Some,  with  studious  care,  . 
Their  restiff  steeds  in  sandy  plains  prepare. 

Dryden. 

This  restiff  stubbornness  is  never  to  be  excused 
under  any  pretence  whatsoever.  L'Estrange. 

Have  not  other  hands  been  tried  and  found  resty  ? 
but  we  stick  at  nothing.  Davenani. 

Men  of  discretion,  whom  people  in  power  may 
with  little  ceremony  load  as  neavy  as  they  please, 
find  them  neither  resty  nor  vicious.  Sufift,    . 

Every  great  genius  seems  to  ride  upon  mankind, 
like  Pyrrhus  on  his  elephant ;  and  the  way  to  have 
the  absolute  ascendant  of  your  resty  nag,, and  to  keep 
yonr  seat,  is,  at  your  first  mounting,  to  afford  him 
the  whip  and  spurs  plentifully ;  after  which  you  may 
travel  the  rest  df  the  day  with  great  alacrity.  Once 
kick  the  world,  and  the  world  and  you  live  together 
at  m  reasonable  goOd  understanding.  Id, 

RESTIO,  in  botany,  a|;enus  of  the  triandria 
order,  and  dioecia  class  of  plants:  male  cal.  an 
ovate  spike  of  membranaceous  scales :  cor.  pro- 
per, liexapetalous,  and  persistent:  female  cal. 
and  COR.  as  in  the  male ;  the  germ  roundish,  and 
sex-fulcated ;  styles,  three  ^rect  and  persistent: 
CAPS,  roundish^  with  six  plaits,  and  is  rostrated 
and  triloctilar:  seeds  oblong  and  cylindrical. 
Twenty-eight  species,  all  natives  of  the  Cape, 
several  resembling  rushes^  and  used  in  making 
ropes,  &c. 

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RESTrrUTION,  II.  #.  LbA,  ralUutio,  The 
act  of  restoring  what  is  lost  or  taken  away;  or 
of  restoring  a  former  state. 

He  restUutum  to  the  value  makes ; 

Nor  joy  in  his  extorted  treasure  takes.      Sandfyy. 

To  suhdue  an  usurper  should  be  no  unjust  enter- 
prise or  wrongful  war,  but  a  restUutUm  of  ancient 
rights  unto  the  crown  of  England,  from,  whence  they 
were  most  unjustly  expelled  and  long  kept  out. 

SpenmoH  Inland, 

He  would  pawn  his  fortanes 
To  hopeless  rutUMtion,  so  he  might 
Be  caUed  your  Tanquisher.  Shahptan.  C&riolanut. 

Whosoever  is  an  eflective  real  cause  of  4ioin$  a 
neiffhbour  wrong,  by  what  instrument  soever  he  does 
it,  IS  bound  to  make  rettUutum.  Tojfl^r, 

In  case  our  o£fence  against  God  hath  been  com- 
plicated with  injury  to  men,  it  is  but  reasonable  we 
should  make  rutUuium.  TUhtton. 

In  the  woody  parts  of  plants,  which  are  their 
bones,  the  principles  are  so  compounded  as  to  make 
them  flexible  without  joints,  and  also  elastick ;  that 
so  their  roota  may  yield  to  stones,,  and  their  trunks 
to  the  wind,  with  a  power  of  rutHutim.         Grew, 

A  great  man,  who  has  never  been  known  vrillingiy 
to  pay  a  just  debt,  ought  liot  all  of  a  sudden  to  be 
introauced,  making  restiiuH»n  of  thousands  he  has 
cheated :  let  it  suffice  to  pay  twenty  pounds  to  a 
friend  who  has  lost  his  note.  AHnUhnU. 

RESTITUTED  Medals,  or  Coins,  is  a  term 
used  by  antiquaries  for  such  coins  and  medab 
as  were  struck  by  the  eniperors,  to  retrieve  the 
memory  of  their  predecessors.  Hence,  in  seve- 
nl  medals,  we  find  the  letters  rest.  This  prac- 
tice was  first  b^^un  by  Claudius,  by  his  striking 
afresh  several  medals  of  Augustus.  Nero  did 
the  same ;  and  Titus  struck  restitutions  of  most 
of  his  predecessors.  Gallienus  struck  a  general 
restitution  of  all  the  preceding  emperors  on  two 
medals ;  the  one  beimng  an  sdtar,  the  other  an 
eaele,  without  Uie  rest. 

RESTITUTOR,  m  numismatology,  was  a  title 
very  frequently  applied  to  the  emperors  on  coins, 
by  the  people  to  whom  they  restored  any  privi- 
leges, or  on  whom  thw  conferred  any  political 
favors.  In  such  cases,  the  emperor  is  commonly 
represented  in  the  act  of 
lifting  up  a  figure  sym- 
bolical of  the  country  that 
has  received  the  benefit, 
as  in  the  annexed  figure, 
where  the  female  with 
the  ears  of  com  in  her 
hand  is  symbolical  of 
AfHca,  who  is  raised  up 
by  ihe  emperor  Adrian. 

RESTORE',  17.  a. 

Resto'rable, 

Restora'tioit,  n.  t. 

Resto'rative,  is.  #.  &  adj. }  give  or  bring  back 
what  has  been  lost  or  taJten  away;  retrieve; 
cure :  the  derivatives  corresponding. 

Reti&n  the  man  Us  wife.         Of>rir  xx»  7. 

He  shall  nttan  in  the  principal,  and  add  the  fiitii 
part  more.  LevUicui  vi.  5. 

I  wiU  kiss  thy  lips  ; 

Haply  some  poison  yet  doth  nang  upon  them, 

To  make  me  die  with  a  rettoratwe.      Shaktptare* 

These  artificial  experiments  are  but  so  many 
essays,  whereby  men  attempt  to  restore  themselves 
from  the  first  general  curse  inflicted  upon  their 
labours.  WUkinie  Mathematical  Magiek, 


*\      Fr.   rettaurer ; 
f  Ital.  restarare; 
1  Lat.  restauro.  To 


Their  tastes  no  knowledge  works,  at  least  of  enl ; 
But  life  preserves,  destroys  life's  enemy. 
Hunger,  with  sweet  reetorative  delight.  MiUan. 

Loss  of  Eden,  till  one  greater  man 
ReUore  it,  and  regain  the  blissful  seat.        Id, 
Next  to  the  Son 
Destined  restorer  of  mankind,  by  whom 
New  heaven  and  earth  shall  to  the  ages  rise.    Id. 

Hail,  roj^al  Albion,  hail  to  thee. 
Thy  longing  people's  expectation ! 
sent  from  the  gods  to  set  us  free 
From  bondage  and  from  usurpation : 
Behold  the  difierent  climes  agree. 
Rejoicing  in  thy  rMlorotton.       Drydm'f  AlUemk 
She  lands  him  on  his  native  shores. 
And  to  his  father's  longing  arms  restoree.  Drydtn, 
1  foretel  you,  as  the  restortr  of  poetey.         Id. 
Asses'  milk  is  an  excellent  rettorative  in  consump- 
tions. Metiimer, 

God  saw  it  necessary  by  such  mortifications  to 
quench  the  boundless  rage  of  an  insatiable  inton- 
perance,  to  make  the  weakness  of  the  flesh  the  phy- 
sick  and  restoratifae  of  the  spirit.       Somth't  Smnoiu. 

In  his  Odyssey,  Homer  explains,  that  the  haidest 
difficulties  may  be  overcome  by  labour,  and  our  for- 
tune restored  after  the  severest  afflictions.  Prior, 
The  change  is  great  in  this  rettoratiaa  ef  the  man, 
from  a  state  of  spiritual  darkness  tb  a  capacity  of 
perceiving  divine  truth.  Rogert, 

He  prescribes  an  English  gallon  of  asses'  aiilk, 
especially  as  a  r^etoratioe.  Arbutknel. 

Garth,  fsster  than  a  plague  destroys,  restore*, 

GramnUo, 
By  cutting  turf  without  any  regularity  great  quan- 
tities of  rettorable  Isni)  ire  made  utterly  desperate. 

The  Athenians,  now  deprived  of  the  only  pasoo 
that  was  able  to  recover  their  losses,  rqient  ot  their 
rashness,  and  endeavour  in  vain  for  his  restoratiaiu 

Id, 

Here  are  ten  thousand  persons  reduced  to  the  ne- 
cessity of  a  low  diet  and  moderate  exercise,  who  are 
the  only  great  reaiorere  of  our  breed,  without  which 
the  nation  would  in  an  age  become  one  great  hos^ 
tal.  Id, 

Restoratiov,  a  small  island  in  tiie  South 
Pacific,  on  the  east  coast  of  New  Holland,  dis- 
covered by  captain  Bligh  in  1789.  It  b  about 
a  league  in  circuit;  the  trees  are  small,  and  the 
soil  scanty.  Oysters  are  plentiful,  and  it  abounds 
in  vrater. 

Restoration  Cove,  a  bay  visited  by  Van- 
couver, on  the  north-west  coast  of  North  America, 
in  Burke's  Canal,  not  for  from  Fitzhug^'s  Sound. 
It  was  discovered  on  the  29di  S^,  1792,  the 
anniversary  of  the  Restoration.  The  breadth  at 
the  entrance,  in  a  north  and  south  direction,  is 
about  a  mile  and  a  quarter,  and  its  depth  from 
the  centre  of  the  entrance,  in  a  north-east  direc- 
tion, three-quarters  of  a  mile.  The  soundings, 
though  deep,  are  regular,  firom  sixty  fathoms  at 
the  entrance,  to  five  and  ten  &thoms  close  to  the 
shore.  The  land  on  the  opposite  side  of  the 
arm  is  about  two  miles  and  a  naif  distant  Skins 
were  here  ofiered  for  sale  of  the  animal  whence 
the  wool  is  procured  of  which  the  garments 
made  by  the  inhabitants  of  North-west  America 
are  fonded.  Th^  appeared  too  lone  to  belong 
to  any  animal  of  the  canine  race;  and  were,  ex- 
clusively of  the  head  er  tail,  fifty  inches  long, 
and  thirty-six  inches  broad,  exdusivdv  of  th« 
legs.    The  wool  seemed  to  be  afforded  princi- 


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pally  on  the  back,  and  towards  the  shoulders, 
vrhere  a  kind  of  crest  is  formed  by  lon^  bristly 
hairs,  that  prdtnide  themselves  through  tt ;  and 
tbe  same  sort  of  wooVforms  an  outer  covering  to 
the  whole  animal,  entirely  hiding  the  fine  woof, 
^hich  is  short,  and  of  a  very  different  descrip- 
tion. All  the  skins  seen  by  Vancouver  were 
'white,  or  rather  of  a  cream  color;  the  felt  was 
thic^  and  appeared  of  a^tronff  texture. 

Vancouver  was  here  visited  by  the  inhabitants, 
in  great  numbers;  and  they  appeared  in  general 
to  be  a  friendly  race  of  oeople,  disposed  for  traf- 
fic, and  honest.  They  discovered  great  vivacity 
in  their  manners.  The  wom^n  wore  a  hideous 
wooden  appendage  in  an  incision  of  the  under- 
lip.  ' 

Restorative,  in  medicine,  is  a  remedy  proper 
lor  restoring  and  retrieving  the  strength  ana  vigor 
both  of  the  body  and  animal  spirits.  All  under 
this  class,  says  Quincy,  are  rather  nutrimental 
than  medicinal;'  and  are  more  administered  to 
repair  the  wastes  of  the  constitution  than  to  alter 
and  rectify  its  <tisorders. 

EESTBAIN',  v.o.  -v     Fr.  restreindre;  Lat. 

Restrain'able,  o^.  I  restrmgo.  To  withhold ; 

IIkstr AiK Eo'LTyttfe. \  kccD  or  pull  in ;  repress ; 

Restraim'er,  n.  s.    i  hinder ;  abridge ;  limit : 

Restraini',  J  restramable  is,  govern- 

able; capable  of  restraint:  restrainedly,  with 
restraint  or  latitude:  restrainer,  he  who  with- 
holds or  restrains  i  restraint,  the  act  of  with- 
holding; repression;  limitation;  prohibition. 

There  is  no  rmtrtdnt  to  the  Lord  to  save,  by  many 
or  hv  S&w.  I  Samml  ziv.  6. 

We  retfrain  it  to  those  only  duties,  which  all  men, 
by  force  of  natural  wit,  understand  to  be  such  duties 
as  concern  all  men.  tiooktr. 

If  she  ratrahud  the  riots  of  your  followers, 
lis  to  sndi  wholesome  end  as  dean  her. 

Shahpeart, 

Merciful  powers ! 
Reatram  in  me  the  cursed  thoughts,  that  nature 
Gives  way  to  in  repose.  Id,  Macbeth, 

His  horn  with  a  half  checked  bit,  and  a  head  stall 
of  sheep's  leather,  which  being  mtramsd  to  keep  him 
from  stumbling,  hath  been  often  burst,  and  now  re- 
paired with  knots.  Skakipmn, 

She  will  well  excuse, 
Why  at  thb  time  the  doors  are  bsjrred  against  you. 
Depart  in  patience, 

Am  about  evening  oome  yourself  alone. 
To  know  the  reason  of  this  strange  mtraint. 

Shaktpmn. 

That  Christ's  dying  for  all  b  the  express  doctrine 
of  the  scriptare  is  manifested  by  the  world,  which  is 
a  word  of  the  widest  extent,  and  although  it  be 
aoroetimes  used  more  rutrainediy,  yet  never  doth  sig* 
nify  a  far  smaller  disproportionid>le  part  of  the  worid. 

fitmnunm* 

What  moved  our  parents  to  transgress  his  will 
For  cuA  rmrttuUt  lords  of  the  world  besides  1 

Mikan. 

Therein  we  must  not  deny  a  liberty ;  nor  is  the 
hand.of  the  painter  more  rtkninabk  than  the  pen  of 
the  poet.  Browne. 

If  nothing  can  relieve  us,  we  must  vrith  patience 
submit  unto  that  mtraint,  and  expect  the  will  of  the 
restrmner,  Broume't  Vulgar  Erroun, 

If  all  were  granted,  yet  it  must  be  maintained 
within  any  bold  mfnrinto,  far  otherwise  than  it  is  re-i 
ceived*  Browne* 


The  law  of  nature  would  be  in  vain,  if  there  were 
nobody  that,  in  the  state  of  nature,  had  a  p^wer  to 
execute  that  law,  and  thereby  preserve  the  mnocent 
and  I'fffrwn  ofienders.  Locke, 

It  b  to  no  purpose  to  lay  rettrainu  or  give  privi- 
leges to  men,  in  soeh  general  terms,  as  the  particular 
persons  concerned  cannot  be  known.  Id. 

Upon  what  ground  can  a  man  promise  himself  a 
future  repentance,  who  cannot  promise  himself  a  fu- 
turity ;  whose  life  depends  upon  his  breath,  and  is 
so  fuirained  to  the  present  that  it  caimot  secure  to 
itself  the  reversion  or  the  very  neat  minute,    aemih. 

I  think  it  a  manifest  disadvantage,  and  a  great  re- 
tiraini  upon  us.  Feiton  on  tiie  CUutici. 

Not  only  a  metaphysical  or  natural,  but  a  inoral 
universality  also  is. to  be  reetramed  by  a  part  of  the 
predicate ;  as  all  the  Italians  are  p^tidans ;  that  is, 
those  among  the  Italians,  who  are  politicians,  are 
subde  politicians ;  i.  e.  they  are  generally  so. 

WaiU*t  Logic. 

RESTRICT,!;,  a.      \     Ux,  restrictui.    To 

Restric'tion,  n. #.      f   limit;  confine:  the 

Restric'iive,  ac^.      s    derivatives     corte- 

Restric'tively,  adv.  }  sponding. 

The  two  latter  indicate  phlebotomy  for  revulsion, 
rettrmgente  to  stench,  ana  incrassatives  to  thicken 
the  blood.  Harveg. 

They  who  would  make  the  rethieiioe  particle  be- 
long to  the  latter  clause,  and  not  to  the  nrst,  do  not 
attend  to  the  reason.  StUUngfieet, 

Iron  manufacture,  of  all  others,  ought  the  least  to 
be  encouraged  in  Ireland ;  or,  if  it  be,  it  requires  the 
most  reetrietion  to  certain  places.  Temple. 

This  is  to  have  the  same  rmtrietumi  with  all  other 
recreations,  that  it  be  made  a  divertisement,  not  a 
trade.  Gooemmont  of  ike  Tongue. 

All  speech,  tending  to  the  glory  of  God  or  the 
good  of  man,  is  aright  directed  ;  which  is  not  to  be 
understood  so  reetnctieelv,  as  if  nothine  but  divinity, 
or  necessary  concerns  of  life,  may  lawfully  be  brought 
into  discourse.  Id. 

Each  other  gift,  which  God  on  man  bestows, 
Its  proper  bounds  and  due  restrietion  knows ; 
To  one  fixed  purpose  dedicates  its  power.       Prior. 

Celsus's  rule,  with  the  proper  rettriaions,  is  good 
for  people  in  hi»]th.  Arhv.thnot, 

lapplied  a  plastar  over  it,  made  up  with  my  com- 
mon fettrietiee  powder.  fFtcfman't  SJrgorg. 
ril  no  say  men  are  villains  a' ; 

The  real  hardened  wicked, 
Wha  hae  nae  cheek  but  human  law. 
Are  to  a  £bw  fsifrMtel.  Burw. 

RESUBLIMB',  v.a.  Re  and  subUme.  To 
sublime  another  time. 

.  When  mereuiy  sublimate  is  TSiiiMiwsd  with  fresh 
roerenry,  it  becomes  mereurius  dulcis,  which  is  a 
white  tasteless  earth,  scarce  dissolvable  in  water,  and 
mereurius  dulcis  reeMkned  with  spirit  of  salt  returns 
into  mercury  sublimate.  -     '      Nmotm. 

RESULT,  v.a.kn.iil     ^'*  rendier;  Lat. 

RESULyAVCE,  ii;  f .  i  rendto.  To  fly  or 
come  back;  Mlow  as  a  eoAsequenoe:  resili- 
ence ;  consequence ;  the  act 'of  resulting. 

Rue  prospers  much,  if  set  by  a  fie-tree  ;  which  is 
caused,  not  oy  reason  of  friendship,  but  by  extraction 
of  a  contrary  juice ;  the  one  drawing  juice  fit  to  reeuii 
sweet  the  other  bitter.        Bacon*t  rfatural  History. 

Sound  is  produced  between  the  string  and  the  air, 
by  the  return  or  the  resuU  of  the  string,  which  was 
strained  by  the  touch  to  his  former  place.      Bacon, 

Such  huge  extremes,  when  nature  doth  unite, 
Wonder  from  thence  reniiti,  from  thence  delight. 

Dnham. 
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Pleasure  and  peace  do  naturally  rMui<  from  a  holy 
and  good  life.  TiUot9on*t  Sermon*. 

Buying  of  land  is  ihe  rttuli  of  a  full  and  satiated 
gain :  men  in  tiade  seldom  lay  money  out  upon 
land,  till  their  profit  has  brought  in  more  than  tnde 
can  employ.  Locke, 

Upon  the  dissolution  of  the  first  earth,  this  very, face 
or  things  would  immediately  reeult.  Bumet. 

These  things  are  a  resuU  or  judgment  upon  fact. 

South. 

The  horror  of  an  object  may  overbear  the  pleasure 
retuUing  from  its  greatness.  Addison, 

With  many  a  weary  step,  and  many  a  groan, 
Up  the  high  hill  he  heaves  a  huge  round  stone ; 
The  huge  round  stone,  reniUing  with  a  bound, 
Thunders  impetuous  down,  and  smokes  along  the 
grouna.  Pope*i  Odyteey. 

Rude,  passionate,  and  mistaken  retulu  have,  at 
certain  times,  fallen  from  great  assemblies.     Swift. 

Their  effects  are  often  very  disproportionable  to 
the  principles  and  parts  that  result  from  the  analysis. 

RESUME',  V.  a.  j  Lat.  renano.  To  take 
Resu'mable,  adj,  >  back  or  again :  resumable, 
RESUMp'TioN,n.i.  )  recoverable ;  v?hat  may  be 
taken  back :  resumption,  the  act  of  taking  back. 
That  opportunity, 
Which  then  they  had  to  take  from's,  to  resume 
We  have  again.  Shakspeare.  Cymbeline, 

Wearied,  foisaken,  and  pursued  at  last. 
All  safety  in  despair  of  safety  placed, 
Courage  he  thence  resumes,  resolved  to  bear 
All  their  assaults,  since  'tis  in  vain  to  fear. 

Denham, 
If  there  be  any  fanlt,  it  is  the  resumption  or  the 
dwelling  too  long  upon  his  arguments.  Jd. 

HeMl  enter  into  glory  and  resume  his  seat. 

Milton, 
This  was  but  an  indulgence,  and  therefore  resuma  • 
ble  by  the  victor,  unless  there  intervened  any  capitu 
lation  to  the  contrary.  Hale 

At  this,  with  look  serene,  he  raised  his  head. 
Reason  resumed  her  place,  and  passion  fled. 

Dry  den, 
Theyre«tim«  what  has  been  obtained  fraudulently^ 
by  sui prise,  and  upon  wrong  suggestions. 

Davenant. 
The  universal  voice  of  the  people  seeming  to  call 
for  some  kind  of  resumption^  the  writer  of  these  papers 
thought  it  might  not  be  unseasonable  to  publish  a 
discourse  upon  grants.  Id, 

RESURVEY',t7.a.  Re  and  survey.  Tore- 
view  ;  survey  again. 

I  have,  with  cursory  eye,  o'erglanced  the  articles ; 
Appoint  some  of  your  council  presently 
To  sit  with  us,  once  more  with  better  heed 
To  resuroejf  them.  Shakspeare,  Henry  V. 

RESURRECTION,  n.  s.  Fr.  retumctum; 
Span,  and  Port,  resurecion;  Lat.  returrectio. 
Revival  from  the  dead ;  return  from  the  grave. 

The  Sadduoees  were  grieved,  that  they  taught  and 
preached  through  Jesus  the  reswrreetioH  from  the 
dead.  Acts  iv.  2. 

Nor  after  resurrection  shall  he  stay 

Longer  on  earth,  than  certain  times  t*  appear 

To  his  disciples.  Milton, 

Perhaps  there  was  nothing  ever  done  in  all  past 
ages,  and  which  was  not  a  publick  fact,  so  well  at- 
tested as  the  resurrection  of  Christ.  Watts. 

Resurrection,  in  theology,  is  that  event  the 
belief  of  which  constitutes  one  of  the  principal 
articles  in  the  Christian  creed :  and  of  which  the 
wisest  of  the  heathen  Dhilosophers  had  not  the 


most  distant  conception.  Among  the  Jews,  the 
belief  of  a  future  and  separate  existence  for  a 
long  time  was  deemed  no  essential  article  of 
their  creed  ;  but  from  different  passages  in  Isaiah, 
Daniel,  Ezekiel,  and  Job,  many  inferred  the 
reality  of  a  general  resurrection. '  This  resurrec- 
tion appears  to  have  been  a  general  opiDion 
among  the  Pharisees ;  for  although  the  Sadducees 
believed  that  there  was  no  resurrection,  neither 
angel  nor  spirit,  yet  the  Pharisees  confessed 
both.  Tliis  resurrection  of  the  dead  to  judgment 
is  now  generally,  and  almost  universally,  main- 
tained by  Christians.  Numberless  fanciful  con- 
jectures have  been  made  respecting  the  manner 
in  which  the  resurrection  is  to  be  accomplished ; 
the  identity  of  the  matter  of  the  bodies  raised^ 
with  that  of  those  which  died ;  the  place  and 
state  of  the  souls  during  their  separation  from 
the  body,  &c. ;  but,  as  no  decisive  opinion  can 
be  formed  on  these  subjects,  w&  think  it  totally 
unnecessary  to  take  up  room  with  mere  unsup- 
ported hypotheses.    See  Theology. 

RESUS'CITATEjV.a.  J     Lat.  rcsiisri/o.  To 

Resuscita'tion,  n.  i.  i  stir  up  anew ;  revive : 
the  noun  substantive  corresponding. 

We  have  beasts  and  birds  for 'dissections,  though 
divers  parts,  which  you  account  vital,  be  perished 
and  taken  forth,  resuscitating  of  some  that  seem  dead 
in  appearance.  Bacon, 

Your  very  obliging  manner  of  enqairing  after 
ine,  at  your  renact/atum,  should  have  been  sooner 
answered ;  I  sincerely  rejoice  at  your  recovery. 

Pope. 

RESUscTTATT02k,  inmediciue.  SeeDaowi^iKC. 

RETAIL,  V.  fl.&n.#.  )     Fr.  retaUcr;  Ital.  rr- 

Retail'er,  n.  s.  )  taglio.    To  redivids  ; 

sell  in  small  quantities ;  detail :  such  sale  or  di- 
vision :  a  retailer  is  a  dealer  in  goods  by  retail. 
He  is  furnished  with  no  certainties, 
More  than  he  haply  may  retail  from  me. 

Shakspeare. 

From  these  particulars  we  may  guess  at  the  rest, 
as  retailers  do  of  the  whole  piece,  by  taking  a  view  of 
its  ends.  HahetciU. 

All  encouragement  should  be  given  to  artificers ; 
and  those  who  make  should  also  vend  and  retail  their 
commodities.  Locke, 

The  author,  to  prevent  such  a  monopoly  of  sense* 
is  resolved  to  deal  in  it  himself  by  retail,    Addmn, 
The  sage<lame. 

By  names  of  toasts,  retails  each  battered  jade. 

Pope. 

We  force  a  wretched  trade  by  beating  down  the 
sale, 
And  selling  basely  by  r«tat/.      Smfl*s  Miecelleuaa, 

History,  which  ought  to  record  truth  and  to  teach 
wisdom,  often  sets  out  with  retailing  fictions  and 
absurdities.  Robertson,  History  of  Scotland. 

RETAIN',  V.  a.  &  V.  fi.  (    Fr.  retenir ;  Span,  re- 

Retain'er.  S  tftner  ;  Ital.  rUenere  ; 

Lat.  reiineo.  To  keep  as  a  possession  ;  keep  in 
use,  in  service,  or  in  pay :  as  a  verb  neuter,  to 
belong  to ;  depend  on :  a  retainer  is  an  adherent; 
dependent ;  act  of  keeping  dependents. 

As  they  did  not  like  to  retain  God  in  their  know- 
ledge, God  gave  them  over  to  a  reprobate  mind. 

Ramans  i.  23. 

Receive  him  that  is  mine  own  bowels ;  whom  I 
would  have  retained  with  me.        Philemon  zii.  13. 

Where  is  the  patience  now. 
That  you  so  oft  nave  boasted  to  retain .'  Shakspeaire. 

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You  now  are  mounted* 
Where  powers  are  your  retainen.  Id, 

By  another  law,  the  king*8  officers  and  farmers 
were  to  forfeit  their  places  and  holds,  in  case  of  un- 
lawful retaitier,  or  partaking  in  unlawful  assemblies. 
Bacon's  Henry  Vll, 
Though  the'  ofiending  part  felt  mortal  pain, 
The'  immortal  part  its  knowledge  did  retain. 

Denham, 
Be  obedient,  and  retain 
Unalterably  firm  his  love  entire.        Milton, 
In  animals  many  actions  depend  upon  their  living 
form,  as  well  as  that  of  mixtion,  and,  though  they 
wholly  seem  to  retain  to  the  body,  depart  upon  dis- 
union. Browne. 

Although  they  retain  the  word  mandrake  in  the 
text,  yet  they  retract  it  in  the  margin.  Id. 

These  betray  upon  the  tongue  no  heat  nor  cor- 
rosiveness,  but  coldness,  mixed  with  a  somewhat 
languid  relish  retaining  to  bittemesi.  BoyU. 

The  vigour  of  this  arm  was  never  vain ; 
And  that  my  wonted  prowess  I  retain, 
'    Witness  these  heaps  of  slaughter.  Dryden. 

Whatever  ideas  the  mind  can  receive  and  contem- 
plate without  the  help  of  the  body,  it.  is  reasonable 
to  conclude  it  can  retain  without  the  help  of  the 
bodj  too.  Loeke, 

A  Benedictine  convent  has  now  retained  the  most 
learned  father  of  their  order  to  write  in  its  defence. 

Addison. 
A  comfenation  of  honest  men  would  endeavour  to 
extirpate  all  the  profligate  immoral  retainers  to  each 
side,  that  have  nothing  to  recommend  them  but  an 
implicit  submission  to  their  leaders.  Id. 

One  darling  inclination  of  mankind  afiects  to  be  a 
retainer  to  religion ;  the  spirit  of  opposition,  that 
lived  long  before  Christianity,  and  can  easily  subsist 
without  it.  Swi/i.' 

Retaining  Fee,  the  first  fee  given  toa  seijeant 
or  counsellor  at  law,  in  order  to  prevent  hid 
pleading' on  the  contrary  side. 

RETAKE',  v.  a.  Re  and  take.  To  take 
again. 

A  dav  should  be  appointed,  when  the  remonstrance 
should  be  retaken  into  consideration.        Clarendon, 

RETALIATE,  V.  fl.  >      Lat.  re  and  faiio.  To 
Retalia'tion.  S  return  by  giving  like 

for  like ;  repay ;  requite :  requital. 

They  thought  it  no  irreligion  to  prosecute  the  se- 
verest retaliation  or  revense  ;  so  that  at  the  same  time 
their  outward  man  might  be  a  saint,  and  their  inward 
man  a  devil.  Somth. 

God,  graciously  becoming  our  debtor,  takes  what 
is  done  to  others  as  done  to  himself,  and  by  promise 
obliges  himself  to  full  ret(diation.  CaUmy's  Sermons. 

It  is  very  unlucky  to  be  obliged  to  retaliau  the  in- 
juries of  authors,  whose. works  are  so  soon  forgotten 
that  we  are  in  danger  of  appearing  the  first  a^;ressors. 

Swift, 

RETARiy,  v.  a.  Fr.  retorder;  Lat.  retardo. 
To  hinder;  to  obstruct  in  swiAness  of  course. 

Out  of  this  a  man  may  devise  the  means  of  altering 
the  colour  of  birds,  and  the  retardatum  of  hoary 
hairs.  Bacon, 

This  diluting  way  of  enquiry  is  so  far  from  ad- 
vancing science  that  It  is  no  inconsiderable  retarder. 

Glanville. 

Some  years  it  hath  also  retarded,  and  come  far 
later  than  usually  it  was  expected.  Browne. 

Nor  kings  nor  nations 

One  moment  can  retard  the'  appointed  hour. 

Dry  den,* 


RETCH'LESS,  adj.  Written  wretchlew, 
properly  also  Reckless,  which  see.    Carelesf 

He  struggles  into  breath,  and  cries  for  aid  \ 
Then  helpless  in  his  mother's  lap  is  laid  : 
He  creeps,  he  walks,  and,  issuing  into  man, 
Grudees  their  life  from  whence  his  own  began  *, 
BetcMeas  of  laws  afiects  to'  rule  alone.         Dryden. 

RETECTION,  n.  #.  Uit.  retectus.  Tae  act 
of  discovering  to  view. 

This  is  rather  a  restoration  of  a  body  to  its  own 
colour,  or  a  reteetion  of  its  native  colour,  than  a 
change.  Boyle. 

RETENTIVE,  adj.     ")     Fr.  retentif;  Lat. 

Reten'tiveness,  n.  s.   >retentus.   Having  the 

Reten'tion.  3  power  of    retaining 

or  withholding ;  having  memory :  the  noun  sub- 
stantive corresponding. 

It  keepeth  sermons  in  memory,  and  doth  in  that 
respect,  although  not  feed  the  soul  of  man,  yet  help 
the  retentive  force  of  that  stomach  of  the  mind. 

Hooker. 
No  woman's  heart 
So  big  to  hold  so  much  ;  they  lack  retention. 

Shakspeare. . 
I  sent  the  old  and  miserable  king 

To  some  retention  and  appointed  guard.  Id. 

Have  I  been  ever  free,  and  must  my  house 

Be  my  retentive  enemy,  my  gaol  ?  Id, 

To  remember  a  song  or  tune,  our  souls  must  be  in 
harmony  continually  running  over  in  a  silent  whisper 
-those  musical  accents,  which  our  retentive  faculty  is 
preserver  of.  GlanviUe. 

Retention  is  the  keeping  of  those  simple  ideas, 
which  from  sensation  or  reflection  the  mina  hath  re- 
ceived. Locke, 

The  backward  learner  makes  amends  another  way. 
expiating  his  want  of  docility  with  a  deeper  and  a 
more  rooted  retention.  South. 

In  Tot'nam  fields  the  brethren  with  amaxe 
Prick  all  their  ears  up,  and  forget  to  graze ; 
Long  Chancery-lane  retentive  rolls  the  sound. 
And  courts  to  coarts  return  it  round  and  round. 

Pope 

RETFOQ^D,  East,  a  borough,  market  town, 
tmd  parish  of  Nottinghamshire,  near  the  river 
Idle,  seven  miles  north  from  Tuxford,  and  141 
north  by  west  from  London.  The  town  is  well 
built,  has  a  free  grammar-school,  a  hospital,  and 
an  alms-house ;  also  a  town-hall,  in  which  the 
sessions  for  the  town  are  held.  The  county  as- 
sizes are  held  here,  alternately  with  Nottingham. 
The  church,  called  the  Corporation,  is  a  neat 
Gothic  buildins,  with  a  handsome  square  tower. 
The  environs  of  this  town  abound  in  hop  pknta- 
tions,  and  a  canal  to  the  Trent  passes  near  it. 
The  manufactures  are  chiefly  those  of  hats  and 
sail-cloth.  It  is  incorporated  under  two  bailiffs, 
a  steward,  and  twelve  aldermen,  and  sends  two 
members  to  parliament ;  the  right  of  election  is 
in  the  corporation  and  freemen.  The  market  on 
Saturday  is  well  supplied  with  hops,  corn,  malt, 
and  provisions. 

RETIARII,  in « antiquity,  gladiators  who 
fought  in  the  Roman  amphitheatre.  They  were 
dressed  in  a  short  coat,  having  a  fuscina  or  tri- 
dent in  the  left  hand,  and  a  net  in  the  right. 
With  this  they  endeavoured  to  entangle  their  ad- 
versaries, that  they  might  then  with  their  trident 
despatch  them  :  on  their  heads  they  wore  only  a 
hat,  tied  under  the  chin  with  a  broad  Viband. 
RETICULA,  or   Reticule,   in  astronomy^ 


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is  a  contrivance  for  measuring  the  exact  quantity 
of  eciipses.  This  instrumenl^  introduced  by  the 
Academy  of  Sciences  at  Paris,  is  a  little  frame, 
consisting  of  thirteen  fine  threads,  paiallel  and 
equidistant  from  each  other,  piaced  m  the  focus 
of  the  object-glasses  of  telescopes;  that  is,  in 
the  place .  where  the  image  of  the  luminary  is 
painted  in  its  full  extent ;  consequently  the 
diameter  of  the  sun  or  moon  is  hereby  seen  di> 
vided  into  twelve  equal  parts  or  digits ;  so  that, 
to  find  the  quantity  of  the  eclipse,  there  is  nothing 
to  do  but  to  number  the  lummous  and  the  dark 
parts. .  As  a  sqiuue  reticule  is  only  proper  for 
the  diameter,  not  for  the  circumference,  pf  the 
luminary,  it  is'  sometimes  made  circular  by 
drawii^  six  concentric  equidistant  circl^.  Thia 
represents  the  phases  of  the  eclipse  perfectly. 
See  AsTBOKOMY. 

RETICULATED,  «^*.  Latin  retundahu. 
Made  of  network;  formed  with  interstitial  ya- 
cnities. 

The  intervals  of  the  cavities^  rising  a  Utile,  make 
a  pretty  kind  of  rttiouLa^  work. 

Woodwmrd  on  FatsUt* 

RETICULUM,  Lat,  i.  e.  a  little  or  casting 
net,  was  applied  by  the  Romans  to  a  particular 
mode  of  constructing  their  buildings.  In  the 
city  of  Salino  are  still  to  be  seen  remains  of  som^ 
walls,  evidently  of  Roman  origin  from  the  reticu- 
lum. This  structure  consists  of  small  pieces  of 
baked  earth  cut  lozengewise,  and  disposed  with 
great  regularity  on  the  angles,  so  as  to  exhibit  to 
Sie  eye  the  appearance  of  cut  diamonds ;  and 
was  called  reticular  from  its  resemblance  to  fish- 
ing nets.  The  Romans  always  concealed  it  under 
a  coating. 

RETTFORM,ae$\  Lot  retiformig.  Having 
the  form  of  a  net. 

The  Qveous  coat  and  inside  of  the  choroides  are 
blackened,  that  the  rays  may  not  be  reflected  back- 
wanl  to  confound  the  sight ;  and,  if  any  be  by  the 
rttifarm  coat  reflected,  they  are  soon  ckoaked  io  the 
black  inside  of  the  oeva.  Ray, 

RETIMO,  sometimes  called  Rhettmo,  a  sea- 
port of  Candia,  situated  on  the  north  coast  of 
tl^  island,  about  forty  miles  west  of  the  town  of 
Candia.  It  extends  a  considerable  way  along 
the  shore,  and  has  still  a  citadel,  on  a  sharp  pro- 
jecting rock,  built,  as  well  as  a  fort  at  the  other 
end  of  the  town,  for  the  protection  of  the  har 
hour..  The  latter  is  now  in  ruins,  and  the  port 
itself  almost  blocked  up  with  sand.  The  popu- 
lation amounts  to  about  6000,  employed  for  the 
most  part  in  agriculture  and  the  culture  of  the 
vine,  or  in  making  soap  from  olive  oil.  Long. 
W^r  E.,  lat.35*»20'N. 

RETINA,  in  anatomy,  the  expansion  of  the 
optic  nerves  over  the  bottom  of  the  eye,  where 
the  sense  of  vision  is  first  received.  See  Ana- 
tomy and  Optics. 

RETraUE,  n.  s.  Fr.  rHenue ;  Itol.  ritemOi, 
of  Lat  retineo.  A  number  attending  upon  a 
principal  person ;  a  train. 

Not  only  this  yoar  ilUlioensed  fool. 

But  other  of  your  insolent  retinue. 

Do  hourly  carp  and  quarrel.  Shahpiart* 

What  followers,  what  rtHnw  can'st  thou  gain. 
Or  at  thy  tteeb  the  ditzy  multitude, 
Longer  than  thou  can'st  feed  them  on  thy  cost? 

mum. 


There  appears 
The  long  retinut  of  a  prospeious  re^ga, 
A  series  of  suocessfal  years.  Dryjia. 

RETXRADE,  in  fortificafioo,  a  kind  of  re- 
trenchment nftade  in  a  body  of  a  bastion^  or 
other  work,  which  is  to  be  disputed  inch  by 
inch  after  the  defences  are  aismaotled.  It 
usually  consists  of  two  feces, .  which  make  a  re- 
entering angle.  When  a  br»ch  is  .made  in  a 
bastion,  the  enemy  may  also  make  a  retirade  or 
new  fortification  behind  it. 

R£TIRE'»v.a.,v.n.&R.s.)      Fr.    retker; 

R£TIREd''ness,  n.  s.  >  Lat.    retraho  1 

RxTinfi'M^T..  3  To     withdraw; 

'  retreat ;  go  off;  leave  company ;  take  away  :  as 
a  noun  substantive  (obsolete),  retivat ; .  recession ; 
place  of  privacy:  retiredness  oorfesponding: 
retirement  is  the  act  of  wididrawing;  private 
abode  (Mr  habit ;  state  of  being  withdrawn. 

Set  up  the  standard  towards  Zion,  rtUrt,  stay  not. 

Jtrtmiak. 

He  brake  up  his  ceart,  and  rttked  himself,  bis 
wife,  and  chiloren  into  a  forest  thereby.       Sidney, 

He,  oar  hope,  might  have  remind  his  power 
And  driven  into-de^Mtir  an  enemy's  bate. 

I  heard  bis  praises  in  pursuit, 

9nt  ne'er,  till  now,  his  scandal  of  rgiin.       Id. 

There  may  be  as  great  a  variety  in  nthimg  and 
withdiawing  men's  conceit  in  the  world,  as  in  obtni- 
diur  them.  Bsem. 

fW  battle  and  the  reiirs  of  the  Engliah  soocoav 
were  the  causes  of  the  loss  of  that  daicfay*         id. 

The  nund  contracts  herself,  and  shrinketh  in. 
And  to  herself  she  gladly  doth  ntire,  IMss. 

The  perhanent  dissolved,  and  genttemen  charged 
to  rotirr  to  their  coontiy  habitations.        HtitftMrd, 

Like  one,  who  in  her  third  widowhood  dodi  pro- 
fess 
Herself  a  nan,  ty'd  to  ntininen, 
So  afiecu  my  muse  now  a  chaste  fallownesa. 

Langua^  most  shews  a  man;  spesk  that  I  may 
see  thee  ;  it  springs  out  of  the  most  ntind  and  in- 
most parts  9f  us.  Ben  /mmmi. 

After  some  sli^t  skirmishes,  he  rwHrtd  hunsdf 
into  the  castle  of  Tamham.  Clareitden, 

My  retiremmt  there  tempted  me  te  divert  those 
melancholy  thoaghts.  Denham't  Dedication^ 

Thou  open'st  wisdom's  way. 
And  giv'st  access,  though  secret  she  retire,   Ht/lM. 
Eve,  who  unseen 
Yet  all  had  heard  with  audible  liraoit. 
Discovered  soon  the  place  of  her  r*Ctrv.         Id 

Short  retirement  urges  sweet  retom.  /d. 

Hydra-like,  the  fiie  . 

Lifts  up  his  hundred  heads  to  aim  his  way ; 
And  scarce  the  wealthy  can  one-half  retire. 

Before  he  rushes  in  to  share  the  prey.     Drpden. 

Some,  accustomed  to  retired  q)eCulatien8,  run  na- 
tural philoaophv  into  metaplwsical  notions  and  the 
abstract  generalities  of  logics.  Locke, 

While  you,  my  lord,  the  rural  shades  admire. 
And  from  Britannia's  publick  poets  retire. 
Me  into  foreign  realms  my  fate  conveys*      Addison, 

Caprea  had  been  the  retirement  of  Augustus  for 
some  time,  and  the  residence  of  Tiberius  for  many 
yeare.  ,  Id, 

The  old  fellow  scuttled  out  of  the  room,  and  r»- 
tired,  ArbuUmet. 

.  How  could  he  have  the  leisure  and  retirodnets  ot 
the  cloister,  to  perform  all  those  acts  of  devotion  in, 


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wben  the  Inirthen  of  Um  raformation  lay  upon  hu 
■bauMen?  Atitrhitry, 

Porformed  what  friendahip,  jnttioe,  truth  nqaire* 
What  could  he  more,  hut  decentlj  mini      Smft. 

An  elegant  sufficu^,  oontont, 
Bstinmmt,  rural  quiet,  frie&dahip,  hooks, 
ProgiessiTe  virtue,  and  approving  heaven. 

Thomami, 

He  has  sold  a  small  estate  ^t  he  had,  and  has 
erected  a  charitable  retinnma,  tor  ancient  poor  peo- 
ple to  live  in  prayer  and  piety.  Law, 

RETOLD',  part.  pats,  of  retell.  Related  or 
told  again. 

Upon  his  dead  corpse  there  was  such  misuse 
By  those  Welchwomen  done,  as  may  not  be 
Without  much  Auune  r$toUi  or  spoken  of. 

8hak$pear0. 

RETORT,  V.  a.  &]i.f.^     Ux.retortm.    T© 

Rbtort'er,  n.  f  .  >  throw  or  curve  back ; 


R£tob'tion. 


i; 


f  rebound  ;  return  in 
argument  or  censure :  the  censure  or  repartee ; 
a  chemical  vessel.  See  below.  All  the  noun- 
substantives  correspond. 

His  virtues,  shining  upon  others, 
Heat  them,  and  they  rgtort  that  heat  again 
To  the  first  giver.  Shaktpean, 

I  said  his  beard  was  not  cut  well,  he  was  in  the 
mind  it  was ;  this  is  called  the  retort  courteous. 

Id. 

It  would  be  tried  how  the  voice  will  be  carried  in 
an  horn,  which  is  a  line  arched  ;  or  in  a  trumpet, 
which  is  a  line  retorted;  or  in  some  pipe  that  were 
sinuous.  .  Baeon. 

His  proof  will  easily  be  retorted,  and  the  contraiy 
proved.  ffawwojiA- 

He  passed  through  hostile  scorn  ; 
And  with  retorted  acorn  his  back  he  turned.  MtUton, 

Recent  urine  distilled  yields  a  limpid  water ;  and 
what  remains  at  the  bottom  of  the  retort  is  not  acid 
nor  alkaline.  Arbuthnot, 

The  respondent  may  ^ew  how  the  opponent's  ar- 
gument may  be  retorted  against  myself.  Watts, 

When,  by  repeated  evaporations,  the  whole  of  the 
soda  and  neutral  salts  are  separated,  remove  the  le- 
maining  liquor  to  a  tubulatea  glass  retort,  adapt  a  Te- 
ceiver  to  it,and,  when  this  b  properly  luted,  pour  some 
concentrated  sulphuric  ada  upon  the  liquor  within 
the  retort,  and  proceed  to  distillation. 

Parhee'e  Chomieal  Cateetuem, 

Retorts,  in  chemistry,  are  vesseb  em- 
ployed for  many  distillations,  and  ipost  fre- 
quently for  those  which  require  a  dimee  of  heat 
superior  to  that  of  boiling  water.  This  vessel  is 
a  kind  of  bottle  with  a  long  neck,  so  bent  that  it 
makes,  with  the  belly  of  the  retort,  an  angle  of 
alx>ut  sixty  degrees.  From  this  form  they  have 
probably  been  named  retorts.  The  most  capacious 
part  of  the  retort  is  called  its' belly.  Its  upper 
part  is  called  the  arch  or  roof  of  me  retort,  and 
the  bent  part  is  the  neck.  They  differ  in  form 
and  matenals :  when  pierced  with  a  little  hole  in 
their  roo(  they  are  called  tubulated  retorts. 
They  are  made  of  common  glass,  stone-ware,  and 
iron.  See  Caekistey  and  Laboeatory.  In 
the  Tiansactionis  of  the  Society  for  Enoourage- 
ment  of  Arts,  we  find  a  paper  containing  a 
method  for  preventing  stone  retorts  from  br»k' 


which  is  made  by  dissolving  two  ounces  of 
borax  in  a  pint  of  boiling  water,  and  adding  to 
the  solution  as  much  slaked  lime  as  will  make  it 
into  a  thin  paste;  thb,  with  a  common. painter's 
brush,  may  be  spread  over  several  retorts,  which, 
when  dry,  are  then  ready  for  the  proper  pre- 
serving coating.  The  intention  of  this  first 
coating  is,  that  the  substances  thus  spr^  over, 
readily  vitrifying  in  the  fire,  may  ptevent  any  of 
the  distilling  matters  from  pervading  the  retort, 
but  do  in  no  wise  prevent  it  from  cracking.  When-r 
ever  I  want  to  use  any  of  the  above  coated  re- 
torts, after  I  have  charged  them  with  the  sub- 
stance to  be  distilled,  I  prepare  a  thin  paste, 
made  with  common  linseed  oil  and  slakea  lime 
well  mixed,  and  perfectly  plastic,  that  it  maybe 
easily  spread :  with  this  let  the  retorts  be  covered 
all  over,  ex(^t  that  part  of  the  neck  which  is  to 
be  inserted  into  the  receiver;  this  is  readily  done 
with  a  painter's  brush ;  the  coatinr  will  be  su^ 
ficiently  dry  in  a  day  or  two,  and  they  will  then 
be  fit  for  use.  With  this  coating  I  have  for 
several  years  worked  my  stone  retorts,  without 
any  danger  of  their  breaking,  and  have  frequently 
us6d  the  same  retort  four  or  five  times ;  observing 
^particularly  to  coat  it  over  with  the  last  men- 
tioned composition  every  time  it  is  charged  with 
fresh  materials :  before  I  made  use  of  this  ex- 
pedient, it  was  an  even  chance,  in  conducting 
operations  in  stone  and  earthen  retorts,  whether 
they  did  not  crack  every  time,  by  which  means 
gnat  loss  has  been  sustained.  If  at  any  time 
duriuff  the  operation  the  retort  should  crack, 
spread  some  of  the  oil  composition  thick  on  the 
part,  and  sprinkle  some  powder  of  slaked  lime 
on  it,  and  it  immediately  stops  the  fissure,  and 
prevents  any  of  the  distilling  matter  from  per- 
vading; even  phosphorus  vrill  not  penetrate 
through  it.  It  may  be  applied  without  anv 
danger,  even  when  the  retort  is  red  hot;  and, 
when  it  is  made  a. little  stiffer,  is  more  proper 
for  kiting  vessels  than  any  I  ever  have  tried;  be- 
cause, if  properly  mixed,  it  will  never  crack, 
nor  will  it  indurate  so  as  to  endanger  the  break- 
ing the  necks  of  the  vessels  when  taken  off.' 

R£TOSS',«.sk    Re  and  toss;    To  toss  back. 

Tossed  and  retott  the  ball  incessant  flies.    Pops. 

RETOUCH',!?,  i.  Tt.  retoucher.  To  touch 
anew ;  improve  by  new  touches. 

He  furnished  me  with  all  the  passages  in  Aristotle 
and  Horace,  used  to  explain  tne  art  of  poetry  by 
painting ;  which,  if  ever  I  retouch  this  essay,  shall 
be  inserted.  linden. 

Lintot,  dull  roigue  !  will  think  your  price  too 
much ; 
'  Not,  Sir,  if  you  revise  it  and  retotuk.*  Pope, 

RETRACE'  V.  a.  Fr.  reiracer.  To  trace 
back;  or  again. 

Then  if  the  line  of  Turnus  you  retrace. 
He  springs  from  Inachus  of  Argive  race.    Drydsn. 

RETRACT,  17.  a.  &  v.  n.  >      Fr.  retracter  ; 

IReteacta'tioh,  n.  i.         Slat,  retraeha.  To 

RfiTEACt'iON.  J  recall ;  recant ;  to 

fake  back;  resume;  to  unsay:  retractation  is. 


ittg ;  or  stopping  them  when  cracked,  during  change  of  declared  opinion ;  recantation :  retrao- 

any  chemical  operation,  without  removing  any  tion,  act  of  withdrawing  a  declared  opinion  or 

of  the  contents.    '  I  have  always  found  it  neoes-  claim;  a  change  of  measures;   declaration  of 

sary,'  says  the  writer,  <  to  use  a  previous  coating  change. 

for  filling  up  the  interstices  of  the  eartii  or  stone.  There  came  into  her  head  certain  verKs,  which  if 


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tikfi  had  had  present  commodity,  iha  would  have 
adjoined  as  a  retraetion  to  the  other.  Sidney, 

Were  I  alone  to  pass  the  difficulties, 

Paris  should  ne'er  retract  what  he  hath  done, 

Nor  faint  in  the  pursuit.  Shahpeare. 

If  his  subtilities  could  have  satisfied  ine»  I  would 
as  freely  have  retracted  this  charge  of  idolatry  i  as  I 
ever  made  it.  ^  StilUn^eet. 

These  words  are  David's  retractation,  or  laying 
down  of  a  bloody  and  revengeful  resolution.  SouMh. 

They  make  bold  with  the  deity,  when  they  make 
him  do  and  undo,  go  forwards  and  backwards  by 
such  countermarches  and  retraeiation»  as  we  do  not 
repute  to  the  Almighty.  Woodward. 

She  will,  and  she  will  not,  she  grants,  denies. 
Consents,  retraclt,  advances,  and  then  flies. 

GranfsilU, 

RETREAT/  n.  i,Uv,a.  FreDch  retraiU. 
[Written  formerly  retraict  and  -retrait.]  Act  of 
retiring ;  state  or  place  of  retirement  or  security : 
to  go  back ;  go  to  a  private  abode. 

Upon  her  eyelids  many  graces  sat. 
Under  the  shadow  of  her  even  brows, 

Working  bellgards  and  amorous  retraite. 
And  every  one  her  ovrn  with  grace  endows. 

Spenur. 
The  earl  of  Lincoln,  deceived  of  the  country's 
concourse  unto  him,  and  seeing  the  business  past 
retraict,  resolved  to  make  on  where  the  ^ing  was, 
and  give  him  battle.  &con. 

This  place  our  dungeon,  not  our  safe  retreat 
Beyond  iu  potent  arm.  Milton. 

No  thought  of  flight. 
None  of  retreat.  Id. 

Others  more  mild 
Retreated  in  a  silent  valley,  sing 
Their  own  heroic  deeds.  Id. 

That  pleasing  shade  they  sought,  a  safe  retreat 
From  sudden  April  showers,  a  shelter  from  the  heat. 

Ihyden. 
lie  built  his  son  a  house  of  pleasure,  and  spared 
no  cost  to  make  a  delicious  retreat.  L*Ettrange. 
There  is  no  such  way  to  give  defence  to  absurd 
doctrines,  as  to  guard  thom  round  with  legions  of 
obscure  and  undefined  words ;  which  yet  make  these 
retreats  more  like  the  dens  of  robbers,  than  the  for- 
tresses of  fair  warriors.  Locke. 

Holy  retreat,  sithence  no  female  thither 
.    Must  dare  approach  from  the  inferiour  reptile 
To  woman,  rbrm  divine.  Priar. 

Having  taken  her  by  the  hand,  he  retreated  with 
his  eye  fixed  upon  her.  Arhuthnot  and  Pope. 

But  beauty's  triumph  is  well-timed  retreat. 
As  hard  a  science  to  the  fair  as  great.  Pope. 

Retreat,  in  a  military  sense.  Ap  army  or 
body  of  men  are  said  to  retreat  when  they  turn 
their  backs  upon  the  enemy,  or  are  retiring  from 
the  ground  they  occupied :  hence  every  march 
in  withdrawing  from  the  enemy  is  called  a  re- 
treat. That  which  is  performed  in  sight  of  an 
active  enemy,  who  pureues  with  a  superior  force, 
is  the  most  important ;  and  is  a  manoeuvre  the 
most  calculated  to  display  the  prudence,  courage, 
and  address,  of  an  officer  who  commands.  The 
most  famous  retreat  in  ancient  history  was  that 
of  Xenophpn. 

Retreat  is  also  a  beat  of  the  drum,  at  the 
firing  of  the  evening  gun ;  at  which  the  drum- 
major,  with  all  the  drums  of  the  battalion,  ex- 
cept such  as  are  upon  duty,  beats  from  the  camp- 
colors  on  the  right  to  those  on  the  lef^,  on  the 
parade  of  the  encampment :  the  drums  of  all  the 


guards  beat  also ;  tiie  trumpets  at  the  tame  time 
sounding  at  the  head  of  their  respective  troops. 
This  is  to  warn  the  soldiers  to  forbear  firing,  and 
the  sentinels  to  challenge,  till  the  break  of  day 
that  the  reveille  is  beat.  The  retreat  is  likewise 
called  setting  the  watch. 
RETRENCH',  v.  a.  &  v.  n.  I  Fr.  retrancher. 
Retaench'ment,  fi.  t.  )  To  cut  off;  pare 
away;  confine;  live  within  narrow  limits,  as 
to  expense :  the  act  of  lopping  away ;  entrench- 
ment.. 

The  prnner's  hand  must  quench 
Thy  heat,  and  thy  exuberant  parts  retrmcft. 

Denkam. 
Nothing  can  be  added  to  the  wit  of  Ovid*s  MeU- 
morphoses ;  bat  many  things  oug\it  to  have  been 
retrenched,  Jh-yden. 

In  some  reigns  they  are  for  a  power  and  obe- 
dience that  is  unlimited ;  and  in  others  are  for  re> 
<ren«Atn^,  within  the  narrowest  bounds,  the  authority 
of  the  princes,  and  the  allegiance  of  the  subject. 

Addison't  Freeholder, 
The  want  of  vowels  in  onr  language  has  been  the 
general  complaint  of  our  politest  authors,  who  ne- 
vertheless have  made  these  retrenchmente,  and  coO' 
sequently  encreased  our  former  scarcity.      Addison. 

We  ought  to  retrendi  those  superfluous  expenses 
to  qualify  ourselves  for  the  exercise  of  charity. 

Atterhury, 
Can  I  retrench  ?  ^es,  mighty  well. 
Shrink  back  to  m^  paternal  cell, 
A  little  house,  with  trees  a-row. 
And,  like  its  master,  very  low.  Pope. 

Retrenchment,  in  the  art  of  war^  any  kind 
of  work  raised  to  cover  a  post,  and  fortify  it 
against  the  enemy. 

RETRIB'UTE,  v.  c.-N      Fr.  retrUnier;    Lat. 

Retrib'uter,  n.  s,     f   retribuo.      To    pay 

Retribu'tion,  sback ;     make    repy- 

Retrib'utor,  114/.      Imentof;  all  t}>e  deri- 

Retrib'dtiye.  Jyatives  corresponding. 

The  king  thought  he  had  not  remunerated  his 
j)eople  sufficiently  with  good  laws,  which  evermore 
was  his  retribution  for  treasure.  BacovCe  Henry  Vil. 

In  good  offices  and  due  tetrihutione,  we  may  not 
be  pinching  and  niggardly :  it  argues  an  ignoble 
mind,  where  we  have  wronged  to  higgle  and  dodge 
in  the  amends.  Hail. 

All  who  have  their  reward  on  earth,  the  fruits 
Of  painful  superstition,  and  blind  zeal, 
Nought  seeking  but  the  praise  of  rnen,  here  find 
Fit  retTtbutwn,  empty  as  their  deeds.  Millon. 

Both  the  will  and  power  to  serve  him  are  his  upon 
so  many  scores,  that  we  are  unable  to  retribute, 
unless  we  do  restore ;  and  all  the  duties  we  can  pay 
our  Maker  are  less  properly  requitals  than  restitu- 
tions. Boyle, 

There  is  no  nation,  though  plunged  into  never 
such  gross  idolatry,  but  has  some  awful  sense  of 
deity,  and  a  persuasion  of  a  state  of  retrihution  ts 
men  after  this  life.  South. 

It  is  a  strong  argument  for  a  state  of  retfibmtion . 
hereafter,  that  in  this  world  v/rtuous  persons  are 
very  often  unfortunate,  and  vicious  persons  pros- 
perous. Addison* i  Spectator, 
■     Something  strangely  retributire  is  working. 

Chrisie. 

RETRIEVE',  V.  a.  Fr.  retraitver.  To  re- 
cover; restore;  repair;  regain. 

.With  late  repentance  now  they  would  retrieve 
The  bodies  they  forsook,  and  wish  to  live.-  Dryden, 
Philomela's  liberty  retrieved^ 

Cheers  her  sad  soul.  Phdipt. 


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O  reason !  once  again  to  thee  I  call ; 
Accept  my  sorrow,  and  retrieve  my  fall.  Prior, 

If  one,  like  the  old  Latin  poets,  came  among 
them,  it  would  be  a  means  to  retrieve  them  from  their 
cold  trivial  conceits,  to  an  imitation  of  their  prede- 
cessors. BerheUy  to  Pope. 

RETROCES'SION,  n.  t.  Lat.  retrocessum. 
The  act  of  going  back. 

These  bursts  of  light,  and  involntions  of  darkness, 
these  transient  and  involuntary  excursions  and  re- 
troceerions  of  invention/  having  some  appearance  of 
deviation  from  the  common  train  of  nature,  are 
eagerly  caught  by  the  lovers  of  a  wonder.  Joknton, 

RETROCOPULATION,  n.#.  Retro  and 
copulation.    Postcoition. 

From  the  nature  of  this  position,  there  ensueth  a 
'  necessity  of  retroeopulation.  Browne, 

RETROGRADE,  adj.  &  v  n.  )      Fr.  retro^ 

Ret'bogression,  n.  t.  S  grade:   Lat. 

retro  and  gradior.    Going  backward ;   opposite 

or  contrary;  to  go  backward  :   the  act  or  doing 

so. 

Your  intent 
In  going  back  to  school  to  Wittenberg, 
It  is  most  retrograde  to  our  desire.      Shakapeare. 
Princes,  if  they  use  ambitious  men,  should  handle 
it  so,  as  they  be  still  progressive,  and  not  retrograde, 

Beeon. 
Their  wandering  course,  now  high,  now  low,  then 
hid. 
Progressive,  retrograde,  or  standiiig  still. 
In  six  thou  seest.  Mitlon*s  Paradise  Lost. 

The  account,  established  upon  the  rise  and  descent 
of  the  stars,  can  be  no  reasonable  rule  unto  distant 
nations,  afad  by  reason  of  their  retrogression,  but 
temporary  unto  an^  one.  Broime* 

Two  geomantick  figures  were  displayed ; 
One  when  direct,  and  one  when  retn^rade, 

Dryden. 
As  for  the  revolutions,  stations,  and  retrogradations 
of  the  planets,  observed  constantly  in  most  certain 
periods  of  time,  it  sufficiently  demonstrates,  that  their 
motions  are  governed  by  counsel.  .  Bay, 

RETROMIN'GENCY,  n.  #.  ^       Latin  retro 
Retromin'gent,  adj.  >  and        mingo. 

The  quality  of  staling  backwards :  the  adjective  . 
corresponaing. 

The  last  foundation  was  retromingeney,  or  pissing 
backwards ;  for  men  observing  both  sexes  to  urine 
backwards,  or  aversly  between  their  legs,  they  might 
conceive  there  were  feminine  parts  in  ^th. 

Browne's  Vulgar  Emmrs. 
By  reason  of  the  backward  position  of  the  femi- 
nine parts  of  quadrupeds,  they  can  hardly  admit  the 
substitution  of  masculine  generations,  except  it  be 
in  retromitigents,  Browne. 

RETROSPECT,  n.  s,^     Lat.  retro  and  tpe- 
Retrospec'tion.  >cio.      Look    thrown 

Retrospec'tive,  adj.  j  upon  thinp  behind 
or  things  past :  act  or  faculty  of  looking  back ; 
looking  backwards. 

As  you  arraign  his  majesty  by  retrospect,  so  you 
condemn  his  government  by  second  sight. 

Addison*s  Freeholdtr, 
In  vain  the  grave,  with  retrctpecthe  eye. 
Would  from  the'  apparent  what  conclude  the  why. 

PoTfe, 
Can*st  thou' take  delight  in  viewing 
This  poor  isle's  approaching  ruin. 
When  a^y  retrospection  vast 
Sees  the  glorious  ages  past  t 


Happy  nation  were  we  blind^ 

Or  had  only  eyes  behind.        .  Swift, 

RETUNiy,  V.  a.  Lat.  retwido.  To  blunt; 
turn. 

Covered  with  skin  and  hair  keeps  it  warm,  beine 
naturally  a  very  cold  (teirt,  and  also  to  quench  and 
dissipate  the  force  of  any  stroke  that  shall  be  dealt 
it,  and  retund  the  edge  of  any  weapon.  Ray, 

RETURN',  r.n.,t;.  a.,  &"\  Fr.  retoumerj 
R^turm'able,  adj.  [n.  s.  f  re  and  turn.  To 
Return'er,  n.i.  income  or  go  back; 

Return'less,  adj*  J  come  again  ;  come 

again  to  the  beginning  of  a  series ;  retort ;  recri- 
minate ;  answer :  to  repay ;  give  or  send  back ; 
tran.smit ;  give  account  of:  as  a  noun  substan- 
tive, the  act  of  coming,  going,  restoring,  or  paying 
back;  revolution;  retrogression  ;  profit  $  advan- 
tage ;  remittance :  returnable  is,  in  law,  allowed 
to  be  reported  back:  returner,  he  who  pays 
money :  retumless,  not  admitting  return. 

Return  him  a  trespass  offering.      1  Samud  vL  3. ' 
Thy  Lord  shall  return  thy  wickedness  upon  thine 
own  head.  1  Kines  li.  44. 

At  the  return  of  the  year,  the  king  of  Syria  wilt 
come  up.  Id,  xx.  22. 

Whoso  rolleth  a  stone,  it  will  return  upon  him. 
»  Proverbs  xxvi.  • 

I  am  in  blood 
Stept  in  so  far,  that,  should  I  wade  no 'more, 
Returning  were  as  tedious  as  go  o'er.     Shakspeore, 

The  thing  of  courage, 
As  roused  with  rage,  with  rage  doth  sympathize ; 
And,  with  an  accent  tuned  in  self-same  key. 
Returns  to  chiding  fortune.  Idj- 

The  king  of  France  so  suddenly  gone  back ! 
— Something  since  his  coming  forth  is  thought  of. 
That  his  return  was  now  most  necessary.  Id, 

Within  these  two  months,  I  do  expect  return 
Of  thrice,  three  times  the  value  of  this  bond.       Id, 
Weapons  hardly  fall  under  rule ;  yet  even  they 
have  returns  and  viciteitudes;    for  ordnance   was 
known  in  the  city  of  the  Oxidraces  in  India,  and  is 
what  the  Macedonians  called  thunder  and  lightnijig. 

Bacon's  Essays. 
As  for  any  merchandise  you  have  bought,  ye  shall 
have  your  return  in  merchandise  or  gold.       Bacon, 

As  to  roots  accelerated  in  their  ripening,  there  is 
the  high  price  that  those  things  bear,  and  the  swift- 
ness of  their  returns ;  for,  in  some  grounds,  a  radish 
comes  in  a  month,  that  in  others  will  not  come  in 
two,  and  so  make  double  returns.  Id, 

But  well  knew  the  troth 
Of  this  thine  own  retume,  though  all  my  friends, 
I  knew  as  well  should  make  retumlesse  ends. 

Chapman^ 
The  fruit,  from  many  days  of  recreation,  is  very 
little ;  but  from  these  few  hours  we  spend  in  prayer, 
the  return  is  great.  Taylor. 

Instead  of  a  ship,  he  should  levy  money,  and  Hf> 
tuHi  the  same  to  the  treasurer  for  his  majesty's  use. 

Ciarendon, 
On  their  embattled  ranks  the  waves  return, 

.Milton. 
With  the  year 
Seasons  return,  but  not  to  me  returns 
Day,  or  the  sweet  approach  of  even  or  mom.     Id, 
.  When  answer  none  returned,  I  set  me  down.  Id, 
Reject  not  then  what  offered  means  ;  who  kiiows 
But  God  hath  set  before  us,  to  return  thee  . 
Home  to  thy  country  and  his  sacred  house  1        Id, 

Probably  one  fotirth  part  more  died  of  the  plague 
than  are  returned,  Graunt*s  Bills  of  Mortality, 


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REV 


It  may  be  <lecided  in  (hat  court  wImi«  tlM  vtrdict 
ife  retumabU.  HaU. 

If  yott  are  a  maUcioua  readttr,  yon  ntum  upoa 
BM  that  I  afiect  to  be  tbonght  more  impartial  than  I 
•m»    ,  DrjfdHi* 

WImb  fbiood  from  hence  to  view  our  parU  be 
moumi; 
Tairei  little  journiet,  and  mahee  (raid  ««£«nM.   U. 

A  flaw  is  m  thy  ill-baked  venel  found ; 
Tia  hoUow>  an  j  rptvm»  a  jarring  sound.  Id. 

If  th^  fvfumed  out  of  bondage,  it  must  be  into  a 
state  of  freedom.  Laete. 

Brokers  cannot  have  less  money  by  them  than 
oqe  twentieth  part  of  their  yearly  rtturiM.  JU. 

the  chapmen,  that  give  highest  for  this,  can 
make  most  profit  by  it,  and  those  are  the  tttmmn  of 
our  money.  /d. 

£ither  of  the  adjoininff  sides  of  the  front  of  an  - 
house  or  groundplot  is  called  a  wthrnn  side, 

MwBOnts  MieAmiieoZ  JSMfotMi* 
The  other  ground  of  God's  sole  prooerty  in  any 
thing  is  the  gift,  or  rather  the  rstum  ot  it  made  by 
man  to  God.  SmUk, 

Ungrateful  lord ! 
Wonld'st  thou  invade  my  life,  as  a  rttmn 
For  profiered  level  B0O0. 

He  shall  have  an  attachment  against  the  sherifif, 
directed  to  the  coroner,  and  ivdniaMs  into  the  kind's 
bench.  ^9^^ 

Rciufiis,  like  these,  our  mistress  bids  us  make. 
When  fipom  a  foreign  prince  a  gift  her  Britons  take. 

Prior, 
Since  these  are  some  of  the  reticnu  which  we  made 
to  God,  si^  obtaining  oursucoesses^can  we  reason- 
ably presume  that  we  are  in  the  favour  of  God  \ 

A^terbmy* 
This  is  breaking  'into  a  constitution  to  serve,  a 
present  eipedient;  the  remedy  of  an  empirick,  to 
stifle  the  present  pain,  but  witn  certain  prospect  of 
sudden  rttwnu.  SwifU 

He  said ;  and  thus  the  qi^n  of  heaven  r^tmei. 
Must  I,  oh  Jove,  in  bloody  wars  contend  1     Pop€» 
The  all.  of  thine  that  cannot  die 
Through  dark  ^nd  dread  Eternity, 

Bsiyrm  again  to  me, 
And  more  thy  buried  lov^  endean 
Than  ought,  except  its  living  years.  Bf/rcn,    . 

Retublk,  Return A»  or  Retourna,  in  law,  is 
used  in  divers  senses.  .  1.  Return  of  writs  by 
sheriffs  ^od  bailiffs  is  a  certificate  made  by  them 
to  the  court,  of  what  they  have  do^e  in  relation 
to  the  execution  of  the  writ  directefl  to  theip. 
This  is  written  on  the. back  of  the  writ  by  the 
officer,  who  thus  sends  the  writ  back  to  the  court 
whence  it  issued,  to  be  filed.  2.  Return  of  a 
commission^  a  certificate  or  answer  sent  to  the 
court  whence  the  commission  issues,  concern- 
ing what  has  tieen  done  by  the  comlmission- 
ers.  3.  Returns,  or  days  in  bank,  are  certain 
days  ia  each  term,  appointed  for  the  return  of 
writs,  Sec. 

RETZAT^  the  ^sapofi  of  two  rivers  and.  a  creek 
.of  Bavaria :  the  latter  has  an  area  of  3400  square 
miles,  and  520,000  inhabitauts.  The  capital  is 
Anspach. 

R£TZIA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  mono- 
gynia  order,  and  pentandria  class  of  plants,  mit- 
ral order  twenty-ninth,  campmacec :  caps,  bilo- 
cular:.coR.  cylindricad,  villous  without,  stigma 
bifid. 

REU,  the  son  of  Peleg,  fo&er  of  Serug,  and 
great-grandfather  of  Abraham.     He  was  bom 


lypiioress. 


about  the  time  of  the  divnion  of  the  earth,  and 
died  in  his  207th  year. 

REUCHLIN,  or  Capkio  (John),  LL.D.  a 
learned  German,  bom  at  Pforzheim,  in  1450.  He 
went  to  Paris  vrith  the  bishop  of  Utrecht,  where 
be  studied  grammar  under  John  de  Lapide, 
vfaetoric  under  Gaguinus,  Greek  under  Tipher- 
nus,  and  Hebrew  under  Weeselua.  He  becsme 
doctte  oC  philoBophy  at  Basil  in  1749»  and 
LL.D.  of  OiieaBs;  where  he  taught  GjBeek,  and 
vublisbed  a  gmmnar,  lexicon,  and  vocabularies, 
in  that  language.  He  next  went  to  Rome,  where 
Hermolans  Barbaras  persuaded  him  to  tSkaogt 
his  naitie  to  Oapiio,  whidi  in  Greek  meant  the 
same  as  Renchlm  in  Geman,  i.  e.  moke..  He 
was  made  ambanador  to  Frederick  Ul^  vrfao 
granted  him  many  favors,  but  after  that  epipe- 
ror's  death  he  was  banished,  and  went  to  Worms, 
where  the  elector  palatine  employed  him  to 
defend  his  cause  at  Rome,  where  ike  made  a 
celebrated  oration  before  the  pope  on  the  rights 
of  the  German  princes  and  churches.  He  re- 
vived the  study  of  Hebrew,  and  died  in  1522. 
The  Epistole  Obscuroram  Virorum  are  ascribed 
to.him. 

R£V£',  n.«.  Sax.  sepepa,  a  governor.  The 
bailiff  of  a  frandiise  or  xpoKoar. 

The  me,  the  miller,  and  the  mincing  kdyjprio 
speak  in  character.  ' 

REVEAU,  v.  a.-)     Fr.  reveler ;  Lat  revelo, 

Revxal'er, n. s. >To    show;    discover;  lay 
Revela'tiov.     3 open:  the  noun   substan- 
tives corresponding. 

The  sufferings  of  this  lifo  are  not  to  he  oempaied 
with  the  gloiy  which  shall  be  rtiuaUd  in  ns. 

iZMiojuviii.  18. 

Be  ashamed :  speaking  again  that  which  thoa 
hast  heard,  and  revealing  of  secrets.  Eceim,  zli.  23. 

Hie  haMt  of  faith  in  divinity  is  an  argument  of 
things  unseen,  as  a  stable  assent  unto  thiqgs  inevi- 
dent,  upon  authority  of  the  divine  re^eakr, 

Broum^e  Vitlgar  Enmtn, 

Light  was  the  woand,  the  prmoe's  care  unknown. 
She  might  not,  would  not^  yet  reveal  her  own. 

Walkr. 

He  brought  a  taper ;  the  retfealer  lie ht 
Exposed  both  crime  and  criminal  to  sight.  Jhyden, 

Thy  throne  is  darkness  in  the  abyss  of  light, 
A  blare  of  gloiy  tiiat  forbids  the  sight ; 
O  teach  me  to  believe  thee  thus  concealed. 
And  search  no  further  than  thyself  reeeaUd.       /d. 

The  answer  to  one  who  stied  what  time  was,  si 
non  rogas  intelligo — ^that  is,  the  more  I  think  of  time, 
4jte  less  I  understand  it— might  persuade  one,  that 
time,  which  revealt  aA  other  things,  is  itself  not  to 
be  .discovered.  Lodtt. 

When  the  dirine  reeelmtknu  were  committed  to 
writing,  the  Jews  were  such  scrupulous  reveiera  of 
them,  that  they  numbered  even  the  letters  of  the  Old 
Teitainent  Deeay  ef  Piety, 

As  the  gospel  appears  in  respect  of  the  law  to  be  a 
clearer  revelation  ti  the  mystical  part,  so  it  is  a  fer 
more  benign  dispensation  of  the  practi^  part. 

Spnt. 

The  Uyes  of  the  revealen  may  be  justly  set  ofer 
against  the  revelation,  to  find  w&ther  they  agree. 

Atter^gry. 

REVEILLE^  a  beat  of  dram  about  break  of 
day,  to  give  ncHice  that  it  is  time  for  the  soldiers 
to  arise,  and  that  the  sentries  aie  to  forbear  chal- 
lenging. 


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REVELATION. 


565 


R£V*£LyV.n.  -V     Skloner  derives  it  from 

Rev'sller,  n.#.  f  Fr.  reveillerj  to  awake ;  3Lye 

REv'ELBYy         4  from  Bel|p.  raveeUny  to  rove 

Revel-boui^.    3  loosely   about,    which    lis 

countenanced   by  the  old    phrase,  reve}-rout. 

Perhaps  all  are  from  Lat  re  and  vigilia.    To 

feast  with  clamorous  merriment :  and  (of  Lat, 

reneUo\  to  drive  hack :  revelry  is,  jollity ;  mirth : 

reveller,  one  who  indulges  in  xeveu :  revel-rout, 

a  tumult ;  tumultuous  festivity. 

My  honey  love. 
Will  we  return,  unto  thy  il^ther's  hotue, 
And  reod  it  as  biavely  as  the  best.         Shakuptm* 

We  shall  have reMUng  to-night; 
I  will  assume  thy  part  in  some  oisguise.  JU. 

Let  them  pincn  the  unclean  knight, 
And  ask  him,  why,  that  hour  of  ftary  revet. 
In  their  so  sacred  paths  he  dares  to  tread  1         Id* 

fairies,  black,  grey,  green,  and  white. 
You  moonshine  rmMten,  attend  yoor  office*       Id, 

Forget  this  new-fallen  dignity. 
And  fall  into  our  rustic  rwebry.  Id. 

Were  the  doctrine  new. 
That  the  earth  moved,  this  day  would  make  it  true ; 
For  every  part  to  dande  and  nod  goes, 
They  tread  the  air,  uid  foil  not  where  they  rose. 

Dcnm, 
Ue  can  report  yon  more  odd  tales 

Of  our  outlaw  Robin  Hood, 

That  ftwHUd  here  in  Sherewood, 

Though  he  ne*er  shot  in  his  bow.      Ben  J&Mon, 

Those  who  miscany  escape  by  their  flood  revel- 
tin^  the  humours  from  their  lungs.  Harveg. 
There  let  Hymen  oft  appear 

In  saffion  robe  with  taper  clear. 


And  pomp,  and  ftest  uid  revelry, 
With  mask  and!    " 


I  antick  pageantry.  HHUon* 

For  this  his  minion,  the  reoel-rottt  is  done.  Row$. 

Venesection  in  the  left  aim  does  more  immediate 
rewi,  yet  the  difference  is  minute. 

Friend* »  Htttcry  ef  Phytie, 

Unwdcome  reoellerv,  whose  lawless  joy 
Pains  the  sase  ear,  and  hurts  the  sober  eye.   Pope. 
While  youth^s  hot  wishes  in  our  red  veins  reeei, 

We  know  not  this — ^the  blood  flows  on  too  fast ; 
But  as  the  torrent  widens  towards  the  ocean. 
We  ponder  deeply  on  each  past  emotion.      J%fron. 

9  Revel,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  depart- 
ment of  the  Upper  Garonne,  is  situated  not  far 
^m  the  great  canal  of  Languedoc.  It  has  a 
population  of  3800,  who  manu&cture  woollens, 
linen,  stockings,  and  caps.  During  the  civil 
wars  of  the  sixteenth  centiirv  it  was  taken  and 
fortified  by  the  Calvinists,  but  afterwards  dis- 
mantled. Thirty  miles  south-east  of  Toulouse. 
.  Revelation  is  the  act  of  revealing  or  making 
a  thing  public  that  waa  before  unknown ;  it  is 
also  used  for  the  discoveries  made  by  God  ,to 
his  prophets,  and  by  them  to  the  world ;  and 
more  particularly  for  the  books  of  the  Old  and 
Mew  Testament.  See  Bible,  Christianity, 
Miracle,  Prophecy,  Religion,  and  Theo- 
jLOGY.  The  principal  tests  of  the  truth  of 
ia»y  revelation  are,  the  tendency  of  its  prac- 
iicad  doctrines ;  its  consistency  with  itself,  and 
with  the  known  attributes  of  God;  and  some 
satisfactory  evidence  that  it  cannot  have  been 
derived  from  a  human  source.  In  every  reve- 
lation confirmed  bv  this  evidence  many  doo- 
.trines  aie  to  be  looked  for  which  human  reason 
cannot  fully  comprehend ;  and  these  are  to  be 


believed  on  the  testimony  of  God,  and  suffered 
to  produce  their  practical  consequences.  This 
kind  of  belief  has  place  in  arts  and  sciences,  as 
well  ^,in  religion.  Whoever  avails  himselt  of 
the  demonstrations  of  NewtoOi  Bernouilli,  and 
others,  respecting  the  resistance  of  fluids,  and 
applies  their  conclpsions  to  the  art  of  ship- 
building, is  as  implicit  a  believer,  if  he  under- 
stand not  the  pnhctples  of  fluxions,  as  any 
Christian;  and  yet  no  man  will  say  that  his  fium 
is  not  productive  of  important  practical  conse- 
quences. 

This  is  a  subject  respecting  which  we  have 
felt  a  strong  desire  to  oe  at  once  plain  and 
copious  in  the  present  work;  and,  for  reasons 
which  win  appear  at  the  close,  what  may 
seem  briefly  aiscussed  in  this  article  will  be 
resumed  in  that  of  Theoxjogt.  As  a  country 
we  are  recovering — and  but  recovering — in 
common  with  the  other  nations  of  Europe  from 
the  storm  of  infidelity  and  eveij  sort  of  discord 
which  began  in  revolutionary  France.  Daring 
its  progress  not  only  new  and  excellent  expo- 
sitions and  defences  of  the  evidences  of  our  faith 
have  appeared  in  England  and  placed  the  whole 
subject  in  renewed  and  living  light,  but  one  of 
the  greatest  moral  experiments  upon  infidelity 
that  was  ever  tried^  or  that  perhaps  ever  can  be 
tried,  may  be  said  to  have  been  completed. 
Lardner  and  I'aley  and  Porteus  and  Watson 
(to  say  nothing  of  existing  writers)  must  on  the 
other  hand  have  lived  in  vain,  if  the  evidences 
of  Christianity  mav  not  be  popularised  with  . 
more  fecility,  and  left  to  their  own  fidr  effect 
upon  the  minds  of  men  with  more  confidence 
than  ever;  while  on  the  other  hand  it  will  in- 
deed appear  that  nations  are  never  to  profit  by 
experience,  if  the  intonational  Instory  of  Eu- 
rope for  the  last  thirty  years  shall  not  give  new 
scope  to  the  arguments  for  Christianity,  and  show 
the  true  tendencies  of  atheism. 

Connected  with  these  great  facts,  a^d  by  no 
means  infimor  to  any  other  consideration  in  our 
view  of  its  importance,  is  the  interesting  situa- 
tion of  this  country  at  the  present  period,  with 
regard  to  education  and  the  circulation  of  the 
Bible.  How  mightily  calculated  to  act  upon 
each  other  are  the  noble  engipes  which  are  every- 
where at  work  to  promote  these  objects  I  But 
the  more  we  attempt  to  educate  all  classes,  and 
especially  those  negleeifed  groUpes  of  society  to 
whom  education  and  all  its  advanti^  are  no- 
velties, the  more  in  all  the  ardor  of  novelty  must 
we  expect  to  see  the  spirit  of  enquiry  rising 
about  us-^and  the  real  taste  of  truth  mingling 
with  much  of  ihe  pride  of  supposed  discoveries 
in  morals  and  lelurion.  Eacn  class  of  society, 
too,  will  act  strongly,  and,  on  the  whole,  bene- 
ficiillv  on  every  omer ;  while  all  classes  will  be 
'stimulated  more  than  ever  to  discuss  every  thing 
they  have  believed  or  are  taught  to  believe.  The 
cultivation  of  the  mind  educes  en<}uiry :  but  sorry 
we  are  to  add  that  some  distmguished  promoters 
of  liberal  enquiry  l^ve  been,  at  any  rate,  ima- 
gined, to  be  indisposed  to  religion;  and  to 
slight  its  evidences.  Here  arises  therefore  a 
double  reason  for  the  plain  and  full  exhibition 
of  them:  it  is  due  at  once  to  science  and 
religion. 


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REVELATION. 


We  should  state  the  presumption  in  favor  of 
tevealed  religion  (to  trace  the  argument  fairly 
from  its  origin)  in  the  following  way.  There  is 
a  God  and  He  i^  infinitely  benevolent.  In  the 
boundless  heavens,  the  teeming  earth,  the  cheer- 
ful seas.  He  has.  opened  volumes  of  tmth  and 
wisdom  invitihg'every  eye.  We  have  read  them 
with  attention,  we  claim  the  privilege  of  think- 
ing and  reasoning  about  them  with  impartiality 
and  independence  of  mind  ;  and  whether  by  the 
light  of  science  we  search  the  arcana  of  nature, 
or  confine  ourselves  to  those  observations  on  her 
works  which  may  be  as  easily  made  by  the 
ploughman  as  by  the  ph^osopher,  ne  Me  truth 
IS  supported  by  such  variety  of  proof  as  the 
being  of  a  beneficent  Author  of  all : .  springs  of 
happiness,  evidently  designed,  open  every  where 
at  our  feet,  and  supply  the  unquestionable  sources 
of  natural  religion. 

One  thinz  however  is  left  unsatisfied — the 
human  mind.  Nature  teaches  us  to  ask  ques- 
tions about  her  God  which  she  cannot  answer. 
This  is  an  anomaly.  Every  thing  seems  to  lead 
up  to  man:  he  has  a  more  exquisitely  finished 
form  than  any  creature  of  his  size,  and  a  power 
of  reflection,  and  therefore  of  anticipation,  pos- 
sessed by  no  other  creature:  he  arrives  at  the 
position  with  which  we  have  commenced ;  he 
finds  it  the  capital  truth  of  nature,  without 
which  all  the  conclusions  of  science  are  half- 
truths  only,  but  he  cannot  proceed.  The  very 
being  of  nature's  God  seems  to  include  a  hearty 
determination  in  God  to  make  his  creatures 
happy,  by  adapting  an  object  to  every  faculty  of 
enjoyment;  ahd  all  their  senses  are  Acuities  of 
enjoyment.  But  here  is  an  appetite  for  truth 
unprovided  for;  either  therefore  this  must  re- 
main au  inexplicable  mys(ery,  or  rather  a  con- 
tradiction to  the  whole  series  of  facts  that 
arr(ue  a  benevolent  designer  in  the  works  of 
nature,  or  nature  herself  suggests  the  highest 
probability  of  a  further  revelation  from  God; 
and  here  we  rest  the  connexion  between  natural 
and  revealed  religion.  We  have  some  hope  of 
all  who  *  desire  to  retain  God  in  their  know- 
ledge,' and  would  reason  with  all  who  avow  that 
desire.  The  Bible  professes  to  contain  that  re- 
velation' from  God  which  every  consistent  deist 
must  be  enquiring  for — it  demands  '  a  reason- 
able service  only,  from  its  most  devout  ad- 
mirers, and  can  therefore  have  nothing  to  fear 
from  an  investigation  of  its  claims.  He  who 
fiatet  a  man  for  not  being  a  Christian  is  not  him- 
self  a  Christian^  lord  Littleton  has  well  said. 
W-eak  Christians  and  violent  sceptics  are  each 
likely  to  be  improperly  affected  by  the  revival 
of  the  deistical  controversy, — the  former  by 
imdue  apprehensions,  the  latter  by  a  premature 
exultation;  but,  whether  the  triumphs  of  the 
one  or  the  fears  of  the  other  are  to  be  realised, 
we  deem  it  a  paramount  duty  to  request  both, 
as  much  as  possible,  to  suppress  mere  emotions, 
and  in  the  spirit  of  untrembling  deliberation  to 
allow  the  arena  to  be  cleared  and  the  conflict  to 
be  fairly  and  openly  decided. 

But  to  return : — By  revealed,  as  distinguished 
from  natural  religion,  we  are  to  understand  that 
Icnowledge  of  religion  which  was  originally  com- 
municated in  a  supernatural  way.  '  A  revelation 


of  this  kind  must  either  be  by.  an 

infallible  inspiration,  or  illumination  of  every 
particular  person,  for  informing  and  directim^ 
nim  with  regard  to  Uie  knowledge  and  practice 
of  religion ;  or  by  God*s  making  an  extraordi- 
nary discovery  of  himself  and  of  his  will  to 
some  person  or  persons,  who  should  be  com- 
missioned to  communicate  it  to  others.  In  the 
former  case  it  could  not  be  properly  called  ex- 
traordinary or  supernatural  revelation ;  for  if  it 
were  a  universal  infallible  light,  imparted  to 
every  single  person  in  every  nation  and  every  age, 
from  the  beginning  of  the  world,  it  would  be  as 
common  and  familiar  to  every  one  as  the  com- 
mon light  of  reason,  and  by  being  universal 
would  cease  to  be  extraordinary.  Whereas,  if 
there  be  such  a  thing  as  revealed  religion,  or  if 
it  has  pleased  God  to  make  discoveries  of  his 
will  to  mankind  with  respect  to  religious  truth 
and  duty,  in  a.  way  of  extraordinary  revelation, 
the  most  natural  mode  of  doing  it,  and  that 
which  is  best  accommodated  to  the  present  state 
of  mankind,  seems  to  be  that  the  revelation 
should  be  communicated  to  some  person  or 
persons,  to  be  by  them '  communicated  to  others 
in  his  name ;  at  the  same  time  furnishing  them 
with  sufficient  proofs  and  credentials,  to  show 
that  they  were  indeed  sent  and  inspired  by  him, 
and  that  the  doctrines  and  laws  which  are  the 
matter  of  such  revelation,  and  which  they  are 
authorised  to  publish  to  the  world  in  his  name, 
were  really  and  originally  communicated  by 
revelation  from  him.  This  method  admits  of 
sufficient  proof  bein^  given  to  satisfy  well-dis- 
posed minds,  and  of  provision  being  made  for 
instructing  men,  unless  it  be  their  own  fault,  in 
the  knowledge  of  religion,  and  engaging  them  to 
the  practice  of  the  duties  which  it  requires : 
and  at  the  same  time  there  is  room  for  the  exer- 
cise of  reason  in  examining  the  nature  of  the 
evidence,  and  the  trial  of  men's  sincerity  and 
diligence,  of  their  impartial  love  of  truth,  and 
their  openness  to  receive  it. 

Two  principal  questions  present  themselves 
to  our  consideration  with  regard  to  this  kind  of 
revelation.  Its  usefulness  and  expediency,  and 
even  the  necessity  of  it  in  the  present  state  of 
mankind,  and  its  proofs  and  evidences. 

It  is  acknowledged  by  lord  Bolingbroke,  a 
vmter  of  distinguished  rank  among  the  opposers 
of  revelation  (Works  vol.  ii.  p.  468,  eo.  4to.), 
*  that  an  extraordinary  action  of  God  upon  the 
human  mind,  which  the  word '  inspiration  is  now 
used  to  denote,  is  not  more  inconceivable  than 
the  ordinary  action  of  mind  upon  body,  or 
body  on  mind;'  and  'that  it  is  impertinent 
to  deny  the  existence  of  any  phenomena,  merely 
because  we  cannot  account  for  it.'  Moreover 
as  God  can,  if  he  thinks  proper,  communicate 
his  will  to  mankind,  he  can  also  do  it  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  give  to  those  to  whom  it  is  origin- 
ally and  immediately  made  a  full  and  certain 
assurance  of  its  being  a  true  divine  revelation. 
Besides,  God  can  commission  those  to  whom  he 
has  made  an  extraordinary  revelation  of  his  will 
to  communicate  to  others  what  they  have  re- 
ceived from  him;  and  can  furnish  them  with 
such  credentials  of  their  divine  mission  as  are 
sufficient  to  prove  that  he  sent  them,  and  that  the 


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doctrines  and  laws  which  they  deliver  in  his 
Dain<%  were  indeed  received  from  God.  He  can 
also  undoubtedly,  if  he  thinks  fit,  enable  such 
persons  to  perform  tlie  most  wonderful  works  in' 
his  name,  as  a  proof  that  he  sent  them ;  works 
of  such  a  nature  and  so  circumstanced  as  mani- 
festly to  transcend  all  human  power,  and  bear 
the  evident  marks  of  a  divine  interposition. 
He  can  also  endue  them  with  supernatural  gifts, 
and  enable  them  to  deliver  express  predictions 
of  future  contingent  events,  which  no  human 
sagacity  could  foresee,  and  which  yet  shall  be 
accomplished  in  the  proper  season.  See  Pro- 
phecy. It  should  also  b^  further  observed,  upon 
this  subject,  that  not  only  thev  who  live  in  the 
age  when  the  revelation  was  first  published  to 
the  world  may  have  such  proofs  of  it  as  may  be 
sufficient  to  convince  ihem  of  its  divine  authority 
and  original,  but  that  it  may  be  transmitted  with 
such  evidence  to  those  who  live  in  succeeding 
ages  as  may  lay  them  under  an  obligation  to 
receive  and  submit  to  it  as  a  revelation  from 
God.  Although  oral  tradition  is  not  a  very  sure 
conveyance,  yet  it  is  undeniable  that  writings 
may  be  transmitted  with  such  a  degree  of  evi- 
dence as  to  leave  no  room  for  reasonable  doubt. 
Such  is  the  fact  with  regard  to  the  revelation 
contained  in  the  holy  scriptures;  nor  is  it  diffi- 
cult to  prove  that  we  liave  greater  evidence  of 
the  safe  transmission  of  these  sacred  writings, 
without  any  general  and  material  corruption  and 
alteration,  than  we  liave  concerning  other  books, 
the  genuineness  of  which  is  universally  acknow- 
ledged. To  this  kind  of  argument  it  can  only 
be  objected  that  nvoral  evidence  is  uncertain, 
and  historical  human  testimony  fallible ;  but  to 
the  objection  the  reply  is  obvious,  that  this  kind 
of  evidence  may  be,  and  frequently  is,  so  cir- 
cumstanced, that  the  man  would  scarcely  be 
thought  in  his  senses  who  should  seriously  deny 
or  doubt  of  it.  .It  is  by  moral  evidence,  and 
tlie  testimony  of  fallible  men,  capable  of  deceiv- 
ing and  of  bein;^  deceived,  that  a  man  who  has 
never  been  at  Paris  or  Rome  knows  that  there 
are  such  cities,  and  yet  he  can  no  more  reason- 
ably doubt  of  it  than  if  he  had  seen  them  with 
his  own  eyes.  It  is  by  moral  evidence  that  we 
have  all  oui  laws  and  records,  and  the  assurance 
of  any  past  facts. 

The  great  subject  of  present  consideration,  the 
usefulness  and  advantage  of  divine  revelation, 
and  the  necesuty  of  it  in  the  present  state  of 
mankind,  for  supporting  and  promoting  the 
interests  of  religion  and  virtue  in  tne  world,  may 
thud  be  stated :' — Such  a  revelation  will  be  of 
great  use  even  with  regard  to  those  truths  and 
principles  which  lie  at  the  foundation  of  all  piety, 
or  are  common  to  what  is  called  natural  and 
revealed  religion.  Such  are  the  truths  which 
relate  to  the  excellent  and  unparalleled  nature, 
the  perfections  and  attributes  of  the  one 'supreme 
God.  A  divine  revelation  may  also  be  very 
useful  in  establishing  the  belief  of  the  providence 
of  God,  and  in  communicating  instruction  to  all 
those  who  allow  that  some  kind  of  religious 
worship  and  homage  should  be  rendered  to  him. 
What  kind  of  worship  will  be  most  acceptable 
to  the  Supreme  Being,  and  wjiat  rites  are  most 
propier  tobe  used  in  his  service?  are  questions 


which  unassisted  reason  cannot  positively  and 
with  certainty  determine.  The  aoctrine  of  the 
immortality  of  the  soul,  and  of*a  future  state  of 
retribution,  is  unquestionably  of  very  great  im- 
portance to  mankind ;  and  the  natural  and  moral 
arguments  to  prove  it  have  certainly  great 
weight ;  but  th^  are  assailed  b^  difficulties  and 
objections  which  weaken  the  evidence,  and  may 
occasion  suspicion  and  doubt,  if  natural  reason 
be  our  only  guide  and  umpire.  Accordingly 
some  of  the  most  eminent  ancient  philosophers 
either  denied  this  doctrine,  or  expressed  tnem- 
selves  doubtfully  concerning  it  If  then  God  him- 
self should,  by  a  well-attested  revelation,  assure 
us  that  death  shall  not  put  an  utter  end  to  our 
being ;  that  the  present  life  is  only  the  first  stage 
of  our  existence ;  that  we  shall  be  raised  again 
from  the  dead ;  and  that  God  will  call  all  men 
to  an  account,  and  reward  or  punish  them  in  a 
future  state  according  to  their  behavioui-  in  this ; 
and  should  also  signify  to  us  the  nature  of  those 
rewards  and  punishments,  and  the  -qualifications 
of  the  persons  on  whom  they  should  be  con- 
ferred or  inflicted ;  this  must  needs  be  of  high 
advantage,  and  tend  to  give  us  satisfaction  in  a 
point  of  considerable  importance,  for  encourag- 
ing men  in  the  practice  of  virtue,  and  delivering 
them  from  vice  and  wickedness.  Moreover,  we 
are  led  by  the  light  of  nature  and  reason  to  enter- 
tain some  hope  that  God  will  show  mercy  to 
sinners  upon  their  repentance  and  amendment ; 
but  how  far  this  mercy  shall  extend,  whether  he 
will  pardon  sins  of  every  kind,  even  the  most 
heinous,  frequently  repeated,  and  long  persisted 
in,  merely  upon  repentance  and  amendment; 
and  whether  his  pardon  in  this  case  will  be  only 
a  mitigation  or  remission  of  the  threatened 
penalty,  without  a  full  restitution  to  grace  and 
favor,  and  how  far  he  will  reward  an  obedience 
attended  with  failures  and  defects  :-r-these  things 
might  create  anxious  doubts  and  perplexities  in 
all  thoughtful  minds ;  especially  when  it  is  fur- 
ther considered  that  reason  leads  us  to  regard 
God  as  just  as  well  a^  merciful,  a  wise  and 
righteous  governor,  who  will  therefore  exercise 
his  pardoning  mercy  in  such  a  way  as  seemeth 
most  fit  to  his  rectoral  wisddm,  and  will  best 
answer  the  ends  of  moral  government;  A  reve- 
lation from  God  satisfying  mankind,  and  especi- 
ally anxious  penitents,  with  regard  to  these 
interesting  questions,  and  assuring  them  by 
express  promise,  as  well  as  by  its  representations 
of  the  placability  of  God,  and  of  tne  prevision 
which  he  has  made  for  the  pardon  of  repenting 
transgressors,  in  perfect  consistence  with  all  the 
attributes  of  his  nature  and  laws  of  his  govem- 
"  men^)  must  be  a  very  great  benefit  to  the  world. 
The  assbtance  promised  and  certified  by  revela- 
tion to  those  who  use  their  own  earnest  endea- 
vours in  the  performance  of  thdr  duty  must 
further  evince  its  importance  and  utility.  The 
benefits  and  uses  of  a  divine  revelation  further 
extend  to  those  laws  and  duties  which  we  owe 
to  God,  our  neighbours,  and  oursdves,  and 
which  are  comprehended  under  the  class  of 
moral  obligations.  But  though  revelation  is  thus 
eminently  useful,  and  even  necessary,  it  is  not 
designed  to  supersede  the  use  of  our  own  reason, 
or  to  render  the  exercise  of  it  needless,  but  to 


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ffuidei  improTe,  and  perfect  it.  Berelation,  so 
hr  ftom  discaiding  or  weakening  any  argument 
that  can  be  justly  brought  from  reason,  in  proof 
of  any  truths  relating  to  religion  or  morality, 
adds  to  them  the  attestation  of  a  divine  authority 
or  testimony,  which  is  of  great  weight.  This 
both  gives  ue  a  farther  degree  of  certainty  with 
regard  to  those  things  which  are  in  some  degree 
discoverable  by  the  light  of  reason,  and  also 
furnish^  us  with  a  sufficient  ground  of  assent 
with  respect  to  those  things  which  mere  unas- 
sisted reason,  if  left  to  itself^  would  not  have  dis- 
covered, and  which  yet  it  may  be  of  the  highest 
importance  for  us  to  know. 
This  leads  us  to  the  next  subject  of  enquiry 
iroposed,  :-^What  are  the  proofe  and  evidences 
»y  whidi  it  may  be  known  that  such  a  revela- 
tion has  been  actually  communicated  to  man- 
kind 7  In  general  we  may  observe  ibati  it  has 
been  the  sense  of  mankind,  in  all  ages  and 
nations,  that  God  has  madjB  a  revelation  of  his 
will  to  man;  and  this  prevalent  opinion  Ifas 
been  probably  derived  from  a  tradition  of  some 
extraordinaiy  reveUtion  or  revelations,  commu- 
nicated in  the  earliest  times  to  the  first  ancestors 
of  the  human  race,  though  in  process  of  time  it 
has  been  in  a  great  measure  corrupted  and  lost : 
or  at  least  we  may  hence  conclude  that  men 
have  generally  thought  that  a  revelation  from 
God  to  man  was  lx>th  possible  and  probable ; 
and  that  this  was  agreeable  to  the  ideas  thev  had 
formed  of  the  wisdom  and  goodness  of  God,  and 
of  his  concern  for  mankind.  It  would  lead  us 
&r  beyond  our  present  limits  particularly  to  state 
the  proofi  that  nave  been  alleged  for  the  divine 
authority  of  the  Jewish  and  Christian  revelation; 
both  of  which  refer  to  and  confirm  the  original 
revelation  made  to  mankind.  See  the  article 
Tbeolooy. 

Of  the  Christian  revelatioQ,  however,  we  may 
here  remark,  cursorily,  that  it  is  founded  on  a  part 
of  the  Jewish,  and  has  been  opposed  by  the  Jewish 
race :  that  is,  the  Messiah'  promised  in  the  one 
revelation  is  declared  to  have  come  in  the  other. 
All  the  rest  of  the  Jewish  revelation,  or  that 
which  related  peenliarlv  to  the  Jevrish  people,  is 
set  aside;  ana  only  that  part  of  it  m  which 
the  world  in  general  was  interested,  and  that 
relating  to  the  advent,  offices,  and  character  of 
,the  Messiah,  are  retained.  It  must  be  owned 
indeed  that  the  Jews  ever  looked  on  this  to  be 
as  peculiar  to  themselves  as  any  of  the  rest :  the 
Messiah  was  promised  to  them ;  he  was  to  be 
their  deliverer,  their  restorer,  &c.,  and  under  this 
character  he  actually  appeared.  But,  upon,  this 
new  revelation  taking  place,  a  new  scene  vras 
opened,  ditferent  from  what  many  of  them  ap- 
prehended, because  they  misinterpreted  the 
prophecies  relating  to  the  Messiah.  The  cere- 
monial part  of  their  institution,  local  and  tem- 
porary m  its  establishment  and  use,  was  abolish- 
ed; and  the  Messiah  appeared,  not  as  they  erro- 
neously imagined,  to  be  the  restorer  of  their 
civil  sovereignty  and  liberties,  which  were  now 
fallen  into  die  hands  of  the  Romans,  but  to 
restore  and  re-establish  mankind  in  general,  who 
had  lost  their  original  righteousness,  and  were 
become  slaves  of  sin^  to  preach  repentance  and 
remission ;  and  at  last  to  sufier  death,  that  all 


who  believed  in  him  miglit  not  peijah,  hat  hare 

everlasting  life. 

Now  here  it  must  be  remembered  that  the 
Jewish  infidel  qftaad  Christianity  establishes  and 
advocates  our  faith  in  the  old  and  more  ancient 
scriptures.  Betvreeh  us  and  him,  our  most  in- 
veterate opponent,  as  to  the  evidences  of  Chris- 
tianity, there  is  no  difference,  either  ks  to  the 
authenticity  or  inspiration  of  the  greater  part  of 
our  holy  books,  it  is  at  most  only  a  difference 
of  interpretation.  While  the  expansive  charac- 
ter of  the  Christian  dispensation  opois  it  to  new 
and  far  more  comprehensive  and  irnsi^tible  argu- 
xnents  from  reason  and  the  general  beneTolenoe 
of  providence. 

Revelation  OF  St.  JoHv.    See  Apocalypse. 

Revel,  or  Kolyran,  a  town  of  European 
Russia,  the  capital  of  Esthonia,  is  situated  on  a 
small  bay  of  the  gulf  of  Finland,  and  has  an 
excellent  harbour,  defended  by  the  works  of  the 
town,  and  by  biUteries  on  some  islands  at  its 
mouth.  The  town  is  further  fordfied  by  a  mound 
and  ditch,  as  well  as  by  a  citadel  on  a  rock,  and 
divided  into  three  parts,  called  the  town,  suburb, 
and  Bombers.  Jmb  houses  are  of  brick,  and 
tolerably  well  built ;  but  the  streets  are  narrow 
and  irregular.  Of  the  churches,  thirteen  in 
number,  six  are  for  the  Greek  &ith,  and  the 
others  for  the  Lutheran.  These  churches,  and 
^veral  of  the  other  ancient  edifices,  bear  Danish 
inscriptions  and  coats  of  arms.  Here  is  a  mili- 
tary academy,  a  public  library,  and  several 
schools,  infirmaries,  and  poor  houses.  A  small 
palace  adjacent  to  dte  shore  has  gardens  open  to 
thepublic. 

Tne  population,  about  13,000,  are  descended 
from  German  and  Russian  settlers,'  Swedes, 
tinm,  and  E^honians.  The  average  number  of 
merchantmen  that  arrive  in  a  year  is  about  200. 
The  exports  are  com,  timber,  hemp,  and  spiri- 
tuous liquors  from  the  interior.  The  imports 
bay  salt,  sugar,  cofiee,  and  British  manufectures. 
Sotne  glass  and  leather  are  made  on  the  spot 
ftevel  was  founded  by  die  Danes  in  12 18^  con- 
quered at  a  subsequent  date  by  the  Sweden,  and 
taken  from  the  latter,  in  1710,  by  the  Russians. 
It  is  200  miles  west  of  St.  Petersburgh,  and  180 
west  bv  north  of  Riga. 

RE VELLO,  a  town  of  Piedmont,  situated  on 
a  mountain,  and  fortified  both  by  nature  and  art 
it  contains  5000  inhabitants,  and  has  several 
well  built  churches,  a  palace  and  an  old  rained 
castle.    Nine  miles  noith-west  of  Saluzzo. 


REVENGE', ». «. 
Reven'oeb, 
Revenge^fvl,  «$. 
Revenge'fully,  adv. 
Rbvevoe'mekt,  n.  t, 
Reven'ginoly,  adv. 


Fr.  revenger f  reven- 
eher;  Span,  venger; 
I  Ital.  vendicaref  of  Lat. 
vindico.  To  return 
of  recompense  an  in- 
jury;  wreak  one's 
wrongs  on  the  wrong  doer :  the  passion  of  ven- 
geance; return  of  an  injury.  Dr.'  Johnson  sug- 
gests a  correct  rather  than  an  established  distinc- 
tion when  he  says, '  revenge  is  an  act  of  passion  ; 
vengeance  of  Justice.  Injuries  are  revenged ; 
crimes  are  avenged/  A  revenger  is,  a  vindictive 
person ;  one  who  wreaks  vengeance :  revengeful, 
vindictive ;  malicious :  the  adverb  corresponding : 
revengement,  an  old  synony me  of  revenge,  noun 
substantive :  revaigingly,  vindictively. 


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I  wiU  make  mlae  •rrowt  dnisk  #itk  Uood ;  from 
Um  iMgianiBg  of  mm^^  upon  the  eiMmy. 

Deut,  xzzii.  42. 

O  Loid,  visit  mo,  and  rtvenge  me  of  my  persecu- 
tors. Jeremiah, 

Edom  hath  remnged  hmtelf  upon  Judah. 

loMlAtl  ZXT.  12 

Who  shall  come  to  stand  against  thee,  lo  be  re- 
venge4  for  the  unrighteous  men  1      Wiedern  zii.  12. 

So  shall  the  great  rtnengtr  ruinate 
Him  and  liis  issue  by  a  dreadful  fate.  Sandffi, 

Hiey  often  tread  detraction's  horrid  path. 
And  dffink  the  dregs  of  the  rewhaer*i  wiath.       Id, 

May  be,  that  better  teason  will  assuage 
The  rash  reeenger't  heat ;  words  well  disposed 
Have  secret  power  to  appeaM  inflamed  rage. 

Spenter, 
.  It  may  dwell 
In  her  son's  flesh  to  mind  reetngement. 
And  be  for  all  diaste  dames  an  endless  monument. 

Id, 

Come,  Antony  and  young  Octavius,' 
Revewfe  ffounehu  alone  on  Cassius.      Shmktpeate, 

It  is  a  quarrel  most  unnatural, 
To  be  revenged  on  hun  that  loveth  thee.  Id, 

Revenges  bum  in  them;  for  their  dearxauses 
Would  to  the  bleeding  and  the  gtim  alaita, 
Excite  ^  moitifled  man.  Id,  Macbeth, 

May  my  hands 
Never  brandish  more  reeeng^vl  steel 
Over  the  glittering  helmet  ol  my  foe.     Shak^eofe, 

f  do  not  know. 
Wherefore  my  fother  should  revengen  want. 
Having  a  son  and  friends.  Id, 

I've  belied  a  lady. 
The  princess  of  this  country ;  and  the  air  on't 
Rtvmgingly  enfeebles  me.  Id  CfnAetiMe. 

By  the  p«rcloie  of  the  same  verse,  vasabond  Is 
understood  for  such  a  one  as  tnvelieth  in  fear  of  r»- 
vengfmgiU,  AUs^^A. 

Deformed  persons  are  commonly  e«en  with  nature ; 
for,  as  nature  has  .done  iU  by  them,  so  they  do  by  na-- 
tnte ;  being  void  of  natotai  afibction,  they  have  their 
rMpng*  of  nature.  Bmean,   . 

What  had  this  been  but  to  thrust  themselves  into 
the  hands  of  the  revenger  of  all  wicked  insolendes. 

Bp,  Hall, 

Moses  will  not  revenge  this  wrong,  Ctod  will ;  yet 
will  he  not  deal  with  them  hhnself,  but  he  sends  the 
fiery  serpents  to  answer  for  him.  Id, 

.Into  my  berdere  now  Jarbas  falls, 
And  my  revengefvd  brother  scales  the  walb. 

Denham. 

What  will  not  ambition  and  revenge  descend  to  1 

Morocco's  monarch 
Had  come  m  person,  to  have  seen  and  known 
The  imured  world's  revenger  and  his  own.  WaUer, 
'^If  our  hard  fortune  no  compassion  draws. 
The  gods  are  just,  and  will  revenge  our  cause. 

Drvden, 
Your  fury  of  a  wife. 
Not  yet  content  to  be  revenged  on  you. 
The*  agents  of  your  passion  will  pursue.     Id, 
The  sa^  m  a  rage 
l^oisets  his  business  is  to  laugh  and  bite. 
And  will  of  death  and  dire  revenget  write.      Id, 

Repenting  England,  this  revengM  day. 
To  Philip's  manes  did  an  oflMng  bring.j        Id, 
He  smiled  revengefuily,  and  leaped 
Upon  the  floor :  thence  gazing  at  the  skies. 
His  eye-balls  fieiy  red,  and  g^ing  vengeance ; 
Gods,  I  toeuse  you  not.         Id,  and  Lee'i  0$dipu», 
What  government  can  be  imagined  without  ju-r 
didal  proceedings  1  and  what  methods  of  judicature 


without  a  religious  oath,  which  supposes  an  om-, 
niscient  being,  as  conscious  to  iu  falsehoed  or  truth, 
and  a  revenger  of  perjury  ?  Bent^y. 

,  Not  unappeasea,  he  passed  the  Stygian  gate. 
Who  leaves  a  brother  to  reven^  his  fate.        Pope. 

Draco,  the  Athenian  lawgiver,  granted  an  impu- 
nity to  any  person  that  took  revenge  upon  an  adulterer. 


REVENUE,  n.  t.  Fr.  revenu;  Lat.  revenio. 
Income ;  annusd  profits. 

They  privily  send  over  unto  them  the  revenues 
wherewith  they  are  there  maintained.  Spenser, 

She  bears  a  dnke's  neeemies  on  her  beek, 
And  in  her  heart  scorns  our  poverty.      Shaktpeare,  . 
Only  I  retain 

The  name  and  all  the'  addition  to  a  king ; 

The  iway,  revenue,  beloved  sons,  be  yours.     Id. 
^  Many  oaipes  are  of  so  small  revenm,  as  not  to  fur- 
nish a  man  with  what  is  su£Scient  for  the  support  of 
his  life.  TempU. 

If  the  woman  could  have  been  contented  with 
golden  eggs,  she  might  have  kept  that  revenue  on 
still.  VEetnngt. 

His  vassals  easy,  and  the  owner  blest. 
They  pay  a  trifle  and  enjoy  the  rest : 
Not  so  a  nation's  refaenues  are  paid ; 
The  servant's  faults  are  on  the  msster  laid.    8ia^t. 

When  men  grow  great  from'  thmr«Mi>snitf  spent. 
And  fly^fhkm  bailUb  into  parliement.  leemg,  • 

Revenue,  in  law,  is  properly  the  yearly  rent 
which  accrues  to  any  man  from  bis  Unas  and 
possession;  but  is  generally  used  for  the  reve- 
nues or  profits  of*  the  crown. 

The  &cal  prerogatives  of  the  king,  or  such  as 
regard  his  revenue,  diat  is,  those  whidi  the  consti- 
tution has  vested  in  the  royal  person,  in  order 
to  support  his  dignity  and  maintain  his  power, 
are  venr  learnedly  treated  of  by  Blackstone,  in 
the  eighth  chapter  of  the  first  volume  of  his 
Commentaries.  '  It  will  be  sufficient  to  observe 
here  that  almost  the  whole  of  these  were,  in  the 
late  king's  reign,  consolidated  and  taken  as  the 
property  of  die  country :  his  late  majesty,  soon 
after  bis  accession,  having  accepted  the  limited 
sum  of  £800,000  per  annum  ror  the  support  of 
his  dvil  list  (charged  also  with  three  life-annui-> 
ties,  to  the  princess  of  Wales,  the  duke  of  Cum- 
berland, ami  the  princess  Amelia,  to  the  amount 
of  £77,000),  the  Weditaiy  and  other  revenues 
being  made  a  part  of  the  aggregate  fund,  which 
was  charged  with  die  payment  of  the  whole 
annuity  to  the  crown.  Thie  expenses  formerly 
defrayed  hy  the  civil  list  were  those  that  in  any 
shape  relate  to  civil  government :  as  the  expenses 
of  Uie  household ;  all  salaries  to  officers  or  state^ 
to  the  judges,  and  each  of  the  king's  servants ; 
the  appointments  to  fbrdgn  amfbtosadors ;  the 
maintenance  of  the  queen  and  r6yal  family;  the 
king's  private  expenses,  or  privy  purse;  and 
odier  very  numerous  outgoings,  as  secret  service 
money,  pensions,  and  other  bounties;  which 
sometimes  have  so  fer  exceeded  the  revenues 
appointed  for  that  purpose  that  application  has 
been  made  to  parliament  to  discharge  the  debts 
eontiacted  on  the  civil  list;  as  particuhurly  in 
1T24,  when  1,000,000  was  granted  for  that  pui^ 
pose  by  the  statute  11  Geo.f.  c.  17;  and  in  1769 
and  1777,  when  1,500,000  and  £600,000  were 
appropriated  to  the  Uke  use,  by  the  sUtutes 
9  Geo.  III.  c.  34,  and  17  Geo.  III.  c.  47. 
Many  of  these  expenses  are  now  chaiiged  on  the 


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chnsolidated  Aind,  and  the  civil  list  compre- 
hends the  support  of  his  majesty's  household. 
The  civil  list  is,  indeed,  properly  the  whole  of 
the  king's  revenue  in  his  own  distinct  capacity ; 
the  rest  being  rather  the  revenue  of  the  public, 
or  its  creditors,  though  collected  and  distributed 
again  in  the  name  and  by  the  officers  of  the 
crown.    See  England.         .  . 

Revenue,  in  hunting,  a  fleshy  lump  formed 
chiefly  by  a  cluster  of  whitish  worms  on  the 
head  of  the  deer,  supposed  to  occasion  the 
casting  of  their  boms  oy  gnawing  them  at  the 
rooL 

REVERB'.  «.  fl.      -v  Vr.  reverberer; 

Revbr'berant,  ae^  I  Latin     reverbero. 

REV£R'BERATE,v.a,&v.fi.  >To  resound;  beat 

Reverb era'tion,  n.  f .  i  back :  reverberate 
'  Rever'beratory,  adj.  J  is  the  more  usual 
veib,  and  signifies  also  to  heat  so  that  the  flame 
is  reverberated  upon  the  matter  to  be  melted  or 
cleaned :  reverberation  is  the  act  of  beating  or 
driving  back :  reverberatory,  driving  back. 

Reserve  thy  st^,  with  better  jadgment  check 
This  hideous  rajihness : 

The  youngest  daughter  does  not  love  thee  least ; 
Nor  are  those  empty  hearted  whose  loud  sound 
Reverha  no  hollowness.         ShalupMn,  King  Lear, 

Hollow  your  name  to  the  reotrberaU  hills, 

And  make  the  babbling  gossip  of  the  air 

Cry  out  Olivia.  Id.  Twalfth  Night. 

Start 

And  echo  with  the  clamour  of  thv  dram, 

And  even  at  hand  a  dram  is  ready  braced, 

That  shall  nverbente  all  as  well  as  thine. 

Shaktpeare* 

As  the  sight  of  the  eve  is  like  a  glass,  so  is  the  ear. 
a  sinuous  cave,  with  a  hard  bone,  to  stop  and  mer- 
berate  the  sound.  Bacon, 

To  the  reflection  of  visibles  small  glasses  sufiice  ; 
but  to  the  reverberation  of  audibles  are  required 
greater  spaces.  id. 

The  ravs  of  royal  majesty  reoerberated  so  strongly 
upon  Villerio  that  they  dispelled  all  clouds. 

newel. 

Crocus  martis,  that  is,  steel  corroded  with  vinegar 
or  sulphur,  and  after  remrheraUd  with  fire,  the  load- 
stone will  not  attract.  Broum*. 

Good  lime  may  be  made  of  all  kinds  of  flints^  but 
they  are  hard  to  bam,  except  in  a  reverberatory  kiln. 

Moxon. 

The  first  repetitions  follow  very  thick;  for  two 

Krallel  walls  oeat  the  sound  back  on  each  other, 
e  the  several  reeerberatunu  of  the  same  image  from 
two  opposite  looking-glasses.  Addiaon. 

As  we,  to  improve  the  nobler  kinds  of  fruits,  are 
at  the  expence  or  walls  to  receive  and  reverberate  the 
faint  rays  of  the  sun,  so  we,  by  the  help  of  a  good 
soil,  equal  the  production  of  wanner  countries. 

Swifi, 
Reverberatory  Furnace.    See  Chemistrt 
and  Laboratory.  . 


REVERE',!;,  a. 
Rev'erence,  n.  s.  &  v.  a. 
Rev'erencer,  n.  s. 
Rev'erevd,  adj. 
Rev'erekt, 
Reverem'tial, 
Reveren'tially,  adv. 
Rev'erently, 

REYEfRER,n.  S. 


*J  Fr.  reverer;  Lat. 
revereor.  To  vene- 
rate ;  regard  with 
honor  or  awe :  uever- 
>-ence  is,  veneration ; 
respect;  act  of  cour- 
tesy or  obeisance, 
bow :  a  title  that  has 

^  been  given  both  to 


the  clergy  and  to  fathers:  to  reverence  seems 


synonymous  with  to  revere :  a  reverencer,  or  re- 
verer, one  who  feels  or  manifests  reverence: 
reverend  is,  venerable ;  deserving  or  command- 
ing respect ;  an  honorary  epithet  of  the  clergy  -. 
reverent  is,  humble ;  testifying  reverence  ot  sub- 
mission :  reverentid,  proceeding  from,  or  ex- 
pressive of,  reverence :  the  adverbs  correspond- 
ing. 

And  afterward  we  haddgi  fadres  of  our  fleiscbe 
techeris,  and  we  with  reoertnee  dredden  hem. 

Widif.  Ebrevis  xii. 
Onias,  who  had  been  high  priest,  reverend  in  coa- 
versation,  and  gentle  in  condition,  prayed  for  the 
Jews.  2  Mae.  xv.  12. 

Now  lies  he  there, 
And  none  so  poor  .to  do  him  reverence.    Shakspeare. 
Many  now  in  health 
Shall  drop  their  blood,  in  approbation 
.    Of  what  your  reverence  shall  incite  us  to.    Id. 

O  my  dear  father !  let  this  kiss 
Repair  those  violent  harms  that  my  two  sisters 
Have  in  thy  reverenre  made.  Id. 

Those  that  I  reverence,  those  I  fear,  the  wise ; 
At  fools  I  laugh,  not  fear  them.  Id. 

Reverend  and  gniciuus  senators.  li. 

Chide  him  for  faults,  and  do  it  reverently.-      Id. 

All  this  was  ordered  by  the  good  discretion 
Of  the  right  reverend  cardinal  of  Y'ork. 

Id.  Henry  VIL 
When  quarrels  and  factions  are  carried  openlj  it 
is  a  sign  the  reverence  of  government  is  lost. 

Bacon*s  Es$ayt. 
His  disciples  here. 
By  their  great  master  sent  to  preach  him  every  when, 
Most  nverently  received.  Draytmi. 

That'  oaths  made  in  reoertn^al  fear 
Of  love  and  his  wrath  may^  any  forswear.     JDrntiitf. 

He  led  her  easily  rorth. 
Where  Godfrey  sat  among  his  lordis  and  peers ; 
She  reverence  did,  then  blushed  as  one  dismayed. 

Fairfax. 
In  your  prayers  use  reverent  postnres,  and  the 
lowest  gestures  of  humility,  remembering  thai  ve 
Speak  to  God,  in  our  reverence  to  whom  we  c«ioot 
exceed.  Tayior. 

Higher  of  the  genial  bed. 
And  with  mysterious  reverence  I  deem.      JViJim. 
While  they  pervert  pure  nature's  healthful  rules 
To  loathsome  sickness,  worthily  since  they 
God's  image  did  not  reverence  in  themselves.      U» 
A  reverend  sire  among  them  came. 
Who  preached  conversion  and  repentance.  Id. 
They  forthwith  to  the  place    , 
Repairing,  where  he  judged  them,  prostrate  fell 
Before  him  reverent.  Id.  FaradMe  Loft. 

The  Jews,  reverentiaUy  declining  the  situatioi)  of 
their  temple,  place  their  beds  from  north  to  sooth. 

Drone. 
To  nearest  ports  their  shattered  ships  repair. 
Where  by  our  dreadful  cannon  they  lay  awed ; 

So  reverently  men  quit  the  open  air. 
When  thunder  speaks  the  angry  gods  abroad. 

Drydea. 
A  poet  caniiot  have  too    great  a    reverence  tor 
readers.  Id. 

Upstarts  the  beldam, 
And  reverence  made,  accosted  thus  the  queen.    Id. 
A  parish  priest  was  of  the  pilgrim  train. 
An  awful,  reverend,  and  religious  man. 
His  eyes  diffused  a  venerable  grace. 
And  charity  itself  was  in  hi^  face.  U. 

The  least  degree  of  contempt  weakens  rdigioa ;  it 
properly  consisting  in  a  reverentiui  esteem  of  thiogi 
sacred.  South 


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Wken  the  divtna  reveladons  were  ctrnmutted  to 
writing,  the  Jews  were  such  BcnipXiloaB  revereti  of 
them  tbat  it  was  the  husiness  of  the  Masorites,  to 
numher  not  only  the  sections  andiioes*  but  even  the 
words  and  letters  of  the  Old  Testament. 

Government  of  the  Tengtte, 

An  emperor  often  8taro|)ed  on  his  coins  the  face 
or  ornaments  of  his  colleague,  and  we  may  suppose 
Ludos  Vents  would  omit  no  opportunity  of  doing 
honour  to  Marcus  Aurelius,  whom  he  rather  revertd 
as  his  father^  than  trealed  as  his  partner  in  the  em- 
pire. Addiion't  Remarki  on  Italjf. 

Then  down  with  all  thy  boasted  volumes,  down ; 
Only  reserve  the  sacred  one  : 
Low,  reverently  low, 
Make  thy  stubborn  knowledge  bow : 
To  look  to  heav'n  be  blind  to  all  below.         Prior. 
Jove  shall  again  revere  your  power. 
And  rise  a  swan,  or  fall  a  shower.  Id. 

The  reason  of  the  institution  being  forgot,  the 
after-ages  perverted  it,  supposing  only  a  reverential 
gratitude  paid  to  the  earth  as  the  common  parent. 
Woodward*t  Natural  History, 

The  fear  accepuble  to  God  is  a  filial  fear ;  an 
awful  reverence  of  the  divine  nature,  proceeding  from 
a  just  esteem  of  his  perfections,  which  produces  in 
us  an  inclination  to  hit  service,  and  an  unwilling- 
ness to  oflend  him.  Rogert, 

lUv'rend  old  man !  b  here  confest  he  stands. 

Pope, 

Meet  then  the  senior,  far  renowned  for  sense. 
With  rev'rent  awe,  but  decent  confidence.  Id, 

All  look  up,  with  reverential  awe. 
At  crimes  that  'scape,  or  triumph  o'er  the  law.  Id> 

The  Athenians,  quite  sunk  in  their  affairs,  ha^ 
little  commerce  with  the  rest  of  Greece,'  and  were 
become  great  reverencen  of  crowded  heads*     Svtift, 

He  presents  every  one  so  often  before  God  in  his 
prayers  that  he  never  thinks  he  can  esteem,  reverence, 
or  serve  those  enough,  for  whom  he  implores  so 
many  mercies  of  God.  Law, 

IrVith  deep-struck  reverential  awe. 

The  learned  sire  and  son  \  saw, 

To  Nature's  God  and  Nature's  law 

They  gave  their  lore, 

This  all  its  source  and  end  to  draw. 

That  to  adore.     Bums, 

That  had  been  just  replied  the  reverend  bard, 
But  done,  fair  youth,  thou  ne'er  hadst  met  me  here, 
I  ne'er  had  seen  yon  glorious  throne  in  peace. 

PolUk, 

REVERSE',  V.  a.,  «.  n.,  •v  Lafih  reversus. 
Rev  En's  A  L,  n.  f .  [hn,  s,l  To  turn  coinp1et&- 
Rever'sibl£,  o^^'.  My  over,  or  upside 

Rever'skyn,  n.  f .  i  down ;  turn  back ; 

Rcver'sionary,  adj.  J  put  one  thing  in 
the  place  of  another;  subvert;  hence  to  con- 
tradict ;  repeal  ;•  turn  to  the  contrary ;  recal ;  re- 
new (obsolete) :  as  a  verb  neuter,  to  return :  as 
a  noun-substantive,  change ;  vicissitude;  an  op- 
posite ;  that  side  of  a  coin  on  which  the  head  is  not 
placed  :  reversible  is,  capable  of  being  reversed 
or  changed :  reversion,  right  of  succession ;  state 
of  bein<;  to  be  possessed  after  the  death  of  a  pre- 
sent possessor :  the  adjective  corresponding. 

Well  knowing  true  all  he  did  rehearse. 
And  to  his  liesh  remembrance  did  reverse 
Tiie  ugly  view  of  his  deformed  crimes.     Spenser, 
Belter  it  was,  in  tlie  eye  of  his  understanding, 
that    sometimes   an   erroneous  sentence  definitive 
should  prevail,   till  the  same  auihoriiy,  perceiving 
such  oversight,  might  afterwards  correct  or  reveru  it. 
Vol.  XVIII. 


than  that  strifSes  should  have  respite  to  grow,  and  not 
come  speedily  unto  some  end.        Hooktr't  Preface. 
As  were  onr  England  in  reversion  his, 
And  he  our  subjects  next  degree  in  J 


The  kiuR,  in  the  reversal  of  the  attainders  of  his 
partakers,  had  his  will.  Bacon's  Henry  VIL 

As  the  Romans  set  down  tfie  image  and  inscrip- 
tion of  the  consul,  afterward  of  the  emperor,  on  the 
one  side,  so  they  changed  the  reverse  always  upon 
new  events.  Camden, 

A  decree  was  made  tbat  they  had  forfeited  their 
liberties ;  and  albeit  they  made  great  moans,  yet 
could  they  not  procure  this  sentence  to  be  reversed, 

Haywird, 

A  life  in  reversion  is  not  half  so  valuable  as  that 
which  may  at  present  be  entered  on.       Hamnumd. 

He  was  very  old,  and  had  out-lived  most  of  his 
friends ;  many  persons  of  quality  being  ^ead  who 
had  for  recompence  of  services,  procured  the  reversimi 
of  bis  ofiioe.  Clarexidon, 

Michael's  sword  staid  not ; 

But  with  swift  wheel  reverse,  deep  ent'ring  shared 

ISatan's  right  side.    -  Mihon, 

Our  guard  upon  the  royal  ^ide ; 

On  the  reverse  our  Beauty's  pride.      Wallet', 

A  pyramid  teversed  may  stand  upon  his  point,  if 
balanced  by  admirable  skill.    TsmpU*s  Miseeltanies. 
The  strange  reverse  of  fate  you  see ; 

I  pitied  you,  now  you  may  pity  me.        Dryden, 
So  many  candidates  there  stand  for  wit> 

A  place  at  court  u  scarce  so  hard  to  get ; 

In  vain  they  crowd  each  other  at  the  dopr ; 

For  ev'n  reversions  are  all  begg'd  before.         Id. 

Those  seem  to  do  best,  who,  taking  useful  hints 
from  facts,  carry  them  in  their  minds  to  be  mdged 
of,  by  what  they  shall  find  in  history  to  confirm  or 
rawrw  these  im|perfect  observations.  Locke. 

Though  gride  may  have  reversed  the  condemning 
sentence,  and  sealed  the  sinner's  pardon  before  God, 
yet  it  may  have  left  na  transcript  of  that  pardon  in 
the  sinners  breast.  South, 

Count  Tariff  appeared  the  reverse  of  Goodman 
Fact.  Addison. 

Several  reverses  are  owned  to  be  the  representati- 
ons of  antique  figures.  Id,  on  Ancient  Medals. 

With  what  tyranny  custom  governs  men!  it 
makes  that  reputable  m  one  age,  which  was  a  vice  in 
another,  and  reverses  even  the  distinctions  of  good 
and  evil.  Rogers. 

There  are  multitudes  of  reversionary  patents  and 
revernonary  promises  of  preferments.       Arbuthnot, 

These  now  controul  a  wretched  people's  fate ; 
These  can  divide,  and  these  reverse  the  state.  Pope, 

Fame's  a  reversion  in  which  men  take  place, 
O  late  reversion  I  at  their  own  decease.  Young. 

By  a  strange  reveru  of  things,  Justinian's  law, 
which  for  many  ages  was  neglected,  does  now  'obtain, 
and  the  Theodocian  code  is  in  a  manner  antiquated. 

Baher, 

Whoever  feels  pain  in  hearing  a  good  character  of 
his  neighbour  will  feel  a  pleasure  in  the  reverse. 
And  those  who  despair  to  rise  in  distinction  by  their 
virtues  are  happy  if  others  can  be  depressed  to  a  le- 
vel with  themselves.  Franklin, 

Reversal  of  Judgment,  id  law.  A  judgment 
may  be  falsified,  reversed,  or  voided,  in  the  first 
place,  without  a  writ  of  error,  for 'matters  foreign 
to  or  dehors  the  record,  that  is,  not  apparent 
upon  the  face  of  it;  so  that  they  cannot  be  as- 
signed for  error  in  the  superior  court,  which  can 
only  judge  from  what  appears  in  the  record  it- 
seli ;  and  therefore,  if  the  whole  record  be  not 
certified,  or  not  truly  certified,  by  the  inferior 

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court,  the  party  injur^  thereby  in  both  civil  and 
criminal  cases  may  allege  a  diminution  of  the 
record,  and  cause  it  to  be  rectified.  2dly,  A 
judgment  may  be  reversed  by  writ  of  error, 
which  lies  from  all  inferior  criminal  jurisdictions 
to  the  court  of  king's  bench,  and  from  the  king's 
bench  to  the  house  of  peers,  and  may  be  brought 
for  notorious  mistakes  in  the  judgment  or  other 
parts  of  the  record.  The  effect  of  falsifying  or 
reversing  an  outlawry  is,  that  the  party  shall  be 
in  the  same  plight  as  if  he  had  appeared  upon 
the  capias  :  and,  if  it  be  before  pleaded,  he  shall 
be  put  to  plead  to  the, indictment ;  if,  after  con- 
viction, he  shall  receive  the  sentence  of  the  law ; 
for  all  the  other  proceedings,  except  only  the 
process  of  outlawry  for  his  non-appearance,  re- 
main good  and  effectual  as  before.  But,  when 
judgment  pronounced  upon  conviction  is  falsi- 
fied or  reversed,  all  former  proceedings  are  ab- 
solutely set  aside,  and  the  party  stands  as  if  he 
had  never  been  at  all  accused,  restored  in  his 
credit,  his  capacity,  his  blood,  and  bis  estates ; 
with  regard  to  which  last,  though  they  be  granted 
away  by  the  crown,  yet  the  owner  may  enter 
upon  the  grantee,  with  as  little  ceremony  as  he 
might  enter  upon  a  disseisor.  But  he  still  re- 
mains liable  to  another  prosecution  for  the  same 
offence :  for,  the  first  being  erroneous,  be  never 
was  in  jeopardy  thereby^ 

Reversion,  in  the  law  of  England,  has  two 
significations :  the  one  of  which  is  an  estate  left, 
which  continues  during  a  particular  estate  in 
being ;  and  the  other  is  the  returning  of  the  land, 
&c.,  after  the  particular  estate  is  ended ;  and  it 
,  is  further  said  to  be  an  interest  in  lands,  when 
the  Dossession  of  it  fails,  or  where  the  estate 
whicn  was  for  a  time  parted  with  returns  to  the 
granters,  or  their  heirs.  But,  according  to  the 
usual  definition  of  a  reversion,  it  is  the  residue 
of  an  estate  left  in  the  granter,  after  a  particular 
estate  granted  away  ceases,  continuing  in  the 
granter  of  such  an  estate.  The  difference  be- 
tween a  remainder  and  a  reversion  consists  in 
this,  that  the  remainder  may  belong  to  any  man 
except  the  granter;  whereas  the  reversion  re- 
turns to  him  who  conveyed  the  lands,  &c. 

REVERP,  V.  a.,  v.  n.,  &  n.  «.  Lat.  reverto. 
To  change ;  turn  to  the  contrary ;  reverberate  ; 
return ;  fall  back  :  as  a  musical  term,  recurrence ; 
revertible ;  returnable. 

My  arrows, 

Too  slightly  timbered  for  soloud  a  wind, 

Would  have  reterted  to  my  bow  again. 

Shakspean, 

If  his  tenant  and  patentee  sbonld  dispose  of  his 
f>\h,  without  his  kingly  assent,  the  lands  shall  revert 
i<\  the  kiug.  B*eon, 

Hath  not  musick  her  figures  the  same  with  rheto- 
tick  ?  what  is  a  revert  but  her  antistrophe  f 

Peacha  n  on  Mmick, 

Wretched  her  subjects,  gloomy  sits  the  queen, 
Till  happy  chance  ret^ert  the  cruel  scene ; 
And  apish  folly,  with  her  wild  resort 
i  >  (  wit  and  jest,  disturbs  the  solemn  court.      Prior. 
The  stream  boils 

Around  the  stone,  or  from  the  hollowed  hank 

Reverted  plays  in  undulating  flow.         TkomMon. 

r.EVERIE',  or  j       French    reverie.    Loose 
R*:vEBY',n.  J.   i  musing;  irregular  thought. 


Retwy  is  when  idaas  float  in  oor  nuad,  wlthcmt 
any  reflection  or  regard  of  the  undersundiag. 

Lother' 

If  the  minds  of  men  were  laid  open,  we  should 

see  but  little  difference  between  that  of  the  wisa  loan 

and  that  of  the  fool ;  there  are  infinite  reveriet  tad 

numberless  extravagancies  pass  through  both. 

Addim, 
I  am  really  so  far  gone  as  to  take  pleasure  in  n- 
veries  of  this  kind.  Pope. 

REVEST,  V.  a.  Ft.  revestir,  rtvitir;  Lai- 
revettio.    To  clothe  again. 

Her  nathless, 
The'  enchanter  finding  fit  for  bis  intenU, 
Did  thus  revett,  and  £ckt  with  doe  habiliments. 

Spenm. 

The  effectual  power  of  words  the  Pythagoreans 

extolled ;  the  impious  Jews  ascribed  all  miiacies  to 

a  name,  which  was  engraved  in  the  reontury  of  the 

temple.  Camden,**  Remant. 

When  thou  of  life  renewest  the  seeds. 
The  withered  fields  reeesi  their  cheerful  weeds. 

WatUn. 

REVICTION,  fi.s.  Lax.  revktum.  Return 
to  life. 

If  the  Rabines'  prophecy  succeed,  we  shall  cod- 
clude  the  days  of  the  phenix,  not  in  its  own,  but  ia 
the  last  and  general  munes,  without  all  hope  of  re- 
metum.  Bnnne. 

REVICrUAL, «.  0.  Re  and  victual.  To 
stock  anew  vrith  victuals. 

,It  hath  been  objected,  that  I  put  into  Iielaud, 
and  nent  much  time  there,  taking  care  to  revietml 
myseu,  and  none  of  the  rest.        neigh's  ApoUgy. 

REVIEW,  v.  a.  &  n.  s.  )      Re  and  view.  To 
RevieVer,  n.  s.  )  look  back;  see  or 

consider  again;  retrace;  in  modem  literature  to 
give  a  public  character  of  a  book  after  having 
examinai  it  more  or  less :  the  noun  substantire 
corresponding. 

I  shall  review  Sicilia ;  lor  whose  sight 
I  have  a  woman's  longing.  Shakepean. 

So  swift  he  flies,  that  his  reviewing  eye 
Has  lost  die  chasers,  and  his  ears  the  ciy. 


He  with  great  indifference  considered  his  reviem 
and  subsequent  editions.  FdU 

Seerais  says,  that  the  JEntw  is  an  imperfect  work, 
and  Uiat  death  ptevented  the  divine  poet  from  n- 
viewing  it ;  and,  for  that  reason  he  had  condemned 
it  to  the  fire.  Jhyie*. 

We  make  a  general  review  of  the  whole  work,  ind 
a  general  review  of  nature ;  that,  by  oompaiiog 
them,  their  full  correspondency  may  appear. 

Bumet'e  Theory  of  the  leflk. 

The  works  of  nature  will  bear  a  thousand  rievs 
and  review$ ;  the  more  narrowly  we  look  into  them, 
the  more  occasion  we  shall  have  to  admire. 

Anerbttry*s  Semtms. 

Shall  I  the  long  laborious  scene  rmew. 
And  open  all  the  wounds  of  Greece  anew.     Pffpi- 

I  did  not  suspect,  till  the  reviewers  told  nK  so, 
that  you  are  made  up  of  artifice  and  design,  and  that 
your  ambition  is  to  delude  your  hearers. 

Cowper'i  PrivaU  Oerretpmdeeee. 

Review,  in  military  affairs,  is  the  drawing 
out  all  or  part  of  the  army  in  line  of  batilf,  to 
be  viewed  by  the  kinz,  or  a  general,  that  th«T 
may  know  the  condition  of  the  troops. 


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Review,  Cuxmissiom  of,  is  a  commission 
sometimes  granted  in  extraordinaiy  cases,  to  re- 
vise the  sentence  of  the  court  of  delegates,  when 
it  is  apprehended  they  have  been  led  into  a^  ma- 
terial error.  This  commission  the  king  may 
grant,  although  the  statutes  24  and  25,  Henry 
VIIL,  declare  the  sentence  of  the  delegates  defi- 
nitive :  because  the  pope,  as  supreme  head  by 
the  canon  law,  used  to  grant  such  commission 
of  review ;  and  such  authority  as  the  pope  here- 
tofore exerted  is  now  annexed  to  the  crqwn,  by 
statutes  26  Henry  VIII.  c.  1,  and  Eliz.  c.  1. 
But  it  is  not  matter  of  right,  which  the  subject 
may  demand  ex  debito  justitix ;  but  merely  a 
matter  of  &vor,  and  which  therefore  is  often 
denied. 

REVILE',  o.  a.  &n.«.}     Re  and  vile.    To 

Revi'ler,  S  reproach ;  vilify  :  the 

Revi'likgly,  adv.  3 reproach  given:  the 
other  noun  substantive  and  the  adverb  corre- 
sponding. 

Fear  not  the  reproach  of  men,  neither  be  afraid 
of  their  miUMfi.  Imah  li.  7. 

Asked  for  their  pass  b^  every  squib, 

That  list  at  will  them  to  mile  or  snib.    Spemter, 
I  read  in  's  looks 
Matter  against  me ;  and  his  eye  reoUed 
Me  as  his  abject  object.     Shaktpeare,  Henry  VJII, 

I  heard  thee  in  the  ^den,  and  of  thy  voice 
Afraid,  being  naked,  hid  mytelf, — to  whom 
The  gracious  Judge,  without  rwiU,  replied.  MiU&n. 

The  bitterest  renUn  are  often  half*witted  people, 
t       CoMmmtnt  of  tht  Tongm, 

She  still  beareth  him  an  invincible  hatred,  revileth 
him  to  bis  £u9e,  and  raileth  at  him  in  all  companies. 

Suift, 

REVILLA  GiGEDO,  a  large  island  on  the 
coast  of  north-west  America,  first  circumnavi- 
gated by  Vancouver,  and  so  called  in  honor  of 
Conde  de  Revilla  Gigedo,  viceroy  of  New  Spain. 
It  is  about  fifty  miles  in  length,  and  twenty- five 
in  breadth.  Here  Vancouver  was,  before  he 
was  aware,  surrounded  by  the  natives  in  their 
canoes,  and  in  imminent  danger  of  being  mur- 
dered. After  various  fruitless  efforts  to  conci- 
liate the  inhabitants,  he  at  length  gave  the  order 
to  fire,  when  they  all  immediately  fied,  but  two 
British  sailors  were  badly  wounded  witii  spears. 
Long.  228*  2r  to  229*»  15'  E.,  lat.  55°  6*  to  55* 
55'  N. 

Revilla  Gigedo,  Cakal  de,  a  channel  on 
the  north-west  coast  df  North  America,  so  called 
by  Vancouver,  and  formed  by  the  island  of  Re- 
villa Gigedo  on  the  west,  and  by  the  conti- 
nental shore  of  North  America  and  the  island  of 
Gravina  on  the  east. 

REVISE',  v.fl.&  U.S. ^     Lat.  revisus.     To 

Revi'sal,  n.,i.  J  review;   overlook:  a 

Revi'sion.  J  review  or  re-exami- 

nation :  this  is  also  the  general  sense  of  revisal : 
revision  is  the  act  of  revising. 

His  tending  them  sheet  by  sheet  when  printed, 
and  surveying  the  revise$.  FelL 

The  revisal  of  these  letters  has  been  a  kind  of 
examination  of  conscience  to  me ;  so  fairly  and 
faithfully  have  I  set  down  in  them  the  undisgaised 
state  of  the  mind.  Pope. 

Lint^t,    dull  rogue!    will   think  your  price  too 
much  : 
'  Not,  Sir,  if  you  revise  it,  and  retouch.*  Id, 


REVIS'IT,«.a.  Fr.  Ycviii^cr;  Lat.  tvita 
revisito.    To  visit  again. 

Thee  I  revisit  safe, 
And  feel  thy  sovereign  vital  lamp ;  but  thou 
Revintest  not  these  eyes,  that  rowl  in  vain. 
To  find  thy  piercing  ray,  and  find  no  dawn. 

Milton, 

Let  the  pale  sire  revisit  Thebes,  and  bear 
These  pleasing  orders  to  the  tyrant's  ear.        Pope, 

REVIVE',  V.  n.&r.  a."\       Fr.  revivre ;  Lat. 

Revi'ver,  n.s.  .  f  revivoy  re  and  vivifico* 

Reviv'ificate,  v.  a.      >To  return  to  life,  vi- 

Revivifica'tion,  n.i.  igor,  or  activity;   to 

Revivis'cency.  'renew;  to  quicken; 

rouse  :  to  revivificate  is  to  call  to  life :  revivifica- 
tion, the  act  of  doing  so  :  reviviscency,  renewal 
of  life. 

The  Lord  heard  Elijah,  and  the  soul  of  the  child 
came  unto  him  again,  and  he  revioed, 

\  Kinp  xvii.  22. 

God  lighten  our  eyes,  and  give  us  a  little  revivintg 
in  our  bon4age.  Enra  ix.  8. 

Noise  of  arms,  or  view  of  martial  guise, 
Might  not  revvee  desire  of  knightly  exercise. 

Spmser.  , 

I  should  revive  the  soldiers'  hearts ; 
Because  I  ever  found  them  as  myself.    Shakspeare, 
So  he  dies ; 

But  soon  revives :  death  over  him  no  power 

Shall  long  usurp.  Milton, 

1  revive 
At  this  last  sight,  assured  that  man  shall  live.    Id, 

What  first  iEneas  in  this  place  beheld 
Revived  his  courage,  and  his  fear  expelled.  Dryden. 

The  memory  is  the  power  to  revive  again  in  our 
minds  those  ideas  whicn  after  imprinting  have  been 
laid  aside  out  of  sight.  Locke, 

As  long  as  an  infant  is  in  the  womb  of  its  parent, 
so  long  are  these  medicines  of  revieifieation  m  pre- 
paring. Spectator. 

Scnpture  makes  mention  of  a  restitution  and 
reviviseencjf  of  all  things  at  the  end  of  the  world. 

Bwmet. 
He'll  use  me  as  he  does  my  betten, 
Publish  my  life,  my  will,  my  letters, 
Revive  the  libels  bom  to  die, 
Which  Pope  must  bear  as  well  as  I.       Smfl, 

REUNITE^  v.a.7     Re  and  unite.    To  join 

Reu'nion,  n.  f .      5  again ;  make  one  a  second  . 
time ;  join  what  is  divided  :  the  noun   substan- 
tive corresponding. 

By  this  match  the  line  of  Charles  the  Great 
Was  reunited  to  the  crown  of  France.     Shakspeare. 

She,  that  should  all  parts  to  reunion  bow, 
She  that  had  all  magnetick  force  alone. 
To  draw  and  fasten  sundry  parts  in  one.       Donne. 

REVOKE',  V.  a,         n     Fr.  revoqutr ;  Span 

Revo'cable,  od;.  fand    Port,    rtvocar ; 

Revo'cableness,  n.  i.  ^.Lat.  rtvoco.     To  re- 

Revoca'tion,  ipeal;     reverse;     re- 

Revoke'ment.  j  press ;    draw    back  : 

revocable  is  that  which  may  be  recalled  or  re- 
pealed: the  noun  substantive  corresponding: 
revocation,  the  act  of  recalling,  or  state  of  being 
recalled;  repeal:  revokement  (disused)  is  its 
synonyme. 

What  reason  is  there,  but  that  those  grants  and 
privileges  should  be  revoked^  or  reduced  to  the  first 
intention  *!  Spenser. 

She  strove  their  sudden  rages  to  revoke, 

I'hat  at  the  last  suppressing  fury  mad, 

They  *gari  abstain.  Jd. 

When  we  abrogate  a  law  as  being  ill  made,  the 

'2  0a 

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whole  cante  fot  which  it  wis  uuMle  still  remainifig, 
do  we  not  herein  rwekB  oar  very  own  deed,  and  up-, 
braid  ourtelTes  with  folly,  yea  all  that  were  niaken 
of  it  with  ovenight  and  error  t  Hooker, 

One,  that  aaw  the  people  bent  for  the  revocation 
of  Calvin,  gave  him  notice  of  their  affection.      Id, 
Let  it  be  noised, 
That  thnmgh  our  intercesaion,  this  revckomtnt 
And  pardon  comes.       ShaJupeare,  Henry  VIIL 
Howsoever  you  shew  bitterness,  do  not  act  any 
thing  that  is  not  reooeahU*  Bacon**  Beeayt. 

Seas  are  troubled,  when  they  do  reooke 
Their  flowing  waves  into  themselves  again.  DavUk. 
A  law  siay  cease  to  be  in  force,  without  an  ex- 
press reooeatwn  of  the  lawgiver.  WIdte. 

His  smooesaor,  by  order,  nullifies 
Many  his  patents,  and  did  revocato 
And  re- assume  his  liberalities.  DanieTi  Civil  War. 

Elaiana's  king  commanded  Chenandra  to  tell  him 
that  he  had  xeceived  advice  of  his  reooeatunu 

HmoeVt  Vocal  Foreet, 
Without  my  Aureoffzebe  I  cannot  live ; 
Reooke  his  doom,  or  else  my  sentence  give. 

Dryden, 
If  a  grievance  be  inflicted  on  a  person,  he  may 
appeal;  it  is  not  necessary  to  pray  a  retocation  of 
such  a  grievance.  Ayliffe. 

REVOLT,  v.  fi.>      iT.revolter;  ItaH.revol- 
Revol'tkr,  n.  «. )  tare ;  of  Lat.  re  and  vduto. 
To  fall  off  from  one  to  another;  change:  a  de- 
sertion; rebellion:  Shakspeare  iises  it   for  re* 
roller. 

This  people  hath  a  revolting  and  a   rebellious 
heart ;  they  are  revolted  and  gone.    Jeremiah  v.  53. 
All  will  revolt  from  me,  and  turn  to  him. 

Shakspeare. 
You  are  already  love's  firm  votary. 
And  cannot  soon  revolt  and  change  your  mind.   Id. 
You  ingrate  revolti, 
You  bloody  Neros,  ripping  up  the  womb 
Of  your  dear  mother  England.  Id. 

Our  daughter  hath  made  a  gross  revolt.       id. 
He  was  ereatly  strengthened,  and  the  enemy  as 
much  enfeebled  by  daily  revolti.  Rakigk, 

Thou  stoffle  hast  maintained 
Against  rteoJled  multitudes  the  cause  of  truth. 

MUton. 
Fair  honour  that  thou  dost  thy  God,  in  trusting 
He  will  accept  thee  to  defend  his  cause, 
A  murderer,  a  revoUer,  and  a  robber.  fd. 

If  all  our  levies  are  made  in  Scotland  or  Ireland, 
may  not  those  two  parts  of  the  monarchy  be  too 
powerful  for  the  rest,  in  ci^  of  a  revolt  7 

Addiwn't  State  of  the  War. 
He  was  not  a  revolter  from  the  truth  which  he  had 
once  embraced.  Atterbm's  Sermon*. 

Those  who  are  negligent  or  revolten  shall  perish. 

Swift. 

REVOLVE%i,.n.&t;.a.>       Lat.    revolvo. 

Revolu'tioii,  n.  t .  )  To  roll  in  a  circle ; 

£ei11  back;  roll  any  thing  round;  consider;  mch 
ditate  on :  revolution  is  the  act  of  revolving; 
course  of,  or  space  measured  by,  that  which  re- 
volves ;  rotation ;  backward  motion ;  change  in 
the  government  of  a  country.  Used  among  us 
particularly  for  the  change  produced  by  the  ad- 
mission of  king  William  imd  queen  Mary. 
You  may  revolve  what  tales  I  told  you 

Of  courts,  of  princes,  of  the  tricks  of  war. 

Shakepeare. 

Then  in  the  east  her  turn  she  shines, 
RewUed  on  heaven's  great  axis.  UiUon. 


On  their  oibsi 

Such  restless  revolution,  day  By  day 

Repeated.  Id.  Paradite  Lo$t. 

Fear 
Comes  thund'ring  back  with  dreadful  rtvolvivm 
On  my  defenceless  head.  Milton. 

Meteors  have  no  more  time  allowed  them  for  their 
mounting,  than  the  short  revohiHim  of  a  day. 

brydM. 

The  late  reoolutvm,  justified  by  its  necessity,  and 
the  good  it  had  produoed,  will  be  a  lastinr  answer. 

On  the  desertion  of  an  appeal,  the  juriadictioa 
does  ipso  jure  revoloe  to  the  judge  a  quo. 

'dyUffe'*  Vareym. 

The  Persian  wept  over  his  army,  that  within  th« 
revolution  of  a  single  age,  not  a  mkn  would  be  left 
alive.  Waht. 

They  do  not  revolve  about  any  common  centre. 

Each  rnoknng  year,   • 
The  teeming  ewes  a  triple  ofispring  hear.        Fepe. 

If  the  earth  reooine  thus,  each  house  near  ^  eqn- 
tor  must  move  a  thousand  miles  an  bow. 

Wattft  Imprqpement  of  <Ad  Miml, 

They  will  be  Uught  the  diurnal  revobi^oit  of  the 
heavens.  Watn. 

Winds  of  the  north  !  restrain  your  icy  gales. 
Nor  chill  the  bosom  of  these  happy  vales ! 
Hence  in  dark  heaps,  ye  gathenng  ckrads,  retdoi  i 
Disperse,  ye  lighuungs !  and  ye  mists  dissolve ! 

Darwin. 

REVOM'IT,  r.  fl.  Tt.rewmir.  Re  end  to- 
mit.    To  vomit  again. 

They  might  cast  it  up,  and  take  more,  vomiting 
and  revoauting  what  diey  drink.  BaknaU. 

REUS,  a  considerable  town  of  Catalonia, 
Spain,  situated  in  a.  fertile  plain,  six  miles  from 
the  sea.  The  harbour  is  near  a  village  called 
Salon,  and  is  joined  to  the  town  by  a  canaL  It 
is  one  of  the  two  towns  of  Spain  that  have  risen 
into  importance  in  modem  times.  Manufactures 
of  silk,  cottons,  leather,  hats,  brandy  and  liquors, 
have  been  progressively  established ;  and  the 
population  now  exceeds  20,000.  Eight  miles 
west  from  Tarragona. 

REUSS,  a  principality  of  Upper  Saxony,  di- 
vided into  two  parts,  of  which  the  one  adjoins 
Prussia,  the  other  Bavaria.  The  area  of  the 
whole  is  about  600  square  miles ;  general  hiily, 
and  better  adapted  for  pasture  than  tillage.  The 
hills  are  productive  of  copper  aA4  lead ;  also  a 
few  of  iritn,  silver,  alum,  and  vitriol.  The  more 
extensive  manufactures  are  woollen  and  linen, 
the  smaller  cottons,  leather,  and  hardware.  The 
chief  town  is  Gera.  The  north-east  comer  of 
this  principality  is  watered  by  the  Elster,  the 
south-west  by  the  Saale.  The  princes  of  Keuss 
are  of  an  old  family,  repeatedly  divided  and 
subdivided.  At  present  it  consists  of  twoprio- 
jcipal  lines,  the  elder  and  younger;  the  (atter 
having  an  income  of  £40,000  sterling,  the  elder 
of  about  £13,000.  They  both  have  votes  in  the 
diet  of  the  Germanic  confederation ;  and  there 
exists  a  deliberative  body  in  this  petty  principEdirf 
under  the  name  of  states.  The  prevailing  reli- 
gion is  the  Lutheran.    PopoUtion  85,000. 

Reuss,  one  of  the  largest  rivers  of  Switzer- 
land, issues  from  the  lake  Luzendro,  in  Mount 
St.  Gothard,  and  flows  through  the  WaMstad- 
tersee,  passing  by  Lucerne,  until  it  fiills  into  the 


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Aar,  neur  Bni€k.  It  .has  a  ^relA  number  of 
water&lls,  and  receives  iDountain  streams  io 
lapii}  succession.  Below  the  valley  of  Urseren 
on  this  stream  is  the  Devirs  Bridge,  consisting 
of  a  single  arch,  of  eighty  feet  span,  at  a  spot 
where  the  water  has  a  fall  of  100  feet.  It 
abounds  in  fine  salmon,  and  becomes  navigable 
at  Lucerne. 

REUTLINGBN,  aa  ancient  town  of  Wir- 
temberg,  Germany,  on  the  river  Echetz,  nine- 
teen miles  south  by  east  of  Stutgard.  After 
being  long  a  fi^  town,  it  was  incorporated  with 
the  dominions  of  Wirtemberg  and  Us  popn^ 
lation  about  8000. 

REVUL'SION,  n.«.  >     Tt.  revulsion;  Lat. 

Revul'sionary,  adj,  ]  revuUus,  The  act  of 
drawing  the  blood  or  humors  from  remote  parts 
of  the  body :  having  the  power  of  revulsion. 

There  is  a  way  of  r^vuUUm  to  let  blood  in  an  ad- 
verse part.  Bacon's  Nattiral  Hittoiy, 

His  flux  of  blood  breaking  fisrth  again  with  greater 
violence  than  it  had  done  before,  was  not  to  be 
stopped  by  outward  applications,  nor  the  reouUives 
of  any  kind.  FsU. 

I  had  heard  of  some  strange  cures  of  frennes,  by 
casual  applications  of  fire  to  the  lower  parts,  which 
seems  reasonable  enough,  by  the  violent  remilsum  it 
may  make  of  humours  from  the  head.  TempU. 

Perivation  diflm  from  rwulnon  only  in  the  mea- 
tuft  of  the  distance,  and  the  force  of  the  medicines 
«aed :  if  we  draw  it  to  some  very  remote  or  con- 
tiary  part,  we  call  it  remUn(m ;  if  only  to  some 
nei^iNMiiing  place,  and  by  gentle  means,  we  call  it 
derivation.  Wisman  of  Tttnumrs, 

REWARiy,  V.  a,  &  n. «.  -)     Re  and  award— 

Reward'able,  adj,  >  Skinner.    To  give 

Reward'er,  n.  f .  J  in  return ;   repay ; 

recompense ;  the  recompense  given ;  used  some- 
times, but  not  frequenUy,  for  a  recompense  of 
evil :  rewardable  is  worthy  of  reward :  rewarder, 
he  who  bestows  recompense. 

Thou  hast  rewarded  me  good,  whereas  I  have  r$- 
warded  thee  evil.  1  Sam.  zxiv.  17. 

They  reuMrded  me  evil  for  good.  i*ulm  xxzv.  12. 

Bewards  and  punishments  do  always  presuppose 
something  willingly  done  well  or  ill ;  without  which 
leapect,  though  we  may  sometunes  (leceive  good,  yet 
then  it  is  oaly  a  benefit  and  not  a  reward.    Hooker. 

Men's  actions  are  judged,  whether  in  their  own 
nature  rewardahie  or  punishable.  Jd, 

A  liberal  rewarder  of  his  friends.        Skakspeare, 

God  retcards  those  that  have  made  use  of  the  sin* 
^le  talentj  that  lowest  proportion  of  Rrace  which  he 
IS  pleased  to  give ;  and  the  method  of  his  rewarding 
is  vy  giving  them  more  gface.  Hammond. 

The  acuon  that  is  but  iadifferent,  and  without 
reward,  if  done  only  upon  our  own  choice,  is  an  act 
of  religion,  and  rewardable  by  God,  if  done  in  obe- 
dience to  our  superiors.  Taylor, 

There  is  no  more  reason  to  reward  a  man  for  believ- 
ing that  four  is  more  than  three,  than  for  being 
faumy  or  sleepy ;  because  these  things  do  not  pro- 
ceed frem  diflioe,  bet  from  natural  necessity.  A  man 
mast  do  so,  nor  caik  he  do  otherwise.  WUkins* 

To.  judge  th'  unfaithful  dead,  but  to  reward 
Bis  faithnil,  and  receive  them  into  bliss.      MUUm. 

Men  have  consented  to  the  immortality  of  the  soul 
and  the  recompenses  of  another  world,  promising  to 
themselves  some  rewardt  of  virtue  after  tnis  life. 

TUloUon. 
To  mvself  I  owe  this  due  regard. 
Not  to  make  love  my  gift,  bet  my  rward.   Dryden. 


.  As  the  Supieme  Beiatf  is'  the  only  pfoper  judge 
of  our  perfections,  so  is  he  the  only  fit  rpoard&r  of 
them.  AddisoH, 

111  judges,  as  well  as  rewarders,  have  popular  as- 
semblies been,  ef  those  who  best  deserved  from  them. 


The  Supreme  Being  rewards  the  just,  and  nunishes 
the  unjust.  Broome  on  the  Odytsejf. 

REWCRD,  v.o.  Re  and  word.  To  repeat 
in  the  same  words. 

Bring  me  to  the  test. 
And  I  the  matter  will  reword  j  which  madness 
Would  gambol  from.  Shak^peare,  Hamlet, 

REYES,  a  city  of  the  Caraccas,  Colombia. 
The  inhabitants  carry  on  a  lucrative  trade  in 
cacao,  tobacco,  and  in  neat  cattle.  Forty  miles 
S.  S.  W.  from  Caraccas.  It  is  also  the  name  of 
several  other  settlements  in  South  America. 

REYN  (John  de),  an  eminent  historicid  and 
portrait  painter,  bom  at  Dunkirk  in  1610.  He 
was  a  diseiple  of  Vandyke,  and  was  so  attached 
to  his  master  that  he  foUowed  him  to  London, 
where  it  is  thou^t  be  continued  as  long  as  he 
lived.  In  Britam  he  is  mostlv  known  by  the 
name  of  Lang  Jan.  He  died  in  1678.  Hie 
scarcity  of  his  works  is  said  to  be  occasioned 
by  so  many  of  them  being  imputed  to  Vandyke. 
-REYNEAU  (Charles  Rene),  a  member  of 
the  French  Academy,  and  an  eminent  mathe- 
matician, born  at  Bressac,  in  Anjou,  in  1650. 
He  taught  philosophy  at  Toulon,  and  became 
professor  ot  mathematics  at  Algiers,  in  1683. 
He  published  a  fiimous  work,  entitled  Analysis 
Demonstrated,  in  which  he  reduced  into  a  body 
the  theories  of  Newton,  Descartes,  Leibnitz,  &c« 
He  died  in  1722,  aged  seventy-two. 

REYNER  (John),  a  learned  divine,  bom  at 
Lincoln,  and  educated  at  Emanuel  College^ 
Cambridjre,  of  which  he  was  a  fellow.  He  was 
ejected  nom  his  living  for  nonconformity  in 
1662;  and  died  at  Nottingham,  where  he  had 
practised  physic.  His  writings  are  chiefly  theo- 
logical. 

REYNOLDS  (Sir  Joshua),  an  eminent  Eng- 
lish painter,  bora  at  Plympton,  his  father  being 
master  of  the  grammar  school  of  that  town.  At 
an  early  age  he  evinced  a  fondoess  for  drawing, 
which  induced  his  father  finally  to  place  him  at 
the  age  of  seventeen  with  Hudson,  then  the  first 

Eortrait  "painter  in  London.  He  remained  with 
im  only  three  years,  and  then  upon  some  tri^ 
fling  disagreement  returned  into  Devonshire. 
One  of  his  first  performances,  at  this  period,  was 
the  picture  of  a  boy  reading  by  a  reflected  lights 
which  was  sold  fifty  years  afterwards  for  thirty- 
five  guineas.  He  now  practised  at  Plymouth 
Dock,  and,  while  there,  obtained  an  introduction 
to  the  noble  family  of  Mount  Edgecumbe,  and 
became  acquainted  with  captain,  dterwards  ad" 
miral  lord  Keppel.  That  officer  being  about  to 
sail  in  1749,  for  the  Mediterranean,  ofRered  to 
take  Reynolds  thither,  which  invitation  he  gladly 
accepted.  While  at  Minorca  he  was  much  em- 
ployed in  pKtinting  portraits,  by  which  means  he 
mcreased  his  finances  suflicieotly  to  enable  him 
to  visit  Rome,  in  which  capital  and  in  other 
parts  of  Italy  he  remained  about  three  years 
At  the  latter  end  of  1752  he  retumed  to  Lon- 
don, and  the  fint  specimen  he  then  gave  of  his 


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improTements  ^as  the  head  of  his  pupil,  Giu- 
seppe Marchi,  paiuted  in  a  Turkish  dress.    The 
pictnre  attracted  so  much  notice  that  Hudson 
came  to  see  it,  and,  after  examining  it  for  some 
time,  he  said,   *  Reynolds,  you  don't  paint  so 
well  as  you  did  when  you  left  England/    Not- 
witlistanding  this  invidious  remark,  and  the  de- 
praved state  of  public  taste,  Reynolds  quickly 
rose  into  high  reputation  as  a  portrait  painter, 
and  the  whole  length  of  his  friend,  commodore 
Keppel,  gained  him   great  popularity.     Soon 
after  this,  he  added  to  his  celebrity,  by  his  pic- 
ture of  Miss  Greville  and  her  brother,  as  Psyche 
and  Cupid,  executed  in  a  style  which  had  not 
been  seen  in  England  since  the  days  of  Van- 
dyck.     He  rapidly  acquired  opulence,  and,  being 
universally  regarded  as  at  the  head  of  his  pro- 
fession, he  kept  a  splendid  table,  whith  was  fre- 
?[uented  by  the  first  company  in  the  kingdom, 
n  1762  he  produced  his  celebrated  picture  of 
Garrick  between  tragedy  and  comedy,  for  which 
the  earl  of  Halifax  paid  300  guineas.    On  the 
institution  of  the  Royal  Aoademy,  in  1768,  the 
presidentship  was   unanimously  conferred    on 
Keynolds,  who,  at  the  same  time,  received  the 
honor  of  knighthood.    Although  it  was  no  pre- 
scribed part  of  his  duty  to  read  lectures,  yet  his 
zeal  for  the  advancement  of  the  tne  arts  induced 
him  to  deliver  annual  or  biennial  discourses  be- 
fore the  academy  on  the  principles  and  practice 
of  painting.    Of  these  he  pronounced  fifteen, 
from  1769  to  1790,  which  were  published  in  two 
sets,  and  form  a  standard  work.    In  1775  Sir 
Joshua  Reynolds  was  chosen  a  member  of  the 
Imperial  Academy  at  Florence,  on  which  occa- 
sion he  sent  his  portrait,  drawn  in  his  acade- 
mical dress,  to  be  placed  in  the  gallery  of  painters 
in   that  city.     In  the  summer  of   1781,   Sir 
Joshua,  accompanied  by  a  friend,  made  a  tour 
in  Holland  and 'the  Netherlands,  chiefly  with  a 
view  to  examine  the  works  of  the  celebrated 
masters  of  the   Dutch  and   Flemish   schools. 
Two  years  afterwards,  on  the   suppression  of 
some  of  the  religious  houses  in  the  Low  Coun- 
tries, he  again  visited  Flanders,  where  he  pur- 
chased some  pictures  by  Rubens.    In  1784  he 
succeeded  Allan  Ramsay,  as  painter  to  the  king, 
and,  in  the  autumn  of  the  next  year.  Sir  Joshua 
again  paid  a  visit  to  Flanders,  to  attend  a  sale 
of  pictures  collected  from  the  dissolved  monas- 
teries ;  of  which,  particularly  those  of  Rubens, 
he  purchased  many  of  great  value.    About  the 
same  time  he  was  employed  en  a  commission 
from  the  empress  of  Russia,  to  paint  for  her  an 
historical  picture,  the  subject  of  which  being 
left  to  himself,  he  chose  that  of  the  infant  Her- 
cules strangling  the  serpents.    In  return  for  this 
piece,  the  empress  sent  him  1500  guineas,  and  a 
gold  box,  with  her  picture  set  in  diamonds.     He 
continued  to  follow  his  profession,  of  which  be 
was  enthusiastically  fond,  till  in  1789  he  lost 
the  sight  of  one  of  his  eyes.    An  unhappy  dif- 
ference soon  after  arose  between  him  and  the* 
members  of  the  Royal  Academy,  in  consequence 
of  which  he  resigned  not  only  his  presidentship 
but  also  his  place  as  a  member.    He  was  after- 
wards however  induced  by  the  mediation  of  the 
king  to  resume  his  post.    He  was  a  distinguished 
member  of  the  celebrated  club  which  contained 


the  names  of  Johnson,  Garrick,  Barke,  and 
others  of  the  first  rank  of  literary  eminence,  and 
seems  to  have  been  universally  loved  and  re- 
spected by  his  associates.  He  was  also  a  mem- 
ber of  the  London  Antiquarian  and  Uoyal 
Societies,  and  of  several  other  literair  insti- 
tutions abroad.  In  1791  he  partly  lost  the  sight 
of  his  remaining  eye,  which  exceedingly  de- 
pressed him.  He  was  not,  however,  a  prey  to 
lingering  illness,  being  carried  off  by  a  disease 
in  the  liver  in  1792,  in  his  sixtieth  year.  He 
died  unmarried,  and  was  interred  in  St.  Paul's 
cathedral.  He  formed  a  splendid  colieaion  of 
works  of  art,  which,  after  his  death,  was  sold 
for  £16,947  7<.  6d.,  and  the  whole  of  his  pro- 
perty amounted  to  about  £80,000,  the  bulk  of 
which  he  left  to  his  niece,  who  married  lord  In- 
chiquin,  afterwards  marquis  of  Thomond.  As 
a  writer  he  obtained  great  credit  by  his  Dis- 
courses, which  are  elegant  and  agreeable  compo- 
sitions, although  sometimes  vague  and  incon- 
sistent. He  also  added  notes  to  DufresDoy*s 
Art  of  Painting,  and  Oive  three  papers  on 
painting  to  the  Idler.  The  whole  of  The  IJte- 
rary  Works  of  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds  were  edited 
by  Mr.  Malone  in  2  vols.  4to.,  1797,  with  a  Life 
of  the  Author. 

REYS,  PoiKT  OF  Cape  de  los,  a  conspi- 
cuous promontory  on  the  west  coa^  of  North 
America,  which  from  the  north  or  south,  at  the 
distance  of  five  or  six  leagues,  appears  insu- 
lated. Its  highest  part  terminates  in  steep  cliffs, 
nearly  perpendicular  to  the  sea,  which  heats 
against  them  with  great  violence.  Long.  237^ 
24'  E.,  lat.  38*  36'  N. 

REZZONICO  (Gaston  Delia  Torre),  count, 
was  bom  a(  Parma,  in  1740.  He  made  early 
acquisitions  in  literature,  was  admitted  a  mem- 
ber of  the  academy  of  Arcadi,  and  was  appointed 
by  the  duke  of  Parma  president  of  a  new  aca- 
demy of  fine  arts,  which  he  had  established. 
He  was  afterwards  however  deprived  of  his 
places ;  and  he  left  Parma,  and  travelled  through 
France,  England,  and  other  parts  of  Europe. 
He  wrote  several  works  both  in  prose  aiod 
poetry,  but  the  latter  are  most  admirecl,  and  rank 
nim  among  the  best  Italian  poets.  He  died  io 
Rome,  in  1798.  A  collection  of  his  poems  was 
printed  at  Parma,  in  2  vols. 

RHABAR'BARATE,  adj,  Lat.  rhabarbara 
Impregnated  or  tinctured  with  rhubarb. 

The  salt  humooFi  mast  be  evaooatad  by  the  ses- 
nate,  rhabarl>aniU  and  sweet  manna  purges,  witb 
acids  added,  or  the  purging  waters.  Fh^. 

RHABDOLOGY,  or  Rabdology,  in  arith- 
metic, a  name  given  by  Napier  to  a  method  of 
performing  some  of  the  more  difiicult  operations 
of  that  science  by  means  of  certain  square  rods. 
Upon  these  are  inscribed  the  simple  nambeis ; 
and  by  shifting  them,  according  to  certain  rales, 
these  operations  are  performed  by  simply  adding 
or  subtracting  the  numbers  as  they  stand  unon 
the  rods.  See  Napier's  Rhabdologia,  printea  in 
1617.    See  also  the  article  Napier's  Rons. 

RHAB'DOMANCY,n.«.  Greek,  pojMoc  a»i 
fMVTua.    Divination  by  a  wand. 

Of  peculiar  rhabdomancy  is  that  which  is  vseA  '» 
mineral  discoveries,  witb  a  forked  ha»],  comDonlj 


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called  Moleii  rod*  which,  fnetlf  held  forth,  will 
■tir  and  play  if  any  mine  be  under  it. 

Browne's  Vulgar  fcrvwrt. 

RHADAMANTHUS,  in  fabulous  history,  t)i« 
son  of  Jupiter  and  Europa,  born  in  Crete.  He 
became  king  of  Lydia,  and  reigned  over  the  Cy- 
clades,  and  several  Greek  cities  of  Asia,  with  so 
much  justice  and  impartiality  that  the  poets 
make  him  one  of  the  three  judges  of  hell.  Ac- 
cording to  Plato,  .£acus  judged  the  Europeans ; 
and  Rbadamanthus,  who  had  left  Crete,  and  fix- 
ed his  residence  in  Asia,  the  Asiatics,  among 
whom  were  also  comprehended  the  Africans. 
The  stern  Rbadamanthus  superintends  in  Tarta- 
rus the  execution  of  the  sentences  which  his 
brother  Minos  pronounces,  after  shaking  the  fa- 
tal urn  in  which  are  contained  the  destinies  of 
all  mortals.  His  oflSce  is  described  by  Virgil, 
^neid,  lib.  iv : — 

«  Goossias  haec  Rhadamanthas  habet  durissima  regna 
Castigatque  auditque  dolot,  snbigitque  fateri, 
Qiue  (^uiaque  apud  superos,  furto  Istatus  ipaai 
Distuht  in  aeram  commiisa  piacula  mortem.' 

RH£TI,  or  KsTiy  an  ancient  warlike  nation 
of  Italy,  in  Etruria.  They  were  driven  from 
their  country  by  the  Gauls. 

RH^TIA,  in  ancient  geography,  a  country  in 
the  north  of  Italy,  between  the  Alps  and  the 
Danube.  Its  chief  towns  were  Coria,  Triden- 
tum  (now  Trent),  Belunum,  and  Feltria.  It 
was  divided  into  two  parts,  called  Rhetia  Prima, 
which  extended  from  the  sources  of  the  Rhine  to 
those  of  the  Licus,  a  small  river  which  runs  into 
the  Danube,  and  Rhetia  Secunda,  or  Rhstia 
Vindelicia,  which  extended  from  the  Licus  to 
the  Genus,  another,  small  river  towards  the  east. 
The  ancient  inhabitants  of  Rhsetia  rendered'  them- 
selves fonnidable  to  the  Romaps,  by  their  fre- 
quent invasions ;  but  were  at  last  conquered  by 
Drusus  the  brother  of  Tiberius,  and  others  under 
the  succeeding  emperors.  Strab.  iv.  Plin.  iii. 
c.  20. 

RHAMA,  or  Rama,  an  incarnate  deity  of  the 
first  rank,  in  the  Hindoo  mythology.  Sir  Wil- 
liam Jones  believes  he  was  the  son  of  Cush, 
grandson  of  Ham,  and  the  first  monarch  in  that 
part  of  Asia ;  and  that  he  was  the  Dionysos  of 
of  the  Greeks,  whom  they  named  But^enes,  when 
they  represented  him  homed,  as  well  as  Lyaios 
and  Eleutherios  the  deliverer,  and  Triambos,  or 
Dithyrambos,  the  triumphant.  '  Most  of  those 
titles,'  says  Sir  William,  '  were  adopted  by  the 
Romans.'  The  festival  of  Rhama  is  neld  on  the 
ninth  day  of  the  new  moon  of  Chaitra,  on  which 
-the  war  of  Laoca  is  dramatically  represented, 
concluding  with  an  exhibition  of  the  fire  ordeal 
by  which  the  victor's  wife  Sita  gave  proof  of  her 
connubial  fidelity.  There  are  three  Rhanias  men- 
tioned in  the  Indian  mythology,  who  are  describ- 
ed as' youths  of  perfect  beauty.  The  third  Rhama 
is  the  eighth  Avatar.  Like  all  the  Avatars, 
Rhama  is  painted  with  gemmed  Ethiopian  or 
Parthian  coronets ;  with  rays  encircling  his  head ; 
jewels  in  his  ears,  two  necklaces, -one  straight 
and  one  pendant  on  his  bosom,  with  dropping 
-  gems ;  garlands  of  well-disposed  many-colored 
flowers,  or  collars  of  pearl,  hanging  down  below 
his  waist,  &c.  It  is  Rama  Chandra,  and  his 
lovely  Sita,  who  are  the  fiivorite  subjects  of  he- 


roic and  amatory  poetry :  he  is  described  in  the 
Ramayana  as  Rama  *  of  ample  shoulders ; 
•brawny  arms,  extending  to  the  knee;  neck  shell- 
formed  ;  chest  circular  and  foil,  with  auspicious 
marks ;  body  hyacinthine ;  with  eyes  and  lips  of 
■sanguine  hue ;  the  lord  of  the  world ;  a  moiety 
of  Vishnu  himself;  the  source  of  joy  to  Iksh-. 
waku*s  race.*  His  faithful  wife  Sit<i  is  one  of 
the  most  interesting  females  in  Hindoo  poetry. 
Rama  is  also  called  Raghuva,  or  son  of  Raghu. 
Kaka-paksha-dara,  or  crow-winged,  is  an  epi- 
thet given  to  the  Ramas,  and  to  other  warriors, 
from  a  certain  mode  of  shaving  the  head,  leaving 
the  hair  over  the  ears  only,  resembling  crow's 
wings.  Shyaroula,  or  blue-bodied,  is  an  appel- 
lation of  Rama,  as  well  as  of  Krishna,  and  of 
their  common  prototype,  Vishnu ;  all  being  re- 
presented of  hyaciothine  hue.  It  may  be  here 
remarked,  that  several  incidents  in  the  Sri-Bha- 
gavat  (a  history  of  Krishna),  and  in  the  Ramay- 
ana, told  similarly  of  their  several  heroes,  ^eem 
to  mix  or  approximate,  though  perhaps  scarcely 
to  identify,  the  characters  of  Krishna  and  Rama. 
Each  won  a  wife  by  bending  an  unyielding 
bow,  a  story  not  very  unlike  that  of  Ulysses. 
Each  is  described  as  overcoming  the  detTion 
Kumbakarna,  and  other*.  Krishna  descended 
into  hell ;  so  ^d  Sita,  t!ie  sakti,  or  energy  of 
Rama. 

RHAMNUS,  in  ancient  geography,  a  town  of 
Atti.ca,  fiiroous  for  a  teropU;  of  Aipphiaraus,  and 
a  statue  of  Nemesis,  thence  callea  Rhamnusia. 
This  statue  was  made  by  Phidias,  out  of  a  block 
of  fine  Parian  marble,  whicli  the  Persians  had 
brought  to  erect  as  a  monument  of  their  expect- 
ed conquest  of  Greece.    Paus.  i.  Plin.  36. 

Rhamnus,  the  buckthorn,  in  botany,  a  genus 
of  the  monogynia  order  and  pentandria  class  of 
plants ;  natural  order  forty-third,  dumoss  :  cal. 
tubulous,  with  five  minute  scales  surrounding 
the  stamina :  cor.  none :  the  fruit  is  a  berry. 
There  are  thirty  species ;  of  which  the  most  re- 
markable are, 

1.  R.  alatemus,  the  common  alaternus,  is  an 
evergreen,  a  native  of  the  south  of  Europe. 
There  are  several  varieties,  the  most  remarkable 
are  the  broad-leaved  and  the  jagged-leaved  ala- 
ternus, which  have  all  been  confounded  with  the 
phillyrea. 

2.  R.  Alpinus,  rough-leaved  frangula,  dr  berry- 
bearing  alder,  is  also  a  deciduous  shrub,  and 
native  of  the  Alps.  It  difiers  in  no  respect  from 
the  common  sort,  except  that  it  has  no  thorns, 
and  that  it  will  grow  to  be  rather  taller,  with  tough, 
large,  and  doubly  laciniated  leaves.  The  smooth- 
leaved  Alpine  frangula  is  a  variety  of  this  species, 
with  smooth  leaves,  and  of  a  lower  growth. 

3.  R.  catharticus,  or  common  purging-buck-- 
thor.n,  growing  naturally  in  some  parts  of  Britain. 
This  grows  to  the  height  of  twelve  or  fourteen 
feet,  with  many  irreguUr  branches  at  the  extre- 
mities. The  leaves  are  oval-lanceolate,  finely 
serrated  on  the  edges,  their  nerves  converging 
together.  The  flowers  grow  in  dusters,  one  on 
each  foot-stalk,  white,  and  in  this  species  divided 
into  four  segments ;  the  fruit  is  a  round  black 
berry,  containing  four  seeds.  The  juite  of  the 
heiries  is  a  strong  purgative,  and  is  made  use  oi'  for 
liiakiii;^  t)ie  co:nmon  synij)  of  buckthorn  kepi  iu 


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the  shops.  The  bark  is  emetic ;  the  jnioe  of  the 
unripe  berries^  with  alum,  dyes  yeilow,  of  the 
ripe  ones  a  fine  green ;  the  hark  also  dyes  yellow. 
Tn^  green  color  yielded  by  the  besries^  called 
verde  vessie,  is  much  esteemed  by  miniaUire 
painters.  Of  this  species  there  are  two  varieiies, 
viz.  the  dwarf  buckthorn,  a  shrub  of  about  ayaid 
high,  of  a  greenish  color  but  little  show ;  and 
the  long-leaved  dwarf  buckthorn,  which  is  a 
larger  shrub,  with  leaves  somewhat  larger,  but 
in  other  respects  very  similar  to  the  dwarf  buck- 
thorn. 

4.  R.  frangula,  or  berry-bearing  aider,  is  a 
deciduous  shrub,  a  native  of  England  and  most 
of  the  northern  parts  of  Europe,  and  affords  se- 
veral varieties. 

5.  R.  insectorius,  or  narrow-leaved  buckthorn, 
is  an  evergreen  shrub  or  tree,  and  natiyje  of 
Spain.  It  grows  to  ten  of  twelve  feet  and  sends 
forth  several  branches  from  the  bottom  to  the 
top.  They  are  covered  with  a  blackish  or  4^^- 
colored  bark,  and  each  of  them  is  terminated 
by  a  long  sharp  thorn.  The  fruit  continues  on 
the  trees  all  winter,  making  a  beautiful  appear- 
ance among  the  narrow-clustered  leaves  at  that 
season. 

6.  R.  lotus,  the  Lybian  lotus,  has  the  leaves, 
prickles,  flowers,  and  fruit,  of  tly  zizyphus;  only 
with  this  difference  that  the  frmtis  here  round, 
smaller,  and  more  luscious,  and  at  the  same  time 
the  branches,  like  those  of  the  paliunis,  are  nei- 
ther so  much  jointed  nor  crooked.  It  is  proper, 
however,  to  distinguish  between  these  shrubs 
and  a  herb  often  mentioned  by  the  ancients  un- 
der the  name  of  lotus,  which.  Homer  says,  was 
the  food  of  the  horses  of  Achilles,  and  Virgil 
mentions  as  proper  to  increase  the  milk  of  sheep. 
See  Lotus. 

7.  R.  oleoides,  the  olive-leaved  buckthorn,  is 
an  evergreen  shrub,  a  native  of  Spain,  and  grows 
to  eight  or  ten  feet.  It  sends  forth  numerous 
bra^iches,  each  of  which  is  terminated  by  a  long 
sharp  spine.  The  flowers  are  small,  of  a  whitish 
green  color,  and  are  succeeded  by  round  black 
berries. 

8.  R.  paliurus,  or  thornof  Christ,  is  a  decidu- 
ous shrub  or  .tree,  a  native  of  Palestine,  Spain, 
Portugal,  and  luly.  It  will  grow  to  nearly  the 
height  of  fourteen  feet,  and  is  armed  with  sharp 
thorns,  two  of  which  are  at  each  joint,  one  of 
which  is  about  half  an  inch  long,  straight  and 
upright;  the  other  is  scarcely  half  that  length, 
and  bent  backward ;  and  between  them  is  the 
bud  for  next  year's  shoot.  June  is  the  time  of 
flowering,  and  the  flowers  are  succeeded  by  a 
small  fruit,  surrounded  by  a  membrane.  *  This 
plant,'  says  Hanbury, '  is  probably  the  sort  of 
which  the  crown  of  thorns  for  our  Blessed  Sa- 
viour was  composed.  The  branches  are  very 
pliant,  and  the  spines  of  it  are  at  every  joint 
strong  and  sharp.  It  grows  naturally  about  Je- 
rusalem, as  well  as  in  many  partfli  of  Judea ;  and 
the  ancient  pictures  of  our  Saviour's  crucifixion 
confirm  this.' 

9.  R.  uzyphus,  or  jujub,  is  the  species  in 
which  the  lac  insect  forms  its  cells,  and  produces 
the  wax  called  gum  lac. 

RHAMPHASTOS,  in  ornithology,  the  tou- 
can, a  genus  belonging  to  riie  order  of  pice. 


The  bill  is  very  Urge^  and  semiwl  «atinidly. 
The  nostrils  are  situated  behind  the  hist  of  the 
beak;  and  in  most  of  the  species  thefcet  are 
toed,  with  two  toes  forward,and  twa backwards. 
The  toi^e.is  long,  narrow,  ap^.fealhexpdoD  the 
edges.  Mr.  Latham  enumerates  fi^enn  diflbent 
species.  We  can  only  afford  roofn  for  a  descrip- 
tion of  the  red  beaked  toucan,  which  will  serve  as 
a  type  of  the  rest.  This  bird  if  about  the  size 
of  a  jackdaw,  and  of  a  similar  sbape,  with  a  la^ 
head  to  support  its  monstrous  bill.  This  bill, 
from  the  angles  of  the  ovouth  to  its  poipt,ii  six 
inches  and  a  half  in  length,  and  its  breadth  is 
the  thickest  part  is  a  little  inoie  than  two.  lu 
thickness  near  the  head  is  one  inch  and  »  quar- 
ter ;  and  it  is  a  littl^  rounded  along  the  top  of 
the  upper  chap,  the  under  side  being  roooded 
also ;  the  whole  of  the  bill  extremely  slight,  and 
but  little  thicker  than  parchment.  The  upper 
part  is  of  a  bright  yellow,  except  on  each  side, 
which  is  of  a  fine  scarlet  color ;  as  isalsothe  lower 
part,  except  at  the  base,  which  is  purple.  Be- 
tween the  head  and  the  bill  there  is  a  black  Use 
of  separation  all  round  the  base  of  the  bill ;  in 
the  upper  part  of  which  the  nostrils  are  placed, 
and  almost  covered  with  feathers;  which  has 
occasioned  some  to  say  that  the  toucan  has  do 
nostrils.  Round  the  c^es,  on  each  side  of  the 
heady  is  a  space  of  bluish  akin,  void  of  featben; 
above  which  the  head  is  black,  except  a  white 
spot  on  each  side  joining  to  the  base  of  the  up- 
per part  of  the  bill.  The  hinder  part  of  the  neck, 
the  back,  wings,  tail,  belly,  and  thighs,  are  black. 
The  under  sid^  of  the  fiiid,  throa^  and  the  be- 
ginning of  the  breast,  are  white.  Between  the 
white  on  the  breast,  and  the  black  op  the  belly, 
is  a  space  of  red  feathers*  in  the  fof  m  of  a  new 
moon,  writh  its  horns  upwards.  The  legSy  feet, 
.and  claws,  are  of  an  ash  color ;  and  the  toes 
stand  like  those  of  parrqts,  two  beibre  and  two 
behind.  It  is  said  that  this  bird,  though  funiisb- 
ed  with  so  formidable  a  beak,  is  Harmless  and 
gentle,  being  easily  made  tame  so  as  to  sit  and 
batch  its  ypung  in  houses.  It  feeds  oi)  vegetables, 
and  prefers  pepper.  Its  bill  is  hollow,  and  ve7 
light,  so  that  it  cannot  peck  or  strike  smartly 
therewith.  Its  tongue  is  long,  tbin».  and  flat; 
and  is  moved  up  ai)d  down,  and  often  extended 
five  or  six  inches  from  the  bill.  It  is  of  a  flesh 
color,  and  fring^  on  each  side  with  very  small 
filaipents,  exactly  resembling  a  feather.  It  is 
probable  that  this  long  tongue  has  greater  strength 
than  the  thin  hollow  beak  that  contains  iL  Tbis 
bird  builds  its  nest  in  holes  of  trees,  which  have 
been  previously  scooped  out  for  this  purpose. 
No  bird  secures  its  young  better  from  injury  than 
the  toucan.  It  has  not  only  birds,  men,  m  ser- 
pents, to  guard  against,  but  a  numerous  tribe  of 
pionkeys.  The  toucan,  however,  scoops  out  its 
nest  into  the  hollow  of  a  tree,  leaving  only  a 
hole  large  enough  to  go  in  and  out  at.  ,  There  it 
sits,  with  its  great  beak,  guarding  the  entrance; 
and,  if  a  monkey  ventures  a  visit,  the  toucan 
gives  him  ftuch  a  welcome  tHat  he  is  ^ad  to  es- 
cape. The  toucan  is  only  found  in  the  wann 
climates  of  South  America,  where  it  is  in  great 
request,  noth  for  the  delicacy  of  its  flesh,  which 
is  tender  and  nourishing,  and  for  the  beauty  of  i's 
plumage  particularly  the  feathers  of  the  breast. 


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EHA 

:  lUUJtfPSINrrUS,  «i  •pulei^t  king  of  Egypt, 
Tmh6  SQceeoded  PiDttiu.  Ue  built  a  large  stone 
tower  at  Meniphis,.whf«ehe  deposited  his  richefl, 
of  which  he  was  robbed  by  the  artifiQe  of.  the 
wechitect.— Herodotus. 

RUAMSES,  or  Ramises,  a  poweriiil  king  of 
Egypt,  who,  with  an  army  of  700,000  men,  con- 
..querad  Ethiopia,  Libya,  Persia,  and  other  ca»em 
.l^ingdoms.  rliny  says  Troy  was  taken  in  his 
Teign.  Some  suppose  him  the  same  with  Sesos- 
^s. 

.'  RHAPIS,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  monogy- 
nia  order,  and  bexandria  class  of  plants ;  natimi 
prder  first,  palms ;  c^t..  monophyllous ;  trifid 
spatba:  cor.  moix>petaloas  and  trifkl.  There 
•V9  two  species,  riz,-*R.  arundinacea,  simple 
leaved  rhapis,  a  natiye  of  Carolina;  and  R. 
Habellilbnnis,  or  ground  nitan,  a  native  of 
China. 

RHAPSODI,  or  Rbapsodisis,  in  antiquity, 
persons  who  trav-elled  from  place  to  place,  sing- 
ing parts  of  HpmeK*s  poeips.  They  wete  clothed 
in  red  when  they  sung,  the  Iliad,  and  in.  blue 
when  they  sung  the  Odyssey.  They  performed 
an  the  theatres,  and  sometimes  strove  for  prizes 
in  contests  of  poeiaryy  singing,  &c.  After  the  two 
Qttti^;oBists  had  finished  their  parts,  the  two 
ptectfl  or  papers  they  woare  written  in  were  joined 
.iog^her  again  :  whence  the  name^  viz,  imm 
^irrw,.sud,  to  sew,  and  tf^iy,  canticum,  a  song. 
■but  there  seem  ip  have  been  other  rhapsodi  of 
iiigher  antiquity  than  these,  who  composed  heroic 
poems,  or  soogtt  in  praise  of  heroes  and  great  men, 
and  sung  their  own  compositions  fron)  tpwn  to 
town,  for  a  livelihood ;  of  which  profession*,  it  is 
nid,  was  Homer  himself.  Hence  som^  critics,  in- 
stead of  the  former  origin,  derive  the  word  thap^ 
eodist  from  po^w  aiiivj  to  sing  witli  a  laurel-r^ 
BQ  the  hand,  which,  it  seems,  was  the  badge  of  tt^ 
primitive  rhapsodi.  Philochorus,  again,  deriyes 
the  word  from  pamrav  rot  ttSaCf  q.d.  mnmBeuM, 
to  compose  songs  or  poems ;  as  if  they-  were  tl^e 
authors  of  the  poenis  they  sung.  This  opinioi), 
to  which  Scaliger  inclines,  reduces  these  rhap- 
sodi to  the  second  kind.  It  is  probable  that 
these  rhapsodists  were  all  of  the  same  cl^ss,  wha|- 
e?er  distinction  some authorsmay  imagine  among 
them ;  and  that  their  business  was  to  sing  or  re- 
hearse poems,  either  of  their  own  or  other  peo- 
ple's composition,  as  might  best  serve  their  .pur- 
pose, which  was  gaining  a  pecuniary  advantage 
by  them. 

RHAPSODOll^ANCY,  an  ancient  kind  of  di- 
vination, performed  by  taking  a  passage  of  apo^t 
at  hazard,  and  reckoning  it  as  a  prediction  ef 
what  was  to  coipe  to  pass.  There  y/^fe  variot:^ 
ways  of  practising  this  diapspdomancy.  Some- 
times they  wrote  several  papers  or  sentences  of 
.«  poet  on  so  many  pieces  of  wood  or  paper, 
shook  them  together  in  an  urn,  and  drew  out 
one  vrfaich  was  accounted  the  lot;  sometimes 
they  cast  dice  on  a  table  whereon  v|er|es  weie 
¥rritten,  and  Aat  whereon  the  die  lodged  contained 
the  prediction.  A  third  method  vras  by  opf^niitg 
a  book,  and  taking  some  verse  at  first  sight. 
This  method  they  particularly  called  the  sort^ 
Prtenestins;  and  aiterwards  made  use  of  sortes 
HomeEic8&,  sortes  Virgilismn,  &c. 


569     ^  RHE 

RHAPISODY,  n.  t,  >     Gr.  paiM*^ ;  pa^**^ 

Rhap'sodist,  .  )  to  sew,  and  df^iy,  ^  song. 

Ajly  BumbeY  of  parts  joined  together,  without 
toeoessary  or  due  connexion :  a  writer  in  this  un 
coo&ected'way. 

.    Such  a  deed,  as  sweet  leligion  makes 
A  rhaptody  of  words.  Shahpeare,  Hamlet. 

This  confusion  and  rhapsody  of  difficulties  was 
not  to  be  supposed  in  each  single  sinner. 

Hammond. 

He  that  makes  no  reflections  on  what  he  reads 
only  loads  his  mind  with  a  rhapsody  of  tales  fit  for 
the  entertainment  of  others.  Locht. 

The  words  slide  over  the  ears,  and  vanish  like  a 
^^utptoiy  of  evening  tales.  WaUt  on  the  Mind, 

Ask  our  rAopwdiits,  if  you  have  nothing  but  the 
excellence  and  loveliness  of  virtue  to  preach,  and 
no  future  rewards  or  punishments^  how  many  vicious 
wretches  will  you  ever  reclaim  ? .  Watts, 

RHAYADER-GWY,  or  Gowt,  a  market- 
town  of  Radnorshire,  on  the  river  Wye.  It  is 
divided  into  four  streets  in<the  form  of  a  cross, 
and  anciently  had  a  very  considerable  castle, 
part  of  the  foundations  of  which  tnay  bte  still 
traced.  In  the  centre  of  the  town  stands  the  hall, 
>a  handsome  square  building  of  'stone,  erected  in 
1768.  The  church  is  a  respectable  modem 
•structure,  in  the  form  of  an  oblong  square,  with 
a  quadrangular  jtone  tower  and  turrets.  At  the 
dipper  jend  of  thd  town,  near  the  parsonage  house, 
is  a  new-built  free-school,  ana  there  is  also  a 
meetingrhouse  for  dissenters.  The  town  is 
goremed  by  a  bailiff,  and  joins  with  New  Radnor 
in  sending  a  member  to  parliament.  lo  the  town 
is  ar  small  manufiicture  of  coarse  cloth*  Market 
on  Wednesday. 

RHAZIS,  or  Rhases,  a  celebrated  Arabian 
physician  and  chemist,  of  great  leasoing  jsad  ex- 
perience, bom  at  Rhei,  in  Chorosana,  in. ^2. 
Dr.  Mead  translated  his  work  on  the  Small-Pox ; 
the  rest  of  his  works  were  printed  in  folio^  in 
1548. 

RHEA,  in  the  mythology,  the  daughter  of 
Coelus  and  Terra,  sister  and  wife  of  Saturn  ; 
the  same  with  Cybxlb  or  Ops.  See  these  articles. 

Rhea  Amxricaka,  in  ornithology,  the  Ame- 
rican ostrich,  is  very  little  smaUer  than  the  com- 
mon one :  the  bill  is  sloped  like  that  of  a  goose, 
being  fiat  on  the  top  and  rounded  at  the  ^nd{ 
the  eyes  are  Uaok,  and  the  lids  furnished  v>ith 
hairs :  the  head  is  rounded,  and  covered  with 
downy  feathers;  the  neck  is  two  feet  eight  inches 
long,  and  feathered ;  from  the  tip  of  one  wing 
to  that  of  the  other  extended,  the  length  is  eight 
feet ;  but  from  the  want  of  continuity  of  th^  webs 
of  the  fhathers,  and  their  laxity  of  texture,  the 
bird  is  unable  to  raise  itself  from  the  ground ;  it 
is,  however,  capable  of  greatly  assisting  itself 
by  their  motion  in  running,  which  it  does  very 
swidly.  The  legs  are  stout,  bare  of  feathers 
abov^  the  knees,  and  furnished  with  three  toes, 
all  placed  forwards,  each  having  a  straight  and 
stout  <;law  as  in  the  cassowary ;  on  the  heel  is  a 
callous  knob,  serving  as  a  back  toe.  The  general 
color  of  plumage  is  dull  gray  mixed  wiUi  white, 
inclining  to  the  latter  pn  the  under  pfurts ;  the 
tail  is  very  short  and  not  conspicuous,  heing  en- 
tirely covered  with  long,  loose^  and  floating  fea- 
thers, originating  from  ike  lower  part  of  the  back 


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«nd  ramp,  and  entirely  covering  it ;  the  bill  and 
legs  are  brown.  Molina  says  the  body  in  some 
is  white,  in  others  black.  It  is  fond  of  flies, 
which  it  catches  with  great  dexterity,  anc|^  will 
also,  like  the  common  ostrich,  swallow  bits  of 
iron,  and  any  other  trash  offered  to  it.  In  com- 
mon with  the  ostrich  of  the  old  world,  it  lays  a 
number  of  eggs,  from  forty  to  sixty,  in  the  sand, 
each  of  them  holding  a  quart ;  but  it  differs  from 
that  bird  in  many  particulars,  especially  in  want- 
ing the  callosity  on  the  sternum,  and  spurs  on 
the  wing.  With  these  last  the  common  ostrich 
is  known  to  defend  itself;  in  defect  of  them  this 
one  uses  the  feet  with  such  address  as  to  become 
at  once  a  furious  and  dangerous  antagonist.  The 
female  calls  its  young  ones  together  with  a  kind  of 
whistling  note  somewhat  similar  to  that  of  a  man : 
when  young  it  is  very  lame,  frequently  following 
the  first  creature  it  meets  with.  The  flesh  is  said 
to  be  very  unpalatable.  '  They  are  found  in 
various  parts  of  South  America,  from  Patagonia 
to  Guiana.' 

RHEEDE  (N.),  esq.,  aneminent  botanist  of  the 
sixteenth  century.  He  was  governor  of  Malabar, 
and  published  a  well  known  work,  entitled  Hor- 
tus  Malaharicus.  We  have  seen  no  memoir  of  him. 

KHEEOIA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  roono- 
gynia  order,  and  polyandria  class  of  plants :  coa. 
letrapetalous :  cal.  none  :  the  fruit  is  a  trisper- 
mous  berry. 

RHEGIUM,  in  ancient  geography,  a  very 
ancient  city  of  Italy.  It  was  a  city  of  the  Brutti, 
a  colony  of  Chalcidians  from  Euboea,  sumamed 
Julium,  from  a  fresh  supply  of  inhabitants  ^nt 
thither  by  Augustus,  after  driving  Sextus  Pom- 
peius  out  of  Sicily  (Strabo) ;  and  thus  was  in 
part  a  colony,  retaining  still  the  right  of  a  muni- 
cipium.  Virgil  (I.  iii.  v.  414) thus  describes  it: — 

Hcc  loca,  VI  qoondani,  et  vasta  convulsa  ruin^ 
(l*antam  aevi  longinqaa  valet  mutare  vetastas) 
Diisiluisse  ferunt,  cum  protinus  utraque  tellus 
Una  foret ;  venit  medio  vi  pontus,  et  undis 
Hesperium  Sieulo  latus  ab&cidit ;  arvaque  et  urbes 
Littore  diductas  angusto  interluit  estu. 

RHEIMS,  or  Reims  (anciently  Remi),  a 
large  city  of  France,  in  the  department  of  the 
Marne.  It  stands  in  a  fine  plain,  on  the  banks 
of  the  Vesle,  surrounded  by  a  chain  of  low  hills, 
covered  with  vineyards.  The  space  enclosed  by 
the  walls  is  very  large,  but  a  large  part  of  it, 
particularly  on  the  south-west  side,  is  occupied 
by  gardens.  The  form  of  the  city  is  oblong, 
having  its  length  from  south-east  to  north-west, 
and  it  is  surrounded  vvith  a  ditch  and  earthen 
mound,  planted  on  both  sides  with  double  rows 
of  trees ;  the  fortifications  of  the  city  were  levelled 
in  1812.  The  closely  built  part  is  a  regular 
oval,  of  which  the  square  called  the  Place  Roy  ale 
may  be  considered  the  centre.  The  streets  in 
general  are  wide  and  straight;  in  the  old  quarters, 
however,  they  are  often  winding  and  narrow. 
One  of  the  finest  leads  in  a  straight  line,  across 
the  whole  width  of  the  town,  from  the  eastern 
•to  the  western  gate,  passing  through  the  centre 
of  the  royal  square.  The  Place  St.  Remy,  at 
the  southern  extremity  of  the  town,  though  of  an 
irregular  shape,  is  pleasant.  The  houses  through- 
out Rheims  want  in  general  height ;  hence  there 
is  little  that  is  striking  in  their  appearance.    But 


the  city  has  six  fine  gates.  Two  of  them,  m 
the  Porte  de  Ceres,  and  the  Pone  de  Mars,  have 
retained  their  Roman  names.  The  town  is  sop- 
plied  with  vater  by  pipes  from  the  Vesle.  The 
cathedral,  a  vast  Gothic  edifice  of  the  twelfth 
century,  is  one  of  the  finest  specimens  of  that 
kind  of  architecture  in  France.  The  portal  is  a 
chef  d'oeuvre,  except  that  the  frontispiece  is 
loaded  with  a  profusion  of  indifferent  sculptures. 
In  this  church  the  ceremony  of  anointing  or  con- 
secrating the  kings  of  France  formerly  look 
place.  A  second  object  of  interest  formerly  was 
the  church  of  St.  Nicaise,  with  its  arch  and  pil- 
lar, said  to  shake  on  the  ringing  of  one  of  the 
bells.  In  that  of  St.  Reme  was  deposited  the 
holy  oil  of  the  French  kings ;  brought  from  hea- 
ven, it  is  said,  by  a  dove ;  and  preserved  through 
the  feuds  of  the  Revolution  by  at  least  an  equal 
miracle.  The  episcopal  palace  is  a  fine  building; 
as  also  the  Hotel  de  V^ille.  Here  are  traces  of 
an  amphitheatre,  and  the  remains  of  a  Koman 
triumpnal  arch :  three  hospitals ;  a  small  uni- 
versity ;  a  royal  college,  and  a  high  school.  The 
archbishop  is  primate  of  France.  Inhabitanis 
35*000.  The  manufactures  are  cotton,  woollens, 
and  hats.    It  was  the  birth  place  of  Colbert. 

RHEINFELS,  or  Rhinfel.s,  a  fortress  of  the 
Prussian  grand  duchy  of  the  Lower  Rhine,  stands 
on  an  island  in  the  Lower  Rhine,  at  St.  Goar, 
between  Coblentz  and  Bacharach.  It  was  be- 
sieged  by  the  French  in  1672,  but  without  suc- 
cess: in  1794  it  was  taken  and  dismantled  by 
them.  Over  against  it  stands  New  Catzeoeln- 
bogen,  a  very  strong  castle  on  a  high  rock. 

RHEINGAU,  or  Rhikgau,  a  district  of  the 
duchy  of  Nassau,  Germany,  on  the  north  bank 
of  the  Rhine.  It  extends  from  Biberach  to 
Rudesheim,  and  is  about  twelve  miles  long  and 
four  broad,  producing  the  best  quality  of  Rbeoish 
wioe. 

RHEINTHAL,  i.  e.  the  Valley  of  the  Rhine, 
a  district  of  the  canton  of  St.  Gall,  Switzerland, 
lying  along  the  Rhine,  from  the  lake  of  Con- 
stance to  the  lordship  of  Sax.  It  is  about  sixteen 
miles  long  and  four  broad,  having  in  the  imme- 
diate neighbourhood  of  the  Rhine  a  gravelly  soil, 
and  the  population  thin ;  but  at  a  greater  dis- 
tance flax,  vines,  fruit,  and  maize,  are  all  raised 
with  success.  The  chief  employment  consists 
ill  spinning  and  weaving  cotton  and  flax.  The 
majority  are  Calvinists,  but  there  are  a  good 
many  Catholics,  and  both  sects  in  many  places 
use  the  same  church.  The  chief  town  is  Rhei- 
neck.  InhabiUnts  15,000.  This  is  also  the  name 
of  a  small  track  in  Baden,  extending  along  the 
right  bank  of  the  Rhine,  near  Rbeinfelden. 

RHENANUS  (Beatus),  a  learned  German, 
born  at  Sckelestat  in  Y485,  whence  he  removed 
to  Basil,  where  he  corrected  the  press  with  Fn>- 
benius,  and  contracted  a  friendship  with  Eras- 
mus. He  wrote  The  Life  of  Erasmus :  Notei 
upon  Tertullian,  and  other  classics  ;  but  his 
chief  work  is  his  Res  Germanise,  in  2  vols,  folio. 
He  died  at  Sttasburg  in  1547. 

RHENE,  in  ancient  geography,  a  small  island 
in  the  £gean  Sea,  about  200  yards  from  Delos, 
whence  it  is  sometimes  called  Delos  Minor.  It 
is  about  eighteen  miles  in  circumference.— 
3  hucyd.  3.  Sirdbo  x. 


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RHENUS,  in  ancient  geography,  the  Rhine, 
a  large  river  of  Germany,  celebrated  in  ancient 
history.  It  rises  among  the  Alpes  Lepontie,  or 
Gnsons ;  and,  first  traversing  the  Lacus  Aero- 
nius,  divides  the  Rhaeti  and  Vindelicii  from  the 
Helvetii,  and  then  the  Germani  from  the  Gauls 
and  BelgB ;  and  running  from  south  to  north 
for  the  greater  part  of,  its  way,  and  at  length 
bending  its  course  west,  it  empties  itself  by  three 
mouths  into  the  German  Ocean,  viz.  the  western, 
or  Helias ;  the  northern,  or  Fleuvus ;  and  the 
middle  between  both  these,  which  retains  the 
oripnal  name,  Rhenus  (Pliny  and  Ptolemy). 
Mela  and  Tacitus  mention  two  channels,  and  as 
many  mouths,  the  right  and  left ;  the  former  run- 
ning by  Germany,  and  the  latter  by  Gallia  Bel- 
gica :  and  thus  also  AsiniusPollio,  and  Virgil ; 
the  trench  of  Drusus  not  being  made  in  their 
time,  whereby  the  middle  channel  was  much 
drained  and  reduced,  and  therefore  overlooked 
by  Tacitus  and  Mela.    See  Rhine. 

RHESB  (John  David),  M.D.,  was  bom  in 
the  isle  of  Anglesey,  in  1534,  and  elected  fellow 
of  Christ  Churcb  College,  Oxford,  in  1555.  He 
took  his  degree  at  SieAna,  and  was  so  complete 
a  master  of  the  Italian  language  as  to  be  appoint- 
ed moderator  of  the  school  at  Pisioia,  in  Tus- 
cany.   He  died  at  Brecknock  about  1609. 

RHESUS,  in  fabulous  history,  king  of  Thrace, 
son  of  the  Strymon  by  the  Muse  Terpsichore,  or, 
according  to  some,  of  Eioneus  and  Euterpe. 
After  many  warlike  exploits  in  Europe,  he  went 
to  assist  Priam,  king  of  Troy,  against  the  Greeks. 
The  Trojans  were  anxious  for  his  arrival,  as  an 
oracle,  had  declared  that  Troy  should  never  be 
taken  if  the  horses  of  Rhesus  drank  the  waters 
of  the  Xanthos,  and  eat  the  grass  of  Troy.  Dio- 
medes  and  Ulysses  were  therefore  sent  to  inter- 
cept Rhesus :  they  entered  his  camp  in  the  night, 
killed  him,  and  carried  off  his  horses.— Homer. 

RHETICUS  (George),  a  learned  German 
astronomer,  born  at  Feldkirk,  in  the  Tyrolese,  in 
1514.  He  became  professor  at  Wirtembeiisf, 
but  left  ))is  chair  to  improve  himself  under  Co- 
pernicus ;  after  which  he  resumed  his  chair.  He 
went  to  Poland,  and  afterwards  to  Cassaria,  in 
Hungry,  where  he  died  in  1576. 

RHETORES,  amongst  the  Athenians,  were 
ten  orators  elected  by  lot  to  plead  public  causes 
in  the  senate-house  or  assembly.  For  every 
cause  in  which  they  were  detained  they  received 
a  drachm  out  of  the  public  money.  They  were 
sometimes  called  ZwiiyopM,  and  their  fee  to 
^vviiyopueov.  No  man  was  admitted  to  this 
office  before  he  was  forty  years  of  age,  though 
others  say  thirty.  Valor  in  war,  piety  to  their 
parents,  prudence  in  their  aftairs,  frugality,  and 
temperance,  were  necessary  qualifications  for 
this  office ;  and  every  candidate  underwent  an 
examination  concerning  these  virtues  previous  to 
the  election.  The  orators  at  Rome  were  not  un- 
like the  Athenian  rhetores. 

RHETORIANS,  a  sect  of  heretics  in  Egypt, 
so  denominated  from  Rhetorius,  their  leader. 

RHETORIC,  n,t,  \     Ft.  rhetorique; 

Rbetor'ical,  im§.  *    /   Gr.    ptiropuiti. 

Rh etor'ically,  adv.  \  Tbe  art  of  speak- 

Rdetor'icate,  v.n.  iing     with     ele- 

Hbetori'cian,  n.  $.  &  adj.  J  ganoe;  the  power 


of  persuasion;  oratory.  See  Oi^tort.  Riieto- 
rical  and  rhetorician,  adjective,  mean,  pertain- 
ing to,  or  befitting  this  art :  the  adverb  corre- 
sponding: to  rhetoricate  is,  to  play  the  orator; 
address  the  passions:  a  rhetoncian,  •ne  who 
teaches  or  practises  rhetoric. 

The  hearths  still  rhetoric  disclosed  with  eyes. 

Skaktpmre. 

The  ancient  sophists  and  rhstarieiant,  which  ever 
bad  yoang  auditors,  lived  till  they  were  an  hundred 
yean  old.  Bacon. 

His  sober  lips  then  did  he  softly  part. 
Whence  of  pare  rhetoric  whale  streams  outflow. 

Fairfax. 

Twill  be  much  more  seasonable  to  reform,  than 
apologize  or  rhetoricate ;  not  to  sufier  themselves  to 
perish  in  the  midst  of  such  solicitations  to  be  saved. 

Dtcay  rf  Piety. 

Enjoy  your  dear  wit  and  gay  rhetoric. 
That  hath  so  well  been  taught  her  daszling  fence. 

MUton. 

Because  Bratus  and  Cassias  met  a  blackmore,  and 
Pompey  had  on  a  dark  garment  at  Pharsalia,  these 
were  presages  of  their  overthrow,  which  notwithstand- 
ing are  scarce  rhetorical  sequels ;  cooclnding  meta- 
phors from  realities,  and  from  conceptions  metaphori- 
cal inferring  realities  again.  Broutu. 

The  apprehension  is  so  deeply  riveted  into  my 
mind,  that  rhetorical  flourishes  cannot  at  all  loosen 
it.  More. 

We  could  not  allow  him  an  orator,  who  had  the 
best  thoughts,-  and  who  knew  all  the  rules  of  rheto- 
rique,  if  he  had  not  acquired  the  art  of  using  them. ' 
Drffdent  Dufre$noy, 

Tis  the  business  of  rhMUnieiam  to  treat  the  charac- 
ters of  the  passions.  Id, 

He  played  at  Lyons  a  declaiming  prize, 
At  which  the  vanquished  rhetoriaan  dies.    Dryden, 

Of  the  passions,  and  how  they  are  moved,  Aristo- 
tle in  his  second  book  of  rhetoric  hath  admirably 
discoursed  in  a  little  compass.  Locke, 

Bofdly  presumed  with  rhetorician  pride, 
To  hold  ot  any  question  either  side.        Biaehmore. 

The  subject  may  be  moral,  logical,  or  rhetorietU, 
which  does  not  come  under  our  senses.  WatU. 

Grammar  teacheth  us  to  speak  properly  ;  rhetoric 
instructs  to  speak  elegantly.  Baker. 

A  man  may  be  a  very  good  rhetorician,  and  yet  at 
the  same  time  a  mean  orator.  Id.  on  Learning, 

RHEUM,  n.s.  (      Fr.  rheume ;   Gr.  ^vfta. 

Rhbum'y,  adj.  S  The  thin  watery  matter 
about  the  mouth,  eyes,  &c. :  abounding  in  rheum. 

Trust  not  these  cunning  waters  of  his  eyes ; 
For  villainy  is  not  without  such  a  rheum ; 
And  he.  Ions  trading  in  it,  makes  it  seem 
Like  rivers  of  remorse.  Shakepeare, 

You  did  void  your  rheum  upon  my  beard.        Id, 
Is  Brutus  sick  ? 
And  will  he  steal  out  of  his  wholesome  bed, 
To  dare  the  vile  contagion  of  the  nieht  1 
And  tempt  the  rheumy  and  unpurged  air. 
To  add  unto  his  sickness  t  Id, 

The  South  he  loosed,  who  nieht  and  horror  brings. 
And  fo^  are  shaken  f^m  his  flaggy  wings : 
From  his  divided  beard  two  streams  he  pours ; 
His  beard  and  rheumy  eyes  distil  in  showers. 

Dryden. 

Each  changing  season  does  its  poison  bring, 
Rheume  chill  the  winter,  agues  blast  the  spring. 

Prior. 

Rheum,  in  botany,  rhubarb,  a  genus  of  the 
monogynia  order,  and  etmeandria  class  of  plants ; 
natural  order  twelfth,  boloraces:   cal.  none: 


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COR.  flexfid  and  penisient^  and  them  is  one  tri- 
qvetfoos  ieed.    Theft  are  five  ipecies»  viz. 

1 .  R.  Arabicum,  the  eurrantrhobarb  of  Mount 
Lihanus,  hai  a  thick  'fleshy  root,  rety  broad 
leaves,  ftU  of  gruiulated  protuberancee,  and  with 
equal  foot-stalks,  and  upright  firm  stens  three 
or  four  feet  high,  terminated  by  spikes  of  flowers, 
surrounded  by  a  purple  pulp. 

3.  R.  com  pactum,  the  Tartarian  ibubaib,  with 
a  large,  flesny,  branched  root,  yellow  within; 
crowned  by  very  large,  heart-shaped,  somewhat 
lobated,  sharply  indented,  smooth  leaves,  and 
an  upright  large  stem,  five  or  six  feet  high,  gar- 
nished with  leaves  singly,  and  branching  above ; 
having  all  the  branches  terminated  by  nodding 
p^qicles  of  white  flowers.  This  has  been  sup- 
posed to  be  the  true  rhubarb ;  which,  however, 
though  of  superior  quility  to  some  sorts,  is  ac- 
counted inferior  to  the  rhenm  palmatum. 

3.  R.  palmatum,  palmated-leaved  true  Chi- 
nese rhubarb,  has  a  thick  fleshy  root,  yellow 
within ;  crowned  with  very  large  palmated 
lesives,. being  deeply  divided  into  accumulated 
segments,  expanded  like  an  open  hand ;  upright 
stems,  five  or  six  feet  high  or  more,  terminated 
^y  l<trg^  spikes  ot  flowers.  This  is  the  true 
foreign  rhuharb,  the  purgative  quality  of  which 
is  well  known. 

4.  R.  rhapondcum,  common  rhubarb,  baa  a 
large,  thick,  fleshy,  blanching,  deeply-striking 
root,  yellowish  within ;  crowned  by  very  Urg^ 
roundish,  heart-shaped  smooth  leaves,  on  thick, 
slightly  furrowed  foot-stalks ;  and  an  upright 
strong  stem,  two  or  three  feet  high,  adorned  with 
leaves  singly,  and  terminated  by  thick  close 
spikes  of  white  flowers.  It  grows  in  Thrace  and 
Scytiiia,buthas  been  long  in  the  English  gardens. 
Its  root  affords  a  gentle  cathartic.  It  is,  however, 
of  inferior  quality  to  the  Chinese.  The  young 
stalks  of  this  plant,  in  spring,  are  cut  and  peeled^ 
and  used  for  farts. 

6.  R.  undttlatnm,  the  undulated,  or  waved* 
leaved  Chinese  rhubarb,  has  a  thick,  branchy 
deep-striking  root,  yellow  vrithin ;  crowned  with 
larg^,  oblong,  undulate,  somewhat  hairy  leaves, 
having  eoual  foot-stalks,  and  an  upright  firm  step, 
fbur  feet  nigh ;  garnished  with  leaves  singly,  and 
terminated  by  long  loose  spikes  of  white  flowers. 
All  these  plants  are  perennial  in  root,  and  the 
leaves  and  stalks  are  annual.  The  roots  being 
thick,  fleshy,  and  generally  divided,  strike  deep 
into  the  gtound  ;  are  of  a  brownish  color  with- 
out, and  yellow  within :  the  leaves  rise  in  the 
spring,  generally  come  up  in  a  large  head  folded 
together,  gradually  expanding  themselves,  having 
thick  foot-stalks;  and  grow  from  one  to  two 
feet  high,  or  more,  in  length  and  breadth,  spread- 
ing all  around;  ainidst  them  rise  the  flower 
Stems,  which  are  garnished  at  each  joint  by  one 
leaf,  and  are  of  strong  and  expeditious  growth, 
attaining  their  fiiU  height  in  June,  wh^  they 
flower;  and  are  succeeded  by  large  triangular 
seeds,  ripening  in  August.  Some  plants  of  each 
sort  merit  culture  in  gardens  for  variety;  they 
afibrd  a  contrast  by  their  luxuriant  fi>liage,  spikes, 
and  flowers :  and,  as  medical  plants,  they  demand 
culture  both  for  private  and  public  use.  They 
are  propagated  by  seeds  sown  in  autumn,  soon 
afier  they  are  ripe,  or  early  in  spring,  in  an  open 


b«l  of  deep  light  earth.  These  fcr  medical 
use  should  be  sbfwn  where  they  aie.io  Kwain, 
that  the  roots  may  grow  bige.  Scatter  the  seeds 
thinly,  either  by  broed^oast,  or  in  drills  one  fool 
and  a  half  distant  The  daaU  will  rise  ia 
spring,  but  not  flower  till  the  second  or  thiid 
year.  When  they  are  two  or  three  inches  hij^ 
thin  them  to  eight  or  teii  inches :  those  designed 
to  stand,  should  be  hoed  out  to  one  foot  sod  a  lalf 
or  two  feet  distant.  Keep  the  groonl  deao  be- 
tween them;  aud  in  autumn,  when  the  lUllu 
decay,  cut  them  down,  and  dig  between  the 
rows.  The  roots  remaining  increase  in  siie  an- 
nually; and  in  the  second  or  third  year,  will 
shoot  up  stalks,  flowers,  and  perfect  seeds.  1q 
three  or  four  years  the  roots  will  be  large ;  but  the 
oldest  are  preferred.  Rhubarb  is  a  raild  cathar- 
tic.   See  Medicine  and  Pbarmacv. 

RH£U'MATISM,».Y.)      Ft.  rheumUism; 

RHBUM4T'fc,  o($.  )Lat.    rAewikifiiotti; 

Gr.  ptvfiaTWfioc,  A  distemper  supposed  to  pnh 
ceed  from  acrid  humors :  partaking  of  rheuma- 
tism or  proceeding  from  rheum^ 

The  mooD,  the  governess  of  floods. 
Pale  in  her  anger,  washes  all  the  air, 
That  rh^tnatie  diseases  do  abov&d.        Skahipemt. 

The  throtUng  qiiiusey,  'tis  my  star  appgmts, 
And  rhmmatimu  I  send  to  rack  the  joints.  Dr^im* 

Rhewnatitm  is  a  distemper  aflectio|  duefly  the 
membrana  communis  mosculoram,  which  it  mka 
rigid  and  unfit  for  motion  ;  and  it  seeas  to  be  ooci- 
sioned  almost  by  the  same  causes,  as  the  modlagi. 
nous  glands  in  tbe  joints  are  lendeied  stiff  and  gria; 
in  tbe  eouu  Quincy- 

The  nlood  taken  away  looked  very  sizy  or  rhnin- 
tic,  Flostr. 

Rheum ATXsac    See  MEnicivE,  Index. 

RHEXIAy  in  botany»  a  genus  of  the  mono- 
gynia  order,  and  octandria  class  of  plants;  aa* 
tural  order   seventeenth,  calycanthyms :  cal 

anadri^d  with  four  petals  inserted  into  it;  ao- 
lerse  declining :  caps,  quadrilocular^withia  the 
belly  of  the  calyx.  Species  seven,  natives  of 
America  and  the  West  Indies. 

RHI  ANUS,  an  ancient  Greek  historian  and 
poet  of  Thrace,  originally  a  slave ;  who  flourished 
about  A.A.C.  200.  He  wrote  an  account  oi 
the  wai  between  Sparta  and  Measenia,  which 
lasted  twenty  years ;  and  a  history  of  tbe  princi- 
pal eveots  and  revolutions  in  Thessaly.  Of  this 
work  only  a  few  verses  are  extant. 

RHIGAS,  or  Rigas  (M.),  a  modern  Grteji 
patriotic  author,  was  bom  in  1753,  at  Velestini, 
a  town  of  Thessaly.  He  studied  in  the  coUega 
of  his  country,  and  was  early  distinguished  for 
his  acquirements.  Earlv  in  life  he  was  sent  to 
Bucharest,  and  resided  there  till  1790,  partly  en» 
gaged  in  commercial  pursuits.  He  first  conceived 
the  project  of  a  secret  society,  in  opposition  to 
the  Turi(8,  and  associated  among  the  disconteni- 
ed  chiefr.  He  now  went  to  Vienna,  where  be 
met  with  a  number  of  rich  Greek  meichaois; 
and,  extending  his  correspondence  to  other  pans 
of  Europe,  oommenoed  a  Greek  journal,  trans- 
lated the  Travels  pf  Anacharsis  the  yonpgei^  and 
other  French  woiVs ;  and  composed  a  trestise 
■oil  military  tabtics,  and  another  on  natnnl  phi- 
losophy ;  he  likewise  drew  up  a  grand  chart  (tf  sU 
Oreece,  in  twelve  divisions^  noting  not  pnl/  ^ 


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RHINE. 


573 


present,  bht  alsa  the  ancient  nftmes  of  all  cele- 
brated places.  At  length  he  Was  denounc^  by 
oife  of  (lis  associates  to  the  Austrian  government 
93  a  conspirator  against  the  state ;  arrested  at 
Trieste,  and  ordered  to  be  delitered  up  to  the 
Ottoman  Porte :  but  he  was,  with  his  compa- 
nioos,  drowned  in  the  Danube)  his  conductors 
fearinf  the  vengeance  of  Passwan  Oglou.  This 
took  place  in  May  1798,  when  Rhigas  was  about 
fire-ami-forty  years  of  age. 

RHINANTHUS,in  botany*  elephant's  head,  a 
genus  of  the  angiospermiaorder,  and didynamia 
class  of  plants ;  natural  order  fortieth,  person- 
atae :  cal.  quadriftd,  ventricose :  caps,  biloculai^ 
obtuse,  and  comprened.  Species  ten,  natives  of 
the  Cape,  the  Levant,  and  of  Egypt. 

REflNE,  one  of  the  greatest  rivers  of  Europe, 
and  the  next  in  rank  &er  tlie  Danube  and  the 
Wolga^  has  its  source  in  the  central  and  highest 
part  of  SwiUerlan(|,  on  the  north-east  of  Mount 
St-Gothard.  Strikiug  off  to  the  north-east,  it  first 
receives  the  two  rivers  called  by  thejGermaDS 
the  Middle  and  Hither  Rhine.  The  united 
waters  now  pass  Ihe  town  of  Coire  or  Chur,  be- 
come navigable^  and  hold  a  nortiiern  course  to 
the  lake  of  Constance,  which  they  traverse. 
Issuing  hence  with  a  copious  stream  the  Rhine 
flows  to  the  west,  and  receive  the  Aar)  the 
Reuss,  aad  the  Limmat,  whose  waters  combing 
all  the  chief  streams  of  West  and  Central  Swit- 
zeriand.  It  now  continues  to  flow  to  the  wf3t« 
until  it  reaches  Bdie,  when  it  takes  a  northern 
direction,  and  receives  ^e  Neckar  and  Maine 
on  the  side  of  Germany,  and  the  Moselle  from 
France.  Entering  the  kingdom  of  the  Nether- 
lands, it  turns  suddenly  to  Sie  west,  and  divides 
into  two  greatbranches,  of  which  the  southern  takes 
the  name  of  Waal,  receives  the  Maese,  and  flows 
into  the  German  Ocean  by  Dort,  Rotterdam!  and 
WiUiamstadt.  The  nortltem,  or  less  considera- 
ble branch,  divides  first  above,  and  afterwards 
below  Arnheim  ;*  and  the  nan^e  of  Rhine  i^ 
finally  retained  only  by  a  small  slow  stream,  which 
passes  Utrecht  and  Leydeu  in  its  way  to  the 
sands  near  Catwyk,  through  which  it  reaches  the 
sea.  From  its  source  to  Mentz  this  great  rivei^ 
is  known  as  the  Upper  Rhine,  and  from  Ment^ 
to  Holland  as  the  Lower  Rhine.  Its  course  aU 
together  is  about  700  miles. 

Its  waters  are  of  a  beautiful  limpid  green :  its 
stream,  rapid  in  the  eaxly  part  of  its  course,  be- 
comes afterwards  deep  and  tranquil.  In  Switr 
aertand  the  scenery  of  its  banks  is  often  sublime ) 
and  below  SchafThausen  it  forms  a  cascade,  which^ 
though  not  the  highest,  is  in  mass  of  waters  the 
largest  in  the  southern  part  of  Europe.  From 
B^e  to  Strasburg,  and  even  to  Germersheim,  a 
number  of  islands  appear  in  the  river ;  but  at 
Mentx  the  banks  of  the  Rhine  assume  a  most 
beautifiil  aspect.  From  that  city  to  Cologne 
they  penetrate  the  finest  part  of  Germany :  cas- 
tles, towns,  and  villages  embellish  every  part  of 
the  prospect;  hills  rise  from  the  banks,  covered 
with  vineyards  to  their  summits ;  while  towers 
and  forts,  the  remains  of  remote  ages,  are  fre- 
quently reflected  by  the  water. 

By  the  Rhine  the  timber  of  Suabia  is  conveyed 
to  the  Netherlands,  and  colonial  produce  trans- 
ported ffom  the  coast  to  the  interior  of  Germany 


and  Suritzerland^  abd  the  pas)age-boats  up  and 
down  afford  a  very  commodious  conveyance^ 
The  navigation  is  sometimes  difficult,  but  seldom 
hazardous.  At  Cologne  vessels  from  100  to  1^ 
tons  burden,  generally  drawn  by  horses^  are 
seen ;  but  they  use  their  sails  when  the  #iiid  is 
favorable.  A  spirited  b^inpieg  has  also  been 
made  on  this  river  in  steam  navigation. 

Rhine,  The  Circle  of,  is  a  province  of  Ba- 
varia, situated  to  the  west  of  the  river  of  this 
name,  between  Weissemburg  on  the  south  and 
Worms  on  the  north.  It  consists  of  a  tract  of 
territory  on  the  Upper  Rhine,  ceded  by  France 
in  1814,  assigned  by  the  congress  of  Vienna  toi 
Austria,  and  made  over  by  the  hitter  to  Bavuria^ 
Its  form  approaches  to  a  square ;  the  area  being 
about  1800  square  miles,  intersected  by  branches 
of  the  Vosges  mountains.  The  more  iavorail)le 
aspects  exhibit  vineyards,  while  the  rugged  sum* 
nuts  are  often  romantically  erowned  with  the 
ruins  of  castles.  The  province,  contains  min^9 
of  quicksilver,  iron,  and  coal,  a  few  hardware 
manufactures,  extensive  pastures,  and  in  the 
valleys  wheat,  oats,  and  barley.  It  is  divided 
into  four  districts,  of  which  the  chief  towns  a^ 
Frankenthal,  Landau,  Kaiserslautern,  and  Deux 
Fonts.  The  Rhin^  is  its  eastern  boundary.  Ql 
the  othei^  rivers  the.  chief  are  the  Queich  %nd 
Lauter.    Population  308,000.  li 

The  Rhine  aUo  gives  name  to  a  province  of 
the  grand  duchy  of  Hesse^  situated  to  the  nortll 
of  ^e  Bavarian  circle  of  the  Rhine.  Its  area  is* 
^bout  1000  square  miles.  The  valleys  and  small 
plains  produce  corn,  flax  tobaocoy  and  vines':} 
and  the  hills  contain  in  certain  parts  mines  ^af 
iron  and  salt;  in  others  very  good  pasturage. 
The  manufactures  are  of  linen,  cotton,  and  lea- 
ther, which  give  rise  to  a  brisk  traffic 
^  Rhuib,  Ix>wer,  the  Prussian  grand  duchy  of, 
IS  composed  of  territories  taken  in  1814  from 
France  and  the  grand  duchy  of  Berg,  and  assigned 
by  the  congress  of  Vienna.  Justice  has  beeqi 
since  administered  by  the  laws  of  France ;  bui 
the  provincial  administration  is  that  of  the  Prus-r 
sian  dominions.  This  duchy  is  bounded  on  the 
north  by  the  province  of  Cleves  and  Berg,  on  th/^ 
east  by  Nassau  and  Hesse-Darmstadt,  ou  the 
south  by  the  French,  on  the  west  by  the  Dutch 
frontier.  It  lies  between  6°  0'  and  8**  37'  of  E< 
long.,  and  between  49°  20'  and  51°  8'  N.  lat., 
having  an  area  of  5700  square  miles,  aad  950,000 
inhabitants,  and  is  included  in  the  same  military 
division  as  Westphalia.  It  is  divided  into  the 
governments  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  Coblentz,  and 
Treves.    The  capital  is  Aix-fa-Chapelle. 

This  country  is  hilly,  and  the  climate  has  suffi- 
cient vFarmth  for  vines  in  particular  situatious; 
but  in  the  elevated  tracts  of  the  Hundsruck,  the 
Eiffel,  and  Westerwald,  the  cold  checks  the 
growth  of  every  thing  but  wood.  The  wine  is 
best  along  the  banks  of  the  Rhine,  Aar  (or  Ahr\ 
and  Moselle.  On  the  whole,  though  it  has  ex- 
tensive valleys,  this  duchy  has  no  great  extent  ef 
fertile  soil.  The  lower  ranks  subsist,  in  ^  greet 
measure,  on  potatoes.  The  other  products  are 
hops,  tobacco,  flax,  potash,  and  in  the  hilly  dis- 
tricts minerals.  Grazing  is  followed  more  on 
the  east  than  on  the  west  of  the  Rhine.  Tb^ 
manufrcturet  of  coarse  woollens,  leather,  and 


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le 


RHI 


674 


RHI 


tdtmeoo,  are  chiefly  confined  to  the  districu 
around  Aix-la-Chapelle  and  Neuwied.  On  the 
east  of  the  Rhine  mining,  and  the  preparing  of 
metals,  afford  employment. 

Rhike,  Circle  of  the  Lower,  was  one  of 
the  ten  former  circles  of  the  German  empire.  Its 
figure  was  very  irregular.  The  princes  who 
chiefly  had  possessions  here  were  the  electors  of 
Mentz,  Treves,  and  Cologne,  and  the  elector 
palatine.  It  is  now  divided  among  the  states 
of  Baden,  Bavaria,  Hesse-Darmstadt,  Nassau, 
Prussia,  and  Hanover.  ^ 

Rhine,  Circle  of  the  Upper,  another  abo- 
lished division  of  the  German  empire.  It  was 
cut  in  two  by  the  circle  of  the  Lower  Rhine,  and* 
like  it  was  very  irregular  in  its  outline.  The 
area  of  the  two  circles  exceeded  20,000  square 
miles.  The  members  of  the  imperial  body  who 
had  possessions  in  the  circle  of  the  Uppec  were 
more  numerous  than  those  in  the  Lower  Rhine. 
The  western  half,  contiguous  to  Alsace,  was  re- 
peatedly invaded  by  the  French,  and  remained 
m  their  hands  from  1794  to  1814.  Since  that 
period  this  circle  has  been  divided  between  Ba- 
varia, Hesse-Cassel,  Hesse-Darmstadt,  &c. 

Rhine,  Lower  (Bas  Rhin),  a  considerable  de- 
partment of  France,  consisting  of  the  north  part 
of  Alsace,  and  forming  an  oblong  track,  extend* 
ing  from  north  to  south.  The  eastern  side  is 
formed  by  the  Rhine,  the  western  by  the  Vosges 
Mountains,  which  are  nearly  parallel  to  the 
course  of  the  river.  The  surface,  about  1900 
square  miles,  is  diversified  with  hills,  forests, 
and  smalt  valleys,  all  pretty  well  cultivated.  On 
the  mountains,  and  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Rhine, 
\he  soil  is  bare  and  stony,  and  in  some  places 
marshy;  but  in  general  it  is  fertile,  and  the 
average  produce  of  corn  exceeds  the  consump- 
tion. The  products  are  wheat,  barley,  oats,  flax, 
hemp,  tobacco,  madder,  and  rapeseed.  In  the 
mountains  are  mines  of  iron,  copper,  coal,  and 
salt.  The  pastures  are  extensive,  and  vines  are 
cultivated  in  some  parts.  The  chief  manufac- 
tures are  hardware  and  linen.  Co* ton  has  been 
introduced  since  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury, and  there  are  likewise  fabrics  of  pottery, 
kI>i>^,  china-ware,  paper,  &c.  Situated  to  the 
e.x'^t  of  the  Vosges,  the  natural  limit  of  France, 
this  department  is  principally  inhabited  by  Ger- 
mans, and  French  is  spoken  only  in  the  large 
towns.  The  Lutherans  are  computed  at  160,000, 
the  Calvin ists  at  25,000,  and  the  rest,  with  the 
exception  of  the  Jews,  are  Catholics.  The  de- 
partment is  divided  into  four  arrondissements, 
viz.  Strasburg  the  capital,  Saveme,  Bar,  and 
Weissemburg.  The  treaty  of  Paris  in  1815  cur- 
tailed it  of  Landau,  and  of  a  tract  to  the  north  of 
Weissemburg.    Inhabitants  440,000. 

Rhine,  Upper  (Haut  Rhin),  another  depart- 
ment of  the  north-east  of  France,  of  an  oblong 
form,  the  Rhine  flowing  along  its  eastern  limit, 
and  the  long  chain  of  the  Vospes  extending  on 
its  western  side.  Its  extent  is  about  1700  square 
miles.  It  contains  the  southern  division  ot  Al- 
sace, and  has  a  stony  soil  on  the  mountains,  but 
the  plains  and  valleys  are  fertile.  Its  chief 
rivers,  after  the  Rhine,  are  the  III,  the  Laber,  the 
Lauch,  and  the  Largue.  It  has  likewise  several 
canals,  and  two  lakes.     Com,  hemp,  flax,  rape- 


seed,  wines,  and  tobacco,  are  raised  in  large 
Quantities.  Cherries  are  so  abundant  that  the 
liquor  called  cherry  water  forms  a  considerable 
export.  The  mineral  products  are  iron,  coal, 
and,  to  a  small  extent,  copper,  lead,  and  anti- 
mony. Of  coal,  the  quantity  annaally  produced 
is  about  1000 'tons;  of  iron  about  5000  tons. 
Linen,  woollen,  and  latterly  cottons,  are  the 
manufactures ;  and,  on  a  small  scale,  paper,  lea* 
ther,  and  glass.  The  inhabitants  (in  Dumber 
320,000)  are  almost  all  of  German  descent 
The  Protestant  part  are  computed  at  57,000; 
the  Jews  at  10,000;  the  Baptists  at  3000;  Ca- 
tholics at  250,000.  The  department  is  divided 
into  the  arrondissements  ot  Colmar,  Altkircb, 
Neufbrisach,  and  Befort. 

RHINOCEROS,  n.  *.  Fr.  rJktnocmrf;  Gr. 
pw  and  npac*  A  beast  of  the  East,  aimed  with 
a  horn  on  his  no«Hel. 

Approach  thou  like  the  rugged  Rnsaan  bear, 
The  armed  rhitifietroi,  or  Hyrcanian  tygejr ; 
Take  any  shape  but  Uiat,  wid  my  firm  nerves 
Shall  never  tremble.  Shaktpmn.  Maehttk. 

If  yon  draw  yoor  beast  in  an  emblem,  ibew  a 
landscape  of  the  coantry  natural  to  the  beast ;  at  to 
the  rhinoeerot  an  East  Indian  landscape,  the  croco- 
dile, an  Egyptian.  Pmekm. 

Rhinoceros,  in  zoology,  a  genus  of  quadru- 
peds belonging  to  the  order  of  belluae.  TV 
name  is  entirely  Greek ;  but  Aristotle  takes  no 
notice  of  them,  nor  any  other  Greek  writer  till 
Strabo,  nor  Roman  till  Pliny.  It  is  probable 
they  did  not  frequent  that  part  of  India  into 
which  Alexander  had  pienetrated,  since  it  vas 
nearly  300  years  after  that  Pompey  Brat  brought 
them  to  Europe.  From  this  time  till  the  dajs 
of  Heliogabalus  they  were  frequently  exhibited 
in  the  Roman  spectacles,  and  have  often  been 
transported  into  Europe  in  more  modem  times; 
but  tney  were  long  very  ill  represented,  and  rery 
imperfectly  described,  till  some  that  arrived  in 
London  in  1739  and  1741  were  inspected;  bj 
which  the  errors  and  caprices  of  former  writen 
were  detected.    There  are  two  species,  vii. 

1.  R.  bicomis,  long  known  in  Europe  only  by 
the  double  horns  which  were  preserved  in  Tarioos 
cabinets.  Dr.  Sparman,  in  his  voyage  to  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  killed  two  of  these  animals, 
which  he  dissected  and  very  minutely  describes. 
The  horns,  he  says,  in  the  live  animal  are  so 
mobile  and  loose,  that,  when  it  walks  carelessly 
along,  one  may  see  them  waggle  about,  and  betr 
them  clash  and  clatter  against  each  other.  In 
the  Philosophical  Transactions  we  have  a  de- 
scription  ot  the  double-homed  rhinoceros  of 
Sumatra,  by  Mr.  Bell,  surgeon  in  the  service  ot 
the  tasi  India  Company  at  Bencoolen.  It  was  a 
male ;  the  height  at  the  shoulder  was  four  feet  foof 
inches ;  at  the  sacrum  nearly  the  same :  from  the 
tip  of  the  nose  to  the  end  of  the  tail  eight  feet  firt 
inches.  From  the  appearance  of  its  teetb  and 
bones  it  was  but  young,  and  probably  not  near 
its  full  size.  The  shape  was  much  like  that  o! 
the  hog.  The  general  color  was  a  brownish  ash; 
under  the  belly,  between  the  legs  and  folds  « 
the  skin,  a  dirty  flesh-color.  The  head  mucfc 
resembles  that  of  the  single-homed  rhinoceros; 
the  eyes  were  small,  of  a  brown  color ;  the  oeiT' 
brana  nictitans  thick  and  strong :  the  skin  9» 

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RHINOCEROS. 


576 


rounding  the  eyes  was  wrinkled ;  the  nostrils  were 
wide;  the  upper  lip  was  pointed,  and  hanging 
over  the  under.  'There  were  six  molares,  or 
giinders,  on  each  side  of  the  upper  and  lower 
jaw,  becoming  gradually  larger  backward,  par- 
ticularly in  the  upper ;  two  teeth  in  the  front  of 
each  jaw ;  the  tongue  was  quite  smooth ;  the 
ears  were  small  amd  pointed,  lined  and  edged 
with  short  black  hair,  and  situated  like  those  of 
the  single-homed  rhinoceros.  The  horns  were 
black,  the  larger  was  placed  immediately  above 
the  nose,  pointing  upwards,  and  was  bent  a  little 
back ;  it  was  about  nine  inches  long.  The  small 
horn  was  four  inches  long,  of  a  pyramidal 
shape,  flattened  a  little,  and  placed  above  the 
eyes,  rather  a  little  more  forward,  standing  in  a 
line  with  the  larger  horn  immediately  above  it. 
They  were  both  firmly  attached  to  the  skull,  nor. 
was  there  any  appearance  of  joint, or  muscles  to 
move  them.  The  neck  was  tnick  and  short,  the 
skin  on  the  under  side  thrown  into  folds,  and 
these  folds  again  wrinkled.  The  body  was 
bulky  and  round,  and  from  the  shoulder  ran  a  . 
line,  or  fold,  as  in  the  single-homed  rhinoceros, 
though  it  was  but  faintly  marked.  There  were 
several  other  folds  and  wrinkles  on  the  body  and 
legs ;  and  the  whole  gave  rather  the  appearance 
of  softness;  the  legs  were  thick,  short,  and  re- 
markably strong ;  the  feet  armed  with  three  dis- 
tinct hoofs,  of  a  blackish  color,  which  surrounded 
half  the  foot,  one  in  front,  the  others  on  each 
side.  The  soles  of  the  feet  were  convex,  of  a 
light  color,  and  the  cuticle  on  them  not  thicker 
than  that  on  the  foot  of  a  man  who  is  used  to 
walking;  the  testicles  hardly  appeared  exter- 
nally ;  the  penis  was  bent  backward  and  opened 
about  eighteen  inches  below  the  anus.  The 
whole  skin  of  the  animal  is  rough,  and  covered 
very  thinly  with  short  blaqk  hair.  The  animal 
had  not  that  appearance  of  armor  which  is  ob- 
served in  the  single-homed  rhinoceros. 

2.  R.  unicornis,  the  length  of  which,  says 
Buflfon,  from  the  extremity  of  the  muzzle  to  the 
orikiin  of  the  tail,  is  at  least  twelve  feet,  and  the 
circumference  of  the  body  is  nearly  the  same. 
Their  food  in  a  natural  state  is  thistles  and  thorny 
shrubs,  which  they  prefer  to  the  soft  pasture  of 
meadows ;  but  they  are  fond  of  the  sugar  cane, 
and  eat  grain  of  all  kinds.  fThe  rhinoceros,^ 
says  Bufibn,  <at  the  age  of  two  years,  is  not 
taller  than  a  young  cow  that  has  never  produced. 
But  his  body  is  very  long  and  very  thick.  His 
head  isdisproportionally  large.  From  the  ears 
to  the  horn  there  is  a  concavity,  the  two  extre- 
mities of  which,  namely,  the  upper  end  of  the 
muzzle,  and  the  part  near  the  ears,  are  consider- 
ably raised.  The  horn  is  black,  smooth  at  the 
top,  but  full  of  wrinkles  directed  backward  at 
the  base.  The  nostrils  are  situated  very  low, 
being  not  above  an  inch  from  the  opening  of  the 
mouth.  The  under  lip  is  pretty  similar  to  that 
of  the  ox  ;  but  the  upper  lip  has  a  greater  re- 
semblance to  that  of  the  horse,  with  this  advan- 
tageous difference,  that  the  rhinoceros  can 
|en|rthen  this  lip,  move  it  from  side  to  side,  roll 
it  about  a  staff,  and  seize  with  it  any  object  he 
wishes  to  carry  to  his -mouth.  The  tongue  of  the 
young  rhinoceros  is  soft,  like  that  of  a  calf.  His 
eyes,  in  figure,  resemble  those  of  the  hog,  but 


situated  lower,  or  nearer  the  nostrils,  than  in  any 
other  quadruped.  His  ears  are  large,  thin  at  the 
extremities,  and  contracted  at  their  origin  by  a 
kind  of  angular  rugosity.  The  neck  is  very 
short,  and  surrounded  with  two  large  folds  of 
skin.  The  shoulders  are  very  thick,  and  at  their' 
juncture  there  is  another  fold  of  skin,  which  de- 
scends upon  the  fore  legs.  The  legs  are  round, 
thick,  strong,  and  their  joint  bent  backwards. 
This  joint,  which,  when  the  animal  lies,  is- 
covered  with  a  remarkable  fold  of  the  skin,  ap- 
pears when  he  stands.  The  tail  is  thin,  and 
proportionally  short.  It  becomes  a  little  thicker 
at  the  extremity,  which  is  garnished  with  some 
short,  thick,  hard  hairs.  The  female  exactly  re- 
sembles the  male  in  fitnire  and  grossness  of  body. 
The  skin  is  every  where  covered  more  or  less 
with  incrustations  in  the  form  of  galls  or  tube- 
rosities, which  are  pretty  small  on  the  top  of  the 
neck. and  back,  but  become  larger  on  the  sides. 
The  largest  are  on  the  shoulders  and  cmpper, 
are  still  pretty  large  on  the  thighs  and  legs,  upon 
which  they  are  spread  all  round,  and  even  on  the 
feet.  But  between  the  folds  the  skin  is  penetra- 
ble, delicate,  and  as  soft  to  the  touch  as  silk, 
while  the  external  part  of  the  fold  is  equally  hard 
with  the. rest.  This  tender  skin  between  the 
folds  is  of  a  light  flesh  color;  and  the  skin  of 
the  belly  is  nearly  of  the  same  color  and  consis- 
tence. These  galls  or  tuberosities  should  not  be 
compared,  as  some  authors  have  done,  to  scales. 
They  are  only  simple  indurations  of  the  skin, 
without  any  regularity  in  their  figure  or  symme- 
tr)'  in  their  respective  positions.  The  flexibility 
of  the  skin  in  the  folds  enables  the  rhinoceros  to 
move  with  facility  his  head,  neck,  and  members. 
The  whole  body,  except  at  the  joints,  is  inflexi- 
ble, and  resembles  a  coat  of  mail.  Dr.  Pardons 
remarks  that  this  animal  listened  with  a  deep 
and  long  continued  attention  to  any  kind  of 
noise;  and  that,  though  he  was  sleeping  or 
eating,  he  raised  his  head,  and  listened  tilf  the 
noise  ceased.  These  animals  never  assemble 
or  march  together  in  troops  like  elephants.  Being 
of  a  more  solitary  and  savage  disposition,  they 
are  more  d;fBcult  to  hunt  and  to  overcome.  They 
ilever  attack  men,  however,  except  when  they 
are  provoked,  when  they  are  very  furious  and 
formidable ;  but  as  they  see  only  before  them, 
and  as  they  turn  with  great  difficulty,  they  may 
be  easily  avoided.  The  skin  of  these  animals  is 
so  extremely  hard  as  to  resist  sabres,  lances, 
javelins,  and  even  musket  balls,  the  onlv  pene- 
trable parts  being  the  belly,  the  eyes,  and  about 
the  ears.  Hence  the  hunters  generally  attack 
them  when  they  lie  down  to  sleep.  Their  flesh 
is  considered  as  excellent  by  the  Indians  and 
Africans,  but  especially  by  the  Hottentots ;  and, 
if  they  were  trained  when  young,  they  might  be 
rendered  domestic,  in  which  case  they  would 
multiply  more  easily  than, the  elephant.  They 
inhabit  Bengal,  Siam,  Cochin-China,  the  isles  of 
Java  and  Sumatra,  Congo,  Ethiopia,  and  the 
country  as  low  as  the  Cape.  They  love  shady 
forests,  the  neighbourhood  of  rivers,  and  marshy 
places.  They  wallow  in  the  mire  like  hogs,  and 
thus  give  shelter  in  the  folds  of  their  skins  to 
scorpions,  centipedes,  and  other  insects.  Buffon 
and   £dwards  deny  this ;  but  it  is  generally 


Digitized  by  ^^JUU)ZlC 


>gk 


RHI 


576 


RHO 


thought  40  be  true.    They  bring  forth  only  one 
jroang  ^t  a  time,  about  which  they  are  very  8olici<»- 

5>ug^  Their  skin,  fleshy  hoo&,  teeth,  and  even 
I^Mpig,  ate  used  in  India  medicinally.  The  hdni, 
especially  that  of  a  virgin  rhinooeroe,  is  con- 
sidered as  an  antidote  against  poison.  Thii 
species  is  supposed  to  be  oryx  or  Indian  ass  of 
Aristotle ;  and  the  bos  unicornis  or  (en.  mono* 
ceros  of  Pliny.  Many  writers  also  eonsid^  it 
as  the  unicorn  of  scripture. 

.  RHIZOBALUS,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  tiie 
tetragynia  order,  and  polvandria  class  of  plants ; 
natural  order  twenty-thira,  trihilatse :  cal.  mono- 
phyllous,  fleshy,  and  downv :  cor.  consisting  of 
nre  petals,  which  are  round,  concave,  fleshy,  and 
much  larger  than  the  calyx ;  the  stamina  are 
very  numerous,  filiform,  Und  longer  than  the 
corolla;  the  styli  are  four,  filiform,  and  of  the 
length  of  the  stamina;  the  pericarp  has  four, 
drups,  kidney-shaped,  compressed  with  a  fleshy 
substance  inside,  and  in  the  middle  a  flat  large 
nut  containing  a  kidney-shaped  kernel.  Of  this 
there  is  only  one  species. 

R.  pekia.  The  nuts  which  are  sold  in  the 
sjKops  as  American  nuu  are  flat,  tviberculated, 
and  kidney-shaped,  containing  a  kernel  of  the 
same  shape,  which  is  sweet  and  agreeable. 

BHIZOPHOEA,  the  mangrove,  or  candle  of 
the  Indians,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  monogynii' 
order,  and  dodecandria  class  of  plants ;  natural 
order  twellUi,  holomoe«:  cau  quadripartite:. 
COB.  partite :  seed  one  very  long,  and  carnous 
at  the  base.  These  plants  are  natives  of  the 
East  and  West  Indies,  and  often  grow  forty  or 
fifty  feet  high.  They  grow  only  in  water^  and 
on  the  banks  of  rivers,  where  the  tide  flows  up 
twice  a  day»  They  preserve  the  verdure  of  theif 
leaves  throughout  ttte  year.  From  the  lowest 
branches  issue  long  roots,  which  hang  down  t» 
the  water,  and  penetrate  into  the  earth.  In  this 
position  they  resemble  so  many  arcades,  from 
five  to  ten  leet  high,  which  serve  to  support -the 
body  of  the  tree,  and  even  to  advance  it  daily 
into  the  bed  of  the  water*  The  most  natural  way. 
of  propagating  these  trees  is  to  sufier  the  several 
slender  smidl  filaments  which  issue  from  the  main 
branches, -to  take  root  in  the  esfth.  The  mosf 
common  method,- however,  is  that  of  laying  the 
small  lower  branches  in  baskets  of  mould  -or. 
earth  till  they  have  taken  root.  The  bark  is  very 
brown,  smooth,  pliant  when  green,  and  generally 
used  in  the  West  India*  Islands  for  tanning  ojf* 
leatiier.  Below  this  bark  lies  a  cuticle  or  skin, 
which  is  lighter,  thinner,  and  more  tender.-  The 
wood  is  nearly  of  the  stoie  color  as  the  bark; 
hard,  pliant,  and  very  heavy.  It  is  frequently 
used  for  feiel.  The  wood  is  compact;  almost 
incorruptible ;  never  splinters ;  is  easily  worked ; 
^,  were  it  not  for  its  enormous  weight,  would 
be  comroodiously  employed  in  almost  dl  kinds  of 
works.  To  the  toots  and  branches  of  mangroves 
that  ate  immersed  in  the  water  oysters  frequently 
attach  themselves.  The  red  mangrove  grows  on 
the  sea-shore,  and  at  the  mouth  of  large  rivers; 
but  does  not  advance,  like  the  former,  into  ths; 
water.  It  geoerallv  rises  to  the  height  of  twenty 
or  thirty  feet,  with  crooked,  knotty  branches, 
whlbh  proceed  from  all  parts  of  the  trunk.  The 
bark  is  slender,  of  a  brown  color,  and,  when 


young,  is  smooth,  and  adheiH  very  cloaely  to 
the  wcNsd ;  but,  when  old,  appears  quite  cnuAed, 
and  is  eadly  dslached  ham  it  Under  tins  huk 
is  a  skia  as  thick  as  paichmefit^  red^  andradheriig 
closely  to  the  wood,  from  whifih  it  eamot  be  ^ 
tached^  till  the  tree  is  felled  and  dry.  The  wood 
is  hard,  oompast,  heavy^  of  a  deep  led^  with  a 
very  fine  gram.  The  pith  oi  heart  of  the  wood 
being  cut  into  small  pieces,,  and  boiled  in  watery 
imparts  a  very  beautiml  red  to  the.  liquid,  which 
communicates  the  same  color  to  wool  and  linen. 
From  the  fhiit  of  this,  tree^  ^ich  when  .ripe  is 
of  a  Tiolet  color,  and  resembles  aome  grapes  ia 
taste,  is  prepared  an  agreeable  liqnor,  much  es* 
teemed  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  Carribee  Islands* 
This  species  is  g^erally  caUed  rope  maogrorei 
from  the  use  to  which  the  bark  is  applied  by  the 
inhabitants  of  the  West  Indies.  This  hark, 
which,  by  reason  of  the  great  abundance  of  sapy 
is  easily  detached  when  ipreen,  from  the  wood,  is 
beaten  or  bruised  betwixt  two  stones,  until  die 
hard  and  woody  part  is  totally  separated  from 
that  which  is  wm  and  tender;  Thn  last,  which 
b  the  true  cortical  substance,  is  twisted  into 
ropes«of  all  sizes,  which  are  exceedingly  strong, 
and  not  apt  to  rot  in  the  water. 

RHODANUS^  a  river  of  Gdlia  Narboneoiis, 
rising  in  the  Rhetian  Alps^  and  felling  info  the 
Mediterranean  Sea,  near  Marseiilea.  It  is  bow 
called  RiBONE,  which  see.. 

RHODE  Island,  or^  mote  property,  R1O0E 

ISLAKD  JLVD  PkoVI DEVCE  PLANTATIOVi,  One  el 

the  United  Stites  of  HNohfa  America,  is  bounded 
north  and  east  by  Maasaibhusetts,  south  by  the 
Atlantic,  and  west  by  Connecticut.     Long,  tl^ 

erto  7f  52'  w.,  UBt.  41*  ir^ to  41*  at  N*; 

forty-nine  miles  long,  and  tweaty-aine  brood; 
containing  1580  square  miles. 

The  counties,'  number  of  towns,  population, 
and  chief  towns,  are  exhibited  in  the  mllowing 
Tj^ble :— 


Counties. 

Towns. 

Popol. 

Chief  towB&. 

Bristol.-    . 
Kent    .     . 
Newport   . 
Providence 
Washington 

3 
4 

r 

10 
7 

■tv 

5972 

9834 

1€;294 

30,T69 

14,962 

Bristol. 

East  Greenwich. 

Newport 

Providence. 

South  Kingston. 

77,831 

The  most  considerable  towns  are  Pmvideoce^ 
Newport,  Bristol,  Warren,  South  Kingston,  East 
Greenwich,  Smithfield,  and  Ae  villages  of  Paw>< 
tucket,  and  Pawtuxet.  The  harbodrs  are  New-* 
port,  Providence,  Wsdcford,  Pawthxet,  Bristol, 
and  Warren.  There  are  thiity^ons  banks  in  this 
sUte. 

There  is  a  college  at  Providence,  and  a  hrge 
Friends'  boarding  school  recently  established  st 
the  same  place.  There  are  seven  aatdemie?'  in 
the  state,  at  Bristol  Cumberland,  East  Grsni- 
wich,  Newport,  SmithfieM,  South  Kingston,  and 
Wickford.  Public  and  private  schools  are  sop- 
ported  in  a  greater  or  less  degree^  in  tarioas 
f)laces.  But  public  schools  are  not  supported  hy 
aw  in  Rhode  I^and,  as  in  the  other  New  Eng- 
land States.    The  nuinber  of  congregations  of 


Digitized  by  ^^JiJU*^lt: 


RHODES. 


677 


tlie  aeranl  denominations  of  Christians  in  thi^ 
state  is  stated  as  follows: — Baptists  fifty-seven  ; 
Friends  e^;bteen;  Congregationalists  eleven; 
Episcopalians  five ;  Moravians  one ;  Jews  one. 

The  legislature  is  composed  of  a  council  of 
twelve,  including  the  governor  and  lieutenant-go- 
vemofy  all  chosen  annually,  and  a  house  of  re- 
presentatives, consisting  of  seveuty-two  members, 
chosen  twice  a  year;  viz.  on  the  third  Wed- 
nesday in  April,  and  on  the  fourth  Tuesday  in 
August.  Judges  and  other  civil  officers  are  ap- 
pointed yearly.  The  legislature  meets  at  New- 
port twice  a  year,  at  Providence  once,  and  once 
a  year  alternately  at  East  Greenwich  and  South 
Kingston.  This  state  sends  two  representatives 
4o  congress. 

The  rivers  are  Pawtucket,  Providence,  Paw- 
tuxet,  Pawcatuck,  and  Wood  River.  Narraganset 
Bay  eitends  up  frx>m  south  to  north  between  the 
mainland  on  the  east  and  west,  and  embosoms 
maiiy  pleasant  and  fertile  islands ;  among  which 
are  Kbode  Island,  from  which  the  state  derives  its 
name,  Canonicut,  Prudence,  Patience,  Hope, 
Dyer's  and  Hog  Islands.  Block  Island,  off  the ' 
coast  in  the  AtUntic,  is  the  most  southerly  land 
belonging  to  the  state. 

The  face  of  the  country  is  mostly  level,  except 
in  the  north-west  part,  which  is  hilly  and  rocky. 
The  soil  is  generally  better  adapted  to  grazing 
than  tillage.  A  huge  proportion  of  the  western 
and  north-western  part  of  the  state  has  a  thin 
and  lean  soil ;  but  the  islands  and  the  country 
bordering  on  Narraganset  Bay  are  of  great  fer- 
tility, and  are  celebrated  for  their  fine  cattle,  their 
numerous  flocks  of  sheep,  and  the  abundance 
and  excellence  of  their  butter  and  cheese ;  cedar, 
rye,  barley,  oats,  grasses,  and  culinary  roots  and 
plants  are  in  great  abundance  and  perfection. 
The  rivers  and  bays  swarm  with  a  variety  of  ex- 
cellent fish.  Iron  ore  is  found  in  large  quanti- 
ties in  several  parts,  and  some  copper ;  there  is 
also  an  abundance  of  limestone,  particularly  in 
the  county  of  Providence. 

The  manufactures  of  Rhode  Island  are  exten- 
sive. They  consist  chiefly  of  iron,  cotton, 
woollen,  paper,  and  hats.  The  exports  consist 
chiefly  of  fiax-seed,  lumber,  horses,  cattle,  beef, 
pork,  fish,  poultry,  onions,  butter,  cheese,  barley, 
grain,  spirits,  and  cotton  and  linen  goods.  They 
amounted,  in  1816,  to  612,794  dollars.  The 
climate  of  this  state  is  as  healthy  as  that  of  any 
part  of  America ;  and  it  is  more  temperate  than 
the  climate  of  any  of  the  other  New  England 
states,  particularly  on  the  islands,  where  the 
breezes  firom  the  sea  have  the  effect  not  only  to 
mitigate  the  heat  in  summer,  but  to  moderate  the 
cold  in  winter.  The  summers  are  delightful,  es- 
pecially on  the  island  of  Rhode  Island. 

Rhode  Island,  Indian  name  Aqucdneck 
Island,  from  which  the  state  takes  its  name, 
situated  in  Narraganset  Bay.  Long.  71°  20'  W., 
lat.  41''  25'  N.  It  is  about  fifteen  miles  from 
north  to  south,  and  three  and  a  half  wide,  and 
is  divided  into  three  townships,  Newport,  Ports- 
mouth, and  Middletown.  It .  is  a  noted  resort 
for  invalids  from  soutliern  climates.  The  island 
is  exceedingly  pleasant  and  healthful.  Tra- 
vellers, with  propriety,  call  it  the  Eden  of  Ame- 
rica. It  suffered  much  by  the  revolutionary  war. 
Vol.  XVIII. 


Some  of  its  most  ornamental  country  seats  were 
destroyed ;  and  their  fine  groves,  orchards,  and 
fruit  trees,  wantonly  cut  down.  The  soil  is  of  a 
superior  quality.  Between  30,000  and  40,000 
sheep  are  fed  on  the  island,  besides  neat  cattle 
and  norses.  There  is  a  valuable  coal  mine  on  the 
north-west  part  of  the  island. 

RHODES,  a  celebrated  island  in  the  Archi- 
pelago, the  largest  and  most  easterly  of  the  Cy- 
clades,  was  known  in  ancient  times  by  the  names 
of  Asteria,  Ophiusa,  ^threa,  Trinacria,  Corym- 
bia,  Poessa,  Attabyria,  Marcia,  Oloessa,  Stadia, 
Telchinis,  Pelagia,  and  Rhodus.  In  latter  ages, 
the  name  of  Rhodus,  or  Rhodes,  prevailed,  from 
the  Greek  word  rhodon,  a  rose :  the  island 
abounding  very  much  with  these  flowers.  It 
is  about  twenty  miles  distant  from  the  coasu 
of  Lycia  and  Caria,  and  120  miles  in  com- 
pass. 

Pliny  and  several  other  ancient  authors  assert 
that  Rhodes  was  formerly  covered  by  the  sea, 
bu^  gradually  raised  its  head  above  ^e  waves, 
and  became  an  island.  Philo  ascribes  this  event 
to  the  decrease  of  the  waters  of  the  ocean.  If 
his  conjecture  be  not  without  foundation,  most  of 
the  isles  of  the  Archipelago,  being  lower  than 
Rhodes,  must  have  had  a  similar  origin.  But  it 
is  mudi  more  probable  that  the  volcanic  fires 
which  in  the  fourth  year  of  the  135th  Olympiad 
raised  Therasia  and  Thera,  known  at  present  by 
the  name  of  Santorin,  from  the  depths  of  the  sea, 
and  have  in  our  days  thrown  out  several  small 
islands  adjacent,  also  produced  in  some  ancient 
era  Rhodes  and  Delos.  The  first  inhabitants  of 
Rhodes,  according  to  Diodorus  Siculus,  were 
called  the  Telchinae,  who  came  originally  from 
the  island  of  Crete.  These,  by  their  skill  in 
astrology,  perceiving  that  the  island  was  soon  to 
be  deluged,  left  their  habitations,  and  made  room 
for  the  Heliades,  or  descendants  of  Phoebus,  who 
took  possession  of  the  island,  and  excelled  all 
other  men  in  learning,  invented  navigation,  &c. 
In  after  ages,  however,  being  infested  with  great 
serpents  which  bred  in  the  island,  they  consulted 
the  oracle  in  Delos,  which  advised  them  to  ad- 
mit Phorbus,  a  Thessalian,  with  his  followers 
into  Rhodes.  This  was  done,  and  Phorbus,  hav- 
ing destroyed  the  serpents,  was,  after  bis  death, 
honored  as  a  demigod.  Afterwards  a  colony  of 
Cretans  settled  in  the  island,  and,  a  little  before  ' 
the  Trojan  war,  Tlepolemus  the  son  of  Her- 
cules was  made  king  of  it,  and  governed  with 
great  justice.  After  the  Trojan  war  all  the  an- 
cient inhabitants  were  driven  out  by  the  Dorians, 
who  continued  to  be  mastera  of  the  island  for 
many  ages. 

A  little  before  the  expedition  of  Xerxes  into 
Greece  a  republican  form  of  government  pre- 
vailed here  ;  during  which  the  Rhodians  applied 
themselves  to  navigation,  and  became  very  pow- 
erful by  sea,  planting  several  colonies  in  distant 
countries.  In  the  time  of  the  Peloponnesian  war 
the  republic  of  Rhodes  was  rent  into  two  factions, 
one  of  which  favored  the  Athenians,  and  the. 
other  the  Spartans ;  but  at  length,  the  latter  pre- 
vailing, democracy  was  abolished,  and  aristo- 
cracy introduced.  About  351  B.  C.  we  find  the 
Rhodians  oppressed  by  Mausolus  king  of  Caria, 
and  at  last  reduced  by  Artemisia  his  widow.   In 

2P 


Digitized  by  ^^JOOQlC 


578 


RHODES. 


this  emergency  they  applied  to  the  Atheniuis ; 
by  'whose  assistance  they  regained  their  liberty. 

From  the  period  above-mentioned  to  that  of 
Alexander  the  Great  the  Rhodians  enjoyed  un- 
interrupted tranquillity.  To  him  they  voluntarily 
submitted ;  and  were  on  that  account  highly  fa- 
vored by  him :  but  no  sooner  did  they  hear  of 
his  death  than  they  drove  out  the  Macedonian 
garrisons,  and  once  more  became  a  free  people. 
About  this  titne  happened  a  dreadful  inundation 
at  Rhodes;  which,  being  accompanied  with  vio- 
lent storms  of  rain,  and  nailstones  of  an  extraor- 
dinary size,  beat  down  many  houses,  and  killed 
numbers  of  the  inhabitants.  As  the  city  was 
built  in  the  form  of  an  amphitheatre,  and  no  care 
had  been  taken  to  clear  the  t)ipes  and  conduits 
which  conveyed  the  water  into  the  sea^  the  lower 
parts  were' instantly  laid  under  water.  Many  of 
the  inhabitants  fled  to  their  ships.  Bat  the  wall 
on  a  sudden  bursting,  we  are  told,  asunder,  and 
the  water  discharging  itself  into  the  sea,  they 
Ivere  delivered  froln  all  farther  dauger.  The 
Hhodians  soon  retrieved  their  losses  by  trade. 

During  the  wars  among  the  successor^  of  Alex- 
ander, they  observed  a  strict  beutrality ;  whereby 
they  enriched  themselves  so  much  that  Rhodes 
became  one  of  the  most  opulent  states  of  the  age; 
insomuch  that  they  undertook  tiie  piratic  war, 
and,  at  their  own  charge,  cleared  the  seas  of  the 
pirates  who  had  for  many  years  infeited  the  coasts 
of  Europe  and  Asia.  But,  ^  the  most  advantage- 
ous branches  of  their  commerce  were  derived 
from  Egypt,  they  were  more  attached  to  Ptolemy, 
than  to  any  of  the  neighbouring  princes.  When 
therefore  Antigonus,  having  engaged  in  a  war 
with  Ptolemy  about  Cyprus,  demanded  succors 
of  them,  they  intreated  him  not  to  compel  them 
to  declare  war  against  their  ancient  ally.  Anti- 
gonus immediately  ordered  one  of  his  admirals 
to  sail  with  his  fleet  to  Rhodes,  and  seize  all  the 
ships  that  cante  out  of  the  harbour;  but  the 
Rhodians,  equipping  a  number  of  galleys,  fell 
upon  the  en^y,  and  obliged  them  to  retire  with 
great  loss.  Hereupon  Antigonus  threatened  to 
besiege  their  city  with  his  whole  army ;  and  the 
only  terms  of  accommodation  to  which  he  would 
hearken  were,  thai  the  Rhodians  should  declare 
war  against  Ptolemy,  and  admit  his  fleet  into 
their  harbour.  The  Rhodians  now  sent  ambassa- 
dors to  all  their  allies,  and  to  Ptolemy  in  particu- 
lar, imploring  their  assistance ;  and  the  prepara- 
tions on  both  sides  were  immense.  Antigonus, 
being  near  eighty  years  of  age,  committed  the 
management  of  the  war  to  his  son  Demetrius, 
sumame<i  Poliorcetes,  or  the  taker  of  towns, 
who  appeared  before  Rhodes  with  200  ships  and 
170  transports,  having  on  board  40,000  men, 
and  1000  other  vessels  laden  vnth  provisions  and 
warlike  engines ;  so  that  the  whole  sea  between 
the  continent  and  the  island  was  covered  with 
vessels. 

Having  landed  his  troops  beyond  the  reach  of 
the  enemy's  machines,  Demetrius  detached  seve- 
ral small  bodies  to  lay  waste  the  country,  em- 
ploying the  timber  to  fortify  his  camp  with  strong 
ramparts.  Tlie  Rhodians,  on  their  part,  prepared 
for  a  vigorous  defence.  Many  commanders, 
who  had  signalised  themselves  on  other  occasions, 
€ame  to  Rhodes  to  try  their  skill  against  Deme- 


trius. The  besieged  ukine  an  account  of  those 
who  who  were  capable  of  bearing  arms,  found 
that  the  citizens  amounted  to  6600,  and  tiie  fo- 
reigners to  1000.  Liberty  was  protnised  to  all 
the  slaves  who  should  distinguish  tbemselves  by 
any  glorious  action,  and  the  public  engaged  to 
pay  the  masters  their  ransom.  A  proclamation 
was  likewise  made,  declaring,  that  whoever  died 
in  defence  of  his  country  should  be  buried  at  the 
public  expense ;  that  his  parents  and  children 
should  be  maintained  out  of  the  treasury ;  that 
fortunes  should  be  given  to  his  daughters ;  and 
his  sons  should  be  crowned  at  the  great  ftstival 
of  Bacchus.  Diemetrius,  having  planted  his  en- 
gines, began  to  batter  with  incredible  fury  die 
vTalls  on  the  side  of  the  harbour;  but  was  for 
eight  days  successively  repulsed,  and  the  besieged 
set  fire  to  some  of  the  mo^t  powerful  of  his  en- 
gines. He  now,  therefore^  ordefted  a  general 
assault  to  be  made ;  but  this  also  was  repulsed 
with  mat  slaughter.  Ih  a  similar  assault,  next 
day,  he  was  again  forced  to  retire,  after  having 
lost  a  great  number  of  men,  and  some  officers. 
Havihg  seized  and  fortified  an  emlntoce,  near  the 
city,  Demetrins  caused  seveial  batteries  tb  be 
erected,  which  incessantly  discharged  againit  the 
walls  itodes  of  150  lbs.  wdght ;  so  thlt  the  towers 
began  to  tottet,  and  several  breaches  wi^ni  open- 
ed :  but  the  Rhodians,  unexpectedly  sallying  out. 
drove  the  enemy  from  this  post,  and  overturhed 
their  msichines.  Their  enterprising  foe  nbw  or- 
dered a  scalade  by  ste  and  land  at  the  same  time; 
the  attack  \vas  comitaenced  with  great  fury ;  bat 
the  besieged  defended  theitnselves  with  the  great- 
est intrepidity  and  success.  After  the  edmbat 
had  lasted  many  hours,  with  great  slaughter  on  both 
sides,  Demetrius  retired  :  bat  soon  retumb]  with 
new  vigor  to  attack  the  fhrtifications  which  de- 
fended th6  harbour.  Here  he  caused  a  vast 
quantity  of  burhing  torches  &nd  firebrands  to  be 
tnrown  ihto  the  Rhodian  ships ;  and  at  die  same 
time  galled  them  with  showers  of  darts,  arrows, 
and  stones.  However,  the  Rhodians  put  a  stop 
to  the  fire ;  and  having,  with  great  expedition, 
manned  three  strong  ships,  drove  with  such  vio- 
lence against  the  vessels  on  Which  the  enemy*s 
machines  were  planted  that  they  were  shattered 
iu  pieces,  and  thrown  into  the  seA,  Ekcestus, 
the  Rhodian  admiral,  (Encouraged  by  this  suc- 
cess>  now  attacked  the  enetiny^s  ffeet,^  and  sunk 
many  vessels,  but  was  himself  taken  pritoner. 
Demetrius  on  this  ordered  &  machine  of  a  new 
invention  to  be  buil.,  which  was  thrice  the  height 
and  breadth  of  those  he  had  lost  But  as  it  was 
entering  the  harb9ur,  a  dreadful  storm  arising, 
drove  it  against  Uiie  shore,  with  the  vessel  on 
which  it  had  been  reared.  The  besieged,  while 
the  tempest  was  still  raging,  made  a  sally  against 
the  post  of  the  Demetrians ;  and,  though  repulsed 
several  times,  carried  it,  obliging  40b  of  them  to 
lay  down  their  arms. 

After  this  victory  Demetrius  frtoied  the 
famous  engine  called  helepolis,  much  larger 
than  any  military  engine  hitherto  invented.  See 
Helepolis.  It  was  moved  upon  eight  strong 
and  large  wheels,  whose  fellies  were  strengthen- 
ed with  strong  iron  plates.  To  facilitate  and 
vary  its  movements,  castors  were  placed  under  it, 
whereby  it  was  turned  in  an  instant  to  that  side 


Digitized  by  VjiUUy  LC 


RHODES. 


679 


which  the  workmen  and  engineen  desired.  From 
each  of  the  four  angles  a  large  pillar  of  wood 
was  carried  to  about  the  height  of  100  cubits, 
inclining  to  each  other ;  the  machine  consisting 
of  nine  stories,  whose  dimensions  gradually  les- 
sened. The  first  story  was  supported  by  forty- 
three  beams,  and  the  last  by  no  more  than  nine. 
Three  sides  of  the  machine  were  plated  over  with 
iron,  to  pre? ent  its  being  damaged  by  fire.  In 
tlie  front  of  each  story  were  windows  defended 
with  shutters  covered  with  skins  stuffed  with 
wool.  This  machine  was  moved  forwards  by 
3000  of  the  strongest  men  of  the  whole  army ; 
bat  the  art  with  which  it  was  built  greatly  facili- 
tated the  motion.  Demetrius  caused  likewise 
to  be  made  several  testudoes  or  penthouses,  to 
cover  his  men  while  they  advanced  to  fill  up  the 
trenches  and  ditches,  and  invented  a  new  sort 
of  galleries,  through  which  those  that  were  em- 
ployed at  the  siege  might  pass  and  repass.  He 
employed  all  his  seamen  in  levelling  the  g^und 
over  which  the  machines  were  to  be  brought  up, 
to  the  space  of  four  furlongs.  The  number  of 
workmen  employed  amounted  to  30,000. 

The  Rhodians,  observing  these  formidable  pre- 
parations, raised  a  new  wall  within  that  wnich 
the  enemy  intended  to  batter.  To  accomplish 
this,  they  pulled  down  tlie  wall  of  their  theatre, 
the  neighbouring  houses,  and  even  some  tem- 
ples, afier  having  solemnly  vowed  to  build  more 
magnificeot  structures  in  honor  of  the  gods,  if 
the  city  were  preserved.  At  the  same  time  they 
sent  out  nine  of  their  best  ships  to  seize  such  of 
the  enemy's  as  they  could  meet  with,  and  there* 
by  distress  them  for  want  of  provisions.  As 
these  were  commanded  by  their  bravest  sea-of- 
ficers, they  soon  returned  with  an  immense 
i  ooty,  and  many  prisoners.  Among  other  ves- 
sHs,  they  took  a  galley  richly  laden,  on  board  of 
which  they  found  a  great  variety  of  valuable  fur- 
niture, and  a  royal  robe,  which  Phila  herself  had 
wrought  and  sent  as  a  present  to  her  husband 
Demetrius.  The  Khodians  sent  the  furniture, 
the  royal  robe,  and  the  accompanying  letter,  to 
Ptolemy,  which  highly  exasperated  Demetrius. 
The  statues  of  Antigonus  and  his  son  Demetrius, 
however,  were  still  allowed  to  remain  in  the  city. 
Mining  and  countermining  were  now  tried :  and 
one  Athenagoras,  a  Milesian,  who  had  been  sent 
to  the  assistance  of  the  Rhodians  by  Ptolemy, 

Sromised  to  betray  the  city  to  the  Demetrians. 
tut  this  was  only  to  ensnare  them ;  for  Alexan- 
der, a  Macedonian  whom  Demetriu9  had  sent 
with  a  body  of  troops  to  take  possession  of  a  post 
agreed  on,  no  sooner  appeared  but  he  was  taken 
prisoner  by  the  Rhodians,  who  were  waiting  for 
him  under  arms.  Athenagoras  was  crowned  by 
the  senate  with  a  crown  of  gold,  and  presented 
with  five  talents  of  silver.  Demetrius  now 
placed  all  his  hopes  of  reducing  the  city  on  his 
battering  engines.  Having  therefore  levelled  the 
ground,  he  brought  up  his  helepolis,  with  four 
testudoes  on  each  side.  Two  others  of  an  ex- 
traordinary size,  bearinff  battering  rams,  were 
likewise  moved  forwards  by  1000  men.  Each 
story  of  the  helepolis  was  filled  with  engines  fox 
disdiarging  stones,  arrows,  and  darts.  When 
all  things  were  ready  his  men  assaulted  the  city 
on  all  sides.    But,  in  the  heat  of  the  attack,  am- 


bassadors arrived  from  Cnldus,  soliciting  Deme- 
trius to  suspend  further  hostilities,  and  giving 
him  hopes  that  they  should  prevail  upon  thf 
Rhodians  to  submit  to  a  capitulation.  A  mo 
meutary  suspension  of  arms  took  place ;  but,  the 
Rliodians  refusing  the  conditions  offered,  the  at- 
tack was  renewed.  At  this  crisis  a  fleet  which 
Ptolemy  had  freighted  with  300,000  measures  of 
corn  and  pulse  arrived  very  seasonably.  A  few 
days  after  came  in  safe  two  other  fleets :  one  sent 
by  Cassander,  with  100,000  bushels  of  barley ; 
the  other  by  Lysimachus,  with  400,000  bushels 
of  corn,  and  as  many  of  barley.  Tlie  Rhodiau 
troops  now  suddenly  sallied  out,  and  set  fire  to 
the  enemy's  batteries ;  built  a  third  wall  in  the 
form  of  a  crescent,  which  took  in  all  that  part 
that  was  most  exposed  to  the  enemy ;  and  drew 
a  deep  trench  behind  the  breach.  They  also  de- 
tached a  squadron  of  their  best  ships  under 
Amyntas,  who,  meeting  with  some  privateers 
commissioned  by  Demetrius,  took  both  the  ships 
and  the  men,  among  whom  were  Timocles,  the 
chief  of  the  pirates,  and  several  officers  of  dis- 
tinction of  the  fleet  of  Demetrius.  These  were 
soon  followed  by  a  numerous  fleet  of  small  ves- 
sels loaded  with  com  and  provisions,  sent  them 
by  Ptolemy,  with  1500  men,  under  Antigonus,  a 
Macedonian  of  great  experience.  While  the 
Rhodians  were  thus  signalizing  themselves  in  the 
defence  of  their  country,  a  second  embassy  ar- 
rived from  Athens  and  tne  other  cities  of  Greece, 
soliciting  Demetrius  to  make  a  peace.  A  cessa- 
tion of  arms  was  agreed  upon,  but,  the  terms  of- 
fered by  Demetrius  being  once  more  rejected  by 
tlie  Rhodians,  hostilities  were  renewed ;  and 
Demetrius  formed  a  detachment  of  1500  of  bis 
best  troops,  under  Alcimus  and  Mancius,  two 
oflicers  of  experience,  ordering  them  to  enter  the 
breach  at  midnight,  and  possess  themselves  of 
the  stroug  posts  about  the  theatre.  To  facilitate 
the  execution  of  so  dangerous  an  undertaking, 
he  amused  the  enemy  with  false  attacks  by  sea 
and  land.  Accordingly  the  detachment  entered 
the  breach,  and  fell  upon  those  who  defended 
the  ditch  with  such  vigor  that,  having  slain  the 
mest  part  of  them,  they  advanced  to  the  theatre, 
and  seized  on  the  post  adjoining.  The  darkness 
of  the  night  prevented  the  Rhodians  from  dis- 
lodging the  enemy.  Next  day  they  fought  like 
men  in  despair,  the  enemy  defending  their  post 
several  hours  without  giving  ground.  At  length 
the  Rhodians,  breaking  into  the  enemy's  battar 
lion,  and  killing  both  their  commanders,  the  rest 
were  easily  put  into  disorder,  and  all  to  a  man 
either  killed  or  taken  prisoners.  The  Rhodians 
also  lost  many  of  their  best  commanders ;  and 
among  the  rest  Damotetis,  their  chief  magistrate. 
Demetrius  was  making  preparations  for  a  new 
assault,  when  he  received  letters  from  his  father, 
enjoining  him  to  conclude  a  peace  with  the  Rho- 
dians upon  the  best  terms  he  could  obtain :  at 
the  same  time  ambassadors  arrived  from  the 
^tolian  republic,  soliciting  the  contending  par- 
ties to  put  an  end  to  the  war.  Demetrius,  how 
ever,  was  preparing  once  more  to  bring  forward 
his  helepolis,  when  a  Rhodian  engineer  render^ 
edit  altogether  useless.  He  undermined  the  tract 
of  ground  over  which  it  was  tu  pass ;  and  when 
it  came  to  the  place  it  sunk  so  deeply  into  the 

2P2 

Digitized  by  VjUU^^IC 


680 


RHODES. 


ground  that  it  was  impossible  to  draw  it  out 
again.  Thin  misfortuiie  decided  the  enemy  to 
make  peace  on  the  following  conditions: — 
That  the  republic  of  Rhodes  :shou1d  be  maintain- 
ed in  the  full  enjoyment  of  their  ancient  rights, 
privileges,  and  liberties,  without  any  foreign  gar- 
risoi> ;  that  they  should  renew  their  alliance  with 
Antigonus,  and  assi9t  him  in  his  wars  against  all 
states  and  princes  except  Egypt ;  and  that,  for 
the  eifeciual  performance  of  the  articles  stipulated, 
they  should  deliver  100  hostages,  such  as  Deme- 
trius should  make  choice  of.  Thus  was  the  siege 
raised,  after  it  had  continued  a  whole  year: 
the  Rhodians  amply  rewarded  all  those  who 
had  distinguished  themselves  in  the  service  of 
their  country.  They  also  set  up  statues  to  Pto- 
lemy, Cassander,  and  Lysimachus;  to  all  of 
whom  they  paid  the  highest  honors,  especially  to 
the  first.  Demetrius  at  his  departure  presented 
them  with  the  helepolis,  and  all  the  other  ma- 
chines which  he  had  employed  in  battering  the 
city :  from  the  sale  of  which,  with  some  additi- 
onal sums  of  their  own>  they  are  said  to  have 
erected  the  famous  colossus- 

The  Rhodians  after  this  applied  themselves 
entirely  to  commerce,  by  whicn  means  they  be- 
came masters  of  the  sea,  and  much  more  opulent 
than  any  of  the  neighbouring  nations.  However, 
they  could  not  avoid  a  war  with  the  Byzantines, 
who,  being  obliged  to  pay  a  tribute  of  eighty 
Ulents  to  the  Gauls,  resolved  to  lay  a  toll  on  all 
ships  that  traded  to  the  Pontic  Sea.  This  reso- 
lution provoked  the  Rhodians,  who  first  de- 
spatched ambassadors  to  the  Byzantines,  com- 
plaining of  the  new  tax  ;  but  they  persisted  in 
their  resolution :  and  the  Rhodians  declared  war, 
engas^ing  the  king  of  Pergamus  to  assist  them : 
the  Byzantines  were  now  so  intimidated  that 
they  agreed  to  relinquish  the  toll.  About  this 
time  happened  the  earthquake,  which  threw 
down  the  colossus,  arsenal,  and  a  great  part  of 
the  city  walls  of  Rhodes ;  on  which  occasion 
the  Rhodians  sent  ambassadors  to  all  the  Grecian 
princes  and  states,  to  whom  their  losses  were  so 
much  exaggerated,  that  they  obtained  immense 
sums  of  money.  B.  C.  20*3  the  Rhodians  en- 
g^ed  in  a  war  with  Philip  V.  of  Macedon. 

Philip  had  invaded  the  territories  of  Attains 
king  ot  Pergamus ;  and,  because  the  Rhodians 
seemed  to  favor  their  ancient  friend,  sent  Hera- 
clides,  by  birth  a  Tarentine,  to  set  fire  to  their 
fleet ;  at  the  same  he  despatched  ambassadors 
into  Crete,  in  order  to  stir  up  the  Cretans  against 
them.  Philip  at  first  gained  an  inconsiderable 
advantage  in  a  naval  engagement ;  but  the  next 
year  was  defeated  with  the  loss  of  11,000  men, 
while  the  Rhodians  lost  but  sixty  men,  and  At- 
tains seventy.  After  this  he  carefully  avoided 
coming  to  an  engagement  at  sea  either  with  At- 
tains or  the  Rhodians.  The  combined  fleet,  in 
the  mean  time,  sailed  towards  ^gina  in  hopes 
of  intercepting  him :  but,  having  fiatiled  in  their 
purpose,  tney  sailed  to  Athens,  where  they  con- 
cluded a  treaty  with  that  people ;  and,  on  their 
return,  drew  all  the  Cyclades  into  a  confederacy 
against  Philip.  The  allies,  however,  wasted 
their  time  in  these  negociations ;  and  Philip, 
having  divided  his  forces  into  two  bodies,  sent 
one,  under  the  command  of  Philocles,  to  ravage 


the  Athenian  territories ;  and,  putting  the  other 
abo<ird  his  fleet,  gave  it  orders  to  sail  to  Me- 
Tonea,  a  city  in  the  north  of  Thrace.  He  then 
marched  towards  that  city  himself,  took  it  by 
assault,  and  reduced  a  great  many  others;  ib 
that  the  confederates  would,  in  all  probability, 
have  had  little  reason  to  boast  of  their  success, 
had  not  the  Romans  come  to  their  assistance.  In 
the  war  between  the  Romans  and  Antiochos  the 
Great  king  of  Syria,  thf>  Rhodians  were  Tery 
useful  allies  to  the  former.  The  best  part  of 
their  fleet  was  indeed  destroyed  by  a  treacherous 
contrivance  of  Polvxeniades  the  Syrian  admiral; 
but  they  soon  fitted  out  another,  and  defeated  a 
squadron  commanded  by  the  celebrated  Hannibal, 
after  which,  in  conjunction  with  the  Romans,  they 
utterly  destroyed  the  Syrian  fleet  commancied  by 
Polyxeniades ;  which,  together  with  the  loss  o^ 
the  battle  of  Magnesia,  so  dispirited  Antiochus, 
that  he  submitted  to  whatever  conditions  the 
Romans  pleased.  For  these  services  the  Rho- 
dians were  rewarded  with  the  provinces  of  Lycia 
and  Caria ;  but,  tyrannizing  over  the  people  in  a 
terrible  manner,  the  Lycians  applied  to  the  senate 
for  protection.  This  was  readily  granted ;  but 
the  Rhodians  were  so  much  displeased  that  they 
secretly  favored  Perseus  in  the  war  which  broke 
out  between  him  and  the  Roman  republic.  For 
this  offence  the  two  provinces  above-mentioned 
were  resumed ;  but  the  Rhodians,  having  banished 
or  put  to  death  those  who  had  favored  Perseus, 
were  again  admitted  into  favor,  and  greatly 
honored  by  the  senate.  In  the  Mithridatic  war 
their  alliance  with  Rome  brought  upon  them  the 
king  of  Pontus  with  all  his  force;  but,  having 
lost  the  greatest  part  of  his  fleet  before  the  city, 
he  was  obliged  to  raise  the  siege.  In  the  war 
which  Pompey  made  on  the  Ciliciln  pirates  the 
Rhodians  assisted  him  with  their  naval  force, 
and  had  a  great  share  in  his  victories.  In  the 
civil  war  between  Caesar  and  Pompey  they  also 
assisted  the  latter.  After  his  death  they  sided 
with  Caesar ;  which  drew  upon  them  the  resent- 
ment of  C.  Cassius,  who  advanced  to  Rhodes 
with  a  powerful  fleet.  When  the  Rhodians  sent 
ambassadors,  promising  to  stand  neuter,  and 
recal  the  ships  which  they  had  sent  to  assist  the 
triumviri,  Cassius  insisted  upon  their  delivering 
up  their  fleet,  and  putting  him  in  possession  of 
their  harbour.  This  the  Rhodians  refused,  and 
began  to  put  themselves  in  a  condition  to  stand 
a  siege ;  but  first  sent  Archelaus,  who  had  taught 
Cassius  Greek,  to  intercede  with  his  disciple. 
Archelaus  could  not  prevail  upon  him  to  mode- 
rate his  demands ;  the  Rhodians,  therefore,  hav 
ing  created  Alexander,  a  bold  and  enterpnsing 
man,  their  pnetor,  equipped  a  fleet  of  thirty-three 
sail,  and  setit  it  out  under  Mascus,  an  expe- 
rienced naval  ofiBcer,  to  offer  Cassius  battle. 
Both  fleets  fought  with  incredible  bravery,  and 
the  victory  was  longdoubtfiil ;  but  the  Rhodians, 
oterpowered  by  numbers,  were  at  length  forced 
to  return  home,  two  of  their  ships  being  sunk 
and  the  rest  much  damaged.  This  was  the  first 
time  that  the  Rhodians  were  fiiirly  overcome  in 
a  naval  fight.  Cassius,  who  had  beheld  it  from 
a  neighbouring  hill,  having  refitted  his.  fleet, 
which  had  been  no  less  damaged  than  that  of  ihe 
Rhodians,  repaired  to  Loiyma,  a  stronghold  of 


Digitized  by  N^UU^^lt: 


RHODES 


681 


tlie  Rhodiaos  on  the  continent.  This  castle  he 
took  by  assault ;  and  hence  conveyed  his  land 
forces,  under  Fannius  and  Lentulus,  over  into 
the  island.  His  fleet  consisted  of  ei(;hty  ships 
of  war  and  above  200  transports.  The  Rbo- 
dians  no  sooner  saw  it  appear,  but  they  went  out  , 
again  to  meet  the  enemy.  The  second  engage- 
ment  was  far  more  bloody  than  the  first ;  many 
ships  were  sunk,  and  ^reat  numbers  of  men 
killed  on  both  sides.  But  victory  once  more 
declared  for  the  Romans,  who  immediately 
blocked  up  the  city  of  Rhodes  both  by  sea  and 
land.  As  the  inhabitants  had  not  had  time  to  fur- 
nish the  city  with  sufficient  provisions  for  a  siege, 
some  of  them  fearing  that,  if  it  were  taken  either 
by  assault  or  by  famine,  Cassius  would  put  all 
the  inhabitants  to  the  sword,  as  Brutus  had 
lately  done  at  Xantbus,  privately  opened  the 
gates,  and  put  him  in  possession  of  the  town, 
which  be  nevertheless  treated  as  if  it  had  been 
taken  by  assault.  He  commanded  fifty  of  the 
chief  citizens  to  be  brought  before  him,  and  sen- 
tenced them  to  die;  others  to  the  number  of 
twenty-five,  who  had  commanded  the  fleet  or 
army,  because  they  did  not  appear  when  sum- 
mooed,  be  proscribed,  and  commanded  the  Rho- 
dians  to  deliver  up  to  him  all  their  ships,  and 
whatever  money  they  had  in  the  public  treasury. 
He  then  plundered  the  temples;  and  is  said  not 
to  have  left  one  statue  in  the  whole  city,  except 
that  of  the  sun ;  boasting,  at  his  departure,  that 
he  had  stripped  the  Rhodians  of  all  ihey  had. 
From  private  persons  he  extorted  above  8000 
talents. 

On  the  death  of  Cassius,  Marc  Antony  restored 
the  Rhodians  to  their  ancient  rights  and  privi- 
leges, bestowing  upon  them  the  islands  of 
Andros,  Naxos,  Tenos,  and  the  city  of  Myndus. 
But  these  the  Rhodians  so  oppressed  with  taxes 
that  Antony,  though  a  great  friend  to  the  repub- 
lic, was  obliged  to  divest  her  of  the  sovereignty. 
From  this  time  to  the  reipi  of  the  emperor  Claudius 
we  find  no  mention  made  of  the  Rhodians.  That 
prince,  as  Dion  informs  us,  deprived  them  of 
their  liberty  for  having  crucifiea  some  Roman 
citizens.  However,  he  soon  restored  them  to 
their  former  condition.  Tacitus  adds,  that  they 
had  been  as  often  deprived  of,  or  restored  to, 
their  liberty,  by  way  of  punishment  or  reward 
for  their  difierent  behaviour,  as  they  had  obliged 
the  Romans  with  their  assistance  in  foreign  wars, 
or  provoked  them  with  their  seditions  at  home, 
Pliny,  who  wrote  in  the  beginning  of  Vespasian's 
reign,  styles  Rhodes  a  beautiful  and  free  town. 
But  Vespasian  obliged  it  to  pay  a  yearly  tribute, 
and  reduced  the  whole  island  to  a  Roman  pro- 
vince. The  pretor  who  governed  it  resided  at 
Rhodes,  as  the  chief  city  under  his  jurisdiction. 

The  island  continued  subject  to  the  Romans 
till  the  reign  of  the  emperor  Andronicus ;  when 
\'illaret,  grand  master  of  the  knights  of  Jerusa- 
lem, then  residing  at  Cyprus,  finding  himself 
much  exposed  to  the  attacks  of  the  Saracens, 
resolved  to  exchange  that  island  for  Rhodes. 
Andronicus  the  eastern  emperor  possessed  little 
more  in  it  than  a  castle :  nevertheless  he  refused 
to  grant  the  iuvesliture  of  the  island  to  Villaret. 
The  latter,  therefore,  without  spending  time  in 
fruitless  negociations,  sailed  directly  for  Rhodes, 


where  he  landed  his  troopa,  provisions,  and  war- 
like stores,  in  spite  of  the  opposition  made  by 
the  Saracens,  who  then  united  against  the  com- 
mon enemy.  As  Villaret  foresaw  that  the  capi- 
tal roust  be  taken  before  he  could  reduce  the 
island,  he  instantly  laid  siege  to  it.  The  inhab- 
itants defended  themselves  obstinately;  upon 
which  the  grand  master  thought  proper  to  turn 
die  siege  into  a  blockade ;  but  soon  found  him- 
self so  closely  surrounded  by  the  Greeks  and 
Saracens  that  he  could  get  no  supply  either  of 
foraG:e  or  provisions.  But  having  at  length  ob- 
tained this  by  means  of  large  sums  borrowed  of 
the  Florentines,  he  came  out  of  his  trenches  and 
attacked  the  Saracens,  with  a  full  resolution 
either  to  conquer  or  die.  A  bloody  conflict  en- 
sued, in  which  a  great  number  of  the  bravest 
knights  were  killed  ;  but  at  length  the  Saracens 
gnve  way,  and  fled  to  their  ships ;  upon  which 
fhe  city  was  immediately  attacked  and  taken. 
The  Greeks  and  other  Christians  had  their  lives 
and  liberties  given  them,  but  the  Saracens  were 
all  cut  to  pieces.  The  reduction  of  the  capitail 
was  followed  by  that  of  all  the  other  places  of 
inferior  strength  throughout  the  island ;  and,  in 
four  years  after  their  landing,  the  whole  was  sub- 
jugated, and  the  conquerors  took  the  title  of  the 
Knights  of  Rhodes. 

For  many  years  those  knights  continued  the 
terror  of  the  Saracens  and  Turks,  and  sustained 
a  severe  siege  from  Mahomet  II.,  who  was  com- 
pelled to  abandon  the  enterprise  ;  but  at  length 
the  Turkish  sultan  Solyman  resolved  at  all  events 
to  drive  them  from  it.  He  attacked  the  city  with 
a  fleet  of  400  sail,  and  an  army  of  140,000  men. 
The  trenches  were  soon  brought  close  to  the 
counterscarp,  and  a  strong  battery  raised  against 
the  town  ;  which,  however,  did  but  little  damage. 
Unfortunately  for  the  besieged,  their  continual 
fire  caused  such  a  consumption  of  gunpowder 
that  thev  began  to  he\  the  want  of  it ;  the  perfi- 
dious d  Amarald,  whose  province  it  had  been  to 
visit  the  magazines,  having  amused  the  council 
with  a  false  report  that  there  was  more  than  suf- 
ficient to  maintain  the  siege.  Solyman  therefore 
thought  it  now  advisable  to  set  his  numerous 
pioneers  atwork,  digging  of  mines,  and,  ashamed 
and  exasperated  at  his  ill  success,  called  a  gene- 
ral council,  in  which  he  made  some  stinging 
reflections  otS  his  vizier,  for  having  represented 
the  reduction  of  Rhodes  as  a  very  easy  enter- 
prise. To  avoid  the  eflects  of  the  sultan's  resent- 
ment, Mustapha  proposed  a  general  assault  on 
several  sides  of  the  town  at  once.  This  wa*  im- 
mediately approved  of,  and  the  time  appointed  for 
the  execution  of  it  was  on  the  24th.  According- 
ly the  town  was  assaulted  at  four  difierent  parts, 
after  having  suffered  a  continual  fire  for  some  t'rnc 
from  their  artillery.  But  the  Rhodiam  were  no 
less  diligent  in  repulsing  them  with  their  cannor 
and  other  fire  arms,  melted  lead,  boiling  oil,  &c. 
The  Turks  at  last,  alike  beset  by  tlie  fire  of  the 
artillery  and  the  arms  of  the  Rhodian  VnightP, 
were  forced  to  abandon  the  attack  with  a  consi- 
derable loss.  In  these  attacks  there  fell  about 
15,000  of  Solyman's  best  troops,  besides  seveial 
ofiicers  of  distinction.  Solyman  was  so  dis- 
couraged by  his  ill  successes  tliat  he  was  on  the 
point  of  raising  the  siego,  and  would  have  a*:- 


Digitized  by  ^^JiJU^lC 


682 


RHODES. 


totXiy  Hone  so,  had  he  not  been  diveited  from  it  by 
intelligence  thst  the  far  greater  part  of  the  knights 
were  either  killed  or  wounded.  This  having  de- 
termined him  to  try  his  fortune  once  more,the  com- 
mand of  his  forces  was  turned  over  to  the  bashaw 
Achmed,  with  orders  to  push  the  attack  with  alL 
imaginable  vigor.  Achmed  instantly  obeyed, 
raised  a  battery  of  seventeen  large  cannon  against 
the  bastion  of  Italy,  and  quickly  after  nmde  him- 
aelf  master  of  it,  obliging  the  garrison  to  retire 
into  the  city.  The  grand  master  was  now  forced 
to  demolish  two  of  the  churches,  to  prevent  the 
enemy's  seizing  on  them ;  and,  with  their  mate- 
rials, caused  some  new  works  and  entrenchments 
to  be  made.  The  Turks,  however,  gained  ground 
every  day :  at  length,  on  the  30th  of  November, 
the  last  assault  was  to  be  given.  The  bashaw 
Pyrrus,  who  commanded  it,  led  his  men  directly 
to  the  entrenchments,  and  this  attack  would 
have  proved  one  of  the  most  desperate  that  had 
yet  been  made,  had  not  a  vehement  rain  inter- 
vened, which  carried  away  all  the  earth  which 
the  enemy  had  reared  to  serve  them  as  a  ram- 
part; so  that  being  now  exposed  to  a  continual 
fire  they  fell  in  such  great  numbers  that  the 
bashaw  could  no  longer  make  them  stand  their 
ground.  This  last  repulse  threw  the  sultan  into 
such  a  fury  that  none  of  his  officers  dared  to 
come  near  him ;  and  the  shame  of  his  having 
now  spent  nearly  six  whole  months  with  a  nome- 
vons  army  before  the  place,  and  having  lost  such 
myriads  of  his  brave  troops  with  so  little  advan- 
tage, had  made  him  quite  desperate.  Pyrrus 
at  length,  having  given  it  time  to  cool,  ventured 
to  propose  offering  the  town  a  capitulation.  This 
being  relished  by  the  sultan,  letters  were  imme- 
diately despatched  in  his  name,  exhorting  the 
city  to  submit,  and  threatening  the  knights  with 
the  most  dreadful  effects  of  his  resentment  if  they 
persisted  in  their  obstinacy.  Other  iu;ents 
were  employed  in  different  places:  to  cdl  of 
whom  the  grand  master  ordered  his  men  to  re- 
turn this  answer,  that  his  order  never  treated 
with  infidels  but  with  swohl  in  hand.  At  last, 
however,  he  called  a  council  of  all  the  knights, 
and  informed  them  himself  of  the  condition  of 
the  place.  These  all  agreed,  particularly  the 
engineer  Martinengo,  that  it  was  no  longer  de- 
fensible, and  that  no  other  resource  was  left  but 
to  accept  the  sultan's  offers  These  were  in  fact 
so  advantageous  that  they  immediately  exchanged 
hostages;  and  Achmed,  the  sultan's  minister, 
who  knew  his  master's  impatience  to  have  the 
affair  concluded,  finally  agreed  with  them  upon 
the  following  terms :  1.  That  the  churches  should 
not  be  profaned.  2.  That  the  inhabitants  should 
not  be  forced  to  part  with  their  children  to  be 
made  janissaries.  3.  That  they  should  enjoy  the 
free  exercise  of  their  religion.  4.  That  they 
should  be  free  from  taxes  during  five  years.  5, 
That  those  who  had  a  mind  to  leave  the  island 
should  have*  free  leave  to  do  so.  6.  That,  if  the 
gtand  master  and  his  knights  had  not  a  sufficient 
number  of  vessels  to  transport  themselves  and 
their  effects  into  Candia,  the  sultan  should  supply 
that  defect.  7.  That  they  should  have  twelve 
days  allowed  them,  from  the  signing  of  the  ar^ 
tides,  to  send  all  their  effects  on  board.  8.  That 
they  should  have  the  liberty  of  carrying  away 


their  relics,  chalices,  and  other  sacred  uteiisib 
belonging  to  the  great  church  of  St,  John,  toge- 
ther with  all  their  ornaments  and  other  effects. 
9.  That  they  should  likewise  carry  with  them 
all  the  artillery  with  which  tbeywere  wont  to 
arm  the  galleys  of  the  order.  10.  That  the  islands 
belonging  to  it,  together  with  the  castle  of  St. 
Peter,  should  be  delivered  up  to  the  Turlu.  11. 
That,  for  the  more  easy  execution  of  these  arti- 
cles, the  Turkish  army  should  be  removed  at 
some  miles  distance  from  the  capital.  12.  That 
the  aga  of  the  janissaries,  at  the  head  of  4000 
of  his  men,  should  be  allowed  to  go  and  take 
possession  of  the  place.  From  this  time  the 
island  of  Rhodes  has  been  subject  to  the  Torks; 
and,  like  other  countries  subject  to  that  tyran- 
nical yoke,  has  lost  all  its  former  importance. 

Rhodes  is  separated  from  the  south-west  extre- 
mity of  Anatolia  by  the  channel  of  Rhodes,  from 
three  to  four  leagues  wide.  The  north  coast  is  low, 
but  rises  inland  to  a  high  mountain,  flat  at  top. 
The  soil  is  in  general  sandy,  but  well  watered 
and  tolerably  fertile,  producing  corn,  wine,  oil, 
fruits,  honey,  &c.  The  island  abounds  with 
hares,  woodcocks,  partridges,  snipes,  and  wild 
ducks.  The  climate  is  miM  and  healthy,  the 
winter  having  neither  frost  nor  snow,  and  the 
summer  heats  are  tempered  by  the  westerty  sea 
breezes  in  that  season. 

The  chief  town,  of  the  same  name,  is  situated 
on  the  north-east  point  of  the  island,  and  built 
amphitheatrically  on  the  side  of  a  hill ;  it  is  sur- 
rounded by  thick  walls  with  towers,  which  give 
it  an  appearance  of  much  greater  strength  than 
it  possesses.  The  streets  are  narrow  and  crooked, 
and  the  houses  mean.  It  has  two  ports;  the 
smallest,  named  Dasca,  has  its  entrance  from  the 
east,  and  is  covered  by  several  rocks,  leaving 
only  a  channel  for  one  vessel  at  a  time ;  it  has 
also  jetties,  but  is  filling  up  daily,  and  at  present 
can  only  receive  small  merchant  vessels.  The 
second  port,  named  Rhodes,  faces  the  west,  on 
which  side  it  is  sheltered,  but  is  open  to  the 
north  and  north-east.  It  receives  vessels  of  eigh- 
teen feet  draft,  and  here  Turkish  vessels  of  war 
have  been  built  of  the  pines  the  island  affords. 

The  other  places  of  any  note  are  lindo,  on  the 
east,  at  the  head  of  a  deep  bay  and  at  die  foot 
of  a  high  mountain,  on  the  site  of  the  ancient 
Lindtts,  celebrated  for  its  temple  of  Minerva,  of 
which  some  remains  are  still  to  be  seen  on  the 
summit  of  the  hill  behind  the  town.  On  the 
south  side  of  the  bay  is  good  ancliorage,  in  eight 
to  twelve  fathoms,  opposite  a  little  village  named 
Massary,  where  is  shelter  from  the  south-west 
winds,  which  oftep  blow  with  violence  during 
winter.  Uxiticho  is  on  the  south-east.  Cape 
Tranquille  is  the  south  point  of  the  island.  Off 
it  is  the  isle  of  St.  Catnerine.  Limonia  rieut- 
lussa),  Karki  (Chalce),  Piscopia  (Telos),  Nisari 
(Nysirus),  and  Madona,are  between  Rhodes  and 
Stancho.  Nisari,  the  most  considerable,  pro- 
duces wheat,  cotton,  and  wine,  and  has  warm 
springs. 

In  the  centre  of  the  island  of  Rhodes  rises 
mount  Artemira,  the  ancient  Atabyrus,  a  steep 
and  lofty  summit,  commanding  a  most  extensive 
view,  not  only  over  tlie  island,  but  over  all  the 
surrounding  seas  and  coasts.    It  is,  in  fact,  a 


Digitized  by 


vjQOgle 


mo 


583 


RHO 


pinnacle  of  ^  fsuDge  of  mupujinS|  on  vhiqh 
)^fow  iho^  fore3t9  of  pinje  wHica  supplied  the 
ancient  navies  pf  tb^  kbodians,  and  were  lon|; 
sent  in  great  quantities  to  the  arsenal  at  Constan- 
tinople. They  are  noyr,  however,  greatly  thinned. 
Beneath  this  range  prises  a  tract  of  lower  hills, 
which  still  prodJicesonae  of  thatperfumed  wipe  so 
much  prized  by  the  ancients.  This  culture  might 
easily  oe  greatly  extended,  as  a  great  part  of  the 
hills  fitted  for  it  are  at  present  neglected.  The 
tract  beneath,  forming  the  greater  portion  of  the 
island,  slopes  gradually  down  to  the  sea,  and 
being  watered  by  numerous  streams,  descending 
from  the  higher  regions,  is  capable,  under  proper 
cultivation,  of  producing  luxuriant  crops. 
Rhodes,  which  might  be  the  granary  of  the 
neighbouring  islands,  was  very  lately  obliged  to 
import  a  considerable  portion  of  the  grain  which 
it  consumes.  The  pacha,  havin^g  assumed  the 
monopoly  of  this  article,  found  it  his  interest  to 
perpetuate  the  poverty  on  which  it  depended. 
The  consequence  is,  that  a  great  part  of  the 
stand  is  almost  entirely  waste.  '  In  travelling 
over  it,'  says  Savary, '  you  have  the  mortification 
of  passing  through  several  fine  valleys,  unadorned 
with  either  cottage  or  hamlet,  and  discovering 
no  marks  of  cultivation.  Wild  roses  hang 
around  the  foot  of  the  rocks ;  beds  of  flowering 
myrrh  perfume  the  air;  tufts  of  laurel  roses 
adorn  the  banks  of  the  rivulets  with  their  gaudy 
flowers.  The  husbandman  here  suffers  the  earth 
to  waste  her  strength  in  pouring  forth  a  profu- 
sion of  weeds  and  useless  plants,  without  taking 
pains  to  direct  her  fertility,,  and  to  enjoy  her  fa- 
vors. Besides  aom,  there  is  a  deficiency  of  olives 
for  the  consumption  ;  and  the  quantity  of  cotton 
raised  is  barely  sufficient  for  the  supply  of  the 
island.  The  exportation  of  wine,  figs,  and  other 
fruit,  is,  however,  considerable. 

Savary  found  the  capital  inhabited  chiefly  by 
the  Turks ;  and  five  towns  and  forty-one  villages 
inhabited  by  Greeks.  Thie  £imilies  in  the  island 
he  states  at  4700  Turks,  2500  Greeks,  and  100 
Jews,  making  in  all  7300  families,  which,  at  five 
persons  to  each  family,  would  amount  to  36,500. 
Mr.  Turner,  a  more  recent  traveller,  calculates  the 
whole  number  at  20,000.  The  Greeks,  he  says, 
inhabit  forty-two  villages,  containing,  in  the 
whole,  14,000  of  that  nation.  The  rest  of  the 
population,  consisting  entirely  of  Turks  and 
Jews,  reside  in  the  capital.  But  see  our  article 
Greece,  vol.  x.  640. 

RHODIGINUS  (Lucius  Coelius),  a  learned 
Venetian,  born  at  Rovigo,  in  1450.  He  was  the 
instructor  of  the  celebrated  Julius  Cssar  Sea- 
liger.  He  wrote  many  works,  the  chief  of  which 
is  Antique  Lectiones,  first  printed  at  Basil.  He 
died  in  Padua  in  1525,  aged  seventy-five. 
•  RUODIOLA,  rose  wort,  in  botany,  a  genus 
of  the  octandria  order  and  dioecia  class  of  plants, 
natural  order  thirteenth,  succulents  :  male  cal. 
quadripartite  :  cor.  tetrapetalous  :  female  cal. 
quadripartite:  cor.  none;  nectaria  four;  pistils 
four ;  and  there  are  four  polyspermous  capsules. 
There  are  two  species, 

1.  R.  minor,  a  native  of  the  Alps,  has  pur- 
plish flowers,  which  come  out  later  than  those  of 
the  rhodiola  rosea ;  it  is  also  of  a  smaller  size. 

2.  R.  rosea  grows  riatiirallv  in  the  clefts  of  the 


rocks  apd  rugged  »ioui^U^i?^s  of  W^es,  York- 
shire, and  Westmoreland.  It  has  a  very  tliick 
fleshy  root,  which,  when  put  or  bruised,  seoji^ 
out  an  odor  like  roses.  It  has  thick  succulent 
stalks  like  those  of  orpine,  sd)out  nine  incites 
loug,  closely  garnished  with  thick  succiilept 
leaves  indented  at  the  top.  The  stalk  is  termi- 
nated by  a  cluster  of  yellowish  herbaceous 
flowers,  which  have  an  agreeable  scent,  but  are 
of  short  continuance.  Both  species  are  easily 
prooagated  by  parting  their  roots,  and  require  a 
shady  situation,  and  dry  undunged  soil.  The 
fragrance  of  the  second  species,  however,  is 
greatly  diminished  by  cultivation. 

RHODIUM,  in  chemistry,  a  metal  first  disco- 
vered by  Dr.  Wollaston  among  the  grains  of 
crude  platinum.  The  mode  of  obtaining  it  in  the 
state  ot  a  triple  salt  combined  with  muriatic  acid 
and  soda  has  been  given  under  the  article  Pal- 
ladium. This  may  be  dissolved  in  water,  and 
the  metal  precipitated  by  zinc  in  the  shape  of  a 
black  powder.  This  powder  exposed  to  heat 
continues  black ;  but  with  borax  it  acquires  a 
white  metallic  lustre,  though  it  remains  infusible. 
Sulphur  and  arsenic,  however,  render  it  fusible^ 
and  may  afterwards  be  expelled  by  continuing 
the  heat.  The  button,  however,  is  not  malleable. 
Its  specific  gravity  appears  not  to  exceed  1 1 . 

Rhodium  unites  easily  with  every  metal  that 
has  been  tried,  except  mercury.  With  gold  or 
silver  it  forms  a  very  '  malleable  alloy,  not 
oxidised  by  a  high  degree  of  heat,  but  becoming 
incrusted  with  a  black  oxide  when  slowly  cooled. 
One-sixth  of  it  does  not  perceptibly  alter  tlie 
color  of  gold,  but  renders  it  much  less  fusible. 
Neither  nitric  nor  nitro-muriatic  acid  acts  on  it 
in  either  of  these  alloys ;  but  if  it  be  fused  with 
three  parts  of  bismuth,  lead,  or  copper,  the  alloy 
is  entirely  soluble  in  a  mixture  of  one  part  nitric 
acid  with  two  parts  of  muriatic. 

The  oxide  was  soluble  in  every  acid  Dr.  Wol- 
laston tried.  The  solution  in  Qiuriatic  acid  djd 
not  crystallise  by  evaporation.  Its  residuum 
formed  a  rose-colored  solution  with  alcohol. 
Muriate  of  ammonia  and  of  soda,  and  nitrate  of 
potash,  occasioned  no  precipitate  in  the  muriatic 
solution,  but  formed  with  the  oxide  triple  salts, 
which  were  insoluble  in  the  alcohol.  Its  solution 
in  nitric  acid  likewise  did  not  crystallise,  but 
silver,  copper,  and  other  metals  precipitated  it 
The  solution  of  the  triple  salt  with  muriate  of 
soda  was  not  precipitated  by  muriate,  carbonate, 
or  hydrosulphuret  of  ammonia,  by  carbopate  or 
ferroprussiate  of  potash,  or  by  carbonate  of  spda. 
The  caustic  alkalis,  however,  throw  down  a  yel- 
low oxide,  soluble  in  excess  of  alkali ;  and  a  so- 
lution of  platina  occasions  in  it  a  yellow  precipi- 
tate. 

The  title  of  this  product  to  be  considered  as 
a  distinct  metal  was  at  first  questioned ;  but  the 
experiments  of  Dr.  Wollaston  have  since  been 
confirmed  by  Descotils. 

RHODIUS  (John),  an  ancient  Danish  phy- 
sician, born  at  Copenhagen  in  1587.  He  pub- 
lished Notes  on  Scriboqius  Largus,  and  other 
works ;  and  died  in  Padua  in  1659. 

RHODODENDRON,  dwarf  rose-bay,  in  bo- 
tany, a  genus  of  tlie  monogynia  order,  and  decan- 
dria  class  of  plants,  natural  order  eighteenth, 


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bicorncs:  cal.  quinquepartite :  cor.  fuiinet- 
shaped;  stamina  declining 4  cap3.  quinquelo* 
calar.  There  are  ten  species;  the  most  remark- 
able  are, 

1.  R.  chamxcistus,  or  ciliated-leaved  dwarf 
rose-4>ay,  a  low  deciduous  shrub,  a  native  of  Ger- 
many. It  grows  to  the  height  of  about  three 
feet ;  the  branches  are  numerous,  produced  irre- 
gularly, and  covered  with  a  purplish  bark.  The 
leaves  are  oval,  spear-shaped,  small,  and  in  the 
under  surface  of  the  color  of  iron.  The  flowers 
are  produced  at  tlie  end  of.  the  branches  in 
bunches,  are  of  a  wheel-shaped  figure,  pretty 
large,  of  a  fine  crimson  color,  and  handsome  ap- 
pearance. They  appear  in  June,  and  are  suc- 
ceeded by  oval  capsules  containing  ripe  seeds  in 
September. 

2.  R.  chrysanthemum,  a  new  species,  disco- 
vered by  professor  Pallas  in  his  tour  through 
Siberia.  In  Siberia  this  species  is  used  with 
great  success  in  gouty  and  rheumatic  affections. 

3.  R.  Dauricum,  the  Daurian  dwarf  rose- 
bay,  is  a  low  deciduous  shrub,  and  native  of 
Dauria.  Its  branches  are  numerous,and  covered 
with  a  btownish  bark.  The  flowers  are  wheel- 
shaped,  large,  and  ef  a  beautiful  rose^olor :  they 
appear  in  May,  and  are  succeeded  by  oval  cap- 
sules full  of  seeds,  which  in  England  do  not  al- 
ways ripen. 

4.  R.  ferrugineum,  with  smooth  leaves,  hairy 
on  their  under  side,  is  a  native  of  the  Alps  and 
Appennines.  It  rises  with  a  shrubby  stalk  nearly 
three  feet  high,  sending  out  many  irregular 
branches  covered  with  a  purplish  bark,  and 
closely  garnished  with  smooth  spear-shaped  en- 
tire leaves,  whose  borders  are  reflexed  backward  ; 
the  upper  side  is  of  a  light  lucid  green,  their 
imder  side  of  an  iron  color.  The  flowers  are 
produced  at  the  ends  of  the  branches,  are  funnel- 
shaped,  cut  into  five  segments,  and  of  a  pale 
rose  color.  These  plants  are  propagated  by 
seeds ;  but,  being  natives  of  barren  rocky  soils 
and  cold  situations,  they  do  not  thrive  in  gardens, 
and  for  want  of  their  usual  covering  of  snow 
in  the  vnnter  are  often  killed  by  frost  in  this 
country. 

5.  R.  hirstttum,  with  naked  hairy  leaves,  grows 
naturally  on  the  Alps  and  several  mountains  of 
Italy.  It  is  a  low  shrub,  which  seldom  rises  two 
feet  high,  sending  out  many  ligneous  branches, 
covered  with  a  light  brown  bark,  garnished 
closely  with  oval  spear-shaped  leaves,  sitting 
pretty  close  to  the  branches.  They  are  entire, 
naving  a  great  number  of  fine  iron-colored  hairs 
on  their  edges  and  under  side.  The  flowers 
are  produced  in  bunches  at  the  end  of  the 
branches-  in  May,  having  one  funnel-shaped 
petal  cut  into  five  obtuse  segments,  and  of  a 
pale-red  color.  They  make  a  good  show,  and 
are  succeeded  by  oval  capsules,  contaming  ripe 
seeds,  in  August. 

6.  R.  maximum,  the  American  mountain 
laurel,  is  an  ever-green  shrub,  and  a  native  of 
Virginia,  where  it  grows  naturally  on  the  highest 
mountains,  and  on  the  edges  of  clifis,  precipices, 
ikc.f  where  it  reaches  the  size  of  a  moaerate  tree, 
though  with  us  it  seldom  rises  higher  than  six 
fept.  The  flowers  continue  by  succession  some- 
times more  than  two  months,  and  are  succeeded 
by  oval  capsules  full  of  seeds. 


7.  R.  ponticum,  the  pontic  dw«f  rose-bay,  is 
an  evergreen  shrub,  a  native  of  the  east,  and  of 
most  shady  places  near  Gibraltar.  It  grows  lo 
the  height  of  four  or  five  feet.  The  leaves  aie 
spear-shaped,  glossy  on  both  sides,  acute,  and 
placed  on  short  foot-stalks  on  the  branches ;  the 
flowers,  which  are  produced  in  clusters,  are  bell- 
shaped,  and  of  a^fine  purple-color.  They  appear 
in  July,  and  are  succeeded  by  oval  capsules  con- 
taining seeds,  which  in  this  climate  seldom  attain 
to  maturity. 

RHODOMAN  (Laurence),  aleamed  German, 
bom  at  Sassowerf,  in  Upper  Saxony,  in  1546. 
He  studied  at  the  college  of  llfield  six  years ; 
and  became  an  eminent  Greek  scholar.  Me 
wrote  Greek  verses,  which  are  much  admired. 
He  translated  the  Greek  poem  of  Quintus  Calaber 
into  Latin.  He  also  translated  Diodorus  Sicokis 
into  Latin.  He  became  professor  of  history  in 
the  university  of  Wirtemberg;  and  published 
several  other  works.  He  died  in  1606  at  Wir- 
temberg. 

RHODOPE,  a  high  mountain  of  Thrace,  ex- 
tending across  the  country,  in  an  east  direction, 
nearly  to  the  Euxine  Sea. 

Rhodope,  in  fabulous  history,  the  wife  of  [1«- 
mus  king  of  Thrace;  who,  preferring  herself  to 
Juno  in  beauty,  was  metamorphosed  into  the 
abo^e  mountain.    Ovid  vi.  87,  &c. 

Rhodope,  a  celebrated  Grecian  courtezan, 
who  was  fellow  servant  with  lEaop  at  the  court 
of  the  king  of  Samos.  She  was  carried  to  Egypt 
by  Xanthus,  and  purchased  by  Charaxes  of  Mi- 
tylene,  the  brother  of  Sappho,  who  mamed  her. 
She  afterwards  sold  her  favors  at  such  a  price 
that  sne  collected  a  sum  of  money,  with  which 
she  built  one  of  the  pyramids,  ^liao  sajrs  that 
one  day,  as  she  was  bathing,  an  eagle  carried 
away  one  of  her  sandals,  and  dropped  it  near 
king  Psammetichus  at  Memphis,  on  which  he 
made  enquiry  after  the  owner,  and  married  her. 

RHODUS.    See  Rhodes. 

RHOE,  two  of  the  Shetland  Isles  of  Scodand, 
thus  distinguished:  Little  Rhoe,  lies  near 
Mickle  Rhoe,  and  contains  about  fourteen  inha- 
bitants, whose  sole  employment  is  fishing. 
Mickle  Rhoe  lies  on  the  south  of  Mainland,  and 
belongs  to  the  parish  of  Delting.  It  is  about 
twenty-four  miles  in  circumference,  and  its  inha- 
bitants are  chiefly  employed  in  cultivating  the 
fertile  spots  of  the  island,  and  in  fishing.  Thtj 
also  rear  a  number  of  sheep  and  black  cattle, 
which  have  excellent  pasture  among  the  heath. 

RHOECUS,  in  fabulous  history :  1.  One  of 
the  giants,  killed  by  Bacchus  in  the  war  against 
the  gods ;  2.  A  centaur,  who  attempted  to  offer 
violence  to  Atalanta:  also  killed  by  Bacchus, 
at  the  marriage  of  Pirithous.  Ovid.  Met.  xii.  301. 

RHOMB,  n.s.    -\     Fr.rAomfo;Lat.rAomte; 

Rhom'bic,  >Gr.  pofijSoc-     A  quadran- 

Rhom'boid,  n.  s.  y  gular  figure,  formed  by  two 
equal  and  right  cones  joined  together  at  their 
base:  rhombic  is,  shaped  as  a  rhomb:  rhom- 
boid, a  figure  approachmg  that  shape. 

See  how  id  warlike  muster  they  appear. 
In  rhombt  and  wedges;  and  half  moons  and  wings. 

MUUm, 

Many  other  sorts  of  stones  are  regularly  figured : 
the  asteria  in  foi-m  of  a  star,  and  they  are  of  a  rkam- 
bick  figure.  Grnr, 

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Many  otiier  sorts  of  stones  are  regularly  figured ; 
and  Cl»y  are  of  a  rhom^vek  figure ;  telk,  of  such  as 
are  thomMd.  (hew. 

Another  rkomhoidal  selenites,  of  a  oompressed  form, 
had  many  others  infixed  round  the  middle  of  it.    . 

Woodward. 

.  Hhomboid,  in  geometry,,  a  quadrilateral 
figure  whose  opposite  sides  and  angles  are  equal,, 
but  which  is  neither  equilateral  nor  equiangular. 

RHOMBOIDBS,  m  anatomy,  a  thin,  broad, 
and  obliquely  square  fleshy  muscle,  situated  be- 
tween the  basis  of  the  scapula  and  the  spina 
dorsi,  so  called  from  its  figure.  Its  general  use 
is  to  draw  backward  and  upward  the  subspinal 
portion  of  the  basis  scapulae. 

RHOMBUS,  in  geometry,  an  oblique-angled 
parallelogram,  or  quadrilateral  figure  whose 
sides  are  equal  and  parallel,  but  the  angles  un- 
equal, two  of  the  opposite  ones  being  obtuse  and 
two  acute. 

RHONE,  an  important  river  of  the  south  of 
Europe,  rising  in  the  central  and  highest  part  of 
Switzerland,  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Furca,  and 
about  five  miles  from  the  source  of  the  Rhine. 
It  flows  in  a  western  direction  through  the  Swiss 
canton  of  the  Valais,  here  called  the  valley  of  the 
Rhone,  after  which,  swelled  by  numerous  moun- 
tain streams,  its  turbid  waters  mingle  with  those 
of  the  lake  of  Geneva.  Issuing  in  a  purer 
stream,  the  Rhone  now  flows  southward,  and 
forms  the  boundary  between  France  and  Savoy, 
nntil  approaching  Chamberry,  it  turns  to  the 
west  ana  north,  and,  reaching  Lyons,  is  joined 
by  the  Saone,  a  river  of  equal  length  of  course, 
but  of  less  copious  stream.  From  Lyons  the 
Rhone  holds  a  south  course,  all  the  way  to  the  Me- 
diterranean, receiving  a  number  of  streams  east 
and  west :  the  largest  of  these  are  the  Isere  and 
Durance.  After  a  course  of  nearly  500  miles, 
the  Rhone  discharges  itself,  by  three  moutlis, 
into  the  gulf  of  Lyons.  It  is  the  most  rapid 
river  in  Europe :  between  Geneva  and  Lyons  its 
channel  in  some  parts  is  extremely  narrowed  by 
rocks,  and  at  one  place,  about  sixteen  miles  below 
Geneva,  it  loses  itself  underground  for  the  space 
of  sixty  paces.  Though  not  so  long  in  its  course 
as  the  Loire,  it  exceeds  it  and  all  the  other 
nvers  in  France  in  size.  The  navigation  down  the 
s(ream  takes  place  with  great  ease ;  the  upward 
can  be  performed  only  by  draught  or  steam.  It 
deposits  so  large  a  quantity  of  earth  at  its  mouth 
that  a  light-house,  built  on  the  shore  in  1737, 
is  now  three  miles  distant  from  it. 

Rhone,  a  department  of  France,  including 
the  former  provinces  of  Beaujalois  and  Lyonnois, 
and  bnumied  by  those  of  the  Saone  and  Loire, 
the  Ain,  the  Isere,  and  the  Loire.  It  has  a  su- 
perficial extent  of  1050  square  miles,  somewhat 
mountainous,  and,  owing  to  the  vicinity  of  the 
Alps,  the  climate  is  more  inclined  to  cold  than 
lieat.  But  the  southern  part,  along,  the  Rhone, 
furnishes  excellent  fruit,  and  wine,  called  firom 
the  exposure  of  many  of  the  vineyards,  cote- 
roiie.  North-east  part,  along  the  borders  of  tlie 
Saone,  there  are  extensive  meadows ;  and  in  the 
central  part  com  is  produced.  The  inhabitants 
of  the  mountainous  districts  are  employed  in 
spinning  and  weaving  of  cotton.  The  manufac- 
tures, particularly  in  Lyons  and  its  vicinity,  are 


extensive.  This  department  belongs  to  the  dio- 
cese and  jurisdiction  of  the  royal  court  of  Lyons, 
and  is  divided  into  two  arrondissements,  Lyons 
the  capital,  and  Villefranche.  Inhabitants 
330,000. 

Rhone,  Mouths  of  the,  Bouches  du  Rhone, 
a  department  of  France,  formed  of  a  part  of 
Provence,  and  bounded  by  the  Mediterranean 
and  the  departments  of  the  Gard,  the  Vaucluse, 
and  the  Var.  Its  superficial  extent  is  about 
2000  square  miles,  traversed  by  a  branch  of  the 
Alps,  and  for  the  most  part  an  undulating  plain, 
vmtered  by  the  Rhone,  the  Durance,  and  other 
rivers.  The  climate  is  mild,  producing  wine, 
fruit,  olives,  soda,  sumach,  and  silk-worms; 
along  the  coast  are  made  quantities  of  salt.  The 
wine  made,  though  large  in  quantity,  is  used 
chiefly  for  home  consumption.  The  culture  of 
the  olive  was  formerly  extensive ;  but  the  winter 
of  1788  and  1789  destroyed  a  vast  number  of 
trees,  and  reduced  the  produce  of  the  department 
to  a  fourth  of  its  former  amount.  Silk  is  ex- 
ported annually  to  the  amount  of  £40,000,  and 
wool  to  the  value  of  £30,000.  The  department 
has  pasture  for  sheep,  but  little  for  large  cattle. 
Butter  is  almost  unknown;  there  is  likewise  a 
deficiency  of  wood,  and  of  com.  It  belongs  to 
the  diocese  and  jurisdiction  of  the  royal'court  of 
Aix ;  and  is  divided  into  the  arrondissements, 
viz.  Marseilles  the  capital,  Aix,  and  Tarascon. 
(Population  293,000. 

RHOPIUM,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  trian- 
dria  order  and  gvnandria  class  of  plants  :  gal. 
monophyllousand  sex  partite :  cor.  none,  and  no 
stamina;  the  three  anthers  are  each  attached  to 
one  of  the  styli :  caps,  tricoccous  and  sexlocular, 
each  cell  containing  two  seeds.  Species  one  only, 
viz.  R.  meborea,  a  native  of  Guiana.  This  is  a 
shrub  rising  about  three  or  four  feet  in  height. 
The  flowers  grow  in  the  form  of  a  corymbus ; 
dieyare  of  a  yellowish-green  color ;  the  capsules 
are  black. 

RHOPOLA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  mono- 
gynia  order  and  tetandria  class  of  plants :  cal. 
none ;  petals  four,  oblons,  obtuse,  and  narrow- 
ing at  the  base;  stamina  four,  inserted  in  the  co- 
rolla, and  having  large  antherse ;  unilocular,  and 
containing  one  seed.  There  is  only  one  species, 
viz.  R.  montana,  a  shrubby  plant  growing  in 
Guiana,  and  remarkable  for  the  great  number  of 
branches  sent  ofif  from  its  trunk  in  every  direc- 
tion, and  for  the  fetid  smell  of  its  wood  and 
bark. 

RHOTAS,  an  extensive  district  of  Hindostan, 
province  of  Bahar.  It  is  chiefly  situated  be- 
tween the  rivers  Soane  and  Caramnassa.  The 
southern  part  is  hilly  and  covered  with  wood ; 
but  the  northern  parts  level,  well  watered,  and 
fertile.  The  principal  towns  are  Sassaram,  Serris, 
Bogwanpore,  and  Rhotas. 

Rhotas,  a  fortress  of  Hindostan,  the  capital  of 
the  district  of  this  name,  province  of  Punjab. 
It  is  situated  on  the  western  side  of  the  Jhylum 
or  Hydaspes,  and  is  said  to  be  very  strong ;  it 
has  not  been  visited  by  any  European,  but  was 
seen  at  a  distance  by  Mr.  Elphinstone,  in  the 
year  1809.    Long.  72°  5ff  E.,  lat.  31*  55'  N. 

Rhotas,  or  Rotasgur,  a  celebrated  fortress  of 
Hindostan,  in   Bahar,  on  the  top  of  a  table 


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RHUS. 


mountain.  Th«i  only  ^ram  ii  a  rary  narrow  roa4, 
cut  through  a  steep  ascent  of  two  mile^,  and  de- 
fendod  by  three  gates  at  a  distance  from  each 
other.  T ^e  edge  of  the  mountain  is  surrounded 
by  a  parapet,  at  the  back  of  which  are  collected 
heaps  of  stones,  for  the  purpose  of  rolling  down 
on  the  assailants.  The  surface  is  ten  miles 
square,  containing  a  town,  and  several  resenroirs 
of  water,  to  irrigate  the  fields,  were  it  requisite; 
but,  as  the  climate  is  considered  unhealthy,  they 
are  abandoned,  and  the  fortifications  are  falling 
to  decay. 

RHOTENAMER  (John),  an  eminent  Italian 
painter,  born  in  1564.  He  studied  after  Tin- 
toret,  and  settled  at  Venice.  His  works  are  re- 
markable for  brilliant  coloring  and  high  finishing. 

UHOXALANi,  an  ancient  nation  who  re- 
sided on  the  north  bank  of  the  Palus  Mvotisy 
'between  Europe  and.  Asia,  on  the  confines  of 
both. 

RHU'BARB,  n.s.  Ux.  rkuharbara.  A  medi- 
cinal root,  referred  by  botanists  to  the  dock. 

What  riwbarb,  senna,  or  what  purgative  drug 
Would  Monr  these  EDglish  hence  ?         Shaktpurt, 

Having  fixed  the  fontanel,  I  purged  him  with  ^n 
infusion  of  rhubarb  in  small  ale.  Wueman. 

Rhubarb.    See  Rheum. 

RHUMB,  in  navigation,  a  vertical  circle  of 
any  given  place,  or  intersection  of  such  a  circle 
with  the  horizon ;  in  which  last  sense  rhumb  is 
the  same  with  a  point  of  the  compass. 

Rhumb  {^ne,  the  line  which  a  ship  describes 
when  sailing  in  the  same  collateral  point  of  the 
compass,  or  oblique  to  tbe  meridians. 

RHUNKEN,  or  Rhumkenius  (David),  a  ce- 
lebrated German  critic,  was  born  at  StoLpen  in 
Pomerania,  in  1723.  Intended  for  the  clerical 
profession,  he  passed  some  time  at  the  university 
of  Konigsberg,  devoting  himself  to  classical  lite- 
rature; he  then  removed  to  Wittemberg,  where 
be  took  the  degree  of  LL.  D.,  and  afterwards  to 
Leyden,  where  Hemsterhuis  procured  him  the 
situation  of  a  tutor,  and  through  his  advice  he 
published  an  edition  of  the  Greek  Lexicon  of 
Timseus.  He  subsequently  went  to  Paris,  and 
in  1757  became  assistant  to  Hemsterhuis  at  Ley- 
den :  and  in  1761  he  succeeded  Gudendorp  as 
professor  of  Latin  and  of  history.  He  died  much 
regretted  in  1798.  His  chief  works  are  a  eolo- 
gium  on  his  friend  Hemsterhuis ;  an  edition  of 
Rutilius  Lupus  on  Rhetoric ;  and  of  tbe  history 
of  Velleius  raterculus. 

RHUS,  sumach,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the 
trigynia  order  and  pentandria  cli^  of  plants; 
natural  order  forty-third,  dumosse:  cal.  quiur 
qnepartite;  petals  five;  berry  monospermous. 
Species  thirty-five,  of  which  the  most  remarkable 
are, 

1.  R.  Canadensis,  with  winged  spear-shape4 
leaves,  grows  naturally  in  Canada,  MaryUmd, 
and  several  otiier  parts  of  North  America.  It 
has  smooth  branches  of  a  purple  color,  covered 
with  a  gray  pounce.  The  leaves  are  composed 
of  seven  or  eight  pairs  of  lobes,  terminated  by 
an  odd  one ;  the  lobes  are  spear-shaped,  sawed 
on  their  edges,  of  a  lucid  green  on  tneir  upper 
surface,  but  hoary  on  their  under,  and  are 
smooth.  The  flowers  are  produced  at  the  end 
of  the  branches  in  large  panicles,  composed  of 


«e?ec«l  UMitn,  eaoh  standing  apon  sppaiate 
fi>Qtrstalks ;  they  are  of  a  deep  ced  color,  and  the 
whole  panicle  is  covered  with  a  gray  powder. 

2.  R.  Caralinianura,  with  vnnged  leaves  grows 
naturally  in  Carolina.  This  is  by  the  gaidenen 
called  the  scarlet  Carolina  sumach ;  it  rises  com- 
monly to  the  height  of  seven  or  eight  feet,  di- 
viding into  many  irregular  brancbesy  wbicfa  are 
smooth,  of  a  purple  red  color,  and  covered  over 
with  a  grayish  pc^^»  ^  ue  also  the  foot-stalks 
of  the  leaves.  The  leaves  are  composed  of  seven 
or  eight  pairs  of  lobes,  terminated  by  an  odd 
one;  these  are  not  always  placed  exactly  oppo- 
site on  the  midrib,  but  are  sometimes  alternate. 
The  upper  side  of  the  lobes  is  of  a  dark  green, 
and  their  under  hoary  but  smooth.  The  flowers 
are  produced  at  lix»  end  of  the  branches  in  very 
close  panicles,  which  are  large  and  of  a  bright 
red  color. 

3.  R.  copallinum,  the  narrow  leaved  samach, 
grows  naturally  in  mpst  parts  of  North  America, 
where  it  is  called  beach  sumach,  probably  from 
the  place  where  it  grows.  This  is  of  humble 
growth,  seldom  rising  above  four  or  five  feet 
high  in  Britain,  dividing  into  many  spreading 
branches,  which  are  smooth,  of  a  light  brown 
color,  closely  garnished  with  winged  leaves, 
composed  of  four  or  five  pairs  of  narrow  lobes, 
terminaied  by  an  odd  one ;  they  are  of  a  light 
green  on  both  sides,  and  in  autunin  chajige  to 
purplish.  The  mid  rib,  which  sustains  the  lobes, 
nas  on  each  side  a  winged  or  leafy  border,  which 
runs  from  one  pair  of  lobes  to  another,  ending 
i.n  joints  at  each  pair,  by  which  it  is  easily  distin- 
guished from  the  other  sorts.  Tbe  flowers  aie 
produced  in  loose  panicles  at  the  end  of  the 
branches,  of  a  yellowish  herbaceous  color.  The 
resin  called  gum  copal  is  produced  from  this 
shrub.    See  Copal. 

4.  R^  coriaria,  the  elm  leaved  sumach,  grows 
naturally  in  Italy,  Spain,  Turkey,  Syria,  and  Pa- 
lestine. The  branches  are  used  instea4  of  oodc 
bark  for  tanning  of  leather ;  and  it  is  said  that 
the  Turkey  leather  is  all  tanned  with  tliis  shrub. 
It  has  a  ligneous  stalk,  which  divides  at  bottom 
into  many  irregular  branches,  rising  eight  or  ten 
feet ;  the  bark  is  hairy,  of  an  herbaceous  brown 
color;  the  leaves  are  winged,  composed  of  seven 
or  eight  pairs  of  lobes*  terminated  by  an  odd 
one,  bluntly  sawed  on  their  edges,  hairy  on  their 
under  side,  of  a  yellowish  green  color,  and  placed 
alternately  on  the  branches :  the  flowers  grow  in 
loose  panicles  on  the  end  of  the  branches,  which 
are  of  a  whitish  herbaceous  color,  each  panicle 
being  composed  of  several  spikes  of  flowers  sit- 
ting close  to  the  foot>st^ks.  The  leaves  and  seeds 
are  used  in  medicine,  and  estetnied  very  astrin- 
gent and  styptic. 

5.  R.  typninum,  Virginian  sumach,  or  vine- 
gar plant,  grows  naturally  in  almost  every  part 
of  North  America.  It  has  a  woody  stem,  with 
manv  irregular  branches,  which  are  generally 
crooked  and  deformed.  The  young  branches 
are  covered  with  a  soft  velvet-like  down,  resem- 
bling greatly  that  of  a  young  stag's  horn,  both  in 
color  and  texture,  whence  it  has. the  appellation 
of  stag's  horn ;  the  leaves  are  winged,  composed 
of  six  or  seven  pairs  of  oblong  heart-shaped  lobes, 
terminated  by  an  odd  one,  ending  in  acute 


Digitized  by  ^^JiJU*^lt: 


RHUS. 


687 


points,  Miy  od  their  under  side,  as  is  aleo  the 
mid  rib.  The  flowers  are  produced  in  clos<> 
tafts  at  the  ends  of  the  branches,  and  are  scui* 
ceeded  by  seeds,  enclosed  in  purple  yroolly  sno- 
culent  covers;  so  tiiat  the  bunches  are  of  a  beau- 
tiful purple  color  in  autumn ;  and  the  leaves,  in 
autumn,  change  to  a  purplish  color  at  first,  and 
before  they  fall  to  feuillemort.  This  plant  has 
been  long  cultivated  in  the  north  of  Germany^  > 
and  is  lately  introduced  into  Russia.  It  has  ob« 
tained  th«  name  of  the  vinegar  plant  from  the 
double  reason  of  the  young  gerraen  o(  its  fruit, 
when  fermented,  producing  either  new,  or  add* 
ing  to  the  strength  of  old  weak  vinegar,  whilst 
its  ripe  berries  afford  an  agreeable  acid,  which 
might  supply  the  place,  when  necessary,  of  the 
citric  acid.  The  powerful  astringency  of  this 
plant  in  all  its  parts  recommends  it  as  useful  in 
several  of  the  arts.  The  ripe  berries  boiled  with 
alum  make  a  good  dye  for  hats.  The  plant  in 
all  its  parts  may  be  used  as  a  succedaneum  for 
oak  bark  in  tanning,  especially  for  the  white 
glove  leather.  It  will  likewise  answer  to  pre- 
pare a  dye  for  black,  green,  and  yellow  colors; 
and  with  martial  vitriol  it  makes  a  good  ink.  The 
milky  juice  that  flows  from  incisions  made  in  the 
trunk  of  branches,  makes,  when  dried,  the  basis 
of  a  varnish  little  inferior  to  the  Chinese.  Bees 
are  remarkably  fond  of  its  flowers;  and  it 
affords  more  honey  tlian  any  of  the  flowering 
shrubs.  The  natives  of  America  use  the  dried 
leaves  as  tobacco. 

These  five  species  of  rhus  are  hardy  plants,  and 
will  thrive  in  the  open  air  here.  The  second  and 
fourth  sorts  are  not  quite  so  hardy  as  the  others, 
so  must  have  a  better  situation,  otherwise  their 
branches  will  be  injured  by  severe  frost  in  the 
winter.  They  are  easily  propagated  by  seeds, 
which  if  sown  in  autumn  the  plants  will  come  up 
the  following  spring;  but,  if  sown  in  spring,  they 
will  not  come  up  till  the  next  spring ;  they  may 
be  either  sown  in  pots  or  the  full  ground.  If 
they  are  sown  in  pots,  in  autumn,  the  pots  should 
be  placed  under  a  common  frame  in  winter, 
where  the  seeds  may  be  protected  from  hard 
frost;  and  in  spring,  if  the  pots  are  plunged 
into  a  very  moderate  bot-Aied,  tne  plants  will  soon 
rise,  and  have  thereby  more  time  to  get  stoength 
before  winter.  Wben  the  plants  come  up  they 
must  be  gradually  hardened  to  bear  the  open  air, 
into  which  they  shonld  be  removed  as  soon  as  the 
weather  is  favorable,  placing  them  where  they 
may  have  the  morning  sun ;  in  the  summer  they 
must  be  kept  dean  from  weeds,  and  in  dry  wea- 
ther watered.  Toward  autumn  K  will  be  proper 
to  stint  their  growth  by  keeping  them  dry,  tnat 
the  extremity  of  their  shoots  may  harden  ;  for,  if 
they  are  replete  ^fiih  moisture,  the  eariy  frosts  in 
autumn  will  pinch  them,  which  will  eause  their 
shoots  to  decay  almost  to  the  bottom  if  the  plants 
are  not  screened  from  them.  If  the  pots  are  put 
under  a  common  frame  in  autumn  it  will  secure 
the  plants  from  injury ;  for,  while  they  are  young, 
and  the  shoots  soi%,  they  will  be  in  danger  of 
suffering,  if  the  winter  prove  very  severe ;  but 
in  raild  weather  they  must  always  enjoy  the  open 
air,  therefore  should  never  be  covered  but  in 
frost.  The  sprinpr  following,  just  before  the 
Dlants  begin  to  shoot,  they  should  be  shaken  out 


of  the  pots,  and  camftiUy  »epanit9d,fp  m  not 
to  tear  the  roots ;  and  tianspUQted  into  a  nur- 
sery, in  rows  three  feet  asunder,  and  ope  foot 
distance  in  the  rows.  In  ihis  nursery  they  may 
stand  two  years  to  getsti£Dgth,  and  then  may  be 
transplanted  where  they  are  to  remain. 

6.  E.  vernix,  the  toxicodendron,  poison  tree,  or 
poison  ash  grows  naturally  in  Virginia,  PennsyU 
vania,  New  England,  Carolina,  and  Japan, 
rising  with  a  strong  woody  stalk  to  the  height  of 
twenty  feet  and  upwards;  though  in  this  country 
it  ia  seldom  seen  above  twelve,  the  plants  bfiing 
extremely  tender,  llie  bark  is  brown,  inclining 
to  gray ;  the  branches  are  garnished  with  wipfed 
leaves  composed  of  three  or  four  pairs  of  lobes 
terminated  by  an  odd  one.  The  lobes  vary 
greatly  in  their  shape,  bnt  for  the  most  part  they 
are  oval  and  spear-shaped.  The  foot-stalks  be- 
come of  a  bright  purple  towards  the  latter  part 
of  summer,  and  in  autumn  all  the  leaves  are  of 
a  beautiful  purple  before  &ey  &11  off.  All  the 
species  of  sumach  abound  with  an  acrid  milky 
juice, which  is  reckoned  poisonous;  but  this  pro- 
perty is  most  remarkable  in  the  vcmix.  The 
most  distinct  account  of  it  is  to  be  found  in  pro- 
fesso**  Kalm's  Travels  in  North  America.  *  An 
incision,'  says  he, '  bemg  made  into  the  tree,  a 
whitish  yellow  juice,  which  has  a  nauseous  smell, 
comes  out  .between  the  bark  and  the  wood.  The 
tree  is  not  known  for  its  good  (qualities,  but 
greatly  so  for  the  effect  of  its  poisMi ;  which, 
though  it  is  noxious  to  some  people,  yet  does 
not  in  the  least  affect  others.  And  therefore' one 
person  can  handle  the  tree  as  he  pleases,  cut  it, 
peel  off  its  bark,  rub  it  or  the  wood  upon  his 
hands,  smell  at  it^  spread  the  juice  upon  his  skin, 
with  no  inconvenience  to  himself:  another  dares 
not  meddle  with  the  tree  while  its  wood  is  fresh ; 
nor  can  he  venture  to  touch  a  hand  which  has 
handled  it,  nor  even  to  expose  himself  to  the 
smoke  of  a  fire  made  with  this  wood,  without 
soon  feeling  its  bad  effects ;  for  the  face,  the 
hands,  and  frequently  the  whole  body,  swell  ex- 
cessively, and  are  affected  vrith  a  very  acute  pain. 
Sometimes  bladders  or  blisters  arise  in  great 

J)lenty,  and  make  the  sick  person  look  as  if  in- 
iected  by  a  leprosy.  In  some  people  the  cuticle 
peels  off  in  a  few  days,  as  when  a  person  has 
scalded  'or  burnt  any  part  of  his  iK)d}r.  The 
leaves  of  this  tree  have  been  nsed  medicioaUy  in 
paralysis  and  herpetic  affections.  Dr.  Fresnoi 
was  the  first  who  attempted  its  use  in  these 
diseases ;  and,  in  order  that  otheis  should  not 
suffer  by  his  experiments,  he  began  upon  himself 
by  taking  an  infusion  of  one  of  the  three  leaflets 
of  which  each  leaf  consists ;  and  as  this  dose 
produced  no  sensible  effect,  he  increased  the 
number  to  twelve.  His  urine  and  perspiration 
were  increased  in  quantity,  and  he  had  some 
pains  in  his  belly.  He  relates  seven  eases,  in 
which  he  cured  herpetic  disorders,  and  five  of 
paralysis.  The  natives  distingubh  this  tree  in 
the  dark  by  its  extreme  coldness  to  the  touch. 
The  juice  of  some  kinds  of  sumach,  when  ex- 
posed to  the  heat  of  the  sun,  becomes  so  thick 
and  clammy  that  it  is  used  for  bird  lime,  and 
the  inspissated  juice  of  the  poison  ash  is  said  to 
-be  the  fine  varnish  of  Japan.  A  cataplasm 
made  with  the  fresh  juice  of  the  poison  ash,  ap- 


Digitized  by  ^^JOOQlC 


RIA 


588 


RIB 


S lied  to  the  feet,  is  said  to  kill  the  vennin  called 
y  the  West  Indians  chigers. 
RHYME,  n.*.      "\    Ft.  rhi/thme ;  Gr.  pv^fios. 
Rht'icer,  f  An  harmonical  succession 

Rhym'ster,  i  of  sounds,  particularly  at 

Rhytu'mical,  adj.  J  the  close  of  lines  or 
verses ;  poetry ;  the  rhyming  iword ;  to  agree  or 
harmonize  in  sound  :  make  verses  :  a  rhymer,  one 
who  makes  them ;  rhythmical  is,  harmonious. 

All  his  manly  power  it  did  disperse, 
As  he  were  wanned  with  enchaated  Wum«t, 
That  oftentimes  he  quaked.  Fatm  QtfMM. 

I  was  promised  on  a  time, 
To'have  reason  for  my  rhyme ; 
But  from  that  time  unto  this  season, 
I  had  neither  rhyme  nor  reason.  Spenmr, 

Scalled  rhymer$  will  hallad  us  out  o'  tune. 

Suikipeart, 
The  guiltiness  of  my  mind  drove  the  grossness  of 
the  foppery  into  a  received  belief,  in  despight  of  the 
teeth  of  all  rAyiMand  reason,  that  they  were  fairies. 

Id, 
It  was  made  penal  to  the  English  to  permit  the 
Irish  to  graze  upon  their  lands,  to  entertain  any  of 
their  miostrels,  r^tmer*,  or  news-tellers. 

Davies  on  Ireland. 
The  youth  with  songs  and  rhimet: 
Some  dance,  some  hale  the  rope.  Denham. 

Who  would  not  sing  for  Lycidasi  he  knew 
Himself  to  sing,  and  build  the  lofty  rhtpme,  MiUon, 

For  rhyme  the  rudder  is  of  verses, 
With  which  like  ships  they  steer  their  courses. 

Hudibrat. 
He  was  too  warm  on  picking  work  to  dwell, 
But  fagotted  his  notions  as  they  fell, 
And,  if  they  rhimed  and  rattled,  all  was  well. 

Dryden. 
Milton's  rAtnw  is  constrained  at  an  age,  when  the 
passion  of  love  makes  every  man  a  rhimer  though 
not  a  poet.  Id, 

Now  sportive  youth, 
Carol  incondite  thytknu  with  suiting  notes, 
And  qnaver  inharmonious.  Philipe, 

If  Cupid  throws  a  single  dart. 
We  make  him  wound  the  lover's  heart ; 
But,  if  be  takts  his  bow  and  quiver, 
'Tis  sure  be  must  transfix  the  liver ; 
For  rhime  with  reason  may  dispense, 
And  sound  has  right  to  govern  sense.      Prfar. 
I  speak  of  those  who  are  only  rhimHen.  DennU, 
There  inarched  the  bard  and  blockhead  side  by 
•    side. 
Who  rhymed  for  hire,  and  patronized  for  pride. 

Pope. 
What  wise  means  to  gain  it  hast  thou  chose  ? 
Know,  fame  and  fortune  both  are  made  of  prose. 
Is  thy  ambition  sweating  fbr  a  rhyme. 
Thou  unambitious  fool,  at  this  late  time  1     Young, 
Rhymer  (Thomas  the),  was  a  native  of  the 
parish  of  Earlstown  in  Berwickshire.     His  real 
name  and   gtle  were  Sir  Thomas  Learmouth. 
He  lived  at  the  west  end  of  Earlstown  in  the 
thirteenth  century,  and'  was  contemporary  with 
one  of  the  earls  of  March,  who  lived  in  the  same 
place. 
RIAL,  or  Ryal.    See  Coins. 
RIAZAN,  a  large  province  of  European  Rus- 
sia, lying  to  the  south  of  the  government  of  Vla- 
dimir, and  to  tlie  east  of  that  of  Moscow,  extend- 
ing from  lat.  53**  40'  to  SS''  0'  N.,  and  from  long. 
38®  25'  to  4 1"*  46'  i..  Its  area  is  above  1 3,000  square 
miles,  and  level  country,  with  a  few  elevations. 


The  north  contains .  a  number  of  woods  and 
marshes,  but  the  rest  of  the  country  produces 
wheat,  oats,  barley,  and  other  oom  ;  hemp  and 
flax.  The  number  of  cattle  is  rather  below  the 
average  proportion  in  Russia,  but  the  breed  of 
horses  is  good,  and  great  attention  is  paid  to 
bees.  Woollen  and  linen  are  made  for  domestic 
use,  and  a  few  iron,  glass,  and  leather  articles 
for  export.  The  imports  are  also  very  li- 
mited, the  only  one  ot  importance  being  salL 
In  former  times  an  independent  ducby,  this 
government  became  a  province  ot  the  empire, 
under  the  name  of  PeresUvURiasaoskoi,  and  re- 
ceived its  present  name  from  Catherine  II.  It 
is  divided  into  < twelve  circles.  Population 
1,000,000. 

RiAZAN,  the  capital  of  the  above  government, 
is  situated  on  the  Oks^  123  miles  S.  S.  E.  of 
Moscow.  It  is  the  see  of  a  Greek  bishop,  and 
has  an  unusual  number  of  churches.  The  epis- 
copal palace  was  formerly  that  of  the  duVes ;  but 
the  best  building  of  the  town  is  that  for  the  go- 
vernment offices  and  courts  of  justice.  Here  are 
manufactures  of  iron,  linen,  woollen,  leather 
needles,  and  glass ;  but  the  town  is  small.  In* 
habitants  5000.  It  is  one  of  the  most  ancient 
towns  of  Russia. 

RIB,  n.s.&v.a.  Sax.  fubbe;  Dan.  Swed. 
and  Belg.  rib  ;  Teut.  ribbe;  Goth,  rif,  A  bone 
in  the  side  of  the  body ;  a  side  timber  of  a  ship : 
to  furnish  with  ribs. 

Was  I  by  rocks  engendered ;  ribbed  with  steel ; 
Such  tortures  to  resist,  or  not  to  feel  ?  Sandyu 

Why  do  I  yield  to  that  suggestion. 
Whose  horrid  image  doth  unfix  my  htir. 
And  make  my  seated  heart  knock  at  my  ri&t, 
Against  the  use  of  nature  !      Shakipeare,  Maebeth. 
Remember 

The  nat'ral  brav'ry  of  your  isle,  which  stands 

As  Neptune's  park,  ribbed  and  paled  in 

With  rocks  unscaleable,  and  roaring  waters. 

Shokapeare, 

The  ships  with  shatter*d  ribs  scarce  creeping  from 
the  seas.  Vraytm. 

Ii  was  a  happy  change  to  Adam,  of  a  ri6' for  a 
heloer.  Bp.  UaU. 

He  opened  my  left  side,  and  took 
From  thence  a  ribt  with  cordial  spirits  warm 
And  life-blood  streaming  fresh.  MUten,. 

Sure  he,  who  first  the  passage  tried. 

In  hardened  oak  his  heart  did  hide. 

And  ribe  of  iron  armed  his  side.  Ihydett, 

The  rib$  are  of  two  sorts ;  the  seven  upper  are 
called  true  ribt,  because  their  cartilaginous^  ends  are 
received  into  the  tdnusof  the  sternum :  the  five  lower 
are  called  false  rt6«,  because  they  are  softer  and 
shorter,  of  which  only  the  first  is  joined  to  the  ex- 
tremity of  the  sternum,  the  cartilaginous  extremities 
of  the  rest  beiug  tied  to  one'  a|iother,  and  thereby 
leaving  a  neater  space  for  the  dilatation  of  the  sto- 
mach and  entrails :  the  last  of  these  short  rib*  is 
shorter  than  all  the  rest ;  it  is  not  tied  to  them,  but 
sometimes  to  the  musculus  obliquus  descendens. 

Quince . 

Hung  on  each  bough  a  single  leaf  appears. 
Which  shrivelled  in  its  infancy  remains, 
like  a  closed  fan,  nor  stretches  wide  its  veins, 
But,  as  the  seasons  in  then-  cirele  run,  - 
Opes  its  ribbed  surface  to  the  nearer  sun.  Gay, 

At  thy  firmest  age 
Thou  hadst  within  thy  bole  solid  contents. 


Digitized  by  ^^JUU^lC 


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589 


RIB 


That  might  have  nftted  the  sides -and  planked  the  aeck 
Ot  some  flagged  admiral.  Cowper, 

Ribs.    See  Anatomy. 

HIBADENEiaA  (PrterVa  Spanish  Jesuit, 
bom  in  1527.  He  wrote  with  purity  of  style  in 
his  native  tongue,  liis  most  valuable  work  is 
his  Account  of  the  writers  among  the  Jesuits. 
He  died  at  Madrid  in  1611,  aged  eiehty-four. 

HI  B'ALD,  n,  <.  )      Fr.  ribauld ;  Ital.  ribaldo; 

Rh/aldry.  ^  Goth.  ribauUkr    means  a 

camp  follower.    A  loose,  mean,  or  brutal  wretch : 
ribaldry  is  the  talk  of  such  wretches. 

That  lewd  ribbaid,  with  vile  lust  advanced, 

Laid  first  his  filthy  hands  on  virgin  clean, 

To  spoil  her  dainty  corse  so  fair  and  sheen. 

Spevuer, 
You  ribauld  nag  of  Egypt, 

The  breeze  upon  her,  like  a  cow  in  J  une. 

Hoists  sails,  and  flies.  Shaktpeare. 

!Vlr.  Cowley  aitaerta  that  obscenity  has  no  place 
in  wit ;  Buckingham  says,  'tis  an  ill  sort  of  wit 
which  has  nothing  more  to  support  it  than  barefaced 
rUfaldry.  Drjfden, 

In   the  same  antique   loom  these    scenes   were 
wrought. 
Embellished  with  good  morals  and  just  thought. 
True  nature  in  her  noblest  light  you  see. 
Ere  yet  debauched  by  modern  gallantry 
To  trifling  jests  and  fuUom  ribaldry,         OranviUf. 

Ne'er  one  sprig  of  laurel  graced  these  ribbalds. 
From  slashing  Bentley  down  to  pidling  Tibbalds. 

Pope. 

If  the  outward  profession  of  religion  were  once 
iu  practice  among  men  in  oflice.  the  clergy  would  see 
their  duty  and  interest  in  qualifying  themselves  for 
lay -conversation,  when  once  they  were  out  of  fear 
of  being  choaked  by  ribaldrif  or  profaneness.  Swifu 

RIB' AND,  n.  «.  Fr.  rubandcj  ruban.  Gene- 
rally now  written  ribbon.  A  fillet  of  silk,  worn 
for  ornament. 

Quaint  in  green,  she  shall  be  loose  enrobed. 
With  ribba$tdB  pendant,  flaring  'bout  her  head. 

Shaktpeare, 

A  ribband  did  the  braided  tresses  bind. 
The  rest  was  loose.  Dryden't  Knight* t  Tate. 

See !  in  the  list  they  wait  the  trumpet's  sound  ; 
Some  love  device  is  wrought  in  ev'ry  sword. 
And  ev'ry  riband  bears  some  mystick  word. 

Chranmlle, 

No  dimness  of  eye,  and  no  cheek  haneing  low. 
No  wrinkle,  or  deep-furrowed  frown  on  the  brow ! 
Her  forehead  indeed  is  here  circled  around 
With   locks   like   the  riband  with  which  they  are 
bound.  Cmrper, 

So  playful  love  on  Ida's  flowery  sides 
With  riband'tein  the  indignant  Hon  guides : 
Pleased  on  his  brindled  iMck  the  lyre  he  rings. 
And  shakes  delirious  rapture  from  the  strings. 

UartDtn* 

RiBAHD-MAKiNO.    See  Silk  Manufacture. 

RIBERA,  a  Spanish  poet,  called  the  Scan  on 
of  Spain,  from  the  humor  and  ludicrous  scenes 
with  which  his  writings  abound.  His  works 
were  published  at  Madrid,  in  1648. 

RIBES,  the  currant  and  gooseberry  tree,  a 
?enus  of  the  monogynia  order  and  pentandria 
class  of  plants;  natural  order  thirty-sixth,  poma- 
cett.  There  are  five  petals,  aud  stamina  inserted 
into  the  calyx ;  the  style  is  bifid ;  the  berry 
polyspermous,  inferior.  The  currant  and  goose- 
berry were  long  considered  each  as  a  separate 
iTenns*    ribes  the  currant,  and  grossuUuna  the 


gooseberty ;  but  they  are  dow  joioed  together, 
the  grossularia  being  made  a  species  of  ribes ; 
all  the  currant  kinds  having  ioermous  or  thorn  < 
less  brenches,  and  racemous  clusters  of  flowers 
and  fruit;  and  the  gooseberry  spinous  branches, 
and  flovTBrs  and  fruit  for  the  most  part  singly. 

1.  R.  cynosbati,  the  prickly  fruited  gooseberry 
tree,  ^as  a  shrubby  stem  and  branches  armed 
with  spines,  mostly  at  the  axillas,  and  prickly 
fruit  in  clijsters. 

2.  R.  grossularia,  the  common  gooseberry 
tree,  rises  with  a  low  shrubby  stem,  dividing  low 
into  a  very  branchy '  bushy  head,  armed  with 
spines ;  trilobate  smallish  leaves,,  having  hairy 
ciliated  foot-stalks,  and  small  greenish  flowers, 
succeeded  by  hairy  berries.  Itconsbts  of  many 
varieties  of  different  sixes  and  colors. 

3.  R.  nigra,  the  black  currant  tree,  has  a 
shrubby  stem  dividing  low  into  many  branches, 
forming  a  bushy  head  five  or  six  feet  high; 
broad  trilobate  leaves  of  a  strong  smell,  and  hav- 
ing racemose  clusters  of  oblons[  greenish  flowers, 
succeeded  by  thin  clusters  of  blackberries.  The 
fruit  of  this  species  bein?  of  a  strong  fla>or  is 
not*  generally  liked  ;  it  is,  however,  accounted 
very  wholesome  :  there  is  also  made  of  it  a  syrup 
of  high  estimation  for  sore  throats  and  quinsies. 
There  is  a  variety  called  the  Pennsylvania  black 
currant,  having  smaller  shoots  and  leaves,  not 
scented,  and  small  fruit,  but  of  little  value ;  the 
shrub  is  esteemed  only  for  variety  and  shrubbe- 
ries. All  the  varieties  of  currants  bear  fruit  both 
in  old  and  young  wood  all  along  the  sides  of  the 
branches  and  shoots,  often  upon  a  sort  of  small 
sprigs  and  snags,  the  berries  hanging  in  numer- 
ous long  pendulous  clusters. 

4.  R.  reclinata,  the  reclinated  broad-leaved 
gooseberry  tree,  rises  with  a  low  shrubby  stem, 
and  reclinated  somewhat  prickly  branches,  trilo 
bate  broadish  leaves,  and  small  greenish  flowers, 
having  the  pedunculi  furnished  with  triphyllous 
bractea. 

5.  R.  rubra,  common  red  currant  tree,  &c., 
has  a  shrubby  stem,  dividing  low  into  many 
branches,  forming  a  bushy  head,  five  or  six  feet 
high  or  more,  without  thorns;  broad  trilobate 
leaves,  and  smooth  pendulous  clusters  of  plane 
greenish  flowers,  succeeded  by  small  clusters  of 
berries.  It  grows  naturally  in  woods  and  hedges 
in  most  parts  of  Europe,  and  comprises  all  sorts 
of  red  and  white  currants ;  as,  common  small 
red  currant — large  bunched  red  currant — Cham- 
pagne pale  red  currant — common  small  white 
currant — large  white  Dutch  currant— yellow 
blotched  leaved  currant — silver  striped  leaved — 
gold  striped  leaved — gooseberry  leaved.  All 
these  sorts  are  varieties  of  the  common  red  cur- 
rant; it  being  the  parent  from  which  all  the 
others  were  first  obtained  from  the  seed,  and  im- 
proved by  culture.  They  allflower  in  the  spring, 
and  the  fruit  ripens  in  June  and  July,  and  by 
having  the  trees  in  different  situations  and  modes 
of  training,  such  as  plantations  of  standard  in  the 
open  quarters  for  the  general  supply,  others 
trained  against  walls  or  pales  of  different  aspects, 
the  fruit  may  be  continued  ripe  in  perfection 
from  about  the  middle  of  June  until  November, 
provided  the  later  crops  are  defended  with  mats 
or  nets  from  the  birds. 


Digitized  by 


Googk 


RIC 


690 


RIC 


'  6.  R.  uvii  cthpfLt  th«  tnooth  gooseberry,  has 
a  shrubby  stem,  and  branches  armed  with  spinet; 
trilobate  leaf et ;  pedicles  having  monophyilous 
bractea,  and  sinooUi  fruit  All  the  above  spe^ 
cies,  both  cummt  atid  gooseberrv  kinds,  and 
their  respective  vatieties,  ^re  vary  hardy  shrubs, 
that  prosper  almost  any  where,  both  in  open  and 
shady  situations,  and  iu  any  common  soil ;  .bear-* 
in^  plentiftilly  in  any  exposure,  though  in  open 
and  sunny  situations  they  produce  (he  lai^est 
tod  fairest  fruit,  ripening  to  a  rich  vinous  flavor. 
It  is  eligible  to  plant  them  in  different  situations 
and  aspects,  to  have  the  fruit  ar  early  and  late  as 
possible.  They  ftre  oommonly  planted  in  the 
kitchen  garden  iks  dwarf  standards,  in  open  quar- 
ters; sometimes  in  rows,  eight  or  ten  feet  by  six 
asunder,  and  Mmetlmes  in  single  ranges  round 
the  outward  edf^eof  the  quarters,  eight  ^et  asund- 
er ;  often  in  single  cross  rows ;  in  all  of  which 
methods  they  should  be  trained  up  to  a  single 
stem  a  foot  high,  then  suffered  to  branch  oQt  all 
around  into  bushy  heads,  keeping  the  middle 
open,  and  the  branches  moderately  thin,  to  ad- 
mit the  sun  and  free  air.  They  are  likewise 
trained  against  walls  or  fmlings,  like  other  wall 
trees,  when  they  will  produoe  fine  large  fruit ; 
but  it  is  proper  to  plant  a  f^  both  against  sonth^ 
noHh,  eut,  and  west  walls,  to  obtain  the  huk 
ripe  both  early  and  late.  Both  currants  and 
gooseberries  are  of  an  acid  and  cooling;  naturs, 
atid  atf  such  are  sometimes  used  in  medicine,  es> 
pecially  the  Juice  reduced  to  a  jelly  by  boiting 
witli  sugar,  rrom  the  juioe  of  currants  also  wine 
is  made. 

RIBTROAST,  V. «.  Rib  atid  loaat  To  beal 
soundly.    A  burlesque  word. 

That  done,  he  rises,  humbly  bows, 
And  gives  thanks  for  the  princely  blows ;  . 
Deports  toot  meanly  proud,  and  bbftsting 
Of  his  fnagnifieent  Abteattinff.  BtUitr* 

I  have  been  pinched  in  flesh,  and  well  rihrvmitni 
under  my  former  masters ;  but  I'm  in  now  for  skin 
and  all.  L^EHrange, 

RICARDO  (David),  M.  P.  and  F.  R.  S^  tiie 
late  celebrated  writer  on  political  economy,  was 
of  Jewish  extract^,  and  bom  in  London,  April 
12th,  1772.  His  fkther  was  a  Dutch  Jewish 
stockbroker ;  and  the  son  was  early  sent  to  Hol- 
land for  education.  He  offended  his  friends 
while  young,  it  is  said,  by  uniting  himself  in  map- 
riage  with  Miss  Wilkinson,  a  quakeress,  and  was 
thus,  with  few  reeonroes,  kfi  to  achieve  his  own 
fbitane.  He  soon  however  established  a  character 
for  probity  and  talent ;  and,  becoming  a  member  of 
the  Stock  Exchange,  gradually  accumulated  a 
large  property.  In  1810  be  appeared  as  a  writer 
in  the  Morning  Chrofiiole,  on  the  subiect  of 
the  depreciation  of  the  currency ;  and  afterwards 
embodied  his  ideas  in  a  distinct  work,  the  lead- 
ing ideas  of  which  he  had  the  satisfaction  lo  see 
adopted  and  confirmed  in  the  Report  of  the 
Bullion  Commitlce.  He  now  published  An 
iEasay  on  Rent,  in  which  he  adrocated  the  Makha- 
sian  prmciples,  concerning  population ;  he  also 
entered  on  m  esamination  of  the  affiars  of  the 
Sank  of  England,  and  suggested  a  plan  for  an 
economical  cnrrency.  But  his  most  important 
prodttctioii  was  his  treatise  on  Political  Economy 
and  Taxation,  which  has  been  vaaked  by  Mr. 


M'CuUoch  and  other  writers  with  the  celebrated 
work  of  Dr.  Adam  Smith.  See  our  article  Pouti- 
CAL  Economy.  In  1819  Mr.  Ricardo  obtained  a 
seat  in  parliament  for  the  borough  of  Portariing- 
ton,  ana  displayed  as  a  senator  that  sound  good 
sense  which  generally  distinguishes  his  publish* 
ed  works.  He  died  of  inflammation  of  the  brain, 
arising  from  an  abscess  in  the  ear,  at  bis  seat, 
Gatcomb  Park,  near  Minchin  Hampton  in  Gloo- 
oestersh  ire,  September  1 1  th,  1 823.  Mr.  Ricardo 
is  said  to  have  adopted  the  religious  principles 
of  Unitarianism,  but  usually  aitendea  the  es- 
tablished church.  We  have,  on  the  other  hand, 
heard  from  a  near  connexion  of  Mr.  Ricardo's 
that  he  suggested,  among  other  improrements. 
a  sort  of  intermediate  faiSi  between  Judaism  and 
Christianity ;  holding  that  Jesus  Christ  vras  a 
worthy  man  and  an  excellent  teacher,  whose  pre- 
cepts should  therefore  be  regarded  with  great  re- 
spect ;  but  that  '  he  assumed  too  much'  in  hi:i 
pretension  to  be  the  son  of  God  :  and  therefore 
that  the  blame  of  his  unhappy  catastrophe  vras 
to  be  divided  between  his  enemies  and  nimself.' 

RICAUT,  or  Rycaut  (Sir  Paul),  an  eminent 
English  traveller,  of  the  date  of  whose  birth  we 
find  no  account ;  but  in  1661  he  was  appointed 
secretary  to  the  earl  of  Winchelsea,  who  was 
sent  ambassador  extraordinary  to  the  Ottoman 
Porte.  During  his  continuance  in  that  station, 
he  wrote,  The  present  State  of  die  Ottooian  Em- 
pire, in  3  books:  London,  fol.  1670.  He  after- 
wards resided  eleven  years  as  consul  at  Smyrna, 
where,  by  order  of  Charies  II.,  be  composed 
The  present  state  of  the  Greek  and  Armenian 
Churches,  anno  Christ!  1678.  On  his  return, 
lord  Clarendon,  being  appointed  lord-lieutenant 
of  Ireland,  made  him  his  principal  secretary  for 
Leinster  and  Connaught ;  James  tl.  knighted 
him,  and  made  him  one  of  the  privy  council  in 
Ireland,  and  judge  of  the  court  of  admiralty ;  ail 
which  he  held  to  the  Revolution.  He  was  em- 
ployed by  king  William  as  resident  at  the  Hanse 
Towns  in  Lower  Saxony,  where  he  continued  ten 
years;  but,  being  worn  out  with  age  and  infirmi- 
ties, he  obtained  leave  to  return  in  1700,  and 
died  the  same  year.  He  continued  KnoUes's 
History  of  the  Turks,  and  also  Platina's  Lives  of 
the  Popes. 

RICCATI  f Vincent),  a  celebrated  Italian  Je- 
suit, bom  at  Castel  Franco,  in  the  Trevisan,  in 
1 707.  He  became  a  professor  of  mathematics  at 
Bologna ;  and  published  a  learned  work  on  die 
Integral  Calculus,  in  3  vols.  4U>.  He  died  in 
1775,  aged  sixty-eight. 

RICCI  (Laurence),  a  learned  Italian  Jesuit, 
bom  in  Florence,  in  1703,  of  a  distinguished  fit- 
mily.  He  was  chosen  general  of  the  order  in 
1758,  but  had  the  misfortune  to  be  the  last  per- 
son who  ever  held  that  office;  as  ^  order  was 
abolished  in  1773.  Rioci  and  someothi»  were 
immediately  sent  to  the  castle  of  St  Angelo  in 
Rome,  where  he  died  in  1775. 

Ricci  (Matthew),  another  learned  Italian  Je- 
suit, bom  at  Maoeiata,  in  1552.  He  went  to  the 
East  Indies  when  young,  and  was  sent  as  a  mis- 
sionary to  China,  where  he  acquired  the  Chinese 
language,  and  was  favored  hy  the  emperor  so 
much  that  he  was  allowed  to  bnikl  a  chuich  at 
Pekin.    He  died  in  that  city  in  1610;  and  left 


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RICE. 


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some  curiotid  Memoirs  respecting  China  behind 
him. 

Ricci  (Sebastian),  an  eminent  Italian  painter, 
bom  at  Bellunoy  in  1659.  The  imperial  court 
employed  him  to  adorn  the  palace  of  Schoenbrun ; 
after  -which  he  came  to  London,  where  he  was 
much  employed,  and  amassed  money :  but  he 
returned  to  Venice,  where  he  died  in  1734. 
Maria  Ricci  bis  nephew  was  also  eminent  in 
paintine  history,  architecture,  and  landscapes. 
He  died  in  1730. 

RICCIA,  in  botany,  marsh  lirerwort,  a  genus 
of  the  natural  order  of  &lge,  and  cryptogamia 
class  of  plants :  cal.  none,  but  a  ▼esicular  cavity 
within  the  substance  of  the  leaf :  coa.  none :  the 
<anther9  are  cylindrical,  and  sessile,  placed  on 
the  germen,  which  is  turbinated ;  the  Style  is  fili- 
forniy  perforating  the  anthera ;  and  the  seed  case 
is  spherical,  crowned  with  the  withered  antheree ; 
the  dCEDS  are  hemispherical  and  pedicellated. 
Species  eleven,  five  of  ^hich  are  indigenons  to 
our  bwn  coiintfy. 

RICCOBONI  (Leivis),  an  Itallab  drtlmatic 
Writer,  and  actor,  born  at  Modena,in  1677^  He 
wrote  several  comedies ;  besides  a  work  entitled 
Reflexions  Historiques  et  Critiques  sur  les  Thea- 
tres de  UEurope ;  1738, 8vo.  He  died  in  175^, 
aged  seventy-six. 

RICE,  n.  t.  Lat.  oryxa ;  Gr.  opv^a ;  Sans. 
nx ;  Arab,  urooz.  One  of  the  esculent  grains, 
cultivated  in  most  eastern  countries. 

^iee  is  the  food  of  two-thirds  of  mankind ;  it  is 
kindly  to  humah  constituHohs.  proper  for  the  con« 
snmptive,  and  those  subject  to  hsmofrhages. 

ArbmthnoU 
tf  the  snuff  get  out  of  die  snuffers,  it  may  fall 
into  a  dish  OJf  r{?e  milk.  Swift. 

Rice.  See  Oryza.  This  plant  to  ctiltivated 
in  many  parts  of  the  east,  in  South  Carolina,  ih 
America,  and  also  in  Spain,  Italy  and  I^iedmobt. 
It  is  a  plant  that  grows  to  the  height  of  about 
two  feet  and  a  hal^  with  a  stalk  not  unlike  that 
of  wheat,  but  fuller  of  joints,  and  with  leaves  re- 
sembling that  of  the  leek.  It  branches  out  into 
several  stems,  at  the  top  of  which  the  ^in  grows 
in  clusters,  and  each  ot  them  is  terminated  with 
an  ear  or  beard,  and  enclosed  in  a  yellow  rough 
hnsk.  When  stripped  of  this,  they  appear  to 
be  of  an  oval  shape,  of  a  shining  white  color, 
and  almost  transparent.  It  is  probably  a  plant 
that  cannot  be  reared  in  this  climate.  The  fol- 
lowing is  the  Chinese  method  of  cultivating  it : — 
*  Much  of  the  low  grounds  in  the  middle  and 
southern  provinces  of  the  empire  is  appropriat- 
ed to  the  culture  of  this  grain.  It  constitutes,  in 
fact,  the  principal  part  of  the  food  of  the  inhabi- 
tants. A  great  portion  of  the  surface  of  the  coun- 
try is  well  adapted  for  the  production  of  rice, 
which,  from  the  time  the  seed  is  committed  to 
the  soil  till  the  plant  approaches  to  maturity, 
requires  to  be  immersed  in  a  sheet  of  water. 
Many  and  great  rivers  run  through  the  several 
provinces  of  China :  the  low  grounds  bordering 
on  those  rivers  are  annually  inundated,  by 
which  means  a  rich  mud  or  mucilage  is  brought 
opon  their  surface  that  fertilises  die  soil.  The 
Periodical  rains  which  fall  near  the,  sources  of 
the  Yellow  and  the  Kiang  Rivers,  not  very  far 
distant  from  those  of  the  Ganges  and  th<»  Burum- 


pootel*^  aitaong  the  movniains  bounding  India  to 
the  north,  and  China  to  the  west,  oft«n  swell 
those  rivers  to  a  prodigious  height,  though  not  a 
drop  of  rain  should  have  fallen  on  the  plains 
through  vrhich  they  afterwards  flow.  After  the 
mud  has  lain  some  days  upon  th^  plains  in  China 
preparations  are  made  for  planting  them  with 
rice.  For  this  puipose^  a  small  spot  of  ground 
is  enclosed  by  a  bank, of  clay;  the  earth  is 
ploughed  up ;  and  an  upright  harrow,  with  a 
row  of  wooden  pins  in  the  lower  end,  is  drawn 
lightly  over  it  by  abufialo.  The  grain,  which  had 
previously  been  steeped  in  dung  diluted  with  ani- 
mal water  is  then  sown  very  thickly  on  it  A 
thin  sheet  of  water  is  immediately  brought  over 
it,  either  by  channels  leading  to  the  spot  from  a 
source  above  it,  or  when  below  it  by  means  of  a 
chain  pump,  of  which  the  use  is  as  familiar  as 
that  of  a  hoe  to  every  Chinese  husbandman.  In 
a  few  days  the  shoots  appear  above  the  water. 
In  that  interval)  the  remainder  of  the  ground  in- 
tended for  cultivation^  if  stiff,  is  ploughed,  the 
himps  broken  by  hoes>  and  the  surface  levelled 
by  tne  harrow.  As  soon  a»  the  shoots  have  at- 
tained the  height  of  six  or  seven  inches,  they  are 
plucked  up  by  the  roots,  the  tops  of  the  blades 
cut  off,  and  each  root  is  planted  separately,  some- 
times in  small  ftirrows  turned  with  the  plough, 
and  sometimes  in  holes  made  in  rows  by  a  drill 
ing  stick  fbr  that  purmise.  The  roots  are  about 
six  inches  asunder^  Water  is  brought  over  them 
a  second  time.  For  the  eon^^^ience  of  irriga- 
tion, and  to  t^gniate  its  proportion^  the  rice 
fields  are  subdivided  by  narrow  ridges  of  day, 
into  small  enielo8«res.  Through  a  channel,  in 
each  ridge,  the  water  is  convey«l  at  will  to  every 
subdivision  of  tbb  field.  As  the  rice  approaches 
to  maturity,  the  water  by  evaporation  and  ab- 
sorption disappears  entirely ;  and  the  ripe  crop 
covers  dry  ground.  The  first  crop  or  harvest,  in 
the  southern  provinces  particnlarly,  happens  to- 
-wards  the  end  of  May  or  beginning  of  June. 
The  instrument  for  reaping  is  a  small  sickle, 
dentated  like  a  saw,  and  crooked.  Neither  carts 
nor  cattle  are  used  to  carry  the  sheaves  off  from 
the  spot  where  tfaey  are  reaped;  but  they  are 
placed  regulariy  in  frames,  two*  of  which^  sus- 
pended at  the  extremities  of  a  bamboo  pole,  are 
carried  across  the  shoulders  of  a  man,  to  the 
place  intended  for  disengaging  thegrain  from  the 
stems  which  had  supports  it.  Iiiis  operation 
is  performed,  not  only  by  a  flail,  as  13  customary 
in  Europe,  or  by  cattle  treading  the  corn  in  the 
manner  of  Orientalists,  but  sometimes  also  by 
striking  it  against  a  plank  set  upon  its  edge,  or 
beating  it  against  the  side  of  a  large  tub  scollop- 
ed for  that  purpose;  the  baek  and  sides  being 
mn<^h  higher  than  the  front  to  prevent  the  grain 
from  t>eing  dispersed*  Afler  being  winnowed, 
it  is  carried  to  the  gtanary.  To  remove  Ae 
skin  or  husk  of  rice,  &  large  strong  earthen  ves- 
sel, or  hollow  stone,  in  form  somewhat  like  that 
which  is  used  elsewhere  for  filtering  water,  is 
fixed  firmly  in  the  ground  ;  and  the  grain  placed 
in  it  is  struck  with  a  conical  stone  fixed  to  the 
extremity  of  a  lever,  and  cleared,  sometimes  in- 
deed imperfectly,  from  the  husk.  The  stone  is 
worked  Irequeirtly  by  a  person  treading  upon 
tbe  end  of  the  lever.    The  same  object  is  attain- 


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also  by  passing  the  grain  between  two  flat  stones 
of  a  circular  form,  the  upper  of  which  turns 
round  upon  the  other,  but  at  such  a  distance 
from  it  as  not  to  break  the  intermediate  grain. 
The  operation  is  performed  on  a  large  scale  in 
milU  turned  by  water ;  the  axis  of  the  wheel  car- 
rying several  arms,  which,  by  striking  upon  the 
ends  of  levers^  raise  them  m  the  same  roanilieras 
is  done  by  treading  on  them.  Sometimes  twenty 
of  these  levers  are  worked  at  once.  The  straw 
from  which  the  grain  has  been  disenga^fed  is  cut 
chiefly  into  chaff,  to  serve  as  provender  for  the 
very  few  cattle  employed  in  Chinese  husbandry. 
The  labor  of  the  first  crop  being  finished,  the 
ground  is  immediately  prepared  for  the  reception 
of  fresh  seeds.  The  nrst  operation  undertaken 
is  that  of  pulling  up  the  stubble,  collecting  it 
into  small  neaps,  which  are  burnt,  and  the  ashes 
scattered  upon  the  field.  The  former  processes 
are  afterwanis  renewed.  The  second  crop  is 
generally  ripe  late  in  October  or  early  in  No- 
vember. The  grain  is  treated  as  before;  but  the 
stubble  is  no  longer  burnt.  It  is  turned  under 
with  the  plough,  and  left  to  putrefy  in  the  earth. 
This,  with  the  slime  brought  upon  the  ground  by 
inundation,  is  the  only  manure  employed  in 
the  culture  of  rice.' 

RICH,  «^*.  -v  Vr.riche;  Ital.  ricco;  Sax. 
Rich'ed,  f  nica.  Ric  is  also  a  common 
Rich'es,  n.  s.  y.  northern  affix,  denoting  rich, 
RicH'LY,adv.ias  in  Alaric,  Frederic,  &c. 
Rich'ness.  J  Wealthy ;  abounding  in  money 
or  possessions ;  opulent ;  plentiful ;  all  the  deri- 
vatives corresponding. 

The  rieh  shall  not  give  more,  and  the  poor  no  less.  ■ 

Exodiu, 
Of  virtue  you  have  left  proof  to  the  world, ; 
And    virtue  is  grateful  with   beauty  and    riehneit 
adorned.  Sidney, 

I  am  as  rich  in  having  such  a  jewel. 
As  twenty  seas,  if  all  their  sand  were  pearl.     * 

Skaktpeare, 
In  Belmont  is  a  lady  richly  left, 
And  she  is  fair,  of  wondrous  virtues.  Id. 

Of  all  these  bounds. 
With  shadowy  forests,  and  with  champaigns  riehsd. 
With  plenteous  rivers  and  wide  likirted  meads. 
We  make  thee  lady.  /d.  King  Lear. 

The  instrumentalness  of  ru^  to  charity  has  ren- 
dered it  necessary  by  laws  to  secure  propriety. 

Hammond. 
Women  richly  gay  in  gems  Milton. 

Earth,  in  her  rich  attire. 
Consummate  lovely  smiled.  /d. 

Groves  whose  rieh  trees  wept  odorous  gums  and 

balm.  id. 

The  gorgeous  East  with  rieheet  hand 
Pours  on  her  sons  barbaric  pearl  and  gold.         Jd. 

In  animals,  some  smells  are  found  more  richly  than 
in  plants.  Browne*i  Vulgar  Errwn. 

So  vra  the  Arabian  coast  do  know 
At  distance,  when  the  spices  blow, 
Bv  the  rich  odour  laught  to  steer. 
Though  neither  day  nor  star  appear.  Waller. 

Rich  was  his  soul,  though  his  attire  was  poor. 
As  heaven  had  cloathed  his  own  ambassador. 

Dryden. 
The  lively  tincture  of  whose  gushing  blood 
Should  clearly  prove  the  ridiness  of  his  fyod.       Id. 

Several  nations  of  the  Americans  are  rich  in  land, 
and  poor  in  all  the  comforts  of  life.  Locke. 

Biekes  do  not  consist  in  haying  more  gold  and  sil- 


ver, but  in  having  more  in  proportion  than  oar 
neighbours,  whereby  we  are  enabled  to  procure  to 
ourselves  a  greater  plenty  of  the  conveniences  of  life 
than  conies  wiihin  tneir  reach,  who.  sharing  die  gold 
and  silver  of  the  world  in  less  proportion,  want  the 
means  of  plenty  and  power,  and  so  are  poorer.  U, 

There  are  who  fondly  studious  of  increase, 
Rich  foreign  mold  on  their  ill-natuied  land 
Induce.  PkUipt, 

Chemists  seek  noAei  by  transmutatioB  and  the 
great  elixir.  Spm. 

1  amused  myself  with  the  ridinem  and  variety  of 
colours  in.  the  western  parts  of  heaven.      ^ecUtor. 
This  town  is  famous  for  the  ricknea  of  the  soil. 

Addim. 
There  is  such  licentiousness  among  the  basest  of 
the  people,  that  one  would  not  he  sony  to  see  them 
bestowing  upon  one  another  a  chastisement  which 
they  so  richly  deserve.  *         Addimn. 

If  life  be  short,  it  shall  be  gloriona. 
Each  minute  shall  be  neft  in  some  great  action. 

Rewe. 

Ho  may  look  upon  the  rich  as  benefactors,  who 

have  beautified  the  prospect  all  around  him.   Sted. 

What  richei  give  us,  let  us  first  enquire  ; 
Meat,  fire,  and  deaths ;  what  more  1  meat,  doathi, 
and  fire.  Pope. 

After  a  man  has  studied  the  laws  of  England,  the 
reading  the  reports  of  adjudged  cases  will  richly  im. 
prove  him.  Watu. 

Matilda  never  was  meanly  dressed  in  her  life;  aod 
nothing  pleases  her  in  dress  but  that  which  is  vei; 
rich  and  oeautiful  to  the  eye.  Lav. 

Sauces  and  rieh  spices  are  fetched  from  India. 

Baker. 
.  Can  all  the  wealth  of  India's  co 
Atone  for  years  in  absence  lost  1 
Return,  ye  moments  of  delight. 
With  ruAer  treasures  bless  my  sight  \  Buna. 
Rich  (John),  a  pantomimic  actor  of  the  las: 
century,  attracted  general  admiratioo  in  his  youth 
by  the  performance  of  Harlequin.  In  express- 
ing the  feelings  of  the  mind  by  dumb  show,  his 
power  was  inimitable,  and  superseded  much  of 
the  necessity  of  vocal  language.  He  rendered 
pantomime  so  fascinating  that,  with  the  assistance 
of  an  indifferent  company,  he  secured  a  large 
share  of  the  public  attention,  though  opposed  bj 
the  dramatic  genius  of  Garrick.  In  1733  he  re- 
moved his  company  from  Lincoln Vion-fields  to 
Covent  Garden,  where  he  was  manager  till  his 
death,  in  December  1761,  during  the  run  of  a 
grand  spectacle.  His  education  had  been  so  neg- 
lected that  he  could  neither  write  npr  speak  with 
common  propriety.  Among  other  peculiarities 
he  had  a  habit  of  addressing  persons  to  whom 
he  was  speaking,  by  the.  appellation  of 'Mister,* 
and,  on  his  applying  this  to  Foote,  the  latter  an- 
grily asked  him,  why  he  could  not  call  him  by 
his  name  ?  <  Don't  be  offended,'  Rich  replied,  <  I 
sometimes  forget  my  own  name.'  'Indeed!* 
said  Foote,  <  I  knew  you  could  not  write  your 
own  name ;  but  I  could  not  have  supposed  you 
should  forget  it.' 

RICHARD  OF  CiRENCESTEB,  dius  named 
from  his  birth-place,  was  a  Benedictine  and  an 
English  historian  of  the  fourteenth  century.  No 
traces  remain  of  his  histoiy ;  except  that  be  be- 
came a  monk  of  the  abbey  of  St  Peter,  West- 
minster, in  1350,  and  that  his  name  occurs  in 
various  documents  of  that  monastery  in  1387, 
1397,  and  1399.    Towards  the  blose  of  his  Ufe 


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he  visited  Rome ;  bat  raturaed  to  Westmiitfter, 
and  died  there  in  1401.  He  wiole  Uistoria  ab 
Hengista  ad  on.  1348,  in.  twa  parts,  still  remaiiH 
ing  a  MS. ;  bi»  piincipid  woik  is  a  Description  of 
Britain,  first  puplished  is  Latin  at  Coptnhaetn, 
in  1767,  and  more  recently  in  Latin  and  £ng- 
lisb,  with  a  commentary  and  maps  by  Mr.  Hat- 
cher, ia09,  8vo. 

Richard  (Lonis  Claode  Marie),  one  of  the 
most  eminent  modern  botanists,  was  bom  at 
Versailles  September  4th,  1754,  and  the  son  of 
the  keeper  of  the  royal  gardens  at  Auteuil.  He 
studied  at  the  college  of  Vernon,  and  the  Maza- 
rin  College,  Paris.  Here  he  partly  supported 
himself  by  making  drawings  for  architects,  and 
at  the  same  time  assiduously  applied  himself  to 
botany,  anatomy,  and'  zoology.  While  vwf 
young,  be  presented  several  memoirs  to  the  Aca- 
demy, which  attmcted  the  notice  of  Jussiev,  who 
gave  him  the  use  of  his  library  and  cabinet.  In 
1781  he  sailed  from  France  on  a  voyag<e  of  re^ 
search  to  French  Guyana  with  the  title  of  natu- 
ralist to  the  king,  and  returned  in  1789,  bringing 
with  him  a  herl^d  of  1000  plants,  most  of  which 
were  newly  discovered,  beside  other  collections 
in  natural  history.  During  the  political  disturb- 
ances of  the  period  his  labors  were  neglected ;  but, 
when  the  school  of  medicine  was  established,  he 
was  appointed  professor  of  botany ;  and,  en  the 
formation  of  the  Institute,  he  was  a  member  of 
the  first  class  in  the  section  of  zoology.  He  was 
also  a  corresponding  member  of  the  Rc^al  So- 
ciety of  London,  and  of  the  legion  of  honor.  He 
died  June  7th,  1821.  The  researches  of  Richard 
were  chiefly  directed  to  the  comparative  anatomy 
of  plants,  on  which  he  published  a  number  of 
valuable  Memoirs,  besides  which  he  was  the  au- 
thor of  Demonstrations  Botaniques,  on  Analyse 
du  Fruit  consid^r^  en  geneml,  1803, 8vo. 

RICIIARDIA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  mo - 
nogynia  order,  and  hexandria  class  of  plants ; 
natural  order  forty-seventh,  stellatse :  gal.  sex- 
partite  :  COR.  monopetalous,  and  subcylindrical ; 
and  there  are  three  seeds.  Species  one  only, 
a  herb  of  Vera  Cruz. 

RICHARDS  (Nathaniel),  a  dramatic  writer 
in  the  reign  of  Charles  I.,  and  a  fellow  of  Caius 
College,  Cambridge,  where  he  took  his  degree  of 
A.  B.  in  1634.  He  wrote  a  tragedy  entitled 
Messalina,  published  in  1640,  which  was  acted 
with  applause.  He  also  wrote  some  poems, 
published  in  1645. 

RICHARDSON  (Jonathan),  a  celebrated 
painter  of  heads,  was  bom  about  1665,  and  was 
placed  by  his  father-in-law  apprentice  to  a  scri- 
rener,  with  whom  he  lived  six  years;  when, ob- 
taining his  freedom  by  the  death  -of  his  master, 
he  at  twenty  years  old  became  the  disciple  of 
Reilly ;  with  whom  he  lived  four  years,  whose 
niece  he  married,  and  of  whose  style  he  acquired 
enough  to  maintaina  solid  and  lasting  reputation 
even  during  the  lives  of  Kneller  and  Dahl,  and 
to  remain  at  the  head  of  the  profession  when 
they  died.  He  died  suddenly  at  his  house  in 
Queen*s  square  on  May  28th,  1745,  in  the  eigh- 
tieth year  of  bis  age.  His  son  was  also  a  man 
of  learning,  as  appears  from  the  works  they  pub- 
lished conjunctly.  The  father,  in  1719,  publish- 
ed two  discourses:  I.  An  Essay  on  the  Art  of 
Vol.  XVIII. 


Criticism  as  ii  relates  to  painting ;  2.  An  Aj^u- 
ment  in  behalf  of  the  Science  of  aConnoiseenr, 
bound  in  1  vol.  8vd,  In  1722  came  filrth  An 
Account  of  some  of  the  statues,  bas-reli^fj, 
drawings,  and  pictures,  in  Italy,  &c.,  with 
Remarks  by  Mr.  Richardson,  senior  and  junior. 
The  son  made  the  journey;  and  from  his  notes, 
letters,  and  observation^  they  both  at  his  return 
compiled  this  woii.  In  1734  they  published  a 
very  thick  8to.,  containing  eitpilanatory  notes 
and  remarks  on  Milton's  Paradise  Lost,  with  the 
life  of  the  author,  and  a  trestise  on  the  poem. 
Besides  his  pictures  and  commentaries,  we  have 
a  few  etchings  by  his  hand,  particularly  two  or 
three  of  Milton,  and  his  own  head.  The  sale  of 
his  collection  of  drawings,^  in  February  1747, 
Uisted  eighteen  dm,  and  produced  about  £2060. 

RicHA  ftDsov  (Samuel),  a  celebrated  English 
novel  writer,  bom  in  1688.  'He  was  educated 
as  a  printer,  and,  though  he  is  said  to  have  un- 
derstood no  language  but  his  own,  yet  he  acquir- 
ed great  reputation  by  his  three  novels,  entitled 
Pamela,  Clarissa,  and  Sir  Charles  Grandison. 
A  stroke  of  the  palsy  carried  off  Mf.  Richardson, 
after  a  few  days'  illness,  upon  tte  4th  of  July 
1761.  Besides  the  worics  above»Aentioned,  he 
is  the  author  of  an  .£sop's  Fables,  a  Tour 
through  Britain,  4  vols.,  and  a  volume  of  Famh- 
Uar  letters  upon  business  and  other  subjects. 
The  most  eminent  writers,  both  of  our  own 
and  of  other  countries,  have  paid  their  tribute 
ti>  the  transcendant  talents  of  Mr.  Richard- 
son, whose  works  have  been  published  in 
almost  every  language  and  countiy  of  Eu- 
rope. Dr.  Johnson,  in  his  introduction  to 
the  ninety-seventh  number  of  the  Rambler,  which 
was  written  by  Mr.  Richardson,  observes  that 
the  reader  was  indebted  for  that  day*i  entertain- 
ment to  an  author,  *  from  whom  the  age  has  re- 
ceived gMaier  fiiivors;  who  has  enlarged  the 
Icnowle^  of  human  nature,  and  taught  the  pas- 
sions to  move  at  the  command  of  virtue.'  In 
his  life  of  Rowe,  he  sidds,  *  It  was  in  the  power 
of  Richardson  alone  to  teach  us  at  once  esteem 
and  detestation;  to  make  virtuous  resentment 
overpower  all  the  benevolence  which  wit,  and 
elegance,  and  courag:e,  naturally  excite;  and  to 
lose  at  last  the  hero  m  the  villain.' 

RICHELET  (Caesar  Peter),  a  French  writer, 
bom  in  1631,  at  Chemin  in  Champagne.  He 
was  the  friend  of  l^tru  an^  Abltecourt  He 
compiled  a  dictionary  of  the  French  language,  of 
wUicn  the  best  edition  is  that  of  Lyons,  3  vols. 
foHo,  1728.  He  also  collected  a  small  dictionary 
of  rhymes.     He  died  in  1699. 

RICHELIEU  (John  Armand  du  Plessis  de), 
cardinal  of  RicheUeu  and  Fronsac,  bishop  of 
Lucon,  &c.,  was  bom  at  Paris  in  1585.  At  the 
age  of  twenty-two  he  obtained  a  dispensation  to 
enjoy  the  bishopric  of  Lucon  in  1607.  Return- 
ing to  France,  he  applied  himself  to  preaching ; 
and  his  reputation  procured  him  the  office  of  al- 
moner to  the  queen  Mary  de  Medicis.  His  abi- 
lities in  the  management  of  a£birs  advanced  him 
to  be  secretary  of  state  in  1616 :  and  the  king 
soon  gave  him  the  preference  to  all  his  other  se- 
cretaries. On  the  death  of  the  marquis  of  Ancre, 
Richelieu  retired  to  Avignon,  where  he  employ- 
ed  himself  in   composing  various    theological 

•^  T 

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works.  The  king  having  recalled  him  to  court, 
he  wai  made  a  cardinal  in  1622,  and  two  years 
after  first  minister  of  state,  and  grand  master  of 
the  navisation.  In  1626  the  Isle  of  Rhe  was 
preserred  by  his  care,  and  RochcUe  taken,  hav- 
ing stopped  up  the  haven  by  the  famous  dike 
which  he  ordered  to  be  made  there.  He  accom- 
panied the  king  to  the  siege  of  Cazal,  and  con- 
tributed to  the  raising  of  it  in  1629.  He  also 
obliged  the  Huffuenots  to  the  peace  of  Alets, 
which  proved  me  ruin  of  that  party :  he  took 
Pomeral,  and  succored  Caaal,  when  besieged 
by  Spinola.  In  the  mean  time  the  nobles  found 
fault  with  his  conduct,  and  endeavoured  to  per- 
suade the  king  to  discard  him.  The  cardinal, 
however,  inst^ui  of  being  disgraced,  from  that 
moment  became  more  powerful  than  ever,  and 
obtained  a  greater  ascendancy  over  the  king's 
mind ;  and  be  now  resolved  to  humble  the  ex- 
cessive pride  of  the  house  of  Austria.  For  that 
purpose  he  concluded  a  treaty  with  Gustavus 
Adolphus  king  of  Sweden  to  carry  the  war 
into  the  heart  of  Germany.  He  also  entered 
into  a  league  with  the  duke  of  Bavaria ;  secured 
Lorrain ;  raised  a  part  of  the  princes  of  the  em- 
pire against  the  emperor ;  treated  with  the  Dutch 
to  continue  the  war  against  Spain ;  favored  the 
Catalans  and  Portuguese  till  tney  shook  off  the 
Spanish  yoke;  and,  after  having  carried  on  the 
War  with  success,  vras  about  to  conclude  it  by  a 
peace,  when  he  died  in  Paris  on  the  4th  of  De- 
cember, 1642,  aged  fifty-eight  He  was  interred 
in  the  Sorbonne,  where  a  magnificent  mausoleum 
was  erected  to  his  memory.  This  great  politi- 
cian made  the  «rts  and  sciences  flourish  ;  form- 
ed the  botanical  garden  at  Paris,  called  the  king's 
garden ;  founded  the  French  Academy ;  estab- 
lished the  royal  printing-house  ;  erected  the  pa- 
lace afterwards  called  Le  Palais  Royal,  which 
he  presented  to  the  king;  and  rebuilt  the  Sor- 
bonne with  a  magnificence  that  appears  truly 
royal.  Besides  his  books  of  controversy  and 
piety,  there  go  under  tlie  name  of  this  mmister 
A  Journal,  in  2  vols.  12mo.  ;  and  a  Political 
Testament,  l2mo. ;  all  treating  of  politics  and 
state  affiiirs.  Cardinal  Mazarine  pursued  Riche- 
lieu's plan,  and  completed  many  of  the  schemes 
which  he  had  begun,  but  left  unfinished. 

RICHLIEU,  Chambly,  or  Sorel  River,  a 
river  of  Lower  Canada,  which  flows  from  Lake 
Champlain  in  a  northerly  course,  and  joins  the 
St.  Lawrence. 

Rich  LIEU  Islands,  a  cluster  of  islands  in  the 
St.  Lawrence,  situated  at  the  south-west  entrance 
of  Lake  St.  Peter,  nearly  100  in  number.  Seve- 
ral of  them  are  cleared,  and  afford  good  pastur- 
age for  cattle.  They  lie  very  low,  and  abound 
in  wild  fowl. 

RICHMOND,  a  market  town,  borough,  and 
parish  of  Yorkshire,  pleasantly  situate  on  the 
river  Swale,  which  encompasses  nearly  half  the 
the  town.  It  sends  two  members  to  the  imperial 
parliament.  It  has  a  market  on  Saturday,  two 
churches,  and  tnany  handsome  houses  of  stone. 
It  had  anciently  a  castle,  built  by  Alan,  earl  of 
luchmond,  one  of  the  followers  of  William  the 
Conqueror.  It  is  forty-four  miles  north-west  of 
York,  sixty  south-east  of  Lancaster,  and  234 
N.N.W.  of  London. 


RicHMOHU,  a  hch,  populous,  and  elegant  vil- 
lage of  England,  in  Surrey,  seated  on  the  bank  of 
the  Thames.  It  was  anciently  called  Sheen,  which 
in  the  Saxon  signifies  resplendent.  It  had  a  royal 
palace,  in  which  Richaid  II.  and  Edward  I.,  II., 
and  III.  resided,  and  the  latter  died  in  iL  In 
1497  it  was  burnt,  but  Henry  VII.  rebuilt  it  in 
1501,  and  gave  the  place  its  present  name,  from 
his  title  of  earl  of  Richmond,  oefore  he  was  kinir. 
He  and  his  grand-daughter  queen  Elizabeth  died 
in  it.  Richmond  is  famous  for  its  beautiful 
royal  gardens,  which  in  summer  are  open  to  the 
public  every  Sunday ;  as  well  for  its  elegant  and 
extensive  park.  It  has  also  a  fine  observatory. 
An  elegant  stone  bridge  of  five  arches  vras  here 
erected  over  the  Thames  in  1777.  It  is  nine 
miles  W.S.W.  of  London. 

Richmond,  a  county  of  Virginia,  bounded  on 
the  north  by  Westmoreland  county,  on  the  north- 
east by  Westmoreland  and  Northumberland 
counties,  on  the  south-east  by  Lancaster  county, 
and  on  the  south-west  by  the  Rappahannock. 

RiCHMOKO,  a  city,  port  of  entry,  and  the  me- 
tropolis of  Virginia,  in  Henrico  county,  on  the 
north  side  of  James  River,  between  fifty  and 
sixty  miles,  by  the  course  of  the  rivf^,  above 
City  Point,  and  150  miles  from  its  mouth,  im- 
mediately below  the  falls,  at  the  head  of  tide 
water,  and  opposite  Mandiester,  with  which  it 
is  connected  by  two  bridges :  twenty-five  miles 
north  of  Petersburg.  The  city  was  formerly  di- 
vided into  two  sections,  t|ie  upper  or  western 
part,  called  Shockoe  Hill,  and  the  lower  part 
Richmond,  separated  by  Shockoe  Creek,  a  small 
rivulet ;  but  these  distinctions  are  now  going  out 
of  use,  and  the  sections  are  united  together.  The 
situation  is  highly  picturesque,  beautifiil,  and 
healthy ;  and  Richmond  is  one  of  the  most  flou- 
rishing, wealthy,  and  commercial  cities  in  the 
United  States. 

It  contains  about  800  houses  built  of  brick, 
many  of  them  elegant,  and  about  600  built  of 
wood;  a  glass-house,  a  sugar  refinery,  an  iron 
foundry,  a  rolling  andslitting  mill,  a  cotton  manu- 
fectory,  eight  tobacco  warehouses,  two  insurance 
offices,  three  banks,  including  a  branch  of  the 
United  States  bank  ;  a  capitol,  or  state-hou.se,  a 
house  for  the  governor,  an  armory,  a  peniten- 
tiary, a  court  house,  a  jail,  an  alms  house,  two 
market  houses,  a  public  library  containing  about 
3000  volumes,  a  museum,  a  LAncasterian  school, 
and  eight  houses  of  public  worship;  two  for 
Episcopalians,  one  for  Presbyterians,  one  for 
Baptists,  two  for  Methodists,  one  for  Friends, 
and  a  Jews'  syni^ogue. 

The  fiills  extend  nearly  six  miles,  in  which 
distance  the  river  descends  eighty  feet.  A  canal 
with  three, locks  is  cut  on  the  north  side  of  the 
river,  terminating  at  the  town  in  a  basin  of  about 
two  acres.  Few  cities,  situated  so  far  from  the 
sea,  possess  better  conmiercial  advantages  than 
Rithmond,  being  at  the  head  of  tide  water,  on  a 
river  navigable  for  batteaux  220  miles  above  the 
city,  and  having  an  extensive  and  fertile  back 
country,  abundant  in  the  production  of  tobacco, 
wheat,  com,  hemp,  coal,  &c.  It  has  an  exten- 
sive inland  trade,  and.  its  foreign  commerce  is 
considerable.  The  shippine  owneid  here,  in  1816, 
amounted  to  9943  tons.    James  River  is  navi- 


Digitized  by  ^^JiJUy  It: 


RiC 


695 


RIC 


gable  to  Warwick  fov  vesseb  drawing  fifteen  or 
sixteen  feet  water,  and  to  Rockets,  jjist  below 
Richmond,  for  Tessels  drawing  ten  feet.  The 
exports  of  the  city  consist  of  tobacco,  flour,  coal, 
and  various  articles  of  produce. 

The  Virginia  armory  is  an  extensive  establish- 
ment, and  there  are  annually  manufiictured  in 
it  upwards  of  4000'stands  of  arms,  300  rifles, 
and  1000  cavaliy  swords  and  pistols.  The  peni- 
tentiary is  under  good  regulations,  and  con- 
tained, in  1818j  170  prisoners.  The  new  court 
house  is  a  very  spacious  and  elegant  edifice. 
The  capitol  is  built  on  a  commanding  situation 
on  Schockoe  Hill,  and  is  a  very  conspicuous 
object  to  the  surrounding  country.  The  design 
was  taken  from  La  Maison  Quaj6e  at  Nismes, 
aod  the  model  was  obtained  by  Mr.  Jeflerson, 
while  minister  there.  The  edifice,  however, 
falls  greatly  short  of  the  model.  Richmond  is 
at  present  in  a  very  flourishing  and  improving 
state.  In  1811,  on  the  26th  of  December,  the 
theatre  at  Richmond  took  fire  during  an  exhibi- 
tion, and,  in  the  conflagration,-  seventy-two  per- 
sons lost  their  lives,  among  whom  were  George 
William  Smith,  esq.,  governor  of  the  slate,  and 
other  persons  of  respectability.  An  elegant 
Episcopal  church  of  brick,  styled  the  Monumen- 
tal Church,  has  since  been  erected  on  the  spot, 
with  a  monument  in  front,  commemorative  of 
the  melancholy  event. 

RICHT£R  (Otto  Frederick  Von),  an  oriental 
traveller  of  modern  times,  was  bom  in  livonia, 
in  1792.  He  went  to  Moscow  at  the  age  of  six- 
teen to  study  modem  Greek,  and  afterwards  to 
Heidelberg,  where  he  applied*hiroself  to  the  Ara- 
bic and  Persian.  He  then  travelled  in  Switzer- 
land andltaly,  and  continued  his  studies  under  the 
celebrated  Hammer,  at  Vienna.  He  now  went 
with  Lindemann,  the  secretary  to  the  Swedish 
embassy,  to  Egypt,  where  they  were  well  re- 
ceived by  Mohamed  Ali ;  and,  having  travelled 
up  the  Nile  as  far  as  Ibrim,  returned  to  Alex- 
andria with  a  rich  collection  of  drawings,  &c. 
At  Cairo,  in  August,  1815,  they  narrowly  escaped 
destruction  during  a  mutiny  of  Ali's  troops. 
They  then  proceeded  by  sea  to  Jaffi^  and  thence 
to  Acre,  where  they  separated,  and  Richter  alone 
travelled  through  Palestine,.  Syria,  Asia  Minor, 
'  and  the  Isles,  and  then  went  to  Constantinople 
to  deposit  his  collections.  Having  done  so,  he 
re-embarked,  and,  arriving  at  Smyrna,  was  there 
seized  with  a  fever,  which  terminated  his  life, 
August  13th,  1616.  M.  Ewers,  his  tutor,  pub- 
lished O.  F.  Von  Richter's  Wallfahrten  im  Mor- 
genlande,  Qerlin,  1822,  8vo,  with  a  folio  atlas. 

RICINUS,  or  palma  Christi,  in  botany,  a 
genus  of  the  monodelphia  order  and  moncecia 
class  of  plants ;  natural  order  thirty-eighth,  tri- 
coccs:  MALE  CAL.  quiuquepartitc :  coR.  none: 
the  stamina  numerous :  female  cal.  tripartite: 
COR.  none :  but  three  bifid  styles :  caps,  trilo- 
culfir,  and  a  single  seed.  There  are  six  species. 
The  most  remarkable  are  these : 

1 .  R.  Aroericanus  grows  as  tall  as  a  small 
tree,  and  deserves  a  place  in  every  curious  gar- 
den. It  expands  into  many  branches;  the  leaves 
are  sometimes  two  feet  in  diameter,  and  the  stem 
as  large  as  a  middle-sized  broom  stafi*;,  towards 
the  top  of  the  branch  it  has  a  cluster  of  flowers, 


something  resembling  a  bunch  of  grapes;  the 
flowers  are  small  and  staminous,  but  on  the 
body  of  the  plant  grow  bunches  of  rough  trian- 
gular husks,  each  containing  three  speckkd  seeds, 
generally  somewhat  less  ukan  horse  beans ;  the 
shell  is  brittle,  and  contains  white  kemels  of  a 
sweet,  oily,  and  nauseous  taste.  Of  the  ricinus 
there  are  many  varieties ;  all  of  them  fine  ma- 
jestic plants,  annual,  or  at  most  biennial,  in  this 
conntiy ;  but  in  their  native  soil  they  are  said 
to  be  perennial  both  in  root  and  stem.  They  are 
propagated  by  seeds  sown  on  a  hotpbed,  and 
require  the  same  treatment  as  other  tender  ex- 
otics. 

2.  R.  communis,  or  common  palma  Christi. 
This  tree  is  of  speedy  growth,  as  in  one  year  it 
arrives  at  its  full  height,  which  seldom .  exceeds 
twenty  feet.     Hie  trunk  is  sublinieous;  the 
pith  b  large ;  the  leaves  broad  and  palmated ; 
the  flower  spike  is  simple,  and  thickly  set  with 
yellow  blossoms  in  the  shape  of  a  cone ;  the  cap- 
sules are  triangular  and  prickly,  containing  three 
smooth  gray  mottled  seeds.    When  the  bunches 
begin  to  turn  black,  they  are  gathered,  dried  in 
the  sun,  and  the  seeds  picked  out.    They  are 
afterwards  put  up  for  use  as  wanted,  or  for  ex- 
portation.   Castor  oil  is  obtained  either  by  ex- 
pression or  by  decoction.    A  large  iron  pot  or 
l>oiler  is  first  prepared,   and  hsdf  filled  with 
vi^ter.    The  nuts'  are  then  beaten  in  parcels  in 
deep  wooden  mortars,  and  after  a  quantity  is 
beaten  it  is  thrown  into  the  iron  vessel.    The 
fire  is  then  lighted,  and  the  liquor  is  gently 
boiled  for  two  hours,  and  kept  constantly  stirred. 
About  this  time  the  oil  begins  to  separate,  and 
swims  on  the  top,  mixed  with  a  white  froth, 
and  is  skimmed  off  till  no  more  rises.    The 
skimmings  are  heated  in  a  small  iron  pot,  and 
strained  through  a  cloth.  When  cold,  it  is  put  up 
in  jars  or  bottles  for  use.  Castor  oil,  thus  made, 
is  clear  and  well  flavored,  and  if  put  into  proper 
bottles  will  keep  sweet  for  years.  The  expressed 
castor  oil  soon  turns  rancid,  because  the  muci- 
laginous and  acrid  parts  of  tiie  nut  are  squeezed 
out  with  the  oil.   On  this  account  the  preference 
is  given  to  well  prepared  oil  by  decoction.     An 
English  gallon  of  the  seeds  yields  about  two 
pounds  of  oil.    This  oil  is  fit  for  all  the  purposes 
of  the  painter,  or  for  the  apothecary  in  ointments 
and  plasters.    As  a  medicme,  it  purges  without 
stimulus,  and  is  so  mild  as  to  be  given  to  in- 
fants soon  after  birth,  to  purge  off  the  meconium. 
All  oils  are* noxious  to  insects,  but  the  castor  oil 
kills  and  expels  them.      See  Pharmacy  and 
Materia  Medic  a. 

RICIUS  (Paul),  a  converted  Jew,  who  flou- 
rished in  the  sixteenth  century,  and  taught  phi- 
losophy at  Pavia  with  great  reputation.  The 
emperor  Maximilian  appointed  him  one  of  his 
physicians.  He  is  famous  for  his  dispute  with 
Eckius  upon  the  nature  of  celestial  bodies. 

RICK,  n.  i.  See  Reek.  A  pile  of  com  or 
hay  regularly  heaped  up  and  sheltered. 

Mice  and  rats  do  great  injuries  in  the  field,  houses, 
bams,  and  corn  rich.  Mori'aner'a  Husbandr$f. 

In  the  North  they  bind  them  up  in  small  bundles, 
and  make  small  rictu  of  them  in  the  field.  Id. 

An  inundation 
Overflowed  a  fanner's  barn  and  stable  ; 

2Q  2 


Digitized  by 


Googk 


RIC 

Whole  ticks  of  hay  and  stacki  of  oofn 

Wen  down  the  audden  current  born.  Swy\» 

RICKETS,  n.<.  Lat.  rachUUy  of  Or.  pcx^Cf 
the  apine.    A  disorder  of  the  apine. 

In  tome  yeara»  liver-grown,  ipleen,  and  rkkett  aie 
pot  together,  by  reaaon  of  their  likenesa. 

Gfttunfs  BUli  of  UortmUty. 

O  were  my  pupil  fairly  knocked  o'  th'  bead, 
I  ahould  poBieas  the  eaUte,  if  he  ware  dead ; 
He's  so  far  gone  with  the  riokett  and  the  eyil, 
That  one  small  dose  will  send  him  to  the  devil. 

DrydtH. 

So  when  at  school  we  first  declaim. 
Old  Bnsby  walks  us  in  a  theme/ 
Whose  props  support  our  infont  vein, 
And  help  ttie  riitett  in  the  brain  ; 
But  when  our  soub  their  force  dilate. 
Oar  thoughts  grew  up  to  wit's  estate.  Prior. 

The  riekett  is  a  distempar  in  children,  fiom  an  un- 
equal distribution  of  nouiiahment,  whereby  the  joints 
erow  knotty,  and  the  limba  uneven ;  ita  care  ia  per- 
formed by  evacuation  and  friction.  .  Quin^. 

In  a  young  animal,  when  the  solids  are  too  lax, 
the  <;aae  of  richeiy  children,  the  <Uet  should  be  eently 
astnngent.  Arbu^not. 

Rickets.    See  Medicine. 

RICKMANSWORTH,  a  market  town  and 
parish  of  Herta,  situate  on  the  river  Colne,  two 
miles  and  a  haLf  west  from  Watford,  and  seven- 
teen north-west  from  London.  The  number  of 
rivulets  in  and  about  the  town  are  employed  to 
lum  several  flour,  silk,  cotton,  and  paper  mills, 
and  many  of  the  females  of  the  town  manufac- 
ture straw  bonnets  for  London.  The  church  is 
a  spacious  building,  and  there  is  also  a  dtarity 
echool  and  two  almshouses.  The  town  is  go- 
verned bv  two  constables  and  two  headborou^. 
Market-day,  Saturday. 

RICOCHET,  in  gunnery,  is  when  guns,  how<- 
itzers,  or  mortars,  are  loaded  with  small  charges, 
and  elevated  from  five  to  twelve  degrees,  so  that, 
when  fired  over  the  parapet,  the  shot  or  shell 
rolls  along  the  opposite  rampart.  This  is  called 
ricochet  firing,  ana  the  batteries  ricochet  batte- 
ries. At  the  batUeof  Rosbach,  in  1757,  Frederick 
kiuflr  of  Prussia  had  several  six-inch  mortars 
made  with  trunnions,  and  mounted  on  travelling 
carriages,  which  fired  obliquely  on  the  enemy's 
lines,  and  amongst  their  horse,  loaded  with  eight 
ouDces  of  powder,  and  at  an  elevation  of  one 
degree  fifteen  minutes,  which  did  great  execution ; 
for  the  shells  rolling  along  the  lines,  with  burn- 
ing fuzes,  the  soldiers  did  not  dare  preserve 
their  ranks  for  fear  of  their  bursting* 

The  first  gun  in  a  ricochet  battery  should  be 
so  placed  as  to  sweep  the  whole  length  of  the 
rampart  of  the  enemy's  work,  at  three  or  four 
feet  from  the  parapet,  and  the  rest  shou\d  form 
as  small  an  angle  wiUji  the  parapet  as  possible. 
For  this  purpose  the  guns  ahould  be  pointed, 
about  four  fathoms  from  the  fiice  of  the  work 
toward  the  interior.  In  the  ricochet  of  ordnance 
in  the  field,  the  objects  to  be  fired  at  being  prin- 
cipally in£uitry  and  cavalry,  the  guns  should 
seldom  be  elevated  above  three  degrees,  as  other- 
wise the  ball  would  be  apt  to  bound  too  high, 
and  defeat  the  object  intend^.  See  Fortifi- 
cation. 

RICOTIA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  siliquosa 
order  and  tetradvnamia  class  of  plants ;  natural 
order  thirty-ninth,    silaquosse.     The  siliqua  is 


RID 

nnihicular,  obkmg,  and  conpieaeed,  with  plain 
valvules. 

Rlir,  v.a.  )     Sax.  pp«*k>*Mm.     In  the 

Rin'DAvcE,  n.  <.  I  preterite  ridded  or  rid;  i& 
the  passive  participle  rid.  To  set  free ;  redeem ; 
clear;  hence  drive  away;  despatch:  the  ooun 
substantive  oonesponding. 
•  I  will  bnng  you  out  from  under  their  bwtheis, 
and  rid  you  oat  of  their  bondage.         Esodia  tL  6. 

Rid  me,  and  deliver  me  out  of  great  waten. 

FstUm  cilir. 

They  were  not  before  so  willing  to  be  ruf  of  their 
learned  pastor,  as  now  imjwrtunate  to  obtain  him 
again  from  them,  who  had  given  him  entertunmeoi. 

Hooktr, 

Deliverance  from  sudden  death,  riddance  fnun  all 
adversity,  and  the  extent  of  saving  mercy  towards  all 
men.  Id, 

I  must  rid  all  the  seas  of  pirates.         Shahptat, 

Uavine  the  best  at  Bamet  field. 
We'll  thither  straight ;  for  wiUingncas  ridt  away. 

Ah  deathsmen!  yoa  have  rid  this  sweet  yoaof 

frinoe*  /^ 

have  too  grieved  a  heart 
To  take  a  tedious  leave :  thus  losers  part. 
— A  gentle  riddance.  id. 

Upon  the  word  stent  forth 
Three  of  thy  crew,  to  rid  thee  of  that  care. 

Ben  Jcmem. 
I  can  put  on 
Thy  terrors,  as  I  put  thy  mildness  on. 
Image  of  thee  in  all  things  ;  and  shall  soon, 
Amwd  with  thy  might,  rid  heaven  of  these  idttlled. 


Those  blossoms,  and  those  dropping  i 
That  lie  bestrown,  unsightly  and  unsmooth. 
Ask  riddance,  if  we  mean  to  tread  with  ease.       Id. 

Did  saints  for  this  bring  in  their  plate  ? 
For  when  they  thought  the  cause  had  need  on*t, 
Happy  was  he  that  could  be  rid  on't.         Uudiint. 

The  god,  uneasy  till  he  slept  again, 
Resolveid  at  once  to  rid  himself  of  pain.      Drydn. 

By  this  the  cock  had  a  good  riddanee  of  his  rivtl. 

The  greater  visible  good  does  not  always  raise 
men's  desire,  in  proportion  to  the  greatness  it  ap- 
pears to  have  ;  though  every  little  trouble  moves  ui, 
and  sets  us  on  work  to  get  Tod  of  it.  Lecht. 

The  ladies  asked,  whether  we  believed  that  the 
men  of  any  town  would,  at  the  same  oonjunctoie, 
have  loaden  themselves  with  their  wives  ;  or  rather, 
whether  they  would  not  have  been  glad  of  sudi  an 
opportunity  to  get  rid  of  them  ?  Addinm. 

RIITDLE,  n.  «.,  v.  a.,  &  J       Danish  ride; 

Rid'dlingly,  adv.  [v.  n.  )  Swed.  rida ;  Goth. 
reida  ;  Sax.  jisetyelr*  from  pie^n,  to  divine.  Ao 
eniffroa ;  puzzle ;  puzzling  question  :^  to  solve  a 
riddle;  speak  enigmatically:  in  thej manner  of 
a  riddle. 

How  did  you  dare 
To  trade  and  trafiic  with  Blacbeth, 
In  riddles  and  in  charms  of  death  1         Sh^bfme. 

Be  plain  fi[ood  son,  and  homely  in  th^  drift ; 
Riddling  confession  ^nds  but  ridding  shift        Id* 

Though  like  the  pestilence  and  okl  fashioned  lev* 
Riddlingly  it  catch  men,  and  doth  remove 
Never,  till  it  be  starved  out,  yet  their  state  is  poor. 

l/onne. 

The  Theban  monster  that  pro]>osed 
Her  rid^dUf  and  him  who  solved  it  not  devoured ; 
That  once  found  out,  and  solved,  for  grief  and  spight 
Cast  herself  headlong  from  the  Ismenian  steep. 

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Twu  a  stniwe  riddh  of  &  lad? ; 
l^ot  love,  if  any  loved  her :  hey  day ! 
So  conrards  iM^ver  use  their  might, 
But  against  such  as  will  not  fight.  Hudihrn. 

MUddU  me  this,  and  guess  if  you  can. 
Who  bean  a  nation  in  a  single  mani         Drydtn, 

It  was  the  maxim  of  a  very  wise  prince,  that '  he 
who  knows  not  how  to  dissemble,  knows  not  how  to 
reign :'  and  I  desire  that  you  would  receive  it  as 
mine,  that  he  who  knows  not  how  to  nddtt^  knows 
feiot  how  to  live.  FittoAorw**  Letten. 

RIDE,  V,  n.&  V.  a. )      Sax.    ju'oan;     Dan. 
Ri'd£R,  fi.  «.  )  tide;  Swed.  rida  ;  Goth. 

reida.  To  travel  on  horseback ;  or  be  drawn 
by  horses ;  manage  a  horse ;  be  borne  in  a  ve- 
hicle or  vessel ;  be  supported  by  something  sub- 
servient ;  to  set  on  so  as  to  be  borne ;  to  manage 
at  will:  a  rider  is  the  party  carried,  or  who 
manages  a  horse. 

The  horse  and  his  rider  hath  he  thrown  intd  the 
tea.  EMdut, 

Am  not  I  thine  ass,  upon  which  thou  hast  ridden  7 

Jfumben, 
Skill  to  ride  seems  a  ycienca. 
Proper  to  gentle  blood ;  some  others  feifn 
To  manage  steeds,  as  did  this  vautater ;  but  in  vain. 

Spenser, 
The  sea  was  grown  so  rough  that  the  admiral  was 
not  able  longer  to  ride  it  out  with  his  galHes  ;  but 
was  enforced  to  slip  his  anchors,  and  ran  his  gallies 
on  ground.  JThoUm. 

Brutus  and  Cas&us 
Are  rid,  like  madmen,  through  the  gates  of  Rome. 

Shaktpeare, 
Were  you  but  riding  forth  to  air  yonnelf. 
Such  parting  were  too  pretty.  Id, 

Infected  be  the  air  whereon  they  ride.  Id. 

The  horses  1  saw  well  chosen,  ridden,  and  fur- 
nished. Id. 
On  the  western  coast 
Ridetit  a  puissant  army.                                  Id. 
They  were  then  in  a  place  to  be  aided  by  then- 
ships,  which  fode  near  in  Edinburgh  Frith. 

Hagwsrd, 
.  They  ride  the  air  in  whirlwind.  MiUon, 

Waiting  him  his  royal  fleet  did  ride, 
And  willing  vriads  to  their  low'r  sails  denied. 

Dryden. 
Men  once  walked  where  ships  at  anchor  ride.  Id. 
Inspired  by  love,  whose  business  is  to  please. 
He  rede,  he  fenced,  he  moved  with  graoeml  ease. 

Id, 
Through  storms  of  smoke  and  adverse  fire  he  ruin. 
While  ev'ry  shot  is  levelled  at  his  sides.        South, 
I  would  with  jockies  from  Newmarket  dine. 
And  to  rough  riien  give  my  choicest  wine. 

Bnunetone, 
Upon  this  chaos  rid  the  distnssed  ark,  that  bore 
the  small  remains  of  mankind.  Bwnel, 

It  is  provided  l^  aiM>ther  provineial  constitution^ 
that  no  Boflfragan  bishop  shall  have  more  than  ons 
riding  apparitor,  and  that  archdeacons  shall  not  have 
so  much  as  one  riding  apparitor,  but  only  a  foot  pas- 
senger. Ayliffss  Parergon, 

The  strong  camel  and  the  generous  horse. 
Restrained  and  awed  by  man's  inferior  force, 
Do  to  the  rider'i  will  their  rage  submit. 
And  answer  to  the  spur,  and  own  the  bit.      Prior, 
Humility  does  not  make  us  servile  or  insensible 
nor  oblige  us  to  be  ridden  at  the  pleasure  of  every 
coxcomb.  CoUier. 

Good  housewives  all  the  winter's  rage  despise,   • 
Defended  by  the  ridin^eed^s  disguise.  Oay. 


The  pallielum  was  like  our  lidingkeeds,  and  served 
both  for  a  tunick  and  a  cpat  Arhithnot, 

Let  your  master  ride  on  before,  and  do  you  gallop 
after  hun.  8wtft*$  IHreotiene  to  the  Groom, 

The  nobility  could  no  longer  endure  to  be  ridden 
by  bakers,  cobblers,  and  brewers.  Sw^t. " 

RIDGE,  n.  8. )     Sax.  p^i^s ;  Dan.  rig ;  Teut. 

Rid'gy,  adj,  S  Tueg^f  the  back.  The  top  of 
the  back ;  any  protuberance,  or  mound :  to  ferm 
a  ridge :  rising  m  a  ridge. 

Thou  visitest  the  earth  ;  thou  waterest  the  ridgu 
thereof  abundantly ;  thou  settlest  the  furrows 
thereof.  Paaim  Izv.  10. 

As  when  a  vulture  on  Imaus  bred. 
Whose  snowy  ridge  the  roving  Tartar  bounds. 
Dislodges  from  a  region  scarce  of  prey.        MUten, 

Part  rise  in  crystal  wall,  or  ridgt  direct. 
For  haste.  Id. 

Thou  from  heaven 
Feign'dst  at  thy  birth  was  given  thee  in  thy  hair. 
Where  strength  can  least  abide,  though  all  thy  hairs, 
Were  bristles  ranged -like  those  that  ridgt  the  back 
Of  chafed  wild  boars,  or  rufi!ed  porcupines.        Id, 
He  thought  it  was  no  time  to  stay  ; 

But  in  a  tnce  advanced  the  knight 

Upon  the  bare  ridge  bolt  upright.  HwUbrae, 

About  her  coasts  unruly  waters  roar. 
And,  rising  in  a  ridge,  insult  the  shore.      Mkyden. 

Far  in  the  sea,  against  the  foaming  shore. 
There  stands  a  rock,  the  raeing  billows  roai 
Above  his  head  in  siorsu ;  but,  when  'tis  clear. 
Uncurl  their  ridgg  backs,  and  ai  his  feet  appear. 

Id, 

The  highest  ridw  of  those  mountains  serve  fo  * 
the  maintenance  of  cattle  for  the  inhabitants  of  the 
vallies.  Ray. 

Wheat  must  be  sowed  above  furrow  fourteen  days 
before  Michaelmas,  and  laid  up  in  round  high  warm 
ridges,  Mariimer, 

Ridge  tiles  or  roof  tiles,  beinff  in  leneth  thirteen 
inches,  and  made  circular  breadthways  lue  an  half 
cylinder,  whose  diameter  is  about  ten  inches  or  more, 
and  about  an  inch  and  half  a  quarter  in  thickness, 
are  laid  upon  the  upper  part  or  ridge  of  the  roof, 
and  also  on  the  hips.  Moxon, 

The  body  is  smooth  on  that  end,  and  on  this  'tis 
set  with  ridges  round  the  point.  Woodward, 

Then  holdins  the  spectacles  up  to  the  court-^ 

Your  lordship  observes  they  are  made  with  a 
straddle 
As  wide  as  the  ridge  of  the  nose  is  ;  in  short. 

Designed  to  sit  close  to  it,  just  like  a  saddle. 

CotDper, 

RIDICULE,  n.s.&t;.«."v      Fr.   ridiadei 
RiDi'cuLEEy  /   Lat.   ridiculwn, 

RiDic'uLovSy  adj,  >  Wit  or  banter  that 

RiDic'uLOusLY,  odi;.         l  provokes     laugh- 
RiDic'uijou8NES9,n.S'      J  ter  :    a  ridieuler, 
one  who  ridicules :   the  adjective,  adverb,  and 
noun  substantive  corresponding. 
Thus  was  the  building  left 
Ridiemlous ;  and  the  work  confusion  named. 

BTdton. 
What  sport  do  Tertulliaa,  Minucius,  and  Amo- 
bius  make  with  the  image  consecrated  to  divine  wor- 
ship! from  the  meanness  of  the  matter  they  aro 
made,  the  casualties  of  firs,  and  rottenness  they  are 
subject  to,  on  purpose  to  represent  the  ridienloutnese 
of  vrorshipping  such  things.  StilUng/ket. 

1  wish  the  vein  of  ridUmKng  all  that  is  serious 
and  good  may  have  no  worse  eflect  upon  our  state, 
than  knight  errantry  had  on  theirs.  Teeepie, 

Epicures's  discourse  concerning  the  original  el 


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the  world  is  to  riSed/m^if  merry,  that  the  design 
of  hia  philosophy  was  pleaavure  and  not  instruction. 

South. 

He  often  took  a  pleasure  to  appear  ignorant,  th«t 
he  might  the  better  turn  to  ridicuU  those  that  valued 
themselves  on  their  books.  Adduou, 

Sacred  to  ridkuie  his  whole  life  long. 
And  the  sad  burden  of  some  meny  song.       Pops. 
Those,  who  aim  at  ridieuk. 

Should  fix  upon  some  certain  rule, 

Which  fairly  hints  they  are  in  jest.  SwifU 

The  ridicuUr  shall  make  only  himself  ridieuUmi, 
Earl  of  ChtsterJkUU 

Riding  on  horseback.    See  Horsemanship. 

Riding,  in  geography.  Yorkshire  is  divided 
into  tbree  ridings,  viz.  the  east,  west,  and  north 
ridings.  In  all  indictments  in  that  county, 
both  the  town  and  riding  must  be  expressed. 

Riding,  in  naval  affairs,  is  the  state  of  a  ship's 
being  retained  in  a  particular  station,  by  means 
of  one  or  more  cables  with  their  anchors,  which 
are  for  this  purpose  sunk  into  the  bottom  of  the 
sea,  &c.,  in  onier  to  prevent  the  vessel  from 
being  driven  at  the  mercy  of  the  wind  or  cnr- 
rent.  A  rope  is  said  to  ride,  when  one  of  the 
turns  by  which  it  is  wound  about  the  capstem  or 
windlass  lies  over  another,  so  as  to  interrupt  the 
operation  of  heaving. 

Riding  Athwart,  the  position  of  a  ship 
which  lies  across  the  direction  of  the  wind  and 
tide,  when  the  former  is  so  strong  as  to  pre- 
vent her  from  falling  into  the  current  of  the 
latter. 

Riding  between  the  Wind  and  Tide,  the 
situation  of  a  vessel  at  anchor,  when  the  wind 
and  tide  act  upon  her  in  direct  opposition,  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  destroy  the  effort  of  each 
other  upon  her  hull ;  so  that  she  is  in  a  manner 
balanced  between  their  reciprocal  force,  and 
rides  without  the  least  strain  on  her  cables. 
When  a  ship  does  not  labor  heavily,  or  feel  a 
great  strain  when  anchored  in  an  open  road  or 
bay,  she  is  said  to  ride  easy.  On  tne  contrary, 
when  she  pitches  violently  into  the  sea,  so  as  to 
strain  her  cables,  masts,  or  hull,  it  is  called 
riding  hard,  and  the  vessel  is  termed  a  bad 
roader.  A  ship  is  rarely  said  to  ride  when  she 
is  fastened  at  both  the  ends,  as  in  a  harbour  or 
river,  she  being  then  moored. 

RIDLEY  (Nicholas),  bishop  of  London,  was 
descended  of  an  ancient  feimily,  and  bom  in  the 
beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century,  at  Wilmont- 
swick,  in  Northumberland.  From  the  grammar 
school  at  Newcastle-upon-Tyne  he  was  sent  to 
Pembroke  Hall  in  Cambridge,  in  1518,  where 
he  was  supported  by  his  uncle  Dr.  Robert  Rid- 
ley, fellow  of  Queen's  College.  In  1522  he 
took  his  degree  of  A.  B. ;  two  years  after  was 
elected  fellow,  and  in  1525  he  commenced 
M.  A.  In  1527j  having  taken  orders,  he  was 
sent  by  his  uncle  for  mrther  improvement  to 
the  Sorbonne  at  Paris ;  thence  he  went  to  Lou- 
vain,  and  continued  abroad  till  1529.  On  his 
return  to  Cambridge  he  was  chosea  under  trea- 
surer of  the  university;  and,  in  1533,  was 
elected  senior  proctor.  He  afterwards  proceeded 
B.  D.,  and  was  chosen  chaplain  of  the  university, 
orator,  and  magister  glomeriae.  At  this  time  he 
was  much  admired  as  a  preacher  and  disputant. 
He  lost  his  uncle  in  1536,  but  was  soon  after 


patronised  by  Cranraer,  archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury, who  made  him  his  domestic  chaplaio,  and 
presented  him  to  the  vicarage  of  Heme  in  east 
Kent.  In  1540,  having  commenced  D.  D.,  he 
was  made  king's  chaplain,  and  elected  master 
of  his  new  college  in  Cambridge.  Soon  after 
he  was  collated  to  a  prebend  in  the  church  of 
Canterbury;  but  was  afterwards  accused  in  the 
bbhop's  court,  by  Bishop  Gardiner,  of  preach- 
ing against  the  doctrine  of  the  six  articles.  The 
matter  being  referred  to  Cranmer,  Ridley  was 
acquitted.  In  1545  he  was  made  a  prebendary 
of  Westminster  Abbey;  in  1547  he  was  pre- 
sented by  the  fellows  of  Pembroke  Hall  to  the 
living  of  Soham,  in  the  diocese  of  Norwich; 
and  was  consecrated  bishop  of  Rochester.  In 
1540  he  was  translated  to  the  see  of  London; 
in  which  year  he  was  one  of  the  commissioners 
for  examining  bishop  Gardiner,  and  concurred 
in  his  deprivation.  In  1552,  returning  from 
Cambridge,  he  unfortunately  paid  a  vbit  to  the 
princess,  afterwards  queen  Mary;  to  whom, 
prompted  by  his  zeal  for  reformation,  he  ex- 
pressed himself  with  too  much  freedom;  and 
she  was  scarcely  seated  on  the  throne  when 
Ridley  was  doomed  a  victim  to  her  revenge. 
He  was  burnt  alive  with  Latimer  at  Oxford,  on 
the  16th  of  October,  1555.  He  wrote,  1.  A 
Treatise  concerning  Images  in  Churches.  2.  A 
Brief  Declaration  of  the  Lord's  Supper.  3. 
Certain  Godly  and  Comfortable  Confmoces 
between  Bishop  Ridley  and  Mr.  Hugh  Latimer, 
during  their  Imprisonment.  4.  A  Comparison 
between  the  Comfortable  Doctrine  of  the  GospeL 
and  the  Traditions  of  the  Popish  Religion,  and 
other  works. 

Ridlet  (Dr.  Gloster),  was  of  the  same  h- 
mily  vrith  the  bishop,  and  was  bom  at  sea  in 
1702,  onboard  the  Gloucester  East  Indtaraan, 
educated  at  Winchester  school,  and  thence  elected 
to  a  fellowship  of  New  College,  Oxford,  whei» 
he  proceeded  B.C.  L.  April  29th,  1729.  Dur- 
ing a  vacancy,  in  1728,  he  joined  with  Mr.  Tho- 
mas Fletcher  (afterwards  bishop  of  Kildare), 
Mr.  (afterwards  Dr.)  Eyre,  Mr.  Morrison,  and 
Mr.  Jennens,  in  writing  a  tragedy  called  The 
Fruitless  Redress,  each  undertakii^  an  act  on  a 
plan  previously  concerted.  When  they  deli- 
vered in  their  several  proportions,  few  readers 
would  have  known  that  the  whole  was  not  the 
production  of  a  single  hand.  This  tragedy » 
which  was  offered  to  Mr.  Wllks,  but  never  acted, 
is  still  in  MS.  with  another  called  Jugurtba. 
Dr.  Ridley  in  his  youth  was  much  addicted  to 
theatrical  performances.  Midhurst,  in  Sussex, 
was  the  place  where  they  were  exhibited;  and 
the  company  of  gentlemen  actors  to  which  he 
belonged  consisted  chiefly  of  his  coadjutors  in' 
the  above  tragedy.  For  a  great  part  of  his  life 
he  had  no  other  preferment  ^an  the  small  col- 
lege living  of  Westow  in  Norfolk,  and  the  dona- 
tive of  Poplar  in  Middlesex,  where  he  resided. 
To  these  his  college  added  the  donative  of  Rom- 
ford in  Essex.  In  1740  and  1741  he  preached 
Eight  Sermons  at  Lady  Meyer's  Lecture,  which 
were  published  in  1742,  6vo.  In  1763  he  pub- 
lished the  Life  of  Bishop  Ridley,  in  4to.,  by 
subscription.  In  1765  he  published  his  Review 
of  Philip's  Life  of  Cardinal  Pole;  artl  in  1768^ 


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in  reward  for  his  labors  io  this  controversy,  and 
ip  another  which  The  Confessional  produced,  he 
was  presented  by  archbishop  Seeker  to  a  golden 
prebend  in  the  cathedral  cnurch  of  Salisbury. 
He  died  in  1774,  leaving  a  widow  and  four 
daughters. 

RIE,  «. «.,  or  Rye,  which  see.  An  esculent 
grain,  differing  from  wheat  in  having  a  flatter 
spike,  and  the  com  larger  and  more  naked. 

August  shall  bear  the  form  of  a  young  roan  of  a 
fierce  aspect,  apon  his  head  a  garland  of  wheat  and 
rte.  Peacham, 

RIEGO  (Raphael  del),  a  modern  Spanish 
patriot,  was  of  a  noble  family,  in  Asturias.  He 
entered  early  into  the  army,  and  served  during 
the  invasion  of  Spain  by  Buonaparte.  Being 
taken  prisoner,  the  constitutional  general  Abis- 
bal  on  his  liberation  gave  him  a  staff  appoint- 
ment ;  and,  when  his  chief  betrayed  the  cause  of 
independence,  Riego  retired  from  the  service. 
In  1820  he  proclaimed  at  the  head  of  a  batta- 
lion the  Spanish  constitution,  and,  traversing  a 
large  extent  of  country,  shut  himself  up  in  a 
fortress  with  a  small  number  of  trbops.  Aware 
however  of  the  danger  of  delay,  he  sallied  forth 
from  the  Isle  of  Leon  with  a  few  hundred  fol- 
lowers, made  his  way  through  the  forces  that  op- 
posed him,  visited  several  large  towns,  fougnt 
obstinately,  lost  the  greater  part  of  his  troops, 
and  retired  to  the  mountains.  At  last  the  pro- 
vinces ranged  themselves  under  his  banners,  and 
he  was  uUimately  appointed  a  deputy  to  the 
Cortes  of  1822,  of  which  assembly  he  became 
president,  displaying  in  thb  arduous  post  both 
a  firmness  and  a  conciliatory  spirit  which  did 
him  honor.  When  Ferdinand  refused  to  main- 
tain the  constitution,  Riego  again  appeared  in 
arms  to  assert  the  liberty  of  his  country ;  but 
was  taken  prisoner  after  the  surrender  of  Cadiz 
to  the  French,  and,  being  conveyed  to  Madrid, 
-was  executed  as  a  traitor,  October  7th,  1823. 
His  widow  sought  refuge  in  England,  and  died 
at  Chelsea,  June  19th,  1824. 

RIENZI  (Nicholas  Gabrini  de),  was  bom  at 
Rome.  Though  his  father  was  a  vintner,  and 
his  mother  a  laundress,  they  gave  their  son  a 
liberal  education ;  and  to  a  good  natural  under- 
standing he  joined  great  assiduity,  and  made 
considerable  proficiency  in  ancient  literature. 
He  had  a  strong  memory :  and  retained  much 
of  Cicero,  Valerius  Maximus,  Livy,  the  two  Se- 
necas,  and  Cssar.  He  passed  whole  days 
among  the  inscriptions  in  Rome,  and  soon  was 
esteemed  a  great  antiquary.  He  also  insi- 
nuated himself  into  the  favor  of  the  adminis- 
tration, and  was  nominated  one  of  the  deputies 
sent  to  pope  Clement  VI.,  who  resided  at  Avig- 
non. The  intention  of  this  deputation  was  to 
make  Clement  sensible  how  prejudicial  his 
absence  was  to  the  interest  of  Rome.  While 
employed  in  this  embassy  he  t«ok  the  liberty  to 
tell  the  pope  that  the  grandees  of  Rome  were 
avowed  robbers,  thieves,  lululterers,  and  profli- 
gates ;  who  authorised  the  most  horrid  crimes. 
To  them  he  attributed  the  desolation  of  Rome ; 
of  which  he  drew  so  lively  a  picture  that  the 
pope,  incensed  against  the  Roman  nobility, 
insule  Rienzi  his  apostolic  notary,  and  sent  him 
back  loaded  witR  favors.    Having  returned  to 


Rome,  he  began  to  execute  the  frictions  of  Im 
office ;  and  by  affability,  candor,  assiduity,  and 
impartiality  in  the  administration  of  justice,  he 
attained  a  high  degree  of  popularity.  But  he 
still  continued  his  invectives  against  the  vices  of 
the  great;  till  at  last  he  was  severely  repri- 
manded and  displaced.  From  this  time  it  was 
his  constant  endeavour  to  inspire  the  people 
with  a  fondness  for  their  ancient  liberties;  for 
which  purpose  he  caused  to  be  hung  up  in  the 
most  public  places  emblematic  pictures,  expres- 
sive of  the  former  splendor  ana  present  decline 
of  Rome,  and  to  these  he  added  frequent  har- 
rangues  upon  the  same  subject  Having  by 
these  means  collected  a  number  of  followers,  he 
at  last  resolved  to  seize  the  supreme  power. 
'The  20th  of  May,  being  Whitsunday,  he  fixed 
upon  to  sanctify  his  enterprise;  and  asserted 
that  all  he  acted  was  by  particular  inspiration  of 
the  Holy  Ghost.  About  nine  he  came  out  of 
the  church  bare-headed,  accompanied  by  the 
pope*s  vicar,  surround e<l  by  100  armed  men.  A 
vast  crowd  followed  him  with  acclamations. 
The  conspirators  carried  three  standards  before 
him,  on  which  were  wrought  devices,  intimating 
that  his  design  was  to  reestablish  liberty,  justice, 
and  peace.  In  this  manner  he  proceeded  directly 
to  the  Capitol,  where  he  mounted  the  rostrum  ; 
and  expatiated  on  the  miseries  to  which  the  Ro- 
mans were  reduced ;  telling  them  *  that  the 
happy  hour  of  their  deliverance  was  at  length 
come,  and  that  he  was  to  be  their  deliverer,  re- 
gardless of  the  dangers  to  which  he  was  exposed 
for  the  service  of  the  Holy  Father  and  the  peo- 
ple's safety.'  After  which  he  ordered  the  laws 
of  what  he  called  the  good  establishment  to  be 
read ;  <  assured  that  the  Romans  would  resolve 
to  observe  these  laws,  heen^ed  in  a  short  time 
to  reestablish  them  in  their  ancient  grandeur.* 
These  laws  promised  plenty  and  security,  and 
the  humiliation  of  the  nobility,  who  were  deemed 
common  oppressors.  Such  laws  could  not  fiail 
of  being  agreeable  to  the  people,  and  enraptured 
with  the  pleasing  ideas  of  a  liberty  to  whicn  they 
had  long  been  strangers,  and  the  hope  of  ^in, 
they  entered  most  zealously  into  the  fanaticisms 
of  Rienzi.  They  resumed  the  authority  of  the 
Romans ;  they  declared  him  sovereign  of  Rome ; 
and  granted  him  the  power  of  life  and  d^eath,  of 
rewards  and  punishments,  of  enacting  and  repeal- 
ing the  laws,  and  treating  with  foreign  powers ; 
in  a  word,  they  gave  him  full  and  supreme  au- 
thority in  all  the  territories  of  the  Romans. 
Rienzi,  arrived  at  the  summit  of  his  wishes,  pre- 
tended to  be  very  unwilling  to  accept  of  ttieir 
offers,  except  upon  two  conditions:  the  first 
that  they  should  nominate  the  pope's  vicar  (the 
bishop  of  Orvieto)  hb  copartner;  the  second 
that  the  pope's  coriSent  should  be  granted.  The 
people  granted  his  request,  but  paid  all  the  ho- 
nors to  him;  the  bishop  appealed  a  m^re, sha- 
dow, Rienzi  was  seated  in  his  triumphal  cha- 
riot. He  seized  upon  the  palace,  where  he 
continued  after  he  had  turned  out  the  senate; 
and,  the  same  day,  he  began  to  dictate  his  laws 
from  the  Capitol.*  Tliis  election,  though  not 
very  pleasing  to  the  pope,  was  ratified  by  him ; 
nevertheless,  Rienzi,  as  ne  owed  his  elevation  to 
the  people,  chose  the  title  of  tribune,  as  their 


Digitized  by 


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magistrate.  It  was  conferred  on  hiih  akid  his 
copartner,  with  the  addition  of  deliverers  of  their 
coantry.  His  behaviour  in  his  elevation  was  at 
first  such  as  commanded  esteem  and  respect,  not 
only  from  the  Romahs,  but  from  the  neii^hboui^ 
ing  states.  The  troubles  of  a  throne  few  but 
princes  can  properly  appreciate,  and  Rienzi  soon 
found  that  his  exalted  station  only  rendered  him 
a  nK>re  easy  mark  for  the  shafts  of  envy  and 
hatred,  and  of  distrust.  The  pope  conceived 
his  designs  to  be  contrary  to  the  interests  of  the 
holy  see ;  and  the  nobles  conspired  against  him; 
they  succeeded,  and  Rienzi  was  fotced  to  quit 
an  authority  he  had  possessed  little  more  than 
six  months,  and  to  make  a  precipitate  (light.  He 
now  went  to  Prague,  to  Charles  King  of  the  Ro- 
mans, whom  the  year  before  he  had  summoned 
to  his  tribunal,  and  who,  he  foresaw,  would  de- 
liver him  up  to  a  pope  highly  incensed  against 
him.  He  was  accordingly  soon  after  sent  to 
Avignon,  and  there  thrown  into  prison,  where  he 
continued  three  years.  The  disturbances  in 
Italy,  occasioned  by  the  number  of  petty  tyrants 
that  had  established  themselves  in  the  eccle- 
siastical territories,  and  even  in  Rome,  occa- 
sidned  his  enlargement.  Innocent  VI.,  who  suo^ 
ceeded  Clement,  sensible  tiiat  the  Romans  still 
entertained  an  afiection  for  Rienzi,  thought  him 
a  proper  instrument  to  assist  him  in  reducing 
these  petty  tyrants ;  and  therefore  not  only  gave 
him  his  liberty,  but  appointed  him  governor  and 
senator  of  Rome.  He  met  with  many  obstacles 
to  the  assumption  of  this  newly  granted  autho- 
rity; all  which  however  he  overcame.  But 
giving  way  to  his  passions,  which  were  immo- 
derately warm,  and  attempting  to  revenge  him- 
self on  some  of  his  former  enemies,  he  excited 
a  general  resentment  against  him,  and  he  was 
murdered,  October  8th,  1354.  *  Such  was  the 
end  of  Nicholas  Rienzi,  one  of  the  most  renowned 
men  of  the  age ;  who,  after  forming  a  conspi- 
racy apparently  the  most  extravagant,  and  exe- 
cuting it  in  the  sight  of  almost  the  whole  world ; 
after  causing  plenty,  justice,  and  liberty,  to 
flourish  among  the  Romans;  after  protecting 
potentates,  and  terrifying  sovereign  princes; 
after  reestablishing  the  ancient  majesty  and  power 
of  the  Roman  republic,  and  filling  all  Europe 
with  his  fame  during  the  seven  months  of  his 
first  reign ;  after  having  compelled  his  masters 
themselves  to  confirm  him  in  the  authority  he 
had  usurped  against  their  interest8-*fell  at  the 
end  of  his  second,  which  lasted  not  four  months, 
a  sacrifice  to  the  nobility,  whose  ruin  he  had 
vowecl,  and  to  those  vast  projects  whidi  his 
death  prevented  him  from  putting  into  exe- 
cution.' 

RI£SENGE6IRG£,  i.  e.  the  Giants*  Moun- 
'  tains,  a  name  under  which  is  comprehended  all 
that  part  of  the  great  Sndetic  chain  which  begins 
on  tne  bonders  of  Lusatia,  and  separates  Bohe- 
mia ,  and  Moravia  from  Silesia,  till  it  joins  the 
Carpathians.  This  term  however  is^  properly 
confined  to  that  part  of  the  range  which  lies 
between  the  sources  of  the  Neisse  and  the 
Bober;  a  track  of  no  great  length,  but  contain- 
ing the  loftiest  mountains  of  the  north  or  central 
part  of  Germany,  being  almost  every  where 
about  3000  feet  in  height.  Of  these,  the  Schnee- 
bcrgt  has  a  height  of  5270  English  feet;  the 


great  Stnrmfaaiibe  of  5030,  and  the  lesser  Stunn* 
haubte  neariy  as  much.  From  the  top  of  the 
'first,  Breslan  (distaM  seventy  miles  to  the  north- 
east) and  league  (at  nearly  the  same  distance  to 
the  south-west)  are  visible.  The  vallejrs  are 
picturesque,  and  produce  the  finest  Alpine 
plants,  but  are  not  well  adapted  to  com,  and  the 
inhabitants  are  miserably  poor. 

RIETI,  an  old  town  of  Italy,  in  the  States 
of  the  church,  the  capital  of  a  delegation  of  the 
same  name,  and  situated  on  the  Velino.  It  is 
not  well  built,  but  is  the  see  of  a  bishop,  and 
has,  besides  its  cathedral,  a  number  of  cborches 
and  convents.  It  has  some  manofactures  of 
woollens,  and  in  the  environs  the  coltare  of 
woad  for  dyeing  is  much  followed.  In  1785 
this  town  was  much  damaged  by  an  earthquake. 
Inhabitants  6500.  Twenty-five  miles  S.  S.  E. 
of  Spoleto,  and  thirty->Mven  N.  N.  £.  of  Rome. 

RIFE,a^-.        ^     Saxon  fiype;  Belg.  rijf; 

Rife'lt,  ocfo.     >Swed.  ref.     Prevalent;  a- 

Rife'ness,  n.  s.  l  bounding :  the  adverb  and 
noun^ubstantive  correspondmg:  nsed  of  epide- 
mical distempers. 

While  those  restless  derires,  in  great  men  ri/k. 
To  visit  so  low  folks  did  much  disaein. 
This  while,  though  poor,   they  in  themselves  did 
reign.  fiUMf. 

GnyoQ  doselv  did  await 
Advantage ;  whilst  his  foe  did  rage  most  n^; 
Sometimes  athwart,  sometimes  he  strook  him  straight. 
And  fialted  oft  his  blows.  Spmuer. 

The  plague  was  then  rife  in  Hungary.     KnaOet. 

It  was  rifei^  r^rted  that  the  Turks  were  coming 
in  a  great  fleet.  Id.  Hisiorp. 

Blessings  then  are  plentifal  and  r^e. 
More  plentiful  than  hope.  HeHtert, 

Space  may  produce  new  worlds ;  whereof  so  rift 
There  went  a  tame  in  heaven,  that  he  ere  long 
Intended  to  create.  MOtarCt  Paradite  Lo§i. 

Before  the  plague  of  London,  inflammations  of  the 
lunes  were  rife  and  mortaL  ArbtOhnet  en  Air. 

He  ascribes  the  great  rifenem  of  carbuncles  in  the 
summer,  to  the  great  heats.  /d. 

Secure  beneath  the  storm 
Which  in  Ambition's  lofty  land  is  rife. 
Where  peace  and  love  are  cankered  by  the  wonn 
Of  pride,  each  bud  of  joy  indastrious  to  deform. 

Beattie. 

RI'FLE,  ».  a.  I    Fr.  riffer;  rifler;  Belg.  rijfe- 

Ri'fleb,  n.  s.  S  len ;  ^ed.  rifla.  To  rob ; 
pillage ;  plunder ;  take  away. 

Stand,  Sir,  and  throw  us  what  you  have  about 
you ;  if  not,  we'll  make  yon,  Sii,  and  rt^  yon. 


Men,  by  his  suggestion  taught. 
Ransacked  the  centre,  and  with  impious  hands 
Rifled  the  bowels  of  their  .mother  earth. 
For  treasures  better  hid.        Milion*$  Parmdise  Lael. 

You  have  rified  my  master ;  who  shall  maintain 
me  ?  VEsbrmnge. 

A  commander  in  the  parliament's  rebel  army  rijkd 
and  defaced  the  cathedral  at  Litchfield.  SouOu 

Mjne  is  thy  daughter,  priest,  and  shall  remain. 
And  prayers,  and  tears,  and  bribes  shall  plead  in 

vain. 
Till  time  shall  rifle  eveiy  youthful  grace.        P«pc. 

Rifle,  in  military  afiairs,  a  kind  of  gun, 
which  has  the  inside  of  its  barrel  cut  with  ftom 
three  to  nine  or  ten  spiral  grooves,  so  as  to  make 
it  resemble  a  female  screw,  varying  from  ^  com- 
mon screw  only  in  this,  that  its  grooves  or  rifles 

Digitized  by  VjUUyiC 


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tre  less  deflected,  and  epprotch  more  to  a  ri|;fat 
line^  it  being  usual  for  tne  grooves  with  which 
the  best  rifled  baitds  are  cut,  to  take  about  one 
whole  torn  in  a  length  of  thirty  inches.  The 
number  of  these  grooves  differs  according  to  the 
size  of  the  barrel  and  futcy  of  the  workman; 
and  theb  depth  and  width  are  not  regulated  by 
any  invariable  rule.  There  are  also  different 
methods  of  chaxging  pieces  of  this  kind,  but  the 
usual  one  is  as  follows : — ^After  the  powder  is 
put  in,  a  leaden  bullet,  somewhat  larger  than  the 
bore  of  the  gun,  is  taken,  and  it,  having  been 
well  greased,  is  laid  on  the  mouth  of  the  piece, 
and  rammed  down  with  an  iron  rammer.  The 
softness  of  the  lead  giving  way  to  the  violence 
with  which  the  bullet  is  impelled,  that  zone  of  the 
bullet  which  b  contiguous  to  the  piece,  varies 
its  circular  form,  and  acquires  the  shape  of  the 
inside  of  the  barrel,  so  that  it  becomes  the  part 
of  a  male  screw,  exactly  fitting  the  indents  ot  the 
rifle.  And  hence  it  happens  that,  when  die 
piece  is  fired,  the  indented  'zone  of  the  bullet 
tbllows  the  sweep  of  the  rifles,  and  thereby,  be- 
sides its  progressive  motion,  acquires  a  circular 
one  round  the  axis  of  the  Innel,  which  motion 
will  be  continued  to  the  bullet  after  its  separa- 
tion from  the  piece  ;  by  which  means  a  bullet 
discharged  from  a  rifled  barrA  is  constantly 
made  to  whirl  round  an  axis  which  is  coincident 
with  the  line  of  its  flight. 

In  Germany  and  Switzerland,  an  improvement 
is  made  in  the  above  method,  by  cutting  a  piece 
of  very  thin  leather  in  a  circular  shape,  larger 
than  the  bore  of  the  barrel.  This  circular  piece 
being  greased  on  one  side  is  laid  upon  the 
rau2zle  with  its  greasy  side  downwards,  and  the 
bullet,  being  placed  upon  it,  is  then  forced  down 
the  barrel  with  it :  by  which  means  the  leather 
encloses  the  lower  half  of  the  bullet,  and  by  its 
interposition  between  the  rifles,  prevents  the 
lead  from  being  cut  by  them.  But  in  those  bar> 
rels  where  this  method  is  practised,  the  rifles  are 
generally  shallow,  and  the  bullet  ought  not  to  be 
too  large.  The  rifle-barrels,  which  have  been 
made  in  England,  where  they  are  not  very  com- 
mon, are  contrived  to  be  charged  at  the  breech, 
the  piece  being,  for  this  purpose,  made  huger 
there  than  in  any  other  part.  The  powder  and 
bullet  are  put  in  tibrougn  the  side  of  the  barrel 
by  an  opening,  which,  when  the  piece  is  loaded, 
is  filled  up  vriUi  a  screw.  By  this  means,  when 
the  piece  is  fired,  the  bullet  is  forced  through  the 
rifles,  and  acquires  the  same  spiral  motion  as  in 
the  former  kind  of  pieces ;  but  these  are  neither 
safe  nor  so  certain  as  the  others. 

To  enable  these  pieces  to  be  loaded  with 
greater  expedition,  it  has  been  proposed  to  have 
the  balls  cast  with  projections  to  tnem,  by  mak- 
ing corresponding  hollows  round  the  zone  of  the 
bullet-mould ;  by  this  means  the  balls  may  be 
fitted  so  accurately  to  the  rifles  as. to  leave 
scarcely  any  windage ;  while  the  friction  will  be 
less  than  it  is  either  when  the  ball  is  put  m  at  the 
breech,  or  forced  in  at  the  muzzle.  And,  to  render 
them  in  this  respect  still  more  complete,  the 
sweep  of  the  rifles  should  be  in  each  part  exactly 
parallel  to  each  other ;  for  then,  after  the  bullet 
is  once  put  in  motion,  it  will  slide  out  of  the 
barrel  without  any   shake,   and  with  a  much 


smaller  degree  of  ftiction  than  if  the  threads  of 
the  rifles  have  not  all  of  them  the  same  degree 
of  incurvation.  The  foreigners  are  so  exact  in 
this  respect  that  th^try  their  pieces  in  the  fol- 
lowing manner : — ^lliey  first  pour  melted  lead 
into  them,  and,  letting  it  cool,  they  procure  a  ^ 
leaden  cylinder  of  perhaps  two  or  three  diame- 
ters in  length,  exactly  fitted  to  one  part  of  the 
inside  of  the  piece;  then  if  this  leaden  cylinder, 
being  gendy  pushed  by  the  rammer,  will  pass 
from  one  end  of  the  bsurel  to  the  other,  without 
any  sensible  stmin  or  effort,  they  pronoutice  the 
piece  perfect ;  but  if  it  any  where  sticks,  or  moves 
nard,  they  esteem  it  defective. 

RIFLIEMEN,  marksmen  armed  with  rifles. 
They  formed  the  most  formidable  enemies  during 
the  war  in  America,  being  posted  along  the 
American  ranks,  and  behind  hedges,  &c.,  for  the 
purpose  of  picking  off  the  British  officers ;  many 
of  whom  fell  by  the  rifle  in  our  contest  with 
that  country.  Most  of  these  were  hunters  and 
back  woodsmen,  who  could  hit  a  dollar  at  eishty 
paces,  and  were  not  therefore  likely  to  miss  dieir 
aim.  In  the  attack  of  New  Orleans,  a  band  of 
these  men  posted  behind  a  breached  redoubt 
rendered  it  perfectly  impregnable.  One  of  these 
men  having  claimed  the  honor  of  killing  a  Bri- 
tish officer,  another  asserted  that  he  himself  had 
shot  him  in  the  breast.  *  I  am  sure  I  hit  him  in 
the  head,*  replied  the  other,  and  on  examination 
he  was  found  shot  through  both  in  the  breast  and 
head,  though  the  British  troops  never  approached 
nearer  the  rampart  than  150  yards.  This  has 
been  called  murderous  practice,  and  some  per- 
sons have  questioned  how  far  it  ought  to  be  ad- 
mitted in  civilised  warfare;  but  is  not  war  itself 
a  murderous  practice?  A  citizen  of  Boston  being 
asked,  after  the  afiair  at  Lexington,  'how  he 
dared  to  take  aim  at  a  British  officer  as  he  would 
at  a  mad  doe  ?  *  replied  that,  '  having  made  up 
his  mind  to  fight,  he  thought  he  had  better  take 
aim  to  prevent  waste  of  time  and  ammunition.' 
Our  infantry,  on  the  contrary,  never  take  aim,  but, 
like  the  heroes  of  Chalk  Farm,  generally  fire  over 
their  opponents'  heads.  'The  musket  in  such 
hands/  ooserves  colonel  James,  *  is  by  no  means 
so  formidable  a  weapon  as  the  old  English  bow. 
A  brigade  of  rifles  has  indeed  been  added  to  our 
war  establishment,  but  it  is  throughout  the  line 
that  the  system  of  firing  is  defective.' 

RIFT,  n.  # ,  v.  a.,  &  v.  n.  Goth.  rift.  From 
'Rive.  A  cleft;  breach;  opening:  to  cleave;  to 
burst. 

He  pliickt  a  bough,  out  of  whose  rift  there  come 
Small  drops  of  gory  blood.  Speruer, 

She  did  confine  thee 
Into  a  cloven  pine,  within  which  >t/% 
Imprisoned,  tbou  didst  painfully  remain. 

Sk^ktpeare, 
To  the  dread  latHing  thunder 
Have  I  given  fire,  and  riftgd  Jove's  stout  oak 
With  his  own  bolt.  Id,  Tempett. 

I'd  shridi,  that  even  your  ears 
Should  rift  to  hear  me.  Id,  Wmter*t  TaU, 

In  St.  James's  fields  is  a  conduit  of  brick,  unto 
which  ioineth  a  low  vault ;  at  the  end  of  that  is  a 
round  house,  with  a  small  slit  or  rift ;  and  in  the 
conduit  a  window :  if  you  cry  out  in  the  rift,  it 
makes  a  fearful  roaring  at  the  window.  Bacon, 

Some  trees  are  best  for  ship- timber,  as  oaks  that 

Google 


Digitized  by 


'gl 


RIG 


603 


RIG 


grow  m  moUt  grounds ;  for  that  maketh  the  dmber 
tough,  and  not  apt  to  rifi  with  ordnance. 

JSacun'f  NaiuToi  History, 
Either  tropick 
'Gan  thunder,  and  both  ends  of  heaven ;  the  clouds 
From  many  a  horrid  rift  abortive  poured 
Fierce  rain,  with  lightning  mixt.  MUtan, 

At  siffht  of  him  the  people  with  a  shout 
RifUd  the  air.  Id,  Agonistet, 

Some  pick  out  bullets  from  the  vessels'  sides. 
Some  drive  old  oakum  through  each  seam  and  rift. 

DrydML. 
On  rifted  rocks,  the  dragon's  late  abodes, 
The  green  reed  trombles.,  Fope't  Memah. 

'  RIG,  v.  a.        )    From  rig  or  ridge,  the  back. 
Rig'ging,  n.«.  S  To  dress ;  accoutre ;  fit  with 
tackle  :  the  tackle  of  a  ship :  <  cloaths  are  pro- 
verbially said  ^to  be  for  the  back,  and  victuals 
for  the  belly.*  *  Johnson. 

My  minde  for  Egypt  stoode ; 
When  nine  faire  ships  I  rigged  forth  for  the  flood. 

Chapman, 
He  bids  them  rig  the  fleet.  Denham, 

To  plow  the  deep. 
To  make  fit  rigging,  or  to  build  a  ship.     Creech^ 

He,  like  a  foolish  pilot,  hath  shipwrecked 
M^  vessel  gloriously  rigged.      Mittont  Agonittet, 
His  battered  rigging  their  whole  war  receives. 
All  bare,  like  some  old  oak  with  tempests  beat, 
He  stands,  and  sees  below  his  scattered  leaves. 

Drgden, 
Jack  was  ri^ed  out  in  his  gold  and  silver  lace, 
with  a  feather  m  his  cap ;  and  a  pretty  figure  he  made 
in  the  world.  V Estrange, 

The  sinner  shall  set  forth  like  a  ship  launched 
into  the  wide  sea,  not  only  well  built  and  rigged ; 
but  also  carried  on  with  full  wind.  South. 

He  rigged  out  another  small  fleet,  and  the  Achasans 
engageohim  with  theirs.  Arbuthnot. 

RIGA,  the  capital  of  Livonia,  European  {Rus- 
sia, is  situated  in  a  large  plain  on  the  Dwina  or 
Duna,  nine  miles  from  the  sea.  It  was,  in  a  com- 
mercial sense,  the  second  city  of  Russia,  until  the 
rapid  increase  of  Odessa.  The  port  is  both  spacious 
and  safe ;  and  the  town  stands  on  the  right,  the  su- 
burbs on  the  left  bank  of  the  river.  Without  being  a 
regular  fortress,  Riga  has  considerable  strength: 
the  entrance  of  the  river  is  guarded  by  the  fortress 
of  Dunamunde.  The  principal  public  buildings 
are  the  town-house,  exchange,  house  of  assembly 
for  the  states  of  Livonia,  the  arsenal,  the  ^o^i- 
tal  of  St.  George,  and  the  Catharinenhof.  The 
church  of  St.  Peter  is  remarkable  for  its  fine 
tower.  The  Baltic  being  frozen  during  winter, 
vessels  are  laid  up  in  dock  here  during  several 
months.  The  Dwina  is  crossed  by  a  bridge  of 
pontoons,  which  rise  and  fall^with  the  tide.  Its 
breadth  is  forty  feet,  but  its  length  less  than  260% 
feet,  forming  in  summer  a  fashionable  promenade. 
At  the  beginning  of  winter  the  pontoons  are  re- 
moved, and  the  piles  being  raised  by  the  frost,  are 
drawn  on  shore  where  they  remain  till  spring,  the 
river  being,  during  this  interval,  passed  on  the  ice. 
The  shipping  in  the  river  indicates  great  activity. 
The  export  trade  is  chiefly  managed  by  English 
and  Scotch  houses,  whose  principal  articles  of 
commerce  are  timber,  flax,  hemp,  and  com.  The 
majority  of  the  inhabitants  are  Germans  and 
Livonians,  the  Russians  being  comparatively 
few.  Canals  are  the  grand  desiderata  of  Russian 
sea-ports,  and  a  new  one  is  now  excavating  here 


for  communication  with  the  uterior.  The 
average  number  of  vessels  arriving  yearly 
at  Riga,  is  between  700  and  800 ;  the  com- 
puted value  of  the  exports  £1,000,000  ster- 
ling, of  which  fully  the  half  are*  sent  to  Britisk 
ports.  The  manufactures  are  insignificant, 
being  confined  to  starch, 'sugar,  and  small  arti- 
cles. The  imports,  if  not  equal  in  value  to  the 
exports,  are  more  varied,  comprising  groceries, 
printed  cottons,  woollens,  silk,  and  wine,  bay- 
salt  and  fish.  Bay  salt,  imported  chiefly  from 
Spain,  is  sent  up  the  Dwina.  In  xespect  to  reli- 
gion, the  majonty  are  Lutherans,  or  members  of 
the  Greek  church.  There  is  iiere  a  lyceum  or 
academy ;  a  high  school,  whh  a  pruvision  for 
maintaining  and  educating  poor  children  ;  a 
public  library,  a  cabinet  of  natural  history,  and 
a  literary  society,  all  recently  formed.  Riga  has 
suffered  much  both  by  fire  and  sieges. 

The  Gulf  of  Riga  is  a  considerable  bay  of  the 
Baltic,  between  Courland,  Livonia,  and  Estbonia. 
It  is  also  called  the  Gulf  of  Livonia. 

RIGALTIUS  (Nicolas),  an  ingenious  French 
author,  the  son  of  a  physician,  bom  in  Parus 
1577.  He  was  educated  among  the  Jesuits. 
His  first  work,  Funus  Parasiticum,  printed  in 
1596,  procured  him'  the  friendship  of  Th  m. . , 
who,  when  be  died  in  1617,  appointed  him  a 
tutor  to  his  children.  He  was  appointed  to  ar- 
range the  roval  library  along  with  Ijiaac  Casau- 
bon,  whom  he  succeeded  as  libiarian.  He  was 
next  made  procureur-general  of  the  snpreme 
court  of  Nancy,  counsellor  of  the  parliament  of 
Metz,  and  intendant  of  that  province.  He  wrote 
many  learned  works,  but  is  chiefly  valued  for 
his  critical  notes  upon  Cyprian  and  Tertullian. 
He  died  in  1654. 

RIGAUD  (Hyacinth),  an  embent  ^*^encfa 
painter,  bom  at  Perpignan,  in  1663,  and  gene- 
rally called  the  Vandyck  of  France.  He  was 
director  of  the  Academy  of  Paintings,  and  died 
in  1743. 

RIGBY  (Richard),  esq.,  an  eminent  political 
character,  bom  about  1722.  His  father  was  a 
woollen-draper  in  London;  and  having  been 
appointed  factor  of  the  South  Sea  Company,  un- 
der the  assiento  contract  with  Spain,  had  accu- 
mulated a  fortune,  and  purchased  the  estate  of 
Mistley  Hall  in  Essex,  worth  £1100  a-year. 
Dying,  in  1730,  he  was  succeeded  by  his  only 
son,  Richard ;  who,  on  becoming  of  age,  was  re- 
turned for  Sudbury,  after  a  most  expensive 
election,  and  was  soon  courted  by  both  parties 
in  parliament.  He  became  attached  to  the  duke 
of  Bedford,  who,  being  appointed  lord  lieu- 
tenant of  Ireland,  took  Mr:  Itigby  with  him  as 
his  secretary.  Under  the  duke's  administntion, 
the  afiairs  of  Ireland  were  managed  so  much  to 
the  satisfaction  of  the  king,  that  he  appointed 
Rtgby  to  the  lucrative  sinecure  place  of  master 
of  the  rolls.  The  duke,  at  his  death,  left  him 
one  of  his  executors,  with  a  large  legacy.  On 
the  20th  of  April,  1763,  Mr.  Rigby  was  made 
a  privy  counsellor  of  Great  Britain,  under  the 
duke  of  Grafton.  On  the  6th  January,  1768, 
he  was  appointed  one  of  the  vice- treasurers  of 
Ireland,  a  sinecure  of  £3000  a-year,  but  this  he 
soon  resigned  for  tlie  office  of  pavmasier-general 
of  the  forces,  a  place  worth  xl6,000  a-year, 


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which  h«  held  from  June  14th,  1768,  till  March 
1782 ;  80  ataX  for  fourteen  years,  his  annual  in- 
come was  not  less  than  £20,000.  The  dissolu- 
tion of  lord  North's  administration  put  an  end 
also  lo  Mr.  Rigb/s  political  existence.  He 
avoided  farther  interference  with  all  parties,  but 
this  did  not  prevent  his  being  called  upon  by 
both  to  give  an  account  of  his  administration  of 
the  public  money.  Mr.  Rigby  compromised 
matters,  and  paid  £10,000  for  the  interest  of  the 
unsettled  balance,  a  circumstance  totally  without 
precedent.  He  died  April  6th,  1788,  leaving 
only  one  natural  daughter. 

RiGCJNO  OF  A  Ship,  a  general  name  given  to 
all  the  ropes  employed  to  support  the  masts,  and 
to  extend  or  reduce  the  sails,  or  arrange  them  to 
the  disposition  of  the  wind:  The  former,  jwhich 
are  used  to  sustain  the  masts,  remain  usually  in 
a  fixed  position,  and  are  called  standing  rigging  ; 
such  are  the  shrouds,  stays,  and  back-stays. 
The  latter,  whose  office  is  to  manage  the  sails,  by 
communicating  with  various  blocks  or  pulleys 
situated  in  different  places  of  the  masts,  yards, 
shrouds,  &c.,  are  compiehended  in  the  general 
term  of  running  rigging ;  such  are  the  braces, 
sheets,  haliards,  clue-lines,  brails,  &c.  See 
Ships. 

RIG'GISH,  adj.  From  rig,  an  old  word  for 
a  whore.    Johnson.    Wanton :  whorish. 

Vilest  things 
Become  themselves  in  her,  that  the  holy  priests 
Bless  her,  when  she  is  riggiih.  Shakspeare. 

RIGHT,  adj^y  adv.y  mterj^  n.  s.,*)     Sax.  fii^t; 

Right'eous,  adj.  [&  v.  a.    Belf^.regkt ; 

Right'eously,  adv.  Teut.  recht ; 

Right'eousness,  n.  s.  Ital.  retto  ; 

RjGHT^FUL,  adj.  >Lat.  recha. 

Right'fully,  ado.  Fit ;  proper; 

RiGHi^FULNEss,  n.  s.  just;   true; 

RiCHf  LY,  oc/v.  becoming; 

Rig  BIGNESS,  n.  s.  J  preferred 

(hence  the  *  right  hand*) ;  convenient :  as  an  ad- 
verb, direct ;  according  to  rule ;  in  a  great  de- 
gree: as  a  noun-substantive,  justice;  truth; 
correctness;  just  claim ;  interest;  property  ;  im- 
munity :  •  to  rights*  is,  to  a  right  or  proper  po- 
sition :  to  right,  to  do  justice  to :  righteous,  just ; 
honest;  equitable:  the  adverb  and  noun-sub- 
stantive corresponding :  rightful,  having  the  right 
or  a  just  claim :  the  adverb  and  noun-substantive 
corresponding:  rightly,  according  to  right  or  to 
justice;  exactly:  rightness  corresponding. 

And  he  took  hym  by  the  righthmtd  and  heuyde 
hym  up.  Wielif.  Dedi*.  3. 

That  be  far  from  thee>  to  slay  the  righteous  with 
the  wicked  ;  and  that  the  righteous  should  be  as  the 
wicked.  Genesis. 

The  Lord  God  led  me  in  the  right  way. 

Id.  xxiv.  48. 

The  people  passed  over  right  against  Jericho. 

Joshva  iii.  16. 

Their  heart  was  not  right  with  him,  neither  were 
they  stedfast  in  his  covenant.        Psalm  Ixxviii.  37. 

A  thousand  shall  fall  at  thy  side,  and  ten  thou- 
sand at  thy  right  hand ;  but  it  shall  not  come  nigh 
thee.  Id.  xci.  7. 

Ye  shall  he  driven  out  right  forth,  and  none  shall 
gather  up  him  that  wandereth.      Jeremiah  xlix.  5. 

We  wish  one  end ;  but  differ  in  orde»  and  way, 
that  leadeth  rightly  to  that  end.  AMcham. 


But  still  although  we  fell  in  perfect  Hghifltktm, 
Seek  we  to  tame  these  superfluiues. 
Nor  wholly  wink  though  void  of  purest  sightfulness. 

Sidney, 
Nor  would,  for  geld  or  fee 
Be  won,  their  rightful  causes  down  te  tread. 

Spenser. 
The  scripture,  ascribing  to  the  persons  of  men 
righteousness,  in  regard  of  their  manifold  virtues, 
may  not  be  constru^,  as  though  it  did  thereby  clear 
them  from  all  faults.  Hooker. 

The  proud  tyrant  would  many  times  say,  that 
whatsoever  belonged  unto  the  empire  of  Rome, 
was  of  right  his,  for  as  much  as  he  was  possessed 
of  the  imperial  scepter,  which  his  ereat  grandfather 
Mahomet  had  by  law  of  arms  won  from  Constantine. 

KivaUes. 
You  are  right ,  justice,  and  you  weigh  this  well ; 
Therefore,  still  bear  the  balance  and  &e  sword. 

ShakMpeare. 
The  citizens. 
Let  them  but  have  their  rights,  are  ever  forward 
In  celebration  of  this  day  with  shews.  Id. 

How  will  this  grieve  you. 
When  you  shall  come  to  clearer  knowledge,  that 
You  thus  have  published  me !  gentle,  my  lord, 
You  scarce  can  right  me  thoroughly.  Id. 

Right  noble  princes, 
ni  acquaint  our  duteous  citizen.  Jd, 

1  cannot  joy,  until  I  be  resolved 
Where  our  right  valiant  is  become.  Jd. 

Some  will  mourn  in  asbes,  some  coal  black, 
For  the  deposing  of  a  rightfid  king.        '  Id. 

The  rank  of  osiers,  by  the  murmuring  stream. 
Left  on  your  right-hand  brings  you  to  the  place.  Id. 

Let  my  jealousies  be  jrour  dishonour  ; 
Yon  may  be  rightly  just,  whatever  I  shall  think. 

The  Roman  citizens  were,  by  the  sword,  taught  to 
acknowledge  the  pope  their  lord,  though  they  knew 
not  by  what  right.  Hatei^h. 

^  Insects  have  voluntary  motion,  and  therefore  mia- 
gination  ;  for  ants  go  right  forward  to  their  hills, 
and  bees  know  the  way  from  a  flowery  heath  to  their 
hives.  Bacon. 

Persons  of  noble  blood  are  less  envied  in  their 
rising ;  for  it  seemeth  but  right  done  to  their  birth. 

Id. 
Sounds  move  strongest  in  a  right  line,  which  ne- 
vertheless is  not  caused  by  the  rightness  of  the  line, 
but  by  the  shortness  of  the  distance. 

Id.  Natural  History. 
When  I  had  climbed  a  height 
Rough  and  right  hardly  accessible ;  I  might 
Behold  from  Circe's  house,  that  in  a  grove 
Stit  thicke  with  trees  stood,  a  bright  vapour  move. 

Chapman. 
The  senate  will  smart  deep 
For  your  upbraidings :  I  should  be  right  sorry 
To  have  the  means  so  to  be  venged  on  you, 
As  I  shall  shortly  on  them.  Ben  Jonson. 

I  mention  the  right  honourable  Thomas  Howard, 
lord  hieh  marshal.  Peacham  on  Drawing. 

His  faith  |>erhaps  in  some  nice  tenets  might 
Be  wrong ;  bis  life  I'm  sure  was  in  the  right. 

Cowley. 
If  the  injured  person  be  not  righted  every  one  of 
them  is  wholly  guilty  of  the  injustice,  and  bound  to 
restitution.  Taylor. 

Their  only  thoughts  and  hope  was  to  defend  their 
own  rights  and  liberties,  due  to  them  by  the  law. 

Clarendon. 
On  his  right 
The  radiant  image  of  his  glory  sat. 
His  only  Son.  Millm. 


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This  wty,  rMa  down  to  Panulifte  descend,    id. 
One  rising,  eminent 
In  wise  deport,  spake  mnch  of  righi  mnd  wrong. 
Of  jiutioe,  of  religion,  trath,  and  peace, 
And  judgment  from  aboTe.  Id.  PtnadUe  Lott. 

Subdue  by  force,  all  who  refuse 
Right  reason  for  their  law  ;  and  for  their  king 
Messiah,  who  by  right  of  merit  leigns.         MiUan. 

Each  of  his  raign  allotted,  rightUer  called 
Pow'rs  of  fire,  air,  water,  and  earth  beneath.      Id. 

Descend  from  heaven,  Urania  I  by  that  name 

If  rightlp  thou  art  called.  Id.  ParmdUe  Loti, 

Right  many  a  widow  his  keen  blade. 

And  many  fatherless  hath  made.       Hudibnu, 

It  is  not  with  certainty  to  be  received  concerning 

the  right  and  left  hand,  that  men  natnrally  make 

use  of  the  right,  and  tfaAt  the  use  of  the  other  is  a 

digression.  Browne* 

Yon,  with  strict  discipline  instructed  right. 

Have  learned  to  use  your  arms  before  you  fight« 

xiWcomwioH. 
I  could  not  expedient  see. 
On  this  side  death,  to  right  our  family.     WdUer. 
God  hath  a  sovereip  r^/ht  over  us,  as  vre  are  his 
creatures,  and  by  virtue  of  this  right,  he  might, 
without  injustice,  have  imposed  difficult  tasks  :  but 
in  making  laws,  he  haUi  not  made  use  of  this  right. 

TilUftt9H. 
Some  seeking  unto  courts,  and  judicial  endeavours 
to  ri^  ourselves,  are  jitill  innocent.  KettUworth.^ 
Our  calendar  wants  to  be  refoimed,  and  the  equi- 
nox rightltf  computed ;  and,  being  once  reformed  and 
set  ri^fci.  It  may  be  kept  so,  by  omitting  the  additional 
day  at  the  end  of  every  hundred  and  thirty-four 
years.  Holder  an  Timt. 

The  custom  of  employing  these  great  persons  in 
all  great  offices  passes  for  a  rt^^.  TgmfU. 

Tne  left  foot  naked,  when  they  march  to  fight. 
But  in  a  bull's  raw  hide  they  sheathe  the  ri^t, 

Drgdtn. 
Take  heed  you  steer  your  vessel  right,  my  son. 
This  calm  of  heaven,  this  mermaid's  melody. 
Into  an  unseen  whirlpool  draws  you  fast. 
And  in  a  moment  sinks  you.  Id. 

The  pris'ner  freed  himself  by  nature's  laws. 
Bom  free,  he  sought  his  rt^At.  Id. 

Make  my  father  known. 
To  right  my  honour,  and  redeem  your  own.        Id. 

Kill  my  rival  too,  for  he  no  less 
Deserves  ;  and  I  thy  righteotu  doom  will  bless.  Id. 
Here  wretched  Fhlegias  warns  the  world  with 
cries,  • 

Could  warning  make  the  world  more  just  or  vrise  ; 
Learn  righteanmm,  and  dread  the'  avenging  deities. 

Id. 
My  ri^  to  it  appears, 
By  long  possession  of  eight  hundred  years.        Id. 

Descriptions,  figures,  and  fables,  roust  be  in  all 
heroick  poems ;  every  poet  hath  as  much  right  to 
them,  as  every  man  hath  to  air.  Id. 

Henry,  who  claimed  by  succession,  was  sensible 
that  his  title  was  not  found,  but  was  rightfully  in 
Mortimer,  who  had  married  the  heir  of  Yoric. 

Id,  Preface  to  Fablet. 
.   Should  I  grant,  thou  didst  not  rightly  see  ; 
.    Then  thou  wert  fitst  deceived.  Dryd^. 

Might  and  rigltt  are  inseparable  in  the  opinion  of 
the  world.  VEttrtmge. 

To  understand  political  power  right,  and  derive  it 
from  its  original,  we  must  consider  what  state  all 
men  are  naturally  in,  and  (hat  is  a  state  of  perfect 
freedom  to  order  their  actions,  and  dispose  or  their 
posaesuons  and  persons.  Locke. 

There  being  no  law  of  nature,  nor  positive  law  of 
God,  that  detennines  which  is  the  right  heir  in  all 


cases,  the  i4ghi  of  toooestioB  could  not  have  been 
certainly  determined.  Id, 

The  idea  •£  a  rwAf  lined  triangk  necaseafiiy  car- 
ries with  it  an  equllity.  of  its  anglea  t»  two  right  ones. 

Id. 
A  man  can  never  have  so  certain  a  knowledge, 
that  a  proposition  which  contradicts  the  clear  princi- 
ples oi^  his  own  knowledge,  was  divinely  revealed, 
or  that  he  understands  the  words  rightly,  wherein  it 
is  delivered  ;  as  he  has,  that  the  contiaiy  is  true. 

/d. 
Good  men  often  suffer,  and  th^  even  for  tlie  sake 
of  rigfiteoiunett.  Jfebun. 

It  IS  not  necessary  for  a  man  to  be  aasiired  of  the 
righttontMttvi  his  conscience,  by  such  an  inftiOible 
certainty  of  fMrsoaaion  as  amounts  to  the  clearness  of 
a  demonstration ;  but  it  is  sufficient  if  he  knows  it 
upon  grounds  of  such  a  probability  as  shall  exclude 
all  rational  g^rounds  of  doubting.  SohcIL 

Agrippa  is  severally  rangra  in  sets  of  medals 
among  tne  emperoia  ;  as  some  among  the  empresses 
have  no  other  right,  Addieon, 

Seldom  your  opinions  err ; 
Your  eves  are  always  in  the  ri^,       Pritr. 
Gather  all  the  smiling  hours  -, 
Such  as  with  friendly  care  have  guarded 
Patriots  and  kings  in  rifhtfid  wan.  AL 

We  invade  the  rightt  of  our  neiehboun,  Bot  upon 
account  of  covetousness,  but  of  dominion,  that  we 
may  create  dependencies.  CoUier  on  Pride. 

These  strata  failing,  the  whole  tr«ct  sinks  down  to 
righu  in  the  abyss,  and  is  swallowed  vp^it. 

Woodwnrd. 
Like  brute  beasts,  we  travel  vrith  the  herd,  and 
are  never  so  solicitous  |for  the  righineu  of  the  way, 
as  for  the  number  or  figure  of  our  company. 

nogere  9  Setweeu. 
A  time  there  will  be,  when  all  these  unequal  dis- 
tributions of  good  and  evil  shall  be  setr^,  and  the 
vrisdom  of  all  his  transactions  made  as  dnr  as  the 
noon-day. 

Right,  cries  his  lordship,  for  a  rogue  in  i 
To  have  a  taste  is  insolence  indeed  ; 
In  me  'tis  noble,  suits  by  birth  and  state.        Pope, 
Is  this  a  bridal  or  a  friendly  feast  1 
Of  whom  their  deeds  I  rightlier  may  divine. 
Unseemly  flown  with  insolence  or  vrine.      Id. 
If  iny  present  and  past  experience  do  exactly  coin- 
cide, I  shall  then  be  disposed  to  think  tbem  both 
right.  Beottie. 

Rights,  Bill  op,  in  law,  b  a  declatatiott 
delivered  by  Ae  lords  and  commoDS  to  the 
prince  and  princess  of  Oninge,  13th  of  Febraaiy 
1688;  and  afterwards  enacted  in  parliament, 
when  they  became  king  and  queen.  It  sets 
forth  that  king  James  did,  by  the  advici!  of 
diyeis  evil  counsellors^  endeavour  to  subvert  the 
laws  and  liberties  of  this- kingdom,  by  exercisiFg 
a  power  of  dispensing  with  and  sospendhng  dl 
laws;  by  levying  money  for  the  use  of  tbe 
crown,  by  pretence  of  prerogative,  without  the 
consent  of  parliament;  by  prosecuting  those  who 
petitioned  the  kiifg,  and  discouraging  peUtioos ; 
oy  raising  and  keeping  a  standing  army  in  time 
of  peace;  by  yiolating  the  freedom  of  electioii  of 
members  to  serve  in  parliament;  by  violent  fn- 
secutions  in  the  court  of  king^s  bench,  and 
causing  partial  and  corrupt  jurors  to  be  reiunied 
on  trials,  excessive  bail  to  be  taken,  excessive 
fines  to  be  imposed,  and  cruel  punishments  to 
be  inflicted;  all  of  which  wefe  declared  to  be 
illegal.  And  the  declaration  concludes  in  these 
remarkable  words ;  and  they  do  claim,  demacd,. 


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RIG 

and  insist  upon,  *  all  and  singular  the  premises, 
as  tlieir  undoubted  rights  and  liberties/  And 
the  act  of  pariiament  itself  (1  W.  &  M.  stat. 
2  cap.  2),  recognizes  *  all  and  singular  the  rights 
and  liberties  asserted  and  claimed  in  the  said 
declaration  to  be  the  true,  ancient,  indubitable 
rights  of  the  people  of  this  kingdom/ 

RIGID,  «[;.      ^     Fr.  r^Kfe;  Lat:  r^Mi. 

Rigid'ity,  ft.  <.  f  Stiff ;  inflexible ;  unpliant ; 

Rig'idly, adv.    &  severe;  cruel;    the  nouxi- 

Rfo'iDNEss,  n.  t.  J  substantives  and  adverb 
corresponding. 

Thii  sefere  obiervation  of  nature,  by  the  one  in 
her  commonest,  and  by  the  other  in  her  ahiolutest 
fonns,  miut  needs  produce  in  both  a  kind  of  rigidUy, 
and  consequently  more  naturalness  than  graceful- 
ness. WotUnCt  ArehiUehtre, 

His  leveie  iudgment  giving  law. 
His  modest  fancy  sept  in  awe  ; 
As  rigid  husbands  jealous  are, 
When  they  believe  their  wives  too  iair.      Denham, 

Queen  of  this  univeise !  do  not  believe 
Those  rigid  threats  of  death  j  ye  shall  not  die. 

MiUon, 

A  body  that  ii  hollow  mav  be  demonstrated  to 
be  more  rigid  and  inflexible  than  a  solid  one  of  the 
same  substance  and  weight.      Ra$  an  the  Crwation. 

Cressy  plains 
And  Agincourt,  deep  tinged  with  blood,  confess 
What  the  Siluies  vigour  unwithstood 
^  Coald  do  in  rigid  fight.  Philipt. 

^  Rigidity  is  said  of  the  solids  of  the  body,  when, 
*  being  stifl*  or  impliahle,  they  cannot  readily  perform 
their  respective  offices ;  but  a  fibre  is  said  to  be  rigid 
when  its  paru  so  strongly  cohere  together,  as  not  to 
yield  to  that  action  of  the  fluids,  which  ought  to 
overcome  their  resistance  in  order  to  the  preservation 
of  health.  ArUuthnot, 

RIGXET,  n.  t,  Fr.  refulet,  of  Lajt.  regula.  A 
flat  thin  square  piece  of  wood,  used  by  printers 
and  others. 

The  pieces  that  are  intended  to  make  the  frames 
for  pictures,  before  they  are  moulded,  are  called 
rigUtt.  Moxm. 

RIG'OL,  n.  s.  [perhaps  a  corruption  of  Rih- 
ole].  a  circle.  Used  m  ShakspiBare  for  a  dia- 
dem. 

This  sleep  is  sound ;  this  is  a  sleep, 
That,  from  nis  golden  rigol^  hath  divorced 
So  many  Engliui  kings.        Shakgpeare,  Henry  IV, 

RIGOLL^  or  Regal,  a  kind  of  musical  in- 
strument, consisting  of  several  sticks  bound 
together,  only  separated  by  beads,  and  struck 
with  a  ball  at  the  end  of  a  stick.  Such  is  the 
account  which  Giassineau  gives  of  this  instru- 
ment. Skinner,  upon  the  authority  of  an  old 
English  dictionary, represents  it  as  a  clavichord; 
possibly  founding  his  opinion  on  the  nature  of 
the  office  of  the  tuner  of  the  regals.  Sir  Henry 
Spelman  derives  the  word  rigoU  from  the  Italian 
rigabello,  a  musical  instrument,  anciently  used 
in  churches  instead  of  the  organ.  Walther,  in 
his  description  of  the  regal,  makes  it  to  be  a 
reed-work  in  an  organ,  with  metal  and  also 
wooden  pipes  and  bellows  adapted  to  it.  He 
adds  that  the  name  of  it  is  supposed  to  be 
owing  to  its  having  been  presented  by  the  in- 
ventor to  some  king.    From  an  account  of  the 


RIG 

regal  used  in  Germany,  and  other  parts  of 
Europe,  it  appears  to  consist  of  pipes  and  keys 
on  one  side,  and  the  bellows  and  wind  chest  on 
the  other.  Lord  Verulam  distinguishes  between 
the  regal  and  the  organ,  in  a  manner  which 
shows  them  to  be  instruments  of  the  same  class. 
Upon  the  whole,  there  is  reason  to  conclude 
that  the  regall  or  rigoU  was  a  pneumatic  and  not 
a  stringed  instrument.  Marsennus  relates  that 
the  Flemings  invented  an  instrument,  les  regales 
de  hois,  consisting  of  seventeen  cylindrical 
pieces  of  wood,  decreasing  gradually  in  length, 
so  as  to  produce  &  succession  of  tones  and  semi- 
tones in  the  diatonic  series,  which  had  k^s,  and 
was  played  on  as  a  spinet ;  the  hint  of  which,  he 
says,  was  taken  from  an  instrument  in  use 
among  the  Turks,  consisting  of  twelve  wooden 
cylinders,  of  different  lengths,  strung  together, 
which  being  suspended  ana  struck  with  a  stick, 
having  a  ball  at  the  end,  produced  music. — Haw- 
kins's Hist  Mus.  vol.  ii.  p.  449. 

RIG'OR,  n.  s.       }     Xat.  rigor.  Cold ;  stifi^- 

Rio'oROUs,  adj.      >  ness ;  straitness ;  grimly ; 

Rig'orously,  adv.  j  applied  to  the  cold  fit  of 

some  diseases;  rage:  the  adjective  and  adverb 

corresponding. 

He  at  his  foe  with  furious  rigour  smites, 
That  strongest  oak  might  seem  to  overthrow ; 
The  stroke  upon  his  shield  so  heavy  lishts 
That  to  the  ground  it  douhleth  him  full  low. 

Spenser. 
It  may  not  seem  hard,  if  in  cases  of  necessity 
certain  profitable  ordinances  sometimes  be  released, 
rather  than  all  men  always  strictly  bound  to  the  ge- 
neral rigour  thereof.  Hooker. 

He  shall  be  thrown  down  the  Tarpeian  rock 
With  rigonuM  bands ;  he  hath  resisted  law. 
And  therefore  law  shall  scorn  him  further  trial 
Than  the  severity  of  public  power.         Skakepeare. 

Driven  by  the  necessities  of  the  times  and  the 
temper  of  the  people,  mere  than  led  by  his  own  disr 
position  to  any  height  and  rigour  of  actions. 

King  CharUi, 
Nature  has  eot  the  victor^r  over  passion,  all  his 
rigmtr  is  turned  to  grief  and  pity.     DenAdm'i  Sephy. 
Heat  and  cold  are  not,  according  to  philosophical 
rigour,  the  eflicients ;  but  are  names  expressing  our 

GlanviUe. 


He  resumed  his  rigotm,  esteeming  his  calamity 
such  a  one  as  should  not  be  outlived,  but  that  it  be- 
came men  to  be  martyrs  to.  FaO. 

The  rest  his  look 
Boond  with  Gorgonian  rt^oNr,  not  to  move.  MUtmu 
Lest  they  faint 
At  the  sad  sentence  rigoroualjf  urged, 
For  I  behold  them  softened,  and  with  teare. 
Bewailing  their  excess,  all  terror  hide.        Id. 
The  stones  the  rigour  of  their  kind  expel. 
And  supple  into  softness  as  tbey  fell.  Vryden. 

Does  not  looseness  of  life,  and  want  of  a  due  so- 
briety in  some,  drive  othen  into  rigewn  that  are  un- 
necessary! Sprat. 

The  base  degenerate  age  requires 
Severity  and  justice  in  its  rigour : 
This  awes  an  impious  bold  oiSinding  world. 

Addison. 
Are  these  terms  hard  and  rigorous,  beyond  our  ca- 
pacities to  perform  t  Rogers's  Sermons. 
Rigors,  chillness,  and  a  fever,  attend  every  such 
new  suppuration.  Blackmore. 

Rigour  makes  it  difficult  for  sliding  virtue  to  reco- 
ver. Clariua, 


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RIN 


RILLy  n.  f .  &  V.  a.  )      LaL  rivului.  A  small 
Rill'et,  fi.f.  $  brook ;  a  streamlet :  to 

run  in  small  streams. 

The'  industriouBinuse  thus  labours  to  relate, 
Those  rilUu  that  attend  proud  Tamer  and  her  state. 

Drayton. 
A  creeke  of  Ose,  between  two  hills,  delivering  a 
little  fresh  rUkt  into  the  sea.  Carew, 

May  thy  brimmed  waves  from  this 
Their  full  tribute  never  miss, 
From  a  thousand  petty  rilU, 
That  tumble  down  the  snowy  hills.        Milton, 
lo !  Apollo,  mighty  king,  let  envy. 
Ill-judging  and  verbose,  from  Lethe's  lake. 
Draw  tuns  immeasurable  ;  while  thy  favour 
Administers  to  my  ambitious  thirst 
The  wholesome  draught  from  Aganippe's  spring 
Genuine,  and  with  soft  murmurs  gently  rilling 
Adown  the  mountains  where  thy  daughters  haunt. 

Pruyr. 
On  every  thorn  delightful  wisdom  grows. 
In  every  fiU  a  sweet  instruction  flows  ; 
But  some,  unUught,  o'erhear  the  whispering  rill. 
In  spite  of  sacred  leisure  blockheads  still.     Yomig. 
Ttktn,  a«  meek  Evening  wakes  her  temperate 


And  moon-beams  glimmer  through  the  trembling 

trees. 
The  rilU  that  gurgle  round  shall  sooth  her  ear, 
The  weeping  rocks  shall  number  tear  for  tear. 

Dortmn. 

RIM,  n.  s.  Sax.  pima ;  Tent,  rem,  A  boi^ 
der ;  margin  ;  boundary. 

We  may  not  atBrm  that  ruptures  are  coniinable 
unto  one  side,  as  the  peritoneum  or  rim  of  the  belly 
may  be  broke  ;  or  its  perforations  relaxed  in  either. 
Browru^s  Vulgar  Errours. 

The  drum-maker  uses  it  for  rimbs.         Mortimer, 

It  keeps  off  the  same  thickness  near  its  centre  ; 
while  its  figure  is  capable  of  variation  towards  the 
rim,  Grm). 

RIME,  n.  t.  Sax.  })|um.  Hoar  frost:  also 
of  Goth,  rimma,  a  hole ;  cbink. 

Breathinsr  upon  a  glass  giveth  a  dew  ;  and  in  rimt 
frosts  you  shall  find  drops  of  dew  upon  the  inside  of 
glass  windows.  Bacon. 

The  air  is  now  cold,  hot,  dry,  or  moist;  and  then 
thin,  thick,  foggy,  rinqf,  or  poisonous.  Haroey, 

Though  birds  have  no  epiglottis,  ^et  can  they  con- 
tract the  rime  or  chink  of  their  lannz,  so  as  to  pre- 
vent the  admission  of  wet  or  dry  indigested. 

Brotim«'«  Vulgar  Erroun, 

In  a  hoar  frost,  a  niM  is  a  multitude  of  quadran- 
gular prisms  piled  without  any  order  one  over  ano- 
ther. GrBw, 

RIMINALDI  (Orazio),  an  eminent  historical 
painter,  bom  at  Pisa  in  1598.  His  chief  paint- 
ings are  Samson  destroying  the  Philistines,  the 
Brazen  Serpent,  and  the  Assumption  of  the 
Virgin.    He  died  in  1638. 

RIMINI,  the  ancient  Ariminum,  a  large  town 
of  the  Ecclesiastical  States,  Italy,  situated  on 
the  Mareccbia,  near  its  embouchure.  It  had 
formerly  a  good  harbour ;  but  the  sea  has  now 
retired  to  the  distance  of  a  mile  and  a  half ;  and 
the  town  is  surrounded  by  a  plain,  opening  on 
the  one  side  to  the  Adriatic,  and  bounded  on  the 
other  by  a  ransfe  of  hills,  which  terminate  in  the 
great  chain  of  the  Appennines.  It  coramiini- 
cates  with  the  sea  by  means  of  a  canal  which  is 
almost  choked  at  the  mouth.  Its  streets  are  straight, 
and  contaiji  several  churches  and  family  mansions 


of  beautiful  marble.  In  the  principal  mt^ 
is  a  marble  fountain,  with  a  statue  of  pope  Paul 
v.,  and  in  the  middle  of  the  market  place  a 
pedestal,  from  which  tradition  says  that  Cssar 
harangued  his  army. 

The  cathedral-  and  several  churches  of  Rimini 
are  ornamented  with  marble,  procured  from  the 
ruins  of  the  old  harbour.  That  of  St.  Francis,  a 
fine  ediiice  of  the  fifteenth  century,  has  a  profu- 
sion of  sculptures,  statues,  and  has  reliels.  Ri- 
mini contains  several  valuable  remains  of  Roman 
architecture.  At  the  entrance  of  the  town,  on 
the  side  of  Pesaro,  stands  a  triumphal  ardi  of 
Augustus,  adorned  with  Corinthian  columns, 
from  which  a  broad  street  extends  to  aD  elegant 
.bridge  over  the  Marecchia,  -begun  by  Augustus, 
and  completed  by  Tiberius.  It  is  220  feet  in 
length,  and  consists  of  five  arches  of  white  stone 
or  marble,  found  in  the  neighbouriiood.  Its 
execution  is  remarkably  solid  and  elegant.  Ri- 
mini was  called  Ariminum  from  the  river  Arimi- 
nus,  which  washed  its  walls,  and  formed  at  one 
time  a  small  independent  republic.  At  present 
its  chief  pursuit  is  supplying  the  interior  with 
fish.  It  is  the  see  of  a  bishop.  Twenty-eight 
miles  S.  S.  £.  of  Ravenna,  fitly  north-w^t  ot 
Ancona,  and  150  north  of  Rome. 

RIM'PLE,  or  Rumple,  v.  a.  To  pucker ; 
contract  into  folds.      See  Cbdmplb  and  Ruh- 

PLE. 

The  skin  was  tender,  ako  rimpled  and  blisl«red. 

RIND,  n.  s.  &  V,  n.  Sax.  jim*» ;  Belg.  and 
Teut.  rinde.    Bark ;  busk :  to  bark ;  peel. 

Therewith  a  piteous  gelling  voice  was  heardp 
Crying,  0  spare  with  guilty  hands  to  tear 
My  tender  sides  in  this  rough  rimd  cmbar'd. 

Spemagr, 

Within  the  infant  rind  of  this  small  fiower 
Poison  hath  residence,  atad  medicioe  power. 

Skatgpevrt. 

Thou  can*st  not  touch  the  freedom  of  this  mind 
With  all  thy  charms,  although  this  corporal  rind 
Thou  hast  immanacl'd.  MUtem, 

'J'bese  plants  are  neither  red  nor  polished,  when 
drawn  out  of  the  water,  till  their  rittd  have  been 
taken  off.  Boyle, 

This  monument  thy  maiden  beauty's  due. 
High  on  a  plane-tree  shall  be  hung  to  view ; 
On  the  smooth  rind  the  passeneer  shall  see 
Thy  name  engraved,  and  worsnip  Helen's  tree. 

Drydsm. 

RING,  v.  <?.,  V.  n,,k,n.  s.  )      Sax.  p^in;;an ; 

Ring'er,  n.s.  S  Isl.  hringa ;  Belg. 

ringen.  To  strike  a  bell  or  other  sonorous  bod>, 
so  as  to  produce  sound  ;  to  sound  in  this  way; 
to  practise  ringing  with  bells ;  resound ;  tin- 
kle ;  be  filled  with  a  report :  a  number  of  tuned 
bells ;  the  sound  of  them ;  any  loud  sound. 

Ring  the  alarum  bell.  ^akqteare,  JHacfeC^.. 

Ere  to  black  Hecat's  summons 
The  shard-bom  beetle,  with  his  drowsy  hums, 
Hath  rung  night*8  yawning  peal,  there  shall  be  dose 
A  deed  of  dreadful  note.  Shahipttsn. 

Hercules,  missing  his  page,  called  him  by  his 
name  aloud,  that  all  the  shore  nrn^  of  it.      Btr^. 

Stop  the  holes  of  a  hawk's  bell,  it  will  make  1.0 
ring,  but  a  (iat  noise  or  rattle.  id. 

The  king,  full  of  confidence,  as  he  had  been  vic- 
torious in  battle,  and  had  prevailed  with  his  parlia- 
ment, and  fiad  the  ring  of  acclamations  fresh  in  his 


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ean,  thought  the  rest  of  his  reign  should  be  bui  play. 

Id.  Htnry  VIL 
The  heavens  and  all  the  constellatioas  rung. 

Sliltan. 
'    Ring  out  ye  crystal  spheres, 
And  let  your  silver  chirae 
Move  in  melodious  time  ; 

And  let  the  base  of  heaven's  deep  organ  blow.     Id. 
Signs  for  communication  may  be  contrived  at  plea- 
sure ;  four  bells  admit  twenty-four  changes  in  ring- 
ing ;  each  change  may,  by  agreement,  have  a  certain 
signification.  ^  Holder. 

At  Latagus  a  weighty  stone  he  flung ; 
His  face  was  flatted,  and  his  helmet  rung.  Dryden. 

3Iy  ears  will  ring  with  noise  ;  I'm  vexed  to  death  : 
Tongue -kill'd,  and  have  not  yet  recovered  breath. 

Id. 
The  particular  ringing  sound  in  gold,  distinct  from 
the  sound  of  other  Ixnlies,  has  no  particular  name. 

Locke. 
Easy  it  might  be*  to  ring  other  changes  upon  the 
same  bells.  Norris't  Miscellanies. 

lliat  profane,  atheistical,  epicurean  rabble,  whom 
ihe  whole  nation  so  rings  of,  are  not  indeed  what  they 
vote  themselves,  the  wisest  men  in  the  world. 

South, 
A  squirrel  spends  his  little  rage. 
In  jumping  round  a  rolling  cage ; 
The  cage  is  either  side  turned  up, 
Striking  a  ring  of  bells  a- lop.  Prior. 

With  sweeter  notes  each  rising  temple  rung, 
A  Raphael  painted  !  and  a  Vi<u  sui^^ ! 
Immnrtal  Vida  f 


Immortal  Vida ! 

Ring,  n.  s.  &  t;.  a. 

Ring'bone,  n.  t. 

Ring'dove, 

Ring'eR) 

Ring'leader, 

Rikg'let, 

Ring'streaked, 

Ring'tail,  n.s. 

Rimg'worm. 


Pope. 

Sax.  pfitDs ;  Dan.  Swed. 
Teut.  aiul  Belg.  ring.  A 
circle ;  circular  line,  par- 
ticularly of  metal ;  circu- 
»-lar  course;  circle  of  pei> 
sons:  to  encircle;  fit'with 
rings :  the  ringbone  is  de- 
fined in  the  extract :  ring- 
^  dove,  a  kind  of  pieeon 
so  called  from  the  ring  of  feathers  round  its 
neck  :  ringleader,  the  head  of  a  ring  or  knot  of 
riotous  persons:  ringlet,  a  small  ring:  ring- 
streaked,  streaked  circularly:  ring-tail,  a  kind 
of  kite :  ring-worm,  a  circular  tetter. 

He  removed  the  he  goats  that  were  ringstreaked 
and  spotted,  and  all  the  she  goats  that  were  speckled. 

Oetiesit  xxz.  85. 
In  this  habit 
Met  I  my  &ther  with  his  bleeding  ring*. 
Their  precious  gems  now  lost.         Sltaktpeare. 

A  quarrel 
— About  a  hoop  of  gold,  a  paltry  ring.        Id, 

Talbot, 
Who,  ringed  shout  with  bold  adversity, 
Cries  out  for  noble  York  and  Somerset.       Id, 
Death,  death  ;  oh  amiable  lovely  death  ! 
Thoa  odoriferous  stench,  sound  rottenness. 

Arise 

And  I  will  kiss  thy  detestable  bones. 
And  pat  my  eye-balls  in  thy  vaulted  brows, 
And  ring  these  fingers  with  thy  houshold  worms. 

Id. 
You  demy  puppets,  that 
By  moon-shine  do  the  ^reen  ringlets  make, 
Whereof  the  ewe  not  bites.  Id.  Tempest, 

He  caused  to  be  executed  some  of  the  ringleaders 
of  the  Cornish  men,  in  sacrifice  to  the  citizens. 

Bacon's  Henry  VII. 
Her  golden  tresses  in  wanton  ringlets  waved, 
As  the  viae  curls  her  tendrils.  Miken. 


The  Italians,  perceiving  themselves  almost  envi- 
roned, cast  themselves  into  a  ring,  and  retired  back 
into  the  city.  Haywxrd, 

The  rings  of  iron,  that  on  the*  doors  were  hung, 
Sent  out  a  jarring  sound,  and  harshly  rung. 

Dry  den. 
Round  my  arbour  a  new  ring  they  made. 

And  footed  it  about  the  sacred  shade.  Id, 

Pigeons  are  of  several  sorts,  wild  and  tame ;  as 
wood-pigeons,  dovecote  pigeons,  and  ringdoves. 

Mortimer. 
Chaste  Diana, 

Goddess  presiding  o'er  the  rapid  race, 

Place  me,  O  place  me,  in  the  dusty  ring. 

Where  youthful  charioteers  contend  for  glory ! 

Smith. 

I  have  seen  old  Roman  rin^s  so  very  thick  about, 
and  with  such  large  stones  m  them,  that  'tis  no 
wonder  a  fop  should  reckon  them  a  little  cumber- 
some in  the  summer.  Addium. 

The  nobility  escaped ;  the  poor  people,  who  had 
been  deluded  by  these  ringleaders,  were  executed. 

Id. 

Bubbles  of  water,  before  they  began  to  exhibit 
their  colours  to  the  naked  eye,  have  appeared  through 
a  prism  girded  about  with  many  paraUel  and  hori- 
Eontal  rings.  Newton. 

It  began  with  a  serpigo,  making  many  round 
spots,  such  as  are  generally  called  ringwomu. 

WisemanU  Surgery. 

Silver  the  liivtels,  deep  projecting  o'er  ; 
And  gold  the  ringlets  that  command  the  door. 

Pope. 

Some  eagle  got  the  ring  of  my  box  in  his  beak, 
with  an  intent  to  let  it  fall  and  devour  it.       Sicift. 

Ring-bone  is  a  hard  callous  substance  growing  in 
the  hollow  circle  of  the  little  pastern  of  a  horse,  just 
above  the  coronet:  it  sometimes  goes  quite  round 
like  a  ring,  and  thence  it  is  called  the  ring-bone. 

Farrier's  Dictionary, 

'  'Twas  not  her  golden  ringlets  bright. 
Her  li]>s  like  roses  wet  wi'  dew. 
Her  heaving  bosom  lily-white ; — 
It  was  her  een  sae  bonnie  blue.  Bum. 

Ring.  The  episcopal  ring  (which  makes  a  part 
of  the  pontifical  apparatus,  and  is  esteemed  a 
pledge  of  the  spiritual  marriage  between  the 
bishop  and  his  ctiurch)  is  of  very  ancient  stand- 
ing. The  fourth  council  of  Toledo,  held  in  633, 
appoints  that  a  bishop  condemned  by  one  coun- 
cil, and  found  afterwards  innocent  by  a  second, 
shall  be  restored  by  giving  him  the  ring,  stafiT, 
&c.  From  bishops,  the  custom  of  the  ring  has 
passed  to  cardinals,  who  have  sometimes  paid 
enormous  sums  pro  jure  annul!  cardinalitii. 

Ring,  in  astronomy  and  navigation,  an  instru- 
ment used  for  taking  the  sun*s  altitude,  &c.  It 
is  usually  of  brass,  about  nine  inches  diameter, 
suspended  by  a  little  swivel :  at  the  distance  of 
45°  from  the  point  of  which  is  a  perforation, 
which  is  the  centre  of  a  quadrant  of  90°  divided 
in  the  inner  concave  surface.  To  use  it,  let  it 
be  held  up  by  the  swivel,  and  turned  round  to 
the  sun,  till  his  rays,  falling  through  the  hole, 
mark  a  spot  among  the  degrees,  which  shows  the 
altitude  required.  -  This  instrument  is  preferred 
to  the  astrolabe,  because  the  divisions  are  here 
lamr  than  on  that  instrument. 

RINGwOUSEL,  in  ornithology,  a  species  of 
turdus. 

Ring-Tail.    See  Falco. 

RING  WOOD,  a  large  market  town  and  parish 


Digitized  by  VjUUy  IC 


RIO 

of  HamfMhite^  on  the  Avod,  with  a  market 
on  Wednesday,  and  a  oonsiderable  manufacture 
of  knit  worsted  hose.  Many  of  the  houses  and 
the  church  are  well  built.  This  town  has  long 
been  celebrated  for  the  excellence  of  its  ale,  of 
which  it  exports  considerable  quantities ;  it  also 
trades  in  leather,  drusgets,  and  some  narrow 
cloths.  Near  it  the  duke  of  Monmouth  was 
taken  after  his  defeat  at  Sedgmoor,  in  1685.  It 
is  fourteen  miles  N.  N.  E.  of  Pool,  thirty  south- 
west of  Winchester,  and  ninety-one  west  by 
south  of  London. 

RINSE,  V.  a.  J    From  Teut.  rein,  pure,  clear. 

Rins'er,  fi.  t.  $  To  wash ;  cleanse :  a  washer. 

Whomsoever  he  toucheth,  and  hath  not  riiued  hin 
hands  in  water,  he  shall  be  unclean. 

Lemtinu  xv.  11. 

This  must  move  us  humbly  to  sue  unto  God,  and 


i'i 


earnestly  to  iotreat  him,  to  wash  ns  throughly  from 
ottf  widKdness,  and^  cleanse  us  from  our  sins :  yea 
to  varge  and  rinte  the  fountain  thereof,  our  unclean 
and  polluted  hearts.  Perkim, 

This  last  costly  txeaty 
Swallowed  so  much  tieasure,  and  like  a  glass 
Did  break  i*  the  rimmff,    Shakspeare.  Henry  VIII. 

They  cannot  boil,  dot  wash,  nor  rinu,  they  say. 
With  water  sometimes  ink,  and  sometimes  whey, 
According  as  you  meet  with  mud  or  clay.    King, 

RIO  Del  Rey,  a  river  of  South  Western 
Africa,  fidling  into  the  gulf  of  Benin.  Its  mouth 
U  broad ;  but  a  great  part  is  shallow,  there  being 
only  an  open  channel  in  the  middle  navigable 
by  large  vessels.  Its  early  course  is  unknown  ; 
but  it  is  reported  to  come  from  the  north,  and  to 
receive  some  considerable  streams.  The  country 
on  each  side  is  marshy  but  fertile.  The  Cal< 
boni{os,  as  they  are  called,  of  this  neighbourhood, 
are  a  numerous  and  barbarous  race,  going  almost 
naked,  and  smearing  themselves  with  a  red  paint. 
They  are  said  to  be  much  corrupted  by  the  slave 
trade.  The  chief  trade  in  the  river  carried  on  here 
is  by  the  Portuguese  and  Dutch,  who  procure 
slaves  and  a  small  quantity  of  ivory.  The 
mouth  is  in  long.  S*"  5'  £.,  lat.  4^  SC  N. 

Rio  Grande,  a  province  of  Brasil,  is  bound* 
ed  by  the  capitauia  of  St.  PauVs  on  the  north, 
Matto  Grosso  on  the  west,  and  the  Rio  de  la 
Plata  on  the  south.  It  may  be  called  the  granary 
of  Brasil,  and  wheat  is  shipped  here  to  all  the 
ports  on  the  coast.  Farming,  however,  is  car- 
ried  on  in  a  slovenly  manner;  the  grain  is 
always  rough  and  foul,  and  is  packed  in  raw 
hides,  which  are  sewed  up  like  sacks,  so  that  it 
frequently  swells  and  heats  on  the  passage. 
Tliis  province  is  extremely  populous;  in  a 
circuit  of  twenty  leagues  the  inhabitants  are 
estimated  at  100,000.  Their  principal  occupa- 
tions are,  the  breeding  of.  cattle,  dryms  and  pre- 
paring of  hides,  and  the  making  of  charque,  or 
what  is  called  in  the  river  Plata  jug-beef,  or  beef 
dried  and  salted  in  a  particular  way.  It  is  in 
taste  somewhat  similar  to  bung-beef,  and  consti- 
tutes the  general  food  of  the  sailors  and  lower 
orders,  forming  part  of  almost  every  cargo  sent 
out  from  this  province.  The  quantity  of  hides 
exported  hence  is  almost  incredible ;  they  furnish 
many  vessels  with  entire  cargoes,  which  are  car- 
ried to  the  northern  ports,  and  thence  embarked 
for  Europe.  The  annual  average  may  be  esti- 
;nated  at  not  less  than  300,000.     Talbw  is 


RIO 

anotlier  considerable  article,  which  in  general  is 
shipped  in  the  crude  state.  The  greater  part  i^ 
consumed  in  other  parts  of  Brasil.  It  is  packed 
in  waste  raw  hide  packages.  Horns  and  hone- 
hair  form  an  inferior  branch  of  commerce.  The 
above  are  the  staple  productions  of  Rio  Giande, 
which  give  employment  to  pecbape  100  aail  of 
coasters*  During  the  old  system,  so  lately  as 
within  these  few  years,  a  most  lucrative  trade 
was  here  carried  on  with  the  Spaniards,  who 
came  in  numbers,  and  most  eagerly  bou^  up 
the  tobacco,  and  such  of  the  English  manufac- 
tures as  could  be  transported  on  horseback  at 
great  prices.  Thus  Rio  Grande  and  its  vicinity 
became  very  enviable  situations,  where  consider- 
able fortunes  were  made. 

Tbe  neighbourhood  of  the  capital  is  un- 
pleasant, being  surrounded  with  sand  and  sand- 
nills  of  no  inconsiderable  size,  formed  by  the 
wind,  and  frequently  brought  by  it  into  every 
part  of  the  bouses.  The  cattle  bred  in  this  capi- 
tania  are  TerT  numerous.  The  huge  river 
tJruguay  rises  he? e^  and  empties  itself  into  the 
river  Plata,  a  little  above  Buenos  Ayres.  Tliere 
are  numerous  othera  of  less  consequence,  and 
much  wood.  Some  attempts  were  lately  made, 
by  miners  sent  from  Villa  Rica,  to  work  gold 
washings,  and  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  car 

Sital  they  have  coal,  a  specimen  of  which  Mr. 
lawe  mentions.  In  various  parts  jaguan  and 
beasts  of  prey  are  very  common ;  among  the 
ffranivorous  animals  are  capivaras  of  great  siie, 
deer,  and  armadillos^  which  are  excetlent  eating. 
Of  birds  the  ostriches  of  the  dark  colored  spe- 
cies go  about  in  immense  flocks.  There  are  also 
eagles,  hawks,  and  other  birds  of  prey.  The 
inhabitants  are,  generally  speaking,  athletic,  and 
robust,  and  excellent  horsemen.  It  is  singular 
to  Europeans  that  in  this  fine  climate,  wbeie 
the  thermometer  is  frequently  below  40°  Fahren- 
heit, and  where  are  bred  as  fine  cows  as  any  in 
the  world,  and  every  convenience  is  at  hand  for 
dairies,  neither  butter  nor  cheese  is  made,  ex- 
cept on  particular  occasions.  In  some  places  the 
grapes  are  good,  and  probably  wine  vrill  soon  be 
made  firom  them,as  the  restraint  hud  by  the  BKylher 
country  is  now  removed.  The  port  through 
which  the  commerce  of  Rio  Grande  is  carried 
on  is  situated  about  32°  south ;  it  is  dangerous 
to  enter,  first  from  its  being  shoal  water,  and 
next,  from  a  violent  sea  always  running,  and  the 
shifting  of  the  sands.  There  is  notwithstanding 
a  great  trade  carried  on  from  this  place  to  all 
the  ports  of  Brasil.  The  principal  town  is  de 
fended .  by  many  forts,  some  of  which  are  upon 
islets.  Since  it  vi^as  taken  from  the  Spaniards, 
by  general  Coimbra,  the  Portugtjese  have  much 
strengthened  it,  and  now  there  is  a  very  consi- 
derable Jorce  of  cavalry,  horse  artillery,  and  foot 
soldiers. 

RIOM,  a  large  and  central  town  of  France,  in 
the  department  of  the  Puy  de  Dome,  ddi^t- 
frilly  situated  on  a  declivity,  whidi  comaoDds  a 
view  of  the  Limagne  d'Auveigne. .  It  has  a  cour 
royale,  is  regularly  built,  being  traversed  dinne- 
trically  by  two.  principal  streets,  which  cross, 
csach  other  in  the  middle  of  the  town:  these 
and  the  other  streets  are  all  pa:ved  with  basalt. 
The  whole  town  is  boih  of  this  sort  of  stooe^ 


Digitized  by  ^^JiJUy  IC 


RIO 


Ike  dark  color  of  which  gives  it  a  gloomy  ap- 
pearance. Formerly  a  place  of  some  strengtn, 
Riom  has  still  a  small  arsenal,  but  its  earthen 
mound  is  planted  with  tr^es,  and  forms  a  pro- 
menade. Its  only  public  structures  worth 
notice  are  the  theatre  and  fountains.  Its  trade 
is  confined  to  hardware,  linen,  groceries,  and  the 
products  of  the  surrounding  country.  Inhabit- 
ants 14/)(K>.  Fifty  miles  south  by  west  of 
Moulins. 


RI'OT,n.  f.&v.n.^ 

Rl'OTEB, 
Rl'OTISE, 

Ri  OTOus,  adj, 
Ri  OTousLY,  adv, 

Rl'oTOUSNESS,  n.  <. 


Old  Fr.rio«f;  barb. 
Lat.  riotitm:  Tunuilt ; 
uproar;  wild  or  loose 
^mirth :  to  riot  is,  to  re- 
vel ;  luxuriate ;  be  tu- 
multuous :  <  to  run  riot,' 


to  act  without  restraint  or  control :  riotise  is  an 
obsolete  synonyme  of  riot:  the  adjective,  adverb, 
and  noun  substantive  corresponding. 

Let  us  walk  honestly  as  in  the  day  ;  not  in  rioting 
and  drunkenness,  Romans  xiii.  13. 

He  that  gatbeieth  bv  defrauding  his  own  soul, 
gatbereth  for  others'  that  shall  spdnd  his  goods 
rio€omltf,  EcclMt.  ziv.  4. 

From  every  work  he  challenged  essoin 
For  contemplation  sake ;  yet  otherwise 
His  life  he  led  in  lawless  rioHaB,  Speruer. 

What  needs  me  tell  their  feasts  and  goodly  guise. 
In  which  was  nothing  riotous  nor  vain.  Jd. 

When  bis  headstrong  riot  hath  no  curb. 
When  rage  and  hot  blood  are  his  counsellors. 
When  meant  and  lavish  manners  meet  together. 
Oh !  with  what  wings  shall  his  affection  fly 
Tow'aid  fronting  peril  and  opposed  decay. 

Skakspeare.  Henr^  IV, 
When  all  onr  ofiices  have  been  opprest 
With  riotous  feeders, 
I  have  retired  me  to  a  wasteful  cock. 
And  set  mine  eyes  at  flow.  Shakspure. 

Now  he  exacts  of  all,  wastes  in  delight, 
Riots  in  pleasure,  and  neg^lects  the  law.    DtarieL 

All  now  was  turned  to  jollity  and  game. 
To  luxury  and  riot,  feast  and  aanoe«         JUilion. 
John  came  neither  eating  nor  drinking,  that  is, 
far  from  the  diet  of  Jerusalem'  and  other  riotous 
places,  but  fared  coarsely.  Browne, 

With  them  no  riotous  pomp  nor  Asian  train, 
T'  infect  a  navy  with  their  gaudy  fears ; 
But  war  severely  like  itself  appears.  Drydet^ 

One  man's  hesd  nms  riot  upon  hawks  and  dice. 

VEstrange, 
Thy  life  a  long  dead  calm  of  fixed  repose ; 
No  pulse  that  rioU,  and  no  blood  that  glows. 

Pope. 
You  never  can  defend  his  breeding, 
Who,  in  his  satyre's  rwminr  riot. 
Could  never  leave  the  world  in  quiet.     Sioifi. 
Riot,  in  law.    The  riotous  asseiobling  of 
twelve  persons,  or  more,  and  not  dispersing  upon 
proclamation,  was  first  made  high  treason  by 
Stat,  a  and  4   £dw.  VI.  c.  5,  when  the  king 
was  a  minor,  and  a  change  of  religion  had  to  be 
efiected ;  but  that  statute  was  repealed  by  stat. 
1  Mar.  c.  1,  amonff  the  other  treasons  created 
since  the  25  £dw.  III. ;  though  the  prohibition 
vras  in  substance  re-enacted,  with  an   inferior 
degree  of  punishment,  by  stat  1.  Mar.  stat.  2,  c. 
1 2,  which  made  the  same  offence  a  single  felony. 
These  statutes  specified  and  particularised  the 
nature  of  the  riots  they  were  meant  to  suppress ; 
as,  for  example,  such  as  were  set  on  foot  with 
intention  to  offer  violence  to  the  privy  council, 
VOL.XVIII.- 


RIO 

or  to  change  the  laws  of  the  kingdom,  or  for 
certain  other  specific  purposes ;  in  which  cases, 
if  the  persons  were  commanded  by  proclamation 
to  disperse,  and  they  did  not,  it  was  by  the  stat. 
of  Mary  made  felony,  but  within  the  benefit  of 
clergy ;  and  also  the  act  indemnified  the  peace 
ofiicers  and  their  assistants,  if  they  killed  any  of 
the  mob  in  endeavouring  to  suppress  such  riot. 
This  act  was  made  at  first  only  for  a  year,  and 
afterwards  continued  for  queen  Muy^s  life. 
And  by  stat  1  Eliz.  c.  16,  when  a  reformation  in 
religion  was  to  be  once  more  attempted,  it  was 
revived  and  continued  during  her  lue  also,  and 
then  expired.  From  the  accession  of  James  I. 
to  tlie  aeath  of  queen  Anne  it  was  never  thought 
expedient  to  revive  it ;  but  in  the  first  year  of 
Geo.  I.  it  was  judged  necessary,  in  order  to  sup- 
port the  execution  of  the  act  of  settlement,  to 
renew  it,  and  at  one  stroke  to  make  it  perpetual, 
with  large  additions.  For,  whereas  the  former 
acts  expressly  defined  and  Specified  what  should 
be  accounted  a  riot,  the  stat.  1  Geo.  I.  c.  5, 
enacts  generally,  that  if  any  twelve  persons  are 
unlaw^lly  assembled  to  the  disturbance  of  the 
peace,  and  any  one  justice  of  the  peace,  sheriff, 
under  sheriff,  or  mayor  of  a  town,  shall  think 

S roper  to  command  them  by  proclamation  to 
isperse,  if  they  contemn  his  orders,  and  con- 
tinue together  for  one  hour  afterwards,  such  con- 
tempt shall  be  felony  without  benefit  of  clergy. 
And  ferthei,  if  the  reading  of  the  proclamation 
be  by  force  opposed,  or  the  reader  be  in  any 
manner  wilfully  hindered  from  the  reading  of  it, 
such  opposers  and  hinderers  are  felons  without 
benefit  of  clergy;  and  all  persons  to  whom  such 
proclamation  ought  to  have  been  made,  and 
knowing  of  such  hindrance,  and-  not  dispersing, 
are  felons  without  benefit  of  cleiigy.  There  is 
the  like  indemnifying  clause,  in  case  any  of  the 
mob  be  unfortunately  killed  in  the  endeavour  to 
disperse  them,  copied  from  the  act  of  queen 
Maiy.  And,  by  a  subsequent  clause  of  the  new 
act,  if  any  person  so  riotously  assembled,  begin, 
even  before  proclamation,  to  pull  down  any 
church,  chapel,  meeting-house,  dwelling-house, 
or  out  l\ouses,  they  shall  be  felons  without  bene- 
fit of  clergy.  Riots'  and  unlawful  assemblies 
must  have  three  persons  [at  least  to  constitute 
them.  An  unlawnil  assembly  is,  when  three  or 
more  do  assemble  themselves  together  to  do  an 
unlawful  >  act,  as  to  pull  down  enclosures,  to 
destroy  a  warren,  or  the  game  therein ;  and  part 
without  doing  it,  or  making  any  motion  towards 
it.  A  riot  is  where  ^ree  or  more  actually  do  aii 
unlawful  act  of  violence,  either  vrith  or  without 
a  common  cause  or  quarrel ;  as,  if  they  beat  a 
man,or  hunt  and  kill  game  in  another's  park,  chase, 
warren  or  liberty ;  or  do  any  other  unlawful  act 
witii  force  or  violence ;  or  even  do  a  lawftd  act, 
as  removing  a  nuisance,  in  a  violent  and  tumul- 
cuous  manner.  The  punishment  of  unlawful 
assemblies,  if  to  the  number  of  twelve,  may  be 
capital,  according  to  the  circumstances  that 
attend  it ;  but  from  the  number  of  three  to 
eleven  is  by  fine  and  imprisonment  only.  The 
same  is  the  case  in  riots  and  routs  by  the  com- 
mon law ;  to  which  the  pillory  in  very  enormous 
cases  has  been  sometimes  superadded.  And  by 
the  stat.  13  Hen.  IV.  c.  17,  any  two  justices, 

'^   I 

Digitized  by  VjUU*^IC 


RIP 


610 


RIP 


together  with  the  sheriff  or  under  sheriff  of  the 
county,  may  come  with  the  posse  comitatus,  if 
need  be,  and  suppress  any  such  riot,  assembly, 
or  rout,  arrest  the  rioters,  and  record  upon  the 
spot  the  nature  and  circumstances  of  the  whole 
transaction ;  which  record  alone  shall  be  a  suffi- 
cient conviction  of  the  offenders.  In  the  inter- 
pretation of  which  statute  it  hath  been  holden 
that  all  persons,  noblemen,  and  others,  except 
women,  clergymen,  persons  decrepit,  and  in&nts 
under  fifteen,  axe  bound  to  attend  the  justices  in 
suppressing  a  riot,  upon  pain  of  fine  and  im> 
prisonment ;  and  that  any  battery,  wounding,  or 
killing  the  noters,  that  may  happen  in  suppress- 
ing the  riot,  is  justifiable. 

RIOU'S  Island,  or  Rooahoooa,  an  island 
of  the  Pacific,  about  twenty-four  miles  in  cir- 
ctmference,  was  discovered  in  1792  by  lieutenant 
Hergest,  of  the  Daedalus  store-ship.  It  is  com- 
pmed  of  steep  and  rugged  rocks  nsing  to  a  con- 
siderable heignt,and  forming  a  lofty  mountain  in 
the  middle,  llie  western  is  the  most  fruitful 
side.    Long.  139*»  9'  W.,  lat  8°  54'  S. 

RIP,  V.  a.  Sax.  pnypan.  To  tear;  lacerate ; 
cut  asunder  by  a  continued  stroke. 

llioa  wilt  dash  their  children,  and  rip  up  their 
women  with  child.  2  King*  viii.  12. 

Let  it  be  lawful  for  me  to  rip  up  to  the  very  bot- 
tom, how  and  by  whom  your  discipline  was  planted, 
at  such  time  as  this  age  we  live  m  began  to  make 
first  trial  thereof.  Hooktr. 

You  rip  UD  the  original  of  Scotland,    ^penter. 

You  bloody  Neros,  ripping  up  the  womb 
Of  your  dear  mother  England,  oliish  for  shame. 

Skakspeart, 

Eaculapius,  because  ripped  from  his  mother's 
womb,  was  feigned  to  be  the  son  of  Apollo. 

Hayward, 

They  ripped  up  all  that  had  been  done  ftom  the 
beginning  of  the  rebellion.  Clarendon. 

Rip  this  heart  of  mine 
Oat  of  my  breast,  and  shew  it  for  a  coward's. 

Otway, 
The  beast  pievents  the  blow, 
And  upward  ript  the  groin  of  his  audacious  foe. 

Dryden, 

The  relations  considering  that  a  trial  would  rip  up 
old  sores,  and  discover  things  not  so  much  to  the 
reputation  of  the  deceased,  they  dropt  their  design. 

Arbtilfawt, 

The  conscioushusband,  whom  like  symptoms  seixe. 
Charges  on  her  the  guilt  of  their  disease ; 
Affecting  fury  acts  a  madman's  part. 
He'll  rip  the  fatal  secret  from  her  heart.    GranviOe. 

RIPE,  adj.,  V.  n.,  &  v.  a.  -)     Sax.  |upe ;  Belg. 

Ri'pEN,  v. n.  &  v.  a.        ?W'     Teut.     r^if. 

RiPE'NESS,n.  «.  3  Brought  to  perfec- 

tion in  growth;  mature;  finished;  complete; 
qualified :  to  ripe  and  ripen  are  used  as  syno- 
nymes  both  in  the  verb  neuter  and  active  forms, 
and  mean  to  grow  or  make  mature :  the  noun 
substantive  corresponding. 

Afore  the  sour  grape  is  ripening  in  the  flower. 

Jsaiah  xviii.  5. 

Their  fruit  is  improfitable,  not  ripe  to  eat. 

Wisdom  iv.  5. 

Beasts  are  in  sensible  capacity  as  ripe  even  as 
men  themselves,  perhaps  more  ripe.  Hooker. 

To  this  purpose  were  those  harmonious  tunes  of 
psalms  devised  for  us,  that  they,  which  are  cither 
lu  years  but  young,  or  toucbiug  perfection  of  virtue 


as  yet  not  grown  to  ripenete,  might,  when  dwf  tUsk 
they  sing,  Uam.  U. 

He  was  a  scholar,  and  a  ripe  and  good  im. 

I  by  letters  shall  direct  your  ooam. 
When  time  is  ripe.  Id.  Heu^  IV. 

He  is  retired,  to  ripe  his  growing  fortunes. 
To  Scotland.  Skelapten. 

There  was  a  pretty  redness  in  his  lips, 
A  little  riper  and  more  lusty  red 
Than  that  mixed  in  his  cheeks.  U. 

Those  happiest  smiles, 
That  played  on  her  rim  lip,  seemed  not  to  koov 
What  guests  were  in  her  eves,  which  parted  thenee, 
A  s  pearls  from  diamonds  oropt.  Id. 

This  is  the  stoto  of  man ;  to-day  he  pots  fortk 
The  lender  leaves  of  hope,  to-morrow  Uossons, 
And  bears  his  blushing  nonours  thick  upon  him ; 
The  third  day  comes  a  firost,  a  killing  frost ; 
And  when  he  thinks,  good  easy  man,  full  sorely 
His  greatness  is  a  ripening,  nips  his  root ; 
And  then  he  falls  as  I  do.  U. 

This  roval  infant  promises 
XTpoQ  this  land  a  thousand  thousand  blessings, 
which  time  shall  bring  to  rtpenen.  Id. 

Slubber  not  business  for  my  sake,  Banaiuo; 
But  stay  the  very  ripin^  of  the  time.  Id. 

The  pricking  of  a  fruit  before  it  HpemeA,  tipeas  the 
fruit  more  suddenly.  Beeen'e  Natmrnl  HiHifry. 

Though  no  stone  tell  thee  what  I  was,  yet  tfaos, 
In  my  graves  inside,  see  what  thou  art  now ; 
Yet  thou'rt  not  so  good,  till  us  death  lay 
To  rtpe  and  mellow  them,  we>e  stubborn  clay. 


Time,  which  made  them  their  fame  oat-live. 
To  Cowley  scarce  did  ripen»u  give.  Denkam 

So  may-st  thou  live,  till,  like  ripe  fimit,  thou  dnp 
Into  thy  mother's  lap,  or  be  vrith  eaae 
Gathered,  not  harshly  pludLsd,  for  death  Batsre. 

MUtea. 

I  to  manhood  am  arrived  so  near. 

And  inward  ripenea  doth  much  less  appear. 

That  some  more  timely  happy  spirits  indn'th.     Id. 

At  thirteen  years  oU  he  was  ripe  for  the  unirer- 

sity.  Fdl. 

O  early  ripe !  to  thy  abundant  store. 
What  could  advancing  age  have  added  more! 

Dtyiee. 
When  to  ripened  manhood  he  shall  grow. 
The  greedy  sailor  shall  the  sees  forego.         Id- 
While  things  were  just  ripe  for  a  war,  the  can- 
tons, their  protectors,  interposed  as  umpires  in  the 
quarrel.  AdditUL 

The  genial  sun 
Has  daily,  since  his  course  begun. 
Rejoiced  the  metal  to  refese,. 
And  ripened  the  Perurian  min«»  Id. 

They  have  compared  it  to  the  lipiwisiof  fraits. 

nueeiee. 
Little  matter  is  deposited  in  the  abecess.  before  it 
arrives  towards  its  ripeneu.  SkerpU  Smgery. 

Melons  on  beds  of  ice  are  taught  to  bear. 
And  strangers  to  the  sun  yet  rip^  here.  GreexiUe. 

Be  this  the  cause  of  more  than  mortal  hale. 
The  rest  suptteding  times  shall  ripen  into  fote. 

Ftpt. 
Here  elements  have  lost  their  uses ; 
Air  ripens  not,  nor  earth  produces.         &sift- 

RIPHAT,  or  Riphath,  the  second  son  of 
Gomer,  and  grandson  of  Japhet.  In  most  copies 
he  is  called  Dipbath  in  ttxe  Chronicles.  The  re- 
semblance of  the  two  Hebrew  letters  "^  (resh)a!Kn 
(daleth)  is  so  great,  that  they  are  very  oftffi  coo- 

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fouBdt(L  The  learned  are  not  agreed  about  the 
couotry  that  was  peopled  by  the  descendants  6f 
Itiphatii.  Eusebma  conaiders  it  to  have  been 
the  country  of  the  Sauromats ;  the  Chronicon 
Alexandrinum  that  of  the  Garamants;  Jose- 
phus  Paphlagonia.  Mela  assures  us  that  an- 
ciently \he  people  of  this  province  were  called 
Kiphattei,  or  RipKaces;  and  others  think  he 
peopled  the  Montes  Riphai ;  and  this  opinion 
seems  the  most  reasonable,  because  the  other 
sons  of  Gomtf  peopled  the  northern  countries 
towards  S^thia,  aua  beyond  the  Euxine  Sea. 

RIPLEY,  an  English  alchemist  of  the  fif- 
teenth century.  He  published  1.  A  Coaipend 
of  Alchymie,  &c.,  and  2.  Aurum  Potabile,  or 
The  Universal  Medicine.    He  died  in  1490. 

RiPLKt,  a  market  town  and  parish  in  the 
West  Riding  of  Yorkshire,  situate  on  the  river 
Niddy  four  miles  north-west  from  Knares- 
borough,  and  215  north  by  west  from  London. 
Some  few  remains  of  a  castle  are  still  standing 
here,  and  the  church  is  an  ancient  building. 
The  place  is  noted  for  its  abundant  produce  of 
the  liouorice  plant.    Market  on  Friday. 

RIPPON,  a  pleasant,  well-built,  and  populous 
borough  and  market  town  of  Yorkshire,  in  the 
West  Riding;  famous  for  its  manufactures  of 
hardware.  It  is  an  ancient  town,  noted  in 
history  long  before  the  Roman  conquest,  and 
was  famous  for  its  relieious  houses.  It  has  a 
magnificent  church,  with  three  lofty  spires.  In 
the  days  of  popoy  this  church  was  noted  for  a 
straiglu  passage  leading  into  a  closely  vaulted 
room,  which  could  be  made  wider  or  narrower 
at  pleasure,  so  as  to  admit  or  prevent  the  en- 
trance of  any  one.  This  passage  was  called  St. 
Wilfrid's  Needle,  and  was  used  to  try  the  chastity 
of  any  woman  suspected  of  incontinence.  The 
town  is  composed  of  severed  crooked  lanes,  there 
being  but  five  regular  built  streets  in  the  place. 
It  sends  two  members  to  parliament.  The 
market-place  is  accounted  one  of  the  finest 
squares  of  the  kind  in  England,  and  is  adorned 
with  an  obelisk,  erected  by  John  Aislabie,  the 
chancellor  of  the  exchequer  in  the  reign  of 
George  I.  Two  extensive  cotton  mills  have 
been  erected  of  ,late  years  and  employ  a 
number  of  hands;  and  here  are  also  annual 
and  well  attended  races.  It  is  seated  on  the 
Ure,  orYore;  twenty-eight  miles  north-west  of 
York,  and  209  N.N.  W.  of  London. 

RISANO,  a  town  of  Austrian  Dalmatia,  at 
the  head  of  the  gulf  of  Cattaro,  eight  miles  north 
of  Cattaro.  The  inhabitants  b«at  of  having 
preserved  the  ancient  Roman  habits,  and  are 
certainly  remarkable  for  their  intrepidity.  Po- 
pulation 1800. 

RISBOROUGH,  or  Moi«KS*-RiSBOROi7cn,  a 
market  town  and  parish  of  Buckinghamshire, 
four  miles  ^nd  a  half  south-west  from  Wen- 
dover,  and  thirty-seven  from  London.  It  re- 
ceived the  name  of  Monks'-Risborougfa  from  its 
being  assigned  to  the  monks^of  Canterbury,  by 
Bschevine,  bishop  of  Dorchester,  and  there  was 
an  adjoining  parish  called  Prince*s-Risboiough, 
'where,  according  to  tradition,  Edward  the 
black  prince  had  large  possessions.  Market  on 
Saturday. 

RISDON  (Tristram),  an  English  antiquary, 


bom  near  Great  Torrington,  in  Devonshire, 
about  1580.  He  was  educated  at  Oxford ;  after 
which  he  retired  to  his  family  seat  at  W insect, 
where  he  published  The  History  and  Antiquities 
of  Devonshire ;  of  which  many  copies  are  ex- 
tant. Edmund  Curll,  the  bookseller,  printed  a 
mutilated  edition  of  it  in  1714,  in  2  vols-.  8vo. 
Risdon  died  in  1640,  aged  sixty. 

RISE,  v.  n.  icn.s,}^     Pret.  rose;  part  risen. 

Ris'en,  a^.  S  Sax.  nipan ;  Belg.  rusen ; 

Goth.  rtfa.  To  get  or  grow  up ;  ascend ;  spring; 
swell ;  begin ;  be  excited  or  produced ;  increase ; 
be  reyiv^  from  death:  the  noun  substantive 
and  adjective  corresponding. 

If  the  bright  spot  stay  in  his  place,  it  is  a  rising 
of  the  buroing.  Ltviticus  xiii.  21. 

If  any  man  hate  his  neighbour,  lie  in  wait,  and 
rite  up  against  him,  and  smile  him  mortally,  and 
fieeth  unto  one  of  those  cities,  the  elders  of  his  city 
shall  fetch  him  thence.  Deuteronomy, 

As  wild  asses  in  the  desart,  go  they  forth  to  their 
work,  rinng  betimes  for  a  pre^.  Job  xxiv.  5. 

He  maketh  the  sun  to  rue  on  the  evil  and  tlic 
good.  Mattheui  v. 

After  I  am  rieen  again,  I  will  go  before  vou. 

Id,  xxvi. 
As  they  'gan  his  library  to  view 
And  antique  registers  for  to  avise, 
•  There  chsmced  to  the  prince's  hand  to  rite 

An  ancient  book.  Spenser. 

He,  rising  with  small  honour  from  Gunza,  and 
fearing  the  power  of  the  Christians,  was  gone. 

KnoUet. 
Never  a  wife  leads  a  better  life  than  she  ^oes ;  do 
what  she  will ;  go  to  bed  when  she  list ;  rise  when 
she  list.  Shakspeare. 

Some  rise  by  sin,  and  some  by  virtue  fall.       Id. 
It  has  its  rise  from  the  lazy  admonitions  of  those 
who  give  rules,  and  propose  examples,  without  join- 
ing practice  with  their  instructions.  Id. 

It  they  rise  not  vrith  their  service,  they  will  make 
their  service  fall  with  them.  Hacon, 

In  leaping  with  weiehts,  the  arms  are  first  cast 
backwanb  and  then  forwards,  with  so  much  the 
greater  force ;  for  the  hands  go  backward  before  they 
take  their  rise.  Id, 

In  the  ordinary  riies  and  falls  of  the  voice,  'these 
&11  out  to  be  two  heemolls  between  the  unison  and 
the  diapason.  Id. 

The  isle  of  ^»a,  where  the  palace  stands 
Of  the'  early  riser,  with  the  rosy  hands. 
Active  Aurora ;  where  she  loves  to  dance. 

Chfopman, 
Bis  not  the  consular  men  and  left  their  places, 
So  soon  as  thou  sat'st  down ;  and  fled  thy  side  ? 

Ben  Jonton, 
That  is  to  Uve, 
To  rest  secure,  and  not  rsM  up  to  grieve. 

Dam^s  Civil  War, 
Only  he  spoke,  and  e^rj  thing  that  is. 
Out  of  the  fruitful  womb  of  nothing  rises,     Cowley, 

Such  a  fiM,  as  doth  at  once  invite 
A  pleasure,  and  a  reverence  from  the  sight. 

Denliam, 
Raised  so  high,  from  that  eonvenient  rise 
She  took  her  flight,  and  quickly  reached  the  skies. 

'  Crtrch, 
Thy  mansion  wants  thee,  Adam,  rite,   MiUon. 
True  in  our  fall, 
False  in  our  promised  rising.    Id,  Pamdite  Lost. 
Whether  the  sun 
Rise  on  the  earth,  or  earth  rise  on  tlie  sun.  Milton. 
Hieh  winds  began  to  rise.  Id. 

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At  our  heels  all  hell  should  rw. 
With  blackest  insurrection.  Id. 

Thd  stars  of  morn  shall  see  him  rUt 
Out  of  his  grave.  Id* 

He  affirmeth  that  tunny  is  fat  upon  the  rUing  of 
the  Pleiades,  and  departs  upon  Arctunis. 

Browne's  Vulgar  Erromrt. 
Your  author  always  will  the  best  ulvise, 
Fall  when  he  falls,  and  when  he  ritei,  rise. 

Roteonanon, 
To  rite  V  the  world, 
No  wise  man  that's  honest  should  expect.     Otway. 
Indeed  you  thanked  toe ;  but  a  nobler  gratitude 
Rose  in  her  soul  -,  for  from  that  hour  she  loTed  me. 

Id. 
Phoebus!  stay; 
The  world  to  which  you  fly  so  fast, 
From  us  to  them  can  pay  your  haste 
With  no  such  object,  and  salute  your. rue 
With  no  such  wonder,  as  De  Mornay's  eyes. 

WaUer. 
Upon  a  breach  with  Spain,  must  be  considered  the 
present  state  of  the  king's  treasure*  the  rias  or  fall 
that  may  happen  in  his  constant  revenue  by  a  Spa- 
nish war.  Tempte» 

With  Vulcan's  rage  the  rising  winds  conspire. 
And  near  our  palace  rolls  the' flood  of  fire.  Dryden. 

The  hill  submits  itself 
In  small  descents,  which  do  its  height  beguile.; 
And  sometimes  mounts,  but  so  as  billows  play. 
Whose  rite  not  hinders,  but  makes  short  our  way. 

Id. 
Bullion  is  riten  to  six  shillings  and  five  pence  the 
ounce ;  i.  e.  that  an  ounce  of  uncoined  silver  will 
exchange  for  an  ounce  and  a  quarter  of  coined  silver. 

Locke. 
Ash,  on  banks  or  riting  grounds  near  rivers,  will 
thrive  exceedingly.  Mortimer' t  Husbandry. 

All  wickedness  taketh  its  rite  from  the  heart,  and 
the  design  and  intention  with  which  a  thing  is  done, 
frequenUy  discriminates  the  goodness  or  evil  of  the 
action.  Nelson. 

From  such  an  untainted  couple,  we  can  hope  to 
have  our  family  rite  to  its  ancient  splendour  of  lace, 
air,  countenance,  and  shape.  Tatler. 

A  thought  rote  in  me,  which  often  perplexes  men 
of  contemplative  natures.  Spectator. 

Numidia's  spacious  kingdom  lies 
Ready  to  rise  at  its  young  prince's  call.     Additon. 

The  great  duke  ritet  on  tnem  in  his  demands,  and 
will  not  be  satisfied  with  less  than  a  hundred  thou- 
sand crowns,  and  a  solemn  embassy  to  beg  pardon. 

Id.  on  Italy» 
Those,  that  have  been  raised  by  some  great  minis- 
ter, trample  upon  the  steps  by  which  £ey  rite  to 
rival  him.  South. . 

If  two  plane  polished  plates  of  a  polished  looking- 
glass  be  laid  together,  so  that  their  sides  be  parallel, 
and  at  a  very  small  distance  from  one  another,  and 
then  their  lower  edges  be  dipped  into  water,  the  wa- 
ter will  rt«e  up  between  them.  Newton.. 

No  more  shall  nation  against  nation  rite. 
Nor  ardent  warriours  meet  with  hateful  eyes.  Pope. 
The  bishops  have  had  share  in  the  gradual  rise  of 
lands.  Swift. 

The  archbishop  received  him  sitting ;  for,  said  he, 
I  am  too  old  to  rise.  Barl  of  Orrery. 

RISTBLE,  adj.  Fr.  risible;  Lat.  risibilis. 
Having  the  faculty  or  power  of  iJidghter,  or  of 
exciting  laughter. 

How  comes  lowness  of  stile  to  be  so  much  the 
propriety  of  satyr  that  without  it  a  poet  can  be  no 
more  a  satyrist,  than  without  ritibiUty  he  can  be  a 
man  t     *  Drydeti. 


We  are  in  a  merry  World,  laughing  is  oo^  busi- 
ness ;  as  if,  because  it  has  been  made  the  definition  of 
man  that  he  is  riMe,  his  manhood  consisted  in  no- 
thing else.  Goeemtment  of  ike  Tongmt. 

Whatever  the  philosophers  may  talk  of  their  rm- 
biUty,  neighing  is  a  more  noble  expression  tbaa 
laughing.  ArbKAmeU 

RISK,  n.  s.  &  17.  a.  I      Fr.  risque  ;  Span,  ries- 

Risk'er.  Sgo.     Hazard;   danger; 

chance  of  harm :  to  place  in  danger ;  lisker  cor- 
responding. 

He  thither  came,  t'  observe  and  imoak 

What  courses  other  riskers  took.  Butler. 

Some  run  the  ritk  of  an  absolute  min  for  the  gain- 
ing of  a  present  supply,  VEttrmige. 

When  an  insolent  despiser  of  discipline,  nnrtarad 
into  contempt  of  all  order  by  a  long  ritk  of  iioenee, 
shall  tff&u  before  a  church  governor,  severity  and 
resolution  are  that  governor's  virtues.  SnoJL 

Who  would  hope  new  fame  to  raise. 

Or  riA  his  well-established  praise, 

That,  his  high  genius  to  approve. 

Had  drawn  a  George,  or  carved  a  Jove  1  Additoa. 

By  allowing  himself  in  what  is  innocent,  be  would 
run  the  risk  of  being  betrayed  into  what  is  not  so. 

Atterbury. 

An  innocent  roan  ought  not  to  run  an  equal  ruA 
with  a  guilty  man.  Cuaista. 

RITCHIE  (Joseph),  an  English  traveller, 
one  of  the  unfortunate  victims  of  the  passion  for 
African  discovery,  was  born  at  Otley  in  York- 
shire, and  obtained  a  situation  in  the  office  of 
the  English  consul  at  Paris,  where  he  first  be- 
came acquainted  with  the  plans  of  the  African 
association.  In  conjunction  with  captain  0.  F. 
Lyon  he  went  to  Tripoli;  and,  in  March  1819, 
the  party  set  out  for  Mourzouk,  in  Fezzan,  under 
the  escort  of  Mukni  theW.  They  resided  at 
Mourzouk  some  months  in  mstress,  arising  from 
the  want  of  funds,  and  the  treacherous  conduct 
of  the  bey.  To  this  hardship  and  vexation  Mr. 
Ritchie  fell  a  sacrifice  in  November  of  this  year. 
Captain  Lyon  returned  to  England,  and  in  1821 
published  A  Narrative  of  Travels  in  Northern 
Africa,  in  1818,  19,  and  20,  accompanied  by 
Geographical  Notices  of  Soudan,  and  of  the 
Course  of  the  Niger,  4to. 

RITE,  n. «.  -J     Tr.rit;    Lai,  rUm. 

RiT  UAL,  at§.  &  ft.  s.  2  Solemn  act  of  religion; 

RiT  ualist,  n.s.  J  external  observance : 
ritual  is  solemnly  ceremonious ;  a  book  of  solemn 
ceremonies :  ritualist,  he  who  is  skilled  in  ri- 
tuals. 

The  ceremonies,  we  have  taken  from  snch  as  were 
before  us,  are  not  things  that  belong  to  this  or  that 
sect,  but  they  are  the. ancient  ritet  and  customs  of  the 
church.  Hoohtr. 

Is  is  by  God  consecrated  into  a  sacraaent,  a 
holy  n'fe,  a  means  of  conveying  to  the  worthy  re- 
ceiver the  benefits  of  the  body  and  blood  of  Chhst.^ 
Hammond* t  F^Btdmmtnlalu 

When  the  prince  herfun'ral  riua  had  paid. 
He  ploughed  the  Tytrhenie  seas.  Dryden. 

A  heathen  ritual  could  not  instruct  a  man  better 
than  these  several  pieces  of  antiquity  in  the  particu- 
lar ceremonies,  that  attended  diflferent  sacrifices. 
Additon* t  Remarks  an  Italjf. 
Instant  I  bade  the  priests  prepare 

The  ritual  sacrifice,  and  solemn  prayer.      Prior. 

If  to  tradition  were  added  certam  constant  ritual 
and  emblematical  observanoes,  as  the  eaablems  were 


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ezprawve,  the  memory  of  the  thin^  recorded  woud 
remain.  FoHm. 

.  RrrSON  (Joseph),  a  celebrated  ant^uary, 
"was  bom  in  1 752,  at  Stocktoa-upon-Tees,  m  the 
county  of  Durham,  and  was  brought  up  to  the 
profession  of  the  law.  But  his  literary  enquiries 
ivere  by  no  means  confined  within  the  limits  of 
his  profession;  and  he  was,  perhaps,  the  most 
successful  of  those  persons  by  whom  the  investi- 
^tion  of  ancient  English  litieTature  and  antiqui- 
ties was  cultivated  in  the  latter  part  of  the  eigh- 
teenth century:  He  died  October,  1803.  The 
following  is  a  list  of  Mr.  RitsonHt  publications : — 
1 .  Observations  on  Johnson's  and  Steevens's  Edi- 
tion of  Shakspeare;  2.  Quiss  Modest,  in  defence 
of  ditto;  3.  Cursory  Criticisms  on  Malone's 
Edition  of  Shakspeare;  4.  Observations  on 
Warton's  History  of  English  Poetry ;  5.  Descent 
of  the  Crown  of  England,  in  a  large  Sheet ;  6. 
Spartan  Manuel;  7.  Digest  of. the  Proceedings 
ot  the  Savoy  Court ;  8.  Office  of  Constable  ex- 
plained; 9.  Jurisdiction  of  the  Court  Jjeei;  10. 
A  Collection  of  English  Songs,  3  vols. ;  1 1 .  Ditto 
of  Scottish  Songs,  2  vols. ;  12.  English  Anthology, 
3  vols.;  13.  Mmot's  poems,  2  vols.;  14.  Metri- 
cal Romances,  3  vols. ;  15.  Bibliographia  Poetica; 
and,  16.  Treatise  on  Abstinence  from  Animal 
Food. 

KITTBERG,  a  small  principality  of  the  go- 
vernment of  Minden,  belonging  to  Prussia.  It 
lies  on  the  Ems,  contains  an  area  of  sixty-five 
square  miles,  and  has  about  12,000  inhabitants, 
chiefly  Catholics.  A  number  of  these  are  spin- 
ners and  weavers ;  and  the  district  requires  an 
annual  import  of  provisions. 

RITTENHOUSE  (David),  an  eminent  Ameri- 
can mathematician,  vras  the  son  of  a  farmer  in 
Pennsylvania.  His  parents  put  him  apprentice 
to  a  watch-maker;  and  astronomy  became  the 
object  of  his  enquiries ;  and,  by  procuring  a  few 
books  on  the  subject,  he  soon  made  great  pro- 
gress in  the  science.  The  first  public  display 
he  gave  of  his  ingenuity  was  in  1768,  when  he 
completed  his  New  Orrery,  which  gave  universal 
satisfaction ;  and  the  trustees  of  the  college  of 
Philadelphia  confenKd  on  him  the  honorary  de- 
gree of  M.  A.  Not  long  afler  this  he  communi- 
cated, by  his  friend  Dr.  Smith,  to  the  American 
Philosophical  Society,  a  Projection  of  the  transit 
of  Venus,  calculated  from  Halley's  Tables ;  in 
consequence  he  was  appointed  by  them,  with 
several  others,  to  make  the  necessary  prepara- 
tions for  observing  the  transit  at  his  house  at 
Norristown.  This  transit  happened  on  the  3d  of 
June,  1769;  and  Mr.  Rittennouse  obtained  the 
applause  of  the  astronomers  of  Europe,  who  es- 
teemed his  observation  of  this  singular  phenome- 
non extremely  accurate  and  ingenious.  After 
the  American  war  he  successively  filled  the  offices 
of  treasurer  of  the  state  of  Pennsylvania,  and 
director  of  the  national  mint.  He  succeeded  the 
venerable  Franklin  as  president  of  the  American 
Philosophical  Society,  which  office  he  filled  with 
high  reputation.    He  died  in  June  1796. 

RITTERHUSIUS  (Conrad),  a  learned  Ger- 
man civilian,  bom  at  .Brunswick  in  1560.  He 
was  professor  of  civil  law  at  Altdorf,  and  pub- 
lishea  a  variety  of  work3,  particularly  as  a  civilian ; 
together  with  an  addition  of  Oppian  in .  Greek 
and  Latin :  he  was  moreover  an  excellent  critic ; 


his  notes  upon  many  eminent  authors  having  been 
inserted. in  the  best  editions  of  them.  He  died 
in  1613. 

RITZEBUTTEL,  a  bailiwic  belonging  to 
Hamburgh,  conuining  the  harbour  of  Cuxhaven, 
and  lying  near  the  North  Sea,  between  the  Elbe 
and  the  Weser.  Its  area,  without  including  the 
small  island  of  Neuwerk,  is  twenty  square  miles, 
and  its  population  4000.    It  is  very  fertile. 

RrTZEBUTTEL,  the  chief  place  of  the  above 
bailiwic,  is  a  neat  small  town,  with  1500  inhabi- 
tante.  Fifty-four  miles  W.  N.  W.  of  Hamburgh, 
and  one  south  of  Cuxhaven. 

RI'VAGE,  n. «.  French  ritfoge.  A  bank ;  a 
coast.    Not  in  use. 

Think 
You  stand  upon  the  rivage,  and  behold 
A  city  on  the'  inconstant  billows  dancing ; 
For  so  appears  this  tieet.  .  Shakspeare, 

RI'VAL,  n.  t,  V.  a.  9i'\  Lat.  rtWu.  A  com- 
RivAL'iTY,n.i.  [v.n.  f  petitor;  one  who  is  in 
Ri'vALRY,  i  pursuit  of    the  same 

Ri'vALSHip.  3  thing    which    another 

.man  pursues :  to  oppose  ;  be  competitors  :  the 

noun -substantives  corresponding. 

She  saw  her  father  was  grown  her  adverse  party, 
and  yet  her  fortune  such  as  she  must  favour  her 
rival,  Sidney. 

France  and  Burgundy, 
GnBirvfoU  in  our  younger  daughter's  love. 

Shahpeare, 
Had  I  but  the  means 
To  hold  a  rival  place  with  one- of  them, 
I  should  be  fortunate.  Id, 

Burgundy, 
We  6r8t  addressed  toward  you,  who  with  this  king 
.  Have  rivaled  for  our  daughter.  Id, 

Oh  love !  thou  sternly  dost  thy  pow'r  maintain. 
And  wilt  not  hear  a  rival  in  thy  reini ; 
Tyrants  and  thou  all  fellowship  disdala,     Jhryden, 

You  bark  to  oe  employed, 
While  Venus  is  by  rival  dogs  enjoyed.  Id. 

Ambitious  fool !  with  horny  hoots  to  pass 
O'er  hollow  arches  of  resounding  brass  ; 
To  nval  thunder  in  its  rapid  course, 
And  imitate  inimitable  force.  Id,  Mmeis, 

Those  that  have  been  raised  by  the  interest  of 
some  great  minister,  trample  upon  the  steps  by  which 
they  nse,  to  riwd  him  in  nis  greatness,  and  at  length 
step  into  his  place.  South, 

It  is  the  pnvilege  of  posterity  to  set  matters  right 
between  those  antagonists,  who,  by  their  ritw/ry  for 
greatness,  divided  a  whole  age.  Addinn, 

Your  ritiai's  image  in  your  worth  I  view ; 
And  what  I  lov*d  in  him,  esteem  in  jrou.  GratwiUe, 

O  thou,  too  great  to  rival  or  to  praise. 
Forgive,  lamented  shade,  these  duteous  lays. 
Lee  had  thy  fire,  and  Congreve  had  thy  wit; 
And  copyists  here  and  there,  tome  likeness  hit ; 
But  none  possessed  ibj  graces,  and  thy  ease ; 
In  thee  alone  'twas  natwal  to  please  !  Harie. 

A  man  truly  aealous  for  his  fraternity^  is  never  so 
irresistiblv  flattenNl,  as  when  some  rival  calling  is 
mentioned  with  contempt.  Johtuon, 

RIVE,  11. fl.  &  V,  ».,  prtter,  rived ;  part,  riven. 
Sax.  jiypc  broken ;  Fr.  riwr,  to  rivet.  To  split ; 
.cleave ;  to  divide  by  a  blunt  instrument :  to  be 
split. 

At  his  haughty  helmet 
So  hugely  struck,  that  it  the  steel  did  rice 
And  cleft  hU  he«i.    ^.^.^.^^^  ^^  GoO^r'- 


mv 


614 


RIV 


Thnragh  rwtn  clottdt  and  molten  firmameDt, 
Tbe  fierce  tbree-foTkad  engine  making  way. 
Both  lofty  towers  and  highest  trees  hath  rent.      Id . 

O  Cicero! 
I  have  seen  tempekts,  when  the  scolding  winds 
Have  rmed  the  knotty  oaks  ;  but  ne'er  till  now 
Did  I  go  through  a  tempest  dropping  fire. 

OrwMpCafV* 

Ten  thousand  French  have  ta*en  the  sacrament. 
To  rive  their  dangerous  artillery 
Upon  no  christian  soul  but  English  Talbot.        Id. 

The  neighbouring  forests,  formerly  shaken  and 
riven  with  the  thunder-bolts  of  war,  did  envy  the 
sweet  peace  of  Droina.  HcwtV*  Vceot  JPbnsfl. 

As  one  he  stood,  6scap*d  from  cruel  fight, 
Sore  toiled,  his  rtoen  arms  to  h'avock  hewn.  Milton. 

Had  I  not  been  blind,  I  might  have  seen 
Yon  riven  oak,  the  fairest  of  the  green.      Dryden, 

Let  it  come ; 
Let  the  fierce  lightning  blast,  the  thunder  rive  me. 

Rffwe, 

Freestone  rioes,  splits,  and  breaks  in  any  direction. 

Woodward. 

RIV'EL,  V.  0.    Sax.  sejuple'd ;  Belg.  h^elen^ 
rumpled.  To  contract  into  wrinkles.   Not  In  use. 
Then  drooped  the  fading  flowers,  their  beauty  fled, 
And  closed  tn^  sickly  eyes  and  hun^  the  head, 
And,  riveled  up  with  heat,  lay  dying  in  their  bed. 

Drydmi. 
Alum  stipticks,  with  contracting  power, 

like  a  rioded  flower.  Pope, 
Fr.  riviere;  Lat.  rivut* 
A  land-current  of  water; 
a  considerable  stream 
^running  into  the  sea:  a 
river-dragon  b  a  poeti- 
cal name  for  the  croco- 
dile: riveret  and  rivulet  diminutives  of  river: 
river-god,  the  tutelary  deity  of  a  river:  river- 
horse,  the  hippopotamus. 

It  is  a  most  beautiful  country,  bebg  stored  throogfa- 
out  with  many  goodly  rivert  replenished  with  all  sorts 
of  fish.  Sjmuer, 

Bringing  all  their  riverett  in. 
There  ends ;  a  new  song  to  begin.  Draytom, 
Thus  with  ton  wounds 
The  river-dragon,  tamed  at  length,  submits 
To  let  his  sojourners  depart. 

MilUm*9  PareOm  Lott* 
Rose, 
As  plants  ambiguous  between  sea  and  land, 
The  riner-horu  and  scalv  crocodile.  Afiiton. 

By  fountain,  or  by  shady  rnwtet. 
He  sought  them.  /d. 

The  first  of  these  rtMrv  has  been  celebrated  by  the 
Latin  poeU  for  the  gentleness  of  iu  course,  as  the 
other  for  its  rapidity.  Addhrni  on  Italy, 

I  saw  the  rimUet  of  Salforata,  formerly  called  Al- 
bula,  and  smelt  the  stench  that  arises  from  ito  water, 
whidi  Martial  mentions.  Id. 

The  veins,  where  innumerable  little  rivuUte  have 
their  confluence  into  the  common  channel  of  the 
blood.  BentUif. 

His  wig  hung  as  strait  as  the  hair  of  a  river-yod 
rising  from  the  water.  AHmthnot  and  Pope, 

I  would  have  a  man's  wit  rather  like  a  fountain, 
that  feeds  itself  invisibly,  than  a  river,  that  is  snp^ 
plied  by  several  streams  from  abroad.  Sun/t, 

RIVET,  n.  t.  &  V.  a,  Fr.  river,  to  rivet ;  Ital. 
ribato,  A  fastening  pin  clenched  at  both  ends : 
to  drive  in  or  clench  a  rivet;  fiuten  with  a  rivet; 
fasten  strongly. 


The  armourers  aooomplishing  the  knigfali. 
With  busy  hammers  closing  rwstt  op. 
Give  dreadful  note  of  preparation.      Shmkapemt, 

You  were  to  blame  to  part  with 
A  thing  stuck  on  with  oaths  upon  your  fiiiger. 
And  rieetied  with  faith  unto  your  flesh.  Id, 

This  man. 
If  all  our  fire  were  out,  would  fetoh  down  new 
Out  of  the  hand  of  Jove ;  and  ri9et  him 
To  Caucasus,  should  he  but  frown.        Bern  /orsm. 
What  one  party  thought  to  rivet  to  a  settledaesa, 
hy  the  influence  of  the  Scots,  that  t^  other  rejects. 

King  Chmrin. 
Thus  bath  God  not  only  rioetted  the  notion  of  him- 
self into  our  natures,  but  likewise  made  the  belief  of 
his  being  necessary  to  the  peace  of  oor  minds  and 
happiness  of  society.  TiUattom, 

ine  vene  in  fashion  is,  whennumbers  flow 
So  smooth  and  equal,  that  no  sight  can  find 
The  rivet  where  the  polished  piece  was  joined. 

Drffdm. 

Till  fortune's  fruitless  spite  had  made  it  known. 

Her  blows  not  shook  bat  rivetted  his  throne.       Id. 

Where  we  use  words  of  a  loose  and  wandering  sig- 
nification, hence  follow  mistake  and  error,  which 
those  maxims,  brought  as  proofs  to  establish  proposi- 
tions, wherein  the  terms  stand  for  undetennined 
ideas,  do  hy  their  authority  confirm  and  rwtf . 


'  Shrink  his  thin 
RIVER,  n. «. 
Riv'er-dragon,  n.<. 

Rrv'ERET, 

Riv'er-god, 

RiV'ER-HOaSE, 
Riv'ULET. 


In  rioettiwf,  the  pin  you  rivet  in  should  stand  op. 
right  to  the  place  you  rvaet  it  upon ;  for,  if  it  do  not 
stand  upright,  you  wDl  be  forced  to  set  it  upright 
after  it  is  rivotud,  JfcxMi. 


They  provoke  him  to  the  rage 
Of  fangs  and  claws,  and,  stooping  from  your  horse. 
Rivet  the  panting  savage  to  the  ground.      Addiun, 
Rivet  and  naiJ  me  where  I  stand,  ye  powers ! 

Congreee. 
A  similitude  of  nature  and  manners,  in  such  a  de- 
gree as  we  are  capable  of,  must  tie  the  holy  knot, 
and  rhet  the  friendship  between  us.         Atter&mrjf, 
This  instrument  should  move  easy  upon  the  rivat. 


RIVINA,  in  botany,  American  nightshade,  a 
genus  of  the  monogynia  order,  and  tetrandtia 
class  of  plants.  Tne  perianth  is  four-leaved, 
colored,  and  permanent,  the  leaflet  oblong-begged 
and  obtuse:  cor.  none.  There  are  four  or  eight 
^laments,  shorter  than  the  calyx,  approaohingbj 
pairs,  permanent:  the  antherse  are  small.  The 
germ  is  large  and  roundish ;  the  style  very  short ; 
the  stigma  simple  and  obtuse.  The  beny  is 
globular,  sitting  on  the  green  teflected  calyx, 
one-celled,  with  an  incurved  point.  There  is 
one  rugged  seed.  This  plant  is  called  solonoides 
by  Toumefort,  and  pi^rcea  by  Miller.  It  grows 
naturally  in  most  of  the. islands  of  the  West 
Indies.  The  juice  of  the  berries  of  the  plant 
^ill  stain  paper  and  linen  of  a  bright  red  color, 
and  many  experiments  made  with  it  to  color 
flowers  have  succeeded  extremdv  well  in  the 
following  manner :  the  juice  of  the  berries  was 
pressed  out,  and  mixed  with  common  water, 
putting  it  into  a  phial,  shaking  it  well  together 
for  some  time  till  the  water  was  thoroughly 
tinged ;  then  the  flowers,  which  were  white  and 
just  fully  blown,  were  cut  ofiT,  and  their  stalks 
placed  mto  the  phial;  and  in  one  night  the 
flowers  have  been  finely  varie^ted  vrith  red:  the 
flowers  on  which  the  eipenments  were  made 
were  the  tuberose  and  m  doable  white  nar- 


cissus. 


Digitized  by 


Goo 


'8 


It: 


ROADS. 


616 


RIVOLI,  a  town  of  PiedAioxit,  Italy,  at  the 
foot  of  the  Alps,  on  the  great  road  which  leads 
over  Mount  Cenis  into  Savoy.  It  has  some 
'nanu&ctares  of  linen,  woollens,  and  silk.  On 
an  eminence  stands  a  castle,  in  which  Victor 
Amadous  II.  of  Sardinia,  after  having  abdicated 
his  throne  in  favor  of  his  son,  and  eodearoured 
to  resume  it,  died,  in  1732,  a  state  prisoner. 
The  prospect  from  this  eminence,  ana  in. par- 
ticular the  view  of  Turin,  throudi  a  spacious  al- 
ley of  trees,  is  most  imposing.  Iropulation  5100. 
Nine  miles  west  of  Turin. 

RxvoLi,  a  small  place  in  the  north-east  of 
Lombardy,  on  the  Adige,  twelve  miles  north-west 
of  Verona.  It  is  only  rema^lcable  as  Uie  scene 
of  one  of  Buonaparte's  victories.  At  Aroole,  in 
the  preceding  November,  his  plans  had  been  re- 
peatedly baffled  by  the  Austrians ;  but  here  they 
had  complete  success  (14th  and  15th  January, 
1797)  both  on  the  field  and  in  the  pursuit 

KIZZIO  (David),  an  Italian  musician,  who 
about  1563  attend^  the  Piedmontese  ambassa- 
dor to  Scotltod,  where,  by  his  professional  skill, 
he  obtained  great  lavor  with  Queen  Mary.  She 
appointed  him  her  French  secretary,  and  showed 
hun  such  marks  of  distinction  as  gave  offence  to 
lord  Damley  and  other  nobles,  who,  with  great 
brutality,  assassinated  him  in  her  presence.  See 
Mary  and  Scotland.  Tradition  assigns  to 
Rizzio  the  amelioration,  not  to  say  the  invention, 
of  the  Scottish  music ;  and  it  b  unquestionable 
that  his  skill  in  the  performance  of  the  national 
melodies  on  the  lute  tended  not  a  little  to  their 
general  improvement  and  popularity ;  but  many 
of  the  airs  which  have  been  ascribed  to  Rizzio, 
as  Cowden  Knowes,  Gala  W%ter,  and  others, 
are  easily  traced  to  more  remote  periods. 

ROACH,  n.<.  From  Lat.  rtfli/io,  red-haired. 
A  river  fish. 

A  naeh  is  a  fish  ef  no  great  repatation  for  his 
dainty  taste :  his  spawn  is  aoeoimted  mnch  better 
than  any  other  part  of  him :  he  is  accounted  the 
water  sheep  for  his  simplicity  and  foolishness ;  and 
it  is  noted  that  roaehMt  recover  strength,  and  grow  in 
a  fortnight  after  spawning.  Waltm^s  AngUr. 

If  a  gudgeon  meet  a  roach. 
He  dare  not  venture  to  approach ! 
Yet  still  he  leaps  at  flies.  Swifi. 

ROAD,  n.  1.  Sax.  pal) ;  Fr.  rode,  route.  From 
Ride.  Properly  a  horse  or  carriage  way ;  large 
way ;  path ;  inroad :  place  for  ships  to  anchor 
in ;  journey ;  course. 

About  the  island  are  many  roads,  biit  only  pne 
harbour.  Sandy*t  Journey, 

Cason  was  desirous  of  the  spoil,  for  he  was,  by  the 
fonner  road  into  that  country,  famoos  and  rich. 

KnoUu, 
I  should  he  still 

Peering  in  maps  for  ports  abd  rocub ; 

And  every  object  that  might  make  me  fear 

lAisfortone  to  my  ventures.  Shahtpearo. 

The  Volscians  stand 
Ready,  when  time  shall  prompt  them,  to  make  road 
Upon  s  again.  Id,  CorioUinut. 

With  easy  roadi  he  came  to  Leicester, 

And  lodged  in  the  abbey.  Id,  Henry  TUT, 

The  king  of  Scotland,  seeing  none  came  in  to 
Pefldn,  tamed  liti  enterprise  into  a  road,  and 
wasted  Northumbeiland  with  fire  and  sword. 

Baeon, 

Would  you  not  think  him  a  madmail,  who,  whilst 


he  might  easily  ii'de  on  the  beaten  road  way,  should 
trouble  himself  with  breaking  up  of  gaps  t 

&ic1ding» 

To  God's  eternal  house  direct  the  way, 

A  broad  and  ample  road.  AfUton, 

He  from  the  east  his  flaming  road  begins.    Id, 

The  liberal  man  dwells  always  in  the  road.  Fell. 

To  be  indifferent  whether  we  embrace  falsehood 

or  truth  is  the  great  road  to  error.  Locke. 

In  all  oar  journey  through'  the  Alps,  as  well 
when  we  climbed  as  when  we  descended  them,  we 
had  still  a  river  running  along  with  the  road, 

Additon, 
Could  stupid  atoms,  with  impetuous  speed. 
By  different  roads  and  adverse  ways  proceed, 
I'hat  there  they  might  encounter,  here  unite. 

Btackmore, 
Some  taken  from  their  shops  and  farms,  others 
from  their  sports  and  pleasures ;  these  at  suits  of  law, 
those  at  gaming  tables ;  some  on  the  road,  others  at 
their  own  fire-sides.  Law, 

Roan,  in  navigation,  a  bay,  or  a  place  of 
anchorage,  at  some  dbtance  from  the  shore^ 
whither  ships  or  vessels  occasionally  repair  to 
receive  intelligence,  orders,  or  necessary  sup- 
pli^ ;  or  to  wait  for  a  fair  wind,  &c.  The  ex- 
cellence of  a  road  consists  chiefly  in  its  being 
protected  from  the  reigning  winds  and  the  swell 
of  the  sea ;  in  having  a  good  anchoring*ground, 
and  beinff  at  a  competent  distance  firom  the  shore. 
Those  which  are  not  sufficiently  enclosed  are 
termed  open  roads. 

A  Roan  is  an  open  way,  or  public  passage, 
forming  a  communication  between  one  place  and 
another.  Of  all  the  people  in  the  world, 'the  Ro- 
mans took  the  most  pains  m  forming  roads ;  and  the 
labor  and  expenses  they  were  at  in  rendering 
them  spacious,  firm,  straight,  and  smooth,  are 
incredible.  They  usually  strengthened  the  ground 
by  ramming  it,  laying  it  with  flints,  pebbles,  or 
sands,  and  sonoetimes  with  a  lining  of  masonry, 
rubbish,  bricks,  &c.,  bound. together  with  mortar. 
In  some  places  in  the  cidevant  Lionnois,  F. 
JMenestrier  ol^erves  that  he  has  found  huge  clus- 
ters of  flints  cemented  with  lime,  reaching  ten  or 
twelve  feet  deep,  and  making  a  mass  as  hard 
and. compact  as  marble;  and  which,  after  resist- 
ing the  mjuries  of  time  for  1600  years,  is  still 
scarcely  penetrable  by  all  the  force  of  hammers, 
mattocks,  &c. ;  and  yet  the  flints  it  consists  of 
are  not  bigger  than  eggs.  The  most  noble  of  the 
Roman  roads  was  the  Via  Appia,  which  was 
carried  to  such  a  vast  length  that  Procopius 
reckons  it  five  days'  journey  to  the  end  of  it,  and 
Lipsius  computes  it  at  350  miles :  it  is  twelve 
feet  broad,  and  made  of  square  free-stone,  gene- 
rally a  foot  and  a  half  on  each  side;  and,  though 
this  has  lasted  for  above  1800  years,  yet  in  many 
places  it  is  several  miles  together  as  entire  as 
when  it  was  first  made.  The  ancient  roads  are 
distinguished  into  military,  subterraneous  roads, 
&c.  The  military  roads  were  grand  roads, 
formed  by  the  Romans  for  marching  their  armies 
into  the  provinces  of  the  empire ;  the  principal 
of  these  Roman  roads  in  England  art  Wathng 
Street,  Ikonild  Street,  Foss  Way,  and  Erminage 
Street.  Double  roads,  among  the  Romans,  were 
roads  for  carriages,  with  two  pavements,  the  one 
for  those  going  one  way,  and  the  other  for  those 
returning  the  other :  these  were  separated  from. 


Digitized  by 


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616 


ROADS. 


each  -pther  by  a  causeway  raised  in  the  middle', 
paved  with  bricks,  for  the  conveniency  of  foot- 
passengers  ;  with  borders  and  mounting  stones 
trom  space  to  space,  and  military  columns  to 
mark  tne  distance.  Subterraneous  roads  are 
those  dug  through  a  rock,  and  left  vaulted ;  and 
that  of  Puzzuoli  near  Naples,  which  is  nearly  half 
a  league  long,  is  fifteen  feet  broad,  and  as  many 


Modern  Roads. — ^If  the  modern  roads  of 
Great  Britain,  and  particubirly  those  of  Eng- 
land, do  not  as  yet  equal  the  most  firm  and 
durable  of  the  ancient  undertakings  of  this  kind, 
it  cannot  be  from  the  want  of  attention  to  the 
subject,  either  on  the  part  of  the  legislature  or 
the  people.  Our  turnpike  acts  would  of  them- 
selves make  an  ample  volume;  parliamentary 
enquiries  into  the  general  subject  of  rood-making, 
as  well  as  into  its  local  applications,  have  often 
been  adverted  to;  and  commissioners  for  carry- 
ing into  effect  the  decisions  of  the  national  wi;^ 
dom  comprise  the  names  of  almost  every  re- 
spectable squire  and  beneficed  clei^man  (I)  and 
lawyer  of  the  country. 

M.  Dupin,  the  ablest  perhaps  of  modern 
writers  on  the  commercial  power  of  England,  is 
far  more  enamoured  with  our  road-making 
system  than  we  can  profess  ourselves  to  be;  he 
calculates  that  in  the  South  of  England  alone  we 
have  an  extent  of  public  road,  unequalled  for 
its  conveniences,  that  measures  46,000  leagues, 
and  attributes  it  entirely  to  the  well  organised 
public  spirit  of  the  country.  He  contrasts  in 
this  respect  the  conduct  of  the  British  govern- 
ment, too,  with  that  of  France :  the  former  not 
only  granting  the  inhabitants  a  credit  and  funds, 
but  leaving  them  to  carry  on  themselves  those 
works  in  which  they  are  so  materially  interested ; 
whilst  in  the  latter  the  government  obliges  the 
inhabitants  to  pour  their  funds  into  its  own 
treasury,  to  enable  it  to  execute  after  its  own 
manner,  and  when  it  shall  seem  good  in  its  own 
eyes,  that  which  concerns  only  the  governed. 
*  How  very  far,'  he  says,  *  are  we  from  partici- 
pating in  the  spirit  of  the  administration  and  the 
parliament  of  Great  Britain  1  We,  who  scarcely 
confide  to  the  zeal  of  the  inhabitants  the  repair 
of  a  village  foot-path !  We,  who,  before  a 
basket  of  pebbles  can  be  thrown  upon  the  small- 
est departmental  road,  require  imperatively  that 
the  future  expense  of  this  basketful  shall  bie  car- 
ried to  the  budget  of  the  arrondissement,  then  to 
that  of  the  department,  then  submitted  to  the 
grand  council  of  bridges  and  highways,  sitting 
in  a  bureau  at  Paris,  at  the  distance  of  200 
leagues  from  the  situation  of  the  work  1' 

He  holds  up  to  deserved  ridicule  the  '  lenteurs 
savantes  d'une  comptabilit^  profonde,'  and  the 
<  formalit^s  bureaucrati^ues,'  which  must  be  en- 
countered before  a  public  work  of  any  descrip- 
tion can  be  undertaken  in  France;  the  conse- 
quences of  whicli  are,  that,  with  a  strong  corps  of 
engineers  des  ponts  et  chauss^  scattered  over 
every  part  of  the  country,  the  few  new  works 
which  are  commenced  proceed  with  all  imagina- 
ble leisure,  and  the  old  ones  are  suffered  gradu- 
ally to  decay.  Matters  of  this  kind,  he  says, 
are  very  differently  managed  in  England.  There 
houses,  ships,  carriages,  and  machines,  are  kept 
constantly  in  the  best  condition,  and  have  an 


appearance  of  fireshness,  neatness^  nay,  of  bril- 
liancy,  which  is  only  adopted  partially,  and  flat 
even  by  a  small  number  of  people,  on  the  conti- 
nent. It  is  remarkable,  be  adds,  that  the  inovt 
economical  nations,  and  those  the  most  en- 
lightened as  to  their  pecuniary  interests,  such  as 
the  Dutch,  the  Swedes,  and  the  English,  adopt, 
with  common  consent,  the  system  of  constant 
repair;  while  the  Italians,  the  Portoguese,  the 
Spaniards,  &c.,  the  worst  calculators,  and  the 
most  improvident,  wait  generally  till  an  edifice 
fiills  into  ruins  before  they  think  of  beginning  to 
repair  it.  It  is  the  same  in  England,  he  ob- 
serves, with  regard  to  the  roads ;  mey  are  habi- 
tually kept  solid,  smooth,  and  -easy,  equally  eco- 
nomical tor  the  transport  of  commerce,  and  the 
convenience  and  expedition  of  travelling.  But 
in  France,  '  even  m  the  midst  of  prafbnnd 
peace,'  says  M.  Dupin,  *  scarcely  can  the  go- 
vernment be  prevailed  upon  to  assign,  for  the 
maintenance  of  our  roads,  the  third  part  of  the 
sums  which  are  furnished  by  the  inhabitants  of 
Eneland  alone — a  country  diat  does  not  equal  is 
surface  a  third  part  of  France.' 

All  this  may  contribute  to  put  our  readers  in 
•good  humor  with  what  is  often  a  dry  and  dusty 
subject;  but,  while  we  shall  shortly  endeavour  to 
do  justice  to  the  real  modem  improvements  in 
road-making,  we  conceive  that  this  writer  ad- 
mires, through  ignorance  of  its  details,  some  of 
the  worst  parts  of  our  system.  It  is  a  dear  and 
bad  system,  and  a  third  part  of  the  immense 
expenditure  it  involves  would  appear  fully 
equal,  on  a  better  plan  of  administration,  to  ac- 
complish the  complete  intersection  of  the  coun- 
try with  good  roads.  The  surveyor  of  parish 
rcxids  is  chosen  from  ten  men  named  by  a  vestry 
meeting;  or,  if  necessary,  more  than  one  are 
appointed,  the  selection  being  in  the  justices  at 
the  quarter-sessions.  The  works  and  the  money  aie 
under  the  management  of  the  surveyor,  and  the 
control  is  in  the  local  magistracy.  A  surveyor 
may  perform  the  office  gratuitously,  but  it  is  in 
the  power  of  the  parish  to  name  and  pay  a  salaried 
and  professional  one.  The  business  is  neglected 
by  ail;  and  it  is  doubly  neglected  when  the 
commissioners  are  numerous,  or  it  falls  into  the 
hands  of  some  one  who  makes  an  interest  for 
himself,  in  power  or  patronage,  or  something  else; 
or,  finally,  every  thing  is  traiuacted  by  an  attorney, 
not  alvi^ys  the  most  honorable  member  of  his 
profession.  As  to  hired  surveyors,  their  collu- 
sions with  the  contractors  are  numerous;  and 
while  the  wretched  but  cunning  people  who 
form  vestries  contrive  to  waste  and  spoil  the 
funds,  from  the  spoil  of  which  they  all  in  turn 
contrive  to  derive  a  profit,  there  is  either  no 
efficient  control,  or  there  is  no  control  at  all,  as 
the  accounts  are  passed  under  the  direction  of 
the  attorney,  himself  dependent  on  the  vestry 
and  the  parish  for  his  fevor  and  his  profits.  It 
is  unquestionable  that  double  the  money  is  often 
raised  for  these  roads  that  would  be  required 
under  a  prudent  direction,  free  from  all  local 
interests^ 

Bergman  quotes  this  general  view  of  the  sub- 
ject ;  we  shall  extract  from  M.  Dupin  a  passage 
grounded  on  the  recent  parliamentary  enquiries. 
It  is  introduced  by  the  following 


Digitized  by 


vjQOgle 


ROADS.  617 

TMeof  the  pMic  natU  of  England,  their  length,  mid  tht  eo$t  if  repairing  tkm. 


Pablic  Carriage  Roads  in  England. 

Years  ending  in  October. 

1812. 

1813. 

1814. 

Paved  Streets  and  Turnpike  Roads     . 
Other  Roads 

Total  length      .... 

Contributions  in  labor 
Contributions  in  money 
Taxes  levied  for  the  roads  . 

Total              ..... 
Expense  of  preparing  documents,  &c. 

MUes. 
19,114 
95,105 

MUes. 
19,1321 
95,1424 

Miles. 
19,178 
95,184 

114,219 

114,275 

114,362 

£515,508 
271,512 
570,754 

539,522 
276,947 
613,604 

551,241 
287,059 
621,512 

£1,357,774 
21,499 

1,430,073 
26,252 

1,459,812 
25,700 

Thus  it  appears  that  the  average  annual  ex- 
penses of  all  the  roads  in  England  were,  from 
1811  to  1814,  as  follows:— 

Contributions  in  labor  .    £535,423 

Ditto  in  money  .        .    278,506 

Sums  raised  by  rate  .  .    601,954 

£1,415,883 

This  gives  us  £l2  7s.  6d.  for  the  average  annual 
expense  of  maintaining  each  mile  of  open  road. 
In  this  calculation  I  have  deducted,*  says  our 
author,  'from  the  total  amount  of  the  expense  of 
road  labor,  the  three  days'  labor  which  is  allow^ 
for  turnpike 'roads ;  while  six  are  allowed  for 
open  parish  roads. 

*  According  to  a  report  made  to  the  house  of 
commons  on  the  10th  of  June,  1821,  the  total 
amount  of  the  sums  levied  in  a  single  year  on 
turnpike  roads  amounts  to  £970,618.  This 
gives  the  average  value  of  £47  18«.  for  the  sup- 
port of  each  mile  of  paved  street  and  turnpike 
Toad.  By  adding  the  contributions  in  labor,  the 
expense  will  amount  to  about  £51  per  mile. 
This  revenue,  immense  as  it  is,  is  not  sufficient 
for  the  construction  of  new  roads,  and  the  sup- 
port of  those  that  are  already  established.  The 
different  trusts  have  contracted  debts,  for  which 
the  rentals  of  each  county  are  responsible.  The 
total  amount  of  the  debts,  at  the  period  of  the 
enquiry  of  which  the  report  to  wnich  we  have 
above  alluded  gives  the  result,  was  £3,874,254, 
that  is  to  say,  that  these  debts  then  equalled  four 
years*  revenue.  It  is  affirmed  that  if  the  same 
calculation  were  made  for  Wales,  Scotland,  and 
Ireland,  the  general  amount  of  the  debt  of  the 
turnpike  roads  would  amount  to  £7,000,000 
sterling.'— vol.  i.  p.  86. 

The  fact  is  that  our  modem  improvements 
have  been  introduced  in  despite  of  a  oad  system 
— and,  in  their  most  decidea  feature,  the  simple 
methods  of  Mr.  M*Adam  exhibit  the  triumph  of 
real  genius  and  intelligence  over  cumbrous  con- 
trivances to  make  bad  roads — and  unmake  good 
ones,  that  surveyors  and  inspectors  may  be  paid. 

1.  Of  the  punoiet  of  roadt  and  of  laying 
down  the  line. — Roads,  rivers,  and  canals  have 
been  called  the  veins  and  arteries  of  a  country ; 
all  its  other  improvements  flow  and  circulate  by 


means  of  them.  Our  legal  system  respecting 
them  dates  from  the  reign  of  Charles  II.,  but  it 
was  not  until  the  middle  of  the  last  century 
that  scientific  enquiry  was  directed  toward  them. 

Before  carriages  of  burden  *  were  generally 
used,  little  more  was  required  than  a  hard  horse 
path.  All  marshy  grounds  were  therefore  shun- 
ned, and  the  inequality  or  circuit  of  the  road 
was  of  much  less  consequence  than,  wheq  car- 
riages, instead  of  pack-horses,  began  to  be  em- 
ployed. When  carriages  were  nrst  employed, 
they  probably  were  light  and  narrow,  and  did 
not  require  to  have  roads  of  any  considerable 
breadth.  And,  when  these  had  once  been  traced, 
indolence  and  habit  prevented  any  great  exer- 
tions to  lay  them  out  in  better  lines.  Heavier 
carriages  and  greater  traffic  made  wider  and 
stronger  roads  necessary;  the  ancient  track  was 
pursued;  ignorance  ana  want  of  concert  in  the 
proprietors  of  the  ground,  and,  above  all,  the 
want  of  some  general  effective  superintending 
power,  continued  this  wretched  practice.  At 
length  turnpikes  were  established,  and  laws 
passed  investing  magistrates  with  authority  to 
alter  established  lines,  so  that  now  the  chief  ob- 
stacle to  the  improvement  of  the  lines  of  public 
roads  is  the  expanse. 

In  laying  out  roads,  observes  Mr.  Loudon,  a 
variety  of  circumstances  require  to  be  taken  into 
consideration;  but  the  principal  are  evidently 
their  line  or  direction,  and  its  inclination  to  the 
horizon.  The  most  perfect  line,  according  to 
Marshall,  is  that  wluch  is  straight  and  level. 
But  this  is  to  be  drawn  in  a  country  only  which 
is  perfectly  flat,  and  where  no  obstructions  lie 
in  the  way :  joint  circumstances  that  rarely  hap- 
pen. Where  the  fiau^e  of  the  country,  between 
two  points  or  places  to  be  connected  by  a  road, 
is  nearly  but  not  quite  level,  by  reason  of  gentle 
swells  which  rise  between  them,  a  straight  line 
maybe  perfect, — may  be  the  most  eligible,  under 
these  circumstances.  But  where  the  inter- 
vening country  is  broken  into  hill  and  dale,  or 
if  one  ridge  of  hill  only  intervenes,  a  straight 
line  of  carriage  road  is  seldom  compatible  with 
perfection.  In  this  case,  which  is  nearly  gene- 
ral, the  best  skill  of  the  surveyor  lies  in  tracins 
the  midway  between  the  straight  and  the  level 
line.    The  line  of  perfection,  for  agricultural 


Digitized  by  N^UUy  It? 


618 


%  O  A  D  S. 


purposes,  ift  to  be  caknlaUfd,  by  the  time  and  but  if  such  a  road  could  be  found,  aliid  if  it  wtn 

exertion,  jointly  considered,  which  are  required  curved,  so  as  to  prevent  the  eye  from  seeing 

to  convey  a  given  burden,  with  a  given  power  of  further  than  a  quarter  of  a  mile  of  it,  in  any  one 

draught,  from  station  to  station.    On  great  public  place,  the  whole  road  would  not  be  lengtlieDed 

loads.  Inhere  expedition. is  a  principal  object,  more  than  150  yards.    It  is  not  proposed  id 

time  alone  may  be  taken  as  a  good  criterion,  make  serpentine  roads  merely  for  the  entertain- 

A  regular  method  of  finding;  out  the  true  line  of  ment  of  travellers ;  but  it  is  intended  to  potnt 

road  between  two    stations^  where  a  blank  is  out,  that  a  strict  adherence  to  a  straight  line  is  of 

given,  where  there  is  no  other  obstruction  than  much  less  consequence  than  is  usu^ly  sup- 

what  the  surface  of  the  ground  to  be  got  over  posed ;  aiid  that  it  will  be  frequently  advan- 


presents,  is  to  ascertain,  and  mark  at  proper  dis- 
tances, the  straight  line ;  which  is  the  only  certain 
guide  to  the  surveyor.  If  the  straight  line  be 
found  to  be  ineligible,  each  mark  becomes  a  ral- 
lying point,  in  searching  on  either  side  of  it  for 
a  better.  If  two  lines  of  equal  facility,  and 
nearly  of  equal  distance  from  the  straight  line, 
present  themselves,  accurate  measurements  are 
to  determine  the  choice.  If  one  of  the  two  best 
lines  which  the  intervening  country  affords  is 
found  to  be  easier,  the  other  shorter,  the  ascent 
and  the  distance  are  to  be  jointly  considered ; 
the  exertion  and  the  time  required  are  to  be  duly 
weMied. 

That  part  of  a  road  which  b  coated  with 
stones  is  called  the  '  metalled*  part.  Although 
in  some  places,  Paterson  observes,  it  may  be  of 
little  consequence,  either  to  the  traveller,  or  to 
the  public  in  general,  which  way  the  bendings 
are  turned,  provided  the  level  is  nearly  obtained, 
<-~yet  a  great  deal  may  depend  upon  those  turns 
or  bendings  for  the  real  benefit  and  advantage 
of  the  TOM.  In  bending  it  one  way,  you  may 
have  no  metals  that  will  stand  any  fiitigue,  un- 
less at  a  great  distance  and  expense ;  while,  in 


tageous  to  deviate  from  the  direct  lincy  to  avoid 
inequalities  of  ground.  It  is  obvious  that, 
where  the  arc  described  by  a  road  going  over  a 
hill  is  greater  than  that  which  is  described  by 
going  round  it,  the  circuit  is  preferable ;  but  it 
is  not  known  to  every  overseer  that  within 
certain  limits  it  will  be  less  laborious  to  go  round 
the  hill,  though  the  circuit  should  be  much 
f^reater  than  that  which  would  be  made  in  cros- 
mg  the  hill.  Where  a  hill  has  an  ascent  of  no 
more  than  one  foot  in  thirty,  the  thirtielfa  pan 
of  the  whole  weight  of  the  carriage,  of  the  Iok^ 
and  of  the  horses,  must  be  lif^  up,  whilst  they 
advance  thirty  feet.  In  dping  this,  one-thirtieth 
part  of  the  whole  load  continually  resists  the 
hones'  draught ;  and,  in  drawing  a  waggon  of 
six  tons  weight,  a  resbtance  equal  to  the  usual 
force  of  two  horses  must  be  exerted. 

A  perfectly  level  road,  it  has  been  often  said, 
is  not  the  best  for  every  species  of  dranghtl 
Slight  and  short  alternations  of  rising  and  fell- 
ing ground  are  serviceable  to  horses  moving 
swiftly;  the  horses  have  time  to  rest  their  lungss 
and  different  muscles :  and  of  this  experieood 
drivers  know  well  how  to  take  advantage.     Mar- 


turning  it  the  other  way,  you  may  have  metals  of    shal  concurs  in  this  opinion,  as  well  as  Walker, 


the  very  best  quality,  m  the  immediate  vicinity. 
In  the  one  way,  too,  you  may  be  led  over 
ground  of  a  wet  bottom,  where  even,  with  twelve 
or  fourteen  inches  deep  of  metals,  there  would 
be  difficulty  in  keeping  a  good  road ;  while,  in 
the  other,  you  may  nave  such  a  dry  bottom  that 
the  road  would  be  much  easier  upheld  with  seven 
or  eight  inches  of  metals.  So  that  the  tract  that 
mav  appear  most  eliffible  to  the  eye,  at   first 


Telford,  and  most  engineers ;  and  Patetson  con- 
siders that  it  would  not  be  proper  to  line  a  road 
upon  a  perfect  level,  even  to  the  length  of  one  mile 
U^ther,  although  it  could  be  quite  easily  ob> 
tained.  It  is  a  fiict,  he  says,  well  known  to 
most  people,  at  least  every  driver  of  loaded  car- 
riages knows  by  experience,  that  where  a  horse, 
dragging  a  load  over  a  long  stretch  of  road,  quite 
level,  will  be  exhausted  with  fatigoe;  the  same 


8iffht,.may  not  always  be  die  one  that  should  be  length  of  a  road,  having  here  a  gentle  acdivity, 

adopted.    *  A  combination  of  all  the  requisites  and  there  a  declivity,  will  not  fatigue  the  animal 

I  have  already  mentioned  should  be  studied,  as  so  much.    This  is  easily  accounted  for.    (>n  a 

far '  as  possible ;  and,  where  these  cannot  be  road  quite  level  the  draught  is  always  the  same, 

found  ah  to  unite,  the  one  possessing  the  most  without  any  relaxation ;  but,  on  a  gentle  ascent, 

of  these  advantages,  and  subject  to  no  other  ma-  one  of  his  powers  is  called  into  exercise ;  on  the 


terial  objection,  should,  of  course,  be  adopted.' 
Treatise  on  Roads,  p.  19. 

Roads,  Edgeworth  observes,  should  be  laid 
out,  as  nearly  as  may  be,  in  a  straight  line;  but 
to  follow  with  diis  view  the  mathematical  axiom, 
that  a  straight  line  is  the  shortest  that  can  be 
drawn  between  two  points,  will  not  succeed  in 
making  the  most  commodious  roads ;  hills  must 
be  avoided,  towns  must  be  resorted  to,  and  the 
sudden  bends  of  rivers  must  be  shunned.  All 
these  circumstances  must  be  attended  to;  there- 
fore  a  perfectly  straight  road  cannot  often  be 
found  of  cany  great  length.  It  may  perhaps 
appear  surprising  that  there  is  but  little  differ- 
ence in  the  len^  between  a  road  that  has  a 
gentle  bend,  and  one  that  is  in  a  perfectly 
straight  line.  A  road  ten  miles  long,  and  per- 
fectly straight,  can  scarcely  be  found  any  where; 


descent,  another  of  his  powers  is  called  into 
action,  and  he  rests  firom  the  exercise  at  the 
former.  Thus  are  his  different  muscular  powerv 
moderately  exercised,  one  after  another;  and 
this  variety  has  not  the  same  tendencyio  fttigue. 
Cutting  through  low  hills  to  obtain  a  level  is 
recommended  by  some,  who,  as  Paterson  olv* 
serves,  will  argue  '  that  where  the  hill  of  ascent 
is  not  very  long  it  is  better,  in  that  case,  to  eui 
through  it  in  a  straight  line,  and  embank  over 
the  hollow  ground  on  each  side,  than  to  wind 
along  the  nx>t  of  it.  This,  however,  diould 
only  be  done  where  the  cutting  is  very  Kttte 
indeed,  and  an  embankment  absolutely  neces-* 
saiy.  Few  people,^  except  those  who  are  well 
acquainted,  are  aware  of  tiie  great  expense  of 
cutting  and  embanking;  and,  the  more  anyone 
becomes  acquainted  wkh  road-malring,  the  more, 


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it  may  be  presumed,  will  be  endeavour  to  avoid 
those  l^ls  on  the  straight  line  that  are  obtained 
only  by  cutting  and  embankine,  and  wiU  either 
follow  the  level  or  the  curved  line  round  the 
hill ;  or,  where  this  is  impracticable,  will  ascend 
the  hill,  and  go  over  it  by  various  windings, 
avoiding  always  abrupt  or  sudden  turnings/ 
Treatise,  &c.  p.  15. 

According  to  Walker,  Minutes  of  Evidence 
oefore  a  Committee  of  the  House  of  Commons, 
1819,  a  diy  fouiidation  and  clearing  the  road 
iirom  water  are  two  of  the  main  objects.  '  For 
obtaining  the  first  of  these  objects  it  is  essential 
that  the  line  for  the  road  be  taken  so  that  the 
foundation  can  be  kept  dry,  either  by  avoiding 
low  ground,  by  raising  the  surface  of  the  road 
above  the  level  of  the  ground  on  each  side  of  it, 
or  by  drawing  off  the  water  by  means  of  side 
drains.  The  other  object,  viz.  that  of  clearing 
the  road  of  water,  is  best  secufied  by  selecting  a 
coarse  for  the  road  which  is  not  horizontally 
level,  so  that  the  surface  of  the  road  may  in  its 
longitudinal  section  form  in  some  degree  an  in^ 
eliiwd  plane ;  and  when  this  cannot  be  obtained, 
owing  to  the  extreme  flatness  of  the  country,  an 
artificial  inclination  may  generally  be  made. 
When  a  road  is  so  formed,  every  wheel  track 
^t  is  made,  being  in  the  tine  of  the  inclination, 
becomes  a  channel  for  carrying  off  the  water, 
much  mofre  effectually  than  can  be  done  by  a 
eurvature  in  the  cross  section  or  rise  in  the 
middle  oC  the  road,  without  the  danger,  or  other 
disadvantages,  which  necessarily  attend  the 
roundtnfl;  a  road  much  in  the  middle.  I  con- 
sider a  ndl  of  about  one  inch  and  a  hali  in  ten 
feet  to  be  a  minimum  in  this  case,  if  it  is  attain- 
able without  a  great  deal  of  extra  expense.' 

The  ascent  of  hills,  as  observed  by  Marshal,  is 
of  course  one  of  the  most  difficult  parts  of  laying 
out  roads.  According  to  tfaeoty,  he  nys,  an  in- 
clined plane  of  easy  ascent  is  proper;  but  as 
tfie  moving  power  on  this  plane  is  'neither 
purely  mechanical,  nor  in  a  sufficient  degree  ra- 
tional, but  an  irregular  compound  of  these  two 
qualities,  the  nature  and  habits  of  thi^  power' 
require  a  varied  inclined  plane,  or  one  not  a 
uniform  descent,  but  with  levels  or  other  proper 
places  for  rests.  According  to  the  road  act  the 
ascent  or  descent  should  not  exceed  the  rate 
or  proportion  of  one  foot  in  height  to  thirty-five 
foet  of  the  length  thereof,  if  the  same  be  prac- 
ticable, without  causing  a  great  increase  of  diju 
tance.  Mr.  Telford,  Minutes  before  the  Com- 
mittee of  the  House  of  Commons,  flee,  1819, 
referrmg  to  those  which  he  has  lately  made 
through  the  most  difficult  and  Precipitous  dis- 
tricts of  North  Wales,  says,  *  Uie  longitudinal 
inclinations  are  in^  general  less  than  one  in 
thirty;  in  one  instance  for  a  considerable  dis- 
tance there  was  no  avoiding  one  in  twenty- two, 
and  in  another,  for  about  200  yards,  one  in 
seventeen ;  but,  in  these  two  cases,  the  surface  of 
the  rood-way  being  made  peculiarly  smooth  and 
bard,  no  inconvenience  is  experienced  by 
wheeled  carriages.  On  flat  ground  the  breadtn 
of  the  road-way  is  thirty-two  feet;  where  there 
is  side  cutting  not  exceeding  three  feet,  the 
breadth  is  twentjr-^ight ;  and,  along  any  steep 
ground  and   precipices,  it  is  twenty-two,  all 


clear  within  the  fences;  the  sides  are  protected 
by  stone  walls,  breast  and  retaining  walls,  and 
parapets;  great  pains  have  been  bestowed  on 
the  cross  drains,  also  the  drainihg  the  ground, 
and  likewise  in  constructing  firm  and  sul«tantial 
foundations  for  the  metalled  part  of  the  road- 
way.* 

In  order  to  preserve  a  moderate  inclination 
or  such  a  one  as  will  admit  of  the  descent  of 
carriages  without  locking  their  wheels,  a  much 
longer  line  will  generally  be  required  than  the 
arc  of  a  hill.  In  reaching  the  summit,  or  high- 
est part  to  be  passed  over,  the  line  in  many 
cases  must  be  extended  by  winding  or  zigzag- 
ging it,  so  as  never  to  exceed  the  maximum 
degree  of  steepness.  Two  inches  in  six  feet  is 
the  slope  of  ttie  celebrated  Simplon  road.  If 
this  were  extended  in  a  straight  line,  on  each  side, 
it  would  require  an  enormous  mound,  and  an 
immense  expense ;  but  by  being  conducted  in  k 
winding  direction,  up  the  hill  on  one  side,  and 
down  the  other,  the  same  end  is  gained  at  a 
moderate  cost.  Such  works  show  the  wonderful 
power  and  ingenuity  of  man. 

In  layiuff  out  a  road  towards  a  river,  or  any 
place  requiring  a  bridge  or  embankment,  an  ob- 
vious advantage  results  from  approaching  them 
at  right  angles ;  and  the  same  will  apply  in  re- 
gard to  any  part  requiring  tunnelling  or  crossing 
by  an  aqueduct,  flee. :  all  crossings  and  intersec- 
tions should  indeed  be  made  at  right  andes. 

2.  Of  the  width  and  form  of  roads. — ft  is  con- 
tendec(,  by  the  author  of  the  Landed  Property  of 
England,  that  the  phm  of  all  public  roads  should 
admit  of  their  heme  divided  into  three  travellable 
lines,  namely:  1.  A  middle  road  of  hard  mate- 
rials for  carriages  and  horses  in  winter  and  wet 
seasons :  2.  A  soft  road,  formed  with  the  natural 
materials  of  the  site,  to  be  used  in  dry  weather, 
to  save  the  unnecessaiy  wear  of  t(ie  hard  road, 
and  to  favor  the  l^t  of  travelling  animab ;  as 
well  as  for  ^e  safety,  ease,  and  pleasantness  of 
travelling  in  the  summer  season :  and  3.  A  com- 
modious path,  for  the  use  of  foot  passengers,  at 
an  seasons.  But  in  these  cases,  he  thinks,  modem 
practice  has  simplified  too  much.  Instead  of 
these  three  requisites  of  a  public  road,  we  gene-' 
rally  find  a  parliamentary  or  turnpike  road  (away 
from  the  environs  of  great  towns)  consisting 
simply  of  one  uniform  broadway  of  hard  mate- 
rials ;  upon  which  horses  stumble,  and  carriages 
Jolt,  the  year  round :  while  travellers  on  foot  are 
seen  wading  to  their  ankles  in  mud,  or  in  dust, 
according  to  ^e  state  of  the  wmd  and  weather. 
His  notions  of  what  the  nature  of  a  public  road 
ought  to  be  is,  that  within  the  fences  of  a  lane 
or  road  there  should  be  a  raised  foot-path,  a 
coirvex  hard  road,  a  soft  summer  road,  and  chan- 
nels to  carry  off  the  water  collected  by  the  car^ 
riage  roads;  the  foot-path  being  cut  across  m 
pxoper  places,  to  permit  the  water,  which  fells  . 
on  that  side  of  the  middle  road,  to  pass  off  freely 
into  the  ditch  at  tiiat  side,  as  well  as  to  prevent 
horsemen  from  riding  along  the  pafli ;  Ae  oppo* 
site  hedge-bank  being  perforatea,  to  let  off,  into 
the  other  drain  on  the  contrary  side,  the  waters 
which  nmy  collect  on  tfiat  side  of  the  lane  or 
road.  Mr.  Telford,  Mr.  Walker,  and  most 
other  engineers,  consider  seventy  feet  a  sufficient 

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1620 


ROADS. 


.width  for  jcaAs  near  thelaigest  towns  and  cities, 
and  that  ten  or  twenU  feet  of  this  may  in  some 
cases  be  paved.  The  London  Commercial 
Road,  constructed  by  the  last-named  engineer,  is 
of  this  width  and  character,  and  there  are  fifleen 
feet  of  gravel  road  at  each  side  for  light  carriages 
or  horses.  It  has  been  executed  for  sixteen 
vears,  and  has  given  the  greatest  satisftiction ; 
but  Mr.  Walker  thinks  that  considerable  ink- 
provement  would  be  found  from  paving  the 
sides  of  a  road,  upon  which  the  heavy  traffic  is 
ffreat,  in  both  directions,  and  leaving  the  middle 
for  light  carriages ;  the  carmen  or  drivers,  walk^ 
ing  upon  the  foot-paths  or  sides  of  the  road, 
would  then  be  close  to  their  horses,  without  in- 
terrupting or  being  in  danger  of  accidents  from 
light  carriages,  which  is  the  case  when  they  are 
driving  upon  the  middle  of  the  road ;  and  the 
nnpaved  part,  being  in  the  middle  or  highest  part 
of  the  road,  would  be  more  easily  kept  in  good 
repair.  But  unless  the  heavy  traffic  in  both  di- 
rections is  great,  one  width,  say  ten  or  twelve 
feet,  in  the  middle  of  the  road,  well  paved,  will 
be  found  sufficient  for  all  ordinary  wear.  The 
width  of  many  of  the  present  roads  is,  besides, 
such,  that  ten  or  twelve  feet  can  be  spared  for 
paving,  while  twice  that  width  would  leave  too 
little  for  the  gravelled  part.  Although  the  first 
cost  of  paving  is  great  he  does  not  think  that 
any  other  plan  can  be  adopted  so  good  and  so 
cheap  in  those  places  where  the  materials  got  in 
the  neighbouihood  are  not  sufficient  for  support- 
ing the  roads.  A  coating  of  whinstone  is,  for 
instance,  more  durable  than  the  gravel  with 
which  the  roads  round  London  are  made  and 
repaired ;  but  much  less  so  than  paving ;  although 
the  freight  and  carriage  of  the  whinstone,  and  of 
the  paving-stones,  which  form  the  princij^d  items 
of  the  expense,  are  nearly  the  same. 

Proportioning  the  breadth  of  roads  to  the  traf- 
fic for  which  they  may  be  employed,  has,  per- 
haps, not  been  sufficiently  attended  to.  In 
remote  places,  where  there  is  but  Uttle'  traffic,  the 
waste  of  ground  occasioned  by  superfinous 
width  of  roads,  is  an  error :  there  being  many 
places  where,  roads  of  twenty  feet  breadth  would 
suit  the  public  convenience,  as  well  as  if  they 
were  twice  as  broad ;  and  it  is  clear  that,  if  a 
road  is  one  pole  or  perch  wider  than  is  neces- 
sary, there  is  a  waste  of  320  perches  in  a  mile, 
equal  to  two  acres  of  ground,  which,  at  the  rate 
of  £3  per  acre,  would,  if  the  road  had  been  once 
well  made,  keep  half  a  i^ile  of  such  road  as  is 
here  alluded  to  in  good  repair.  According  to 
Patecson,  the  breadth  of  the  road  and  the  width 
of  the  metals,  or  paved  part,  should  depend  on 
circumstances  different  from  the  former.  For  a 
'  few  miles  in  the  vicinity  of  such  cities  as  London 
or  Edinburgh,  the  most  proper  breadth  at  which 
a  road  should  be  formed,  he  thinks,  is  from  sixty 
to  seventy  feet,  and  the  metals  from  twenty-five 
to  thirty -five  fieet ;  while,  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  such  towns  as  Newcastle  and  Perth,  it  will  be 
sufficient  that  it  be  formed  forty  feet  broad,  and 
that  the  width  of  the  metals  be  about  eighteen  or 
twenty  feet.  These  are  the  breadths  presumed 
to  be  the  most  eligible  in  such  situations.  But 
rules  cannot  be  given  to  suit  every  situation :  the 
breadth  ought  to  be  regulated  according  to  the 


extent  of  the  run  of  commerce,  or  tcaflic,  upon 
the  road.  As  9  general  rule  however,  for  public 
roads  over  the  different  counties  of  Great  Bn- 
tain,  I  should  suppose,  he  says,  the  fbUovmg 
might  in  most  cases  be  adopted.  Take  for  in- 
stance the  road  betwixt  Edinburgh  and  Qhagov^ 
or  betwixt  Edinburgh  and  Aberdeen,  by  the  vray 
of  Dundee.  These  roads  are  fbmed  m  goerai 
from  thirty-five  to  forty  feet  wide;  aod  the 
breadth  of  the  metals  is  from  fourteen  to  sixteen 
feet  for  the  most  part.  Such  roads  as  these 
would  be  found  to  answer  very  well,  in  geneial, 
over  the  kingdom.  A  breadth  sufficient  for  tiie 
general  purposes  of  country  traveUing,  according 
to  M'Adam,  is  sixteen  feet  of  solid  materials, 
with  six  feet  on  each  side  formed  of  slighter 
materials.  The  Bristol  roads,  he  says,  are  made 
with  stone  about  the  width  of  sixteen  lieeL 

Narrow  roads,  it  is  well  observed  by  Fry,,  are 
almost  always  in  bad  condition,  whidi  is'to  be 
accounted  for  from  the  circumstance  of  ev«y 
carriage  being  obliged  to  go  in  the  same  ruts; 
and,  as  each  rut  is  generally  only  six  incdies  wid^ 
one  foot  of  the  road  only  is  worn  by  the  wbeeb 
instead  of  the  whole  breadth  of  it;  which  wouhi 
be  the  case  if  the  road  were  of  a  proper  width, 
and  if  it  were  well  c:nstructed.  If  a  road  be 
laid  out  from  twenty  to  thirty  feet  wide^  so  flat 
as  that  a  carriage  ma]r  stand  nearly  upright  on 
every  part  of  it,  and  if  moderate  care  be  taken 
by  the  surveyor  to  prevent  the  first  formation  of 
ruts,  such  a  road  will  be  worn  by  the  wheels 
nearly  alike  on  every  part  of  it :  provided  abo 
that  the  ground  on  each  side,  for  at  least  four  or 
five  feet,  be  moderatnly  flat,  so  as  not  to  excite 
fear  in  the  drivers  of  carriages ;  but  if  there  be 
deep  ditches  close  to  the  sides  of  the  road,  or  if 
the  circumjacent  land  &11  off  very  abruptly  to 
the  depth  of  two  or  three  feet,  whereby  fear  of 
approaching  the  edges  would  operate  on  the 
minds  of  the  drivers,  every  driver  will  instinc- 
tively avoid  the  danger  on  either  hand ;  and  a 
road  so  circumstanced  will,  in  spite  of  any 
care  of  the  surveyor,  inevitably  be  worn  into 
ruts  in  the  middle.  There  is  a  remarkable  in- 
stance of  this  kind  in  a  piece  of  road  on  Durd- 
ham  Down,  near  Bristol.  This  road  is  a  cause- 
way over  a  piece  of  soft  ground ;  and,  although 
it  is  from  twenty  to  twenty-five  feet  wide»  yet,  as 
the  ground  falls  away  abruptly  on  both  sides  of 
it,  it  has  been  found  impossible,  for  more  than 
twenty  years  past,  to  his  knowledge,  to  prevent 
deep  ruts  being  formed  along  the  middle  of  it ; 
notwithstanding  the  Down  itself  consists  of  hard 
limestone ;  and  the  other  roads  upon  the  Dovm 
are  as  fine  and  even  as  any  roads  in  England. 
Were  this  piece  of  road  widened  out  on  each 
side,  in  an  easy  slope  about  five  leet,  by  rubbish 
of  any  kind,  and  by  the  scrapings  of  the  load  it- 
self, whereby  the  instinctive  operation  of  fear  of 
approarhing  the  sides  of  the  present  road  would 
be  obvtnted,  that  piece  of  roaa  would  be  found  to 
wear  as  fai  rly  as  the  other  roads  on  the  same  Down. 

When  roads  run  through  marshy  ground,  ob- 
serves Mr.  Edgeworth,  <  die  substratum  must  be 
laid  dry  by  proper  drainage;  and  where  the 
road  is  liable,  from  the  flatness  of  the. country, 
to  be  at  times  under  water,  the  expense  of  rais- 
ing it  above  the  water  must  be  submitted  to  in  the 


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621 


first  instance.  All  drains  for  carrying'  off  water 
should  be  under  the  road,  or  at  the  field  side  of 
the  fences,  and  these  drains  should  be  kept  open 
by  constant  attention,  and  should  be  made  wide 
at  the  outlet'  Telford  and  Walker  recommend 
the  side  drains  to  be  in  every  instance  on  the 
field  side  of  the  fence.  In  cases,  Telford  observes, 
where  a  road  is  made  upon  ground  where  there 
are  many  springs,  it  is  absolutely  necessary  to 
make  a  number  of  under  and  cross  drains  to 
collect  the  water  and  conduct  it  into  the  side 
drains,  whichi  should  always  be  made  on  the  field 
side  of  the  fences.  The  orifices  of  these  cross 
drains  should  be  neatly  and  substantially  finished 
in  masonry.  *  Before  the  materials  are  put  on, 
run  a  drain  along  the  middle  of  the  road,  all  the 
way,  from  two  to  three  feet  deep ;  then  fill  it 
with  stones  up  to  the  sur&ce,  making  those  at 
bottom  of  a  pretty  good  ^  size,  and  those  at  the 
top  full  as  small  as  the  road  materials.  And, 
in  order  that  the  quantity  of  stones  used  for  the 
said  drain  may  be  as  little  as  possible,  and  every 
way  to  save  expense)  it  may  be  made  as  narrow 
as  it  can  possibly  be  dug.  From  this  leading 
drain  make  a  branch  here  and  there  to  convey 
off  the  water  to  the  canals  on  the  sides  of  the 
road.' — Patersoci.  This  mode  of  draining  he  has 
found  from  experience  to  be  so  beneficial  that  a 
road  so  drainea  would  be  better  and  more  dura- 
ble with  eight  inches,  than  it  would  otherwise  be 
with  twelve  inches  of  materials.  And  not  only 
so,  but  that  on  such  a  road  there  would  be  a 
saving  on  the  incidental  repairs,  ever  afterwards, 
of  alx)ut  one-half  of  the  labor,  and  at  Iteast  one- 
third  of  the  material.  *  All  moisture  from  under* 
the  road  materials  should  be  carried  off  by  such 
drains.  Where  such  drains  are  wanting,  the 
road,  on  the  return  of  a  thaw,  throws  up  to  the 
surfeee  all  the  water  it  had  imbibed;  and  in 
many  places  the  materials,  swelling  up,  become 
quite  toos^  and  open.  This  is  a  natursd  conse- 
quence, where  the  material  is  not  thick,  and 
where  the  soil  under  the  road  is  not  perfectly 
dry.  But,  where  a  road  is  dried  in  the  way  de- 
scribed, it  vrill  be  uniformly  seen  that  the  water, 
instead  of  spewing  out  on  the  return  of  a  thaw, 
is  sucked  in  by  the  drains,  so  leaving  the  surface 
of  the  road  quite  dry.  It  may  be  observed,  at 
such  times,  that  the  places  of  the  road  where  a 
few  roods  of  such  drain  had  been  introduced, 
presented  to  the  eye,  at  a  quarter  of  a  mile  dis- 
tance, quite  a  contrast  to  the  other  parts  of  the 
road ;  the  one  opaque  and  dry,  from  the  moisture 
being  sucked  in,  the  other  all  wet  and  glistering, 
from  its  being  thrown  out  to  the  surface.' — Pa- 
tenons  Letters^  &c.,  44,  48,  84. 

Embankments  and  bridges  of  different  degrees 
of  magnitude,  are  required  in  most  lines  of  road. 
Large  bridges  we  must  leave  to  engineers;  no 
department  of  their  art  having  attained  higher 
perfection.  We  here  confine  ourselves  entirely 
to  such  stone  arches  as  may  be  designed  by 
road-surveyors,  and  built  by  country  masons. 
In  many  cases  cast-iron  might  be  substituted  for 
stone  with  economy  and  advantage  as  to  vrater- 
way ;  but,  though  the  principle  of  constructing 
both  cast  and  wrought  iron  bridges  is  perfiectly 
simple,  the  execution,  and  especially  the  putting 
up,  requires  more  skill,  ana  is  attended  with 


much  more  risk  than  the  erection  of  other  bridges! 

One  low  arch  is  thought  by  Mr.  Loudon  to  be 
in  general  the  most  desirable  description  of 
common  road-bridges.  But  most  of  the  country 
bridges,  as  Clarke  observes,  consist  of  several 
small,  high,  semicircular  arches :  where  there  is 
a  single  arch,  the  stream  passes  without  interrup- 
tion ;  if  there  are  two  or  three  in  the  same  situ- 
ation, the  space  through  which  the  water  is  to 
pass  is  necessarily  contraoted  by  the  width  of 
piers.  Ice,  and  large  bodies  carried  down  by  the 
floods,  frequently  stop  up  the  small  arches,  and 
the  accumulated  water  carries  away  the  bridge; 
but,  if  such  accidents  should  not  happen,  the 
constant  currents  rushing  against  those  piers 
wash  out  the  mortar,  loosen  the  stones,  and  very 
soon  undermine  the  work  if  it  is  not  extremely 
well  put  together,  which  is  seldom  the  case. 
Unless  the  river  or  stream  is  narrow,  or  the 
banks  .very  high,  a  semicircle  is  an  inconvenient* 
shape  for  an  arch ;  it  has  been  adopted  on  ac- 
count of  the  insufficiency  of  the  abutments,  and 
because  the  pressure  is  more  perpendicular; 
but  scientific  engineers,  in  all  countries,  now 
construct  their  bridges  with  wide  openings, 
and  make  the  arches  either  semi-ellipses,  or  seg- 
ments of  large  circles ;  so  that  the  space  above 
the  highest  floods  is  comparatively  little,  and  the 
ascent  over  the  bridge  inconsiderable.  In  country' 
bridges  in  Ireland,  Clarke  continues,  the  founda- 
tions are  invariably,  and  often  intentionally,  de- 
fective :  the  mason  considers  himself  an  honest 
man  if  his  bridge  lasts  seven  years;  whereas, 
firom  the  durability  of  materials  in  that  country, 
it  ought  to  endure  for  ages.  Whatever  is  under 
water  is  out  of  sight,  and  is  generally  coiiiposed 
of  loose  stones,  urown  promiscuously  together, 
on  which  the  masonry  is  erected,  and  all  the 
pains  and  expense  are  bestowed  on  the  cut- 
waters and  wings,  when  the  heaviest  stones,  and 
those  accurately  jointed,  ought  to-  be  laid  in  the 
foundations.  The  greatest  attention  should  be 
paid  to  the  quality  of  the  materials :  the  stones 
should  be  large,  and  laid  in  level  courses,  in  the 
best  mortar,  composed  of  sharp  sand,  free  from 
loam,  and  quicklime,  accurately  mixed  together; 
the  coping  of  the  parapet  is  generally  so  slight 
that  it  18  broken  down  as  soon  as  built,  and  the 
entire  parapet  quickly  follows ;  it  ought  to  be  of 
lar^  heavy  stones,  roughly  hammered,  and  there 
should  be  substantial  quoins  at  the  ends  of  the 
parapets  with  an  immovable  stone  over  them. 
Arches  not  exceeding  eight  feet  span  may  be 
semicircular;  tunnels  not  exceedmg  eighteen 
inches  wide  may  be  covered  with  strong  flags, 
and  either  ilagged  or  paved  under,  and  there 
ought  to  be  across  either  end  a  deep  long  stone, 
sonk  below  the  surface  of  the  current,  and  under 
the  walls,  to  prevent  the  water  from  undermin- 
ing the  work. 

Fences  along  the  sides  of  roads  are  essential  in 
all  enclosed  countries;  and  all  engineers  and 
road-makers  agree  that  they  should  never  be  al- 
lowed to  rise  to  a  gseater  heieht  than  what  is 
necessary  for  a  fence.  To  give  free  admission  to 
the  sun  and  air,  by  keeping  the  fences  low,  Mar- 
shall considers  as  providing  an  expensive,  yet 
most  accurate  method  of  cleaning  roads,  incom- 
parably more  so  than  washing  or  scraping.  %  Tlio 

le 


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kgislatare,  Edgeworth  obierres,  has  limited,  in 
aevefal  iiMlances,  the  height  of  hedges  to  five 
feet;  but  this  limitatton  is  neglected  or  evaded. 
£ven  were  it  strictly  adhered  to,  it  would  not  be 
Sufficieat  for  narrow  roads;  the  hedges  would  be 
4tiU  too  high,  for  it  is  the  sweeping  power  of  the 
wind  which  carries  off  dust  in  dry  weather,  and 
which  takes  up  moisture  in  wet.  In  fact,  roads 
become  dry  by  emporation ;  and,  when  they  are 
exposed  to  the  sun  aud  wind,  the  effect  of  heat 
and  ventilation  are  more  powerful  than  any  sur- 
fhce  drainage  that  could  be  accomplished.  Wal- 
ker observes  that  the  advantage  of  having  the 
hedge  next  the  road  consists  in  its  greater  safety 
to  &e  traveller,  particularly  if  a  ditch  of  any 
considerable  depth  is  necessary,  and  in  the  hedge 
being  supported  in  its  growth  from  the  ground 
under  the  road,  *  without  drawii^  upon  the 
£urmer*s  side  of  the  ditch.  The  fences,  Telford 
observes,  form  a  very  material  and  important 
subject,  with  regard  to  the  perfection  of  roads ; 
thev  should  in  no  instance  be  more  than  five  feet 
in  height  above  the  centre  of  the  road,  and  all 
trees  which  stand  within  twenty  yards  from  the 
centre  of  it  ought  to  be  removed.  I  am  sure 
that  twenty  per  cent,  of  the  expense  of  improving 
and  repairing  roads  is  incurred  by  the  improper 
stale  or  the  fences  and  trees  fUong  the  sides  of  it, 
on  the  sunny  side  more  particularly ;  this  must 
be  evident  to  anv  neeson  who  vrill  notice  the 
state  of  a  road  whicm  is  much  shaded  by  high 
fences  and  trees,  compared  to  the  other  parts  of 
the  road  which  are  exposed  to  the  sun  and  air. 
My  observatioBS,  with  regard  to  fences  and  trees, 
apply  when  the  road  is  on  the  same  level  as  the 
adjacent  fielda ;  but  in  many  cases,  oo  the  most 
frequented  roads  of  Ei^land,  more  stuff  has  been 
removed  from  time  to  time  than  was  put  .on ;  the 
surfece  of  the  road  is  consequently^  sunk  into  a 
trough  or  chanuel  from  three  to  six  feet  below 
the  surfece  of  the  fields  on  each  side;  here  all 
attempts  at  drainage,  or  even  common  repairs^ 
seem  to  be  quite  out  of  the  question ;  and  by 
fer  the  most  judicious  and  economical  mode 
will  be  to  remove  the  whole  road  into  the  field 
which  is  on  the  sunny  side  of  ilL^Examinatiom 
before  the  Hmae  of  Commonif  4rc* 

3.  Of  ike  foumkUon  a(  roodi.— Edgeworth, 
Marshall,  and  all  the  practical  engineers  before 
Mr.  M'Adam  differ  with  him  as  to  the  base  of 
loads.  The  author  of  Landed  Property  in  Ea^ 
land  would  prepare  the  ground  by  striking  off 
the  protuberances,  and  filling  up  the  hollow 
parts :  the  footpath  and  the  higher  side  of  the 
soft  road  being  raised  with  the  earth  which  is  re- 
quired to  be  taken  off  the  bed  of  the  hard  road; 
whose  base  or  foundation  ought  to  be  fonaed 
with  peculiar  care.  Every  part  is  required,  as 
he  says,  to  be  firm  and  sound :  diy  earth,  or 
hard  materials,  beine  rammed  into  every  hollow 
and  yielding  part.  In  a-diy  situation,  as  across 
It  gravelly  or  stony  height,  little  more^  he  says,  is 
required  than  to  remove  the  surfece  mould,  and 
lay  bare  the  rock,  or  bed  of  gravel  bencatfi  it : 
and,  then,  to  give  the  indurate  base  a  round  or 
a  shelving  form,  as  the  lying  of  the  ground  may 
require.  In  this  way,  a  travelable  road  may  be 
made^  and  kept  up^  at  one-teuth  of  the  expense 
incurred  by  the  ordinary  practice  in  Uiis  case ; 


which  is  to  gfuther  up  the  snrfece-aoil  inio  a 
ridge,  and,  on  this  soft  spongy  bed,  to  lay,  coat 
after  coat,  some  hard  materials^ — fetched  p^haps 
firom  a  distance.  But  M'Adaa  contends  that  a 
stratum  of  hard  materials  covering  a  moiass  will 
last  loi^r  than  a  similar  stratum  laid  on  rock; 
indeed,  according  to  this  able  engineer,  it  may 
be  questioned  whether  a  properly  made  road  oo 
a  bog,  which  yields  by  its  elasticity,  will  not  last 
longer  than  one  on  a  firm  surfece.  In  Irebmd 
this  is  said  to  be  found  actually  the  case :  '  Foe 
the  same  causey'  as  Fry  observes,  '  that  a  stone 
placed  upon  a  wool-pack  would  bear  a  ereater 
pressure  before  it  would  be  broken^  than  it 
would  if  placed  on  an  anviL' — Essay  on  Wheel 
Carriages,  &c.  Edgewotth  and  many  others 
have  recommend^  covering  the  base  of  an  un- 
sound road  with  feggots,  branches,  ftirxe,  oi 
heath.  Flat  stones,  he  adds,  if  they  can  be  had, 
should  then  be  laid  over  the  feggots,  and  upon 
them  stones  of  six  or  seven  pounds*  wei^t,  and, 
lastly,  a  coat  of  eight  or  ten  indies  of  poonded 
stone.  If  the  practicabiliW  of  consolidating  a 
mass  of  stones,  of  six  or  eight  ounces  weight  and 
under  each,  so  as  to  act  as  one  plate  or  flooring 
be  admitted,  then  the  feggots  and  flat  stones 
must  at  least  be  useless,  and  the  stones  of  six  or 
seven  pounds*  weight  injurious;  because,  when- 
ever the  upper  stratum  has  worn  down  a  few 
inches,  some  of  these  stones,  and  eventually  the 
greater  number  will  be  worked  up  to  the  sur- 
fece, and  the  road  destroyed  or  pot  in  a  state  to 
require  lifting,  breaking,  and  relaying.  A  base- 
ment of  trees,  bavins,  or  bushes,  was  jsade  use  of 
by  Walker  when  the  ground  was  soft.  They  carry 
off  the  water  previous  to  the  matinrials  of  the 
road  being  so  consolidated  as  to  form  a  solid  body, 
and  to  be  impervious  to  water.  Bushes  ar^  how- 
ever, not  advisable  to  be  used,  unless  th^  are  so 
Urn  as  always  to  be  completely  moist.  When 
they  are  dry  and  excluded  from  the  air  they  de- 
cay in  a  few  years,  and  produce. a  sinking  in  the 
road;  a  thickness  of  chsJk  is  useftil  for  the  anise 
purpose  in  cases  where  bushes  are  improper:  the 
chalk  mixing  with  the  gravel  or  stones  becomes 
concreted,  and  presents  a  larger  surfece  to  the 
pressure. 

Mr.  M'Adam  would  lay  his  ^  metals'  at  oooe 
on  the  earth,  provided  it  weie  even  a  bog, '  if  a 
man  could  walk  over  it.*  In  his  examination 
before  the  house  of  commons  he  says,  *the 
Somersetshire  morass  is  so  extreipely  soft  that 
when  you  ride  in  a  carriage  along  the  road  yon 
see  the  water  tremble  in  the  ditches  on  each  side; 
and  the  vibration  so  great  that  it  will  hseak  yon 
in.'  Yet  here  he  would  use  no  large  founda- 
tion slOmes,  <  nor  feggots,  nor  any  maisarialkiger 
than  will  weigh  six  ounces.  If  a  road  be  owde 
smooth  and  solid,  it  will  be  one  mass,  and  the 
eibct  of  the  substrata,  whether  day  or  sand,  can 
never  be  felt  in  effect  by  carriages  going  over  the 
road ;  becausea  road  well  made  unites  itself  in 
a  body  like  a  piece  of  timber  or  a  board.'  And 
we  mar  now  introduce 

4.  Mr,  M Adam's  ^sfem.— This  able  and  in- 
genious engineer  agrees  with  many  of  his  pie- 
decessors  that  a  good  road  may  be  considered  as 
an  artificial  flooring,  forming  a  stroQg,  soUd, 
smooth-surfeoed   stratum,    sufficiently    flat   to 


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admit  of  ouriages  gtanding  vprigfat  on  any  part 
of  it,  capable  of  carrying  a  great  weighty  and 
presenting  no  impediment  to  the  animab  or  ma- 
chines which  pass  along  it.  In  forming  this 
flooring,  he  has,  however,  gone  one  material  step 
beyond  his  predecessors  in  bret^ing  the  stone  to 
a  smaller  size,  and  in  forming  the  entire  stratum 
of  this  small-sized  stone.  It  is.  in  this  pointy  of 
making  use  of  one  small  siM  of  stones  throngfa- 
out  the  stratum,  that  the.  originality  of  Mr. 
M'Adam's  plan  consists.  It  is  doubted  by  some 
whether  this  would  be  durable  in  the  northera 
districts  at  the  breaking  up  of  frosts,  and  espe- 
cially in  the  case  of  rcMuls  not  much  in  use,  or 
consisting  of  a  stratum  less  consolidated,  and 
more  penetrable  by  water.  'The  durability  of 
n>ads,^he  says,  'will  of  course  depend  on  the 
strength  of  the  materials  of  which  they  may  be 
composed,  but  they  will  all  be  good  while  they 
last,  and  ^e  only  question  that  can  arise  respect- 
ing the  kind  of  materials  is  one  of  duration  and 
expense,  but  never  of  the  immediate  condition 
of  the  roads.' — ^Remarks  on  Roads,  &c.  p.  11. 

Roads  can  never  be  rendered  peHeotly  secure, 
according  to  this  gentleman  (see  his  report  to 
the  board  of  agriculture),  until  the  foUowii^  prin- 
ciples be  fully  understood,  admitted,  and  acted 
upon :  namely,  that  it  is  the  native  soil  which 
really  supports  the  weight  of  traffic;  that  while 
it  is  preserved  in  a  dry  state  it  will  carry  any 
weight  without  sinking;  and  that  it  does,  in  &ct, 
carry  the  road  and  the  carriages  also ;  that  this 
Dative  soil  must  previously  be  made  quite  dry, 
and  a  covering  impenetrable  to  rain  must  then 
be  placed  over  it  to  preserve  it  in  that  dry  state ; 
that  the  thifskness  of  a  road  should  only  be  re- 
gulated by  the  quantity  of  materials  necessary 
to  form  such  impervious  covering,  and  never  by 
any  reference  to  its  own  |>ower  of  carryioff 
weight.  The  erroneous  opinion,  so  long  acted 
upon,  that  by  placing  a  huge  quantity  of  stone 
under  the  roads,  a  remedy  will  be  found  for  the 
sinking  into  wet  clay,  or  other  soft  soils ;  or,  in 
other  words,  that  a  road  may  be  made  sufficiently 
strong,  artificially,  to  carry  heavy  carriages, 
thou^  the  sub-soil  be  in  a  wet  state,  and  by 
such  means  to  avert  the  inconveniences  of  the 
natural  soil  receiving  water  from  nin,  or  other 
causes,  seems  to  have  produced  most  of  the  de- 
fects of  the  roads  of  Great  Britain.  At  one 
time  Mr.  M*Adam  had  formed  the  opinion  that 
this  practice  was  only  a  useless  expense ;  but 
experience  has  convinced  him  that  it  is  likewise 
positively  injurious. 

In  confirmation  of  this,  if  strata  of  stone  of 
various  sixes  be  placed  as  a  road,  it  is  well 
known  to  every  observant  road-maker  that  the 
laigert  stones  will  oonstanUy  work  up  by  the 
shaking  and  pressure  of  the  traffic ;  and  that  the 
only  mode  ot  keeping  the  stones  of  a  road  from 
motion  is  to  use  matCTals  of  a  uniform  size  from 
the  bottom.  In  roads  made  upon  large  stones, 
as  a  foundation,  the  perpetual  motion,  or  change 
of  the  position  of  the  materials,  keeps  open  many 
apertures,  through  which  the  water  passes.  It 
has  also  been  found  that  roads  placed  upon  a 
hard  bottom  wear  away  more  quickly  than  those 
which  are  placed  upon  a  son  soil.  This  has 
been  apparent  upon  roads  where  motives  of  eco- 


nomy, or  other  caus^  have  pteveoted  the  nM 
being  lifted  to  the  bottom  at  once ;  the  wear  haa' 
always,  been  found  to  diminish,  as  soon  as  it 
was  possible  to  remove  the  hard  foundation^  A» 
to  the  feet,  already  adverted  to^  that  a  road  lasts 
ipucb  longer  over  a  morass  than  when  made  over 
rock,  the  evidence  produced  before  the  con^ 
qiittee  of  the  house  of  commons  showed  the 
comparison,  on  the  road  between  Bristol  and 
Bridgewater,  to  be  as  five  to  seven  in  fevor  of 
the  wearing  on  the  morass,  where  the  road  is  laid 
on  the  naked  suriaoe  of  the  soil,  against  a  part 
of  the  same  road  made  over  rocky  ground. 

Water,  with  alternate  frost  and  thaw,  are  the 
great  evils  to  be  guarded  against  in  the  base  of  • 
a  road :  consequently  nothii^  can  be  more  erro- 
neous than  providing  a  reservoir  for  water  under 
the  road,  and  giving  fecility  to  the  water  to  pass 
through  the  road  into  this  trench,  where  it  is 
acted  upoa  by  frost  to  the  destraction  of  the 
road.  As  no  artificial  road  can  ever  be  made 
so  good  and  so  useftil  as  the  natural  soil  in  a 
dry  state,  it  is  only  jiecessary  to  procure  and 
preserve,  according  to  M'Adam,  this  dry  stale  of 
so  much  ground  as  is  intended  to  be  occupied  by 
a  road.  The  first  operation  is  to  be  the  reverse 
of  digging  a  trench.  The  road  should  not  be 
sunk  below,  but  rather  raised  above  the  ordinary 
level  of  the  adjacent  ground;  care  should  at 
any  rate  be  taken  that  there  be  a  sufficient  fell 
to  takeoff  the  watec,  so  that  it  should  always  be' 
some  inches  below  the  level  of  the  ground  upon* 
which  the  road  is  intended  to  be  placed :  tiiis 
must  be  done,  either  by  making*  drains  to  lower 
ground,  or  if  that  be  not  practicable,  from  the 
nature  of  the  country,  then  the  soil  upon  which 
the  road  is  proposed  io  be  laid  must  be  rabed 
by  addition,  so  as  to  be  some  inches  aboiFe  the 
level  of  the  water. 

Having  secured  his  soil  from  undei-water,  the* 
road-maker  is  next  to  secure  it  from  rain  by  a 
solid  road  made  of  clean  8ry  stone  or  flinty  so- 
selected,  prepared,  and  laid,  as  to  be  perfectly 
impervious  to  water ;  and  this  cannot  be  effected 
unless  the  greatest  care  be  taken  that  no  earth, 
clay,  chalk,  or  other  matter,  that  will  hold  or 
conduct  vTater,  be  mixed  wi^  the  broken  stone ; 
which  must  be  so  prepared  and  laid  as  to  unito 
with  its  own  angles  into  a  firm,  compact,  impe- 
netrable body.  Tlie  thickness  of  tms  body  is 
immaterial,  as  to  its  strength  for  carrying  weight; 
this  object  is  already  omned  by  providing  a 
dry  sumoe,  over  which  the  road  is  to  be  placed 
as  a  covering  or  roo(  to  preserve  it  in  that  state  : 
experience  having  shown  that  if  water  passes 
through  aToad,  and  fill  the  native  soil,  the  road, 
whatever  may  be  its  thickness^  loses  its  support, 
and  goes  to  pieces.  In  consequence  0|f  an  al-. 
teralion  in  the  line  of  the  turnpik'e-road,  near 
Rownhanv-ferry,  in  the  parish  of  Asfaton,  near 
Bristol,  it  was  neoessaiy  to  remove  the  old  road. 
This  road  was  lifted,  and  re-laid  very  skilfully  in 
1806 ;  since  which  time  it  has  been  in  contem- 
plation to  change  the  Une,  and  consequently  it 
has  been  'suffered  to  wear  very  thin.  At  pre-  - 
sent  it  is  not  above  three  incbM  thick  in  most 
places,  and  in  none  more  than  four :  yet,  on  re* 
moving  the  road,  it  was  found  that  no  water  had 
penetrated,  nor  had  the  frost  affected  it  during 


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the  winter  preceding,  and  the  natural  earth  be- 
neath the  road  was  found  perfectly  dry.  Various 
new  roads  have  been  constructed  on  this  princi- 
ple within  the  last  few  years ;  the  great  north 
road  from  London,  by  Hoddesdon,  in  Hertford- 
shire ;  two  pieces  of  road  on  Durdham  Down, 
and  at  Rownham-ferry,  near  Bristol ;  with  seve- 
ral private  roads  in  the  eastern  parts  of  Sussex, 
are  amongst  the  best  specimens.  None  of  these 
roads  exceed  six  inches  in  thickness ;  and,  al- 
though that  on  the  'great  north  road  is  subjected 
to  a  heavy  trafi&c,  it  has  not  given  way,  nor  was 
it  affected  by  the  severe  winters  it  has  expe- 
rienced, and  when  other  roads  between  that  and 
London  became  impassable,  by  breaking  up  to 
the  bottom,  and  the  mail  and  other  coaches  were 
obliged  to  reach  London  by  other  routes.  Im- 
provement of  roads,  savs  M*A.  (in  1824),  upon 
the  principle  I  have  endeavoured  to  explain,  has 
been  rapialy  extended  during  the  last  four  years. 
It  has  been  carried  into  effect  on  varioas  roads, 
and  with  every  variety  of  material,  in  seventeen 
different  counties,  loese  roads  being  so  con- 
structed as  to  exclude  water,  consequently  none 
of  them  broke  up  during  the  late  severe  winter 
(1819-20) ;  there  was  no  interruption  to  tra- 
velling, nor  any  additional  expense  by  the  post- 
office  in  conveying  the  mails  over  them,  to  the 
extent  of  upwards  of  1000  miles  of  road.' 

We  may  add  that  several  large  streets  and 
thoroughfares  of  the  metropolis  have  been  un- 

Sved,  and  laid  down  again  on  the  principles  of. 
r.  M'Adam.  The  result  has  not  been  uni- 
formly successful ;  but  in  the  cases  where  the 
paving  system  has  been  renewed,  we  believe  the 
nase  has  been  M'Adamis^,  and  so  a  substantial 
improvement  has,  on  the  whole,  been  obtained. 
ROAM,  v.  n.  &  V.  a.  I  Ital.  romigare ;  Goth. 
Roam'er,  n.  s.  )  ruma.    See  Room.  To 

wander  without  any  certain  purpose ;  <to  ramble ; 
rove ;  to  play  the  vagrant.  '  Itnagined  to  come 
from  the  pretences  of  vagrants,  who  said  they 
were  going  to  Rome.' 

Five  summers  have  I  spent  in  farthest  Greece, 
Roaming  clean  through  the  bounds  of  Asia. 

Shaktpeare, 
Now  fovirls  in  their  clay  nests  were  couched, 
And  now  wild  beasts  came  forth  the  woods  to  roam. 

Milton, 
The  lonely  fox  roams  far  abroad, 
On  secret  rapine  bent,  and  midnight  fraud.    Prior. 
What  were  unenlightened  man, 
A  savage  roaming  through  the  woods  and  wilds 
In  quest  of  prey.  Thomttni's  Stanmtr, 

ROAN,  adj.  Sax.  rux>n;  Fr.  rouen;  Ital. 
roano ;  Span,  ruano.  Of  a  bay  sorrel  or  sorrel 
gray  color. 

Roan  horse  is  a  horse  of  a  bay,  soirel,  or  black 
colour,  vrith  grey  or  white  spots  interspersed  veiy 
thick.  •  Farrier^M  Dictionary. 

ROANNE,  a  considerable  trading  town  of 
France,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Loire,  where  that 
river  is  only  forty  miles  north-west  of  Lyons. 
In  the  beginninff  of  the  last  century  it  was  a 
mere  village;  and  it  owes  its  increase  to  its  hav- 
ing become  an  entrepot  for  goods  sent  from  the 
east  and  south*  east  of  France,  to  Orleans,  Nantes, 
Parb,  &c.  It  has  now  7000  inhabitants.  The 
streets  stretch  out  in  various  directions  into  the 
country,  and  the  most  remote  parts  of  them  are 
intermixed  with  trees.    In  the  interior,  however, 


it  has  tolerably  straight  streets,  and  good  homa ; 
and  manufactures  of  linen,  cottony  small  iron 
wares,  &c. 

ROANOKE,  a  river  of  North  CaroUna,  fanned 
by  the  union  of  the  Staunton  and  the  Dan,  the 
former  of  which  rises  in  Virginia,  and  the  latter 
in  North  Carolina,  and  flows  into  Albemarle 
Sound,  long.  76^  56'  W.,  lat.  35°  58*  N.  It  is 
navigable  for  vessels  of  considerable  burden 
thirty  or  forty  miles,  .and  for  boats  of  thirty  or 
forty  tons  to  the  falls,  seventy  miles;  and  for 
boats  of  five  tons  for  the  distance  of  200  miles 
above  the  fells.  The  country  watered  by  thii 
river  is  extremely  fertile.  Below  the  fells  vast 
quantities  of  Indian  com  are  raised;  and  the 
planters  are  among  the  wealthiest  in  the  state. 
Exertions  are  making  to  improve  the  navigatioQ 
of  this  river  by  constructing  canals  around  the 
falls :  opening  a  water  communication  between 
Norfolk,  Valentia,  and  the  interior  of  North 
Carolina,  and  the  southern  part  of  Virginia. 

ROAR,  V.  n.  &  n.  s.  >      Saxon  jiajian ;  Gmh. 

Roa&'eb,  n.  s.  ]  runtir.    To  err  as    a 

lion  or  wild  beast;  bellow;  cry  in  dtstr^s; 
make  a  loud  noise :  the  cry  or  noise  made :  a 
roarer  is  a  noisy  man. 

The  young  lions  roared  upon  him,  and  yelled. 

Jartwuak  ii.  15. 

fioortii^  bulls  he  would  make  him  to  tame. 

SpttUtTm 

Warwick  and  Montague, 
That  in  th^r  chains  fettered  the  kingly  lion. 
And  made  the  foxest  tremble  when  they  ramrtd, 

iikakqieare. 
At  his  nurse's  tears. 
He  whined  and  roared  away  your  victory, 
That  pages  blushed  at  hun.       Id.  Coridanus. 
Where  be  your  gibes  nowt  your  gambols?  yoa- 
songs !  your  flashes  of  merriment,  that  were  wont  to 
set  the  table  in  a  roar?  U.  Hamiet, 

The  English  rosrert  put  down  all.  tiomel. 

Deep  throated  engines  belched,  whose  roar 
Imbowelled  with  outrageous  noise  the  air.     MiiUm^ 
Oft  on  a  plat  of  rising  ground, 
I  hear  the  far-off  curfiew  sound. 
Over  some  wide-watered  shoar. 
Swinging  slow  with  sullen  moor.  td^ 

When  cannons  did  difFiise, 
Preventing  .posts,  the  tenor,  and  the  news ;    - 
Our  neighbour  princes  trembled  at  their  roar. 

Waller. 

The  death  of  Daphnis  woods  and  hills  deplore,   \ 

They  cast  the  sound  to  Libya's  desart  shore ;         f 

The  Libyan  lions  hear,  and  hearing  roar.  I 

Dryden.    3 
Sole  on  the  barren  sands  the  sufierio^  chief 
Roared  out  for  anguish,  and  indulged  his  grief  Id. 

The  waters,  listening  to  the  trumpet's  raor. 
Obey  the  summons,  and  forsake  the  shore.         Id. 
The  roar 
Of  loud  Eurodydon.  FkHipt, 

Consider  what  fatigues  I've  known. 
How  oft  I  crossed  where  carU  and  coaches  roareef. 

Gay. 
Loud  as  the  wolves  on  Orcas'  stormy  steep. 
Howl  to  the  rooriti^  of  the  northern  deep.       Pcjw. 

The  wonted  roar  is  up. 
And  hiss  continual  through  the  tedious  ni|ht. 

Earth  shakes  beneath  them,  and  Heaven  roart 
above; 
But  nothing  scares  them  from  the  course  thev  love. 

Camper* 

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626 


ROB 


RO A'KY,  adj.  Belter,  rory ;  Lat  rorf».  Dewy. 
On  Lebanon  bit  foot  he  set, 
And  sbook  his  wings  with  roary  May  dews  wet. 

Fairfax. 
ROAST,  V,  a,  &  part.  adj.  Saxon  z^jiopx^y 
Toasted;  Fr.  rmtir,  rotir;  Teut.  rotten,  from 
Lat.  rastrwfi,  a  grate.  To  dress  meat  before  the 
fire :  originally,  to  btoil  it :  to  heat ;  yex ;  tease : 
*  to  rule  the  roast'  is,  to  preside;  manage. 

Where  champions  ruleth  ths  roast. 
Their  daily  disorder  is  most.      Tuster'g  Hiabandry, 
Roasted  in  wrath  and  fire» 
He  thus  o'ersized  with  coagulate  gore, 
Old  Priam  seeks.  Shakspean. 

The  new  made  duke  that  rules  the  roast.  Id^ 

In  eggs  boiled  and  roasted  there  is  scarce  difier- 
enoe  to  be  discerned.  Bacon's  Natural  History. 

He  lost  bis  roast  beef  stomach,  not  being  able  to 
touch  a  sirloin.  Addison. 

And,  if  Dan  Congreve  iudges  right, 
Roast^  beef  and  ale  make  Britons  fight.    Prior. 
Alma  slap-dash  is  all  aeain 
In  every  sinew,  nerve,  and  vein ; 
Runs  liere  and  there,  like  Hamlet's  ghost. 
While  eveiy  where  she  rules  the  roast.  Id. 

Boasting  and  boiling  are  below  the  digni^  of  your 
office.  Swtft's  IHreetions  to  do  Cook. 

Here  elements  have  lost  their  uses, 
Air  rioens  not,  nor  earth  produces ; 
Fire  will  not  roast,  nor  water  boil.  Swift. 

ROASTING,  in  metallurgy,  the  dissipation  of 
the  volatile  parts  of  ores  by  heat.  See  Metal- 
lurgy. 

ROB,  n.  s.  Sax.  pol^e ;  Port  root.  Inspis- 
sated juices. 

The  infusion,  being  evaporated  to  a  thicker  con- 
sistence, passeth  into  a  jelly,  rob,  extract,  which 
contain  all  the  virtues  of  the  infusion. 

Arhuihnot  on  Aliments. 

Rob,  17. a.        "^     Old  Fr.  robber;  Ital.  ro6- 

Rob'beb,  fi.  t.  >  hare ;  Teut  rauber.    To  de- 

Rob'bino.  j  prive  of  any  thing  by  unlawful 
violence;  to  thieve;  plunder ;  takeaway :  hence 
set  free  :  the  noun-suostantives  corresponding. 

Thieves  for  their  robbery  have  authority, 
When  judges  steal  themselves.  Shakspoare. 

Is*t  not  enough  to  break  into  my  garden. 
And,  like  a  thid:,  to  come  to  rob  my  grounds. 
But  thou  wilt  brave  me  with  these  sawcy  terms  ? 

Id. 

Our  house  is  hell,  and  thou,  a  meny  devil. 
Didst  rci>  it  of  some  taste  of  tediousness.  Id. 

Better  be  disdained  of  all,  than  fashion  a  carriage 
to  rob  love  from  any.  Id. 

These  hairs,  which  thou  dost  ravish  from  my  chin, 
Will  quicken  and  accuse  thee  :  I'm  your  host ; 
With  robbers*  hands,  my  hospitable  favours 
You  should  not  ruffle  thus.  Id. 

Procure,  that  the  nourishment  m^  not  be  robbed 
and  drawn  away.  Bacon's  Natural  History. 

Our  sins  beuig  ripe,  there  was  no  preventing  of 
God's  iustioe  from  reaping  that  gloiy  in  our  calami- 
ties, which  we  robbed  him  of  in  our  prosperity. 

King  Charles. 
Had'st  thou  not  committed 
Notorious  murder  on  those  thirty  men 
At  Ascalon ; 

Then,  like  a  rohbor,  strip'd'st  them  of  their  robes. 
Milton*s  Agonistes. 

Some  more  efiectual  way  might  be  found,  for  sup- 
pressing common  thefts  and  robberies.  Temj^ 

1  have  not  here  desi^^ed  to  rob  him  of  any  part  of 
thai  commendation  which  he  has  so  justly  acquired 
Vol.  XVIII. 


from  the  whole  author,  whose  fragments  only  fall  to 

my  portion.  Dryden. 

Bold  Prometheus  did  aspire. 

And  stole  from  heaven  the  seeds  of  fire ; 

A  train  of  ills,  a  ghastly  crew, 

The  robber* s  blazing  track  pursue.       Id,  Horace. 

Public  robbers  are  more  criminal  than  petty  and 
conmion  thieves.  Davenant. 

llie  robber  muMt  run,  ride,  and  use  all  the  despe- 
rate ways  of  escape ;  and  probably,  after  all,  bis  sin 
betrays  him  to  the  gaol,  and  from  thence  advances 
him  to  the  gibbet  South, 

The  water-nymj^s  lament  their  empty  urns, 
Boeotia,  robbed  of  silver  Diroe,  mourns.      Add'son. 

Rob,  in  pharmacv,  is  the  juice  of  fruits  puri- 
fied and  inspissated  till  it  is  of  the  consistence 
of  honey. 

ROBBERY,  the  rapina  of  the  civilians,  is  the 
felonious  and  forcible  taking  from  the  person  of 
another  of  goods  or  money  to  any  value,  by  vio- 
lence, or  putting  him  in  fear.  1.  There  must 
be  a  taking,  otherwise  it  is  no  robbery.  A  mere 
attempt  to  rob  was  indeed  held  a  felony,  so  late 
as  Henry  IV.'s  time;  but  afterwards  it  was 
taken  to  be  only  a  misdemeanor,  and  punishable 
with  fine  and  imprisonment;  rill  the  statute  of 
7  Geo.  II.  c.  21,  which  makes  it  a  felony  (trans- 
portable for  seven  years),  unlawfully  and  mali- 
ciously to  assault  another,  with  any  offensive 
weapon  or  instrument;  or  by  menaces,  or  by 
other  forcible  or  violent  manner,  to  demand  any 
money  or  goods,  with  a  felonious  intent  to  rob. 
If  the  thief,  having  once  taken  a  purse,  returns 
it,  still  it  is  a  robbeiy;  and  so  it  is,  whether  the 
talking  be  strictly  from  the  person  of  another,  or 
in  his  presence  only  :  as  where  a  robber,  by  me- 
naces and  violence,  puts  a  man  in  fear,  and 
drives  away  his  sheep  or  his  cattle  before  his 
ikce.  It  is  immaterial  of  what  value  the  thing 
taken  is  :  a  penny,  as  well  as  a  pound,  thus  for-  . 
cibly  extortM,  makes  a  robbery.  Lastly,  the 
taking  must  be  by  force,  or  a  previous  jputting  m 
fear;  which  makes  the  violation  of  the  person 
more  atrocious  than  privately  stealing.  This 
species  of  larceny  is  debarred  of  the  benefit  of 
clergy,  by  statute  23  Hen.  VIII.  c.  1.,  and  other 
subsequent  statutes ;  not  indeed  in  general,  but 
only  when  committed  in  a  dwelling-house,  or  in 
or  near  the  king*s  highway.  A  robbery,  there- 
fore, in  a  distant  field,  or  footpath,  was  not  pu- 
nished with  death,  but  was  opeb  to  the  benefit 
of  cleigy,  till  the  statute  of  3  and  4  W.  &  M., 
c.  9.  which  takes  away  clersy  from  both  princi- 
pals and  accessories  before  ue  fiict,  in  robbery, 
wheresoever  committed. 

If  a  man  force  another  to  part  with  his  pro- 
perty, for  the  sake  of  preservmg  his  character 
from  the  imputation  of  having  been  guilty  of  an 
unnatural  crime,  it  will  amount  to  a  robbery, 
even  though  the  party  was  under  no  apprehen- 
sion of  personal  danger.  If  any  thing  is  snatched 
suddenly  from  the  head,  hand,  or  person  of  any 
one,  without  any  struggle  on  the  part  of  the 
owner,  or  without  any  evidence  of  rorce  or  vio- 
lence being  exerted  by  the  thief,  it  does  not 
amount  to  robbery.  But  if  any  thing  be  brdcen 
or  torn  in  consequence  of  the  sudden  seizure,  it 
would  be  evidence  of  such  force  as  would  con- 
stitute a  robbery  :  as  where  a  part  of  a  lady's 
hair  was  torn  away  by  snatching  a  diamond  pin 

2S 


Digitized  by  ^^JiJU^lC 


ROB 

from  her  head,  and  an  ear  was  torn  by  pulling 
off  an  ear-ring;  each  of  these  cases  was  deter- 
mined to  be  a  robbery.  The  hundred  in  which  a 
robbery  is  comnuttcd  is  liable  to  pay  the  da- 
mage when  it  is  committed  between  the  rising  and 
setting  of  the  sun,  on  any  day  except  Sunday,  in 
case  the  robbers  are  not  taken  in  forty  d^s;  hue 
and  cry  being  made  ailer  the  robber.  The  pro- 
perty taken  must  be  of  some  ^ue.  Therefore, 
m  a  case  where  the  prisoner  had  obtained  a  note 
of  hand  from  a  gentleman,  by  threatening  with  a 
knife,  held  to  his  throat,  to  take  away  his  life, 
and  it  appeared  that  she  had  furnished  the  pa- 
per and  ink  with  which  it  was  written,  and  t|iat 
the  paper  was  never  out  of  her  possession,  this 
was  holden  not  to  be  a  robbery;  the  judges 
being  of  opinion  that  the  note  was  of  no  value 
to  the  prosecutor,  and  not  within  the  proviso 
of  statute  2  Geo.  II.  c.  5.  sect.  3 :  makmg  the 
stealing  a  chose  in  action  felony. 

ROBE,  n.  «.  &v.  a.  Fr.  rolbe ;  Ital.  robba; 
low  Lat.  rauba ;  Span,  ropa,  quod  a  Gr.  poiiroc, 
i.  e.  mercy. — Minsheu.  A  gown  of  state ;  a 
dress :  to  invest  with  robes. 

Through  tatter'd  deaths  small  vices  do  appear  ; 
Bobts  and  furred  gowas  hide  all.  Shakspeare, 

What  Christian  soldier  will  not  be  touched  with 
a  religious  emulatioD,  to  see  an  order  of  Jews  do 
such  service  for  enlarging  the  christian  borders  ;  and 
an  order  of  St.  George  only  to  robe  and  feast,  and 
perform  rites  and  observances  7  Baam, 

The  last  good  king,  whom  willing  Rome  obey'd 
Was  the  poor  offspring  of  a  captive  maid  ; 
Yet  he  those  robet  of  empire  Justly  wore, 
Which  Romulus,  our  sacred  founder,  wore.  Dryden, 

There  in  long  robes  the  royal  magi  stand ; 
The  sage  ChaldaBans  rob*d  in  white  appeared. 
And  Brachmans.  Pope*s  Teu^  of  Fame, 

Robed  in  loose  array  she  came  to  bathe.     Thomsons 

ROBERT  I.  or  Robe&t  Bruce.  See  Beuce 
and  Scotland. 

RoBEKT  OF  Gloucester,  the  oldest  of  the 
English  poets.  He  flourished  in  the  reign  of 
Ileniy  II.  Camden  quotes  man^  of  his  old 
English  rhymes,  and  speaks  highly  in  his  praise. 
He  died  in  the  beginnmg  of  king  John's  reign,  at 
au  advanced  age. 

ROBERTS  (Rev.  Peter),  M.  A.,  aWelsh  divine, 
and  writer  on  British  history,  was  a  native  of 
North  Wales,  and  received  his  education  at  Tri- 
nity College,  DubHn.  Having  taken  orders,  he 
obtained  the  living  of  Halkin,  in  the  county  of 
Flint.  He  published,  Letters  to  M.  Volney,  in 
answer  to  his  book  on  the  Revolution  of  Em- 
pires, 8vo.;  A  Harmony  of  the  Epistles,  4to.;  A 
Sketch  of  the  Early  History  of  the  Ancient 
Britons,  8vo. ;  and  A  Review  of  the  Policy  and 
Peculiar  Doctrmes  of  the  Moderti  Church  of 
Rome,  1809,  8vo.  But  his  best  work  is  The 
Chronicle  of  the  Kings  of  Britain,  1810,  4to,  a 
translation  from  the  ancient  Welsh  Chronicles, 
with  copious  notes  and  illustrations.  His  death 
took  place  in  1819. 

Roberts*  Islands,  two  large  islands  of  the 
Pacific,  discovered  by  Henguist,  in  1792.  The 
largest  has  no  convenient  landing  place,  and 
seems  only  to  be  inhabited  by  tropical  oceanic 
birds.  The  north-west  side  of  the  island  has  a 
more  favorable  aspeet ;  and,  although  its  shores 
are   rocky,  a  number  of  trees  are  produced. 


ROB 

There  are  also  some  cores  and  bays,  which  afibid 
good  anchorage  and  shelter.  Long.  2i9°  47  £., 
lat.  V  5'  S. 

ROBERTELLS  (Francis),  a  learned  ItaUan, 
of  the  sixteenth  century,  who  was  successively 
professor  of  philosophy  and  rhetoric  at  Lucca, 
Pisa,  Bologna,  and  Padua.  He  wrote  commen- 
taries on  several  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  poets, 
and  several  other  works.    He  died  in  1567. 

ROBERTSON  (WilUam),  D.  D.,  a  learned 
divine,  bom  in  Dublin,  in  1705.  lie  took  the 
degree  of  M.  A.  at  Glasgow,  vrfaence  he  returned 
to  Ireland,  and,  entering  into  orders,  obtained 
several  considerable  livings.  All  these,  however, 
he  resigned  in  1764  ;  and,  in  1766,  published 
his  apology,  with  reasons  for  what  he  bad  done. 
He  presented  a  copy  of  his  work  to  the  University 
of  Glasgow,  upon  which  the  professors  gave  him 
the  degree  of  D.  D,  T^e  company  of  merchant 
tailors,  patrons  of  the  grammar-school  c^  Wol- 
verhampton, presented  him  with  the  masteiship 
of  it,  in  which  office  he  died  in  1783. 

Robertson  (^^illiam),  D.  D.  and  F.  R.  S.,  of 
Edinburgh,  a  late  celebrated  historian  and  cler- 
gyman of  the  church  of  Scotland,  bom  in  Edin- 
burgh in  1721.  He  was  educated  at  the  school 
of  Dalkeith,  and  afterwards  at  the  University  of 
Edinburgh.  In  1743  he  was  appointed  minisier 
of  Gtadsmuir.  On  the  death  <n  his  parents  he 
took  his  sisters  and  a  younger  brother,  afterwards 
a  respectable  jeweller  in  Edinburgh,  under  his 
care,  though  his  living  did  not  then  exceed  £lO0 
a-year,  and  maintained  them  till  Uiey  were  all 
settled  in  the  world.  In  1751  he  married  the 
daughter  of  the  Rev.  Mr.  Nisbet,  one  of  die 
ministers  of  Edinburgh.  About  diis  penod  he 
began  to  attain  eminence  as  an  orator,  and  not 
long  after  became  a  leading  member  in  the  Ge- 
neral Assembly.  In  1755  he  preached  a  ser- 
mon before  the  Society  for  Propagating  Christian 
Knowledge,  on  the  state  of  the  world  previous 
to  the  appearance  of  Christ,  the  only  one  be 
ever  published,  and  which  was  much  admired. 
In  February,  1759,  he  published  his  celebrated 
History  of  Scotland,  in  4to.,  which  was  received 
with  unbounded  applause.  While  this  work  was 
in  the  press,  he  was  translated  from  Gladsmuir 
to  Edinburgh.  In  1759  he  was  appointed 
chaplain  of  Stirling  Castle ;  in  1761  one  of  his 
majesty's  chaplains;  and  in  1762  principal  of 
the  University  of  Edinburgh.  In  1764  me  of- 
fice of  king's  historiographer  fiDr  ScotlaDd  was 
revived  in  his  favor,  with  a  salary  of  £300  a-year. 
About  1761  he  began,  and  in  1769  published 
his  celebrated  History  of  Charles  V.  in  4to.  In 
1 775  the  Dr.  published  his  History  of  America,  for 
which  excellent  work  he'received  £4500.  In  1780, 
after  having  for  nearly  thirty  years  acted  the  most 
conspicuous  part  in  the  supreme  ecclesiastical 
court,  he  retired  from  the  General  Assembly.  In 
1790  he  published  his  Historical  Disquisition 
concerning  ancient  India.  He  died  at  Edin- 
burgh, June  11th,  1793.  As  an  author,  his 
style  has  been  universally  admired ;  as  a  minister 
of  the  gospel,  he  was  aiaithful  pastor,  and  justly 
m.erited  the  esteem  and  veneration  of  his  flock. 
His  conversation  was  cheerful,  entertaining,  and 
instructive ;  his  manners  ai&ble,  pleasing,  and 
endearing. 


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ROBERVALLIAN  Lines,  a  name  given  to 
certain  lines  used  for  the  transformation  of 
figures ;  thus  called  from  their  inventor  Roberval, 
an  eminent  French  mathematician,  who  died  in 
1675,  aged  seventy-six.  The  abbe  Gallois,  in 
the  Meinoi's  ^^  ^^  Royal  Academy,  1693,  obh 
serves  that  the  method  of  transforming  figures, 
explained  at  the  hotter  end  of  Robervars  Treatise 
of  Indivisibles,  was  the  same  with  that  a{ier- 
wards  publid^ed  by  James  Gregory,  in  his  Geo- 
metria  Universalis,  and  also  by  Barrow  in  his 
Lectiones  Geometries;  and  that,  by  a  letter  of 
Torricelli,  it  appears  that  Roberval  was  the  in- 
ventor of  this' manner  of  transforming  figures,  by 
means  of  certain  lines,  which  Torricelli  therefore 
called  Robervaflian  lines. 

ROBESPIERRE  (Maximilian  Isidore),  the 
most  cruel,  perhaps,  of  the  demagogues  of  the 
French  revolutienj  was  bom  at  Arras  in  1759. 
Having  lost  his  fkdier  in  childhood,  he  was  taken 
under  the  protection  of  the  bishop  of  Arras,  who 
sent  him  to  the  college  of  Louis  le  Grand ;  after 
which  he  studied  the  law,  and  was  admitted  an 
adTQcate  in  the  council  of  Artois.    Early  in 
life  he  published  a  Treatise  on  Electricity,  and 
another  on  Crimes  and  Punishments,  in  which 
he  denied  the  right  of  society  to  put  o^enders  to 
death.     He  was,  at  the  beginning  of  the  revo- 
lution, elected  a  member  of  the  states-general, 
where  he  obtained  the  name  of  '  incorruptible,' 
by  his  constant  and  consistent  testimony  against 
political  corruption.    The  Jacobin  club  raised 
Dim  to  power,  when  a  scene  of  blood  followed, 
to  whi(£  hardly  a  parallel  can  be  found  in  his- 
tory.   See  OUT  article  France.     Robespierre 
and  his  creatures  established  the  terriole  commit- 
tee of  public  safetjTy  which  spread  dismay  and 
dcaUi  throughout  France.    At  length  a  oonfede- 
racy  was  formed  against  the  tyrant,  who  wto 
arrested  July  9, 1794„  but  not  till  his  lower  jaw 
was  broken  by  a  pistol  shot  in  an  abortive  attempt 
at  suicide.    He  sufiered  the  next  day  under  the 
guillotine,  amidst  the  execrations  of  the  multi- 
tude.    Buonaparte  is  stated  to  have  said  at  St, 
Helena,  that  Rcd^espierre  displayed  in  his  con- 
duct more  extensive  and  enlightened  views  than 
have  been  generally  ascribed  to  him ;  and  that 
he  intended  to  re-establish  order  after  he  had 
oveitumed  the  factions ;  but,  not  being  poweHul 
enough  to  arrest  the  progress  of  the  revolution, 
he  suffered  himself  to  be  carried  away  by  the 
torrent     As  a  proof  of  this,  the  ex-emperor  as- 
serted, that  wheniivith  the  army  at  Nice,  he  had 
seen  in  the  hands  of  Robespierre's  brother,  let- 
ten,  in  which  tliat  demagogue  expressed  an  in- 
tention to  put  an  end  to  the  reign  of  terror. 
It  may,  per  naps,  be  reasonable  to  conclude  that 
something  like  principle  guided  him  in  the  first 
instance,  until,  unable  to  govern  the  elements  of 
disorder,  contending  around  him,  the  cruelty  of 
perplei^d  cowardice  at  length  became  his  only 
instrument 

ROBIGALIA,  festivals  held  by  the  ancient 
Romans,  on  the  25th  of  April,  when  incense  was 
offered,  along  with  the  entrails  of  a  sheep  and 
a  dog,  in  honor  of 

ilOBIGUS  AND  RosiGO,  a  Roman  god  and 
g^ddesN  who  joined  in  the  preservation  of  com 
firom  bligjht 


ROBIN,  fi.s.  >       Lat   rul>ecula.     A 

RoBiN-RED-BREAST.  5  bird  SO  named  from  hb 
redbreast;  a  ruddock. 

Up  a  grove  did  spring,  green  as  in  May, 
When  April  had  been  moist :  upon  whose  bashes 
The  pretty  roHng,  nightingales,  and  thrashes 
Warbled  their  notes.  Sucking. 

The  ro^m'red-bnast  till  of  late  had  rest, 
And  childven  sacied  held  a  martin's  nest.       Pope. 

ROBINIA,  &lse  acaoia,  in  botany,  a  genus  of 
the  decandria  order,  and  diadelphia  class  of 
plants ;  natural  order  thirty-second,  papilionaces. 
The  calyx  is  quadrifid;  the  legumen  gibbous 
^  elongated.  There  are  nine  species.  The 
most  remarkable  are, 

1.  R,  caragnana.    The  leaves  are  conjugated, 
and  composed  of  a  number  of  small  fdioles,  of 
an  oval  figure,  and  ranged  by  pairs  on  one  com- 
mon stock.    The  flowers  are  leguminous,  and 
are  clustered  on  a  filament.    Every  flower  con- 
sists of  a  small  bell  shaped  petal,,  cut  into  four 
segments  at  the  edge,  the  upper  part  being  rather 
the  widest.  Hie  keel  is  smsill,  open,  s^nd  rounded. 
The  wings  are  large,  oval,  and  a  little  raised. 
Within  are  ten  stamina,   united  at  the  base, 
curved  towards  the  top,  and  rounded  at  the  sum- 
mit.   In  the  midst  of  a  sheath,  formed  by  the 
filaments  of  the  stamina,  the  pistil  is  perceivable, 
consisting  of  an  oval  germen,  terminated  hy  a 
kind  of  button.    This  germen  becomes  after- 
wajrds  an  obloiig  flattish  curved  pod,  containing 
four  or  five  seeds,  of  a  size  and  shape  irregular 
and  unequal ;  yet  in  both  respects  somewhat  re- 
sembling a  lentil.    This  tree  grows  naturally  in 
the  severe  climates  of  Northern  Asia,  in  a  sandy 
soil  mixed  with  black  light  earth.    It  is  particu- 
larly found  on  the  banks  of  great  rivers,  as  the 
Oby,  Jenisia,  &c.    It  is  very  rarely  met  with  in 
the  inhabited  parts  of  the  country,  oecause  cattle 
are  very  fond  of  its  leaves,  and  hogs  of  its  roots ; 
but  it  is  so  hardy  that  the  severest  winters  do 
not  affect  it    Gmelin  found  it  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Tobolsk,  buried  under  fifteen  feet  of 
snow  and  ice,  yet  had  it  not  suffered  the  least 
damage.  Its  culture  consists  in  being  planted  or 
sown  in  a  lightish  sandy  soil,  which  must  on  no 
account  have  been  lately  manured.    It  thrives 
best  near  a  river,  or  on  the  edge  of  a  brook  or 
spring ;  but  presently  dies  if  planted  in  a  marshy 
»>ot,  where  the  water  stagnates.   The  Tongusian 
Tartars,  and  the  inhabitants  of  the  northern  parts 
of  Siberia,  are  very  fond  of  the  firuit  of  this  tree, 
it  bei9g  almost  the  only  sort  of  pulse  they  eat. 
The  roots,  beivff  sweet  and  succulent,  are  very 
well  adapted  to  fattening  hogs ;  and  the  fruit  is 
greedily  eaten  by  all  sorts  of  poultry.    Linn6 
assures  us  that»  after-  the  pinus  fol.  quinis,  er- 
roneously called  the  cedar  tree  of  Siberi^^  this 
tree,  of  all  that  are  to  be  found  in  Siberia,  is 
most  worthy  of  cultivation. 

2.  R.  ferox  is  a  beautiful  hardy  shrub,  and, 
on  account  of  its  robust  stroQg  prickles,  might  be 
introduced  into  this  country  as  a  hedge  plant 
with  much  propriety.  It  resists  the  severest 
cold  of  St.  Fetersburgh,  and  rises  to  the  height 
of  six  or  eight  feet ;  does  not  send  out  suckers 
from  i^  soot,  or  ramble  so  much  as  to  be  with 

difficulty  kept  within  bounds.    Its  flowers  are 

2S2 

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yellow,  and  the  general  color  of  the  plant  a  light 
pleasing  men. 

ROBINS  (Benjamin),  an  eminent  English 
mathematician,  bom  at  Bath  in  1707.    His  pa- 
rents were  unable  to  give  him  a  proper  educa- 
tion;  but  he  procur^  a  recommendation  to 
Dr.  Pemberton  of  London,  by  whose  aid  be  not 
only  acquired  a  high  knowledge  of  mathematics, 
but  even  commenced  teacher  of  the  science. 
He  tried  many  laborious  experiments  in  projec- 
tiles, to  ascertain  the  resistance  of  the  air,  a 
principle  which  he  considered  as  too  much  ovei^ 
lookea  by  writers  on  gunnery.    He  also  studied 
the  mecl^ic  arts,  as  depending  on  mathematical 
principles;  and  appliea  his  discoveries  to  the 
construction  of  mills,  &c.     An  attempt  being 
made  to  explode  the  method  of  fluxions,  Mr. 
Robins  published,  in  1735,  A  Discourse  con- 
cerning the  Nature  and  Certainty  of  Sir  Isaac 
Newton's  Method  of  Fluxions.   Some  objections 
being'  made  to  his  manner  of  defending  Sir  Isaac, 
he  wrote  two  or  three  additional  discourses.    In 
1738  he  defended  Newton  against  an  objection 
urged  in  a  Latin  piece,  entitled  Matho,  sive 
Cosrootheoria  puerilis ;  and,  in  1739,  published 
Remarks  on  Euler's  Treatise  of  Motion,    Dr. 
Smith's. System  of  Optics,  and  Dr.  Jurieu*s  Dis- 
course of  Vision.    In  1739  he  published  three 
anonymous  political  pamphlets,  two  of  which,  on 
the  convention  with  Spam,  were  much  admired, 
and  procured  him  a  very  honorable  post ;  for,  a 
committee  being  appointed  to  enquire  into  Sir 
Robert  Walpole's  conduct,    Mr.  Robins  was 
chosen  secretary.    In  1742  he  published  his 
celebrated  treatise,  entitled  New  Principles  of 
Gunnery,  containing  the  result  of  many  experi- 
ments.    See  pRO/ECTiLEs.     A  treatise  being 
afterwards  published  in  the  Philosophical  Trans- 
actions, in  opposition  to  some  of  his  opinions, 
he  presented  an  account  of  his  work  to  the  so- 
ciety, wherein  he  took  notice  of  those  experi- 
ments ;  and  several  of  his  Dissertations  on  the 
Resistance  of  Air  were  read,  and  his  experiments 
exhibited  before  the  Royal  Society,  tor  which 
they  honored  him  with  their  gold  medal.     In 
1748  appeared  Lord  Anson's  Voyage  round  the 
World,  which,  though  the  title  hfon  the  name 
of  Mr.  Walter,  is  ascribed  to  Mr.  Robins.    Mr. 
Walter,  chaplain  of  the  Centurion,  had  brought 
it  down  to  his  departure  from  Macao,  when  he 
proposed  to  print  it  by  subscription.   But  it  was 
first  thought  necessary  to  have  it  reviewed  and 
corrected  by  an  able  judge,  and  this  task  de- 
volved on  Robins,  who  was  authorised  to  write 
the  whole  anew.    Hence  the  entire  introduction, 
the  style,  and  many  dissertations  in  the  work, 
are  the  sole  compositions  of  Mr.  Robins ;  Mr. 
Walter's  original  MS.  containing  little  more  than 
notes  of  the  wind  and  weather,  currents,  courses, 
bearint^s,  distances,  qualities  of  the  anchoring 
grounds,  and  such  particulars  as  commonly  fill 
up  a  sailor's  account.    No  work  of  this  kind 
ever  met  with  a  more  favorable  reception ;  four 
large  impressions  were  sold  within  the  year,  and 
it  has  been  translated  into  most  of  the  languages 
of  Europe.    Mr.  Robins  was  soon  after  desired 
to  compose  an  apology  for  the  defeat  at  Preston- 
Pans  ;  which  was  prefixed  to  the  report  of  the 
board  of  general  officers,  on  their  examination 


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into  the  conduct  of  L.  G.  Sir  J.  Cope.  Thit 
vras  esteemed  a  master-piece.  He  afterwards 
contributed  to  improve  the  observatory  at  Green- 
wich.'; and,  finally,  went  out  as  eogineer-general 
to  the  East  India  Company.  He  arrived  in  the 
£ast  Indies  in  1750,  but  fell  a  sacrifice  to  the 
climate  in  1751 . 

ROBINSON  (Anastasia),  an  eminent  musidu 
and  singer  on  the  stage,  aifterwazds  coantess  of 
Peterborough.  She  was  the  daughter  of  » por- 
trait-painter, and  was  bom  in  1662.  -  She  fiist 
appeared  at  the  concerts ;  afterwards  at  the  open ; 
where  her  salary  and  emoluments  amounted  to 
£2000  a-ye^.   She  died  in  1750,  aged  88  yean. 

Robinson  (Sir  Richard),  archbishop  cif  Ar- 
magh and  lord  Rokeby,  was  descended  from  the 
Robinsons  of  Rokeby,  in  Yoskshire,  and  bom  ia 
*  1709.  He  was  educated  at  Westminster,  and 
sent  thence  to  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  in  1726. 
Dr.  Blackburae,  archbishop  of  York,  made  him 
his  chaplain ;  and  soon  alter  rector  of  Elton  in 
Yorkshire,  and  prebendary  of  GrindaL  In  1751 
he  accompanied  the  duke  of  Dorset,  lord  lieute- 
nant of  Ireland,  to  that  kingdom,  as  his  chap- 
lain ;  and  was  soon  'made  bishop  of  Killala.  Is 
1759  he  was  translated  to  Leigfalin  and  Fern; 
in  1761  to  Kildare;  and  in  1765,  the  duke  of 
Northumberland  being  lord  lieutenant,  he  was 
promoted  to  be  primate  of  all  Ireland,  loid  al- 
moner, and  vice-chancellor  of  the  university  of 
Dublin.  In  1777  the  king  created  him  buon 
Rokeby:  in  1783  prelate  to  the  order  of  Sl 
Patrick ;  and  in  1785  one  of  the  lords  justices. 
His  brother.  Sir  William,  dying  in  1785,  he  suc- 
ceeded to  the  title  of  baronet.  He  was  a  public 
spirited  prelate ;  and,  at  his  own  expense,  erected 
a  most  princelv  palace  at  Armagh,  and  an  ele- 
gant library.  In  these  works  he  spent  no  leas 
than  £30,000  for  the  benefit  of  the  public  He 
died  at  Clifton,  near  Bristol,  in  1794. 

Robinson  (Robert),  a  celebrated  dissenting 
clergyman,  born  at  Swaffham,  in  Norfolk,  Octo- 
ber 8th,  1735.  His  frither  died  in  hia  infimcy, 
and  his  maternal  grandfather,  Robert  Wilkin, 
of  Milden-hall,  esq.,  who  had  been  displeased 
with  his  daughter's  marriage,  cut  him  off  with 
half  a  guinea  from  his  maternal  inheritance. 
His  uncle,  however,  a  rich  fanner,  took  him 
home,  and  placed  him  under  the  rev.  Joseph 
Brett,  at  Scarroiog  school,  in  Norfolk,  where  lord 
chancellor  Thurlow  was  his  school-fellow.  He 
became  a  disciple  of  George  Whitfield  in  1750, 
and  commenced  preacher  in  1755,  hut  left  the 
Methodists  in  1758,  and  settled  at  Norwich  with 
a  small  congregation  of  Independents.  Soon 
after  he  became  a  Baptist,  and  in  1759  was  in- 
vited to  Cambridge,  where  he  had  a  small  con- 
gregation, and  a  very  poor  living:  hut  in  1774 
the  former  had  increased  to  1000.  He  was  even 
attended  by  many  members  of  the  university. 
In  1764  his  auditors  built  him  a  new  and  elegant 
meeting-house.  He  was  also  invited  to  lecture 
in  the  adjacent  vilhiges.  He  died  9th  June, 
1790,  with  the  reputation  of  a  man  of  abilities 
and  integrity.  His  Plan  of  Lectures  on  the 
Principles  of  Nonconformity  has  been  thought 
very  acrimonious  against  the  church  of  England. 
His  chief  work  is  his  History  of  Baptism,  and  ot 
the  Baptists^  published  since  his  death. 


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RoBiKSON  (ThomasV,  a  respectable  Calvinistic 
divine,  was  born  at  Wakefield,  in  Yorkshire,  in 
1749.  After  receiring  the  rudiments  of  a  classical 
education  at  the  foundation  school,  he  removed  to 
Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  and  obtained  a  fel- 
lowship of  that  society  in  1772.  He  was  the 
author  of  the  Christian  System  unfolded,  8vo., 
3  vols.;  and  the  very  popular  Scripture  Charac- 
ters, 8vo.,  4  vols.  He  also  published  some 
sermons,  &c.,  and  died  in  1813  at  Leicester,  iu 
which  town  he  held  the  living  of  St.  Mary*s  for 
thirty-five  years. 

ROBISON  (John),  professor  of  natural  history 
in  the  university  of  Glasgow,  was  bom  at  Bog- 
hall,  in  the  county  of  Stirling,  in  1739.  He 
was  sent  to  Glasgow  to  receive  his  education,  and 
was  soon  distinguished  for  the  rapid  progress 
which  he  made  in  classical  learning.  He  went, 
while  very  young,  to  the  university,  where  he 
enjoyed  the  benefit  of  the  instructions  of  pro- 
fessors Simsoo,  Leechman,  Moore,  3mith,  and 
others.  Dr.  Robert  Simson  was  his  tutor  in 
mathematics,  and  in  this  class  Mr.  Robison 
was  soon  distinguished  beyond  any  of  his  fellow 
students.  Among  other  branches  Mr.  Robison 
made  himself  well  acquainted  with  the  modes  of 
algebra;  but  from  professor  Simson  he  derived 
a  peculiar  disposition  to  the  study  of  geometry. 
Among  his  fellow  students  were  the  celebrated 
Mr.  Windham,  with  whom  he  formed  an  inti- 
mate friendship,  which  continued  to  the  end  of 
his  life;  Richardson,  afterwards  eminent  as  a 
critic  and  a  professor :  and  Dr.  Gillies,  distin- 
guished by  hu  illustrations  of  Grecian  history 
and  politics.  Mr.  Robison  was  designed  by 
his  parents  for  the  clerical  profession ;  but, 
though  deeply  impressed  with  the  truths  of  re- 
ligion, he  had  a  gfeat  aversion  to  the  professional 
study  of  theology.  His  friends  therefore  looked 
roand  for  some  situation  in  which  his  mathema- 
tical talents  might  be  turned  to  advantage.  Dr. 
Dick,  professor  of  natural  philosophy,  being  in 
want  of  an  assistant,  Mr.  Robison,^ then  not 
nineteen  years  of  age,  was  recommended  by  Dr. 
Smith  as  a  proper  person  to  discharge  that  office. 
Dr.  Dicky  however,  thought  him  too  young,  and 
three  years  after  he  went  to  sea  as  mathematical 
tutor  to  Mr.  Knowles,  eldest  son  of  admiral 
Knowles.  His  pupil  being  appointed  lieutenant 
on  board  the  Royal  William,  Mr.  Robison,  at 
his  own  request,  was  rated  midshipman.  Here 
he  spent  the  three  following  years,  and  devoted 
himself  particularly  to  the  study  of  the  art  of 
seamansnip,  and  was  sometimes  employed  in 
making  surveys  of  coasts  and  rivers.  In  this 
capacity  his  merit  seems  to  have  attracted  the  no- 
tice of  lord  Anson,  then  at  the  head  of  the  admi- 
ralty board,  by  whom  he  was  sent,  in  1762,  to 
Jamaica,  in  order  to  make  trial  of  Harrison's 
time-keeper.  But  on  returning  from  this  mission 
he  found  his  prospects  of  advancement  completely 
blasted.  Lord  Ajison  had  died;  the  vessel  on 
board  of  which  was  his  pupil,  Mr.  Knowles,  had 
foundered  at  sea,  and  himself  with  all  the  crew 
perished.  Admiral  Knowles  had  retired  to  the 
country,  inconsolable  for  the  loss  of  his  son. 
He  determined,  therefore,  to  return  to  Glasgow ; 
and  admiral  Knowles  soon  ailer  placed  under  his 
care  his  remaining  son.  At  Glasgow  he  renewed 


his  studies  with  great  assiduity,  but  his  instruc- 
tors were  changed.  Dr.  Simson  was  dead;  Dr. 
Smith  had  left  Glasgow  to  travel  with  the  duke 
of  Buccleugh.  But  the  place  of  the  latter  gen- 
tleman had  been  well  supplied  by  Dr.  Reid,  and 
Mr.  Robison  had  also  an  opportunity  of  attend- 
ing the  lectures  of  Mr.  Miller  on  civil  law,  and 
of  Dr.  Black  on  chemistry.  When  Dr.  Black, 
in  1769,  was  called  to  Edinburgh,  Mr.  Robison 
was  appointed  by  the  university  of  Glasgow  to 
succeed  him  as  lecturer  on  chemistry;  and  he 
read  lectures  on  that  science  for  three  years  with 
great  applause.  In  1770  Sir  Charles  Knowles 
having  gone  to  Russia,  on  the  invitation  of  the 
empress  Catharine,  then  intent  on  the  improve- 
ment of  her  marine,  invited  Mr.  Robison  to  ac- 
company him  as  his  official  secretary,  with  a 
salary  of  £250  a  year.  As  he  was  still  attached 
to  the  navy  and  to  his  former  patron,  and  as^ 
though  lecturing  on  chemistry,  he  did  not  enjoy 
the  rank  of  a  professor,  Mr.  Robison  made  no 
hesitation  in  accepting  the  proposal.  In  1772 
he  was  appointed,  dv  Uie  Russian  admiralty,  in- 
spector general  of  me  corps  of  marine  cadets : 
an  academy  consisting  of  upwards  of  400  young 
gentlemen  and  scholars,  under  the  tuition  of 
about  forty  teachers.  While  in  this  situation, 
Mr.  Robison  presented  to  the  admiralty  college 
a  plan  for  rendering  more  useful  the  magnificent 
docks  at  Cronstadt  by  means  of  a  steam-engine, 
which  was  adopted  and  executed  with  success 
after  he  had  left  Russia.  Being  attached,  by  his 
office,  to  that  island,  he  found  it,  particularly  in 
winter,  to  be  a  dismal  solitude,  where  he  was 
nearly  cut  off  from  all  society.  On  this  account, 
having  held  the  appointment  about  four  years, 
he  determined  to  resign  it,  and  to  accept  of  an 
invitation  from  the  magistrates  and  town-council 
of  Edinburgh  to  be  professor  of  natural  philo- 
sophy in  their  university.  This  situation  he  filled 
with  great  honor  to  himself  as  well  as  benefit  to 
the  students  of  the  university  till  his  death,  which 
happened  in  1805. 

Although  Dr.  Robison  labored  under  a  dis- 
tressing and  painful  disorder,  during  the  last 
eighteen  years  of  his  life,  his  mind  was  in  general 
active.  He  b  well  known  to  be  author  of  all 
the  most  important  mathematical  and  philoso- 
phical articles  in  the  third  edition  of  the  Ency- 
clopsedia  Britannica,  and  the  supplement  to  that 
work.  Several  of  Uiese  papers  were  afterwards 
thrown  into  a  different  form,  and  published 
under  the  title  of  Elements  of  Mechanical  Phi- 
losophy. In  1797  this  gentleman  published  a 
work  entitled  Proofe  of  a  Conspiracy  against 
all  the  Religions  and  Governments  of  Europe, 
canied  on  in  the  Secret  Meetings  of  Free-Ma- 
sons, lUuminati,  and  Reading  Societies,  a  work 
full  of  declamation  and  absurdity,  but  which, 
owing  to  the  furor  of  the  times,  made  a  great  • 
impression,  and  rapidly  passed  through  several 
editions.  In  1803  Mr.  Robison  performed  a 
very  acceptable  service  to  the  public,  by  giving 
them  an  edition  of  Dr.  Black's  lectures  on  the 
Elements  of  Chemistiy,  in  2  vob.  4to.  When 
the  Royal  Society  of  Edinburgh  was  incorporated 
by  charter,  in  1783,  he  was  chosen  by  that  learned 
body  to  be  their  general  secretary,  and  discharged 
that  office  to  their  entire  satisfaction,  till  a  few 


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days  before  his  death,  when  the  itate  of  his  health 
obliged  him  to  resign  it.  To  their  tranMctions  he 
has  contributed  sereral  very  interesting  papers,  of 
which  the  following  is,  we  believe,  a  correct 
list :— 1.  The  orbit  and  motion  of  the  Georgium 
Sidus  determined  directly  from  obsenrations, 
vol.  i.  p.  305.  2.  Observations  on  the  places 
of  the  Georgian  planet  made  at  Edinburgh,  with 
an  equatorud  instrument,  ii.  p.  37.  3.  On  the 
motion  of  light,  as  affected  by  refracting  and  re- 
flecting substances,  which  are  also  in  motion. 

ROBUST,  adj.     "j     Fr.  robuste ;    Lat.  ro- 

RoBusfxouB,  >6ttttta.    Strong;  sinewy; 

RoBusi^NBss,!!.  t.  J  vigorous  ;  violent;  re- 
quiring strength:  the  noun-substantive  corres- 
ponding. 

It  offends  me  to  hear  a  rohustiom  periwig-pated 
fellow  tear  a  passion  to  tatters,  to  veiy  rap,  to  split 
the  ears  of  the  groundlings.  Aitpmre. 

Thoe  rBdan&nt  locks, 
Robfutinu  to  no  purpoae,  clustering  down, 
Vain  raonomtnt  of  strength.      MUton's  Agtniitet, 

While  I  was  managing  this  youn^  robuiUoui  fd- 
low,  that  old  spark,  who  was  noUung  but  skin  and 
bone,  slipt  through  my  fingers.  Dryden. 

The  tenderness  of  a  sprain  remains  a  good  while 
after,  and  leaves  a  lastingr  caution  in  the  man,  not  to 
put  Uie  part  quickly  again  to  any  robuMt  employment. 

Beef  may  confer  a  robtatnest  on  my  son's  limbs, 
but  will  hebeUte  his  intellectuals. 

Arimikniat  and  Piigst; 
Romp-loving  miss 
Is  hauled  about  in  gaUantry  rofturt.  Tkomtnu 

ROCA,  a  name  given  to  an  archipelago  of 
small  desert  islands  on  the  coast  of  Venezuela, 
Colombia.  They  extend  about  twenty-three  miles 
from  east  to  west,  and  ten  from  north  to  south. 
The  most  northern  is  worthy  of  note^  from  a 
lofty  mountain  of  white  stone,  which  it  has  at 
tfie  west  extremity.  The  others  are  low,  and 
that  which  is  nearest  to  the  one  just  mentioned 
small  and  flat,  producing  nothing  but  grass. 
These  islands  are  in  long.  66''  45'  W.,  lat.  11° 
56' N. 

ROCAMBOLE,  n.  s.  Span.  rocam6ofe.  See 
Garlic. 

RocamhoU  is  a  sort  of  wild  garlick,  otherwise  called 
Spanish  garlick ;  the  seed  is  about  the  bigness  of  or- 
dinary pease.  Mortimgr. 

Garhck,  rocamhoU,  and  onions,  abound  with  a 
pungent  volatile  salt.  Arfmthnot  on  AlitMnta* 

ROCIIE-AL'UM,  n.  I.  Tr.tvche.  A  rock. 
A  purer  kind  of  alum. 

koehe-alwn  is  also  good.   Horttmer'f  Hutb&ndr^, 

ROCHDALE,  a  market-town  of  Lancashire, 
seated  in  a  valley  on  the  Roch,  at  the  foot  of  die 
Yorkshire  hills.  It  has  flourishing  manufactures 
of  serges,  bays,  and  other  woollen  and  cotton 
froods.  Over  the  river  is  a  neat  stone  bridge  of 
three  arches.  The  town  consists  principally  of 
one  long  street.  Here  are  also  several  chapels 
for  Dissenters,  and  a  well  endowed  school  for 
thirty  boys ;  likewise  a  theatre  and  two  assembly 
rooms :  a  new  market-place  has  been  added,  and 
the  whole  town  lighted  with  gas.  The  church 
stands  upon  a  remarkable  eminence,  to  which 
the  ascent  from  the  lower  part  of  the  town  is  by 
a  flight  of  118  steps.  The  manufactories  extend 
about  ten  miles  north  of  the  town,  which  is  flfty- 


flve  miles  W.  N.  W.  of  Yotk,  and  1 97  N.  If .  W.  of 
London. 

ROCHEFORT,  a  town  in  the  departmort  of 
the  Lower  Charente,  Frame,  sttaated  in  a  nmnby 
tract  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Charente,  about 
five  miles  from  its  embouehntv.  Though  fbunded 
only  in  the  latter  half  of  the  seventeenth  century, 
it  is  a  place  of  size,  containing  abcnit  15,000  in- 
habitants. Its  form  b  that  of  a  aegroent  of 
a  circle,  of  which  the  walls  form  the  circnm- 
ference,  and  the  river  die  chord.  In  the  interior 
the  streets  are  broad,  and  laid  out  on  a  plan  of 
perfect  regularity.  Nearly  in  the  centre  of  the 
town  is  a  spacious  Place  d*Armes.  The  objects 
of  interest  are  the  arsenal,  cannon  foundry,  bar^ 
racks,  magazine  of  naval  stores,  the  docks,  the 
civil  and  marine  hospital,  and  the  narigation 
school.  The  harbour,  one  of  the  great  naval 
atations  of  France^  is  protected  by  five  Ibrts, 
and  well  locked  in  by  the  land.  It  is  capable, 
from  its  depth,  of  admitting  vessels  of  great 
Size:  but  line  of  battle  ships  take  out  their 
lower  deck  guns  to  enter  the  river.  At  low  water 
vessels  are  seldom  in  less  than  four  fathoms  depth 
in  this  harbour.  The  docks  fbr  building  and  Refit- 
ting of  vessels,  and  the  stores  for  their  equipment, 
are  very  complete.  The  trade  is  limited,  in  great 
measure,  to  the  coasting  and  colonial  tnfic. 
Here  are,  however,  manufactures  of  cordage, 
stoneware,  and  oil ;  and  also  fbr  refining  sugar. 
The  ramparts  of  the  town  are  plant^  with 
trees,  and  form  an  agreeable  walk.  Fevers  are 
s&id  to  be  occasioned  here  in  the  autumn  by 
bad  water,  and  the  extent  of  marab^  Since 
draining  a  part  of  the  latter  they  haj«  become 
less  frequent.  Twenty  miles  south-east  of  La 
Rochelle,  and  100  north  of  Bourdeaux. 

'RocHEFORT,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  depart- 
ment of  the  Maine  and  Loire,  on  the  river  Louet. 
Population  2400.  Nine  miles  south-west  of 
Auffen. 

ROCHEFOUCAULT,  a  town  of  France, 
department  of  the  Charente,  on  the  Tardioie, 
with  a  casde,  which  conferred,  before  the  revo- 
lution, the  title  of  duke.  It  has  manuftictnres  of 
leather  and  linen,  and  its  chief  trade  is  in  these 
articles  and  in  wood.  Inhabitants  2400.  Twenty 
miles  north-east  of  Angouleme,  and  fifty-eight 
south  of  Poitiers. 

RocHEFOucAULT  (Francis  duke  of),  prince  of 
Marsillac,  governor  of  Poictou,  was  bom  in  1603. 
He  was  the  son  of  Francis,  the  first  duke  of 
Rochefoucault,  and  wrote  two  celebrated  works, 
the  one  a  book  of  Maxims,  and  the  oAer,  Me- 
moirs of  the  Regency  of  Queen  Anne  of  Austria. 
In  the  civil  war  he  signalised  himself  at  the 
battle  of  St.  Antoine.  After  the  civil  wars  were 
ended,  his  house  became  the  rendezvous  of  all  the 
literati  of  Paris  and  Versailles.  He  died  at  Paris 
in  1680,  aged  sixty-eight. 

ROCHEJAQUELIN  (Henry  de  la),  a  French 
royalist,  distinguished  in  the  war  of  La  Vend^. 
He  was  bom  in  1773,  and  was  the  son  of  the 
marquis  de  la  Rochejaauelin,  a  nobleman  of 
Poitou.  Having  been  educated  at  the  military 
school  of  Soreze,  he  became  one  of  the  constitu- 
tional guard  of  Louis  XVI.  His  father  quitted 
France,  and  our  young  hero  Paris,  after  the  in- 
surrection of  the  10th  of  August  1792.     He  re- 


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sided  with  hU  relative,  the  iparqais  de  Lescure, 
uear  Parthenay,  in  March  1793,  when,  the  inha- 
bitants of  the  surrounding  country  rising  in  arms 
in  fevor  of  the  royal  cause,  La  Rochejaquelin 
putting  himself  at  their  head,  they  attacked  and 
defeated  the  republicans  under  general  Queti- 
neau,  at  Aubiers.  The  marquis  de  Lescure  noW 
took  the  field  with  the  royalists,  who  were  at, 
first  vety  successful ;  but  on  the  18th  of  October 
they  were  defeated  at  ChoUet,  and  their  generals, 
Lescure,  Bpnchamps,  and  d*£lb^e,  mortally 
wounded.  La  Rocnejaquelin  was  at  this  time 
chosen  commander-in-chief  of  the  Vendeans,  and 
was  obliged,  against  his  own  judgment,  to  retreat 
beyond  the  Loire.  He  continued,  under  great  dis- 
adyantages,  for  some  time  to  oppose  the  republi- 
cans ;  but  was  at  length  killed  in  aefending  the  Wl- 
lageof  Nouaille,  March  4th,  1794.  In  the  recent 
memoirs  of  the  marchioness  de  la  Rochejaquelin, 
the  widow  of  his  younger  brother,  this  young 
soldier  is  represented  as  resembling  a  knight  of 
chivalry ;  and,  after  making  all  allowances  for  the 
friendship  of  his  historian,  he  appears  to  have 

nessea  extraordinslry  qualifications  for  the  part 
laved. 
ftOCHELLE,  La,  a  town  of  Lower  Charente, 
France,  the  capital  of  that  department,  is  situ- 
ated  in  a  plain  at  the  bottom  of  a  gulf  of  the  At- 
lantic. Its  form  is  nearly  oval,  and  its  length 
from  north  to  south,  exclusive  of  the  suburbs, 
about  three-quarters  of  a  mile ;  its  breadth  above 
half  a  mile.  The  fortifications  of  the  celebrated 
Vauban  are  in  good  condition,  and  consist  of 
nineteen  large  bastions,  and  eighthalf  moons,  en- 
closed by  a  moat  and  covered  way.  On  the  side 
of  the  sea  it  has  a  massy  old  wall,  flanked  with 
large  towers.  The  streets  are  broad,  and  in 
general  straight,  and  the  houses  spacious  through- 
out the  town :  they  are  almost  all  supported  in 
front  by  arcades,  which,  by  concealing  the  pe- 
destrians, cause  an  apparent  dulness  in  the  streets. 
The  Place  d'Armes,  or  Place  du  Chateau,  con- 
sists of  a  spacious  area  planted  with  trees,  and 
commands  a  fine  view  of  the  roadstead.  The 
principal  public  buildings  are  the  cathedral,  hos- 
pital, orphan-house,  and  exchange  :  here  are  also 
several  scientific  institutions,  a  navigation  school, 
and  a  cabinet  of  natural  history. 

Rochelle  has  an  excellent  road,  and  a  haven, 
formed  by  a  dike  and  basin  for  merchant  vessels. 
Its  entrance  is  defended  by  two  old  Gothic 
towers  of  great  height,  and  is  crossed  by  a  pon- 
derous iron  chain.  The  trade  to  the  colonies  in' 
wines,  brandy,  flour,  linen ;  taking  in  return 
sugar,  coffee,  cotton,  and  all  kinds  of  produce, 
is  considerable.  To  ports  of  Europe  the  chief 
articles  of  export  are  brandy  and  bay  salt ;  its 
imports  from  them  are  trifling.  Glass,  stone- 
ware, and  sugar,  are  the  chief  manuftictures. 

La  Rochelle  was,  in  the  thirteenth  century, 
for  some  time  in  the  possession  of  the  English. 
In  the  sixteenth  it  became  a  strong  hold  of  the 
Protestants,  and  governed  itself  for  some  time 
as  a  republic.  It  was  several  times  besieged  by 
the  Catholics  without  success,  until  1637,  when 
it  was  taken  by  Louis  XIII.  after  a  siege  of 
thirteen  months,  during  which  the  inhabitants 
suffered  all  the  horrors  of  famine.  It  was  to 
exclude  all  its  supplies  at  this  time  that  cardinal 


Richelieu  caused  the  construction  of  a  mole 
across  the  roadstead,  about  a  mile  afid  a  half  in 
length :  the  remains  of  which  are  still  visible. 
Its  fortifications  were  razed  on  that  occasion, 
but  they  were  re-erected  under  Louis  XIV.  The 
town  was  the  birth-place  of  th^  naturalist  Reatt- 
mur,  and  is  seventy-ei^^ht  miles  south  of  Nan^s, 
and  335  south-west  of  Paris. 

Rochester,  a  city  of  Kent,  situated  on  the 
Medway,  seven  miles  and  a  half  north  of  Maid- 
sione,  and  thirty  south-east  from  London.    It 
was  a  Roman  station,  and  many  Roman  coins 
have  been  found  about  it.    It  has  three  parish 
churches,  besides  the  cathedral.    This  city  was 
made  a  bishop's  see  by  king  Ethelbert  in  604, 
and  was  called  by  the  Saxons  Roficaster :  whence 
its  present  name.     In  676  it  was  sacked  b>^ 
Eldred  king  of  Mercia ;  in  839  and  885  besieged 
by  the  Danes,  but  rescued  by  king  Alfred.  Alx^ut ' 
100  years  after  it  was  besieged  by  king  Ethelred, 
and  compelled  to  pay  £lOO.  In  999  it  was  taken 
and  plundered  by  the  Danes.    In  1088  it  was 
besieged  and  taken  by  William  Rufus.   In  king 
John  s  time  it  was  tsdcen  from  the  barons  after 
three  months'  siege;  and  in  1256  its  castle, 
founded  by  William  the  Conqueror,  was  stormed 
atnd  taken  by  the  barons,  under  the  French  king*s 
mn.    In  the  reifin  of  Henry  III.  it  was  besieged 
by  Simon  Montford,  who  burnt  its  then  wooden 
bridge  and  tower,  and  spoiled  the  church  and 
priory.   In  1281  its  old  wooden  bridge  was  car- 
ried off*  by  the  ice  in  a  sudden  thaw  after  a  frost 
which  had  made  the  Medway  passable  on  foot. 
Another  was  built  in  the  reign  of  Richard  IL, 
Sut  pulled  down  again  on  a  rumor  of  an  inva- 
sion from  France.    It  was  afterwards  restored, 
but  so  often  required  expensive  repairs,  by  rea- 
son of  flie  rapid  course  of  the  river  under  it,  that 
in  the  reign  of  Edward  III.  it  was  resolved  to 
build  a  new  bridge  of  stone ;  which  was  begun, 
and  completed,  at  the  expense  of  Sir  John  Cob- 
ham  ana  Sir  Robert  Knolles,  Edward  III.'s 
generals,  out  of  the  spoils  they  bad  taken  in 
Fran<:e.     The  town  is  governed  by  a  mayor,  re- 
corder, twelve  aldermen,  twelve  common-coun- 
cilmeh,  a  town  clerk,  and  inferior  officers.     To 
its  cathedral  belong  a  dean  and  six  prebendaries. 
The  present  castle  of  Rochester  was  one  of  those 
founded  by  William  the  Conqueror,  to  keep  in 
awe  his  new  subjects;  but  there  seems  every 
reason  to  believe  that  a  prior  one  existed  on  the 
same  site,  frequent  mention  being  made  of  the 
Castrum   Roflense  in  the  Saxon  annals.     He 
committed  to  Odo,  bishop  of  Baieux,  the  execu- 
tion of  the  new  work,  and  the  custody  of  the 
fortress ;  but,  that  prelate  proving  unwonAy  of 
his  trust,  he  was  afterwards  seized,  and  sent  as 
a  prisoner  to  the  castle  of  Rouen,  in  Normandy, 
^nere  he  continued  to  the  accession  of  William 
Rufus,  who  restored  him  to  his  dignities  and 
possessions ;  a  fiivor  which  he  shortly  after  un- 
ffratefoUy  repaid  by  raising  an  insurrection  in' 
tavor  of  the  king's  brother,  Robert,  duke  of  Nor^ 
mandy.   Rufus,  upon  this,  laid  siege  to  Roches- 
ter castle,  and,  having  forced  the  garrison  to  sur- 
render, banished  the  bishop  ftt>m  his  dominions. 
During  this  siege  the  buildings  sustained  consi- 
derable injury,  which  fhe  king  enjoined  bishop 
Gundulph  and  the  prior  of  Rochester  to  repair, 

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perhaps  on  account  of  their  having  shown  tome 
attachment  to  the  rebellious  cause.  Gundulph 
accordingly  not  only  renofated  the  walls,  but 
laid  the  foundation  of  the  great  square  tower, 
which  yet  perpetuates  his  name,  and  entitles  him 
to  rank  among  the  most  eminent  architects  of 
Anglo-Norman  times.  Several  estatea  in  this 
county  hold  of  Rochester  castle  by  the  ancient 
tenure  of  castle  guard.  On  St  Andrew's  day, 
old  style,  a  banner  is  hung  out  at  the  house  of 
the  receiver  of  rents;  and  every  tenant  who  does 
not  then  discharge  his  arrears  is  liable  to  have 
his  rent  doubled,  on  the  return  of  every  tide  of 
the  Medway,till  the  whole  is  discharged. 

Rochester  castle  stands  at  the  south-western 
angle  of  the  city,  on  an  eminence  rising  abruptly 
from  the-river  Medway,  which  preserve  from  at- 
tack on  the  west,  whilst  its  soutn,  east,  and  north 
sides  were  defended  bv  a  broad  and  deep  ditch. 
The  outward  walls,  which  formed  an  irregular 
parallelogram,  300  feet  in  length,  were  strength- 
ened by  several  sauare  and  round  towers  ;  but 
these,  as  well  as  the  walls  themselves,  are  now 
verging  to  a  state  of  ruin.  The  most  perfect 
are  on  the  east  side,  and  at  the  south-east  angle ; 
that  at  the  angle  was  semi-circular,  and  rose 
boldly  from  the  ditch,  which  is  now  almost  filled 
up.  The  principal  entrance  was  on  the  north- 
east, and  was  defended  by  a  tower  gateway,  with 
outworks  at  the  sides.  The  keep,  or  great  tower 
already  mentioned,  as  founded  by  bishop  Gun- 
dulph, occupies  the  south-east  portion  of  tlie 
casde  area.  It  is  of  a  quadrangular  form,  seventy 
feet  square  at  the  base,  and  is  so  planned-  that 
its  angles  correspond  with  the  torn  cardinal 
points  of  the  compass.  The  walls  on  the  outside 
are  built  inclining  inwards  from  the  base,  and 
were  in  general  twelve  or  thirteen  feet  Uiick. 
Near  the  centre,  on  each  side,  is  a  pilaster  but- 
tress, ascending  from  the  base  to  the  roof;  and 
at  the  angles  are  projecting  towers,  three  of  them 
square,  and  the  fourth  semi-circular,  which  rise 
twelve  feet  above  the  roof.  The  entrance  to  this 
part  tff  the  castle  was  most  difficult  and  intricate, 
and  displayed  much  architectural  ingenuity. 
'  The  first  ascent  was  by  a  flight  of  twelve  steps, 
leading  to  an  arched  gate  and  covered  way ;  be- 
neath which  a  flight  of  seven  steps  led  forward 
to  a  diaw-hridge,  that  connected  with  the  arched 
gateway  of  the  entrance  tower;  this  opened  into 
a  vestibule,  between  which  and  the  keep  there 
were  no  otfier  avenues  of  communication  than 
by  a  third  arched  passage  in  the  thickness  of  the 
wall.  This  latter,  being  the  (immediate  inlet 
to  the  body  of  the  keep,  was  defended  by  a  mas- 
sive gate  and  portcullis,  the  hinges  and  grooves 
of  which  yet  remain ;  and  in  the  roof  are  open- 
ings for  the  purpose  of  showering  down  destruc- 
tion on  the  assailants.' 

The  interior  of  the  keep  is  divided  into  two 
nearly  equal  parts  by  a  strong  wall,  with  arched 
door-ways  of  communication  on  each  floor.  In 
the  centre  of  this  wall  is  a  circular  hole  for  a 
well  of  considerable  depth,  neatly  wrought,  and 
open  from  the  bottom  to  the  very  top  of  the  keep. 
This  tower  consisted  of  three  floors,  independent 
of  the  basement  story ;  but  these  floors  were  re- 
moved when  the  castle  was  dismantled  io  the 
reign  of  James  I.    The  lowest  apartments  were 


two  dark  and  gloomy  rooms,  in  which  the  garri- 
son stores  were  probably  deposited.  At  the 
north-east  angle  is  a  circular  winding  staixcase, 
which  ascends  to  the  summit ;  and  near  it  is  a 
small  arched  door-way,  leading  to  a  nairow 
vaulted  apartment  underneath  Sie  little  tower, 
supposed  to  have  been  a  dungeon  for  criminals. 
The  first  floor  appears  to  have  been  allotted  for 
the  accommodation  of  servants  and  inferior  at- 
tendants; the  second  floor  contained  the  state 
apartments;  and  the  third  was  designed  for  a 
chapel,  and  for  bed-rooms  for  the  &mily.  Tlie 
root  of  the  keep  is  now  entirely  destroyed ;  but 
it  most  probably  consisted  of  a  platform  on  a 
level  with  the  top  of  the  waU  within  the  parget; 
the  latter  was  about  five  feet  high,  and  had  em- 
brasures about  two  feet  wide. 

The  cathedral  is  situated  on  the  east  of  the 
castle,  and  a  little  south  of  the  Hi^  StreeL  From 
the  mixed  style  of  its  architecture  it  appears  to 
have  been  the  work  of  different  ages.  It  is  in 
the  form  of  a  cross,  and  is  divided  into  a  naves, 
aisles,  two  transept^  and  a  choir,  with  a  low 
tower,  and  a  spire  rising  at  the  intersectioo  of 
the  nave  and  great  transept  The  greater  (Kut 
of  the  nave  and  west  front  display  Sie  massive 
character  of  the  early  Norman  and  Saxon  archi- 
tecture. The  west  entrance  is  particularly  wor- 
thy of  attention  :  the  remaining  parts  of  the 
cathedral  are  comparatively  plain  in  their  exte- 
rior. Entering  tne  nave  by  the  western  door, 
the  massive  Norman  style  is  conspicuous  in  the 
first  five  columns  on  each  side,  all  of  them  sup- 
porting circular  arches,  decorated  with  zig-sag 
mouldings.  The  roof  is  of  timber,  with  Imees 
supported  on  corbels,  the  fironts  of  which  are 
carved  into  figures  of  angels  sustaining  shields* 
on  which  are  me  arms  of  the  city,  the  see,  and 
the  priory  of  Rochester,  as  well  as  those  of  the 
archbishopric  of  Canterbury.  The  great  tower 
is  supported  by  four  obtusely-pointed  arches, 
resting  on  solid  masonry,  environed  by  slender 
columns  of  Petworth  marble.  Hie  cathedral 
extends  in  length  306  feet  from  east  to  west  Hie 
breadth  of  the  nave,  with  the  side  aisles,  is 
seventy-five  feet,  and  that  of  the  choir  neariy  the 
same.  The  western  transept  is  122  feet,  and 
the  eastern  ninety  feet  long;  the  west  front  is 
nine^-four  feet  wide,  and  the  great  tower  156 
feet  high.  Several  of  the  monuments  in  the 
cathedral  are  curious  from  their  antiquity  and 
workmanship. 

For  the  maintenance  of  the  bridge  certain 
lands  are  allotted  by  pariiament,  to  which  Ro- 
chester has  sent  members  from  the  first  The 
town-bouse,  built  in  1687,  for  the  courts,  assizes, 
and  sessions,  and  the  charity  school,  are  two  of 
the  best  public  buildiugs  here.  In  the  cemetery, 
on  the  north  side  of  the  cathedral,  is  the  church 
belonging  to  the  parish  of  St.  Nicholas.  The 
present  febric,  consisting  of  a  nave  and  two  side 
aisles,  was  erected  about  the  year  1620.  At  the 
entrance  into  the  High  Street  next  the  bridge,  are 
the  remains  of  St  Clement's  church,  now  con- 
verted into  dwelling-houses,  the  parish  having 
been  united  with  that  of  St  Nicholas.  The  town- 
hall,  erected  in  1687,  is  a  handsome  brick  struc- 
ture, supported  by  stone  Doric  columns.  TV 
entrance  to  the  hall  is  by  a  spacious  staircasr, 


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Ihe  ceilinff  of  whichy  as  well  as  that  of  the  hall, 
is  cariously  ornamented.  Here  the  city  business 
is  transacted,  and  the  assizes  for  the  county  are 
sometimes  held.  The  clock-house  was  built  in' 
1686,  at  the  expense  of  Sir  Cloudesley  Shovel, 
who  also  gave  the  clock.  At  the  bottom  of 
Chaldegate  Street  stands  a  large  and  commodious 
poor-house.  The  main  street  is  wide,  and  well 
paved.  The  town,  within  the  walls,  consists  of 
one  main  street,  but  within  its  liberties  many 
buildings  have  been  erected,  and  improvements 
have  been  made,  and  are  still  making.  A  ma- 
thematical school  was  founded  here,  and  an  alms- 
house for  lodging  six  poor  travellers  every  night, 
and  allowing  them  4a.  in  the  morning  when  mev 
depart,  except  persons  contagiously  diseased!, 
rogues,  and  proctors.  The  Roman  Watling 
Street  runs  through  this  town  from  Shooter's  Hill 
to  Dover.  The  mayor  and  citizens  hold  an  ad- 
miralty court  once  a  year  for  regulating  the 
oyster-6shery  in  the  creeks  and  branches  of  the 
Medway  within  their  jurisdiction,  and  for  prose- 
cuting offenders.  The  bridge  was  repaired  in 
1744,  and  pallisadoed  with  new  iron  rails.  Mar- 
ket on  Fridays. 

ROCHESTER,  a  post-4own  of  Strafford 
county.  New  Hampshire,  on  the  west  side  of 
Salmon  Fall  River,  twenty-two  miles  north-west 
of  Portsmouth.  Near  the  centre  of  the  town  there 
is  a  village  called  Norway  Plains,  containing  a 
meeting-house,  court-house,  and  several  stores. 
There  is  also  a  cotton  manufactory  in  the  town. 
One  term  of  the  court  of  common  pleas  is  held 
here  annually.— Also  a  post-town  of  Plymouth 
county,  Massachusetts,  on  Buzzard*s  Bay, 
twenty  miles  south-west  of  Plymouth,  and  forty- 
eight  south  of  Boston.  Here  are  some  iron 
works. — And  a  post  town  of  Ulster  county.  New 
York,  twenty  miles  south-west  of  Kingston. 

Rochester,  Earl  of.    See  Wilmot. 

ROCH'ET,  n.  f .  Fr.  ntchet ;  low  Lat.  roehe- 
htm,  from  reecus,  a  coat.  A  surplice;  the  white 
upper  garment  of  a  priest. 

What  zealous  phrency  did  the  senate  seiae. 
That  tare  the  rouhet  to  such  rags  as  these  !    > 

CUaioeland, 

ROCHFORD,  a  market-town  and  parish  of 
Essex,  situated  in  a  small  rivulet  called  the 
Broomhill,  over  which  it  has  two  wooden  bridges. 
It  is  fifteen  miles  east  by  souA  from  Billericay, 
and  thirty-nine  east  from  London.  The  houses 
are  for  the  greater  part  irregular  and  ill-built. 
The  parish  church  stands  half  a  mile  from  the 
town,  and  is  a  plain  building.  The  market- 
hoDse  is  a  mean  timber  structure,  in  which  the 
petty  sessions  for  the  Rochford  division  of  Essex 
are  held.  This  place  is  rendered  remarkable 
on  record  for  its  lawless  court.  See  Lawless 
CooRT.  The  market  is  on  Thursdays  for  cattle, 
com,  and  provisions.  Raleigh,  in  this  vicinity, 
though  now  an  inconsiderable  village,  was  for- 
merly a  market  town,  and  the  head  of  the  barony 
of  Suene,  a  powerful  Anglo-Saxon  Dane,  who  is 
reported  to  have  built  a  castle  here,  of  which 
some  important  earth-works  still  remain.  These 
consist  of  a  mount,  of  an  oval  shape  at  the  base, 
which  is  environed  by  a  double  aitch  and  ram- 
part. 


ROCK,fi.f. 

Rocx'noE, 
Rock'less, 


ROC 

Fr.  rocy  roche;  Ital.  fXNxa; 
Span,  toca;  Port,  roeha;  (i 
Gr.  p«(. — Minsheu.)    A  mass 


Rock'ruby,  ^of  stone;  a  stony  mass  fixed 
Rock'salt,       in  the  earth ;    protection ;  de- 
Rock'work,      fence  :   a  rock-doe  is  a  doe 
Rock'y,  at^.  J  that  frequents  the  rocky  heights 
of  the  Alps :  rockless,  devoid  bf  rocks :  rock- 
ruby,  the  garnet ;  a  hard  stone :  fock-salt,  mine- 
ral salt :  rock-work,  strong  or  rugged  work  in 
imitation  of  rocks ;   a  natural  wall  of  rock : 
rocky,  abounding  with  rocks ;  strong ;  stony. 

Val  de  Compare  presenteth  her  rocs^  mountains. 

&imIv<. 
The  splitting  rodtt  cow'r'd  in  the  sinking  sands. 
And  would  not  dash  me  with 'their  ragged 'sides. 

Shakspeare,  ] 
1,  like  a  poor  bark,  of  sails  and  tackling  reft. 
Rush  all  to  pieces  on  thy  rockgf  bosom.  Id. 

There  be  roek  herbs ;  <but  those  are  where  there  is 
some  mould.  Baam't  Natural  Hiatory, 

Though  the  reeds  of  Egypt  break  under  the  hand 
of  him  mat  leans  on  them,  yet  the  rock  of  Israel  will 
be  an  everlasting  stay.  King  Charlet, 

Such  destruction  to  withstand,  he  opposed  the 
rocky  orb 
Of  ten-fold  adamant,  his  ample  shield.        MUUm, 

Distilling  some  of  the  tincted  liquor,  all  that  came 
over  was  as  limpid  and  colourless  as  rock  water,  and 
the  liquor  remaining  in  the  vessel  deeply  ceruleous. 

Boyie. 
Make  the  bold  prince 
Through  the  cold  north  and  rockjf  regions  run. 

WaUer. 
A  crystal  brook 
Is  weedless  all  above,  and  rockUsi  all  below. 

Dry  den. 
The  vallies  he  restrains 
With  roeky  mountains.  Id. 

Nature  lodges  her  treasures  in  rocky  ground. 

Locke. 
Pigeons  or  doves  are  of  several  sorts ;  as  wood 
pigeons  and  rock  pigeons.  Morikner's  Husbandry. 
The  rock-doe  breeds  chiefly  upon  the  Alps :  a  crea- 
ture of  admirable  swiftness  ;  and  may  probably  be 
that  mentioned  in  the  book  of  Job :  her  noms  grow 
sometimes  so  far  backward  as  to  reach  over  her  but- 
tocks. Grew't  Muteum. 

These  lesser  roehf  or  great  bulky  stones,  are  they 
not  manifest  fragments  ?  Burnet, 

The  garden  is  fenced  on  the  lower  end,  by  a  natu- 
ral mound  of  rockwcrk,  Addieen. 

Of  amber  a  nodule,  invested  with  a  coat,  called 
rock  amber.  Woodward  onFosnit. 

Rodc-ruby  is  of  a  deep  red,  and  the  hardest  of  all 
the  kinds.  Id. 

Two  pieces  of  transparent  rook-sali;  one  white, 
the  other  red.  Id. 

Ye  darksome  pines,  that  o'er  yon  rocks  reclined. 
Wave  hi^h.  and  murmur  to  the  hollow  wind.  Fope. 
Till  a'  the  seas  gang  dry  my  dear, 
And  the  rocks  melt  wi'  the  sun  : 
I  will  luve  thee  stUl.  my  dear. 
While  the  sands  o'  life  shall  run.  Btams. 

Rock,  n.  t.    Goth,  and  Swed.  rock ;  Ital.  roe- 
ca  ;  Span,  rucca.    A  distaff  from  which  wool  is 
spun ;  a  roll  of  flax  or  wool. 
A  learned  and  a  manly  soul 
I  purposed  her ;  that  should  with  even  powers. 
The  rock,  the  spindle,  and  the  sheers  controul 
Of  destiny,  ana  spin  her  own  free  hours. 

Ben  Jenson. 


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On  th^  nek  a  tf^giy  measum  pJace 
Of  vital  flax,  and  turn  the  wheel  apace.  Dryim. 
Flow  from  the  rock,  my  flax,  and  swiftly  flow, 
I'ursue  thy  thread,  the  spindle  runs  below.  ParneL 
Rock,  v.  a.      J     VT,rocquer;'DQn.rokke,  To 
RocKf:R,n.s.  i shake;  agitate;  to  move  back- 
wards and  forwards ;  lull  by  rocking ;  be  agi- 
tated ;  reel  to  and  fro :  the  noun  substantive  cor- 
responding.     • 

Come,  take  hand  with  me. 
And  rock  the  ground  whereon  thtM  sleepen  be. 

Shakfp0ar€» 
Sleep  rock  thy  brain. 
And  never  come  mischance  between  us  twain.    Id, 
Leaning  her  head  upon  my  breast, 
My  panting  heart  rocked  her  asleep.   SuckHng, 
My  bloody  lesolutiona, 
Like  sick  and  froward  children. 
Were  rocked  asleep  l^  reason.         Denham. 
If,  by  a  quicker  rocking  of  the  engine,  the  smoke 
were  more  swiftly  shaken,  it  would,  like  water,  vi- 
brate to  and  fro.  Boyle, 

The  wind  was  laid ;  the  whispering  sound 
Was  dumb ;  a  rising  earthquake  rocked  the  ground. 

Jbiydffi. 
His  fellow,  who  the  narrow  bed  had  kept. 
Was  weary,  and  without  a  rocker  slept.  U^ 

While  his  secret  soul  on  Flanders  preys. 
He  rocks  the  cradle  of  the  babe  of  Spain.         td. 
A  living  tortoise,  being  turned  upon  its  back,  could 
help  itself  only  bv  its  neck  and  head,  by  pushing 
against  the  ground  to  roek  itself  as  in  a  cradle,  to 
find  out  the  side  towards  which  the  inequality  of  the 
ground  might  more  easily  permit  to  roll  its  shell. 
Ray  on  the  Creation. 
The  rocking  town 
Supplants  their  footsteps ;  to  and  fro  they  reel 
Astoniithed.  PkUipt. 

like  this  rocking  of  the  battlements.        Y(ntnjf* 
Ae  night  the  storm  the  steeples  rocked, 
Poor  labour  sweet  in  sleep  was  locked. 
While  bums,  wi'  snawv  wreeths  up-choked. 

Wild  eddying  swirl. 
Or  through  the  mining  outlet  bockcd, 

Down  headlong  hurl.  Burnt* 

Rock  Basivs  are  cavities  or  artificial  basins 
of  different  sizes,  from  six  feet  to  a  few  inches 
diameter,  cut  in  the  surface  of  the  rocks  for  the 
purpose,  as  is  supposed,  of  collecting  the  dew 
and  rain  pure  as  it  descended  from  the  heavens, 
for  the  use  of  ablutions  and  purifications,  pre- 
scribed in  the  Druidical  religion ;  these,  espe- 
cially the  dew,  being  deemed  the  purest  of  all 
fluids.  There  are  two  sorts  of  these  basins,  one 
with  lips  or  communications  between  the  difierent 
basins,  the  other  simple  cavities.  The  lips  are 
as  low  as  the  bottom  of  the  basins,  which  are 
horizontal,  and  communicate  witb  one  somewhat 
lower,  so  contrived  that  the  contents  fell  by  a 
gradual  descent  through  a  succession  of  basins 
either  to  the  ground,  or  into  a  vessel  set  to  re- 
ceive it.  The  basins  without  lips  might  be  in- 
tended for  reservoirs  to  preserve  the  rain  or  dew 
in  its  original  purity  witliout  touching  any  other 
vessel,  which  was  perhaps  used  for  the  Druid  to 
drink,  or  wash  his  hands,  previous  to  officiating 
at  any  high  ceremony.  Some  of  those  basins 
are  so  formed  as  to  receive  the  head  and  part  of 
the  human  body ;  one  of  this  kind  is  found  on 
a  rock  called  king  Arthur's  bed,  in  the  parish  of 
North  Hall  in  Cornwall,  where  are  also  others, 


called  by  the  couptry  people  Arthur's  troagba^ 
in  whidi  they  say  he  used  to  feed  his  dogs^ 

Rock  Crystal.    See  Crystal. 

R^K  Salt.    See  Salt. 

ROCK'£T,  n.s.     Ital.  rocckUto.     An  arti- 
ficial  firework.    See  Pyrotech^y,  and  below. 

When  bonfires  blaze,  your  vagrant  works  shall  rise 
In  rockets,  till  they  reach  the  wondering  akies. 

Garth, 

Every  rochet  ended  in  a  constellation^  stiowingthe 
air  with  a  shower  of  silver  spangles.  Addiaon, 

Rock'et,  n.  s.    Lat.  eruca.    A  plant,  of  a  pe- 
culiarly fetid  smell. 

Rocket  is  one  of  the  sallet  furniture.  Mortimer, 
Rockets,  Sir  William  Congreve's,  are  a 
modern  species  of  war  rockets,  called  after  the 
name  of  tlieir  inventor.  They  differ  of  course 
from  the  common  rocket,  as  well  in  their  magni- 
tude and  construction  as  in  the  powerful  natuie 
of  their  composition ;  which  is  such,  that  with- 
out the  incumbrance  of  any  ordnance  (the  rocket 
itself  containing  the  propelling  power)  balls, 
shells,  case-shot^  and  carcasses,  may  be  projected 
to  the  distance  of  from  1000  to  3000  yards, 
which  renders  them  a  most  efficacious  species  of 
artillery. 

They  are  of  various  dimensions,  as  well  in 
length  as  in  calibre^  and  are  differently  armed 
according  as  they  are  intended  for  the  field,  or 
for  bombardment ;  carrying,  in  the  first  instasce, 
either  shells  or  case  shot,  which  may  be  exploded 
at  any  part  of  their  flight,  spreading  death  and 
destruction  amongst  the  columns  of  the  enemy ; 
and  in  the  second,  where  they  are  intended  for  die 
destruction  of  building,  shipping,  stores,  &c.,they 
are  armed  with  a  peculiar  spiecies  of  oomposition, 
Mrhich  never  fails  of  destroying  every  combustible 
material  with  which  it  comes  in  contact  The 
latter,  called  carcass-rockets,  were  first  used  at 
Boulogne,  their  powers  having  been  previously 
demonstrated  in  some  experiments  made  at 
Woolwich  by  Sir  William  Congreve  in  the  pre- 
sence of  Mr.  Pitt  and  several  of  the  cabinet 
minsters.  Sir  Sidney  Smith  was  ordered  to 
command  the  expedition  intended  for  this  par- 
pose;  but  from  the  lateness  of  the  season,  it 
being  near  the  end  of  November  before  the  pre- 
parations were  completed,  nothing  was  done  that 
year.  In  1806  Sir  William  renewed  his  propo- 
sition for  the  attadc  of  Boulogne  by  rocket^ 
which  was  ordered  to  be  put  in  execution  wSba 
lord  Moira,  at  that  time  master-general  of  the 
ordnance,  and  lord  Howick,  first  lord  of  the  ad- 
miralty, had  satisfied  themselves  of  the  efficacious 
nature  of  the  weapon.  The  zttaxk  was  aocord^ 
ingly  made  under  the  command  of  commodore 
Owen,  late  in  October  1806;  having  been  pot 
off' during  the  summer  months  in  consequence  of 
the  negociations  for  peace.  The  tovm  was  set 
on  fire  hy  the  first  discharge,  and  continued 
burning  for  nearlr  two  days :  it  was  snpposed, 
also,  that  some  shipping  were  desuoyed,  but  t|ie 
greater  part  of  the  rockets  certainly  went  over 
the  basin  into  the  town.  Carcass-rockets  have 
since  been  used  in  various  expeditions  under  die 
immediate  inspection  of  their  inventor. 

After  the  siege  of  Copenhagen  they  were 
ordered  by  lord  Chatham,  the  master-general  of 
the  ordnance,  to  be  reported  upon  by  a  commit- 


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tee  of  field-officers  of  aftiUetry  ^o  had  witnessed 
their  effect  in  that  bombardment^  and  who  pro- 
nounced them  to  be  '  a  powerful  auxilinry  to  the 
present  system  of  artillery.'  Indeed  the  powers 
of  this  weapon  are  now  established  upon  tne  best 
of  all  testimonies,  that  of  the  enemy ;  a  striking 
instanee  of  which  oceurred  at  the  siege  of  Flush- 
ing, where  generic  Monnet,  the  French  com- 
mandant, made  a  iormaJi  remonstianoe  to  lord 
Chatham  respecting  the  use  of  them  ih  that 
bombardment. 

It  is  not,  however,  in  bombardment  cmly  that 
thb  species  of  artillery  may  be  advantageously 
employed ;  their  powers  in  die  field  having  been 
demonstrated  to  be  equally  irresistible^  The 
crown  prince  of  Sweden  was  the  first  general 
who  bore  testimony  to  their  effects  in  this  ser- 
vice ;  a  small  corps  of  rocketeers,  under  the  com- 
mand of  captain  Bogue  of  the  British. artillei^, 
having  been  attached  to  a  division  of  the  allied 
armies,  which,  in  the  ever  memorable  battle  of 
Leipsic,  gloriously  maintained  the  honor  of  the 
British  arms.  They  were  afterwards  employed 
with  great  effect  when  the  British  army,  under 
the  command  of  the  dnke  of  Wellington,  crossed 
the  Adour.  In  consequence  his  royal  highness 
the  prince  regent  commanded  the  formation  of  a 
rocket  corps,  which  took  place  on  the  Ist  of 
January  1814,  by  augmentation  to  th6  regiment 
of  royal  artilleiy* 

The  form  of  all  the  difibrent  kinds  of  these 
rockets  is  cylindrical^  and  they  are  composed  of 
stronff  metidlic  cases,  armed^  as  we  have  before 
stated,  either  with  carcass  composition  for  bom- 
bardment and  conflagration^  or  with  shells  and 
case-shot  for  field  service.  They  are^  however, 
of  various  weights  atid  dimensions,  from  the 
eight-inch  carcass,  or  explosion  rocket,  weighing 
nearly  3  cwt.,  to  the  six  pound  shell-rocket,  whicn 
is  the  smallest  size  used  in  the  field.  The  sticks 
which  are  employed  for  regulating  their  flight 
are  also  of  different  lengths,  according  to  the 
size  and  service  of  the  rocket ;  and  which,  for 
the  convenience  of  carriage,  are  stowed  apart 
from  the  rocket,  and  so  contrived  as  to  consist 
of  two  or  more  parts,  which  are  connected  to  it, 
and  to  each  other,  when  requisite,  with  the  ut- 
most expedition. 

The  ammunition  is  divided  into  three  classes, 
heavy,  medium,  and  light;  the  former  including 
all  those  of  above  forty-two  pounds,  which  are 
denominated  according  to  their  calibre,  as  eight- 
inch,  seven-inch,  six-inch,  &c.,  rockets ;  the  me- 
dium include  all  those  from  forty-two  pound  to 
twenty-four  pound  rocket;  and  the  light  from 
the  eighteeii-pounder  to  the  sik-pounder  inclu- 
sive. The  carcass-rockets  aro  armed  with  strong 
iron  conical  heads,  containing  a  composition  as 
hard  and  solid  as  iron  itself,  imd  wbich,  when 
once  inflamed,  bids  defiance  to  any  human  effort 
to  extinguish  it ;  and  consequently  involves,  in 
an  inextinguishable  flame,  every  combustible  ma- 
terial with  which  it  comes  in  contact.  The 
forty-two-pounder  and  thirty-two-pounder  car- 
cass-rockets are  those  which  have  hitherto  been 
chiefly  employed  in  bombardments :  the  pene- 
tration of  tlie  thirty-two  pound  carcass-rocket  in 
common  ground  is  nine  feet ;  and  in  some 
instances  where  they  have  been  employed,  they 


have  been  known  to  pierce  tkorougli  several  floers^ 
and  through  the  sides  of  houses  s  this  is  tte 
smallest  rocket  used  in  bombardment,  and  the 
largest  employed  in  the  field ;  the  more  usual 
size  for  the  latter  service  being  the  twenty-four^ 
eighteen,  twelve,  and  six-pounders.  Tlie  ranges 
of  the  eigbl-inch,  seven-inch,  and  six-ineh  rock- 
ets are  from  a00(Mo  2500  yards ;  and  the  quan- 
tity of  combustible  matter,  or  bursting  powder^ 
from  twenty-five  pounds  to  fifty  pounds ;  and 
fh>m  their  weight,  combined  vrith  fess  diameter^ 
they  possess  a  greater  power  of  penetration  than 
the  heaviest  shells,  and  are  therefore  equally  effi- 
cient for  the  destruction  of  bomb^proofe,  or  the 
demolition  of  strong  buildings;  so  that  the  faci- 
lity of  application,  en  whidi  the  inventor  ha» 
hitherto  rested  the  merit  of  the  rocket  system,  is 
not  its  only  excelienc&;  for  it  thus  appears  that 
it  actually  will  propel  heavier  masses  than  cah 
be  done  by  any  other  means^  that  is  to  say, 
masses,  to  project  which  it  would  scarcely  be 
possible  to  cast,  much  less  to  transport  mortars 
of  sufficient  magnitude.  The  largest  rocket  thai 
has  yet  been  constructed  has  not,  we  believe,  ex- 
ceeded 3  cwt. ;  but  Sir  William  Congreve  Imd 
in  contemplation  others  of  much  superior  mag- 
nitude, weighing  from  half  a  ton  to  a  ton  weight, 
which,  being  driven  in  Tery  strong  cast-iron 
cases,  may  poetess  such  force  that,  when  fired 
along  trenches  cut  to  the  foot  of  the  glacis,  firom 
the  nearest  point  of  the  third  parallel,  against  the 
revetement  of  any  fortress,  even  unimpaired  by  a 
cannonade,  it  shall,  by  its  mass  and  form,  pierce 
the  same;  and,  having  pierced  it,  shall  with  one 
^plosion  of  several  btrrels  of  gunpowder,  with 
which  it  is  loaded,  blow  such  poriion  of  the 
masonry  into  the  ditch,  as  may,  with  very  few 
rounds,  complete  a  pmcticable  breach. 

The  forty-two  and  thirty^wo  ponnden  are 
thoee>  as  we  have  before  stated^  which  have 
hitherto  been  principally  used  in  bombardment, 
and  which,  for  the  general  purposes  of  ^at  ser- 
vice, are  found  quite  sufficient,  as  thev  vrill  con- 
vey from  seven  pounds  to  ten  pounds  of  oom- 
bustible  matter  each,  and  have  a  range  of  upwards 
of  3000  yards.  The  thirty-two  pounder  rocket 
may  be  considered  as  the  medium  rocket,  being 
the  smallest  used  in  bombardment  as  a  carcass 
or  explosion  rocket,  and  the  largest  used  with 
shot  or  shell  in  the  field ;  but  as  the  twenty-four 
pouiider  is  very  nearly  equal  to  it  in  all  its  ap- 
plications in  the  latter  service,  being  quite  equal 
to  the  propelling  of  the  Cohom  shelly  or  twelve 
pounder  shot,  it  is,  from  the  saving  in  weiffht, 
generally  preferred  to  the  thirty-two-pounder. 
The  eighteen-^pounder,  which  b  tlie  first  of  the 
light  nature  of  rockets,  is  armed  with  a  nine- 
[tound  shot  or  shell ;  the  twelve-pounder  with  a 
six-pound  ditto ;  the  nine-pounaer  with  a  gre- 
nade ;  and  the  six-pounder  with  a  three-pound 
shot  or  shell.  From  the  twenty-four-pounder  to 
the  nine-pounder  rocket,  inclusive,  a  description 
of  case-shot  rocket  is  formed  of  each  nature, 
armed  with  a  quantity  of  musket  or  carbine  balls^ 
put  into  the  top  of  the  cylinder  of  the  rocket. 

The  rocket  Ughi  ball,  invented  by  Sir  WiUiam 
Congreve,  is  a  species  of  light  ball  thrown  into 
the  air  by  means  of  one  of  his  rockets ;  where, 
having  reached  the  summit  of  the  rocket's  ascent. 


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it  is  detached  from  it  by  an  explosion^  and  re- 
mains suspended  in  the  airbja  small  parachute, 
to  which  it  is  connected  by  a  chain.  A  perma- 
nent and  brilliant  light  is  thus  obtained,  and 
suspended  in  the  air  for  five  minutes  at  least,  so 
as  to  afford  time  and  light  sufficient  to  obserFc 
the  motions' of  an  enemy  either  on  shore  or  at 
sea ;  where  it  is  particularly  useful  in  chasing, 
or  for  giving  distant  and  more  extensiTe  night 
signab.  It  is  to  be  observed  that  nothing  of  this 
kind  can  be  obtained  by  the  projectile  force  of 
either  guns  or  mortars,  because  the  explosion  in- 
fidlibly  destroys  any  construction  that  could  be 
made  to  produce  the  suspension  in  the  air. 

Tkefioatin^  rocket  carcass  u  another  of  the  in- 
ventor's applications  of  his  rocket,  and  of  the 
parachute,  for  the  purpose  of  conv^ing  com- 
bustible matter  to  distances  far  beyond  the  range 
of  any  known  projectile  force ;  at  the  same  time 
that  it  is  cheap,  simple,  and  portable.  Like  the 
light  ball  it  is  thrown  into  the  air  attached  to  a 
rocket,  from  which  being  liberated  at  its  greatest 
altitude,  and  suspended  to  a  small  parachute,  it 
is  driven  forward  by  the  vnnd,  and  will,  in  a 
moderate  breeze,  afford  ranges  at  least  double 
those  of  the  common  carcass;  and  may,  there- 
fore, for  naval  purposes,  from  a  blockading  squa- 
dron, be  thrown  in  great  quantities,  by  a  fi&ir 
wind,  against  any  fleet  or  arsenal,  without  the 
smallest  risk,  or  without  approaching  within 
range  either  of  guns  or  mortars.  Thus,  in  a 
blockade,  a  fow  years  back,  of  the  Russian  fleet 
at  Baltic  Fort,  it  might  have  been  continually 
used,  at  all  events,  wim  great  prospect  of  success, 
and  certainly  where  no  other  means  of  annoy- 
ance could  be  applied.  The  rocket  containing 
this  carcass  is  not  larger  than  the  thirty-two 
pounder  carcass-rocket ;  and  the  whole  expense, 
added  to  the  rocket,  does  not  exceed  five  shil- 
lings ;  nor  are  the  approaches  of  the  carcass  itself 
necessarily  visible  oy  night,  as  it  may  be  so  ar- 
ranged as  not  to  inflame  till  some  time  after  it 
has  settled.  It  is  evidently,  therefore,  capable  of 
becoming  a  very  harassing  weapon,  with  a  great 
chance  of  doing  as  much  miscnief  as  any  other 
carcass  amongst  large  fleets  and  flotillas,  by 
lodging  unperceived  in  the  rigging,  or  lighting  on 
extensive  arsenals,  m  situations  where  no  other 
means  of  annoyance  whatever  exists. 

ROCKINGHAM,  a  market  town  of  Nor- 
thamptonshire, eighty-three  miles  from  London, 
situated  on  the  river  Welland.  It  has  a  charity 
school,  a  market  on  Thursday,  and  a  fair  on  Sep- 
tember 8th,  for  five  days.  William  the  Con- 
queror erected  a  castle  here,  which  was  garrisoned 
by  Sir  Lewis  Watson,  for  king  Charles  I.,  who 
was  created  in  1644,  baron  Rockingham.  Its 
forest  was  reckoned  one  of  the  largest  and 
richest  in  the  kingdom ;  it  extended  in  the  time 
of  the  ancient  Britons  almost  from  the  Welland 
to  the  Nen,  and  was  noted  formerly  for  iron 
works,  great  quantities  of  flags,  i.  e.  the  refuse 
of  the  iron  ore,  being  met  with  in  the  adjacent 
fields.  It  extended,  according  to  a  survey  in 
1641,  nearly  fourteen  miles  in  length,  from  the 
west  end  of  Middleton  Woods  to  the  town  of 
Wandsford,  and  five  miles  in  breadth,  from  Brig- 
stock  to  the  Welland ;  but  is  now  dismembered 
into  parcels,  by  the  interposition  of  fields  and 


towns,  and  is  divided  into  three  bailiwics.  In 
several  of  its  woods  a  quantity  of  charcoal  is 
made  of  the  tops  of  trees.    Market  on  Thursday. 

RocKiKOHAM,  a  township  of  the  Unit«l 
States,  on  the  Connecticut,  Windham  county, 
Vermont. 

Rockingham,  a  county  of  the  United  States, 
in  the  south-east  part  of  New  Hampshire, 
bounded  north-east  by  Strafford  county,  east  by 
the  Atlantic,  south  by  Massachusetts,  and  west 
by  Hillsborough  county.  Chief  towns,  Ports- 
mouth, Exeter,  and  Concord. 

Rockingham,  a  county  of  the  central  part  of 
Virginia,  bounded  north-€ast  by  Hardy  and  She- 
nandoah counties,  south-east  by  Orange  and 
Albemarle  counties,  south-west  by  Augusta 
county,  and  W.  N.  W.  by  Pendleton  county. 
Also  a  county  of  the  United  States,  on  the  north 
side  of  North  Carolina.  It  lies  west  of  Caswd 
county,  and  is  watered  by  the  Dan.  There  is  a 
mineral  spring  in  this  county,  which  is  much  re- 
sorted to. 

Rocky  Mountains,  or  Stont  Mountains, 
a  long  and  broad  range  of  mountains  of  North 
America.  Long.  112°  W.  Thej  divide  the 
waters  which  flow  east  into  the  Missouri  and 
Mississiopi,  from  those  which  flow  west  into  the 
Pacific  Ocean. 

RocKT  RivEB,  a  river  of  Ohio,  which  runs 
into  lake  Erie,  nine  miles  west  of  the  Cuyahoga. 

Rocky,  or  Rock  Riveb,  or  Roche,  a  river 
which  rises  in  the  north-west  territory,  runs 
through  the  north-west  part  of  the  Illinois  terri- 
tory, and  flows  into  the  Mississipi,  160  miles 
above  the  Illinois.    Length  about  200  miles. 

ROD,  n.  s.  Belg.  rSsde.  A  long  twig  or 
pole;  any  thing  long  and  slender;  a  sceptre; 
an  instrument  of  measurement,  or  of  conectioo. 

If  he  be  but  once  so  taken  idly  roguing,  he  may 

{ranisb  him  with  stocks ;  but  if  he  be  found  again  so 
oitecing,  he  may  scourge  him  with  whips  or  rods. 
Sptnstr  Mi  iniUnd* 
She  had  all  the  roval  makings  of  a  quean ; 
As  holy  oil,  Edwara  Confessor's  crowUp 
The  rod  and  bird  of  peace. 

Skakspm.  Henry  ¥111. 
I  am  whipt  and  scourged  with  ttds. 
Nettled,  and  stung  with  pismires,  when  I  bear 
Of  Boliogbroke.  Id.  Henry  IV. 

In  tlus  condition  the  red  of  God  hath  a  voice  to 
be  heard,  and  he,  whose  office  it  is,  oaght  now  to 
expound  to  the  sck  man  the  particidar  meaning  of 
the  voice.  Hammaad. 

Grant  me  and  my  people  the  benefit  of  thy  chas- 
tisements ;  that  thy  rod,  as  well  as  thy  staff,  may 
comfort  us.  £n^  OiaHet. 

The  past'ral  reed  of  Hermes,  or  his  opiate  iW. 


Some  chnae  a  hasel  rwl  of  the  same  year's  shool^ 
and  this  they  bind  on  to  another  straight  stick  of 
any  wood,  and,  walking  softly  over  those  places 
where  they  suspect  the  bowels  of  the  earth  to  be  en- 
riched by  metals,  the  wand  will,  by  bowing  towards 
it,  discover  it.  BoyU. 

They  trembling  learn  to  throw  the  fatal  dart, 
Aqd  under  rodt  of  rough  centurions  smart.  Drydm, 
Let  the  fishennan 
Increase  hb  tackle,  and  his  rod  retie.        Geif. 

As  soon  as  that  sentence  is  executed,  these  nds, 
these  instruments  of  divine  displeasnie,  are  thrown 
into  the  fire.  Attm^mrg^ 


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Decempeda  was  a  measuring  rod  for  taking  the 
*  dimensioQs  of  buildings,  and  signified  the  same  thing 
as  peitica,  taken  as  a  measure  of  length.  Arhuthnat, 
Haste,  ye  Cyclops,  with  your  forked  rods. 

This  rebel  love  braves  all  the  gods. 

And  every  hour  by  love  is  made 

Some  heaven-defying  Encelade.  Granmtte. 

A  wit's  a  feather,  and  a  chief  a  fW; 
An  honest  man's  the  noblest  work  of  God.      Pop^. 

O  gentle  sleep,  1  cried. 
Why  is  thy  gift  to  me  alone  dienied  1 
Mildest  of  beings,  friend  to  every  clime. 
Where  lies  my  error,  what  has  been  my  crime? 
Beasts,  birds,  and  cattle,  feel  thy  balmy  rod ; 
The  drowsy,  mountains  wave,  and  seem  to  nod : 
The  torrents  cease  to  chide,^  the  seas  to  roar. 
And  the  hushed  waves  recline  upon  the  shore. 

Harte. 

RODNEY  (Geoige  Brydges,  lord  Rodney), 
was  bom  in  1718.  His  &ther  was  a  naval 
officer,  commanding,  at  the  time  of  his  son's 
birth,  the  yacht  in  which  the  king,  attended  bj 
the  duke  of  Chandos,  used  to  pass  to  or  frotn 
Hanover,  and  he  asked  and  obtained  leave  to 
call  his  infant  son  George  Brydges.  The  royal 
and  noble  god-fathers  advised  captain  Rodney 
to  educate  his  boy  for  his  own  profession,  pro- 
mising to  promote  him  as  rapidly  as  the  merit  he 
should  display,  and  the  regulations  of  the 
navy,  woula  permit.  In  1751,  accordingly,  we 
find  him  in  the  rank  of  a  commodore,  sent  out 
to  make  accurate  discoveries  respecting  an 
island  which  was  supposed  to  lie  about  50°  N. 
lat.,  and  about  300  leagues  west  of  England ; 
but  he  returned  without  having  seen  any  such 
island.  In  the  war  which  soon  followed  this  voyage 
of  discovery,  he  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  a 
rear-admiral,  and  was  employed*  to  bombard 
Havre  de  Grace;  which  in  1759  and  1760  he 
considerably  damaged,  together  with  the  ship- 
^inff.  In  1761  he  was  sent  on  an  expedition 
against  Martinico,  which  was  reduced  in  the  be- 
ginning of  1762,  and  about  the  same  time  St. 
Lucia  surrendered  to  captain  Harvey.  In  reward 
for  his  services,  he  vras  created  K.  B. ;  but,  in  con- 
sequence of  extravagance,  his  circumstances  be- 
came so  embarrassed  that  he  vras  obliged  to  fly 
from  his  country.  He  was  in  France  when  that 
court  took  a  decided  part  with  America  against 
Great  Britain ;  and  the  king  of  Frapce  through 
the  duke  de  Biron  offered  him  a  high  command 
in  the  French  navy,  if  he  would  carry  arms 
against  his  own  country;  an  offer  which  he  re- 
jected with  indignation.  When  the  divisions 
which  the  mutual  recriminations  of  admiral 
Keppei  and  Sir  Hugh  Palliser  excited  in  t]}e 
British  navy  made  it  difficult  for  the  ministry  to 
procure  experienced  and  popular  commanders 
tor  their  fleets,  lord  Sandwich  offered  him  the 
chief  command  off  the  Leeward  Isles,  and  he 
hoisted  his  flag,  December  1779,  on  board  the 
Sandwich.  His  first  exploit  was  in  January 
1780,  when  he  took  nineteen  Spanish  transports 
bound  to  Cadiz  from  Bilboa,  with  a  sixtv-four 
gun  ship  and  five  frigates.  On  the  16th  of  Jan- 
uary he  fell  in  with  the  Spanish  fleet,  consisting 
of  eleven  sail  of  the  line,  under  don  John  de 
Langara ;  of  which  one  was  blown  up  during 
the  engagement,  five  were  taken  and  carried  into 
Gibraltar,  among  which  was  the  admiral's  ship ; 


and  the  rest  were  much  shattered.  In  April, 
1780,  he  fell  in  witli  the  French  fleet,  under  ad- 
miral Guichen,  at  Martinico,  whom  he  engaged ; 
though  from  the  shattered  state  of  his  own  fleet, 
and  the  unwillingness  of  the  enemy  to  risk 
another  action,  he  took  none  of  their  ships. 
His  successful  efforts  during  1780  were  gene- 
rally applauded.  He  received  the  thanks  of 
both  houses  of  parliament,  and  addresses  of 
thanks  from  various  parts  of  Great  Britain,  and 
from  the  islands  to  which  his  victories  were  more 
particularly  serviceable.  In  1781  he  continued 
Lis  exertions,  with  much  success,  in  defending 
the  West  India  Islands ;  and,  along  with  general 
Vaoghan,  he  conquered  St.  Eustatius.  On  the 
12th  of  April,  1782,  he  came  to  a  close  action 
with  the  French  fleet  under  count  de  Grasse ; 
during  which  he  sunk  one  ship,  and  took  five, 
of  which  the  admiral's  ship,  the  Viile  de  Paris, 
was  one.  Peace  was  made  in  1782 ;  but,  as  a 
reward  for  his  numerous  services,  he  received  a 
pension  of  £2000  a-year  for  himself  and  his  two 
successors.  He  had  long  before  been  created  a 
baronet,  and  was  justly  promoted  to  the  peerage, 
by  the  title  of  baron  Rodney  of  Stoke,  Somer- 
setshire, and  made  vice-admiral  of  Great  Bri- 
tain. Lord  Rodney  had  been  twice  married; 
first  to  the  sister  of  the  earl  of  Northampton ; 
and  secondly,  to  the  daughter  of  John  Clies, 
esq.  with  whom  he  did  not  reside  for  several 
years  before  his  death,  which  happened  on  the  24tb 
of  May,  1792.  In  1783  the  house  of  Assembly, 
in  Jamaica,  voted  £1000  towards  erecting  a 
marble  statue  to  him,  as  a  mark  of  their  grati- 
tude and  veneration  for  his  gallant  services. 

RODOMONTA'DE,  n.  t,  Fr.  rodomontade. 
From  a  boastful  boisterous  hero  of  Ariosto, 
called  Rodomonte.  An  empty  noisy  bluster  or 
boast:  a  rant. 

The  libertines  of  painting  have  no  other  model  but 
a  rodomtmiadi  genius,  and  very  irregular,  which 
violently  hurries  them  ^yny.    Dryden't  Dufrettuni, 

He  talks  extnvaeantly  in  his  passion,  out,  if  I 
would  quote  a  hundred  passages  in  Ben  Jonson's 
Cethegus,  I  could  shew  that  the  rodomontadea  of  Al- 
manzor  are  neither  so  irrational  nor  impossible,  for 
Cethegus  threatens  to  destroy  nature.  Dryden, 

He  only  serves  to  be  sport  for  his  company ;  for  in 
these  gamesome  days  men  will  give  him  hints,  which 
may  put  him  upon  his  rodomontades. 

Oovomment  of  the  Tongve. 

ROE,  fi.s.  Sax.  fia,  fia-t>eop ;  Goth,  and  Swed. 
ra.    A  species  of  deer. 
They  were  as  swift  as  the  roes  upon  the  mountains. 

1  ChronUUs, 
Run  like  a  roe  or  hart  upon 
The  lofty  hills  of  Bitheron.  Samdyt. 

He  would  him  make 
The  roe  bucks  in  their  Qight  to  overtake.      Spenser. 
Thy  greyhounds  are  fleeter  than  the  roe, 

Shakepeare, 
Procure  me  a  Troelodyte  footman,  who  can  catch 
a  roe  at  his  fiill  speed.  Arfmthnot  and  Pope, 

Roe,  n.  s.  Properly  roan  or  rone ;  Dan.  roim, 
rawn  ;  Teut.  rogen.    The  eggs  of  fish. 
Here  comes  Bomeo 
Without  his  roe,  like  a  dried  herring.  ShaJkspeare. 

Roe,  the  seed  or  spawn  of  fish.  That  of  tlie 
male  fishes  is  usually  distinguished  by  the  name 


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ROE 


638 


ROE 


cf  soft  roe,  or  milt ;  and  tfnt  of  tha  female,  hard 
roe,  or  ipawn.  So  inconceivably  numerous  are 
tbete  ovula,  or  small  eggs,  that  M.  Petit  found 
342,144  of  them  in  a  carp  of  eighteen  inches; 
but  M.  Leuwenhoeck  found  in  a  carp  no  more 
than  211,629.  This  last  gentlemen  observes 
diat  there  are  four  times  this  number  in  a  cod  i 
and  that  a  common  one  contains  9,344,000  eggs. 

Roe,  in  soology.    See  Cervus. 

Rob  (sir  Thomas),  an  able  statesman  and  am- 
banador,  bom  at  Low  Leyton,  in  Rssex,  about 
1580.  He  was  admitted  into  Magdalen  Col- 
lege, Oxford,  in  1593.  After  studying  at  the 
inns  of  court,  and  trevelling  to  France,  he  was 
made  esquire  to  queen  Elizabeth.  In  1604  he 
was  knighted  by  king  James  I.  and  soon  after 
sent  to  make  discoveries  in  America.  In  1614 
he  was  sent  ambassador  to  the  great  mogul,  at 
whose  court  he  continued  four  years.  In  1620  he 
was  chosen  M.  P.  for  Cirencester,  and  in  1621 
sent  ambassador  to  the  mud  signior :  in  which 
post  he  continued  under  Osman,  Mustapha  I., 
and  Amurath  IV.  Of  the  transactions  there  he 
sent  a  true  and  (hithfiil  relation  to  the  king  and 
pnnce  Henry ;  which  was  printed  at  London  in 
1622,  in  4to.  He  also  wrote  a  curious  account 
of  his  transactions  at  the  Porte,  which  remained 
in  MS.  till  1740;  when  it  was  published  under 
the  title  of  the  Negociations  of  sir  Thomas  Roe, 
in  his  Embassy  to  Sie  Ottoman  Porte;  from  1621 
to  1628,  in  folio.  He  also  made  a  latge  collec- 
tion of  Greek  and  oriental  MSS.  which  he  pre- 
sented to  the  Bodleian  Library.  He  brought  over 
the  fine  Alexandrian  MS.  of  the  Greek  Bible,  as  a 
present  to  Charles  I.  from  Cyril,  patriarch  of 
Constantinople ;  since  transcribed  and  published 
by  Dr.  Grabe.  In  1620  he  was  sent  to  mediate 
a  peace  between  the  kings  of  Poland  and  Swe- 
den. This  he  effected,  and  acquired  such  credit 
vrith  Gttstavus  Adolphus,  that,  after  the  victory 
of  Leipoic,  the  kipg  sent  him  a  present  of  £2000. 
In  1640  he  was  chosen  M.  P.  for  the  university 
of  Oxford.  In  1641  he  was  sent  ambassador  to 
Ratisbon ;  and  on  his  return  was  made  chancellor 
of  the  garter,  and  a  privy-counsellor.  He  died 
in  November  1644. 

ROEBUCK  (John),  M.D.,  was  born  at 
Sheffield  in  Yorkshire,  in  the  year  1718.  After 
the  usual  course  of  the  grammar  school  at  Shef- 
field, his  parents  being  dissenters,  they  placed 
their  son  under  the  tuition  of  Dr.  Dodaridge, 
then  master  of  an  acadera]^  at  Northampton.  He 
was  next  sent  to  the  university  of  Edinburgh, 
where  he  studied  medicine  and  chemistry ;  and 
he  afterwards  spent  some  time  at  the  university 
of  Leyden ;  at  which  last  place  he  obtained  a 
degree  in  medicine,  in  1743.  He  left  Leyden, 
after  having  visited  some  parts  of  the  north  of 
Germany  about  the  end  of  1744.  Soon  after 
his  return,  he  settled  as  a  physician  at  Birming- 
ham, where  he  met  with  great  encouragement. 
Strongly  attached  to  chemistry,  he  fitted  up  a 
small  laboratory  in  his  own  house,  in  which  he 
spent  every  spare  moment  of  his  time.  His  first 
discoveries  were  certain  improved  methods  of 
refining  gold  and  silver,  and  particularly  an  in- 
genious mode  of  collecting  the  smaller  particles 
of  these  precious  metals,  which  had  been  for- 
merly lost  in  the  practical  operations  of  many  of 


the  mannfiietures.    By  other  chemical  processes, 

carried  on  about  tne  same  time  in  his  httle  labo- 
ratory, he  discovered  also  improved  methods  of 
making  sublimate,  hartshorn,  and  sundry  other 
articles  of  equal  importance.  In  order  to  render 
these  employments  useful  to  himself  and  the  pub- 
lic, he  chose  his  associate  Mr.  Samnd  Gartiet  of 
Birmingham.  They  erected  an  exteniive  labo- 
ratory at  Birmingham,  for  the  purposes  above 
mentioned ;  which  was  psoductive  of  many  ad- 
vantages to  the  manufactures  of  that  place,  and 
of  much  emolument  to  themselves.  In  1747 
the  doctor  married  Miss  Ann  Roe  of  Sheffield. 
In  1749  Messrs.  Roebuck  and  Garbet  established 
a  manufacture  of  oil  of  vitriol  at  Prestonpans : 
and,  by  conducting  their  operations  with  secrecy, 
tliey  were  enabled  to  preserve  the  advantages  of 
their  ingenuity  and  industry  for  a  long  period  of 
years ;  and  not  only  served  the  public  at  a  mndi 
cheaper  rate  than  had  ever  been  done  formerly, 
but  realised  in  that  manufacture  a  greater  annual 
profit  from  a  smaller  capital  than  had  been  done 
m  any  similar  undertaking.  Dr.  Roebuck  next 
projected  the  establishment  of  cast  iron  works  on 
an  extensive  and  improved  plan ;  and  under  his 
direction,  with  the  assistance  of  Mr.  Smeaton, 
and  Mr.  James  Watt,  the  magnificent  works  at 
Carron  were  finished  in  the  end  of  1759.  For  some 
time  after  the  establishment  of  the  Carron  works 
Dr.  Roebuck  continued  to  give  his  attention  and 
assistance  in  the  general  management  and  super- 
intendance  of  them ;  but,.when  the  business  sunk 
by  degrees  into  a  matter  of  ordinary  detail,  he 
was  unfortunately  induced  to  become  lessee  of 
the  duke  of  Hamilton's  extensive  coal  and  salt 
works  at  Bonowstouness.  The  coal  there  was 
represented  to  exist  in  great  abundance,  and  to 
be  of  superior  quality ;  but  the  perpetual  succes- 
sion of  difficulties  and  obstacles,  wnich  occuned 
in  the  working  and  raising  of  the  coal,  was  such 
as  has  been  seldom  experienced  in  any  work  of 
that  kind.  The  result  was  that,  after  many  yean 
of  labor  and  industry,  there  were  sunk  in  the 
coal  and  salt  at  Borrowstounness,  not  only  his 
own,  and  the  considerable  fortune  brought  him 
by  his  wife,  but  the  regular  profits  of  his  more 
successfol  works ;  together  with  sums  of  money 
borrowed  from  (lis  relations  and  friends,  which 
he  was  never  able  to  repay.  He  died  on  the 
17th  of  July,  1794.  Dr.  Roebuck  left  behind 
him  many  works,  but  few  writings.  A  compa- 
rison of  the  Heat  of  London  and  Edinburgh, 
read  in  the  Royal  Society  of  London,  June 
29th,  1775 ;  Experiments  on  Ignited  Bodies, 
read  there  16th  of  February  1776;  Observations 
on  the  Ripening  and  FilUng  of  Corn,  read  in 
the  Royal  Society  of  Edinburgh,  5th  of  June, 
1794, — are  all  the  writings  of  his,  two  political 
pamphlets  excepted,  which  have  been  published. 

ROELLA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  mono- 
gynia  order  and  pentandria  class  of  plants; 
natural  order  twenty-ninth,  campanacese :  coa. 
funnel-shaped,  with  its  bottom  shut  up  by  sta- 
miniferous  valvules :  stigma  bifid :  caps,  bilocu- 
lar,  and  cylindrical  inferior. 

ROEMER  (Olaus),  a  celebrated  Danish  as- 
tronomer and  mathematician,  born  at  Arthusen  in 
Jutland,  1644;  and  at  eighteen  years  of  age  sent 
to  the  University  of  Copenhagen.    He  studied 


Digitized  by  VjiUUy  It: 


ROG 


6^9 


ROG 


mathematics  and  astronomy*  and  became  so  ej^- 
pert  in  those  sciences  that  when  Picard  was 
sent  by  Louis  XIV.,  in  1671,  to  make  observa- 
tions in  the  north,  he  ensaeed  him  to  return  with 
him  to  France,  and  had  him  presented  to  the 
king,  who  made  him  tutor  to  tne  dauphin,  and 
gave  him  a  pension.  He  was  joined  with  Pi- 
card  and  Cassini  in  making  astronomical  obser- 
Tations ;  and  in  1672  he  was  admitted  a  member 
of  the  Academy  of  Sciences.  During  the  ten 
years  he  resided  at  Paris,  he  gained  great  repu- 
tation by  his  discoveries :  and  first  found  out  the 
Telocity  with  which  light  moves,  by  the  eclipses 
of  Jupiter's  satellites.  In  1681  Roemer  was  re- 
called to  Denmark,  by  Christian  V.,  who  made 
him  professor  of  astronomy  at  Copenhagen ;  and 
chancellor  of  the  exchequer,  &c.  He  became 
counsellor  of  state,  and  Durgomaster  of  Copen- 
hagen under  Frederick  IV.  He  died  September 
19th,  1710,  aged  sixty-six.  Horrebow,  his  dis- 
ciple, professor  of  astronomy  at  Copenhagen, 
published  in  4to.,  1753,  various  observations  of 
Roemer,  with  his  system,  under  the  title  of  As- 
tronomis.  He  had  also  printed  various  astro- 
nomical observations,  &c.,  in  several  volumes  of 
the  Memoirs  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Sciences 
at  Paris,  1666. 

ROER,  or  Ruhr.  There  are  two  rivers  of 
this  name  in  the  west  of  the  Prussian  states; 
the  one  flowing  through  the  provinces  of  the 
Lower  Rhine,  and  Cleves.  ana  Berg,  passes  by 
Duren  and  Juliers,  and  rails  into  the  Maese. 
The  other,  rising  near  Winterburg  in  Westphalia, 
flows  westward,  till  it  joins  the  Rhine  between 
Rnhrort  and  Duisburg.  It  is  navigable  by  means 
of  sluices,  but  rapid  and  frequently  overflows  its 
banks. 

ROOA,  in  antiquity,  a  present  which  the  em- 
perors made  to  the  senators,  magistrates,  and 
even  to  the  people ;  and  the  popes  and  patriarchs 
to  their  clergy.  These  rogtt  were  distributed  by 
the  emperors  on  the  first  day  of  the  year,  on 
their  birth  day,  or  on  thenatalis  dies  of  the  cities; 
and  by  the  popes  and  patriarchs  in  passion-week. 
Roga  is  also  used  for  the  common  pay  of  the 
soldiers. 

ROGATIO,  or  Rogation,  in  the  Roman  ju- 
risprudence, a  demand  made  by  the  consuls  or 
tribunes  of  the  Roman  people,  when  a  law  was 
proposed  to  be  passed.  Rogatio  is  also  used  for 
the  decree  itself  made  in  consequence  of  the 
people's  giving  their  assent  to  this  demand  ;  to 
distinguish  it  from  a  senatus  consultum,  or  de- 
cree of  the  senate. 

ROGATION,  n.  «.  Fr.  rogatiofiy  from  Lat. 
fVgo,    Litany;  supplication. 

He  perfecteth  the  rogations  or  litanies  before  in 
use,  and  addeth  unto  Uieiu  that  which  the  present 
necessity  required.  Hooker, 

SappUcations,  with  this  solemnity  for  appeasing 
of  God's  wrath,  were  of  the  Greek  church  termed 
litanies,  and  rogoHoiu  of  the  Latin.  Taylor, 

ROGER  OF  Hexhau,  an  ancient  English  histo- 
rian, educated  in  the  monastery  of  Hexham  in 
Northumberland.  He  was  elected  prior  of  it 
about  1138.  He  wrote  a  history  of  the  cam- 
paign of  the  Scottish  army,  under  Darid  I., 


king  of  Scots,  when  the  battle  of  the  standard  was 
fought. 

Roger  of  Hoveden,  a  learned  man  of  the 
thirteenth  century,  bom  in  Yorkshire,  most  pro- 
bably at  the  town  of  that  name,  now  called  How- 
den,  some  time  in  the  reign  of  Henry  I.  After 
he  had  received  the  first  parts  of  education,  in 
his  native  oountry,  he  studied  the  civil  and  canon 
law,  which  were  then  become  the  most  lucrative 
branches  of  learning.  He  became  domestic 
chaplain  to  Henry  II.,  who  employed  him  to 
transact  several  ecclesiastical  aflairs ;  in  which 
he  acquitted  himself  with  honor.  But  his  most 
celebrated  work  was,  his  Annals  of  England, 
from  A.D.  731,  when  Bede's  Ecclesiastical  His- 
tory ends,  to  A.  D.  1202.  This  work,  which  is 
one  of  the  most  voluminous  of  our  ancient  his- 
tories, is  more  valuable  for  the  sincerity  with 
which  it  is  written,  and  the  great  variety  of  facts 
which  it  contains,  than  for  the  beauty  of  its  style, 
or  the  re(^larity  of  its  arrangement 

ROGERS  (Charles),  F.  R.  S.,  an  eminent  an- 
tiquarian, born  in  London,  August  2d,  1711.  In 
1731  he  obtained  an  office  in  the  custom-house, 
and  in  1747  was  promoted  to  be  clerk  of  the 
certificates.  In  1752  he  was  admitted  a  member 
of  the  society  of  antiquaries;  and  soon  after 
F.  R.  S.  He  published  a  most  elegant  and  ex- 
pensive work,  exhibiting  specimens  of  the  man- 
ner of  the  different  masters.  This  work  was  so 
much  admired,  that  copies  of  it  were  placed  in 
his  majesty's  library,  and  in  those  of  tne  empe- 
ror of  Germany,  the  empress  of  Russia,  the  late 
king  of  France,  the  British  museum,  &c.  &c. 
•He  also  published  a  translation  of  Dante*s  Inferno 
in  1782,  4to. ;  and  9everal  curious  papers.  He 
died  January  2d,  1784. 

Rogers  (John),  D.D.  an  eminent  English 
divine,  bom  in  1679,  at  Ensham,in  Oxfordshire, 
where  his  father  was  vicar.  He  Was  educated  at 
Oxford,  and  in  1693*  was  admitted  of  Corpus 
Christi  College,  and  became  fellow  in  1706.  In 
1710  he  became  B.D.,  andin  1716  rector  of 
Wriogton ;  when  he  married  Miss  L.  Hare,  sis* 
ter  of  lord  Coleraine.  In  1719  he  engaged  in 
the  Bangorian  controversy;  and  published  A 
Discourse  on  the  Visible  and  Invisible  Church 
of  Christ ;  in  8vo.  Dr.  Sykes  having  published 
an  answer,  he  replied  in  a  Review  or  the  Dis- 
course. He  gained  so  much  credit  by  these 
works  that  the  university  of  Oxford  conferred 
on  him  by  diploma  the  degree  of  D.  D.  In 
1726  he  was  made  chaplain  to  the  prince  of 
Wales,  afterwards  George  II ;  n^hen  he  published 
A  Defence  of  Christianity  against  Collins  s  Scheme 
of  Literal  Prophecy.  In  October  1728  he  was 
made  vicar  of  St.  Giles's  in  London :  but  died 
1st  of  May,  1729. 

ROGGERVELDT,  Upper,  Middle,  and 
Little,  three  districts  in  the  north  part  of  the 
colony  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  occupying 
a  table  land  formed  at  the  summit  of  the  great 
range  of  mountains  from  which  it  derives  its 
name.  It  contains  the  largest  and  best  breed  of 
horses  in  the  colony;  but  the  temperature  is 
cold,  so  that  the  inhabitants  are  under  the  neces- 
sity of  coming  down  for  four  months  to  the  foot 
of  the  mountains.    See  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 


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ROH 


ROGUE,  n.t.&v.n.^ 
Ro'guery,  fl.  t. 
Rooue'ship, 
Ro  GUISB9  ^j' 
Roguishly,  adv, 
RO  GUISHVESS,  n. «, 


'  Of  uncertain  ety- 
mologv/  says  John- 
son. Qu.  Lat.  arrogol 
*'A  wandering  beggar; 
a  vagrant;  a  dishonest 
person;    a    name  of 


iilight  tenderness :  to  play  the  rogue :  the  other 
derivatives  corresponding. 

For  fear  ktt  we,  like  rogtm,  should  be  reputed. 
And  for  ear-marked  beasU  abroad  be  bruited. 

Spemer. 

If  he  be  but  once  to  taken  idly  roguing,  he  may 
punish  him  with  the  stocks.  Id,  on  IrtUmd. 

Though  the  persons,  by  whom  it  is  used,  be  of 
better  note  than  the  former  rmith  sort;  yet  the 
fault  is  no  less  worthy  of  a  marshal.  Spmuer. 

Thou  killest  me  like  a  tcgut  and  a  villain. 

Shaktpmn, 

If  never  knew  a  woman  love  man  so. 
— ^Alas,  poor  rcyuc,  I  think  indeed  she  loves.     Id, 

You  roffUM,  here's  lime  in  this  sack  too;  there's 
nothing  but  rtynfry  to  be  found  in  villainous  man. 

The  scum  of  people  and  wicked  condemned  men 
spoiled  the  planUtion;  for  they  will  ever  live  like 
rvMM,  and  not  fall  to  work,  but  be  lazy  and  do  mis- 
chief. Baeon*t  Akqiv. 
To  live  in  one  land  is  capUvity, 
To  run  all  countries  wild  a  r«gtMry.      XKmnm. 
He  rogHMd  away  at  last,  and  was  lost.    Carem, 
Like  the  devil  did  tempt  and  sway  'em 
To  Togmmu,  and  then  betimy  'em.        H%dibrm». 
If  he  call  TOgM  and  rascal  from  the  garret. 
He  means  you  no  mora  mischief  than  a  parrot. 

Drydcn. 
Say,  in  what  nastv  cellar  under  ground. 
Or  what  church  porch  your  regtteiAip  may  be  found  1 

Id, 
.  The  most  bewitching  leer  with  her  eyes,  the  most 
rogvUk  cast ;  her  cheeks  are  dimpled  when  she  smiles, 
and  her  smiles  would  tempt  an  hermit. 

Id,  Spattuh  Ffyar, 
The  kid  smtit  out  the  rogmty,       VEttnmge. 
A  rogm  upon  the  highway  may  have  as  strong  an 
arm,  and  take  off  a  man's  head  as  cleverly  as  the 
executioner ;  but  then  there  is  a  vast  disparity,  when 
one  action  is  murther,  and  the  other  justice.  South, 

I  am  pleased  to  see  my  tenants  pass  away  a  whole 
eveningr  m  playing  their  innocent  tricks ;  our  friend 
Wimble  is  as  merry  as  anv  of  them,  and  shews  a 
thousand  rogttuh  tricks  on  these  occasions.   Addison, 

The  rogue  and  fool  by  fits  is  fair  and  wise. 
And  even  the  best,  by  fits,  what  they  despise.  Pope, 

The  roguery  of  alchymy, 
And  we,  the  bubbled  fools. 
Spend  all  our  present  stock  in  hopes  of  golden  rules. 

Saift, 
He  gets  a  thousand  thumps  and  kicks, 
Yet  cannot  leave  his  roguish  tricks.  Id, 

1  see  thee  dancing  o'er  the  green. 
Thy  waist  sae  iimp,  thy  limbs  sae  clean, 
Thy  tempting  looks,  thy  roguish  een — 
By  heaven  and  earth  I  love  thee !      Bums. 
ROHAN  (Peter),  Chevalier  de  Ghie,  a-brave 
Frenchman  who  flourished   under  Louis   XL, 
who,  for  his  valor,  made  him  marshal  of  France, 
,in  1475.    He  was  one  of  the  four  lords  who  go- 
verned the  kingdom  during  that  king's  illness, 
in  1484.    In  1486  he  defended  Picardy  against 
the  archduke  of  Austria.    He  commanded  the 
vanguard  at  the  battle  of  Foumoue,  in  1495 ; 
and  Louis  XII.  appointed  him  his  prime  coun- 
sellor, and  general  of  the  army  in  Italy.    But 


all  his  merits  were  disregarded  by  the  queen 
Anne  of  Austria,  who,  taking  umbrage  at  him  for 
having  stopped  her  equipage,  persecuted  him 
with  the  most  unrelenting  violence,  and  subject- 
ed him  by  an  iniquitous  process  to  damages  of 
31,000  livres.  This  brave  but  ill-iued  geoeril 
died  April  22d,  1613. 

Rohan  (Henry  duke  of),  prince  of  Leon,  and 
peer  of  France,  was  bom  at  the  castle  of  Blein, 
w  Brittany,  in  1579 ;  and  gained  the  affection  of 
Henry  IV.  by  his  bravery  at  the  siege  of  Amiens, 
when  only  in  his  sixteenth  year.  After  Heniy*s 
death,  he  became  the  chief  leader  of  the  Protes- 
tants in  France,  in  defence  of  whose  rigfau  he 
carried  on  three  wars  against  Louis  XIII.  The 
first  ended  to  the  advantage  of  the  Protestants ; 
the  second  and  third  were  occasioned  by  the 
sieges*  of  Rochelle.  The  duke  at  last  procured 
for  them  an  honorable  peace  in  1639.  After 
this  he  retired  to  Venice,  and  that  republic  ap- 
pointed him  their  commander-in-chief  against 
the  Imperialists ;  but  Louis  XIII.  recalled  him, 
and  sent  him  ambassador  to  Switzerland  and 
the  Orisons.  After  many  victories  he  drove  the 
Spaniards  and  Imperialbts  out  of  the  Valteline, 
in  1633 ;  and  defeated  the  former  again  at  Lake 
Koma,  in  1636.  In  1637  he  concluded  a  treaty 
with  the  Orisons:  but  afterwards, Joining  the 
duke  of  Saze  Weimar  against  the  frnperialiste, 
he  was  wounded  at  the  battle  of  Rhinfeld,  Febro- 
anr  28th  1638;  and  died  13th  of  April,  z:ged 
finy-nine.  Though  so  much  engagea  in  wars, 
he  wrote  several  treatises:  as  1.  The  Interests  of 
Princes  :  Cologn,  1660, 12mo.  2.  The  Perfect 
Oeneral ;  12mo.  3.  On  the  Corruption  of  die 
Ancient  Militia.  4.  On  the  Oovemment  of  the 
thirteen  Provinces.  5.  Memoirs  containing  the 
history  of  France,  ftt)m  1610  to  1629.  6.  Poli- 
tical Discourses  on  State  afiairs,  from  1612  to 
1629,  8vo.  Paris,  1644.  7.  Memoirs  and  Let- 
ters on  the  War  of  the  Valteline,  in  3  vols.  12mo. 
Oeneva,  1759. 

ROHAULT  (James),  a  celebrated  Cartesian, 
the  son  of  a  merchant  of  Amiens,  where  he  was 
bom  in  1620.  He  became  well  skilled  in  the 
mathematics,  and  taught  them  at  Paris  where  he 
became  acquainted  with  M.  Clerselier,  an  advo- 
cate, whose  daughter  he  married.  He  tau^t 
philosophy  in  the  same  city  with  uncommon  ap- 
plause. He  died  in  Paris  in  1675.  He  wrote 
m  French,  1 .  A  Treatise  on  Natural  Philosophy, 
2.  The  Elements  of  the  Mathematics.  3.  A 
Treatise  on  Mechanics,  which  is  very  curious. 
4.  Philosophical  Conversations ;  and  other  works. 
His  Physics  were  translated  into  Latin,  by  Dr. 
Samuel  Clarke,  with  notes,  in  which  the  Carte- 
sian errors  are  corrected  upon  the  Newtonian  sys- 
tem. 

ROHILCUND,  or  Rahilkhavd,  in  Sanscrit 
Kuttair,  is  a  tract  of  Hindostan  situated  east  of 
the  Oanges,  between  28°  and  30^  N.  lat.,  and 
78°  to  80°  £.  long.  Conmiencing  in  the  vicini- 
ty of  the  Lolldong  Pass,  at  the  foot  of  the  Re- 
maoon  Hills,  it  extends  south-eastward  to  the 
t  wn  of  Pillibeet.  On  the  north  it  is  bounded 
by  the  Sewalic  and  Kemaoon  Hills,  and  on  the 
south  by  the  dominions  of  Oude,  the  principal 
rivers  being  the  Oanges  and  B^gunga:  the 
latter  traverses  Rohilcund  nearly  in  its  whole  ex- 


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tent,  and  joins  the  Ganges  at  Kanoge.  On  the 
eastern  side  the  Dewah,  or  Goggra,  issues  from 
the  Kemaoon  Mountains,  and  runs  past  the  town 
of  Pillibeet,  where,  during  the  height  of  the  rains, 
the  timber  of  the  adjacent  forests  is  embarked 
for  Patna,  Calcutta,  and  other  lai^  towns. 
There  are  many  smaller  streams  which  contri- 
bute to  its  fertility,  being  distributed  by  means 
of  canals  and  reservoirs;  water  is  also  found  by 
<liggiDg  &  few  feet«  Rohilcund  is  calculated  to 
be  one  of  the  richest  natural  districts  of  the  East; 
and  was,  when  ceded' to  the  British  by  the  nabob 
of  Oude,  in  1801,  one  of  the  most  desolate  regions 
in  liindostan.  The  chief  articles  raised  are 
grain  of  all  sorts,  sugar-cane,  indigo,  cotton,  and 
tobacco. 

^n  the  early  periods  of  the  Mogul  empire  Rohil- 
cund contained  the  cities  of  Shal\abad,  Shahje- 
anpoor„  Bareily,  Bissowlee,  Budayoon,  Owlah, 
Moradabad,  and  Sumbul :  which  last  communi- 
cated its  name  to  a  ffreat  part  of  the  district. 
During  the  existence  of  the  Patau  dynasty,  many 
princes  of  that  family  kept  their  court,  ibr  a  series 
of  years,  in  Budayoon,  where,  as  in  many  other 
parts  of  Rohilcund,  are  still  to  be  seen  the  re- 
oiains  of  magnificent  edifices  and  mausoleums. 
The  Rohillas  were  originally  ;in  Afghaun  or  Patan 
race,  who  emigrated  from  ue  province  of  Cabul. 
About  1720  the  Afghaun  chie6,  Bisharut  Khan 
and  Daood  Khan,  accompanied  by  a  band  of 
their  countrymen,  came  to  Hindostan  in  quest  of 
military  service.  They  were  first  entertained  by 
Madhoo  Sah,  the  zemindar  of  Serowly,  who 
maintained,  by  predatory  incursions,  a  large  partv 
of  banditti.  While  plundering  an  adjacent  vil- 
lage, Daood  Khan  captured  a  youth  of  the  Jaut 
tribe,  whom  he  converted  to  the  Mahommedan 
religion,  named  Ali  Mahommed,  and  adopted. 
Daood  Khan  was  succeeded  as  principal  leader 
of  the  Rohillahs  by  this  youth,  who,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  distracted  state  of  Hindostan,  soon 
established  his  power  over  this  territory.  He 
died  in  1748,  and  left  six  sons ;  but  was  succeed- 
ed in  the  chieftainship  by  Hafez  Rehmut.  In 
1774  the  combined  forces  of  the  Rohillahs 
were  totally  defeated  by  the  British  army  at  the 
battle  of  Cutterah,  where  Hafez  Rehmut  was 
slain,  and  \rith  this  event  terminated  the  RobiU 
laH  sway. 

R01ST,  V.  n.  >    Goth,  rosta ;  Goth,  and  Swed. 

Roi'&TEB,  n.s.  S  rami.  Of  this  word  the  most 
probable  etymology,  says  Dr.  Johnson,  is  from 
Isl.  fitter,  a  violent  man.  To  behave  turbu- 
lently ;  to  act  at  discretion;  to  be  at  free  quar- 
ter; to  bluster:  vociferation.    Thomson. 

I  hav&  a  roistin^  challenge  sent  amongst 
The  dull  and  factious  nobles  of  the  Greeks, 
Will  strike  amazement  to  their  drowsy  spirits. 

Shakspfart, 
Among  a  crew  of  roiti^ring  fellows, 

He'd  sit  whole  evenings  at  the  alehouse.     Swift, 

ROLAND  (M.),  one  of  the  celebrated  foun- 
ders of  the  French  Revolution,  was  bom  in  1732, 
^at  Le  Clos  de  la  Platiere,  twelve  miles  from  ViU 
'lefranche.    His  family  was  ancient  and  noble. 
He  was  educated  for  the  church ;  but,  not  choos- 
ing the  clerical  profession,  he  went  to  Rouen, 
where  his   relation  M.  Godinot    was   inspec- 
tor of  manufactures,  and  proposed  to  him  to 
Vol.  XVIII. 


follow  this  branch  ot  administration.  He  agreed 
and  soon  was  distinguished  for  activity,  indus- 
try, and  disinterestedness.  Government  soon 
gave  him  a  higher  office,  with  an  income  which 
satisfied  his  wishes.  While  in  Italy,  he  wrote 
letters  to  Madame  Philepon,  afterwards  his  wife, 
by  the  medium  of  his  brother,  a  Benedictine 
prior,  containing  Observatipns  on  the  Men,  Man- 
ners, and  Manufactures  of  Italy,  which  were  af- 
terwards published.  He  was  soon  after  entrusted 
with  a  considerable  part  of  the  Encyclopaedia. 
At  the  commencement  of  the  revolution  M. 
Roland  was  appointed  inspector  for  Lyons :  he 
was  a  member  of  all  the  academies  in  the  south 
of  France ;  and  had  drawn  up  the  Cahiers  of 
Lyons,  on  the  convocation  of  the  states  general, 
at  tlie  express  desire  of  the  society  of  agriculture. 
After  faithfully  discharging  the  duties  of  his  mis- 
sion, he  returned  to  his  native .  province.  Re- 
turning some  time  after  to  Paris,  he  became 
intimate  with  the  celebrated  Brissot,  who  intro- 
duced him  to  the  Jacobin  club.  He  was  soon 
nominated  a  member  of  the  committee  of  corre- 
spondence. Much  jealousy  had  been  excited 
about  this  time  by  the  suspicious  conduct  of  the 
court;  and,  some  of  the  Girondists  being  con- 
sulted about  the  formation  of  a  patriotic  admi- 
nistration, Roland  was  pointed  out  by  the  com- 
mittee of  the  Place  Vendome  as  a  man  every 
way  qualified ;  and  his  writings  were  referred  to 
as  proofs  of  his  attachment  to  liberty.  The  king 
approved,  and  Brissot  was- sent  to  Madame  Ro- 
land, to  discover  whether  her  husband  would 
accept  of  the  important  office  of  minister  of  the 
Home  Department.  Roland  accepted  of  the  ap- 
pointment; and  the  next  day  Roland  appeared  at 
court,  to  be  presented,  take  the  oaths,  and  enter  on 
his  new  office ;  but  the  courtiers  were  astonished, 
to  find  him  not  in  an  elegant  court  habit,  but  in 
bis  ordinary  dress.  At  length  the  menacing  at- 
titude assumed  by  the  court  of  Vienna  produced 
a  crisis.  Servan,  the  minister  at  vrar,  proposed 
to  the  assembly  the  formation  of  a  camp  of 
20,000  men  under  the  walls  of  Paris.  This  . 
scheme  was  adopted  with  enthusiasm,  as  well  as 
another  against  the  clergy.  All  the  six  minis- 
ters supported  these  decrees,  but  the  king  made 
jise  of  the  veto  which  the  constitution  bad  given 
him,  and  refused  his  assent;  on  which,  after 
sending  a  letter  to  the  king,  Roland  gave  in  his 
resignation.  The  constituent  assembly  unani- 
mously voted  that  he  had  'retired  with  the 
thanks  and  gratitude  of  his  country.'  His  resig- 
nation had  a  prodigious  effect  on  the  minds  of 
the  public,  and  rendered  the  conduct  of  the 
court  suspected.  At  length,  on  the  10th  of  Au- 
gust, the  palace  being  taken,  and  the  king  and 
royal  family  made  prisoners,  citizens  Roland, 
Claviers,  and  Servan,  were  restored  to  their  of- 
ficeSf  and  three  new  ones  appointed,  viz.  Danton 
to  that  of  justice,  le  Brun,  to  that  of  the  foreign 
affairs,  and  Monge  to  the  marine.  But,  in  Sep- 
tember 1792,  sanguinary  men  murdered  a  num- 
ber of  the  cleigy  and  aristocranr,  without  trial 
or  form  of  justice.  Roland  and  all  his  friends 
of  the  Girondist  party  disapproved  of  these 
crimes,  and  endeavoured  to  bring  the  murderers 
to  iustice,  and  thus  lost  their  popularity.  Ro- 
land's house,  formerly  reverenced  as  sacred,  vrat 

2  T 

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now  treated  with  outmge  by  the  mob.  The  buba- 
rity  and  injustice  of  the  mountain  party  in  the  con- 
vention soon  afterwards  arrived  at  its  utmost  pitch. 
On  the  31st  of  May,  1793,  Roland  was  denounc- 
ed, with  others  of  the  Girondist  party.  Roland 
endeavoured  to  conceal  himself,  by  advice  of  his 
wife;  who  did  not  suspect  her  danger,  but  she 
was  arrested  soon  after,  imprisoned,  and  guUlo- 
tined.  Roland  on  this  left  tne  asylum  of  a  friend, 
who  had  hitherto  concealed  him ;  and,  repairing 
to  a  spot  on  the  great  road  leading  to  Rouen,  be 
there  committed  suicide,  leaving  a  paper  con- 
taining the  following  lines :— '  Whoever  you  may 
be  that  find  me  lying  here,  respect  my  remains ; 
thpy  are  those  of  a  man  who  devoted  his  whole 
life  to  being  useful,  and  who  died,  as  he  lived, 
virtuous  and  honest*' 

RoLAMD,  B&EcuE  DB,  a  remarkable  fissure  in 
the  central  part  of  the  Pyrenees,  above  the  vil- 
lage of  Gavamie.  A  wall  of  rocks,  from  300  to 
600  feet  in  height,  extends  in  the  form  of  a  cre- 
scent, convexly  towards  France.  In  the  middle 
is  a  breach,  300  feet  wide,  said,  by  tradition,  to 
have  been  made  by  the  4mous  Koland.  The 
great  mountain  of  Marbore  rises  over  it  like  a 
citadel,  and  the  elevation  is  so  great  that  it  has 
been  for  ages  without  a  trace  of  vegetation. 

ROLANDRA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  poly- 
gamia  segregata  order,  and  syngenesia  class  of 
plants;  natural  order  forty-ninth,  compositae. 
COMMON  cku  consisting  of  distinct  flosculi,  be- 
tween each  of  which  are  short  squamsB,  the  whole 
forming  a  round  head  :  partial  cal.  bivalved. 
COR.  small  and  funnel-shaped,  the  tube  small  as 
a  thread,  the  Lacinise  short  and  acute.  The  star 
mina  are  five ;  the  style  bifid.  It  has  no  other 
seed  vessel  except  the  partial  calyx,  which  con- 
tains a  long  three-sided  seed.  Of  this  there  is 
only  one  species,  viz. 

R.  argentea;  a  native  of  the  West  Indies, 

found  in  copes  and  waste  lands. 

ROLL^  V,  a.,  V.  n.,  &n     Fr.  and  Teut.  roUe; 

Roll'er,  91.  s.    [n.  s.  f  Arm.  roll ;  Welsh  rM, 

Roll  ivG-PiN,  >To  turn  or  move  any 

Roll'ivg-press,        i  thing  by  application  ii 

Roll'y-pooly.  J  the  different  parts  of 

its  surface  successively  to  the  ground ;  tp  move 

in  a  circle ;  form  by  rolling  into  masses ;  form 

in  a  sti*eam  or  by  a  current  or  a  course  of  pre»- 

sure;  be  moved  as  a  cylinder  or  circle;  run  or 

revolve;   be  tossed  to  and  fro;   fluctuate;  be 

moved  by  violence :  as  a  noun  substantive,  the 

act  of  rolling  or  state  of  being  rolled ;  the  thing 

rolled;   a  round  body;  mass;  in  particular  a 

rolled  writing  or  sheet  of  MS. ;  public  writing; 

register ;  office  :  a  roller  is,  any  thing  revolving 

on  its  own  axis ;  bandage :  rolling-pin,  a  pin  on 

or  by  which  paste  is  rolled :  rolling-press,  the 

press  'of  copper-plate  printers :  rolly-pooly,   a 

corruption  of  '  roll  ball  into  the  pool,  a  game. 

Mr.  Thomson  says  from  Fr.  nnder  pouUcy  to 

turn  a  pulley ;  or  Ital.  ruoUo,  a  waltz. 

Darius  made  a  decree,  and  search  was  made  tn 
the  house  of  the  rotts,  where  the  treasures  were  laid 
up,  Szra  vi.  1. 

Who  shall  roU  as  away  the  stone  from  the  door  of 
the  sepulchre  1  Mark  xvii.  3. 

He  fashioned  those  harmonious  orbs  that  roU 
In  restless  gyres  about  the  Arctick  pole.       Sandpi. 


Beaats  only  cannot  disoem  heawty ;  and  kt  than 
be  in  the  nitf  of  beasts  that  do  not  hcHioiir  it. 

His  chamber  all  was  hanged  about  with  rettg 
And  old  records,  from  ancient  times  derived. 


Cromwell  is  made  i 
O'  th'  roBf,  and  the  kind's  secretary. 
These  signs  have  SBaikei  me  eztraOTinary/ 
And  all  the  coarses  of  my  lilh  do  shew, 
I  am  not  in  the  roU  of  common  men.  li. 

The  roU  and  list  of  that  amiv  doth  lemaia.  i^MiW. 
Grind  red  lead,  or  any  ooier  ooloar,  with  strong 
wort,  and  so  rM  them  up  into  long  roUg  like  pencils. 


Id. 
Id, 


Of  that  short  nil  of  friends  writ  in  my  heart. 
There's  none  that  sometimes  greet  us  noL     Bonne, 

When  a  man  tumbles  a  roller  down  a  hilU  the 
man  is  the  violent  eofoioer  of  the  first  motion ;  hat, 
when  it  is  once  .tumbling,  the  proper^  of  the  thing 
itself  continues  it.  Mammemd, 

Heaven  shone  and  rMed  her  raotioBS.       MUum. 
Thou,  light, 

Revisitest  not  these  eyes,  which  rM  in  vaim, 

To  find  the  piercing  ray,  and  find  no  dawn. 

Wave  roUhtg  after  wave  in  torrent  rapUne. 
Down  they  fell 
By  thousands,  angel  on  archangel  rolled.    Id. 

The  rolU  of  parliament,  the  entry  of  the  petitions, 
answers,  and  transactions  in  parliament,  are  extant. 

Hdt, 

Our  nation  is  too  great  to  be  ruined  by  any  but  it- 
self;  and,  if  the  number  and  weight  of  it  tvU  oae 
way  upon  the  greatest  changes  that  can  h 
England  will  b^  sde. 

I'm  pleased  with  my  ovns  woik,  Jove  was  not  i 
With  infant  nature,  when  his  spacioss  hand 
Had  rounded  this  huge  ball  of  earth  and  seas^ 
To  give  it  the  first  push,  and  see  it  rWi 
Along  the  vast  abyss.  Jhyden, 

When  thirty  rolling  years  have  run  their  race.    Id. 

Please  thy  pride,  and  search  the  herald's  raff. 
Where  thou  shalt  find  thy  famous  pedigree.        Id. 

In  human  society,  every  man  has  hb  roU  and  sta- 
tion assigned  hhn.  VEthwtg: 

The  long  slender  worms,  that  breed  between  the 
skin  and  flesh  in  the  isle  of  Omins  and  in  India,  am 
generally  twisted  out  upon  sticks  or  roUert. 

Bay  on  the  Cteeiim. 

To  keep  ants  from  trees,  encompass  the  stem  foar 
fingers*  breadth  with  a  circle  or  roll  of  wool  newly 
plucked.  Mortimtr. 

Thev  mske  the  string  of  the  pole  horizontal  towards 
the  lathe,  conveying  and  guiding  the  string  from  the 
pole  to  the  work,  by  throwing  it  over  a  roller. 

Moxon**  Meekanioitl  Exereims. 

ReporU,  like  snow-balls,  gather  still  the  briber 
they  roU,  GooemmeiU  of  the  Tamgue. 

Laige  rolls  of  fat  about  his  shouldeis  clung. 
And  from  his  nedc  the  douUe  dewlap  hung. 

Addi$on. 

Here  tell  me,  if  thou  dar*st,  my  oonsdons  soul. 
What  diflerent  sorrows  did  within  thee  roll.  Prier. 
Easy  aneels  spread 
The  lasting  roll,  reoordmg  what  we  said.    Id. 

Let  us  begin  some  diversion ;  what  d*ye  think  of 
rouljipouty  or  a  country  dance  ]  Arhuihmot. 

By  this  rolling,  parts  are  kept  from  joinmg  to- 
gether. WistmoH. 

Fasten  not  yoor  roller  by  tying  a  knot,  lest  you  . 
hurt  your  patient.  Witeman's  Atrgenf. 

,  The  pm  should  be  as  thick  as  a  roWngm. 

WietwtH. 

Tis  a  mathematical  demonstration,  that  thoe 
twenty-four  letters  admit  of  so  many  changes  in 


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their  order,  m4  make  such  a  lone  rott  of  diflbrendy 
ranged  alphabets,  not  two  of  which  are  aUke,  that 
they,  could  not  all  be  exhausted,  thotigh  a  million 
millioDs  of  writers  should  each  write  above  a  thou- 
sand alphabets  a-day,  for  the  space  of  a  million 
millions  of  years.  Bentley. 

A  small  Euphrates  through  the  piece  is  rolled. 
And  little  eagles  wave  their  wings  in  gold.     Pcpe, 

Twice  ten  tetnpestaous  nights  I  rotkd,  resigned 
To  roaring  billows  and  the  warring  wind.  Id. 

Storms  beat,  and  roUt  the  main  ; 
Oh  beat  those  storms,  and  roll  the  seas  in  vain !  Id* 

In  her  sad  breast  the  prince's  fortunes  roU^ 
And  hope  and  doubt  alternate  seize  her  soul.     Id» 
The  eye  of  time  beholds  no  name 
So  blest  as  thine,  in  all  the  roUt  of  fame.     Id. 
Lady  Charlotte,  like  a  stroller, 
SiUi  mounted  on  the  garden  roUn-, 
Smifi's  Afi 
Listenirg  senates  hang  upon  thy  tongue. 
Devolving  through  the  maze  of  eloquence 
A  roll  of  periods,  sweeter  than  her  song.    ThoiMon. 

Boll,  in  law,  signifies  a  schedule  of  parch- 
xaent,  which  may  be  rolled  up  by  the  hand.  In 
these  schedules  all  the  pleadings,  memorials, 
and  acts  of  court,  are  entered  and  filed  by  the 
proper  officer ;  which  being  done,  they  become 
records  of  the  court.  Of  these  there  are  in  the 
exchequer  several  kinds,  as  the  great  wardrobe 
roll,  the  cofferer's  roll,  the  subsidy  roll,  &c. 

Roll,  Muster,  that  in  which  are  entered  the 
soldiers  of  every  troop,  company,  regiment,  &c. 
As  soon  as  a  soldiet's  name  is  written  down  on 
the  roll,  he  is  punishable  if  he  desert. 

A  Roll  of  Parchmevt  denotes  the  quantity 
of  sixty  skins.  The  ancients  made  all  their  books 
up  in  the  form  of  rolls ;  and  in  Cicero's tiine  the 
libraries  consisted  wholly  of  such  rolls. 

Rolls,  Mastbr  of  the.    See  Master. 

Rolls  Office^  is  an  office  in  Chancery  Lane, 
London,  appointed  for  the  custody  of  the  rolls 
and  records  in  chancery. 

Rolls  of  Pabliaheht  are  the  MS.  registers 
or  rolls  of  the  proceedings  of  oar  ancient  pRrlia- 
menls,  vthich,  before  the  invention  of  printing, 
were  all  engrossed  on  parchments,  and  proclaim- 
ed openly  in  every  countv.  In  these  rolls  are 
abo  contained  many  decisions  of  very  difficult 
points  of  law,  which  were  frequently  in  former 
tiroes  referred  to.  the  decision  of  that  high  court. 

ROLLE  (Michael),  an  eminent  French  ma- 
thematician, bom  at  Auvergne,  1652.  His  great 
mathematical  skill  procured  him  a  place  in  the 
Academy  of  Sciences,  and  a  pension.  In  1690 
he  published  a  treatise  on  Algebra,  and  died  in 
1719. 

ROLLI  (Paul)  was  bom  in  Rome  in  1687. 
He  was  the  son  of  an  ar<:hitect,  and  a  pupikof  the 
celebrated  Gravina.  An  intelligent  English  no- 
bleman, baring  brought  him  to  London,  intro- 
duced him  to  the  royal  family  as  a  master  of  the 
Tuscan  language.  Rolli  remained  in  England 
till  the  death  of  queen  Caroline  his  protector. 
He  returned  to  Italy  in  1747,  where  he  died  in 
1767,  in  the  eightieth  year  of  his  age,  leaving 
behind  him  a  very  curious  collection  in  natural 
history,  &c.,  and  a  valuable  and  well  dhOEien 
library.  His  principal  works- first  appeared  in 
London  in  1735,  in  8vo.  They  consist  of  odes 
in  blank  veise,  elegies,  songs,  &c.^  after  the  man- 


ner of  Catullus.  There  is  likewise  a  Collection 
of  Epigrams,  printed  at  Florence  in  1776,  in  8vo., 
and  preceded  by  his  life  by  the  abb^  Fondinii 
Ther^  are  likewise  by  hrro  translations  into 
Italian  verse  of  Milton's  Paradise  Lost,  London, 
folio,  1735 ;  and  of  Anacreon's  Odes,  London, 
1739,  in  Bvo. 

ROLLIN  (Charles),  a  justly  celebrated  French 
writer,  was  the  son  of  a  cutler  in  Paris,  and  was 
bom  in  1661.  He  studied  in  the  college  Du 
Plessis,  in  which  he  obtained  a  bursary,  through 
the  interest  of  a  Benedictine  monk  of  the  White 
Mantle,  whom  he  had  served  at  table.  After 
having  studied  humanity  and  philosophy  at  this 
college,  he  applied  to  divinity  three  years  at  the 
Sorbonne ;  but  he  did  not  prosecute  this  study, 
and  neter  rose  in  the  church  higher  than  to  the 
rank  of  a  priest.  He  afterwards  became  profes- 
sor of  rhetoric  in  the  same  college ;  and  in  1688 
succeeded  Horson,  his  master,  as  professor  of 
eloquence,  in  the  royal  college.  In  1694  he  was 
chosen  rector,  and  continued  in  that  office  two 
years.  By  virtue  of  his  office  he  delivered  the 
annual  panegyric  upon  Louis  XIV.  He  made 
many  very  useful  regulations  in  the  university ; 
and  particularly  revived  the  study  of  the  Greek 
language,  which  had  been  much  neglected.  He 
substituted  academical  exercises  in  the  place  of 
tragedies.  Upon  the  expiration  of  the  rectorship, 
cardinal  Noailles  engaged  him  to  superintend  the 
studies  of  his  nephews,  who  were  in  the  college 
of  Laon ;  and  in  this  office  he  was  employed, 
when,  in  1699,  he  was  with  great  reluctance 
made  coadjutor  to  the  principal  of  the  college  of 
Bteuvais.  This  college  was  then  a  kind  of 
desert,  with  very  few  students,  and  without  any 
manner  of  discipline :  but  Rollings  great  reputa- 
tion and  industry  soon  repeopled  it,  and  made  it 
a  flouncing  society.  In  this  situation  he  con- 
tinned  till  1712 ;  when,  the  controversy  between 
the  Jesuists  and  the  Jansenists  drawing  towards 
a  crisis,  he  fell  a  sacrifice  to  the  prevalence  of  the 
former.  Father  le  Tellier,  the  king's  confessor,  a 
furions  agent  of  the  Jesuits,  infused  into  his  mas- 
ter prefvdices  against  Rollin,  whose  connexions 
with  cardinal  de  Noailles  would  alone  have  suf-' 
ficcd  te  have  msde  him  a  Jarlsenist ;  and  on  this 
account  he  lost  his  share  in  the  principality  of 
Beauvais.  His  edition  of  Quintilian  with  his 
own  notes  appeared  in  1715,  in  2  vols.  12mo., 
vrith  an  elegant  preface,  setting  forth'his  method 
and  views.  In  1710  the  university  of  Paris  chose 
Rollin  again  Rector:  but  he  was  displaced  in 
about  two  months  by  a  lettre  de  cachet.  The 
university  had  presented  to  the  parliament  a  peti- 
tion, in  which  it  protested  against  taking  any  part 
in  the  adjustment  of  the  late  disputes ;  and  their 
being  congratulated  in  S)  publie  oration  by  Rolling 
on  this  step,  occasioned  the  letter  which  ordered 
them  to  choose  a  rector  of  more  moderation.  He 
norw  composed  his  treatise  upon  the  Manner  of 
Studying  and  Teaching  the  Belles  Lettres,  which 
was  published  in  2  vols,  in  1726,  and  two  more 
in  1728,  8vo.  The  work  was  exceedingly  sue* 
cessful,  and  its  success  encouraged  its  author  to 
undertake  his  ilistoire  Ancienne,  &c.,  or  Ancient 
History  of  the  Egyptians,  Carthaginians,  Assy- 
rians, Babylonians,  Medes  and  Persians,  Mace- 
donians and  Greeks,  which  he  finished  in  13  volsi 

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8vo.,  and  published  between  1730  and  1738. 
Rollin  was  one  of  the  most  zealous  adherents  of 
deacon  Pftris ;  and,  before  the  enclosure  of  the 
cemetery  of  St  Medaid,  this  distinguished  cha- 
racter might  have  been  often  seen  praying  at  the 
foot  of  his  tomb.  This  he  confesses  in  his  Let- 
ters. He  published  also  lesser  pieces ;  containing 
different  Letters ;  Latin  Harangues,  Discourses, 
Complimentarv  Addresses,  &c.,  Paris  1771,  2 
vols.  12mo.    He  died  in  1741. 

ROLLING,  the  motion  by  which  a  ship  rocks 
from  side  to  side  like  a  cradle,  occasioned  by  the 
agitation  of  the  waves.  Rolling,  therefore,  is  a 
sort  of  revolution  about  an  imaginary  aiis  passing 
through  the  centre  of  gravity  of  a  ship :  so  that' 
the  nearer  the  centre  of  gravity  is  to  the  keel  the 
more  violent  will  be  the  rolling  motion ;  because 
the  centre  about  which  the  vibrations  are  made 
is  placed  so  low  in  the  bottom  that  the  resistance 
made  by  the  keel,  to  the  volume  of  water  which 
it  displaces  in  rolling,  bean  very  little  proportion 
to  the  force  of  the  vibration  above  the  centre  of 
gravity,,  the  radius  of  whiph  extends  as  high  as 
the  mast  heads.  But,  if  the  centre  of  gravity  is 
placed  higher  above  the  keel,  the  radius  of  vibra- 
tion will  not  only  be  diminished,  but  an  addi- 
tional force  to  oppose  the  motion  of  rolling  will 
be  communicated  to  that  part  of  the  ship's  bot- 
tom which  is  below  the  centre  of  gravity.  It 
may,  however,  be  necessary  to  remark  that  the 
construction  of  the  ship's  bottom  may  also  contri- 
bute to  diminish  this  movement  consideiubly. 
Many  iaul  disasters  have  happened  to  ships  aris- 
ing from  violent  rolling. 

Rolling,  in  gardening  and  husbandry,  the 
operation  of  drawing  a  roller  over  the  surfooe  of 
the  ground,  with  the  view  of  breaking  down  the 
clods,  rendering  it  more  compact,  and  bringing 
it  even  and  level.  This  is  a  practice  that  be- 
comes necessary  both  upon  the  tillage  and  grass- 
lands, and  which  is  of  much  utility  in  both  sorts 
of  husbandry.  In  the  former  case,  it  is  made 
use  of  with  different  intentions,  as  for  the  pur- 
pose of  breaking  down  and  reducing  the  cloddy 
and  lumpy  parts  of  the  soil  in  preparing  it  for 
'the  reception  of  crops.  It  is  atso  of  great  use 
in  many  cases  of  light  soils,  in  rendering  the 
surface  more  firm,  even,  and  solid,  after  the  seed 
is  put  in.  It  is  likewise  found  beneficial  to 
young  crops  in  spring,  in  various  instances. 
It  is  said,  by  the  author  of  Practical  Agriculture, 
that  in  the  cases  of  stiff,  heavy,  and  adhesive 
«oils  of  different  kinds,  it  may  irequently  be 
made  use  of  with  the  first-mfentioned  intention 
with  very  great  advantage ;  but  it  should  only 
be  employed  when  such  lands  are  tolerably  dry, 
for,  when  drawn  over  the  ground  under  the  con- 
trary circumstances,  little  benefit  can  be  afforded 
in  the  way  of  pulverisation,  while  much  mischief 
must  be  produced  by  the  poaching  of  the  horses, 
and  the  plastering  the  earth  round  the  inple- 
ment.  fiat,  by  using  it  in  the  manner  just  di- 
rected, all  the  lumpy  or  cloddy  parts  of  the 
surface  soil  may  be  effectually  crusW  and  re- 
duced into  a  fine  powdery  state,  fit  for  the  recep- 
tion of  the  seed.  It  is  likewise  supposed  that, 
in  cases  where  lands  have  been  left  rough  after 
ploughing,  for  the  purpose  of  more  eifoctually 
destroying  weeds,  it  may  be  of  utility,  by  being 


employed  before  the  harrows,  |o  give  then  moie 
power  in  laying  hold  of  and  reducing  the  soil, 
and  by  the  pulverisation  that  it  affords,  and  the 
more  perfect  retention  of  moisture  that  it  causes 
in  consequence  of  the  surface  being  rendered 
more  close  and  compact,  the  seed-weeds  are 
•produced  more  abundantly,  and  more  readily 
destroved.  It  is  likewise  in  these  last  methods, 
says  Mr.  Donaldson,  that  it  proves  so  higUy 
beneficial  in  all  peases  where  grass  seeds  are 
sown ;  as  well  as  by  the  equalitv  and  smoothness 
of  surface  that  are  thereby  produced ;  and  it  is 
well  observed,  by  the  same  writer,  that  if  no 
other  benefit  were  derived  from  roiling  lands  in 
tillage  than  smoothing  the  surface,  even  that  m 
harvest  is  of  material  consequence,  more  espe- 
cially where  the  crops  aie  cut  down  with  the 
scythe,  which  is  general  in  most  of  the  southern 
districts  of  the  kingdom,  and  which  the  increasiDg 
scarcity  of  laborers  must  soon,  in  all  probabilitjy 
introduce  into  those  of  the  north.  See  Rueal 
Economy. 

Rollimo  Tackle,  a  pulley  or  purchase  fast- 
ened to  that  part  of  a  siul-yard  which  is  to  the 
windward  of  the  mast,  in  order  to  confine  the 
yard  close  down  to  the  leeward  when  the  sail  b 
forled :  it  is  used  to  prevent  the  yard  from  hav- 
ing too  great  a  friction  against  the  mast  in  a 
high  sea,  which  would  be  equally  pernicious  to 
both. 

ROLLIUS  (Reinhold  HenryX  a  learned  Gei^ 
man  philologist,  who,  in  1779,  published  a  very 
useful  work,  entitled  The  lives  of  the  Philo- 
sophers, Orators,  Poets,  Historians,  and  Philo- 
iogers. 

ROLLO,  the  conqtieror  of  Normandy,  was  a 
Norwegian  duke,  banished  from  his  country  by 
Harold  Har&ger,who  conquered  Norway  in  870, 
on  account  of  his  piracies.  He  first  retired  with 
his  fleet  among  the  islands  of  the  Hebrides  to  the 
north-west  of  Scotland,  whither  the  flower  of  the 
Norwegian  nobility  had  fled  for  refuge  when 
Harold  had  become  master  f>f  the  kingdom.  He 
was  thert  received  with  open  arms  by  those 
warriors,  who,  eager  for  conquest  and  revenge, 
waited  only  for  a  chief  to  lead  them  on.  RoUo, 
setting  himself  at  their  head,  sailed  towards 
England,  which  had  been  long  a  field  open  to  the 
violence  of  the  northern  nations.  But  the  great 
Alfred  had  some  years  before  established  such 
order,  in  this  part  of  the  island,  that  Hollo,  after 
several  fruitless  attempts,  despaired  of  forming 
there  such  a  setUement  as  should  make  him 
amends  for  the  loss  of  his  own  country.  He 
pretended  therefore  to  have  had  a  supernatural 
dream,  which  promised  him  a  glorious  fortune  in 
France,  and  wnich  served  at  least  to  support  the 
ardor  of  his  followers.  The  weakness  of  the  go- 
vernment in  that  kingdom,  and  the  confusion  in 
which  it  was  involved,  were  still  more  persuasive 
reasons.  Having  therefore  sailed  up  the  Seine  to 
Rouen,  he  imm^iately  took  the  capital  of  that 
province,  then  caHed  Neustria,  and  masing  it  his 
magazine  of  arms,  he  advanced  up  to  Paris,  to 
which  he  laid  siege  in  form.  This  war  at  length 
ended  in  the  entire  cession  of  Neustria,  which 
Charles  the  Simple  was  obliged  to  give  up  to 
Rollo  and  his  Normans,  to  purchase  a  peace. 
Rollo  received  it  in  perpetuity  to  himself  and  his 


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posterity,  as  a  feudal  ^dnchy  dependent  on  the 
crown  of  France.  The « interview  between 
Charles  and  this  new  duke  gives  a  curious  pic- 
tare  of  these  Normans;  for  RoUo  would  not 
take  the  oath  of  fealty  to  his  sovereign  lord  any 
other  way  than  by  placing  his  hands  within  those 
of  the  king,  and  absolutely  refused  to  kiss  his 
feet,  as  custom  then  required.  It  was  with 
great  difficulty  he  was  prevailed  on  to  let  one  of 
his  warriors  perform  this  ceremonyjn  bis  stead ; 
but  the  officer  to  whom  Rollo  deputed  this  ser- 
vice suddenly  raised  the  king's  foot  so  high  that 
he  oA'ertumed  him  on  his  back:  a  piece  of 
rudeness  which  was  only  laughed  at,  to  such  a 
degree  were  the  Normans  feared  and  Charley  de- 
spised. Soon  after  Rollo  was  persuaded  to 
embrace  Christianity,  and  was  baptised  by  the 
archbishop  of  Rouen  in  the  cathedral.  See  Nor- 
mandy. 

ROLLOCK  (Robert),  the  first  principal  of  the 
college  of  Edinburgh,  was  the  son  of  David 
Rollock  of  Powis,  near  Stirling.  He  was  bom 
in  1555.  He  was  sent  to  St.  Andrews,  and  ad- 
mitted a  student  in  St.  Salvator's  College.  His 
progress  in  the  sciences  was  so  rapid  that  he  had 
no  sooner  taken  his  degree  of  M.  A.  than  he  was 
chosen  a  professor  of  philosophy,  and  read  liec- 
tures  in  St.  Salvator*s  College.  The  magistrates 
of  Edinburgh,  on  the  erection  of  the  university 
in  that  city,  in  1582,  made  choice  of  Mr.  Rol- 
lock to  be  principal  and  professor  of  divinity. 
In  1593  principal  Rollock  and  others  were  ap- 
pointed, by  the  states  of  parliament,  to  Confer 
with  thC' popish  lords.  In  1595  he  was  nomi- 
nated one  of  the  commissioners  for  the  visitation 
of  colleges ;  to  enquire  into  the  doctrine  and  life 
of  the  masters,  the  discipline  used  by  them,  the 
state  of  their  rents,  &c.,  and  to  report  to  the  next 
assembly.  In  1597  he  was  chosen  moderator  of 
the  general  assembly — ^the  highest  dignity  in  the 
Scottish  church :  and  he  had  the  influence  to  get 
some  great  abuses  redressed.  Being  one  of 
fourteen  ministers  appointed  to  take  care  of  the 
afiairs  of  the  church,  ne  procured  an  act  of  the 
legislature,  restoring  to  the  prelates  their  seats  in 
parliament  He  had  to  reconcile  to  this  measure, 
not  only  such  ministers  as  abhorred  all  kinds  of 
subordination  in  the  church,  but  likewise  many 
of  the  lay  lords,  who  were  not  fond  of  such  as- 
sociates in  parliament.  He  died  in  Edinburgh 
on  the  28th  of  February,  1598,  aged  forty-three. 
His  works  are,  1.  A  Commentary  on  the  first 
Book  of  Beza's  Questions.  2.  Another  on  the 
Epistle  to  the  Epnesians,  4to.,  Edinburgh,  1598. 

3.  A  third  on  Daniel,  4to.,  Edinburgh,   1591. 

4.  Analysis  of  St.  Paul's  Epistle  to  the  Romans, 
8vo.,  Edinburgh,  1594.  5.  Questions  and  An- 
swers concerning  the  Covenant  of  Grace  and  the 
Sacraments,  8vo.,  Edinburgh,  1599.  6.  A  Trea- 
tis  on  Effectual  Calling,  8vo.,  Edinburgh,  1597. 
7.  A  Commentary  on  the  Epistles  to  the  Thessa- 
lonians  and  Philemon,  8vo.,  Geneva,  1597.  8. 
A  Commentary  on  fifteen  select  Psalms,  8vo., 
Geneva,  1598.    9.  A  Commentary  on  the  Gos- 


pel of  St.  John,  with  a  Harmony  of  the  Four 
Evangelists  upon  the  Death,  Resurrection,  and 
Ascension  of  Jesus  Christ,  &c.,  Geneva,  1590. 
10.  Sermons  on  Several  Places  of  St.  Paul's 
Epistles,  8vo.,  Edinburgh,  1598.  11.  A  Com- 
mentary on  the  Epistle  to  the  Colossians,  8vo., 
Geneva,  1602.  12.  Analysis  of  the  Epistle  to 
the  Hebrews,  8vo.,  Edinburgh,  1605.  13.  Ana- 
lysis of  the  Epistle  to  the  Galatians,  8vo.,  Lon- 
don, 1602.  14.  A  Commentary  upon  the  First 
Two  Chapters  of  the  First  Epistle  of  Peter,  8vo., 
London  1603.  15  and  16.  A  Treatise  on  Jus- 
tification, and  another  on  Excommunication, 
both  in  8vo.,  London,  1604.  All  these  works, 
except  the  sermons,  are  in  Latin. 

ROLLRICH,  or  Rollrico  Stones,  an  an- 
cient monument  in  Oxfordshire,  in  the  pariah 
of  Chipping  Norton,  near  Long  Compton,  sup- 
posed to  be  the  remains  of  a  British  temple. 

ROLPAU,  a  town  of  Hindostan,  capital  of  a 
district  of  the  same  name,  in  the  province  of 
Nepaul.  Little  more  is  known  about  it  than  that 
it  is  situated  in  the  mountains,  in  a  woody 
country,  and  governed  by  a  chief  who  pays  an 
annual  tribute  to  the  Nepaul  rajah.  Long.  82** 
5'  E.,  lat  29*  22'  N. 

ROM'AGE,  n.  «.  Fr.  rmnage,  or  Goth,  ro- 
mo;  Swed.  rom.  A  tumult;  a  bustle;  a  tu- 
multuous search;  clamor.  Commonly  written 
RrHMAGE,  which  see. 

This  is  the  main  motive 
Of  this  post  haste,  and  romage  in  the  land. 

ShaJupean. 

ROMAGNA,  the  former  name  of  a  province 
of  the  states  of  the  church,  bounded  by  the 
Adriatic,  the  duchy  of  Urbino,  Bologna,  and  the 
Ferraiese.  It  is  about  forty-five  miles  in  length 
and  thirty  in  breadth,  and  fertile  in  com,  wine, 
olives,  and  silk.  Its  pastures  are  also  good  in 
certain  parts,  and  in  others  there  are  minerals. 
The  capital  is  Ravenna. 

ROMAINE  (Rev.  William),  a  popular 
English  divine,  bom  at  Hartlepool,  in  Durtiam, 
in  1714 ;  and  educated  first  at  Hertford  College, 
Oxford,  and  afterwards  at  Christ-church,  where 
he  made  himself  master  of  the  Hebrew,  and  be- 
came a  zealous  Hutchinsonian.  He  was  ordained 
in  1737,  and  in  1738  attacked  bishop  Warbur- 
ton's  Divine  Legation  of  Moses.  In  1738  he 
preached  a  sermon  before  the  university  against 
the  bishop's  doctrine.  In  1739  he  was  chosen 
lecturer  of  St.  Dunstan's  West,  and  in  1740 
preached  at  St.  George's.  He  was  now  become 
so  popular  that  the  churches  were  crowded.  He 
v^s  next  appointed  professor  of  astronomy  at 
Gresham  College,  but  soon  resigned  it.  In  1764 
he  was  elected  rector  of  St  Andrew's,  and  St. 
Anne's,  Blackfriars.  He  died  in  1765,  with  the 
character  of  a  powerful  preacher.  His  works, 
consisting  of  sermons  and  practical  tracts,  were 
published  in  8  vols.  8vo,  1766.  He  also  pub- 
lished Calasio's  Hebrew  Concordance,  ic  4  vols, 
folio,  1743 


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646 


ROMAN    CATHOLICISM. 


Roman  Catholic iau.  Bv  the  church  of 
Romei  as  distinguished  from  Christian  cburchef 
of  other  denommations  aod  commanions,  is 
meant  that  great  body  of  professed  Christians 
who,  united  to  the  bishop  and  see  of  Rome, 
Aground  their  &ith  upon  the  authority  of  the 
church,  as  on  a  rule  of  faith,  sure  and  unerring.' 
Popery,  Papal  superstition,  Papists,  and  Ro- 
manists, are  among  the  various  appellations  that 
have  been  given,  in  different  ages,  to  the  system 
of  this  society  and  its  members,  who  com- 
monly view  them  as  terms  of  reproach.  Cctho- 
kcif  or  Ronum  Catholk  ChriitianSy  is  the  only 
name  by  which  they  designate  themselves^  but 
the  members  of  other  communions  cannot  recog- 
nise their  claim  to  the  first  of  these ;  and  Roman 
Catholics  is  now  that  by  which  they  ate  desig- 
nated among  us,  in  law  and  parliament  We 
therefore  adopt  it  as  at  onoe  fair  to  other  parties 
and  to  themselves  inoffensive. 

PART  I. 
HISTORY  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  ROME. 

That  the  church  of  Rome  is,  in  regard  to  her 
descent,  apostolical,  and  was,  for  som^  centuries,  a 
pure  as  well  as  a  true  church,Protestants  r«ad  ily  ad- 
mit; but  that  she  was  either  the  mother  or  mistress 
of  all  churches,  or  Uiat  she  was,  at  any  time,  the 
ofdy  true  church,  they  deny.  In  the  following 
historical  view  of  the  Roman  Catholic  church  we 
shall  consider  it  in  its  three  different  states,  as  it 
.subsisted  and  still  subsists,  from  the  period  of 
Constantine's  conversion  down  to  the  present 
time.  The  first,  which  may  be  characterised  as 
the  period  of  iti  risey  reaches  from  the  establish- 
ment of  the  Christian  religion  under  Constantine 
down  to  the  establishment  of  Die  papal  power, 
in  606,  when  pope  Boniface  III.  assumed  the 
title  of  Universal  Bishop ;  or,  756,  when  Pepin, 
king  of  France,  invested  pope  Stephen  II.  with 
the  temporal  dominion  of  Rome  and  the  neigh- 
bouring territories,  upon  the  ceasing  of  the  ex- 
archate of  Ravenna.  The  second  period  embraces 
the  interval  from  the  close  of  the  first  down  to  the 
^formation.  During  this  time  Rome  maintain- 
ed a  supremacy  and  dominion  over  the  minds 
and  consciences  of  men,  to  which  all  Europe 
submitted  with  implicit  obedience.  The  estab- 
lishment and  long  uninterrupted  continuance  of 
this  power  may  instly  be  considered  as  among 
the  most  extraordinary  circumstances  in  the  his- 
tory of  mankind.  The  third  period  refers  to  the 
decline  of  this  tremendous  power,  which  was  first 
weakened  by  the  Reformation,  and  has  since 
been  gradually  yielding  to  the  influence  of  the 
Reformed  doctrines  and  the  general  diffusion  of 
Icnowledge  among  the  nations  of  the  earth. 

I.  Rise  of  the  papal  power. ^The  progress  of 
Christianity,  during  the  lifetime  of  its  divine 
founder,  was  confined  within  narrow  bounds. 
The  Holy  Land  was  alone  the  scene  of  his  labors 
and  of  his  life  and  death ;  no  sooner,  however,  had 
he  ascended  to  his  throne,  than,  in  the  plenitude 
of  his  divine  power  and  grace,  he  sent  his  Holy 


Spirit  to  qualify  the  apostles  to  be  the  henlds  of 
his  glorious  gospel  to  the  world.  In  the  execa> 
tion  of  their  mission  they  encountered  vatiiotts 
difficulties ;  exposed  to  poverty,  hamilation,  per- 
secutidn,  they  always  realiied  the  prediction  of 
their  master  that  they  were  sent '  as  sheep  among 
wolves:'  The  hand  of  power,  however,  ooukl 
not  crush  them,  nor  the  fear  of  death  anest  their 
zeal ;  in  due  time  the  once  infant  church  had 
daily  added  to  its  members,  chaiacter,  rank, 
wealth,  and  influence ;  so  much  so  as  to  excite 
the  apprehensions  both  of  the  existing  priesthood 
and  magistrates ;  who  endeavoured  to  overwhelm 
Uke  rising  cause  by  most  cruel  persecutioiia— re* 
newed  at  intervals,  with  more  or  less  severi^,  du- 
ring the  reigns  of  all  the  Pagan  emperon.  ft  was 
found  in  vain,  however,  for  tbeirenemiet  to  kindle 
and  rekindle  the  flames  of  pereeeution ;  like  the 
children  of  Israel,  in  the  days  o^  Pharaoh,  ^  the 
more  they  afflicted  them  the  more  they  multipli- 
ed and  grew/  until  they  diffused  themselves 
through  tdl  ranks  of  society,  and  acquired  audi 
an  influence,  even  in  matters  of  state  and  go- 
vernment, as  materially  to  assist  or  depress  Ae 
various  competitors  for  the  Roman  empire.  The 
extraordinary  occurrences  of  the  life  et  Constan- 
tine produced  an  entire  change  in  the  whole  of 
the  Christian  profession.  Its  friends  were  now 
DO  lobger '  called  to  endure  patiently  the  hatred 
of  the  world,  to  take  up  their  cross  and  press 
after  a  conformity  to  Christ  in  his  sufferings,  and 
through  much  tribulation  to  enter  his  kingdom : 
so  long  as  the  Christians  were  persecuted  by  the 
heathen,  on  account  of  their  faith  and  praetioes, 
they  were  driven  to  the  gospel  as  their  only 
source  of  consolation  and  support ;  but  such  is 
the  depravity  of  human  nature,  that,  when  they 
long  enjoyeo  an  interval  from  persecution,  they 
became  woridly  and  even  profligate  in  dieir 
morals  and  litigious  in  their  tempers.  But  now 
that  the  restraint  was  wholly  taken  off  by  Con- 
stantine, churches  endowed,  and  riches  and  ho- 
nors liberally  conferred  on  the  clergy  ;  when  he 
authorised  them  to  sit  as  judges  upon  the  consci- 
ences^and  feith  of  others,  he  confirmed  them  in 
the  spirit  of  this  world, — the  spirit  of  pride,  ava- 
rice, dominion,  and  ambition;  the  indulgence 
of  which  has,  in  all  ages,  proved  fatal  to  the  pu- 
rity and  happiness  of  the  professed  followers  of 
Christ*  Now  they  began  to  new  model  the 
Christian  church,  the  government  of  which  was 
as  far  as  possible  arranged  conformably  to  the 
government  of  the  state.  The  emperor  himself 
assumed  the  title  of  bishop,  and  claimed  the 
power  of  regulating  its  external  affairs ;  and  he 
end  his  successors  convened  councils  in  wfaidi 
they  presided,  and  determined  all  matters  of  dis- 
cipline. The  bishops  corresponded  to  those  mar 
gistrates  whose  jurisdiction  was  confined  to 
single  cities ;  the  metropolitans  to  the  proconsuls  or 
presidents  of  provinces;  the  primates  to  the  em- 
peror's vicars,  each  of  whom  governed  one  of  the 
imperial  provinces.  This  constitution  of  things 
was  an  entire  departure  from  the  order  of  wor- 
ship established,  under  divine  direction   by  the 


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ROMAN    CATHOLICISM, 


647 


apostles  of  Chmt  in  the  pnmitWe  churches.  In 
f^ct,  scarcely  any  two  things  could  be  more  dissi- 
milar than  was  the  simplicity  of  the  gospel  dispeu- 
sution  and  the  hierarcny  established  under  Con- 
stantine  the  Great. 

It  cannot  be  a  subject  of  surprise,  therefore 
that  when  Christianity  had  thus  been  corrupted, 
the  bishop  of  Rome  began  to  be  distinguished  by 
a  pre-ominence  over  the  prelates.  During  the 
first  two  centuries,  says  Mosheim,  the  pre-emi- 
nence of  the  bishop  of  Rome  was  a  pre-eminence 
of  order  and  association,  and  not  of  power  and 
authority;  now,  however,  a  great  variety  of 
causes  contributed  to  establish  this  superiority; 
but  chiefly  that  grandeur  and  opulence  by  which 
too  many  professors  of  Christianity  form  ideas 
of  pre-eminence  and  dignity,  and  which  they 
generally  confound  with  the  reasors  of  a  just  and 
legal  authority.  The  bishop  of  Rome  surpassed 
all  his  brethren  in  the  magnificence  and  splendor 
of  the  church  over  which  he  presided ;  iti  the 
riches  of  his  revenues  and  possessions ;  in  the 
number  and  variety  of  his  ministers;  in  his 
credit  with  the  people ;  and  in  his  sumptuous 
and  splendid  manner  of  living. 

In  the  year  366  Liberius,  bishop  of  Rome, 
died,  and  a  violent  contest  arose  respecting  his 
successor.  The  city  was  divided  into  two  fac- 
tions, one  of  which  elected  Damasus  to  that  high 
dignity,  while  the  other  chose  Ursicinus,  a  deacon 
of  the  church.  The  party  of  Damasus  prerailed, 
and  got  him  ordained.  Ursicinus,  enraged  that 
Damasus  was  preferred  before  him,  set  up  sepa- 
rate meetings,  and,  at  length,  he  also  obtained 
ordination  from  certain  obscure  bishops.  This 
occasioned  great  disputes  among  the  citizens, 
which  gave  rise  to  a  dangerous  schism,  and  to 
a  sort  of  civil  war  within  the  city  of  Rome, 
which  was  carried  on  with  the  utmost  barbarity 
and  fury,  and  produced  the  most  cruel  massacres 
and  desolations.  This  inhuman  contest  ended  in 
the  rictory  of  Damasus ;  but  whether  his  cause 
was  more  just  than  that  of  Ursicinus  is  a  ques- 
tion not  so  easily  to  be  determined ;  neither  of 
the  two,  indeed,  seems  to  have  been  possessed  of 
such  principles  as  constitute  a  gooa  Christian, 
much  less  of  that  exemplary  virtue  that  should 
distinguish  a  Christian  bishop.  And  this  state 
of  things  continued  to  increase  in  progressive 
enormity,  until  it  ultimately  brought  forth  that 
system  of  spiritual  tyranny  which  so  long  enslaved 
the  greatest  part  of  the  civilised  world.  Notwith- 
standing, however,  the  pomp  and  splendor  that 
surrounded  the  Roman  see,  it  is  certain  that  the 
bishops  of  that  city  had  not  acquired, in  this  cen- 
tury, that  pre-eminence  of  power  and  jurisdiction 
in  the  church  which  they  afterwards  enjoyed.  In 
the  ecclesiastical  commonwealth  they  were,  in- 
deed, the  most  eminent  order  of  citizens ;  but 
still  they  were  citizens  as  well  as  their  brethren, 
and  subject,  like  them,  to  the  edicts  and  laws  of 
the  emperors.  All  religious  causes  of  extraordi- 
nary importance  were  examined  and  determined 
eitlier  by  judges  appointed  by  the  emperors  or  in 
councils  assembled  for  that  purpose ;  while  those 
of  inferior  moment  were  decided  in  each  district 
by  its  respective  bishop.  The  ecclesiastical  laws 
were  enacted  either  by  the  emperor  or  by  councils. 
None  of  the  bishops  acknowledged  that  they  de- 


rived their  authority  from  the  permission  and 
appointment  of  the  bishop  of  Rome,  or  that  they 
were  created  bishops  by  Uie  favor  of  the  apostolio 
see ;  on  the  contrary,  they  all  maintained  that 
they  were  the  ambassadors  and  ministers  of  Je- 
sus Christ,  and  that  their  authority  was  derived 
from  above.  Several  of  those  steps,  however,  by 
which  the  bishops  of  Rome  mounted  afterwards 
to  the  summit  of  ecclesiastical  power  and  des- 
potism, were  laid  at  this  perioa^  partly  by  the 
imprudence  of  the  emperors,  partly  by  the  craf- 
tiness of  the  Roman  prelates  themselves,  and 
partly  by  the  inconsiderate  zeal  and  precipi- 
tate judgment  of  certain  bishops.  Constantme 
having  transferred  the  seat  of  government  from 
Rome  to  Byzantium,  and  having  there  built  a 
city,  called,  after  himself,  Constantinople,  em- 
ployed all  his  efforts  to  augment  the  beauty  and 
magnificence  of  the  new  metropolis  of  the  world, 
and  raised  up  the  bishop  of  this  new  metropolis 
as  a  formidable  rival  to  the  Roman  pontiff,  and 
a  bulwark  which  menaced  a  vigorous  opposi- 
tion to  his  growing  authority. 

It  is  worthy  of  remark  that  the  progress  of 
papal  power  and  papal  superstition  have  ever 
kept  pace.  The  rites  and  institutions  by  which 
the  Greeks,  Romans,  and  other  nations,  had  for- 
merly testified  their  religious  veneration  for  ficti- 
tious deities  were  now  adopted,  with  some  slight 
alterations,  by  Christian  bishops,  and  professedly 
employed  in  the  service  of  the  true  God,  Gor- 
geous robes,  mitres,  tiaras,  wax  tapers,  crosiers, 
processions,  lustrations,  images,  gold  and  silver 
vases,  and  many  such  circumstances  of  pageantry, 
were  equally  to  be  seen  in  the  heathen  temples 
and  in  the  Christian  churches.  No  sooner  had 
Constantine  the  Great  abolished  the  superstition 
of  his  ancestors,  than  ms^ificent  churches  were 
every  where  erected  for  the  Christians,  which 
Were  richly  adorned  with  pictures  and  images, 
and  bore  a  striking  resemblance  to  the  pagan 
temples,  both  in  their  outward  arid  inward  form. 
One  of  the  earliest  corruptions  of  the  church  grew 
out  of  the  reverence  which  now  began  to  be  paid 
to  the  memory  of  departed  saints.  Hence  tnere 
arose  a  train  of  error  and  fraud  which  ended  in 
the  grossest  creature  worship.  But  it  is  the  con- 
dition of  humanity  that  the  best  things  are  those 
which  seem  most  easy  to  be  abused.  The  prayer 
which  was  preferred  with  increased  fervency  at 
a  martyr's  grave  was  at  length  addressed  to  the 
martyr  himself:  virtue  was  imputed  to  the  re- 
mains of  his  body,  the  rags  of  his  apparel,^even 
to  the  instrument  of  his  sufferings ;  relics  were 
required  as  an  essential  part  of  the  churoh  furni- 
ture ;  it  was  decreed  that  no  church  should  be 
erected  unless  some  treasures  of  this  kind  were 
deposited  within  the  altar,  and  so  secured  there 
that  they  could  not  be  taken  out  without  destroy- 
ing it.  It  was  made  a  part  of  the  service  to  pray 
through  the  merits  of  the  saints  whose  relics  were 
there  deposited,  and  the  priest  when  he  came  to 
this  passage  was  enjoined  to  kiss  the  altar.  Thus 
an  enormous  train  of  different  superstitions  were 
gradually  substituted  in  the  place  of  true  religion 
and  genuine  piety. 

Perhaps,  however,  this  odious  revolution  was 
owing  to  a  variety  of  causes.  A  ridiculous  pre- 
cipitation in  receiving  new  opinions,  a  preposter- 


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ROMAN    CATHOLICISM. 


our  desire  of  imitating  the  pagan  ritea,  and  of 
blending  them  with  the  Christian  worship,  and 
that  idle  propensity  which  the  generality  of  man- 
kind have  towards  a  gaudy  and  ostentatious  re- 
ligion, all  contributed  to  establish  the  reign  of 
superstition  upon  the  ruins  of  Christianity.  Ac- 
cordingly, frequent  pilgrimages  were  undertaken 
to  Palestine  as  well  as  to  the  tombs  of  the  mar- 
tyrs,' as  if  there  alone  the  sacred  principles  of 
virtue  and  the  certain  hopes  of  salvation  were  to 
be  acquired.  The  reins  being  once  let  loose  to 
superstition,  absurd  notions  and  idle  ceremonies 
multiplied  every  day.  Qiiautities  of  dust  and 
earth  brought  from  Palestine,  and  other  places 
remarkable  for  their  supposed  sanctity,  were 
handed  about  as  the  most  powerful  remedies 
against  the  violence  of  wicked  spirits,  and  were 
sold  and  bought  every  where  at  enormous  prices. 
The  public  processions  and  supplications  by 
which  the  pagans  endeavoured  to  appease  their 
gods  were  now  adopted  into  the  Christian  wor- 
ship, and  celebrated  with  great  pomp  and  mag- 
nificence in  several  places.  The  virtues  that  bad 
formerly  been  ascribed  to  the  heathen  temples,  to 
their  lustrations,  and  to  the  statues  of  their  gods 
and  heroes,  were  now  attributed  to  Christian 
churches,  to  water  consecrated  by  certain  forms 
of  prayer,  and  to  images  of  holy  men.  And  the 
same  privileges  that  the  former  enjoyed,  under 
the  darkness  of  paganism,  were  conferred  upon 
the  latter  under  the  light  of  the  gospel,  or  rather 
under  that  cloud  of  soperstition  that  was  obscur- 
ing its  glory.  It  is  true  that,  as  yet,  images  were 
not  very  common ;  nor  were  there  any  statues  at 
all.  But  it  is,  at  the  same  time,  as  undoubtedly 
certain,  as  it  is  extravagant  and  monstrous,  that 
the  worship  of  the  martyrs  was  modelled  by  de- 
grees, according  to  the  religious  services  that 
were  paid  to  the  gods  before  the  cominsr  of  Christ. 
Rumors  were  artfully  spread  abroad  of  prodi- 
gies and  miracles  to  be  seen  in  certain  places  (a 
trick  oflen  practised  by  the  heathen  priests),  and 
the  design  of  the  reports  was  to  draw  the  popu- 
lace in  multitudes  to  these  places,  and  to  impose 
on  their  credulity.  Nor  was  this  all ;  certain 
tombs  were  falsely  given  out  for  the  sepulchres 
of  saints  and  confessors ;  the  list  of  the  saints 
was  augmented  with  fictitious  names,  and  even 
robbers  were  converted  into  martyrs.  Some 
buried  the  bones  of  dead  men  in  certain  retired 
places,  and  then  affirmed  that  they  were  divinely 
admonished  by  a  dream  that  the  body  of  some 
friend  of  God  lay  there.  Many,  especially  of 
the  monks,  travelled  througli  the  difierent  pro- 
vinces, and  not  only  sold,  with  the  most  front- 
less  impudence,  their  fictitious  relics,  but  also 
deceived  the  eyes  of  the  multitude  wi^  evil  spi- 
rits or  geniil 

A  whole  volume  would  be  requisite  to  contain 
an  enumeration  of  the  various  frauds  which  art- 
ful knaves  practised  with  success  to  delude  the 
ignorant,  wnen  true  religion  was  almost  entirely 
superseded  by  horrid  superstition.  It  would 
also  be  almost  endless  to  enter  into  a  minute  de- 
tail of  all  the  different  parts  of  public  worship, 
end  to  point  out  the  changes  to  which  they  were 
subject.  The  public  prayers  had  lost  much  of 
that  solemn  and  majestic  simplicity  that  charac- 
terised them  in  the  primitive  times,  and  which 


now  began  to  degenerate  into  a  vain  and  swell- 
ing bombast.  The  sermons,  or  public  diaooaram 
addressed  to  the  people,  were  composed  accord- 
ing to  the  rules  of  human  eloquence,  and  rather 
adapted  to  excite  the  stupid  admiration  of  the 
populace  who  delight  in  vain  embeUishmeDts, 
than  to  enlighten  the  understanding  or  to  reform 
the  heart.  It  would  even  seem  as  if  all  possible 
means  had  been  industriously  used,  to  give  an 
air  of  folly  and  extravagance  to  the  Cbiisttan 
assemblies ;  for  the  people  were  permitted,  and 
even  exhorted  by  the  preacher  himself,  to  crown 
his  talents  with  clapping  of  hands  and  loud  ac- 
clamations of  applause,  a  recompense  which  was 
hitherto  peculiar  to  the  actors  on  the  theatre  and 
the  orators  in  the  forum. 

A  vari^y  of  circumstances  at  this  time  con- 
curred to  augment  the  power  and  authority  of 
the  Roman  pontiff,  though  he  had  not  yet  as- 
sumed the  dignity  of  supreme  lawgiver  and  judge 
of  the  whole  Christian  church.  Among  adl  the 
prelates  who  ruled  the  church  of  Rome,  during 
this  century,  there  was  not  one  who  ass  rteu 
the  authority  and  pretensions  of  the  Roman  pon- 
tiff with  such  vigor  and  success  as  Leo,  sumamed 
the  Great.  He  commenced  his  pontificate  with  the 
most  zealous  exertions.  In  the  year  445  be  quar- 
relled with  Hilary,  bishop  of  Aries,  for  opposing 
the  power  of  the  papal  see,  and  obtained  an  edict 
from  the  emperor  Valentinian,  which  put  an  end  to 
the  ancient  liberties  of  the  Gallican  churches,  and 
enforced  those  appeals  to  Rome  which  gradually 
subjected  all  the  western  churches  to  the  Juris^ 
diction  of  the  pretended  successors  of  St.  Peta. 
During  the  pontificate  of  Leo,  the  fourth  general 
council  was  neld  at  Chalcedon  in  the  year  451, 
in  which  the  fiimous  canon  was  enacted,  which 
rendered  the  see  of  Constantinople  equal  to  the 
see  of  Rome  in  all  respects,  except  precedency. 
This  canon  was  evidently  intendea  to  check  the 
growing  power,  and  to  oppose  the  daily  oicroach- 
ments  or  the  bishop  ef  Rome.  Leo  opposed 
with  vehemence  the  passing  of  these  decrees, 
and  his  opposition  was  seconded  by  that  of  many 
other  prelates.  But  their  efforts  were  vain,  as 
the  emperors  threw  in  their  weight  into  the 
balance,  and  thus  supported  the  decisions  of  the 
Grecian  bishops.  Neither  Leo  nor  his  imme- 
diate successors  were,  therefore,  able  to  overcome 
all  the  obstacles  that  were  laid  in  their  way,  or 
the  various  checks  which  were  given  to  their 
ambition.  Many  examples  might  be  alleged  in 
proof  of  this  assertion,  particularly  Ae  case  of 
the  Africans,  whom  no  threats  or  promises  could 
engage  to  submit  the  decision  of  their  controver- 
sies, and  the  determination  of  their  causes,  to  the 
Roman  tribunal. 

From  this  time  till  the  close  of  the  sixth  cen- 
tury the  history  of  tlie  Roman  church  presents 
nothing  worthy  of  notice  but  the  increasing 
wickedness  and  superstition  of  its  members, 
especially  of  the  clergy,  whose  vices  were  now 
carried  to  the  most  enormous  lengths ;  the 
writers  of  this  century,  whose  probity  and  virtue 
render  them  worthy  of  credit,  are  unanimous 
in  their  accounts  of  the  luxury,  arrogance,  ava- 
rice, and  voluptuousness  of  the  sacerdotal  orders. 
If,  before  these  times,  the  lustre  of  religion  was 
clouded  with  superstition,  and  its  divine  pre- 


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ROMAN    CATHOLICISM. 


649 


<!ept8  adulterated  with  a  mixture  of  human  in* 
ventioDS,  this  evil,  instead  of  diminishing,  in- 
creased daily.  The  happy  souls  of  departed 
Christians  were  invoked  by  numbers,  and  their 
aid  implored  by  assiduous  and  fervent  prayers  ; 
while  none  stood  up  to  censure  or  oppose  so  prepos- 
terous a  worship.  The  question,  how  the  prayers  of 
mortals  ascended  to  the  celestial  spiriUJ  (a  ques- 
tion which  afterwards  produced  much  wrangling, 
and  many  idle  fancies)  did  not  as  yet  occasion 
any  difficulty ;  for  the  Christians  of  this  century 
did  not  imagine  that  the  souls  of  the  saints  were 
so  entirely  confined  to  the  celestial  mansions, 
as  to  be  deprived  of  the  privilege  of  visiting 
mortals,  and  travelling  wnen  they  pleased, 
through  various  countries.  They  were  further 
of  opinion  that  the  places  most  freouented  by 
departed  spirits  were  those  where  the  bodies 
they  had  formerly  animated  were  interred ;  aod 
this  opinion,  which  the  Christians  borrowed  from 
the  Greeks  and  Romans,  rendered  the  sepulchres 
of  the  saints  the  general  rendezvous  of  suppliant 
multitudes.  The  images  of  those  who,  during 
their  lives,  had  acquired  the  reputation  of  un- 
common sanctity,  were  now  honored  with  a  par- 
ticular worship  in  several  places.  A  singular 
and  irresistible  efficacy  was  also  attributed  to 
the  bones  of  martyrs,  and  to  the  figure  of  the 
cross,  in  defeating  the  attempts  of  Satan,  remov- 
ing all  sorts  of  calamities,  ana  in  healing,  not  only 
the  diseases  of  the  body,  but  also  those  of  the 
mind.  We  shall  not  enter  here  into  a  particular 
account  of  the  public  supplications,  the  holy 
pilgrimages,  the  superstitious  services  paid  to 
departed  souls,  the  multiplication  of  temples, 
altars,  penitential  garments,  and  a  multitudfe  of 
other  circumstances  that  showed  the  decline  of 
genuine  piety,  and  the  corrupt  darkness  that  was 
eclipsing  the  lustre  of  primitive  Christianity. 
Divine  worship  was  now  daily  rising  from  one 
degree  of  pomp  to  another,  and  degenerating 
more  and  more  mto  a  gaudy  spectacle ;  only  pro- 
per to  attract  the  stupid  acuniration  of  a  gazing 
populace.  The  sacerdotal  garments  were  em- 
beUished  with  a  varie^  of  ornaments,  with  a 
view  to  excite  in  the  minds  of  the  multitude  a 
greater  veneration  for  the  sacred  order.  A  new 
method  also  of  proceeding  with  penitents  was 
now  introduced  into  the  Latin  church.  Grievous 
offenders,  who  had  formerly  been  obliged  to 
confess  their  guilt  in  the  face  of  the  congregation, 
were  now  delivered  from  this  mortifying  penalty, 
and  obtained  fit>m  Leo  the  Great  a  permission 
to  confess  their  crimes  privately,  to  a  priest 
appointed  for  that  purpose.  The  external  form 
of  church  government  continued  without  any 
remarkable  alteration  during  the  course  of  this 
century.  But  the  bishops  of  Rome  and  Con- 
stantinople, who  were  considered  as  the  most 
eminent  and  principal  rulers  of  the  Christian 
church,  were  engaged  in  perpetual  disputes  about 
the  extent  and  limits  of  their  respective  jurisdic- 
tions, and  seemed  both  to  aspire  at  the  supreme 
authority  in  ecclesiastical  matters. 

In  the  year  588  John,  bishop  of  Constantino- 
ple, sumamed  the  Faster,  on  account  of  his  ex- 
traordinary abstinence  and  austerity,  assembled, 
by  his  own  authority,  a  council  at  Constantin> 
pie,  to  enquire  into  an  accusation  brought  against 


Peter,  patriarch  of  Antioch ;  and  upon  this  oc* 
casion  assumed  the  title  of  oecumenical,  or  uni- 
versal bishop.  Now,  although  this  title  had 
been  formerly  enjoyed  by  the  bishops  of  Con- 
stantinople, and  was  also  susceptible  of  an  inter- 
pretation that  might  have  prevented  its  giving 
umbrage  or  offence  to  any,  yet  Pelagius,  the  then 
bishop  of  Rome,  suspected,  both  from  the  time 
and  the  occasion  of  John's  renewing  his  claim 
to  it,  that  he  was  aiming  at  a  supremacy  over 
all  the  Christian  churches;  apd,  therefore,  he 
opposed  his  claim  in  the  most  vigorous  manner 
in  letters  to  that  purpose,  addressed  to  the  em^ 
peror,  and  to  sucti  persons  as  he  judged  proper 
to  second  his  opposition. 

To  Pelagius  succeeded  Gregory  the  Great, 
under  whose  administrations  missionaries  were 
sent  from  Rome  to  Britain;  of  this  event  the 
following  account  is  given : — Being  one  day  led 
into  the  market-place  of  Rome  with  a  great  con- 
course of  persons,  to  look  at  a  large  imporUtion 
of  foreign  merchandise,  which  had  just  arrived, 
among  other  articles,  there  were  some  boys  ex- 
posed for  sale  like  cattle.  There  was  nothing 
remarkable  in  this,  for  it  was  the  custom  every 
where  in  that  age,  and  had  been  so  from  time 
immemorial ;  but  he  was  struck  with  the  appear- 
ance of  the  boys;  their  fine  clear  skins,  the 
beauty  of  their  flaxen  or  golden  hair,  and  their 
ingenuous  countenances ;  so  that  he  asked  from 
what  country  they  came ;  and  when  he  was  told 
from  the  island  of  Britain,  where  the  inhabitants 
in  general  were  of  that  complexion  and  comeli- 
ness, he  enquired  if  the  people  were  Christians, 
and  sighed  for  compassion  at  hearing  that  they 
were  in  a  state  of  pagan  darkness.  Upon 
asking  further  to  what  particular  nation  tney 
belon^d  of  the  many  among  whom  that  island 
was  divided,  and  being  told  that  they  were  An- 
gles, he  played  upon  the  word  with  a-  compas- 
sionate and  pious  feeling,  saying, '  well  may  they 
be  so  called,  for  they  are  like  angels,  and  ought 
to  be  made  coheritors  with  the  angels  in  heaven.' 
Then  demanding  from  what  province  Uiey  were 
brought,  the  ^answer  was, '  from  Detra,'  and  in 
the  same  humor  he  observed,  that  rightly  might 
this  also  be  said,  for  de  Dei  irft,  from  the  wrath 
of  God  they  were  to  be  delivered.  And  when 
he.was  told  that  their  king  was  named  MWa,  he 
replied,  that  Hallelujah  ought  to  be  sung  in  his 
dominions.  This  trifling  sprung  from  serious 
thoueht,  and  ended  in  serious  endeavours.  From 
this  day  the  conversion  of  the  Anglo-Saxons  be- 
came a  favorite  object  with  Gregory ;  and,  when 
he  was  elected  to  the  papacy,  he  took  the  first 
opportunity  of  beginning  the  good  work  on  which 
he  was  intent.  The  letter  written  by  Gregory  to 
the  emperor  Maurice  at  Constantinople,  in  con- 
sequence of  John,  the  patriarch  of  tnat  city,  as- 
suming the  title  of  universal  bishop,  casts  so 
much  light  upon  the  history  of  that  age  that  we 
shall  give  our  readers  an  extract : — <  Every  man 
that  has  read  the  Gospel  knows  that,  even  by 
the  words  of  our  Lora,  the  care  of  the  whole 
church  is  committed  to  St.  Peter  the  apostle,  the 
prince  of  all  the  apostles ;  and  yet  he  is  not 
called  universal  apostle,  though  this  holy  man, 
John,  my  fellow  priest,  labors  to  be  called  uni- 
versal bishop  1   I  am  compelled  to  cry  out,  O 


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650 


ROMAN    CATHOLICISM. 


ihe  corraptkm  of  times  and  maBoers  T  Behold 
ihe  barbarians  are  become  lords  of  all  Europe ; 
cities  are  destroyed ;  castles  are  beaten  down  ; 
promces  are.  depopulated  ;  there  is  no  husband- 
man to  till  the  ground.  Idolaters  rage  and  do- 
mineer over  Christians ;  and  yet  priests,  who 
ought  to  lie  weeping  upon  the  paveriient,  in 
sack-cloth  and  ashes,  covet  names  of  vanity, 
and  glory  in  new  and  profane  titles.  But,  far 
from  Christians  be  this  blasphemous  name,  by 
which  all  honor  ts  taken  from  all  other  priests, 
while  it  is  foolishly  arrogated  by  one/  Gregory, 
with  all  his  flattery,  was  unable  to  prevail  upon 
the  emperor  Maurice  to  second  his  views ;  and 
the  former,  as  might  be  expected,  became  not  a 
little  dissatisfied  with  his  most  religious  lord. 
Soon  after  this  the  emperor  was  deuironed  by 
one  of  his  centurions,  who  first  murdered  him, 
and  then  usurped  the  crown.  This  wretch, 
whose  name  was  Phocas,  was  one  of  the  vilest 
of  the  human  race,  a  monster,  stained  with  those 
vices  that  serve  most  to  blacken  human  nature : 
other  tyrants  had  been  cruel  from  policy ;— the 
cruelties  of  Phocas  are  not  to  be  accounted  for, 
but  on  the  hypothesis  of  the  most  diabolical  and 
disinterested  malice.  He  caused  five  of  the 
children  of  the  emperor  Maurice  to  be  massa- 
cred before  the  eyes  of  the  unhappy  &ther, 
whom  he  reserved  to  the  last,  that  he  might  be 
a  spectator  of  the  destruction  of  his  children  be- 
fore his  own  death. 

The  empress  Constantine  and  her  three  daugh- 
ters had  taken  refuge  in  one  of  the  churches  of 
the  city  under  sanction  of  the  patriarch  of  Con- 
stantinople, who  defended  them  for  a  time  with 
great  spirit  and  resolution,  not  permitting  them 
to  be  oragged  by  force  from  their  asylum.  The 
consequence  was,  that  they  instantly  became  the 
helpless  victims  of  his  fuiy,  and  suffered  on  the 
same  spot  on  which  the  late  emperor  and  his  five 
sons  had  been  recently  murdered.  What  should 
we  expect  would  be  the  reception  which  the 
accounts  of  all  this  series  of  horrid  cruelty  would 
meet  with  at  Rome,  from  a  man  so  renowned 
for  piety,  equity,  and  mildness  of  disposition 
as  pope  Gregory  was  ?  If  we  look  into  his 
letters  of  congratulation,  we  find  them  stuffed 
with  the  vilest  and  most  venal  flattery;  insomuch 
that,  were  we  to  learn  the  character  of  Phocas 
only  from  this  pontiffs  letters,  we  should  cer- 
tainly conclude  him  to  have  been  rather  an 
angel  than  a  man.  '  As  a  subject  and  a  Chris- 
tian,' says  Gibbon, '  it  was  the  duty  of  Gregory 
to  acquiesce  in  the  established  government ;  but 
the  joyful  applause  with  which  he  salutes  the 
fortune  of  the  assassin,  has  sullied,  with  inde- 
lible disgrace,  the  character  of  the  saint.  His 
object  in  this  abject  behaviour  was,  tha^  he 
might,  by  means  of  the  influence  of  the  em- 
peror, defeat  the  attempt  of  the  patriarch  to 
assume  the  title  of  universal  bishop.  This  he 
plainly  told  to  Leontia,  the  new  empress,  repre- 
senting to  her  what  blessings  she  might  expect 
from  St.  Peter  in  heaven,  provided  they  obliged 
the  patriarch  to  relinquish  the  title,  which  the 
pone  considered  derogatory  to  the  honor,  dignity, 
iand  interests  of  his  see.  In  this  object  he  suc- 
ceeded;  for  Phocas  enacted  a  law  by  which  he 
iprohibited  the  bbhop  of  Constantinople  from 


styling  himself  oecumenicai,  or  geneial  patri- 
arch; declaring  that  this  title  belonged  to  Done 
but  the  bishop  of  ancient  Rome.  Ahbough 
Gregory  did  not  himself  assume  the  appdlatioQ 
Of  uniyersal  bishop,  which,  after  anathematizing 
in  his  letter  to  tne  emperor,  would  have  been 
too  gross  a  violation  of  all  decency  to  have  been 
borne  even  in  this  age,  yet  his  successor, 
Boniface  III.,  did  not  hesitate  to  assume  this 
Very  title ;  and  the  grant  of  this  to  Boniiaoe's 
dignity  by  the  emperor  Phocas  might  be  said  to 
establish  the  ecclesiastical  power  of  the  papal 
iee.  The  succeeding  pontiffs  used  all  sorts  of 
methods  to  maintain  aiid  enlarge  the  authority 
and  pre-eminence  which  they  hsMl  acquired  by  a 
grant  from  the  most  odious  tyrant  that  ever  dis- 
graced the  annals  of  history.  We  find,  how- 
ever, in  the  most  authentic  accounts  of  the  trans- 
actions of  this  century,  that  not  only  seveta) 
eteperors  and  princes,  but  also  whole  nations, 
opposed  the  ambitious  views  of  the  bishops  of 
Rome.  Besides  all  this,  multitudes  of  private 
persons  expressed  publicly,  and  withoot  the 
least  hesitation,  their  abhorrence  of  die  vices, 
and  particularly  of  the  lordly  ambition,  of  the 
Roman  pontiffs :  and  it  is  highly  probable,  that 
the  Valdenses  or  Vaudois  h^  already  in  diis 
century  retired  into  the  valleys  of  Piedmont, 
that  they  might  be  more  at  liberty  to  oppose  the 
tyranny  of  those  imperious  prelates. 

Little  of  particular  notice  occurs  durii^  the 
seventh  and  eighth  centuries ;  we  may,  however, 
cursorily    observe   that   infkllibility    was    fint 
claimed  by  po[>e  Agatfao,  in  678.    In  710  the 
Emperor    Justinian,  having  met  the  pope    at 
Nicomedia,  gave  to  the  world  the  first  eotample 
of  kissing  the  pontiff's  foot    This  act  of  great 
]f>ersonal  veneration  became  the  precedent  for  the 
dontinued  ceremony.    That  corruption  of  man- 
ners which  dishonored  the  clergy  in  the  former 
centuries,  instead  of  diminishing  in  this,  dis- 
covered itself  under  the  most  odious  chaiacters. 
The  endowments  of  the  churches  and  monasteries, 
and  the  revenues  of  the  bishops,  were  hitherto 
considerable;  but  in  this  century  a  new  and 
ingenious  method  was  found  out  of  acquiring 
much  greater  riches  to  the  church,  and  of  in- 
creasing its  wealth  through  succeeding  ages.    An 
opinion  prevailed  universally  at  this  tmie,  though 
its  authors  are  not  known,  that  the  punishment 
^hich   the  righteous  Judge  of  the  world  has 
reserved  for  jthe  transgressions  of  the    wicked, 
was  to  be  prevented  and  annulled,  bv  libeia] 
donations  to  God,  to  the  saints,  to  the  churches, 
and  to  the  clergy.     In  consequence  of  this 
notion  the  great  and  opulent,  who  were  generally 
speaking  the  most  remarkable  for  their  flagitious 
and  abominable  lives,  offered,  out  of  the  abund- 
ance which  they  had  received  by  inheritance  or 
acquired  by  rapine,  rich  donations  to  departed 
saints,  their  ministers  upon  earth,  and  the  keep- 
ers of  the  temples  that  were  erected  in  their 
honor,   in  order  to  avoid  the  suflferings  and 
penalties  annexed  by  the  priests  to  transgression 
in  this  life,  and  to  escape  the  miseiy  denounced 
against  the  wicked  in  a  future  state.    This  new 
hnd  commodious  method  of  making  atonement 
for  iniquity  was  the  principal  source  of  those 
immense  trea^res  which  from  this  period  begaa 


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ROMAN    CATHOLICISM. 


651 


to  flow  in  tkpon  the  clergy,  the  chttroheB,  and 
monasteries^  and  continaed  ta  enrieh  them 
through  succeeding  ages  down  to  the  present 
time.  Emperors,  kings,  and  princes,  signi^ised 
their  superstitious  veneration  for  the  clergy,  by 
investing  bishops,  churches,  and  monasteries,  in 
the  possession  of  whole  provinoes,  cities,  casUes, 
and  fortresses,  with  al\  tne  rights  of  sovereignty 
that  were  annexed  to  them  under  the  dominion 
of  their  former  masters.  Hence  it  came  to  pass 
that  they  who  by  their  holy  profession  were 
appointed  to  proclaim  to  the  world  the  vanity 
of  human  granorar,and  to  inspire  into  the  mincte 
of  men,,  by  their  example,  a  noble  contempt  of 
sublunary  things,  became  themselves  scandalous 
spectacles  of  worldly  pomp,  ambition,  and 
splendor;  were  created  dukes,  counts,  and  mar- 
quises; judges,  legislators, and  sovereigns;  and 
not  only  gave  laws  to  nations,  but  also  upon 
many  occasions  gave  battle  to  their  enemies  at 
the  head  of  numeroua  armies  of  their  own 
raising. 

The  Roman  pontiff  now  acted  in  all  respects 
like  a  temporal  prince,  of  whose  enormous  power 
history  records  this  shocking  and  remarkable 
instance : — Charles  Martel  was  succeeded  in  his 
office  of  mayor  of  the  palace  to  Childeric  III. 
by  his  son  Pepin,    in  ine  exercise  of  that  high 
office,  he  was  possessed  in  reality  of  the  roval 
power  and  authori^ ;  but,  not  content  with  this, 
he  aspired  to  the  titles  and  honors  of  majesty, 
and  formed  the  design  of  dethroning  his  sove- 
reign.    For  this  purpose  the  states  of  the  leahn 
were  assembled  by  Pepin,  A.  D.  751;  and, 
though  they  were  devoted  to  the  interests  of  this 
ambitious  usurper,  they  gave  it  ae  their  opinion 
that  the  bishop  of  Rome  was  previously  to  be 
consulted,  whether  the  execution  of  such  a  pro- 
ject was  lawful  or  not.    In  consequence  of  this, 
ambassadors  were  sent  by  Pepin  to  Zachary,  the 
reigning  pontiff,  with  the  following  question  : — 
*  \Vhether  the  divine  law  did  not  permit  a  va- 
liant and  warlike  people  to  de^rbne  a  pusi^ 
lanimous  and  indolent  monarch,  who  was  in- 
capable of  dischargins:  any  of  the  functions  of 
royalty,  and  to  substitute  in  his  place  one  more 
worthy  to  rule,  and  who  had  already  rendered 
most  important  services  to  the  state?'      The 
situation  of  Zaphary,  who  stood  much  in  need 
of  the  aid  of  Pepin  against  the  Greeks  and 
Lombards,  rendered  his  answer  such  as  the 
usurper  desired ;  who  in  return  conferred  on 
Zachary  the  domains  of  Ravenna,  which  could 
not  have  been  secured  from  the  degraded  Chil- 
deric.   Thus  by  his  spiritual  authority  the  pope 
deposed  a  sovereign  who  had  committee  no 
crime;  receiving  from  the  usurper,  in  return,  the 
temporal    jurisdiction.     When    this    fevorable 
decision  of  the  Roman  oracle  was  published  in 
France,  the  unhappy  Childeric  was  stripped  of 
royalty  without  the  least  opposition;  and  Pepin, 
without  the  smallest  resistance  from  any  quarter, 
stepped  into  the  throne  of  his  master  and  his 
sovereign.    This  decision  was  solemnly  con- 
firmed by  Stephen  IL,  the  successor  of  Zachary, 
who  undertook   a  journey  into  France  in  the 
year  754  in  order  to  solicit  assistance  against  the 
Lombards ;  and  who  at  the  same  time  dissolved 
the  obligation  of  the  oath  of  fidelity  and  allegi- 
ance which  Pepin  had  sworn  to  Childeric,  and 


violated  bv  his  usurpation  in  the  year  751 ;  and, 
to  render  hi:;  title  to  the  crown  as  sacred  as  pos- 
sible, Stephen  anpinted  and  crowned  him,  with 
his  wife  and  two  sons,  and,  by  the  aothority  of 
St.  Peter,  forbade  the  French  lords,  on  pain  of 
excommunication,  to  choose  a  king  of  another 
nice.  ,  Thus  did  these  two  ambitious  men  sup- 
port one  another  in  their  schemes  of  rapacity 
and  injustice.  The  criminality  of  the  pope  was 
indeed  greatly  aggravated  by  the  pretence  of 
religion:  *  It  is  you,'  said  he,  addressing  Pepin, 
*  whom  God  hath  chosen  from  all  eternity ;  for 
whom  he  did  predestinate,  them  he  also  called, 
and  whom  he  called  them  he  also  Justified.' 
This  compliance  of  the  Roman  ponti£»  proved 
an  abundant  source  of  opulence  and  credit  to 
the  chureh.  •  When  Aistulphus  meditated  the 
conquest  of  Rome  and  its  territory,  and  formed 
the  ambitious  project  of  reducing  all  Italy  under 
the  yoke  of  the  Lombards,  the  terrified  pontiflT, 
Stephen  IL,  addressed  himself  to  his  powerful 
patron  and  protector  IVpin,  represented  to  him  * 
his  deploraole  condition,  and  implored  his 
a^tstance.  The  French  monarch  embarked  with 
zeal  in  the  cause  of  the  suppliant  pontiff,  crossed 
the  Alps  A.  D.  754  with  a  numerous  army 
and,  having  twice  defeated  Aistulphus,  obliged 
him  by  a  solemn  treaty  to  deliver  up  to  the  see 
of  Rome  the  exarchate  of  Ravenna,  Pentapolis, 
and  all  the  cities,  castles,  and  territories,  which 
he  had  seized  in  the  Roman  dukedom.  Pepin 
then  caused  an  instrument  to  be  drawn  up, 
mgned  by  himself  and  his  sons,  by  which  he 
ceded  for  ever  to  the  holy  see  all  the  places  thus 
yielded  up  by  the  Lombard  king,  including  the 
exarchate,  which  he  had  taken  fVom  the  emperor 
of  Constantinople.  He  afterwards  caused  the 
instruments  of  donation,  with  the  keys  of  all  the 
cities,  to  be  laid  on  th^  tomb  of  St.  Peter  in 
Rome.  Stephen  thus  became  proprietor  of  the 
exarchate  and  its  dependencies ;  and,  by  adding 
rapacity  to  his  rebellion,  was  established  as  a 
temporal  monarch.  Thus  was  the  sceptre  added 
to  the  keys,  the  sovereignty  tb  the  priesthood ; 
and  thus  were  the  popes  enriched  witn  the  spoils 
of  the  Lombard  kmgs,  and  of  the  Roman  em- 
perors. The  question  concerning  images,  which 
had  long  agitated  both  the  eastern  and  western 
churches,  was,  at  this  time,  hi  from  being  put 
to  rest  either  at  Rome  or  Constantinople;  but 
still  gave  occasion  to  the  assembling  of  council 
after  council,  one  council  annulling  what  the 
other  had  decreed.  During  the  reign  of  the 
emperor  Constantine  Copronymus  (who  em- 
ployed all  his  influence  in  abolishing  and  extir- 
pating the  worship  of  images)  a  synod  was  held 
at  Constantinople,  A.  D.  754,  to  determine  the 
controversy.  The  fiithers  being  met  to  the  num- 
ber of  330,  after  considering  the  doctrine  of 
scripture  and  the  opinions  of  the  fathers,  decreed 
that  every  image,  of  whatsoever  materials,  made 
and  formed  by  the  artist,  should  be  cast  out  of 
the  Christian  church  as  a  strange  and  abominable 
thing;  notwithstanding  Paul  L,  who  was  at  that 
time  pope  of  Rome,  sent  a  legate  to  Constanti- 
nople, to  admonish  the  emperor  to  restore  the 
sacred  images  and  statues  to  the  churches, 
threatening  him  with  excommunication  in  case  of 
refusal.  But  Copronymus  treated  .his  messa^ii 
with  the  contempt  it  deserved. 

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652 


&OMAN    CATHOLICISM. 


II.  Tht  Papal  power  mfiiU  extrcite,-^On  the 
4fcease  of  Paul  L,  A.  D.  768,  the  papal  chair 
vras  filled  for  a  vear  by  ConstantiDe,  who  con- 
demned the  worship  of  images,  and  was,  therefore, 
tumuUuously  deposed,  and  Stephen  IV.  sub- 
stituted in  his  room,  who  was  a  furious  de- 
fender of  them.  He  immediately  assembled  a 
council  in  the  Lateran  church,  where  the  re- 
nowned Others  abrogated  all  Constantine's  de- 
crees, deposed  all  the  bishops  that  had  been 
ordained  by  him,  annulled  alt  his  baptisms  and 
chrisms,  and,  as  some  historians  relate,  after 
having  beaten  and  used  him  with  great  indignity, 
made  a  fire  in  the  church  and  burnt  him  to 
death.  After  this  they  annulled  all  the  decrees 
of  the  synod  of  Constantinople,  ordered  the 
restoration  of  statues  and  images,  and  anathe- 
matised that  execrable  and  pernicious  synod, 
giving  this  curious  reason  for  the  use  of  the 
ithages:  that  if  it  was  lawful  for  emperors,  and 
those  who  had  deserved  well  of  their  country, 
to  have  their  images  erected,  but  not  lawful  to 
set  up  those  of  God,  the  condition  of  the  im- 
mortal God  would  be  worse  than  that  of  man. 
Thus  the  reign  of  superstition  strengthened  and 
enlarged  itself  until  the  time  of  Irene,  the  em- 
press of  Constantinople  and  her  son  Constan- 
tine,  about  the  close  of  this  century.  Irene  was 
the  wife  of  Leo  IV.,  who,  in  775,  after  the  death 
of  Constantine,  was  declared  emperor.  Having 
strenuously  exerted  himself  for  the  extirpation 
of  idolatry  out  of  the  Christian  church,  he  was 
poisoned  by  his  perfidious  wife,  who  was  a 
zealous  supporter  of  image  worship.  Under 
Irene's  influence  and  authority  was  convened 
what  is  termed  the  seventh  general  council,  held 
at  Nice,  the  number  of  bishops  present  being 
about  350.  They  pronounced  anathemas  upon 
all  who  should  not  receive  images,  or  who  should 
apply  what  the  Scriptures  say  against  idols  to 
the  holy  images,  or  who  should  call  them  idols, 
or  who  should  wilfully  communicate  with  those 
who  rejected  and  despised  them ;  adding,  accord- 
ing to  custom,  'Long  live  Constantine,  and 
Irene  his  mother,'  and  anathematising  all  here- 
tics, and  the  council  that  roared  against  vene- 
rable images.  '  The  holy  trinity,'  it  said,  *  hath 
deposed  them.'  Irene  and  Constantine  approved 
and  ratified  these  decrees,  the  result  of  which 
was,  that  idols  and  images  were  erected  in  all 
the  churches,  and  those  who  opposed  them  were 
treated  with  great  severity. 

On  the  death  of  Pepm,  king  of  France,  in 
the  year  768,  his  dominions  were  divided  be- 
tween his  two  sons,  Charles  and  Carloman,  the 
latter  of  whom  dying  two  years  afterwards, 
Charles  became  sole  monarch  of  that  country. 
In  his  general  character  he  somewhat  resembled 
our  English  Alft-ed,  and  is  deservedly  ranked 
amongst  the  most  illustrious  sovereigns  that 
have  appeared— a  rare  instance  of  a  monarch 
who  united  his  own  glory  with  the  happiness  of 
his  people. 

In  private  life  he  was  amiable;  an  affec- 
tionate father,  a  fond  husband,  and  a  generous 
friend.  Though  engaged  in  many  vntrs,  he  was 
fiir  from  neglecting  the  arts  of  peace,  the  wel- 
fare of  his  subjects,  pr  the  cultivation  of  his 
own  mind.    But,  with  all  these  amiable  traits  in 


the  character  of  Chariemagne,  a  tuperstitioBi 
attachment  to  the  see  of  Home  unhappily  aung. 
led  itself,  and  led  him  to  eng^;e  in  theological 
disputes  and  quibbles  unworthy  of  his  cha- 
racter. He  distinguished  himself  in  the  contro- 
versy concerning  the  worship  of  images,  and 
sought  to  withdraw  Adrian  from  an  approval  of 
the  decrees  of  the  second  Nicene  council.  With 
this  view  he,  in  the  year  794,  assembled  at 
Frankfort  on  the  Main  a  council  of  300  bohofs, 
in  order  to  reexamine  this  important  questioo, 
by  which  the  worship  of  images  was  unani- 
mously condemned.  At  this  period  a  new  at- 
tack was  made  upon  the  patrimony  of  St  Peter. 
Adrian,  who  had  succeeded  Stephen  in  the  papal 
chair,  maintained  a  steady  attachment  to  Char- 
lemagne, which  provoked  Dideric,  king  of  the 
Lombards,  to  invade  the  state  of  Ravenna,  and 
to  threaten  Rome  itself.  Charlemagne  recom- 
pensed his  attachment,  by  marching  with  a  large 
army  to  his  succor;  and  having  gained  many 
considerable  advantages  over  Dideric,  and  reco- 
vered the  cities  which  he  had  taken,  be  visited 
the  pope  at  Rome,  confirming  the  grants  made 
by  his  fiither  Pepin,  to  which  he  added  new 
donations,  and  formed  a  perpetual  league  of 
friendship  between  the  gromng  power  of  France 
and  the  established  supremacy  of  the  "western 
church.  On  this  occasion  he  expressed  his  piety, 
by  the  humiliating  ceremony  of  kissing  each  of 
the  steps  as  he  ascended  to  th^  churdi  of  St 
Peter.  By  thus  consulting  the  fiivor  of  the 
Roman  pontiffi,  cleivy,  and  consequently  that 
of  the  people,  Charlemagne  opened  for  him- 
self a  passage  to  the  empire  of  the  west  and  to 
the  supreme  dominion  over  the  city  of  Rome 
and  its  territory,  upon  which  the  western  empire 
seemed  to  depend. 

In  the  year  796  Leo  III.,  who  had  succeeded 
Adrian  in  the  papacy,  transmitted  to  Charles  the 
Roman  standard,  requesting  him  to  send  some 
person  to  receive  the  oath  of  fidelity  from  the 
Ilomans,  an  instance  of  submission  with  which 
that  monarch  was  highly  flattered.  Accord- 
ingly, in  the  year  800,  we  find  Charies  at  Rome, 
where  he  passed  six  days  in  private  conferences 
vrith  the  pope.  On  Christmas  day,  as  the  king 
assisted  at  mass  in  St.  Peter's  church  in  the 
midst  of  the  ecclesiastical  ceremonies,  and  upon 
his  knees  before  the  altar,  the  pope  advanced, 
and  put  an  imperial  crown  upon  his  head.  As 
soon  as  the  people  perceived  it,  they  exclaimed, 
'  Long  life  ana  victory  to  Charies  Aup;ustos, 
crowned  by  the  hand  of  God,'  <  Long  bve  the 
great  and  pious  emperor  of  the  Romans.'  The 
supreme  pontiff  then  conducted  him  to  a  ro^- 
nincent  throne,  which  bad  been  prepared  for  the 
occasion,  and,  as  soon  as  he  was  seated,  paid 
him  those  honors  which  his  predecessors  had 
been  accustomed  to  pay  to  the  Roman  emperors. 
Leo  now  presented  nim  with  the  imperial  man- 
tle, on  being  invested  with  which,  Charles  nv 
turned  to  his  palace  amidst  the  acclamations  of 
the  multitude.  Succeeding  generations,  gratefel 
for  the  services  which  Charlemagne  had  r^ered 
to  Christianity,  canonized  his  memory  and  toined 
this  bloody  warrior  into  an  eminent  saint  r  In 
the  twelfth  century  Frederick  I.,  empeiw  of  the 
Romans,  ordered  Paschal   11.,  whom  he  had 


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ROMAN    CAIHOLICISM. 


663 


raised  to  the  pontificate,  to  enrol  the  name  of 
this  mighty  conqueror  among  the  tutelary  saints 
of  the  church.  Indeed  Charlemagne  merited 
this  honor ;  for  to  have  enriched  the  clergy  with 
large  and  magnificent  donations,  and  to  have 
extended  the  boundaries  of  the  church,  no  maU 
ter  by  what  methods,  was  then  considered  as  the 
highest  merit,  and  as  a  sufficient  pretension  to 
the  honor  of  saintship.  But,  in  the  esteem  of 
those  who  judge  of  the  nature  and  character  of 
sanctity  by  the  decisions  of  the  gospel,  the 
sainted  emperor  will  appear  utterly  unworthy  of 
that  object.  The  favors  that  were  conferred  by 
the  pontiff  on  the  French  monarch  imperiously 
called  for  an  adequate  return ;  and  it  is  due  to 
Charlemagne  to  say  that  he  was  by  no  nieans 
deficient  in  gratitude.  The  Greek  emperor  had 
abdicated  or  forfeited  his  right  to  the  exarchate 
of  Ravenna,  and  the  sword  of  Pepin,  the  father 
of  Charles,  had  no  sooner  wrested  it  from  the 
grasp  of  Aistulphus,  than  he  conferred  it  on  the 
Koman  pontiff,  as  a  recompense  '  for  the  remis- 
sion of  his  sins,  and  the  salvation  of  his  soul.' 
The  splendid  donation  was  granted  in  supreme 
and  absolute  dominion,  and  the  world  beneld  a 
Christian  bishop  invested  with  the  prerogatives 
«f  a  temporal  prince; — the  choice  of  magis- 
trates, and  the  exeiscise  of  justice,  the  imposition 
of  taxes,  and  the*  wealth  of  the  palace  of  Ra- 
venna. <  Perhaps,' says  Gibbon,  *the  humility 
of  a  Christian  priest  should  have  rejected  an 
earthly  kingdom  which  it  was  not  easy  for  him 
to  govern  without  renouncing  the  virtues  of  his 
r»rofession;  but  humility  does  not  appear  tp 
have  been  a  very  prominent  trait  in  tne  cha- 
racters of  the  Roman  ponttfis ;  and  the  profuse 
liberality  of  the  French  kings  at  this  time  was 
not  much  calculated  to  promote  it  among  them.' 
Before  we  narrate  those  events  which,  during 
the  ninth  and  succeeding  centuries,  raised  the 
papal  see  to  its  greatest  l^ight  of  power  and  ar- 
rogance, we  must  observe  that,  although  hitherto 
the  approbation  of  the  emperor  was  necessary 
in  oraer  to  the  consecration  of  the  person  chosen 
to  the  pontificate,  after  the  time  of  Charles  the 
Bald,  a  new  scene  of  things  arose.  That  prince, 
having  obtained  the  imperial  dignity  by  the  good 
offices  of  the  bishop  of  Rome,  returned  this 
eminent  service  by  delivering  the  succeeding 
pontiffs  from  the.  obligation  of  waiting  for  the 
consent  of  the  emperors,  in  order  to  their  being 
installed  in  their  office.  And  thus  we  find  that 
from  the  time  of  Eugenius  II.,  who  was  raised 
to  the  pontificate  A.  D.  824,  the  election  of  the 
bishop  of  Rome  was  carried  on  without  the 
least  regard  to  law,  order,  and  decency;  and 
was  generally  attended  with  civil  tumults  and 
dissensions,  until  the  reign  of  Otho  the  Great; 
who  put  a  stop  to  these  disorderly  proceedings. 
Among  the  prelates  that  were  raised  to  the  pon- 
tificate in  the  ninth  century  there  were  very  few 
who  distinguished  themselves  by  their  learning, 
prudence,  or  virtue;  or,  who  were  studious  of 
those  particular  oualities  that  are  essential  to  the 
character  of  a  Cnristian  bishop.  On  the  con- 
trary, the  greatest  part  of  them  are  only  known 
by  the  flagitious  actions  that  have  transmitted 
their  names  with  in£amy  to  our  times ;  and  all  seem 
to  have  vied  with  each  other  in  their  ambitious 


efforts  to  extend  their  authorHy,  and  render  their 
dominion  unlimited  and  universal.  It  is  here 
that  we  may  place,  with  propriety,  an  event 
which  is  said  to  have  interrupted  the  much 
vaunted  succession  of  regular  bishops  in  the  see 
of  Rome,  from  the  first  foundation  of  that 
church  to  the  present  time.  Between  the  ponti- 
ficate of  Leo  1  v.,  who  died  in  the  year  855,  and 
that  of  Benedict  III.  a  certain  woman,  who  art- 
fully disguised  her  sex  for  a  considerable  time, 
is  said,  by  learning,  genius,  and  dexterity,  to 
have  made  good  her  way  to  the  papal  chair,  and 
to  have  governed  the  church  with  the  title  and 
dignity  of  pontiff  about  two  years.  This  extra- 
ordinary person  is  yet  knovm  by  the  title  of 
Pope  Joan.  The  period  was  now  arrived  in 
which  the  clergy  aspired  to  the  right  of  dis- 
posing of  crowns,  which  they  founded  on  the 
ancient  Jewish  practice  of  anointing  kings. 
They  had  recourse  to  the  most  miserable  fictions 
and  sophisms  to  render  themselves  independent. 
They  refused  to  take  the  oath  of  fidelity,  because 
sacred  hands  could  not  without  abomination, 
submit  to  hands  impure  1  One  usurpation  led 
to  another;  abuse  constituted  right;  a  quibble 
appeared  a  divine  law ;  ignorance  sanctified 
every  thing,  and  the  most  enormous  usurpations 
of  the  clergy  obtained  a  ready  sanction  from  the 
slavish  superstition  of  the  laity. 

The  history  of  the  following  ages  shows  in  a 
multitude  of  deplorable  examples  the  disorders 
and  calamities  that  sprung  from  the  ambition  of 
the  aspiring  pontiffs ;  it  represents  these  despotic 
lords  of  the  church  labonng,  by  the  aid  of  their 
impious  frauds,  to  overturn  its  ancient  govern- 
ment, to  undermine  the  authority  of  its  bishops^ 
to  engross  its  riches  and  revenues  into  their  own 
hands ;  nay,  what  is  still  more  horrible,  it  repre- 
sents them  aiming  perfidious  blows  at  the  thrones 
of  princes,  and  endeavouring  to  lessen  their 
power  and  to  set  bounds  to  their  dominion.  The 
Ignorance  and  corruption  that  dishonored  the 
Christian  church  in  this  century  were  great  be- 
yond measure. 

About  the  year  877  pope  John  VIII.  con- 
vened a  council  at  Troyes  in  France,  one  of  the 
canons  of  which  is  sufficiently  remarkable  to  be 
adduced  as  'a  specimen  of  the  spirit  of  the  times. 
It  expressly  asserts  that  *  the  powers  of  the 
world  shall  not  dare  to  seat  themselves  in  the 
presence  of  the  bishops  unless  desired.'  Thus 
the  power  and  influence  of  the  pontiffs,  in  civil 
affairs,  rose,  in  a  short  time,  to  an  enornious 
height,  through  the  favor  and  protection  of  the 
princes  in  whose  cause  they  had  employed  the 
mffuence  which  superstition  had  given  tb.em 
over  the  minds  of  tne  people.  The  increase  of 
their  authority  in  religious  matters  was  not  less 
rapid  or  less  considerable ;  and  it  arose  from  the 
same  causes.  The  Roman  pontiffs,  elate  with 
their  overgrown  prosperity  and  the  daily  acces- 
sions that  were  made  to  their  authority,  were 
eagerly  bent  upon  persunding  all,  and  had  in- 
deed the  good  fortune  to  persuade  many,  that  the 
bishop  of  Rome  was  constituted,  by  Jesus  Christ, 
supreme  legislator  and  jtidge  of  the  church  uni- 
versal ;  and  that,  therefore,  the  bishops  derived 
all  their  authority  from  the  Roman  pontiff,  nor 
could  the  councils  determine  any  thing  without 

Google 


Digitized  by 


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654 


ROMAN    CATHOLICISM. 


bis  permission  and  consent.  After  the  death  of 
Lando,  who  only  enjoyed  the  dignity  for  a  short 
time  in  the  year  914,  John  X.  obtained  the  pon- 
tifical chair  through  the  intrigues  of  a  celebrated 
prostitute,  Theodora,  with  whom  he  had  long 
oeen  intimate,  notwithstanding  his  elevated  star 
tion  in  the  church.  As  John  was  indebted  for 
his  rank  and  elevation  in  the  church  to  the  in- 
trigues of  one  in&mous  woman  so  he  lost  his 
dignity  and  life  through  those  of  another.  This 
was  Marozia,  the  daughter  of  his  former  mistress 
Theodoia.  Marozia,  exasperated  that  she  did 
«20t  succeed  her  mother  in  the  confidence  of  the 
pope,  resolved  to  destroy  him  and  his  brother 
Peter ;  who,  at  this  time,  was  in  habits  of  the 
strictest  intimacy  with  him.  She  communicated 
the  bloody  design  to  her  husband,  and  prevailed 
on  him  not  only  to  approve  but  to  be  the  instru- 
ment of  carrying  it  into  execution.  Accordingly 
this  wretch,  on  a  certain  day,  when  this  pope  and 
his  brother  were  together  in  the  Lateran  palace, 
broke  in  at  the  head  of  a  band  of  ruffians,  killed 
Peter  before  his  brother*s  face;  and  then,  seizing 
the  pope,  dragged  him  to  prison,  where  he  soon 
afterwards  died.  This  licentious  pontiff  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Leo  VI.,  who  sat  but  seven  months  in 
the  apostolic  chair,  which  was  filled  after  him  by 
Stephen  VII.  The  de^h  of  the  latter,  which 
happened  in  the  year  931,  presented  to  the  am- 
bition of  Marozia  an  object  worthy  of  its  grasp ; 
and  accordingly  she  raised  to  the  papal  dignity 
John  XL,  who  was  the  fruit  of  |)er  lawless 
amours  with  one  of  the  pretended  successors  of 
St  Peter,  Sergius  III.,  whose  adulterous  com* 
merce  with  tmit  infemous  woman  gave  an  infal- 
lible guide  to  the  Roman  church.  John  XL, 
who  was  thus  placed  at  the  head  of  the  church 
by  the  credit  and  influence  of  his  mother,  was 

Sulled  down  from  this  summit  of  spiritual  gran- 
eur,  A.D.  933,  by  Alberic  his  naif  brother. 
Upon  the  death  of  A^petus  II.,  which  happened 
in  the  year  956,  Albenc  II.,  who,  to  the  dimity  of 
Roman  consul  joined  a  degree  of  authonty  and 
opulence  which  nothing  could  resist,  raised  to 
the  pontificate  his  son  Octavian,  who  vras  yet  in 
the  early  bloom  of  youth,  and  destitute  of  every 
auaUty  that  was  required  for  discharging  the 
duties  of  that  high  and  important  office.  This 
unworthy  pontiff,  who  assumed  the  name  of  John 
XII^  was  as  unhappy  as  his  promotion  had  been 
scandalous.  Being  degradea  in  the  most  igno- 
minious manner  from  ms  high  office  by  Otho  the 
Great,  LeoVIII.  was  appointed  to  fill  his  place. 
After  this  he  several  times  conspired  against  the 
life  of  the  new  pope,  and  was  as  frequently  par- 
doned ;  till  at  length  he  contrived  to  set  himself 
again  on  the  papd  throne.  John  instantly  as- 
sembled a  council  of  prelates  and  cardinals,  who 
condemned  the  council  that  had  deposed  him, 
and  passed  different  sentences  of  condemnation 
on  all  those  who  had  been  accessary  to  the  eleva- 
tion of  his  rival.  John  did  not  long  survive  the 
holding  of  this  council :  for,  having  engaged  in  a 
criminal  connexion  with  a  married  woman,  the 
iniured  husband,  who  caught  him  in  the  act,  put 
an  end  to  the  life  and  debaucheries  of  his  holi- 
ness by  some  violent  blows  which  he  gave  him 
on  his  temples. 
Thet  Roman  pontiff,  who  before  this  period 


had  pretended  to  the  ri^t  of  creatiiig  saints  hf 
his  sole  authority,  gave  in  this  century  the  fint 
specimen  of  this  ghostly  power — for  in  the  pre- 
ceding ages  there  is  no  example  of  his  bivmg 
exercised  this  privilege  alone.  This  spectraoi 
was  given  in  the  year  993  by  Joba  XW  at  a 
council  held  at  the  Lateran  palace,  who,  after 
hearing  read  an  account  of  the  life  and  supposed 
miracles  of  Ulderic,  bishop  of  Augusta,  declared, 
with  the  approbation  of  nis  bishops,  that  from 
thenceforth  Ulderic  might  be  worshipped  and 
invoked  as  a  saint  in  heaven  reigning  vnth  Christ. 
This  is  the  first  instance  on  record  of  the  solemn 
canonisation  of  a  pretendedly  meritorious  cha- 
racter, a  practice  which  soon  contributed  to 
crowd  the  Roman  calendar  with  saints,  and 
loaded  the  church  with  wealth  by  the  rich  offi?r- 
ings  with  which  the  superstitious  multitude  were 
encouraged  to  propitiate  the  &vor  of  these  new 
mediators  between  God  and  man.  The  adminis- 
tration of  John  XV.  was  as  happy  as  the  troubled 
state  of  the  Roman  affairs  would  permit ;  but  the 
tranquillity  he  enjoyed  was  not  so  much  the 
effect  of  his  wisdom  and  prudence  as  of  hb  btring 
a  Roman  by  birth  and  a  descendant  from  noble 
and  illustrious  ancestors. 

Several  learned  writers  have  observed  that,  in 
this  century,  certain  bishops  mentioned  publicly 
that  the  Roman  pontifis  were  not  only  bishops  of 
Rome,  but  of  Uie  whole  wbrid ;  an  asaertion 
which  hitherto  none  had  ventured  to  make ;  and 
that  even  among  the  Ffeodi  clergy  it  had  been 
affirmed  by  some  that  the  authority  of  die  bishops, 
though  divine  in  its  origin,  was  conveyed  to 
them  by  St  Peter,  the  prince  of  the  apostles. 
It  was  no  doubtful  mark  of  the  progress  and 
strength  of  the  Christian  cause  that  the  European 
kings  and  princes  began  so  early  as  this  cemnry 
to  form  the  project  of  a  holy  irar  Minst  the 
Mahomejtans,  who  were  masters  of  ndestine ; 
they  considered  it  as  anintolemble  reproach  upon 
Christians  that  the  very  land  in  whicn  the  divine 
author  of  their  religion  had  received  his  birth, 
exercised  his  ministry,  and  made  expiation  for 
the  sins  of  mortals,  should  be  abandoned  to  tbc 
enemies  of  the  Christian  name.  They  also  looked 
upon  it  as  highly  just  and  suitable  to  ^e  majesty 
of  the  Christian  rdigion  to  avenge  the  calamities 
and  injuries,  the  persecution  and  reproach, 
which  its  professors  had  suffered  under  the  Ma- 
hometan yoke.  Tlie  bloody  signal  was  accord- 
ingly given  towards  the  conclusion  of  this  cen- 
tury by  the  Roman  pontiff  Sylvester  II.,  and  that 
in  the  first  year  of  hjs  pontificate ;  and  this  signal 
was  an  epistle,  written  in  the  name  of  the  ch^irch 
of  Jerusalem,  to'  the  church  universal  throughout 
the  world;  in  which  the  European  powers  are 
solemnly  exhorted  and  entreated  to  succor  and 
deliver  the  Christians  in  Palestine.  The  exhor- 
tations of  the  pontiff  were,  however,  without  ef- 
fect, except  upon  the  inhabitants  of'  Pisa,  who 
are  said  to  have  obeyfHl  the  papal  summons  with 
the  utmost  alacrity,  and  to  have  prejpared  them- 
selves immediately  for  a  holy  campaign.  The 
see  of  Rome  after  the  death  of  Sylvester  IL, 
which  happened  in  the  year  1003,  «-as  fiHed 
successively  by  John  XVI I.,  John  XVIII.,  Bene- 
dict VIIL,  and  John  XIX.,  none  of  whose  pon- 
tificates were  distinguished  by  any  memorable 


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€Teiitl ;  they'  w^re  not,  however,  cfaatgeahle  with 
dishonoring  their  high  stations  by  that  licentious- 
ness and  immorality  that  retidered  so  many  of 
their  successors  infamous ;  their  lives  were  vir- 
tuous; at  least  their  conduct  was  decent..  But 
their  examples  had  little  effect  upon  Benedict 
IX.,  a  most  abandoned  profligate  and  a  wretch 
capable  of  ^e  most  horrid  crimes^  whose  flagi- 
tious conduct  drew  upon  him  the  just  resent^ 
raent  of  the  Romans ;  who,  in  the  year  1038,  de- 
graded him  from  his  office. 

A.  D.  1048  Bruno,  bishop  of  Touly  was  ap- 
pointed to  the  pontificate.  Tnis  prelate  is  known 
in  the  list  of  the  popes  by  the  name  of  Leo  IX^ 
and  his  private  virtues,  as  well  as  his  public  acts 
of  seal  and  piety  in  the  goversment  of  the  church, 
weredeemea  meritorious  enough  to  entitle  him  to 
a  place  among  the  saintly  order.  But,  if  we  de- 
duct from  these  pretended  virtues  his  vehement 
zeal  for  augmenting  the  opulence  and  authority 
of  the  church  of  Rome,  axkd  his  laudable  severity 
in  correcting  and  punishing  certain  enormous 
vices  which  were  common  among  the  clergy  dur- 
ing his  pontificate,  there  will  remain  little  in  the 
life  and  administration  of  this  pontiff  that  could 
sive  him  any  pretensions  to  his  distinction. 
Being  taken  prisoner  by  his  enemies,  and  led 
captive  to  fienevento,  dismal  reflections  upon 
his  unhappy  fiite  preyed  upon  his  spirits,  and 
threw  him  into  a  dangerous  illness :  so  that  after 
a  year's  imprisonment  he  was  sent  to  Rome,- 
where  he  concluded  his  days  on  the  19th  of 
April  1064. 

Before  the  pontificate  of  Nicholas  II.,  A.D. 
1058,  the  popes  were  chosen  not  only  by  the 
suffrages  of  the  cardinals,  but  also  bv  those  of  the 
whole  Roman  clergy,  the  nobility,  the  burgesses, 
and  the  assembly  of  the  people.  To  increase 
the  papal  influence,  and  to  limit  that  of  the  lower 
cleigy  and  of  the  people  as  far  as  was  possible,  this 
artfiil  and  provident  pontiff  bad  a  law  passed  by 
whidi  the  cardinals  were  empowered,  upon  a 
vacancy  in  the  see  of  Rome,  to  elect  a  new  pope 
without  any  prejudice  to  the  ancient  privileges- 
of  the  Roman  emperors  in  this  important  matter. 
Not  that  the  rest  of  the  clergy,  with  the  burgesses, 
and  people,  were  wholly  exduded  from  sdl  part 
in  this  election,  since  their  consent  was  solemnly 
demanded,  and  also  esteemed  of  much  weight; 
but,  in  consequence  of  this  new  regulation,  the 
cardinals  acted  the  principal  part  in  the  creation 
of  the  new  pontiff ;  tnough  th^  suffered  for  a  long 
time  much  opposition  both  from  the  sacerdotal 
order  and  the  Roman  citizens,  who  were  con- 
stantly either  redaimina  their  ancient  rights,  or 
abusing  the  privilege  ihey  yet  Detained,  of  con- 
firming the  election  of  every  new  pope  by  their 
approbation  and  consent. 

In  the  following  century  an  end  was  put  to  all 
these  disputes  by  Alexander  II.,  who  was  so  for- 
tunate  as  to  complete  what  Nicolas  had  only  be^ 
gun,  ^d  who  tnmsferred  and  confirmed  to  the 
cardinals  the  right  of  electing  to  the  apostolic 
see,  excluding  the  nobility,  the  people,  and  the 
rest  of  the  clergy,  from  all  concern  in  this  im- 
portant matter.  Passing  over  the  contentions 
between  Henry  IV.  and  Alexander  we  come  to 
the  turbulent  pontificate  of  Hildebrand,  originally 
a  monk  of  the  order  of  Clugny,  who  found  means 


to  obtain  a  cardinal's  hat.  He  was  a  man  of  n 
restless,  fiery,  and  enterprising  disposition ;  but 
chiefly  remarkable  for  bis  furious  zeal  for  tlve 
.pretensions  .of  the  church.  He  was  bom  at 
Soana,  in  Tuscany^  of  obscure  parents,  brought 
up  at  Rome,  and  had  been  frequently  employed 
by  that  court  to  manage  various  political  coi^ 
cems  which  reouired  dexterity  and  resolution ; 
and  he  rendered  himself  famous  in  all  parts  of 
Italy  for  his  zeal  and  intrepidity.  Hildebrand 
iiad  interest  enough  to  procure  himself  to  be 
elected  to  the  pontifical  chair  in  1073,  on  the 
same  day  that  Alexander  was  interred,  by  the 
title  of  Gregory  VII. ;  and  the  papacy  has  not 
produced  a  more  extraordinary  character.  '  AU 
that  the  malice  or  flattery  of  a  multitude  of 
writers  have  said  of  this  pope,'  says  Voltaire,  *  is- 
concentrated  in  a  portrait  drawn  of  him  by  a 
Neapolitan  artist,  in  which  Gregory  is  represent- 
ed as  holding  a  crook  in  one  hand  and  a  whip  in 
the  other,  trampling  sceptres  under  his  feet,  with 
St.  Peter's  net,  and  fishes  on  either  side  of  him.* 
Gr^oxy  was  installed  by  the  people  of  Rome^ 
without  consulting  the  emperor,  as  had  hitherto 
been  customary.  But,  though  Henry  had  not 
been  consulted  upon  the  occasion,  Gregory  pru- 
dently waited  for  his  confirmation  of  the  choice 
before  he  assumed  the  chair.  He  obtained  it  by 
this  mark  of  submission :  the  emperor  confirmed 
ho  .election :  and  the  new  pontiff  was  not  dila- 
tory in  pulling  off  the  mask ;  for  in  a  little  time 
he  raised  a  storm  which  fell  with  violence  upon 
the  head  of  Henry,  and  shook  all  the  thrones  in 
Christendom.  He  began  his  pontificate  with  ex^ 
communicating  every  ecclesiastic  who  should  re- 
ceive a  benefice  from  a  layman,  and  every  layman 
by  whom  such  benefice  should  be  conferred. 
This  was  engaging  the  church  in  a^  open  war 
with  all  the  sovereigns  of  Europe.  It  was  evi- 
dent, indeed,  that  Gregoiy  formed  the  project  of 
making  himself  lord  of  .Christendom,  by  at  once 
dissolving  the  jurisdiction  which  kings  and  em- 
perors had  hith^to  exercised  over  the  various 
orders  of  the  deray,  and  by  subjecting  to  the 
papal  authonty  all  temporal  princes,  rendering 
their  dominions  tributary  to  the  see  of  Rome : 
and,  however  romantio  the  undertaking  may  ap- 
pear, it  was  not  altomther  without  sucoees.  The 
pretensions  of  the  Romish  church  had  at  this 
time,  says  Mr.  Southey,  •  been  carried  to  the 
highest  pitch  by  Gregory  VII.,  one  of  those 
restless  spirits  who  obtain  an  opprobrious  renown 
in  lustoiy  for  distiurbing  the  age  in  which  they 
live.  Ine  Romanists  themselves  acknowledge, 
now  the  inordinate  jambition  of  this  haughty 
pontiff,  who  may  be  deemed  the  founder  of  the 
papal  dominion ;  but,  during  many  centuries,  he. 
was  held  up  as  an  ol^ect  'Of  admiration  to  the 
Christian  world,  and  still  holds  his  place  as  a 
saint  in  the  Romish  calendar.  His  sanctity,  the 
legends  of  that  church  relate,  was  prefiguied  in 
childhood,  by  sparks  proceeding  from  his  gar- 
ments and  a  lambent  light  which  appeared  to  isn 
sue  from  his  head.  He  himself  affirmed  that,  in 
a  dream,  there  went  forth  fire  from  his  mouth  and 
set  the  world  in  flames ;  and  his  enemies,  who 
vilified  him  as  a  sorcerer,  admitted  that  such  a 
vision  was  appropriate  to  one  who  was  indeed  a 
firebrand.    Anotner  of  his  dreams  was  that  he 


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saw  St  Pftul  clearing  out  dung  from  hit  church, 
wherein  cattle  had  ttdcen  shelter,  and  calling  up- 
on him  to  assist  him  in  the  work ;  and  certam 
persons  who  were  keeping  vigils  in  St.  Peter's 
church  heheld,  in  a  waking  vision,  St.  Peter  and 
Hildebrand  laboring  at  the  same  task.  By  such 
artifices  his  reputation  for  sanctity  was  establish- 
«d  among  the  people,  while  he  obtained  promo- 
tion for  his  activity  and  talents;  till  at  length, 
rather  by  intrigue  and  popular  outcry  than  by 
canonical  election,  he  was  chosen  pope.  Hither- 
to the  popes  had  recognised  the  supremacy  of 
the  emperors,  by  notifying  to  them  their  elec- 
tion before  they  were  consecrated,  and  having 
that  ceremony  performed  in  the  presence  of  an 
imperial  envoy.  Hildebrand  conformed  to  this, 
bemg  conscious  that  his  elevation  was  informal, 
and  glad  to  have  it  thus  ratified.  The  first  use 
he  made  of  the  power  which  he  had  thus  obtain- 
ed was  to  throw  off  all  dependence  upon  the 
temporal  authority,  and  establish  a  system 
whereby  Rome  should  again  become  the  mistress 
•of  the  world.  A  gtander  scheme  never  was. de- 
vised by  human  ambition,  and,  wild  as  it  may 
appear,  it  was  at  that  time,  in  many  points,  so 
beneficial  that  the  most  upright  man  might  con- 
scientiously have  labored  to  advance  it.  whether 
the  desire  of  benefiting  mankind  bad  any  place 
amonff  the  early  impulses  of  Hildebrand  may  be 
well  doubted,  upon  the  most  impartial  consider- 
ation of  bis  conduct ;  but  in  preparing  the  way 
for  an  intolerable  tyranny,  and  for  the  worst  of 
ail  abuses,  be  began  by  reforming  abuses  and 
vindicating  legal  rights.  Such  a  government 
Hildebrand  would  have  ^founded ;  and  Christen- 
dom, if  his  plans  had  been  accomplished,  would 
have  become  a  federal  body,  tiie  kings  and 
princes  of  which  should  have  boand  themselves 
to  obey  the  vicar  of  Christ,  not  only  as  their 
spiritual,  but  their  temporal  lord ;  and  their  dis- 
putes, instead  of  being  decided  by  the  sword, 
were  to  have  been  referred  to  a  council  of  pre- 
lates annually  assembled  at  Rome.  Unhappily, 
the  personal  character  of  this  extraordinary  man 
counteracted  the  pacific  part  of  his  schemes ; 
and  he  became  the  firebrand  of  Europe,  instead 
of  the  peacemaker.  Hitherto  the  princes  of 
Christendom  had  enjoyed  the  right  of  nominating 
bishops  and  abbots,  and  of  giving  them  investi- 
ture by  the  ring  and  crosier.  The  popes,  on  their 
part,  had  been  accustomed  to  send  legates  to  the 
emperors  to  entreat  their  assistance,  to  obtain 
their  confirmation,  or  to  desire  them  to  come  and 
receive  papal  sanction.  Gregory,  now  resolving 
to  push  the  claim  of  investitures,  sent  two  of  his 
legates  to  summons  Henry  to  appear  before  him 
as  a  delinquent,  because  he  still  continued  to 
bestow  investitures,  notwithstanding  the  papal 
decree  to  the  contrary :  adding  that,  if  he  failed 
to  yield  obedience  to  the  church,  he  must  expect 
to  be  excommunicated  and  dethroned.  This  ar- 
rogant message,  from  one  whom  he  regarded  as 
his  vassal,  greatly  provoked  Henry,  who  abruptly 
dismissed  the  legates,  and  lost  no  time  in  con- 
voking an  assembly  of  princes  and  dignified  ec- 
clesiastics at  Worms ;  where,  after  mature  deli- 
beration they  came  to  this .  conclusion :  that, 
Gre^ry  having  usurped  the  chair  of  St.  Peterbv 
indirect  means,  infected  the  church  of  God  with 


many  novelties  and  abuses,  and  deviated  fton 
his  duty  to  his  sovereign  in  several  instinces.(ije 
emperor,  by  the  supreme  autfiority  derived  frem 
his  predecessor^,  ought  to  divest  him  sf  his  dig- 
nity, and  appoint  a  successor.  In  the  articles  of 
accusation  it  was,  among  other  things,  imputed 
to  Gregory  that  he  was  an  apostate  monk,  an  in- 
cendiary, a  sacrilegist,  a  murderer,  a  liar,  an 
abettor  of  adultery  and  incests.  Heniy,  conse- 
quently, sent  an  ambassador  to  Rtne,  with  a 
formal  deprivation  of  Gregory :  who,  in  histonv 
convoked  a  council,  at  which  were  present  110 
bishops,  who  unanimously  agreed  that  the  pope 
had  just  cause  to  depose  Henry,  to  amsl  the 
oath  of  allegiance  which  the  princes  and  stales 
had  taken  in  his  favor,  and  to  proliibit  tfaea 
from  holding  any  correspondence  with  him  os 
pain  of  excommunication.  Hildebrand's  ha- 
guage  was,  that,  if  kinss  presumed  to  disob^ 
the  edicts  of  the  apostolic  see,  they  were  cut  off 
from  participating  in  the  body  and  blood  of 
Christ,  and  forfeited  their  dignities.  For  if  dut 
see  had  power  to  determine  and  judge  io  things 
celestial  and  spiritual,  how  much  more  in  thii^ 
earthly  and  secular  I  The  church,  he  affinniS, 
had  power  to  give  or  take  away  all  empires, 
kingaoms,  duchies,  principalities,  marquisates, 
countries,  and  possessions  of  all  men  whatsoever. 
A  sentence  of  deprivation  was  immediately  fbl- 
minated  against  tne  emperor  and  his  adherents : 
*  In  the  name  of  Almighty  God  and  by  your  au- 
thority,* said  Gregory,  addressing  the  members  of 
his  council,  '  I  prohibit  Henry  from  governing 
the  Teutonic  kingdom  and  Italy ;  I  release  all 
Christians  from  their  oath  of  allegiance  to  him; 
and  I  strictly  forbid  all  persons  to  serve  or 
attend  him  as  king/  This  is  the  first  instance  of 
a  pope  presuming  to  deprive  a  sovereign  of  his 
crovm ;  but,  unhappily,  it  was  too  flattering  to 
ecclesiastical  pride  to  be  the  last.  Gregory  well 
knew  what  consequences  would  result  from  the 
thunders  of  the  church.  The  bishops  in  Ger- 
many immediately  came  over  to  his  partr,  and 
drew  with  them  many  of  the  nobles.  Tbe  Saxons 
took  the  opportunity  of  revolting:  even  dte 
emperor's  favorite  Guelf,  a  nobleman  to  whom 
he  nad  given  the  ducliy  of  Bavaria,  supported 
the  malcontents  with  that  very  power  which  he 
owed  to  his  sovereign's  bounty ;  and  the  princes 
and  prelates  who  had  assbted  in  deposhi^  Gre- 
gory gave  up  their  monarch  to  be  tried  by  the 
pope,  who  was  requested  to  come  to  Augsburg 
for  that  purpose.  To  avoid  the  odium  of  this 
impending  trial  Henry  submitted  to  the  degrada- 
tion of  preparing  to  throw  himself  at  the  feet  of 
the  pontifi*,  to  solicit  absolution.  It  was  some 
time  before  the  pontiff  would  admit  the  monarch 
into  his  presence;  and  when  the  .order  was  issued 
for  that  purpose,  it  was  on  the  condition  that  he 
should  enter  at  the  outer  gate  of  the  fortress 
without  attendants ;  and  at  the  next  gate  he  was 
required  to  divest  himself  of  the  ensigns  of  roy- 
alty, and  put  on  a  coarse  woollen  tunic,  in  which 
dress,  and  barefooted,  he  was  suffered  to  stand 
for  three  whole  days  at  the  third  gate,  expoesed 
to  the  severity  of  the  weather,  lasting  and  im- 
ploring the  mercy  of  God  and  the  pope.  The 
pope  from  one  of  the  windows  of  his  castle, 
where  he  was  seated  with  the  counter  Matilda, 


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whose  close  intimacy  with  Gregory  led  to  too 
well  founded  suspicions  of  his  virtue,  enjoyed 
the  exquisite  pleasure  of  seeing  an  emperor  in 
sackclodi  and  bareheaded  at  his  gate.    At  length 
the  persons  of  distinction  who  were  with  Gre- 
gory, affected  at  the  sufferings  of  the  king,  began 
to  complain   of  the   severity  of  his  holiness, 
which  tney  said  was  more  l>ecoming  a  tyrant 
than  an  apostolical  father  or  judge :  these  reports 
were  earned  to  the  pope,  who,  on  the  fourth  day, 
admitted   the  king,   and  after  much  difficulty 
granted   him  absolution.     That  Gr^ory   bad 
formed  the  audacious  plan  of  subjecting  all  the 
thrones  of  Europe  to  tlie  Roman  see  is  undoubt- 
edly evident,  both  from  his  own  epistles  and  also 
firom  other  authentic  records  of  antiquity.    The 
nature  of  the  oath  he  drew  up  for  the  king  or 
emperor  of  the  Romans,  from  whom  he  demand- 
ed a  profession   of  subjection  and  allegiance, 
shows  abundantly  the  arrogance  of  his  preten- 
sions.   The  despotic  views  of  this  lordly  pontiff 
were,  however,  attended  with  less  success   in 
England  than  in  any  other  country.    .William 
the  Conquerer  was  a  prince  of  great  spirit  and 
resolution ;  extremely  jealous  of  his  rights,  and 
tenacious  of  the  prerogatives  he  enjoyed  as  a 
sovereign  and  independent  monarch;  and,  ac- 
cordingly, when  Gregory  wrote  him  a  letter  de- 
manding the«arrears  of  the  Peter-peooe,  and  at 
the  same  time  summoning  him  to  do  homage  for 
the  kingdom  of  England  as  a  iief  hf  the  aposto- 
lic see,  William  granted  the  former,  but  refused 
the  latter  with  a  noble  obstinacy :  declaring  that 
he  held  his  kingdom  of  God  only,  and  his  own 
sword.    Nothing  was  transacted  in  the  church 
but  by  his  directions :  by  his  sole  authority  he 
banished  or  imprisoned  the  bishops  whom  he  did 
not  like,  without  waiting  for  a  canonical  sentence. 
He  went  still  farther,  and  set  himself  in  some 
measure  above  the  popes,  by  forbidding  his  sub- 
jects to  receive  their  orders  or  acknowledge  Uieir 
authority,    without   his    permission.     'I   will 
never,*  said  the  monarch,  *  suffer  any  person  who 
refuses  me  the  securities  of  a  subject  to  enjoy 
estates  in  my  dominions.'    He  separated  the  ec- 
clesiastical m>m  the  civil  courts,  with  which  they 
had  hitherto  been  conjoined ;  and  he  deprived 
the  clergy  of  many  of  their  lands,  and  subjected 
the  rest  to  military  service.    Obliged  to  yield  to 
the  obstinacy  of  the  English  monarch,  whose 
name  struck  terror  into  the  boldest  hearts,  the 
restless  pontiff  addressed  his  imperious  mandates 
where  he  imagined  they  would  be  received  with 
more  facility.     Had  the  success  of  that  pontiff 
been  equal  to  the  extent'of  his  insolent  views,  all 
the  kingdoms  of  Europe  would  have  been,  at  this 
day,  tributary  to  the  Roman  see,  and  its  princes 
the  soldiers  or  vassals  of  St  Peter,  in  the  person 
of  his  pretended  vicar  upon  earth.    But,  though 
his  most  important  projects  were  ineffectual, 
many  of  his  attempts  were  crowned  with  a  &vo- 
rable  issue ;  for,  from  the  time  of  his  pontificate, 
the  f^ce   of  Europe  underwent  a  considerable 
change,  and  the  prerogatives  of  the  emperors  and 
other  sovereign  princes  were  much  diminished. 
The  first  idea  of  reconquering  Palestine  from  the 
Arabs  and  the  Turks,  by  an  army  of  Christians, 
is  attributed  to  Gregory  VII.    To  him  also  may 
be  ascribed  the  origin  of  indulgendies ;  of  those 
Vol.  XVIIf. 


pardons  for  another  life,  whatever  crimes  might 
De  commited  in  this ;  of  those  bills  of  exchange 
on  heaven,  for  which,  in  the  end,  the  popes  paid 
so  dearly  on  earth,  and  the  traffic  in  whiqh,  car- 
ried to  a  disgusting  excess,  became  the  first  acci- 
dental cause  of  the  Reformation.  Mosheim  has 
thus  summed  up  the  character  of  this  celebrated 
pontiff: — '  He  was,'  says  that  author,  *  a  man  of 
uncommon  genius,  whose  ambition  in  forming 
the  most  arduous  projects  was  equalled  by  his 
dexterity  in  bringing  them  into  execution ;  saga- 
cious, crafty,  and  intrepid,  nothing  could  escape 
his  penetration,  defeat  his  stratagems,  or  daunt 
his  courage;  haughty  and  arrogant,  beyond  all 
measure ;  obstinate,  impetuous,  and  intractable, 
he  looked  up  to  the  summit  of^universal  empire 
with  a  wishtul  eye,  and  labored  up  the  steep  as- 
cent with  uninterrupted  ardor  and  invincible 
perseverance.  Void  of  all  principle,  and  desti- 
tute of  every  pious  and  virtuous  feeling,  he  suf- 
fered little  restraint  in  his  audacious  pursuits 
from  the  dictates  of  religion  or  the  remonstrances 
of  conscience.* 

The  death  of  Gregory  neither  reared  peace 
to  the  church  nor  tranquillity  to  the  state ;  the 
tumults  and  divisions  which  he  had  excited  still 
continued,  and  thay  were  augmented  from  day 
to  day  by  the  same  passions  to  which  they  owed 
their  origin.  During  the  pontificate .  of  Urban 
Um  successor  to  Gregory,  the  project  of  Re- 
conquering Palestine  from  the  Mahometans  was 
renewed  by  the  enthusiastic  zeal  of  an  inhabitant 
of  Amiens,  who  was  known  by  the  name  of 
Peter  the  Hermit,  and  who  suggested  to  the 
Ronaan  pontiff  the  means  of  accomplishing 
what  haa  been  unluckily  suspended.  If  we 
examine  the  motives  that  engaged  the  Roman 
pontifl^,  and  particularly  Urban  II.,  to  kindle 
this  holy  war,  which  in  its  progress  and  issue 
was  so  detrimental  to  almost  all  tlie  countries  of 
Europe,  we  shall  probably  be  persuaded  that  its 
origin  is  to  be  derived  from  the  corrupt  notions 
of  religion  which  prevailed  in  these  barbarous 
times.  It  was  thought  inconsistent  with  the  duty 
apd  character  of  Christians  to  suffer  that  land 
that  was  blessed  with  the  ministry,  and  distin- 
guished by  the  miracles  of  the  Saviour  of  men, 
to  remain  under  the  dominion  of  his  most  in- 
veterate enemies.  It  was  also  looked  upon  as  a 
very  importanch  branch  of  true  piety  to  visit  the 
holy  place  of  Palestine ;  which  pilgrimages,  how- 
ever, were  extremely  dangerous  while  the  des- 
potic Saracens  were  in  possession  of  that  country. 

Urban  was,  indeed,  inferior  to  Gregory  in  for- 
titude and  Resolution;  he  was,  however,  his 
equal  in  arrc^nce  and  pride,  and  surpassed  him 
greatly  in  temerity  and  imprudence.  Gregory 
had  never  carried  matters  so  far  as  to  forbid  the 
bishops  and  the  clergy  to  take  the  oath  of  alle- 
giance to  their  respective  sovereigns.  This  re- 
bellious prohibition  was  reserved  for  the  audacity 
of  Urban,  who  publbhed  it  as  a  law  in  the 
council  of  Clermont.  In  the  same  spirit  he 
seduced  Conrad,  the  son  of  Henry  IV.,  into 
rebellion  against  his  father,  by  persuading- him 
that  it  was  lawful  for  subjects  to  break  dieir  oath 
of  allegiance  to  all  such  as  were  excommunicated 
by  the  pope.  Two  years  afterwards,  in  1099, 
both  Conrad  and  the  pope  died ;  the  latter  being 
Digitized  by  V23lI>U^ It: 


668 


ROMAN    CATHOLICISM. 


succeeded  in  the  papal  chair  by  Paschal  II. 
(another  Gregory),  and  the  former  by  his  younger 
brother  Henry,  as  king  of  Italy.  Paschal,  un- 
willing to  let  pass  unimproved  the  present  suc- 
cess of  the  papal  faction,  renewed  in  a  council 
assembled  at  Rome,  A.  D.  1102,  the  decrees  of 
his  predecessors  against  investitures,  and  the 
excommunications  they  had  thundered  out 
against  Henry  IV. ;  and  used  his  most  vigorous 
endeavours  to  raise  up  on  all  sides  new  enemies 
to  that  unfortunate  eo^eror.  Henry,  however, 
opposed  with  great  constancy  and  resolution  the 
efforts  of  this  violent  pontiff,  and  eluded  with 
much  dexterity  and  vigilance  his  perfidious  stra- 
tagems. But  his  heart,  wounded  in  the  ten- 
derest  part,  lo|^  alt  its  firmness  and  courage, 
when,  in  the  year  It 06,  an  unnatural  son,  under 
the  impious  pretext'  of  religion,  took  up  arms 
against  his  person  and  his  cause.  Henrv  V.,  so 
was  this  monster  afterwards  named,  seized  his 
fiither  in  a  most  treacherous  manner,  and  obliged 
him  to  abdicate  the  empire ;  after  which  the  un- 
happy prince  retired  to  Liege,  where,  deserted 
by  all  his  adherents,  he  departed  this  life  in  the 
year  llOA  It  has  been  a  matter  of  dispute, 
whether  it  was  the  instigation  of  the  pontiff,  or 
the  ambitious  and  impatient  thirst  after  dominion 
that  engaged  Henry  V.  to  declare  war  against 
his  father;  nor  is  it,  perhaps,  easy  to  decide  this 
Question.  One  thing,  however,  is  certain,  and 
that  is,  that  Paschal  II.  dissolved  Uie  oath  or 
fidelity  and  obedience  that  Henry  had  taken  to 
his  lather;  and  not  only  so,  but  adopted  the 
cause,  and  supported  the  interest  of  this  unna- 
tural rebel  with  the  utmost  zeal,  assiduity,  and 
ibrvor.  The  revolution  that  this  caused  in  the 
empire,  was,  however,  much  less  favorable  to 
the  views  of  Paschal,  than  that  lordly  pontiff 
expected.  The  pope  had  the  mortification  to 
find  thkt  the  new  emperor  was  determined, 
equally  with  his  predecessors,  to  maintain  his 
right  to  investitures. 

Nor  was  the  king  of  England  mors  disposed 
to  a  surrender  of  his  rights.  On  a  reference  by 
Anselm,  archbishop  of  CanterbuiY,  to  the  pope, 
on  the  subject  of  doing  homage  for  the  tem^U)- 
ralities  of  his  see,  the  messengers  returned  vrith 
an  answer,  in  which  the  pope  insisted  on  this 
point,  and  supported  it  by  the  strangest  distor- 
tion of  scripture :  ^  I  am  the  door ;  by  me  if  any 
man  enter  in  he  shall  be  saved.  He  that  entereth 
not  by  the  door  into  the  sheep-fold,  but  climbeth 
up  some  other  way,  the  same  is  a  thief  and  a 
robber.'  *  If  kings,'  says  the  pope,  'take  upon 
themselves  to  be  Sie  door  of  the  church,  whoso- 
ever enter  by  them  become  thieves  and  robbers, 
sot  shepherds.  Palaces  belong  to  the  emperors, 
churches  to  the  priest ;  and  it  is  written, '  render 
unto  Csesar  the  things  that  are  Caesar's,  and  unto 
God  the  things  that  are  God's.'  How  shamefiil 
is  it  for  the  mother  to  be  polluted  in  adultery  by 
her  sons  1  If,  therefore,  O  king,  thou  art  a  son 
of  the  church,  as  every  Catholic  Christian  is, 
allow  thy  mother  a  lawful  marriage,  that  the 
church  may  be  wedded  to  a  legitimate  husband, 
not  by  man,  but  by  Christ.  It  is  monstrous  for 
a  son  to  beg^t  his  father,  a  man  to  create  his 
God :  and  that  priests  are  called  Gods,  as  beii^ 
the  vicars  of  Christ,  is  manifested  in  scripture.* 


Such  alignments  were  more  likdy  ifi  ioceose 
than  satisfy  a  prince  of  Henry  B^deic^s  tm> 
derstanding.  He  commanded  Anselm  either  to 
do  homage  or  leave  the  kingdom,  and  Anselm 
with  equal  firmness  replied  that  he  would  do 
neither.  A  second  reference  to  Rome  ensued : 
two  monks  were  deputed  thither  by  tbe  primate, 
three  bishops  by  the  king.  The  pope  on  Has 
occasion  acted  with  a  consummate  daplicit),  for 
which  the  motive  is  not  apparent  To  tbe 
bishops  he  said  that,  as  their  king  was  in  otb& 
respects  so  excellent  a  prince,  he  would  consect 
to  his  granting  investitures ;  but  he  would  oot 
send  him  a  written  concession  lest  it  might  come 
to  the  knowledge  of  other  princes,  and  tbej 
should  thereby  be  encouraged  to  despise  the 
papal  authority.  By  the  monks  he  sent  letters 
to  Anselm,  exhorting  him  to  persist  in  hisre- 
'fusal.  Both  parties  made  their  report  before  the 
great  council  of  the  realm ;  the  prelates  solemoly 
asseverating  that  they  faithfully  repeated  what 
had  passed  between  them  ana  the  pope,  the 
monks  producing  their  letters.  On  the  one  part 
it  was  contended  that  oral  testimony  might  not 
be  admitted  against  written  documents;  on  the 
other,  that  the  solemn  declaration  of  three  pre- 
lates ought  to  outweigh  the  word  of  two  mo&ks 
and  a  sheet  of  sheep's  skin  with  a  leaden  seal. 
To  this  it  was  replied  that  ^e  gospel  itself  vas 
contained  in  skins  of  parchment. '  If,  howem, 
it  was  not  easy  to  determine  what  had  been  the 
real  decision  of  the  pontiff,  his  doable  dealing 
was  palpable;  and  Anselm  may  have  been  in- 
fluenced by  a  proper  feeling  of  indignation  when 
he  so  far  conceded  to  the  king  as  no  longer  lo 
refuse  communion  with  those  bishops  who  had 
received  investiture  firom  his  hands.  At  length, 
by  Henry's  desire,  Anselm  went  to  Rome  to 
joegociate  diere  in  person ;  and  the  matter  ended 
in  a  compromise,  uiat  so  laymen  should  iantA 
by  delivery  of  the  ring  and  crosier,  hot  that  pn- 
lates  should  perform  homage  for  thdr  tempo- 
falities.-  During  these  disputes  no  council  bad 
been:  held  in  England,  and  therefore  ^^^^ 
cay  of  discipline  vras  compbined  of.  The  mar- 
riage of  the  dergy  was  what  Anselm  regarded 
as  the  most  intolerable  of  all  abuses.  This  real 
abuse  had  grown  out  of  it,  that  tbe  son  sac- 
ceeded  by  inheritance  to  his  fiither^s  diurdi»a 
custom  which,  if  it  had  taken  root,  would  haye 
formed  the  clergy  into  a  separate  caste.  This, 
therefore,  was  justly  prohibited ;  hut  it  was 
found  necessary  to  dispense  with  a  canon  which 
forbade  the  ordination  or  promotion  of  tbe  sons 
of  priests,  because  it  appeared  that  the  best 
ijualifiedy.and  the  greater  part  of  the  clergy  vere 
in  that  predicament.  Canons,  each  severer  than 
the  last,  were  now  enacted  for  flie  prpose  of 
compelling  them  to  celibacy.  Mamed  priests 
were  required  immediately  to  put  away  their 
wives,  and  never  to  see,  or  speak  to  them,  ex- 
cept in  cases  of  urgent  necessity,  and  in  the  pre- 
sence of  witnesses.  They  who  disobeyed  were 
to  be  excommunicated;  their  goods  forfeited, and 
their  wives  reduced  to  servitude,  as  slaves  to  the 
bishop  of  the  diocese.  The  wife  of  a  priestwas 
to  be  banished  from  the  parish  in  which  her 
husband  resided,  and  conaemned  to  slavery  it 
sheever  held  any  intercourse  with  him;  and  no 


Digitized  by 


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ROMAN     CATHOLICISM. 


659 


.▼Oman  might  dwell  with  a  clergyman,  except 
she  were  his  sister  or  his  aunt,  or  of  an  age  to 
which  no  suspicion  could  attach.  In  It 07  the 
pope  presided  in  a  council  at  Trojes,  consisting 
of  the  bishops  from  many  places,  who  proved 
themseWes  to  be  wholly  subservient  to  the  am- 
bition of  the  tourt  of  Rome,  by  confirmins;  all 
the  decrees  relating  to  the  pretended  papal  right 
to  investitures. 

Henry  set  out  for  Rome' at  the  head  of  a  for- 
midable army,  and  effected  a  compromise,  A.  D. 
1110.  This  transitory  peace,  however,  was  fol- 
lowed by  greater  tumults  and  more  dreadful 
wars  than  l^d  yet  afflicted  the  church.  Imme- 
diately after  the  conclusion  of  the  treaty  Rome 
was  filled  with  the  most  vehement  commotions, 
^ind  a  loud  clamor  was  raised  against  the  pon* 
tiff,  who  was  accused  of  having  violated,  in  a 
scandalous  manner,  the  duties  and  dignities  of 
his  station ;  and  having  prostituted  the  majesty 
of  the  church  by  his  ignominious  compliance 
with  the  demands  of  the  emperor.  To  appease 
these  commotions,  Paschal  assembled  in  the  year 
1112a  council  in  the  Lateran  church,  and  not  only 
confessed,  with  contrition  and  humility,  the  fault 
he  had  committed  in  concluding  such  a  convention 
with  Henry,  but  submitted  the  question  to  the  de* 
termination  of  the  council,  who  accordingly  took 
that  treaty  into  consideration,  solemnly  annulled 
it,  and  sanctioned  the  excommunication  of  the 
emperor.  Hostilities  were  carried  on  by  both 
parties  till  1117,  when  Henry  resolved  to  bring 
matters  to  a  crisis,  and  set  out  a  second  time  for 
Italy  at  the  head  of  a  numerous  army.  But  in 
the  midst  of  these  warlike  prepaiations,  which 
drew  the  attention  t)f  Europe,  and  portended 
great  and  remarkable  events,  the  military  pontiff 
yielded  to  his  fate,  and  concluded  his  days,  A.D. 
1 118.  A  few  days  after  the  death  of  Pasohal, 
John  of  Gaieta,  a  Benedictine  monk  of  Mount 
Cassin  and  chancellor  of  the  Roman  church,  was. 
raised  to  the  pontificate  under  the  title  of  Ge- 
lasius  II.  In  opposition  to  this  choice,  Henry 
elected  to  the  same  dignity  Maurice  Burdin, 
archbishop  of  Braga,  in  Spain,  who  assumed 
the  denomination  of  Gregory  VIII. ;  upon  this 
Geiasius,  not  thinking  himself  safe  #  Rome,  or 
indeed  in  Italy,  set  out  for  France,  and  soon 
after  died  at  Clugni.  The  cardinals  who  accom- 
panied htm  in  his  journey,  elected  to  the  papacy 
immediately  after  his  decease,  Guy,  archbishop 
of  Vienne,  count  of  Burgundy,' who  vraB  nearly 
related  to  the  emperor,  and  is  distinguished  in 
the  list  of>  the  Roman  pontiffs  by  the  name  of 
Calixtot  II.  The  elevation  of  this  eminent  ee* 
clesiastic  was  in'  the  issue  extremely  fortmmte. 
Remarkably  distinguished  by  his  illustrious 
birth,  and  still  more  by  his  noble  and  heroic 
qualities,  this  magnanimous  pontiff  continued  to 
oppose  the  emperor  with  courage  and  success. 
He  made  himself  master  of  Rome,  threw  into 
prison  the  pontiff  that  had  been  chosen  by  the 
emperor,  and  fomented  the  civil  commotions  in 
Germany.  But  his  fortitude  and  resolution  were 
tempered  with  moderation,  and  accompanied 
with  a  spirit  of  generosity  afld  compliance, 
which  differed  much 'from  the  obstinate  arrogance 
of  his  lordly  predecessors.  Accordingly^  he  lent 
an  eiur  to  prudent  councils,  and  was  willing  to 


velinqni^  a  part  of  the  demands  upon  which  the 
former  pontiffs  had  so  vehemently  insisted,  that 
he  might  restore  the  public  tranquilli^,  and 
satisfy  the  ardent  desires  of  so  many  nations^ 
who  groaned  binder  the  dismal  effects  of  Ihesd 
deplorable  divisions.  Calixtus  did  not  long 
enjoy  the  fruits  of  the  peace  to  which  he  had  so 
much^contributed  by  his  prudence  and  modern^ 
tion,  for  he  died  A.  D.  1120. 

The  warm  contest  between  the  emperors  and 
the  popes,  which  vn»  considered  as  at  an  end 
since  the  time  of  Calixtus  II.,  was  unhappily  re* 
newed  under  the  pontificate  of  Adrian  IV.,  who 
was  a  native  of  £ngland,  and  whose  original  name 
was  N itholas  Breakspear.  Frederick  I.,  sumamed 
Barbarossa,  being  placed  in  1152  on  the  imperial 
throne,  publicly  declared  his  resolution  to  main- 
tain the  digni^^  and  privileges  of  the  Roman 
toipire  in  general,  and  more  particularly  to  ren- 
der it  respectable- in  Italy;  nor  was  he  at  all  stu-. 
dious  to  conceal  the  design  he  had  formed  of  re- 
ducing the  oTe^fprowir  power  and  opulence  of 
the  pontifi^  and  clergy  within  narrow  limits. 
Adrian,  pehseiving  the  danger  that  threaitened 
the  majesty  of  the  church  and  the  authority  of 
the  clergy,  prepared  himself  for  defefiding  both 
with  vigor  and  constancy.  The  iirst  occasion 
of  trying  their  stresgth  was  offered  at  the  corona- 
tion of  the  emperor  at  Rome,  in  the  year  1155, 
whep  the  pontiff  insisted  on  Frederick  performing 
the  office  of  equerry,  by  holding  the  stirrup  to 
his  holiness.  This  'humbling  proposal  was:  at 
first  rejected  with  disdain  by  the  emperor.  An 
open  rapture  between  the  emperor  and  the  pon- 
tiff was  expected  as  the  inevitable  consequence 
of  such  measures^  when  the  d^ttfa  of  Adrian, 
which  happened  on  the  1st  of  September,  1159, 
suspended  the  storm. 

Giiy,  cavdinalpf  St.  Calixtus,  was  elected  pon- 
tiff A.  D»  1 164,  under  the  anspices  of  the  em* 
peioty  by  the  title  of  Paschal  III.  In  the  mean 
time  Alexander  III.,  wbo  had  been  chosen  by  the 
cardinals,  recovered  his  spirits,  and,  returning 
into  Italy,  maintained  his  cause  with  uncommon 
resolution  and  vigor,  and  not  without  some  'pro- 
mising hopes  of  success.  He  held  at  Rome,  in 
the  year  1167,  the  Laterau  council,  in  which  he 
solemnly  deposed  the  emperor,  whom  he  had 
upon  several  occasions  before  this  period  pub- 
licly loaded  with  anathemas  and  execrations; 
dissolved  the  oath  of  allegiance  which  his  sub- 
jects had  taken  to  him  as  Uieir  lawful  sove^ei|gn, 
and  encouraged  and  exhorted  them  to  rebel  against 
hi»  authority,  and  to  shake  off  his  yoke. '  But 
soon  after  this  audacious  proceeding  Frederick 
made  hiooself  master  of  Rome;  upon  which  the 
insolent  pontiff  fled  to  Beneventb,  and  left  the 
apostolic  chair  to  paschal  his  Oompetitor.  '  The 
arairs  of  Alexander  soon  after  took  a  mcne  pros- 
perous turn,  and  the  emperor,  after  hating,  dur- 
ing the  space  of  three  years,  been  alternately  de- 
feated and  victorious,  was  at  length  so  fhtigued 
with  the  hardships  he  had  suffered,  and  so  de^ 
■jected  at  a  view  of  the  difficulties  he  had  yet  to 
overbome,  that,  in  the  year  11 77,  he  concluded 
a  treaty  of  peace  at  Venice  with  Alexander,  and 
a  truce  with  the  rest  of  his  enemies.  It  was  not 
only  by  force  of  arms,  but  also  by  uninterrupted 
effbrts  of  dexterity  and  artifice,  by  vv'ne  counsel 
.2U2 

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ROMAN    CATHOLICISM. 


and  pradent  laws,  that  Alexander  III.  maintained 
the  pretended  rij^ts  of  the  church  and  extended 
the  authority  of  the  Roman  pontiffs.  For,  in  the 
third  council  of  the  Lateran,  held  at  Rome  A.D. 
1 179,  the  following  decrees,  among  many  others 
upon  different  subjects,  were  passed  by  his  ad- 
Tice  and  authority  : — Ist.  That,  in  order  to  put 
an  end  to  the  confusion  and  dissensions  which 
80  often  accompanied  the  election  of  the  Roman 
pottti&,  d^e  right  of  election  should  not  only  be 
inTested  in  the  cardinals  alone,  but  also  that  the 
person  in  whose  hvot  two-thirds  of  the  college 
of  cardinals  voted  should  be  considered  as  the 
lawful  and  duly  elected  pontiff.'  This  law  is 
still  in  force;  it  was,  theimre,  firom  the  time  of 
Alexander  tlua  the  election  of  the  pope  acquired 
that  form  which  it  ^till  retains,  and  by  which  not 
•only  the  people,  but  also  the  Roman  clergy,  are 
excluded  entirely  from  all  share  in  the  honor  of 
conferring  that  important  d^ity.  2d!y.  A  spi- 
ritual war  was  declared  against  heretics,  whose 
numbers  increasing  considerably  about  this  time 
created  much  disturbance  m  the  church  in  gene- 
raly  and  infested,  in  a  mwe  particular  manner, 
aereral  provinces  in  France,  which  groaned  un- 
<ler  the  fetal  dissensions  that  accompanied  the 
propagation  of  their  errors.  3dly,  The  right  of 
tecommending  and  nominating  to  the  saintly 
order  was  alw  taken  jaway  from  councils  and 
binhops ;  and  canonisation  was  ranked  among  the 
greater  and  more  important  causes  the  cogni- 
lance  of  which  belonged  to  the  pontiff  alone. 
To  all  tiiis  we  nrast  not  forget  to  add,  that  the 
power  of  erecting  new  kingdoms,  which  had  been 
■claimed  by  the  pontiffs  from  the  time  of  Gre* 
ipory  VII.,  was  not  only  assumed  but  also  .exer- 
cised by  Alexander  in  a  remarkable  instance ; 
for,  in  the  year  1 179,  he  conferred  the  title  of 
Jdnff  and  the  ensigns  of  royalty  noon  Alphonso 
I.  duke  of  Portugal,  who  under  tne  pontificate 
•of  Lucius  II.  had  rendered  his  province  tribu- 
tary to  the  Roman  see.  It  was  during  this  pon- 
tificate that  the  claims  of  the  Roman  priesthood 
cf  exemption  from  temporaljurisdiction,  became, 
in  the  person  of  Thomas  &  Becket,  matter  of  se- 
Aous  dispute  between  the  king  of  England  and 
Alexander;  the  latter  refusing  to  ratify  the  oon- 
Atitutions  of  Clarendon;  by  which  it  was  enacted 
■*  that  no  appeal  in  spiritual  causes  should  be 
carried  before  theholy  see ;'  and, '  that  churchmen 
-accused  of  any  crime  should  be  tried  in  the  civil 
courts/  Although  the  papal  sanction  was  refused, 
fftiH  much  was  ffained  by  even  the  agitation  of 
the  question,  and  by  the  proof  which  it  afforded 
cf  the  independence  of  the  English,  and  its  su- 
periority over  all  papal  doctrines  and  spiritual 
canons.  Rapin  says  that  above  100  murders 
had  been  committed  by  ecclesiastics,  not  one  of 
whom  was  so  much  as  ^punished  with  degrada- 
tion ;  hence  the  necessity  of  the  king's  determi- 
BflEtion. 

In  reviewing  the  state  of  the  church  in  this 
-century  it  will  appear  surprising  that  the  reli- 
fdaa  of  Jesus  was  not  totally  extinguished. 
Kelics,  which  vrere  for  the  most  part  fictitious, 
or  at  least  uncertain,  attracted  more  powerfully 
the  confidence  of  the  people  than  the  merits  of 
Christ.  The  opulent,  whose  circnmslances  en- 
abled them  to  erect  new  temples,  or  io  repair  or 


embellish  the  old,  were  looked  upon  as  the  hap- 
piest of  morfids,  and  were  considered  as  Oe 
most  intimate  friends  of  the  Most  High.    Hlule 
they  whom  poverty  rendered  incapable  of  iich 
pompous  acts  of  liberality  contributed  to  the  mul- 
tiplication of  religious  edifices  by  their  bodHj 
labors,  expecting  to  obtain  eternal  salvation  lijr 
these  voluntary  and  painful  efforts.   This  noirer. 
sal  reign  of  ignorance  and  superstition  was  dex- 
terously improved  to  fill  the  coffers  of  the  dniidi. 
Indeed  all  the  various  ranks  and  orders  of  the 
clergy  had  each  their  peculiar  method  of  fleeoog 
the  people.     The  bishops,  whoi  they  wanted 
money  ror  their  private  pleasures,  or  for  the  exi- 
gences of  the  churches,  granted  to  their  flocb 
the  power  of  purchasing  the  remission  of  the 
penalties  imposed  upon  transgressors  by  a  sum 
of  money,  which  was  to  be  applied  to  ceitahi 
religious  purposes ;  or,  in  other  words,  they  pub- 
lished inaulmnoes,  which  became  an  inexMosti- 
ble  source  of  opulence  to  the  episcopal  ocden; 
until  the  Roman  ponti^  casting  an  eje  upon 
the  immense  treasures  that  the  inferior  rulenof 
the  church  were  thus  accumulating  by  the  sale  of 
indulgences,  thought  proper  to  limit  the  power 
of  the  bishops  in  this  respect,  and  assumied  al- 
most entirely  this  profligate  traffic  to  theoselTa. 
In  consequence  of^this  new  measure  theoonit  of 
Rome  became  the  general  magazine  of  indul- 
gences ;  and  the  pontiffs,  when  either  the  wants 
of  the  church  or  tne  demon  of  avarice  prompted 
them  to  look  out  for  new  subsidies,  published  not 
only  a  universal,  but  also  a  commete,  or  whst 
they  called  a  plenary,  remission  or  all  the  tem- 
poral pains  and  penalties  which  the  churdi  had 
annexed  to  certain  transgressions.    They  went 
still  farther,  and  not  only  remitted  the  penalties 
which    the  civil   and   ecclesiastical  laws  bd 
enacted  against  transgressors,  but  audadooslj 
usurped  the  authority  which  belongs  to  God 
alone,  and  impiously  pretended  to  abolish  even 
the  punishments  which  are  reserved  in  a  fetun 
state  for  the  workers  of  iniquity;  a  step  this 
which  the  bishops,  with  all  their  avarice  and 
presumption,  haa  never  once,  ventured  to  take. 
To  justify  these  measures  of  the  pontifis  a 
most  moiStrous  and  absurd  doctrine  was  now 
invented,  which  was  modified  and  embeUiahed 
by  St.  Thomas  in  the  following  century,  and 
which  contained  among  others    the  following 
opinions : — *  That  the^re  actually  existed  aa  iin- 
mense  treasure  of  merit,  oompoeed  of  the  pioni 
deeds  and  virtuous  actions  which  the  saints  had 
performed,  beyoud  what  was  necessary  for  their 
own  salvation,  and  which  were  therefore  appli- 
cable to  the  benefit  of  others;  that  the  guardian 
and  dispenser  of  this  precious  treasure  was  the 
Roman  pontiff ;  and  that,  of  consequence^  he  was 
empowered  to  assign  io  sudi  as  he  thought  pio- 
per  a  portion  of  this  inexhaustible  source  of 
merit  suitable  to  their  respective  guilt,  and  sofi* 
cient  to  deliver  them  from  the  punishment  due 
to  their  crimes.'    It  is  a  most  aeplorable  maik 
oi  the  power  of  superstition  that  a  doctrine  so  ab- 
surd in  its  nature  and  so  pernicious  in  it&  effects 
should  yet  be  retained  and  defended  in  the 
church  of  Rome.    The  most  iUustrious  and  re- 
solute pontiff  that  filled  the  papal  chair  dtuing 
this  century,  and  whose  exploits  make  the  great- 


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661 


est  noise  iq""  Europe^  was  Lotharius  of  Segni, 
cardinal  deacon,  otnerwise  known  by  the  name 
of  Innocent  III.  This  pontiff,  who  was  placed 
at  the  head  of  the  church  in  ^the  year  lt96>  fol- 
lowed the  ateps  of  Gregory  VII.,  and  not  only 
usurped  the  despotic  government  of  the  church 
but  also  claimed  die  empire  of  the  world,,  and 
thought  of  nothing  less  than  subjecting  the  kings 
and  princes  of  the  earth  to  his  sceptre.  He  was 
a  man  of  learning  and  application;  but  his 
cruelty,  avarice,  and  arrogance,  clouded  th» 
lustre  of  the  good  qualities  which  his  panegyrists 
have  thought  proper  to  attribute  to  him.  In 
Asia  he  gave  a  king  to  the  Armenians ;  in  Europe 
he  usurped  the  same  extravagant  privilege  m 
the  year  1204,  and  conferred  the  regal  dignity 
upon  Primislaus  duke  of  Bohemia.  The  same 
year  he  sent  to  Johannicius,  duke  of  Bulgaria  and 
Walachia,  an  extraordinary  legate,  who  in  the 
name  of  the  pontiff  invested  that  prince  with 
the  ensigns  and  honors  of  royalty;  while,  with 
his  own  hand,  he  crowned  Peter  II.  of  Arragon, 
who  had  rendered  his  dominions  subject  and 
tributary  to  the  church,  and  saluted  him  publicly 
at  Rome  with  the  title  of  king.  We  omit  many 
«  other  examples  of  this  frenetic  pretension,  which 
might  be  produced  from  the  letters  of  this  arro- 
gant pontiff,  and  many  other  acts  of  despotism, 
which  Europe  beheld  not  only  with  astonishment, 
bnt  also,  to  its  eternal  reproach,  with  the  igno- 
minious silence  of  obedience.  The  ambition  of 
tills  pope  was  not  satisfied  with  the  distribution 
and  govprnment  of  these  petty  kingdoms.  He 
extended  his  views  farther,  and  resolved  to  render 
the  powei  and  majesty  of  the  Roman  see  formi- 
dable to  the  greatest  European  monarchs.  When 
the  empire  of  Germany  was  disputed,  towards  the 
commencement  of  this  century,  between  Philip 
duke  of  Suabia,  and  Otho  IV.  third  son  of  Henry 
the  Lion,  he  espoused  at  first  the  cause  of  Otho, 
thundered  out  his  excommunications  against 
Philip,  and  upon  the  death  of  the  latter,  which 
happened  in  the  year  1209,  placed  the  imperial 
diadem  upon  the  head  oi  his  adversary.  But  as 
Otho  was  by  no  means  disposed  to  submit  to 
this  pontiffs  nod,  or  to  satisfy  to  the  fiill  his  am- 
bitious desires,  he  incurred,  of  consequence,  his 
lordly  indignation ;  and  Innocent,  declaring  him 
by  a  solemn  excommunication  unworthy  of  the 
empire,  raised  in  his  place  Frederick  II.  his 
pupil,  the  son  of  Henry  VI.  and  king  of  the  two 
Sicilies,  to  the  imperial  throne  in  the  year  1212. 
If  a  prince  attempted  to  withdmw  from  this 
authority,  received  from  heaven,  the  pontiff  ani^ 
thematised  him,  expelled  him  out  of  the  commu^ 
nion  of  the  faithful,  and  his  deluded  subjects 
avoided  him  like  a  pestilence.  In  general  he 
went  and  solicited  the  pardon  of  the  irritated 
vice-god,  appealed  to  him  by  the  most  abject 
submission,  and  by  the  acknowledgment  of  all 
his  rights  which  the  arrogant  pontiff  demanded ; 
after  which  the  repentant  sovereign  was  re-estab- 
lished in  his  charge  and  his  honors ;  and  at  each 
similar  attempt  the  power  of  the  popes,  sanc- 
tioned and  increased,  became  still  more  strength- 
ened. In  the  third  canon  of  the  fourth  Interan 
council;  which  washolden  by  this  pope  in  1215, 
entitled  De  Hereticis,  the  church  excommuni- 
cates md  anathematises  every  herasy  which  op- 


posed the  faith  which  had  been  established  in 
that  church,  and  condemns  all  heretics  by  what- 
ever name  they  are  called.  The  secular  legisla- 
tures, whatever  be  their  power  or  titles,  are  ad- 
monished, and  if  necessary  are,  in  order  to  be 
considered  fiuthful  to  the  church,  to  exert  them- 
selves to  the  most  to  exterminate  all  those  whom 
the  church  defines  to  be  heretics.  If  the  princes 
to  whom  this  decree  of  the  church  shall  come  neg- 
lect to  obey  they  are  subject  to  excommunication.. 
If  it  be  notified  to  the  pope  that  the  contumacy 
of  any  prince  be  continued  more  than  one  year, 
his  vassals  may  be  absoUed  from  theu^  allegiance 
and  his  territory  be  allotted  to  another  who  shall 
exterminate  heretics  and  maintain  the  fiuth  in  its 
purity.  '  Under  this  young  and  ambitious  priest,' 
says  Gibbon, '  the  successors  of  St  Peter  attained- 
the  full  meridian  of  their  greatness ;  and  in  a 
reign  of  eighteen  years  he  exercised  a  despotic 
command  over  the  emperors  and  kings  whom  he 
raised  and  deposed  Over  the  nations ;  whom  an 
interdict  of  months  or  years  deprived,  for  the 
offence  of  their  rulers,  of  the  exercise  of  Christtan 
worship.  In  the  councils  of  Lateran  he  acted 
as  the  ecclesiastical,  almost  as  the  temporal, 
sovereign  of  the  east  and  west.  But  of  ail  the 
Enropean  princes  none  felt  in  so  dishonorable 
and  severe  a  manner  the  despotic  fury  of  this  in- 
solent pontiff  as  John,  sumamed  Sans  Terre^ 
king  of  England.'  See  our  article  England. 
'  Innocent  may  boast  of  the  two  most  signal 
triumphs  over  sense  and  humanity,  the  establish- 
ment of  transubstantiation  by  the  councils  of 
Lateran  in  1215,  and  the  oriffin  of  the  inquisi- 
tion. At  his  yoice  two  crusades,  the  fourth  and 
the  filth,  were  undertaken :  but,  except  a  king> 
of  Hungary,  the  princes  of  the  second  order 
were  alone  at  the  head  of  the  pilgrims ;  the  forces 
were  inadequate  to  the  design;  nor  did  the 
effects  eorrespoiid  with  the  hopes  and  wishes  of 
the  pope  and  the  people.  Innocent  did  not 
confine  his  efforts  to  the  holy  Idnd,  he  promoted, 
a  crusade  against  the  Albigenses.  He  first  at- 
tempted to  convert  them  by  his  missionaries^ 
one  of  whom  was  mnrdeied,  which  was  the  sig-^ 
nal  for  the  display  of  all  his  wrath ;  he  did  not 
even  deign  to  institute  an  enquiry,  but  ordered 
the  whole  race  to  be  pursued  with  fire  and 
sword,  and  to  be  treated  with^nore  severity  than 
the  Saracens  themselves.  About  200,000  lives 
were  sacrificed  in  the  terrible  war  in  a  few 
months,  and  barbarities  practised,  before  unheard 
of;  but  the  perpetration  of  them  was  applauded 
or  rewarded  bv  the  cruel  pontiff,  and  the  infernal 
spirit  by  which  they  had  been  actuated  was  im- 
piously called  zeal  in  supporting  the  cause  ol^ 
God  and  of  the  church.  In  the  year  1216  In- 
nocent undertook  a  journey  to  Pisa ;  but  on  his 
arrival  at  Perugia  he  was  attacked  with  a  violent 
disorder,  which  put  an  end  to  his  life  in  a  few 
da3rs.  Mr.  Berington  observes  of  this  pope  that 
*the  prerogative  of  the  holy  see,  built  up  by 
adulation  and  misjud^ng  zeal,  filled  his  mind ;. 
and  the  meteor  of  nniv^sal  empire  gleaming  on 
his  senses  did  not  permit  the  opoation  of  a  dis- 
passionate and  unoiassed  judgment.  No  tears 
were  shed  when  Innocent  fell,  but  those  which 
religion  wept,  too  justly  pained  by  the  inordinate 
exertions  and  worldly  views  of  her  first  minister.^ 


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ROMAN    CATHOLICISM. 


Ia  the  year  1227  Hueolm,  bishop  of  Ostia, 
whose  advanced  age  had  not  extinguished  the 
fire  of  his  ambition,  nor  diminished  the  firmness 
aod  obstinaL7  of  his  spirit^  was  raised  to  the 
pontificate,  assumed  the  title  of  Gregory  IX.» 
and  kindled  the  feuds  and  dissensions  that  had 
already  secretly  subsisted  between  the  church 
and  the  empire,  into  an  open  and  violent  flame. 
He  wrote  to  the  emperor,  Frederick  11.,  exhorting 
him  to  fulfil  the  solemn  promises  which  he  had 
made  to  embark  a  sufficient  army  for  the  relief 
of  the  Christians  in  the  east,  adding  the  severest 
menaces  if  he  should  decline  the  undertaking. 
Frederick,  obedieut  to  the  order,  at  length  em- 
barked for  Palestine ;  but,  not  having  sued  for 
absolution  before  his  departure,  he  was  still  the 
object  of  Gregory's  resentment;  who  took  every 
method  to  render  his  expedition  fruitless, 
and  to  exeite  civil  wars  in  his  Italian  dominions. 
Frederick,  having  received  information  of  these 
perfidious  and  violent  proceedings,  returned  into 
Europe  in  the  year  1229,  defeated  the  f^pal 
army,  retook  the  places  he  had  lost  in  Sicily 
and  in  Italy,  and  in  the  succeeding  year  made 
his  peace  with  the  pontiff  from  whom  he  re- 
ceived a  public  and  solemn  absolution.  The 
peace,  however,  was  but  of  a  short  duration ;  for 
the  emperor  could  not  tamely  bear  the  insolent 
proceeaings  and  the  imperious  temper  of  Gre- 
gory. He  therefore  brojke  all  measures  with  that 
headstrong  pontifi*,  which  drew  the  thunder  of 
the  Vatican  anew  upon  the  emperor's  head  in 
the  year  1239.  Frederick  was  excommunicated 
publicly  with  all  the  circumstances  of  severity 
that  vindictive  rage  could  invent,  and  was 
charged  with  the  most  flagitious  crimes,  and  the 
most  impious  blasphemies,  by  the  exasperated 
pontifl*.  The  emperor  on  the  other  hand  de- 
fended his  injured  reputation  by  solemn  declara- 
tions in  writing,  and  appealed  for  a  more  efficient 
vindication  to  his  sword.  To  extricate  himself 
from  his  perplexities,  the  pope  convened,  in  the 
year  1240,  a  general  council  at  Rome,  with  a 
view  of  deposing  Frederic  by  the  unanimous 
sufirages  of  the  cardinals  and  prelates  that  were 
to  compose  that  assembly.  But  the  emperor 
disconcerted  that  audacious  project  by  defeating 
in  the  year  1241  a  Genoese  fleet,  on  board  of 
which  the  greatest  part  of  thfese  prelates  were 
embarked,  and  by  seizing  with  all  their  treasures 
those  reverend  fathers,  who  were  all  committed 
to  close  confinement.  This  disappointment, 
together  with  the  approach  of  the  emperor  and 
his  victorious  army,  gave  such  a  shock  to  the 
pope,  that  he  was  seized  with  an  illness  which 
put  an  end  to  his  life  in  a  few  oays,  after  he  had 
been  at  the  head  of  the  church  nearly  fifteen 
years.  It  was  during  this  pontificate  that  the 
inquisition  was  established.    See  Inqoisitiov. 

After  the  death  of  Clement  IV.,  in  1268,  the 
Roman  see  was  vacant  for  nearly  three  years, 
owing  to  the  intrigues  of  the  cardinals,  as- 
sembled at  Viterbo,  who  all  aspired  to  the  dig- 
nity themselves  and  opposed  the  election  of  any 
other.  They  nltimately  chose  Theobald,  who 
was  at  that  time  with  die  crusaders  in  the  east. 
As  he  had  been  an  eye  witness  of  the  miserable 
condition  of  the  Christians  in  that  country,  he 
had  nothing  so  much  at  heart  as  the  d^ire  of 


contributing  to  their  reli^;  and,  imnKcbately 
after  his  consecration,  he  summoned  a  ^oimcil  at 
Lyons  in  the  year  1274,  in  which  tiie  icUef  and 
maintenance  of  the  Christians  in  Palestine,  aod 
the  reunion  of  the  Greek,  and  Latin  -dnirches, 
were  the  two  points  that  were  tooomeprincipaUj 
under  deliberation.  This  assembly  is  admow- 
ledged  as  the  fourteenth  general  council,  and  is 
rendered  particularly  remarkable  by  the  new 
regulations  that  were  introduced  into  the  manner 
of  electing  the  Roman  pontiff,  and  more  espe- 
cially by  the  famous  law  which  is  still  in  hof, 
and  by  which  it  was  enacted  that  the  caidinal 
electors  should  be  shut  up  in  the  cooclaTe 
during  the  vacancy  of  the  pontificate.  Theobald, 
who  had  assumed  the  title  of  Gregoiy  X.,  died 
soon  after  the  termination  of  the  council,  having 
held  the  Roman  see  four  years  and  four  months. 
During  sixteen  years  sevo^  popes  successiTelj 
occupied  the  papal  chair,  but  nothing  occuis  in 
their  history  worthy  of  special  notice.  Innocent 
v.,  who  succeeded  Gregory,  was,  before  his 
exaltation,  an  eminent  divine  and  diligent  writer, 
but  died  soon  after  his  consecration.  Adrian 
V.  died  at  Viterbo  before  bis  coosecralioa. 
Petro  Juliani,  formerly  a  learned  physician  at 
Lisbon,  succeeded  Adrian.  He  was  killed  by 
the  roof  of  his  apartment  fidling  in  upon  him, 
A.  D.  1277.  After  a  delay  of  six  months 
Nicholas  III.  was  elected.  He  was  a  great 
patron  of  the  Franciscans.  To  him  succeeded 
Martin  IV.  a  French  cardinal,  through  the  in- 
trigue of  Charies,  king  of  Sicily,  un£r  whose 
influence  his  whole  conduct  was  regulated.  He 
died  A.  D.  1285.  Honorius  IV.  now  filled  the 
vacant  see ;  he  was  in  no  respect  distinguished 
either  by  talent  or  fortune.  lie  was  succeeded, 
A.  D.  1288,  by  the  cardinal  bishop  of  Preneste, 
and  assumed  the  name  of  Nicholas  IV.,  during 
whose  pon^cate  the  Holy  Land  which  had  been 
rescuea  by  the  crusaders  from  the  Turks  was 
now  irrecov^ably  lost.  The  deaith  of  Nicholas  IV. 
in  1292  was  followed  by  a  vacancy  of  two  years 
in  the  see  of  Rome,  in  consequence  of  the  disputes 
that  arose  among  the  cardinals  about  the  election 
oi  a  new  pope.  These  disputes  were  at  length 
terminated,  and  the  contending  parties  united 
their  sufirages  in  favor  of  Peter,  sumamed  De 
Murrooe,  ftom  a.  mountain  where  he  had  hitherto 
lived  in  the  deepest  solitude,  and  with  the  ut- 
most austerity.  This  venerable  old  man,  who 
was  in  high  renown  on  account  of  the  remaika- 
ble  sanctity  of  his  life  and  conversation^  was 
raised  to  the  pontificate  in  the  year  1294,  aod 
assnmed  the  name  of  Celestine  V.  But  the 
austerity  of  his  manners  being  a  tacit  reproach 
upon  the  corruption  of  the  Roman  court,  and 
more  especially  upon  the  luxury  of  the  cardinals, 
renderea  him  extremely  disagreeable  to  a  dege- 
nerate and  licentious  clergy ;  several  of  the  car- 
dinals therefore,  and  particularly  Benedict 
Caietan,  advised  him  to  abdicate  the  papacy 
which  he  had  accepted  with  such  reluctance; 
and  they  had  the  pleasure  of  seeing  their  advice 
followed  with  the  utmost  docility.  The  good 
man  resigned  his  dignity  in  the  fourdi  mooth 
after  his  election,  and  died  in  the  year  t396> 
the  castle  of  Fumooe,  where  his  tyrannic  nn 
suspicious  successor  kept  hhn  in  captirity. 


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III.  DecUneof  the  paod  power.^The  acts  of 
the  papal  omnipotence  during  its  coarse,  were 
the  humiliation,  urged  to  excess,  of  all  Chris- 
tian princes  and  people ;  rebels  supported  and 
encouraged  CTery  where  against  the  legitimate 
authority,  when  that  of  the  pope  was  in  opposi- 
tion to  it ;  sovereigtas  dispossessed  and  excom- 
municated as  well  as  their  subjects;  crowns 
taken  away,  given,  sold,  according  to  the  inter- 
ests or  passions  of  the  pontiff:  the  bishops  and 
cleigy  of  all  the  Catholic  countries  subjected  to 
his  will,  receiving  from  him  the  investiture  of 
their  charges,  and  holding  them  almost  exclu- 
sively of  him ;  so  that  the  hierarohy  eveiy  where 
formed  a  state  within  a  state,  under  the  dominion 
of  a  foreign  despotic  chief,  who  by  its  means 
disposed  of  all  tne  consciences,  and  of  nearly  all 
the  riches  of  a  country.  The  decline  of  this 
iDJurious  power,  like  its  progress,  has  been  gra- 
dual and  almost  imperceptible.  The  com- 
mencement of  this  important  chaise  may  be 
dated  firom  the  quarrel  between  the  French  king 
and  Benedict  Caietan,  who,  after  persuading 
Celestine  V.  to  resign,  was  advanced  to  the  pon- 
tificate by  the  title  of  Boniface  VIII.  A.  D. 
1294.  Tike  beginning  of  the  following  year  he 
was  enthroned  at  Rome  with  great  solemnity  and 
parade;  in  the  procession  from  St.  Petei^s, 
where  he  was  consecrated  and  crowned,  to  the 
Lateran,  for  the  purpose  of  being  enUironed,  he 
was  mounted  on  a  white  horse  richly  caparisoned, 
with  the  crown  on  his  head,  whilst  the  king  of 
Apulia  held  the  bridle  in  his  right  hand,  and  the 
king  of  Hungary  in  die  left,  both  on  fbot.  His 
subsequent  conduct  corresponded  to  the  haughty 
grandeur  of  his  installation.  From  the  moment 
that  he  entered  upon  his  new  dignity  he  laid 
claim  to  a  supreme  and  irresistible  dominion 
over  all  the  powers  of  the  earth,  both  spiritual 
and  temporal;  terrified  kingdoms  and  empires 
with  the  thunder  of  his  bulls ;  called  prince^  and 
sovereign  states  before  his  tribunal  to  decide 
their  quarrels;  augmented  the  papal  jurispru- 
dence with  a  new  body  of  laws ;  aeclared  war 
against  the  family  of  Colonna,  who  disputed  his 
title  to  the  pontificate ;  in  a  word  exhibited  to 
the  world  a  lively  image  of  the  tyrannical  ad- 
ministration of  Gregory  VII.,  whom  he  surpassed 
in  arrogance.  Boniface  added  to  the  public  rites 
and  ceremonies  of  the  church  the  famous  jubilee, 
which  is  still  celebrated  at  Rome  with  the  utmost 
profusion  of  pomp  and  magnificence.  In  the 
bull  issued  on  this  occasion  it  was  enacted,  as  a 
solemn  law  of  the  church,  that  those  who  every 
hundredth  year  confessed  their  sins,  and  visited 
with  sentiments  of  contrition  and  repentance 
the  church  of  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul  at  Rome, 
should  obtain  thereby  the  remission  of  their 
various  offences.  As  this  jubilee  added  to  the 
splendor  and  augmented  the  revenues  of  the 
church,  later  popes  have  rendered  its  return 
more  ft^equent,  and  fixed  its  celebration  to  every 
twenty-fifth  year.  The  most  important  event, 
however,  which  transpired  during  this  pontificate, 
was  the  contest  with  Philip  the  Fair,  to  which 
we  have  already  alltided.  This  prince,  who  was 
endowed  with  a  bold  and  enterprising  spirit, 
soon  convinced  Europe  that  it  was  possible  to 
set  bounds  to  the  overgrown  arrogance  of  the 


bishop  of  Rome,  although  many  crowned  heads 
had  attempted  it  vrithout  success.  Boniface 
sent  Philip  the  hauefatiest  letters  imaginable,  in 
which  he  asserted  that  the  king  of  France,  and 
all  other  kings  and  princes,  were  obliced  by  a 
divine  command  to  submit  to  the  authority  of 
the  popes,  as  well  in  all  political  and  civil  mat- 
ters as  in  those  of  a  religious  matter.  The  king 
answered  him  with  great  spirit,  and  in  terms 
expressive  of  the  utmost  contempt.  The  pope 
rejoined  with  more  arrogance  than  ever;  and,  m 
the  femons  bull  tmam  tanckuny  which  he  pub- 
lished A.  D.  1302,  asserted  that  Jesus  Christ 
had  granted  a  twofold  power  to  his  chureh,  or, 
in  other  words,  the  spiritual  and  temporal  sword ; 
that  he  had  subjected  the  whole  human  race  to 
the  authority  of  the  Roman  pontiff,  and  that  all 
who'  dared  to  dispute  it  were  to  be  deemed 
heretics,  and  excluded  firom  all  possibility  of 
sahriition.  Irritated  by  the  insolence  of  the 
pontiff,  Philip  caused  hhn  to  be  apprehended  in 
nis  own  states  by  a  few  soldiers  under  the  con- 
duct of  the  chancellor  Nogaret.  Boniface  died 
a  few  weeks  filler  of  an  illness  occasioned  by  the 
rage  and  anguish  into  which  these  insults  had 
thrown  him.  Benedict  XI.,  who  succeeded, 
leatmed  prudence  by  the  fatal  example  of  his 
predecessor  Boniface,  and  pursued  more  moder- 
ate and  gentle  measures.  He  repealed  of  his 
own  accord  the  sentence  of  excommunication 
that  had  been  thundered  out  against  the  king  of 
France  and  his  dominions.  Benedict  died  A.  D. 
1804,  upon  which  Philip,  by  his  artful  intrigues 
iti  the  conclave,  obtained  the  see  of  Rome  for 
Bertrand  de  Got,  archbishop  of  Bordeaux,  who 
#as  accordingly  elected  to  that  high  dignity  on 
the  5A  of  June,  1305.  Bertrand  assumed  the 
name  of  Clement  V.,  and  at  the  king's  request 
remained  in  France,  and  removed  the  papal  re^ 
sidence  to  Avignon,  where  it  continuea  during 
the  space  of  seventy  years.  There  is  no  doubt' 
that  the  continued  residence  of  the  popes  in 
France  greatly  impaired  the  authority  of  the 
Roman  see.  The  French  pontiffs  finding  they 
could  draw  but  small  revenues  from  their  Italian 
dominions,  which  were  now  torn  in  pieces  by 
faction  and  ravaged  by  sedition,  were  ooliged  to 
contrive  new  methods  of  accumulating  wealth. 
For  this  purpose  they  not  only  sold  indulgences 
to  the  people  more  frequently  than  they  had 
formerly  done,  whereby  they  made  themselves 
extremely  odious  to  several  potentates,  but  also 
disposed  publicly  of  scandalous  licenses  of  all 
sorts  at  an  excessive  price.  John  XXII.,  who 
succeeded  Clement,  was  remarkably  shrewd  and 
zealons  in  promoting  this  abominable  traffic,  and 
was  the  first  to  assume  the  triple  crown;  his 
teign  vras  one  continued  scene  of  confusion  and 
contention  between  him  and  Lewis  of  Bavaria, 
who  claimed  the  imperial  crown.  To  him  suc- 
ceed Benedict  ^I.,  a  man  of  great  probity, 
vriio  sought  to  correct  the  abuses  and  to  redress 
the  grievances  of  the  church  as  far  as  practicable. 
His  successor  in  1342  was  Peter  Roger,  who 
assumed  the  name  of  Clement  VI.  The  cha- 
racter of  this  pontiff  may  be  inferred  from  the 
hull  of  anathema  issued  against  the  emperor 
Lewis  of  Bavaria,  in  which  he  thus  expresses 
himself: — *  May  God  strike  him  with  imbecility 

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ROMAN    CATHOLICISM. 


and  madness ;  may  heaven  overwhelm  him  with 
its  thunders ;  may  the  anger  of  God,  with  that 
of  St.  Peter  and  St  Paul,  Mi  upon  him  in  this 
world  and  in  the  next ;  may  the  whole  ttniverse 
revolt  against  him ;  may  the  earth  ewallow  him 
np  alive ;  may  his  name  perish  from  the  earliest 
generations;  and  may  his  memory  disappear; 
may  all  the  elements  be  adverse  to  him ;  may 
his  children,  delivered  into  the  hands  of  his 
enemies,  be  crushed  before  the  eyes  of  their 
father,  &c.'  Innocent  VI.,  the  successor  of 
Clement,  whose  name  was  Stephen  Albert,  pos- 
sessed more  integrity  and  moderation.  He  was 
a  Frenchman,  wi  before  his  election  had  been 
bishop  of  Ostia.  He  made  it  his  business  to 
correct  abases,  and  also  abolished  the  heavy  im- 
positions laid  upon  the  clergy  when  preferred  to 
any  new  benefice  or  dignity.  He  retrenched  all 
the  unneoessary  expenses  of  the  papal  court, 
contenting  himself  even  with  a  small  number  of 
attendants;  he  obliged  the  cardinals  to  follow 
his  example,  ur]^ng  them  to  bestow  the  super- 
abundance <^  their  wealth  in  relieving  the  neces- 
sities of  the  poor.  To  Innocent  succeeded 
Urban  V.,  A.D.  1362,  whose  pontificate  presents 
nothing  worthy  of  notice.  He  b  said  to  be  the 
first  who  wore  ^the  triple  crown.  Gregory  XI., 
nephew  to  pope  Clement  VI.,  earnestly  desired 
to  remove  the  seat  of  the  papal  see  luick  from 
Avignon  to  Rome,  but  was  prevented  by  the 
dbturbances  in  Italy.  He  areatly  opposed 
Wycliff;  and  in  his  will  frankly  acknowledged 
his  fallibility;  he  died  at  Rome  A.D.  ]37ef. 
After  the  death  of  Gregory,  the  canlinals  were 
assembled  to  consult  about  choosing  a  successor, 
when  the  pec^le  of  Rome,  unwilling  that  the 
vacant,  dignity  should  be  conferred  on  a  French- 
man, came  in  a  tumultuous  manner  to  the  cour- 
clave,  and  with  clamors,  accompanied  with  out- 
rageous menaces,  insisted  that  an  Italian  should 
be  advanced  to  the  popedom.  The  cardinals, 
terrified  by  this  uproar,  immediately  proclaimed 
Bartholomew  Pregnane,  who  was  a  Neapolitan, 
and  ardibishop  of  Bari,  and  assumed  the  name 
of  Urban  VI.  This  new  pontiff,  bv  his  impolitic 
behaviour,  entailed  upon  himself  the  odium  of 
people  of  all  ranks,  and  especially  of  the  leading 
cardinals.  These  latter  tnerefore,  tired  of  his 
insolence^  withdrew  from  Rome  to  Anagni,  and 
thetice  to  Fondi,  a  city  in  the  kingdom  of  Naples, 
where  they  elected  to  the  pontificate  Robert, 
count  of  Geaeva,  who  took  the  name  of  Clement 
VII.,  and  declared  at  the  same  time  that  the 
election  of  Urban  was  nothing  more  than  a  mere 
ceremony  which  they  had  found  themselves 
obliged  to  perfbnn  in  order  to  calm  the  turbulent 
rage  of  the  populace.  Urban  remained  at  Rome : 
Clement  went  to  Avignon  in  France.  His  cause 
was  espoused  by  France  and  Spain,  Scotland, 
Sicily,  and  Cyprus,  while  all  the  rest  of  Europe 
acknowledsed  Urban  to  be  the  true  vicar  of 
Christ.  Tnus  the  union  of  the  Latin  church 
under  one  head  was  destroyed  at  the  death  of 
Gregory  XI.,  and  was  succeeded  by  that  me- 
morable dissention  commonly  known  by  the 
name  of  the  Great  Western  Schbm. 

This  dissension  vras  fomented  with  such  dread- 
ful success,  and  arose  to  such  a  shameful  height, 
that  for  the  space  of  fifty  years  the  church  had 


two  or  three  different  heads  at  the  same  time; 
each  of  the  contending  popes  forming  plots,  and 
thundering  out  anathemas,  against  his  compe- 
titors. During  these  dissensions  the  fiies  of 
persecution  were  not  permitted  to  die  away.  In 
England  archbishop  Arundel,  at  the  inst^;atiou 
of  the  popes,  became  both  a  persecutor  and  a 
traitor;  he  urged  Henry  IV.,  who  had  usurped 
the  throne  by  the  aid  of  the  clergy,  to  pass  a  sta- 
tute whereby  all  who  propagated  the  doctrines 
of  Wickliff,  by  preachmg,  writing,  teaching,  or 
discerns,  were  required  to  renounce  their  here- 
sies, deliver  in  all  their  heretical  books,  and 
submit  themselves  to  the  church,  on  pain  of 
being  delivered  over  to  the  secular  arm,  and 
burnt  alive.  To  give  further  efficacy  to  this 
bloody  statute,  Arundel  set  forth  Krenl  pro- 
vincial (;onstitutions,  whereby  any  persons 
preaching  doctrines  contrary  to  the  determi- 
nation of  the  chureh,  or  calling  in  question  what 
the  church  bad  determined,  were  to  be  ezconn 
municaled,  ipso  facto,  on  the  first  offence,  and 
declared  heretics  for  the  second.  Whoever  read 
the  books  of  W*ickliff  or  his  disciples,  without 
a  licence  from  one  of  the  universities,  was  to 
suffer  as  a  promoter  of  heresy.  The  greater 
excommunication  vras  to  be  incurred  by  ad- 
vancing propositions,  even  in  the  schools,  which 
tended  to  subvert  the  Catholic  &ith.  It  was 
declared  heresy  to  dispute  the  utility  of  pilgrim- 
ages, or  the  adoration  of  images,  and  of  the 
cross.  The  proceedings  against  yffenders  in  this 
case  were  to  be  as  summary  as  in  cases  of  trea- 
son. And,  because  it  was  difficult  to  retain  the 
true  sense  of  Scripture  in  translations,  wboever 
should  translate  it,  or  read  such  translations, 
particularly  Wickliffe's,  vrithout  the  approbation 
of  his  ordinary,  or  of  a  provincial  council,  was 
to  be  punished  as  a  promoter^  of  heresy.  That 
this  statute  was  not  suffered  to  become  obsolete 
may  easily  be  imagined,  as  may  be  seen,  under 
the  articles  Reformation  and  Wiclxfp.  Tbe 
hopes  that  Urban's  death  would  end  the  divi- 
sions of  the  Romish  church,  or  at  lo^st  forward 
a  reconciliation,  were  .soon  disappointed.  Tbe 
cardinals  then  in  Rome  chose  Peter  lonaacelli, 
a  Neapolitan  cardinal  priest,  who  succeeded  to 
the  papacy  as  fioniface  IX.,  whose  determined 
resolution  it  was  to  maintain  his  dignity.  lie 
and  Clement  renewed  the  excommunication 
against  each  other  and  their  respective  firieods; 
and  were  more  adverse  to  peace  than  any  of 
their  adherents.  Many  from  a  sense  of  the  evils 
of  this  separation  made  proposals  for  restoring 
tranquillity.  Among  these  were  the  proposals  ^ 
the  university  of  Paris,  that  both  should  resigD ; 
or  that  the  matter  should  be  left  to  arbitration  -, 
or  that  a  general  council  shoul^decide  it.  Nei- 
ther of  tUSe  rival  pontifi  was  inclined  to  this, 
though  they  acted  very  artfully  towards  eadi 
other,  and  endeavoured  to  deceiye.  one  another. 
Boniiace  retired  to  Perusa;  and  Clement  died  at 
Avignon,  A.D.  1394.  The  cardinals  at  Avig- 
non proceeded  to  a  new  election,  and  boond 
themselves  by  oath  that  the  newly  elected  pon- 
tiff should  faithfiilly- labor  to  restore  peace,  even 
by  the  method  of  cession,  if  that  should  be  ap- 
j  proved  of  by  the  majority,  of  suffrages  in  tite 
college  of  cardinals.     Cardinal  Peter  de  Lima, 


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who  took  the  name  of  Benedict  Xllf.,  being 
promoted,  so  far  from  full&lliag  the  fair  promises 
lie  had  made  though  confirmed  by  an  oiith,  de- 
feated all  pacific  endeavours  by  an  unparalleled 
obstinacy.  'After  various  chanses  of  fortune, 
Benedict  sent  a  legation  tu  BoniSice,  with  over- 
tures towards  an  accommodation ;  but  the  death 
of  the  latter  terminated  the  treaty.  Upon  the 
death  of  Boniface  IX.  the  cardinals  of  his  party 
raised  to  the  pontificate,  in  the  year  1404, 
Cosmo  de  Meborate,  who  assumed  the  name  of 
Innocent  VII.,  and  held  that  high  dignity  during, 
the  short  space  of  two  years  only.  Alter  his 
decease  Angelo  Corraris,  a  Venetian  cardinal 
was  chosen  in  his  room,  and  ruled  the  Roman 
faction  under  the  title  of  Gr^rv  XII.  A  plan 
of  reconciliation  was,  however,  formed,  and  the 
contending  pontiffs  bound  themselves  each  by 
an  oath  to  make  a  voluntary  renunciation  of  the 
papal  chair,  if  that  step  should  be  deemed  ne- 
cessary to  promote  the  peaoe  and  welfiire  of  the 
church;  but  they  both  scandalously  violated 
this  obligation.  Benedict  besieged  in  Avignon 
by  the  king  of  France,  in  the  year  1408,  saved 
himself  by  flight,  retiring  .first  into  Catalonia 
his  native  country,  and.  afterwards  to  Perpignan. 
Hence  eight  or  nine  of  the  cardinals  who  ad- 
hex^  to  his  cause,  seeing  themselves  deserted. 
by  their  pop^  went  over  to  the  other  side,  and, 
joining  puolicly  with  the  cardinals  who  sup- 
ported Gregory,  they  agreed  together  to  assemble 
a  council  at  Pisa  on  the  25th  of  March  1409, 
in  order  tp  heal  the  divisions  and  factions  that 
had  so  long  rent  the  papal  empire.  This  coun- 
cil, however,  which  was  designed  to  close  the 
Dirounds  of.  the  church  had  an  effect  quite  con- 
trary to  that  which  was  generally  expected,  and 
only  served  to  open  a  new  breach,  and  excite 
new  divisions.  *  Its  proceedings  indeed  were 
vigorous,  and  its  measures  were  accompanied 
with  a  ^ust  severity.  A  heavy  sentence  of  con- 
demnation was  pronounced,  on  the  5th  day  of 
June,  against  the  contending  pontiffs,  who  were 
declared  guilty  of  heresy,  perjury,  and  contu- 
macy, unworthy. of  the  smallest  tokens  of  honor 
or  respecty  and  separated,  ipso  facto,  from  the 
communion  of  the  church.  This  step  was  fol- 
lowed by  the  election  of  one  ]>ontiff  in  their 
J  lace.  The  election  took  place  on  the  15th  of 
une,  and  fell  upon  Peter  of  Candia,  known  in 
the  papal  list  by  the  name  of  Alexander  V. ;  but 
all  the  decrees  and  proceedings  of  this  famous 
council  were  treated  with  contempt  by  the  con- 
demned pontiffs,  who  continued  to  enjoy  the 
privileges  and  to  perform  the  functions  of  the 
papacy,  as  if  no  attempts  had 'been  made  to 
remove  them  from  that  aignity.  Benedict  held 
a  council  at  Perpignan ;  and  Gregory  assembled 
one  near  Aquileta,  in  the  district  of  Friuli.  The 
latter,  however,  apprehending  the  resentment  of 
the  Venetians,  made  his  escape  in  a  clandestine 
manner  from  die  territory  of  Aquileia,  arrived  at 
Caieta,  where  he  threw  himself  upon  the  pro- 
tection of  I^islaus,  kin^  of  Naples,  ana  in 
1412  fled  thence  to  Remini. 

Thus  was  the  Catholic  church  divided  into 
three  great  factions,  and  its  government  violently 
carried  on  by  three  contending  chiefs,  who 
loaded  each  other  with  reciprocal  maledictions, 


calumnies,  and  excommunications.  Alexander 
v.,  who  had  been  elected  pontiff  at  the  council 
of  Pisa,  died  at  Bologna  m  1410,  and  the  six- 
teen cardinals  wbo  attended  him  in  that  city 
immediately  filled  up  the  vacancy,  by  choosing 
as  his  successor  Balthasar  Cossa,  a  Neapolitan 
destitute  of  all  principles  both  orreli^on  and 
probity,  who  assuming  the  title  of  John  XXIII. 
soon  sdfterwards  appealed  to  all  Christian  princes 
to  appoint  a  general  council,  to  put  a  stop  to  the 
reigning  evils,  and  to  unite  the  whole  church 
under  one  head.  The  choice  of  the  place  was 
left  to  the  emperor,  who  fixed  on  Constance. 
Here  tne  council  was  opened  on  the  1st  of  No- 
vember, 1414.  The  pope  appeared  in  person, 
attended  by  a  great  number  of  cardinals  and 
bishops  at  this  famous  council ;  which  was  also 
honored  with  the  presence  of  the  emperor  Sigis- 
niund,    and  of  a   great   number  of  German 

Srinces,  and  with  that  of  the  ambassadors  of  all 
le  European  states,  whose  monarchs  or  regents 
could  not  be  personally  present  at  the  decision 
of  this  important  controversy.  After  the  mem- 
bers of  the  council  had  deliberated,  some  ac- 
knowledged the  legality  of  the  council  of  Pisa ; 
while  the  greater  number  disowned  it,  decreeing 
at  the  same  time  that  John  'XXIII.  as  well  as 
Gregory  XII.  and  Benedict  XIII.  should  entirely 
renounce  his  claims  to  the  pontificate.  Thus 
was  John  mortified  by  disappointment  at  the 
moment  he  expected  a  triumph;'  but  what  in- 
flicted a  still  deeper  wound  on  his  feelings  was 
the  resolution  with  which  they  vindicate  the 
privileges  of  the  council.  Conscious  of  their 
strength,  they  declared  thai  the  representatites 
of  the  church,  in  general  council  assembled, 
were  superior  to  the  sovereign  pontiff;  not  only 
when  schism  prevailed,  but  at  all  other  times 
whatever.    This  was  one  of  their  earliest  acts. 

Although  John  was  disheartened  by  this  rigor- 
ous sentence,  he  yet  prepared  to  appear  before 
the  council;  and  there  to  maintain  that  he 
could  not  be  deposed  except  on  the  score  of 
heresy.  The  dissuasion  of  his  friends,  however, 
altered  his  determination;  at  their  instance,  too, 
he  was  induced  to  resign  the  papal  dignity,  on 
condition  that  his  competitors  would  do  the 
same.  A  renunciation  to  this  effect  was  accord- 
ingly drawn  up  by  the  council,  publicly  read, 
and  9ubscribea  in  due-  form  by  himself.  Not- 
withstanding this  solemn  act,  by  which  he  bound 
himself  to  God,  and  to  the  council,  that  he 
would  voluntarily  give  peace  to  the  church  by 
hts  abdication  of  the  pontificate,  and  not  leave 
Constance  before  the  council  had  concluded  'ts 
sittings,  did  he  forswear  himself,  and  violate 
his  promise.  John's  flight  from  Coiistance  in 
disguise  created  some  consternation :  his  friends 
in  the  council  maintaining  that  its  functions 
ceased  on  the  retreat  of  &e  pope;  while  the 
majority  contended  for  the  superiority  of  the 
council  over  every  person,  not  even  excepting  the 
pope,  in  matters  relating  to  faith,  the  extirpation 
of  schism,  and  the  general  reformation  of  the 
church.  Negociations  ensued  between  the 
council  and  John,  firom  which  it  appeared  that 
his  only  object  was  to  gain  time ;  and  that,  if 
nothing  favorable  to  his  riews  oecurred,  he 
might  engender  strife  amongst  its  members,  and 

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canse  its  dissolution.  The  council,  however,  no 
va/  disconcerted,  although  worn  out  bv  his  exr 
Cttses,  delays,  and  equivocations,  bsued  citation ' 
alter  citation  for  John's  appearance  before  them ; 
and,  at  last,  reduced  him  to  a  perfect  submission  to 
its  authority,  and  to  an  acknowledgment  that  it 
could  not  err ;  and  that  he  had  no  right  what- 
ever ttt  the  p<>ntifical  dignity!  Gregory  XII. 
withdrew  his  claims  to  the  papal  chair;  while 
Benedict  XIII.  was  deposed  oy  a  solemn  decree 
of  the  council.  AAer  the  extinction  of  this 
papal  triumvirate,  Martin  V.  becami  the  object 
of  their  choice ;  against  whose  election,  however, 
Benedict  protested  t^  the  latest  hour  of  his  life. 
After  the  death  of  Benedict  a  new  competitor 
was  set  up  for  the  pontificate  by  two  of  the 
cardinals,  under  the  title  of  Clement  VIII.  But 
he  was  afterwards  prevailed  on  to  resign,  and  to 
leave  Martin  in  undisturbed  possession.  With 
his  resignation  the  long  diserace  and  degradation 
of  the  church  may  be  said  to  have  terminated. 
The  great  purpose  of  holding  the  council  of 
Constance  was  the  healing  of  the  schism  by 
which  the  church  had  been  so  long  disturbed, 
and  this  was  happilv  accompKsh«l.  In  the 
fourth  and  fifth  sessions  it  was  solemnly  de- 
clared that  the  Roman  pontitf  was  inferior  and 
subject  to  a  general  assembly  of  the  universal 
church.  Before  the  meeting  of  this  council 
there  were  great  commotions  in  several  parts'  of 
Europe,  especially  in  Bohemia,  concermng  reli- 
gious matters. 

One  of  the  persons  principally  implicated  in 
these  disputes  was  Jonn  Huss,  who  lived  at 
Prague  in  the  highest  reputation,  on  account  of 
the  sanctity  of  his  manners,  the  purity  of  his 
doctrine,  and  his  unconunon  erudition  and  elo- 
quence. A  fouler  plot  does  not  stain  the  page 
of  history  than  the  treatment  which  he  received 
at  the  hands  of  the  Constantian  fathers.  What- 
ever faults  may  be  attributed  to  this  eminent 
ecclesiastic — if  manly  independence  in  main- 
taining his  opinions,  and  ardent  zeal  in  exposing 
the  vices  wnich  disgraced  the  conduct  of  the 
clergy  can  be  considered  faults — they  vanbh 
before  the  recollection  of  the  death  to  which  he 
was  consigned.  He  was  deemed  a  disobedient 
Aon  of  the  church  by  refusing  to  renounce  his 
eyesight,  and  to  submit  his  will  and  iudgroeut 
without  reservation  to  the  will  and  judgment  of 
the  holy  mother.  In  a  word,  he  refused  to 
yield  a  servile  obedience  to  ecclesiascal  despot- 
ism, and  therefore  his  doom  was  sealed.  The 
leadine  charge  against  him  was, — his  requiring 
that  me  laity  as  well  as  the  clergy  should  "bar- 
take  of  the  communion  in  both  kinds.  This  it 
WHS  which  led  him  to  the  stake,  where  his 
£riend,  Jerome  of  Prague,  shortly  after  perished, 
for  having  maintained  the  same  principles.  The 
safe  conduct  of  the  former  was  of  the  most  un- 
oualified  description,  Jerome's  was  not  so ;  and 
therefore  he  had  comparatively  less  cause  of 
complaint,  although  this  can  never  justify  the 
cruel  punishment  to  which  he  was  subjected. 
The  pretended  safe  conduct  which  the  council 
sent  him  was  so  loosely  worded,  that  the  fathers 
could  not  be  chai^ged  with  a  direct  violation  of 
feith.    '  That  no  violence  may  be  done  to  you, 


we  give  you  by  these  presents  a  plenary  saie- 
conduct,  saving  nevertheless  justice,  as  6r  as  it 
is  incumbent  on  us,  and  as  the  orthodox  fiuth 
requires.'  Relying,  however,  on  the  principle 
of  faith,  so'  insidiously  pledged  by  them,  he  in- 
considerately repaired  to  Constance,  where  he 
soon  paid  the  forfeit  of  his  rashness  in  the  ln- 
gical  exhibition  spoken  of. 

Before  sentence  had  been  pronounced  against 
John  Huss  and  Jerome  of  Prague,  the  famous 
Wickliff,  whose  opinions  they  were  supposed 
to  adopt,  and  who  was  long  smce  dead,  wis 
called  rrom  his  rest  before  this  ghostly  tribunal. 
On  the  4th  of  May,  in  the  year  1415,  a  long  list 
of  propositions,  invidiously  culled  out  (rfhis 
writings^  was  examined  and  condemned,  and  vt 
order  was  issued  out  to  commit  all  his  works, 
together  with  his  bones,  to  the  flames.  On  the 
14th  of  June  following  the  assembled  fathers 
passed  the  famous  decree  which  took  the  cup 
from  the  laity  in  the  belebration  of  the  eucbarist; 
and  ordered  '  that  the  Lord's  supper  should  be 
received  by  them  only  in  one  kind,  i.  e.  the  bread,' 
and  rigorously  prohibited  the  communion  in 
both  kinds.  On  the  19th  of  Septtaiber  of  this 
council  it  was  decreed  'that  tne  safe-conduct 
granted  to  heretics  by  an  emperor,  king,  or  any 
other  secular  prince,  shall  not  prevent  any  eccle- 
siastical judge  from  punishing  such  heretics^ 
even  if  they  come  to  the  place  of  judgment  re- 
lying on  such  safe-guard,  and  would  not  other- 
wise come  thither.'  After  this  specimen  of  the 
proceedings  of  the  council  of  Constance,  it  on- 
not  be  a  matter  of  surprise  that  its  memben 
s«)arated  without  efiecting  the  professed  object 
of  their  meeting,  the  reformation  of  the  church 
of  Rome.  Martin  V.,  who  succeeded  John, 
was  no  sooner  raised  to  the  pontificate  than  he 
employed  his  authority  to  elude  and  frustrate 
every  effort  that  was  made  to  set  this  salutary 
work  on  foot;  and  made  it  appear  most  evidenth, 
by  the  laws  he  enacted,  that  nothing  was  more 
foreign  from  his  intention  than  the  reformation 
of  the  clergy,  and  the  restoration  of  the  church 
to  its  primitive  purity. 

Thus  this  ^mous  council,  after  sitting  three 
years  and  six  months,  was  dissolved  on  the  32nd 
of  April,  1418,  and  the  members  postponed  to  a 
future  assembly  of  the  same  kind,  which  was  w 
be  summoned  five  years  after  this  jperiod,  their 
design  of  purifying  the  church.  But  not  five 
years  only,  but  almost  thirteen,  elapsed  without 
the  promised  meeting.  The  remonsnances, 
however,  of  those  whose  zeal  for  the  reformaiion 
of  the  church  interested  them  m  this  event,  pre- 
vailed at  length  over  the  pretexts  and  stratagems 
that  were  employed  to  put  it  off;  and  Martin 
summoned  a  council  to  meet  at  Ravia,  whence 
it  was  removed  to  Sienne.  This  council  had  for 
its  object  the  union  of  the  Greek  and  Latin 
churches,  and  the  reformation  of  the  churdi, 
both  in  its  head  and  members.  One  of  die  few 
decrees  made  by  this  synod  was  directed  against 
the  Hussites,  Wickliffites,  and  other  dissentients 
fVom  the  church  of  Rome;  inasmuch  as  it 
granted  indulgencies  to  such  as  extirpated  here- 
tics ;  all  exemptions  and  safe-conducts,  by  what- 
soever persons  vouchsafed,  to  the  contrary  not 


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ROMAN    CATHOLICISM. 


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witbstan4ui;.  After  some  other  basiness  of 
trifling  import  was  transacted,  Martin  contrived 
to  have  the  assembly  transferred  to  Basil. 

This  event  occurred  in  the  year  1431,  and  may 
be  said  to  have  been  the  only  transaction  of  con- 
tequence  in  which  he  yvdm  engaged  before  his 
death,  with  the  exception  of  the  negociation 
which  he  opened  with  the  Greek  emperor  and 
the  patriarch  of  Constantinople,  in  order  to  put 
an  end  to  existing  differences  between  the  two 
churches.  The  pontiff  did  not  live  to  be  a  wit- 
ness of  the  proceedings  of  this  assembly,  being 
carried  off  ny  a  sudden*  death  on  the  21st  of 
February,  1431,  just  about  the  time  when  the 
council  was  to  meet.  He  was  immediately  suc- 
ceeded by  Gabriel  Condolmerio,  a  native  of 
Venice,  and  bishop  of  Sienna,  who  is  known  in 
the  TOipal  list  by  the  title  of  Eugenius  IV.  This 
pontiff  approved  all  the  measures  of  his  prede- 
cessor, in  relation  to  the  assembling  of  the 
councji  of  Basil,  which  was  accordingly  opened 
on  the  23rd  of  July,  1431,  under  the  superin- 
tendence of  cardinal  Jnlian  Csesarini,  who  per- 
formed the  functions  of  president  in  the  place  of 
Eugenius.  It  was  now  manifest  that  the  assem- 
bled finthers  were  in  earnest,  and  firmly  resolved 
to  answer  the  end  and  purpose  of  their  meeting; 
Eugeniusy  therefore,  much  alartned  at  the  pros- 
pect of  a  Reformation,  determined  to  dissolve 
the  council. 

The  council,  however,  proceeded  vigorously 
with  their  measures  of  reform.  On  the  25th  of 
March,  1436,  a  Confession  of  faith  was  read, 
which  every  pontiff  was  to  subscribe  on  the  day 
of  his  election ;  it  was  voted  that  the  number  of 
cardinals  should  be  reduced  to  twenty-four ;  and 
the  papal  impositions,  called  expectatives,  reser- 
vations, and  provisions,  were  annulled.  These 
measures,  witn  others  of  a  like  nature,  pro- 
voked Eugenius  to  the  highest  degree,  and  in- 
duced him  to  form  a.  design  either  of  removing 
this  troublesome  and  enterprising  council  into 
Italy,  or  of  setting  up  a  new  council  in  opposi- 
tion to  it,  which  might  fix  bounds  to  its  zeal  for 
the  reformation  of  the  church ;  and  this  occa- 
sioned a  warm  and  violent  contest.  The  council 
summoned  Eueenius  to  appear  at  Basil  on  the 
26th  day  of  July,  1437,  in  order  to  give  an  ac- 
count of  his  conduct ;  but  the  pontiff,  instead  of 
complying  with  the  requisition,  issued  a  decree 
by  which  he  pretended  to  dissolve  it,  and  to 
assemble  another  at  Ferrara.  This,  indeed,  vras 
treated  with  the  utmost  contempt  by  the  coun- 
cil, which,  with  the  consent  of  tne  emperor,  the 
king  of  France,  and  several  other  pnnces,  con- 
tinued its  deliberations  at  Basil,  and  on  the  28th 
of  September,  in  the  same  year,  pronounced  a 
sentence  of  contumacy  against  the  rebellious 
pontiff :  but  in  the  year  l438  Eueenius  in  person 
opened  the  council  which  he  had  summoned  to 
meet  at  Ferrara,  and  at  the  second  session  thun- 
dered out  an  excommunication  in  return  against 
the  fathers  assembled  at  Basil.  In  the  mean 
time  the  latter,  after  declaring  the  superiority  of 
councils  over  the  pope  to  1^  an  article  of  the 
Catholic  faith,  proceeded  to  depose  Eugenius 
from  the  «papacy,  as  disobedient  to  the  commands 
of  the  cWch,  'and  an  obstroate  heretic,  and 
raised  to  the  papal  throne  Amadeus,  duke  of 


Savoy,  who  assumed  the  name  of  Felkc  V.  This 
election  was  the  occasion  of  the  revival  of  the 
western  schism,  and  it  was  at  this  time  even 
more  extensive  than  before,  as  the  flame  "was 
kindled  not  only  between  rival  pontiffs,  but  alsd 
between  the  contending  councils  of  Basil  and 
Florence.  The  rival  popes  and  rival  council 
anathematised  each  other,  laying  claim  to  the  trud 
apostolic  powers.  Eugenius  v^as  supported  by 
France,  Italy,  Spain,  Portugal,  Hui%ary,  and 
England:  Felix  by  &e  people  of  Savoy,  the 
Swiss,  and  the  dukes  of  Bavaria  and  Austria. 
The  German  princes  chose  to  preserve  a  neu- 
trality till  the  year  1447,  when  they  declared  for 
Eugenius.  In  the  midst  of  the  public  rejoicings, 
on  this  occasion,  he  died  in  his  sixty-fbur&  vear. 
On  his  death  Thomas  de  Sarzano,  bishop  of  Bo- 
logna, WHS  elevated  to  the  pontificate,  under  the 
denomination  of  Nicholas  v.,  under  whom  the 
European  princes,  and  more  especially  the  king 
of  France,  exerted  their  warmest  endeavours  to 
restore  tranquillity,  and  their  efforts  were  crowned 
with  success.  In  1449  Felix  V.  resigned  the 
papal  chair,  and  returned  to  his  delightful  her- 
mitage at  Rissalle,  while  the  fathers  of  the  coun- 
cil of  Basil  assembled  at  Lausanne  ratified  his 
voluntary  abdication,  and,  by  a  solemn  decree, 
ordered  the  universal  church  to  submit  to  the 
jurisdiction  of  Nicholas  as  their  pontiff.  On  the 
other  hand  Nicholas  proclaimed  this  treaty  of 
peacQ  with  great  pomp  on  the  18th  of  June,  in 
the  same  year,  and  set  the  seal  of  his  approba- 
tion and  authority  to  the  acti  and  decrees  of  the 
council  of  Basil.  This  pontiff  distinguished 
himself  in  an  extraordinary  manner,  by  his  love 
of  learning,  and  by  his  ardent  zeal  for  the  pro- 
pagation of  the  arts  and  sciences ;  what  was  still 
more  laudable,  he  was  remarkable  for  his  mode- 
ration, and  for  the  meek  and  pacific  spirit  that 
discovered  itself  in  all  his  conduct  and  actions. 
In  the  year  1453  Nicholas  received  intdligence 
of  the  capture  of  Constantinople  by  Mahomet 
II. ;  and  some  historians  mention  this  feet  as  the 
greatest  affliction  that  befel  the  pope,  but  Gibbon 
thinks  differently.  'The  Roman  pontiff,'  gays 
he,  '  was  exasperated  by  the  falsehood  or  obsti- 
nacy of  the  Greeks.  Instead  of  employing  in 
their  fkvor  the  arras  and  treasures  of  Italy,  Ni- 
cholas V.  had  foretold  their  approaching  ruin, 
and  his  honor  seemed  engaged  in  the  accom- 
plishment of  his  prophecy.  Perhaps  he  was 
softened  by  the  last  extremity  of  their  distress ; 
but  his  compassion  was  tardy,  his  efforts  were 
faint  and  unavailing,  and  Constantinople  had 
fallen  before  the  squadrons  of  Genoa  and  Venice 
could  sail  from  their  harbours.'  From  this  time 
he  spent  the  remainder  of  his  pontificate  in  en- 
deavours to  allay  the  civil  wars  and  commotions 
^hich  took  place  in  Italy;  to  reconcile  the 
Christian  princes  who  were  then  at  war  vrith  one 
another;  and  to  unite  them  against  the  enemies 
of  the  Christian  church.  In  his  efforts  he  was 
completely  unsuccessfiil,  and  the  disappointment 
is  said  to  have  hastened  his  death,  wnidi  hap- 
pefaed  in  1455,  after  he  had  completed  the  eighth 
year  of  his  pontificate. 

JEneas  Sylvius  Piccolomini,  who  succeeded 
in  1453  to  die  pontificate,  under  the  title  of  PiuA 
II.,  tendered  his  name  illustrious,  not  cmly  by 


Digitized  by  VjiUU^ 


le 


668 


ROMAN    CATHOLICISM* 


\k\A  extensive  genius,  and  the  important  transac- 
tions that  were  carried  on  darinff  his  administra* 
tion^  but  also  by  the  yarious  and  useful  produc- 
tions with  which  be  enriched  the  republic  of 
letters.  He,  however,  deplored  the  mistaken 
law  which  compelled  the  clergy  to  celibacv,  and 
the  intolerable  consequences  to  human  happi- 
ness and  virtue  arising  from  its  enactment  The 
genius  and  learning  of  JEneas  Sylvius  would 
have  shed  a  lustre  over  the  aee  which  gave  him 
birth,  had  they  continued  to  be  employed  in  the 
sphere  in  which  they  had  at  first  acquired  for 
him  celebrity.  In  his  character  of  ambassador 
from  the  Roman  see  to  di£E^nt  potentates,  he 
acquired  the  credit  of  a  diplomatist ;  but  it  was 
by  his  advocacy  of  the  rights  and  privileges  of 
general  councils,  and  his  iopposition  to  pap»l 
encDoachment  and  usurpation  that  he  fendered 
his  name  illustrious.  As  secretaiy  to  the  coun- 
cil of  Basil,  he  was  the  boast  of  literature ;  but, 
as  if  he  had  changed  his  nature  with  his  name, 
he  disgraced  it  as  Pius  II.  No  longer  was  his 
voice  raised  to  elevate  the  council  above  the 
pope,  but  to  recommend  blind  submission  to  his 
authority.  It  would  appear  that  he  gloried  in 
his  inconsistency,  since  i»s  even  went  so  far  as  to 
procure  a  partial  repeal  of  the  Pragmatic  sanc- 
tion from  the  French  monarch,  which  had  been 
solely  instituted  with  the  design  of  curtailing 
the  power  of  the  pope  wiUiin  the  Gallican  terri- 
tory ;  and  published,  in  his  pontifical  capacity,  a 
solemn  retractation  in  the  year  1463  ot  hiis  de- 
fence of  the  council  of  Basil. 

To  Pius  succeeded  Paul  II.,  of  whose  pontifi- 
cate history  relates  nothing  worthy  of  record. 
His  successor  Sixtus  IV.  was  the  instigator  of  a 
conspiracy  to  assassinate  Giuliano  and  Lorenzo 
de  %Klici,  and  to  chan^  the  government  of 
Florence.  The  assassination  v?as  to  take  place 
in  the  principal  church,  where  a  cardinal  legate 
was  present,  and  the  signal  for  it  was  to  be  the  ele- 
vation of  the  host :  Giuliano  was  killed  on  the  spot ; 
Lorenzo  was  wounded  by  two  priests,  who  had  un- 
dertaken his  murder,  but  escaped ;  the  archbishop 
of  Pisa,  who  in  the  mean  time  had  attempted  to 
overpower  the  magistrates  and  possess  himself 
of  tlie  seat  of  government,  failed  in  his  attempt, 
and  was  hung  in  his  pontifical  robes  from  one  of 
the  windows  of  the  palace.  For  this  act  of  jus- 
tice Sixtus  excommunicated  Lorenzo,  and  the 
magistrates  of  Rorence.  The  bull  issued  on  this 
occasion  has  been  justly  designated  one  of  the 
'  most  extraordinary  specimens  of  priestly  arro- 
gance, that  ever  insulted  the  common-  sense  of 
mankind.  Alexander  VI.,  a  Spaniard  by  birth, 
whose  name  was  Roderic  Borgia,  succeeded  in 
1492  to  ^e  papal  chair.  The  Ufe  and  actions  of 
this  man  show  that  there  was  a  Nero  among  the 
pppes,  as  .well  as  among  the  emperors.  The 
crimes  and  enormities  that  history  has  imputed  to 
him  exhibit  him  as  not  only  destitute  of  religious 
and  virtuous  principles,  but  even  regardless  of 
decency.  By  Vanazza,  a  Roman  lady,  with 
whom  he  had  continued  an  illicit  connexion  for 
many  years,  he  had  five  children :  his  second 
son  was  Cssar  Borgia,  a  monster  of  debauchery 
and  cruelty,  who  is  said  to  have  quarrelled  with 
his  elder  brother,  for  the  favors  of  his  lister  Lu- 
cretia,.and  to  have  killed  him  and  thrown  bis 


body  into  the  Tiber.  Notwithfltanduig  his  in&F 
mous  character  he  was  the  favorite  of  his  &ther, 
who  trampled  with  contenipt  on  eveiy  ebstade 
which  the  demands  of  justice,  the  dictateB  of  ' 
reason,  and  the  remonstrances  of  rdigioa  laid 
in  his  way,  in  order  to  aggrandise  his  fiunily. 
The  profligate  career  of  this  execrable  hypocrite 
and  tyrant  was  continued  till  the  year  1503,  vbea 
the  prison  which  he  and  his  son  Cesar  bad  pie> 
pared  for  others,  and  particularly  for  Adriao,  a 
wealthy  cardinal,  who  stood  in  the  way  of  their 
avarice  and  ambition,  by  a  happy  miatikG,  ter- 
minated his  own  days.    See  BoaciA. 

On  the  death  of  Alexander,  Pius  IIL  occu- 
pied the  papal  throne  for  oidy  one  month;  at 
whose  decease  the  vacant  chair  was  obtaiDed, 
through  fraud,  and  bribeiy,  by  Julian  De  la  Ro- 
veit^  who  assumed  the  denomination  of  Julius 
II.  To  the' odious  list  of  vices  with  which  he 
dishonored  the  pontificate  we  may  add  the  m<»t 
extravagant  and  frenetic  passion  for  war  and 
bloodshed.  He  began  his  military  enterprises 
by  entering  into  a  war  with  the  Venetians,  after 
having  strengthened  his  cause  by  an  aUiaoce 
with  Uie  emperor  and  the  king  of  France.  Ilis 
whole  pontificate,  in  short,  was  one  oontinued 
scene  of  military  tumult ;  nor  did  he  ever  soffer 
Europe  to  enjoy  a  idbment's  tranquilliw  as  Iodj^ 
as  he  lived ;  fortunately  death  carried  off  this 
audacious  pontifi*  in  1512,  in  the  midst  of  his 
ambitious  and  vindictive  projects. 

Leo  X.,  of  the  family  of  Medicis,  ascended 
the  papal  throne  after  the  death  of  Julius.  He 
was  a  protector  of  men  of  learning,  and  wai 
himself  learned  as  ^  as  the  darkness  of  the  age 
would  admit;  but  wholly  indifieienttoreligiin: 
his  time  being  divided  between  conversation  with 
men  of  letters,  and  the  pursuit  of  pleasure.  He 
had  an  invincible  aversion,  we  are  told,  to  wha^ 
ever  was  accompanied  with  solitude  and  case, 
and  was  remarkable  for  his  prodigality.  He  did 
not,  however,  lose  sight  of  the  grand  object  which 
the  generality  of  his  predecessors  had  so  much 
at  heart-T~that  of  promoting  the  opulence  of 
the  Roman  see;  for  he  took  the  utmoat  carethat 
nothing  should  be  transacted  in  the  lateran  coun- 
cil (which  Julius  had  assembled  and  left  sitting) 
that  had  the  least  tendency  to  fiivor  the  refbmis- 
tion  of  the  church.  He  went  still  fiirther;  and 
in  a  conference  which  he  had  with  Fiancis  I., 
king  of  France,  at  Bologna,  engaged  that  mo- 
narch to  abrogate  the  Pragmatic  sanction  which 
had  been  so  long  odious  to  the  popes,  and  to 
substitute,  in  its  place,  another  t>ody  of  laws 
under  the  title  of  the  ConcordaL 

It  was  in  the  reign  of  Leo  X.  that  those  evenb 
transpired  which  form  an  era  in  the  history  of 
the  Romish  church,  and  indeed  in  the  annab  of 
the  world,  resulthig  in  the  Protestant  Rscoaiu- 
TioN.  For  some  time  there  had  been  aseasooof 
comparative  tranquillity,  and  the  pootiffii  thought 
themselves  thoroughly  confirmed  in  their  assuniD- 
tion  of  power.  We  must  not,  however,  condode 
from  this  apparent  tranquillity  and  security, 
that  their  measures  were  unanimously  applaud- 
ed, or  that  their  chains  were  worn  without  re- 
luctance ;  for,  not  only  private  persons,  but  also 
the  most  powerful  princes  and  sovereign  states 
exclaimed  loudly  aj^nst  the  despotic  i 


Digitized  by 


Gbogle 


ROMAN    CAtHOLICISM, 


of  Rome ;  te  ttfrogimce»  tyranny,  and  extortion 
of  her  legates,  thetxnbridled  lioentiousness  and 
enormous  crimes  of  the  clergy  and  monks  of  all 
denominations,  the  mordinate  severity  and  par- 
tiality of  the  papal  laws;  and  demanded  pub- 
licly, as  their  ancestors  bad  done  before  them, 
a  reiformation  of  the  church  in  its  head  and  mem- 
bers.   But  these  complamts  and  demands  had 
not  hitherto  been  carried  so  fur  as  to  produce 
any  good  effect;  since  they  came  from  persons 
who  did  not  entertain  the  least  doubt  about  the 
supreme  authority  of  the  pope,  and  who,  there- 
fore, instead  of  attempting,  th^nselyes,  to  bring 
about  that  refbrmation  which  was  so  ardently 
desired,  remained  entirely  inactive,  and  looked 
for  redress  to  the  court  of  Rome,  or  a  general 
council.     If  any  thing  seemed  likely  to  destroy 
the  gloomy.empire  of  superstition,  and  to  alarm 
thesecurity  of  the  lordly  pontiffsat  was  the  restora- 
tion of  learning  in  Europe,  and  the  number  of  men 
of  genius  that  suddenly  arose,  under  the  benign  . 
influence  of  that  revolution.    The  efforts  of  man 
cannot  eternally  prevail  agamst  the  course  of 
nature.     A  commerce  with  distant  countries, 
and  the  knowledge  of  a  new  world,  had  disposed 
men  to  receive  new  ideas.    The  art  of  printing, 
uniting  with  the  invention  of  making  paper  from 
rags,  incalculable  advantages  to  the  human  race, 
and  the  highest  which  the  mind  ever  received 
from  the  hand  of  industry,  multiplied  knowledge 
to  infinity,  and  prevented  its  longer  concealment. 
The  time,  therefore,  was  now  arrived,  when  the 
papal  power  was  about  to  receive  a  shock  whidi 
It  nes  not  been  able  to,  and  never  will,  recover. 
Having  devoted  the  article  RBPonMATioir  to 
the  details  of  this  important  em,  we  must  only 
glance  at  them  here.    The  profusion  of  Leo  had 
rendered  it  necessary  to  devise  means  for  reple- 
nishing his  exhausted  treasuty,  and  one  of  these 
was  the  sale  of  indulgences.  The  commissioners 
appointed  for  this  traffic  exaggerated  in  Ger- 
many the  efficacy  of  their  Ivares,  until  Luther, 
a  friar  of  Wittemberg,  'warmly  protested  against 
this  abuse,  and  published  a  set  of  propositions 
in  which  he  called  in  <][uestion  the  auUiority  of 
the  pope  to  remit  sins.     Luther  was  of  humble 
ongin ;  his  talent^  alone  had  raised  him  to  the 
situation  which  he  filled  as  professor  of  philoso- 
phy and  theology  at  the  university  of  Wittem- 
berg.     Supported,  however,  by  indefatigable 
seal,  and  an  enlarged  acquaintance  with  the 
Holy  Scriptures,  the  fathers,  and  ecclesiastical 
antiquities,  he  overwhelmed  the  sdiolastics  in 
«ver^  encounter,  and  covered  their  science  with 
confusion  and  ridicule.     In  his  individual  cha- 
Tacter,  which  had  such  influence  on  the  reforma- 
tion, was  seen  an  irresistible  union  pf  energy  and 
uprightness.    Ardent  and  calm;  high  spirited, 
and  at  the  same  time  humble;    irritable  and 
warm  pi  his  language  when  provdied  by  injtt- 
rious  treatment;  mild  and  inimical  to  every  spe- 
cies of  violence  in  actions ;  jovial,  open,  of  ready 
wit,  and  even  a  pleasant  companion  of  th^great ; 
studious,  sober,  ainda  stoic  in  himself;  courage- 
ous and  disinterested,  he  exposed  himself  with 
tranquillity  to  every  risk,  in  support  of  what  he 
believed  to  be  the  truth.     Such  a  man  must 
iiave  been  filled  with  indignation  at  the  approach 
of  the  shameless  Tetiel.    At  length,  at  the  ex- 


press desire  of  the  emperor  Maximilian,  Leo 
summoned  Luther  to  appear  before  the  court  of 
Rome.  Permission  was,  however,  subsequently 
granted  for  the  cardinal  of  €reta  to  hear  his  de- 
fence, at  Augsburg.  Nothing  satisfactory  was 
detennined ;  and  the  pope,  in  1518,  published  a 
bull,  asserting  his  authontv  to  grant  indulgences, 
which  would  avail  both  the  living  and  the  dead 
in  purgatory.  Upon  this  the  reformer  appealed 
to  a  general  council,  and  thus  open  war  was  de- 
clarnl,  in  which  the  abettors  of  Luther  appeared 
with  a  strength  little  calculated  upon. 

And  thus  begai^ the  Reformation.  It  found  a 
multitude  of  minds  prepared  to  receive  it,  and 
many  enlightened  and  eloquent  men  disposed  to 
become  its  apostles.  The  learned  and  moderate 
Melancthon  and  Carlostadt,  both  of  Wittem- 
berg; in  Switzerland  Zuingiius;  and  in  France 
Calvin,  all  contributed  to  &e  great  work.  Leo 
X.  engaged  all  the  force  of  the  pen,  as  well  as  of 
civil  power,  to  impede  its  progress ;  but  in  the 
midst  of  these  eflforts  he  wassened  with  an  illness, 
which  at  first  was  considered  as  a  slight  cold 
only,  but  which  put  an  end  to  his  life  in,  a  few 
days.  This  event-  happened  on  the  1st  of  De- 
cember, 1521,  when  Leo  was  in  the  forty-sixtli 
year  of  his  age,  aqd  the  ninth  of  his  pontificate. 
Upon  his  decUh  the  conclave  was  divided  about 
the  choice  of  a  successor.  The  younger  mem- 
bers were  attached  to  Julio  cardinal  de  Medici, 
the  nephew  ^  Leo ;  but  the  old  cardinals  were 
averse  from  choosing  a  pjtmtiff  out  of  the  power- 
ful family  of  the  Medici,  and  yet  they  were  not 
agreed  in  their  views.  By  a  manoeuvre,  which 
was  merely  designed  to  gain  time,  the  party  o 
Julio  voted  for  cardinal  Adrian  in  the  prepara- 
toiY  scrutiny.  The  other  party  closed  with  them, 
and  thus  a  stranger  to  Italy,  and  a  man  unquali- 
fied for  the  office,  was  elected,  no  less,  to  their 
own  surprise  than  to  the  astonishment  of  Eu- 
rope. Whilst  he  demanded  a  tealous  execution 
of  the  imperial  edict  against  Luther  and  his  fol- 
lowers, Adrian  declared  a  disposition  to  exercLse 
his  spiritual  authority  for  the  reformation  of  the 
church ;  but  notwithislanding  the  just  claims  on 
respect  which  resulted  from  the  pontiff's  general 
conduct,  he  was  very  unpopular.  He  resii;ned 
his  life  and  the  anxieties  of  his  elevated  station 
in  Decembei,  1623,  ofler  he  had  possessed  the 
papal  dignity  only  one  year  and  ten  months, 
and  was  succeeded  by  cardinal  de  Medici,  under 
&e  name  of  Clement  VII.  .  High  expectations 
were  formed  of  a  pope,  whose  great  talents  and 
long  experience  in  business  seemed  to  qualify 
bim  no  less  for  defending  the  spiritual  interests 
of  the  church,  than  for  conducting  its  political 
operations  with  the  prudence  requisite  at  such  a 
difficult  juncture ;  and  who,  besides  these  ad- 
vantages, had  in  his  hands  the  government  of 
Florence,  and  the  wealth  of  the  fiunily  of  Medici. 

But,  Clement  having  excited  the  anger  of 
Charles  V.,  the  general  of  the  imperial  army,  in 
conjunction  with  his  allies,  determined  to  attack 
and  plunder  Rome.  The  resolution  was  bold, 
and  the  execution  of  it  no  less  rapid.  The  mi- 
sery and  horror  of  the  scene  that  followed  may 
be  more  easily  conceived  than  described.  The 
pillage  and  cmeltv  that  were  exercised  on  this 
occasioo,  exceeded,  it  is  said,  those  of  the  Huns, 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


670 


ROMAh     CAi  HOLICISM. 


VandalS)  ^Gitoths,  in  tht  fifth  and  sixth  centorUs. 
The  booty^  ip  ready  money, alone,  amounted, to 
1,000,0(H)  of  duQat9.  Clement,  wliio  had  shut 
hipiscdf  up  in  the  cattle  of  St.  Anffelo,  being  de- 
prived 91  every  resource,  and  reduced  to  such 
€Xtr«(iKity  of  femipe  as  to  feed  on  asses*  flesh, 
was  obliged  \o  capitulate  on  such  conditions  as 
^e. conquerors  were  pleased  to  prescribe.  He 
agreed  to  pay  400,000  ducats  to  the  army ;  to 
sunender  to  the  emperor  all  the  places  of  strength 
belonging  to  the  church ;  and,  besides  giving  hos- 
tages, remaining .  a  prisoner  himself  until  the 
.chief  articles  were  performed.  At  length,  how- 
ever, (he  progress  of  the  confederates  in  Italy 
apd  other  pplitical  considerations,  induced  the 
emperor  to  concert  measures  fgr  setting  the  pope 
at  liberty,  on  consideration  of  his  allowing 
100,000  crowns,  fof  the  use  of  the  army,  paying 
the  same  sum  at  the  distance  of  a  fortnight,  and 
at  the  W  of  three  months  150,000  more. 

During  a  period  of  six  years,  Henry  VIII.  of 
^ngl^pd  had  been  su^ing  the  court  of  Home  for 
a  divorce  from  Catharine  of  Ajrragon ;  but  the 
pope  negociated,  promised,  retracted,  and  con^ 
eluded  nothing.  Cranmer's  sentence  at  Ijength 
annulled  the  kipg's  marriage  with  Catharine ; 
her  daughter  was  declared  iU^timate,  and  Ann 
Boleyn  acknowledged  queen  of  England.  Cle- 
ment, who  bad  already  seen  so  many  p^rovinces 
,and  kingdoms  revolt  from  the  holy .  see,  be- 
came apprehensive  leett  England  should  follow 
their  example,  and  determined  to  give  Ilenry 
such  aatisfiBtctioa  as  might  still  retain  him  within 
the  bo^om  of  the  church.  But  ^e.viplence  of 
the  cardinals^  devoted  to  the  emp^rpr,  hurried 
him  with  a  fatal  precipitatipn  to  j^ue  a  bull  re- 
;icinding  Cranmer's  sentence,  eqforciog  Henry's 
marriage  with  Catharine,  aod  declarjug  him  ex- 
jcommunicated,  if,  withia  a  time  specified,  he  did 
not  return  to  her.  Henry  was  eniaged ;  the  re- 
jsjstance  be  met  with  in  tbe  aocomplishment  of 
his  wishes  from  the  court  of  Roioe  led  him  to 
question  its  jurisdiction ;  and  the  more  this  was 
examined  the  weaker  it  appeased.  From  this  to 
question  its  discipline  and  doctrines  was  ovXy 
another  step,  and  tne  nation  was  prepared  for  it. . 
An  act  of  parliament  was  therefore  passed,  abo- 
lishing the  papal  power  and  jurisdiction  in  Eng- 
land. By  another  act  the  king  was  declared  su- 
preme head  of  the  church,  and  all  the  authority  of 
which  the  popes  were  deprived  was  vested  in  hiiQ* 

The  successes  that  had  attended  ^he  allies,  in 
their  opposition  to  Clement  inspired  with  new 
vjgQur  apd  resolution  all  the,  friends  of  the  refor- 
mation. Soon  after  his  sentence  on  Henry, 
Clement  tell  into  a  languishing  distemper,  which 
closed  his  pgntificate,  after  a  duration .  of  ten 
y^rsand.ten  months,  on  the  25th  of  September, 
1 534.  He  was  svcceeded  by  Alexander  Farnese, 
.  who  asstjmed  the  name  of  Paul  III.,  and  who^ 
first  object,  was,  to  prush  the  progress  of  the  refor- 
.  mation.  He  was,  like  his  predecessor,  enraged 
at  the  innovations  ,in  Germai^y,  and  ec|ually 
averse  from  ^ny  scheme  for.re£(urm»  either  m  the 
.  dpctripes  of  the.  church,  Qr  the  ^uses  of  the  par 
pal  court.  In  1 538  he  issued  his  bull  of  excom- 
munication against  Henry  Vlli,  of  England,  and 
required  all  Christian  princes,  whatever  had  been 
their  oaths,  to  render  no  assistai^ce  to  Henry. 


The  year  1540  was  rendered  aemoiabU  by 
the  establishment  of  the  order  of  the  Jesuits. 
These  uew  soldiers  of  the  church -did  every  thing 
which  could  be  hoped  lor  from  biiman  powers, 
.directed  by  the  most  profound  zeal,  prudence, 
perseverance,  and  genius.  They  soon  obtained 
possession  of  courts,  of  natioi^,  of  confessions, 
of  pupils,  of  the  education  of  youth,  of  missions. 
Nothing  appeared  to  them  impossible  in  extend- 
ing the  dominion  of  the  holy  ^ee  to  places  where 
it  did  not  exist,  or  in  consolidating  it  where  it 
wu  maintained.  Represented  as  ambitions,  fo- 
menters  of  trouble,  corrupt  men,  and  even  as 
rebels,  by  their  adversaries,  tbc^  opposed  the 
stoical  severity  of  tljieir  lives,  their  icaU,,aod  wa- 
vices  to.  the  Itonian  see,  and  their  studious  aus- 
terity, to  these  accusations.  In  a  few  years  the 
society  established  itself  in  every  Catholic  coun- 
try ;  and,  acquiring  prodigious  wealth,  soon  be- 
came Uie  confessors  of  almo^  every  Catholic 
prince,  and  the  spiritual  guides  of  nearly  every 
person  of  rank  or  influence. 

The  church  and  court  of  Rome,  since  the  re- 
markable period  wheq  so  many  kingdoms  and 
provinces  withdrew  from  .their  jurisdictioB»  have 
perhaps  derived  more  influence  and  suppcut.fiem 
the  labours  ^f  this  single  order  than  firom  ail 
their  other  emissaries  and  ministers.  About  thk 
time  th/e  pope,  finding  it  impossible  to  avoid  any 
longer  calling  a  general  council,  sent  John  Mo- 
rone,  bishop  of  Modena^  to  announce  to  the  diet 
of  the  empire  at  Spires  his  determination  of 
.  assembling,  sjiqh  a  coupcil^and  published  a  buU» 
nominating  three  cardinaU  to  preside  as  his  le- 
gates.. These  legates  rept^ired  to  Trent,  on  the 
Ist  of  Noy ember,  1542,  where,  they  remained 
several  i^opths;  but,, as  np  other  . persons  ap- 
pealed there  except  a  few  prelates,  from  the 
-.ecclesiastical  states,  the  pope  recalled  tbeoi  and 
.  proro^ed  the  cou^cil.  On  th^  13th  of  Decem- 
ber, 1545,  the.  council  wa/s  agfin  gpeped  at 
Trent;  though  as  yet  only  .twi^-five  bishops 
had  arrived,  and  these  were  I^lians  or  SpanianU. 
The  council  riiowed  great  eagiwnese  in  condemn- 
ing the  opinions  of  the  Prpt^tants ;  but  it  was 
soon  lifter  diaM>lved»  In.  thait  council,  pmtncted 
throMgh  many,  years,  the  pbon^  of  Rome  ia- 
creased,  in  the  view,  of  Protestants,  instead  of 
diminishinff,  eveiy  acknoy^ledged  evil.  Nothing 
was  altered;  no  ^rror  retract^;  .no  compliance 
with  the  populfff  demand  for  reformation  was 
made.  \  This  was  the .  issue .  aPid  aim  of  the 
Trent  reiformation,'  remarks  Rid^erus^  '  that  no 
respect  should  be  had*  to  truths  bv^t  to  show  and 
outward  pomp  only;  and  that. al|  things  ^ould 
^  referred  to  the  splendor  and  profit  of  the  Ro- 
man court* 

As  the  pope  advanced  if^  years  he,  grew  more 
strongly  attached  to  his  Wilyt  an4  more  jealous 
of  his  authority ;  hut,  ip  the  midst  of  th^  schemes 
..for  the  aggramdis^npen^  of  the  Jatter,  he  died 
A*  P*  1^49,  in  the  eighty-second  yoar  of  his 
age,  and  .af\er  Ke^had  held  the  J^pman  see  more 
than  'fifteen  ye^rs/  He  was  succeeded,  by  Julius 
lU.,  fonnerlv  known  as  John  Maria  Pel  Monte. 
One  of  his  prst  acts  gav^  great  offence  to  every 
decept  person ;  he  .conferred  a  cacdinaTs  hat, 
with  ample  ec^esiastical  revenues,  yppn  a  youth 
of  si;Lteen»  bom  of  obscure  par^ats^  and  known 


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ROMAJN    CATHOLICISM. 


671 


by  tbe  none  of  Ape^  from  bis  baviag  been  en- 
trusted witb  tbe  care  of  an  animal  of  that,  species 
in  the  caxtiinal  Del  Monte's  iamily.  When 
Julius  was  reproached  by  the  cardinals  ibr 
introducing  such  an  unworthy  member  into 
the  sacred  college,  a  person  who  had  neither 
ieanuDgy  nor  virtue,  nor  merit  of  any  kind,  he 
imprudently  replied,  by  asking  than,  '  \yhat 
virtue  or  merit  ttiey  had  found  in  him  that  could 
induce  them  to  phce  him  (Julius)  in  the  papal 
chair?'  Having  also  one  day  ordered  a  cold 
peacock  for  his  supper,  and  not  perceiving  it  on 
the  table,  he  expressed  his  anger  ia  a  most  hor- 
rible blasphemy.  One  of  his  cardinals  semon- 
strating  with  his  holiness  on  the  violence  of  his 
passion,  his  reply  was,  *  If  God  could  be 
so  veiy  angry  about  an  apple,  as  to  turn  our 
first  fkther  out  of  paradise,  why  should  it  not 
be  lawful  for  me,  who  am  his  vicar,  to  be  in 
a  passion  for.  a  peacock  ? '  The  subsequent  coi^ 
duct  of  Julius  corresponded  with  his  shameless 
behaviour  at  the  commencement  of  bis  pontifi- 
cate; and  he  died,  lamented  by  none,  in  1555, 
having  held  thejpapal  see  about  five  years.  His 
auccessor  was  Marcellus  II.,  who  died  within  a 
month  of  his  consecration. 

Cardinal  Caia&,  who  took  the  name  of  Paul 
IV.,  was  the  next  occupant  of  the  papal  throne. 
The  Roman  oourtiers,  ntMn  the  known  austerity 
of  his  charaoteir,  anticipated  a  severe  and  violent 
pontificate.  Paul,  however,  began  his  govern- 
ment by  ordering  his  coronation  to  be  conducted 
with  greater  pomp  and  ceremony  than  usual,  and, 
when  he  was  asked  in  what  roanncfr  he  chose  to 
live,  he  hai%btily  replied,  'as  becomes  a, great 
prince.'  He  used  great  pomp  in  his  first  consis- 
toiy,  when  he  allowed  audience  to  the  ambassa- 
dors of  Mary,  queen  of  England,  who. came  to 
tender  her  obedience  to  the  papal  see,  on  which 
occasion  he  gave  the  title  of  a  kingdom  to  Ireland. 
He  maintained,  with  undiminished  rigor,  the  pre- 
tensions of  the  church  of  Rome.  When  Sir 
Edward  Rame  noticed  the  accession  of  Eliza- 
beth to  this  pope,  he  answered  that  England  was 
held  in  fee  ot  the  apostolic  see^that  the  queen 
conld  not  succeed,  Dein|;  illegitimate— i^and  that 
she  was  presumptuous,  m  assuming  the  crown ; 
bat  that  if  she  renounced  her  pretensions  and, 
submitted  her^ase  entirely  to  him,  be  would  do 
every  thing,  which,  without  his  consent,  could 
not  be  done  consistently.  'He  never  talked,* 
say^  Father  Paul,  'with  ambassadors,  without 
thundering  in  their  ears  that  he  was  Superior  to 
all  princes;  that  he  would  admit  none  of  them 
on  a  footing 'of  familiarity  with  himself;  that  it 
was  in  bis  power  to  change  kingdoms,  and  that  he 
was  the  successor  of  those  who  deposed  kings  and 
emperors.'  Paul  finally  perfectly  orgaoiized  the 
inquisition. 

Shortly  after  the  pope  was  very  desirous  of 
convincing  the  ivorla  that  he  had  sincerely  at 
heart  a  correction  of  abuses;  and  with  this  view 
ordered  all  bishops  to  proceed  to  their  own 
dioceses,  and  all  who  had  embrated  a  monastic 
life  to  return  to  their  monasteries.  It  was  now 
almost  too  late,  however,  to  act  upon  a  new 
course  of  practice,  and  Paul  was  unable  to  re- 
medy these  evils,  as  he  died  in  August  1659  in 
the  eighty-fourth  year  of  his  age,  aflter  a  pontifi- 


cate of  little  more  than.  four. years.  Pius  IV.| 
jiirhose  original  name  was  J.ohn  Angelq  Xh  ]\ie- 
did,  was  chosen  to  (SUcpe^.Paul,  a&r  a  delay  pf 
more  than  foiir.  months.  Soon  after  his  accession 
he  despatched  9^  auncio  to  Eqgland  with  s.ecret 
instructions  and  a  conci^atocy  letter ;  offering  to 
annul  the.  sentence,  as^nst  the  mmage  of  £liza- 
bedi's  mother>  tot  allow  the  use  of  the  cup  to  the 
■English,  and  to.  confirm  the  English  Utuigy :  but 
Elisabeth  had  Already  decided  <>n  her  course; 
and  the  nuncio  was  informed  that  be  could  not 
be  permitted  to  set  foot  in  England.  Pius  now 
issued  a  bull  for  reassembling  of  the  council  at 
Trent,  which  met  in  January  1562.  .Attempts 
ytete  soon  made  to  abridge  the  authority  of  the 
pope,  which  created  in  his.  holiness  perpetual 
anxiety,  and  he  y9»s  on  the  point  ,of  suddenly 
dissolving  the.assembl^.  In  1563  it  was  bn>ught 
to  an  end,  but  not  until  decrees  were  passed,  d^- 
signed  as  an  acknowledgment  of  the  suboidina- 
tion  of  the  council  to  the  holy  see.  When  in- 
formation of  the  dissolution  of  the  council  was 
brought  to  Pius,. he  received  it  with  great  joy, 
and  .ordained  ai  solemn,  thanksgiving  on  the  oc- 
caaion ;  and,  .in  a  very  short  time^  he  published 
a  bull  of  coofiimaUon,  requiring  all  the  prelates 
and  princes  to  leceive  and  enforce  the  decrees  jof 
the  council,  prohibking  persons  from  .!irriting 
eny  explication  or  commentary  of  them;  and 
commanding  the  catholics  every  where  to  have 
recourse,  in  all  doubtfiil  cases,  to,  the  apostolic 
see. 

Pins  IV.  died  in  1565^  in  the  sixty-tserenth  ye^ 
of  his  age,  and  after  a  pontificate  x>£  nearly  m 
years.  ,  The  news  <Qf  the  fact  was  .leceiv.ed^  it  is 
«aid,  with  great  joy  by  the.  B^oman  people.on  Dis- 
count of  the  severity  and  ^oppressioa  of  bis  go- 
verment.  Jiia  successor  was  cardinal  GhisUeri, 
who  took  the  title  of  Pius  V.,  early  dispbyed 
great  xeal  and  diligence  in  promoting  a  reformar 
lion  ill  the  manner  and  moxals.  of.  all  .ranks.  He 
exhibited,  however,  a  fiirious  «eal  against  tbe 
Protestants,  by  persecuting  them  with,  the  same 
eavage  severity  which  rendered  him. odious.. in 
liis  former  character  '^of  *  inquisitor.  He  also 
incited  Philip  II:  to  attempt  by  war  and.n^aasar 
ere  their  extermination ;  and  induced  him  to  in- 
trust the  expedition  designed  for  this  purpose  to 
the  ferocious  duke  of  Alva.  .  In  1568ijPius  pub- 
lished his.  femotts  bull,  entitled  In  Csenk  Domini, 
which  it  was  usual  to  publish  at  Rome  oo.  Maundy 
Thuvsday  every  year,  till  it  was  suppressed  by 
pope  Clement  XIV.  By  this  bull  anathemas 
wer»  pronounced  against  kuch  persona  aa^should 
appeal  to  general  councils  from  the  decrees  of 
the  -popes ;  and  against  those  princes  who  should 
impose  restraints  on  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  or 
exact  contributions  from  the  clergy.  -It  was, 
however,  nevet  received  in  any  kingdom  out  of 
Italy.  He  also  issued  a  bull  of  excommunica- 
tion' against  EKzabeth,  queen  of  England,*  ab- 
solving her  subject9  from  their  allegiance.  A  We 
declare  her,  out  of  tbe  fulness  of  tbe  apostolic 
power,  to  be  a  heretic,  and  a  fiivorer  of  heretics : 
ne  said,  we  moreover  declare  her  to  be  deprived 
of  her  pretended  title  to  the  kingdom  aforesaid, 
and  of  all  dominion,  dignity,  and  privilege  what- 
soever; and  also  the  nobility,  subjects,  and 
people  9f  the  said  kingdom,  and  all  who  have  in 


Digitized  by  ^^UU*^ 


le 


672 


ROMAN    CATHOLICISM. 


any  sort  gwom  unto  her,  to  be  for  ever  absolved 
from  every  such  oath,  and  all  manner  of  duty,  of 
dominion,  allegiance,  and  obedience.  We  also 
command  and  interdict  all  and  every  the  noble- 
men, subjects,  and  people  aforesaid  that  they 
presume  not  to  obey  ner,  or  her  monitions,  man- 
dates, and  laws ;  and  those  who  shall  do  to  the 
contrary  we  do  likewise  anathematize.*  (Sea 
Butler's  Mem.  1. 187).  Pius  was  earned  off  by 
an  attack  of  the  stone  in  1572,  when  he  was 
about  the  age  of  sixty-eight,  after  a  pontificate  of 
little  more  than  six  years. 

Gregory  XIII.  was  Unanimously  elected  his 
successor.  It  was  during  this  pontificate  that  the 
massacre  of  the  Protestants  at  Paris  took  place. 
See  Reformation  :  60,000  Protestants,  accord- 
ing to  Sully,  fell  in  this  awful  massacre;  and  that 
it  did  not  extend  to  the  extermination  of  every 
individual,  was,  under  divine  providence,  to  be 
attributed  to  the  caution  of  some  who  left  the 
capital  in  time,  the  intrepidity  of  others,  and  the 
generous  feeling  of  many  of  the  Catholic  officers, 
who  Refused  to  obey  commands  which  they  said 
belonged  rather  to  executioners  than  to  soldiers. 
This  deed  of  blood  was  as  assuredly  approved  by 
the  pope  as  it  was  executed  by  the  mandate  of  his 
priests.  It  was  celebrated  as  an  act  of  religion 
at  liome,  and  justified  as  a  holy  deed  by  the 
partisans  of  Rome.  The  solemn  thanksgiving 
made  was  accompanied  with  a  jubilee  to  all 
Christendom ;  for  which  one  of  the  reasons  was 
that  they  should  thank  God  for  the  slaughter  of 
the  enemies  of  the  church  lately  executed  in 
France.  In  the  oration  of  Muretus,  pronounced 
in  the  presence  of  the  supreme  pontiff,  Gregory  * 
XIII.,  that  memorable  night,  in  which  this  ar- 
cnrsed  slaughter  was  committed,  is  blessed.  The 
king,  the  queen,  and  the  royal  fiunily  are  extolled 
for  their  share  in  the  transaction,  and  the  pope 
himself  is  styled  most  blessed  Father  for  going 
in  procession,  to  return  thanks  to  God  and  St. 
Louis  for  the  welcome  news  when  brought  to 
him.  After  the  death  of  Gregory,  in  1585,  the 
papal  chair  was  filled  by  Sixtus  V.  (Felix  Pe- 
retti  Di  Montalto),  who  in  pride,  magnificence, 
intrepedity,  strength  of  mind,  and  in  other  great 
Virtues  and  vices,  surpassed  most  of  his  prede- 
cessors. It  had  been  usual,  for  the  sake  of  ac- 
quiring popularity,  on  the  election  of  a  new 
pope,  to  set  the  \mprisoned  criminals  at  liberty ; 
out  the  first  act  of  Sixtus  was  to  order  four  per- 
sons to  be  hanged,  on  whom  were  found,  a  few 
days  before,  prohibited  weapons.  This  system 
of  rig(»  he  pursued  with  the  most  inexorable 
severity,  never,  in  a  single  instance,  pardoning  a 
crimiiMl.  Instead  of  censuring  the  assassination 
of  Henry  III.,  King  of  Navarre,  by  the  do- 
minican  Clement,  Sixtus  commended  and  ap- 
proved of  the  action  in  a  long,  public,  and 
official  oration.  That  a  monk  had  slain  a  king 
in  the  midst  of  his  people  he  considered  '  R»- 
rum  insigne  et  memorabile  (acinus.  Fadnus 
non  sine  Dei  optimd  maximi  particulari  provi- 
dentia,  et  dispositione.'  And  then  he  goes  on 
'o  say  that  it  was  not  only  done  with  the  special 
providence  and  appointment  of  God,  but  by  the 
suggestions  and  assistance  of  his  Holy  Spirit ;  a 
greater  work  than  Judith's  slaving  Holofernes.  In 
1588  Philip  equipped  his  mvincible  annada; 


and  Sixtus  secoiKl^  the  enterprise  with  aU  bis 
spiritual  authority.  He  renewed  the  bulb  of 
Pius  and  Gregory  against  Elizabeth;  and  onoe 
more  excommunicated  and  absolved  her  sabjeds 
from  their  allegiance.  This  oeMrated  pontiff 
died  in  August  1590,  having  reigned  five  yeaxs 
and  four  months.  The  rigor  of  his  administra- 
tion, his  io&provement  of  the  city  of  Romey  the 
vast  treasures  he  accumulated,  his  ibondatioii 
of  the  \^atican  library,  and  his  fixing  the  num- 
ber of  cardinals  at  seventy,  have  all  contributed 
to  gain  him  immortal  reputation,  and  have 
thrown  great  splendor  about  his  name.  Though 
we  cannot  look  upon  him  as  the  model  of  a  great 
prince,  and  much  less  of  an  irreproachable  pee- 
late,  yet  was  his  life  and  administratioo  distin- 
guished by  many  noble  acts,  paiticulaiijr  in  his 
encouragement  of  sacred  literature.  In  1590  Six- 
tus published  an  edition  of  the  Latin  Vulgate, 
which  by  a  bull  he  commanded  ahould  be  le^ 
ceived  every  where,  and  in  all  cases  for  tme, 
legitimate,  aothentic,  and  undoubted ;  and  thai 
all  future  editions  should  be  made  oonfonaable 
to  this,  not  the  least  syllable  being  changed, 
added,  or  omitted,  on  pain  of  the  greater  ex- 
communication. Notwithstanding  this  denun- 
ciation, however,  Clement  VIII.,  not  very  lone 
after,  revoked  the  decree  of  Sixtus,  suppr^sed 
his  edition,  and  published  another  of  his  own, 
in  wliich  he  made  more  than  3000  conectioos. 

In  1592  the  papal  chair  was  filled  by  Hippo- 
lito  Aldobrandini,  under  the  name  of  Clenieiit 
VI 11;  Clement  yielded  to  none  of  his  px«de- 
oessors  in  zeal  for  the  extension  of  the  Romish 
fiiith ;  in  this  spirit  he  prepared  the  oath  to  be 
-taken  by  the  oishops  and  archbishops,  which 
oontains  the  words  'jura,  hooores,  privilegia, 
et  auctoritatemy  Rom.  ecclesiss,  dommi  noatri 
Papss  et  successorum,  oonservare,  defendere,  an- 
gere,  promovere  curatio;  Heretieos^  schismati- 
cos,  et  rebelles  eidem  domini  no^tro,  pro  posse 
persequar.'  (Pont.  Rom.  Clem.  VIII.  Antwerp 
1627,  p.  59).  In  1600  Clement  issued  a  bull  to 
prevent  James  L  from  ascending  the  tiirooe  of 
England,  declaring  that  <  when  it  should  happen 
that  that  miserable  woman. (queen  Elixabetb) 
should  die,  they  (her  subjects)  should  admit  none 
to  the  crown,  though  ever  aa  nearly  allied  to  it  by 
blood,  except  they  vreuld  not  only  tolerate  the 
Catholic  r^igion,  but  promote  it  to  the  utmost  of 
their  power,  and  would,  according  to  ancient 
custom,  undertake  npon  oath  to  perfona  the 
same/  He  was  succeeded  in  the  year  1605 
by  Leo  XI.  of  the  house  of  Medicis,  who  diied 
a  few  weeks  after  his  election,  and  thus  left  tbe 
papal  chair  open  to  Camillo  Borghese,.by  whom 
It  was  filled  under  the  denomination  of  Paul  V. 
No  one  of  hia  predecessors  exceeded  this  pontiff 
in  xeal  for  advancing  the  ecclesiastical  aatnority, 
or  showed  himself  more  violent  in  endeavouring 
to  execute  his  vengeance  upon  such  as  encroached 
upon  his  prerogative.  Paul  died  atRof^e  in 
January  1621,  in  the  sixty-ninth  year  of  his  age, 
after  a  pontificate  of  nearly  sixteen  years.  Gre- 
gory Xv.,  who  was  raised  to  the  pontific^  in 
.  1621,  seemed  to  be  of  a  milder  disposition,  thongh 
he  was  not  leas  defective  in  equity  and  clemency 
towards  those  who  had  sepanUed  themselves 
from  the  church.    Thi^  pope  instituted  ihst  £»- 


Digitized  b^N^jUU^  It: 


ROMAN    CATHOLICISM. 


673 


moos  cotttgey  'De  propaganda  fide;'  and  en- 
dowed it  with  ample  revenues  for  the  mainten- 
ance of  penons  to  be  educated  for  foreisn 
mitsioik  Urban  VIII.,  who  previously  bore  the 
name  of  Maffei  Barberini,  and  who,  by  his 
interest  in  the  conclave,  succeeded  Gresory  m  the 
papal  throne  in  1623,  was  a  man  of  Tetters,  an 
eloquent  writer,  an  elegant  poet,  and  a  senerous 
and  munificent  patron  of  learning  and  genius; 
but  nothing  can  equal  the  rigor  and  barbarity 
with  which  he  treated  all  who  bore  the  name  of 
Protestants.  The  Bull,  In  C9Bn&  Domini,  written 
in  16t0  by  Paul  V.,  and  promulgated  by  Urban 
in  1627,  contains  the  whole  elixir  of  ultramon- 
tane orthodoxy,  it  excommunicates  heretics, 
schismatics,  &c.;  all  who  dare  to  appeal  to  a 
future  council  against  the  bulls  and  briefs  of  the 
pope ;  all  princes  who  dare  to  levy  taxes  with- 
out the  permission  of  the  pope;  those  who  make 
treaties  of  alliance  with  Turks  or  heretics;  and 
those  who  complain  to  the  secular  judges  against 
the  wroi^  and  injuries  received  nom  the  court 
of  Rome. 

In  1643  he  issued  a  bull  of  deposition  against 
Charles  I.  in  Ireland :  where,  two  yeara  before, 
not  fewer  than  100,000  Protestants  were  massa- 
cred, and  to  those  who  had  joined  the  rebellion 
of  1641  the  same  holy  pontiff  granted  a  plenary 
indulgence.  In  this  dreadful  massacre,  as  in 
that  of  France  on  St.  Bartholomew's  day,  no  ties 
of  nature  or  of  friendship  could  prevent  the  pa- 
pists from  imbruing  their  h:mds  ra  the  blood  of 
their  nearest  Protestant  relations.  He  may  however 
be  considered  as  a  good  and  equitable  ruler,  com- 
pared with  Innocent  X.,  of  the  femily  of  Pam- 
phili,  who  succeeded  him  in  the  year  1644.  This 
Tinworthy  pontiff,  to  a  profound  ignorance,  joined 
the  most  shameful  inaolence  and  the  most  noto- 
rious profligacy ;  for  he  abandoned  his  person, 
his  dignity,  the  administration  of  his  temporal 
affairs,  and  the  government  of  the  church,  to  the 
disposal  of  Donna  Olympia,  a  woman  of  corrupt 
morals^  insatiable  avarice,  and  boundless  ambi- 
tion. He  was  succeeded  in  the  papal  chair,  in 
the  year  1655,  by  Fabio  Qhigi,  who  assumed  the 
title  of  Alexander  VII.,  and  who,  though  less 
odious  than  his  predecessor,  nevertheless  pos- 
sessed all  the  pernicious  qualities  that  are  neces- 
sary to  constitute  a  true  pope,  and  without  which 
the  papal  jurisdiction  and  majesty  cannot  be 
maintained.  Benedict  Odeschalchi,  who  is 
known  in  the  list  of  pontiffs  by  the  denomination 
of  Innocent  XI. ^  and  was  raised  to  that  high 
dignity  in  the  year  1677,  began  his  high  career 
with  abolishing  abuses,  and  suppressing  many 
gross  superstitions  then  prevailing  in  the  church 
of  Rome.  This  respectable  pontiff  acquired  a 
Tery  high  and  permanent  reputation  by  the  au- 
sterity of  his  morals,  his  uncommon  courage  and 
resolution,  his  dislike  of  the  grosser  superstitions 
that  reigned  in  the  Romish  church,  his  attempts 
to  reform  the  manners  of  the  clergy,  and  to  abo- 
lish a  number  of  those  fictions  and  frauds  that 
dishonor  their  ministry,  and  also  by  other  solid 
and  eminent  virtues.  He  had  a  contest  with  the 
French  king  about  the  right  of  disposing  of 
benefices  and  church  lancb,  claimed  by  that 
monarch,  and  confirmed  to  him  by  an  assembly 
of  the  clergy,  which  neariy  terminated  in  a 
Vol.  XVin. 


separation  of  the  Gallican  church  iroin  the 
Roman  communion.  It  was  on  this  occasion 
that  Louis  summoned  the  fiunous  assembly  of 
bishops  which  met  at  Paris  in  tl)e  year  1682,  and 
drew  up  the  four  celebrated  propositions  declar- 
ing the  power  of  the  pepe  to  be  merely  spiritual 
and  inferior  to  that  of  a  general  council,  and 
maintaining  the  inviolability  of  the  rules,  institu- 
tions, and  observances  of  the  Gallican  church. 
These  propositions  were  to  the  following  pur- 
port : — 1.  That  neither  St.  Peter  nor  his  succes- 
sors have,  received  from  God  any  power  to  inter- 
fere, directly  or  indirectly,  in  v^hai  concerns  the 
temporal  interest  of  princes  ai:\d  sovereign  states; 
that  kings  and  princes  cannot  be  deposed  by  ec- 
clesiastical authority,  nor  their  subjects  freed 
from  the  sacred  obligation  of  fidelity  and  alle- 
giance, by  the  power  of  the  church  or  the  bulls 
of  the  Roman  pontiff.  2.  That  the  decrees  of 
the  council  of  Constance,  which  maintained  the 
authority  of  general  councils  as  superior  to  that 
of  the  popes  in  spiritual  matters,  are  approved 
and  adopted  by  the  Gallican  church.  3.  That 
the  rules,  customs,  institutions,  and  observances 
which  have  been  received  in  the  Gallican  church 
are  to  be  preserved  inviolable.  4.  That  the  de- 
cisions of  the  pope,  in  points  of  faith,  are  not 
infallible,  unless  they  be  attended  with  the  con- 
sent of  the  church. 

Innocent  died  in  1689,  having  presided  over 
the  Roman  see  twelve  vears  and  a  half.  During 
this  pontificate  Louis  aIV.  was  induced  to  re- 
voke the  edict  of  Nantz.  On  occasion  of  this  dis- 
graceful act  Bossuet  breaks  out — *  Let  me  indulge 
uie  movement  of  my  heart,  and  dwell  on  the  piety 
of  our  monardh ;  let  me  address  this  new  Con- 
stantine,  this  new  Theodosius,  this  other  Mar- 
cian,  this  other  Charlemagne,  in  the  words  with 
which  the  6S0  &thers  expressed  their  .sentiments 
to  the  emperor  at  the  council  of  Chalcedon : — 
'You  have  strengthened  the  faith,  you  have  ex- 
terminated the  heretics ;  it  is  the  most  meritori- 
ous act  of  your  reign.  King  of  Heaven !  pre- 
serve the  king  of  the  eartli  1  It  is  the  ardent  de- 
sire of  the  church ;  it  is  the  ardent  desire  of  the 
assembly,  of  her  pastors,  and  of  her  bishops.' 
Innocent  XII.,  a  man  of  uncommon  merit  and 
eminent  talents,  whose  name  was  Pignatelli,  and 
who,  in  the  year  1 691,  succeeded  to  the  papal  chair, 
was  unwearied  in  his  endeavours  to  reform  the 
corrupt  manners  of  the  clergy,  though  he  found 
that  the  entire  accomplishment  of  the  Herculean 
task  was  a  consummation  which  all  his  prudence 
and  resolution  were  unable  to  effect.  He  was 
anxiously  devoted  to  the  interests  ef  the  poor, 
and  the  wealth  which  many  of  his  predecessors 
had  been  accustomed  to  accumulate,  or  to  bestow 
on  worthless  relatives,  he  devoted  to  the  public 
benefit,  employing  it  in  the  erection  of  hospitals 
and  other  useful  institutions.  Innocent  died  in 
the  year  1700  at  the  advanced  age  of  eighty-five, 
after  presiding  over  the  church  about  nine  years. 
The  corruptions  that  had  been  complained  of  in 
preceding  ages,  both  in  the  higher  and  inferior 
ordecs  of  the  Romish  clergy,  were  rather  increas- 
ed than  diminished  during  this  century,  as  the 
most  impartial  writers  of  that  communion  can- 
didly confess.  The  bishops  were  rarely  indebted 
for  Uieir  elevation  to  their  eminent  learning,  or 

2X 


Digitized  by 


vjQOgle 


liOMAii    CATHOLICISM. 


674 

superior  merit.  The  iptercession  of  potent  pa- 
trons, services  rendered  to  men  in  power,  con- 
nexions of  blood,  and  simoniacal  practices  were, 
generally  speaking,  the  steps  to  preferment; 
and,  what  was  still  more  deplorable,  their  pro- 
motion was  sometimes  owing  to  their  vices. 
Their  lives  were  such  as  might  be  expected  from 
persons  who  had  risen  iu  the  church  by  such  un- 
seemly means ;  for  had  they  been  obliged,  by 
their  profession,  to  give  public  examples  of  those 
vices  which  the  holy  laws  of  the  Gospel  so 
solemnly  and  expressly  condemn,  instead  of  ex- 
hibiting patterns  of  sanctity  and  virtue  to  their 
flock,  they  could  not  have  conducted  themselves 
otherwise  than  they  did.  Some  indeed  there 
were  who,  sensible  of  the  obligations  of  their 
profession,  displayed  a  truly  Christian  zeal  in 
administering  useful  instruction,  and  exhibiting 
pious  examples  to  their  flock,  and  exerting  tl'ieir 
utmost  vigor  and  activity  in  opposing  the  vices 
of  the  sacred  order  in  particular,  and  the  licen- 
tiousness of  the  times  in  general.  But  these  rare 
patrons  of  virtue  and  piety  were  either  ruined  by 
the  resentment  and  stratagems  of  their  envious 
and  exasperated  brethren ;  or  were  left  in  obscu- 
rity, witnout  that  encouragement  and  support 
which  were  requisite  to  enable  them  to  execute 
efiectually  their  pious  and  laudable  purposes. 

Clement  XI.,  originally  John  Francis  Albani, 
was  chosen  to  succeed  Innocent  in  the  pontifical 
office.  He  redressed  some  grievances,  discoun- 
tenanced vice  and  criminality  of  every  kindi 
performed  acts  of  beneficence,  gave  an  example 
of  devotional  regularity,  and  filled  vacant  offices 
and  preferments  with  men  of  merit.  But  a  re-, 
vival  of  the  contest  between  the  Jansenists  an4 
the  Jesuits  had  for  some  time  conspired  with  po- 
litics and,  wars  to  disturb  the  tranquillity  of 
Rome.  For  tha  more  effectual  repression  of 
Jansenism,  a  new  apostolical  constitution  was 
issued  in  the  year  1705,  condemning  such  errors 
with  menaces  of  papal  indignation.  .The  anti- 
Jansenist  ordinance,  as  it  commenced  with  the 
terms  unigenitus  Dei  filius,  was  quickly  known 
throughout  Christendom  by  the  appellation  of 
the  bull '  unigenitus. '  This  bull  put  an  end  to 
all  hope  of  a  reconciliation  between  ih^  church 
of  Rome  and  the  Protestants,  as  in  most  of  those 
points  which  had  occasioned  the  separation  it 
represented  the  doctrines  of  that  phurch  in  the 
very  same  light  in  which  they  had  been  regarded 
by  the  first  reformers.  This  bull  is  also  known 
by  the  name  of  the  constitution. 

The  dissensions  and  tumults  excited  in  France 
by  this  edict  were  violent  in  the  highest  degree. 
A  considerable  number  of  bishops,  and  a  large 
body  compo.<ied  of  persons  eminently  distinguish- 
ed by  their  piety  and  erudition,  both  among  the 
clergy  and  laity,  appealed  {o  a  general  council. 
It  was  more  particularly  opposed  by  the  cardinal 
de  Noailles,  archbishop  ot  Paris,  who,  equally 
unmoved  by  the  authority  of  the  pontiff  and  by 
the  resentment  and  indignation  of  Louis  XIV., 
made  a  noble  stand  against  the  despotic  proceed- 
ings of  the  court  of  Rome.  The  issue  .of  this 
famous  contest  was  favorable  to  the  bull,  which 
was  at  length  rendered  valid  by  the  authority  of 
the  parliament,  and  was  registered  among  the 
laws  of  the  state.     This  contributed,  in  some 


measure,  to  restore  the  public  trahquilliiy ;  bat 
it  was  far  from  diminishing  the  number  cf  thcf^ 
who  complained  of  the  despotism  of  the  pontiC 
In  1712,  when  by  virtue  of  the  treaty  of  Alt- 
Rastadt  certain  places  were  to  be  surrendered  to 
some  Protestant  princes,  pope  Clement  XL,  in  a 
letter  to  the  emperor  Charles  VL,  denounced  the 
Protestants  as  'in  execrable  sect,*  and,  in  the 
plenitude  of  his  pretended  supremacy,  declared 
every  thing  which  either  was,  or  could  be  con- 
strued or  esteemed  to  be,  in  any  way,  obtrusive 
of,  or  in  the  least  degree  prejudicial  to,  the  Ro- 
mish faith  or  worship,  or  to  the  authority,  juris- 
diction, or  any  rights  of  the  church  whatever, '  lo 
be,  and  to  have  been,  and  perpetually  to  rexoain 
hereafter,  null,  unjust,,  reprpbated,  void,  and 
evacuated  of  all  force  from  the  beginning :  and 
that  no  person  is  bound  to  the  observance  of, 
them,  although  the  same  have  been  repeated,  ra 
tified,  or  secured  by  oath.'  Clement  died  in 
1721,  at  the  age  of  seventy-one.  The  election  oi 
Michael  Angefo  Conti,  who  took  the  name  of  In- 
nocent XIIL,  as  successor  of  Clement,  vras  very 
unexpected.  His  noble  descent  and  bis  person^ 
accomplishments  had  raided  him  to  the  highest 
offices,  ^e  duties  of  whicl^  he  had  always  dis- 
charged with  reputation  and  honor.  Bat  the 
infirmities  of  age  prevented  him  from  distingui^ 
ing  himself  as  pope.  Innocent  died  the  3d  of 
March  1724.  Cardinal  Vincent  Orsini,  eldest 
son  of  the  duke  of  Gravina,  who  now  succeeded 
to  the  pontificate  as  Benedict  XIH^  took  every 
opportunity  of  recommending  a  strict  regard  to 
moral  and  social  dutie^  and  a  steady  practice  of 
Christian  virtues.  His  dislike  of  pomp  and 
magnificence,  his  concern  for  the  morals  of  the 
clergy,  and  his  care  for  the  poor,  however  com- 
'  mendable,  did  not  obtain  for  him  or  his  plan  the 
support  of  the  cardinals  and  the  other  great  men 
of  his  court.  He  held  a  provincial  council  in 
the  Lateran  church,  chiefly  for  a  reform  of  the 
conduct  of  the  clergy ;  and  the  assembly  vottd 
for  an  enforcement  of  some  decrees  that  had 
been  enacted  by  the  council  of  Trent,  but  which 
had  fallen  into  disuse.  On  anotlier  occasion  he 
rose  above  the  bigotry  of  his  predecessors*  by 
expressing  a  wish  for  me  diffusion  of  scriptutaL 
knowledge ;  and,  with  that  view,  he  permitted 
the  people  .in  general  to  peruse  the  sacred 
volume,  and  encouraged  the  multiplication  of 
copies  in  the  modem  languages.  A  grand 
scheme  of  religious  comprdiensien  was  formed 
by  this  respectable  ruler  of  the!  Romish  church : 
it  was  of  no  less  magnitude  than  the  union  of 
the  four  communities  that  divided  Christendom. 
He  proposed  that  four  councils  should  be  holden 
at  diflerent  places  at  the  same  time,  each  consist- 
ing of  a  certain  number  of  representatives  of  the 
Romish,  Greek,  Lutheran,  and  Calvinist 
churches,  with  a  president  of  one  or  other  chiuch 
in  each  assembly.  He  did  not,  however,  cany 
his  scheme  into  execution.  Benedict  was  inde- 
fatigable in  his  official  duties :  he  continued  to 
pray  and  preach,  attend  to  all  pontifical  and  sa- 
cerdotal functions,  and  direct  the  condoct  of 
subordinate  prelates  and  ministers  of  the  church. 
He  frequently  visited  the  poor,  and  relieved 
them  by  his  bounty,  selling  for  tljat  purpose  the 
presents  which  he  received.  ](ie  habituated  him* 


Digitized  by  ^^JiJU*^lt: 


ROMAN    CATHOLICISM. 


67£ 


self  to  the  plainest  fai.e,  and  lived  in  the  most 
frugal  manner,  like'a  hermit. in'  his  cell,  that  he 
might  more  literally  bestow  upon  bthers  the 
blessings  of  fortune.  He  died  in  the  eighty- 
second  year  of  his  age  and  the  sixth  of  his  pon- 
tificate.' Yet  so  overpowering  were  the  princi- 
ples of  his  chuFch  over  the  mind  of  this  naturally 
moderate  and  well  disposed  map  that,  from  evi- 
dence communicated  to  a  committee  df  the  Irish 
parliament  by  father  John  Kennesy,  it  appears 
that  his  holiness,  iri  compliance  with  the  request 
of  the  Romish  archbishops  and  bishops  of  Ire- 
laud  (who  had  conspired  with  others  of  the 
Romish  communion  to  place  the  pretender  on 
the  throne),  issued  his  bull  to  facilitate  their  in- 
tention^ and  sent  them  an  indulgence  for  ten 
years,  in  order  to  raise  a  sum  of  money,  to  be 
speedily  applied  to  restore  James  III.  This  bull 
provided  that  every  communieant,  confessing  and 
receiving  upon  the  patroti  days  of  every  respec- 
tive parish,  and  any  Sunday  from  the  1st  of  May 
to  September,  having  repeated  the  Lord's  prayer 
five  times,  and  once  the  apostles*  creed,  upon 
paying  two  pence  each  time,  was  to  have  a  ple- 
nary indulgence  for  all  his  sins.  And,  under 
this  bull,  it  appears  that  the  sum  of  J^1500  sterling 
-was  ready  to  be  remitted  to  the  pretender's  agent 
in  Flanders,  at  the  time  the  treasonable  conspi- 
racy was  detected  by  the  yigilance  of  the  Irish 
government !  Clement  XII.,  of  the  Corsini  fa- 
mily, was  now  chosen'  in  1730,  after  a  long  con- 
test, to  succeed  the  mild  and  humble  Benedict. 
He  quickly  reformed  some  abuses  which  had 
crept  into  the  administration  of  the  Roman 
state,  and  then  directed  his  attention  to  foreign 
affairs.  This  ponti'ff  was  a  man  of  respectable 
abilities  ;  had  a  regard  for  justice ;  was  cautious 
and  prudent,  yet  not  destitute  of  spirit ;  econo- 
mical without  being  meanly  parsimonious ;  easy 
of  accessy  without  rendering  himself  indecorously 
familiar.  He  had  a  taste  for  the  polite  arts,  and 
was  an  encourager  of  literary  merit.  Dying  in, 
February,  1740,  in  the  eighty-eighth  year  of  his 
age,  he ,  was  succeeded  by  Prosper  Lanrence 
I^mbertini,  archbishop  of  Bologna,  who  entered 
upon  his  high  office  under  the  designation  of  Be- 
nedict XIV. 

In  the  administration  of  the  church,  Benedict 
was  mild  and  conciliatory.  He  was  aware  of  the 
relaxed  morality  of  the  clergy  in  the  catholic 
slates;  but,  however  he  might  wish  to  check 
their  licentiousness,  he  did  not  take  any  strong 
or  violent  measures  for  that  purpose.  At  the  so- 
licitation of  those  princes  who  were  displeased 
at  the  intrigues  and  ofiended  at  the  mal-practices 
of  the  Jesuits,  he  promised  to  exert  his  authority 
for  the  reform  of  that  order,  and  the  bull  whicn 
he  issued  for  (his  purpose  was  one  of  the  last' 
acts  of  his  life.  He  died  in  1758,  when  he  had 
attained  the  age  of  eighty-three  years.  He  was 
an  erudite  theologian,  as  his  numerous  works 
evince,  and  a  liberal  patron  of  learning  and  the 
arts.  Cardinal  Reszonico,  bishop  of  Padua, 
who  succeeded  him  as  Clement  XIII.,  had  a 
greater  reputation  for  piety,  and  was  more  zea- 
lous for  the  high  claims  of  the  church,  but  he 
was  not  so  generally  esteemed  as  his  predecessor. 
Dnring  his  pontificate  tlie  Jesuits  became  pecu- 
liarly obnoxious.    Their  enemies  in  vain  so- 


licited the  dissolution  of  that  order  while  Cle- 
ment filled  the  papal  chair;  but  they  conceived 
strong  hopes  of  success  when  a  prelate  of  a 
more  philosophical  character  was  chosen  pontiff. 
This  was  a  Franciscan  monk,  Francis  Lawrence 
Ganganelli,  who  obtained  the  purple  in  the  year 
1769,  and  thought  proper  to  assume  the  name  of 
his  immediate  predecessor.  The  Jesuits  affected 
to  believe  (and  probably  many  of  them  really 
thought)  that  Clement  would  not  dare  to  sup- 
press their  order.  But,  in  the  fifth  year  of  his 
pontificate,  a  bull  for  the  annihilation  of  the  soci- 
ety was  promulfjated,  its  colleges  were  seized,  and 
its  revenues  confiscated.  Lorenzo  Ricci,  the  refrac- 
tory general  of  the  order,  was  sent  to  the  castle  of 
St.  Angelo,  and  died  in  confinement.  The  French 
complimented  Ganganelli  on  this  occasion  by  re- 
storing the  Venalssin  to  the  holy  see.  In  1775 
Clement  published  a  bull  of  indulgence,  which 
fully  proves  that  this  spiritual  tratfic  was  as  yet 
ofiicially  and  publicly  recognised  by  the  church 
of  Rome.  Clement  did  not  long  enjoy  his  tran- 
quillity;  for  he  died  in  the  autumn  of  the  follow- 
ing year  at  the  age  of  sixty-eight.  It  was  sup- 
posed that  he  had  been  poisoned,  but  this  suspicion 
has  not  been  verified.  Of  all  the  occupants  of 
the  papal  throne,  for  some  centuries,  Ganganelli 
seems  to  be  one  of  the  most  unprejudiced,  can- 
did, and  liberal. 

The  government  of  the  church  after  his  death 
was  consigned  to  John  Angelo  Braschi,who  had 
been  created  cardinal  by  Ganganelli,  and  was  re- 
garded as  a  moderate  man.  He  commenced  his 
administration  as  Pius  VI.  with  acts  of  benevo- 
lence and  charity,  and  with  the  selection  of  de- 
serving men  for  various  offices.  He  also  issued 
a  bull,  dated  April  1778,  in  which'  he  declared 
that '  the  faithful  should  be  excited  to  the  reading 
of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  for  these  are  the  most 
abundant  sources  which  ought  to  be  left  open  to 
every  one,  to  draw  from  them  purity  of  morals 
and  of  doctrine.'  At  this  time  the  emperor  Jo- 
seph of  Austria,  who  was  himself  a  freethinker, 
manifested  a  strong  inclination  to  abridge  the 
papal  power  in  his  dominions.  In  1781  ne  be- 
gan with  imposing  restrictions  upon  the  opera- 
tions of  bulls  and  rescripts  sent  from  Rome.  He 
further  displeased  the  pontiff  by  ordering  that  no 
money  should  be  sent  into  foreign'  countries  for 
masses;  that  no  dignity  should  be  solicited  at 
Rome  without  his  permission ;  that  pilgrimages 
should  be  discontinued ;  and  that  the  number  of 
images  and  ornaments  in  churches  should  be  di- 
minished. The  disgust  felt  by  Pius  at  this  con- 
duct was  not  allayed  by  the  liberal  edict  of 
Joseph,  granting  full  toleration  to  all  the  Protes- 
tants in  his  dominions,  as  well  as  to  all  members  of 
the  Greek  church :  the  dissolution  ofa  great  number 
of  monasteries,  with  the  conversion  of  the  build- 
ings into  colleges,  hospitals,  or  barracks,  increased 
the  indignation  of  the  pope.  The  see  of  Rome 
lost  in  consequence  the  presentation  to  bishoprics 
in  Lombardy  and  other  Austrian  dependencies ; 
its  nuncios  were  deprived  of  their  power  and  ju- 
risdiction '  in  Germany,  and  the  lustre  of  the 
papacy  was  visibly  eclipsed. 

There  seemed  to  be  a  e^eral  disposition  in 
Catholic  Europe,  during  tKis  pontificate,  to  di- 
minish the  authority  of  the  papal  see ;  so  that 

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ROMAN    CATHOLICISM. 


the  modern  bishops  of  Rome  exhibit  little  more 
than  an  empty  shadow  of  the  authority  of  the 
ancient  pontiffs.  The  sovereign  princes,  and 
states  of  £urope  who  embrace  their  communion 
no  longer  tremble  at  the  thunder  of  the  Vatican, 
but  treat  their  anathemas  with  indifference.  They 
indeed  load  the  holy  father  with  pompous  titles, 
and  treat  him  with  all  the  external  marks  of  ve- 
neraiion  ;  yet  they  have  given  a  mortal  blow  to 
Ins  authority,  by  the  prudent  and  artful  distinc- 
tion they  make  between  the  court  of  Rome  and 
the  Roman  pontiff.  For,  under  the  cover  of  this 
distinction,  ihey  buffet  him  with  one  hand  and 
salute  him  with  the  other.  In  1796,  when  Buo- 
naparte was  every  where  victorious,  Pius  coro- 
mited  an  act  of  aggression  by  suffering  the  Nea- 
politan cavalry  who  were  hastening  to  the  succor 
of  the  enemies  of  France  to  pass  through  the 
territories  of  the  church,  and  even  directed  their 
march.  When  the  pontiff  was  under  the  neces- 
sity of  throwing  himself  on  the  clemency  of  the 
conqueror,  he  would  not  even  grant  him  aa 
armistice  but  on  very  severe  conditions.  The 
pope  was  compelled  to  renounce  the  friendship 
'of  the  coalesced  powers,  and  to  shut  up  his  ports 
against  them;  to  surrender  to  the  French  the 
cities  of  which  they  already  had  possession, 
as  well  as  the  citadel  of  Ancona;  to  pay  nearly 
£1,000,000  sterling ;  and  to  deliver  lOO^ictures, 
busts,  vases,  statues,  &c.,  and  500  MSS.,  to  be 
selected  by  commissioners  who  should  be  sent  to 
Home  for  that  purpose.  Europe  beheld  with  as- 
tonishment ana  regret  this  pontiff,  a  venerable 
old  man,  degraded,  insulted,  expelled  from  his 
capital,  and  harassed  with  removals  from  place 
to  place.  During  his  pontificate  he  is  said  to 
have  deserved,  by  his  good  government  and  pub- 
lic spirit,  the  respect  and  affection  of  his  subjects. 
Pius  died  at  Brian^on,  in  April  1799,  in  the 
eighty-second  year  of  his  age. 

After  the  church  had  subsisted  fur  some  time 
without  a  head,  the  fugitive  members  of  the  sa- 
cred college  held  a  conclave  at  Venice,  by  desire 
of  the  emperor  of  Germany :  and  the  cardinal 
Di  Chiaramonte,  being  honored  with  their 
suffrages,  began  to  act  as  pontiff  under  the  title 
of  Pius  VII.  Immediately  on  his  election  he 
announced  his  succession  to  Louis  XVIII.  as  the 
lawftil  king  of  France,  though  then  in  exile : 
yet,  in  the  following  year,  he  entered  into  a  con- 
cordat with  Buonaparte.  Rome  being  recovered 
by  the  arms  of  the  allies,  Pius  was  soon  enabled 
to  unite  temporal  power  witli  spiritual  authority. 
With  him,  therefore,  Buonaparte  condescended 
to  treat ;  when  this  fortunate  warrior,  having  ac- 

2mM  the  dignity  of  first  consul  or  sovereign  of 
Vance,  wish^  to  show  himself  a  friend  to  reli- 
gion. It  was  stipulated  between  them  that  the 
catholic,'  apostolic,  apd  Romish  religion,  should 
be  freely  and  publicly  exercised  in  France; 
that  a  new  division  of  dioceses  should  take 
place:  that,  as  soon  as  the  first  consul  should 
have  nominated  bishops,  the  pope  should  confer 
upon  them  the  canonical  institution;  that  the 
prelates  should  appoint,  for  parochial  ministers, 
such  persons  as  the  consul  should  approve :  that 
no  council  or  synod  should  meet  without  the  con- 
stfnt  of  the  government ;  that  no  papal  les;ate  or 
nuncio  should  act,  and  no  bull  or  brief  be  opem- 


tive  without  the  same  consent.  Ten  ardibnliopsaDd 
fifty  bishops  were  assigned  to  the  whole  repablic ; 
and  it  was  required  tlud  they  should  be  natives  of 
France,  aged  at  least  thirty  years.  The  subser- 
viency of  ecclesiastics  of  all  descriptions  to  the 
civil  power,  in  doctrine  as  well  as  in  discipline, 
formed  a  leading  feature  in  this  arrangeixKot. 
The  secularization  of  certain  German  (£  arches 
and  chapters  in  1803,  by  the  diet  of  Augsburg, 
which  distributed  some  of  them  as  indemnities 
to  secular  Protestant  princes,  gave  occasion  to 
many  despatches  from  Rome  in  the  yean  1803, 

1804,  ana  1805,  and  particularly  to  an  instruc- 
tion to  the  papal  nuncio  resident  at  Vienna  in 

1805,  in  which  Pius  VII.  says,  that  the  diurch 
had  not  only  taken  care  to  prohibit  heretics  fix>m 
confiscating  ecclesiastical  possessions ;  but  that 
she  had  moreover  established,  as  the  penalty  of 
the  crime  of  heresy,  the  confiscation  and  loss  of 
all  property  possessed  by  heretics.  This  pe- 
nalty, as  far  as  concerns  the  property  of  private 
individuals,  is  decreed,  he  says,  by  a  bull  of  In- 
nocent III.  cap.  Vergentes  X.  de  Usreticis: 
and,  as  far  as  concerns  sovereignties  and  fie&,  it 
is  a  rule  of  the  canon  law,  cap.  Absolutus  XVI. 
de  Hsreticis,  that  the  subjects  of  a  prince  ma- 
nifestly heretical  are  released  from  all  obliga- 
tion to  him,  dispensed  from  all  allegiance  and  all 
homage.  To  be  sure,  his  holiness  goes  onto  say, 
we  are  fallen  into  such  calamitous  times  thath 
is  not  possible  for  the  spouse  of  Jesus  Christ  to 
practice,  nor  even  expedient  for  her  to  recal  her 
holy  maxims  of  just  rigor  against  the  enemies  of 
the  faith.  But,  although  she  cannot  exercise  her 
right  of  deposing  heretics  from  their  principali- 
ties and  declaring  them  deprived  of  their  property, 
yet  can  she  not  for  one  moment  allow  that  they 
should  rob  her  of  her  property  to  aggrandise  and 
enrich  themselves  1  what  an  object  of  derision 
would  she  become  to  heretics  and  infidels,  who, 
in  mocking  her  grief,  would  say,  that  they  had 
found  out  a  way  of  making  her  tolerant  1  Essai 
Historique  sur  la  Puissance Tempotale  des  Papes. 
torn.  II.  p.  320. 

The  church,  however,  was  destined  to  be  dealt 
with  on  very  different  principlesby  oneof  her'dear 
sons.'  Early  in  1809,  while  Buonaparte  was  at 
Vienna,  he  caused  proclamation  to  be  made  in  the 
public  squares  and  market  place  of  that  city,  thai 
from  the  1st  of  June  the  papal  territory  should  be 
united  with  the  French  empire ;  and  that  Rome 
should  at  the  same  time  be  declared  a.  free 
and  imperial  city.  This  decree,  which  fixed 
the  annual  revenue  of  the  pope  at  2,000,000  of 
francs,  was  grounded  on  three  propositions :  first, 
that  the  territories  of  Rome  were  Ms  bestowed 
by  the  emperor  Charlemagne,  the  predecessor 
of  the  emperor  Napoleon,  on  the  bishops  of  Rome, 
to  maintain  the  peace  of  his  subjects ;  second,  that 
ever  since  that  time  the  union  of  temporal  and 
spiritual  power  has  been,  and  still  is,  the  source 
of  dissension  ;  and  third,  that  the  temporal  pre- 
tensions of  the  pope  are  irreconcileable  with  the 
security  of  the  French  army,  the  repose  and 
prosperity  of  the  nations  subject  to  the  sway  of 
Napoleon,  and  the  dignity  and  inviolability  of 
his  empire.  The  pope  protested  against  ihis 
violence,  excommunicating  Buonaparte  and  all 
who  adhered  to  hin  in  his  invasion  of  the  papal 


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states,  but  all  without  effect;  though  he  con- 
tinued to  exercise  the  functions  of  his  office 
without  further  interruption,  but  with  little  op- 
portunity for  energetic  conduct,  till  the  subver- 
sion of  the  Na[>oleon  dynasty,  when  he  resumed 
the  full  possession  of  his  authority.  In  his  pro- 
clamation issued  at  Cezena  on  the  5th  jof  May, 
previously  to  his  return  to  Rome,  his  holiness 
applied  to  himself  the  ancient  title  of  God's 
vicar  on  earth,  and  spoke  of  his  temporal  sove- 
reignty as  essentially  connected  with  bis  spiritual 
supremacy. 

The  papal  see,  after  enjoying  a  short  tran- 
quillity, was  visited  with  repeated  shocks  in  the 
revolutions  of  Spaiu,  Portugal,  and  Naples. 
With  respect  to  these  events,  particularly  the 
latter,  Pius  acted  a  cautious  part.  Fearing  pro- 
bably that  the  aroused  energies  of  these  nations 
would  involve  the  papacy  in  new  difficulties,  he 
declared  the  states  of  the  church  open  to  the 
passage  of  all  friendly  troops;  but  denouncing, 
in  the  strongest  terms,  the  disorderly  and  factious. 
The  constitutional  government  of  Naples,  which 
gave  the  pope  the  greatest  cause  for  uneasiness, 
was,  however,  overturned  by  the  power  of  Aus- 
tria ;  and  the  invasion  of  Spain,  by  the  armies 
of  France,  succeeded  for  a  time  in  re-establish- 
ing Romish  tyranny  and  superstition  in  the  whole 
of  the  peninsula.  The  subdued  countries,  how- 
ever, present  an  appearance  which  promises 
any  thing  rather  than  continued  repose,  rius  VII. 
died  August  20,  1823,  and  was  succeeded  by 
Leo  XII. 

PART  IT. 
DOCTRINES  OF  THE  ROMAN  CATHOLICS. 

Thus  have  we  traced  historically  the  rise,  pro' 
gress,  and  comparative  decline,  of  this  great  do- 
mination :  the  writer  as  a  Protestant,  and  a 
Protestant  clergyman,  will,  in  the  estimation  of 
Catholic  readers,  perhaps,  seem  unduly  biassed, 
and  occasionally  to  display  the  advocate.  Re- 
collecting how  large  a  portion  of  his  countrymen 
are  Catholics^  the  editor,  therefore,  thinks  it  fair 
to  subjoin  witliout  comment  the  last  authentic 
compendium  of  the  principles  of  their  church  in 
the  Declaration  of  the  £nglish  Catholic  bishops, 
dated  May,  1826.  It  must  only  be  understood  tnat 
the  CathoUcs  now  speak  for  themselves. 

Declaration  of  the  Catholic  Bishops,  the 
Vicars  Apostolic,  and  their  Coadjutors, 
IN  Great  Britain. 

I.  On  ike  general  character  of  the  doctrines 
of  faith  professed  hy  the  Catholic  church. — The 
cloctnnes  of'^the  Catholic  church  are  often  cha- 
racterised as  erroneous,  unscriptural,  and  unrea- 
sonable. All  those  doctrines,  and  only  those 
doctrines,  are  articles  of  Catholic  faith,  which 
are  revealed  by  Almighty  God.  Whatsoever  is 
revealed  by  God,  who  knows  all  things  as  they 
are  in  themselves,  and  who  cannot  deceive  us 
by  teaching  falsehood  for  truth,  is  most  true  and 
certain ;  though  it  may  ehtirely  surpass  the  com- 
prehension of  created  minds. 

On  the  authority  of  divine  revelation,  the 
Catholic  believes,  as  doctrines  of  faith,  that  in 
one  God  there  are  three  distinct  persons,  the 
Father,  the  Son,  and  the  Holy  Ghost;  that 


Jesus  Christ,  who  died  on  the  cross  for  the  sal- 
vation of  all  mankind,  is  the  second  person  of 
the  Blessed  Trinity,  true  God  and  true  man ; 
that  there  is  no  remission  of  s;n,  nor  ^salvation, 
but  through  him;  that  the  sacraments  of  bap- 
tism and  penance  are  divinely  appointed  means 
for  the  remission  of  sin;  that  m  the  mass  a 
true,  proper,  and  propitiatory  sacrifice  is  offered 
to  God  for  the  living  and  the  dead;  that  the 
souls  detained  in  purgatory  are  helped  by  the 
suffrages  of  the  faithful ;  that  the  saints  reign- 
ing together  with  Christ  are  to  be  honored  and 
invocated ;  that  at  the  last  day  our  bodies  will 
be  raised  from  death,  and  that  Christ  will  come 
to  judge  all  men  according  to  their  works ;  that 
eternal  happiness  will  be  the  reward  of  ihe  good, 
and  eternal  misery  the  punishment  of  the 
wicked.  If  these,  and  other  doctrines  of  Ca- 
tholic faith,  are  realfy  revealed  by  Almighty 
God,  they  are  not  erroneous,  but  most  true  and 
certain— they  are  not  unscriptural,  but  agreeable 
to  the  true  sense  of  the  written  word  of  God — 
the  belief  of  them  is  not  unreasonable,  because 
it  is  reasonable  to  believe  whatever  is  true,  and 
taught  by  the  God  of  truth.  The  Catholic  is 
fiilly  persuaded  that  all  the  articles  of  bis  faith 
are  really  revealed  by  Almighty  God.  Is  he 
not  at  liberty  to  think  so,  as  well  as  others  are 
to  think  the  contrary ;  and  in  this  empire  espe- 
cially, where  liberty  of  thought  is  so  loudly  pro- 
claimed and  lauded  ?  Is  it  reasonable  or  cha- 
ritable to  condemn  him  for  thinkii^  so,  when  he 
may  have  good  and  solid  grounds  for  his  con- 
viction, and  may  feel  that  his  eternal  salvation 
depends  on  his  firm  belief  of  all  the  doctrines 
which  Christ  has  taught? 

II.  On  the  grounds  of  the  certitude  which  a 
Catholic  has  that  all  the  doctrines  which  he  be- 
HeveSf  as  articles  of  Catholic  faith,  are  really 
revealed  by  Almighty  God. — Catholics  are  often 
charged  with  grounding  their  faith  on  mere 
human  authority,  and  not  on  the  word  of  God. 
Catholics  deny  this,  because  they  are  convinced, 
that  their' faith  is  grounded  on  the  word  of  God, 
proposed  to  them  by  the  authority  of  that 
ministry,  which  Christ  established,  and  ap- 
pointed to  teach  his  revealed  doctrines  to  all 
nations. 

The  Catholic  believes  all  those  doctrines 
which  God  has  revealed.  The  question,  what 
are  those  doctrines  which  God  has  revealed,  is 
a  question  of  fact.  It  appears  reasonable  that 
.the  existence  of  a  fact  should  be  ascertained  by 
the  evidence  of  testimony. 

The  body  of  the  doctrines,  precepts,  and  in- 
stitutions, which  were  delivered  by  Christ  to  his 
apostles,  constitutes  the  new  or  the  Christian 
law ;  as  the  body  of  the  doctrines,  precepts,  and 
institutions,  which  were  delivered  by  the  Al- 
mighty to  Moses,  constituted  the  old  law.  The 
true  and  certain  knowledge  of  what  is  com- 
manded by  any  law  is  generally  communicated 
and  obtained  by  the  authoritative  promulgation 
of  the  law.  By  the  ordinance  of  God,  the  doc- 
trines and  precepts  of  the  old  law  were  made 
known  to  the  Israelites  and  Jewish  people,  by 
Moses,  and  the  priests  in  succession,  till  the  end 
of  the  law.  By  the  ordinance  of  God,  the  doc- 
trines and  precepts  of  the  new  law  were  to  be 
made  known  to  all  nations,  in  all  ages,  by  the 

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ROMAN    CATHOLICISM. 


apostles  and  their  successors,  to  the  consum- 
mation of  the  world. 

On  the  spiritual  authority  of  the  apostles  and 
their  successors,  who  were  divinely  commis- 
sioned to  promulgate  and  teach  the  law  of  Christ 
to  all  nations ;  and  on  the  uniform  and  universal 
testimony,  belief,  and  practice  of  all  Christian 
churches  from  the  begmning,  the  certitude  of 
the  Catholic  is  grounded,  tliat  all  the  doctrines 
which  he  believes  as  articles  of  Catholic  faith, 
and  all  the  sacred  precepts  and  rites  which  he 
observes  as  the  ordmances  of  Christ,  were  really 
revealed  and  instituted  by  Almighty  God ;  and 
are  the  same  as  were  originally  delivered  by 
Christ  to  his  apostles,  and  by  them  promulgated 
over  all  nations. 

The  Catholic  is  fully  satisfied  that  this  me- 
thod which  he  follows,  for  ascertaining  what  are 
the  revealed  doctrines  of  divine  faith,  is  the 
right  rule,  and  that  it  leads  him  to  the  unity  of 
truth.  Is  he  not  at  liberty  to  follow  a  rule  which 
gives  such  satisfaction  and  security  to  his  mind  ? 
Is  it  fair  for  others  who,  by  following  a  different 
rule,  are  led  into  a  countless  variety  of  contra- 
dictory doctrines  on  matters  of  Christian  belief, 
to  disturb  the  tranquillity  of  the  Catholic  on 
this  head,  or  to  condemn  him  for  his  submission 
to  the  authority  of  a  ministry  which  he  is  con- 
vinced was  established  by  Christ  for  the  purpose 
of  bringing  all  nations  to  the'  certain  knowledge 
of  his  law,  and  to  the  unity  of  faith  ?  Is  not 
this  rule  perfectly  natural  and  reasonable  ?  Can 
any  human  legislator  condemn  the  principle  and 
rule  of  tlie  Catholic  in  this  regard  7 

III.  On  the  Holy  Scriptures. — In  England 
the  Catholic  church  is  held  out  as  an  enemy  to 
the  reading  and  circulating  of  the  Holy  Scrip- 
tures. Whereas  the  Catholic  churcli  venerates 
the  Holy  Scriptures  as  the  written  part  of  the 
word  of  God ;  she  has  in  all  ages  been  the  faith- 
ful guardian  of  this  sacred  deposit ;  she  has  ever 
labored  to  preserve  the  integrity  of  these  in- 
spired writings,  and  the  true  sense,  in  which 
they  have  been  universally  understood,  at  all 
times  from  the  apostolic  age. 

The  Catholic  church  has  never  forbidden  or 
discouraged  the  reading  or  the  circulation  of 
authentic  copies  of  the  sacred  Scriptures,  in  the 
original  languages.  She  binds  her  clergy  to  the 
daily  recital  of  a  canonical  office,  which  com- 
prises a  large  portion  of  the  sacred  volume,  and 
to  read  and  expound  to  the  faithful,  in  the  verna- 
cular tongue,  on  Sundays,  the  epistle  or  gospel 
of  the  day,  or  some  other  portion  of  the  divine  law*. 

As  to  translations  of  the  Holy  Scriptures  into 
modem  languages,  the  Catholic  church  requires 
that  none  should  be  put  into  the  hands  of  the 
faithful  but  such  as  are  acknowledged  by  eccle-. 
siastical  authority  to  be  accurate,  and  conform- 
able to  the  sense  of  the  originals.  There  never 
was  a  general  law  of  the  Catholic  church  pro- 
hibiting the  reading  of  authorised  translations 
of  the  Scriptures ;  out,  considering  that  many, 
by  their  ignorance  and  evil  dispositions,  have 
perverted  the  meaning  of  the  sacred  text  to  their 
own  destruction,  the  Catholic  church  has  thou^t 
it  prudent  to  make  a  regulation  that  the  faitUul 
should  be  guided  in  this  matter  by  the  advice  of 
their  respective  pastors. 


Whether  the  Holy  Scriptures,  wludi 
never  to  be  taken  in  hand  but  with  reelect, 
should  be  made  a  class-book  for  duldreD,  it  a 
.  matter  of  religious  and  prudential  coosideration, 
on  which  the  pastors  of  the  Catholic  diuich 
have  a  right  to  decide  with  regard  to  their  own 
flocks;  and  we  hold  that  in  this  matter  Dotne 
have  a  right  to  dictate  to  them,  llie  Catholiis 
in  Enffland,  of  mature  years,  have  permission 
,  to  read  authentic  and  approved  translations  of 
the  Holy  Scriptures,  witn  explanatory  notes; 
and  are  exhorted  to  read  them  in  the  spirit  of 
piety,  humility,  and  obedience. 

Pope  Pius  VII. ,  in  a  rescript  dated  April 
18th,  1820,  and  addressed  to  the  Vicars  Apos- 
tolic in  England,  earnestly  exhorts  them  to  coo- 
firm  the  people  committed  to  their  spiritual 
care,  in  faith  and  good  works;  and,  for  that  end, 
to  encourage  them  to  read  books  of  pious  in- 
struction, and .  particularly  the  Holy  Scriptures, 
in  translations  approved  by  ecclesiastical  autho- 
rity; because,  to  those  who  are  well  disposed. 
nothing  can  be  more  useful,  more  consoling^  or 
more  animating,  than  the  reading  of  the  sacred 
Scriptures,  understood  in  their  true  sense — they 
serve  to  confirm  the  fiuth,  to  support  the  Bope, 
and  to  inflame  the  charity  of  the  true  Christian. 

But  when  the. reading  and  the  circulation  of 
the  ScriptCires  are  used  and  recommended  as 
the  entire  rule  of  faith,  as  the  sole  means  by 
which  men  are  to  be  brought  to  the  certain  and 
specific  knowledge  of  the  doctrines,  precepts, 
and  institutions  of  Christ ;  and  when  the  Scrip- 
tures so  read  and  circulated  are  left  to  the  inter- 
pretation and  private  judgment  of  each  indi- 
vidual: then  such  reading,  circulation,  and 
interpretation,  are  forbidden  by  the  Catholic 
church,  because  the  Catholic  church  knows  that 
the  circulation  of  the  Scriptures,  and  tbe  inter- 
pretation of  them  by  each  one*s  private  judg- 
ment, was  not  the  means  ordained  by  Christ  for 
the  communication  of  the  true  knowledge  of  his 
Jaw  to  all  nations — she  knows  that  Christianity 
was  established  in  many  countries  before  one 
book  of  the  New  Testament  was  written—that  it 
was  not  by  means  of  the  Scriptures  that  the 
apostles  and  their  successors  converted  nations^ 
Or  any  one  nation  to  the  unity  of  the  Christian 
f^ith — that  the  unauthorised  reading  and  circu- 
lation of  the  Scriptures,  and  the  interpretation 
of  them  by  private  judgment,  are  calculated  to 
lead  men  to  contradictory  doctrines  on  the  pri- 
mary articles  of  Christian  belief;  to  inconsistent 
forms  of  worship,  which  cannot  all  be  consti- 
tuent parts  of  the  uniform  and  sublime  system 
of  Christianity ;  to  errors  and  fanaticism  in  reli- 
gion, and  to  seditions  and  the  greatest  disorders 
in  states  and  kingdoms. 

rv.  On  the  charge  of  idolatry  and  superstition. 
— Ignorance  or  malice  has  gone  so  far  as  to  charge 
the  Catholic  church  with  idolatry,  in  the  sacri- 
fice of  the  mass — in  the  adoration  (as  it  is 
called)  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  aAd  in  the  worship 
of  the  saints,  and  of  the  images  of  Christ  and 
of  the  saints;  and  with  superstition, in  invoking 
the  saints,  and  in  praying  for  souls  in  purga- 
tory. Now  idolatry  consists  in  giving  to  any 
creature  that  supreme  adoration,  honor,  or  wor- 
ship, which  is  due  only  to  Almighty  God.    The 


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C<itholic  church  teaches  that  idolatry  is  one  of 
the  greatest  crimes  that  can  be  committed  against 
the  majiesty  of  God :  and  every  true  member  of 
this  church  shudders  at  the  idea  of  such  a  crime, 
and  feels  grievously  injured  by  so  horrid  an 
ioiputation. 

But  it  is  said  that  Catholics  adore  the  ele- 
ments of  bread  and  wine  in  the  mass :  that  they 
adore  the  Virgin  Maiy;  that  they  adore  the 
cross;  and  that  they  worship  the  saints  and  the 
images  of  Christ  and  of  the  saints.  Before  we 
repel  these  horrid  imputations,  in  the  sense  in 
which  they  are  made,  we  must  explain  the  dif- 
ferent meanings  of  the  words  adoration,  honor, 
and  worship,  that  the  calumnious  charge,  and  its 
denial,  may  be  understood  in  the  same  explained 
sense.  ' 

We  find  th^t  in  the  language  of  the  sacred 
Scripture,  in  Hebrew,  Greek,  and  Latin,*  as 
'well  as  in  the  language  of  the  ancient  liturgies 
of  the  Christian  church,  these  words,  adoration, 
honor,  and  worship,  are  ambiguous  terms,  and 
are  used  in  different  senses,  according  to  the 
nature  of  the  object  to  which  the  act,  implied 
by  the  term,  is  directed,  and  according  to  the 
intention  of  him  who  performs  the  act.  tience 
we  find  them  used  as  relating  sometimes  to 
God,  and  sometimes  to  creatures.  Although,  in 
modem  times,  the  exclusive  idea  of  that  su- 
preme homage,  which  is  due  only  to  God,  is 
attached  by  some  to  the  words  adoration  and 
worship;  yet  these  words  may  still  be  retained 
by  others,  in  a  different  meaning,  without  afford- 
ing the  remotest  cause  for  the  imputation  of  ido- 
latry. In  this  different  meaning  they  are  still 
retained,  in  the  unchanged  language  of  the  an- 
cient liturgies  used  in  the  Catholic  church. 

The  words  adoration  and  worship  are  equally 
referred  sometimes  to  God,  and  sometimes  to 
creatures,  as  is  the  word  honor.  Now  because 
we  are  commanded  in  Scripture  to  honor  God^ 
and  to  honor  the  king ;  and  children  are  com- 
manded Uf  honor  their  parents  :  it  does  not  follow 
that  the  honor  due  to  the  king,  or  to  parents, 
is  the  same  as  that  which  we  owe  to  God.  To 
God  we  owe  supreme  and  sovereign  honor,  such 
as  it  would  be  a  crime  to  pay  to  any  creature. 
To  the  king  we  owe  the  highest  civil  honor. 
To  parents  children  owe  the  honor  of  filial  re- 
spect and  obedience.  How  unjust  would  it  be 
to  say  that,  because  a  subject  honors  his  king, 
he  pays  him  that  supreme  and  sovereign  honor 
which  is  due  only  to  God !  The  same  is  to  be 
said  of  the  terms  adoration  and  worship,  as  used 
in  former  times,  and  sometimes  used  at  present 
in  the  language  of  the  Catholic  church.  To 
adore,  even  according  to  modem  usage,  often 
means  no  more  than  to  express  extreme  affec- 
tion or  respect.  To  worship  (in  the  translation 
of  the  Bible,  published  at  Oxford)  is  therein 
used  to  signify  inferior  as  well  as  supreme  wor- 
ship. In  the  first  book  of  Chronicles  xxix.  20, 
we  read  in  th^t  edition,  that  the  assembly  bowed 

*  See  in  Hebrew  (Prov.  iii.  9.  and  Exod.  xx.  12), 
(Dent,  xxviii.  47,  and  48),  (Ps.  xcvi.  9  and  1,  alias 
8d  Kingrg  i.  23).  In  Greek,  Gen,  xxiv.  26,  and 
Gen.  xlix.  8.  In  Latin  Adorare;  Ps.  xxviii.  2,  and 
Gen.  judii.  7,  and  4th  alias  2  Kings  ii.  15. 


down  their  heads  and  worshipped  the  Lord 
(Jehovah)  and  the  king.  Did  they  worship  the 
king  with  the  same  supreme  worship  which  they 
paid  to  God?  Certainly  not.  When  a  mari 
says,  to  the  woman  he  takes  to  wife,  '  with  my 
body  I  thee  worship,'  can  this  be  called  ido- 
latry? Surely  nothing  can  be  more  unfair  than 
arguments  drawn  from  ambiguous  terms,  con- 
strued in  a  sense  disavowed  by  those  against 
whom  the  arguments  are  employed. 

We  answer  therefore  that,  if  by  the  terms 
adoration,  honor,  and  worship,  be  understood 
that  supreme  adoration,  honor,  and  worship 
which  is  due  only  to  God ;  Catholics  do  not 
adore,  nor  honor,  nor  worship  any  other  than 
the  one,  only,  trae,  and  living  God,  the  Creator 
And  Sovereign  Lord  of  the  universe:  they  do 
not,  in  this  sense,  adore,  nor  honor,  nor  worship 
the  Virgin  Mary,  nor  any  of  the  saints,  nor  the 
cross,  nor  images,  nor  any  other  creature  what- 
soever. 

In  the  mass,  Catholics  do  offer  supreme  ado- 
ration, not  to  the  elements  of  bread  aad  wine, 
which  they  hold  not  to  be  present  after  the  con- 
secration ;  but  to  Jesus  Christ,  the  Son  of  God, 
whom  they  believe  to  be  truly,  really,  and  sub- 
stantially present,  under  the  appearances  only 
of  biead  and  wine,  after  the  consecration,  and 
change  thereby  of  the  elements  into  his  body 
and  blood.  To  adore  Christ,  by  an  act  of  su- 
preme adoration,  is  no  idolatry ;  because  he  is 
truly  God,  and  consequently  a  legitimate  object 
of  supreme  worship. 

But  if  Catholics,  usmg  the  ancient  language 
of  the  Christian  church,  are  said,  1st.  To  wor- 
ship the  saints;  this  worship  must  be  under- 
stood to  be  only  an  inferior  worship,  honor,  and 
respect,  paid  to  them  proportionate  to  the  limited 
perfections  and  excellences  which  God  hais  be- 
stowed upon  them;  but  this  worship  is  infi- 
nitely below  that  supreme  worship  which  they 
pay  to  God.  Catholics  acknowledge  no  per- 
fection or  excellence  in  any  saint,  not  even  in 
the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary,  which  they  do  not 
profess  to  be  the  work  and  gift  of  God  in  them. 
So  that,  in  honoring  the  saiiits,  they  celebrate  the 
works  of  God,  and  consequently  give  glory  to 
him.  Whatever  act  of  religious  veneration  we 
pay  to  the  saints  is  ultimately  referred  to  God. 
2nd.  To  adore  the  cross :  this  word,  if  applied 
to  the  cross  itself,  means  no  more  than  an  infe- 
rior and  relative  respect  paid  to  the  instmment 
of  our  redemption ;  but  if  in  view  of  the  cross 
it  be  applied  to  Christ  himself,  then  it  means, 
as  it  ought  to  mean,  an  act  of  supreme  adora- 
tion. 3d.  To  worship  the  images  of  Christ  or 
of  the  saint<;:  the  word  is  here  again  under- 
stood by  Catholics  only  of  an  inferior  and  rela- 
tive respect  shown  to  images,  in  consideration 
of  the  respect  due  to  the  objects  which  they  re- 

I)resent,  and  to  which  the  respect  shown  to  the 
mages  is  referred.  In  this  sense  respect  ? 
showii  to  the  statue  or  to  the  throne  of  the  king, 
in  consideration  of  the  majesty  of  the  person- 
age to  whom  they  relate.  An  insult  oflfered  to 
his  statue  would  be  considered  as  intended  to  be 
offered  to  the  king  himself.  In  this  sense  a  son 
respects  the  image  or  picture  of  his  parent ;  a 
parent  that  of  his  child ;  a  friend  tnat  of  his 


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ROMAN    CATHOLICISM. 


friend ;  nol^for  any  intrinsic  virtue  in  the  mate- 
rial substance  or  work  of  art,  but  because  it  re- 
lates to^  and  brings  to  bis  mind,  the  object  of  his 
respect  and  affection. 

To  condemn  this  relative  regard  for  images, 
or  pictures,  would  be  to  condemn  the  very  feel- 
ings of  nature.  To  charge  the  Catholic  with 
idolatry,  because  the  term  worship,  meaning 
only  an  inferior  and  relative  regard,  is  found  in 
tiiti  ancient  and  modern  liturgies  of  his  church, 
is  not  consistent  with  candor  or  charity.  The 
charge  that  the  Catholic  church  sanctions  the 
praying  to  images  is  a  calumny,  and  carries  with 
it  an  imputation  of  stupidity  too  gross  to  be 
noticed.  Catholics  sometimes  pray  before 
images,  because  they  serve  to  collect  their 
thoughts,  and  fix  their  attention  in  their  medi- 
tations and  prayers ;  but  they  are  not,  on  that 
account,  to  be  supposed  to  be  so  void  of  reason 
and  sense  as  to  pray  to  the  ima<;e :  for  they 
know  that  in  it  tiiere  is  no  virtue  or  power; 
and  that  it  can  neither  see,  nor  hear,  nor  help 
them. 

Catholics  do  solicit  the  intercession  of  the 
angels  and  saints  reigning  with  Christ  in  heaven. 
But  in  this,  when  done  according  to  the  prin- 
ciples and  spirit  of  the  Catholic  church,  there 
is  nothing  of  superstition,  nothing  which  is  not 
consistent  with  true  piety.  For  the  Catholic 
church  teaches  her  children  not  to  pray  to  the 
saints,  as  to  the  authors  or  givers  of  divine 
grace ;  but  only  to  solicit  the  saints  in  heaven 
to  pray  for  them,  in  the  same  sense  as  St.  Paul 
desired  the  faithful  on  earth  to  pray  for  him. 

Catholics,  according  to  the  faith  and  pious 
practice  of  the  Christian  church  from  the  age  of 
the  apostles,  do  pray  for  the  release  and  eternal 
rest  of  departed  souls,  who  may  be  detained  for 
a  time  in  a  state  of  punishment  on  account  of 
their  sins,  but  in  this  we  cannot  discover  even 
the  shadow  of  superstition.  By  invoking  the 
intercession  of  the  saints  in.  heaven,  and  by  pray- 
ing for  the  suffering  souls  in  purgatory,  Catho- 
lics exercise  acts  of  that  communion  of  charity 
which  subsists  between  the  members  of  the  mys« 
tical  body  of  Christ :  the  principle  of  which 
communion  they  profess  to  oelieve,  wheti  they, 
say,  <  I  believe  the  holy  Catholic  church,  the 
communion  of  saints.' 

After  this  explanation  and  declaration,  we 
hope  that  our  countrymen  will  never  be  so  ud- 
just  or  so  uncharitable  as  to  charge  Catholics 
with  idolatry  or  superstition,  nor  be  so  illiberal 
as  to  attempt  to  give  a  color  to  these  injurious 
charges,  by  nxing  an  exclusive  meaning  to  terms, 
which  in  the  language  of  Scripture,  Christian 
antiquity,  and  common  usage,  bear  different 
senses,  in  different  circumstances. 

V.  0?i  the  power  of  forgiving  sinSf  and  the 
precept  of  confession. — ^The  Ca£olic  church  is 
charged  with  impiety,  in  usurping  the  power  of 
forgiving  sins,  and  with  spiritual  tyranny,  in 
imposing  on  the  people  the  yoke  of  confession. 
The  Catholic  church  cannot  be  charged  with 
impiety,  for  exercising  powers  given  by  Christ 
to  his  apostles  and  to  tneir' lawful  successors; 
nor  witli  tyranny,  in  enforcing  the  observance  of 
the  precept  of  Christ. 

Catholics  believe  that  Christ  granted  to  his 


apostles,  and  to  the  priests  of  his  church,  poper 
to  forgive  sins,  by  the  administration  of  the 
sacraments  of  baptism,  and  peoance,  to  tbose 
who  are  duly  disposed  to  receive  this  grace. 
They  believe  that  the  sacrament  of  penance  is 
an  institution  of  Christ,  no  less  than  the  tacra- 
ment  of  baptism.  The  belief  of  both  rests  on 
the  same  foundation.  I9  both  these  sacraments, 
sin  is  forgiven  by  xhe  ministry  of  man.  Be 
baptised  every  one  of  you,  for  the  remission  of 
sins.  Acts.  ii.  38 ;  whose  sins  you  shall  forgive, 
they  are  forgiven,  John  xx.  23.  But  no  actual 
sin  can  be  forgiven  at  the  mere  will  of  any  pope, 
or  any  priest,  or  any  person  whomsoever,  with- 
out a  sincere  sorrow  tor  having  offended  God, 
and  a  firm  resolution  to  avoid  future  guilt,  and 
to  atone  for  past  transgressions.  Any  penon 
who  receives  absolution,  without  these  necessary 
dispositions,  far  from  obtaining  the  remission  4^ 
his  sins,  incurs  the  additional  guilt  of  hypocrisy 
and  profanation. 

The  obligation  of  sacramental  confession  to  c 
priest  is  not  an  imposition  of  the  church,  but  a 
precept  of  Christ.  Without  the  voluntary  <»n- 
fesbion  of  the  penitent,  the  power  of  forgiving 
or  retaining  sins  could  not  be  exercised,  with 
discretion  and  judgment,  by  the  minister  of  the 
sacrament  of  penance.  The  confession  of  sins 
could  never  have  been  introduced  had  it  not 
been  received  from  the  beginning  as  a  divine 
ordinance  for  the  remission  of  sin.  It  has  been 
practised  from  the  earliest  ages  of  Christianity, 
it  is  attended  with  the  most  salutary  effects. 
Besides  being  a  means  of  obtaining  the  remis- 
sion of  sin,  it  affords  relief  to  the  troubled  con- 
science, and  opportunities  of  reclaiming  deluded 
sinners  from  mischievous  projects,  and  of  caus- 
ing reparation  to  be  made  for  injuries  done  to 
persons,  property,  or  character.  It  may  be  ridi- 
culed by  such  as  blaspheme  those  things  which 
they  know  not  (2  Pet.  ii.  12),  but  will  be  ever 
cherished  as  a  merciful  and  salutary  institution 
by  those  who  are  sincerely  sorry  for  their  sins, 
and  earnestly  sue  for  pardon. 

VI.  On  Indulgences.—  The  Catholic  church 
is  charged  with  encouraging  guilt,  by  giving 
leave  to  commit  sin,  and  granting  an  anticipated 
pardon  for  sins  to  come  by  indulgences.  The 
Catholic  church  rejects  with  abhorrence  the  im- 
putation that,  by  granting  an  indu^nce,  she 
grants  permission  to  commit  sin,  or  a  pardon 
for  sins  to  come.  An  indulgence,  in  the  sense 
of  the  Catholic  church,  is  no  pardon  for  sin  at 
all ;  it  is  only  a  remission  of  tne  whole  or  of  & 
part  of  the  temporal  punishment  which  the 
justice  of  God  often  reserves  to  be  undergone  by 
the  sinner,  after  the  guilt  of  the  sin  has  been  re- 
mitted. The  power  of  granting  ^e  remission 
of  this  temporal  punishment  was  given  by  Christ 
to  St.'  Peter  and  his  successors,  and  has  been  ex- 
ercised from  the  earliest  ages.  An  indulgence, 
so  far  from  exempting  sinners  from  works  of 
penance  and  piety,  is  an  encouragement  to  the 
performance  01  such  works,  since  they  are  pre- 
scribed as  conditions  for  gaining  the  benefit  of 
an  indulgence. 

Surely,  theref  re,  the  doctrine  of  the  Catholic 
church  concerning  the  sacrament  of  penance, 
confession,  and  indulgeocies,  does  not  tend  to 


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relax  Christian  morality,  nor  to  encourage  guilt, 
nor  facilitate  the  coitimi]»ion  of  crime,  but  ra- 
ther to  put  an  end  to  sin,  and  to  promote  the 
exercise  of  every  Christian  virtue  amongst  men. 

VII.  On  the  obligation  of  an  oath. — Catholics 
are  charged  with  holding  that  they  are  not  bound 
by  any  oath,  and  that  the  pope  can  dispense  them 
from  all  the  oaths  they  may  have  taken.  We 
cannot  sufficiently  express  our  astonishment  at 
such  a  charge.  We  hold  that  the  obligation  of 
an  oath  is  most  sacred ;  for  by  an  oath  man  calls 
the  almighty  Searcher  of  hearts  to  witness  the 
sincerity  of  his  conviction  of  the  truth  of  what 
he  asserts,  and  his  fidelity  in  performing  the 
engagement  he  makes.  Hence,  wnosoever  swears 
wisely,  or  violates  the  lawful  engagement  he  has 
confirmed  by  an  oath,  not  only  offends  against 
truth,  or  justice,  but  against  religion.  Be  is 
guilty  of  the  enormous  crime  of  perjury. 

No  power  in  any  pope,  or  council,  or  in  any 
individual  or  body  of  men,  invested  with  au- 
thority in  the  Catholic  church,  can  make  it  law- 
ful for  a  Catholic  to  confirm  any  falsehood  by 
an  oath;  or  dispense  with  any  oath  by  which  a 
Catholic  has  confirmed  his  duty  of  allegiance  to 
bis  sovereign,  or  any  obligation  of  duty  or  ius- 
tice  to  a  tmrd  person.  lie  who  takes  an  oath  is 
bound  to  observe  it,  in  the  obvious  meaning  of 
the  words,  or  in  the  known  meaning  of  the  per- 
son to  whom  it  is  s>yom. 

VIII.  On  allegiance  to  our  sovereign,  and 
obedience  to  the  pope. — Catholics  are  charged 
with  dividing  their  allegiance  between  their  tem- 
poral sovereign  and  the  pope.  Allegiance  relates 
not  to  spiritual  but  to  civil  duties;  to  those 
temporal  tributes  and  obligations  which  the  sub- 
ject owes  to  the  person  of  his  sovereign,  and  to 
the  authority  of  tne  state.  By  the  term  spiritual, 
we  here  mean  that  which  in  its  nature  tends 
directly  to  a  supernatural  end,  or  is  ordained  to 
produce  a  supernatural  effect.  Thus  the  office 
of  teaching  the  doctrines  of  faith,  the  adminis- 
tration of  the  sacraments,  the  conferring  and 
exercising  of  jurisdiction  purely  ecclesiastical, 
are  spiritual  matters.  By  tne  term  temporal  we 
mean  that  which  in  its  nature  tends  directly  to 
.ne  end  of  civil  society.  Thus  the  right  of 
making  laws  for  the  civil  government  of  the 
state,  the  administration  of  civil  justice,  the  ap- 
pointment of  civil  magistrates  and  military  offi- 
cers, are  temporal  matters. 

The  allegiance  which  Catholics  hold  to  be  due 
and  are  bound  to  pay  to  their  sovereign,  and  to 
the  civil  authority  of  the  state,  is  perfect  and  un- 
divided. They  do  not  divide  tiieir  allegiance 
between  their  sovereign  and  any  other  power  on 
earth,  whether  temporal  or  ecclesiastical.  They 
acknowledge  in  the  sovereign,  and  in  the  consti- 
tuted government  of  these  realms,  a  supreme, 
civil,  and  temporal  authority,  which  is  entirely 
distinct  from,  and  totally  independent  of,  the 
spiritual  and  ecclesiastical  authority  of  the  pope 
and  of  the  Catholic  church.  They  declare  that 
neither  the  pope,  nor  any  other  prelate  or  eccle- 
siastical person  of  the  Roman  Catholic  church, 
has  in  virtue  of  his  spiritual  or  ecclesiastical 
character  any  right,  directly  or  indirectly,  to 
any  civil  or  temporad  jurisdiction,  power,  supe- 
riority, pre-eminence,  or  authority,  within  this 


realm ;  nor  has  any  right  to  interfere,  directly  or 
indirectly,  in  the  civil:  government  of  the  United 
Kingdom,  or  any  part  thereof;  nor  to  oppose,  in 
any  manner,  the  performance  of  the  civil  duties 
which  are  due  to  nis  majesty,  his  heirs,  and  suc- 
cessors, from  all  or  any  of  his  majesty's  sub- 
jects; nor  to  enforce  the  performance  of  any 
spiritual  or  ecclesiastical  duty,  by  any  civil  or 
temporal  means.  «They  hold  themselves  bound 
in  conscience  to  obey  the  civil  government  of 
this  realm,  in  all  things  of  a  temporal  and  civil 
nature,  notwithstanding  any  dispensation  or 
order  to  the  contrary  had,  or  to  be  had,  from  the 
pope  or  any  authority  of  the  church  of  Kome. 
Hence  we  declare  that,  by  rendering  obedience 
in  spiritual  matters  to  the  pope,  Catholics  do 
not  withhold  any  portion  of  their  allegiance  to 
their  king,  and  that  their  allegiance  is  entire  and 
undivided ;  the  civil  power  of  the  state,  and  the  . 
spiritual  authority  of  the  Catholic  church,  being 
absolutely  distinct,  and  being  never  intended  by 
their  divine  autho:  to  interfere  or  clash  with  each 
other.  *  Render  unto  Cssar  the  things  that  arf 
Cesar*s,  and  to  God  the  things  that  are  God's.* 

IX.  On  the  claim  of  Brituh  Catholtct  to  the 
property  of  the  church  establishment  in  England. 
-—British  Catholics  are  charged  with  entertain- 
ing a  pretended  right  to  the  property  of  the  es^ 
tablished  church  in  England.  We  consider  such 
a  charge  to  be  totally  without  foundation.  We 
declare  that  we  entertain  no  pretension  to  such 
a  claim.  We  regard  all  the  revenues  and  tem- 
poralities of  the  church  establishment  as  the 
property  of  those  on  whom  they  are  settled  by 
the  laws  of  the  land.  We  disclaim  any  right, 
title,  or  pretension,  with  regard  io  the  same. 

X.  On  the  doctrine  of  exclusive  salvationJ-^ 
Catholics  are  charged  with  uncharitableness,  in 
holding  the  doctrine  of  exclui^ive  salvation.  Ca- 
tholics are  taught  by  their  church  to  love  all 
men,  without  exception :  to  wish  that  all  may  be 
saved,  and  to  pray  that  all  may  be  saved  and  may 
come  to  the  knowledffe  of  the  truth,  by  which 
they  may  be  saved.  If  the  Almighty  himself  has 
assigned  certain  conditions,  without  the  observ- 
ance of  which  man  cannot  be  saved,  it  would 
seem  to  be  an  act  of  impiety  to  attempt  to  annul 
those  divinely-established  conditions:  and  an  act 
of  peat  uncharitableness  towards  a  fellow-man,  to 
tellhim  that  he  may  be  saved  without  complying 
with  the  conditions  prescribed  by  the  Almighty. 

The  doctrinal  principle  of  exclusive  salvation 
belongs  to  the  law  of  Christ.  Has  not  Christ, 
who  commands  the  belief  of  his-  revealed  doc- 
trines, pronounced,  that  he  that  believeth  not 
shall  be  condemned  ?  Mark  xvi.  16.  Has  not 
Christ,  who  instituted  baptism  for  the  remission 
of  sins,  declared  that  except  a  man  be  bom  again, 
of  water  and  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  he  cannot  enter 
into  the  kingdom  of  God  ?  John  iii.  5.  Has  not  St. 
Paul  enumerated  a  list  of  crimes,  such  as  adultery, 
idolatry,  hatred,  seditions,  heresies,  murders, 
drunkenness.  Sec.,  of  which  he  declares  that  they 
who  do  such  things  shall  not  obtain  the  kindom 
of  God  ?  Gal.  v.  21.  Are  not  these  exclusive 
conditions  ? 

Whoever  professes  the  law  of  Christ  must 
profess  the  principle  and  doctrine  of  exclusive 
salvation.     U  is  not  the  Catholic,  it  is  God  him- 


DigitizedbyVjiUU*^ 


le 


682 


ROMAN    CATHOLICISM. 


telf  who  will  exclude  from  Heaven  those  who 
are  not  duly  qualified  for  it  by  faith  and  good 
"works. 

But  the  Catholic,  whilst  he  is  bound  to  admit, 
and  with  firm  feith  to  believe,  this  doctrinal 
principle,  is  bound  also  by  the  divine  command- 
ment not  to  judge.  He  is  not  allowed  therefore 
to  pronounce  sentence  of  condemnation  on  indi- 
Tiduals,  who  may  live  and  die  out  of  the  external 
communion  of  the  Catholic  church :  nor  to  pro- 
nounce sentence  of  condemnation  against  those 
who  may  die  in  an  apparent  state  of  sin.  AH 
those  he  leaves  to  the  nghtcous  judgment  of  the 
great  Searcher  of  hearts,  who  at  the  last  day  will 
Tender  to  every  man  according  to  his  works. 
Bu^  surely  charity,  as  well  as  truth,  must  forbid 
one  Christian  to  deceive  another  in  a  matter  of 
such  infinite  importancie  as  the  eternal  salvation 
of  his  soul.  He  who  should  persuade  his  neigh- 
bour that  no  condition  for  salvation  is  required 
on  the  part  of  man  would  deceive  him.  He  who 
admits  that  any  one  such  condition  is  required 
by  the  Almighty,  admits  the  principle  of  exclu- 
sive salvation. 

XI.  On  keeping  faith  with  heretics. — Catholics 
are  charged  with  holding  the  princfple  that  they 
are  not  bound  to  keep  faith  with  heretics.  As 
Catholics  we  hold,  and  we  declare,  that  all  Ca- 
tholics are  bound  by  the  law  of  natuw,  and  by 
the  law  of  revealed  religion,  to  observe  the  dutid 
of  fidelity  and  justice  to  all  men,  without  any  ex- 
ception of  persons,  and  without  any  distinction 
of  nation  or  religion. 

British  Catholics  have  solemnly  sworn  that 
'  they  reject  and  detest  that  unchristian  and  im- 
pious principle  that  faith  is  not  to  be  kept  with 
heretics  or  infidels.'  After  this,  the  imputation 
of  their  holding  this  principle  cannot  but  be  felt 
be  them  as  grievously  injurious  to  their  religious 
and  moral  character. 

Conclusion. — Having,  in  the  foregoing  declara- 
tion, endeavoured  to  state,  in  the  simplicity  of 
truth,  such  doctrines  of  our  church  as  are  most 
frequently  misrepresented  or  misunderstood  in 
this  country,  and  to  explain  the  meaning  in 
which  Cadiolics  understand  the  terms  by  which 


these  doctrines  are  expressed  in  the  langnage  of 
their  church ;  we  conftdentlY  trast  that  this  de- 
claration and  explanation  will  be  received  by  afi 
bur  fellow-subjects  in  a  spirit  of  candor  and 
charity ;  and  that  those  who  hare  been  bitheno 
ignorant  of,  or  but  imperfectly  acquainted  with, 
oi^r  doctrines  of  faith,  will  do  us  the  justice  to 
acknowledge  that,  as  Catholics,  we  hold  no  teii- 
gious  principles,  and  entertain  no  opinions  flow- 
ing from  those  principles,  which  are  not  perfecdj 
consistent  with  our  duties  as  Christians  and  as 
British  subjects. 

This  declaration  we,  the  undersigned,  approve 
and  publish  as  an  exposition  of  our  principles 
and  aoctrines  on  the  subjects  to  which  it  refeis. 

+  William,  Bishop  of  HaUa^  Ftp.  Apost. 

in  the  London  iHstrict. 
+  Peter  BEjtNABDiy,  Bishop  ^  7%optf, 

Vic.  Apost.  in  the  Western  IXistrkt. 
-f  Thomas,  Bishop  of'Bolina^  Vic.  ApoU. 

in  the  Northern  Disfrici. 
^  Thomas,  Bishop  of  Cambysopoiis,  Vic. 

'  Apost.  in  the  midland  District. 
-{-  ALEXANDER)  Bishop  of  MdsimionopoUs^ 

Vic.  Apost.  in  the  Jjowland  District  « 

Scotland. 
•f  Ranald,    Bishop  of  Aeryndeloj    Vic. 

Apost.  in  the  Eighland  District  in  Scot 

land. 
+   Peter  Augustine,   BuAop   of  &ga. 

Coadjutor  in  the  Western  District. 
•\-  James,  Bishop  of  Ustda,  Ccac^utor  tn  the 

London  District. 
-{-  Thomas,  Bishop  of  Europtaa^  Coadjutor 

in  the  Northern  District. 
-}-  Alexander,   Bishop  of  Cyhtstra^  Co- 
adjutor in  the   Lowiand    District   w 

Scotland. 
May  1826. 

The  ceremonials  of  this  church,  differing  as  they 
do  in  different  countries,  will  be  best  seen  l^ 
consulting  the  breviary,  which,  as  adapted  to  the 
customs  and  language  of  each,  differs  in  many 
minor  particulars.  For  the  greater  ceremonies 
see  also  our  articles  Baptism  and  Mass. 


ROMANCE',  n.s.  Fr.  rowian ;  Ital.  romansa; 
Span,  romance.  [From  the  Roman  or  Roman- 
iih  dialect  of  the  Troubadour.]  A  feble  of  the 
middle  ages ;  a  tale  of  wild  adventiires  in  war  or 
love  ;  a  fiction :  to  romance  is  to  tell  a  fiction 
or  lie :  the  noun-substantive  that  follows  corres- 
ponding. 

^hat  resounds 
In  fable  or  romance  of  Uther's  son.  Miiton. 

A  brave  romance  who  would  exactly  frame. 
First  brings  his  knight  from  some  immortal  dame. 

Waller. 

Some  rcmances  entertain  the  genius,  and  strengthen 
it  by  the  noble  ideas  which  they  give  of  things ;  but 
th^  corrupt  the  truth  of  history.  Dryden, 

The  allusion  of  the  daw  extends  to  all  impostors, 
vain  pretenders,  and  nmanotrt.  UEstrange. 

Shall  we,  cries  one,  permit 
This  lewd  romancer,  and  his  bantering  wit  1     Tate. 

Philosophers  have  maintained  opinions,  more  ab- 
surd than  any  of  the  most  fabulous  poets  or  roman- 
tick  writers  A'ei7. 


Zeal  for  the  good  of  one's  country  a  party  of  men 
have  represented  as  chimerical  and  rcmantidkJ 

Addiamu 
A  staple  of  rmumee  and  lies. 
False  team  and  real  perjuries, 
Where  sighs  and  loocs  are  boaght  and  sold. 
And  love  is  made  but  to  be  told.  Brier. 

This  is  strange  remancing.  Pamela. 

The  dun  umbrage,  o'er  the  falling  streaia, 
Romantich  hzngi.  Thommm's  Spring. 

ROMANIA,  Rumelia,  or  RuM-Iu.  See  Kl- 
melia. 

RO'MANIZE,  V.  a.  From  Fr.  roman.  To 
latinize ;  fill  with  modes  of  the  Roman  speech ;  to 
Johnsonize. 

He  did  too  inuch  romamze  our  toneiie»  leaving  toe 
words  he  translated  almost  as  mudi  Latin  as  he 
found  them.  Dryden. 

Bulls  or  letters  of  election  only  ^erve  in  the  J^i4 
countries.  Ajflife*t  Partrgon. 

ROMANO  (Julius),  a  celebrated  painter,  ilie 
disciple  of  Raphael,  who  left  him  one  of  his 


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ROME. 


683 


heirs.  He' was  superior  to  most  painters  in  his 
knowledge  of  antiquity,  and  was  well  skilled  in 
architecture.  He  embellished  Mantua  with  many 
of  his  performances  hoth  in  painting  and  archi- 
tecture ;  and  died  in  that  city  in  1545,  aged  fifty- 
four. 

Romano,  a  town  of  Austrian  Italy,  near  the 
Oglio.  It  is  surrounded  with  a  wall,  and  de- 
fetided  hy  a  castle.  Population  3200.  Twenty- 
six  miles  east  of  Milan. 

Romano,  a  town  of  Piedmont,  five  miles 


south  of  Ivrea.  Inhabitants  2000.  It  stands  on 
an  eminence  near  the  Chiusella,  over  which  is 'a 
bridge.  This  was  considered  so  important  a  pa^ 
when  the  French  crossed  the  Alps,  in  1800,  that 
a  bloody  conflict  took  place  here  between  them 
and  the  Austrians. 

ROMANS,  a  town  of  the  department  of  fhe 
Drome,  France,  on  the  Isere,  eleven  miles  north- 
east of  Valois.  It  has  manu&ctures  of  silk  and 
woollen,  tanneries^  and  presses  for  making  olive- 
oil. 


ROME. 


ROME,  a  city  of  Italy,  on  the  Tiber,  holds 
perhaps  the  most  important  place  in  history  qf 
any  ol  the  capitals  bt  the  worl^,  as  having  i)eeh 
formerly  the  metropolis  of  one  of  the  largest 
empires,  and  subsequently  the  centre  of  tlie  roost 
extensive  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  to  which  the 
human  race  ever  submitted.  The  history  of 
ancient  Rome  will,  of  course,  first  claim  our 
attention.  That  of  modern  or  ecclesiastical 
Rome  is  chiefly  embraced  in  the  rise  and  pro- 
gress of  Roman  Catholicism,  which  see. 

PART  I. 

ANCIENT  ROME,  REGAL. 

History. — ^The  ancient  Romans  derived  their 
origin  from  ^neas,  the  Trojan  hero ;  and,  though 
some  historians  pretend  to  treat'  his  voyage  into 
Italy  as  a  fable,  yet  no  sufficient  Reasons  for  re- 
jecting this  account  have  been  offered,  nor  has 
any  more  probable  history  of  the  origin  of  the 
Romjin  name  been  given.  When  the  Greeks, 
by  treachery  or  other  means,  were  become  mas- 
ters of  Troy,  iEneas,  with  the  forces  under  his 
command,  retired  into  the  fortress  of  the  city 
and  defended  it  bravely  for  some  time ;  but  at 
lenj^h,  as  we  are  told,  he  conveyed  away  his 
gods,  his  father,  wife,  and  children,  with  every 
thing  valuable,  and,  followed  by  a  crowd  of  Tro- 
jans, fled  to  Mount  Ida.  Hither  all  his  country- 
men, who  were  anxious  to  preserve  their  liberty, 
flocked  to  him.  His  army  thus  augmented,  and 
advantageously  posted,  continued  for  some  time 
waiting  for  the  departure  of  the  Greeks,  who 
were  expected  to  return  home  as  soon  as  they 
had  pillaged  the  country!  Bat  these,  after  they 
had  enriched  themselves  with  the  spoils  of  Troy 
and  the  neighbouring  towns,  turned  their  arms 
against  the  fugitives  on  the  mountain.  £neas, 
to  avoid  the  hazard  of  being  forced  from  his  last 
refuge,  had  recourse  to  negociation.  Peace  was 
granted,  on  condition  that  he  with  his  followers 
should  quit  the  Trojan  territories;  and  the 
Greeks,  on  their  part,  promised  not  to  molest 
him  in  his  retreat.  Upon  this  assurance,  JEneas 
equipped  a  fleet,  to  seek  a  settlement  in  some 
foreign  land.  At  his  departure  he  left  his'eldest 
son  Ascanius  with  the  Dasylites,  a  people  of 
Bitbynia,  who  desired  to  have  him  for  their 
king.  But  the  young  prince  did  not  remain  long 
with  them ;  for  when  Scamandrius  (or  Astyanax) 
with  the  rest  of  the  sons  of  Hector,  whomNeop- 
tolemus  permitted  to  return  home  from  Greece, 


repaired  to  hjm,  he  put  himself  at  their  head, 
and  led  them'iiack  to  their  native  country.  5ur 
hero,  having  crossed  the  Hellespont,  now  arrived 
in  the  peninsula  of  Pallene,  where  he  built  a 
city,  called  iEneia,  and  left  in  it  a  part  of  tbqse 
who  had  followed  him.  Thence  he  sailed  io 
I)elos,  and  to  Cythera,  where  he  erected  a  temple 
to  Venus.  He  built  another  to  her  in  Zacynthus, 
ifi  'which  island'  he  likewise  instituted  games, 
called  the  race's  of  £neas  and  Venus  :  the  sta- 
tues of  both,  Dionysius  says,  were  standing  io 
his  time.  In  Leucas,  where  the  Trojans  landed, 
was  also  to  be  seen  in  his  time  a  temple  erected 
to  Venus,  the  mother  of  iEneas.  Nor  were 
Actium  and  Ambracia  without  similar  monu- 
ments of  his  arrival.  At  Dodona  were  found 
brazen  vase^  upon  which  the  name  of  the  1^ ro- 
jan  hero,  who  had  made  an  oflering  of  them  io 
Jupiter,  was  engraven  in  old  characters.  Near 
Buthrotos,  in  Epirus,  a  Trojan  camp  which  had 
escaped  the  injuries  of  time  retained  the  naoie 
of  Troja.  All  these  antiquities,  still  siibsisting 
in  the  reign  of  Augustus,  were  then  looked  upon 
as  proofs  of  ^neas's  voyage  to  Epirus :  <  and 
that  he  came  into  Italy,'  adds  Dionysius,  '  we 
have  the  concurrent  testimony  of  all  the  Ro- 
mans.' 

The  first  land  of  Italy  which  iEneas  made, 
after  crossing  the  Ionian  Sea,  was  Cape  Minerva, 
in  lapygia ;  and  here  he  went  on  shore.  After- 
wards, coasting  along  the  south-east  of  Italy  aijid 
the  east  and  south  sides  of  Sicily,  he  arrived  wjjji 
his  fleet  at  the  port  of  Drepanum  in  that  is)an^. 
Elymus  and  itgestus,  who  had  escaped  'from 
Troy  a  little  before  him,  had  brought  a  Trojan 
colony  to  this  place.  .Sneas  augmented  it  by  a 
^number  of  his  followers,  whom,  pleased  to  have 
found  a  safe  resting  place  after  many  dangers 
and  fatiguing  voyages,  he  willingly  left  behind 
him.  Jlneas  next  steered  his  course  for  Italy 
across  the  Tyrrhenian  Sea.  To  the  cape  where 
he  first  landed  he  gave  the  name  Palinurus,  from 
one  bf  his  pilots  who  fell  overboard.  The  little 
island  of  Leucasia,  whither  he  sailed  next,  got 
its  name  froni  a  daughter  of  ^neas's  sister,  who 
dfed  there.  The  port  of  Misenum^  the  island  of 
Prochyfa,  and  the  promontory  of  Cajeta,  where 
he  successively  arrived,  were  so  called  from  beinjg 
the  burial  places,  the  first  of  a  noble  Trojan  his 
companion,  the  second  of  his  kinswoman,  and 
the  third  of  his  nurse.  At  length  the  Trojan 
prince  and  his  chosen  band  finished  their  tedious 
and  painful  voyages,  on  the  coast  of  the  since 


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ROME. 


iiBimous  Latium.  This  was  a  small  territory  on 
the  east  side  of  the  Tiber,  containing  a  part  of 
the  present  Campagna  di  Roma:  Latinus  was 
the  king  of  it ;  his  capital,  Laurentura :  his  sub- 
jects, a  people  who,  till  his  time  called  Abo- 
rigines, had  from  him  taken  the  name  of  Latins. 
Here,  far  removed  from  their  implacable  enemies, 
the  Greeks,  ^neas  and  his  followers  undertook 
to  raise  a  second  Troy :  they  fortified  a  camp 
near  the  mouth  of  the  Tiber,  gave  it  the  name  of 
Troy,  and  flatteVed  themselves  with  the  hopes  of 
a  quiet  settlement.  When  £neas  arrived  ixx 
Italy  Latinus  was  engaged  in  a  war  with  the 
llutuli,  a  neighbouring  people,  in  which  he  was 
attended  with  but  very  indifferent  success,  when 
news  was  brought  him  that  a  foreign  army  had 
made  a  descent  on  his  coasts,  pillaged  his  do- 
minions, and  were  fortifying  themselves  in  a 
camp  near  the  sea.  Hereupon  he  marched 
against  them  with  all  his  forces;  but  finding 
them,  as  he  drew  near,  well  armed,  and  regu- 
larly drawn  up,  he  thought  it  advisable  to  for- 
bear engaging  troops  that  appeared  so  well  disci- 
plined, and  to  desire  a  parley.  In  this  confer- 
ence, Latinus  understanding  who  they  were, 
*  and  being  at  the  same  time  struck  with  terror, 
and  touched  with  compassion  for  those  brave 
but  unfortunate  men,  eutered  into  a  treaty  with 
them,  and  assigned  them  a  tract  of  land  for  a 
settlement, on  condition  that  they  should  employ 
their  arms  and  exert  their  valor  in  defence  of  his 
dominions,  and  look  upon  the  Rutuli  as  a  com- 
mon enemy.  This  condition  TEneas  readily  ac- 
cepted ;  and  complied  with  his  engagement  so 
faithfully  that  Latinus  came  at  length  to  repose 
.  an  entire  confidence  in  the  Trojans ;  and,  in  proof 
of  it,  gave  him  Lavinia,  his  only  child,  hi  mar- 
riage, thus  securing  to  him  the  succession  to  the 
throne. 

^neas,  to  testify  his  gratitude  to  Latinus 
and  affection  for  Lavinia,  gave  her  name  to  bis 
camp,  and  called  it  Lavinium.  The  Trojans 
followed  the  example  of  their  leader ;  and,  by 
making  alliances  with  Latin  families,  became,  in 
a  short  time,  one  and  the  same  people  with  the 
Latins.  In  the  mean  time  Tumus,  the  queen*s 
nephew,  who  had  been  brought  up  in  the  palace 
under  the  eye  of  Latinus,  and  entertained  hopes 
of  marrying  Lavinia,  and  succeeding  to  the 
throne,  seeing  the  princess  bestowed  on  a 
stranger,  and  all  his  views  defeated,  went  over  to 
the  Rutuli ,  and,  by  stirring  them  up,  brought 
on  a  battle  between  them  and  the  Latins,  in 
which  both  he  and  Latinus  were  killed.  Thus 
TEneas,  by  the  death  of  his  father-in-law,  and 
by  that  of  a  troublesome  rival,  came  into  the 
quiet  possession  of  the  kingdom  of  Latium, 
which  he  governed  with  great  wisdom,  and 
transmitted  to  his  posterity.  Mneaa  reigned 
three  years,  during  which  he  established  the  wor- 
ship of  the  gods,  and  to  the  religion  of  the  La- 
tins added  that  of  Troy.  The  two  Palladiums, 
which  had  been  the  protectors  of  that  city,  be- 
came the  tutelary  deities  of  Lavinium,  and  in 
after  ages  of  the  whole  Roman  empire.  The 
worship  of  Vesta  was  likewise  introduced  by 
Aneas ;  and  virgins,  from  her  called  Vestals, 
were  appointed  to  keep  a  fire  continually  burn- 
ing in  honour  of  that  goddess.    Jupiter,  Venus, 


and  many  otheir  deities  who  bad  been  reverb  in 
Troy,  became  known  to  the  Latins  by  £oeas. 
Meantime  the  Rutuli,  ancient  enemies  of  the 
Latin  name,  entering  into  an  alliance  with  JUe- 
zentius,  king  of  the  Tyrrhenians,  took  the  field 
to  drive  out  those  new  coQiers.  ^neas  marched 
out  against  them  at  the  head  of  his  Trojans  and 
Latins.  Hereupon  a  battle  ensued,  which  lasted 
till  night;  when  i£neas  being  pushed  to  the 
banks  of  the  Numicus,  which  ran  close  by  La- 
vinium, and  forced  into  that  river,  was  there 
drowned.  The  Trojans  concealed  his  body ;  and, 
pretending  that  he  had  vanished  on  a  sodden, 
made  him  pass  for  a  deity  among  his  credulous 
subjects,  who  erected  a  temple  to  him  nnder  the 
title  of  Jupiter  Indices. 

Upon  the  death  of  £neas,  hb  son  Eurykon, 
called  also  Ascanius  and  lulus,  succeeded ;  but 
as  he  did  not  think  it  advisable  to  venture  a 
battle  in  the  beginning  of  his  reign,  with  a  for- 
midable enemy,  who  promised  himself  ereat  sac- 
cess  from  the  death  of  TEneas,  he  tried  whether 
he  could,  by  treaty,  put  an  end  to  so  dangv- 
ous  a  war.  But  the  haughty  Mezentius  de- 
manded of  the  Latins,  as  one  of  the  conditioas 
of  a  peace,  that  they  should  pay  him  yearly,  bj 
way  of  tribute,  all  the  wine  proauced  in  the  ter- 
ritory of  Latium.  Ascanius  rejected  the  pro- 
posal with  indignation;  and  having  caused  all 
the  vines  throughout  his  dominions  to  be  conse- 
crated to  Jupiter,  and  thus  put  it  out  of  his 
power  to  comply  with  the  enemy's  request,  be 
resolved  to  make  a  vigorous  sally,  and  try  whe- 
ther he  could,  by  force  of  arms,  bnng  the  insult- 
ing Tyrrhenian  to  more  reasonable  terms.  The 
main  body  of  the  enemy's  army  was  encamped 
at  some  distance  from  Lavinium ;  but  Lausus, 
the  son  of  Mezentius,  with  the  flower  of  their 
youth  under  his  command,  lay  entrenched  at 
the  gates  of  the  city.  The  Trojans,  marching 
out  in  the  night,  attacked  the  post  where  Lausus 
commanded,  forced  his  entrenchments,  and 
obliged  his  troops  to  save  themselves  by  flying 
to  tlie  main  body  of  the  army  encamped  on  the 
plain ;  but  the  unexpected  arrival  and  oTerthxow 
of  their  advanced  guard  struck  them  with  s:ich 
terror,  that  instead  of  stopping  the  flight  of  their 
companions,  they  fled  with  them,  in  great  dis- 
order, to  the  neighbouring  mountains.  The 
Latins  pursued  them,  and  in  the  pursuit  Lausos 
was  killed ;  whose  death  so  discouraged  Mezen- 
tius that  he  immediately  sued  for  peace;  which 
was  granted  him,  upon  condition  that  for  the 
future  the  Tiber  should  be  the  boundary  between 
the  Latin  and  Etrurian  territories.  In  the  mean 
time  Lavinia,  who  had  been  left  with  child  by 
^neas,  entertaining  a  strong  jealousy  of  the  am- 
bition of  her  son-in-law,  retired  to  the  woods, 
and  was  there  delivered  of  a  son,  who,  from 
his  father,  and  the  place  of  his  birth,  had  the 
name  of  /Eneas  Sylvius;  but  as  the  queen's 
flight,  who  had  disappeared  on  a  sudden,  raised 
suspicions  at  Lavinium  prejudicial  to  the  repu- 
tation of  Ascanius,  he  caused  search  to  be  made 
after  Lavinia,  calmed  her  fears  and  prevailed 
upon  her  to  return  to  the  town  with  her  son, 
whom  he  ever  after  treated  as  a  brother.  Lavi- 
nium c[rew  every  day  more  populous  ;  and  as  it 
'was  in  reality  the  patrimony  of  Lavinia,  and  the 


Digitized  by  N^jUO^^lt: 


ROME. 


685 


inheritaDce  of  her  son  Sylnus,  Ascanius  re- 
solved to  resign  it  to  them,  and  huild  elsewhere 
aDolher  city  for  himself.  This  he  made  the  place 
of  his  residence,  and  the  capital  of  his  new 
kingdom,  caUinfic  it  Alha  Longa ;  Alba,  from  a 
white  sow,  which  we  are  told  lEneaa  had  found 
in  the  place  where  it  was  built ;  and  I^nga,  to 
distingttish  it  from  another  town  of  ttie  same 
name  in  the  country  of  the  Marsi ;  or  rather  be- 
cause it  extended,  without  having  much  breadth, 
the  whole  length  of  a  la|j:e  near  which  it  wai 
built.  It  was  thirty  years  after  the  building  of  La- 
vinium  that  Ascanius  fixed  his  abode  at  Alba;  and 
there  he  died,  after  a  reign  of  about  thirty-eight 
years,  twelve  of  which  he  had  resided  at  his  new 
settlement.  He  left  a  son  called  lulus ;  so  that  be- 
tween him  and  Sylvius  lay  the  right  of  succes- 
sion to  the  Latin  throne;  the  latter  being  the 
son,  and  the  former  the  grandson,  of  ^neas.  The 
Latins  not  thinking  it  their  interest  to  continue 
divided,  as  it  were,  into  two  states,  resolved  to 
unite  Alba  and  Larinium  into  one  sovereignty ; 
and  as  Sylvius  was  bom  of  Lavinia  the  daughter, 
of  Latinus,  and  had  thereby  an  undoubted  title  to 
the  kingdom  of  his  grandfather,  whereas  the 
other  was  but  the  son  of  a  stranger,  the  Latins 
bestowed  the  crown  on  Sylvius ;  and,  to  make 
lulus  some  amends,  decreed  to  him  the  sovereign 
power  in  affairs  of  religion  ;  a  power  which 
thenceforth  continued  in  his  family.  Sylvius 
was  succeeded  by  thirteen  kings  of  the  same  race, 
who  for  nearly  400  years  reigned  at  Alba;  but  we 
scarcely  know  any  thing  of  them  besides  their 
names,  and  the  years  of  their  respective  reigns. 
iELneas  Sylvius  died,  after  a  reign  of  twenty-nine 
years.  His  son  ^neas  Sylvius  II.  governed  La- 
tium  thirty-one  years. 

Latinus  Sylvius,  who  succeeded  him,  swayed 
the  sceptre  fi fly-one  years — Alba  reigned  thirty- 
nine;  Capetus,  by  Livy  named  Atys,  twenty- 
six;  Capys  twenty-eiglit;  and  Capetus  II. 
thirteen.  Tiberinus,  who  succeeded' him,  en-- 
gaged  him  in  a  war  that  proved  fatal  to  him ;  for 
in  a  battle,  which  was  fought  on  the  banks  of  the 
Albnla,  he  was  forced  into  that  river  and  drowned. 
From  him  the  river  took  the  name  of 'Tiber, 
which  It  has  borne  ever  since.  Agrippa  succeeded 
Tiberinus  after  a  reign  of  eight  years ;  and  left 
the  throne,  which  he  had  held  forty-one  years,  to 
AUadius,  who  reigned  -nineteen,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Aventinus,  who  left  his  name  to  the 
hill  Aventinus,  where  he  was  interred.  Procas, 
who  succeeded  him,  and  reigned  twenty-three 
years,  was  the  father  of  Numitor  and  Amulius ; 
and  at  his  death  bequeathed  the  throne  to  his 
eldest  son  Numitor.  But  Amulius,  who  sur- 
passed his  brother  in  courage,  drove  him  from 
the  throne;  and,  to  secure  it  to  himself,  mur- 
dered ^gestns,  Nuroitor's  only  son,  and  conse- 
crated his  daughter  Rhea  Sylvia  to  the  worship 
of  Vesta,  by  which  she  was  obliged  to  perpetual 
virginity.  But  this  precaution  proved  ineffectual ; 
for,  as  the  vestal  was  going  to*  a  neighbouring 
spring  to  fetch  water  for  the  performance  of  a 
sacrifice  to  Mara,  she  was  met  and  violated  by  a 
man  in  a  military  habit,  like  that  in  which  the 
god  Mars  is  represented.  Some  authors  think 
diat  this  counterfeit  Mars  was  a  lover  come 
thither  by  her  appointment ;  others  charge  Amu- 


lius himself  with  using  this  violeDce  to  bis  niecey 
not  so  much  to  gratify  his  desires  as  to  have  a 
pretence  to  destroy  her.  For  ever  after  he 
caused  her  to  be  carefully  watched,  till  she  was 
delivered  of  two  sons ;  and  then,  exaggerating 
her  crime  in  an  assembly  of  the  people,  he  pre- 
vailed upon  them  to  sentence  her  to  death,  and 
to  condemn  the  fruit  of  her  amour  to  be  thrown 
into  the  Tiber.  The  sentence  against  Rhea  was, 
according  to  some  authors,  changed  by  Amulius, 
at  the  request  of  his  daughter  Antho,  into  per- 
petual confinement,  but  executed  against  the 
twins ;  who  being  laid  in  a  wooden  trough,  and 
carried  to  the  foot  of  Mount  Palatine,  were  there 
turned  adrif^  on  the  Tiber,  which  at  that  time 
overflowed  its  banks.  But  the  wind  and  stream 
prove4  both  so  favorable  that  at  the  fall  of  the 
water  the  two  infents  were  left  safe  on  the 
strand,  and  were  there  found  by  Paustulus,  the 
chief  of  the  king's  shepherds,  and  suckled  by  his 
wife  Acca  Laurentia,  who  (or  her  disorderly  life 
was  called  Lupa ;  and  this  gave  rise  to  the  fabu- 
lous miracle  of  their  being  nursed  by  a  she  wolf. 
^As  Paustulus  was  probably  well  acquainted 
with  the  birth  of  the  twins,  he  took  more  than 
ordinary  care  of  their  education,  and  sent  them 
to  Gabil  to  be  instructed  in  Greek  literature.  As 
they  grew  up  there  appeared  something  in  their 
mien  and  air  which  commanded  respect;  and 
the  ascendant  which  they  assumed  over  the  other 
shepherds  made  them  dreaded,  we  are  told,  in 
the  forests.  A  quarrel  happening  between  the 
herdsmen  of  Amulius  and  those  of  Numitor,  the 
two  brothers  took  the  part  of  the  former  against 
the  latter ;  and,  biood  being  shed  in  the  fray,  the 
adverse  party,  to  be  revenged  on  the  twins  Ro- 
mulus and  Remus,  on  the  festival  of  Lupercalia, 
surprised  Remus,  and  carried  him  before  Numi- 
tor, to  be  punished  according  to  his  deserts. 
But  Numitor,  feeling  himself  touched  in  the  pri- 
soner's favor,  asked  him  where  he  was  bom,  and 
who  were  his  parents.  His  answer  immediately 
strack  Numitor  with  a  lively  remembrance  of  his 
two  grandsons ;  their  age,  which  was  about  eigh- 
teen years,  agreed  with  the  time  when  the  two 
infants  were  exposed  upon  the  Tiber;  and  there 
needed  no  more  to  change  his  anger  into  tender- 
ness. In  the  mean  time  Romulus,  eager  to  res- 
cue his  brother,  and  pursue  those  that  carried 
him  off,  was  preparing  to  be  revenged  on  them  ; 
but  Paustulus  dissuaded  him  from  it ;  and,  on 
that  occasion,  disclosing  to  him  his  birth, 
awakened  in  his  breast  sentiments  worthy  of  his 
extraction.  He  resolved  to  attempt  the  delive- 
rance of  his  mother  and  grandfather  from  op- 
pression. With  this  view  he  assembled  the 
country  people,  and  engaged  them  to  come  to  the 
city  on  an  appointed  day,  and  enter  it  at  dif- 
ferent gates,  provided  with  arms  which  they  were 
to  conceal.  Meantime  Numitor  made  the  same 
discoveiy  to  Remus  concerning  his  parents,  and 
the  oppressions  they,  groaned  under ;  which  so 
fired  him  that  he  was  ready  to  embark  in  any 
enterprise.  But  Numitor  only  desired  him  to 
acquaint  his  brother  with  what  he  had  heard, 
and  to  send  him  to  his  house.  Romulus  came; 
and  was  followed  by  Paustulus,  who  took  with 
him  the  trough  or  skiff  in  which  the  twins  had 
been  exposed,  to  show  it  to  Numitor ;  but,  as 


Digitized  by 


Google 


686 


ROME. 


the  shepherd  betrayed  an  air  of  concern  and  ear- 
nestness in  bis  looks,  he  was  stopped  at  the  gales 
of  the  city,  led  before  Amulius,  and  examined 
concerning  his  burden.  It  was  easily  known  by  its 
make  and  an  inscription,  which  was  still  legible ; 
and  therefore  Faustulus  owned  what  it  was,  and 
confessed  rhat  the  twins  were  living;  but,  to  gain 
time,  pretended  that  they  were  feeding  flocks  in 
a  remote  desert.  In  the  mean  time,  the 
usurper's  death  being  resolved  on,  Remus  under- 
took to  raise  the  city,  and  Romulus  to  invest  the 
king's  palace.  The  country  people  came  at 
the  time  appointed,  and  formed  themselves  into 
companies,  each  consisting  of  100  men.  They 
had  no  other  ensigns  but  bundles  of  hay  hanging 
upon  long  poles,  which  the  Latins  at  that  time 
called  manipuli ;  and  hencecamethenameofma- 
nipulares,  originally  given  to  troops  raised  in  the 
country.  With  this  tumultuous  army  Romulus 
beset  the  avenues  of  the  palace,  forced  the  guard, 
and  having  killed  the  tyrant,  after  he  had  reigned 
forty-two  years,  restored  his  grandfather  Numi- 
tor  to  the  throne.  Affairs  being  thus  settled  at 
Alba,  the  two  brothers,  by  the  advice  of  Numi- 
tor,  undertook  the  founding  of  a  new  colony. 
The  king  bestowed  on  them  those  lands  near  the 
Tiber  where  they  had  been  brought  up,  supplied 
them  with  all  manner  of  instruments  for  breaking 
up  ground,  with  slaves,  and  beasts  of  burden^and 
granted  full  liberty  to  his  subjects  to  join  them. 
Hereupon  most  of  the  Trojans,  of  whom  there 
still  remained  fifty  families  in  Augustus's  time, 
chose  to  follow  the  fortune  of  Romulus  and  Re- 
mus, as  did  also  the  inhabitants  of  Pallantium 
and  Satumia,  two  small  towns.  For  the  more 
speedy  carrying  on  of  the  work,  it  was  thought 
proper  to  divide  those  who  were  to  be  employed 
m  the  building  of  the  city  into  two  companies, 
one  nnder  the  command  of  Romulus,  the  other 
of  Remus;  but  this  division,  which  was  designed, 
purely  with  a  view  to  the  public  welfare,  and 
that  the  two  parties  might  work  by  way  of  emu- 
lation, gave  birth  to  two  iiakctions,  and  produced 
a  jealousy  between  the  two  brothers,  which  broke 
out  when  they  came  to  choose  a  place  for  the 
building  of  their  new  city ;  for  Remus  was  for  the 
Aventine,  and  Romulus  for  the  Palatine  mount. 
Upon  which,  the  matter  being  referred  to  their 
grandfather,  he  advised  the  contending  parties  to 
have  recourse  to  the  gods,  and  to  put  an  end  to 
the  dispute  by  augury,  to  which  he  was  himself 
greatly  addicted.  The  day  appointed  for  the  ce- 
remony being  come,  the  brothers  posted  them- 
selves each  upon  his  hill ;  and  it  was  agreed  that 
whoever  should  see  the  first  light,  or  the  greatest 
number  of  vultures,  should  gain  his  cause. 
After  the  two  rivals  had  waited  some  time 
for  the  appearance  of  a  favorable  omen,  Romu- 
lus affirmed  that  he  had  seen  twelve ;  but  Remus, 
having  actually  seen  six,  suspected  deceit ;  ana, 
being  told  that  Romulus  haa  not  seen  the  twelve 
vultures  till  after  he  had  seen  six,  he  insisted  on 
the  time  of  his  seeing  them,  and  the  other  on  the 
number  of  birds  he  had  seen.  This  widened 
the  breach,  and,  their  parties  being  divided, 
while  each  man  espoused  the  cause  of  his 
leader,  the  dispute  grew  so  warm  that,  from 
words,  they  came  at  length  to  blows.  The  shep- 
herd Faustulus,  who  was  equally  fond  of  both 


the  brothers,  endeavoanog  .  to  part  the  com- 
batants, was  killed.  .  Some  writers  tell  ns  thai 
Remus  likewise  lost  his  life  in  the  fray;  but  the 
greater  number  place  his  death  later,  and  say  lUt 
he  was  killed  by  one  Fabius,  for  having,  in  de- 
rision, leaped  over  the  walU  of  the  new  cay: 
but  the  more  common  report,  according  to  Uvy, 
was,  that  Remus  fell  by  the  hand  of  his  brother. 

Romulus,  being  now,  head  of  the  colony,  by 
having  subdued  his  brother's  party,  applied  his 
thoughts  wholly  to  the  building  of  the  city.  lie 
chose  Mount  Palatine  for  its  situation,  and  per- 
formed all  those  ceremonies  which  the  supersti- 
tion of  the  Etrurians  had  introduced.  He  first 
offered  sacrifices  to.  the  gods ;  ordered  all  t&e 
people  to  do  the  same ;  and  decreed  that  eagW 
should  h^  the  auspices  of  his  new  colony.  Aha 
this,  great  fires  were  kindled  before  their  tents, 
and  all  the  people  leaped  through  the  flames  to 
purify  themselves.  They  next  dug  a  trench 
round  the  spot  where  the  assemblies  of  the  people 
were  afterwards  held,  and  threw  into  it  the  first 
fruits  of  whatever  they  were  allowed  to  make 
use  of  for  food ;  every  man  of  the  cdony  was 
ordered  to  cast  into  the  same  trench  a  handful  of 
earth,  brought  either  from  his  own  or  some 
neighbouring  country.  The  trench  they  called 
Mundus,  that  is,  the  world,  and  made  it  the  cen- 
tre round  which  the  city  was  to^be  built.  Thes 
Romulus,  yoking  a  bull  and  a  cow  to  a  plough, 
the  coulter  whereof  was  brass,  marked  out,  by  a 
deep  furrow,  the  whole  compass  of  the  ci^. 
These  two  animals,  the  symbols  of  marriage,  b^ 
which  cities  are  peopled,  were  afterwards  slaia 
upon  die  altar.  All  the  .people  followed  the 
plough,  throwing  inwards  the  clods  of  eaith 
which  the  plough-share  sometimes  tamed  oat- 
wards.  Wherever  a  gate  was  to  be  made,  the 
plough  was  lifted  up,  apd  carried ;  and  l^eoce 
came  the  Latin  word  porta,  a  gate,  derived  from 
the  verb  portare,  to  carry.  As  Mounl  Palatine 
stood  by  itself,  the  whole  was  enclosed  within 
the  line  made  by  the  plough,  which  formed 
almost  the  figure  of  a  square ;  whence,  by  Dio- 
nysius  Halicamassensis,  it  is  called  Roma  Quad- 
rata.  As  to  the  exact  year  of  the  foundation  of 
Rome,  Fabius  Pictor,  the  most  ancient  of  all 
the  Ron»n  writers,  places  it  in  the  end  of  the 
seventh  Olympiad ;  that  i%  according  to  Ushei^ 
in  the  year  of  the  world  3256,  of  the  flood  1600, 
and  748  before  the  Christian  era.  The  Romans 
began  to  build,  as  Plutarch  and  others  say,  on 
the  21st  of  April ;  which  day  was  consecrated 
to  Pales,  goddess  of  the  shepherds;  whence  the 
festival  of  Pales,  and  that  of  the  foundation  of 
the  city,  were  afterwards  jointly  celebrated  at 
Rome. 

Rome,  as  left  by  its  rude  founder,  consisted  of 
about  1000  houses,  or  huts;  and  was  properly, 
speaking  a  mere  village,  whereof  the  principal 
inhabitants  followed  the  plough ;  being  obliged 
to  cultivate  with  their  own  hands  the  ungnitefid 
soil  of  a  barren  country.  Even  the  walls  of  Ro- 
roulus's  palace  were  made  of  rushes,  and  covered 
with  thatch.  As  every  one  had  chosen  his  ground 
to  build  upon,  without  any  regard  to  the  regu- 
larity and  beauty  of  the  whole,  the  streets  were 
both  crooked  and  narrow.  In  short,  till  it  vras 
rebuilt  after  the  burning  ot  it  by  the  Gauls, 


Digitized  by  ^^UUy  It: 


ROME. 


687 


Rome  wa$  rather  a  dtisorderly  heap  of  huts,  than 
a  city.  Romulus  next  assembled  ihp  people,  anci 
desired  thetn  to  choose  what  kind  ojf  goyernmeni 
they  would  obey.  Monarchy  was  the  unanimous 
voice  of  the  Romans^  and  Uomulps  was  elected 
king.  After  this  he  applied  himself  to  the  estaV 
lishmentof  good  order  and  subordination  among 
his  subjects.  He  put  on  a  habit  of  distinction 
for  himself,  appointed  twelve  lictors  to  attepd 
him  as  guards,  aivided  hb  subjects^  who  at  this 
time  consisted  only  of  33,000  men,  into  curis^, 
decurix,  patricians^  plebeians,  patrons,  clients, 
&c.  After  this  he  formed  a  senate,  consisting 
of  100  persons,  chosen  from  among  the  patri- 
cians ;  and  a  guard  of  300  young  men  caUed 
celeres,  who  attended  the  king,  and  fought  either 
on  foot  or  on  horseback,  as  occasion  required. 
The  king's  office  at  home  was  to  take  care  of 
religious  affairs ;  to  be  the  guardian  of  laws  and 
customs ;  to  decide  the  weightier  causes  between 
man  and  man,  referriqg  those  of  smaller  moment 
to  the  senate,;  to  call  together  the  senators  and 
assemble  the  pieople  ;  first  delivering  his  own 
opinion  concerning  the  affair  he  proposed,  and 
then  ratifying  by  his  consent  what  was  agreed 
on  by  the  majority.  Abroad,  and  in  the  time  of 
war,  he  was  to  command  the  army  with  absolute 
authority,  and  to  take  care  of  the  public  money^ 
The  senate  were  to  be  judges  in  matters  of  small 
importance,. and  to  debate  and  resolve  upon  such 
public  a^airs.as  the  king  proposed  by  a  plurality 
of  voices^. ^  The  people  were  allow^  to  create  * 
magistrates,  enact  laws,  and  reso)ye  upon  any. 
war  which  the  king  proposed :  but  in  all  these 
things  the  consent  of  the  senate  was  necessary. 
Romulus  next  proceeded  to  settle  the  religious 
affairs  of  his  people.  Many  of  the  Troian  and 
Phrygian  deities  were  added  to  those  whom  the 
aborigines  already  worshipped*  He  chose 
priests,  instituted  festivals,  and  laid  the  founda- 
tion of  a  regular  system  of  religion ;  after  which, 
as  his  colony  was  still  thinly  peopled,  he  opened 
an  asylum  for  fugitive  slaves,  homicides,  outlaws^ 
and  debtors.  These,  however,  he  did  not  at  first 
receive  within  the  walls,  but  appointed  for  their 
habitation  the  hill  Satumius,  called  afterwards 
Capitolinus,  on  which  he  erected  a  temple  to  a 
divinity  of  iiis  own  invention,  whom  he  named 
ihe  Asylean  god,  under  whose  protection  all  cri- 
minals were  to  live  securely.  But  afterwards, 
when  the  city  was  enlarged,  the  asylum  was  en- 
closed within  the  walls,  and  those  who  dwelt  in  ti 
^ere  included  among  the  citiiens  of  Rome.  When 
Romulus  had  thus  settled  every  thing,  a  supply 
of  women  was  still  wanting  to  perpetuate  its 
population.  The  neighbouring  nations  refused 
to  give  their  daughters  in  marriage  to  such  a  crew 
of  Vagabonds  as  had  settled  in  Rome ;  wherefore 
Romulus,  by  the  advice  of  his  grandfather  Nu- 
mitor,  and  with  the  consent  of  the  senate,  pro- 
claimed a  solemn  feast  and  public  games  in 
honor  of  the  Equestrian  Neptune,  called  Consus. 
This  occasioneda  great  concourse  of  people,  who 
flocked  from  the  adjacent  parts  to  behold  those 
pompous  shows,  together  with  the  new  city.  But, 
in  the  midst  of  the  solemnity,  the  Romans,  rush- 
ing in  with  their  swords  drawn,  seized  all  the 
young  women,  to  the  number  of  683,  fpr  whom 
Romulus  chose  husbands.  Among  all  those  who 


were  tnus  seized^  only  one  n^arMed  womau, 
named  Qersilia,  was  fpund ;  and  Romulus  kep^. 
her  fpr  himself. 

This  violence  soon  brought  on  a  war  with  the 
neighbouring  nations.  A.cron,  king  of  Cieninar.  a 
city  near  Latium,  having  entered  into  a  leaguei 
with  th^  inhabitants  of  Crustuminum  and  A,n- 
temnse,  invaded  the  Roman  territories.  Romul^^ 
marched  against  them  without  delay,  defeated  the 
confederate  army,  killed  their  king  in  single  com- 
bat, decreed  himself  a  triumph,  and  consecrated, 
the  spoils  of  Acrqnto  Jupiter  Feretrius,  under  the 
^ame  of  Opima  Spolia.  The  city  of  Csenina  was 
razed  to  the  ground,  and  the  inhabitants  trans- 
planted to  Rome,  where  they  were  admitted  to 
the  privilege  of  citizens.  The  king  then  marched 
with  one  legion  (consisting  at  this  tim,e  of  SOQQ 
f<^ot  and  300  horse)  against  the  Crustumini  and 
Antemnates,  both  of  whom  he  defeated  in  battle, 
andUansplanted  the  inhabitants  to  Rome ;  which 
being  incapable  of  holding  such  a  number,  Ro- 
mulus took  in  the  hill  Satumius,  on  the  top  of. 
which  he  built  a  citadel,  committing  the  care  of 
it  to  a  noble  Roman  named  Tarpeius,  The 
citadel  was  surrounded  on  all  sides  with  ramparts 
and  towers,  which  equally  commanded,  the  city 
and  country.  From  the  foot  of  the  hill  Saturnius 
a  wall  was  carried  on  quite  to  th^  Tiber,  and  a 
gate  opened  m  it  named  Carmentalis,  from  Car- 
menta  the  mother  of  Evander,  who  either  lived 
there,  or  bad  some  chapel  orsdtar  erected  to  her, 
Romulus  had  now  become  so'formidable  to.  his 
neighbours,  and  had  so  well  established  his  rq)a- 
tation  for  clemency,  that  several  cities  of  Etruria 
voluntarily  submitted  to  him.  Coelius,  an  Etru* 
rian  general,  led  his  troops  to  Rome,  and  settled 
on  a  hill  near  the  city,  from  him  named  Mount 
Ccelius.  The  Sabines,  however,  not  dismayed 
at  this  increase  of  the  Roman  forces,  sent  a  de- 
putation to  Romulus,  demanding  a  restitution  of 
the  young  women  who  had  been  carried  off;  and 
upon  his  refusal  marched  to  Rome  with  an  army  of 
25,000  foot  and  1000  horse,  under  their  king  Titles 
Tatius.  Romulus,  having  received  supplies  from 
Numitor  and  from  Etruria,  likewise  took  the  field, 
with  20,000  foot  and  800  horse,  with  whom  he 
seized  an  advantageous  post,  and  fortified  himr 
self  so  strongly  t&at  he  could  not  be  attacked. 
The  Sabine  monarch  then  began  to  be  apprehen- 
sive of  the  event;  but  was  extricated  out  of, his 
difficulties  by  the  treachery  of  Tarpeia,  daugh  r 
to.  the  governor  of  the  citadel,  who  agreed  to  be- 
tray that  fortress  to  him  on  condition  of  being 
rewarded  with  what  the  Sabines  wore  on  their 
left  arms,  meaning  their  bracelets.  But  when 
they  became  masters  of  this  important  place  they 
crushed  Tarpeia  under  their  bucklers,  pretending 
that  thus  they  discharged  their  promises,  as  thev 
wore  their  bucklers  ako  on  their  left  arms.  Tne 
possession  of  the  citadel  enabled  the  Sabines  to 
carry  on  the  war  with  more  success;  but  at  last, 
in  a  general  engagement,  they  were  driven  hack 
into  the  citadel,  whither  they  were  pursued  by 
the  Romans^  but  the  enemy,  rolling  down  great 
stones  from  the  top  of  the  hill,  wounded  Romu- 
lus on  the  head,  so  that  he  was  carried  insensible 
out  of  the  field  of  battle,  while,  in  the  mean  time, 
his  troops  were  repulsed,  and  pursued  to  the 
very  gates  of  Rome.      However  the  king,  soon 


Digitized  by  ^^JiJU^lC 


ROME. 


recovering,  encouraged  his  routed  troops,  and 
drove  the  enemy  hack  into  the  citadel.    Bat, 
while  the  two  nations  were  thus  fiercely  contend- 
ing, the  women,  for  whose  cause  the  war  had 
been  commenced,  undertook  the  office  of  medi- 
ators ;  and,  having  obtained  leave  from  the  se- 
nate, marched  in  a  body  to  the  camp  of  the 
Sabines,  where  they  pleaded  the  cause  of  their 
husbands  so  effectually  that  a  treatv  of  union 
between  the^  two  nations  was  set  on  ^ot,  and  a 
peace  was  at  last  concluded,  on  the  following 
terips : — 1-  That  the  two  kings  should  reside  and 
reign  jointly  at  Rome.     2.  That  the  city  should 
still,  from  Romulus,  be  called  Rome,  but  the 
inhabitants  Quirites,  a  name  till  then  peculiar  to 
the  Sabines.    3.  That  the  two  nations  should  be- 
come one ;  and  that  the  Sabines  should  be  made 
free  in  Rome,  and  enjoy  all  the  privileges  of 
Roman  citizens.    As  Rome  was  chiefly  indebted 
for  this  increase  of  her  power  and  splendor  to 
the  Sabine  women,   honorable  privileges  and 
marks  of  distinction  were  allowed  them.    Every 
one  was  commanded  to  give  way  to  them ;  in 
capital   causes  they  were  exempted  from   the 
jurisdiction  of  the  ordinary  judges ;   and  their 
children  were  allowed  to  wear  a  golden  ball 
hanging  from  their  necks,  and  a  particular  kind 
of  robe  called  praetexta,  to  distinguish  them. 
The  two  kings  reigned  with  great  harmony  for 
five  years  ;  during  which  time  the  only  military 
exploit  they  accomplished  was  the  reduction  of 
the  city  of  Cameria,  at  a  small  distance  from 
Rome.     4000  of  the  Camerini  were  transplanted 
to  Rome,  and  a  Roman  colony  sent  to  repeople 
Cameria;  soon  after  which  the  Sabine  king  was 
murdered  by  the  Lavinians  on  account  of  his 
granting  protection  to  some  of  his  friends,  who 
had  ravaged  their  territories.  The  Lavinians,  fear- 
ing the  resentment  of  Romulus,  delivered  up  the 
assassins  into  his  hand  ;  but  he  sent  them  back 
unpunished  :    which  gave  occasion  to  suspect 
that  he  was  not  displeased  with  the  death  or  his 
colleague.    Soon  after  the  death  of  Tatius  Rome 
was  afflicted  with  famine  and  pestilence,  which 
encouraged  the  Camerini  to  revolt ;  but  Ronralus, 
marching  against  them  suddenly,  defeated  them 
with   the  loss  of  6000  men.     Ai^er  which  he 
attacked  the  Fidenates,  whose  city  stood  about 
five  miles. from  Rome,  took  their  capital,  and 
made  it  a  Roman  province.    This  drew  upon 
him  the  resentment  of  the  Veientes,  a  powerful 
nation  in  the  neighbourhood,  who  claimed  Fi- 
dens  as  within  their  jurisdiction ;  but  their  forces 
being  defeated  in  two  engagements,  and  a  great 
number  of  (hem  taken  prisoners,  they  were  obliged 
to  sue  for  peace.  Romulus  granted  them  a  truce 
for  100  years,  on  condition  that  they  delivered 
to  him  seven  small  towns  on  the  Tiber,  together 
with  some  salt  pits  near  the  mouth  of  that  river, 
and  sent  fifty  of  their  chief  citizens  as  hostages 
to  Rome.    The  prisoners  taken  in  this  war  were 
all  sold  for  slaves.    Tlie  remaining  part  of  the 
reign  of  Romulus  was  spent  in  making  laws  for 
the  good  of  his  people ;  but  towards  the  end  of 
his  reign  he  began  to  behave  in  an  arbitrary  man- 
ner. He  paid  no  longer  any  regard  to  the  senate, 
but  assembled  them  only  for  formes  sake  to  ratify 
his  commands.     The  senate  therefore  conspired 
to  destroy  him,  and  accomplished  their  purpose 


while  be  was  reviewing  his  troops.  A  violeD 
storm  of  hail  and  thunder  dispersed  the  army ; 
and  the  senators  taking  this  opportuDity,  when 
thev  were  left  alone  with  the  king,  killed  him, 
and  conveyed  his  body  out  of  sight.  Some  say 
that,  to  conceal  the  murder,  they  cut  his  body 
in  pieces,  each  of  them  carrying  away  a  part 
under  his  robe ;  after  which  they  told  the  people 
that  their  king  was  on  a  sudden  surrounded  I^ 
flame,  and  snatched  up  into  heaven.  This  did 
not  satisfy  the  soldiery,  and  violent  disturbances 
were  about  to  ensue',  when  Julius  Proculus,  a 
senator  of  distinction,  having  assembled  the 
curie,  told  them,  with  an  oath,  that  Romulus 
had  appeared  to  him,  and  enjoined  him  to  ac- 
auaint  the  people  that  their  king  was  retanied  to 
the  gods  from  whom  he  originallj  came,  bai 
that  he  would  continue  to  be  propitious'  to  them 
under  the  name  of  Quirinus. 

Romulus  reigned,  according  to  the  common 
computation,  thirty-seven  years ;  but  some  his- 
torians make  his  reign  only  about  seventeen; 
and  it  seems  unaccountable  that  nothine  im- 
portant should  have  been  recorded  of  him  during 
a  period  of  twenty  years.  The  death  of  Ro- 
mulus was  certainly  followed  by  an  interregnum, 
during  which  the  senators,  to  prevent  anarchy, 
seem  to  have  taken  the  government  into  their 
own  hands;  and  a  portion  of  this  may  have 
been  confounded  with  the  reign  of  Romulus. 
Tatius  had  added  another  100  to  that  body,  and 
these  200  senators  divided  themselves  into  de- 
curies  or  tens.  These  drew  lots  which  should 
govern  first ;  and  th§  decury  to  whose  lot  it  fell 
enjoyed  the  su^ireme  authority  for  five  days; 
yet  in  such  a  manner  that  one  person  only  of 
the  governing  decury  had  the  ensigns  of  sove- 
reignty at  a  time.  To  these  another  decury  suc- 
ceeded, each  of  them  sitting  on  the  throne  in 
his  turn,  &c.  But  the  people,  soon  growing 
weary  of  such  frequent  changes  of  masters, 
obliged  the  senate  to  resolve  on  the  election  of  a 
king.  Some  difficulties,  however,  occurred  ;  the 
Romans  did  not  choose  to  be  suhject  to  a  Sa- 
bine ;  and  the  Sabines,  as  they  had  been  subject 
to  Romulus  after  the  death  of  Tatius,  insisted 
that  the  king  should  be  chosen  out  of  their  na- 
tion. At  last  it  was  agreed  that  the  king  should 
be  a  Sabine,  but  that  the  Romans  should  make 
the  choice.  In  consequence  of  this  determin- 
ation, the  Romans  elected  Numa  Pompilius, 
who  had  married  Tatia,  the  daughter  of  Tatius. 
Numa,  devoted  entirely  to  philosophy  and  super- 
stition, and  wandering  from  solitude  to  solitude, 
had  impressed  the  people  with  a  great  opinion 
of  his  sanctity :  he  at  nrst  rejected  the  offer  of 
the  kingdom  ;  but,  being  at  last  prevailed  upon, 
he  set  out  for  Rome,  where  he  was  received  with 
loud  acclamations,  and  had  his  election  unani- 
mously confirmed  by  the  senate.  His  reign  is 
not  memorable  for  battles  or  conquests.  He 
was  averse  to  war;  and  made  it  hb  study  to 
soften  the  manners  of  the  Romans,  rather  than 
to  exalt  them  to  superiority  over  their  neigh- 
bours. He  dismissed  the  celeres,  encouraged 
agriculture,  and  divided  the  citizens  into  distinct 
bodies  of  tradesmen,  so  as  to  abolish  the  dis- 
tinction between  Romans  and  Sabines.  In  this 
division  <the  musicians  held  the  first  rank,  be- 


Digitized  by 


Google 


ROME/ 


cause  they  were  employed  in  the  office  of  reli- 
gion. The  goldsmiths,  carpenters,  curriers, 
dyers,  taylors,  &c.,  formed  also  distinct  commu- 
nities, and  were  allowed  to  make  bye-laws 
among  themselves,  to  have  their  own  festivals, 
particular  sacrifices,  &c. — Numa  is  said  to  have 
nad  pretty  just  notions  of  the  Supreme  Being; 
he  nevertheless  added  innumerable  superstitions 
to  those  he  found  in  Rome.  He  divided  the 
ministers  of  religion  into  eight  classes,  appoint- 
ing to  each  their  office  with  the  greatest  preci- 
sion ;  erected  a  temple  to  Janus,  the  symbol  of 
prudence,  which  was  to  remain  open  in  time  of 
war,  and  to  be  shut  in  time  of  peace.  Another 
temple  was  erected  to  Bona  Fides ;  and  he  in- 
vented a  new  kind  of  deities  called  Dii  Termini, 
or  boundaries,  which  he  caused  to  be  placed  on 
the  borders  of  the  Roman  state,  ana  of  each 
man's  particular  lands. — ^The  last  reformation 
which  Numa  undertook  was  that  of  the  kalen- 
dar.  These  are  the  most  remarkable  transactions 
of  his  reign,  which  is  said  to  have  continued 
forty-three  years:  though  some  think  that  its 
duration  could  not  be  above  fifteen  or  sixteen. 

Numa's  death  was  followed  by  a  short  inter- 
regnum ;  after  which  Tullus  Hostilius,  the  son 
or  grandson  of  the  famous  Hersilia,  was  unani- 
mously chosen  king.  Being  of  a  bold  and  fiery 
temper,  he  did  not  long  continue  to  imitate  his 
peaceful  predecessor.  The  Albans,  indeed,  soon 
gave  him  an  opportunity  of  exercising  his  mar- 
tial disposition.  Ccelius,  or  Cluilius,  who  was  at 
the  head  of  the  Alban  republic,  jealous  of  the 
growing  greatness  of  Rome,  privately  commis- 
sioned some  of  the  most  indigent  of  his  subjects 
to  waste  the  Roman  territory;  in  consec^uenceof 
which  a  Roman  army  entered  the  territories  of 
Alba,  engaged  the  robbers,  killed  many,  and 
look  a  great  number  prisoners.  A  war  soon 
commenced,  in  consequence  of  this,  between  the 
two  nations ;  but,  when  the  armies  came  in  sight 
of  each  other,  their  ardor  cooled,  neither  of 
them  seeming  inclined  to  come  to  an  engage- 
ment This  inaction  raised  a  great  discontent 
in  the  Alban  army  against  Cluilius ;  insomuch 
that  he  came  to  a  resolution  of  giving  battle  to 
the  Romans  next  morning,  or  of  storming  their 
trenches  if  they  should  decline  it  Next  morn- 
ing, however,  he  was  found  dead  in  his  bed; 
after  which  the  Albans  chose  in  his  stead  Metius 
Fuffetius,  a  man  remarkable  for  his  hatred  to 
the  Roman  name,  as  Cluilius  had  ^en  before 
him.  Fuffetius,  however,  continued  in  the  same 
state  of  inactiyit)^  as  his  predecessor,  until  he 
received  certain  intelligence  that  the  Veientes 
and  Fidenates  had  resolved  to  destroy  both  Ro- 
mans and  Albans  when  they  should  be  weakened 
by  a  battle.  Fufietius  then  resolved  to  come  to 
an  accommodation  with  the  Romans ;  and,  hav- 
ing obtained  a  conference  with  Tullus,  both 
seemed  equally  desirous  of  avoiding  the  cala- 
mities of  war.  But,  to  establish  the  peace  on  the 
best  foundation,  Tullus  proposed  that  the  chief 
families  in  Alba  should  remove  to  Rome,  or,  if 
they  were  unwilling  to  leave  Alba,  that  one  com- 
mon council  should  be  established  to  govern  both 
cities,  under  the  direction  of  one  of  the  two 
sovereigns.  Fuffetius  took  aside  those  who  at- 
tended him,  to  consult  with  them  about  the  pro- 
VoL.  XVIII. 


posal ;  but  they,  though  willing  to  come  to  an 
accommodation  with  Rome,  absolutely  refused 
to  leave  Alba.  The  only  difficulty  remaining, 
then,  was  to  settle  which  city  should  have  the 
superiority;  and,  as  this  could  not  be  detei^ 
mined  by  argument,  Tullus  proposed  to  deter- 
mine it  by  single  combat  betwixt  himself  and 
Fuffetius.  This  proposal,  however,  the  Alban 
general  declined ;  and  it  was  at  last  agreed  that 
three  champions  should  be  chosen  out  of  each 
camp  to  decide  the  difference.  This  produced 
the  fiimous  combat  between  the  Horatii  and 
Curiatii,  by  which  the  sovereignty  was  decided 
in  favor  of  Rome.  See  Horatii.  Tullus  now  re- 
solved to  call  the  Fidenates  to  an  account  for  their 
treacherous  behaviour  during  the  war  with  Alba, 
and  therefore  cited  them  to  appear  before  the 
senate ;  but  they  refused  to  appear,  and  took  up 
arms  in  conjunction  with  the  Veientes.  Fuffe- 
tius, in  obedience  to  the  orders  of  Tullus,  joined 
him  with  the  Alban  troops ;  but  the  day  before 
the  battle  he  acquainted  the  principal  officers 
with  his  design,  which  was  to  stand  neuter  till 
fortune  had  declared  for  one  side,  and  then  to 
join  with  the  conqueror.  This  design  being 
approved,  Fuffetius,  during  the  engagement,  re- 
tired with  his  forces  to  a  neighbouring  eminence. 
Tullus  perceived  his  treachery ;  but,  dissembling 
his  uneasiness,  told  his  men  that  Fuffetius  had 
possessed  himself  of  that  hill  by  his  order,  and 
that  he  was  thence  to  rush  down  upon  the 
enemy.  The  Veientes,  in  the  mean  time,  were 
dismayed,  and  the  Romans  obtained  the  victory. 
After  the  battle,  Tullus  returned  privately  to 
Rome  in  the  night ;  and,  having  consulted  with 
the  senate  about  the  treachery  of  Fuffetius,  re- 
turned to  the  camp  by  break  of  day.  He  then 
detached  Horatius,  who  had  conouered  the  three 
Curiatii,  with  a  chosen  body  of  horse  and  foot, 
to  demolish  Alba,  as  had  been  concerted  at 
Rome.  In  the  mean  time,  he  commanded  both 
the  Roman  and  Alban  troops  to  attend  him  un- 
armed, but  gave  private  orders  to  the  Romans  to 
bring  their  swoitls  concealed  under  their  gar- 
ments. When  they  were  assembled,  he  laid  open 
the  treachery  of  Fuffetius,  and  ordered  him  to  be 
torn  in  pieces  by  horses.  His  accomplices  were 
all  put  to  the  sword;  and  the  inhabitants  of 
Alba  carried  to  Rome,  where  thevwere  admitted 
to  the  privileges  of  citizens,  and  some  of  them 
even  aamitted  into  the  senate.  Tullus  now 
turned  his  arms  against  Fidenee,  which  he  again 
reduced  under  the  Roman  yoke ;  and  took  Me- 
dulia,  a  strong  city  of  the  Latins ;  after  which 
be  waged  a  successful  war  with  the  Sabines, 
whose  union  with  the  Romans  seems  to  have 
ceased  with  the  time  of  Numa.  This  was  the 
last  of  his  martial  exploits ;  after  which  we  hear 
no  more  of  him,  but  that  he  became  extremely 
superstitious  in  his  advanced  years,  giving  ear  to 
many  foolish  stories,  and  for  which  he  appointed 
nine  days  expiatory  sacrifices.  As  to  the  manner 
of  his  death  authors  are  not  agreed.  Some  tell 
us  that  he  was  killed  by  lightning,  together  with 
his  wife,  children,  and  his  whole  family ;  while 
others  say  that  he  was  murdered  with  his  wife 
and  children  by  Ancus  Martins.  He  died  after 
a  reign  of  thirty- three  years,  leaving  the  city 
greatly  increased,  but  the  dominions  much  the 


Digitized  by  ^^JUU^?lC 


ROME. 


Same  as  the^  had  been  in  the  time  of  Eomulus. 

After  a  short  iaterreg:Dum,  Ancus  Martius,  the 
graodson  of  Numa  by  his  daughter  Pompilia, 
and  Numa  Martius,  his  relation,  was  unanimously 
chosen  by  the  people  and  senate.  Though  nar 
tundly  inclined  to  war,  he  began  his  reign  with 
attempting  to  restore  the  ceremonies  of  Numa, 
which  bad  been  neglected  under  Tullus  Hostilius. 
He  endeavoured  also  to  draw  the  attention  of  his 
people  to  husbandry  and  the  peaceful  aits;  ad- 
vising them  to  lay  aside  all  sorts  of  violence,  and 
to  return  to  their  former  employments.  This 
gained  lum  the  affection  of  nis  subjects,  but 
brought  upon  him  the  contempt  of  the  neigh- 
bouring nations.  The  Latins,  pretendins  that 
their  treaty  with  Rome  was  expired,  made  in- 
roads into  the  Roman  territories.  Ancus,  after 
using  the  ceremonies  directed  by  Numa,  took 
the  field  with  an  army  consisting  entirely  of  new 
levied  troops,  and  reduced  the  cities  of  P.olito- 
hum,  Tillena,  and  Ficana,  transplanting  the  in- 
habitants to  Rome.  A  new  colony  of  Latins 
repeopled  Polytorium;  but  Ancus  retook  the 
place  next  year,  and  entirely  demolished  it 
He  then  laid  siege  to  Medulia ;  which,  though  it 
had  been  ruined  by  Tullus  Hostilius,  was  now 
stronger  than  ever.  It  submitted  after  a  siege  of 
four  years,  vrhen  Anctis  found  himself  obliged 
to  undertake  a  second  exoedition  against  Ficana, 
which  he  had  before  reduced ;  and  it  was  not 
without  the  utmost  difficulty  that  he  reduced  it 
a  second  time.  After  this  he  defeated  the  Latins 
in  a  pitched  battle;  vanquished  the  Fidenates, 
Veientes,  and  Sabines ;  and  having  taken  in  the 
hill  Janiculum  to  be  included  within  the  walls, 
and  built  the  port  of  Ostta,  he  died  in  the  twenty- 
fourth  year  of  his  reign. 

Ancus  Martins  left  two  sons,  one  an  infant,  and 
the  other  about  fifteen  years  of  ase.  Both  of 
these  he  put  under  the  tuition  of  Tarquin,  the 
son  of  Lucumo,  a  merchant  in  Corinth,  who  fled 
from  that  city  to  secure  his  wealth  from  Cypselus, 
a  tyrant  of  the  place.  He  settled  in  Tarquinii, 
one  of  the  principal  cities  in  Etruria ;  but  find- 
ing that  he  could  not  there  attain  to  any  of  the 
principal  posts  in  the  city,  on  account  of  his 
foreign  extraction,  he  removed  to  Rome,  where 
he  had  been  gradually  raised  to  the  rank  of  pa- 
trician and  senator.  The  death  of  Ancus  Mar- 
tins gave  him  an  opportunity  of  assuming  the 
regal  dignity  and  setting  aside  his  pupils ;  and 
in  the  beginning  of  his  reign  he  took  care  to 
strengthen  his  party  in  the  senate  by  adding 
100  more  to  that  body.  These  were  called  sen- 
atores  minorum  gentium,  because  they  were 
chosen  out  of  the  plebeians ;  however,  they  had 
the  same  authority  in  the  senate  as  the  others, 
and  their  children  were  called  patricians.  Tar- 
quin  was  not  inferior  to  any  of  nis  predecessors, 
either  in  his  inclination  or  abilities  to  carry  on 
a  war.  He  recommenced  hostilities  with  the 
Latins;  from  whom  he  took  the  cities  of 
Apiolae,  Crustuminum,  Nomentum,  and  Collatia. 
The  inhabitants  of  Apiote  were  sold  for  slaves; 
but  those  of  Crustommum  and  Nomentum,  who 
had  submitted  after  their  revolt,  were  treated 
with  great  clemency.  The  inhabitants  of  Colla- 
tia were  disarmed,  and  obliged  to  pay  a  large 
sum  of  money ;  the  sovereignty  of  it  being  given 


to  Egerius,  the  son  of  Amnx,  Taiquin's  brother; 
whence  he  took  the  name  of  ColLadnus,  which 
he  transmitted  to  his  posterity.  Cormcnlom, 
another  city  of  Latium,  was  taken  by  storm,  and 
reduced  to  ashes.  Hiis  progress  havn^  greatly 
alarmed  the  Latins,  several  of  them  joined  their 
forces  to  oppose  such  a  formidable  enemy ;  hat, 
being  defeated  in  a  bloody  battle  near  Fidenc, 
they  were  obliged  to  enter  into'  an  RUianoe  with 
Rome :  upon  which  the  Latins,  having  held  a 
national  conference,  entered  into  a  league  with 
the  Etrurians,  and  again  took  the  field  with  a 
Teiy  numerous  army.  But  Turquin,  faaTing  de- 
feated the  confederate  armies  in  two  very  bloody 
battles,  obliged  the  Latin  cities  to  submit  to  de- 
pendence on  Rome;  and,  having  entered  the 
city  in  triumph,  built  the  drcns  with  the  spoils 
taken  from  the  enemy.  The  war  with  the  latins 
was  scarcely  ended  when  another  corainenced 
with  Etmria.  This  was  accoonted  the  most 
powerful  nation  in  Italy,  and  was  then  divided 
mto  twelve  trib^  or  lucumonies.     These  ap- 

Sointed  a  national  assembly,  in  which  it  was 
ecreed  that  the  whole  force  of  Etruria  should 
be  employed  against  Tarquin ;  and,  if  any  city 
presumed  only  to  stand  neuter,  it  should  be  for 
ever  cut  off  from  the  national  alliance.  Thus  a 
great  army  was  raised,  with  which  they  ravaged 
the  Roman  territory,  and  took  Fidens  by  the 
treachery  of  some  of  its  inhabitants.  Tarquin, 
not  being  in  a  condition  to  oppose  them  at  first, 
was  obliged  to  submit  to  tneir  ravages  for  a 
whole  year ;  after  which  he  took  the  field  with 
all  the  forces  he  could  raise.  The  Roman  army 
was  divided  into  two  bodies,  one  under  the  king, 
the  other  under  his  nephew  Collatinns.  The 
latter,  having  divided  his  forces  to  plunder  the 
enemy,  was  defeated ;  but  Tarquin,  in  two  en- 
gagements, vanquished  the  army  which  opposed 
biro.  He  then  marched  against  Fidensp,  whoe 
he  gamed  a  third  battle ;  after  which  he  took  the 
city.  The  citizens  suspected  of  betraying  it  to 
the  enemy  were  whipped  to  death ;  the  rest  were 
banished,  and  their  lands  divided  by  lot  among 
the  Roman  soldiers.  Tarquin  now  hastened  to 
oppose  the  new  army  of  the  Etrurians,  before 
their  forces  could  be  properly  collected;  and 
having  come  up  with  them  at  Eretum,  about 
ten  miles  from  Rome,  defeated  them  with  greater 
slaughter,  for  which  victory  he  was  decreed  a 
triumph  by  the  senate:  while  the  enemy  were 
glad  to  sue  for  peace ;  which  Tarquin  granted, 
upon  the  sole  condition  of  their  owning  his  «n- 
periority.  Accordingly,  the  Etrurians  sent  him 
all  the  ensigns  of  royalty  which  were  in  use 
among  them,  viz.  a  crown  of  gold,  a  throne  of 
ivory,  a  sceptre  with  an  eagle  on  the  top  of  it  a 
tunic  embroidered  with  gold  and  adorned  with 
figures  of  palm  branches,  together  with  a  purple 
robe  enriched  with  flowers  of  several  colon. 
Tarquin,  however,  would  not  .wear  these  magni- 
ficent ornaments  till  the  senate  and  people  had 
consented  to  it  by  an  express  law.  He  then  ap- 
plied the  regalia  to  the  decoration  of  his  triumph^ 
and  never  afterwards  laid  them  aside.  In  this 
triumph  he  appeared  in  a  gilt  chariot,  drawn  by 
four  horses,  clothed  in  a  purple  robe,  and  a  tunic 
embroidered  with  gold,  a  crown  on  his  head,  and 
a  sceptre  in  his  hand,  attaaded  by  twelve  liciors 


Dtgftized  by 


Google 


ROME. 


691 


with  their  axes  and  fasees.  Tarqutn,  having  now 
obtained  some  respite  from  war,  began  to  orna- 
ment the  city.  He  bnilt  the  walls  with  hewn 
stone,  and  erected  those  famous  common  sewers 
which  have  deservedly  been  ranked  among  the 
wonders  of  the  world.  Rome  now  contained 
four  hills  within  its  compass,  viz.  the  Palatinus, 
Tarpeius,  Quirinalis,  and  Ccelius.  In  the  val- 
leys between  these  hills  ^e  rain  water  and 
springs  uniting  formed  great  pools  which  laid 
imder  water  the  streets  and  public  places.  The 
mud  made  the  way  impassable,  and 'rendered  the 
city  unhealthy.  Tarquin  freed  the  city  from 
this  nuisance,  by  conveying  off  these  waters  by 
subterraneous  channels  into  the  Tiber.  In  doing 
this  it  was  necessary  to  cut,  through  hills  and 
rocks,  a  channel  large  enough  for  a  navigable 
stream,  and  covered  with  arches  strong  enough 
to  bear  the  weight  of  houses,  which  were  fre- 
quently built  upon  them.  All  these  arches  were 
made  of  hard  stone,  and  neither  trouble  nor  et-* 
pense  was  spared  to  make  the  work  durable. 
Their  height  and  breadth  were  so  considerable 
that  a  cart  loaded  wtth  hay  could  easily  pass 
through  them  under  ground.  The  expense  of 
constructing  these  sewers  was  never  so  thoroughly 
understood  as  when  it  became  necessary  to  re- 
pair them :  for  then  the  censors  gave  no  less  than 
1000  talents  to  the  person  appointed  for  this 
purpose.  Besides  these  great  works,  Tarquin 
adorned  the  forum,  surrounding  it  with  galleries, 
in  which  were  shops  for  tradesmen,  itnd  building 
temples  in  it  for  the  youth  of  both  sexes,  and 
halls  for  the  administration  of  public  justice. 
He  next  engaged  in  a  war  with  the  Sabines,  on 
pretence  that  they  had  assisted  the  Etrurians. 
Both  armies  took  the  field,  and  came  to  an  en- 
gagement on  the  confines  of  Sabinia,  without  any 
considerable  advantage  on  either  side ;  neither 
was  any  thing  of  consequence  done  during  the 
whole  campaign .  Tarquin,  then  considering  with 
himself  that  the  Roman  forces  were  very  deficient 
in  cavalry,  resolved  to  add  some  new  bodies  of 
knights  to  those  already  instituted  by  Romulus. 
But  this  project  met  with  great  opposition  from 
the  superstitious  augurs,  as  the  original  division 
of  horse  into  three  bodies  had  been  determined 
by  auguries;  and  Actius  Nttvius,  the  chief  of 
the  diviners  at  that  time,  violently  opposed  the 
king-s  will.  On  this  occasion  credulous  histo- 
rians say  that  Tarquin,  at  the  word  of  Naivius, 
cut  a  flint  with  a  razor. 

This  adventure,  whatever  was  the  truth  of  it, 
caused  Tarquin  to  abandon  his  design  of  increas- 
ing the  number  of  bodies  of  horse,  and  content 
himself  with  augmenting  the  number  in  each 
body.  He  then  renewed  the  war  with  the  Sa- 
bines, ravaged  their  country,  defeated  them  in 
three  pitched  battles,  obliging  them  at  last  to 
submit  to  him,  and  put  him  in  possession  of 
their  country.  In  theoecline  of  life  he  employed 
himself  in  further  decorating  the  city,  building 
tetnples,  &c.  He  was  assassinated  in  his  palace, 
in  the  eightieth  year  of  his  age,  by  the  sons  of  An- 
cus  Martins,  whom  he  had  originally  deprived 
of  the  kingdom. 

After  Uie  death  of  Tarquin  L,  his  widow 
Tanaquil  preserved  the  kingdom  to  her  son-in<» 
law  Servius  Tullius,  by  artfully  giving  out  that 


the  king  was  only  stunned,  and  would  soon  re- 
cover; upon  which  the  sons  of  Ancus  went 
voluntarily  into  banishment.  The  second  day 
after  his  decease,  Servius  Tullius  heard  causes 
from  the  throne  in  the  royal  robes,  and  attended 
by  the  lictors;  but  as  he  pretended  only  to 
supply  the  king's  place  till  he  should  recover, 
and  thought  it  incumbent  on  him  to  levenge  the 
wicked  attempt  upon  his  life,  he  summoned  the 
sons  of  Ancus  to  appear  before  his  tribunal ; 
and,  on  their  non-appearance,  caused  them  to  be 
declared  infamous,  and  their  estates  to  be  confis- 
cated. After  he  had  thus  managed  matters  for 
some  time,  in  such  a  manner  as  to  engage  the 
affections  of  the  people,  the  death  of  Tarquin 
was  published  as  a  thing  that  had  newly  hap- 
penea,  and  Servius  Tullius  assumed  the  ensigns 
of  royalty,  having  none  to  dispute  with  him. 
The  new  king  showed  himself  every  way  worthy 
of  the  throne.  No  sooner  were  the  £trurians 
informed  of  Tarquin's  death,  than  they  shook  off 
the  yoke ;  but  Servius  quickly  reduced  them  to 
obeaience,  depriving  tliem  of  dieir  lands,  which 
he  shared  among  the  poor  Roman  citizens  who 
had  none.  For  this  he  was  decreed  a  triumph 
by  the  people,  in  spite  of  the  opposition  of  the 
senate,  who  could  never  be  brought  to  approve 
of  his  election  to  the  kingdom,  though  he  was 
soon  after  legally  chosen  by  the  tribes.  After 
Servius  had  obtained  the  sanction  of  the  popular 
voice,  he  marched  a  second  time  against  the 
revolted  Etrurians ;  and,  having  again  vanquished 
them,  was  decreed  another  triumph.  He  then 
applied  himself  to  the  enlarging  and  adorning 
the  city.  He  also  added  to  the  city  the  hills 
Esquilinus  and  Viminalis,  fixing  his  own  palace 
on  the  Esquilinus,  to  draw  inhabitants  tnither. 
He  likewise  added  a  fourth  tribe,  which  he 
called  Tribus  Esquilina,  to  those  instituted  by 
Romulus.  He  divided  also  the  whole  Roman 
territory  into  distinct  tribes,  commanding  that 
there  should  be  at  least  one  place  of  refuge  in 
each  tribe,  situated  on  a  rising  ground,  and 
strong  enough  to  secure  the  effects  of  the  peasants 
in  case  of  a  sudden  alarm.  These  strong  holds 
he  called  pagi,  i.  e.  villages ;  and  he  commanded 
that  each  of  them  should  have  their  peculiar 
temple,  tutelary  god,  and  magistrates.  In  the 
mean  time,  his  two  wards,  Lucius  Tarquinius 
and  Arunx,  the  grandchildren  of  Tarquin  I.,  being 
^own  up,  to  secure  their  fidelity,  he  married 
them  to  his  daughters.  And  though  the  elder  of 
these  daughters,  who  was  of  a  mild  and  tractable 
disposition,  resembled  in  character  the  younger  of 
his  pupils,  an  the  elder  of  hb  pupils'  did  the 
younger  of  his  daughters,  who  was  of  a  violent 
and  vicious  temper,  yet  he  thought  it  advisable 
to  give  his  elder  daughter  to  Tarquin,  and  the 
younger  to  Arunx;  as  thus  be  matched  them 
according  to  their  ages ;  and  hoped  that  the 
elder  Tullia's  sweet  disposition  would  temper 
Tarquin*s  impetuosity,  and  the  younger  Tulha's 
vivacity  rouse  the  indolence  of  Arunx.  During 
the  public  rejoicing  for  these  marriages,  the 
twelve  lucumonies  of  Etruria,  uniting  their 
forces,  attempted  to  shake  off  the  Roman  yoke, 
but  were  in  several  battles  defeated  by  Servius, 
and  obliged  to  submit  on  the  conditions  granted 
by  his  predecessor.    For  this  success  Servius 

2Y2 


Digitized  by 


Googk 


692 


ROME. 


was  honored  with  a  diird  triumph.  Tiie  king, 
being  thus  disengaged  from  a  troublesome  war, 
put  in  execution  that  master-piece  of  policy 
which  Rome  made  use  of  ever  after,  and  which 
established  a  perpetual  order  and  regularity  in 
all  the  members  of  the  state,  with  respect  to 
wars,  the  public  revenues,  and  the  suffrages  of 
the  comitia.  The  public  supplies  had  hitherto 
been  raised  upon  the  people  at  so  much  a  head, 
without  any  distinction  of  rich  and  poor;  whence 
it  likewise  followed  that,  when  levies  were  made 
for  the  war,  the  rich  and  poor  were  equally 
obliged  to  take  the  field,  according  to  the  order 
of  their  tribe ;  and,  as  they  all  served  at  their  own 
expense,  the  poorer  sort  could  hardly  bear  the 
charges  of  a  campaign.  Besides,  rs  the  most 
indigent  of  the  people  saw  themselves  burdened 
with  the  same  taxes  as  the  rich,  they  pretended 
to  an  equal  authority  in  the  comitia ;  so  that  the 
election  of  kings  and  magistrates,  the  making  of 
peace  or  war,  and  the  judging  of  crimihals,  were 
given  up  into  the  hands  of  a  populace  who  were 
easily  corrupted,  and  had  nothing  to  lose.  Ser- 
vius  formed  a  projeci  to  remedy  these  evils,  and 
put  it  in  execution,  by  enacting  a  law,  enjoining 
all  the  Roman  citizens  to  bring  in  an  account  in 
writing  of  their  own  names  and  ages,  and  of 
those  of  their  fathers,  wives,  and  children.  All 
heads  of  families  were  also  commanded  to  de- 
liver in,  upon  oath,  a  just  estimate  of  their 
effects,  and  to  add  to  it  the  places  of  their  abode, 
whether  in  town  or  country.  Whoever  did  not 
bring  in  an  account  of  his  effects  was  to  be  de- 
prived of  his  estate,  to  be  beaten  with  rods,  and 
publicly  sold  for  a  slave.  Servius,  from  these 
accounts,  undertook  to  ease  the  poor  by  burden<- 
ing  the  rich,  and  to  please  the  latter  by  increas- 
ing their  power.  To  this  end  he  divided  the 
Roman  people  into  six  classes;  the  first  class 
consisted  of  those  whose  estates  and  effects 
amounted  to  the  value  of  10,000  drachms,  or 
100,000  asses  of  brass ;  the  first  way  of  com- 

Suting  being  used  by  the  Greeks,  and  the  latter 
y  the  Latins.  This  class  was  subdivided  into 
eighty  centuries,  or  companies  of  foot.  To  these 
Servius  joined  eighteen  centuries  of  Roman 
knights,  who  fought  on  horseback ;  and  appointed 
this  body  of  horsemen  to  be  at  the  head  of  the 
first  class,  because  the  estates  of  these  knights 
exceeded  the  sum  necessary  to  be  admitted  into 
it.  However,  the  public  supplied  them  with 
horses ;  for  which  a  tax  was  laid  upon  widows, 
who  were  exempt  from  all  other  tributes.  This 
first  class,  including  infantry  and  cavalry,  con- 
sisted of  ninety-eight  centuries.  The  second 
class  comprehended  those  whose  estates  were 
valued  at  7500  drachmae,  or  75,000  asses  of 
brass.  It  was  subdivided  into  twenty  centuries, 
all  foot.  To  these  were  added  two  centuries  of 
carpenters,  smiths,  and  other  artificers.  In 
the  third  class  were  those  who  were  esteemed 
worth  5000  drachnro,  or  50,000  asses.  This 
class  was  subdivided  into  twenty  centuries. 
The  fourth  class  was  those  whose  effects  were 
rated  at  the  value  of  2500  drachma,  or  26,000 
asses,  and  was  divided  into  twenty  centuries ; 
to  which  were  added  two  other  centuries  of 
trumpeters  and  blowers  of  the  horn,  who  sup- 
plied the  whole  army  with  this  martial  music. 


The  fifth  class  included  those  whose  lubstanoe 
did  not  amount  to  more  lium  1250  drachms,  or 
12,500  asses;  and  this  class  was  dirided  into 
thirty  centuries.  The  sixth  class  comprdieoded 
all  tliose  who  were  not  worth  so  much  as  those 
of  the  fifth  class ;  they  exceeded  in  number  any 
other  class,  but  nevertheless  were  reckoned  but 
as  one  century.  The  king  drew  from  these 
regulations  all  the  advantages  he  had  expected. 
Levies  for  the  army  were  no  longer  raised  by 
tribes,  nor  were  taxes  laid  on  at  so  much  a 
head,  but  all  was  levied  by  cectanes.  Wh«i  an 
army  of  20,000  men,  or  a  large  supply  of  money, 
was  wanted  for  the  war,  each  century  furnished 
its  quota  both  of  men  and  money ;  so  that  the 
first  cldss,  which  contained  more  centuries,  though 
fewer  men,  than  all  the  others  together,  famished 
more  men  and  more  mouey  for  the  public  service 
than  the  whole  Roman  state  besiaes.  And  by 
these  means  the  Roman  armies  consisted  for  the 
most  part  of  the  rich  citizens  of  Rome ;  who, 
as  they  had  lands  and  effects  to  defend,  fought  • 
with  more  resolution,  while  their  riches  enabled 
them  to  bear  the  expense  of  the  campaign.  As  it  ' 
was  but  just  the  king  should  make  the  first  class 
amends  for  the  weight  laid  on  it,  he  gave  it 
almost  the  whole  audiority  in  public  affairs, 
changing  the  comitia  by  curis,  in  which  eveiy 
man  gave  his  vote,  into  comitia  by  centuries, 
in  which  the  majority  was  not  reckoned  by 
single  persons,  but  by  centuries,  how  few  soever 
there  might  be  in  a  century.  Hence  the  fbst 
class,  which  contained  more  centuries  than  the 
other  five  taken  together,  had  every  thing  at  its 
disposal.  The  votes  of  this  class  were  first 
taken ;  and  if  the  ninety-eight  centuries  hap- 
pened to  agree,  or  only  ninety-seven  of  them, 
the  afiair  was  determined ;  because  these  made 
the  majority  of  the  193  centuries  which  com- 
posed the  six  classes.  If  they  disagreed,  then  ' 
the  second,  the  third,  and  the  other  chides  in 
their  order  were  called  to  vote,  though  there  was 
very  seldom  any  occasion  to  go  so  low  as  the 
fourth  class  for  a  majority  of  votes ;  so  Uiat,  by 
this  good  order,  Servius  brought  the  afiairs  of 
the  state  to  be  determined  by  the  judgment  of 
the  most  considerable  citizens,  who  understood 
the  public  interest  much  better  than  the  blind 
multitude,  liable  to  be  imposed  upon  and  easily 
corrupted.  And  now  the  people  being  divided 
into  several  orders,  according  to  the  census  or 
valuation  of  their  estate,  Servius  resolred  to 
solemnise  this  prudent  regulation  by  some  public 
act  of  religion,  that  it  might  be  the  more  re- 
spected and  the  more  lasting.  Accordingly  all 
the  citizens  were  commanded  to  appear,  on  a  day 
appointed,  in  the  Campus  Martins,  a  hive  plain 
lying  between  the  city  and  the  Tiber,  formerly 
consecrated  by  Romulus  to  the  god  Mars.  Here, 
the  centuries  being  drawn  up  in  ba,ttalia,  a 
solemn  lustration  or  expiatory  sacrifice  was  per- 
formed in  the  name  of  all  the  people.  The  sa- 
crifice  consisted  of  a  sow,  a  sheep,  and  a  bull, 
whence  it  took  the  name  of  suovetaurilia.  Hie 
whole  ceremony  was  called  lustnun,  a  Incndo ; 
that  is,  from  praying;'  expiating^  deuing,  or 
perhaps  from  the  goddess  Liza,  who  presided 
over  expiations,  and  to  whom  Servins  htKi  dedi- 
cated a  temple.    The  king,  considering  that  in 


Digitized  by  ^^JUU*^lt: 


ROME. 


693 


the  spaoe  of  five  yean  there  might  be  guch  al" 
terations  in  the  fortunes  of  private  persons  as  to 
entitle  some  to  be  raised  to  a  higher  class  and 
reduce  others  to  a  lower,  enjoined  that  the  cen- 
sus should  be  renewed  every  five  years. 

As  the  census  was  usually  closed  by  the  lus- 
trum, the  Romans  henceforth  began  to  compute 
time  by  lustrums,  each  lustrum  containing  the 
space  of  five  years.  However,  the  lustrums  were 
not  always  regularly  observed,  but  often  put  off, 
though  the  census  had  been  made  in  the  fifth 
year.  Some  writers  say  that  Servius  at  this  time 
coined  the  first  money  that  had  appeared  at 
Rome.  The  government  of  the  city  being  thus 
established,  Servius,  touched  with  compassion 
for  those  whom  an  unsuccessful  war  had  reduced 
to  slavery,  thought  that  such  of  them  as  had,  by 
long  and  i^thful  services,  deserved  and  obtained 
their  freedom,  were  much  more  worthy  of  being 
made  Roman  citizens  than  foreigners  who  were 
admitted  without  distinction.  He  therefore  gave 
the  freed  men  their  choice,  either  to  return  to 
their  own  country  or  continue  at  Rome.  Those 
who  chose  to  continue  he  divided  into  four  tribes, 
and  settled  them  within  the  city;  and  though 
they  were  distinguished  from  the  plebeians  by 
their  <^d  name  of  liberti,  or  freed  men,  yet  they 
enjoyed  all  the  privileges  of  free  citizens.  The 
senate  took  offence  at  the  regard  which  the  king 
showed  to  such  low  people,  who  had  but  lately 
shaken  off  their  fetters ;  but  Servius,  b^  a  roost 
humane  and  judicious  discourse,  entirely  ap- 
peased the  fathers,  who  passed  his  institution 
mto  a  law  which  subsisted  ever  after.  This  wise 
king,  having  4hus  established  order  among  the 
people,  undertook  at  last  to  reform  the  royal 
power  itself;  hb  equity,  which  was  the  main 
spring  of  all  his  resolutions,  leading  him  to  act 
contrary  to  his  own  interest,  and  to  sacrifice  one- 
half  of  the  royal,  authority  to  the  public  good. 
His  predecessors  reserved  to  themselves  the 
cogniance  of  all  causes,  public  and  private; 
but  Servius,  finding  the  duties  of  his  office  too 
much  for  one  man  to  discharge  well,  committed 
the  cognizance  of  ordinary  suits  to  the  senate, 
and  reserved  that  only  of  state  crimes  to  himself. 
All  things  being  now  regulated,  both  in  the  city 
and  country,  Servius  formed  a  scheme  for  at- 
taching the  Sabines  and  Latins  to  the  Romans, 
by  social  ties,  strengthened  by  religion.  He 
summoned  the  Latin  and  Sabine  cities  to  send 
their  deputies  to  Rome,  to  consult  about  an  af- 
feir  of  great  importance.  When  thw  were  come, 
lie  proposed  to  them  the  building  of  a  temple  in 
honor  of  Diana,  where  the  Latins  and  Sabines 
should  meet  once  a-year,  and  join  with  the  Ro- 
mans in  offering  sacrifices  to  that  goddess ;  that 
this  festival  should  be  followed  by  a  council  in 
which  all  disputes  between  the  cities  should  be 
amicably  determined ;  that  there  proper  measures 
should  be  taken  to  pursue  their  common  interest ; 
and  lastly,  in  order  to  draw  the  common  people 
thither,  a  fair  should  be  kept,  at  which  every  one . 
iQigfat  fbmish  himself  with  what  he  wanted. 
The  king's  design  met  with  no  opposition :  the 
deputies  only  added  to  it  that  the  temple  should 
^  an  inviolable  asylum  for  the  united  nations ; 
^d  that  all  the  cities  should  contribute  toward 
the  expense  of  building  it.    It  being  left  to  the 


king  to  choose  a  proper  place  fbr  it,  he  pitched 
upon  the  Aventine  uill,  where  the  temple  was 
built,  and  assemblies  annually  held  in  it.  The 
laws  which  were  to  be  observed  in  these  general 
meetings  were  engraved  on  a  pillar  of  brass, 
and  were  to  be  seen  in  Augustus's  time  in^  the 
Latin  tongue,  but  in  Greek  characters.  But  now 
Servius  was  grown  old;  and  the  ambition  of 
Tarquin  his  son-in-law  increased  in  proportion 
as  the  king  advanced  in  years.  His  wife  used 
her  utmost  endeavours .  to  check  the  rashness 
and  fury  of  her  husband,  and  to  divert  him  from 
all  criminal  enterprises ;  while  her  younger  sister 
was  ever  instigating  Arunx,  who  placed  all  hib 
happiness  in  a  private  life,  to  the  most  villanous 
attempts.  She  was  continually  lamenting  her 
fate  in  being  tied  to  such  an  indolent  husband, 
and  wishing  she  had  either  continued  unmarried, 
or  were  a  widow.  Similitude  of  temper  and 
manners  formed  by  degrees  a  great  intimacy 
between  her  and  Tarquin.  At  length  she  pro- 
posed nothing  less  to  him  than  the  murdering  of 
ner  father,  sister,  and  husband,  that  they  two 
might  meet  and  ascend  the  throne  together. 
Soon  after  they  paved  their  way  to  an  incestuous 
marriage,  he  by  poisoning  his  wife,  and  she  her 
husband ;  and  then  had  the  assurance  to  ask  the 
king's  and  queen's  consent  to  their  marriage. 
Servius  and  larquinia,  though  they  did  not  give 
ity  were  silent,  through  too  much  indulgence  to 
a  daughter  in  whom  now  was  their  only  hope  of 
posterity.  But  these  criminal  nuptials  were  only 
the  first  step  towards  a  yet  greater  iniquity.  The 
wicked  ambition  of  the  new  married  xrouple  first 
showed  itself  against  the  king :  for  thev  publicly 
declared  that  £e  crown  belonged  to  them ;  that 
Servius  was  a  usurper,  who,  being  appointed 
tutor  to  Tarquin*s  grandchildren,  had  deprived 
his  pupils  of  their  inheritance ;  that  it  was  high 
time  for .  an  old  man,  who  was  but  little  able  to 
support  the  weight  of  public  affairs,  to  give  place 
to  a  prince  who  was  of  a  mature  age,  &c.  The 
patricians,  whom  Servius  had  humbled  during 
the  whole  of  his  reign,  were  easily  gained  over  to 
Tarquin's  party;  and  by  the  help  of  money, 
many  of  the  poorer  citizens  were  also  brought 
over.  The  king,  being  informed  of  their  trea- 
sonable practises,  endeavoured  to  dissuade  his 
daughter  and  son-in-law  from  such  proceedings, 
which  might  end  in  their  ruin ;  and  exhorted 
them  to  wait  for  the  kingdom  till  his  death.  ^ 
But  they,  despising  his  counsels  and  paternal 
admonitions,  resolved  to  lay  their  claim  before 
the  senate,  which  Servius  was  obliged  to  summon. 
Tarquin  reproached  his  father-in  law  with  having 
ascended  tne  throne  without  a  previous  inter- 
regnum; and  with  having  bought  the  votes  of 
the  people,  and  despised  the  suffrages  of  the 
senate.  He  then  urged  his  own  right  of  inheri- 
tance to  the  crown,  and  the  injustice  of  Servius, 
who,  being  only  his  guardian,  had  kept  posses- 
sion of  it,  when  he  himself  was  of  an  age  to 
govern.  Servius  answered  that  he  bad  been 
lawfully  elected  by  the  people ;  and  that,  if  there 
could  be  an  hereditary  right  to  the  kingdom,  the 
sons  of  Ancus  had  a  much  better  one  than  the 
erandsons  of  the  late  king,  who  must  himself 
nave  been  a  usurper.  He  then  referred  the 
whole  to  an  assembly  of  the  people ;  which  being 


Digitized  by  ^^JiJU^lC 


ROME. 


immediately  proclaimed,  ail  over  the  city,  the 
forum  was  soon  filled;  and  Servius  harangued 
the  multiludfe  in  such  a  manner  as  gained  all 
their  affections.  They  all  cried  out  with  one 
voice,  *  Let  Servius  reign ;  let  him  continue  to 
make  the  Romans  happy/  Amidst  their  clamors, 
these  words  were  likewise  heard :  *  Let  Tarquin 
die ;  let  him  perish  /  This  language  so  frightened 
him,  that  be  retired  to  his  house  in  great  haste ; 
while  the  king  was  conducted  back  to  his  palace 
with  the  acclamations  of  the  people.  The  ill 
success  of  this  attempt  cooled  Tarquin's  ardent 
desire  of  reigning,  but  his  ambition  made  him 
act  a  new  part.  He  undertook  to  regain  the  favor 
of  his  lather-in-law  by  caresses,  submissions,  and 
protestations  of  a  sincere  regard  and  affection 
k>r  him ;  insomuch  that  the  king  was  sincerely 
reconciled  to  him,  and  tranquillity  re-established 
in  the  royal  family.  But  it  was  not  long  ere  Tar- 
quin, roused  by  the  continual  reproaches  of  his 
wife,  began  to  renew  his  intrigues ;  and  had  no 
sooner  gained  a  considerable  party,  than  he 
clothed  himself  in  the  royal  robes,  and,  causing 
the  fasces  to  be  carried  before  him  by  some  of 
his  domestics,  crossed  the  forum,  and,  entering 
the  temple  where  the  senate  used  to  meet,  seated 
himself  on  the  throne.  Such  of  the  senators  as 
were  in  the  faction  he  found  already  in  their 

K laces  (for  he  had  given  them  private  notice  to 
e  there  early) ;  and  the  rest,  b^ing  summoned 
to  a«semble  in  Tarquin's  name,  made  what  haste 
they  could  to  the  appointed  place,  thinking  that 
Servius  was  dead,  smce  Tarquin  assumed  the 
title  and  functions  of  king.    When  thev  w6re  all 
assembled,  Tarquin  made  a  long  speech,  reviling 
his  father-in-law,  and  repeating  the  invectives 
against  him  which  he  had  so  often  uttered,  call- 
ing him  a  slave,  an  usurper,  a  favorer  of  the 
populace,  and  an  enemy  to  the  senate  and  pa- 
tricians. While  he  was  speaking  Servius  arrived; 
and,  rashly  giving  way  to  the  motions  of  his 
courage,  without  considering  his  strength,  drew 
near  the  throne  to  pull  Tarquin  down  from  it. 
This  raised  a  tumult  in  the  assembly,  which  drew 
the  people  into  the  temple ;  but  nobody  ventured 
to  part  the  rivals.   Tarquin,  therefore,  being  more 
strong  and  vigorous,  seized  the  old  man  by  the 
waist,  and,  hurrying  him  through  the  temple, 
threw  him  down  from  the  top  of  the  steps  mto 
the  forum.    The  king  raised  himself  up  with 
some  difficulty:  but  all  his  friends  had  aban- 
doned him;  two  or  three  of  the  people  only, 
touched  with  compassion,  lent  him  their  arms 
to  conduct  him  to  the  palace.    As  they  were 
leading  him  on  so  slowly,  the  cruel  TuHia  ap- 
peared in  the  forum,  whither  she  had  hastened 
in  her  chariot  on  the  first  report  of  what  had 
passed  in  the  senate.    She  found  her  husband 
on  the  top  of  the  steps  of  the  temple ;  and  was 
the  first  who  saluted  hiin  king.    The  example 
was  immediately  followed  by  the  senators  of 
Tarquin's  party.     Nor  was  this  enough  for  the 
unnatural  aaughter ;  she  took  aside  her  husband, 
and  suggested  to  him  that  he  would  never  be 
safe  so  long  as  the  usurper  of  his  crown  was 
alive.     Hereupon  Tarquin  instantly  despatched 
some  of  his  domestics  to  take  away  tne  un- 
fortunate  Servius's  life.      The  orders   for  this 
parricide  were  "^  sooner   given    than  TuUia 


mounted  her  chariot  again,  with  an  air  of  trimnpb, 
to  return  home.  In  the  way  to  her  house,  whidi 
was  through  a  narrow  street,  called  Vtcns  Cyprios, 
the  assassins  had  left  the  king's  body,  which  was 
still  panting.  At  this  sight  the  charioteer,  stnu^ 
with  horror,  checked  his  horses:  but  Tulha 
forced  him  to  go  on :  and  the  blood  of  the  father 
is  said  to  have  dyed  the  wheels  of  the  dariot, 
and  even  the  clothes  of  the' inhuman  daughter; 
whence  the  street  was  called  ever  after  Vicus 
Sceleratus. 

The  new  king  proved  a  most  despotic  and 
cruel  tyrant;  and  was  sumamed  the  proud,  on 
account  of  his  haughty  behaviour.    Ail  contro- 
versies whatever  were  decided  by  hknseif  and 
his  friends;  and  he  banished,  fined,  and  evai 
executed,  whom  he  pleased.    The  census  and 
lustrum,  the  division  of  citizens  into  classes  and 
centuries,  were  abolished ;  and  all  kinds  of  as- 
semblies, even  those  for  amusement  and  recrea- 
tion, were  prohibited.    Nay,  to  such  a  height 
did  Tarquin  carry  his  insolence  and  tyranny, 
tiiat  the  most  virtuous  of  the  senators  went  into 
voluntary  banishment ;  while  many  of  those  who 
remained  were  cut  off  on  various  pretences,  that 
the  king  might  enjoy  their  estates.    Tarquio, 
sensible  of  the  danger  in  which  he  stood  by  thus 
losing  the  affections  of  his  people,  provided  a 
sufficient  number  of  soldiers,  by  way  of  goaid, 
to  prevent  attempts  upon  his  penon ;  and  gave 
his  daughter  to  Octavius  MamiliQS,  one  of  tlie 
most  considerable  men  among  the  Hatins,  to 
strengthen  his  interest  by  a  foreign  ailiaiaoe. 
Mamilius  accordingly  procured  many  friends  to 
his  fiither-in-law,  but  ne  had  nearly  lost  them 
again  by  his  haughty  behaviour.    He  desired  tite 
I^atins  to  call  a  national  council  at  Ferentinun, 
where  he  would  meet  them  on  a  day  appointed 
by  himself.    The  Latins  accordingly  met ;  but, 
after  waiting  for  several  hours,  Tarquin  did  not 
appear.     On  this,  one  Tumus  Herdonios,  an 
enterprising  and  eloquent  man,  who  hated  Tar- 
quin, and  was  jealous  of  Mamilius,  made  a 
speech,  in  which  he  inveighed  against  the  haughty 
behaviour  of  Tarquin,  set  forth  the  contemft 
which  he  had  put  upon  the  Latins,  and  concluded 
with  desiring  the  council  to  break  up  and  return 
home  without  taking  any  further  notice  of  him. 
Mamilius,  however,  prevailed  upon    tliem   to 
return  the  day  following ;  when  Tarqfuin  made 
his  appearance,  and  told  the  assembly  tlmt  liis 
design  in  calling  them  together  was  to  claim  his 
right  of  commanding  the  Latin  armies,  whidi 
he  said  was  derived  from  his  grandfotber,  bat 
which  he  desired  to  be  confirmed  to  him  by  them. 
These  words  were  scarcely  out  of  bis  mouth, 
when  Herdonius,  rising  up,  entered  into  a  detail 
of  Tarquin's  tyranny  and  arbitrary  beiiaviour  at 
Rome,  which,  he  said,  the  Latins  would  sooo  foel 
in  an  equal  degre",  if  they  complied  with  Tar- 
quin's  demand.    To  this  speech  the  king  made 
no  reply  at  that  time,  but  promised  to  answer 
him  next  day.    In  the  mean  time,  however, 
he  bribed  the  domestics  of  Herdonius  to  admit 
among  his  baggage  a  large  quantity  of  arms : 
and  then,  telling  the  Latins   that  HeidoDi»'« 
opposition  proceeded  only  from  Tarquin's  hav- 
ing refused  him  his  daughter  in  marriage,  accused 
him  of  having  laid  a  plot  to  cut  off  all  the  de* 


Digitized  by  ^^JiJU*^lt: 


ROME. 


puties  there  pr^sent^  aod  to  usurp  a  iurisdiction 
over  the  Latiti  cities ;  as  a  proof  of  ivhich  he  ap- 
pealed to  the  arms  hid  among  the  basgage  of 
lierdoDius.  The  accused,  conscious  ot  his  in- 
nocence, desired  that  his  baggage  should  be 
searched;  which  being  accordingly  done,  and 
the  arras  found,  he  was  hurried  away  without 
being  allowed  to  make  any  defence,  and  thrown 
into  a  basia  at  the  head  of  the  spring  of  Feren- 
tinum,  where  he  was  drowned.  In  consequence 
of  this  treachery,  Tarquin  was  looked  upon  by 
the  Latins  as  their  deliverer,  and  declared  gene- 
ral of  the  Latin  armies;  soon  after  which  the 
Hernici  and  two  tribes  of  the  Volsci  entered 
into  an  alliance  with  him.  To  keep  these  con- 
federates together,  Tarquin,  with  their  consent, 
erected  a  temple  to  Jupiter  Latialis  on  a  hill 
near  the  ruins  of  Alba,  where  he  appointed  cer- 
tain feasts  called  Feriee  Latins  to  be  held  on  the 
27th  of  April,  where  the  several  nations  were  to 
sacrifice  together,  and  on  no  account  to  commit 
hostilities  against  each  other  during  their  con- 
tinuance. The  king  then  proceeded  to  make 
war  on  the  rest  of  the  Volsci  who  had  refused 
to  enter  into  an  alliance  with  him.  Some  de- 
predations which  they  had  committed  in  the 
territories  of  the  Latins  served  for  a  pretence  to 
begin  the  war ;  but,  as  Tarquin  had  no  confidence 
in  the  Romans,  his  army  was  composed  only  of 
a  small  body  of  them,  who  were  incorporated 
among  the  Latin  auxiliaries.  However,  he  de- 
feated the  enemy,  took  one  of  their  cities  by 
storm,  aod  gave  the  booty  to  his  soldiers.  He 
next  turned  his  arms  against  the  Sabinesj  whom 
be  entirely  defeated  in  two  engagements,  and 
made  the  whole  nation  tributary;  for  which  ex- 
ploits he  decreed  himself  two  triumphs,  and  on 
his  return  to  Rome  employed  the  populace  in 
finishing  the  sewers  and  circus  which  had  been 
begun  by  his  grandfather  Tarquin  I.  In  the 
mean  time,  Tarquin's  persecutions  of  his  own 
subjects  daily  drove  some  of  the  most  considera- 
ble into  bianishment.  A  great  number  of  pa- 
tricians took  refuge  in  Gabii,  a  city  of  Latium, 
about  thirteen  miles  from  Rome;  where  the 
inhabitant^  touched  with  compassion  for  their 
misfortunes,  not  only  received  them  with  kind- 
ness, but  began  a  war  with  Tarquin  on-  their 
account. 

The  Gabini  seem  to  have  been  the  most  for- 
midable enemies  whom  the  Romans  had  hitherto 
met  with ;  since  Tarquiu  was  obliged  to  raise  a 
prodigious  bulwark  to  cover  the  city  on  the  side 
of  Gaibii.  The  war  lasted  seven  years;  during 
which  time,  by  the  devastations  committed  by 
the  two  armies,  a  great  scarcity  of  provisions  took 
place  in  Rome.  The  people  grew  clamorous ; 
and  Tarquin,  being  unable  either  to  quiet  them 
or  to  reduce  the  Gabini,  fell  upon  the  followinj^ 
dishonorableand  treacherous  expedient : — His  son 
Sexlus  pretended  to  be  on  very  bad  terms  with 
his  fiither,  and  openly  inveighed  against  him ; 
on  which  he  was  proclaimed  a  rebel,  and  pub- 
licly beaten  in  the  forum.  This  being  reported 
at  Gabii,  by  person^  sent  thither  on  purpose,  the 
inhabitants  became  very  desirous  of  having  Sex- 
tus  among  them;  and  accordingly  he  soon  went 
thither,  having  previously  obtained  a  solemn 
promise  from  the  inhabitants  never  to  deliver 


him  up  to  his  fiither.  Here  he  made  frequent 
inroads  into  the  Roman  territories,  and  always 
came  badk  laden  with  spoil,  his  father  sending 
against  him  only  such  weak  parties  as  must  in- 
fallibly be  worsted.  By  this  means  he  soon  came 
to  have  such  a  high  degree  of  predit  among  the 
Gabini  that  he  was  chosen  general  of  their 
army.  Finding  his  authority  sufficiently  estab- 
lished, he  despatched  a  slave  to  his  father  for  in- 
structions; butTarquin^  unwilling  to  return  an 
explicit  answer,  took  the  messenger  into  the 
garden,  where  he  struck  off  the  heads  of  the 
tallest  poppies.  Sextus  understood  that  by  this 
hint  the  king  desired  him  to  put  to  death  the 
leading  men  in  the  city  of  Gabii,  which  he  im- 
mediately did ;  and,  while  the  city  was  in  con- 
fusion on  account  of  this  massacre,  he  opened 
the  gates  to  his  father,  who  took  possession  of 
it.  The  inhabitants  dreaded  every  barbarity 
from  the  haughty  tyranny  of  the  Roman  mo-  • 
narch:  however  on  this  occasion  he  consulted 
his  policy  rather  than  his  revenge ;  granted  them 
their  life,  liberty,  and  estates,  and  eveu  entered 
into  a  treaty  of  alliance  with  them.  Hie  articles 
were  written  on  the  hide  of  an  ox,  which  wa:^ 
extant  in  the  time  of  Augustus,  in  the  temple  of 
Juoiter  Fidius. 

After  this  he  made  his  son  Sextus  king  of 
Gabii;  sending  off  his  two  other  sons,  Titus  and 
Arunx,  the  one  to  build  a  city  at  Signia,  the 
other  at  Cicsum,  a  promontory  of  the  Tyrrhene 
Sea,  to  keep  the  Volsci  in  awe ;  and  for  some  time 
Tarquin  enjoyed  a  profound  peace ;  the  Romans 
))eing  accustomed  to  oppression,  and  the  yoke  of 
an  imperious  master,  making  no  opposition  to 
his  will.  During  this  interval  Tarquin  met  with 
the  celebrated  adventure  of  the  Sibyl,  whose 
books  w^re  ever  afterwards  held  in  high  estima- 
tion at  Rome,  and  Tarquin  appointed  two  per- 
sons of  distinction  to  tsdce  care  of  them.  Tnese 
were  called  Duumviri:  but  their  number  v^as 
afterwards  increased  to  ten,  when  they  were 
called  Decemviri;  and  then  to  fifteen,  when  they 
were  termed  Quindeeemviri.  At  this  time  also 
the  written  civil  law  had  its  origin  among  the 
Romans,  all  the  statutes  enacted  by  the  kings 
being  collected  into  one  body ;  which,  from  Pa- 
pirius,  the  name  of  the  collector  was  called  the 
rapirian  law.  The  temple  of  the  capitol  was 
also  finished ;  for  which  purpose  the  most  skilful 
architects  and  workmen  were  brought  from 
Etruria,  the  populace  being  obliged  to  serve 
them  in  the  most  laborious  parts.  We  now 
come  to  the  important  revolution  which  put  an 
end  to  the  regal  power  at  Rome,  and  introduced 
^  republican  form  of  government,  to  which  this 
city  is  allowed  to  owe  the  greatest  part  of  her 
grandeur.  Tarquin  had  left  himself  no  friends 
among  the  rich  citizens,  by  reason  of  his  op- 
pressions ;  and  the  populace  were  equally  disaf- 
fected on  account  of  their  being  obliged  to  labor 
in  his  public  works.  Among  die  many  persons 
of  distinction  who  had  been  sacrificed  to  the 
avarice  or  suspicions  of  Tarquin  was  M.  Junius, 
who  had  married  the  daughter  of  Taiquin  I. 
This  nobleman  had  a  son  named  L.  Junius,  who 
escaped  the  cruelty  of  the  tyrant  by  pretending 
to  be  an  idiot,  and  hence  received  the  agnomen 
of  Brutus.   Soon  after  the  finishing  of  the  works 


Digitized  by 


Google 


696 


ROME. 


above  mentioned,  a  violent  plague  happening  to 
break  out  at  Rome,  Tarquin  sent  his  sons 
Titus  and  Arunx  to  consult  the  oracle  of  Del- 
phi; and  the  princes  took  Brutus  along  with 
ihem,  to  divert  themselves  with  his  supposed 
folly.  Brutus  chose  for  his  offering  to  the  Del- 
phic Apollo  a  stick  of  elder ;  which  occasioned 
much  laughter.  However,  he  had  the  precaution 
to  enclose  a  rod  of  gold  within  the  stick ;  and  to 
this  probably  it  was  owing  that  the  priestess 
gave  the  princes  the  following  riddle»that  he  who 
should  first  kiss  his  mother  should  succeed  Tarquin 
in  the  government  of  Rome.  This  answer  Had 
been  given  to  their  enquiries  concerning  the  suc- 
cession; upon  which  the  two  brothers  either 
drew  lots  which  of  them  should  kiss  their  mo- 
ther at  their  return,  or  agreed  to  do  it  at  once, 
that  both  might  reign  jointly :  but  Brutus,  ima- 
gining the  oracle  had  another  meaning,  fell  down 
and  kissed  the  earth,  the  common  mother  of  all 
living.  This  the  priestess  had  probably  meant, 
and  had  given  the  answer  on  purpose  to  have 
another  proof  of  Brutus's  ingenuity.  On  the 
return  of  the  princes  to  Rome,  they  found  their 
fiither  engaged  in  a  war  with  the  Rutuli.  The 
treasury  being  exhausted  by  the  sums  which 
Tarquin  had  expended  in  his  public  works,  he 
had  marched  to  Ardea  the  capital  of  that  nation, 
which  lay  about  twenty  miles  from  Rome,  in 
hopes  of  taking  it  without  opposition.  Con- 
trary to  his  expectation,  however,  he  was  obliged 
to  besiege  it  in  form ;  and  this  constrained  him 
to  lay  a  heavy  tax  upon  his  subjects.  As  the 
siege  was  carried  on  very  slowly,  the  general 
officers  frequently  made  entertainments  for  one 
another.  One  day,  when  Sextus  Tarquinius  was 
entertaining  his  brothers,  the  conversation  hap- 
pened to  turn  upon  their  wives  :  every  one  ex- 
tolled the  good  qualities  of  his  own ;  but  Colla- 
tinus  bestowed  such  extravagant  praises  on  his 
Lucretia,  that  the  dispute  ended  in  a  kind  of 
quarrel.  It  was  then  resolved  that  they  should 
mount  their  horses  and  surprise  their  wives  by 
their  unexpected  return.  The  king's  daughters- 
in-law  were  employed  in  feasting  and  diversion, 
and  seemed  much  disconcerted  by  the  appear- 
ance of  their  husbands;  but  Lucretia,  though 
the  night  was  far  advanced,  was  found,  with  her 
maids  about  her,  spinning  and  working  in  wool. 
She  was  not  at  all  discomposed  by  the  company 
whom  her  husband  brougtit  with  him,  and  they 
were  all  pleased  with  the  reception  she  gave 
them.  As  Lucretia  was  very  beautiful,  Sextus 
Tarquinius  conceived  a  passion  for  her,  which 
resolving  to  saXisfy  at  all  events,  he  soon  re- 
turned to  Collatia  in  the  absence  of  Lucretia's 
husband,  and  was  entertained  by  her  with  great 
civility  and  respect.  In  the  night-time  he  entered 
Lucretia's  apartment,  and  threatened  her  with 
immediate  death  if  she  did  not  yield  to  his  de- 
sires. But  finding  her  not  to  be  intimidated,  he 
told  her  that,  if  she  still  persisted  in  her  refusal, 
he  would  kill  one  of  her  male  slaves,  and  lay  him 
naked  by  her  when  she  vras  dead,  and  then  de- 
clare to  all  the  world  that  he  had  only  revenged 
the  injury  of  Collatinus.  On  this  the  virtuous 
Lucretia  (who,  it  seems,  dreaded  violation  less 
than  infamy)  submitted  to  the  desires  of  Sextus ; 
but  resolved  not  to  outlive  his  violence.    She 


dressed  herself  in  roonmingy  and  took  a  poniaid 
under  her  robe,  having  previously  written  to  her 
husband  to  meet  her  at  her  father  Lacretia's 
house,  where  she  refused  to  discover  the  cause 
of  her  grief,  except  in  a  full  assembly  of  ber 
friends  and  relations.  Here,  addressing  herself 
to  her  husband  Collatinus,  she  acquainted  them 
with  the  whole  affair ;  exhorted  them  to  revenge 
the  injury;  and  protested  that  she  would  not 
outlive  the  loss  of  her  honor.  Every  one  pre- 
sent gave  her  a  solemn  promise  that  they  would 
revenge  her  quarrel ;  but,  while  they  endeavoured 
to  comfort  her,  she  suddenly  stabbed  bendf  to 
the  heart,  with  the  dagger  whidi  she  had  con- 
cealed. This  action  inflamed,  beyond  measure, 
the  minds  of  all  present.  Bratus,  laying  aside 
his  pretended  folly,  drew  the  bloody  da^er  out 
of  Lucretia's  body ;  and,  showing  it  to  the  as- 
sembly, swore  by  the  blood  upon  it  that  he 
would  pursue  Tarquin  and  his  nmily  with  fire 
and  sword ;  nor  would  he  ever  suffer  that  or  any 
oriier  family  to  reign  in  Rome.  The  same  oath 
was  taken  by  all  the  company;  who  were  so 
much  surprised  at  the  apparent  transition  of 
Brutus  from  folly  to  wisdom,  that  they  did 
whatever  he  desired  of  them.  By  hb  advice 
the  gates  of  the  city  were  shut,  that  nobody 
might  go  out  of  it  .to  inform  Tarquin  of  what 
was  going  forward;  which,  as  Lucretius  had 
been  left  governor  of  the  city  by  Tarquin,  was 
put  in  execution  without  difficulty.  The  corpse 
of  Lucretia  was  then  exposed  to  public  view ; 
and  Brutus  having  made  a  speech  to  the  people, 
in  which  he  explained  the  mystery  of  his  con- 
duct in  counterteiting  folly  for  many  years  past, 
.  proceeded  to  tell  them  that  the  patricians  were 
come  to  a  resolution  of  deposing  the  tyrant,  and 
exhorted  them  to  concur  in  the  same  des^. 
The  people  testified  their  approbation,  and  called 
out  for  arms ;  but  Brutus  did  not  think  proper 
to  trust  them  with  arms  till  he  had  first  obtained 
a  decree  of  the  senate.  This  was  easily  pixxured : 
the  senate  enacted  that  Tarquin  had  forfeited  all 
the  prerogatives  belonging  to  the  regal  authority, 
conaemned  hhn  and  all  lus  posterity  to  perpetual 
banishment,  and  devoted  to  the  gods  ot  hell 
evenr  Roman  who  should  hereafter,  by  word  or 
deed,  endeavour  his  restoration ;  and  tbis  decree 
was  unanimously  confirmed  by  the  curiae. 

Tarquin  being  thus  deposed,  the  form  of  the 
government  became  the  next  object  Lucietias 
was  declared  Interrex ;  but  Brutus,  being  again 
consulted,  declared,  that  though  it  was  by  no 
means  proper  for  the  state  to  be  without  su- 
preme magistrates,  yet  it  was  equally  necessaxy 
that  the  power  should  not  be  centered  in  one 
man,  and  that  it  should  not  be  perpetual.  For 
this  reason  he  proposed  that  two  magistrates, 
called  consuls,  should  be  elected  annually;  thai 
the  state  should  thenceforth  have  the  name  of 
republic ;  that  the  ensigns  of  royalty  should  be 
abolished  ;  and  that  the  only  ensigns  of  consnlar 
dignity  should  be  an  ivory  chair,  a  white  robe^ 
and  twelve  lictors  for  their  attendants.  He  ako 
proposed  that  the  title  of  rex,  or  king,  should  be 
given  to  him  who  superintended  rdigious  mat- 
ters, who  should  thenceforth  be  called  rex  sacro- 
rum,  or  king  of  sacred  things.  This  scheoie  Ur- 
ing  approved  of,  Brutus  and  Collatinus  were 


Digitized  by 


Goo 


'8 


It: 


ROME, 


proposed  by  Lucretius  as  the  two  first  consulsy 
and  unanimously  accepted  by  the  people,  who 
thought  it  impossible  to  find  more  implacable 
enemies  to  theTarquins.  They  entered  on  their 
office  A.  A.  C.  508 ;  and  the  monster  Tullia,  per- 
ceiving that  now  all  was  lost,  left  the  city,  and 
retired  to  her  husband  at  Ardea.  She  was  suf- 
fered to  depart,  though  the  populace  hooted  at 
her,  and  cursed  her  as  she  went  along.  Tar- 
quin,  in  the  mean  time,  being  informed  by  some 
who  had  got  out  of  Rome  before  the  gate  was 
shut,  that  Brutus  was  raising  Commotions  to 
his  prejudice,  returned  in  haste  to  the  city,  at- 
tended only  by  his  sons  and  a  few  friends ;  but 
finding  the  gates  shut,  and  the  people  in  arms  on 
the  wsdls,  he  returned  again  to  the  camp :  here 
again,  to  his  surprise,  he  found  that  the  consuls 
had  taken  the  opportunity  of  gaining  over  the 
army  to  their  interest;  so  that, being  refused 
admittance  into  the  camp  also,  he  was  forced  to 
fly  for  refuge,  at  the  age  of  seventy-six,  with  his 
wife  and  £ree  sons  to  Gabii.  Here  he  conti- 
nued for  some  time ;  but,  not  finding  the  Latins 
forward  to  revenge  his  cause,  he  retired  into 
Etruria ;  where,  it  being  the  country  of  his  ^o- 
ther*s  family,  he  hoped  to  find  more  friends.  The 
Romans  now  congratulated  themselves  on  their 
happy  deliverance  from  tyranny.  However,  as 
Tairqain  had  by  his  policy  procured  himself 
many  friends  abroad,  these  now  became  enemies 
to  the  Roman  name ;  and,  by  the  defection  of 
the  allies,  the  Roman  dominions  were  left  in 
much  the  same  state  as  they  had  been  in  the  time 
of  Romulus.  Though  almost  constantly  victori- 
ous in  war  for  143  years,  they  had  not  yet  gain- 
ed land  enough  to  supply  their  city  with  provi- 
sions; The  main  strength  of  the  state  lay  m  the 
number  of  the  citizens  of  Rome ;  which,  by  trans- 
planting the  inhabitants  of  the  conquered  cities, 
oad  so  prodigiously  increased,  that  it  put  the 
Romans  in  a  condition  of  usurping  the  authority 
over  other  nations,  the  most  inconsiderable  of 
which  had  an  extent  of  territory  &r  exceeding 
theirs.  By  frequent  depredations  they  so  ha- 
rassed the  states  of  Latium  and  Etruria  that 
many  of  them  were  constrained  to  enter  into 
treaties  with  Rome,  by  which  they  obliged  them- 
selves to  furnish  her  with  auxiliaries  whenever 
she  should  invade  and  pillage  the  lands  of  her 
other  neighbours.  Submissions  of  this  kind  the 
Romans  called  making  alliances  with  them,  and 
these  useful  alliances  supplied  the  want  of  a 
large  territory;  but  now, .upon  the  change  of 
her  government,  all  the  allies  of  Rome  forsook 
her  at  once,  and  either  stood  neuter,  or  espoused 
the  cause  of  the  banished  king.  The  new  con- 
suls in  the  mean  time  took  the  most  effectual 
methods  for  securing  the  liberties  of  the  republic. 
The  army  employed  in  the  siege  of  Ardea  march- 
ed home  unoer  Herminus  and  Horatius,  who 
concluded  a  truce  with  the  Ardeates  for  fifteen 
years.  The  consuls  then  again  assembled  the 
people  by  centuries,  and  had  the  decree  of  Tar- 
qnin's  banishment  confirmed ;  and  many  of  the 
laws  of  Servius  Tullius  were  revived  to  the  great 
joy  of  the  people.  Tarquin,  however,  having 
made  Tarquinii  the  seat  of  his  residence,  en- 
gaged the  inhabitants  to  send  an  embassy  to 
Kome,  with  a  submissive  letter  for  himself,  di- 


rected to  the  Roman  people.  The  ambasbadors 
represented  in  such  strong  terms  to  the  senate 
how  reasonable  it  was  to  let  the  king  be  heard 
before  he  Was  condemned,  that  the  consuls  in- 
clined to  bring  these  agents  before  the  people, 
and  to  leave  the  decision  to  the  curias ;  but  Va- 
lerius, who  had  been  very  active  in  the  revolu- 
tion, strenuously  opposed  this,  and  by  his  infiu- 
ence  in  the  senate  got  it  prevented.  Mean  time, 
Tarquin  prevailed  on  the  inhabitants  of  Tarqui- 
nii to  send  a  second  embassy  to  Rome,  demand- 
ing the  estates  of  the  exiles,  but  with  private  in- 
structions to  get  the  consuls  assassinated.  The 
restoration  of  the  estates  of  the  exiles  was  opposed 
by  Brutus,  buf  Collations  was  for  complying 
with  it ;  whereupon  Brutus  accused  his  colleague 
of  treachery,  and  'of  a  design  to  bring  back  the 
tyrant.  The  matter  was  referred  to  the  people^ 
where  it  was  carried  by  one  vote  in  favor  of  the 
Tarquin^.  But  whilst  the  people  were  employed 
in  loading  carriages  with  tne  effects  of  the  exiles, 
and  in  selling  what  could  not  be  carried  off,  the 
ambassadors  drew  some  of  the  nearest  relations 
of  the  consuls  into  a  plot  vrith  them.  These 
were  three  youne  noblemen  of  the  Aquilian  fa- 
mily (the  sons  of  Collatinus's  sister),  two  of  the 
Vitellii  (whose  sister  Brutus  had  married) ;  and 
Titus  and  Tiberius,  the  two  sons  of  Brutus. 
They  all  bound  themselves  by  solemn  oaths,  with 
the  dreadful  ceremony  of  drinking  the  blood  of 
a  murdered  man  and  touching  his  entrails.  They 
met  at  the  house  of  the  Aquilii,  where  they  wrote 
letters  to  Tarquin  and  gave  them  to  the  ambas- 
sadors. But  their  proceedings  were  overheard 
by  one  Vindicius  a  slave,  who  immediately 
communicated  the  whole  to  Valerius;  upon 
which  all  the  criminals  were  apprehenaed. 
Brutus  stood  judge  over  his  own  sons;  and  not- 
withstanding the  intercession  of  the  whole  as- 
sembly, and  the  tears  of  his  ctiildren,  commanded 
them  to  be  beheaded ;  nor  would  he  depart  till 
he  saw  the  execution  of  the  sentence.  Having 
performed  this  piece  of  heroic  barbarity,  he  quitt- 
ed the  tribunal,  and  left  Collatinus  to  perform 
the  rest. 

Collatinus,  being  inclined  to  spare  his  nephews, 
allowed  them  a  day  to  clear  themselves :  and 
caused  Vindicius,  the  only  witness  against  them, 
to  be  delivered  up  to  his  masters.  This  roused 
the  indignation  of  the  people,  especially  of  Va- 
lerius, who  had  promised  to  protect  the  witness, 
and  therefore  he  refused  to  deliver  him  up  to  the 
lictors.  The  multitude  called  for  Brutus  to  re- 
turn ;  which  when  he  had  done,  he  told  them 
that  he  had  executed  his  two  sons  inconsequence 
of  his  own  paternal  authority,  but  that  it  belong- 
ed to  the  people  to  determine  the  fate  of  the 
rest.  Accordingly,  by  a  decree  of  the  curie,  all 
the  delinquents  suffered  as  traitors,  except  the 
ambassadors;  Vindicius  had  his  liberty  granted 
him ;  and  was  presented  with  25,000  asses  of 
brass,  in  value  about  £80  14s.  7d.  of  our  money. 
The  decree  for  restoring  the  estates  of  the  exiled 
Tarquins  was  annulled,  their  palaces  were  de- 
stroyed, and  their  lands  divided  among  the  peo- 
ple.' The  public  only  retained  a  piece  of  ground 
near  the  Campus  Martins,  which  the  king  had 
usurped,  and  which  they  consecrated  to  Mars. 
The  severity  of  Brutus  towards  his  two  sons 

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struck  such  terror  into  the  Roroans,  thait  scarcely 
any  person  durst  oppose  him ;  and  therefore  he 
openly  accused  CoUatinus  before  the  people, 
and  without  ceremony  deposed  him  from  the 
consulship,  banishing  him  at  the  same  time  from 
Home.  The  multitude  refused  to  hear  CoUati- 
nus in  his  own  defence ;  so  that  the  consul  was 
on  the  point  of  being  driven  out  with  ign6miny 
and  disgrace,  when  Luctetius  interposed,  and 
prevailed  upon  Brutus  to  allow  his  colleague  la 
resign  his  lasces,  and  retire.  Brutus  then,  to 
remove  all  suspicions  of  personal  enmity,  pro- 
ciured  him  a  present  of  twenty  talents  out  of  die 
public  treasury,  to  which  he  added  five  of  his 
own:  CoUatinus  then  retired  *  to  Lavinium, 
^here  he  lived  in  peace,  and  died  of  old  age. 
Valerius  was  chosen  in  hi^  room ;  and  the  two 
consuls  lived  in  great  harmony.  But  Tarquin 
first  engaged  the  Volstii  and  Tarauinieiises  to 
join  their  forces  to  support  his  rights.  .Brutus 
commanded  the  horse  and  Valerius  the  foot.  The 
two  armies  having  met,  Brutus  advanced  with 
his  cavalry,  at  the  same  time  that  Arunx  was 
coming  forward  with  (he  enemy's  horse,  the  king 
following  with  the  legions.  Arunx  no  sootier 
discovered  Brutus  than  he  made  towards  hiiA 
with  all  the  fury  of  rage.  Brutus  advanced  to- 
wards him  with  no  less  speed ;  and  as  both  were 
actuated  only  by  motives  of  "hatred,  without 
thoughts  of  self-preservation,  both  Were  pierced 
through  with  their  lahces.  The  battle  conthiued 
with  the  utmost  fury  till  night,  when  it  could  tiot 
be  known  i^hich  side  had  got  the  victofy,  or 
which  had  lost  the  greatest  nuAibet  of  men.  The 
Volsci  returned  home,  and  Valerius,  having 
caused  the  dead  to  be  numbered,  found  that  they 
had  lost  11,300  men,  and  the  Romans  only  one 
short  of  that  number.  Valerius  being  left  with- 
out a  colleague  in  the  consulship,  and  having 
delayed  to  choose  one,  began  to  be  suspected 
of  aspiring  at  the  sovereignty ;  and  thes^  sus- 
picions were  countenanced  by  his  building  a 
fine  house  on  the  steep  part  of  the  hill  Palati^ 
i^us.  Bi)t  of  this  Valerius  was  no  sooner  in- 
formed than  he  caused  this  house  to  be  pulled 
down,  and  immediately  called  an  assemolyof 
ihe  people  for  the  election  of  a  consul,  in  which 
he  left  them  entirely  free.  They  chose  Lu- 
cretius; and  complimented  Valerius  with  a 
large  ground  plot,  where  they  built  him  a 
house.  The  new  consul  died  a  few  days  after 
his  promotion,  so  that  Valerius  was  once  more 
left  sole  governor.  In  this  interval,  Valerius  gave 
the  people  so  many  striking  prooft  of  his  attach- 
ment to  their  interest,  that  they  bestowed  upon 
him  the  surname  of  Poplicola,  or  popular. 
When  Poplicola's  consulship  expired,  the  Ro- 
mans elected  him  a  second  time,  and  joined  with 
him  T.  Lucretius,  the  brother  of  Lucietia.  They 
began  by  restoring  the  census  and  luatrum ;  ana 
found  the  number  of  Roman  citizens  abov6  pu- 
bert)r  to  be  1 30,000.  A  haughty  embassy  was 
received  from  Porsena  king  of  Clusium  in  Etru- 
ria,  commanding  them  either  to  take  back  the 
Tarquins  to  Rome,  or  to  restore  them  to  their 
estates!  To  both  these  demands  the  consuls  re- 
turned aii  absolute  refusal.  The  imminent 
danger  of  the  city  procured  Valerius  a  third  con- 
sulship; and  with  him  was  joined  IJoratius  Pnl- 


vilius.  While  the  Romans  were  ma(kiiig  the  most 
vigorous  preparations,  Porseoa,  attended  by  his 
son  Arunx  and  the  exiles,  marched  towards  the 
city  at  the  head  of  a  formidable  army,  which  was 
qaickly  joined  by  a  body  of  Latins  under  Ma- 
milius,  the  son-in-law  of  Tarquin.  The  consub 
and  the  senate  took  all  imaginable  care  to  supply 
the  common  people  with  provisions,  and  they 
ordered  the  country  people  to  lodge  their  efiects 
in  the  fort  Janiculum,  tiie  only  fortified  place 
possessed  by  the  Romans  on  that  side  the  Tiber. 
Porsena,  however,  soon  drove  the  Romans  out  of 
this  fort;  upon  which  the  consuls  voade  all  their 
troops  pass  the  river,  to  defend  the  bridge,  while 
Porsena  advanced  to  engage  them.  Tl^  victory 
vras  long  doubt£al ;  bat  at  last  the  Romans  fled. 
Horatias  Cocles,  nephew  to  the  consul,  with  Sp. 
Lartius  and  T.  Herminius,  who  had  command^ 
the  right  wing,  posted  theraselves  at  the  eo- 
tiance  of  the  bridge,  and  for  a  long  time 
bravely  defended  it :  but  at  last,  th«ir  dfSensive 
arms  being  broken,  they  retired ;  and  theo,  Ho- 
ratias desiring  them  to  advise  the  coBsnb  to  cut 
the  bridge  at  the  other  eod,  he  for  a  whUe  sns- 
tained  the  attack  of  the  enenby  alone.  At  last, 
being  wounded,  and  the  signal  given  that  the 
bridge  was  almost  broken  down,  he  leaped  into 
the  river,  and  swam  across  it  through  a  shower 
of  darts.  The  Romans,  for  this  emihent  service, 
erected  a  statue  to  him  in  th^  temple  of  Vulcan, 
gave  him  as  much  land  as  he,  with  one  yoke  of 
oxen,  could  plough  in  one  day ;  and  each  of 
the  inhabitants,  to  the  number  of  300^000,  gave 
him  the  value  of  as  much  food  as  each  coasaoied 
in  a  day.  The  city  was  not  yet  fuUy  invested ; 
but  it  was  veiy  difficult  to  find  provisions  for  such 
a  multitiide.  Porsena,  hearing  of  their  difiicul- 
ties,  told  them  that  he  would  supply  them  with 
provisions  if  they  would  take  back  their  old  mas- 
ters ;  but  to  this  they  replied  that  hunger  was  a 
less  evil  than'  slavery.  Bat  the  constancy  of  the 
Romans  was  on  the  point  of  fiuling  when  a 
young  patrician,  named  Mutius  Cordus,  With  the 
consent  of  the  senate  and  consuls,  undertook  to 
assassinate  Porsena.-  He  got  access  to  the  Etru- 
rian camp,  and  made  his  way  to  the  king's  teni. 
It  happened  to  be  the  day  on  which  the  troops 
were  reviewed,  and  Porsena's  secretary,  magniii- 
cently  dressed,  was  sitting  on  the  same  trilMiBal 
with  the  king.  Mutius,  xhistaking  him  for  Por- 
sena, instantly  leaped  upon  the  tribunal,  and 
killed  him.  He  then  attempted  to  escape;  hot, 
being  seized  and  brought  back,  he  owiied  his  de- 
sign ;  and,  with  a  countenance  expressive  of  des- 
perate rage  and  disappeintment,  ttinist  his  hand 
which  hid  missed  the  blow  into  a  fire,  and  there 
held  it  for  a  considerable  time.  On  this  Poi^ 
sena,  changing  bis  resentment  into  admiiatioo, 
granted  him  his  life  and  liberty,  and  even  restored 
him  his  dagger.  Mutius  took  it  with  his  left 
hand,  having  burnt  the  other;  and  fix>m  this 
time  had  die  name  of  ocevolie^  or  left-handed. 
He  then,  to  induce  Porsena  to  break  op  the 
siege,  told  him  that  300  young  Romans,  as 
resolute  as  himself,  had  sworn  to  take  away  his 
life  or  perish.  This  had  the  desired  effect: 
Porsena  sent  deputies  to  Rome^  whose  (»ly  de* 
mands  were  that  the  Romans  should  restore  the 
estates  of  the  Tarquins,  or  give  them  an  eqniva- 


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lent,  and  the  seven  small  towns  formerly  taken 
from  the  Veientes.    The  latter  of  these  demands 
was  cheerfully  complied  with  ;  and,  a  trace  being 
agreed  on,  deputies  were  sent  to  the  Etrurian 
camp  to  plead  the  Roman  canse  against  the  Tar- 
quins,  and  with  them  ten  young  men  and  ten 
virgins,  as  liostages  for  performing  the  other  ar- 
ticle.   The  reception  which  Porsena  gave  the 
deputies   raised  the  jealousy  of  the  Tarquins ; 
who  refused  to  admit  Porsena  for  a  judge  be-, 
tween  them  and  the  Romans.     But  the  king, 
without  any  regard  to  their  opposition,  resolved 
to  satisfy  himself  whether  the  protection  he  had 
given  the  Tarquins  was  just.      Mean  time,  news 
were  brought  that  the  young  women  whom  the 
Romans  had  sent  as  hostages  had  swam  across 
the  Tiber,  and  were  returned  to  Rome.      They 
had  gone  to  bathe  in  the  river,  and  Cloelia^  fum- 
ing her  eyes  towards  Rome,  ventured  to  swim 
across  the  river,  and  ^encou raged  her  companions 
to  follow  her.    The  return  of  the  hostages  gave 
Poplicola  great  uneasiness,  lest  it  should  be  im- 
puted to  want  of  fidelity  in  the  Romans.    To 
remove  all  suspicions,  he  sent  a  deputation  to  the 
Etrurian  camp,  assuring  the  king  that  Rome  had 
no  share  in  the  foolish  attempt  of  the  young 
women;    and  promising  to  send  them  imme- 
diately back  to  the  camp  whence  they  had  fled. 
Porsena  was  easily  appeased  ;  but,  the  news  of 
the  speedy  return  of  the  hostages  being  known 
in  the  camp,  the  Tarquins,  without  any  regard 
to  the  truce,  or  respect  to  the  king  their  protec- 
tor, lay  in  ambush  on  the  road  to  surprise  them. 
Poplicola,  having  put  himself  at  the  head  of  the 
Roman  troops  who  escorted  them,  sustained  the 
attack  of  the  Tarquins,  though  sudden  and  un- 
expected, till  his  daughter  Valeria  rode  full  speed 
to  the  Etrurian  camp,  and  gave  notice  of  the  dan- 
ger her  father  and  companions  were  in ;  when 
Arunx,  the  king's  sou,  flying  with  a  body  of  ca- 
valry to  their  relief,  put  the  aggressors  to  the  rout. 
This  treachery  in  the  Tarquins  gave  Porsena  a 
bad  idea  of  their  cause.    He  therefore  assem- 
bled the  chief  commanders  of  the  Etrurians ; 
and,  having  heard  in  their  presence  the  complaints 
of  the  Romans  against  the  Tarquins,  he  was  so 
struck  with  horror  at  the  recital  of  the  crimes  of 
the  Tarquins  that  he  immediately  ordered  them 
to  leave  his  camp,  and   renounced  his  alliance 
with  them.    He  tnen  ordered  the  ten  young  vir- 
gins to  be  brought  before  him,  and  eriquired  who 
was  the  first  author  of  the  enterprise.    Cloelia, 
with  an  air  of  intrepidity,  confessed  that  she 
alone  was  guilty.    Upon  this  the  king,  extolling 
her  resolution  above  the  bravery   of  Horatius 
and    Mutius,  made   her  a  present  of  a  very 
fine   horse  with    sumptuous    furniture.      After 
this  be  concluded  a  peace  with   the  Romans, 
and  restored  to  them  all  their  hostages,  declar- 
ing at  the  same  time  that  their  bare  word  was  to 
him  a  sufficient  security  for  the  performance  of 
the  articles. 

Porsena,  being  about  to  return  to  Clusium, 
gave,  before  his  departure,  a  further  testimony  of 
his  friendship  for  the  Romans.  Knowing  that 
Rome  was  greatly  distressed  for  want  of  provi- 
sions, he  ordered  his  soldiers  to  leave  behind 
them  their  tents  and  provisions,  and  to  carry 
.nothing  with  them  but  their  arms.    As  his  camp 


abounded  with  all  sorts  of  provisions,   Rome 
was  hereby  much  relieved.    The  senate  erected 
a  statue  of  Porsena  near  the  comitium,  and  sent 
an  embassy  to  him  with  a  present  of  a  throne  of 
ivory,  a  sceptre,  a  crown  of  gpld,  and  a  trium- 
phal   robe.     Thus    the  Romans    escaped    the 
greatest  danger  they  had  hitherto  been  in.   How- 
ever the  Sabines  revolted,  and  continued  the  war 
for  some  time  with  great  obstinacy :  but,  being 
defeated  in  several  engagements,  they  were  at 
last  obliged  to  submit;  and  scarcely  was  this  war 
ended  when  another  began  with  the  Latins,  who 
now  declared  for  Tarquin.    Before  they  began 
this  war,  however,  an  embassy  was  sent  to  Rome 
the  purport  of  which  was,   that  the  Romans 
should  raise  the  siege  of  Fidense  which  had  re- 
volted, and  receive  the  Tarquins :  who,  on  their 
part,  should  grant  a  general  amnesty.    The  am- 
bassadors were  to  allow  the  Romans  a  whole 
year  to  consider  on  these  overtures;  and  to 
threaten  them  with  a  war  in  case  they  refused  to 
comply  with  them.     The  chief  view  of  Tarquin 
and  his  partisans,  in  promoting  this  embassy, 
was  to  lay  hold  of  that  opportunity  to  raise  a  se- 
dition in  the  city.  To  the  ambassadors,  therefore, 
of  the  Latins,  he  joined  some  of  his  own  emissa- 
ries, who,  on  their  arrival  in  the  city,  found  two 
sorts  of  people  disposed  to  enter  into  their  mea- 
sures :  to  wit,  the  slaves,  and  the  meaner  citizens. 
The  slaves  were  to  murder  their  masters,  and  the 
lower  citizens  to  massacre  the  patricians.    The 
conspiracy  was  ripe  for  execution,  when  Tarquin'g 
agents  and  relations,  Publius  and  Marcus  Tar- 
quinius,  being  terrified   with  frightful  dreams, 
had  not  courage  to  proceed  in  their  design  till 
they  had  consulted  a  diviner,  and  ask^  him 
what  success  they  might  expect  in  a  project  they 
had  formed.      The  soothsayer  answered.  Your 
project  will  end  in  your  ruin ;  disburden  your- 
selves of  so  heavy  a  load.    Hereupon,  fearing 
lest  some  of  the  other  conspirators  should  be  be- 
forehand with  them  in  informing,  they  went  im- 
mediately to  S.  Sulpitius,  the  consul,  and  disco-  • 
vered   the  whole  matter.    The  consul  greatly 
commended  them,  assembled  the   senate,   and 
gave  the  Latin  ambassadors  their  audience  of 
leave,  with  an  answer  to  their  proposals;  which 
was,  that  the  Romans  would  neither  receive  the 
Tarquins  nor  raise  the  siege  of  Fidens,  being  all 
ready  to  sacrifice  their  lives  in  defence  of  their 
liberties,  and  willing  to  undergo  any  dangers  rather 
than  submit  to  the  government  of  a  tyrant    The 
ambassadors  being  dismissed,  with  this  answer, 
Sulpitius  laid  open  to  the  fathers  the  dreadful 
conspiracy.  It  struck  them  with  horror ;  but  they 
were  all  at  a  loss  how  they  should  apprehend  and 
punish  the  guilty ;  since,  by  the  law  of  Poplicola, 
there  was  an  appeal  to  the  people  in  all  capital 
cases,  and  the  two  witnesses,  who  wete  strangers, 
might  be  excepted  against  by  Roman  citizens.   In 
this  perplexity  they  left  the  whole  conduct  of 
this    critical    afiair  to   Sulpitius,   who  took  a 
method  which  he  thought  would  equally  serve 
to  prove  the  guilt  and  punish  the  guilty.    He 
engaged  the  two  informers  to  assemble  the  con- 
spirators, and  to  appoint  a  rendezvous  at  mid- 
night in  the  forum,  as  if  they  intended  to  take 
the  last  measures  for  the  execution  of  the  enter- 
prise.   In  the  mean  time  he  used  all  proper 


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measures  to  lecure  the  city,  and  ordered  the 
Roman  knights  to  hold  themselves  ready,  in  the 
houses  adjoining  to  the  forum,  to  execute  the 
orders  they  should  receive.  The  conspirators 
met  at  the  time  and  place  appointed  by  the  two 
Tarquins ;  and  the  knights,  upon  a  signal  agreed 
on  (^forehand,  invested  the  forum,  and  blocked 
up  all  the  avenues  to  it  so  closely  that  it  was  im- 
possible for  any  of  the  conspirators  to  escape. 
As  soon  as  it  was  light  the  two  consuls  appeared 
with  a  strong  guard  on  the  tribunal.  The  people 
were  convened  by  curie,  and  told  of  the  conspi- 
racy. The  accused  were  allowed  to  make  their 
defence,  if  they  had  any  thing  to  offer  aG^aiAst 
the  evidence :  but,  not  one  of  them  denying  the 
hcif  the  consuls  repaired  to  the  senate,  where 
sentence  of  death  was  pronounced  against  the 
conspirators.  This  decree  of  the  senate  being 
read,  and  approved  by  the  assembly,  the  conspi- 
rators were  delivered  up  to  the  soldiers,  who  put 
them  all  to  the  sword.  The  peace  of  Rome  was 
thought  sufficiently  secured  by  this  stroke  of  seve- 
rity ;  and  therefore,  though  all  the  conspirators 
were  not  punished  with  death,  it  was  judged  pro- 
per not  to  make  any  farther  enquiries.  The  two 
informers  were  rewarded  with  all  the  privileges 
of  Roman  citizens,  100,000  asses,  and  twenty 
acres  of  land.  Three  festival  days  were  appointed 
for  expiations,  sacrifices,  and  public  games,  &c. 
But  as  the  people  were  conducting  Manlius  Tul- 
lius,  the  consul,  from  the  circus,  he  fell  from  his 
chariot,  and  died  in  three  days.  The  city  of  Fi- 
dens  still  held  out  during  the  following  consul- 
ship of  T.  ^butius  and  P.  Veturius ;  but  was 
taken  the  next  year  by  T.  Lartius,  who,  with  Q. 
Cloelius,  was  raised  to  the  consular  dignity.  T^e 
Latins,  enraged  at  the  loss  of  this  town,  begau  co 
complain  of  their  leading  men ;  which  opportu- 
nityTarquin  and  Mamilius  improved  so  iar  as  to 
make  all  the  Latin  cities,  twenty-four  in  number, 
enter  into  an  alliance  against  Rome,  and  to  bind 
themselves  by  oath  never  to  violate  their  engage- 
ments. The  Latins  made  vast  preparations,  as 
did  likewise  the  Romans ;  but  the  latter  could 
procure  no  assistance  from  their  neighbours.  To 
add  to  their  distress  the  poorer  sort  of  people, 
and  the  debtors,  refused  to  serve ;  alleging  their 
poverty  and  the  fruitless  hazards  they  ran  in  de- 
fending a  city  where  they  were  oppressed  and 
enslaved  by  their  creditors.  This  spirit  of  mu- 
tiny spread  among  the  inferior  classes,  most  of 
them  refusing  to  enlist  unless  their  debts  were  all 
remitted  by  a  decree  of  the  senate.  The  senate 
assembled  to  deliberate  on  these  troubles.  Some 
were  for  a  free  remission  of  all  debts,  as  the 
safest  expedient ;  others  urged  the  dangerous 
consequences  of  such  a  condescension,  advising 
them  to  enlist  only  such  as  were  willing  to  serve. 
At  length  it  was  decreed  that  all  actions  for  debts 
should  be  suspended  til(  the  end  of  the  war.  But 
this  the  indigent  debtors  thought  only  a  suspen- 
sion of  their  misery,  and  therefore  it  had  not  the 
intended  effect.  The  senate  might  indeed  have 
prosecuted  the  ringleaders ;  but  Poplicola*s  law, 
called  the  Valerian  law,  which  allowed  appeals  to 
the  people,  was  a  protection  for  the  seditious, 
who  were  sure  of  being  acquitted.  The  senate, 
therefore,  to  elude  the  effect  of  a  privilege  that 
put  such  a  restraint  upon  their  power,  resolved 


to  create  one  supreme  magistrate,  who^  widi  the 
title  of  dictator,  should  have  absolute  power  for 
a  time;  but,  at  this  could  not  be  done  without 
striking  at  the  Valerian  Uw,  and  transferring  the 
power  of  the  people  in  criminal  cases  to  a  ma- 
gistrate superior  to  all  law,  it  was  necessary  to 
use  artifice  to  obtain  the  consent  of  the  curie. 
They  therefore  represented  to  them  that,  in  such 
a  crisis,  when  they  had  domestic  quarrels  to  de- 
cide and  a  powerful  enemy  to  repulse,  it  was  ex- 
pedient to  put  the  commonwealth  under  a  single 
governor,  who,  superior  to  thecoosub  themselves, 
should  be  the  arbiter  of  the  laws ;  that  his  power 
should  have  no  limits;  but,  lest  he  should  abuse 
it,  they  ought  not  to  trust  him  with  it  above  six 
months.  The  people  agreed,  not  foreseeing  the 
consequences ;  out  the  great  difficulty  was  to  find 
a  man  qualified  for  so  great  a  trust.  T.  Lartius, 
one  of  the  consuls,  seemed  to  be  the  most  unex- 
ceptioaable ;  but  the  senate,  fearing  to  offend  his 
colleague,  gave  the  consuls  the  power  of  choosing 
a  dictator,  but  obliged  them  to  name  one  of 
themselves,  not  doubting  but  Cloelius  would 
yield  to  the  superior  talents  of  his  colleague. 
Lartius,  however,  with  the  same  readiness,  named 
Cloelius ;  and  the  only  contest  was,  which  of  the 
two  should  raise  the  other  to  the  supreme  autho- 
rity. Each  persisted  obstinately  in  remitting  the 
dignity  to  his  colleague,  till  ClcHus  suddenly 
abdicated  the  consulship,  and,  as  an  interrex, 
proclaimed  Titus  Lartius  dictator:  who  was 
therefore  obliged  to  take  upon  him  the  govem- 
meut  of  the  republic. 

Lartius  began  his  administration  by  creating  a 
general  of  the  Roman  horse :  an  office  which 
lasted  only  during  the  dictatorship.  Sp.  Cassius, 
formerly  consul,  and  honored  with  a  triamph, 
was  the  person  advanced  to  this  dignity.  Having 
thus  secured  the  Roman  knights,  the  dictator 
resolved,  in  the  next  place,  to  make  the  people 
respect  and  fear  him.  With  this  view  he  never 
appeared  in  public  without  being  attended  by 
twenty-four  lictors,  to  whose  fasces  he  again 
added  the  axes  which  Poplicola  had  taken  from 
them.  This  was  alone  sufficient  to  awe  the  sedi- 
tious, and,  without  executions,  to  spread  conster- 
nation throughout  Rome.  He  then  ordered  a 
census  to  be  taken.  Every  one  brought  in  his 
lu&me,  age,  estate,  &c.,  and  there  were  found  to 
be  150,700  men  capable  of  bearing  arms.  Out 
of  these  the  dictator  formed  four  armies :  the 
first  he  commanded  himself;  the  second  he  gave 
to  Cloelius  his  late  colleague ;  the  third  to  Sp. 
Cassius,  his  general  of  the  horse ;  and  the  fourdi 
he  stationed  at  Rome,  under  his  brother  Sp.  Lar- 
tius. The  Latins  not  being  forward  in  their 
preparations,  all  their  hostilities  this  campaign 
amounted  only  to  sending  a  detachment  into  the 
Roman  territory  to  lay  it  waste.  The  dictator 
gained  some  advantage  over  this  party ;  and  the 
great  humanity  vrith  which  he  treated  the  prison- 
ers and  wounded  disposed  the  Latins  to  listen  to 
overtures  for  a  suspension  of  hostilities.  A  trace 
was  agreed  on  for  a  year;  when,  seeing  the  re- 
public restored  to  tranquillity,  Lartius  resigned 
the  dictatorship.  The  next  consulship  of  Sem- 
pronius  Atratinus  and  Minutius  Angorinus  pit>- 
duced  nothing  memorable.  But  the  following 
year  the  truce  expired,  when  Aulus  Posthumius 


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ROME. 


701 


and  T.  Virginius  took  possession  of  the  consul- 
ship.   Both  Romans  and  Latins  were  now  busied 
in  preparing  for  war.    The  nobility  of  Latium 
who  were  mostly  in  the  interest  of  the  Tarquins, 
having  excluded  the  citizens  from  the  Latin  diets, 
carried   all  before  them   in  these  assemblies; 
whereupon  many  of  them  removed  with  their 
families  to  Rome.    The  Latins  being  bent  upon 
war  the  senate  empowered  the  two  consuls  to 
name  one  of  themselves  dictator ;  and  Virginius 
readily  yielded  the  office  to  Posthumius,  as  the 
more  able  commander.  Having  created  ^butius 
£lva  his  general  of  horse,  the  new  dictator  di- 
Tided  his  army  into  four  bodies,  and  left  one  of 
them,  under  the  command  of  Sempronius^  to 
guard  the  city;  with  the  other  three, commanded 
by  himself,  Virginius,  and  ^butius,  he  marched 
out  against  the  Latins,  who,  with  an  army  of 
40,000  foot  and  3000  horse,  under  Sextus  and 
T.  Tarquinius  and  Mamilius,  had  already  taken 
Corbio,  a  strong  hold  belonging  to  Rome.  Post- 
humius  encamped  on  a  steep  hill  near  the  lake 
Regillus,  and  Virgilius  on  another  hill  over- 
against  him.    £butius  was  ordered  to  march  si- 
lently in  the  night,  with  the  cavaliy  and  lights 
armed  infantry,  to  take  possession  of  a  third  hill 
and  intercept  the  provisions  of  the  Latins.    Be- 
fore ^butius  had  fortified  his  camp,  however,  he 
was  vigorously  attacked  by  T.  Tarquinius,  whom 
he  repulsed  three  times  with  great  loss,  the  dic- 
tator having  sent  him  a  reinforcement.    After 
this  ^butius  intercepted  two  couriers  sent  by  the 
Volsci  to  the  Latin  generals,  and  by  their  letters 
discovered  that  a  great  army  of  the  Volsci  and 
Hemici  were  to  join  the  Latin  forces  in  three 
days.    Upon  this  Posthumius  drew  his  three  bo- 
dies of  troops  together,  amounting  in   all  to 
24,000  foot  and  1000  horse,  with  a  design  to  en- 
gage the  enemy  before  the  arrival  of  their  suc- 
cors ;  and  the  Latins,  who  were  much  superior 
in  numbers,  did  not  decline  the  engagement.   T. 
Tarquinius,  at  the  head  of  the  Roman  exiles  and 
deserters,  was  in  the  centre,  Mamilius  in  the 
right  wing,  and  Sextus  Tarquinius  in  the  left.  In 
the  Roman  army  the  dictator  commanded  in  the 
centre,  £butius  in  the  left  wing,  and  Virginius 
in  the  right.    The  dictator's  body  first  advanced ; 
and,  as  soon  as  it  began  to  march,  T.  Tarquinius, 
singling  out  the  dictator,  ran  full  speed  against 
him.   But  the  latter  wounded  him  with  a  javelin 
in  the  right  side.    Upon  this  the  first  line  of  the 
Latins  advanced  to  cover  their  general ;  but,  he 
being  carried  out  of  the  field,  uiey  made  but  a 
faint  resistance,  and  began  to  retire,  when  Sextus 
Tarquinius  brought  them  back  to  the  charge,  and 
renewed  the  fight  with  such  vigor  that  the  victory 
in  the  centre  was  still  doubtful.    Both  parties, ' 
encouraged  by  their  leaders,  fousht  with  incTcdi- 
ble  bravery.    After  a  long  and  bloody  contest 
the  two  generals  agreed  to  determine  the  doubtful 
victory  by  a  single  combat     Accordingly  ^bu- 
tius  with  his  lance  wounded  Mamilius  in  the 
breast ;  and  Mamilius  with  his  sword  wounded 
^butius  in  the  right  arm.      Neither  of   the 
wounds  was  mortal ;  but,  both  the  combatants 
falling  from  their  horses,  put  an  end  to  the  com- 
bat.   Marcus  Valerius,  the  brother  of  Poplicola, 
now  endeavoured,  at  the  head  of  the  Roman 


horse,  to  break  the  enemy* s  battalions ;  but  was 
repulsed  by  the  cavalry  of  the  Roman  royalists. 
Mamilius  appeared  again  in  the  van,  with  a  con- 
siderable boay  of  horse  and  light-armed  infantry. 
Valerius,  with  his  two  nephews,  the  sons  of  Pop- 
licola,  and  a  chosen  troop  of  volunteers,  at- 
tempted to  break  through  the  Latin  battalions,  to 
engage  Mamilius ;  but,  receiving  a  mortal  wound 
in  his  side,  fell  from  his  horse,  and  died.    His 
body  was  carried  off  by  Poplicola's  sons,  and 
delivered  to  Valerius's  servants,  who  conveyed  it 
to  the  Roman  camp ;  but  the  young  heroes,  being 
afterwards  overpowered  by  numbers,  were  both 
killed  on  the  spot.    Upon  their  death  the  left 
wings  of  the  Romans  began  to  give  ground,  but 
Posthumius,  with  a  body  of  Roman  knights,  fly- 
ing to  their  assistance,  chamd  the  royalists  with 
such  fiiry  that  they  were,  after  an  obstinate  re- 
sistance, obliged  to  retire  in  confusion.     Mean 
time  Titus  Horminius,  having  rallied  those  who 
bad  fled,  fell  u|>on  some  close  battalions  of  the 
enemy's  right  wing,  which  still  kept  their  ground 
under  Mamilius,  Idlled  him  with  his  own  hand, 
and  put  his  detachment  to  flight;  but  received 
himself  a  wound,  of  which  he  died  soon  after. 
Sextus  Tarquinius  in  the,  mean  time  maintained 
the  fight  with  great  bravery,  at  the  head  of  the 
left  wing,  against  Viivinius ;  and  had  even  broken 
through  that  wing  of  the  Roman  army,  when  the 
dictator  attacked  him  with  his  victorious  squad- 
rons.   Sextus  then  threw  himself  in  despair  into 
the  midst  of  the  Roman  knights,  and  sunk  under 
a  multitude  of  wounds.    The  death  of  .the  three 
generals  was  followed  by  the  entire  defeat  of  the 
Latin  army.    Their  camp  was  taken  and  plun- 
dered, and  most  of  their  troops  cut  in  pieces ; 
for,  of  the  43,000  men  who  came  into  the  field, 
scarcely  10,000  returned  home.    The  next  morn- 
ing the  Volsci  and  Hemici  came,  according  to 
their  agreement,  to  assist  the  Latins  ;  but,  find- 
ing upon  their  arrival  how  matters  had  fallen 
out,  sent  ambassadors  to  the  dictator,  to  con- 
gratulate him  on  his  victory,  and  assure  him  tha*. 
they  had  come  to  assist  the  Romans.  Posthumius, 
producing  their  couriers  and  letters,  showed 
them,  however,  that  he  was  apprized  of  their 
treachery.    But,  out  of  regard  to  the  law  of  na- 
tions, he  sent  them  back  unhurt,  with  a  challenge 
to  their  generals  to  fight  next  day;  but  the 
Volsci  and  their  confederates,  not  caring  to  en- 
gage a  victorious  army,  decamped,  and  returned 
to  their  respective  countries.    The  Latins,  having 
now  no  alternative  but  an  entire  submission, 
sent  ambassadors  to  Rome,  yielding  themselves 
to  the  judgment  of  the  senate;  and,  as  the  Ro- 
mans had  long  made  it  a  maxim  to  spare  the* 
nations  that  submitted,  the  motion  of  T.  Lartius 
prevailed;  the  ancient  treaties  with  the  Latins 
were  renewed,  on  condition  that  they  should  re- 
store the  prisoners,  deliver  up  the  deserters,  and 
drive  the  Roman  exiles  out  of  Latium.    Thus 
ended  the  last  war  which  the  Romans  waged  on 
account  of  their  banished  king;  who,  being  now 
abandoned  by  the  Latins,  Etrurians,  and  Sabines, 
retired  into  Campania,  to  Aristodemus,  tyrant  of 
Cumse,  and  there  died  in  the  ninetieth  year  of  his 
age,  and  fourteenth  of  his  exile. 


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702 


ROME. 


PART  ir. 

ROME,  REPUBLICAN. 


Those  domestic  feuds  now  took  place  which  con- 
tinaed  more  or  less  during  the  republic.  The 
first  disturbances  were  occasioned  by  the  op- 
pression of  the  plebeians  who  were  debtors  to 
the  patricians.  The  senate  chose  to  the  consulate 
Appius  Claudius,  who  violently  opposed  the 
pretensions  of  the  plebeians;  but  gave  him  for 
his  colleague  P.  Setvilius,  of  a  contrary  disposi-^ 
tion.  The  conseqMence  was,  that  the  consuls 
disagreed;  the  senate  could  not  determine ;  and 
the  people  were  ready  to  revolt.  In  the  midst 
of  these  dbturbanees,  an  army  of  the  Volsci  ad-- 
vanced :  the  people  refused  to  serve;  and,  had 
not  Servilius  procured  some  troops  who  served 
out  of  personal  affection,  the  city  would  h^ve 
been  in  great  danger.  The  Volsci  next  engaged 
in  alliance  with  the  Hemici  and  Sabines.  Mean 
time,  the  disputes  at  Rome  contioued  with  such 
violence  that  the  plebeians  absolutely  refused  to 
march  against  the  advancing  enemy.  In  this  en* 
tremity  Servilius  promised  that,  when  the  Volsci 
were  repulsed,  the  senate  would  remit  the  debts 
of  the  plebeians.  This  having  engaged  them  to 
serve,  the  consul  matched  out  at  their  head,  de-- 
feated  the  enemy,  and  took,  their  capital,  giving 
it  up  to  be  plundered  by  his  soldiers.  This  step, 
of  Servilius,  however,  furnished  Appius  with  a 
pretence  for  refusing  him  a  triumph,  as  a  man 
who  aimed  at  popularity  by  the  excessive  indul- 
gence of  the  army.  Incensed  at  this  injustice, 
and  encouraged  by  the  people,  Servilius  decreed 
himself  a  triumph,  however,  in  spite  of  Appius. 
After  this  he  marched  against  the  Aurunci,  who 
had  entered  Latium ;  and,  in  conjunction  with 
Posthumius  RegiUensis,  utterly  defeated  them.' 
But  neither  the  services  of  the  general  nor  his 
<(o]diers  could  mollify  the  senate  and  patri-t 
cians.  Appius  even  imprisoned  all  those  who 
had  been  set  at  liberty  during  the  war.  The. 
prisoners  cried  for  relief  to  ServjUus;  but 
he  could  not  obtain  the  accomplishment  of 
those  promises  which  the  senate  nevei  meant  to 
perform.  Perceiving  therefore  that  he  had  thus 
lost  all  his  interest  with  the  plebeians,  he  joined 
the  patricians  agaimtt  them;  until  the  former, 
rushing  into  the  forum,  made  such  a  tumult  that 
no  sentence  pronounced  by  the  judges  could  be 
heard,  and  the  utmost  confusion  prevailed.  Se- 
veral proposals  were  made  to  accommodate  mat- 
ters ;  but,  through  the  obstinacy  of  Appius,  they 
came  to  nothing.  In  the  mean  time,  it  was 
necessary  to  raise  an  army  against  the  Sabines.; 
but  the  people  refused  to  ser\'e.  Manlius  Vale- 
rius, brother  to  Poplicola,  once  more  prevailed 
upon  tliem  to  march  ;  having  previously  obtain- 
ed assurances  from  the  senate  that  their  griev- 
ances should  be  redressed.  But  no  sooner  had 
victory  declared  in  favor  of  the  Romans  than 
the  senate,  apprehending  that  the  soldiers  at  their 
return  would  challenge  Valerius,  who  had  been 
nominated  dictator,  for  the  performance  of  their 
promises,  desired  him  and  the  two  consuls  to 
detain  thorn  in  the  field.  The  consuls  obeyed ; 
but  the  dictator,  whose  authority  did  not  depend 
on  the  senate,  disbanded  his  army,  and  invested 
400  of  the  plebeians  with  the  dignity  of  knights. 


After  this  he  claimed  the  accompU^meDi  of  the 
promises  made  by  the  senate :  but,  instead  of 
performing  them,  he  bad  the  mortification  to 
hear  himself  loaded  with  reproaches ;  on  which 
he  resigned  his  office.  No  sooner  were  these 
transactions  known  in  the  army  than  tbe  soldieis, 
to  a  man,  deserted  the  consuls  and  other  officers, 
and  retired  to  a  hill  called  afterwards  Mors 
Sacer,  three  miles  from  Rome.  Here  the  senate 
sent  a  deputation  to  the  malcontents ;  but  they 
were  treated  with  contempt.  All  things  indeed 
tended  to  a  civil  war,  when  matters  were  com- 
promised by  the  institution  of  tribunes  of  the 
people,  who  had  power  to  prevent  the  pass- 
ing of  any  law  that  might  be  prejudicial  to  them, 
and  whose  persons  were  declared  sacred :  and 
all  the  Romans  were  to  engage  themselves,  and 
their  posterity,  never  to  repeal  this  law.  The 
people,  after  these  regulations,  erected  an  altar 
to  Jupiter  the  Terrible,  on  the  top  of  tbe  hill 
where  their  camp  had  stood  ;  and  when  diey  had 
offered  sacrifices,  and  consecrated  the  plaice  of 
their  retreat,  they  returned  to  Rome,  led  by 
their  new  magistrates.  Thus  the  Roman  consti- 
tuftion,  which  had  been  monarchic,  and  thence 
liad  passed  into  an  aristocracy |  began  to  verge  to- 
wards a  democracy.  The  tribunes  obtained  per- 
mission from  the  senate  to  elect  two  persons 
as  their  assistants,  who  should  ease  ihem  in  the 
great  multiplicity  of  their  afiairs.  These  were 
at  first  called  plebeian  sediles ;  and  afterwards 
simply  sdiles. 

The  consul  Cominius  next  led  an  army  against 
the  Volsci ;  defeated  them,  and  took  Lon^Uand 
Polusca ;  after  which  he  besieged  Corioli,  their 
strongly  fortified  capital.  He  carried  this  place, 
and  gained  a  victory  over  the  Antiates  the  same 
day ;  but  Caius  Marcius,  an  eminent  patrician, 
had  the  glory  of  both  actions.  The  troops  de- 
tached by  the  consul  to  scale  the  wails  of  Co- 
rioli  being  repulsed  in  their  first  assault,  Mar- 
cius  rallied  them,  drove  back  the  enemy  widiin 
their  walls,  and,  entering  the  city,  made  himself 
master  of  it.  He  tlien  put  himself  in  the  fore- 
most ranks  of  the  consul's  army,  just  about  to 
engage  tlie  Antiates,  and^  there  he  behaved  with 
equal  bravery.  The  next  day  the  consul,  having 
erected  his  tribunal  before  his  tent,  called  the 
soldiers  together.  His  whole  speech  was  a  pa- 
negyric upon  Marcius.  Putting  a  crown  upon 
hih  head,  he  assigned  him  a  tenth  part  of  the 
spoil;  and,  in  the  name. of  the  republic,  made 
him  a  present  of  a  horse  finely  caparisoned,  giv- 
ing him  leave  at  the  same  time  to  choose  out  any 
ten  of  the  prisoners  for  himself;  and  as  much 
money  as  he  could  carry  away.  Of  all  these 
ofiers,  Marcius  accepted  only  the  horse,  and  one 
captive  of  the  ten,  an  old  friend  of  his  family. 
The  consul  now  bestowed  on  him  the  surname 
of  Coriolanus,  thereby  transferring  from  himself 
to  Marcius  all  the  honor  of  the  conquest.  Oa 
his  return  to  Rome,  Cominius  disbanded  his 
army  ;  and  war  was  succeeded  by  works  of  re- 
ligion, public  games,  and  treaties  of  peace,  A 
census  and  a  lustrum  closed  the  events  of  this 
memorable  consulship.  At  this  period  there  ap- 
peared to  be  in  Rome  only  110,000  men  fit  to 
bear  arms :  a  number  by  many  thousands  less 
than  at  the  last  enrolment,  great  numbers  having 


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.703 


fled  to  aToid  being  made  slaves  to  their  creditors. 
Under  the  eonsnbhip  of  T.  Geganins  and  P. 
Minacius  Eome  was  terribly  afflicted  by  a  far 
mine,  occasioned  chiefly  by  the  neglect  of 
plout^hinj]:  and  sowing  during  the  late  troubles ; 
for  the  sedition  had  happened  after  the  autumnal 
equinox.  The  senate  despatched  agents  into 
Etniria,  Campania,  the  country  of  the  Volsci, 
and  even  into  Sicily,  to  buy  com,  when  those 
who  embarked  for  Sicily,  having  been  retarded 
by  a  storm,  were  constrained  to  pass  the  winter 
at  Syracuse.  At  Cums,  the  tyrant  Aristo- 
demus  seized  the  money  brought  by  the  com- 
missaries; and  they  themselves  with  difficulty 
saved  their  lives  by  flight.  The  Volsci,  also, 
far  from  being  disposed  to  assist  the  Romans, 
would  have  marched  against  them,  if  a  sudden 
and  destructive  pestilence  had  not  defeated  their 
purposd.  In  Etruria  alone  the  Roman  commis^ 
saries  met  with  success.  They  sent  a  considera- 
ble quantity  of  grain  to  Rome  in  barks ;  but, 
this  being  consumed,  the  misery  became  exces- 
sive. During  this  distress  a  deputation  came 
from  Velitrse,  a  Volscian  city,  where  the  Romans 
had  formeriy  planted  a  colony,  representing  that 
cine  parts  in  ten  of  its  inhabitants  had  been 
swept  away  by  a  plagne,  and  praying  the  Ro- 
mans to  send  a  new  colony  to  ^re-people  it.  The 
senate  granted  the  request,  pressed  the  departure 
of  the  colony,  and  named  three  leaders  to  con- 
duct it.  The  people,  however,  began  to  fear  that 
the  place  mignt  be  still  infected ;  and  this  appre- 
hension became  so  universal  that  not  one  of 
them  would  consent  to  go.  On  this  the  senate 
published  a  decree  that  all  the  citizens  should 
draw  lots ;  and  that  those  to  whose  lot  it  fell  to 
be  of  the  colony  should  instantly  march  for  Ve- 
litne,  or  suffer  the  severest  punishment ;  at  last, 
therefore,  fear  and  hunger  induced  compliance ; 
and  the  senate  a  few  days  after  sent  a  second  colo- 
ny to  Norba,a  city  of  Latium.  But  the  patricians 
were  disappointed  as  to  the  benefit  they  expected 
from  these  measures.  Tlie  plebeians  who  re- 
mained in  Home  grew  more  and  more  disaf* 
feciod  to  the  senate.  At  first  they  assembled  in 
small  companies  to  vent  their  complaints ;  and 
at  length,  in  one  great  body,  rushed  into  the  fo- 
rum, calling  upon  the  tribunes  for  help;  when 
ilie«ie  officers  did  but  heighten  the  general  dis- 
coiiTeiit.  Spurius  Icilius,  their  chief,  inveitrhed 
bitterly  against  the  senate;  and  exhorted  others 
to  speak  freely  their  thoughts ;  calling  pirticu- 
larly,  and  by  name,  upon  Brutns  and  Sicinius. 
the  ringleaders  of  the  former  sedition,  now  tediles. 
These  men  also  added  fuel  to  the  fire :  and,  the 
more  to  inflame  the  spirits  of  the  multitude, 
enumerated  all  the  past  insults  which  the  people 
had  suffered  from  the  nobles.  Brutus  concluded 
Itis  harangue  with  loudly  threatening  that,  if  the 
plebeians  would  follow  his  advice,  he  would  soon 
oblige  those  who  had  caused  the  present  cala- 
mity to  find  a  remedy  for  it.  The  next  day  the 
consuls,  greatly  alarmed,  and  apprehending  from 
the  menaces  of  Brutus  some  mischievous  event, 
thought  ;it  advisable  to  convene  the  senators. 
Some  were  for  employing  soft  words  and  pro- 
mises. But  Appius*s  advice  prevailed,  that  the 
consuls  should'  call  the  people  together,  assure 
them  that  the  patricians  haa  not  brought  upon 
them  the  miseries  they  suffered,  and  engage  on  the 


part  of  the  senate  that  all  possible  care  should 
be  taken  to  provide  for  their  necessities ;  white 
they  should  reprove  the  disturbers  of  the  public 
peace.  But,  when  the  consuls  assembled  the 
people,  they  were  interrupted  by  the  tribunes.  A 
dispute  ensued,,  in  which  no  one  could  be  well  un- 
derstood by  the  audience.  The  consuls  contended, 
that,  as  the  superior  magistrates,  their  authority 
extended  to  all  assemblies  of  the  citizens.  On 
the  other  hand,  it  was  urged,  that  the  assemblies 
of  the  people  were  the  province  of  the  tribunes, ' 
as  the  senate  was  that  of  the  consuls.  The  dis- 
pute grew  warm,  and  each  party  was  ready  to 
proceed  to  violence;  when* Brutus,  having  put 
some  questions  to  the  consul,  closed  the  assembly. 
Next  day  he  proposed  a  law,  which  was  carried, 
that  no  person  should  interrupt  a  tribune  when 
speaking  to  the  people;  by  which  means  the 
power  of  the  popular  party  was  increased,  and 
the  tribunes  became  formidable  opponents  both 
to  the  consuls  and  patricians.  .  An  opportunity 
soon  offered  for  the  parties  to  try  their  strength. 
A  great  fleet  of  ships  laden  with  com  from 
Sicily,  a  great  part  of  which  was  a  present  from 
king  Gelon  to  the  Romans,  and  the  rest  pur^ 
chased  by  the  senate  with  the  public  money, 
raised  their  spirits :  when  Coriolanus  incurred 
their  resentment,  by  insisting  that  it  should  not 
be  distributed  till  the  grievances  oftlie  senate 
were  removed.  For  this  the  tribunes  summoned 
him  to  a  trial  before  the  people.  On  the  day  ap- 
pointed all  persons  were  anxious,  for  the  issue^ 
and  a  vast  concourse  from  the  adjacent  country 
assembled  at  the  forum.  Coriolanus  presented 
himself  before  the  people  with  a  high  degree  of 
intrepidity.  His  graceful  person,  his  persuasive 
eloquence,  the  cries  of  those  whom  he  nad  saved 
from  the  enemy,  inclined  the  auditors  to  relent. 
But  being  confounded  with  a  new  charge,  which 
he  did  not  expect,  of  having  embezzled  the  plun- 
der' of  Antium,  thcf  tribunes  immediately  took 
the  votes,  and  Coriolanus  was  condemned  to 
exile.  This  sentence  against  their  bravest  defen* 
der,  struck  the  whole  body  of  the  senate  with 
sorrow  and  consternation.  Coriolanus  alone,  in 
the  midst  of  the  tumult,  seemed  unconcerned. 
He  returned  home,  followed  by  the  lamentations 
of  the  most  respectable  senators  and  citizens,  to 
take  leave  of  nis  wife,  children,  and  mother; 
Thus  recommending  his  children  to  their  care, 
he  left  the  city,  without  followers  or  fortune,  to 
take  refuge  with  Tullus  Attius,  a  man  of  gr^at 
power  among  the  Volscians,  who  took  him  under 
fiis  protection,  and  induced  the  Volsci  to  break 
the  league  which  had  been  made  with  Rome. 
For  this  purpose  Tullus  sent  many  of  his 
citizens  thither,  to  the  games  then  celebrating; 
but  at  the  same  tnne  gave  the  senate  private  in- 
formation that  the  strangers  had  dangerous  in- 
tentions.  This  had  the  desired  effect ;  the  senate 
issued  an  order  tliat  all  strangers,  whoever  they 
were,  should  depart  from  Rome  at  sunset.  This 
order  Tullus  represented  to  his  countrymen  as  an 
infraction  of  the  treaty,  and  procured  an  embassy 
to  Rome,  complaining  of  the  breach,  and  de^ 
manding  back  the  territories  belonging  to  th« 
Volscians,  of  which  they  hnd  been  violently  dis- 
possessed :  a  message  treated  by  the  Senate  with 
contempt.  War  being  declared  on  both  sides, 
Coriolanus  and  Tullus  were  now  nmde  generals 

Digitized  by  VjOUyiC 


704 


ROME. 


of  the  VolscianB;  and  invaded  the  Roman  terri* 
tones,  laying  waste  the  lands  of  the  plebeians, 
bat  leaving  those  of  the  senators  untouched. 
Mean  time,  the  levies  went  on  at  Rome  very 
slowly ;  the  two  consuls,  who  were  re-elected  by 
the  people,  seemed  but  little  skilled  in  war,  and 
feared  to  encounter  a  general  whom  they  knew 
to  be  their  superior  in  the  field.  The  allies  also 
showed  their  fears,  and  slowly  brought  in  their 
succors.  Fortune  followed  Coriolanus  in  every 
expedition;  and  he  became  so  famous  for  his 
victories  that  the  Volsci  left  their  towns  defence- 
less to  follow  him  into  the  field.  The  very  sol- 
diers of  his  colleague's  army  came  over  to  him. 
Thus  finding  himself  unopposed  in  the  field,  and 
at  the  head  of  a  numerous  army,  he  at  length 
invested  the  city  of  Rome.  It  was  then  that  the 
senate  and  the  people  unanimously  agreed  to 
send  deputies  to  ntm,  with  proposals  of  restora- 
tion, in  case  he  should  draw  off  his  army.  Co- 
riolanus received  these  proposals  at  the  head  of 
his  officers,  and  refused  them  with  the  sternness 
of  a  general  that  knew  he  was  to  give  the  law. 
Another  embassy  was  now  sent,  conjuring  him 
not  to  exact  from  his  native  city  ought  but  what 
became  Romans  to  grant.  But  Coriolanus  still 
persisted  in  his  demands,  and  granted  them  but 
three  days  to  deliberate.  All  that  was  left  was 
another  deputation  more  solemn  than  either  of 
the  foEmer,  composed  of  the  pontiffs,  priests,  and 
augurs.  These,  clothed  in  their  sacred  habits, 
and  with  a  grave  and  raouraful  deportment, 
issued  from  the  city;  and  entered  the  camp  of  the 
conqueror :  but  in  vain ;  they  found  him  severe 
and  inflexible  as  before.  When  the  people  saw 
them  return  ineffectually,  they  gave  up  the  com- 
monwealth as  lost.  The  temples  were  filled 
with  old  men,  women,  and  children,  who,  pros- 
trate at  their  altars,  put  up  ardent  prayers  for  the 
preservation  of  their  country :  nothing  was  to  be 
neard  but  anguish  and  lamentation,  nothing  to 
be  seen  but  affright  and  distress.  At  length  it 
was  suggested  that  what  could  not  be  effected 
by  the  intercession  of  the  senate,  or  the  abjura- 
tion of  the  priests,  might  be  brought  about  by 
the  tears  of  his  wife,  or  the  commands  of  his 
mother.  This  measure  was  approved  by  all; 
and  the  senate  itself  gave  it  their  sanction.  Ve- 
turia,  the  mother  of  Coriolanus,  therefore,  un- 
dertook the  embassy,  and  set  forward  from  the 
city,  accompanied  by  the  principal  matrons  of 
Rome,  Volumnia  his  wife,  and  his  two  children. 
Coriolanus,  who  at  a  distance  discovered  this 
mournful  train  of  females,  was  resolved  to  give 
them  a  denial ;  but,  when  told  that  his  mother 
and  his  wife  were  among  the  number,  he  instantly 
came  down  to  meet  them.  At  first  the  salutations 
and  embraces  of  the  interview  took  away  the 
power  of  words ;  and  the  rough  soldier  could  not 
refiain  from  sharing  in  their  distress.  Coriola- 
nus seemed  much  agitated  by  contending  pas- 
sions ;  while  his  mother  seconded  her  persuasive 
eloquence  by  sighs  and  tears:  his  wife  and 
children  hung  round  him,  intreating  for  protec- 
tion and  pity;  and  the  fair  train,  her  companions, 
added  their  lamentations,  and  deplored  their  own 
and  their  country's  distress.  The  patriot  for  a 
moment  was  silent,  feeling  the  strong  conflict 
between  honor  and  inclination :  at  length,  as  if 
roused  from  a  dream,  he  flew  to  take  up  his 


mother,  who  had  &Uen  at  bis  feet,  oying  ovt, 
'  O  my  mother,  thou  hast  saved  Rome,  but  1m 
thy  son.'  He  gave  orders  to  draw  off  Ae  annj, 
pretending  to  the  officers  that  the  city  was  too 
strong  to  be  taken.  TuUus,  who  envied  bis 
glory,  was  not  remiss  in  aggravating  the  lenity  of 
his  conduct.  Upon  their  return,  Coriolanus  was 
slain  in  an  insurrection  of  the  people,  and  after- 
wards honorably  buried,  with  iaeffectual  repen- 
tance. 

The  year  following,  the  two  consub  of  the 
former  year,  Manlius  and  Fabius,  were  cited  by 
the  tribunes  to  appear  before  the  people.  The 
Agrarian  law,  which  had  been  propoKsed  some 
time  before,  for  equally  dividing  the  lands  of  tbe 
commonwealth,  was  the  object  invariably  pur- 
sued, and  they  were  accused  of  having  put  it 
off.  The  consuls  made  many  delays  and  exco^ 
till  at  length  they  were  obliged  to  have  recourse 
to  a  dictator ;  and  they  fixed  upon  T.  Quinctios 
Cincinnatus,  a  man  who  had  for  some  time  given 
up  all  views  of  ambition,  and  retired  to  his  little 
farm,  where  the  deputies  of  the  senate  found  hun 
holding  the  plough.  He  appeared  but  little  ele- 
vated with  tne  li^dresses  or  ceremony  and  the 
pompous  habits  they  brought  him;  and,  upon 
declaring  to  him  the  senate's  pleasure,  be  testi- 
fied rather  a  concern  that  his  aid  should  be 
wanted.  However  he  departed  for  the  citv, 
where  both  parties  were  strongly  inflamed 
against  each  other,  resolved  to  -side  with  neither. 
By  threats  and  well  timed  submission  he  pre- 
vailed upon  the  tribunes  to  put  off  the  disputed 
law  for  a  time,  and  carried  himself  so  as  to  be 
a  terror  to  the  multitude.  Having  thus  retored 
that  tranquillity  which  he  so  much  loved,  be 
again  gave  up  the  splendor  of  ambition,  to  enjoy 
his  little  farm.  Cinbinnatus  was  not  long  retind, 
however,  when  a  fresh  exigence  of  the  state  re- 
quired his  assistance.  The  ^quiand  the  V^obci, 
who,  though  worsted,  were  still  for  renewing  the 
war,  made  new  inroads  into  the  territories  of 
Rome.  Minutius,  one  of  the  consols  who  suc- 
ceeded Cineinnatus,  was  sent  to  oppose  them ; 
but  his  army  was  driven  into  a  defile  between 
two  mountains,  from  which,  except  through  the 
lines  of  the  enemy,  there  was  no  eeress.  This 
the  ^qui  had  the  precaution  to  fortify :  by  which 
the  Roman  army  was  so  hemmed  in  on  every 
side,  that  nothing  remained  but  submission  lo 
the  enemy,  or  famine.  Some  knights,  who  found 
means  of  getting  away  privately  throngfa  tbe 
camp  of  the  Volsci,  were  the  first  that  brought 
the  account  of  this  disaster  to  Rome.  Nothinz 
could  exceed  the  consternation  of  all  ranks.  The 
8  nate  at  first  thought  of  the  other  consul ;  but, 
not  having  sufficient  experience  of  his  abilities, 
they  unanimously  turned  their  eyes  upon  Cin- 
cinnatus, and  resolved  to  make  him  dictator. 
He  was  found,  as  before,  by  the  messengers  in 
the  field.  Being  called  upon  to  nominate  his 
master  of  the  horse,  he  now  chose  a  poor  man 
named  Tarquitius ;  and,  upon  entering  the  dtj, 
entreated  all  those  who  were  able  to  bear  aims 
to  repair  before  sun-set  to  the  Campus  Martias. 
He  put  himself  at  their  head,  and,  marcfaii^ 
all  night  with  great  expedition,  he  arrived  before 
day  within  sight  of  the  enemy.  Upon  his  ap 
proaclk  the  soldiers  raised  a  loud  shout,  to  ap- 
prize the  consul's  army  of  tlie  relief  that  vis  at 

Digitized  by  VjUU^  IC 


ROME. 


705 


Aand  ;  the  iEqui,  not  a  little  amazed,  saw  them- 
selves between  two  enemies;  and  when  they 
perceived  Cindnnatus  making  the  strongest  en- 
trenchments beyond  them,  to  prevent  their  escape, 
a  furious  combat  ensued ;  until,  attacked  on  both 
sides,  they  begged  a  cessation  of  arms.  They 
offered  the  dictator  his  own  terms;  when  he 
gave  them  their  lives,  but  obliged  them,  in 
token  of  servitude,  to  pass  under  the  yoke.  Their 
captains  and  generals  he  made  prisoners.  Thus, 
having  rescued  a  Roman  army  from  inevitable 
destruction,  having  defeated  a  powerful  enemy, 
having  taken  and  fortified  their  city,  and,  still 
more,  having  refused  any  part  of  tiie  spoil,  he 
resigned  his  dictatorship,  after  having  enjoyed 
it  but  fourteen  days.  The  senate  would  have 
enriched  him;  but  he  declined  their  offers. 

Still  this  repose  from  foreign  invasions  did 
not  lessen  the  tumults  of  the  city.  The  clamors 
for  the  Agrarian  law  continued,  and  raged  yet 
more  fiercely,  when  Sicinius  Dentatus  came  n>r- 
ward,  to  enumerate  his  hardships.  See  Denta- 
tus. Notwithstanding  his  speech  had  great  ef- 
fect on  the  people,  the  Agrarian  law  was  post- 
poned by  a  number  of  young  patricians  who 
made  a  riot  and  broke  the  ballotmg  urns.  The 
republic  of  Rome  had  now  near  sixty  years  been 


finished,  it  was  expected  that  they  would  give 
up  office ;  but,  having  known  the  charms  of  power, 
they  were  now  unwilling  to  resign  it ;  and,  re- 
gardless either  of  the  approbation  of  the  senate 
or  the  people,  resolved  to  continue  in  the  de- 
cern virate.  A  conduct  so  inconsistent  and  ar- 
bitrary produced  discontents;  and  these  again 
fresh  acts  of  tyranny.  The  city  was  become  al- 
most a  desert,  with  respect  to  all  who  hadf  any 
thing  to  lose.  Yet  not  one  citizen  was  suffici- 
ently assured  to  strike  for  his  country's  freedom ; 
these  tyrants  continued  to  rule  without  control, 
constantly  guarded  by  their  lictors,  and  a  numei^ 
ous  crowd  of  dependents.  In  this  situation  of 
the  state,  the  ^qui  and  Volsci  projected  new 
incursions,  and  advanced  within  ten  miles  of 
Rome.  But  the  decemviri,  being  in  possession 
of  the  military  as  well  as  civil  power,  divided 
their  army  into  three  parts ;  of  which  one  con- 
tinued with  Appius  in  the  city,  to  keep  it  in 
awe;  the  other  two  were  commanded  by  his 
colleagues,  and  were  led,  one  against  the  ^qui, 
and  the  other  against  the  Sabines.  The  Roman 
soldiers  had  now  adopted  a  method  of  punishing 
the  generals  whom  they  disliked,  by  suffering 
themselves  to  be  vanquished  in  the  field.  They 
put  it  in  practice  upon  this  occasion,  and  shame- 


fluctuating  between  the  contending  orders  that  rally  abandoned  their  camp  on  the  approach  of 
composed  it  till,  at  length  each  side,  as  if  weary,  the  enemy.  Never  was  the  news  of  a  victory 
were  willing  to  respire  a  while.  The  citizens,  more  joyfully  received  at  Rome  than  the*tidings 
therefore,  of  eveiy  rank,  now  began  to  complain  of  this  defeat :  the  generals,  as  always,  were 
of  the  arbitrary  decisions  of  their  magistrates,  blamed  for  the  treachery  of  their  men  :  some  de- 
and  wished  to  be  guided  by  a  written  body  of  manded  that  they  should  be  deposed ;  others  that 
laws;  in  which  both  the  senate  and  the  people  a  dictator  should  lead  the  troops  to  conquest : 
concurred.  It  was  therefore  agreed  that  ambas-  among  the  rest  Sicinius  Dentatus,  an  old  tribune, 
sadors  should  be  sent  to  the  Greek  cities  in  Italy,  spoke  his  sentiments  with  his  usual  openness ; 
and  to  Athens,  to  bring  home  such  enactments  and,  treating  the  generals  with  contempt,  showed 
thence  as  by  experience  had  been  found  roost  the  fistults  of  their  discipline  in  the  camp  and  of 
equitable;  and  three  senators,  Posthumius,  Sul-  their  conduct  in  the  field.  Appius,  in  the  mean 
picius,  and  Manlius,  were  fixed  upon  for  the  time,  was  not  remiss  in  observing  the  popnlar 
commission  and  galleys  assigned  tc  convey  them,  disposition.  Dentatus,  in  particular,  was  mark- 
While  they  were  abroad,  a  dreadful  plague  de-  ed  out  for  vengeance,  and,  under  pretence  of  do- 
populated  Rome  for  about  a  year.  The  ambas-  ing  him  particular  honor,  was  appointed  legate, 
sadors  at  the  close  of  that  period  returned,  bring-  and  put  at  the  head  of  the  supplies  which  were 
ing  home  a  body  of  laws,  collected  from  all  the  sent' from  Rome  to  the  army.  The  ofiice  of  le- 
civilized  :»tates  of  Greece  and  Italy,  which  being  gate  was  held  sacred  among  the  Romans,  as  in 
afterwards  formed  into  ten  tables,  and  two  more  it  were  united  the  authority  of  a  general  with 
being  added,  constituted  that  celebrated  code,  the  reverence  due  to  the  priesthood.  Dentatus 
called  the  Laws  of  the  Twelve  Tables,  fragments  proceeded  to  the  camp  with  alacrity,  whek>e  ho 


of  which  are  still  extant.  The  tribunes  now  re- 
quired that  a  body  of  men  should  be  chosen  to 
digest  these  laws  into  proper  form.  After  long 
debates,  whether  this  choice  should  not  be  partly 
made  from  the  people  as  well  as  the  patricians, 
it  was  at  last  agreed  th^t  ten  of  the  pnncipal  se- 
nators should  he  elected,  whose  power,  continu- 
ing for  a  year,  should  be  equal  to  that  of  kings 
and  consuls,  and  their  decision  final.  The  per- 
sons chosen  were  Appius  and  Genutius,  who 
had  been  elected  consuls  for  the  ensuing  year ; 
Posthumius,  Sulpicius,  and  Manlius,  the  three 
ambassadors;'  Sextus  and  Romulus,  former 
consuls;  with  Julius  Veturius,  and  Horatius, 
senators  of  the  first  consideration.  The  decem- 
viri, being  now  invested  vrith  absolute  power, 
agreed  to  take  the  reins  of  government  by  turns, 
and  each  to  dispense  justice  for  a  day.  For  the 
first  year  these  magistrates  attended  their  duty 
with  extreme  application ;  and,  their  work  being 
Vol.  XVIll. 


was  received  with  all  the  external  marks  of  re- 
spect; but  the  generals  soon  found  means  of 
revenge;  Appointed  to  head  100  men  and  ex- 
amine a  more  commodious  place  for  encampment, 
the  soldiers,  who  were  given  as  his  attendants, 
were  assassins,  and  led  him  out  of  the  way  into 
the  bosom  of  a  retired  mountain.  Dentatus,  too 
late  perceiving  the  treachery  of  the  decemviri, 
was  resolved  to  sell  bis  life  dearly ;  he  therefore 
placed  his  back  against  a  rock,  and  defended 
himself  against  those  who  pressed  on  him,  kill- 
ing no  fewer  than  fifteen  of  the  assailants,  and 
wounding  thirty.  The  assassins,  terrified  at  his 
amazing  bravery,  now  showered' in  their  javelins 
upon  him,  all  which  he  received  on  his  shield ; 
and  the  combat,  though  so  unequal  in  numbers, 
was  long  managed  with  doubtful  success,  till  at 
length  his  assailants,  ascending  the  rock  against 
which  he  stood,  poured  down  stones  on  the 
brave  old  soldier  from  above,  and  crushed  hun  to 

1% 


Digitized  by 


Googk 


706 


ROME. 


<leath.  The  decemviri,  preteodiDg  to  join  in  tlie 
geDerml  mrrow  for  so  brave  a  man,  decreed  him 
a  funeral,  with  military  honors  :  but  the  great- 
ness of  their  apparent  distress,  compared  with 
their  known  hatred,  only  rendered  them  still  more 
detestable  to  the  people. 

A  transaction  still  more  atrocious  inspired  the 
citizens  with  a  resolution  to  break  all  measures 
of  obedience.  Appius^  wlio  remained  at  Rome, 
sittinsc  ODC  ^*y  on  his  tribunal  to  dispense  jus- 
tice, saw  a  maiden  of  exquisite  beauty  passing  to 
one  of  the  public  schools,  attended  by  her  nurse. 
Conceiving  a  violent  passion  for  her,  he  resolved 
to  obtain  the  gratification  of  his  desires ;  and 
though  he  found  she  was  the  daughter  of  Vir- 
frinius  a  centurion,  then  with  the  army  in  the 
field,  and  had  been  contracted  to  Icilius,  for- 
merly a  tribune  of  the  people,  he  resolved  to 
break  this  match  and  espouse  her  himself.  The 
laws  of  the  Twelve  tables,  however,  had  for- 
bidden the  patricians  to  intermarry  with  the  ple- 
beians ;  ana  he  could  not  infringe  these.  A  yet 
more  criminal  course  was  therefore  determined 
on.  He  engaged  one  Claudius,  who  bad  long  been 
the  minister  of  his  pleasures,  to  assert  that  Vir> 
ginia  was  his  slave,  and  to  refer  the  cause  to  his 
tribunal  for  decision.  Claudius  behaved  accord- 
ing to  his  instructions ;  and,  entering  into  the 
school  where  she  vras  playing  among  her  female 
companions,  seized  upon  her  as  his  property, 
and  was  only  prevented  from  dragging  ner  away 
by  force  by  the  people  drawn  together  by  her 
cries.  At  length,  after  the  opposition  was  over, 
he  led  the  weeping  virgin  to  the  tribunal  of  Ap- 
pius,  and  there  alleged  his  claim.  He  asserted 
that  she  was  bom  in  his  house,  of  a  female  slave, 
who  sold  her  to  the  wife  of  Virginius,  who  had 
been  barren.  That  he  had  several  credible  evidences 
to  prove  the  truth  of  what  he  said ;  but  that, 
until  they  could  oome  together,  it  was  but  rea- 
sonable the  slave  should  be  delivered  into  his 
custody.  Appius  seemed  to  be  struck  with  the 
justice  of  his  claim.  He  observed  that,  if  the 
reputed  father  himself  were  present,  he  might 
indeed  be  willing  to  delay  the  delivery  of  the 
maiden  for  some  time;  but  that  it  was  not  lawful 
for  him,  in  the  present  case,  to  detain  her  from 
her  master.  He  therefore  adjudged  her  to 
Claudius,  as  his  slave,  to  be  kept  by  him  till 
Virginius  should  be  able  to  prove  his  paternity. 
This  sentence  was  received  with  loua  clamors 
and  repeoaches ;  the  women,  in  particular,  came 
round  Virginia,  as  if  willing  to  protect  her  from 
the  judge ;  while  Icilius,her  lover,  boldly  opposed 
the  decree,  and  obliged  Claudius  to  take  refuge 
.  under  the  tribunal  of  the  decemviri.  All  things 
now  threatened  an  open  insurrection ;  when  Ap- 
pius thought  proper  to  suspend  his  judgment  till 
the  arrival  of  Virgmius,  who  was  then  about 
eleven  miles  from  Rome.  The  day  following 
was  fixed  for  the  trial :  in  the  mean  time  Appius 
sent  letters  to  the  generals  to  confine  Virginius, 
as  his  arrival  in  town  might  only  serve  to  kindle 
sedition.  These  letters,  however,  were  inter- 
cepted by  the*centurion's  friends,  and,  pretending 
the  death  of  a  near  relation,  he  obtained  per- 
mission to  leave  the  camp,  and  flew  to  Rome. 
The  next  day  he  appeared  before  the  tribunal, 
to  the  astonishment  of  Appius,  leading  his  weep- 
ing daughter  by  the  hand,  both  being  habited  in 


the  deepest  roouniiog.  Claudius,  the  accuser, 
was  alto  there,  and  began  by  making  bis  de- 
mand. Virginius  next  spoke:  he  represented 
that  his  wife  had  many  children ;  that  she  had 
been  seen  pregnant  by  numbers ;  that,  if  he  had 
intentions  of  adopting  a  supposititious  child,  he 
would  have  fixed  upon  a  boy  rather  than  a  girl; 
-  that  it  was  notorious  to  all  that  his  wife  had  her- 
self suckled  her  own  child ;  and  that  it  was  sur- 
prising svlA  a  claim  should  be  now  made,  after 
fiten  y^  had  elapsed.  While  the  father  thos 
spoke  Virginia's  persuasive  innocence  seemed 
to  add  weight  to  all  his  remonstrances.  The 
people  were  entirely  satisfied  of  the  hardship  of 
nis  Case,  till  Appius  interrupting  him,  under  a 
pretence  of  being  sufficiently  instrocted  in  the 
merits  of  the  cause,  finally  adjudged  her  to 
Claudius,  and  ordered  the  lictors  to  carry  her 
off.  Virginius  seemed  to  acquiesce  in  the  sen- 
tence. He  only  mildly  intreated  Appios  to  be 
permitted  to  take  a  last  farewell  of  one  whom  be 
nad  long  considered  as  his  child.  With  this  the 
decemvir  complied,  when  the  fether,  with  the 
most  poignant  auguish,  taking  his  almost  expiiiag 
daughter  in  his  arms,  for  a  while  supported  her 
head  upon  his  breast,  and  wiped  avray  her  teaa : 
happening  to  be  near  the  shops  that  surrouDded 
the  forum,  he  now  snatched  up  a  knife  that  lay 
on  the  shambles,  and  buried  the  weapon  in  her 
breast;  then  holding  it  up,  reeking  with  the 
blood  of  his  daughter,  'Appius,  he  cried,'  'by 
this  blood  of  innocence,  I  devote  thy  hnd  tc 
the  infernal  gods.*  Thus  saying,  with  the  bhx)dy 
knife  in  his  hand,  and  threatening  destruction  to 
whomsoever  should  oppose  him,  he  ran  throogh 
the  city,  wildly  calling  upon  the  people  to  strike 
for  freMom,  and  thence  went  to  the  camp,  spread- 
ing a  like  flame.  Followed  by  a  number  of  his 
friends,  he  informed  the  soldiers  of  all  that  was 
done,  holding  the  bloody  knife  in  his  band,  and 
asked  their  pardon,  and  that  of  the  gods,  for 
having  committed  so  rash  an  action.  The  army, 
already  predisposed,  instantly  with  shouts  de^ 
clared  their  approbation  of  the  deed ;  and,  de- 
camping, left  their  generals  behind,  to  take  their 
station  once  more  upon  mount  Aventioe.  The 
other  army,  which  had  been  to  oppose  the  Sa- 
bincs,  came  over  in  large  parties  to  join  them. 
Appios,  in  the  mean  time,  did  all  he  oonld  to 

Suell  the  disturbances  of  the  city :  bat,  finding 
le  tumult  incapable  of  control,  at  first  at- 
tempted to  find  safe^by  flight;  then  encooraged 
by  Oppius,  one  of  his  colleagues,  he  ventured  to 
assemble  the  senate,  and  urged  the  punishment 
of  all  deserters.  The  senate,  however,  foresaw 
the  dangers  and  miseries  that  threatened  the 
state,  in  case  of  opposing  the  army ;  they  there- 
fore despatched  messengers  to  them,  ofieniig  to 
restore  the  former  mode  of  govemmeot.  To 
this  proposal  all  the  people  joyfully  assented. 
and  the  army  gladly  tendered  their  submission. 
Appius,  and  Oppius  one  of  his  colleagues,  both 
died  by  their  own  hands  in  prison.  The  oCfaet 
eight  decemvirs  went  into  voluntary  exile. 

The  tribunes  now  grew  more  turbulent :  tbey 
proposed  two  laws ;  one  to  permit  plebeiaiis  to 
intermarry  with  patricians,  and  the  otiier  to 
permit  them  to  be  admitted  to  the  consnlslufL 
These  proposals  the  senators  received  witli  in- 
dicrnation,  and  seemed  resolved  to  undergo  the 

Digitized  by  VjUU^  IC 


ROME. 


707 


utmost  extremities  rather  than  enact  tliem.  How- 
ever, finding  this  rteistance  only  increase  the 
public  commotions,  they  at  last  consented  to 
pass  the  law  concerning  intermarriages.  But 
the  people  were  thus  appeased  only  for  a  shoi;t 
time ;  letuming  to  their  old  custom  of  refusing 
to  enlist  upon  the  approach  of  an  enemy,  the 
consuls  were  forced  to  hold  a  prirate  conference 
with  the  chief  of  the  senate ;  where,  after  many 
debates,  Claudius  proposed  to  create  six  or  eight 
gOTemors  in  the  room  of  consuls,  whereof  one- 
half  at  least  should  be  patricians.  This  project 
was  eagerly  embraced  by  the  people ;  yet,  though 
many  of  the  plebeians  stood,  the  choice  wholly 
fell  upon  the  patrician  candidates.  These  new 
magistrates  were  called  military  tribunes ;  they 
were  at  first  but  three,  afterwards  four,  and  at 
length  six.  They  had  the  power  and  ensigns  of 
consuls ;  yet,  that  power  being  divided  among  a 
number,  each  singly  was  of  less  authority.  The 
first  that  were  chosen  only  continued  in  office 
about  three  months,  the  augurs  havinG;  found 
something  amiss  in  the  ceremonies  of  their  elec- 
tion. Consuls  once  more,  therefore,  came  into 
office;  and,  to  lighten  the  weight  of  business 
which  they  were  obliged  to  sustain,  a  new 
office  was  erected,  namely,  that  of  censors,  to 
be  chosen  every  fifth  year.  Their  business  was 
to  take  an  estimate  of  the  number  and  estates  of 
the  people,  and  to  distribute  them  into  their 
proper  classes ;  to  enquire  into  their  lives  and 
manners;  to  degrade  senators  for  misconduct: 
to  disnaount  knights ;  and  to  dbplace  plebeians 
from  their  tribes  into  inferior  ones,  in  case  of 
misdemeanor.  The  two  first  censors  were 
Papirius  and  Sempronius,  both  patricians ;  and 
from  this  order  they  continued  to  be  elected  for 
nearly  100  years.  This  new  creation  served  to 
restore  peace  for  some  time ;  and  the  triumph 
gained  over  the  Volscians  by  Geganius  the  con- 
sul added  to  the  universal  satisfaction.  But  some 
time  after,  a  famine  pressing  hard  upon  the  poor, 
the  usual  complaints  against  the  rich  were  re- 
newed ;  and  these,  as  before,  proving  ineffectual, 
produced  new  seditions.  The  consuls  were  ac- 
cused of  neglect  in  not  having  laid  in  proper 
quantities  of  com ;  they,  however,  disregarded 
the  murmurs  of  the  populace,  content  with  ex- 
erting all  their  care  in"  attempts  to  supply  the 
pressing  necessity :  and  appear  to  have  done  all 
that  could  be  expected  from  active  magistrates. 
Yet^  Spurios  Maelius,  a  rich  knight,  who  had 
bought  up  all  the  corn  of  Tuscany,  outshone 
them  in  liberality.  This  demagogue,  hoping  to  • 
become  powerful  by  the  contention  in  the  state, 
distributed  com  in  great  quantities  among  the 
poor,  till  his  house  became  the  asylum  of  all 
such  as  wished  to  exchange  a  life  of  labor  for 
one  of  lazy  dependence.  When  he  had  thus 
gained  a  suffici&t  number  of  partisans,  he  pro- 
cured large  quantities  of  arms  to  be  brought  into 
bis  house^  and  formed  a  conspiracy,  by  which 
he  was  to  obtain  supreme  command,  while  some 
of  the  tribunes,  whom  he  had  corrupted,  were  to 
act  under  him.  Minucius  discovered  the  plot, 
and,  informing  the  senate,  they  resolved  to  create 
a  dictator,  who  should  quell  the  conspiracy, 
without  appealing  to  the  people.  Cincinnatus, 
now  eighty,  years  old,  was  chosen, once  more  to 


rescue  his  country  from  impending  danger.  He 
began  by  summoning  Melius ;  who  refused  to 
obey.  He  next  sent  Ahala,  the  master  of  his 
horse,  to  compel  his  appearance ;  who,  meeting 
him  in  the  foram,  and  pressing  him  to  follow  to 
the  dictator's  tribunal,  upon  his  refusal  Ahala 
lulled  him  on  the  spot.  The  dictator  ap- 
plauding his  officer,  now  commanded  the  con- 
spirator^ goods  to  be  sold,  his  house  to  be  de- 
molished, a^d  his  stores  to  be  distributed  among 
the  people.  But  the  tribunes  were  enraged  at 
the  death  of  Melius;  and,  to  punish  the  senate, 
at  the  next  election,  instead  ot  consuls,  insisted 
upon  restoring  their  military  tribunes.  With 
tliis  the  senate  were  obliged  to  comply.  The 
next  year,  however,  the  government  returned  to 
its  ancient  channel,  and  consuls  were  chosen. 

The  Veientes  had  at  this  period  long  been  the 
rivals  of  Rome,  and  had  ever  taken  the  opportu- 
nity of  its  internal  distresses  to  ravage  its  terri- 
tories ;  they  had  even  threatened  its  ambassadors 
sent  to  complain  of  these  injuries  with  outrage. 
In  war  they  had  been  extremely  formidable,  and 
had  cut  off  almost  all  the  Fabian  family ;  who, 
to  the  number  of  306  persons,  had  voluntarily  un- 
dertaken to  defend  tne  frontiers  against  them. 
It  was  therefore  determined  that  the  city  of  Veii 
should  be  demolished ;  and  the  Roman  army  set 
down  before  it,  prepared  for  a  protracted  resist- 
ance. The  strength  of  the  place  may  be  inferred 
from  the  continuance  of  the  siege,  which  lasted 
ten  years.  Various  was  the  success,  and  many 
were  the  commanders :  the  besiegers'  works  were 
often  destroyed,  and  many  of  their  tnen  cut  off, 
until  the  undertaking  seemed  to  threaten  depo- 
pulation to  Rome  itself;  so  that  a  law  was  mad* 
for  all  the  bachelors  to  marry  the^widows  of  the 
soldiers  who  were  slain.  To  carry  on  this  siege 
with  greater  vigor  Furius  CamiUus  was  created 
dictator.  Upon  his  appointment  numbers  of  the 
people  flocked  to  his  standard,  confident  of.  suc- 
cess, and  he  at  once  prepared  to  mine  the  works 
of  the  enemy.  Certain  of  the  result,  he  sent  to 
the  senate,  desiring  that  all  who  chose  to  share 
in  the  plunder  of  Veii  should  immediately  repair 
to  the  army :  and,  entering  the  breech  at  the  head 
of  his  men,  the  city  was  instantly  filled  with  his 
legions.  Thus,  like  a  second  Troy,  was  the  city 
of  Veii  taken,  after  a  ten  years*  siege^  and  with 
its  spoils  enriched  the  conquerors ;  while  Camil- 
lus  himself  was  decreed  a  triumph  after  the  man- 
ner of  the  kings  of  Rome,  having  his  chariot 
drawn  by  four  milk-white  horses.  His  usual 
good  fortune  attended  CamiUus  in  a  new  expe- 
dition against  the  Falisci ;  he  routed  their  army, 
and  besieged  their  capital  Falerii,  which  threat- 
ened a  long  and  vigorous  resistance.  Here  a 
schoolmaster,  who  had  the  care  of  the  children 
belonging  to  the  principal  men  of  the  city,  having 
decoyed  them  into  the  Roman  camp,  offered  to 
put  them  into  the  hands  of  Camillus,  as  the 
surest  means  of  inducing  the  citizens  to  surren- 
der. But  the  general,  struck  with  the  treachery 
of  a  wretch  whose  duty  it  was  to  protect  inno- 
cence, and  not  to  betray  it,  immediately  ordered 
him  to  be  stripped,  bis  hands  tied  behind  him, 
and  in  that  ignominious  manner  to  be  whipped 
into  the  town  by  his  pupils.  This  generous  be- 
haviour in  Camillus  effected  more  than  his  arms : 

2  Z2  T 

Digitized  by  VjUU^IC 


708 


ROME. 


the  magistrates  immediately  submitted  to  the 
senate,  leaving  to  Camillus  the  conditions  of 
their  surrender ;  who  only  fined  them  in  a  sum  of 
money,  and  received  them  under  the  protection 
and  the  alliance  of  ^me. 

The  tribunes  at  home  still,  however,  were  full 
of  accusations  asainst  Camillus.  To  their  other 
charges  they  added  that  of  his  having  concealed 
a  pan  of  the  plunder  of  Veii,  particularly  two 
bra;(en  gatesy  for  his  own  use ;  and  appointed  a 
day  on  which  he  was  to  appear  before  the  people. 
Camillus,  finding  the  multitude  exasperated,  and 
detesting  their  ingratitude,  resolved  not  to  wait 
the  ignominy  of  this  trial ;  but,  embracing  his 
wife  and  children,  prepared  to  depart  from  Rome. 
He  had  passed  one  of  the  gates  when,  turning 
his  face  to  the  capitol,  and  lifting  up  his  hands 
to  heaven,  he  entreated  all  the  gods  that  his 
countrymen  might  one  day  be  sensible  of  their 
injustice.  He  then  passed  forward  to  Ardea, 
where  he  afterwards  learned  that  he  had  been 
fined  1500  asses.  The  Romans  indeed  soon  had 
reason  to  repent  their  persecution  of  this  general ; 
for  now  a  more  formiaable  enemy  than  ever  they 
had  encountered  threatened  the  republic :  an  in- 
undation of  Gauls,  under  their  leader  Brennus. 
One  Coeditius  pretended  to  have  heard  a  miracu- 
lous voice,  saying,  '  Go  to  the  magistrates,  and 
tell  them  that  the  Gauls  draw  near.  His  warn- 
ing was  despised ;  but,  when  the  event  showed 
the  truth  ot  his  prediction,  Camillus  erected  a 
temple  to  the  unknown  Deity,.and  the  Romans 
invented  for  him  the  name  of  Aius  Locutius. 
Messengers  arrived  repeatedly  with  the  news  of 
the  devastations  of  the  enemy ;  but  the  Romans 
])ehaved  as  if  an  invasion  had  been  impossible. 
At  last  envoys  arrived  at  Rome,  imploring  as^ 
distance  asainst  an  army  of  Gauls,  which  now 
besieged  Chisium.  Here  Arunx,  one  of  the 
chief  citizens,  having  been  guardian  to  a  young 
noble,  and  having  educated  him  in  his  own 
house,  he  fell  in  love  with  his  guardian's  wife ; 
and,  upon  the  first  discovery  of  the  intrigue, 
conveyed  her  away.  Amnx  endeavoured  to  ob- 
tain reparation  for  the  injury;  but  the  magis- 
trates were  bribed,  and  the  injured  guardian,  to 
espouse  the  cause  of  this  lover,  applied  to  the 
Galli  Senones  to  engage  in  this  quarrel,  ac- 
quainting them  with  the  great  plenty  of  Italy. 
Upon  this  the  Senones  resolved  to  follow  him  ; 
and,  a  numerous  army  being  formed,  they  passed 
the  Alps,  under  the  conduct  of  their  Etrurian 
guide,  and.  leaving  the  Celte  unmolested  in 
Italy,  fell  upon  Umbria,  and  possessed  them- 
selves of  all  the  country  from  Ravenna  to  Pice- 
iium.  They  were  about  six  years  in  settling 
themselves  in  their  new  acquisitions :  at  length 
Arunx  brought  the  Senones  before  Clusium,  his 
\vife  and  her  lover  having  shut  themselves  up  in 
that  city.  The  senate,  therefore,  sent  an  embassy 
of  three  young  patricians  of  the  Fabian  fionily  to 
.  bring  about  an  accommodation :  but  these  ambas- 
sadors, forgetting  their  character,  put  themselves 
at  the  head  of  the  besieged  in  a  sally,  in  which 
Q.  Fabius,  their  chief,  slew  with  his  own  hand 
one  of  the  principal  officers  of  the  Gauls.  Here- 
upon Brennus,  calling  the  gods  to  witness  the 
perfidiousness  of  the  Romans,  and  immediately 
raising  the  siege,  marched  leisurely  to  Rome, 


having  sent  a  herald  before  bim  to  demand 
that  those  ambassadors,  who  had  so  manife^ 
violated  the  law  of  nations,  should  be  delivered 
up  to  him.  The  senate  was  now  greatly  per- 
plexed between  'their  regard  for  the  law  of  n»> 
tions  and  their  affection  for  the  Fmbii.  The 
wisest  of  them  thought  the  demand  of  the  Ganb 
to  be  but  just :  however,  as  it  concerned  peisons 
of  great  consequence  and  popularity,  the  con- 
script fathers  referred  the  affair  to  the  people ; 
who  by  their  curis  were  so  far  from  eoaoemniog 
the  three  brothers,  that,  at  the  next  election  of 
military  tribunes,  they  were  chosen  the  first. 
Brennus,  loekfng  upon  this  promotion  of  the 
Fabii  as  a  high  affront,  hastened  his  march  to 
Rome.  The  six  military  tribunes,  Q.  Fabius, 
Caeso  Fabius,  Caius  Fabius,  Q.  Sulpitius,  Q. 
Servilius,  and  Sextus  Cornelius,  marched  out  to 
meet  bim  at  the  head  of  40,000  men,  but  with- 
out either  sacrificing  to  the  gods  or  coosnlting 
the  auspices :  ceremonies  essential  among  a  peo- 
ple that  drew  their  courage  and  coafideDce  from 
these  signs.  The  Gauls  were  70,000  strong. 
The  two  armies  met  near  the  river  Allia,  about 
sixty  furlongs  from  Rome ;  when  the  Romans 
extended  their  wings  so  fiiir  as  to  make  their 
centre  very  thin.  Their  best  troops,  to  the  num- 
ber of  24,000  men,  they  posted  between  the  rirer 
and  the  adjoining  hills ;  the  rest  on  the  hills.  At 
first  the  Gauls  attacked  the  latter,  who  being  soon 
put  into  confusion,  the  forces  in  the  plain  were 
struck  with  such  terror  that  they  Aed  without 
drawing  a  sword :  and  most  of  the  soldiers,  in- 
stead of  returning  to  Rome,  ran  off  to  V^eii :  some 
were  drowned  as  they  endeavoured  to  swim 
across  the  Tiber ;  many  fell  in  the  pursuit  by  the 
sword  of  the  conquerors :  and  some  got  to  Rome, 
which  they  filled  with  terror  and  constemaiion. 
The  day  adfter  the  battle,  Brennus  marched  his 
troops  into  the  neighbourhood  of  the  capital,  aad 
encamped  on  the  banks  of  the  Anio.  Here  his 
scouts  brought  him  word  that  the  gates  of  the 
city  were  open,  and  not  a  Roman  to  be  seen  on 
the  ramparts.  He  advanced  slowly,  however, 
fearing  an  ambuscade,  which  gave  the  Romans 
an  opportunity  to  throw  into  the  capitol  all 
the  men  who  were  fit  to  bear  arms,  with  abund- 
ant provisions.  They  had  not  sufficient  forces 
to  defend  the  city :  >the  old  men,  women,  and 
children,  therefore,  fled  to  the  neighbouring 
towns.  At  length  Brennus,  having  spent  three 
days  in  taking  various  precautious,  entered  it  the 
fourth  day  after  the  battle.  The  gates  he  found 
open,  the  walls  without  defence,  and  the  houses 
without  inhabitants.  Rome  appeared  like  a 
mere  desert;  but  he  could  not  believe,  either 
that  all  the  Romans  were  lodged  in  the  capitol, 
or  that  so  numerous  a  people  should  abandon 
the  place  of  their  nativity.  On  the  other  hand, 
he  could  no  where  see  any  anned  men  but  on 
the  walls  of  the  citadel.  Having  first  secured 
all  the  avenues  to  the  capitol  with  bodies  oi 
guards,  he  at  last  gave  the  rest  of  his  soldiers 
leave  to  disperse  diemselves  over  the  city  and 
plunder  it.  Brennus  himself  advanced  into  the 
forum  with  the  troops  under  his  command,  in 
order;  and  was  there  struck  with  admiration, 
at  the  unexpected  sight  of  the  venerable  old  men 
who  had  devoted  themselves  to  death,  according 


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ROME. 


709 


to  the  Roman  superstition^  for  the  sahation  of 
their  country.  They  were  a  portion  of  the 
priests  and  the  most  ancient  of  the  senators  who 
had  been  honored  with  consular  dignity^or  who  had 
^jeeu  decreed  triumphs.  Their  magnificent  habits, 
the  majesty  of  their  countenances,  the  &ilence 
they  iiept,  their  modesty  and  constancy  at  the 
approach  of  his  troops,  made  him  take  them  ft>r 
so  many  deities.  The  Gauls  for  a  great  while 
kept  at  an  awful  distance  from  them.  At  length  a 
soldier,  bolder  than  the  rest,  haying  out  of  curio- 
sity touched  the  beard  of  M.  Papirius,  the  old 
man,  not  being  used  to  such  familiarity,  gave 
him  a  blow  on  the  head  with  bis  ivory  staff,  and 
the  soldier  in  revenge  immediately  killed  him. 
•The  rest  of  the  Gauls,  following  his  example, 
slaughtered  the  whole  of  the  companions  of  Papi- 
rius without  mercy.  After  this  the  enemv  set 
no  bounds  to  their  rage ;  dragging  such  of  the 
Komans  forth  as  had  concealed  themselves  in  their 
bouses,  and  putting  them  to  the  sword  in  the  streets 
without  distinction  of  age  or  sex.  Brennus  then 
invested  the  capitol ;  but,  being  repulsed  with 
great  loss,  to  be  revenged  on  the  Romans  he  r&> 
solved  to  lay  the  citjr  in  ashes.  Accordingly, 
by  his  command,  the  soldiers  set  fire  to  the 
houses,  destroyed  the  temples  and  public  edi- 
fices, and  razed  the  walls  to  the  ground.  Thus 
was  Rome  in  fact  demolished :  nothing  was  to 
he  seen  on  its  site  but  a  few  hills  covered  with 
ruins,  and  a  wide  waste,  in  which  the  Gauls  who 
invested  the  capitol  were  encamped.  Brennus, 
finding  he  should  never  be  able  to  take  a  place 
which  nature  had  so  well  fortified,  except,  by 
famine,  turned  the  siege  into  a  blockade,  and 
sent  out  parties  to  pillage  the  fields,  and  raise 
contributions.  One  of  these  appeared  before 
Ardea,  where  Camillus  had  now  spent  two  yean 
in  private  life.  Notwithstanding  the  afiront  he 
had  received  at  Rome,  the  love  he  bore  bis  coun- 
try was  not  diminished,  and,  the  senate  of  Ardea 
being  met  to.  deliberate  on  the  measures  to  be 
taken  with  relation  to  the  Gauls,  Camillus  de- 
sired to  be  admitted  into  the  council.  Here  he 
prevailed  upon  the  Ardeates  to  arm  their  youth 
in  their  own  defence,  and  refuse  the  Gauls  ad- 
mittance into  their  city,  and  finally  marched  out 
in  a  very  dark  night,  surprised  the  Gauls  drown- 
ed in  wine,  and  made  a  dreadful  slaughter  of 
them.  Those  who  escaped  under  shelter  of  the 
night  fell  next  into  the  hands  of  the  peasants,  by 
whom  they  were  massacred  without  mercy.  This 
defeat  revived  the  courage  of  the  Romans,  espe- 
cially of  those  who  had  retired  to  Veii.  There 
was  not  one  of  them  who  did  not  condemn  the 
exile  of  Camillus,  and  they  now  resolved  to 
choose  him  for  their  leader.  Accordingly,  they 
sent  ambassadors  beseeching  him  to  take  into 
his  protection  the  fugitive  Romans,  and  the 
wrecks  of  the  defeat  at  Allia.  But  Camillus 
would  not  accept  of  the  command  of  the  troops 
till  the  people  assembled  by  curise  had  legally 
conferred  it  upon  him;  and  to  communicate 
with  them  was  difficult,  the  capitol  being  invest- 
ed on  all  sides.  But  Pontius  Cominius,  a  man 
of  mean  birth,  but  bold,  and  very  ambitious, 
undertook  it.  He  put  on  a  light  habit,  covered 
with  cork,  and,  throwing  himself  into  the  Tiber 
above  Rome  in  the  beginning  of  the  night,  suf- 


fered himself  to  be  carried  down  the  stream.  At 
length  he  came  to  the  foot  of  the  capitol,  and, 
landing  at  a  steep  place  where  the  Gauls  had 
not  posted  sentinels,  mounted  with  great  diffi- 
culty to  the  rampart  of  the  citadel ;  and,  having 
made  himself  known  to  the  guards,  was  admitt- 
ed into  the  place,  and  conducted  to  the  magis- 
trates. The  remnant  of  the  senate  being  imme- 
diately assembled,  Pontius  gave  them  an  account 
of  Camillus*s  victory ;  and  in  the  name  of  all 
the  Romans  at  Veii  demanded  that  great  captain 
for  their  general.  The  curis  being  called  toge- 
ther, the  act  of  condemnation  passed  on  Camil- 
lus was  now  abrogated;  he  was  unanimously 
named  dictator,  and  Pontus,  being  despatched 
with  the  decree,  reached  the  army  in  safety. 
Thus  was  Camillus,  from  banishment,  raised  at 
once  to  be  sovereign  magistrate  of  his  country. 
His  promotion  was  no  sooner  known,  but  soldiers 
flocked  from  all  parts  to  his  camp;  insomuch 
that  he  soon  saw  himself  at  the  head  of  above 
40,000  men,  jf>artly  Romans  and  partly  allies, 
who  all  thought  themselves  invincible.  In  the 
interim,  while  taking  measures  to  raise  the  block- 
ade of  the  citadel,  some  Gauls  perceived  on  the 
side  of  the  hill  the  print  of  Pontius's  hands  and 
feet.  They  observed  likewise  that  the  moss  on  th<* 
rocks  was  in  several  places  torn  up.  From  these  « 
marks  they  concluded  that  somebody  bad  lately 
gone  up  to  and  returned  from  the  capitol,  and  made 
their  report  to  Brennus  of  what  they  had  observ- 
ed ;  when  he  immediately  conceived  the  design, 
which  he  imparted  to  none,  of  surprising  the 
place  by  the  same  way  that  it  had  been  ascend- 
ed. With  this  view  he  chose  out  of  the  army 
such  soldiers  as  had  dwelt  in  mountainous  coun- 
tries, and  been  accustomed  from  their  youth  to 
climb  precipices.  These  he  ordered,  after  he  had 
well  examined  the  nature  of  the  place,  to  ascend 
in  the  night  the  way  that  was  maiked  out  for 
them,  climbing  two  abreast*  that  one  might  sup- 
port the  other  in  getting  up.  By  ^se  means 
with  much  difficulty  they  advanced  from  n>ck  to 
rock,  till  they  arrived  at  the  foot  of  the  wall; 
and  proceeded  with  such  silence  that  they  were 
not  discovered  or  heard,  either  by  the  sentinels 
who  were  upon  guard  in  the  citadel,  or  even  bv 
their  dogs.  But  a  flock  of  geese  kept  in  a  court 
of  the  capitol  in  honor  of  Juno,  and  near  her 
temple,  had  been  spared  from  religious  feeling, 
and  were  alarmed  at  their  first  approach ;  so  that, 
running  up  and  down,  they  awoke,  with  their 
cackling,  Manlius,  a  soldier,  who  some  years 
before  had  been  consul.  He  sounded  an  alarm, 
and  was  the  first  who  mounted  the  rampart, 
where  he  found  two  Gauls.  One  of  these  aimed 
a  blow  at  him  with  his  battle-ax ;  but  Manlius  ir. 
return  cut  off  his  right  hand,  and  pushed  his 
companion  with  his  buckler  headlong n^om  the  top 
of  the  rock.  In  his  fall  he  drew  several  others  down ; 
and  in  the  meantime  the  Romans,  crowding  to 
the  place,  pressed  upon  the  approaching  enemy, 
and  tumbled  them  over  one  another.  As  the 
nature  of  the  ground  would  not  sufier  them  to 
make  a  regular  retreat,  or  even  to  fly,  most  of 
them,  to  avoid  the  swords  of  the  enemy,  tlirew 
themselves  down  the  precipice,  so  that  very  few 
got  safe  back,  Manlius  was  finally  rewarded!, 
and  the  captain  of  the  Roman  guard  thrown 


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Google 


710 


ROME. 


down  the  precipice.  The  Romans  extended 
their  punishments  and  rewards  even  to  the  brutes. 
Geese  were  ever  after  had  in  honor  at  Rome, 
and  a  flock  of  them  always  kept  at  the  expense 
of  the  public.  A  golden  image  of  tlie  bira  was 
erected,  and  a  goose  every  year  carried  in  tri- 
umph upon  a  soft  litter  finely  adorned ;  whilst 
dogs  were  held  in  abhorrence,  and  the  Romans 
eveiy  year  impaled  one  of  them  on  a  branch  of 
elder.  The  blockade  of  the  capitol  had  already 
lasted  seven  months ;  so  that  the  want  of  provi- 
sions was  very  severely  felt  both  by  the  besieged 
and  besiegers.  Camillus,  since  his  nomination 
to  the  dictatorship,  beinff  master  of  the  country, 
had  posted  strong  guards  on  all  the  roads ;  so 
that  Brennus,  who  besieged  the  capitol,  was 
himself  besieged,  and  suffered  the  same  inconve^ 
niences  which  he  inflicted  on  the  Romans.  Be- 
sides, a  plague  raged  in  his  camp,  which  was 
placed  in  the  midst  of  the  ruins  of  the  demolish- 
ed city;  and  so  great  a  number  of  them  died  in 
one  quarter  that  it  was  afterwards  called  Busta 
Gallica,  or  the  place  where  the  dead  bodies  of 
the  Gauls  were  burnt.  In  the  mean  time  the 
capitol  was  reduced  to  the  last  extremity,  and 
ignorant  of  the  steps  Camillus  was  taking  to  re- 
lieve them.  That  neat  general,  on  the  other 
handj  not  knowing  the  extreme  want  endured  in 
the  capitol,  only  watted  for  a  favorable  oppor- 
tunity to  fall  upon  the  enemy ;  but,  in  tlie  mean 
time,  suffered  them  to  pine  away  in  their  infect- 
ed camp.  The  senate,  at  last,  not  knowing  what 
was  become  of  Camillus,  resolved  to  enter  upon 
a  negociation,  and  empowered  Sulpitius,  one  of 
the  military  tribunes,  to  treat  with  the  Gauls ; 
who  made  no  great  difficulty  in  coming  to  terms. 
In  a  conference,  therefore,  between  Brennus  and 
Sulpitius,  an  agreement  was  made;  that  the  Ro- 
mans were  to  pay  to  the  Gauls  lOOO  lbs.  of  gold 
(about  £45,000  sterling),  and  the  latter  to  raise 
the  siege  of  the  capitol,  and  quit  all  the  Roman  ter- 
ritories. On  the  day  appointed,  Sulpitius  brought 
the  sum  agreed  on,  and  Brennus  the  scales  and 
weights.  Historians  state  that  the  weights  of  the 
Gauls  were  false,  and  their  scales  untrue ;  which 
Sulpitius  complaining  of,  Brennus,  instead  of 
redressing  the  injustice,  threw  his  sword  and 
belt  mto  the  scale  where  the  weights  were ;  and, 
when  the  tribune  asked  him  the  meaning  of  so 
extraordinary  a  behaviour,  the  only  answer  he 
gave  was,  Vas  Victis  I  *  Woe  to  the  conquered !' 
Sulpitius  was  so  stung  with  this  haughty  answer 
that  he  was  for  cariying  the  gold  back  into  the 
capitol,  and  sustaining  the  siege  to  the  last  ex- 
tremity ;  but  other  Romans  thought  it  advisable 
to  put  up  with  the  affront.  Daring  these  dis- 
putes of  the  deputies  among  themselves  and  with 
the  Gauls,  Camillus  advanced  with  his  army  to 
the  very  gates  of  Rome ;  and,  being  there  inform- 
ed of  what  had  taken  place,  he  commanded  the 
main  body  to  follow  him,  and,  arriving  at  the 
place  of  parley,  exclaimecf  'Carry  back  your 
gold  into  the  capitol;  and  you,  Gauls,  retire 
with  your  scales  and  weights.  Rome  must  not 
be  redeemed  with  gold,  but  with  steel.'  Bren- 
nus replied,'  that  he  contravened  a  treaty  which 
was  concluded  and  confirmed  with  mutual  oaths.' 
*  Be  it  so ;'  answered  Camillus,  'yet  it  is  of  no 
force  having  been  made  by  an  inferior  magistrate, 


without  the  privity  or  consent  of  the  didafor. 
I,  who  am  vested  with  the  supreme  aothoiity 
over  the  Romans,  declare  the  contract  void/  At 
these  words,  both  sides  drawing  their  swords,  a 
confused  scuffle  ensued,  in  which  the  Gauls,  af- 
ter an  inconsiderable  loss,  were  forced  to  retire 
to  their  camp;    which  they  abandoned  in  the 
night,  and,  having  marched  eight  miles,  encamp- 
ed  on  the  Gabinian  way.     Camillas  pursued 
them  as  soon  as  it  was  day,  and  gave  them  a 
total  overthrow,  the  Gauls,  according  to  Uvy, 
making  but  a  faunt  resistance.    It  was  not,  says 
that  author,  so  much  a  battle  as  a  slaughier. 
Many  of  the  Gauls  were  slain  in  the  adiooy 
more  in  the  pursuit;  but  the  greater  number 
were  cut  off,  as  they  wandered  up  and  down  in 
tiie  fields,  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  neighbouring 
villages.      In  short,  there  was  not  one  single 
Gaul  left  to  carry  to  his  countrymen  the  news  of 
this  catastrophe.    The  camp  of  the  barbarians 
was   plundered;    and    Camillus,    loaded   with 
spoils,  retunied  in  triumph  to  the  city,  the  sol- 
diers styling  him  another  Romulus,  the  Father 
of  his  country,  and  the  Second  Founder  of  Rome. 
As  the  houses  of  Rome  were  now  ail  razed, 
the  tribunes  of  the  people  renewed,  with  more 
warmth  than  ever,  an  old  project  which  had  oc- 
casioned great  disputes.     Tliey  had  formerty 
proposed  a  law  for  dividing  the  senate  and  go- 
vernment between  the  cities  of  Veii  and  Rome. 
This  idea  was  revived ;  nay,  most  of  the  tribunes 
were  for  entirely  abandoning  their  old  ruined 
city,  and  making  Veii  the  sole  seat  of  the  em- 
pire.   But  the  senate  took  the  part  of  CamiUus, 
and,  being  desirous  to  see  Rome  rebuilt,  con- 
tinued him,  contrary  to  custom,  a  full  year  in  the 
office  of  dictator ;  during  which  time  he  made  it 
his  whole  business  to  suppress  the  inclination  of 
the  people  to  remove  to  Veii.     Having  assem- 
bled the  curie,  he  prevailed  on  them  to  lay  aside 
all  thoughts  of  leaving  Rome ;  and,  when  the  dic- 
tator reported  the  resolution  of  the  people  to  the 
senate,  while  L.  Lucretius,  who  was  to  give  the 
first  opinion,  was  beginning  lo  speak,  it  hap- 
pened that  a  centurion,  then  marching  by  the 
senate-house,   cried    out    aloud,    '  Plant  yoor 
colors,  ensign ;  this  is  the  best  place  to  stay  in.' 
These  words  were  considered  as  dictated  by  the 
gods ;  and  Lucretius,  ta|(ing  occasion  from  them 
to  urge  the  necessity  of  staying  at  Rome :  *  A 
happy  omen !'  cried  he, '  I  adore  the  gods  who 
gave  it.'  The  whole  senate  applauded  his  words ; 
and  a  decree  was  passed  without  opposition  for 
rebuilding  the  city.      Tho\igh  the  tribunes  were 
defeated  by  Camillus  in  this  point,  they  resolved 
to  exercise   their  authority  against  another  pa- 
trician, who  had  indeed  deserved  punishment. 
This  was  Q.  Fabius,  who  had  violated  the  law 
of  nations,  and  thereby  provoked  the  Gauls,  and 
occasioned  the  burning  of  Rome.    His  crime 
being  notorious,  he  killed  himself  to  avoid  pu- 
nishment.   On  the  other  hand,  the  republic  gave 
a  house  situated  on  the  capitol  to  M.  Maidius, 
as  a  monument  of  his  valor,  and  of  the  gratitude 
of  his  fellow-citizens.    Camillus  closed  this  year 
by  laying  down  his  dictatorship :  whereupon  an 
interregnum  ensued,  during  which  he  governed 
the  state  alternately  with  P.  Cornelius  Scipio ; 
and  it  fell  to  his  lot  to  preside  at  the  election  o£ 


Digitized  by  VjiUUy  LC 


R    O    M    R 


711 


new  magistrtites  when  L.  Valerias  Poplicolay  L. 
Virginius  Tricostus,  P.  Cornelius  Cossus,  A. 
Manlius  Capttolinas,  L.  iCmilius  Mamercinus, 
and  L.  Posthumius  Albinos,  were  chosen.  The 
first  care  of.  these  magistrates  was  to  collect  all 
the  ancient  monuments  of  the  religion  and  civil 
laws  of  Rome  which  could  be  found  among  the 
rains  of  the  demolished  city.  The  laws  of  the 
twelve  tables,  and  some  of  the  laws  of  the  kings, 
had  been  written  on  brass,  and  fixed  up  in  the 
forum ;  and  the  treaties  made  with  several  na- 
tions had  been  engraved  on  pillars  erected  in 
the  temples.  Pains  were  therefore  taken  to 
gather  up  the  ruins  of  these  precious  monu- 
ments ;  and  what  could  not  be  found  was  sup- 
plied by  memory.  The  pontifices,  on  their 
part,  took  care  to  re-esublish  the  religious  ce- 
remonies, and  made  also  a  list  of  lucky  and  un- 
lucky days.  And  now  the  ifovemors  of  the 
republic  applied  themselves  wholly  to  rebuild 
the  city. 

But  Rome  was  scarcely  restored  when  her 
citizens  were  alarmed  by  the  news  that  all  her 
neighbours  were  combining  her  destruction. 
The  .£qui,  Volsci,  Etrurians,  and  even  her  old 
friends  the  Latins  and  Hemici,  entered  into  an 
alliance  against  her.  The  republic,  under  this 
terror,  nominated  Camillas  dictator  a  third  time. 
He  divided  his  new  levies  into  three  bodies. 
The  first,  under  the  command  of  A.  Manlius;  he 
ordered  to  encamp  under  the  walls  of  Rome ; 
the  second  he  sent  into  the  neighbourhood  of 
Veii ;  and  marched  himself  at  the  head  of  the 
third,  to  relieve  the  tribunes,  who  were  closely 
besieged  in  their'  camp  by  the  forces  of  the  Volsci 
and  Latins.  Finding  the  enemy  encamped  near 
Lanuvium,  on  the  declivity  of  the  hill  Marcius, 
])G  posted  himself  behind  it,  and,  by  lighting 
fires,  gave  his  countrymen  notice  of  their  ar- 
rival. The  Volsci  and  Latins,  when  they  under- 
stood that  Caroillus  was  at  the  head  of  an  army 
newly  arrived,  were  so  terrified  that  they  shut 
themselves  up  in  their  camp,  which  they  fortified 
with  trees  cut  down  in  haste.  The  dictator  ob- 
serving that  this  barrier  was  of  green  wood,  and 
that  every  morning  there  arose  a  great  wind, 
which  blew  fall  upon  the  enemy's  camp,  formed 
the  design  of  taking  it  by  fire.  With  this  view 
he  ordered  one  part  of  his  army  to  go  by  break 
of  day  with  fire-brands  to  the  windward  side  of 
the  camp,  and  the  other  to  make  a  brisk  attack 
on  the  opposite  side.  Bv  these  means  the  enemy 
were  entirely  defeated,  and  their  camp  taken. 
Camillus  then  commanded  his  men  to  extinguish 
the  flames,  and  to  save  the  booty,  with  which  be 
rewarded  bis  army.  Then  leaving  his  son  in  the 
camp  to  ffuard  the  prisoners,  and  entering  the 
country  of  the  iEqui,  he  made  himself  master  of 
their  capital,  Bola.  Thence  he  marched  against 
the  Volsci ;  whom  he  entirely  reduced,  after  they 
had  waged  war  with  the  Romans  for  the  space  of 
107  years.  He  next  penetrated  into  Etruria,  to 
relieve  Sutrinum,  a  town  in  alliance  with  Rome^ 
But,  notwithstanding  all  the  expedition  Camillus 
could  use,  he  did  not  reach  the  place  before  it 
had  capitulated.  The  Sutrini  being  (greatly  dis- 
tressed for  want  of  provisions,  and  exhausted 
with  labor,  had  surrendered  to  the  Etrurians, 
who  had  granted  them  nothing  but  their  li^es 


and  clothes.  In  this  destitute  condition  they 
had  lefi  their  own  country,  and  were  going  in 
search  of  new  habitations,  when  they  met  Ca- 
millus. The  unfortunate  multitude  no  sooner 
saw  the  Romans  than  they  threw  themselves  at 
the  dictator's  feet,  who  desired  them  to  take  a 
little  rest,  and  refresh  themselves,  adding  that  he 
would  soon  dry  up  their  tears,  and  transfer  their 
sorrows  to  their  enemies.  The  latter  did  not 
dream  that  the  dictator  could  come  so  speedily 
from  such  a  distance ;  and  therefore  were  wholly 
employed  in  plundering  the  houses,  or  feasting 
on  the  provisions  they  found  in  Suirium.  Many 
of  them  were,  therefore,  put  to  the  sword,  while 
an  incredible  number  were  made  prisoners;  and 
the  city  was  restored  to  its  ancient  inhabitants. 
And  now,  after  these  glorious  exploits,  w^ich 
were  finished  in  so  short  a  time,  Camillus 
entered  Rome  in  triumph  a  third  time ;  resigned 
his  dictatorship,  and  the  public  chose  six  new 
military  tribunes,  Q.  Quinctius,  Q.  Servius,  L. 
Julius,  L.  Aquilius,  L.  Lucretius,  and  Ser.  SOl- 
pitius.  During  their  administration  the  country 
of  the  ^ui  was  laid  waste,  in  order  to  put  it 
out  of  their  power  to  revolt  anew ;  and  the  two 
cities  of  Cortuosa  and  Contenebra,  in  the  Incu- 
mony  of  the  Tarquinienses,  were  taken  from  die 
Etrurians.  At  this  time  it  was  thouj^ht  proper 
to  repair  the  capitol,  and  add  new  works  to  that 
part  of  the  hill  which  the  Gauls  had  endea- 
voured to  scale.  These  works  were  esteemed 
very  beautiful,  as  Livy  informs  us,  even  in  the 
time  of  Augustus.  And  now,  Rome  being  rein- 
stated in  her  former  flourishing  condition^  the 
tribunes,  who  had  been  for  some  time  ^uiet,  be^ 
gan  to  renew  their  seditious  harangues,  and'  re- 
vive tlie  old  quarrel  about  the  divisiion  of  the 
conquered  lands.  As  for  the  military  tribunes, 
they  owned  that  their  election  had  been  defec- 
tive ;  and  volunUrily  laid  down  their  office.  So 
that,  after  a  short  interregnum,  daring  which  M. 
Manlius,  Ser.  Sulpitius,  and  L.  Valerius  Poti- 
tius,  governed  the  republic,  six  new  miliury  tri- 
bunes, L.  Papirius,  C.  Sergius,  L.  ^milius,  L. 
Menenius,  L.  Valerius,  and  C.  Cornelius,  were 
chosen  for  the  ensuing  year,<  which  was  spent  in 
works  of  peace.  A  temple,  which  had  been 
vowed  to  Mars  during  the  war,  was  built  and 
consecrated  by  T.  Quinctius.  As  there  had  hi^ 
therto  been  but  few  Roman  tribes  beyond  the 
Tiber  which  had  a  right  of  suffrage  in  the  co- 
mitia,  fouf  new  ones  were  added,  under  the  name 
of  the  SteHatina,  Tramontina,  Sabatina,  and  Ar- 
niensis;  so  that  the  tribunes  were  now  in  all 
twenty -five,  which  enjoyed  the  same  rights  and 
privileges. 

The  expectation  of  an  approaching  war  in^ 
duced  the  centuries  to  choose  Camillus  one  of 
the  military  tribunes  for  the  next  year.  His  col- 
leagues were  Ser.  Cornelius,  Q.  Servilius,  L- 
Quinctius,  L.  Horatius,  and  P.  Valerius.  As 
all  these  were  moderate  and  considerate  men, 
they  agreed  to  invest  Camillus  with  the  sole  ma- 
nagement of  affairs  in  time  of  war;  and  in  fiill 
senate  transferred  their  power  into  his  hands.  It 
had  already  been  determined  in  the  senate  to  turn 
the  arms  of  the  republic  against  the  Etrurians ;  but, 
upon  intelligence  beiug  received  that  the  Antiates 
had  entered  the  Pomptin  tenitory,  and  obliged  th«^ 


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le 


712 


ROME 


liomans  who  had  uken  possession  ot  it  to  retire, 
it  was  thought  necessary  to  humble  them  first. 
Tlie  Antiates  had  joined  the  Latins  and  Hemici 
near  Satricum ;  so  that  the  Romans»  being  ap- 
palled at  their  prodigious  numbers,  showed 
themselves  backward  to  engage;  which  CamilUs 
perceiving,  he  mounted  his  horse^  and  riding 
through  all  the  ranks  of  the  army,  encouraged 
them  by  a  suitable  harangue ;  after  whicli  he  dis- 
mounted, took  the  next  standard  bearer  by  the 
hand,  and  led  him  towards  the  enemy,  crying 
out.  Soldiers,  advance.  The  soldiery  now  fell 
on  the  enemy  with  incredible  fury.  Camillus, 
to  increase  their  eagerness,  commanded  a  stan- 
dard to  be  thrown  into  the  middle  of  the  ene- 
my's battalions;  which  made  those  who  were 
fighting  in  the  first  ranks,  exert  all  their  resolu- 
tion to  recover  i»  The  Antiates  gave  way,  and 
were  entirely  defeated :  the  'Latins  and  Hemici 
separated  from  the  Volsct,  and  returned  home : 
while  the  Volsci,  seeing  themselves  abandoned 
by  their  allies,  took  refuge  in  the  city  of  Satricum ; 
which  Camillus  immediately  invested,  and  took 
by  assault,  when  the  Volsci  surrendered  at  discre- 
tion. He  then  left  his  army  under  the  command 
of  Valerius ;  and  returned  to  Rome  to  solicit  the 
consent  of  the  senate,  and  make  the  necessary 
preparations  for  the  siege  of  Antium.  But,  while 
tie  was  proposing  this  affair,  deputies  arrived 
from  Nepet  and  Sutrium,  cities  in  alliance  with 
Rome,  aemanding  succors  against  the  Etru- 
rians, who  threatened  to  besiege  tfaem.  Here- 
upon the  expedition  against  Antium  was  kud 
aside,  and  Camillus  commanded  to  hasten  to  the 
relief  of  the  allied  cities,  with  the  troops  which 
Servilius  had  at  Rome.  Camillus  immediately 
set  out  for  the  new  war;  and,- upon  his  arrival 
before  Sutrium,  found  it  not  only  besieged  but 
almost  taken,  the  Etrurians  having  made  them- 
selves masters  of  some  of  the  gates,  and  all  the 
avenues  of  the  city.  But  the  inhabitants  hear- 
ing that  Camillus  was  come,  recovered  their  cou- 
rage, and,  by  barricadoes  in  the  streets,  prevented 
the  enemy  from  making  themselves  masters  of 
the  whole.  Camillus,  dividing  bis  army  into  two 
bodies,  ordered  Valerius  to  march  round  the 
walls,  while  he  charged  the  Etrurians  in  the  rear ; 
on  which  the  latter  betook  themselves  to  flijriit 
through  a  gate  which  was  not  invested.  Ca- 
millus's  troops  made  a  dreadful  slaughter  of  them 
within  the  city,  while  Valerius  made  equal 
havoc  without  tne  walls.  Camillus  hastened  to 
the  relief  of  Nepet,  which  had  submitted  to  the 
Etrurians.  He  took  it  by  assault,  put  all  the 
Etrurian  soldiers  to  the  sword,  and  condemned 
the  authors  of  the  revolt  to  die  by  the  axes  of  the 
lictors.  Thus  ended  Camillus's  military  tribune- 
ship,  in  which  he  acquired  no  less  reputation 
than  he  had  done  in  the  most  glorious  of  his 
dictatorships. 

In  the  following  magistracy  of  six  military 
tribunes,  a  dangerous  sedition  is  said  to  have 
taken  place  through  the  ambition  of  Marcus 
Manlius,  who  had  saved  the  capitol  from  the 
Gauls. '  He  envied  Camillus,  magnified  his  own 
exploits  beyond  those  of  the  dictator,  concerted 
measures  with  tbr  tribunes,  and  strove  to  gain  the 
afTections  of  the  multitude  by  advocating  the 
Agrarian  law,  and  that  for  the  relief  of  insolvent 


debtors,  of  whom  there  was  now  a  great  number. 
The  senate,  alarmed  at  this  opposition,  created 
A.  Cornelius  Cossus  dictator,  for  which  the  war 
with  the  Volsci  afforded  them  a  fiiir  prelniee. 
Manlius  still  continued  to  inflame  the  people 
against  the  patricians.  Besides  tlie  most  on 
bounded  personal  generosity,  he  held  assemblies 
at  his  own  house  (in  the  citadel}  where  he  slan- 
dered the  senators,  affirming  that  Aey  appro- 
priated to  their  own  use  all  the  gold  which  was 
to  have  been  paid  to  the  Gauls.  Upon  this  be 
was  committed  to  prison ;  but  the  people  made 
such  disturbance  that  the  senate  released  him. 
At  last  he  vnis  publicly  accused  of  annring  to 
be  king ;  but  the  Romans,  grateful  for  his  having 
delivered  the  capitol,  could  not  condemn  him. 
The  military  tribunes,  however,  having  appoint- 
ed the  assembly  to  be  held  without  the  city, 
obtained  their  wish ;  and  Manlius  was  thrown 
headlong  from  the  capitol ;  the  people^  who  la- 
mented his  fate,  imputing  a  plague,  which  broke 
out  .soon  after,  to  the  anger  of  the  gods  on  that 
account. 

The  Romans,  having  now  triumphed  over  the 
Sabines,  the  Etrurians,  the  Latins,  the  Hemici, 
the  i£qui,  and  the  Volscians,  began  to  look  for 
greater  conquests.  They  accordingly  turned  their 
arms  against  the  Samnites,  a  people  about  100 
miles  east  from  the  city,  descendea  from  the  Sa- 
bines, and  inhabiting  a  large  tract  of  southern 
Italy.  Valerius  Corvus  and  Cornelius  were 
consuls.  The  first  was  one  of  the  greatest  com- 
manders of  his  time,  and  sumamed  Corms, 
from  the  circumstance  of  being  singulariy  as- 
sisted by  a  crow  in  a  single  combat,  in  which  k^ 
fought  and  killed  a  Gaul  of  a  gigantic  stat«ire. 
To  his  colleague's  care  it  was  consigned  to  lead 
an  army  to  Samnium,  the  enemy's  capital,  while 
Corvus  was  sent  to  relieve  Capua,  the  capital  of 
the  Campanians.  The  Samnites  were  the  bravest 
men  the  Romans  had  ever  yet  encountered,  and 
the  contention  between  the  two  nations  was  ma- 
naged on  both  sides  with  the  most  determined 
resolution.  But  the  fortune  of  Rome  prevailed ; 
and  the  Samnites  at  length  fled.  The  other  con- 
sul, having  led  his  army  into  a  defile,  was  in 
danger  of  being  cut  off,  had  not  Decius,  a  tri- 
bune, possessed  himself  of  a  hill  which  com- 
manded the  enemy  ;  so  that  the  Samnites,  being 
attacked  on  both  sides,  were  defeated  with  great 
slaughter,  no  fewer  than  30,000  of  them  being  left 
dead  upon  the  field.  Some  time,  after  this  vic- 
tory, the  soldiers  who  were  statiotied  at  Capoa 
mutinying,  forced  Quintus,  an  old  and  eminent 
soldier,  to  be  their  leader;  and  came  withm 
eight  miles  of  Rome.  The  senate  immediately 
created  Valerius  Corvus  dictator,  and  sent  him 
with  another  detachment  to  oppose  them.  The 
two  armies  were  now  drftwn  up  against  each 
other,  while  fathers  and  sons  beheld  themselves 
prepared  to  engage  in  opposite  causes;  but 
Corvus,  knowing  his  influence  amoi^  the  sol- 
diers, instead  of  going  forward  to  meet  the  mu- 
tineers in  a  hostile  manner,  went  with  the  most 
cordial  friendship  to  embrace  and  expostulate 
with  his  old  acquaintances.  His  conduct  had  the 
desired  effect.  Quintus  only  desired  to  have  their 
defection  forgiven.  A  war  between  the  Romans 
and  Latins  followed  soon  after;  and  a^  their 


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713 


habits,  arms,  and  language,  were  the  same,  the 
most  exact  discipline  was  necessary  to  prevent 
confusion  in  the  engagement.  Orders,  therefore, 
were  issued  by  the  consul  Manlius,  that  no  sol- 
dier should  leave  his  ranks  under  pain  of  death. 
>Vith  these  injunctions,  both  armies  were  drawn 
out  in  array,  when  Metius,  the  general  of  the 
enemy's  cavaln',  pushed  forward  and  challenged 
any  knight  in  the  Roman  army  to  single  combat. 
For  some  time  there  was  a  general  pause,  no 
soldier  offering  to  disobey  his  orders,  till  Titus 
Manlius,  the  consul's  son,  burning  with  shame  to 
see  the  whole  body  of  the  Romans  intimidated, 
boldly  sallied  out  agnjnst  his  adversary.  Man- 
lius killed  his  adversary ;  and,  despoiling  him  of 
his  armor,  returned  in  triumph  to  his  Other's 
tent»  where  he  was  giving  orders  relative  to  the 
engagement.  Doubtful  of  the  reception  he  should 
find,  he  came,  with  hesitation,  to  lay  the  enemy's 
spoils  at  his  feet,  and  insinuated  that  what  he 
did  was  entirely  from  a  spirit  of  hereditary  vir- 
tue. But  his  father,  turning  away,  ordered  him 
to  be  led  forth  before  the  army,  and  there  to 
have  his  head  struck  off  on  account  of  his  dis- 
obeying orders.  The  whole  army  was  struck 
with  horror  at  this  unnatural  mandate ;  but  when 
thev  saw  theic  young  champion's  head  struck  off, 
and  his  blood  streaming  upon  the  ground,  they 
could  no  longer  contain  their  execrations.  His 
dead  body,  adorned  with  the  spi)ils  of  thevao- 
quished  enemy,  was  buried  with  all  the  pomp 
of  military  greatness.  Mean  time  the  nattle 
joined  with  mutual  fury ;  and,  as  the  two  armies 
had  of^en  fought  under  the  same  leaders,  they 
combated  with  all  the  animosity  of  a '  civil  war. 
The  Latins  chiefly  depended  on  their  bodily 
strength ;  the  Romans  on  jtbeir  invincible  couraf^e. 
Forces  so  nearly  matched  seemed  only  to  require 
the  protection  of  their  deities  to  tarn  the  scale  of 
victory ;  and  the  augurs  had  foretold  that,  what- 
ever part  of  the  Roman  army  should  be  dis- 
tressed, the  commander  of  that  part  should  de- 
vote himself  for  his  country.  Manlius  commanded 
the  right  wing,  and  Decius  led  on  the  left.  Both 
sides  K>uglit  for  some  time  with  doubtful  success, 
but  at  last  the  left  wing  of  the  Roman  army,  began 
to  give  ground.  De6ius  having  resolved  to  devote 
himself  for  his  country,  and  to  offer  his  own  life 
to  save  his  army,  after  the  usual  superstitions, 
mounting  on  horseback,  drove  furiously  into  the 
midst  of  the  enemy,  carrying  terror  and  conster- 
nation wherever  he  came.  He  fiell  covered  with 
MTOunds.  The  Roman  army  considering  this  as 
an  assurance  of  success,  and  the  superstition  of 
the  Latins  being  equally  influenced  by  his  reso- 
lution,' a  total  rout  ensued,  and  scarcely  a  fourth 
part  of  the  enemy  survived  the  defeat.  This  was 
the  last  biittle  that  the  Latins  had  with  the  Ro- 
mans ;  they  were  forced  to  beg  a  peace  upon  hard 
conditions;  and  two  years  after,  their  strongest 
city,  Paedum,  being  taken,  they  were  brought 
under  6nal  submission  to  the  Roman  power. 

About  this  time  the  Romans  sustained  a  signal 
disgrace  in  their  contests  with  the  Samnites. 
The  senate  having  denied  that  nation  peace, 
Pontius  their  general  resolved  to  gain  by  strata- 
gem what  he  had  frequently  lost  by  force. 
Leading  his  army  into  a  defile  called  Claudiura, 
and  taking  possession  of  all  its  outlets,  he  sent 


ten  of  his  soldiers,  habited  like  shepherds,  to 
throw  themselves  in  the  way  the  Romans  were 
to  march.  The  consul  met  them,  and  demanded 
the  route  the  Samnite  army  had  taken;  with 
seeming  indifference  they  replied,  that  they  were 
gone  to  Luceria,  in  Apulia,  and  were  then  be^ 
sieging  it.  The  Roman  general  marched  directly 
by  the  shortest  road,  through  the  defiles,  and 
was  not  undeceived  till  he  saw  his  army  sur* 
munded.  Pontius,  thus  having  them  entirely  in 
his  power,  first  obliged  the  Romans  to  pass  un- 
der the  yoke,  stripp^  of  all  but  their  garments ; 
he  then  stipulated  that  they  should  wholly  quit 
the  territories  of  the  Samnites,  and  that  they 
should  continue  to  live  upon  terms  of  former 
confederacy.  The  Romans  were  constrained  to 
submit  to  this  treaty,  and  marched  into  Capua 
disarmed  and  half  naked.  But  after  this  the 
power  of  the  Samnites  declined  every  day, 
while  that  of  the  Romans  continually  increased. 
Under  Papirius  Cursor,  at  different  times  consul 
and  dictator,  repeated  triumphs  were  granted. 
Fabius  Maximus  also  had  his  share  in  conquer- 
ing them ;  Decius,  the  son  of  Decius  who  de- 
voted himself,  followed  the  example  of  his  fa- 
ther. See  Decius.  The  success  ot  the  Romans 
against  the  Samnites  alarmed  all  Italy.  The 
Tarentines,  who  had  long  plotted  against  the  re- 
public, now  declared  themselves;  and  invited 
iiJto  Italy  Pyrrhus  king  of  Epirus.  The  offer 
was  readily  accepted  by  that  ambitious  monarch. 
Their  ambassadors  carried  magnificent  presents, 
and  told  him  that  they  only  wanted  a  general 
of  fame  and  experience;  and  that  they  could 
furnish  20,000  horse  and  350,000  foot.  As  soon 
as  the  news  of  this  deputation  were  brought  to 
the  Roman  camp,  iEmilius,  who  had  hitherto 
made  war  on  the  Tarentines  but  gently,  in  hopes 
of  adjusting  matters  by  negociation,  began  to 
commit  all  sorts  of  hostilities.  He  took  cities, 
stormed  castles,  and  hid  the  whole  country 
waste,  burning  and  destroying  all  before  him. 
The  Tarentines  brought  their  army  into  tlie 
field,  but  /Emilius  obliged  them  to  take  refuge 
within  their  walls.  However,  he  used  the  pri- 
soners with  great  moderation,  and  even  sent 
them  back  without  ransom.  These  highly  ex- 
tolled the  generosity  of  the  consul,  many  of  the 
inhabitants  were  brought  over  to  the  Roman 
party,  and  they  all  began  to  repent  of  their  hav- 
ing sent  for  F^rrhus.  But,  in  the  mean  time, 
the  Tarentjne  ambassadors  arriving  in  Epiras, 
pursuant  to  the  powers  they  had  received,  made 
an  absolute  treaty  vrith  the  king ;  who  sent  be- 
fore him  the  famous  Cyneas,  with  3000  men,  to 
take  possession  of  the  citadel  Of  Tarentum. 
This  minister  deposed  Agis,  whom  the  Taren- 
tines had  chosen  to  be  their  governor.  He  like-  * 
wise  prevailed  opon  the  Tarentines  to  deliver 
up  the  citadel  into  his  hands ;  and  sent  messengers 
to  Pyrrhus,  pressing  him  to  hasten  his  departure. 
Mean  time,  £mihus  resolved  to  ciuarter  his 
troops  in  Apulia,  near  the  territory  of  Tarentum. 
But  being  obliged  to  pass  through  defiles,  with 
the  sea  on  one  side  and  hills  on  the  other,  he 
was  attacked  by  the  Tarentines  and  Epirots  from 
barks  fraught  vrith  balistee,  and  from  archers 
and  sHngers  on  the  hills.  Hereupon  i£milius 
placed  the  Tarentine  prisoners  between  him  and 


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714 


ROME. 


the  enemy;  which  the  Tarentines  perceiving, 
soon  left  off,  m>  that  the  Romans  took  up  their 
winter  quarters  in  Apulia.  The  next  year 
itlmilius  was  continued  in  command  with  the 
title  of  proconsul ;  and  was  ordered  to  make 
war  upon  the  Salentines,  who  had  declared  for 
the  Tarentines.  'The  Romans  now  enlisted 
the  proletarii,  who  were  the  meanest  of  the 
people,  and  had  never  before  been  suffered  to 
bear  arms.  In  the  mean  time  Pyrrhus  arrived 
at  Tarentnm,  after  having  narrowly  escaped 
shipwreck.  The  Tarentines,  who  were  entirely 
devoted  to  their  pleasures,  expected  that  he 
should  take  all  the  fatigues  of  the  war  on  him- 
self, and  expose  only  his  Epirots  to  danger. 
But,  his  ships  arriving  one  after  another  with  his 
troops,  he  began  to  reform  the  disorders  that 
prevailed.  He  shut  up  their  theatre,  public 
gardens,  porticoes,  and  places  of  exercises,  and 
prohibited  all  masqueraaes,  plays,  &c.  They 
were  utter  strangers  to  military  exercise;  but 
Pyrrhus,  having  caused  a  register  to  be  made  of 
all  the  young  men  fit  for  war,  picked  out  the 
strongest,  and  incorporated  them  among  his 
own  troops,  exercising  them  daily  for  several 
hours.  And  because  many,  who  had  not  been 
accustomed  to  such  severity,  left  their  native 
country,  Pyrrhus,  by  a  public  proclamation,  de- 
clared all  such  capitally  guilty.  In  the  mean 
time  P.  Valerius  Levinus,  the  Roman  consul, . 
entering  the  country  of  the  Lucaniaos,  who  were 
in  alliance  with  the  Tarentines,  committed  great 
ravages  there :  and,  having  taken  and  fortified 
one  of  their  castles,  waited  in  that  neighbourhood 
for  Pyrrhus.  Pyrrhus  therefore  took  the  field 
with  his  Epirots,  some  recruits  of  TaTentum,and 
other  Italians ;  and  marched  towards  those  parts 
where  Levinus  was  waiting  for  him.  The  Ro- 
mans were  encamped  on  the  other  side  of  the 
river  Siris;  and  Pyrrhus,  appearing  on  the  oppo- 
site bank,  wished  to  reconnoitre  the  enemy's 
camp,  and  see  what  appearance  they  made.  He 
crossed  the  river,  attended,  by  Megacles,  and 
having  observed  the  consul's  intrenchments,  the 
manner  in  which  he  had  posted  his  advanced 
guards,  and  the  good  order  of  his  camp,  he  was 
greatly  surprised.  On  his  return  he  changed 
his  resolution  of  attacking  them ;  and  waited  for 
the  arrival  of  the  confederates.  In  the  mean 
time  he  posted  strong  guards  along  the  river,  and 
sent  out  scouts  to  watch  the  motions  of  the 
consul.  Some  of  these  being  taken  by  the  Ro- 
mans, the  consul  led  them  through  his  cam(p,and, 
having  showed  them  to  his  army,  sent  them  back 
to  the  king,  telling  them  that  he  had  many  other 
troops  to  show  them  in  due  time.  Laevinius, 
being  determined  to  draw  the  enemy  to  a  battle 
before  Pyrrhus  received  the  reinforcements  he 
expected,  marched  to  the  banks  of  the  Siris ;  and 
there,  drawing  up  his  infantry  in  battalia,  ordered 
the  cavalry  to  file  off,  and  march  a  great  way 
about,  to  find  a  passage  at  some  place  not  de- 
fended by  the  enemy.  Accordingly  they  passed 
the  river  without  being  observed ;  and,  falling 
upon  the  guards  which  Pyrrhus  had  posted  on 
the  banks  over  against  the  consular  army,  gave 
the  infantry  an  opportunity  of  crossing  the  river 
on  bridges  which  Laevinus  had  prepared.  Before 
they  got  oyer  Pyrrhus,  hastening  from  his  camp. 


hoped  10  cut  the  Roman  army  in  pieces  whJe 
passing  the  river  ;  but  the  cavalry  covering  the 
infantry,  and  standing  between  them  and  the 
Epirots,  gave  them  time  to  form  themselves.  On 
the  other  hand  Pyrrhus  drew  up  his  men  as  fiat 
as  they  came  from  the  camp,  and  performed  such 
deeds  of  valor  that  the  Romans  found  bin  worthy 
of  the  great  reputation  he  had  acquired.    As  the 
cavalry  alone  had  hitherto  engaged,  Pyrrfaas, 
who  confided  most  in  his  infantry,  hastened  back 
to  the  camp,  to  bring  them  to  the  charge ;  and, 
having  changed  habits  with  Megacles^  led  his 
phalanx  against  the  Roman  legions  with  incre- 
dible fury.    Lsvinus  susuined  the  shock  with 
great  resolution,  so  that  the  victory  was  for  Bany 
hours  warmly  disputed.    Both  parties  seven! 
times  gave  way,  but  rallied  again,   and  were 
brought  back  to  the  charge  by  their  command- 
ers. Megacles,  in  the  attire  of  Pyrrhus,  was  in  aU 
places,  and  well  supported  the  character*  be  had 
assumed.     But  his  disguise  at  last  proved  fatal 
to  him :  for  a  Roman  knight,  named   Dexter, 
taking  him  for  the  king,  followed  him  wherever 
he  went ;  and  at  last  killed  him,  stripped  him  o^ 
his  armour,  and  carried  it  in  triumph  to  die 
consul,  who,  by  showing  to  the  Epirots  the  spuib 
of  their  king,  so  terrified  them  that  they  began 
to  give  way.    But  Pyrrhus,  appearing  in  the 
first  files  of  his  phalanx,  and  ridmg  through  all 
the  lines,  undeceived  his  men,  and  inspired  them 
with  new  courage.    The  advantage  seemed  to 
be  equal  on  both  sides,,  when  Levinus  ordered 
his  cavalry  to  advance ;  which  Pyrrhus  observing 
drew  up  twenty  elephants  in  the  front  of  his 
army,  with  towers  on  their  backs  full  of  bowmen. 
The  sight  of  these  dreadful  animals  chilled  the 
bravery  of  the  Romans,  who  had  never  before 
seen  any.      However  they  still  advanced,  till 
their  horses,  unable  to  bear  the  smell  of  them, 
and  frightened  at  the  strange  noise  they  made, 
threw  their  riders,  or  carried  them  on  full  speed. 
In   the    mean    time    the    arehers,   discharging 
showers  of  darts  from  the  towers,  killed  many  of 
the  Romans,  while  others  were  trod  to  death  by 
the  elephants.      Notwithstanding  the  disorder 
of  the  cavalry,  the  legionaries  still  kept  their 
ranks,  till  Pyrrhus  attacked  them  at  the  head  of 
the  ThessaHan  horse.    The  onset  was  so  Airious 
that  they  were  forced  to  retire  in  disorder.     But 
an  elephant,  which  had  been  wounded,  having 
caused  a  great  disorder  in  Pynhus's  army,  this 
accident  favored  the  retreat  of  the  Romans,  and 
gave  them  time  to  repass  the  river,  and  take  re- 
fuge in  Apulia.    Pyrrhus  remained  master  of  the 
field,  and  had  the  pleasure  to  see  the  Romans 
fly  before  him :  but  the  victory  cost  him  dear,  a 
great  number  of  his  best  officers  and  soldiers 
having  been  slain  in  the  battle.      liis  first  care 
after  the  action  was  to  bury  the  dead,  and  herein 
he  made  no  distinction  between  the  Romans  and 
his  Epirots.     Pyrrhus  next  broke  into  the  coun- 
tries in  alliance  with  the  Romans,  plundered  the 
lands  of  the  republic,  and  made  incursions  even 
into  the  neighbourhood  of  Rome.     Many  cities 
opened  their  gates  to  him,  and  he  soon  made 
himself  master  of  the  greatest  part  of  Campania. 
While  in  that  fruitful  province  he  was  joined  by 
the  Samnites,  Lucanians,  and  Messapians,  wbom 
he  had  long  expected.    He  then  maKh«i  to  lay 


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ROME. 


716 


siege  to  Capua;  but  Laviuas,  having  already 
received  a  reinforcement  of  two  legions,  threw 
some  troops  into  the  city;  which  obliged  Pyrrhus 
to  drop  his  design,  and,  leaving  Capua,  to  march 
to  Naples.  Laevinus  followed  him,  harassing 
his  troops  on  their  march;  and  at  length,  by 
keeping  his  army  in  the  neighbourhood,  forced 
him  to  give  over  all  thoughts  of  attacking  that 
city.  The  king  then  took  his  route  towards 
Rome  by  the  Latin  way,  surprised  Fregella:, 
and,  marching  through  the  country  of  the  Her- 
iiici,  sat  down  before  Preeneste.  There,  from  the 
top  of  a  hill,  he  saw  Rome.  But  he  was  soon 
forced  to  retire  by  the  other  consul  T.  Corunca- 
aius,  who,  having  reduced  Etruria,  was  just  re- 
turned with  his  victorious  army  to  Rome.  He 
therefore  raised  the  siege  of  Prseneste, '  and 
hastened  back  into  Campania;  where,  to  his 
surprise,  he  found  Laevinus  with  a  more  nume- 
rous army  than  that  which  he  had  defeated  on 
the  banks  of  the  Siris.  The  consul  went  to  meet 
him,  to  try  the  fate  of  another  battle ;  but  Pyr- 
rhus, pretending  that  the  auguries  were  not 
favorable,  retired  to  Tarentum,  and  put  an  end 
to  the  campaign.  To  this  city  the  Romans  sent 
liim  an  embassy,  consisting  of  Cornelius  Dola- 
bella,  who  had  conquered  the  Senones,  Fabricius, 
and  Emilias  Pappus,  to  demand  a  surrender  of 
the  prisoners,  eitner  by  way  of  exchange,  or  at  a 
proper  ranson ;  for  Pyrrhus  had  taken  1800  pri- 
soners, most  of  them  Roman  knights  and  men 
of  distinction.  Pyrrhus  was  disappointed  when 
lie  found  that  they  did  not  come  with  proposals 
of  peace,  of  which  he  was  very  desirous,  but  he 
treated  them  with  magnificence.  He  released 
200  of  the  prisoners  without  ransom,  and  suf- 
fered the  rest,  on  their  parole,  to  return  to  Rome 
to  celebrate  the  Saturnalia.  Having  thus  gained 
the  good  will  of  the  ambassadors,  he  sent  Cyneas 
to  Rome  with  proposals  of  peace  on  these 
terms: — 1.  That  the  Tarentines  should  be  in- 
cluded in  the  treaty.  2.  That  the  Greek  cities  in 
Italy  should  enjoy  their  laws  and  liberties.  3. 
That  the  republic  should  restore  to  the  Samnites, 
Lucaoians,  and  Bruttians,  all  the  places  taken 
from  them.  By  the  eloquence  of  the  ambassa- 
dors, together  trith  well  applied  bribes,  he  nearly 
effected  his  errand ;  but  Appius  Claudius,  blind 
IS  he  was,  came  down  to  the  senate,  and  his  ora- 
torial  influence  had  the  effect  to  determine  that 
Rome  would  enter  into  no  terms  with  Pyrrhus 
while  he  remained  in  Italy.  This  resolution  they 
tdilowed  up  by  despatching  the  consuls  P.  Sul- 
picius  Saverrio,  and  P.  Decius  Mus,  into  Apulia, 
where  they  found  Pyrrhus  encamped  near  Ascu- 
ium.  A  battle  ensued,  in  which  Decius  was 
jlain,  and  Pyrrhus  wounded  and  defeated,  with 
the  loss  of  many  of  bis  troops.  Sulpicius  ap- 
peared in  the  field  next  day ;  but,  finding  the 
Kpirots  had  withdrawn  to  Tarentum,  he  put  his 
troops  into  winter  quarters  in  Apulia.  Both 
armies,  early  in  the  spring,  took  the  field  anew. 
The  Romans  were  commanded  thi^  year  by  the 
cionsuls  C.  Fabricius  and  Q.  ^miHus  Pappus ; 
who  no  sooner  arrived  in  Apulia  than  they  led 
their  troops  into  the  territory  of  Tarentum.  Pyr- 
rhus, who  bad  received  considerable  reinforce- 
ments from  F.pirus,  met  them  near  the  frontiers, 
and  encamped  at  a  small  distance.    While  the 


consuls  were  waiting  for  a  fkvorable  oppoitunity, 
a  messenger  from  Nicias,  the  king's  physician^ 
delivered  a  letter  to  Fabricius ;  wherein  the 
traitor  offered  to  take  off  bis  master  by  poison 
for  a  suitable  reward-  The  virtuous  Roman  im- 
mediately wrote  to  Pyrrhus,  warning  him,  with- 
out discovering  the  criminal,  to  take  care  of 
himself,  and  to  be  upon  his  guard  against  the 
treacherous  designs  of  those  about  him.  Pyrrhus, 
out  of  gratitude,  released  immediately,  without 
ransom,  all  the  prisoners  he  had  taken.  But  the 
Romans,  disdaining  to  accept  a  recompense  for 
not  committing  the  blackest  treachery,  sent  to 
Pyrrhus  an  equal  number  of  Samnite  and  Taren- 
tine  prisoners.  As  the  king  of  Epirus  grew  every 
day  more  weary  of  the  war,  he  sent  Cyneas  again 
to  Rome,  to  try  if  he  could  prevail  upon  the 
senate  to  harken  to  an  accommodation  upon  terms 
consistent  with  honor,  but  in  vain.  Meantime  am- 
bassadors arrived  at  his  camp  firom  the  Syracu- 
sians,  Agrigentines,  and  Leoutines,  imploring 
his  assistance  to  drive  out  the  Carthaginians, 
who  threatened  their  states  with  utter  destruction. 
Pyrrhus,  who  wanted  only  some  pretence  to 
leave  Italy,  laid  hold  of  this  ;  and,  appointing 
Milo  governor  of  Tarentum,  with  a  strong  gar- 
rison, be  set  sail  for  Sicily  with  30,000  foot,  and 
25,000  horse,  on  board  a  fleet  of  200  ships. 
Here  be  was  at  first  attended  with  great  success ; 
but  the  Sicilians,,  disgusted  at  the  enormous  ex- 
tortions of  his  ministers,  had  submitted  partly 
to  the  Carthaginians,  and  partly  to  the  Mamer- 
tines.  When  Carthage  heard  of  this  change, 
new  troops  were  raised  all  over  Africa,  and  a 
numerous  army  sent  into  Sicily  to  recover  the 
cities  which  Pyrrhus  had  taken.  As  the  Sicilians 
daily  deserted  from  him,  he  was  not  in  a  condi- 
tion, with  his  Epirots  alone,  to  withstand  so 
powefrul  an  enemy ;  and  therefore,  when  depu- 
ties came  to  him  from  the  Tarentines,  Samnites, 
Bruttians,  and  Lucanians,  representing  to  him 
that,  without  his  assistance,  they  must  Ml  a 
sacrifice  to  the  Romans,  he  laid  hold  of  that  op- 
oortunity  to  return  to  Italy.  His  fleet  waa 
attacked  by  that  of  Carthage ;  and  his  army,  after 
their  landing,  by  the  Maroertines.  But  Pyrrhus 
having,  by  his  bravery,  escaped  all  danger, 
marched  along  the  sea  shore,  to  reach  Tarentum 
that  way.  As  he  passed  through  the  country  of 
the  Locrians,  who  had  massacred  the  troops  he 
had  left  there,  he  not  only  exercised  all  sorts  of 
cruelty  on  the  inhabitants,  but  plundered  the 
temple  of  Proserpine.  The  immense  riches 
which  he  found  there  were,  by  his  order,  sent  to 
Tarentum  by  sea;  but  the  ships  that  carried 
them  being  dashed  against  the  rocks  by  a  tem- 
pest, and  the  mariners  all  lost,  this  proud  prince, 
considering  it  as  a  judgment  from  the  gods, 
caused  all  the  treasures  which  the  sea  had  thrown 
upon  the  shore  to  be  carefully  gathered  up,  and 
replaced  in  the  temple :  and  put  all  those  to 
death  who  had  advised  him  to  plunder  the  tem- 
ple. Pyrrhus  at  length  arrived  at  Tarentum ;  but 
of  the  army  he  had  carried  into  Sicily  he  brought 
back  into  Italy  only  2000  horse  and  not  20,000 
foot.  He  therefore  reinforced  them  with  the  best 
troops  he  could  raise  in  the  countries  of  the  Sam- 
nites, Lucanians,  and  Bruttians;  and  hearini^ 
that  the  two  new  consuls,  Curius  Dentatus  and 


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716 


ROME, 


Cornelius  Lentulus,  had  divided  their  forces, 
the  one  invading  Lucania  and  the  other  Saoiniumy 
he  likewise  divided'  his  army  into  two  bodies, 
marching  with  his  Epirots  against  Dentatifs,  in 
hopes  of  surprising  him  in  his  camp  near  Bene- 
ventum.  But  the  consul  went  out  of  his  entrench- 
ments with  a  strong  detachment  of  legionaries 
to  meet  him,  repulsed  his  van-guard,  put  many, 
of  the  Epirots  to  the  sword,  and  took  some  oi 
their  elephants.  Curius  then  marched  his  army 
into  the  Taurasian  fields,  and  drew  it  up  in  a 
plain  wide  enough  for  his  own  troops,  but  too 
narrow  for  the  Epirot  phalanx.  But  the  king's 
eagerness  to  try  his  skill  with  so  renowned  a 
commander,  made  him  engage  at  that  great  dis- 
advantage ;  the  consequence  of  which  was  that 
the  Romans  obtained  a  complete  victory.  Oro- 
sius  and  Eutropius  tell  us  that  Pyrrhus's  army 
consisted  of  80,000  foot  and  6000  horse,  including 
his  Epirots  and  allies  ;  whereas  the  consular 
army  was  scarcely  20,000  strong.  Some  say 
that  the  king's  loss  amounted  to  30,000  men ; 
others  reduce  it  to  20,000.  All  agree  that  Curius 
took  1200  prisoners  and  eight  elephants.  This 
victory,  which  was  the  most  decisive  Rome  had 
ever  gained,  brought  all  Italy  under  subjection, 
and  paved  the  way  for  those  vast  conquests 
which  followed.  Pyrrhus  being  not  in  a  condi- 
tion, after  this  great  loss,  to  keep  the  field,  re- 
tired to  Tarentum,  attended  only  by  a  small 
body  of  horse,  leaving  the  Romans  in  full  pos- 
session of  his  camp ;  which  they  so  much  ad- 
mired that  they  made  it  ever  after  a  model  by 
which  to  form  their  own.  And  now  he  resolved 
to  leave  Italy,  but  concealed  his  design.  Accord- 
ingly he  despatched  ambassadors  into  ^tolia, 
Illyricum,  and  Macedon,  demanding  supplies  of 
men  andlnoney ;  and,  having  at  last  pretended 
to  be  in  a  great  rage  at  the  dilatoriness  of  his 
friends  in  sending  him  succors,  acquainted  the 
Tarentines  that  he  must  go  and  bring  them  over 
himself.  However  he  left  behind  him  a  strong 
garrison  in  the  citadel  of  Tarentum  under  Milo. 
After  these  precautions  Pyrrhus  set  sail  from 
Epirus,  and  arrived  safe  at  Acroceraunium  with 
8000  foot  and  50Q  horse ;  after  having  spent  to 
no  purpose  six  years  in  Italy  and  Sicily. 

Though,  from  the  manner  in  which  Pyrrhus 
took  his  leave,  his  Italian  allies  had  little  reason 
to  expect  any  further  assistance  from  him,  yet 
they  continued  to  indulge  vain  hopes,  till  certain 
accounts  arrived  of  his  being  killed  at  the  siege 
of  Argos.  This  threw  the  Samnites  into  despair : 
60  that  they  put  all  to  the  issue  of  a  general 
battle  ;  in  which  they  were  defeated  with  such 
dreadful  slaughter  that  the  nation  was  almost  ex- 
terminated. This  overthrow  was  soon  followed 
by  the  submission  of  the  Lucanians,  Bruttians, 
Tarentines,  Sarcinates,  Picentes,  and  Salentines ; 
so  that  Rome  now  became  mistress  of  all  the 
nations  from  the  remotest  parts  of  Etruria  to  the 
Ionian  Sea,  and  from  the  Tyrrhenian  Sea  to  the 
Adriatic.  All  these  nations,  however,  did  not 
enjoy  the  same  privileges.  Some  we.re  entirely 
subject  to  the  republic ;  others  retained  their  old 
laws  and  customs.  Some  were  tributary;  and 
others  allies,  who  were  obliged  to  furnish  troops 
at  their  own  expense,  when  the  Romans  required. 
Some  had  the  privilege  of  Roman  citizenship. 


their  soldiers  being  incorporated  in  the  legions; 
while  others  liad  a  right  of  su£Ehu»e  in  the  elec- 
tions made  by  the  centuries.  These  diffeeenl 
degrees  of  honor,  privileges,  and  libeityy  weie 
founded  on  the  different  terms  granted  to  the 
conquered  nations  when  they  surrendered,  and 
were  afterwards  increased  according  to  tfadr 
fidelity,  and  the  services  they  did  the  repabUc 
The  Romans,  now  became  respected  by  foreign 
nations,  and  received  ambassadors  from  Ptoleoiy 
Philadelphus  king  of  Egypt,  and  from  Apol- 
lonia,  a  city  of  Macedon.  Sensible  of  their 
own  importance,  they  granted  protection  to  what- 
ever nation  requested  it  of  them ;  not  with  a 
view  of  serving  one  party,  bat  that  they  might 
subject  both.  In  this  manner  they  assisted  the 
Mamertines  against  Hiero,  king  of  Sriaciise, 
which  brought  on  the  wars  with  the  Caithigi- 
nians,  which  terminated  in  the  total  destruction 
of  that  ancient  republic,  as  related  under  Cab- 

TDAGE. 

The  interval  between  the  first  and  second  Punic 
wars  was  by  the  Romans  employed  in  reducing 
the  Boii  and  Ligurians,  who  had  revolted.  These 
were  Gaulish  nations,  who  had  always  been  veiy 
formidable  to  the  Romans,  and  now  gave  one  oif 
their  consuls  a  notable  defeat.  However,  he' 
soon  after  defeated  them  with  great  slaughter; 
though  it  was  not  till  some  time  after  that,  and 
with  great  difficulty,  that  they  were  totally  sub- 
dued. During  this  interval,  also,  the  Romans 
seized  on  the  islands  of  Sardinia,  Corsica,  and 
Malta,  and  in  219  B.  C.  the  two  former  were 
reduced  to  the  form  of  a  province.  Papiiius, 
who  had  subdued  Corsica,  demanded  a  triumph; 
but,  not  having  interest  enough  to  obtain  it,  be 
took  a  method  entirely  new  to  do  himself  justice. 
He  put  himself  at  the  head  of  his  victorious  army, 
and  marched  to  the  temple  of  Jupiter  Latialis, 
on  the  hill  of  Alba,  with  all  the  pomp  that  at- 
tended triumphant  victors  at  Rome.  He  made 
no  other  alteration  in  the  ceremony  but  that  of 
wearing  a  crown  of  myrtle  instead  of  a  crown  of 
laurel,  and  this  on  account  of  his  having  de- 
feated the  Corsicans  in  a  place  where  there  was 
a  grove  of  myrtles.  The  example  of  Papirios 
was  afterwards  followed  by  many  generals  to 
whom  the  senate  refused  triumphs.  The  next 
year,  when  M.  £milius  Barbula  and  M.  Junius 
Pera  were  consuls,  a  new  war  sprung  up  in  a 
kingdom  out  of  Italy.  Illyricum,  which  bor- 
dered upon  Macedon  and  Epirus,  was  at  this 
time  governed  by  Teuta,  the  widow  of  king 
Agron,  and  guardian  to  her  son  Pinseus,  a  minor. 
Her  pirates  had  taken  and  plundered  many  ships 
belonging  to  the  Romans,  and  her  troops  were 
then  besieging  the  island  of  Issa,  in  the  Adriatic 
whose  inhabitants  were  under  the  protection  of 
the  public.  Upon  the  complaints  therefore  of  the 
Italian  merchants,  and  to  protect  the  people  of 
Issa,  the  senate  sent  two  ambassadors  to  the 
lUyrian  c|ueen,  Lucius  and  Caius  Coruncanus, 
to  demand  of  her  that  she  would  restrain  her 
subjects  from  infesting  the  sea  with  pirates.  She 
answered  them  haughtily;  they  replied  in  a 
similar  strain,  which  provoked  Teuta  to  such  a 
degree  that  she  caused  them  to  be  murdered  on 
their  return.  When  so  notorious  an  infraction 
of  the  law  of  nations  was  known  at  Rone,  the 


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ROME. 


717 


people  demanded   vengeance;  and  the  senate 
naTiDg  elected,  as  usual  in  such  cases,  statues 
three  feet  high  to  their  memory,  ordered  a  fleet 
to  be  equipped,  and  troops  raised,  with  expe- 
dition.   But  Teuta  sent  an  embassy  to  Rome, 
assuring  the  senate  that  she  had  no  hand  in  the 
murder  of  the  ambassadors,  and  offering  to  de- 
liycr  up  to  the  republic  those  who  had  committed 
it.    The  Romans,  being  threatened  with  a  war 
from  the  Gauls,  were  ready  to  accept  this  satis- 
faction ;  but  the  Illyrian  fleet  having  gained  some 
advantage  over  that  of  the  Achteans,  aqd  taken 
the  island  of  Corcyra  near  Epirus,  this  success 
made  Teuta  believe  herself  invincible,  and  she  dis- 
regarded her  promise  to  the  Romans  ;  she  even 
sent  hei  fleet  to  seize  on  the  island  of  Issa,  which 
they  had  taken  under  their  protection.    Here- 
upon the  consuls,  P.  Posthumius  Albinus  and 
Cn.  Fulvius  Centumalus,  embarked  for  Illyri- 
cum  :  Folvius  having  the  command  of  the  fleets, 
which  consisted  of  100  galleys ;  and  Posthumius 
of  the  land  forces,  which  amounted  to  '20,000 
foot,  besides  a  small  body  of  horse.    Fulvius 
appeared  with  his  fleet  before  Corcyra,  and  was 
put  in  possession  both  of  the  island  and  city  by 
Demetrius  of  Pharos,  governor  for  queen  Teuta. 
Nor  was  this  all ;  Demetrius  made  the  inhab- 
itants of  Apollonia  drive  out  the  Illyrian  garri- 
son, and  admit  into  their  city  the  Roman  troops. 
The   Andyseans,  Parthini,  and  Atintanes,  soon 
afler  submitted  to  Posthumius,  being  induced 
by  the  persuasions  of  Demetrius  to  shake  off  the 
Illyrian  yoke.    The  consul,  being  now  in  pos- 
session of  most  of  the  inland  towns,  returned  to 
the  coast,  where,  with  the  assistance  of  the  fleet, 
he  took  many  strong  holds,  among  which  was 
Nutria,  a  place  of  great  strength,  with  a  nume- 
rous garrison,    llie  loss  of  the  Romans  was  re- 
paired by  the  capture  of  forty  Illyrian  vessels, 
which  were  returning  home' with  booty.     At 
length  the  Roman  fleet  appeared  before  Issa, 
which,  by  Teuta's  order,  vras  still  closely  be- 
sieged, notwithstanding  her  losses.    However; 
upon  the  approach  of  the  Roman  fleet,  the  lUy- 
rians  dispersed  ;  but  the  Pbarians,  who  served 
among  them,  followed  their  countryman  Dem&>> 
trius,  and  joined  the  Romans,  to  whom  the  Is- 
sani  submitted.    Sp.  Corvilius  and  Q.  Fabius 
Maximus  being  again  raised  to  the  consulate, 
Posthumius  was  called  from  Illyricum,  and  re- 
fused a  triumph  for  having  been  too  prodigal  of 
blood  at  the  siege  of  Nutria.     Ilis  colleague 
«Fulvii»  was  appointed  to  command  the  land 
forces  as  proconsul.    Hereupon  Teuta  retired  to 
one  of  her  strong  holds  called   Rhizon,   and 
thence  early  in  spring  sent  an  embassy  to  Rome. 
The  senate  refused  to  treat  with  her ;  but  granted 
the  young  king  a  peace  upon  condition :  1.  That 
he  should ,  pay  an  annual  tribute ;  2.  That  he 
should  surrender  part  of  his  dominions ;  3.  That 
he  should  never  suffer  above  three  of  his  ships  of 
war  at  a  time  to  sail  beyond  Lyffus.    The  places 
he  yielded  to  the  Romans  by  this  treaty  were 
the   islands. of  Corcyra,  Issa,  and  Pharos,  the 
city  of  Dyrrhachium,  and  the  country  of  the 
Atintanes.    Soon  after  Teuta  abdicated  the  re- 
gency, and   Demetrius  succeeded  her.    Before 
this  war  was  ended,  the  Romans  were  alarmed 
by  new  motions  of  the  Gauls,  and  the  great  pro- 


gress which  the  Carthaginians  made  m  Spain.* 
At  this  time  also  the  fears  of  the  people  were 
excited  by  a  prophecy  said  to  be  taken  out  of 
the  Sybilline  books,  that  the  Gauls  and  Greeks 
should  one  day  be  in  possession  of  Rome.  This 
prophecy,  however,  tne  senate  found  means  to 
elude,  by  burying  two  Gauls  and  two  Greeks 
alive,  and  then  telling  the  multitude  that  the 
Gauls  and  Greeks  were  now'  in  possession  of 
Rome.  The  Romans  now  made  vast  prepara- 
tions against  the  Gauls.  Some  say  that  the  num- 
ber of  forces  raised  by  their  republic  on  ibis 
occasion  amounted  to  no  fewer  than  800,000 
men.  Of  this  incredible  multitude  248,0^0 
foot,  and  26,000  horse,  were  Romans  or  Cam- 
panians ;  yet  the  Gauls,  with  only  50,000  foot 
and  20,000  horse,  forced  a  passage  through 
Etniria,  and  took  the  road  towards  IU)me.  Here 
they  at  first  defeated  one  Roman  •  army ;  but, 
being  soon  after  met  by  two  others,  they  were 
utterly  defeated,  with  the  loss  of  more  than  50,000 
men.  The  Romans  then  entered  their  country, 
which  they  crnelly  ravaged  ;  but  a  plague  break- 
ing out  obliged  them  to  return  home.  This  was 
followed  by  a  new  war,  in  which  those  Gauls 
who  inhabited  Insubria  and  Liguria  were  totally 
subdued,  and  their  country  reduced  to  a  Roman 
province.  These  conquests  were  followed  by 
that  of  Istria ;  Dimalum,  a  city  of  importance 
in  Illyricum ;  and  Pharos,  an  island  in  the  Adri^ 
atic  Sea.  The  second  Punic  war  for  some  time 
retarded  the  conquests  of  the  Romans,  and  even 
threatened  their  state  with  entire  destruction; 
but  Hannibal  being  at  last  recalled  from  Italy, 
and  entirely  defeated  at  Zama,  they  made  peace 
upon  such  advantageous  terms  as  gave  them  an 
entire  superiority  over  that  republic,  which  they 
not  long  after  entirely  subverted.  See  Car- 
thage. 

^  The  successful  issue  of  the  second  Punic  war 
had  greatly  increased  ■  the  extent  of  the  Roman 
empire.  They  were  now  masters  of  all  Sicily, 
the  Mediterranean  Islands,  and  great  part  of 
Spain ;  and,  through  the  dissensions  of  the  Asiatic 
states  with  the  king  of  Macedou,  a  pretence  was 
now  found  for  carrying  their  arms  into  these  parts. 
The  Gauls,  however,  continued  their  incursions, 
but  now  ceased  to  be  formidable;  while  the 
kings  of  Macedon  were  first  obliged  to  submit 
to  a  disadvantageous  peace,  and  at  last  totally 
subdued.  See  Macedon.  The  reduction  of 
Macedon  was  soon  followed  by  that  of  all  Greece, 
either  under  the  name  of  allies  or  otherwise ; 
while  Antiochus  the  Great,  to  whom  Hannibd 
fled  for  protection,  by- an  unsuccessful  war,  first 
gave  the  Romans  a  footing  in  Asia.  See  Stria. 
The  Spaniards  and  Gauls  continued  to  be  tlie 
most  obstinate  enemies.  The  former,  particu- 
larly, were  rather  exterminated  than  reduced; 
and  even  this  required  the  utmost  care  and  vigi- 
lance of  Scipio  £milianu8,  the  conqueror  of 
Carthage,  to  execute.  See  Spain  and  Numan- 
TiA.  Thus  the  Romans  attained  to  a  height  of 
power  superior  to  any  other  nation ;  but  now  a 
sedition  broke  out,  which  we  may  say  was  never 
terminated  but  with  the  overthrow  of  the  repub- 
lic. This  had  its  origin  from  Tiberius  Sem- 
pronius  Gracchus,  descended  from  a  family 
which,  though  plebeian,  was  as  illustrious  as  any 

^oogle 


Digitized  by 


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718 


ROME. 


in  the  com mon wealth.    His  fother  had  beeo 
twice  consul,  tras  a  great  general,  and  had  been 
honored  with  two  triumphs.    But  he  was  still 
more  renowned  for  his  domestic  virtues  and  pro- 
bity than  for  his  birth  or  valor.     He  married 
Cornelia,  the  daughter  of  the  first  Scipio  Afri- 
can us,  the  pattern  of  her  sex,  and  the  prodigy 
of  her  age;  and  had  by  her  several  cnildrea, 
of  whom  three  arrived  to  maturity  of  age,  Ti- 
berius Gracchus,  Caius  Gracchus,  and  a  daugh- 
ter, Sempronia,  who  was  married   to   Scipio 
Africanus  Junior,  or  j£milianus.    Tiberius,  the 
eldest,  was  deemed  the  most  accomplished  youth 
in  Rome,  with  respect  to  the  qualities  both 
of  body  and  mind.  He  made  his  first  campaigns 
under    his    brother-in-law,    and    distinguished 
himself  by  his  courase  and  prudence.   When  he 
returned  to  Rome  he  applied  himself  to  the 
study  of  eloquence ;  and  at  thirty  years  of  age 
was  accounted  the  best  orator  of  his  day.    He 
married  the  daughter  of  Appius  Claudius,  who 
had  been  consul  and  censor,  and  was  the  chief 
author  and  negociator  of  that  peace  with  tlie 
Numantines  which  the  senate,  with  the  utmost  in- 
justice, disannulled.    He  stood  for  the  tribune- 
ship  of  the'people ;  which  he  too  sooner  obtained 
than  he  resolved  to  attack  the  nobility  in  the  most 
tender  parts.    They  had  usurped  lands  unjustly, 
<!ultivated  them  by  slaves,  to  the  great  detriment 
of  the  public;  and  had  lived  for  about  250  years 
in  an  open  defiance  to  the  Licinian  law,  by  which 
it  was  enacted  that  no  citizen  should  posses^  more 
than  500  acres.  This  law  Tibr  Gracchus  resolved 
to  revive.    As  be  first  drew  it  up  it  was  very 
mild ;  for  it  only  enacted,  that  those  who  pos- 
sessed more  than  500  acres  of  land  should  part 
with  the  overplus ;  and  that  the  full  value  of  the 
said  lands  should  be  paid  them  out  of  the  public 
treasury.    The  lands  thus  purchased  by  the  pub- 
lic were  to  be  divided  among  the  poor  citizens ; 
and  cultivated  either  by  themselves  or  by  free- 
men, who  were  upon  the  spot.    He  allowed 
every  child  to  hold  250  acres.      This  law,  even 
in  so  mild  a  shape,  was  strenuously  opposed  by 
the  senate,  and  by  one  of  his  fellow  tribunes 
Marcus  Octavius   Caecina.     The  consequence 
was,  that  he  procured  the  deposition  of  the  latter, 
and,  irritatea  by  opposition,  he  had  influence 
mough  to  have  the  law  revived  as  it  was  at  first 
:>as8ed,  without  abating  any  thing  of  its  severity, 
there  was  no  exception  in  favor  of  the  children 
in  families ;  or  reimbursement  promised  to  those 
who  should  part  with  the  lands  they  possessed 
above  500  acres.     The  Licinian  law  being  thus 
revived  with  one  consent,  both  by  the  city  and 
country  tribes,  Gracchus  caused  the  people  to 
appoint  three  commissioners,  to  hasten  its  execu- 
tion.   The  commission  was  held  by  Gracchus, 
his  father-in-law  Appius  Claudius,  and  his  bro- 
ther Caius  Gracchus.     These  three  spent  the 
whole  summer  in  travelling  through  the  Italian 
provinces,  to  examine  what  lands  were  held  by 
any  person  above  500  acres,  in  order  to  divide 
them  among  the  poor  citizens.      On  a  strict  en- 
quiry they  found  that  the  lands  taken  from  the 
rich  would  be  enough  to  content  all  the  poor 
citizens.      But  the  following  circumstance  eased 
Gracchus  of  this  diflSculty.    Attains  Philometer, 
king  of  Pergamus,  having  bequeathed  his  domi- 


nions and  effects  to  the  Romans,  Gracchos  im- 
mediately got  a  new  law  passed,  enacting  that 
this  money  should  be  divided  arocnig  the  poor 
citizens  who  could  not  have  lands,  and  that  the 
disposal  of  the  revenue^  of  Peigamus  sboold  not 
be  in  the  senate,  but  in  the  comitia.  By  these 
steps  Gracchus  most  effectually  humbled  the  se- 
nate. In  order  to  continue  his  power , he  projected, 
and  indeed  almost  effected,  his  re-elecbon  to  the 
office  of  tribune;  but  the  patricians,  being  deter- 
mined to  effect  bis  fall,  took  advantage  of  a  re- 
port that  had  been  circulated  of  his  intention  of 
aspiring  to  sovereignty,  and  slew  him  in  atnmok 
on  the  day  of  election. 

The  death  of  Gracchus  did  not  put  an  end  to 
the  tumult.    Above  300  of  the  tribune's  ftiend? 
lost  their  lives  also ;  and^  their  bodies  were  throwm 
with  that  of  Gracchus,  into  the  Tiber.    Nay,  the 
senate  carried  their  revenge  beyond  the  &tal  day 
which  had  stained  the  capitol  with  Roman  bicxxl. 
They  sought  for  all  the  friends  of  the  late  tribune, 
and  without  any  form  of  law  assassinated  aone^ 
and  forced  others  into  banishment^    These  dis- 
turbances were  for  a  short  time  interrupted  by  a 
revolt  of  the  slaves  in  Sicily,  occasioned  by  the 
cruelty  of  their  masters ;  but,  they  being  soon  re- 
duced, the  contests  about  the  SempromaD  law, 
as  it  was  called,  again  took  place.    jBoth  parties 
were  determined  not  to  yield  ;  and  therefore  the 
most  ftital  effects  ensued.  The  first  thing  of  con- 
sequence was  the  death  of  Scipio  Afrieanns  the 
younger,  who  was  privately  strangled  in  his  bed 
by  some  of  the  plebeian  party,  alxiut  129  B.  C. 
Caius  Gracchus,  brother  to  Tiberius,  not  only 
undertook  the  revival  of  the  Sempronian  law, 
but  proposed  a  new  one,'granting  the  rights  of 
Roman  citizens  to  all  the  Italian  allies,   who 
could  receive  no  share  of  the  lands  divided  in 
consequence  of  the  Sempronian  law.  The  eflSects 
of  this  were  much  worse  than  the  former ;  the 
flame  spread  through  all  Italy ;  and  the  nations 
who  hsKi  made  war  with  the  republic  in  its  in- 
fancy again  commenced  enemies  more  formida- 
ble than  before.    Fragellse,  a  city  of  the  Vc^sci, 
revolted ;  but,  being  suddenly  attacked,    was 
obliged  to  submit,  and  was  razed  to  the  gronnd. 
Gracchus,  however,  still  continued  his  attempts 
to  humble  the  senate  and  the  patricians  :  die  ul- 
timate consequence  of  which  was,  that  a  price 
was  set  on  his  head  and  that  of  Fulvins  his  con- 
federate, no  less  than  their  weight  in  gold,  to 
any  one  who  should  bring  them  to  Opimius  the 
chief  of  the  patrician  party.    Thuithe  custom  of 
proscription  was  begun  by  the  patricians^  of 
which  they  themselves  soon  had  enough,  and 
they  certainly  merited  it.    Gracchus  and  Fid- 
vius  were  sacrificed,  but  the  disorders  of  the  re- 
public were  not  so  easily  cured. 

The  inroad  of    the  Cimbri  and   Tentones 

{>ut  a  stop  to  the  civil  discords  for  some  time 
onger ;  but,  they  being  defeated,  nothing  pre- 
vented the  troubles  from  being  revived  with 
greater  foiy  than  before,  except  the  war  with  the 
Sicilian  slaves,  which  had  again  .commenced 
with  more  dangerous  circumstances  than  ever. 
But  this  being  ended,  about  99  B.  C,  no  farther 
obstacle  remained.  Marius  the  conqueror  of  Ju- 
gurtha  (see  Numioia)  and  the  Cimbri  undertoiik 
the  cause  of  the  plebeians  against  the  senate  aufl 


Digitized  by  VjiUUy  IC 


ROME. 


719 


]>atricians.  Haying  associated  himself  with 
Apuleius  and  Glaucia,  two  factious  men,  they 
carried  their  proceedings  to  sach  a  length  that 
an  open  rebellion  commenced,  and  Marius  him- 
self was  obliged  to  act  against  his  allies.  Peace, 
howerer,  was  restored  by  the  massacre  of  Apu- 
leios  and  Glaucia,  with  a  great  number  of  their 
followers;  upon  which  Marius  left  the  city. 
While  factious  men  thus  endeavoured  to  tear  the 
republic  in  pieces,  the  attempts  of  the  well  mean- 
ing to  heal  those  divisions  served  only  to  in- 
volve the  state  in  calamities  still  more  grievous. 
The  consuls  observed  that  many  individuals  of 
the  Italian  allies  lived  at  Rome,  and  falsely  pre- 
tended to  be  Roman  citizens.  By  means  of 
them  the  plebeian  party  had  acquired  a  great  deal 
of  power,  as  the  votes  of  these  pretended  citi- 
zens were  always  at  the  service  of  the  tribunes. 
The  consuls,  therefore,  passed  a  law,  command- 
ing all  those  pretended  citizens  to  return  home. 
This  was  so  much  resented  by  the  Italian  states 
that  a  universal  defection  took  place.  A  scheme 
was  then  formed  by  M.  Livius  Drusus,  a  tribune 
of  the  people,  to  reconcile  all  parties ;  but  this 
only  made  matters  worse,  and  procured  his  own 
assassination.  His  death  seemed  a  signal  for 
war.  The  Marsi,  Peligni,  Samnites,  Campanians, 
and  Lucanians,  and  all  the  provinces  from  the 
Liris  to  the  Adriatic,  revolted  at  once,  and  formed 
themselves  into  a  republic  in  opposition  to  that 
of  Rome.  The  haughty  Romans  were  now  made 
thoroughly  sensible  that  they  were  not  invincible ; 
they  were  defeated  in  almost  every  engagement ; 
and  must  soon  have  yielded,  had  they  not  fallen 
upon  a  method  of  dividing  their  enemies.  A 
law  was  passed,  enacting  that  all  the  nations  in 
Italy,  whose  alliance  with  Rome  was  indisputa- 
ble, should  enjoy  the  right  of  Roman  citizens. 
This  drew  off  several  nations  from  their  alliance ; 
and,  Sylla  taking  upon  him  the  command  of  the 
Roman  armies,  fortune  soon  declared  in  &vor  of 
the  latter.  .  Yet  the  success  of  Rome  against  the 
allies  served  only  to  bring  greater  miseries  upon 
herself.  Marius  and  Sylla  became  rivals;  the 
former  adhering  to  the  people,  and  the  latter  to 
the  patricians.  Marius  associated  with  one  of 
the  tribunes  named  Sulpitius,  in  conjunction 
with  whom  he  raised  such  disturbances  that  Sylla 
was  forced  to  retire  from  the  city.  Having  thus 
driven  off  his  rival,  Marius  got  himself  appointed 
general  against  Mithridates,  king  of  Pontus.  See 
PoMTus.  But  the  soldiers  refused  to  obey  any 
other  than  Sylla.  A  civil  war  ensued,  in  which 
Marius  was  driven  out  in  his  turn,  and  a  price 
set  upon  his  head  and  that  of  Sulpitius,  and  their 
adherents.  Sulpitius  was  soon  seized  and  killed ; 
but  Marius  escaped.  In  the  mean  time,  how- 
ever, the  cruelties  of  Sylla  rendered  him  obnoxi- 
ous both  to  the  senate  and  people;  and  Cinna^ 
a  furious  partisan  of  the  Marian  Action,  being 
chosen  consul,  cited  him  to  give  an  account  of 
his  conduct.  Upon  this  Sylla  set  out  for  Asia ; 
Marius  was  readied  from  Africa,  whither  he  had 
iled ;  and,  immediately  on  his  landing  in  Italy, 
was  joined  by  a  great  number  of  shepherds, 
•laves,  and  men  of  desperate  fortunes ;  so  that  he 
soon  had  a  considerable  army.  Cinna,  whom  the 
senators  had  deposed  and  driven  out  of  Rome, 
solicited  and  obtained  a  powerful  army  from  the 


allies;  and  being  joined  by  Sertorius,  a  most 
able  and  experienced  general,  the  two,  in  con- 
junction with  Marius,  advanced  towards  the 
capital;  and,  as  their  forces  daily  increased,  a 
fourth  army  was  formed  under  Papirius  Carbo. 
The  senate  raised  some  forces  to  defend  the 
city  ;  but,  these  being  vastly  inferior  in  number 
and  inclined  to  the  contrary  side,  thty  were 
obliged  to  open  their  gates  to  the  confederates. 
Marius  entered  at  the  head  of  a  numerous  guard, 
composed  of  slaves,  whom  he  called  his  Bar- 
diaeans,  and  whom  he  designed  to  employ  in 
revenging  himself  on  his  enemies.  The  first 
order  he  gave  these  assassins  was,  to  murder  all 
who  came  to  salute  him  and  were  not  answered 
with  the  like  civility;  As  every  one  was  forward 
to  pay  his  compliments  to  the  new  tyrant  this 
order  proved  the  destruction  of  vast  numbers. 
At  last,  these  Bardisans  abandoned  themselves 
to  such  excesses  in  every  kind  of  vice,  that  Cinna 
and  Sertorius  ordered  their  troops  to  fall  upon 
them ;  which,  being  instantly  put  in  execution, 
they  were  all  cut  off  to  a  man.  By  the  destruc- 
tion of  his  guards  Marius  was  reduced  to  the 
necessity  of  taking  a  method  of  gratifying  his 
revenge  somewhat  more  tedious,  though  equally 
effectual.  A  conference, was  held  between  the 
four  chiefs,  in  which  a  resolution  was  taken  to 
murder  without  mercy  all  the  senators  who  had 
opposed  the  popular  faction.  A  general  slaughter 
commenced,  which  lasted  five  days,  during  which 
the  greatest  part  of  the  obnoxious  senators  were 
cut  off,  their  heads  stuck  upon  poles  over  against 
the  rostra,  and  their  bodies  difigged  with  books 
into  the  forum,  where  they  were  lef^  to  be  de- 
voured by  dogs.  Sylla*s  house  was  demolished, 
his  goods  confiscated,  and  he  himself  declared  an 
enemy  to  his  country;  however  his  wife  and 
children  escaped.  This  massacre  was  not  con- 
fined to  the  city  of  Rome.  The  soldiers  were 
dispersed  over  the  country  in  search  of  those 
who  fled ;  and  many  gave  up  their  friends  who 
had  fled  to  them  for  shelter. 

This  slaughter  being  over,  Cinna  named  him- 
self and  Marius  consuls  for  the  ensuing  year ; 
and  these  tyrants  seemed  resolved  to  begin  the 
new  year  as  they  had  ended  the  old  one :  but, 
while  they  were  preparing  to  renew  their  cruel- 
ties, Sylla,  having  proved  victorious  ib  the  east, 
sent  a  long  letter  to  the  senate,  giving  an  account 
of  his  many  victories,  and  his  resolution  of 
returning  to  Rome  to  revenge  himself  of  his 
enemies.  This  letter  occasioned  a  universal 
terror.  Marius,  dreading  to  enter  the  lists  with 
such  a  renowned  warrior,  gave  himself  up  to  ex- 
cessive drinking,  and  died.  His  son  was  asso- 
ciated with  Cinna  in  the  government,  though  not 
in  the  consulship,  and  proved  a  tyrant  no  less 
cruel  than  his  father.  The  senate  declared  Va- 
lerius FlacQus  general  of  the  forces  in  the  east, 
and  appointed  him  a  considerable  army ;  but  the 
troops,  all  to  a  man,  deserted  him  and  joined 
Sylla.  Soon  after  Cinna  declared  himself  consul 
a  third  time,  and  took  for  his  colleague  Papirius 
Carbo ;  but  the  citizens,  dreading  the  tyranny  of . 
these  monsters,  fled  in  crowds  to  Sylla,  who  was 
now  in  Greece.  To  him  .the  senate  sent  depu- 
ties, begging  that  he  would  have  compassion 
on  his  country,  and  not  carry  his  resentment  to 


Digitized  by  ^^JiJU^?lC 


720 


ROME. 


sudi  a  length  as  to  begin  a  civil  war:  but  he  re- 
plied that  he  was  coming  to  Rome  full  of  rage 
and  revenge;  and  that  all  his  enemies  should 
perish,  either  by  the  sword  or  the  axes  of  the 
executioners.  Upon  this  several  very  numer- 
ous armies  were  formed  against  him ;  but  were 
every  where  defeated,  or  went  over  to  the 
enemy.*  Pompey,  afterwards  styled  the  Great, 
embraced  the  party  of  Sylla.  The  Italian 
nations  took  some  one  side  and  some  another. 
Cinnawas  killed  in  a  tumult,  and  young  Marius 
and  Carbo  succeeded  him;  but  the  former, 
having  ventured  an  engagement  with  Sylla, 
vras  by  him  defeated,  and  forced  to  fly  to  Pne- 
neste,  where  he  was  closely  besieged.  Thus 
was  Rome  reduced  to  the  lowest  degree  of  mi- 
sery ;  when  one  Pontius  Telesinus,  a  Samnite, 
projected  the  total  ruin  of  the  city.  He  had 
joined,  or  pretended  to  join,  the  generals  of  the 
Marian  faction  with  an  army  of  40,000  men; 
and  therefore  marched  towards  Pneneste,  as  if 
he  designed  to  relieve  Marius.  By  this  manoeu- 
vre he  drew  Sylla  and  Pompey  away  from  the 
capital ;  and  then,  decamping  in  the  night,  over- 
reached these  two  generals,  and  by  break  of  day 
was  within  ten  furlongs  of  the  Collatine  gate. 
He  now,  declaring  himself  as  much  an  enemy  to 
Marius  as  to  SyVla,  told  his  troops  that  it  was 
not  his  design  to  assist  one  Roman  against  ano- 
ther, but  to  destroy  the  whole  race.  *  Let  fire 
and  sword/  said  he, '  destroy  all ;  let  no  quarter  be 
given ;  mankind  can  never  be  free  as  long  as  one 
Roman  is  left  ahve.'  Never  had  this  proud  me- 
tropolis been  in  greater  danger;  nor  ever  had 
any  city  a  more  narrow  escape.  The  Roman 
youth  marched  out  to  oppose  him,  but  were 
driven  back  with  great  slaughter.  Sylla  himself 
was  defeated,  and  forced  to  fly  to  his  camp. 
Telesinus  advanced  with  increased  confldence ; 
but,  in  the  mean  time,  M.  Crassus  having  de- 
feated the  other  wing  of  his  army,  he  attacked 
the  body  where  Telesinus  commanded,  and  by 

Eutting  them  to  flight  saved  his  country.  Sylla 
aving  now  no  enemy  to  fear,  marched  first  to 
Atemnse,  and  thence  to  Rome.  From  the  former 
city  he  carried  8000  prisoners  to  Rome,  and 
caused  them  all  to  be  massacred  at  once  in  the 
circus.  His  cruelty  next  fell  upon  the  Pnenes- 
tines,  12,000  of  whom  were  massacred  without 
mercy.  Young  Marius  had  killed  himself,  to 
avoid  falling  into  his  hands.  Soon  after  the 
inhabitants  of  Norba,  a  city  of  Campania,  find- 
ing themselves  unable  to  resist  the  forces  of  the 
tyrant,  set  fire  to  tlieir  houses,  and  all  perished 
in  the  flames.  The  taking  of  these  cities  put  an 
end  to  the  civil  war,  but  not  to  the  cruelties  of 
Sylla.  Having  assembled  the  people  in  the  co- 
mitiura,  he  told  them  that  he  was  resolved  not 
to  spare  a  single  person  who  had  borne  arms 
against  him.  This  cruel  resolution  he  put  in 
execution  with  the  most  unrelenting  vigor;  and, 
having  at  last  cut'  off  all  those  whom  he  thought 
capable  of  opposing  him,  Sylla  caused  himself 
to  be  declared  perpetual  dictator  This  revo- 
lution happened  about  80  6.  C,  and  from  this 
time  we  may  date  the  loss  of  the  Roman  liberty. 
Sylla  indeed  resigned  his  power  in  two  years ; 
but  the  citizens  of  Rome,  having  once  submitted, 
were  ever  after  ready  to  submit  to  a  master. 


Though  individuals  retained  the  same  entlm- 
siastic  notions  of  liberty  as  before,  yet  the  minds 
of  the  generality  seem  from  this  time  to  have 
inclined  towards  monarchy.  New  masters  were 
indeed  already  prepared  for  the  repnbKc. 

Caesar  and  Pompey  had  eminently  distin- 
guished themselves  by  their  martial  exploit», 
and  were  already  rivals.  Sertorius,  one  of  the 
generals  of  the  Marian  faction,  and  the  only  one 
of  them  possessed  either  of  honor  or  probity, 
had  retired  into  Spain,  where  he  erected  a  re- 

Sublic  independent  of  Rome.  Pompey  and 
letellus,  two  of  the  best  reputed  generals  in 
Rome,  were  sent  against  him ;  but,  instead  of 
conquering,  they  were  on  all  occasions  con- 
quered by  him.  At  last  SertoriuS  was  treadier- 
ously  murdered ;  and  the  traitors,  who  after  ht% 
death  usurped  the  command,  being  totally  des- 
titute of  his  abilities,  were  easily  defeated  by 
Pompey:  and  thus  that  general  reaped  an  unde- 
served honor  from  concluding  the  war  with  suc- 
cess. The  Spanish  war  was  scarcely  ended 
when  a  very  dangerous  one  was  excited  by 
Spartacus,  a  Thracian  gladiator.  For  some  time 
this  rebel  proved  very  successful:  but  at  last 
was  defeated  and  killed  by  Crassus.  The  fugi- 
tives, however,  rallied  again,  to  the  mimberof 
5000 ;  but,  being  defeated  by  Pompey,  the  latter 
took  occasion  to  claim  the  glory  due  to  Crassus. 
Being  thus  become  extremely  populax,  he  was 
chosen  consul  along  with  CraSsus.  Both  gene- 
rals were  at  the  head  of  powerful  armies,  and  a 
contest '  instantly  began  betwixt  them.  With 
difiicuUy  they  were  in  appearance  reconciled, 
but  began  to  oppose  one  another  in  a  new  way. 
Pompey  courted  the  favor  of  the  people,  by  re- 
instating the  tribunes  in  their  ancient  power, 
which  had  been  greatly  abridged  by  Sylla. 
Crassus,  though  very  covetous,  entertained'  the 
populace  with  surprising  profusion  at  10,000 
tables,  and  distributed  com  among  their  Ikmi- 
lies.  He  was  the  richest  man  at  this  time  in 
Rome,  his  estate  being  valued  at  upwards  of 
7000  talents,  i.  e.  £1,365,250  sterling.  Pompey, 
however,  still  had  the  superiority;  and  was 
therefore  proposed  as  a  proper  person  for  desir- 
ing the  seas  of  pirates.  He  was  to  have  an 
absolute  authority  for  three  years  over  all  the 
seas  virithin  the'  pillars  of  Hercules,  and  over 
all  the  countries  for  400  ftirlongs  from  the  s^ 
He  was  empowered  to  raise  as  many  soldiers 
and  marroers  as  he  thought  proper;  to  take 
what  sums  of  money  he  pleased  out  of  the  public 
treasury,  without  being  accountable;  and  to 
choose  out  of  the  senate  fifteen  senators  to  be 
his  lieutenants,  and  execute  his  orders  when  he 
himself  could  not  be  present.  The  sensible 
part  of  the  people  were  against  investing  one 
faian  with  so  much  power;  but  the  unthinking 
multitude  rendered  all  opposition  frnitlefs. 
This  law  being  agreed  to,  Pompey  executed  his 
commission  so  much  to  the  public  satisfaction 
that  on  his  return  a  new  law  was  proposed,  ap- 
pointing him  general  of  all  the  forces  in  Asia ; 
and,  as  he  was  still  to  retain  the  sovereignty  of 
the  seas,  he  was  now  in  fact  made  sovereign  of 
all  the  Roman  empire.  Cicero  and  Ceesar  sup- 
ported this  law,  the  former  aspiring  at  the  con- 
sulate, and  the  latter  pleased  to  see  the  Romans 


Digitized  by  ^^JiJU*^lt: 


R    O    M    K. 


721 


sippointing  themseWes  a  master.    Pompey,  how- 
ever, executed  bis  commission  with  fidelity  and 
success,  completely  conquering  Pontus,  Albania, 
Iberia,  &c.,  which  had  been  begun  by  Sylla  and 
Xucullus.    But,  while  Pompey  was  thus  aggran- 
dising himself,  the  republic  was  on  the  point  of 
Ijein^  subverted  by  a  conspiracy  formed  by  Lu- 
cius Sergius  Catiline.    He  was  descended  from 
«n   illustrious  &mily ;   but  having  ruined  his 
estate,  and  rendered  himself  infamous  by  a  series 
of  detestable  crimes,  he  associated  with  a  num- 
ber of  others  in  similar  circumstances.    Their 
scheme  was  to  murder  the  consuls  with  the 
greatest  part  of  the  senators,  set  fire  to  the  city, 
and  seize  the  government.    This  design  miscar- 
ried twice ;  "but  was  not  dropped  by  the  conspi- 
rators.   At  last  it  was  discovered  by  a  young 
knight,  who  had  revealed  the  secret  to  his  para- 
mour.   Catiline  then  openly  took  the  field,  and 
raised  a  considerable  army:  but  was  defeated 
and  killed  about  62  B.  C.    In  the  mean  time 
Cssar  continued  to  advance  in  popularity  and 
in  power.    Soon  after  the  defeat  of  Catiline  he 
vas  created  pontifex  maximus;  and  after  that 
-was  sent  into  Spain,  where  he  subdued  several 
nations  that  had  never  been  subject  to  Rome. 
Mean  time  Pompey  returned  from  the  east,  and 
was  received  with  the  highest  honors;  but  he 
affected  extraordinary  modesty,   and  declined 
accepting  a  triumph.    His  aim  was  to  assume  a 
sovereign  authority  without  seeming  to  desire  it. 
He  thereforie  renewed  his  intrigues,  and  spared 
no  pains  to  increase  his  popularity.    Caesar,  on 
his  return  from  Spain,  found  the  sovereignty  di- 
vided between  Crassus  and  Pompey.    No  less 
ambitious  than  either,  Csesar  proposed  that  they 
should  put  an  end  to  their  differences,  and  take 
him  for  a  partner.    In  short,  he  projected  a  tri- 
umvirate  (Pompey,  Crassus,  and  himself),  in 
-which  should  be  lodged  the  whole  nower  of  the 
senate  and  people;  and  theybouna  themselves 
by  mutual  oaths  to  stand  by  each  other,  and 
suffer  nothing  to  be  undertaken  or  carried  into 
execution  without  the  unanimous  consent  of  all 
the  three.    Thus  was  the  liberty  of  the  Romans 
a  second  time  taken  away;  nor  did  they  ever  af- 
terwards recover  it,  though  few  perceived  thi^, 
at  the  time,  except  Cato.    The  association  of 
the  triumvirs  was  for  a  long  time  kept  secret ; 
and  nothing  appeared  to  the  people  except  the 
reconciliation  of  Pompey  and 'Crassus,  for  which 
the  state  reckoned  itself  indebted  to  Caesar. 

The  first  consequence  of  the  triumvirate  was 
the  consulship  of  Julius  Caesar,  obtained  by  the 
favor  of  Pompey  and  Crassus.  Caesar  set  him- 
self to  enjgage  the  affections  ^f  the  people ;  and 
this  he  Old,  by  an  agrarian  law,  so  effectually, 
that  he  was  in  a  manner  idolised.  This  law  was 
in  itself  very  reasonable  and  just;  nevertheless 
the  senate,  perceiving  the  design  with  which  it 
was  proposed,  thought  themselves  bound  to  op- 
pose it.  But  their  opposition  proved  fruitless : 
the  consul  Bibulus,  who  showed  himself  most 
active  in  his  endeavours  against  it,  was  driven 
out  of  the  assembly  with  the  greatest  indignity ; 
so  that  Caesar  vras  reckoned  sole  consul.  The 
next  step  taken  by  Caesar  was  to  secure  the 
knights,  and  for  this  purpose  he  abated  a  third 
of  L^e  rents  which  they  annually  raid  into  the 
\'or..  XVllI. 


treasury  ;  after  which"  he  governed  Rome  "with 
an  absolute  sway  during  the  time  of  his  con- 
sulate. The  reign  of  this  triumvir;  however, 
was  ended  by  his  expedition  into  Gaul,  where 
his  mihtary  exploits  acouired  him  the  highest 
repuution.  Pompey  and  Crassus  therefore  be- 
came consuls,  and  governed  as  despotically  as 
Caesar.  On  the  expiration  of  their  first  con- 
sulate, the  republic  fell  into  a  kind  of  anarchy. 
At  last,  however,  this  confusion  was  ended  by- 
raising  Crassus  and  Pompey  again  to  the  con- 
sulate. This  was  no  sooner  done  than  a  new 
partition  of  the  empire  vras  proposed.  Crassus 
was  to  have  Syria  and  all  the  eastern  'provinces, 
Pompey  was  to  govern  Africa  and  Spain,  artd 
Caesar  to  be  continued  in  Gaul  for  five  years. 
The  law  was  passed  by  a  great  majority ;  upon 
which  Crassus  undertook  an  expedition  agamst 
the  Portbiaos.  Caesar  applied  with  great  assi- 
duity to  the  completing  of  tlie  conquest  of  Gaul ; 
and  Pompey  staid  at  Rome  to  govern  the  re- 
public. The  afiatrs  of  the  Romans  were  now 
nastening  to  a  crisis.  Crassus,  havmg  oppressed 
all  the  provinces  of  the  east,  was  totally  defeated 
and  killed  by  the  Parthians.;  after  which  the 
two  great  rivals,  Caesar  and  Pompey,  were  left 
alone.  Matters,  however,  conunued  pretty 
quiet,  till  Gaul  was  reduced  to  a  Roman  pio* 
vince.  The  question  then  was,  whether  Casar 
or  Pompey  should  first  resign  the  command  of 
their  armies^  and  return  to  the  rank  of  private 
persons.  As  both  parties  saw  that  whoever  tir^t 
laid  down  his  arms  must  of  course  submit  to  the 
other,  both  refused.  As  Caesar,  however,  had 
amassed  immense  riches  in  Gaul,  he  was  now 
in  a  condition  not  only  to  maintain  an  army  ca- 
pable of  vying  with  Pompey,  but  even  to  buy 
,  over  the  leading  men  in  Rome  to  his  interest. 
One  of  the  consuls,  named  ^milius  Paulus,  cost 
him  no  less  than  1500  talente,  or  £310,625  ster-  . 
ling ;  but  the  other,  named  MarcelluS;  could  not 
be  gained  at  an^  price.  Pompey  bad  put  at  the 
head  of  the  tribunes  one  Scribonius  Curio,  a 
young  patrician  of  grieat  abilities,  but  so  exceed- 
ingly debauched  and  extravagant  that  he  o^ed 
upwards  of  £4,500,000  of  our  money.  Caesar, 
by  enajbling  him  to  satisfy  his  creditors,  and  sup- 
plying him  with  money  to  pursue  his  debauch- 
eries, secured  him  in  his  mterest;  and  Curio, 
without  seeming  to  be  in  it,  did  him  the  most 
essential  service.  He  proposed  that  both  gene- 
rals should,  be  recalled;  being  assured  that 
Pompey  would  never  consent  to  part  with  his 
army,  so  that  Caesar  might  make  this  a  pretence 
for  continuing  in  his  province  at  the  head  of  his 
troops:  and  thus,  while  both  professed  pacific 
intentions,  both  continued  ready  for  the  most 
obstinate  and  bloody  war.  Cicero  took  upon 
himself  the  office  of  mediator;  bot  Pompey 
would  hearken  to  no  terms  of  accommodation. 
In  the  year  49  B.  C  die  senate  passed  a  decree  by 
which  Pompey  was  invested  with  the  command 
of  the  troops  of  the  republic,  Caesar  divested  of 
his  office,  and  Lucius  Domitius  appointed  to 
succeed  him:  the  new  governor  being  empow- 
ered to  raise  4000  men  to  take  possession  of  his 
province.  War  being  thjis  resolved  on,  the 
seitate  and  Pompey  began  to  prepare  for  oppo- 
sing Cvrsar.  They  ordered  30,000  Roman  soldiery 

<J  A 


Digitized  by  VjiUU*^ 


le 


722 


ROME. 


to  be  assembled,  with  as  many  Roman  troops  as 
Pompey  shoaUl  think  proper:  the  expense  of 
whicn  was  defrayed  from  the  public  treasury. 
The  goveromentB  of  provinces  were  bestowed 
upon  such  as  were  remarkable  for  their  attach- 
ment to  Pompey.  Caeiar,  however,  took  care 
of  his  own  interest :  three  of  the  tribunes  who 
had  been  his  friends  were  driven  out  of  Rome, 
and  arrived  in  his  oamp  dis^ised  like  slaves. 
Csesar  showed  them  to  his  army  in  this  ignomi- 
nious habit;  and,  setting  forth  the  iniquity  of 
the  senate  and  patricians,  exhorted  his  men  to 
stand  by  their  general  under  whom  they  had 
served  so  long  with  success;  and,  finding  by 
their  acclamations  that  he  could  depend  on  them, 
he  resolved  to  begin  hostilities  immediately. 

Coesar's  first  design  was  to  make  himself  mas- 
ter of  Ariminufh,  a  city  bordering  upon  Cisal- 
pine Gaul,  but  he  resolved  to  keep  nis  design 
private.  At  that  time  he  himself  was  at  Ra- 
venna, whence  he  sent  a  detachment  towards  the 
Rubicon,  desiring  the  officer  who  commanded  it 
,^  to  wait  for  him  on  the  banks  of  that  river.  The 
next  day  he  assisted  at  a  show  of  gladiators,  and 
made  a  great  entertainment.  Towards  the  close 
of  the  day  he  rose  from  table,  desiring  the 
guests  to  stay  till  he  came  back ;  but,  inst^  of 
returning  to  the  company,  he  set  out  for  the  Ru- 
bicon, ^ving  left  orders  to  his  most  intimate 
friends  to  follow  him  through  different  roads,  to 
avoid  being  observed.  Having  arrived  at  the 
Rubicon,  which  parted  Cisalpine  Gaul  from 
Italy,  the  misfortunes  of  the  empire  occured  to 
his  mind,  and  made  him  hesitate.  Turning  then 
to  Asinius  Pollio, '  If  I  do  not  cross  the  Rubi- 
con,* said  he,  <  I  am  undone ;  and,  if  I  do  cross  it, 
how  many  calamities  shall  I  by  this  means  bring 
upon  Rome !'  Having  thus  spoken,  he  mused  a 
few  minutes ;  and  then,  crying  out  '  the  die  H 
cast,'  he  threw  himself  into  the  river,  and,  cross- 
ing it,  marched  with  all  possible  speed  to  Ari- 
mmum,  which  he  reached  and  surprised  before 
day-br^.  Thence,  as  he  had  but  one  legion 
with  him,  he  despatched  orders  to  the  army  he 
liad  left  in  Gaul  to  cross  the  mountains  and  join 
him.  The  activity  of  Cesar  struck  the  opposite 
party  with  the  gr^test  terror.  Pompey,  no  less 
alarmed  than  the  rest,  left  Rome  with  a  desire  to 
retire  to  Capua,  where  he  had  two  legions  draught- 
ed formerly  out  of  Caesar's  army.  He  communi- 
cated his  mtended  flight  to  the  senate ;  but  ac- 
quainted them  that,  if  any  magistrate  or  senator 
refused  to  follow  him,  he  should 'be  treated  as 
an  enemy  to  his  country.  In  the  mean  time 
C«sar,  having;  raised  new  troops  in  Cisalpine 
Gaul,  sent  Marc  Antony  with  a  detachment  to 
seize  Aretium,  and  some  other  officers  to  secure 
Pisaurum  and  Fanum,  while  he  himself  marched 
at  the  head  of  the  thirteenth  legion  to  Auximuro, 
which  opened  its  gates  to  him.  From  Auximum 
he  advanced  into  Picenum,  where  he  was  joined 
by  the  twelfth  legion  from  Transalpine  Gaul. 
As  Picenum  submitted,  he  led  his  forces  against 
Corfinium,  the  capital  of  the  PeLigni,  which 
Domitius  Ahenobarbus  defended  with  thirty 
cohorts.  But  C«sar  no  sooner  invested  it  than 
the  <garrison  betrayed  their  commander,  and  de- 
livered him  up  with  many  senators,  who  .had 
taken  refuge  in  the  place,  to  Cssar,  who  granted 


them  their  lives  and  liberty.  Pompey,  thinktRfi: 
himself  no  longer  safe  at  Capua  after  the  reduc- 
tion of  Corfinium,  retired  to  firundosiam,  to 
carry  the  war  into  the  east,  where  all  the  go- 
vernors were  his  creatures.  Cssar  followed  him 
close ;  and,  arriving  with  his  army  before  Bnin- 
dusium,  invested  the  place  on  the  land  side,  and 
undertook  to  shut  up  the  port  by  a  staccado  of 
his  own  invention.  But,  before  the  work  was 
completed,  the  fleet  which  had  conveyed  the  two 
consuls  with  thirty  cohorts  to  Dyrrhachium  bei*^ 
returned,  Pompey  resolved  to  make  his  escape, 
which  he  did  with  all  the  dexterity  of  a  gieat 
officer.  He  kept  his  departure  very  secret ;  but  • 
made  all  necessary  preparations  for  fadUtaiiD;; 
it.  Walling  up  the  gates,  he  dug  deep  and  wide 
ditches  cross  all  the  streets,  except  only  two  that 
led  to  the  port ;  in  the  ditches  he  planted  diarp 
pointed  stakes,  covering  them  with  burdles  and 
earth.  After  these  precautions,  he  gave  express 
orders  that  all  the  citizens  should  keep  withio 
doors,  lest  they  should  betray  his  design ;  and 
then,  in  three  days,  embarked  all  his  troops,  ex- 
cept the  light  armed  infantry,  whom  he  bad  placed 
on  the  walhi ;  these  likewise,  on  a  signal  given, 
abandoning  their  posts,  repaired  with  great  ex- 
pedition to  the  ships.  Caesar,  perceiving  the 
walls  unguarded,  ordered  his  men  to  acale  mem, 
and  make  what  haste  they  could  after  the  enemj. 
In  the  heat  of  the  pursuit  they  would  have  &Uea 
into  the  ditches  which  Pompey  had  prepared 
for  them,  had  not  the  Brandusians  warned  them 
of  the  danger.  In  the  haven  they  found  all  the 
fleet  under  sail,  except  two  vessels,  whid&  had 
run  aground  in  going  out  of  the  harbour.  These 
Cesar  took,  made  the  soldiers  on  board  prisooen, 
and  brought  them  ashore.  Seeing  himself,  by 
the  flight  of  his  rival,  thus  master  of  all  Italy 
from  the  Alps  to  the  sea,  Cssar  wished  to  follow 
and  attack  Pompey  before  he  received  his  sap- 
plies  from  Asia.  But,  being  destitute  of  shipping, 
he  resolved  to  go  to  Rome,  and  settle  toe  gio- 
vemment  there ;  then  pass  into  Spain  to  expd 
Pompey's  troops,  who  had  possession  of  that 
great  peninsula,  under  Afranius  and  Petreiiis. 
Before  he  left  Brundusium  he  sent  Scribonios 
Curio  with  three  legions  into  Sicily,  and  ordered 
Q.  Valerius,  one  of  his  lieutenants,  to  get  to- 
gether what  ships  he  could,  and  cross  over  with 
one  legion  into  Sardinia.  Cato,  who  commanded 
in  Sicily,  upon  the  first  news  of  Curio's  landing 
there,  abandoned  the  island,  and  retired  to  the 
camp  of  the  consuls  at  Dyrrhachium  ;  and  Q. 
Valerius  no  sooner  appeared  with  hb  amall  fleet 
off  Sardinia,  than  the  Caralitini  (the  inhabitants 
of  what  is  now  caUed  Cagliari),  drore  out  Anre- 
lius  Cotta,  who  commanded  there  for  the  senate, 
and  put  Cssar's  lieutenant  in  possession  both  of 
their  city  and  island.  In  the  mean  time  Cssar 
advanced  towards  Rome,  and  on  his  march  wrote 
to  all  the  senators  then  in  Italy,  desiring  them  to 
repair  to  the  capital,  and  asnst  him  with  their 
counsel.  Above  all,  he  was  desirous  to  see 
Cicero ;  but  could  not  prevail  upon  him  to  re- 
turn to  Rome.  As  Cssar  drew  near  the  capital, 
he  quartered  his  troops  in  the  neighbouring  mn- 
nicipia ;  and  then  advancing  to  the  city,  out  of 
respect  to  ancient  custom,  he  took  up  his  quar- 
ters  in  the  suburbs,  whither  the  whole,  city 


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ROME. 


723 


erowded  to  see  the  conqueror  of  Gaul,  who  had 
\ieen   absent  nearly  ten  years.    Such  of  the  tri- 
l>unes  of  the  people  as  had  fled  to  him  for  refuge 
reassumed  their  iiinctiona,  mounted  the  rostra, 
and  endeavoured  to  reconcile  the  people  to  the 
bead  of  their  party.    Marc  Antony  particularly, 
and  Cassius  Longinus,  moved  that  the  senate 
should  meet  in  uie  suburbs,  that  Cssar  might 
^ive  them  on  account  of  his  conduct.    Accord- 
ingly, such  of  the  senators  as.  were  at  Rome 
assembled ;  when  Cssar  made  a  speech  in  justi- 
fication of  all  his  proceedings,  and  concluded 
his  harangue  with  proposing  a  deputation  to 
Pompey,  witli  offers  of  an  amicable  accommo- 
dation.   He  even  desired  ,the  senate,  to  whom 
he   paid  great  deference,  to  nominate  some  of 
their  venerable  body  to  carry  proposals  of  peace 
to  the  consuls,  and  the  general  of  the  consular 
army ;  but  none  of  the  senators  would  take  upon 
him  that  commission.    lie  then,  to  provide  him- 
self with  money  for  carrying  on  tne  war,  had 
recourse  to  the  public  treasury.     Metellus,  one 
of  the  tribunes,  opposed  him :  but  Ceesar,  laying 
his  hand  on  his.  sword,  threatened  to  kill  him, 
and  Metellus  withdrew*    Cesar  took  out  of  the- 
treasury,  which  was  ever  after  at  his  command, 
an  immense   sum;  some  say  300,000  pounds 
weight  of  gold.    With  this  supply  of  money  he 
raised  troops  all  over  Italy,  and  sent  governors  into 
all  the  provinces  subject  to  the  republic.    Caesar 
now  made  Marc  Antony  commander-in-ohief  of 
the  armies  in  Italy,  sent  his  brother  C.  Antonius 
to  govern  Illyricum,  assigned  Cisalpine  Gaul  to 
Licinius  Crassus^  appointed  M.  iBmilius  Lepi- 
duf}  governor  of  the  capital ;  and,  having  got  to- 
^ether  some  ships  to  cruise  in  the  Adriatic  and 
Mediterranean  seas,  he  gave  the  command  of  one 
of  his  fleets  to  P.  Cornelius  Dolabella,  and  of 
the  other  to  young  Hortensius,  son  of  the  femous 
orator.    As  Fompey  had  sent  governors  into  the 
same  provinces,  a  war  was  thus  kindled  in  al- 
most all  the  parts  of  the  known  world.    How- 
ever, Cesar  would  not  tmst  any  of  his  lieute- 
nants with  the  conduct  of  the  war  in  Spain, 
which  was  Pompey's  favorite  province,  but  took 
it  upon  himselr;  and,  having  settled  his  affairs 
at  Rome,  returned  to  Ariminum,  and  assembled 
bis  legions  thece. 

In  Transalpine  Gaul  he  was  informed  that  the 
inhabitants  ot  Marseilles  had  resolved  to  refuse 
him  entrance  into  their^ity,  and  that  L.  Domitius 
Ahenobarbus,  whom  he  had  generously  pardoned 
and  set  at  liberty  after  the  reduction  of  Cor- 
finium,  had  set  sail  for  Marseilles  with  seven 
galleys,  having  on  board  a  great  number  of  his 
clients  and  slaves,  with  a  design  to  raise  the  city 
in  favor  of  Pompey.  Cessar  sent  for  the  fifteen 
chief  magistrates  of  the  city^  and  advised  them 
to  follow  the  example  of  Italy,  and  submit. 
The  magistrates  returned  to  the  city,  and  soon 
after  informed  him  that  they  were  to  stand  neu- 
ter; but  in  the  mean  time  Domitius,  arriving 
with  his  small  squadron,  was  received  into  the 
city,  and  declared  general  of  all  their  forces. 
Hereupon  Caesar  invested  the  town  with  three 
legions,  and  ordered  twelve  galleys  to  be  bdilt  at 
Arelas  to  block  up  the  port  But  as  the  siege 
proved  tedious  he  left  C.  Trebonius  to  carry  it 
on,  and  D.  Brutus  to  command  the  fleet,  ^hile 


he  continued  his  march  into  Spain,  where  he* 
began  the  war  with  all  the  valor,  abilitv,  and 
success  of  a  great  general.  Pompey  haa  three 
generals  in  this  peninsula,  which  was  divided 
into  two  Roman  provinces.  Varro  commanded 
in  Farther-  Spain ;  and  Petreius  and  Afranius, 
with  equal  power^  and  two  considerable  armies 
in  Hither  Spain.  Cesar,  while  yet  at  Marseilles, 
sent  Q.  Fabius,  with  three  legions^  to  take  pos- 
session of  the  passes  of  the  Pyrenees,  which 
Afranius-  had  seized.  Fabius  executed  his 
commission  with  great  bravery,  entered  Spain, 
and  left  the  way  open  for  Cesar,  who  quickly 
followed  him.  As  soon  as  he  had.  crossed  the 
mountains,  he  sent  out  scouts  to  observe  the 
enemy;  by  whom  he  was  informed  that  Afranius 
and  Petreius  having  joined  then:  forces,  consist 
ing  of  five  legions,  twenty  cohorts  of  the  natives, 
and  5000  horse,  were  advantageously  posted  on 
a  hill  of  an  easy  ascent,  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Uerda,  in  Catalonia.  Upon  this  Cesar  advanced 
within  sight  of  the  enemy^  and  encamped  in  a 
plain  between  the  Sioons  and  Cinga,  now  tlie 
Segro  and  Cinca.  Between  the  eminence  on 
which  Afranius  had  posted  himself  and  the 
city  was  a  small  plain,  and  in. the  middle  of  it. 
a  rising  ground>  which  Cesar  attempted  to  seize, 
to  cut  off  the  communication  between  the  ene- 
my's camp  and  Uerda,  whence  they  had  all  their 
provisions.  This  occasioned  a  sharp  dispute  be- 
tween three  of  Cesar's  legions  and  an  equal 
number  of  the  enemy^  which  lasted  five  hours 
with  equal  success,  both  parties  claiming  the 
victory.  But  Afranius's  men>  who  had  first 
seized  the  post,  maintained  it.  Two  days  after 
this  battle,  continual  rains,  with  the  melting  of 
the  snow  on  the  mountains,  so  swelled  the  two 
rivers  between  which  Cesar  was  encamped  that 
thev  overflowed,  broke  down  his  bridges,  and 
laid  under  water  the  neighbouring  country  to  a 
great  distance.  This  cut  off  the  communication 
between  hia  camp  and  the  cities  that  had  declared 
for  him ;  and  reduced  him  to  such  straits  that 
his  troops  were  ready  to  die  for  famine,  wheat 
being  sold  in  his  camp  at  fifty  Roman  denarii 
per  bushel,,  that  is,  £l  12s.  lid.  sterling.  He 
tried  to  rebuild  his  bridges,  but  in  vain,  th^ 
violence  of  the  stream  rendering  all  his  endea- 
dours  fruitless.  Upon  the  news  of  Cesar*s  dis- 
tress>  many  of  the  senators,  who  had  hitherto 
stood  neuter,  hastened  to  Pompey's  camp.  Of 
this  number  was  Cicero ;  who^  without  regard 
to  the  remonstrancea  of  Atticus,  or  the  letters 
Cesar  himself  wrote  to  him^  desiring  him  to 
join  neither  party,  left  Italy,  and  landed  at 
Dyrrhachium,  where  Pomp^  received  him  with 
great  joy.  But  the  joy  ot  Fompey's  party  was 
not  long-lived.  For  Cesar,  after  lutvmg  attempted 
several  times  in  vain  to  rebuild  his  briages, 
caused  boats  to  be  made  with  all  possible  expe- 
dition ;  and  while  the  enemy  were  diverted  by . 
endeavouring  to  intercept  the  succors  that  were 
sent  him  from  Gaul,  he  laid  hold  of  that  oppor" 
tunity  to  convey  his  boats  in  the  night  in  car- 
riages twenty-two  miles  from  his  camp ;  .where 
wiUi  wonderful  quickness  a  great  detachment 
passed  the  Sicoris,  and  encamping  on  the  op- 
posite bank,  unknown  to  the  enemy,  built  l 
bridge  in  two  days,  opened  a  communication. 

3  A2 


Digitized  by  ^^OOQlC 


724 


ROME. 


with  the  neighboaring  country,  received  the 
supplies  from  Gaul,  and  relieved  the  wants  of 
his  soldiers.  Coesitr,  being  thus  delivered  from 
danger,  pursued  the  armies  of  Afranius  and 
Petreius  with  such  superior  address,  that  he 
forced  them  to  submit  without  coming  to  a 
battle,  and  thus  became  master  of  all  Hither 
Spain*  The  two  generals  disbanded  their 
troops,  sent  them  out  of  the  province,  and  re- 
turned to  Italy,  after  having  solemnly  promised 
never  to  assemble  forces  again,  or  make  war 
upon  Caesar.  Upon  the  news  of  the  reduction 
of  Hither  Spain,  the  Spaniards  in  Farther 
Spain,  and  one  Roman  l^on,  deserted  from 
Varro,  Pomney's  governor  in  thiit  province, 
which  obligea  him  to  surrender  his  other  legion 
and  all  his  money.  Cesar,  having  thus  reduced 
Spain  in  a  few  months,  appointed  Cassius  Lon- 
ginus  to  govern  the  two  provinces  with  four  le- 
gions, and  then  returned  to  Marseilles,  which 
was  just  surrendering  after  a  most  vigorous  re- 
sistance. Thouffh  the  inhabitants  had  bv  their 
lat^  treachery  deserved  a  severe  punishment, 
yei  he  granted  them  their  lives  and  liberty ;  but 
stripped  their  arsenals  of  arms,  and  obliged  them 
to  qeliver  up  all  their  ships.  From  Marseilles 
Cnsar  marched  into  Cisalpine  Oaul ;  and  thence 
to  Rome,  where  he  laid  the  foundation  of  his 
future  grandeur. 

He  found  the  city  in  a  very  different  state 
from  that  in  which  he  had  left  it.  Most  of  the 
senators  and  magistrates  were  fled  to  Pompey  at 
Dyrrhachium.  However,  there  were  still  praetors 
there ;  and  among  them  M.  ^milius  Lepidus, 
afterwards  a  triumvir.  The  prsetor,  to  ingratiate 
himself  with  Ceesar,  nominated  him  dictator  by 
his  own  authority,  and  against  the  inclination  of 
the  senate.  Cesar  accepted  the  new  dignity ; 
but  neither  abused  his  power  as  Sylla  had  done, 
nor  retained  it  so  long.  During  the  twelve  days 
of  his  dictatorship,  he  governed  with  great  mode- 
ration, and  gained  the  affections  both  of  the 
people  and  patricians.  He  recalled  the  exiles, 
granted  the  rights  and  privileges  of  Roman  citi- 
lens  to  all  the  Oauls  beyond  the  Po,  and,  as 
pontifex  maximus,  filled  up  the  vacancies  of  the 
sacerdotal  colleges  with  his  own  friends.  But 
the  chief  use  he  made  of  his  office  was  to  preside 
at  the  election  of  consuls  for  the  next  year,  when 
he  got  himself  and  Servilius  Isauricus,  one  of  his 
most  zealous  parti zans,  promoted  to  that  dignity. 
And  now^  being  resolved  to  fbllow  Pompey,  and 
carry  the  war  into  the  east,  he  set  out  for  Brun- 
dusium,  whither  he  had  ordered  twelve  legions 
to  repair.  But  on  hit  arrival  he  found  only  five. 
The  rest  being  afraid  of  the  dangers  of  the  sea, 
and  unwilling  to  engage  in  a  new  war,  had 
marched  leisurely,  complaining  of  their  general 
for  allowing  them  no  respite,  but  harrying  them 
continually  from  one  country  to  another.  How- 
ever Caesar  did  not  wait  fbr  them,  but  s6t  sail 
with  only  five  legions  and  600  horse  in  the 
beginning  of  January.  While  the  rest  were 
waiting  at  Brundusium  fbr  ships  to  transport 
them  over  into  Epirus,  Casar  arrived  saAs  with 
his  five  legions  in  Cbaonia,  the  liorth  part  of 
Epirus,  near  the  Ceraunian  mountains.  There 
he  landed  his  troops,  and  sent  the  ships  back  to 
Brundusium  to  bring- over  the  legions  left  behind. 


The  war  he  was  now  entering  upon  was  the  most 
difficult  he  had  yet  undertaken.  Pompey  had 
for  a  whole  year  been  assembling  bis  troops  from 
all  the  eastern  countries.  Yfhen  be  left  Italy 
he  had  only  five  legions ;  but,  nnce  his  anml  at 
Dyrrhachium  he  had  been  reinforced  with  one 
from  Sicily,  another  fVom  Crete,  and  two  from 
Syria :  3000  archers,  six  cohorts  of  slingert,  and 
7000  horse,  had  been  sent  him  by^  princes  in  al- 
liance with  Rome.  All  the  free  cities  in  Asia 
had  reinforced  his  army  with  their  beat  troops ; 
Greece,  Asia  Minor,  Syria,  Palestine,  Egypt, 
and  all  the  nations  from  the  Meditemnean  to 
the  Euphrates,  took  up  arms  in  his  fevor.  He 
had  almost  all  the  Roman  knights  in  his  sqoad- 
rons,  and  his  legions  consisted  mostly  of  veteians 
inured  to  the  toils  of  war.  He  had  alto  under 
him  some  of  the  best  commanders  of  the  repub- 
lic, who  had  formerly  conducted  armies  Inen- 
selves.  As  for  his  navy,  he  had  above  500  ships 
of  war,  besides  a  fiir  greater  number  of  small 
vessels,  which  were  continually  cruising  on  the 
coasts,  and  intercepted  sueh  ships  as  carried 
arms  or  provisions  to  the  enemy.  He  had  like- 
wise above  200  senators,  who  formed  a  more 
numerous  senate  than  at  Rome.  Coradina 
Lentulus  and  Claudius  Marcellus,  the  last  year's 
consuls,  presided  in  it  at  Thessalonica,  where  he 
built  a  stately  hall  for  thai  purpose.  IWre,  on 
the  motion  <^  Cato^  it  was  decmd  that  no  Ro- 
man citizen  should  be  put  to  death  but  in  battle, 
and  that  no  city  subject  to  the  republic  afaonid 
be  sacked.  They  also  decreed  that  &ey  elone 
represented  the  Roman  senate,  and  that  those 
who  resided  at  Rome  were  encouragets  of 
tyranny,  and  friends  of  a  tyrant.  Many  petsoss 
of  eminent  probity,  who  had  hitherto  stood 
neuter,  now  flocked  to  Cato  from  all  parts.  His 
cause  was  generally  called  the  good  cause^  vvliiie 
Caesar's  adherents  were  looked  upon  as  enemies 
to  their  country  and  abettors  ot  tyranny.  As 
soon  as  Caesar  landed,  be  marcbed  to  Oricnni,  in 
Epirus,  which  was  taken  without  opposition. 
The  like  success  attended  him  at  Apollobia,  and 
these  two  conouests  opened  a  way  to  Dynim- 
chiu'm,  where  Pompey  had  his  magazines  of 
arms  and  provisions.  But  the  fleet  which  he 
had  sent  back  to  Brundusium,  to  tianspott  the 
rest  of  his  troops,  had  been  attacked  by  Bibnlns, 
one  of  Pompey^s  admirals,  who  had  taken  thirty 
and  inhumanly  burnt  them  with  the  seamen  on 
board.  Bibulus,  with  1 10  shins  of  wir,  had  also 
taken  possession  of  all  the  narbours  between 
Salonium  and  Oricum;  so  that  the  legions  at 
Brundusium  could  not  venture  to  cross  the  sea 
without  great  danger  of  frdling  into  the  enemy's 
hands.  By  this  news  Csesar  was  so  much  em- 
barrassed that  he  made  proposals  of  accommo- 
dation upon  veiy  moderate  tei|Bs,  vii.,  that  both 
Pompey  and  he  shodld  disband  their  armies 
withm  three  days,, renew  their  former  friendship, 
and  return  together  to  Italy.  These  ^jtosoM 
were  sent  by  VerbuUius  Rnfiot,  an  intimate 
friend  of  Pompey,  ^hom  Csesar  bad  twice  taken 
prisoner.  Pompey,  however,  answered  that  he 
v^ould  not  hearken  to  an^  tenns,  lest  it  shouU 
be  said  that  he  owed  his  life  and  rttom  to  It^ly 
to  Cfiesar*s  favor.  Cesar  again  sent  one  Vatinhis 
to  confer  witli  Pompey  about  a  treaty  of  peace. 


Digitized  by  VjUUy  It: 


R    O    M    E. 


725 


'Liibienus  received  the  proposals ;  but,  while  they 
were  confening  together,  a  party  of  Pompey  s 
men  discharged  their  darts  at  Vatiniud  ana  his 
attendants.  Some  of  the  guards  were  wounded, 
and  Vatinius  narrowly  escaped  with  his  life.  In 
the  mean  time  Cesar  advanced  towards  Dyrrha- 
chium ;  but,  Pompey  unexpectedly  appearing,  he 
halted  on  the  other  side  of  the  Apsus,  where  he 
entrenched  himself.  Pompey,  however,  durst 
not  cross  the  river  m. Caesar's  sight}  so  that  the 
two  armies  continued  for  some  time  quiet  in 
their  respective  camps.  Cssar  wrote  repeatedly 
to  Marc  Antony,  who  cettimanded  the  legions  in 
•Italy,  to  come  to  his  assistance ;  but  received  no 
•answer.  He  then  sent  Pos&umius,  one  of  his 
lieutenants,  with  pressing  orders  to  Marc  Antony, 
Gabinius,  and  Calenus,  to  bring  the  troops  to 
him  at  all  events.  Gabinius,  unwilling  to  expose 
all  the  hopes  of  his  geneial  to  the  hazards  of  te 
sea,  marched  a  gr^t  way  about  by  Illyriimin. 
But  the  lUyrians,  who  had  declared  for  Pompey> 
fell  unezpectedlv  upon  him  and  kilM  him  and 
all  bis  men;  Marc  Antony  and  Calenus  went 
by  sea,  and  were  in  danger  from  one  of  Pompey's 
admirals ;  bat  brought  their  troops  safe  to  shove 
at  Nypheum,  near  Apollonia.  As  soOn  as  it  was 
known  that  Antonjr  was  landed,  Pompey  marthed 
to  prevent  his  joining  Csesar.  BntCssar,  hasten-^ 
ing  to  the  relief  of  his  lieutenaot,  joined  him*be- 
fore  Pompey  came  up.  Then  Pompey  retired 
to  an  advantageous  postnearDyrrhachram,  called 
Asparagium,  and  there  encamped.  Cssar,  hav- 
ing thus  at  length  got  all  his  troops  together, 
offered  Pompey  battle,  and  kept  his  army  drawn 
up  in  sight  of  the  enemy.  But,  Pompey  declin- 
ing an  engagenienty  he  tum«d  towaros  Dyrrha- 
chium,  as  if  he  designed  to  surpiisa  it.  Pompey, 
following  him  sit  some  distance,  and  letting  iiim 
draw  near  to  the  Cttyi  encamped  on  a  hill  colled 
Fetra,  which  commanded  the  sea,  and  whence 
he  could  be  supplied  widi  provisions  from 
Greece  and  Asia,  while  Cttsar  was  forced  to 
bring  com  by  land  from  Epirus.  This  put 
Caesar  upon  a  new  design^  which  was  to  surround 
an  army  iar  more  numerous  than  his  own,  and, 
|>y  shutting  them  np  within  a  narrow  traot  of 
ground,  distress  them  as  much  for  want  of  forage. 
Accordingly,  he  drew  a  lipe  of  circumvallation 
from  the  sea  quite  round  Pompey's  camp,  and 
kept  him  so  closely  blocked  up  that,  though  his 
men  were  presently  supplied  with  provisions 
from  sea,  yet  die  horses  of  his  army  died  in 
great  numbers  for  want  of  forage.  At  length, 
being  reduced  to  the  utmost  extremity  for  want  of 
forage,  Pompey  resolved  to  force  the  enemy's 
lines.  By  the  advice,  therefore,  of  two  de- 
serters he  embarked  .his  archers,  slingers,  and 
light  armed  infantry,  and,  m'iurching  by  land  at 
the  head  of  sixty  cohorts,  went  to  attack  that 

roC  Cs»ar*s  lines  which  was  next  to  the  sea. 
siet  out  from  his  camp  in  the  dead  of  the 
night ;  and,  arriving  at  the  post  he  designed  to 
force  by  day-break,  he  began  the  attaek  by  sea 
and  land  at  the  same  time.  The  ninth  legion, 
which  defended  that  part  of  the  lines,  made  a  vi- 
gorous  resistance ;  but  being  attacked  in  the  rear 
by  Pompey's  men,  who  came  by  sea,  and  landed 
between  Csesar's  two  lines,  tlu^  fled  with  such 
|»ecipitation  that  the  succors  Maicellinus  sent 


them  could  not  stop  them.  The  ensign  who 
carried  the  eagle  at  the  head  of  the  routed  legion 
was  mortally  wounded ;  but  before  he  died  con- 
signed the  eagle  to  the  cavalry,  desiring  them  to 
deliver  it  to  Caesar.  Pompey's  men  pursue.d  the 
fugitives,  and  made  such  a  slaughter  of  them 
that  all  the  centurions  of  the  first  cohort  were 
Cut  off  except  One.  And  now  Pompey's  army 
broke  in  like  a  torrent  upon  the  posts  Cjesar  had 
fortified,  and  were  advancing  to  attack  Marcelli- 
nus,  who  guarded  a  neighbouring  fort;  but  Marc 
Antony  coming  very  seasonably  to  his  relief  with 
twelve  cohorts  they  retired.  Soon  after  C&sar 
arrired  with  a  strong  reinforcement  and  posted 
himself  on  the  shore,  whence  he  observed  an  old 
.camp,  made  wfthin  the  place  where  Pompey  was 
enclosed.  Upon  his  quitting  it  Pompey  had 
<aken  possession  of  it,  and  left  a  legion  to  guard 
it.  This  post  CKsar  resolved  to  reduce.  Accord- 
ingly he  advanced  secretly,  at  the  head  of  thirty- 
three  cohorts,  in  two  lines ;  and,  arriving  at  the 
camp  before  Pompey  could  have  notice  of  his 
march,  attacked  it  with  great  vigor,  forced  the 
first  entrenchment,  notwi&standing  die  brave  re- 
sistance of  Titus  Pulcio,  and  penetrated  to  the 
second,  whither  the  legion  had  retired.  But  here 
his  right  wing»  in  looking  for  an  entrance  into 
the  camp,  marched  along  the  outside  of  a  trench 
which  Csesar  had  formerly  carried  on  from  the 
Ua  angle  of  his  camp,  about  400  paces,  to  a 
neighbouring  river.  This  trench  they  mistook 
for  the  rampart  of  the  camp ;  and,  being  thus 
led  away  from  their  lefl  %ving,  they  were  soon 
afVer  prevented  from  rejoining  it  by  the  arrival 
of  Pompey,  who  came  up  at  the  head  of  a  le^on 
and  a  large  body  of  horse.  Then,  that  legion 
which  Cttsar  had  attacked,  taking  courage,  made 
a  brisk  sally,  drove  his  men  from  the  first  en- 
trenchment which  they  had  seized,  and  put  them 
in  great  disorder  while  they  were  attempting  to 
pass  the  ditch.  Pompey,  falling  upon  them  with 
nis  cavalry  in  fislnk,  completed  their  defeat ;  and 
then.  Dying  to  the  enemy,  s  right  wing,  which  had 
passed  the  trench,  and  was  shut  up  between  that 
and  the  ramparts  of  the  old  camp,  made  a  most 
dreadful  slaughter  of  them.  This  trench  was 
filled  with  dead  bodies ;  many  falling  Mnto  it  in 
that  disorder,  and  others  passing  over  them  and 
pressing  them  to  death.  In  this  distress  Cssar 
did  all  he  could  to  stop  the  flight  of  his  legion- 
aries but  to  no  purpose:  the  standard-bearers 
themselves  tiirew  down  the  Roman  eagles  when 
Csesar  endeavoured  to  stop  them,  and  left  them 
m  the  hands  of  the  enemy,  who  on  this  occasion 
took  thirty-two  standards:  a  disgrace  which 
Csesar  had  never  suffered  before.  He  was  himr- 
self  in  no  small  danger  of  Ming  by  the  hand  of 
one  of  his  own  men,  whom  he  took  hold  of  when 
flying,  bidding  him  stand  and  fiice  about ;  but 
the  man,  apprehensive  of  the  danger  he  was  in, 
drew  his  sword,  and  would  have  killed  him,  had 
not  one  of  his  guards  prevented  the  blow  by  cut- 
off his  arm.  Csesar  lost  on  this  occasion  960 
foot,  400  horse,  five  tribunes,  and  thirty-two 
centurions. 

This  loss  and  disgrace  greatly  mortified  Cftsar, 
but  did  not  discourage  him.  After  he  had,  by 
his  lenity  and  eloquent  speeches,  recovered  the 
spirit  of  his  troops,  he  decamped,  and  retired  in 


Digitized  by  ^^JiJU^lC 


726 


R    O    M    R    . 


good  order  to  ApoUonia,  where  be. paid  the 
army  and  led  his  sick  aod  wounded.  Theoce 
he  irarched  into  Macedon,  where  Scipio  Me- 
tellus,  Pompe/s  father-in-law,  was  encamped. 
He  met  with  great  difficulties  on  his  march,  the 
countries,  through  which  he  passed  refusing  to 
supply  his  army  with  provisions.  On  his  enter- 
ing  Thessaly  be  was  met  by  Domitius,  one  of 
his  lieutenants,  whom  he  had  sent  wiUi  three 
legions  to  reduce  Epirus.  Having  got  all  his 
forces  together,  he  marched  directly  to  Gomphi, 
the  first  town  of  Thessaly,  which  had  been  for- 
merly in  his  interest,  but  now  declared  against 
him.  Whereupon  .he  attacked  it  with  so  much 
vigor  that  though  the  garrison  was  very  numer- 
ous, and  the  walls  were  of  an  uncommon  height, 
he  made  himself  master  of  it  in  a  few  hours. 
Thence  he  marched  to  Metropolis,  another  town 
of  Thessaly,  which  surrendered ;  as  did  all  the 
other  cities  of  the  country,  except  Larissa,  of 
which  Scipio  was  master.  On  the  other  hand, 
Pompey,  being  continually  importuned  by  the 
senators  and  officers  of  his  army,  left  iiis  camp 
at  Dyrrhachium,  and  followed  Cesar,  firmly  re- 
solved not  to  give  him  battle,  but  rather  to  dis- 
tress him  by  straitening  his  quarters,  and  cut- 
ing  off  his  convoys.  As  he  had  frequent  oppor- 
tunities of  coming  to  an  engagement,  but  dways 
declined  it,  his  fhends  and  subalterns  bcsan  to 
put  ill  constructions  on  his  dilatoriness.  These, 
with  the  complaints  of  his  soldiers,  made  him  at 
length  resolve  to  venture  a  general  action.  With 
this  design  he  marched  into  a  large  plain  near 
the  cities  of  Pharsalia  and  Thebes ;  which  las* 
was  also  called  Philippi,  from  Philip  V.  of  Ma- 
cedon.  Pompey  pitched  his  camp  on  the  decli- 
vity of  a  steep  mountain,  in  a  place  altogether 
inaccessible.  He  was  himself  of  the  opinion  that 
it  was  better  to  destroy  the  enemy  by  mtigue  and 
want;  but  his  officers  forced  him  to  call  a  coun- 
cil of  war,  when  all  to  a  man  were  for  venturing 
a  general  action.  The  event  of  this  battle  was 
in  the  highest  degree  fortunate  for  Caesar ;  who 
resolved  to  pursue  his  advantage  and  follow 
Pompey  to  whatever  country  he  should  select. 
Hearing,  therefore,  of  his  being  at  Amphipolis, 
he  sent  off  his  troops  before  him,  and  then  em- 
barked on  board  a  little  frigate  in  order  to  cross 
the  Hellespont;  but  in  the  middle  of  the  strait, 
he  fell  in  with  one  of  Pompey's  commanders,  at 
the  head  of  ten  ships  of  war.  Caesar,  no  way 
terrified  at  the  superiority  of  his  force,  bore  up 
to  him  and  commanded  him  to  submit.  The 
other  instantly  obeyed,  awed  by  the  terror  of 
Caesar*s  name,  and  surrendered  himself  and  his 
fleet  at  discretion. 

Caesar  continued  his  voyage  to  Ephesus,  then 
to  Rhodes ;  and,  being  informed  tnat  Pompey 
had  been  there  before  him,  he  made  no  doubt 
but  that  he  was  fled  to  Egypt ;  wherefore  he  set 
sail  for  that  kingdom,  and  arrived  at  Alexandria 
with  about  4000  men.  Upon  his  landing  he 
received  accounts  of  Pompey's  miserable  end, 
who  had  been  assassinated  by  order  of  the  trea- 
cherous king ;  and  soon  after  one  of  the  murderers 
came  with  his  head  and  ring.  But  Caesar  turned 
away  from  it  with  horror,  and  soon  after  ordered 
a  magnificent  tomb  to  be  built  to  his  memory 
on  the  spot  where  he  was  murdered ;  and  a  tem- 


p\e  near  the  place  to  Nemesis.  Then  wen  at 
that  time  two  pretenders  to  the  crown  of  Emt: 
Ptolemy,  the  acknowledged  kins,  and  the  emt- 
brated  Cleopatra  his  sister,  who,  by  the  in- 
cestuous custom  of  the  oountcy,  was  also  his 
wife,  and,  by  their  fioher's  will,  sbaied  jointly  in 
the  succession.  However  she  aimed  at  goverainK 
alone ;  but,  the  Roman  senate  having  confinned 
ber  brother's  title,  she  was  banished  into  Syria 
with  Arsinoe  her  younger  sister.  Caesar,  how- 
ever, gave  her  new  hopes  of  obtaining  the  'km^ 
dom,  and  sent  both  for  her  and  her  brother  to 
plead  their  cause  before  him.  Photinas,  the 
young  king's  guardian,  who  had  long  borne  the 
most  inveteiale  hatred  both  to  Caesar  and  Cleo- 
patra, disdained  this  proposal*  and  backed  las 
refusal  by  sending  an  .army  of  20,000  men  to 
besiege  him  in  Aleiandria.  Cssar  bravdy  le- 
pulsedtke  enemy;  bnt,  finding. the  citjof  too 
great  extent  to  be  defended  by  ao  amall  an  arm 
as  4000  men,  he  retired  to  the  palace,  whicfa 
commanded  the  harbour,  to  make  a  stand. 
Achilles,  who  commanded  the  Egyptians,  at- 
tacked him  there  with  vigor,  and  endeavettired 
to  make  himself  master  ot  the  fleet  before  the 
palace.  On  this  Cssar  burnt  the  whole  fleet,  in 
spite  of  every  effort  to  prevent  it.  He  next  took 
the  Isle  of  Pharos,,  the  k^  to  Alexandria,  bv 
which  he  was  enabled  to  receive  the  sopplies 
sent  him  fit>m  all  sides ; .  and  in  this  situation  be 
determined  to  withstand  the  united  force  of  all 
the  Egyptians.  In  the  mean  time  Cleopatia, 
having  heard  of  the  turn  in  her  favor,  got  henelf 
introduced  into  his  chamber,  and  her  caresses 
did  not  hJd  to  fix  him  in  her  interest.  While 
Cleopatra  was  thus  employed,  her  sister  Arsinoe 
was  engaged  in  the  camp  in  pursuing  a  sepante 
interest.  She  had,  by  the  assistance  of  one 
Ganymede,  made  a  laige  party  in  the  Egyptian 
army  in  her  fiivor;  and  soon  after,  having  caused 
Achilles  to  be  murdered,  Ganymede  took  tlie 
command  in  his  stead.  Ganymede's  principal 
effort  in  carrying  on  the  siege  was  to  let  in  the 
sea  upon  those  canals  which  supplied  the  pahoe 
with  firesh  water;  but  this  inconvenience  Caesar 
remedied  by  digging  a  great  number  of  wdh. 
His  next  endeavour  was  to  prevent  the  junctkn 
of  Caesar's  twenty-fourth  legion,  -which  he  twice 
attempted  in  vain.  He  soon  after  made  himself 
master  of  a. bridge  which  joined  the  Isle  of  Pha- 
ros to  the  continent,  from  which  post  Cffsar  re- 
solved to  dislodge  him.  In  the  heat  of  action 
some  mariners  joined  the  combatants ;  but,  seiaed 
vndi  a  panic,  instantly  fled,  and  spread  a  general 
terror  through  the  army.  All  Csesar^s  endea- 
vours to  rally  his  forces  were  in  vain,  the  coo- 
fusion  was  past  remedy,  and  numbers  were 
drowned  or  put  to  the  sword  in  attempting  to 
escape ;  on  whidi,  seeing  the  irremediable  dis- 
order of  his  troops,  he  retired  to  a  ship.  But 
he  was  no  sooner  on  board  than  such  cro^vds  en- 
tered at  the  same  time  that  he  vras  apprehen- 
sive of  the  ship's  sinking,  and,  jumping  into  the 
sea,  svram  200  paces  to  the  fleet  More  the 
palace.  The  Alexandrians,  finding  their  eflorts 
to  take  the  palace  ineffectual,  now  endeavoaned 
to  get  their  king  out  of  Ciesar's  power.  For  this 
purpose  they  made  use  of  their  costomaiy  arts 
of  dissimulation,  professing  the  ntmosl  desire 


Digitized  by  ^^JiJU*^lt: 


ROME, 


727 


for  peace,  uid  only  wanting  the  presence  of  their 
lawliil  prince  to  give  a  sanction  to  the  treaty. 
C^sesar,  though  sensible  of  their  perfidy,  gave 
them  their  lung,  as  he  was  under  no  apprehen- 
sion from  a  boy.    Ptolemy,  however,  instead  of 
promoting  peace,  made  every  effort  to  prolong 
nostilities.    In  this  manner  CaBsar  was  hemmed 
in  for  some  time;  and  was  only^at  last  relieved  • 
from  this  mortifying  situation  by  Mithridates 
l^ergamenus,  one  of  his  fiiithful  partisans ;  who, 
collecting  a  numerous  army  in  Syria,  marched 
into  Egypt,  and,  joining  with  Cssar,  attacked 
the  camp,  and  made  a  great  slaughter  of  the 
Kgyptians.    Ptolemy  himself,  attempting  to  es- 
cape on  board  a  vessel  that  was  sailing  down  the 
river,  was  drowned  by  the  ship's  sinking ;  and 
Caesar  thus  became  sole  master  of  all  Egypt.    H e 
now  therefore  appointed  that  Cleopatra,  with 
lier   younger  brother,  then  an  infant,    should 
jointly  govern,  according  to  the  intention  of 
their  father's  will;  and  l^nished  Arsinoe  with 
Ganymede.    For  a  while  he  also  relaxed  from 
liis  usual  personal  activity,  captivated  with  the 
charms  of  Cleopatra,  and  passing  whole  nights 
in  feasts  with  her.    He  ev^n  proposed  to  attend 
her  up  the  Nile  into  Ethiopia;  but  the  brave 
veterans  who  had  followed  his  fortune  boldly 
reprehended  his  conduct.    Thus  roused  from  his 
lethargy,  he  left  Cleopatra,  by  whom  he  had  a 
son,    aherwards  named  Cesarion,   to    oppose 
Pharnaces  king  of  Pontus.    Here  he  was  at- 
tended with  the  greatest  success;  and,  having 
settled  affairs  in  this  part  of  the  empire,  em- 
barked for  Italy,  where  he  arrived  sooner  than 
his  enemies  expected.    He  had  been,  during  his 
absence,  created  consul  for  five  years,  dictator 
for  one  year,  and  tribune  of  the  people  for  life. 
But  Antonv,  who  governed  in  Kome  for  him, 
had  filled  the  city  with  riot  and  debauchery.  By 
his  moderation  and  humanity  Ctesar  soon  restored 
tranquillity,  and  then  prepared  to  march  into 
Africa,  where  Pompey's  party  had  rallied  under 
Scipio  and  Cato,  assisted  by  Juba  king  of  Mau- 
ritania.   But  the  vigor  of  his  proceedings  was 
near  being  retarded  by  a  mutiny  in  his  own 
army.    Those  veteran  legions,  who  had  hitherto 
conquered  all  that  came  before  them,  began  to 
.murmur  at  not  having  received  the  reward  which 
they  had  expected,  and  now  insisted  upon  their 
discharge.    Cesar  however  quelled  the  mutiny ; 
and  then,  with  his  usual  rapidity,  landed  "with  a 
party  in  Africa,  the  rest  of  the  army  following 
soon  after.    After  many  skirmishes,  he  invested 
Tapsus,  supnosing  that  Scipio  would  attempt  its 
jelief;  whicn  accordingly  happened.     Scipio, 
joining  with  Juba,  advanced  with  his  army,  and, 
encamping  near  Cssar,  they  came  to  a  general 
engagement.    Caesar's  success  was  as  usual;  the 
enemy  received  a  complete  and  total  overthrow, 
with  little  loss  on  his  side.    Juba,  and  Petreius 
his  general,  killed  each  other  in  despair ;  Scipio, 
attempting  to  escape  by  sea  into  Spain,  fell 
.among  the  enemy,  and  was  slain ;  so  tnat,  of  all 
the  generals  of  that  undone  party,  Cato  alone 
was  now  remaining.    This  extraordinary  man, 
ha?ing  retired  to  A^ica  ai^er  the  battle  of  Phar- 
salia,  had  led  the  wretched  remains  of  that  army 
■through  burning  deserts  and  tracts  infected  with 
serpents,  and  was  now  in  Utica,  which  he  had 


been  left  to  defend.  Still,  however,  in  love  witi> 
even  the  show  of  a  Roman  government,  he  had 
formed  the  principal  citizens  into  a  sena.t^  and 
conceived  a  resolution  of  holding  out  the  town. 
He  accordingly  assembled  his  senators  upon  this 
occasion,  and  exhorted  them  to  stand  a  siege; 
but,  finding  his  admonitions  ineffectual,  stabbed 
himself  with  his  sword.    See  Cato. 

Upon  Cato's  death,  the  war  in  Africa  being 
completed,  Cesar  returned  in  triumph  to  Rome, 
and  astonished  the  citizens  at  the  magnificence 
of  it,  and  at  the  number  of  the  countries  which 
he  had  subdued.  It  lasted  four  days ;  the  fir^t 
was  for  Gaul,  the  second  for  Egypt,  the  third  for 
his  victories  in  Asia,  and  the  fourth  for  that  over 
Juba  in  Africa.  To  eveiy  one  of  his  soldiers  he 
gave  a  sum  equivalent  to  about  £l50  of  our 
money,  double  that  sum  to  the  centurions,  and 
four  times  as  much  to  the  superior  officers.  The 
citizens  also  shared  his  bounty ;  to  every  one  of 
whom  he  distributed  ten  bushels  of  com,  ten 
pounds  of  oil,  and  a  sum  of  money  equal  to 
about  two  pounds  sterling.  After  this  he  enter- 
tained the  people  at  about  20,000  tables,  treated 
them  with  the  combats  of  gladiators,  and  filled 
Rome  with  a  concourse  of  spectators  from  every 
part  of  the  world.  The  people  now  seemed  eager 
only  to  find  out  new  modes  of  homage  and  adu- 
lation for  their  new  master.  He  was  created 
magister  morum,>or  master  of  the  morab  of  the 
people;  received  the  titles  of  emperor  and 
father  of  his  country ;  his  person  was  declared 
sacred ;  and,  in  short,  upon  him  alone  were  de- 
volved for  life  all  the  great  dignities  of  the  state. 
It  must  be  owned  that  no  sovereign  could  make 
a  better  use  of  his  power.  He  began  by  repressing 
vice  and  encouraging  virtue ;  he  communicated 
the  power  of  judicature  to  the  senators  and  the 
knights  alone,  and  by  many  sumptuary  laws 
restrained  the  scandalous  luxuries  of  the  rich. 
He  proposed  rewards  to  all  who  had  many  chil- 
dren;  and  took  the  most  prudent  methods  of  re- 
peopling  the  city.  Having  thus  restored  pros- 
perity to  Home,  he  once  more  found  himself 
under  a  necessity  of  going  into  Spain,  to  oppose 
an  array  which  had  been  raised  there  under  the 
two  sons  of  Pompey,  and  Labienus  his  former 
general.  He  proceeded  in  this  expedition  with 
his  usual  celenty,  and  arrived  before  the  enemy 
thought  he  had  left  Rome.  Cneius  and  Sextus, 
Pompey's  sons,  profiting  by  their  unhappy  father's 
example,  resolved  to  protract  the  war ;  so  that 
the  firat  operations  of  tne  two  armies  were  spent 
in  sieges  and  fruitless  attempts.  At  length  Cesar, 
after  taking  many  cities  from  the  enemy,  and 
pursuing  young  Pompey  with  unwearied  perse- 
verance, compelled  him  to  come  to  a  battle  upon 
the  plains  of  Munda.  After  a  most  obstinate 
engagement,  Cssar  gained  a  complete  victory ; 
and,  having  now  subdued  all  his  enemies,  re- 
turned to  Rome  for  the  last  time  to  receive  new 
dignities  and  honora.  Still,  however,  he  showed 
great  moderation  in  the  use  of  his  power ;  he  left 
the  consuls  to  be  named  by  the  people ;  he  en- 
larged the  number  of  senatora ;  he  pardoned  aH 
who  had  been  in  arms  against  him ;  but  deprived 
them  of  the  power  of  resistance.  He  even  set  up 
once  more  the  statues  of  Pompey.  The  rest  of 
this  extraordinary,  man's  life  was  certainly  de- 


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ROME. 


toted  to  the  advantage  of  the  state.  He  adoraed 
the  city  with  magnificent  buildings ;  he  rebuilt 
Catthage  and  Corinth,  sending  colonies  to  both; 
he  undertook  to  level  several  mountains  in  Italy, 
to  drain  the  Potitine  marshes,  and  designed  to 
cut  through  the  Isthmus  of  Ae  Peloponnesus. 
Thus  he  formed  mightv  projects  and  designs  be- 
yond the  limits  6f  we  longest  life;  but  the- 
gieatest  of  all  was  bis  intended  expedition 
against  the  Parthians,  by  which  he  oesigned 
to  revenge  the  death  of  Crassus ;  then  to  pass 
through  Hyrcania,  and  enter  Scythia  along  the 
banks  of  the  Caspian  Sea;  thence  to  open  himself 
a  way  through  tne  immeasurable  forests  df  Ger- 
many in  Gaul,  and  so  return  to  Rome.  These 
were  the  plans  of  this  great  man ;  but  the  jealousy 
of  a  few  individuals  soon  put  an  end  to  them. 
The  senate,  "^ith  an  adulation  which  marked  the 
degeneracy  of  the  times,  continued  to  load 
Caraar  with  fresh  honors,  and  he  continued  with 
avidity  to  receive  them.  They  called  the  month 
Quintilis  July  after  him;  to  which  indeed  he 
was  entitled  by  his  reform  of  the  kalendar; 
they  stamped  money  with  his  image ;  they  or- 
dered his  statue  to  be  set  up  in  all  the  cities  of 
the  empire;  mstituted  public  sacrifices  on  hb 
birth-day ;  and  talked,  even  in  his  life-time,  ot 
enrolling  him  in  the  nutaiber  of  their  gods. 
Antony,  at  one  of  their  public  festivals,  foolishly 
ventured  to  offer  him  a  diadem;  but  he  re- 
peatedly revised  it,  and  received  at  eveiy  refusal 
loud  acclamations  from  the  people.  One  day, 
VI  hen  the  senate  gave  him  some  particular  order, 
he  neglected  to  rise  from  his  seat;  and  from  that 
moment  it  began  to  he  rumored  that  he  intended 
to  make  himself  king ;  for,  though  in  (act  he  al» 
teady  possessed  supreme  power,  the  people 
conld  not  bear  his  assuming  the  title,  whether 
he  ever  realty  designed  to  wear  that  empty 
honor  must  now  for  ever  remain  a  secret ;  cer- 
tain it  is  that  the  unsuspecting  openness  of  his 
conduct  marked  something  like  a  confldenee  in 
his  own  innocence.  When  informed  by  those 
about  him  of  the  jealousies  of  many  who  envied 
him,  he  said  that  he  had  rather  die  onee  by 
treason  than  live  continually  in  the  apprehension 
of  it ;  and  disbanded  his  company  of  Spanish 
guards.  Yet  a  deep-laid  conspiracy  was  formed 
against  him,  composed  of  no  less  than  sixty 
senators.  At  the  head  of  this  conspiracy  was 
Brutus,  whose  life  Csesar  had  spared  after  ihe 
battle  of  Pharsalia,  and  Cassius,  who  had  been 
pardoned  soon  after,  both  prsstors  for  the  year. 
Brutus  gloried  in  being  descended  from  that 
Brutus  who  first  gave  liberty  to  Rome;  and, 
from  a 'wish  to  follow  his  example^  broke  all  the 
ties  of  gratitude,  and  joined  in  a  conspiracy  to 
destroy  his  heneTictor;  Cassius  was  impetuous 
and  proud,  and  hated  Csssar  more  than  his  canse. 
He  had  often  sought  an  opportunity  of  assassi- 
nation, rather  from  private  than  public  motives. 
The  conspirators,  to  give  a  color  of  justice  to 
their  proceedings,  remitted  the  execution  of  their 
design  to  the  ides  of  March,  ^e  day  on  which  it 
^nis  reported  that  Cssar  was  to  be  ofi^red  the 
crown.  The  augurs  had  foretold  that  this  day 
Would  be  fatal  to  him ;  and  the  night  preceding 
he  heard  his  wife  Calphumia  lamenting  in  her 
sleep;  and,  being  awakened,  nhe  confessed  to 


him  that  she  dreamed  of  his  being  t 
in  her  arms.  These  omens  had  almost  changed 
his  intention  of  going  to  the  senate;  but  one  of 
the  conspirators,  coming  in,  prevailed  apoo  him 
to  do  so,  telling  him  of  the  reproach  whidi  woold 
attend  his  staying  at  home  till  his  wife  had  hidEy 
dreams.  As  he  went  to  the  senate,  a  slave,  who 
hastened  to  him  with  information  of  the  con- 
spiracy, attempted  to  come  near  him,  but  could 
not  for  the  crowd.  Anemidonts,  a  Greek  phi- 
losopher, vrho  bad  discolored  the  whole  plot, 
delivered  him  a  memorial  containing  has  infor- 
mation ;  but  Cesar  gave  it  to  one  of  his  secreta- 
ries without  reading  it.  As  soon  as  he  had  taken 
his  place  in  the  senate,  the  conspirators  cane 
near,  under  a  pretence  of  sahiting  him;  and 
Cimber  approacned  in  a  snppltant  postnic,  to 
sue  for  his  brother's  pardon,  who  was  banished. 
All  the  conspirators  seconded  him,  and  Cimber, 
apparently  to  apply  with  the  greater  submission, 
took  hold  of  the  bottom  of  his  robe,  so  as  to  pre- 
vent his  rising.  This  was  the  signd.  C^ca, 
who  was  behind,  stabbed  him  slightly  in  the 
shoulder.  Cesar  instantly  turned  round,  and 
with  the  style  of  his  tablet  wonnded  Yam  in  the 
arm.  But,  the  rest  of  the  conspirators  enclosing 
him  round,  he  received  a  second  stab  from  an 
unknown  hand  in  the  breast,  while  Cassius 
wounded  him  in  the  face.  He  still  defended 
himself  vigorously,  rushing  among  them,  and 
throwing  down  such  as  opposed  him,  till  he  saw 
Brutus  among  the  conspirators,  who,  coming  np, 
struck  his  dagger  in  his  thi^.  From  that  moment 
Cesar  thought  no  more  of  defending  himself; 
but,  looking  upon  this  assailant  steadily,  cried 
out,  'And  you,  too,  my  soil  Brutus?^  Then 
covering  his  head,  and  spreading  his  robe  before 
him  to  fall  with  decency,  he  sunk  down  at  the 
base  of  Pompey*s  statue,  after  receiving  twenty- 
three  wounds,  in  the  fiity-^xth  year  q£  his  age^ 
and  fourth  of  his  dictatonhip. 

As  soon  as  the  conspirators  had  despatdied 
Cesar,  they  addressed  the  senate  to  vindicate 
their  motives,  and  to  excite  them  to  join  in  pio- 
curing  their  Conntr/s  freedom ;  but  ^1  the 
senators  who  were  not  accomplices  fied.  The 
people  also,  being  alarmed,  ran  iumultnoasly 
through  the  city;  some  actuated  by  tfieir  feais, 
and  more  by  a  desire  of  plunder.  In  this  cm- 
fusion,  the  conspirators  retired  to  the  capitol, 
and  guarded  its  accesses  by  a  body-  of  giladiators. 
It  was  in  vain  they  alleged  they  only  struck  for 
freedom,  and  that  they  killed  a  tyrant  who 
usurped  the  rights  of  mankind ;  the  people, 
accustomed  to  luxury  and  ease,  little  regarded 
their  professions.  The  friends  of  the  late  dicta- 
tor now  found  that  this  was  the  time  for  gratify- 
ing their  ambition  tindcsr  the  veil  of  justice. 
Antony,  who  was  a  lieutenant  under  Csesar,  was 
a  man  of  moderate  abilities  and  of  excessive 
vices ;  ambitious  of  power,  but  well  skilled  in 
war.  He  was  consul  for  that  year ;  and  resolved 
with  Lepidus  to  seize  the  soin^eign  power* 
Lepidus  therefore  took  possession  of  the  fonim 
with  a  band  of  soldiers ;  and  Antony,  being 
consul,  was  permitted  to  command.  They  fint 
possessed  themselves  of  aU  Cesar*s  papers  and 
money ;  next  they  convened  the  senate,  to  deter- 
mine whether  Cesar  had  been  a  legal  magistrate 


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ROME. 


729 


or  a  luurper,  and  whether  tbose  wh6  killed  him 
merited  rewud  or  punishment  There  were 
many  of  those  who  had  received  their  promo* 
lions  from  Cssar,  and  had  acquired  large  for* 
tunes  in  consequence  of  his  appointments;  to 
vote  bim  a  usurper  therefore  would  have  en- 
dangered their  property ;  and  yet  to  vote  him 
innocent  might  endanger  the  state.  In  this 
dilemma  they  tried  to  reconcile  extremes : 
they  approved  all  the  acts  of  Cssar^  but  granted 
a  general  pardon  to  the  conspirators.  This 
decree  did  not  satisfy  Antony,  as  it.  granted  se- 
curity to  a  number  oi  men  who  were  die  avowed 
enemies  of  tyrrany,  and  who  would  be  foremost 
in  opposing  his  schemes.  As  therefore  the 
senate  had  ratified  all  Caesar's  acts,  without  dis- 
tinction, he  formed  a  scheme  upon  this  of 
making  him  rule  when  dead.  Being  possessed 
of  Cssar's  books,  he  prevailed  upon  his  se^ 
cretary  to  insert  whatever  he  thought  proper. 
By  tliese  means,  great  sums  of  money,  which 
CoBsar  never  would  have  bestowed,  were  or^ 
dered  to  be  distributed  among  the  people; 
and  every  man  who  was  averse  to  repub- 
lican principles  was  sure  of  findins  a  gra- 
tuity. He  then  demanded  that  Caesar  s  funeral 
obsequies  should  be  performed;  which  the 
senate  could  not  decently  forbid,  as  they  had 
never  declared  him  a  tyrant.  Accordingly  the 
body  was  brought  forth  into  the  forum  with  the 
utmost  solemnity ;  and  Antony  began  to  excite 
the  passions  of  the  people.  He  first  read  Caesar's 
will,  in  which  he  bad  left  Octavius,  his  sister's 
grandson,  his  heir,  permitting  him  to  take  the 
name  of  Ciesar ;  and  three  parts  of  his  private 
fortune  Brutus  was  to  inherit  in  case  of  his 
death.  The  Roman  people  were  left  the  gardens 
which  be  had  on  tlie  other  side  the  Tiber ;  and 
every  citizen  was  to  receive  300  sesterces.  This 
last  bequest  greatly  increased  the  people's  affec- 
tion for  Cttsar;  they  oonsidered  him  as  a  &ther, 
who,  afler  doing  them  the  greatest  good  while 
living,  thought  of  benefiting  them  after  his  death. 
As  Antony  continued  reading,  the  multitude  were 
moved,  and  lamentations  were  beard  from  every 
quarter.  Antony  now  began  to  address  the 
assembly  in  a  more  pathetic  strain  ;  he  presented 
befqre  them  Caesar's  bloody  robe,  and,  as  he  UI^- 
foldcd  it,  took  care  they  should  observe  the 
number  of  stabs  in  it;  he  then  displayed  an 
image  of  the  body  of  Csesar,  all  covered  with 
wounds.  The  people  could  now  no  longer  con- 
tain their  indif^tion;  they  unanimously  cried 
out  for  revenge ;  'and  the  multitude  ran  with 
flaming  bramb  from  the  pile  to  set  fire  to  the 
conspirator's  ^houses.  They,  however,  being  well 
guarded,  repulsed  the  multitude ;  but,  perceiving 
their  rage,  they  thought  it  safest  to  retire  from 
the  city.  Divine  honors  were  then  granted  to 
the  fallen  dictator ;  and  an  altar  was  erected  on 
the  place  where  hi^  body  was  burnt,  where  after- 
wards was  erected  a  column  inscribed,  To  tbe 
Father  of  bis  Count aY.  In  the  mean  time 
Antony,  having  gained  the  people  by  his  zeal  in 
Cesar  s  cause,  next  endei^voured  to  bring  ovcsr 
the  senate^  by  a  seeming  concern  for  the  freedom 
of  the  state.  He  tbeiefore  proposed  to  recall 
Sextus,  Pompey's  only  repiaining  son,  who  had 
ooncealed  himself  in  Spain,  and  to  grant  him  the 


command  of  all  the  fleets  of  the  empire.  Hi^ 
next  step  was  the  quelling  a  seditioo  of  the 
people,  who  rose  to  revenge  the  death  of  Cesar, 
and  putting  their  leader  Amathus  to  death,  who 
pretended  to  be  the  son  of  Marius.  He  after 
this  pretended  to  dread  the  resentment  of  the 
multitude,  and  demanded  a  guard.  The,  senate 
granted  it;  and,  under  this  pretext,  he  drew 
round  him  a  body  of  6000  resolute  men,  attached 
to  bis  interests.  Thus  be  continued  every  day 
making  rapid  strides  to  absolute  power;  all  the 
authority  of  government  was  lodged  in  his 
hands  and  those  of  his  two  brothen,  who  shared 
amoz^  them  the  consular  tribunitian  and  praeto- 
rian power.  His  vows  to  revenge  Caesar's  death 
seemed  postponed  or  forgotten;  and  his  only 
aim  was  to  confirm  himself  in  that  power  which 
he  had  thus  artfully  acquired.  But  an  obstacle 
to  his  ambition  soon  arose  in  Octavius,  ^r  Octa- 
vianus  Cesar,  the  grand  nephew  and  adopted 
son  of  Cesar,  who  was  at  AuoUonia  when  his 
kinsman  was  slain.  He  was  then  about  eighteen 
years  old,  and  had  been  sent  to  that  city  to  im- 
prove himself  in  Grecian  literature.  Upon  the 
news  of  Cesar's  death,  notwithstanding  the 
earnest  dissuasions  of  his  friends,  he  returned  to 
Rome  to  claim  the  inheritance^  and  revenge  the 
death  of  his  uncle.  But  Antony,  whose  projects 
were  only  to  aggrandise  himself,  gave  him  but  a 
cold  reception,  and,  instead  of  grantms  him  the 
fortune  left  him  by  Caesar's  will,  delayed  tbe  pay- 
ment of  it  upon  various  pretences.  Octavianus, 
instead  of  abating  his  claims,  sold  his  own  patri- 
monial estate  to  pay  such  legacies  as  Cesar  had 
left,  and  particularly  that  to  the  people.  By 
these  means  he  gained  a  degree  or  popularity^ 
which  his  enemies  vainly  labored  to  diminish. 
The  army  near  Rome,  who  had  long  wished  to 
see  the  conspiratora  punished,  began  to  turn 
from  Antony  to  his  rival,  whom  they  saw  more 
sincerely  bent  on  gratifying  their  desires.  An- 
tony having  procured  al^  the  government  of 
Hither  Gaul  from  the  people,  two  of  the  legions 
that  he  had  brought  home  from  his  former 
government  of  Macedonia  went  over  to  Octa- 
vianus. This  produced,  as  usual,  interviews, 
complaints,  recriminations,  and  pretended  re- 
conciliations, which  only  widened  the  difference; 
so  that  at  length  both  sides  prepared  for  war. 
Thus  the  state  was  divided  into  three  distinct 
Actions ;  that  of  Octavianus,  who  aimed  at  pro- 
curing Caesar's  inheritance'  and  revenging  his 
death ;  that  of  Antony,  whose  sole  view  was  to 
obtain  absolute  power;  and  that  of  the  conspi- 
rators, who  endeavoured  to  restore  the  republic. 
Antony,  being  raised  by  the  people  to  his  new 
government  of  Cisalpine  Gaul,  contrary  to  the 
inclinations  of  the  senate,  resolved  to  enter  upon 
that  province  immediately,  and  oppose  Brutus, 
who  commanded  a  small  body  of  troops  there, 
while  his  army  was  yet  entire.  He  accordingly 
left  Rome,  and,  marching  thither,  commanded 
Brutus  to  depart  Brutus,  being  unable  to 
oppose  him,  retired  with  his  forces ;  but,  being 
pursued  by  Antony,  he  was  at  last  besieged  in 
the  city  of  Mutina,  of  which  he  sent  word  to 
the  senate.  In  the  meanwhile,  Octavianus,  who 
by  this  time  had  raised  a  body  of  10,000  men, 
returned  to  Rome ;  and  being  resolved,  before 


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ft    O    M    E. 


(m  attempted  to  take  veogeftnce  on  the  coaspK 
ntora,  if  possible  to  diminish  the  power  of 
Antony,  began  by  bringing  over  the  senate  to 
second  his  designs.  In  Uiis  he  sncceeded  by  the 
credit  of  Cicero,  who  had  long  hated  Antony. 
Accordingly,  by  his  eloquence,  a  decree  was 
passed,  ordering  Antony  to  raise  the  siege  of 
Mutina,  to  evacuate  Cisalpine  Gaul,  and  to  wait 
the  further  orders  of  the  senate  upon  the  banks 
of  the  Rubicon.  Antony  treated  the  order  with 
contempt;  and,  instead  of  obeying,  began  to 
dhow  his  displeasure.  On  this  the  senate  de- 
clared him  an  enemy  to  the  state,  and  sent 
Octavianus,  with  the  army  he  had  raised,  to  curb 
his  insolence.  The  consols,  Hirtixis  and  Pansa, 
joined  also  their  forces;  and,  thus  combined, 
they  marched  at  the  head  of  a  numerous  army, 
against  Antony  into  Cisalpine  Qaul.  After  one 
or  two  ineffectual  conflicts,  both  armies  came  to 
a  general  engagement;  in  which  Antony  was 
defeated,  and  compelled  to  fly  to  Lepidus,  who 
commanded  a  body  of  forces  in  Further  Gaul. 
This  victory,  however,  which  promised  the  senate 
80  much  success,  produced  eiffects  very  different 
from  their  expectations.  The  two  consuls  were 
mortally  wounded ;  but  Pansa,  previous  to  his 
death,  called  Octavianus  to  his  bed-side,  and 
advised  him  to  join  with  Antony,  telling  him 
that  the  senate  only  desired  to  depress  both,  by 
opposing  them  to  each  other.  The  advice  of 
the  dying  consul  sunk  deep  on  his  spirits;  so 
that  from  that  time  he  only  sought  a  pretext  to 
break  with  them.  Their  giving  the  command  of 
a  part  of  his  army  to  Decimus  Brutus,  and 
their  denying  him  a  triumph  soon  after,  served 
to  alienate  his  mind  entirely  from  the  senate,  and 
made  him  resolve  to  join  Antony  and  Lepidus. 
He  was  willing,  however,  to  try  the  senate 
thoroughly,  before  he  came  to  an  open  rupture ; 
wherefore  he  sent  to  demand  the  consulship, 
which  was  Tefused.  He  then  privately  sent  to 
sound  the  inclinations  of  Antony  and  Lepidus, 
concerning  a  junction  of  forces,  and  found  them 
as  eager  to  assist  as  the  senate  was  to  oppose 
him.  Antony  was  in  fact  the  general  of  both 
armies,  and  Lepidus  was  only  nominally  so,  his 
soldiers  refusing  to  obey  him  upon  the  approach 
of  the  former.  Wherefore,  upon  being  assured 
of  the  assistance  of  Octavianus  upon  their  arrival 
in  Italy,  they  soon  crossed  the  Alps  with  an  army 
of  seventeen  legions,  breathing  revenge  against 
all  who  had  opposed  their  designs.  Tlie  senate 
•now  be^,  too  late,  to  perceive  their  error  in 
disobUgmg  Octavianus ;  and  therefore  gave  him 
the  consulship  which  they  had  so  lately  refused ; 
and,  to  prevent  his  joining  with  Antony,  flatter- 
ed him  with  new  honors,  giving  him  a  power 
superior  to  all  law.  The  first  use  Octavianus 
made  of  his  new  authority  was  to  procure  a  law 
for  the  condemnation  of  Brutus  and  Cassins ; 
af^er  which  he  joined  his  forces  with  those  of 
Antony  and  Lepidus.  The  meeting  of  these 
three  usurpers  of  their  country's  freedom  was 
near  Mutina,  upon  a  little  island '  of  the  river 
Panarus.  Their  mutual  suspicions  were  the 
cause  of  their  meeting  in  this  place.  Lepidus 
'flrst  entered,  and,  finding  all  things  safe,  made 
the  signal  for  the  other  two  to  approach.  Their 
•conference  lasted  three  days;  and  the  result  of 


it  was,  that  the  supreme  authority  should  be 
lodged  in  their  hands,  under  the  title  of  the 
triumvirate,  for  five  years ;  that  Antony  shonid 
have  Gaul,  Lepidus  Spain,  and  Octananos 
Africa  and  the  Mediterranean  Islands.  As  for 
Italy,  and  the  eastern  provinces,  they  were  to 
remain  in  common  until  their  genetai  enemy 
was  entirdy  subdued.  But  the  last  aitide  of 
their  union  was  a  dreadful  one.  It  was  agreed 
that  all  their  enemies  shonid  be  destroyed;  of 
which  each  presented  a  list  In  these  were 
comprised  not  only  the  enemies  but  the  friends 
of  the  triumvirate,  since  the  partisans  of  tiie  one 
were  often  found  amdng  the  opposers  of  the 
others.  Thus  Lepidus  gave  up  his  brother 
Paulos  to  the  venseance  of  his  colleaugue;  An- 
tony permitted  w  proscription  of  his  uncle 
Lucius ;  and  -Octavianus  delivered  up  the  great 
Cicero.  The  most  sacred  rights  of  nature  were 
violated ;  300  senators,  and  above  2000  knights, 
were  included  in  this  terrible  proscription ;  their 
fortunes  were  confiscated,  and  their  murdefers 
enriched  with  the  spoil.  Rome  soon  felt  the 
effects  of  this  infernal  union,  and  the  horrid 
cruelties  of  Marius  and  Syllk  were  renewed. 
As  many  as  could  escape  the  cruelty  of  the 
triumvirs,  fled  into  Macedonia  to  Bratss,  or 
found  refuge  with  young  Pompey,  who  was  now 
in  Sicily,  and  covered  the  Mediterranean  with 
his  numerous  navy.  Theircruelties  were  not  aimed 
at  the  men  alone ;  but  the  softer  sex  were  aba 
marked  as  objects  of  avarice  or  resentment 
They  made  out  a  list  of  1400  women  of  the 
richest  in  the  city,  who  were  ordered  to  give  in 
an  account  of  their  fortunes  to  be  taxed.  But 
this  was  so  firmly  opposed  by  Hortensia,  that 
they  were  contebt  to  tax  only  400.  However, 
they  made  up  the  deficiency  by  extending  the 
tax  upon  men ;  nearly  100,000,  as  well  citizens 
as  strangers,  were  compelled  to  furnish  supplies 
to  the  subversion  of  freedom.  At  last,  both  the 
avarice  and  vengeance  of  the  triumviri  seemed 
fuUy  satisfied,  and  they  went  into  the  senate  to 
declare  that  the  proscription  was  at  an  end ;  and 
thus  having  deluged  the  city  with  blood,  Octa- 
vianus and  Antony,  leaving  Lepidus  to  defend 
Rome  in  their  absence,  marched  with  their  forces 
to  oppose  the  conspirators,  who  were  now  at  the 
heaa  of  a  formidable  army  in  Asia. 

Brutus  and  Cassius,  the  principal  conspiiators 
upon  the  death  of  Cssar,  being  compelled  to 
quit  Rome,  went  into  Greece,  where  they  per- 
suaded the  Roman  students  at  Athens  to  declare 
in  the  cause  of  freedom ;  then,  parting,  the  for- 
mer raised  a  powerful  army  in  Macedonia  and 
the  adjacent  countries,  while  the  bitter  went  into 
Syria,  where  he  became  master  of  twelve  legions, 
and  reduced  his  opponent  DolabeUa  to  such 
straits  that  he  killed  himself.  Both  parties  soon 
after  joining,  at  Smyrna,  the  sight  of  such  a  for- 
midable force  began  to  revive  the  declining  spi- 
rits of  the  party,  and  to  unite  the  two  geoerats 
still  more  closely.  The  Rhodians  and  Lydans 
-having  refused  their  usual  contributions,  the 
conspirators  made  their  reduction  their  first  bu- 
siness. The  Lycians,  rather  than  submit^  bomed 
themselves  alive  in  Xanthus;  the  hmnanity  of 
Brutus  could  save  only  150  from  the  flames. 
As  Antony  and  Octavianus  woe  now  advanced 


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into  Maoedonli,  they  soon  after  passed  over 
into  Thrace^  and  advanced  to  Pmlippi,  near 
which  the  forces  of  the  triumvirs  were  posted. 
A  battle  soon  ensued,  in  which  the  repubticans 
were  defeated,  and  Cassius  killed.  Previous  to 
this  battle  Brutus  is  said  to  have  seen  a  spectre, 
which  warned  him  of  the  issue.  Brutus,  when 
he  became  sole  general,  assembled  the  dispersed 
troops  of  Cassius,  and  animated  them  with  fresh 
hopes  of  victory.  As  they  had  lost  all  they  pos- 
sessed, by  the  plundering  of  their  camp,  he  pro- 
mised them  2000  denarii  each  man  to  make  up 
their  losses.  Still,  however,  he  had  not  confr- 
dence  to  &ce  the  advei|ary,  who  offered  him 
battle  next  day.  His  aim  was  to  starve  his 
enemies,  who  were  in  extreme  want  of  provi- 
sions, Uieir  fleet  having  been  lately  defeated. 
But  his  single  opinion  was  orer-mled  by  the 
rest  of  his  army,  and  he  was,  after  a  respite  of 
twenty  days,  obliged  to  comply  with  their  solici- 
tations to  try  the  fate  of  tike  battle.  Fortune 
a|;ain  declared  against  him ;  and  the  two  trium- 
viri expressly  oidered  by  no  means  to  suffer  the 
general  to  get  off,  lest  he  ishould  renew  the  war. 
His  friend  Lucilius  giving  himself  as  Brutus,  he 
effected  his  escape ;  but  however,  finding  all  hopes 
of  retrieving  his  affidra  lost,  he  slew  himself  the 
same  night. 

After  Brutus's  death  the' triumviri  acted  as 
sotereigns,  and  divided  the  Roman  dominions 
among  them. '  However,  though  there  were  ap- 
parently three  who  thus  participated  the  power, 
only  two  were  actually  possessea  of  it.  Lepidus 
was  admitted  merely  to  curb  the  jealousy  of  An- 
toDy  and  Octavianus,  and  possessed  neither  in- 
terest in  the  army  nor  authority  among  the 
people.  Their  f^rst  care  was  to  punbh  those 
whom  they  had  formerly  marked  for  vengeance. 
The  head  of  Brutus  was  sent  to  B>ome  to  be 
thrown  at  the  foot  of  Cesar's  statue.  His  ashes, 
however,  were  sent  to  his  wife  Porcia,  Cato's 
danghter,  who  afterwards  killed  herself  by  swal- 
lowing burning  coals.  Of  all  those  who  had  a 
hand  in  Cesar's  death,  not  one  died  a  natural 
death.  The  power  of  the  triumviri  being  thus 
established,  upon  the  ruins  of  the  commonwealth, 
Antony  went  into  Greece.  Thence  he  passed 
over  into  Asia,  where  all  the  monarchs  of  the 
east,  who  acknowledged  the  Roman  power,  came 
to  pay  him  obedience.  Among  other  sovereigns 
Cleopatra  came  to  him  at  Tarsus,  and  he  was  so 
captivated  by  her  charms  that  he  returned  to 
Egypt  with  her,  and  gave  himself  up  to  love. 
VHiile  he  thus  remained  idle,  Octavianus,  who 
undertook  to  lead  back  the  veteran  troops  and 
settle  them  in  Italy,  was  assiduously  employed 
in  providing  for  their  subsistence.  He  hsul  pro- 
mised them  lands  at  home,  as  a  recompense  for 
their  past  services ;  but  they  could  not  receive 
new  grants  without  turning  out  the  former  inha- 
bitants. In  consequence  of  this,  multitudes  of 
women,  with  children  in  their  arms,  whose  ten- 
der years  and  innocence  excited  universal  com- 
passion, daily  filled  the  temples  and  the  streets 
with  their  distresses.  Numbers  of  husbandmen 
and  shepherds  came  to  deprecate  the  conqueror's 
intention,  or  to  obtain  a  habitation  in  some  other 
part  of  the  world  :  amongst  this  number  was 
Virgil  the  poet,  who  in  an   humble    manner 


begged  permission  to  retain  his  patrimonial  hrm. 
Virgil  obtained  his  request,  but  the  rest  of  his 
countrymen  of  Mantua  and  Cremona  were 
turned  out  without  mercy.  Italy  and  Rome 
now  felt  the  most  extreme  miseries ;  the  insolent 
soldiers  plundered  at  will ;  while  Sextus  Pom- 
pey,  being  master  of  the  sea,  cut  off  all  foreign 
communication,  and  prevented  the  people's  re- 
ceiving their  usual  supplies  of  com.  To  these 
mischief  were  added  the  commencement  of 
another  civil  war.  Fulvia,  the  wife  of  Antony, 
who  had  been  left  at  Rome,  had  felt  for  some 
time  all  the  rage  of  jealousy,  and  resolved  to 
try  every  method  of  bringing  back  her  husband 
from  the  arms  of  Cleopatra.  She  considered  a 
breach  with  Octavianus  as  the  only  probable 
means  of  rousing  him  from  his  lethargy ;  and 
accordingly,  with  the  assistance  of  Lucius  Anto- 
nius, '  her  brother-in-law,  who  was  then  consul, 
and  entirely  devoted  to  her  interest,  she  began  to 
sow  the  seeds  of  dissension.  The  pretext  was, 
that  Antony  should  have  a  share  in  ue  distribu- 
tion of  lands  as  well  as  Octavianus.  To  nego- 
ciations  succeeded  war,  and  Octavianus,  beinff 
victorious,  generously  pardoned  the  conquered, 
but  obligeid  Fulvia  to  quit  Italy.  Antony,  learn- 
ing what  was  passing,  resolved  to  oppose  Octar 
vianus  without  delay.  He  accordingly  sailed  at 
the  head  of  a  considerable  fleet  from  Alexandria 
to  Tyre,  thence  to  Cyprus  and  Rhodes,  and  had 
an  interview  with  Fulvia  at  Athens.  He  blamed 
her  for  occasioning  the  late  disorders,  expressed 
the  utmost  contempt  for  her  person,  and,  leaving 
her  upon  her  death^bed  at  Sicyon,  hastened  into 
Italy  to  fight  Octavianus.  They  met  at  Brundu- 
dusium.  Antony's  forces  wen:  numerous,  but 
mostly  newly  raised ;  but  he  was  assiste^i  by 
Sextus  Pompeius,  who  was  daily  coming  into 
power.  Octavianus  was  at  the  head  of  those 
veterans  who  had  always  been  irresistible,  but 
who  seemed  not  disposed  to  fight  a^nst  Antony, 
their  former  eeneral.  A  negociation  was  there- 
fore proposed,  and  a  reconciliation  effected.  All 
offences  were  mutually  foxgiven;  and  a  marriage 
was  concluded  between  Antony  and  Octavia,  the 
sister  of  Octavianus.  A  new  division  of  the 
Roman  empire  was  made  between  them ;  Octa- 
vianus was  to  have  the  command  of  the  west, 
Antony  of  the  east,  while  Lepidus  was  to  have 
the  provinces  in  Africa.  As  for  Sextus  Pompeius, 
he  was  permitted  to  retain  all  the  islands  he  had 
already  possessed ;  together  with  Peloponnesus : 
he  was  also  granted  the  privilege  of  demanding 
the  consulship  in  his  absence,  and  of  discharging 
that  office  by  any  of  his  friends.  It  was  also  stipu- 
lated to  leave  the  sea  open,  and  pay  the  people 
what  corn  was  due  out  of  Sicily.  Thus  a  general 
peace  was  concluded.  This  csdmwas  continued  for 
some  time :  Antony  led  his  forces  against  the  Par- 
thians,  over  whom  his  lieutenant  Ventidius  had 
gained  great  advantages,  while  Octavianus  drew 
the  greatest  part  of  his  army  into  Gaul,  where  there 
were  some  disturbances ;  and  Pompey  went  to  se- 
cure his  newly  ceded  province.  It  was  on  this  quar- 
ter that  fresh  motives  were  given  for  renewing 
the  war.  Antony,  who  was  obliged  by  treaty  to 
quit  Peloponnesus,  refused  to  evacuate  it  till 
Pompey  had  satisfied  him  for  such  debts  as  were 
due  to  him  from  the  inhabitants.    This  Pompey 


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ROME. 


refused ;  but  immediately  fitted  out  a  new  fleet, 
and  renewed  his  former  enterprises,  by  jcutting 
oiT  such  com  and  provisions  as  were  consigned 
to  Itoly.  Thus  the  grievances  of  the  poor  were 
agaih  renewed ;  and  the  people,  instead  of  three 
tyrants,  were  now  oppressea  by  four.  In  this 
exigence,  Octavianus,  who  had  long  meditated 
diminishing  the  number,  resolved  to  begin  by 
getting  rid  of  Pompey.  He  was  master  of  two 
fleets ;  one  of  which  he  had  caused  to  be  built 
at  Ravenna;  and  another  which  Menodorus, 
who  revolted  from  Pompey,  brought  to  his  aid. 
His  first  attempt  was  to  mvade  Sicily ;  but  beii^ 
overpowered  in  his  passage  by  Pompey,  and  his 
fleet  afterwards  shattered  in  a  storm,  he  was 
obliged  to  defer  his  design  till  the  next  year. 
Dunng  this  interval  he  was  reinforced  by  a  fleet 
of  120  ships,  given  him  by  Antony,  with  which 
he  resolved  once  more  to  invade  Sicily.  He 
was  again  disabled  and  shattered  by  a  storm : 
which  so  raised  the  vanity  of  Pompey  that  he 
"began  to  style  himself  the  son  of  Neptune. 
However,  Octavianus  having  retitted  his  navy 
and  recruited  his  forces,  he  vave  the  command 
of  both  to  Agrippa,  his  faithful  friend,  who 
proved  himself  worthy  of  the  trust.  He  began 
tiis  operations  by  a  victory  over  Pompey ;  and, 
thougn  he  was  shortly  after  worsted,  he  soon  aAer 
gave  his  adversary  a  complete  and  final  over- 
throw. Pompey  resolved  to  fly  to  Antony,  from 
whom  he  expected  refuge,  as  he  had  formerly 
obliged  that  triumvir  by  protecting  his  mother. 
However  he  tried  once  more,  at  the  head  of  a 
small  body  of  men,  to  make  himself  independ- 
ent, and  surprised  Antony's  officers  who  had 
been  sent  to  accept  of  his  submissions.  But  he 
was  at  last  abandoned  by  hb  soldiers,  and  deli- 
vered' up  to  Titus,  Antony's  lieutenant,  who 
caused  hini  to  be  slain.  Ine  death  of  this  ge- 
neral removed  one  very  powerfiil  obstacle  to  Sie 
ambition  of  Octavianus,  and  he  resolved  to  get 
rid  of  the  rest  of  his  associates.  An  oflence 
was  soon  furnished  bv  Lepidus,  that  served  as  a 
pretext  for  depriving  him  of  his  share  in  the  tri- 
umvirate. Being  at  the  head  of  twenty-two 
legions,  with  a  strong  body  of  cavalry,  he  sup- 
posed that  his  power  was  more  than  equivalent 
to  the  popularity  of  Octavianus.  He  therefore 
resolvea  to  add  Sicily  to  his  province ;  pretend- 
ing a  right,  as  having  first  invaded  it.  His  col- 
league having  previously  expostulated  without 
success,  and  knowing  that  his  secret  intrigues 
and  largesses  had  entirely  attached  the  army  to 
himself,  went  alone  to  the  camp  of  Lepidus,  de- 
prived him  of  all  his  authority,  and  banished  him 
to  Circcum.  There  remained  now  but  one  ob- 
stacle to  his  ambition,  viz.  Antony,  whom  he 
resolved  to  remove,  and  began  to  render  his  cha- 
racter as  contemptible  as  he  could  at  Rome. 
In  fact  Antonys  own  conduct  contributed 
greatly  to  promote  the  object  of  his  rival.  He 
had  marched  against  the  Parthians  with  a  pro- 
digious army ;  but  was  forced  to  return  with  the 
loss  of  the  fourth  part  of  his  forces,  and  all  his 
baggage;  This  greatly  diminished  his  repu- 
tation ;  but  his  making  a  triumphal  entry  into 
Alexandria,  soon  after,  entirely  disgusted  the  citi- 
zens of  Rome.  However  Antony,  totally  drs- 
regarding  the  business  of  the  state,  spent  whole 


months  in  the  company  of-  Cleopatra,  who  stu- 
died every  art  to  increase  bis  paMion,  and  retain 
him  in  her  chaina.  Not  contented  with  ^kiarii^ 
in  her  company  all  the  delishts  which  Egypt 
could  afibrd,  Antony  was  resclved  to  enSarge  bis 
sphere  of  luxury,  by  granting  her  seveial  of  those 
kingdoms  which  belonged  to  the  Rotaan  empire. 
He  gave  her  all  Phoaicia,  Ccelo-Syria,  and  Cy- 
prus ;  with  a  grrat  part  of  Ciliciay  Aiabn,  and 
Judea;  gifts  i^ch  he  had  no  right  to  beMow, 
but  whidi  he  pretended  to  giant  io  imitatioD  of 
Hercules.  This  complication  of  vice  and  foUj 
at  length  exasperated  the  Romaos;  and  Octa- 
vianus took  care  to  exaggerate  all  his  fenlti.  At 
length  he  resolved  to  aend  Octavia  to  Antony, 
as  5  with  a  view  of  reclaiming  her  husband,  but 
in  fact  to  furnish  a  sufficient  prelezt  of  declaring 
war  against  him.  Aocordingly,  Antony  ordered 
her  to  return  without  seeing  her.  CXctavianus 
had  now  a  sufficient  pretext  for  declaring  war ; 
and  informed  the  senate  of  his  intention.  But 
he  deferred  it  for  a  while,  being  then  empSofedl 
in  quelling  an  insurrection  of  tbe  Illyiiana.  TWe 
following  year  was  taken  up  in  peaparatioas 
against  Antony.  Antony  ordered  Casidios  with 
his  army  to  inarch  into  Europe;  while  he  and 
Cleopatra  followed  to  Samoa,  to  F^pa^  for  car- 
rying on  the  war  with  vigor.  The  kings  ^w 
attended  him  endeavoured  to  gain  kis  &vor  more 
by  their  entertainments  than  their  warlike  pre- 
parations ;  and  the  provinces  strove  rather  to 
8 lease  him  by  sacrificmg  to  his  divinity,  tkan  bj 
)eir  alacrity  in  his  defence.  In  short,  bis  best 
friends  now  began  to  forsake  him.  His  delay  at 
Samos,  and  afterwards  at  Athens,  where  be  car- 
ried Cleopatra  to  receive  new  honors,  was  ex- 
tremely favorable  to  the  arms  of  Octavianiis; 
who  was  at  first  scarcely  in  a  situation  to  oppose 
him,  had  he  gone  into  Italy ;  but  he  soon  found 
time  to  put  himself  in  a  condition  for  canying 
on  the  war.  All  Antony's  followers  were  in- 
vited over  to  join  him  with  great  promises  of 
rewards.  Their  armies  were  suitable  to  the  em- 
pire they  contended  for.  The  one  was  foHowed 
ny  all  the  forces  of  the  east ;  the  other  by  the 
strength  of  the  west  Antony's  force  compOKd 
a  body  of  100,000  foot  and  12>000  hoise;  ha 
fleet  amounted  to  600  ships  of  war.  Hie  army 
of  Octavianus  mustered  only  80,000  foot,  bat 
equalled  his  adversary's  in  number  of  cavalry: 
his  fleet  was  but  half  as  numerous  as  Antonys; 
however  his  ships  were  better  built,  and  manned 
with  better  soldiers.  The  great  decisive  engage- 
ment, which  was  a  naval  one,  was  fought  near 
Actium,  a  city  of  Epiius,  at  the  entrance  of  the 
gulph  of  Ambraoia.  Antony  ranged  bis  ships 
before  the  mouth  of  the  gul{^ ;  and  Octavianos 
drew  up  his  in  opposition.  The  two  land  ar- 
mies on  opposite  siaes  of  the  gulph,  were  drawn 
up  only  as  spectators.  The  battle  bc^gan  on 
both  sides  with  great  ardor;  nor  was  there  any 
advantage  on  either  side  till  of  a  sudden  Cleo- 
patra fled  from  the  engagement  attended  by  sixty 
sail ;  what  increased  the  general  amazement  was 
to  behold  Antony  himsell  foUowing  soon  af^. 
Yet  the  engaffement  continued  wiUi  great  obsti- 
nacy till  5  P.  M.,  when  Antoiiy^s  forces  sub- 
mitted. The  land  forces  soon  ^fist  followed  the 
example  of  the  navy ;  and  all  yielded  widiout 


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striking  a  blow  the  fourth  day  after  the  battle. 
When  Cleopatra  fled  Antony  pursued  her  in  a 
iive-oared  galley ;  and,  coming  along  side  6f  her 
ship,  entered  wi^out  seeing  or  bemg  seen  by 
her.  She  was  in  the  stem,  and  he  went  to  the 
prow,  where  he  remained  for  some  time  silent, 
Holding  his  head  between  his  hands.  In  this 
manner  he  continued  three  whole  days ;  diiritig 
vrhicb,  either  ihrough  indignation  or  shame,  he 
neither  saw  nor  spoke  to  the  queen.  At  last, 
when  they  arrived  at  the  promontory  of  Tenarus, 
Cleopatra's  female  attendants  reconciled  them, 
and  evenr  thing  went  on  as  before.  Still,  how- 
ever,  he  nad  the  consolation  to  suppose  his  army 
continued  faithful ;  and  accordingly  despatched 
orders  to  his  lieutenant  Caoidius  to  conduct  it 
into  Asia.  When  however  he  arrived  in  Africa, 
be  was  informed  of  their  submission  to  his  rival. 
This  account  so  transported  him  with  rage  that 
he  was  hardly  prevented  from  killing  himself; 
at  length,  at  the  entreaty  of  his  friends,  he  re- 
turned to  Alexandria.  Cleopatra,  however,  seemed 
to  retain  that  fortitude  in  her  misfortunes  which 
had  abandoned  her  admirer.  Having  amassed 
considerable  riches,  by  confiscation  and  other 
acts  of  violence,  she  formed  a  very  singular  pro- 
ject, to  convey  her  whole  fleet  oyer  the  isthmus 
of  Suez  into  the  Red  Sea,  and  thus  save  henelf 
witli  all  her  treasures  in  another  region  beyond 
the  reach  of  Rome.  Some  of  her  vessels  were 
actually  transported  thither,  pursuant  to  her 
orders ;  but  the  Arabians  having  burnt  them,  and 
Antony  dissuading  her  from  the  design,  she 
abandoned  it  for  the  more  improbable  scheme 
of  defending  Egypt.  She  made  all  preparation 
for  war;  at  least  hoping  thereby  to  obtain  better 
terms  from  Octavianus.  In  fact,  she  had  always 
loved  Antony's  fortunes  rather  than  his  person ; 
and  if  she  could  have  fallen  upon  any  method 
of  saving  herself,  though  even  at  hb  expense, 
she  would  have  embraced  it.  She  even  still 
had  some  hopes  from  the  power  of  her  charms, 
though  she  was  almost  forty ;  and  was  desirous 
of  trying  upon  Octavianus  those  arts  which  had 
been  so  successful  with  the  greatest  men  of 
Rome.  Thus  in  the  three  embiusies  which  were 
sent  from  Antony  to  his  rival  in  Asia,  the  queen 
had  always  her  secret  agents,  charged  with  par- 
ticular proposals  in  her  name.  Antony  desired 
only  that  his  life  might  be  spared,  and  to  pass 
the  rest  of  his  days  in  obscurity.  1*0  these  pro- 
posals Octavianus  made  no  reply.  Cleopatra 
sent  him  also  public  proposals  in  fevor  of  her 
children;  but  at  the  same  time  privately  resigned 
him  her  crown,  with  all  the  ensigns  of  royalty. 
To  the  queen's  public  proposal  no  answer  was 
given ;  to  her  private  oner  he  replied,  by  giving 
her  assurances  of  his  favor  in  case  she  sent  away 
Antony  or  pat  him  to  death.  When  these  nego- 
ciations  came  to  the  knowledge  of  Antony,  his 
jealousy  and  rage  were  heightened  to  the  utmost. 
He  built  a  solitary  hous^  upon  a  mole  in  the  sea; 
where  he  passed  his  time,  shunning  all  cpmmerce 
with  mankind,  and  professing  to  imitate  Timon 
the  man-hater.  But  his  furious  jealousy  drove 
him  even  from  this  retreat ;  for  hearing  that  Cleo- 
patra had  many  secret  conferences  with  one 
Thyrsus,  an  emissary  from  Octavianus,  he  seized 
npon  him,  and,  having  ordered  him  to  be  eruelly 


scourged,  sent  him  back  to  his  patron.  Mean- 
while, the  war  was  carried  vigorously  forward, 
and  Eeypt  was  once  more  the  theatre  of  the 
contending  armies  of  Rome.  Gallus,  the  lieu- 
tenant of  Octavianus,  took  Paretonium,  which 
opened  the  whole  country  to  his  incursions. 
Octavianus  himself  was  in  the  mean  time  ad- 
vancing with  another  army  before  Pelusium,  the 
governor  of  which  gave  him  possession  of  the 
place.  Antony,  upon  his  arrival,  sallied  out  to 
oppose  him,  fighting  with  great  desperation,  and 
putting  the  enemy's  cavalry  to  flight.  This  slight 
advantage  revived  his  declinmg  hopes,  and  he 
reenter^  Alexandria  in  triumph.  Then,  goine 
to  the  pahice,  he  embraced  Cleopatra,  and  pre- 
sented her  a  soldier  who  had  distmguished  him- 
self in  the  late  engagement.  The  queen  rewarded 
him  very  magnificently ;  presenting  him  with  a 
head-piece  and  breast-plate  of  gold.  With  these, 
however,  the  soldier  went  off  the  next  night  to 
the  other  army.  Antony  could  not  bear  this 
defection;  he  resolved,  therefore,  to  make  a 
bold  expirine  effort  by  sea  and  land,  but  previ- 
ously onered  to  fight  his  adversary  in  single 
combat.  Octavianus  coolly  replied  that  Antony 
bad  ways  enough  to  die  besides  single  combat. 
At  day-break  Antony  posted  the  few  troops  he 
had  remaining  upon  a  rising  ground  near  the 
city :  whence  be  sent  orders  to  his  galleys  to  en- 
gage the  enemy.  There  he  waited  to  be  a  spec- 
tator of  the  combat ;  and,  at  first,  he  saw  them 
advance  in  good  order-;  but  his  approbation  was 
turned  into  rage,  when  he  saw  his  ships  only  sa- 
luting those  of  Octavianus,  and  both  fleets  unit- 
ing, and  fkllmg  back  into  the  harbour.  At  the 
same  time  his  cavalry  deserted  him.  He  tried, 
however,  to  lead  on  his  infantry;  which  were 
soon  vanquished,  and  himself  compelled  to  re- 
turn into  the  town.  His  anger  was  now  ungo- 
vernable ;  he  could  not  help  crying  out  aloud  as 
he  passed  that  he  was  betrayed  bv  Cleopatra, 
and  delivered  by  her  to  those  who,  for  her  teke 
alone,  were  his  enemies.  In  these  suspicions  he 
was  not  deceived;  for  it  was  by  secret  orders 
from  the  queen  that  the  fleet  had  passed  over  to 
the  enemy.  Cleopatra  had  for  a  long  while 
dreaded  the  effects  of  Antony's  jealousy ;  and 
had  some  time  before  prepared  a  method  of  ob- 
viating any  sudden  sallies  It  might  produce. 
Near  tiie  temple  of  Isis  she  had  erected  a  build- 
ing, which  wad  seemingly  designed  for  a  sepul- 
chre. Hither  she  removed  all  her  treasure  ^nd 
most  valuable  effects,  covering  them  over  with 
torches,  fhg^ts,  and  odier  combustible  matter. 
This  sepulchre  she  designed  to  answer  a  double 
purpose ;  as  well  to  screen  her  from  the  sudden 
resentments  of  Antony,  as  to  make  Octavianus 
believe  that  she  wpuld  bora  all  her  treasures  in 
case  he  refused  her  proper  terms  of  capitulation. 
Here,  therefore,  she  retired  from  Antony's  fury; 
shutting  the  gates,  which  were  fortified  with 
bohs  and  bars  of  iron :  but  ki  the  mean  time 
gave  orders  to  spread  a  report  of  her  death. 
This  news,  which  soon  reached  Antony,  recalled 
all  his  former  love.  He  now  lamented  her  death 
with  the  same  violence  he  had  but  a  few  minutes 
before  seemed  to  desire  it;  and  called  one  of  his 
freed  men,  named  Eros,  whom  he  had  engaged 
by  oath  to  kill  him  whenever  fortune  should 


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R    O    M    B. 


drive  him  to  this  last  resource.  Eros,  being  com- 
manded to  perform  this  promise,  drew  the  sword, 
but  taming  his  &ce  plunged  it  into  his  own 
bosom,  and  died  at  his  master's  feet.  Antony 
for  a  while  hung  over  his  faithful  servant,  and, 
commending  his  fidelity,  took  up  the  sword, 
with  which  stabbing  himself  in  the  belly,  he  fell 
bacKward  upon  a  little  couch.  Before  he  died 
he  learned  that  Cleopatra  was  yet  alive,  and  had 
himself  carried  to  die.  in  her  presence.  Octar 
vtanus  was  extremely  desirous  of  getting  Cleo- 

ninto  bis  power;  having  a  double  motive 
lis  solicitude  on  this  occasion :  one  to  pre- 
vent her  destroying  the  treasures  she  had  taken 
with  her  into  the  tomb;  the  other  to  preserve 
her  person  as  an  ornament  to  grace  his  triumph : 
and  by  stratagem  at  last  he  obtained  his  object. 
In  the  mean  time  Octavianus  made  his  entry 
into  Alexandria,  and  treated  the  inhabitants  with 
lenity.  Two  only  of  particular  note  were  put 
to  death  upon  this  occasion ;  Antony's  eldest  son 
Antyllus,  and  Csesario,  the  son  of  Julius  Cssar. 
The  rest  of  Cleopatra's  children  he  treated  with 
great  gentleness.  When  she  was  recovered  from 
an  illness,  he  came  to  visit  her  in  person.  Cleo- 
patra had  been  preparing  for  this  mterview,  and 
made  use  of  ev^  method  she  could  think  of  to 
propitiate  the  conqueror,  and  to  gain  his  affec- 
tion, but  in  vain.  She  then  order^  an  asp  to  be 
secretly  conveyed  to  her  in  a  basket  of  fruit, 
sent  a  letter  to  Octavianus,  informing  him  of  her 
purpose  of  suicide,  and  desired  to  be  buried  in 
the  same  tomb  with  Antony.  She  died  at  the 
age  of  thirty-nine,  after  having  reigned  twenty- 
two  years.  Her  death  put  an  end  to  the  mon- 
archy in  Egypt 

Having  setUed  the  affairs  of  Egypt,  Octavianus 
left  Alexandria  in  the  beginning  of  September, 
in  the  year  of  Rome  720,  with  a  design  to  return 
through  Syria,  Asia  Minor,  and  Greece,  to  Italy« 
Onhis  arrival  at  Antioch,  he  found  thereTiridates, 
who  had  been  raised  to  the  throne  of  Parthia,  in 
opposition  to  Phrahates,  and  ambassadors  from 
Fbrabates,  who  were  come  to  solicit  the  assistance 
of  the  Romans  against  each  other.  Octavianus 
gave  a  friendly  answer  both  to  Tiridates  and  the 
ambassadors  of  Phrahates,  without  intending  to 
help  either,  but  vrith  a  design  to  weaken  both. 
After  this,  having  appointed  Messala  Corvinus 
governor  of  Syria,  he  marched  into  Asia,  and 
took  up  his  winter  quarters.  He  spent  the  win- 
ter in  settling  the  several  provinces  of  Asia 
Minor  and  the  adjacent  islands :  and  early  in 
spring  passed  into  Greece,  whence  he  set  out  for 
Rome,  which  he  entered  in  the  month  Sextilis, 
afterwards  called  August,  in  three  triumphs, 
which  were  celebrated  for  three  days  togetner. 
And  now  Octavianus  was  at  the  height  of  his 
wishes,  sole  master  of  the  whole  Roman  empire. 
But,  to  persuade  the  people  that  they  still  en- 
joyed their  ancient  government,  he  continued  the 
old  magistrates,  wiUi  the  same  name,  pomp,  and 
ornaments :  but  they  were  to  have  no  military 
power ;  oidy  their  old  jurisdiction  of  deciding 
finally  all  causes,  except  subh  as  were  capital ; 
and,  though  some  of  these  last  were  left  to  the 

goTemor  of  Rome,  yet  the  chief  he  referred  to 
iraself.    He  likewise  won  the  hearts  of  the  po- 
pulace by  the  cheapness  of  provisions  and  plen- 


tiful markets,  which  he  encooiaged ;  he  ikeqoeniiy 
entertained  Uiem  with  shows  and  sports ;  and  by 
these  means  kept  them  in  gooa  humor,  and 
made  them  forget  his  usurpation  and  their  own 
slavery.  The  senate  he  filled  with  his  own 
creatures,  raising  the  number  of  senators  to  1000. 
Several  poor  senators  were  supplied  with  money 
to  discharge  the  public  offices,  and  he  af- 
fected a  high  regara  for  that  body ;  but  divested 
it  of  all  power.  To  prevent  them  from  raising 
new  disturbances  in  the  distant  proriooes,  he 
prohibited  any  senator  to  travel  out  of  Italy 
without  leave,  except  such  ashaid  lands  in  Sicily 
or  Narbonne  Gaul.  Before  he  ended  his  sixth 
consulship,  he  took  a  census  of  the  people,  forty- 
one  years  after  the  last;  and  in  this  the  number 
of  the  men  fit  to  bear  arms  amounted  to  463,000, 
the  greatest  that  had  ever  been  found.  He  now 
raised  many  public  buildings,  repaired  the  old 
ones,  and  added  various  stately  ornaments  to  the 
city,  which  at  this  time  was,  if  we  may  credit 
ancient  writers,  about  fifty  miles  in  compass, 
containing  nearly  4,000,000  of  souls.  And  now 
Octavianus,  entering  upon  his  seventh  consul- 
ship with  M.  Agrippa,  and  finding  all  diings 
ripe  for  his  design,  went  to  the  senate-house ; 
and  there  offered  to  resign  his  authority,  and  to 
put  all  again  into  the  hands  of  the  people  upon 
the  old  plan  of  the  republic;  but  they  inter- 
rupted him  while  he  was  speaking,  and  after  be 
had  done  unanimously  besought  him  to  take 
upon  himself  alone  the  whole  government  of  the 
emj;>ire.  He,  with  a  seeming  reluctance,  yiekled 
at  last  to  their  request,  and  accepted  of  the  so- 
vereignty for  ten  years.  With  this  new  authority 
the  senate  conferred  upon  him  the  name  of  Augus- 
tus. Yet,  that  he  might  seem  to  share  his  povrer 
with  the  senators,  he  refiised  to  govern  all  tbe  pro- 
vinces :  assigning  to  the  senate  such  as  were 
quiet  and  peaceable.  Over  the  provinces  were 
set  such*  as  had  been  consuls  or  praetors,  with  the 
title  of  proconsul  and  propraetor. 

PARTm. 

ROME,  IMPERIAL. 

Thus  ended  the  greatest  commonwealth,  and 
began  the  greatest  empire,  that  had  ever  been 
known  :  an  empire  which  comprehended  the 
greatest,  and  by  far  the  best  pairt  of  Eun^K, 
Asia,  and  Africa,  being  near  4000  miles  in  length, 
and  about  half  as  much  in  breadth.  As  to  its  an- 
nual revenues,  they  had  been  reckoned  to  amount 
to  £40,000,000  of  our  money.  But  the  Romans 
now  ran  headlong  into  all  manner  of  luxniy  and 
effeminacy.  Tl^  people  were  become  a  mere 
mob.  The  nobiUty  were  indeed  more  po- 
lite than  formerly,  but  idle,  venal,  vicious,  roid 
of  patriotism,  and  solelv  intent  on  gaining  the 
fiivor  of  the  emperor.  Augustus,  absolute  mas- 
ter of  the  empire,  took  all  methods  to  ingratiaie 
himself  with  his  soldiers,  by  whose  means  he  had 
attained  such  a  height  of  power.  He  kept 
twenty-five  legions  constantly  on  foot,  amount- 
ing to  170,650  men.  At  sea  he  had  two  power- 
ful navies.  As  to  the  dvil  government,  he 
enacted  several  new  laws,  and  reformed  some 
old  ones;  and,  as  he  affected  to  do  nothinsr 
without  the  advice  of  the  senate,  to  the  rest  of 


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ROME. 


735 


Ma  titles  they  added  that  of  father  of  his  coun- 
try. Augustus  next  turned  his  arms  agamst  the 
Spanish  nation  called  Cantabrians  and  Asturiahs, 
MTho  hod  never  been  fully  subdued.  The  war 
terminated,  as  usual^  in  favor  of  the  Romans ; 
and  these  brave  nations  were  forced  to  receive 
the  yoke,  though  not  without  the  most  violent 
resistance.  By  this  and  his  other  conquests  the 
name  of  Augustus  became  so  celebrated  that  his 
friendship  was  courted  by  the  roost  distant  mo- 
narchs.  Phrahates,  king  of  Partbia,  made  a 
treaty  with  him  upon  his  own  terms ;  gave  him 
four  of  his  own  sons,  with  their  wives  and  chil- 
dren, as  hostages,  and  delivered  up  the  Roman 
eagles  and. other  ensigns,  which  had  been  taken 
from  Crassus  at  the  battle  of  Carrhs.  He  le- 
ceired  also  an  embassy  from  a  king  of  India, 
vritha  letter  written  in  the  Greek  tongue,  in 
vrhich  the  Indian  monarch  informed  him  that, 
*  though  he  reigned  over  600  kings,  he  had  so 
great  a  value  for  the  friendship  of  Augustus,  that 
he  bad  sent  this  embassy  on  so  long  a  journey  on 
purpose  to  desire  it  of  him ;  and  that  he  was  ready 
to  meet  him  at  whatsoever  place  he  pleased  to 
appoint;  and  that  upon  the  first  notice  he  was 
ready  to  assist  him  in  whatever  was  right.'  This 
letter  he  subscribed  by  the  name  of  Poms,  king 
of  India.  Of  the  ambassadors  who  set  out  from 
India  three  only  reached  Augustus,  who  was 
then  in  the  island  of  Samos,  the  others  dying  by 
the  way.  One  of  the  number  was  .named  Zarmar, 
a  gymnosophist,  who  followed  tlie  emperor  to 
Athens,  and  there  burnt  himself  in  his  presence ; 
it  being  customary  for  the  gymnosophists  to  put 
an  end  to  their  lives  in  this  manner,  when  they 
thought  they  had  lived  long  enough.  Soon  after 
this  the  Roman  dominions  were  extended  south- 
ward over  the  Garamantes,  a  people  whose 
country  reached  as  far  as  the  Niger.  All  this 
time  the  emperor  continued  to  madLe  new  regu- 
lations for  tne  good  of  the  state ;  and  among 
other  things  caus^  the  Sibylline  oracles  to  be 
reviewed.  Many  of  them  he  rejected ;  but  such 
as  were  reckoned  authentic  he  caused  to  be' 
copied  by  the  pontifices,  and  lodged  them*  in 
golden  cabinets,  which  he  placed  in  the  temple 
of  Apollo. 

The  Roman  empire  had  now  extended  itself 
ao  far  that  it  seemed  to  have  arrived  at  the  li- 
mits prescribed  to  it  by  nature;  and  it  soon 
after  began  to  be  attacked  by  those  nations  which 
in  process  of  time  were  to  overthrow  it.  The 
Germans,  in  which  name  the  Romans  included  a 
great  number  of  nations  dwelling  in  the  northern 
ports  of  Europe,  began  to  make  incnrsions  into 
Gaul.  Their  first  attempt  happened  in  the  year 
17  B.  C,  when  they  at  nrst  gained  an  inconside- 
rable advantage,  but  were  soon  driven  back  with 
great  loss.  Sxm  after  this,  the  Rhseti,  who  inha- 
bited the  country  bordering  on  the  lake  of  Con- 
stance, invaded  Italy  where  they  committed 
dreadfiil  devastations,  putting  all  the  males  to  the 
sword  without  distinction  of  rank  or  age.  Against 
these  barbarians  Augustus  sent  Drusus,  the  se- 
cond son  of  the  empress  livia ;  who,  though 
very  young,  g^toed  a  complete  victory  with  very 
little  loss.  Those  who  escaped  took  the  road  to 
Gaul,  being  joined  by  the  Vindelici,  another  na- 
tion in  the  neighbourhood;  bui  Tiberius,  the 


elder  brother  of  Drusus,  marched  agabst  them» 
and  overthrew  them  so  completely,  that  the 
Rhseti,  Vindelici,  and  Norici,  tnree  of  the  most 
barbarous  nations  in  those  parts,  were  ob%ed  to 
submit.  To  keep  their  country  in  awe,  Tiberius 
planted  two  colonies  in  Vindelicia,  opening  a 
road  thence  into  Noricum  and  Rhtetia.  One  of 
^he  cities  which  be  built  for  the  defence  of  his 
colonies  was  called  Drysomae:us;  the  other 
Augusta  Vindelicorum ;  now  called  Memmbgen 
and  Augsburg.  Augustus,  who  had  long  since 
obtained  all  the  temporal  honors  which  could 
well  be. conferred  upon  him,  now  began  to  as- 
sume those  of  the  spiritual  kind  ftlso ;  being  in 
the  year  13  B.  C.  created  pontifex  maximus :  an 
office  which  he  continued  to  hold  till  his  death ; 
as  did  also  his  successors  in  the  time  of  Theodo- 
sius.  By  virtue  of  his  office,  he  corrected  a 
very  gross  mistake  in  the  Roman  kalendar ;  for 
the  pontifices  having,  for  the  space  of  thirty-six 
years,  that  is,  ever  since  the  reformation  by  Julius 
Coesar,  made  every  third  year  a  leap  year,  in- 
stead of  every  fourth,  twelve  days  had  been  in- 
serted instead  of  nine,  so  that  the  Roman  year 
consisted  of  three  days  more  than  it  ought  to 
have  done.  These  three  days  having  been  thrown 
out,  the  form  of  die  year  Ins  ever  since  been  re- 
gularly ob^rved,  till  the  Gregorian  or  New  Style 
came  to  be  adopted  throughout  Europe,  and  is 
still  known  by  the  name  of  the  Old  Style  among 
us.  On  this  occasion  he  gave  his  own  name  to 
the  month  of  August,  as  Julius  Cssar  had  for- 
merly done  to  July.  In  the  year  11  B.C. 
Agrippa  died,  and  was  succeeded  in  his  employ- 
ment of  governor  of  Rome  by  Tiberius ;  but, 
before  investing  him  with  this  ample  power,  the 
emperor  caused  him  to  divorce  his  wife  Agrip- 
pina  (who  had  already  brought  him  a  son,  and 
was  then  big>  with  child),  to  marry  Julia,  the 
widow  of  A^ppa,  and  daughter  of  the  emperor. 
Julia  was  a  princess  of  an  infamous  chanuster, 
as  was  known  to  every  body,  excepting  Augustus 
himself;  however,  Tiberius  made  no  nesitation. 
The  emperor  now  sent  his  two  step-sons,  Tibe- 
rius and  Drusus,  against  the  normem  nations. 
Tiberius  reduced  the  Pannonians,  who  had  at- 
tempted to  shake  off  the  yoke  after  the  death  of 
Agnppa.  Drusus  performed  great  exploits  in 
Germany ;  but,  while  he  was  considering  whether 
he  should  penetrate  further  into  these  northern 
countries,  he  was  seized  with  a  violent  fever, 
which  carried  him  off  in  a  few  days.  He  was 
succeeded  in  the  command  bv  Tiberius,  who  is 
reported  to  have  done  great  things,  but  certainly 
made  no  permanent  conquests  in  Germany.  ' 
However,  he  was  honored  with  a  triumph,  and 
had  the  tribunitial  power  for  five  years  conferred 
upon  him ;  which  was  no  sooner  done  than,  to 
the  great  surprise  of  Augustus  and  the  whole 
city,  he  desired  leave  to  quit  Rome,  and  retire 
to  Rhodes.  A  profound  peace  now  reigned 
throughout  the  whole  empire;  and  in  conse-* 
quenceof  this  the  temple  of  Janus  was  shut,  which 
had  never  before  happened  since  the  reign  of 
Numa  Pompilius.  During  this  pacific  interval, 
the  Saviour  of  mankind  was  born  in  Judsea,  748 
years  after  the  building  of  Rome*  Three  years 
after  Tiberius  returned  to  the  city,  b^  permission 
of  Augustus,  bat  in  a  short  time  his  gnmdaons 


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ROME. 


lAicius  Cesar  and  Caius  Cssar  died,  not  without 
suspicion  of  bebg  poisoned  by  Livia.  Augustus 
was  exceedingly  concerned  at  their  death,  and 
immediately  adopted  Tiberius  as  his  son;  he 
adopted  also  Agrippa  Posthumus,  the  third  son 
of  the  fiioions  /^ppa ;  and  obliged  Tiberius  to 
adopt  Germanicus,  the  son  of  bis  brother  Dfusus, 
though  he  had  a  son  of  fafe  own  named  Drusus. 
As  to  Agrippa,  who  might  have  been  an  occasion 
of  jealousy,  Tiberius  wis  soon  iVeed  from  him 
bv  his  disgrace  and  banishment,  whioh  soon  took- 
place,  but  on  what  account  is  not  known.  The 
northern  nations  now  began  to  be  formidable : 
and,  though  it  is  pretendeil  that  Tiberius  was  al- 
ways successful  against  them,  yet  about  this  time 
they  gave  the  Roman  legions  a  most  terrible 
overthrow:  three  legions  and  sis  cohofts,  under 
Quintilius  Varus,  being  almost  entirely  cut  in 
pieces.  Augustus  set  no  bounds  to  his  grief  on 
this  occasion.  Tiberius,  however,  was  soon  after 
sent  into  Geraiany ;  and  for  his  ezploi's  there 
was  honored  with  a  triumph.  Augustus  now 
took  him  for  his  colleague  m  the  sovereignty ; 
after  which  he  sent  Germanicus  against  the  nor- 
thern barbarians,  and  Tiberius  into  lUyricum. 
This  was  the  last  of  his  public  acts;  for,  having 
accompanied  Tiberius  part  of  his  journey,  he  died  * 
at  Nola  in  Campania,  m  the  seventy-sixth  year  of 
his  age,  and  flfty-sixdi  of  his  tmfn.  Livia  was' 
suspected  of  having  hastened  hu  death  by  poi- 
soned figs< 

Tiberius.^— 'Tiberius,  who  succeeded  to  the 
empire,  resolved  to  secure  himself  on  the  throne 
by  the  murder  of  Agrippa,  whom  accordingly  he 
x;aused  to  be  put  to  doith  by  a  military  tribune* 
Though  this  might  have  been  a  sufficient  evidence 
of  what  the  Romans  had  to  expect,  the  death  <^ 
Augustus  was  no  sooner  known  than  the  two 
consuls  first  took  an  oath  of  fidelity  to  the  em- 
peror, ctnd  then  administei«d  it  to  the  senate^  the 
people,  and  the  soldiery.  Tiberias  behaved  in 
a  dark  myiterious  manner,  niling  with  absolute 
sway,  but  seemmfl^  to  hesitate  whether  he  should 
accept  the  sovereign  power  or  not.  He  had 
scarcely  taken  possession  of  the  throne,  when 
news  was  brought  him  that  the  armies  in  Vnn*- 
nonia  and  Germany  had  mutinied.  In  ^annonia 
they  were  terrified  into  submission  by  an  eclipse 
of  the  moon ;  but  the  revolt  of  the  German  le- 
gions threatened  more  danger.  After  Germanicus 
had  granted  all  their  demands,  and  quieted  them, 
as  he  supposed,  fiiesh  disturbances  broke  out. 
He  then  thought  it  necessary  to  provide  for  the 
safety  of  his  fiunily,  b^  sending  nis  lady  Agrip- 
pina  from  the  camp  with  many  of  the  wives  of 
other  officers.  This  mad«  sudt  a  deep  impref  • ' 
sion  on  the  mutineers  that  they  intreated 
Germanicus  to  recal  his  wife;  and  the  soU 
diers  of  their  own  accord  seized  and  mas- 
sacred the  ringleaders  of  the  revolt.  Stili, 
however,  two  of  the  legions  continued  dis- 
obedient ;  but,  on  hearing  of  the  return  of  their 
companions  to  their  duty,  those  who  had  re- 
mained true  rose  and  massacred  the  whole  of 
the  revolters.  The  sedition  being  thus  quelled, 
Germanicus  led  his  army  into  Germany,  where 
he  performed  various  exploits ;  but  was  still  far 
from  freeing  the  empire  from  its  dangerous  and 
troublesome  enemy.  A.  D.  19  he  died,  of  poison 


as  was  supposed,  g^ven  by  Piso^  his  pwiner  in 
the  government  of  Syria,  to  which  Gennaniciis 
had  been  promoted  after  his  return  from  the 
north.  In  tne  mean  time  Tiberius,  though  he  af- 
fected to  court  the  fiivor  of  the  people  l^  various 
methods,  yet  showed  himself  in  general  sach  a 
cruel  and  blood-thirsty  tyrant  that  be  became 
the.  object  of  universal  abliorrenoe.  Thoogfa  he 
had  hated  Germanicns,  be  punished  Piao  with 
death ;  and  about  a  year  after,  having  no  object 
of  jealousy  to  keep  him  in  awe,  he  b^aa  daily 
to  diminish  the  authority  of  the  senate :  this  was 
much  facilitated  by  their  own  adulation^  so  thai, 
while  he  despised. theii  meanness,  he  enjoyed 
its  eifeots.  A  law  subsisted  which  msMle  it 
treason  to  form  any  injurious  attempt  against 
the  majesty  of  the  people.  Tiberius  asmimed  to 
himself  the  interpretation  and  enforcement  of 
this  law.  All  freedom  was  now  therefoie  ba- 
nislied  from  convirial  meetings,  and  auspicioR 
reigned  amongst  the  dearest  relations.  The  law 
of  offended  maiesty  being  revived,  many  peisoas 
of  distinction  nil  a  sacrifice  to  it«  Jo  the  ho- 
ginning  of  these  cruelties^  Tiberius  took  into  hs 
confidence  Sejanus,  a  Roman  knight,  by  birth  a 
Volscian,  who  gained  his  confidence  by  the  most 
refined  dissimulation,  being  an  over-match  ftir 
his  master  in  his  own  arts.  He  was  made  by 
the  emperor  captain  of  the  prstorian  guards,  ooie 
of  the  most  coEifidential  trusU  in  the  stale.  The 
servile  senators,  with  ready  adulation,  set  up  the 
statues  of  the  favorite  beside  those  ai  Tiberius, 
and  seeoMd  eager  to  pay  him  similar  hooots.  It 
was  from  such  humble  beginnings  that  this  mi- 
nister even  ventured  to  aspire  at  the  throne^  and 
was  resolved  to  make  tha  emperor's  fooltdi  con- 
fidence one  of  the  first  steps  to  his  rain.  Hov- 
ev^,  he  considered  that  cutting  off  Tib^ins 
sdone  would  rather  retard  than  promote  his  de- 
signs, while  his  son  Drusus  and  the  childreB  ot 
Geniianicus  were  yet  remaining.  He  tbetefore 
began  by  seducing  Livia,  the  -wifie  of  Drasos, 
whom  be  prevailed  upon  to  poison  her  faosbaod. 
Tibeitu),  in  the  mean  time,  npt  mndi  regarding 
his  son,  bore  his  death  with  great  traaqqilfity. 
Sejanus  resolved  tomake  his  next  atteaipt  on  te 
children  of  Germanicus  who  were  undonbted 
heirs  to  the  enmire.  Howeveryhewas  frusnaited, 
both  by  the  fidelity  of  their  govenion,  and  tl» 
chastity  of  Agrippina  their  mother.  On  this  he 
resolved  upon  removing  Tiberius  out  of  the  city. 
He  began  to  insinuate  to  him  the  numeroos  in- 
eonveoiences  of  the  city,  the  frttigues  of  atteodiag 
the  senate,  and  the  seditioos  temner  of  the  citi- 
zens. Tiberius,  either  ptevailea  upon  by  his 
persuasions,  or  pursuing  the  natural  tum  of  his 
temper,  which  led  to  indolence  and  d^baiichefy, 
quitted  Rome,  there&ve,  in  the  tweHkh  year  of 
his  reign,  and  went  into  Campania,  under  pre- 
tence of  dedicating  temples  to  Jupiter  asHl  Ab- 
gusttts.  After  this  he  never  letnmed  to  the 
eapitol ;  but  spent  the  greatest  part  of  hia  tine 
in  the  island  of  Caprea^  a  plaee  lendered  in&- 
mous  by  his  pleasures.  He  spent  whole  nights 
at  the  table;  and  his  luxuries  of  ttli»  kinds 
were  stili  more  detestable.  From  the  time  of 
his  retreat,  he  also  became  more  cruel,  and  Se- 
janus endeavoured  to  increase  his  distrusts. 
Every  day  he  found  his  aim  succeeding;  the 


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ROME. 


737 


wretched  eroperor'a  terrors  were  an  instrument 
by  which  he  levelled  every  obstacle.  He  so 
cpntrived  to  widen  the  breach  between  the  em- 
peror and  the  sons  of  Germanicus,  that  at  length 
Nero  and  Drusiis  were  declsu'ed  enemies  of  the 
state,  and  starved  to  death  in  prison;  wlule 
Agrippina  their  mother  was  sent  into  banish- 
ment. In  this  manner  Sejanus  proceeded,  re- 
moving all  who  stood  between  him  and  tlie  em- 
pire :  me  number  of  his  statues  exceeded  even 
those  of  the  emperor ;  and  he  was  more  dreaded 
than  even  the  tyrant  who  enjoyed  the  throne. 
But  the  rapidity  of  his  rise  was  only  preparatory 
lo  the  greatness  of  his  downfall.  All  we  know 
of  his  first  disgrace  witli  the  emperor  is  that 
Satrius  Secundus  was  the  man  who  had  the  bold- 
ness to  accuse  him :  Antonia,  the  mother  of  Ger- 
manicus, seconded  the  accusation :  but  he  was 
verj'  near  despatching  Tiberius,  when  his  prac- 
tices were  discovered.  The  emperor  ordered 
the  senate  to  put  him  in  prison ;  but  they  went 

•  beyond  their  orders,  and  directed  his  execution. 
His  body  was  ignominiously  drs^ed  about  the 
streets,  and  his  whole  family  executed  with  him. 
Sejanus*s  death  seemed  only  to  kindle  the 
emperor's  rage  for  farther  executions.  The  pri- 
sons Mrere  crowded  with  pretended  accomplices 
in  the  conspiracy  of  JSejanus :  but  Tiberius  began 
to  grow  weary  of  particular  executions ;  he  there- 
fore gave  orders  that  all  the  accused  should  be 
put  to  death  without  examination,  aitd  often 
feasted  his  eyes  with  the  tortures  of  the  wretches 
put  to  death  before  him.  In  the  mean  time  the 
frontier  provinces  were  invaded  with  impunity 
by  the  barbarians.  Msesia  was  seized  on  oy  the 
Dacians  and  Sarm^tians ;  Gaul  by  the  Germans, 
and  Armenia  by  the  king  of  Parthia.  Tiberius, 
however,  was  so  much  a  slave  to  his  appetites, 
that  he  left  the  provinces  entirely  to  the  care  of 
his  lieutenants,  and  they  were  intent  rather  on 
the  accumulation  of  private  fortunes  than  the 
safety  of  the  state.  At  length,  in  the  twenty- 
second  year  of  his  reign,  he  began  to  feel  the 
approaches  -of  dissolution,  and  nominated  Cali- 
gula for  his  successor:  soon  after  he  fell  into 
such  faintings,  as  all  believed  were  fatal.  It  was 
in  this  situation  that,  by  Macro's  advice,  Caligula 
prepared  to  secure  the  succession.  He  received 
the  congratulations  of  the  court,  caused  himself 
lo  be  acknowledged  by  the  prvtorian  soldiers,  and 
went' forth  from  the  emperor's  apartment  amidst 
the  applauses  -of  the  multitude;  when  on  a 
sudden  he  was  informed  that  the  emperor  was 
recovered,  had  begun  to  speak,  and  qesired  to 
eat.  Macro,  however,  who  was  hardened  in 
crimes,  ordered  that  the  dying  emperor  should 
be  despatched,  by  smothering  him  with  pillows; 
or,  as  other  historians  state,  by  poison-  Thus 
died  Tiberius,  in  the  seventy-eighth  year  of  his 
age,  after  reigning  twenty-two.  The  Romans 
were,  at  this  time,  arrived  at  the  highest  pitch  of 
e^eminacy  and  vice :  the  weajth  of  almost  every 
nation  of  the  empire,  bavins,  for  some  time,  cir- 
culate through  the  city,  brought  with  it  the 
luxuries -peculiar  to  each;  so  that  Rome  pre- 
sented a  aetestable  picture  of  pollution.    In  the 

eighteenth  year  of  tnis  monarch's  reign,  Christ 
was  crucified. 
Caligula ' — No  monarch  ever  came  to  the 
Vol.  XVIII. 


throne  with  more  advantages  than  Caligula.   He 
received  the  congratulations  of  the  people  on 
every  side,  all  equally  pleased  with  being  free 
from  the  cruelties  of  Tiberius,  and   in   hoping 
new  advantages  from  the  virtues  of  his  successor 
Caligula  at  first  certainly  took  every  method  to 
impress  them  with  the  expectation  of  a  happy 
change. ,   Amidst  the  rejoicings  of  the  multitude, 
he  advanced  mourning,  with  the  dead  body  of  Ti- 
berius, which  the  soldiers  brought  to  be  burnt  at 
Rome.  Upon  his  entrance  into  the  city,  he  was  re- 
ceived with  new  titles  of  honor  by  the  senate ;  for 
though  left  co-heir  with  Gemellus,  grandson  to 
Tiberius,  they  set  aside  Gemellus,  and  declared 
Caligula  sole  successor  to  the  empire.     Having 
performed  the  funeral  solemnities  of  Tiberius,  he 
hastened  to  the  islands  of  Pandataria  and  Pontia, 
to  remove  the  ashes  of  his  mother  and  brothers, 
exposing  himself  to  tempestuous  weather  to  give 
a  lustre  to  his  piety.     Having  brought  them  to 
Rome,  he  instituted  annual  solemnities  in  their 
honor,  and  ordered  September  to  be  called  Ger- 
manicus, m  memory  of  his  father.  He  conferred 
the  same  honors  upon  his  grandmother  Antonia 
which  had  been  giVen  to  Livia ;  and  ordered  all 
informations  to  be  burnt  that  any  way  exposed 
the  enemies  of  his  family.    He  even  refused  a 
paper  that  was  offered  him,  tending  to  the  disco- 
very of  a  conspiracy  against  him ;  alleging  that 
he  was  conscious  of  nothing  to  deserve  any  man's 
hatred,  and  therefore  had  no  fears.    He  caused 
the  institutions  of  Augustus,  which  had  been 
disused  in  the  reign  of  Tiberius,  to  be  revived ; 
undertook  to  reform  many  abuses  in  the  state, 
and  severely  punished  corrupt  governors.    He 
banished  the  spintris  or  inventors  of  abominable 
recreations  from  Rome ;  attempted  to  restore  the 
ancient  manner  of  electing  magistrates  by  the 
suffrages  of  the  people ;  and  gave  them  a  free 
jurisdiction,  witliout  any  appeal  to  himself.    Al- 
though the  will  of  Tiberius  was  annulled  T)y  the 
senate,  and  that  ofXivia  suppressed  by  Tiberius, 
yet  he  caused  all  their  legacies  to  be  punctually 
paid  ;  and,  to  make  Gemellus  amends  for  miss- 
ing the  crown,  he  caused  him  to  be  elected  prin 
ceps  juventutis,  or  principal  of  the  youth.    He 
restored  some  kings  to  their  dominions  who  had 
been  unjustly  dispossessed  by  Tiberius,  and  gave 
them  the  arrears  of  their  revenues.  And,  that  he 
might  appear  an  encourager  of  every  virtue,  he 
ordered  a  female  slave  a  large  sUm  of  money, 
for  enduring  the  most  exquisite  torments  with- 
out discovering  the  secrets  of  her  master.    So 
many  concessions,  and   such  apparent  virtue, 
could  not  fail  of  receiving  just  applause.  A  shield 
of  gold,  bearing  his  image,  was  decreed  to  be 
carried  annually  to  the  capitol,  attended  by  the 
senate  and  the  sons  of  the  nobility  singing  in 
praise  of  the  emperor's  virtues.    It  was  likewise 
ordained  that  the  day  on  which  he  was  appointed 
to  the  empire  should  be  called  Pubitia ;  implying 
that,  when  he  came  to  govern,  the  city  received  a 
new  foundation.     But  in  less  than  eight  months 
all  this  show  of  virtue  and  clemency  vanished ; 
while  furious  passions,  unexampled  avarice,  and 
capricious  cruelty,  began  to  rule  his  mind.    As 
most  of  the  cruelties  of  Tiberius  arose  from  sus- 
picion, so  most  of  those  committed  by  Caligula 
took  their  rise  from  prodigality.    Some  asser*. 

3B 


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ROME. 


that  a  disorder,  which  happened  soon  after  his 
accession  to  the  empire,  deranged  his  under- 
standing. Indeed  madness  itself  could  scarcely 
dictate  cruelties  more  extravagant,  or  inconsist- 
encies more  ridiculous,  than  are  imputed  to  him. 
Gemellus  he  obliged  to  kill  himself.  Sileniis, 
the  emperor's  father-in-law,  was  the  next  that 
was  put  to  death  upon  slight  suspicion;  and 
Gerincus,  a  senator  of  notea  integrity,  refusing 
to  witness  falsely  against  him,  shared  his  fate. 
After  these  followed  a  crowd  of  victims  to  the 
emperor's  avarice  or  caprice.  Among  the  num- 
ber of  those  who  were  thus  sacrificed  was 
Macro,  the  late  favorite  of  Tiberius,  and  the 
person  to  whom  Caligula  owed  the  empire. 
Not  long  after,  he  assumed  divine  honors,  and 

gave  himself  the  names  of  such  divinities  as 
e  thought  most  agreeable  to  his  nature.  For 
this  purpose  he  caused  the  heads  of  the  sta- 
tues of  Jupiter  and  some  other  gods  to  be  struck 
off,  and  his  own  to  be  put  in  their  places.  He 
frequently  seated  himself  between  Castor  and 
Pollux,  and  ordered  that  all  who  came  to  their 
temple  to  worship  should  pay  their  adorations 
only  to  him ;  nay,  at  last,  he  altered  their  temple 
to  the  form  of  a  portico,  which  he  joined  to  his 
palace,  that  the  very  gods,  as  he  said,  might  serve 
him  in  the  quality  of  porters.  He  was  not  less 
notorious  for  the  depravation  of  liis  appetites 
than  for  his  ridiculous  presumption.  jNeither 
person,  place,  nor  sex,  were  obstacles  to  the  in- 
dulgence of  his  lusts.  There  was  scarcely  a  lady 
of  any  quality  in  Rome  that  escaped  him;  and, 
indeed,  such  was  the  degeneracy  of  the  times, 
that  there  were  very  few  who  did  not  think  this 
disgrace  an  honor.  He  is  said  to  have  com- 
mitted incest  with  his  three  sbters,  and  at  public 
feasts  they  lay  with  their  heads  upon  his  bosom. 
Of  these  he  prostituted  Livia  and  Agrippina  to 
his  vile  companions,  and  then  banished  them  as 
adultresses  and  conspirators.  As  for  Drusilla, 
he  took  her  from  her  husband  Longius,  and  kept 
her  as  his  wife.  Her  he  loved  so  affectionately, 
that,  being  sick,  he  appointed  her  heiress  of  his 
empire  and  fortune ;  and  when  she  happened  to 
die  before  him  made  her  a  goddess.  Yet  to  mourn 
for  her  death  was  a  crime,  as  she  was  become 
a  goddess;  while  io  rejoice  for  her  divinity  was 
capita^  because  she  was  dead.  Nay,  even  si- 
lence itself  was  an  unpardonable  insensibility, 
either  of  the  emperpf^s  loss,  or  his  sister's  ad- 
vancement. But  of  all  his  vices,  his  prodigality 
was  perhaps  the  most  remarkable.     The  most 

Sotorious  instance  of  this  fruitless  profusion  was 
)e  vast  bridge  at  Puteoli,  which  he  undertook 
in  the  third  year  of  his  reign.  He  caused  a 
great  number  of  ships  to  be  fastened  to  each 
other,  so  as  to  make  a  floating  biidge  from  Baiie 
to  that  place,  across  an  arm  of  the  sea  three 
miles  and  a  half  broad.  The  ships  being  placed 
in  two  TOWS,  in  form  of  a  crescent,  were  secured 
to  each  other  with  anchors,  chains,  and  cables. 
over  these  were  laid  vast  quantities  of  timber, 
and  upon  that  earth,  so  as  to  make  the  whole  re- 
semble one  of  the  streets  of  Rome.  He  next 
caused  several  houses  to  be  built  upon  his  new 
bridge,  for  the  reception  of  himself  and  his  at- 
tendantSi  into  whicn  fresh  water  was  conveyed 
by  pipes  from  land.    At  night,  tbe  number  of 


torches  and  other  illamioations  wifii  #faidi  this 
expensive  structure  was  adorned,  cast  sadi  a 
gleam  as  illuminated  the  whole  bay,  and  all  die 
neighbouring  mountains.  Expenses  like  these 
would  have  exhausted  the  most  unbounded 
wealth:  in  iScU  after  reigning  abont  a  year, 
Caligula  found  his  revenues  exhansted ;  and  a 
treasure  of  about  £18,000,000  of  our  money, 
which  Tibenus  had  amassed,  entirely  spent  in 
extravagance  and  folly.  Now,  therefore,  his 
prodigality  put  him  upon  new  methods  of  sup- 
plying the  exchequer ;  and,  as  before  his  profu- 
sion, so  now  his  rapacity  became  boundless, 
lie  put  in  practice  all  kinds  of  rapine  and  ex- 
tortion. Every  thing  was  taxed,  to  the  voy 
wages  of  the  meanest  tradesmen.  He  had  poi- 
soned many  who  had  named  him  lor  their  heir, 
to  have  the  immediate  possession  of  then-  for- 
tunes, and  set  up  a  brothel  in  his  own  palace, 
from  which  he  gained  considerable  sams  by 

Prostitution.  He  also  kept  a  public  gaming- 
ouse.  On  one  occasion,  having  had  a  seri^ 
of  ill  luck,  he  saw  two  rich  knights  passing 
through  the  court ;  on  which  he  rose,  and,  causing 
both  to  be  apprehended,  confiscated  their  estates: 
then,  rejoinmg  his  companions,  he  boasted  that 
he  had  never  had  a  better  throw  in  his  life.  Ano- 
ther time,  wanting  money  *foi  a  stake,  be  went 
down  and  caused  several  noblemen  to  be  pot  to 
death  ;  and  then,  returning,  told  the  compam-' 
that  they  sat  playing  for  trifles  while  he  had  won 
60,000  sesterces  at  a  cast.  Such  insupportable 
and  capricious  cruelties  produced  many  con- 
spiracies against  him ;  the  issue  of  which  was 
only  deferred  by  his  intended  expedition  in  the 
third  year  of  his  reign  against  the  Germans  and 
Britons.  His  mi^ty  preparations,  howev&, 
ended  in  nothing.  Instead  of  conquering  Bri- 
tain and  Germany,  he  only  gave  refuge  to  a  ba- 
nished prince  ;  and  led  his  army  to  the  sea-^ore 
in  Batavia.  At  last  a  plan  for  taking  him  off 
was  concerted  under  tne  influence  of  Cassias 
Cherea,  tribune  of  the  prstorian  bands,  joined 
by  Valerius  Asiaticus,  whose  wifie  the  emperor 
had  debauched,  Annios  Vincianus,  Clemens 
the  prefect,  and  Calistus,  whose  riches  made  him 
obnoxious  to  the  tyrant.  While  these  were  de- 
liberating upon  the  most  certain  method  of  de- 
stroying him,  an  unexpected  incident  gave  new 
strength  to  the  conspiracy.  Pompedius,  a  sena- 
tor of  distinction,  having  been  accused  befoie 
the  emperor,  of  having  spoken  of  him  with  dis- 
respect, one  Quintilia,  an  actress,  was  cited  to 
confirm  the  accusation.  Quintilia,  however,  was 
possessed  of  an  uncommon  degree  of  foftitode. 
She  denied  the  fact,  and,  being  put  to  the  torture 
at  the  informer's  request,  bore  the  severest  tor- 
ments with  unshaken  constancy.  After  several 
deliberations,  it  was  at  last  resolved  to  attack 
him  during  the  continuance  of  the  Palatim 
games:  he  was  accordingly  slain  in  a  li:de 
vaulted  ^lery  that  led  to  the  bath,  in  the 
twenty-ninth  year  of  his  age,  after  a  reign  of 
three  years,  ten  months,  and  eight  days.  With 
him  his  wife  and  infant  daughter  also  perished ; 
one  being  stabbed  by  a  centurion,  the  other 
having  its  brains  dashed  out  againj  the  walL 
His  coip  was  also  melted  duwn  by  a  decree  of 
the  senate;  and  such  precautions  were  takec 


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739 


that  all  seemed  willing  that  neither  his  features 
nor  his  fame  might  be  transmitted  to  posterity. 

Claudius. — As  soon  as  the  death  of  Caligula 
was  made  public,  it  produced  the  greatest  con- 
fusicb  in  Rome.  The  conspirators,  who  only 
aimed  at  destroying  a  tyrant,  all  retired  with- 
out naming  a  successor,  to  private  places.  Some 
thought  the  report  of  the  emperor's  death  was 
an  artifice  of  nis  own,  to  see  how  his  enemies 
would  behave :  and  in  this  interval  of  suspense, 
the  German  guards  pillaged  the  city  under  pre- 
tence of  revenging  the  emperor's  death.  All  the 
conspirators  and  senators  that  fell  in  their  way 
received  no  mercy.  However,  they  grew  calm 
by  degrees,  and  the  senate  was  permitted  to 
assemble,  to  deliberate  upon  what  was  necessary 
to  be  done.  In  this  deliberation,  Satuminus, 
who  was  then  consul,  insisted  much  upon  the 
benefits  of  liberty ;  and  his  language  was  highly, 
pleasing  to  the  senate ;  but  the  populace  and  the 
army  opposed  them.  The  former  remembered 
the  donations  and  public  spectacles  of.  the  em- 
peiofs.  The  latter  were  sensible  they  could  have 
no  power  but  in  a  monarchy.  In  this  opposi- 
tion of  interests  and  opinions,  chance  at  last 
decided  the  fate  of  the  empire.  Some  soldiers, 
running  about  the  palace,  discovered  Claudius, 
Caligula's  uncle,  concealed  in  a  secret  place. 
Of  Sis  personage,  hitherto  despised  for  his  im- 
becility, they  resolved  to  make  an  emperor ;  and 
accordingly  carried  him  upon  their  shoulders  to 
the  camp,  where  they  proclaimed  him  at  a  time 
when  he  expected  death.  The  senate  went  soon 
after  in  a  body,  to  render  him  homage :  when 
the  first  who  fell  a  sacrifice  to  the  jealousy  of 
this  new  monarch  was  Cherea*  He  met  death 
with  all  the  fortitude  of  an  ancient  Roman. 
Lupus,  his  friend,  sufiered  with  him ;  and  Sabinus, 
one  of  the  conspirators,  laid  violent  hands  on 
himaelf.  Claudius  was  fifty  years  old  when  he 
began  to  reign :  and  the  complicated  diseases  of 
his  infimoy  had  affected  all  tbe  faculties  of  his 
body  and  mind.  Yet  the  commencement  of  his 
reign  gave  the  most  promising  hopes.  He  her 
gan  by  passing  an  act  of  oblivion  for  all  former 
words  and  actions,  and  disannulled  the  cruel 
edicts  of  Caligula.  He  forbade  all  persons, 
under  severe  penalties,  to  sacrifice  to  him  as  they 
had  done  to  tne  late  emperor ;  was  assiduous  in 
hearing  and  examining  complaints;  and  fre- 
quently administered  justice  in  person ;  temper- 
ing by  his  mildness  the  severity  of  the  law.  He 
took  a  more  than  ordinary  care  that  Rome  should 
be  continually  supplied  vrith  com  and  provisions, 
securing  the  merchants  against  pirates.  He  was 
not  less  assiduous  in  his  buildings,  in  which  he 
excelled  almost  all  that  went  before  him,  and 
constructed  an  aqueduct,  called  after  his  own 
name,  much  surpassing  any  other  in  Rome  both 
for  workmanship  and  its  plentiful  supply  of 
water,  which  it  brought  from  forW  miles  distance, 
furnishing  the  highest  narts  of  the  city.  He 
made  also  a  haven  at  6stia,  of  such  immense 
expense  that  his  successors  were  unable  to  main- 
tain it.  But  his  greatest  work  of  all  was  the 
draining  of  the  uke  Fucinus,  the  lar^t  in 
Italy,  and  bringing  its  water  into  the  Tiber,  to 
strengthen  the  current  of  that  river.  For  effect 
Jog  uiis,  among   other  difficulties    he    mined 


through  a  mountain  of  stone  three  miles  broad^ 
and  kept  here  30,000  men  employed  for  eleven 
years.  To  this  solicitude  for  the  internal  ad- 
vantages of  the  state,  he  added  that  of  a  watch- 
ful guardianship  over  the  provinces.  He  even 
undertook  to  gratify  the  people  bv  foreign  con- 
quest. The  Britons,  who  had,  for  nearly  100 
years,  been  left  in  sole  possession  of  their  own 
island,  b^;an  to  seek  the  mediation  of  Rome,  to 
quell  their  intestine  commotions.  The  princi- 
pal man  who  desired  to  subject  his :  native  coun- 
try to  the  Roman  dominion  was  one  Bericus,. 
who  persuaded  the  emperor  to  make  a  descent 
upon  the  island,  magni^ng  the  advantages  that 
would  attend  the  conquest  of  it.  Plautius  the 
pretor  was  accordingly  ordered  to  pass  over  into 
Gaul,  and  made  preparations  for  this  expedition; 
and  the  Britons,  unaer  their  king  Cynobelinusy 
were  several  times  overthrown.  These  successes 
soon  after  induced  Claudius  to  go  into  Britain 
in  person,  upon  pretence  that  the  natives  were 
still  seditious,  and  had  not  delivered  up  some 
Roman  fugitives  who  had  taken  shelter  among, 
them ;  but,  for  an  account  of  the  exploits  of  the 
Romans  in  this  island,  see  England.  But 
Claudius  soon  began  to  lessen  his  care  for  the 
public,  and  to  commit  to  his  favorites  all  the 
concerns  of  the  empire.  The  chief  of  his  direc- 
tors was  his  wife  Messalina;  whose  name  has 
hence  become  a  common  appellation  for  women 
of  abandoned  character.  However,  she  was  not 
less  remarkable  for  her  cruelties  than  her  licen- 
tiousness ;  and  destroyed  many  of  the  most  illus- 
trious families  of  Rome.  Subordinate  to  her 
were  the  emperors*  freedmen ;  Pallas,  the  trea- 
surer ;  Narcissus,  the  secretary  of  state ;  and  Cal- 
listus,  the  master  of  the  requests.  These  entirely 
governed  Claudius ;  so  that  he  was  only  left  the 
latigues  of  ceremony,  while  they  possessed  all 
the  power  <^  the  state.  It  would  be  tedious  to 
enumerate  the  various  cruelties  which  these  in- 
sidious advisers  obliged  the  feeble  emperor  to 
commit :  those  against  his  own  fiimily  will  suf- 
fice. Appius  Sitenus,  a  person  of  great  merit, 
who  had  been  married  to  the  emperor's  mother- 
in-law,  was  put  to  death  upon  the  suggestions  of 
Messalina.  After  him  he  slew  both  his  sons-in- 
law,  Silanus  and  Pompey,  and  his  two  nieces 
the  Livias,  one  the  daughter  of  Drusus  the  other 
of  Germanicus;  .without  permitting  them  to 
plead  in  their  defence,  or  even  without  assigning 
any  cause.  Great  numbers  of  others  fell  sacri- 
fices to  the  jealousy  of  Messalina  and  her  mi- 
nions. Every  thing  was  put  to  sale :  they  took 
money  for  pardons  and  penalties;  and  accumu- 
lated by  these  means  enormous  sums.  These 
disorders  in  the  ministers  pro(|uced  conspiracies 
against  tlie  emperor.  Statins  Corvinus  and 
Gallus  Assinius  formed  one  conspiracy:  two 
knights  privately  combined  to  assassinate  him ; 
but  the  revolt  which  gave  him  the  greatest  un- 
easiness, and  which  was  punished  with  the  most 
unrelenting  severity,  was  that  of  Camillus,  his 
lieutenant-general  in  Dalmatia.  This  general, 
incited  by  many  of  the  principal  men  in  Rome,, 
openly  rebelled,  and  assumed  the  title  of  empe- 
ror. Nothing  could  exceed  the  terrors  of  Clau- 
dius, upon  being  informed  of  this  revolt ;  so  that^ 
when  Camillus  commanded  him  by  letters  to 

3  B2 
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740 


ROME. 


1-elmquish  the  empire,  he  seemed  inclined  to 
give  obedience.  However,  his  fears  were  soon 
removed ;  for  the  legions  which  had  declared  for 
Comillus,  being  terrified  by  some  prodigies,  soon 
after  killed  him.  The  cruelty  of  Messalina  and 
her  minions  upon  this  occasion  seemed  to  have 
no  bounds.  They  so  wrought  upon  the  empe- 
ror's fears  and  suspicions  that  numbers  were 
executed  without  trial  or  proof;  and  scarcely  any 
who  were  but  suspected  escaped.  By  such 
cruelties  as  these  his  &vorites  endeavoured  to 
establish  his  and  their  own  authority!  lie  now 
became  a  prey  to  jealousy  and  disquietude,  and 
his  only  relief  seemed  to  be  in  inflicting  tortures. 
Suetonixts  says  that  there  were  no  fewer  than 
thirty-five  senators,  and  above  300  knights,  exe- 
cuted in  this  reign.  In  thb  manner  was  Claudius 
urged  on  by  Messalina  to  commit  every  kind  of 
enormity.  After  appearing  for  some  years  insa- 
tiable in  her  desires,  she  at  length  fixeid  her  own 
affections  upon  Caius  Silius,  the  most  beautiful 
youth  in  Rome.  Her  love  for  this  youn^  Roman 
seemed  to  amoimt  to  madness.  She  obliged  him' 
to  divorce  his  wife  Junia  Syllana;  she  gave  him 
immense  treasures  and 'valuable  presents;  the 
very  imperial  ornaments  were  transferred  to  his 
house ;  and  the  emperor's  slaves  and  attendants 
had  orders  to  wait  upon  the  adulterer.  Nothing 
was  wanting  to  complete  their  insolence  but  their 
being  married ;  and  this  was  also  effected.  Th^ 
relied  lipon  the  emperor's  imbecility  for  their 
security,  and  only  waited  till  he  retired  to  Ostia 
to  put  their  project  in  executicm^  Some  time 
before  there  had  been  a  quarrel  between  Messa- 
lina  and  Nareissus,  the  emperor's  first  freed-man, 
vfho  watched  for  an  opportunity  of  ruinipg  the 
empress.  He  communicated  to  Claudius  what 
haa  happened,  and  urged  hhn  to  revenge  without 
delay.  Nothing  could  exceed  the  consternation 
of  Messalina  and  her  companions  upon  being 
told  that  the  emperor  was  coming.  Every  on« 
retired  in  the  utmost  confiision.  SiHus  was  taken. 
Messalina  took  shelter  in  some  gardens  which 
she  had  seized  upon,  having  expelled  Asiaticus 
the  owner  and  put  him  to  death.  Thence  she 
sent  Britannicus,  her  only  son  by  the  emperor, 
with  Octavia  her  daughter,  to  intercede  for  her. 
'  She  soon  after  followed  him ;  but  Narci^us  had 
fortified  the  emperor  against  her  arts,  and  she 
was  obliged  to  return  in  despair.  Silius  was  in- 
stantly put  to  death  in  the  emperor's  presence; 
and  Narcissus,  without  authority,  ordered  that 
Messalina  should  share  the  same  fate.  Claudius 
was  inft>rmed  of  her  death  in  the  midst  of  his 
banquet  without  the  least  appearance  of  emotion. 
The  emperor,  being  now  a  widower,  declared 
publicly  that  he  would  remain  single  for  the 
future,  and  would  forfeit  his  life  if  he  broke  his 
resolution.  But  his  resolution  was  but  of  short 
continuance.  liis  freed-men,  after  some  delibe- 
ration, fixed  upon  Agrippina,  the  daughter  of  his 
brother  Germanicus,  for  his  wife.  This  woman 
was  more  practised  in  vice  than  even  the  former 
empress.  As  the  late  declaration  of  Claudius 
seemed  to  be  an  obstacle  to  his  marrying,  per- 
sons were  suborned  to  move  in  the  senate  that 
he  should  be  compelled  to  take  a  wife,  as  a  mat- 
ter of  great  importance  to  the  commonwealth. 
^Vl1en  ttiis  decree  passed,  Claudius  had  scarcely 


patience  to  wait  a  day  before  the  cdebntion  for 
nb  nuptials.  Having  now  received  a  new  diseo- 
tor,  he  submitted  with  more  implicit  obedience 
than  in  any  former  part  of  his  reign.  Agr^pina's 
chief  aims  were  to  secure  the  succession  iiv&Tor 
of  her  young  son  Nero,  and  to  set  aside  the 
claims  of  Britannicus.  For  this  |nirpose  she 
married  Nero  to  the  emperor's  daughter  Octavia, 
a  few  d^ys  after  her  own  marriage.  Not  long 
after  this  she  urged  the  emperor  to  strengthen 
the  successicm,  in  imitation  of  bis  predecessors,  by 
making  a -new  adoption;  and  caused  him  to  take 
in  her  son  NerO  to  divide  the  fetigues  of  govern- 
.uent.  '  Her  next  care  was  to  increase  hnr  stm  s 
popularity  by  giring  him  Seneca'  for  a  tutor. 
This  subtle  woman  pretended  the  utmost  afiec- 
tion  for  Britannicus,  whom,  howeTer,  she  resolved 
o  destroy ;  and,  shortly  after  her  accession,  die 
procured  the  death  of  several  kdi^  who  had 
been  her  rivals.  She  displaced  the  captain  of  the 
guard ;  and  appointed  Burrhus  to  that  command ; 
a  person  <^  gmt  military  knowledge  and  strondy 
attached  to  her  interests.  From  that  time  she 
took  less  pains  to  disguise  her  power.  In  the 
twelfUi  year  of  Claudius  she  persuaded  him  to 
restore  liberty  to  the  lUiodians,  of  which  he  hid 
deprived  them  some  years  befbre ;  and  to  remit 
the  taxes  of  the  city  Ilium,  as  having  been  the 
progenitors  of  Rome.  Her  design  in  this  was  to 
increase  the  popularity  of  Nero,  who  pleaded  the 
cause  of  both  cities  with  great  approtetioa. 
Such  an  immoderate  use  of  her  power  at  ]a«i 
awaken^  the  emperor's  suspicions.  Agrippina's 
imperious  temper  began  to  grow  insupportable 
to  nim;  and  he  declared,  when  heated  with  wine, 
that  it  was  his  fate  to  suffer  the  disorders  of  his 
vrives  and  to  be  their  execufiotker.  This  expres- 
sion engaged  all  her  faculties  to  prevent  the 
blow.  Her  first  care  was  to  remove  Narcissus^ 
whom  she  hated  upon  many  accounts.  Thi^ 
minister  at  length  thought  fit  to  retire,  by  a 
voluntary  exile,  into  Campania.  The  unhappy 
emperor  seemed  regardless  of  the'  diingers  that 
direatened  his  destruction.  His  affecti6n  for 
'  Britannicus  every  day  increased,  which  serred 
also  to  increase  the  vigilance  and  jeaJousv  of 
Agrippina.  She  now,  therefore,  resolved  to 
poison  her  husband,  and  determined  upon  z 
poison  to  destroy  his  intellects,  and  yet  not  sod- 
denly  to  terminate  his  life.  This  not  having  the 
desired  eflfect,  however,  she  directed  a  wretched 
physician  to  thrust  a  poisoned  feather  down  his 
throat,  under  pretence  of  making  him  vomit,  and 
thus  despatched  him. 

Nero. — Claudius  lieing  destroyed,  Agrippina 
took  every  precaution  to  conceal  nis  death  from 
the  public  until  she  had  settled  her  measures  for 
securing  the  succession.  A  strong  guard  was 
placed  at  all  the  avenues' bf  the  paUce,  while 
she  amused  the  people  with  vkrious  reports;  at 
one  time  giving  out  that  he  was  still  alive,  at  an- 
other that  be  was  recovering.  In  the  meanwhile, 
she  made  sure  of  the  person  of  joung  Britanni- 
cus,  under  a  pretence  of  tiffecAOn  for  him.  At 
last,  when  all  things'  were  adjusted,  the  palate 
gates  were  thrown  open,  and  Nero,  accompanied 
^y  Burrhus,  prefect  of  the  prstorian  guards, 
issued  to  receive  the  congratulations  of  the  peo- 
ple and  the  army.    The  cohorts,  then  attending, 


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741 


proclaimed  him  with  the  loudest  acclamations, 
though  not  without  making  some  enquiries  after 
Britannicus.  He  was  carried  in  a  chariot  to  the 
rest  of  the  army ;  wherein,  having  made  a  speech 
suited  to  the  occasion,  and  promising  them  a 
donation,  he  was  declared  emperor  by  the  army, 

'  the  senate,  and  the  people.  Nero's  first  care  was 
to  show  all  possible  respect  to  the  deceased  em- 
peror, to  cover  the  guilt  of  his  death.  His  ob- 
sequies were  performed  with  a  ppmp  equal  to 
that  of  Augustus ;  the  young  emperor  pronounced 
his  funeral  oration,  and  he  was  canonised  among 
the  gods.  The  funeral  oration,  though  spoken 
by  Nero,  was  drawn  up  by  Seneca ;  ana   this 

■  was  the  first  time  a  Roman  emperor  needed  the 
aid  of  another's  eloquence.  Nero,  though  but 
seventeen  years  of  age,  began  his  reign  with  ge- 
neral approbation.  As  he  owed  the  empire  to 
Agrippina  he  submitted  to  her  directions  with 
the  most  implicit  obedience.  On  her  part  she 
seemed  resolved  on  governing  with  her  natural 
ferocity,  and  considered  her  private  animosities 
as  the  only  rule  to  guide  her  in  public  justice. 
Immediately  after  the  death  of  Claudius  she 
caused  Silanus,  the  pro-consul  of  Asia,  to  be 
assassinated.  The  next  object  of  her  resentment 
was  Narcissus,  Claudius's  ravorite ;  a  man  noto- 
rious for  the  greatness  of  his  wealth  and  the 
number  of  his  crimes.  He  was  obliged  to  put 
an  end  to  his  life  by  Agrippina's  order.  Thb 
bloody  outset  would  have  been  followed  by  many 
more  severities  had  not  Seneca  and  Burrhus  op- 
posed them.  These  worthy  men,  although  they 
owed  their  rise  to  the  empress,  were  above  being 
the  instruments  of  her  cruelty.  They  therefore 
combined  together,  and,  gaining  the  young  em- 
peror on  their  side,  formed  a  plan  of  power  both 
merciful  and  wise.  The  ^beginning  jof  Nero's 
reign,  while  he  acted  by  their  counsels,  has  al- 
ways been  considered  as  a  model  for  princes. 
In  fact,  the  young  monarch  knew  so  well  how  to 
conceal  his  innate  depravity  that  his  nearest 
friends  could  scarcely  perceive  hi»  virtues  to  be 
assumed.  He  appeared  just,  liberal,  and  hu- 
mane. His  condescension  and  affability  were 
not  less  than  his  other  virtues ;  so  that  the  Ro- 
mans began  to  think  that  his  clemency  would 
compensate  for  the  tyranny  of  his  predecessors. 
In  the  mean  time  Agrippina,  who  was  excluded 

.  from  any  share  in  government,  attempted  to  re- 
cover her  power.  Perceiving  that  her  son  had 
fallen  in  love  with  a  freed-woman  named  Acte, 
and  dreading  the  influence  of  a  concubine,  she 
tried  every  art  to  prevent  his  growing  passion. 
The  gratification  or  his  passion,  therefore,  in  this 
instance,  only  served  to  increase  his  hatred  for 
the  empress.  Nor  was  it  long  before  he  gave 
evident  marks  of  his  disobedience  by  displacing 
Pallas  her  chief  favorite.  U pon  this  occasion  she 
first  perceived  the  total  declension  of  her  autho- 
rity ;  which  threw  her  into  the  most  ungoverna- 
ble fury.  She  said  that  Britannicus,  the  real  heir 
to  the  throne,  was  still  living,  and  in  a  condition 
to  receive  his  father's  empire  which  was  now 
possessed  by  an  usurper.  She  threatened  to  go 
to  the  camp,  and  there  expose  his  baseness  and 
her  own,  invoking  all  the  furies  to  her  assistance. 
These  menaces  alarmed  the  suspicions  of  Nero ; 
who  had  begun  to  give  way  to  his  natural  de- 


Sravity.  He,  therefore,  determined  upon  the 
eath  of  Britannicus,  and  contrived  to  have 
him  poisoned  at  a  pubUc  banquet.  Agrippina, 
however,  took  every  opportunity  of  obliging 
and  flattering  the  tribunes  and  centurions ;  she 
heaped  up  treasures  with  a  rapacity  beyond 
her  natural  avarice;  all  her  actions  seemed 
calculated  to  raise  a  faction,  and  make  her- 
self formidable  to  the  emperor.  Whereupon 
Nero  commsmded  her  German  guard  to  be  taken 
from  her,  and  obliged  her  to  lodge,  out  of  the 
palace.  He  also  forbid  particular .  persons  to 
visit  her,  and  \vent  himself  but  rarely  and  cere- 
moniously to  pay  her  his  respects.  She.  now 
therefore  began  to  find  that,  with  the  emperor*s 
iavor,  she  had  lost  the, assiduity  of  her  friends. 
As  Nero  increased  in  years,  bis  crimes  increased. 
He  took  pleasure  in  running  about  the  city  by 
night,  disguised  like  a  slave.  In  this  habit  he 
entered  taverns  and  brothels,  attended  by  the 
lewd  ministers  of  his  pleasures,  attempting  the 
lives  of  such  as  opposed  him,  and  frequently 
endangering  his  own.  .  After  hi3  example  num- 
bers of  profligate  young  men  infested  the  streets 
likewise;  so  that  every  night  the  city  was  filled 
with  tumult  and  disorder.  However  the  people 
bore  all  these  levities  with  patience,  having 
occasion  every  day  to  experience  his  liberality, 
and  having  also  been  gratified  by  the  abolition  of 
many  of  their  taxes.  The  provinces  were  no 
way  affected  by  these  riots ;  toi  except  disturb- 
ances on  the  side  of  the  Parthians,  which  were 
soon  suppressed,  they  enjoyed -the  most  perfect 
'traoquiHitv.  But  those  sensualities,  which,  for 
the  first  four  years  of  his  reign,  produced  but 
few  disorders,  in  the  fifth  became  alarming.  He 
first  began  to  transgress  the  bounds  of  decency, 
by  publicly  abandoning  Octavia  his  wife,  and 
taking  Poppasa,  the  wife  of  his  favorite  Otho. 
This  was  another  grating  circumstance  to  Agrip- 

?ina,  who  vainly  used  aill  her  interest  to  disgrace 
oppse^  and  reinstate  herself  in  her  son's  lost 
favor.  This  last  began  her  arts  by  urging  him 
to  divorce  his  wife  and  marry  herself.  She  in- 
sinuated the  dangerous  designs  of  Agrippina; 
and  by  degrees  accustomed  his  mind  to  reflect 
on  parricide  without  horror.  His  cruelties 
against  his  mother  began  rather  by  various  cir- 
cumstances of  petty  malice  than  by  any  down- 
right ii^jury ;  but  at  last,  finding  these  ineffectual 
to  break  her  spirit,  he  resolved  on  putting  her  to 
death.  Afler  attempting  poison  and  other  modes 
ineffectually,  he  sent  a  body  of  soldiers  to  her 
house,  who  killed  her  with  several  wounds.  He 
vindicated  his  conduce  next  day  to  the  senate ; 
who  not  only  excused  but  applauded  his  im- 
piety. Nero  now  gave  a  loose  to  his  appetites, 
that  were  not  only  sordid  but  inhuman,  lliere 
semed  an  odd  contrast  in  his  disposition ;  for, 
while  he  practised  cruelties  sufficient  to  make 
the  mind  shudder  with  horror,  he  was  fond  of 
those  amusing  arts  that  soften  and  refine  the 
heart.  He  was  particularly  addicted,  even  fro.n 
childhood,  to  music,  and  not  totally  ignorant  of 
poetry.  But  chariot-driving  was  his  favorite 
pursuit.  He  enclosed  a  space  in  the  valley  of 
the  Vatican,  and  exhibited  his  dexterity  to  the 
whole  of  his  subjects.  Their  praises  stimulated 
him  still  more  to  these  pursuits ;  so  that  he  now 


Digitized  by  ^^JiJU^lC 


742 


ROME. 


resolved  to  appear  as  a  singer  upon  the  stage. 
His  first  public  appearance  was  at  games  of  his 
own  institution,  called  juveniles ;  where  he  ad- 
vanced upon  the  stage,  tuning  his  instrument  to 
his  voice.    A  group  of  tribunes  and  centurions 
attended  behind  him;  when  his  old  governor 
Burrhus  stood  by  his  hopeful  pupil,  with  indig- 
nation in  his  countenance,  and  praises  on  his 
lips.    He  was  desirous  also  of  becoming  a  poet; 
but  he  was  unwilling  to  undergo  the  pain  of 
study.    Nor  was  he  without  hb  philosophers 
also;  he  took  a  pleasure  in  hearing  their  debates 
after  supper,    furnished  with  such  talents  as 
these,  he  was  resolved  to  make  the  tour  of  his 
empire,  and  give  the  most  public  display  of  his 
abilities.    The  place  of  his  first  exhibition,  upon 


lar,  were  bestowed  in  vain,  because  a  report  was 
spread  abroad  that,  during  the  time  of  this 
general  conflagration,  he  mounted  his  doaiestie 
stage,  and  sung  the  destruction  of  Troy,  com- 
paring the  desolation  of  Rome  to  that  of  Troy. 
At  length,  on  the  sixth  day,  the  fury  o£  the 
flames  was  stopped  at  the  foot  of  mount  Esqui- 
line,  by  levelling  with  the  ground  a  vast  num- 
ber of  buildings.  But  scarcely  had  the  alarm 
ceased,  when  the  fire  broke  out  aoew  with  iiesh 
rage,  but  in  places  more  wide  and  tpaoous; 
whence  fewer  persons  were  destroyed^  but  moie 
temples  and  public  porticoes  were  oveitbrown. 
As  this  secona  conflagratioD  broke  out  in  certain 
buildings  belonging  to  Tigellinus^  they  were 
both  ascribed  to  Nero;  ami  it  was  supposed 


leavuDkg  Rome  was  Naples.    The  crowds  there  that,  by  destroying  the  M  city,  he  aimea  at  the 

were  so  great,  and  the  curiosity  oif  the  people  so  glory  of  building  a  new  one,  and  calling  it  by 

earnest  in  hearing  him,  that  thev  did  not  per-  his  name.    Of  the  fourteen  quarters  into  whici 

ceive  an  earthquake  that  happened  while  he  was  Rome  was  divided,  four  remained  entire,  three 

singing.    His   desire  of  gaining  the    superio-  were  laid  in  ashes,  and,  in  the   seven  other. 


rity  over  the  other  actors  was  truly  ridiculous. 
While  he  continued  to  perform,  no  man  was 
permitted  to  depart  from  the  theatre  upon  any 
pretence  whatsoever.  Some  were  so  fatigued 
with  hearing  him  that  they  leaped  privately  firom 


remained  here  and  there  a  few  houses,  misenbly 
shattered  and  half  consumed.  Among  the  many 
ancient  and  stately  edifices,  which  the  rage  of 
the  flames  utterly  consumed,  Tacitus  teckons  the 
temple  dedicatel  by   Servios  Tullius    to   the 


the  walls,  or  pretended  to  fall  into  fainting  fits,  moon ;  the  temple  and  great  altar  consecrated 
in  order  to  be  carried  out.  Vespasian,  afterwards  by  Evander  to  Hercules ;  the  chapel  by  Roma- 
emperor,  happening  to  fidl  asleep  on  one  of  lus  to  Jupiter  Stator;  the  court  or  Numa,  with 
these  occasions,  veiy  narrowly  escaped  with  his  the  temple  of  Vesta,  and  in  it  the  tutelar  gods 


life.  After  being  ntigued  with  the  prabes  of 
his  countrymen,  Nero  resolved  upon  going  over 
into  Greece,  to  receive  new  theatric^  honors. 
There  he  exhibited  in  all  the  games,  and  obtain- 
ed from  the  meanness  of  the  Greeks  1800 
crowns.  His  entry  into  Rome  on  his  return 
was  attended  with  more  splendor  than  a  triumph. 


peculiar  to  the  Romans.  In  the  siame  fiue  were 
involved  the  inestimable  treasures  acquired  by 
so  many  victories,  the  wonderful  wotks  of  the 
best  painters  and  sculptors  of  Greece,  and,  what 
is  still  more  to  be  lamented,  the  ancient  writings 
of  celebrated  authors,  till  then  preserved  entire. 
The  fire  began  the  same  day  on  wfaidi  the  Gaiib 


So  many  honors  only  inflamed  his  desires  of   formerly  burnt  it  to  the  ground.  Upon  the  mios* 


acquiring  new ;  he  at  last  began  to  take  lessons 
in  wrestling;  willing  to  imitate  Hercules  in 
strength,  as  he  had  rivalled  Apollo  in  activity. 
He  also  caused  a  lion  of  pasteboard  to  be  made 
with  great  art,  against  which  he  undauntedly 


of  the  demolished  'city  Nero  founded  a  palace, 
which  he  called  his  gold^  house ;  though  it  vis 
not  so  much  admired  on  account  of  an  immense 
profusion  of  gold,  precious  stones,  and  other 
inestimable  ornaments,  as   for  its   vast  extent 


appeared  in  the  theatre,  and  struck  it  down  with  containing  spacious  fields,  large  wildernesses, 
a  dIow  of  his  club.  But  his  cruelties  outdid  artificial  lakes,  thick  woods,  orchards,  viiie}'ards, 
all  his  other  extravagancies,  a  complete  list  of   hills,  gropes,  &c.    The  ground  that  was  not  takes 


which  would  exceed  our  limits.  He  often  said 
that  he  had  rather  be  hated  than  loved.  When 
one  said  in  his  presence,  that  the  world  might 
be  burned  when  he  was  dead;  'Nay,*  replied 
Nero,  '  let  it  be  burnt  while  I  am  alive.'  In 
fact,  a  great  part  of  the  city  of  Rome  was  burnt 
soon  after.  This  remarkable  confla^nration  took 
place  in  the  eleventh  year  of  Nero's  reign. 
Nero,  who  was  then  at  Antium,  did  not  return  to 
the  city  till  he  heard  that  the  flames  were  ad- 
vancing to  his  palace,  which,  after  his  arrival, 
was  burnt  down  to  the  ground,  vrith  all  the 
houses  adjoining  to  it.  However  Nero,  affect- 
ing compassion  for  the  multitude  bereft  of  their 
dwellings,  laid  open  the  field  of  Mars,  and  all 
the  great  edifices  erected  there  by  Agrippa,  and 
even  his  own  gardens ;  he  likewise  caused 
tabeniacles  to  be  reared  in  haste  for  the  reception 
of  the  forlorn  populace.  From  Ostia  tck>,  and 
the  neighbouring  cities,  were  brought  by  his 
orders  all  sorts  of  furniture  and  necessaries; 
and  the  price  of  com  v^as  considerably  lessened. 
But  these  bounties,  however  generous  and  popu- 


up  by  the  foundation  of  Nero*s  own  palace,9  be 
assigned  for  houses,  which  were  not  placed  st 
random,  and  without  order,  but  the  streets  were 
laid  out  regularly,  spacious,  and  straight;  the 
edifices  restrained  to  a  certain  height,  of  aboat 
seventy  feet ;  the  courts  were  widened  ;  and  to 
all  the  great  houses,  which  stood  by  thems^lres, 
and  vfere  called  isles,  large  porticoes  were 
added,  which  Nero  engaged  to  raise  at  his  ovn 
expense,  and  to  deliver  to  each  proprietor  the 
squares  about  them  clear  from  all  rubbish.  Thus 
the  city  in  a  short  time  rose  out  of  its  ashes  with 
new  lustre,  and  more  beautiful  than  ever.  The 
emperor  used  every  art  to  throw  the  odium  of 
this  conflagration  upon  the  Christians,  who  were 
at  that  time  gaining  ground  in  Rome.  Nothing 
could  be  more  dreadful  than  the  persecutiao 
raised  against  them  upon  this  false  accusation, 
of  which  an  account  b  given  under  the  article 
History.  Hitherto,  however,  the  citizens  of 
Rome  seemed  comparatively  exempted  fiom 
his  cruelties,  which  chiefly  rell  upon  strangeis 
and  his  nearest  connexions ;  but  a  conspiracy 

Digitized  by  VjiUU*^lt: 


ROME. 


743 


foniied  against  him  by  Piso,  a  man  of  great 
power  and  integrity,  vrhich  was  prematurely 
discovered,  opened  a  new  train  or  suspicions 
that  destroyea  many  of  the  principal  families 
in  Rome.  Piso,  Lateranus,  Fennius  Rufus, 
Subrius  Flavius,  Sulpicius  Asper,  Vestinus  the 
consul,  and  numberless  others,  were  all  executed. 
But  the  two  most  remarkable  personages  who  fell 
on  this  occasion  were  Seneca  the  philosopher,  and 
Lucan  the  poet,  his  nephew.  It  is  not  known 
whether  Seneca  was  really  concerned  or  not.  He 
was  ordered  to  put  himself  to  death,  which  he 
did,  by  opening  his  vems  in  a  warm  bath.  Thus 
was  the  whole  city  filled  with  slaughter  and 
frightful  instances  of  treachery.  No  master  was 
secure  from  the  vengeance  of  his  slaves,  nor  even 
parents  from  the  baser  attempts  of  their  children. 
Not  only  throughout  Rome,  out  the  whole  coun- 
try round,  bodies  of  soldiers  were  seen  in  pursuit 
of  the  suspected  and  the  guilty.  Whole  crowds 
of  wretches  loaded  with  chains  were  led  every 
day  to  the  gates  of  the  palace,  to  wait  their  sen- 
tence from  the  tyrant.  He  always  presided  at 
the  torture  in  person,  attended  by  Tigellinus, 
captain  of  the  guard,  who,  being  the  most  aban- 
doned man  in  Rome,  was  become  his  principal 
minister  and  &vorite.  Nor  were  the  Roman  pro- 
vinces in  a  better  situation  than  the  capital.  The 
example  of  the  tyrant  influenced  his  governors, 
who  gave  instances  of  their  rapacity  and  cruelty 
in  every  part  of  the  empire.  In  the  seventh  ye&r 
of  his  reign  the  Britons  revolted,  under  the  con- 
duct of  their  queen  Boadicea  (see  England)  ; 
but  were  at  last  so  completely  defeated  that  ever 
after,  during  the  continuance  of  the  Roipans 
among  them,  they  lost  not  only  all  hopes,  but 
even  all  desire  of  freedom.  A  war  also  was  car- 
ried on  against  the  Parthians  for  the  greatest  part 
of  this  reign,  conducted  by  Corbulo ;  who,  after 
many  successes,  had  dispossessed  Tiridates,  and 
settled  Tigranes  in  Armenia  in  his  room.  Tiri- 
dates, however,  was  soon  after  restored  by  an  in- 
vasion of  the  Parthians  into  that  country ;  but, 
being  once  more  opposed  by  Corbulo,  the  Ro- 
mans and  Parthians  came  to  an  agreement  that 
Tiridates  should  continue  to  govern  Armenia, 
upon  condition  that  he  should  lay  down  his 
crown  at  the  foot  of  the  emperor's  statue,  and 
receive  it  as  coming  from  him;  all  which  he  per- 
formed. This  ceremony  Nero  desired  to  have 
repeated  to  his  person;  wherefore  he  invited 
Tiridates  to  Rome,  granting  him  the  most  mag- 
nificent supplies  for  his  journey.  Nero  attended 
his  arrival  with  very  sumptuous  preparations. 
He  received  him  seated  on  a  throne,  accompanied 
by  the  senate  standing  round  him,  and  the  whole 
army  drawn  out  with  all  imaginable  splendor. — 
Tiridates  ascended  the  throne  with  great  reve- 
rence ;  and  approaching  the  emperor,  fell  down 
at  his  feet,  and  in  the  most  abject  terms  ackuow- 
ledged  himself  his  slave.  Nero  raised  him  up, 
telling  him  with  equal  arrogance,  that  he  did  well, 
and  that  by  his  submission  he  had  gained  a  king- 
dom which  his  ancestors  could  never  acquire  by 
their  arms.  He  then  placed  the  crown  on  his  head, 
and,  after  the  most  costly  ceremonies  and  enter- 
tainments, he  was  sent  back  to  Armenia,  with 
incredible  sums  of  money  to  defray  the  expenses 
of  his  return.  In  the  twelfth  year  of  Nero's  reign 


the  Jews  revolted,  having  been  severely  oppressed 
by  the  Roman  governor.  Florus  was  arrived  at 
that  degree  of  tyranny  that  by  public  proclama- 
tion he  gave  permission  to  plunder  the  country, 
provided  he  received  half  the  spoil.  These  op- 
pressions drew  such  a  train  or  calamities  after 
tnem,  that  the  sufferings  of  all  other  nations  were 
slight  in  comparison  to  what  this  devoted  people 
afterwards  endured,  as  is  related  under  tne  ar- 
ticle Jews.  In  the  mean  time  Nero  proceeded 
in  his  cruelties  at  Rome  with  unabated-  seve- 
rity. The  valiant  Corbulo,  who  had  gained  so 
many  victories  over  the  Parthians,  could  not 
escape  his  fury.  Nor  did  the  empress  Popp«a 
herself  escape;  whom,  in  a  fit  of  anger,  he  kicked 
when  she  was  pregnant,  by  whioh  she  miscarried 
and  died.  At  last  the  Romans  began  to  grow 
weary  of  such  a  monster,  and  there  appeared  a 
general  revolution  in  all  the  provinces.  The  first 
appeared  in  Gaul,  under  Julius  Vindex,  who 
commanded  the  legions  there,  and  publicly  pro- 
tested against  the  tyrannical  government  of  Nero. 
He  appeared  to  have  no  other  motive  for  this 
revolt  than  that  of  freeing  the  world  from  an 
oppressor ;  for  when  it  was  told  him  that  Nero 
had  set  a  reward  upon  his  head  of  10,000,000  of 
sesterces,  he  made  this  gallant  answer, '  Whoever 
brings  me  Nero's  head,  shall,  if  he  pleases,  have 
mine.'  But,  to  show  that  he  was  not  actuated  by 
motices  of  private  ambition,  he  proclaimed  Ser- 
gius  Gralba  emperor,  and  invited  him  to  join  in 
the  revolt.  Galba,  who  was  then  governor  of 
Spain,  was  equally  remarkable  for  his  wisdom  in 
peace,  and  his  courage  in  war.  But,  as  all  talents 
under  corrupt  princes  are  dangerous,  he  for  some 
years  lived  in  obscurity,  avQiding  ah  opportuni- 
ties of  signalising  his  valor.  He  now,  therefore, 
either  through  the  caution  attending  old  age,  or 
from  a  total  want  of  ambition,  appeared  little 
inclined  to  join  with  Vindex.  In  tne  mean  time 
Nero,  who  had  been  apprised  of  the  proceedings 
against  him  in  Gaul,  appeared  totally  regardless 
of  the  danger,  flattering  himself  tbat  the  sup- 
pression of  Siis  revolt  would  give  him  an  oppor- 
tunity of  fresh  confiscations.  But  the  revolt  of 
Galba,  the  news  of  which  arrived  soon  after,  af- 
fected him  in  a  very  different  manner.  The  re- 
putation of  that  general  was  such  that,  from  the 
moment  he  declared  against  him,  Nero  consi- 
dered himself  as  undone.  He  resolved  to  massacre 
all  the  governors  of  provinces,  to  destroy  all  ex- 
iles, and  to  murder  sdl  the  Gauls  in  Rome,  as  a 
punishment  for  the  treachery  of  their  country- 
men. In  short,  in  the  wildness  of  his  rage,  he 
thought  of  poisoning  the  whole  senate,  of  burn- 
ing the  city,  and  turning  the  lions  kept  for  the 
purposes  of  the  theatre  out  upon  the  people. 
These  designs  being  impracticable,  he  resolved 
at  last  to  face  the  danger  in  person.  But  his  very 
preparations  served  to  mark  the  in£aituation  of  his 
mind.  His  principal  care  was  to  provide  wag- 
gons for  the  convenient  carriage  ot  his  musical 
instruments ;  and  to  dress  out  his  concubines  like 
Amazons,  with  whom  he  intended  to  face  the 
enemy.  While  Nero  was  thus  frivolously  em- 
ployed, the  revolt  became  general.  Not  only  the 
armies  in  Spain  and  Gaul,  but  also  the  legions  in 
Germany,  Africa,  and  Lusitania,  declared  against 
him.    Virginius  Rufus  alone,  who  commanded 


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ROME. 


an  army  on  the  Upper  Rhine,  for  a  while  conti- 
nued in  suspense;  during  which  his  forces,  With- 
out his  permission,  falling  upon  the  Gauls,  routed 
them  with  great  slaughter,  and  Vindex  slew  him- 
self. But  this  ill  success  no  way  advanced  the  in- 
terests of  Nero ;  he  was  so  detested  by  the  whole 
empire  that  he  could  find  none  of  the  armies 
feithful  to  him.  He  therefore  called  for  Locusta 
to  fumisli  him  with  poison ;  and,  thus  prepared 
for  the  worst,  he  retired  to  the  Se/vilian  gardens, 
with  a  resolution  of  flying  into  Egypt.  He  ac- 
cordingly despatched  the  freedmen  m  whom  he 
had  the  most  confidence,  to  prepare  a  fleet  at 
Ostia ;  and  in  the  mean  while  sounded,  in  per- 
son, the  tribunes  and  centurions'  of  the  guard, 
to  know  if  they  were  willing  to  share  his  fortunes. 
But  they  all  excused  themselves  under  divers 
pretexts.  Thus  destitute  of  every  resource,  all 
the  expedients  that  cowardice,  revenge  or  terror 
could  produce,  tooTc  place  in  his  mind  by  turns. 
He  at  one  time  resolved  to  take  refuge  among 
the  Parthians ;  at  another,  to  deliver  himself  up 
to  the  mercy  of  the  insurgents;  one  while  he 
determined  to  mount  the  rostrum,  to  ask  pardon 
for  what  was  past,  and  to  conclude  witn  pro- 
mises of  amendment  tor  the  future.  With  these 
gloomy  deliberations  he  went  to  bed ;  but  waking 
about  midnight,  he  was  surprised  to  find  his 
guards  had  lefl  him.  The  prxtorian  soldiers,  in 
feet,  having  been  corrupted  by  their  commander, 
had  retired  to  their  camp,  and  proclaimed  Galba 
emperor.  Nero  immediately  sent  for  his  friends 
to  deliberate  upon  his  present  exigence ;  but  his 
friends  also  forsook  him.  He  went  from  house  to 
house,  but  all  the  doors  were  Shut  against  him, 
and  none  were  found  to  answer  his  enquiries ; 
his  very  domestics  followed  the  general  defec- 
tion; and,  having  plundered  his  apartment, 
escaped  different  ways.  Being  now  reduced  to 
desperation,  he  desired  that  one  of  his  favorite 
glaaiators  might  come  and  despatch  him ;  but 
even  in  this  request  there  was  none  found  to 
obey.  *  Alas  !*  cried  he,  *  have  I  neither  friend 
nor  enemy?'  And  then,  running  desperately 
forth,  he  seemed  resolved  to  plunge  headlong 
into  the  Tiber.  But  just  then,  his  courage  failing 
him,  he  made  a  sudaen  stop,  as  if  willing  to  re- 
collect his  reason;  and  asked  for  some  secret 
place,  where  he  might  reassnme  his  courage,  and 
meet  death  with  becoming  fortitude.  In  this 
distress,  Phaon,  one  of  his  fVeedmen,  offered  him 
his  country  house,  about  four  miles  distant, 
where  he  might  for  some  time  remain  concealed. 
Nero  accepted  his  offer ;  and  arrived  with  dif- 
ficulty in  safety.  During  this  interval  the  senate, 
finding  the  praetorian  guards  had  taken  part  with 
Galba,  declared  him  empel-or,  and  condemned 
Nero  to  die  more  m^jorum ;  that  is,  to  be  strip- 
ped naked,  his  head  fixed  in  a  pillory,  and  in 
that  posture  to  be  scourged  to  death.  Nero 
was  so  terrified  on  hearing  this,  that  he  set  a 
dagger  to  his  throat,  with  which,  by  the  assist- , 
ance  of  Epaphroditus,  his  freed  man  and  secre- 
tary, he  gave  himself  a  mortal  wound.  He  ex- 
pired in  the  thirty -second  year  of  his  age  and  the 
fourteenth  of  his  reign.     See  Nero. 

Galba. — Galba  was  seventy-two  years  old 
when  he  was  declared  emperor,  and  was  then  in 
Spain  with  his  legions.  However,  he  soon  found 


that  his  being  raised  to  the  throne  was  but  an 
inlet  to  new  disquietudes.  His  first  embarrassiQent 
arose  from  a  disorder  in  his  own  army ;  for,  upon 
his  approaching  the  camp,  otie'of  Ukie  wings  of 
horse  repenting  of  their  choice,  prepared  lo  re- 
volt, ana  he  found  it  no  easy  matter  to  teconcile 
them  to  their  duty.  He  also  narrowly  Scaped 
Assassination  from  some  slaves,  who  were  pre- 
sented to  him  by  one  of  Nero'is  freedmen  with 
that  intent.  The  death  of  Vinder  also  served  to 
add  to  his  disquietudes.  But  bearing  fi^om 
Rome  that  Nero  was  dead,  and  the  empire  trans- 
ferred to  him,  he  immediately  assumed  the  title 
and  ensigns  of  command.  In  his  journey  towards 
Rome,  he  was  met  by  Vlrginius  Rufus,  who, 
finding  the  senate  had  decreed  him  the  govern- 
ment, came  to  yield  him  obedience.  This  gene- 
ral had  more  than  once  refused  the  empite  himself, 
which  was  offered  him  by  his  soldiers  ;  allegioi; 
that  the  senate  alone  had  the  disposal  of  it,  anJ 
from  them  only  he  would  accept  the  honor. 
Galba,  having  been  brought  to  the  empire  by  his 
army,  was  at  the  same  time  desirous  to  suppress 
their  power  to  commit  any  future  disturbance. 
His  first  approach  to  Rome  was  attended  with 
one  of  those  rigorous  strokes  of  justice  whidi 
ought  rather  to  be  detiominaled  cruelty  than  any 
thing  else.  •  A  body  Of  mariners,  whom  Nero 
had  taken  from  the  oar  and  enlisted  among  the 
legions,  went  to  meet  Galba  diree  miles  from 
the  city,  and  with  loud  importunities  demanded 
a  confirmation  of  what  his  predecessor  had  done 
in  their  favor.  Galba,  who  was  rigidly^  attached 
to  the  ancient  discipline,  deferred  their  request 
to  another  time.  But  they,  considering  this  delay 
as  equivalent  to  an  absolute  denial,  insisted  in  a 
very  disrespectful  manner;  and  some  of  them 
even  had  recourse  to  arms,  whereupon  Galba 
ordered  a  body  of  horse  attending  him  to  ride  in 
among  them,  and  thus  killed  7000  of  them ;  and 
afterwards  ordered  them  to  be  decimated.  His 
next  step  to  curb  the  insolence  of  the  soldiers 
was  his  discharging  the  German  cohort,  which 
had  been  established  by  the  former  emperors  as 
a  guard  to  their  persons.  These  he  sent  home 
to  their  own  couhtry  unrewarded,  pretending 
they  were  disaffected  to  his  person.  He  seemed 
to  have  two  other  objects  also  in  view ;  namely, 
to  punish  those  vices  which  had  come  to  an 
enormous  height  in  the  last  reign  with  the 
strictest  severity ;  and  to  replenish  the  exchequer, 
which  had  been  quite  drained  by  the  prodigality  of 
his  predecessors.  But  these  attempts  only  brought 
on  him  the  imputation  of  severity  and  avarice ; 
for  the  state  was  too  much  corrupted  to  admit  of 
such  ari  immediate  transition  from  vice  to  virtue. 
The  people  had  long  been  maintained  in  sloth 
and  luxury  by  the  prodigality  of  the  former  em- 
perors, and  could  not  think  of  being  obliged  to 
Seek  for  new  means  of  subsistence,  and  to 
retrencli  their  superfluities.  They  bes^,  thete- 
fore,  to  satirise  the  old  man,  and  turn  the  simpli- 
city of  his  manners  into  ridicule.  By  ill-judged 
frugalities,  at  such  a  time,  Galba  began  to  lose 
his  popularity ;  and  he,  who  before  his  accessioo 
was  esteemed  by  all,  when  become  emperor,  wtis 
considered  with  contempt.  Shortly  after  his 
coming  to  Rome,  the  people  were  presented  with 
a  most  grateful  spectacle,  whidi  was  that  of  Lo- 


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custa,  JEAius,  PolicUtus,  Petronius,  and'PetiQas, 
all  bloody  ministers  of  Nero*s  cruelty,  drawn  in 
fetters  through  the  city,  and  publicly  executed. 
But  Tigellinus,  who  had  been  more  active  than 
all  the  rest,  was  not  there.  The  crafty  villain 
had  taken  care  for  his  own  safety,  by  the  large- 
ness of  his  bribes ;  and,  though  the  people  cried 
out  for  vengeance  against  him  at  the  theatre  and 
at  the  circQS,  yet  the  emperor  granted  him  his 
life  and  pardon.  Helotus,  the  eunuch,  also, 
who  had  been  <  the  instrument  of  poisoning  Clau- 
dius, escaped,  and  owed  his  safety  to  the  proper 
application  of  his  wealth.  Thus,  by  the  ine- 
quality of  .his  conduct,  he  became  despicable. 
At  one  time  showing  himself  severe  and  frugal, 
at  another  remiss  and  prodigal;  condemning 
some  illustrious  persons  without  any  hearing, 
and  pardoning  others  though  guilty:  in  short, 
nothing  was  done  but  by  the  mediation  of  his 
favorites ;  all  offices  were  venal,  and  all  punish- 
ments redeemable  by  money.  While  affairs  were 
in  this  unsettled  posture  at  Rome,  the  pro* 
▼inces  wera  yet  in  a  worse  condition.  The 
success  of  the  armies  in  Spain  in  choosing  an 
emperor  induced  the  legions  in  the  other  parts 
to  wish  for  a  similar  opportunity. '  Many  sedi- 
tions were  kindled  and  factions  promoted  in 
different  parts  of  the  empire,  particularly  in 
Germany.  There  were  then  in  that  province  two 
Roman  armies ;  the  one  had  lately  attempted  to 
make  Virginius  Rufus  emperor,  and  was  com- 
manded by  his  lieutenant ;  the  other  was  com- 
manded by  Vitellius,  who  long  had  an  ambition  to 
obtain  the  empire  for  himself.  The  former  of  these 
armies,  despising  their  present  general,  and  con- 
sidering themselves  as  suspected  by  the  emperor 
for  having  been  the  last  to  acknowledge  his  title, 
resolved  now  to  be  foremost  in  denying  it.  Ac- 
cordingly, when  they  were  summoned  to  take  the 
oaths  of  homage  and  fidelity,  they  refused  to 
acknowledge  an^  other  commands  but  those  of 
the  senate.  This  refusal  they  backed  by  a  mes- 
sage of  the  prtttorian  bands,  importing  that  they 
were  resolved  not  to  acquiesce  in  the  election  of 
an  emperor  created  in  Spain,  and  desiring  that 
the  senate  should  proceed  to  a  new  choice. 
Galba,  being  informed  of  this  commotion,  was 
sensible,  that,  besides  his  age,  he  was  less  re- 
spect^ for  want  of  an  heir.  He  resolved,  there- 
fore, to  put  what  he  had  formerly  designed  in 
execution,  and  to  adopt  some  person  whose  vir- 
tues might  deserve  such  advancement,  and  pro- 
tect his  declining  age  from  danger.  His  favorites, 
understanding  his  determination,  instantly  re- 
solved to  give  him  an  heir  of  .their  own  choosing ; 
so  that  there  arose  a  great  contention  among  them 
upon  this  occasion.  Otho  made  warm  application 
for  himself;  alleging  the  great  services  he  had 
done  the  emperor,  as  being  the  first  man  of  note 
who  cane  to  his  assistance  when  he  had  declared 
against  Nero.  However,  Galba,  being  fully  re- 
solved to  consult  the  public  good  alone,  rejected 
his  suit ;  and,  on  a  day  appointed,  ordered  Piso 
Lucinianus  to  attend  him.  The  character  given 
by  historians  of  Piso,  is,  that  he  was  every  way 
worthy  of  the  honor  designed  him.  He  was  no 
way  related  to  Galba ;  and  had  no  other  interest 
but  merit  to  recommend  him  to  his  favor. 
Taking  this  youth,  therefore,  by  the  hand,  in  the 


presence  of  his  friends,  he  adopted  him  ta  suc- 
ceed in  the  empire,  giving  him  the  most  wholesome 
lessons  for  guiding  his  future  conduct.  Piso*s 
conduct  showed  that  h^  was  highly  deserving  this 
diistinction ;  and  in  all  his  deportment  there 
appeared  such  modesty,  firmness,  and  equality 
of  mind,  as  bespoke  him  rather  capable  of 
discharnng  than  ambitious  of  obtaining  the  im- 
perial dignity.  But  the  army  and  the  senate  did 
not  seem  equally  disinterested  upon  this  occasion ; 
they  had  been  so  long  used  to  bribery  and  cor- 
ruption that  they  could  now  bear  no  emperor 
who  was  not  in  a  capacity  of  satisfying  their 
avarice.  The  adoption  therefore  of  Piso  was  but 
coldly  received ;  for  his  virtues  were  no  recom- 
mendation in  a  nation  of  universal  depravity. 
Otho  now  finding  his  hopes  of  adoption  wholly 
frustrated,  and  still  further  stimulated  .by  the 
immense  load  of  debt  which  he  ha4  contracted 
by  his  riotous  way  of  living,  resolved  upon  ob- 
taining the  empire  by  forct;,  since  he  could  not 
by  peaceable  succession.  In  fact  his  circum- 
stances were  so  very  desperate  that  he  was 
heard  to  say,  that  it  was  equal  to  him  whether 
lie  fell  by  his  enemies  in  the  field,  or  by  his 
creditors  in  the  city.  He  therefore  raised  a 
moderate  sum  of  money,  by  selling  hisi,  interest 
to  a  person  who  wanted  a  place ;  and  with  this 
bribed  two  subaltern  officers  in  the  praetorian 
bands,  supplying  the  deficiency  of  largesses  by 
promises  and  plausible  pretences.  Having  thus, 
jn  less  than  eight  days,  corrupted  the  fidelity  of 
the  soMiers,  he  stole  secretly  from  the  emperor 
while  he  was  sacrificing;  and,  ^sembling  the 
soldiers,  in  a  short  speech  urged  the.  cruelties 
and  avarice  of  Galba.  Finding  these  l)is  ;nvec- 
tives  received  with  universal  shouts  by  the  whole 
army,  he  threw  off  the  mask,  and  avowed  his  in- 
tentions of  dethroning  him.  The  soldiers,  ripe 
for  sedition,  immediately  seconded  his  views: 
taking  Otho  upon  their  shoulders,  they  instantly 
proclaimed  him  emperor;  and,  to  strik,e  the 
citizens  with  terror,  carried  him  with  their 
swords  drawn  into  the  camp.  Galba,'  in  the 
mean  time,  being  informed  of  the.  revolt  of  the 
army,  seemed  utterly  confounded,  and  in  want 
of  resolution  to  face  an  event  which  he  should 
have  long  foreseen.  In  this  manner  the  poor  old 
man  continued  wavering  and  doubtful;  till  at 
last,  being  deluded  by  a  false  report  of  Qtho*s 
being  slain,  he  rode  into  the  forum  in  complete 
armour,  attended  by  many  of  his  followers.  Just 
at  the  same  instant  a  body  of  horse  sent  from  the 
camp  to  destroy  him  entered  on  the  opposite 
side,  and  each  party  prepared  for  the  encounter. 
Por  some  time  hostilities  were  suspended  on  each 
side;  Galba  confused  and  irresolute,  and  his  an- 
tagonists struck  with  horror  at  the  baseness  of 
their  enterprise.  At  length,  finding  the  emperor 
in  some  measure  desert^  by  his  adherents,  they 
rushed  in  upon  him,  trampling  under  foot  the 
crowds  of  people  that  then  filled  the  forum. 
Galba,  seeing  them  approach,  seemed  to  recollect 
all  his  former  fortitude ;  and,  bending  his  head 
forward,  bid  the  assassins  strike  it  off  if  it  were 
for  the  good  of  the  people.  This  was  quickly 
performed ;  and  his  nead,  bemg  set  upon  the 
point  of  a  lance,  was  presented  to  Otho,  .who 
ordered  it  to  be  contemptuouslv  carried  round 


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ROME. 


the  (Cams ;  his  body  remaining  exposed  in  the 
streets  till  it  was  buried  by  one  of  his  slaves. 
He  died  in  the  seventy-third  year  of  his  age, 
after  a  short  reign  of  seven  months. 

Otho. — No  sooner  was  Galba  thus  murdered 
than  the  senate  and  people  ran  in  crowds  to  the 
camp,  contending  who  should  be  foremost  in  ex- 
tolling the  virtues  of  the  new  emperor,  and  de- 
pressing the  character  of  him  they  had  so  unjustly 
destroyed.  Each  labored  to  excel  the  rest  in  his 
instances  of  homage ;  and  the  less  his  affections 
were  for  him,  the  more  did  he  indulge  all  the 
^^emence  of  exaggerated  praise.  Otho,  finding 
himself  surrounded  by  congratulating  multitudes, 
immediately  repaired  to  the  senate,  where  he  re- 
ceived the  titles  usually  given  to  the  emperors ; 
and  thence  returned  to  the  palace,  seemingly  re- 
solved to  reform  his  life,  and  assume  manners 
becoming  the  greatness  of  his  station.  He  began 
his  reign  by  a  signal  instance  of  clemency,  in 
pardoning  Marius  Celsus,  who  had  been  highly 
fiivored  by  Galba;  and,  not  contented  with  barely 
forgiving,  he  advanced  him  to  the  highest  honors; 
assertii^  that  *  fidelity  deserved  every  reward.' 
This  act  of  clemency  was  followed  by  another  of 
justice,  equally  agreeable  to  the  people.  Tigel- 
linus,  Nero's  ravorite,  he  who  had  been  the  pro- 
moter of  all  his  cruelties,  was  now  put  to  death; 
and  all  such  as  had  been  unjustly  banished,  or 
stripped,  at  his  instigation,  during  Nero's  reign, 
were  restored  to  their  country  and  fortunes.  In 
the  mean  time  the  legions  in  Lower  Germany, 
having  been  purchased  by  the  large  gifts  and 
specious  promises  of  Vitellius  their  general, 
were  at  length  induced  to  proclaim  him  empe- 
ror; and,  r^ardless  of  the  senate,  declared  tnat 
they  had  an  equal  right  to  appoint  to  thai  high 
station  with  the  cohorts  at  Rome.  The  pews  of 
this  conduct  in  the  army  soon  spread  consterna- 
tion throughout  Rome ;  but  Otho  was  particularly 
struck  with  the  account,  as  being  apprehensive 
that  nothing  but  the  blood  of  his  countrymen 
could  decide  a  contest  of  which  his  own  ambition 
only  was  the  cause.  He  now  therefore  sought  to 
come  to  an  agreement  with  Vitellius ;  but,  thb 
not  succeeding,  both  sides  htjpn  their  prepara- 
tions for  war.  News  being  received  that  Vitellius 
was  upon  his  march  to  Italy,  Otho  departed  from 
Rome  with  a  vast  army  to  oppose  nim.  But, 
though  he  was  very  powerful  with  regard  to 
numbers,  his  men,  being  little  used  to  war, 
could  not  be  relied  on.  He  seemed  by  his 
behaviour  sensible  of  the  disproportion  of  his 
forces;  and  he  is  said  to  have  been  tortured 
with  frightful  dreams,  and  the  most  uneasy  ap- 

{)rehensions.  It  is  also  reported  that  one  night, 
etching  many  profound  sighs  in  his  sleep,  his 
servants  ran  hastily  to  his  bed  side,  and  found 
him  stretched  on  Uie  ground.  He  alleged  he  had 
seen  the  ghost  of  Galba,  which  had,  in  a  threaten- 
ing manner,  beat  and  pushed  him  from  his  bed ; 
and  he  afterwards  used  many  expiations  to  ap- 
pease it.  However  this  be,  he  proceeded  with 
a  great  show  of  courage  till  he  amved  at  the  city 
of  Brixellum,  on  the  Po,  where  he  remained, 
sending  his  forces  before  him  under  bis  generals 
Suetonius  and  Celsus,  who  made  what  haste 
they  could  tc  give  the  enemy  battle.  The  army 
of  Vitellius,   which  consisted  of  70,000  men, 


was  commanded  by  his  generalB  Valens  and 
Cecina,  he  him3elf  remaining  in  Gaol  in  or- 
der to  brinff  up  the  rest  of  his  forces.  Thus 
both  sides,  hastened  to  meet  each  other  with 
so  much  animosity  and  precipitation  that  three 
considerable  battles  were  fought  in  three  days: 
one  near  Placentia,  another  near  Cremooa,  and 
a  third  at  a  place  called  Castor;  in  all  which 
Otho  had  the  advantage.  But  these  successes 
were  but  short  lived ;  for  Valens  and  Cecina, 
who  had  hitherto  acted  separately,  joining  their 
forces,  and  reinforcing  their  armies  with  fresh 
supplies,  resolved  to  come  to  a  general  engage- 
ment. Otho,  who  by  this  time  had  joined  his 
army  at  a  little  village  called  Bedriacnm,  finding 
the  enemy,  notwithstanding  their  late  losses, 
inclined  to  come  to  a  battle,  resolved  to  call  a 
council  of  war  to  determine  upon  the  proper 
measures  to  be  taken.  His  generals  were  of 
opinion  to  protract  the  war ;  but  others,  whose 
inexperience  had  given  them  confidence,  de-  . 
Glared  that  nothing  but  a  battle  could  relieve 
the  miseries  of  the  state ;  protesting,  that  for- 
tune and  all  the  gods  wUh  the  diviniw  of  the 
emperor  himself,  &vored  the  design,  and  would 
unaoubtedly  prosper  the  enterprise.  In  this  ad- 
vice Otho  acquiesced ;  he  had  oeen  for  some  time 
so  uneasy  under  the  war  that  he  seemed  willing 
to  exchange  suspense  for  danger.  However,  he 
was  so  surrounded  with  flatterers  that  he  was 
prohibited  from  being  personally  present  in  the 
engagement,  but  prevailed  upon  to  reserve  him- 
self for  the  fortune  of  the  empire,  and  wait  the 
event  at  Brixellum.  Hie  affairs  of  both  armies 
being  thus  adjusted,  they  came  to  an  engagement 
at  Bedriacum;  where,  in  the  beginning,  those 
on  the  side  of  Otho  seemed  to  haye  the  advan- 
tage. .  At  length  the  superior  discipline  of  the 
legions  of  Vitellius  turned  the  scale  of  victory. 
Otho's  army  fled  in  great  confusion  towards  Be- 
driacum, b^g  pursued  with  a  miserable  slangb- 
ter  all  the  way.  In  ,the  mean  time  Otho  wuted 
for  the  news  of  the  battle  with  great  impatience, 
and  seemed  to  tax  his  messengers  with  deiiy. 
The  first  account  of  his  defeat  was  brought  him 
by  a  soldier,  who  had  escaped  from  the  fidd  of 
battle.  However  Otho,  who  was  still  sur- 
rounded by  flatterers,  was  desired  to  give  no 
credit  to  a  base  fugitive,  who  was  guilty  of  fiJae- 
hood  only  to  cover  his  own  cowardice.  The 
soldier,  however,  still  persisted  in  the  veracity 
of  his  report ;  and,  finding  none  inclined  to  be- 
lieve him,  immediately  fell  upon  his  sword,  and 
expired  at  the  emperor's  feet.  Otho  was  so 
much  struck  with  the  death  of  this  man,  that  be 
cried  out,  that  he  would  cause  the  ruin  of  no 
more  such  valiant  and  worthy  soldiers,  but  would 
end  the  contest  the  shortest  way ;  and  therefoie, 
having,  exhorted  his  followers  to  submit  to 
Vitellius,  he  put  an  end  to  his  own  life. 

Vitellius^ — ^It  was  no  sooner  known  that 
Otho  had  killed  himself  than  all  the  soldiers  re- 
paired to  Virginius,  the  commander  of  the  Gec^ 
man  legions,  earnestly  entreating  him  to  take 
upon  him  the  reins  of  government;  or  at  least 
intreating  his  mediation  with  the  generals  of 
Vitellius  in  their  favor.  Upon  his  declining  their 
request,  Rubrius  Gallus,  a  person  of  oonsidei^ 
able  note,  undertook  their  embassy  to  the  gene- 


Digitized  by  ^^JiJU*^lt: 


ROME. 


747 


rab  of  the  conqaering  army ;  and  soon  after  ob- 
tained a  pardon  for  all  the  adherents  of  Otho. 
Vitellius  was  immediately  after  declared  em- 
peror by  the  senate ;  and  received  the  marks  of 
distinction  which  now  followed  the  strongest 
side.  At  the  same  time  Italy  was  severely  dis- 
tressed by  the  soldiers,  who  committed  such 
outrages  as  exceeded  all  the  oppressions  of  the 
most  calamitons  war.  Vitellius,  who  was  yet  in 
Gaul,  resolved,  before  he  set  out  for  Rome,  to 
punish  the  praetorian  cohorts,  who  had  been  the 
instruments  of  all  the  late  disturbances  in  the 
state.  He  therefore  caused  them  to  be  disarmed, 
and  deprived  of  the  name  and  honor  of  soldiers. 
He  also  ordered  150  of  those  who  were  most 
giiilty  to  be  put  to  death.  As  he  approached 
towards  Rome,  he  passed  through  the  towns  with 
all  imaginable  splendor;  hb  passage  by  vmter was 
in  painted  galleys,  adomea  wim  garlands  of 
flowers,  and  proftisely  furnished  with  the  greatest 
delicacies.  In  his  journey  there  was  neither 
order  nor  discipline  among  his  soldiers ;  they 
plundered  wherever  they  came  with  impunity ; 
and  he  seemed  no  way  displeased  with  their  li- 
centiousness. Upon  his  arrival  at  Rome  he 
entered  the  city,  not  as  a  place  he  came  to  govern 
with  justice,  but  as  a  town  that  became  his  own 
by  the  laws  of  conquest.  He  marched  through 
the  streets  mounted  on  horseback,  all  in  armor ; 
the  senate  and  people  going  before  him,  as  if 
captives  of  his  late  victory.  He  the  next  day 
made  the  senate  a  speech,  in  which  he  magnified 
his  own  actions,  and  promised  them  extra- 
ordinary advantaiges ,  from  his'  administration. 
He'  then  harangu^  the  people,  who,  being  now 
long  accustom^  to  flatter  all  in  authority,  highly 
applauded  their  new  emperor.  In  the  mean 
time  his  soldiers,  being  permitted  to  satiate 
themselves  it  the  debaucheries  of  the  city,  grew 
totally  unfit  for  war.  The  principal  affairs  of 
the  state  were  managed  bv  the  lowest  wretches. 
Vitellius,  more  abandoned  than  they,  gave  him- 
self up  to  all  kinds  of  luxury  arid  profuseness : 
but  gluttony  was  his  fevorite  vice,  so  that  he 
brought  himself  to  a  habit  of  vomiting,  in  order 
to  renew  his  meals  at  pleasure.  His  entertain- 
ments, though  seldom  at  his  own  cost,  were  pro- 
digiously expensive;  he  frequently  invited  him- 
self to  the  tables  of  his  subjects,  breakfesting 
with  one,  dining  with  another,  and  supping  with 
a  third,  all  in  the  same  day.  In  this  manner  did 
Vitellius  proceed ;  so  that,  Josephus  tells  us,  if 
he  had  reigned  long,  the  whole  empire  would  not 
have  been  sufficient  to  have  maintained  his  glut- 
tony. Those  who  had  formerly  been  his  asso- 
ciates were  now  destroyed  without  mercy.  Going 
to  vbit  one  of  them  in  a  violent  fever,  he  min- 
gled poison  with  his  water,  and  delivered  it 
to  him  with  his  own  hands.  He  never  par- 
doned those  money-lenders  who  came  to  demand 
payment  of  his  former  debts.  One  of  the 
number  coming  to  salute  him,  he  immediately 
ordered  him  to  be  carried  off  to  execution; 
but  shortly  after,  commanding  him  to  be  brought 
back,  when  all  his  attendants  thought  it  was 
to  pardon  the  unhappy  creditor,  Vitellius  gave 
them  soon  to  understand  that  it  was  merely 
to  have  the  pleasure  of  feeding  his  eyes  with 
his  torments.     Having  condemned  another  to 


death,  he  executed  his  two  sons  with  him» 
only  for  their  presuming  to  intercede  for  thei^ 
father.  A  Roman  knight  being  dragged  away 
to  execution  and  crying  out  that  he  had 
made  the  emperor  his  heir,  Vitellius  desired 
to  see  the  will,  where  finding  himself  joint  heir 
with  another,  he  ordered  both  to  be  executed, 
that  he  might  enjoy  the  legacy  without  a  partner. 
By  continuing  such  vices  and  cruelties  as  these 
he  became  odious,  and  the  astrologers  prognos- 
ticated his  ruin.  A  writing  was  set  up  in  the 
forum,  in  the  name  of  the  ancient  Chaldeans^ 

S'ving  Vitellius  warning  to  depart  this  life  by 
e  kalends  of  Ocfober.  Vitellius  received  this 
information  with  terror,  and  ordered  all  the  as- 
trologers to  be  banished  from  Rome.  A  woman 
having  foretold  that,  if  he  survived  his  mother, 
he  should  reign  many  years  in  happiness,  he 
put  her  to  death,  by  refusing  her  sustenance, 
under  the  pretence  of  its  beine  prejudicial  to  her 
health.  But  he  soon  saw  £e  futility  of  such 
prognostics ;  for  his  soldiers,  by  their  cruelty  and 
rapine,  having  become  insupportable  to  the  inha- 
bitants of  Rome,  the  legions  of  the  east  began 
to  revolt,  and  soon  after  resolved  to  make  V  es- 
pasian  emperor.  Vespasian,  who  was  com- 
mander against  the  Jews,  had  reduced  most  of 
their  country,  except  Jerusalem,  to  subjection ; 
but  the  death  of  Nero,  and  the  succession  of 
Galba,  gave  a  temporary  check  to  his  conquests 
as  he  was  obliged  to  send  his  son  Titus  to  Rome. 
Titus,  however,  being  detained  by  contrary 
winds,  received  news  of  Galba's -death  before  he 
sailed.  He  then  resolved  to  continue  neuter 
during  the  civil  war  between  Otho  and  Vitellius; 
and  when  the  latter  prevailed  he  gave  him  his 
homage  with  reluctance.  But,  being  desirous  of 
acquiring  reputation,  he  determined  to  lay  siege 
to  Jerusalem.  The  murmurings  against  Vitd- 
lius  increased  every  day,  while  Vespasian  endea- 
voured to  advance  the  discontents  of  the  army, 
who  began  at  length  to  fix  upon  him  as  the  per- 
son most  capable  of  terminating  the  miseries  of 
his  country.  Not  only  his  own  legions,  but  those 
in  Mcesia  and  Pannonia,  declared  themselves  for 
Vespasian.  He  was  also  proclaimed  emperor  at 
Alexandria,  the  army  there  confirming  it  with 
extraordinary  applause.  Still,  however,  Vespa- 
sian declined  the  honor;  till  at  lensth  his  sol- 
diers compelled  him,  with  threats  of  immediate 
death.  He  now  called  a  council  of  war :  where 
it  was  resolved  that  hb  son  Titus  should  carry 
on  the  war  against  the  Jews ;  and  that  Mutianus, 
one  of  his  generals,  should,  with  great  part  of 
his  leffions,  enter  Italy ;  whUe  Vespasian  should 
levy  forces  in  all  parts  of  the  east,  to  reinforce 
them  in  case  of  necessity.  Mean  time  Vitellius 
resolved  to  make  an  effort  to  defend  the  empire ; 
and  his  chief  commanders,  Valens  and  Cecina, 
were  ordered  to  make  all  preparations  to  resist 
the  invaders.  The  first  army  that  entered  Italy 
was  under  Antonius  Primus,  who  was  met  by 
Cecina  near  Cremona,  whom  he  prevailed  upon 
to  change  sides,  and  declare  for  Vespasian. 
His  army,  however,  quickly  repented  of  what 
they  had  done ;  and  imprisoning  their  general, 
though  without  a  leader,  attacked  Antonius.  The 
enga^ment  continued  the  whole  night :  in  the 
morning,  after  a  short  repast,  both  armies  en- 


Digitized  by  VjOU 


.gle 


748 


ROME. 


gaged  a  second  time ;  when  the  soldiers  of  An- 
tonius  saluting  the  rising  sun,  according  to  cu|^- 
torn,  the  VitelUans  supposing  that  they  had 
received  new  reinforcements^^  betook  them- 
selves to  flight,  with  the  loss  of  30,0p0  men. 
Soon  after,  freeing  Cecina  ftt>m  prison,  they 
prevailed  upon  him  to  intercede  with  the  con- 
querors for  pardon;  which  they  obtained,  though 
not  without  the  most  horrd  barbarities  committed 
in  Cremona.  When  Vitellius  was  informed  of 
the  defeat  of  his  army,  his  insolence  was  con- 
verted into  extreme  timidity.  At  length  he 
commanded  Julius  Priscus  and  Alphenus  Varus* 
with  some  forces  tliatwere  in  readiness,  to  guard 
the  passes  of  the  Apennines,  to  prevent  the 
enemy's  march  on  Uome.  But,  being  persuaded 
to  repair  to  his  army  in  person,  his  presence  only 
increased  the  contempt  of  his  soldiers.  After  a 
short  continuance  in  the  camp,  and  hearine  the 
revolt  of  his  fleet,  he  returned  to  Rome.  Every 
day  rendering  his  affairs  more  desperate,  he  made 
ofiers  to  Vespasian  of  resigning  the  empire.  One 
Sabinus,  who  had  advised  him  to  resign,  per- 
ceiving his  desperate  situation,  resolved,  by  a 
bold  step,  to  oblige  Vespasian,  and  seized  upon 
the  capitol.  But  he  was  premature  in  his  at- 
•tempt :  for  the  soldiers  of  Vitellius  attacked  him 
with  mreat  fury,  and,  prevailing  by  their  numbers, 
soon  laid  that  building  in  ashes.  During  this 
conflagration,  Vitellius  was  feasting  in  the  pa- 
lace of  Tiberius,  and  beholding  with  satisfaction 
the  horrors  of  the  assault.  Sabinus  was  taken 
prisoner,  and  shortly  ader  executed.  Domitian, 
Vespasian's  son,  afterwards  emperor,  escaped  by 
flight,  in  the  habit  of  a  priest ;  and  all  the  rest, 
who  survived  the  fire,  were  put  to  the  sword. 
But  this  success  served  little  to  improve  the  af- 
fairs of  Vitellius.  lie  vainly  sent  messenger 
after  messenger  to  bring  Vespasian's  general, 
Antonius,  to  a  compromise.  This  commander 
gave  no  answer  to  his  requests,  but  continued 
his  march  towards  Rome.  Being  arrived  before 
the  walls  of  the  city,  the  forces  of  Vitellius  were 
resolved  upon  defending  it  to  the  utmost  extre- 
mity. Attacked  on  three  sides  with  the  greatest 
fury;  the  army  within,  sallying  upon  the  be- 
siegers, defended  it  with  equal  obstinacy.  The 
battle  lasted  a  whole  day,  till  at  last  the  besieged 
Mere  driven  into  the  city,  and  a  dreadful  slaugh- 
ter made  of  them  in  the  streets.  In  the  mean 
time,  the  citizens  stood  by  apparently  uncon- 
cerned, as  if  they  had  been  ui  .a  theatre,  and 
clapped  their  hands,  first  at  one  party's  success, 
and  then  at  the  other's.  As  either  turned  their 
backs,  the  citizens  would  fall  upon  and  plunder 
them.  But,  what  was  still  more  remarkable,  during 
these  dreadful  slaughters  both  within  and  with- 
otit  the  city,  the  people  celebrated  one  of  their 
riotous  feasts,  called  the  Saturnalia;  so  that  in 
various  parts  might  be  seen  the  strange  mixture 
of  mirth  and  misery,  profligacy  and  slaughter; 
in  a  word,,  all  the  horrors  of  civil  war,  and  all 
the  licentiousness  of  the  most  abandoned  secu- 
rity !  During  this  complicated  scene,  Vitellius 
retired  to  his  wife's  house,  upon  mount  Aven- 
line,  designing  to  fly  to  the  army  commanded  by 
his  brother  at  Tarracina.  But  he  changed  his 
mind,  and  returned  to  his  palace.  There,  after 
wandering  disconsolate,  he  hid  himself  in  an 


obscure  comer,  whence  he  was  soon  taken  by 
a  party  of  soldiers.  Still,  willing  to  add  a  lew 
hours  to  his  miserable  life,  he  b^ged  to  be  kept 
in  prison  till  the  arrival  of  Vespasian  at  Rome, 
pretending  that  he  had  secrets  of  importance  to 
discover.  But  his  intreaties  were  vain  ;  the  sol- 
diers binding  his  hands  behind  him,  and  throw- 
ing a  halter  round  his  neck,  led  him  along,  half 
naked,  ^  into  the  public  foiuxn,  upbraiding  higa  as 
they  proceeded  with  all  the  bitter  reproaches 
that  malice  could  suggest,  or  his  own  cruelties 
deserve.  They  also  tied  his  hair  backwards,  as 
was  usual  with  the  most  infiunous  male^cton, 
and  held  the  point  of  a  sword  under  his  cfaia,  to 
prevent  his  hiding  his  face  from  the  pubhc 
Personal  indignations  were  heaped  upon  him. 
Some  cast  dirt  and  filth  upon  him  as  he  pas^eu, 
others  struck  him  with  their  hands,  or  ridiculed 
the  defects  of  his  person.  At  length,  being  de- 
spatched,  they  dragged  his  dead  body  throu^  the 
streets  with  a  hook,  and  threw  it,  with  all  pos- 
sible ignominy,  into  the  Tiber.  Such  was  the 
miserable  end  of  Ais  emneror,  in  the  fifty - 
seventh  year  of  his  age,  after  a  short  reign  of 
eight  months  and  five  days. 

Vespasian. — ^The  conquering  army  of  Vespa- 
sian now  pursued  their  enemies  throughout  il.-^ 
city,  where  neither  houses  nor  temples  afforiiei 
them  refuge.  Not  only  the  enemy  suffered  thus, 
but  many  of  the  citizens,  who  were  obnoxious  to 
the  soldiers,  were  dragged  from  their  house>,  and 
killed.  They  next  began' to  seek  for  plunder; 
the  rabble  joining  in  these  outrages :  some  slaves 
discovered  the  riches  of  their  masters ;  some  were 
letected  by  their  nearest  friends ;  and  the  whole 
city  was  filled  with  outcry  and  lamentation. 
At  length,  however,  upon  the  arrival  of  Mutianu^L 
these  slaughters  ceased,  and  the  state  began  to 
wear  the  appearance  of  former  trailquillity.  Ves- 
pasian was  declared  empei^r  by  the  ttnanimoos 
consent  both  of  the  senate  and  the  army,  and 
messengers  were  despatched  to  him  into  fieypt, 
desiring  his  return.  But  the  winter  being  dan- 
gerous for  sailing  he  deferred  his  voyage.  The 
dissensions  in  other  parts  of  the  empire  also  re- 
tarded his  return ;  for  Claudius  Civifis,  iii  Lower 
Germany,  excited  his  countiymen  to  revolt,  and 
destroyed  the  Roman  garrisons.  To  give  fai5 
rebellion,  however,  an  air  of  justice,  be  caused 
his  army  to  swear  allegiance  to  Vespasian,  though 
he  soon  disclaimed  all  submission  to  his  goreni- 
ment ;  and  having  6vereome  one  or  two  of  the 
lieutenants,  and  being  jdined  by  such  Romans  as 
refused  obedience  to  the  new  emperor,  he  boldly 
advanced  to  give  Cerealis,  Vespasian's  general, 
battle.  After  some  temporary  reverses  Cerealis 
not  only  routed  the  enemy  but  took  and  de- 
stroyed their  camp.  The  engagement,  bowerer, 
was  not  decisive;  several  others  ensued,  and  an 
accommodation  at  length  took  place,  when  Civilis 
obtained  peace  for  his  countrymen  and  pardon 
for  himself.  During  these  commotions  in  Ger- 
many the  Sarmatians,  a  barbarous  natioA  in  the 
north-east  of  the  empire,  suddenly  passed  the 
Iser,  and  marched  into  the  Roman  dominions 
with  such  celerity  as  to  destroy  several  garrisons, 
and  an  array  under  Fonteius  Agrippa.  Flowever. 
they  were  driven  back  by  Rubnus  Gallus  into 
their  native  forests ;  while  several  attempts  were 


Digitized  by  ^^JiJU*^lt: 


ROME. 


749 


made  to  confine  ihem  by  garrisons  and  forts. 
But  these  hardy  nations,  having  once  found  the 
way  into  the  empiie,  never  after  desisted  from 
invading  it.  Before  Vespasian  set  out  for  Rome, 
he  gave  his  son  Titus  the  command  of  the  army 
that  was  io  besiege  Jerusalem;  he  theq  went 
forward,  and  was  met  many,  miles  from  Rome 
by  all  the  senate  and  nearly  half  the  inhabitants. 
Nor  did  be  in  the  least  disappoint  their  expecta- 
tions ;  being  equally  prompt  to  Tewazd  merit 
and  pardon  his  adversaries;  in  reforming  the 
manners  of  the  citizens  and  setting  them  the  best 
example  in  his  own.  In  the  mean  time  Titus 
•carri^  on  the  war  against  the  Jews  with  that 
vigor  which  ended  in  the  total  destruction  of  the 
city.  See  Jews.  After  this  his  soldiers  would 
have  crowned  him  as  conqueror;  but  he  refused 
the  honor,  alleging  that  he  was  only  an  instru- 
ment in  the  hand  of  heaven,  that  manifestly  de- 
clared its  wrath  against  the  Jews.  At  Rome, 
however,  all  mouths  wjere  fiUed. with. his  praises, 
liis  return,!  therefore,  in  triumph,  with  his  father, 
was  celebrated  with  sdl  possible  magnificence  and 
joy.  Among  the  rich  spoils  were  vast  quantities 
of  gold  taken  out  of  the  temple,  with  the  book  of 
the  JcMrish  law. .  A  triumphal  arch  was.  erected 
on  this  occasion,  which  remaii^  almost  entitle  to 
this  day,  and  on  which  vf&ae  inscribed  all  the 
victories  of  Titus  over  the  Jews.  •  Vesp«siaB 
likewise  built  a  temple  to  Peace,  wherein  wiere 
deposited  most  of  the  spoils ;  and,  having  now 
calmed  all  the  commotions  in  the  empire,  he 
shut  the  temple  of  Janus,  which  bad  been  open 
about  five  or  six  years.  Vespasian,  having  tlius 
given  security  and  peace  to  the  empire,  resolved 
to  correct  numberless  abuses  which  had  grown 
up  under  his  predecessors.  .  To  effect. this  with 
greater  ease,  he  joined  Titus  with  him  in  the 
consulship  and  tribunitial  power,  and  in  some 
measure  admitted  him  a  partner  in  all  the  highest 
offices  of  the  state.  He  began  with  restraining 
the  licentiousness  of  the  army,  and  forcing  them 
back  .to  their  f>ristine. discipline.  He  abridged 
the. processes  that  had  been  carried  tq  an  uniiear 
sooable  length  in  the  courts  of  justice*  He  re- 
built such  parts  of  the  city,  as  had  sulfered  in  the 
late  commotions  ;<  particularly  the  cap.itol,  which 
he  restored  to  more  thaq  .its  fprmer. magnificence. 
lie  likewise  built,  an  amphitheatre  the  ruins 
of  whicb  are  stiU,.anr  evidence  of  its  ancient 
grandeur.  The.. other  ruinous  cities  of  the  em- 
pire also  shared,  his  paternal  care;  he.imprQved 
such  as  were  deplining,  adorned  others  and 
built  many  anew.  In  such  acts  as  these  he.  passed 
a  long  rei^  .of  clemency  and  n^pderatioq;,^ 
that  it  is  said-BO  man  .suffered  by  an  unjust, o^  a 
severe  decree,  during  his  administration.  Julius 
Sabinus^eems  to  have  been  the  only  p^rsoq.  who 
was  treated  with.greater  rigor  than  usti^al  by.  this 
emperor. , .  Sabinus  was  commander  of  a  sn»all 
army,  in  Gaul,  and  had  declared  himself  emperor 
upon  the  death  of . Vitellius.  <Uis  army*  how- 
everi  was'  soon  after  overcome  by  V^pasi^n's 
general,  .and  he  himself  <wmpelled  to  ifly^  .lor 
some  time  he  wandered  through  the  provinces, 
but,  finding  the  pursuit  every  day  become  closer, 
he  was  obliged  to  hide  himself  in  a  cave :  in  which 
he  remained  concealed  for  no  less  than  nine  years, 
attended  all  the  time  by  his  faithful  wife,  who 


purchased  provisions  for  him  by  day,  and  re- 
paired to  him  in  the  night.  She  was  at  last  dis- 
covered in  the  performance  of  this  pious  office, 
and  Sabinus  was  carried  to  Rome.  Great  inters 
cession  was  made  to  the  emperor  on  his  behalf; 
Empona  herself  appearing  with  her  two  children, 
imploring  her  husband's  pardon.  But  Sabinus 
hau  been  too  dangerous  a  rival,  and  he  was 
executed.  This  seems  to  be  the  only  instance 
;n  which  Vespasian  resented  past  offences.  He 
•caused  the  daughter  of  Vitellius,  his  avowed 
•enemy,  to  be  married  into  a  noble  family,  and  he 
himself  provided  her  a  suitable  fortune.  One 
of  Neros  servants  coming  to- beg  pardon  for 
having  once  rudely  thrust  him  out  of  the  palace, 
and  insulted  him  when  in  office,  Vespasian  took 
Jiis  revenge  by  serving  him  just  in  the  same 
manner.  When  any  conspiracies  were  formed 
against  him«  he  disdained  to  punish  the  guilty, 
saying,  that  they  deserved  rather  his  contempt 
for  their  ignorance  than  his  .resentment;  as  they 
.seemed  to  envy  him  a  dignity  of  which  he  daily 
experienced  the  uneasiness.  His  liberality  to- 
wards the  encouragement  •  of  arts  and  learning, 
was  not  less  than  his  clemency.  He  settled  a 
constant  salary  of  100,000  sesterces  upon  the 
teacliers  of  rhetosic.  He  was  particularly  favo- 
rable to  Josephus,  the  Jewish  historian.  Quin- 
tiliaii  the  orator^  and 'Pliny  the  naturalist,  flou- 
rished in  his  reign,  and  were,  highly  esteemed  by 
him.  .  He  was  no^less  an  encourager  of  all  other 
.excellencies  in  .art ;  and  invited  the  greatest 
masters,  and  'artificers  firom  all  parts  of  the  world, 
.making  them  oonsiderable  presents.  Yet  all  his 
numerous  acts  of  generosity  and  magnificence 
could  not  preserve  his  character  from  the-  impu^ 
tation  Qfi  rapacity  and  avarice.  He  revived  many 
obsolete  methods  of-  taxation  :  and  even  bought 
and  .sold  commodities  himself^  to  increase  his 
fortune.  He  is  charged  with  advancing  the  mo.^ 
.avaricious  governors*  to  the  provinces,  to  share 
their  plunder  on  their  v return  to  Rome.  He  de- 
8cend«d  to  $ome  very  dishonorable  impost, 
even  to  the  laying  a  tax  upon  urine.  When  his  son 
Titus  remonstrated  against  the  meanness  of  such 
a  tax,  Viespasian,  taking  a  piece  of  money,  de- 
manded if  the  smell  offended  him ;  and  then 
added  that  this  very  money  was  produced  by 
t  urine.  B»ty  in  excuse  for  this,  the  exchequer, 
.when. Vespasian  came  to  the  throney  was  so  much 
exhausted  that  he  informed  ^  senate  that  it 
would  require  a  supply  of  £300,000,000  (of  our 
money)  to  reestablish  the ' commonweal th .  But, 
.while  the  provinces  were,  thus  obliged  to  contri* 
bute  to  the  support  of  the  power,  he  took  every 
preciiution  .to  provide  for  their  safety-;  so  that  we 
find  batjtwo  insuriections  in  this -reign.  In  the 
fourth  year  of  his  reign  Antiochus,  king  of  Co- 
magena,  hDl4ing>a  private, correspondence  with 
the.^arthians,  ike  declared  enemies  of  Rome, 
was'jtaken  prisoner  in  Cilicia,  by  Pyrrhus  the 
gowrqOrv:aDd  sent  bound  to  Rome.  But  Ves- 
pasian: generously  .ga^e  him  residence  at  Lacedse- 
mo9,  and  allp^>^  him  a*  re  venue,  suitable  to  his 
dignity.  .About  the  same  time  the  Alani,  a  bar- 
barous people  inhabiting  along  the  river  Tanais, 
abandoned  their  barren  wilds,  and  invaded  the 
kingdom  'of  Media.  Thence  passing  into  Ar- 
menia, a(\er  great  ravages,  they  ovei  threw  king 


Digitized  by  V^UUS^lC 


750 


ROME. 


Ttridatea  with  prodigious  slaughter.  Titus  was 
ae&t  to  chastise  their  insolence ;  but  tiie  barbar 
riaus  retired  at  the  approach  of  a  Roman  army, 
loaded  with  plunder.  These  incursioqs,  how- 
ever, were  but  a  transient  storm,  the  effect  of 
which  were  aeon  repaired  by  the  emperor*s  mo- 
deration and  assiduity.  He  now  formed  and 
established  a  thousand  nations,  which  had 
scarcely  before  amounted  to  200.  He  had  during 
his  whole  reign  a  particular  regard  to  Britain; 
his  generals,  Petilius  Cerealis,  and  Julius  Fron- 
tinus,  brought  the  greatest  part  of  the  island  into 
subjection ;  and  Agricola,  who  succeeded  soon 
after,  completed  what  they  had  begun.  See 
Enol4nd.  In  this  manner,  having  reigned 
ten  years,  lored  by  his  subjects,  and  deserving 
their  affection,  he  was  surprised  by  an  indispo- 
sition at  Campania,  which  he  at  once  declared 
would  be  fatal,  crying  out  in  the  spirit  of  Pa- 
ganism, 'methinks  I  am  going  to  be  a  god.' 
Removing  thence  to  the  city,  and  afterwards  to 
a  country  seat  near  Reate,  he  was  there  taken 
with  a  nux,  which  brought  him  to  the  last  ex- 
tremity. However,  perceiving  his  end  approadi, 
and  just  going  to  expire,  he  cried  out  tnat  an 
emperor  ought  to  die  standing;  wherefore,  raising 
himself  upon  his  feet,  he  expired  in  the  hands 
of  those  tnat  sustained  him. 

Titus  Vespasian.— Titus,  being  joyfully  re- 
ceived as  emperor,  began  his  reign  with  every 
virtue  that  became  an  emperor  and  a  man.  Dur 
ring  the  life  of  his  &ther  there  had  been  many  im- 
putations against  him ;  but,  upon  his  exaltation  to 
the  throne,  he  seemed  entirely  to  take  leave  of  his 
former  vices,  and  became  an  example  of  the 
greatest  moderation  and  humanity.  He  had  long 
loved  Berenice,  sister  to  Agrippa  king  of  Judea,  a 
woman  of  the  greatest  b«iuty  and  allurements. 
But,  knowing  that  the  connexion  witli  her  was 
disagreeable  to  the  people  of  Rome,  he  sent  her 
away,  notwithstanding  their  mutual  passion  and 
the  many  arts  she  used  to  induce  him  to  change 
his  resolution.  .He  next  discarded  all  those  who 
had  been  the  former  ministers  of  his  pleasures,  and 
forbore  to  countenance  the  companions  of  his 
looser  recreations,  though  he  had  formerly  taken 
great  pains  in  their  selection.  This  moderation, 
added  to  his  justice  and  generosity,  procured  him 
the  love  of  all  good  men,  and  the  appellation  of 
the  delight  of  mankind,  which  all  uis  actions 
seemed  odculated  to  ensure.  As  he  came  to  the 
throne  with  all  the  advantages  of  his  Other's  po- 
pularity, he  vns  resolved  to  use  every  method  to 
increase  it  He  therefore  took  particular  care  to 
punish  all  informers,  &lse  vritnesses,  and  pro- 
moters of  dissension,  condemning  them  to  be 
scourged  in  public,  dragged  through  the  theatre^ 
and  li^ishea  to  the  uninhabited  parts  of  the  em- 
pire, and  sold  as  slaves.  His  courtesy  and  rea- 
diness to  do  good  have  been  celebrated  even  by 
Christian  writers ;  his  principal  rule  being  never 
to  send  any  petitioner  away  dissatisfied.  One 
night,  recollecting  that  he  had  done  nothing  be- 
neficial to  mankind  the  day  preceding,  he  said, 
*  My  friends,  to  day  I  have  lost  a  day.'  In  this 
reign,  an  eruption  of  mount  Vesuvius  did  consi- 
derable damage,  overwhelming  many  towns,  and 
sending  its  ashes  into  countries  more  than  100 
miles  distant.    Upon  tliis  memorable  occasion, 


Plioy  the  naturalist  lost  his  life;  for,  being  ia>- 
pelled  by  too  eager  a  curiosity  to  observe  the 
eruption,  be  was  suffocated  in  the  flames.  There 
happened  also  about  this  time  a  fire  at  Rome, 
which  continued  three  days  and  nights  succes- 
sively, which  was  followed  by  a  plague,  in  which 
10,000  men  were  buried  in  a  day.  The  empe- 
ror, however,  did  all  that  lay  in  his  power  to  re- 
pair the  damage  sustained  by  the  public ;  and, 
with  respect  to  the  ci^,  declared  that  he  would 
take  die  whole  loss  of'^it  upon  himself.  These 
disasters  were  in  some  measure  coanterbalanced 
by  the  successes  in  Britain,  under  Agrioola.  Thb 
excellent  general,  haying  been  sent  into  that  coun- 
try towards  the  end  of  Vespasian's  reign,  dM)wed 
himself  equally  expert  in  quelling  the  reffractoiy, 
and  civilising  those  who  had  formerly  submiued 
to  the  Roman  power.  The  Ordov^ices,  or  inha- 
bitants of  North  Wales,  were  the  first  that  were 
subdued.  He  then  made  a  descent  upon  Mooa, 
or  the  island  of  Anglesea,  which  surrendered  at 
discretion.  Having  thus  rendered  himself  master 
of  the  whole  country,  betook  eveiy  method  to  re- 
store discipline  to  his  army,  and  to  introduce  some 
E>liteness  among  those  whom  he  had  conquered, 
e  exhorted  them,  both  by  advice  and  example, 
to  build  templesy  theatres,  and  stately  houses. 
He  caused  the  sons  of  their  nobility  to  be  in- 
structed in  the  liberal  arts ;  he  had  them  taoght 
the  Latin  language,  and  induced  them  to  imitate 
the  Roman  modes  of  dressing  and  hying.  Thos, 
by  degrees,  this  barbarous  people  began  to  as- 
sume the  luxurious  manners  of  their  cdnquerois, 
and  in  time  even  outdid  them  in  all  the  refine- 
ments of  sensual  pleasure.  For  the  success  in 
Britain,  Titus  vras  saluted  emperor  the  fifteenth 
time;  but  he  did  not  long  surviye  his  honors, 
being  sciied  with  a  violent  fever,  at  a  little  dis- 
tance from  Rome.  Perceiving  bis  death  ap- 
proach, he  declared  that  during  the  whole  course 
of  his  life  he  knew  but  of  one  action  wfaidi  he  le- 
pented  of;  but  that  action  he  did  not  fhmk 
proper  to  express.  Shortly  afler  he  died  (not 
without  suspicion  of  treachery  finom  his  brother 
Domitian,  who  had  long  wished  to  govern),  in 
the  forty-first  year  of  his  age,  having  reigned  two 
years  two  months  and  twenty  days. 

DoMiTiAV.— The  love  which  all  ranks  of 
people  bore  to  Titus  facilitated  the  election  of 
his  brodiet  Domitian,  notwithstanding  the  ill 
opinion  many  had  already  concaved  of  him. 
His  ambition  was  already  but  too  well  known, 
and  his  pride  soon  appeared  upon  his  coming  to 
the  throne,  having  declared  that  he  had  given  the 
empire  to  his  fether  and  brother,  and  now  re^ 
ceived  it  again  as  his  due.  The  beginnii^  of 
his  reign  was  universally  acceptable  to  the 
people,  as  he  appeared  remarkable  for  demency, 
liberality,  and  justice.  He  carried  his  abhor- 
rence of  cruelty  so  far  as  once  to  forbid  the  sa- 
crificing of  oxen.  His  liberality  was  such  that 
he  would  not  accept  of  the  legacies  that  were  left 
him  by  such  as  had  children.  His  justice  was 
such  diat  he  would  sit  whole  days  aiad  reverse 
the  partial  sentences  of  the  ordinary  judges.  He 
was  very  liberal  in  repairing  the  libraries  which 
had  been  burnt,  and  recovering  copies  of  such 
books  as  had  been  lost,  sending  on  purpose  to 
Alexandria  to  transcribe  them.     But  he 


Digitized  by 


vjQOgle 


ROME. 


751 


began  to  show  the  natural  deformity  of  his  mind. 
No  emperor  before  him  entertained  the  people 
with  such  various  and  expensive  shows.  Di  ring 
these  diversions  he  distributed  rewards ;  fitting 
as  president  himself,  adorned  with  a  purple  robe 
aad  crown,  with  the  priests  of  Jupiter  and  the 
college  of  Flavian  priests  about  him.  The  mean- 
ness of  his  occupations  in  solitude  were  a  just 
contrast  to  his  exhibitions  in  public.  He  usually 
spent  his  hours  of  retirement  in  catching  flies, 
and  sticking  them  through  with  a  bodkin.  His 
vices  seemed  every  day  to  increase  with  the  dura- 
tion of  his  reign.  His  ungrateful  treatment  of 
Agricola  seemed  the  first  symptom  of  his  natural 
malevolence.  Domitian  was  alwavs  particularly 
fond  of  obtaining  a  military  reputation,  and  there- 
fore jealous  of  it  in  others.  He  had  marched 
some  time  before  into  Gaul,  upon  a  pretended  ex- 
pedition against  the  Catti,  a  people  of  Germany ; 
and,  without  ever  teeing  the  enemy,  resolved  to 
have  the  honor  of  a  triumph  upon  his  return  to 
Home.  For  that  purpose  .he  purchased  a  number 
of  slaves,  whom  ne  dressed  in  German  habits ; 
^nd  at  the  head  of  this  miserable  procession  he 
entered  the  city,  amidst  the  apparent  acclamations 
and  concealed  contempt  of  all  his  subjects.  The 
successes,  therefore,  of  Agricola  in  Britain 
affected  liim  with  an  extreme  degree  of  envy. 
This  admirable  general  routed  the  Caledonians ; 
-overcame  Galgacus,  the  British  chief,  at  the  head 
of  30,000  men ;  and,  afterwards  sending  out  a 
fleet  to  scour  the  coast,  first  discovered  Great 
Britain  to  be  an  island.  See  Scotland.  He 
likewise  discovered  and  subdued  the  Orkneys, 
and  thus  reduced  the  whole  into  a  civilised  pro- 
vince of  the  Roman  empire.  When  the  account 
of  these  successes  was  brought  to  Domitian  he 
received  it  with  a  seeming  pleasure,  but  real  un- 
easiness. He  thought  Agricola's  rising  reputation 
a  reproach  upon  his  own  inactivity ;  and,  instead 
of  attempting  to  emulate,  he  resolved  to  suppress 
the  merit  of  his  services.  He  ordered  him,  there- 
fore, the  external  marks  of  his  approbation,  and 
took  care  that  triumphant  ornaments,  statues, 
and  other  honors,  should  be  decreed  him ;  but 
at  the  same  time  he  removed  him  from  his  com- 
mand, under  a  pretence  of  appointing  him  to 
the  government  of  Syria.  Agricola  surrendered 
up  his  government  to  Sallustius  Lucullus,  but 
soon  found  that  Syria  was  otherwise  dis- 
posed of.  Upon  his  return  to  Rome,  which 
tvas  privately  and  by  night,  he  was  coolly  received 
by  the  emperor;  and,  dying  some  time  afler 
in  retirement,  it  was  supposed  that  his  end  was 
hastened  by  Domitian's  direction.  Domitian 
soon  after  found  the  want  of  so  experienced  a 
commander  in  the  many  irruptions  ot  the  barba- 
Yous  nations  that  surrounded  the  empire.  The 
Sarmatians  in  Europe,  joined  vrith  those  in  Asia, 
made  a  formidable  invasion :  at  once  destroying 
a  whole  legion,  and  a  general  of  the  Romans. 
The  Dacians,  under  Decebalus  their  king,  made 
an  irruption,  and  overthrew  the  Romans  in  seve- 
ral engagements,  so  that  every  season  became 
memorable  for  some  remarkable  overthrow.  At 
last,  the  state  making  a  vigorous  exertion  of  its 
internal  power,  the  barl^rians  were  repelled, 
partly  by  money,  which  enabled  them  to  make 
invasions  afterwards  to  greater  advantage.      ^  ^ 


p«t* 


Domitian  was  resolved  not  to  lose  the  honor  of  a 
triumph,  and  took  the  surname  of  Germanicus, 
for  his  conquest  over  a  people  with  whom  he 
never  contended.  In  proportion  as  he  merited 
ridicule,  his  pride  every  day  demanded  greater 
homage.  He  would  permit  his  statues  to  be 
made  only  of  gold  and  silver ;  assumed  to  him- 
self divine  honors;  and  ordered  that  all  men 
should  treat  him  with  the  same  appellations 
which  they  gave  to  the  divinity,  nis  cruelty 
was  not  behind  his  arrogance :  he  caused  num- 
bers of  illustrious  senators  and  others  to  be  put 
to  death  upon  the  most  trifling  pretences.  Sa- 
lustius  Lucullus,  his  lieutenant  in  Britain,  was 
destroyed  only  for  having  given  his  own  name  to 
a  new  kind  of  lance.  Junius  Rusticus  died  for 
publishing  a  book  in  which  *he  commended 
Thrasea  and  Prisons,  two  plTilosophers  who  op- 
posed Vespasian's  coming  to  the  throne.  Such 
cruelties  as  these  naturally  produced  rebellion. 
Lucius  Antonius,  governor  in  Upper  Germany, 
assumed  the  ensigns  of  imperial  dignity.  As  he 
was  at  the  head  of  a  formidable  army,  his  success 
remained  long  doubtful ;  but,  a  sudden  overflow- 
ing of  the  Rhine  dividing  his  army,  be  was  set 
upon  at  that  juncture  by  Normandus,  the  empe- 
ror's general,  and  totally  routed.  Domitian's 
seventy  was  greatly  increased  by  this  success.  To 
discover  those  who  were  accomplices  with  the  ad- 
verse party,  he  invented  new  tortures.  During 
these  cruelties,  he  never  pronounced  sentence 
without  a  preamble  full  of  gentleness  and 
mercy.  He  was  particularly  terrible  to  the 
senate,  the  whole  body  of  whom  he  frequently 
threatened  entirely  to  extirpate.  At  one  time,  be 
surrounded  the  senate-house  with  his  troops,  to 
the  great  consternation  of  the  senators.  At  ano- 
^er  he  resolved  to  amuse  himself  with  their  ter- 
rors in  a  different  manner.  Having  invited  them 
to  a  public  entertainment,  he  received  them  all 
very  formally  at  the  entrance  of  his  palace,  and 
conducted  them  into  a  spacious  hall,  nung  round 
with  black,  and  illuminated  by  a  few  melancholy 
lamps,  that  diffused  light  only  sufiBcient  to  show 
the  horrors  of  the  place.  All  around  were  to  be 
seen  nothing  but  cofiBns,  with  the  names  of  each 
of  the  senators  written  upon  them,  together  with 
other  objects  of  terror,  and  instruments  of  exe- 
cution. While  the  company  beheld  all  the  pre- 
parations with  silent  agony,  several  men,  having 
their  bodies  blackened,  each  with  a  drawn  swora 
in  one  hand  and  a  flaming  torch  in  the  other, 
entered  the  hall,  and  danced  round  them.  After 
some  time,  when  the  guests  expected  nothing 
less  than  instant  death,  the  doors  were  set  open, 
and  a  servant  informed  them  that  the  emperor 
gave  all  the  company  leave  to  withdraw.  These 
cruelties  were  rendered  still  more  odious  by  his 
lust  and  avarice.  Frequently,  after  presiding  at 
an  execution,  he  would  retire  with  the  lewdest 
prostitutes,  and  use  the  same  baths.  His  ava- 
rice, the  consequence  of  his  profusion,  knew  no 
bounds.  He  seized  upon  the  estates  of  all  against 
whom  he  could  find  the  smallest  pretensions. 
.He  particularly  exacted  large  sums  from  the 
Jews :  and  was  excited  against  them,  not  only 
by  avarice,  but  by  jealousy.  A  prophecy  had 
been  long  current  in  the  east,  that  a  person  of 
*u«  v,^^  '^*' David  should  rule  the  world.  Where- 


Digitized  by  N^jOOQIC 


732 


ROME. 


Upon,  this  suspicious  tyrant  commanded  all  the 
Jews  of  the  lineage  of  David  to  be  diligently 
sought  out,  and  put  to  death.  Two  Christians 
of  that  line,  grandsons  of  St  Jude  the  Apostle, 
were  brought  before  him ;  but  finding  them  poor, 
and  no  way  ambitious,  he  dismissed  them,  consi- 
dering them  as  too  mean  for  his  jealousy.  Yet 
his  persecution  of  the  Christians  was  more  severe 
than  even  that  of  Nero.  By  his  letters  and  edicts 
they  were  banished  and  put  to  death  with  tortures. 
The  predictions  of  astrologers  also,  concerning  his 
death,  kept  him  in  the  most  tormenting  disquie- 
tude. Every  omen  and  prodigy  gave  him  fresh 
anxiety.  But  a  period  was  soon  put  to  this  mon- 
ster's cruelty.  Among  those  whom  he  at  once 
caressed  and  suspected  was  his  •  wife  Domitia, 
whom  he  had  taken  from  i£lius  Lama,  her  for- 
mer husband.  This  woman,  however,  was  be- 
come obnoxious  to  him  for  having  placed  her 
aifeetions  upon  one  Paris,  a  player ;  and  he  re- 
solved to  despatch  her,  with  several  others.  It 
was  his  custom  to  put  down  the  names  of  all^  such 
as  he  intended  to  destroy  in  his  tablets.  Domiiia, 
fortunately  happening  to  get  a  sight  of  them,  was 
struck  at  finding  her  own  name  in  the  catalogue 
of  those  fated  to  destruction.  She  showed  th^ 
fatal  list  to  Norbanus  and  Petronius,  prsefects  of 
the  pretorian  bauds,  who  were  also  set  down; 
as  well  as  to  Stephanus,  the  comptroller  of  the 
household,  who  joined  in  the  conspiracy.  These, 
after  many  consultations,  fixed  on  the  18th  of 
September  for  their  attempt.  Domitian  was  ap- 
prehensive of  that  day,  and  was  now  more  par- 
ticularly upon  his  guard.  He  had  some  time 
before  secluded  himself  in  the  most  secret  re- 
cesses of  his  palace;  and  at  midnight  was 
so  affrighted  as  to  leap  out  of  his  bed,  inquiring 
of  his  attendants  what  hour  it  was.  Upon  their 
falsely  assuring  him  that  it  was  an  hour  later  tlian 
that  which  he  was  taught  to  apprehend,  quite 
transported,  as  if  all  danger  was  past,  he  pre- 
pared to  go  to  the  bath.  Just  then,  Partheriius 
his  cham^rlaio  came  to  inform  htm  tliat  Stepha- 
nus desired  to  sp^ak  to  him  upon  an  affair  of 
importance.  The  emperor,  havmg  ordered  his 
attendants  to  retire,  Stephanus  entered  with  his 
left  hand  in  a  scarf,  which  he  had  worn  thus  for 
some  days,  to  conceal  a  dagger.  He  began  by 
giving  information  of  a  pretended  conspiracy, 
and  exhibited  a  paper  in  which  the  particulars 
were  specified.  While  Domitian  was  reading 
the  contents,  with  eager  curiosity,  Stephanus 
drew  his  dagger  and  struck  him  in  the  groin. 
Domitian  caught  hold  of  the  assassin,  and  threw 
him  upon  the  ground,  calling  out  for  assistance. 
He  demanded  also  his  sword ;  but  a  boy,  running 
to  fetch  it,  fouud  only  the  scabbard,  for  Parthe- 
nius  had  removed  the  blade.  The  struggle  with 
Stephanus  continued  :  Domitian  still  kept  bim 
unaer,  and  at  one  time  attempted  to  wrest,  the 
dagger  from  hi«f  hand,  at  another  to  tear  out  his 
eyes.  But  Parthenius,  with  his  freed  man,  a  gla- 
diator, and  two  subaltern  officers,  coming  in^  ran 
all  furiously  upon  the  emperor,  and  despatched 
him.  In  the  mean  time,  some  of  the  officers  of  the 
guard,  being  alarmed,  came  to  his  assistance,  but 
too  late ;  however,  they  slew  Stephanuson  the  spot. 
Nerva. — When  it  was  publicly  known  that 
Domitian  was  slain,  the  ^oy  of  the  senate  was  so 


great  that,  being  assembled  with  the  utmost  haste, 
fliey  began  to  load  bis  memory  with  every  re- 
proach.   His  statues  were  commanded  to  be 
taken  down ;  and  a  decree  was  made  that  all  his 
inscriptions  should  be  erased,  his  name  struck  out 
of  the  registers  of  fame,  and  his  faneral  omitted. 
The  people  looked  on  his  death  with  indifierence; 
the  soldiers  alone,  whom  he  had  enriched  by 
largesses,  regretted  his  death.   The  senate,  there- 
fore, resolved  to  provide  a  successor  before  the 
army  could  have  an  opportunity  of  appointing 
one;  and  Cocceius  Nerva  was  chosen  the  tptt 
day  on  which  the  tyrant  was  slain.     Nerva  was 
of  an  illustrious  family,  by  birth  a  Spaniard,  and 
above  sixty-five  years  old  when  called  to  the 
throne.    He  was,  at  that  time,  the  mosit  remark- 
able  man   in  Rome,   for  'his    virtues,   mode- 
ration,  and  respect  to  the  taws.      When  the 
senate  went  to  pav  him  their  submissions,  he 
received  them  witn  his  accustomed  humility; 
while  Arius  Antonius,  his  most  intimate  ftiend, 
congratulated  him  on'  his  accession  to  the  em- 
pire; and  indeed  no  emperor  had  ever  thavn 
nimself  more  worthy  of  the  .throne ;  his  only 
fault  being  that  he  was  too  indulgent  to  bis 
insidious  courtiers.  However,  an  excess  of  indul- 
gence and  humanity  were  faults  that  Rome  could 
easily  pardon:   being  long  accustomed  to  ty- 
ranny, they  regarded  Nerva's  gentle  reign  with 
rapture.      Upon  coming  to  £e  throne  be  so- 
lemnly swore  that  no  senator  of  Rome  should  be 
put  to  death,  by  his  command,  during  bis  reign  ; 
and   conferred  great  favors  upon  his  particnlar 
friends.    His  liberality  was  so  extensive  thai  he 
was  constrained  to  sell  his  gold  and  silver  plate, 
with  other  rich  moveables,  to  enable  him  to  con- 
tinue it    He  released  the  cities  of  the  empire 
from  many  severe  impositions,  which  had  been 
laid  upon  them  by  Vespasian ;  took  off  a  rigor- 
ous tribute  upon  carriages ;  and  restored  those 
to  their  property  who  had  been  unjustly  dispos- 
sessed by  Domitian.    During  his  Ihort  reign  he 
made  several  good  laws.     He  prohibited  the  cas- 
tration of  male  children ;  which  had  been  con- 
demned by  his  predecessor,  but  not  wholly  re- 
moved.   He  .put  all  those  slaves  to  death  who 
had,  during  the  last  reign,  informed  against  their 
masters.    He  permitted  no  statues  to  be  erected 
to  honor  him,  and  converted  into  money  such  of 
Domitian's  as  had  been  spared  by  the  senate. 
He  sold  many  rich  robes,  and  much  of  the  spleur 
did  furniture  of  the  palace,  and  retrenched  seve- 
ral unreasonable  expenses  at .  court.      He  had 
so  little  regard  for  money,  that  when  Herodcs 
Atticus  had  found  a  large  treasure,  and  wrote  to 
him  how  to  dispose  of  it,  he  received  for  answrr 
that  he  might  use  it;  but  the  finder,  still  inform- 
ing the  emperor  that  it  was  a  fortune  too  large  for 
a  private  person,  Nerva,  admiring  his  honesty, 
wrote  him  that  tlien  he  might  abuse  it.      A  hie 
of  such  generosity  and  mildness  was  not,  how- 
ever,  without  enemies.      Calpurnius    Crassos, 
with  some  others,  formed  a  dangerous  conspi- 
racy to  destroy  him ;  but  Nerva  would  use  no 
severity ;  he  rested  satisfied  with  banishing  thos^ 
who  were  culpable,  though  the  senate  were  for 
inflicting  more  rigorous  punishments.    Ttie  most 
dangerous  insurrection  against  his  interests  ^ns 
from  the  prastorian  bands ;  who,  headed  by  Cas- 


Digitized  by 


Googk 


ROME. 


76S 


parius  Olianus,  insisted  upon  reveneing  the  late 
eniperor*s  death.  Nerva,  whose  kindness  to  good 
men  rendered  him  still  more  obnoxious  to  the 
▼icious,  did  all  in  bis  power  to  stop  the  progress 
of  this  insurrection ;  he  presented  himself  to  the 
mutinous  soldiers,  and,  opening  his  bosom,  de- 
sired them  to  strike  there,  rather  than  be  guilty 
of  so  much  injustice.  The  soldiers,  however, 
paid  no  regard  to  his  remonstrances ;  but,  seizing 
upon  Petronius  and  Parthenius,  slew  them  in 
the  most  ignominious  manner;  and  even  com- 
pelled the  emperor  to  approve  of  their  sedition, 
and  to  make  a  speech  to  the  people,  in  which  He 
thanked  the  cohorts  for  their  fidelity.  So  disa^ 
greeable  a  constraint  upon  the  emperor's  inclina- 
tions was,  in  the  end,  attended  with  one  good 
effect,  as  it  caused  the  adoption  of  Trajan. 
Nerva  perceived  that,  in  the  turbulent  disposition 
of  the  times,  he  stood  in  need  of  an  assistant  in 
the  empire,  who  migfit  contribute  to  keep  the  li- 
centious in  awe.  For  this  purpose,  setting  aside 
all  his  own  relations,  he  fixed  upon  Ulpius  Tra- 
jan, an  utter  stranger,  who  was  then  governor  in 
Upper  Germany,  to  succeed  him.  He  then  sent 
on  ambassadors  to  Cologne,  where  Trajan  re- 
sided, intreating  his  assistance  in  punishing  those 
horn  whom  he  had  received  such  an  insult.  The 
adoption  of  this  admirable  man,  proved  so  great 
a  curb  to  the  licentiousness  of  the  soldiery  that 
they  continued  in  perfect  obedience  during  the 
rest  of  this  reign ;  and  Casparius,  being  sent  to 
bim,  was  either  banished  or  put  to  deaS.  The 
adoption  of  Trajan  was  the  last  public  act  of 
Nerva.  In  about  three  months  after,  having  put 
himself  in  a  violent  passion  with  one  Regulus  a 
senator,  he  was  seized  with  a  fever,  of  which  he 
soon  afier  died,  after  a  short  reign  of  one  year 
four  months  and  nine  days.  He  was  tlie  first 
foreign  emperor  who  reigned  in  Rome,  and  was 
justly  reputed  a  prince  of  great  generosity  and 
moderation.  He  is  also  celebrated  for  his  wisdom, 
one  great  instance  of  which  he  gave  in  the  choice 
of  his  successor. 

TiujAN. — ^Trajan's  family  was  originally  from 
Italy,  but  he  himself  was  bom  in  Seville  in  Spain. 
He  very  early  accompanied  his  fiuher,  who  was 
a  general  of  the  Romans,  in  his  expeditions 
along  the  Euphrates  and  the  Rhine ;  and,  while 
yet  very  young,  acquired  considerable  reputation 
for  military  accomplishments.  He  inured  his 
body  to  fatigue ;  he  made  long  marches  on  foot; 
and  labored  to  acquire  all  that  skill  in  war  which 
was  necessary  for  a  commander.  When  he  was 
made  general  of  the  army  in  Lower  Germany, 
which  was  one  of  the  most  considerable  employ- 
ments in  the  empire,  it  made  no  alteration  in 
his  way  of  living ;  and  the  commander  no  way 
differed  ftt>m  the  private  tribune,  except  in  his 
superior  wisdom  and  virtues.  The  great  quali- 
ties of  his  mind  were  accompanied  with  all  .the. 
advantages  of  person.  His  appearance  was  ma- 
iestic;  he  was  at  the  midale  period  of  life, 
being  forty* two  years  old;  and  possessed  a  mo- 
desty that  seemed  peculiar  to  dim.  Upon  tne 
whole,  Trajan  is  distinguished  as  the  greatest 
and  best  emperor  of  Rome.  Others  may  have 
equalled  him  in  war,  and  some  have  been  his 
rivals  in  clemency  and  goodness ;  but  he  seems 
the  only  prince  who  united  these  talents,  and 
Vol.  XVllI. 


who  appears  equally  to  engage  our  admiration 
and  regard.  Upon  being  informed  of  the  death 
of  Nerva,  he  prepared  to  return  to  Rome,  whi- 
ther he  was  invited  by  the  united  entreaties  of 
the  state.  He  began  his  march  with  a  discipline 
that  was  long  unknoivn  in  the  armies  of  the  em- 
pire. The  countries  through  which  he  passed 
were  neither  ravaged  nor  taxed ;  and  he  entered 
the  city,  not  in  a  triumphant  manner,  though  he 
had  deserved  it  often,  but  on  foot,  attended  by 
the  civil  officers  of  the  state,  and  followed  in  si- 
lence by  the  soldiers.  It  is  almost  unnecessary 
to  enter  into  a  detail  of  this  prince's  merits.  His 
application  to  business,  his  moderation  to  his 
enemies,  his  modesty  in  exaltation,  his  liberality 
to  the  deserving,  and  his  frugality  in  his  own  ex- 
penses, have  all  been  the  subject  of  paneg}Tic 
"among  his  contemporaries,  and  the  admiration 
of  succeeding  ages.  Upon  giving  the  prefect  of 
the  praetorian  band  the  sword,  according  to  cus- 
tom, )ie  made  use  of  this  remarkable  expression, 
'  Take  this  sword,  and  use  it,  if  I  have  merit, 
for  me ;  if  otherwise,  against  me/  After  which 
he  added,  <  That  he  who  gave  laws  was  (he  first 
who  was  bound  to  observe  them.'  His  fiuiings 
were  his  love  of  women,  which,  however,  never 
hurried  him  beyond  the  bounds  of  decency;  and 
his  passion  for  war,  to  which  he  bad  been  bred  up 
from  childhood.  The  first  war  he  was  engaged 
in  after  his  coming  to  the  throne  was  wiu  the 
Dacians,  who,  during  the  reign  of  Domitian,  had 
committed  numberless  ravages  upon  the  pro- 
vinces. He  raised  a  powerful  army  and  march- 
ed rapidly  into  those  barbarous  countries,  where 
he  was  vigorously  opposed  by  Decebalus,  the 
Dacian  king,  who  long  withstood  his  boldest  ef- 
forts ;  but  was  at  last  entirely  reduced,  and  his 
kingdom  made  a  Roman  province.  On  his  re- 
turn to  Rome,  he  entered  the  city  in  triumph ; 
and  the  rejoicings  for  his  victories  lasted  120 
days.  Having  thus  given  peace  and  prosperity 
to  the  empire,  Trajan  continued  his  reign,  loved, 
honored,  and  almost  adored  by  his  subjects.  He 
adorned  the  city  with  public  buildings  ;  freed  it 
from  such  men  as  lived  by  their  vices ;  enter- 
tained persons  of  merit  with  the  utmost  familia- 
rity; and  so  little  feared  his  enemies  that  he 
could  scarcely  believe  he  had  any.  It  had  been 
happy  for  this  great  prince's  memory  if  he  had 
shown  equal  clemency  to  all  his  subjects ;  but, 
about  the  ninth  year  of  his  reign,  he  was  per- 
suaded to  look  upon  the  Christians  with  a  suspi- 
cious eye.  The  veneration  which  he  professed 
for  the  Fagan  religion  led  him  to  oppose  every 
innovation,  and  the  progress  of  Christianitv  alarm- 
ed bim.    A  law  had  been  passed  in  whii 


lich  all 

Heterie,  or  societies  dissenting  ftx>ra  the  estab- 
lished religion,  were  considered  as  illegal,  and  as 
nurseries  of  sedition.  Under  this  law,  the  Chris- 
tians were  persecuted  in  all  parts  of  the  empire. 
Great  numoers  of  them  were  put  to  death,  as 
well  by  popular  tumults  as  by  eaicts  and  judicial 
proceedmgs.  At  length  Trajan  receiving  ftx)m 
Pliny,  the  proconsul  in  Bithynia,  his  celebrated 
accounts  ot  the  innocence  and  simplicity  of  the 
Christians,  he  suspended  their  punishments. 
But  a  total  slop  was  put  to  them  upon  Tiberia- 
nus  the  governor  of  Palestine's  sending  him 
word  that  he  was  wearied  out  with  executing 

3  1^ 


Digitized  by 


Google 


764 


ROME. 


the  laws  agMiiat  the  GaKleans,  who  crowded  to 
execution  in  such  multitndea  that  he  was  at  a 
losa  bow  to  -proceed.  Upon  this  information, 
the  emperor  gaveforders  that  the  Christians  should 
not  be  sought  after;  but  if  any  offered  them- 
leWet,  they  should  suffer.  Thue  the  rage  of  per- 
ftectttion  ceased,  and  the  emperor  turned  the 
force  of  his  arms  against  the  Armenians  and 
Parthians,  who  began  to  throw  off  all  submission 
to  Rome.  While  he  was  employed  in  these 
wars,  there  was  a  dreadful  insurrection  of  the 
Jews,  in  aU  paits  of  the  empire.  This  wretched 
people  ever  expecting  some  signal  deliverer, 
took  the  advautage  of  Trajan's  absence  to  mas^ 
sacre  numbers  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans.  This 
began  in  Cyrene,  a  Roman  province  in  Africa ; 
thence  extended  to  Egypt,  and  next  to  the  island 
of  Cyprus.  These  places  they  in  a  manner  dis- 
peopled. Their  barbarities  were  such,  it  is  said, 
that  they  ate  the  flesh  of  their  enemies,  wore 
their  skins,  sawed  them  asunder,  cast  them  to 
wild  beasts,  made  them  kill  each  other,  and 
studied  ne#  torments  to  destroy  them.  But 
these  cruelties  were  soon  reversed :  the  go?emor9 
of  the  respective  provinces,  making  head  against 
their  tumultuous  lary,  treated  them  with  a  retalia* 
tion  of  cruelty,  and  put  them  to  death,  not  as 
human  beings,  but  as  wild  beasts.  As  the  Jews 
had  practised  their  cruelties  in  Cyprus  particu* 
larly,  a  law  was  enacted,  by  which  it  was  made 
criminal  for  any  Jew  to  set  foot  on  the  island. 
During  these  bloody  transactions,  Trajan  was 
prosecuting  his  successes  in  the  east.  His  first 
march  was  itito  Armenia,  the  king  of  which 
country  had  disclaimed  all  alliance  with  Rome, 
ami  received  the  ensigns  of  royalty  and  dominion 
from  the  monarch  of  Parthia.  However,  upon 
the  news  of  Tnnan's  expedition,  he  abandoned 
hi»  country  to  the  invaoers;  while  most  of  his 
governors  and  nobility  came  submissively  to  the 
emperor,  acknowledging  themselves  his  subjects 
ana  making  hhn  the  most  costly  presents.  Having 
thus  taken  possession  of  the  country,  and.  gotten 
the  king  into  his  power,  he  marched  into  Parthia; 
and,  first  entering  the  opulent  province  of  Meso* 
p6tamia,  reduced  it  to  a  Roman  province. 
Thence  he  went  against  the  Parthians,  marching 
on  foot  at  the  head  of  his  army ;  crossing  the  ri- 
vers, and  conforming  to  all  the  severities  of  dis- 
cipline imposed  on  the  meanest  soldier.  He  now 
conquered  Syria,  Chaldea,  and  the  femous  city 
of  Babylon.  Here,  attempting  to  cross  the  Eu- 
phrates, he  was  opposed  by  the  enemy,  who 
were  resolved  to  stop  his  passage :  but  he  se* 
cretly  caused  boats  to  be  maae  upon  the  adjoining 
mountains ;  and,  bringing  them  to  the  water  side, 
passed  his  army  with  great  expedition,  but  not 
without  great  slaugliter  on  botn  sides.  Thence 
he  traversed  tracts  of  counti^  which  had  never 
before  been  invaded  by  a  Roman  army,  and  pur- 
sued the  march  of  Alexander  the  Great  in  this 
direction.  Having  passed  the  Tigris,  he  ad- 
vanced to  the  city  Ctesiphon,  which  he  took, 
and  opened  a  passage  into  Persia.  After  sub- 
duing all  the  country  on  the  Tigris,  he  marched 
•outh  to  the  Persian  Gulf,  where  he  subdued  a 
monarch  possessed  of  a  considerable  island  made 
by  the  divided  streams  of  that  river.  Here,  win- 
ter coming  on,  he  was  in  danger  of  losing  the 


greatest  part  of  his  army.  He  therefor^  vitlk 
indefotigable  pains,  fitted  oat  a  fleety.and^  sailiDg 
down  tSbe  gulph,  entered  the  Indian  Ocean, 
conquering,  even  to  the  Indies,  and  subdiUDg  a 
part  of  them  to  the  Roman  empire.  Piesented 
nora  pursuing  further  conquests  by  the  revolt  of 
many  of  the  provinces  he  had  already  sabdoed, 
and  by  the  scarcity  of  provisions,  increasing  age 
also  contributing  to  damp  the  azdor  of  hia  enter- 
prize,  he  now  returned  along  the-  Peraan  GalC» 
and  sending  the  senate  an  accoant  of  the  nations 
be  had  conquered,  the  aamea  of  which .  alooe 
composed  a    long  catalogue,  he   prepared  to 

fmnish  those  which  had  revolted.  He  began  by 
aying  the  fomous  city  of  Edessa,  in  Mesopota- 
mia, in  ashes ;  and  soon  not  only  retook  aoch 
places  as  had  thrown  off  the  Roman  yeke»  but 
made  himself  master  of  the  most  fertile  kingdoms 
of  all  Asia.  In  this  train  of  successes  he  scaicelj 
met  with  a  repulse,  eicept. before  the  city  Atra, 
in  the  deseru  of  Arabia.  He  finally  resolved 
to  give  a  master  to  the  countries  he  had  snbdoed. 
With  this  resolution  he  once  more  repaired  to 
Ctesiphon,  in  Persia;  and  there,  with  great  cere- 
mony, crowned  Parthanaspates  king  ci  Parthia, 
to  the  great  joy  of  all  bis  subjects.  Ue  estab- 
lished another  king  also  over  Albania,  near  the 
Caspian.  Then,  placing  governors  and  bea- 
tenants  in  other  provinces,  he  reeolved  to  letnm 
to  Rome  in  a  more  magnificent  manner  than  any 
of  his  predecessors.  He  accordingly  left  Adrian 
general  in  the  east ;  and  continual  bis  journey 
towards  the  capital,  where  the  most  nagatficect 
preparations  were  made  for  his  arrival.  He  bad 
not  got,  however,  iarther  than  the  province  of 
Cilicia,  when  he  found  himself  too  weak  to  pro- 
ceed. He  therefore  caused  himself  to  be  caiiied 
on  ship-board  to  the  dty  of  Seleocia,  where  he 
died  of  apoplexy.  During  bis  indisposition,  his 
wife  Plqtina  constantly  attended  him,  and,  know- 
ing his  dislike  to  Adrian,  Ibiged  the  will  by 
which  he  succeeded.  Trajan  died  in  the  sixty- 
third  year  of  his  age,  after  a  reign  of  nineteen 
yean,  six  months,  and  fifteen  days.  How  high- 
ly he  was  esteemed  by  his  subjects  appears  by 
their  manner  of  blessing  his.  successors,  wishing 
them  the  fortune  of  Augustus  and  the  goodness 
of  Trajan.  His  military  virtues,  however,  pro- 
duced no  real  advantages  to  his  country;  and 
all  his  conquests  disappeared,  when  the  powei 
was  withdrawn  thai  enferced  thc^n. 

Adrian.— Adrian  was  by  descent  a  Spaniard, 
and  his  ancestors  were  of  the  same  city  wbeie 
Trajan  was  bom.  He  was  nephew  to  Tiajan, 
and  married  to  Sabina  his  grand-niece.  When 
Trajan  was  adopted  by  Nerva,  Adrian  wase  tri- 
bune of  the  army  in  Moesia,  and  was  sent  by  the 
troops  to  congratulate  the  emperor  on  Ins  ad- 
vancement. His  brother-in-law,  who  desired  to 
congratulate  Trajan  bim»ril^  supplied  Adrian 
with  a  carriage  that  broke  down  on  the  way :  bat 
Adrian  was  resolved  to  lose  no  time,  and  per- 
formed the  rest  of  the  journey  on  foot.  This 
assiduity  was  very  pleasing  to  the  emperor;  bet 
be  disliked  Adrian  for  other  reasons.  He  was 
expensive,  involved  in  debt,  inconstant,  capri- 
cious and  envious.  These  faults,  in  Trajan'ls 
opinion,  could  not  be  compensated  eitiier  by  his 
learning  or  his  talents.    His  great  skill  in  ibe 


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Greek  and  Latin  languages,  his  intimate  acquaint- 
ance widi  the  \sLy9S  of  his  countiy  and  the  philo- 
sophy of  the  times,  were  no  inducements  to 
Trajan:  Who,  being  bred  a  soldier,  wished  a 
military  man  to  succeed  him,  and  therefore  would 
not  appoint  a  successor.  His  death,  theriefore, 
was  concealed  for  some  time  by  Plotina  his 
widow,  till  Adrian  bad  sounded  the  inclinations 
of  the  army,  and  found  them  firm  in  his  interests. 
They  then  produced  a  foreed  instrument,  im- 
porting that  Adrian  was  adopted  to  succeed  in 
the  empire.  By  this  artifice  he  was  elected  by 
all  orders  of  the  state,  though  then  general  at 
Antioch.  Adrian's  first  care  was  to  write  to  the 
senate,  excusing  himself  for  assuming  the  empire 
without  their  prerious  approbation ;  imputing  it 
to  the  hasty  zeal  of  the  army.  He  then  began  to 
pursue  a  course  quite  opposite  to  that  of  Trajan, 
declining  war,  and  promoting  the  arts  of  peace. 
He  was  satisfied  witti  presenringtbe  limits  of  the 
empire,  and  no  way  ambitious  of  extensive  con- 
quest He  therefore  abandoned  all  the  conquests 
which  Trajan  had  made,  judging  them  to  be  of  no 
adraotage  to  the  empne;  and  made  the  Eu- 
phrates its  boundary,  placing  the  legions  along 
Its  banks  to  prevent  the  incursions  of  the  enemy. 
Having  thus  settled  the  affair^  of  the  east,  and 
leaving  Severus  govenior  of  Syria,  he  took  his 
^umey  by  land  to  Rome,  senqing  the  ashes  of 
Trajan  thither  by  sea.  •  Upon  ^is  approach  to 
the  city,  he  was  informed  of  a  magiiificeut  triumph 
that  was  preparing  for  him ;  but  (his  he  modest- 
ly declined,  desiring  that  these  hdpors  might  be 
paid  to  Trajan's  memory.  In  consequence  a 
most  superb  triumph  was  decreed,  in  which 
Trajan's  statue  was  carried  as  a  principal  figure 
in  the  proecsakm^  who  is  thus  said  to  have  been 
the  only  man  tilat  ever  triumphed  after  he  v?as 
dead  I  His  ashes  were  placed  in  a  golden  uril, 
upon  the  top  of  a  column  140  feet'  high.  On 
this  were  engraven  the  particulars  of  aU  his  ex- 
ploits in  basso-relievo,  a  work  of  iihmenae  labor, 
still  remaining.  These  testimonies  of  respect  to 
the  memory  of  his  predecessor  did  great  honor  to 
the  heart  of  Adrian.  His  virtues,  noweveri^were 
contrasted  by  a  strange  mixture  of  vices.  He 
wanted  strength  of  mind  to  preserve  his  general 
rectitude  of  character.  As  an  emperor,  however, 
his  conduct  was  most  admirable,  as  all  his  pub- 
lic transactions  appear  dictated  by  the  soundest 
policy,  and  the  most  disinterested  wisdom.    See 

ADtllAV. 

AkTONIKUS  PltJS  AND  Antonikus  Philoso- 
PHOs. — ^Adrian  was  succeeded  by  Maixius  Antoni- 
nus, afterwards  sumamed  the  Pious,  whom  he  had 
adopted  some  time  before  his  death.  See  Amto- 
NIIH7S  Prus.  From  the  beginning  of  his  reign 
we  may  date  the  decline  of  the  Roman  empire. 
From  the  time  of  Csesar  to  that  of  Trajan  scarcely 
an^  of  the  emperors  had  either  abilities  or  incli- 
nation to  extend  the  limits  of  the  empire,  or 
even  to  defend  it  against  the  barbarous  nations 
who  surrounded  it.  During  all  this  space  only 
some  inconsiderable  provinces  of  the  north  of 
Italy,  and  part  of  the  island  of  Britain,  had  been 
subjugated.  However,  as  yet,  nothing  was  lost ; 
but  the  degeneracy  and  corruption  of  the  people 
had  sown  those  seeds  of  dissolution  which  the 
empire  quickly  began  to  feel.     The  disorders 


R    O    M    fe  765 

were  grown  to  such  a  height  that  even  Trajan 
himself  could  not  cure  them.  Indeed  his  eastern 
conquests  could  scarcely  have  been  preserved 
though  the  republic  had  been  existing  in  all  its 
glory.  Dacia,  being  nearer  to  the  centre  of 
government,  was  more  easily  preserved  ;  and 
remained  long  subject  to  Rome.  During  the 
twenty-three  years  of  the  reign  of  Antoninus  few 
remarkable  events  happened.  Historians  are 
excessive  in  their  praises  of  his  justice,  generosity, 
and  other  virtues,  both  public  and  private.  He 
put  a  stop  to  the  persecution  of  the  Christians, 
and  reduced  the  Brigantes,  a  tribe  of  Britons, 
who  had  revolted.  However,  during  his  reign, 
several  calamities  befel  the  empire.  The  Tiber, 
overflowing  its  banks,  laid  the  lower  part  of 
Rome  under  water.  The  inundation  was  followed 
by  a  fire,  and  this  by  a  famine,  which  swept  off 
great  numbers,  though  the  emperor  took  the  ut- 
most care  to  supply  the  city  from  the  most  dis- 
tant provinces.  At  the  same  time  the  cities  of 
Narbonne  in  Gaul,  and  Antioch  in  Syria,  with 
the  great  square  in  Carthage,  were  destroyed  by 
fire ;  however  tlie  emperor  soon  restored  them. 
He  died  in  the  year  163,  raudi  lamented  by  his 
subjects,  and  was  succeeded  by  Marcus  Aure- 
lius,  sumamed  the  Philosopher,  whom  he  had 
adopted  towards  the  latter  end  of  his  reign.  For 
the  transactions  of  this  emperor  see  Antoninus 
PHiLosok>HUS.  Nerva,  Trajan,  Adrian,  and  the 
Antonines,  are  stiled  by  historians  the  five  good' 
emperors. 

CoMMODos.— After  the  death  of  Marcus  Au- 
relius  hissonCommodiis  succeeded  to  the  imperial 
throne  without  opposition.  He  was  in  every  re- 
spect unworthy  ot  his  father,  and  was  generally  be- 
lieved to  have  been  the  son,  not  of  Marcus  Aure- 
lius,  but  of  a  celebrated  gladiator,  with  whom 
the  empress  Faustina  was  said  to  be  intimate. 
Accordmg  to  Mr.  Gibbon,  however,  *  Commodus 
was  not,  as  has  been  represented,  a  tiger  bom 
with  an  insatiate  thirst  of  human  blood,  and  ca- 
pable, from  his  infancy,  of  the  most  inhuman 
actions.  Nature  had  formed  him  of  a  weak, 
rather  than  a  wicked  disposition.  His  simplicity 
and  timidity  rendered  him  the  slave  of  his  at- 
tendants, who  gradually  corrupted  his  mind.  His 
cruelty  which  at  first  obeyed  the  dictates  of 
others  degenerated  into  habit,  and  at  length  be- 
came the  ruling  passion  of  his  soul.'  But  it  is 
certain  that  the  actions  of  this  emperor  were 
flagitious  almost  beyond  a  parallel.  Many 
strange  instances  of  his  cruelty  are  related  by 
the  ancients.  He  is  said*  to  have  cut  asunder  a 
corpulent  man  whom  he  saw  walking  along  the 
street ;  partly  to  try  his  own  strength,  in  which 
he  excelled  ;  and  partly  out  of  curiosity,  to  see 
his  entrails  drop  out  at  once.  He  took  pleasure 
in  cutting  off  one  of  the  feet,  and  putting  out 
one  of  the  eyes,  of  such  as  he  met  in  nis  rambles 
through  the  city;  telling  the  former,  after  he  had 
thus  maimed  them,  that  now  they  belonged  to  the 
nation  Monopodii  one-footed ;  and  the  latter, 
that  they  were  now  become  Luscinii,  one-eyed. 
Some  he  murdered  because  they  were  negligently 
dressed  ;  others  because  they  seemed  to  be 
trimmed  with  too  much  nicety.  He  pretended  . 
to  great  skill  in  surgery,  especially  at  letting 
blood :  but  sometimes,  instead  of  curing  those^ 

3C  2 

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ROME. 


whom  he  visited i  or  who  were  prevailed  upon 
to  recur  to  him,  he  cut  off,  by  way  of  diversion, 
their  ears  and  noses.  His  lewdness  and  de- 
baucheries were  equally  remarkable.  He  is  said 
to  have  been  exceedmgly  well  skilled  in  archery, 
and  to  have  performed  incredible  feats  in  that 
art ;  to  have  run  an  elephant  through  with  his 
spear,  and  to  have  killed  in  the  amphitheatre 
100  lions,  one  after  another,  each  at  one  blow. 
He  entered  the  lists  with  the  common  gladiators, 
and  came  off  conqueror  735  times  ;  whence  he 
subscribed  himself  the  conqueror  of  1000  glad- 
diators.  The  public  transactions  of  this  reign 
were  few.  This  emperor  concluded  a  peace  with  , 
the  Marcomanni,  Quadi,  &c.,  and  promised  to 
abandon  all  the  castles  and  fortresses  held  by  the 
Romans  in  their  country,  excepting  such  as  were 
within  five  miles  of  the  Danube.  With  the  other 
German  nations  whom  his  father  had  reduced, 
he  concluded  a  very  dishonorable  peace ;  nay, 

,  of  some  he  purchased  it  with  money.  Soon  after 
his  return  to  Rome  his  sister  Lucilla,  perceiving 
that  he  was  universally  abhorred  for  ms  cruelty, 
formed  a  conspiracy  against  his  life.  Among  the 
conspirators  wece  many  senators.  It  was  agreed 
that  they  should  fall  upon  the  emperor  while  he 
was  going  to  the  amphitheatre  through  a  narrow 
and  dark  passage.;  and  that  Claudius  Pompei- 
anus,  to  whom  Lucilla  had  betrothed  her  daugh- 
ter, should  give  the  first  blow.  But  he,  instead 
of  striking  at' once,  showed  him  the  naked  dagger, 
and  cried  out,  *  This  present  the  senate  sends 
you :'  so  that  the  guards  had  time  to  rescue  the 
emperor,  and  to  seize  the  conspirators,  who  were 
put  to  death.  Commodus  now  banished  his 
sister  to  the  island  of  Caprea,  where  he  soon 
after  caused  her  to  be  murdered.  His  favorite 
minister  was  one  Perennis ;  who  in  cruelty  seems 
to  have  been  nothing  inferior  to  those  of  the 
most  tyrannical  emperors.  During  the  first  part 
of  the  reign  of  Commodus  he  ruled  with  an  ab- 
solute sway ;  but  at  last  was  torn  in  pieces  by 
the  enraged  soldiery.  He  was  succeeded  by  a 
freed  man  named  Oleander ;  and  the  new  minis- 
ter abused  his  power  more  flagrantly  than  even 
his  predecessor.  All  things  were  openly  set  to 
sale :  offices,  provinces,  public  revenues,  justice, 
and  the  lives  of  men  both  innocent  and  guilty. 
The  minister,  who  ruled  the  emperor  without 
control,  infused  such  terrors  into  his  mind  that 
he  changed  the  captains  of  his  guards  almost 
continually.  One  Niger  enjoyed  the  dignity  only 
six  hours ;  another  only  five  days ;  and  others  a 
still  shorter  space.  Most  of  those  officers  lost 
their  lives  witn  (heir  employments;  being  ac- 
cused of  treason  by  Oleander,  who  continually 
solicited,  and  at  last  obtained,  that  important  post. 
A.  D.  187  happened  a  remarkable  revolt.  One 
Maternus,  a  common  soldier,  having  fled  from 
his  colors,  and,  being  joined  by  many  other  de- 
serters, grew  in  a  short  time  so  powerful  that  he 
over-ran  and  plundered  great  part  of  Gaul  and 
Spain  ;  stormed  the  strongest  cities  ;  and  struck 
the  emperor  and  people  of  Rome  with  such  terror 
that  troops  were  raised,  and  armies  despatched 
against  them.  Pescennius  Niger  was  sent  against 
him  in  Gaul,  where  he  became  very  intimate  with 

*  Severus,  then  governor  of  Lyons,  who  wrote  a 
letter  to  the  emperor,  commending  the  prudent 


and  gallant  behaviour  of  Niger  in  paisuiog  the 
rebels.  Maternus,  being  reduced  to  great  stiaxts, 
divided  his  men  into  several  small  bands,  aaa 
marched  them  by  different  roads  into  Italy,  with 
intent  to  murder  the  emperor  during  the  Ls'ii^l 
of  Oybele,  and  to  seize  upon  the  empire.  T.iey 
all  arrived  at  Rome  undiscovered  ;  and  sevenl 
of  his  men  had  already  mixed  with  the  emperor's 
guards,  when  others  of  his  own  party  betrayed 
him.  He  was  immediately  seized  and  executed  ; 
and  his  death  put  an  end  to  the  distttrbaoces 
which  some  of  his  followers  had  begun  to  raise 
in  other  provinces.  In  the  same  year  broke  out 
the  most  dreadful  plague,  says  Dio  Cassius,  th  t 
had  been  known.  It  lasted  two  or  three  years  - 
and  raged  with  the  greatest  violence  at  Kome» 
where  it  often  carried  off  2000  persons  a  daj. 
The  following  year  a  dreadful  fire,  which  con- 
sumed a  great  part  of  the  city,  was  kindled  by 
lightning ;  and  a  dreadful  famine  followed,  oc- 
casioned, it  is  said,  by  Oleander,  who,  having  in 
view  nothing  less  than  the  sovereignty  iteetf, 
bought  up  underhand  all  the  corn,  to  raise  the 
price  of  it,  and  gain  the  affections  of  the  soldiers 
and  people  by  distributing  it  among  them. 
Others  say  that  Papirius  Dionysius,  whose  duty 
it  was  to  supply  the  city  with  provisions,  con- 
tributed towards  the  fomine,  to  make  the  peopl  > 
rise  against  Oleander.  The  populace  ascribed 
all  their  calamities  to  this  hated  minister;  and 
one  day,  while  they  were  celebrating  the  Oircen- 
sian  games,  a  troop  of  children,  having  at  their 
head  a  young  woman  of  an  extraordinary  stature 
and  fierce  aspect,  entering  the  circus,  began  to 
utter  many  bitter  invectives  and  dreadful  curses 
against  Oleander ;  which  being  answered  by  the 
people  in  the  same  ?tyle,  the  mob  rose,  and  flew 
to  the  place  where  Oleander  resided  with  the 
emperor,  demanding  his  head.  Hereupon  Ole- 
ander ordered  the  pretorian  cavalry  to  charge 
the  multitude  ;  which  they  did,  driving  them 
with  great  slaughter  into  the  city.  But  the 
populace,  discharging  showera  of  stones,  bricks^ 
&c.,  from  the  tops  of  houses  and  windows,  and 
the  city  guards  at  the  same  time  taking  part  with 
the  people,  the  prsetorian  horse  were  put  to 
flight ;  nor  was  the  slaughter  ended  till  the  em- 
peror caused  the  head  of  Oleander  to  be  srruck 
off  and  thrown  out  to  the  enraged  populace. 
The  emperor  himself  did  not  long  survive  Ole- 
ander ;  being  cut  off  by  a  conspiracy  of  Marcia 
hu  favorite  concubine,  Lselus  captain  of  the 
guards,  and  Eclectus  his  chamberiain. 

Helvius  PfiRTiNAX. — No  sooucf  was  the  de^ 
of  Commodus  known  than  the  senate  assembled, 
and,  declaring  him  a  public  enemy,  ordered  bis 
statues  to  be  broken  to  pieces,  his  name  to  be 
rased  out  of  all  public  inscriptions,  and  his  bodj 
to  be  dragged  through  the  streets  and  thrown  into 
the  Tiber.  But  Helvius  Pertinax,  whom  the 
conspirators  had  previously  designed  for  the 
empire,  and  who  had  already  assumed  it,  pre- 
vented this  last  outrage  by  telling  the  senatfiis 
that  Commodus  was  already  buri^.  This  ex- 
traordinary personage  had  already  passed  through 
many  changes  of  fortune.  He  was  the  son  of 
an  enfranchised  slave  called  iElius,  who  gave 
him  as  much  learning  as  to  qualify  him  for  a 
shopkeeper.    He  then  became  a  schoolmaster, 


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757 


afterwards  studied  the  law,  aod  then  became  a 
soldier;  in  which  station  his  behavioar  raised 
him  to  be  captain  of  a  cohort  against  the  Par- 
thians.    After  this  he  went  through  the  usual 
gradation  of  military  preferment  in  Britain  and 
Mcesia,  until  he  became  the  commander  of  a 
legion  under  Aurelius.     in  this  station  he  per- 
formed such  services  against  the  barbarians  that 
he  was  made  consul,  and  successively  governor 
of  Dacia,  Syria,  and  Asia  Minor.    In  the  reign 
of  Commodus  he  was  banished  ;  but  soon  after 
recalled,  and   sent  into  Britain  to  reform  the 
abuses  in  the  army.     Iii  this  employment  he 
^▼as  opposed  by  a  sedition  among  the  legions, 
and  left  for  dead  among  many  that  were  slaio. 
However    he    got  over  this  danger,'  severely 
punished  the  mutineers,  and  established  disci- 
pline among  the  troops  he  was  sent  to  command. 
Thence  he  was  removed  into  Africa,  where  the 
sedition  of  the  soldiers  had  like  to  have  been 
again  fatal  to  him.     Removing  from  Africa,  and 
fatigued  with  an  active  life,  he  betook  himself 
to  retirement :  but  Commodus  made  him  prefect 
of  the  city ;  which  office  he  possessed  when  the 
conspirators  fixed   upon  him  to   be  emperor. 
His  being  advanced  oy  Commodus  only  made 
him  dread  becoming  an  object  of  his  suspicion. 
When,  therefore,  the  conspirators  repaired  to  his 
house  by  night  he  considered  them  as  messen- 
gers of  death;   and,  upon  Lstus  entering  his 
apartment,  Pertinax  said  that  he  had  long  ex- 
pected to  end  his  life  in  that  manner,  and  won- 
dered that  the  emperor  had  deferred  it  so  long : 
and  it  was  not  until  he  was  urged  that  he  would 
accept. of  the  empire.     Being  carried   to  the 
camp  he  was  immediately  proclaimed  :    soon 
after  the  citizens  and  senate  consented ;  the  joy 
for  the  election  of  a  new  sovereign  not  bemg 
superior  to  that  for  the  death  of  the  old.    The 
provinces  followed  the  example  of  Rome;  so 
that  he  began  his  reign  with  universal  satisfaction 
in   the  sixty-eii|$hth  year  of  his  age.     Nothing 
could  exceed  the  general  wisdom  and  justice  of 
this  monarch's  reign.    He  punished  a\l  those 
who  had  served  to  corrupt  the  late  epoperor,  and 
disposed  of  his  private  possessions  to  public 
uses.     He  attempted  to  restrain  the  licentious- 
ness of  the  praetorian  bands,  and  put  a  stop  to 
the  injuries    and    insolences    they   committed 
against  the  people;  sold  most  of  the  buffoons 
and  jesters  of  Commodus's  slaves;  frequented 
the  senate  as  often  as  it  sat ;  and  never  refused 
an  audience  even  to  the  meanest  of  the  people. 
His  success  in  foreign  affairs  was  equal  to  his 
internal  policy.    When  the  barbarous  nations 
abroad  had  certain  intelligence  tliat  he  was  em- 
peror they  immediately  laid  down  their  arms, 
well  knowing  what  they  were  to  expect  from  so 
experienced  a  commander.     His  great  fault  was 
avarice ;  and  that  hastened  his  ruin.     The  pne- 
torian  guards,  whose  manners  he  had  attempted 
to  reform,  having  been  long  corrupted  by  the 
profusion  of  their  former  monarcfas,  began  to 
hate  him  for  his  parsimony.    Tliey  therefore  re- 
eved to  dethrone  him;  and  for  that  purpose 
declared  Matemus,  an  ancient  senator,  emperor. 
Matemus,  however,  was  too  just  to  the  merits  of 
Pertinax  to  concur  in  their  designs,  and  fled  out 
of  the  city.     They  then  nominated  Falco,  ano- 


ther senator ;  whom  the  senate  itself  would  have 
ordered  for  execution  had  not  Pertinax  tnter^ 
posed.  The  praetorians  then  resolved  to  seize 
upon  the  emperor  and  empire  at  once.  They 
accordingly,  in  a  tumultuous  manner,  marched 
through  the  streets  of  Rome,  and  entered  the 
palace  without  opposition.  The  greatest  part  of 
the  emperor's  attendflfits  forsook  him  ;  whilst 
those  who  remained  earnestly  entreated  him  to 
fly  to  the  body  of  the  people.  However  he  re- 
jected their  advice ;  declaring  that  it  was  unwor- 
thy of  hb  imperial  dignity,  and  all  his  past 
actions,  to  save  himself  by  flight.  Having  thus 
resolved  to  face  the  rebels,  he  had  some  hopes 
that  his  presence  would  awe  them.  But  nis 
virtues  and  digqity  availed  little  against  a  tumul- 
tuous rabble,  nursed  up  in  vice,  and  the  minis- 
ters of  former  tyranny.  Not  only  the  emperor, 
but  Eclectus,  and  some  of  his  attendants,  who 
attempted  to  defend  him,  were  slain.  Thus, 
after  an  excellent  reign  of  three  months,  Pertinax 
fell  a  sacrifice  to  the  licentious  fury  of  the  army : 
from  his  adventures  he  was  called  the '  tennis- 
ball  of  Fortune.'  The  soldiers,  having  committed 
this  outrage,  retired  wilh  great  precipitation; 
and,  getting  out  of  the  city,  quickly  fortified 
their  camp,  expecting  to  be  attacked  by  the  citi- 
zens. Two  days  having  passed  without  any  at- 
tempt of  this  kind,  they  became  more  insolent; 
and,  to  make  use  of  the  power  they  possessed, 
made  proclamation  that  they  would  sell  the  em- 
pire to  any  who  would  purchase  it  at  the  highest 
price.  In  consequence  of  this  infamous  procla- 
mation only  two  Didders  were  found,  viz.  Solpi- 
cianus  and  Didius  Julianus;  the  former  pnsfect 
of  the  city,  and  son-in-law  to  Pertinax ;  the  latter 
a  great  lawyer,  and  the  wealthiest  man  in  the 
city ;  both  consular  persons.  Didius  was  sitting 
with  some  friends  at  dinner  when  the  proclama- 
tion was  published ;  and,  being  charmed  with  the 
prospect  of  unbounded  power,  immediately  rose 
from  the  table  and  hastened  to  the  camp.  Sulpi- 
cianus  was  there  before  him ;  but,  as  he  nad  more 
promises  than  treasure  to  bestow,  the  offers  of 
Didius,  who  produced  immense  sums  of  ready 
money,  prevailed. 

JuLiAX  !• — Didius  Julianus  was  received  into 
the  camp  by  a  ladder,  and  they  instantly  swore 
to  obey  him  as  emperor.  From  the  camp  he 
was  attended  by  his  electors  into  the  city ;  the 
whole  body  of  his  guards,  which  consisted  of 
10,000  men,  ranged  around  him  in  such  order  as 
if  they  had  preparea  for  battle.  The  citizens, 
however,  refused  to  confirm  his  election;  and 
cursed  him  as  he  passed.  Upon  beinff  con- 
ducted to  the  senate  house,  he  aadressed  me  few 
senators  that  were  present  in  a  very  laconic 
speech :  '  Fathers,  you  want  an  emperor ;  and  I 
am  the  fittest  person  you  can  choose.'  Even 
this  was  unnecessary,  as  the  senate  durst  not  re- 
fuse their  approbation.  His  speech  being  backed 
by  the  army,  to  whom  he  had  given  about  a 
million  of  our  money,  succeeded.  The  choice 
of  the  soldiers  was  confirmed  by  the  senate,  and 
Didius  was  acknowledged  emperor,  in  the  fifty- 
seventh  year  of  his  age.  It  should  seem  by  tlus 
weak  monarch's  conduct,  when  seated  on  the 
throne,  that  he  thought  the  government  of  an  em- 
pire rather  a  pleasure  than  a  toil.     He  gave  him- 


Digitized  by  N^UUV?lC 


758 


ROME. 


self  up  to  ease  tmd  inactivity,  utterly  repirdless 
of  the  duties  of  his  station.  He  was  mild  and 
gentle  Indeed;  but  that  avaricey^  by  which  he 
became  opulent,  still  followed  him  in  his  exalt- 
ation ;  so  that  the  very  8<^dters  who  elected  him 
began  to  detest  him.  The  people  abo,  against 
whose  consent  he  was  chosen,  were  no  less  ini- 
mical. Whenever  he  issued  from  his  palace 
they  poured  forth  their  imprecations  against  him ; 
crying  out  that  he  was  a  thief  and  had  stolen 
the  empire.  Didius,  however,  patiently  bore  it 
all.  While  Julian  was  thus  contemptuously 
treated  at  home,  two  valiant  generals  in  different 
parts  of  the  empire  disclaimed  his  authority,  and 
resolved  to  seize  the  throne.  These  were,  Pes- 
cennius  Niger,  governor  of  Syria;  and  Septi- 
raius  Sev^rus,  commander  of  the  German  legion. 
Niger  was  beloved  by  the  people  for  his  cle- 
mency and  valor;  and  his  proposing  Pertinax 
for  his  model,  and  resolving  to  revenge  his  death, 
gained  him  universal  esteem.  He  easily  induced 
his  army  in  Syria  to  proclaim  him  emperor; 
and  his  title  was  soon  after  acknowledged  by  all 
the  kings  and  potentates  in  Asia,  who  sent  their 
ambassadors  to  him.  The  pleasure  of  being 
thus  treated  as  a  monarch,  retarded  his  endea- 
vours to  secure  his  title.  Satisfieci  with  the 
homage  of  those  about  him,  he  neglected  the 
opportunity  of  suppressing  his  rivals ;  and  gave 
himself  up  to  luxury  and  feasting  at  Antioch. 
The  concluct  of  Severus,  an  African  by  birth, 
was  very  different.*  Being  proclaimed  by  bis 
army,  he  began  by  promising  to  revenge  the 
deaUi  of  Pertinax,  ana  took  upon  him  his  name. 
He  next  secured  all  the  strong  places  in  his  pro- 
vince; and  then  resolved  to  march  with  his  wnole 
force  directly  to  Rome.  In  the  mean  time 
Didius  JuUanus,  who  disregarded  the  attempts 
of  Niger,  was  greatly  alarmed  at  those  of  Seve- 
rus. He  first  procured  the  senate  to  proclaim 
him  a  traitor.  He  then  attempted  to  make  the 
necessary  provisions  to  oppose  him,  but  found 
nothing  but  disappointment.  The  cohorts  that 
elected  him  were  enervated  by  vice  and  luxury  ; 
the  people  detested  his  cause  ^  and  the  cities  of 
Italy  had  long  been  disused  to  the  arts  of  war. 
The  unfortunate  Didius,  unequal  to  the  task  of 
empire,  and  confounded  with  the  multiplicity  of 
councils,  could  take  no  other  resolution  out  that 
of  awaiting  his  rival's  coming  to  Rome.  Ac- 
cordingly, soon  after  being  informed  of  his  ap- 
proach, he  obtained  the  consent  of  the  senate  to 
send  his  ambassadors,  offering  to  make  him  a 
partner  of  the  empire.  But  Severus  rejected 
this  offer,  conscious  of  his  own  strength,  and  of 
the  weakness  of  the  proposer.  The  saiate  soon 
appeared  of  the  same  sentiments ;  alleging  that 
he  who  could  not  defend  the  empire  was  not 
worthy  to  govern  it.  Didius  vainly  endeavoured 
to  reduce  them  to  their  duty,  first  by  entreaties, 
and  then  by  threats ;  but  these  served  only  to 
hasten  his  destruction.  The  senate  being  called 
together,  as  was  formerly  practised  by  the  con- 
suls, they  unanimously  decreed  that  Severus 
should  be  proclaimed.  They  then  commanded 
Didius  to  be  slain^  and  sent  assassins  to  the  pa- 
lace, where  they  found  him  disarmed,  and  weep- 
ing among  a  few  friends  that  still  adhered  to  his 
interest.    When  they  began  to  prepare  for  tlieir 


fatal  einiid  he  expostulated  with  theoi,  denand- 
ing  what  crime  he  had  committed  ?  The  execo- 
tioners,  neither  able  nor  willing  to  enter  iMo  #ie 
merits  of  the  cause,  led  him  into  the  secret  baths 
of  the  palace,  and,  obliging  him  to  streteh  his 
neck  forwards,  struck  off  his  head,  and  pbecd 
it  up  in  those  courts  where  he  had  farmeriy 
pleaded  with  great  success. 

SevERus. — ^The  senate  then  sent  ambassadois 
to  Severus,  yielding  him  obedience,  granting  him 
the  ensigns  and  the  us^al  titles  of  eaapiie,  and 
informing  him  of  the  death  of  Didius.  Sevens, 
who  was  now  about  forty-seven  years  of  age,  re- 
ceived them  with  all  proper  respect ;  and^eotv- 
taining  them  hononmly,  continued  his  uafch 
towards  Rome.  As  he  came  near  the  city,  his 
first  exertion  of  power  was  to  have  all  the  pis- 
torian  soldiers  who  had  sold  the  empire  cooie 
fortli  (inarmed  to  meet  him.  These,  thoogh  sen- 
sible of  their  danger,  had  no  other  resource  but 
compliance ;  and  accordingly  came  forWasd  with 
branches  of  laurel  to  welcome  his  appioadi. 
Severus  soon  showed  how  little  capable  their 
submission  was  to  atone  for  their  past  ofieeces : 
after  upbraiding  them  with  their  cnmes,  he  com- 
manded them  to  be  stripped  of  their  mUitaiy 
habits,  deprived  of  the  nonor  of  soldiers,  and 
banished  100  miles  from  Rome.  He  thai  en- 
tered the  city  in  a  military  manner,  took  pos- 
session of  the  palace,  and  promised  the  senate 
to  conduct  himself  with  clemency  and  justice. 
But,  though  he  united  great  vigor  with  the  most 
refined  policy,  his  African  cunning  vras  not  re- 
lished. He  is  celebrated  for  wit,  learning,  and 
prudence;  but  blamed  for  infidelity  and  cruelty. 
He  seemcMl  equally  disposed  to  the  gzeatest  ads 
of  virtue,  and  the  most  bloody  severities.  He 
seized  all  the  children  of  such  as  had  employ- 
ment or  authority  in  the  east,  and  detained  than 
as  pledffes  for  their  fathers'  loyalty.  He  next 
supplied  the  city  with  com ;  and  then  with  all 
possible  expedition  marched  against  Niger,  who 
was  still  considered  as  emperor  of  the  east.  One 
chief  obstacle  to  his  march  was,  the  leaving  be- 
hind him  Clodius  Albinus,  commander  of  the 
legions  in  Britain,  whom  he  wished  to  secure  in 
his  interests.  For  this  end  he  gave  him  hopes 
of  succeeding  to  the  empire ;  insinuating  that 
he  himself  was  declining,  and  his  children  weie 
but  infants.  He  wrote  in  the  same  style  to  the 
senate,  gavQ  him  the  title  of  Caesar,  and  ordeied 
money  ^o  be  coined  with  his  image.  These  arti- 
fices serving  to  lull  Albinus  into  false  security, 
Severus  marched  against  Niger  with  all  his  forces. 
After  some  undecisive  conflicts,  the  last  great 
battle  fought  between  these  extraordinary  men 
was  upon  the  plains,  of  Issus,  on  the  vezy  spot 
where  Alexander  had  formerly  conqnered  Darius. 
The  neighbouring  mountains  were  covered  with 
vast  numbers  of  people,  who  wished  to  be  spec- 
tators of  an  engagement  that  was  to  determine 
the  empire  of  the  world.  Severus  was  con- 
(]ueror;  and  Niger's  head,  being  struck  off,  was 
insultingly  carried  through  the  camp  on  the  point 
of  a  lance.  This  victory"  secured  Severus  in  the 
throne.  But  the  Partnians,  Persians,  and  some 
neighbouring  nations  took  ,up  arms,  under  pre- 
tence of  vindicating  N  iger's  cause.  The  empe- 
ror marched  against  them  in  person,  had  many 


Digitized  by  ^^JiJU*^lt: 


R    O    M    E. 


7o& 


enisgements  will)  thein,luul  obtained  such  signal 
▼ictories  over  them  as  enlai^  the  empire,  and 
established  peace  in  the  ^ast.     Sevenis  now 

.turned  his  views  against  Albinus,  whom  he  re- 
solved to  destroy.    For  this  purpose  he  sent  as- 

-sassins  into  Britain,  under  a  pretence  of  bring- 
ing him  letters,  but  in  reality  to  despatch  him. 
Albinus,  apprbed  of  their  designs,  recurred  to 
open  force,  and  proclaimed  himself  emperor. 
Kor  was  he  without  a  powerful  army  to  sup- 
port his  pretensions;  of  which  Sevenis  being 
sensible,  bent  his  whole  force  to  oppose  him. 
From  the  east  he  continued  his  course  across 

.the  straits  of  Byiantium,  into  the  most  west- 
ern parts  of  Europe,  without  intermission. 
Albinus  went  over  to  meet  him  with  his  forces 
into  Gaul ;  the  campaign  on  both  sides  was  car- 
ried on  with  gr^i  vigor.  Fortune  seemed  varia- 
ble; but  at  last  a  decisive  engagement  was 
fbaght,  one  of  the  most  desperate  recorded  in 
tlie  Roman  history.  It  lasted  fxom  morning  till 
niffbt,  without  anyjMeming  advantage  on  either 
side;  at  length  th^  troops  of  Severus  began  to 
fly,  and,  he  himself  happening  to  fell  from  his 
horse,  the  army  of  Albinus  cried  out.  Victory. 
fiut  the  engagement  was  renewed  with  vigor  by 
Lsetus,  one  of  Severus's  commanders,  who  came' 
up  with  a  body  of  reserve,  designing  to  destroy 
both  parties  and  make  himself  emperor.  This  at- 
tempt turned  out  entirely  to  the  advantage  of  Se- 
verus. He  charged  with  such  fury  and  exactness 
that  he  soon  obtained  the  victory ;  and,  pursuing 
them  into  the  city  of  Lyons,  took  Albinus  priso- 
ner, and  cutoff  his  head ;  treating  his  dead  body 
with  insults  that  ooUld  only  flow  from  a  mean 
and  revengeful  temper.  All  the  senators  who 
were  slain  in  battle  he  ordered  to  be  quartered, 
and  such  as  were  taken  alive  were  immediately 
executed.  Having  thus  secured  himself  in  the 
empire,  upon  his  return  to  Rome  he  loaded  his 
soldiers  with  rewards  and  honors,  giving  them 
stich  privileves  as  strengthened  his  own  power, 
while  they  destmyed  that  of  the  state;  for  the 
soldiers,  who  had  hitheito  showed  the  strongest 
inclination  to  an  abuse  of  power,  were  now  made 
arbiters  of  the  fate  of  emperors.  Being  thus  se- 
cure of  his  army,  he  resolved  to  give  way  to  his 
natural  turn  for  conquest,  and  to  oppose  his  arms 
against  the  Parthians,  who  were  then  invading 
the  frontiers.  Having  therefore  previously  given 
the  government' of  domestic  policy  to  one  Plau- 
tianus,  a  favorite,  to  whose  daughter  he  married 
bis  son  Caracalla,  he  set  out  for  the  east,  and 
prosecuted  the  war  with  his  usual  expedition  and 
success.  He  forced  submission  f^om  the  king  of 
Armenia,  destroyed  several  cities  iti  Arabia  Felix, 
landed  on  the  Parthian  coasts,  took  and  plundered 
the  famous  city  Ctesiphon,  marched  back  through 
Palestine  and  Egypt,  and  at  length  returned  to 

v^me  in  triumph.  During  this  interval  Plauti- 
arms,  who  was  left  to  direct  the  afiairs  of  Rome, 

.  began  to  think  of  aspiring  to  the  empire  himself. 
Upon  the  emperor's  return  he  employed  a  tri- 
bune of  the  pranorian  cohorts  to  assassinate  him 
imd  his  son  Caracalla.  The  tribune  informed 
Severus  of  his  favorite's  treachery.  He  at  first 
received  it  as  an  improbable  story,  and  as  the 
^^artifice  of  some  who  envied  his  favorite.  But  he 
was  at  last  persuaded  to  permit  the  tribune  to 


conduct  Plauitianiis  to  the  emperor's  apartments. 
The  tribune  went  and  amused  him  with  a  pre- 
tended account  of  his  killing  the  emperor  and 
his  son,  desiring  him,  if  he  wished  to  see  them 
dead,  to  come  with  him  to  the  palace.  As  Ptau- 
tianus  ardently  desired  their  deaths,  he  gave 
credit  to  this  relation;  and,  following  the  tribune, 
be  was  conducted  at  midnight  into  the  innermost 
recesses  of  the  palace.  But  what  must  have  been 
his  disappointment,  when,  instead  of  finding  the 
emperor  murdered,  as  he  expected,  he  beheld 
the  room  lighted  up  with  torcnes,  and  Sevenis, 
surrounded  by  his  friends,  prepared  in  array  to 
receive  him.  Being  asked  by  tne  emperor,  with 
a  stem  countenance,  what  had  brought  him  there 
at  that  unseasonable  time,  he  was  utterly  con- 
founded, and,  not  knowing  what  excuse  to  maice, 
confessed  the  whole,  entreating  forgiveness.  The 
emperor  seemed  inclined  to  paraon  him,  but 
Caracalla  S]>umed  him  away  in  the  midst  of  his 
supplications,  and  with  his  sword  ran  him  through 
the  body.  After  this  Severus  spent  a  considerable 
time  in  visiting  som6  cities  in  Italy,  permitting 
none  of  his  officers  to  sell  places  of  tmst  or  dig- 
nity, and  distributing  justice  with  the  strictest 
impartiality.  He  took  such  an  exact  order  in 
managing  his  exchequer  that,  notwithstanding 
his  great  expenses,  he  left  more  money  behind 
him  than  any  of  his  predecessors.  His  armies 
also  were  kept  upon  the  most  respectable  footing; 
so  that  he  fearea  no  invasion.  Being  equally  at- 
tentive to  the  preservation  of  all  parts  of  the  em- 
pire, he  resolved  to  make  his  last  expedition  into 
Britain,  where  the  Romans  were  in  danger  of 
being  destroyed.  Wherefore,  after  appointing 
his  sons  Caracalla  and  Geta  joint  successors  in 
the  empire,  and  taking  them  with  him,  he  landed 
in  Britain,  to  the  great  terror  of  such  as  had  in- 
curred his  resentment.  Upon  his  progress  into 
the  country,  he  left  Geta  in  the  soutn  part  of  the 
province,  which  had  continued  in  obedience,  and 
marched  with  Caracalla  against  the  Caledonians. 
In  this  expedition  his  army  suffered  prodigious 
hardships  in  pursuing  the  enemy;  they  were 
obliged  to  hew  their  way  through  intricate  forests, 
to  drain  extensive  marshes,  and  form  bridges 
over  rapid  rivers :  so  that  he  lost  50,000  men  by 
fetigue  and  sickness.  However,  he  supported 
all  these  inconveniences  with  the  greatest  bravery ; 
and  prosecuted  his  successes  with  such  vigor 
that  he  compelled  the  enemy  to  sue  for  peace, 
^hich,  it  is  said,  they  obtained  upon  the  sur- 
render of  a  considerable  part  of  tneir  country. 
Having  made  peace,  and  built  his  celebrated 
wall,  he  retired  to  York ;  where,  partly  through 
age  and  fatigue,  partly  through  grief  at  the  vices 
of  Caracalla,  he  found  himself  fast  declining, 
having  already  lost  the  use  of  his  feet.  To  add 
to  his  distress,  he  was  told  that  the  soldiers  had 
revolted,  and  declared  his  son  emperor.  In  this 
exigence  he  seemed  once  more  to  recal  his  natural 
vigor ;  he  got  himself  immediately  put  into  his 
litter,  and  commanded  the  new  emperor,  witli 
the  tribunes  and  centurions,  to  be  brought  befoi-e 
him.  Though  all  were  willing  to  court  the  favor 
of  the  young  emperor,  such  was  the  authority  of 
Severus  that  none  dared  to  disobey.  They  ap- 
peared before  him  confounded  and  trembling, 
and  implored  pardon  upon  their  knees.    Upon 

^oogle 


Digitized  by 


'8^ 


760 


ROME. 


'whichy  putting  his  band  to  hit  head,  he  cried 
out,  <  Know  t^t  it  is  the  head  that  governs,  and 
not  the  feet'  However  soon  perceiving  his 
disorder  to  increase,  and  knowing  that  he  could 
not  outlive  it,  he  called  for  poison ;  which  heing 
refused  him,  he  loaded  his  stomach  with  food, 
which,  not  being  able  to  digest,  soon  brought 
him  to  his  end,  in  the  fifty-sixth  year  of  his  age, 
after  an  active  though  cruel  reign  of  about  ei^- 
teen  years. 

Caracalla. — Caracalla  andGeU,  being  ac- 
knowledged as  emperors  by  the  army,  began  to 
show  a  mutual  hatred  to  each  other  even  before 
their  arrival  at  Home.  Their  only  agreement 
was,  in  resolving  to  deify  Severus  their  &ther ; 
bat  soon  after  each  sought  to  attach  the  senate 
and  army  to  his  own  interest.  They  were  of 
veiY  opposite  dispositions ;  Caracalla  was  fierce 
and  cruel  to  an  extreme ;  Geta  was  mild  and 
roercifid ;  so  that  the  people  soon  found  the  dan- 
gerous effects  of  being  governed  by  two  princes 
of  equal  power  and  contrary  inclinations.  But 
this  opposition  was  short ;  for  Caracalla,  resolved 
to  govern  alone,  furiously  entered  Geta's  apart- 
ment, and,  followed  by  ruffians^  slew  him  in  his 
mother's  arms.  Having  committed  tliis  detesta- 
ble murder,  be  issued  with  great  haste  from  the 
palace,  crying  out,  that  his  brother  would  have 
slain  him ;  and  that  he  was  obliged,  in  self-de- 
fence, to  retaliate  the  intended  injury.  He  then 
took  refuge  among  the  pr«torian  cohorts,  and  in 
a  pathetic  tone  began  to  implore  their  assistance, 
still  making  the  same  excuse  for  his  conduct. 
To  this  he  added  a  much  more  prevailing  argu- 
ment, promising  to  bestow  upon  them  the 
largesses  usiudly  given  upon  the  election  of  new 
emperors,  and  distributing  among  them  almost 
all  the  treasures  which  had  been  amassed  by  his 
fiither.  By  such  persuasives  the  soldiers  did  not 
hesitate  to  proclaim  him  sole  emperor,  and  to 
stigmatise  the  memory  of  his  brotner  Geta  as  a 
traitor.  The  senators**  were  induced,  through 
fiivor  or  fear,  to  approve  what  had  been  done  by 
the  army ;  Caracalla  wept  for  the  death  of  his 
brother  whom  he  had  slain ;  and,  to  carry  his 
hypocrisy  to  the  utmost  extreme,  ordered  him  to 
be  adored  as  a  god.  After  this  be  continued  to 
mark  his  course  with  blood.  Whatever  was 
done  by  Domitian  or  Nero  fell  short  of  this 
monster's  barbarities.  Letus,  who  first  advised 
him  to  murder  his  brother,  was  the  first  who  fell 
a  sacrifice  to  his  jealousy.  His  own  wife  Plau- 
tina  followed.  Papilian,  the  renowned  civilian, 
was  beheaded  for  refusing  to  write  in  vindication 
of  his  cruelty ;  answering  the  emperor's  request, 
by  observing, '  That  it  was  much  easier  to  commit 
a  parricide  than  to  defend  it.'  He  commanded 
all  governors  to  be  slain  whom  his  brother  had 
appointed ;  and  destroyed  no  less  than  2000  per- 
sons who  had  adhered  to  the  parUr.  Whole, 
nights  were  spent  in  the  execution  of  his  bloody 
decrees ;  and  the  dead  bodies  of  people  of  all 
ranks  were  carried  out  of  the  citv  in  carts, 
where  they  were  burnt  in  heaps,  without  any  of 
the  ceremonies  of  a  funeral.  He  once  ordered 
his  soldiers  to  set  upon  a  crowded  audience  in 
the  theatre,  only  for  discountenancing  a  charioteer 
whom  he  happened  to  favor.  Perceiving  himself 
haled  by  the  people,  he  said  that  he  could  insure 


his  own  safely^  to  that  he  neidicr  valued  dieir 
reproaches,  nor  (eared  their  hatred.  This  salie^ 
which  he  to  much  trusted  in  was  the  proleciMm 
of  his  soldiers.  He  had  exhausted  the  traanry, 
drained  the  provinces,  and  committed  a  titoasaid 
acts  of  rapacity,  merely  to  keep  them  stcdfiut  in 
his  interests ;  and,  being  disposed  to  trust  hin^df 
with  them  particularly,  he  resolved  to  lad  them 
upon  a  visit  through  all  the  provinces  of  the 
empire.  He  first  went  into  Crermany ;  where 
be  dressed  himself  in  the  habit  of  tlie  ooustiy. 
Thence  he  travelled  into  Macedonia,  wfaete  be 
pretended  to  be  a  great  admirer  of  Atexander 
the  Great;  and,  among  other  extravi^saDcies, 
caused  a  statue  of  that  monarch  to  be  made  with 
two  faces ;  one  of  which  resembled  Alexander 
and  the  other  himself.  He  called  himself  Alex- 
ander ;  walked  as  he  was  told  that  monarch  had 
walked;  and,  like  him,  bent  his  head  to  one 
shoulder.  Shortly  after,  arriving  at  Lesser  Asia 
and  the  ruins  of  Troy,  as  he  was  viewing  the 
tomb  of  Achilles,  he  took  it  into  his  bead  to  re- 
semble that  hero ;  and,  one  of  ^is  freed  men 
happening  to  die  at  that  time,  he  used  the  same 
ceremonies  that  were  performed  at  tbe  tomb  of 
Patroclus.  Passing  thence  into  Egypt,  he  mas- 
sacred in  themost^teirible  manner  the  inhabitants 
of  Alexandria,  on  account  of  the  satires  they 
composed  on  him.  See  ALaxAwnaiA.  Goin^ 
thence  into  Syria,  he  invited  Artabanua,  king  of 
Parthia  to  a  conference,  which  he  ended  by  a 
most  infernal  piece  of  treachery.  Upon  his  re- 
turn towards  Rome,  his  vices  seemed  inexhansii- 
ble ;  for,  having  been  guilty  of  parricide,  he  now 
resolved  to  marry  the  mother  <^  Geta  whom  he 
had  slain.  One  day  seeing  her  drop  her  veil, 
which  disclosed  her  nakeci  boaoro,  which  was 
extremely  beautiful,  he  told  her  that  be  would 
possess  those  charms  if  it  were  lawftiL  To  this 
unnatural  request  the  worthless  woman  answered 
that  he  might  enjoy  all  things  who  possessed  alt 
Whereupon,  setting  aside  tdl  respect  for  his  de> 
ceased  father,  he  celebrated  his  nuptials  with  her 
in  public,  totally  disregarding  the  censures  and 
sarcasms  of  mankind.  However,  though  he  dis- 
regarded shame,  he  was  not  insensible  to  fear. 
He  was  continually  consulting  astrologers  what 
death  be  should  die.  Ho  sent  one  of  hb  confi- 
dants, named  Matemianus,  to  consult  all  the 
astrologers  in  the  city  concerning  his  end.  Ma- 
temianus considered  this  as  a  proper  time  to  ge- 
rid  of  Macrinus,  the  emperors  commander  in 
Mesopotamia.  He  therefore  informed  him  bv 
letter,  as  if  from  the  astrologers,  tnat  Macrinus 
had  a  design  against  his  life ;  and  advised  him 
to  put  the  conspirator  to  dei^.  This  letter  was 
sent  sealed, and  made  up,  amongst  many  otheis 
to  be  delivered  to  the  emperor,  as  he  was  pre^ 
paring  for  a  chariot-race.  However  he  gave  the 
packet  to  Macrinus  to  read  over,  and  to  infona 
him  of  the  contents  when  at  leisure.  In  perusing 
these  letters,  when  Macrinus  came  to  that  which 
regarded  himself,  he  was  filled  widi  surprise  and 
terror.  He  reserved  the  letter  to  himself,  and 
acquainted  the  emperor  with  the  substance  of 
the  rest.  He  then  set  about  the  most  probable 
means  of  compassing  his  death.  He  apfdied  to 
one  Martialis,  a  man  of  great  strength,  and  a 
centurion  of  the  guards,  who  hated  the  emperor 


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ROME. 


761 


on  aocottntof  the  death  of  a  brother,  whom  Ca- 
racalla  had  ordered  to  be  slain.  Macrinus  ex- 
horted him  to  revenge  his  brother's  death  by 
killing  the  tyrant  Martialis  readily  undertook 
the  dangerous  task.  Accordingly,  as  Caracaila 
was  riding  out  one  day  near  a  city  called  Carre, 
he  withdrew  privately,  upon  a  natural  occasion, 
with  only  one  page  to  hold  his  horse.  This  was 
the  opportunity  Martialis  had  long  and  ardently 
desirea  ;  wheiefore,  running  tp  him  as  if  he  had 
been  called,  he  stabbed  the  emperor  in  the  back, 
s<5  that  he  died  immediately.  Martialis  returned 
to  his  troop ;  b)it>  retiring,  he  endeavored  to  se- 
cure himself  by  flight.  But  his  companions 
missing  him,  and  the  page  telling  what  had  been 
done,  he  was  pursued  by  the  German  horse  and 
cut  in  pieces.  During  the  reign  of  this  execra- 
ble tyrant,  which  continued  six  years,  the  em- 
pire was  every  day  declining;  the  soldiers  were 
entirely  masters  of  every  election  ;  and,  as  there 
were  various  armies  in  different  parts,  so  there 
were  as  many  interests  all  opposite  to  each  other. 
Caracaila,  by  satisfying  their  most  unreasonable 
appetites,  destroyea  all  discipline  amotig  them, 
and  all  subordination  in  the  state. 

Macrinus. — ^The  soldiers,  after  a  suspense  of 
two  days,  fixed  upon  Macrinus,  who  took  care 
to  conceal  his  being  privy  to  Caracalla's  murder. 
The  senate  confirmed  their  choice,  and  likewLoe 
that  of  his  son  Diadumenus,  whom  he  took  as  a 
partner.  Macrinus  was  fifty-three  years  old 
vrhen  he  entered  upon  the  government.  He  was 
of  obscure  parentage;  some  say  by  birth  a  Moor, 
who,  by  the  mere  rotation  of  office,  being  first 
made  pncfect  of  the  prstorian  bands,  was  now, 
by  treason  and  accident,  called  to  fill  the  throne. 
Little  is  recorded  of  this  emperoi,  except  his  en- 
gaging in  a  bloody,  though  undecided,  battle 
with  Artabanus  king  of  Parthia,  who,  finding 
his  real  enemy  dead,  made  peace,  and  returned 
into  Parthia.  See  Parthta.  Something  is  also 
said  of  the  severity  of  this  emperor's  discipline; 
for  to  such  a  pitch  of  licentiousness  was  the 
Roman  array  now  arrived  that  the  most  severe 
punishments  were  unable  to  restrain  the  soldiers ; 
and  yet  the  most  gentle  inflictions  were  looked 
upon  as  severity.  It  was  this  rigorous  discip- 
line; with  the  artifices  of  Maesa,  grandmother  to 
Heliogabalas  the  natural  son  of  Caracaila,  that 
caused  the  emperor's  ruin.  Heliogabalus  was 
priest  of  a  temple  dedicated  to  the  sun,  in  Emesa, 
a  city  of  Phoenicia;  and.  Chough  but  fourteen 
years  old,  was  greatly  loved  by  the  army  for  the 
beauty  of  his  person,  and  the  memory  of  his 
father,  whom  they  still  considered  as  their  bene- 
factor. This  was  soon  perceived  by  the  grand- 
mother ;  who,  being  very  rich  in  gold  and  jewels, 
gave  liberal  presents  among  tbem,  while  they 
frequently  repaired  to  the  temple,  both  from  the 
garrison  in  the  city  and  the  camp  of  Macrinus. 
This  intercourse  growing  every  day  more  fre- 
quent, the  soldiers,  disgusted  with  the  severities 
of  Macrinus,  began  to  think  of  placing  Helioga- 
balus in  his  stead.  Accordingly,  sending  for  him 
to  their  camp,  he  was  imediately  proclaimed; 
and  such  were  the  hopes  of  his  virtues  that  all 
men  began  to  afiiect  his  interests.  Macrinus, 
who  was  pursuing  his  pleasures  at  Antioch,  gave 
but  little  attention  to  the  first  report :  only  send- 


ing his  lieutenant  Julian,  with  some  legions,  to 
quell  the  insurrection.  However  these,  like  the 
rest,  soon  declared  for  Heliogabalus,  and  slew 
their  general.  Macrinus  founcl  he  had  treated 
the  rebellion  too  slightly ;  he  therefore  resolved, 
with  his  son,  to  march  directly  against  the  sedi- 
tious, legions,  and  force  them  to  their  duty.  Both 
parties  met  on  the  confines  of  Syria :  the  battle 
was  for  some  time  furious  and  obstinate ;  but  at 
last  Macrinus  was  overthrown,  and  obliged  to 
fly.  His  principal  aim  was  to  get  to  Rome, 
where  he  knew  his  presence  was  desired ;  where- 
fore he  travelled  through  the  provinces  of  Asia 
Minor  with  the  utmost  expedition  and  privacy, 
but  unformnately  fell  sick  at  Chalcedon.  There 
those  who  were  sent  in  pursuit  overtook  and 
put  him  to  death,  together  with  his  son  Diadu- 
menus, after  a  short  reign  of  one  year  and  two 
months. 

Heliogabalus. — ^The  senate  and  citizens  of 
Rome  being  obliged  to  submit  to  the  appoint- 
ment of  the  army,  as  usual,  Heliogabalus  ascended 
the  throne  at  the  age  of  fourteen.  One  at  so 
early  an  age,  invested  with  unlimited  power  and 
surrounded  with  flatterers,  could  act  only  as  they 
directed.  This  young  emperor  having  it  in  his 
power  to  indulge  all  his  appetites,  he  studied 
only  their  gratification.  As  he  is  described  by 
historians  he  apppears  a  monster  of  sensuality. 
His  short  life  is  a  tissue  of  effeminacy,  lust,  and 
extravagance.  He  married,  in  four  years,  six 
wives,  and  divorced  them  all.  He  built  a  tem- 
ple to  the  sun ;  and,  willing  that  his  god  should 
nave  a  wife  as  well  as  himself,  he  married  him 
to  Pallas,  and  shortly  after  to  the  moon.  His 
palace  was  a  place  of  rendezvous  for  all  the  pro- 
stitutes of  Rome,  whom  he  frequently  met  naxedy 
calling  them  his  fellow-soldiers,  and  companions 
in  the  field.  He  was  so  fond  of  the  sex  that  he 
carried  bis  mother  with  him  to  the  senate-house, 
and  demanded  that  she  should  always  be  present 
when  matters  of  importance  were  debated.  He 
even  went  so  far  as  to  build  a  senate-house  for 
women,  with  suitable  orders,  habits,  and  dis- 
tinctions, of  which  his  mother  was  made  presi- 
dent. They  met  several'  rimes ;  all  their  debates 
turning  upon  the  fashions  of  the  day  and  the 
different  formalities  to  be  used  in  giving  and  re- 
ceiving visits.  To  these  follies  he  added  great 
cruelty  and  boundless  prodigality  :  he  said  that 
such  dishes  as  were  cheaply  obtained  were  scarcely 
worth  eating.  His  suppers,  therefore,  generally  cost 
6000  crovnis,  and  often  60,000.  He  was  always 
dressed  in  cloth  of  gold  and  purple,  enriched 
with  precious  stones,  and  yet  never  wore  the 
same  habit  twice.  His  palace,  his  chambers,  and 
his  beds,  were  all  furnished  of  the  richest  stufis, 
covered  with  gold  and  jewels.  \^henever  he 
took  horse,  all  the  way  between  his  apartment 
and  the  place  of  mounting  was  covered  with  gold 
and  silver  dust  strewn  at  his  approach.  These  ex- 
cesses were  soon  perceived  by  his  grandmother 
Mssa,  whose  intrigues  had  first  raised  him  to  the 
throne ;  so  that  she  thought  to  lessen  his  power 
by  dividing  it.  For  this  purpose,  under  a  pre- 
tence of  neeing  him  from  the  cares  of  puolic 
business,  she  persuaded  him  to  adopt  his  cousin- 
german,  Alexander  Severus,ashis  successor ;  and 
likewise  to  make  hira  his  partner  in  the  consuU 


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762 


ROME. 


ship.  Hetkigttbahis,  haritig  thus  raised  his  cou- 
sin, had  scarcely  given  him  his  power,  "when  he 
wished  again  to  take  it  away ;  but  the  virtues  of 
'  this  young  prince  had  so  greatly  endeared  him  to 
the  people  and  the  army,  that  the  attempt  had 
like  to  have  been  fatal  to  the  tyrant.  The  pfas- 
torian  soldiers,  mutinying,  attempted  to  kill  him 
as  he  was  walking  in  his  gardens ;  but  he  es- 
caped by  hiding  himself  from  their  fury.  How- 
ever, upon  returning  to  their  camp,  they  con- 
tinued the  sedition ;  requiring  that  the  emperor 
should  remove  such  persons  from  about  htm  as 
oppressed  the  subjects,  and  contributed  to  con- 
taminate him.  They  required  also  the  being 
permitted  to  guard  the  young  prince  themselves, 
and  that  none  of  the  emperor's  favorites  or  fsuni- 
liars  should  be  permitted  to  converse  with  him. 
Heliogabalus  was  reluctantly  obliged  to  comply ; 
and,  conscious  of  the  danger  he  was  in,  made 
preparations  for  death,  when  it  should  arrive,  in  a 
manner  truly  whimsical  and  peculiar.  He  built 
a  lofty  tower,  with  steps  of  gold  and  pearl, 
whence  to  throw  himself  headlong  in  case  of 
necessitv.  He  also  prepared  cords  of  purple 
silk  and  gold,  to  strangle  himself  with ;  he  pro- 
vided golden  swords  and  daggers  to  stab  himself 
with ;  and  poison  to  be  kept  in  boxes  of  emer- 
ald, in  order  to  obtain  what  death  he  chose  best. 
Thus  fearing  all  things,  but  particularly  suspi- 
cious of  the  designs  of  the  senate,  he  banished 
tfaem  all  out  of  the  city :  he  next  attempted  to 
•poison  Alexander,  and  spread  a  report  of  his 
'death ;  but,' perceiving  the  soldiers  begin  to  mu- 
tiny, he  immediately  took  him  in  his  chariot  to 
the  camp,  where  he  experienced  a  fresh  morti- 
fication, by  find  rag  all  the  acclamations  of  the 
army  directed  only  to  his  successor.  This  not 
a  little  raised  his  indignation,  and  excited  his 
desire  of  revenge.  He  returned  towards  the 
.city,  threatening  the  most  severe  punishments 
against  those  who  had  displeased  him,  and  me- 
ditating firesh  cruelties.  However  the  soldiers 
were  unwilling  to  give  him  time  to  put  his  de^ 
signs  in  execution :  they  followed  him  directly 
to  his  palace,  pursued  him  from  apartment  to 
a[Mirtment,  and  at  last*  found  him  concealed  in  a 
privy;  a  situation  very  different  from  that  in 
which  he  expected  to  die.  Having  dragged  him 
thence  through  the  streets,  with  the  most  bitter 
invectives,  and  having  despatched  him,  they  at^ 
tempted  once  more  to  squeeze  his  pampered  body 
into  a  privy ;  but,  not  efiecting  this,  they  threw 
it  into  the  Tiber,  with  heavy  weights,  that  none 
m rght  afterwards  find  orgive  it  burial.  This  was 
the  miserable  and  ignominious  death  of  Helio- 
gabalus, in  the  eighteenth  year  of  his  age,  after 
a  detestable  reign  of  four  years.  His  mother 
also  was  slain  at  the  same  time  by  the  soldiers ; 
as  were  also  many  of  the  opprobrious  associates 
of  his  criminal  pleasures. 

Alex  a  n  naa  S  ev  erub. — ^Alexander  being  with- 
out opposition  declared  empax>r,  the  senate, 
with  tlieir  usual  adoration,  were  for  conferring 
new  titles  upon  him ;  but  he  modestly  declined 
them  all,  alleging  that  titles  were  only  honorable 
when  given  to  virtue.  This  outset  was  a  happy 
oiiien  of  his  future  virtues  ;  and  few  princes  in 
history  have  been  more  commended  by  their  con- 
temporaries, or  indeed   more    deserved   com- 


mendation.   Ttr^the  most  rigid  Jnsdce  he  added 
the  greatest  humanity.     He  loved  the  |0od,  and 
was  a  severe  reprover  of  the  lewd  and  n&mous. 
His  accomplisfainents  iveie  equal  to  his  virtues. 
He  was  an  excellent  mathematician,  geometrician, 
and  iansician ;  he  was  skilled  in  paiscuig  and 
sculpture;  and  in  poetry  few  of  his  time  could 
equal  him.    In  short,  such  were  his  talents,  and 
such  the  solidity  of  hb  judgment,  tiMt,  diough 
but  sixteen  years  of  age,  he  was  coosideied  as  a 
wise  man.    The  first  part  of  hts  reign  was  spent 
in  a  reformation  of  the  abuses  of  his  predecessor. 
He  restored  the  senators  to  their  raalt :  nothing 
being  undertaken  without  the  most  sage  advisers, 
and    most    mature   deliberatioD.    Among   the 
number  of  his  advisers  was  his  mother  Mamnnea, 
a  wonhin  eminent  for  her  virtues  and  accom- 
plishments, and  who  made  use  of  her  power  to 
secure  her  son  the  affections  of  his  subjects,  and 
to  procure  them  the  most  }ust  administration. 
He  was  a  rigid  punisher  of  such  magistrates  a$ 
took  bribes,  saying  that  it  was  not  enoogh  to 
deprive  such  of  then*  places ;  for,  their  trusts 
bemg  great,  their  lives  in  roost  cases  ought  to 
pay  for  a  breach  of  them.    On  the  contrary,  fee 
thought  he  could  never  sufficiently  reward  such 
as  had  been  remarkable  for  their  justice  and  in- 
tegrity, keeping  a  register  of  their  names,  and 
sometimes  asking  such  of  them   as   appeared 
modest  and  nnwilling  to  approach  hia  why 
they  were  so   backward    in  'demandinf  their 
reward,  and  why  they  sufiered  hiin  to  be  in  their 
debt?      His  clemency  extended  even  to  the 
Christians,  who  had  b^n  punished  in  the  former 
reigns  with  unrelenting  barbarity.    Vpfm  a  con- 
test between  them  and  a  company  of  cooks  and 
vintners,  about  a  piece  of  public  ground,  wbicii 
the  one  claimed  as  a  place  for  public  wonhip, 
and   the   other  for  exercising  their  respective 
trades,  he  decided  the  point  by  his  rescript,  m 
these  words :  ^  It  is  better  that  God  be  wor- 
shipped there  in  any  manner  than  that  the  place 
should  be  put  to  uses  of  drunkenness  and  de- 
bauchery.'   His  abilities  in  war  were  eqtol  to 
his  assiduity  in  peace.     The  empire,  whid^ 
from  the  remissness  and  debauchery  of  tiie  pre- 
ceding reigns  now  began  to  be  attacked  on  e^erj 
side,  watited  a  person  of  vigor  and  conduct  to 
defend  it.    Alexander  faced  we  enemy  wherever 
the  invasion  was  most  formidable,  and  for  a 
short  time  deferred  its  ruin.    His  first  expedi- 
tion, in  the  tenth  year  of  his  reign,  was  against 
the  Parthians  and  Persians,  whom  be  opposed 
with  a  powerful  army.     The    Persians  were 
routed  in  a  decisive  engagement  with    great 
slaughter;  the  cities  of  Ctesiphon  and  B^ykn 
were  once  more  taken,  and  tne  Roman  empire 
was  restored  to  its  fonner  limits.    Upon  his 
return  to  Antioch  his  mother  Mamm«a    sent 
for  the  famous  Origen,  to  be  instracted  by  him 
in  the  principles  of  Christianity;  and,  after  dis- 
coursing with  him'  for  Some  time  upon  the  sub- 
ject, dismissed  him,  with'  a  proper  safeguard,  to 
his  native  city  of  Alexandria.    About  the  same 
time  that  Alexander  was  victorious  in  the  east, 
Furius  Celsus,  his  general,  obtained   a  signal 
victory  over  the  Mauritanians  in  Africa.    Varius 
Macriuus  was  successful  in  Germany,  and  Junius 
Palmatus  returned  conqueror    from  Armfloia. 


Digitized  by  VaUUy  IC 


R    O    M    K 


763: 


However  these  TictoriaB  only  lualenedlhe  de- 
cline of  the  emfnie^  which  w«9  wasM  by  the 
exertion  of  its  own  stienflth.    About  the  thir- 
teenth .  year  of  his  reign,' %e  Upper  Germans, 
and  other  northern  nations,  began  to  poor  down 
immense  swarms  of  people  upon  the  more  south- 
ern parts  of  the  empire.     They  passed  the 
Ahioe  and  the  Danube-  with  such  fury  that  all 
•Italy  was  thrown  into  ooostemation ;  vhen  the 
emperor  made  what  levies  he  could,  and  went 
in  person  to  stem  the  torrent;  which  he  speedily 
effected.    Ix  was  in  the  course  of  his  successes 
agaiost  the  enemy  that  he  was  cut  off  by  a 
mutiny  among  -his  soldiers.    The  legions  en- 
camp^ about  M<^g;utitia,  having  been  abn^mina- 
bly.  corrupted  during  the  reign  of  Heliogabalus, 
and  trained  up  in  all  kinds  of  rapine  and  diso- 
bedieocey  required  the  most  strict  command. 
Alexander  could  neither  endure  their  tumultuary 
obedience,  nor  they  his  regular  discipline.    They 
exclaiined  that  they  were  governed  by  an  ava- 
ricious woman,  and  a  mean-spirited  boy;  and 
resolved  upon  electing  an  emperor  capable  of 
ruling  alone.    In  this  general  revolt,  Maximinus, 
an  old  commander^  held  frequent  conferen9es 
with  the  soldiers,  and  inflamed  the  sedition. 
At  length  they  sent  an  executioner  into  Alex- 
ander's tent;  who  immediately  struck  off  his 
head,  and  shortly  after  that  of  his  mother.    He 
died  in  the  twenty-ninth  year  of  his  age,  after  a 
prosperous  reign  of  thirteen  years  and  nine  days. 
Rome  until  the   murder  of  Gordiam  I. 
AND  11. — ^The  tumults  occasioned  by  the  death 
of  Alexander  beine  appeased,  Maximinus,  who 
had  been  the  chief  promoter  of  the  sedition,  was 
chosen  emperor.    This  extraordinary  man  was 
bom  of  very  obscure  parentage,  beins  the  son  of 
a  herdsman  of  Thrace.    At  first  he  followed  his 
fatlier*s  profession,  and  only  exereised  his  per- 
sonal coun^  against  robbers.     Soon  after  he 
enlisted  in  the  Roman  army,  where  he  became 
remarkable  for  his  great  streng^,  discipline,  and 
courage.     He  was  no  less  tlum  eight  feet  and 
a  half  high;  and   of  strength  corresponding  to 
his  size.      His  wife's  bracelet  served   him  for 
a  thumb  ring;  and   his   strength 'was  so  great 
that  he  was  able  to  draw  a  carriage  which  two 
oxen   could   not  move.      His  diet  was  as  ex- 
traordinary as  the  rest  of  his  endowments ;  he 
generallv  ate  forty  pounds  of  flesh  it  is  said  every 
day,  and  drank  six  gallons  of  wine.  With  a  frame 
so  athletic,  he  was  possessed  of  a  mind  undaunted 
in  danger,  neither  fearing  nor  regarding  man. 
The  first  time  he  was  made  known  to  the  empe- 
ror Sevenis  was  upon  his  celebrating  games  on 
the  birth-day  of  his  son  Geta.    Maximinus  was 
then  a  rude  countryman,  and  reouested  the  em- 
peror to  be  permitted  to  contend  for  the  prizes 
which  were  distributed.     Severus,  unwilling  to 
infringe  the  military  discipline,  would  not  permit 
him  to  combat,  except  with  slaves,  against  whom 
his  strength  appeared  astonishing.    He  overcame  ' 
sixteen  in  running;  one  after  the  other;  he  then 
kept  up  with  the  emperor  on  horseback ;  and, 
having  fatigued  him  in  the  course,  he  was  op- 
posed to  seven  of  the  most  active  soldiers,  and 
overcame  them  with  the  greatest  ease.     From 
that  time  he  was  noticed,  and  taken   into  tlie 
emperor's  body-guards,  in  which  his  assiduity 


sfvi  pionpt  obediesee  w«re  remarked.    In  the  • 
reign  of  Caracaiia  he  wtei  made  a  centurion,  and 
distinguished  htroselfin  this  station  by  h&  strict 
attention  to  morals  and  discipline.    When  made 
a  tnbune*.  he  still  retained  the  hardy  simplicity 
of  his  Hfe ;  eat  as  the  meanest  sentinel ;  spent 
whole  days  in  exereisiog  his  troops;  and  nov^  • 
and  then  wrestled  with  eight  or  ten  of  the'stroog- 
est  men  in  the  armv.  ^^^hen  Macrinus  was  made 
emperor,  he  refused  to  serve  under  a  prince  Jliat 
had  betrayed  Ins  sovereign ;  and  retired  to  Ihiace, 
his  native  country,  where  he  followed  corameroe 
and  purch^Lsed  some  lands*    Upon  the  acctosion 
of  HeliogabalQs,  this  bold  veteran  once  more  jn* 
turned  to  the  arii^y;  but  was  disgusted  at  the 
effeminacy  pf  the  emperor;  who^  heading  amazing 
instances  of  hi^.^  strength,  asked  him  if  he  were 
equally  capable  in  combats  of  another  nature? 
This  question  was  so  little  suited ;to  the  tem^peroif 
Maximinus  that  he  left  the  court  Upon  the  d^ath 
of  Helio^alus  he  again  returned  to  liome;  aiid 
was  received  with  great  kindness  by  Alexander, 
who  recommended  him  to  the  senate,  and  made 
him  commander  of  the  fourth  Icigion,  which  in- 
sisted of  new  raised  soldiers.    Maximinus  per- 
formed his  duty  with  great  exactness  and  success. 
Nor  was  his  valor  less  apparent  against  the  Ger- 
mans;  so  that  he  was  unanimously  reckoned 
the  boldest,  bravest,  and  most  virtuous  soldier 
in  the  empire.      He  soon,  however,  forfeited 
these  titles,  when  raised  to  the  throne ;  and  be- 
came the  most  cruel  tyrant  upon  earth.     The 
senate  and  people  of  Rome  were  the  first  that 
incurred  his  resentment,  they  absolutely  refusing 
to  confirm  the  election  made  by  the  army,  and 
he  became  the  first  emperor  who  reigned  without 
their  concurrence.  The  Christians  felt  the  weight 
of  his  resentment ;  and  were  persecuted  in  several 
parts  of  the  empire.    His  cruelty  particularly 
extended  to  the  rich,  whose  lives  and  estates  be- 
came a  frequent  sacrifice  t9  his  avarice  and  sus- 
picion.    Being  ashamed  of  the  meanness  of  his 
extraction,   he  commanded   all    such    as  were 
acquainted  with  him  and  his  parentage  to  be 
slain.     In  the  midst  of  these  cruelties  his  mili- 
tary operations  were  carried  on  with  a  spirit  be- 
coming a  better  monarch.     He  overthrew  the 
Germans  in  sevei;al  battles,  and  wasted  their 
country  with  fire  and   sword.    To  attach  the 
soldiers  firmly  to  him,  he  increased  their  pay ; 
and,  in  every  duty  of  the  camp,  he  himself  took 
as  much  pains  as  the  meanest  sentinel.  In  everv 
engagement,  where  the  conflict  was  hottest,  Maxi- 
minus was  always  seen  fighting  in  person.     In 
the  mean  time  his  cruelties  h^^d  so  alienated  the 
minds  of  his  subjects  that  several  conspiracies 
were  formed  against  him.    Magnus,  a  consular 
person,  and  some  others  had  agreed  in  a  plot  to 
break  down  a  wooden  bridge,  as  soon  as  the 
emperor  had  passed  it,  and  thus  to  abandon  him 
to  the  enemy.    But  this,  being  discovered,  gave 
Maximitius  an  opportunity  of  indulging  his  na- 
tural severity,    who  upon  this  pretext  alone 
caused  above  4000  to  be  slain.     Shortly  after 
some  of  Alexai^der's  old  soldiers,  withdrawing 
tbetnselves  from  the  camp,    proclaimed    one 
Quartianus  emperor;  but  shortly  aAer,  in  the 
spirit  of  the  times,  the  person  who  had  been  the 
promoter  of  his  advancement,  murdered  him-  in 


Digitized  by  ^^JiJU^?lC 


764 


ROME. 


bis  bed,  and  carried  his  head  toMaximinuB; 
who  received  the  present  kindly,  but  put  the 
bearer  to  a  cmeA.  death,  for  his  complicated 
treason  and  treachery.  These  partial  insurrec- 
tions were  followed  by  a  spirit  of  general  dis- 
content throughout  the  empire.  The  provinces 
of  Africa  were  the  first  that  showed  their  detes- 
ration  of  the  tyrant.  They  first  slew  his  procu- 
rator ;  and  afterwards  resolved  to  throw  off  all 
expectation  of  p>ardon,  and  create  a  new  empe- 
ror. Gordian  was  then  proconsul,  a  person  of 
great  ferae  for  his  virtues,  and  highly  reverenced 
for  a  blameless  life  of  near  eighty.  Him,  there- 
fore, they  determined  to  elect ;  and  accordingly 
the  soldiers  and  natives,  assembling  together,  tu- 
multuously  entered  his  house.  Gordian,  who 
at  first  supposed  they  were  come  to  kill  him, 
being  made  sensible  of  their  intentions,  refused 
their  offer,  alleging  his  great  age.  But  they  con- 
strained him  to  accept  of  the  dignity ;  and  he, 
with  his  son  Gordian,  who  was  forty-six  years 
of  age,  were  declared  emperors.  The  old  man 
immediately  wrote  to  the  senate,  declaring  that 
he  had  unwillingly  accepted  of  the  empire,  and 
would  only  keep  his  authority  till  he  had  freed 
their  common  countiv  from  the  tyranny  of  its 
present  oppressor.  The  senate  very  joyfully 
confirmed  his  election,  adjudging  Maximinus  an 
enemy  and  traitor  to  the  state.  The  citizens  also 
showed  an  equal  zeal  in  the  cause:  they  fiew 
upon  such  as  were  the  reputed  friends  of  Maxi- 
minus, and  tore  them  to  pieces.  So  great  an  alte- 
ration being  made  in  the  city  against  Maximinus, 
the  senate  made  all  necessary  preparations  for 
their  security,  ordering  Maximinus  s  governors 
to  be  displaced.  This  order  was  differently  re- 
ceived in  different  parts;  in  some  provinces  the 
governors  were  slam ;  in  others  the  messengers 
of  the  senate ;  so  that  all  parts  of  the  empire  felt 
the  civil  war.  In  the  mean  time,  when  Maxi- 
minus was  informed  of  these  charges  against  him, 
his  rage  appeared  ungovernable. '  He  roared  like 
a  savage  beast,  and  violently  struck  his  head 
against  the  walL  At  length,  his  fiiry  having  some- 
what subsided,  he  called  his  whole  army  toge- 
ther ;  and,  in  a  set  speech,  exhorted  them  to 
revenge  his  cause,  giving  them  the  strongest  as- 
surances that  they  should  possess  the  estates  of 
all  such  as  had  offended.  The  soldiers  unani- 
mously promised  to  be  faithful;  they  received 
his  harangue  with  their  usual  acclamations; 
and,  thus  encouraged,  he  led  them  towards  Rome, 
breathing  slaughter  and  revenge.  However,  he 
found  many  obstacles  to  his  impetuosity ;  and, 
though  he  desired  nothing  so  much  as  despatch, 
his  marches  were  incommodious  and  slow.  The 
tumultuous  and  disobedient  armies  of  the  em- 

f)ire  were  at  present  |Very  different  from  the 
egions  that  were  led  on  by  Sylla  or  Cssar ;  they 
were  loaded  with  baggage,  and  followed  by  slaves 
and  women,  rather  resembling  an  eastern  caravan, 
than  a  military  battalion.  To  Uiese  inconveniences 
was  added  the  hatred  of  the  cities  through  which 
he  passed,  the  inhabitants  abandoning  their  houses 
upon  his  approach,  and  securing  their  provisions 
in  proper  hiding  places.  However,  his  affairs  be- 
gan to  wear  a  fevorable  appearance  in  Africa ; 
for  Capelianus,  governor  of  Numidia,  raised  a 
body  of  troops  in  his  favor,  and  inarched  against 


Gordian,  towards  Carthage;  where  he  ibog^t  the 
younger  Gordian,  slew  him,  and  dotroyed  his 
army.  The  father,  hearing  of  the  death  of  his 
son,  together  with  the  loss  of  the  battle,  strangled 
himself  in  his  own  girdle. 

Rome  until  the  muroer  of  Maximihus. — 
Capelianus  pursuing  his  victory  entered  Car- 
thage ;  where  he  gave  a  loose'  to  pillage  and 
slaughter,  under  a  pretence  of  revenging  the 
cause  of  Maximinus.  The  news  of  these  suc- 
cesses was  soon  brought  to  the  emperor,  who  now 
increased  his  diligence,  and  flattered  himself 
with  a  speedy  opportunity  of  revenge.  He  led 
on  his  large  array  by  hasty  journeys  into  Italy, 
threatening  destruction  to  all  his  opposers.  No- 
thing could  exceed  the  consternation  of  the  senate 
upon  the  news  of  this  defeat.  They  now  saw 
themselves  not  only  deprived  of  the  assistance 
of  Gordian  and  his  son,  but  also  opposed  by 
two  formidable  tyrants,  each  commanding  a  vic- 
torious army,  directly  marching  towards  Rome. 
In  this  a^icting  exigence,  they,  with  great  so- 
lemnity, met  at  the  temple  of  Jupiter,  and  after 
the  most  mature  deliberations  chose  Pupieons 
and  Balbinus  emperors  conjointly.  These  were 
men  who  had  acquired  the  esteem  of  the  public 
both  in  war  and  peace,  having  commanded  ar- 
mies, and  governed  provinces  with  great  repu- 
tation ;  and  being  now  appointed  to  oppose  Max- 
iminus, they  made  what  levies  they  could.  With 
these,  Pupienus  marched  to  stop  the  progress  of 
the  invaders,  leaving  the  city  to  a  fresh  and  un- 
locked for  calamity.  This  was  occasioned  by 
two  of  Maximinus*s  soldiers,  who,  entering  the 
senate  house,  were  slain  by  two  senators.  This 
quickly  gave  offence  to  the  body  of  the  prae- 
torian soldiers,  who  instantly  resolved  to  take 
revenge,  but  were  opposed  by  the  citizens;  so 
that  nothing  was  seen  throughout  Rome,  but  tu- 
mult, slaughter,  and  cruelty.  In  this  univenal 
confusion,  the  calamity  was  increased  by  the 
soldiers  setting  the  city  on  fire.  Nevertbele^ 
Maximinus  himself  was  not  more  fortumte. 
Being  informed  of  the  new  election  of  emperors, 
his  fury  was  renewed,  and  he  passed  the  Alps, 
expecting,  upon  entering  Italy,  to  refr^h  fats 
fatigued  and  £aimished  army  in  that  fertile  coun- 
try. Approaching  Aquileia  he  was  astonished 
to  find  It  prepared  for  the  most  obstinate  resist- 
ance, and  resolved  to  hold  out  a  regular  siege. 
At  last  a  mutiny  in  his  army  rescued  the  de- 
clining empire  from  destruction.  The  soldiers 
being  long  narassed  by  famine  and  fatigue,  and 
hearing  of  revolts  on  .every  side,  resolved  to 
terminate  their  calamities  by  the  tjrrant's  death, 
and  slew  both  him  and  his  son,  whom  he  had 
made  his  partner  in  the  empire,  afler  a  usurpa- 
tion of  about  three  years,  in  the  sixty-fifth  year 
of  his  age. 

Pupienus  and  Balbinus. — ^The  tyrant  being 
dead,  and  his  body  thrown  to  birds  of  prey,  Pu- 
pienus and  Balbinus  continued  emperors  with- 
out opposition.  But  the  praetorian  soldiers,  noto- 
rious for  mutiny  and  treason,  resolved  on  fortho 
change.  The  dissensions  between  the  new  made 
emperors  themselves  also  contributed  to  their 
downfall :  for  though  both  were  remarkable  for 
wisdom  and  age,  yet  they  could  not  restrain  their 
mutual  jealousy.     Pupienus  claimed  the  su{  e- 

Digitized  by  V^UUy  IC 


ROME. 


765 


riority  for  his  great  experience ;  while  Balbinus 
vras  equally  aspiring  upon  account  of  his  family 
and  fortune.  In  this  ill-judged  contest,  the  pre- 
torian  soldiers,  who  were  enemies  to  both,  set 
upon  them  in  their  palace,  at  a  time  when  their 
guards  were  amusing  themselves  with  the  Capi- 
toline  games.  Pupienus,  perceiving  their  tumul- 
tuous approach,  sent  with  the  utmost  speed  for 
assistance  from  his  colleague:  but  he,  out  of 
suspicion  that  something  was  designed  against 
himself,  refused  to  send  such  of  the  German 
g^iards  as  were  next  his  person.  Thus  the  sedi- 
tious soldiers  found  an  easy  access  to  both  the 
emperors ;  and,  dragging  them  from  the  palace  to 
die  camp,  slew  them  both. 

GoRDiAN  III.— In  the  midst  of  this  sedition, 
as   the   mutineen  were  proceeding  along   the 
streets  of  the  capital,  they  met   Gordian,  tiie 
grandson  of  him  who  was  slain  in  Africa,  and 
declared  him  emperor.    This  prince  was   but 
sixteen  years  old,  but  his  virtues  seemed  to  com- 
pensate for  his  want  of  experience.     His  learn- 
ing was  equal  to  his  virtues ;  and  he  had  62,000 
volumes,  we  are  told,  in  his  library.    His  respect 
for  Misithxus,  his  governor  and  instructor,  was 
such  that  he  married  his  daughter,  and  profited 
by  his  counsels  throughout  his  reign.     The  first 
four  years  were  attended  with  the  utmost  pros- 
perity ;  but  in  the  fifth  he  was  alarmed  wiiK  ac- 
counts from  the  east,  that  Sapor,  king  of  Persia, 
had  furiously  invaded  the  confines  of  the  Roman 
empire,  and,  haviug  taken  Antioch,  had  pillaged 
Syria,  and  all  the  adjacent  provinces.  The  Goths 
also  invaded  the  empire  on  their  side,  pouring 
down  like  a  flood  from  the  north,  and  attempting 
to  fix  their  residence  in  the  kingdom  of  Thrace. 
To  oppose  both,  Gordian  prepared  an   army; 
and  having  gained  some  victories  over  the  Goths, 
whom  he  obliged  to  retire,  he  turned  his  arms 
against  the  Persians,  whom  he  defeated  upon 
several  occasions.    But  his  only  successful  ge- 
neral died  suddenly,  and  things  then  proceeding 
from  bad  to  worse,  Philip,  an  Arabian  cliief,  was 
at  first  made  his  equal  in  the  empire,  and  shortly 
after  invested  with  the  sole  power.  Gordian  was, 
by  his  order,  slain,  in  the  twenty-second  year  of 
his  age,  after  a  successful  reign  of  nearly  six 
years. 

Philip. — Philip,  having  thus  murdered  his 
benefactor,  was  acknowl^ged  emperor  by  the 
army.  The  senate  confirmed  his  election,  and 
gave  him  the  title  of  Augustus.  He  was  about 
forty  years  old  when  he  came  to  the  throne ;  being 
the  son  of  an  obscure  Arabian,  who  had  been  a 
captain  of  banditti.  He  associated  with  him  in 
the  empire  his  son,  a  boy  of  six  years  of  age ; 
and,  to  secure  his  power  at  home,  made  peace 
with  the  Persians,  and  marched  his  army  towards 
Rome.  On  his  way,  having  conceived  a  desire 
to  visit  his  native  country  of  Arabia,  he  built 
there  a  city  called  Philippopolis :  and  thence  re- 
turning to  Rome  was  received  as  emperor  with 
all  the  usual  marks  of  submission.  To  put  the 
people  in  good  humor,  he  caused  the  secuhir 
games  to  be  celebrated,  with  a  magnificence  su- 
perior to  any  of  his  predecessors.  But,  the  Goths 
naving  invaded  the  empire,  Marinus,  Philip's 
lieutenant,  who  vras  sent  against  them,  revolted, 
,and  caused  himself  to  t>e  declared  emperor.  This 


revolt,  however,  was  of  short  duration;  and 
Decius  was  appointed  by  Philip  to  command  in 
hb  room.  However,  the  army  was  scarcely  arrived 
at  Verona,  when  it  revolted  in  favor  of  Decius, 
and  setting  violently  upon  Philip,  a  sentinel,  with 
one  blow,  cleaved  his  head  asunder,  separating 
the  under  jaw  from  the  upper.  Such  was  the  de- 
served death  of  Philip,  in  the  forty-fifth  year  of 
his  age,  after  a  reign  of  about  five  years:  Decius 
being  universally  acknowledged  as  hu  successor, 
A.  D.  348. 

Decius  AMD  his  son. — ^The  activity  and  wis- 
dom of  Decius  in  some  measure  arrested  the 
hastening  decline  of  the  empire.     The  senate 
seemed   to  think  so  highly  of  his  merits  that 
they  voted  him  not  inferior  to  Trajan;  and  in- 
deed he  seemed  in  every  instance  to  consult  their 
dignity,  and  the  welfare  of  the  people.    He  per- 
mitted them  to  choose  a  cen.^or,  as  in  the  flou- 
rishing times  of  Rome ;  and  Valerian,  his  gene- 
ral, a  man  of  such  strict  morals^that  his  life  was 
said  to  be  a  continual  censorship,  was  chosen  to 
that  dignity.     But  no  virtue  could  now  prevent 
the  approaching  downfall  of  the  state :  tne  ob- 
stinate disputes  between  the  Pagans  and  the 
Christians  within  the  empire,  and  the  unceasing 
irruptions  of  barbarous  nations  from  without, 
enfeebled  it  beyond  remedy.     To  stop  these,  a 
persecution  of  the  Christians,  now  a  roost  nume- 
rous body,  was  impoliticallv  and  cruelly  begun  ; 
thousands  were  put  to  death,  and  all  the  arts  of 
cruelty  tried   in  vain  to  lessen  their  growing 
number.    This  was  succeeded  by  dreadful  de- 
vastations from  the  Goths,  in  Thrace  and  Moesia. 
These  irruptions  Decius  went  to  oppose  in  per- 
son ;  and,  coming  to  an  engagement,  slew  30,000 
of  these  barbarians  in  one  battle.      But,  in  pur- 
suing his  victory,  he  was,  by  the  treachery  of 
Gallus  his  own  general,  led  into  a  defile,  where 
the  Goths  had  secret  information  to  attack  him. 
In  this  disadvantageous  situation,  Decius  first  saw 
his  son  killed  with  an  arrow,  and  soon  after  his 
whole  army  put  to  the  rout.    Wherefore,   re- 
solving not  to  survive  his  loss,  he  put  spurs  to 
his  horse,  and  plungins  into  a  ouagmire  was 
swallowed  up.     He  died  in  the  fiftieth  year  of 
his  age,  after  a  short  reign  of  two  years  and  six 
months;  leaving  the  character  of  an  excellent 
prince. 

Gallus  and  ^milianus. — Gallus,  who  had 
thus  betrayed  the  army,  had  the  address  to  get 
himself  declared  emperor  by  that  part  of  it  which 
had  survived  the  defeat ;  he  was  torty-five  years 
old  when  he  began  to  reign,  and  was  descended 
firom  an  honorable  family.  He  now  agreed  to 
pay  a  considerable  annual  tribute  to  the  Goths  - 
and,  having  thus  purchased  a  short  remission 
from  war,  returned  to  Rome,  to  give  a  loose  to  his 
pleasures.  Nothing  could  be  more  deplorable 
than  the  state  of  the  provinces  at  this  time.  The 
Goths  and  other  barbarous  nations,  not  satisfied 
with  their  late  bribes,  broke  in  upon  the  eastern 
parts  of  Europe.  On  the  other  side  the  Persians 
and  Scythians  committed  unheard  of  ravages  in 
Mesopotamia  and  Syria.  The  emperor,  regard- 
less of  every  national  calamity,  was  lost  in  de- 
bauch and  sensuality ;  and  the  Pagans  were 
allowed  a  power  of  persecuting  the  Christians 
through  all  parts  of  tne  state :  these  calamities 


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ROME. 


Were  succeeded  by  a  pestilence  that  seemed  to 
have  spread  over  the  earthy  and  continued  raging 
far  several  years ;  and  all  these  by  a  civil  war, 
which  followed  soon  after,  between  Gallus  and 
bis  general  JEmilianus,  who,  having  gained  a 
f  ictory  over  the  Goths,  was  proclaimed  emperor 
by  his  army.  Gallus^  hearing  this,  prepared  to 
•  oppose  his  dangerous  rival.  Both  armies  met 
in  Moesia,  and  a  battle  ensued,  in  which  ^mi- 
lianus  was  victorious,  and  Gallus,  with  his  son, 
slain.  He  died  in  the  forty -seventh  year  of  his 
age,  after  an  unhappy  reign  of  two  years  and 
four  months.  iEmifianu«,  after  his  victory  over 
Gallus,  expected  to  be  acknowledged  emperor ; 
but  was  miserably  disappointed.  The  senate  re- 
fused to  acknowledge  him;  and  an  army  sta- 
tioned near  the  Alps  chose  Valerian,  their  own 
commander,  to  succeed  to  the  throne,  ^milia- 
nus*s  soldiers  began  to  consider  their  general  as 
an  obstacle  to  the  public  tranquillity,  and  slew 
liim  to  avoid  a  civil  war. 

Valerian.— Valerian  being  universally  ac- 
knowledged as  emperor,  although  arrived  at  the 
age  of  seventy,  set  about  reforming  the  state  with 
a  spirit  that  seemed  to  mark  a  good  mihd  and 
unabated  vigor.  But  reformation  was  then 
grown  almost  impracticable.  The  disputes  be- 
tween the  Pagans  and  Christians  divided  the 
empire  as  before ;  and  a  dreadful  persecution  of 
the  latter  ensued.  The  northern  nations  over- 
ran the  Roman  dominions  in  a  more  formidable 
manner  than  ever;  and  the  empire  began  to  be 
onrped  by  a  multitude  of  petty  leaders,  each  of 
whom,  neglecting  the  general  state,  set'  up  for 
himself.  To  add  to  these  calamities,  the  Per- 
sians, under  Sapor,  invaded  Syria;  and,  coming 
into  Mesopotamia,  took  the  unfortunate  Valerian 

Srisoner,  as  he  was  preparing  to  oppose  them, 
[othing  can  exceed  the  indignities  and  cruelties 
practised  upon  this  unhappy  monarch.  Sapor 
used  him  as  a  footstool  (or  mounting  his  horse, 
and,  adding  the  bitterness  of  ridicule  to  his  in- 
sults^ observed  that  an  attitude  like  that  to 
which  Valerian  was  reduced,  was  the  best  statue 
that  could  be  erected  in  honor  of  his  victory. 
This  life  of  insult  and  suffering  continued  for 
seven  years,  and  was  at  length  terminated  by  the 
cruel  Persian's  commanding  his  prisoner's  eyes 
to  be  plucked  out,  and  causing  him  to  be  flead 
alive. 

The  Reign  op  the  Thirty  Tyrants.— The 
news  of  the  defeat  of  the  Roman  army  by  the 
Persian,  and  the  captivity  of  Valerian,  no  sooner 
reached  the  barbarous  nations  at  war  with  Rome 
than  they  poured  on  all  sides  into  the  Roman 
territories  rn  incredible  multitudes.  The  Goths 
and  Scythians  ravaged  Pontus  and  Asia,  com- 
mitting every  where  dreadful  devastations;  the 
Aleraanni  and  Franks,  having  over-run  Rhstia, 
advanced  as  fiir  as  Ravenna,  putting  all  to  fire 
and  sword ;  the  Quadi  and  Sarmatians  seized  on 
great  partofDacia  and  Paunonia;  while  other 
barbarous  nations,  invading  Spain,  made  them- 
selves masters  of  Tai:raco,  ana  other  places  in 
that  province.  In  the  mean  time  Gallienus,  the 
son  of  Valerian,  having  promised  to  revenge  his 
father*s  captivity,  and  repress  the  barbarians,  was 
chosen  emperor.  He  was  then  in  Gaul;  but 
hastened  into  Italy,  whence  he  drove  out  the 


barbarians.    In  Dacia  and  Pannonia,  aboi,  Aey 
were  driven  back  by  Regillianos,  who  gained 
several  victories  in  one  day.     Bat  in  the  mean 
time,  one  Ingenuus,  a  man  of  great  repotatios 
in  war,  and  universally  beloved  both  bj  the  peo- 
ple and  soldiery,  caused  himself  to  be  proclaim- 
ed emperor  in  Paunonia,  where  he  was  generally 
acknowledged  as  well  as  in  Moesia.    Gallienus 
no  sooner  heard  of  his  revolt,  than  he  mardxtd 
from  the  neighbourhood  of  Ravenna^  where  h^ 
then  was,  into  lUyricum,  engaged  IbgenauSyaiid 
put  him  to  flight.    Some  say  that  Ingenuus  was 
killed  after  the  battle  by  his  own  soldiers ;  otheo 
affirm  that  he  put  an  end  to  hb  own  life  to 
avoid  falling  into  the  hands  of  Gallienus,  who 
used  his  victoiy  with  a  cruelty  hardly  paxalleled. 
His  letter  to  Verianus  Celer,  one  of  his  officers, 
will  show  his  disposition : — *  I  shall  not  be  satis- 
fied,' says  he,  *  with  your  putting  to  death  only 
such  as  have  borne  arms  against  me,  and  might 
have  faUea  in  the  field ;  you  must  in  every  city 
destroy  all  the  males,  old  and  young ;  spare  nooe 
who  have  wished   ill  to  me;  none 'who  have 
spoken  ill  of  me  the  son  of  Valerian,  the  &ther 
and  brother  of  princes.     Ingenuus  emperor  1 
Tear,  kill,  cut  in  pieces  without  mercy  ;  you  on- 
derstand  me ;  do  then  as  ybu  know  I  would  do^ 
who  have  written  to  you  with  my  own  hand«' 
In  consequence  of  these  cruel  orders,  a  most 
dreadful  havoc  was  made  among  that  unhappy 
people;    and,  in  several  cities,  not  one  male 
child  was  left  alive.    The  troops  who  had  fiv- 
merly  served  under  Ingennas,  and  Ae 
ants  of  Mcesia  who  had  eausxped   the 
slaughter,  provoked  by  these  cruelties,  ] 
ed  Regillianus  emperor.    He  was  a  Daciaa  by 
birth,  descended  from  king  IDecebalus  whom 
Trajan  had  conquered;  and  had,  by  several  gal- 
lant actions,  gained  reputation  in  the  Roman 
armies.    After  h«  was  pradaioied  empciWy  he 
gained  great  advantages  over  the  &mnatiaiis; 
but  was  soon  after  murdered  by  hisownsoldieis. 
These  revolts  were  quickly  followed  by  many 
others.    Indeed  it  is  not  surprising,  at  a  time 
when  the  reins  of  government  were  held  with  so 
loose  a  hand,  that  a  crowd  of  usurpers  sbooM 
start  up  in  every  province  of  the  empire.     The 
great  number  of  usurpers  who  pieiended  to  the 
empire  about  this  time  have  been  distinguished 
by  the  name  of  the  thirty  tyrants.    There  were, 
however,  only  twenty  :  viz.  Cjrriades,  Macrinns, 
Balista,  Odenatus,  and  Zenobia,  in  the  east ;  in 
Gaul  and  the   western  provinces  Postfaumius, 
Lollianus,  Victorinus  and  his  mother  Victoria, 
Marius,  and'Tetricus;  in  Illyricum,  and  on  the 
confines  of  the  Danube,  Ingenuus,  Regillianns, 
and  Aureolus ;  if^  Pontus  Satuminus ;  in  Isanria 
Trebellianus ;    in   Thessaly   Piio;    in    Acbaia 
Valens;  in  Egypt  £milianus;  and  in  Africa 
Celsus.  Several  of  these  pretenders  to  the  empire, 
however,  tliough  branded  with  theopprobriousap- 
pellation  of  tyrants,  were  eminent  tor  virtue,  and 
almost  all  of   them  possessed   a   considerable 
share  of  vigor  and  ability.    Tlie  principal  renaon 
assigned  for  their  revolt  was  the  infamous  cha- 
racter of  Gallienus,  whom  neither  officers  nor 
soldiers  could   bear  to  serve.    Many  of  tliem 
were  forced  by  the  soldiers  to  assume  tliie  im- 
perial dignity  much  against  their  will.     *  You 


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ROME. 


767 


hare  lost,'  said  Saturninus  to  his  soldit^.rs,'  when 
they  invested  him  with  the  purple,  <  a  useful 
commander,  and  have  made  a  wretched  empe- 
ror.' The'  apprehensions  of  Saturninus  were 
justified  by  the  event  Of  the  twenty  usurpers 
above-mentioned,  not  one  died  a  natural  death  ; 
and  in  luly  and  Ilome  Gallienus  alone  conti- 
nued to  be  acknowledged  emperor.  That  prince 
indeed  honored  Odenatus  prince  of  Palmyra 
with  the  title  -  of  Aug^stns,  who  continued  to 
possess  an  independent  sovereignty  in  the  east  all 
his  lifetime,  and  on  bis  death  transmitted  it  to 
his  wife  Zenobia. 

The  consequences  of  these  numerous  usurpa- 
tions were  the  most  fatal  that  can  be  conceived. 
T!ie  elections  of  these  precarious  emperors,  their 
life  and  death,  were*  equally  destructive  to  their 
subjects  and  adherents.  The  price  of  their  ele- 
vation was  instantly  paid  to  the  troops  by  an 
immense  donative  drawn  from  the  exhausted 
people.  When  they  fell,  they  involved  ^armies 
and  provinces  in  their  fall ;  and,  whilst  the  forces 
of  the  state  were  dispersed  in  private  quarrels, 
the  defenceless  provinces  lay  exposed  to  every 
invader.  Th^^  bravest  usurpers  were  compelled, 
by  the  perplexity  of  their  situation,  to  conclude 
dishonorable  treaties  with  the  barbarians,  and 
even  to  submit  to  shameful  tributes,  and  intro- 
duced such  numl>eri»  ofbarbaridns  into  the  Roman 
service  as  seemed  sufficient  at  once  to  overthrow 
the  empire.  But  when  the  empire  seemed  thus 
ready  to  sink  at  once,  it  suddenly  revived  on  the 
death  of  Gallienus,  who  was  murdered  by  Mar- 
tian, one  of  his  own  generals,  while  he  besieged 
Aureolas,  in  Milan.  His  death  gave  general  satis- 
faction to  all,  except  his  soldiers,  who  hoped  to 
reap  the  reward  of  «tMr  treachery  by  the  plun- 
der of  Milan,  fiu^,  being  in  some  measure  kept 
within  bounds  by  the  largesses  of  Martian, 
Flavins  Claudius  was  nominated  to  succeed, 
and  joyfnliy  accepted  by  ail  orders  of  the  sUte, 
and  his  title  confirmed  by  the  senate  and  the 
people.    . 

Claudius  II. — Claudius,  some  say,  was  bom 
in  Datmatia,  and  descended  from  an  ancient  fa- 
mily there ;  others  that  he  was  a  Trojan ;  and 
others  that  he  was  son  to  the  emperor  Gordian.  ' 
But,  whatever  might  have  been  his  descent,  his 
merits  were  by  no  means  doubtful.  He  was  a 
man  of  great  valor  and  conduct,  having  perform- 
ed the  most  eminent  services  against  the  Goths, 
who  had  long  continued  to  make  irruptions  into 
the  empire.  Now  about  fifty-five  years  old,  he 
was  equally  remarkable  for  the  strength  of  his 
body  and  thevigor  of  his  mind.  Thns  endowed 
he  once  more  seemed  to  restore  the  glory  of 
Rome.  His  first  success,  upon  being  made  em- 
peror, was  against  Aureolus,  whom  he  defeated 
near  Milan.  His  next  expedition  was  to  oppose 
the  Goths,  against  whom  be  led  a  very  numerous 
army.  These  barbarians  had  made  their  pHnci- 
pal  anc)  most  successful  irruptions  into  Thrace 
and  Macedonia,  swarmed  over  all  Greece,  and 
had  pillaged  the  famous  city  of  Athens,  which 
had  long  been  the  school  of  all  the  polite  arts  to 
the  Romans.  The  Goths,  however,  destroyed 
all  monuments  of  taste  and  learning  with  the 
roost  savage  alacrity.  It  was  upon  one  of  these 
occasions  that,  having  heaped  together  a  large 


pile  of  books  to  burn  them,  one  of  the  com- 
manders dissuaded  them  from  the  design,  alleg- 
ing that  the  time  which  the  Grecians  wasted  on 
books  would  only  render  them  more  unqualified  for 
war.  But  the  empire  trembled  not  only  on 
that  side,  but  on  every  quarter.  Above  300,000 
of  these  barbarians  (the  Hemli,  the  Trutangi, 
the  Viturgi,  and  many  other  uncivilised  nations) 
came  down  the  Danube  with  2000  ships,  spread- 
ing terror  and  devastation  on  every  siae.  in  this 
state  of  universal  dismay  Claudius  alone  conti- 
nued unshaken.  He  marched  his  disproportioned 
army  against  the  savage  invaders ;  aud  though 
but  ill  prepared  for  such  an  engagement,  as  the 
forces  of  the  empire  were  then  employed  in  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  world,  he  came  off  victorious, 
and  made  an  incredible  slaughter  of  the  enemy. 
The  whole  of  their  great  army  was  either  cut 
to  pieces  or  taken  prisoners  ;  houses  were  filled 
with  their  arms ;  and  scarcely  a  province  of  the 
empire  that  was  not  furnished  with  slaves  from 
those  that  survived  the  defeat.  These  successes 
were  followed  by  many  others  in  different  parts 
of  the  empire ;  so  that  the  Goths,  for  a  consider- 
able time  after,  made  but  a  feeble  opposition. 
He  some  time  after  marched  against  the  revolted 
Germans,  and  overthrew  them  with  considerable 
slaughter.  His  last  expedition  was  to  oppose 
Tetricus  and  Zenobia,  his  two  puissant  rivals  in 
the  empire.  But  on  his  march,  as  he  approached 
near  Sirmium,  in  Pannonia,  he  was  seized  with 
a  pestilential  fever,  of  which  he  died  in  a  few 
days,  to  the  great  regret  of  his  subjects,  and  the 
irreparable  loss  of  the  empire.  His  reign,  which 
was  not  quite  two  years'  continuance,  was  active 
and  successful ;  and  sucti  is  the  character  given 
of  him  by  historians  that  he  is  said  to  have  united 
in  himself  the  moderation  of  Augustus,  the  valor 
of  Trajan,  and  the  piety  of  Antoninus. 

AuRELiAN. — Immediately  after  the  death  of 
Claudius  the  army  made  unanimous  choice  of 
Aurelian,  master  of  the  horse,  and  esteemed  the 
most  valiant  commander  of  his  time.  However 
his  promotion  was  not  without  opposition  on  the 
part  of  the  senate,  as  Quintillus,  the  brother  of 
the  deceased  emperor,  put  in  his  claim,  and  was 
for  a  while  acknowledged.  But  his  authority 
was  of  very  short  duration  ;  finding  himself  . 
abandoned  by  those  who  at  first  instigated  him 
to  declare  for  the  throne,  he-  chose  to  prevent 
the  severity  of  his  rival  by  a  voluntary  death,  and, 
causing  his  veins  to  be  opened,  expired,  after 
having  reigned  but  seventeen  days.  Aurelian, 
being  now  universally  acknowledged,  assumed 
ths  command  with  a  greater  show  of  power  than 
his  predecessors  had  for  some  time  enjoyed. 
This  active  monarch  was  bom  of  obscure  parent- 
age in  Dacia,  and  was  about  fifty-five  years  old 
at  his  coming  to  the  throne.  He  had  spent  the 
early  part  of  his  life  in  the  army,  and  risen 
througn  all  the  gradations  of  military  duty.  He 
was  of  unshaken  courage  and  amazing  strength. 
In  short,  his  valor  and  expedition  were  such, 
that  he  was  compared  to  Julius  Cafsar,  and 
only  wanted  milaness  and  clemency  to  be 
every  way  his  equal.  The  whole  of  his  reign 
was  spent  in  repressing  the  irruptions  of  the 
nortliem  nations,  in  humbling  every  pretender 
to  the  empire,  and  punishing  the  monstrous  ir- 


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ROME. 


fe'^ulartties  of  his  subjects.  He  defeated  the 
Marcomanni,  that  had  invaded  Italy,  in  three 
several  engagements,  and  totally  destroyed  their 
army.  He  Vas  not  less  successful  agatnst 
Zenobia,  the  queen  of  the  east,  a  woman  of  the 
most  heroic  qualifications,  who  bad  long  dis- 
claimed the  Roman  \)<ryet,  and  established  an 
em  pire  of  her  own  Aureliaa  having  thus  brought 
peace  to  the  empire,  endeavoured,  by  the  rigors 
of  justice,  to  bring  back  virtue  also.  Against 
the  Christians,  however,  he  drew  up  several 
letters  and  edicts,  which  showed  that  he  iojtended 
a  very  severe  persecution;  but,  if-we  may  be- 
lieve the  historians*  of  the  time$»  he  was  diverted 
just  as  he  wat  going  Vo  sign  them  by  a  thunder- 
bolt, which  fell  so  near  his  person  that  all  the 
people  judged  him  to  be  destroyed.  It  is  cer- 
tain that  his  severities,  at  last,  were  the  cause  of 
his  destruction.  Menesthus,  his  principal  secre- 
tary, apprehending  his  displeasure,  forged  a  roll 
of  the  names  of  several  persons,  whom  he  pre- 
tended the  emperor  had  marked  out  for  death. 
The  scroll  thus  contrived  was  shown  with  an  air 
of  the  utmost  secrecy  to  some  of  the  persons 
concerned ;  and  as  the  emperor  passed  with  a 
small  guard  from  Uraclea,  in  Thrace,  towards 
Byzantium,  the  conspirators  set  upon  him  aod 
slew  him  with  little  resistance,  in  the  sixtieth  or 
sixty-third  year  of  his  age. 

Tacitus. — ^The  army  now  referred  the  choice  of 
emperor  to  the  senate ;  and,  on  the  other  side,  the 
senate  declined  it ;  so  that  a  space  of  nearly  eight 
months  elapsed  in  these  negociations.  At  len^, 
the  former  made  choice  of  Tacitus,  a  man  of  great 
merit,  and  no  way  ambitious  of  the  honor.  One 
of  the  first  acts  of  his  government  was  the  pun- 
ishment of  those  who  had  conspired  against  the 
late  emperor.  During  this  short  reign,  the  senate 
seemed  to  have  a  large  share  of  authority,  and 
the  historians  of  the  times  are  liberal  of  their 
praises  of  such  emperors  as  were  thus  willing  to 
divide  their  power.  Tacitus  was  fond  of  learning, 
and  the  memory  of  such  men  as  had  deserved 
well  of  their  country.  He  particularly  esteemed 
the  works  of  Tacitus  the  historian,  command- 
ing that  they  should  be  placed  in  every  public 
library  throughout  the  eidpire.    A  reign  begun 


with  such  moderation  and  Justice  only  wanted 
continuance  to  have  made  the  empire  happj;  but, 
after  enjoying  the  empire  about  six  months,  be  died 
of  a  fever,  in  his  march  to  oppose  the  Peoians 
and  Scythians,  who  bad  invaaed  the  eastern  puts 
of  the  empire. 

Probus. — Upon  the  death  of  Tacitus  the  army 
was  divided;  one  part  of  it  chose  Florianos, 
brotl^er  to  the  deceased ;  but  the  majority  were 
for  some  time  undetermined.  At  last  Piobus 
was  called  to  the  throne,  being  born  of  noble 
parentage  at  Sirmium  in  Pannonia,  and  bred  op 
a  soldier  from  his  youth.  He  first  repressed  tbe 
Germans  in  Gaul^  of  whom  he  slew  4CX),000. 
He  then  marched  mto  B^jhoatia,  to  subdae  tbe 
Sarmatians.  Thence  he  \9i  bis  forces  mto 
Thrace,  and  forced  the  Goths  to  sae  for  peace. 
He  afterwards  turned  his  arms  towards  Asia, 
subdued  the  province  of  Isauria,  and,  marching 
onward,  conquered  a  people  called  the  Blemyes. 
Narses  also,  king  of  Persia^  submitted  to  him. 
His  diKgence  was  not  less  conspicuoos  in  sap- 
pressing  intestine  commotions,  rrocalus,  a  per- 
son remarkable  only  for  his  great  attachment  to 
women,  set  up  against  the  emperor ;  but  was 
compelled  to  fly,  and  at  length  defivered  up  by 
the  Germans.  At  the  same  time  Bonosus  (a  re- 
markable votary  of  Bacchus,  being  abletodiink 
as  much  wine  as  ten  could  do)  rebelled,  aod, 
being  overcome,  hanged  himself  in  despair.  Pro- 
bus,  when  he  saw  hiiQ  immediatelv  after,  said, 
*  there  hangs  not  a  vuin,  but  a  cask.  The  Goths 
and  Vandals,  however,  finding  the  emperor  en- 
gaged in  quelling  domestic  disputes,  renewed 
their  accustomed  inroads,  but  were  conquered 
in  several  engagements.  In  his  last  expedition 
he  led  his  soldiers  against  the  Persians;  and 
going  through  Sirmium,  the. place  of  his  na- 
tivity, there  employed  several  thousands  in 
draining  a  fen  tnat  was  incommodious  to  the 
inhabitants.  The  fiatigues  of  this  undertaking, 
and  the  great  restraint  that  was  laid  upon  the 
soldier's  manners,  produced  a  conspiracy,  which 
ended  in  his  ruin ;  for,  taking  the  opportunity 
as  he  was  marching  into  Greece,  they  set  upon 
and  slew  him,  after  he  had  reigned  six  years  and 
four  months  with  general  approbatioo. 


END  OF  VOL.  XVm. 


J.  H»adiiB,  PnBiOT,  FiMbuy. 


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